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Encyclopedia Britannica;
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E
NCYCLOPvEDIA IJRITANNIGA.
PAS
Paffiflora. T3ASSIFLOR A, or Passion-flower: A gf nus of
w—JL the pentandria order, belonging to the gynandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking-under
the 34th order, Cucurb'itacea. The calyx is pentaphyl-
lous ; there are five petals ; the nectarium a crown ;
the berry is pedicillatcd. There are near 30 different
fpecies; all of them natives of warm foreign countries,
only one of which is fuffieiently hardy to fucceed well
in the open ground here; all the others requiring the
flicker of a green-houfe or (love, but chiefly the latter.
The moft remarkable are,
1. The cserulea, or blue-rayed common palmated
pafiion-flower, hath long, {lender, fhrubby, purplifh-
green ftalks, branchy, and afcending upon fupport by
their clafpers 30 or 40 feet high ; with one large pal¬
mated leaf at each joint, and at the axillas large fpread-
ing flowers, with whitifh-green petals, and a blue ra¬
diated nedfirium ; fucceeded by a large, oval, yellow-
ifh fruit. - It flowers from July until Odtober; the
flowers -.'V very large, confpicuous, and their compo-
fition is exceedingly curious and beautiful. The gene-
rr-.I ftrufture of fhe Angular flowers of this plant is,
• they < onie out at the axillas on pedunculi about three
inche* !o"g, which they terminate, each flower having
juft dofc under the calyx a three-lobed involucrum-like
appendage ; a five-lobed calyx, and a five-petalous co-
/ rollai the fize, figure, and colour of the calyx, &c. tl.e
petals arranging alternately with the calieinal lobes ;
the whole, including the involucrum, calyx, and corol¬
la, make juft 13 lobes and petals, all expanded flat :
and'Svithin the corolla is the ne&arium, compofed of a
multitude of thread-like fibres, of a blue and purple
colour, difpofed in circular rays round the column of
the fruftification ; the outer ray is the longeft, flat,
and fpreading on the petals ; the inner is fhort, erett,
and narrows towards the centre : in the middle is an
ereft cylindric Vlub-fliaped column or pillar, crowned
with the roundifli germen, having at its bafe five hori¬
zontal fpreading filaments, crowned with incumbent
yellow anthene, that move about every way ; and from
the fide of the germen arife three flender fprtading
ftyles, terminated by headed ftigmas : the gdrcritm
afterwards gradually becomes a large oval fleffiy fril'ty
ripening to a yellowifh colour.—'1 hefe' wonderfitl
flowers are only of one day’s duration, generally bpen-
, iug about 11 or 12 o’clock, and frequently in hot
funny weather buvft open with clafticity, and continue
fully expanded all that clay : and the next they gradu¬
ally dole, affuming a decayed-like appearance, and
never open any more ; the evening puts a period to
.fcheir txiflence, but they are fucceeded by new ones
^ Vol. XIV. Part I.
P A S
daily on the fame plant.—This plant and flowers are Paflifiora,
held in great veneration- in fome foreign Catholic coon- P3®011*
tries, where the religions make the leaves, tendrils, '““’Y’—-'
and diflerent parts of the flower, to reprefent the in*
ftruments of our blefi’ed Saviour’s pafiion ; hence the
name paffrflpra.
2. The.incarnnta, incarnated, orflefh coloured Ita¬
lian paffion-tlower, hath a ftrong perennial root ; flen¬
der, herbaceous llalks, rifing upon fupport four or five
feet high ; leaves compofed of three fa wed lobes, each
leaf attended by a twining tendril; and at the axillas
long flender pedunculi, terminate-! each b.y one whitifh
flower, having a greenifh calyx, and n red liflr or purple
tadjated nedaiium, futrounding the-column of the
frunification, whiph fucceed to a large, round, flefhy
fmit, ripening to a beautiful orange colour. —The
flowers of this fpecies are alfo very beautiful, though
of fhprt duration, opening in the morning, and night
puts a period to their 1 eauty ; but they are fucceeded
by a daily fupply of new ones—The fruit of this fort
is alfo very ornamental, as ripening to a fine reddifh
orange colour ; but thefe rar Jy attain perft&ion here,
unlefs the plants are placed in the ftove ; therefore
when there is fuch accommodation, it highly merits
that indulgence, where it will exhibit both flowers
and green and ripe fruit, all at the fame time, in a
beautiful manner.
3. The vefpertilio, or bat’s-wing paffion-flower, hath
flender, ftriated, branchy ftalks ; large, bilobate, or
two-lobed leaves, the 1 afe roundifh and glandular,
the lobes acute, widely divaricated like a bat’s wings,
and dotted underneath ; and axillary flowers, having-
white petals and rays. The leaves of this fpecies have
a Angular appearance, the two lobds being expanded
fix or feven inches .wide, jrefembling the wings of a bat
upon fbght; hence the name wfpertilio.
As njl tfie-fpecies are natives of. warm climates, in
this counUy they arc rnoflly of a tender q-wality, except
the firit fort,which fucceeda very well in the full ground,
in*a warm htuation ; only their young branches are
Jorne times killed in very f vere winters; but plenty of
new oner generally rife again in fpring following : the
, trlhers^dciiomihate&Jove iu,ch, muft always be retained
in that repofitory.
PASSION, is a word of which, as Dr Reid ob*
ferves, the meaning is not precifely afeer ained either
in common difeourie br in the writings of philofophers.
In its original import, it denotes every fee/ing of the
n ind oc«.fioned by an cxtrisfic caufe ; but it is gene¬
rally ufed to fignify fome agUatwn of mind, oppoftd
to that Rate of tranquillity in which a man is moft v
A in after
*
PAS [*
matter of himfelf. That it was thus ufed by the
Greeks and Romans, is evident from Cicero s rendering
v»S«, the word by which the philofophers of Greece
exorefled it; by perturbatio in Latin. In this fenfc ot
S word, paffioi cannot be itfelf a ^ and We-
pendent principle of a ft ion ; but only an occafional de-
irce of vehemence given to thofe difpofitions, defires,
and affcaions, which are at all times prefent to the
mind of man ; and that this is its proper fenfe, we need
no other proof than that paffion has always been con¬
ceived to bear analogy to a ftorm at fea or to a tempe t
With refpeft to the number of paflions of which the
mind is fufceptible, different opinions have been held
by different authors. Le Brun, a French writer on
painting, juftly confidering the expreffion of the pai-
fions as a very important as well as difficult branc o
his art, has enumerated no fewer than twenty, o
which the figns may be exprefl'ed W the pencil on
canvafs. That there are fo many different ffates ot
mind producing different effeas which are viiible on
the featuies and the geftures, and that thofe features
and geftures ought to be diligently ftudied by the artift,
are truths which cannot be denied ; but it is abfurd t
aonfider all thefe different ffates of mind wpaflions^nct
tranquillity is one of them, which is the reverfe of
P‘'The* common divifion of the paffions into dejin and
averfton, hope and fear, jey and grief, love and hatred
has been mentioned by every author who has treated
of them, and needs no explication ; but it is a queftion
of fome importance in the philofophy of the human
mind, whether thefe different paffions be each a degree
of an original and innate difpoiition, diftind from the
difuofitions which are refpeftivcly the foundations of
the other paffions, or only different modifications of
one or two general difpofitions common to the whole
The former opinion is held by all who build their
fyftem of metaphyfics upon a number of diflimft inter¬
nal fenfes; and the latter is the opinion of thofe who,
with Locke and Hartley, refolve what is commonly
called inftinft into an early affociation ot ideas, (bee
Instinct) That without deliberation mankind in-
ftantly feel the paffion of fear upon the apprehenfion
of danger, and the pafiion of anger or refentment upon
the reception of an injury, are truths which cannot be
denied : and hence it is inferred, that the feeds of thefe
paflions are innate in the mird, and that they are not
generated, but only fwell to magnitude on the profpedt
of their refpeaive objeds. In fuppoit of this argu¬
ment it has been obferved that children, without any
knowledge of their danger, are inffindively afraid on
being placed on the brink of a precipice; and that
this paffion contributes to their fafety long before
they acquire, in any degree equal to their neceffities,
the exercife of their rational powers. Deliberite
anger, caufed by a voluntary injury, is acknowledged
to be in part founded on reafon and reflection ; but
where anger impels one fuddenly tQ return a blow,
even without thinking of doing mifehief, the paffion
is inflindive. In proof of this, it is observed, that
inftindive anger is frequently raifed by bodily pain,
©cc aliened even by a fleck or a Hone, which initant y
tomes an of rtomeut, that we are Violently
Pafllon.
] PAS
incited to cruffi to atoms. Such condud is certainly
not rational, and !herefore it is fuppofed to be necef-
farily inftindive.
With refped to other paffions, fuch as the Juft of
power, of fame, or of knowledge, innumerable inftan-
ces, fays Dr Reid, occur in life, of men who lacrifice
to them their eafe, their pleafure, and their health.
But it is abfurd to fuppofe that men Ihould facnfice
the end to wffiat they defire only as means of promot¬
ing that end; and therefore he feems to think that
thefe paffions muft be innate. I o add ftrength to
this reafoning, he obferves, that we may perceive
fome degree of thefe principles even in brute animals
of the more fagacious kind, who are not thought to
delire means for the fake of ends which they have
in view. ,
But it is in accounting for the paffions which are
difinterefted that the advocates for innate principles
feem moft completely to triumph. As it is impoffible
not to feel the paffion of pity upon the prqfped of a
fellow-creature in diftrefs, they argue, that the balls
of that paffion muft be innate ; becaufe pity, being at
all times more or lefs painful to the perlon by w'hora
it is felt, and frequently of no ufe to the perfon who
is its objed, it cannot in fuch inftances be the refult
of deliberation, but merely the exertion of an original
inftind. The fame kind of reafoning is employed to
prove that gratitude is the exercife of an innate prin¬
ciple. That good offices are, by the very conftitution
of our nature, apt to produce good will towards the
benefador, in good and bad men, in the favage and in
the civilized, cannot furely be denied by any one in
the lealt acquainted with human nature. We are grate¬
ful not only to the benefadors of ourfelves as indivi¬
duals, but alfo to the benefadors of our country ; and
that, too, when we are confcious that from our grati¬
tude neither they nor we can reap any advantage.
Nay, we are impelled to be grateful even when we
h*ve reafon to believe that the objeds of our gratitude
know not our exiftence. This pafiion cannot be the
effed of reafoning, or of affociation founded on rea¬
foning ; for, in fuch cafes as thofe mentioned, therg-
are no principles from which reafou can infer the pro¬
priety or ufefuluefs of the feeling. I hat public fpirii,
or the affedion which we bear to cur country, or to
any fubordinate community of which we are members,
is founded on inftind ; is deemed fo certain, that the
man deftitute of this affedion, if there be any fuch,
has been pronounced as great a monfter as he who ha»
two heads. . , , , .
All the diftinterefted paffions are founded on what •
philofophers have termed benevolent ciffettion. Inftead
therefore of enquiring into the origin of each paffioa
feparately, which would fwell this article to no pur-
pofe, let us liften to one of the fineft writers as well as
ableft reafoners of the age, treating of the origin of
benevolent affedion, “We may lay it down as
principle (fays Dr Reidf), that all benevolent affec-
tions are in their nature agreeable ; that it is cfiential
to them to deiire the good and happinefs of their ob¬
jeds ; and that their objeds muff therefore be bungs
capable of happinefs. A thing may be de fired either
on its own account, or as the means in order to fome-
thing elfe. That only can properly be called an ok-
jed of defire which is defired upon its own account;
PAS [
paflion. and tlierefore I confider as benevolent thofe affedions
1 only which defire the good of their objeft ultimately,
and not as means in order to fomething elfe. To fay
that we defire the good of others, only to procure
fome pleafure or good to ourfelves, is to fay that
there is no benevolent affection in human nature.
This indeed has been the opinion of fome philofophers
both in ancient and in later times. But it appears as
unreafonable to refolve all benevolent affedtions into
felUove, as it would be to refolve hunger and thirft
into felf-love. Thefe appetites are neceffary for the
prefervation of the individual* Benevolent affedtions
are no lefs neceflary for the prefervation of fociety
amonr men; without which maa would become an
eafy prey to the beads of the field. The benevo¬
lent affections planted in human nature, appear there-
fo*e no lefs neceffary for the prefervation of the human
fpecies than the appetites of hunger and thirft.” In
a word, pity, gratitude, friendfhip, love, and patrio-
tifm, are founded on different benevolent. affeCtions ;
which our learned author holds to be original parts of
the human conftitution.
This reafoning has certainly great force ; and if
authority could have any weight in fettling a queftion
of this nature, we know not that name to which greater
deference is due than the name of him from whom it
is taken. Yet it muft be confeffed that the philofo¬
phers, who confider the affeftions and pafllons as early
and deep-rooted affociations,fupport their opinion with
very plaufible arguments. On their principles we
have endeavoured elfewhere to account for the paffions
of fear and love, (fee Instinct and Love); and we
may here fafely deny the truth of what has been ftated
refpefting fear, which feems to militate againft that
account. We have attended with much folicitude to
the actions of children ; and have no reafon to think
that they feel terror on the brink of a precipice till
they have been repeatedly warned of their danger in
fuch fituations hy their parents or their keepers. Every
perfon knows not only that they have no original
or inftinCtive dread of fire, whrch is as dangerous to
them as any precipice; but that it is extremely diffi¬
cult to keep them from that deftruCtive element till
they are either capable of weighing the force of argu¬
ments, or have repeatedly experienced the pain of be¬
ing burnt by it. With refpeA to fudden refcntment,
we cannot help confidering the argument, which is
brought in proof of its being inftin&ive, as proving
th* contrary in a very forcible manner. Inftinft is
fome myfterious influence of God upon the mind ex¬
citing to actions of beneficial tendency ^ but can any
benefit arife from wrecking our impotent vengeance on
a flock or a (tone ? or is it fuppofable that a Being of
infinite wifdom would excite us to actions fo extrava¬
gantly foolifh ? We learn from experience to defend
ourfelves againft; rational or fenfible enemies by reta¬
liating the injuries which they inflict upon us; and
if we have been often injured in any particular man¬
ner, the idea of that injury becomes in time fo clofely
affociated with the means by which it has been con-
ftantly repelled, that wc never receive fuch an in¬
jur}—a blow for inftance—■without being prompted
to make the ufual retaliatien, without reflecting whe¬
ther the objedt be fenfible or infenfible. So far from
being inftinCtive does refentroent appear to us* that
3 1 PAS
we think an attentive obferver may eafily perceive Paflion.^
how the feeds of it are gradually infufed into the v '
youthful mind; when the child, from being at firft a
timid creature fhrinking from every pain, learns by de¬
grees to return blow for blow and threat for threat.
But inftead of urging what appears to ourfelves of
moft weight againft the inftindlive fyftem, we (hall
lay before our readers a few extra&s from a differta-
tion on the Origin of the Paffions by a writer whofe
elegance of language and ingenuity of inveftigation do
honour to the fchool of Hartley.
When an infant is born (fays Dr Sayers*), there * Dl/quift-
is every reafon to fuppofe that he is born without
ideas. Thefe are rapidly communicated through the/,^arj?
medium of the fenfes. The fame fenfes are alfo the
means of conveying to him pleafure and pain. Thefe
are the hinges on which the paffions turn : and till
the child is acquainted with thefe fenfations, it would
appear that no paffion could be formed in his mind ;
for till he has felt pleafure and pain, how can he de¬
fire any objeCt, or whh for its removal ? How can he
either love or hate ? Let us obferve then the manner
in which love and hatred are formed; for on thefe
paffions depend all the reft. When a child endures
pain, and is able to detedl the caufe of it, the idea of pain
is conneded in his mind with that of the thing which
produced it; and if the objeCt which occafioned pain be
again prefented to the child, the idea of pain affociated
with it arifes alfo. This idea confequently urges the •-
child to avoid or to remove the objeft; and thus arifes
the paffion of diflike or hatred. In the fame manner,
the paffion of liking or love is readily formed in the
mind of a child from the affociation of pleafant ideas
with certain objeCts which produced them.
“ The paffions of hope and fear are ftates of the
mind depending upon the good or bad profpeds of
gratifying love or hatred ; and joy oC forrow arifes
from the final fuccefs or difappointment which attends
the exertions produced by love or by hatred. Out of
thefe psffions, which have all a perceptible relation to
our own good, and are univerfally acknowledged to be
felfifh, all our other paffions are formed.”
To account for the paffions called difintcrejled, he
obferves, that in the hiftory of the human mind we
find many inftances of our dropping an intermediate
idea, which has been the means of our connecting two
other ideas together; and that the affociation of thefe
two remains after the link which originally united
them has vanhhed. Of this faCt the reader will find
fufficient evidence in different articles of this work
(See Instinct, n°i9, and Metaphysics, n° igi ) :
and, to apply it to the difinterefted paflions, let us fup¬
pofe, with Dr Sayers, that any individual has done to
us many offices of kindnefi, and has confequently much
contributed to our happinefs; it is natural for us to
feek with fome anxiety for the continuance of thoic
pleafures which he is able to communicate. But we
foon difeern, that the fureftway of obtaining the con¬
tinuance of his friendly offices ia to make them, as
much as poffible, a fource of pleafure to himfelf. We
therefore do every thing in our power to promote hi«
happinefs in return for the good he has conferred up¬
on us, that thus we may attach him to us as much as we
are able. Hitherto all is plainly felfifh. We have been
evidently endeavouring, for the fake of our own future
■A a grati-
PAS
Piifiion. gratification, to promote the happin & of thta pr. fon :
^ ' but obferve the confequence. We have thus, by con¬
templating the advantage to be derived to ourfelvea
from promoting the profperitY of our If tend, learned
to afloci -te a fet of pleaf mt ideas with his happtnefs ;
but the link, which has united them gradually efcapes us,
while the union itfelf remains. Continuing to adbci-
ate pleafure with the well-being of our friend, we
endeavour to promote it for the i dee of his immediate
gratification, without looking fntther; and in this
way his happinefs, which was fird attended to only as
a means of future enjoyment, finally becomes an end.
Thus then the paffion which was origiitally feliii'h, is
at length difmterejhd; its gratification being com¬
pleted merely by its fuccefs in promoting the happi¬
nefs of another.”
In this way does our author account for the origin
of gratitude ; which at la ft becomes a habit, and flows
fpontaneouily towards every man who has either been
or intended to be our benefactor. According to him,
it is eafy to obferve alfo, that from adheiating plea¬
fure with the happinefs of an individual when we pro¬
cure it ourfelves, it mall of courfe foon follow, that we
fhould experience pleafure from a view of his happi¬
nefs any way produced ; fuch happinefs raifing at all
times pleafant ideas when it is prefented to our minds.
This is another feature of a difinterefted afftAion, to
feel delight from the mere increafe of happinefs in the
oljeft whom we love.
“ It may be ol jetted, perhaps, that parents feem to
have an injlinttive difintertfled love of their offspring :
but furely the love of a parent (a) for a new-born in-
fa»t is not ufually equal to that for a child of tour
or five years old. When a child is firft born, the pro-
fpettand hopes of future pleafure from it are fufficient
to make a parent anxious for its prefervation. As the
child grows up, the hope of future enjoyment from it
muft ir.creafe : hence would pleafure be aflbeiated with
the well-being of the child, the love of which would
of courfe become in due time difinteretted.”
Our author does not analyfepity, and trace it to its
fource in felfifhnefs ; but he might eafily have done it,
and it-has been ably dene by his mafter. Pity or
compafiioir is the uneafinefs which a man feels at the
inifery of another. It is generated in every mind du¬
ring the years of childhood ; and there are many cir-
eurnftances in the conftitution of children, and in the
mode of their education, which make them particularly
fufceptible of this paffion. The very appearance of
any kind of mifery which they have experienced, or
of any figns of diftrefs which they underftand, excite
PalTin.
[ 4 1 PAS
in their minds painful feelings, from the remembrance
of what they have fuffered, an l the appreheniion of
their fuffering it agdn. We have feen a chil l a year
old highly entertained with the noife and niggles
made by its elder brother when plunged naked into a
vfflfcl filled with cold water. This continued to be
the cafe for many days, till it was thought proper to
plunge the younger as well as the elder ; alter which
the daily entertainment was foon at an end. 1 lie little
creature had not been itfelf plunged aoove tu ice till
it ceafecl to find diverfion in its brother's fuffcricu>s.
On the third day it cried with all the fymptoms of the
bittereft anguifh upon feeing its brother plunged,
though no preparation was then made for plunging
itfelf : but furely this was rot difinterefted fympathy,
but a feeling wholly felfifh, excited by the remem¬
brance of what it had fuftered itfelf, and was appre-
henfive of fuffering again. In a fhort time, however,
the painful feelings accompanying the fight of its bro¬
ther’s ftrugglts, and the form ! of his cries, were dou .t-
lels fo aflbeiated with tnat light aud that found, that
the appearance of the latter would have brought the
former along with them, even though the child might
have been no longer under appreheniion of a plunging
itfelf. This affectation, too, would foon be transferred
to every boy in the fame circumftances, and to limilar
founds and ftruggles, from whatever caufe they might
proceed.
Thus, as Dr Hartley obferves “ when feveral § Obfer<o*.
children are educated together, the pains, the denials <^0/‘
of pleafure, and the borrows which affe6f one, gene¬
rally extend to all in fome degree, often in an equal
one. When their parents, companions, or attendants
are Tick or affli&ed, it is ufual to raife in their minds
the nafeent ideas of pains and miferies by fuch words
and figns as are fuited to their capacities. 1 hey alio
find themfelves laid under many rellraints, on account
of the ficknefs or affiiftion of others ; and when thefe
and fuch like circumftances have raifed in their minds
defires to remove the caufes of their own internal feel¬
ings, i. e. to eafe the miferies of others, a variety of _
internal feelings and erfires become fo blended and af-
fociated together, as that no part can be diftinguiihed
feparately trom the reft, a^d the chi^i may properly
be faid to have compaffion. The fame fources of com-
paffion remain, though with fome alteration, during
our whole progrefs through life, ibis is lo evident,
that a reflecting perfon may plainly difeern the contti-
tuent parts ©f his compaffion while they are yet the
mere internal and, as one may fay, fellrlh reelings above-
mentioned ; and before they have put on the nature of
(A) That this is-true of the father is certain ; but it may be quelltoned whether it be equally true of the
mother. A woman is no fooner delivered of her infant, than Ihe carefles it with the utmoft poilible londneis.
We believe, that if (he wer« under the neceffity of making a choice between her child of lour years, and her
infant an hour old, (he would rather be deprived of the latter than of the former ; but we are not convinced
that this would proceed from a Id's degree of affeflion to the infant than to the child. She knows that the
chil 1 has before his fourth year efcaped many dangers which the infant muft encounter, and may not efeape ;
and it is therefore probable that her choice would be the refult of piudent reflection. I hough we are not
admirers of that philofophy which fuppofes the human mind a bundle of inftindl?, we can as little approve of
the oppofite fcheme, which allows it no inftin&s at all. The of a mother to her new-born infant is un¬
doubtedly inftin&ive, as the only thing which at that moment can be afiociated with it in her mind is the
pain flic has fuffer;d in bringing it to the world.
PAS • [cl PAS
PafTmn. compsflion, by coalL-fcence with the reft. Agreeably
'—-s ' to this method of reafoning, it may be o' fevved, tint
perfons whofe nerves are eaiily irritable, and thofe wlio
have experienced great trials and afHiftions, are in ge¬
neral more difpefed to compnfiion than others; and
that we are moft apt to pity others in thofe difeafes and
ealftinities which we either have felt or of wjiich we
apprehend oucfelves to he in danger.”
The orip of patriotifm and public fpirit is thus
.traced by iJr Sayers: “ The pleafures which our
country affords are numerous and great. The wifh to
perpetuate the enjoyment of thofe pleafures, includes
the wifh to promote the fafety and welfare of our coun¬
try, without which many of them would be loft. All
this is evidently felfiih ; but, as in the progrefs of gra¬
titude, it finally become* difinterefted. Pleafant ideas
are thus ftrongiy connefted with the welfare of our
country, after the tie which firft bound them together
has efcaped our notice. The profperity which was at
firft defiraMe as the means of future enjoyment, be¬
comes itfelf an end : we feel delight in fuch profperity,
however produced ; and we look not beyond this im¬
mediate delight. It is thus not difficult to obf-rve in
what manner a general and difinteitiled benevolence
takes place in a mind which has already received plea-
fure from the happinefs of a few ; the tranfition is eafy
towards affociating it with happinefs in genera/, with
the happinefs of any being, whether produced by our-
felves ot by any other caufe whatever.”
From this reafoning, our author concludes, that all
our paffions may be traced up to original feelings of
regard for ourfelves. “ Thus (in the forcible I ngunge
i wr i of a learned writer t of the fame fchool) does feit-
ttn. love, under the varying appearance ol natural aitection,
domeftic relation, and the connexions of focial habi¬
tude, at firft work blinily on, obfeure and deep, in
dirt: But as it makes its way, it continues riling, till it
emerges into li^ht ; and then fu ldenly expiring, leaves
behind it the faireft iffue,”—benevolent aiieciion.
Self-love forfook the path it firft purfu’d,
And found the private in the public good.
Thus have we ftated the two oppofite theories re-
fpeXing the origin of peffion* in the mind, anti given
our readers a fhort fpeemen of the reafonings by which
they are fupported by their refpeXive patrons. Were
we called upon to decide between them, we fhould be
tempted to fay, that they have both been carried to
extremes by feme of their advocates, and that the
truth lies in the middle between them. “ It isimpof-
* j)rpr.t^fible *. but that creatures capable of pleafant and pain-
/icwVtOj&c. fenfations, fhould love and choofc the one, and dif-
like and avoid the other. No being who knows what
happinefs and mifery are, can be fuppofed indifferent
to them, without a plain contradiction. Pain is not
a pojible objeft of defire, nor happinefs of averjion”
lo prefer a greater good though diftint, to a lefs
good that is prefent ; or to choofe a prefent evil, in
order to avoid a greater future evil—is indeed wife and
rational conduft ; but to choofe evil ultimately, is ab-
folutely impoffible. Thus far then muft be admitted,
that every being pofleffed of fenfe and intelledl, necef-
fariiy defires his own good as foon as fce knows what
it is; but if this knowledge be not innate, neither can
the defire, Every human being comes into the world
with a capability of knowledge, and of courfe with a Pafllon.
capability of affeXions, defires, and palfions; but it —v—•
feems not to be conceivable how he can aXually love,
or hate, or dread any thing, till he know whether it
be goodr or ill, or dangerous. If, therefore, we have
no innate ideas, we cannot poffibly have innate defires
or averiions. Thofe who contend that we have, feem
to think, that without them reafon would be infuffiei-
ent, either for the prefervation of the individual or
the continuation of the fpecies ; and fome writers have
alleged, that if our affeXions and paffions were the
mere refult of early affociations, they would neceflarily
be more capricious than we ever find them. But this
objeXion feems to avife from their not rightly under-
ftanding the theory of their antagonills. The difei-
ples of Locke and Hartley do not fuppofe it poffible
for any man in fociety to prevent fuch affociation*
from being formed in his mind as fhall nectffarily pro¬
duce defires and averfions ; far lefs do they think it
poffiMe to form affociations of ideas utterly repugnant,
fo as to defire that as good which his fenfes and in-
telleX have experienced to be evil. Affociations are
formed by the very fame means', and at the very fame:
time, that ideas and notions are imprefted upon the
mind; but a3 P”‘n is never miftaken for pleafure by
the fer.fes, fo an objeX which has given us only pain,
is never affociated with any thing that makes it defi-
rable. We fay an objeX that has given us only pain,
becaufe it is poffible to form fuch an aftbeiat on be¬
tween life and the lofs of a limb, as to make us grate¬
ful to the furgeon by whom it was amputated. AfTo-
ciations being formed according to the fame laws by
which knowledge is acquired, it by no means follows
that paffions refulting from them fhould be more ca¬
pricious than they are found to Se ; and they certainly
are fufficiently capricious to make us fufpeX that the
greater part of them has this origin, rather than that
they are all infufed into the mind by tbe immediate
agency of the Creator. If man be a being formed
with no innate ideas, and with no other inftinXive
principles of aXion than what arc abfolutely necefiary
to preferve his txiftence and perpetuate the fpecies, it
is eafy to perceive why he is placed in this world as in
a flate of probation, where he may acquire habits of
virtue to fit him for a bettir. It is 1’kewife eafy to
perceive why fome men are better than others, and
why forr.e are the flaves ot the moft criminal paffions.
But all this is unintelligible, upon the fuppofition that
the feeds of every paffion are innate, and that man is
a compound of reafon and of intlinXs fo numerous
and various as to fuit every circumftance in which he
can be placed.
If paffions, whatever he their origin, operate i;i-
ftantaneoufly, and if they be formed according to fix¬
ed laws, it may be thought a quettion of very little
importance whether they be inftinXive or acquired 
This was long our own opinion ; but we think, that
upon maturer rt fleXion we have feen reafon to change
it. If paffions be the refult of early afTociations, it is of
the utmoft confequence that no improper affociations
be formed in the minds of children', and that none of
their unreafonable defires be gratified. Upon this
theory it items indeed to depend almoft wholly upon
education, whether a child fhall become a calm, bene¬
volent, fteady, and upright man ; or a paffionate, ca¬
pricious,
PafliotT.
p A S [
priclous, felfiHi, mifcreant. By teaching him to refent
every petty injury, the feeds of irafcibility aie fown
in his mind, and take fuch root, that before the age of
manhood he becomes intolerable to all with whom he
muft converfe. By exciting numberlefs defin- in his
youthful mind, and iftantly gratifying them, you
make him capricious, and impatient of difappointment;
and by reprefenting other children as in any degree in¬
ferior to him, you infpire him with the hateful pafiion
of pride. According to the inftin&ive theory, edu¬
cation can only augment or diminifh the ftrength of
pafiions ; according to the other theory, it is the fource
of by far the greater part of them. On either fup-
pofition, parents Ihould watch with folicitude over the
aftions of their children $ but they will furely think
themfelves obliged to be doubly watchful, if they be¬
lieve, that through their negleft their children may ac¬
quire hateful pafiions, to which, if properly educated,
they might have remained ftrangers thro’ their whole
lives. And let it be remembered, that this folicitude
fhould begin at an early period ; becaufe the mind is
fufceptible of deep afibciations much fooncr than is
fometimes imagined. Without this fufceptibility, no
language could be learned; and therefore a child by the
time be learns to fpeak, may have planted in his mind
the feeds of pafiions, on the juft: regulation and fubor-
dination of which depends in a great meafure the hap-
pinefs of mankind. See Mokal Pbilofophy, Part I.
Chap, i, & 2. Part III. n* 216.
Passions and Emotions, difference between them. See
Emotions and Paffions.
External Signs of Emotions and Passions. So inti¬
mately connefted are the foul and body, that every
acritatioH in the former produces a vifible effeft up¬
on the latter. There is, at the fame time, a wonder¬
ful uniformity in that operation; each clafs of emotions
and pafiions being invariably attended with an ex¬
ternal appearance peculiar to itfelf. Thefe external
appearances, or figns, may not improperly be confi-
dered as a natural language, exprefiing to all be¬
holders emotions and pafiions as they arife in the
heart. Hope, fear, joy, grief, are difplayed exter¬
nally : the chara&er of a man can be read in his
face ; and beauty, which makes fo deep an imprefiion,
is known to refult, not fo much from regular features
and a fine complexion, as from good-nature, goed-
fenfe, fprightlinefs, fweetnefs, or other ^nienud qua¬
lity, expreffed upon the countenance. Though per-
fea fkill in that language be rare, yet what is gene¬
rally known is fufiicient for the ordinary pnrpofes of
life. But by what means we come to underitami the
language, is a point of foine intricacy. It cannot be
by light merely ; for upon the moft attentive infpec-
tion "of the human vifage, all that can be difcerned
are, figure, colour, and motion, which, fingly or com¬
bined never can reprefent a paffion nor a fentiment:
the external fign is indeed vifibie ; but to tmderftand
its meaning, we mud be able to conned it with the
pafiion that caufes it; an operation far beyond the
reach of eye-fight. Where then is the inllru&or to
be found that can unveil this fecret connection ? If
we apply to experience, it is yielded, that from long
and diligent obfervation, we may gather, _ in fome
meafure, in what manner thofe. we arc acquainted with
exprefs their paffions externally: bnt with refped to
6 ] PAS
ftrangers, we are left in the dark ; and yet we are not Paflio*,
puzzled about the meaning of thefe external expref- ——v—
fions in a ftranger, more than in a bofom-companion.
Further, had we no other means but experience for
underftanding the external figns of paflion, we could
not exped any uniformity, nor any degree of fkill, in
the bulk of individuals: yet matters are fo much bet¬
ter ordered, that the external exprefiions of paflion
form a language underftood by all, by tjie young as
well as the old, by the ignorant as well as the learned:
We talk of the plain and legible charaders of that
language ; for undoubtedly we arc much indebted to
experience, in deciphering the dark and more delicate
exprefiions. Where then fhall we apply for a folution
of this intricate problem, which feems to penetrate
deep into human nature ? Undoubtedly if the mean-
ing of external figns be not derived to us from fight,
nor from experience, there is no remaining fource
whence it can be derived, but from nature.
We may then venture to pronounce, with fome de- Eiemtnnff
gree of confidence, that man is provided by nature of Qrithifmy.
with a fenfe or faculty that lays open to him every
pafiion by means of its external exprefiions. And we
cannot entertain any reafonable doubt of this, when
we refled, that the meaning of external figns is not
hid even from infants : an infant is remarkably affec¬
ted with the pafiions of its nurfe expreffed on her
countenance ; a fmile cheers it, a frown makes it
afraid : but fear cannot be without apprehending
danger ; and what danger can the infant apprehend,
unlefs it be fenfible that its nurfe is angry ? We muft
therefore admit, that a child can read anger in its
nurfeface ; of which it muft be fenfiblc intuitively,
for it has no other mean of knowledge. We do
not affirm, that thefe particulars are clearly appre¬
hended by the child ; for to produce clear and diftind
perceptions, refledion and experience are requifite :
but that even an infant, when afraid, muft: have fomc
notion of its being in danger, is evident.
That we fhould be confcious intuitively of a paflion
from its external exprefiions, is conformable to the
analogy of nature : the knowledge of that language
is of too great importance to be left upon experience;
becaufe a foundation fo uncertain and precarious,
would prove a great obftacle-to the formation of fo-
cieties. Wifely therefore is it ordered, and agreeably
to the fyftem of providence, that we fhould have na¬
ture for our inftrudor.
Such is the philofophy of Lord Kames, to which
ohjedions unanfwerable may be made. It is part of
the inftindive fyftem of metaphylics, which his Lord-
(hip has carried farther than all who wrote before him,
and perhaps farther than all who have fncceeded him
in this department of fcience. That a child intuitive¬
ly reads anger in it* nurfe’s face, is fa far from being
true, that for fome fhort time after birth it is not ter¬
rified by the moft menacing geftures. It is indeed
abfolutely incapable of fear till it has fuffered pain,
(fee Instinct) ; and could we conftantly carefs it
with what is called an angry look, it would be cheered
by that look, and frightened at a fmile. It feels, how¬
ever, the ejfefts of anger, and is foon capable of obfer-
ving the peculiarity of feature with which that paf¬
fion is ufually accompanied; and thefe two become in
a (hurt time fo linked together in its tender mind.
PAS [ J
Paffion. that the appearance of the one neceffarlly fuggefts to
v ""J it the reality of the other.
Should it be faid that a loud and fudden noife
flarcles a child immediately after birth, and that, there¬
fore, the infant nmft be inftiu&ively afraid, the fa£t
may be admitted, without any neceffity of admitting
the inference. I'he nerves of an infant are commonly
very irritable, and the ftrong impulfe on xhe audkory
nerves may agitate its whole trame, without infpinng
it with the paffion of fear. The loud noife is, in all
probability, not the fxgn of approaching danger, but
the immediate caufe of real pain, from which the in¬
fant Hirinks, as it would from the prick of a pin, or
the fcorching of a candle. But we have faid enough
in the article immediately preceding, and in others
which are there quoted, to fhow how the pafliona may
be formed by affotiations even in early infancy, and
yet operate as if they were inllin&ive. This being
the cafe, we lhall through the remainder of this article
fuffer his Lordfhip to fpeak his own language, with¬
out making any further remaiks upon it. We are
induced to do this for two reafons ; of which the firft
is, that many of our readers will probably prefer his
theory to ours ; and the fecond is, that his conelulions
refpefting the figns and language of pafiion hold
equally good from either theory.
We perfeftly agree with him, that manifold and
admirable are the purpofes to which the external
figns of paffion are made fubfervient by the Author
qf our nature.
1. The figns of internal agitation difplayed exter¬
nally to every fpeftator, tend to fix the fignification
of many words. The only effedtual means to afeertain
the meaning of any doubtful word, is an appeal to the
thingjt reprefents : and hence the ambiguity of words
expreffive of things that are not objedls of external
fenfe ; for in that cafe an appeal is denied. Paffion,
ftridtly fpeaking, is not an object pf external fenfe :
but its external figns are : and by means of thefe figns,
paffions may be appealed to with tolerable accuracy :
thus the words that denote our paffions, next to thofe
that denote external objects, have the mod diltinft
meaning. Words fignifying internal action and the
more delicate feelings, are lefs diftimft. This deleft,
with regard to internal action, is what chiefly occa-
fions the intricacy of logic : the terms of that foience
are far from being fufficiently afeertained, even after
* Lule. tnuch care and labour bellowed by an eminent writer *';
to whom, however, the world is greatly indebted, for
removing a mountain of rubbilh, and moulding the
fubjeft into a rational and correft form. The fame de-
feft is remarkable in criticifm, which has for its ob>
jeft the more delicate feelings; the terms that denote
thefe feelings being not more dittinft than thofe of
logic.
2. Society among individuals is greatly promoted
by that univerfal language. Looks and geltures give
direft accefs to the heart; and lead us to feleft, with
tolerable accuracy, the perfons who are worthy of our
confidence, it is furprifing how quickly, and for the
moll part how correftly, we judge of charafter from
.external appearance.
3. After focial intercourfe is commenced, thefe ex¬
ternal ligiid, which diffufe through a whole aflernbly
the feelings of each individualj contribute above all
1 PAS
other means to improve the focial affeftions. Lan¬
guage, no doubt, is the moll comprehenfive vehicle for '
communicating emotions: but in expedition, as well
as in power of conviftion, it falls Ihort of the figns
under confideration ; the involuntary figns efpeeiaily,
which are incapable of deceit. Where the counte¬
nance, the tones, the geltures, the actions, join with
the words in communicating emotions, thefe united
have a force irrefiftible. Thus all the pleafant emo¬
tions of the human heart, with all the focial and vir¬
tuous affeftions, are, by means of thefe external figns,
not only perceived, but felt. By this admirable idn-
trivance, converfation becomes that lively and ani¬
mating amufement, without which life would at belt
be iniipid : one joyful countenance fpreads cheerful-
nefs inltantaneoufly through a multitude of fpeftators.
4. Difl’ocul paffions, being hurtful by promptiu»
violence and mifehief, are noted by the molt confpi-
cuous external figns, in order to put us upon our
guard : thus anger and revenge, efpecially when fud¬
den, difplay themfelves on the countenance in legible
charafters. The external figns, again, of every paffiou
that threatens danger- raife in us the paffion of fear:
which frequently operating without reafon or refleftion,
moves us by a fudden impulfe to avoid the impending
danger.
5. Thefe external figns are remarkably fubfervient
to morality. A painful paffion, being accompanied'
with difagreeable external figns, mult produce in every
fpeftator a painful emotion : but then, if the paffion be *
focial, the emotion it produces is attraftive, and con-
nefts the fpeftator with the perfon who fuffers. Dif-
focial paffions only are productive of repulfive emo¬
tion*, involving the fpeftator’s averfion, and frequently
his indignation. This artful contrivance makes us
cling to the virtuous, and abhor the wicked.
6. Of all the external figns of paffion, thofe of af¬
fliction or diltrefs are the moll iilultrious with refpeft'
to a final caufe, and defervedly merit a place of di-
Itinftion. They are illuftrious by the fingubrity of
their contrivance ; and alfo by infpirr.g fympathy, a
paffion to which human fociety is indebted for its
greatefl bleffing, that of providing relief for the dx-
ttieffed. A fubjeft fo interelting deferves a leifurely
and attentive examination. The conformity of the na¬
ture of man to his external circumftances is-in every
particular wonderful : his nature makes him prone to
fociety ; and fociety is neceffary to his well-being, bd-
caufc in a folitary Hate he is a helplefs being, deftx-
tute of fupport, and in his diltreffes deftitute of re¬
lief: but mental fupport, the ffiining attribute of
fociety, is of too great moment to be left depen¬
dent upon cool reafon ; it is ordered more wifely,
and with greater conformity to the analogy of nature,
that it fhould be enforced even inftinftively by the
paffion of fympathy. Here lympathy makes ft capital
figure ; and contributes, more than any other means,
to make life eafy and comfortable. But however -ef-
fential the fympathy of others may be to our well*
being, one beforehand would not readily conceive how
it could be raifed by external figns of diftrefs : foncon-
fidering the analogy of nature, if thefe figns be agree¬
able, they mult give birth to a pleafant emotion lead¬
ing every beholder to be pleafed with human woes: if
difagr?eabkj as they umjgubtedly are, ou^ht they n©t
naturally /
Paffion.
  »
PAS [SI PAS
PsfH m. naturally to repel the fpe&ator from them, in order
 v " 1 to be relieved from pain ? Such would be the realon*
ing beforehand ; and fuch would be the effeft were
man purely a felfiih being. But the benevolence of
our nature gives a very different direction to the p.iin-
ful oaffion of fympathy, and to the defire involved in
it: inftead of avoiding diftrefs, we fly to it in order
to afford relief 4 and our fympathy cannot be other-
wife gratified but by giving al*l the fuccour in our
power. Thus external figns of dilfrefs, though difa-
greeable, are anra&ive : and the fympathy they in-
fpire is a powerful caufe, impelling us to affoid re¬
lief even to a flranger, as if he were our friend or re¬
lation.
It is a noted obfervation, that the deepefl tragedies
;;re the moil crowded : which in an overly view will be
thought ftn unaccountable bias in human nature. Love
of novelty, defire of occupation, beauty of aition, make
us fond of theatrical reprefentations; and when once
engaged, we mud follow the dory to the conclufion,
whatever didrefs it rfcay create. But we generally be¬
come wife by experience ; and when we forefee what
pain we fhall fufLr during the courfe of the reprefen-
tation, is it not furprifing that perfons ofrrflcftion do
not avoid fuch fpedlacles altogether ? And yet one who
has fcarce recovered from the didrtfs of a deep tragedy,
refolves coolly and deliberately to go to the very next,
without the flighted ohdruclion from fclf-love. The
whole myftery is explained by a fingle obfervation :
That fympathy, though painful, is attractive ; and at¬
taches us loan object in didrefs, initead of prompting
us to fly from it. And by this curious mechanifm it
is, that perfons of any degree of ferifibility are attrac¬
ted by affliction dill more than by joy.
To conclude: the external figns of pafflon arc a drong
indication, that man, by his very conditution, is fra¬
med to be open and fincere. A child, in all things
obedient to the impulfes of nature, hisks none of its
emotions ; the favage and clown, who have no- guide
but pure nature, expofe their hearts to view, by giving
way to all the natural figns. And even when men learn
to diffemble their fentimertts, and when behaviour de¬
generates into art, there dill remain checks, that keep
diffi nidation within hounds, and prevent a great part
of its mifehievous eft'edls: the total fuppreffion of the
voluntary figns during any vivid pafllon, begets the
utmod uneafinefs, which cannot be endured for any
confiderable time : this operation becomes indeed lefs
painful by habit ; but luckily the involuntary figns
cannot, by any effort, be fuppreded nor even diffem-
Hled. - An abfolute hypacrify, by which the charafter
is concealed and a fidditious one affumed, is made im-
pracdicahle ; and nature has thereby prevented much
harm to fociety.1 Wt may pronounce, therefore, that
N iture, herfelf fincete and’ candid, intends that man¬
kind fhould preferve the fame charatfder, by cultiva¬
ting fimpiicity and tru*hj find ban idling every fort of
difftmuht'on that tends to mifehief.
Influence of Passion '•with refpecl to our Perceptions,
OPmwns, and Belief. So intimately are our perceptions,
p:fiWis, and aAions, connedted, it would ’be won¬
derful if they fhould have no mutual influence. That
our aftions are too much influenced by paffion, is a
known truth ; but it is not lefs certain, though not fo
1
well known, that paffion hath alfo an influence upon
our perceptions, opinions, and belief. For example,
the opinions we form of men and things are generally
directed by affedlion: An advice given by a man of fi¬
gure hath great weight; the fame advice from one in
a low condition is defpifed or negleAed : a man of
courage under-rates danger ; and to the indolent the
flighted obllacle appears unfurmountable. All this
may be accounted for by the fiinpie principle of ado-
ciation.
There is no truth more univerfally known, than
that tranquillity and fedatenefs are the proper date of
mind for accurate perception and cool deliberation ;
and for that rtafon, we never regard the opinion even
of the wifed man, when we difeover prejulice or pai-
fion behind the curtain. Paffion hath fuch influence
over us, as to give a falfe light to all its objedls. A-
greeable paflions prepoffefs the mind in favour of their
objeAs ; and di Agreeable paflions, not lefs againd their
objt As: A woman is ail perteAion in her lover’s opi¬
nion, while in the eye of a rival beauty fhe is aukward
and difagretable : when the psffion of love is gone,
beauty vanifhes with it;—nothing is left of that genteel
motion, that fprightly converfation thofe numberlefa
graces, which formerly-, in the lover’s opinion, charm¬
ed all hearts. To a zealot every one of his own feA
is a faint, while the mod upright of a different feA
are to him children of perdition : the talent of fpeak'-
ing in a friend, is more regarded than prudent conduA
in any other. Nor will this furprife any one acquaint¬
ed with the world ; our opinions, the refult frequent¬
ly of various and complicated views, are commonly i’o
flight and wavering, as readily to be fuiceptible of a
bias from pailion.
With that natural bias another tircumftance con¬
curs, to give pnfiion an undue influence on our opi¬
nions and belief; and that is a ftrong tendency in our
nature to juflity our paffions as Well as our aclions,
not to others only, but even to ourfeives. That ten¬
dency is peculiarly remarka le with refpeA to diia-
greeable paflions : by its influence, objeAs are magni¬
fied or leffened, ciicumftances fupplied or iuppreffed,
every thing coloured and difguifed, to anfiver the end
of jullification. fie nee the foundation of felf deceit,
where a man impofes upon himfeli innocently, and
even without fufpicion of a ! ias
We proceed to itluilrate the foregoing obfervations
by proper examples.
Gratitude, when warm, is often exerted upon the
children of the benefaAor; efpecially where he is re*
moved out of reach by death or abience. The pafiion
in this cafe being exerted for the fake of the benefac¬
tor, requires no peculiar excellence in his children :
but the praAice of doing goo 1 to thefe children pro¬
duces affeAion for them, which never fails to advance
them in our efteem. By fuch means, llrong connec¬
tions of affeAion are orten formed among individuals,
upon the flight foundation now mentioned.
Envy is a paflion, which, heing altogether unjufti-
fiahle, cannot be excuied but by difguiiing it under
fome plauiible name. At the fame time, no paflion is
more eager than envy to give its objeA a difagreeahie
appearance : it magnifies every bad quality1, and fixes
on the moft humbling cifcuir,fiances :
PaffioH.
W-v'
Cafius*
PAS ['
’Paluon. Caput. T cannot tell what you and other men
"r-Y——1 Think of this life'; but for my fingle felf,
I had as lief not be, as live to be
In awe of fuch a thing as I myfelf.
I was born free as Csefar, fo were you ;
We both have fed as well; and we can both
Endure the winter’s cold as well as he.
For once, upon a raw and gufty day,
The troubled Tyber chafing with his fhores,
Crefar fays to me, Dar’ft thou, Offius, now
Leap in with me into this angry flood,
And fvvim to yonder point ?—Upon the word,
Accoutred as I was, I plunged in,
And bid him follow ; fo indeed he did.
The torrent roar’d, and we did buffet it
With lufty finews ; throwing it slide,
And Hemming it with hearts of eontroverfy.
But ere we could arrive the point propos’d,
Casfar cry’d, Help me, Cafiius, or I fink.
I, a« iEneas, our great anceflor,
Lid trom the flames of Troy upon his fhoulder
The old Anchifes bear; fo from the waves of Tyber
Did l the tired Casfar: and this man
Is now become a god ; and Cafiins is
A wretched creature, and mnft bend his body
If Caefar carelefsly but nod on him.
He had a fever when he was in Spain ;
And when the fit was on him, 1 did mark
How he did (hake- ’Tis true, this god did {hake ;
His coward lips did from their colour fly ;
And that fame eye whofe bend doth awe the world
Lid lofe its luftre : I did hear him groan ;
Ay, and that tongue of his, that bade the Romans
Mark him, and write his fpecches in their books,
Alas! it cry’d—Give me feme drink, Titinius,—
As a fick girl. Ye gods, it doth amaze me,
A man of fuch a feeble temper ihould
So get the Hart of the majeftic world.
And bear the palm alone. Julius Cxfar, aft. l.fc. 3
Glo’fter, inflamed with refentment againfl his fon
Edgar, could even force himfelf into a momentary
convi&ion that they were not related :
O ftrange faften’d villain !
Would he deny his letter ?—I never got him.
King Lear, ad 2. fc. 3.
When by great fen Ability of heart, or other means,
grief becomes immoderate, the mind, in order to ju-
ftify itfelf, is prone to magnify the caufe ; and if the
real caufe admit not of being magnified, the mind feeks
a caufe for its grief in imagined future events :
Bvfiy. Madam, your majefty is much too fad;
You promis’d, when you parted with the king,
To l»y tfide felf-harming heavinefs.
And entertain a cheerful difpofition.
Qjieen. To pleafe the king, I did ; to pleafe myfelf,
\ol.XIV. Part I.
9 ] PAS.
I cannot do it. Yet I know no caufe
Why I Ihould welcome fuch a gueft as grief;
Save bidding farewell to fo fweet a gueft
As my fweet Richard : yet again, methinks,
Some unborn forrow, ripe in Fortune’s womb,
Is coming tow’rd me ; and my inward foul
With fomething trembles, yet at nothing grieves,
More than with parting from my lord the king.
Richard II. ad l.fc. 5.
Relentment at firft is vented on the relations of the
o{Tender, in order to piiHifh him : but as refentment,
when fo outrageous, is contrary to confcience, the
mind, to juftify its paffion, is difpofed to paint thefe
relations in the blackeft colours ; and it comes at lail
to Jje convinced, that they ought to be puniflied for
their own demerits.
Anger, raifed by an accidental ftroke upon a tender
part of the body, is fometimes vented upon the un-
defigning caufe. But as the paffion in that cafe is ab-
furd, and as there can be no folid gratification in pu-
nifhing the innocent, the mind, prone to juftify as well
as to gratify its paffion, deludes itfelf into a csnvic-
tioa of the a&ion’s being voluntary. The convi&ion,
however, is but momentary ; the firft reflexion (hows
it to be erroneous: and the paffion vaniffieth almolt
inftantaneoufly with the conviction. But anger, the
moft violent oftail paffions, has ftill greater influence ;
it fometimes forces the mind to perfonify a ftock or a
ftone if it happen to occafion bodily pain, and even to
believe it a voluntary agent, in order to be a proper
objea of refentment. And that we have really a mo¬
mentary conviction of its being a voluntary agent,
muft be evident from confidering, that without fuch
conviction the paffion can neither be juftified nor gra¬
tified : the imagination can give no aid ; for a ftock
or a ftone imagined infenfible, cannot be an ohjeft of
puniftiment, if the mind be confcious that it is an ima¬
gination merely without any reality (a). Of f&ch
perfonifmation, involving a conviction of reality, there
is one illuftrious inftance. When the firft bridge of
boats over the Hellefpont was deftroyed by a itorm,
Xerxes fell into a tranfport of rage, fo exceffive, that
he commanded the fea to bepuniffied with 300 ftripes;
and a pair of fetters to be thrown into it, enjoiniag the
following words to be pronounced: “ O thou fait and tfw,*
buter water i thy mafter hath condemned thee to this lib. 7.
puniffirnent for offending him without caufe; and is
refolved to pafs over thee in defpite of thv infolence :
with reafon all men negled to facrifice to thee, becaufe
thou art both difagreeable and treacherous.”
Shakefpeare exhibits beautiful examples of the ir¬
regular influence of pafiion in making us believe things
to be otherwife than they are. King Lear, in his di-
ftrefs, perfomfies the rain, wind, and thunder ; and in
order to juftify his refentment, believes them to be ta¬
king part with his daughters:
B Lear.
Paffion.
without ever confident whetht^ T beT fM b' r rKT h\5 ve"Seance 00 a ^ or a ftone,
he may have eonliHered the f„ i 1' °- ,nfc,,1flble.Pass.ou). If the (lory of Xerxes be true,
fea was a a 1™ 1? fc,,fible and without dreaming that a flock or a ftone is fo. The
I.u7edm«dfcr«tgfeS4t«hoH.aga"8’ ^
or he could not have ajr-
PAS [
Paffion. Lear. Rumble thy bellyful, fpit fire’ fP^ Vam !
    Nor rain, wind, thunder, fire, are my daughters.
I tax not you, ye elementa, with unkmdnefs ;
I never gale you kingdoms, call d you children ,
You owe me no fubfcnption. Then let la
Your horrible pleafure.- Here 1 (land, your brave ,
A poor, infirm, weak, and defpis d old man .
But vet 1 c ill you fervile minifters, . .
That have with two pernicious daughters join d
Your high-engender’d battles ’gainit ahead
So old and white as this. Oh! oh! ’tis foul.
Aa a, Jc‘ 2*
King Richard, full of indignation againft his favourite
horfe for carrying Bolingbroke, is led into the co -
vi&ion of his being rational :
Groom. O, how it yearn’d my heart, when I beheld
In London ftreets, that coronatiomday,
When Bolingbroke rode on Roan Barbary,
That horfe that thou fo often haft beftrid.
That horfe that 1 fo carefully have dreffed.
K.Rich. Rode he on Barbary? tell me, gentle friend,
How went he under him ? , ,
Groom. So proudly as he had difdain d the gy°on *
K. Rich. So proud that Bolingbroke was on his back.
That iade had eat bread from my royal hand.
This hand hath made him proud with clapping him.
Would he not ftumble ? would he not tall down,
(Since pride mutt have a fall), and break the neck
Of that proud man that did ufurp his back .
^ ^ Richard W. aa S.fc.w-
Hamlet, fwelled with indignation at his mother’s fe-
cond marriage, was ftrongly inclined to leffen the time
of her widowhood, the fhortnefs of the tune being a
violent circumftance againft her ; and he deludes hi -
felf by degrees into the opinion of an interval Ihort
than the real one :
But two months dead! nay, not fo much; not two
So excellent a king, that was, to this,
Hyperion to a fatyr: fo loving to my mother,
That he permitted not the wind of heav n
Vifit her face too roughly. Heav’n and earth .
Muft 1 remember—why, Ihe would hang on him.
As if increafe of appetite had grown
By what it fed on : yet, within a month-—
Let me not think—Frailty, thy name is Woman!
A little month ! or ere thofe fhoes were old,
With which (he follow’d my poor father s body,
Like Niobe, all tears why {he, ev’n fhe—
(O heav’n ! a beaft, that wants difcourfe of reaion,
Wou’d have mourn’d longer) married with mine uncle,
My father’s brother ; but no more like my father
Than I to Hercules. Within a month ! —
Ere yet the fait of moft unrighteous tears
Had left the fluftiing in her galled eyes.
She married Oh, moft wicked fpeed! to poft
With fuch dexterity to inceftuous iheets!
It is not, nor it cannot, come to good,
But break my heart, for I muft hold my tongue.
J Aa i .fc. 3 .
The power of paffion to falfify the computation of
time is remarkable in thisinftance; becaufe time, w.uch
hath an accurate meafure, is lefs obfequious to our de-.
-That it ftiould come to this!
:o ] PAS
fires and wifhes, than objeas which have no precife, ^
ftandard of lefs or more.
Good news are greedily (wallowed upon very (len¬
der evidence ; our wifhes magnify the probability of
the event, as well as the veracity ot the relater ; and
we believe as certain what at beft is doubtful.
Quel, che 1’ huom vede, amor li fa invifible
El’ invifibil fa veder amore.
Quello creduto fu, che ’1 mifer fuole
Dar facile credenza a’ quel, che vuole.
Orland. Furiof. cant. i.jt. 50.
For the fame reafon, bad news gain alfo credit upon
the flighted evidence : fear, if once alarmed, has the
fame effe& with hope, to magnify every circumftance
that tends to conviction. Shakefpeare, who mows,
more knowledge of human nature than any of our phi-
lofophers, hath in his Cymbeline reprefented this bias
of the mind; for he makes the perfon who alone was
affeaed with the bad news, yield to evidence that did
not convince any of his companions. And Othello is
csnvinced of his wife’s infidelity from circumftances
too flight to move any perfon lefs interefted.
If the news interell us in fo low a degree as to give
place to reafon, the effed will not be altogether the
fame : judging of the probability or improbability ot
the ftory, the mind fettles in a rational conviaion ei¬
ther that it is true or not. But even in that cafe, the
mind is not allowed to reft in that degree of convic¬
tion which is produced by rational evidence : it the
news be in any degree favourable, our belief is railed
by hope to an improper height; and if unfavourable,
byTHs obfervation holds equally with refpeft to fu¬
ture events: if a future event be either much wifhed
or dreaded, the mind never fails to augment the pro¬
bability beyond truth. , ,
That eafmefs of belief, with refpeft to wonders and
prodigies, even the moft abfurd and ridiculous, is a
ftrange phenomenon ; becaufe nothing can be more
evident than the following propofition, That the more
Angular any event is, the more evidence is required to
produce belief: a familiar event daily occurr.ng, being-
in itfelf extremely probable, finds ready credit, and
therefore is vouched by the flighted evidence ; but to
overcome the improbability of a ftrange and rare event,
contrary to the courfe of nature, th« very ftrongeft evi¬
dence is required. It is certain, however, that won¬
ders and prodigies are (wallowed by the vulgar, upon
evidence that would not be fufficient to afeertam the.
moft familiar occurrence. It has been reckoned di -
cult to explain that irregular bias of mind ; but we are
now made acquainted with the influence of paffion up¬
on opinion and belief; a ftory of ghofts or fairies, told
with an air of gravity and truth, raifeth an emotion of
wonder, and perhaps of dread ; and thefe emotions im-
pofing on a weak mind, imprefs upon it a thorough
conviftion contrary to reafon.
Opinion and belief are influenced by propenfity as
well as by paffion. An innate propenfity is all we have
to convince us that the operations of nature are uni¬
form: influenced by that propenfity, we often raffily
think, that good or bad weather will never /have an
end ; and in natural philofophy, writers, influenced by
the fame propenfity, ftretch commonly their analogical
PAS [
Pafllon. Teafonings beyond juft bounds. See Metaphysics,
‘—’■v ' na 133, 134.
Opinion and belief are influenced by affection as
well as by propenfity. The noted ftory of a fine lady
and a curate viewing the moon through a telefcope is
a pleafant illuftration : “ I perceive (fays the lady)
two fhadows inclining to each other; they are certain¬
ly two happy lovers “ Not at all (replies the cu-
tate), they are two Iteeples oi a cathedral.”
Language of Passion. ^ Among the particulars that
compoie the focial part of our nature, a propenfity to
communicate our opinions, our emotions, and every
thing that affedts us, is remarkable. Bad fortune and
injuftice affedt us greatly; and of thefe we are fo prone
to complain, that if we have no friend nor acquaint¬
ance to take part in our fufferings, we fometimes utter
our complaints aloud, even where there are none to li-
ften.
But this propenfity operates not in every ftate of
mind. A man immoderately grieved, feeks to afflict
himfelf, rejedting all confolation : immoderate grief
accordingly is mute ; complaining is ftruggling for
confolation.
It is the wretch’s comfort ftill to have
Some fmall referve of near and inward wo,
Some unfufpedted hoard of inward grief,
Which they unfeen may wail, and weep, and mourn,
And glutton-like alone devour.
Mourning Bride, ad i. fc. 1.
When grief fubfides, it then, and ho fooner, finds a
tongue: we complain, becaufe complaining is an ef¬
fort to difburden the mind of its diftrefs. This obfer-
vation is finely illuftrated by a ftoiy which Herodotus
records, b. 3. Cambyfes, wfflen he conquered Egypt,
made Pfammeticus the king prifoner; and for trying
his conftancy, ordered his daughter to be drefled in the
habit of a flave, and to be employed in bringing water
from the rivCr ; his fon alfo was led to execution with
a halter about his neck. The Egyptians vented their
forrow in tears and lamentations : Pfammeticus only,
with a downcaft eye, remained filcnt. Afterward
meeting one of his companions, a man advanced in
years, who, being plundered of all, was begging alms,
he wept bitterly, calling him by his name. Cambyfes,
ftruck with wonder, demanded an anfwer to the fol¬
lowing queftion : “ Pfammeticus, thy mailer Camby¬
fes is defirous to know, why, after thou hadit feen thy
daughter fo ignominioufly treated, and thy fon lea to
execution, without exclaiming or weeping- thou fhouldft
be fo highly concerned for a poor man, noway related
to thee?” Pfammeticus returned the following anfwer:
“ Son of Cyrus, the calamities of my family are too
great to leave me the power of weeping; but the mif-
fortunes of a companion, reduced in his old age to
want of bread, is a fit fubjeft for lamentation.”
Surprife and terror are filent paffions, for a different
re; fon : they agit te the mind fo violently, as for a
time to fufpend the exercife of its faculties, and among
others the faculty of fpeech.
Love and revenge, when immoderate, are not more
loquacious than immoderate grief. But when thefe
paffions become moderate, they fet the tongue free,
and, like moderate grief, become loquacious. Mode¬
rate love, when unfuccefsful, is vented in complaints;
ii ] PAS
when fuccefsful, is full of joy exprefled by words and Paffion.
geftures. * f
As no paffion hath any long uninterrupted exiftence,
nor beats always with an equal pulfe, the language
fuggefted by paffion is not only unequal but frequent¬
ly interrupted : and even during an uninterrupted fit
of paffion, we only exprefs in words the more capital
fentiments. In familiar converfation, one who vents
every lingle thought, is juftly branded with thecha-
rafter of loquacity ; becaufe fenfible people exprefs no
thoughts but what make fome figure : in the fame
manner, we are only difpefed to exprefs the ftrongeft
impulfes of paffion, efpecially when it returns with nn-
petuofity after interruption.
It is elfewhere obferved* that the fentiments ought * See the
to be tuned to the paffion, and the language to both.al'tide Sen.
Elevated fentiments require elevated language : tender*"'*^'
fentiments ought to be clothed in words that are foft
and flowing : when the mind is deprefled w ith any
paffion, the fentiments muft be expreffed in words that
are humble, not low. Words being intimately con-
nefted with the ideas they reprefent, the greateft har¬
mony is required between them : to exprefs, for ex¬
ample, an humble fentiment in high founding words,
is difagreeable by a difeordant mixture of feelings;
and the difeord is not lefs when elevated fentiments are
drefled in low words :
Verfibus exponi tragicis res comica non vult.
Indignatur item privatis ac prope focco
Dignis carminibus narrari ccena fhyeftas.
Horat. Ars poet. /. 89.
This,however, excludes not figurative expreffion,which,
within moderate bounds, communicates to the fentiment
an agreeable elevation. We are fenfible of an effeft di-
reftly oppofite, where figurative expreffion is indulged
beyond a jidt meafure: the oppofition between the ex¬
preffion and the fentiment makes the difeord appear
greater than it is in reality.
At the fame time, figures are not equally the lan¬
guage of every paffion : pleafant emotion^, which ele¬
vate or fwell the mind, vent themfelves in ftrong epi¬
thets and figurative exprtffion ; but humbling and di-
fpiriting paffions affeft to fpeak plain :
Et tragicus pletumque dolet fermone pedeftri.
Telephus et Peleus, cum pauper et exul uterque,
Projicit ampuliaa et fefquipedalia verba,
Si curat cor fpeftantis tetigifle querela.
Horat. Ars poet. 95.
Figurative exprtffion, being the work of an enlivened
imagination, cannot be the language of anguiffl or di¬
ftrefs. Otway, fenfible of this, has painted a feene of
diftrefs in colours finely adapted to the lubjeft: there
is fcarce a figure in it, except a ftiort and natural fi-
mile with which the fpeech is introduced. BelviJera,
talking to her father of her hulhand :
Think you faw what paft at our laft parting;
Think you beheld him l.ke a raging lion,
Pacing the earth, and tearing up his fteps,
Fate in his eyes, and roaring with the pain
Of burning fury ; think you faw his one hand
Fix’d on my throat, while the extended other
Grafp’d a keen threat’ning dagger: oh ’twas thus
We laft embrac’d, when, trembling with revenge,
Bz He
PAS [
tie (?£.''£££,cl me to the ground, and at my hr Torn
Preferred horrid death ; cry’d out, My friends!
Where are my friends: fwore, wept, rag d, threaten J,
For he yet lov’d, and that dear love preferv’d me [lov’d j
To this laft trial of a father’s pityv
I fear not death, but cannot bear a thought
That that dear hand fliould do th’ unfriendly office.
If I was ever then your care, now hear me ;
Fly to the fenate, fave the promis’d lives
Of his dear friends, ere mine be made the ficrifice.
Venice Preferv'd, atl 5.
To preferve the forefaid refemblance between words
and their meaning, the fentiments of a&ive and hurry¬
ing paffions ought to be drefled in words where f\T
lables prevail that are pronounced (hurt or fall; for
thefe make an imprefiion of hurry and precipitation.
Emotions, on the other hand, that reit upon their
obi efts, are beft exprefied by words where fyllables
prevail that are pronounced long or flow. A perfon
affefted with melancholy, has a languid and flow train
of perceptions. The expreffion bell fuited to that (late
of mind, is where words, not only of long, but of
many fyllables, aboun ? in the compofition; and tor
that reafon, nothing can be finer than the following
p adage :
In thofe deep folitudes, and awful cells,
Where heav’nly-penfive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-mufmg Melancholy reigns.
Pope, Jd/oifa to Abelard.
To pteferve the fame refemblance, another circum-
ilance is requiiite, that the language, like the emo¬
tion, be rough or fmooth, broken or uniform. Calm
and fweet emotions are bell exprefied by words that
glide foftly : furprife, fear, and other turbulent paf-
iions, require an expreffion both rough and broken.
It cannot have efcaped any diligent inquirer into na¬
ture, that, in the hurry of paffion, one generally ex-
preffes that thing firil which is moll at heart; which ia
beautifully done in the following paffage :
Me, me; adfum qui feci: in me convertite ferrum,
O Rutuli, mca fraus omnis. JRneid. ix. 427.
Paffion has often the effeft of redoubling words,
the better to make them exprefs the flrong conception
of the mind. This is finely imitated in the following
examples.
 Thou fun, faid I, fair light !
And thou enlighten’d earth, fo frefh and gay!
Ye bills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains!
And ye that live,, and move, fair creatures! tell,
Tell, if ye faw, how came I thus, how here.—
Paradife Lefty b. viii. 273,
 Both have finn’d ! but thou
A gain ft God only; 1, ’gainft God and thee:
And to the place of judgment will return,;
There with my cries importune Heav n, that all
The fentence, from thy head remov d, may light
On me, foie caufe to thee of all this wo;
Me! me! only juft objeft of his ire.
Paradife Lofty b. x. 930,
In general, the language of violent paffion ought
to be broken and interrupted. Soliloquies ought to be
3 p A s.
fo in a peculiar manner : language is intended by na¬
ture for fociety ; and a’ man when alone, though he
always clothes his thoughts in words, feldom gives his
words utterance, unlefs when prompted by fome ftrong
emotion ; and even then by Harts and intervals only,
Shakefpeare’s foliloquies may be juftly eftablifhed as a
model; for it is not eafy to conceive any model more
perfeft. Of his many incomparable foliloquies, the
two following only fhall be quoted, being different in
their manner.
Taffion.
Hamlet. Oh, that this too, too folid fiefh, would
Thaw, and refolve itfelf into a dew ! [meit,
Or that the Everlafting had not fix’d
His canon ’gainft felf-(laughter! O God! O God!
How weary, ftale, flat, and unprofitable,
Seem to me all the ufes of this world!
Fie on’t ! O fie ! ’tis an unweeded garden,
That grows to feed: tilings rank and grofs in nature
Pofiefs it merely. That it fhouid come to this!
But two months dead! nay, not fomuch; not two —
So excellent a king, that was, to this,
Hyperion to a fatyr : fo loving to my mother,'
That he permitted not the winds of heav’n
Vifit her face too roughly. Heav’n and tartfi!
Mull I remember—-why, fhe would hang on him,
As if increafe of appetite had grown
By what it fed on : yet, within a month 
Let me not think - Frailty, thy name is Woman1.
A little month! or ere thsfe fhoes were old,
With which fne follow’d my poor father’s body,
Like Niobe, all tears  why (lie, ev’n fhe  
(O heav’n! a beaft, that wants difeourfe of reafon.
Would have mourn’d longer—) married with mine
uncle,
My father’s brother ; but no more like my father
Than 1 to Hercules. Within a month ! •
Ere yet the fait of moft unrighteous tears
Had left the fluftting in her galled eyes,
She married Oh, moft wicked fpeed, to pod
With fuch dexterity to incefluous fheets!
It is not, nor it cannot come to good.
But break, my heart, for I muft hold my tongue.
Hamlety aS I. Jc. 3.
“ Ford. Hum! ha! is this a vifton? is this a dream?
“ do I fleep ? Mr Ford, awake ; awake, Mr Ford ;
“ there’s a hole made in your beft coat, Mr bord!
“ this ’tis to be married ! this ’tis to have linen and
s- buck bafkets? Well, I will proclaim myfelf what
“ I am ; I will now take the leacher; he is at my
houfe ; he cannot ’fcape me ; tis impoffible he
,f fhouid ; he cannot creep into a halfpenny purfe,
‘i nor into a pepper-box. But left the devil that
“ guides him fhouid aid. him, I will fearch impoffible
“ places; tho’ what I am I cannot avoid, yet to be
“ what I would not, fhall not make me tame.”
Merry Wives of Windfor, act 3. fc. lajl.
Thefe foliloquses are accufate and bold copies of na-
tuie : in a paffionate foliloquy one begins with think¬
ing aloud, and the ftrongeft feelings only are ex-
prefTed ; as the fpeaker warms, he begins to imagine
one iiilening, and gradually Aides into a connected
difeourfe. 1 _ ,
How far diftant are foliloquies generally from thefe^
models l S® far indeed as to give difguft inftead of
pleafure*
pas r i
yafTion. pleamre. The firft fcene of IphJgenia in Tauri’s dif-
covers that piinccfs, in a foiiloquy, gravely reporting
to hcrfelt her own hiitory. There is the fame impro¬
priety in the firft fecne of Alcefte?, and in tire other
introdudlions ot Euripides, almoft without exception.
Nothing can be more ridiculous ; it puts one in mind
of a moil curious device in Gothic paintings, that of
making every figure explain itfelf "by a written label
ifining from its mouth. The defcription which a pa-
rafite, in the Eunuch of Terence (off 2. fc. 2.) gives
of himfclf, makes a fprightly foliloquy : but it is not
confident with the rules of propriety ; for no man, in
his ordinary ftate of mind and upon a familiar fubjeft,
ever thinks of talking aloud to himfelf. The fame ob-
jeftion lies againfl: a foliloquy in the Adelphi of the
fame author {ad 1. fc. 1.) The folilequy whi h
makes the third fcene a£f third of his He'ic\ra, is infuf-
feral le ; for tnere Pamphilus, fol erly and'circumfl an¬
tially, relates to himfelf an adventure which had hao-
pened to him a moment before.
Corneille is unhappy in his foliloquies: Take for a
fpecimen the rirlt fcene of Cinna.
Racine is extremely faulty in the fame refpeft. His
foluoquies are regular harangues, a chain completed in
every link, without interruption or interval: that of
Antiochus in Berenice {ad fc. 2 ) reftmbles a re¬
gular pleading, where the parties pro and con difplay
their arguments at full length. The following folilo¬
quies are equally faulty : Bajavet, ad 3. fc. 7. ; Mi-
thridatc, ad 3. fc. 4. ; and ad 4. fc. 5. ; Iphigenia,
ad 4. fc. 8.
Soliloquies upon lively or interefting fuhje&s, but
without any turbulence of pafiion, may be carried on
hi a continued chain of thought. I?, for example, the
nature and fprightlinefs of the fubjedf prompt a man to
fpeak his thoughts in the form of a dialogue, the ex-
prthion mu ft be carried on without break or interrup¬
tion, as in a dialogue between two perfons ; which
juft dies Falitafi’s foiiloquy upon honour:
“What need I be fo forward with Death, that
calls not on me? Well, ’t:s no m itter, Honour pricks
nie on. But how if Honour prick me off, when I
“ coir‘t-' on ? how then ? Can honour fet a leg? No. Or
^ an aim? i\o. Or take away the'grief of a wound ?
No. Honour hath no ikill in furgery then ? No.
“ What is Honour? A word.—What is that word ho-
“ no*r? Air; a trim reckoning,—Who hath it? He
“ that dy’d a Wednefday. Doth he feel it ? No.
“ Doth he hear it ? No. Is it infenfible then ? Yea,
“ to the dead. But will it not live with the living ?
3 J PAS
Language ought not to be elevated above the tone P*iW
of the fentiment. . —-y—.
Zara. Swift as occafion, I
Myfelf will fly ; and earlier than the morn
Wake thee to freedom. Now ’tis late ; and yet
Some news few minutes part arriv’el, which feem’d
io ihake the temper of tde king JVho knowu
What racking cares difeafe a monarch's bed ?
Or love, that late at night ftill lights his lamp.
And ttrikes his rays through dufk, and folded lids,
Forbidding reft, may ftretch his eyes awake,
And force their balls abroad a?this dead hour.
Ffi try. Mourning Bride, ad $.fc. 4.
I tie language here u; undoubtedly too pompous and
laboured for defcribing fo fimple a circumftam e as ab-
fence of fleep. In the following paifage, the tone of
the language, warm and plaintive, is well fuitcd to the
pafiion, which is recent grief: but every one will be
ieniible, that in the laft couplet fave one the tone 13.
changed, and the mind fuddeniy elevated to be let fall
as fuddeniy in the lafi couplet:
II detefte a jamais fa coupable vidloire,
II renonce a la cour, aux humains, a la gloire j
Et fe fuiant lui-mcme, au milieu ties deferts,
II va cacher la peine au bout de I’univers ;
l a, foil que le Joled rcndit le jour au motnie,
Soil qu ilJin it fa courfe au 'Vajle feine de Pondc,
Sa voix faifoit redire aux echos attendris,
Le nom, le trifle nom, de foil malheureux fils.
Henriade, chant, viii. 229.
Light and airy language is unfuitable to a fevere
pafiion.
Imagery and figurative exprefiion are difeordant, in
the highefl degree, with the agony of a mother, who
is deprived of two hopeful fons by a brutal murder.
1 herefore the following pafiage is undoubtedly in a bad
telle :
^Queen. Ah, my poor princes! ah, my tender babes!
Iruy unblown flowers, new appearing fwectS !
It yet your gentle fouls fly in the air.
And be not fixt in doom perpetual,
Hover about me with your airy wings,
And hear your mother’s lamentation.
Richard III. ad 4. fc. 4.
Again :
*S f' , ky ■ Detraction will not fufFer it. There-
fore J''1 noiie of R 5 honour is 'a mere feutcheon :
and fo ends my catechifn.”
lift Furtr Henry IV. ad. $.fc. 2.
And evim w ithout dialogue a continued difeourfe may
JUltlhed’ where a man reafons in a foliloquy upon
an important fubjeft • for if in fuch a cafe it be at all
ex. u a e to think aloud, it is neceffary that the rta-
oningbe earned on in a chain ; which juftifies that
admirable fohloquy in Hamlet upon life and immer-
‘PrS,!n Lei?gir/lreno me(litation uPon the moil in.
w:ll ;„TfC t) r t^e ^ame eonfideraticn
lllhj £1 ^ "lat imroduce•the 5 th of
K. Philip. You are as fond of grief as of your child.
Confance. Grief fills the room up of my abfent child,
Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me,
Puts on his pretty locks, repeats his words.
Remembers me of all his gracious parts.
Stuffs out his vacant garment with his form ;
Then have I reaion to be fond of grief.
King John, ad 3. fc. 9.
1 houghts that turn upon the exprefiion inftead of
the fuhjedt, commonly called a play of words, being
low and childifh, are unworthy of any compofition^
whether gay or ferious, that pretends to any degree of
elevation.
In the Amynta of Taflb, the lover falls into a mere
play of words, demanding how he who had loft him.
fell; could find a paiftrefs. And for the fame reafon,
ths
PAS
rdOin. tlio following palfage in Corneille lia» been generally
condemned :
Chimcne. Mon pere eft mort, Elvire, et la pre¬
miere epee
Dont s’eft armee Rodrigue a fa trame coupce.
Pleurez, pkurez, mes yeux, et fondez-vous en eaux,
La moietie de tia vie a mis I’autre au tombeau,
Et m’oblige a venger, apres ce coup funefte,
Celle que je n’ai plus, fur celle que me reite.
J r Cidy ad 3. fc. 3.
To die is to be Wnilh’d from myfelf:
And Sylvia is myfelf: banifti’d from her,
Is felf from felf; a deadly banifhment!
Two Gentlemen of Verona, aft Jc. 3.
Countefs. I pray thee, Lady, have a better cheer:
If thou engrofleft all the griefs as thine,
Thou robb’ft me of a moiety.
All's well that ends well, aa 3. Jc. 3.
K. Henry.
L 14 1
PAS
O my poor kingdom, fick with civil
blows !
When that my care could not with-hold thy riots,
What wilt thou do when not is thy care ?
O, thou wilt be a vvildernefs again,
Peopled with wolves, thy old inhabitants.
Second Part, Henry IV. ad fc.
Cruda Amarilli, che col nome ancora
D’amar, ahi laffo, amaramente mfegm.
Pof lor rido, aa l.Jc. z.
Antony, fpeaking of Julius Caefar :
O world ! thou waft the foreft of this hart;
And this, indeed, O world, the heart of thee.
How like a deer, ftricken by many princes,
Doll thou here lie ! J“ltus a£i 3- /’ 3*
Playing thus with the found of words, which is fhll
worfe than a pun, is the meaneft of all conceits. But
Shakefpeare, when he defeends to a play of words
is not always in the wrong ; for u is done f^etime®
to denote a peculiar charader, as m the following
paflage :
K. Philip. What fay’ft thou, boy ? look m the
lady’s face.
Lewis. I do, my Lord, and in her eye I find
A wonder, or a wond’rous miracle ;
The (hadow of my-felf form’d in her eye ;
Which being but the fhadow of your ion.
Becomes a fon, and makes your fon a flradow.
1 do proteft, I never lov’d myfelt
Till now infixed I beheld myfelf
Drawn in the fLtt’ring table of her eye. . r
Fauleonhridge. Drawn in the flatt’rmg table of
her eye !
Hang’d in the frowning wrinkle of her brow .
And quarter’d in her heart! he doth efpy
Himlelf Love’s traitor : this is pity now,
That hang’d, and drawn, and quarter’d there fliould be
In fuch a love to vile a lout ^ 2. fc, $
all in an heroic poem: and yet Milton In fame infta*- (
ces has defeended to that puerility :
And brought into the world a world of wo.
 Begirt th’Almighty throne
Befeeching or befieging —
Which tempted our attempt
At one flight bound high overleap d all bound.
 With a fhout
Loud as from numbers without number.
One mould think it unneceffary to enter a caveat
again ft an expreffion that has no meaning, or no diitintt
meaning; and yet fomewhat of that kind may be round
even among good writers.
Sehafian. I beg no pity for this mould’ring clay.
For if you give it burial, there it takes
Poffeflion of your earth : . ,
If burnt and fcatter’d in the air ; the winds
That ftrow my drift, diffufe my royalty,
And fpread me o’er your dime ; for where one ato
Of mine mall light, know there Sebaftian reigns.
Dryden, Don Sebaflian King oj Portugal, ad l.
Cleopatra. Now, what news, my Cnarmion ?
Will he be kind ? and will he not forfake me .
Am l to live or die ? nay, do 1 Hye ? ,
Or am I dead ? for when he gave nis anfvver,
Fate took the word, and then I liv’d or dy .
Dryden, All for Dove, aa 2.
If me be coy, and fcorn my noble fire.
If her chill heart I cannot move ;
Why, i’ll enjoy the very love,
And make a m.lticfs of my own defire. „
Cowley, poem injcnbed ihe Reque .
Paflicns.
His whole poem inferibed My Pidure is a jargon of
the fame kind.
 _»Tis he, they cry, by whom
Not men. but war itfelf is overcome. ^
Such empty expreffions are finely ridiculed m the
Rehearfal.
Was’t not unjuft to raviOi hence he^ breat^’ h ?
And in life’s Head to leave us nought butjkatfc^ ^
Passions, in medicine, make one of the non
naturals, and produce very fenfible efteds. Joy, an^er,
and fear’, arc the principal. In the two firft, the ^mts
are hurried with too great vivaci y , ’ntrated:
or dread, they are as it w-e ^ a very bad
whence we may conclude, th t y
effea upon healths and therefore it wdl be belt to
keep them within bounds as much as P°™'> “"d_
to preferve an inward feremty, calmnefs. and tran
qUp1ltsys'1ONS) in painting, are the external expreffion.
fUlP:fSreTfor though the arms, and indeed
uu .. J- everypart of the body *, ferve hkewife, by ‘he^; • See Or.-
* J cvciy rtiverfified motions, to expieis^,.^ no
A jingle of words is the lowed fpecies of that low ^ foul; yet, in painting,.this difterence 37.
wit, ihich is fcarce fufferable in any cafe, and leaft of the paihons^o
PAS [
PaflTons. Is moft confplcucms In the face. See Paintinc, p. ^20.
and Drawing, § 8.
As we have given engravings of Le Brun’s drawings
of the paffions, we {hall here fubjoin the account
which he has given of each ot thefe heads. See Plates
CCCLXXV1I1 and CCCLXXIX.
1. The effects of attention are, to make the eye-brows
fink and approach the fries of the nofe ; to turn the
eye-balls toward the ohjeA that caufes it y to open the
mouth, and efpecially the upper part ; to decline the
head a little, and fix it without any other remaikable
alteration.
2. Admiration caufes but little agitation in the mind,
and therefore alters but very little the parts of the
face ; neverthelefs the eye-brow rifes the eye opens
a little more than ordinary ; the eye-ball placed equally
between the eye lids appears fxed on the objedl ; the
mouth half opens, and makes no fenfible alteration in
the cheeks.
3. The motions that accompany admiration with
ajlonifhment are hardly different from thofe of fimple
admiration, only they are more lively and ftronger
marked ; the eye-brows more elevated ; the eyes more
open ; the eye-ball further from the lower eye-lid, and
more fteadily fixed : The mouth is more open, and
all the parts in a much ftronger emotion.
4. Admiration begets efteem, and this produces
venerationy which, when it has for its objedb fome-
thing divine or beyond our comprehenfion, makes the
face decline, and the eye-brows bend down j the
eyes are almoft fhut and fixed : the mouth is fhut.
Thefe motions are gentle, and produce but little al¬
terations in the other parts.
5. Although rapture has the fame object as venera¬
tion, only confidered in a different manner, its mo¬
tions are not the fame ; the head inclines to the left
fide ; the eye-balls and eye-brows rife dire&ly up ;
the mouth half opens, and the two corners are alfo a
little turned up : the other parts remain in their na¬
tural ftate.
6. The paffion of defire brings the eye-brows clofe
together and forwards toward the eyes, which are
more open than ordinary ; the eye-ball is inflamed,
and places itfelf in the middle of the eye ; the noflrils
rife up, and are coatra&ed towards the eyes ; the
mouth half opens, and the fpirits being in motion give
a lively glowing colour.
7. Very little alteration is remarked in the face of
thofe that feel within themfelves the frueetnefs of joy,
or joy with tranquillity. The forehead is ferene ; the eye¬
brow without motion, elevated in the middle ; the eye
pretty open and with a laughing air; the eye-ball live¬
ly and fhining; the corners of the mouth turn up a
little; the complexion is lively ; the cheeks and lips
are red. r
8. Laughter, which is produced by joy mixed with
furprife, makes the eye-brows rife towards the middle
of the eye, and bend towards the fides of the nofe;
the eyes are almofl fhut, and fometimes appear wet,
or ftied tears, which make no alteration in the face ;
the mouth half open, fhows the teeth ; the corners of
the mouth drawn back, caufe a wrinkle in the cheeks,
"which appear fo fweiled as. to hide the eyes in fome
15 1 PAS
meafure ; the noflrils are open, and all the face is of a PafiioWf.
red colour.
9. Acute pain makes the eye brows approach one
another, and rife towards the middle; the eye-ball ip
hid under the eye-biows ; the noftrils rife and make
a wrinkle in the cheeks ; the mouth half opens and
diaws back : all the parts of the face are agitated in
proportion to the violence of the pain.
10. Simple bodily pain produces proportionally the
fame motions as the laft, but not fo ftrong : The eye-
bi ows do not approach and rife fo much ; the eye-ball
appears fixed on fome objeft; the noftrils rife, but
the wrinkles in the cheeks are lefs perceivable ; the lips
aie further afunder towards the middle, and the mouth
is half open. ,
11. d he dejefh’on that is produced by fadnefs makes
the eye-brows rife towards the middle of the forehead
more than towards the cheeks; the eye-ball appears
full of perturbation 'r the white, of the eye is yellow ;
the eye lids are drawn down, and a little fuelled ; all
about the eyes is livid; the noftiils are drawn down¬
ward ; the mouth is half open, and the corners are
drawn down ; the head carelefsly leaning on one of
the {boulders ; the face is of a lead colour; the lips
pale.
12> The alterations that weeping occafions are ftrong-
ly marked : The eye-brows fink down towards the
middle of the forehead ; the eyes are almoft clofed,.
wet, and drawn down towards the cheeks ; the no¬
ftrils fweiled ; the mufcles and veins of the forehead
appear ; the mouth is {hut, and the fides of it are
drawn down, making wrinkles on the cheeks ; the un¬
der bp puffed out, preffes the upper one : all the face
is wrinkled and contra&ed ; its colour is red, efpe-
cinlly about the eye-brows, the eyes, the nofe, and the
cheeks.
13. The lively attention to the misfortunes of ano¬
ther, which is called compajjion, caufes the eye-brows,,
to fink towards the middle of the forehead ; the eye¬
ball to be fixed upon the objeft ; the fides of the no¬
ftrils next the nofe to be a little elevated, making
wrinkles in the cheeks; the mouth to be open; the.
upper lip to be lifted up and thruft: forwards ; the
mufcles and all the parts of the face finking down and-
turning towards the objedl which excites the paflion.
14. The motions of^ror« are lively and ftrong : The
forehead is wrinkled ; the eye-brow is knit ; the fide
of it next the nofe finks down, and the other fide rifes
very much ; the eye is very open, and the eye-ball is
in the middle ; the noftrils rife, and draw towards the.
eyes, and make wrinkles in the cheeks ; the mouth
{huts, its fides finking down, and the under-lip is
puftied out beyond the upper one.
15. An object defpifed fometimes caufes horror,
and then the eye-brow knits, and finks a great deal-
more. The eye-ball, placed at the bottom of the eye,,
is half covered by the lower eye lid ; the mouth is
half open, but clofer in the middle than the fides,
which being drawn back, makes wrinkles in the cheeks j,
the face grows pale, and the eyes become livid; the
mulcles and the veins are marked.
16. The violence of terror or fright alters all the
parts of the face ; the eye-brow rifes in the middle ;
its^
/
Paffive.
PAS
paffront ;ts fnufcles are rmrked, fwelled, preffed on
" the other, and funk towards the nofe, which draws up
as well as the noftrils; the eyes are very open ; the
upper eye lid is hid under the eye-brow ; the white of
th- eye is encompaffed with red ; the eye ball fixes to-
ward*the lower part of the eye ; the lower part
eve lid fvvells and becomes livid ; the mufeks ot tne
nofeand cheeks fwell, and thefe iaft terminate in a
[ i6 ]
againft A,a,> &c.
nofii
the
mouth
the
point toward the fides of the
L very open; and its corners very apparent . _
mufeks and veins of the neck ftretched ; the hair
Hands on end ; the colour of the face, that is, tne end
of the nofe, the lips, the ears, and round the eyes, is
pale and livid ; and all ought to be ttrongly marked.
v j - 'fhe efftfta of anger ihow its nature. 1 he eyes
become red and inflamed ; the eye ball is flaring and
fmrkViivr; the eye-brows are fometimes elevated and
lometimes funk down equally : the forehead is very
mtich wrinkled, with wrinkles between the eyes ; the
noftrils are open and enlarged the lips preffing again.*,
one another, the under one rifing over the upper one
leaves the corners of the mouth a little open, making
a cruel and difdainful grin. , r i j *1
18. Hatred or jealoufy wrinkles the forehead ; the
rye-brows are funk down and kmt ; the eye ball is
half hid under the eye-brows, which turn towards the
,bka ; i: fhould appear full of fire, as well as the white
of the eye and the eye-lid ; the noftnls are pak, open,
more marked than ordinary, and drawn backward lo
„ to ir.ake wrmkles in the cheek* , the month » fo
(hut as to (how the teeth are doted ; the ™mers ot
the mouth are drawn hack and very much funk ; he
0f the jaw appear funk; the colour of the
face is partly inflamed and partly yellawifli i the bps
r 'i o^As defpair is extreme, its motions arc fo likewife (
the forehead wrinkles from the top to die bottom ;
the eve-brows bend down over the eyes, arl prefs one
another on the fide, of the nofe i ‘he eye leems to be
on fire and full of blood; the eye-ball ta dilturbcd,
hid under the eye-brow, fparkling and unlixed ; the
eye-lid is fwelled and livid ; the nollrtls are large,
open, and lifted up ; the end of the nofe finks do-n;
the mufclcs, tendons, and veins are fwelled and ftretch¬
ed , the upper part of the cheeks is large, marked, and
narrow towards the jaw ; the mouth drawn backwards
is mote open at the Tides than in the midok ; the lower
lip is large and turned out ; they gnalh their teeth ;
they foam ; they bite their bps, winch are pale ; as is
the reft of the face ; the hair is ftrait and (lands on end.
Pass ion-Flower. See Pass ifloiu.
PASsiox-lVeek, the week immediate y preceding the
feftival of Eafter; fo called becaufe m that week
our Saviour’s paffion and death happened. I i
Thurfday of this week is called M^duy Thur/Jay;
the Friday, Good-May; and the Saturday, the Great
^ PASSIVE, in general, denotes fometbing that fuf-
fers the aftion of another, called an agent or aSt.ve
power. In grammar, the verb or word that expreftes
this paffion is termed a pafim verb: which, in the
learned languages, has a pecukar termination; as
amor, doctor, &c. in Latin; that is an r ,s added to
the actives amo, doceo : and, in the Greek, the inflee
tion it made by changing « into as r»rf-
P A S
    But, in the modern languages, the pafltve
inflexion is performed by means of auxiliary verbs,'
joined to the participle of the paft tenie} as, “ I am
praifed,” in Latin laudor, and in Greek or,
“ 1 am loved,” in Latin amor, and in Greek
Thus it appears, that the auxiliary verb am, ferves, to
form the pafiives of Engliih verbs : and the fame holds
of the French ; as, Je fuis iou'e, “ I am praifed jhri
etc loue, “ I have been praifed,” See. See Grammar.
Passive Title, in Scots law. See Law, Part III.
N° clxxx. 30.
Passive Obedience, a political do&nne which has
been much mifreprefented, and is, of courfe, very ob¬
noxious to the friends of freedom. Some nonjurors,
in the end of the laft and in the beginning of the
palling century, imagining that monarchy is tne only
lawful form of government, and that hereditary mo¬
narchy is the only lawful fpecies of that government,
have coupled with paflive obedience the ridiculous no¬
tion of a divine, hereditary, indefeafibk right of cer¬
tain families to govern with defpotic fw?.y all other
families of the fame nation. The abfurdity of this no¬
tion needs not to be dwelt upon ; but it may not be im¬
proper to obferve, that it has nothing to do with paf¬
live obedience.
As taught by the ableft reafoners, who think that
they are Supported by holy feripture, paffive obedi¬
ence is as much a duty under republican as undei mo*-
narchical governments ; and it means no more, but that
private individuals are bound by the rooft folemn mo¬
ral ties not to refill the fupreme power whertfoever
placed In any nation. The fupreme power can only
be the legiflature ; and no man or body of men, who
have not the power of enabling and abrogating laws
can, on this principle, claim paffive obedience from any
fubjeft. Whether the principle be well or ill found¬
ed, the abfurdity which commonly attaches to the
phrafe pcijjive obedience, originates from the miilaken
loyally of the adherents of the houfe of Stuart,
who to aggravate the illegality of the revolution, were
wont to reprefent James II. as fupreme over both
houfes of parliament, and of courfe over all law. . I hat
fuch reveries w.ere foohfh, we need no other evidence
than the flatute book, which fhows, that in the office
of legiflation, the king, lords, and commons, are co¬
ordinate ; and that when any one of thefe powers {hall
take upon itfelf to counteradt the other two, the duty
of paffive obedience will oblige the fuhjedl to fupport
the legiflature. That refiitance to the legiflature,(it
lawful on any occafion, can be fo only to 0??0^ tne
moft violent tyranny, has been fhown by Mr Hume
with great cogency of argument, and is indeed a pro-
pofition felf-evident. That it can never be lawful on
any occafion, Biihop Berkeley endeavoured ta prove by
a chain of reafoning which it would be aifiicult to
break. We enter not into the controverfy, but re¬
fer our readers to Hume's EJays. and Berkeley's Pajtve
Obedience andNonrejijlance, or, as it was intitled by a late
editor, the Meafure J)f Submifion to civil Government.
We ihall only obferve, that there is a great difference
between afiive and pafive obedience ; and that imnyb
who confider themfelves as bound on no account what¬
ever to refill the fupreme power, would yttfufer death
rather than do an immoral a&ion in obedience to any
law Qf earthly origin.
Paffive.
pas siox s .
Hate cccLxxym
ff/tf/vt/spn.
PA S 31 O N S .
\
Hate C C CLXX1K..
paifotf
PAS [
Baffive, Pjssrrs Prayer, among the myjlic divines, is a total
Paffover. fufpenfion or ligature of the intelle&ual faculties ; in
“—’'v"””'"' virtue whereof, the foul remains of itfelf, and as to its
own power, impotent with regard to the producing of
any effedts. The paflive ftate, according to Fenelon,
is only paffive in the fame fenfe as contemplation is,
i. e. it does not exclude peaceable, difintercfted adts, but
only unquiet ones, dr fuch as tend to our own intereft.
In the paffive ftate, the foul has not properly any afti-
vity, any fenfation, of its own : it is a mere infinite
flexibility of the foul, to which the feebleft impulfe of
grace gives motion.
PASSOVER, a folemn feflival of the Jews, infti-
tuted in commemoration of their coming out of E-
gypt; becaufe the night before their departure, the
deftroying angel, who put to death the firft-born of
the Egyptians, paffed over the houfes of the Hebrews
without entering therein, becaufe they were marked
with the blood of the lamb which was killed the
evening before, and which for this reafon was called
ihz pafchal lamb. This feaft was called pafcha by the
©Id Greeks and Romans; not we prefume from
“ I fuffer,” as Chryfoftom, Irenseus, and Tertullian,
fuppofe, but from the Hebrew word pefaph, pajfage,
leap. The following is what God ordained concern¬
ing the paffover of the Jews, (Exod. xii.) The
month of the coming forth from Egypt was looked
upon from this time to be the firft month of the fa-
cred or ecclefiaftical year, and the fourteenth day of
this month, between the two vefpers, that is, between
the fun’s decline and his fetting : or rather, according
to our manner of reckoning, between two o’clock in
the afternoon and fix o’clock in the evening at the
equinox, they were to kill the pafchal lamb, and to ab-
llain from leavened bread. The day following being
the fifteenth, counting from fix o’clock of the fore¬
going evening, which concluded the fourteenth, was
the grand feaft of the paflbver, which continued feven
days. But it was only the firft; and the feventh day that
were folemn. The lamb that was killed ought to be
without any defeat, a male, and yeaned that year. If
up lamb could be found, they might take a kid.
They killed a lamb or a kid in every family ; and if
the number of thofe that lived in the houfe was not
fufficient to eat a lamb, they might join two houfes
together. With the blood of the pafchal lamb they
fprinkled the door-pofts and lintel of every houfe,
that the deftroying angel, at the fight of the blood,
might pafs over them, and fave the Hebrew chil¬
dren. They were to eat the lamb the fame night that
followed the facrifice ; they eat it roafted, with un¬
leavened bread, and a fallad of wild lettuce. The
Hebrew fays literally, with bitter things, as fuppofe
muftard, or any thing of this nature to give a relilh.
It was forbid to eat any part of it raw, or boiled in
water, nor were they to break a bone, (Exod. xii. 46.
?N'umb. ix. 12. John xix. 36.); and if any thing re¬
mained to the day following, it was thrown into the
fre. They that eat it were to be in the pofture of
travellers, having their reins girt, their fhoes on their
feet, their ftaves in their hands, and eating in a hurry.
But this laft part of the ceremony was but little ob-
ferved, at leaf! it was of no obligation, but only upon
that night they came forth out of Egypt. For the
whole eight days of the paffover no leavened bread
Vol.:X1V. Part I.
7 ] PAS
was to be ufed; and whoever fhould eat any, was Piflbve*
threatened to be cut off from his people. With regard
to the ceremonies which are obfcrved in relation to the
bread, fee the article Bread, p-53i. col. 2.
They kept the firft and laft day of the feaft, yet fo
as that it was allowed to drefs vidtuals, which was
forbidden on the Sabbath-day. The obligation of
keeping the paffover was fo ftriift, that whoever fhould
negledb to do it, was condemned to death, (Numb. ix.
13.) But thofe who had any lawful impediment, as
a journey, ficknefs, or any uncleannefs, voluntary or
involuntary ; for example, thofe that had been prefent
at a funeral, or by any other accident had been defiled,
were to defer the celebration of the paffover till the
fecond month of the ecclefiaftical year, or to the four¬
teenth day of the month Jiar, which anfwers to April
and May. It was thus the Lord ordered Mofes, upon
the occafion of the inquiry of fome Ifraelites, who
had been obliged to pay their laft: offices to fome of
their relations, and who being thus polluted, were not
capable of partaking of the pafchal facrifice, (2 Chr.
xxx. 1, 2, Sic.) The modern Jews obferve in general the
fame ceremonies that were pra&ifed by their anceftors,
in the celebration of the palfover. On the fourteenth
of Nifan, the firft-born fait in memory of God’s Unit¬
ing the firft-born of the Egyptians. The morning
prayers are the fame with thofe faid on other fefti-
vals. They take the roll of the pentateuch out of the
cheft, and {ead as far as the end of the twelfth chap¬
ter of Exodus, and what is contained in the eighteenth
chapter of Numbers, relating to the paffbver. The
matron of the family then fpreads a table, and fets on
it two unleavened cakes, and two pieces of the Iamb,
a ihoulder boiled and another roafted, to put them in
mind that God delivered them with a ftretched out
arm. To this they add fome fmall fifties, becaufe
of the leviathan ; a hard egg, becaufe of the ziz ;
fome meal, becaufe of the behemoth, (thefe three ani¬
mals being appointed for the feaft of the cleft in the
other life); and peas and nuts for the children, to pro¬
voke their curiofity to alk the reafon of this cere¬
mony. , They likewife ufe a kind of muftard, which
has the appearance of mortar, to reprefent their ma¬
king bricks in Egypt. The father of the family fits
down with his children and flaves, becaufe on this day
all are free. Being fet down, he takes bitter herbs,
and dips them in the muftard, then eats them, and
diftributes to the reft. Then they eat of the lamb,
the hiftory and inftitution of which is at that time re¬
cited by the matter of the family. The whole repaft
is attended with hymns and prayers. They pray for
the prince under whofe dominion they live, according
to the advice of Jeremiah (xxix. 7.), “ Seek the peace
of the city whither I have caufed you to be carried
away captives, and pray unto the Lord for it: for in
the peace thereof ftiall ye have peace.” See the article
Feast, &c. The fame things are put in pradlice the
two following days; and the feftival is concluded by
the ceremony habdala or diftin&ion. This ceremony
is performed at the eloiing of the Sabbath day, at
which time the mafter of the houfe pronounces cer¬
tain benedidtions, accompanied with certain formali¬
ties, requefting that every thing may fucceed well the
week following. After going out of the fynagogue,
they then eat leavened bread for the laft time. (Leo of
C Modena,
p a s r i
Faffover, Modena, p. Hi- c. 3. and the Rabh’ns.)
Paffporr urriple wa<3 ftanding, they brought thnr lambs thither,
  and factificed them, offering the blood to the pneff,
who poured it out at the foot of the altar. Thepaf-
fover was typically prcdidive of Chnft our chnft.an
paffover, ( x Cor. v. 7.) As the deftroying angel paf-
fed over the houfes marked with the blood of the pal-
chal lamb, fo the wrath of God paffes over them whole
fouls are fprinkled with the blood of Chn.t. rhe
pafchal lamb was killed before Ifrael was delivered fo
it is neceffary Chrift (honld fuffer before we could be
redeemed. It was killed before Mofes’s law or Aa¬
ron’s facrifices were enjoined, to flxow that deliverance
comes to mankind by none of them ; but only the
true paffover, that Lamb of God flam from the foun¬
dation of the world, (Rom. hi. 25. Heb. ix. 14.) t
was killed the firft month of the year, which pre¬
figured that Chrift ftiould fuffer death in this month,
(John xviii. 28.) It was killed in the evening, (Lxod.
xii. 6.) So Chrift fuffered in the laft days, and at
this time of the day, (Matt, xxvii. 46. Heb. 1. 2 )
At even alfo the fun fets, which {hows that it was the
Snn of Righteoufnefs who was to fuffer and die, and
that at his paffion univerfal darknefs ftiould be upon
the whole earth, (Luke xxiii. 44.) Lhe paffover was
roafted with fire, to denote the (harp and dreadful
pains which Chrift fhould fuffer, not only from men,
but from God alfo. It was to be eaten with bitter
herbs, not only to put them in remembrance of their
bitter bondage in Egypt, but alfo to typify our morti¬
fication to fin, and reanlinefs to undergo alHiaions tor
Chrift. (Col. i. 24.) Many erroneoufly imagine, that
the paffover was inftituted in memory of the Ifraehtes
raffing the Red Sea; though it is certain the feaft
was held, and had its name, before the Israelites took
a ftep of their way out of Egypt, and confequently
feveral days before their palling the Red bea. 13e-
fides the paffover celebrated on the fourteenth of the
firft month, there was a fecond paffover held, on the
fourteenth of the fecond month after the equinox, in-
llituted by God in favour of travellers and hek per-
fons, who could not attend at the firft, nor be at Je-
Tufilem on the day. The Greeks, and even fome of
the catholic doaors, from the thirteenth, eighteenth,
and nineteenth, chapters, of St John, take occafion
to conclude, that Jefus anticipated the day marked
for the paffover in the law ; but the authority of three
evangelifts feems to evince the contrary. See Whit¬
by’s Differtation on this fubjeft, in an appendix to
the fourteenth chapter of St Mark. F. Lamy fup-
pofes, that our Lord did not attend at the paffover
the laft year of his life ; which fentiment has drawn
upon him abundance of oppofers. F. Hardouin af-
ferts, that the Galileans celebrated the paffover on one
day, aod the Jews on another. , .
PASSPORT, or Pass, a licence or writing ob¬
tained from a prince or governor, granting permiffion
and a fafe conduft to pafs through his territories with¬
out moleftation: Alfo a permiffion granted by any
flate to navigate in fome particular fea, without nn-
derance or moleftation from it. It contains the name
of the veffel, and that of the mafter, together with
her tonnage and the number of her crew, certifying
that ffie belongs to the fubjefts of a particular Hate,
imd requiring all perfans pa3cc with
8 ] PAS
fuffer her to proceed on her voyage without interrup- Paffport
tion. pJjc-
The violation of fafe condu&s or paffports exprefsly   -
granted by the king or by his ambaffadors to the fub¬
jefts of a foreign power in time of mutual war, or
committing afts of hoftility agaialt fuch as are in ami¬
ty, league, or truce with us, who are here under a ge¬
neral implied fafe-conduft, are breaches ©f the public
faith, without which there can be no intercourfe or
commerce between one nation and another ; and fuch
offences may, according to the writers upon the law of
nations, be a proper ground of a national war. And
it is enafted by the ftatute 31 Hen. VI. cap. 4. ftill
in force, that if any of the king’s fubjeft.s attempt or
offend upon the fea, or in any port within the king’s
obeyfance, or againft any ftranger in amity, league, or
truce, or under fafe-conduft, and efpecinlly by at¬
tacking bis perfon, or fpoiling him, or robbing him of
his goods ; the lord-chancellor, with any of the ju-
ftices of either the king’s-bench or common-pleas, may
caufe full reftitution and amends to be made to the
party injured. Pafquier fays, thatwas introduced
for pajje-par-tout. Balzac mentions a very honourable
paffport given by an emperor to a philofopher in thefe
terms: “ If there be any one on land or fea hardy
enough to moleft Potamon, let him confider whether
he be ftrong enough to wage war with Csefar.”
Passport is ufed likewile for a licence granted by
a prince for the importing or exporting merchandizes,
moveables, &c. without paying the duties. Merchants
procure fuch paffports for certain kinds of commodi¬
ties ; and they are always given to ambaffadors and
minifters for their baggage, equipage, &c.
Passport is alfo a licence obtained for the import¬
ing or exporting of merchandizes deemed contraband,
and declared fuch by tariffs, &c. as gold, filver, pre¬
cious Hones, ammunition of war, horfes, corn, wool,
&c. upon paying duties.
PASSUS, among the Romans, a meafure of length,
being about four feet ten inches, or the thoufandth
part of a Roman mile. The word properly fignifies,
the fpace betwixt the feet of a man walking at an
ordinary rate. See Measure.
PASTE, in cookery, a foft compofition of flour,
wrought up with proper fluids, as water, milk, or the
like, to ferve for cafes or coffins, therein to bake meats,
fruits, &c. It is the bafis or foundation of pyes, tarts,
patties, parties, and other works of paftry. It is alfo
ufed in confeftionary, &c. for a preparation of fome
fruit, made by beating the pulp thereof with fome fluid
or other admixture, into a foft pappy confidence,
fpreading it into a difh, and drying it with fugar, till
it becomes as pliable as an ordinary palte. It is ufed
occafionally alfo for making the crufts and bottoms of
pyes, &c. Thus, with proper admixtures, are made
almond partes, apple paftes, apricot paftes, cherry,
currant, lemon, plum, peach, and pear paftes.
Paste islikewife ufed for a preparation of wheaten
flour, boiled up and incorporated with water; ufed by
various artificers, as upholiterers, faddlers, bookbinders,
&c. ir.ftead of glue or lize, to fatten or cement their
cloths, leathers, papers, &c. When pafte is ufed by
bookbinders, or for paper-hangings to rooms, they mix
a fourth, fifth, or fixth, of the weight of the flour of
powdered refin 'y and where it is wanted ftill more te-
PAS [19] PAS
nacious, gum arable or any kind of fizemay be added.
Pafte may be preferved, by difiblving a little fublimate,
in the proportion ot a dram to a quart, in the water
employed for making it, which will prevent not only
rats and mice, but any other kind of vermin and in¬
fers, from preying upon it.
Pastes, in the gkfs trade, or the imitation or coun¬
terfeiting of gems in glafs, fee Gem, p. 603.
PASTEBOARD, a kind of thick paper, formed
of ftveral fxngle flieeta palled one upon another. 1 he
chief ufe of pafleboard is for binding books, making
letter-cafes, &c. See Paper.
PASTERN of a Horse, in the manege, is the di-
ftance betwixt the joint next the foot and the coronet
of the hoof. This part (hould be (hort, efpecially in
middle fized horfes ; becaufe long patterns are weak,
and cannot fo well endure travelling.
Pastern-Joint, the joint next a horfe’s foot.
PASTIL, or Pastel, among painters, a kind of
pafte made of different colouts ground up with gum-
water, in order to make Crayons.
Pastil, in pharmacy, is a dry compefition of fweet-
fmelling refins, aromatic woods, &c. fomttimes burnt
to clear and feent the air of a chamber.
PASTIME, afport, amufement, or diverfion. Pa-
ftimes of feme kind feem to he abfolutely necettary,
and to none more than to the man of iludy ; for the
mold vigorous mind cannot bear to be always bent.
Conftant application to one putluit, if it deeply engage
the attention, is apt to unhinge the mind, awd to ge
nerate madnefs ; of which the Don Quixote of Cer¬
vantes, and the aftronomer of Johnfon, are two ad¬
mirably conceived inftances. But though paltime is
neceffary to relieve the mind, it indicates great frivo¬
lity when made the bufinefs of life ; and yet the rich
and the great, who are not obliged to labour for the
means of fuMiftence, too often rove from pattime to
paftime with as conttant affiiuityas the mechanic toils
for his family, or as the philofopher devotes himfelf
to the cultivation of fcience. When thofe pattimes
tend to give elafticity to the mind or ftrength to the
tody, fuch conduft is not only allowable, but praife-
V/orthy ; but when they produce effefts the reverfe of
thefe, it is both hurtful and criminal. The gaming¬
table, the mafqucrade, the midnight affenibly of any
fort, mutt of ntcefkty enfeeble both the body and the
mind ; and yet fuch are the fattiionable amufements of
the prefent day, to which many a belle and many a
beau facrifice their beauty, their health, their quiet, PalEr**-
and their virtue. 'r"“
Far different were the paflimes of our wifer ancef-
tors : Remote from vice and effeminacy, they were
innocent, manly, and generous exercifes. From the
ancient records of this country, it appears, that the
fports, amufements, pleafures, and recreations, of our
anceftors, as deferibed by Fitz Stephen (a), added
ftrength and agility to the wheels of ftate-mechanifm,
while they had a diredl tendency towards utility. For
moft of thefe ancient recreations are refolvable into the
public defence of the Hate againft the attacks of a fo¬
reign enemy. The play at ball, derived from the Ro¬
mans, is firft introduced by this author as the commom
exsreife of every fchool-boy. The performance was in
a field, where the refort of the moft fubttantial and
confiderable citizens, to give encouragement and coun¬
tenance to this feat of agility, was fplendid and nume¬
rous. The intention of this amufement at this period
of time was to make the juvenile race a&ive, nimble,
and vigorous ; which qualities were requifite whenever
their afiiftance ftiould be wanted in the prote&ion of
their country. The next fpecies of paftime indeed
does not feem to have this tendency ; but it was only,
as it feems, an annual cuftom: This was cock-fighting.
The author tells us, that in the afternoon of Shrovc-
Tuefday, on which day this cuftom prevailed, they
concluded the day in throwing the ball: which feems
to infinuate, that the cock-fighting was merely in con¬
formity to ancient ufage, and limited only to part of
the day, to make way for a more laudable perform¬
ance We may reafonably luppofe, although this au¬
thor is entirely filent upon this head, that while cock-
fighting was going on, cock-throwing was the fport
of the loweft chfs of people, who could not afford the
expence of the former j. Another ipecies of manly
exercife was truly martial, and intended to qualify
the adventurers for martial difeipline. It is related by
Fitz Stephen thus: “ Every Friday in Lent, a com¬
pany of young men comes into the field on horfeback,
attended and conducted by the belt horfemcn : thea
march forth the fons of the citizens, and other young
men, with difarmed lances and fhields; and there
praCtife feats of war. Many courtiers likewife, whea
the king is near the fpot, and attendants upon noble¬
men, do repair to thefe exercifes ; and while the hope
of victory does inflame their minds, they fhow by good
proof how ferviceable they would be in martial afFaus.’*
C 2
This
(a-) Otherwife called William Stephanides, a monk of Canterbury, who lived in the reign of King Stephen,
to the time of Richard I. He wrote a Latin treatife, in which he gives an account of the feveral pattimes
which were countenanced in his time. Bale in his writings draws a plealing portrait of him. He is likewife
Iketched in ftrong and forcible outlines of wraife and commendation by Iceland. Bale fays thus of him 5
ihe time which other people ufually miftmploved in an idle and frivolous manner, he confecrated to in¬
quiries which tended to increafe the fame and dignity of his country : in doing which, he was not unworthy
«f being compared to Plato; for, like him, he made the ftudy of men and heaven his conftant exer¬
cife.
(b) 1 here were places fet apart for the battles of thefe animals, as at this day, where no one was admitted
wuhout money, i hefc places, or j>/ts commonly called, were fchools, as at this day, in which people were
initxuCted 111 the doCtrines of chance, lofs and gain, betting and wagers, and particularly in the liberal art
o ay/ng two to one. Cock-throwing has been laudably abolifhed ; for it was a fpecies of cruelty towards a«
innocent and uftful animal; anci iuch a crucity a3 would have kindled compaflion in the heart of the rankcfl
barbarian.
PAS [20] PAS
Paftime. This evidently is of Roman defcent, and immediately
*■   ' brings to our recolle&ion the Ludus Troj<t> fuppofed to
be the invention, as it was the common exercife, of
Afcanius. The common people, in this age of maf-
culine manners, made every amufement where ftrength
was exerted the fubjedl-matter of inftru&ion and im¬
provement: inilruAed to exert their bodily ftrength in
the maintenance of their country’s rights ; and their
minds improved, by fuch exertion, into every manly
and generous principle.
In the vacant intervals of induftry and labour, com¬
monly called the holy-days, indolence and ina&ivity,
which at this day mark this portion of time, were
found only in thofe whofe lives were diftempered with
age or infirmity. The view which Fitz-Stephen gives
us of the Eafter-holydays is animated. “ In Eafter-
holydays they fight battles upon the water. A fhield
is hanged upon a pole, fixed in the middle of the
Itream. A boat is prepared without oars, to be borne
along by the violence of the water ; and in the fore¬
part thereof ftandeth a young man, ready to give
charge upon the fhietd with hi* lance. If fo be
.that he break his lance againft the fhield, and doth
not fall, he is theught to have performed a worthy
deed. If without breaking his lance he runs ftrong-
ly againfl the fhield, down he falleth into the water ;
• for the boat is violently forced with the tide : but on
each fide of the fhield ride two boats, furnifhed with
young men, who recover him who falleth foon as they
may. In the holydays all the fummer the youths are
exercifed in leaping, dancing, fhooting, wreftling, call¬
ing the flone, and pradlifing their ihields ; and the
maidens trip with their timbrels, and dance as long as
they can well fee. In winter, every holyday before
dinner, the boars prepared for brawn are fet to fight,
or elfe bulls or bears are baited.”
Thefe were the laudable purfuits to which leifure
was devoted by our forefathers, fo far back as the year
1130. Their immediate fucceffors breathed the fame
generous fpirit. In the year 1222, the 6th year of
Henry HI. we find, that certain rfiafters in exercifes of
this kind made a public profeflion of their inflru&ions
and difcipline, which they imparted to thofe who were
defirous of attaining excellence and vi&ory in thefe Psftime;
honourable atchievements. About this period, the —-y——*
perfons of better rank and family introduced the play
of Tennis (c) •, and ere&ed courts or oblong edifices
for the performance of the exercife.
About the year 1253, in the 38th year of Hen¬
ry III. the Quintan was a fport much in fafhion in al-
moft every part of the kingdom. This contrivance
confided of an upright poll firmly fixed in the ground,
upon the top of which was a crofs piece of wood,
moveable upon a fpindle; one end of which was broad
like the fiat part of an halberd, while at the other end
was hung a bag of fand. The exercife was perform¬
ed on horfeback. The raaflerly performance was,
when, upon the broad part being ftruck with a lance,
which fometimes broke it, the afiailant rode fwiftly
on, fo as to avoid being ftruck on the back by the bag
of fand, which turned round inllantly upon the flroke
given with a very fwift motion. He who executed
this feat in the moll dexterous manner was declared
vi&or, and the prize to which he became intitled w'as
a peacock. But if, upon the aim taken, the contender
mifearried in linking at the broadfide, his impotency
of fkill became the ridicule and contempt of the fpeo
tators.
Dr Plott, in his Natural Hiflory of Oxfordfhire,
tells us, that this paflime was in practice in his time at
Deddington in this county. “ They firlt (fays this au¬
thor) fixed a pofl perpendicularly in the ground, and
then placed a fmall piece of timber vipon the top of it,
faftened on a fpindle, with a board nailed to it on one
end, and a bag of fand hanging at the other. Againfl
this board they anciently rode with fpears: now as I
faw it at Deddington only with firong Haves, which
violently bringing about the bag of fand, if they make
not good fpeed away, it ftrikes them in the neck or
fhoulders, and fometimes perhaps ftrikes them down
from their horfes ; the great delign of the fport being
to try the agility both of man and horfe, and to break
the board; which, whoever did, was accounted con¬
queror : for whom heretofore there was fome reward
always appointed/’ (d)
Matthew Paris, fpeaking of this manly diverfion,
fays,
(c) The word Tennis feems to owe its original to the French language : if fo, the game is of brench pro¬
duction. Yet the word tenez will hardly be found to afford incontrovertible evidence upon this fubjecl. lor
the holding or keeping poffeffion of the ball is no part of the game, but rather a circumftance cafually at¬
tending it: fince, during the performance of it, the ball is in continual motion, fo there can be no tenez at tlus
junAure. Perhaps a place in France called Tennois (as there is a town which differs only in a letter, called
Sennois, in the dittriA of Champagne) was the place where the bails were firft made, and the game hill m-
(n) This was certainly an exercife derived from a military inftitution of the Romans, though not inftru-
mentally the fame. Whoever confiders the form and difpofition of the Roman camps, which were formed
into a fquare figure, will find there were four piincipal gates or paflages. Near the Quajiorium, or Qua;(tor s
apartment, was the Forum, or what is now called a futtling-houfe, and from being near the Qu^ftor s fiat.cm
called Quaft'orium forum. At this part was a fifth gate Quintana, where the foldiers were inltruAed in the
difcipline of the Palaria, which was to aim at and (trike their javelins againft an upright poll hxed in the
■ ground, as a kind of trolufion to a real engagement with an enemy. By the frequent praAtce of this exerciie,
fometimes called exercitium adpalum by Roman writers, the foldiers at length acquired not only a dexterity and
addrefs in the management of their arms, but a conftant and regular exaAnefs m the direAion of them, pitas
Livius Patavinus, cap. ^ Pancirollus Rerum Memoral lib. ii. tit. 21. Vultunus in Augujianis Monumentis, lib. It.
Upon the irruption of the JJlri into the Roman camps, which they plundered, fays Livius, ad Quajontm
fc/rum, qumtananrque perveneru^t.
PAS
paflime. fays, “ The London youths made trial of their ftrength
   ' on horfeback, by running at the Quintan ; in doing
which, whoever excelled all the reft was rewarded with
a peacock.” This fport is continued to this day in
Wales ; and being in ufe only upon marriages, it may
be confidered as a votive paftime, by which thefe he¬
roic fpirits feem to with, that the male iflue of fuch
marriage may be as itrong, vigorous, and aftive, as
thofe who are at that time engaged in the celebration
of this feitive exertion of manhood. Virtuous exer-
cifes of this kind would be too rude and barbarous for
the attendants on pleafure in the prefent age. The
hand would tremble at the weight of the javelin ; and
the heart would pant upon the apprehenfiou of perfo-
nal infecurity. While thefe exertions of triumphant
prowefs continued, the fordid degeneracy of difpofr-
tion, the fupple bafenefs of temper, were unknown :
for the love of country, as the Roman orator has wife¬
ly obferved, included all other virtues. But if we guard
the palace of honour, like the brazen caltle of Danae,
with every poflible fecurity, importunate corruption
will be ever waiting at the gate, to feize an opportuni¬
ty of intrufron. Thefe feats of honourable conteit were
fucceeded by the gilded banners of exhibition, and all
the long train of dependents in the intereft ef indo¬
lence : for the writers of thefe times inform us, that
the foft pleafures of the ftage forced the pafi'es to public
favour in the year 1391, and likewife in the year 1409;
fo that utility, which before ftood on the right hand
of pleafure, was now ordered to withdraw for a feafon.
The drama, it feems, was attempted by a fet of ufe-
lefs and infignificant perfons called parijh-clerks ; who,
becaufe they had the knowledge of the alphabet, ig¬
norantly prefumed that this included every other fpe-
cies of knowledge. The fubjedt was truly ferious, the
creation of the world ; but the performance mull have
been ludicrous. It was, however, honoured with the
attendance of noble perfonages ; and royalty itfeif
deigned to call a favourable eye upon it, for the king
and queen were prefent. Thtfe interludes lalted no
longer than the time requifrte for the former confe¬
deracy of utility and plealure to refume its powers ;
as when the pliable bow by being too much bent is
put out of lhape, and by its elalticity recovers its for¬
mer pofition. The lance, the Ihield, the ball, and the
equeitrian proceflion, came forward again, and put the
dramatic ufurper to flight. After this period, thefe
objeffs of generous pleafure fetm to have had their au¬
dience of leave, and one general object, indeed no lefs
manly than the former, to have tilled their flations,
which was archery. This had a continuance to the
reign of Charles I. for we find in many hofpitals found¬
ed in that reign, among the articles of benefaftion re¬
corded upon their walls, this lingular provilion, arms
for the boys, which fignified bows and arrows.
PAS
There are many places at this day, formerly refort- Paflime.
ed to, for the practice of this noble art, diftinguifhed " 1
by appellations which indicate their ancient ufage:
fnch as Brentford Butts, Newington Butts, and many
others of the like denomination. It appears from 3 3
Hen. VIII. that by the intrufion of other pernicious
games, archery had been for a long time difufed ; to
revive which this ftatute was made. It feems that the
bows of the bell kind were made of yew; and that
this wood might be readily obtained for this purpofe,
yew-trees were planted in churchyards. The fons of
thofe only who were perfons of fortune and fafhion, if
undjtr 17 years of age, were permitted to ufe fuch
bows. The words of the ftatute are Angular, and ran-
thus : “ No perfon under feventeen years, except he,
or his father or mother, have lands er tenements to
the yearly value of ten pounds, or be worth in value
or moveables the fum of forty marks iterling, lhall
flioot with any bow of yew, which lhall be bought for’
him, alter the fealf of our Lady next coming, under
the pain to lofe and forfeit fix Ihillings and eighlpence.”
Two oblervations anfe here upon thefe words. One,
that the yew wood, not being fo common as other
wood, might probably be foon found deficient, as it
was the belt wood for making bows, if not rellrained
in the ufe of it to particular ages and perfons, as
young people wantonly deftroy what is put into their
hands for ufeful purpofes. The other obfervation is,
that the age of 17 is by this llatute dittinguilhed as
the age of diferetion, when young people are more at¬
tentive and confiderate in things of private concern ;
an age in thefe times which few ever arrive at, and
fome never. This Itatute makes provifion of other
kinds of wood for the common people in the follow¬
ing manner: “ To the intent that every perfon may-
have bows of mean price, be it enadted, that every
bowyer lhall, for every bow that he maketh of yew,
make four other bows, meet to Ihuot with, of dm,
wich, hafill, alh, or other wood apt for the fame, un¬
der pain to lofe and forfeit for every fuch bow fo lack¬
ing the fum of three Ihillings and fourpence.” it
feems there was a fpecies of yew at this time called
e/h, which wood was llronger and more pliant than the
common yew mentioned in this flatute, and the price
of it fixed. “ Moreover, no bowyer lhall fell or put
to faie to any of the king’s futje&s, any bow of yew
of the tax called e/h, above the price of three Ihillings
and fourpence, under the pain to forfeit twenty Ihillings:
for every bow fold above the faid price.”
From thefe feveral confiderations which occur in
this llatiue, we can trace three refplendent qualities,
courage, ftrength, and agility ; which three united,
infpired two more, generofityand magnanimity. Up¬
on the decline of this and other polilhed (e) amufe-
ments, a favage deformity of manners fprung up, but
fpangled
[ 21 ]
(r.) Hov/ widely diffaent the conceptions of politenefs at this day from what they were in the moll re.
fined ages of Greece and Rome ! Thefe two Hates agreed in fixing the ftandard of this accomplilhment upon
tne fitnds a..d propriety of things. We bend to an arbitrary impofture of language, trufting to the fenfe and
meaning of our oppofite Gallic neighbours, as if this ifland was at ail times to be the foot-ball of that conti-
nent. i o define pohtenefs in its ancient and true fenfe, it is a manly exertion of conduft, founded upon every
no c a!u v|rtuous Pnnc;iple. Gallic politenefs is an effeminate impotence of demeanor, founded upon fallacy
eta ion, ana every infidious artifice. There can be no ftcurity, no happinefs, no profperity, awaiting thia-
kiii«rdonu
PAS t
PxfHme. fpgngleJ here and there with the oppofite chara&er
of l<zy opulence, which began now to eredh her velvet
fhndard in defiance of chalte and regular manners.
Towards the beginning of James I.’s reign, military
provrefs feems to have founded a retreat (f). He, to
gratify the importunity of the common people, and at
the fame time to obviate his own fears upon a refufal,
publilhed a book of fperts, in which the people had
been fome time before ufually indulged on Sunday
evenings, but which had been lately prohibited. Ihefe
fports confided of dancing, finging, wreftling, church
ales, and other prof nations of that day.
Charles, his fucceflbr, wifely, in the very entrance
of his reign, aboliflied the ft* fports. The a& of Charles
itates the feveral amufements in part ; by which we
may conjecture what was the teraainder aa itaetd in
t!ie 1 ook. of fports by James. It is necefiary to ttan-
feribe that part of the aft relating to this fubjeft.
“ Forafmuch as there is nothing more acceptable to
God, than the true and fincere woifnip of Him, and
fervice according to His holy will, and that the holy
keeping of the Lord’s day is a principal part of the
fervice of God, which in many places of this realm
bath been, and now is, prophaned and negle&ed by a
diforderly fort of people, in exercifing and frequenting
bear-baiting,bull-baiting, interludes, and common-plays,
and other unlawful exercifes a-nd paftimes, negledf-
ing divine fervice both in their own parifhes and elfe-
where: Be it enafted, that fiom and after fotiy days
next alter the end of this fefflon of parliament, there
(hall be no meetings, afiemblies, or concourfe of people,
out of their own parishes, on the Lord’s day, wichin
this rtalm of England, or any the dominions thereof,
for any fports or paflimcs whatfoever : nor any bear-
baiting, bull-baiting, interludes, common plays, or
other unlawful exercifes or paftimes, ufed by any per-
fon or perfons within their own parifhes : and that
every perfon and perfons offending in any of the faid
premifes, fhall foreit for every offence the fum of three
ihillings and fourpence ; the fame to be employed and
converted to the ufe of the poor of the parifh wheie
fuch offence (hall be committed.” All this was perhaps
proper, and fhowed the diftinguifhed piety of this un¬
fortunate monarch. But in this age hkewife ended the
manly fports of Britons, and nothing was introduced
that could compenfate for the lofs.
All thefe lufory arts, confidered as vehicles of plea-
fure, from the variety of their inventions, reprefent
pleafure as a fleecing phantom : evincing at the fame
time the liability of happinefs asfpringing from inter¬
nal order. Even reflex afts, pregnant with future
hopes of folace and focial recreation, have more true
feelings in expectancy than thofe which anfe from the
object in poffeffion. Nay, pleafure is found frequent¬
ly in the imagination only : for Ixion s difappoint-
ment frequently awaits ns when we advance to embrace
this Juno of our defires.
22 1 PAS
Upon the whole, happinefs, the only thing of in- Paftinae^
trinfic value, muft arife in the heart, and be fomething'f-
more folid than what mere amufement can poflibly
fupply. Amufements or paftimes ought to be con¬
fidered only as neceffary relaxations from feverer and
more ufeful employment ; and in this point of view
they may be folely purfued; but they become criminal
when they occupy the place of the bufinefs of life.
PASl'INACA, the Parsnep : A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellata. The fruit is an elliptical com-
preffed plane ; the petals are involuted and entire.
There are only two fpecies of this genus ; the prin¬
cipal of which is thep,ijiinaca fativay or garden-parfnep :
which is an exceeding fine efculent root. It is to be pro¬
pagated by fowing the feeds in February or March, in
a rich mellow foil, which muft be deep dug, that the
roots may be able to run deep without hinderance.
It is a common praiftict to fow carrots at the fame
time, upon the fame ground with the parfneps; and
if the carrots are defigned to lie drawn young, there
is no harm in it. The parfneps, when they are grown
up a little, muft be thinned to a foot diftance, and
carefully kept clear of weeds. They are find! tailed
juft at the feafon when the leaves are decayed : and
fuch as are ddirous to eat them in fpring Ihould have
them taken up in autumn, and preferved in fand.
When the feeds are to be faved, fome very llrong and
fine plants ftiould be left four feet diftance ; and to¬
wards the end ef Auguft, or in the beginning of Sep¬
tember, the feeds will be ripe : they mult then be
carefully gathered, and dried on a coarfe cloth They
Ihould always be fown the fpring following; for they
do not keep well-
Hints have be'en given and experiments made by
agricultural focieties, refpedting parfneps, in order
to raife them for winter food to cattle. It has long
been a cuftom in fome parts of Brittany, to fow parf¬
neps in the open field for the food of cattle ; as we
are informed by the firft volume of the Tranfadtions
of a Society inftituted in that province, for the en¬
couragement of the ceconomical and commercial inte-
refts of their country. “ It is of great importance
(fay they) that parfneps fhould be univerfally cultiva¬
ted ; bccaufe they afford an excellent and wholefome
food for ail kinds of cattle during the winter, and
may be ufed to great advantage to fatten them. Our
hogs have no other food in all that leafon, and our
bullocks and oxen thrive well upon it. Our cows fed
with parfneps give more milk than with any other win¬
ter fodder, and that milk yields better butter than the
milk of cows nourilhed with any other fubitance. Our
horfes fatten with this food ; though fome pretend that
it renders them left mettlefome, and hurts their legs
and eyes. Cattle eat thefe roots raw at fiift fliced
lengthwife ;
kingdom, fo long as we fawn to falhions that difgrace humanity, and to manners which confift of more than
(f) Plt halh been confidently afferted by fome hiftotians, that James was, during his whole life, ftruck with
terror upon the fight of a drawn fword ; which was the reafon of his great unwillingnefs in bellowing the ho¬
nour of knighthood. For at this jun^ore, he had fuch a tremor upon him, that jnftead oflaying the fword
upon the Ihoulder of the perfon to be knighted, he frequently would be obferved almoft to thru ft the point of
it into the face of the party : which occafioned thofe about him to afiift him in the diredion ol his hand.
yaftophori
I!
Pafture.
If lair's
/.eft arts,
Vol. III.
p. n;.
PAS f 2
lengthwife ; and when they begin not to relifh them,
they are cut in pieces, put into a large copper, prefTed
down there, and boiled with only ifo much water as
fills up the chafms between them. They then eat them
very greedily, an 1 continue to like them.5’ See Pa-
nax and Opopanax.
PASTOPHORI , amongft the ancients, were priefts
whofe office it was to carry the images, along with the
fhrines of the gods, at folemn feltivals, when they were
to pray to them for rain, fair weather, or the like. The
Greeks had a college of this order of priefts in SyllPs
time. The cells or Apartments near the temples, where
the paftophori lived, were called pajlnphorui. There
were feveral lodging-rooms for the prieits of a fimilar
kind in the temple of JeruLlem.
PASTORAL, in general, fomething that relates
to ffiepherds: hence we fay, paftoral life, manners,
poetry, &c.
# Paftoral life may be confidered in three different
views ; either fuch as it now actually is ; when the
ftate of ftiepherds is reduced to be a mean, fervile, and
laborious ftate ; when their employments are become
difagreeable, and their ideas grofs and low: or fuch
as we may fuppofe it once to have been, in the more
early and Ample ages, when it was a life of eafe and
abundance ; when the wealth of men confifted chiefly
in flocks and herds, and the (hepherd, though unre¬
fined in^ his manners, was refpectable in his ftate : or,
laftly, mch as it never was, and newer can in reality
be, when, to the tafe, innocence, and fimplicity of
the early ages, we attempt to add the poliihed tafte,
and cultivated manners, of modern times. Of thefe
three ftates, the firft is too grofs and mean, the laft
too refined and unnatural, to be made the ground-work
of paftoral poetry. Either of thefe extremes is a
rock upon which the poet will fplit, if he approach too
rear it. We fhall be difgufted if he give us too much
of the fervile employments and low ideas of a&ual
peafants, as Theocritus is cenfured for having fome-
times done ; and if, like fome of the French and Ita¬
lian writers of paftorals, he makes his ffiepherds dif-
courfe as if they were courtiers and fcholars, he then
retains the name only, but wants the fpirit of paftoral
poetry.
Pastoral Poetry. See Poetry, Part II. Sedl IV.
PASTRY, that branch of cookery wliich is chiefly
taken up in making pies, pafties, cakes, &c. See Paste.
P*r Sullen obferves, that pafte is very hard and in-
oigeftible without butter ; and even with it, is apt to
produce heart burn and acefeency. Perhaps this is
mcreafed by the burned butter, from a certain fenflbi-
ity in the ftomach, which occafions all empyreumatic
to be long retained, and fo turn rancefcent and
SG’IQ.
PASTURE, or PASTURE-Land, is that referved
tor feeding cattle.
Pafturedand u of fuch advantage to huffiandry, that
many prefer it even to corn-land, becaufe of the fmall
hazard and labour that attends it ; and as it lays the
foundation for maft of tke profit that is exp.aed from
the arable land, becaufe of the manure afforded by
the cattle which are fed upon it. Failure ground is
oL T 5 thie r ‘u meado'‘v land> which is often
overflowed; and the other is *pland} which lies high
3 ] PAS
and dry. The firft of thefe will produce a much
gieater quantity of hay than the latter, and will not
require manuring or dreffing fo often : but then the
hay produced on the upland is much preferable to the
other; as is alfo the meat which is fed in the upland
more valued than that which is fatted in rich mea¬
dows; though the latter w 11 make the fatter and lar¬
ger cattle, as is feen by thofe which are brought from
the low rich lands in Lmcolnffiire. Put where people
are nice in their meat, they will give a much larger
price for fuch as hath been fed on the downs, or ia
ffiort upland pafture, than for the other, which is
much larger. Buidea this, dry paftures have an ad¬
vantage over the meadows, that they may be fed all
the winter, and are not fo fubjeft to poach in wet
weather ; nor will there be fo many bad weeds pro¬
duced ; which are great advantages, and do in a
great meafure recompenfe for the fmallnefs of the
crop.
We have already mentioned the advantages of mea¬
dow land, or fuch as is capable of being overflowed
with water, and given dirtdions for draining and im¬
proving low pafture land, under the article Meadow ;
therefore ffiall not repeat that here, but juft meal
tion^ fome methods for improving of upland pafturc.
. T^e firft improvement of upland pafture is, by fen.
cing it, and dividing it into fmall fields of four, five,
fix, eight, or ten, acres each, planting timber trees
in the hedge-rows, which will fereen the grafs from
the dry pinching winds of March, which will prevent
the grafs from growing in large open lands ; fo that if
April proves a dry month, the land produces very
little hay; whereas in the flickered fields, the grafs
will begin to grow early in March, rnd will cover the
ground, and prevent the fun from parching the roots
of the grafs, whereby it will keep growing, fo as to
afford a tolerable crop if the fpring ffiould prove dry.
But in fencing of land the inclofure muft not be
made too [mall, efpecially where the hedge-rows are
planted with trees ; becaufe, when the trees are advan¬
ced to a eonfiderable height, they will fpread over the
land; and where they are clofe, will render the grafs
[our ; fo that inftead of being of an advantage it will
greatly injure the paffure. ’
The next improvement of upland pafture is. to make
the turf good, where, either from the badnefs of the
fo.l, or for want of proper care, the grafs hath been
deftroyed by ruffies, buffies, or mole hills. Where the
furface of the land is clayey and cold, it may be im¬
proved by oaring it off, and burning it; but if it is an
hot fandy land, then chalk, lime, marie, or clay are
very proper manures to lay upon it; but this ffiould be
laid in pretty good quantities, otherwife it will be of
little fervice to the land.
.If the ground is over-run with buffies or ruffies, it
will be of great advantage to the land to grub them
up towards the latter patt of fummer, and after they
are dried to burn them, and fpread the affies over the
ground juft before the autumnal rains; at which time
the furface of the land ffiouid be levelled, and fown
with grafs feed, which will come up in a ffiort time
and make good grafs the following fpring. So alfo
when the land is full of mole-hills, thefe ffiould be pa¬
red off, and either burnt for the affiss, or fpread im-
^ mediately
Paftu:
PA-S
f 24 1
P A S
mediately dn the ground wl.en they are P«ed off, ob-
ferving to fow the bare patches w.th grafs feed juit as
the autumnal rains begin.
Where the land has been thus managed, it will be
of great fervice to roll the turf in the months of Fe¬
bruary and March with an heavy wood roller ; always
obferving to do it in moift weather, that the roller
may make an impreffion ; this will render the furface
level and make it mu*h eafier to mow the grafs than
when the ground lies in hills; and will alfo caufe the
turf to thicken, fo as to have what the people ufually
term a good bottom. The grafs hkwife will be the
fweeter for this hufbandry, and it will be a great help
to deitroy bad weeds. . , , a . ,1 _
Another improvement of upland paftures is, the
feeding of them ; for where this is not pra&ifed, the
land muft be manured at leaft every third year ; and
where a farmer hath much arable land in his poiiel-
fion, he will not care to part with his manure to the
pafture. Therefore every farmer Ihould endeavour to
proportion his pafture to his arable land, efpecially
where manure is fcarce, otherwife he will foou find
his error ; for the pafture is the foundation ol all the
profit which may arife from the arable land.
Whenever the upland paftures are mended by ma¬
nure, there Ihould be a regard bad to the nature of the
foil, and a proper fort of manure applied : as for m-
fiance, all hot fandy land Ihould have a cold manure ;
neat’s dung and fwine’s clung are very proper for fuch
lands ; but for cold lands, botfe dung, alhes, and other
warm manures, are proper. And when thefe are
applied, it Ihould be done in autumn, before the rains
have foaked the ground, and rendered u too folT to
carton; and it fliould be carefully fpread, breaking
*11 the clods as fmall as poffible, and then harrowed
with bulhes, to let it down to the roots of the gra.s.
When the manure is laid on at this feafon, the
rains in winter will walh down the falts, fo that the
following fpring the grafs will receive the advantage
°f There Ihould alfo be great care taken to deftroy
the weeds in the pafture every fpring and autumn :
for, where this is not praftifed, the weeds will ripen
their feeds, which will fpread over the ground, and
thereby fid it with fuch a crop of weeds as will foon
overbear the grafs, and deftroy it; and it will be very
difficult to root them out after they have gotten iuch
pofleffion, efpecially ragwort, and fuch other weeds as
have down adhering to their feeds.
The grafs which is fown in thefe upland paftures
feldom degenerate, if the land is tolerably good: where¬
as the low meadows, which are overflowed in winter,
in a few years turn to an harlh rulhy grafs, though the
upland will continue a fine fweet grafs for many years
W1Th“rVi5no part of hufcapJry of which the farmers
are in general more ignorant than that of the pafture :
nioft of them fuppofe, that when old pafture ^ plowed
uo it can never be brought to have a good fward
a^in ; fo their common method ot managing their land
after ploughing, is to fow with them crop of barley fome
grafs feeds as they call them ; that is, either the red
clover, which they intend to Hand two years after the
corn is taken off the ground, or rye-grals mixed with
trefoil; but as all thele are at molt but biennial plants.
whofe roots decay foon after their feeds are perfected,
fo the ground, having no crop upon it, is again plough-1—
ed for corn * and this is the conftant round which the
lands are employed in by the better fort of farmers.
But whatever may have been the pra&ice of thefe
people, it is certainly poffible to lay down lands which
have been in tillage with grafs, in fuch a manner as that
the fward (hall be as good, if not better, than any natu¬
ral grafs, and of as long duration. But this js never to
be expected in the common method of fowing a crop
of corn with the grafs feeds ; for, wherever this has
been pra&ifed, if the corn has fucceeded well, the
grafs has been very poor and weak ; fo that ii the land
has not been very good, the grafs has fcarcely been
worth faving ; for the following year it has produced
but little bay, and the year after the crop is worth
little either to mow or feed. Nor can it be expected
to be otherwife, for the ground cannot nourilh two
crops; and if there were no deficiency in the land, yet
the corn, being the firft and moft vigorous of growth,
will keep the grafs from making any confiderahle pro-
grefs; fo that the plants will be extremely weak, and
but very thin, many of them which come up in the
fpring being deftroyed by the corn ; for whenever there
are roots of corn, it cannot be expend there fhould
be any grafs. Therefore the grafs muft be thin ; and
if the land is not in good heart to fupply the grafs
. with nourifitment, that the roots may branch out after
the corn is gone, there cannot be any conliderable
crop of clover ; and as their roots are biennial, many
of the ftrongeft plants will periffi foon after they are
cut • and the weak plants, which had made but little
progrefs before, will be the principal part of the crop
for the fueceeding year; which is many times not
worth Handing. r r
Therefore, when ground is laid down for grais,
there Ihould be no crop of any kind fown with the
feeds; or at left the crop Ihould be fown very thin,
and the land Ihould be well ploughed and cleaned from
weeds, otherwife the weeds will come up the firft, and
grow fo ftrong as to overbear the grafs, and if they
are not pulled up, will entirely fpoil it. I he belt fea¬
fon to fow the grafs feeds upon dry land, when no
other crop is fown with them, is about the middle of
September or fooner, if there is an appearance of rain:
for the ground being then warm, if theft happen fome
good (bowers of rain after the feed is fown, the grafs
will foon make its appearance, and get fufficient root-
in<r in the ground before winter : fo will not be in dan¬
ger of having the roots turned out of the ground by
froft, efpecially if the ground is well rolled before the
froft comes on, which will prefs it down, and fix
the earth clofe to the roots. Where this hath not
been pradifed, the froft has often loofened the ground
fo much, as to let in the air to the roots of the grafs,
and done it great damage ; and this has been brought
as an objedion to the autumnal fowing of grafs; but
it will be found to have no weight if the above direc¬
tion is pradifed : nor is there any hazard of fowing
the grafs at this feafon, but that of dry weather after
the feeds are fown ; for if the grais comes up well,
and the ground is well rolled in the end of Odober, or
the beginning of November, and repeated again the
beginning of March, the fward will be clofely joined
at bottom, and a good crop of hay may be expeded
the
Pafture.
PAS t 25 ] PAT
the fame fumirer. But where the ground ennnot be
prepared for fowing at. that feafon, it may be perform¬
ed the middle or latter end of Maich, according to
the feafon’s being early or late; for, in backward
fpringp, and in cold, land, we have often fovved the
grafs in the middle of April with fuccefs ; but there
is danger, in fowing late, of dry weather, and efpeci-
ally if the land is light and dry ; for we have feen
many times the whole furface of the ground removed
fey ftrong winds at that feafon; fo that the feeds have
been driven in heaps to one fide of the field. Theie-
fore, whenever the feeds are fown late in the fpring,
it will be proper to roll the ground well foon after
the feeds are fown, to fettle the furface, and prevent
its be-ing removed.
The forts of feeds which are the beft for this pur-
pr fe, are, the btil fort of upland hay-feeds, taken
from the cleaned: paftures, where there are no bad
weeds; if this feed is fifted to clean it from rubbifit,
three bulhels will be fufficient to fow an acre of land.
The other fort is the trifohum pratenfe album, which is
commonly known by the names ■wh'ite Dutch clover, or
white homy foci le graft. Eight pounds of this feed will
be enough for one acre of land. T he grafs feed ihould
be fown firil, and then the Dutch clover-feed may be
afterwards fown ; but they fhould not be mixed toge¬
ther, becaufe the clover feeds being the heavieft will
fall to the bottom, and confequently the ground will
fee unequally fown.
When the feeds are come up, if the land fhould
produce many weeds, thefe fhouid be drawn out before
they grow fo tall as to overbear the grafs; for where
this has been neglefted, the weeds have taken fuch
pefieffion of the ground as to keep down the grafs,
and ftarve it ; and when thefe weeds have been fuller¬
ed to remain until they have fired their feeds, the land
lr>s been fo plentifully flocked with them as entirely
to defiroy the grafs; therefore it is one of the princi¬
pal parts of hufbandry never to fuffer weeds to grow
on the land.
If the ground is rolled two or three times at proper
difiances a*tcr the grafs is up, it will prefs down the
gnfs, and caufe it to make a thicker bottom : for, as
the Dutch clover will put out roots from every joint
of the branches which are near the ground, fo', by
preffing down of the fialks, the roots will mat fo clofely
together, as to form a fward fo thick as to cover the
whole furface of the ground, and form a green carpet,
and will better refill the diought. For if we do but
examine the common paftures in fummer, in moft of
which there are patches of this white honeyfuckle grafs
growing naturally, we fhali find thefe patches to be the
only verdure remaining in the fields. And this, the
f rmers in general acknowledge, is the fweeteft feed for
all •forts of cattle ; yet never had any notion of propa¬
gating it by feeds, nor has this been long prailifed in
Enghnd.
As the white clover is an abiding plant, fo it is cer¬
tainly the very bell fort to fow, where paftures are
laid down to remain ; tor as the hay-feeds which are
t.sken from toe bell paftures will be compofed of va¬
rious forts of grafs, fome of which may be but annual
and others biennial; fo, when thofe go off, there will
be many and large patches of ground left bare and na-
ked if there 1S not a fufSdent quantity of the white
VpL. XIV. Part I.
clover to fpread over and rover the land. There¬
fore a good fward can never be expedled where this is
not fown ; for in moft of the natural paftures, we find
this plant makes no fma.il (hare of the fward ; and it is
equally good for wet and dry land, growing naturally
upon gravel and clay in moft parts of England : which
is a plain indication how eafily this plant may be cul¬
tivated to great advantage in moft forts "of land
throughout this kingdom.
Therefore the true caufe why the land which has
been in tillage is not brought to a good turf again, in
the ufual method of hufijandry, is, from the farmers
not diftinguifhing which oraffes are annual from thofe
which* are perennial : for if annual or biennial graffes
are fown, thefe will of courfe foon decay ; fo that,
unlefs where fome of their feeds may have ripened and
fallen, nothing can be expected on the land but what
will naturally come up. Therefqre this, with the co¬
vetous method of laying down the ground with
a crop of corn, has occafioned the general failure
of increafing the patture in many parts of Britain,
where it is now much more valuable than any arable
land.
After the ground has been fown in the manner be¬
fore dire died, and brought to a good fward, the war
to preferve it good is, by conftantly rolling the ground
with an heavy roller, every fpringand autumn, as hath
been before ('.iredied. This piece of hufbandry is rarely
pradtifed by farmers ; but thofe who do, find their ac¬
count in it, for it is of great benefit to the grafs. Ano¬
ther thing fhould aifo be carefully performed, which is
to cut up cocks, dandelion, knapweed, and all fuch bad
weeds, by their roots every fpring and autumn; this will
increafethe quantity of good grafs, and preferve the pa¬
ftures in beauty. -Dreffing of thefe paftures every
third year is alfo a good piece of hufbandry; for other-
wife it cannot be expedled the ground fhould continue
to produce good crops. Befides this, it will be necef-
fary to change the feafons of mowing, and not to mow
the fame ground every year, but to mow one Eafoa
and feed the next; for where the ground is every year
mown, it muft be conftantly dreffed, as are moflof the
grafs grounds near London, otherwife the ground will
be foon exhaufted.
PAT/EC I, in mythology, images of gods which
the Phoenicians carried on the prows of their gallics.
Herodotus, lib. iv. calls them roclaiKott The word is
Phoenician, and derived from pethlca, i. e. tltulus. See
Bocchart’s Chanaan, lib. ii. cap. 3. But Scalfger does
not agree. . Morin derives it from r.9>.x@q monkey, this
animal having been an objeft of worfhip among the
Egyptians, and hence might have been honoured by
their neighbours. Mr Eifner has obferved, that He¬
rodotus does not call the patEeci gods ; but that they
obtained this dignity from the liberality of Hefychius
and Sindas, and other ancient lexicographers, who
place them at the Item of fhips ; whereas Herodotus
placed them at the prow. Scaliger, Bochart, and
Selden, have taken fotne pains about this fubjed 
Mr Morin has alfo given us a learned diftertation ou
this head in the Memo ires de l’Acad, des Infaipt. &
Belles Lettres, tom. i. ; but Mr Eifner thinks it de-
fedive in point of evidence.
PATAGONIA, a country of South America,
comprehending all that country extending from Chili
^ x and
Paflurs
il
Pataeoniax
PAT [ 2^
Paraguay ta the utraofl extremity of South A-
1 ■> ' merica ; that id, from 350 almoft to 54^ Utitu.k :
beino- furroim^ed by the countries juft mentioned,
the South and North Seas, and the Straits of Magel-
l?n which feparate it from the ifland called Terra del
J'ueco, and extend about 116 leagues in length from
fea to fea, but only from half a league to three or four
in breadth.
This country had the name of Terra Magellanica,
from Ferdinand Magellan, a Portugucfe officer in tne
fervice of the Catholic king, who is reported to have
failed through the lira its that alfo bear his name, from
the North to the South Sea, in the year 1519.
The lofty mountains of the Amies, which are co¬
vered with fnovv a great part of the year, traverling the
country from north la fouth, the air is fatd to be much
colder than in the north under the fame parallels of
latitude. Towards the north, h is faid to be covered
wftb wood, and ftored witb an inexhauftiole fund of
large timber ; whereas, to the fouthward, not fo much
as a fingle tree ut for any mechanical purpofe is to be
feen : yet there is good pafture, and incredible numbers
of wiM horned cattle end horfes, which were firft
brought hither by the Spaniards, and have inereafed
amazingly. Freffi water, we are told by fome writers,
is very fcarce ; but if that were really the cafe, it is dif¬
ficult to conceive how the prefent inhabitants and fuch
multitudes of cattle could fubbft.. I he call coaft is
moftly low land, with few or no good harbours : one of
the heft is Port St Julian.
Patagonia is inhabited by a variety of Indian tribes;
as the ‘Patagons, from which the country takes its
name ; the Pampas, the Coffares, &c. of whom we
know very little. Only it appears, from the accounts of
formervoyagers, lately confirmed by Commodore Byron
and his crew, and the teftimonies of other navigators,
that fome of them are of a gigantic ftature, and clo¬
thed with {kins ; but it would feem that there are
others who go almoft quite naked, notwithftanding the
inclemency of the climate. Some of them alfo, that
live about the Straits, if we may credit the navigators
who have paffed that way into the South Sea, are per¬
fect favages : but thofe with whom Commodore Byron
and his people corverfed, are reprefented as of a more
gentle, humane difpofition ; only, like other favages,
they live on fifh and game, and what the earth pro¬
duces fpontaneoully.
The Spaniards once built a fort upon the Straits,
mid left a garrifon in it, to prevent any other Euro¬
pean nation paffing that way into the South Sea: but
moil of the men perilhed by famine, whence the place
obtained the name of Port Famine; and no people have
attempted to plant colonies here ever fince.
About the middle of the Strait is a promontory call¬
ed Cape Froifard, which is the moft foutherly on the
continent of South America.
On the ccafts of Patagonia lie a great number of
i{lands, or clufters of iflands. On the weft coufts are the
iftands Maidre de Dios, Santa Frtnidud, Santa Cruz,
the ifles of the Chunians and Huillans, the Sarmientos,
and many others ; to the number of fto in all, as fome
fay. Of thofe on the fouth coaft, the molt confi.
durable are Terra del FuegO) and Staten Land. See
thefe articles.
A vaft deal has been faid refpeaing the ftature of
] PAT
the Patagonians, by people of different nation®, and Paragon?*,
on various occafions. We {hall infert the following let-'
ter from Mr Charles Clarke, who was on board By¬
ron’s {hip in 1764, and gave this account to Dr Mat-
ty.
“ We had not got above 10 or 12 leagues Into the
ftraits of Magellan, from the Atlantic Ocean, before
we faw feveral people, fome on horfeback, fome on foot,
upon the north ffiore (continent), and with the help of
our glaffes could perceive them beckoning to us to
come on ffiore, and at the fame time obferved to each
other, that they feemed to be of an extraordinary
fize : However, we continued to ftand on, and fhoul i
have palled without taking the haft farther notice of
pf them, could we have proceeded ; but our breeze dy¬
ing away, and the tide making againft us, we were
obliged to anchor ; when the Commodore ordered his
boat of 12 oars, and another ot fnf, to be hoified out,
manned and armed. In the firft went the Commo¬
dore, in the other Mr Cummins, our fit ft lieutenant,
and tnyfelf. At our firft leaving the {hip, their num¬
ber did not exceed 40; but as we approached the ffiore,
we oerceived them pouring down from all quarters,
forne galloping, others running, all making ufe of
their utmoft expedition. They collected themfelves
into a body juft at the place we ileered off for. When
we had got within 12 or 14 yards of the beacn, we
found it a difagreeable flat flrore, with very large
ft ones, which we apprehended would injure the boats
fo looked at two or three different places to find the
moft convenient for landing. They fuppofed we de¬
ferred coming on ihore through apprehenfions of dan-
ger from them ; upon which they all threw open the
{kins which were over their fhoulders, which was the
only clothing they had, and confequently the only
thing they could fecret any kind ot arms With, and
many of them lay down elefe to the water’s edge.—
The Commodore made a motion for them to go a
little way from the water, that we might have room
to land, which they immediately complied with, and
withdrew 30 or 40 yards; we then landed, and form¬
ed each man with his mufket, in cafe any violence
fliould be offered. As foon as we were formed, the
Commodore went from us to them, then at about 23
yards diftance : they feemed vaftly happy at'his going
among them, immediately gathered round him, and
made a rude kind of noife, which I believe was their
method-of fingmg, as their countenances befpoke it a
fpecies of jollity. The Commodore then made a. mo¬
tion to them to fit down, which they did in a circle,,
with him in the middle, when Mr Byron took fome
beads and ribbons; which he had brought for that pur¬
pofe, and tied about the womens necks, with which
they feemed infinitely pkafed. We were ftruck with
the greateft aftonifhment at the fight of people of fuch
a gigantic ftature, notwithftanding our previous no¬
tice with glaffes from the {hip. Their body wus in-
creafed, by the time we got in there, to the number of
500, men, women, and children. ^The men and wo¬
men both rid in the fame manner ; the women had a
kind of belt to clofe their {kins round the waift, which
the men had not, as theirs were only flung over their
{boulders, and tied with two little flips, cut from the
{kin, round the neck. At the time of the Commodore’s-
motion for them to retire farther up the beach, they
&U ' *
PAT [ 27 } PAT
f*ati*8rla. all difmciunted, and turned their horfes loofe, which
were gentle, and ftood very quietly. The Commodore
having difpofed of all his prefents, and fatrefied his cu-
riofity, thought proper to retire ; tut they were vaflly
anxious to have him go up into the country to eat
with them. That they wanted him to go with them
to eat, we could very well underftand by their motion,
but their language was wholly unintelligible to us.'—
There was a very great fmoke to which they pointed
about a mile from us, where there mult have been ie-
veral fires; but fome intervening hills prevented our
feeing any thing but the finoke. Tlh? Commodore
returned the compliment, by inviting them on board
the ihip ; but they would not favour him with their
company ; fo we embarkeds and returned to the (hip.
We were with them near two hours at noon-day,
within a very few yards, the’ none had the honour of
IhakiTig hands but Mr Byron and Mr Cummins;
however, we were near enough, and long enough with
them, to convince our fenfes, fo far as not to be cavil¬
led out of the very exiftence cf thofe fenfes at that
time, which fome of our countrymen and friends would
abfolutely attempt to do. They are of a copper co
lour, with long black hair, and lome of them are cer
tainty nine feet, if they do not exceed it. The Com¬
modore, who is very near fix feet, could but jult reach
the top of one of their heads, which he attempted on
tip-toes, and there were feveral taller than him, on
whom the experiment was tried. They are pro-iigi-*
ous ftout, and *s well and as proportionally made as
ever 1 faw people in my life. That they have fome
kind of arms among them, is, I think, indilpuuble,
from their taking methods to convince us they had none
at that time about them. The women, 1 think, bear
much the fame proportion to the men as our Europeans
do; there was hardly a m-n there lefs than eight feet,
moft of them confiderabiy more. The women, I be¬
lieve, run from feven and an half to eight feet.—
Their horfes were (font and bony, but not remarkably
tall; they are, in my opinion, from 15 to 154- hands.
They had a great number of dogs, about the lize of
a middling pointer, with a lox nofe. They continu
ed on the beach till we got under way, which was
two hours after we got on board. I believe they
had fome expe&atiofis of our returning again ; but as
foon as they faw us getting off, they betook themfelves
to the country.
“ The country of Patagonia is rather hilly, though
not remarkably fo. You have he1^ and there a ridge
of hills, but no very high ones. We lay fome time at
Port Defire, which is not a great way to the north¬
ward of the Straits, where we traverfed the country
many miles round. We found fire-brands in different
places, which convinced us there had been people, and
we fuppofe them to have been the Patagonians The
foil is iandy, produces nothing but a coarfe harfh grafs,
an a few fmall fhrubs, of which Sir John Naborough
remarked, he could not find one of iize enough to
aruke be helve of a hatchet; which obfervation we
,ound very juft. It was fome time in the winter we
made tnis vifit to our gigantic frien is. I am debarred
being fo particular as I could wifh, from the lofs of
«ny journals, which were demanded by their Lurd^
mips cf the Admiralty immediately upo« our re¬
turn.”
That the whole of this account is true, we cannot Patagofti*.
afiert; but that the writer has been milled in fome re-
fpefts, and mifinformed with regard to fome of his
facts, is at le.iff probable: for Captain Wallis, who
went out to the Straits of Magellan after Byron’s re¬
turn, gives a different turn to many of the obferva-
tions; and with refpeA to the flature of the people,
he differs very materially. We fhall give the following
epitome of his remarks on what occurred to him—He
had three (hips with him, which entered the Straits on
the 16th December 1766, and came loan anchor in a
bay fouth of Cape Virgin Mary, where they were im¬
mediately accoiled by a whole troop of Patagonians,
who made figns for them to come on fhore. The Cap¬
tain, having made previous difpofitions for the fecurity
of his men in cafe of an attack, manned all the boats
belonging t© the three (hips, and with a party of ma¬
rines landed on the beach where thofe giants had af-
fembled. The commanders of the three (hips, and
mo(t of their officers, were of this party. On their
leaping afhore, the Indians feemed to welcome them ;
and beinf by figns defired to retreat, they all feil back,
and made room for the marines to form. When they
were drawn up. Captain Wallis advanced, and by figns
dire&ed the Indians to feat thernfelves in a femicircle,
which they readily underftood and obeyed. He then
diftributed among them knives, fciflars, buttons, beads,
combs, and particularly ribbons, with wffiich he com¬
plimented the women, who received them with a mix¬
ture of pleafure and refpeft. He then gave them to
underfiand that he had dill more valua’ le articles to ,,,
beftow', and (bowed them axes and bill-hooks ; but, at
the fame time, pointed to fome gaunicoes and oftriches,
intimating that he expeded fome of thofe in return :
but they either did not, or would not, underftand him;
fo that no traffic took place.
The whole company thit were a (Tern bled on this
occafion, had each a horfe, with a fadJle and bridle.
The fuddle hnd a fort of ftirrups, and the bridle wras
made of thongs of leather very well put together, for
the purpofe of guiding the horfes. The women, as well
as the men, rode altride. The men, in general, wore
each a wooden fpur ; but one of them had a large
pair of Spaniih Ipurs, brafs ftirrups, and a Spanilh fei-
mitar. Their horfes were nimble and fpinted, but
fmall in proportion to their riders, feemingly not above
14 hands high. Their dogs Were of the Spanifh breed.
T he Captain, having purpofely provided hitnfelf with
meafuring rods, found that the called man among them
measured only fix feet fevui inches high ; fevtral were
within an inch or two as tali ; but the ordinary iize was
from five feet ten inches to fix feet. It is pity that
none of our voyagers thought of meafuiing the whole
fize of one of thofe gigantic men. They tell us, in¬
deed, that they are well made, that they are propor¬
tionally large, and that they are robuft and bony ;
but they give us no criterion to judge of their bulk,
nor one inllance of their extraordinary drength. As
they are reprefeilted not only peaceable, but remark¬
ably tra&able, fome trials might have been made of
the weight they could have lifted, and how much they
could exceed in that rcfpt£b the Itrongeft man in the
fhips. This, in a great meafure, would have determi¬
ned the point, which is yet (eft doubttul by the diffe¬
rent relations that are given by the different voyagers
D 3 who
PAT [ 2
who have feen thefe people, no two of them agreeing
in the fame defcripdon. AH agree, however, that
their hair is black, an 1 harfh like bnftles ; that they
are of a dark-copper colour, and that their features aie
rather handfomc than ugly ; that they clothe them-
felves decently with the flans of gaumcoes ; that they
paint themfelves varioufly ; and there is reafon to fuf-
pett, that by that variety they diftingnifh their tribes.
Thofe feen by Commodore Byron were painted round
both eyes, no two of them alike ; thofe feen by Cap¬
tain Wallis had only a red circle round the left eye ;
and thofe feen by Bougainville had no circle round
the eyes, but had their cheeks painted red. This
may account for the different reports of voyagers con¬
cerning their flature : it is not impofiible, nay, it is
very probable, that they may vary in thh particular,
according to their tribes ; as is feen in the Highlands
of Scotland, where one clan of the Campbells is re¬
markably tall, and another of the Frafers remarkably
fhort. Were it not for fome fuch natural difcnmina-
tion, there could not be fo wide a difference in the de-
feriptions o: gentlemen, who, having no ends to ferve
cither in falfifying one another’s reports, or in impofing
upon the public, ounnot be fuppofed to nultaKe will¬
fully- . , ,
One remarkable obfervation made by our voyagers
muff not he omitted ; and that is, that though our
people could diftinguifh but one word of their language,
which the Englifh pronounce cbewotv, and the French
Jhawa, yet the Patagonians could icpeat whole fen-
tencee aher our men more diflindtly than almoft any
European foreigner of what nation foever. This ap¬
pears the more lingular, as, among the iflanders between
the Tropics, it was hardly poffiblc to make them arti¬
culate any of our words. Sydney Farkinlon, in a fpe-
cimen he has given us, fays, that though the Englifh
remained at Gtaheitee three months, the neareft the
natives could approach the found of Cooke was Toote ;
Banks, Opane ;• Solander, Bolano; Gore, Towara; Monk-
haufe, Mata ; and fo of the reft : whereas the Patago-
niana prefently got by heart this fentence of invitation,
Come afhore, Englijbmen ! which they fhowed they well
underftood, by repeating it afterwards whenever the
fliips came fo near the fhore as to be within call.
Another very remarkable particular is, that they
had none of the charafters of a ferocious people; there
was no offenfive weapon among them, except the fei-
mitar already mentioned. The men, indeed, had a
kind of fling, which they ufe in hunting, confiding of
two round flones of about a pound weight each, con-
ne&ed together by a thong. Thefe ftones were fa-
llened to the extremities of the thong; and, when
they threw them, they held one ftone in the hand, and
fwimg the other about the head. “ They are fo ex¬
pert in the management of this double-headed fliot
(fays the writer of the voyage), that they will hit a
mark not bigger than a fhilling with both thefe ftones
at the diftance of fifteen yards; but their method of
availing themfelves of their dexterity againft the guan-
icoe and oftrich is, to fling the ftones fo as to entangle
their legs, by which means they are retarded in then
flight, and eafily overtaken. Bougainville fpeaks of
thefe flings as common among, other Indian nations in
South America ; but we do not remember to have feen
this affertion confirmed by any other voyager.
8 ] PAT
Thefe people certainly drefs differently as well as Fatagoni*.
paint differently ; for the drefs deferibed by Bougain-
ville is very unlike the drefs eh thofe feen by the Eng-
liih voyagers. Captain Wallis invited fome of them
on board his fliip : but, among all the wonders that
were ftiown them, none feemed to attraft their notice
fa much as the looking-glaffes : they looked in the
glaffes and at each other ; they laughed and gazed,
and gazed again and laughed ; in ihort, there was no
end to their merriment wnen in poffefiion of this article
of curiofity. They eat whatever was given them, but
would drink nothing but water. In this they differ
from ail the tribes of Indians in North America, who
are immoderately fond oi fpintuous liquors. 1 hey
admired the European fheep, hog^, and poultry ; but
did not feem over-defirous of any thing they faw ex¬
cept clothes. When the marines were exercifed to en¬
tertain t-hemi they appeared difconcerted ; an o:d man
among them made figns, by linking his bread, ana
tumbling down and lying as if he had been dead upon
deck, that he knew the tfk£l of their guns ; and none
of them feemed eafy t 11 the firing was over. When-
the Captain had fatisfied his own curiofity, and, as he
imagined, theirs, he gave them to underftand; that he
was going to fail, and that they mult cepart; Wiiicti
they were very unwilling to do. Plowever, having
given each of them a canvas bag, with fome neecdes
ready threaded, a knife, a pair of feiffars, a lew bead-,,
a comb, and a looking-glafs, he difmilfed them, with
great reluftance on their part, particularly on that oi
the old man’s, who by very fignificant figns exprtffed
his defire to flay till funfet.
PATAGONULA, in botany ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, and of the peatandria clafs of plants.
The charatflers are thefe: the cup is an extremely
fmall psrianthium, divided into five fegrnents, and re¬
mains after the flower is fallen ; the flower confifts of
a Angle petal, with almoft no tube, the margin of
which is divided into five acute oval fegments; the
ftatnina are five filaments of the length of the flower-;
the antherse Ample ; the germen of the piftil is oval
and pointed ; the ftyle is ftender and Hightly bifid, its
ramifications are alfo bifid ; this is of the feime length
with the llamina, and remains when the flower is fallen;
the fti ;mata are fitnple ; the fruit is an oval and point¬
ed capfule, Handing on a large cup, made up of five
long fegments emarginated or rimmed round their
edges ; the feeds of this plant are yet unknown ; but
the conftruftion of the cup, in which the captule Hands,
is alone a fufficicnt diftindion for this genus. There
is but a Angle fpecies.
PATAN, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft Indies,
and in the peninfula of Malacca, and on the eaftern
coaft between the kingdoms or Siam and Pana. i he
inhabitants are partly Mahometans and partly Gentoos;
but they are all very voluptuous. The air is wholefome,
though very hot ; and they have no feaions but tire
winter and fummer. The former is more properly the
rainy fcafon ; and contains the months of November,
December, and January. 1 he woods are full of ele¬
phants and many wild animals. Some voyagers pre¬
tend that this country is governed by a queen, wiio
never marries, but may have as many gallants as five
pleafes. They have fome trade with the Chinefe ; and'
the principal town is of the fame name, which is oae
PAT [ 29 ] PAT
Fatan of the ftrongeft in thefe parts, having a well defended
3 II harbour.
?atcI a‘ , Patan, a town of Afia, and capital of a province of
the fame name, in the dominions of the Great Moguls
it is very little known. It. Long. 109. o. N. Lat. 27. 30.
PATAV1NL'TY, among Clitics, denotes a peculi¬
arity of Livy’s diclion; derived from Patavium or Pa¬
dua, the place of his nativity ; but wherein this pata-
vinity confifts, they are by no means agreed.
Afinius Pollio, according to Quintilian, taxed Livy
with patavinity. But what he meant by this cenfure
we believe no man can fay. Morhof believes it to be
a lingular turn of expreffiun, and Lme phrafes peculiar
to the Paduefe. All we certainly know about it is,
that it w .& a fault in the language of Livy, not in the
fentiments or manners. In all probability, it is one of
thofe delicacies that are loft in a dead language. Dan.
Georg. MorKof published a treatife De Patavii.Uate !*:•
vtenn, ac Kiel, in 168 5, where he explains, very learned¬
ly, the urbanity and peregrinity of the Latin tongue.
PATAKA, (Livy, Mela) ; the capital of Lycia,
to the eaft of ihe mouth of the river Xsnthus ; famous
for a temple and oracle of Apollo, thence called Pa-
tareus, three fyllables on'y ; but Pataraus, (Horace).
Tor the fix winter months, Apollo gave anfwers at Pa-
tara ; and for the fix fummer at Delos, (Virgil, Ser-
vius): thefe are the Lycite Sortei of Virgil The town
was iituated in a peninfula, called Liaorum Cherfonefus,
(Stephanus). Adfs xxi. 1. St Paul in his pafi'age
tiom Philippi to Jerufalem, came to Miletus, hence to
Coos, then to Rhodes, and from Rhodes to Patara ;
where having found a fhip that was bound for Phoeni-
— cia, he went on board and arrived at Jerufalem, to be
at the feaft of Pentecoft.
PATAVIUM (Tacitus, Strabo), a town of the
Tranfpadana, fituated on the left or north bank of the
Medoacus Minor; founded by Antenor the Trojan,
(Mela, Virgil, Seneca); Patavini, the people, (Livy);
who himfelf was a native, and by Afinius Pollio char¬
ged with pauvinity. KowPadua, in the territory and to
the weft of Venice. E. Long. 1 2. 15. N. Lat. 45. 30.
PATAY, ajown of France, in the province of Or-
leannois, remarkable for the defeat of the Englifh in
1429, and where Joan of Arc did wonders. E. Long.
1.43. N. Lat. 48. 5.
PATE, in fortification, a kind of platform, refem-
hling what is called an horfe's Jhoe.
PATEE, or Pattee, in heraldry, a crofs, fmall in
‘ the centre, and widening to the extremities, which are
very broad.
PATELLA, or Knee-pan, in anatomy. See
there, n° 59.
Patella, or Limpet, a genus of infers belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teilacea ; the animal being
of the fnail kind. The fhells are of that clafs which
is called univalves; they have no contour, and are in
the form of little pointed cones. They are always at¬
tached to feme hard body. Their fummit is fome-
times acute, fometimes obtufe, flatted, turned back,
or perforated. rl he rock or other hard body to which
they are always found adhering, ferves as a kind of
fecond or under fnell to preferve them from injury ;
and for this reafon Aldrovandus and Rondelet have
clafled tnem among the bivalves; but in this error they
have not been followed by any other writer. Eabius
Columna diftinguiflies four forts of the lepas or lim- Patella,
pets : /epas vulgaris, a fort very common at Naples, of -\r—"
an oval figure and afli-colour. Lepas major exotica,
which comes from Spain, the fliell is hard, thick, and
ribbed in angles, and the rim is denticulated. The
lepas agrea, or fylvejlris, which is a fmall fliell, irregu¬
larly oval, of an alh colour, m rked with radii and
zones crofling each other, and perforated at the top
by an aperture which ferves the filh for a vent. And
the patella regalis, quia regis menfa fit rligna; this is of a
mother-of-pearl colour within, and is ribbed and per¬
forated in many places : thefe fhelis have been found
on the back of the fea tortoife, or turtle, and on a
large pinna marina. The diftinguifhing mark or charac-
teriftic of the lepas is 10 have but one convex fliell, which
adh eres by its rim to a rock, or fome other hard fub-
ftance. There are 36 fpecies of this genus, which are
principally diftinguifhed by peculiarities in their iheils.
Of tome of thefe ftiells we have given engravings in
Piate CCCLXXXII. of which we add the following
defeription :
The limpet marked x. has large yellow furrows
and ridges from the centre to the circumference, which
is indented; the eye is perfectly white, and fhaped
liked a nipple.
That marked 2. is perfectly fmooth, but radiated
with brown ilreaks, and perforated in the fummit.
Fig. 3. is ribbed, and indented at the circumfe¬
rence ; its coat is fpotted with brown, in a zig-zag
form, and its eye is of a ruby colour.
Fig. 4. is a fmall brown fheil, the ribs or ftriae of’
whicli are armed with fmall white points. *
I‘ig. 5. is ftriated with radii, reaching from the eye
to the circumference, which are crofled by other
breaks nearly parallel to the circumference ; it is of*
the uiual colour, and its eye is perforated.
Fig. 6. This is white, lliaped fomething like an
hand-bell, and has within a protuberance fomewhat
refembling a clapper.
Fig. 7. is a feven-fiJed limpet, divided at each angle
by ridges from the fummit, which form a itar on a
white ground, vai legated with black fpots.
big. 8. is a fmall ribbed Ihcll, of a brown colour,
and rough; it. has a chamber, and a bcak-fafhioncd eye
placed at one of its extremities.
Fig. 9. is the fineil fliell of this fpecies : its fize,
the fine mother-of-pearl colour on the inlide, and the
beauty of its red fpots without, which have the ap¬
pearance of toitoife-lheb, give it the pre-emience over
all others. It is called the Tortoife jLll luckier.
The wild limpet, or patella fera, is a name very im¬
properly applied by Rondilitius and Aldrovand to the
cures marine, or concha veneris, which certainly is not of
the patella kind.
Patella, in the Hifiory of Infedls, a name given
by Lifter and other authors to a little hufk or ftielb,
found on the bark of the cherry, plum, rofe, and
other trees, containing an animal within, and ufeful
in colouring. Thefe patellae are of the form of globes,
except when they adhere to the tree, and are for the
moft part of a fhining cheftmt colour. The hufk it-
felf ftrikes a very fine crimfon colour on paper, and
within it is found a white maggot which is of no va¬
lue : this, in time, hatches into a very fmall but beau*
tii'ul bee. The fize of this bee is about half that of an
ant,.
Patella
It
Patera.
PAT T 30
ant. They have a fting like bees, ani three fpots placed
in a triangle on the forehead, which are fuppofed to be
eyes. They are of a block colour, and have a large round
whitifh or pale yellow foot on the back. The upper pair
of vvino-s are fhad«d and fpotted, but the under pair are
clear. It might be worth while to try the ihells or hulks
in order to thfeover w hether thecolour they yield might
not be ufcful. It is to be remarked, that the deepcit
coloured hulks afford the fined; and deeped purple :
they mull be uted while the animal in them is in the
maggot form ; for when it is changed into the bee
date the Ihell is dry and colourlefs. Lider, who fird
obferved thefe patellae, went fo far on comparing
them with the common kermes, as to affert that they
were of the far^e nature with that produftion : but his
account of theii being the workmanlhip of a bee, to
'preferve her young maggot in, is not agreeable to
the true hi dory of the kermes ; for that is an infect
of a very peculiar kind. He has in other indances
been too jultly cenfured for his p?edpit*ncy of judg¬
ing of things, and perhaps has fallen into an error by
means of it here. It is very polfible that thefe patellae
may be the fame fort ol animals with the kermes. but
then it produces its young within this fliell or hulk,
which is no other than the ikin of the body of the
mother animal ; but as there are many flics whole
worms or maggots ate lodged in the bodies of other
animals, it may be that this little bte may love to lay
its egg in the body of the proper infedf, and the mag-
] PAT
deities: and frequently in the hands of princes, to Patemihs,
mark the facerdotal authority joined with the impe-'
rial, &c.
Hence F. Jouberi: obferves, that befide the patera,
there is frequently an altar upon which the patera feenvs
to be pouring its contents.
The patera was of gold, filver, marble, brafs, glafs,
or earth ; and they ufed to inclofe it in urns with the
alhes of the deceafed, after it had ferved for the liba¬
tions of the wine and liquors at the funeral.
The patera is an ornament in architecture, frequent¬
ly feen in the Doric freeze, and the tympans of
ar. hes ; and they are fometimes ufed by themfelves, to
ornament a fpace ; and in this cafe it is common to
hang a firing of hulks or drapery over them : fome¬
times they are much inriched with foliage, and have a
mafk or a head in the centre.
PATERCULUS (Caius Velleius), an ancient Ro¬
man hiilorian, who flourilhed in the reign of Tiberius
Caefar, was born in the year of Rome 735. His ance-
flors were iliuftrkms for their merit and their offi-
His grandfather efpoufed the party of Tibe¬
rius Nero, the emperor's father; but being old and
infirm, and not able to accompany Nero when he re¬
tired from Naples, he ran hiuvielf through with his
fword. His father was a foldier of rank, and fo was
Paterculus hirnfelf. He was a military tribune when
Caius Ccslar, a grandfen of Augufius, had an interview
with the king of the Parthians, in an ifland of the river
got hatched from that egg may eat up the proper pro- Euphrates, in the year 753. lie commanded the ca
geny, and, undergoing its own natural changes there, vahy in Germany under iT erms ; and accompanied
blue out at length in form of the bee. This may
have been the cafe in fome few which Dr Lifter ex¬
amined ; and he may have been milled by this to fup-
■pofe it the natural change of the infed.
PATENT, in general, denotes fomething that
Hands open or expanded : thus a leaf is faii to be pa¬
tent, when it Hands almolt at right angles with the
dlalk.
Patkxt, or Letters Patent. See Letter.
PATER NOSTER, the Lord's Prayer, fo called from
the two firfi words thereof in Latin.
Nojier, ifLnds of Alia, in the Eaft Indian
fea fo called becaufe of the great number of rocks,
which failors have likened to the beads with which
-the Papjfts tell their patcr-ngfter. They abound in corn
and fruits, and are very populous.
Pate*. Patmtus, was the name of the firft and prin¬
cipal perfon the co’hge of heralds called Feciales. Some
fay tee Pater Patratus was a conftant officer and per¬
petual chief of that body ; and others fuppofe him to
have been a temporary minift.tr, elected upon account
of making peace or denouncing war, which were both
done by him. See Feciales.
PATERA, among antiquaries, a goblet o veffel
ufed by the Romans in their fa rifices ; wherein they
offered th ir tonfeerated meats to the go-T, and where¬
with they made libations. See Sacrifice and Liba¬
tion
The word is Latin, fornird from pateo, “ I am
open; quod patent, ‘‘btcauie it has a great aperture;
in contradiftin&ion to bottles, &c. wh'ch have only
narrow necks, or whofe aperture is lels than t ic body
of the vtflel.
On medals the pattra is ieen m the h« nL of itvcral
that prince for nme years fuccefiively in all his expe¬
ditions. He received honourable rewards from him ;
but we do not find that he was preferred to any higher
dignity than the praetorfhip. The praifes he bellows
upon Sejanus give fome probability to the conjedlure,
that he was looked upon as a fru nd of this favourite,
and couftquently that he was involved in his ruin.
His death h placed by Mr Dodwel! in the year of Rome
784, when he was in his 50th year
He wrote an Abridgement of the Roman Hiftory in
two books, which is very curious. His purpofe was
only to deduce things from the foundation of Rome to
the time wherein he lived ; but he began his work with
things previous to th.-t memorable era: for, though
the beginning of his firft book is wanting, we yet find
in what remains of it, an account of many cities more
ancient than Rome. He promifed a larger hiftory;
and no doubt would h»vt exetuttd it well: for daring
his rm> tary expeditions he had feen, as he tells us, the
provinces of l brace. Macedonia, Achaia, Afia Minor,
and other more eafterly regions ; efpecialiy upon the
{bores of the Euxtne fea, which had furnifhed his mind
with much entertaming and ufetul knowledge, in the
Abridgement which we have, many particulars are rela¬
ted tiiat arc nowhere elfe '« be found ; and this makes
it the more valuable. The ftyle of Paterculus, though
miferably ■iifguifed through the carelefintfs o tranf ri-
bers, and unpolfible to be reltored to purhy for want
of manuscripts, is yet rminifefifty worthy of his a^e,
which was the time of pure Latinity. The greateft
ex. ellence of this 'hiftomn lies in his manner of com¬
mending and blaming thofe he {peaks of; which he
dots in the fineft term* and moft delicate expreffions.
He is, however, condemned, and indeed with the
greatefi
PAT C :
t^rruliis greatefi reafon, for his partiality to the houfeofAu-
P th t'- &'U^U8 ’ anc^ ^or the moli.extravagant eulogies,
. not only upon Tiberius, but even upon his favourite Se~
janus : whom, though a vile and cruel monder, Pater¬
culus celebrates as one of the moft excellent perfons the
Roman commonwealth had produced. Upfiua, though
he praifes him in other refpe&s, yet cenfutes him moil
Severely for his infincerity and partiality. “ Velleius
Paterculus (fays he) raifes my indignation : he repre¬
sents Sejanus as endowed with all good qualities. The
impudence of this hiftorian ! But we know that he was
born, and died, to the deftruftion of mankind. After
many commendations, he concludes, that Livia was a
woman more refembling the gods than men: and as to
Tiberius, he thinks it a crime to fpeak otherwife of him
than as of an immortal Jove. What fincere and honed
mind can bear this ? On the other hand, how artfully
does he everywhere conceal the great qualities of Cae-
far Germanieu1) ! how obliquely does he ruin the repu¬
tation of Agrippina and others, whom Tiberius was
thought to hate ! In faort, he is nothing hut a court-
prodicute. You will fay, perhaps, it was unf.fe to
fpeak the truth at thofe times: I grant it; but if he
could not write the truth, he ought not to have writ¬
ten lies : none are called to account for Silence.” La
Motlie le Vayer has rruide a very juft remark upon this
cccafion : “ The fame fault (fays he) may be obferved
in many others, who have written the hiftory of their
own times, with a delign to be published while they
lived.”
It is ftrange, that a work fo elegant and worthy to
be preferved, and of which, by reafon of its ftiortnefs,
copies might be fo eafily taken, ihould htve been fo
near being loft. One rnsnufeript only has had the luck
to be found, as well of this author among the Latins
as of Hefychius among the Greeks : in which,.fays a
great critic of our own nation, “ TJie faults of the
feribes are found fo numerous, and the defc&s fo be¬
yond all redrefs, that notwithftanding the pains of the
learned and moft acute critics for twro whole centuries,
thefe books ftill are, and are like to continue, a mere
heap of errors.” No ancient author but Prifcian makes
mention of Paterculus : the moderns have done him in¬
finitely more juftice, and have illuftrated him with notes
and commentaries. He was firft published, from the
manufeript of Morbae, by Rhenanus, at Bafilin 1520:
afterwards by Lipfius at Leyden in 1581 ; then by
Gerard Vofiius in 1639; next by Boeclerusat Straiburg
in 1642 ; then by Thyfius and others; and, hilly, by
Peter Butman at Leyden, 1719, is 8vo. To the Ox¬
ford edition in 1693, 8vo, were prefixed the J?armies
Velleiani of Mr Dodwell, which ihow deep learning and
a great knowledge of antiquity.
PA FH, in general, denotes the courfe or track mark¬
ed out or run over by a body in motion.
For the path of the moon, &c. fee Astronomy,
3 360.
PATHE FIG, whatever relates to the paflions, or
that is proper to excite or awake them. The word
comes fiom the Gretk paffion ox emotion. See
Passion.
Pathetic, m mufic, fomething very moving, ex-
preflive, or p;»fIionate ; capable of exciting pity, com¬
panion, anger, or other paffions. Thus we fpeak of
the pathetic ilyie, a pathetic figure, pathetic fong, &c.
[i 1 PAT
The chromatic genus, with its greater and Lifer ferni- Patkogno*
tones, either afeending or defending, is very proper inj):ac
tor the pathetic; as is alfo an artful management of patj[!nce
difeords; with a variety of motions, now briik, now 1 - -t— x
languiihing, now fwift, now flow.
Niemventyt fper.ks of a mufieian at Venice who fo
excelled in the pathetic, that he was able to pby any
of his auditors into diilraclion : he fays alfo, that the
great means he made ufe of was the variety of mo¬
tions, &c. *
PATHOGNOMONIC, among phyficians, r.n ap-
I>ellfttion for a fymptom, or eoiKourfe of fymptoms, that
are infeparable from a diitemper, and are found in that
only, and in no other.
PATHOLOGY, that part of medicine which ex-
plains the nsture of difeafes, their caufes and fymp¬
toms. See Medicine.
PATHOS, a Greek term, literally fignifying paf¬
fion.
PATHROS, a city and canton of Egypt, of which
the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel make mention ;
Jerem. xiiv. 1. 15. Ezek. xxix. 14. xxx. 14. We do
not very well know its fit nation, though Pliny and
Ptolemy the geographer fpeak of it !>y the name of
Phaturis ; and it appears to have been in Upper Egypt.
If.aiah (xii. 2.) calls it Pathros ; and L is the country
of the Pathrulim, the pofterity of Mizraim, of whom
Mofes fpeaks, Gen. x. 14. Ezekiel threatens therrv
vrhh an entire ruin. The jews retired thither not¬
withftanding the remonftrances of Jeremiah ; and the
Lord fays by Ifaiah, that he will bring them back
from thence.
PATIENCE, that calm and unruffled temper with
which a good man bears the evils of life, from a con¬
viction that they ffre at leaft permitted, if not fent, by
the heft of Beings, who makes all things work toge¬
ther for good to thofe who love and fear him.
The evils by which life is embittered may be redu¬
ced to thefe four : 1. Natural evils, or thofe to winch
we are by nature fujijedl as men, and as perifltable
animals. The greateft of thefe are, the denth of thofe
whom we love, and of ourfelves. 2. Thofe from which
we might be exempted by a virtuous and prudent
conduct, but which are the infepareble confequeniea
of imprudence or vice, which we fhall callpunifhments ;
as intamy proceeding from fraud, poverty from prodiga¬
lity, debility and difeafe from intemperance. 3. Thofe
by which the fortitude of the good are exercifed ; fuch
as the perfecutions raifed againil them by the wicked.
To thefe may be added, 4. The oppofition againit
which we mull perpetually ftruggle, arifing from the
diverfity of fentiments, manners, and chara&ers of the
perfons among whord we live.
Under all thefe evils patience is not only neceflary
but ufcful: it is neeeflary, becaufe the laws of nature
have made it a duty, and to murmur againft natural
events is to aftront providence ; it is ufeful, becaufe ic
renders our fufferings lighter, fliorter, and Id's dan¬
gerous.
Is your reputation fullied by invidious calumnies ?•
rejoice that your charatler cannot fuffer but by falfe
imputations. You are arraigned in a court of judi¬
cature, and are tmjuftly condemned : pallion has in¬
fluenced both your profecutor and your judge, and you
cannot forbear repining that you fuffer although in-
8 nocent,.
pat [ ,r
)Att!eni'e, poesnt. T>ut would it have been better thnt you
  fhould have buffered being guilty ? Would the greateft
misfortune that can befal a virtuous man be to you a
confolation ? The opulence of a vilL'-in* the eUvated
{lation to which he is raifed, and the honours that
are paid to him, excite your jealoufy, and fill your
bofom with rcpinings and regret. What ! fay you,
are riches, dignity, and power, referved for Inch
wretches as this ? Ceafe tl ' fe groundlefs murmurs. Tf
the poffeffions you regn t wore real benefits, they would
he taken from the wicked and transferred, to you.
Whit would you fay of a fuccefsful hero, who, having
delivered his country, fhould complain that his fervices
were ill requited, bccaufe a few fugar plums were dif-
tributed to fome children in his preftnee, ot which they
liad not offeied him a (hare ? Ridiculous as this would
appear, your complaints are no better founded. His
the Lord of all no reward to confer on you but perifh-
able riches and empty precarious honour ?
It is fancy, not the reafon o! things, that makes
life fo uneafy to us. It is not the place nor the con¬
dition, but the mind alone, that can make any body
happy or miferable. _ x .
He that vrdues himfelf unon confidence, not opinion,
never heeds reproaches. When wc are evil fpoken of,
if we have not deferved it, we are never the worfe ; if
we have, w’e fhould mend.
Tiberius the Roman emperor, a* the beginning of
his reign, a&ed in rooft things like a truly generous,
good natured, and clement prince. All fhnderous
reports, libels, and lampoons upon him and his admi-
niftration, he bore with extraordinary patience ; faying,
“ That in a free ftatc the thoughts and tongues of
every man ought to be free:” and when the fenate
would have proceeded again!! fome who had publifiled
libels again!! him, he would not confent to it ; faying,
“ We have not time enough to attend to fuch tufies.
if you once open a door to fuch informations, you will
be able to do nothing tile ; for under tnat pretence
every man will revenge himfelf upon his enemies oy
accufing them to you.” Being informed that one hau
fpoken detrafkingly of him : “ If he fpeaks ill of me,
lays ho, “ I will give him as good an account of my
words and actions as I can ; and if th .t is not fufft-
•cient, I will fatisfy myfelf with having as bad an opi¬
nion of him as he has of me.” Ihus far even i ibe-
rius may be an example to others.
Men will have the fame veneration for a perfon that
fafftrs ariverfity without dejeblion, as for demohfhed
temples, the very ruins whereof are reverenced and
adored. ,
A virtuous and well-difpofed perfon, is like to good
metal; the more he is fired, the more lie is rtfinei. ;
the more he is oppofed. the more he is approved :
wrong's an ay well try him and touch him, but cannot
imprint in him any faife llamo.
The man therefore who poffeffes this virtue (patience),
in this ample ftnfe of it, Hands upon an eminence, and
fees human things below him : the temped inde^» m,iy
reach him ; but he Hands fecure and colletfcd again!!
it upon the balls of conlcious virtue, which tne feveiet!
1 forms can feldom fhake, and never ovcrtlirow'. ^ ^
Patience, however, is by no means incompatib.e
with fenfibility, which, with all its inconveniences,
■is to be cLeriihed by thofe who underlland and wiin to
] r A r , .
maintain the dignity of their nature. To feel for
others, difpohs us to exercife the amiable virtue of
charity, which our religion indifpenfably requires., 
It conflitutes that enlarged benevolence which phi-
lofophy inculcates, and which is indeed compre¬
hended in ChriHian charity. It is the privilege
and the ornament of man; and the pain which it
caufes is abundantly recompenfed by that fvvect fenfa-
tion which ever accompanies the exercife of bene¬
ficence.
To feel our own mifery with full force is not to be
deprecated. Affli&ion fifftens and improves the heart.
Tears, to fpeak in the Hyle of figure, fertilize the foil
in which the virtues grow. And it is the remark of
one who underfiood human nature, that the faculties
of the mind, as well as the feelings ot the heait, are
meliorated by adverfity. .
But in order to promote thefe ends, our fuffenngs
muff not be permitted to overwhelm us. We muff
orpofe the* with the arms of reafon and religion ; and
to expreis the idea in the language of the philofopher,
as well as the poet, of Nature, every one, while he is
compelled to feel his misfortunes like a man, fhould
refolve alfo to bear them like a man.'
RefignM in ev’ry Hate,
With patience bear, with prudence puft, your fate ;
By fuffering well our fortune we fubdue,
Hy when Hie frowns, and when fine calls purfuc.
PATIGUMO (a corruption of the words pate-de*
guimauvt) ; the name of a fort of pafte or cakes much
ufed on the continent as an agreeable and ufeful
remedy for catarrhal defluxions, and fupjiofcd by
Dr Percival to confift of gum-arabic combined with
fugar and the whites of eggs (fee the article Hunghr,
p/7 l^> col. It) But we have been informed that the
powdered fubHance of the marfhmallow is the chief
ingredient of the compofition.
PATIN (Guy), profeffor of phyfic in the royal co!-
lCrre of P aris, was born in 1602. He made his way
into the world merely by tne force of his genius, being
at firi! correftor of a printing-houfe. He was a man
of great wit and erudition : he fpoke with the gravity
of a Stoic, but his expreffions were very fatirical. He
hated bigotry, fuperhition, and knavery ; had an up¬
right foul, and a well-difpofed heart. He was a mod
tender father, courteous to every body, and poiite in
the high eft degree. He died in 1672, and did not
owe his rei utation to any writings publiflied in his Re¬
time upon phyfic ; but his letters which appeared a ter
his death have rendered his name very famous. He
left a ion mentioned in the enfuing article.
Pat in (Charles), who made a great figure in the
world, and excelled rn the knowledge of rTuurm. He
was born in Paris in 1633 » aRd made fo furpnfiug a
proorefs, that he maintained thtfes in Greek and La¬
tin,°on all parts of philofophy, in 1647. He fludied
the law in compliance to an uncle, and was admitted
an advocate in the parliament of Paris ; but could not
lay afide that of phyfic, for which he always had an
inclination. He therefore quitted the law, and devoted
himfelf to phyfic ; in which, after taking the doctor’s
degree, he applied himfelf to praftice with great luc-
cefi. He afterwards travelled into Germany, Holland,
England, Switzerland, and Italy. In \6]6 he was
* appointed
Pati erica
!|
Pit in.
PAT [
Patluri. appointed proft-nbr of phyfic in Padua ; and three
v'"" years after was created a knight of St Mark. He died
in that city in i 694. His works are many, and well
known to the learned world. His wile too, and his
daughters, were authoreffes.
PATKUL (John Reinhold), was 1 orn of a noble
family in Livonia, a northern province belonging to
the crown of Sweden. The Livonians having been
ftript of their privileges, and great part of their eHates,
by Charles XI. Patkul was deputed to make their
complaint; which he did with fuch eloquence and
courage, that the king, laying his hand upon his
Ihoulder, faid, ‘ You have fpoken for your country as
a brave man fhould, and I efteem you for it.’
Charles, however, who added the bafenefs of hypo-
crify to the ferocity of a tyrant, was determined to
punilh the zeal and honefty which he thought fit to
commend ; and a few days afterwards caufed Patkul
to be declared guilty of high treafon, and condemned
to die. Patkul, however, found means to efcape into
Poland, where he continued till Charles was dead. He
hoped that his fentence would have been then reverfed,
as it had been declared unjuft even by the tyrant that
procured it: but being difappointed in this expecta¬
tion, he applied to Auguftus king of Poland, and fo-
licited him to attempt the conqueft af Livonia from
the Swedes; which, he faid, might be eafily effedted,
as the people were ready to ftrake off their yoke, and
the king of Sweden was a child incapable of compel¬
ling their fubjedtion.
Auguftus poffeffed himfelf of Livonia in confequence
©f this propofal; and afterwards, when Charles XII.
entered the province to recover it, Patkul commanded
in the Saxon army againft him. Charles was victori¬
ous ; and Patkul, fome time afterwards, being difgurt-
ed at the haughty behaviour of General Fleming, Au-
guftus’s favourite, entered into the fervice of the Czar,
with whom Auguftus was in ftriCt alliance, and a little
before Charles compelled Auguftus to abdicate the
throne of Poland, and his fubjeCts to eleCt Staniftaus
in his ftead. The Czar fent Patkul, with the title of
his ambaflador, into Saxony, to prevail with Auguftus
to meet him at Grodno, that they might confer on the
ftate of their affairs. This conference took place ; and
immediately afterwards the Czar went from Grodno
to quell a rebellion in Aftracan. As foon as the Czar
was gone, Auguftus, to the furprife of all Europe, or¬
dered Patkul, who was then at Drefdcn, to be feized
as a ftate criminal. By this injurious and unprece¬
dented a&ion, Auguftus at once violated the law of
nations, and weakened his own intereft ; for Patkul
was not only an ambaffador, but an ambaffador from
the only power that could afford him protection. The
caufe, however, was this: Patkul had difeovtred that
Auguftus’s minifters were to propofe a peace to Charles
upon any terms ; and had therefore formed a defign to
be beforehand with them, and procure a feparate peace
between Charles and his new mafter the Czar. The
defign of Patkul was difeovered ; and, to prevent its
fuccefs, Auguftus ventured to feize his perfon, affuring
the Czar that he was a traitor, and hacl betrayed them
both.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
33
] PAT
Auguftus was foon after reduced to beg a peace of
Charles at any rate ; and Charles granted it upon cer- ■
tain conditions, one of which was, that be fhould de¬
liver up Patkul. This condition reduced Auguftus to
a very diftrefsfiil dilemma : the Czar, at this very time,
recLiimed Patkul as his ambaffador; and Charles de¬
manded, with threats, that he fhould be put into his
hands. Auguftus therefore contrived an expedient by
which he hoped to fatisfy both: he fent fome guards
to deliver Patkul, who was prifoner in the caftle of
Konigftein, to the Swedifh troops; but by fccret or¬
ders, privately difpatched, he commanded the governor
to let him efcape. The governor, though he received
this order in time, yet difappointed its intention by hi«
villainy and his avarice. He knew Patkul to be very
rich ; and having it now in his power to fuffer him to
efcape with impunity, he demanded of Patkul a large
fum for the favour: Patkul refufed to buy that liberty
which he made no doubt would be gratuitoufly re-
ftored, in confequence of the Czar’s requifition and re-
monftrance ; and, in the mean time, the Swedifh guards
arrived with the order for his being delivered up to
them. By this party he was firft carried to Charles’s
head quarters at Albranftadt, where he continued
three mouths, bound to a flake with a heavy chain of
iron. He was the^ conducted to Cafimir, where
Charles ordered him to be tried ; and he was by his
judges found guilty. His fentence depended iqron the
king; and after having been kept a prifoner fome
months, under a guard of Mayerfeldt’s regiment, un¬
certain of his fate, he wa«, on the 8th of September
1707, towards the evening, delivered into the cuftody
of a regiment of dragoons, commanded by Colonel
Nicholas Hielm. On tjre next day, the 29th, the co¬
lonel took the chaplain of his regiment afide, and tell¬
ing him that 1’atkul was to die the next day, ordered
him to acquaint him with his fate, and prepare him for
it. About this very time he was to have been married
to a Saxos lady of great quality, virtue, and beauty ; a
circumftance which renders his cafe ftill more affefting.
Whst followed in confequence of the colonel’s order
to the minifter (a) will be related in his own words.
“ Immediately after evening fervice I went to his
prifon, where I found him lying on his bed. The firft
compliments over, I entered upon the melancholy duty
of my profefiion, and turning to the officer who had
him in charge, told him the colonel’s orders were,
that 1 fhould be alone with his prifoner. The officer
having withdrawn, Patkul grafping both my hands
in his, cried out with moft affe&ing anxiety and di-
ftrefs, My dear paftor! what are you to declare?
what am I to hear ? I bring you, replied I, the fame
tidings that the prophet brought to king Hezekiah,
Set thine boufe in order, for thou mujl die. To morrow by
this time thou fhalt be no longer in the number of the
living! At this terrible wirning he bowed him-
felf upon his bed, and burft into tears. I attempte i
to comfort him, by fayffig that he mull, without all
doubt, have often meditated on this fubjeft : Yes,
cried he, I know, alas 1 too well, that we muft all
die ; but the death prepared for me will be cruel and
infupportable. I affured him that the manner of hhi
E deatk
(a) The name of this clergyman was Lorens Hagar.
PAT [ .H ] PAT
Patfcu’. death was to me totally unknown; but, believing afliftance, andTntreated me, for the love of Go-'l, to bor«
—*—> t^t he would be prep ared for it, I was fare his foul row whatever fum I-could. I procured him 400,000
would be received into the number of happy fpirits. crowns ; 50,000 of which, the very next day, he
Here he rofe up, and folding his hands together, fquandtred on trinkets and jewels, which he gave in
Merciful Jtfus ! let me then die the death of the pnfents to fome of his women. I told him plainly my
righteous'! A little after, with his face inclined to tbe thoughts of the matter; and by my importunity pre-
wall, where Hood his bed, he broke out into this fo- vailed, that the Jews fhould take back their toys, and
liloquy : Auguftus ! O Auguftus, what mull be thy return the money they had been paid tor them. The
lot one day ! Mufl. thou not anfwer for all the crimes ladies were enraged ; and he fwore that 1 fhou’d one
thou haft committed ? He then obferved that he was time or other fuffer for what I had done : there in-
driven out from his country, by a fentence againft his deed he kept his word ■, would to God he had always
life, pronounced for doing what the king himfelf en- done fo with thofe he employed !’ 1 now left him for
courap-ea him to do, faying to him one day in terms a (hort time, and at ftven in the evening I returned ;
of much kin ’.nefs, ‘ Patkul, maintain the rights of and the officer being retired, he acccfted me with a
your country like a man of honour, and with all the fmiling air, and an appearance of much tranquillity,
fpirit you are capable of,’ That flying into an ene- ‘ Welcome, dear fir, the weight that lay heavy on my
my’s country was alfo unavoidable, as the country of heart is removed, and I already feel a fenftble change
an ally would not have afforded him protection ; but wrought in my mind. I am ready to die : death is
that he was in S.txony a wretched exile, not a coun- more eligible than the folitude of a long imprifonment.
fellor or advifer ; that before his arrival every thing Would to heaven only that the kind of it were lefa
was already planned, the alliance with Mufcovy figned, cruel. Can you, my dear fir, inform me in what mais-
and the meafures with Denmark agreed upon. * My ner I am to fuffer ? i anfwered, that it had not beeir
inclination (faid he, after a paufe) were always to ferve communicated to me ; hut that I imagined it would
Sweden, though the contrary opinion has prevailed, pafs over without noile, as only the colonel and my-
The ele&or of Brandenburg owed his title of king of felf had notice of it. ‘ That (replied he) 1 efteem as
23rujfia to the fervices I did hhn; and when, in re- a favour ; but have you feen the ientence ? or muft f
compenfe, he would have given me a confiderable fum die, without being either heard or condemned ? My
of money, I thanked him, and reje&ed the offer; apprehenfions are of being put to intolerable tortures.*
adding, that the reward 1 moll wilhed for was to re- 1 comforted him in the kindeft manner I could ; but
gain the king of Sweden’s favour by his interceffion. he was his own beft comforter from the Word of God,
This he promifed, and tried every poffible method to with which he was particularly acquainted ; quoting,
fucceed, but without fuccefc. After this I laboured among many other paffages, th? following in Greek,
fo much for the intereft of the lace emperor in his We mujl enter into the kingdom of heaven through many tri*
Spanifh affairs, that I brought about what fcarce any halations. He then called for pen and ink, and in-
other man could have effected. The emperor as an treated me to write down what he fhould didate. I
acknowledgment gave me an affignment for 50,000 did fo, as follows :
crowns, which I humbly laid at his feet, and only im- ‘ Tefamentum, or my lajl avill as to the dfpofttion of
plored his imperial majefty’s recommendation of me to my ejfetfs after my death.—i. His majefty King Au-
my king’s favour : this requeft he immediately grant- guftus, having firit examined his confcience thoroughly,
cd, and°pave bis orders accordingly, but in vain. Yet, will be fo juft as to pay back to my relations the fum
not to lofe any opportunity, I went to Mofcow while he owes me ; which,, being liquidated, will amount to
the Swedilh ambaffadors were at that court; but even 50,000 crowns; and as my relations are here in the
the mediation of the C/.ar had no effed. After that ferviee of Sweden, that monarch will probably obtain
I diftributed among the Swedilh prifoneis at Mofcow it for them.’
at leaft 100,000 crowns, to (how the ardent defire I “ At this he faid, let us flop here a little ; I will
had, by all ways, to regain the favour of their fove- quickly return to finilh this will; but now let us ad-
reign. Would to heaven I had been equally in earneft cirefs ourfelves to God by prayer. Prayers being end-
to obtain the grace of God.’—At thefe words another ed, ‘ Now (cried he) I find my felf jet better, yet in
ffiower of tears fell from his eyes, and he remained a quieter frame of mind: Oh! were my death lefs
for fome moments filent, and overwhelmed with grief, dreadful, with what pleafure would i expiate my guilt
3 ufed my beft endeavours to comfort him with the by embracing it!—Yes (cried he, after a paufeb I
affurance that this grace would not be denied him, have friends in different places, who will weep over
provided he fpent the few hours Hill left in earneftly my deplorable fate. What will the mother of the king-
imploring it; Vor the door of heaven’s mercy was never of Pruffia fay ? What will be the grief of the Counted
fnut, though’that of men might be cruelly fo 4 This Levolde who attends on her ? But what thoughts muft
(replied he), this is my confolation ; for thou art God arife in the bofom of her to whom my faith is plighted ?
and not man to be angry for ever.’ He then inveighed Unhappy woman 1 the news of my death will be fatal
bitterly againft Auguftus, and reproached himfelf for to her peace of mind. My dear pallor, may I ven-
having any conneaion with a wretch who was wholly ture to beg one favour ot you ?’ I affured him he
deftitute of all faith and honour, an atheift, without might command every fervice in my power. ‘ Have
piety, and without virtue. 4 While he was at War- the goodnefs then (faid he, preffing my hand), the
faw (faid he), and heard the king was advancing to at- moment I am no more, to write—Alas ! how will you
tack him, he found himfelf extremely diftreffed. He fet about it ? a letter to Madam Einfeidelern, the lady
was abfolufely without money, and therefore obliged I am ptomifed to—Let her know that I die her’s ;
to difmift fame of his troops. He had recourfe to my inform her fully of my unhappy fate! Send her n\y
P A T [ 35 1 PAT
■patkul. bft and eternal farewei' My death is in truth dif*
graceful*} but my manner of meeting it will, I hope,
by heaven’s and your afliilance, render it holy and
blefied. This news will be her only confoiation. Add
farther* dear S'r, that 1 thanked her with mv lateit
1 resth for the iincere affedfion flic bore me : May fhe
live long and happy : Tim is my dying wilh ’—I gave
him my hand in promife that 1 would faithfully per¬
form all he defired.
“ Afterwards he took up a book : ‘ This (faid he)
is of my own writing. Keep it in remembrance of
me, and ra a proof of my true regard for religion. I
could wifh it might have the good fortune to he pre-
fentrd to the king, that he may be convinced with
what little foundation I have ^een accufed of atheifoi.’
Taking it from his hand, 1 afTured him that my colonel
would not fad to prefent it as foon asopportunityoffered.
“The reft of his time was employed in prayer, which
ht went through with a very fervent devotion. On the
^cth of September I was again with him at four in
the morning. The moment he heard me he arofe,
and rendering thanks to God, aflured me he had not
fnpt fo foundiy for a long time. We went to prayers;
and in truth his piety and devout frame of mind were
worthy of admiration. Ah,out fix he faid he would
begin his confeffion, before the din and clamour of the
people without could rife to difturb his thoughts. He
then kneeled down, and went through his confeflion
in a manner truly editying. The fun beginning to ap¬
pear above the horizon, he looked out of the window,
faying, Salveffla dies! ‘ This is my wedding-day. I
looked, alas! for another, but this is the happier ; for
to-day (hall my foul be introduced by her heavenly
bridegroom into the aflembly of the blefled!’ He then
afktd me, whether I yet knew in what way' he was
to die ? I anfwered, that I did not. He conjured me,
by the facred name of Jefus, not to forfake him ; for
that he fhould find in my company fome confoiation
even in the midlt of tortures. Catting his eye on the
paper that lay on the table, « This will (faid he) can
never be finiftiecld I afked him, whether he would
put his name to what was already written ? ‘ No ( re¬
plied he, with a deep hgh), I will write that hated
name no mote. My relations will find their account
in another place ; falute them from me.’ He then ad-
drefled himfclf again to God in prayer, and continued
his devotions till the lieutenant entered to condudlhim
to the coach. He wrapped himfelf up in his cloak,
and went forward a great pace, guarded by too horfe-
men. Being arrived ct the place of execution, we
foend it furrounded by 300 foot foldiers ; but at the
fight of the flakes and wheels, his horror is not to be
deicribed. Clafping me in his arms, ‘ Beg of God (he
exclaimed) that my foul may not he thrown into de-
Ipair amulft thefe tortures! 1 comforted, I adjured
him, to fix his thoughts on the death of Jefus Chrilt,
who for our fins was nailed to a crofs.
‘‘ Being now on the fpot where he was to fuffer,
he bid the executioner to do his duty well, and put
into his hands fome money which he got ready for
that purpofe. He then ftretched hirrdelf out upon
the wheel ; and while they were ftripping him naked,
he begged me to pray that God would have mercy
on him, and bear u-p his foul in agony. I did fo; and
turning to all the fpettators, faid to them, 15rethren}
join with me in prayer for this unhappy man. * Yes Parkid,
(cried he), affift me all of you with your fupplications latinos.
to heaven.’ Here the executioner gave him the firft
ftroke. His cries were terrible : ‘ O Jefus ! Jefus !
have mercy upon me.’ This cruel feene was much
lengthened out, and of the utmoft horror ; for as the
headfman had no fkill in his bufinefs, the unhappy
vidtim received upwards of 15 feveral blows, with each
of which were intermixed the moft piteous groans and
invocations of the name of God. At length, after two
ftrokes given on the breaft, his ftrength and voice fail¬
ed him. In a faltering dying tone, he was juft heard
to fay, ‘ Cut off my head!’ and the executioner flit
lingering, he himfelf placed his head on the fcaffold :
After four ftrokes with an hatchet, the head was fe-
perated from t! e body, and the body quartered. Such
was the end of the renowned Patkul.”
Charles XII. has been very generally and feverely
cenfured for not pardoning him, and we are not in¬
clined to vindicate the fovereign. Yet it mull he re-
membeted, that Patkul was guilty of a much greater
crime than that which drew upon him the difpleaftire
of Chatles XI. He incited foreign powers to attack his
country when under the government of ahoy, hoping,
as he faid himftlf, that it would in fuch cireumftances
become an eafy conqueft. Ho was therefore a rebel
of the worft kind ; and where is the abfolute monarch
that is ready to pardon fuch unnatural rebellion ? Let
it be remembered, too, that Charles, among whole
faults no other inftance of cruelty has been numbered,
certainly thought that, in ordering the execution of
Patkul, he was difebarging his duty. That monarch,
it is known, believed in the pr fiibllity of difeovering
the philofopher’s ftone. Patku1, when under fentence
of death, contrived to impofe fo far upon the fenate at
Stockholm, as to perfuade them that he had, in their
prefence, converted into gold a qu mtky of bafer me¬
tal. An account of this experiment was tranfmittel
to the king, accompanied with a petition to his ma-
jefty for the life of fo valuable a fubjedft ; but Charles,
blending magnanimity with his feverity, replied with
indignation, that he would not grant to intereft what
he had refufed to the calls ol humanity and the intrea¬
ties of friendlhip.
PATMOS (anc. gcog.), one of the Spora ’es (Dio-
nyfius) ; 30 miles in compafs (Pliny ; concerning which
we read very little in authors. It was rendered famous
by the exde of St John and the Revelation ihowed him
there. The greateft part of interpreters think that
St John wrote them in the fame place during the two
years of his exile ; but- others think that he did not
commit them to writing till after his return to Ephe-
fus. The ifland of Patmos is between the ifland of Ica-
ria and the promontory of Miletus. Nothing lias done
it more honour than to have been the place of the ba-
nifhment of St John. It is now called Patino, or Pac»
lino, or Pat mol, or Pahnofa. Its circuit is five and
twenty or thirty miles. It has a city called Pat¬
mos, with a harbour, and forne monafteries of Greek
monks. It is at prefent in the hands of the Turks.
It is confiderable for its harbours ; but the inhabitants
derive little benefit from them, becaufe the corfairs
have obliged them to quit the town and retire to a hill
on which St John’s convent ftands. This convent is a
citadel cocfifting of feveval irregular towers, and is a
E 2 fub-
PAT
fuhftantial building feated on a very ft«ep rock,
whole illand is very barren, _ and without wood;
however, it abounds with partridges, rabbits, quails,
turtles, pigeons, and fnipes. Ail their corn does
not amount to 1000 barrels in a year. In the
whole ifland there are fcarce 300 men : but there
are above 20 women to one man, who expert that
all ft rangers who land in the ifland fhculd carry
feme of them away. To ihe memory of St John is an
hermitage on the fide of a mountain, where there is a
chapel not above eight paces long and five broad.
Over head they fhow a chink in the rock, through
which they pretend that the Holy Ghoft dilated to
St John. E. Long. 26. 84. N. Lat. 37. 24^
PATNA, a town of Afia, in the dominions of the
Great Mogul, to the north of the kingdom of Bengal,
where the Englifh have fadfories for faltpetre, borax,
and raw filk. It is the capital of the province of Ba-
har, a dependency of Bengal, in the empire of Indo-
Han, fituated in a pleafant country, 400 miles eaft of
Agra. It extends feven miles in length on the banks
of the Ganges, and is about half a mile in breadth.—
Mr Rtnnel gives ftrong reafons for fuppofing it to be
the ancient Palibothra. The town is large and
populous, but the houfes are built at a diftance from
each other. E. Long. 85. 40. N. Lat. 45. 25.
PATOMACK, a large river of North America, in
Virginia, which rifes in the Alleghany mountains, fe-
parates Virginia from Maryland, and falls into Chefn-
peak bay. It is about feven miles broad, and is na¬
vigable for near 200 miles.
PATONCE, in heraldry, is a crofs, flory at the
ends; from which it difters only in this, that the ends,
inftead of turning down like a fleur-de-lis, are extend¬
ed fomewhat in the pattee form. See Plory.
PATRyE, a city of Achaia. This place was vifit-
ed by Dr Chandler, who gives the following account
of it' It has been often attacked by enemies, taken,
and pillaged. It is a confiderable town, at a diftance
from the fea, fituated on the fide of a hill, which has
its fummit crowned with a ruinous caftle. This made
a brave defence in 1447 againft Sultan Moral, and
held out until the peace was concluded, which firit
rendeied the Morea tributary to the Turks. A dry
flat before it was once the port, which has been cho¬
ked with mud. It has now, as in the time of Strabo,
only an indifferent road for veflels. Ihe houfe of Ni¬
cholas Piiul, Efq; the Englilh conful, flood on part of
the wall either of the theatre or the odeum. By a
fountain was a fragment of a Latin infeription. e
faw alfo a large marble bull much defaced ; and the
french conful fhowed us a colleftion of medals. We
found nothing remarkable in the citadel. It is a place
of fome trade, and is inhabited by Jews as well as by
Turks and Greeks. The latter have feveral churches.
One is dedicated to St Andrew the apoftle, who fut-
fered martyrdom there, and is of great fandity. It
had been recently repaired. The file by.the fea is
fuppofed that of the temple of Ceres. By it is a foun¬
tain. The air is bad, and the country round about
over-run with the low fhrub called glycyrrhiva or li¬
quorice.”
Of its ancient ftate, the fame author fpeaks thus .
« Patrae affifted the iEtolians when invaded by the
Ga.ul$ under Brennus; but sfterwurda was unfbrtu-
[ pat
The nate, reduced to extreme poverty, and almoft aban¬
doned. Auguftus Caefar reunited the fcattered citi¬
zens, and made it a Roman colony, fettling a portion
of the troops which obtained th« viftory of A&ium,
with other inhabitants from the adjacent places. Pa¬
irs reflourifhed and enjoyed dominion over Naupadfus,
CEanthda, and feveral cities of Achaia. In the time
of Paufanias, Patrx was adorned with temples and por¬
ticoes, a theatre, and an odeum which was fuperior to
any in Greece but that of Atticus Herodes at Athens.
In the lower part of the city was a temple of Bacchus
YEfymnetes, in which was an image preferved in a
cheft, and conveyed, it was faid, from I roy by Eury-
pylus; who, on opening it, became difordered in his
fenfes. By the port were temples; and by the fea,
one of Ceres, with a pleafant grove and a prophetic
fountain of unerring veracity in determining the event
of any illnefs. After fupplicating the goddefs with
incenfe, the lick perfon appeared, dead or living, in a
mirror fufpended fo as to touch the furface of the wa¬
ter. In the citadel of Patrae was a temple of Diana
Laphria, with her ftatue in the habit of a huntrefs of
ivory and gold, given by Auguftus Ccgfar when he
laid wafte Calydon and the cities of TEtolia to people
Nicopolis. The Patrenfians honoured her with a year¬
ly feftival, which is deferibed by Paufanias who was a
fpedtator. They formed a circle round the altar with
pieces of green wood, each 16 cubits long, and w’ithin
heaped dry fuel. The folemnity began with a molt
magnificent proceflion, which was clofed by the virgin-
prieitefs in a chariot drawn by (tags. On the follow¬
ing day, the city and private perfons offered at the al¬
tar fruits, and birds, and all kinds of vidtims, wild-
boats, flags, deer, young wolves, and beafts full grown ;
after which the fire was kindled. He relates, that a
bear and another animal forced a way through the
fence, but were recondufted to the pile. It was not
remembered that any wound had ever been received at
this ceremony, though the fpedtacle and facrifice were
as dangerous as favage-. The number of women at.
Patrae was double that of the men They were em^
ployed chiefly in a manufa&ure of flax which grew in,
Elis, weaving garments, and attire for the head.”
PATRANA, or Pastrana, a town of New Ca-
ftile in Spain, with the title of a duchy. It is feated
between the rivers Tajo and Tajuna, in W. Long.
2. 45. N. Lat. 40. 26.
PATRAS, an ancient and flourifhing town of Eu¬
ropean Turkey, in the Morea, capital of a duchy, with
a Greek archbifhop’s fee. It is pretty large and po¬
pulous ; and the Jews, who arc one-third part of the
inhabitants, have four fynagogues. d here are feventl
handfome mofques and Greek churches. The Jews
carry on a great trade in filk, leather, honey, wax,
and cheefe. There are cyprefs trees of a prodigious
height, and excellent pomegranates, citrons, and oran¬
ges. It has been feveral times taken and retaken, and
it is juft now in the hands of the Turks. It is feated
in E. Long. 21. 45. N. Lat. 38. 17.
PATRICA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
church, and in the Campagaa of Rome, towards the
fea-coaft, and eight miles eaft of Oftia. About a
mile from this place is a hill called Monte de Liyano,
which fame have thought ta be the ancient Lavinium
founded by PAXRES
PAT [ 37 1 PAT
T»atre*, PATRES cons«ripti. See Conscript and Se-
Patriarch. natOr.
» ' PATRIARCH, Patriarcha, one ©f thofe firft
fathers who lived towards the beginning of the world,
and who became famous by their long lines ofdefcend-
ants. Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, and his twelve
fons, are the patriarchs of the Old Teftament; Seth,
Enoch, &c. were antediluvian patriarchs,
The authority of patriarchal government exifted in
the fathers of families, and their firft-born after them,
cxercifing all kinds of ecclefiaftical and civil authority
in their refpeftive houfeholds ; and to this govern¬
ment, which lafted till the time of the Ifraelites dwell
ing in Egypt, fome have afcribed an abfolute and de-
fpotic power, extending even to the pur.ifhment by
death. In proof of this, is produced the curfe pro¬
nounced by Noah upon Canaan (Gtn. ix. 25.); but it
mull be obferved, that in this affair Noah feems to have
a£ted rather as a prophet than a patriarch. Another
inftanceof fuppofed defpotie power is Abraham’s turn¬
ing Hagar and Iflunael out of his family (Gen. xxi. 9,
&c.); but this can hardly be thought to Jurnifh evidence
of any lingular authority veiled in the patriarchs, as
fuch, and peculiar to thofe ages. The third inftanee
brought forward to the fame purpofe is that of Jacob’s
denouncing a curfe upon Simeon and Levi (Gen. xlix.
7.), which is maintained by others to be an inftance of
prophetic infpiration more than of patriarchal power.
The fourth inftance is that of Judah with regard to
Tamar (Gen. xxxviii. 24.) ; with regard to which it is
remarked, that Jacob, the father of Judah, was ft ill
living; that Tamar was not one of his own family ;
and that Ihe had been guilty of adultery, the punilh-
ment of which was death by burning ; and that Judah
©ITthis occalion might fpeak only as a profecutor.
On the whole, however, it is difficult to lay which
of thefe opinions are molt agreeable to truth. Men
who believe the origin of civil government, and the
obligation to obedience, to arife from a fuppofed 01 i-
ginal contradl, either real or implie'd, will be naturally
led to weaken the authority of the patriarchs : and
thofe again who efteem government to be a divine in-
llitution, will be as apt to raife that authority to the
higheft pitch that either reafon or feripture will per¬
mit them. It cannot be denied, that authority exifted
in fathers, and defeended to their firH-born, in the ftrft
ages of the world ; and it is neither unnatural nor im¬
probable to imagine, that the idea of hereditary power
and hereditary honours was firft taken from this cir-
cumftance. But whether authority has defeended
through father and fon in this way to our times, is a
circumftance that cannot in one inftance be aflertgd,
and can be denied in a thoufind. The real fource of
the dignity and of the authority of modern times
feems to have been, Ikill in the art of war, and fuccefs
in the conduct of conquefts.
Jenvi/h Patriarch, a dignity, refpefting the origin
of which there are a variety of opinions. The learned
authors of the Univerfal Hiltory think, that the firft
appearance and inftitution of thofe patriarchs happened
atader Ncrva the fucceffbr of Domitian. It feems pro¬
bable that the patriarchs were of the Aaronic or Le- Patriarchy
vitical race; the tribe of Judah being at that time too '
much deprelfed, and too obnoxious to the Romans to
be able to alfume any external power. But of what-
ever tribe they were, their authority came to be very
confiderable. Their principal bufinefs was to in{lru£t
the people ; and for this purpofe they inftituted fchools
in feveral cities. And having gained great reputation
for their extraordinary learning, zeal, and piety, they
might, in time, not only bring a great concourfe of othv r
Jews from other parts, as from Egypt and other weft-
ern provinces of their difperfion, but likewife prove the
meansoftheirpatriarchal authority's being acknowledg¬
ed there. From them they ventured at length to levy a
kind of tribute, in order to defray the charges of their
dignity, and-of the officers (a) under them, whofe bu-
linefs it was to carry their orders and. decifions through
the other provinces of their difperfion, and to fee them
puE&tially executed by ©11, tint fome ffiadowof union
at leaft might be kept up among the weftern Jews.
They likewife nominated thedo&ors who were to pre-
fide over taeir fchools and academies; and thefe were
in procefs of time ftylcd chiefs and princes, in ©rder to
raife the credit of that dignity, or to imply the great
regard which their difciples were to pay to them. Thefe
chiefs became at length rivals of the patriarchs ; and
fome of them pofTeffed both dignities at once; an ufur-
pation which caufed not only great confufion amongft
them, but oftentimes very violent and bloody contefts.
However, as the Jewifti Rabbies have trumped up a
much older era for this patriarchal dignity, and have
given us a fucceffion of them down to the fifth cen¬
tury, in which it was abolifned, it will not be amifs to
give our readers the fubftance of what they have writ¬
ten of the rife and progrefs of this order of men; and at
the fame time to ffiow them the abfurdity and falfehoei
of that pittended fucceffion to this imaginary dignity.
According to them, the firft patriarch was Hillel,.
furnamed the Babylonian, becaufe he was ftnt for from
thence to Jerufalem about 100 years before the ruin
of their capital, or 30 years before the birth of Chrift,
to decide a difpute about the keeping of Eafter, which
on that year fell out on the Sabbath-day ; and it was
on account of his wife decifion that he was raifed to
that dignity, which continued in his family till the
faid fifth century. He was likewife looked upon as a
fecond Mofes, beeaufe he lived like him years in ob-
feurity, 40 more in great reputation for learning and
fandity, and 40 more in poffiffion of this patriarchal
dignity. They make him little inferior to that law¬
giver in other of hi* excellencies, as well as in the groat
authority he gained over the whole Jewiffi nation. The
wonder will be, how Herod the Great, who was fo
jealous of his own power, coulcj fuffer a ftranger to be
raifed to fuch a height of it, barely for having decided
a difpute which mutt in all likelihood have been ad¬
judged by others long before that time.
However, Hillel was fucceeded by his fon Simeon,
whom many Chriftians pretend to have been the vene¬
rable old perfon of that name, who received the di¬
vine infant in his arms. The Jews give him but a
very*
(a) Thefe were called Jpoftoli or Legqti.i.
PAT [38
patriarch, very obfcure patriarchate ; though the authors above
' quoted make him, moreover, chrcf of the fanhedrim ;
and Epiyhanius fays, that the prieftly tribe hated him
fo much lor giving fo ample a tellimony to the divine
child, that they denied him common burial. But it
is hardly credible that St Luke fhould have fo care-
lefsly palfed over his two-fold dignity, if he had been
realb' pofTclTed of them, and have given him no higher
title than that of a juft and devout man.
He was fucceeded by Jochanan, not in right of de-
fcent, but of his extraordinary merit, which the Rah-
hies, according to cuftom, have raifed to fo furprifing
a height, that, according to them, if the whole heavens
were paper, all the trees in the world pens, and all the
men writers, they would not fuffice to pen down all
his lelfons. He enjoyed his dignity but two years,
according to fome, or five according to others : and
was the perfon who, obferving the gates of the temple
to open of their own accord, cried out, “ O temple,
temple ! why art thou thus moved ! We know that
thou art to be deftroyed, feeing Zechariah hath fore¬
told it, faying, ‘ Open thy gates, O Lebanus, and let
the flames confume thy cedats.” Upon this he is fur¬
ther reported to have complimented Vefpalian, or ra¬
ther, as fome have correfted the ftory, Titus, with the
title of ling, affuring him that it was a royal perfon
who was to deftroy that edifice ; on which account
they pretend that general gave him. leave to remove
the fanhedrim to Japhne.
The Jewilh writers add, that he likewife crefted an
academy there, which fubfifted till the death of Aki-
ba ; and was likewife the feat of the patriarch ; and
confifted of 300 fchools, or clafies of fcholars. Ano¬
ther he ere&ed at Lydda, not far from Japhne, and
where the Chriftians have buried their famed St
George. He lived 120 years, and being afleed, what
he had done to prolong his life ? he gave this wife an-
fwer ; I never made water nearer a houfe of prayer than
four cubits : I never difguifed my name : I have taken
care to celebrate all feftivals : and my mother hath
even fold my head ornaments to buy wine enough to
make me merry on fuch days ; and left me at her
death 300 hogfheads of it, to fandlify the Sabbath.
The deftors that flourifhed in his time were no lefs
cenliderable, both for their number and chara&er;
particularly the famed Rabbi Chanina, of whom the
Bath Col was heard to fay, that the world was pre-
ferved for the fake of him ; and R. Nicodemus, whom
they pretend to have flopped the courfe of the fun, like
another Joftnta.
He was fucceedcd by Gamaliel, a -man, according
to them, of unfufferable pride ; and yet of fo univer-
fal authority over all the Jews, not only in the weft,
but over the whole world, that the very monarch# luf-
fered his laws to be obeyed in their dominions, not
one of them offering to obftrua the execution of them.
In his days flourilhed Samuel the Lefn, who compofed
a prayer full of the bittcreft curfes againft heretics,
1 y which they mean the Chriftians ; and which are
Bill in ufe to this day. Gamaliel was no lets an ene¬
my to them ; and yet both have been challenged, the
former as the celebrated matter ot our great apollie,
the other as his dife pie in his unconverted ftate.
Simon II. his fon and fucceffbr, was the firll mar-
tvr who died during the ficg£ of Jerufalem. ihe
1 PAT
people fo regretted hi# death, that an order was given, Patriarch,
in Head of 10 bumpers of wine, which were ufualiy 1 v
drank at the funeral of a faint, to drink f 3 at his, on
account of his martyrdom. Thefe bumpers were in
time multiplied, they tell us, to fuch ftiameful height,
that the fanhedrim was forced to make fome new re¬
gulations to prevent that abufe.
Thefe are the patriarchs which, the Rabbies tell us,
preceded the deftru&ion of the temple } and we need
no farther confutation of this pretended dignity, than
the filence of the facred hiftorians, who not only make
not the lead mention of it, but affure us all along that
they were the high-priefts who prefi xed in the fanhe¬
drim ; and before whom all cafes relating to the Jewifh
religion were brought and decided. It was the high-
prieft who examined and condemned our Saviour; that
condemned St Stephen ; that forbad the apoftles to
preach in Chrift s name ; and who fat as judge on the
great apoftle at the head of that fupreme court. The
fame may be urged from Jofephus, who mull needs
have known and mentioned this pretended dignity, if
any fuch there had been ; and yetis fo far from taking
the leaft nobce of it, that, like the evangelifts, he pla¬
ces the pontiffs alone at the head of all the Jewifti af¬
fairs ; and names the high-prieft A nanus as having the
care and direftion of the war againft the Romans ; —
which is an evident proof that there were then no fuch
patriarchs in being.
To all this let us add, that if there had been any
fuch remarkable fuccefiion, the 1 almudifts would have
preferved it to future ages ; whereas, neither they, nor
any of the ancient authors of the Jewifh church, make
any mention of it ; but only tome ot their dodftors,
who have written a conliderable time after them, as of
writers to whom little credit can be given in points of
this nature; tfpecially as there are fuch unfur mount-
able contradictions between them, as no authors ei¬
ther Jewifh or Chriftian have, with all their pains, been
hitherto able to reconcile.
Their fuccefiion, according to the generality of
thofe rabbies, Hands as follows :
1. Hillel the Babylonian. 2. Simeon the fon of
Hillel. 3. Gamaliel the fon of Simeon. 4. Sime¬
on II. the fon of Gamaliel 5. Gamaliel II. the fon
of Simeon II. 6. Simeon III. the fon of Gamaliel II.
7. Judah the fon of Simeon III. 8. Gamaliel III.
the fon of Judah. 9. Judah II. the fon of Gamaliel
III. 10. Hillel II. fon of Judah II. 11. Judah III.
fon of Hillel II. 12 Hillel III. fon of Judah III.
13. Gamaliel IV. fon ot Hilkl ill.
According to Gants i /.emach David, who hath
reduced them to 10, they are,
1. Hillel the Babylonian. 2. Simeon the fon of
Hiliel. 3. Rabb Gamaliel Rebona. 4. R. Simeon
the fon of Gamaliel. 5. Rabban Gamaliel his fon.
6. R. Jehudah the prince. 7. Hillel the prince, his
fon. 8. Rabban Gamaliel the Old. 9. Simeon III.
to. R. Judah, Nafii or prince.
On the v/hoie, it cannot be doubted but that their
tirft life was rn Nerva’s time, however much Jewith
pride may have prompted them to ialfily, and to affert
their origin to have been rnpve ancient than it really was.
Nor have the Jews been faithful in giving an account
of the authority of thefe men. They have exaggera¬
ted their power beyond all bounds, for the purpofe of
repelling
PAT t 30 f PAT
Fatrfarchi. repelling the arguments of Chriftians: for their power
^ J was certainly more fhowy than fubftantial. In time,
however, they certainly impofed upon the people {
and what power they did pofiefs (which the Romans
only allowed to be in religious mntters, or in fuch as
were connected with religion i they exerciied with great
rigour. Their pecuniary demands, in particular, be¬
came very exorbitant; and was the caule ot their fup-
preflion in the year 429.
Patriarchs, among Chriftians, are ecclefiaftic l
dignitaries, or bifhops, fo called from their paternal
authority in the church. The power of patriarchs was
not the fame in all, but differed according to the dif¬
ferent cuftoms ofcountries, or the pleafurea of kings and
councils. Thus the patriarch of Conftantinople grew
to be a patriarch over the patriarchs of Ephefus and
Caefarea, and was called the acumtnical and vmrerful
patriarch; and the patriarch of Alexandria had fome
prerogatives which no other patriarch but himfelf en¬
joyed, fuch as the right of confecrating and appro¬
ving every fingle bifhop under his jurifdi&ion.
The patriarchate has been ever efleemed the fupreme
dignity in the church : the bifhop had only under him
the territory of the city of which he w as bifhop ; the
metropolitan fuperintended a province, and had for
fuffragans the bifhops of his province ; the primate was
the chief of w'hat was then called Tcdmefe^K)^ and had
feveral metropolitans under him ; and the patriarch had
under him feveral diocefes, compoiing one exarchate,
and the primates themfelves were under him.
Ufher, Pagi, De Marca, and Morinus, attribute the
eftablifhment of the grand patriarchates to the apoflles
themfelves; who, in their opinion, according to the
defcription of the world then given by geographers,
pitched on the three principal cities in the three parts
of the known world; viz. Rome in Europe, Antioch
in Afia, and Alexandria in Africa: and thus formed
a trinity of patriarchs. Others maintain that the'name
patriarch was unknown at the time of the council
of Nice ; and that for a long time afterwards patriarchs
and primates were confounded together, as being all
equally chiefs of diocefes, and equ. l!y fuperior to me¬
tropolitans, who were only chiefs of provinces. Hence
Socrates gives the title patriarch to all the chiefs of
diocefes, and reckons ten of them. Indeed, it dees
not appear that the dignity of patriarch was appro- Patriarchs;
pn'ated to the 6ve grand fees of Rome, Conftantinople,  'r~—J
Alexandria, Antioch* and Jerufalem, till after the
council of Chaleedon in 451 ; for when the council of
Nice regulated the limits and prerogatives of the three
patriarchs of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, it did
not give them the title of patriarchs, though it allowed
them the pre-eminence and privileges thereof; thua
when the council of Conflantinople adjudged the fe-
cond place to the biPnop of ConlUntinople, who till
then was only a fuffragan of Heraclea, it laid nothing
of the patriarchate. Nor is the term patriarch found
in the decree of the council of Chalcedou, whereby
the fifth place is affigned to the biftfop of Jcrufalem ;
nor did thefc five patriarchs govern all the churches.
There were befides many independent chiefs of dio¬
cefes, who, far from owning the jurifdidlion of the
grand patriarchs, called themfelves patriarchs ; fuch as
tht.t of Aqnileia ; nor was Carthage ever fubjeft to the
patriarch of Alexandria. Molheim * imagines that the * Ecckf.
bifhops, who enjoyed a certain degree of pre-eminence vo*’
over the reft of their order, were diilinguifhcd by the lg4'
Jtwiih title of patriarchs in the fourth century. The
authority of the patriarchs gradually increafed, till,
about the clofe of the fifth century, all affairs of moment
within the compafs of their patriarchate came before
them, either at firtl hand or by appeals from the metro¬
politans. They confecraied bifhops; affembled yearly
in council the clergy of their refpeftive diftridts; pro¬
nounced a decifive judgment in thofe cafes where ac-
cufations were brought againfl bifhopj; and appointed
vicars or deputies, clothed with their authority, for
the prefervation of order and tranquillity in the remoter
provinces. In fhort, nothing was done whthout con-
iulting them; and their decrees were executed with the
lame regularity and refpedt as thofe of the princes.
It deferves to be remarked, however, that the autho¬
rity of the patriarchs was not acknowdedged through
all the provinces without exception. Several dilhids,
both in the eaftern and weftern empires, were exempted
from their jurifdi&ion. The Latin church had no patri¬
archs till the fixth century ; and the churches of Gau',
Britain, &c. were never iubjed to the authority of the
patriarch of Rome, whofe authority only extended to the
fuburbicary provinces. There was no primacy, no cx-
1 archate
(a) The wordediocefe was then of very different import from what it bears
opacy, it was o Terved, that the firft founders of churches regulated their exl
. is now. Under the article Epis¬
copacy, it was o Terved, that the firft founders of churches regulated their extent and the jurifdi&ion of their
bifhops by the divifions of the Roman empire into civil jurifdiaions. One of thefe divifions was into provinces
and diocefes. A province comprifed the cities of a whole region fubje&ed 10 the authority of one chief
magiftrate, who refided in the metropolis or chief city of the province. A diocefe was a ftill larger diftrict,
comprehending within it feveral provinces, fubjed to the controul of a chief magiftrate, whofe refidence wan
1" thc nJet1r0p,c|!li of the dl0ctfe* The jurifdidion of the bifhops of the Chriftian church was eftablifhed upon
this model. Ibe authority of a private bifhop extended only over the city in which he refided, together with
the adjacent villages and furrounding tra& ot country. This diftrift was called xugoty.icty though it compre-
many Parifhe8 jn the modern fenfe of that word. Under Arcadius and Honorius the empire was
divided into thirteen diocefes; 1. The Oriental diocefe, containing fifteen provinces; 2. The diocefe of
Tgyptj fix provinces; 3. The Afiatic diocefe, ten provinces; 4. The Pontic diocefe, ten provinces 1 c. The
diocefe of f brace, fix provinces ; 6. The diocefe of Macedonia, fix provinces ; 7. The diocefe of Becia, five
provinces ; o. J he Italic diocefe, feventeen provinces; 9. The dtocefe of Illyncum, fix provinces; 10. The
thocefe of Africa, provinces ; 11. The Spanifh diocefe, feven provinces ; 12. The Gallican diocefe, feven-
een province, , 13. ie Britannic diocefe, five provinces. Each of thefe provinces comprehended many
sKpouji.j an<j each *•«**»»* many modern parifhes. See Bingham's Origines Sacrc$y Book ix.
PAT
[ 40 1
PAT
Patrick.
Patriarchal archate nor patnarchate, owned here ; but the biffiops,
with the metropolitans, governed the church in com¬
mon Indeed, after the name patriarch became frequent
in the weft, it was attributed to the bifhops of Bourges
and Lyons; but it was only in the firft figmfication, viz.
as heads of diocefes. Du Cange fays, that there have
been feme abbots who have borne the title of patriarchs.
PATRIARCHAL cross, in heraldry, is that
where the ihaft is twice crofted ; the lower arms being
longer than the Upper ones.-
PATRICIAN, a title given, among the ancient
Romans, to the defendants of the hundred, or, as fome
will have it, of the two hundred firft fenators chofen
by Romulus; and by him called patresy “ fathers.”
Romulus eftablifhed this order after ^ the example of
the Athenians; who were divided into two claffes,
viz. the ivralpiS«( patricios, and popuJares.
Patricians, therefore, were originally the nobility ; in
oppofition to the plebeians. They were the only per-
fons whom Romulus allowed to alpire to the magiftra-
cy ; and they exercifed all the functions of the prieft-
hood till the year of Rome 495. But the cognizance
and charafter of thefe ancient families being almoit
loft and extinguifhed by a long courfe of years, and
frequent changes in the empire, a new kind of patri¬
cians were afterwards fet on toot, who had no pre-
tenfions from birth, but whofe title depended entirely
on the emperor’s favour. This new patriciate, Zozi-
mus tells us, was erefted by Conftantine, who confer¬
red the quality on his counfellurs, not becaute they
were defended from the ancient fathers of the fnate,
but becaufe they were the lathers of the republic or
of the empire. This dignity in time became the
•bigheft ef the empire. Juftinian calls it fummam digm-
intem. In effthe patricians fern to have had the
precedence of the confulares, and to have taken place
before them in the fenate ; though F. Faber afferts the
contrary. What confounds the queftian is, that the
two dignities often met in the fame perfon; becauf
the patriciate was only conferred on thofe who had
eone through .the firft offices of the empire, or had
been confuls. Pope Adrain made Charlemagne take
the title of patrician before he affumed the quality ot
emperor ; and other popes have given the title to other
kings and princes by reafon of its eminence.
P atr 1 ciAn is alfo a title of honour often conferred
on men of the firft quality in the time of our Anglo-
Saxon kings. See Thane. .
Pavkicij* Deities, Patricii Du, in mythology, were
Jaml3, Saturn, the Genius, Pluto, Bacchus, the bun,
the Moon, and the Earth.
Patricians, in ecclefiaftical writers, were ancient
fediaries, who difturbed the peace of the church m the
beginning of the third century: thus called from their
founder Patricias, preceptor of a Marciomte called
Symmachus. His dillinguiffiing tenet was that the
fubftance of the flefh is not the work of God, but
that of the devil: on which account his adherents bore
an implacable hatred to their own fie(h ; which forne-
times carried them fo far as to kill themfelves. I hey
were alfo called Tatianites, and made a branch of
the Encratit/e. _ 1 1 » r
PATRICK (St), the apoftle of Ireland, ami le-
' corn! biffiop of that country. Pie was born April 5th
A. D. 373, of a good family, »; Kirk Patrjc near
Dumbarton, In what is now called Scotland, but then
comprehended under the general name of Britain.—
His baptifmal name Suceath, fignifies, in the Britifit
language, “ valiant in war.” On fome inroad of
certain exiles from Ireland he was taken prifoner, and
carried into that kingdom, where he continued fix
years in the fervice of Milcho, who had bought him
of three others, when Patric acquired the new name of
Cothraig, or Ceathar-Tigh, i. c. four families. In this
time he made himfelf matter of the Iriffi language, and
at laft made his efcape, and returned home on board a
fhip. About two years after, he formed a defign of
converting the Iriffi, either in confequence of a dream,
or of reflection on what he had obferved during his
acquaintance with them. The better to qualify him-
felf for this undertaking, he travelled to the continent,
where he continued 35 years, purfuing his ftudies un¬
der the direction of his mother’s uncle St Martin, bi-
(hop of Tours, who had ordained him deacon ; and
after his death with St German, biffiop of Auxerre,
who ordained him prieft, and gave him his third name
Matvn or Maginim.
An ancient author, Henricus Antifioderenfis, who
wrote a book concerning the miracles of St German,
confiders it as the higheft honour of that prelate to have
been the inftruCbor of St Patrick : “ As the glory of a
father {bines in the government of his fons, out of the
many difciples in religion who are reported to have been
his fons in Chrift; fuffice it briefly to mention one by far
the moft. famous, as the feries of his aCHons (hows, Pa¬
trick the particular apoftle of Ireland, who being under
his holy difeipline 1 8 years, derived no little knowledge
in the infpired writings from fuch a fource. The moft
godly divine pontiff, confidering him alike diftinguifh-
ed in religion, eminent for virtue, and ftedfaft in doc¬
trine ; and thinking it abfurd to let one of the beft la¬
bourers remain inaCUve in the Lord’s vineyard, re¬
commended him to Celeftine, Pope of Rome, by his
prefbyter Segetius, who was to carry to the apoftolic
fee a teftimonial of ecclefiaftical merit of this excel¬
lent man. Approved by his judgment, fupported by
his authority, and confirmed by his bleffing, he fet
out for Ireland ; and being peculiarly deftined to that
people as their apoftle, inftruCted thefo at that time by
his do&rine and miracles; and now does and will for¬
ever difplay the wonderful power of his apoftlethip.”
Laftly, Pope Celeftine confccrated him bifhop, and
gave him his moft familiar name Patricias, expreffive
of Ms honourable defeent; and to give luftre and
weight to the commiffion which he now charged him
with to convert the Iriih. Pailadius had been here a
before him on the fame defign, but with little
Patrick.
year   „
fuccefs : the faints Kierari, Ailbe, Declan, and
ibar, were prectufors both to PaUadius and Patrick.
But the great office of apoftle of Ireland was referved
for our prelate, who landed in the country of the Evo-
lein, or at Wicklow, A. D. 441. His firft convert
was'sinell, eighth in defeent from Cormac king of
Leinfter ; but not meeting with encouragement, he
proceeded to Dublin, and thence to Tjltief, where he
founded a church (afterwards the famous abbey of
Saul, in the county of Down), remarkable tor its po-
iition, being made out of a barn, and its greateft
length reaching from north to fouth. After labouring
feven years indefatigably in his great worx, he retui#-
cd
PAT t
WrctMi. tH to Britani, which he delivered from the hefeGee of
■—r-~ Pdagius and Ar'tis; engaged feveral eminent pertons
to alTiil him ; vitited the Ifle ot Man, which he con¬
verted in 44c* when the bifhopric was founded; and,
A. D. 448, returned to the fee of Armagh (a), which
he had founded three years before ; and in 13 years
■more completed the converfion of the whole idand ^ b).
After giving an account ofhis commiffion at Rome, he
once more returned hither, and fpent the remainder of
his life between the monafteries of Armagh and Saul,
fuperintenrling and enforcing the great plan of doftrme
and difeipline which he had eltabliihed. After ha¬
wing eftablilhed fchools, or an academy here, he clofed
his life and miyiflry at Saul a!;bey, in the i2Cth year
of his age, March 17- A. D. 493’ an<^ w.as ^un">e'!
Down afterwards, in the fame grave with St Bnget
and St Columb, in the fame place. Refpedhng his
burial-place, however, there have beeu great difputes;
and it has been as great a fubjeft of debate with the
religious, as Homer’s birth-place was formeily among
the cities of Greece. Thofe of Down lay claim to
it, on the authority of the following verfes :
Thefe three in Down he in tomb one,
Brigct, Patricius, and Columba p’ous.
Thofe of Glaftenbury in England, from the old mo¬
numents of their churchy And fome Scots af¬
firm him to have been both born and burred among
them at Glafgow. His genuine works were collected
and printed by Sir James Ware, 1656. His imme¬
diate fuccedbr in this fee was St Binen or Begnus.
Order of St Patrick, an irftitution which took place
in Ireland in the year 1783. On the fifth of Febru¬
ary, in that year, the king ordered letters-patent to
be paffed under the great feal of the kingdom of Ire¬
land, for creating a fociety or brotherhood, to he called
kn'whts of the illvjlnuus order of St Potrich, of which his
Tnajefty, his heirs, and fucceffors, fiiall perpetually be
fovereigns, and his majefty’s lieutenant-general and
general-governor of Ireland, &c. for the time being,
fhall officiate as grand-makers ; and alfo for appointing
Prince Edward, and feveral of the prime nobility
of Ireland, knights companions of the faid iliuftrious
order.
Patrick (Simon), a very learned Englifii bifhop,
was born at Gainlborough in Lincolnfhire in 1626.
In 1644 he was admitted into Queen’s college, Cam¬
bridge, and entered into holy orders. After being for
fome time chaplain to Sir Walter St John, and vicar of
Vol. XIV. Part I.
p ] PAT.
the church at Batterfea in Surry, he was preferred td Pa'rick,
the redtory of St Paul’s, Covent-gaidcn, in London,
where he continued all the time of the plague in 1665
among his parifhioners, to their great comfort. Is
1668 he publifiied his Friendly Debate between a Con-
formift and a Nonconformift. This was anfwered by
the Dilfenters, whom he had much exafperated by i t ;
but by his moderation and candour toward them after¬
wards, they were perfe&ly reconciled to him, and he
brought over many of them to the communion of the
eftablilhed church. In 1678 he was made dean of
Peterborough, where he was much beloved. In 1682,
Dr Lewis de Moulin, who had been a hiftory-profef-
for at Oxford, and written many bitter books againfl
the church of England, fent for Dr Patrick upon his
fick-bed, and made a folemn declaration of his regret
on that account, which he figned, and it was publilh-
ed after his death. During the reign of King James,
the dean’s behaviour fnowed that he had nothing more
at heart than the Proteilant religion ; for which he
ventured all that was dear to him, by preaching and
writing againll the errors of the church of Rome. In
1687 he publilhed a prayer compofed for that difficult
time, when perfecution was expc6ted by all who flood
firm to their religion. The yer.r^tfter the Revolution,
the dean was appointed bithop of Chichefier, and was
employed with others of the new bifhops to fettle the
affairs of the church in Ireland. In 1691 he was
tranfiiitcd to the fee of Ely, in the room of the de¬
prived Bifnop Turner. He died in 1707, after having
publilfied various works; among which the moll di-
flinguilhed are his P.iraphrafes and Commentaries on
the Holy Scriptures, three volumes folio. Thefe, with
Lowth on the Proverbs, Arnold on the Apocrypha
and Whitby on the New Tellament, make a regular
continued commentary in Englilh on all the facred
books.
PATRIMONY, a right or eflate Inherited by a
perfon from his anceflors.
The term patrimony has been alio given to church-
eflates or revenues ; in which fenfe authors flill fay,
the patrimony of the church of Rimini, Milan, &c.
The church of Rome hath patrimonies in France, A-
frica, Sicily, and many -other countries. To create
the greater rcfpedl to the eflates belonging to the
church, it was ufual to give their patrimonies the names
of the faints they held in the highelt veneration : thus
the ellate of the church of Ravenna was called the />(7-
trimony of St Apoliinarius ; that of Milan, the patrimony
(a) At Armagh St Patrick founded, A. D. 445 or 447, a prior/ of Augufline canons, dedicated to St
Peter and St Paul, much enriched by the archbifhops ; reftored by Imar O Hedegan in the 12th century. It
was granted, A. D. 1611, to Sir Toby Caulfield, knight. St Patrick alfo founded there a houfc of canonefies
©f the fame order, under his filler Lujsita, called Templena jirta, or the “ houfe of miracles.”
We are told, that Armagh w'as made a metvcpolitical fee in honour of Sc Patrick ; in confequence of which
it was held in the higheft veneration not only by bilhops and priefls, but alfo by kings and bifhops, as the ve¬
nerable Bede informs us.
(b) There is a cave in the county of Donegal or Tir-ronnel, near the feurce of the Liffey, which, it is*
pretended, was dug by Ulyffes, in order ts held convcrfations with infernals. The p’efent inhabitants call
-it Elian ri Fradatory, or the “ Ifiand of Purgatory, and Patrick’s Purgatory.” They affirm, with a pious
credulity, that St Patrick the api,flle of Ireland, or fo ne abbot of that name, obtained of God by his earnefl
prayers, that the pains and torments which await the wicked after this lire might be here fet forth to viewj
'in order the mare eafily to recover the Irifh from their finful ftate and heathenilh errors.
PAT
[42]
PAT
Pairiotifm. cf St /imlrotf, and the eftates of the Roman church nopaffionof more general utility than patnotifm ; hut Patriotic.
A   J  S* Prtrr in v4hrnv.*n* the ita orlo-In mav uttaueftionablv be termed felfifh. ihe 1
were called tlie potfitnony^ of St Pvttv in slbvu%>%*0y the
patrimony of St Peter in Sicily, and the like. _
What is now called St Peter's patrimony is only the
duchy of Cailro, and the territory of Orvietto. See
Castro, &c. .
PATRIOTISM, a love of one’s country, which is
one of the nobleft pafiions that can warm and animate
the human bread. It includes all the limited and
particular affe&ions to our parents, children, friends,
neighbours, fellow-citizens, and countrymen. It ought
to direft and limit their more confined and partial
aftions within their proper and natural bounds, and
never let them encroach on thofe facred and fir ft re¬
gards we owe to the great public to which we belong.
Were we fcktary creatures, detached from the reft of
mankind, and without any capacity of comprehending
a public intereft, or without affe&ions leading us _ to
defire and purfue it, it would not be our duty to mind
it, nor criminal to negleil it. But as we are parts of
the public fyftem, and are not only capable of taking
in large views of its interefts, but by the ftrongeft af-
fedtions conne&ed with it, and prompted to take a
(hare of its concerns, we are under the moft facred
ties to profecute its fecurity and welfare with the ut-
moft ardour, efpecially in times of public trial.
“ Zeal for the public good (fays Mr Addifon) is the
chara&eriftic of a man of honour and a gentleman, and
muft take place of pleafures,profits,and all other private
gratifications: that whofoeverw'ants this motive, is an
open enemy, or an inglorious neuter to mankind, in pro¬
portion to the mifapplied advantages with which na¬
ture and fortune have blefied him.” This love of our
country does not import an attachment to any parti¬
cular foil, climate, or fpot of earth, wheie perhaps we
firft drew our breath, though thofe natural ideas are
often affociated with the moral onesj and, like ex¬
ternal figns or fymbols, help to afeertain and bind
them ; but it imports an afteftion to that moral fy¬
ftem or community, which is governed by the fame
laws and magiftrates, and whofe feveral parts are vari-
oufly connected one with the other, and all united
upon the bottom of a common intereft. Wherever
this love of our country prevails in its genuine vigour
and extent, it fwallows up all fordid and felfifh re¬
gards ; it conquers the love of eafe, power, pleafure,
and wealth; nay, when the amiable partialities of
friendftiip, gratitude, private affeamn, or regards to a
family, come in competition with it, it will teach us
to facrifice all, in order to maintain the rights, and
promote and defend the honour and happinefs of our
country To purfue therefore our private ihterefts in
fubordination to the good of our country ; to be ex¬
amples in it of virtue, and obedient to the laws , to
choofe fuch reprefentatives as we apprehend to be the
beft friends to its conftitution and liberties ; and if we
have the power, to promote fuch laws as may improve
and perfea it ; readily to embrace every opportunity
for advancing its profperity; cheerfully to contribute
to its defence and fupport; and, if need be, to die f^r
itthefe are among the duties which every man, who
has the happinefs to be a member of our free and Pro-
teftant conftitution, owes to his country.
The conftitution of man is fuch, that the moft felf¬
ifh paffions, if kept within their proper bounds, have
u tendency to promots the public good. There is
its origin may umqueftionably be termed felfijh. The
love of one’s relations and friends is the moft natural
expanfion of felf-love : this affe&ion conne&s itftlf
too with local circurnftances, and fometimes cannot
eafily be feparated from them. It often varies, as rela-
tionfhip or place varies; but acquires new power when
the whole community becomes its objeA. It was
therefore with fingular propriety that the poet faid,
“ Self-love and focial are the fame.” Under the ar¬
ticle Calais we have already given the outlines otRapin'>
the tranfa&ions of its fiege by Edward III. during^
which the inhabitants difplayed a degree of patriotifm LdTW- L1U
truly wonderful. Hiftory fcarcely contains a more
diftinguiftied inftance of true patriotic virtue than on
this occafion. We fhall therefore give a fuller account
of this remarkable affair, as one of the beft examples
that ran pofiibly be felefted of the virtue we have
been explaining. The inhabitants, under Count Vienne
theirgallant governor,made anadmirabledefenceagainft .
a well difeiplined and powerful army. Day after day the
Engliftr effefted many a breach, which they repeatedly
expeAed to ftorm by morning ; but, when morning ap¬
peared, they wondered to behold new ramparts raifed
nightly, ereAed out of the ruins which the day had
made. France had now put her fickle into her fe-
cond harveft fince Edward with his viAonous army
fat down before the town. The eyes of all Europe
were intent on the iffue. The Englifh made their ap¬
proaches and attacks without remiffion ; but the citi¬
zens were as obftinate in repelling all their eiforts.
At length, famine did more for Edward than arms.
After the citizens had devoured the lean carcafes of
their half-ftarved cattle, they tore up old foundations
and rubbifh in fearch of vermin : they fed on boiled
leather, and the weeds of exhaufted gardens; and a
ntorfel of damaged com was accounted matter of lux¬
ury. In this extremity they refolved to attempt the
enemy’s camp. 1 hey boldly falhed forth ; the Eng-
lifti joined battle ; -and, after a long and defperate en
gagement, Count Vienne was taken prifoner ; and the
citizens, who furvived the {laughter, retired within
their gates. On the captivity of their governor, the
command devolved upon Euftace Saint 1 leire, the
mayor of the town, a man of mean birth, but Oi exalt¬
ed virtue. Euftace foon found himfelf under the ne-
cefiity of capitulating, and offered to deliver to Ed!
ward the city, with"all the poffeffions and wealth of
the inhabitants, provided he permitted them to de¬
part with life and liberty. As Edward had long fince
expeAed to afeend the throne of France, he was ex-
afperated to the laft degree againft thefe people, whofe
foie valour had defeated his warmeft hopes ; he there¬
fore determined to take an exemplary revenge, though
he wifhed to avoid the imputation of cruelty. Efe an-
fwered by Sir Walter Mauny, that they all deferved
capital punifhment, as obftinate traitors to him,, there
true and notable fovereign ; that, however, in his
wonted clemency, he confented to pardon the bulk of
the plebeians, provided they would deliver up to him
fix of their principal citizens with halters about their
necks, as viAims of due atonement for that fpirit of
rebellion with which they had inflamed the common
people. All the remains of this defolate city.were
convened in the great fquare; and like men arraigned
at a tribunal from whence there was no appeal, expeA-
PAT [ 43 ] PAT ^
[atriotifra. ed with throbbing hearts the fentencc of their con-
—queror. When Sir Walter had declared his mefiage,
condensation and pale difmay was imprefled on every
facj:: each looked upon death as his own inevitable
lot \ for how fhould they defire to be faved at the price
propofed ? Whom had they to deliver up, fave parents,
brothers, kindred, or valiant neighbours, who had fo
often expofed their lives in their defence ? To a long
and dead filence, deep fighs and groans fucceeded, till
Euftace Saint Pierre afcending a little eminence, thus
addrefied the afiembly: “ My friends and fellow-
citizens, you fee the condition to which we are redu¬
ced : we muft either fubmit to the terms of our cruel
* . . v
and enfnaring conqueror, or yield up our tender in¬
fants, our wives, and chafte daughters, to the b’oody
p.nd brutal lufts of the violating foldiery. We well
know what the tyrant intends by his fpecious offers
of mercy. It does not fitiate his vengeance to make
us merely miferable, he would alfo make us criminal :
he would m ike us contemptible ; he will grant us life
on no condition, fave that of our being unworthy of
it. Look about you, my friends, and fix your eyes
on the perfon whom you wiih to deliver up as the vic¬
tims of your own fafety. Which of tbefe would you
appoint to the rack, the ax, or the halter ? Is there any
here who has not watched for you, who has not fought
for you, who has not bled for you ? Who, through
the length of this inveterate fiege, has not fuffered fa
tigues and miferies a thoufand times worfe than death,
that you and yours might furvive to days of peace and
profperity ? Is it your prefervers, then, whom you
would deftine to deftruftion ? You will not, you can¬
not, do it. Juftice, honour, humanity, make fuch a
treafon impoffible. Where then is our refource i1 Js
there any expedient left, whereby we may avoid guilt
and infamy on one hand, or the defohtion and hor¬
rors of a facked city on the other? There is, my
friends, there is one expedient left; a gracious, an ex¬
cellent, a god-like expedient! Is there any here to
whom virtue is dearer than life ! Let him offer him-
felf an oblation for the fafety of his people ! fie fhall
not fail of a blefied approbation from that power, who
effered up his only Son for the falvation of mankind/’
He fpoke—but an univerfal filence enfued. Each
man looked round for the example of that virtue and
magnanimity in others, which all wifhed to approve in
themfelves, though they wanted the refolution. At
length Saint Pierre refumed : “ It had been bafe in
me, my fellow-citizens, to promote any matter of da
mage to others, which I myfelf had not been willing
to undergo in my own perfon. But I held it unge¬
nerous to deprive any man of that preference and efti-
nution, which might attend a firfl offer on fo fijnal
an occafion : for I doubt not but there are many here
as ready, nay, more zealous for this martyrdom than I
can be, however modefly and the fear of imputed often-
tation may withhold them from being foremofl in ex¬
hibiting their merits. Indeed the ftation to which
the captivity of Count Vienne has unhappily raifed
me, imports a right to be the firif in giving my life
foi your fakds. I give it freely, I give it cheerfully.
Who comes next ? Your fon ! exclaimed a youth,
not yet come to maturity.-Ah, my child ! cried St
Pierre ; I am then twice facrificed.—But no—I have
rather begotten thee a fecond time Thy years are
few, but full, my fon ; the viftim of virtue has reach- P-triotifm
ed the utmoft purpofe and goal of mortality. Who  v~1
next, my friends ? This is the hour of heroes.—Your
kinfman, cried John de Aire! Your kinfman, cri¬
ed James WifTant ! Your kinfman, cried f’eter Wif-
fant! —“ Ah! (exclaimed Sir Walter Mauny, hurfl-
ing into tears), why was I not a citizen of Calais ?”
The lixth vidlim was flill wanting, but was quickly
fupplied by lot, from numbers who were now emulous
of fo ennobling an example. The keys of the city
were then delivered to Sir Walter. He took the fix
prifoners into his cuftody. He ordered the gates to
be opened, and gave charge to his attendants to con-
dudl the remaining citizens with their families through
the camp of the Enghfh. Before they departed, how¬
ever, they defired permiflion to take their laft adieu
of their deliverers.—What a parting! what a fc-.m !
they crowded with their wives and children about
St Pierre and his fellovv-prifoners. They embraced,
they clung around, they fell proflrute before them.
They groaned ; they wept aloud ; and the joint cla¬
mour of their mourning pafTeJ the gates of the city,
and was heard throughout the camp. At length Saint
Pierre and his fellow vidlims appeared under the con¬
duct of Sir Walter and his guard. All the tents of
the Englifh were inflantly emptied. The foldiers
poured from all parts, and arranged themfelves on
each fide to behold, to contemplate, to admire this
little band of patriots as they palled. They murmur¬
ed theii applaufe of that virtue which they could not
but revere even in enemies ; and they regarded thofe
ropes which they had voluntarily aflumed about their
necks as enfigns of gteater dignity than that of the
Briiifb Garterr As foon as they had reached the
royal prefence, “ Mauny (fays the king), are thefe the
principal iuhabitaHts of Calais ?” “ They are (fays
Mauny J; they are not only the principal men of Ca¬
lais, they are the principal men of France, my lord,
if virtue has any fhare in the aft of ennobling.”
“ Were they delivered peaceably, (fays Edward) ?
Was there no refiftance, no commotion among the
people?” “Not in the leaf!, my lord. They are
felf delivered, felf-devoted, and come to offer up their
ineflimable heads as an ample equivalent for the ran-
fom of thoufands.”
fhe king, who was highly incenfed at the length
and difficulty of the fiege, ordered them to be carried
away to immediate execution ; nor could all the re-
monflrances and intreaties of his courtiers divert him
from his cruel purpofe. But what neither a regard
to his own intereft and honour, what neither the dic¬
tates of juitice, nor the feelings of humanity, could
effeft, was happily accomplifhcd by the more powerful
influence of conjugal affection. The queen, who was
then big with child, being informed of the particulars
refpedling the fix victims, flew into her hufband’s pre-
fence, threw herfelf on her knees before him, and,
with tears in her eyes, befought him not to ftain his
charadter with an indelible mark of infamy, by com¬
mitting fuch a horrid and barbarous deed. Edward
could refufe nothing to a wife whom he fo tenderly-
loved, and efpecially in her condition ; and the queen,
not fatisfied with having faved the lives of the fix
burghers, condudted them to her tent, where fhe ap¬
plauded their virtue, regaled them with a plenti-
F 2 ' ful
i
PAT
[ 44
Pitriotifrr, ful repaft, and liaving made them a prefent of mo-
 ' rey and clothes, fent them back to their fellow-citi¬
zens.
y’lu'drcb'i
L je »fLy
turgus.
T>ion. lib.
The love of their country, and of the public good,
feems to have been the predominant paffion .of the
Spartans. Pedaretus having miffed the honour of be-
irg chofen one of the thiee hundred who had a certain
rank of diftiuftion in the city, went home extremely
pleafed and fatisfied ; faying, “ He was overjoyed there
were three hundred men in Sparta more honourable
than himfelf.”
The patriotifai of the Romans is well known, and
has been juftly admired. We ffiall content ourfelves at
prefent with the following example ; a Zealand patrio¬
tic devotion fimilar to which is perhaps fcarcely equal¬
led, and Certainly is not rxceeded, in hiftory.
Rome, under the confuls Caffo Fabius and T. Vir
■viii. p. 57° ginius, had feveral wars to fuftam, lefs dangerous tlian
and Rdlin's trou{ lefome, againft the ^Equi, Volfci, and Veientes.
Jiom. Hijl ^ a to t^e ;ncur{ion8 of the laft, it would
V‘ 1 have been nectffary to have eftablifhed a good garrifon
upon their frontiers to keep them in awe. But the
commonwealth, exhaufted of money, and menaced by
abundance of other enemies, was not in a condition to
provide for fo many different cares and expences. The
family of the Fabii (bowed a generofity and love cf
their country that has been the admiration of all ages.
They applied to the fenate, and by the mouth of toe
conful demanded as a favour that they would be pleafed
to transfer the care and expences of the garrifon ne-
ceffary to oppofe the enterprizes of the Veientes to
their houfe, which required an affiduous rather than a
numerous body, promifing to fupport with dignity
the honour of the Roman name in that poll. Every
body was charmed with fo noble and unheard-of an
offer; and it was accepted with great acknowledgment.
The news fpread over the whole city, and nothing was
talked of but the Fabii. Every body praifed, every
body admired and extolled them to the Ikies. “ If
there were two more fuch families in Rome, laid they,
« the one might take upon them the war againft the
Volfci, and the other againft the JEqui, whilft the
commonwealth remained quiet, and the forces of par¬
ticulars fubdued the neighbouring dates.
Early the next day the Fabii fet out, with the con-
ftfl at their head, robed, and with his infignia. Never
was there fo fmall, and at the fame time fo illuftrious,
an army feen ; for which we have the authority of
Livy. Three hundred and fix foldiers, all patricians,
and of the fame family, of whom not one but might
be judged worthy ©f commanding an army, march
againft the Veii full of courage and alacrity, under a
captain of their own name, Fabius. Fhey were fol¬
lowed by a body of their friends and clients, animated
by the fame fpirit and zeal, and aftuated oaly by
great and noble views. The whole city (locked to fee
fo fine a fight; ptaifed thore generous foldiers in the
higheft terms; and promifed them confufthips, tri¬
umphs, and the moft glorious rewards. As they
paffed before the capitol and the other temples, every
body implored the gods to take them into their pro-
teftion ; to favour their departure and undertaking,
and to afford them a fpeedy and happy return. But
thefe prayers were not heard. When they arrived
near the river Crimera* which is not far from \ eiij
] P - A T
they built a fort upon a very rough and deep moun¬
tain for the fecurity ot the troops, which they fur-
rounded with a double foife, and flanked with feveral
towers. This fettiement, which prevented the enemy
from cultivating their ground, and ruined their com¬
merce with ft rangers, incommoded them extremely.
The Veientes not finding themfelves ftrong enough to
ruin the fort which the Romans had ereaed, applied
to the Hctrurianv, who fent them very confidetable
aid. In the mean time the Fabii, encouraged by the
great fuccefs of their rncurfions into the enemy s coun¬
try, made farther progrefs every day. 1 heir exceflive
boldnefs made the Hetrurians conceive thoughts of
laying ambufeades for them in feveral places. Luring
the night they feized all the eminences that command¬
ed the plain, and found means to conceal a great
number of troops upon them. Fhe next day they
differ fed more cattle about the country than they had
done before. The Fabii being apprized that the
plains were covered v/ith flocks and neids, a^d defend¬
ed by only a very fmall number of troops, they quitted
their fort, leaving in it only a fufficient number to
guard it. The hopes of a great booty quickened their
march. They arrived at the place in order of battle ;
and were preparing to attack the advanced guard of
the enemy, when the latter, who had their orders, fled
without (laying till they were charged. The Fabii,
believing themfelves fecure, feized the (hepherds, and
were preparing to drive away tne cattle. I he Hei.ru-
rians then quitted their ikulking places, and fell upon
the Romans from all fides, who were moft of them
difptrfed in pur fait of their prey. All they could do
was to rally immediately ; and that they could not
effecl without great difficulty. They foon (aw them-
feives furrouaded on all (ides, and fought like lions,
felling their lives very dear. But finding that they could
"not fuftain this kind of combat long, they drew up in a
wedge, and advancing with the utmoft fury and impe-
tuofity, opened themlelves a paffage through the enemy
that led to the fide of the mountain. When they
came thither, they halted, and fought with freffi cou-
racre, the enemy leaving them no time to rtfpjre. As
they were upon the higher ground, they defended
themfelvea with advantage, notwithftanding their fmall
number; and beating down the enemy, who fpared no
p ins in the attack, they made a great (laughter of
them. But the Veientes having gained the top of the
' mountain by taking a compals, fell fuddenly upon
them, and galled them exceedingly from above with a
continual (hower of darts. I he Fabu defended them¬
felves to their laft breath, and were all killed to a man.
The Roman people were highly affe&ed with the lofs
of this illuftrious hand o': patriots. The day of their
defeat was ranked amongft their unfortunate days,
called nefaft, on which the tribunals were (hut up, and
no public affair could be negociated, or at leaft con¬
cluded. The memory of thefe public fpirited patri¬
cians, who had fo generoufly facriiiced their lives and
fortunes for the fervice of the (late, could not be too
much honoured. .
PATRIPASSIANS, patripassiani, m church-
hiftory, a Chriftian fed, who appeared about the lat¬
ter end of the fecond century ; fo called, from their
aferibing the paffion to the Father; for they afferted
the unity of God in fuch a manner as to deftroy all di-
* fhnaiors
Patnotifin,
fatrij-afli.
ans.
PAT F 45 ] PAT
ipatroclus, ftlndlions of p^rfons, and to make tlie Father and Son
precifely the iame ; in which they were followed by
L’""'v the Sabellians and others. The author and head of
the Patripafii '.ns was Praxeas, a philofopher of Phrygia
in Alia. Swredenbourg and his followers feem to hold
the fame faith.
PATROCLUS, a Grecian chief at the Trojan
war. He was the fon of Mencctius, by Sthenele,
whom feme call Philomela or Polymela. i he murder
of Clyfonymus, the fon of Amphidamaa, by accident,
in the time of his youth, made him fly from Opus,
where his father reigned. He went to the court of
Peleus king of Phthia. He was cordially received, and
contra&ed the moll intimate friendfliip with Achilles
the king’s fon. When the Greeks went to the Trojan
war, Patroclus went with them at the exprefs defire of
his father, who had viiited the court of Peleus ; and he
accordingly embarked with ten fhips from Phthia. He
was the conftant companion of Achilles ; lodged in the
fame tent; and when he refufed to appear in the field
of battle, becaufe he had been offended by Agamemnon,
Patroclus imitated his example, and by his abfence
was the caufe of much evil to the Greeks. At lafi,
however, Neflor prevailed upon him to return to the
war, and Achilles permitted him to appear in his ar¬
mour. The bravery of Patroclus, together with the
terror which the fight of the arms of Achilles infpired,
foon routed the victorious armies of the Trojans, and
obliged them to fly to the city for fafety. He would
have broken down the walls ; but Apollo, who inte-
veiled himfelf for the Trojans, oppofed him ; and Hec¬
tor, at the inftigation of that god, difmounted from
his chariot to attack him as he attempted to (Irip one
cf the Trojans whom he had llain. ’Phis engagement
was obliinate ; but Patroclus was at length over¬
powered by the valour of Hedtor, and the interpofition
of Apollo. His arms became the property of the
conqueror; and Hedfor would have fevered his head
from his body had not Ajax and Menelaus prevented
it. His body w. s at lad recovered, and carried to the
Grecian camp, tvhere Achilles received it with the
loudett lamentations. His funerals were obferved with
the greatefl folcmnity. Achilles facrificed near the
burning pile twelve young Trojans, four of his horfes,
?.nd two of his dogs ; and the whole was concluded by
the exhibition of funeral games, in which the conque¬
rors were liberally rewarded by Achilles. The death
of Patroclus, as deferibed by Plomcr, gave rife to new
events. Achilles forgot his refentment againft Aga¬
memnon, and entered the field to avenge the fall of
his friend ; and his anger was gratified only by the
flaughier of Heflor, who had mere powerfully kindled
his wrath by appearing at the head of the Trojan armies
in the armour which had been taken from the body of
Patroclus. The patronymic of Addorides is often appli¬
ed to P?,trocluF, fcecaufe A£lor was father to Menoetius.
PA i ROL, in war, a round or march made by the
guards or watch in the night time, to obferve what
pafles in the ftreets, and to fecure the peace and tran¬
quillity of s city or camp. The patrol generally cen-
filts of a body ot five or fix men, detached from a body
on guard, and commanded by a ferjeaot.
1 hey go every hour of the night, from the beating
of the tattoo until the reveille: they are co walk in the
-Greets in garrifons, and all over the camp in the field,
to prevent diforders, or any number of people from
affembling together: they are to fee the lights in the Patu’nugC,l
foldi-rs barracks put out, and to take up all the foldiers
they find out at their quarters. Sometimes patrols
con fill of an officer and 30 or 40 men, as well infantry
as cavalry ; hut then the enemy is generally near at
hand, and confequently the danger greater.
PATRON, among the Ro nans, was an appellation
given to a matter who had freed his fl ‘.ve. As foon as
the relation of maflcr expired, that of patron began:
for the Romans, in giving their flaves tneir freedom,
did net defpoil themiclves of all rights and privileges
in them; the law fiill ihbjcdted them to coufidciaUe
fervices and duties towards their patron*, tire neglect
of which was very ieverely punifned.
Patron was alfo a name which the people of Rome
gave to fome great man, under whofe protection they
ufually put themlelves ; paying him all kinds of honour
and refpeift, and denominating themfetves his clients;
while the patron, on his lide, granted them his credit
and oroteCtion. They were therefore mutually attach¬
ed and mutually obliged to each other; a.;d by this
means, in confequence of reciprocal ties, all thofe fedi-
tions, jealoufies, and animofitks, which are fo.netimes
the effect of a difference of rank, were prudently
avoided : for it was the duty ot the patron to advife
his clients in points of law, to manage their fuics, to
take care of them as of his own children, and fecure
their peace and happinefs. The diems were to aflift
their patrons with money on feveral occalions ; to ran-
fom them or their children when taken in war; to
contribute to the portions of their daughters ; and to
defray, in part, the charges of their public employ¬
ments. They were never to accufe each other, or take
contrary fides ; and if either of them was convidled of
having violated this law, the crime was equal to that
ot treafon, and. any one was allowed to kill the offen¬
der with impunity. This patronage was a tie as effec¬
tual as any confanguinity or alliance, and had a won¬
derful effect towards maintaining union and concord
among the people for the fpace of 600 years; during
wdiich time we find no difftnfions nor jealoufies be¬
tween the patrons and their clients, even in the times
of the republic when the populace frequently mutinied
againff thofe who were moil powerful in the city.
Patron, in the church of Rome, a faint whofe
name a perfon bears, or under whofe prote&ion he is
put, and whom he takes particular care to invoke; or
a faint in whofe name a church or order is founded.
Patron, in the canon or common law, is a per¬
fon who, having the advowfon of a parfonage, vica¬
rage, or the like fpiricual promotion, belonging to his
manor, hath on that account the gift and diipofition
of the benefice, and may prefent to it whenever it be¬
comes vacant. The patron’s right of difpofing of a
benefice originally arifes either from the patron ©r
his anceftors, &e. being the founders or builders of
the church ; from their having given lands for the
maintenaace thereof; or from the church’s being
built on their ground ; and frequently from all three
together.
PATRONAGE, or Aovowson, a fort of incor¬
poreal hereditament, confiding in the right of prefea-
tation to a church or ecckfiaftical benefice. Ad-
votvfon, advocation fignifiea in client dam recipere, the
taking
PAT
'Patn™''*'*. talcing into protection ; an 1 therefore is fynonymous
with patronage, patronaius: and he who has the right
TUaclponc's °f advowfon is called the patron oj the church.. 1'or
Commeuta- when lords of manors firll built churches on their own
■rim. deatefnes, and appointed the tithes of thofe manors to
be paid to the officiating minifters, which before were
given to the clergy in common (from whence arofe the
divifion of parifhes), the lord who thus built a church,
and endowed it with glebe or land, had of common
right a power annexed of nominating fuch minifter as
he pleafed (provided he were canonically qualified) to
officiate in that church, of which he was the founder,
endower, maintainer, or, in one word, the patron.
Advowfons are either advowfons appendant, or ad-
vowfons in grofs. Lords of manors being original.y
the only founders, and of eourfe the only patrons, of
churches, the right of patronage or prefentation, io
long as it continues annexed to the poffieffion of the
manor, as feme have done from the foundation of the
church to this day, is c died an advewfon appendant:
and it will pafs, or be conveyed, together with the
manor, as incident and appendant thereto, by a grant
of the manor only, without adding any other words.
But where the property of the advowfon has been
once leparated from the property of the manor ! y legal
conveyance, it is called an advoufon ingrofs, or at large,
and never can be appendant any more ; but it is for
the future annexed to the perfon of its owner, and not
to his manor or lands.
Advowfons are alfo either prefentative, ccllativey or
donative. An advowfon prefentative, is where the
patron hath a right of prefentation to the biffiop or
ordinuy, and moreover to den.and of him to inftitute
ln> clerk if he finds him canonically qualified : and
this is the mod ufual advowfon. An advowfon colla-
tive, is where the biffiop and patron are one and the
fame perfon : in which cafe the biffiop cannot prefent
to himfelf; but he does, by the one a& of collation,
or conferring the benefice, the whole that is done in
common cafes, by both prefentation and inftitution.
An advowfon donative, is when the king, or any fub»
jedl by his licence, doth found a church or chapel,
and ordains that it fiiall be merely in the gift or dif-
pofal of the patron ; fubjeft to his vifitation only, and
not to that of the ordinary ; and veiled abfolutely in
the clerk by the patron’s deed of donation, without
prefentation, inftitution, or induaion. I his is faid
to have been anciently the only way of conferring
ecclefiaftical benefices in England ; the method’ of in-
ftitution by the bifhop not being eftabliffied more
early than the time of Archbiffiop Bccket in the
reign of Henry II. and therefore, though pope Alex-
under III. in a letter to Beckct, feverely inveighs
a gain ft the prava confuetudo, as he calls it, of invefti-
ture conferred by the patron only, this however (hows
what was then the common ufage. Others contend
that the claim of the bithops to inftitution is. as old
as the firft planting of Chriftianity in this ifland ;
and in proof of it they allege a letter from the Eng-
liffi nobility to the pope in the reign of Henry the
third, recorded by Matthew Pans, which fpeaks. of
prefentation to the bifhop as a thing immemorial.
The truth feems to be, that, where the benefice was
to be conferred on a mete layman, he was firft pre-
feoted to the bifhop in order to receive ordinatioiij
PAT
who was at liberty to examine and refufe him : but Pafrony.
where the clerk was already in orders, the living was , nne'
ufually veiled in him by the foie donation of the pa¬
tron ; till about the middle of the rath century, when
the p^pe and his bifhops endeavoured to introduce a
kind of feudal dominion over ecclefiaftical benefices,
and, in confeqnence of that, began to claim and exer-
cife the right of inftitution univerfally, as a fpecies of
fpiritual inveftiture.
However this may be, if, as the law now ftands,
the true patron once waves this privilege of donation,
and prefents to the bifhop, and his clerk is admitted
and inftituted, the advowfon is now become for ever
prefentative, and fhnll never be donative any more.
For thefe exceptions to general rules and common
right are ever looked upon by the hw in an un¬
favourable view, and conllrued as ftriclly as pollible.
If ihcrefote the patron, in whom fuch peculiar right
refides, does on e give up that right, the law, which
lov‘9 uniformity, will interpret it to be done with an
intention of giving it up for ever; and will therefore
reduce it to the ftandard of other ecclefiaftical livings.
Set further, Law, Part III. Se£t. v. NJ clix. 5 —10.
/}rms of P.itronagf., in heraldry, are thofe on the
top of which are fome marks of fubjedlion and depen¬
dence : thus the city of Paris lately bore the fleurs-de-lis
in chief, to (how her fubjedftion to the king : and the
car finals, on the top of their arms, bear thofe of the
pope, who gave them the hat, to fhow that they are
his leatures.
PATRONYMIC, among grammarians, is applied
to fuch names of men or women as are derived from
thofe of parents or anceftors.
Patronymics are derived, 1. From the father; as
Pelides, e. Achilles the fon of Pcieus. 2. From
the mother ; as Philyrides, i. e. Chiron the fon of
Philyra. 3. From the grandfather on the father’s
fide ; as iEacides, i. e. Achilles the grandfon of /Ea-
cus. 4. From the grandfather by the mother’s fide ;
as Atlantiades, i. e. Mercury the grandfon of Atlas.
And, 5. From the kings and founders of nations ; as
Romulidae, i. e. the Romans, from their founder king
Romulus.
The termination of Greek and Latin patronymics
are chiefly four, viz. des, of which we have examples
above ; as, as Thaumantias, /. e. Iris the daughter of
Thaumas ; is, as Atlantis, /. e. Eleclra the daughter
of Atlas ; and ne, as Nerine, the daughter of Nereus-
Of thefe terminations des is mafeuline ; and as, is, and
tie, feminine : des and ne are ot the firft declenfion, as
and is of the third-
The Ruffians, in their ufual mode of add refs, never
prefix any title or appellation of refpeft to their names;
but perfons of all ranks, even thofe of the firft diftinc-
tion, call each other by their Chriftian names, to
which they add a patronymic. Thefe patronymics
are formed in fome cafes by adding Vitch (the fame
as our Fitz, as Fitzherbert, or the fon of Herbert)
to the Chriftian name of the father; in others by Of
or Ef; the former is applied only to perfons of condi¬
tion, the latter to thofe of inferior rank. I hus,
Ivan Ivanovitch, Ivan Ivanof,is Ivan the fon of Ivan;
Peter Alexievi ch, Peter Alexeof, Peter the fon of
Alexey.
The female patronymic is Efua or Ofna, as Sophia
Alex-
[ 46 1
Patros
11
Pattans.
PAT T 47 ] P A U
Alexeefna, or Sophia the daughter of Alexey; Maria
Ivanofna, or Maria the daughter of Ivan.
Great families are alfo in general diftinguilhed by
a furname, as thofe of Romanof, Galitzin, Shereme-
tof, &c.
PATROS, mentioned by Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
appears from the context to be meant of a part of E-
gypt. Bocchart thinks it denotes the Higher Egypt:
the Septuagint trandate it the country of Pathure; in
Pliny we have the Nemos Phaturites in the Thebais ; in
Ptolemy, Pathyris, probably the metropolis. From the
Hebrew appellation Patros comes the gentilitious name
Pathrti/im, Mofes.
PATRU (Oliver), a counfellor in parliament^ and
dean of the French academy, was Lorn at Paris in
1604. He had an excellent faculty both of fpeaking
and writing. Upon his admiffion into the French
academy in 1640, he made an oration of thanks, that
gave rife to the cultom of admifl'ory fpeeches, which
are Ifill in ufe in that fociety. Mr de Vaugilas owns
himfelf much indebted to him for his afiiftance in com-
pofmg his remarks on the French tongue, of which
he was by far the greateft matter in France 5 fo that
he was confulted as an oracle by all the belt writers of
that nation.
Patru was eftimable for the qualities of his heart,
as well as for thofe ‘of the head : was honert, generous,
fmcere ; and preferved a gaynefs of character, which
no ill-fortune could alter or affeft. For this famous
advocate, in fpite of all his great talents, lived almolt
in a ftate of indigence. The love of the belles lettres
made him negledt the law ; and the barren glory of
being an oracle to the belt French writers had more
charms for him, than all the profits of the bar. Hence
he became fo poor, as to he reduced to the neeeflity
of felling his books, which feemed dearer to him than
his life ; and would adtually have fold them for an
under-price, if Boileau had not generoully advanced
him a larger fum, with this further privilege, that lie
Ihould have the ufe of them as long as he lived. His
death was preceded by a tedious illnefs, during which
he received a prefent of 500 crowns from Colbert, as
a mark of the efttem which the king had for him.
He died the 16th of January 1681. The prodigious
care and exactnefs with which he retouched and fimlhed
every thing he wrote, did not permit him to publifh
much. His mifcellaneous works were printed at Paris
hi 1670,410; the third edition of which, in 1714,
4to> was augmented with feveral pieces. They con-
fiit of Pleadings, Orations, Letters', Lives of fome
of his Friends, Remarks upon the French Language,
ATTANS, Patans, or Afghans, a very war¬
like race of men, who had been fubjefts of the vail
empire of Boehara. They revolted under their go¬
vernor Abftagi, in the 10th century, and laid the
foundation of the empire of Ghizni or Gazna. In the
Diliertation prefixed to vol. III. of Dow’s Hifiory,
we h^ve this account of the Pattans.
1 hey are divided into diftinft communities, each
, which is governed by a .prince, who is confidered
by his fubjedls as the chief of their blood, as well as
their fovcretgn. They obey him without reluftance,
« they derive credit to their family by his greatuefs.
ihey attend lum in his wars with the attachment
which children have to a parent; and his government, Pattan$,
though fevere, partakes more of the rigid difeipline of
a general than the caprice of a defpot. Rude, like
the face of their country, and fierce and wild as the
ftorms which cover their mountains, they are addic¬
ted to incurfions and depredations, and delight in
battle and plunder. United firmly to their friends in
war, to their enemies faithlefs and cruel, they place
julliee in force, and conceal treachery under the name
of addrefs.”
The empire, which took its rife from the revolt of
the Pattans, under a fuccefiion of warlike princes rofe
to a furprifing magnitude. In the beginning of the
nth century, it extended from Ilpahan to Bengal,
and from the mouths of the Indus t« the banks of the
Jaxertes, which comprehends at lead half of the con¬
tinent ol Alia. I hey had fled to the mountains on
the borders of Perfia, that they might tfcape the
fword, or avoid fubmitting to the conquerors of In¬
dia ; and there they formed their ftate, which the Mo¬
guls were never able thoroughly to fubdue. Indeed
they fometimes exercifed depredations on the adja*
cent countries ; nor was it pofiible for the Moguls ei¬
ther to prevent it or to extirpate them. They were
fenfible that the climate and foil of the delicious plains
would only ferve to rob them of that hardinefs they
contra&ed in the hills to which they were confined ;
they, thetefore, for a long time gave no indications of
a defire to exchange them for more pleafing abodes, or
a more accefiible fituation. This enabled them to
brave the victorious army of Nadir Shah, whofe troops
they quietly fuffered to penetrate into Hindoltan, and
waited his return with the fpoils of that country 
They then harafled his army in the ftraits and defiles
of the mountains, and proved themfelves inch abfolute
mafters of the pafles, that they forced him to purchafe
from them his paffage into Perfia.
In the beginning of the prefent century, they had
fpread themfclves over the adjoining province of Kan¬
dahar ; and fuch was the imbecility of the Perfian em¬
pire at that time, that many other provinces and tri¬
butary Hates were alfo induced to revolt. When the
king or (hah of that time, whofe name was Hujfeiny
oppofed the growing power of this warlike people,
he was totally defeated, and Ifpahan was befieged and
obliged to furrender, after having fuffered dreadful ca¬
lamities, to an army confifting of only 30,000 men.
In confequence of this, they brought about a revolu¬
tion in Periia, and fubjeCted it to themfdves. This
fovereignty, however, they only held for feven years
and 21 days, having fallen a facrifice to the enterpri-
fing fpirit of Kouli Khan, or Nadir Shah. See Per¬
sia, and in the Appendix Afghans.
PAU, a town of France, in the province of Gaf-
cony and territory of Bearne, with a parliament, a
mint, and a cattle. “ The city of Pau (fays Wraxal*) * Ttur ,w
will be for ever memorable in hiltory, fince it was the France.
birth-place of Henry IV. That immortal prince was
born in the caftle, then the ufual refidence of the kings
of Navarre. It Hands on one of the moll romantic
and fingular fpots I have ever feen, at the weft end of
the town, upon the brow of a rock which terminates
perpendicularly. Below runs the Gave, a river or ra¬
ther a torrent which rifes in the Pyrenees, and empties
itfelf into the Aeovir, On the other fide, about two •
miles
P A U
r 4® 1
P A V
mSa off. Is a ridge of hills covered with vineyards,
which produce the famous Vin de Jorengon, fo much
admired; and beyond all, at the diftance of mu;
leagues, appear the Pyrenees themfelvcs, covering the
horizon fiom eaft to wcft? and bounding the profpedt.
'i'hc caflle, though now in a flate of decay, is fbh ha¬
bitable ; rnd the apartments arc hung with tapeftry,
faid to be the work of Jane queen of Navarre, and
mother of Henry IV. Gafton IV. Count dc Foix,
who married Leonora heirefs of the crown of Navarre,
Fegan the edifice in 14^4? ^'s Hcceffor Henry
PdfSi
U
Pavia.
■ * See Hen.
and the king being called on the fir ft nows of her IU-
nefs, (he immediately fung a Bearnois fong, beginning,
‘ Notre Dame du bout du pont, aidez moi en cette
heure.’ As fbe finifhed it, Henry * was born. The  
king inftantly performed his promife, by giving her IF. Ktngej
the box, together with a golden chain, which he tied^r^.
about her neck ; and taking the infant into his own
apartment, began by making him fwaliow fome drops
of wine, and rubbing his lips with a root of garlic.
They ftill thow a tortoife-fhtll which ferved him tor a
cradle, and is preferved on that account. Several of
,5,9» wben he made choice of the city
refidence, and where, during the remainder of hm
Teign, he held his little court. In a chamber, which
by its fize was formerly a room of Hate, is a fine whole
length portrait of that'Jane queen of Navarre whom I
have juft mentioned. Her drefs is very fplendid, and
referubles thofe in which our Elizabeth is ufually paint¬
ed. Her head-drefs is adorned with pearls; round her
the throne in 1479’ Hied here in 1483*
pau Js a handfome city, w'ell built, and contains near
6000 inhabitants. It is a modern place, having owed
its exiftence entirely to the caftle, and to the refidence
of the kings of Navarre. W. Long. o. 4. N.Lat. 43.
VaVAN, or Pavaxe, a grave dance ufed among
neck ftie* fa^’her ar.,^ wbih Ute- ‘^Spaniards, and S-owed tan them., wherein the
wife covered with pearls, are concealed by her habit
quite down to the wrift. At her waiil hangs by a
'chain 3 miniature portrait. The fingers of her right
hand play on the firings of a guittar; and in her left
fhe holds an embroidered handkerchief. The painter
has drawn her as young, yet not in the firft bloom
„r youth. Her /«'““ S M, ft™ the (oiemulty with which It wa. per-
thm, but rather inclining to long, tae e>e8 "3Z V. ^derate its gravity, it was ufual to in-
the eye-brows finely arched. Pier nofe is well foimed
though large, and her mouth pretty. She was a great
princefs, of high fpirit, and undaunted magnanimity.
Her memory is not revered by the French hiftonans,
beenufe fhe was the proteefrefs of the Huguenots and
the friend of Cologni; but the a&ions of her life evince
her diftinguifhed merit.
“ In one of the adjoining chambers, is another por¬
trait of Henry IV. himfelf when a boy; and on the
f-cond floor is the apartment in which he was born.
The particulars of his birth are in themfelves fo curi¬
ous, and as relating to fo great and good a prince arc
performers made a kind of wheel or tail before each
other, like that of pavo, “ a peacock from whence
the name is derived. The pa vane was formerly m great
repute ; and was danced by gentlemen with cap and
fword ; by thofe of the long robe in their gowns, by
princes with their mantles, and by the ladies with their
gown tails trailing on the ground. It was called the
' ‘ ”, from the fokrrmity wit!
formed. To moderate its gravity, it was ufual to in¬
troduce fevcral ilouriihes, paffides, capers, &c. by way
of epifodes. Its tablaturc or fcore is given at large
by T hoi not Arbeau in his Orchefographia.
PAVETTA, in botany: A genus of the monogy-
nra order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or¬
der, Stellate. The corolla is monopetalous and funnet-
fhnped above : the ftigma carved ; the berry difper-
mous. . , .
PAVIA, an ancient and celebrated town of Italy,
in the duchy of Milan, and capital of the Pavtfan,
with an univerfity and bifhop’s fee. It was anciently
fo peculiarly intereding, that 11 °u t not you wi or ” u ‘J'idnum, from its fituation on that river, and lies
give my enumerating them, even though you flioulJ fouthward of Milan. It was formerly
have feen them elfewhere.^His mother Jane had al- ^Ongobardic k and is ftiU
ready loft two fons, the Hukcc-e eau^^ atllx;{,us remarkable for the broadnefs of its ftreets, the beauty
count de Marie. Henry d Albret, _ _ ’ . , ?nd richnefs of fome of its churches, and for its uni-
to fee an heir to his dominions, enjoine. icr (w l founded by Charlemagne, and for feveral other
(lie accompanied her hulband Anthony o °” ° Kterarv inftitutiens. Here is a biihop’s feep which was
the war. of Picardy aga.nft the Spamard.) if ft pro- L lHrUalv. but is now dependent on the
vcd with child, to return to Pan, and to he-m there,
as'he would hi’mfelf fupeiintend the education of the
infant from the moment of its birth. He threatened
,0 difinherit her if fte failed to comply w.th this in-
iunaion. The princefs, m obedience to the kmg s
command, being in the ninth month ot her pregnancy
quitted Compiegne in the end of November, traverfed
all France in 15 days, and arrived at Pau, where (he
was delivered of a fon on the nth December..5;;.
She had always been defn ous to lee her fathe, s ■
once the richeft in Italy, but is now dependent on the
pope ; and upon the whole the city is gone to decay,
its trade being ruined through the exaftions of the go¬
vernment. The few objefts within it worth the public
attention belong to the clergy or monks , and the
church and convent of the Carthufians are inexpreflibly
noble, the court of the convent being one of the finefl
in the world, and furrounded by a portico fupported
by pillars, the whole a mile in circumference. It is
defended by ftrong walls, large ditches, good ramparts,
tone nao r.iways ^   --  . pYrellert baftions, and a bridge over the river Tafin.
which he kept in a golden box , an ^.P j ^ centre of the town is a ftrong caftle, where the
ftow it to her, provided ftc ^mttted »f h» Wag^re- was „ont refide. °There ere a great
number of magnificent caltbs, and fome colleges. It
was taken by the duke of Savoy in 1706; by the
French
lilOW IL lU ntlj , • r
fent at her delivery, and would during the p uns of her
labour fing a fong in the Bearnois language. Jane
anad courage enough to perform this unufual requeft ,
4
PAY
’avilion,
French in 1733; by the French and Spaniards in 1745}
but retaken by the Auftrians in 1746. E. Long. 9. 5.
N. Lat. 4\ to.
PAVILION, in archite&ure, fignifies a kind of
turret or building, ufuaily infulated, and contained un¬
der a fmgle roof; fometimes fquare, and fometimes in
form of a dome: thus called from the refemblance of its
roof to a tent.
Pavilions arc fometimes alfo projefting pieces, in the
front of a building, marking the middle thereof; fome¬
times the pavilion flanks a corner, in which cafe it is
called an angular pavilion. The Louvre is flanked
with four pavilions : the pavilions are ufually higher
than the reft of the building. There are pavilions built
in gardens, commonly called fummer-houfes, pleafure-
houfes, 8cc. Some caftles or forts confift only of a fingle
pavilion. s
Pavilion, in military affairs, fignifies a tent raifcd
on polls, to lodge under in the fummer-time.
Pavilion, is alfo fometimes applied to flags, colours,
enligns, ftandards, banners, &c.
Pavilion, in heraldry, denotes a covering in form
of a tent, which inverts or wraps up the armorfes of
divers kings and fovereigns, depending only on God
and their fword.
The pavilion confifts of two parts ; the top, which
is the chapeau, or coronet; and the curtain, which
makes the mantle.
None but fovereign monarchs, according to the
French heralds, may bear the pavilion entire, and in
all its parts. Thofe who are elective, or have any
dependence, fay the heralds, muft take off the head,
and retain nothing but the curtains.
Pavilions, among jewellers, the underfides and
corners of the biilhants, lying between the girdle and
the collet.
PAVING, the conftruftion of ground-floors, flreets,
or highways," in fuch a manner that they may be con¬
veniently walked upon. In Britain, the pavement of
the grand flreets, &c. are ufually of flint, or rubble-
ftone; courts, (fables, kitchens, halls, churches, &c.
are paved with tiles, bricks, flags, or fire-ftone; fome¬
times with a kind of free-ftone and rag-ftone.
In fome ftreets, e.gr. of Venice, the pavement is of
brick: churches fometimes are paved with marble, and
Sometimes with mofaic-work, as the church of St Mark
at Venice. In France, the public roads, ftreets, courts,
See. are all paved with gres or gritt, a kind of free-
ttone.
In Amftefdam and the chief cities of Holland, they
C j-a*ir Pavement the burgher-majlcrs pavement.
to diltinguifh it from the ftone or flint pavement, which
uiually takes up the middle of the ftreet, and which
leryes for carriages ; the brick which borders it being'
dertmed for the paffage of people on foot.
avements of free-done, flint, and flags, in ftreets,
&c. are laid dry, in a bed of fand; thofe of courts,
(tables, ground-rooms, &c. are laid in a mortar of lime
and fand; or in lime and cement, efpecially if there be
vaults or cellars underneath. Some mafons, after lay¬
ing a floor dry, efpecially of brick, fpvead a thin mor-
ar over it; fweeping it backwards and forwards to fill
up the joints. The feveral kinds o£ pavement are as
Tot xit p“Tla ofthcy “c
[ 49 ]
PAY
and whence they derive the name by which they are Pavtaef.
diftinguifned ; as,
l. Pebble-paving, which is done with (tones collected
from the fea-beach, moftly brought from the iflands of
Guernfey and Jerfey; they are very durable, indeed
the moft fo of any ftone ufed for this pupofe. They are
uled of various 1-zes, but thofe which are from fix to
nine inches deep, are efteemed the moft lerviceable.
When they are about three inches deep, they are deno¬
minated holders or bowlers ; thefe are ufed for paving
court-yards, and other places not aceuftomed to receive
carriages with heavy weights; when laid in geometri¬
cal figures, they have a very pleafing appearance.
2. Rag-paving was much ufed in London, but is ve¬
ry inferior to the pebbles ; it is dug in the vicinity of
Maidftone in Kent, from which it has the name of Ren-
ii/h rag.Jlone ; there are fquared (tones of this material
for paving coach-tracks and foot-ways.
3. Pur beck pitchens } fquare (tones ufed in footways ;
they are brought from the iflund of Purbeck, and alfo
frequently ufed in court-yards; they are in general
from fix to ten inches fquare, and about five inches
deep.
4. Squared paving, for diftinftion by fome called
Scotch paving, hecaufe the firft of the kind paved i*
the manner that has been and continues to be paved,
came from Scotland ; the firft was a dear clofe (tone,
called blue wbynn, which, is now difufed, becaufe it has
been found inferior to others fince introduced in the
order they are hereafter placed.
5. Gr nite, a hard material, brought alfo from Scot¬
land, of a leddiih colour, very fuperior to the blue
whynn quarry, and at prefent very commonly ufed in
London.
6. Guernfey, which is the beft, and very much in
ufe ; it is the fame ftone with the pebble before fpoken
of, but broken with iron hammers, and fquared to any
dimenfions required of a prifraoidical figure, fet with its
fm a lie ft bafe downwards. The whole of the foregoin >•
paving ftiould be bedded and paved in fmali gravel. ^
7. Purbeckpaving, for footways, is in general got in
large furfaces about 2f inches thick ; the blue fort is
the hardefl and the beft of this kind of paving.
8. 7 orkjhire paving, is an exceeding good material
for the fame purpofe, and is got of aimoft any dimen¬
fions of the fame tht'cknefs as the Purbeck. This ftone
will not admit the wet to pafs through it, nor is it af-
feffed by the froft.
9. Ryegate, or firejlone paving, is ufed for hearths,
(loves, ovens, and fiich places as are liable to great
heat, which does not affed the ftone if kept dry.
10. Newcajlleflags, are ftones about two feet fquare,
and 14 or two inches thick; theyanfwer very well for
paving out-ofiices : they are fome what like the York-
(hire.
Portland paving, with ftone from the id and- of
Portland ; this is fometimes ornamented with black
marble dots.
12. Swedland paving, is a black (late dug in Lei*
cefterfliire, and looks well for paving halls, or in party-
coloured paving.
J 3. Marble paving, is madly variegated with diffe¬
rent marbles, iometimes inlaid in mofaic.
14. Flat brick paving, domt with Itrick laid in fand,
G -mortar.
mortar, or groute, a,'^hon UquH limo i. pooretfioto protomartyr St S.ophrn ^ ftoned
Paul.
'^V^Brid on.'Jg' p«™s> ‘><>ne with br!ck laid edg£
wife in the fame manner. • .r . , .
16. Bricks are alfo laid flat or edgewife in herring-
bT7. Bricks are -alfo fometime# fet endwife in fand,
mortar, or groute. . . ,
iS. Paving is alfo performed vmh paving bricks.
19. With ten inch tiles.
20. With foot tiles.
21. With clinkers for ftables and outer offices.
22. With the hones of animals, for gardens, &c.
And, 23. We have knoh-pavfng, with large gravel-
ftones, for porticoes, garden-feats, &c.
Payments of churches, &c. frequently confffi of
ftones of feveral colours ; chiefly black and white, and
of feveral forms, but chiefly fquares and lozenges, art¬
fully difpofed. Indeed, there needs no great variety
#f colours to make a furprifing diverfuy of figures and
arrangements. M. Truchet, in the Memoirs of the
French Academv, has (hown by the rules of combina-
/• r» J * .T A. ^ 10 rfr\n2» 11 v TfltO
    Saul was not on-
fy confenting to his* death, but he even flood by and ~
took care of the clothes of thole that ftoned him
(Afts vii. 58, 59-) Tllis haPPenedp in thc 33d.y63,1*
of the common era, fome time after our Saviours
deAt the time of the perfecution that wasraifed againfl:
the church, after the death of St Stephen, Saul was
one of thofe that (bowed moft violence in diftreffing
the believers (Gal. i. 13. and Aasxxvi. 11.) He en¬
tered into their i.oufes, and drew out by force both
men and women, loaded them with chains, and fent
them to prifon (Aas viii. 3. and xx>..4.) He even
entered into the fymgogues, where he caufed thofe to
be beaten with rods that believed m Jefus Chnfl, cona-
ptlling them to blafpheme the name of tae Hord.
And having got credentials from the h'gh-pneft Caia-
phas> and the elders of the Jews, to the chief Jews of
Damafcus, with power to bring to Jerusalem all the
Ghriftians he ftiould find there, he went away full of
threats, and breathing nothing but blood (Atts ix. 1,
2 2 &c.) But as he was upon the roadT and now
French Academv, has Ihown by the rules of cojnbina- ^ 3. ') DarrafcUS> all on a hidden about noon
tion, that two fquare-ftones, d.vided diagonally rnto dra^ ^ eat li ht to camefrom heaven, which
^ hi and »U th°re that were With h,m
two coiouroj 0 * 1 #
different ways: which appears furprifing enough; Once
two letters or figures can only be combined two ways.
The reafon is, that letters only change their fituation
with regard to the firft and fecond, the top and hot-
tom remaininq the feme, but in the arrangement of
thefe ftones. each admits of four fe.eral fituatrons, m
each whereof the other fquare may be changed 16
times, which gives 64 combinations. ,
Indeed, from a farther examination of thefe 64 com¬
binations, he found there were only 32 different figures,
each figure being repeated twice in the
though in a different combination ; fo that the two
only differed from each other by the tranfpofilion of
thPAUL,0formerly named Sant was of the tribe of
Benjamin, a native of Tarfus in Cilicia, a Phanfee by
proftffion ; firft a perfecutor of the church, and after¬
wards a difciple of Jefus Chnfl, and apoftle of the Gen-
dles It is fhoug^t he was bom about two years be¬
fore our Saviour, fuppofmg that he lived 68 yeais, as
we read in a homily which is in the fixth volume of
St Chrv’foftom’s works. He was a Roman citizen
fAtfsxxii. 27,28.), becaufe Auguftws bad given the
iidom of til; city to all the freemen of Tar us in
confideration of their firm adherence to his ‘^refts.
His parents fent him early to Jerufalem where heftu-
died the law at the feet of Gamaliel a famous doftor
rid xxii. 3.) He made very great progrefs in his
fludies, and his life was always blamelefs before men ;
being very zealous for the whole ebfervation of the
hw of Mofes {id. xxvi. 4, 5-) hls fal TrfrT
-00 far • he perfecuted the church, and infulted Jeffis
Ghrift ill hi/membera (1 Tim. i. 13.) 1 -d when the
encompaffcd him and'all thofe that were with him.-
This fplendor threw them on the ground ; and haul
heard a voice that faid to him, “ Saul, Saul, why per¬
fected thou me ?” It was Jefus Chrift that fpoke tc>
him. T® whom Saulanfwered, “Who art thou, Lord.
And the Lord replied to him, « I am Jefus ot Naza¬
reth whom thou perfecuteft; it is hard for thee to kick
againfl the pricks.” Saul, all in confternacion, afleecT,
“ Lord, what is it that thou wouldft have me do.
Jefus bid him arife and go to Damafcus, where the will
of the Lord (hould be revealed to him.
Saul then rofe from the ground, and fek that ne
was deprived of fight; but his companions led him by
the hand, and brought him to Damafcus, where he
continued three days blind, and without taking any
nourifliment. He lodged at the houfe of a Jew na™?
Tildas. On the third day, the Lord commanded a dii-
ciple of his, named Ananias, to go to find out Saul, to
lay his hands upon him, and to cure his bhndnefs.
And as Ananias made excufes, faying that this man
was one of the moft violent perfecutors of the church,
the Lord faid to him, Go and find him, becaule this-
man is an inftrument that I have chofen, to carry my
name before the Gentiles, before kings, and befoie the
children of Ifrael; for I will ffiow him how many things-
he muft fuffer for my name. Ananias went therefore,
and found Saul, laid his hand upon him, and reftored
him to his fight; then rifing^ he was baptized, and fill¬
ed with the Holy Ghoft. After this he contmued
fome days with the difciples that were at Damafcus,
preaching in the fynagogues, and proving that Jefus
was the Meffiah (a) . . *
From Damafcus he went into Arabia (Gal. u 17. ,
probably"
r 1, and bv fuch means, furnifhes one of the moft complete
U) Thc converfion of fuch a mau at fuch a , rei;gion. That Saul, from being a zealous
proofs that have ever been given hUfe!.', is a faft .inch cannot be contro
perfecutor of the difciplefi ofCrn . all hitlorv He nuift therefore have been converted in the mi
verted without overturning the credit of all hiftory. ne mmt £l!lolfa
P A U C 5« J P A U
¥au]. probably into the neighbourhood of Damafcus, being
-'v'"—-' then under the government of Aretaa king of Arabia;
and having remained there for a little while, he return¬
ed to Damafcus, where he began again to preach the
gofpel. The Jews could not bear to fee the progrefs
that the gofpel made here; and fo refolved to put him
to death : and they gained to their fide the governor
of Damafcus, who was to apprehend him, and to de¬
liver him to them. Of this Saul had early notice ; and
knowing that the gates of the city were guarded night
and day to prevent him from making his efcape, he
was let down over the wall in a bafket. And coming
to Jeruflem to fee Peter (Gal. i. 38.), the difciples were
afraid te have any correfpondence with him, not believ¬
ing him to be a convert. But Barnabas having brought
him to the apoftles, Saul related to them the manner
of his converfion, and all that had followed in confe-
quence of it. Then he began to preach both to the
Jews and Gentiles ; and fpoke to them with fuch
ftrength of argument, that not being able to withftand
him in reafoning, they refolved to kill him. For this
reafon, the brethren brought him to Ctefarea of Pale-
ftine, front whence he came, probably by fea, Into hia
own country Tarfus in Cilicia.
There he continued about five or fix years, from
the year of Chrift 37 to the year 4.3 ; when Barna¬
bas coming to Antioch by the order of the apoftles,
and there having found many Chriltians, went to Tar-
fus to lee Saul, and brought him with him to Anti¬
och (A6ts xi. 20, 25, 26.) ; where they continued to¬
gether a whole year, preaching to and inftru&ing the
faithful. During this time, there happened a great
famine in Judea {id. ib. 27, 28, &c.), and the Chri-
ftians of Antioch having made fome colledtions to sf-
filt their brethren at Jerufalem, they made choice of
Paul and Barnabas to go thither with their offering.
They arrived there in the year of Chrift 44; and ha¬
ving acquitted themfelves of their commiffion, they re¬
turned again to Antioch. They had not been there
long before God warned them by the prophets he had
in this church, that he had appointed them to carry
his word into other places. Then the church betook
themfelves to fading and praying, and the prophets
Simeon, Lucius, and Manaen, laid their hands on
« G 2 them.
culous manner in which he himfelf faid he was, and of courfe the Chriftian religion be a divine revelation »
or he muft have been either an impoftor, an enthufiaft, or a dupe to the fraud of others. There is not another
alternative poffible.
If he was an impoftor, who declared what he knew to be falfe, he muft have been induced to aft that part
by fome motive : (See Miracle ). But the only conceivable motives for religious impofture are, the hopes
of advancing one’s temporal intereft, credit, or power; or the profpeft of gratifying fome paflion or appetite
under the authority of the new religion. That none of thefe could be St Paul’s motive for profefiing the
faith of Chrift crucified, is plain from the ftate of Judaifm and Chriftianity at the period of his forfaking the
former and embracing the latter faith. Thofe whom he left were the difpofers of wealth, of dignity, of
power, in Judea : thofe to whom he went were indigent men, opprefled, and kept from all means of im¬
proving their fortunes. The certain confeqirmce therefore of his taking the part of Chnftianity was the lofs
not only of all that he poffefled, but of all hopes of acquiring more ; whereas, by continuing to perfecute the
Chriftians, he had hopes riling almoft to a certainty ov making his fortune by the favour of thofe who were at
the head of the Jewifh ftate, to whom nothing could fo much recoiumend him as the zeal which he had ftiown
in that perfecution. As to credit or reputation, could the fcholar of Gamaliel hope to gain either by beco¬
ming a teacher in a college of fifhermen ? Could he flatter himfelf, that the doftrines which he taught would,
either in or out of Judea, do him honour, when he knew that “ they were to the Jews a Humbling b!ock^
and to the Greeks foolifhnefs ?” Was it then the love of power that induced him to make this great change ?
Power! over whom ? over a flock of fheep whom he himfelf had aflifted to deftroy, and whofe very Shepherd
had lately been murdered ! Perhaps it was. with the view of gratifying fome licentious paflion, under the
authority of the new religion, that he commenced a teacher of that religion 1 This cannot be alleged ; for his
writings breathe nothing but the Arifteft morality, obedience to magiftrates, order, and government, with the
ytmoft abhorrence of all licentioufnefs, idlenefs, or bofe behaviour, under the cloke of religion. We nowhere
read in his works, that faints are above moral ordinances ; that dominion is founded in grace ; that monarchy
is defp@tifm which ought to be aboMhed ; that the fortunes of the rich ought to be divided among the poor;
that there is no difference in moral actions ; that any impulfcs of the mind are to oh ft us againft the light
of our reafon and the laws of nature ; or any of thofe wicked tenets by which the peace of foeiety has been
often difturbed, and the rules of morality often broken, by men pretending to act under the fanftion of divine
revelation. He makes no diftinftions like the impoftor of Arabia in favour of himfelf; nor does any part of
his life, either before or after his converfion to Chriftianity, bear any mark of a libertine difpofition. As
6 lWS’ ^ i'monS t^e Chriftians, his convrrfation and manners were Uamelefs.—It has been fometimes
objected to the other apoftles, by thofe who were refolved not to credit their teitimony, that, having been
deep y engaged with Jefus during his Jife, they were obliged, for the fupport of their own credit, and from
f !°np t(l° return’ to cont‘nue the fame profeflions after his death; but this can by no means be
laid of bt raul. On the contrary, whatever force there may be in that way of reafoning, it all tends to con¬
vince us, that bt Faul muft naturally have continued a Jew, and an enemy to Chrift Jtfus. If they were en¬
gaged on one iide, he was as ftiongly engaged on the other If fhame withheld them from changing fides.
ff.UCkl k i^j t0r !j.aVe ftoPPC(* lliin » who, from his fuperior education, muft have been vaftly more
ienuble to that kind of fhame than the mean and illiterate fifhermen of Galilee. The only other difference
•was
P A U [5
tkem, ami fent them t« preach whit tier t''e Holy
Ghoft fhould condua them. And it was probably a-
bout this time, that is, about the year of Chnft 44,
that P^ul bein^ wrapt up into the third heaven, faw
there ineffable things, and which were above the com-
prehenfion of man (2 Cor. xii. 2, 3, 4, and A<5ts xiii. 4,
c, 6, &c.)
Saul and Barnabas went firfl into Cyprus, where
they began to preach in the fynagogues of the Jews.
When they had gone over the whole ifland, they there
found a Jewifh magician called Bar-jcfus, who was with
the proconful Sergius Paulus ; and who refilled them,
and endeavoured to prevent the proconful from em¬
bracing Chrn' nity : whereupon St Paul ftruck him
with blindnefs ; by which miracle the proconful, being
an eye-witnefs of it, was converted to the Chriftian
faith.
From this converfion, which happened at the city
of Paphos, in the year of Chrifl 45, many think, that
the apoftle firft began to bear the name of Paul, which
gt Luke always gives him afterwards, as is fuppofed in
2 ] P A U
memory of his converting Sergius Paulus. Some be¬
lieve that he changed his name upon his own conver¬
fion ; and Chryfoftom will have this change to take
place at his ordination, when he received his miflion at
Antioch ; while others fay, he took the name Paul
only when he began to preach to the Gentiles : and,
finally, feveral are of opinion, that he went by the
names of both Saul and Paul, like many other Jews
who had one Hebrew name and another Greek or La-
Puul.
tin one.
From the ifle of Cyprus, St Paul and his company
went to Perga in Pamphylia, where John Mark left
them, to return to Jerufalem : but making no flay at
Perga, they came to Antioch in Pifidia; where going
into the fynagogue, and being defired to fpeak, St Paul
made them a long difeourfe, by which he Ihowed, that
Jefus Chrill was the Meffiah foretold by the prophets,
and declared by John the Baptift; that he had been
unjuftly put to death by the malice and jealoufy of the
Jew. ; and that he rofe again the third day. They
heard him very attentively ; and he was defired to dif¬
eourfe
vra, that^v, by quitting their Mafter after his cteath, might have preferred themfel.es; whereas hi, by
cuitt ns .lie ewl, and taking up the croft of Chrift, certainly brought on h,s own deltrua,on.
q As St Paul was not an impottor, fo it is plain he was not an cmhufialt. Heat of ten.pet, melanc a y. ig-
rerance and vanity, are the ingredients of which enthufiafm is compofed; but from all thefe, except the tint,
nerance, ai. y, , 6 , ,, r M’Vaot- h irl o-rrat fervour of zeal, both when a Jew and when
the apollle appears to have been who y free. 1 JL’'deoitil i but he was at all time, fo much
ffliTalftL3, £wti\i:^y|owof hi life L t
apoftlea, and not meet to be called an apoftle. He lays that he is me ci » r g wjth
St^VT^IlrTs'-the U^tHn^ot enSi Did ever fanatic prefer virtue to
Aftwlli^ftntelmt If Gameellrw^I^^^^
.0 ^ ^
have been fo_extravagant as to conceive fuc g b’en effecfcd Could they produce a light in the air,
the manner in which we find his con*eifj° , make gaul ^ear words fIom out of that light which
were^ot ^ard^y^he^refi (T the Company"? a^word5^ Or^cmfid ^hey^ake^^him and
thofe whcT travelled*willf himbrfievj^that aU Ihefe^hi^s had^happened, if they had not happened 1 Moft nn-
queftionably no Iraud was equal to ail this. , ,,, deceived by the fraud of others, it follows,
Since then St Paul was neither an impoftor, an enthufiaft, "Or.decei,c“ “7 .relation. See l.ytlMs
that his converfion was miraculous, and that the Chni lan re igu infidel,.y has
Oi/rmwtieu. « ,he Cmv'rfum oJ S, Paul S . treattfe “ *h.«h « ^ im/erfefl
Kcver been able to fabricate a fpecious anfvver, and of wmch t ns no e is a \eiy
al.ridgeiat.nt..
hi
Paul
P A U [5
coarfe again on the fame fubjeft the next Ssfebath-day ;
* and feveral, both Jews and Gtntiles, followed them,
to receive particular inftru&ions more at leifure. On
the Sabbath day following, almoft all the c ty met to¬
gether to hear the word of God: but the Jews, feeing
the concourfe of people, were moved with envy at it ;
oppofed, with Llafphemies, what Sc Paul faid ; apd
not being able to bear the happy prog refs of the gof-
pel in this country, they railed a perfecution againft
the two apoftles: whereupon Paul and Barnabas, fiia-
king off the dull upon their feet againft them, came
from Antioch in Pifidia to Iconium. Being come thi¬
ther, they preached in their fynagogue, and converted
a great number, both of Jews and Gentiles ; and God
confirmed their commiffion by a great number of mi¬
racles (A£ts xiv. 1, 2, &c.) In the mean time, the
unbelieving Jews, having incenfed the Gentiles againft
Paul and Barnabas, and threatening to (tone them,
they were obliged to retire to Lyftra and Derbe, ci¬
ties of Lycaonia, where they preached the gofpel. At
Lyftra, there was a plan who had been lame from his
mother’s .wTomb. This man fixing his eyes on St Paul,
the apoftle bid him rife, and ftand upsn his Let:
whereupon he prefently rofe up, and walked; the peo¬
ple, feeing this miracle, cried out, that the gods were
defeended among them in the ftiape of men. They call¬
ed Barnabas 'Jupiter, and Paul Mercury, becaufe of his
eloquence, and being the chief fpeaker. The prieft of
Jupiter brought.alfo garlands and bulls before the gate,
to offer facrifices to them: but Paul and Barnabas
tearing their clothes, and cafting themfelves into the
middle of the multitude, cried out to them, Friends,
what do you do ? we are men a« well as yourfelves;
and we are preaching to you to turn away from thefe
vain fuperftitions, and to worfhip only the true God,
who has made heaven and earth. But whatever they
could fay, they had much ado to reftrain them from
©ffering facrifices to them.
In the mean time, fome Jews of Antioch in Pifidi^
and of Iconium coming to Lyftra, animated the people
againft the apoftles. '1 hey ftoned Paul, and drew him
out of the city, thinking him to he dead. But the dif-
ciples gathering together about him, he rofe up among
them, entered again into the city, and the day after »
left it with Barnabas to go to Lerbe. And having here
preached the gofpel alfo, they returned to Ly ftrj,to Ico-
mum, and to Antioch of Pifidia. Faffing throughout
1 idia, ibey came to Pamphylia, and having preached
tne word of God at Perga, they went down into At-
taha. rrom hence they fet fail for Antioch in Syria,
from whence they had departed a year before. Being-
arrived there, they aftembled the church together, and
told them the great things God had done by their
means, and how he had ooened to the Gentiles a door
with Iheffifcipks. C°nt:nUed " g0°d While
St Luke does not inform us of the a&ions of St
J aul from the 45th year of Chrift to the time of the
conned at Jerufalem, which was held in the ?oth year
of Chnft.^ I here 18 great 1 kelihood that it was du-
rmg this interval that St Paul preached the gofp^l
from Jerufaiem to Illyricum, a8 hc informs usln hi
n iXV‘ this without
Dreachfdf Jf in th"fe Place8 w^re others had
preached before him. He (Toes net acquaint us with
3 ] P A U
the particulars of thefe journeys, nor with the fucctfs
of his preaching ; but he fiys in general, that he had
fuffered more labours than any other, and had endured
more prifons. He was often very near death itfelf, fotr.e-
times upon the water and fometimes among thieves.
He run great dangers, fomtiimes from the Jews and
fometimes amongfalfe brethren and perverfe Chriftians;
he was expofed to great hazards, as well in the cities
as in the deftrts: he fuffered hunger, third, naked-
nefs, cold, failings, watchings (2 Cor. xi. 23 — 27.),
and the fatigues infeparable from long journeys, which
were undertaken without any profpeft of human fuc-
cour ; in this very different from the good fortune of
others who lived by the gofpel, vmsbjreceived fubfift-
ence from thofe to whom they preached it, and who
were accompanied always by religious women, who
miniftered to them in their neceflary occafions. He
made it a point of honour to preach gratis, working
with his hands that he might not be chargeable to any
one (1 Cor. ix. 1— 15O * f°r he had learned a trade,
as was ufual among the Jews, which trade was to make
tents of leather for the ufe of thofe that go to war
(Afts xviii. 3.)
Sc Paul and St Barnabas were at Antioch when
fome perfons coming from Judea (Adis xv. 1, 2, &c.)
pretended to teach, that there was no falvation with¬
out circumcifion, and without the obfervation of the
other legal ceremonies. Epiphanius and Philafter fay,
that he that maintained this was Cerinthusand his fol¬
lowers. Paul and Barnabas withftood thefe new doc¬
tors ; and it was agreed to fend a deputation to the
apoftles and elders at Jerufalem about this queftion.
Paul and Barnabas were deputed ; and being arrived
at Jerufaltm, they reported 10 the apoftles the fubjedt
of their commiffion. Some of the Pharifees that had
embraced the faith, afferted, that the Gentiles that
were converted ought to receive circumcifion, and to
obferve the reft of the law. But the apoftles and elders
affembling to examine into this matter, it was by them
decreed, that the Gentiles, who were converted to
Chnftianity, fhould not be obliged to fubmit to the
yoke of the law, but only to avoid idolatry, fornica¬
tion, and the eating of things itrangled, and blood.
* St Paul and St Barnabas were then ftnt back to An¬
tioch with letters from the apoftles, which contained
the decifion of the queftion, and the refolution of that
auguft affernbly. '1 he apoftlesalfo deputed Jude fur-
named Barjalus and Silas, who were principal bre¬
thren, to go to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas to
give their teftimony alfo of what had been decreed at
Jerufalem. Being arrived at Antioch, they aftembled
the faithful, read to them the apoftles letter, and ac¬
quainted them, that it had been refolved to difeharge
them from the yoke of the ceremonial law. Some
time after this, St Peter coming to Antioch and join¬
ing himfelf to the converted Gentiles, he lived with
them without, fcruple ; but fome brethren happening
to arrive there from Jcrufalem, he feparated himfelf
from the Gentile converts, and did no longer eat with
them for which conduct St Paul publicly ctnfured
him (Gal. ii. u—16.) St Paul {'id. ii. 2, 3, &o.) ,n
the fame journey to Jerufalem declared openly to the
faithful there the doffrine he preached among the
Gentiles ; and befides, difeourfed of it in private among
the chief of them in prefence of Barnabas and Titus.
St
Paul.
P A U
C 54 1
P A U
St Peter, St Jimes, and St John, with whom he had
thefe converfations could find nothing either to be
added or amended in fo pure and fo found a do&rine
and demeanour. They fiiw with joy the grace that
God had given him ; they acknowledged that he had
been appointed the apollle of the Gentiles, as St Pe¬
ter had been of the circumcifion. They concluded that
Paul and Barnabas Ihould continue to preach among
the Gentiles; and only recommended to them to take
care concerning the collodions for the poor ; that is
to fay, to exhort the converted Chriftians among the
Gi-ntiles, to afiilt the faithful brethren in Judea, who
were in necefiity ; whether-it were becaufe they had
fold and dittributed their goods, or becaufe they had
been taken away from them (Heb. x. 54.)
After Paul and Barnabas had continued fome days
at Antioch, St Paul propofed to Barnabas to return
and vifit the brethren through all the cities wherein
they had planted the gofpel, to fee in what condition
they were. Barnabas confented to the propofal; but
infilled upon taking John Mark alon*? with them.
This was oppofed by Paul, which produced a repara¬
tion between them. Barnabas and John Mark went
together to Cyprus; and St Paul, making choice of
Silas, croffed over Svria and Cilicia, and came to Derbe,
and aferwards to Lyftra (A&s xvi. 1, 2, &c.) ^ Here
they found a difciple called Timothy, whom St Paul
took with him, and circumcifed him that he might
.^not offend the Jews of that country. When there¬
fore they had gone over the provinces of Lycaonia,
Phrygia, and Galatia, the Holy Ghoft would not al¬
low them to preach the gofpel in the proconfukr
Afia, which contained Ionia, iEolia, and Lydia. They
therefore went on to Myfia, and coming to Proas, St
Paul had a vifion in the night. A man, habited like
a Macedonian, prefented himfelf before him, and faid,
Pafs into Macedonia and come and fuccour us. Im¬
mediately he fet out on this journey, not doubting but
that God had called him into this country.
Embarking therefore at 1 roas, they (ailed to Nea-
-polis. Thence they came to Philippi, where upon the
fabbath-day they went near the river fide, where the
Jews had a place of devotion, and where they found
fome religious women, among whom was Lydia, who
was converted and baptized, and invited the apoftle
and his company to lodge at her houfe. Another day,
z» they went to the fame place of devotion, they hap¬
pened to meet a maid fervant poffeffed with a fpirit of
divination, who followed St Paul and his company,
crying out, that thefe men were the fervants of the
mod high God, who declared to the world the way
of falvation. This (he did for feveral days together ;
et lad St Paul, turning himfelf towards her, faid to
the fpirit, I command thee in the name of Jefus
Chrift to come out of the body of this woman : upon
which it immediately left her. But the matters of this
damfel, who made much money by her, drew Paul and
Silas before the magittrates, and accdfed them of at¬
tempting to introduce a new religion into the city*
For this the magiftrates ordered them to be whipt with
rods upon the back and (boulders, and afterwards fent
them to prifon.
Towards midnight, as Paul and Silas were fingmg
hymns and praifes to God, on a fudden there was a
great earthquake, fo that the foundations of the pri¬
fon were fhaken, and all the doors flew open at the
fame time, and the fetters of the prifoners burft afun-
der. The gaoler being awakened at this noife, and
feeing all the doors open, he drew his fword with an in¬
tention to kill himfelf, imagining that all the prifoners
had made their efcape. Bat Paul cried out to him,
that he (hould do himfelf no mifehief, for they were
all fafe. Then the gaoler entering and finding all the
prifoners there, he brought out Paul and SiUs from
this place, alking them what he mutt do to be f ved ?
Paul* and Silas inftruaing him and all his family, gave
them baptifm. After this the gaoler let before them
fomething to eat; and when the morning was come,
the magiftrates fent him word that he might releafa
his prifoners, and let them go about their bufinefs.
But Paul returned this anfwer to the magiftrates; Ye
have publicly whipped us with rods, being Roman ci¬
tizens 5 ye have thrown us into prifon ; and now ye
would privately difmifs us : But it (ha*! not be fo, (of
you yourfelves (hall come to fetch us out. The ma¬
giftrates hearing that they were Roman citizens, came
to excufe themfelves ; and having brought them out
of prifon, they defired them to depart out of their
city. Paul and Silas went firft to the houfe of Lydia,
where having vifited and comforted the brethren, they
departed from Philippi. _ .
Then palling through Amphipolis and Apolloma,
/they came to t’heffalomca the capital city of Mace¬
donia, where the Jews had a fynagogue (Afts xvii. I,
&c.) Paul entered therein, according to his cuftom,
and there preached the gofpel to them for three Sab¬
bath-days fuccefflvdy. Some Jews and feveral profe-
lytes believed in Jefus Chrift, and united thtmfelves to
Paul and Silas: but the greateft part of the Jew*
being led away by a falfe zeal, raifed a tumult in the
city, and went to the houfe of Jafon where St Paul
lodged. But not finding him there, they took Jafon
and led him before the magiftrates, where they accu-
fed him of harbouring in his houfe people that were
difobedient to the ordinances of the emperor, and who
affirmed that there was another king befides him, one
Jefus whom they preached up. But Jafon having
given fecurity to anfwer for the people who were ac-
cufed, he was difmiffed to his own houfe ; and the
night following the brethren conduded Paul and Silas
out of the city, who went to Berea, where they began
to preach in the fynagogue. The Jews of Berea
heard them gladly, and many of them were converted ;
as alfo feveral of the Gentiles and many women of di-
ftin&ion that were not Jeweffes. , , _ 1
The Jews of Theffalonica being informed that Paul
and Silas were at Berea, came thither and animated
the mob again ft them ; fo that St Paul was forced to
withdraw, leaving Silas and. Timothy at Berea to
finilh the work he had fo happily begun. Thofe who
conduced St Paul embarked along with him, and
brought him as far as Athens (Theod. in 1 Theffid ),
where he arrived in the fitty-fecond year of Jefus
Chrift. As foon as he was got thither, he fent back
thofe that had brought him, with orders to tell Silas
and Timothy, that he defired them to follow him to
Athens as foon as poffible. In the mean time, he
went into a fynagogue of the Jews and preached to
them as often as he had opportunity ; and diiputjng
with the philofophers who were frequent in that place.
Paul-
P A U [ 55 3 P A U
Paul, they at laft brought him before the Areopagus, accu-
fing him of introducing a new religion. St Paul be¬
ing come before the ittJges, pleaded in his own de¬
fence, that among other marks of fuperltition which
he had found in that city, he had obferved an altar in-
fcribed, “ To the unknown God.” It was therefore
this God whom they confefTed that they knew not,
that he came to make known to them. Afterwards
he fpoke to them of God the creator of heaven and
..earth, of the fuperintendence of a providence, of the
laft judgment, and of the refurreff ion of the dead. But
after they had heard of the refurredlion, fome made
fcorn of him, and others defired to hear him another
time. However fome of them embraced the Chriftian
faith, of which number was Dionyfius a fenator of the
Areopagus, and a woman called Damans■> and feveral
others with them.
St Timothy came from Berea to Athens according
to the requeft of St Paul, and informed him of the
perfecution with which the Chriftians of Theffalenica
were then affli6ted. This obliged the apoftle to fend
him into Macedonia, that he might comfort them and
keep them ftedfail (i Theffal. iii. 1,2, &c.) After this
St Paul left Athens and went to Corinth, where he
lodged with one Aquila a Jew, and by trade a tent-
maker (Adis xviii. r, 2, &c.) With this Aquila the
» apoftle worked, as being of the fame trade himfelf.
But, however, he did not negledt the preaching of the
gofpel; which he performed every day in the fyna-
gogue ; ftrowing both to the Jews and Gentiles that
Jefus was the Meffiah. There he made feveral con¬
verts; and he tells us himfelf (1 Cor. r. 14—17. and
xvi. 15.) that he baptized Stephanus and his whole
houfe, with Crifpus and Gaius. About the fame time
Silas and Timothy came to Corinth, and acquainted him
with the good {fate of the faithful at Theflalonica; and
< foon after this, he wrote his firft epiftle to the Thefta-
lonians, which is the firft of all the epiftles that he
wrote; and not long after he wrote his fecond epiftle
‘to that church.
St Paul, now finding himfelf encouraged by the
prefence of Silas and Timothy, went on with the
work of his miniftry with new ardour, declaring and
proving that Jefus Chrift was the true Meffiah. But the
Jews oppofing him with blafphemous and opprobrious
words, he /hook his clothes at them, andfaid, “Your
Mood be upon your own head ; from henceforth 1
/hall go to the Gentiles.” He then quitted the houfe
of Aquila, and went to lodge with one Titus Juftus,
who was origin lly a Gentile, but one that feared
God. In the mean time the Lord appeared to St
1 aul in a vifion, teld him, that in Corinth he had
much people ; and this was the reafon why the apoftle
continued there eight months.
. Gallio the pro conful of Achaia being at Co-
nntn, the Jews of that city rofe up againft Paul and
carried nim beiore Gallio, accufing him of attempting
5° 1I11?tr^uce' a new rtligion among them : however,
Galbo fent them away, telling them he would not
mec.dle with difputes that M ere foreign to bis office.
1 continued/ome time longer at Corinth ; but at
aft he fet out for Jerufalem, where he had a mind to
be prefent at the feaft of P.ntecoft. Before he went
on ihipboard, he cut off his hair at Cenchrea, becaufe
he had completed his vow of Nazaritefhip, in which
he had engaged himfelf. He arrived at Ephtfutwith
Aquila and Prifcilla, from whence he went to Caefarea
of Paleftine, and thence to Jerufalem. Here having
performed his devotions, he came to Antioch, where
he ftayed fome time ; and then palling from thence,
he made a progrefs through all the churches of Gala¬
tia and Phrygia fucceffivefy ; and having gone over the
higher provinces of Alia, he returned to Ephefus,
where he abode three years; that is, from the year
of Chrift 54 to the year 57 (A&s xix. 1, 2, &c.)
St Paul having arrived at Ephefus, he found there
fome difciples that had been initiated by Apollos,
who had only baptized them with the baptifm of John.
St Paul inftruded them, baptized them with the bap-
tifm of Jefus Chrift, and laid his hands on them ;
whereupon they received the Holy Ghoft, the gifts of
languages and of prophecy; The apoftle afterwards
went into the fynagogue, and preached to the Jews
for three months, endeavouring to convince them that
Jefus Chrift was the Meffiah : but as he found them
very obftinate, he feparated himfelf from them, and
taught daily in the fchool of one Tyrannus. Heper-
foruied there feveral miracles, infomuch, that the linen
that had but touched his body, being afterwards ap¬
plied to the fick, they were prefently cured of their
difeafes, or delivered from the devils that pofftffed
He alfo fuffered much there, as well from the
jew as from the Gentiles ; and he himfeP informs us
(1 Cor. xv. 31, 32.), that after the manner of men he
fought with beafts at Ephefus ; that is ta fay, that
he was expofed to wild beafts in the amphitheatre, fo
that it was expe&ed he (hould have been devoured by
them ; but God miraculoufly delivered him : though
fome are of opinion, that the fight here mentioned by
St Paul was nothing elfe but the feu/fle he had with
Demetiius the fTlver fmith and his companions, who
were difappointed in their attempt of putting the
apoftle to death. It was during his abode at Ephe¬
fus that the apoftle wrote his epiftle to the Gala¬
tians.
After this St Paul propofed, at the inftigation of
the Holy Ghoft, to pais through Macedonia and
Achaia, and afterwards to go to Jerufalem, fay ing,
that after he had been there, he muft alfo fee Rome ;
and-having fent Timothy and Eraftug before to Ma¬
cedonia, he tarried fome time in Afia. D-uring this
time, he received intelligence that domeftic troubles
had rifen in the church of Corinth, and that abufes
had begun to creep in ; which made him refolve to
write his firft epiftle to that church.
Soon after this, taking leave of the difcipl s, he
departed for Macedonia (Acftsxx. 1, 2, &c.) He em¬
barked at Truas, took Timothy with him, and toge¬
ther paffei into Macedonia (2 Cor. ii. 12 and vii.
5—15.) Titus came thither to him, and acquainted
him with the good effeds that his letter had produ¬
ced among the Corinthians; and told him, that the
colledions that had been made by the church of Corinth
for the faithful in Paleftine were now ready ; which
engaged Paul to write a fecond letter to the Corin-
thi.ns. Sr Paul, having pafted through Macedonig,
came int<< Greece or Achaia, and there continued
three months. He vifited the faithful of Corinth ;
a&ct
P A U [56
and having received their alms, as he was upon the
point of returning into Macedonia, he wrote his epitile
to the Romans. # j •
At la If he left Greece and came into Macedonia,
in the year of Chrift 5.8, intending to be at Jerufatem
at the fea-ft of Pentecort. He ftaid fome time at Phi¬
lippi, and there celebrated the feall of the paflbver.
From hence he embarked and came to Troa?, where
he continued a week. On the firlt day of the week
the difciplt's being affcm! led to break bread, as St Paul
was to depart the day following, he made a difcourfe
to them which held till midnight. During this tune
a young man called Eutychus, happening to lit in a
window and fall afleep, fell down three (lories high,
and was killed by the fall. St Paul came down to
him, and embraced him, and reftored him to life again.
’Then he went up again, broke bread and 'eat it, anti
continued his difcourfe till day-break, at which time
be departed. Thofe of his company took drip at
Troas; but as for himfelf he went on foot as iar as
Adds, otherwife called /Ipollonici, and then embarked
along with them at Mitylene. From hence he came
P A U
you may fpeak to them yourfeif, and undeceive them.
Moreover do th s, that your a&ions may verify your
words: join yourfelf to four men that are here, and
who have taken upon them a vow of Nazaritefhip;
and that you may (hare in the merit of their action,
contribute to the charge of their purification, and pu¬
rify yourfelf alfo, that you may offer with them che
offerings and facrifices ordained foe the purification of
a Nazarite. See Nazarite.
St Paul exa&ly followed this advice of St James,
and on the -next day went into the temple, where he
declared to the priefts, that in feven days thefe four Na-
zarites would complete their vow of Nazaritefnip ; and
that he would contribute his (hare of the charges.
But towards the end of thefe feven days, the Jews of
Alia having feen him in the temple, moved all the
people againft him, laid hold of him, and cried out,
“Help/ye Ifrac-lites, this is he that teaches every¬
where agaiatf the law, and againft the temple, and has
brought Gentiles into the temple, and promned this
holy place.” At the fame time they laid hold on him,
(hut the gates of the temple, and would have killed
Paul,
aiorp- witn tnem at ivtiiyicnc. i   7 0 _ _ , r, r .v n
to Mil"''5, whither the elder, of the church ot liphe- him, had not Lyto the tnbune of the Roman gr,.
fus came to fee him ; for he had not time to go to
them, becaufe he was defirous of being at Jcrufalem
at the fealt of Pentecoft.
When thefe elders were arrived at Miletus, St Paul
difeourfed with them, and told them that he was go-
ing to Jerufalem without certainly knowing what
thou Id happen to him ; however he did not doubt ,'Ut
that he had much to fuffer there, fince in all cities the
Holy Ghoft had given him to underftand, that chains
and afflictions waited for him at Jerufalem. Never-
theltfs, he declared to them, that all this did not terrify
him, provided he could but fulfil his miniftry. After
having exhorted them to patience, and having prayed
along with them, he went on board, going ftraight to
Coos, then to Rhodes, and thence to Patara (Ads xxi.
1, 2, &c.), where finding a (hip that was bound for
Phoenicia, they went on board and arrived fafe at
Tyre. Here they made a flop for feven days, and
then going on, they arrived at Ptolemais, and thence
at Casfarea, where they found Philip the evangehft,
who was one of the ftven deacons. While St Paul
was there, the prophet Agabus arrived there alfo from
Judea ; and having taken St Paul’s girdle, he bound
his own hands and feet with it, faying, “ Thus (hall
the Jews of Jerufalem bind the man that owns this
girdle, and (hall deliver him up to the Gentiles.” But
St Paul’s conilancy was not (haken by all thefe pre¬
dictions, and he told them, that he was ready, not on¬
ly to fuffer bonds, but death itfelf, for the name of
Chrift.
When he was come to Jerufalem, the brethren re¬
ceived him with joy ; and the day following he went
to fee St James the lefs, bifflop of Jerufalem, at whofe
houfe all the eldets affembled. Paul gave them an ac¬
count of what God had done among the Gentiles by
his miniftry. d hen St James informed him, that the
converted Jews were ftrangeiy prejudiced againft him,
becaufe they were informed he taught the Jews that
lived among the Gentiles and out of P.dcttine, that
they ought to renounce the law of Moles, and no
longer circumcife their children. Therefore, continued
-St James, we muft affemble them here together, where
fon there run to his relcue, taken him out of their
hands, and brought him into the citadel. St Paul
being upon the iteps, defired the tribune to fuffer hint
to fpeak to the people, who followed him thither in a
great multitude. The tribune permitted him, and
St Paul, making a lign with his hand, made a fpeech
in Hebrew (Adis xxii.), and related to them the man¬
ner o4 his converfion, and his million from God to go
and preach to the Gentiles. At his mentioning the
Gentiles, the Jews began to cry out, “ Away with
this wicked fellow out of the world, for he is not wor¬
thy to live.” _ ^
Immediately the tribune made him come into the
caftle, and ordered that he (hould be examined by-
whipping him, in order to make him confefs the mat¬
ter why the Jews were fo incenfed againft him. Be¬
ing now bound, he faid to the tribune, 4 Is it lawful
for you to whip a Roman citizen before you hear him?”
The tribune hearing this, cautd him to be unbound,
and calling together the priefts and the fenate of the
Jews, he brought Paul before them, that he might
know the occafion of this tumult of the people. Then
Paul began to fpeak to them to this purpofe, (Acts
xxiii.) : “ Brethren, 1 have lived in all good confcience
before God until this day.” At which words, Ana-
nias, fon of Nebedeus, who was the chief-pneft,
ordered the by-ftanders to give him a blow in the face.
At which St Paul faid to him, “ God (hall fmite thee,
thou whited wall; for litteft thou to judge me after
the law, and commandeft me to be fmitten contrary
to the law ?” Thofe that were prefent faid to him,
“ Reviled thou God’s high-prieft ?” St Paul excufed
himfelf by faying, that he did not know he was the
high-prieft, “ For it is written, thou (halt not fpeak
evil of the ruler of thy people.” Then perceiving that
part of the affembly were Sadducees and part Phart-
fees, he cried out, “ Brethren, 1 am a Phanfee, the
fon of a Pharifee ; of the hope and refurre&ion of the
dead l am called in quellion.” < _
Then the affembly being divided in interelis and
opinions, and the clamour increafing more and more,
the tribune ordered the foldiers to fetch him away out
6 of
r a u r j
T'ftul. of the aflcrably, and bring him into the caftle. The
folio wing night the Lord appeared to Paul, and far'd
to him, “ Fake courage, for as you have bore telli-
mony of me at Jerufalem, fo muft you alfo at Rome.”
The day following, more than 40 Jews engaged them-
felves by an oath, not to tat or drink till they had
killed Paul. They came, therefore, and made known
their deiign to the priefts and chiefs of the people,
faying to them, “ To-morrow caufe Paul to appear
before you, as if you would inquire more accurately
into his affair, and before he can come to you, we will
lie in wait for him and kill him.” But St Paul, being
informed of this confpiracy by his fifter’s fon, ac¬
quainted the tribune with it; who gave orders that
the night following he fhould be fent to Caefarea, to
Felix the governor, who had his ordinary refidence
there. Felix having received letters from Lylias, and
being informed that St Paul was of Cilicia, he told
him he would hear him when his accufers fhould ar¬
rive.
Five days after, Ananias the high-pried and fome
of the fenatcrs came to Casfarea, bringing with them
Tertulius the orator, to plead againd Paul. Tertul-
lus accufed him of being a feditious perfon, a didurber
of the public peace ; one who had put himfelf at the
head of a fett of Nazarenes, and who made no fcruple
even to profane the temple, (/V. xxiv.) But St Paul ea-
fily refuted thefe calumnies, and defied his accufers to
prove any ©f the articles they had exhibited againd
him : he ended his difcourfe by faying, “That for the
do&rine of the refurreftion from the dead, his adver-
faries would have him condemned.” Felix put off the
further hearing of this caufe till another time ; and,
fome days afterwards, came himfelf with his wifeDru-
•filla to hear Paul ; and being in hopes that the apo-
ftie would purchafe his freedom with a fum of money,
he ufed him well, often fent for him, and had frequent
conveifations with him.
Two years having paffed thus away, Felix made
way for his fucceffor Portius Fedus ; but being will¬
ing to oblige the Jews, he left Paul in prifon. Fedus
being come to Jerufalem, the chief prieds defired to
fend for Paul, with a defign to fall upon him by the
way. But hedits told them, they might come to Cae-
farea, where he would do them judice. Hither the
Jews came, and accufed Paul of feveral crimes, of
wnich they were able to prove nothing, (id. xxv.)
Fedus then propofed to the apodle to go to Jerufa¬
lem, and be tried there ; but he anfwered, “ That he
was now at the emperor’s tribunal, where he ought to
be tried ; and that he appealed toCseiar:” whereupon
I'edus, having conferred with his council, told him,
therefore to Caelar he fhould go.
. S°me days after, King Agrippa and his wife Bere-
nice coming to Caffarea, defired to hear Paul; who
p.eaced his caufe with fuch ability, that Agrippa ex-
eiuimed, “ Almod thou perfuadeit me to be a Chri-
•dian.” See Agrippa.
As foon, therefore, as it was refolvedto fend Paul into
Itaiy, hewas put on board a fhip at Adramyttium, a
city ot Myfia; and having paded over the feas of Cilicia
and Pamphyha, they arrived at Myra in Lyeia, where,
saving found.a fhip that was bound for Italy, they
went on board, {id. xxvii.) But the feafon being far
■advanceu (for it was at lead the latter end of Septem-
Vol. XfV. Part I. r
1 P A U
ber), and the wind proving contrary, they with much
difficulty arrived at the Fair Haven, a port in the ifle
of Crete. St Paul advifed them to winter there : how¬
ever, others were of opinion they had better go to Phe-
nice, another harbour of the fame ifiand ; but as they
were going thither, the wind drove them upon a little
ifland called Ciauda> where the mariners, fearing to
ftrike upon fome bank of fand, they lowered their
mart, and furreniered themfelves to the mercy of the
waves. Three days after this, they threw overboard
the tackling of the fhip. Neither fun nor flars had
appeared now for 14 days. In this extreme danger, an
angel appeared to St Paul, and affured him, that God
had given him the lives of all that were in the fhip with
him ; which were in all 276 fouls. St Paul told them
of his vifion, exhorted them to take courage, and pro-
mifed them that they fhould all come alive into an
ifland ; and that the veffel only fhould be loft. On
the 14th night the feamen call out the lead, and
thought by their founding that they approached near
to fome land. They were attempting to fave themfelves
by going into the boat; but St Paul told the centurion
and the foldiers, that except the failors continued in
the fhip, their lives could not be faved. Then the
foldiers cut the ropes of the boat, and let her drive.
About day-break, St Paul perfuaded them to take
fome nouriihment, affuring them that not a hair of
their heads fhould perifh. After his example, they
took fome food, and when they had eat, they lighten¬
ed their veffel, by throwing the corn into the fea.
Day being come, they perceived a fhore, where they
refolved, if pofiible, to bring the fhip to. But the vef¬
fel having ftruck againft a neck of land that run out
into the fea, fo that the head remained fixed, and the
ftern was expofed to the mercy of the waves; the fol-
dieis, fearing left any of the prifoners fhould make their
efcape by fwimming, were for putting them all to the
fword. But the centurion would not fuft'er them, be¬
ing willing to fave Paul; and he commanded thofe that
could fwim to throw themfelves firft out of the vefftl ;
and the reft^ got planks, fo that all of them came fafe
to fhore. Then they found that the ifland was called
MAita or Malta ; the inhabitants of w hich received
them with great humanity, (A<fts xxvii. 1, 2, 3, &c.)
They being all very wet and cold, a great fire was
lighted to dry them ; and Paul having gathered up a
handful of flicks, and put them upon the fire, a viper
leaped out of the fire, and took hold of his han 3. Then
the barbarous people faid to one another, “ Without
doubt this man ha murderer; and though he has been
faved from the fhipwreck, yet divine vengeance ftill
purfues him, and will not fuffer him to live.” But
I anl, fluking the viper into the fire, received no in-
jury from it. I he people, feeing this, changed their
opinion of him, and took him for a god ; which opi¬
nion of theirs was more confirmed, by his curing
the father of Publius, the chief man of the ifland; of
a fever and bloody-flux. After this miracle, they all
brought out their lick to him, and they were healed.
See Melita.
At the en 1 of three months they embaiked again ;
and arrived, firft at Syracufe, then at Rhegium, and
laflly at Puttoli. Here St Paul found fome Chriftians,
who detained him for feven days; then he fet out
for Rome. The brethren of this city, having been in-
H. formed
P A U
formed of St Paul’s arrival, came out to meet him as
far as Appit-forum, and the Three Taverns. And
when he was come to Rome, he was allowed to dwell
where he pleafed, having a foldier to guard him, who
was joined to him with a chain. Three days after¬
wards, St Paul defired the chief of the Jews there to
come to him. He related to them in what manner
he had been feized in the temple of Jerufalem, and the
neceffity he was under of appealing to Caeiar. The
Jews told him, that as yet they had received no infor¬
mation about his affair ; and, as for Chriftianity, they
knew nothing of it, but only that it was ipoken
againft everywhere ; however, that they fliould he
very willing to have feme account of that do&rine
from him. A day was appointed for this purpofe ;
when St Paul preached to them concerning the king¬
dom of God, endeavouring to convince them from
Mofes and the prophets, that Jefus w»s the Mefiiah.
Some of them believed what he had faid to them,
while others difbejieved ; fo that they returned from
him divided among themfelves.
Paul dwelt fer two whole years at Rome, from the
year of Chrift 61 to the year 63, in a lodging that he
hired ; where he received all that came to him, preach¬
ing the kingdom of God, and the religion sf Jefus
Chrifl, without any interruption.
Hitherto we have had the A&s of the Apoftles for
our guide, in compiling the hiftory of St Paul ; what
we fhall add hereafter, will be moftly taken from
his own Epiftles. His captivity did not a little con¬
tribute to the advancement of religion ; for he con¬
verted feveral perfons even of the emperor’s court,
(Philip, i- *2—18. and iv. 22.) The Chriftians of
Philippi, in Macedonia, hearing that St Paul was a
prifoner at Rome, fent Epaphroditus their bifhop to
him, to bring him money, and otherwife to affift him
in their name, (Phil. ii. 25.) Epaphroditus fell fick at
Rome ; and when he went back to Macedonia, the
apoftle fent by him his Epiftle to the Philippians.
It is not known by what means St Paul was deli¬
vered from his prifon, and difeharged from the accu-
i'ation of the Jews. There is great probability that they
riurft not appear againfl; him before the Emperor, as
not having fufficient proof of what they laid to his
charge. However that may be, it is certain that he was
fet at liberty, after haying been two years a prifoner
at Rome. He wrote alfo, during this imprifonment,
his Epiftles to Philemon and the Colofiians.
He was ftill in the city Rome, or at leaft in Ita¬
ly, when he wrote his Epiftle to the Hebrews. St
Paul, having got out of prifon, went over Italy ; and,
according to fome of the fathers, paffed into Spain ;
then into Judea ; went to Ephefus, and there left Ti¬
mothy (Heb. xiii. 24. and 1 Tim. i. 3.) ; preached
in Crete, and there fixed Titus, to take care to culti-
vate the church he had planted in that place. . Pro¬
bably he might alfo vifit the Philippians, according to
the promife he had made them, (Phil. i. 23, 26. and
ii. 24.) ; and it is believed, that it was from Macedo¬
nia that he wrote the Firft Epifile to Timothy.-—
Seme time after, he wrote to Titus, whom he had left
in Crete ; he dtfires him to come to Nicopolis, from
whence, probably, he fent this letter. The year fol¬
lowing, that is, the 63th year of the Chriilian era, the
2poftle went into Afia, a,nd came to Troas, (2 dim.
[ 58 1 P A U
iv. 13.) Thence he went to vifit Timothy at Ephe¬
fus, and from that to Miletus, (J Tim. iv. 20 ) Ladly, ~
he went to R'ome ; and St Chryfof|om fays, that it
was reported, that having converted a cup-bearer and
a concubine of Nero, this fo provoked the Emperor,
that he caufed St Paul to be apprehended, and clap¬
ped into prifon. It was in this laft place of confine¬
ment that he wrote his Second Epiille to Timothy,
which Chryfoftom looks upon as the apotlle’s lait te-
flament. See Iimothy and I itus.
This great apoftle at laft; confummated his martyr¬
dom, the 29th of June, in the 66th year of Jefus
Chrift, by having his head cut of;, at a place called
the Salvian Waters. Ele was buried on the way of
Odium, and a magnificent church was built over
his tomb, which is in being to this day. Calmet’s
DiB. See. . j r\/r 1
Paul (St), Cave or Grotto of, in the iftand of Mal¬
ta, where St Paul and his company took (belter from
the rains, when the viper faftened on his atm. Upon
this fpot there is a church built by the famed A-
lof de Vignacourt, grand-mafter of the order, in the
year 1606, a very handfome, thoughbut a fmall, itruc-
ture. On the altar-piece is a curious painting, repre-
fenting the apoftle’s (baking off the viper, furrounded
with men, women, and children, in attitudes of admi¬
ration and furprife, and in the old Maltefe...garb ; and
the whole very well executed. On the top of the
painting is the following infeription :
Vipera ignis a£fa calorc fruftra Pauli
Manum invadit ; is infulae benedicens
Anguibus 5c herbis adimit omne virus.
M.DC.V.
Paul.
Paul, firft bifhop of N»rbonne, or Sergius Paulas
the proconful, converted and made Wiftiop by St Paul,
was defeended from one of the bed families of Rome.
It is faid the Japoftle called himfelf Paul, from his
name. The Spaniards will have him to be their
apoftle, which is not improbable ; and it is faid he
died a martyr at Narbonne.
Paul V. by birth a Roman, was firft clerk of the
chamber, and afterwards nuncio to Clement VHI. in
Spain, who honoured him with a cardinal s hat.
was advanced to the papal chair the 16th of May
,605, after Leo XL The ancient quarrel between
the fecular and ecclefiaftical jurifdiaiofls, which in for¬
mer times had occafioned fo much bloodfhed, revived
in the reign of this pontiff. The fenate of Venice had
condemned by two decrees, J. The new foundations
of monafteries made without their concurrence. 2. 1 he
alienation of the eftates both ecclefiaftical and fecular.
The firft decree paffed in 1603, and the fecond in
1605. About the fame time a canon and abbot, ac-
cufed of rapine and murder, were arrefted by order of
the fenate, and delivered over to the fecular court;
a circumftance which could not fail to give offence to
the court of Rome. Clement VIII. thought it pro¬
per to diffemble or take no notice of the affair ; but
Paul V. who had managed the Genoefe upon a limi-
lar occafion, flattered himfelf with the hopes that the
Venetians would be equally pliant. However, he was
difappointed ; for the fenate maintained that they held
their power to make laws of God only ; and therefore
they refufed to revoke their decrees and deliver up thp
P A U
ecclefiaflical prifoners into the hands of the nuncio, as
the pope demanded. Paul, provoked at this behaviour,
excommunicated the doge and fenate ; and threaten
ed £o put the whole ilate under an interdift, it fat s-
faftion was not given him within the fpace of 24
hours. The fenate did no more than proteft againit
this menace, and forbid the publication of it through¬
out their dominions. A numler of pamphlets, from
both fides, foen announced the animofity of the two
parties. The Capuchins, the Thealins, and Jefuits,
were the only religious orders who obftived the
interdidl. The fenate fhipjied them all off for Rome,
and the Jefutts were banifhed for ever. Meantime his
holinefs was preparing to make the refra&oty republic
fubmit to his fpiritual tyranny by force of arms. He
levied troops againfl the Venetians ; but he foon found
his defign baulked, as the caufe of [he Venetians ap¬
peared to be the common caufe of all princes. He
had rtcourfe, therefore, to Henry IV. to fettle the
differences.: and this prince had all the honour of
bringing about a reconciliation between the contend¬
ing parties. His ambaffaJors at Rome and Venice be¬
gan the negociation, and Cardinal de Joyeufe finifhed
it in 1607. It was agreed upon, that this cardinal
fhould declare at his entry into the fenate, that the
cenfures of the church were to be taken off, or that
he would remove them ; and that the doge fhould
at the fame time furrender to him the deeds of revo¬
cation and proteft. It was alfo ftipulated, that all the
religious who were banifhed, except the jefuits, fhould
be reftored to their former privileges. In fine, the
Venetians promifed to fend an ambaffa Jor extraordi¬
nary to Rome, in order to thank the pope for the fa¬
vour he had done them ; but they would not allow
the legate to fpeak of his hblinefs granting them ab-
folution. Paul was wife enough to overlook the whole
matter, but endeavoured to put an end to another dif-
pute, which had been long agitated in the congregations
<ie auxiliis. He caufed it to be intimated in form to the
difputants and counfellors, that, as the congregations
were now diffolved, it was his exprefs order that the
contending parties fhould no longer continue to cen-
uire one another. Some authors have affirmed that
Paul V. had drawn out a bull againfl the doftrine of
Molina, which only wanted to be promulged ; but
for this faft there appears to be no other evidence
than the draught of this bull, which we meet with in
t e end of the hifiory of the above-mentioned con¬
gregations. Paul was ftrongly folicited, but in vain,
to make the immaculate'conception of the holy virgin an
article of faith. He contented himfelf with barefy for.
bidding the contrary doftrine to be publicly taught,
that he might not offend the Dominicans, who, at that
time, maintained that fhe was conceived, like other hu¬
man creatures in original fin. His holinefs afterwards
applied himfelf to the emhellifhing of Rome, and was
at great pains to colled the works of the mod eminent
painters and engravers. Rome is indebted to him for
m rnoft beautiful fountains, efpecially that where the
a r potus out rom an antique vale taken from the
evmeali°r °f VcfPafian’ 8nd which
they call aqua Paola, an ancient work of Auguflus
reftored by Paul V. He l-rm,^ „ ^-"guuus,
- ^ bought water into it by an
f 59 ]
P A U
and the magnificent palace of Mount Cavallo. He
applied himfeb in a particular manner to the recover¬
ing a; d repairing ancient monuments, which he made
to advance, as much as the mature of them would ad¬
mit, the honour of Chiiiliar.ity ; as appears from an
elegant infcription placid upon a column of porphyry,
taken from the temple of Pence, and bearing a beauti¬
ful ft itue of the Virgin, at the fide of the church of
St Mary the elder :
“ Impura falfi templa
Quondam numinis
Jubente moefta pertereham Casfare :
Nunc laeta veri
Perferens matiem Dei
Te, Paule, nullis obticebo fseculis.”
His pontificate was honoured with fevenl illuftrioiis
embaffies. 'i he kings of Japan, Congo, and other
Indian princes, fent ambaffadors to him. He took
care to fupply them with miflionaries, and to found
bifhopricks in thefe countries new ly brought over to
the faith. He fhowtd the fame attention to the Ma-
ronites and other eaftern Chriftians. He fent legates
to different orthodox princes, both to teftify his efteenV
for them, and to confirm them in their zeal for re¬
ligion. He died the zdth of January 1621, aged 69 ;
after having confirmed the French Oratory, the Urfu-
lities, the Order of Charity, and fome other inftitu-
tions. Bold in his claims, but of narrow views, he
diftinguifhed himfelf more by his piety and knowledge
than by his politics. It has been remarked, that he
never paffed a fingle day of his popedom without cele¬
brating mafs. He enjoined all the religious in the pro-
fcent ion ot their fludies to have regular profeffors for
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic; if there were
any among themfelves properly qualified ; or if that
was not t?:e cafe, to take the affiftance of laymen for
that purpofe, until there were fome of their own order
who had learning enough to inltrud; their brethren.
It was very difficult to carry this decree into execu¬
tion ; and indeed it was always very impel fettly ob-
ferved.
. ^AUL (Father), whofe name, before he entered
into the monaftic life, was Peter Sarpi, was born at
Venice, Auguft 14. 1552. His father followed mer-
chandife, but with fo little fuccefs, that at his death
he left his family very ill provided for. but under the
care of a mother whofe piety was likely to bring the
blefling or providence upon them, and whofe wife con-
duel fupphed the want of fortune by advantages of
greater value. Happily for young Sarpi fhe had a
brother, mailer of a celebrated fchool, under whofe
direction he was placed by her. Here he loft no time,
but cultivated his abilities, naturally of the firft rate,
with unwearied application. He was born for ftudy,
having a natural averfion to pleafure and gaiety, and
a memory fo tenacious that he could repeat 30 verfes
upon once hearing them. Proportionable to his capa¬
city was his progrtfs in literature: at 13, having made
himfelf mailer of fchool learning, he turned his ftudieg
to philofophy and the mathematics, and entered upon
logic under Capella of Cremona, who, though a ce¬
lebrated matter of that feience, confeffcd himfelf in a.
Pad!.
aquedinft ^ miles in leneth° afteVTK ,L ^ aii maiter ot mat Icience, conteiied himfclf in *
Sixtus V. He completed the fromilpiece oTsTpcter, ftrudio.',,! tim' “nab‘' t0 ^ hi8 P'Jpirany farthcr
D 2 Au
A U [ 60 1 P A U
of the order of the S-rvltes, his were interrupted hy a new information in the Inquifi-
t‘ie ... tj0n. where a former acquaintance produced a letter
- . . t 1* 1 I. _ f * J r c ^ ^
Prvi'.
As Capella was   . . ,
fcholar was induced by his accquaintance with him
t3 eng-age in the fame profcffion, though his uncle and
his mother reprefented to him the hardships and au-
fterities of that kind of life, and advifed him with
great zeal againft it. But he was fteady in his re-
lolutions, and in 1566 took the habit of the order
being then only in his 14th year, a time of hie in molt
perfons very improper for fuch engagements, but in
him attended with luch maturity of thought, and Inch
a fettled temper, that he never feemed to regret the
choice he then mad-, and which he confirmed by a
fol?mn public profeffion in 1572,
At a general chapter of the Servites held at Mantua,
Paul (for fo we {hall now call him) being then only
20 Years old, diftin milhed himfelf fo much in a pu¬
blic difputation by his cenius and learning, that W il¬
liam duke of Mantua, a great patron of letters, fo-
licited the confent of his fuperiors to retain him at his
court, and, not only made him public profdlor of dt-
vin cy in the cathedral, and reader of crfutftical diyi-
written by him in cyphers, in which he faid, “ chat he
detefted the court of Rome, and that no preferment was
obtained there but by diflroneft means.” This accu-
fation, however dangerous, was palled over on account
of his great reputation ; but made fuch impreffions on
that court, that he was afterwards denied a bilhopric
by Clement VIII. After thefe difficulties were iur-
mounted, F. Paul again retired to his folitude j where
he appears, by fome writings drawn up by him at that
time, to have turned his attention more to improve¬
ments in piety than learning. Such was the care vuth
which he read the feriptures, that, it being his cuftom
to draw a line under any pafiage which he intended
more nicely to confider, there was not a fmgle word
in his New Teftament but was underlined. The fame
marks of attention appeared in his Oid deitament,
Pf Iter, and Breviary.
But the molt active feene of his life began about the
year 1615 ; when Pope PaulV. exafperated by fome
decrees of the fenate of Venice that interfered with
the pretended rights of the church, laid the wnole hate
under an interdift. The fenate, filled with indigna¬
tion at this treatment, forbad the bilbops to uccivc
or publiffi the pope’s bull ; and, convening the redors
of the churches, commanded them to celeorate civine
fervice in the accuitomed manner, with which molt of
them readily complied : but the Jefuits and fume
others refufing, were by a folemn edid expelled the
Hate Both parties having proceeded to extremities,
employed their ableft writers to defend their meafures.
On the pope’s fide, among others, Cardinal Bdlarmine
entered the lifts, and, with his confederate authors,
defended the papal claims with great fcurnlity of ex-
preffion, and very fophiftical reafonings; which were
confuted by the Venetian r.pologifts in much more
decent language, and with much greater fohdity ot
argument. On this occafion F. Paul was moft emi¬
nently diftinguifhed by his Defence of the Rights ot
the fupreme Magiftrate, his Treatife of Excommum- _
cation, tranflated from Gerfon, with an Apology, and
other writings; for which he was cited before the In-
quifition at Rome : but it may be eafily imagined that
he did not obey the fummons.
The Venetian writers, whatever might be the
abilities of their adverfaries, were at Rail fupenor
to them in the juftice of their caufe. 1 he propou-
tions maintained on the fide of Rome were thefe:
That the pope is invefted with all the authority ot
heaven and earth : that all princes are his vaffals, and
that he may annul their laws at pleafure: that kings
may appeal to him, as he is temporal monarch of the
whole earth : that he can difeharge fubjefts from their
oaths of allegiance, and make it their duty to take up
arms againft their fovereign: that he may depole
kings without any fault committed by them, it the
good of the church requires it: that the clergy are
exempt from all tribute to kings, and are not account¬
able to them even in cafes of high-trealon : that the
pope cannot err: that his decilions are to be received
of his order, and during his refidence at Kome was $ ™ aGod ^
greatly eHeemed by Pope S.xtus V and contraaed^a f Jjfh . that h;s fcntence anll that of God are the fame:
intimate friendftnp with Cardinal Lellai ^ that to can }ri3 p0wer in queftion is to call m
eminent perfons. , , r n the cower of God: maxims equally (hocking,
But the hours of repofe, that he employed fo well, queftion the power 01 uoa . u ; weak*
mev and canon law in that city, but honoured him
•with many proofs of his efteem. But Father Paul
finding a . ourt life not agreeable to his temper, quit¬
ted it two years afterwards, and retired to his beloved
privacies, being then not only acquainted with the
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, an 1 Chaldee languages, but
with philofophy, the mathematics, canon and civil
lav, all p rts of natural phdofophy, and chemiftry
itfelf; for his appl cation was unintermitted, his head
char, his apprehenfion quick, and his memoty re-
Being made a prieft at 22, he was diftinguiffied by
the illuftrious Cardinal Borromeo with his confidence,
rn 1 employed by him on many occafions, not without
the envy of perfons of lefs merit, who were fo far ex-
afptrabed as to lay a charge againft him before the In-
qyifition, for denying that the Trinity could be proved
from the firft chapter of Genefis ; but the accufution
was too ridiculous to be taken notice o . fttr t 11s
he parted fucceffively through the dignities of his order,
of which he was chofen provincial tor the province of
Venice at 26 years of age ; and difeharged this pod
with, fuch honour, that in 1579 he was appointed, with
two others, to draw up new regulations and itatutes
for his order. ' his he executed with great fuccefs ;
and when his office of provincial was expired, he re¬
tired for three years to the ftudy of natural and ex¬
perimental philofophy and anatomy, in which he is
faid to have made fome ufeful difcovertes. In the inter¬
vals of his employment he applied himfelf to his ftuTe3
with fo extenfive a capacity, as left no branch o
knowledge untouched. By him Acquapendente, the
great anatomift, confers that he was informed how
vifion is peformed ; and there are proofs that he was
not a ftranger to the circulation ot the blood. He
frequently converfed upon aftronomy with mathemati¬
cians, upon anatomy with furgeons, upon medicine
with phyficians, and with chemirts upon the analyfia
of metals, not as a fuperficial inquirer, but as a com¬
plete mailer. He was then chofen procurator general
of his order; and during his refidence at Rome was
P A U
Pan!.
vraak, pernicious, and abfurd ; which did not require
- the abilities or learning' of F. Paul to demonilrate their
fali'ehood and deftrudtive tendency. It may be eafily
imagined that fuch principles were quickly overthrown,
and that no court but that of Rome thought it for
its intereft to favour them. The pope, therefore, find¬
ing his authors confuted and his caufe abandoned, was
willing to conclude the affair by treaty; which, by the
mediation of Henry IV. of France, was accommodated
upon terms very much to the honour of the Venetians.
But the defenders of the Venetian rights were, though
comprehended in the treaty, excluded by the Roman*
from the benefit of it: fome, upon different pretences,
were imprifoned; fome fent to the galleys ; and all
debarred from preferment. But their malice was
xhiefly aimed againft F. Paul, who foon found the
effedds of it ; for as he was going one night to his
convent, about fix months after the accommodation,
he was attacked by five ruffians armed with flilettoes,
who gave him no lefs than fifteen ftabs, three of which
wounded him in fuch a manner that he was left for
dead. The murderers fled for refuge to the nuncio,
and were afterwards received into the pope’s domi¬
nions ; but were purfued by divine juftice, and all, ex¬
cept one man who died in prifon, periflied by violent
deaths.
This, and other attempts upon his life, obliged him
to confine himfelf to his convent, where lie engaged in
writing the Hiftory of the Council of Trent ; a work
unequalled tor the judicious difpolition of the matter,
and artful texture of the narration ; commended by
T)r Burnet as the completed model of hiltorical wri¬
ting ; and celebrated by Mr Wotton as equivolent to
any produ&ion of antiquity; in which the reader
finds “ liberty without licentfoufnefs, piety without
hypocrify, freedom of fpeech without ne^left of de¬
cency, feverity without rigour, and extenfive learning
without oftentation.”
In this, and other works of lefs confequence, he
fpent the remaining part of his life ’to the beginning
of the }ear 1622, when he was feized with a cold and
fever, which he negleaed till it became incurable. He
languffhed more than twelve months, which he fpent
aim oft wholly in a preparation for his paffage into
eternity ; and among his prayers and afpirations was
often heard to repeat, “ Lord ! now let thy fervant
depart in peace.” On Sunday the eighth of January
ol the next year, he rofe, weak as he was, to mafs, and
went to take his repaft with the reft; but on Monday
was feized with a weaknefs that threatened immediate
death ; and on Thurfday prepared for his change, by
receiving the viaticum, with fuch marks of devotion as
equally melted and edified the beholders. Throuo-h
the whole courfe of his illnefs to the laft hour of his
1 e he was Confulted by the fenate in public affairs,
and returned anfwers in his greateft weaknefs with
Hrfr mind as could bnly arife from the
confcioufnefs of innocence.
On Saturday, the day of his death, he had the
irofoei10 °Urb C red Sa,vioUr read to hJm outof St John’s
ff ht ’ °n TZ 0tier day week, and fpofce
his merits^ A r ^cdeern.er’. and his confidence in
brethren of 1 ' S US ^ ev'dently approached, the
P a er' wL h-Tr1 ^ t0 Pro™^e the laft
C: XI V. Part-L d j°in in his ^ts.
[ 6l ]
P A U
being able to pronounce no more than thefe ui-ords, Paul
JEjIo perpetua, “ May eft thou laft for ever which was J .11.
underftood to be a prayer for the profperity of his ^du!‘r-ian*-
country. 7’hus died F. Paul, in the yrft year of his
age ; hated by the Romans as their moft formidable
enemy, and honoured by all the learned for his abili-
ties, and by the good for his integrity. His detefta-
tion of the corruption of the Roman church appears
in all his writings, but particularly in this memorable
paflage of one of his letters : “ There is nothing
more effential than to ruin the reputation of the Jefuits.
By the ruin of the Jefuits, Rome will be ruined ; and
if Rome is ruined, religion will inform of itfelf.” He
appears, by many paffages in his life, to have had a
high efteem for the church of England ; and his friend
F. Fulgentio, who had adopted all his notions, made
no fcruple of adminiftering to Dr Duncombe, an Eng-
liffi gentleman that fell fick at Venice, the communion
in both kinds, according to the Common Prayer which
he had with him in Italian. He was buried with great
pomp at the public charge, and a magnificent monu¬
ment was eredfed to his memorial.
Paul, in fea language, is a fhort bar of wood or
iron, fixed clofe to the capftern or windlas of a fliip,
to prevent thofe engines from rolling back or giving
way when they are employed to heave in the cable, or
otherwife charged with any great effort.
PAULIANISPS, Paulianist.'e, a fetf of here¬
tics, fo called from their founder Paulus Samofatenus,
a native of Samofata, ele&ed bifhop of Antioch in 262.
His doftrine feems to have amounted to this : that the
Son and the Holy Ghoft exift in God in the fame man¬
ner as the faculties of reafon and activity do in man {
that Chrift was born a mere man ; but that the reafon or
wifdom of the Father defeended into him, and by him
wrought miracles upon earth* and in ft ruefted the na¬
tions ; and, finally, that, on account of this union of
the Divine Word with the man Jefus, Chrift might,
though improperly, be called God. It is alfo laid,
that he did not baptize in the name of the Father and
the Son, &c. ; for which reafon the council of Nice
ordered thofe baptized by him to be re-baptized.
Being condemned by Dionyfius Alexandrinus in a
Council, he abjured his errors, to avoid depolition ;
but foon after he refumed them, and was a&ually de-
pofed by another council in 26p.—He may be con*
fidered as the father of the modern Socinians ; and
his errors are feverely condemned by the council of
Nice, whofe creed differs a little from that now ufed*
under the fame name, in the church of England. The
creed agreed upon by the Nicene fathers, with a view
to the errors of Paulus Samofatenus, conclude* thus ;
Tiuv- <f£ \ryovU<: tiv ron CVK xxi t^iv yfvmWcrf, cvx. tiv, &c.
Tovlovf n xa9->Xix» xa« aToo-JiXtxx fxxXxu-ia.——
But thofe who fay there was a time when he was
not, and that he was not before he was born, the ca¬
tholic and apoftolic church anathematizes.” To thofe
who have any veneration for the council of Nice this
muft appear a very ievere, and perhaps not unjuft, cen-
fare of fome other modern fe&s as well as of the So¬
cinians.
PAULICIANS, a branch of the ancient Manichees,
fo called from their founder, one Paulus, an Arminian*
in the feventh century ; who, with his brother John,
both of Samofata, formed this feft: though other*
^ 3 are
>
P A U [62
Paulicians. are of opinion, that they were thus called from another
Paul, an Armenian by birth, who lived under the rcig^
of Juftinian II. In the feventh century a zealot called
Conftantine revived this drooping left, which had _u -
fered much from the violence of its adveriaries, and
was. ready to expire under the feverity of the imperial
edifts, and that zeal with which they were carried in¬
to execution. The Paulicians, however, by their num¬
ber, and the continuance of the emperor Nicephoros,
became formidable to all the liaft. ^
But the cruel rage of perfecution, which had for
fome years been fufpended, broke forth with redoubled
violence under the reigns of Michael Curopalates and
Leo the Armenian, who inflifted capital punifhment
on fuch of the Paulicians as refufed to return into the
bofom of the church. The emprefs Theodora, tuto-
refsofthe Emperor Michael, in 84?, would oblige
them either to be converted or to quit the empire :
upon which feveral of them were put to death, and
more retired among the Saracens ; but they were nei¬
ther all exterminated nor banilhed.
Upon this they entered into a league with the Sara¬
cens ; and choofir.g for their chief an officer of the
trreateft refolution and valour, whofe name w^s Carbeas,
they declared againll the Greeks a war which was
carried on for fifty years with the greateft vehemence
and fury. During thefe commotions, lome Pauhcians,
towards the conclufion of this century, fpread abroad
their do&rines among the Bulgarians; many of them,
either from a principle of zeal for the propagation ot
- their opinions, or from a natural defire of flying from
the perfecution which they fuffered under the Grecian
yoke, retired, about the clofe of the eleventh century,
from Bulgaria and Thrace, and formed fettlements in
other countries. Their firft migration was into Italy ;
whence, in procefs of time, they fent colonies into
almoft all the other provinces of Europe, and tormed
gradually a confiderable number of religious afiemblies,
who adhered to their doarine, and who were atter-
wards perfected with the utmoft vehemence by the
Roman pontiffs. In Italy they were called Patartni,
from a certain place called iV^nT, being a part of the
city of Milan, where they held their affenffil.es; and
Gathiri or Gazan, from Gazana, or the Leffer 1 ar-
tarv. In France they were called Albigenfes, though
their faith differed widely from that of the Albigenfes
whom Proteftant writers generally vindicate. (See Al-
bigenses). The firft religious aflembly the Pauhcians
had formed in Europe is laid to have been difcovered
at Orleans in 1017, under the reign ot Robert, when
many of them were condemned to be burnt alive. 1 he
ancient Paulicians, according to Photms, expreffed the
utmoft abhorrence of Manes and his docW Ihe
Greek writers comprife their errors under the fix fol¬
lowing particulars: l.They denied that this inferior
and vffible world is the produftion of the fupreme
Being ; and they diftinguiffi the Creator of the woidd
and of human bodies from the moft high God who
dwells in the heavens: and hence fome have been led
to conceive that they were a branch of the Gnoftics
rather than of the Mamehceans. 2. They treate
contemptuoufly the Virgin Mary ; or, according to
the ufual manner of fpeaking among the Greeks, they
refufed to adore and worfhip her. 4.. 1 hey refufed to
celebrate the inftitution of the Lord s fupper. 4. ey
] P A IT
loaded the crofs of Chrift with contempt and reproach;
by which we are only to underttand, that they refufed
to follow the abfurd and fuperftitious pra&ice of the __
Greeks, who paid to the pretended wood of the crofs
a certain fort of religious homage. 51 Iney .ejected,
after the example of the greateft part of the Gnoftics,
the books of the Old Teftament; and looked upon
the writers of that facred hiftory as infpired by the
Creator of this world, and not by the fupreme God.
6. They excluded prefbyters and elders from all part
in the adminiftration of the church.
PAULINA, a Roman lady, wife of Saturmus
governor of Syria, in the reign of the Emperor Tibe¬
rius. Her conjugal peace was difturbed, and violence
was’ offered to her virtue, by a young man named
Mundus, who fell in love with her, and had ciiufed ^
her to come to the temple of Ids by means of the
priefts of that goddefs, who declared that AnubiJ
wifhed to communicate to her fomething of moment.
Saturnius complained to the emperor of the violence
which had been offered to his wife ; and the temple of
liis was overturned, and Mundus baiufhed, &c. i here
was befldes a Paulina, wife of the philofopher Seneca.
She attempted to kill herfelf when Nero had ordered
her hufband to die. The emperor, however, prevent¬
ed her ; and fhe lived fome few years after in the great¬
eft melancholy.
PAULINIA, in botany: A genus of the tngy*
nia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 23d or¬
der, Trihilata. Its charafters are thele : the flowers
has a permanent empalement, compofed of four imali
oval leaves ; it has four oblong oval petals, twice the
fize of the empalement : and eight fhort ftamina with
a turbinated germen, having three fhort flender ilyles,
crowned by fpreading ftigmas ; the germen turns to a
large three-cornered capiule with three cells, each con¬
taining one almoft oval feed. Linnaeus reckons feven*
and Miller nine, fpecies, natives of the Weft Indies.
PAULINUS, a bifhop who flounfhed in the early
part of the 7th century. He was the apoftle of York,
(hire, having been the firft archbifhop of York. I his
dignity feems to have been conferred on him about the
year 626. He built a church at Ahnonbury„and de¬
dicated it to St Alban, where he preached to and
converted the Brigantes. Camden mentions a crois
at Dewfborough, which had beemere&ed to him with
this infeription, Paulinus hie pradicavU et celelravit*
York was fo fmall about this time, that there was not
fo much as a fmall church in it m which King Edwin
could be baptized. Conftantius is faid to have made
it a biihopric. Pope Honorius made it a metropolitan
fee We are told that Paulinus baptized in the river
Swale, in one day, 10,000 men, befides. women and
children, on the firft converfion ot the Saxons to Chn-
ftianity, befides many at Halyftone. At Walftone in
Northumberland, he baptized Segbert king o
Fall Saxons. Bede fays, “ Paulinas
the king and queen to the royal manor called Ad-Gebrm
(now Yeverin), ftaid there 36 days with them, em¬
ployed in the duties of catechizing and baptizing.
In all this time he did nothing from morning to night
but inftrua the people, who flocked to Hm fr«m aR
the villages and places, in the doAnne of Chrift and
falvation; and, after they were inflruded, baptizing.
Paulin*
If
I'aulinu*,.
P A U
Paulo, them in the neighbouring river Glen.”
v to the fame Bede, “ he prea-hed the word in the pro
vince of Lindifii ; and firll converted the governor of
the city of Lindocollina, whofe name was Blecca, with
ail hia family. In this city he built a (tone church of
exquifite workmanihip, whofe roof being ruined by
long negledt or the violence of the enemy, only the
walls are now Handing.” He is alfo faid to have
founded a collegiate church of prebends near Southwell,
in Nottingharnfhirc, dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
This church he is faid to have built when he baptized
the Coritani in the Trent.
PAULO (Marco), a celebrated traveller, was fon
to Nicholas Paulo, a Venetian, who went with his
brother Matthew, about the year 125?, to Conllanti-
nople, in the reign of Baudoin II. Nicholas, at his
departure, Ifeft his wife big with child ; and fhe brought
, to the world the famous Marco Paulo, the fubjeft of
this memoir. The two Venetians, having taken leave
of the emperor, croffed the Black Sea, 'and travelled
into Armenia; whence they palled over land to the
court of Barka, one of the greateft lords of Tartary,
who loaded them with honours. This prince having
been defeated by one of his neighbours, Nicholas and
Matthew made the bell of their way through the de-
ferts, and arrived at the city where Kublai, grand
khaia of the Tartars, relided. Kublai was entertained
with the account which they gave him of the European
manners and cuftoms; and appointed them ambaffadors
to the pope, in order to demand of his holinefs a hun¬
dred. miffionaries. They came accordingly to Italy,
obtained from the Roman pontiff two Dominicans,
the one an Italian the other an Afiatic, and carried
along with them young Marco, for whom Kublai ex-
prelfed a lingular affedfion. This young man, having
learned the different dialedfs of Tartary, was employed
m emballies which gave him the opportunity of tra-
verfiog 1 artary, China, and other eaftern countries.
At length, after a refidence of feventeen years at the
court of the grand khan, the three Venetians returned
to their own country, in the year 1295, with immenfe
rortunes. A fhort time after his return, Marco ferving
his country at fea againft the Genoefe, his galley, in
a great naval engagement, was funk, and himftlf taken
pnloner, and carried to Genoa. He remained there
many years in confinement; and, as well to amufe his
melancholy as to gratify thofe who defired it from
im, e fent for his notes from Venice, and compofed
Panlus,
Pavo.
[ 63 ] P A V
According him a hundred miflionanes. It is equally difficult to
believe that the pope, who doubtlc fs had an ardent zeal
for the propagation of the faith, inttead of a hundred,
fhould have fent him only two miffionaries. There
are therefore fome errors and exaggerations in Marco
Paulo s narrative; but many other things which were
afterwards verified, and which have been of fervice to
fucceeding travellers, prove that in feveral refpc&s his
1 elation is valuable. He not only gave better accounts
of China than had been before received ; but likewife
furnifhed a defeription of Japan, of many of the illands
of the Eall Indies, of Madagascar, and the coalts of'
Africa ; fo that from his work it might be ealily col-
le&ed, that a direft paflage by fea to the Indies was
not only poffible, but practicable. It may be worth
while to add, that, in the opinion of the authors of
the Univerfal Hiftory, what he wrote from his own
knowledge is both curious and true, fo that where he
has erred his father and uncle muft have deceived him.
PALtLUb ^Emilius. See jEmuic/s Pau/us.
PAVO, the peacock, in ornithology; a genus be-
longing to the order of galiinse. The head is co¬
vered with feathers which bend backward* ; the fea¬
thers of the tail are very long, and beautifully va¬
riegated with eyes of different colours. Latham enu¬
merates eight fpecies:
1. 1 he criltatus, or common peacock of Engliffi Latham't*
authors, has a comprefied creft and foiitary fpurs.— Synopfts of*
It is about the fize of a common turkey ; the lenirth
from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail being
three feet eight inches, bl he bill is nearly two inches
long, and is of a brown colour. The irides are yellow.
On the crown there is a fort of creft, compofed of 24
feathers, which are not webbed except at the ends,
which are gilded green. The ffiafts are of a whitifh
colour; and the head, neck, and breaft, are of a green
gold colour. Over the eye there is a ftreak of white,
and beneath there is the fame. The back and rump
are of a green gold colour, gloffed over with copper ;
the feathers are diftinft, and lie over each other
like ffiells. “ Above the tail fprings an inimitable
let of long beautiful feathers, adorned with a varie¬
gated eye at the end of each ; thefe reach confiderably
beyond the tail ; and the longeft of them in many
birds are four feet and a half in length. This beauti-
ul train, or tail as it is faifely called, may be expand¬
ed quite to a perpendicular upwards at the will of the
rrd. The true tail is hid beneath this group of fea
itn, 7/^/" l-i confifts of ,8
&c. ; the Eft ri!L7o7‘iti,m0nj0d!l a"d,aha|flong.ma,ked on the fide, with rofous grey:
Venice, in 8eo, ,496. H^ork wa^raXeH t “‘f fCaP,'krS a'‘d l'"" ^ C°‘WS ^
different languajres^and inf rte 1 U ^lour» var*egated with black Tthe middle coverts deep
The edition®S’eft"emed Ire the e 7 b'“C’ glfed "T S°ld : thl; ^
blhed by Andrew Muller at ColrUef f W‘"g ruf°US : the ^UlI,s are alfo rufous 5 f°me of them
and that in French ,to be fofm 1 ^ * t’h 4tu ,cl-67J j vaneg;ited WIt!l rufous, blackiffi, and green : the belly
khan was informed of \he ^ tv • ihe ?maIe is.rather lefs than the male. The train
merchants, who were come to fell theriarW ,tnetl,a^ J.8 vtr7 ffiort, being much ffiorter than the tail, and
at his court, he fent before them an ef o Jcarc^ Jlon^r than coverts ; neither are the feathers
men, and afterwards difpatched thefe VeLp 40’00° ^ ^ The crdl on the hcad is fimilar
baffadors to the Pope, to befeech hthll ne Tn H ° 31 °n thC head °f the male : the fldes of the head
r ^reecn his holinefs to fend have a greater portion of white : the throat and neck
8
a»0‘
PAY
[ 64 1
PAY
Pavo. are ^recn : the reft of the body and wings are cinefe-
—OUS brown : the breaft is fringed with white : the bill
is the fame : the irides are lead-colour: the legs are as
in the male : but the fpur is generally wanting, though
in fome birds a rudiment of one is teen. In fome male
birds, all the wing coverts and fcapulars are of a tine
deep blue green, very glofty ; but the outer edge of
the wing and quills are of the common colour.
This bird, now fo common in Europe, is of eaftern
origin, being a native of India, 'i hey are found wild
in the iflands of Ceylon and Java in the Eaft Indies,
and at St Helena, at Barbuda, and other Weft India
iflands They are not natural to China ; but they are
found in many places of Afia and Africa.. 1 ney aie,
however, nowhere fo large or fo line as in India, in
the neighbourhood of the Ganges, from. whence, by
degrees, they have fpread into all parts, increaftng in
a wild ftate in the warmer climes; but wanting fome
care in the colder regions. In ours, this bird does
not come to its full plumage till the third year. 1 he
female lays five or fix greyilh white eggs m not cli¬
mates 20, the fize of thofe of a turkey. 1 hele, it let
alone, fhe lays in fome fecret place, at a diftance from
the ulual refort, to prevent their being broken by the
male, which he is apt to do if he find them, i he time
of fitting is from 27 to 30 days. The young may be
fed with curd, chopped leeks, barky-meal, &c. moi-
ftened ; and are fond of grafhoppers, and fomc otuer
infefts. In five or fix months they will feed as the old
ones, on wheat and barley, with what elfe they can pick
up in the circuit of their confinement. They feem to pre¬
fer the moft elevated places to rooft on during night.;
fuch as high trees, tops of houfes, and the like. 1 neir
cry is loud and inharmonious ; a perfect contrail to
their external beauty. They are caught in India, by
carrying lights to the trees where they rooft, and ha¬
ving painted reprefentations of the bird prefented to
them at the fame time ; when they put out the neck
to look at the figure, the fpoitfman flips a noofe over
the head, and feenres his game (a). In moil ages
they have been efteemed as a falutary food. Horten-
fius gave the example at Rome, whe/e it was carried
to the higheft luxury, and fold dear (b) : and a young
pea-fowl is thought a dainty even in the prefent times
The life of this bird is reckoned by loine at about
2C years ; by others 100. . ,r .
2. rlhe variegated peacock, 13 nothing elfe but a
mixed breed between the common and white peacock;
and of courfe varies very contiderably in colour.
1. The white peacock is, as its name imports, en¬
tirely white, not excepting even the eyes of the train,
which it is neverthekfe eafy to trace out. I Ins va¬
riety is in Latham’s opinion more common in Tug-
land than elfewhere. We are informed by the fame
author, that two inftancea have occurred to him of the
females of this fpecies having the external marks of the
plumage of the. male.
4. The pavo mutieus is about the fize of the creited
peacock ; but the bill is larger and afti-coloured : the
irides are yellow, and round the eyes is red ; on the
top of the head is an upright creft four inches long,
and Ihaped fomewhat like an ear of corn. The colour
is green mixed with blue. The top of the neck and
head are greenilh, marked with fpots^ of bme, which
have a ftreak of white down the middle of each : the
back is greenifh blue: the breart is blue and green
gold mixed : the belly, fides, and thighs are afli-colour,
marked with black fpots, itreaked with white on the
bellv: the wing coverts andfeefindaries are not unlike tue
back • the greater quills are green, tranCveiftly Laired
with black hues, but growing yellcwiih towards the
ends, where they are black: the upper tail coverts are
fewer than thofe of the common peacock, but much
longer than the tail; they are of a chefnut brown, with
white {hafts, and have at the end of each a large fpot
gilded in the middle, then blue, and furrounded with
green : the kgs are afh-coloured, and not furnilhed with
fpurs, or they have been overlooked by thofe who have
feen them.
The female is fmaller than the male ; and diners in
having the belly quite black, and the upper tail co¬
verts much fliorter : the tail is green, edged with blue,
and white (hafts. It inhabits Japan, and is only known
to Europe by means of a painting, fent by tha empe¬
ror of Japan to the pope. ..
So beautiful a fpecies of birds as the peacock could
not long remain a flranger in the more diftant parts m
which they were produced ; for fo early as the cays
of Solomon, we find, among the articles imported
in his Tarfhifh navies, apes and peacocks. A mo¬
narch fo converfant in all branches of natural hifto-
ry “ who fpeke of trees, from the cedar of Leba-
non. even unto the hylTop that fpringeth out of the
wall; who fpoke alfo of beafts and of fowl, would
certainly not negkdl furniftiing his officers with in-
itructions for coilefting every cunofity in the coun¬
tries they voyaged to, which gave him a knowledge
that diftinguiffied him from all the princes of his time.
jElian relates, that they were brought into Greece
from fome barbarous country ; and that they weie held
in fuch high efteem, that a male and female w ere va-
lued at Athens at 1000 drachms, or 32 1. 5 s. lod.
Their next ftep might be to Samos; where they were
preferved about the temple of Juno, being the birds fa-
cred to that goddefs ; and Gellius, in his Nodes Attic*,
c 16. commends the excellency of the Samian pea¬
cocks. It is therefore probable, that they were
brought there originally for the purpofes of fuperfti-
tbn, and afterwards cultivated for the ufes of luxury.
We are alfo told, when Alexander was 111 Inaia, he
found
Pave,
w Tavernier’s Travel,, vol. Hi. p. „ TV inl.abi.an,, of rhe fountain,
swa-rpas. wwsi taw »=- --A
JPhi/. Tranf. vol. Ixxi. p. S?6*. 1; or t]ae Emperor Vitellius could not have got fufficient
jq{ flamingoes, and brains of pheafants and pucocko.
4 VO.
PAY
found vaft numbers of wild ones on the hanks of the
" Hyarotis ; and was fo ftruck with their beauty, as
to appoint a feverc punrfhmcnt on any perfon that kill¬
ed them.
Peacocks crefts, in ancient times, were among the
ornaments of the kings of England. Ernald de Ac-
lent was fined to king John in 140 palfries, with fack-
buts, lorains, gilt fpurs, and peacocks crefts, fuch as
would be for his credit. See Plate CCCLXXXI.
5. The pavo bicalcaratus, is larger than the common
pheafant. The bill is black, but from the noftrils to
the tip of the upper mandible red. The irideg are yel¬
low. The feathers on the crown of the head are fuf-
ficiently long to form a creft, of a dull brown colour.
The fpace between the bill and eyes is naked, with a
few fcattered hairs: the files of the head are white :
the neck is br'ght brown, ifriated acrofs with dulky
brown : the upper parts of the back, fcapulars, and
wing coverts, are dull brown, dotted with paler bro * n
and yellowifti ; befides which, each feather is marked
near the end with a roundifti large fpot of a gilded
purple colour, changing into blue and green in diffe¬
rent lights : the lower part of the back and rump are
dotted, with white: all the under parts are brown, ftri-
ated tranfverlely with black : the quills are dufky ; the
fecondaries are marked with the fame fpot as the reft
ot the wing: the upper tail coverts are longer than
the tail, and each marked at the end with a fpot like
the wing feathers, each of which is furrounded firft
with a circle of black, and ultimately with an orange
one : the legs and claws are brown, and on the
back part of ei.ch leg are two fpurs, one above the
other.
The female is a third fmaller than the male. The head,
neck, and under parts are brown ; the head fmooth :
the upper parts are alfo brown, and the feathers mark¬
ed with a dull blue fpot, furrounded with dirty orange:
the feathers which cover the tail are fimilar ; but
marked at the end with an obfeure dull oval fpot of
blue : the legs have no fpurs.
This fpecies is of Chinefe origin, and fome of them
have been brought from China to England alive, and
have been for fome time in the pofleflxon of Dr James
Monro. 1 he male is now in the Eeverian Mufeum,
in the fineft prefervation.
Sonnerat obferves, that the bird from whence hia
defeription was taken had two fpurs on one leg, and
three on the other. This muft furely be a lufus na~
tw-x ; efpecially as he fays, it is the fame as that in
kdw. pi. 67.
, 6‘ 1 he Pavo tibetanus, is about the fize of a pinta-
*ri’ 1-’n? abouttwo feet and nearly two inches long.
J he ui.l is above an inch and a half long, and cinere¬
ous : the 1 rides are yellow ; the head, neck, and under
parts are afh-coloured, marked with blackifti lines :
,e.W’7 c° verts, back, and rump, are grey, with frmll
w )! c ots, >efides which, on the wing coverts and
j-/+- ,oun^ fy°ts of a fine blue, changing in
different lights to violet and green gold: the quills
and upper tail coverts are alfo grey, marked with black-
H Tu8/ thr quU k haVC tW° round b,ue fp°t8on each,
1th t I f C 5 °n the OUter on
fl!1 beVhT ar- f°Ur °f the fame> two on
the th C I" ?i thf nHddIe C°Vert8 are ^ longeft,
vt xiv0.r^, l £rec,: tte lees are S'ev, fur:
f 65 ]
P A U
nifhed with two fpurs behind, like the laft fpecies :
the claws are blackifti. This fpecies inhabits the
kingdom of Thibet. The Chinefe give it the name of
Chin-tchien - Khi.
Pavo, in ichthyology. See PKACOCK-Jijh.
Pavo, in aftronomy, a conftellation in the fouthern
hemifphere, unknown to the ancients, and not vifible
in our latitude, ft confifts of i4ftars, of which the
names and fituations are as follow :
The eye of the peacock
In the breaft
In the right wing
In the middle
In the root of the tail, firft
5-
10.
fecond
third
fourth
fifth
fixth
feventh
laft
VS
Longitud.
o
41
41
42
53
42
55
11
49
39
22
7
2 2
43
Latitude
South.
36 11
46 56
52
b
51
3^:45
28|44
244+
J41
2239
337
34,38
1,7 ;38
29
6
37
3
10
54
3
5440
44l4i
11 [48
7i5°
9
28
6
49
ib
21
34
8
*3
9
23
46
M
36
28
In the right foot py
In the left foot
See Astronomy, n0 406.
PAVOR, a Roman deity, whofe worfhip was intro¬
duced by I ullus Hoftilius, who, in a panic, vowed ft
fhrine to him, and one to Pallor, Pa/enefs ; and there¬
fore they are found on the coins of that family.
PAURaEDASl YLiE, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of perfeft cryftals with double py-
ramids, and no intermediate column, compofed of
12 planes, or two hexangular pyramids joined bafe to
bafe.
PAUSANIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival in
which were folemn games, w herein nobody contend¬
ed but free-born Spartans ; in honour of Paufaniat
the Spartan general, under whom the Greeks over¬
came the Perfians in the famous battle of Platsea.
PAUSAN1AS, a Spartan king and general, who
finalized himfelf at the battle of Plattea againft the
Perfians. The Greeks, very fenfible of his fervices,
rewarded his merit with a tenth of the fpoils takdn
from the Pcrfians. fie wns afterwards appointed to
command the Spartan armies, and he extended his
conquefts in Afia ; but the haughtinefs of his behavi¬
our created him many enemies; and the Athenians
foon obtained a fuperiority in the affairs of Greece 
Pauiamas, diffatisfied with his countrymen, offered to
betray Greece to the Petfians, if he received in mar¬
riage as the reward of his perfidy the daughter of
their king. His intrigues were difeovered by meant
of a young man who was intrufled with his letters to
Perfia, and who refufi-d to go, on recollecting that fuch
as had been employed in that office before had never re¬
turned. The letters were given to the Ephoti of Spar¬
ta, and the perfidy of Paiffanias was thus difeovered.
He fled for fafety to a temple of Minerva ; and as the
fandity of the place fereened him from the violence
I of
Pav*
II
Paufanims.
PEA
[ 66 ]
PEA
Peace.
Paufatila* of Kis purfuers, the facred building was furrounded
" with heaps of ftones, the firft of which was carried there
by the indignant mother of the unhappy man. He
was ftarved to death in the temple, and died about
474 years before the Chriftian era. There was a fe-
llival and folemn games inftituted to his honour, in
which only free-born Spartans contended. There was
alfo an oration fpoken in his praile, in which his ac¬
tions were celebrated, particularly the battle of Platasa,
and the defeat of Mardonius. See Pausania.
Pavsanias, a learned Greek hiftorian and ora¬
tor, in the fecond century, under the reign of Antoni¬
nus the philofopher, was the difciple of Herodus At-
ticus. He lived for a long time in Greece; and af¬
terwards went to Rome, where he died at a great
age. He wrote an excellent defcription of Greece,
in ten books; in which we find not only the fitua-
tion of places, but the antiquities of Greece, and
every thing moll curious and worthy of knowledge.
Abbe Gedoin has given a French tranfiation of it, in
2 vols 4to. .
PAUSE, a Hop or ceflation in fpeaking, fmging,
playing, or the like. One ufe of pointing in gram¬
mar is to make proper paufes, in certain places.—
There is a paufe in the middle of each verfe ; in an
hemiftich, it is called a rejl or repofe. See Poetry,
and Reading.
PAW, in the manege. A horfe is find to paw the
ground, when, his leg being either tired or painful, he
does not rell it upon the ground, and fears to hurt
himfelf as he walks.
PAWN, a pledge or gage for furety of payment ot
money lent. It is faid to be derived a pugno, quia res
quee pignori dantur, pugno vel manu tracluntur. The
party that pawns goods hath a general property in
them ; they cannot be forfeited by the party that hath
them in pawn for any offence of his, nor be taken in
execution for his debt ; neither may they otherwife be
put in execution till the debt for which they are pawn¬
ed is fatisfied. , ,
If the pawn is laid up, and the pawnee robbed, he
is not anfwerable ; though if the pawnee ufe the thing,
as a jewel, watch, &c. that will not be the worfe for
wearing, which he may do, it is at his peril; and
if he is robbed, he is anfwerable to the owner, as the
ufing occafioned the lofs, &c.
If the pawn is of fuch a nature that the keeping is
a charge to the pawnee, as a cow or a horfe, &c- he
may milk the one and ride the other, and this lhall
go in recompence for his keeping.
Things which will grow the worfe by ufing, as ap¬
parel, &c. he may not ufe.
PEA, in botany. See Pisum.
PEACE (Temple of), a celebrated temple at Rome,
which was confumed by fire A. D. t9i ; produced, as
feme writers fuppofe, by a flight earthquake, for no
thunder was. heard at the time. Dio Caffius, how¬
ever, fuppofes that it began in the adjoining houfes.
Be that as it will, the temple, with all the furrounding
buildings, were reduced to afhes. That magnificent
ftru&ure had been railed by Vefpafian alter the de-
ftruftion of Jerufalem, and enriched with the fpoils and
ornaments of the temple of the Jews. 1 he ancients
{peak of it as one of the moll {lately buildings in Rome.
There men of learning ufed to hold their aflembhes,
and lodge their writings, as many others depofited
their jewels, and whatever elfe they efteemed ot great
value. It was likewife made ufe of as a kind of ma- __
gazine for the fpices that were brought by the Roman
merchants out of Egypt and Arabia; fo that many
rich perfons were reduced to beggary, all their valuable
effefts and treafures being confumed in one night,
with the temple.
PEACH, in botany. See Amygdalus.
PEACOCK, in ornithology See Pavo.
PnACOCK-Fi/h. Pinna ani radiis 95, caudali falcata.
The body of this fiflr is of various colours ; the fin of
the anus has 55 llreaks, and its tail is in the form of a
crefcent. The head is without feales ; it is brown
upon the upper part, yellow above the eyes, and of a
filver colour on the fides. The back is round, and
adorned with beautiful blue ftreaks in a ferpentine
form ; and the belly bright as filver. The fins of the
breall are round, and, like thofe of the belly, have a
yellow ground with a grey border; that of the back
is of a violet colour ; that of the anus is ftraw colour¬
ed ; and, Fitly, that of the tail is yellow on the fides,
red towards the middle, and bordered with a deep
blue. We are as yet ignorant of its lengthy
There is a variety of this filh found only in the In¬
dian feas, and therefore called tht Indian peacock Jifh ;
which is thus deferibed in the language of Linnaeus:
Pavo pinna caudali forcipata: fpinis dorfalibus 14 .:
ocello cceruleo pone oculos. It has the fin ol its tail
forked; 14 lharp points or prickles on the back, with
a round blue ftreak behind the eyes.
The body of this filh is of an elliptical form ; the
head is covered with feales to the tip of the fnout ;
the two jaws are armed with long and lharp teeth ; the
ball of the eye is black, and the iris of a white colour,
with a mixture of green. At the infertion of the fins
of the belly is found a bony fubllance. The head,
back, and fides, are of a yellow colour, more or lefs
deep, and covered with lines or ftreaks of Iky-blue.
Thefe colours are fo agreeably mixed, that they re-
feruble the elegance of the peacock’s tail.
PEAK or Derbyshire, a chain of very high
mountains in the county of Derby in England, famous
for the mines they contain, and for their remarkable
caverns. The mod remarkable of thefe are Pool’s-
hole and Elden-hole. The former is a cave at the foot
of a high hill called Coitmofs, fo narrow at the en¬
trance that paflengers are obliged to creep on all-fours;
but it foon opens to a confiderable height, extending
to above a quarter of a mile, with a roof fomewhat ie-
fembling that of an ancient cathedral. By the petrify¬
ing water continually dropping in many parts of the
cave are formed a variety of curious figures and repre-
fentations of the works both of nature and art. There
is a column here as clear as alabafter, which is called
The Queen of Scots Pillar, becaufe Queen Mary is fail
to have proceeded thus far when fire vifited the cavern.
It feems the curiofity of that princefs had led her
thus far into this dark abode ; and indeed there are
few travellers who care to venture farther; but others,
determined to fee the end of all, have gone beyond it.
After Aiding down the rock a little way, is found the
dreary cavity turned upwards: following its courfe,
and climbing from crag to crag, the traveller arrives at
a great height, till _the rock, clofing over his head
Peacli
Peak,
I
PEA [ ^7 1 PEA
on all Tides, puts an end to any further fubterraneous
journey. Juft at turning to defcend, the attention is
caught by a chafm, in which is Teen a candle glim¬
mering at a vaft depth underneath. The guides fay,
that the light is at a place near Mary Queen of Scots
pillar, and no lefs than 80 yards below. It appears
frightfully deep indeed to look down ; but perhaps
does not meafure any thing like what it is faid to do.
If a piftol is fired by the Queen of Scots pillar, it will
make a report as loud as a cannon. Near the extre¬
mity there is a hollow in the roof, called the I^eed/e s
Eye ; in which if a candle is placed, it will reprefent a
ftar in the firmanent to thofe who are below. At a
little diftance from this cave is a fmall clear ftream
confifting of hot and c@ld water, fo near each other,
that the finger and thumb of the fame hand may be
put, the one into the hot water and the other into
the cold.
Elden-hole is a dreadful chafm in the fide of a moun¬
tain ; which, before the latter part of the laft century,
was thought to be altogether unfathomable. In the
time of Queen Elizabeth, a poor man was let down
into it for 200 yards; but he was drawn up in a fren¬
zy, and foon after died. In 1682, it was examined by
Captain Collins, and in 1699 by Captain Sturmy, who
publifhed their accounts in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. The latter defcended by ropes fixed at the top
of an old lead-ore pit, four fathoms almoft perpendicu¬
lar, and from thence three fathoms more obliquely, be¬
tween two great rocks. At the bottom of this he
found an entrance into a very fpacious cavern, from
whence he defcended along with a miner for 25 fa¬
thoms perpendicular. At laft they came to a great
river or water, which he found to be 20 fathoms
broad and eight fathoms deep. The miner who ac¬
companied him, inhfted that this water ebbed and
flowed with the fea ; but the Captain difproved this
affertion, by remaining in the place from three hours
flood to two hours ebb, during which time there was
no alteration in the height of the water. As they
walked by the fide of this water, they obferved a hol¬
low in the rock fome feet above them. The miner went
into this place, which was the mouth of another cavern;
and walked for about 70 paces in it, till be juft loft
fight of the Captain. He then called to him, that he
had found a rich mine ; but immediately after came
running out and crying, that he had feen an evil fpi-
rit; neither could any perfuafions induce him to re¬
turn. The floor of thefe caverns is a kind of white
ftone enamelled with lead ore, and the roofs are en-
crufted with fhining fpar. On his return from this
fubterraneous journey, Captain Sturmy was feized with
a violent headach, which, after continuing four days,
terminated in a fever, of which he died in a (hort
time.
Several years ago this cavern was vifited by the late
Mr James Fergufon : who tells us, that it confifts of
two hollows one over another ; but that the mouth of
the lovvermoft is now Hopped up by planks of timber
laid acrofs it, on which is a heap of {tones thrown in
at the upper mouth with a defign to fill up the cavern
entirely; which, however, will probably be never ac-
complifhed on account of its vaft ftze.
Peak of Tenerife. See Teneeuffe.
PEAN, in heraldry, is when the field of a coat of
arms is fable, and the powderings or.
PEAR, in botany. See Pyrus. ,
Pear-GIu/s. See Pitrea Lacrytr.d.
PEARCE (Dr), lord bifhop of Rochefter, was the
fon of a diftiller in High Holborn. He married Mifs
Adams, the daughter of a diftiller in the fame neigh¬
bourhood, with a confiderable fortune, who lived with
him 52 years in the higheft degree of connubial hap-
pinefs. He had his education in Weftminfter fchool,
where he was diftinguifhed by his merit, and eledted
one of the king’s fcholars. In 1710, when he was 20
years old, he was eledted to Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge. During the firft years of his refidence at the
univerfity, he fometimes amufed hiraielf with lighter
compofitions, fome of which are inferted in the Guar¬
dian and Spectator. In 1716, he publifhed his edi¬
tion of Cicero de Oratore, and, at the defire of a friend,
luckily dedicated it to Lord Chief Juftice Parker (af¬
terwards Earl ©f Macclesfield), to whom he was a
ftranger. This incident laid the foundation of his fu¬
ture fortune; for Lord Parker foon recommended him
to Dr Bentley, matter of Trinity, to be made one of
the fellows ; and the dodlor confented to it on this
condition, that his lordfhip would promife to unmake
him again as foon as it lay in his power to give him
a living. In 1717, Mr Pearce was ordained at the
age of 27 ; having taken time enough, as he thought,
to attain a fufficient knowledge of the facred office.
In 1718, Lord Parker was appointed chancellor, and
invited Mr Pearce to live with him in his houfe as
chaplain. In J719, he was inftituted into the redlory
of Stapleford Abbots, in Eflex ; and in 1720, into
that of St Bartholomew, behind the Royal Exchange,
worth 400 1. per annum. In 1723, the lord chancel¬
lor prefented him to St Martin’s in the Fields. His
Majefty, who was then at Hanover, was applied to in
favour of St Claget, who was then along with him ;
and the dodtor aftually kitted hands upon the occa-
fion : but the chancellor, upon the king’s return, dif-
puted the point, and was permitted to prefent Mr
Pearce.-—Mr Pearce foon attracted the notice and
efteem of perfons in the higheft ftations and of the
greateft abilities. Befide Lord Parker, he could rec*
kon amongft his pntrons or friends, Lord Maccles¬
field, Mr Pulteney (afterwards Earl of Bath), arch-
biffiop Potter, Lord Hardwicke, Sir Ifaac Newton,
and other illuftrious perfonages.—In 1724, the de¬
gree of doftor of divinity was conferred on him by
archbiffiop Wake. The fame year he dedicated to his
patron, the ear! of Macclesfield, his edition of Lon¬
ginus on the_ Sublime^ with a new Latin verfion and
notes.
When the church of St Martin’s was rebuilt, Dr
Pearce preached a fermon at the confecration, which
he afterwards printed, and accompanied with an ettay
on the origin and progrefs of temples, traced from the
rude ftones which were firft ufed for altars to the noble
ftrudhrre of Solomon, which he confiders as the firft
temple completely covered. His obfervations on that
building which is called the Temple of Dagon removes
part of the difficulty which prefents itfelf in the narra¬
tion of the manner in which Samfon deftroyed it.
The deanery of Winchefter becoming' vacant, Dr
I 2 Pearce
Pean
11 v
Pearce.
  '
Pearce.
PEA [63
Pearce was appointed dean in 1739 ; and in the year
1744 he was clefted prolocutor of the lower^.oufe at
convocation for the province of Canterbury. His friends
now began to think of him for the epifcopal dignity ;
but Mr bean’s language rather declined it. However,
after fevcral difficulties had been llarted and removed,
he confented to accept tl£ bifltopric of Bangor, and
promifed Lord Hardwicke to do it with a good grace.
He accordingly made proper acknowledgments of the
royal goodnefs, and was confecrated Feb. 12. 174‘d.
Upon the declining Rate of health of Hr Wiicock",
hi‘hop of Rochefter. the bifhop of Bangor was feveral
times applied to by archbifhop Herring to accept of
Rochefter, and the deanery ofWeftminiler, in exchange
for Bangor ; but the biftiop then firft fignified his de-
iire to obtain leave to refign and retire to a private
life. His lord (hip, however, upon being preffed, fuf-
fered himfelf to be prevailed upon.-“ My Lord (faid
he to the Duke of Newcaftle), your grace offers tUefe
dignities to me in fo generous and friendly a manner,
that I promife you to accept thenr.” Upon the death
ef Biftiop Wilcocks he was accordingly promoted to
the fee of Rocheffer and deanery of Weitminfter in
j 7 s6. Biftiop Sherlock died in 1761, and Lord Bath
offered his intereft for getting the biftiop of Rochefter
appointed to fucceed him in the diocefe of London ;
fcut the bilhop told his lordfhrp, that he had deter¬
mined never to be biftiop of London or archbrftiop of
Canterbury. . ,
In the year 1763, his lorcftiip being 73 years old,
and finding himfelf lefs fit for the bufinefs of his Ra¬
tions as bilhop and dean, informed his friend Lord
Bath of his intention to refign both, and live in a re¬
tired manner upon his private fortune. Lord Bath
undertook to acquaint his majefty ;.who named a day
sind hour, when the biftiop was admitted alone into the
clofet. He told the king, that he wiftied to have fome
interval between the fatigues of bufinefs and eternity;
and defired his majefty to confult proper perfons about
the propriety and legality of his refignation
two months the king informed him, that Lord Mans¬
field faw no objc&ion ; and that Lord Northington,
who had been doubtful, on farther confideration
thought that the requeft might be complied with.
Unfortunately for the biftiop, Lord Bath applied for
Bifhop Newton to fucceed. This alarmed the mmi-
ftry, who thought that no dignities ftiould be obtain¬
ed but through their hands.. They therefore oppofed
the refignation ; and his majefty was informed that th..
biftiops difliked the defign. His majefty fent to him
again; and at a third audience told him, that he mult
think no more of refigning. The bifhop replied, “ Sir,
I am all duty and fu’millionand then retired.
In 1768 he obtained leave to refign the deanery ; m
1773, he loft his lady ; and after fome months of ling¬
ering decay, he died at Little Laling, June 29.. 1 ^ 74’
This eminent prelate diftinguifhed hinueH in every
part of hi* life by the virtues proper to his Ration.
His literary abilities, and application to faertd and
philological learning, appear Ly lus works; the prin-
1 P E A
ton, occafioned by the doftor’s letter to Waterland, Pearrt,
on the publication of his treatife, intitled, Scripture Peanh.
Vindicated, 3 edit. 1752. And fiuce his death, a ccm- » '•J
mentary with notes on the fourEvangelifts and the Adis
of the Apoftles, together with a new tranflation of St
Paul’s firft Epiftle to the Corinthians, with a para-
phrafe and notes, have been publifhed, with his life
prefixed, from original MSS. in 2 vols qto.
The following character of this excellent biftiop wa»
publifhed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1775, and
was written, as we are told, by a contemporary and
friend. ‘k The world has not loft for many years a
more refpedtable member of fociety than the late Dr
Pearce ; nor the clergy a more pious and learned pre¬
late. In his younger days, before he became a gra¬
duate, he publifhed that excellent edition of Longinus,.
Rill admired and quoted by the befl critics. What is
f?.id of Longinus himfelf by our excellent Engliftt ,
poet, is as applicable to the editor: ‘ He is himfclf
the great fublime he draws ;’ for very few of his order
ever arrived to that perfection in eloquence, for which
he was fo juftly celebrated. His didtion was fimple, ner¬
vous, and flowing; his fentiments were juft and fublime;
more fublime than the heathen critic, in proportion
to the fuperior fublimity of the Chriftian revelation.
Yet he was never puffed up with the general applaufes
of the world, but of an humble deportment, refem-
bling the meek Jcfus as far as the weaknefs of human
nature can rcfemble a charadter without fin. Hia
countenance was always placid, and difplayed the be¬
nevolence of his heart, if his extenfive charity had not
proved it to a demonftraiton. His thirft of knowledge
prompted him to a very ftudious life, and that render¬
ed both his complexion and conftitution delicate ; yet
it held out by the blefling of Providence beyond the
85th year of his age; which is the more extraordinary,
confidering the midnight lamp had call a palenefs over
his complexion: yet with all his learning and know¬
ledge, his humility and modefty reftrained him from
In about many publications, which the world may hope for from
his executors ; one particularly in divinity, which has
been the objedt of his contemplation for many years
paft. With a view to complete that work, and to re¬
tire from the buttle of the world, he ftruggled fo bard
to refign his bilhopric, &c. After poffefling the efteem
and veneration of all who knew him for a long feries
of years, either asredtorof a very large parifh, or as a
dignitary of the church, he has left the world in tears;
and gone to receive the infinite reward of his piety
and virtue.”
PEARCH, in ichthyology. See Perca.
The pearch affords good (port for the angler. The
heft time for their biting is when the fpring is over,
and before the heats of fummer come on. At this
time they are very greedy; and the angler, with good
management, may take at pne Handing all that are
in the hole, be they ever fo many.
The proper baits are a minow or young frog ; but
the worm called the brandling, well fcoured, is alfo
exce^ent at ^meS t^ie year* When the pearch
cip^rof which are,” A fetter to the clergy of the church bites, he ftiould always have a great deal of time al-
of England, on occaiion of the biftiop of Rochefter’s lowed him to fwaUow the bait.
commitment to the Tower, 2d edit. 1722. Miracles The pearch will bite all day long, if the weather be
of lefua vindicated, 1727 and 1728. A review of the cfoudy ; but the belt time is from eight to ten in the
text of Milton 1733. Two letters againft Dr Middle- morning, and from three till fix in the afternoon;
PEA
■peareh, The pearch is very abftemious in winter, and will fel-
ycarl- dom bite in this feafon of the year; if he does at all,
it is in the middle of the day : at which time indeed
all fiih bite bed at that feafon.
If the bait be a minow, which is the bait that af¬
fords molt diverfion to the angler, it mud be fattened
to the hook alive, by putting the hook through the
upper lip or back-fin; it mud be kept at about mid¬
water, and the float mud be a quill and a cork, that
the minow alone may not be able to fink it.
The line mud be of filk, and ttrong ; and the hook
armed with a fmall and fine wire, that if a pike fhould
take the bait, as is net unfrtquently the cafe, he may
be taken. The way to carry the minowa or fmall
gudgeons alive for baits is this : A tin-pot is to be
provided, with holes in the lid, and filled with water ;
and the fifh being put in this, the w :ter is to be chan¬
ged once in a quarter of an hour by the holes, with-
cut taking off the lid at any time, except when the
bait is to be taken out.
A fmall cading-net, made forthefe little fidi, fhould
be taken out with the pearch-tackle ; and one or two
cads of this will take baits enough for the day, with¬
out any farther trouble. When the bait is a frog,
the hook is to be fattened to the upper part of the
leg. The bed place far the filhing for ptarch is in
the turn of the water near fome gravelly fcour. A
place of this kind being pitched upon, it fhould be
baited over-night with lobworms chopped to pieces ;
and in the morning, on going to it, the depth is to be
regularly plumbed, and then the hook is to be baited
with the worm or other bait; and as it drags along,
the pearch will foon feize upon it.
PtARCH-Glue, the name of a kind of glue, of re¬
markable drength and purity, made from the fkins of
pearches.
PEARL, in natural hidory, a hard, white, fhining
body, ufually roundifh, found in a tedaceous fitti re-
fembling an oyder.
Pearls, though edeemed of the number of gems by
©nr jewellers, and highly valued, not only at this time
but in all ages, proceed only from a didemper in the
creature that produces them, analogous to the bezoars
and other deny concretions in feveral animals of other
kinds.
The fitti in which thefe are ufually produced is the
.Ead Indian pearl-oyder, as it is commonly called.
Befides this fhell, there are many others that are found
to produce pearls; as the common oytter, the mufcle,
and feveral others; the pearls of which are often very
good ; but thofe of the true Indian Lerheri, or pearl-
odyer, are in general fuperior to all. The fmall or
eed-pearh, alfo called ounce pearls, from their being
fold by the ounce and not by tale, are vadly the
molt numerous and common: but, as in diamonds,
among the multitudes of fmall ones, there are fmaller
num ers and larger found, fo in pearls there are larger
an Lrger kinds; but as they increafe in fize, they
are proportionably lef8 frequent; and this is one rea-
fon of their great price. We have Scotch pearls fre¬
quently as big as a little tare, fome as big as a lanje
pea, and fome few of the fize of a horfe-bean ; but
thefe are ufually of a bad (hape, and of little value in
proportion to their weight. Philip II. of Spain had
* pearl perfed in its fhape and colour, and of the fize
t 69 ]
PEA
of a pigeon's egg. The fineft, and whab it called the Pearl,
true fhape of the pearl, is a perfe<5! round ; but if ■’“"v*'" ^
pearls of a conliderable fize are of the fliape of a pear,
is not unfrequently the cafe, they are not lefs va¬
lued, as they ferve for ear-rings and other ornaments.
I heir colour ought to be a pure white ; and that not
a dead and lifeltfs, but a clear and brilliant one : they
mutt he perfectly free from any foulnefs, fpot, or (lain ;
and their furfaces mutt, be naturally fmooth and gloffy;
for they bring their natural poluh with them, which
art is not able to improve.
All pearls are formed of the matter of the fhell, and
conhlt of a number of coats fpread with perfedf regu¬
larity one over another, in the manner of the feveral
coats of an onion, or like the feveral firata of the
flones found in the bladders or ffomachs of animals,,
only much thinner.
Manner of Fijhing for Pearls in the Eajl Indies  
There are two feafons for pearl-fifhing : the firll is in
March and April, and the lalt in Auguft and Septem¬
ber ; and the more rain there falls in the year, the
more plentiful are thefe fifheries. At the beginning
of the feafon there are fometimes 2jo barks on the
banks; the larger barks have two divers, and the
fmaller one. As foon as the baiks arrive at the place
where the fitti he, and have call anchor, each diver
binds a (lone, fix inches thick and a foot long, under
his body ; which ferves him as a ballatt, prevents hia.
being driven away by the motion of the water, and
enables him to walk more fteadily under the waves.
They alfo tie another very heavy ftone to one foot, by
which they are very fpeedily fent to the bottom of the
La; and as the oytters are ufually firmly fattened to
the rocks, they arm their hands with leather mittens,
to prevent their being wounded in pulling them vio¬
lently off; but this talk fome perform with an iron
rake. In the lalt place, each diver carries down
with him a large net in the manner of a fack, tied to
his neck by a long cord, the other end of which i*
fattened to the fide of the bark. This net is to hold
the oytters gathered from the rock, and the cord is
to pull up the diver when his bag is full, or when he
wants air.
In thi^ equipage he fometimes precipitates him-
feh' hxty feet under water; and as he has no time to!
lofe, he no fooner arrives at the bottom, than he be¬
gins to run from fide to fide, tearing up all the oy¬
tters he meets with, and cramming them into his bud¬
get.
At whatever depth the divers are, the light is fo'
great, that they eafily fee whatever paffes in the fea ;
and, to their great contternation, fometimes perceive
monttrous fitties, from which all their addrefs in mud-
dying the water, &c. will not always fave them, but
they unhappily become their prey : and of all the
dangers of the fittiery, this is one of the greatett and
molt ufual. The beft divers will keep under water
near half an hour, and the reft do not ftay lefs than a
quarter. During this time they hold their breath
without the ufe of oils or any other liquors; only-
acquiring the habit by long pradtice. When they
find themfelves ftraitened, they pull the rope to'
which the bag is faftened, and hold fait by it with
both hands : when thofe in the bark, taking the fig-
nal, heave them up iato the air, and unload them of
11 theiV
Pearl
PEA [7°1 PEA
the[v fl(h. which is fometimes coo oyftere, and fome- fters in little baficets upon their heads; with which
times not' above 50. Some of the divers need a mo- the boats bang fufficiently laden, they ^re earned
ment’s refpite to recover breath; others jump in again on (here, where the people
inllantly, continuing this violent exercife without in-
Pearl.
   ^    p ^ ^ who remained there for
that purpofe buried them in the fand, till, ’ y the heat
termiflion for feveral hours. #
On the (hore they unload their barks, and lay their
oy fters in an infinite number of little pits dug in the
fand four or five feet fquare, raifing heaps of fand
over them to the height of a man ; and in this condi¬
tion they are left till the rain, wind, and fun, have
obliged them to open, which foon kills them : upon
this the flefh rots and dries, and the pearls, thus difen.
gaged, fall into the pit on their taking out the Ihells.
After clearing the pits of the grefler filth, they fift
the fand feveral times in order to find the pearl; but,
whatever care they take, they always lofe a great
many. After cleaning and drying the pearls, they
are pafled through a kind of fieve, according to their
fizes; the fmalleft are then fold as feed-pearls, and
the reft put up to au&ion, and fold to the higheft
bidder.
Though thofe ornaments are met with in all quar¬
ters of the globe, the moil: efteemed have always been
thofe of Alia and the eaft coaft of Africa. ^ In the
kingdom of Madura, which lies on the call of Mala-
bar, there are many pearl fifheries. Tutukurin or
Tutucorin is the principal, if not the only, city on
I] ■ the fiftiery coaft. At the time the Portuguefe were
JHift. mailers in thefe parts, the taking ot oylle^s in the
ftraits betwixt the ifiand of Ceylon and the conti-
tent, was ftyled, by way of excellence, the fjhery, and
very defeivedly ; for though fome prefer the pearls
taken near the iiland of Baharen in the Periian gulf,
and thofe likewife found on the coaft of China at
Hainan, yet it might be very caiily proved, from the
comparifon of the annual amount of thofe fifheries
within this period, that they were very feldom fupe-
rior to this of which w'e are fpeaking. It was one
of the wifeft points in the Poituguefe policy, that,
though they were really in poirefiion of this beneficial
commerce, yet they chofe to diffemble it, and took
all imaginable precautions in order to make the natives
believe that they were perfectly free, and that their
interpofition was not fo much the eifebls of authority
as of good-will; it was for this reafon that they never
pretended to ereft any fort either at Tutucorin or at
Calipatnam, two towns upon the continent, from
whence moft of the fifhers and their barks came, and
that they fuffered the ancient cuftoms to take place.
The feafon of the fifhery was the latter end of April
or beginning of May, fometimes fooner, fometimes
later, accoiding to the weather. The direftion ot it
was left entirely to the fovereign of the country, call¬
ed the naik; and the Portuguefe, in quality of the
prote&ors of the lea, fent two frigates to defend
the fithing veftels from the Malabar and Maidive pi¬
rates. The time which this pearl-fifhing lafted was
about a fortnight, of the beginning of which the naik
gave pu
lie notice ; and, the day being come, there
repaired to the place alfigncd feveral thoufands of
people of all fexes and ages, and an indefinite num¬
ber of fithing vefiVls, and divers from five or fix hun¬
dred to a thoufand or more. Upon a fignal given
the boats put to fea ; and, having chofe their proper
■ftatiems, the divers plunged and brought up the oy-
of the fun, the fifh was corrupted and confumed, and
the pearls eafily taken out. The whole condud of
the firft day’s fifiiery belonged to the naik ; and, af¬
ter that deduaion, what was caught every day was
feparated, and particularly diftinguilhed, but went to
the common profit. The whole number of the people
employed at fea and on fhore amounted frequently to
$0,000 or 60,000 fouls; and the pavilions and tents
fet up for their accommodation made a fine appearance
at a diftance. When the pearls were extradled, cleanfed,
and dried, they palled them through a kind of fieves,
by which their fizes were diftinguilhed. When all
was over, the naik appointed a time and place for the
public market; in confequence of which there was a
kind of fair, that lafted commonly from the clofe of
June till the beginning of September. The fmalleft,
which are what we call feed pearly they fold by weight,
and all the reft according to their refpe&ive fizes and
beauty, from a few {hillings up to ten or twenty
pounds, and fometimes more a-piece ; but there were
few buyers, except the Portuguefe merchants, who,
bringing ready money,had got bargains, and thus all
parties were pleafed. The Portuguefe afiumed the
protection of this fifiiery very foon alter they fettled in
the Indies, and held it till the year 1658, when, in
confequence ot their lofles in Ceylon and elfewhere,
it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who have remain¬
ed in pofleffion of it ever fince.
The Dutch have changed this method, as we are
informed by a perfon very well acquainted with the.ir
affairs. "I he courfe into which they have put it is, in
few words, this: the camp is fometimes held on the
coaft of Madura, upon the continent; fometimes on
the iiland of Manar, which is in the hands of the
Dutch, who, notwithftanding, follow the example of
the Portuguefe, and lay claim to no higher title than
that of proteClors of the fifiiery, in which quality their
commiffary is ever in the camp, as well as the naik
or fovereign of the country, who is alio the rajah of
Tanjour. The oylters caught every day are put up in
tuns or barrels, of which, when a certain number are
full, they put them up to fale by way of auftion ; and
the merchants bid according as they have an opi¬
nion of the oyfters for the feafon : but the middle
price is between 30 and 40 firillings fterling per calk..
When a merchant has bought fuch a lot as this, he
carries it to his quarters; and alter a certain num¬
ber of days he proceeds to opening the oyfters, but al¬
ways in the air, for the ftench is fo great as to be al-
moft fnfupportable. They open them over tubs, into
which they pour what comes out of the oyfter, as alfo
that muddy vrater that remains in the calk ; next
they draw it out into cullenders of feveral fizes,
and at length perhaps they find four or five Ihilhngs
worth of pearls, fometimes to the value of ten or
twelve pounds; fo that it is a perfed lottery, by
which fome few becoming rich, it betrays numbers
into beggary. This pearl-fiftiery, we are told, brings
the Dutch company an annual tribute of 20,00c 1.
There are a variety of rivers great and fmall in
Eaftern Tartary conilderable for peavl-fiftrery; but
thefe
lit
PEA [ 71 1
Feari. thefe pearls, though much tfteemed by the Tartars, Britain and Ireland
would be little valued by Europeans, on account of
their defeats in (hape and colour. The Emperor
Kang-hi had feveral chaplets or ftrings of thefe pearls,
each containing 100, which were very large, and ex-
adtly matched. There are many rivulets in Livonia
which produce pearls almoft equal in fize and clear-
nefs to the Oriental ones. There are feveral fiflieries
both on the eaftern and weftern coalts of Africa ; the
moft confiderable of which lie round fome fmall iflands,
over-againft the kingdom of Sofah ; but the people
thus employed, inftead of expofing the oyfters to the
warmth of the fun, which would induce them to open,
lay them upon the embers ; by which abfurd method,
thofe pearls which they catch contract a dull kind of
rednefs, which robs them of their natural lultrc as
well as of their value. Pearl fifhing is performed by
the women as well as the men ; both being equally
expert. In the fea of California alfo there are very
rich pcarl-fiftieries. In Japan likewife there are
found pearls of great price. Pearls are met with in
all parts of the Red Sea in the Indian Oce;.n, on the
low part of the coaft. of Arabia Felix named Baharetit
adjoining to the Perfian Gulf. They are likewife
found on the low coail about Gunihroom to the eait-
ward of the Perfian Gulf; and many of the fineit
kind are met with on the coails of Ceylon. They
are moft plentiful in the Baharen, between the coaft
of Arabia Felix and Ormus, whence they are tranf-
ported to Aleppo, then fent to Leghorn, and then cir¬
culated through Europe.
It has been very commonly fuppofed, that pearls
are found in a kind of oyfters ; and fuch the pearl
fifties are called in part of the above account extracted
from the Umverfal Hiftory; but Mr Bruce abfolutely
denies this, and informs us that there is no fuch tiih
as an oyfter to be met with in the Red Sea in particular.
1 hey are indeed found in bivalve fhells, of which there
are three kinds commonly fought alter by the pearl
fifiters. One of thefe is a kind of mufcle now very
rare ; but whether more plentiful tormetly than at
preient is not known ; they are principally found in the
north end of the Red Sea and on the Egyptian fide ;
and Mr Bruce informs us, that the only place in
which he ever met with them was about Cofl'air, and
to the northward of it, where there was an ancient
port called A/yos Hermos, “ which (fays Mr Bruce)
commentators have called the port of the Aloufe,
when they fliould have tranflated it the harbour of the
Alufcle”
The fecond fort of fbell is called Pinna. It is
broad and femicircular at the top, decreafing gradually
rp1, turns ^arP at the lower end, where the hinge
is. the outfide is rough and figured, of a beautiful
red coiour, and fometimes three feet long, and ex-
treme y brittle j the infide lined with that beautiful
luidlance called nacre, or mother-of-pearl.
I he third kind of Pearl-fhell is the only one which
can be faid to bear any refemtlar.ee to the oyfter 1
though even this is evidently of a different genus.
p. " aJ£nfal view of the writings of Linnxus by
Richard Pulteney, M. 1). p. 42. it ;3 fa|j t|)at Linnxll'
made a remarkable dtfeovery relating to the genera-
tion of pearls : in the river pea,l.m„rc|e marga-
tmfera) a (hell liilt found la feveral rivers of Great
PEA
, that this fifh will bear removal
remarkably well; and that in fome places they form
refervoits for the puipofe of keeping it, and taking
out the pearl, which in a certain period will be re¬
newed again. The difeovery was a method which
Linnaeus found of putting thefe mufclcs into a ftate of
producing pearls at his pleafure, though the final
efteft did not take place for feveral years; but that in
five or fix years after the operation, the pearl would
have acquired the fize of a vetch. Dr Pulteney re¬
grets that we are unacquainted with the means by
which Linnaeus aciomplifhed this extraordinary ope¬
ration, which was confidercd as important, fince it is
certain the author was rewarded with a munificent
premium from the ftates of the kingdom on that ac¬
count.
The coleurs of pearls are different according to the
fhells in which they are found. The firft kind often
produces thofe of a fine fimpe and excellent luftre,
but feldom of that very fine colour which enhances
their price. The ftcond kind produces pearls having
the rtddilh call of the inner Ihtll of the pinna, called
mo/for of pearl; which feems to confirm the opinion of
Reaumur, that the pearls are formed from the gluti¬
nous fluid which makes the firft rudiments of the (hell;
and this kind of peail is found to be more red as it is
formed nearer the broad part of the (hell, which is
reddei than the other end. Mr Bruce is of opinion,
that the pearl found in this fliell is the pentm orpeninim
of Scripture; and that this name is derived from its
rednefs. “ On the contrary (fays he), the word
pmna has been idly imagined to be derived from penna.
Pearl.
a feather; as being broa! and round at the top,
and ending at a point, or like a quill below. The
Englifh tranflation of the Scripture, erroneous and in¬
accurate in many things more material, tranllates this
pemnim by rubies, without any foundation or authority
but becaufethey were both red, as are bricks or tile%
and many other things of bafe materials. The Greeks
have tranflated it literally pina or pinna, and the fliell
they call pinnicus;. and many places occur in Strabo,
T. heephraftus, Elian, and Ptolemy, which are men¬
tioned as famous for this kind of pearl. I fliould ima¬
gine alfo, that by Solomon faying it is the moft pre¬
cious of all productions, he means that this fpecies of
pearl was the moft valued or the belt known in Judxa;
for though we learn from Pliny that the excellency of
pearls was their whitenefs, yet we know that the pearls
of a yellowifti call are thofe efteemed in India to this
day, as the peninim or reddifh pearl was in Judea in
the days of Solomon. In Job, where all the variety*
of precious ftones are mentioned, the tranflator is forced,
as it were unwillingly, to render peninim pearls, as he’
ought indeed to have done in many other places where
it occurs.”
The third fort of fliell produces pearls of extreme
whitenefs, which Bochart fays are called darra or dora
in Arabic ; which feems to be a general term for all
kinds of pearls in Scripture, whereas theptninm is one
in particuhr. But though the character of tin’s peail
be extreme whitenefs, we are told by Pliny that there
are ftiades or differences of it. The cleareft, he fays,
are thofe of the Red Sea ; but the pearls of India have
the colour of the flakes or divilions of the lapis fpe->
cularis. The moft excellent are thole like a folution
~ off
Fearf.
Vw» —y '1
PEA [ 72
nf alum, limpid, milky-like, and even with a certain
J almoft imperceptihlc ca{V of a hery colour. Ihco-
phraftus tells us, that thefe pearls are tranfparent, as
the defeription of Pliny would lead us to imagine;
but it is not fo: and if they were, it is apprehended
they would lofe all their beauty and value, and approach
too much to glafs. The value of thefe commodities
depends upon their fize, regularity of form, whether
round or not, weight, fmoothnefs, colour, and the
different (hades of that colour. The pearl hfhers fay,
that whe* the (hell is fmooth and perfect, they never
expe& to find any pearls, but always do lo when it
has begun to be deformed and diftorted. Hence it
would feem, that as the fi(h turned older, the veffels
containing the juice for forming the (hell, and keeping
it in its vigour, grew weak and ruptured ; and thence,
from this juice accumulating in the (i(h, the peail was
formed, and the (bell brought to decay, as fuppofed by
•Mr Reaumur. If this be the cafe, it ought to be
known by the form of the (hell whether the pearl is
large or frmll; and thus the fmaller ones being thrown
back into the fea, a con if ant crop of large pearls might
be obtained.
Pliny fays that pearls are the mod valuable and ex¬
cellent of all precious {tones ; and (nem our Saviour’s
comparing the kingdom of heaven to a pearl, it would
ieem that they really w-ere held in fuch high eflima-
tion at that time. Mr Bruce, however, is of opinion,
•that this extraordinary value was put only upon the
very large kind ; of which we are told, that Servilia,
the mother of Marcus Brutus, prefented one to Cael&r
of the value of 50,000!. of our money ; and Cleopatra
diffolved one worth 250,000!. in vinegar, which (he
drank at a fupper with Mark Antony.
It is generally faid that the pearl (hells grow on
rotks, which, together with the method of catching
them, we have already mentioned. Some fay they
arc taken with nets: from whence Mr Bruce contra-
verts the idea of their growing on rocks ; for no¬
body, he fays, would employ nets to gather filh from
among rocks. He tells us, that all kinds of them
are found in the deeped and ftillcft water, and fokelf
bottom ; the parts of mod of them being too fine to
bear the agitation of the fea among the rocks. It is
obferved that thev produce the mod beautiful pearls
in thofe places of'the fea where a quantity of frefh
water falls. “ Thus (fays Mr Bruce), in the Red Sea,
they are always mod edeemed that were fiihed from
Suakern fonthward, that is, in thofe parts correfpond-
ing to the country anciently called Berberia and Am-
n,ia; on the Arabian Coaft, near the ifiand Camaran,
where there is abundance of frefh water; and in the
ifland of Foofht. As it is a fiih that delights in repofe,
I imagine it avoids this part of the Gulf, as lying
open to the Indian Ocean, and agitated by variable
winds.'’ rtr j • 1 r 1
Mr Bruce mentions a mufcle found in the ialt
Wings of the Nubian defert; m many of which he
found thofe excrefcences which might be called pearls,
; ] PEA
but all of them ill formed, foul, and of a bad colour, Peart,
though of the fame confidence, and lodged in the
fame part of the body as thofe in the fea. “ The
mufcle, too (fays our author), is in every refpcifd fimi-
lar, I think larger. The outer (kin or covering of it
is of a vivid green. Upon removing this, which is the
epidermis, what next appears is a beautiful pink,
without glofs, and feemingly of a calcareous nature.
Below this, the mother-of-pearl, which is undermod:,
is a white without ludre, partaking much of the blue
and very little of the red ; and this is all the difference
I obferved between it and the pearl-bearing mufcle of
the Red Sea.”
“ In Scotland, efpecially to the northward (a), in
all rivers running from lakes, there are found mufcles
that have pearls of more than ordinary merit, though
feldom of large fize. They were formerly tolerably
cheap, but lately the wearing of real pearls coming
into fafhion, thofe of Scotland have increafed in price
greatly beyond their value, and fuperior often to the
price of oriental ones when bought in the ead. The
reafon of this is a demand from London, where they
are actually employed in work., and fold as oriental.
But the excellency of all glafs or pafte manufa&ory,
it is likely, will keep the price of this article, and the
demand for it, within bounds, when every lady has it
in her power to wear in her ears, for the price of fix-
pence, a pearl as beautiful in colour, more elegant in
form, lighter and eafxer to carry, and as much bigger
as (he pleafes, than the famous ones of Cleopatra and
Servilia. In Scotland, as well as in the ead, the
fmooth and perfedt (hell rarely produces a pearl; the
crooked and dillorted (hell feldom wants one.
The mother-of-pearl manufactory is brought to the
greateft perfection at Jerufalem. The mod beautiful
(hell of this kind is that of the peninim already men¬
tioned ; but it is too brittle to be employed in any
large pieces of workmanfhip ; whence that kind named
dora is mod ufually employed ; and great quantities of
this are daily brought from the Red Sea to Jerufalcm.
Of thefe, all the fine works, the crucifixes, the wafer-
boxes, and the beads, are made, which are fent to the
Spaniih dominions in the New World, and produce a
return incomparably greater than the ttaple of the
greateft manufactory in the Old.
Very little is known of the natural hidory of the
pearl fi(h. Mr Bruce fays, that, as far as he has obferved,
they are all duck upright in the mud by an extremity;
the mufcle by one end, the pinna by the (mall (harp
point, and the third by the hmge or fqnare part which
projeds from the round. “In (hallow and clear
dreams (fays Mr Bruce), I h vc feen fmail furrows er
tracks upon the fandy bottom, by which you could
trace the mufcle from its laft llation ; and thefe not
ftraight, but deviating into traverfes and triangles,
like the courfe of a (hip in a contrary wind laid down
upon a map, probably in purfuit of food. The gene¬
ral belief is, that the mufcle is conftantly ftationary in
a date of repofe, and cannot transfer itfelf from place
to
There has been in thefe parts (/. e. at Perth) a very great fifhery of pearl got out of the frefh-water
nmfelea From the year 1761 to 1764, 10,0001. worth w'ere fent to London, and fold from loa. to il. 16s.
per ounce. We were told that a pearl had been taken there that weighed 33 grains. But this hfhery is at
pnfent exhaufted, from the avarice of the undertakers: it «nce extended as far as Loch-1 ay.
PEA
Pearl. M place. This is a vulgar prejudice, and one of thofe
■•■"'V'"' fafts that are miftaken for want of fufficient pains or
opportunity to make more critical obfervations. Others,
finding the firft. opinion a falfe one, and that they are
endowed with power of changing place like other ani¬
mals, have, upon the fame foundation, gone into the
contrary extreme, fo far as to attribute fwiftnefs to
them, a property furely inconfiftent with their being
fixed to rocks. Pliny and Solinus fay that the mufcles
have leaders, and go in flocks; and that their leader is
endowed with great cunning to proted himfelf and his
flock from the fifliers ; and that, when he is taken,
the others fall an eafy prey. This, however, we may
jultly look upon to be a fable ; fome of the molt accu¬
rate ohfervers having difeovered the motion of the
mufcle, which indeed is wonderful, and that they lie
in beds, which is not at all fo, have added the reft, to
make their hiflory complete.” Our author informs
us, that the mufcles found in the f.ilt fprings of Nubia
likewife travel far from home, and are fometimes fur-
prifed, by the ceafing of the rains, at a greater diftance
Irom their beds than they have ftrength and moifture
to carry them. He allures us, that none of the pearl-
fifti are eatable; and that they are the only filh he faw
in the Red Sea that cannot be eaten.
Artificial Pearls. Attempts have been made to
take out ftains from pearls, and to render the foul
opaque-coloured ones equal in luftre to the oriental.
Abundance of proceftes are given for this purpofe in
books of fecrets and travels ; but they are very far
from anfwcring what is expe&ed from them. Pearls
may be cleaned indeed from any external foulnefles by
wa/hing and rubbing them with a little Venice foap
and warm water, or with ground rice and fait, with
fiarch and powder-blue, plafter ef Paris, coral, white
vitriol and tartar.Jcuttle-bone, pumice-ftone, and other
limilar fubftances; but a /lain that reach«s deep into
the fubftance of pearls is impoflible to be taken out.
Nor can a number of fmall pearls be united into a mafs
iimilar to an entire natural one, as fome pretend.
There are, however, methods of making artificial
pearls, in fuch manner as to be with difficulty diftin-
guiihed from the belt oriental. The ingredient ufed
for this purpofe was long kept a fecret; but it is now
difeovered to be a fine filver-like fubftance found unon
the under tide of the feales of the blay or bleak fiffi.
Ihe feales, taken off in the ufual manner, are waflied
and rubbed with freffi parcels of fair water, and the
xeveral liquors fuffered to fettle: the water being then
poured off, the pearly matter remains at the bottom,
°.; the co"Mence of oil, called by the French 'fcnee
fkT’oV ^ rtlle °f thIs 18 droP?ed into a hollow bead
ot bhulh glafs, and ihaken about fo as to line the inter¬
nal furface; after which the cavity is filled uP with
wax, to give folidity and weight. Pearls madeln this
manner are diftmgmfhable from the natural only by
their having fewer blemiffies. 7 7
Mother-of.Praki , the fficll, not of the pearl oyfter,
but o, the rnvtilus margaretifera. See Mvt.lus/
a kind of fixed alkaline fait, prepared
cbefly in Germany, and poland b’/JJ"*
a{h? °f burnt wood 5 *»d having
reduCed them again to dryutfs, evaporating the mot
l-ure, and calcining them tor a confiderable time in a
Vou Siv.rS Ih.0t- The 80wln'f‘
[ 73 1
PEA
muft be diftinguiftred by the uniform and white ap¬
pearance of them : they are neverthelefs fubjedl to a
common adulteration, not eafy to be diftinguifhed by
the mere appearance, which is done by the addition of
common fait. In order to find out this tratid, take
a fmall quantity of the fufpeaed fait; and after it has
been fofeened by lying in the air, put it over the fire
in a thovcl r if it contains any common fait, a crackling
and kind of flight exploflon will take place as the fait
grows hot.
Pearl-affies are much ufed in the manufa&ure of
glafs, and require no preparation, except where very
great tranfparency is required, as in the cafe of looking,
glafj, and the heft kind of window-glafs For this
purpofe dilfolve them in four times their weight of
boiling water : when they are diffolved, let the folut:cn
be put into a clean tub, and fuffered to remain there
24 hours or more. Let the clear part of the fluid be
then decanted off from the fediment, and put back in¬
to the iron pot in which the folution was made; in
this let the water be evaporated till the falts be left
perfeaiy dry. Keep thofe that are not defigned for
immediate ufe in ftone jars, wellfecured from moifture
and air.
Mr Kirwan, who has tried a courfe of experiments
on tiie alkaline fubltanccs ufed in bleaching, &c. (fee
Prijh Tran/, for 1789), tells us, that in 100 parts of
the Dantzick pearhaffi, the vegetable alkali amounted
to forrewhat above 63. His pearl-affi he prepares by
calcining a ley of vegetable allies dried into a fait to
whitenefs. In this operation, he fays, “ particular care
mould be taken that it ffiould not melt, as the extrac
t.ve matter would not be thoroughly confumed, and
the alkali would form fuch a union with the earthy
parts as could not eafily be diffolved.” He has “ add-4
this caution, as Dr Lewis and Mr Doffie have imd
vcitently d,retted the contrary.” We apprehend,
however, that here is a little inaccuracy ; and that it
was not for pearl-affi, but for the unrefined pot affi
that thefe gentlemen diretted fuflon. The fatt is!
that the American pot-affies, examined by them, had
unqueftionably fuffered fufion; which was effetted in
t e lame iron pot in which the evaporation wa- finiffi-
Cdl bJ ratner increafing the fire at the end of the pro.
cels: by this management, one of the moil trouble-
lome operations in the whole manufatture, the feoara-
f thC hard from the with hammers and
chu.els, was avoided ; and though the extrattive matter
was not can fumed it was burnt to an indiffoluble
coal; fo that the fak, though black itfelf, produced
a pale or colourltfs lolution, and was uncommonly
trong. Mr Kirwan has alfo given tables of the quan¬
tities of affies and fait obtained from different vege-
tajles; and he concludes from them, 1. “ That in
gene ral weeds yield much more affies, and their affies
much more fait, than woods; and that, confequently,
as to falts of the vegetable alk,li kind, neither Ameri!
ca, I rieite, nor the northern countries, poffefs any
advantage over 113. 2. That of all weeds, fumitary
produces mold fait, and next to it wormwood ; but if
we attend only to the quantity of fak in a given weight
ot alhes, the affies of wormwood contain moft. Trt-
folium fibnvum alfo produces more affies and fait than
fern.” See Potash.
PEARSON (John), a very learned Engliffi biffiop
K in
Pearl,
Pearfoi.
PEA [7
Ecarl n, In the 17th century, was bom at Snoring in 1613*
Peufaiit. his education at Eton and Cambridge, he enter-
U'~v  ed into holy orders in 1639, and was the fame year col¬
lated to the prebend of Netherhaven in the church of
Sarum. in 1640 he was appointed chaplain to the lord
keeper Finch, and by him prefented to the living of
Torrington in Suffolk. In 1650 he was made mmifter
ef St Clement’s, Eaft-chenp, in London. In 1657, he
and Mr Gunning had a difpute with two Roman Ca¬
tholics upon the fubjedf ot fchifm ; a very uniair ac¬
count of which was printed at Paris in 1658 Some
time after, he puhlifhed at London An Expofrtion of
the Creed, in folio, dedicated to his pariihioners of St
Clement’s, Eall cheap, to whom the fubllance ol chat
excellent work had been preached feveral years before,
and by whom he had been defired to make it public.
‘i he fame year he likewife publilhed The Golden Re¬
mains of the ever memorable Mr John Hales of Eton;
to which he prefixed a preface, containing, of that great
man, with whom he had been acquuinted for many years,
a chat after drawn with great elegance and force. Soon
after the Reltoration, he was prefented by Juxon, then
hi drop of London, to the reftory of St Chriftopher’s
in that city ; created doftor of divinity at Cambridge,
in ptirfuar.ee of the king’s letters mandatory ; in (tailed
prebendary of Ely ; archde con of Surry ; and made
mdler of Jefus college in C mbridge: all before the
end of the vear 1660. March 2;th 1661, he was
appointed Margaret profeffor of divinity in that um-
verfity ; and, the firil day of the enfuing year, was no¬
minated one of the commiflt rners for the review of
the liturgy in the conference at the Savoy.. April
14th 1662, he was admitted mafter of Irinity col¬
lege in Cambridge ; and, in Auguft, refigned his
reftorv of St Chriftopher’s and prebeni of Sarum —
In 1667 he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal So¬
ciety. In 1672 he publifired ac Cambridge, in qto,
Findic'ue Epijhhirum S. Ignatii, in anfwer to Monf.
DailR ; to v/hich is fubjoined, Ifaaci Vojju epijloLx du<t
adverfus Davidrm Blondellum. Upon the death of the
celebrated Wilkins, Pearfon was appointed his fuceef-
for in the fee of Chcller, to which he was confecrated
February 9th 1672.3. In 1682, his Jnnala Cypri-
cnici, five tredecim annorum, qui'ms S. Cyprian, inter
Cbriflinnos v erf at us ef, hiftoria chronologica, was pnbluh-
cd at Oxford, with Fell’s edition of that Fathers
works. Pearfon was difabled from all public fervice
by ill health a confiderable time before his death,
which happened at Chefter, July 16th y 86._ _
PEASANT, a hind, one whofe Lufinefs is in rural
labour. „ , , -i r u
It is amongft this order of men that a philofopher
W0UH look for innocent and ingenuous manners. 1 he
fituation of the peafantry is fuch as fecludes them from
the devaftations of luxury and licentionfnefs ; (or when
the contagion has once reached the recedes of rural
retirement, and corrupted the minds of habitual inno¬
cence, that nation has reached the fummit of vice, and
is haftening to that decay which has always been the
effeft of vicious indulgence. The peafantry of this coun¬
try ftill in a great meafure retain that fimpl’city o( man¬
ners and ruftic innocence which ought to be the cha-
rnfteriftic of this order of fociety ; and, in many parts,
their condition is fuch as, were all its advantages fuf-
kcicntly known, would create envy in the minus 0
4 1 PEA
thofe who have toiled through life, amid ft the bufile Pearmt,
of the world, in queft of that happintfs which it could V^J
not confer.
0 fortmalos nimium, fua f bona norint,
Agricolas.  Virgil.
In other countries the peafants do not enjoy the
fame liberty as they do in our own, and are confe-
qucntly not fo happy. In all feudal governments
they are abjeft flaves, entirely ac the difpofal of fome
petty defpoU This was the cafe in Poland, where
the native peafants were fubjeft to the moft horrid
flavery, though thofe defeended of the Germans, who
fettled’in Poland during the reign of Boleflatis the
Challe and Caffimir the Great, enjoyed very diiiinguifii-
ed privileges. Amongft the native Haves, too, thofe
of the crown were in a better condition than thofe of
individuals. See Poland.
The peafants of Ruffia (Mr Coxe tells us) are a
hardy race of men, and of great boEiy (Length. Their
cottages are cotiftrufted with tolerable propiiety, alter
the manner of thofe in Lithuania; but they are very
poorly furnilhed. The peafants are greedy of money,
and, as the fame author informs us, fomrwhat incli¬
ned to thieving. They afford horfes to travellers, and
aft the part of coachmen and poftilions. “ In their exes Tra.
common intercourfe they are remarkably polite toWyW.P*-
eacli other : they take off their cap at meeting ; bow^
ceremomoufiy and frequently, and ufuaily exchange ^ unj
falute. They accompany their ordinary difeourfe withwa/i.
much aftion, and innumerable gefturea; and are ex-
ctedingly fervile in their txprcffmns of deference to
their fuperiorfi : in accofting a perfon of confequence,
they proftrate themfelves, and even touch the ground
with their heads. We were often ftruck at receiving
this kind of eaftern homage, not only from beggars,
hue frequently from children, and occafionally from
forne of the peafants themfelves.
“ The peafants are well clothed, comfortably lodged,
and fterr. to enjoy plenty of wholefome food. Their
rye-bread, whofe tdacknefs at firft difgufts the eye,
and whofe fournefs the tafte, of a delicate traveller,
agrees very well with the appetite : as I became re¬
conciled to it from ufe, I found it at all times no
unpleafant morfel, and, when feafoned with hun¬
ger, it was quite delicious: they render this bread
more palatable, by fluffing it with onions and groats,
carrots or green corn, and feafoning it with fweet oil.
The rye-bread is fometimes white, and their other ar¬
ticles of food are eggs, fait fi(h. bacon, and mufh-
rooms ; their favourite difh is a kind of bodge podge,
made of fait, or iometime's frefh meat, groats, rye- .
flour, highly feafoned with onions and garlick, which
latter ingredients are much ufed by the Ruffians. Be-
fides, mufhrooms are fo exceedingly common in thefe
regions, as to form a very effential part of their provt-
fion. I feldom entered a cottage without feeing great
abundance of them ; and in paffing through the mar¬
kets, I was often aftoniihed at the prodigious quantity
exoofed for fale : their variety was no lefs remarkable
than their number; they were of many colours, a-
mongft which I particularly noticed white, black,
brown, yellow, green, and pink. The common drink
of the peafants is quafs, a fermented liquor, fomewhat
like Tweet-wort, made by pouring warm water on rye
4
PEA r 75 1 PEA
fiafant. or Larley-mcal; and decmtd an cxccHent antlfcorbutic.
They are extremely fond of whiflcy, a fpirituous li
quor diltilled from malt, which the poorett can occa-
fionally command, and which their inclination often
leads them to ufe to great exeefs.”
Thefe people are extremely backward in the me¬
chanic arts, though, where they have much intercourfe
with other nations, this does not appear, and there¬
fore does not proceed from natural inability ; indeed
we have already given an inftance of one pcafant of
Rufiia, who feems to pollefs ver) fuperior talents. See
Neva.
The drefs of thefe people is well calculated for the
climate in which they live : they are particularly care¬
ful of their extremities. On their legs they wear one
or two pair of thick worfted Hackings ; and they en¬
velope their legs with wrappers of coarfe flannel or
cloth feveral feet in length, and over thefe they fre¬
quently draw a pair of boots, fo large as to receive
their bulky contents with eafe. The lower fort of
people are grofsly ignorant ; of which we fhall give a
very furpriflng indance in the words of Mr Coxe :—
“ In many families, the father marries his fon while a
- boy of feven, eight, or nine years old, to a girl of a
more advanced age, in order, as it is faid, to procure
an able bodied woman tor the domeftic fervice : he
cohabits with this perfon, now become Iris daughter-
in-law, and frequently has feveral children by her.
In my progrefs through Ruflia, I obferved in fome
cottages, as it were, two midretfes of a family; one the
peafant’s real wife, who was old enough to be his mo¬
ther ; and the other, who was nominally the fon’s
wife, but in reality the father’s concubine. Thefe in*
cefluous marriages, fan&ilred by inveterate cuflom, and
permitted by the pari/h-prielts, were formerly more
common than they are at prefent ; but as the nation
becomes more refined, and the priefts fome what more
enlightened ; and as they have lately been difeountc-
nanced by government, they i,re daily falling into dif-
tife ; and, it is to be hoped, will be no longer tolera¬
ted (a).”
The peafants of Ruflia, like thofe of Poland, are
divided into thofe of the crown and thofe of indivi¬
duals ; the firfl of which are in the beft condition ; but
all of them undergo great haidfliips, being fufejedt to
the defpotic will of fome cruel overfeer. They may
obtain freedom, i. By mamimiffion on the death of
their milter, or otherwife : 2. By purchafe ; and, laftly,
By ferving in the army or navy. The Emprefs has
redrefled fome of the grievances of this clafs of her
fubjeAs. Tire liardinefs of the peafants artfes Tn a
great meafure JYom their mode of education and way
of lile, and from the violent changes and great ex¬
tremes of heat and cold to which they are expofed.
“ The peafants cf Finland differ w’idcly Irorn the
Ruffians in their look and drefs.: they had for the
molt part fair complexions, and many of them red hair:
they lhave their beards, wear their hair parted at the
top, and hanging to a conliderable length over their
flmuldcrs (b). We could not avoid remarking, that
they were in general more civilized than the Ruffians ;
and that even in the fmalleft villages we were able to
procure much better accommodations than we ufually
met with in the largelt towns which we had hitherto
vifited in this' empire.’,
The peafants of Sweden (Mr Coxe informs us) are
more hunell than thofe in Ruffia ; in hitter condition,
and.polfeffing more of the conveniencies of life, both
with refpedt to food and furniture. “ They are well
clad in itrong cloth of their own weaving. Their
cottages, though built with wood, and only of one
llory, are comfortable and commodious. The room
in which the family lleep is provided with ranges of
beds in tiers (if 1 may lo exprefs myfelf),orje above
the other : upon the wooden tellers of the beds in
which the women lie, are placed others for the recep¬
tion of the men, to which they afeend by means of
ladders. To a perfon who has jull quitted Germany,
and been accullomed to tolcraldc inns, the Swedifli
cottages may perhaps appear miferable hovels; to me,
who had been long ufed to places of far inferior ac-
coir.modation, they teemed almoll palaces. The tra¬
veller is able to procure many convenience*, and par¬
ticularly a feparate room from that inhabited by the
family, whicti could feldom be obtained in the Pohfh
and Ruffian villages. During my courfe through thofe
two countries, a bed was a phenomenon which feldom
occurred, excepting in the large towns, and even then
not always completely equipped ; but the poorell huts
of Sweden were never deficient in this article of com¬
fort : an evident proof that the Swcdilh peafjnts are
more civilized than thofe of Poland and Ruffia.—
Alter having witnrffed the llavery of the peafants in
thofe two countries, it was a pleafing fatisfadlion to
find myfelf again among freemen, in a kingdom where
there is a more equal divifion of property ; where
there is no vaflalage ; where the lowclt order enjoy a
fecurity of their perfons and property ; and where the
advantages refulting from this right are vifible to the
commontil obferver.”
K 2 The
Peafan?’,
• [aA) ]*: tru;h tllis fact, which ten under my own obfervation, and which I authenticated by repeated inqui-
^ 8 °fPe®l^e> is Hill further confirmed by the following palfage in the Antidote to the Journey
^ i ^ria’ oug i the author gives another reafon for thofe early marriages. ‘ Vhe peafants and common
havmu- a ^ltir at T4 and ij years of age, but even at eight or nine, and that for the fake of
terc flnr-lp 1 V'<>niai1 * *TK)re in pcidon of the fon’s wife : By the fame rule, they tiy to keep their dauch-
of verv^Iitfl 7V* e> kccaufe they don’t choofe to lofe a workwoman. Thtfe premature marriages are
for anrt I 0,n r att’i ^or wkicb reafon, methods to get the better of this cultom have been fought
and* have of Fte IW-r > ^ U^C ^a.CC : t^ie ^lfhoP8 are attentive to prevent thefe marriages as much as poffible,
e"d“,ours- 11 i! only the “lhjbitan,s ,he >"otLs
diair lhort^C ^u^ians ^ave Senera^y dark complexions and hair: they alfo wear their beards, and cut thei
PEA
[ 76 1
PEA
The peafants of Holland and Switzerland are all in
a very tolerable condition; not fubje£t to the undifpu-
ted controul ol a hireling matter, they are freemen,
and enjoy in their feveral ftations the bleffings of free¬
dom. In Bohemia, Hungary, and a great part of
Germany, they are legally flaves, and fuffer all the
miferies attending fuch a condition. In Spain, Sa¬
voy, and Italy, they are little better. In France,
their fituation was fuch as to warrant the firil Re¬
volution ; but by carrying matters too far, they are
now infinitely worfe than they were at any former
period.
PEAT, a well known inflimmable fubftance, ufed
in many parts of the world as fuel. There are two
fpecies :
1. A yellowifh-brovvn or black peat, found in moor-
ifh grounds in Scotland, Holland,, and Germany.—■
When frefh, it is of a vifcid confidence, but hardens
by expofure to the air. It coniids, according to Kir-
wan, of clay mixed with calcareous earth and pyrites ;
fometimes alfo it contains common fait. While foft,
it is formed into oblong pieces for fuel, after the py-
ritaceous and deny matters are feparated. By diiltl-
Ltion it yields water, acid, oil, and volatile alkali ;
the afhes containing a fmall proportion of fixed alkali ;
and being cither white or red according to the pro¬
portion of pyrites contained in the fubdance.
The oil which is obtained from peat has a very pun¬
gent tafte; and an empyreumatic Imell, lefs fetid
than that of animal fubltances, more fo than that
of mineral bitumens : it congeals in the cold into a
pitchy mafs, which liquefies in a finall heat: it readily
catches fire from a candle, but burns lefs vehemently
than other oils, and immediately goes out upon remo¬
ving the external fl une : it diffolves almoft totally in
rectified fpirit of wine into a dark brownith red li¬
quor.
2. The fecond fpecies is found near Newbury is
Berkfhire. In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the
year i75i 7> have an account of this fpecies j the
fubdance of which is as follows :
Peat is a compofitton of the branches, twigs, leaves,
and roots of trees, with grafs, draw, plants, and
weeds, which having lain long in water, is formed into
a mafs fo foft as to be cut through with a fharp fpade.
The colour is a blackifh brown, and it is ufed in many
places for firing. There is a dratum of this peat on
each fide the Kennet, near Newbury in Berks, which
is from about a quarter to half a mile wide, and many
miles long. The depth below the furface of the
ground is^from one foot to. eight. Great numbers of
entire trees are found lying irregularly in the true peat.
They are chiefly oaks, alders willows, and firs, and
appear to have been torn up by the roots t many horfes
heads, and bones of feveral kinds of deer ; the horns
of the antelope, the heads and tufks of boars, and tne
heads of beavers, are alfo found in it. Not many
years ago an urn of a light brown colour, large enough
to hold about a gallon, was found in the peat-pit in
Speen moor, near Newbury, at about 10 feet from
the river, and four feet below the level of the neigh
touring ground. Jnft over the fpot where the urn was
found, an artificial hill was raifed about eight feet high;
and as this hill confided both of peat and earth, it is
evident that the peat was older, than the urn. Frona
the fide of the river feveral femicircular ridges are
drawn round the hill, with trenches between them-
The urn was broken to fhivers by the peat-diggers
who found it, fo that it could not be critically exami¬
ned ; nor can it be known whether any thing was con¬
tained in it.
With peat alfo may be claffed that fubftance called
ia England ftone-turf; which hardens after its iirft ex¬
pofure' to the air, but afterwards crumbles down.—
The other common turf confifts only of mould inter¬
woven with the roots of vegetables ; but when thefe
roots are of the bulbous kmd, or in large pioportion,
they form the worft kind of turf. “ Although it may
appear inctedible (fays M. Magellan), it isneverthelefs
a*real fadt, that, in England, pit-turf is aIvantageoufly
employed in Lancafhire to fmek the iron-ore of that
county. Mr Wilkinfon, brother in law to Dr Prieft-
ley, makes ufe of pit-turf in his large fmelting fur¬
naces. I have feen in the pofleflion of Mr S. More,
fecretary to the Society of Arts, a kind of black tal¬
low, extraded by the faid Mr Wilkinfon from pit-
turf. It was very foft, and nearly of the fame con-
fiftence with butter. It burnt very rapidly, with a
fmoky flame in the fire ; but the Imell was very difa-
greeable, like that of pit-turf.” I he great caufe ot
the differences of peat moft likely antes from the dif¬
ferent mineral admixtures. Some forts of peat yield
in burning a very difagreeable fmell, which extends
to a great diftance ; whilft others are inoffenfive.—
Some burn into grey or white, and others into red fer-
rugineous afhts. The afhes yield, on ehxation, a [mall
quantity of alkaline fait, with fometimes one and fome-
times another fait of the neutral kind.
The fmoke of peat does not preferve or harden flefh-
like that of wood ; and the foot, into which it con-
denfes, is more difpofed to liquefy in moift weather.
Peat afhes, properly burnt for a manure, are noble
improvers bo:h of corn and grafs land : but the fub¬
ftance from which they fhould be got is an under ftra-
tum of the peat, where the fibres and roots of the
earth, &c. are well decayed. Indeed the very heft are
procured from the luweft ftratum of all. I his will
yield a large quantity of very ftrong afhes, in colour
(when fir ft burnt) like vermilion, and in tafte veiy fait
and pungent. Great care and caution fhould be uied
in burning thefe afhes, and alfo in preferving them af¬
terwards. The method of burning them is much the
fame as burning charcoal. 'The peat muft be colleiT-
ed into a large heap, and covered fo as not to flame
out, but fuffered to confume flovvly, till the whole
fubftance is burnt to an afh. The afhes thus burnt are
held in moft efteem ; but the peac-afhes burnt in com¬
mon firing are in many places ufed for the fame purpo-
fes, and fold at the fame prices.
Peat allies are found excellent in fweetening four
meadow land, deftroying rufhes, and other bad kinds
of grafs, and in their ftead producing great quantities
of natural grafs, They burn great quantities of peat-
afhes in fame parts of Berkfhire and Lancafhire, and
efteem them one of the beft dreffings for their fpring
crops.
The fulphureous and faline particles with which the
afhes abound have a moft happy effeft in promoting
vegetation ; and if ufed with diferetion, the increafe
procured by them is truly wonderful.
ill!
Peat.
Peat.
PEA [ 77 j P E B
All afhesare of a hot, fiery, cauftic nature: they muft
therefore be ufed with caution. With refpeil to peat*
aihes, almoft the only danger proceeds from laying them
on in too great quantities at improper feafons. No¬
thing can be better than they are for drefling low damp
meadows, laying to the quantity of from fifteen to
twenty Winchefier bufhels on an acre : it is heft to fow
them by hand, as they will then be more regularly
fpread. This Ihould be done in January or Februaty
pi lateft, that the afhes may be wafted in towards the
roots of the grufs by the iirft rains that fall in the
fpr.ng.
If they were fpread more forward in the year, and
aT; ^eedy rain fhould not fucceed, being hot in their
nature, they would be apt to burn up the grafs, in-
ftead of doing it any fevvuce. The damper and differ
the foil, the more peat-alhes fhould be Lad on it ; but
in grafs lands the quantity fhould never exceed thirty
Winchefter buftels, and on light warm lands lefs than
half that quantity is fully fufiL lent.
On wheat crops thefe aftes are of the greateft fer-
vice, but th y muff be laid on with the utmoil difcre-
tion. Were they to be fpread in any quantity before
the winter, after the Lowing the corn, they would make
the wheat too rank, and do more harm than good ;
was the fpreading this manure, on the contrary, defer¬
red ull the fprino-, the corn could not poffibly during
the winter feafon be benefited by it._ About the be
ginning of November, before the hard frofts let in,
fee ms to be the proper fcafon for this purpofe : and ic
wdl be found necefLiy to fow on every acre of heavy
clayey wheat land about eight Winchefter fcttftels of
thefe aftes; on lighter warmer lands in wheat, four
will be fufhcieiit for this feafon- The winter drelling
is thought by practical farmers to be of great fervice :
trifling as the quantity may fecm, it warms the root
of the plants, brings it moderately forward, prefcrves
its verdure, and difpofes it to get into a growing ftate
the firft fine weather after Chnllmas.
About the latter end of February, or the beginning
of March, on heavy lands in wheat, another drefiing
of afhes, by fowing of them on every acre eight bufhels
more, u'iil do much good ; on light lands, in this fe¬
cund drefiing, fix bufhels may be allowed.
Thele aftes laid on in the fpring are of the greatefl:
fervice, without any probability of danger : if rain
falls within a few days after the drefiing is laid on, it
is wafted in, and has a happy effect on the fuceeeding
crop, co-operating with the manure that was laid on
m November ; if, ©n the contrary, dry weather for a
long continuance fucceeds, the ftrlt winter-drefling has
its full effect, and the quantity laid on in the fpring is
in fadt fo fmall, that there is very little probability of
its burning or hurting the crop, fhisexcellent manure
is alfo of great ufe in the turnip hufbandry on many
accounts, particularly as it much contributes to preferve
the young crop from being devoured by the fly.
But one of the principal advantages derived from
ihefe aftes, not yet mentioned, is the very great fer¬
vice they are or to every kind of artificial pafture.
Sonitfoin receives great benefit from this manure,
and fo does clover, rye-grafs, and trefoil, provided it
is .»id on with diferetion : the proper feafon is about
tie month of February. The quantity muft be regu¬
lated by the nature of the crop and foil j but it ought
fcarcely in any inftance to exceed thirty Wincliefter Peat
buftiels. Clover, with the help of this manure, grows II *
with great luxuriance, infomuch that there have often i ^ eS'
been two large crops of hay from the fame field in a
year, and good autumn feed afterwards. They have an
excellent effedf on tares or vetches: to peafe they
feem to be hurtful.
The effedfs of this manure will be vifible at leaft
three years, nor does it, like fome others, leave the
land in an impoverifted ftate, when its virtues are ex-
haufted and fpent Peat-aftes are not, however, fo
certain a manure for barley and oats as for the winter
corn : for as thefe are quick growers, and occupy the
land but a few months, this warm manure is often apt
to puft them forward too fait, and make them run too
much to'coarfe ftraw, yiel ling only a lean immature
gram. Oats, however, are not fo apt to be damaged
by it as bailey.
Peat-aftes approach, in their effects on the feveral
crops on which they are laid, to coal-foot ; but two-
thirds of the quantity that is ufed of foot will be fuf-
iicient of the aftes, as they are in a much Itronger de¬
gree impregnated with a vegetative power; and they
are befides in moft places eafier procured in quantities,
and at a cheaper rate.
Peat-alhes are almoft, as we have already obferved,
a general manure fuited to every foil. On cold clay
they warm the too compadt particles, difpofe it to fer¬
ment, crumble, and of courfe fertilize, and, in fine,
not only aflift it in difclofing and difpenfing its great
vegetative powers, but alio bring to its aid a coniider-
able proportion of ready prepared aliment for plants. On
light lands thele aftes have a different effect: here the
pores are too large to be affected, or farther feparated
by the ialts or fulphur contained in them ; but, being
clofely attached to the furfacts of the large particles
of which this earth is generally compofed,; this manure
dilpoles them, by means of its fairs, to attract the
moifture contained in the air : by this operation, the
plasts which grow on thefe porous foils are prevented
from being fcorched up and burnt ; and if they want,
which they generally do, more nourilhment than the
land is of itfslf capable of affording, this is.readily
and abundantly fupplied by this uleful manure. la
large farms it is very ufu-ft to fee all the home-fields
rich and well mended by th* yard dung, See- whereas
the more diftant lands are generally poor, impoverilhed,
and out of heart, for want of proper manure being ap¬
plied in time. See Chemistry, n’*' 1448.
PEft UCIER, in anatomy, a name given by Win-
flow, in his Treatife on the Head, and by fome of the
Irench writers, to the mufcle called by Albinus latiffi-
mus colli ; and by others detrahens quadratics^ and quadra-
tus gerue. Santorini has called the part of this which
ariles from the cheek mufculus rifot ius nevus j and fome
call the whole platyjma myoides.
PEBBLES, the name of a genus of foffils, diftin-
guifted from the flints and homocroa by their ha¬
ving a variety of colours. Thefe are defined to be
Hones compofed of a cryftalline matter debated by
earths of various kinds in the fame fpecies, and then-
fubjedt to veins, clouds, and other variegations, ulually
formed by incruftation round a central nucleus, but
fometimes the effebt of a fimple concretion ; and veined
like the agates, by the difpofitioo which the motion of
the;
FEB r 7
PiVfctcs. the fluid they were formed In gave fteu differently co-
  1 loured fubftances. _
The variety ot pebbles is fo irrent, tout an bally de*
fcriber would be apt to make almoft as many fpecies as
he faw fpecimeno. A careful examination will teach
lis, however, to didinguifh them into a certain number
of'effentially different fpecies, to which all the reft may
be referred as accidental varieties. When we find the
fame colours, or thofe rcfulting from a mixture of the
fame, fuch as nature frequently makes in a number of
ftones, we ftudl eaffty be able to determine that thefe
are all of them the fame fpecies, though of different
appearances ; and that whether the matter be difpofcd
of in one or two, or in 20 crufts, laid regularly round
a nucleus ; or thrown irregularly, without a nucleus,
unto irregular lines £ or laixly, if blended into an uni¬
form mafs.
Thefe are the three ftates in which every pebble is
found ; for if it has been naturally and regularly form¬
ed by incruftation round a certain nucleus, we find that
always the fame in the fame fpecies, and the crufts not
lefs regular and certain. If the whole has been more
haftily formed, and the refult only of one fimple con¬
cretion, if that has happened while its different fub-
ftances were all moiil and thin, they have blended to
gether and made a mixed mafs of the joint colour of
them all. But if they have been fomething harder
when this has happened, and too far concreted to dif-
fufe wholly among one another, they are found thrown
too ether into irregulai veins. T. hefe are the natural
differences of all the pebbles ; and having regaid to
thefe in the feveral variegations, all the known pebbles
may be reduced to 34 fpecies.
In all the ftrata of pebbles there are confiantly
found feme which «re broken, and of which the pieces
lie very near one another ; but as bodies of fuch uard-
nefs could not be broken without feme confiderable
violence, their prefent fituation feems to indicate that,
they have fuffered that great violence in or near the
places where they now lie. Bcfide thefe, we often
meet with others which have as plainly had pieces b.o-
ken off from them, though thofe pieces are nowhere
to be found ; whence it feems equally plain, that what¬
ever has been the caufe of their fracture, they have
Been brought broken, as we find them, from feme
other place, or elfe that the pieces broken from
them muft at fome time or other have been caiiied
from this place to fome other diftant one. .
Several of thefe broken pebbles have their edges and
corners fo (harp and even, that it feems evident they
never can have been toffed about or removed itnee the
fra&ure was made 5 and others have their fide* and
corners fo rounded, blunted, and worn away, that they
feem to have been roughly moved and rolled about
among other hard bodies, either with great violence,
cr for a very long continuance ; fince fuch hard bodies
could not have been reduced to the condition in which
we now fee them without long friftion. It may be
fuppofed by forne, that thefe ftones never were broken,
but have been naturally formed of this fhape ; but it
will be eafily feen, by any one who accurately furveys
their veins or costs, which furround the nucleus, like,
the annular circles of a tree, that they muft have been
originally entire; and this will be the more plain 1
they are compared with a ftone broken by art. ouch
3 1 PEC
pebbles as are found in ftrata near the furface of the Pebblet
earth, are much more brittle than thofe which lie in II
deeper ftrata ; and the more clear and tranfparent the t Pec^ant-
fand is which is found among pebbles, the more beau¬
tiful the pebbles are generally obfenved to be.
The ufe of thefe ftones, and their difpofition in the
earth, is a fubjeOt of great wonder ; and may ferve
as one of the numerous proofs of an over-ruling Pro¬
vidence in the difpofition of all natural bodies. i he
furface of the earth is compofed of vegetable mould,
made up of different earths mixed with the putrid re¬
mains of animal and vegetable bodies, and of the pro¬
per texture and compages for condudfing the moifture
to the roots of trees and plants. Under this are laid
the hands and pebbles which ferve a" a fort of drain to
carry eff the redundant moifture deeper into the earth,
■Vvhere it may be ready to fupply the place of what is
conftantly riling in exhalations ; and left the ftrata of
fand fhould be too thick, it is common to find thin
ones of clay between, which ferve to put a ftop to tne ^
defeent of the moifture, and keep it from pafling off
too foon ; and left thefe thin ftrata of clay fhould yield
and give way, and by their foftnefs when vvctced give
leave to the particles of land to blend themfelves with,
and even force their way through them, there are found
in many places thin coacs of a poor iron ore, placed
regularly above and below the clay; and by theie means
not only ftrengtheuing and fupporting the clay, but
effectually keeping the fand from making its way into
it. There are many people of opinion, that the fwal*
lowing of pebbles is very beneficial to health, in help¬
ing the flomach to digeft its food; and a pebble-poffet
is an old woman’s medicine in the colic in many parts
of England. They ufuaily order the fmall white ftones
to be picked out of gravel walks for this purpofe, and
eat them in large quantities in fome fort of fpoon meat,
of which milk is an ingredient.
The thing that has given oceafion to this practice
feems to have been, that people obferve the biids to
pick up the gravel, and that they are never well unlefs
they have frequent recourfe to this to help their di«
geftion : but this is no ftmilar cafe at all, tor the giz-
* rd 01 ftomach of a bird is made very ftrong, becaufe
the creature hath no teeth to chew its food ; and this
gizzard is lined with a rough coat, by the help ot which
and thefe ftones the food they fwallow whole is fo
ground as to yield its juices to the nourifhment ot the
animal. But the ftornach of msn is formed fo very
differently, that it can never require thofe afiiftances to
the comminution of food. Many people have, however,
accuftomed themfelves to fwallow not only thefe fmall
white ftones, but large pebbles, even to the fize of a
walnut each ; and theie will often pafs fafely ; and peo¬
ple who have long accuftomed themfelves to fwallow
them, boaft of receiving no injury from them : we can
never know, however, that the death of fuch perfons
is not owing to them at iaft ; and as they can do no
good, it is beft always to avoid them. There are, in¬
deed, inftances on record in which they have un¬
doubtedly done much nfifehief.
PECARY, in zoology. See Tajacu.
PECCANT, in medicine, an epithet given to the
humours of the body, when they offend either in quan¬
tity or quality, i. e. when they are either morbid, or in
too great abundance. Moft diieafts aide from peccant
Humoursj
PEC [
humours, which are either to be corre&ed by altera¬
tives and fpeeifics, or elfe to be evacuated.
PECHEM, in the materia medica, a name given by
the modern Greek writers to the root called behem by
Avicenna and Serapion. Many have been at a lofs to
know what this root peehem was ; but the virtues
afcribed to it are the fame with'thofe of the behem of
the Arabians ; its defeription is the fame, and the divi-
79
] PEC
Pieces relating chiefly to Matters of English Piiflory ;
confiding of choice tracts, memoirs, letters, wiils,
epitaphs, &e. tranferibed, many of them, from the
originals themfelves, an l t!>e reft from divers ancient
MS. copies, or the MS. collations of fundry famous
antiquaries and other eminent perfons, both of the
Is ft and prefent age : the whole, as nearly as poffible,
digeftedinto order of time, and riluftrated with ample
fion of it into white and red is alfo the fame as that of notes, contents, additional difeourfes, and a complete
rEff XTav the urm-,1 he. hem is nnlv formed nf indexd’ Tois volume was dedicated to Lord William
Manners, and was followed, in 1735, by a fecond vo¬
lume, dedicated to Dr Reynolds bilhop of Lincoln.
the behem. Nay, the word pechm is only formed of
behem by changing the b into a/>, which is very com¬
mon, and the afpirate into or c/>, which is as com¬
mon. Myrcpfus, who treats of this root, fays the
fame thing that the Arabian Avicenna fays of behem,
namely, that it was the fragments of a woo ly root,
much corrugated and wrinkled on the furface, which
was owing to its being fo moift vvhiiil freih, that it al¬
ways Ihrunk greatly in the drying.
PECHYAGRA, a name given by authors to the
gout affe£i;ng the elbow.
PECHYS,a name ufed by fome anatomical writers
for the elbow.
PECHY I’YRBE, an epithet ufed by fome medi¬
cal writers for the feurvy.
PECK, a meafure of capacity, four of which make
a bulhel.
Peck (Francis), was born at Stamford in Lin-
cobilhire, May 4th 1692, and educated at Cambridge,
where he took the degrees of B. and M. A. He
was the author of many works, of which the firft is a
poem, intitled, “ Sighs on the Death of queen Anne ;J’
printed p"* bably about the time of her death in 1714.
Two years afterwards he printed ‘ to T'EOS 'afion ;
or an Exercife on the Creation, and an Hymn to
the Creator of the World ; written in the exprefs
words of the facred text, as an Attempt to fliow
the Beauty and Sublimity of the Holy Scriptures,
1716, Svo.” In 1721, being then curate of King’s
Clifton iii Northamptonfhire, he ifl'ued propofals for
printing the Hiftory and Antiquities of his native
town, which was publilhed in 17iy, in folio, under
the title of “ Academia tert'ia Anglic ana ; or the An¬
tiquarian Annals of Stamford in Lincoln, Rutland,
and Northamptonlhires ; containing the Hiftory of the
Univerfity, Monafteries, Gilds, Churches, Chapels,
Hofpitals, and School-* there, &cc.” inferibed to John
Duke of Rutland. This work was haftened by “ An
Eflay on the ancient and prefent State of Stamford,
1726, qto,” written by Francis Hargrave, who, in his
preface, mentions the difference which had arifen be¬
tween him anj Mr Peck, on account of the former’s
publication unKirly foreftalling that intended by the
latter. Mr I ’eck is alfo therein very roughly treated
In 1735 Mr Peck printed in a qto pamphlet, “ A
complete catalogue of all the difeourfes wiitten bot7;
for and againft popery in the time of King James II.
containing in the whole an account of 457 books and
pamphlets, a great number of them not mentioned in
the three former catalogues ; with references after
each tide, for the more fpeedy finding a further ac¬
count of the faid difeourfes and their authors in fun-
dry writers, and an alphabetical lift of the writers
on each fide.n In 17 39 he was the editor of “ Nine¬
teen Letters of the truly reverend and learned Henry
Hammond, D. D (author of the Annotations on the
New Teftament, &c.) written to Mr Peter Stain-
nough and Dr Nathaniel Angelo, many of them on
curious in je&s, &c.” Thefe were printed from the
originals, communicated by Mr Rmbert Marfden arch¬
deacon of Nottingham, and Mr John Worthinutou.
The next year, 1740, produced two volumes in qto,
one of them intitled, ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life and Ac¬
tions of Oliver Cromwell, as delivered in three pane-,
gyrics of him written in Latin ; the firft, as faid, by-
Don Juan Roderiguez de Saa Menefes, Conde de
Penguito, the Portugal ambaffador; the fecond, as
affirmed by a certain jefuit, the lord ambaffador’s
chaplain ; yet both, it is thought, compofed by Mr
John Milton (Latin fecretary to CromwJl), as was
the third, ; with an Englifh verfion of each. The
wnole illuftrated with a large hiftorical preface ; many
fimilar paffages from the Psradife Loft, and other
works of Mr John Milton, an 1 notes from the bell
hiftorians. To all which is added, a colledlion of di¬
vers curious hiftorical pieces relating to Cromwell,
and a great number of other remarkable perfons (af¬
ter the manner of Defiderata Curiofa, v. i. and ii.)”
I he other, “ New Memoirs of the Life and poetical
Works of Mr John Milton ; with, firft, an examination
of Milton’s ft vie; and fecondly, explanatory and
critical notes on divers paffages in Milton and Shake-
fpeare, by the editor. Thirdly, Baptiftcs; a facrei
dramatic poem in defence of liberty, as written in-
)y Mr George Buchanan, tranflated into Eng-
of Godeby near Melton in
preferment he ever enjoyed
r - - y
Leicefferfhire, the only
In 1729, he printed on
r \ (U Lt r\ • . ' y r  JNiciiUiao J. ill KIUDICOn, KI1E. CJ
a fingJe meet,_ queries concerning the Natural Hi- England, who died of poifon, anno ic-
flory an.. Antiquities of Leicefterfhire and Rutland,” rical poem by his nephew Sir Thomas
which were aiterwatus renr:nfp4 in 1 ^ a O * a L T_T. 1 .1 /'*'< 1
iterwards reprinted in 1740; but al¬
though the progrefs he had made in the work was
very confiderable, yet it never made its appearance.
In 1732 he publilhed the firft volume of “ Defiderata
Cunoja i or, a Collection ef divers fcarce and curious
Latin
hill by Mr John Milton, and firft publilbe l in xhqu,
by order of the houfe of commons. Fourthly, the
Parallel, or Archbifhop Laud and Cardinal Wolfey
compared, a Vificn by Milton. Fifthly, the Legend
of Sir Nicholas Throckmorton, knt. chief butler of
570, an hifto-
Throckmor-
ton, knt. Sixth, Herod the Great, by the editor.
Seventh, the Relurreftion, a poem in imitation of
Milton, by a friend. And eighth, a Difcourfe on the
Harmony of the Spheres, by Milton ; with prefaces,
and notes.” TUefe were the laft publications whigh
Peck.
■ P E C r 80 ] PEC
•Pecora he tlie world. When thefe appeared, he had in of the peften, we have already treated under the ar- Pc&en.
Ii contemplation no lefs than nine different works ; but tide Animal Motion, which fee p. 411. col. 2. r-
Pe&en. whethe^ he ha^ nGt met with encouragement for thole The peAens, fuch as the foie peAen^ the ducal man-
•—v   which he had already produced, or whether he was tie peAen, the knotted, and others, feem to be in ge-
rendered incapable of executing them by reafon of his neral inhabitants of the Indian leas; fome of them fre-
declining health, is uncertain ; but none of them ever quent thofe of Africa and the South Seas. The mod
were made public. He concluded a laborious, and, rem rkable fpecies is the maximus or great fcallop, be¬
lt may be affirmed, an ufeful life, wholly devoted to ing the fame with what Barbut calls the ducal-mantle
antiquarian purfuits, Aug. 13th 1743, at the age of petkn. It has .4 rays, very prominent and broad, and
6l ^ears> {trialed both above and below. They are rugged and
PECO RA, in zoology, the fifth order of the clafs imbricated with feales. They grow to a large fize ;
mammalia, in the Linnean fyftem. See Zoology. are found in beds by themfelves ; are dredged up, and
PECQUET (John), was a phyfician in Dieppe, barrelled for fale. 'I he ancients fay that they have a
and died at Paris in 1674. Pie was phyfician in or- power of removing themfelves from place to place by
dinary to the celebrated Fouquet, whom he entertain vaft. fprings or leaps. This (hell was ufed both by the
ed at his fpare hours with fome of the molt amufitig Greeks and Eatins as a food. When (..refled withp^p-
experiments in natural philofophy. Pie acquired im- per and cummin, it was taken meaicinaiiy. L he fcal-
raovtal honour to himfelf by the difeovery of a laAeal lop was commonly worn by pilgrims on their hat, or
ve;r, which conveys the chyle to the heart ; and the cape of their coat, as a mark that they had eroded
which from his name is called le Refervoir de Pecquet, the fea in their way to the Holy Land, or fome diftant
Th:s difeovery was a freffi proof of the truth of the objeA of devotion.
circulation of the blood : though it met with oppofition The name petten feems to have been given to thefe
from many of the learned, particularly from the fa- animals, from the longitudinal ftrue with which their
mous Riolan, who wrote a treatife againft the author furface is covered, which refemble fomewhat the teeth
of it, with this title : Adverfus Pecquetum iff Pecquet’- of a comb ; and hence alfo the Greek name By
anus * The only works which we have of Pecquet, the general charaAer of this (hell, it evidently includes
are," 1. Expcrlmenta nova Anatomica, publiffied at Paris, cockles as well as fcallops, which are the peAens with-
16 U ' 2- A Differtation. De Thoracis Ladeis, pub- out ears, and having lefs flat or elated {hells. They are
liflied at Arr.fterdam, 1661. He was a man of a called by all authors by a name which is only a dimi-
lively and aAive genius; but his fprightlinefs fome- of peden, pedunculus. The having ears indeed
times led him to adopt dangerous opinions. He re- is the common mark of diftinAion between the peAens
commended, as a remedy for all difeafes, the ufe of and the cockles, which laft ufually have none ; yet the
brandy. This remedy, however, proved fatal to genera are not diilinA, as fome have imagined: for
himfelfj and contributed to ffiorten his days, which there are IheUs univerfally allowed to be peAens or
he might have employed to the advantage of the fcallops, which have no ears, and others as univerfally
, 1 • " allowed to be peAuncles or cockles which have. Hence
^ PECTEN the Scallop ; a genus of ftieU-fifh, the then appears the error of Lifter, who made them two
charaAers of which are thefe : The animal is a tethys ; diftinA genera, and gave the ears and the equal con-
the (hell bivale and unequal; the hinge toothlefs, ha- vexity of both {hells as the great charaAenfticsofthem:
ving a fmall ovated hollow. This {helPfifh is one of the which, though they be good marks to diftingmffi the
-Jpinners, having the power of fpinning threads like the fpecies by, are far from being fo unalterable as to found
' niufcles • but They are much ftiorter and coarfer than different genera upon,
even thofe of that fifti; fo that they can never be Barbut, we have ieen, ranks the peAens under the
wrought into any kind of work like the longer and genus oftrea ; but he fays, that though the generic
finer threads of the pinna marina. The ufe of the threads charaAer of the hinge agrees in both, the animal inha.
which are fpun by the fcallop is to fix the creature to biting the peAens is very different from that of the
any folid body near its fliell. All thefe proceed, as in oyfter ; for which reafon Linnseus has divided the ge-
the rmifcle, from one common trunk. It is an evident nus into feAions. The peAines by fome.are efteemed
proof that the fifli has a power of fixing itfelf at plea- as delicious a food as the oyfter. They differ very ma-
fure to any folid body by means of thefe threads, that terially in a variety of circumftances. The peAens, as
after {forms the fcallops are often found tolled upon we have already obferved, lail on the furtace of the
rocks, where there were none the day before ; and yet water; and befides, if they are attacked by a foe, they
thefe are fixed by their threads, as well as thofe which let down the membrane which nature has provided them
had remained ever fo long in their place. They form for a fail, and drop to the bottom. “ Behold (fays Bar-
their threads in the very fame manner which the mufcle; but) thefplendor of the peAines, which rival the glowing
' on|y tpeir organ which ferves for fpinning is Ihorter, colours of the papilionaceous tribe, as numerous as
arad has a wider hollow, whence the threads are necef- they are beautiful, flirting from place to place, and
farily thicker and (horter. _ may well be called the paplliones of the ocean. What
Mr Barbut divides the genus oftrea into four fami- fuperior qualities does not the peAines enjoy above
lies* which he thus names according to their charac- the oftrea edulis, which, conftantly confined to its na-
t'ers.’ 1. The winged equilateral peAens. 2. The pec- live bed, feems wholly deftined to afford food to other
tens' that have one ear inwardly, fpring by being ci- creatures, not having any means of defence, hut its
Hated. 3 The peAens that have their valves more ffielly caftle, which is frequently attacked and ftormed
gibbous on one fide than on the other. 4. The rough by its numerous enemies? This «eature 18 not only
.ones, commonly called oyjlers. Of the locomotive powers ufeful to man as a dainty food, but the ihell being le-
P E C
[ Si 1
PEC
IV&en.
tinted into a ftibtle powder, is employed as an abfor- motion, are exerted in vain. It is probable, however
bent in heart burns anti other like complaints arifmgr that they have the faculty of operating their own re-
’fmrnal ie
fly/tyue.
from acidities in the firft padages ; the hollow fheils
are generally made choice of, as containing more than
the thinner fi it ones, of the fine wliite earth, in pro¬
portion to the outer rough coat, which lafi is found
to be confiderably impregnated with ^ea•faIt.’,
'I'he grand mark of diilin&ion between the pedbens
and oyfter feems to be the locomotive faculty. It
was long fuppofed: that the oyfier poITcfred no power
of motion, that it always remained in the place in
which nature or accident had placed it, and that
its life differed little from that of vegetables. Expe.
rience, however, ha» taught us to rejedb thefe prema¬
ture conclufions. We ihall here lay before our read¬
ers at length, though perhaps a little out of its place,
what Abbe Dicquemare has obferved with refpeeb to
this circurnftance, the conclulions of whofe remarks we
have given in another place. See Animal Motion,
p 41 i. col. 2.
“ Paffing one day (fays the Abbe) along the fea
yet been able to obferve. An - oyfter that has never
been attached, may fix itfelf by any part of the mar¬
gin of either of its valves, and that margin will become
ffiore, I obferved an oyfter lying in a {hallow place, the middle, or nearly fo, if the oyfier is young. I
and ejecting with confiderable force a quantity of vva- would not be furprifed that oyfters^ which have "been
fixed to a rock from the beginning, fhouid be able to
ter. It immediately occurred to me, that, if this hap¬
pened at a fufficient depth, the refills nee of the water
would have forced the oyfter from its place To be
Xatisfied of this, I took feveral tniddle-fized oyfters
with a light fhell, cud placed them on a fmooth hori-
-zontal furface, in a iufficient quantity of pure fea-wa-
ter. Some hours eiapfed, and the night came on be¬
fore any thing remarkable appeared ; but next day I
found one of the oyfters in a place and fituatfon diffe¬
rent from that in which I had lert it ; and as nothing
could luve difeompofed it, I could not doubt but that
it had moved by its own powers. I continued, how¬
ever, to attend my charge ; but, as if they meant to
conceal their fecret, the oyfters always operated in my
sbfence. At laft, as I was exploring the coaft of Lower
Normandy, I perceived in an oyfter-bed one of them
changing place pretty quickly. On my return, there¬
fore, to Havre, I made new difpofitions to difoover
the means by which the motions of oyfltrs are per¬
formed, and I fucceeded. This animal ejeefts the wa¬
ter uy that part of the fheii which is diametrically op-
pefite to the hinge; it csft alfo throw it out at the lides,
at each extremity of the hinge, or even from the whole
-opening at once. For this purpofe, it can vary the
aftion of its internal mechanifm ; but the foft parts
are not the only organs that perform this function ;
in certain cafes the fheils affiit in forcing out
water.
“ When
detach tnemfelves. I have feen them operate upon
their fhelis in fo many different ways, and with fuch
admirable contrivance, when thole ffiells have been
pierced by their enemies (among whom 1 muft be
ranked), that I do not think it at all impoffible for
them to quit the place to which they are attached. It
will eafily be imagined how delicate and difficult fuch
obfei vations and experiments muft be, confidering the
fenfibiiity of the animal, the delicacy of its organs, the
tranfparency of the matter that forms the layers of its
fheils, the opacity of the fhelis themfelves, the viciffi-
tudes of the fea, and the feafons, See. But it was of
ufe to fnow, that, contrary to the opinion generally
entertained by the learned as well as by fifhermeii,
oyfters are endowed with a locomotive faculty, and by
what means that faculty is exerted. I muft add, that
tnofe which firft ffiowed me thefe motions, were brought
from the coafts of Bretagne, put into a bed at La
Hogue, then at Courfeulle, whence they were carried
to Havre; and that, as all thefe tranfportations were
made in a dry carriage, the oyfters could not be in
perfedl vigour. It was neceffary alfo to ffiow, that
thtle animals have much more fenfacion and more in-
dultry than is generally attributed to them.
It is not orten that a fagacious obferver of nature
the is feduced from his objeH by the pride of appearing
n r , , , r , above it, or the defire of generalization. To think of
n oyf.er thus fuddenly, forcibly, and re- grafping the whole of nature, when we are unable to
confidcr in the whole the firft and moll in ter effing of
her kingdoms, is a vain illufton. Yet fame have en¬
deavoured to confound tne kingdoms, while they have
taken the liberty of dividing the higheft of them into
.1 . „ . - -  o - -  —..v-xo, beipgs differently animalized. Under the nretem-e nf
that a great number of oyfters perifh in this way. The having a better idea of it, th ‘ 1
'     endeavourswuth all its force to repel' tremities; that is to fa
■peatedy, fquirts forth a quantity of water, it repulfes
ttiofe of its enemies that endeavour to infinuate them-
fekes within the fhelis wdrile they are open : but this
is cut Anal only againft its weakeft foes; for there are
fprr.e fo formidable by their ftrenpth or their addrefs,
animal, therefor
tUm; it c.oes more, it retreats backwards, or ftarts
afide in a l iteral diredion. All of them, however, are
not placed in circunvftances favourable for thefe mo¬
tions. 7 hey are often fituated in the crevices of rocks,
between it ones, or among other oyfters, feme in fan cl,
an,! Come ,n raurf; fo that their Sragft, or powers of
Vol. XIV. Part I.
iey lopped oft' all the ex-
they rid themfelves of every
thing they were not well acquainted with, or that
threw difficulties in their way. This, to be fure, was
very convenient, but very unfuitable to the proceed¬
ing of an enlarged mind, and very unfit to inform us
with regard to the ceconomy of nature. The organi¬
zation of the oyfter, though very different from that
k with
Pedte*.
lief from thefe circumfiances, and that they may be ac¬
cidentally affifted by other bodies. It muft, however,
be acknowledged, that the means of relief c-mnot be
numerous or confiderable in fuch as are attached to
other oyfters, to a body heavier than themfelves, or to
a rock ; but fuch fituations are the moft uncommon
m the oyfter-beds thtt I am acquainted with on the
French coafts in the Channel. Perhaps, indeed, a very
angular or heavy ftiell may be fufficient to render an
oyfter immoveable. This is undoubtedly the cafe with
fuch of them as have been obliged by worms, or other
more formidable enemies, fo to increafe their fheils as
to make them thick aed unwieldy. But we do not
know whether thefe animals, in unfavourable circum-
iia rices, may not be able to fupply thole manoeuvres
that I have mentioned by others that I have not as
PEC
t 8
Peroral
Peculiar.
with which we are beft acquainted, may be compre-
bended under our confiderations of the animal eco¬
nomy in general. Thole authors are not fo enhght-
' eneti as they imagine, who reprefent the oyfter as an
animal deprived of fenfation, as an intermediate being
between animals and vegetables, as a plant, and even in
fome refpefls as inferior to a plant. It is thus that
the oyfter has been made a foundation for many an ab-
furd hypotheiis with refpeft to the nature of animals.
But let us quit the confideration of thefe faithlefs pic¬
tures, and attend to the original.
“ The oyfter is confcious of its exiftence, and con-
feious alfo that fomething exiils exterior to itfelf. It
choofes, it rejeAs ; it varies its operations with judge¬
ment, according to circutnftances ; \t defends itfelf by
means adequate and complicated ; it repairs its Ioffes ;
and it can be made to change its habits. Oyfters new¬
ly taken from places which the fea had never left, in-
confidewately open their ihells, lofe the water they con¬
tain, and die in a few days : but thofe that have been
taken from the fame place, and thrown into beds or
refervoirs from which the fea occafionaily retires, where
they are incommoded by the rays of the fun, or by the
cold, or where they are expofed to the injuries of man,
learn to keep themfelves clofe when they are abandon¬
ed bv the water, and live a much longer time.” See
S T R. E A •
PECTORAL, a facerdotal habit or veftment, worn
by the Jew ilia high-prieft. The Jews called it Hhojthtn,
the Greeks the Latins rationale and peSoraley
and in our verfion of the Bible it is called breajlplate.
It confided of embroidered fluff, about a fpan fquare,
and was worn upon the breaft, fet with twelve precious
Hones, ranged in four rows, and containing the names
of the twelve tribes. It was failened to the fhoulder
by two chains and hooks of gold. God himfelf pre-
fcribed the form of it. See Breastplate.
Pectorale, a breaftplate of thin brafs, about 12 lin¬
gers fquare, worn by the poorer foldiers in the Ro¬
man army, who were rated under 1000 drachmae. See
LoricA. , • it r
Pectoral, an epithet for medicines good in oileales
of the breaft and lungs.
PECTORALIS, in Anatomy. See there, Table
of the Mufcles. . .
PECULATE, in civil law, the crime of embezzling
the public money, by a perfon intrufted with the re¬
ceipt, management, or euftody thereof. This term is
alfo ufed by civilians for a theft, whether the thing be
public, tlfcal, facred, or religious.
PECULIAR, in the canon law, fignifks a particu¬
lar pari Hi or church that has jurifdi&ion within itfelf
for pranting probates of wills and adminiftrations? ex¬
empt from the ordinary or bilhop’s courts. The king’
2 1 P E D
are derived from the bifhop, who may vifit them, and Peculmm
to whom there lies an appeal. II
Court of Peculiars, is a branch of, and annexed to, Pedantry,
the court of arches. It has e. jurifdiftion over all ’
thofe parilhes difperfed through the province of Can¬
terbury in the midft of other diocefes, which are exempt
from the ordinary’s jurifdiAion, and fubjeft to the me¬
tropolitan only. All ecclefiaftical caufes, arifmg with¬
in thefe peculiar or exempt jurifdi&ions, are originally
cognizable by this court: from which an appeal lay
formerly to the pope, but now by the ftac. 25 H. VIII.
c. 19. to the king in chancery.
PECULIUM, the ftock or eftate which a perfon,
in the power of another, whether male or female, either
as his or her Have, may acquire by his induftry. Roman
Haves frequently amaffed confiderable fums in this way.
The word properly fignifies the advanced price which
a Have could get for his mafter’s cattle, &c. above the
price fixed upon them by his matter, which was the
Have’s own property.
In the Romilh church, peculium denotes the goods
which each religious referves and poffeffes to himfelf.
PEDALS, the largefl pipes of an organ, fo called
becaufe played and flopped with the foot. I he pedaiS
are made fquare, and of wood ; they are ufually 13 in
number. They are of modern invention, and ferve to
carry the founds of an oftave deeper than the reft.
See Organ.
PEDAGOGUE, or Pedagogue, a tutor or ma¬
tter, to whom is committed the difeipline and dire&ion
of a Lholar, to be inftruded in grammar and other
arts. The word is formed from the Greek uyayo;,
puerorum duftor, “ leader of boys.”
M. Fleury obferves, that the Greeks gave the name
pcedagogus to Haves appointed to attend their children,
lead them, and teach them to walk, &c. The Romans
gave the fame denomination to the Haves who were
intrufted with the care and inilrudion of their chil¬
dren.
PEDANT, afchoolmafter or pedagogue, who pro-
feffes to inftru&and govern youth, teaeii them the hu¬
manities, and the arts. See Pedagogue. .
Pedant is alfo ufed for a rough, unpoliihed man of
letters, who makes an impertinent ufe of the fciences,
and abounds in unfeafonable criticifrns and obferra¬
tions.
chapel is a royal peculiar, exempt from ail fpiritualju-
rifdi&ion, and referred to the vifitation and immediate
government of the king himfelf. There is likewife the^
archbilhop’g peculiar : for it is an ancient privilege ot
the fee of Canterbury, that wherever any manors or
advowfons belong to it, they forthwith become exempt
from the ordinary, and are reputed peculiars: there
are cy fuch peculiars in the fee of Canterbury.
Belides thefe, there are fome peculiars belonging to
deans, chapters, and prebendaries, which are only ex¬
empted from the jurifdiAion of the archdeacon, thefe
Dacier defines a pedant, a perfon who has more read¬
ing than good fenfe. See Pedantry.
Pedants are people ever armed with quibbles and
fyllogifms, breathe nothing but difputation and chi¬
canery, and purfue a propofition to the laft limits of
logic.
Malebranche deferibes a pedant as a man full of falfe
erudition, who makes a parade of his knowledge, and
is ever quoting fome Greek or Latin author, or hunt¬
ing back to a remote etymology.
St Evremont fays, that to paint the folly of a pedant,
we rouft reprefent him as turning all converfation to fome
one fcience or fubjeA he is beft acquainted withal-
There are pedants of all conditions, and a!l robes.
Wicqucfort fays, an ambaffador, always attentive to
formalities and decorums, is nothing elfe but a politi¬
cal pedant.
PEDANTRY, or Pedantism, the quality or man¬
ner of a pedant. See Pedant. ^
1
Per.U'Un
il
Pedisan.
P E D [
’So fwell up little and low things, to make a vain
Oiow of feienee, to heap up Greek and Latin, without
judgment, to tear thofe to pieces who differ from us
about a pafTage in Suetonius or other ancient authors,
or in the etymology of a word, to ftir up all the world
againft a man for not admiring'Cicero enough, to be
interefled for the reputation of an ancient as if he were
our next of kin, is what we properly call pedantry.
FED A RIAN, in Roman antiquity, thofe fenators
who fignified their votes by their feet, not with their
tongues ; that is, fuel) as walked over to the fide of
thofe whofe opinion they approved of, in divifions of
the lenate.
Dr Middleton thus accounts for the origin of the
word. He fays, that though the magiflrates of Rome
had a right to a place and vote in the fenate both du¬
ring their office and after it, and before they were put
upon the roll by the cenfors, yet they had not pro¬
bably a right to fpeak or debate there on any queflion,
at lead in the earlier ages of the republic. For this
leems to have been the original diftin&ion between them
and the ancient fenators, as it is plainly intimated in the
formule of the confular edift, fent abroad to fummon
the fenate, which was addreffed to all fenators, and to
all thofe who had a right to vote in the fenate. From
this diftindtion, thofe who had only a right to vote
were called in ridicule pedarian ; becaufe they fignified
their votes by their feet, not their tongues, and upon
every divifion of the fenate went over to the fide of
thofe whofe opinion they approved. It was in allu-
fion to this old cuflom, which feems to have been
wholly dropt in the latter ages of the republic, that
the mute part of the fenate continued ftill to be called
by the name of pedarians, as Cicero informs us, who
iu giving an account to Atticus of a certain debate
and decree of the fenate upon it, fays that it was
made with the eager and general concurrence of the
pedarians, though againft the authority of all the con¬
fular s.
PEDATURA, a term ufed, in Roman antiquity,
for a fpace or proportion of a certain number of feet
fet out. This word often occurs in writers on mili¬
tary affairs: as in Hyginus de Caftrametatione we meet
with meminerimus itaque ad computatlonem cohortis equitate
mUliaria pedaturam ad ntillelrecentos fexaginta dart debere;
which is thus explained : The pedatura, or fpace al¬
lowed for a cohors equitata or provincial cohort, con-
fifting of both horfe and foot, could not be the fame
as the pedatura of an uniform body of infantry, of the
fame number, but muft exceed it by 360 feet; for the
proportion of the room of one horfeman to one foot
ioldier he affigns as two and a half to one.
PEDERAS TS, the fame with Sodomites.
PEDESTAL, in architecture, the loweft part of
an order of columns, being that part v/hich fuftains the
column, and ferves it as a foot or ftand. See Co¬
lumn.
PLDIiEAN, in Grecian antiquity. The city of
Athens was anciently divided into three different
parts ; one on the defeent of an hill ; another on the
lea-more ; and a third in a plain between the other
two The inhabitants of the middle region were
called Pedueans, formed*from W'fovj « plain ”
or “ flat;” or as Anliotle will have it, Pediaci; thofe
83 ] P E D
of the hill, Diacviaits; and thofe of the ffiore, Pa- Ped
ralians. Pcdic
Thefe quarters ufually compofed fo many different
faftions. Pififtratus made ufe of the Pedfseans againft
the Diacrians. In the time of Solon, when a form
of government was to be chofen, the Diacrians chofe
it demociatic; the Pediasans demanded an ariftocra-
cy ; and the Paralians a mixed government.
PEDICLE, among botanifts, that part of a ftalk.
which immediately fuftains the leaf of a flower ora
fruit, and is commonly called a fuotjlalli.
PEDICULUS, the L ouse, in zoology, a genua
of infe&s belonging to the order of aptera. It has fix
feet, two eyes, and a fort of fling in the mouth ; the
feelers are as long as the thorax; and the belly is de-
prefled and fublobated. It is an oviparous animal.
They are not peculiar to man alone, but infell other
animals, as quadrupeds and birds, and even fiffies and
vegetables ; but thefe are of peculiar fpecies on each
animal, according to the particular nature of each, fome
of which are different from thofe which infeft the hu¬
man body. Nay, even infefts are infijfted with vermin
which feed on and torment them. Several kinds of
beetles are fubjed to lice ; but particularly that kind
called by way of eminence the/ow/y beetle. The lice on
this are very numerous, and will not be fliook off The
earwig is often infefted with lice, juft at the fet-
ting on of its head : thefe are white, and fhining like
mites, but they are much fmaller ; they are round*)
backed, flat-bellied, and have long legs, particularly
the foremolt pair. Snails of all kinds, but efpeckilly
the large naked forts, are very fubjed to lice; which
are continually feen running about them, and devour¬
ing them. Numbers of little red lice, with a very
fmall head, and in fhape refembling a tortoife, are of¬
ten feen about the legs of fpiders, and they never leave
the animal while he lives ; but if he is killed, they al-
moft inftantly forfake him. A fort of whitiffi lice is
found on humble-bees ; they are alfo found upon ancs ;
and fiftres are not lefs lubjed to them than other ani¬
mals.
Kircher tells us, that he found lice alfo on flies, and
M. de la Hire has given a curious account of the crea¬
ture which he found on the common fly. Having oc-
calion to view a living fly with the microfcope, he ob-
ferved on its head, back, and ffioulders, a great num¬
ber of finall animals crawling very nimbly about, and
often climbing up the hairs which grow at the origin
of the fly’s legs. He with a fine needle took up. one of
thefe, and placed it before the microfcope ufed to view
the animalcules in fluids. It had eight legs ; four oh
each fide. Phefe were not placed very diftant from
each other ; but the four towards the head were fepa-
rated by a fmall fpace from the four towards the tail.
The feet were of a particular ftrudure, being compo¬
fed of feveral fingers, as it were, and fitted for taking
faft hold of any thing ; but the two neareft the head
were aftb more remarkable in this particular than thofe
near the tail; the extremities of the legs for a little
way above the feet were dry and void of flefh like the
legs of birds, but above this part they appeared plump
and flefliy. It had two finall horns upon ita head,
formed of feveral hairs arranged clofely together ; and
there were fomeother clufters of hairs by the fide of thefe
J-1 2 horns.
P E D [ 84 ] P E D
horns, but they h*i not the fan-.e figure ; and to^ris upper part of *VT^>SsT.rn3'feS.T.n;
V v—- ti,e or;p.;n 0f the hinder le^s there were two other fuch tioned, the propelled blood ftands fti.l, and iee to
cl after s of hairs which took their origin at the middle undergo a feparation, fome of it becoming clear and
of the back The whole creature was of a blight yel- waterifh, while other black particles are punnd 01-
lowifti red ; the legs, and all the body, except a large ward to the amis. If a loufe is placed on bac^
fnot in the centre, were perfeftly tranfparent. In fize, two bloody darKifta fpots appear : the larger 1 -
h "computed it to be about ^th part of the head of middle of the body, the le.Ter towards He tad; the
«V. By , and h. o*™. that fuch kind of are -tions of wluch are
” tL “Cfewhfclt infefts the human body make, a fern, to lie. 'This motion of the fyilcle and diaitoie
very curious appearance through a microfcope. It has is bed feet, when the "eatu.r" |?hgc™ m, t'0 ^
fuch a trauTparcnt (I,ell or (kin, that we are able to and on prickmg the wh,te bl lder we,._h ieem^t^^
d if'over more ©f what paffea within its body that 111 the heart, the creature inftantly dies.
im ft trier living creatures. It has naturally three di-
vifions, the head the breaft, and the tail part. In
the head appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that
has five joints, and is furrounded with hairs Handing
before each eye ; and from the end of the nofe or fnout
there is a pointed projefting part, which ferves as a
fheath or cafe to a piercer or fucker, which the crea¬
ture thrufts into the flein to draw out the blood and
humours which are its deftined food ; for it lias no
mouth that opens in the common way. This piercer
or fuck er is judged to l>e 700 times fmaller than a
hair, and is contained in another cafe within the firft,
and ran be drawn in or thruft out at pleafure. i he
breaft is very beautifully marked in the middle ; the
flcin is tranfparent, and fall of little pits : and from
the under part of it proceed fix legs, each having five
joints, and their flein all the way refembling fhagreen,
except at the ends where it is fmoother. Each leg is
terminated by two claws, which are hooked, and are
of an unequal length and fize. Thefe it ufes as we
would a thumb and middle finger ; and there are hairs
between thefe claws as well as all over the legs. On
the back part of the tail there may be difeovered fome
ring-like divifions, and a fort of marks which look
like the ftrokes of a rod on the human {kin ; the belly
looks like fha?reen, and towards the lower end it is
very clear, and full of pits: at the extremity of the
tail there are two femicircular parts all covered over
with hairs, which ferve to conceal the amis. When
the loufe moves its legs, the motion of the mufcles,
which all unite in an oblong dark fpot in the middle of
the breaft, may be diftinguifhed perfe&ly, and to may
the motion of the mufcles of the head when it moves
its horns. We may likewife fee the various ramifica¬
tions of the veins and arteries, which are white, with
the pulfe regularly beating in the arteries. But the
molt furprifing cf all the fights is the periftalcic motion
of the guts, which is continued ail the way from the
itomach down to the anus.
If one of thefe creatures, when hungry, be placed
on the back of the hand, it will thruft its fucker into
the fkin, and tfte blood which it fucks may be ften
patling in a fine flream to the fore-part of the head ;
where°, falling into a roundifh cavity, it paffes again in
a fine ftream to another ciicular receptacle in the
middle of the head ; from thence it runs through a
fmall veffel to the breaft, and then to a gut which
reaches to the hinder part of the body, where in a curve
it turns again a little upward ; in the brcai. and gut tne
blood is moved without inter million, with a gicat
force ; efpecially in the gut, where it occaficns inch a
^ontr&^lion of the gut aa is very furpriiing. In the
The lower dark
fpot is fuppofed to be the excrement in the gut.
Lice have been fuppofed to be hermaphrodites : but
this is erroneous ; for Mr Lieuwenhoeck obferved, that
the males have flings in their tails, witch me females
have not. And he fuppofes the fmarting pain which
thofe creatures fometimes give, to be owing to their
flinging with thefe flings when made uneafy by prei-
fure or otherwife. He fays, that he felt litde or no
pain from their fuckers, though fix of them were f eed¬
ing on his hand at once.
In order to know the true hiflory and manner ot
breeding of thefe creatures, Mr Lieuwenhoeck put two
female lice into a black flocking, which he wore night
and day. He found, on examination, that in fix days
one of them had laid above 50 eggs ; and,, upon dif¬
fering it, he found as many yet remaining in toe-
ovary : whence he concludes, thac in 12 days.it would
have laid ico eggs. Thefe eggs naturally hatch m
fix days, and would then probably have produced 5-
males, and as many females ; and thtfe females coming
to their full growth in 18 days, might each of them
be fuppofed after 12 days more to lay 100 eggs £
which eggs, in fix days more, might produce a young
brood of i;ooo : fo that in eight weeks, one loufe may
fee 5000 of its own defeendents.
Signior Rhedi, who has more attentively obferved
thefe animals than any other author, has given fever d
eiit'ravings of the different fpecies of lice foun .on dii-
ferent animals. Men, he ooferves, are fubjeeft to two
kinds ; the common loufe and the crabdoufe.. He
obferves alio, that the fize of the lice is not at all pro¬
portioned to that of the animal which they infeft ;
fince the ftarling has them as large as the fwan.
Some kinds of conftitutions are inoie apt to hievd
lice than others : and in fome places of different ue-
grees of heat, they are certain to be deflroyed upom
peoole who in other climates are over-run w.th. t ie. 1.
It is an obferration of Oviedo, tout tue Spamfh i.ni-
ors, who are generally much afflicted with lice, always,
lofe them in a certain degree of latitude in their voy¬
ages to the Eaft Indies, and have them again on their
returning to the fame degree. This is not only true of
the Spaniards, but of all other people who make the
fame voyage ; for though they fet out ever fo louiy*
they have notone of thofe creatures by tlie time.they
come to the tropic. And in the Indies there is no
fuch thing as a loufe about the body, though the
people be ever fo nafty. The faiiors continue free
from thefe creatures till their return ; but in going
back, they ufually begin to be ioufy after they arrive
at the latitude of the Madeira iilands. i he extreme
fweats, which the working people naturally rail into
r between
PHD [ 85 ] FED
Petiictlu^ between the latitude of Madeira and tne inch'es; di own
u—v— and dedroy the lice ; and have the fame effeft as the
rubhm.r over the loufv heads o children with butter
and od. The fweat, in thefe hot cl mates, is not rank
as in Europe, 'md therefore it is not apt to-oreed lice ;
but when people return into latitudes where they
f,veaf rank again, their naflinefs fubjefts them to the
fame vifitations of thefe vermin as before. L he people
in general in the Indies are very fubjeof to lice in their
beads, tho’ free from them on their bodies, i he re a fori
of this is, that their heads fweat lefs than their bodies,
and they take no care to comb and clean them. The
Spanifh negroes, walh their heads thoroughly once every
week with fosp, to prevent their being loufy. This
makes them efcape much better than the other ne-
gioes who are flaves there; for the lice grow fo nu¬
merous in their heads, that they often eat large holes
in them.
Cteanlinefs is doubtlefs the grand fecret by which
to keep clear from lice, efpecially when we wear
woollen clothes. It is alfo neceffa'-y where there is any
danger, to take nouriihing, fucculent food, and to ufe
wholefome drink J Mercurial advifes frequent
purges as a cure in the pedicular difeafe : it is necef-
fery alfo to rub with garlic and milliard, to take
treacle inwardly, alfo Irked as 1 acid food, to bathe,
and to foment the body with a decoftion of lupines, or of
g ul nuts i but the mod effedlml remedies are fulphur
and tobacco, mercurial ointment, black pepper, arid
vinegar. Monkeys and feme Hottentots, we are told,
eat lice ; and are thence denominated phthirophages.
On the coaft of the Red Sea it is reported, that there
is a nation of fmull fiature and of a black colour,
who ufe locufls for the greateft part of their food,
j repared only with fait. On fuch food thofe men
live till 40, and then die of a pedicular or loufy d f-
eafe. A kind of winged lice devour them, their
body putrefies, and they die in great torment. It is
aifo a fa£t chat the negroes on the weft coaft of Africa
take great delight in making their women char the'r
bodies of lice, and thofe latter devour them with giee-
dinefs as fall as they find them.
In ancient medicine lice were efteemed aperient
febrifuge, and proper for curing a pale complexion.
The natural repugnance to thofe ugly creatures (fays
Jjemery) perhaps contributed more to baniih the fever
Man the remedy itfelf. la the jaundice five or fix
were fwallowed in a foft egg. In the fuppreffion of
urine, which happens fiequently to children at their
birth, a living loufe is introduced into the urethra,
which, by the tickling which it occafions in the ra¬
il?.!, forces the fphinhter to relax, and permits the
urine to flow. A bug produces the fame effeil. Far¬
riers have alfo a cuftom (fays M. Bourgeois) of in¬
troducing one or two lice into the urethra of horfes
when they t.re ftized with a retention of urine, a dif¬
eafe pretty common among them. But, according to
the Continuation of the Materia Medica, to ufe the
pedicular medicine with the greateft advantage, one
would need to be in Africa, where thofe infebts are
carefully fought after and fwallowed as a delicious
morfel. The great dittinflion between thofe which
infeft mankind is into the head and bo !y loufe. The
former is hard and high coloured, and the latter lefs
compact and more of an ufhen colour. If it were
pofiible to give a renfon why fome families of the Pediluvi-
fame fpecies flick to the head and others to the  
clothes, &c it would alfo in all probability be pof-
Able to underiland the nature of many contagious
difeafes.
PEDILUVIUM, or Bathing of the Feet. The
ufes of warm bathing in general, and of the pedilu-
vium in particular, are fo little underftood, that they
are often prepofteroufly ufed, and fometimes as injudi-
cioufiy abftained from.
In the Edinburgh Medical Efiays, we find an in¬
genious author’s opinion of the warm pediluvium, not-
withftanding that of Bordli, Boerhaave, and Hoff¬
man, to the contrary, to be, That the legs becoming
warmer than before, the blood in them is warmed :
this blood rarifying, diftends theveftels ; and in circu¬
lating imparts a great degree of warmth to the reft of
the mafs ; and as there is a portion of it conftantly
palling through the legs, and acquiring new heat
there, which heat is in the courfe of circuhtiomcom-
municated to tire reft of the blood, the whole mafs ra-
rifling, occupies a largerfpr.ee, and of confequencj
circulates with greater force. The volume of the
blood being thus increrifed,.every veffel is diftendel,
and every part of the body feels the effects of it; the
diftant parts a little later than thofe firft heated. The
benefit obtained by a warm pediluvium is generally at¬
tributed to its making a derivation into the parts im-
merfed, and a revulfion from thofe affected, becaufe
they are relieved ; but the cure is performed by the di-
redt contrary method of operating, viz. by a greater
force or circulation through the parts affected, remo¬
ving what was ftagn uit or moving too fluggiihly there.
Warm bathing is of no fervice where there is an irre-
fiftuble obftruftion, though, by its taking off from a
fpafm in general, it may feem to give a moment’s eafe;
nor does it draw from the diftant parts, but often
hurts by pufhing againft matter that will not yield
with a ftronger impetus of circulation than the ftretch-
ed and difeafed veffels can bear : fo that where there
is any fufpicion of fcirrlntq warm bathing of any fort
fhould never be ufed. On the other hand, where ob-
ftnrclians are not of long Handing, and the impacted
matter is not obftinate, wa m baihs may be of great
ufe to refolve them quickly. In recent colds, with
flight humoral peripn .-umonies, they are frequently an
immediate cure. This they effect by increafing the
force o: the circulation, opening the {kin, and driving
freely through the lungs that lentor which ftagnated
or moved flowly in them. As thus conducing to the
refolution of obflrudtions, they may be confidered as
{hurt and fafe fevers; and in ufing them we imitate
nature, which by a fever often carries off an obftrudt-
ing caufe of a chronical ailment. Borelli, Boerhaave,
and Hoffman, are all of opinion, that the warm pedilu¬
vium acts by driving a larger quantity of blood into
the parts immerftd. But' arguments muft give way
to fadts : the experiment# related in the Medical
Effays feem to prove to a demonftratiun, that the
,warm pediluvium acts by rarifying the blood.
A warm pediluvium, when rightly tempered, may lie
ufed as a iafe cordial, fey which circulation can be
roufed, or a gentle fever raifed ; with this advantage
over the cordials and fudorifics, that the effedt of them
may be taken off at pieafure.
PeJiluvu
P E D [ 86 ] FED
rFetlmiefit4 Pcdiluvia are fometimes ufed in the fmall-pox ; but
Dr Stevenfon thinks their frequent tumultuous optra-
^ tions render that fufpefted, and at bell of very doubt-
^ ful effect; and he therefore prefers Monf. Martin of
Laufinne’s method of bathing the (kin, not only of the
* legs, but of the whole body, with a foft cloth dipped
in warm water, every four hours, till the eruption ; by
which means the puftules may become univerfally
higher, and confequently more fafe^
PEDIMENT. See Architecture, p. 240, &c.
PEDLAR, a travelling foot-trader. See Haw¬
kers.
In Britain (and formerly in France) the pedlars are
defpifed ; but it is otherwife in certain countries. In
Spaniih America, the bufinefs is fo profitable, that it
is thought by eo means difhonourable ; and there are
many gentlemen in Old Spain, who, when their cir-
cumftances are declining, lend their fons to the In¬
dies to retrieve their fortunes in this way. Almofl
all the commodities of Europe are diftributed through
the fouthern continent of America by means of thefe
pedlars, 'i'hey come from Panama to Paita by fea ;
and in the road from the port laft mentioned, they
make Peura their lirft voyage to Lima. Some take the
road through Caxamalia; others through Truxillo,
alosg fliore "from Lima. ’I'hey take their pafiage back
to Panama by fea, and perhaps take with them a little
cargo of brandy. At Panama they again ftock them-
felves with European goods, returning by fea to Paita,
where they are put on {bore ; there they hire mules
*nd load them, the Indians going with them in order
to lead them back. Their travelling expences are next
to nothing ; for the Indians are brought under fuch
fubjedtion, that they find lodging for them, and pro-
vender for their mules, frequently thinking it an
honour done them for their guefts to accept of this for
nothing, unlefs the flranger now and then, out of ge-
r.erofity or compaffion, makes a fmall recornpence.
In Poland, where there are few or no manufactures,
almoft all the merchandife is carried on by pedlars, who
are faid to be generally Scotfmen, and who, in the
reign of king Charles II. are faid to have amounted to
no fewer than y^coo.
PEDOMETER, or PodometEr, formed from
/w, “ foot,” and ,:meafure,” way-wifer;
a mechanical inftrument, in form of a watch, confsft-
ing of various wheels with teeth, catching in one ano¬
ther, all difpofed in the fame plane ; which, by means
of a chain or firing faftened to a man’s foot, or to the
wheel of a chariot, advance a notch each ftep, or each
revolution of the wheel; fo that the number being
marked on the edge of each wheel, one may number
the paces, or meafure exa£Ily the difiance from one
place to another. There are forne of them which mark
the time on a dial-plate, and are in every refpeft much
like a watch, and are accordingly worn in the pocket
like a watch.
PEDRO (Don) of Portugal, duke of Coimbra,
was the fourth child and fecond furviving fon of King
John of Portugal, and was born March the 4th 1394.
Elis father gave him an excellent education, which,
joined to ftrong natural abilities and much application,
rendered him one of the moft accomplifiied princes
of his time. He was not only very learned himfelf,
-but a great lover of learning, and a great patron
of learned men. It was chiefly with a view to im- Pelro,
prove his knowledge that he fpent four years in tra-
veiling through different countries in Europe, Alia,
and Africa, with a train fuitabie to his quality; of
which travels there is a relation ftili extant, but fo
loaded with fabulous circumfiances, that it wounds
the reputation it was defigned to raife. At his re¬
turn he efpoufed Ifabella, daughter to the count of
Urgel, and grand-daughter to Don Pedro, the fourth
kir^g of Portugal, which was efteemed a very great
advancement of his fortune. He was eledled into the
moft noble order of the Garter, April 22. 1417, in
the fifth year of the reign of his coufin Henry V.
grandfon of John of Gaunt, by the father’s fide, as
our duke of Coimbra was by the mother. In 144a
he was declared regent during the minority of hi6
coufin Don Alonfo V. fon of king Edward, who died
by the plague. He found fome difficulty at firft in
the difeharge of his office, both from the queen-mo¬
ther and others. But upon the whole, his adminiftra-
tion was fo mild and fo juft, that the magiftrates and
people of Lifbon concurred in demanding his leave to
erect a fiatue to him. The regent thanked them, faid
he ftiould he unwilling to fee a work of their’s demo*
lilhed ; and that he was fufficiently rewarded by this
public teftimony of their affections. The queen dow¬
ager wifhed to raife difturbances in Portugal by aiming
to recover the regency to herfelf; but the fteadintfs
of the regent’s adminiftration, the attachment of the
belt part of the nobility to him, and his enjoying, in
fo abfolute a degree, the confidence of the people ;
not only fecured the interior tranquillity of the ftate,
but raifed the credit likewife of the crown of Portugal
to a very great height in the fentirnents of its neigh¬
bours : for in the courfe of his regency he h made it
his continual ftudy to purfue the public good ; to eafe
the people in general, and the inhabitants of Lifbon in
particular, of feveral impofitions ; to maintain the laws
in their full vigour ; to give the king an excellent edu¬
cation ; and if that had been at all practicable, to dif-
fufe a perfeft unanimity through the court, by af-
fuaging the malice and envy of his enemies. The king
when he came of age, and the cortes or parliament,
exprefled their entire fatisfaclion with the regent’s ad¬
miniftration ; and all parties entirely approved of the
king’s marriage with Donna Ifabeila, the regent’s
daughter, which was celebrated in 1446. The enmi¬
ty of his enemies, however, was not in the leaft abated
by the regent’s being out of office. They ftili perfe-
cuted him with their unjuft calumnies, and unfortu¬
nately made the king hearken to their falfehoods. The
unfortunate duke, when ordered to appear before the
king, was advifed to take with him an efcort of horfe
and foot. In his paffage he was proclaimed a rebel, and
quickly after he was furrounded by the king’s troops.
Soon after he was attacked, and in the heat of adfion
he was killed : nor was the envy of his enemies even
then fatiated ; his body was forbid burial ; and was
at length taken away privately by the peafants. His
virtue, however hated in courts, was adored by the un-
corrupt part of his countrymen. At length, tho’, by an
infpeftion of his papers, the king faw, when it was too
late, the injuftice that had been done the man who had
behaved fo well in fo high and difficult an office; and
whole papers only difeovered figns of further benefit
\ *
PEE [ 87 1 PEE
PfduncJe, to tbe kfrg and his dominions. In confequence of
.Peebles^ tjiefe djfcoverieS) the duke’s adherents were declared
J"_y loyal fubjedts, all profecutions were ordered to ceafe,
and the king defined the body of Coimbra to be tranf-
ported with great pomp from the caftle of Abrantes
to the monaftery of Batalha ; where it was interred in
the tomb which he had caufed to be ere died for hitnfe'lf.
The royal name of Don Pedro eccurs often in the hh
fiory of Portugal, and many who bore the name were
fingularly diftinguifhed either for internal abilities, or
external fplendor. See Po-rtugal.
PEDUNCLE, in botany. See Pedicle.
PEEBLES, crTwEEDALE, a county of Scotland,
extending 2,5 milts in length and 18 in breadth. It
is bounded on the eaft by Ettrick Forell, on the fouth
by Annandale, on the well by Glydefdale, and on the
north by Mid Lothian. Tweedale is a hilly country,
well watered with the Tweed, the Yarrow, and a
great number of fmaller ftreams that fertilize the val¬
leys, which produce good harvefts of outs and barley,
with feme proportion of wheat. All the rivers of any
confequence abound with trout and falmon. The lake
called Wejl-Water Loch fwarms with a prodigious
number of eels. In the month of Auguil, when the
weft wind blows, they tumble into the river Yarrow in
fuch ftioals, that the people who wade in to catch
them run the rifle of being overturned. There is ano¬
ther lake on the borders of Annandale, called Loch-
gennen, which fovms a cataraft over a precipice 250
paces high : here the water falls with fuch a momen¬
tum as to kill the fifh underneath. About the middle
of this country is the hill or mountain of Braidalb,
from the top of which the fea may be feen on each fide
of the ifland. Tweedale abounds with limeftone and
freeflone. The hills are generally as green as the
downs in Suffex, and feed innumerable flocks of fheep,
that yield great quantities of excellent wool. The
country is well (haded with woods and plantations,
abounds with all the necefiaries of life, and is adorned
with many fine feats and populous villages. The earls
of March were hereditary fheriffs of Tweedale, which
beftows the title of marquis on a branch of the an¬
cient houfe of Hay, earls of Errol, and hereditary
high conftables ®f Scotland. The family of Tvveedale
is, by the female fide, defeended from the famous Si¬
mon de Frafer, proprietor of great part of this coun¬
try, who had a great flnare in obtaining the triple vic¬
tory at Roflin. The chief, and indeed the only town
of confequence in Tweedale, is Peebles, a fmall in-
confiderable royal borough, and feat of a prefbytery,
pleafantly fituated on the banks of the Tweed, over
which there is at this place a (lately (lone bridge of
five arches. In the neighbourhood ef Peebles, near
the village of Romans, on the river Lene, we fee the
veftiges 01 two Roman caflella, or ftationary forts ;
and a great many terraces on the neighbouring hills,
which perhaps have ferved as itinerary encampments.
In the (hire of Fweedale there are many ancient and
honourable families of the gentry. Among thefe,
Douglas of Cavers, who was hereditary (herift of the
county, dill preferves the ftandard and the iron mace
of the gallant lord Douglas, who fell in the battle of
Otterburn, juft as his troops had defeated and taken
Henry Percy, furnamed Hotfpur. In the church¬
yard of Drumelzier, belonging to an ancient branch
of the Hay family, the famous Merlin is fuppofed to Peek
lie buried. There was an old traditional prophecy, II '
that the two kingdoms (hould be united when the'wa- Pecr'
ters of the Tweed and the Panfel (hould meet at his
grave. Accordingly, the country* people obferve
that this meeting happened in confequence of an inun¬
dation at the acceffion of James VI. to the crown of
England.
PEEK, in the fea-language, is a word ufed in va¬
rious fenfes. Thus the anchor is faid to be a-peek,
when the (hip being about to weiglrcomes over her
anchor in fuch a manner that the cable hangs perpen¬
dicularly between the haufe and the anchor.
To heave a-peek, is to bring the peek fo as that the
anchor may hang a-peck. A (hip is faid to ride a-
peek, when lying with her main and for e-yards hoift-
ed up, one end of her yards is brought down to the
(hrouds, and the other raifed up on end ; which is
chiefly done when (he lies in rivers, left other (hips
falling foul of the yards (hould break them. Riding
a-broad peek, denotes much the fame, excepting that
the yards are only raifed to half the height.
Peek is alfo uied for a room in the hold, extending
from the bitts forward to the (lern : in this room men
of war keep their powder, and merchant-men their
vidftuals.
PEEL, in the Ifle of Man, formerly Holm-tewn, has
a fort in a fmall ifiand, and a garrifon well fupplied with
canijon In it are the ancient cathedral, the lord’s
houfe, with fome lodgings of the bifltops, and fome
other remains of antiquity.
PEER, in general, fignifies an equal, or one of the
fame rank and ftation: hence in the adls of fome coun¬
cils, we find thefe words, ivith tie covfent of our peersy
bijhops, abbots, Sec. Afterwards the fame term was
applied to the vaflals or tenants of the fame lord, who
were called peers, bt caufe they were ail equal in con¬
dition, and obliged to ferve and attend him in his
couits; and peers in fefs, becaufe they ail held fiefs
of the fame lord.
The term peers is now applied to thofe who are im-
pannelled in an inqueft upon a perfon for convidling
or acquitting him o( any offence laid to his charge
and the realon why the jury is fo called, is becaufe,
by the common law and the cuftom of this kingdom,
every perfon is to he tried by his peers or equals ; a
lord by the lords, and a commoner by commoners.
See the article Jury.
Pekr of the Realm, a noble lord who has a feat and
vote in the Houfe of Lords, which is alfo called the
Houfe of Peers.
Tilde lords are called peers, becaufe though there
is a diftin£lion of degrees in our nobility, yet in public
adlions they are equal, as in their votes in parliament,
and in trying any nohleman or other perfon impeached
by the commons, &c. See Parliament.
Houfe of Peeks., or Houfe of Lords, forms one of the
three eftates of parliament. See Lords and Parlia¬
ment.
In a judicative capacity, the houfe of peers is the
fuprerne court of the kingdom, having at prefent no
original jurifdiclion over caufes, but only upc.n appeals
<.nd writs of eiror ; to recilify any injuftice or miftake
of the law committed by the courts below. To this
authority they fucceeded of courfe upon the diffolution-
6 ©£
PEG , t 88
of the Aula Rc{ia. For the barons of parliament
were congruent members of that court, and the ret
of its jurifdidlion was dealt out to other trrourr; s, o*a
which the great offi. ers who accompanied thofe barons
were refpeaively delegated to prehde, it followed, that
the right of receiving appeals, and fnpermten .mg ad
other jiirini&ions, ftill remained in that no.^e afjem-
bly, from which every other great court was derived.
They are therefore in all cafes the laid refott, from
, whofe iudgment no farther appeal is permitted •, but
k every fnbordinate tribunal mu ft conform to their de¬
terminations: The hw repoling an entire conhdence
- in the honour and confcience ot the noble pcnons who
compofe this important a'flembly, that they will mske
themfelyes mailers of ihofe queftions upon which they
undertake to decide; fmce upon their decifton a,l
property muft finally depend. See Lords, Nobi-
L ! X Y Sc C •
Peers, in the anti-revolution government of France,
were twelve great lords of that kingdom ; or which
•fix were dukes and fix counts; and of the.e, hx
were ecckfiaftics and fix laymen : thus the archbi-
•Lod of llhcims, and the bilhop of Laon and Lan-
rr,e«, were dukes and peers ; and the biihops ol Cha-
' Ion on the Marn, Noyons, and Beauvais, were counts
and peers. The dukes of Burgundy, Normandy,
and Aquitain, were lay peers and dukes ; and the
counts of Flanders, Champaign, and I ouloufe, lay
peers and counts. Thefc peers affifted at the coro-
ration of kings, either in perfon or by their repre-
fentatives, where each performed the fun£kons attach¬
ed tc his refpe&ive dignity : but as the fix lay peex-
ao-es"were all united to the crown, except that of the
count of Flanders, fix lords of the firft quahty were
chofen to reprefent them : but the ecclefiaftical peers
generally affifted in perfon. The title ol peer was late¬
ly bellowed on every lord whofe eft ate.was erected into
a peerage ; the number of which, as it depended en¬
tirely on the king, was uncertain.
PEERESS, a woman who is noble by oelcent, crea-
tionfor marriage. For, as we have noblemen of feveral
ranks, fo we may have noblewomen thus men-
VIII. made Anne Bullen marchicnefs or 1 em-
]
PEG
fabled to be mounted when he engaged the Caimera
Sue Chimera.
The opening-of the fountain Hippocrene on mount _
Helicon is aferibed to a blow of Pegafus’s hoof. It
was feigned to have flown away to heaven, where it
became a conftellation. Hence _
Pegasus, in alronomy, the name of a conftellation
of the northern hemifphere, in form of a Hying horie.
See -\stronomy, n° 406.
PEGMARES a name by wffiich certain gladiators were
diftinguilhed, who fought upon moveable fcaftolds call¬
ed pemata, which were fomethnes unexpedledly raile d,
and by this means furprifed the people with gnctiators
in hot contention. 1 hey were tome times fo fuudenly
lifted up as to throw the combatants into trie a r ; and
fometimes they were let down into dark and ucep
holes, and then let on fire, thus becoming the funeral-
piles of thefe referable wretches ; and roafting them
alive to divert the populace.
PEGU, a very confiderable kingdom of Alia, be¬
yond the Ganges. The country properly fo called is
but about 3so miles in length from north to fouth,
and as much in breadth from eafl to weft. It is litu-
ated on the eaftern fide xrf the bay of Bengal, nearly
oppofite to Arixa, and to the north-eaft of the coaft
of Coromandel. It is bounded on the north by the
Pesi-ifm
keen.
kingdoms of Arrakan and Ava on the ea.« by the
rv
broke.; king James I. created the Lady Compton,
vv;re to Sir Thomas Compton, countefs of Buckmg-
h?m in the lifetime of her hufband, without any ad¬
dition of honour to him ; and alfo the Erne king made
the Lady Finch, vifccuntefs ot Maidftone, anc a ter-
wards countefs of Winchelfca, to her and the heirs of
her body : and king George L made the Lady benu-
lenberg, duchefs of Kendal.
If a^peerefs, by defeent or creation, marries a.per-
4.1 U yetiv.to. ^;      n
fon under the degree of nobility, fhe ftill continues
noble; but if fire obtains that dignity only by mar-
ria-re fhe lofes it, on her afterwards marrying a com¬
moner ; yet by the coumfy of England, fhe generally
rctaiits the title oi her nobility. air 1 1 h
A countefs or baroneftmay not be arrefted for debt
or trefoafs ; for though m refpedt of their fix, tney
cannot4 fit in parliament, they are nevertaekfi peers 0.
the realm, and fhali be tried by their peers, cvC.
PEWIT, in ornithology. See Larus.. _
Pftf'f A SUS amon'r the coets, a hone imagined to
have wines; teinir that whereon Eelleroohon was
KilU'CHHIlS CJ1 I   ' - .
Upper and Lower Siam ; on the fouth oy T?art 01 Siam
and the fca ; and on the weft by the fea and part of
Arrakan. . , , r 1 3
The kingdom of Pegu is faid to have ceen founded
about 1 too vears ago." Its firft king was a fianran ;
concerning whom and his fucceffiors we know nothing
till the difeovery of the Eaft Indies by the Portuguefe
in*the beginning of the 16th century. In 1518 the
throne of"Pegu was poffeffid by one Breflagukan,
with whom Antony Correa the Portuguefe ambaflador
folemnly concluded a peace in 1519. fiffiis monarch
was poffeffed of a very large and ri,h empire, nine
kingdoms being in fubjeiftiori to him, wbofi revenues
amounted to three millions or gold. We hear no far¬
ther account of his tranfadions after the conclufion of
the treaty with the Portuguefe. In 1539 he was mur¬
dered on* the following occafion : Among other prin¬
ces who were his tributaries was Para Handera, king
of the Barmas. Thefe people inhabited the high lands
called Pangavirau, to the northward ot the kingdom
of Pegu. Their prince, by one of the terms of his
vaffalmre, was obliged to furnifh the king ot Pegu
with 30,000 Barmas, to labour in his mines and other
public works. As the king ufed frequently to go and
fee how his works went forward, and in t! etc journeys
took along with him none but his women, the Barmas
obferving°tlrefe vifits frequently repeated, formed .1
defign of robbing the queen and all the concubines of
their jewels; and purfuant to this defign, the next time
the king vifited the work?, they murdered him, and
having ilripped the ladies, fled to their own country.
Bv this enormity all Pegu was thrown into confu-
,n: but, in (lead of revenging the death or their king.
fion; uut, -- •- —a--?-) _ . r -
the people divided everywhere into factions ; to that
Dacha Rupi, the lawful heir to the crown, round
himfelf unable to maintain his authority.. Gi ihe.e
commotions, the king of the Barmas taking the ad-
. vantage,
J> &
Pepil-
PEG t 89 1 P E G
vantage, not only fhook off the yoke, but formed a conqueror intended to perform no part of his promife.
defign of conquering the kingdom of Pegu itfelf.— The city was plundered and burnt, by which above
With this view he invaded the country with an army 6o,oco perfons perifhed. while at leaft an ermnl
60,000 perfons perifhed, while at lead an equal num¬
ber were carried int© ihvery. Six thoufand cannon
were found in the place ; ico,ooo quintals of pepper,
and an equal quantity of other fpices. The day al ter
this deftruftion, 21 gibbets were erected on an hill
adjoining to the city; on which the queen, her children,
and l idies, were executed, by hanging them no alive by
— 5“     r- ;  the feet: however, the queen expired with anguifh be-
his coming, he fent to defire his afliftancc againgit the fore fhe fuffered fuch a cruel indignity. The kintr
enemy. This he obtained by great prefents and pro- with 50 of his chief lords, was caft into the fea, with
mifes : and Mindes, fetting out in a galliot, joined the Hones about their necks. This monftrouB cruelty
king’s fhips. Had the numbers been any thing near fo provoked the tyrant’s foldiers, that they mutinied,
an equality, the fuperior flcill of Mirales would un- and he was in no fmall danger of fuffering for it :
doubtedly have gained the vidtory : But the fleet of however, he found means to pacify them ; after which
the Barrtias covered the whole river,^though as large he proceeded to befiege Prom, the capital of another
of more than a million of foot, and 3000 elephants;
befides a great fleet which he fent down the river Ava
towards B.tgou or Pegu, the capital of the empire;
while he himfelf marched thither by land. Juft at this
time Ferdinand de Mirales arrived at Pegu from Goa
with a large galleon richly laden on account of the
king of Portugal. As foon as Dacha Rupi heard of
as the Ganges, while that of Dacha Rupi could fcarce
be obferved in coreparifon with them. Mirales did
every thing that man could do, and even held out
alone after the natives had deferted him ; but at laft,
©ppreffed and overwhelmed with numbers, he was killed,
with all his men.
Thus Para Mandara became mafler of all Pegu ;
after which he attacked the tributary kingdoms. In
*5:44 he befieged Martavan, the capital of a kingdom
o! the fame name, then very great and flourifhing.
The land-forces which he brought againft it confitled
of 700,oco men, while by fea he attacked it with a
fleet of 1700 fail; 100 of which were large galleys,
and in them 700 Portuguefe commanded by John
Cayero, who had the reputation of being a valiant and
experienced officer. The fiege, however, continued
feven months, during which time the Barmas loft
120,000 men ; but at laft: the befieged king, finding
himfelf ftraitened for want of provifions, and unable to
withftand fo great a power, offered terms of capitula¬
tion. The befiegers would admit of no terms, upon
which the diftreffed king applied to the Portuguefe in
the fervice of his enemy ; for by their affiftance he
doubted not to be able to drive away the Barmas.
Accordingly, he fent one Seixas to Cayero, intreating
him to receive himfelf, his family, and treafure, on
board the four ftiips he had under his command ;
offering, on that condition, to give half his riches
to the king of Portugal, to become his vaffal, and
pay fuch tribute as fhould be agreed upon. Cayero
confulted the principal officers, and in their prefence
afked Seixas what he thought the treafure might a-
mount to. Stixas anfwered, that out of what he had
feen, for he had not feen all, two fhips might fe
loaded with gold, and four or five with filver. This
pvopofal was too advantageous to be flighted ; but
the reft of the officers envying the great fortune which
Cayero would make, threatened to difeover the whole
to the king of Barma if he did not rejeft it. The
unhappy king of Martavan had now no other refource
I ut to fet fire to the city, make a fally, and die
honourably with the few men he had with him : but
even here he. was difappointed ; for by the defertion
of 4000 of his troops the enemy were apprifed of his
defign, and prevented it.. Thus betrayed, he capi-
hvesnf T'1'^ t!*6 ki® own l'*e and the inanuara navrng rnus oecome matter ot the fort
• . mfc antl tlnldren.wuh leave to end his days commanded it to te immediately repaired : a-id failed
Vol'xTv. l-it i 3 WaS rea'“‘y granted’ but the "P ^ the port of Ava! about a league from
M the'
kingdom. Here he increafed his army to 900,000
men. 'The queen by whom it was governed offered
to fubmit to be his vaffal ; but nothing would fatisfy
the Barma monarch lefs than her furrender at difere-
tion, and putting all her treafure into his hands. This
fhe, who knew his perfidy, refnfed to do ; on which
the city was fiercely aftaulted, but greatly to the dif-
advantage of the Barmas, who loft near r 00,000 men.
However, the city was at hit betrayed to him, when
Mandara behaved with his ufu 1 cruelty. Two thouhnd
children were flain, and their bodies cut in pieces and
thrown to the elephants ; the queen was ftrippei
naked, publicly whipped, and then tortured, till fhe
died ; the young king was tied to her dead body, and
both together caft into a river, as were alfo 300 other
people of quality.
. While the tyrant was employed in fortifying the
city, he was informed, that the prince of Ava had
failed down the river Qjieytor with 400 rowing veffels
having 30,000 fwlAers on board; but that, hearing' of
the queen s difafter, he {topped at Meletay, a ftrong for-
trefs about 12 leagues north of Prom, where he waited
to be joined by his father the king of Ava with 80,000
men. On this news the Barma king fent his fofter-
brother Chaumigrem along the river-fidc with 200,0-0
men, while he himfelf followed with 100,000 more.
The prince in this emergency burnt his barks, forming
a vanguard of the mariners, and, putting his fmall army
in the belt pofition he could, expected the enemy.
A moft defperate engagement enfued,in which only 800
of the prince’s army were left, and 115,000 out of
230,000 Barmas who oppofed him were killed. The 800
Avans retired into the fort: but Mandara coming
up foon after, and being enraged at the terrible ha-
vook made in his army, attacked the fortrefs moft
violently for feven days; at the end of which time, the
800, finding themfelves unable to hold out any longer,
rufhed out in a dark and rainy night, in order to fell
their lives at as dear a rate as poffible. This laft effort
was fo extremely violent, that they broke through the
enemy’s troops in feveral places, and even preffed fo
hard on the king himfelf that he was forced to jump
into the river. However, they were at laft all cut off,
but not before they had deftroyed 12,000 of their
enemies.
Mandara having thus become mafter of the fort.
Pegu.
PEG t
F«g»- the caoitat, where he burnt between tooo hnd 3000
 » 1 veffels, and loll in the enterpnfe about 8000 men.
The city itftlf he did not think proper to inveit, as
had been newly fortified, was defended by a numerous
garrifon, and an army of 80,000 men 7s af“c'nS
to its relief. The king alfo, apprehenfire of Man-
dara’s power, had implored the proteftion of the em¬
peror Siam ; offering to become his tributary on con-
dition that he would affiff him with his forces in re-
covering the city of Prom. To this the emperor
readilv affented ; which news greatly alarmed the
Barma monarch, fo that he difpatched ambaffadors to
the Kalaminham or fovereign of a large territory ad¬
jacent, requefiing him to divert the emperor from his
purnofe. On the ambaffadors return from this court,
it apoeared that the treaty had already taken effea ;
but as the feafon was not yet arrived for invading Aya,
Chaumigrem the king’s fofter-brother was fent with
1 co,000 men to reduce Sebadi or bavadi the ca i a
of a fmall kingdom a! out 130 leagues north-eaft from
Pegm. The general, however, faded in his attempt;
and afterwards endeavouring to revenge himfeff on a
town in the neighbourhood, he was furpnfed by the
enemy and put to flight. . f .. .
In the meantime, the empire or Siam fell into great
dlftraaions; the king, together with the heir o the
crown, were murdered by the queen who had faden m
lovewith an officer, whom (he married after herhuffiand
death. However, both of them were foon after killed
at an entertainment; and the crown was given to a
natural brother of the late king, but a coward and a
tvrant. On this Mandara refolved to invade the coun-
try and, his principal courtiers concurring in the
Seme, hi coMed an army of 8co,ooo men, with no
fewer than 20,000 elephants. In this army were
j000 Portupuefe, commanded by one James Suarez,
who already had a penfion of 200,000 ducats a-year
4 1-lip kimr of Pegu, with the title of his brother,
from the k g , lingdom. With this formidable
Hi, M atchievement
was’the taking of a fortrefs on the borJers of the ene-
Ws country before which, be.ng fccral tunes re-
pulfed and liaving loll JOCO of his men, he "g"!"-'
rin T^arrincr all the women to the fwerd. He
pext befieged the° capital itfelf; but though the fiege
was continued for five months, during which time the
mod violent attacks were made upon it, the afiadants
were conftantly repulfed with great lofs. However, it
was ft ill refolved to continue the fiege ; and a mount
of earth wa, raifed, on^ich -^40 Pieces
ber^adlice was^r’ceived of a rebelhon having broke
“Vhe^onwho headed the rebels on the prefent
.r .■.» si™;.,;
flint As he was a famous prea, her, he made a ier
men in which he fet forth the tyranny of the Barmaa
“ fu -h a manner, that he was immediately taken out
„f the rndnit, and proclaimed king by the people,
who, as a ‘token of fovereignty, gave him the title
If The firtt ad of fovere^ty whtch
be exerted was to cut in pieces 15,000 Barmas, and
to on the treafure : and fo agreeable was this
90 ] P L G
change of government to all ranks of people, that in
three weeks time all the ftrong holds of i: egu fell into
his hands. . , .r 1 i. ^
On this news the king immediately raifed the liege
in which he was engaged, and in 17 days got to Mar-
tavan. Here he was informed, that Shemindoo had
polled 500,000 men in different places, in order to
intercept his palfage; at the fame time that he had
the mortification to find 50.000 of his bell troops de-
ferted. To prevent a greater defertion, after 14 days
ftay he departed from Martavan, and foon met She¬
mindoo at the head of 600,000 men. A defperate
engagement followed ; in which Shemmdoo was en¬
tirely defeated, with the lofs of 300,000 men. Ot
the Barma troops were flain 60,000 ; among whom
were 280 Portuguefe. , 4
The morning after this viaory, the tyrant marched
to the city ; the inhabitants of which furrendeml, on
coudTtion of Imving their lives and eftias fpared The
kingdom being thus again brought under his fubjec-
tion, his next ftep was to puniffi the principal perfons
concerned In the rebellion: their heads he cut oil, and
confifeated their eftates, which amounted to no lets
than ten millions of gold. Others fay, that he put
all without diftinaion to the fword, excepting only
12,000, who took fnelter in James Suarez s houfe ;
that alone affording an afylum from the general {laugh¬
ter The plunder was incredible, Suarez alone getting
three millions. All thefe cruelties, however, were in-
fufficient to fecure the allegiance of the tyrant s fub-
jefts : for in lefs than three months news was brought
that the city of Martavan had revolted ; and that the
governor had not only declared for Shemindoo, but
murdered 2000 Barmas. Mandara then fummoned
all the lords of the kingdom to meet him with their
force, "within 15 days, at a place called frfcuchau, not
far from his capital, whither he himfelf went with
qoo men, to wait their arrival. But in the mean¬
time he received intelligence that the ihemin or gover¬
nor of Zatan, a city of fome confequence, had iad¬
mitted to Shemindoo, and alfo lent him a large funa i
of gold. The ihemin was immediately fent tor m
order to be put to death : but he, fufpefting Manda-.
ra’s defign, excufed himfelf by pretending ficknefs ;
after which, having confulted with his friends, he drew
together about 600 men ; and having with thefe pri¬
vately advanced to the place where the king was he
killed him, with the few attendants that were about
him at the time. The guards in the court being
alarmed with the noife, a Ikirmiffi enfued with the
ffiemin’s men, in which about 800 were flam on both,
fides, moft of them Barmas. The ffieimn then re¬
treated to a place called Ponte/; whither the people
of the country, hearing of the death of the king, who
was univerfally hated, referred to him. When he had
affembled about 5000 men, he returned to ^ek the
troops which the late king had with him ; and find¬
ing them difperfed in feveral places, eafily killeu them
all With the Barmas were flain 80 out of 300 ror-
tueuefe. The remainder furrendered, with Suarez
their leader ; and were fpared, on condition ot their
remaining in the fervice of the ffiemin.
The ihemin. now finding his forces da,ly mcreafe,
aflumed the title o! ling s and, to render himfel. t e
more popular, gave out that he w.uld exterm,nate
p EG r 91 ] PEG
■Pegu, the Barmas fo effc£laally, as not to leave one in all the
kingdom. It happened, however, that one of thofe
who were with the late king at the time he was mur¬
dered, efcaped the general fhughter ; and, fwimming
over the river, informed Chaumigrem of the king’s
death. He had with him 180,000 men, all of them
natives of Pegu, excepting 30,0:0 Barmas. hie
knew very well, that if the natives had known that
the king was dead, he and all his Barmas would have
inftantly been put to the fword. Pretending, there¬
fore, that he had received orders to put garrifons into
feveral places, Chaumigrem difpatched all the natives
into different parts ; and thus got rid of thofe whom
he had fo much caufe to fear. As foon as they were
marched, he turned back upon the capital, and feized
the king’s treafure, together with all the arms and
ammunition. He then fet fire to the magazines, ar-
fenals, palace, fome of whofe apartments were ceiled
with gold, and 2000 rowing veffels which were on the
river. Then deftroying all the artillery, he fled with
the 30,000 Barmas to his own country, being purfued
in vain by the natives of Pegu.
Thus the ftiemin of Zatan was left in quiet poffef-
fion of the kingdom ; but, by his repeated adds of ty¬
ranny and cruelty, he fo difgufted his fnbje&s, that
many fled to foreign countries, while others went over
to Shemindoo, who began now to gather ftrength
again. In the mean time, Jdmes Suarez, the Portu-
guefe whom we have often mentioned, loft his life by
attempting to raviih a young woman of diflin&ion ;
the fhemin being unable to proteA him, and obliged
to give him up to the mob, who ftoned him to death.
The fhemin himfelf did not long furvive him ; for, be-
inS grown intolerable by his opprefiions, molt of his
followers abandoned him, and he was befieged in his
capital by Shemindoo with an army of 200,000 men,
and foon after flain in a fally : fo that Shemindoo now
feemed to be fully eftablifhed on the throne. But in
the mean time Chaumigrem, the fofter-brother to the
deceafed king, hearing that Pegu was very ill provi¬
ded with the means of defence, invaded the kingdom
with an army of 300,000 men. Shemindco met him
with three times their number ; but his men, being all
natives of Pegu, were inferior in ftrength, notwith-
ftanding their numbers, to the enemy. The confe-
quence was, that S'lemiirdoo was defeated with pro¬
digious flaughter, and Chaumigrem caufed himfeif to
be proclaimed king of Pegu, "Shortly after, Shemin¬
doo himfelf was taken ; and, after being treated with
the utmoil cruelty, was beheaded.
T he hiftory of Chaumigrem is very imperfeft. ITow-
ewr, we know that he was a very great conqueror,
a i^ not at all inferior in cruelty to his preJeccflbrs.
He reduced the empire of Siam and Arrakan, and died
in 1583; being fucceeded by hisfon named Pranjinokot
then about 50 years of age. When this prince afeend-
r . t^e the kingdom of Pegu was in its greateft
icight of grandeur ; but by his tyranny and obftinacy
he loft all that his father had gained. He died in 1500,
and after his death the kingdom of Pegu became fub-
jcCt to Arrakan. For fome time paft it has been tri¬
butary to the more powerful kingdom of Ava ; the
fovereigns of which countty have hitherto been ex¬
tremely cautious of permitting Europeans to obtain
any iettlement among them.
The air of Pega is very healthy, and prefently re-
covers lick ftrangers. The foil aifo is very rich and ——v-—
fertile in corn, rice, fruit, and roots ; being enrich¬
ed by the inundations of the river Pegu, which are
almoft incredible, extending above 30 leagues beyond
its channel. It produces alfo good timber of feveral
kinds. The country abounds with elephants, buffa¬
loes, goats, hogs, and other animals, particularly
game ; and deer is fo plenty in September and Ofto-
ber, that one may be bought for three or four pence : »
they are very flefhy, but have no fat. There is ftore of*
good poultry ; the cocks are vaftly large, and the hens
very beautiful. As for fifh, there are many forts, and
weft tailed. In Pegu are found mines, not only of gold,
iron, tin, and lead, or rather a kind of copper or mix¬
ture of copper and lead, but slfo of rubies, diamonds,
and fapphires. The rubies are the beft in the world ;
but the diamonds are fmall, and only found in the craws
of poultry and pheafants. Befides, only qpe family
has the privilege of felling them; and none dare open the
ground to dig for them. The rubies are found in a
mountain in the province of Kablan, or Kapelan, be¬
tween the city of Pegu and the port of Sirian.
The inhabitants are of an olive, or rather a tawny
complexion. The women are branded by fome travel-'
lers as having fhook off all mode fly, on account of their
expofmg fome parts of their bodies which ought to be
concealed from fight. Some alfo tell us, that the men
wear bells, which at a certain age, viz. 25 or 30, or,
according to others, when they are capable of making
ufe of women, are inferted on each fide the virile mem¬
ber between the fltin and the flefh, which is opened for
that purpofe, and healed in feven^or eight days. The
Peguers may be ranked among the moft fuperftitious
of all mankind. They maintain and worihip croco¬
diles ; and will drink nothing but the waters of the
ditches where thofe monftrous animals harbour. By
thus expofing themfelves to the mamfeft hazard of their
lives, they have frequently the misfortune to be devour¬
ed. They have five principal feftivals in the year, call¬
ed fafans, which they celebrate with extraordinary
magnificence. In one of them the king and queen
make a pilgrimage about 1 2 leagues from the city, ri¬
ding on a triumphal car, fo richly adorned with jewels,
that it may be faid without an hyperbole that they carry
about with them the value of a kingdom. 1 his prince
is extremely rich ; and has in the chapel of his palace
idols of ineftimable value, fome of them being of'mafty
gold and iilver, and adorned with ail forts of precious
ftones. The talapoins, or priefts of this country, have
no poffefiions ; but fuch is the refpeA paid them by
the people, that they are never known to want. They
preach to them every Monday not to commit murder ;
to take rrom no perfon any thing belon ‘‘mg to him.; tc*
do no hurt ; to give no offence ; to avoid impurity and
fuperflition ; but above ail, not to worfhip the devil:
but thefe difeourfes have no effedt in th. luff refpect.
The people, attached to manieheifm, believe that all
good comes from God ; that the devd is the author of
all the evil that happens to men ; and that therefore
they ought to worihip him, that he may not afflict
them. This is a common notion among the Indian
idolaters.
.a he inhauitants ox i e^u are accufed by Tonis authors
with being flovenly in their houfes, and naffy in their
M 2 diet,
PEG [ 9
refU. diet, on account of t’leir feafoninff t’icir vifluals with
“*~v a compofition made of itinkinj^ fiin, reduced to a
confiftency like muftard, fo naufeous and offenlive that
none but tfiemfelves can endure the fared of it.. Bal.u
fays, he could fooner bear the fcent of Himeingr car¬
rion ; and yet with this they feafon their rice, and other
foups, inftead of oil or butter. As they have no wheat
in this country, their bread is ike made into cakes.
Their common drink is water, or a liquor diililled from
cocoa-nut water. They are a fpinted and warlike peo¬
ple ; open, generous, and hofpitable ; and have nei¬
ther the indolence nor the jeuloufy of molt other
ealiern nations.
The men here, as in mod eaflern countries, buy their
wives, or pay their parents a dowry for them, i hey
have an odd cullom ; which is to offer their daughters
to ft rangers, and hire them out for a time : feme fay
they hire out their wives in the fame manner. Thefe
marriages for a time are well regulated, anu often piove
very benefiei?! to the occafional hufband. Moll of the
foreigners who trade hither, marry a wife for the time
of their flay. In cafe of a feparation, the father is ob¬
liged to take caie of the boys, and the mother of the
girls. We are told that no woman is looked upon the
worfe, but mhei the better, for having had feveral
European hufbands: nay, we are told, that no perfon
of falhion in Pegu, from the gentleman to the king,
will marry a maiden, till fome acquaintance or llranger
has had the hr ft night’s lodging with her..
In Pegu, the inheritance of all land is in the king :
he is likewife the heir of all his fubjefts who die with¬
out iffue ; but in cafe they have children, tw'o thirds go
to them, and the reft to his majefty.
In the government of this country, defpotifm pte-
tails in its lull extent, and defpotifm too of the very
worft kind ; for the inhabitants are under the abfolute
power of a fet ef petty tyrants, who are themfelves
nothing more than fkves to the king of Ava. As they
have little or no emolument, except what they, can raife
by extortion, it is exercifed in the moft unlimited man¬
ner. They take cognizance of all difputes between
individuals that come to their ears, without the cafe
being kid before them by either of the parties ; and
on whatever fi le the caufe is determined, there is a
never-failing charge brought in againft both,, for juft
tice, as they exprefs it; and this price of juitice is
often three or four times greater than the value of the
■matter in agitation.
Bu* the inconveniences that this government Labours
und-r are not onlv thofe of defpotifm ; the unhappy
fuHedls fed thofe of anarchy too. There are about
twenty perfons concerned in the government of Ran¬
goon, who, though one is fubordinate to another, and
though matters of the firft confequence are determined
in a council of the whole, can yet ad feparately ; and
any one member of this body can by his own authority
give out orders, which no inhabitant of Pegu dares to
difobey. Thofe orders may be contrary to the feme
of the whole body ; in which cafe they are, indeed
reverfed in council : but then there are mftances, and
* rrunUt>s “ 1 myfelf, (fays a late traveller,* )obferved one of inch
orders being notwithftanding repeated more than once
cJt by the fame perfon, and obeyed each time, till they
lingdom Cf were afrain revtrfed : nor was any redreis obtained by
Peru. 0
2 -] PE G
the party aggrieved, or any effe&ual meafurcs taken to P
prevent fuch a contempt of authority for the future.”
When a perfon fails fick, we are told that they ge¬
nerally make a vow to the devil, from whom they be¬
lieve all evil comes. Then a fcaffold is built, and vic¬
tuals are fpread on the top of it to folace Old Nick, an 1
render him propitious. This ftail is accompanied with
flighted candles and mufic ; and the whole is managed
by an undertaker called the devil’s father.
The commodities exported from this country are
gold, filver, rubies, mufk, benjamin, long-pepper, tin,
had, copper; lakka, or gum-lac, whereof they make
hard wax ; rice ; rice-wine ; and fome fugar-canes, of
which they would have plenty, but that the elephants
eat them. It may be obferved, that under the name
of rubies^ the Pegucrs comprife topazes, fapphires,
amethyfts, and other ftones ; which they diitinguifh by
faving the blue, the violet, and the yellow rubies. The
true ruby is red, tranfparent, or fparkling, inclining
near the furface to the violet of the amethyll. Cotton
cloths from Bengal and Coromandel, with fome ftnped
fllks, are belt for the Pegu market, and iilver of any
fort will go off there : for the king, in return tor his
eight and a halt per cent, duty on it, allows the mer¬
chants to melt it down, and put what copper alloy
they pleafe in it. They wear none cf our European
commodities in Pegu but hats and ribbons. The gen¬
try will give extravagant prices for fine beaver hats,
which they wear without any cocks. They are no lefs
fond of ribbons flowered with gold and fiiver, which
they wear round their hats.
As to the religion of the Peguers, it is the fame at
bottom with that which prevails over the reft of India
and Tibet; only varies in drel's fomewhat in different
countries, according to the humour or intereft of^the
priefts. They hold the exiftence of one iupreme God,
of whom they make no image ; but they have many
inferior created gods, whofe images are fet up in the
temples for the laity to worihip. Not content with
thefe, we are told they worfbip the devil alfo. Many
are feen to run about the ftrects every morning, with
rice in one hand and a torch in the otner, crying
aloud, that they are going to give the devil his break-
faft, that he may not hurt them all the day. Befides
the manichean dodtrine of two principles, one the au¬
thor of good and the other of evil, irom whence their
worlhipping the devil has its rife, they believe an etei-
nal fuccelfion of w'orlds without creation. 1 he 1 egutis
hold the doctrine of the Metempfychofis, or rranlmi-
gration of the human foul, which, alter puffing through
the bodies of various animals, ihall attain to the pti-
fedtion and felicity of their gods ; which in eftec.t is
no other than a ftate ot annihilation. They have a
ftrong opinion of the fandtity of apes and crocodiles,
infomuch that they believe the perfons to be perfectly
happy who are devoured by them. Their temples are
of arconic form, and fome of them a quarter of a mile
round. They obferve a great many feftivals, fome of
which are called fapan. The images of their inferior
gods are in a fitting pofture, with their legs acrols and
toes of equal length : their arms and hands very Imall
in proportion to their bodies ; their faces longer than
human ; their ears long, and the lappets very thick.
The congregation bow to them when they come in and
p e r
C 93 3
P E I
Pentium when they go out; and that is all the worfhip which judgment ; for which they were ejected from their Peirefc.
« 1. they pay to them. The piiefts of PesfU, called tala- eon negation. TTnnn th;0 ^   h    
Peirce
Travels
into Dal¬
matia,
they pay to them. The prieils of Pegu, called tala
_ poins> are a fort of mendicant friars. They obferve ce¬
libacy ; and eat hut once a*day; living in the woods,
m a fort of nefts or cages built on the tops of trees for
fear of the tygers. They prea. h frequently, lead very
innocent lives, and are very hofpitabie and humane.
The king of Pegu’s revenues an’fe chiefly from the
rent of lands, of which he is the foie proprietor. An¬
other branch of it are the duties paid for the commo¬
dities imported or exported. In a word, he is judged
the richeft monarch in the world, next to the emperor
of China.
PEGUNTIUM (anc. geog.), Ptolemy ; Piguntiae^
(Pliny); a town or citadel of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic,
oppofite to the ifland Brattia, fcarce five miles off, and
40 miles to the eafl of Salonae. According to Fortis a
mountain, a large hollow, and fubmarine fprings are
teen here. “ This hollow (fays he) teems to have been
excavated by fame ancient river. The fprings which
bubble up from under the tea are fo confiderable, that
they might pafs for the riling again of a river funk un¬
der ground. Vrullia has the lame derivation as the
word Vril, which in Sclavonian fignifies a fountain ;
and this etymology, rendering the name of Vrullia the
Berullia of Porphyrogenitus analagous to that of Pe-
guntium, fince tinyu and Vril are fynonymous, induces
me to believe, that the cattle named Peguntium by an¬
cient geographers was fituated in this place, and not
at the mouth of the Cettina. No remarkable veltiges
of antiquity now exift on the fpot; yet it is evident, by
the quantity of fragments of vates, tiles, and tepulchral
interiptions now and then dug up, that this traft of
cpaft was well inhabited in the Roman times. The prin¬
cipal caute why the trails^ of ancient habitations can¬
not be difcovered about Vrullia, is the fteepHcfs of the
hill above it, and the quantity of dories brought down
from thence by the waters. The mouth of the hollow
of Vrullia is dreaded by teamen, on account of the
fudden impetuous guffs of wind that blow from tl.ence,
and in a moment raite a kind of hurricane in the chan¬
nel between the Primorie and the ifland of Brazza, to
the great danger of barks furprited by it.”
PEINE fort et dure, ( Lat. pana fortis et dura),
fignifies a fpecial punifhment inflicted on thote who, be¬
ing arraigned of felon)', refute to put themtelves on the
ordinary trial, but llubborniy ffand mute ; it is vul¬
garly called pTeffing to death. See Arraignment.
PEIRCE (James), an eminent diffenting miniffer,
was born at Wapping, in London, in the year 1674
and was educated at Utrecht and Leyden ; after which
he fpent fome time at Oxford, in order to enjoy the
^euefit of frequenting the Bodleian library. He then
tor two years preached the Sunday-evening’s teaure at
the meeting houte in Miles-Lane, London, and then
rettled at Cam’ridge. In 17 13 he was removed to a
congregation at Exeter, where he continued till the
year 1718 : when the Calvinifts among the diffenterg
propoung a fm.tenption to articles of faith to be fign-
ed by all the diflenting minifters in the kingdom, te-
veral articles were propoted to him and Mr John Hal-
kt, another diffenting minifter at Exeter, in order to
herr fubfcnbmg them, they both refuted, imagining
us proceeding of their diffenting brethren to be £
unworthy unpofition on religious liberty and private
congregation. Upon this, a new meeting was opened
for them at Lxeter, of which Mr Peirce continued mi-
ndter till his death, in 1726. He was a man of the
llrifte t virtue, exemplary piety, and great learning,
i e wrote, I. hxercitatio phdofophica de Homcemeria
yinaxagorea. 2. Thirteen pieces on the Controverfy
between the Church of England and the Diffenters.
3- Ten pieces on the Controverfy about the Eje&ment
at Exeter. 4. Six pieces on the Dodteine of the Tri¬
nity. 5. A Paraphr sfe and Notes on the Epillles of
St P.iul to the Colofiians, Pnihppians, and Hebrews.
6. An Effay in favour of giving theEucharift to Chil¬
dren, 7. Fourteen Sermons.
1 El RESC (Nicolas Claude Fabri), born in 15Bo,
was defeended from an ancient and. noble family, teated
01 iginally at Pifa in Italy. At ten years of age, he
was tent to Avignon, where he fpent five years in the
Jefuits college, in the ftudy of what in Scotland and
on the Continent is called humanity. From Avignon
he was, in 1595, removed to Aix, and entered upon
the ftudy of philofophy. In the interim, he attended
the proper mafters for dancing, riding, and handling
arms ; in all which, though he performed the leffons
regularly, it was with reluftance : for this being done
only to pleate an uncle, whote heir he was to be,
he never pra&ited by himtelf, efteeming all the time
loft that was not fpent in the purfuits of literature.
During this period, his father being pretented with a
medal of the emperor Arcadius, which was found at
Belgenter, Peirete begged the favour of it; and, charm¬
ed with deciphering the chara&ers in the exergue, and
reading the emperor’s name, he carried the medal with
a tranfport ot joy to his uncle ; who for lus encourage¬
ment gave him two more, together with fome books
upon the fubjecL This is the epoch of his application
to antiquities, for which he became afterwards fo fa¬
mous. In 1596, he was tent to finilh his courfe of
pUofophy under the Jefuits at Tournon, where he
turned his attention particularly to cofmography, as
being neceffary to the understanding of hiftory, abating,
however, nothing of his application to antiquity, in
which he was much afli ted by Petrus Roger us, one of
the pro:e(Tors, and a fkilfui medaliil ; nor did he omit
the ftudy of humanity in general, wherein he was the
mader and mftruaor of a brother who was with him.
But to do all this he was obliged to fit up late at ni >hts;
and fo much labour and attention, as he was naturally
of a tender constitution, increated the weaknefs of his
ftomach formerly contradted, and for which he had
uted a kind of digeftive powder. Being recalled by
his uncle in 1597, he returned to Aix, and entered
there upon the ftudy of the law ; which he protecuted
however, fo as to find leifure co vifit and converte fre¬
quently with Peter A. R. Bagarr, a moft ikilful anti¬
quary, who was afterwards made mafter of the jewels
to Henry IV.
The following year he went again to Avignon, to
carry on his courfe of law under one Peter^David ;
who, being well fkilled iikewife in antiquities, was
pleated to tee Peirefc join this ftudy to that of the law.
But Ghibertus of Naples, auditor to Cardinal Aqua-
viva, fed his curiofity the moft, in fliowing him fome
1 an ties, fuch as he had never teen before. "Ghibertus
aEo km him Galtrius’s Trcatife upon Coins, and ad-
vited.
Peirefc.
p E I
[ 94 1
P E I
vifed him to go into Italy, efpccially to Rome, where
he would meet with curiofities to latisry his molt ar¬
dent wi(hes. Accordingly, his uncle having procured
a oroper governor, he and his brother fet out upon that
tour Sept 1599 ; and paffing through Florence, Lo-
nonia, and Ferrara, when he had ftayed a few days at
Venice, he fixed his refidence at Padua, in order to
complete his courfe of law. But once a quaiter, go¬
ing to Venice to get cafh for bills, of exchange, he
took thefe opportunities of introducing himfelf to the
~ . •n i . * aL   V
croffed the water, in company with the king’s ambaf- ^
fador, 1606, to England. Here he was very graoi-
ovifiy received by king James I.; and having feen Ox¬
ford, and vifited Camden, Sir Robert Cotton, Sir
Henry Saville, and other learned men, he palled over
to Holland ; and after vifiting the feveral towns and
univerfities, with the literati in each, he went through
Antwerp to Bruffels, and thence back to Pans, to lee
the ceremony of the Dauphin's bapt.fm ; which being
folemnized Aug. 24. he returned home in Septem-
Peirclc.
took thefe opportunities of introducing tmnieit to tne ^;aed for the ordering of the fa-
moli diftinguilhed literati there ; and was particularly ber 1606, being expected 6
carefled by F. Contarin, procurator of St Mark, who mily anairs. - - • • ’ f
CrtlviiCvl U j X • ^     '
was poffeffed of a curious cabinet of medals, and other
antiquities, without knowing the value of them. This
was fully Ibown to him by Peirefc, who likewufe ex¬
plained the Greek inicriptions upon his medals, and
the monumental ftones. Afteqa year’s Hay at 1 adua,
he fet out for Rome, and arrived there Oft. 1600, in
order to be in time for feeing the jubilee ; to.celebrate
which, the Porta Sanfta would be opened in the be¬
ginning of the next year. He palfed fix months in
this city, viewing the numberlefs curiolities there, and
in cultivating the friendfnip of GMileo, by whom he
was much beloved. This Iriendthip led him to carry
his refearches into aftronomy and natural philofophy ;
and he was prefent when Fabricius ab Aqunpendente,
out of a parcel of eggs upon which a hen was fitting,
took one every day, to obferve the gradual formation
of the chick from firft to lait. From this time it was
generally acknowledged, that he had taken the helm
of learning into his hand, and began to guide the
commonwealth of letters. . , ,
Having now fpent almoft three years in Italy, he be¬
gan to prepare for his departure ; and in the end of
,602, having packed uP all the rarities, gems, &c
which he had procured, and put them into the road
to Marfeilles, he left Padua, and, croffing the Alps
to Geneva, went to Lyons ; where receiving money,
he made a handfome prefent to his governor, who took
the route of Paris. From Lyons he went Mont¬
pellier to improve himfelf in the law under Julius Pa-
rius‘ From Montpellier he difpatched more rarities to
his uncle, who fending for him home, he arrived at Aix
in November; but, bringing Farms along with him,
he obtained leave to return to Montpellier m a few
davs. He waited upon Parius back again, under whom
be continued purfuing his law ftud.es till the end of
1602, when he returned to A.x, at the earneft requeft
of his uncle, who, having refigned to him his fenato-
rial dignity, had ever fince the beginning ol the year
laboured to get the king’s patent. The degree of
doftor of law was a neceffary qualification for that dig-
nitv. Peirefc, therefore, having kept the ufual exer-
cife, took that degree Jan. 18. 1604, when tne afore-
faid patent v as given in to the lenate, and ordered to be
recorded : yet Peirefc procured leave not to be prefently
emcred into the lift of fenators. The bent of his in¬
clination was not fo much to bufmefs as to advance arts
and feences. and to affift all the promoters of learning.
For this purpefe, he refolved to lead a fingle life , fo
that when his father had concluded a match for him with
a refpe&able lady, he begged to be e.xcufed.
In 1605, he accompanied G. Varius, firft prefioent
ef the fenate at Aix, who was very fond ot him., to Pa¬
ris ; whence, having viiited every thing curious, he
uy aiicuis. . , , , , c
Prefently after this, he purchafed the barony of
Rians; and at the folicitation of his uncle, having ap¬
proved himfelf before that affembly, he was recclveJ
a fenator on the til of July 1607. Jan- 1608 he
his uncle; and the following year, falling himfeli in¬
to a dangerous fever, recovered by eating mufk-melons
before fupper, for which he had conceived a longing.
He was ordered by his phyfician to eat them before
his meals without bread, and to drink a glufs °r P1”'.6
wine upon them. He continued this method all his
life afterwards ; and grew fo fond of them, that, though
he could abftain from any other meat as he lifted, yet
towards them he profeiTed he was unable to m^ter
himfelf. He frequently experienced, that in the muik-
melon feafon he was never troubled with the gravel.
In 1618, having procured a faithful copy of the
Adis of the Monaftery ol Maren in Switzerland, he
publilhed a fecond edition of that work. As it was
written in defence of the royal line ol France againtt
Theodoric Piefpordius, who had attempted to prove
the title of the Auftrian family to the French crown
by right of fucceffion, he was, upon this publication^,
nominated the fame year, by Louis XIII. abbot ot
San&a Maria Aquiftrienfis. He ftayed in France till
1623 ; when, upon a meflage from his father now
grown old and fickly, he left Paris, where he had fpent
feven years and fome months. He arrived at Aix
in October ; and not long after prefented to the
In
court a patent from the king, permitting him to con¬
tinue in the fundion of his ancient dignity, and. to
exercife the office of a fecular or lay perfon, natwith-
ftanding that, being an abbot, he had a {fumed the cha-
rader of a churchman. To this the court of parlia¬
ment not affenting, decreed unammoufly, that, being
already admitted into the firft rank, he ffiould abide
perpetually therein ; not returning, as the cuftom of
the court was, to the inferior auditory, wherein trials
are ufual!y had of criminal cafes. In 162.5, he buried
bis father, who had been long afflided with the gout.
1627, he prevailed with the archbiffiop of Aix to
Habiifh a poll thence to Lyons, and fo to Paris and
ail Europe ; by which the corrtfpondence conftantly
held with the literati everywhere was much facilitated.
In 1629, he began to be much tormented with the
ftrangury and haemorrhoides ; and in 1631, having
completed the marriage of his nephew Claudius with
Margaret Alrefia, a noblewoman of the county ot
Avignon, he bellowed upon him the barony of Kianty,
together with a grant of his fenatonal dignity, only
referving the fundion to himfelf for three yeats. But
the parliament not waiting his furrendry ol it, he re-
fented that affront fo heinoufly, that he procured, in
1635, letters patent from the king to be reftoree, and
2
el
ail
P E K
Peirefc,
Pekin.
Gii/Jendi's
Life of
j Feirefc, in
Mnglijb.
l.ond.
s6j;.
to ^xercifc the office for five years longer, which hap¬
pened to be till his death : for being feized, June 1637,
with a fever that brought on a ftoppage of urine, this
put an end to his life on the Z4th of that month, in
his 57th year.
The chara&er of Peirefc may be fummed up in a
few words. His perfon was of a middle fize, and of a
thin habit: his forehead large, and his eyes grey ; a
little hawk-nofed ; his cheeks tempered with red ; the
hair of his head yellow, as alfo his beard, which he
ufed to wear long ; his whole countenance bearing the
marks of uncommon and rare courtefy and affability.
In his diet he affefted cleanlinefs, and in all things
about him ; but nothing fuperfluous or coftly. His
clothes were fuitable to his dignity ; yet he never wore
filk. In like manner, the reft of his houfe was adorn¬
ed according to his condition, and very well furnifhed ;
but he negle&ed his own chamber. Inftead oftapeftry,
there hung the pidtures of his chief friends and of fa¬
mous men, befides innumerable bundles of commenta¬
ries, tranferipts, notes, colleftions from books, epiftles,
and fuch like papers. His bed was exceeding plain,
and his table continually loaded and covered with pa¬
pers, books, letters, and other things ; as alfo ail the
feats round about, and the greateft part of the floor.
Thefe were fo many evidences of theturn of h-s mind ; in
refpedt to which, the writer of his euloge compares him
to the Roman Atticus ; and Bayle, confidering his uni-
verfal correfpondence and general affiftance to all the
literati in Europe, dafhed it out luckily enough, when
he called him “ the attorney general of the literary re¬
public.”^ The works which he publifhed are, “ Hifto-
ria provincise Gallias Narbonenfis “ Nobilium ejuf-
dem provincise familiarum Origines, et feparatim Fa-
hnciae “ Commentary rerum omnium memoria dig-
narum fua aetate geftarum “ Li!.er de ludieris na-
tursc operibus j 4 Mathematica & aftronomica vans
Obfervationes mathematicse “ Epiftols ad S. P.
Urbanum VIII. cardinales Barberinos, &c. “ Au-
tbores ant;qiu Grseci et Latini de ponderibus et men-
furis “ Elogia et epitaphia “ Infcriptiones aa-
tiquas et novae “ Genealogia domus Aufiriacse
“ Catalogus librorum ! il lioth reg.“ Poemata va-
ria “ Nummi Galiici, Saxonici, Brit nnici, &c.
‘‘ Linguae orien^ales, Hebraea, Samaritana, Arabica,
Egyptiaca, et Indices librorum harum linguarum
“ Obfervationes in varies au&ores.” It is remarkable,
that though Peirefc bought more books than any man
of his time, yet his colleftion left was not large. The
reafon was, that, as raft as he purchafed, he kept con¬
tinually making prefents of them to fuch learned men
as he knew they would be ufeful to.
PEKIN, the capital city of the empire of China, in
Alia, where the emperor generally refides. It is fitu-
ated in a very fertile plain, 20 leagues diftantfrom the
great wall. Ibis name, which fignifies the northern
court, !3 given to it, to diftinguifh it from another con-
fiderable city called Nanking, or the fiulhnn court.
Hit emperor formerly refided in the latter ; but the
r 95 i
P E K
Tartars, a reftlefeTnY “Tt , T • iln“ ,he number of f™ales (hi* country, as well
prince to relvel:!: dh!S elfe. Is fupenor to that of the other f„.
pnnee to remove h,» conn ,he northern provinces,
that he might more effeanall, repel the ineurfions of
thole barbanans, by oppoftng to them a numerous
2 t a wb'cfh he generally keep, around h,s perfon. 11
s an exadi fquare, and dmded Into two parts; namely,
that which contains the emperor’s palace, which is in
the new city, or, ns it is called, the Tartar’s city, be Pekin,
caufc it is inhabited by Tartars ever fincethey conquer* "■"•“v—■“
ed this empire ; the other, called the Old City, is inhabi¬
ted hv the Chinefe. The circuit of both thefe toget her
is 52 Chinefe lys, each of which contains 240 geometri¬
cal paces; being, without the fuburbs, full fix leagues
in circumference, according to the moft accurate mea-
furement made by order of the emperor.
Thole who have paid attention' to the population
of this place, reckon the number of inhabitants at
2,000,000, though there are others that double that
number.
Grofier tells us, “ that the height and enormous Grower's
thicknefs of the walls of the Tartar city excite admi- ^fription
ration ; twelve horfemen might eafily ride abreaft up- ^ Cbina‘
on them ; they have fpacious towers raifed at intervals,
a bow-fhot diftant from one another, and large enough
to contain bodies of referve in cafe of neceffitv. The
city has nine gates, which are lofty and well arched.
Over them are large pavilion-roofed towers divided in¬
to nine ftories, each having feveral apertures or port¬
holes : the lower ftory forms a large hall for the ufe of
the foldiers and officers who quit guard, and thofe ap¬
pointed to relieve them. Before each gate a fpace is
left of more than 360 feet: this is a kind of place of
arms, inclofed by a femicircular wail equal in height
and thickuefs to that furrounding the city. The
great road, which ends here, is commanded by a pa¬
vilion roofed tower like the firft, in fuch manner, that,
as the cannon of the former can batter the houfes of
the city, tnofe of the latter can fweep the adjacent
country. The ftreets of Pekin are ftraight, about
1 20 feet wide, a full league in length, and bordered'
with drops. It is aftonifhing to fee the immenfe con-
courfe of people that continually fills them, and the
confufion caufed by the prodigious number of horfes,
camels, mules, and carriage^ which crofs or meet
each other. Befides this inconvenience, one is every
now and then (topped by crowds, who (land liftening
to fortune tellers, jugglers, ballad-fingers, and a thou-
fand other mountebanks and buffoons, who read and
erlate ftories calculated to promote mirth and laugh¬
ter, or diftribute medicines, the wonderful effe&s of
which they explain with all the eloquence peculiar
to them.
I eople of diftindtion oblige all their dependents
to follow them. A mandarin of the firft rank is al¬
ways accompanied in his walks by his whole tribunal;
and, to augment his- equipage, each of the inferior
mandarins in his fuit is generally attended by feveral
domeftics. The nobility of the court, and princes of
the blood, never appear in public without being fur-
rounded by a large body of cavalry ; and, as their
prefence is required at the palace every day, their train -
alone would be fufficient to create confufion in the
city. • It is very lingular, that in all this prodigious
concourfe no women are ever feen : hence we may
judge how great the population of China muft be,
fince the number of females in this country, as well as
As there is a continual influx of the riches and
merchandize of the whole empire into this city, tire
number of ftrangers that reforc hither is immenfe.
They are carried in chairs, or ride on horfebaek ; the
latter is more common : but they are always attended
by a guide, acquainted with the ftreets, and who
know® s
i
P E K
[ 9^ 1
r e k
Pekin, knows the houfes of the nobility and pnneipal people
of the city. They are aifo provided with a book, con¬
taining an account of the different quarters, fquares,
remarkable places, and of the refidence of thofe in
public offices. In fummer there are to be feen fmall
temporary (hops, where people are ferved with water
cooled by means of ice ; and one finds everywhere
eatintf-houfes, with refreffiments of tea and fruits.
Each kind of provifion has a certain day and place
appointed for its being expofed to fale.
“ The governor of Pekin, who is a M.mtchew Tar¬
tar, is ftyled Governor of the Nine Gates. His junf-
dietion extends not only over the foldters, but alto
over the people in every thing that concerns the police.
No police can be more a&ive ; and it is furpriiing to
fee, among an infinite number of Tartars and Chinefe
mixed together, the greateft tranquillity prevail, it
is rare, in a number of years, to hear of houfes being
robbed, or people affaffinated. All the principal Itreets
have guard-rooms, and foldiers patrol night and day,
each having a fabre banging from his girdle, and a
whip in his hand, to correa, without diilinaion, thofe
who excite quarrels or caufe diforder. The lanes are
guarded in the fame manner ; and have latticed gates,
which do not prevent thofe from being feen who walk
in them: they are always kept (hut during the night
and ft Ido m opened even to thofe. who are known ; it
they are, the perfon to whom this indulgence is granted
muff carry a lanthorn, and give a fufficient reafon for
his uoing out. In the evening, as foon as the foldiers
are warned to their quarters fey beat of drum, two
centinels go and come from one_ guard-room to ano¬
ther making a continual noife with a kind of caftanet,
r<howVat they are not afleep. They pernnt no
one to walk abroad in the night-time. 1 hey even
examine thofe whom the emperor difpatches on buh-
nefs ; and if their reply gives the lead caufe of lulpi-
cion, they have a right to convey them to the guard-
room. The foldiers in each of the guard-rooms are
obliged to anfwer every time the centinels on duty
^ rfi's by tbefe wife regulations, obferved with the
create ft ftiiftnefs, that peace, filence, and fafety reign
throughout the whole city. The governor is alfo
obliged to go the round ; and the officers ftationed on
the walls, and in the towers over the gates (in which
are kept large kettle-drums that are beat every time
the guard is relieved), are continually dxfpatching fub-
elterns to examine the quarters belonging to the gates
where they are pofted. The leaft negled is pumffied
next morning, and the officer who was on guard is
caffiiered. This police, which prevents noaurnal ai-
femblies, would appear no doubt extraordinary in Eu¬
rope, and in all probability would not be much rel.ffied
by our young men of fortune and ladies of quality.
But the Chinefe think juftly : they confident to be
the duty of the magiftrates of a city to prefer good
order and public tranquillity to vain amufements. which
generally occafion many attempt? againft the lives and
property of the citizens. It is true, the lupport of
this police cods the emperor a great deal for part of
the foldiers we hive mentioned are maintained for this
purpofe only. They are all infantry, and their pay is
generally very nig...    . - » .
only in watching for thofe who may occaiion diiiuru
hi di. Their employment confilts not
ance in the day-time, or walk abroad during the night • ^
they muff alfo take care that the ftreets are kept clean
and fwept every clay ; that they are watered morning
and evening in time of dry weather ; and that every
nuifance is removed. 'They have orders alfo to affift
in this labour themfelves; and to clear the kennels,
that the water may have a free courfe.”_
The walls of the emperor’s palace, including that
and the gardens, are about two miles in length.
“ Although (fays Grofier) the Chinefe archite&ure
has no refemblance to that of Europe, the imperial
palace of Pekin does not fail to (Irike beholders by its
extent, grandeur, and the regular difpofition eft its
apartments, and by the fingnlar ftrudlure of its pavilion-
roofs, ornamented at each corner vyith a carved plat¬
band, the lower extremity of wtiich is turned upwards.
Thefe roofs are covered with varniffied tiles of fo beau¬
tiful a yellow colour, that, at a diitance, they make as
fplendid an appearance as if they were gil’ed. _ Below
the upper roof there is another of equal brilliancy,
which hangs (loping from the wall, fupported by a
great number of beams, daubed over with green var-
ni(h, and interfperftd with gilt figures. This fecond
roof, with the projeftion of the firlt, forms a kind of
crown to the whole edifice. The palace is a fmall
diftance from the fouth gate of the Tartar city. The
entrance to it is through a fpacious court, to which
there is a defeent by a marble ftaircafe, ornamented
with two large copper lions, and a baluftracle of white
marble. This baluftrade runs in the form of a horfe-
(hoe, along the banks of a rivulet, that winds acrofs
the palace \vith a ferpentine courfe, the bridges over
which are of marble. At the bottom of this firft
court arifes a fa9ade with three doors: that in the
middle is for the emperor only ; the mandarins and
nobles pafs through thofe on each fide. Thefe doors
condua to a fecond court, which is the largeft of the
palace: it is about 300 feet in length, and 50 in
breadth. An immenfe gallery runs round it, in which
are magazines, containing rich effeas, which belong
to the emperor as his private property ; for the public
treafure is entruited to a fovereign tribunal called Hou-
pou. The firft of thefe magazines is filled with plate
and vcffels of different metals; the fecond contains the
fineft kinds of furs; the third, dreffes lined with (able,
ermine, minever, and foxes (kins, which the emperor
fometimes gives in prefents to his officers ; the fourth
is the depofitorv of jewels, pieces oi curious marble,
and peails fiffied up in Tartary; the fifth, confifting
of two (lories, is full of wardrobes and trunks, which
contain the filk Huffs ufed by the emperor and his fa¬
mily ; the reft are filled with bows, arrows, and other
pieces of armour taken from the enemy or prefented by
different princes.
“ The royal ball, called TaUhotien, or the Hall of
the Grand Union, is in this fecond court. It is built
upon a terrace about 18 feet in height, incrufted with
white marble, and ornamented with 1 aluftrades of ex¬
cellent workmanfhip. Before this hall all the manda¬
rins range themfelves, when they go, on certain days,
to renew their homage, arc! perforin thofe ceremonies
that are appointed by the laws of the empire. 1 his
hall is aimoft i'quare, and about 130 feet in length.
The ceiling is carved, varnifhed green, and loaded
with gilt dragons. The pillars which fupport tne
Pekiu.
P E K [
iVnn roof within are fix feet in circumference towards the
ijafe, and are coated with a kind of maftich varniflied
red ; the floor is partly covered with coarfe carpets,
after the Furkifli manner ; but the walls have no kind
of ornament, neither tapeftry, luflres, nor paintings.
“ The throne, which is in the middle of the hall,
confifts of a pretty high alcove, exceedingly neat. It
has no infeription but the character ching, which the
authors of this relation have interpreted by the word
holy: but it has not always this fignification ; for it
anfwers better fometimes to the Latin word eximius,
or the Engl ilk words excellent, perfect, mojl wife. Upon
the platform oppoute to this hall ftand large veflels of
[ ronze, in which inccnfe is burnt when any ceremony
is performing. There are alfo chandeliers fhaped like
birds and painted different colours, as well as the wax-
handles that are lighted up in them. This platform
is extended towards the north, and has on it two
lefler halls; one of them is a rotunda that glitters with
yarnifli, and is lighted by a number of windows It
is here that the emperor -hanges his drefs before or
after any ceremony. " ither is a faloon, the door
of which opens to the ..orth : through this door the
emperor mutt pafs, when he goes from his apartment
to receive on his throne the homage of the nobility ;
he is then carried in a chair, hv i„. ’
Jot. I
. ft. V,
he is then earned in a chair, by officers drefled in lono-
red robes bordered with filk, and caps ornamented
wuh plumes of feathers. It would be difficult to give
an exact defeription of the interior apartments wdiieh
properly form the palace of the emperor, and are fet
apart for the ufe of his family. Few are permitted to
enter them but women and eunuchs.^
The temples and the towers of this city are fo nu-
metous, that it is difficult to count them. Provifions
cf all kinds are exceeding plentiful, they beina, as
weii as the merchandifes, brought from other parts by
means of canals cut from the rivers, and always crowded
with veflels of different fizes, as well as from the adja¬
cent country. An earthquake which happened here
in 1731 buried above 100,000 perfons in the ruins of
the noiifes which were thiown down. E. Lon -r j 16
41- N. Lat. 39. 54. 0
We have already, under the article Observatory,
mentioned the famous obfervatory in this city, of which
we t all give this further account from the Univerfal
,,.i Hiflory. “ The Chinefe had thought nothing in
• the univerfe could equal m magnificence this famous
p ace, and one of the moft celebrated mathematicians
ot the royal academy of Paris hath made no fcruple to
rep re fen t it as one of the greateit prodigies of art and
ingenuity, of beauty and magnificence; and yet, when
TiroDe^ CaWe tQ tc viewcd b.v
cf httif ur unbuffed Jlu*gesi appears to have been
•. ' wo.tth as to lts ancient machines, and lefs as
o us htuation ; and that ail that is now valuable in it
Vo^XlV.6 ILnTCm°US made by Futher Verbieft
97 ] PEL
a I lemifh Jefuit, who caufed a new fet of inttruments
to be made, with extraordinary care, neatnefs, and
precifion.
This fabric (lands in acourt of a moderate extent,
and is built in the form of a fquarq tower, contiguous
to the city wall on the infide, and raiftj but ten or
twelve feet above its bulwark The afeent up to the
top is by a very narrow ftaircafe ; and on the platform
above were placed all the old inftruments, which, though,
but few, took up the whole room, till Father Verbiefl:
introduced his new apparatus, which he difpofed in a
more convenient order. Thefe are large, well caff,
and embellifhed ; and were the neatnefs of the divifions
anfwerable to the work, and the telefcopes fattened to
them according to the new method, they would be
equal to thofe of Europe ; but the Chinefe artificers
were, it Lems, either too negligent, or incapable of
following his directions. As to the old inftruments,
they were, by order of the emperor Kang-hi, fet afide
as ufelefs, and laid in the hall near the tower, where
they may be fecn through a crofs barred window, all
covered with ruft, and buried in oblivion.
. “ In tb's famed obfervatory there are five mathemati¬
cians employed night and day, each in a proper apart¬
ment on the top of the*tower, to obferve all that oafffis
over their heads : one of them is gazing towards the
zenith, and the others towards the four points of the
compafs, that nothing may efcape their notice Their
obfervations extend not only to the n otions of the
heavenly bodies, but to fires, meteors, winds, rain,
thunder, hail, ftorms, and other phenomena of the
atmofphere ; and thefe are carefully entered in theft*
journals, and an account ®f them 'is brought everv
monnng to the furveyor of the mathematics, and rel
giftered m his office.”
PELAGIANS, a Chrifiian Teft who appeared
about the fifth or end of the fourth century. They
maintained the followingdodrines. 1. That Adam was
by nature mortal, and, whether he had finned or not'
would certainly have died. 2. That the confequences’
oi Adam s fin were confined to his own perfon. 3. That
new-born infants are in the fame fituation with Adam
ae ore the fail. 4. That the law qualified men for the
kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal
promifes with the gofpel. 5. That the general refur-
re&ion of the dead does not follow in virtue of our
Saviour s refurretl.on. 6. That the grace of God is
given according to our merits. 6. That this grace is
not granted for the performance of every moral aft •
the liberty of the will, and information in points of
duty, being fufficient, &c. d he founder of this fed;
was
. PEL AGiUS, a native of Great Britain ; but whe¬
ther of England, Scotland, or Wales, is as uncertain as
it is immaterial (a). He was born towards the clofe
Oi the fourth century, and educated in the monaftery
N i
Pekin
II.
Pelagias,
is a tranffiition ; Ld that he w^bon"'on'VsTt^ ^ ^ name Wa3 Morgan, of which Pelag-us
tagoniit St Auguftin. The fa “ 1 " 1 l a ^ °* November D- 354, the fame d y with his great an
coadjutor Celeftius. “ He received a learne^eT ^ ^ fo!lovvin^ account of Pelagius and his great
natteiw of o. T U a learr,ed education m his own rn.,nr™  . K 3C
PEL
l 98 ]
PEL
PdaghM. of Banclior, In Wales, of which he became a monk,
1 •' and afterwards abbot. In the early pan of bis life he
went over to France, and thence to Rome, where he
had the infolence to promulgate pertain opinions lome-
what different from thofe of the infallible churctu Hia
morals being irreproachable, he gained many difciples;
and the dreadful herefy made fo rapid a progrefs, that,
for the falvation of fouls, it became neceffary for the
pope to exert his power. Pelagius, to avoid the dan-
p-er, in the year 409 paffed over to Sicily, attended
by his friend and pupil Celeftms. In 411 they landed
in Africa, continued fome time at Hippo, and were
prefent at the famous conference between the Catholics
and Donatifts which was held at Carthage in 412.
From thence they travelled to Egypt; and from Egypt,
in 4.5, to Paltftme, where they were gracioufly recei¬
ved by John bifhop of Jerufalem. In the fame year
7. JExplanationis fymboli ad Damafum. 4. Tpl/lola ad Pelapca
viduam dux. 5- De liher0 arb'ltrio' Thefe a"d ^
other fragments are fcattered among the works of St
Jerome. ^ They are alfo colletded by Garnerius, and
publifhed in Append, op. Mercatoris, p. 373. Caw.
PELAGOS A, an ifland in the Adriatic, which, to*
gether with feveral rocks that appear above water
near it, are the remains of an ancient volcano. “ I
vvill not affure you (favs Fortis) that it was thrown
up out of the fea like feveral other iflands in the'0
Archipelago, though there is fome ground to fufpect
this to have been the cafe ; becaufe we find no precife
mention of it in the moft ancient geographers. It
fhould feem that it ought not to be confufed with the
Diomedee, from which it is 30 miles diftant; yet it
is not impoffible that they have reckoned it among
rrslf> lava which forms the fubflance of thi&
with his creed, and abfolved him ot nereiy. x . - f , i{|and perhaps we might then
r!hgi;t’«oueht tobel:eve 11 the top of f-m-e a"-,ent'
excommunicated ; and all the bifltops who refufed to
fubferibe the condemnation of the Pelagian herefy were
immediately deprived. What became of him after this
period is entirely unknown ; but it feems very probable
that he retired to Banchor, and died abbot of that
monaftery. He wrote, l. Expofitianum in epijl. Paulinas,
lib. xiv. 2. Epiflola ad Demetriadem de virginitate.
or if we ought to believe it the top of fome ancient-
volcanic mountain, of which the roots and fides have
been covered by the waters, which divided Africa
from Spain, forming the firaits of Gibraltar ; an inva-
fion that no one can doubt of who has examined
the bottoms and (bores of our fea. The Lilian fisher¬
men fay, that Pelagofa is fubjea to frequent and vio¬
lent earthquakes ; and the afpeA of the ifland proves.
before they ^covered the hereueel .ty w“ iT^
iome time vented his peculiai :‘0XI'y as , , ,-n’d ) defended his doftrines at Rome about
At length, however ^ Ld drew upon him the indignation
Jeromeyand St Angnftin ndio -ouagainft him -
knowledged, even by his adverfanes, to iav,£ , mci,f8 for l,i« abufe of thefe talents. His perfonal
putant, though they load h.m with the mol ^‘^fe good fathers, in the heat of their
blemiflies are painted in very^ftrong ^“jed tHck neeked, fat headed, lame of a leg, and blind of an eye.’
czcal, as a very ugly fellow, broad- ’ orod'iced fome men of learning in this period. Celeftms, the
Even the mod northern parts of Uns “"digTa, noife in fhe woi.d" by his writing, and
thfcsple and friend of Pelagius, wa ’ tt gpfenaed and propagated the peculiar opinions of
difputations about the beginning of the fifth cent ,r>';,"eAXXt thofe who embraced thefe opinion, were
his' matter Pelagius with fo much learning, zcal- “fdoftrTnes he wrote feveral books, which
frequently called Celeftians. Before he b£oame acquainted ““““ After he had fpent his youth
were univerfally ^mired for their ort od„xy, e^^g,^ > ^ further ;mprovsnient to Rome, where he became-
jn his own country in a itudious pr y, , , infedfed with their herefies. From that time he
acquainted with Rufinus and e agms, an w I ^ ^ j. herefies, and thereby brought upon himfelf
became the moft indefatigable and nndaun ed champion °f e ,e bad „yamM f„ th^ writingJ.
the indignation of the orthodox fa*h“ 7“ t0 ycritJife, caU> him ‘ an ignoraSt,
St Jerome, ^ Celled" and diftended with Scots pottage i a great, corpulent, barking dog, who
ftupid fool, having hist) y KltP with his teeth • a Cerberus, who, with his mailer Pluto (Pelagius),
was fitter to kick with heels " bl eJ'* put to e ernal filence.’ Such were the flowers of
deferred to he knocked on the head, .th“‘“J b£ P" ‘ hodox fai;h , But candour obliges
rhetoric which thefe good 0f the age in whlii they lived than of the men. Both
us to obferve, 27^^ ^were Jery great traveUers i having vifited many different countries of Afia and Africa,
Peiagms ‘";t""yt® elude the perfecutions of their enemies, and to propagate their opinions
U b noi^eonfjei’able evidence of their fuptrior learning and Srs!
Lud^thetoeeToT m^'y' c^uneik againVJhem! < The Pelagian and Cektthin herefy (fays Photiu.) noEonly
ftourilbed k great vigour in the Weft, but was alfo propagated mto the Laft. ,
pel r
Helaiah at firfl; that it has fufFered many revolutions ;
il. for it is rugged, ruinous, and fubverted.”
, PELA1AH, a Levite (Nehem. viii. 7. x. 10.)
He was one of the principal Levites that returned
from captivity, and was one of thofe that figned the
covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the Lord.
PELALIAH,fon ofAmazi and father of jeroham,
of the family of Paihur fon of Malchiah, of all whom
mention has been made: he was of the race of the
priefts (Nehem. xi. 12.)
PELASGT. See Pelasgiotis.
PELASGIA (Pliny); the ancient name of Z,#/".
los; fo called from the Pelafgi, its firft inhabitants
(Diodorous Siculus.) Alfo the ancient name of Pdo-
ponnefus, from Pelafgius, a native of the country (Nico¬
laus Damafcenus, Ephorus).
PELASGICUM (Paufanias, Pliny) ; the north
wall of Athens; fo called from the builders, the Pe¬
lafgi. There was an execration pronounced on any
that fhould build houfes under this wall ; becaufe the
Pelafgi, while dwelling there, entered into a confpiracy
againft the Athenians (Thucydides).
PELASGIOTIS, a third't art of Theffaly, (Stra¬
bo) ; fo called from a very ancient people, the Pelaf¬
gi, called PelafgioU (Ptolemy) ; who formerly, to¬
gether with the ZEolians, occupied Thelfaly, and
thence that part was called Pelafgicum Argos ; befides
many other parts of Greece. Their name Pelafgi, or
Pelargi, denoting iforks, was given them from their
wandering roving life (Strabo). The poets extend
the appellation to Greeks in general. Ptlafgus, the
epithet. Some of the inhabitants of Crete were called
Pelafgi (Homer) ; who thus alfo calls the neighbour¬
ing people to the Cilicians in Troas. The Pelafgi
were originally of Arcadia, (Hefiod); but ZEfchylus
makes Argos, near Mycenas, their country. The
Pelafgiotis was fituated between Pieria and Macedonia
to the north and weft, Theffaliotis to the fouth, and
Magnefm to the eaft, (Strabo, Pliny.)
PELATiE, were free-born citizens, among the A-
thenians, wha by poverty were reduced to the necef-
fity of ferving for wages. During their fervitude they
had no vote in the management of public affairs, as
having no eftate to qualify them; but this reftri&ion
was removed whenever they had releafed themfelves
from their fervile fituation, which they were allowed
to do when able to fupport themfelves. While they
continued fervants, they had alfo a right to change
their mafters. We find them fometimes diftinguifhed
by the name of Thet*.
PEL ATI AH, fon of Hananiah, and father of
Iftti, of the tribe of Simeon. He fubdued the Ama-
lekites upon the mountain of Seir (1 Chron. iv. 42.)
1 he time of this aftion is unknown.
Pelatiah, fon of Benaiah, a prince ef the people,
who lived in the time of Zedekiah king of Judah, and
oppofed rhe wholefome advice given by Jeremiah, to
fubmit to king Nebuchadnezzar. Ezekiel (xi. 1, z, 3,
4.) being a captive in Mefopotamia, had a vifion, in
which he mw five and twenty men at the door of the
temple of Jerufalem, among which were Jaazaniah
the ion of Azur, and Pelatiah the fon of Benaiah,
who were tne moft remarkable. Then the Lord faid
to him ‘ Son of man, thefe are the men that have
thoughts of iniquity, and who are forai!% pernicious
99 1 PEL
defigns againft this city, faying; Have not the houfes
been built a long time ? Jerufalem is the pot, and we
are the flelh. Thus faith the Lord : You have made
great havock in this city, and have filled its ftreets
with dead bodies. Thefe men are the flefh, and the
city is the pot. But as for you, I will make you
come forth from the middle of this city, and I will
make you perifh by the hand of your enemies.” As
he was prophecying in this manner, Pelatiah the fon
of Benaiah died.
PELL (Stephauus). There were two towns of thij
name in i heffaly ; the one fubjedt to Eurypylus, the
other to Achilles; both extinct. Pcleus the gentilitiou*
name (id.)
PELEG, fon of Eher, was born in the year of the
world 1757. The fcripture fays his father gave him
the name of Peleg, fignifying divifion, becaufe in his
time the earth began to be divided (Gen. xi. 16. x.
25. ); wnether it was that Noah had begun to diftri-
bute the earth among his defcendants, fome years be¬
fore the building of Babel; or that Peleg came into the
world the fame year that Babel was begun, and at the
divifion of languages; or that Eber by a fpirit of pro¬
phecy gave his fon the name of Peleg fome years before
the tower of Babel was begun, is not abfolutely certain.
That which here perplexes the interpreters is, firft, that
Peleg came into the woild not above 100 years after the
deluge. But it fhould feem, that the number of men
was not then fufficient for fuch an undertaking as that
of Babel. Secondly, Joktan the brother of Peleg
had already thirteen fons at the time of this difperfion,
which happened after the confufion of Babel (Gen. x.
26, 27, 28, &c.) Peleg being born in the thirty-fourth
year of Eber (Gen. xi. 16.), it is impoffible his bro¬
ther Joktan ftiould have fuch a number of children at
the birth ot Peleg. It feems therefore that he was
not born at the time of the difperiion. To this may
be anfwered, that Mofes has there enumerated the
names of the thirteen fons of Joktan (in Gen.’x. 26.)
by way of anticipation, though they were not born
till a good while after the confufion at Babel; but as
they poffeffed a very large country, it was convenient
to take notice of them, and to name them among the
other defcendants of Noah, who divided the provinces
of the eaft among themfelves. However this may
have been, at the age of thirty years Peleg begat Reu :
and he died at the age of 239.
PELE PHI PES. The Pelethites and Cherethite*
were famous under the reign of Ring David. They
were the moft valiant men in the army of that prince,
and had the guard of his perfon. See Ezekiel xxv. 16.
Zephanmh 11. 5. 1 Samuel xxx. 14. 2 Samuel xv. 18.
xx. 7. Patrick's Comm. Pool’s Annot. and Delanv's Hid
of the Life of David.
PELE THRONII, a name or epithet given to the
Lapithae, either becaufe they inhabited the town of
Pelethronfum at the foot of mount Pelion in Thef-
faly, or becaufe one of their number bore the name of
Pelethronius. It is to them, we are told, that man¬
kind are indebted for the invention of the bit with
which they tamed their horfes with fo much dex¬
terity.
PELE PHRONIUM (Nicander and Scholiaft) ;
a town of 1 heffaly, fituated in a flowery part of mount
ielios; and hence the appellation fignifying
N 2 “ flowexs.,,
Pcle
11
Pelethro-
niuin.
pel r
Peleus. “ flowers.” Lucan fays the Centaurs v/ere natives of
—v 1 that place; to whom Virgil affens mount Othrys.
Moft authors, however, afcribe the breaking of hnries
to the Centaurs. Some make the Lapithae anc- Cen¬
taurs the f-;me ; others a different people; allowed
however to be both of Theffaly. Their ftory is great¬
ly involved in fable. See Laptthus.
' PELEUS, in fabu'ous hiftory, a king of Theffaly,
fon of /Eacus and Endeisp the daughter of Chi¬
ron. He married Ttietis one of the Nereids, and
was the only mortal man who ever married an
immortal. He was concerned in the murder of his
brother Phocus, and was therefore obliged to leave his
father’s dominions. He fltd to the court oi Eurytus
the fon of Veter, who reigned at Phtbia, or according
to the opinion of Ov:d, the truth of which is cjueltion-
ed, to Ceyx king of Trackinia. He was purified of
his murder by Eurytus, with the ufual ceremonies,
and the king give him his daughter Antigone in mar¬
riage. After this, as Peleus and Eurytus went to
the chace of the Calydonian boar, the father-in-law
was accidentally kiiied by an arrow which his fon-in-
law had aimed at the beafi. This unfortunate acci¬
dent obliged him to banifh himfelf from the court of
Phthir, and he went to lolchos, where he was alfo
purified of the murder of Eurytus by Acaftus the
king of the country. His refidcnce at lolchos was
ffrort : Aftydamia the wife of Acaftus fell in love with
him ; but when fire found him infenfible to her pal-
fionate declarations, fire accufed him of attempts upon
her virtue. The king her hufban J partly believed the
accufations of his wife ; but not willing to violate the
laws of hofpitality, by putting him inftantly to death,
he ordered his officers to conduft him to mount Pe-
lion, on pretence of hunting, and there to tie him
to a tree and to leave him a prey to the wild beafts
of the place. The orders of Acaftus were faithiul-
ly obeyed; but Jupiter knowing the innocence of
his grandfon Peleus, ordered Vulcan to fet him at
liberty. As foon as he had been delivered from dan¬
ger, Peleus affembled h:s friends in order to punilh the
ill treatment which he had received from Acaftus.
He took lolchos by force, drove the king from his
poffeffions, and put to death the wicked Aftydamia.
On the death of Antigone, Peleus made love to The¬
tis, of whofe fuperior charms Jupiter himfelf had
been enamoured. His pretenfions were rejected ; for
as he was but a mortal, the goddeis fled from him
with the utmoft abhorrence, and the more effeftua’ly
to evade his inquiries, ffie generally affumed the ftiape
of a bird, or a tree, or of a tygrefs. Peleus’s paf-
fion was fanned by refufal; he offered a facnfice to the
gods; and Proteus informed him, that to obtain Thetis
too ] PEL
tion was early entruffed to the Centaur Chiron, and
afterwards to Phcsnix, the fon of Amyntor. Achil-
les, it is well known, went to the Trojan war, at
the head of his lather’s troops ; and Peleus gloried in
having a fon v/ho was fuperior to all the Greeks in
v lour and intrepidity. His death, however, was
the fource of great grief to Peleus ; but Thetis, to
comfort her hufbsnd, promifed him immortality, and
ordered him to retire into the grottcesof the ifland of
Leuce, where he fliould fee and converfe with the
manes of his fon. Peleus had a daughter called Poly-
dorn^ by Antigone.
PELEW Islands, a clufter of fmall Hands fitu-
ated between the latitudes of 50 and 70 north, and.
PsW
I if arils,
the longitudes 1340 and 136; call. Various conjec¬
tures have been formed refpetting the time of their firfl
difeovery by Europeans. Mr Ee%te, the editoi 01 the
only voyage in which we have any account of their
climate, foil, and produce, together with the manners
of their inhabitants, thinks they were firft noticed by
the Spaniards from the Philippines, and by them na¬
med Palos from the number of trees growing in them
refembling the mafts Of fhips. This conjeaure has
been vehemently oppofed by a critic, who afinms that
the whole of Mr Keate’s introduaion is erroneous,
and that the iflands in queftion were firft difeoyered,
by a French Jefuit named Pere Papin. The Jeiuit, fie
imagines, was diredfted to them by one of the inhabi¬
tants, who had found his way to the Moluccas, where
he was baptized. They are faid to have been again
noticed by P. Centova in 1724, who faw at Agdane,
the capital of the Merian iflands, fome of the inhabi¬
tants ; and from their account gives a defeription not
very favourable of theie harmlefs iflanders. Centova’s
defcription is to be found in the iytti volume, and the
relation of the difeovery by P. Pepin in the nth vo¬
lume, of Lettres Edifiantes et Curieux, publiflied at Paris
1781.
The late ft and mofl authentic account of them,
however, is given from the Journals ef Captain Wil-
fon of the Antelope, a packet belonging to the Eaft
India company, which was wrecked upon one of them
in Auguft 1783. rl his Hup was fitted out in England
by the court or directors in the fummer 1782, as was
then generally underftood, for a fecret expedition.
Whatever may have been her deftination, as (he was
proceeding from btacao in iqually weather, the man
who, on the night of the 10th of Auguft, had the
look out, fuddenly called out Breakers ! But the found
of the word had fcarce reached the ears of the officer
on deck, before the fhip ftruck and ftuck faft ; and
in lefs than an hour bulged and filled with water.
Having fecured the gunpowder, fmall arms, bread,
theiiiorcs of ThefTaly. This «!«««»».. by -ter, Captam »jte a^a«. df-
fefted a landing. The crew of the Antelope confiftei
of 33 Europeans befide the captain, and 16 Chinefe j
and the only pcffible mieans by which they could be
foiemnityrall the gods attending and making them delivered from an ifland, which at firft appeared to
each the^moft valuable prefents. The goddefsof Dif- them uninhabited, was by building a (hip capable of
,- * i •.* i   -vr — »■ . tranfportmg them to the neareft European fettlement
in that quaiter of the globe. Whillt they were medi¬
tating upon this undertaking, the natives appeared on
the fecond day after their arrival; and their inter-
courfe with them was facilitated by means which np-
pear
mediately attended to ; and Thetis, unable to efcape
from the grafp of Peleus, at laft confented to many
him. Their nuptials were celebrated with the greateft
eacn trie muu   ^ 0
cord was the only one of the deities who was abient;
and fhe puniflied this feeming negledf by throwing an
apple into the midii of the afiembiy of the gods, with
the infeription IDctur pulchriori. 1 he celenrats-d
Achilles was the fruit of this msrriage, whofe educa*
■
lilands.
PEL [ jot ] PEL
pear as fiagular as they were providential. Captain
Wiifon had a fcrvant recommended to him at Macao,
who fpcke both the Malay and Engliih languages per-*
fedliy well ; and they had" not been long at Pelew be¬
fore they had the good fortune to meet with a Malay,
who had been thrown by a temped upon this very fpot
about a year beiore, and had made himftif acquainted
with the language of the country ; fo that by this ex¬
traordinary event each party had an interpreter who
could readily explain their wants and dtfires, and by
that means prevent a number ot miiconceptions which
might have arifen from making ufe of ligns and gef-
turea only.
The natives are all of a deep copper colour, going
yerfedly naked. They are of a middling dature, very
ttraight, mufcular, and well formed ; but their legs,
from a little above their ancles to the middle of their
thighs, are tatooed fo very thick, as to appear dyed qf
a far deeper colour than the reft of their /kin. Their
hair is of a fine black, long, and rolled up behind, in a
limple manner, dole to the back of their heads, which
appeared both neat and becoming ; but few of them
hid beards, it being the general cuftom to pluck them
out by the roots.
They began by ftroking the bodies and arms of the
Engliih, or rather their waiftcoats and coat fieeves, as
if they doubted whether the garment and the man
were not of the fame fubftance ; and as the Malay ex¬
plained the circumftances to them, our people were
greatly furprifed at the quicknefs with which they
fcemeJ to comprehend every information he gave them.
The next thing they noticed was our people’s white
hands, and the blue veins of their wrifts ; the former
of which they feemed to confider as artificial, and the
other as the EngliOr manner of tatoofng. After being
fatisfied in this particular, they exprefied a further wifli
to fee their bodies; and, among other things, were
greatly furprifed at Ending hair on their breads, it be¬
ing confidered by them as a great mark of indelicacy,
as it is their cudom to eradicate it from every pait of
the body in both fexes.
They afterwards walked about, tedifying great cu~
riofity at every thing they faw, but at the fame time
exprefling a fear that they might be thought too in¬
truding. As our people were condudtiisg them to the
tents, one of the natives picked up a bullet, which
had 1 jeen cafually dropped on the ground, and imme¬
diately exprefled Ins furprize, that a fubftance fo finall
to the eye fhould be fo very ponderous to the touch ;
and on their entering the tent, a large Newfoundland
dog, and a fpaniel which had been tied up there to
prevent their being loft, fet up a moft violent barking,
and the natives a noife but little lefs loud, which at
f'rft it was not eafy to account for. T hey ran in and
out of the tent, and feemed to wifn that they might
be made to bark again. This the Malay foon explain¬
ed to be the effect of their joy and furprife, as thefe
were the-firft large animals they had ever feen, there
being no quadrupeds of any fpecies on thefe iflands,
except a very few grey rats in the woods.
Alter fome time it was agreed on by Captain Wii¬
fon and his people, that fome of the crew fhould be
fent to the king of the place, in order to folicit his
friendfhip, and intreat his peimiflion to build a veffel
that might carry them back to their own country.
This buflnefs was allotted to the captain’s brother;
and during his abfence, R.aa Kook, the king’s brother,
and feveral of the natives, remained with our people.
This amiable chief feemed to place an entire confi¬
dence in thole he was among ; he endeavoured to ac¬
commodate himfelf to their manners ; would fit at
table as they did, inftead of fquatting on his hams; and
inquired particularly into the principles and caufes of
every thing he obferved about him, lending his perfo-
nal afiiftance in all that was going forward, and even
defiring the cook to let him aid him in blowing the
fire.
In order to conciliate their affe&ions, Captain Wii¬
fon had prefented Arra Kooker, another ot the king’s-
brothers, with a pair of trowfers; but having con¬
ceived a greater paflion for a white Ihirt, one was im¬
mediately given to him ; which he had no fooner put
on, than he began to dance and jump about with fo
much joy, that every body was diverted by his lingu¬
lar gedures, and the contrail which the linen formed
with his ficin. This prince was about 40, of a Ihort
llature, but fo plump and fat that he was nearly att
broad as he was long. He poffefled an abundant lhare
of good humour, and a wonderful turn lor mimickry ;
and had befides a countenance fo lively and exprefiive,
that though our people at this time were ftrangers to
almoft all he faid, yet his face and geftures made
them accurately comprehend whatever he was de»
feribing.
After three or four days, Abba Thulle the king
arrived with a great retinue. He was received with
every mark of refpedt by the Ihip’s company, who were
exercifed before him, and fired three volleys in diffe¬
rent poficions. The furprize of the natives, their
hooting, hallooing, jumping, and chattering, produced
a noife almoft equal to the difeharge of the mulkets ;
and when one of the men Ihot a bird, which was done
to difplay the effe£l of their arms, the furprize it oc-
cafioned was wonderful. Some of the natives ran for
it, and carried it to the king, who examined it with
great attention, but was unable to comprehend how it
could be wounded, not having feen any thing pafs out
of the gun.
Raa Kook exprefled great impatience to Ihow the
king whatever had imprefled his own mind ; and ta¬
king his brother by the hand, led him to a grindftone
which was fixed behind one of the tents. He imme¬
diately put it in motion, as he had frequently done be¬
fore ; at the rapidity of which the king was greatly
aftonifhed, particularly when he was informed that it
would lharpen iron. Captain Wiifon ordered a hatch¬
et to be brought and ground, that they might more
readily perceive its operation, when Raa Kook eager¬
ly feized the handle, and began turning it, appearing
highly delighted to let his brother fee how well he un-
derftood it. The whole appeared like fomething fu-
pernatural ; but the dvcumftance which moft bewil¬
dered their ideas was, how the fparks of fire could
come, and how u ftone fo well wetted could become fo
foon dry.
The king then vlfited the different tents, and in¬
quired about every thing he faw : all was novelty, and
of courfe interefted bis attention. When he got to
the tent where the Chinefe men were, who had been
brought with them from Macao, Raa Kook, whofe re¬
tentive
. v.
P lew
I Hands.
—V *
■pelew
.Ilian i1.'.
PEL [ is* ]
Mtl.e mind never loll a Angle trace of any thing he of no avail
had been informed of, acquainted the king that thefe
' were a people quite different from the EngMi* and
that he had learnt there were many other nations be-
fides thefe interfpetfed through the world, fome ot
•which fought with guns and other with boarding-pikes,
an inftrument which he held very cheap in compan-
fon with the former. . , , r , .
When the king heard his brother difeourfing ‘‘bout
a variety of nations, who all fpoke differently, and had
before him the exampfe of the Chinefe, whofe language
was not the fame with the Englifh, he appeared in-
ftantly thoughtful and ferious, as if tlruck by concep¬
tions which had never before croffed his mind. He re¬
mained a while penfive and bewildered ; and this cir-
cumftanccimpreffed on every one at the time an idea
that there was every reafon to imagine that there had
never been a communication between thofe people and
any other nation : and indeed it is evident, that if Pere
Papin did really vifit them in 1710, they had before
178 ; loft the remembrance of every trace of European
manners. This indeed is not furprifmg, as they had
no other record than knots fimilar to the quipes ot
Peru at the landing of the Spaniards.
Raa Kook would now fhow his brother the kitchen,
which was in the hollow of a rock, a little above the
cove It was at the time when the cook was preparing
dinner ; and though the implements were exceedingly
fcanty, an iron pot, a tea kettle, a tin fauce-pan, with
a poker, a pair of tongs, and a frying-pan, were here ot
fufficient confequence to excite admiration ; nor were
the bellows now forgotten by Raa Kook, who taking
them up, as he explained their ufe to the king, feem-
ed ambitious to let his brother fee what an adept he
was at blowing. The little bald cook, who was al¬
ways clofe (haven, and never wore any thing on his
head, was likewife pointed out to the king as an ob-
ie£l of merriment and curiofity. _ f n
Sometime after this the king requefted five of Cap¬
tain Wilfon’s men to attend him in a war he was go¬
ing to make againft the inhabitants of a neighbouring
ifland called Oroolong, who, as he faid, had done him
an injury. But before this requeft was made known,
he had long ftruggled with a delicacy of fentiment
which no one would have expefted to find in regions
fo disjoined from the reft of mankind. This was no
other than that it might prove a temporary inconve¬
nience to the unfortunate ftrangers who had fought
his proteftion, and might be confidered by them as an
ungenerous proceeding. It was, however, no fooner
made known, than Captain Wilfon inftantly complied ;
and every face, which had before been clouded with
doubt and apprehenfion, became immediately bright-
^ llAhls^nterprife little more was done than braving
their enemies, ftripping fome cocoa-nut trees of their
fruit and carrying off a number of yams and other
provifions ; but in another, which was undertaken a-
gainft the ifland of Aitingall, they were more fuccefs-
ful, and fhowed figns of the fame fangumary difpofi-
tion which fome demon has infufed into the whole hu¬
man race. Nine prifoners of war who had been taken
upon this occafion were cruelly put to death ; and not-
withftauding the Englifh ftrongly remonftrated againft
ibis proceeding, all the arguments they cou u e were
PEL
wx In juftification of their conducl, they al¬
leged the neceflity of doing it for their own fecurity, , 
■^declaring that they had formerly only detained them
as menial fervants, but that they always found means
to get back to their own country, and return with fuch
a force as frequently made great depredations.
Having given this general account of the chara&er
and condud of thefe' hitherto unknown people, we
now proceed to lay before our readers what we have
learned of their government, cuftoms, manners, and
arts, together with a defeription of the face of their
country? In this the editor of Captain Wilfon’s voy¬
age muft be our guide; and if our narrative do not fa-
tisfy the man of fcience, it is to be obferved, that the
Antelope was not a fhip fent out purpofety to explore
undifeovered regions, nor were there people on board
properly qualified to eftimate the manners of a new
race of men; they had amongft them no philofopher^,
botanifts, or draughtfmen, experienced in fuch fcienti-
fic purfuits as might enable them to examine with
judgment every objed which prefented itfelf. Diftrefs
threw them upon thefe iflands ; and while they were
there, all their thoughts were occupied on the means
of liberating themfelves from a fituation of all others
the moft afRiding to the mind, that of being cut oft
foi gver from the fociety of the reft of the world.
It, however, clearly appears, from their uniform te-
ftimony, that at Pelew the king was confidered as the
fir ft perfon in the government.
“ He was looked up to as the father of his people ;
and though divefted of all external decorations of royal¬
ty, had every mark of diftindion paid to his pafon.
His rupacks or chiefs approached him with the greateft
refped ; and his common fubjeds, whenever they paf-
fed near him, or had occafion to addrefs him, put their
hands behind them, and crouched towards the ground*
Upon all occurrences of moment, he convened the ru¬
packs and officers of date ; their councils were always
held in the open air, where the king firft ftated the
bufinefs upon which he had affembled them, and nib-
mitted it to their confideration. Each rupack deliver¬
ed his opinion, but without riiing from his feat; and
when the matter before them was fettled, the king
ftanding up put an end to the council.. ,
“ When any meffage was brought him, whether in
council or elfewhere, if it came by one of the common
peoole, it was delivered at fome diftance in a low voice
to one of the inferior rupacks, who,, bending in an
humble manner at the king’s fide, delivered it m the
fame manner with his face turned afide. His com¬
mands appeared to be abfolute, though he afted in no
important bufinefs without the advice of his chiefs ;
and every day in the afternoon, whether he was at re-
lew or with the Englifh, he went to fit in public for
the purpofe of hearing any requefts, or of adjufting any
difference or difpute which might have anfen among
his fubje&s.” .
But thefe, according to our editor, feldom happen¬
ed; for as their real wants were but few, and they faw
nothing to create artificial ones, every one was chiefly
occupied with his own humble purfuits ; and as far as
the fhip’s crew, who remained among them about three
months, could decide, they appeared to cond.uft them-
felves towards each other with the greateft civility and
benevolence ; never wranglingor entering into quarre -
Pctew
Ifland*.
Pelew
Iflaiide.
PEL [ i
fome contentions, as is cuflomary among thofe who
call themidves a polifhed and enlightened people.
Even when children fhoived a difpoiitioa of this kind,
they ftrongly marked their difpleafure, by {tilling with
rebuke their little animofities.
The charafter of the king is thus drawn by the edi¬
tor : “ The excellent man who reigned over thefe fons
of nature, (howed himfelf in every part of his conduit
firm, noble, generous, and benevolent ; there was a
dignity in all his deportqaent, a gentlenefs in all his
manners, and a warmth and fenfibility about his heart,
that won the love of all who approached him. Nature
had bellowed on him a contemplative mind, which he
had improved by thofe refleitions that good fenfe dic¬
tated and obfervation .confirmed. The happinefs of his
people feemed to be always in his thoughts. In order
more effeitually to ftimulate them to ufeful labour, he
had himfelf learnt all the few arts they poflelfed, and
was looked on in fome of them to be the bell workman
in his dominions. Placed as he was by Providence in
its obfeurer feenes, he lived beloved by his chiefs, and
revered by his people; over whom, whillt he preferved
a dignity which diftinguilhed his fuperior llation, he
reigned more as the father than the fovereign. The
eyes of his fubje&s beheld their naked prince with as
much awe and refpeft as thofe are viewed wnth who
govern polilhed nations, and are decorated with all the
dazzling parade and ornaments of royalty ; nor was
the purple robe or the folendid diadem neceffary to
point out a character which the mafterly hand of na¬
ture had rendered fo perfect”
Next in power to the king wras his brother Raa
Kook, who was official general of all his forces. It
was his duty to fummon the rupacks to attend the
king for whatever purpofe they were wanted. He was
alfo his prefumptive heir ; the fucceffion of Pelew not
going to the king’s children till it had pafied through
his brothers; fo that after the demife of Abba Thulle,
the f»vereignty would have defeended to Raa Kook
on his demife to Arra Kooker ; and on the death of
this laft it would have reverted to Qui Bill, the king’s
eldeit fon, when Lee Boo, his fccond fon, of whom
we have much to fay, would have become the heredi¬
tary general.
ine office cf firll minifier is deferibed as follows :
The king was always attended by a particular chief
or rupack, wh© did not appear to polfefs any heredi¬
tary office, but only a delegated authority. He was
always near the king’s perfon, and the chief who was
always firft confulted ; but whether his office was
religious or civil, or both, our people could not learn
with any certainty. He was not confidered as a war¬
rior, or ever bore arms, and had only one wife, where¬
as the other rupacks had two. The Englilh were never
mvi ed to his houfe, or introduced into it, although
hief^ere Con^u^s^ to thofe of almolt every other
onNh?6 rUP!CV lt Isobferv«d» “That they could
all nf tf nfar ei, as ^ or nobles; they were not
all of the fame degree, as was plain by a difference in
03 ] PEL
the tone (a) they wore: they generally attended the
king, and were always reffiy at his command to ac¬
company him on any expedition with a number of ca-'
nees properly manned, and armed with darts and foears,
who were to remain with him till they had his per-
milfion to return home with their dependents. In this
part of their.government we may trace an outline of
the feudal fyitem ; but from the few opportunities our
peopie had of invelligating points of internal govern¬
ment, it appeared that the titles of rupacks were perfo-
nai badges of rank and difiin£tion ; nor did they appre¬
hend they were hereditary honours, unlefs in the reign¬
ing family, who mull of neceffi y be of this ciafs.” ° *
As to property,.it was underftood, “That the peo¬
ple poffeHed only fuch as arofe from their work and la¬
bour, but no abfolute one in the foil, of which the king
appeared to be general proprietor. A man’s houfe,
furniture, or canoe, was copfidered as his private pro-
peity, as was alio the land allotted him, as long as ho
occupied and cultivated it 1 but whenever he removed
with his family to another place, the ground he held
reverted to the king, who gave it to whom he pleafed,
or to tuofe who folicited to cultivate it.”
All that part of the illand which they had an op¬
portunity ol feeing is faid to have been well cultivated.
It was covered with trees of various kinds and fizes,
many of which mull have been very large, as they
made canoes of their trunks, fome of which were ca¬
pable of carrying 2§ or 30 men. Among the timber
trees was noticed the ebony, and a tree which when
pierced or wounded yielded a thick white liquor of the
confluence of cream. “ They had alfo a fpeeics of
the manchineel tree, in cutting down of which our
people frequently got bliilered and fwelled ; the inha-
buarits pointed out the caufe, faying it was owing to
their being fpnnkled by the fap. This they reckon¬
ed among the unlucky trees, and advifed our people
againll the ufe of it.” v
But the moll lingular tree noticed at Pelew, was
one in its fize and manner of branching not unlike
our cherry-tree, but in its leaves refembling the myr¬
tle. Its peculiarity was, that it had no bark, but onir
an outward coat of about the thicknefs of a card, which
was darker than the infiJe, though equally clofe ia
texture. Its colour was nearly that of mahogany, and
the wood was fo extremely hard, that few of the tools
which the Enghlh had could work it. They alfo found
ca ibage-trees, the wild bread-fruit, and another tree
whofe fruit fomething refembled an almond. But
yams and cocoa nuts, being their principal articles of
laltenance, claimed their chief attention.
... ld^ndCoor©oraa, of which Pelew is the capital;
likewife produced plantains, bananas, Seville oranges
and lemons, but neither of them in any confiderable
quantity. None of the illands which the Englilh vi-
, d bad any kind of grain. As to birds, they had
plenty ol common cocks and hens, which, though not
doreeliicated, kept running about near their houfes
and plantations ; and what appears extremely Angular
is, that the natives had never made any ufe of them,
till
but Jhat anS it Mmef^ourp”opr”0uld rot karT*h Wl“Ch Capti“ Wilfon was in',efcd b3' ^ king,.
Pelew
Iflaiids.?
 v——J
Vt'lfw
TflanrU,
PEL f 104 ] L E L
. ,, , , 11 'Rnf thmiP’h there was not fonnd on any of the iflamls
*® «»■ P^T'o ‘»M th™ ‘h‘r Tr5, r , „nt' ui fheT vmtfd 'ny place approp.la.ed to religious rites,
Pigeons they accounted a great dainty; but none ut ^ $ t/0 tar t0 dtcii,re ,hat the
thofe of a certain dignity were permitted to eat ot it w““‘d P'™ P b .f , , y of relj„i()„.
them. The EngHflt left them two geefe, which were Spento of eatefnal SmTuy! there may belucl,
thFrom r d^!r^ttntry I, appear, to ^ as «..e religion^ ^ ^
be very mountainous ; but fome of the valleys are it- mind may in _ thousHi unbleffed bv thofe
prefented as extenfive and beautiful, atfordmg many the God o auir , tn the Chrillian world art
delightful profpeas. The foil being very rich, pro- lights which have pomted
duces a great abundance of grab, which, as there are hJt dib’overed the effica-
no cattle to eat it, grows very high, and was fcorched ty tht hto ; 1 advantages ariiin from
and burnt up by theb fun. Our people faw no river at cy of v.rtue, and tne temporal advantages animb irom
Pelew ; their fupplies of frefh water being obtained mora* rectitute
Ft-lew
Wand*,
from fmall ftreams and ponds, of which there are a
great many.
From this, account of the fcanty produce of thefe
iflands, it is evident that no luxury reigned among
their inhabitants, whofe principal article of food ap¬
pears to he fiflr ; they had no fait, nor did they make
rife of fauce or any feafoning in any thing they eat.
Their drink was alfo as fimple as their diet ; it prin¬
cipally con lifted of the milk of the cocoa nut; but up¬
on particular occafrons they ufed a kind of fweet drink
and fherbet, which latter had the addition of fome juice
of orange.
The'' i(lands appeared to be populous,^ though to
what extent could not be afeertained Their houfes
were raifed about thiee feet from the ground, upyn
ilones which appeared as if hewn from the quarry.
The interior part of them was without any divifion,
the whole forming one great room, which rofe in a
ridge like our barns, the outfide being thatched thick
and clofe with bamboos or palm leaves. All their
implements, utenfils, weapons of war, and canoes, are
much of the fame kind with thofe which were found
in the South Sea iflands. _ .
In their marriages they allow a plurality of wives,
though in general not more than two. . When a wo¬
man "is pregnant, the uemoft attention is paid to her;
but upon other occalions no more refpeft is (hown to
one fex than the other. “ One of our people endea¬
vouring to make himfelf agreeable to a lady belonging
to one of the rupacks, by what we (hould call a mark¬
ed affiduity, Arra Kooker, with the greateft civility,
gave him to underftand that it was not right to do
fo.” . , ,
They have places particularly appropriated to ie-
pulture ; their graves being made nearly the fame as
they are in our country churchyards. The corpfe is
attended only by women, who at the place of inter-
inent make a great lamentation. The men, however,
afiembk round the body before it is carried to the
grave,-on which occafion they preferve a folemn fiknee;
their minds, from principles of fortitude or phnofo-
“ Suoerftition is a word of great latitude, and vague¬
ly defined : though it hath in enlightened ages been
called the offspring of ignorance, yet m no time hath
it exifted without having fome connexion with reli¬
gion Now the people of Pelew had beyond all doubt
fome portion of it, as appeared by the wi(h exprefitd
by the k ng when he favv the (hip building, that the
Ens?li(h would take out of it fome particular wood,
which he perceived they had made uie of, and which
he obferved was deemed an ill omen, or unpropstious.
“ They had alfo an idea of an evil fpint, that often
cownteraaed human affairs. A very particular inftancc
of this was feen when Mr Barker, a moft valuable
member in the Englifh fociety, fell backwards from
the (ide of the veffel, whilft he was on the (locks':
Raa Kook, who happened to be prefent, obferved that
it was owing to the unlucky wood our people had fuf-
fered to remain in the veffel, that the evil fpint bad
occafioned this mifehief to Mr Barker.”
They likevvife appeared to entertain a ftrong idea
of divination, as was evident from the ceremonies they
praaifed before they undertook any enterprife of mo¬
ment. A few occurrences, which are mentioned in
the courfe of the narrative, would alfo lead us to be¬
lieve that thev could not be altogether unaequa nted
with the nature of religions vvorfnip » kr w'n' n they
were prefent at the public prayers of the Englifh, they
expreffed no furprife at what was doing, but feemed
deilrous to join in them, and conftantly prekrved the
moft profound fiknee. The general even refufed to
receive a meffage from the king which arrived dating
divine fervice. And upon another occafion, when
Captain Wilfon told Lee Boo, that good men would
live aim in above, he replied, with great earneftnefs,
“ All fame Pelew ; bad men flay in earth ; good men
fro into fky ; become very beautiful;” holding his
hand up, and giving a fluttering motion to his fingers.
Some later voyagers, however, have affirmed, that thefe
people, notwithftanding their fuperftition, have no no¬
tion whatever of a Deity; a circumftance to which it is
extremely difficult to give full credit
phy being armed to meet the events of mortality with
manly fubmiffion, ciivefted of the external teftimony ot
human weaknds.”
On the article of religion our editor ookrves,
“ That, among all the race of men whom navigation
has brought to our knowledge, few appear to be with¬
out a fenfe of fomething like religion, however it may
be mixed with idolatry or. fuperftition. And yet our
The moft wonderful circumftance in the hiitory ot
this people, except that lafl mentioned, are the acute-
nefs of their umkrftanding, their hofpitality, and thst
implicit confidence which they placed in utter ftran-
gers. That their manners were pleaiing, and their fo*
ciety not difagreeable*. is evident from the conductor
Madan Blanchard, one of the feamen, who, when the
veffel was built and ready to take her departure wita
_* . «*• *  1 . . f 4. i-. ¥ rii(2
PEL [ 105 3 p p j
is. r“ s*v'r r,a 5*?of!a^ ^ 4« ««
-V- Kook fol,cited hie brotherSpentiffio^to aototr.p^ny Sid th™ wfth°a/,'r" e™, T “ ^: he ■
the Englifh, but from prudential motives was refufeZ bee^exceeded bv the ■ f^a A^^liT^r n0t haV£
The fovereign, however, refolved to entruft his fecond orTental pea Is 7 hI I?tere?ed Poflfe/or ^ ftnng of
fon Lee Boo to Captain Wilfon’s care, that Ire might that he held in his h'Z^1^ ^ t0 hmi
improve his mind, and learn fuch things as at his re- could afford him h|rh nd al! ^he weaIth the world
tnm would h.-o S could afford him. Hfc ran with eagernefs to Captain
turn would benefit his country.
1 he inftrudhions which he gave the young man, and
the fortitude which he (bowed upon this occafion,
would have done honour to the moft enlightened mind!
Upon delivering him to Captain Wilfon, he ufed thefe"
expreffions: “ I would wifh you to inform Lee Boo
of all things which he ought to know, and make him
an Enghlhman. The fobjeft of parting with my fon
l.have frequently revolved ; I am well aware that the
diibant countries he muft go through, differing much
from his own. may expofe him to dangers, as well as
difeafes, that are unknown to us here, in confequence
!or wnich he may die.; I have prepared my thoughts to
this: 1 know that death is to aM men inevitable ; and
whether my fon meets this event at Pelew or elfewhere
is immaterial. I am fatisfied, from what 1 have ob-
ierved of the humanity of your charter, that if he is
lick you will he k.nd to him; and (hould that happen,
wh.ch your utmoft care cannot prevent, let it not him
der you, or your brother, or your fon, or any of your which'excited 7^7 Pa[ticulars of ^
“g I fel. receive yj, or di/poWo. 'of ht ^ ^
countrymen, returning here ; 1 fhall receive you, or
any of your people, in friendfhip, and rejoice to fee
you again.” How noble ! This is the language of a
king, a father and a philofopher, who would have
fcr.;n c-eIlghted to fee his fon with Eurepean accom-
piiihments. But, alas ! the fubfequent hiftory of this
xxrir fx . . : . *7* -i-wn ro v^Tptam
Wnfon to firow him h.s riches, and begged he would
get Lima Chinefe veffel to carry them" to the king
his father, that he might fee what the Engii/h had dont
■or him ; adding, that if the people faithfully exe-
cuted their charge, he would at their return prefent
them with one or two beads as a reward for their
iervices.
Having no quadrupeds at Pelew, the fheep, goat?,
and other cattle, which he met with at Macao Were
viewed with wonder; but foon after, feeing a man p?Js
the fcoufe on horfeback, he was fo much aftonifhed,
that he wanted every one to go and look at the ftrange
ight. After the matter, however, was explained to
him he was eafily perfuaded to get upon horfeback
nimicir; and when he was informed what a noble, do¬
cile, and ufeful animal it was, he befought the can
tain to fend one to his uncle Raa Kook, as he was
Erne it would be of great for vice to him.
,?ch''SSd Tb"lfr0.‘he' ?a„rtiC“fo .or‘his k.«d.
acia! le you,!, mu!l force a tear d'; h y7„f v„y be StftT ^ V conrpaffiona.e „
reader whole heart is no, callous the genuine S by d I rein fnd •, /' " ff ?“ ^ governed
mgs of nature and humanity. As fcon as thev ar- ' W r ’
rived at Macao, the houfe into which he firft entered,
jnd the different articles of furniture, fixed him in
fiUtadm,ration; but what ftruck his imagination moff
*as the upright walls and flat ceilings of the rooms
being utterly unable to comprehend how they could be
io formed. When he was introduced to the ladies of Can tain WW 7'"" Vf 'T,11100 bY the name of
the family, his deportment was fo eafy and oolite that WP ’ L , CVer wouId Mrs Wilfon by anv
could be exceeded by nothing but hi theZrZVr? on that - a ZkZ
* ItT F an° 3t 3 dfParture» his behaviour left on the his heart forlhelZ fd fu^h was thc gratitude of
mind of every one prefent the impreffion that how Z r 1 kndncfs they fhovved him, that if
ever great the furprife might be which the feenes of a ^ ° if fanidy were iH, he always appeared unhao
new world had awakened In him, i could Udl ! e 1™^°" , t0 ^ Camber, and fitll
h“ - ^ ^ Witt!
difpofition of his heart, we fhall follow him toW-
hTd> fheiCTtry [r°m Wh,ch he was never ^ return
Heie he had not been long before he was font to an
academy to oc inftruaed in reading and writing, which
learmW h"67 t0 ^ ^ ^ Cous in
the hiXft^ Pe/ WaS m,Id and compaffionate in
the high eft degree; but it was at all times £
by difcretion and judgment. If he faw the younm
aficing relief he would rebuke them with whJlittle
Enghftr he had, telling them it was a foame o beg
when they were able to work ; but the intreaties of
old age he could never withftand, faying, « Muff Ive
poor old man, old man no able to work ” S
Z::zs »y^—of
^ j i . , , it coma narcliv t c
BMivc'ooldb' ‘id 7 hi8 0”" ™'abk manner, and
native pobfh would excite in others.
They were now condufted to the houfe of an Enm
hfo gentleman, who introduced them into a lar e haft
«r"d with 8 - the m'dX.M:
ted.
mov,„g, peeping gently from ,imeto ,4e between the
curtains, to fee if they fiept or lay ftift.
ino- tlT8 f.7)prOCeed,nS with h^y ftrides in gain-
ng the Enghfti language, writing, and accounts, when
he was overtaken by that fatal difeafe, the fmall-nox
U fo” >0 guardS
ftlrveyed Well ‘S- a,tftion * pit when be of the human racer’5"' ' '£l1 2 V'a'm *° ,h'! fcourg=
ft ,hc haI1’ fnVtu^“hbheedePfeptfond . U!«"'fo‘m"? occafion, b.VfpW, wn^bove com.
St™“*•" - —vs sraftiat-arars fes*
<^1 ^^purchafo'thingZthey^ere fo tvanfof^
doiag which they did not form t I Tt f f 5 fever,‘1 t,raes’ “ and begged him to g-o to P^JP ,
Pelew
Illands,
Pslias.
PEL [ ,o6
.n., mother very kind ; all EngUili my good men ;
much forry he could not fpeak to the king thejumber
of fine things the Englifh had got. Then be rec k
' oned up the prefents which had been given him, de-
firing that they might be properly diftnbuted among
the chiefs, and requefting that particular care might be
taken of two glafs pedeftals, which he begged might
be prefented to his father.
We have given this (hurt hiftory of Lee Boo, be-
canfe it exhibits in a ftrong light the manners of the
natives of the Pelew iflands, to wh.ch we know no-
thing fimilar in the hiflory of man from the favage
ftate to that of civilization. They appear to have had
no communication with any other people, and were
Tcr neither treacherous, cruel, nor cowardly. Ihey
are a (hiking inltance of the weaknefs of all the philo-
fophic theories by which mankind are ufually traced
from their origin through the feveral ftnges of fava-
gifm, barbarifm, and civilization, down to the period
of refinement, ending in effeminacy f
Since the publication of Captain Wdfon s voyage
J.e have fome further accounts of thefe iflands, all
confirming .vhat we were firft told of the gentteneft of
the oeople. Two armed fhips were, by order of the
court of diredors, fitted out at Bombay m 1790.
the purpofe of furveying the iflands of Pelew, and fur-
nifliing the natives with domeftic animals, and fuch
other things as might add to the comforts of life.
Among the prefents to the king were fwords and
other European implements of war ; of which it is at
lead poffible that he and his people might have been
equally happy had they remained for ever in total igno-
rance ^ The foundation of a fort was hkewife laid on
one of the iflands, and poffefiion of it taken in the name
of the Englifh; we truft with no remote view of en-
flaving the people, or of driving them from their, na¬
tive country. It has been likewile announced in a
late publication, that Captain M‘Clue, who command¬
ed the armed fhips, was fo delighted with the manners
of the king and his fubjeds, that he has refolved to
oafs the remainder of his days on thofe iflands at the
early age of 34; and we hope he will prove a father to
th PELIAS (fab. biff.), twin-brother of Neleus, was
fon of Neptune by Tyro, daughter of Salmoneus. H.a
birth was concealed by his mother, who wifhed ner fa¬
ther to be ignorant of her incontinence. He was ex-
pofed in the woods, but his life was preserved by
fhepherds; and he received the name of f ™
a foot of the colour of lead in his face. Some time at
ter Tyro married Cretheus, fon of zEolus, king of lol-
chos/and became mother of three children, of whom
jEion was the eldeft. Pdias vifued hu motherl and
was received in her family; and after the death of
Cretheus, he unjuftly feized the kingdom, which be¬
longed not to him, but to the children of Tyro by the
deceafed king. To ftrengthen himfelf in his ufurpation,
Pdbs confuked the oracle ; and when he was told to
beware of cne of the defeendants of zEolus, who fliould
come to his court with one foot fliod and tae other
bare, he privately removed the fon o^ after he
had openlv declared that he was dead. 1 befe piecau-
ti n, proved vain. Jafon, the Ion of zLfon, who had
been educated by Chiron, returned to lolcnos, when
come to years of maturity ; aud having loll oils, of lua
„ ] PEL
fhoes in crofling the river Anaurus or the Everms, Pe-
lias immediately perceived that th’s was the peifon
whom he had fo much dreaded. His unpopularity
prevented him from afting with violence to a ftranger,
whofe uncommon drefs and commanding afpeft had
raifed admiration in the people. But his afonifhment
was greatly excited, when he faw Jafon arrive at his
palace, with his friends and his relations, and boldly
demand the kingdom which he had ufurped. Pehas,
confeious that his complaints were well-founded, en¬
deavoured to divert his attention, and told him that he
would voluntarily refign the crown to him, if he went
to Colchis to avenge the death of Phryxus, tie fon of
Athamas, whom aEeres had cruelly murdered He
further declared, that the expedition would be attend¬
ed with the greateft glory, and that nothing but t.ie
infirmities of old age had prevented himfelf from
vindicating the honour of his country, and the injuries
of his family, by punifhing the affaffin. 'Hits fo warm¬
ly recommended, was with equal warmth accepted by
the young hero, and his intended expedition was made
known all over Greece. While Jafon was abfent in the
Argonautic expedition, Pelias murdered zLfon and
all his family ; but, according to the more received
opinion of Ovid, ^fon was ftill living when the Ar¬
gonauts returned, and he was reflorcd to the flower ot
youth by the magic of Medea. This change in the
vigour and the conflitution of iEfon aflomihed all the
inhabitants of lolchos; and the daughters of Pelias, who
have received the' patronymic ot Pehades, exprefled
their defire to fee their father’s infirmities vamfh by
the fame powerful magic. Medea, who wifhed to a-
venge the injuries which her hufband Jafon had re¬
ceived from Pelias, raifed the defires of the Peliades,
by cutting an old ram to pieces, and boiling the nefh
in a cauldron, and then turning it into a fine young
lamb. After they had feen this fucceisful experiment,
the Peliades cut their father’s body to pieces, after they
hid drawn all the blood from his veins, on the aflu-
rance that Medea would repl'enifh them by her won¬
derful power. The limbs were immediately put into
a cauldron of boiling water ; but Medea fuffered the
flefh to be totally confumed, and refufed to give the
promifed affiftance, and the bones of Pelias did not
even receive a burial. The Peliades were four m num¬
ber, Alcefte, Pifidice, Pelopea, and Hippothoe, ta
whom Hyginus adds Medufa. Their mother’s name
was Anaxibia, the daughter of Bias or Philomache,
the daughter of Amphion. After this ]«.rncide, the
Peliades fled to the court of Admetus, where Acaftus,
the fon-in-law of Pelias, purfued them, and took their-
protedor prifoner. The Peliades died, and were bu¬
ried in Arcadia. on
PELICAN, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
Pelican, in chemiftry, is a glafs alembic con¬
fining of one piece. It has a tubulated capital, from
which two oppoiite and crocked beaks, pafs out, and
enter again at the belly of the cucurbit. Phis veffel
has been contrived for a continued diftillation and co-
hob^tion, which chemiffs call circulation. 1 he volatile
parts of fubftances put into this veffel rife into the ca¬
pital, and are obliged to return through the crooked
beaks into the cucurbit; and this without interruption,
or luting and uniuting the veflek. * .
Although the pelican feems to be a very convenient
3
Ptlias,
Pelican.
PEL [
Fcllcanus inflrmnent, it is nevertbelefs little ufed, and even
niuch neglected at prefent; either becaufe the modern
chemifts have not fo much patience as the ancient che-
mifts had for making long experiments ; or becaufe
they find that two matrefies, the mouth of one of
which is inferted into the mouth of the ocher, produce
the fame efFeft.
PEL 1C ANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of anferes. The bill is ftraight, without
teeth, and crooked at the point; the face is, naked
and the feet are j-nlmated. Mr Latham enumerates5
no lefs than 30 different fpecies of this genus, befides
varieties. The moil remarkable fcem to be thefe that
follow ;
1. The carbo, or corvorant, fometimes exceeds feven
pounds in weight; the length three feet four; the
extent four feet two; the bill duiky, five inches long,
deftitute of noilrils ; the bafe of the lower mandible 1s
covered with a naked yellow fkin, that extends under
the chin, and forms a fort of pouch ; a loofe flein of
the fame colour reaches from the upper mandible round
the eyes and angles of the mouth ; the head and neck
are of a footy blacknefs, but under the chin af the
male the feathers are white ; and the head in that fex
is adorned with a fiioit, loofe, pendant creft ; in fome
the creft and hind-part of the head are ftreaked with
white. The coverts of the wings, the fcapulars, and
the back,, are of a deep green, edged with black, and
gloffed with blue ; the quill-feathers and tail dufky ;
the legs are (host, ftrong, and black; the middle claw
ferrated on the iafide; the irides are of a light aih-
colour. b
^ Thefe birds occupy the higheft parts of the cliffs
that impend over the fea : they make their nefts of
lucks, fea-tang, grnfs, &c. and lay fix or feven white
eggs ot an oblong form. In winter they difperfe a-
long the ihores, and vifit the frefh waters, where they
make great havoc among the fifir. They are remark¬
ably voracious, haying a moil hidden digeftion, pro¬
moted by the infinite quantity of fmall worms that fill
their inteftines. The corvorant has the rankeft and
moft difagreeable fmell of any bird, even when alive.
Its form is difagreeable; its voice hoarfeand croakiW,
and its qualities bafe. Thefe birds, however, have
been trained to fiih like falcons to fowl. Whitelock
te Is us, that he had a call of them manned like hawks
and which would come to hand. He took much plea!
lure m them; and relates,' that the beft he had
was one prefented him by Mr Wood, mailer of the
corvorants to Charles I. It is well known that the
Clunefe make great ufe of thefe birds, or a congeue-
p°rofit m flfhmg 5 and that n0t f°r amufeinent» but
2. The gracnlus, or ihag, called in the north of
England the crane, is much infetior in fize to the cor-
ZTnx-'th length \s 27 inche8; the breadth three
teec >llx the weight three pounds three quarters. The
bill is four inches long, and more fiender than that of
the preceding: the head is adorned with a creft two
inches long, pointing backward ; the whole plumage
of the upper part of this bird is of a fine and very ihi-
buAh^W featherS a PurP1Jfc black;
but the lower part of the back, the head, and neck
wholly green ; the belly is duiky ; the tail of a duiky
IQ7 1 P E L
hue, tinged with green ; the legs are black, and like Pdicanuj.
thole or the corvorant. •    ■
. Eotb tbefe kinds agree in their manners, and breed
m the fame places; and, what is very Ilrange in
web-footed birds, will perch and build in trees:
both fwim with their head quite ereft, and are very
oifficult to be Ihot; for, like the grebes and divers
as foon as they fee the flafh of the gun, they poo
under water, and never rife but at a confideraUe de¬
fiance.
3. The baffanus, gannet, or folan goofe, weighs
leven pounds ; the length is three feet one inch • th >
breadth fix feet two inches. The ! ill is fix inches
long, Ilraight almoit to the point, where it inclines
down ; and the fides are irregularly jagged, that it
may hold its prey with more fecurity : about an inch
from the bale of the upper mandible is a fiiarp procefs
pointing forward; it has no noftrils; but in their place
a long furrow, that reaches almoft to the end of the
bill . the whole is of a dirty white, tinged with alh-
coJour. The tongue is very fmall, and placed low in
the mouth ; a naked ficin of a fine blue furrounds the
eyes, which are of a pale yellow, and are full of vi¬
vacity : this bird is remarkable for the quicknefs of
its light. Martin tells us, that fo/an is derived from
an Inin word expreffive of that quality.
From the corner of the mouth is a narrow ffp of
black oarc Ikin, that extends to tke hind part of the
head ; beneath the chin is another, that, like the pouch
of tne pelican, is dilatable, and of fize fufficient to
contain five or fix entire herrings; which in the breed¬
ing feafon it carries at once to its mate or young
The young birds, during the firft year, differ great-
y in colour from the old ones; being of a dufky hue,
fpev.kled with numerous triangular white foot0 • and
at that time referable in colours the fpeekled diver.
Lach bird, if left undifturfced, would only lay one egg *
in the year; but if that be taken away, they will lay
another; if that 13 alfo taken, then a third; but never
more that feafon. Their egg is white, and rather lefa
than that of the common goofe 5 the neft is large, and
formed of any thing the bird finds floating on the wa-
ter, inch as grafs, fea-plants, Ihavings, &c. Thefe
birds frequent the Ifie of Alifa, in the Frith of Clyde -
he rocks adjacent to St Kilda ; the Stalks of Soulif’
kerry, near the Orkneys ; the Skelig Tfies, off the
Ffh [reLmd ; and the Bafs Ifle> i* the
I nth of Edinburgh : the multitudes that inhabit thefe
p aces are prodigious. Dr Harvey's elegant account
of the latter, will ferve to give fome idea of the num¬
bers of thefe, and of the other birds that annually mi¬
grate to that little fpot. y
“ d here is a fmall ifland, called by the Scotch Bafs
JJland, not more than a mile in circumference ; the
furface is almoft wholly covered during the months of
May and June with nefts, eggs, and young birds ; fo
that it is fcarcely poffible to walk without treading on
them : and the flocks of birds in flight are fo prodi¬
gious as to darken the air like clouds ; and their noife
is inch, that you cannot without difficulty hear your
next neighbour’s voice. If.you look down upon the
ea from the top of the precipice, you will fee it on
“de covered with infinite numbers of birds of
different kinds, fwimming and hunting for their prey :
O a if
PEL
[ io8 1
PEL
if in failing round the ifland you furvey the hang.ng
cliffs, you may fee in every cra^g or fiflure oi toe bro¬
ken rocks innumerable birds of various forts and fizes,
more than the liars of heaven when viewed in a ferene
ni rht: if from afar you fee the diftant flocks, either
flying to or from the ifland, you would imagine them
to be a vaft fwarm of bees.” , , r r
Nor do the rocks of St Kilda feem to he lefs fre¬
quented bv thefe birds ; for Martin affures us, that
the inhabitants of that fmall ifland confume annually
no lefs than 22,6co young birds of this faeces, _be-
fldes an amazing quantity of their eggs, thefe being
their principal fupport throughout the year : they
preferve both eggs and fowls in pyramidal Hone build-
•T • . i *».u a. „fkor. r»rpfprvp them
them the hatching fowls on either fide can always take
hold of one’s cloths ; and they will often fit until they
are attacked, rather than expofe their eggs to the dan¬
ger of being deftroyed by the fea-gulls; at the fame
time, an equal number fly about, and furnilh food for
their mates that are employed in hatching ; and there
are, belides, large flocks of barren fowls of the diffe¬
rent tribes that frequent the rocks of St Nilna.
“ The folan geefe equal almoft the tame ones in
fize. The common amufement of the hemng-fiihers
(how the great rtrength of this fowl. 1 ^e fifhers hx
a herring upon a beard which has a fmall we gut un-
der it, to fink it a little below the furface of the fea-
the folan goofe, obferving the fifh, darts down upon it
me b > O fnrre. that he runs
preferve both eggs and fowls in pyramidal hone build- t e 0 a b > k ^ p much force, that he runs
from moifture. i *=> «■ ,
at the hazard of their lives, either by climbing the
moll difficult and narrow paths, where (to appear¬
ance) they can barely elmg, and that too at an amazing
height over the raging fea; or elle, being lowered down
from above, they colka their annual provifion, thus
hanging in midway air ; placing them whole depend¬
ence on the uncertain footing of one perfon, who
holds the rope by which they are fufpended at the
top of the precipice. The young birds are a favou¬
rite diffi with the North Britons in general -. during
the feafon, they are conftantly brought from the Bafs
Ifle to Edinburgh, fold at zod. a piece, are roatted,
and ferved up a little before dinner as a whet.
Mr Macaulay, miffionary from the general allembiy
to St Kilda, gives the following account of them in
that ifland : “ Thefe rocks are in fummer totally co¬
vered with folan geefe and other fowls, and appear at
a dittance like fo many mountains covered with fnow.
The nefts of the folan geefe, not to mention thole of
other fowls, are fo clofe,that when one walks between
"b^Th^foiantceftrepair to St KMa in the month
of March, and continne there till after the beginmng
©f November. Before the middle of that month they,
and all the other fea-fowls that are fond of this coait,
retire much about the fame time into fome other ^
vourite regions ; fo that not a Angle fowl belonging o
their element is to be feen about St Kilda from toe
beginning of winter down to the middle of February.
Before the young folan geefe fly off, they are arge
than their mothers, and the fat on their breads is fome-
times three inches deep. Into what quarter o. w
world thefe tribes of wild fowl repair, after winter fets
in whether into the northern ocean, tne native country
and winter quarters of herrings in general, or into iome
other region near the fun, or whether they be ot tuc
fleeping kind, they who pry into the myftenes of na¬
tural hiftory, or have converfed much with writers of
voyages, can belt explain (a). I lhall only pretend
to fay, that thefe different nations of the feathered
(A) The continuance of thefe birds is longer or ffiorter in the ifl^
cleave their firft egg; but, in general the time f bre\dl^ 8 tier principal food) out of thofe
^ide with the arrival of the herring, and the migration of that filh‘ th<5[r whole circuit round
ffeas. W It is probable therefore that thefe birds attend the as a fare prefage of
the Britifli iflands ; the appearance of the foimer be g Y J f h h mouth of the Tagus,
the approach of the latter. It migrates we are told, in queft of Of the extenfive
teine frequently feen off Lifbon during the month ot September, or, as - Y^^^^ Ara;c Zoology . « jt
migrations of this w« h»« fouthward 8, far « South'Caroli»a.
inhabits the coaft of Newfoundland, where it b , d _ b er voluntarily flics over land, is
In Europe, it is common on the coaft of Norway and c land but^^ G;braltar, where it has been
*ot feen in the Baltic. It wfandfer8J°L^ Si as Greenland. In northern Afla, it has been once
feen in December, plunging for kMmae. ^ g t with in the fouthern hemifphere, ■ in the Pacific
feen by Steller off Bering s die ; but has been frequent y _ Holland Captain Cook alio faw them in his
Ocean’; particularly in numterB about New they had been feen eltewhere
paffage from England to the Cape of Good rtope, a wIth a few black feathers in the tail and
Among thofe obferved in the South Sea, is t y _/ jflands, but on our coafts, one having been
among” the fccondaries. They fre found not ^JY °" ln the month of Auguft, the
brought to me a few years ago which ^ their northerB migrations: he has feen them paffing the
time accurate naturahft has obferved in . , wenther th4y fly high ; in ftorms they fly low, and
thole day in flockt. front five to 'n -oh - -1m “eath r th^y V intavCT/s> but foUovr,
near the Ihore ; but never croft over the Und, even when a Day P Ma of the p5„ies made a
at an equal diftance, the coorfe of the bay, and «Eula y b y p » ;nto the fca, made the
fort of halt for the take of filhtng: they f-jd ‘o a jaft he.ght, ^ 8pnrfued their route. Our author
in thefpring!butwass"in ,iesM!,ei
Sit appears that they annually encircle the whole ifland.
pel r
IMicanus. kind are taught to choofe the propereft habitations
i—■“■V—-"' and feeding places, and to fhift their quarters feafon-
ably, by the unerring hand of God.
“ From the account given above of the multitudes
of Tea-fowls that feek their food on this coaft, we may
juftly conclude that there mutl be inexhauftible ftores
of firti there. Let us for a moment confine our at¬
tention to the confumption made by a fingle fpecies
of fowls. The folan goofe is almoft infatiably voraci¬
ous ; he flies with great force and velocity, toils all the
day with very littie intermiflion, and digefls his food
in a very fliort time; he difdains to eat any thing
warfe than herring or mackarel, unlefs it be in a very
hungry place, which he takes care to avoid or aban¬
don. We fliall take it for granted that there are
100,000 of that kind around the rocks of St Kilda ;
and this calculation is by far too moderate, as no lefs
than 20,000 of this kind are deftroyed every year, in¬
cluding the young ones. We fliall fuppofe, at the
fame time, that the folan geefe fojourn in thefe feas
for about feven months of the year ; that each of
them deftroys five herrings in a day ; a fubfiftence in¬
finitely poor for fo greedy a creature, unkfs it were
more than half fupported at the expence of other
fiflies. Here we have 100,000,000 of the lineft fifh
in the world devoured annually by a Angle fpecies of
the St Kilda fea-fowls.
“ If, in the next place, it be confidered, that much
the greateft part of the other tribes have much the
fame appetite for herring, and purfue it from place to
place, in the feveral migrations it makes from one fea
to another, the confumption mull be prodigioufly great.
Taking thefe into the account, and allowing them the
fame quantity of food, and of the fame kind, by rea-
fon of their vaft fuperiority in point of numbers, tho’
their ftomachs are confiderabiy weaker; we fee there
are no lefs than 200,000,000 of herrings fwallowed
up every year by the birds of a very fmall diftrift of
rocks, which occupy fo inconfiderable a fpace in the
Deucaledonian ocean.
“ Should all the articles of this account be fuftain-
ed, articles which feem no lefs juft than plain, and
fhould our curiofity lead us into a new calculation, al¬
lowing between 600 and 700 to every barrel, it is
evident that more than 330,00s barrels are annually
tarried away by fuch creatures.”
Thefe birds are well known on moft of the coafts of
England, but not by the name of the Solan gooje. In
Cornwall and in Ireland they are called gannets ; by
the Wtllh, gan. Mr Ray fuppofed the Corni/h gan-
Jiet to be a fpecies of large gull: a very excufable
JTuftake ; for during his fix months refidence in Corn-
wall, he never had an opportunity of feeing that bird,
except flying ; and in the air it has the appearance of
3 *u * t^lat fuppofition he gave oui fkiu the
title of catarafta, a name borrowed from Ariftotle, and
which ad mil ably exprefles the rapid defeent of this
bird on its prey Mr Moyle firft deteded this mif-
take ; and the Rev. Dr William Borlafe, by prefent-
mg us with a fine fpecimen of this bird, confirms the
opinion of Mr Moyle; at the fame time giving the
iollowing natural hiftory of the bird.
“ The gannet comes on the coafts of Cornwall in
the latter end of fummer or beginning of autumn;
ttovermg over th# fhoals of pilchards that come down
109 ] PEL
to us through St George’s Channel from the northern Pelicama,
fea. The gannet feldom comes near the land, but is v ^
conftant to its prey, a fare fign to the fifhermen that
the pilchards are on the coafts ; and when the pil¬
chards retire, generally about the end of November,
the gannets are feen no more. The bird now fent
was killed at Chandour, near Moiintfbay, Sept. 30.
1762, after a long ftruggle with a water-fpaniel, af-
fifted by the boatmen ; for it was ftrong and pugna¬
cious. The perfon who took it obferved that it had
a tranfparent membrane under the eye-lid, with which
it covered at pleafure the whole eye, without obfeuring
the fight or fhutting the eye-lid ; a gracious provifion
for the fecuricy of the eyes of fo weighty a creature,
whofe method of taking its prey is by darting head¬
long on it from a height of 150 feet 01 more into the
water. About four years ago, one of thefe birds fly¬
ing over Penzance, (a thing that rarely happ-ns), and
feeing fome pilchards lie on a fir plank, in a cellar
ufed for curing fifh, darted itfelf down with fueh vio¬
lence, that it {truck its bill quite through the board
(about an inch and a quarter thick), and broke its
neck.”
Thefe birds are fonaetimes taken at fea by a decep¬
tion of the like kind; the fi{hermen fattening a pilchard
to a board, as in St Kil la they faften herrings, and
which in the fame manner decoys the unwary gannet
to its own deftruStion.
In the Catarada of Juba may be found many cha#-
rafters of this bird : he fays, that the bill F toothed ;
that its eyes are fiery ; and that its colour is white :
and in the very name is exprefled its furious defeent
on its prey. The reft of his accounts favour of fable.
—We are uncertain whether the gannet breeds in any
other parts of Europe bftides our own iflands ; except,
as Mr Ray fufpefts, the fula (deferibed in Ciufius’s
Exotics, which breeds in Ferot Ifles) be the fame bird.
4. The fula, or boohy, is fomevvhat lefs than a
goofe ; the bafis of the bill yellow, and of bare feathers;
the eyes of a light-grey colour; the lower part of tiie
bill of a light brown. The colours of the body are
brown and white ; but varied fo in different indivi¬
duals, that they cannot be deferibed by them. 1 heir
wings are very long ; their legs and feet pale yellow,
flraped like thofe of corvorants They frequent the
Bahama iflands, where they breed all- months in the
year, laying one, two, or three eggs, on the bare
rock. While young, they are covered with a white
down, and continue, fo till they are almoft ready to
fly. They feed on filh like the reft of this genus ;
but have a very troublefome enemy of the man-of-war
bird, which lives on tne fpoils obtained from other-
fea-birds, particularly the booby. As fuon as this
rapacious enemy perceives that the booby has taken a
fiih, he flies furioufly at him, upon which the former
dives to avoid the blow ; but as he cannot fwallow his
prey below water, he is foon obliged to come up again
with the fifh in his bill as before, when he fuffers a
new a {fault; nor does his enemy ceafe to perfecute
him till he lets go the fifh, which the other immedi¬
ately carries off.
5. ! he great boohy, called by Linnaeus pelicani
Baljiini puffuS)' frequents the rivers and fea coafts of
Florida, purfuing and devouring fiflies like others of
the genu», Mr Catelby informs us, th.at he has fe¬
ver aL
7 ethanr s
i-ynop/is of
Joints.
P E I,
PeUcwuu, veral tlweg found them difabkd.
on the fhove ; whence he thinks tnat they meet with
(harks or other voracious fiihes, which deftroy them.
The bird is about the frze of a goofe ; the head and
neck remarkably prominent; the back of a brown
colour; the belly dufity white; the feet black, and
draped like thofe of a cwrvorunt ; the head elegantly
fpotted with white ; the wings extend feet when
fpread. Both this fpecies and the lad have a joint in
the upper mandible -of the bill, by which they can
raife it confiderably from the lower one without open¬
ing the mouth.
6. The aquilns, or man-of-war bird, is in the body
about the hze di a large fowl; in length three, feet,
and in breadth 14. (he bill is (lender, five inches
long, and much curved at the point ; the colour is
dulky ; from the bafe a reddifh dark coloured (kin
fpreads on each fide of the head, taking in the eyes :
from the under mandible hangs a large membranace¬
ous bag attached fome wsy down the throat, as in
the pelican, and applied to the fame ufes; the colour
of this is a fine deep red, fprinkled cn the fiJea with a
few fcattered feathers:, the whole plumageisbrownhh-
black, except th e w ih g covert s, which have a rufous tinge:
the tail is long, and much forked ; the outer feathers
are 18 inches "or more in length; the middle ones from
feven to eight: the legs are fmall, ail the toes are
webbed together, and the webs are deeply indented;
the colour of them is dulky red.
The female differs in wanting the membranaceous
pouch under the chin ; and in having the belly white .
in other things is greatly like the male.
The frigate pelican, or man-of-war bird (b), as. it
is by fome°called, is chiefly, if not wholly, met with
between the tropics, and ever out at fea, being only
feen on the wing. It is ufual with other birds, when
fatigued with flying, to reft themfelves on the furface
of the water ; but nature, from the exceeding length
of wing ordained to this, has made the rifing there¬
from utterly inipofiible, at lead writers not only fo in¬
form us, but every one whem we have talked with
avers the fame ; though perhaps this is no defeft of
nature, as it fcarcely feems to require much reft ; at
lead, from the length of wing, and its apparent eafy
gliding motion (much like that of the kite), it appeals
capable of fuftaining very long flights ; for it is often
feen above 100, and not unfrequently above 200,
leagues from land. It has indeed been known to
fettle on the mafts of (hips ; but this is not a frequent
circmnftance, though it will often approach near, and
hover about the top-maft flag. Sometimes it foars io
high in the air as to be fcarcely vifible, yet at other-
times approaches the furface of the fea, where, hover-
ing at fome diftance, the moment he fpies a fiflr, it
darts down on it with the utmoft rapidity, and feldom
without fuccefs, (lying upwards again as quick as it
defeended. It is alfo feen to attack* gulls and other
*■ See the
aacoimt of
the fula or
booby ipe-
cies above.
[ no ] PEL
and fometimes dead, birds which have caught a fi(h, when it oblige? them PeHcami*
to difgarge it, and then take care to feize it before it
falls into the water. It is an enemy to the flying-fiih ;
for, on their being attacked beneath by the dolphin
and other voracious fivh, to efcape their j.lws, thefe fe-
mi-volatiles leap out of the water in clutters, making
ufe of their long fins as wings to buoy them up in the
air, which they are enabled to do fo long as they re¬
main wet ; but the moment they become dry are ufe-
lefs, and drop into their proper element again : during
their flight, the frigate darts in among the (hoal, and
feizes one or two at lead. Thefe birds know the ex-
adt place where the fifh are to rife from the bubbling
of the water, which diredls them to the fpot ; in this
they are accompanied by gulls and other birds, who
act in concert with them.
Thefe birds, which, though not uncommon every¬
where within the tropics, yet are Jefs frequent in fome
places than others, were feen by Cook in 30r deg. In
the old route of navigators, they are mentioned fre¬
quently as being met with at Afcenfion Ifland, Ceylon,
Taft Indies, and (Jhina(c). Dampierfaw them in great
plenty in the idand of Aves in the Weft Indies. Our
later navigators talk of them as frequenting various
places of the South Sea, about the Marquefas, Eafter
1(1 es, and New Caledonia, alfo at Otaheitee, though at
this Isft place not in fuch plenty as in many others.
They are faid to make neils on trees, if there be any
within a proper diltance; otherwife on tire rocks. They
lay one or two eggs of a flelh colour, marked with crim-
fon fpots. The young birds are covc-red with greyifh
white down : the legs are of the fame colour, and the
bill is white. There is a variety of this fpecies, which
is kfs, meafuring only two feet nine inches in length s
the extent from wing to wing i& five feet and a half. The
bill is five inches long, and red; the bafe of it, and bare
fpace round the eye, are of the fame colour; the noftrils
are fufficiently apparent, and appear near the bafe ; the
(hape of the bill is as in the larger one : the head, hind
part of the neck, and upper parts of the body and wings,
are ferruginous brown ; the throat, fore part of the
neck, and bread, are white ; the tail is greatly forked as
in the other; the legs are of a dirty yellow.
“ In my collection (fays Latham) is a bird very fi-
milar to this, if not the fame : general colour of the
plumage full black ; breaft and belly mottled with a(h-
colour ; the inner ridge of the wing the fame ; the bill
has the long furrow, as is feen in the greater one; but
the noftrils are fufficiently apparent, being about half
an inch in length, rather broader at that part near the
bafe. This has a large red pouch at the chin and
throat, as in the former fpecies. It is moft likely that
mine is the male bird, as others, fufpedfed to be of
the oppofite fex, have little or no traces of the jugular
pouch. This fuppofition feems juftified from a pair
in the Hunterian mufeum, in both of which the plu¬
mage is wholly black; the one has a large pouch, the
other
(Bl It is alfo called taiUeur, or tailor, by the French, from the motion of its tail reprefenting a pair of
(hears when opened ; and when on the wing, it opens and (huts them frequently, in the manner of ufing that
Ofbcck*to*be°wie of the forts of birds ufed in fitting by the Chinefe.
Plate
CCCLXXX
PEL [ ,
PEkamis. other deaitute of .. Some have fuppofed that the
L^V greater and kffer frigates are the fame bird, in diffe¬
rent periods of srge
7. T he onocrotalus, or pelican of Afia, Africa, and
America j though Linnaeus thinks that the pelican of
America rrny poifibly be a diftinft variety. This crea
ture, in Africa, is much larger in the body than a
fvvan, and fomewhat of the fame fhape and colour. Its
four toei are all webbed together ; and its neck in fome
meafure refembles that of a fwan : but that iingularitv
in which it differs from all other birds is in the bill and
the great pouch underneath. This enormous bill is
15 inches from the point, to the opening of the mouth,
which is a good way back behind the eves. At the
bafe the bill is fomewhat greenifh, hut varies towards
the end, being of a reddifh blue. It is very thick in
the beginning, but tapers off to the end, where it hooks
downwards. The under chap is ftill more extraordi¬
nary; for to the lower edges of it hang a bag, reach¬
ing the whole length of the bill to the neck, which is
laid to be capable of containing 15 quarts of water.
I his bag the bird has a power of wrinkling up into
the hollow of the under-chap ; but by opening the bill,
and putting one’s hand down into the bag, it may be
diftended at pleafure. I he fkin of which it is formed
will then be feen of a biuifh afh colour, with many
fibres and veins running over its furface. It is not co¬
vered with feathers, but with a fhort downy fubtlance
as fmooth and as foft as fattin, and is attached all along
to the under edges of the chap, is fixed backward to
nearTfdf ^ ^ ^ HSaments> and caches
Pn hff way down- When this bag is empty, it is not
feen ; but when the bird has fifhed with fuccefs, it is
en incredible to what an exteut it is often feen dila-
F°rf.tliel firft th,ng the Pelican does in fifhing is
to fill up the bag ; and then it returns to digeft its bur-
den a leifure. When the bill is opened to its widelt
extent, a petfon may run his head into the bird’s
mouth and conceal it in this monftrous pouch, thus
towht! Rr 77 fmgUlar PurP°1'tS- Yet this is nothing
to what Ruyfch affures us, who avers that a man has
been feen to hide his whole leg, boot and all, in the
monftrous jaws of one of thefe animals. At firft
appearance this would feem impoffible, as the fides
of the under chap, from which the bag depends, are
not above an inch afunder when the bird’s bill is firft
“ r th m thity ,arerCapaHle of great Reparation ;
am. u muft neceffanly be fo, as the bird preys upon
and ^,dcs t!:iern by dozens in its pouch
i ertre affirms, that it will hide as many fifh as will
ferve 60 hungry men for a meal. *
cularlv8WaSi_°nCe a^° known in Europe, parti-
CO y Thn£r,a,Vbu,t.it, havedetoedow
accoom.L k ,he b'r<) of wh'';h f° man, fabulous
of water for th * b .ood» and ,t8 carrying a provifion
Buf th^abfurdlty rererVOir ¥'*frt-
and as for the latter ,ho ,,.1“ “'T" ■ "‘"t'"™ 'tfelf!
different purpofes than tha ‘7"fiir -f3 7 ,0r ^
Chvtgero, » h,s Hiftor, oi Mexii, favs
Mex-r. %Te’0l ra,h" °f Ois bhd fo
notched one. Although"the bl11’ the °ther 3
ed with this birf T ^ h Europeans are acquainc-
wun this bird, I do not know whether they are
i* 3 PEL
equally well acquainted with the fingular circumftance
o. its affifting the fick or hurt of its own fpecies ; a
circumftance which the Amencms fometimes take ad¬
vantage of to procure fifh. without troi - ’c. They take
a ivt pelican, break its wing, and after tying it to a
rce, conceal thcmfelves in ti e neighbourhood ; there
they watch the coming of the other pelicans with their
provihons and as foon as they fee tlul? throw up the
h.h from their pouch, run in, and after leaving a little
for die captive bird, they carry off the reft.” °
Phis amazing pouch may be confidered as analogous,
to the crop in other birds ; with this difference, that aa
theirs he at the bottom of the gullet, fo this is placed
at e top. } hus’ 38 pigeons and other birds rnace-
rate their food for their young in ti eir crops, and then
lupply them; fo the pebcan fupplies its young by a
moie ready contrivance, and macerates their food m its
biJft or icores it for its own particular fuftenance
xhe ancients were particularly fond of giving this
bud admirable qualities and parental affedtions : ftruck
perhaps, with its extraordinary figure, they were wil¬
ling to fupply it with as extraordinary appetites; and
having found it with a large refervoir, they were plea-
fed with turning it to the moft tender and parental
ufes. But the truth is, the pelican is a very heavy,
lluggifh, voracious bird, and verv ill fitted to take thofc
^ faUtK>ns Provifions a di>-
itant time, which we have been told they do.
fayS Lrbat’ has rtrong wings’ Rurniffied
t ' ^ick plumage of an afh-colour, as are the reft of
ihc feathers over the whole body. Its eyes are very
.mall, wnen compared with the fize of its head ; there
is a iadnefs in its countenance, and its whole air is me-
rted A ? f ff." and 1" K. motion, a,
he flamingo is fpnghtly and aaive. It is flow of flight *
no when ,t nfes to fly, performs it with difficult v^and
neceffity, wmld rmikelthefe'^birds chamge^their^fitu^ion^
ehher ftLveTr fl;31’"^ thC ^ = but the^
I hey are torpi4 and inaftive to the laft deoree, f©
that nothing can exceed their indolence but thAir glut¬
tony ; it is only from the ftimulations of hunger W
they are excited to labour ; for otherwife they would
continue a ways m fixed repofe. When they have nff-
thd £VCS ab°U.t °r 40 feet above the furface of
lea, they turn their head with one eye downwards
and continue to flv in that ppfture. As foon as they
perceive a fifh fufficiently near the furface, they dart
down upon it w.th the fvviftnefs of an arroW, feize it
with unerring certainty, and (tore it up in their pouch.
hey then rife again, though not without great labour,
and contmue hovermg and fiffiing, with their head on
one fide as before.
This work they continue with great effort and indu-
firy till them bag is full, and then they fly to land to
devour and digeft atle.fure the fruits of their induttry
Ihis, however, it would appear, they are not long in
performing; for towards night they have another hun¬
gry call and they again relii<aantly go to labour At
night, when their fifhing is over, and the toil of the
oa? crowned with fuccefs, thefe lazy birds retire a little
way from the fhore ; and, though with the webbed feet
and clumfy figure of a goofe, they will be concerned
to perch nowhere but upon trees among the light and
airy:
Peliean«f,
F E I,
[ 112 1
PEL
airy tenants of the for eft. There tliey take their re
' Fofe for the night; and often fpend a great part of the
day, except fuch times as they are f ttmg m
difmal folemnity, and, as it would feem, half
Their attitude is with the head refhng upon them
great bag, and that refting upon their breaft.^ 1 here
they remain without motion, or once changing them
Situation, till the calls of hunger break ^r repofe.
«nd till they find it indifpenfaMy neceftary to fill their
magazine for a frefii meal. Thus them i e is pen
■between fleeping and eating ; and our author ack-s,
that they are as foul as they are voracious, as they
tore every moment voiding excrements in heaps as large
as one's fill.
The fame indolent habits feem to attend them even
in preparing for incubation* and defending their young
when excluded. The female makes no preparation
for her neft, nor feems to choofe any place in pre¬
ference to lay in; but drops her eggs on the bare
ground, to the number of five or fix, and there _co
nues to hatch them. Attached to the place, without
any defire of defending her eggs or her young, the
tamely fits and fuffers them to be taken from under
her. 'Now and then {he juft ventures to peck, or to
cry out when a perfon offers to beat her oft.
yShe feeds her young with fifo macerated for fome
-time in her bag ; and when they cry, flies off for a ne
fupnly. Labat tells us, that he took two of thefe
when very young, and tied them by the leg to a poll
ftuck into the ground, where he had the F^afme o
feeimr the old one for feveral days come to feed them
remaining with them the greateft part of the day, and
. fpTnding^the night on the branch of a tree tha hung
Jver them. By thefe means they were all three be
come fo familiar, that they fuffered themfelves to be
handled; and the young ones v«y kmoly ac.ep
whatever fifh he offered them 1 he e thy always
put firft into their bag, and then fwaHowed at thei
ie'irii-™,, however, that they are Wt difagreeahlo
ond ufelefs domeftlcks ; their ghittemy can fcarcSy ^
Tri.fied • their fleflr fmells very rancid, and talle, a
Sind Scree worfe than it fmells. The natwe A-
merfoans kill vaft numbers ; not to eat, for they are
rot fit even for the banquet of a favage, but to con-
veit their large bags into purfes and tobacco-pouches.
They beftow no fmall pains in dreffing the flan wit
fait and aflies, rubbing it well with oil, and then
forming it to their purpofe. It thus becomes
and pliant, that the Spanifh women fometimes adorn
it with gold and embroidery to make work-bags of.
Yet ^witb all the feeming hebetude of this bird,
is not entirely incapable of inftruaion in a ome i
ftate Father Raymond affures us, that he *«s ieen
nnefo tame and well educated among the native A-
mericans that k would go off in the morning at the
word of command, and return before night to its
with its great pouch diftended with plunder .
sTpart*of which the favages would make it difgorge,
and a part they would permit it to referve for
» The pelican,” as Faber relates “ is not deft.-
tute of other qualifications. One of thofe which was
brought alive to the duke of Bavaria s court, where it
Jived ao years, feemed to be paffeffed of very uncom-
.*ion fenfations. It was much delighted m the com¬
pany and eotivcr&tioa of men, and in rrmfic both vo- ^
cal and inftrumental; for it would willmgly ftand, '
fays he “ by thofe that fung or founded the trum¬
pet • and ft retching out its head, and turning its ear
to the mufic, liftened very attentively to its harmony,
though its own voice was little pleafanter than the
braying of an aft.” Grfner teUs m, that the cm-
ppror Maximilian had a tame pelican which lived for
above 8o years, and that always attended his army on
their march. It was one of the largeft of the kind,
and had a daily allowance by the emperor’s orders.
As another proof of the great age to which the peli¬
can lives Aldrovandus makes mention of ene of theie
birds that was kept feveral years at Mechlin, and was
verily believed to be 50 years old.—We often fee thefe
birds at our fliews about town. , r *u
Mr Edwards, in Ir's Hiltory of Birds, defenbes the
pelican of America from one, the body of which was
font him fluffed and dried. From the point of the bill
to the angles of the mouth meafured 1 3 inches, and
the wing when clofed meafured 18 inches. The pouch
when dry appeared of the confidence and colour of a
brown dry ox’s bladder, having fibres running ft* whole
length, and blood-veffels eroding them ; and proceed-
ingfrom the fides of the lower part of the bill, which
opened into this pouch, its whole length. The greater
bone of the wing being broken, was found to be bg ,
hollow, void of marrow, and the fides of it thin as
parchment. Sir Hans Sloaue writes thus of it (fee
Nat. Hijl. of Jamaica, vol. u- p. 3 22-) - This feema
to be the fame with the white pelican, only of a darker
colour. They are frequent in all the feas of the hot
Weft Indies. They fifh after the fame manner as man-
of-war birds, and come into the flickered bays in ilorroy
weather, where they veiy often Pe[ch trees :
fly over the fea as gulls, and take the fifh when they
fov them, by falling down upon them, and they then
rife again and do the like. They are not reckoned
eood food. When they are feen at fea, it is a iign of
Ling near land.” Wafer, in his voyage and defcription
of the ifthmus of America, fays, 1 h.^ Pelican,
not found on the South Sea fide of the ifthmus, but
they abound on the northern fide: I hey are of a
dark grey colour, and under the throat hangs a bag :
the old ones are not eaten, but the young are good
meat.” Mr Edwards, in another place, gives the de¬
fcription of a pelican, which he fays is double the big-
nefs of the largeft fwan. His drawing was made from
the pelican fhown at London in 1745, which was
brought by Capt. Belly from the Cape of Good Hope,
where they are larger than anywhere elfe. The body,
lees, and feet, very much refemble the pehc«n of A-
merica ; and it differs little hut in the head and neck,
which laft is very long, likeafwan’s; the bdhs ftraighter,
and the upper part only hooked at theeni; the pouch
is {haped fomething different, hanging more down in the
middle. Mr Edwards thus defences it. ‘ From tae
point of the Wl to the angle of the mouth is 20 inches
of our Englifh mealure, which is fix inches more than
any natural hiitorian has found it ; the academy of
Paris having meafured one which was about 14 inches,
Paris meafure I fuppofe ; and our countryman, Wil¬
loughby, meafured one brought from Ruffu, whic
he makes 14 inches Englilh. 1 thought it fo-MthmS
incredible in Willoughby's defer^uon, that ajan
4
PEL [ ,
Pelican rtiould put hfs head into the pouch tinder the bill, till
pcSa. 1 faw ‘lt performed in this bird by its keeper, and am
lure a fecond man’s head might have been put in with
ft at the fame time.”
The Academy of Paris think the bird they have de-
feribed is the pelican of Ariftotle, and the Onocrota-
lus of Phny. They are alfo confirmed in the opinion
that this is a long-lived bird ; for, out of a great num¬
ber kept at Verfailles, none had died for more than 12
years, being the only animals kept in the menagery of
which fome have not died in that time. Some authors
fay they live 60 or 70 years.
Capt. Keeling, in his voyage to Sierra Leona, fays
the pelicans there are as large as fwans, of a white
colour, with exceeding long bills ; and M. Thevenot
m his travels to the Levant, obferves, that the pelicans
about fome part of the Nile near the Red Sea fwim
by the bank fide like geefe, in fuch great numbers that
they cannot be counted. Father Morolla, in his voy¬
age to Congo, fays pelicans are often met with in the
road to Smga, and are all over black, except on their
breaft, which is of a flefh colour like the neck of a
turkey. He adds further, that father Francis de Pa¬
via informed him, that on his journey to Singa he ob-
ierved certain large white birds, with long beaks, necks
and feet, which, whenever they heard the leaft found
ot an inftrument, began immediately to dance, and
leap about the rivers, where they always refide, and
whereof they were great lovers : this, he faid, he took
a great pkafure to contemplate, and continued often
upon the banks of the rivers to obferve.
It would extend our article beyond all proportion,
were we to touch on each individual fpecies of this ex-
en ive g^nus, together with their accidental varieties
fiTll h th,C,?ePU8 Is unqueftionably very curious, we
3, heie ^oin a lift of books, which fuch of our
readers as defire it may have recourfe to for further in-
formation : Sard’s Hijlory of Birds ; Natural Hf.
top of Jamaica ; Mem. de l'Academie Roy ale des Sciences
TdS Wl! t0m' troifieme Pattie, p.
00. Willoughby} Pennant's Britijh and Artlic Zoology ■
and Latham s Synopfts of Birds ; the laft of which iafhe
PFTnrOM We haveyet
1KLION (Diodorus Siculus See \ P^/v.
linderft^d, (Mela, V,Vgil,
tan of Theffaly near Offa, and hanging over the Sinus
Pelafgicus, or Pegaficus ; its top covered with pines
S]/ Co! W/v (0vid^ Said alfo to abc>«»d in
v d afii (VaL Fraccus). From this mountain was
but reMPfCaf u 4^lllIles’ calied pelias, which none
of F^7eA (an^Se°ff•)’ a town fituated on the confines
.tr^r-odt ;
7 Sinus Thermaicus.^Uwas^lTe
“voux/vX! t ^ CirCUmflue,:t
*3 1 PEL
fromTbv^b ClfS ^ t0 thC t0Wn’ but U CcP^ted PdUw
from it by the Ludias, running by the walls, and join- 11
ed to it by a bridge, (Livy) ; diftant from the Ceai2o
ftadia, the Ludias being fo far navigable, (Strabo) V
write Pe/l ^oft Greek authors
k t ? b;rih, Place of Philip, who enlarged
it, and afterwards of Alexander, (Strabo, Mela). Con
tmued to he the royal refideuce down to Perfes fl i-
Auw^ic1- P\haj Col,mia' C Pliny) 5 tolonia Julia
bnf ,oin^‘ . t ^erwards came to decline, with
cal ed .\ U;'"’,(Lucian)- 11 '' "<>w
P f t ri""5 h,e. LlHle Palace> (Holftenius).'
PelUus, both the gentilitious name and the epithet
(Lucan, Juvcnaj, Martial.)-Another Pella^ (Po-
fide the ‘ 3 T" ?.f tht D«'aP“li». on the other
„ l 7 Jordwi; abounding in water, like its cogno.
fStrioT-”!"1 ?I1acedon,a! b"7 by Macedonians,
fjfll 7 Sel',ucu!i (Enftbtus) ; anciently called
Buns, (Stephanus); Ap«mea, (Strabo); fituated
th nl narth*eaft °f Gerafa> (P^Rmy). Thi-
ther the Chnftiana, juft before the fiege of Jerufalem
by Titus, were divinely admonilhed to fly, (Eufe-
Tran’- ^ W3S ^ 1111X10/1 bounda,7 of the Penea, or
Tra^jordan country tp the north, (Jofephus).
TELLE PIER (James), a doftor of phvfic and
an enunent mathematician, was born at Manser"
and F "b 1810 I582‘ He Was an eKcelie»t Lati;
and French poet, a good orator, phyfician, and gram-
^7r C—™
black ; called alfo" the
French torteaux de fable. 7 tfte
film nyLfLICLE’ rm0nff r^yficians, denotes a thin
him or fragment of a membrane. Among- ehemlfE v
figmfies a thin furf.ee ofcryftal, uniformly rpr«i over
rei taTVaP°ra''d ,0 a «rta;" drgrL. "
one^fin^^u^^yfXf,0,^;3;3"’ (PaU'>
fon of JnmM P^lfon ron^fdl'oL C
born at Bezier, ,624, a„d educated in the ProtelCr
religion. He Sudied with fuecefs the La i„ 0^7
JiSftfT^ad-t l^rr-and’
rej^ma^ion^'lni)'^ be lludied thelai^at CallresS with
from whence he was not difeharged till four yearfafter
M eTnioverfyfaTd'To^fi^'t- t0„tl'C ft',d>;
religion. Louis XIV. bellowed mpon hta™Innu”i
peii K.n of 2oo0 ctoxn,, anJ he iikew|r . f
Z rP S‘- In r’676 he had "‘e abbey of &ment
He d "d" r.fi b S' Pr,'0ry. °f St at Auchl
tT n f 73* His principal works are, i The
^."n' £,FrT‘‘-A':ad'm^ 2' RefleSions on
Of Louis XIV ? HC‘ffin -4 V,13 12m°- 3-The Hiftory
in 3 vols tTmo'. 5' Le“m and M:fc'l‘ani«;
, aP1£LC7I!')’ a lelbral obferved by the Elem. in
honour of I'elops. A ram was facrifieed onThe occi
fio», which both prieUs and people were prohibited
P from-
PEL l ”
•*r ^ !"Lof,the Sc°o^n:S>"oX
-r K ;irAv'^ -oi for «he f^cc th.,
Pcliifnim. fficer was called s.xw; and white poplar was the
  *  1 maHe ufe of at this folemnity.
°nPELOPONNESUS, (Dionyfms), a large pemn-
r } to fomh of the reft of Greece ; called, as it
were, Pelopis nefus or infala, though Pr0PerJ not ^
•n.nd but a peninfula ; yet wanting but httle to.^
fre viz the ifthmus of Corinth, endmg a point
Ilk-the leaf of the platans or plane-tree. Anciently
fted JS and Pehfgia; a peninfula fecond to no
c£.tiea . i* Kptween two feas,
J enters on
Bztft.
S:; comitry for noblenefs; fmiated between two feas,
the Egean aril Ionian, and refembling a P^tonelea »
nf its angular recefles or Ways, (rliny,
7, do Mein) Strabo adds from Homer, that cue
’an^nt name, was ^r, ^ith the eprthet
/ • tn diftinguifti it from Iheffaly, called re/q/
"vicum. * Divided into fix parts; namely, “r>roll^ a‘
conica, Meffenia, Elis, Achaia, and Arcadia, (Mela).
K PELOPS^iltbSous hiftory, the fen of Tantalus
f Phrvtria went into Eli?, where he married
king o y^ ’ , f (Enomaus king of that
Hippodamia the daughter ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
country , a Ifthmus and compofes a
tory which ^s ey° called P'loponnefus,
left; Se %fofPClT: from hi. name and the
W°PELTA, a fmall, light, manageable buckler, ufed
a .it ancients. It was worn by the Amazons 1 he
by the ancients- have refembled an ivy leaf in
? hv mhers it is compared to the leaf of an Indian
fig^el td by Servil to the moon m her firft
•‘TeL^RIA, in botany: A^n, of^efficn-
T .r-Jeand hr the'natural ‘method racking under the
foTorden »?»»*• 'rhe filiOTla iseMir'!’ and y
? biclted eompreiTed-plane, -d not open,„g.
th^’elu, didantto ftadi?
sr'h aifed
o2\ N.Lat. 31 . following account of this
V^^e&tJSn, a. well a, that
place : I ^ pe.i ^ i8 i0ft m the oh-
of the other ancie f YP before Herodotus.
fcurity of time- ,h”0ent„L-e of the country ou the
A.it command d ^raohs it a conf.derable
fdet °H “’e of them raifed a rampart of 30 league,
fortrefs . one ^ ^ town to Heliopolis.
in length from ^h of nations that the long
Bl\l IfCHna tho e wLh tlie weaknefs of the Greek
wall of China, t round Conftantmople, and
emperors led lhc at an inimenfe expence, were but
many others, hi people ;. thefe examples
feeble barr.eta X™ toVin feeurity agaiuft
have taught us, 'h“f, (orm \varr;ors within kfell, and
^Tn7muft be oppofed to mem. Tto rampart,
, ] PEL
which covered Pelufrum, did not ftop Cambyre., who Mto.
attacked it with a formidable army. The feEb <• <*a-
rafter of the ton of Amafi,, unable to prevent the de-
fertion of 200,000 Egyptians, who went to found a
colony beyond the cataraa., had not force fufSc.ent to
opoofe that torrent which broke in upon hr. country.
Cambyfes, after a bloody battle, wherein he cut h,»
enemies to pieces, entered Pelufrum in triumph. 1 hat
memorable day, which faw the defertion of one part
of the Egyptian militia and the turn of the ot.ier,
the true epoch of the fubjugation of that rich cou -
try. Since that period, it has palfed under the yoke
of the Perfrans, the Macedonians, the Romans, the
Sreeks, the Arabs, and the Turks. A continued
flavery of more than 2000 years teems to fecure t.iem
an eternal bondage. c
“ Herodotus, who vifited Pelufium fome years a.tee¬
the conqueft of Cambyfes, relates an anecdote which
I cannot omit: ‘ I furveyed (fays he; the plain where
the two armies had fought. It was covered with hu-
man bones collefted in heaps. Thofe of the 1 erfians
were on one fide, thofe of the Egyptians on the other,
the inhabitants of the country having taken care to kpa-
rate them after the battle. They made me take notice
of a faft which would have appeared very adomfhing to
me without their explanation of it. 1 he fkulls of t
Perfians, which were flight and fragile, broke on being
lightly {truck with a ftone ; thofe of the Egyptians,
thicker and more compaft, refilled the blows of fhn •
This difference of folidity they attributed to the cul-
tom the Perfians have of covering their heads from
their infancy with the tiara, and to the Egyptian
cuftom of leaving the heads of their children bate and
fliaved, expofed to the heat of the fun. I his expla¬
nation appeared fatisfaftory to me ’ _ Mr Savary allures
us that the fame cuftomsftill fubfift in Egypt, of which
he frequently had ocular demonftiation.
“ Pelufium {continues he), after pafling under the
dominion of Perfia, was taken by Alexander. 1 e-
brave Antony, general of cavalry under Gabmius,
took it from his iucceffors, and Rome reftored it tcv
Ptolemy Auletes. Pompey, whofe credit bad efta*
blilhed this young prince on the throne of Lgyp ,
after the fatal battle of Pharfalia took refuge at Pelu-
fmm. He landed at the entrance of the harbour; and
on quitting his wife Cornelia and his fon, be repeated
the two following verfes of Sophocles, The fre
man who fecks an afylum at the court oRa king will
meet with flavery and chains.’ He there found deat.u
Scarcely had he landed on the fhore, when 1 heooore
the rhetorician, of the ifle of Ch.o, Septunius the
courtier, and Achillas the eunuch, who commanded his
trooos, wilhing for a victim to prefent to his conqueror,
ftabbed him with their fwords. At the fight or the
a {Tiffins Pompey covered his face with his mantle, anu
died like a Ron,an. They cut off his head, and emj
balmed it, to offer it toCsefar, and left his body naked
on the (bore. It was thus that this great man whole
warlike talents had procured the liberty oi the feas tor
the Romans, and added whole kingdoms to t.ieir ex¬
tended empire, was baiely flain in fetting oo °"
territory of a king who owed to him his crown, i hil^
his freedman, colleaing togethc./, under favour of the
nigh" the wreck of a boat, and ftrippmg off his own
cloak to cover the fed remains of his mafteo ^—
5 . - .
P £ M [ i
Aem according to the cuftom. An old foldier, who
ptml'roke- frrved. under Pompey's colours, came to mingle
ihire. ^,s t5ars w't^ thofe of Philip, and to aifift him in per-
Arming the laft offices to the manes of his general.—
Pelufium was often taken and pillaged during the wars
of the Romans, the Greeks, and the Arabs. But in
ipite of fo many difafters, (he preferved to the time of
the Crufades her riches and her commerce. The
Chriftian princes having taken it by ftorm, facked it.
It never again rofe from its ruins; and the inhabitants
went to Damietta.” See Damietta.
PELVIS, in anttomy. See there) n° 2—42.
PEMBROKE (Mary Countefs of). See PIer.
BERT.
Pembroke,in Pembroke/hire, in England, is the prin¬
cipal town in the county. It is fituated upon a creek of
Milford-Haven, and in the moft pleafant part of Wales,
beingabout 256 miles diftant from London. It is the
county-town, and has two handfome bridges over two
itnall rivers which run into a creek,forming the weft fide
o a promontory. It is well inhabited, has feveral good
houfes,. and but one church. There is alio a cultom-
houfe in it. . There are feveral merchants in it, who,
avoured by its fituation, employ near 200 fail on their
own account; fo that, next to Caermarthen, it is the
largeft and ncheft town in South Wales. It has one
long ftraight ftreet, upon a narrow part of a rock; and
the two rivers feem to be two arms of Milford-Haven,
which ebbs and flows clofe up to the town. It is
governed by a mayor, bailiffs, and burgeffes ; and was
in former times fortified with walls, and a magnificent
caftle feated on a rock at the weft; end of the town.
in1,tj 8 rock» under the chapel, is a natural cavern
railed IVogan, remarked for having a very fine echo :
this is fuppofed to have been a ftore-room for the gar-
nfon, as there is a ftaircafe leading into it from the
11 "as alfo a wide mouth towards the river.
1 his ftru&ure being burnt a few years after it was
erected, it was rebuilt. It is remarkable for being
the birth-place of Henry VII. and for the brave de-
lence made by the garrifon for Charles I.
PEMBROKESHIRE, a county of Wales,bound¬
ed on all fides by the Iriffi fea, except on the eaft,
where it joins to Caermarthenffiire. and on the north-
■eait to Cardiganlhire. It lies the neareft to Ireland of
any county in Wales ; and extends in length from
port to outh 35 miles, and from eaft to weft; 29, and
is ajout 140 in circumference. It is divided into
even hundreds, contains about 420,000 acres, one city,
eight market-towns, two forefts, 145 pariihes, about
300 boufes, and 25,900 inhabitants. It lies in the
?.r0fV1"ce .of Canterbury, and diocefe of Sc David’s,
ui s three members to parliament, viz. one for the
Pembroke^0" Haverfordweft> and one f°r the town of
is Pe!nbroke^ii‘e, confidering its fituation,
’ As 18 m ST™1 better farther from
n r • rfre are but ^ew mountains, the foil is
generally fruitful efpecially on the fea coafts ; nor are
its mountains altogether unprofitable, but produce
pafture fuftcient to maintain great numbers of fheep
nd goats. Its other commodities are corn cattleP
Llcor ’caT/ ’b ’ f°WL Am°nS thefe’laft a’•e,
cono, called here peregrins. Among ft the birds com-
*non here are migratory fea-birds, "that breed in the
IS j P E M
Ifie of Ramfey, and the adj’oining rocks called The Pembroke^
Bi/hop and his Clerks. About the beginning of April fipre>
fuch flocks of birds, of feveral forts, refort to thefe . ~)n‘ f
rocks, as appear incredible to thofie who have not feen >
them. They come to them in the night-time, and alfo
leave them then ; for, in the evening, the rocks may
be feen covered with them, and the next morning not
one be feen at all. In like manner, not a fingle
bird (hall appear in the evening, and the next morning
the rocks ftiall be covered with them. They alfo
ge nerally make a vifit about Chriftmas, Haying a week
or longer; «nd then take their leave till breeding-time.
Among thefe birds are the eligug, razor-bill, puffin,
and harry-bird. The eligug lays only one egg, which,
as well as thofe of the puffin and razor-bill, is as big as
a duck s, but longer, and fmaller at one end. She
never leaves it till it is hatched, nor then till the young
one zs able to follow her; and ffie is all this time fell
by the male. T. his and the razor-bill breed upon the
bare rocks, without any kind of neft. The puffin and
han-y-bird breed in hoks, and commonly in the holes
of rabbits; but fometimes they dig holes for them-
felves with their beaks. Phe harry-birds are never
feen on land but when taken. All the four kinds can¬
not raife themfelves to fly away when they are on
land, and therefore they creep or waddle to the cliffs,
and throwing themfelves off, take wing. The eligug
is the fame bird which they call in Cornwall a kiddaiu,
and in Yorkfture zjeouf. The razor-bill is the tnerre
ot Cornwall. The puffin is the arttic duck of Clufius,
•and the hart7;bird the Jhire-water of Sir Thomas
Brown. The inhabitants of this county make a verv
pleafant durable fire of culm, which is the duft of coal
made up into balls with a third part of mud. The
county is weU watered by the rivers Clethy, Dougle-
dye, Cledhew, and Teive; which laft part? it from
Cardiganfture. There is a divifion of the county ftyle4
Bhos in the Welch, by which is meant a large green
plain., i his is inhabited by the defendants of the
Flemings, placed there by Henry I. to curb the Welch,
who were never able to expel them, though they often
attempted it. On the coafts of this county, as well as
on thofe of Glamorganffiire and the Severn Sea, is
fund a kind o* alga or Ever, the lacluca marina of
Eamoen, being a marine plant or weed. It is ga¬
thered in fpring ; of which the inhabitants make a fort
of food, called in Welch lhavan, and in Engliffi black-
butter. Having wafhed it clean, they lay it to fweat
between two fiat ftones, then ffired it fmali, and kned
it well hke dough for bread, and then make it up into
great halls or rolls, which is by fome eat raw, and by
others fryed with oatmeal and butter. It is account¬
ed excellent agamft ail diftempers of the liver and
Ipleen ; and foine affirm that they have been relieved by
it in the fharpeft fits of the ftone.
PEN, a town of Somerfetftiire, in England, on the
north-eaft fide of Wincaunton, where Kenwald a Weft
*-<axon king fo totally defeated the Britons, that they
were never after able to make head againft the Saxons ;
and where, many ages after this, Edmund Ironfide
gained a memorable viftety over the Danes, who had
before, i. e. in 1001, defeated the Saxons in that fame
place.
Pen, a little inftrument, ufually formed of a quill,
ferving to write withal.
Pens
PEN [ 116
Pens are alfo fometimes made of filver, brafs, or
Pens are made of quills that have paffed thro’
hot allies, to take olf the groffer fat and moifture, and
render them mote tranfparent.
Fountain Pen^ is a pen made of fxlver, brafs, &£.
contrived to contain a confiderable quantity of ink,
and let it flow out by gentle degrees, fo as to fupply
the writer a long time without being under the necef-
iity of taking frelh ink.
The fountain-pen is compofed of feveral pieces, as
in Plate CCCLXXXII. where the middle piece F
carries the pen, which is fcrewed into the infide of a
little pipe, which again is foldered to another pipe of
the fame bignefs as the lid G ; in which lid is fuller¬
ed a male ferew, for fcrewing on the cover, as alfo for
flopping a little hole at the place and hindering the
ink from palling through it. At the other end of the
piece F is a little pipe, on the outfide of which the
top-cover H may be fcrewed. In the cover there goes
a poit-crayon, which is to be fcrewed into the laft-
mentioned pipe, in order to flop the end of the pipe,
into which the ink is to be ponied by a funnel. To
ufe the pen, the cover G mull be taker, off", and
the pen a little lhaken, to make the ink run more
freely.
There are, it is well known, fame inftruments uied
by praaical mathematicians, which are called pens, and
which are diftinguilhed according to the ufe to which
they are principally applied ; as for example, the draw¬
ing pen, &c. an inftrument too common to require a
Particular defcription in this place. But it may be
proper to take fome notice of the geometric pen, as
it is1 not fo well known, nor the principles on which
it depends fo obvious.
The geometric Pen is an inftrument in which, by a
circular motion, a right line, a circle, an elhpfe, and
other mathematical figures, may be defcnbed. It was
fir ft invented and explained by John Baptift buarui,
in a work intitled Nouvo IJtvomenti per la Defcnzztone
di diverfe Curve Antichi e Moderns, &c. Several wri¬
ters had obferved the curves arifing from the com¬
pound motion of two circles, one moving round the
other ; but Suardi firit realized the principle, and hrtt
reduced it to pradice. It has been lately introduced
with fuccefs into the fteam-engine by Watt and Bol¬
ton. The number of curves this inftmment can de-
fcri’be is truly amazing; the author enumerates not
lefs than 1273, which (he fays) can be dcferihed by
it in the Ample form. We (hall give a fhort defcnp-
tion of it from Adam’s Geometrical and Graphical
Plate CCCLXXXII. fig. 10. reprefents the
geometric pen ; A, B, C, the Hand by which it is fup-
ported ; the kgs A, B, C are contrived to fold one
within the other for the convenience of packing. A
ftrong axis D is fitted to the top of the frame ; to the
lower part of this axis any of the wheels (as t) may
be adapted ; when fcrewed to it they are immoveable.
EG is an arm contrived to turn round upon the mam
axis D ; two Aiding boxes are fitted to this arm ; to
thefe boxes any of the wheels belonging to the geo¬
metric pen may be fixed, and then Aid io that the
wheels may take into each other and the immoveable
Viheel i; it is evident, that by making the arm LG re-
] - PEN
volve round the axis D, thefe wheels will be made to
revolve alfo, and that the number of their revolutions
will depend on the proportion between the teeth. F^
is an arm carrying the pencil; this arm Aides back¬
wards and forwards in the box c dt in order that the
diftance of the pencil from the centre of the wheel h
may be eafiiy varied ; the box cd is fitted to the axis
of the wheel h, and turns round with it, carrying the
arm fg along with it: it is evident, therefore, that the
revolut'ons will be fewer or greater in proportion to
the difference between the numbers of the teeth in the
wheels h and i; this bar and focket are eafiiy removed
for changing the wheels. When two wheels only are
ufed, the bar fg moves in the fame direftion with the
bar EG ; but if another wheel is introduced between
them, they move in contrary directions.
“ The number of teeth in the wheels, andconfequent-
ly the relative velocity of the epicycle or arm fg, may
be varied in infinitum. Ihe numbers we have uied are
8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96.
“ The conftruftion and application ot this nntrument
is fo evident from the figure, that nothing more need
be pointed out than the combinations by which vari¬
ous figures may be produced. We ihall take two as
examples: „ , . l-
“ The radius of EG (fig. 11.) muft be to that of
fg as 10 to 5 nearly ; their velocities, or the number
of teeth in the wheels, to be equal; the motion to be
in the fame direftion.
“ If the length of fg be varied, the looped figure
delineated at fig. 12. will be produced. A circle m iy
be deferibed by equal wheels, and any radius but the
Lars mull move in contrary dire&ions.
“ To deferibe by this circular motion a Jh aight line and
an ellipfis. For a ftraight line, equal radii, the velocity
as 1 to 2, the motion in a contrary direction ; the
fame data will give a variety of elliples, only the radii
muft be unequal; the eliipfes may be dekribed in any
dire&ion” See fig. 13.
Pen, or Penjlock. See Penstock.
Sea-PEN. See Pennatula.
PENANCE, a puniihment, either voluntary or im-
pofed by authority, for the faults a petfon has com¬
mitted. Penance is one of the feven facraments of
the Romifh church. Befides falling, alms, abftinence,
and the like, which are the general conditions of pe¬
nance, there are others of a more particular kim. ; as
the repeating a certain number ot ave marys, pater-
nofters, and credos, wearing a bair-fiurt, and giving
one’s felf a certain number of ftripes. In Italy and
Spain it is ufual to fee Chriftians almoft naked, loaded
with chains and a crofa, and lafhing themfelves at
every flep. . . , . , -
PENATES, in Roman antiquity, a kind ot tute¬
lar deities, either of countries or particular houfes ;
in which laft fenfe they differed in nothing from the
lares. See Lakes. c ,
The penates were properly the tutelar gods ot the
Trojans, and were only adopted by the Romans, who
gave them the title of penates.
PENCIL, an inftrument ufed by painters foMay-
ino- on their colours. Pencils are of various kinds,
and made of various materials ; the largeft forts are
made of boars briftles, the thick ends of which are
bound to a flick, bigger or lefs according to the u.-s
6 they
Pen
II
Pencil.
pen r i
Pencil, they are de/igned for: thefe, when large, are called
ptncluiit. Irujbes. The finer forts of pencils are made of camels,
L_" ^ "" badgers, and fquirrels hair, and of the down of fwans;
thefe are tied at the upper end with a piece of firong
thread, and inclofed in the barrel of a quill.
All good pencils, on being drawn between the lips,
come to a fine point.
Pencil, is alfo an inftrument ufed in drawing,
writing, &c. made of long pieces t>f black-lead or
red chalk, placed in a groove cut in a flip of cedar ;
on which other pieces of cedar being glued, the whole
is planed round, and one of the ends being cut to a
point, it is fit for ufe.
Black-lead in fine powder, ftirred into melted ful-
phur, unites with it fo uniformly, and in fuch quanti¬
ty, in virtue perhaps of its abounding with fulphur,
that though the compound remains fluid enough to be
poured into moulds, it looks nearly like the coarfer
forts of black-lead itfelf. Probably the way which
Prince Rupert is find to have had, mentioned in
the third volume of Dr Birch’s Hiftoiy of the Royal
Society, of making black-lead run like a metal in
a mould, fo as to ferve for black-lead again, confided
in mixing with it fulphur or fulphureous bodies.
On this principle the German black-lead pencils are
faid to be made; and many of thofe which are hawk¬
ed about by certain perfons among us are prepared
in the fame manner : their melting or foftening, when
held to a candle, or applied to a red-hot iron, and
yielding a blmih flame, with a ftrong fmell like that
of burning brimllone, betrays their compofuion ; for
black lead itfelf yields no fmeli or fume, and fuffers no
apparent alteration in that heat. Pencils made with
fuch additions are of a very bad kind ; they are hard,
brittle, and do not call or make a mark freely either
on p sper or wood, rather cutting or fcratching them
than leaving a coloured ftroke.
J he true Englifh pencils (which Vogel in his mine¬
ral fyftem, and fome other foreign writers, imagine to
be prepared alfo by melting the black-lead with fome
additional fubftances, and calling it into a mould) are
formed of black-lead alone fa wed into flips, which
are fitted into a groove made in a piece of wood, and
another flip of wood glued over them : the foftell
wood, as cedar, is made choice of, that the pencil
may be the eafier cut; and a part at one end, too
fhort to !,e conveniently ufed after the reft has been
worn and cut away, is left unfilled with the black-lead,
that there may be no wafte of fo valuable a commo¬
dity. Fbefe pencils are greatly preferable to the
others, though feldom fo perfect as could be wiftied,
being accompanied with fome degree of the fame in¬
conveniences, and being very unequal in their quality,
on account of different forts of the mineral being frau¬
dulently joined together in one pencil, the fore-part
being commonly pretty good, and the reft of an infe¬
rior kind, borne, to avoid thefe imperfedtions, take
tne finer pieces of black lead itfelf, which they faw
into flips, and fix for ufe in port-crayons: this is
doubtlefs the fureft way of obtaining black-lead cray¬
ons, whofe goodnefs can be depended on.
1 END AN F, an ornament hanging at the ear, fre¬
quently compofed of diamonds, pearls, and other
jewels.
17 1 PEN
Pendants, in heraldry, parts hanging down from Pendant*
the label, to the number of three, four, five, or fix II
at moft, refembhng the drops in the Doric freeze. Pendulum,
When they are more than three, they mull be fpecified ' “ ^
in blazoning.
Pendants of a Ship, are thofe dreamers, or long
colours, which are fplit and divided into two parts,
ending ia points, and hung at the head of mafts, or at
the yard-arm ends. ,
PENDENE-Vow, in Cornwall, in England, on the
north coaft, by Morvath. There is here an unfa¬
thomable cave under the earth, into which the fea
flows at high-water. The cliffs between this and St
Ives fhine as if they had ftoie of copper, of which,
indeed there is abundance within-land.
PENDENNIS, in Cornwall, at the mouth of Fal-
mouth-haven, is a peninfula of a mile and a half in
compafs. On this Henry VIII. erected a caftle, op-,
pofite to that of St Maw’s, which he likewife built.
It was fortified by Queen Elizabeth, and ferved then
for the governor’s houfe. It is one of the largefl
cafties in Britain, and is built oa a high r®ck. It ia
ftronger by land than St Maw’s, being regularly for¬
tified, and having good outworks.
PENDULOUS, a term applied to any thing that
bends or hangs downwards.
PENDULUM, a vibrating body fufpended from
a fixed point. For the hiftory of this invention, fee
the article Clock.
The theory of the pendulum depends on that of the
inclined phtne. Hence, in order to underitand the
nature of the pendulum, it will be neceffary to pre-
mife lome of the properties of this plane; referring,
however, to Inclined Plane, and Sedtion VI. in the
article Mechanics, for the demonftration.
I. Let AC (fig. i.) be an inclined plane, AB its
perpendicular height, and D any heavy body: then
the force which impels the b<*dy D to defeend along
the inclined plane AC, is to the abfolute force of gra¬
vity as the height of the plane AB is to its length
AC ; and the motion of the body will be uniformly-
II. The velocity acquired in any given time by a
body defeending on an inclined plane AC, is to the
velocity acquired in the fame time by a body falling
freely and perpendiculaily as the height of the plane
AB to its length AC. The final velocities will be
the fame ; the fpaees defenbed will be in the fame
ratio ; and the times of defeription are as the fpacea
deicribed.
III. If a body delcend along feveral contiguous
planes, AB, BC, CD, (fig. 2.) the final velocity,
namely, that at the point D, will be equal to the final
velocity in defeending through the perpendicular AE,
the perpendicular heights being equal. Hence, if
thefe planes be iuppofed indefinitely ftioit and nume-
roue, they may be conceived to form a curve ; and
therefore the final velocity acquired by a body in de¬
feending through any curve AF, will be equal to the
final velocity acquired in defeending through the
planes AB, BC, CD, or to that in defeending through*
AE, the perpendicular heights being equal.
IV. If from the upper or lower extremity of the
vertical diameter of a circle a cord be drawn, the
Plate
CCCLXXXjt
-Plate
,ieccLxxx.
PEN I n
''•endulam. time of defccnt along this cord will be equal to the
   time of defcent through the vertical diameter; and
therefore the times of defcent through all cords in
the fame circle, drawn from the extremity of the ver¬
tical diameter, will be equal.
V. The times of defcent of two bodies through
two planes equally elevated will be in the fnbdupli-
cate ratio of the lengths of the planes. Jf, inftead of
one plane, each be compofed of feveral contiguous
planes fimilarly placed, the times of defcent along
thefe planes will be in the fame ratio. Hence, alfo,
the times of defcribing fimilar arches of circles fimilar-
Iv placed will be in the fubduplicate ratio of the
lengths of the arches.
VI. The fame things hold good with regard to
bodies proje&ed upward, whether they afcend upon
inclined planes or along the arches of circles.
The point or axis of fufpention of a pendulum is
that point about which it performs its vibrations, or
from which it is fufpended.
The centre of ofcillation is a point in which, if all
the matter in a pendulum were collefted, any force
applied at this centre would generate the fame angular
velocity in a given time as the fame force when ap¬
plied at the centre of gravity.
The length of a pendulum is equal to the diftance
between the axis of fufpenfion and centre of ofcil¬
lation.
Let PN (fig. 3.) reprefent a pendulum fufpended
from the point P ; if the low er part N of the pendu¬
lum be raifed to A, and let fall, it will by its own gra¬
vity defeend through the circular arch AN, and will
have acquired the fame velocity at the point N that a
body would acquire in falling perpendicularly from C
to N, and will endeavour to go off with that velocity-
in the tangent ND ; but being prevented by the rod
or cord, will move through the arch NB to B, where,
lofing all its velocity, it will by its gravity dtfeend
through the arch BN, and, having acquired the fame
velocity as before, will afcend to A. In this manner
it will continue its motion forward and backward
along the arch ANB, which is called an ofcillatory
or vibratory motion ; and each fwing is called a vi¬
bration.
Prop. I. If a pendulum vibrates in very fmall cir¬
cular arches, the times of vibration may be confidered
as equal, whatever be the proportion of the arches.
Let PN (fig. 4.) be a pendulum ; the time of de¬
fcribing the arch AB will be equal to the time of
defcribing CD; thefe arches being fuppofed very
fmall.
Join AN, CN ; then fince the times of defcent
along all cords in the fame circles, drawn from one
extremity of the vertical diameter, are equal ; there.oie
the cords AN, CN, and confequently their doubles,
will be described in the fame time; hut the arches
AN, CN being fuppofed very fmall, will therefore
be nearly equal to their cords : hence the times of vi¬
brations >n thefe arches will be neaily equal.
Prop. II. Pendulums which are of the fame length
vibrate in the fame time, whatever be the proportion
of their weights.
This follows from the property cf gravity, which 13
always proportional to the quantity of matter, or to
3 ] PEN
its inertia. When the vibrations of pendulums are Pendulum,
compared, it is always underftood that the pendulums —~v*—
deferibe either fimilar finite arcs, or »rcs of evanefeent
magnitude, unlefs the contrary is mentioned.
Prop. III. If a pendulum vibrates in the fmall arc
ef a circle, the time of one vibration is to the time of
a body’s falling perpendicularly through half the length
of the pendulum as the circumference of a circle is to
its diameter. , ..
Let PE (fig. 5.) be the pendulum which defenbea
the arch ANC in the time of one vibration ; let PN
be perpendicular to the horizon, and draw the cords
AC, AN ; take the arc E e infinitely fmall, and draw
EFG, efg perpendicular to PN, or parallel to AC;
deferibe the femicircle BGN, and draw er, £s perpen¬
dicular to EG : now let t ^ time of defeending
through the diameter 2PN, or through the cord
AN : Then the velocities gained by falling through
2PN, and by the pendulum’s defeending through the
arch AE, will be as and s/V? ; a»d the fpace
deferibed in the time /, after the fall through zPN, is
4PN. But the times are as the fpaces divided by the
velocities.
4PN E e .
Therefore^—-or zv^PN
defcribing E <> . But In the rimilar
triangles PEF, E er, and KGF, G^f»
j-. j.- --
As PE=PN : EF :: E<?: * ^='pn* ^ e *’
FG
And KG=KD: FG:: Gg : G s z= KD X
EF FG
But e r ” G j; therefore pj^X E ^Gg.
TJ PNxFG ^
Hence E^KD-^XG-?.
And by fubdituting this value of E e in tne former
equation, we have the time of defcribing E e
 (XjyXFGxg^__. But b tbe nature of the
iKDxEFXv/ BFX2 PN .  
circle FG = y'BFxFN, and EFirVPN + PFXFN.
He nee, by fubilitution, we obtain the time of defcribing
E e ~
/xPNXy/BFxFNxG^ 
2KD X V pN-f-PF X FN X V/BF X 2 P N =£
/X\/PNXG(£ fXv'2PNxG<g
2 KD X v^PN+PFx a/ 2 “ 4KDX v'PN + PF
/XV'zPN
aUNX^PN-^f X G*- But NF’ 10 ,t! meM
quantity for all the arches Gg, is nearly equal^to NIv;
r r • t— tX.\/2PN
therefore the time of defcribmg Ee  
2BNX4/2PN—NIC
XG^g. Whence the time of defcribing the arch AED
ifXv'zFN . ,
! aad ,he t,me of d'‘
feribing the whole arch ADC, or the time of one vi-
^X's/^PN
X zBGN. But
bration, is = —<nr
2BNXV/ 2PN—NK
when the arch ANC is very fmail, NK vanifhes, and
theR
l
PEN
-Pendulum, then the time of vibration in a
very
fmall
[ i
arc is
fXy^PN
I 'Plate
jeccLxxx.
X 2BGN = UX
2BGN
Now if t
2BNXv/2PN ~ z"' BN
be the time of defcent through 2 PN; then fince the
fpaces defcribed are as the fquaresof the times, 4 t will
be the time of defcent through JPN : therefore the
diameter BN is to the circumference 2BGN, as the
time of falling through half the length of the pendu¬
lum is to the time of one vibration.
Prop. IV. The length of a pendulum vibrating fe-
conds is to twice the fpace through which a body falls
in one fecond, as the fquare of the diameter of a circle
is to the fquare of its circumference.
Let d — diameter of a circle = 1, c circumfe¬
rence = 3.14159, &c. t to the time of one vibration,
and p the length of the corrupody pendulum ; then by
d *
laft propofition c : d :: 1" : -= time of fallingthrough
half the length of the pendulum. Let r = fpace de-
fcribed by a body falling perpendicularly in the firft;
fecond : then lince the fpaces defcribed are in the fub-
duplicate ratio of the times of defcrption, therefore
n d    
1 :7::Vj : Hence c1: :: 2r :/>.
It has been found by experiment, that in latitude
5I^° a ho^y about 16.11 feet in the firlt fecond :
hence the length of a pendulum vibrating feconds in
that latitude is j = 3 feet 3.174 inches.
Prop. V. The times of the vibrations of two
pen ulums in fimilar arcs of circles are in a fubdupli-
cate ratio of the lengths of the pendulums.
Let PN, PO (fig. 6.) be two pendulums vibrating in
the fimilar arcs AB, CD ; the time of a vibration of
the pendulum PN is to the time of a vibration
of the pendulum PO in a fubduplicate ratio of PN
to PO.
^ Since the arcs AN, CO are fimilar and fimilarly
placed, the time of defcent through AN will be to
the time of defcent through CO in the fubduplicate
ratio of AN to CO : but the times of defcent through
the arcs AN and CO are equai to half the times of
vibration of the pendulums PN, PO refpe&ively.
Hence the time of vibration of the pendulum PN in
the arch Ab is to the time of vibration of the pen-
dultint PO in the fimilar arc CD in the fubduplicate
ratio of AN to CO : and fince the radii PN, PO are
proportional to the fimilar arcs AN, CO, therefore
the time of vibration of the pendulum PN will be to
thv. time of vibration of the pendulum PO in a fubdu¬
plicate ratio of I N to PO.
If the length ot a pendulum vibrating feconds be
39.174 inches, then the length of a pendulum vibra-
ting half feconds will be 9*793 inches. For i11 : :
^39-I74 • ; and 1 : ^ 39.174 ; x. Hence
39-I74
* = 7 = 9* 793*
19 ] PEN
redly as the force of gravity, and inverfely as the quan- Pendulum;
tity of matter *. Now the matter being fuppofed the ' v——'
fame in both pendulums, the velocity is as the force of* Se.e
gravity ; and the fpace paffed through in a given timen^l
will be as the velocity; that is, as the gravity.
Cor. Since the lengths of pendulums vibr ating in the
fame time in fmall arcs are as the gravitating forces,
and as gravity incrcafes with the latitude on account of
the ipher#idal figure of the earth and its rotation
about its axis ; hence the length of a pendulum vibra¬
ting in a given time will be variable with the latitude,
and the fame pendulum will vibrate flower the nearer
it is carried to the equator.
Prop. VII. The time of vibrations of pendulums
of the fame length, a&ed upon by different forces of
gravity, are reciprocally as the fquare roots of the
forces.
For when the matter is given, the velocity is as the
force and time ; and the fpace defcribed by any given
force is as'the force and fquare of the time. Hence
the lengths of pendulums are as the forces and the
fquares- of the times of falling through them. But
thefe times are in a given ratio to the times of vibra¬
tion ; whence the lengths of pendulums are as the
forces and the fquares of the times of vibration.
Therefore, when the lengths are given, the forces will
be reciprocally as the fquare of the times, and the
times of vibration reciprocally as the fquare roots of
the forces.
Cor. Let p = length of pendulum,^ ~ force of
gravity, and t = time of vibration. Then fince p =
JTXP
Hence g = /X^ ; and t-
Prop. VI. The lengths of pendulums vibrating in
the fame time, in different places, will be as the forces
o! gravity.
For the velocity generated in any given time is di-
Phat is, the forces in different places are direftly as
the lengths of the pendulums, and inverfely as the
fquaie roots of the times of vibration ; and the times
ol vibration are direiffly as the fquare roots of the
lengths of the pendulums, and inverfely as the fquare
roots of the gravitating forces.
Prop. \ J11. A pendulum which vibrates in the
aich of a cycloid deferibes the greateft and lead vibra¬
tions in the fame time.
This property is demonftrated only on a fuppofi-
tion that the whole mafs of the pendulum is concen-
trata d in a point : but this cannot take place in any
really vibrating body ; and when the pendulum is of
finite magnitude, there is no point given in pofition
which determines the length of the pendulum ; on the
contrary the centre of ofcillation will not occupy the
fi.me place in the given body, when deferibing different
parts of the trad it moves through, hut will continu¬
ally be moved in refpeft of the pendulum itfelf du¬
ring its vibration. This circumftance has prevented
any general determination of the time of vibration in
a cycloidal arc, except in the imaginary cafe refer¬
red to.
There are many other obftacles which concur in
rendering the application of this curve to the vibra¬
tion of pendulums defigned for the meafares of time
the fource of errors far greater than thofc which by
its peculiar property it is intended to obviate ; and it .
is i.ow wholly dlfufed in prs&ire.
trh the times of vibration of a pendulum in t
dif- -
Although
PEN I 120 ] PEN
- , t vet from what lias b«n fmall rlertree of uncertainty; and in order to avoid it Prnf.W
]»«rdulum. 3t!rtfvent arches be nearly eq .r. -> y the lead of ’ ^    1—- k—— j- . i
F/uxions
V- 541
d twrentarcnes ucuta.aj -'-i — * j-. , „ r
faid it will appear, that if the rat.o of the lea ft of
thefc arches to the greateft be confiderable, the ybra-
tions will be performed in different times ; and the
difference, though fmall, will become fen^ble m the
courfe of one or more days. In clocks ufed for aftr«-
nomical purpofes, it will therefore be neceffary to ob-
ferve the arc of vibration ; which if different from that
deferihed by the pendulum when the clock keeps time,
there a correaien muft be applied to the time fhowa
bv the dock. This corredion, espreffed in fecondsot
time, will be equal to the half of three time, the differ-
ence of the fquare of the given arc, and of that of the
arc deferibed by the pendulum when the clock keeps
* S'mpfons tirne, thefe arcs being expreffed m degrees ; and o
much will the clock gain or lofe according as the
firft of thefe arches is lefs or greater than the fecond.^
Thus, if a clock keeps time when the pendulum yi-
brates in an arch of 30, it will lofe loi feeonda daily
in an arch of 4 degrees.
For a*- 3’ X 4 = 7 X 1 = I0J kconds-
The length of a pendulum rod increafes witn heat,
and the quantity of expanfion anfwering to any given
degree of heat is experimentally found by means of a
$ See Pyre- pyrometer %; but the degree of heat at any given time
««*«•• h7 fhown by a thermometer : hence that mftrument
Laid be pia^ft within the clock-cafe at a height
n-arly equal to that of the middle of the pendulum ,
and iL height, for this purpofe ftould ^
lead once a day. Now by a table conftruaed to ex¬
hibit the daily quantity of acceleration or retardation
of the clock anfwering to every probable height of the
thermometer, the correfponding cordon may be
obtained. It is alfo necefiary to obferye that the
mean height of the thermometer during the interval
ought to be ufed. In Six’s thermometer this height
may be eafily obtained ; but in thermometers of the
common conftruaion it will be more difficult to find
th Ithadbien found, by repeated experiments, that abrafs
rod equal in length to a fecond pendulum will expand
contrail T^o Part of atl inch by a chanSc of temp J
rature of one degree in Fahrenheit’s thermometer; and
fmee the times of vibration are in a fubdupheate ratio
of the lengths of the pendulum, hence an expanfion or
Lmaion ofpart of an inch will -f-r neady o
one fecond daily : therefore a change of one degree
the thermometer wiiloccafion a difference tn the rate o
the clock equal to one fecond datly. Whence, tf the
clock be fo adjufted a. to keep time when the thermome¬
ter is at e e°, it will lofe i o feconds daily when the ther¬
mometer is at 6 j°, and gain as much when .t.. at 45^.
Hence the daily variation of the rate of 'hc cloci
from futnmer to winter will be very caniideraole. It
is^ue indeed that moft pendulums have a nut or re-
“uS at the lower end%y whlch.the bob may be
hi fed or lowered a determinate qu ratity , and there
fore, while the height of the thermometer is the fame
the rate of the clock will be uniform. But hnce the
ibte of the weather is ever variable, and as it is im-
poffible to be raifmg or lowering the bob of the pen-
dulum at every chanV of the thermometer theref0r
the cotreftion formerly mentioned is to be apphed.
This corredlion, however, is in .orae meafure IwbL
imau Gegree oi   VT,
altogether, feveral contrivances have been propofel by
conftrudting a pendulum of different materials, and fo
difpofing them that their effeds nny be in oppofite
direftions, and thereby counterbalance each other;
and by this means the pendulum will continue of the
^Menurial Pendulum. The firft of thefe inventions is
that by the celebrated Mr George Graham. In this, the
rod of the pendulum is a hollow tube, in which a fuffi-
cient quantity of mercury is put. Mr Graham fiift ufed
a glafs tube, and the clock to which it was applied was
placed in the moft expofed part of the houfe. It was kept
conftantlvgoing, without having the hands or pendulum
altered, from the 9th of June 1722 to the i+th ofOc-P^
alterecl, rrom uic yui ui junc * / ^ ^ r c<j-
tober 1725, and its rate was determined by tranfits of^
C..AnrstEpr rlnck made with extraordinary ^.c
iUbl Idle wao l?26,
fixed ftars. Another clock made with extraordinary ao
care, having a pendulum about 60 pounds weight, and
not vibrating above one degree and a half from the
perpendicular, was placed befide the former, in order
the’more readily to compare them with each other,
and that they might both be equally expofed. I he
refult of all the obfervations was this, that the irregula¬
rity of the clock with the quickfilver pendulum ex¬
ceeded not, when greateft, a fixth part of that ot the
other clock with the common pendulum, but for the
greateft part of the year not above an eighth or ninth
part; and even this quantity would have been leffened,
had the column of mercury been a little fhorter : for
it differed a little the contrary way from the other
clock, going fafter with heat and flower with cold.
To confirm this experiment more, about the beginning
of July 1723 Mr Graham took off the heavy pendu¬
lum from the other clock, and made another with mei -
cury, but with this difference, that inflead of a glafs
tube he ufed a brafs one, and varnifhed the infide to
iecure it from being injured by the mercury. This
pendulum he ufed afterwards, and found it about the
fame degree of exaftnefs as the other. > . GWi;Va„
The Gridirort Pendulum is an ingenious contrivance
for the fame purpofe. Inftead of one rod, fms pendu¬
lum is compofed of any convenient odd number of rods,
as five, feven, or nine ? being fo conneaed, that the
effed of one fet of them counteraas that of the other
fet; and therefore, if they are properly adjufled to each
other, the centres of fufpenfion and ofcillation will al¬
ways be equidiftant. Fig. 7. reprefents a gridiron
pendulum compofed of nine rods, fteel and brafs al-
te-natelv. The two outer rods, AB, CD, which are
of fteel,Le faftened to the crofs pieces AC BD bv
means of pins. The next two rods, EF.GH are of
brafs, and are faftened to the lower bar BD, and to the
fecond upper bar EG. The two following rods are of
fteel, and are faftened to the crofs bars EG and Ilv.
The two rods adjacent to the central rod being of
brafs, are faftened to the crofs pieces IK and EM ;
and the central rod, to which the ball of the Pent¬
ium is attached, is fufpended from the crofs piece EM,
and paffes freely through a perforation in each of the
crofs bars IK, BD. From this difpofition of the rods,
it is evident that, by the expanfion of the extreme
rods, the crofs piece BD, and the two rods attache^
to it, will defeend : but fince thefe rods are exp.im-.ea
bv the fame heat, the crofs piece EG will confequent-
P!ate
cccluxx*
ppn-’u’aw
lif. TUout
Pla^e
< ctxxx.
PEN [ i
• fy be ralfed, and therefore alfo the two ntfxt rods ; but
J becaufe thefe rods are alfo expanded, the crofs bar IK
will defcend ; and by the expanfion of the two next
rods, the piece LM will be railed a quantity fufflcient
to counteract the expnnfioi; of the central rod. Whence
it is obvious, that the cffedt of the fteel rods is to in-
creaft the length of the pendulum in hot weather, and
to diminifh it in cold weather, and that the brufs rods
have a contrary effeCh upon the pendulum. The effeCt
of the brafs rods mud, however, be equivalent nof only
to that of the fteel rods, but alfo to the part above the
frame and fprlng, which connects it with the cock, and
to that part between the lower part of the frame and
the centre of the ball.
Another excellent contrivance for the fame purpofe
is defcribed in a French author on clock-making. It
was ufed in the north of England by an ingenious ar-
tift about 40 years ago. This invention is as follows :
A bar of the fame metal with the rod of the pendu¬
lum, and of the fame dimenfions, is placed again ft: the
ba» k part of the clock-cafe : from the top of this a part
projefts, to which the upper part of the pendulum 13
connected by two line pliable chains or fiiken firings,
which juft below pafs between two plates of brafs,
w'hofe lower edges will always terminate the length of
the pendulum at the uoper end. Thefe plates are fup-
ported on a pedeftal fixed to the hack of the cafe.
The bar refts upon an immoveable Lafe at the lower
part of the cafe ; and is inferted into a groove, by
which means it is always retained in the fame pofition.
brom this conftruftion, it isevidem that the extenfion
or cortra&ion of this bar, and of the rod of the pen¬
dulum, will be equal, and in contrary diredions. For
fuppofe the rod of the pendulum to be expanded any
given quantity by heat ; then, as the lower end of the
bar refts upon a fixed point, the bar will be expanded
upwards, and raife the upper end of the pendulum
juft as much as its length was increafed , and hence
its length below the plates will be the fame as before.
Of this pendulum, fomewhat improved by MrCroflh-
waite watch and clockmaker, Dublin, we have the fol¬
lowing deferption in the Tranfadions of the Royal
Iri/h Academy, 1788.—“ A and B (fig. 8.) are two
rods of fteel forged out of the fame bar, at the fame
time, of the fame temper, and in every refped fimilar.
On the top of B is formed a gibbet C ; this rod is
firmly fupported by a fteel bracket D, fixed on a large
piece^of marble E, firmly let into the wall F, and ha¬
ving liberty to move freely upwards between crofs fta-
pies of brafs, 1, 2, 3, 4, which touch only in a point
in front and rear (the ftaples having been carefully
formed for that purpofe) ; to the other rod is firmly
fixed by its centre the lens G ; of 24 pounds weight,
although it fhould in ftri&nefg be a little below’ it
I hrs pendulum is fufpended by a fhott fteel fpring on
{ 'e glL! et a* C » which is entirely indeptndent of
tue clock. I o the back of the clo.k-plate I are firm¬
ly ferewee. two cheeks nearly cycloidal at K, exa&ly in
a line wnh the centre of the verge L. The maintain¬
ing power is apphed by a cylindrical ft eel-ft ud, in the
ufu d way of regulators, at M. Now, it is very evi-
cent, that any expanfion or comraaion that takes
pkee in either of thefe exadly fimila. rods, is.nftantly
counteraaed by the other ; whereas in all comptnfatlon
penddums otmpofed of different materials, however
21 ] P E NT
juft calculation may feem to be, that can never be the I>2nclu;um,
c aie, as not only different metc.is, but alfo different' "v1"" ^
bars of the fame metal that are not manufaaured at
the fame time, and exaa’y in the tame manner, are
found by a good pyrometer to differ materially in their
degrees of expanfion and contra&ion, a very fmail
change aftedting one and not the other.”
The expanfion or contraction of firaight-grained fir Sir Ptndu*
wood length wife, by change of temperature, is fo fmall,^*
that it is found to make very good pendulum rods.
The wood called fapadillo is fa id to be ftiil better.
I here is good reafon to believe, that the previous ba¬
king, varn’filing, gilding, or foakin t of thtfe woods in
any melted matter, only tends to impair the property
that renders them valuable. They fhould be fimply
rubbed on the outfide with wax and a cloth. ' In pen¬
dulums of this conftruftion the error is greatly diini-
nifhed, but not taken away.
Angular Pkt/DviuM, is formed of two pieces or legs -Aitgula*
like a fedlor, and is fufpended by the angular point. ^’en<^u'urfti
This pendulum was invented with a view to diminifh the
length of the common pendulum, but at the fame time
to preferve or even incieafe the time of vibration. In
this pendulum, the time of vibration depends on the
.cntv'tk tc iCgS, aftil on the dhgle contained between
them conjointly, the duration of the time vibration
increafing with the angle. Hence a pendulum of thi*
conftruCv on m y be made to ofcillate in any given '
time. At the lower extremity of each leg of the'pen-
culum is a ball or bob as ufual. It may be eafily
fhown, that in this kind of a pendulum, the fquares
of the times of vibration ate as the ft cants of half the
angle contained by the legs : hence if a pendulum of
thisconftruchon vibrates half fecon.’s when its kgs are
clofe, it will vibrate whole feconds when the legs are
opened, fo as to contain an angle equal to 1510 21'.
The Conical or Circular Pendulum, is fo called ^omcal a*
from the figure deferibed by the firing or ball of the r'ircular
penuulum. This pendulum was invented by Mr Huv Pe>,duUmi
gens, an 1 is alfo claimed f™,
gens, an 1 is alfo claimed by Dr Hook.
In order to understand the principles of this pendu¬
lum, it will be neceffary to premife the following km-
,ma> ”*• ',l,c. of »# «!« circular rMolutionl of »
heavy globular bodv, revolving within an inverted hol-
, ow paraboloid, will be equal whatever be the radii of
the circles defenbed by that body.
to conflrua the pendulum fo
th^t.‘tsib?ll?la)r always defenbe its revolutions in a pa¬
raboloid fur face, it will be neceffary that the rod of
the pendulum be flexible, and that it be fufpended in
inch a manner as to form the evolute of the given u -
raSola. Hence, let KH (fij. 9.) Ke sn s.is
cniw to the horizon, having a pinion at K moved lv
tne laft wheel in the train of the clock ; and a harden¬
ed it cel po.nt at H moving in an agate pivot, to render
the motion as free as pdTIble. Now, let it be requi.ed
that the pendulum fhall perform each revolution in a
fecond then the paraboloid furface it moves in mu ft
be fuch whofe latus redum is double the length of t! e
common half fecond pendulum. Let O be the focus
of the parabola MEG, and MC the latus redum ; anil
kdff /l][:-MpP^MC = the ^ngth of a common
haft iecond pendulum. At the point A of the ver^e
let a thin plate AB be fixed at one end, and at the
otuer end B let it be faftened to a bar or arm BD per-
pendi-
pen r
Pendulum pem'.icular to T)H, and to which it is fixed at the
H point D. The figure of the plate AB is that of the
Fendope. gyolute of the given parabola TvllaC-
w ^ eqUatjon 0f tijis evolute, being alfo that of the
12
27
femicubical parabola, is y^/>
then P x1 —J5, and in the focus P = 2v.
=yl=l?
r 27
Let — f>
:P;
2X
l6
In this cafe
— 27
hence and sc = Pv^l-:=
W"! — the diftance of the focus from the vertex A.—
By affuming the value of x, the ordinates of the curve
may be found ; and hence it may be eaiily drawn.
The firing of the pendulum mud be of fuch a length
that when one end is fixed at B, it may lie over the
plate AB, and then hang perpendicular from it, fo
that'the centre of the bob may be at E when at reft.
Now, the verge KH being put into motion, the ball
of the pendulum will begin to gyrate, and thereby
conceive a centrifugal force which will carry it out
from the axis to feme point F, where it will circulate
feconds or half feconds, according as the line AE is 9.8
inches, or 2^ inches, and AB anfvverable to it.
One advantage pofieffed by a clock having a pendu¬
lum of this conftrudlion is, that the fecund hand moves
in a regular and unifarm manner, without being fubjed
to thofe ierk* or ftarts as in common clocks; and the
Lrndulum is entirely fiknt.
Theory has pointed out feveral other pendulums,
known by the names of Elliptic, Horizontal, Rotulary,
&c. pendulums. Thefe, however, have not as yet
attained that degree ot perfection as to fupplant the
common pendulum. . P . ..
Befides the ufe of the pendulum in meafunng time,
it has alfo been fuggefted to be a proper ftandard for
meafures of length. See the article Measure.
PENEA, in botany : A genus of the monogyma
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful. The calyx is diphyllous ; the corol¬
la campanulated ; the ftyle quadrangular ; the capfule
tetragonal, quadrilocular, and odofpermous. .
PENELOPE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter ot
Icarus, married Ulyffes, by whom fire had Telema-
chus During the abfence of Ulylfes, who was gone
to the fiege of Troy, and who fiaid 20 years from
his dominions, feveral princes, charmed with Pene-
looe’s beauty, told her that Ulyffes was dead, offered
to marry her, and preffed her to declare in them favour.
She promifed compliance on condition they would give
h»r time to finilh a piece of tnpeftry (he was weaving ;
but at the fame time (he undid m the night what (he
had done in the day, and by this artifice eluded their
importunity till Ulyffes’s return. c l- 4 p
Penelope, in ornithology : A genus of birds of
Plate the order oiSatlm*, the charadera of which are : I he
; ccctxxti. |,eak is bare at the bate ; the head is covered with fea¬
thers ; the neck is quite bare) the tail confifts of twelve
principal feathers-, and the feet ate for the molt part
bare. Lintucus, in the Srfma enumerates
fix fpecies. .. M'kasrh Ph“fi"V
Julian, calls it the horned turkey. l h,s fpec.es is
larger than a fowl, and foaller than n turkey. The
colour of the bill it brown; the nottrils, iorehead,
j 1 PEN
and fpace round the eyec, are covered with {lender Penelope,
black’hairy feathers ; the top of the head is red. Be-
hind each eye there is a flcftiy callous blue fubftance
like a horn, which tends backward. On the fore part Latham**
of the neck and throat there is a loofe flap of a fine
blue colour, marked with orange fpot«, the lower part
of which is befet with a few hairs ; down the middle
it is fomewhat loofer than on the fides, being wrinkled.
The bread and upper part of the back are of a full red
colour. The neck and bread are inclined to yellow.
The other parts of the plumage and tail are of a rufous
brown, marked all over with wh'te Ipots, encompaffed
with black. The legs are foraewhat white, and fur-
niffied with a fpur behind each. A head of this bird,
Mr Latham tells us, was fent to Dr Mead from Ben¬
gal, together with a drawing of the bird, which was
called napaul-pheafant. It is a native of Bengal.
2. The meleagru cnjlata, called by Ray penelope jacu-
peme, and by Edwards the guan, or quan, is about the
fize of a fowl, being about two feet fix inches long.—
The bill is two inches long, and of a black colour ; the
irides are of a dirty orange colour ; the fides of the
head are covered with a naked purplifti blue (kin, in
which the eyes are placed: beneath the throat, for an
inch and a half, the (kin is loofe, of a fine red colour^
and covered only with a few hairs. The top of the
head is furnifhed with long feathers, which the bird
can ere ft as a creft at pleafure ; the general colour of
the plumage is brownifh black, gioffed over with cop¬
per ’in fome lights; but the wing coverts have a greenifh
and violet glofs. The quills moftly incline to a purple
colour ; the fore-part of the neck, bread, and belly,
are marked with white fpots ; the thighs, under tail co¬
verts, r.nd the tail itfelf, are browniftr black; the legs are
red ; the claws black. Some of thefe birds have little
or no creft, and are thence fuppofed to be females.—
They inhabit Brafil and Guiana, where they are often
made tame. They frequently make a noife not unlike
the word jacu. Their flefir is much efteemed.
3. Crax Cumatunjis, called by Latham, &c. yacou.
It is bigger than a common fowl. The bill is black ;
the head feathers are long, pointed, and form a creft,
which can be erefted at pleafure. The irides are of a
pale rufous colour ; the fpace round the eyes is naked,
fimilar to that of a turkey. It has alfo a naked mem¬
brane, or kind of avattle, of a dull black colour.
The blue (kin comes forward on the bill, but is not
liable to change colour like that of the turkey. The
plumage has not much variation ; it is chiefly brown,
with fome white markings on the neck, bread, wing
coverts, and belly ; the tail is compofed of twelve fea¬
thers, pretty long, and even at the end ; the legs are
red. This fpecies inhabits Cayenne, but is a very rare
bird, being met with only in the inner parts, or about
the Amazons country, though in much greater plenty
up the river Oyapoc, efpecially towards Camoupi ; and
indeed thofe which are feerr at Cayenne are moftly
tame ones, for it is a familiar bird, and will breed in
that date, and mix with other poultry. It makes the
neft on the ground, and hatches the young there, but
is at other times moftly feen on trees. It frequently
erefts the creft, when pleafed, or taken notice of, and
likewife fpreads the tail upright like a fan, in the man¬
ner of Ac turkey. It has two kinds of cry ; one like
PEN
J^nelope. that of a young turkey, the other lower and mere
plaintive; the firft of thefe is thought by the Indians
to exprefs the word couyovoit, the otheryacou.
. 4* The pipile, or, as it is called, crax p'jpile, is black
in the belly, and the back brown ftained with black.
T he flefh on the neck is of a green colour. It is about
the bignefs of the former, and has a hiding noife. 
1 he head is partly black and partly white, and is adorn¬
ed with a Ihort creft. The fpace about the eyes, which
are black, is white; the feet are red. It inhabits
Guiana.
5. The marai/ is about the fize of a fowl, and fhaped
fomewhat like it. The bill and irides are blackifh •
the fpace round the eyes is bare, and of a pale red ; the
chin, throat, and fore part of the neck, are fcarcely
covered with feathers; but the throat itfelf is bare,
and the membrane elongated to half an inch or more ;
both this and the /km round the eyes change colour,
and become deeper and thicker when the bird is irri-
tated. The head feathers are longi/h, fo as to appear
ke a creft whe„ railed up, which the bird often doc.
when abated ; at wh.ch time it alfo ereft. thofe of
e whole body, and fo disfigures itfclf as to be fcarce
f"7n • the colour of the plumage is a greenilh
black , the fore-part of the neck is tipped with white ,
feathe”” ^ S'0" ! tail ‘S lonS’ conblting of it
feathers, which are even at the end, and commonly
ef\bUt bC Iifted UP’ and fPread out like
red tb ^1 5 thc,leS8 and toes are of a bright
Till A- T/ areTcr?oked> a«d fomewhat fliarp. In
^ colleflaon (fays Latham) from Cayenne was a bird,
Hk vl 4 uS VCry fPec,'es- 11 was inches long 1
round the t °fu uWU br°Wn’ and rather hooked;’
fore 11 /a bare’theheadiScrefted; thefeathers of the
hXTf/hlneckare,t,pPed/w'thwhite;thebreaftand
bellyarerufous brown; thereftofthe plumage isgreeni/h
,n7atlnTlVl rhes lon^ a»d -undeSat the
, the quills juft reach beyond the rump; the leogare
h'rdsd„^da” hook'dnTh!‘ —
it is much l/f ? ’ 11 a dlftance fr°ni the fea’ though
n fn ail V t ?°Wnithan C°uld be imag^ed; andfound
n /mail flocks for the moft part, except in breedinl
ly on thl" 11 1S,°nly feen ^ Pairs’ andlhen frequent-
tfF fr th^“herSsthafothe°;
ing thefyomtm£h°Vhe-gT"dlike 3 hen- ani1 brood-
-whofe Irmt ,tv n ^ "1“ *i"' «»
uf b falling to the gro™ d ^tb' d'fco,"?d by
% tamed, and feldom ,, 1 V y0?nS b,rd8 m “■
bare been brought up rt,1" th? Plac“ they
they prefer the rooftiL'onhtb"'ed n0t be houfed’ M
Their ciy is not inharm • trees to any other place.
or wounded, when‘it is harftTa ^ irritated
much efteemed. and loud* Their fle/h is
Buffon fuppofes this bird to he th* f ? r ,
y-ou, or at lcaft a yafiH7. but thha:^-ftt:
r r23 1
PEN
ii
Peiiiel.
tne anatomical infpefHon will at once determine. The Penc'He*
windpipe of this bird has a Angular conftruftion, pall¬
ing along the neck to the entrance of the breaft, where
't nfes on the outfide of'the fle/h, and, after goin^ a
little way downwards, returns, and then paffes into
e cavity o the lungs. It is kept in its place on the
outnde by a mufcular ligament, which is perceivable
quite to the breaft-bone. This is found to be the
cate in both male and female, and plainly proves that
it differs from the yacou, whofe windpipe has no fuch
circumvolution in either fex.
If this be the bird mentioned by Fermin, in his
Hiftory of Guuftia, p. 176. he fays that the creft is
cuneiform, and of a black and white colour ; and ob-
lerves that they are fcarce at Surinam ; but it does not
leem quite certain whether he means this fpecies or the
yacou. r
Bancroft mentions a bird of Guiana by the name of
■V, ■„?’ ^hlch he fays is wholly of a browni/h black :
the bill the fame; and the legs grey Thefe, he fays, are
common, and make a noife not unlike the name given
it, perching on trees. The Indians imitate their cry
o exaaiy, as to lead to the difeovery of the place
, bird8are in» by their anfwering it. The flefh of
Ihe mLih6 “ ^ ^ ^ is therer°re moft llkdY
6. The vociferating pens lope. The bill of this bird is
preengrCT^ CuT■’ ^ back is brown> the breaft
rd!s -t lhe be y 18gr°f a whitifh brown. Latham
crot he Cur($a w' 11 is about the bignefs of a
vet^E^A' (Antonine), a town of the HeL
vetn, A t ua ted be tween the Lacus Laufonius and Salo-
to rA/a cf by PeUti'"^ Thought now
In SwiftlSuvmus)'the caj,italof a ^
th PEN^,US’c ^trab°) 5 a ri‘ver running through
Sinu^Th6 ° • rhd:aly* from weft to eaft, into the
Tempe o^TheffT’ T'™ °iympU8 and ncar
Val FlaccuT) y> g m m°Unt Pindus> COvid,
PENETRAFE, a facred room or chapel in private
^ whrch was fet apart for the wor/hip Pof the
m0ngthefnC,'entR0Tn9ns' In tem*
a„?ih J r hAC Werc/^^y or apartments of di/tin-
gmflied fanaity, where the images of the gods were
k PFNPTHW m iemn ceremoni'es Performed.
PFN^T^tt^ P,NGUIN- S^e TiNOtriN.
iMMtw ILL US, among furgeons, is ufed for a tent
to be put into wounds or ulcers?
hIEV °r, PrENUEL’ a city bcy0fld Jordan, near
he ford or brook Jabbok. This wa. the occjon of
it. name. Jacob, upon his return from Mcfopotamia,
(Gen. xxx,,. 24, &c.) made a ftop at the brook [ab-
fent aliiheTery P'iV11'"U morninhr- after b= had
eat all the people before, he remained alone, and be¬
hold an angel came, and wreftled with him til! the day
began ,0 appear. Then the angel faid to Jacob, lit
^erSed ill 'h ' Trn'ng beg,inS t0 apPCar- Jacob a"-
iwertd, I /hall not let you go from me till you have'riven
me your bleffing. The angel bleffed him then in the
fame place, which Jacob thence called Peniel, faying,
have feen God face to face, yet continue alive/ g
In following ages the Ifraelites built a city in this
place, which was given to the tribe of Gad. Gideon
returning
P _E N I 1
I’cn'mnah retarnlncj from the pmfuit of the Mkhanhes, overdrew
r II the tower of Peniel, (Judges viii. 17), put aU the
inhabitants of the city to death, for htmng re.uhd
V fuftenance to him and his people, and hav.ng aniwe.ed
him in a very infulting manner, Jeroooam the .on
Neb^t rebuilt the city of Peniel, (1 kings xn. 25.)
Jcfephus fays, that this prince there built hunlelt
k PEN1NNAH, the fecond wife of Elkanah, the
father of Samuel. Peninnah had feveral children,
(1 Sam. i. 2, 3, &c-), but Hannah, who afterwards
was mother of Samuel, was for a great while barren.
Peninnah, inftead of giving the glory to Goo, the au¬
thor of fruitfulnefs, was elevated with pride, and 1 -
fulted her rival Hannah. But the Lord having v.fited
Hannah. Peninnah was thereupon humbled ; and lome
interpretss think, that God took away her children
from her, or at leak that (he had no more after tins
time, according to the words of the fong o ann^ ’
(1 Sam ii. 5.), “Thebarren hath bornfeven, and me
that hath many children is waxed feeble.
PENINSULA, in geography, a portion or ex¬
tent of land joining to the continent by a narrow
neck or ifthmus, the reft being encorapaffed with wa¬
ter. See Plate CCXII. o 1 , W
PENIS, in anatomy. See there, P- 738-coL 2l f f
PENITENCE, is fometimes ufed tor a Itate or
repentance, and fometimes for the ad of rcPentl.nS*
gee Repentance. It is alfo ufed for a difuph ,
or punifhment attending repentance ; move ufua >
called penance. It alfo gives title to feveral rel.g -
<n,s orders, conf.fting either of converted debauchee^
and reformed proflitut.es, or of perfons ^ *r°‘c
themfelves to the office of reclaiming them. Ut this
^OrAr^/’pelirEVCB of Si Magdakn, ellabllllied
about the year 1272 by one Bernard, a citizen o. Mai -
fellies, who devoted himfelf to the work of converting
the courtezans of that city. _ Bernard was feconded
by feveral others; who, forming a kind of fociety,
were at length erefted into a religious order by Pope
Nicholas HI. under the rule of St Auguftine. P.
Gefnay fays, that they alfo made a religious or^er of
the penitents, or women they converted, giving them
the fame rules and obfervances which they themfelves
^Congregation of Pf.nitench of St Magdalen at Pans,
owed fts rife to the preaching of F. I ifferan, a Ira
eifean, who converted a vaft number of courtezans
about the year 1492. Louis duke of Orleans gave
them his houfe fora monaftery ; or rather, as appears
by their conftitutions, Charles VIH. gave them the
hotel called Bochaigne, whence they were removed to
St George’s chapel, in iS12. By virtue of a brief
of PopegAlexander, Simon biflaop of Paris, '497»
drew them up a body of ftatutes, and gave them the
rule of St Auguftine. It was neceffary, before a wo¬
man could be^dmitted, that (he had firft committed
The fin of the flefh. None were admitted *ftio were
above years of age. Till the beginning of the laft
centuryf lone but penitents were admitted ; but iince
its reformation by Mary Alvequin in 16.6, none ha^
been admitted but maids, who, however, ftill retain
the ancient name penitents. t . r
PENITENTS, an appellation given to certain tra-
PEN
2 trait,M penitent, diflinguiilied by tlie different P»i'en»
fhape and colour of their habits. Thefe are fecular Penitent;i>
focieties, who have their rules, ftatutes, and churches, ary-
and make public procefiions under their particular 
erodes or banners. Of thefe there are more than a
hundred, the moft confiderable of which are as tol-
low : the white penitents, ol which there are feveral
different forts at Rome, the moft ancient of which was
conftituted in 1264; the brethren of this fraternity
every year give portions to a certain number of young
girls, in order to their being married : their habit is a
kind of white fackcloth, and on the (houlder is a circle,
in the middle of which is a red and white crofs. Black
penitents, the moft confiderable of which are the bre¬
thren of mercy, inftituted in 1488 by fome Floren¬
tines, in order to affift criminals during their impn-
fonment, and at the time of their death : on the day
of execution, they walk in procellion before them,
finding the feven penitential pfalms and the litanies;
and after they are dead, they take them down from the
gibbet and bury them ; their habit is black fackcloth.
There are others whofe bufmefs it is to bury fuch per-
fons as are found dead in the ftreets: thefe wear a
death’s head on one fide of their habit. I ace ate a -
fo blue irrev red, screen, and violet penitents ; ad
which are remarkable for little elfe belides the. different
colours of their habits. # r . r ^
Mabillon tells us, that at Turin there are a fet ot pe¬
nitents keot in pay to walk through the ftreets 111 pro-
ceffion, and cut their (hoaiders with wnips, &c.
Penitents, or Converts of the Name of Jcfus,z con-
jrregation of religious at Seville in Spain, confuting ot
women who had led a licentious life, founded in 1550.
This monaftery is divided into three quarters : one tor
proi'effed religious; another for novices; a third for choie
Uo are under correaion. When thefe laft give figns
of a real repentance, they are removed into the quai-
ter of the novices, where, if they do not behave
themfelves well, they are remanded to their correaion.
They obferve the rule of St Auguftme. .
Penitents of Orvleto, are an order of nuns, irdtituted
by Antony Simoncelii, a gentleman of Orvieto in Italy.
The monaftery he built was at ftrft defigne or
reception of poor girls, abandoned by their parents,
and in danger of lofing their virtue. In 1662 it was
ere&ed into a monaftery, for the reception of fuch as,
having abandoned themielves to impurity, were willing
to take up, and confecrate themfelves to God by fo-
lemn vows. Their rule is that of the Carmelites.
Thefe religious have this in peculiar, that they un¬
dergo no noviciate. All required is, that they con¬
tinue a few months in the monaftery in a fecular ha¬
bit • after which they are admitted to the vows. _
PENITENTIAL, an ecclefiaftical book retained
among the Romanifts; in which is prefenbed what re¬
lates to the impofition of penance and the reconcilia¬
tion of penitents. See Penance.
There are various penitentials, as the Roman peni>-
tential, that of the venerable Bede, that of Pope Gre-
g°PENiTENTIARY, in the ancient Chnftian
church, a name given to certain prefbyters or pnefts,
apoointed in every church to receive the private con-
feflions of the people, in order to facilitate pub ic -
cipline, by acquainting them what fins were to be^ -
Penn,
.PEN
Penitent!- plated by public penance, and to appoint private pe-
< n tnce for fueh private crimes as were not proper to be
publicly cenfured.
Penitentiary, at the court of Rome, is an office
in which are examined and delivered out the fecret
bulls, graces, or difpenfations relating to cafes of con-
fcience, confeffions, &c.
Penitentiary, is alfo an officer, in fome cathe¬
drals, veiled with power from the biihop to abfolve, in
cafes referved to him. The pope has at prefent his
grand penitentiary, who is a cardinal, and the chief
of the other penitentiary priefts edabiithed in the
church of Rome, who confult him in all difficult cafes.
He prefides in the penitentiary, difpatches difpenfai
tiOiis, abfolutions, &c. and has under him a regent and
^4 proffers, or advocates of the facred penitentiary.
PENMAN-hdawR, a mountain in Caernarvonihire,
1400 feet high. It hangs perpendicularly over the
fea, at fo vail a height, that few fpeflators are able to
look down the dreadful deep. On the fide which is
next the fea, there is a road cut out of the fide of the
rock, about fix or feven feet wide, which winds up a
deep afeent, and ufed to be defended on one fide only
by a flight wall, in fome parts about a yard hmh, and
in others by only a bank, that fcarce rofe a foot above
the road. 1 he fea was feen daffiing its waves 40 fa¬
thoms below, with the mountain rifing as much above
the traveller’s head. This dangerous road was a few
years ago fecured by a wall breaft-high, to the build¬
ing of which the atyot Dublin largely contributed, it
being in the high road to Holyhead.
PENN (Sir William), v as born at Eriflol in 1621,
and inclined from his youth to maritime affairs. He
was made captain at 21 years of age, rear-admiral of
Ireland at 23, vice admiral of Ireland at 25, admiral
to the Straits at 29, vice-admiral of Engird at 31
and general in the firft Dutch war at 32. Whence re¬
turning in 1655, he was chofen representative for the
town of Weymouth ; and in 1660 was made com.mif.
iioner of the admiralty and navy, governor of the town
and fort of Kinfale, vice-admiral of Munfter, and a
reember of that provincial council. In 1664 he was
cbofen great capta.n-commander under the duke of
J7k’ and ^'»Sr«>'fted himfelf in an engagement a-
gamfl the Dutch fleet; after which he took leave of
a,WUt/T-inU? fcis othe*-employments till
1009. He died in 1670.
Penn (William), an eminent writer among the Qua¬
kers and the planter and legiflator of Penfilvaffia
was the fon of the above Sir William Penn and was
born at London m 1644. In 1660, he was entered a
gentleman commoner of Chrift-church. in Oxford •
p“eaAZg„fCf0re r'lfCeiV<‘,,a" i,”P'effiu'1 ft™ tht’
f,OM/homas Co' a Quaker, withdrew
and heiru,0 f ft“l!£."la fr““ the national wortkip,
Xed g^hSTef t"' they Pr'aCh'^" J
to the heads of the Mr P 8:,,'"1grl'akt
years of age; was
college.18
account, treated with great femitv^v h’ T
«t lull turned him out^f doo’ hL 7:. /* '’ ^
terwards abating, he fent him’to F efr”tment af‘
tuth feme perfons of quality; Zn,Zed l
f ^5 I PEN
conffilerable time, and returned not only well flcilled in
the french language, but a polite and accomplifhed
gentleman. About the year 1666, his father commit¬
ted to his care a confiderable eftate in Ireland. Bcimr
found in one of the Quakers meetings in Cork, he
wi.n many others, was thrown into prifon ; but, on his
writing to the earl of Orrery, was foon discharged.
However, his father being informed he ftill adhered to
h.s opinions, fent for him to England, and finding him
inflexible to all his arguments, turned him out of doors
a feconu time. About the year 166S, he became a
public preacher among the Quakers ; and that year
was committed clofe prifoner to the Tower, where he
wrote feveral treatifes. Being difeharged after feveu
months impnfonment, he went to Ireland, where he
alfo preached amongft the Quakers. Returning to
Engian t, he was in 1670 committed to Newgate, fer
preaching in Gracechurch-ftreet meeting-houfe, Lon¬
don ; but being tried at the feffions-houfe in the Old
Bailey, he was acquitted. In September the fame
year, his father died ; and being perfedly reconciled to
him, left him both his paternal hleffing and a plentiful
eftate. Lut his perfecutions were not vet at an end ♦
tor in 1671 he was committed to Newgate for preach¬
ing at a meeting in Wheeler-ftreet, London ; and du¬
ring his impnlonment, which continued fix months, he
alfo wrote feveral treatifes. After his difeharge, he
went into Holland and Germany ; and in the begin¬
ning of the year 1672, married and fettled with his fa-
re.ly at Rukmanfworth in Hertford (hi re. The fame
year he pubhikedfevera! pieces ; and particularly ©ne
againft Reeve andMuggleton. In 1677, he again travel-
• ° Hol,^nd and Germany in order to propagatehis
opinions; and haw frequent converfations with the prin-
cefs Elizabeth, daughter to the queen of Bohemia, and
Her to the pnneefs Sophia, mother to king Geo. I.
" l67lrk‘7 CharJes IL in confideration of the fer-
vices of Mr Penn’s father, and feveral debts due to him-
from the crown at the time of his deceafe, granted Mr
ofCntLar h,SnT8 thc.prnce ^’ingon the weft fide
tne river Delaware in North America, which from
thence obtained the name of Pm-ykmnia. Upon this
z rb!'lhed a brief acc°unt ^t
1 r r , s Pjtent * and propofing an eafv pur-
chafe of lands, and good terms of fettlement for fuch
as were inclined to remove thither, many went over.
con? Jany madv and improved the,V plantations
good advantage, the governor, in order to fecure the
planters from the native Indians, appointed comnjif-
fioners to purchafe the land he had i-eceived from the
king of the native Indians, and concluded a peace with
^7; ^h7;ty of Philadelphia was planned and built;
ar l he hirafelf drew up the fundamental conftitutions
of Penfylvama ,11 24 articles. In 1681, he was elec¬
ted a member of the Royal Society; and the next year
he embarked for Penfylvama, where he continued about
two yeats, and returned to England in Auguft ,684.
Jpon the acceffion of King James to the throne, he
was taken into a great degree of favour with his Ma-
jetty, which expofed him to the imputation of bein«r a
Haput; but from which he fuliy vindicated himfelf.
However, upon the Revolution, he was examined be-
ore t ie council in 1688, and obliged to give fecurity
tor h.s appearance on the firii day of next term, which
was afterwards continued. He was feveral times dif¬
eharged
Pern.
126 ]
PEN. [
Penn, charged and examined ; and at length warrants being
iPiimatuIa out againft Irim, he was obliged to conceal him-
''' v felf for two or three years. Being at laft permitted to
appear before the king and council, he reprefenteci his
innocence fo efFeddually that he was acquitted. In Au-
guft 1699, he, with his wife an ily, embarked for
Penfylvania ; whence he returnee i7OI> 'n order to
vindicate his proprietary right, which had been attack-
ed during his abfence. Upon Queen Anne's acceffion
to the crown, he was in great favour with her, and was
often at court. But, in 1707, he was involved in a law-
fuit with the executors of a perfon who had been for¬
merly his fteward ; and, though many thought him ag¬
grieved, the court of chancery did not think proper to
relieve him; upon which account he was obliged to live
within the rules of the Fleet for feveral months, till the
matter in difpute was accommodated. He died in
1718. .
At one period of his life, Penn lodged m a houfe in
Norfolk-ftreet in the Strand. In the entrance to it
he had a peeping-hole, through which he could fee
any perfon that came to him. A creditor one day
;fent in his name, and having been made to wait more
than a reafonable time, he knocked for the fervant,
whom he alked, “ Will not thy matter fee me ?”
44 Friend (anfwered the fervant) he has feen thee, but
he does not like thee.”
Mr Penn’s friendly and pacific manner of treating
the Indians produced in them an extraordinary love
for him and his people ; fo that they have maintained
a perfeft amity with the Englifh in Peniylvania ever
-fince. He was the greateft bulwark of die Quakers ;
■in whole defence he wrote numberlefs pieces. Befides
the above works, he wrote a great number of others ;
the mott efteemed of which are, 1. His Primitive
Chriftianity revived. 2. His defence of a paper, in-
titled Go/pe/ Truths, againft the Exceptions of the Bt-
■fhop of Cork. 3. His Perfuafive to Moderation.
4. His Good Advice to the Church of England, Ro¬
man Catholic, and Proteftant DifTenter. 5. The Sandy
Foundation fhaken. 6. No Crofs, no Crown. 7. The
great Cafe of Liberty of Confcience debated. 8. The
Chriftian Quaker and his Teftimony ftated and vindi¬
cated. 9. A Difeourfe of the general Rule of Faith
-and P raft ice, and Judge of Controveify. 10. Eng¬
land’s Prefent Interett confidered. it. An Addreis
.to Proteftants. 12. His Refleftions and Maxims.
13. His Advice to his Children. 14. His RTeand
Progrefs of the People called Quakers. 15. A Prea-
tife on Oaths. Mott of thefe have patted feveral edi¬
tions, feme of them many. The letters between Wd-
liam Penn and Dr Tillotfon, and William Penn and
William Popple, Efq; together with Penn s letters to
the princefs Elizabeth of the Rhine, and the eoun-
tefs of Hornes, as alfo one to his wife on his going to
Penfylvania, are inferted in his works, which were hrtt
collefted and publiftied in 2 vols folio ; and the parts
fince felefted and abridged into 1 vol. folio, are very
much and defervedly admired for the good fenfe they
PENNATULA, ©f Sea-pen, in natural hiftory, a
genus of zoophyte, which, though it fwims about
freely in the fea, approaches near to^the jorgoma-
PEN
ceives the fupply of its ottcous matter by the fame Pennatul*;
polype mouths that furnifh it with nourifhment.'
Linnasus reckons feven fpecies. The name -zoophytes
under which this genus is ranked, it is well known fig-
nifies, that the creature partakes both of the animal
and vegetable nature ; but feme have fuppofed it to be
nothing more but a fucus or fea plant. It is certain¬
ly an animal, however, and as fuen is free or loco-
This genus hath a bone along the middle of the
iide, which is its chief fupport; and this bone
motive. Its body generally expands into proceffes on
the upper parts, and thefe proceffes or branches are
furniihed with rows of tubular denticles ! they have a
polype head proceeding from each tube.
The fea-pen is not a coralline, but diftinguifhed
from it by this fpecific difference, corals, corallines,
alcyoonia, and all that order of beings, adhere firmly
by their bafes to fubmanne fubftances, but the fea-
pen either fwims about in the water or floats upon
the furface.
The Honourable Dr Coote Molefworth lately lent
one of thefe animals to the ingenious Mr Ellis, the
author of many curious papers on the nature of coral¬
lines. which was-taken in a trawl in 72 fathoms water,
near the harbour of Brett in France : the fame fpecies
are freauently found in the ocean from tne coaft of
Norway to the Mediterranean fea, fometimes at confi-
derahle depths, and fometimes floating on the furface.
Mr Ellis’s defeription of that fent him by Dr Molef-
worth is as follows :
Its general appearance greatlyrefembles thatof a quill
feather of a bird’s wing (fee Plate CCCLXXXVIII.
fig. 1.); it is about four inches long, and of a reddifh co¬
lour; along the back there is a groove from the quijl
part to the extremity of the feathered part, as there ia
in a pen ; the feathered part confifls of fins proceeding
from the ftem, as expreffed in the figure. The fins move
the animal backward and forward in the water, and
are furnifhed with fuckers or mouths armed with fila¬
ments, which appear magnified as fig. 2. There is
no perforation at the bottom, and therefore Mr Elhs is
of opinion, that the exuvia of the animals upon which it
feeds are difeharged by the fame apertures at which the
food is taken in; and in this it is not Angular, Nature
having obferved the fame ceconomy in the Greenland
polype, deferibed by Mr Ellis in his Effay on Coral¬
lines. Each fucker has4 eight filaments, which are
protruded when prey is to be caught ; but at other
times they are drawn back into their cafes, which are
furnittied at the end with fpicule, that clofe together
round the entrance, and defend this tender part from
external injuries.
Dr Bohadfch of Prague had an opportunity of ob-
ferving one of thefe animals alive in the water, and
he gives the following account of what he favv : “ A
portion of the ftem contrafted, and became of a ftrong
purple colour, fo as to have the appearance of a liga¬
ture round it; this apparent ligature, or zone, moved
upwards and downwards fucceffively through the
whole length of the ftem, as well the feathered as the
naked part; it began at the bottom, and moving up¬
wards to the other extremity, it there difappeared,
and at the fame inftant appeared again at the bottom,
and attended as before ; but as it attended through the
feathered or pinnated part, it became paler. When
this zone is much conftrifted, the trunk above it
fwells, and acquires the form of an onion;
j:*
PEN [ i
^nnmh Mdion of the trunk gives the colour to the zone,
ior t ie intermediate parts are paler in porp^rtion as
the ^zone becomes deeper. The end of the nuked
trunk is fometfhjes curved like a hook ; and at its ex¬
tremity there is a finus or chink, which grows deeper
while the purple ring is afcending, and fhalkuver as it
is eom ng down. The fins have four motions, upward
and downward, and backward and forward, from right
to left, and from left to right. The fkfhy filaments, or
c.aws, move in all dire&ions; and with the cylindrical
part from which they proceed are fometimes protruded
from, the fins, and fometimes hidden with them.
Upon diffefting this animal the following pheno¬
mena were difcovered. When the trunk was opened
lengthwife, a faltifh liquor flowed out of it, fo vifcid
as to hang down an inch. The whole trunk of the
item was found to be hollow, the outward membrane
lemg very ftrong, and about a tenth part of an inch
thick : within this membrane appeared another much
thinner ; and between thefe two membranes, in the
pinnated part of the trunk, innumerable little yellow-
I1 eZ/8> i160?1 the of a white poppy.feed, were
feen floating in a whitifh liquor; about three parts of
ie cavity within the inner membrane is filled by a
anfA5'Ifb°ne 1 this b°ne is about two inches
am an half long, and one twentieth of an inch thick ;
n the middle it is four fquare, but towards the ends
rt glows round and very taper, that end bring fineft
which is next the pinnated part of the trunk This
bone is covered in its whole length with a clear yel¬
low,fli fkin,_which at each end runs out into a lL-
anT he°nfl,S ’ • ^d in thert0P °f the pinnated truSc,
a J the other in the top of the naked trunk ; by the
b; fer°, tbe.UPpcr ]l^nie„t the end of the bone is
either bent into an arch> or dlfpofed a ftra‘ ht line_
Ih^fins are compofed of two flcins ; the outward
one I8 flrong and leathery, and covered over with an
nhnm:;r^r of cnnifori ftreaks; the inner ^is
U.n and tranfparent: the fuckers are alfo in the fame
manner compofed of two fkins, but the outward fldn
hol owef r\S f°ier- B°th the fin3 fuckers are
ollow, fo that the cavity of the fuckers may commu-
avityJfthefin,
“ S ius,7in1hflgr’
°fU ^
mxxxvnus the kidney fhaped fea-pen Tee^r ^ frh,ere
of the peacock G<k rr" F" s 3 )» feather
JbWus (fee 4')’ ■h'P'Matulafilofa of
Us pennatula f ^
Shaped fea pen (fee fi-r « \ ^ri? i-j d tbe fr,1ger-
pen was difcovered fome tin P ^ kldney. (haPed fea*
South Carolina, and fenT^o Mr FT T r l ^ °f
Efq! of Charltftown. lt'is of ffi “ by J“.hn GreSS>
th‘k[t"'r P-t is about a» L h fbrr,P„i ,C0 °"V
and about half an inch wide mV d tQ end»
a tad proceeds from the middle of ^ Jart J
foundilh, aud aboU£ an inch bng.alfo f^hg^
8
*7 ] PEN
an earth-worm, and along the middle both of the tin-
per and under part of it there is a final] groove which
runs from one end to the other, but thefe is no perfo-
ration at either extremity. The upper part of the
cy is convex, and about an inch thick; the whole
furface is covered with fmall yellow ftarry openings
through which little fuckers are protruded, each fur!
ndhed with fix tentacula, or filaments, like what are
obferved on fome corals ; the under part of the bodv
s quite flat, and is full of ramifications of flefhy fibres
which proceeding from the infertion of the tail as a
common centre, branch out fo as to communicate with
the flarry openings on the exterior edge and upper
furface or the animal. Of all the ptonatul/ya
known the feather fhaped one, or as it is called fhe
(fce % r)> ^ the large ft as well as the
mofi fpecious m its appearance. It is of a beautiful fil-
very white, elegantly ftriated on each of the feather-1,ke
proctfles with lines or ftreaks of the deepeft black
. t 13 veiT ^are» and 18 a native of the Indian leas There
MuS. ^ P'C'“'en °f thi’ fptc;'s “ the Britifh
,JdNK,iGdd"?: F;a"c'fco). to™ at Florence In
J4«8, was the difc.ple of Raphael, who obferring h,s
(.emus and integrity, Intrufted hi'a domeRic confernj-
entirely to hit management; by which meant he got th-
appeHatton of i/>/o/e, or the “ fteward,” whfch he
retained ever after The geniu. of Pend wat univer '
and build “ greafCft I,leafure was painting landfcapes
and buildings: he was an excellent defigner, and co.
loured extremely well in oil, diflemper, and t"efco
He painted portrait! in an exquilite ftyle; and had fuch
happy natural talent,, that Raphael left him heir to hit
fortune partnerlhip with Julio Romano his feHow
d tiple. After Raphael’s death, Penni pained 't”;
piaures at Rome, particularly in the palfce of Chirf
fo exaflly ta the ftyle of his mailer, fhat they migh;
no, undefervedly have been imputed to him : he finfft,!
ed in conjun&on with Julio and Pierino del Vaga the
celebrated defign, of the battles of Conilantin? and
others, which Raphael had left imperfedt; but dilfer-
wHch'-h ' 1CI1' ah0Ut a COp!r of the traiiillguration,
Pirated' Pp' fof,the ki"g of Fra““- "'ey
1' parated. Pcnm went to Naples ; but the afrnf t-W
afto‘7 ,df?reHg hitl' hliS co"llituti[,"> he died foon
...er in 1528. He had a brother called Lucca Penni
> 10 workec at Genoa and other parts of Italy in con’
jimaion with Pierino del Vaga, who married hi, filter ?
He„7vnlv-mnC7!' Erngla“,d’ worked for’
any Yin. and for fevtTai merchants; was employ-
tel by Francis I. at Fountainbleau; but at laft quitted
Li Ppe\mVaHd devoted himfeU to engraving.
rn’1 commerct, an ancient Englife
com, which had formerly confiderable courfe; but is
now generaUy dwindled into an imaginary money, or
ty of account. Camden derives the word from
the Latin pfeunia, “ money/’
tJlVn'™' En^dh penny, penig, cr pening, v-as
the fir ft filver coin ftruck in England ; nay, and the
only one current among our Saxon anceftors: as i»
agi eed by Camden, Spelman, Dr Hicks, &c.
he penny was equal in weight to our three pence •
five of them made one IhiUing, or fcilling Saxon j ,o
01 ™ancufey equal to our 7 j. 6<L 3
ill the time of King Er’w 1 the penny was ftruck
with a crofs, fo deeply indented in it, that it might be
eafily
%
pen r
T,r„T e-.r,!-. brnkf, and parted, on occaCon, into two patti,
1'cnrith. thCnCe called half-pennies ; or into four, thence called
—V-)*, or/it/V-- But that prmce cotned tt
Vitbout indenture; in lieu of which, he hrit itiuck
• round halfpence and farthings.
He alfo reduced the weight or the penny to a ftand-
ar&> . ordering that itlhould weigh 3 2 grains of wheat,
taken out of the middle of the ear This penny was
called the penny feeling.—Twenty of thefe pence were
to weigh an ounce; whence tne penny became a
weight as well as a coin. See Sterling and Penkt-
^ The penny ftfrling is now nigh dihifed as a coin ;
and fcarce fubfids, but as a money ot account con-
tairlng the twelfth part of a frilling, or the 140th part
'°f Penny, in ancient ftatutes, See. is ufed for all frver
jtjoney, And hence the ward-penny, aver-penny, hundred-
t>ennv, tithing penny, and brothalpenny. _
1 PtvNr- IVeight, a Troy weight, containing 24 grams
each t rain weighing a grain of wheat gathered out of
the middle of the ear, well dried. The name took its
rife hence, that this was anciently the weight ot one of
our ancient filver pennies. See Penny.
Twenty of thefe penny-weights make an ounctckT^
PFNRITH, an ancient town of the county or Uum-
LeSb E^’and, fraud under a NU called
Fell near the rivers Eamont and Lowther. It _ a
great thoroughfare for travellers; but has little otaer
trade except tanning, and a fmall manufaaure of
checks. ‘ Formerly it had a caftle, but U is now m
ruins! In the church yard is a monument of great
antiquity, confiding of two Itone-ptlhrs 11 feet 6 inches
Hgh and 5 in circumference in the lower part, which
is rounded^ the upper is We and taper s to a pom ;
- tue faaare part is fome fret-work, and the relievo
of a cro'fs ; and on the interior fide of one is the faint
Teprefentalion of fome animal. But
mortifed at their lower part mto a round on . .
12S ] PEN
HipKland«r* entered tins toun, and quartered in it 101
a night, in their way to Prefton, 'without doing much
harm; but in the Inft tehellion, in .74;. they were,
it is f lid very rapacious and cruel. Its handfome tpa-
c its :WhyhaSPb«r, lately rebuilt and the roof fup.
ported by pillars, whole (hafts am of one entire redd,ft
done, dug out of a neighbouring quarry On the
caft part of the parilh, upon the north bank of the
ver Lmont, there are two caves or grottoes, dug out
of the folid rock, and fufficient to contain too men.
The paffage to them is very narrow and dangerous!
and if is pcffible that its perilous accefs may have
given it the name of//. Parli,; though the vulgar ell
ftrange dories of one If,6, a giant, who lived there lit
fomier times, and, like Cacus of old, ufed to feme men
Sid cattle, and draw them into h,s den to devour
them. But it is highly probable, that thefe fubte -
ra-eous chambers were made for a fccure retreat in
time of fudden danger ; and the iron gates, which were
taken away not long ago, feem to contain that fuppo-
lit ion. W. laong. 3. 16. N. 1-at- 54- 3
PENROSE (Thomas), was the fon of tae Re e-
rend Mr Penrofe, redor of Newbury, Berks, a man
rfllA tSkr and abilities, defeended trom an an¬
cient Cornift family, beloved and teCpefted by all rto
knew him. Mr Penrole, jnn. j.e,ng intended tor he
church purfued his thuhes with luccefs, et Um.t-
church, Oxon, until the fummer of 1762, when hia
ea rer turn to the naval and milit ry line overpowering
hi? attachment to his real interdt, he left his coLege,
and embarked in the un-ortunate expedit.on againfl
Nova Colcnia, in South America, under the conrmand
of Captain Macnamara. 1 he iffue was .a,a .
Clive (the largeft veffel) was burnt; and though the
Ambufcade efcaped (on b'oard ef which Mr Pe^rofe
2aing as lieutenant of mannes.was wounded), ye., tne
hrrdfrips which he afterwards ful ,ined in a prize floop,
in which he was Rationed, utterly ruined bis conic 1-
Returtiing to England with ample tefbmcniaU
^ % 1 t.  K*=. tiniihpn. a
Penruf*
m- rtifed at their lower part into a round one : oicy tlotT |j t anj eoo4 behaviour, he fimfred, at
^e d out it feet afunderfand the fpace between them ^ Vforgd Co e re, Oxon, his cotrrfe of ftudies ; and
rincUed on end, file with two verv large but hm H-fot^CoH^ ^ of Newbury
femicircular ftoncs; fo that there is left between pi . o . 1 ' u.. .„vt,.ntarv fnhfcnotion of
-end pillar a walk of two feet in breadth. Two ot
thefe leiTer ftones are plain, the others have certain
figures at prefent fcarce intelligible.. Not tar from
thefe pillars is another called the giants thumb, five
feet eight inches high, with an expanded head, per-
fStJon both fides ; from the middle the done rife
jj,Tain into a leffer head, rounded at top; but no part has
a tendency to the figure of a crofs being in no part
tnmihtrd The pillars are fate! to have been fet up
H memory of Sir Owen Csefarius, a famous warnor
buried here, who killed fo many wild bears, which
much infefted this county, that the figures of bears
rut out in {tone, on each fide of fts grave, were fet
therein remembrance of the execution he made among
thofe beafts; and it is bkwife faid h.s body .e
from one pillar to the other. In the market-place
■ there is a town-houfe of wood, beautified with bears
chmbing up a ragged ftaff. Ihere is a memorandum
'on the north fide of thy veftry without, that, in 1598,
2266 prrfons died here of the. plague Then, is a
charity fchool in this place for 20 boys, and anodier
for 30 girls, maintained by 551- a year, bv ^h? facra-
enetft-monry and parifr-ftock. In 17Ue Scotch
PaVtnfF OrUCiO) av.v'c.yuv. V t r • • c
’ ■ u of which* bv the voluntary fubfcription of
the income or wnicn, cy 1 Art
the inhabitants* was conhoerably augmented. *iter
he had continued in that Ration about nme years, it
feemed as if the clouds of difrpponitment, which had
hitherto overfradowed his prcTpeds, and tinaureu .
poetical effays with gloom, were clearing away , for
he was then prefented by a friend, who knew h-s
worth and honoured his abilities, t* a lm"g
near cool, per annum. It came, however, too late ,
for the fiate of Mr Penrofe’s health was now inch as
left little hope, except in the affiilance of the waters
of Briihol. Thither he went; and there he < led m
I7-q afred 36 years. In 1768 he married M>fs Mary
Siocock'of Newbury, by whom he had one child,
Thomas, who was educated at W inton Cohege.
Mr Penrofe was refpetted for his extenlive erudition
admired for his eloquence and equally btIov^ 3
efteemed for his focial qualities. By the poor, tow arc.
whom he was liberal to his utmott ability, he was ve-
^ .o .h. UKhd. d'vgree. I„ ctaory and cc.-
poiition his talents were great. His pencil \ a5 T
as his pert, and on fubj/ds of humour had uncommon
merit. To his poetical abilities the puokc, hy
7
PEN
Fenryn,
Pe/i/acola
reception of his Flights of fancy, S(C. have given a
favourable teftimony. To fum up the whole, his figure
and addrefs were as pleafing as his mind was orna¬
mented.
PENRYN, a town of Cornwall, in England, feated
on a hill r:t the entrance of Falmouth-haven by Pen-
„ denniscaftle. It confifts of about 300 houfes ; and the
fireets are broad and well paved. There are fo many
gardens and orchards in it, that it refembles very much
* town in a wood. It is well watered with rivulets,
and has an arm of the fea on each fide of it, with a
good cuftomhoufe and quay, and other neat buildings.
It drives a confiderable trade in pilchards, and in the
Newfoundland fishery. It was anciently governed by
2 poitreeve ; but James I. made it a corporation, con-
fifting of a mayor, n aldermen, 12 common council-
men, with a recorder. Reward, See. an office of record
every three weeks, with a prifon, and power to try
fdons in their jurifjiaien. /ind he granted, that the
mayor and two aldermen ffiould be juftices of the peace,
iand that they ffiould have a guildhall. There was
once a monaftery in this place, which was a ceil to
Ivirton ; and there are ftill to be fetn a tower, ard
part ot the garden walls, the ruins of a collegiate
church. It has neither church nor chapel, but belongs
to the panffi of Giuvias, a-quarter of a mile off It
has fent members to parliament ever fic.ce the firil
year of Queen Mary ; and James II. granted it a new
charter, whereby their election was veiled in the ma-
g'itracy only ; but it was never made ufe of, all the
inhabitants that pay fcot and lot, who are not much
above 100, being the ekaers. Mr Rymer gives a
very remarkable account how Penryn was once faved
oy a company of ftrollmg players. He fays, that to¬
wards thelatter .end of the 16th century the Spaniards
were landing to burn the town juft as the players were
letting Samfon upon the Philiftines; which perform-
ance was accompanied with fuch drumming and ffiout-
ing, that the Spaniards thought fome ambuffi was laid
k>r them, and fcampered back to their ffiips. Queen
Elizabeth founded a free-fcftool in this place. W. JUum
5. 35. N. Lat. 50. 23. b'
PENSACQEA a rettlement in North America,
fituated at the mouth of a river on the gulf of Mexico.
It was eftabliffied by the French, and ceded to Great
Britain in 1763. Its firft difeoverer was Sebaftian
v.anot m 1497.
yCar M81’ ^ ,d,Taft™ to in other
refpeas, was alio remarkable for the yeduftion of Pen-
facola by the Spaniards under Don Bernardo Galvez.
r 129 1
PEN
armament with few more than (000 men, confining of Penfacoh,
fome regulars and feamen, with the inhabitants. The lJcn(a,:c'J'
entrance ot the harbour, which was the principal oh-^
jcdl of defence, was guarded by two fmail armed vef-
fcls, but they were infufficient to fecond the batteries
that had been eredted for its protection; and thef*,
without the Jifliftancc of fome (hips of force, were in-
capable of refilling a vigorous attack. Notwithftand-
mg this pro ligious odds, however, the Spaniards, met
with the moft determined oppofition. Every inch of
ground was difputed with the greateft refolution. The
harbour was not forced without the greateft difficulty,
nor could the veftels be taken that defended it ; the
companies belonging to them, after fetting them on
fire, retired on ffiore.
. The Spaniards, now in poff 7 m of the harbour,
in veiled the place in form, and made their approaches
in a cautious and regular manner; while, on the other
hand, the befieged were no lefs aaive and viVilant in
tlicir own defence. Sallies were made occafionally
with great fuccefs, at the fame time that an uninter¬
rupted fire was kept up in fuch a manner as not only
greatly to annoy, hut even to ftrike the befiegers with
aftomffiment. This incenfed the Spaniffi general the
more as he knew that the garrifon could CxpcA no
relief, and therefore that all their efforts*could only
pi offing the -date of their furrendtr. S he refiftan e
was ti e more mortifying, as he was perfe&Iv co:,ftious
of the bravery of his troops ; and he had artillery fit
as his offic.rs expreffed themfdves, “ to be emplov 4
againft Gibraltar.” With all thefe advantages* how-
C'l -r ■ uernaroo CjElvt
Great p,cpar«,o„8 hr this expedition had been makimj
H I p H7a?7".b« it was for fome time retarded
hl'r"“n' "bid. attacked the Spanilh
o h ’,,Ti l Wh‘Ch f0''" ^ °f tbe line, hrfides
people i, ht"r,r,h W're Io^’ togetI|cr with the
Bv this ’ 1 amount of more than 2000.
baV to the H ' Ilemai'ndtr obliged to put
Lot Ts ana^T"8 ' ,0 "P”’'' l*» ..U, as Ihe
ueet wa8> aga,n judged capable of putting-to fea an
embarkation was made of near ^ L .\
Bernardo at their heal, toSfr° ,h 7 fT
line, who arrived at Pelf i hve fllIPs of tl!e
■78.. Thl flree L'.TT 0n lh' ?>h <>f March
'if the
Thid! forrr f d1*1 Ur iVlarcn
. line and fre f /0°n \u?mented by ten ffi.ffis
• jme and fix frigates; while General C-urnffi 11 “
Mt^ffig^emor, could oppofe fuch a formidable
the B
Vol. XIV, Part I,
ever, fo refolute was the defence of the garnffim, that
dfter the liege had continued for two months, very little
hope could be entertained of its fpeedy termination.
As they defpaired therefore of making any effeau .l
ing rcfiion liy mtans of their cannon, they erefted a
battery of mortars, with jvhich they bombarded a re¬
doubt that commanded the main avenue to the place '
ana in this they were favoured by an unexpeded acci¬
dent. On the 8th of May a ffidl burft open th-*
door of the powder magazine under the redoubt by
which it was blown up, with the lofs of near too men
killed and wounded. Fortunately for the Parrifon
however, two flank-works ftill remained entire, from
both which fo heavy a fke was kept up, that though
anafiaultwas immediately given, the affdlants were re-
puhed with great daughter. This afforded leifurc to
the garnfon to carry off the wounded men, with fome
of the artillery, and to fpike up {he reft. As the
enemy however, ffion recovered themfelves, and pre¬
pared for a general ftorm, it was thought proper to
abandon the flank works, and retire into the body of
the place. The poffeffion of thefe outwoiks, however,
gave the enemy fuch advantages, that the place was
no longer tenable. Their fituation-, on a rifing ground,
em bkd them to command the battery oppofi e to their
cniet approach with fmall arms, and to Angle out the
men at their guns A capitulation therefore became
an olutely neceff try, which was obtained on honourable
terms. I he trtwn, with the whole province of Weft
kJonda, was confirmed to the Spaniards by the treatv
of^83; W. long. 87. 20. N. Lat. 30: 22. 7
PENSANCE, a town of Cornwall, in England, at
the bottom of Mountffiay, about ten miles from the
Land s iauJ, It was bufnt in i595 by the Spaniards,
11 who.
pfn l^s0! pen
r , .. , -^4. riP roaft with a difeafe in the ftomach and bowels.
Penfi.'ei, who, with four galleys, furpr.fed this part of the coa ,
reufilvania.anJ fet fire to leveral villages and farms. b
  > foon after rebuilt, made one of the co.oage .0^
and has now a confiderabk trado. ^
M.r.oJ for it! reftorative fpring. very ofe
m l in the cure of lamenefi aa well a» the chohc, &c.
It is well-built and populous, and has naanyftupabe-
lonffintr to it. The (here abounds fo with lead, M,
and copper ore, that the veins thereof appear on
utmoft extent ©f land at low-water mark. ,
PENSILES horti, Hanging Gardens, in antiqm y.
See Babylon, nu 5. . . -n-tt.'n,
PENSILVANIA, late one of the principal BritiUi
colonics in North America, had its name from the fa¬
mous Quaker William Penn, fen of Sir William, com¬
mander of the Englift fleet in Oliver Cromwell s tune
and in the beginning of Ch. IP’s reign who obtained
a grant of it in the year 1679 ; is bounded on the eail
bv Delaware bay and river, and the Atlantic ocean;
rn the north by the country of the Iroquois, or five
rations; and on the forth and weft by Maryland. Its
extent from north to fouth is about 200 miles; but
i,s breadth varies greatly, from 1 j, and even lefs, to
The a;r in Penfilvania is fweet and l'bsr- The fall,
or autumn, begins about the 20th of OSober, and
"afts till the beginning of December, when the winter
fet! in, which continues till March and is fometimes
extremely cold and f.vere ; hut the air ,s then generally
T,r -tnd healthy. The river Delaware, though very
toad, is often frozen over. From March to June
• in the fpring, the weather is more inconftant
‘than in the other feafons. In the month, of Ju y,
Aucmft, and Sepcember, the heats would be almoft in -
tolerable, if they were not mitigated by frequent cool
breezes. The wind during the fummer >s generally
fonth weft ; but in the winter blows for the moft pa.t
tom the north weft, over the fnowy frozen mountains
and lakes of Canada, which occafions the exceflive cold
during that feafon. On the whole, the climate of this
ftate differs not materially fiom that of Connecticut,
except that on the weft fide of the mountains the wea¬
ker is much more regular. The inhabitants never
tel thofe quick tranfuions from cold to heat, by a
change of the wind from north to fouth, as thole fo
frequently experience who live c.iftward of the moun.
tain, andbea? ihc Tea. The hot ^
get chilled by puffing over the long cha.n cf Allege ny
^^ontevity,when tolerably afeertained, is doubtkfs the
tutft mark^of the healthinefs of any country ? out this
n d^r^totfoas 5,r.s; ;sf
r„T,u;:e t0lonrtte eople. cahed Quakers, who
er" thboldeft Veitlers, there are inltances ot longevity,
. occafioned by Ad. h.ing in old cultwated conn-
pes and the temperance impofed on them t y their
rd ’-i u t here are fewer long-lived people among the
Gefmans than among other
ti,ei, .xcefs of 'tTJTttyfoo that affJrd, loo litlll
r'F"-';er„f “ reoaTr th/^ie of their ftrength by
hard iabour. Neariy one half of the children born
PhiL&lpbia die under two years of age, and chiefly
Very fewPei'fhvanra.
die at this age in the country.
As to the face of this country, towards the coalt,
like the adjacent colonies, it is flat, but rife* gradually
to the Apalachian mountains on the weft. As much
as nearly one third of this ftate may be called moun-
tainous; particularly the counties of Bedford,_ Hunt¬
ingdon, Cumberland, part of Franklin, Dauphin, and
part of Bucks and Northampton, through which pafs,
under various names, the numerous ridges and fpurs,
which collectively form what we choofe to cab, tor
the fake of clearnefs, the great range of Allegany moan,
tains. There is a remarkable difference between the
country on the eaft and weft fide of the range* of
mountains we have juft been defcnbing. _ Between thefe
mountains and the lower falls of the rivers which run
into the Atlantic, not only in this, but m all toe
fouthern ftates, are feveral ranges of {tones, _ lani,
earths, and minerals, which lie in the utmoft confufiom
Beds of ft one, of vaft extent, particularly of hmeftone,
have their feveral layers broken in pieces, and the frag¬
ments thrown confufedly in every direaion. Between
thefe lower falls and the ocean is a very extenfive col-
leftion of fand, clay, mud, and fhells, partly thrown
up bv the waves of the fea, partly brought down by
floods from the upper county, and partly produced by
the decay of vegetable fubftances. _ The country weft-
ward of the Allegany mountains, in thefe rcfpe&s, is
totally different. It is very irregular, broken, and va¬
riegated, but there are no mountains ; and when viewed
from the moft weftern ridge of the Allegany, it ap¬
pears to be a vaft extended plain. AH the vanoua
ftrata of flone appear to have bin undifturbed in the
fituation wherein they were firft formed. 1 ne layers
of clay, fand, and coal, are nearly horizontal. Scarcely
a fingle inftance is to be found to the contrary. Every
appearance, in fhort, tends to confirm trie opinion,
that the original cruft, in which the ftone was formed,,
has never been broken up on the weft fxde_of toe moun¬
tains, as it evidently has been eaftward of them.
The chief rivers are three, Delaware, Sufquehanna,
and Skoolkil. The Delaware, rifing in the country
of the Iroquois, takes its courfe fouthward ;. and alter
dividing this province from that of New Jerfey, falls
into the Atlantic ocean between the promontories or
capes May and Henlopen, forming at its mouth a large
bay, called from the river Delaware Bay. - his rive?
is navigable above 200 miles. The Sufquehanna nfes
alfoin the country of the Iroquois, and running fouth
through the middle of the province, falls into the bay
of Chefapeake, being navigable a great way ior large
fhins. The Skoolkil has its fource in the fame country
as the other two, and alfo runs fouth, almoft parallel
to them ; till at length, turning to the eaftward, it
falls into the Delaware at the city of Philadelphia. It
is navigable for boats above 100 miles. Thefe rivers,
with the numerous creeks and harbours in Delaware
bay, capable of containing the largeft fleets, are ex¬
tremely favourable to the trade of this Pr°v'nce; .
As to the foil, produce, and traffic of Penfilvania,
we refer the reader to the articles Nkw-York and the
Ierseys, fmee what is there faid on thofe hea-.s re
equally applicable to this province; and if there is an)
difference, it is on the fide of this province. They
PEN . [ 13
J>e;;fi!van!a,have fome ricehere,but in no great quantities} and fome
tobacco, but it is not equal to that of Virginia. From
the premiums offered by the fociety of arts in London,
it appears that the foil and climate of this province are
looked upon as proper for the cultivation of fome fpe-
cies of vines. The trade carried on from hence and
the other colonies to the French and Dutch iflands and
Surinam, was greatly to the difadvantage of Britain,
and very deftrudtive to the fugar-tolonies: for they
take molafies, rum, and other fpirits, with a great
many European goods, from thefe foreigners ; carrying
them horfcs, provifions, and lumber in return ; without
which the French could not carry on their fugar-ma-
nufadhrres to that advantage they do.
New York, the Jerfeys, and Penfilvania, were dif-
covered, with the reft of the continent of North Ame¬
rica,'in the reign of Henry VII. by Sebatlian Cabot,
for the crown of England ; but Sir Walter Raleigh
was the firft adventurer that attempted to plant colo¬
nies on thefe fhores, in the reign of Queen Elifabeth;
and, in honour of that princefs, gave all the eaflern
coaft of North America the name of Virginia. Mr
Hudfon, an Englifhman, failing to that part of the
coaft which lies between Virginia and New England,
in the beginning of the reign of James I. and being
about to make a fettlement at the mouth of Hudfon’s
river, the Dutch gave him a fum of money to difpofe
of his intereft in this country to them. In the year
1608 they began to plant it; and, by virtue of this
purchafe, laid claim to all thofe countries which are now
denominated iVew Torh, New Jerfey, and Pen/i/vania;
but there remaining fomc part of this coaft which was
not planted by the Hollanders, the Swedes fent a fleet
of fhips thither, and took pofleflion of it for that
crown ; but the Dutch having a fuperior force in the
neighbourhood, compelled the Swedes to fubmit to
their dominion, allowing them, however, to enjoy the
plantations they had fettled. The Englifh not admit¬
ting that either the Dutch or Swedes had any right
to countries firft difcovered and planted by a fubjed of
England, and part of them at that time pofteffed by
the fubjeds of Great Britain, under charter from
Queen Ehfabeth and King James I. King Charles II.
during the firft Dutch war in 1664, granted the
countries of New York, the Jerfeys, and Penfilvania,
of which the Dutch had ufurped the poffeflion, to his
brother James Duke of York; and Sir Robert Carr
being fent over with a fquadron of men of war and
land forces, and fummoning the Dutch governor of
the city of New Amfterdam, now New* York to
. render, he thought fit to obey the fummons, and
yield that capital to the Englifh : the reft of the
.places m the poffeffion of the Dutch and Swedes
o, evvec us example ; and thefc countries were con-
rtmi to the Englifh by the Dutch at the next treaty
o peace oetween the two nations. The Duke of York
afterwards parcelled them out to under proprietors ;
felling, in particular, to William Penn the elder, in
dbl-^ f ^ ?f Newcaftle> A Delaware, and a
'•r’a f *2 milf round the fame; to whom, his
heirs and afligns, by another deed of the fame date,
of NewcnTr l °vf.land fr0m 12 font!
JfelT to the Whore hills, otherwife called Ca/,e
Mofen now divided into the two counties of Kent
*nd buficx> which, with Newcaftle dillrift, are com-
i 1 PEN
nionly known by the name of the Three Tows*’ Court-Pc*(IIvama*
ties upon Delaware River. All the reft of the under- 
proprietors, fome time after, furrendered their chatters
to the crown ; whereby New York and the Jerfeys
became royal governments; but Penn retained that
part of the country which had been fold to him by the
Dukc of York, together with what had been granted
to him before in 1680-1, which now conftitutes the
province of Penfilvania. As loon as Penn had got his
patent, he began to plant the country. Thofe who
went over from England were generally Diffenters and
Quakers, whole religion is eftablilhed by law here, but
with a toleration of ail other Proteftant fedts. The
Dutch and Swedes, who were fettled here before Mr
Penn became proprietor, choofing ftill to relide in this
country, as they did in New York and the Jerfeys
obtained the fame privileges as the reft of his majefty’s
fubjeefs ; and their defendants are now in a manner
the lame people with the Englifh, fpeaking their lan-
guage, and being governed by their laws and cuftoms.
Mr Penn, however, not fatisfied with the title grant¬
ed him by King Charles II. and his brother, bought
the lands alfo of the Indians for a valuable confidera-
tion, or what they efteemed fuch (though 20 miles were
purchafed, at firft, for kfs than an acre about Phila¬
delphia would pay now), paying them in cloth, tools,
and utenfils, to their entire fatisfa&ion ; for they had
not hands to cultivate the hundredth part of their lands
and if they could have raifed a product, there was no-’
body to buy: the purchafe, therefore, was all clear
gain to them; and, by the coming of the Englifh,
them paltry trade became fo profitable, that they foon
found their condition much altered for the better - and
are now as well clothed and fed as the European’/pea-
lantry in many places. 1
Penfilvania is one of the moft flourifhing colonies
in North America, having never had any quarrel
with the natives. Whenever they defire to extend
their iettlements, they purchafe new lands of the fa-
chems, never taking any by force; but the Indians
now fet a very high price upon their lands, in cornpa-
nfon of what they did at firft, and will hardly part
with them at any rate. In an eftimate of the proprie¬
tary eftate of the province, publifhed above 40 years
ago, we find, that the proprietaries, who alone can
purchafe lands here from the natives, had bought feven
millions of acres for no more than 750I. fterling, which
the proprietaries afterwards fold at the rate of 1 c 1.
or every 100 acres. The Indian council at Onauda-
go, however, difapproved of their deputies parting-
with fo much land ; and, in the year 17 <55, obliged
the PnX”estane8 t0 reconve>r great part of the fame'to
A difpute -fu!,filled a long time between the pro¬
prietaries of this provnee and Lord Baltimore, pra-
pnetaiy of Maryland, about the right to certain lands-
which was at laft amicably adjufted, though greatly
in favour of the Penns. 1 '
. ^bout the year 1704 there happened fome altera¬
tion in the confutation of the province. The efta-
bbfhment that took place, and fubfifted till the Ame-
lican war broke out, coufifted of a governor, council
and affembly, each with much the fame power and*
privileges as in the neighbouring colony of New York
The lieutenant-governor and council were appointed
R 3 1 ' bv
PEN [ 1
Pcnr.Ivania.by tlis rrnprietors Thomas and Richard Penn, with
• <— his maje'ly’s approbation ! but if the laws enafted
here were not repealed within fix months after they
had bepn prefented to the king for his appro! auon or
difa'lowance, they were not repealable by the crown
after that t!m
By the prefent canftitution of Penfilvania, which
l.>y me prci-uv nw-awaiauaw.. . *
was eftablifhe.l in September 1776, all tegilhtive powers
are lodged in a fingle body of men, which is tiyled.
The general afembly of reprefentatives of the freemen oj
Penfilvania. ' The qualification required to render a
perfon eligible to tills r.ffembly is, two years residence
fn the city or county for which he is chofen. 1 he qua-
locations of the eledors are, full age, and one year’s
refidence in the Hate, with payment of public taxes
during that time. But the funs of freeholders are in-
titled°to vote for reprefentatives, without any qualifi¬
cation except full age. No man can be eluded ao a
member of the affembly more than four years in feven.
The rerrefentatives are chofen annually on the lecond
Tuefday in Odober, and they meet on the fourth
Monday of the fame month. The fupreme executive
power is lodged in a prefident, and a council conhfiing
of a member from each county. The piendent is eled-
ed annually by the joint ballot of the afibmbly and
conn il, and from the members of council. A vice-
prefident is chofen at the fame time. The counfellors are
chofen by the freemen every third year ; and having
ferved three years, they are ineligible for the four fuc-
ceedim1- years. The appointments of one third only
of theVembers expire every year ; by which rotation
110 more than one third can be new members.
With refped to population, Morfe informs us, that
in 1787 the inhabitants in Penfilvania were reckoned
at 360,000. It is probable they are now more nu¬
merous, perhaps 400,000. If we fix them at this, the
popuiat on for every fquare mile will be only rune > by
which it appears that Penfilvania is only one fifth as
populous as* Connedicut. But Connedicut was fet-
tkd nearly half a century before Penfilvania ; fa that
in order to do juflice to Penfilvania m the compan-
fon. we mu it anticipate her probable population 50
years hence. Thefe inhabitants con fid of emigrants
from England, Ireland, Germany, and Scotland. 1 he
Eriends and Epifcopalians are chiefly of Enghih ex-
, traction, and compofe about one third of the inhabi-
tancs. They live principally in the city of Philadel¬
phia, and in the counties of Chefter, Philadelphia,
Bucks, and Montgomery. The Infh are motlly 1 ref-
byterians. Their anchors came from the north of
Ireland, which was originally fett,ed ;rom !_-coUand,
hence they have fometimes t een called Scotch Inlh,
to denote their double defeen*. But they are com¬
monly and more properly called In{h> cr therj5j-fce"d'
ants of people from the north of Ireland, i hey in¬
habit the weftern and frontier counties, and are nu¬
merous. The Germans compofe one quarter at leatt
if not a third, of the inhabitants of Penfilvania. i hey
inhabit the north parts of the city of Philadelphia, a
the counties ofPhiladelphia, Montgomery, Bucks, Dau¬
phin, Lancafter, York, and Northampton; moilly in
the four laft. They confiit of Lutherans ( who are the
moft numerous fed), Calvinifts, Moravians, Henna-
niids,Tankers (corruptly called Dunkers), and Swing-
32 ] FEN
^felters, who are a fpecies of Quakers. Thefe are »ttPenfilvani»
diftinguifhed for their temperance, induftry, an! eco-
nomy.’ The Germans have ufually 15 of 69 members
in the r.flembly : and fume of them h ,ve arifen to the
firfi honours in the ftate, and now fill a number of the
higher offices. Yet the lower clafs are very ignorant
and fuperftitious. It is not uncommon to iee them
going to market with a little bag of fait tied to their
horfes mines, for the purpofe, they fay, of keeping
off the witches. . rr, , ,
The Baptifts (except the Mennomlt and L linker
Baptifts, who are Germans) are chiefly the defeend-
ants of emigrants from Wales* and are not numerous.
A proportionate affemblage of the national prejudices,
the manners, cuftoms, religions, and political lentiraents
of all thefe, will form the Penfilvania character. Ae
the leading traits in this character, thus conftituted, we
may venture to mention induilry, frugality bordering
in fome inftances on parfimony, enterpnie, a tnite and
ability for improvements in mechanics, in manuhidtures,
in agriculture, in commerce, and in the liberal fciencrs;
temperance, plainnefa,and fimphcity in drefs and man¬
ners1; pride and humility in their extremes ; molten-
fivenefs and intrigue ; in regard to religion, variety
and harmony ; liberality, and its oppolites, fuperdition
and bigotry ; and in politics an unhappy jargo... 1
appear to be the d.ttinguiffiing traits m the collective
Peniilvanian charafter. # ...
Or the great variety of religious denominations in
Penfilvania, the Friends or Quakers are the moft nu¬
merous. They were the firft let tiers of Penfilvama in
1682 under William Penn, and have ever Imce flou-
riffied in the free enjoyment of their religion. 1 hey
neither give titles nor ufe compliments in their conver-
fation or writings, believing that whatfeever is more than
yea, yea, and nay, nay, corneth of evil. They corifcien-
tioufly avoid, as unlawful, kneeling, bowing, or unco¬
vering the head to any perfon. They cufcard all iu.
perfluities in drefs or equipage ; all games, Iports, and
plays, as unbecoming the Chriftian. Swear not at alt,
is an article of their creed literally ahferved in its ut-
moft extent. They believe it unlawful to fight in any
cafe whatever > and think that if their enemy frmte
them on the one cheek, they ought to turn to him the other
alfo. They are generally honoft, punAual, and evea
punailious in their dealings ; provident for the necef-
fities of their poor^ friends to humanity , and ofcourle
enemies to fluvery; ft rid in their dilcipune ; careful
in the obfervance even of the pundihos in drefs, fpeech,,
and manners, which their religion enjoins; faithiul in
the education of their children ; induftnous in their ie-
veral occupations. In ihort, whatever peculiarities and
miftakes thofe of other denominations have fuppoled
they have fallen into, in point of religious doctrines,
they have proved themfelves to be good citizens. Next
to the Quakers, the Preibyte ians are the moft nume-
  q here are upwards of 60 minifters or the Lu-
rous. lucre  
theran and Calvinift religion, who are of German ex.
tradion, now in this date ; all of whom have one or
more congregations under their care ; and many ot
them preach in fplendid and expenfive churches ; and
yet the firft Lutheran minifter, who arrived m ren-
iilvania about 40 years ago, was alive ‘n G8.7i an:.
probably is iUU, as was alfo the fecond
P - E N
fmttvrn’a.rrunffter. The Luthcrnns do not differ in any thing
Ul^*',“"1' eflential from the Epifcopalians, nor do the Calvinifts
from the Prtfbyteriana.
The Moravians are of German extraftion. Of this
religion there are shout r^oo fouls in Penlilvania,
viz. between 500 and 6-0 in Bethlehem, 4^0 in Na¬
zareth, and upwards of 300 at Litiz in Lancafter
r 133 3
PEN
four grains of indifToluble matter. It appears there-Penfilvani?;
fore, that the proportion of vitriolic parts in this wa-Y”"—*
ter is fix drams to a pint; confequently it is a flrono-er
folution of vitriol than fea-water is of marine fait. So
that, befides the copper to be obtained by a folution
ox iron, it will afford great quantities of vitriol, and
the great plenty both of water and fuel will make the
toe P>okjlant Epifcopd^ church. They an? called Mo- commodious. This water mixed with common water
jm y cilC t.<ULCU JVIQ
ravium, becaufe the firft fettlers in the Englifh domi
nions were chiefly migrants from Moravia. See Hern
mutters, and Unit as Fratrum ; and for the Mtn-
nonitts, fee Menmonites. They v>ere introduced in-
to America by Count Zindzendorf, and fettled at Beth-
lehem, which is their principal fettlement in America
as early as 1741. For the 'hunkers, fee Tunkers.
There are a great many literary, humane, and other
lifeful fecieties, in Penfilvania ; more, it is faid, than
in any of the United Provinces. There are fever?!
univerfities r.nd colleges at Philadelphia and other
?>• nS : ^L'e ^Hiladelphia. Lancalter, Carlifle, and
xittfourgh, are the chief towns after Philadelphia.
Penfilvanfa is divided into feven counties} four of
which are called the Upper and three the Lower. Of
the upper vi%. Buckingham, Philadelphia, Chefler,
and LancaLer, the three firft are the lands included in
Kmg Charles IP’s grant, and defigned Penfilvania;
the lower,™*, thofe ofNewcaftlc, Kent, and SufTex,
vvere called Kova Belgia before the duke of York fold
them, as we obferved above, to Mr Penn. The up¬
per counties end at Marcus Hock, four miles below
th ^ er t0vVn> where the lower begin, and run along
the coaft near 100 miles. Each of thefe counties had
a men it, with a quarterly and monthly feffioB, and af¬
fixes twice a year.
. the Ehilofophical TranfaAions for tyry there
is an account of a copper fpring in Penlilvania.’ This
pnng nfes irem a copper mine, and will diffolve iron
n lets time by three-fourths than the waters of Wick-
Jow in Ireland, lately deferibed by Dr William Henry
and Dr Bond. From the folution of iron in thefe wl
rs about hail the qnantity of .pure copper is procu-
1 by melting it in a crucible : but though thefe wa¬
ters melt iron fooner than the Irifh waters, yet the fo-
pUer-nfor0tehen0t f° ^ & ProPortiom0f-cop-
fron’/n r COPF • Procured the folution of
iron ui the Inin waters is to the folution as 16 to 20.
:Ch ,De^hbouJhood of this fpring, which fupplfes
Dhur^i8' in M are many °reS °f vitrio1 anhPful-
fweet’ a.wf t8 °f 3 PaIe?reen colour, of an acid,
> au.tere, inky, and naufeous tafle. It is verv
flood7at^the^r hy4r°rr.eter’ which was immerfed in it,
fix drams f vrae,^Ight 33 m 3 folution of ounce
very Si En?hih V1'trio1 in a qo^t of water. A
°f ^ lolution of potafhes inftant-
d.fferent colours ; Se a'CtctthlS ^
die, and white at hn l the top, green in the mid-
few minutes, is kCpt 3
But hefides a large propo-? C°Pper C°lnur'
contains alfo a lafge^ro^ortMn U
Pint of it exhaled by ^ flow fi " left ° ■ r ,A
contents, which appeared to be chiefs ?a,nSr°f ^
grains of it, difio^ aad
, l r ■ « —. W'.vv* WILLI waccr
is trequently ufed as an emetic and cathartic by the
country people, and is found very efficacious in the
cure or cutaneous diforders and fore eyes.
Amongft the other cunofities of this province may
be reckoned another fpring about 14 feet deep and about
100 fquare, in the neighbourhood of Reading. A full
mill ft re am iflues from it. The waters are clear and
lull of fifths. From appearances it is proballe that
this fpring is the opening or outlet of a very confi-
derable river, which a mile and an half or two mile®
above this place fink* into the earth, and is conveyed
to this outlet in a fubterranean channel. In the nor¬
thern parts of Penlilvania there is a creek called Oil
creek, which empties into the Allegany river. It if-
fues from a fpring, on the top of which floats an oil
nmilai to that called BarbaJoes tar, and from which
one man may gather feveral gallons in a day. The
troops fent to guard the weftern polls halted at thi®
fpring, colie£led feme of the oil, and bathed their
joints with it. This gave them great relief from the
rheumatic complaints with which they were affeifled.
Ihe waters, of which the troops drank freely, opera¬
ted as a gentle purge.
I here are three remarkable grottoes or caves in this
-ate: one near Carhfle, in Cumberland county; one
m the townfhip of Durham, in Buck’s county; and
the other at Swetara, in Lancafter county. Of the
two former there are no particular deferiptions. The
latter is^on the eatl bank of Swetara river, about two
miles above its confluence with the Sufquehannah. Its
entrance is fpacious, and defeends fo much as that the
furfaee of the river is rather higher than the bottom of
the cave. Ihe vault of this cave is of folid limeftone
rock, perhaps 20 teet thick. It contains feveral apart¬
ments, fome of them very high and fpacious. The
fidb in PercolatmS through the roof, and
falls in drops to the bottom of the cave. Thefe drops
rnpI'T fal1’ and have £radua% formed folid
p -ars, which appear as fupports to the roof. Thirty
years ago there were ten inch pillars, each fix inches
m diameter, and fix feet high ; all fo ranged that the
church V ^ re/CmbIed 3 fafeauary ^ a Roman
church. No royal throne ever exhibited more yran-
oeur than this lufus nature. The refemblances of fe-
veral monuments are found indented in the walls on
the fides of the cave, which appear like the tombs of
fwh ! • her°f' SufPended from the roof is the hell
(which IS nothing more than a flone projefted in an
when ft f?-Ciil.ed/r0m the Pound that it occalions
n Wh,ch 1S fimiIar t0 that of a Some
of the ftaladlitea are of a colour like fugarcandv and
™ h der re/Tbk'oaf but
muyh defaced by the country people. The water
noht'Cbr-rra!eStbr°U^th' roof'> ofit as'ii
not petrified in its courfe, runs down the declivity!
/ and.
v PEN
Ponfion and ia both pleafant and wholefome to drink
!l arc fereral holes in the bottom of the cave, defcending
Penfioner - - • • , r . t— —
perpendicularly, perhaps into an abyfs below, which
renders it dangerous to walk without a light. At the
end of the cave is a pretty brook, which, after a ftiort
courfe, lofes itfelf among the rocks. Beyond this brook
is an outlet from the cave by a very narrow aperture.
Through this the vapours continually pafs outwards
with a dlrong current of air, and afcend, refembling
at night the fmoke of a furnace. Part of thefe va¬
pours and fogs appear on afeending to be condenfed at
the head of this great alembic, and the more volatile
parts to be carried off, through the aperture commu¬
nicating with the exterior air before mentioned, by the
force of the air in its pafl'age.
PENSION, a fum of money paid annually for fer-
vices or confidetations already pall. The yearly pay¬
ment of each member to the houies of the inns of courts
are likewife named petifions ; and the yearly affembiy
of the fociety of Oray’s Inn, to confiut on the aflaus
of the houfe, is alfo called a penfion.
PENSIONARY, or Pensioner, a perfon who has
an appointment or yearly fum, payable during me, by
way of acknowledgment, charged on the eitate ot a
prince, company, or particular perfon.
Grand Pensionan appellation given to the hrtt
minifter of the. States of Holland. _ The grand pen-
fionary is chairman in the affemblies of the hates of
that province; he propoies the matters to be confulted
on ; colle&s the votes ; forms and pronounces the re-
folutions of the ftates; opens letters ; confers with fo¬
reign minifters, &c. His buiinefs is alfo to infoeA
the finances, to maintain the authority of the ftates,
and to fee that the laws are obferved ; and he is per¬
petual deputy of the ftates general of the United Pro¬
vinces. His commlifion is, however, given him only for
five; years; after which it is deliberated whether or not
it fhcill be renewed ; but there is no inftance of its be¬
ing revoked ; therefore death only puts an end to the
fun ft ions of this important minifter.
Pensionary, is alfo the firft minifter of the regen¬
cy of each city in Holland. His office is to give his
advice in affairs relating to the government, either of
[ 134 1 pen
There feaft, public audiences of ambaffadors, at the fovereign’a Penfi ner
going to parliament, 8cc. , r Peic-
They are each obliged t© keep three double horles tylo8
and a fervant, and fo are properly a troop of horfe. —
They wait half at a time quarterly; but on Chriftmas-
day, Eafter-day, Whitfunday, &c. and On extraordinary
occafions, they are all obliged to give their attendance.
They have likewife the honour to carry up the fove-
reign’s dinner on the coronation-day and St George’s
feaft; at which times the king or queen ufually confer
the honour of knighthood on two fuch gentlemen of
the band as their captain prefents.
Their arms are gilt battle-axes; and their weapons,
on horfeback, in time of war, are curafiiers-arros, with
fword and piftols. Their ftandard in time of war is,
argent, a crofs gules. Their captain is always a noble¬
man, who has under him a lieutenant, a ftandard-
bearer, a clerk of the check, fecretary, paymafter, and
harbinger. _
Pensioner, in the univerfity of Jambndge and in
that of Dublin, has a very peculiar meaning; for thofe
{Indents, either under-graduates or bachelors of arts, are
called pensioners who live wholly nt their own expence,
and who receive no emolument whatever from the col¬
lege of which they are members. They are divided into
two kinds, the greater and the fe/H the former of which
are geneially called Seiloiv-conwioners^ becaufe they eat
with the fellows of their college; the latter are always
called penfioners, and eat with the fcholaw, who are
thofe {Indents of the college, either under-graduates
or bachelors who are upon the foundation, who receive
emoluments from the fociety, and who are capable of
being eledted fellows. See Servitor and Sizar.
PENSTOCK, a fiuice or flood-gate, ferving to re¬
tain or let go at pleafure the water of a mill pond, or
the like.
PEN FACEROS, in natural hiftory, a name given
by Linkius and fome other authors to a kind oijlella
marina or fea ftar-fifti, compofed of five principal rays,
with feveral tranfvetfe hairy er downy procefles.
PENTACHORD (compounded of ■arf* jive, and
Xo?U tiring), an ancient mufical inftrument with five
n • J i-Iip nentachord is referred
.dvice in affairs rdating to the government, e.tner 0, *ri^
sj'SSiira 2£E?ii7s.7~
called thither: in others they attend conftant y .an GRpEN pACTiNQD0S, in natural hiftory, a name
in others they make the propof.t.ons on the par 1 h PL to thofc f ecies 0[ itar.fiih which
bnrgomafters, draw up their conclufions, &-C. 1 hey g<^y ^ ^ fit£ lays
are calledpenjionartes, became they receive an a, p . PEN FADACTYLON, five fingers, in botany,
ment or penfion. . . . o h me G;vcn by forne authors to the ricinus or palma
PF NS TONER, m general, denotes a perlon who a name give, y
receive* a penfion, yeariy ^la,T> or ^'pENTAD ACTYLOS piscis, the five-fingered fife, Plat^
in ichthyology, the name of a fifti common m ail the cc
feas about the Eaft Indies, and called by the Dutch
there viif vinger ’vifeh. .
' It Ins this" name from five black ftreaks which it
has on each fide, refembnng the prints of five fingers.
Its head is flat, convex at the bottom, plain m the ndes,
J)d inclined in the fore-part. The fnout is thick, ob-
tufc, and round; the lower jaw at Us extremity b^nt
ceive* a pennon, yc<uiy i*,*,}— ui a f
The Bend ofi Gentlemen Pensioners, the nobleit tort
of guard to the king’s perfon, confifts of 40 gentlemen,
who receive a yearly pennon of »ool.
This honourable band was fiift mftituted by King
Henry VIII. and their office is to attend the king s
perfon, with their battle-axes, to and from his chapel-
royal, and to receive him in the prefence-chamber, or
coming out of his privy-lodgings ; they are a fo to at-
ten
1 at all great folemnities, as coronations, St George s
'f tw crtt/fafuj
<'<fco c,
r/vr/y /> uj
^ //f< •////< <
'V
t’l?l
Plate CCCLXXXI
PEN
r *35 3
PEN
Fentsdro- and rounded; the noftrils are double; the balls of the cil at the fame time will draw ite copy In the proror-
{iyla eves oval: the iris of a filver colour : the firft fin of tlnn  m • , .
tton reqiured } the pencil here only movinor half the
eyes oval; the iris of a filver colour ; the firft fin of
the back is fmall, the fecond is more elevated} thofe of length&*that the point moves*
the breait »re inferted obliquely, that of the anus is lienee, on the contrary, if the defisn he to 1-e en.
greatly extended, and that of the tail much flopfd. larged by one half, the btafs point, with the defon.
The whole body is covered with feales ot a moderate mufi be placed in the middle, at N" 3 the pencil and
Pen ta¬
li raph
li
Pentapetes.
fize, thin, flexible, and fiightly indented on their hin¬
der edge ; the back is reddi/h, the fides of a filver co-
a lour, aid the fins white. The fifti is deferibed by fome
as about nine inches long; by others as a foot and
a half. It is a dry but not ill-tafted fifh.
PENTiEDROSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of fpars: (See iSpar). The bodies
of this genus are fpars in form of pentagonal columns,
terminated by pentangular pyramids at one end, and
regularly affixed at the other to fome folid body.
PENTAGON, in geometry, a figure of five fides
and five angles. See Geometry.
In fortification, pentagon denotes a fort with five
baftions.
PENTAGONOTHECA, in botany, the name
given by Vaillant to the plant called by Linnaeus, Piu-
mier, Houfton, and others, pifonia.
PENPAGRAPH, an inftrument defigned for
drawing figmies in what proportion you pleafe, with¬
out any fkill in the art.
T he inftrument is otherwife called a parallelogram.
The common pentagraph (Plate CCCLXXX1II.
I4*) con fills of four brafs or wooden rulers, two
of them from to r8 inches long, the other two
half that length. At the ends, and in the middle, of
the longer rulers, as alio at the ends of the ffiorter, are
holes, upon the exa& fixing whereof the perfedion of
the inftrunient chiefly depends. Thofe in the middle
of the long rulers are to be at the fame diftance from
thofc at the end of the long ones and thofe of the
ftiort ones; fo that when put together they may always
make a parallelogram.
"1 he inftrument is fitted together for ufe by feveral
little pieces, particularly a little pillar, N° i. having at
one end a ferew and nut, whereby the two long ru¬
lers are joined ; and at tine other a little knot for the
JHftrument to Aide on. The piece, N° 2. is a rivet
with a ferew and nut, wherewith each ffiort ruler is fa-
ftened to the middle of each long one. The piece,
IN 3-15 a pillar, one end whereof, being hollowed in¬
to-a ferew, has a nut fitted to it. At the other end
is a worm to ferew into the table; when the inftrument
is to be ufed, it joins the ends of the two ffiort rulers.
he piece, N 4 is a pen, portcrayon, or pencil, ferew.
cd into a little pillar. Laftly, the piece, N° 5. is 3 brafs
point, moderately blunt, ferewed likewife into a little
Vje °f P™yG*aPH, or Parallelogram. 1. To
cinal ^ f C ,gn 'v! thC ^me °r *%nef3 as the ori-
g!
— *• * ixjcw tile
Z" n" r T, Z" N° 4- and ,he X««*»
fZA; ZA7otcTfrs therot °r,hc
the Pe"C‘‘ ’‘“1
tl ff ^ thti Cfipn be t0 be educed—e. gr. into half
lonZmler ‘wA™ Tfu''' ^ end of the
middle. j’„ this iitnT.ion condnatbe"!,^”"1'
«he feveral lines of the
paper at the end of the long ruler, and the worm at
the other.
3. l o enlarge or reduce in other proportions, there
are holes drilled at equal diftances on each ruler v/z.
ail along the ffiort ones, and half way of the long’ones!
in order for placing the brafs point, pencil, and worm’
in a right line therein ; i, e. if the piece carrying the
point be put in the third hole, the two other pieces
muft be put m its third hole.
I , then, the point and defign be placed at any hole
of the great rulers, and the pencil with the paper at
any hole of the ffiort ruler, which forms t! e angle there¬
with, the copy will be lefs than half the original. Or.
the contrary, if it be placed at one of the holes of that
ffiort 1 uler, which is parallel to the long ruler, the cor
py will be greater than half the original. *
The conftruaion of this inftrument requires a degree
of accuracy which moft of our inftrument-makers are
itrangers to ; for which reafon there are very few of
the inftruments that fucceed. Few will do any thing
tolerably but ftraight lines; and many of them not even
thofe.
In order to prove that the figufe deferibed by a pen-
tagraph is fimilar to the given figure, let C (fig 1 r 3
be the fixed centre of motion ; P the pencil for tra-
c.ng the given figure PP, and p the pencil which tra-
ccs the other figure pp ; p? &c. rnuft be fo adjufled>
that/., C, and P, may he in one ftraight line; then,
fince P>p : Ap : : BP : AC, whatever be the fituation
of the pentagragh, the angles PCP and pCp are ver¬
tical ; and therefore PC/, will in every pofition of the
inftrument be a ngnt line : but PC :/ C : : BA • A/>
in each of the two pofitions in the figure, and confe!
prntiz pc-TcT^A^’ are fim.ilar; -X
PC ./.C) . . BA : A/>, or in a given ratio.
Eience it appears, that, by moving the pencil/., Afi
may be equal to BA, or lefs in any proportion ; and
confequently />/. may be equal to PP, or lefs, in the
lame proportion.
PENTAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of
ve.it, confifting of five feet, or metres, whence the
name. The two firft feet may be either daftyls or
fpom.ees at pleafure; the third is always a fpondee 5
of Ovfj ° 3lt anapetteS : fuch is the Allowing verfe
^ ^ 3 4 5
Car minibus vi\ves tem\pus in o\mne meis.
A pentameter verfe fubjoined to an hexameter, con-
lutntes what is called elegiac. See Elegiac.
or (fr0ra «"P a man
or hujband) ; the name of the fifth clafs in Linnanis’s
lexual method, confiftingof plants which have herma¬
phrodite flowers, with five ftamina or male organs See
Botany, p. 430. b '
PENPAPETALOUS, an appellation'given to
^°TDvxT^hlcb confift cf five petals or leaves.
PENTAPETES, in botany : A genus of the do-
ecandna order, belonging to the menodeiphia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
snh.-
fen L i
Fentapolis order* Cclumnifera. The’calyx Is rjuinquepartite ;
li the ftamina are 20 in number, of which five are caftra-
Fcntateuch.^ and jong . the capfule quinquelocular and polyfper-
”yn~ inous. There is but one fpecies known in the gar¬
dens of this country, u/sz. the phcenicia, with halbert-
pointed, fpear-fhaped, fawed leaves. It is an annual
plant, a native of India, and rifes to the height of two
or three feet, adorned with fine fcarlet flowers, con¬
futing of one petal cut into five fegments. In the
Centre of the flower anfes a fhort thick column, to
which adhere 1 ? fliort ftamina It is a tender plant,
and muft be brought up in the hot-houfe.
PENTAPOLIS. This name is given to the five
cities, Sodom, Gomorrah, Ad&mah, Zebotm, and Zo-
f.r (Wifdom x. 6.) They were all five condemned to
utter deftruftion, but Lot interceded for the preferva-
tion of Zoar, otherwife called Bala. Sodom, Gomor¬
rah, Adamah* and Zeboim, were all confumed by fire
from heaven, and in the place where they flood was
made the lake Afphaltites, or the lake of Sodom. _
Pentapolis (Ptolemy), a diflnft of Lyrenaica ;
fituat?d on the Mediterranean ; denominated from its
five cities; namely, Berenice, Arfinoe, Ptolemais, Gy¬
rene, and Apollonia.
Pf.ntatolis of the% Philtflinet (Jofephus) ; taking
name from five principal cities, Gaza, Gath, Afcalon,
Azotus, and Ekron.
PENTATEUCH. This word, which is derived
from the Greek from Jive, and
an injlrument or volume, fignifies the coile&ion of the
five inftruments or books of Mofes, which are Genefis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy: each
-ef which books we have given an account ot under
their feverr.l names. # ,
There are fome modern critics who have diiputed
Mofes’s right to the pentateuch. They obferve that
the autboi fpeaks always in the third perfon. “ Now
the man Mofes was very meek above all the men which
were upon the face of the earth. The Lord fpake un¬
to Mofes, faying, &c. Mofes faid to Pharaoh, &c.
Thus they think he would never have fpoken of him-
felf. but would at leaft fometimes have mentioned him-
felf’in the firft perfon. Befides this, fay they, the au¬
thor of the pentateuch fometimes abridges his narra¬
tion like a writer who colle&ed from fome ancient me¬
moirs. Sometimes he interrupts the thread of his dif-
courfe; for example, he makes Lamech the higamift
to fay (Gen. iv. 23.), “ Hear my voice, ye wives of
Lamech, hearken unto my fpeech ; for I have flam a
man to my wounding, and a young man to my hurt,
without informing us before hand to whom this is rela¬
ted. Thefe yjafervations, for example (Gen.xu. 6.),
And the Cunaanite was then in the land, cannot
le reconciled to the age of Mofes, fince the Canaamtes
continued to be the n.allers of Paicftme all the bme of
Mofes. The palftige out of the book o* the wait ot
the Lord, quoted in the book of Numbers (xxn 14.),
feems to have been clapped in afterwards, as alfo the
firft verfes of Deuteronomy. The account of the death
of Mofes, which is at the end of the fame book, can¬
not certainly belong to this legiflator; and the Erne
judgment may be made of other paffages, wherein it is
faid| that the places mentioned lay beyond Jordan ;
that the bed of Og was at Ramah to this day ; that
are havoth of Jair, of the cities of jam, were known to
36 ] PEN
the author, though probably they had not that name Pentatfuck
till after Mofes’s time (Numb, xxxii. 41. Deut. iii, ^ 11
^ ^ Pentecoft,
It is obferved alfo in the text of the pentateuch, that
there are fome places that are defedfive ; for example,
in Exodus (xii. 8.), we fee Mofes fpeaking to Pha¬
raoh, where the author omits the beginning of his dif-
courfe. The Samaritan inferts in the fame place what
is wanting in the Hebrew. In other places, the fame „
Samaritan copy adds what is deficient in the Hebrew
text ; and what it contains more than the Hebrew
feems fo well connedfed with the reft of the difeourfe,
that it would be difficult to feparate them. Laftly,
they believe that they obferve certain ftrokes in the
pentateuch which can hardly agree with Mofes, who
was born and bred in Egypt ; as what he fays of the
earthly paradife, of the rivers that watered it, and ran
through it; of the cities of Babylon, Erech, Refen,
and Cain eh ; of the gold of Pifon, of the Bdellium, of
the ftone of Sohem, or onyx-ftone, which was to be
found in that country. Thefe particulars, obfei ved with
fuch curiofity, feem to prove, that the author of tha
pentateuch lived beyond the Euphrates. Add what
he fays concerning the ark of Noah, of its conftru&ion,
of the place where it refted, of the wood wherewith it
was built, of the bitumen of Babylon, See. But in an-
fwer to all thefe objedlions, we may obferve in gene¬
ral, from an eminent writer* of our own country, that * Jentin'i
thefe books are by the moft ancient writers aferibed R^findk-'
to Mofes; and it is confirmed by the authority of
heathen writers themfelves, that they are of his wri-
ting: befides this, we have the unanimous teftimony
of the whole Jewifti nation, ever fince Mofes’s time,
from the firft writing of them. Divers texts of the
pentateuch imply that it was written by Mofes, and
the book of Joffiua, and other parts of feripture, im¬
port as much ; and though fome paflages have been
thought to imply the contrary, yet this is but a late
opinion, and has been fufficiendy confuted by feverrd
learned men. The Samaritans receive no other ferip-
tures but the pentateuch, rejeiting all the other bocks
which are ftill in the Jewiih canon.
PENTATHLON, in antiquity, a general name
for the five exerciles performed at the Grecian games,
vi%. wreftling, boxing, leaping, running, and play¬
ing at the difeus.
PENTECOST, a folemn feftival of the Jews ; fo
called, beeaufe it was celebrated on the 50th day alter
the 16th of Nifan, which was the fecond day of the
paffover. The Hebrews called it the feajl of vucekst be-
caufe it was kept feven weeks after the paffover. They
then offered the firil fruits of the wheat harveft, which
was then completed; befides which they prefented at
the temule feven lambs of that year, one calf, and two
rams, for a burnt offering ; two lambs for a peace of¬
fering ; and a goat for a fin offering (Levit. xxiii. 15,
16. £xod. xxxiv. 22. and Deut. xv. 9, 10.) The
feaft of the pentecoft was inftituted among die Ifrae-
lites, firft to oblige them to repair to the temple ol the
Lord, there to a. knowledge his abfolute dominion over
the whole country, and to offer him the firft-fruits of
their harveft ; and, iecondly, that they might call to
mind, and give thanks to God, for the law which he
bad given them from mount Sinai, on the 50th day
after thetr coining out of Egypt-
Plate <VCLXXX*i
ff<r/ -/At
t'/'s//r/7‘fc' -'/r/t
' ’ Sr//;//<//st f X‘/,
V./:W/l
P £ O
Peon.
t*etit3iefilea The modern Jews celebrate the penlecoft for two
11 days. They deck the fynagogue and their own houfes
with garlands of flowers. They hear a fermon or ora¬
tion in praife of the law, which they fuppofe to have
been delivered on this day. The Jews of Germany
make a very thick cake, eonfifting of feven layers of
pafte, which they call Sinai. The feven layers repre-
fent the feven heavens, which they think God was obli¬
ged to reafcend from the top of this mountain. See
Leo of Modena et Buxtorf’s fyriag. jfud.
It was on the feaft of pentecoft that the Holy Ghoft
miraculouily defcended on the apoftles of our Lord,
who were affembled together after his afcenfion in a
houfe at Jerufalem (Adsii.)
PENTKESlLEA, queen of the Amazons, fnc-
ceeded Orythia, and gave proofs of her courage at
the fiege of Troy, where fhe was killed by Achilles.
Pliny fays that fhe invented the battle-ax.
PENTHORUM, in botany ; a genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is quinquefid; there are either
five petals or none ; the capfule is five-pointed and
qimiquelocutar.
PENTLAKD or PicTland Frith, is a narrow
Itrait of fix miles between the mainland of Scotland
and the Orkney ifles. This ftrait is the great tho¬
roughfare of {hipping between the eaftern and weftern
feas, the terror of the bolded mariners, and the grave
of thoufands ; where the winter’s {forms afford many
natives on the oppofite ftiores a better livelihood than
they could obtain by fiflung or huibandry. They
fearch from place to place, and from one cavern to
another, in the hopes of finding timber, calks, and
other floating articles of the wrecked veflHs, of whom
fix or eight are thus facrificed fometimes in one night.
The navigation of this pafs is rendered more dan¬
gerous by the ifland of Stroma, and two rocks called
the Sterries, lying near the middle of it. See Pigt-
lAnd.
PENULA, among the ancient Romans, was a
coai e garment or cloak worn in cold or rainy wea¬
ther. It was fliorter than the lacerna, and therefore
more proper for travellers. It was generally brown,
and fucceeded the toga after the ftate became monar¬
chical. Auguftus aboliflied the cuftom of Wearing
the penula over the toga, confidering it as too effe¬
minate for Romans; and the asjiles had orders to fuf-
ter none to appear in the circus or forum with the
{acerna or penula. Writers are not agreed as to the
preale difference between thefe two articles of drefs;
, ut we aye told that they were chiefly worn by the
WpijMr'le,rSn?fl>e0PIS- SeeLACERNi. ^
,MA’ °r P£nult,mate Syl/alle, in gram-
W. S the laft <jrl,able b,,t 0’'' of » "Orf :
an«P™nltin,aM f,liable is the laft but two.
PFMTmBo'^ !“hK ‘ho P^ultima.
ferfeH al'ronomy. a partial (hade ob-
an edipfe S1.-rJ'9 fhado” and f"11 in
Knflv Tfes ^°m t^e magnitude of the fun’s
would be01alTeperfea" b in°US Point’ the ,flladow
of the fun ^ rea^n diameter
minated hv th n place which is not iiln-
fcldh«r«f T: "TS “ t0f
Vox., XilV. fartl. ' W S ^ Xn common ufe
C 157 5
PEP
it is a footman, fo armed, employed to run before a
palanquin. Piadah is the proper word, from which
peon is a corruption.
PEOR, a famous mountain beyond Jordan, which
Eufebius places between Heflibon and Livias. The
mountains Nebo, Pifgah, and Pcor, were near one
another, and probably made but the fame chain of
mountains. It is very likely that Peer took its name
fromfome deity of the fame name, which was worflnp-
ped there 5 for Peer, Phegor, or Baal-peor, was knowft
in this country. See Numb. xxv. 3. Dent. iv. 2. Pfal
Peor, was a city of the tribe of Judah, which is
not read in the Hebrew, nor in the Vulgate, but only
m the Greek of the Septuagint (Jofh. xv. 60 ) Eufe-
bms fays it was near Bethlehem, and Jerom adds, that
m his time it was called Paora.
PEPIJSi de Heristai., or Le Gros, mayor of the
place under Clovis III. Childebert, and Dagobert.
Phe power of thefe mayors in Frartce was fo great,
that they left the fovtreign only the empty title, and
in the end feized on the throne itfelf.
Pepin k Brief or le Petit, grandfon to Pepin le
Gros, and firft king of the fecond race of French mo-
narchs, was mayor of the palace to Childeric III a
weak prince : he contrived to confine him and his fon
I hiern in different monafteries ; and then, with the
amltance of pope Stephen III. he ufurped the fove-
reipn power He died in 768, aged 54.
PEPLIS, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexnndria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 17th order,
Lalycanthema. The periatnhium is campanulatcd ; the
mouth deft in li parts; there are fix petals inferted
into the calyx ; the capfule is bilocular.
. PEPLUS, a long robe worn by the women in an¬
cient times, reaching down to the feet, without fleeves.
and fo very fine, that the ihape of the body might be
feen through it. The Athenians ufed much ceremony
in making the pepius, and drefiing the ffatue of Mi,
tierva with it. Homer makes frequent mention of the
pepius of that goddefs.
PEPPER, Piper, ;n natural hiflory, an aromatic
^ Wakh0t ^ Chl’eily ufed in
ng;b have, thLrfe ,k,nds of pepper at prefent ufed
pefth6 fl^0pS, thC b ack’ the white> and the long pep-
Black pepper is the fruit of the piper, and is
brought from the Dutch fettkments in the Eaft In¬
dies. ^ See Piper.
The common white pepper is faftitious, being pre¬
pared from the black in the following manner : they
iteep this in fea-water, expofed to the heat of the fun
for feveral days, till the rind or outer bark loofens;
J fl tbthC" u !t When k is haIf dr^ rub It
till the rind falls ©ff; then they dry the white fruit, and
the remains of the rind blow away like chaff. A great
deal ot the heat of the pepper is taken offbv this pro-
ceis, to that the white kind is more fit for many pur-
poles than the black. However, there is a fort of na¬
tive white pepper produced on a fpecics of the fame
plant; winch is much better than the faftitious, and
indeed little inferior to the black.
- ^he !,ong PcPPcr « a dried fruit, of an inch or an
inch and an half in length, and about the thicknefs of
a large gocfe-quill; it is of a brownilh grey colour,
» cylin=.
Ttai
Peppef.
PEP
[ 138 ]
PER
Pepper
Pepper
mint.
cylindrical in figure, and faid to be produced on a
plant of the fame genus. . . .
Pepper is principally ufed by us in food, to allut 01-
y rreftion : but the people in the Eaft Indies efteem it
*s a ftomachic, and drink a flrong infufion of it in wa-
tcr by way of giving them an appetite : they Lave al-
fo a way of making a fiery fpirit of fermented frefh
pepper with water, which they ufe for the fame pur-
pofes. They have alfo a way of preferving the com¬
mon and long pepper in vinegar, and eating them ar-
tmvards at meals.
'Jamaica Pepfek, or Pimento. See Pimento.
'Petphr■ Mint. See Mentha.
Pepper-Pot. See Capsicum.
Pepper Water, a liquor prepared in the following
manner, for mictof: opieal obfervations : put common
black pepper, grofsly powdered, into an open veffel fo
as to cover the bottom of it half an inch thick, and
put to it rain or river water, till it covers it an inch ;
{hake or llir the whole well together at. the firft mix*
iag, Imt never difturb it afterwards : let the veffel be
o pofed to the air uncovered ; and in a few. days there
will be feeu a pellicle or thin flan fwimming on the
furface of the liquor, looking of feveral colours..
This is a congeries of multitudes of fma'l animals;
and being examined by the microfcope, will be feen
all in motion : the animals, at fit ft fight, are fo fmall
as not to be diftinguilhable, unlefs to the greatetf mag¬
nifiers ; but they gr°w daiiy tiU they arrive at thcir
full fixe. Their numbers are alfo continually mcrea-
fing, till the whole furface of the liquor is full of them,
to a confiderable depth. When diGurbed, they will
fometimes all dart down to the bottom ; but.they foon
after come up to the furface again. The flan appears
fooneft in warm weather, and the. animals grow the
quickeft : but in the fevereft cold it will fucceed, un-
lefa the water freezes.
About the quantity of a pin’s head of. this icum,
taken up on the nib of a new pen, or the tip of a hair-
pencil, is to be laid on a plate of clear gifts; and if
apolied firft to the third magnifier, then to the fe¬
cund, and finally to the firft, will fhow the different
animalcules it contains, of feveral kinds and ftiapes as
well as fixes. , „ , ,
PEPPERMINT-Tp.ee, in botany; the Eucalyp¬
tus piperita. ,
In a journal of a voyage to New South V\ ales, by
John White, Efq; we have a plate of this tree, with
the following account of it : “ This tree grows to the
height of more than 10c feet, and is above 30 feet in
circumference. The bark is very fmooth, like that of
Plate the poplar. The younger branches are long and Ilen-
ecccxxxvin c,er> an;7U]atc(j near the top ; but as they grow oiler,
the angles difappear. Their bark is fmooth, and of
a reddifti brown. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate,
pointed, very entire, fmooth on both fides, and re¬
markably unequal or oblique at their bafe ; the veins
alternate, and not very eonfpicuous. The whole iur-
face of both fides of the leaves is marked with nume¬
rous minute lefinous fpots, in which the effential oil
conglomerated. Thefe clufters are fupported on an*
gular alternate footftalks, which form a kind of pa¬
nicle. Each capfuls is about the fize of an hawthorn perambu&»
berry, globular, but as it were cut off at the top, rug- tor
ged on the outfide, hard and woody, and of a dark-
brown colour. At the top is a large orifice, which.
refides. The foetftalks are about half an inch in
length, round on the under fide, angmar above, quite
fmooth. The flowers we have not feen. What Mr
White has fent as the ripe capfulea of this tree (al¬
though not attached to the fpecimens of the leaves)
gtow in duffers, from fix to eight in each, feffile and
(hows the internal part of the capfuls divided into four
cells, and having a fquare column in the centre, from
which the partitions of the cell aiife. ft hefe parti¬
tions extend to the rim of the rapfule and terminate
in four fmall projefltons, which look like the teeth o*
a calyx. The feeds are numerous, fmall, and angular.
“ The name of peppermint tree has been given to this
plant by Mr White, on account of the very great re*
femblance between the effential oil drawn from its
leaves and that obtained from the peppermint {mentha
piperita') which grows in England. 1 his oil was round
by Mr White to be much more efficacious in removing
all cholicky complaints than that o: the Englifii pep¬
permint, which he attributes to its being lefs pungent
and more aromatic. A quart of the.oil has been lent
by him to Mr Wilfon. ,
“ The tree above deferibed appears to be undoubt¬
edly of the fame genus with that cultivated in tome
greenhoufes in England, which Mr L’Hent.er haa
deferibed in his Serturn Anglicvm by the name or Eu¬
calyptus obliqua, though it is commonly called m the
gardens Metrofideros obliqua ; but we. dare not alert it
to be the fame fpecies, nor can this point be determined
till the flowers and every part of both be feen anu com¬
pared ; we have compared the l eft fpecimens we couli
procure of each, and find no fpecific difference. i£
eucalyptus obliqua has, when dried,, an aromatic fla¬
vour, fomewhat fimilar to our plant We have re¬
marked, indeed, innumerable minute white fpots, be-
fides the refinous ones, on both furfaces of the leaves
in fome fpecimens of the garden plant, which arc not
to be feen in ours ; and the branches of the former
are rough, with fmall fcaly tubercles. But how far
thefe are conftant, we cannot tell. The obliquity in
the leaves, one fide being fhorter st<the bafe than the
other, as well a.s fomewhat narrower all the way ups,
as in the Begonia nitida of the Hortus Keavmfts, is re¬
markable in both plants.
The figare reprefents a branch of the peppermint
tree in leaf: on one fide of it part of a leaf feparate,
bearing the gall of fome infed ; on the other the fruit
above deferibed.” n .
PER A, one of the fuburbs of Conih ntinople,,
where ambaffadors and Chriftians ufually refide. See
Constantinople.
PERAMBULATOR, in furveying, an inftrument
for meafuring diftances, called alfo pedometer, way
wifer, and furveying-wheel. See Pedometer. . pjate
It confifts of a wheel AA, two feet leven inchesecCL}UVii,
and a half in diameter ; confequently half a pole, or
eight feet three inches, in circumference. On one end
of the axis is a nut, three quarters of an inch in dia¬
meter, and divided into eight teeth ; which, upon mo¬
ving the wheel round, fall into the eight teeth of an¬
other nut c, fixed on one end of an iron-rod Qj and
thus turn the rod once round in the time the wheel
makes one revolutioji. This rod, lying along a p-oove
in the fide of the carriage of the inftrument, under the
doted line, has at its other end a fquare hole, into
which is fitted the ead £ of a faiall cylinder P. 18
^ cylinder
CI39] PER
Peramiula- cylinder Is difpofed under the dial-plate of a move-' when mnde intn , j:n, n ^ r *
tor’ menr. thf  : t> •_ r . e nen ulto a dim called 'Water-fouchy
tor,
Perea.
mew at the fndofZ J,.'- • R ? / f * mme’ '‘h'n ^ kto 3 di(h called ■vaUr-fimh. It 1, a Pare,
as to’be moveable about its Ixh: it, Tnd^is’cuUnto fsT^'T ^ l'”'" d“P hole3 ?'nd ?cnt,£ ‘irearas! '’""P11011.
a perpetual ferew, which faffing i“o "he 3" lee.h of aX me'e"^^thTZ:’, 7 , “ W i ^
a wheel perpendicular thereto, upon driving the inftrn- every ore r. ' ° em, he is fure of taking
menr fnr«,;,rH „,u_i _„i_„i   , ..-K , 5 . eVtry It is a common notion that the pike will
not attack this fi!n, on account of the fpiny fins which
the perch erefts on its approach. This may be true
or large fifh ; but it is well known that fmall perches
are the moft tempting bait which can be laid fob
the pike. The perch is very tenacious of life, and
has been known to furvive a journey of 60 miles in
dry ft raw. It feldom grows to a large fize, though
.Mr Pennant mentions one that weighed nine pounds j
but this, he tells us, is very uncommon*
2* The labrax, or oafle, is a very veracious, ftro^o-,
and aaive ftfh. Ovid calls them rat/di lupi, a nan?e
continued to them by after writers; and they are laid
to grow to the weight of fifteen pounds. The iridej
are filvery; the mouth large ; the teeth are fituated in
the jaws, and_ are very fmall: in the reof of the
mouth is a triangular rough fpace, and juft at the
gullet are two others of a roundilh form. The feales
are of a middling fize, are very thick fet, and ad-
here clofely. The body is formed fomewhat like that
oi a falmon. The colour of the back is dulky, tinned
with blue. The belly is white. In young fiih the fpace
above the fide-hne is marked with imall black foots —
It is efteemed a very delicate lifh.
3. The perca marina, or fea-perch, is about a foot
I«ng: the head large and deformed ; eyes great ;
^eth fmall and numerous. On the head and covers of
the gills are ftrong fpines. The colour red, with a
black fpot on the covers of the gills, and fome tranf- *
verfe dulky lines on the fides. It is a fifti held in fome
efteem at the table.
P 4Vmhn cernua’. or ruffe* is ^nd in feveral of the
Tnghfii ft ream s: it is gregarious, affembling in large
fhoals, and keeping in the deepeft part of the water. It
3 mUChi forra than the Perch, and
verv fmair /w‘rlnCr ? ^ leBgth- Thc teeth are
very fmall, and difpofed in rows. It has only one
back al?ng the greateft Part the
back, the firft rays, like thofe of the perch, are
Wrong, lharp, and fpiny ; the others foft. The body
is covered with rough compad feales. The back
^ ? dlrty green> the Iaft helming to
„“k K, pott'd wkb bbck- The fin
bars ^ W1^ b 3Ck ’ t^C tad marite(i ^’ith tranfverfe
CafmThT'H,,0oCL’ T P""11 of the Nik. is atout
• I he flefti has a fweet and exquinte flavour
fifhdefi1S'n0rlba,xr»bUt Very Wh‘te- U is one of the beft
Etvntn N 6 5 am 'r ^ °f the lart>eft fize
j adu»ns a table if brought upon it entire and
well fried. See PiLOT-FiJb.
ft ^f^CEPPION, is a word which k fo well undef-
Wood, that it is difficult for the lexicographer to g-V
any explanation of it It has been called [he firft Ini
. 1 ,r- * -.uu m nis country It of ft ^7 /a ^ 7^ by wh,'ch is ^nfciou3
Cy Kre alfo mct wifo in the Thames near pe, as it^ol?8' dehmtlon’ however, is impro-
fu’’ a* lc CORfounds perception with confeioufnefs : ak
ough the objects of the former faculty are thing*
Wfthout us, thofe of the latter the enemies of oSr
ovvn minds. Perception is that power orfaculty by
w.uch, through the medium of the fenfes, we hav'-*
S 2 the
» * uiivmg me initru-
ment forward, that wheel makes a revolution each 16th
pole. On the axis of this wheel is a pinion with fix
teeth, which, tailing into the teeth of another wheel
of 60 teeth, carries it round every 160th pole, or half
a mile.
/I b'8 laft wheel, carrying a hand or index round
with it over the divifions of a dial-plate, whofe outer
limb is divided into 160 parts, correfponding to the
160 poles, points out the number of poles palled over
Again, on the axis of this laft wheel is a pinion, con¬
taining 20 teeth, which falling into the teeth of a third
wheel which hath 40 teeth, drives it once round in 220
poles, ora mile On the axis of this wheel is a pinion of
teefo> winch, falling into the teeth of a fourth
wheel having 72 teeth, drives it once round in 12
miles.
. Thj? fourth wheel carrying another index over the
inner hmb of the dill-plate, divided into 12 for miles,
and each mile fubdivided into halves, quarters, and fur-
ongs, lerves to regifter the revolutions of the other
hand, and to keep account of the half mfles and miles
pafled over as far as 12 miles.
The ufe of this inftrument is obvious from its con-
ftruction. Its proper office is in the furveying of roads
and large d.ftances, where a great deal of expedition,
and not much accuracy, is required. It is evident, that
dnving it along ?.nd obferving the hands, has the fame
the t-haTnstndT;",ks,he Chi‘’" tak'”g of
It. advantage, are It. hardindh and expedition ; It.
contrivance fuc„ that It tnay be fitted to the „h«!
of a coach, m which ftate it performs its office, and
"''pFRP^ r(?adJV!thout any trouble at ail.
A c/*™* 5 a genus of fifoes belonging
£ V A / tl]°raC1C1- The head is fornifhed with
caly and ferratol opercula ; there are feven rays in
are B1.e"1Ibranecr1f the gllIs ; ami the fins °n the back
•(Pn[ J’ ^^re. are 38 fpecies, principally diftin-
remarkable P”"1'3"11” ‘1>' '-k fin. The moft
u I he fluviatilis, or common perch, hath a deen
T1 /’ V[r^ r°Ug| fo3^3’ and tbe back much arched
The ob^ the ^ and of the
ffiack ' eeP Rrea1’ marked with five broad
ftlack bars pointing downwards; the belly is white
tinged with red ; the ventral fins of a fine Icarlet - the
In a kir u fame Ct'lour’ but rather p’alen
Wales • aCahed ^ Kaithlyn, in Merionethflnre in
Wales 13 a very lingular variety of this fiffi 5 the back
bone n^^theTafl1 ft1’ andlt7-!°Werpar- °f the back-
other refpefts it refe^bF ^ tOTted 1 in coIour and
are as numerous inT^^ 1 ^ COm?10n Percb> wh<'ch
Theyarenot peLlkr to th3^ 38 tbe pf°rmcd fifh-
notice of them in a lake l l™ter;. fo^ Linn*us takes
is kid that they are nlfn 1 F b ^ ln his country. It
Marlow. X alfo mct "“fi in the Thame.,
Ihe perch was much efteemp^ r j r ,
tor 1. 1, left adlrired utllrt by‘he Ro:
delicate filh : and the nntrk PrelCRt as a firm and
, and the Dutch are particularly fond of it
PER
[ 140 ]
PER
Percepticr. tli€ cognizance of objefls diftinft and apart fiom our-
■“'V'—*' felveSj and learn that we are but a ftnall part in the fy*
Item of nature. By what procefs the fenfes give us
this information, we have endeavoured to Ihow elfe-
■where, (See Metaphysics, Part I. Chap, i.) ; and
■we fhould not again introduce the fubje£t, but to no¬
tice a lingular opinion of a very able writer, whofe
work has been given to the public fince our article al-
‘ kided to had ifiued from the prefs.
Dr Sayers, who is an ornament to that fchool in
which we are flrongly inclined to enlift ourfelves, has
endeavoured to prove that no man can perceive two oh
je£ts, or be confcious of two ideas at the fame inllant.
‘if this be true, not only our theory of time (fee Me¬
taphysics, Part II. Chap, vii.) is grofsly abfurd, but
even memory itfelf feems to he an imaginary faculty.
If a man be not confcious of his prefent exigence, at
the very inllant when he thinks ol a pall event, or re¬
views a feries of paft tvanfadiions, it is difficult, to us
indeed impoffible, to conceive what idea he can have of
time, or what he can mean when he fays that he re¬
members a thing. But let us examine the reafoning
by which the ingenious author endeavours to eftabliffi
his opinion.
4 D‘M. “ If we reffift (fays bet) upon tne furpnhng ve-
thns Meta- locity with which ideas pafs through the mind, and the
fhyjical and remarkable rapidity with which, the mind turns itleit,
Literary. ^ ia direaetl from one objea of contemplation to an-
v other, this might alone give us fome fufpicion that we
may probably be miftaken in fuppofing ideas tobefyn-
chronoufly perceived. Other arguments may be ad¬
duced to ftrengthen this fufpicion. It will be gianted,
1 believe, that the mind, whether immaterial or the
xefult of organization, has certainly a wholenefs or
unity belonging to it, and that it is either not compo-
ied of parts, or that no one of the parts from which
it originates is itfelf mind : in this cafe, it is difficult
to conceive how two ideas ffiould
mind at the fame inftant; for this
that part of the mind could receive
another, at the fame time ; but if the parts do not
perceive finglv, this is evidently impoffibk. lr, on the
©ther hand, this felf-divifion of the mind does not take
place, then if two ideas are neverthelefs to be percei¬
ved at the fame inftant, it would feem that thofe ideas
muftbe fo blended with each other, that neither of them
could appear diftinft. If we examine the manner in
which a complex idea is perceived, we ffiall find very
clearly, that the whole of fuch an idea is never prelent
to the mind at once. In thinking of a centaur for
inftance, can we at the fame moment fee tbinking
of the parts of a man and the parts of a horie . Can
we not aim oft detert the gliding of the rmnd from
the one to the other ? In contemplating the complex
idea of gold, are the ideas of its colour, dudility, hard-
pefs, and weight, all prefent to the mind at the fame
inftant ? I think, if we accurately attend to it, we fhall
find a perceptible time has elapfed before this complex
idea has been peifeaiy formed in our mind : but if all
the parts of a complex idea cannot be recalled at the
fame inftant, is it not reafonabk to infer that thefe
parts are alfo fingly impreffed, and not all originally
perceived at the fame initant ?
This reafoning is plaufible, but perhaps not convm-
cing». Surely we have all been confcious of bodily pam
or pleafure with our1 eyes open, and been offended by Perception.
difagreeable fnatlls at the very inftant that vve looked at "" *
objects beautifully coloured. That our ideas pafs
through the mind with great velocity, and that the
mind can rapidly turn itfelf from one fubjeft of con¬
templation to another, are truths which cannot he con¬
troverted ; but inftead of leading us to fuppofe that
two or more obje&s cannot be fynchronoufly perceived,
or two or more ideas fynchronoufly apprehended, they
appear to furniffi a complete proof ol the reverfe of
all this. For we beg leave to aflt how we come to
know that ideas pafs with velocity through the mind,
if we be not all the while confcious of fomething that*
is permanent ? If we can contemplate but one idea at
once, it is plainly impoffible that two or more can be
compared together; and therefore we cannot poffibly
fay that any particular train has paffed through the
mind with a degree of velocity greater or lefsthan that
which we have ufually experienced; nay, we cannot fay
that we have ever experienced a train of ideas at all,
or even been confcious of a fingle idea, befides the
immediate oVjeft of prefent apprehenfiom That the*
mind is an individual, we molt readily grant; but that
it fhould therefore be incapable of having two ideas fyn¬
chronoufly excited in it, is a propofition for which the
author has brought no evidence. I hat it is difficult to
conceive how this is done, we acknowledge; but not that
it is more difficult than to conceive \\o\w z/mg/e idea is
excited in the mind ; for of the mode in which mind
and matter mutually operate upon each other, we can
form no conception. We know that objtfts make an
impreffion on the organs of fenfe ; that this impreffion
is by the nerves communicated to the brain, and that
the agitation of the brain excites fenfation in the
mind : but in what way it excites fenfation vie know
not; and therefore have no reafon to fuppoie that two
or more different agitations may not excite tvyo or more
^ , r C  -1 nrieoi-1 nn pvrifrt'ft
operates on tne mina, ib ,
perience gives us no information refpe&ing the mode ot
that operation. If the mind be, as our author and we
fuopofe, one individual, it cannot, as mind, be either
divifible or extended ; and therefore it is certain that
the operation in queftion cannot be, in the proper fenle
of the word, impreffion. Hence we have no right to
infer, if two objefts be perceived at once, either that
the idea of the one muft be impreffed on « part ot the
mind different from that which receives the impreihoti
of the other, or that the two impreffions muft be io
blended with each other, that neither of them could
appear diftinA ; for this would be to reafon from one
mode of operation to another ; with which, upon ac¬
knowledged principles, it can have nothing in com-
mon.
By far the greater part of our ideas are rehAs ot
vtfible fenfations; and of every thing which we can
aAually fee at once, we may at once contemplate the
idea. That we could at once perceive a centaur, it
fuch a being were prefented to us, cannot furely be
doubted by any one who has ever looked at a man ou
hovfeback ; and therefore that we can at the fame mo¬
ment contemplate the whole idea of a centaur, is a tact
of which confcioufnefs will not permit us to doubt.-—
If, indeed, we clioofe to analyse this complex idea in-
PER [ i
Pntepson to its component parts, it is felf-rvMent ttiat the mind
, r xu 10 iciL cviuciiL mat uie nuncl
Fereailaw. mu, S*ic^e from the one to the other, becaufe the very
fa»—y— *-laiy‘i3 confifts in the feparation of the parts, of which,
if atter that procefs we think of them, we muft think
in fucceffion : byt that we may have at the fame in-
fiant, either an atfrual or ideal vievv of all the parts of
the centaur united, is a proportion fo evident as to
admit of no other proof than an appeal to experience.
In contemplating what the author calls the complex
«iea of gold, it cannot be denied that the ideas of its
colour, du&ility, hardnefs, and weight, are never all
prefect to the mind at the fame inftant: but the reafon
*s obvious. Thefe are not all ideas, in the proper fenfe
of the word, but feme of them are ideas, and fome
notions, acquired by very different proceffes and very
different faculties. Colour is an idea of fehfation, im¬
mediately fuggefted through the organ of fight ; duc¬
tility is a relative notion, acquired by repeated experi¬
ments } and gold might be made the obiea of every
fenfe, without fuggelting any fuch notion. The wri-
5era°-rthlS r rt‘iIe never faw an experiment made on the
. ‘ lty of and has therefore a very obfeure and
indjftimft notion of that property of the metal; but
fee is confcious, that he can perceive, at the fame irr¬
itant, the yellow colour and circular figure of a guinea
itsihard'iKfs diftina, th°Ugh rektive notion» ^
We conclude, therefore, that the mind is capable
©t two or more fynchronous perceptions, or fynchron-
«us ideas; that, during every train which pafles through
V is confcious of its own permanent exigence; and
that if it were limited to the apprehenfion of but one
idea at once, it could have no remembrance of the pad,
or anticipation of the future, but would appear to it-
« fl^Tfcomi,arifo”’to Pafs a'rar hk=
lnland-meafaring, a rod or pole of i6f
J^et m Jength, of which 40 in length and 4 in breadth
make an acre of ground. But, by the cuftoms of fe-
wv’ .r? 1S a difference in this meafure.
In Staffordfhire it is 24 feet; and in the foreft of
Sherwood 25 feet; the foot being there 18 inches
long ; and in Herefordfliire a perch of ditching is 21
drnfh he^erCh Wall,nff l6^ feet> a«d a pole of
denihiered ground is 12 feet, &c.
PERCHE, a territory of Orleannois in France,
35 n.i es ong, and 30 broad ; bounded on the north
on 5 n thC f°Uth’ by Maine and Dnnois;
©n the eaft, by Beauce ; and on the weff, by Maine
It takes its name from a foreft, and is pretty fertile.
the nmuabl iantB carry°n a pretty good trade; and
the principal town is Bellefme.
£cfcHEC„°mvnn®jj8th' fame W'th
bo^Sft16^. in menkaiVcs’ the a
U?0nan0thCTi "
gam,-a fu=erflu™;d"bw"y:-A g'm,S80ff,he P°!y-
elafi of plants, and"; "?,”S n (>'"Se:’er‘a
under the 40th order r7 natura! ™ethod ranking
naked* theripmA • ’ Compq/itd!. The receptacle is
PERDIX^^:: Tan?.':; th'
PEICEASLAW, a ftrong EoPulot,3 town of Po.
4i 1 PER
land, m the palatinate of Kiovia, fituatecl cm the river Perennials
Iribecz ; in E. Long. 32. 44. N. Lat. 49. 46. 1!
PERENNIALS, or Pn RENNIAL Flowers, in bo- ,^>crfun:e* ,
tany, a term applied to thofe plants whofe roots will lu"
a . e n‘any years, whether they retain their leaves in
winter or not. 1 hofe which retain their leaves are
called evergreens ; hut fuch as call their leaves are na-
med deciduous, or perditoh.
. PERFECT, fomething to which nothing is want¬
ing or that has all the requilites of its nature and
kind.
PerfECT- Cadence, in mufic. See Cadence.
renfe> in grammar. See Preterite.
PERbECriON, the ftate or quality of a thint
perfect. ^
Perfe&ion is divided, according to Chauvinus, into
pnyheal, moral, and metaphyfical.
Phyjical or natural perfeaion, is that whereby a
thing has all its powers and faculties, and thofe too
in full vigour; and all its parts both principal and fe-
condary, and thofe in their due proportion, conftitu-
tion, &c. m which fenfe man is faid to be perfect
when he has a found mind in a found body. This
perfection is by the fchools frequently termed
becaufe a ,s euableci the^To peTorm"?!^
operations.
Moral perfection is an eminent degree of virtue or
moral goodnefs, to which men arrive by repeated adis
ot piety, beneficence, &c. This is ufually fubdivided
into abfolute or inherent, which is adtually in him to
whom we attribute it; and imputative, which ex ills in
iome other, and not in him it is attributed to.
• M'tophyfical, tranfeendental, or effential perfeaion,
u the pofleffion of all the effential attributes, or of all
the parts rieceffary to the integrity of a fubftance ;
",A.,hat "herfbr a bs* or is provided of
every thing belonging to its] nature. This is either
abfolute, where all imperfetuon is excluded, fuch is
theperfea.on of God, otfiemium and in its
Pee Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
I LRFORANS Manus,
Perborans Pedis
PEREORATUS Manus
Perforatus Pedis.
PERFUME, denotes either the volatile effluvia
fiom any body affeAIng the organ of fmelling, or the
fubftance emitting thofe effluvia ; in which laft fenfe
tne word ,s moft commonly ufed. The generality o£
perfumes are made up of mufk, ambergris, civet, ioll*
and cedar woods, orange-flowers, jeffamines, jonquils,
tuberofts, and other odoriferous flowers. Thofe druRs
commonly called aromatics, fuch as ftorax, frankin-
tf"k\ben*0‘n» cIo'’es’ mace, dec. enter the compofi-
tion of a pertume ; fome are alfo compofed of aroma-
h'^flbp, S&c ltaVe6, 3siaVender» marJoram> thyme,
I he ufc of perfumes was frequent among the He¬
brews, and among the orientals in general, before it was
known to the Greeks and Romans. In the time of Mo-
es perfumes muft have been known in Egypt, fmee he-
fpeaks of the art oi the perfumer, and gives the com-,
pofition of two kinds of perfumes (Exod. xxx. 27.) of
which one was to be offered to the Lord upon the
^cuden altar fvjpch wa« in the holy place $ and the
other
PER [ i
FerTume otlier was appointed for the anointing of the high
II pried and his Tons [ibid. 34, &c.), as alto of the taber-
Pergamum. j , 1. ,1 veffcis that were ufed in divine ler-
nacle, and all the vetfels that were ufed in divine fer
vice#
The Hebrews had alfo perfumes which they made
ufe of in embalming their dead. 1 he compofition is
not known, but it is certain that they generally made
ufe of mynh, aloes, and other ftrong and adringent
drugs, proper to prevent putrefadlion (John xix. 49.)
-See the article Embalming. ,
BtTides the perfumes for thefe purpofes, the fenp-
tore mentions other oceafions whereon the Hebrews
ufed perfumes. The fpotffe in the Canticles (i- 3*)
commends the feent of the perfumes of her lover ; and
her lover in return fays, that the feent ot the perfumes
of his fpoufe furpaffes the mod excellent odours (id. iv.
20 14.) ihle names particularly the fpikenaid, fhe
calamus, the cinnamon, the myrrh, and the aloes, as
making a part of thefe perfumes, dhe voluptuous
woman deferihed by Solomon (Prov. vii. 17.) fays,
that fhe had perfumed her bed with myrrh, aloes, and
cinnamon. The epicures in the book of Wifdorn
(ii. 7.) encojirage one another to the luxuriant ule ot
odours and codiy perfumes.
Ifaiah (Ivii. 9.) reproaches Judea, whom he de-
feribes as a fpoufe faithlefs to God, with being paint¬
ed and perfumed to pleafe grangers, “ 1 hou wented
to the king with ointment, and didd increafe thy per¬
fumes.” Ezekiel (xxiii. 41.) feems to accute the Jews
with having profaned the odours and perfumes, the
ufe of which was referved to facred things, by applying
them to their own ufe.
They came afterwards to be very common among
the Greeks and Romans, efpecially thofe compofed of
jnuik, ambergris, and civet. The and malo-
bdthrvm were held in much edimation, and were im¬
ported from Svria. The unguentum nardmum was va-
rioufly prepared, and contained many ingredients.
Malobathrum was an Indian plant. Perfumes wejie
alfo ufed at facrifices to regale the gods; at leads, to
increafe the pleafures of fenfation; at funerals, to
overpower cadaverous fmells, and pleafe the manes of
the dead ; and in the theatres, to prevent the often-.
five effluvia, proceeding from a crowd, from being per-
reived. 1
Since people are become fenfible of the harm they
do to the head, perfumes are generally difufed among
us ; however, they are dill common in opain and
PERGAMA (Virgil), the citadel of 1 roy; which,
becaufe of its extraordinary height, gave name to all
high buildings (Servius). Others fay the wads o
Troy were called Petgama.
PERGAMUM, (Pliny) ; c-dled alfo Pergamea,
(Virgil); Pergamia, (Plutarch); a town of Crete,
built by Agamemnon in memory of his viitory, (Vti-
Hus). Here was the burying-place of Lycurgus,
(Ariftoxenus, quoted by Plutarch). It was fituated
near Cydonia (Servius); to what po'^t not faid :
but Scylax helps him out, who places the Dactynnean
temple of Diana, which ftood near Cydonia (Straoo),
to the north of the territory of Pergamia —Another
Pergamum (Pliny, Strabo); a town of My ha, ii-
tuated on the Caicus, which runs by it. It was the
*cyal refidence of Etmienes, and or the kings of the
42 1 PER
Attali (Livy). There an ancient temple of iEfca- Perga mug.
lapius Hood ; an afylum (Tacitus). The ornament
of Pergamum was the royal library, vying with that
of Alexandria in Egypt; the kings of Pergamum and
Egypt rivalling each other -in this refpecd (1 uny ).
Strabo aferibes this rivalry to Eumenes. Plutarch
reckons up 200,coo volumes in the library at Perga¬
mum. Here the memlrana pergamena, whence the
name parchmenty were invented for the ufe of books,
(Varro, quoted by Pliny). The country of Galen,
and of Oribafius chief phyfician to Julian the Apo-
ftate (Eunapius), called by fome the ape of Galen.
Here P. Scipio died (Cicero). Attains fon of Eu¬
menes dying without iffue, bequeathed his kingdom
to the Roman people, who reduced it to a province,
(Strabo). Pergameusy the epithet (Martial). Here
was one of the nine conventus jundidy or affemblies or
the Jfa Romans, called Perga menus, and the ninth
in order (Pliny); which he alfo cA\sjurifdi8io Per-
gamena. _ r * r r
PERGAMUS, an ancient kingdom of Alia, form¬
ed out of the ruins of the empire of Alexander the
Great. It commenced about the year 283. d he lint
fovereign was one Philetaerus an eunuch, by biith a
Paphlagonun, of a mean defeent, and in his youth a
menial fervant to Antigonus one of Alexander s cap¬
tains. He afterwards ferved Lyfimachus king of Ma-
cedon and Thrace, wha appointed him keeper of his
treafures lodged in Pergamus. While he held this
employment, having fallen under the difpleafure of
Arfmoe wife to Lyfimachus, die found means to make
a quarrel between him and his mafter ; upon which
Philetasrus feized on the caftle of Pergamus, together
with the treafures entrufted to his care, amounting to
90,00c talents. At fird he offered his iervice, toge¬
ther with his treafure, to Seleucus king of Syria :
but both Seleucus and Lyfimachus dying foon after,
he kept poffeffion of the town and treafure alio till hi»
death ; which happened 20 years after his revolt from
Lyfimachus.
Philetserus left the city of Pergamus to his brother,
or, according to fome, to his brotner s fon Eumenes I.
and he, laying hold of the opportunity ^offered fey
the diffenfions among the Seleucidae, poffeffed him-
felf of many ftrong-holds in the province of Alia ;
and having hired a body of Galatians, defeated Antio-
chus, as he was returning from a victory gained over
his brother Seleucus Caliihicus. By this vidtory he
obtained poffeffion of the greater part of Afia : how¬
ever, he did not long enjoy his acquifitions ; for he
died next year of immoderate drinking, a vice to
which he was greatly addidted.
Euroenes was fusceeded by Attains I nephew of
Philetaerus, and the firft who took upon him the title
of king of Pergamus. He defeated the Gauls, who
were defirous of fettling in his territory ; and, accor¬
ding to Livy, was the firft of the Afiatic princes who
refufed to pay a contribution to thefe barbarians.
When Seleucus Ceraunus was engaged in other wars, he
invaded his territories, and conquered all the provinces
on this fide of Mount Taurus; but was foon driven
out of his new acquifitions by Seleucus and his grand¬
father Achseus, who entering into an alliance agsinlt
him, deprived him of all his newly acquired territo¬
ries, and even befieged him in his capital. Upon this
PER
Pern™ Attains invited to his sffiftance the Gauls who had
fettled in Thrace ; and with their help not only obli¬
ged tne eneiry to raife the fiege of Pergamws, but
quickly recovered a]l the provinces he had loft. Af-
ter this he invaded Ionia and the neighbouring pro¬
vinces, ^where feveral cities voluntarily fubmitted to
him. I he Teians, Colophonians, with the inhabi¬
tants of Egea and Lemnos, fent deputies declarino-
taeovfelves ready to acknowledge him for their fove-
reign ; the Carfenes, on the other fide the river Lv-
cus, opened their gates to him, having firft expelled
the governor fet over them by Achasus. From thence
he advanced to Apia, and encamping on the banks of
tne river Me git bus, received homage from the neigh¬
bouring nations. But here the Gauls, being fright¬
ened by an eclipfe of the moon, refufed to proceed
farther ; which obliged Attains to return to thQ Hel¬
lespont, where he allowed his allies to fettle,' giving
t.em a large and fruitful territory, and promifing that
he would always afiiif and proted them to the utmoli
of his power
Attains having thus fettled his affairs with equal
honour and advantage to himfelf, entered into an alii-
ance WIth Rome, and afterwards joined them in their
war againft Ptirhp king of Macedon. Here he had
the command of the Rhodian fleet ; with which he
not only drove the Macedonians quite out of the feas,
laying landed his men, he, in conjundtisn with the
- f ?ilanr lnVarkd Macedon» f’nd obliged Philip to
ra.fe the fiege of Athens, which he had greatly di-
ueffed; for which fervices the Athenians not only
onePnf r !m:t 1 ^ !™°urs the7 ^uld, but called
{ha'r tr.,hes b-v hls namc ; an honour they had
never bellowed on any foreigner before. ^
• aal^b,"0t COPtented 'v'tSl all he had yet done
againfl Phnip, attempted to form a general confede¬
racy ot the Greeks againft him. But while he was
haranguing the Boeotians to this purpofe, and exhort
ing them with great vehemence to enter into an alii-
.nce with the Romans againft their common enemy,
he .ell down fpeechlefs. However, he came to himf If
again, and defired to be carried by fea from Thebes to
Pei gam us, ,w,i?.ere he died after his arrival, in the
^Jear of hls and 43d of his reign.
an emhnfiT WT 3 man °f gre3t &enerolity» and fueh
ZZ m !earn,nbT and learned men, that he
med a grammarian named DaphiJas to be thrown iu-
t0p °f 3 hlSh ro^> hecaufe he
ipOAc difrefpeafully of Homer.
Attalus was fucceeded by his eldeft fon EurrmneslI
4aVr eTT?,n1?lyJattached t0 the Rornans’ infomuch
M t th„e Antioch,,, the Great in
ferencegw%lft ^ fll°U d thm have !ieen led into a dif-
kZz w a; rople-- He alfo to the
Cappadocia the tranfatSions of Ariarathes king of
by fea and’lan^ mak,n^ ^reat preparations both
tiochus and the Romans h, f T between An'
to Rome to give informat; brothfr Atta^
Antiochus. The fen ate P7Ce?dlng3.of
menes and his brother- and ;ped honours botn on
gave the command of iheir fleet toXw‘of pWed’
rmis in conjunflion with C Rivnu q r g
^sained on Utt-.oc^r^r^
r 143 i
PER
owing to Eumenes, who boarded fome of the enemy’s Pergam*,,
fnips in perfon, and during the whole a£Hon behaved
witti uncommon bravery. Some time afterwards Eu¬
genes, entering the territories of Antiochus with a
body of 5000 men, ravaged all the country about
. M atira> and returned with an immenfe booty. But
in the mean time Antiochus invading Pergamus in his
turn, ravaged the whole country,-and even laid fiegre
to the capital Attalus, the king’s brother, field out
with an handful of men till the Achanns, who were
m alliance with Eumenes, fent 1000 foot and 100
horfe to his affiftance. As this fmali body of auxili¬
aries were all cbofen men, and commanded by an ex¬
perienced officer, they behaved with fuch bravery that
tiie Syrians were obliged to raife the fiege. Ac the
battle of Magntfia; too, Eumenes behaved with the
greateft bravery ; not only fuftaining the firft attack
of the enemy’s elephants, but driving them back again
on their own troops, which put the ranks in dif-
order, and gave the Romans an opportunity of giving-
them a total defeat by attacking them opportunely
with their horfe. In confequence of this defeat, An¬
tiochus was obliged to conclude a peace with the Ro-
mans on fuch terms as they pleafed to preferibe; one
of which was, that he fhould pay Eumenes 400 talents,
anu a quantity of corn, in recompence for the damage
he had done him. 6
Eumenes now thought of obtaining fome reward
trom the Romans equivalent to the fervices he had
done them Having gone to Rome, he told the fe-
nate, that he was come to beg of them that the Greek
cities which had belonged to Antiochus before the
commencement of the late war, might now be added
o his dominions ; but his demand was warmly oppofed
by the amhalhilors from Rhodes, „ well as by depu-
ties from all the Greek cities in A ft a. The fenate
however, after hearing both parties, decided the mat’
ter in favour of Eumenes, adding to his dominions ail
the countries on this fide of Mount Taurus which be-
onged to Antiochus; the other provinces lying be¬
tween that mountain and the river Meander, excepting
Eycia and Cana, were be towed on the Rhodians. All
t e cities, whick h id paid tribute to Attalus, were or¬
dered to pay the fame to Fumenes; but fuch as had
been tributary to Antiochus were declared free.
Soon after this Eumenes wa, engaged in a war with
Pruftas king orBichynia, who made war upon him
by the advice of Hannibal the celebrated Carthaginian
§7*4 nr Earaenes’ bein& aflbled by the Romans,
aefeated Pruftas man engagement by fea, and another
by land ; which to di[heartened him, that he was ready
to accept of peace on any terms. However, before
the treaty was concluded, Hannibal found means to
draw t h,hp of Macedon into the confederacy, who
lent Philocles, an old and experienced officer, with a
conn ierable bo ly of troops to join Pruftas. Hereup¬
on Eumenes fent his brother Attalus to Rome with a
golden crown, worth 15,000 talents, to complain of
1 ruhas for making war on the allies of the Roman
people without any provocation. The fenate accepted
the prefent, and pro mi fed to adjuft every thing to the
latisraclion of their triend Eumenes, whom they look¬
ed upon to be the- moft fteatly ally they had in Alia.
But m the mean time Prufias, having ventured another
iea-hght, by a contrivance of Hannibal's, gainei a
complete.:
PER
t *44 1
PER
l*erg»mas. complete vi&oty. The Carthaginian commander ad-
v;fc,i him to fill a great many earthen veflels with va¬
rious kinds of ferpents aad other poifonous reptiles,
and in the heat of the fight to throw them into the
enemies Ihips fo as to break the pots and let the fer¬
pents loofe. All the foldiers and feamen were com¬
manded to attack the (hip in which Eumenes was,
and only to defend themfelves as well as they could
againft the reft ; and that they might be in no danger
of miftaking the ftiip, an herald was fent before the
engagement with a letter to the king. As foon as the
convinced them both of his being alive, by petdming Pergatftisfc
to his kingdom. On the receipt of this news, Attains v ,
refigned the fovereignty in great hafte, and went to
meet his brother ; carrying art halberd, as one ©f his
guards. Eumenes received both him and the queen
with great tendernefs, nor did he ever fay any thing
which might tend to make them uneafy ; only it is faid
he whifpered in his brother’s ear when he firft faw him,
“ Be in no hafte to marry my wife again till you are
fure that I &m dead.”
The king being now more than ever exafperatei
3C dr wLiraU the mipi of.Prufias. fmgline againft Perfes, joined .he Renans in thy wa.againa
, r t- a-i-i r.._u Uirr> . Km rlnr ncr the courfe of it he fuddenly cooled
out that of Eumenes, difeharged fuch a quantity of
ferpents into it, that neither foldiers nor failors could
do their duty, but were forced to fly to the fhore,
left they ihould fall into the enemy’s hands. The
other (hips, after a faint refiilance, followed the king’s
example, and were all driven afhore with great daugh¬
ter, the foldiers being no lefs annoyed by the ftings
of the ferpents, than by the weapons of the enemy.
The greateft part of the (hips of Eumenes were burnt,
feveral taken, and the others fo much (battered that
.►they became quite unferviceabk. The fame year Pru-
iks gained two remarkable vi&ories over Eumenes by
land, both of which wete entirely owing to ftrata-
gems of Hannibal. But, while matters were thus go¬
ing on to the difadvantage of Eumenes, the Romans
interfered, and by their deputies not only put an
end to the differences between the two kings, but
prevailed on Prufias to betray -Hsfnnibal; upon which
he poifoned himftlf, as hath been related under the ar¬
ticle Hannibal.
Eumenes being thus freed from fuch a dangerous
enemy, engaged in a new war with the kings of Cap-
padociaund Pontus, in which alfo he proved viflorions.
His friendfhip for the Romans he carried to fuch a
degree of enthufiaftn, that he went in perfon to Rome
to inform them of the machinations of Perfes king of
Macedon. He had before quarrelled with the Rhodi¬
ans, who fent ambaffadors to Rome to complain of
him. But as the ambaffadors happened to arrive
while the king himfelf was prefent in the city, the
him ; but during the courfe of it he fuddenly cooled
in his affeftion towards thofe allies whom he had hi¬
therto ferved with fo much zeal, and that to fuch a de-.
gree, that he admitted ambaffadors from Perfes, and
offered to ftand neuter if he would pay him 1000 ta¬
lents, and for 1500, to influence the Romans to grant
him a fafe and honourable peace. But thefe negocia-
tions were broke off without effe<ft, by reafon of the
diftruft which the two kings had of one another. Eu¬
menes could not truft Perfes unlefs he paid him the
money beforehand; while, on the other hand, Perfes
did not care to part with the money before Eumenes
had performed what he promifed ; neither could he be
induced to pay the fum in queftion, theugh the king
of Pergamus offered to give hoftages for the perfoim-
ance of his pvomife. What the reafon of fuch a hid¬
den change in the difpofition of Eumenes was, is no¬
where told ; however, the fa& is certain. The nego-
ciations above-mentioned were concealed from the Ro¬
mans as long as poffible; but they foon came to
be known : after which the republic began to enter¬
tain no fmall jealoufy of their old friend, and therefore
heaped favours on his brother Attalus, without taking
any notice of the king himfelf. Eumenes had fent him
to Rome to congratulate the fenate on the happy iffue
of the war with Perfes, not thinking that his pra&ices
had been difeovered. However, the fenate, without
taking any notice of their difaffe&ion to Eumenes at
firft, entertained Attalus with the greateft magnifi¬
cence ; then feveral of the fenators who yifited him
wbi e the kina- himtelt was prelent in tne city, — -- , r . .   r. 1 „
Rhodian ambaffadors could not obtain any hearing, proceeded to acquaint him vmii their f« P» 1
i S „ mark, of favour, kiner, and defired Attalus to treat with them in his
and Eumenes was difmiffed with new marks of favour.
This journey, however, had almoft proved fatal to
him ; for, on his return, as he was going to perform
a facnfice at Delphi, two affaffins, fent by Perfes,
rolled down two great (tones upon him as he entered
the ftraits of the mountains. With one he was dan-
geroufly wounded on the head and with the other on
the (boulder. He fell with the blows from a fteep
own name, affuring him, that the kingdom of Perga¬
mus would be granted him, if he demanded it, by tire
fenate. Thefe fpeeches had at firft fome effett; but
Attalus, being of an honeft difpofition, and affifted by
the advice of a phyfician called Stratius-, a man of
great probity, refolved not to comply with their de-
firc. When he was admitted to the fenate,_therefore>
olace ’and tims received many other braifes; fo that he firft congratulated them on the happy iffue of the
"tried „„ board hie (hip when it could not Macedonian war, then modeftly recounted h,a own fer.
having caufed their veflela to he carried over the ^^^Tat tL'^ S’t inns and
xrdlhfgt" ti thu sS
the wife of Eumenel. But in a fhort time Eumenes Pergamus; whtch fo provoked the fenators, tha^y
4
PER
r H5 ]
L 145 J P K TJ
Ptrgamn?. declared the citlea free which they had promlfed to o-ed to 14 11 ^
i*—^ /^tta{ng) ^5 rendering Ineffedual their promlfe which lowinp-^ a^verfary on the fol- Pergamu*,
they were afhamed onenlv to revoke. an4 aa .... b lc™3* . '• -that he fhouid immediately deli- ■—-v—
~ v ‘UV,1U6 o*cucciu<u cneir promne which
they were afhamed openly to revoke; and as for the
Gauls, who were on all occafions ready to invade the
kingdom of Pergamus, they fent ambafladors to them,
w th inftruftions to behave in fuch a manner as would
rather t nd to encourage them in their delign than dif-
fuade them from it.
Eumenes, being alarmed at thofe proceedings re-
folved to go in perfon to Rome, in order to judify
himlelf. But the fenate, having already condemned
him m their own minds, refolved not to hear his vin¬
dication. For this reafon, as foon as they heard of
his defign, they made an ad that no king fhonld be
permitted to enter the gates of Rome. Eumenes, how¬
ever, who knew nothing of this aft, fet forward on
his journey, and landed at Brtindufium ; but no fooner
did the Roman fenate get intelligence of his arrival
there, than they fent a quaedor acquainting him with
pe decree of the fenate; and telling him at the fame
time, that if he had any bufinefs to tranfafl with the
lenate, he was appointed to hear it, and tranfmic ir to
them ; but if not, that the king mud leave Italy with-
out delay To this Eumenes replied, that he had no
buhnefs of any confequence to tranfaft, and that he
d‘d not {land in need of any of their affidance ; and
without faying a word more, went on board his {hip,
and returned to Pergamus. *
On his return home, the Gauls, being encouraged
by the cold reception which he had met with at Rome
invaded h,s territories, but were repulfed with great
lofs by the king, who afterwards invaded the domi-
®i°ns of Prufias and poffelTed himfelf of feveral ci¬
ties. i his produced new complaints at Rome : and
t0 Atta,US,20 ^ »itl> decu' 2. that he
20 veaJT7 50 Ti enit9 ^ AttaIus Within the fpace of
of the o^he/^ ^ ^°uIdkPa^ 100 talents to fame
tk,. 5 th Afiatic nations by way of reparation for
i P.l’r3*"' ‘b'y ’lild ^rom him. And'
Mor t£T3 Ih-°UU rbeuCOn"nt ”ith »>■« they had
oe.ore the beginning of the war. 7
bome time after this, Prufias having made an unn*
UraI on the life of his fon Nicomedes Jhe S;
er rebelled, and, with the affidance of Attalus drove
deredhimi^rt 'VT; a"d’ “ ‘'8 faid’ ev™ ">«-
h 'p" ^tfe» kingo^Macedt;
himfelf n ^ f he ^omans ? after which he gave
_ p entnely to eafe and luxury, committina- date
affairs entire y to his minifters ; and thus contS to
about"38 B C PPenCd in the 82d ytar of hi!
Attr.his II. was fucceeded by Attalus III. the fon
Eumenes ; for the late king, confidering that he
only held the crown as a truft for his nephew, paffed
by his own children in order to give it to him > u
i^rTt fh ha7 been bv no means worthy of’it ° He
S f31d to have been deprived of his fenfes thro’ the vio
ence of his grief for his mother’s death ; and indeed
diroughout h.s whole reign, he behaved more like a
madman than any thing elfe. Many of his fubieds of
the h,ghed quality were cut off with their wives and
children, upon the mod groundlefs fufpicions • and for
tbefe executinn<s Vip ^ ncl d°r
vuuipiaints at Kome: and children „ ‘ ^ n.  , eutir wives and
Prufiirh TirT i: r0t °nly by the ambaffadors of thefe exJcucio^fhr"10 !^10^'1^3 fulPicIon> 5 and for
Prufias, but alfo by thofe of the Gauls and manv ci execuU01 3 be made ufe of mercenaries hired our
ties in Afia, of keeping a fecret correfpondence with proceeded^]^^ Tf barbaI.ous natl‘ons. Thus he
Perfes king of Macedon. This lift charge was con kin^l d d r he bad Cut ofF aI1 ^ beft men in the
firmed by fome letters which the Romans themfelves W-”15 lfter He fdI 'nto a deeP melancholy'
had intercepted ; fo that Eumenes found it impoffible dered weg ^ th£ °f th°fc whor" hc mur!
ffis hP th 8 ""ft 2117 l0ngCr 3t Rome’ he himfdf un ffihifr 7 Undng hIm' °n th,,s he ^
fent h.s brothers Athemeus and Attalus thither to in- h^r and h ^ pa aCe’ pUt °n a mean aPP^reI, let his
tercede for h m. Th.   • o . . . 10 in. hair ano beard grow, and i.;lb ,r nl!
hfo k , y luugcr at wome, though he
rent hn brothers AtbenKus and Attalus thither to in-
ved'the mornh-lm'l ff,' f™i',0rs’ in ftor'’ had «>ncei-
“ the moll implacable hatred againft him, and feem
l’™f‘ v.'" hi8 '■kl',r"l£t,on' when he died, in
the 39th year of his reign, tearing his kingdom nnS
his Wife to his brother Attalus. He left one Ton hut
bewas a„ infant, and incapable of go vning the king
dom ; for which reafon Eumenes chofe rather to Z
the prefent pofMon of the crown to his brother e
ferving the fueceffion his fon, than t0 endanger the
Ws ,„,om!mm,ttmg the of affai,s?,o his
greaTy diXefTeH hegp,n!"gJ’Ph;Sre,^n’ fou"d h'mWf
tinly overthrew h' 7 ■ ruPla3 ^Ing of Bithynia, who not
«o 4e very ZaZ 'had ^ '>„t advanced
as he marched alon* • ^4^ tJhe1country
.ompLnfet tfch;d 0Tp“r - R,»r
r„dr,vtZ.d 1 B,fai'i'fzand ,0 ^
to the matter, Prnfias was found tobeTur'l1”’15'l"‘
of Bhid”t£
k 1 C , iJUL UU a mean apparel let his
hair and beard grow, and fequeftered himfelf from aU
mankind. At laft he withdrew from the palace and
retired into a garden, which he cultivated with his own
Hands, and filled with all forts nf r
Thefe he nfed to mia with wholeflfp^0^''^
packets of them to fuch as hc fufpefted A t ]“a be
ing weary of this amufement, and Ifring in folitude
b-U e 7b,°dy aPProach him, he took it in his
ead to follow the trade of a founder, and makes
brazen monument. But, while he laboured aTmelt
mg and calling the brafs, the heat of the fun -nd fur
nace threw h,m i„to a fever, which in feven days pS
five year ° tyn,“n5r’ af'er he had fat 0,1 th' th™»=
which hrVft tV,n i*/ tbC a wtll was found, by
,mnn I’ f khC R.°man pe°PIe he’r£ °f a]J b'‘s goods7
upon winch they feized on the kingdom, ard reduc-d
f/1 * But Ariftomcus, a fo« «f Eumenes by an E-
phefian courte.. i, reckoning himfelf the lawful heir
to tne crown, could by no means be fatisfied wi»h th'«
ctrfZ0! the Rc””a"a.and therefok aCb,rt a
confiderable army to maintain his pretentions Tk^
people-in general, having been accuftomed to a mo'.
Jiarchj,
PER t »
Perframus, narchy, dreaded a republican form of government, in
‘—v— conference of which, they afiifted Ardlomcus and
foon put him in a condition to reduce the whole king¬
dom. The news, however, were foon carried to
Rome ; and Licinius Craffus, the pontifex maximum,
was fent into the eaft,:with orders to enforce obedience
to the king’s will. Hiftorians take no notice ol any
forces which were fent along with this commander;
whence it is fuppofed, that he depended on afliftance
from the Afiatics, who were in alliance with Rome, or
from the Egyptians. But when he came thither, he
found both the Syrians and Egyptians fo reduced, •
he could not expeft any afliftance from them. ow-
ever, he was foon fupplied with troops in pknty by the
kings of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Paphla-
gonia; but managed matters fo ill, that he was entire y
defeated and taken prifoner. Thofe who took hl™»
deiigned to carry him to Ariftomcus ; but he, not able
to endure the difgrace, would have laid violent hands
on himfelf if he had not been difarmed. However,
being allowed to keep a rod for managing the horte
on which he fat, he ftruck a Thracian foldier who ftood
near him fo violently with it, that he beat out one ol
his eyes ; upon which the other drew h,s fword, and
run him thro’ on the fpot. His head was brought to
Ariftonicus, who expofed it to public view ; but the
body was honourably buried. _ , r • r
Ariftonicus had no great time to enjoy the fruits of
his viaory. Indeed he behaved very improperly after
it; for, iuftead of preoaring to oppofe the next army,
which he might have been affured the Romans would
fend acrainft him, he fpent his time in Rafting ami re¬
velling! But he was foon roufed out of his kth 'rgy
by Perpenna the new conful, who having affembled
wkh incredible expedition the ^oojxs of he alhea
came unexpeftedly upon him, obliged him to venture
an eno-agement at a difadvantage, and entirely defeat¬
ed him5 Ariftonicus fled to a city called Str^0,l,ce >
but was fo clofely purfued by the cQjaqueror that the
ta r fon, having no method of Applying them elves
S provifionS,° delivered up their leader, as well as a
philofopher named Blofius, who had been the compa¬
nion ami counfellor of Ariftonicus. The Ph'lofopher
behaved with great lefolution a ter being taken, and
openly defended his fiding with Ariftonicus, becaufe
he thought his caufe juft. He exhorted the latter to
prevent the difgrace and mifery of captivity by a vo-
hintarT death ; but Ariftonicus, looking upon deat i
as a greater mifery than any captivity, fuffered him t
to be treated as his conquerors pleafed.
In the meantime, a new conful, named Mnmus J-
T heimr arrived from Rome, fent a moft haug
ty meffage to Perpenna, requiring ^
deliver up Ariftonicus, as a captive bf1^’1^. ^ •
triumph when the war ftrould be ended. With this
Aq.iilius was obliged to bchege, and take by force,a-
molt every city in the kingdom. In do.ng th, , he
Took a veb efFeftual) though exceed,ng cruel method.
M„ft of the cities in the kingdom had no other water
46 ] “ P E R . .
than what was brought from a confiderable diftance in Pergwmah
aquedufts, Thefe Aquilius did not demolifti but
poifoned the water, which produced the greateft ab- d.um
horrence of him throughout all the eaft. At laft,   v—<
however, the whole country being reduced, Aquflms
triumphed, the unhappy Ariftonicus was led in chains
before his chariot, and probably ended his miferable
life in a dungeon. The country remained fubjeft to
the Romans while their empire lafted, but is now in
the hands of the Turks. The city is half ruined, and is
ftift known by the name of Pergamus. It is inhabited by
about 3000 Turks, and a few families of poor Chn-
ftians. E- Long. 27. 27. N. Lat. 30. 3*
PERGUNNAH, in the language ot Mindoltan,
means the largeft fubdivifion of a province, whereof the
revenues are brought to one particular head_butchery,
from whence the accounts and cadi are tranfmitted to
the geneial Curchery of the province.
PERIAGOGE, in rhetoric, is ufed where many
things are accumulated into one peiiod which might
have been divided into feveral. , r c
PER1AGUA, a fort of large canoe made ule ot
in the Leeward iftands, South America, and the gu.t
of Mexico. It is compofed of the trunks °f two treerf
hollowed and united together; and thus differs from
the canoe, which is formed of one tree.
PERIANDER, tyrant of Corinth and L-orcyra,
was reckoned among the feven wife men of Greece ;
thoush he might rather have been reckoned among
the moft wicked men, fince he changed the govern¬
ment of his country, deprived his countrymen of their
liberty, ufurped the fovereignty, and committed the
moft (hocking crimes. In the beginning of his reign
he behaved with mildnefs; but after his having fen
to the tyrant of Syracufe to confulc him on the lafe t
method of government, he abandoned himfelf to cruel¬
ty The latter, having heard Periander’s envoys, took
them into a field, *md, inftead of anfwenng them,
pulled up before them the ears of corn which exceed¬
ed the reft in height. Periander, on being told of
this aftion, underftood what was meant by it. fie
firft fecured himfelf by a good guard, and then put
the moft powerful Corinthians to death. He aban¬
doned himfelf to the moft enormous crimes; commit-
«d Inceft with his mother, kicked to death h,, w, e
Melifla, daushter of Procles kmg of Epidaunn, oot-
withftanding her being with child ; and was fo enrage
Tt Lycophron, bis fecond ton, for lamenting h,s mo-
ther's death, that he banilhed h,m ,nto the .Hand ot
Corcyra. Yet he paffed for one of the greateft poli¬
ticians of his time ; and Heraclides tells us, that he
forbad voluptuoufnefs; that he impofed no taxes, con¬
tenting himfelf with the cuftom anfing from the Lie
and the import and export of commodities ; that, tho
wicked himfelf, he hated the wicked, ?nd caufed all
pimps to be drowned ; laftly, that he eJabllfh"d * f*J
nate, and fettled the expence of its members. He died
58PERIANTH1UM, (from “ round,’’ and
*vS<^ “ the flower,”) the flower cup properly lo call¬
ed, the moft common fpecies of calyx, placed imme,
diately under the flower, which is contained m it as 1
a cud. See Botany, p. 433> cok I- ,
PERICARDIUM, in anatomy, a membranous
bag ailed with water, which contains the heart in man
tcricar
pium
II
Perigord.
PER
and many other animals. It is formed by a
cature of the mediaftinum, or membrane which di¬
vides the thorax into two unequal parts. See Ana-
__ TOMY, n° I21.
PERICARPIUM, (from “ round/' and
« fruit/') the feed veflel ; an entrail of the
plant big with feeds, which it difcharges when ripe.
The feed-veflel is in fa& the developed feed bud, and
may very properly be compared to the fecundated
ovary in animals; for it does not exift till after the
fertilizing of the feeds by the male-duft, and the con-
fequent fall of the flower. All plants, however, are
not furnilhed with a feed-veffel; in fuch as are depri¬
ved of it, the receptacle or calyx performs its funftions
by inclofing the feeds, as in a matrix, and accompa¬
nying them to perfedt maturity.
PERICUORUS, in antiquity, a name given by
the Greeks to their profane games cr combats, that
is, to fuch as were not confecrated to any of the gods.
PERICLES, was one of the greateft men that
ever flourilhed in Greece. He was educated with all
imaginable care; and befide other mailers, he had for
his tutors Zeno, Eleates, and Anaxagoras. He learn-
ed from the lall of thefe to fear the gods without fu-
perftition, and to account for an eclipfc from a natu¬
ral caufe. Many were unjuft enough to fufpea him
of athenm, becaufe he had perfedly ftudied the doc-
tune of that philofpher. He was a man of undoubt¬
ed courage ; and of fuch extraordinary eloquence, im¬
ported and improved by knowledge, that he gained al-
molt as great an authority under a republican govern¬
ment as if he had been a monarch ; but yet he could
not efcape the fatirical ftrokes of the comic poets. His
ciflolutenefs with the women was one of the vices with
which he was chiefly charged. He died the third
>Tre°u ^ P?loPonn?,iah war» after long ficknefs,
which had weakened his underftanding. Afpafia Pe¬
ricles’s favourite, was a learned woman of Miletus’: fhe
taught bocrates rhetoric and politics. As Pericles
cared not much for his wife, he willingly gave her up
ly loved"* and married AfPari3> whom he paffionate-
PER[CRANIUM, in anatomy, a thick folid coat
or membrane covering the outflde of the cranium or
ilvull. See Anatomy, n° 4.
PERIGEE, in aftronomy, that point ef the fun
or moon s orbit wherein they are at the leaft diftance
from the earth, in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to
apogee. rr
PERIGEUX, an ancient epifcopal town of
ranee, capital of the province of Perigord, feated oil
the river Ifle, m E. Long. o. ? 4. N. Lat. A c t« W
is remarkable for the ruins of the temple of Venus,* and
an amphitheatre.
u pr°V‘nCe °f France’ whl*ch mak«
part of Guienne, bounded on the north by Angou-
mo s and a part of Marche, and on the eaft by Quer-
cy and Limofin ; on the fouth by Agenois and
do,s ; and on the weft, by Bourled'ois, Angoumois and
a part of bamtonge. It is about 81 miles in iLth
and 60 in breadth It abounds in iron mines a„d the
air is pure and healthy. Perigeux is the capital town
I bRiGORD-Stone, an ore of manganefe of a dart
grey colour, like the bafaltes or trapn U 1
be feraped with a knife, butia extremely*difficult to
[ *47 1 PER
dupli- be broken. It is found of no regular figtire, is very PeWgraph*
compafl, heavy, and as black as charcoal. Its appear¬
ance is glittering and ftriated, like the ore of antimo-
ny ; its particles being difpofed in the form of needles,
crofting one another without any agglutination, info-
much that fome are loofe as iron filings when ftucfc
to a loadftone; refembling the fcoria from a bkek-
imithk furnace. By calcination it becomes harder and
of a reddifh-bi own colour, but is not attrafted by the
magnet. It has a confiderable fpecific gravity, does
not melt />er ji, but with borax runs into a glafs of
the colour of an amethyft. It is fcarcely affected by
nitrous acid without the addition of fugar. It feems
alfo to contain fome argil and iron. It is met with
in Gafcony and Dauphiny in France, and in fome
parts of England. It is employed by the French pot¬
ters and enamellers in the glaffy varnifh of their ear¬
then wares.
PE RIG RAPHE, a word ufually underftood to
exprefs a carelefs or inaccurate delineation of any
thing ; but in Vefalius it is ufed to exprefs the white
lines or impreffions that appear on the mufeulua redus
of the abdomen.
PERIHELIUM, in aftronomy, that part of a pla¬
net or comet’s orbit wherein it is in its leaft diftance
from the fun, in which fenfe it ftanda in oppofition t®
aphelmm.
PERIME1 ER, in geometry, the bounds or limits
of any figure or body. The perimeters of furfaces of*
figures are lines ; thofe of bodies are furfaces. In dr-
cular figures, inftead of perimeter, we fay circumfe¬
rence, or periphery.
PER IN/EUM, or Perineum, in anatomy, the
fpace between the anus and the parts of genera-
t.on, divided into two equal lateral divifions by a
very diftind line, which is longer in males than in fe¬
males.
PER1NSKIOLD (John), a learned Swedifh wri-
ter, bom at Stregnefia in Sudermania, in i6?4, ftu-
med under his father, who was profeffor of eloquence
and poetry, and afterwards became well /killed in the
antiquities of the north. He was made profeffor at
Upfal fecretary antiquary of the king of Sweden, and
counfellor of the chancery of antiquities. He died in
17 2°. His principal works are : 1. A Hiftory of the
Kings of Norway. _ 2. A Hiftory of the Kings of the
North. 3. An Edition of John Meffenius on the Kings
of bweden Norway, and Denmark, in 14 vols folio,
&c. Ail Pennflaold s works are excellent, and high¬
ly elteemed. 6
PERIOD, in aftronomy, the time taken up by a
Itar or planet in making a revolution round the fun;
or the duration of its courfe till it return to the fame-
part of its orbit. See Planjct.
The different periods and mean diftances of the feve-
ral planets are as follow :
Saturn
Jupiter
Mars
Earth
Venus
Mercury
Days
10579
433 2
686
'365
224
87
h.
6
12
23
6
16
2 3
36
20
27
9
49
26
35
3°
3°
24
53
mean Dill.
953800
520110
152309
100000
72333
36710
1 here is a wonderful harmony between the diftances
T 2 of
1
PER [ i48
of the planets from the fan, and their periods round
him ; the great law whereof is, that the fquares or
the periodical times of the primary planet, are to each
other as the cubes of their diftances from the fun:
and Hkewife, the fquares of the periodical times of the
fecondaries of any planet are to each other as the
cubes of their diftances from that primary. This har¬
mony among the planets is one of the greateft confir¬
mations of the Copernican hypothcfis. See Astro¬
nomy, n° 414.
For the periods of the moon, fee Astronomy,
nc>422, and obferve Index to aftronomy.
The periods of feveral comets are now pretty well
afcertained. See Astronomy, n° xyij&c.
Period, in chronology, denotes a revolution of a
certain number of years, or a feries of years, whereby,
in different nations, and on different occafions, time is
meafured ; fuch are the following.
Calipfic Period, a fyftem of feventy-fix years. See
Calippic, and Astronomy, n° 11, &c.
Dionyjian Period, or Vidorian Period, a fyftem of
532 lunse-folar and Julian years; which being elapfed,
the charafters ©f the moon fall again upon the fame
day and feria, and revolve in the fame order, accor¬
ding to the opinion of the ancients.
This period is otherwife called the great, pajchal
cycle, becaufe the Chriftian church firft ufed it to find
the true time of the pafcha or eafter. The fum of thefe
years arife by multiplying together the cycles of the
fun and moon.
Hipparchus's Period, is a feries of 304 folar years,
returning in a conftant round, and reftoring the new
and full moons to the fame day of the folar year, ac¬
cording to the fentiment of Hipparchus. This period
arifes by multiplying the Calippic period by four.
Hipparchus affumed the quantity of the folar year to
be 365 days 5 hours 55' 12'' ; and hence concluded,
that in 104 years Calippus’s period would err a whole
day. He therefore multiplied the period by four,
and from the produft caft away an entire day. But
even this does not reftore the new and full moons to
the fame day throughout the whole period ; but they
are fometimes anticipated 1 day 8 hours 23 29 20 .
Bee Astronomy, n° 14.
'Julian Period. See Julian.
Period, in grammar, denotes a fmall compals of
difcourfe, containing a perfed fentence, and diftin-
guifhed at the end by a point, or full flop, thus (.) ;
i»nd in members or divifions marked by commas, co¬
lons, &c. . . , . c
Father Buffier ebferves two difficulties in the ute ot
the period, or point; i. e. in diftinguifhing it from the
colon, or double point; and in determining juftly the
end of a period, or perfed fentence. It is remarked,
that the iupernumcrary members of a period, feparated
from the reft by colons and femicolons, ufually com¬
mence with a conjuudion : yet it is true thefe fame
conjundions fometimes rather begin new periods than
fuperimmerary members of old ones. H is the feme of
things, and the author’s own diferetion, that muft
make the proper diftindion which of the two m efied
it is. No rules will be of any Service, unlefs this be ad*
milted as one, that when what follows the conjundion
is of as much extent as what precedes it, it is ufuslly
a new period $ otherwife rrot»
] PER
The fecond difficulty arifes hence, that the fenfe Peno4
appearsperfed in feveral fhort detached phrafes, where¬
in it does not feem there fhould be periods; a thing
frequent in free difcourfe : as, iVe are all in fufpenfe :
make your propofals immediately ; you will be to blame for
detaining us longer. Where it is evident, that fimple
phrafes have perfed fenfes like periods, and ought to
be marked accordingly ; but that the (hortnefs of the
difcourfe making them eafily comprehended, the point¬
ing is negledted.
De Cclonia defines period a fhort but perfed fen¬
tence, confifting of certain parts or members, depend¬
ing one on another, and cenneded together by fome com¬
mon vinculum. 1 tie celebrated definition of Anftotle
is, a period is a difcourfe which has a beginning, a
middle, and an end, all vifible at one view. Rheto¬
ricians confider period, which treats of the ftrudure
of fentences, as one of the four parts of compofitioiio
The periods allowed in oratoiy are three : A period of
two members, called by the Greeks chcolos, and by the
Latins bimembris ; a period of three members, tncolos,
trimembris i and a period of four, quadrimembris, tetra-
col os. See Punctuation.
Period, in numbers, is a diftindion made by a point
or comma, after every fixth place, or figure ; and is
ufed in numeration, for the readier diftinguiihing and
naming the feveral figures or places ; which lee under
Numeration. ~
Period, in medicine, is applied to certain thfeafes
which have intervals, and returns, to denote an entire
courfe or circle of fuch difeafe ; or its progrefs from
any ftate through all the reft till it return to the fame
again.
Galen deferibes period as a time compofed of an in-
tenfion and remilfion ; whence it is ufualiy divided into
two parts, the paroxyfm or exacerbation, and remif-
fion.
In intermitting fevers, the periods are ufually ftated
and tegular; in other difeafes, as the epilepfy, goutf
&c. they are vague or irregular.
Period, in oratory. See there, n° 47.
PERIODIC, or Periodical, fomething that ter¬
minates and cemprehends a period ; fuch is a periodic
month ; being the fpace of time wherein the moon
difpatches her period. '
PERIOECI, Tti MOOLI, in geography, fuch inhabi¬
tants of the earth as have the fame latitudes, but op-
pofite longitudes, or live under the fame parallel and
the fame meridian, but in different femicircles of that
meridian, or in oppofite points of the parallel. 1 hefe
have the fame common feafons throughout the year,
and the fame phenomena ©f the heavenly bodies ; but
when it is noon-day with the one, it is midnight with
the other, there being twelve hours in an eaft and
weft diredion. Thefe are found on the globe by the
hour-index, or by turning the globe half round, that
is, 180 degrees either way.
PERIOSTEUM, or Periostium, in anatomy, a
nervous vafcular membrane, endued with a very quick
fenfe, immediately furrounding, in every part, both
the internal and external fuifaces of all the bones in the
body, excepting only fo much ot the teeth as i.and
above the gums, and the peculiar places on the bones,
in which the mufcles are inferted. It is hence divided
into the external amlin^rnal periofteumj and vihux
•PER [ j PER
r- !1 'xt'r"f1)' ^r™""d8 the b0"es 0f ,he ftul1’ it tionof ArlHotlei and in the nejt century the Peri
— “ef Called th£ See Anatomv, patetic philofophy was taught every whe,eta their pub-
PERIPATETICS, philofophers, followers of Ari- Anble &ecef. “10^0 <Damafcenn,a'i ^ r’th C0'-fder,- Periphra.
flotle, and niaintainers of the peripatetic philofophy; to its credit and inflMnce hv ''er7 mtC contrlbutfed
ilied alfo Ar^m, Ciceto f^ys, Jt PiatoMf plai " rclnr i"r ,"I,a..C0"C‘
called alfo Anjioteliam. Cicero fays, that Plato left
two excellent difciples, Xenocrates and Ariftotle, who
founded two fefts, which only differed in name : the
j ormer took the appellation of Academics^ who were
thofe tnat continued to hold their conferences in the
.Acadenty, as Plato had done before ; the others, who
followed Ariftotle, werecalled Peripatetics
“ 1 wa,k P’ btcaufe they difputed walking in the Ly¬
ceum. 1
, Ammonius derives the name Peripatetic from Plato
himfelf, who only taught walking ; and adds, that the
difciples of Aiiftotle, and thofe of Xenocrates, were
equally called Peripatetics ; the one Peripatetics of the
Academy, the other Peripatetics of the Lyceum : but
that in time the former quitted the title Peripatetic for
that of Academic, on account of the place where
they affembied ; and the latter retained fitnply that of
Peripatetic. The great eft and belt part of Ariftotle’s
philofophy was borrowed from Plato. Serranus afferts,
£nc fays lie could demonftrate, that there, is nothing
exquifite in any part of Arillotle’s philofophy, dialec¬
tics, ethics, politics, phyfics, or metaphyfics, but i$
found in 1 lato. And of this opinion are many of the
ancient authors, fuch as Clemens Alexandrinus, &c
Gale attempts to fhow,that Ariftotle borrowed a good
deal of his philofophy, both phyfical, about the firft
rnatter, and metaphyfical about the firft being, his af-
fections, truth, unity, goodnefs, &c. from the Scrip-
torts ; and adds from Clearchus, one of Ariftotle's
ichoiars, that he made ufe of a certain Jew, who af-
iilted rum therein.
^J’ffotL’s philofophy preferved itfelf in puris natura-
for a long time : in the earlier ages of Chriftianity,
tne flatomc philofophy was generally preferred ; but
this did not prevent the do&rine of Ariftotle from for¬
cing its wayanto the Chriffian church. Towards the
end of the filth century, it rofe into great credit: the
Platonics interpreting in their fchools fome of the
writings of Ariftotle, particularly his diakaics, and re¬
commending diem to young perfons. This appear
to have been the firft ftep to that univerfal dominion
which Ariftotle afterwards obtained among the learned
which was at the fame time much promoted by the’
controverlxes which Origen had occafioned. This fa-
tner was zealoufly attached to the Platonic fyftem •
and therefore, after his condemnation, many, to avoid
ne imputation of his errors, and to prevent their being-
counted among the number of his followers, openly
.luopted die philofophy of Ariftotle. Nor was any
philofophy more proper for furn;fh;ng thofe w ns
ufed in the N ft10 •8 andAcaPtioiiS ^phi{ms, which were
v-rll hLNAnan’ and ^‘tychian contro-
n f- A?J0Jlt !he end of the fixth century, the Ari-
to Boethius, who e^iained ara i.r.^
Ln rTh i •h!gUcr de?,ee of credlt among the Latins
than it had hitherto enjoyed. Towards the end of the
.eventh century, the Greeks abandoned Plato to the
tuonks, and gave themfelves up entirely to the diret
Pcripatc*
tics
fis.
plain, and comprehenfive view of the doftrines of the
otagirite, for the inftruaion of the more ignorant, and
in a manner adapted to common capacities. Under the
patronage of Photius, and the protection of Bardas,
the ftudy of philofophy for fome time declined, but
was revived again about the end of the ninth century.
About the middle of the nth century, a revolution
in philofophy commenced in France ; when feverai fa- -
rnous logicians, who followed Ariftotle as their guide
took neverthelefs the liberty of illuftrating and model!
-mg anew his philofophy, and extending it far beyond
us ancient limits. In the 12th century, three methods
of teaching philofophy were in ufe by different doc¬
tors: the firft was the ancient and plain method, which
confined its refcarches to the philofophical notions of
Porphyry, and the dialeftie fyftem, commonly attri¬
buted to 6t Auguftine, and in which were laid down
this general rule, that philofophical inquiries were to
be limited to a finall number of fubje&s, left, by their
becoming too extenfive, religion might fuffer by a pio-
fane mixture of human fubiilty with its divine wifdom.
1 he fecond method was called the Ariftotelian, becaufe
it confuted in explications of the works of that phi-
lofopher, feverai of whofe books, being tranflated into
.Latin were almoft everywhere in the hands of the
learned. 1 he third was termed the free method, em¬
ployed by fuch as were bold enough to fearch after
truth, in the manner the moft adapted to render their
inquiries fuccefstul, without rejecting the fuccours of
AI iff otic and 1 lato. A reformed fyftem of the Peri¬
patetic philofophy was firft introduced into the fchools
in the UHiveifity of Paris, from whence it foon fpread
throughout Europe j and h:< fufefifted in fome univerfi •
ties even to this day, under the name oifeboolphilMy.
ihe foundation thereof is Ariffotle’s doftrine, often
mifunderftood, but oftener mifapplied : wlience the re¬
tainers thereto may be denominated Reformed Per pate.
°ult of thde have Sprung, at various times, feve-
rd branches ; the chief are, the Thomists, Scotists,
and Nominalists. See thefe articles^.
The Peripatetic fyftem, after having prevailed with
great and extenfive dominion for many centuries, be¬
gan rapidly to decline towards the elefe of the 17th
wnen the difciples of Ramus attacked it on the one
hauo, and it had ftill more formidable adverfaries to
encounter m Defcartes, Gaffendi, and Newton. See
1 HILOSOPHY.
• A > antiquity, the name of that walk
in the Lyceum where Ariftotle taught, and whence the
name of I eripatetics given to his followers.
PERIPETIA, in the drama, that part of a trage-
.y w ertin the aftion is turned, the plot unravelled,
and the whole concludes. See Catastrophe.
PERIPHERY, in geometry, the circumference of
a circle, elhpfis, or any other regular curvilinear figuie. .
See Geometry. * b
PERIPHRASIS, circumlocution, formed of CT£CI
£ anJ “ I fpeak,” in rhetoric, a circuit -
or tour of words, much affected by orators, to avoid
common and trite manners of expreffion. The peri-
* pa raffs
PER-
[ >5° 1
PER
Diflionary
of Plant-
**g, &c*
Perlploca, phrafis is of great ufe on fome &re
I'eri;neu- Jften neceffary to make things be conceded
, niony’ not proper to name. It is fometlt^e3 P01^0
     the names, and only intimate or defign them. he e
turns of exprefiion are alfo particularly femceable m
oratory ; for the fublime admitting of no direft cita¬
tions, there muft be a compafs taken to infinuate the
authors whofe authority is borrowed. A PeriPhr^’
by turning round a proper name to m ike it und^r^»
amplifies and raifes the dtfcourfe ; but care muft be ta¬
ken it be not too much fwelled, nor extended n,a/ J
propos ; in which cafe it becomes flat and languid.
See Circumlocution and Oratory.
PERIPLOCA, Virginian filk, in botany : A ge-
nus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandna
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 30th order, Contort*. The neftanum fa-rounds
the genitals, and fends out five hlaments. There are
five fpecies, four of which are natives o* warm climate.,
and can only be raifed there. The fifth, however is
fufficiently hardy for this climate. 1 he peripbca is
a fine climbing plant, that will wind itfelf with its
ligneous branches about whatever ^ee, hedge, pale, or
pole is near it ; and will arife, by the affifiance of fuch
fupport, to the height of above 30 feet; and.^bere
nJ tree or fupport is at hand to wind about, it will knit
or entangle itfelf together in a moft complicated mam
xier. The ftalks of the older branches, which are rtioft
■woody, are covered with a dark brown bark, whilft the
younger (hoots are more mottled with the different co¬
lours of brown and grey, and the ends of the youngeft
flioots are often of a light gieen The ftalks ate round,
Ind the bark is faooth. The leaves are the greateft
ornament to this plant ; for they are tolerably large,
and of a good fhining green colour on their upper fur-
free, and iufe a variety by exhib,t,„g under fo-
face of an hoary caft. T heir figure is oblong, or ra
ther more inclined to the fliape of a Ipear, as theirfld®
are pointed, and they ftaitd oppofite by pairs on fhort
footftalks. Their flowers afford pleafure to the curi¬
ous examiner of nature. Each of them fingly has a
liar-like appearance ; for though it is compofed of one
petal only, yet the rim is divided into fegments, which
expand in fuch a manner as to farm that figure. Their
infde is hairy, as is alfo the nedianum which furrounds
the petal. Four or five of the flowers grow together,
forming a kind of umbel. They are of a chocolate
colour, are fmall, and will be in blow in July and Au-
guft, and fometimes in September In the country
where this genus grows naturally, they are fucceeded
bya long faper pod, with cotnpreM feeds, hav.ng
down to their tops. . r r
The propagation of this climber is very eafy , fa
if the cuttings are planted in a light moift foil, m the
antuL o‘‘n the fpring, they will readily ftnke root.
Three joints at leaft fhould be allowed to each cutting.
they fhould be the bottom of the preceding fummer s
(hoot ; and two of the joints fhould be planted deep in
the foil. Another, and a never-failing method, is by
layers • for if they are laid down m the ground, or a
little foil only loofely thrown over the young preceding
fummer’s fhoots, they will ftnke root at the joints, and
be good plants for removing the winter following.
PERIPNEUMONY, formed fiom
„SI “ about,” and “ lungs,” in medicine, an
inflammation of fome part of the thorax, property of
the lungs ; attended with an acute fever, and a dilitcul- ()
ty of breathing. See Medicine, n° 184. Perjury.
PERIRRHANTERIUM, a veflel of (tone or — v
brafs which was filled with holy water, and with which
all thofe were fprinkled who were admitted by the an¬
cients to their facrifices. Beyond this veifel no profane
perfon was allowed to pafs. We are told by fome,
that it was placed in the Adytvmy or inmoft recefs of
the temple ; others fay it was placed at the door, which
indeed feems to be the moft likely opinion. It was
ufed both by Greeks and Romans, and has been evi¬
dently borrowed, like many other Pagan ceremonies,
by the Church of Rome. The Hebrews alfo had a
veflel for purification. f . ,
PERISCII, in geography, the inhabitants ot either
frigid xone, between the polar circles and the poles,
where the fun, when in the fummer figns, moves on y
round about them, without fetting; and confequently
their fliadows in the fame day turn to all the points ot
the horizon.
PERISTALTIC, a vermicular fpontaneous mo¬
tion of the inteftines, performed by the c.°^tratt,°n
the circular and longitudinal fibres of which the flefhy
coats of the inteflines are compofed ; by means where¬
of the chyle is driven into the orifices of the latteal
veins, and the faeces are protruded towards the anus.
PERISTYLE, in ancient architeaure, a building
encompafled with a row or columns on the infide.
PERITONAEUM, in anatomy, is a thin, imooth,
and lubricous membiane, inveiling the whole internal
furface of the abdomen, and containing molt ot the
vifeera of that part as it were in a bag. See Anato¬
my, n° 89. , . ,
PERITROCHIUM, in mechanics, denotes a
wheel, or circle, concentric with the bafe of a cylin¬
der, and moveable together with it about its axis.
See Mechanics. ,01
PERJURY, in law, is defined by Sir Edward koke
to be a crime committed when a lawful oath is adnu-
niftered, in fome judicial proceeding, to a perfon who
(wears wilfully, abfolutely, and falfely, in a matter ma¬
terial to the iflue or point in queftion. In ancient
times it was in fome places punifhed with death ; in
others it made the falfe (wearer liable to the pumfhment
due to the crime he had charged the innocent perfon
with ; in others a pecuniary mul<ft was impoled. But
though it efcaped human, yet it was thought, amonglt
the ancients in general, that the divine vengeance
would moft certainly overtake it; and there are many
fevere infliftions from the hand of God upon record,
as monuments of the abhorrence in which this atro¬
cious crime is held by the Deity. The fouls of the
deceafed were fuppofed to be employed in pumihing
perjured yerfons. Even the inanimate creation was
thought to take revenge for this crime. The Greeks
fuppofed that no perfon could fwear falfely by Styx
without fome remarkable punifhment; and that no
perfon guilty of perjury could enter the cave of Palas-
mon at Corinth without being made a memorable ex-
•ample of divine jullice. In Sicily, at the temp e of
the Palici, there were fountains callec DeJ/i, rom
which iffad boiling water, with flames and balls or
fire ; and we are told that if any perfa fwore falfely
near them, he was inftantly ftruck dumb, blind, Line,
PER [ r
ir^', or °r W38 fwallowed up by the waters. But
' although perjury was thus held in general abhorrence,
notwithftaniing the credit which was given to fuch
accounts of divine infli&ions, it was fo much praflifed
by the Greeks, that Graca Jides became a proverb.
Lovers perjuries, however, were fuppofed to pafs un-
noticed, or to be very flightly punifhed with blacknefs
of the nails, a decayed tooth, or fome fmall diminution
of beauty.
The ancient philofophers, however, were fo afraid of
perjury, that even an oath before a judge was never ad¬
mitted but for want of other proof. Plato’s precept was,
“ Not to adminifter an oath wantonly, but on deep’
grounds, and with the ftriaeft caution.” Ulpian gives
his opinion thus: “ Some are forward to take oaths from
a contempt of religion ; others, from an extraordinary
awe °f the Divine Majefty, carry their fear to an un-
rcafonable fuperftition ; fo make an equitable decifion
of a judge neceffary.” “ No man will perjure himfelf
(lays Arritotle) who apprehends vengeance from Hea¬
ven and difgrace among men.” Clinias was fo very
fcrupulous that rather than take an oath (though law¬
fully), he fuffered the lofs of three talents. Perjury
m the time of Philo Judeus. was abominated and capi¬
tally punifhed among the Jews; though fmce they
have nurcb degenerated, having been poifoned with
the books of the Talmud, which fays, « He who
breaks his promiffory oath, or any vows he enters into
by the year, !f he has a mind fliould be inefFcdual and
mvahd, let him rife the laft day of the year and fay,
Whatever promifes, oaths, and vows I may think fit
to make in the year following, let them be null, void
and of nocRa.” Trafi. Hi. part j. of the
the treat,fe Nedhanm, ch. 4. And the modern fews
ufe the fame artifice, thinking they mav then lawfully
deceive the Cnnftians See Hieron. ex Dials Talmud,
c. and Magifier Joannes de Ccncor. Legum, tit iv c 7
In our law, no notice is taken of any perjury but
Inch as is committed m fome court of juitice havina-
power to adm.niifer an oath ; or before fome magiftrate
or proper officer mvefted with a fimilar authority in
lome proceedings^ relative to a civil fuit or a criminal
profecution : for it efteems all other oaths unneceffary
“vand wi.n not punifh the breach of
-m. For which reafon it 13 much to he queftioned
how far any magifirate is juftifiable in taking a volun-
tary affijavit in any extrajudicial matter, as is now too
frequent upon every petty occafion ; ifince it is more
an poffible that, by fuch idle oaths, a man may fre¬
quently, mforo confcient'ue, incur the guilt, and at the
fame time evade the temporal penalties of perjury The
27 TW' corruPt (tocoL!t,7i Ji:
f"; '1™’ ani1 ab&l“tei not upon furprife,
o the 1;k5 : „ air, be in fomc point materfa ,o
th queft.on in hifpute; for if it „„,y £ ;n fome
collateral circumflance, to which no regard is paid it
oath^ before mentioned Subt V°!UrKa7 ex.traju.diaa
^rcnri,;ts—
»8 conftitutes perjur, ln tlle princi j Th oa“-
,a 7
rulhment, or cutting out the tonoue •’rf ' TT 'a'
^ g=cdS! 5nd boa is
51 ] PER
never more to be capable of bearing teaimony. But Perjar,
he flatute 5 Ehf c. 9. (,f ,be offender be profecuted II
thereon) inflifts the penalty of perpetual infamy, and Pcmo‘li“'-
a fine of 401. on the fuborner ; and in default of nay-
ment, impnfonment for fix months, and to ftand wbh
both ears naded to the pillory. Perjury itfelf is there-
by punifhed w.th fix months imprifonment, perpetual
nfamy, and a fi«e of 201. or to have both ears nailed
to the pdlory. But the profecution is ufually carried
on for the offence at common law; efpecially as, to
ie penalties before inflidfed, the ftatute 2 Geo II
c. 25. fuperadds a power for the court to order the of
fender to be fent to the houfe of corredion for a term
not exceeding feven years, or to be tranfported for the
lame period ; and makes it felony, without benefit of
clergy, to return or efcape within the time. It has
fometimes been wifhed, that perjury, at leaft upon ca¬
pital accufations whereby another’s life has been or
might have been deftroyed, was alfo rendered capital
upon a principle of retaliation ; as it was univerfally by
the laws of France. And certainly the odioufnefs of
the crime pleads ftrongly in behalf of the French law.
Put it is to be confidered, that there they admitted wit-
neffes to be heard only on the fide of the profecution
and ufed the rack to extort a confeffion from the accu-
ed,7 n L,a therefore, it was neceffary
to throw the dread of capital puniffiment into the other
kale, in oroer ro keep in awe the witneffes for the
crown ; on whom alone the 1Prif0ner’s fate depended •
lo naturally does one cruel aw beget another. But
corporal and pecuniary punifhments, exile, and perpe-
tuH ,„famy are more fuited to the genius of the Eng-
hffi law ; where the fad is openly difeuffed between
witneffes on both fides, and the evidence for the crown
may be contradided and difproved by thofe of the pri-
foner Where indeed the death of an innocent perfon
. aauf bee” the confequence of fuch wilful per¬
jury it falls within the guilt of deliberate murder,
and deferves an equal puniffiment; which our ancient
aw rn fad mffided. But the mere attempt to deftroy
life by other means not being capital, there is no rea
on that an attempt by perjury ffiould ; much lefs that
death ,rnFor0l)t ’ ,H f! Judlc,aI ca,fes» be puniffied with
thek effJ E muU,,.p1/ Cap!taI P”n^ments leffena
an ’ d!teffi ^ ^ CrimeS °f the c!tcPeft
an,., deteftablc as perjury is, it is not by any means
to be compared with fome other offences, J which
only death can be mflided ; and therefore it feems al-
fta y (except perhaps in the inftance of deliberate
murder by perjury) very properly puuiffied by our
p eknt law ; which has adopted'the opinion of Cicero,
derived from the law of the twelve tables, Perjuni pee a a
hum ana, dedecus. See Oath.
PhRIWI.r. See Perruke.
• PERiZONlUS (James), a very learned and labo-
nous writer was born at Dam in 1651. He became
profeffor of h.fiery and eloquence at the univerfity of
Franektr, when by his merit and learning, he nfa'e
hat univerfity flouriffi. However, in 1693, he went
o Leyden, where he was made profeffor of hiftory
eloquence, and the Greek tongue; in which enpUl
mem he contmued till his death, which happened m
7 j. He wrote many Differtations, and other learned
‘d CUnous works’ Particularly Origins Balylonic* a
Egypt iacar.
PER
[ Mi 3
PER
».t!«!te, 2 vt>u 8vo, &c. But tht part of bU labours children of a fangu.nt Kab.t and delicate conaitutton, P«cn*»<
«" ^chT’the molt generally Itnoyn, and perhaps the and may be prevented or removed by fitch remed.es as
molt ufeful is the notes which he wrote upon SonSi. invigorate the fyfietn, and are capable of removing .
, moit uietul, IS  an^-ten^eriev to crangrenemthe conftitution.
Pernio.
Minerva. That work, as publiflied by Perizonius,
certainly fuggefted the idea of Harris’s Hermes; and
wc hefitate not to fay, that our countryman has made
hardly any improvement on the fyftem of hismaller.
PERIZ2ITES, the ancient inhabitants of 1 aleltine,
mingled with the Canaanites. There is alfo great pro
any tendency to gangrene in the conftitution.
PERONiEUS, in anatomy, is an epithet applied
to fome of the mufcles of the perone or fibula. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
PE RONES, a fort of high (hoes which were worn
not only by country people, but by men of ordinary
InbUity that they themfelves were Canaanites 5 but Tank at Rome. In the early times of the common
! . y ^ in one wealth they were worn even by fenators ; but at laf
having no fixed habitations, fometimes difperfed m one
country and fometimes in another, they were for that
- veafon called PenxTites, which featured ox dif
ter fed. Phera-zoth Hands for hamlets or villages. The
Perizzites did not inhabit any certain portion of the
land of Canaan; there were fome of them ort both
fides the river Jordan, in the mountains, and in the
plains. In feveral places of Scripture the Canaanites
and Perizzites are mentioned as the two chief people
of the country. It is faid, for example, that m the
time of Abraham and Lot the Canaanite and Penzzite
were in the land (Gen. xiii. 7.) The Ifraelites of the
wealth they were worn even by fenators; but at laft
they were difufed by perfons of figure, and confined
to ploughmen and labourers. They were very rudely
formed, confiding only of hides undrefied, and reach¬
ing to the middle of the leg. Virgil mentions the
perones as worn by a company of ruftic foldiers on one
foot only. .
PERONNE, a drong town of France, in Picaroy,
Capital of Santerre. It is faid never to have been ta¬
ken, though often befieged. It is feated on tne river
Somme, in E. Long. 3. 1. N. Eat. 44. 50.
PERORATION, in rhetoric, the epilogue or laft
LITt/v. V7l n * *** *'» ~ — £  ^ -
too much pent up in their podeffion (Jolh. xvn. 1 $0 :
he bid them go, if they pleafed, into the mountains
of the Perizzites, and Rephaims or giants, and there
•clearing the land, to cultivate and inhabit it. Solo¬
mon fubdued the remains of the Canaamtes and Penz-
•zites which the children of Ifrael had not rooted out,
and made them tributary to him (t Kings ix. lo, li.
aod 2 Chr viii. 7.) There is dill mention made of
Se Periziites in the time of Ezra (ix. x.), after the
return from the captivity of Babylon ; and feveral
Ifraelites bad married wives from that nation.
PERKIN. See Cyderkin, and Husbandry,
” PERMEABLE, a term applied to bodies of fo
loofe a texture as to let fomething pafs through
^PERMSKI, or Permia, a town of the Ruffian
empire, and capital of a province of the fame name,
feated on the river Kama between the Dwina and the
Oby; E. Long. 55. 5°- N- Fr0*
vince is bounded on the north by the Samoiedes, on
the wed by Zirania and Ulatka, and on the e»d by
^ PERMUTATION, in commerce, the fame with
bartering In the canon-law, permutation denotes
the aftiSl exchange of one benefice for another.
PERNAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, in ooutn
America, bounded on the north by lamera, on the
e?d by the ocean, on the fouth by Sereg.ppa, and on
the wed by Tapuvers. It is about 200 miles in length
Ind 1 CO in breadth. The Dutch became maders of
it in 1630, hut the Portuguefe foon retook it from
on through his whole difeourfe is urged afrefh with
greater vehemence and paffion. The peroration con-
fids of two parts. 1. Recapitulation ; wherein the
fubdanee of what was diffufed throughout the whole
fpeech is colkaed briefly and curforily, and fummed
up with new force and weight. 2. The moving the
paffions ; which is fo peculiar to the peroration, that
the maders of the art call this part fedes ajfecluum. The
paffions to be raifed are various, according to the va¬
rious kinds of oration. In a panegyric, love, admira¬
tion, emulation, joy, &c. In an irive&ive, hatied,
contempt, &c. In a deliberation, hope, confidence,
or fear. The qualities required in the peroration are,
that it be very vehement and paffionate, and that it be
fiiort; becaufe, as Cicero obferves, tears foon dry up.
Thefe qualities were well obferved by Cicero, who_
never had an equal in the management of this part of
art orator’s province ; for peroration was his mader-
piece. # •
“ Concerning peroration (fays Dr Blair), it is need-
lefs to fay much, becaufe it mud vary fo confiderably,
according to the drain of the preceding difeourfe. Lettra.
Sometimes the whole pathetic part comes m mod pro-
perly at the peroration. Sometimes, when, the dii-
courfe has been entirely argumentative, it is fit to
conclude with dimming up the arguments, placing
them in one view, and leaving the impreflion of them
full and drong on the mind of the audience. For the
great rule of a conclufion, and what nature obvioufly
diggeds, is, to place that lad on which we choofe
that the drength of our caufe fhould red.
« In &ll difeonrfes, it is a matter of importance to
50, but the r ortugueie loon 1 etuuK. ^ ^ concludlng, fo as t0 bring our
them. It produces a grea y b > difeourfe iud to a point ; neither ending abruptly and
ted Brazil wood. miexpe&edly, nor difappointing the expeftation of the
PERNIO, a kibe or cb.Main .> a little ulcer, oc- «,,expe loo^for th| dofe> ml continuing
cadoned by cold in the ban ^ gover round and round the conclufion till they be-
lips. It will come on when warm parts aru too ma Upnrt;iv tired of us We fhould endeavour to
daily expofed to cold, or when parts from being too r°ace. *not to end with a languifh-
cold^are fuddenly expofed to a war.tb ; F ‘ ^ & °b,lt to clofe with dignity
^ Jy“ and fpirit, that we may leave the Kind. of the beatece
per f ,
ySreus warm, end diftmfs them with a favourable Impreffion of
» , the iubje6t and of the fI!eaker.,,
 , PE ROT IS, in botany: A genus of the digynia
oidei, belonging to the Iriandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the gth order.
Gramma, i here is no calyx : the corolla coniifls of a
Li valvular gluma ; the valves are oblong, acute, fome-
what unequal, and terminating in a lharp beard : it
has three capillary ftamina ; the antherse incumbent ;
the ftyli capillary, and Ihorter than the corolia ; the
ftigma feathery and divaricated. The corolla fcrves
as a perianthiurn, including a fmgle feed of an oblong
imear fltape.- Of this there is only one fpteies; viz',
plumofus, a native of America, and lately introduced
into Kiev Garden.
PERPENDICULAR, in geometry, a line falling
diredly on another line, fo as to make equal angles on
each fide. See Geometry.
i UAL, fomething that endures always, or
ialis for ever. 1
pEKPF.auAL Motion. See Movement.
. PERPIGN ‘N, a confidtrable town of Roufillon
mb ranee, with a ttrong citadel, an univerfity, and a
uiihops fee. It is feated on the river Tet; over which
there is an handfome bridge, partly in a plain, and
^PEKOUIfflTF' °' 43’ f4J- 18
. , XU^lIL, m a general fenfe, fomething
gained by a place over and above the fettled wages. 6
1 ERguisiTE, m law, is any thing gotten by a man’s
own induftry, or purchafed with his money; in con-
traciftimSfion to what defeends to him from his father
or other anccftor.
PER RAUL 1 (Claude), the fon of an advocate in
parliament, was born at Paris in 1613; and was bred
a phylician, tl.ough he never pradifed but among his
relations, friends, and the poor. He difeovered early
a particular tafle for the fciences and fine arts; of
wmch he acquired a confummate knowledge without
the affi[iance of a mafter; he excelled 'in architecture,
painting, fculpture, mathematics, phyfics, and all thofe
arts that relate to defigning and mechanics. The en¬
trance into the Louvre, which was defigned by him,
is, according to the judgment of Voltaire, one of the
lorA ngUft rt!onument3 of architedure in the world.
• . Coloert put him upon -tranfiating Vitruvius into
r ^ench;. Yh*ch he Performed, and publiihed it in 1673,
fouo, W1th figures from his own drawings ; which are
iaid to have been more exadly finifhed than the plates
lemfelves. V hen the academy of fciences was efta-
Ndheo, he was one of its firft members, and was chief-
g depended on for mechanics and natural philofophy.
His works are, pDur fervir ^ />^V,
^ des Ammaux, folio, ,676, with figures; FJTah de
chleTd 4 '°7S / 2mo> l6bH; Recued desplufuurs ma-
1 mfe n0UW e invmtl0n' 410. 1700, dec. Pie died in
bonfaf Paris b,'0'her °f
fuu" ante" S 'an'd 1, buildlnS'> of »hich l>e waS
Tnrhir hem c'>Mptr?,ir-
firft members „! the acade,™ of b b ^ ^ °f thc
jnlcrtptions, and was S ./into tt F " “<>
in .671. His Doem / e“'*to French academy
Voi.. Xlv! Par, ™’ J ’ pr‘,“‘:':1 1,1 l6SS>
1 PER
was nniverfally admired: that Intitled I.afucU A Lorn Pen-nn.
te Giand, in which he exalted the modern authors above Perrol:-
the ancient was a prelude to a war with all the learn-' v 
ed. After he had difengaged himfelf from this con-
■ t .e apphec himftlf to draw up elogies of feveral
great men of the 17th century, with their portraits,
n Whl^h Ile has colleded 102. There arehither e-
ueemed works of Ptrrauk.—Befides thefe there were
two other brothers, Peter and Nicholas, who made
themfeivts Known in the literary world.
(lareS D?jVT 3 cardl'nal diilin-
g Red by his abilities and learning, was born in the
canton of Bern in 1556. He was educated by Julian
Davy, his father, a very learned Calviniit, who taught
21ld the ni3themat,'c8 ; after which, he by
himielf became acquainted with the Greek and He.
brew philofophy, and the poet^. Philip Defportes,
a ot of I yron, made him known to Henry LI. king
of France, who conceived a great efteem for him.
^ ome time after, Du Perron abjured Calvinifm, and
afterwards embraced the ecclefiaftica! funaion; and ha¬
ving given great proofs of his wit and learning, he was
chofen to pronounce the funeral oration of Mary queen
tUTb fA,'r"th,imur<ier<>fH™'7 m.h/S
to the houfe of Cardinal de Bourbon, and took great
of’Ul 8r'M,k l,ht Pr"tell=”» 10 the church
ot Rome. Among others, he gained over Henry
SponclanuR, afterwards bifhop of Pamiers. He alio
chitfly contributed to engage Henry IV. ,to change
lehgion ; and that prince lent him to negociate his
reconciliation to the holy fee, in which he fncceejed
h^idlU" "a!Rconteragd fiftop of Evereaux while
he refided at Rome. On his return to France- he
™e> Poached, and difputed againft the reformed • '
particularly againft Du Pleffis Morn:,y, with whom he
had a public conference in the prefence of the king at
Fontainbleau. He was made cardinal in tbol hy pLc
Clement \ III. at the felicitation of Henry who
afterwards nominated him to the archbifhopric of Sens
Joyeuf7il„abin.R:b 1'!“ !*’“ R?r Cardinal
* j vvitn v^arainal
' , ,n order to terminate the difputes which Rd
anfen between Paul V. and the Venetians, i t faid
that this pope had Hch an high opinion ofthe addrefs
of tne cardinal Du Perron, that he ufed to fay, “ J et
us pray to God to mfpire the cardinal Du Perron fo,*
thpW, / US to do whatever he pleafes.” After
the death of Henry IV. he retired into the coirnt, v
where he put the laft hand to his works; and^S
up a printing houfe, correaed every fheet himfelf IR
dieu at Pansin 1618. His works were colleaed*after
bpERROT^r Pari8 !’a 3 vols foho-
the1?!^0 (Nicholas), Sieur d’Ablancourt, one of
1606 1 S T: wasborn ^ Chalons in
1606. After ftudying philofophy about three years
he was fent to Paris to follow the W. At eighteen
years of sge he was admitted advocate of parliament
and frequented the bar ; but he foon couched a
Tgf/rr U "d th('refore difeontinued his pradice
Fins difpleafed an uncle, but whole favour he rocoverod
hUe'r”?e,he prfant reii*io"-He „o,:
Knl lh ’ r! Prevsikd uP°n to take orders in the
Romiih church; and feme years after, he had a de-
tRt b ,etUrn t0 the relig'on he had abjured. But
ftudv nb7fUcr0t d? any th'mS ra{hIy> he refolved to
fludy philofophy and divinity, For that purpofe he
U chofe
PER
r 154 i
PER
Femike. chofe for his matter Mr Stuart a Scotfman and Luthe-
 ran, a man of great learning. Almoft three years he
f^ent in the moft afliduous ftudy; and then fet out
from Paris to Champagne, where he abjured the Ro¬
man Catholic, and once more embraced the Proteftant
religion. In 1637 he was admitted a member of the
French academy ; a little after which he undertook a
tranflation of Tacitus. Whiift he was engaged in that
laborious talk, he retired to his fmall eilate of Ablan-
court, and lived there till his death in 1664. He
was a man of fine underftanding, of great piety and
integrity, and of univerfal learning. Moreri has gi¬
ven a catalogue of his works, the greateft part of
which confiit of tranflations, which feemed rather ori
ginals. .
PERRUKE, Peruke, or Periwig, was anciently
a name for a long head of natural hair ; fuch, particu¬
larly, as there was care taken in the adjufting and trim
ming of. Menage derives the word rather fancifully from
the Latin pilus “ hair." 11 is derived, according to this
critic, thus, pilus, pelus, pelutus, peluticus^, pelutica, peru-
tica,peruca,perruque. 1 be Latins called it coma; whence
part of Gaul took the denomination of Gallia Comata,
from the long hair which the inhabitants wore as a fign
of freedom. An ancient author fays, that Abfalom’s
perruke weighed 200 fhekels.
The word is now ufed for a fet of falfe hair, curled,
buckled, and fewed together on a frame or cawl ; an¬
ciently called capillamentum or “ falfe ptrruke.” It is
doubted whether or not the ufe of perrukes of this kind
was known among the ancients. It is true, they ufed
falfe hair : Martial and Juvenal make merry with the
women of their time, for making themfelves look young
with their borrowed hair; with the men who changed
their colours according to the feafons ; and with the
dotards, who hoped to deceive the Deftinies by their
white hair But thefe feem to have fcarce had any
thing in common with our perrukes; and were at heft
only compofed of hair painted, and glued together.
Nothing can be more ridiculous than the defcnption
Lampridius gives of the emperor Commodus’s perruke:
it was powdered with ferapings of gold, and oiled (if
we may ufe the exoreffion) with glutinous perfumes
for the powder to hang by. In effea, the ufe of per¬
rukes, at leaft in their prefent mode, is not much more
than 160 years old; the year 1629 is reckoned the
epocha of long perrukes, at which time they began to
appear in Paris; from whence they fpread by degrees
through the reft of Europe. At firft it was reputed
a fcandal for young people to wear them, becaufe the
lofs of their hair t that age was attributed to a dii-
eafe the very n; me whereof is a reproach; but at
length the mode preva led over the fcruple, and per-
fons of all ages and conditions have worn them W.
with artificial hair curioufiy adjufted, be efteems a Perry,
monfter in the church, nor can he conceive any thing
fo fcandalous as an abbot with a florid countenance,
heightened with a well curled perruke.
PERRY (Captain John), was a famous engineer,
who refided long in Ruflia, having been recommended
to the czar Peter while in England, as a perfon .ca¬
pable of ferving him on a variety of occafions relating
to his new defign of eftablifhmg a fleet, making hi#
rivers navigable, &c. His falary in this fervice was
200 1. per amuim, befides travelling expences and mo-
ft(fence money on whatever fervice he (hould be em¬
ployed, together with a further reward to his fatisfac-
tion at the conclufion of any work he fhould finiih.
After fome converfation with the czar himfelf, parti¬
cularly refpechng a communication between the livew
Volga and Don, he was employed on that work for
three fummers fucceffively; but not being well E'P"
plied with men, partly on account of the ill fuccefs of
the czar’s arms againft the Swtdes at the battle of
Narva, and partly by the riifcomagement of the gover¬
nor of Aftracan, he was ordered at the end of 1707 to
flop, and next year was employed in refitting the fhips
at Vcronife, and 1709 in making the river of that name
navi, able ; but after repeated difcppointments, and a
variety of fruitlefs applications for his falary, he at
laft quitted the kingdom, under the prote&ion of Mr
Whitworth, the Engliih ambaftador, in 1712: (See
his narrative in the Preface to Pbe State of Rujfia'). I®
1721 he was employed in flopping with fuccefs the
breach at Dagenham, in which feveral other underta¬
kers had failed ; and the fame year about the harbour
at Dublin, to the objedions againft which he then
publifhed an Anfwer. He was author of The State
of Ruflia, 1716, 8vo, and An Account of the flopping
of Dagenham Breach, 172.1, 8vo; and died Feb. n-
* 7 3 3 *
Perry, the name of a very pleafant and wholefome
liquor extraded from pears, in the fame manner as cy¬
der is from apples. See the article Cyder; and Hus¬
bandry, n 227—238. . ...
The beft pears for perry, or at leaft the forts which
have been hithtrto deemed the fitteft for making this
liquor, arc fo exceffively tart and harfh, that no mortal
can think of eating them as fruit; for even hungry
fwine will not eat them, nay hardly fo much as fmell
them. Of thefe the Bofbury pear, the Bareland pear,
and the horfe pear, are the moft efteemed for perry in
Worcefterlhire, and the fquafh pear, as it is called, in»
Gloucefterfhire ; in both which counties, as well as iQ
fome of the adjacent parts, they are planted in the
hedge rows and moft common fields. There is this
advantage attending pear-trees, that they will thrive
on land where apples will not fo much as live, and
1005 at n^Ttlrc^erences of thdr that* fomc of them grow to fuch a fize, that a fingle
going without any necelli y particularly of the Bofbury and the fquafh
natural hair. It was, however, fome time before the
ecdefiaftics came into the fafh/on : the hrft who af-
fumed the perruke were fome of the French clergy,
in the year 16C0 ; nor is the prsdice yet well autho-
rifed Cardinal Grimaldi in 1684, and the bifliop of
Lavaur in 1688, prohibited the ufe of the perruke. to
all ptiefts without a difpenfation or neeefmy. M. Thiers
has an exprefs treatife, to prove the perruke indecent
in an ecclefiaftic, and diretfiy contrary to the decrees
and canons of councils* A s head; embclliihed
pear tree, particularly of the Bofbury and the fquafh
kind, has frequently been known to yield, in one fea-
fon, from one to four hogfheads of perry. The BoL
bury pear is thought to yield the moft lafting and molt
vinous liquor. 'The John pear, the Harpary pear, the
Drake pear, the Mary pear, the Lullum pear, and ie-
veral others of the harfheft kinds, are efteemed the belt
for perry, but the redder or more tawney they are, the
more they are preferred. Pears, as welt as apples, fhould
be full ripe before they are ground. ^
PER
Dr Beale, in In’s general adrertifcments concerning
cyder, fubjoined to Mr Evelyn’s Pomona, difapproves
of Palladius’s faying, that perry will keep during the
winter, but that it turns four as foon as the weather
begins to be warm; and gives, as his reafons for being
of a contrary opinion, that he had himfelf tailed at the
end of fummer, a very brifk, lively, and vinous liquor,
made of horll pears; that he had often tried the juice
of the Bofbury pear, and found it both pleafanter and
richer the fecond year, and dill more fo the third
though kept only in common hoglheads, and in but
indifferent cellars, without being bottled ; and that a
very honeft, worthy, and ingenious gentleman in his
neighbourhood, aflured him, as of his own experience,
that it will keep a great while, and grow much the
llronger for keeping, if put into a good cellar and ma¬
naged with due care. He imputes Palladius's error to
his poffibly fpeaking of common eatable pears, and to
the perry s having been made in a very hot country :
but he would have afcribed it to a more real caufe,
perhaps, had he pointed out the want of a thorough
regular fermentation, to which it appears plainly that
the ancients were entire ftrangers ; for all t cir vinous
liquors were medicated by boiling before they were
laid up in order to be kept.
PERSElU riON is any pain or alffittion which
a perfon defignedly inflifts upon another; and in a
more reftrained fenfe, the fufferings of Chriftians on
account of their religion
Hiftorians ufually reckon ten gener 1 perfecutions,
the firft of which was under the emperor Nero, 31
years after our Lord’s afcenfion ; when that emperor
hayng fet fire to the city oi Rome, threw the odium
of that execrable a&fon on the Chriftians, who under
that pretence were wrapped up in the fkins of wild
beafts, and worried and devoured by dogs ; others
were crucified, and othtrs burnt alive. The fecond
was under Domitian, in the year 9^. In this perfe¬
ction St John the apoftle was fent to the ifle of Pat-
mos, in order to be employed in digging in the mines.
The third began in the third year of Trajan, in tne
year too, and was carried on with great violence for
feveral years. The fourth was under Antoninus the
philofopher, when the Chriitians were bamfhed from
their houfes, forbidden to fhow their heads, reproach¬
ed, beaten, hurried from place to place, plundered,
imprifoned, and Honed. Phe fifth began in the year
J97, under the emperor Sever us. The lixth began
with the reign of the emperor Maximinus in 235.
The feventh, which was the moft dreadful perfection
that had ever been known in the church, began in
the year 250, in the reign of the emperor Decius,
when the Chriftians were in all places driven from
their habitations, firipped of their eftates, tormented
With racks, &c. The eighth began in the year 2^7,
an the fourth year of the reign of the emperor Valerian.
I he ninth was under the emperor Aurelian, A. D.
274; but this was very inconfiderable: and the tenth
began in the 19th year of Diockfian, A. D. 202 In
th„ dre?dtu pCrfecuIio„, which Med ten years, houfcs
filled with Ch.ill.ans were fet on fire, and whole droves
were tied together w.th ropes and thrown into the
iea. bee loleration.
PERSEES, the defendant, of a colony of ancient
Terfums, who took refuge at Bombay, Surat, and in
r its 1
PER
the vicinity of thofe cities, when their own country l-erree,
was conquered 1100 years ago by the Mahomet^y—
1 a!7 Y6 TaT.gencle> quiet, and induffrious
P p e, oved by the Hincoos, and living in great har¬
mony among themfelves. The confequence is, that
ey mu tipiy exceedingly, whiift their countrymen in
the province of Keman are viiibiy dimimfhiug under
the yoke of the Mahometan Perfians. Of the manners
and cuitoms ofthis amiable race, we have the follow-
T?aveIsOUnt in Her0n’S de67ant tranilation of Niebuhr’s
irT- hC') make common contribu¬
tions for t.ie aid of their poor, and fuffer none of their
number to afk a ms from people of a different religion,
I hey are equally rea y to employ their money and
ab^r 3 brt°ther ot their Maternity from the
abufes of juftice.. When a Perfee behaves ill, he is
expelled from their communion. They apply to trade,
and exercife all forts of profeffions. ^ *
“ The Pcrfees have as little knowledge of circum.
cifion as the Hindoos. Among them, a man marries
only one w.fe, nor ever takes a fecond, unlefs when the
hrft happens to be barren. They g.ve their children in
marnage at irx years ot age; but the young couple
continue to live ieparate, in the houfes of their pa¬
rents, till they attain the age of puberty. Their drefs
is the lame as that of the Hindoos, except that they
Perfi-n "Vt!1 eara ^^hair, like the modem
1 t‘ /, •„ 7 fre much addiCfed to aftrology, altho*
very little Hailed in aftronomy,
, “ rtta,n the Angular cuftom of expofing their
oead to be eaten by birds of prey, inftead of interring
^il] af em' 1 (cont‘nues our author) on t
' U ^ Bom^y a round tower, covered with planks of
wood, onwh h the Perlee8 hy ^ ^ ^ ^
dies.. When the flefir is devoured, they remove the
bones into two chambers at the bottom of the tower.
I he Perfees, followers of the religion of Zerduft of
roafter, adore one God only, eternal and almighty,
they pay however, a certain worihip to the fun, the
^0<’n’the ftar8> to fire, as vifible images or the
invfilde divinity Their veneration for the elemenc
f fire induces them to keep a facred fire conftantly
burning, which they feed with odoriferous wood both
m the temples and in the houfes of private puW
who are in eafy circumftances. In one ot their tel
pies at Bombay, I faw a fire whicli had burnt unex-
Imht 1 ft T° C"nlUrie8- 1 hey ^ver blow out a
Sfe Poet rt e[strealh ^ “ ‘h' “f ^
ftriV ^ re(llgl°nf ^ tbc Perfees enjoins purifications as
ftr aiy as that of the Hindoos, i he dffciples of Zer-
duft are not, however, obliged to abftain from animal
f° fiK nl “rf aCcu^omcd themfefves to refrain
from th, flefh of the ox, beeaufe their ance.ftors pro-
fed the Inman prince who received them intohis
dominions never to kill horned cattle. This prom.fe
they continue to obferve under the dominion of Chri-
tmns and Mahometans. The horfe is by them con-
fidered as the molt impure of ail animals, and regard¬
ed with extreme averfion. b
i heir ieftivals, denominated Ghumbars, which re¬
urn r qucntly, and laft upon ea h oecafion five days
are all commemorations of Tome part of the work of
creation, ihey celebrate them not with fplendour, or
^ 2 with
PER
r >js i
PER
pptfces, with any particular ceremonies, but only chefs better
perfepolif. during thofe five days, pcrfotm fome a&s ot devotion
' v their houfes, and vifit their friends.”
The Perfees were till lately but very little known :
the ancients fpeak of them but feldom, and what they
pry fee ms to be di&ated by prejudice. On this account
Pr Hyde, who thought the fubjed both curious and
intereiling, about the end of Uft century attempted a
deeper inveftigation of a fubjed which till then had
been but very little attended to. He applied to the
works of Arabian and Perfian authors, from whom,
and from the relations of travellers, together with a va¬
riety of letters from perfons in India, he compiled his
' celebrated work on the religion of the Perfees. Other
accounts have been given by different men, as accment
put information in their wny. But the moft d.ff.n-
guifhed is by M. Anquetil du Perron, who undertook
a voyage to difcover and tranfiate the works attributed
to Zoroafter. Of this voyage he drew up an account
himfelf, and read it before the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris in May 17IT. A tran flat ion ot it
was made and puUifhed in the Gentleman s Magazine
for 1762, to which we refer our readers. Fhe account
begins at p. 373, and is concluded at p. 614. i e-
marks were afterwards made on Du Perron s account
by a Mr Yates. See the fame Magazine for 1766,
P- 529-
PERSEPOL1S, formerly the capital of Perfia, fi-
tuated in N. Lat. 30. 30. E. Long. 84. now in rums,
Plate but remarkable for the moft magn.iicent re main sofa
cccx.xx.ux. DapiCe or temple that are to be found throughout the
world.— This city Hood in one of the fineft plains in
Perfia, being 18 or 19 leagues in length, and in fome
places two, in fome four, and in others fix leagues in
breadth. It is Watered by the great river Araxes,
now Bendemir, and by a multitude of rivulets befides.
Within the compafs of this plain, there are e ween
1000 and 1500 villages, without reckoning thofe m
the mountains, all adorned wxth pleafant gardens, and
planted with fliady trees. The entrance of this plain
on the weft fide has received as much grandeur from
nature, as the city it covers could do from rnduftry or
art It confifts of a ramie of mountains beep and
high, four leagues in length, and about two miles
bread, forming two flat banks, with a nfing terrace m
the middle, the fummit of which is perfeAly plain and
even, all of native rock. In this there are fuch open-
ings, and the terraces are fo fine and fo even, that one
would be tempted to think the whole the work of art,
if the great extent, and prodigious elevation thereof,
did not convince one that it is a wonder too great for
Wit but nature to produce. Undoubtedly theft banks
we^e the very place where the advanced guards trom
Perftpolis took poft, and from which Alexander found
it fo difficult to diflodge them. One <-;an»ot f r°^
hence defcry the ruins of the city, becauft the banks
are too high to be overlooked; but one can perceive
on every fide the ruins of walls and of edibces, which
heretofore adorned the range of mountains of which
we are fpeaking. On the weft and on the north tl
city is defended in the like manner : fo that, conhder
Ing the height and evennefs of theft banks, one rnay
fafely fay, that there is not m the world a place fo for¬
tified by nature.
The mountain Rehumut, in the form of an r.mphi- FerfepaKt.
theatre, encircles the palace, which is one of the no- J
blett and moft beautiful pieces of architeRure remain¬
ing of all antiquity. Authors and travellers have been
exceedingly minute in their deferiptions of thoft ruins;
and yet fome of them have expreffed themftlves fo dif¬
ferently from others, that, had they not agreed with
refpeft to the latitude and longitude of the place, one
would be tempted to fufped that they had vifited dif¬
ferent ruins. Theft ruins have been deferibed by
Gercias de Silva Figueroa, Pietro de la Valle, Char¬
din, Le Brim, and Mr Francklin. We fhall adopt
the lateft deicription, as being exceedingly oiftinA,
and given by a traveller intelhgent and unaffuming.
The afeent to the columns is by a grand ftaircafe of
blue ftone containing 104 fteps.
“ The firft objeA that ftrikes the beholder on hia
entrance, are two portals of ftone, about $0 feet in
height each; the fides are embelliflied with two fphinx-
es of an immenft fize, drefted out with a profufion of
bead-work, and, contrary to the nfual method, they
are repreftnted {landing. On the tides above arc ni-
feriptions in an ancient charaAer, the meaning of which
no one hitherto has been able to decypher
“ At a fmall diftance from theft portals you afeend
another flight of fteps, which lead to the grand halt of
columns. The tides of this ftaircafe are ornamented
with a variety of figures in baffo relievo ; moft of them
have veflels in their hands: here and there a camel
appears, and at other times a kind of triumphal car,
made after the Roman faftuon ; ! etides theft are fe*
veral led horfes, oxen, and rams, that at times inter¬
vene and diverfify the proceffion. At the heal of the
ftaircafe is another baffo relievo, repiefentmg a lion
ftizing a bull; and cloft to this are other inferiptions
in ancient charaAers. On getting to the top ot this
ftaircafe, you enter what was formerly a moft magni¬
ficent hall ; the natives have given this the name of
chehul minar, or forty pillars ; anc. though this name is
often ufed to exprels the whole ot the building, it^ is
more particularly appropriated to this part oi it. Al¬
though a vaft number of ages h ive elapftd fince the
foundation, 15 of the columns yet remain entire; they
are trom 70 to 80 feet in height, and are mafterly
pieces of mafonry: their pedeftals are curioufly work¬
ed, and appear little injured by the hand of time. The
fhafts are enfluted up to the top, and the capitals are
adorned with a proiufion of fretwork.
“ From this hall you proceed along eaftward, until
you arrive at the remains of a large fquare building, to
which you enter through a door of granite. Moft of
the doors and windows of this apartment are ftill Hand¬
ing ; they are of black marble, and polithed like a
mirror : on the fides of t' e doors, at the entrance,
are bas-reliefs of two figures at full length ; they re-
prefent a man in the attitude of ftabbing a goat: with
one hand he feizes hold of the animal by the horn, and
thrufts a dagger into his belly with the ether ; one of
the goat’s feet refts upon the hreaft of the man, and
the other upon his right arm This device is common
throughout the palace. Over another door of the fame
apartment is a reprefentat on of two men at full length;
behind them {lands a domeftic holding.a fpread um¬
brella : they are fupported by large round ftaffs, ap-
Perfia.
PER [ j
perfopoH* ?enr to be in years, have long beards, and a prafufion
11 of hair upon their heads.
_ “ At the 1'outh-wefl entrance of this apartment are
two large pillars of (tone, upon which are carved four
figures; they are dreffed in long garments, and hold
in their hands fpears io feet in length. At this en¬
trance alfo the remains of a ftaircafe of blue ilone are
ftill vifible. Vail; numbers of broken pie es of pillars,
lhafts, and capitals, are fcattered over a confideraMe
extent of ground, feme of them of fuch enormous fize,
that it is wonderful to think how they could have been
brought whole, and fet up together. Indeed, every
remains of thefe noble ruins indicate their former
grandeur and magnificence, truly worthy of being the
relidence of a great and powerful monarch.
_ Thefe noble ruins are now the fhelter of bealls and
birds of prey. Beiides the infeription above-mencion-
fd, there are others in Arabic, Periian, and Greek.
Dr Hyde obferves, that the inferiptions art very rude
and unartful; and that fome, if not all of them, are
m piaife of Alexander the Great ; and therefore are
later than that conqueror. See the article Ruins.
. 1 ERSEVERANCE,’in theology, a continuance
in a Rate of grace to a Rate of glory.
About this fubjedl there has been much controverfy
in the Chriflian church. All divines, except Unita-
nans, admit, that no man can ever be in a Rate of
grace without the co-operation of the fpirit of God ;
but the Calvinifts and Arminians differ widely as to
the nature of this co operation. The former, at leaft
fuc h as call themfelves the true dt/cip/es of Calvin, be¬
lieve, that thofe who are once under the influence of
divine grace can never fall totally from it, or die in
mortal fin. '1 he Arminians, on the other hand, con¬
tend, that the whole of this life is a ftate of probation;
tnat without the grace of God we can do nothing that
is good ; that the Holy Spirit affifls, but does not
overpower, our natural faculties ; and chat a man, at
any period of his life, may refill, grieve, and even
quench, the fpirit. See Theology.
PERSEUS was the mofl ancient of all the Greek
heroes. He founded the city of Mycense, of which he
became afterwards king, and where he and his poflerity
reigned for too years. He fiourifhed, according to
mofl chronologifls, 1348 B. C. but, according to Sir
11 aac Newton, only 1028.
Perseus, in aflronomy. See there, n° 406.
PERSIA, a mofl ancient and celebrated empire of
Afia, extending in length from the mouth of the river
Araxes to that of the river Indus, about 1840 of our
miles, and in breadth from the river Oxus, to the Per-
fian gulph, about 1080 of the fame miles. It is
bounded on the north by the Cafpian Sea, the river
Oxus, and mount Caucafus ; on the eaft, by the river
Indus and the dominions of the Great Mogul; on
the fouth, fey the Perfian gulph and the Indian
ocean ; and on the well, by tbe dominions of the Grand
Signior.
We learn from Sir William Jones, the iUuftrious
prefiJent of the Afiatic Society, that Ptrfia is the
only one ^rovince ot this extend ve empire,
province of> V™ ^7 tlle Ppffcnt natives, and all the learned Muf-
this vaft utmans who reiide in the Rriiilt,   r. j-
Perfla.
fcttent of
Perfia.
Perfia pro
perly the
name of
this vaft
empire.
fulmam who reiide in the Britifh territories m India,
is called Iran It has been a praftice not uncommon
m ail ages to denominate the whole of a country from
.57 1 PER
that part of jt wth which we are bed acquainted j and
hence have the Europeans agreed to cell Iran by the
name of that province of which Shirans; is the capital ;
s ee Shirauz. I he fame learned writer is confident
tnat Iran, or Perfia in its largeft extent, comprehend,
ed within its outline the lower Afia, which, Vays he,
was unqueft.onably a part of the Perfian, if not of the
r 144 Ahus ma7 we look on Ira»
V^Y0nelPencnft>a °n this habitable globe ; and
if M. Badly had fixed on it as the Mantis oi Plato,
he might h ive fupported his opinion with far ftrone-
er arguments than any that he has adduced in L
aT °r ^ mUa’, indeed> the account of the
At.antis be not purely an Egyptian fable, I fhou! i
be moie inclined, fays Sir William, to place them in
Iran than in any region with which I am acquainted.”
lit mofl ancient name, however, of this country varifUs
was that of or. as fonie wr*tp it /P! c &
Tp r 9 vvr te It, from names o-f
Liam the fon of Shem, from whom its firft inhabi-thec^^
tants are defcended. Herodotus calls its inhabitantstry*
Cephenes and m very ancient times the people are
faid to nave cahed themfelves ArUi, and the country
EfY ^ 1 ln the books of Daniel!
Lrd" 5 &C- 11 18 calJed bY the names ot Pars, Pharas,
or dars, whence the modern name of Perfia s but
ceiSr 110fe DamC3 haVS been denvcd^ i8 now un-
fon^cT °rIg'nalIy peoPIed by Elam the OpinLs
fon of Shem has been very generally admitted; but-effedu^
the truth is, that of the ancient hiflorv of this diftin-lts lirft l,G-
gmHied empire very little is perfeaiy known Fort,uldCioxl*
this ignorance, which at firfl feems ftrange, Etisfac-
tory reafons may eahly be aifigned ; of whmh the prin¬
cipal are the fuperficial knowledge of the / r a
and the lois of Perfian
compolitions. « That the Grecian writers befort
Xenophon had acquaintance with Perfia, and that
their accounts of it are wholly fabulous, is a paradox
too extravagant to be fenoufiy mentioned ; but (fays
Sir William Jones) their connedion with it in war
or peace had been generally confined to bordering
kingdoms under feudatory princes ; and the firft Pet
fan emperor, whofe life and charader they feem to
Cvl-fOur‘l '0l'Iable dCCUr?17’ Wi3 R™'
t.YRus. _ Our learned author, however, is fo far
from confidenng Cyrus as the firft Perfian monarch
f hfft^l h‘f8 ^ eVKent 3 p0wcrful monarchy had
fubfifted in Iran for ages before the acceflion of that
hero; that this monarchy was called the Mabebedian
dynafty ; and that it was in fad the oldeft monarchy
m the world The evidence upon which the prefiden^
rei s this opinion, is the work of a Mahometan tra¬
veler, comp,led from the books of fuch Perfians as
fled from their country upon tne innovation in religion
made by Zoroafter: and if thefe books, of which a
few flill remain, be genuine, and the Mahometan a
faithful compiler, fads of which Sir William has not
the fmallefl doubt, the evidence is certainly fuffi lent
to bear the luperftrudure which he has raifed upon it.
if the Perfian monarchy was thus ancient, it is m P-Y .t,
feUartaot0thUphPOlCthat °r Iran WaS the originalYlcJ
01 the human race, whence colonies were fent the hu-
or emigrated of themlelves to people the reit of theman racc*
habitable globe. This luppofition is adually made bv
our ingenious author, who ftrongly confirms it by xl.
^ marka
PER
[ 15* 1
PER
&.c. of Cy
tus.
Pcrfia. marks on the mo^ an-ient language of Perfn, which
he (hows to have been the parent of the anfcrit, as
well as of the Greek, Latin, and Gothic (fee PHt. o*
logy). He therefore holds, as a propofuidn firmly
eftabliCied, “ that Iran or Perfia, in its largeft fenfe, was
the true centre of population, of knowledge, of lan¬
guages, and of arts; which inftead of travelling weft-
ward only, as it has ! een fancifully fuppofed, or eaft-
ward, as might with equal reafon have been aflerted,
were expanded in all directions to ail the regions of
the world.” He thinks it is from good authority that
the Saxon Chronicle brings the firft inhabitants of Bri¬
tain from Armenia ; that the Goths have been con¬
cluded to come from Perfia ; and that both the Iriih
and old Britons have been fuppofed to have proceeded
from the borders of the Cafpian : for all thefe places
were comprehended within the ancient Iran.
Of this firft Perfian monarchy we have no hiftorical
6 accounts and muft therefore, after having thus men-
Aecmintsoftioned it, defeend at once to the era of Cyrus. 1 his
the birth, prince is celebrated both by facred and profane hifto-
rinns; but the latter are at no fmall variance concern¬
ing his birth and acceffion to the throne. According
to Herodotus, Aftyages, the laft king of the Medes,
being warned in a dream, that the fon who was to be
born of his daughter Mandane, Ihould one day be lord
of Afia, refolved to marry her, hot to a Mede, but to
a Perfian. Accordingly he chofe for her hufband one
Cambyfes, a man of a peaceable difpofition, and of no
"very high ftation. However, about a year after they
were married, Aftyages was frightened by another
dream, which made him refolve to difpatch the infant
as foon as it fhould be f-orn. Hereupon the king fent
for his daughter, and put her under confinement,
where fhe was foon after delivered of a fon. The in¬
fant was committed to the care of one Ha.pagus, with
ftrift orders to deftroy it in what manner he thought
proper. But he, having acquainted his wife with
the command he had received, by her advee gave
it to a fhepherd, defiring him to let it perilh by expo-
iing it. But the fhepherd out of compaffien, expo-
fed a ftill-1 orn child which his wife happened to be
then delivered of, and brought up the fon of Man¬
dane as his own, giving him the name of Cyrus.
When the young prince had attained the age of ten
years, as he was one day at play with other children
of the fame age, he waschofen king by his companions;
•and having, in virtue of that dignity, divided them in¬
to feveral orders and claffe-, the fon of Artembares, a
lord of eminent dignity among the Mede-, refufed to
obey his orders; whereupon Cyrus caufed him to be
feized, and whipped very teverely. The boy ran cry¬
ing to his father ; and he immediately haftened to the
king’s pah'e, loudly complaining of the affront his fon
had received from the fon of a Have, and intreating
Aftyages to revenge, by fome exemplary punifhment,
the indignity offered to him and his family Aftyages,
commanding both the herdfman and his fon to be
brought before him, aflced the 1 ttcr, how he, who was
the fon of fo mean a man, had dared to abufe the fon
of one of the chief lords of the kingdom ? Cyrus re¬
plied, that he had done no more than he had a right
to do ; for the boys of the neighbourhood having cho-
fen him king, becaufe they thought him moft worthy
©f that dignity, and perfotmed what he, veiled with
that charafter, had commanded, the fon of Artem*
bares alone had flighted his orders, and for his difobe-
dience had fuffered the punilhment he deferved. In
the courfe of this converfation Aftyages happening to
recoiled, that his grandfon, whom he had ordered to
be deftroyed, would have been about the fame age with
Cyrus, began to queftion the fhepherd concerning his
fuppofed fon, and at Lift obtained from him a coa-
fefiion of the whole truth.
Aftyages having now difeovered Cyrus to be hie
grandfon, fent for Harpagus, who alfo confeffed that
he had not feen Mandane’s fon deftroyed but had
given him to the fliepherd ; at which Aftyages was fo
much incenfed, that, having invited Harpagus to an
entertainment, he caufed him to be ferved with the flefh
of his own fon. When he had done, the king aflted
him whether he liked his vi&uals ; and Harpagus an*
fwering, that he had never tafted any thing more de¬
licious, the officers appointed for that purpofe brought
in a balket, containing the head, hands, and feet of
his fon, defiring him to uncover the balket, and take
what he liked beft. He did as they defired, and be¬
held the mangled remains of his only child without be¬
traying the lead concern, fo great was the command
which he had over his paffions. The king then alked
him, whether he knew with what kind of meat he had
been entertained. Harpagus replied, that he knew
very well, and was always pleafed with what his fove-
reign thought fit to ordain ; and having thus replied,
with a furprifing temper he coile£led the mangled parti
of his innocent fon, and went home.
Aftyages having thus vented his rage on Harpagus,
began next to confult what he fhould do with Cyrus.
The magi, however, eafed him of his fears with re¬
gard to him, by affuring him, that as the boy had
been once chofen king by his companions, the dream
had been already verified, an 1 that Cyrus never would
reign in any other fenfe. The king, being well pleafed
with this anfwer, called Cyrus, and, owning how much
he had been wanting in the affedlion which he ought
to have had towards him, defired him to prepare for a
journey into Perfia, where he would find his father
and mother in circumftances very different from thofe
of the poor fhepherd and his wife with w hom he had
hitherto lived. Cyrus, on his arrival at his father’s
houfe, was received with the greateft joy. When he
grew up, he foon became popular on account of hia
extraordinary parts ; till at laft his friem’fhip was
courted by Harpagus, who had never forgot the cruel
treatment he received from Aftyages. By his means
a confpiracy w >s formed againft Aftyages; who being
overthrown in two fucceffive engagements, was taken
prifoner and confined for life.
The account given by Xenophon of the rife of Cy¬
rus is much more confonant to Scripture; for h tells
us, that Babylon was conquered by the united forces of
the Medes and Perfi.ms. A^cordin to him, Cyrus
was the fon o' Cambyfes king of the Medes, and Man-
dane the daughter of Aftyages king of Perfia. He
was born^a year after his une’e Cyaxares, the brother
of Mands ne. He lived till the age of twelve with his
parents in Ptrha, being educated alter the manner of
ti e countiy, i nd inured to fatigues and military ex-
ercifes. At this age he was taken to the court of
Aftyages, where he refxded four years-; when the re-
8 Yolt
Terfia.
7
His war
with thfc
l-ydimis.
8
The battle
of Tin m.
ira. '
per r i
v&Tt of the Medes and Perfians from the Babylonians
happenfd, and which ended in the deftruftion of the
Har ylonifh empire, as related under the aiticle Ba¬
bylon.
While Cyrus was employed in the Babylonifh war,
be,ore he attacked the metropolis itfelf. he reduced all
the nations of Afia Minor. The moft formidable of
thefe were the Lydians, whofe kin>r Croefus aifem-
bled a very numerous army, compofed of all the other
nations in t! at part of Afia, as well as of Egyptians,
Greeks, and Thracians. Cyrus being informed of
thele vail preparations, augmented his forces to
196,000 men, and with them advanced againfl the
enemy, who were affembled near the river ’Padolus.
After long marches, he came u-p with them.at Thym-
bra, not far from Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Be-
Les the horfe and foot, which amounted to !q6,ooo,
’\'i r l otr";,’£d, had 3go chariot, armed
with Icythes, each chariot drawn by four horfe-? a’ reaft
covered with trappings that were proof aga nft all forts
o miffive weapons : he had likewife a great number
© chariots of a larger fize, upon each of vvh;ch wag
placed a tower about 18 or 20 feet high, and in each
tower were lodged 20 archers. Thefe towers were
drawn by 16 oxen yoked abreaft. There was more¬
over a confiderable number of camels, each mounted
by two Arabian archers, the one looking towards the
head and the other towards the hinder part of the
camel The army of Croefus confided of 420,000 men.
he Egyptians, who alone were 120,000 in number
being the main (Length of the army, were placed in
the centre. Both armies were drawn up in an im-
menfe plain, which gave room for the extending of the
wings on either fide; and the defign of Crcefus, upon
which alone he founded his hopes of vidlory, was to
lurround and hem in the enemy’s army.
When the two armies were in fight of each other,
Crcefus, obfervmg how much his front exceeded that
of v,yrus, ma !e the centre halt, but commanded the
two wings to advance, with a defign to inclofe the
I erfian army, and begin the attack on both Tides at
once. When the two detached bodies of the Lydian
forces were fufficiently extended, Crcefus gave the fig-
nal to the main body, which marched up to the front
ot the Perfian army, while the two wings attacked
them in flank ; fo that Cyrus’s army was hemmed in
on all fideg and as Xenophon express it, was in-
clofed like a (mail fquare dra'An within a great one.
I his motion, however, did not at all alarm the Per-
han commander; but, giving his troops the fignal to
lace about, he attacked in flank thofe forces that were
going to fall upon his rear fo vigoroufly, that he put
them into great diforder. At the fame time a fqua-
i*ron of camels was made to advance ayainfl. the ene
rey s other wing> which confided moflly of cavalry
l0rfrwere/0 frIghtened ^ the approach of thefe
them undhat rft °f them thrCW tbdl riders> and trod
Then Artarref501 ’ W^ occafloned great confufion.
.Un Artagef«, an officer of great valour and expe-
tlTenTf -fllf ?d °fLa fma11 hody of horfe, charged
and it rf t- at they could never afterwards rally;
and d the fame time the chariots, armed with fcytheV
being driven in among them, they were entirely rout-
ed. Both the enemy s wings being thus put to flight
yrus commanded his effief favourite Abradates^ to
59 1 PER
fall upon the centre with the large chariots above,
mentioned. The fit ft ranks, confifting rnoftlv of Ly- 1
oians, not being able to {land fo violent a charge, im-
mediat ly gave way ; but the Egyptians, being" cover¬
ed with their bucklers, and marching fo dofe that th«
chariots had not room to penetrate their ranks, a great
flaughter of the Perfians enfued. Abradates himfelf
was killed, his chariot overturned, and the greateft
part of h,s men were cut in pieces. Upon his death, the
Egyptians, advancing boldly, obliged the Perfian in¬
fantry to give way, and drove them bark quite to their
engines. There they met with a new ffiower of darts
and javelins from their machines; and at the fame
time the Perfian rear advancing fword in hand, obli¬
ged their fpearmen and archers to return to the charge.
In the mean time Cyrus, having put to flight both the
horfe and foot on the left of the Egypt! ns, pu'hed on
to the centre, where he had the misfortune to find his
rerfians again giving ground ; and judging that the
only way to flop the Egyptians, who were purfuing
them, would be to attack them in the rear, he did fo •
and a* the fame time the Perfian cavalry coming up to
nis aflidance, the fight was renewed with great flau rfi-
ter on both fides. Cyrus himfelf was in great danger •
for h,8 horfe being killed under him, he fell among the
midft of his enemies: hut the Perfians, alarmed at the
danger of their general, threw themfelves headlong on
their opponents, refeued him,and made 3 ter ri hie flu/h-
ter; till at laft Cyrus, admiring the valour of the Egyp-
tians, offered them honourable conditions: letting theur
know at the fame time, that all their allies had abandon¬
ed them. They accepted the terms offered them ; and
having agreed with Cyrus that they (hould not be ob.
ilp-ed tn rarrv    r
Perfia.
i- j0   muuia not be
the ferv.ee of the conqueror, and continued ffikhffil to
him ever after.
T' “‘"'I'”? Cyn,‘ adran«<I towards Sardis. Sard;?r,
the T rSUS mar^hed out oppofe him at the head of ken
him t?- 1 0n y,; f°r b!S allies had al1 abandonedtl!C Gdian-
him. 1 heir {Length confifted moftly in cavalry which emp,rc
Cyrus being well apprifed of, he ordered his camels to
advance; by whom the horfes were fo frightened, that
they became quite ungovernable. However, the Lv-
dians difmountcd, and for fome time made a vigorous
rehftance on foot; but were at laft driven into the city
which was taken two days after: and thus the Lydian
empire was totally deftroyed. 3
atrafnftVl6 CyrUS tUrned armSRedJc«
againft Babylon itfelf, which he reduced in the manner
related under that article. Haying fettled the civil Z
vernment of the conquered kingdoms, Cyrus took a
review of all his forces, which he found to confift of
600,00° foot, 1 20,000 horfe, and 2000 chariots armed
with feythes. With thefe he extended his dominion
0»r nall°nr £° the .COnfines of E^iopia, and to
e Ked bea ; after which he continued to reign
peaceably over his vaft empire till his death, which
happened about 529 before Chrift. According toHisL'ath
Xenophon, he died a natural death ; but others tell
us, that, having engaged in a *ar with the ScythLns
he was by them overthrown and cut in pieces with his
whole army, amounting 10 200,000 men. But this is
very improbable, feeing ail authors agree that the tomb
ol Cyrus was extant at Pafargada m Perfiain the tima
ol Alexander the Great; which it could not have been.
’Perth,
Cambyfes
conquers
ligypt.
x3 .
His unfuc-
cef^ful ex¬
pedition
atrainit
Ethiopia
and the
Hammo-
Uians.
14
He murder:
his brother
PER l 1C0
if b;8 body Ind remained in the pofleflion of the Scy¬
thians, as thefe authors afiert.
In the time of Cyrus, the Perfian empire extended
from the river Indus to the vdbgean Sea. On the north
it was hounded by the Euxine and Cafpian Seas, and
on the South by Ethiopia and Arabia. That monarch
kept his refidence for the feven cold months at Baby¬
lon, by reafon of the warmth of that climate; three
months in the fpving he fpent at Sufi, and two at Ec-
batan during the heat of fummer. On his dcaih-bed
he appointed his fon Cambyfes to fucceed him in the
empire ; and to his other fon, Smerdis, he gave feveral
confr'erable governments. The new monarch imme¬
diately fet about the conqued: of Egypt ; which he
accomplifhed in the manner related in the hiftory of
that country.
Having reduced Egypt, Cambyfes next refolved to
turn his arms agamft the Carthaginians, Hammonians,
and Ethiopians. But he was obliged to drop the firft
of thefe enterprizes, becaufe the Phoenicians refufed
to fupply him with (hips againft the Carthaginians,
who were a Phoenician colony. However, he fent
ambafTadors into Ethiopia with a defign to gee intelli¬
gence of the date and ftrength of the country. But
the Ethiopian monarch, being well apprifed of the
errand on which they came, treated them with great
contempt. In return for the prefents fent him by
Cambyfes, he fent his own bow ; and advifed the Per-
fnns to make war upon the Fihiopians when they could
bend fnch a ftrong bow is eallly as he did, and to
thank the gods that the Ethiopians had no ambition to
extend their dominions beyond their own country.
Camb) fes whs no fooner informed of this anfwer by
his ambaffadors than he flew into a violent padion;
and ordered his army immediately to l egin their march,
without confidering that they were neither furmflied
with provifions nor any other necelfary. When he
arrived at Thebe% in Upper Egypt, he detached
.c,ooo men, with orders to dedroy the tempie o. Ju-
Piter Ammon : but all thefe perBhed in the defert;
riot a Angle perfon arriving either at the oracle, or
returning to Thebes. The reft of the army, lea by
Camhyfes himfelf, experienced incredible naidihips ;
frr not being provided with any necessaries, they had
not marched a flith part of the way when they were
obliged to kill and eat their beafts of burthen. When'
thefe failed, the foldiers fed on grafs and roots, as
Iona as any could be found ; and at laft were reduced
to the dreadful neceffity of eating one another ; every
tenth man, on whom the lot fell, being condemned to
ferve as food for his companions. 1 he king, however,
obftinately perflfted in his deiign ; till, being appre-
henAve of the danger he himfelf was m, he retreated
to Thebes, after having loft the greateft part of his
21'cambyfes was a man of a very cruel and fufpicious
’temoer, of which he gave many inftances; and the
following proved indirectly the c-mft of his death.-—
We have already obferved that the king of Ethiopia
font his bow in return for the prefents brought to him
by the ambafladors of Cambyfes. The only man in
the Per Am army who could bend this bow was Smer¬
dis the king’s brother; and this mftance of his per-
fonal ftrength fo alarmed the tyrant, that, without any
crime alleged, he cauftd him to be murdered, iuia
PerR«,
] PER
gave occefion to one Smerdis, a rmgian, who greatly
refembled the other Smerdis in looks, to affume the u
name of the deceal'ed prince, and to raife a rebellion
againft Cambyfes, who was generally hated for his
cruelty ; and this'he could the more eaAly do, as the
chi' r management of affairs had been commuted to
this Smerdis during the king’s abfence. Cambyfes, on
receiving the news of this revolt, immediately ordered
his army to march, in order to fupprefs it ; but as he
was mounting his horfe, his fword, Hipping out of its
fcabbard, wounded him in the thigh. On this acci¬
dent, he afleed the name of the city where he was;
and being told that it was Ecbatan, He faid in the
prefence of all his attendants, “ Fate has decreed that
Cambyfes the fon of Cyrus fhffl die in this place.”
For, having confulted the oracle of Butus, which was
very famous in that country, he was told that he
fhould die at Ecbatan. 1 his he had always underftooi
of Ecbatan in Media, and had therefore refolved to
avoid it. Being now. however, convinced that his
end approached, he aflemhled the chief PerAan lords
who ferved in the army, and having told them th t his
brother was certainly dead, he exhorted them never to
fubmit to the impoftor, or fuffer the fovereignty
again to pa A from the PerAans to the Merles, to which
nation Smerdis belonged, but to ufe their utmoft
endeavours to place one of their own blood on the
throne. 15
As the king’s wound mortiAed, he lived but a few h's ^ath.
days after this ; hut the affembly fuppoAng that he
had fpoken only out of hatred to his brother, quietly
fubmitted to the impollor, who was thus for a time
eftabliihed on the throne. Indeed, from his conduft
during the fhort time which he enjoyed the kingdom,
he appears to have been not at all undeferving of a ^
crown. He began with granting to all his fubjeiSts an Rejgn cf
exemption from taxes and military fervice for three Smerdis ih#
years, and treated all of them in the moil beneAcentma^n.
manner. To fecure himfelf on the throne the more
effeflually, he married Atoffa the daughter of Cyrus ;
thinking, that in cafe of a difeovery he might hold the ,
empire by her title. She had before been married to her
brother Cambyfes, on a deciiion of the magi t.iat a
king of Pet Aa might do as he pleafed; and by virtue of
this deciAon Smerdis alfc? married her as her brother.
The extreme caution of Smerdis, however, promoted His [mpa.
the difeoverv of his impofture. He had married all Rure difro.
his predeceflbr’s wives, among whom was one Phedy-vered.
ma, the daughter of Otanes a PerAan nobleman of the
Aril rank. Otanes, who fufpeded that the king was
not Smerdis the fon of Cyrus, fent a trufty meffenger
to his daughter, defiring to know whether he was fo or
not ; but Phedyma, having never feen this Smerdis,
could not give any anfwer. Her father then deAred
her to inquire at .Uoffa, who could not but know her
own brother. However, he was again difappointed ;
for Phedyma acquainted him that all the king’s wives
were lodged in diftincl and leparate apartments,
without being allowed to fee each other. This greatly
incrcited the fufpicions of Otanes; upon which he fent
his daughter a third meffage, d Tiring her, the next
time fhe ihould be admitted to the king’s bed, to take
an opportunity of feeling whether he had ears or not :
for Cyrus had formerly caufed the ears of Smerdis tne
magian to be cut off for fome crime of whicu he had
< Sr
per
[
him
J.
J* CTiltj , to ,hat, if the king !,,<! rar„ mi k
then be aflured that he was Smerdis the fon of Cyrus
Phe event fhowed that the fufpfctms of Otanes Nvere
l8 juit; and I hedyma having acquainted her father that
cnnfpira the king had no ears, a confpiracy was immediately
JS r™' r,nK ^ Whi,e the con^P*rators were de
hating a out the proper means of carrying their defigns
into execution, Darius the fon of Hyftafpes happening
to arrive at Sufa where his father was governor, they
all agreed to make him privy to their defign. He
toL them, at their firft meeting, that he thought no-
body in the emp.re but himfelf had known that 8mer-
d.s the fon of Cyrus was dead, and the throne ufurped
^ ma^ ’’ that he h;Ki corae a defun
to kill the ufurper. without imparting his defnrn to any
hi^own1 tp f f7 °f an aft,’°n m%!,t be entirely
own. But fince others were appnfed of the im
without d Jnllftedntha5 the ,lfurPer be difpatched
T„, ,. 0tanes’ en the other hand, was for
? 0jf thTe,en.terPr'fc t>'b Pome better opportunity
offered; but Danus protefted, that if the/did not
make the attempt that very day, he would pfevent any
by iiki°a"s ^ ^ —-
la the mesa time, Smerdij and hi, brother had by
•Ol the true Smerdis) to bind himfelf by an oath not to
it°Zrt\ aA ^eyrha^, P1" th" and
even to make a public fpeech, declaring that the pre-
fent king of Perfia was really the fon of Cyrus
Ireat ?|,7™S, e"g h,'S ,’carers in “"'"d "f
great favours the nation had received from that prince
After having extolled Cyrua and hi. family to the'
whole a/l0nf«™'"t “k811 Prefent> he confelTed the
' 'ra"ri'fl<’" w,th «gard to the death of Sitter.
din’ger he" mul ^ C’, ,‘hat ‘he Wrehenlions of the
To/ r , run by publilhing the im.
pofture had eonttratned him to conceal it fo long ■ but
abie'’part hiTt TTTlIO aa fllch a ■iM’onour.
led hPv P hi ‘ifckn0','Iedffed that he had been compel-
led by Cambyfes to put his brother to death uf.-bKK-
own hand, and that the perfon who poflHTed the throne
was Smerdis the tnag.an. Heathen begged pardon of
the gods and men for the crime he had committed and
? thp"
In the mean time the confpirators, who Wrere ad
vaneing towards the palace, were informed of whar had
eSnlf Tl °tanC8 7s ^ deferring the ex
the Zrl ofTr^^1 bUt D iri‘,ls -hft-g upon
Jpce . of d€,ay> they proceeded boldly to the pa-
4eaa i^Tytwt^'th' Krd5’;vho d‘d nM
then • after k r b h the ulurPer and his bro-
people, and declatedlh5' thdr hcads ^ the
L,P at thi 'mpofture. The Per.
whole fe£t, and killed ever/one „f‘to .fe 1 on tbe
meet with ; and had not tL (] / the7 colffd
night not one of the order wrnM7pvebc",fkfta'i by
wa'a^eb'iare dt t P f"
»9
e ig kil
on/a, or
6r 1 PER
dilfZt'"' * '1‘ 0n 'hat f'11''™1 lh' TOgi P-C.
dnrlt not apptar abroad, but v-ere obliged to lh„t —v
thimfelves up in their houfes. Smerdis the magias
reigned only eight months. °
When the,tumult was a little fubfided, the confpi-
or ler to^V^'6 'r'1 ,n nUtt'*!'er’ met ^ther in
order to eleft a new king, or to determine what form
government they ffiould next introduce Otanes
he^d fa,TPUKllC: lT ^ 0ver-ru,ed by the reft,
tc aret , that a,s he Was determined not to be a
king, neither would he be ruled by one; and therefore
•nfiffed that he and his family fhould ever afterwards
remain free from fu’jedion to the royal pow er This
was not only granted, but it was further agreed by the
other mx, that whoever was chofen fhould every^ear
pre ent Otaucs whth a Median8 veil, a mark of^reat
dift.na.on among the Perfians, becaufe he had been
to m Jr e fnterPrire- They further agreed
. eet at a certain place next morning at funrife on
bekin^^’Th- k"1 ^ Whfe h°rfe fird ne,>-hed ^ouid ^
the cTe of DS ekrd,b> 0ebore8» who h 'd
to rh , Ddr"lsLs horfes» he led a mare overnight ^
to the place, and brought his maker’s horfe to her fen kinS
he next morning, the horfe remembering the place’
^mediately neighed for the mare ; and the fiveloS
ddmounting, fainted Darius as their king
Darius Hyftafpes was elected king of Perfia fn t^e
)^ar 522 B. C. Immediately after his a-ceffion he
eor-fpirators to the fi ft employ!
nients in the kin£dorr\ married a i A '
o Am™* i*n.rricu tne two daiiuhterq
Cyru,, AtolTa audArtyftona, Parmys the datth e rf
tl.e true SmerJis, and Phedyma the daughter of Ot!
ne«, who had deteaed the impofture of the magian lie
then divided the whole empire into „ Ctrapie, or
veinments, and appointed a governor over each divifion
t ering them to pay him an annual tribute Tbe *
hauuntsofcolchi.,, with fome o,hem, tve e e io ned
only to make annual prefenta, and the Arabia, to
cqZkdTl? of ftankineenfe aa
equalled the weight of ,ooo talents. Thus Darin.
received the yearly tribute of 14.560 Eubcsic talents
upwards of 460,000 pounds fterling *
tHe buiIJ,’n^ of the temple of Jeru-
alem which had been obftruaed by Cimbvfes and
bmerdis, went on fuccefsfully, and the Jew-Ifii ftate
vrs entirely reftortd. The mold remarkable ofiD iritis’s
other tranfadions were his expeditions ag-iinft Ba’ v-
on; againft Scythia, India, and Greece/ The expl
dition again ft Babylon took pi tee in the ye?.r c, 7 B C 21
when the people, unable to ’var ^ ‘ rr^ ' r ", ’ ^■£voit
rnrlians.^d'idwi^^ eJ^Prel&mo themrBaby-
grn;^ rh! > r- M'X'Xz °:lo‘ui,,s'
eil.a, took the opportunity of the troubles which
happened in the reigns of Cambyfes and Sir.,Tibs to
Sv: t IT W"h 5,1 ki"ds of provilions fufficien’t to
out in,o a„ ope"”!LJi!r!a:-t;T,;:M!hk'.h7 !,r,’7
upon them Darius with ail his forces. ‘ The BiTvSns
r':ves tut up ^fo —- *4
, T. ai1 tUfw thoughts towards the funnortlmr /
WWroo Whl T ^ 1’mabT)>ed would'tire out the
nr 7 ?8' T° prevent the confumption of their
provisions, they took the molt barbarous and cru -l re
TheiT a! ever Was put “■ hy any Miom
X greed among thcmfelves to get rid of all nn-ie-
^ ceTnru-
Perfia,
a'i
His unfuc*
cefsful ex
^edition
againft the
Scythians.
PER [ J
ceffary mouths; and therefore, gathering together all
the old men, women, and children, they ftrangled
them without dlftinftion ; every one being allowed
only to keep the wife he liked beft, and a maid-lervant
to do the work of the houfe. The fiege continued for
a year and eight months ; nor was there any likelihood
of its being ended, when Zopyrus, one of Darius s chief
commanders, put him in poffeffion of it by the follow¬
ing ftratagem. He cut off his nofe^ and cars, and
having mangled his body with ftripes in a moft cruel
manner, he fled to the Babylonians thus disfigured,
pretending that he had been fo treated by Darius for
advifing him to raife the fiege. Being intrufted with
the command of fome forces, he cut off feveral parties
of the Perfian army, whom Darius thus facrihced in
order to raife the chara&er of Zopyrus the higher
among the Babylonians. In this manner he fo much
eftabliftied bis credit, that at laft he was made com¬
mander in chief of all the Babylonifh forces, and the
guard of the city committed entirely to his care ; and
no fooner was this done than he delivered it up to
Darius, who, to prevent their rebelling a fecond time,
beat down the walls of that metropolis to the height
of so cubits. Three thoufand of the moft adhve
in the rebellion were impaled ; the reft pardoned.
As they had deftroyed moft of their women, the
neighbouring nations were commanded to furmfh them
•with wives, and 50,000 women were fent to that city,
by which means it was prevented from being depopu¬
lated. Zopyrus was rewarded with the higheft ho¬
nours, and had the whole revenues of Babylon bellow¬
ed on him for life. _ t , _ . , * 7
After the reduaion of Babylon Darius undertook
a Scythian expedition, direded againft thofe nations
which lie between the Danube and the lanais. His
pretext for this war was, to revenge the calamities
which thefe nations had brought upon Alia about 120
years before, when they invaded .and fubdued Media;
keeping it in fubje£fion for the fpace of 28 years, as
we have related under that article. In this expedition
he was attended with an army of 7^0,000 men. With
thefe he marched to the Th.acian Bofphorus; which
having paffed on a bridge of boat*, he reduced all
Thrace From Thrace he advanced to the Danube,
where he had appointed his fleet to meet h.m, 1 his
river he p; fled on another bridge of boats, and entered
Scythia. His enemies, however, were too wife to op-
nofe fuch a formidable power in the open field ; and
therefore retired before him, wafting the country as
they went along, till at laft the king, fen able of the
danger he was in, refolved to give oyer the enterprife
and return home. In order to do 10 with fafety, he
lighted a great number of fires in the night-time and
decamped ; leaving behind him the old men and the
lick, who fell into the hands of their enemies. Ihe
Scythians perceiving.that Darius was gone, detached
a confiderable body to the bridge over the Danube,
and as they were well acquainted with the roads, they
thither before the Perfisns. The Scythians had
fent expreffe, hefo.e-ham] to perfuade the Ion,ana,
whom barms had left to guard the bridge, to bleak
it do. n and retire to their own country! and this they
piefled the more carnellly, .ha, a, the t.me prefer^d
bv Darius was now expired, they were at liberty to
return home, without breaking their word or beuag
Peifiai.
*3
62 ] PER
wanting in their duty. Miltiades, prince of the Cher-
fonefus of Thrace, was for embracing fo favourable an '
opportunity of cutting off Darius s retreat, and iha-
king off the Perfian yoke at once : all the other com¬
manders agreed with him, except Hyftiaeiis prince of
Miletus; who reprefented to the Ionian chiefs, that
their power was connedled with that of Darius, fince
h was under his prote&ion that each of them was lord
in hia own city; and that the cities of Ionia would not
fail to depofe them and recover their liberty, if the
Perfian power fhould fink or decline.. This fpeech made
a deep imprtflion on the reft, and it was at Lift deter¬
mined that they ftiould wait for Darius; and in order
to deceive the Scythians, they began to break down
the bridge, but advifed them to return back and defeat
Darius. They did fo, but miffed him ; and he having
thus fafely efcaped fo great a danger, immediately re-
paffed the Bofphorus, and took up his winter-quarters
at Sardis, leaving Megabyzus, one of bis chief generals,
to complete the conqueft of Thrace. #
The king having fufficiently refrefhed his troops, He con-
who had fuffered extremely in the Scythian expedition, quer* Indj*
began to think of extending his dominions eaftward ;
and, in order to facilitate his defign, refolved in the
firft place to difeover thofe countries. With this
view, he caufed a fleet to be built and equipped at Caf-
patyrus, a city on the river Indus. The command ef
this fleet he gave to one Scylax, a Grecian of Cary-
andiaa city of Caria, who was well verfed in maritime
affairs. Him he ordered to fail down the current, and
make the beft difeoveries he could of the countries ly¬
ing on either fide of the river, till he arrived at the
fouthern ocean ; from whence he was to beer hu
courfe weftward, and that way return to Perfia. Scy¬
lax, having exadftly obferved his inftru&ions, and fail¬
ed down the river Indus, entered the Red Sea by the
ftraits of Babelmandel, and on the 30th month from
his firft fetting out, landed at the fame place from
Whence Nechu king of Egypt formerly fent out the
Phoenicians who circumnavigated Africa. Frsm hence
Scylax returned to Sufa, where he gave a full account
of his difeoveries ; upon which Darius, marching into
India at the head of a powerful army, reduced that
large country, and made it a province of the Perfian
empire, drawing from thence an annual tribute of 360
^‘soonaftef'the expedition of Darin, againft
happened the revolt of the Ionian., which gave occa-« ‘
fion to his expedition into Greece; an account of which
is given under the articles Attica, Greece, Spar¬
ta, & c. The ill fuccefs which attended him here,
however, was fo far from making him drop the enter¬
prife, that it only made him the more intent on re¬
ducing the Grecians ; and he refolved to head his army
in perfon, having attributed his former bad fuccefs to
the inexperience of his general?. But while he was
employed in making the neceffary preparations tor
this purpofe, he received intelligence that the Egyp¬
tians had revolted, fo that he was obliged to mase
preparations for reducing them alfo and before tins
could be done, the king died, after having reigned 30
years, leaving the throne to his Ton Xerxes. _ ^Expedition*
^ This prince afeended the throne of Perfia in the of |erxes
year 485 B, C. ; and his firft enterpnfc was to reduce againft
J C ^ . * . • 1 1 _ . riiri. hriniTing P.rvnt UK
the Egyptians}
2
which he tffe&ually bringing £gyPt and
them Greece.
Perfta.
PER
them into a worfe ftate of flavery than they ever had
experienced before. After this he refolved on an ex¬
pedition into Greece ; the unfortunate event of which
is related under the article Attica. By his misfor-
fUnef.rin .th<; Grecian expedition, he became at laft
? difpmted, that he thenceforth abandoned all
thoughts of war and conquefts ; but growing tyranni¬
cal, and oppreffing his fubjecfts, he was murdered in
26 his bed, in the year 464 B. C. and 21ft of his reign :
«eSedbrnlT/UCCeedcd by hi3 thlVd fon Artaxerxes, L.
Artaxerxes hfs °n aCC°Unt °f the great lenSth of
Longima- rp, ■ S‘ .
D"S; »i, r 8 pn,?Ce 18 namecl dhafuerus in Scripture, and is
the fame who married Either, and during the whole
of his reign fhowed the greateft kindnefs to the Jewiih
bv H ft rn thl be8mniDg °f hl’8 reign he was 0PPofed
thC f°n °f XerXeS’ whom,Phow-
eyer, he overcame though not without confiderable
ment'of^h ^ ^ ^ appl,ed himfdf to thc fettle'
Shnf f u of £overnmcnt, and reforming many
^ft irmW^1Ch hfd Crept in ’ and ^en, beinf Mil
eftabhihed on the throne, he appointed feafts fnd re^
jo icings to be made for 180 days in the city of Sufa •
at one of which he refolved to divorce his7queen fo^
difobedience; and afterwmds married Either as we
find it recorded in the faered writings. ’ C
EJvDtians^b °{ thC rdgn °f Artaxerxes the
gyptians revolted anew, and, being affifted by the
itedTfb > OUt/0rflX year8; but were again ob-
the Vb lf b!? u’-and c0nt,ni,ed in fubjeaion during
V. WhoieJof hls re,gn- Nothing elfe remarkable
wh^d^ •dUring tHa ^ °f Artaxer^s Longimanus
Tecded bv X ^ lCar °,f rfs reign ; and was fuc*
cecded by Xerxes II. the only fon he had by his queen
though by his concubines he had , 7. Xerxes havW
after his acceffion retired to a chamber in order to re-
reft himfdf w'th deep ; but here he was murdered by
heehGS °f Ari4axerxe8 by one of his concu7
Dines, after he had reigned 4y days.
whC„
r 163 1
PER
Perfia.
*7
Xerxes II,
a8
Sogdianus.
of Xerxes, and been afterwards driven out by Ochus
began to entertain thoughts of treating him in the'
fame manner He was not, however, fo fuccefsful;
himfelflng defeated 1 n an engagement, he furrendered
to ft. \ rPm of.me^ but was immediately put
r a 1 y location in aihes. Several ocher per-
fons were executed: but thefe feverities did not pro-
rein wTs^T? WhlChh,e expeaed i for bis whole
Ss ^r38 dlfturbcd Wltb V!olerRt commotions in various
Sfed bv PT^r" C °f thC ^gerous was
deferted7bv hi P STrn0r °f Lydia 5 but he bdng
ierted by his Greek mercenaries, was at laft over-
come, and put to death : however, his fon Amorgas
c ntinned to infeft the maritime provinces of Alia
Mmor for two years ; till he alfo was taken prifoner
hfm to ft^fr^nhf gov^rn(,r of Mia, who put
th”. but thh' 0thn mb,rreaions q^ckly folio wed
this . but the greatell misfortune which befel Darius
dunng the whole courfe of his reign was the revolt of
e Egyptians, who could not be 1 educed. Before
death he inverted Cyrus his youngeft fon with the
upreme government of all the provinces of Alia Minor.
1 his vyas done through the perfuafions of his mother
aryfatis, who had an abfolute fway over her hufband •
theretC'^n ft^ C°ramand f°r him’ that ^i^^
hereby be enabled to contend for the kingdom after
declare hii he^'r ^ that the ^inS Should
he could not K 6 Cr0Wn bef°re hc dIcd ’ bllt this
ne could not by any means be induced to ftn
died in the vear /I nr R r j r0 t0 d0‘ Ge Artaxerxes;
fon Artiv ^ f * y" and was fucceeded by hisMnemon,
account ofT"’ ^ ‘n- Gr“ks f“™an,ed on
account of his extraordinary memory
duJ„g%hTfe,wktu!e‘;anraaion rh:ch
brother CVnisg rPh- prince was the revolt of his Cyrus the
to fo l lh,lS y°unff pnnee had been raifedYoungen
on p„rgpofe tC7 th'-Th th',of mother!
f "en He ht C ‘”‘?ht ■e-oltl as we ha''' ^'y
the Rovernmeft of Thi- °Ver thc c,t‘M uodet
duc| ny:^?0hzz:
o0n,fr“v?E ^
30
a9
■©thus.
he put to death BagoraZu. the r'" ‘“^mble troop,, which
'hi, f3111"’8 “"“chsi *>>' which, and the’rawde! of fifancTt”^''!’’'’'?'8' .As he bad given gt'e'ft'aC
thi/T'oT’ rhe. beiame S«oral!y odious. Upon the Athenian!' faCe,J'm.omans their w„3 ,ltrdlu:t
his, fenfible of the dangerous fmiation in which he from them ™ ret“rn demanded affiltancc
t, ' t krntr for °ne of hi* brothers named Mar »th .wh,ck .re<i'''ft ‘hey very readily complied
whom he fufpeaed, with a defign to murder himlhe and t’o T””8 the‘r im™'diaEy to join him
hiadeXn , Uchua, however, nndJZLg Us admirf7'VtTS p'"8 “l' C°mm'"'!s "f Ta-”*
till t/f, ftft °ff’ by PeveraI Pretences, his coming^ my of t , oon T t CyrUS, haVing coMed an ar-
ti i he had drawn together a powerful armv 1 ^J000 Greek mercenaries and 100000 reuu
which he aftvanp.ft   powenm army, with lar troops of other .... r 100:°°o regu*
which he ^ ^ °f nati°nS’ ourLm0S0a0rdCgd-:
he openly declared, that his deiign was to revenue his W en^ 1 ^arch t0ward8 Upper Alia; the army be-
friend,, came toa„   .“!«*. »• a11 h>» gnmed them over with prefents and promifes the?
loon went on n- 1. 1 tnty
friends cam. *0  / L.u LJ1C auvice ot all tu8
no foobr had him iTsTo at:°n T* ^ ! '> ho
^ 0“ ^
ftemg „i„t manner Sogdianus had goi thTbrnti
_ -    j^1 i CICII Lo _
cIuTto Z ^ 6,Uf?tW Unring "arrived atBattleb
brother with p'0'''ICe 0 Babylon, Cyril, found hisc“i»r*-
Wi 1Chi 900,00° men ready to engage him
Whereupon, leaping out of his chariot, he command^
his troops to Hand to their arms and fall into their
ranks; which uraQ ...ui. . . .0 Cl,e'r
done with
Smc being aiiowed the foldiers ^^K^^
S T nhp“’the commarid« of the Peioponnefnntroop,'
"Mfed L-ma n0t in P«foo, but to remain m
X 2 tlte
Perfia.
S3
IReti cat
i f ten
thpufand
CJreeks.
PER [ »
the rear of the Greek battalions ; but this advice he
rejected with indi^natton, faying, that he fhouid thus
render himfcif unworthy of the crown for which he
was fighting. A« the king's army drew near, the
Greeks fell upon them with fuch fury, that they rout¬
ed the wing oopofite to them almolt at the firft onfet;
upon which Cyrus was with loud fhouts proclaimed
king by thofe who ftood next to him. But he, in
the mean time, perceiving that Artaxerxes was wheel¬
ing about to attack him in flank, advanced againft
him with 600 chofen horfe, killed Artagefes captain
of the king’s guards with his own hand, and put the
whole body to flight. In this encounter, difcovering
his brother, he fpurred on his horfe, and, coming up
to him, engaged h m with great fury ; which in iome
degree turned the battle into a tingle combat. Gyms
killed his brother’s horfe, and wounded him on the
ground ; but he immediately mounted another horfe,
when Cyrus attacked him again, gave him a fecond
wound, and had already lilted up his hand to give him
a third, when the guards, perceiving the danger in
which their king was, difeharged their arrows at once
a ./a inti his antagomft, who at the fame time throwing
himfelf headlong upon his brother, was pierced through
by his javelin. He fell dead upon the fpot ; and all
the chief lords of his court, refolving not to iurvive
him, were tlain in the fame place.
In the mean time, the Greeks having defeated the
enemy’s left wing commanded by l iffaphernes, and
the king’s right wing having put to flight Cyrus’s left,
both parties, being ignorant of what had paffed elfe-
where, imagined that they' had gained the viclory.
But Tiffaphernes acquainting the king that his men
had been put to flight by the Greeks, he immediately
rallied his troops, in order to attack them. 1 no
Greeks, under the command of Clearchus, eafuy re-
pulfed ’them, and purfued them to the foot of the
neighbouring hills. As night was drawing near, they
halted at the foot of the hill, much furprifed that nei¬
ther Cyrus himfelf, nor any meffenger from him, hna
speared ; for as yet they knew nothing of his death
and the defeat of the reft of the army. They deter¬
mined therefore to return to their camp, which they
did accordingly ; but found there that the great eft
part of their baggage had been plundered, and all their
proviiions taken, which obliged them to pafsthe night
in the camp without any fort of refrefhment. I he
next morning, as they were ftill expe&ing to hear from
Cyrus, they received the news of his death, and the
defeat of that part of the army. Whereupon they fent
deputies to Ariteus, who was commander in chief of
all the other forces of Cyrus, offering him, as conque¬
rors, the crown of Perfia. Ariteus rejeded the offer,
and acquainting them that he intended to fet out ear¬
ly in the morning on his return to lonm, advued them
to join him in the night. They followed his direc¬
tions, and, under the condua of Clearchus, began their
march, arriving at his camp about midnight whence
they fet out on their return to Greece. I hey were
at a vaft difbnce from their own country, in the vtry
heart of the Perfian empire, furrounded by a vittonous
and numerous army, and had no way to return again
hut by forcing their way through an immenle trac«t
of the enemy's country. But their valour and refo-
lutioa maftered all thefe difficulties; and, in fpite of a
64 ] PER
powerful army, which purfued and haraffed them all
the way, they made good their retreat for 2325 miles
through the provinces belonging to the enemy, and
got fafe to the Greek cities on the Euxine fea. This
retreat (the longeft that was ever made through an
enemy’s country) was conduced at firfl by Clearehus;
but he being cut off through the treachery of Tiffa¬
phernes, Xenophon was chofen in his room, who at
lall brought his men fafe into Greece 1 but for a full
account of that famous retreat, fee the article Xeno-
Perfia.
PHOM.
34
The war with Cyrus was fcarce ended, when ano- War with
ther broke out with the Lacedemonians, on the follow-the Lacedc.
ing account. Tiffaphernes being appointed to fucceed™0^
Cyrus in all his power, to which was added all which
he himfclf pofMe i formerly, began to opprefs the
Greek cities in Alia in a moil cruel manner. On tins
they fent ambaffadors to Spaita, defiring the affiilance
of that powerful republic. The Spartans having end¬
ed their long war with the Athenians, willingly laid
hold of the prefent opportunity of breaking again with
the Perfians", and therefore fent againft them an army
under the command ofThimbro, who, being ilrength-
ened by the forces which returned under Xenophon,
took the field againft Tiffaphernes. But Thimbro be¬
ing foon recalled upon fome complaints, Deicydidas,
a brave officer and experienced engineer, was appoint¬
ed to fucceed Ivm; and he carried on the war to much
more advantage than his predeceffor. On hisarnyal
in Afia, finding that Tiffaphernes was at variance with
another governor named Phuvnciboztus^ he conducted a
truce with the former, and marching agaimt Pharna-
bazus, drove him quite out of .ffilolis, and took feveral
cities in other parts. The latter, however, imme¬
diately repaired to the Perfian court, where h^ made
loud complaints againft 1 iffaphernes, but gave the
king a moft falutary advice, which was to equip a
powerful fleet, and give the command of it to Conort
the Athenian, the bell fea-officer of his time, by which
means he would obftnuft the paffage of further recruits
from Greece; and thus foon put an end to the power
of the Lacedemonians in Afia. This advice being ap¬
proved of, the king ordered 500 talents for the equip¬
ment of a fleet, with diredlions to give Conon the com¬
mand of it. _ 1
In the mean time, Dercylltdas, with ad his valour
and (kill, fullered himfelf to be drawn into fuch a dif-
advantageous fituation, that he mud inevitably have
been defiroyed with his whole army, had it not been
through the cowardice of Tiffaphcrnes, who having
experienced the Grecian valour at the battle of Cu-
naxa, could not by any means be induced to attack
them. The Lacedemonians, however, having heard
that the Pevfian monarch was fitting out a great fleet
againft them, refolved to pufli on the war as vigoroul-
ly as poffible ; and for this purpofe fent over Ageh-
laus one of their kings, and a moft experienced com¬
mander, into Alia. This expedition was carried on
with fuch fecrecy, that Agefibus arrived at Ephefua
before the Perfians had the leaft notice of his deligns.
Here he took the field with 10,000 foot and 40001
horfe, and falling upon the enemy while they were to¬
tally unprepared, carried every thing before him. IrU
faphernes deceived him into a truce till he had leifure
to alfcaable bis forces, but gained little by his treach-
eiy £
Perfia.
PER r 16
_j Agefilaus deceived him in his turn, and while
/ ,ff3pnernes marched his troops into Caria, the Greeks
invaded and plundered Phrygia,
Early in the Spring, Agefilaus gave out that his de-
ligu was to invade Lydia ; hut 1 iflaphernes, who re¬
membered the lift year’s Ihatagem, now taking it for
granted that Agetiiaus would really invade Cvia,
made his troops again march to the* defence of that
province. But Agefilaus now led his army into Ly-
h^d Siven out> appro ache 1 Sardis; upon
which 1 iflaphernes recalled his forces from their for¬
mer rout, with adefign to relieve the place. But Ca¬
na being a very mountainous country, and unfit for
fcorte, he had marched thither only with the foot, and
ieit the horie behind on the borders of that province
S ] PER
its ^Jrn:er fplenjor, but rendered more formidable than
ever. I he Lacedemonians wtre now reduced to the
PerfTa.
v—
37
 now reaucea to trie
necemty of accepting fuch terms of peace as they
could procure. The terms were, that all the Greek .Are n^Sed
WthAfn /f|°uid bc fabieft to the king of Perfia, rea^with
•n ? 1° tbe 1^aniiS Cyprus and Clazomena; that the ffie
iiJar.:.s of Scyros, Lemnos, and Imbros, fhould be re-fiaRS-
flored to the Athenians, a no all the cities of Greece,
whether fmall or great, fhould be declared free; and
by the fame treaty, Artaxerxes engaged to join thofe
who accepted the terms hepropofed, and to affift them
them Utaioft hl8 Poweragainlt fuch as fhould rejedt
Artaxerxes, being now difengaged from the Gre. Cyprus ren
Whence^^ti;;;^^^ ^ hlS ---.-•nlEvagoras king o duSSr^
f, the horfe being fume fays march Lf” “ he fo„T fcf S f ,7° fr°™ the •«<*»»
Agetilaus took the aJvantaJof f„ rZJ ,C"p,tal of the ffland of
Cyprus. His anceiWs had held that city for many
* 35
Airefilaus
obliged to
leave Alia
L 3^
I i.acedemo
| nians de-
i feated.
-w e,v.rrB awiue Utiyo uidrcn Dciore tne toot
Ageiilaus took the advantage of fo favourable an op¬
portunity and fell upon them before the foot could
come to tnetr afliftance. The Perfians were routed at
the very hrft onfet; after which Agefilaue over-ran the
whole country, enriching both himfelf and his army
with the (polls of the conquered Perfians.
By this continued ill fortune Artaxerxes was fo
much provoked agamft Tiffaphernes, that he foon af¬
ter earned him to be put to death.
On the death of TifiTaphernes, Tithrauftes, who was
appointed to fucceed him, fent large prefents to Age-
iiiaus, in hopes of perfuading him to abandon his con-
quets ; but finding that commander was not by any
means to be induced to rtlinquifh the war, he fent Ti-
mocrates of Rhodes into Greece, with large fums of
money to corrupt the leading men in the cities, and re-
kinuie a war agamft the Lacedemonians. This fira-
tagem produced the intended effect ; for the cities of
1 neoes, Argos, Corinth, and others, entering into a
confederacy, obliged them to recal Agefilaus to the de¬
fence of his own country.
. Aftcr tbe deParture of Ag-efilaus, which happened
in the year 354 B. C. the Lacedemonian power re¬
ceived a fevere blow at Cnidos, where their fleet was
entirely defeated by that of Artaxerxes under Conon,
50 of their fh-ps being taken in the engagement; after
winch Conon and Fharnabazus being* maders of the
lea, failed round the iflands and coafls of Afia, taking-
the cities there which had been reduced by the Lace^
demomans. Seftos and Abydos only held out, and re¬
filled the utmofl efforts of the enemy, though they had
been beheged both by fea and land. 8 Y
Next year Conon having aflemhled a powerful fleet
again took Phamabazus on board, and reduced the’
ifland of Melos, from whence he made a defeent on
ie coafls of Lyconia, pillaging all the maritime pro-
vinces and loading his fleet with an immenfe booty,
^tter this, Conon obtained leave of him to repair to
Athenswnh 80 flnps and 50 talents, in order to re-
Pharnafi6 ^ l °f th3t City 5 haV‘n& firft co™ced
tributeth\t.not.hing cou]d ^^re efFe&ually con.
-i ^ wef;kening of the power of Sparta than
pu ing ^thens again in a condition to rival its
power. He no fooner arrived at Piraeus the port of
Athens, but he began to work ; which, as l/had a
great number of hands, and was feconded by the zeal
was Lon tha]t,Wfre "^'^ned to the Athenians,
was Ron completed, and the city not only reflored to
. .. : '—uiac city tor many
ages in quality of Rvereigns; but were at laft driven
out by the Perfians, who, making themfelves mafters
of the whole ifland, reduced it to a Perfian province
Evagoras, however, being a man of an enterprifing
genius, foon became weary of living in fubjeftion to a
foreign power, drove out the Perfian governor, and
recovered his paternal kingdom. Artaxerxes attempt¬
ed to drive him out of it ; but, being diverted by the
Greek war, was obliged tq put oft the enterprize.
However, Conon, by means of Ctefias chief phyfician
to Artaxerxes, got all differences accommodated, and
of^fmnll P/'°m!fed no\l° moJea him in tht PofTeffion
of his fmall kingdom. But Evagoras foon becoming-
difeontented with fuch a narrow pofTcffion, gradually
eouced under his fiiojedlion almolt the whofe of the
aialnil b ’ ih°TeVrer’. thcre were» who held out
a0ainit him, and thefe immediately applied to Ar
uxernes for affiltarrce; and he, as Jn a^he l
Greece was at an end, lent all his force again!! Eva.
fhe" Ar"dm(T dr:Ve hi'n
he Athenians, however, notwithflanding the favvmr*
late y conferred upon them by the king of Perfia
could not forbear aflifling their old ally in fuch a dread!
ful emergency. Accordingly, they lent him ten men
of war under th.e command of Philocrates ; but the
L rWrian fn-’ co.mmanded by Talentias brother
to Agtfilaus, falling in with them near the ifle of
elLpt8’ The0 Atfd 1° tHat n0t °ne nUP could
elcape. 1 he Athenians, determined to affifl Eva(xn.
ras at all events, fent Chabrias with another fleet fnd
a confiderable body of land forces; and with the £
.dance of thefe he quickly reduced the whole ifland
But in a fhort time, the Athenians being obliged in
confequence of the treaty concluded with the pfrfmns
to recal Chabrias, Artaxerxes attacked the ifland with
an army of 300,000 men, and a fleet of 300 (hips E
vagoras applied to the Egyptians, Libyans, Arabians,
lynans, and other nations, from whom he received
upphes both of men and money ; and fitted out a fleet
with which he ventured an engagement with that of
rtaxerxes.. But being defeated, and obliged to fhut
himfdf up in Salamme, he was clofely befieged by
fea and land. Here at lad he was obliged to ennit^
laU, and abandon to the Perfians the whole of the
^ hdJ “ 3 k'"S
The Cyprian wax being ended, Artaxerxes turned
his
Perfia.
39
Tlnfuccefs-
ful expe¬
ditions
againft the
Caducian<
and Egyp¬
tians.
PER F i
his arms agalnft the Cadufians, whofe country lay be¬
tween the Euxine and Cafpian feas. But thefe na¬
tions were too well accuftomed to war to be overcome
by the Perfians; and therefore the king was obliged to
abandon the projeft, after having loft a great number
of his troops and all the horfes which he took out with
him. In his Egyptian expedition, which happened
immediately after the Cadufian war, he wraB attended
with little better fuccefs; which, however, was owing
to the bad condudt of his general Pharnabazus. This
commander being entrufted with the management of
the Egyptian war, fent an ambafiador to Athens, com¬
plaining that Chabrias had engaged in the fervice of
an enemy of the king of Periia, with whom the ftate
of Athens was in alliance, and threatening the repub¬
lic with his mafter’s refentment if proper fatisfadtion
was not given : at the fame time he demanded. Iphi-
crates, another Athenian, and the beft general of his
time, to command the Greek mercenaries in the Per-
fian fervice. This the Athenians complied with ; and
Inhicrates having muftered his troops, fo exercifed
them in all the arts of war, that they became after¬
wards very famous among the Greeks under the name
of Iphicratcfian fo-d'iers. Indeed he had fufficient time
to inftrudi them; for the Perfians were fo flow in their
preparations, that two whole yeirs tlapfed before they
were ready to take the field. At the fame time Ar-
taxerxes, that he might draw the more mercenaries
out of Greece, fent ambaffadors to the dilferent Hates
in it, declaring it to be his will and pleafure that they
fhould live at peace with each other, on the terms of
the treaty lately concluded : which declaration was re¬
ceived with pleafure by all the ftates except Thebes,
who afpired at the fovereignty of Greece; and accord¬
ingly refufed to conform to it. All things, however,
at la V being ready for the expedition, the troops were
muftered at the city then called Ace, and fince Pttk-
mais ; where they were found to confift of 200,000
Perfians under the command of Pharnabazus, and
20,000 Greeks led by Iphicrates. The fleet confifted
of 300 galleys, befidcs a number of other veflele
which followed with provifions. The fleet and army
began to move at the fame time; and that they might
aft in concert, they feparated as little as poffible. It
was propofed, that, the war fhould begin with the fiege
of Pelufium ; but Neftanebus, the revolted king of
Egypt, had provided fo well for the defence of the
place, that it was thought expedient to drop the en-
terprize, and make a defcent at one of the mouths of
the Nile. In this they fucceeded : for the Egyptians
not expeftmg them at that piaoe, had not taken fuch
care to fortify it as at Pelufium. The fortrefs of
«onfequence was eafily taken, and all the Egyptians
in it put to the fword. After this, iphicrates was for
embarking the troops without lofs of time, aud at¬
tacking Memphis the capital of Egypt, Had this opi¬
nion been followed before the Egyptians recovered
from the confternation into which they were thrown,
it is highly probable that the whole country might
have been reduced at once : but Pharnabazus would
undertake nothing before the reft of the forces were
come up. Iphicrates then, in the utmoft vexation at
lofing fo favourable an opportunity, pvefied Phainaba-
-®U8 to allow him to attack the place wth the Gieek
66 1 PER
mercenaries only ; but he refufed this alfo, from a Fctfia,
mean jealoufy of the honour which Iphicrates might * ~ lf
acquire; and in the mean time the Egyptians recovered
fufficient courage to put themfelves in fuch a pofture of
defence, that they could not be attacked with any pro¬
bability of fuccefs; and at the fame time the Nile over¬
flowing as ufual, obliged them to return to Phcenice.
The expedition was again undertaken 12 years after,
but without fuccefs.
The laft years of the reign of Artaxerxes were great-t)chus fuer
ly difturbed by diffenfions in his family ; which at laftceeds Ar-
broke his heart, and he died in the 94th year of his^eixes.
age, and 46th of his reign. He was fucceeded by one
of his fons named Ockus, who behaved with fuch cruel¬
ty, that almoft one half of his dominions revolted as
foon as he came to the throne. But, by reafon of the
difienfions of the rebels among themfelves, all of them
were reduced, one after another ; and among the reft,
the Sidonians, finding themfelves betrayed, burnt them¬
felves to the number of 40,000, together with their
wives and children. # 4?
Ochus, having quelled all the infurgents, imme- Reduses
diately fet himfelf about reducing Egypt, and for this Egypt,
purpofe proemed a reinforcement of other 10,000
mercenaries from Greece. On his march, he loft, a
great number of his men drowned in the lake Serbonis,
which lies between Phccnice and Egypt, extending
about 30 miles in length. When the fouth wind
blows, the whole furface of this lake is covered with
fand, in fuch a manner that no one can diftinguilh it
from the firm land. Several parties of Ochus’s army
were loft in it for want of proper guides; and it is faid
that whole armies have fometimes periffied in the fame
place. When he arrived in Egypt, he detached three
bodies to invade the country in different parts ; each
being commanded by a Perfian and a Greek general.
The firft was led by Lachares the Theban, and Ro-
faces governor of Lydia and Ionia ; the fecond by
Nicoftratus the Theban and Ariftazanes; the third
by Mentor the Rhodian and Bagoas an eunuch. The
main body of the army he kept with himfelf, and en¬
camped near Pelufium, with a defign to watch the
events of the war there. The event was fuccelsful^ as
we have related under the article Egypt ; and Ochus
having reduced the whole country, dilmantled their
ffrongholds, plundered the temples, and returned to
Babylon loaded with booty.
The king, having ended this war with fuch fuccefs,
conferred very high rewards on his mercenaries and
others who had diitinguiffied themfelves. '1 o Mentor
the Rhodian he gave 100 talents, and other prefents
to a great value ; appointing him alfo governor ol all
the coafts of Alia, and committing to his care the
whole management of the war which he was ftill carry¬
ing on again ft fome provinces that had revolted in the
beginning of his reign ; and all thefe either by ftrata-
gems, or by force, he at laft reduced ; reftoring the
king’s authority in all thefe places.—Ochus then, find¬
ing himfelf free from all troubles, gave his attention to
nothing tut his pleafures, leaving the adminiftratioa
of affairs entirely to Bsgoas the eunuch, and to Men¬
tor. Thefe two agreed to lhare the power between
them; in confequenee of which the former had the pro¬
vinces of Upner Alia, and the latter all the reft. Ba-
goas.
Peffia.
per
[
4*
1 -by bir;h. an E^PtIai,» had a ?reat zeal
tor the religion of his country, and endeavoured, on
e conqueft of Egypt, to influence the king in fa¬
vour of the Egypti n ceremonies; hut. in fpite of all
is endeavours, Ochus not only refufed to comply, but
killed the facred bull, the emblem of the Egyptian god
Apis, plundered the temples, and carried away their
acred records. This Bagoas fuppofcd to be the high-
ett guile which a human creature could com fit ; and
« h ^ th^fore poifoned his mailer and benefa&or in the
S'bT'foArr o,f,ba ic''gn;, N,"r d'''1 hia *
Jagoas. tor h.e ^ePt the king s body, caufing another to be bu¬
ried in its ft end ; and becaufe the king had caufed his
attendants eat the flelh of Apis, Bagoas cut his body
m pieces, and gave it fo mangled to be devoured by
cats, making handles for fwords of his bones. He then
placed Arfes the youngeft of the deceafed king’s fons
on the throne, that he might the more eafiiy preferve
the whole power to himfelf.
^vH,feRdld not1,1on^ enJ°y even the ftiadow of power
which Bagoas allowed him, being murdered in the
TW43n feK°nd year hlS feign hy that treacherous eunuch
iinnnt 7"ferredf th,e crown on D^us Codomnnnus,
9 ? d ftant relation of the royal family. Neither did he
incline to let him enjoy the crown much longer than
his predeceflor ; for, finding that he would not fuffer
himfelf to be guided by him in *11 things, the trea¬
cherous Bagoas brought him a poifonous potion ; but
Danus got rid of him by his own artifice, caufing him
to drink the poifon which he brought. This eftablifti-
ed Darius in the throne as far as fecurity from internal
enemies could do fo; but in a very little time his do-
44 minions were invaded, and, we may fay, the fame
ytrfia con- moment conquered, by Alexander the Great The
Alexander CaiT m ^ ^are related under
«ke Great. thf e Macedon ; we fhall therefore here only
take notice of the fate of Darius himfelf, with which
be 1 erfian empire concluded for many ages. After
t e battle of Arbela, which was decifive in favour of
Alexander, the latter took and plundered Perfepolis,
from whence he marched into Media, in order to pur¬
ine Danus, who had fled to Ecbatan the capital of
hat province. 1 his unhappy prince had ftill an ar-
my of 30,000 foot, among whom were 4000 Greeks
who continued faithful to the la ft. Befides thefe, he
had 4000 flingers and 3O00 horfe, moft of them Bac
tnans, and commanded by Beffus governor of Batfria.
cn Darius aeard that Alexander was marched to
itchatan, he retired into Baftria, with a deflgn to
raifc another army; but foon after, changing his
h ft’ii l ™ed t0 venture a battle with the forces
he ftill had left. On this Beffus governor of Bac-
tna, and Nabarzanes a Perfian lord of great diftinc-
S b medra C°nfpiraCy agai',ft him’ ProP°fing to
feize his perfon,^ and, if Alexander purfued them, to
gain his friendftup and proteaion by betraying their
mafter into h.s hands ; but if they eLped/thfir d -
lign was to murder him, and ufurp the crown. The
trooos were- pafd,, —_ j f . * ■L
■67 ]
of refpefl t° *S- uuuuu mm wim poid-
en chains, and (hutting him up in a covered cart, fled
with him towards Baftria. The cart was covered
PER
royal dignity, bound him with gold- Perfia.
fiMd ^ reprefrnting to
£ 1 <*f.DW. affairs A„t
45
Barhip fei-
M by his
Ku fub-
i£^,
Darms himfelf, though informed ofSpTo^ings;
and fohcited to truft his perfon among ?he Greeks
refufed to give credit to the report, or follow fUch a
falutary counfel The_ confeqifence of this was that
he was in a i«ew days fuzed by the tutors j who, out
 A uv veut Wd
with ikins, and firangers appointed to drive it with¬
out knowing who the prifoner was. Beffus was pro-
cfauned commander in chief in the room of Darius by
the Baftnan horfe; but Artabazus and his fons, with
the forces they commanded, and the Greeks, under
the command of one Patron, retired from the body of
the army under Beffus, and marched over the moun¬
tains towards Parthiene. In the mean time Alexander
arriving at^ Ecbatan, was informed that Darius had left
the place five days before. He then difpatched orders
to Chtus, who had fallen fick at Sufa, to repair as
foon as he recovered, to Ecbatan, and from thence to
follow him into Parthia with the cavalry and 6ooo
Macedonians, who were left in Ecbatan. Alexander
himfelf with the reft of the army purfued Darius; and
the mh day arrived at Mages, having marched in
that fpace of time 3300 furlongs. Moft of thofe who
accompanied him died through the fatigue of fo long
a march ; mfomuch that, on his arrival at Rhages
he could fcarce mufter 60 horfemen. Finding that he
could not come up with Darius, who had already
paffed the Caipian ftraits, he ftaidfive days at Rhage/
w °rdcr ^ hls arm7 fettle the affairs^ of
Media. I-rom thence he marched into Parthia, and
en,C.ar"Ped at/Ia diSance from the Cafpian ftraits, .
which he pafled the next day without oppofition. He
tlmf rT' ‘Twl Parthia’ when be "M informed
that Beffus and Nabarzanes had confpired againft Da
r and de>?ff “-Whim. HereupotleavTn.
the main body of the army behind with Craterus he
advanced with a fmall troop of horfe lightly armed"
and having marched day and night without ever hilt’
ing, except .or a few hours, he came on the third day
to a village where Beffus with his Badrians had en^
rfus'hld h ^ ^ he that dI
nus had been feized by the traitors ; that Beffus had
caufed him to be fhut up in a clofe cart, which he had
r before»that he might be the more fure of his per-
therret^^^ Jh0,Ie excePt Artabazus Ld
the Greeks, who had taken another rout, obeyed Beffus
Alexander therefore taking wich him a fmall body of
ig armed horfe, for the others could not poffibly
proceed further, at la ft came in fight of the barbari¬
ans, who were marching in great confufion. His un~
expeded appearance ftruck them, though far fuperfor
in number vvithfuch terror, that they immediately be¬
took them felves to flight ; and becaufe Darius refufed
to follow them, Beffus and thofe-who were about him 41
, • Cliar£ed their darts at the unfortunate prince, leaving And 11
h>m wallowing ,n his blood. After this they all fled dcred-
different ways, and were pnrfued with great flaughter
that T Macedoman.8‘ In tl]e mean time the horfes
that drew the cart in which Darius was, flopped of
Peffn °Wn aCC°rd’- f°r -he drivers had been killed by
Leffus, near a village about four furlongs from the
highway. _ Phither Polyftratus a Macedonian, being
prehed with thuft in the purfait of the enemy, wa's
dnedecl by the inhabitants to a fountain to refrefli
himfelf, not far from the place where they ftoDoed
As he wai filling his helmet with water,^e heard
the groans of a dying man ; and looking round him
.difcovered a cart with a team of horfS, unable S
move
46
mur*.
Pfifia.
4?
His mur¬
derers pur
fued.
4S
Revolt of
the Par¬
tisans.
49
Perfian
empire
again re-
flored by
■Artaxare*
PER [ 1
move by reafoti of the many wounds they ha l re¬
ceived. When he drew near, he perceived Damia
lying in the cart, and very near his end, having leveral
darts {ticking in his body. However, he had ftrength
enough left to call for fome water, which Pply-
ftratus readily brought him. Darius, after drinking,
turned to the Macedonian, and with a faint voice told
him, that, in the deplorable ftate to which he was
reduced, it was no fm.ill comfort to him that his lait
words would not be loft : be then charged him to re¬
turn his hearty thanks to Alexander for the kindnefs
he had ftiown to his wife and family, and to acquaint
him, that, with his laft breath, he befought the gods
to profper him in all his undertakings, and m ike him
foie monarch of the univerfe. He added, that it did
not fo much concern him as Alexander to purfue and
bring to condign puniftiment thofe traitors who had
treated their lawful fovereign with fuch cruelty, that
being the common caufe ot all crowned heads. Then,
taking Polyftratus by the hand, “ Give Alexander
your hand, fays he, as 1 give you mine, and carry
him, in my name, the only pledge 1 am able to ?1V^»
in this condition, of my gratitude and affcdlion.
Having uttered thefe words, he expired in the arms of
Polyftratus. Alexander coming up a few minutes
after, bewailed his death, and caufed his body to be in¬
terred with the higheft honours. The traitor Beffus
■ being at laft reduced to extreme difficulties, was de¬
livered up by his own men naked and bound into the
hands of die Macedonians ; on which Alexander gave
him up to Oxathres the brother of Darius, to fuffer what
puniftiment he ffiould think proper. Plutarch tells us
that he was executed in the following manner : Several
trees being by main force bent down to the ground,
and one of the traitor’s limbs tied to each of them, the
trees, as they were fuffered to return to their natural
pofition, flew back with fuch violence, that each car¬
ried with it the limb that was tied to it. ,
Thus ended the empire of Perfia, 209 years after it
had been founded by Cyrus. After the death of A-
lexander the Perfian dominions became fubjedt to be-
leucua Nicator, and continued fubjeft to him for 62
years, when the Parthians revoked, and conquered the
greats ft part of them. To the Parthians they conti¬
nued ful jea for 475 years ; when the fovertignty was
again rtftored to the Perfians, as related under the
article Parthia.
The reftorer of the Perfian monarchy was Arta-
xerxes, or Artaxares, who was not only a private per-
fon, but of fpurious birth. However, ne poflefled
great abilities, by which means he executed his ambi-
tlous projt&s. De was no kroner feated on the throne
than he took the pompous title of hng of kings, and
formed a defign of reftoring the empire to its ancient
glory He therefore gave notice to the Roman gover¬
nors of the provinces bordering on his dominions, that
he had a juft right, as the fucceffor ot Cyrus, to all
the I efler Aka ; which he therefore commanded them
immediately to quit, as well as the provinces on the
frontiers of the ancient Parthian kingdom, which were
already his. The confequence oi this was a war with
Alexander Severus the Roman emperor. Concerning
the event of this war there are very different accounts.
It is certain, how ever, that, on account of his exploits
again ft Artaxares, Alexander took the titles oi Par-
68 ] ' PER
thkus and Perjicus} though, it would feem, with no ,
great reafon, as the Peifian monarch loft none of his v
dominions, and his fucceflbrs were equally ready with
himfelf to invade the Roman territories. JO
Artaxares dying after a reign of 12 or 15 years, Succeed-
was fucceeded by his fon Sapor ; a prince of great
abilities both of body and mind, but fierce, haughty, Vale-
unttaftable, and cruel. He was no fooner feated on rian the
the throne than he began a new war v/ith the Romans. Roman em-
In the beginning he was unfuccefsful: being obliged,peror pa*
by the young emperor Gordian, to withdraw from the
Roman dominions, and was even invaded in his turn ;
but, in a (hoi t time, Gordian being murdered by Philip,
the new emperor made peace with him upon terms veiy
advantageous to the Perfians- He was no fooner gone
than Sapor renewed lua mciirfions, and made fuch alar¬
ming progtefs, that the emperor Valerian, at the age
of 70, marched againft him in perfon with a numerous
army. An engagement enfued, in which the Rom .ns
were defeated, and Valerian taken ptifoner. Sapor
purfued his advantages with fuch infolence of cruehy,
that the people of the provinces took arms, fin! unoer
Calliftus a Roman general, and then under Oienatus
prince of Palmyrene. Thus they not only proteded
themfelves from the infults of the Perfians, but even
gained many great vidories over them, and drove Sa¬
por with difgrace into his own dominions. In his rqarch
he is faid to have made ufe of the bodies of his unfor¬
tunate prifoners to fill up the hollow roads, and to fa¬
cilitate the paffage of his carriages over fuch rivers as
lay in his way. On his return to Perfia, he was foli-
cited by the kings of the Cadufnns, Armenians, Bac-
trians, and other nations, to fet Valerian at liberty; 5*
but to no purpofe. On the contrary, he ufed him t“e^jmcf
worfe ; treated him daily with indignities, fet Ins foot
upon his neck when he mounted his horfe, and, as is
affirmed by fome, flayed him alive after fome years con-
finement ; and caufed his {kin to be tanned, which he
kept as a monument of his vidory over the Romans-
This extreme infolence and cruelty was followed by an
uninterrupted courfe of misfortune. Odenatus defeat¬
ed him in every engagement, and even feemed ready to
overthrow his empire ; and atter him Aurehan took
amrle vengeance for the cptivity oi Valerian. Sapor
died in the year of Chrift 273, after having reigned 3 l
years ; and was fucceeded by his fon Hormifuas, and
he by Varanes I. Concerning both thefe princes we
know nothing more than that the former reigned a
year and ten days, and the 1 tier three years; after
which he left the crown to Varanes II. who feems to
have been fo much awed by the power of the Romans,
that he durft undertake nothing. The reft of the Per¬
fian hiftory, to the overthrow of the empire by the Sa¬
racens, affords nothing but an account of their conti¬
nued invafiens of the Roman empire, which more pro¬
perly belongs to the hiftory of Rome : and to which 5*
therefore we refer. The laft of the Perfian monarchs,The Perfia»
of the line of Artaxares, was Ifdigertes or Jezdegerd, empire
as he is called by the Arabian and Perfian hiftonans, thrown bj
who was cotemporary with Omar the fecond caliph af the Sara-
ter Mahomet. He was fearce feated on the throne, cens.
when he found himfelf attacked by a powerful army of
Saracens under the command of one Sad, who invaded
the country through Chaldea. The Ptrfian general
took all imaginable pains to harafs iSie Arabs on their
j march ;
PER
Perfa. march • and having an army fuperior to them in nnm-
--v bers, employed them continually in /kirmifhes ; which
were lometimes favourable to him and fomctimes other-
W ,' ,L’Jt S,ad’ Perceiving that this lingering war
would dertroy h,s army, determined to halien forward
an orce the enemy to a genera] engagement. The
Perfians declined this for a long time ; but at length,
finding a convenient plain where all their forces might
aft they drew up in order of battle, and refolved to
thc hf°a thJ ^V^8' ifSd haV‘HK( 'h'fpofed his men in
the bei order he could, attacked the Perfians with the
n LTts/tiry p The batt,e ,afted .threc da>'s and th-
nights the Perfians retiring continually from one poll
o another, till at laft they were entirely defeated ; and
thus the capital city, and the grcateft part of the do¬
minions of Perfia, fell into the hands of the Arabs The
conquerors ferzed the treafures of theming; which
were fo vaft, that, according to a Mahometan tradition
eir prophet gave the Saracen army a miraculous view
of thofe treafures before the engagement, in order to
encourage them to fight.
Ch^rafiL11^ u’^ th'S baUle’ JezdeKerd retired into
vhorallan, where he maintained himfeif as king ha-
vmg. under his fubjeftion two other provinces, Smed
Vm77 Bfld BUt after He had rei&ned in this
hm.ted manner for 19 years, one of the governors of
the TuWrksOWThhe Y ^ befcrayed ;t’ cnlled in
the Hver r-h h'S P ^ ^ CaIied Merou> featcd «n
the mer Gihon or Odus. Jezdegerd immediately
martliEd againft the rebels and their allies. The Pcr-
tans were de.eated ; and the unfortunate monarch
h vmrrw.,, , much difficulty reached the river, found
, . ,tk bo“'> ariJ =■ filhcrman to whom it belono-
ed 1 be k,„g offered him a bracelet of precious sJt-
L tare w^fi v brU!a' imd told hi,n
.aie mor? . !rth{S A"d ^ »-'d either
r ]
PER
53
e of
5a un-
the
;ul
ics.
of Hulakuj his fon Abaka fucceeded to hfs ex ten five
t ominions; and his firft care was to fhut uP all the
tlcYf f I' TPure agai’mt ^ °tber Princ£s of Vh,
rrj, Jeng ^han, who reigned in different parts
t tary. His precautions, however, were of little
^ad^'p^ V7nbeg,nning °f hi3 re,‘gn he was
nvacedby Barkan Khan, of the race of Jagatay the
fon of Jenghiz Khan, from Great Bukharia, with an
Pre7ared3to0’CO° Yi YY WaS but inddTc!'cnt^
prepared to oppofe fueh a formidable power ; hut
happ.ly for him, his antagonist died before the armie,
came to an engagement, upon which the invaders dif
perfed and returned to Tartary. In thc year j 264
Aimerna and Anatolia were ravaged by the Mamlucks
from Lgypt, but were obliged to fiy fi-orn Abaka -
who thus feemed to he dtablifhed in the pofTelfion of
Perfkrfk- a 0S-aS extenfive as that of^the ancient
Perhan kings. His tranquillity, however, was of fhort
tr l tA^ in I-268 bis dottlinions were invaded by
Boiak .vhan, a prince likewife of the race of Jagatay,
with an army of (oo,oco men. He quickly reduced
province of Choraflan, where he met with little
oppoiition, and in 1269 advanced as far as Aderbiian’
where Abaka had the bulk of his forces. A bloidv'
Borak elredJ 'n'vb,ch Abaka was '^orious, and
h orak obliged to fly into Tartary, with the lofs of ail
in 1 grCat Prn °f bis army- Abaka died
cion of b a reign of 17 years, rot without fufpi-
cion of being poifoned ; and was fucceeded by his bro¬
ther Ahmed Khan. He was the firft of the family of
Jenghiz Khan who embraced Mahornetanifm • but
S verfo/m.t8 fU,CCef°re a?P“r ,0 b ^
hiftorv from tK * °.f ^ovtrumetlt 5 hr the Perfian
iltory from this period, becomes only an account of
nfmrea.ons, murders, rebellions, and poifo"^ tfll
lhC,ylaI^’ wben Vfr'it all to pfeces,
Jezdegerd left behind him a fon named F/rouz and
ns, I',m , T'‘e nlpoufed Bofte
the'title ""''terS have d'gnlfietl w ith
- he head of the captivity ; and who, in fa A
as the prince of the Jews fettled in Chaldea. As for
EeY’ ^rft, ,prefe1rVed 3 liu^principality; and when
he diedi left a daughter named Mih \ t!
flifhad1*'1 f^ ^ Cal'?h Aljdalrnalck, by whom"
d a,fonrnamed who became caliph ,„d
confequently fovere.gn of Perfia; and fo far wa M
prince from thinking himfeif above claiming the title
derived from his mother, that he conftantly fAlcd him
°/de
/* / TJ/T ^ ^ & V ^ IrJt
xitere- -m —• zt.A „ «ss
.7 * . ’ ‘“-’rjuje ance tors on the
P°t“v °nd,h‘
f',bica •» A»h, til. the
various ufovpe^™!^;^;'hy
conquered it as well a, all' the'reil At,”
After his death, whirl, h.  ■ • , u ur
Perfia, together with the neighbr ^ tbe I 227’
governed by officers ao minted bYh r^Y8’ A™
reigned at KeerakoromJ in the eaftern CCf<?p ’ Wh°
till the year 1253, when it became once"more theT^’
of a mighty empire under Hulaku the Mocml l,feat
1256 abplifhed the kh.hf^ n. . n MoguI> who ^
wffiom u7<-r£» ^ , Peuy Pr|nces ; all of Qnfier t
time of Timur Be^^r T 31 Wlth fcach other tdl the merlane
redurerl hh if ^ or Tamerlane, who once morean 1 hls hre*
rcouced them all under ode jurlfdiaion. veflora.
After the death of Tamerlane, Perfia continued to
be governed by h,s fon Shah Rukh, a wife and vTa ,t
pnnee: but immediately alteClm death fell Inio the
fame con.ufion aa before; being held by a great nun;.
Pf '7r3n,s' tl!! ‘be beginning of the 16th ctn.
or Sefi ,'f ‘ h„7V'0"lq"r'Kl ',y S!’ah 8.8.
cor,,. ’ r ,C <am‘1)' we ‘be following ac-
count. His father was Shevkh Hivdrr j
the fon of Sultan JuneVd, the^fon of SI P kh T.Ha>’dr’ColdJuer'a
the fon of qi, - 1 i a 1 ft oi hheykh Ibrahim, !;y Ifmacl
of Shevkh JSefi ,’ tbe ^ °f Shcfkh M“fa. ^SsS-
from All £ r fi’- 7° WeS tht ,3th in 3 direct line
When Tamerlan0.”;1".;,!,".,0! the Pr°Ph« Mahomet.
he Turkifh fultan, i.e carried with him a g eaTm.m
ter of captives out of Karamania and Anatolia a of
whom he intended to put to death on fie retrkabfe
or A °l” b,aild 7ltb fb'8 refolution he entered Ardeldl,
eaif t's,: “ C‘Vf Adarbijan.abom aj miles to ,hi
,hi' ,■ r ,'U!: "’l,Cre hc con'ini,ed for feme days. At
|m time Uved ,„ that city the Sheykh Safi ’or si
fainl anTT?’ pP111^ ‘he inhabitants to U a
f ’ c ,, h,83/U(rh» much reverenced by them The
teiri h^y^y Co much moved Tameie, ,ha
77 »”d. ^ he „as abo;‘
^56 abohlhed the khalifat, by 'ft* ^
Von.xiv:ti:”d“'h—‘e. After the dentil
^ lane’s
Pfifia.
J6
Re*gn of
£hah Ab¬
bas the
Great,
per r i-
lane’s defign to put the captives to death,, requefted of
the conqueror that he would fpare the lives of thofe
unfortunate men. Tamerlane, defirous of obliging
liim, not only granted this requeft, but delivered them
up to him to be difpofed of as he thought fit; upon
which the Sheykh furniihed them with clothes and
other necefiaries as well as he could, and fent them
heme to their refpe&ive countries. This generous a&ion
proved very beneficial to the family } for the people
were fo much affe&ed with fuch an extraordinary in-
ftance of virtue, that they repaired in great numbers to
Sari, bringing with them confiderable prefents; and
this fo frequently, that few days paffed in which he was
not vifited by many. Thus the defeendants of the
Sheykh made a confpicuous figure till the year i486,
when they were all deftroyed by the Turkmans except
Ifmael, who fled to Ghilan, where he lived under the
proteftion of the king of that country ; after which he
became confpicuous on the following occnfion.
There was at that time, among the Mahometans, a
vaft number of people difperfed over Aria ; and among
thefe a particular party who followed that of Haydr
the father of Ifmael, which Sheykh S::fi; one of his
anceftors, had brought into great reputation. Ifmael,
who had afl'umed the furname of So/i, or Sag:’, finding
that Perfia was all in confufion, and hearing that there
was a great number of the Hayderian fe£t in Kara-
mania, removed thither. There he cohefted 7000 of
his party, all devoted to the intereft of his family ;
and while he was yet only 14 years of age, conquered
Shirwan. After this he purfued his conquefts ; and
es his antagonifts never united to oppofe him, had
conquered the greateft part of Perfia, and reduced the
city of Bagdad by the year 1510. However, his
conquefts on the wreft fide were foon flopped by the
Turks ; for, in 1911, he received a great defeat from
Selim I. who took Tauris; and would probably have
crulhed the empire of Ifmael in its infancy, had he
not thought the conqueft of Egypt more important
than that of Perfia. After his defeat by Selim,
Ifmael never undertook any thing of confequence. He
died in 1523, leaving the crown to his eldeft fon
Thamafp I.
The new fbah was a man of very limited abilities,
End was therefore invaded by the Turks almoft inflant-
ly on his acceffion to the throne. However, they were
obliged to retreat by an inundation, which overflowed
their camp, and which frightened them with its red
colour, probably arifing from the nature of the foil
over which it paffed. Thamafp, however, reduced
Georgia to a province of the Perfian empire; that
cotmtry being in his time divided among a number of
petty princes, who, by reafon of their divifions, were
able to make little oppofition. _
The reigns of the fucceeding princes afford nothing
remarkable till the time of Shah Abbas I. ftirnamed
the Great. He afeended the throne in the year 1584 ;
and his firft care was to recover from the Turks and
Tartars the large provinces they had feized which for¬
merly belonged to the Perfian empire. He began with
declaring war againft the latter, who had feraed the
fineft part of Choraffan. Accordingly, having raifed
a powerful army, he entered that province, where he
was met by Abdallah Khan the chief of the Ulbeck
Tartars, The two armies lay In fight of each other
o ] PER
for fix months; but at length Abbas attacked and Perfia.
defeated liis enemies, forcing them, for that time, to
abandon Choraffin. Here he continued for three years;
and on his leaving that place, fixed the flat of govern¬
ment at Ifpahan, where it has continued ever fince.
His next expedition was againft the Turks. Under-
ftanding that the garrifen of Tauris was in no expec¬
tation of an enemy, he formed a defign of furpriftng
the place; and having privately affembled a few for¬
ces, he marched with fuch celerity, that he reached a
pafs called Siti/t, very near Tauris, in fix days, though
it is ufually 18 or 20 days journey for the caravans.
Here the Turks had polled a few foidiers, rather for
the purpofe of collefting the cuftoms on fuch commo¬
dities as were brought that way, than of defending the
pafs againft an enemy. Before they came in fight of
this pafs, Abbas and fqme of his officers left the reft
of the army, and rode brifkly up to the turnpike.
Here the fecretaiy of the cuftomhoufe, taking them
for merchants, demanded the ufual duties. Abbas re¬
plied, that the perfon who had the purfe was behind,
but at the fame time ordered fome money to.be given
him. But while the fecretary was counting it, he was
fuddenly ftabbed by the Shah’s order; and the officers
who were with him fuddenly falling upon the few foi¬
diers who were there, obliged them to fubmit; after
which he entered the pafs with his army. The go-
vernor of Tauris marched out with all the troops he
could colleft on fo fliort a warning ; but being inferior
to the Perfians, he was utterly deteated, and himfelt
taken prifoner ; after which the city was obliged to
fubmit, as alfo a number of places in the neighbour¬
hood. One city only, called Orumi, being very
ftrongly fituated, refilled all the effoits of Abbas; but
was at laft taken by the affiftance of the Curds, whom
he gained over by promifing to fhare the plunder of
the place with them. But inftead of this, he formed
a defign to cut them all off at once ; fearing that they
might at another time do the Turks a fcrvice of the
fame nature that they had done to him juft now. For
this reafon he invited their chiefs to dine with him ;
and having brought them to a tent, the entrance to
which had feveral turnings, he ftationed on4he infide
two executioners, who cut off the heads of the guefts as
foon as they entered.
After this Shah Abbas confiderably enlarged his do¬
minions, and repelled two dangerous invafions of the
Turks. He attempted alfo to promote commerce, and
civilize his fubjefts; but ftained all his great aftions
by his abominable cruelties, which he praftifed on every
one who gave him the leaft caufe of offence ; nay, fre¬
quently without any caufe at all. He took the Me of
Ormus from the Portuguefe, who had kept it fince
1507, by the affiftance of fome Englilh fhips in 1622 ,
and died fix years after, aged 70.
The princes who fucceeded Shah Abbas the Great,
were remarkable only for their cruelties and debauch¬
eries, which occafxoned a revolution in 1716, when
the Shah Huffein was dethroned by the Afghans, a
people inhabiting the country between Perfia and
India; who being oppreffed by the minifters, revolted ^
under the conduft of one bfereweis. The princes of Hiftory
the Afghan race continued to enjoy the fovereignty of Khouli
^ ° ^ A rptn-nlno- K™1’'
for no more than 16 years, when Alhraff the reigning ^
fhah was dethroaed by one of his officers*. On this
Thamafp.
PER
P'erfci. Tliamafp, otlierwifc called Prince Tbcmas, the only
-=-v ' furvivor of the family of Abbas, affembling an army,
invited into his fervice Nadir Khan, who had obtain¬
ed great reputation for his valour and conduft. He
was the fon cf a Perfian nobleman, on the frontiers of
Lilbtck iartary; and his uncle, who was his guar¬
dian, keeping him out of poflelfion of the caftle and
dtate, which was his inheritance, he took to robbing
the caravans; and, having increafed his followers to
upwards of 5000 men, became the terror of that part
. the country, and efpecialiy of his uncle, who had
feized his ehate. His uncle therefore refolved to make
his peace with him, and with that view invited him to
the caftle, where he entertained him in a fplendid man¬
ner ; but Nadir Khan ordered his throat to be cut
next night, and all his people to be turned out of the
caftle. No fooner had Nadir Khan got the command
of the Perfian army, than he attacked and defeated the
ufufper Efriff, put him to death, and recovered all the
places the Turks and Ruffians had made themfelves
matters of during the rebellion ; and then prince Tha-
mas feemed t© be eftablifhed on the throne : but Nadir
Khan, to whom Thamas had given the name of Tha-
mas Kouli Khan, that is, the Shave of Thamas, think¬
ing his fervices not fu-fficiently rewarded, and pretend¬
ing that the king had a defign againft his life, or at
leaft to fet him afide, confpired againft his fovereign,
and put him to death, as is luppofed after which, he
ufurped the throne, ttyling himfeif hhab Nadir* or
King Nadir. '
He afterwards laid fiege to Candahor, of which a
fon of Mereweis had poflefted himfeif. While he lay
at this fiege, the court of the Great Mogul being di-
firaded with fad ions, one of the parties invited Shah
Nadir to come to their affiftance, and betrayed the Mo¬
gul into his hands. He thereupon marched to Delhi,
the capital of India, and fummoned all the viceroys
and governors of provinces to attend him, and bring
with them all the treafures they could raife; and thofe
that did not bring as much as he expeded, he tortured
and put to death- Having thus amaffed the greateft
treafuie that ever prince was matter of, he returned to
Perfia, giving the Mogul bis liberty, on condition of
h;s refigmng'the provinces on the weft fide of the In¬
dus to the crown of Perfia. He afterwards made a
conqueft of Ufbek I artary, and plundered Bocliara the
capital city. Then he marched againft the Dagiftan
Tat tars ; but loft great part of his army in their moun¬
tains, w ithout fighting. He defeated the Turks in
feveral engagements; but laying fiege to Bagdad, was
twice compelled to raife the fiege. He proceeded to
change the religion of Perfia to that of Omar, hanged
up the chief priefls, put his own fon to death, and was
guilty of ffich cruelty, that he was at length affaffina-
ted by his own relations, anno j 747. A conteft upon
this enfued between thefe relations for the crown,
which has rendered Perfia a feene of the moft horrible
contuhon tor upwards of 40 years.
, --- The {eader wlIi form fome notion of the troubles of
Renders this unhappy country from the following feries of
tftcof Prc;enkte to the throne between the death of Nadir
and the acceffion or Kerim Khan We give it from
Francklin s Obfervations. “ ift, Ad.l Shah 2d. Ihra
heem Shah --3d, Shah Rokh Shah -4th, Suleeman
-ohah. 5th, Ifmacel Shah.—6th, Azad Khan Af»
f >71 ]
PER
ghan.—7th, Hoffun Khan Kejar.—-8th, All Mcrdan
Khan Bukhteari.—9th, Kerim Khan Zund. v—v*™’
“ Their reigns, or more properly the length of time
they refpeAively governed with their party, were as
follows : Adil Shah, nine months. Ibraheem Shati,
fix months. Shah Rokh Shah, after a variety of re¬
volutions, at length regained the city of Mefchid: he is
now alive (I787)» an^ above 80 years of age, reigning
in Khorafan, under the dire£ion of his fon Nuffir Ul-
lah Meerza. Suleeman Shah and Ifmaeel Shah in
about forty days were both cut off, almoft as foon aa
they were elevated. Azad Khan Afghan, one of
Kerim Khan’s moft formidable rivals and competitors,
was fuWued by him, brought prifoner to Shirauz,
and died there a natural death. Huffun Khan Kejar,
another of Kerim Khan’s competitors, was befieging
Shirauz, when his aimy fiiddenly mutinied and defeited
him. The mutiny was attributed to their want of pay.
A party fent by Kerim Khan took him prifoner. His
head was inftaatly cut off, and prefented to Kerim
Khan. His family were brought captives to Shirauz.
1 hey were well treated, and had their liberty given
them foon after, under an obligation not to quit the
city. Ah Mercian Khan was killed by a mufket-fhot
as he was walking on the ramparts of Mafchid cncou-
raging his men. Kerim Khan Zund, by birth a Cur-
ciiitan, was.a moft favourite officer of Nadir Shah*
and at the time of his death was in the fouthern pro¬
vinces. Sbirauz and other places had declared for
him. .He found means at laft, after various encoun¬
ters with doubtful fiiccefs, completely to fubdue all
his rivals, and finally to ettablifti himfeif as ruler of
all Perfia. Pie was in power about 30 years; the Kerim
latcer part of which he governed Perfia under the tip Khan en*
pelution of vakeel or regent, for he never would ieceiveJC7c<* a
the title of Shah. He made Shirauz the chief
t,58
I terent
t£a.
reign of
of his refidence, in gratitude for the affiilance he had yean.3*
received from its inhabitants and thofe of the fouthern ’
provinces. He died in the year 1779, regretted by
all his fubjeifts, who efteemed and honoured him as
the glory of Perfia.
When the death of Kerim Khan was announced in Twfmv
the city, much confufion arofe; two and twenty of the two officert
principal officers of the army, men of high rank and1 !ke
family, took poffeffion of the ark, or citadel, with ofv
refolution to acknowledge Abul Futtah Khan (the™6 Cltadc1,
eideit Ion of the late Vakeel) as their fovereign, and
to defend him againft all other pretenders ; whereupon r
Zixea Khan, a relation of the late Vakeel by the mo-zikea*
ther s fi le, who was poffefled of immenfe wealth, en- Khan
lifted a great part of the army into his pay, by giviny
them very confiderable bounties. Zikea Khan was of
the tribe of Zund (or the Lackeries) ; a man remark- 6
ably pr®ud cruel, and unrelenting. Having affembled Befieges
a arge body of troops, he immediately marched them the citadel,
to the citadel, and laid clofe fiege to it for the fpace
orthree days; at the expiration of which, finding he
could not take it by force, he had recourfe to treachery. 63
To each of the principal khans he fent a Vvritten paper, EmPIays
by which he fwore .upon the Koran, that if theytrcachcrous
would come out and fubmit to him, not a hair of theirSffie
heads ihouid be touched, and that they ffiould have I'fficers oa^
their effects fecured to them. Upon this a confii!td-a'd •''as
tion was held by them; and it appearing that they
could not fubfift many days longer, they agreed to
^ 2 furrender
PER
[ i?2 1
PER
64
Murdeied.
65
Mai iomed
Sadick
Khan at¬
tempts to
feize the
govern-*
oient,
Petfi?.. furrender themfelves, firmly relying1 on the promifes
that had been made them. Zikea Khan, in the mean
time, gave private orderb for the khans to be feized,
and brought feparately before him as they came out
of the citadel. His orders weie firiftly obeyed, and
thefe deluded men were all mafiacred in his preftnee :
he was feated the whole time, feaiiing his eyes on the
cruel fpediacle.
“Zikea Khan’s tyranny became foon intolerable, and
he was cut off by his own body-guard, when Abul
Futtah Khan, who was at the time in the camp, was
proclaimed king by the unanimous voice of the troops,
whom he immediately ltd back to Shirauz. On his ar¬
rival he was acknowledged as fovereigtr by all ranks of
people, and took quiet poffefflon of the government.
“ Mahomed Sadick Khan, only brother of the late
Kerim Khan, who had during that prince’s life filled
the high office of beglerbeg of Ears, and had been
appointed guardian of his fon Abul Futtah Khan, was
at this period governor of the city of Bttffora, which
had been taken by the Perfians, previous to the vakeel’s
death. Upon hearing the news of his brother’s de-
ceafe he became ambitious of reigning alone, and from
that inllant formed fchemes for the deltrudtion of his
nephew ; but as it was neceffary for him to be on the
fpot for the advancement of his views, he determined
to withdraw the Perilan garrifon from Buffora, who
were all devoted to his u-.tereft : accordingly he eva¬
cuated that place, and marched immediately for Shi¬
rauz.
“ The news of Sadick Khan’s approach threw- the in¬
habitants of Shirauz into the greateft eonfternation :
their minds were varioufiy agitated on the occafion ;
fome, from his known public charafter, expended he
would honeffly fulfil the commands of his deceafed
brother ; others, who had been witnefl'es to the con-
fufion of former times, on fimilnr occafions, rightly
imagined that he would fet up for himfelf; and indeed
this proved to be the cafe : for having entered Shirauz
a very few days after, he caufed Abul Futtah Khan to
be feized, deprived of fight, and put into clofe con¬
finement.
“After this event, Sadick Khan openly affumed the
government. As foon as the intelligence reached Ali
Murad Khan, who was at Ifpahan, that lord inftantly
.rebelled : deeming himfelf to have an equal right to
the government with Sadick Khan, as in fadt he had,
he could ill brook the thought of being obedient to
him, an
empite
all the horrors of a civil war. Ali Murad Khan in¬
deed took poffeffion of Shirauz, affumed the govern¬
ment, and gave to the empire the flattering profpeft
of being fettled under the government of one man ;
but this profpect W'as foon obfeured by the power and
credit acquired by Akau Mahomed Khan.”
On the night following Kerim Khan’s death, this
man found means to make his efcape from Shirauz,
and fled to the northward, where collediing fome troops,
tedhtroops, he foon made himfelf malter of Mazanderan and Ghi-
chimed^t" ^ini ani was proclaimed nearly about the time that
Mazande- Ali Murad Khan had taken Shirauz. “ It is remark¬
able (fays our author), that from his firft entering into
competition for the government, he has been fuccefsful
in every battle yhich ht has fought. He ia an eunueh,
65
Which lie
*»Fedb.
d openly declared himfelf a competitor for the
Periia was by this means again involved in
67
Akau Ma¬
homed
Khan col-
ran and
Ghilan.
having been made fo whilft an infant, by the command Perl-a.
of Nadir Shah, but poffefles great perfonal bravery.” i--’—v~—
Ali Murad Khan, hearing of the fuccefs of Akau
Mahomed Khan, determined to go againff him ; but
as be was previoufly proceeding to Ifpahan to fupprefs
a rebellion, he fell fuddenly from his horfe and expired
on the fpot.
“At this period Jaafar Khan, the eldeft and onIyjaafar
furviving fon of Sadick-Khan, was governor of Khums: Khan af-
he deemed this a favourable opportunity to affert his*ertj his
pretentions to the government, and immediately march-
ed with what few troops he h d 10 Ifpahan : foon aftervernm^f
his arrival he was joined by the greater part of the mal¬
contents, who w'ere then in arms. In this fituation
he remained feme time ; but Akau Mahomed Khan
coming down upon him with his army, he was obli¬
ged to rifle his fate in a battle, and, being defeated,
fled with the fmall remains of his troops, taking the
road to Shirauz. Soon alter finding himfelf llrength-
ened by an increafe of his army, he determined to
venture a fecond engagement with his opponent Akau
Mahomed Khan ; and for this purpofe marched with Is defcdtci
his army towards Ifpahae : the two armies met nearby Akau
Yezdekhaff, when a battle enfued, and Akau Mirho-Mahomet
rned Khan’s fuperior fortune again prevailing, Jaatarr^ian"
Khan was defeated, and retired to Shirauz, which,
he quitted on the 25th of June 1787, and flrortly after
marched his army to the northward, but returned in
OSober without having effected any thing.” Such
was the ftate of Perfia in 1788. Mr Francklin, from
whofe excellent Qbfcrvations on a Tour made hi the years
1786-7 thefe particulars are naoflly extru ded, fays
that Jaafar Khan is the mutt “ likely, in cafe of fuc¬
cefs againtt his opponent, to rettore the country to a
happy and reputable ftate ; but it will require a long
fpate of time to recover it from the calamities into
which the different revolutions have brought it:—a
country, if an oriental metaphor may be allowed, once
blooming as the garden of Eden, fair and flourittiing
to the eye ;—now, fad reverfe ! defpoiled and leaflefs
by the cruel ravages of war, and defolating conten*
tion.”
As to the air and climate of this country, confider-A;f ^n(j
ing the great extent thereof, it cannot but be very dif'climate ef¬
ferent, according to the fituation of its feveral parts ;Perfia.
fome being frozen with cold, whiift others are burnt
with heat at the fame time of the year. The air,
wherever it is cold, is dry ; but where it is extremely
hot, it is fometimes moift. All along the coatt of the
Perfian Gulph, from weft to call, to the very mouth
of the liver Indus, the heat for four months is fo ex-
ceffive, that even thofe who are born in the country,
unable to bear it, are forced to quit their houfes, and
retire to the mountains ; fo that fuch as travel in thefe
parts, at that feafon, find none in the villages but
wretched poor creatures, left there to watch theeflefis
of the rich, at the expence of their own health. The
extreme heat of the air, as it is infupportable, fo it
makes it prodigioufiy unwholefome ; .ftrangers fre¬
quently falling fick there, and feldom efcaping. The
eaftern provinces of Perfia, from the river Indus to the
borders of Tartary, are fubjedt to great heats, though,
not quite fo unwhokfome as on the coafts of the In¬
dian Ocean and the Perfian Gulph ; but in the nor¬
thern provinces* on the coaft of the Cafpian Sea, the
heat
perl;*.
PER [ ,
jbeat is full as great, and, though attended with moi»
dure, as unwhoieforne as on the coaft before mention¬
ed. From October to May, there is no country in the
world more pleafant than this ; but the people caTr**
indelible marks of the malign influence oJf their fim/-
mers, looking ail of them of a faint yellow, and ha¬
ving neither Arength nor fpirits; though, about the end
of April, they abandon their houfes, and retire to the
TOD! inf'll ns irrK 0.1.  1 r
. 71
CILniate
Sliirauz.
Li.tu uuuics, ana retire to the
mountains, which are 25 or 30 leagues from the le t.
X5ut this moiflnefs in the air is only m thefe parts ; the
reft of Perfia enjoys a dry air, the fkv be.n/ perfedly
lerene, and hardly fo much as a cloud feen to fly there¬
in. Though it feidora rains, it does not follow that the
heat admits of no mitigation : for in the night, nct-
vmhltandmg there is not a cloud to be hen* and the
iky is fo clear, that the ftnrs alone afford a l.Vht
infficient to travel by, a brifle wind fprings up, which
Idis until w.thm an hour of the morning, and gives
fueh a coolnefs to the air, that a man can bear a
tolerable warm garment. The feafons in general,
and particularly in the middle of this kingdom, hap¬
pen thus : the winter, beginning in November, and
wirh^T’ fr ’ ISlVeiy lharP and rude, attended
with trcit and fnow ; which laft defeends in great flakes
0f on the mountains, but never in the plains. The cli¬
mate of Snirauz, the capital of Pcrlia P, oper, is re-
prefented by a traveller who lately vifited it, as one
ot die moft agreeable in the world, the extremes of
beat and cold being feldom felt. “ During the fnrinm
of the year the face of the country appears uncon*
monly beautiful. I he flowers, of which they have a
great variety, and of the brightelf hues, the fragrant
, ! Illrubs» and P^nts, the rofe, the fweet bafil,
!‘nd ^re contribute to refrefh and per¬
fume tne natural mildnefs of the air. The nightingale
of toe garden (called by the Perfians boolbul Lar
dajlaan), the goldfinch, and the linnet, by their me¬
lodious warbhngs at this delightful feafon of the year,
erve to add to the fatisfaftion of the mind, and to in-
pme it with the moft pleafing ideas. The beauties of
nature are here depided in their fulleft extent ; the
JK; urai hiftonan and the botanift would here meet
with ample fcope for purfuing their favourite invefti-
gations. Wuh fuch advantages, added to the falu-
-mty c. the an, how can it be wondered at that the
inhabitants of Shirauz fliould fo confidently aflert the
pre-emmence of their own city to any other in the
world N-or that fuch beauties fliould fail of calling
fmth the poetical exertions of a Hafiz, a Sadi, or a
Jami 1 heir mornings and evenings are cool, but the
middle of the day is very pleafant. In fummer the
Sr" 7 l?f?a!,0’e 73 in day-time, and
1 ight u generally finks as low as 62. The autumn
.0 the word ot the yean, that being ,L Ze
monthaTt u'eonrd'" tht M,amul
Z loll T ' by "Ofvea as the moll unheal-
0 g colds, fluxes, and fevers being very general
In vvinter a vaft deal of fnow fails,^and ved tS,
■ut ,te is rarely to be found, except on the fi,remits
the mountains, or towards Ifpahan, and the more
northern parts of Fe, fta. One thing which is molt io
De efteemed m this country, and renders it prefemMe
t° any other part of the world, is their ni.J.ts, which
t ace S^ftar hr,ght ’the '•ew.Wintot
places is of fo pernicious and dangerous a nature, is
73 1 PER
not of the lead ill confequence here : there is none at Bttfej.
all in lurnmer, and in the other feafons it is of fuch a 
nature, that if the bnghteft feimitar fliould be expofed
to it all the mg,it, it would not receive the leall ruft ;
a eireumftance I have myfelf experienced. This dry-
m the air caufes their buildings to laft a great
that,s undoubtedly one of the principal reafon^
that the celebrated rums of Perfepolis have endured
101 to many ages, anu, comparatively fpeakinm in fo
prr ea a fta.e The great drynefs obhe airTkmp«
Pciin from thunder and earthquakes- In the fpring,
imccd, tnere fometimes falls hail; and, as the harveft
is then pretty far advanced, it does a great deal of
mifchief. Plie rainbow is feldom feen in this country'
lecaufe there rife not vapours fufficient to form it; but
m the night there feen rays of light (hooting thro’
he firmament, and followed as it were by a train of
^noke. I he winds, however brilk, feldorn fwell into
ft or ms or ternpefts ; but, on the other hand, they are
fometimes po.fonous and infeaions on the fhore of the
krulph, as all travellers agree. Mr Tavernier favs, that
ac Gombroon people often find themfelves ftruck by'a
louth wind, in iuch a manner that they cry, “ I burn l;’
T\ lmmediately fall down dead. M. le Brim tells us,.
at he was aflured while he was there, that the wea¬
ther was fometimes fo exet,'lively fultry as to melt the
^°fIrrS- At.thl31,time the Pe°PIe ^ their
Imrt , ana are continually fprinkled with cold water •
and fome even he feveral hours naked in the water A-
difno^r ^conveniences confequent from this malign
difpoiition of the air, one of the moft tetribic is the
S' enng' a:ms SUld leSs’ a kind ^ J»ng
nah worms, which cannot be cx.ra&ed without greaf
euS 08 them 5 Up°n wllich a mortification
I he foil of Perfia is in general flony fandv bar SnU'
ren a„d .v;ry„he fodryf that> if
ed, ft proouces nothing, not even grafs but where
they can turn the water into their plains and’valleys
U ts not unfruitful. There is a great difference
point of fertility m the different provinces of the em-
F.re ; and thofe of Media, Iberia, Kyrcania, and Ba -
ma are now m a great meafure what the/were for¬
merly, and furpafs moft of the others in their produc¬
tions All along the Perfian Galph, the {oil is Ml
more barren cattle lefs plenty, and every thing in a
worfe condition than anywhere elfe. G in a
does ?i! 'r' iS. !ca‘ ce a Prov-Ilce in Perfia which Pr^ciucej
dees rot produce wme, yet the wire of fome provinces &c’
mUCn more efteet;;eJ than that of others; but Schi-
ras, or, as it is written by Mr Francklin, Sbirau*, wine
is 11 n 1 verfally allowed to be the very bell in Perfia!
y (>^ack’ tkat 'I is a common proverb there, That to
ZiZ* ,he brrad Ye2d>and
. The gra‘t| moft common in Perfia is wheat; which-
* wonderfully fair and clean. As for barley, rice, and
millet they only make bread of them in feme places
c;s m Courdellan, when their wheat-bread is exhaufted
beiore the return of harveft. They do not cultivate in
this country either oats or rye ; except where the Ar-
memans ara fettled, who make great ufe of the latter
in Dent. Rice is the univerfal aliment of all forts of
people in Perfia ; for this reafon they are extremely,
careful in us cultivation ; for, after they have fov/n it
p E a
C !7+ 1
PER
Perfia. ;n the fame manner as other grain, they in three months
time tranfplant it, root by root, into fields, which are
well watered, otherwife it would never attain that per-
fe&ion in which we find it there; fince it is fofter,
fooner boiled, and more delicious, than the fame grain
in any other part of the world. Perhaps its tafte is,
in f®me meafure, heightened by a pra&ice they make
life of to give it a gloffy whitenefe, viz. by cleanfing
it, after it is beaten out of the hufks, with a mixture of
flour and fait. Corn ripens exceedingly in this coun-
'try ; fo that in fome parts they have a threefold crop
in the year. The Pcrfian bread is generally very thin,
white, and good ; and commonly cheap enough.
Metals of all forts have been found in Perfia. Since
the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, iron, copper, and
lead, have been very common ; b there are no gold
or filver mines open at prefent; though, as Perfia is a
very mountainous country, fuch might very probably
be found, if pains were taken to iearch them out.
There are fiiver mines in Kirroan and Mazanderan,
and one not far from Spauhawn ; but they cannot be
worked for want of wood. Minerals are alio found in
Perfia in abundance; efpecially fulphur, faltpetre, fait,
and alum. Nothing is more common in this country
than to meet with plains, fometimes 10 leagues in
length, covered entirely with fait, and others with ful¬
phur or alum. In fome places fait is dug out of mines,
and even ufed in building houfes. Marble, freeftone,
and flate, are found in great plenty about Hammadan.
The marblejs of four colours, viz. white, black, red
and black, and white and black. Perfia yields two
forts of petroleum, or napthe ; namely,_ black and
white. In the neighbourhood of Tauria they find
•azure; but it is not fo good as that brought from T. ar¬
tary. Among the moft valuable produftions of Perfia
are the precious {tones called turquoifes, of which there
are feveral rocks or mines. ,
The horfes of Perfia are the mofl beautiful of the
£aft, though they are not fo much efteemed as tho-fe
of Arabia; fo gieat, however, is the demand for them,
that the fineit ones will fetch from 90I. to 450I. fter-
ling. They are higher than the Englifh facdie horfes;
ftraight before, with a fnriall head, legs wonderfully
ilender, and finely proportioned ; they are mighty
gentle, good travellers, very light and fprightly, ^and
do good fervice till they are 18 or 20 years old. The
great numbers of them fold into I urkey and the Indies,
though none can be carried out of the kingdom with¬
out fpecial licence from the king, is what makes them
fo dear. Next to horfes we may reckon mules, which
are much efteemed here, and are very fine ; and next
to thefe we may juftly place afles, of which they have
in this country two forts; the firft bred in Perfia, heavy
and doltifh, as afles in other countries are ; the other
originally of an Arabian breed, the moft docile and
ufeful creature of its kind in the world. They are ufed
wholly for the faddle; being remarkable for their eafy
manner of going, and are very fure footed, carrying
their heads lofty, and moving gracefully. Some of
them are valwed at 20 1. fter'ing. I he mules here are
alfo very fine ; they pace weli, never fall, anft are fel-
dom tired. The higheft price of a mule is about 45I.
■fterling. Camels are alfo numerous in Perfia, and very
Serviceable: they call them kechty krouch-kunion, i. c.
64 the ihips of the land j’’ becaufe the inland trade is
carried on by them as the foreign is by fhfps. Of thefe
camels there are two forts, the northern and fouthern:
the latter, which is much the fmaller, but fwifter, will
carry a load of about 700 weight, and trot as fall aa
a horfe will gallop ; the other will travel with a load
of 1200 or 1300 weight; both are profitable to their
mafters, as coding little or nothing to keep. They
travel without halter or reins ; grazing on the road
from time to time, notwithftanding their load. They
are managed entirely by the voice ; thofe who direft
them making ufe of a kind-of fong, and the camel mo¬
ving brilker, or at its ordinary pace, as they keep a
quicker or flower time. The camels ihed their hair f«
clean in the fpring, that they look like fealded fwine ;
but then they are pitched over, to keep the flies from
flinging them. The camels hair is the moft proficable
fleece of all the tame beafts : fine fluffs are made of
it; and in Europe, hats, with a mixture of a little
beaver.
As beef is little eaten in Perfia, their oxen are ge¬
nerally employed in ploughing, and other forts ot la¬
bour. Hogs are nowhere bred in Pevfia, if we except
a province or two on the borders of the Cafpian Sea.
Sheep and deer are very common throughout all Per¬
fia.
Of wild beafts, the number is not great in that coua-
try, becaufe there are few forefts; but where there are
any, as in Hyrcania, now called ‘Tabrijlani abundance
of lions, bears, tigers, leopards, porcupines, wild boars,
and wolves, are to be found ; but the laft are not fo
numerous as any of the other fpecies.
There are but few infedls in this country ; which
may be aferibed to the drynefs of the climate, in fo.ne
provinces, however, there is an infinite number of lo-
cufts or gralhoppers, which fly about in fuch cloud's
as to darken the air. In certain parts of the Perfian
dominions they have large black fcorpions, fo veno¬
mous, that fuch as are flung by them die in a few
hours. In others they have lizards, frightfully ugly,
which are an ell long, and as thick as a large toad,
their fkins being as hard and tou^h as that of the fea-
dog : they are faid to attack and kill men fometimes ;
but that may be doubted. The fouthern provinces are
infefted with gnats; fome with long legs, like thofe we
call midges; and fome white, and as fmall as fleas,
which make no buzzing, but fting fuddenly, and fo
fmartly, that the fling is like the prick of a needle.
Among the reptiles is a long fquare worm, called by
the inhabitants hazar-pey, i. e. “ thoufand feet,” be¬
caufe its whole body is covered with feet; it runs pro-
digioufly fail; and its bite is dangerous, and even mor¬
tal, if it gets into the ear.
There are in Peifia all the feveral forts of fowls
which we have in Europe, but not in fuch great plenty ;
excepting, however, wild and tame pigeons, of which
vaft numbers are kept all over the kingdom, chiefly on
account of their dung; which is the beft manure for
melons. It is a great diverfion among the lower fort
of people in town and country to catch pigeons, though
it be forbidden : for this purpofe they have pigeons fo
taught, that, flying in one flock, they furround inch
wild ones as they finddn the field, and bring them back
with them to their mafters. The partridges ot this
country are the largeft and fineft in the world, being
generally of the fize of our fowls. Geefe, ducks, cranes,
& herons,
Perfia.
Perfia.
i?
PER [
herons, and many other forts of water-fowl, are common
here ; as are likewife nightingales, which are heard all
the year, but chiefly in thefpring; rnartlete, which learn
whatever words are taught them ; and a bird called
nourci) which chatters inceflantly, and repeats what¬
ever it hears. 01 birds of a larger fize, the mofl: re¬
markable is the pelican, by the Perlians called tacab,
i. e. “ water-carrierand alfo mifc, i. e. “ flieep
* See Tell- becaufe it is as large as one of thofe animals*. There
(arm. are in Perfia various birds of prey. Some of their fal¬
cons are the largeft and fineft in the world: the people
take great pains to teach them to fly at game ; the
Perfian lords being great lovers of falconry, and the
king having generally 800 of this fort of birds, each
fA which has a perfon to attend it.
Mountains, There is perhaps no country in the world which, ge-
^lers»an<i orally fpeaking, is more mountainous than Perfia ;
but many of them yield neither fprings nor metals,
and but few of them are fhaded with trees. It is true'
fome of the chief of them are fituated on the frontiers*
and ferve as a kind of natural ramparts, or bulwarks,
to this vaft empire. Among the latter are the moun¬
tains of Caucafus and Ararat, fometimes called the
mountains of Daghejlan, which fill all the fpace between
the Euxine and Cafpian feas: thofe called Taurus, and
the feyeral branches thereof, run through Perfia from
Natolia to India, and fill all the middle of the coun¬
try.
As to rivers, except the Araxes, which rifes in the
mountains of Armenia, and falls into the Kur or Cy¬
rus before it reaches the Cafpian Sea, there is not one
navigable ftteam in this country. The Oxus divides
Perfia on the north-eaft from Ufbeck Tartary. The
Indus alfo may now be reckoned among the rivers of
Perfia, as the provinces lying to the weft of that river
are now in pofltffion of that crown : this river is faid
to run a courfe of more than 1000 miles, and overflows
aft the low grounds in April, May, and June.
The feas on the fouth of Perfia are, the Gulph of
Perfia or Baflora, the Gulph of Ormus, and the Indian
Ucean. . The only fea on the north is the Cafpian, or
riyrcanian fea; which is more properly a lake, having
no communication with any other fea. Thefe feas, to-
getter w.th the lakes and rivers, fupply Pali, with
plenty of fifti. I he Cafpian fea contains very fine fifh
on one fide; and the Perfian Gulph on the other is
believed to have more filh than any other fea in the
world On the coafts of this gulph is taken a fort of
nih lor which they have no particular name : its fldh
is of a red colour, very delicious, and fome of them
weigh 200 or $00 pounds. The ri»er-fifli are chiefly
barbels; but far from being good. Thofe of the lakes
are carps and fhads. In the river at Spauhawn are a
great number of crabs, which crawl up the trees, and
we night and day under the leaves, whence they are
7S talten ; and are efteemed very delicious food.
n T»&C‘ TVyf T118 Voy®Se from Gombroon up the Perfian Gulph
Bn wlh KT^p T eV'’ent'0n °f fe"ral iflands>
2 P»- K fme Poiloar, Kyes, InJerahle, Shittewar, and Bu(h-
ecl. Some of thefe v ert quite barren; on others there
were a few tree, and hulhes, with little filhin'g town,,
and a few imall veffels ly,„g along „,ore. ^ ^
trees were thinly featured among the hills; but tho’
a ImaU portion of green might hire and there be dif-
severed, yet fuck was the barrennefs of thefe iflancU in
flan
5 ] PER
general, that it was for fome time a matter of furprife
how fneep and goats could poffibly fubfift upon them.
Un clofer examination, however, it was found, that
the foil produced a kind of fmall-Ieaved juicy mallows,
on which thefe animals principally feed. The Perfian
eoait, as they failed along, afforded a moft romantic
profpea, appearing at firft to be one continued rock,
rent and torn afunder by earthquakes; but it was af-
terwards difeovered, that fome part of it was only fand
haruened by the rains and fun. 7
Narban Point terminates in a long and low piece of
and which runs oft into the gulph from the foot of
the Perfian hills. _ Between this point and the main
land is a channel, in which a Ihip of 900 tons burden
might eafily ride. 7 he Portuguefe had formerly 4
fettiement here, the remains of which are ftill to be
leer,. A large river empties itfelf into the fea at this-
place ; and Mr Ives obferves, that “ Providence feems
here to have allotted a fpot of ground amidft unhofpi-
table rocks and deferts, capable of affording the kind
production of vegetables for man and beaft.” The ad
jacent country is fubjed to the Arabs
„ Th;,OUSh a.U the Prfa» Gulph Mr Ives remarks,
hat the fpnng.water on the iflands is much kettef
than that on the continent j and the water nearetl the
fea on the iflands has greatly the advantage over that
which is found in the middle parts. This holds good,
on ever, only in thole parts which are near [he pe .
forabout 12 miles up the count, y, both on the Per
Ban and Arabian fide of the gulph, the water is verv
good. At the ifland called Bareen or B.haren, divers
go down to the bottom of the fee, at certain known
feft wate"r Th' “rf'" "ith theIr vclrels fil1^ with
irem water, ffhis frefti water is found in holes nr
! e reaatUTheW'\U5’bfTe 'at’’0mS below t!le f"'fa“ of
1 V i, .iTh \rabs have certain the ifland
T te3ch the^ w,he;e to dlve for the frefh water Mr
himfelfahad dife 7 T f rabl’an niej'chant’ that he
J", ? had Covered a fpring upon the fhore by
which one of thefe wells was ferved. He puf into’this
rpringabitofaheavy flick, and in two o? three day!
an Arabian diver brought it to him again from the
bottom of one of thefe holes.
Hie Enghfh, and other nations, trade with the
erfians feveral ways, particularly by the p-ulpli of
Ormus at Gombroon, and by the way of Turkey A
^ade affo wa8 not many years fince opened by the
Enghfh with Petfia through Ruffia and the cJfpiau
Sea; but that is nowdifeontinued, having been prmhi-
tW r6 0f,RuflIa* who were^apprehenfive
fh- the Enghfh would teach the Perfiansto build
wkh’them C naVgation of the Cafpian Sea
tTires of Pcrf PnnaP commodl'ties and manufac-
ures of Ptrfia are, raw and wrought filks, mohair
camblets, carpets, leather; for which, and fome others,
the European merchants exchange chiefly woollen m i-
nufa£hires ; but the trade is carried on altogether in
European dipping, the Perfians having fcarce any
fh.ps of their own, and the Ruffians the foie naviga!
tion of he Cafpian Sea. There is not a richer or mle
piohtable trade in the world, than that which is carried
on between Gombroon and Surat in the Eaft Indies •
th >• lfh Erft India comPany frequently let out
ur fhips to tranfport the merchandife of the Banians
and Armenians from Perfia to India. The fhah, or fo„
vereignti
PerGa.-
76
Trad;
77
Money.
PER [ 176 ]
Perfct. vereign oFPeifia, is the chief merchant; and he ufually ignorance
—'V~—1 employs his Armenian fubje&s to traffic for him in
every part of the world. The king’s agents muft have
the refufal of all merchandife. before his fubjefta are
permitted to trade. It is computed that Perlia pro¬
duces yearlv upwards of 22,000 bales of filk, chiefly
in the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan, each bale
weighing 263 pounds. Vaft quantities of Periian filk
ufed to be imported into Euiope, efpecially by the
Dutch, Enghfh, and Ruffians, before the civil wars
began. The goods exported from Perfia to India are,
tobacco, all foils of fruits, pickled and preferved, efpe¬
cially dates, marmah.de, wines, di Hi lied waters, horfes,
Ptrfian feathers, and Turkey leather of ell forts and
colours, a great quantity whereof is aifo exported to
Mufcovy and other European countries. The exports
to Turkey are, tobacco, galls, thread, goats hair, Huffs,
mats, bex-wdrk, and many other things. As there
are no polls in the eafl, and trading by commiffion,
with the ufe of bills of exchange, is little known, traf¬
fic mull proceed in a very aukward heavy manner, in
comparifon of that of Europe.
The moft current money of Perfia are the abaffees,
worth about is. 4 d. llerling ; they are of the fineft
filver. An abaffee is worth two mahmoudes ; a mah-
moude, two ffiahees ; and a ffiahee, ten fi gle or five
double cafbeghes: thefe lait pieces are of brafs, the
others of filver; for gold is not current in trade. The
ffiahees are not very common ; but mahmoudes and
cafbeghes are current everywhere. Horfes, camels,
houfes, &c. are generally fold by the toman, which is
an imaginary coin, worth 200 fnahees, or 50 abeffees;
and they ufually reckon their eftates that way. Such
one, they fay, i? worth fo many tomans, as we fay
pounds in England,
, Perfia is an abfolute monarchy, the lives and eftates
of the people being entirely at the difpofal of their
prince. The king has no council eftablifhed, but is
advifed by fuch minifters as are moft in favour ; and
the refolutiens taken among the women of the haram
frequently defeat the beft laid defigns. The crown is
hereditary, excluding only the females. The fons of
a daughter are allowed to inherit. The laws of Perfia
exclude the blind from the throne; which is the re«fon
that the reigning prince ufually orders the eyes of all
the males of the royal family, of whom he has any
jealoufy, to be put out. The king has generally a
great many wives, which it would be death for any
one, befides the eunuchs, who have the fuperinten-
dance of them, to look at, or even fee by accident ;
wherefore, when he travels, notice is given to all men
lo quit the road, nay their very houfes, and to retire to
a great diftance.
The prime minifter is called attemaet Joulet, which
fignifies the director of the empire, and alfo wzir azem,
or the great fupporter of the empire ; as he alone al-
moft fuftains the whole weight of the adminiftration.
This minifter’s chief ftudy is to pleafe his'tnafter, to fe-
cure tohimfelf an afeendant over his mind, and to avoid
whatever may give him any uneafinefs or umbrage.
With this view, he never fails to flatter him, to extol
fiim above all the princes upon earth, and to throw a
thick veil over every thing that might help to open his
eyes, or difeover to him the weaknefa of the (late. He
tven takes particular care to keep the king in utter
PER.
to hide from him, or at leaft to foften, all
unwelcome news; and, above all, to exalt immoderate¬
ly every the lead advantage he obtains over his ene-
As he takes thefe methods, which indeed are
Perfia,
75
Goveru
ment.
mies.
and muft be taken, more or lefs, by the minifters of
every defpotic prince, to fecure the favour and confi¬
dence of his maftet ; fo the inferior officers and go¬
vernors of provinces are obliged to employ all the
means in their power to fecure the prime minifter’s,
they depending no lefs upon him than he does upon
the king. There is a gradation of defpotifin and flave-
ry, down from the prime miniller to the loweft re¬
tainer to the court, or dependent on the government.
Children are fometimes in Perlia required by the king
to cut off the ears and nofe, and even to cut the throats
of their parents ; and thefe orders cannot be objefted
to, without endangering their own lives. Indeed their
bafenefs and mercenarinefs are fuch, that they will per¬
petrate fuch atrocious deeds without the leaft A mple
or difficulty, when they have a promife or expectation
of poffeffing their pofts. The prime minifters, not-
withftanding the precarious footing on which they
ftand, in effeCt of their abilities or good fortune, fome¬
times continue in their employments during life, or, if
removed, are only baniffied to fome city, where they
are allowed to fpend the remainder of their days in a
private ftation.
Next to the prime minifter are the nadir, or grand-
mailer of the houfehold ; the mehter, or groom of the
chambers, who is always a white eunuch ; the mir-
akbor-baihe, or mailer ®f the horfe ; the mir-ihikar-
bafhe, or great huntfman and falconer; the divan-
beggi, or chief juilice, to whom there lies an appeal
from the deroga, or the lieutenant of police, in every
town ; the vacka-nuviez, or recorder of events, or firli
fecretary of ftate ; the ir.uflau-iha-elmenaleck, or ma¬
iler of the accounts and finances of the kingdom ; the
mimes humbafhes, or the king’s chief phyficians ; the
fliickada-fibaihe, or infpedlor of the palace, and re¬
gulator of rank at court; and the khans, or governors
of provinces, under whom are other governors, called
fo/tans, appointed alfo by the king.
Civil matters are all determined by the cazi, and ec-
clefiaftical ones (particularly divorces) by the iheick-
el-felieum, or head of the faith ; an officer anfwering
to the mufti among the Turks ; under him are the
iheick-el, felom, and cadi, who decide in all matters of
religion, and make all contradls, teftaments, and other
public deeds, being appointed by the king in all the
principal towns ; and next to thefe are the pichnamas,
or directors of the prayers ; and the moullahs, or doc¬
tors of the law.
Juftice is carried on in Perfia in a very fummary
manner; the fentence, whatever it mhy be, being al¬
ways put into execution on the fpot. Theft is gene¬
rally puniihed with the lofs of nofe and ears ; robbing
on the road, by ripping up the belly of the criminal,
in which fituation he is expofed upon a gibbet in one
of the moft public parts of the city, and theie left un-
til he expires in torment.
There is no nobility in Perfia, or any refpedt ihown
to a man on account o£ his family, except to thofe
who are of the blood of their great prophet or pa¬
triarchs ; but every man is efteemed according to the
poft he poffcffes; and when he is difmifled, he lofc-s
2 his
Perfi«,
I 79
Manners,
&c.
PER- [ i
Kis honour, and he Is no longer diillrgul/hed from the
vulgar
With refpeft to the forces of Perfia, their two bo¬
dies, called the Kortjhies and Gou/ans, that ferve on
horfeback, are well kept and paid, and may amount,
the former to about 22,000, and the latter to about
18,ooo-. ihe Kortfliies are defrended from an ancient
but foreign race; and the Goulans are either Georgian
renegadoes or flaves, or the children or flaves of all na¬
tions. Ihe infantry, called Tangtchies, are picked
out from among the moft robuft and vigorous of the
£?!anJ;S’ and comPpfe a hpJy of 40,000 or 50,000.
Ihe Peruans have few fortified towns, and had no
fhips of war, till Kouli Khan built a royal navy, and
among them had a man of war of 80 guns ; but fince
tue death of that ufurper, we hear no more of their
neet.
The arms of the king of Perfia are a lion couchant,
looking at the fun as he rifes over his back. His ufual
title is Shaw or Patjlaw, the “ difpofer of kingdoms.”
Ihey add alfo to the king’s titles thofe offultan, and
Man or cham, which is the title of the Tartar fove-
fCM-n\ T- aaS °f ftate the Perfian monarch does not
lubfcnbe his name; but the grant runs in this manner,
olejr J/S a£il °r U Slven by him whom the univerfe
The ancient Perfians are known to have been ex-
ceedmgly voluptuous and effeminate. After the con-
queft of the empire by Alexander, the Greek difeipline
and martial fpint being in part communicated to them,
they became much more formidable ; and hence the
Parthmns were found to be a match not only for the
feyro-Macedonian princes, but even for the Romans.
Ut their manners we know little or nothing, but that
to their valour and military Ml they joined in a fur-
pn/ing degree all the luxury and diffipation of the an-
cient Perfians.
Th'rncJern Pe.fians, like the Tmkt, plundering
all the adjacent nat.ons for beauties to breed by, are
men of a good ftature, fhape, and complexion ; but
he Gaures, or ancient Perfians, are homely, ill-fhaped,
and clumfy, with a rough fkin, and olive complexions
in forne provinces, not only the complexions but the
conftitutions of the inhabitants, fuffer greatly by the
extreme heat and unwholefomenefs of the air. The
1 erhan women, too, are generally handfome and well-
fhaped, but much inferior to thofe of Georgia and Clr-
caiiu. I he men wear large turbans on their heads
iome of them very rich, Interwoven with gold and ill!
ver ; a veft, girt with a fafh ; and over It a loofe gar¬
ment fometh mg /hotter ; with fandals, or Hippers^on
f i',r h";When ride’ w!';ch
■f.'t be but to a houfe in the fame to.n, they weal
? rnt .boots of yellow leather; the furniture of their
horfes is extremely rich, and the ftirrups generally of
fitver : whether on horfeback or on foot, fhey weir a
broad fword and a dagger in their fafh. The^refs of
the women does not differ much from that of the men •
nly their vefts ate longer, and they wear fliffened cans
on their heads, and their hair down P
With refpea to outward behaviour, fays an intelli
gent traveller, “ The Periians are certainll th, P •
Cans of the Eaft. Whilft a rude and infolen, demea"
oor peculiarly marks tlie charafter of the Turkifh I!
VorXWrST and Chr!liiaas-the t^viour cl
77 1
PER
Perfia.
the Perfians would, on the contrary, do honour to the
moft civilized nations: they are kind, courteous, civil,' v—
3ndobhging, to all flrangers, without being guided by
thofe religious prejudices fo very prevalent in every
other Mahometan nation ; they are fond of inquiring
after the manners and enftoms of Europe, and in re.
turn very readily afford any information in refpea to
heir own country. The pradtice of hofpitality is with
them fo grand a point, that a man thinks himfelf high-
ly honoured if you will enter his houfe and partake of
vhat the family affords; whereas, going out of a houfe
without fmoking a cafean, or taking any other refrefh-
ment, is deemed in Perfia a high affiont.”
1 heir ufual drink is water and fherbet, as in other
allcountr.lt,s» Wlne being prohibited ; but of
ail Mahometan nations, they pay the leak regard to
? Piroh'blV1°n- ,Many of them drink wine publicly,
,nd m°,ft a11 ,of Lthem ln Pr*vate (excepting thofe who
relmM) Th pil^rimage to Mepca, fnd men of
religion) : they alfo are very liable to be quarrelfome
hen inebriated, which is often attended with fatal
confequences. They eat opium, but in much lefs
quantuies than the Turks; and indeed in every th lg
they fay or do, eat or drink, they make a point to be
teft toeren OIl 8 7tlon as poffibIe’whom thcy
r l-]?. a mfan’ bey°nd meafure ; efteerning Jews^nd
vation!3118 Pen°r t0 them, 3nd much n?^er to fal-
. one knows> that the religion of the Periians a 8?
ior JhZT1 and ■>' ‘he oVSIcIS?:
tion Mr F 7 el!rrtuin ti‘e m°ft extravagant venera-1^101'-
however, muit be mentioned. ’
r;f‘‘ rbe'rKmo<|!e °.f UvlnS is as follows : They always
Th 1 ?Zbreak’ IU order to perform their dewotionl
Phe,,- hrft prayer is denominated mmaz foobh, or tire
morning prayer; it rs faid before funrife^ after which
they eat a flight meal called najhta or b^akfad thi
confuls of grapes, or any other fruits of the fe’afon
wnh a httle bread, and cheefe made of goa Vmtk •’
.hey , terward, dn„k a cup of very ftronf cofee w th
c d ThJpeT '■ th/" ^ Ca!ea° °r P'P' » SX
rank, alifeokf^jr high'ft “ th=
hur orhmidf^vnd h°Ur 0f/.rayer ‘S calIed "umazz'o.
or mid-day prayer, and is always repeated when
t, !/un d7 ines from the meridian. Their dinner or
S’" dt700n after Tpra^r’
7nfuaf..r ir01'*imdsi aDi;nai food
or the^fr h°Ur °f prSyer k called numaz afur%
<%fe™0OIL p[ayer’ iaid about four o’clock.
- Ahe fouith hour of prayer is mimaz /ham, or
evening prayer which is faid after fun fet; when this
is fimfhed the Periians eat their principal meal, called
fianu or fupper. This generally confifh of a pilau
ertned with rich meat fauces, and highly feafone/with
various fjnoe8 : fometimes they eat fili or roaft meat
JV hen the meal is ready, a fervant brings notice tTere-
of, and at the fame time prefents a ewer and water;
2 they
*7
Perfia.
Si
R-mark-
^hle law
tefpedting
snarriagc.
8%
Ceremony
drcn.
PER [
they then wafh their hands, which is an invariable
cuftom with the Perhans both before and aiter eating.
They eat very quick, conveying their food to their
mouths with their fingers; the ufe of knives and forks
being unknown in Perfia. Sherbets of different forts
are introduced, and the meal concludes with a defert
of delicious fruits. The fupper being finifhed, the fa¬
mily fit in a circle, and entertain each other by rela¬
ting pleafant {lories (of which they arc exceffively
fond), and alfo by repeating paffages from the works
of their mod favourite poets, and amufing themfelves
at various kinds of games. 1 he fifth and laft prayer
is ftyled numaz akhtr, the laft prayer; or fomctimes
numaz Jheb, er the night prayer, repeated about an
hour after iupper.”
The moft remarkable law among the Perfians re-
fpefts marriage. A man may divorce his wife when
he choofes, without afiigning any other reafon for the
divorce than that it is hisplcafure. If he ftiould change
his mind, he may again marry her, divorce her a fecond
time, and a third time marry her ; but here this pri¬
vilege ftops. No man is allowed to marry the woman
whom he has thrice divorced. A widow is obliged to
mourn four months for her deceafed hulband before (he
can be married to another; but a concubine may form
a new connexion the inftant that her keeper ex¬
pires.
on At the naming of children in Ferfia, Mr Francklin
rnTamhig informs us that the following ceremony is obferved :
their chil- “ The third or fourth day after the child is born, the
friends and relations of the woman who has lain-in af-
femble at her houfe, attended by mufic and dancing
girb hiied for the occafion ; after playing and dancing
fome time, a mullah or prieft is introduced, who, ta¬
king the child in his arms, demands of the mother
what name (he choofes the infant ftiould be called by ;
being told, he begins praying, and after a fhort time
applies his mouth clofe to the child’s ear, and tells him
diftinftly three times (calling him by name) to re¬
member and be obedient to his father and mother, to
venerate His Koran and his prophet, to abftain from
ihofe things which are unlawful, and to praaife thofe
things which are good ami virtuous. Having repeal¬
ed the Mahometan profefiion of faith, he then rede¬
livers the child to his mother ; after which the com¬
pany are entertained with fweetmests and other rc.iefh-
ments, a part of which the females prefent always take
care to carry away in their pockets, believing it to be
the infallible means of their having offspring thrm-
St felves.” ,
Jntelleiftual The Perfians excel more in poetry than any other
cvceiknce. fort of literature ; and aftrologers are now in as grea^
reputation in Perfia as the magi were formerly. Their
books are all manuferipts, the art of printing having
not yet been introduced among them : they excel in¬
deed in writing, and have eight different hands. They
write from the right-hand to the left, as the Arabs do.
In their {hurt-hand, they ufe the letters or the alpha¬
bet; and the fame letters, differently pointed, will have
20 different fignifications. In ftiort, the Perfians are
born with as good natural parts as any people in the
^ Eatt, but make a bad ufe of them; being great dif-
femblers, cheats, liars, and flatterers, and having a ftrong
yropenfity to voluptuoufncfs, Isixuiyi idientfs, and in-
6
8 1 PER
dolence; vices indeed to which the Afiatics In general
are much addifted.
PERSIAN Wheel. See Hydrostatics.  
PERSIC A, the Peach, is by Linnaeus referred to
the fame clafs and, genus with amygdalus; however, as
they are fo commonly reckoned to be different genera,
we have thought proper to diftinguifh them. There
are a great variety of peach-trees planted in the gar¬
dens, fome of which are preferved only for the beauty
of their flowers, but moft of them for the fake of the
fruit Of thofe remarkable for the beauty of their
flowers the principal are, I. The vulgaris, or common
peach-tree, with double flowers, which is a very great
ornament in gardens, producing very large double
flowers of a beautiful red or purple colour, and grow¬
ing to a confiderable fize. 2. The humilis, or dwarf-
almond. 3. The africana, or double-flowering dwarf-
almond. Thefe two reach not above the height of
three or four feet, though their flowers are of equal
beauty with the former.
Of the peach-trees cultivated for the fake of their
fruit there are a great number, to deferibe which p m-
ticularly would exceed the proper bounds of this ar¬
ticle. They are raifed from the ftones of the fruit,
which fhouid be planted in autumn on a bed of light
dry earth, about three inches deep and four inches
afunder. In the winter the beds fliould be covered
with mulch to proteA them from the froft. In this
bed they ftiould remain for a year ; when they are to
be taken up and planted in a nurfery, where they are
to remain one or two years; after which they rnuft be
removed to the places where they are to continue.
PERSICANA, in botany. See Polygonum.
PF.RSICUS Sinus, in anc. geegr. (Mela, Pliny) ;
a part of the lea which the Romans called Mare Ru-
brumy and the Gre eks Mare Erythreum ; wafhing A-
rabia Felix on the eaft, between which and Carmania,
entering into the , it wafttes Perfis on the fouth.
Its large mouth o s of ftraight fides, like a neck,
and then the land retiring equally a vaft way, and the
fea furrounding it in a large compafs of fliorc, there is
exhibited the figure of a human head (Mela). Theo-
phraftus calls this bay Sinus Arabic us, a name it equally
claims with Perficus, only for diftin&ion fake Perjicus
appropriated to it by others.
PERS1MON. See Diospykos.—From the perfi-
nion is made a very palatable liquor in the following
manner ; As foon as the fruit is ripe, a fufneient quan¬
tity is gathered, which is very eafy, as each tree is well
flocked w ith them. Thefe perfimon apples are pat
into a dough of wheat or other flour, formed into
cakes, and put into an oven, in which they continue
till they are quite baked and fufficiently dry, when
they are taken out again: them, in order to brew the
liquor, a pot full of water is put on the fire, and fome
of the cakes are put in : thefe become foft by degrees as
the water grows warm, and crumble in pieces at laft ;
the pot is then taken from the fire, and the water in
it well ftirred about, that the cakes may mix with it:
this is then poured into another veffel, and they con¬
tinue to fttep and brexk as many cake* as are neceffary
for a brewing: the malt is then infufed, and they pro¬
ceed as ufual with the brewing. Beer thus prepared
is reckoned much preferable to other beer. They iike-
wifc
PerSan
11
Perfimon.
per [ ,
rife make1fcrnndy rfthis fruit in the following manner:
 haviniJ collefted a fufficient quantity of perfimons in
autumn they are altogether put into a veffel, where
they he for a week till they are quite foft: then they
pour water on them, and in that ftate they are left to
ferment of themfelves, without promoting the fermen¬
tation by any addition. The brandy is then made in
the common way, and is faid to be very good, efpe-
eially it grapes (in particular of the fweet fort), which
are wild in the woods, be mixed with the perfimon
n-uit. borne perfimons are ripe at the end of Septem¬
ber, but mod of them later, and fome not before No¬
vember and December, when the cold firft overcomes
their acrimony. The wood of this tree is very good
for joiners inftruments, fuch as planes, handles to chi-
els, &c. but if after being cut down it lies expofed to
iunfhine and rain it is the firit wood which rots, and
m a year s time there is nothing left but what is ufe-
leis. When the perfimon trees get once into a field,
Ibmuch n0t g0t °Ut °f ft again’ as the7 fPredd
3 u°Tn Iady’ whom St Paul fal”tes in
his ep,file to the Romans (xvi. 12.), and whom he
for'the r' 07 fayS ^ haS ,aLoured mi)ch
or the Lord, and ftill labours. Nothing elfe of her
I.fe is come to our knowledge, nor do we know that fire
gula0"011^11 ^ 3ny ChUrCh 5 Which is Something fin-
pERSIus (Flaccus Aulus), a Latin poet in the
reign of Nero, celebrated for his fatires. He was born,
according to fome, at Volterra in Tufcany ; and ac-
cordmg to others at Tigulia, in the gulfDella Specia,
n the year 34. He was educated till 13 years old at
oJfeira; and afterwards continued his ftudiesatRome
nder a^mon the grammarian, Virginias the rheto-
r.cian, and Cornutus the Stoic philofopher, who con-
trafted a fnendfhip for him. Rerfius confulted that
illull nous friend in the cempofition of his verfes. Lu-
cian alfo ftudied with him-under Cornutus; and appear-
-d fo charmed with his verfes, that he was inceffantly
breaking out into acclamations at the beautiful paf-
fages in h,s fatires : an example rarely feen in poets of
equal rank. He was a fteady friend, a goodfon an
afiedionate brother and parent. He was chafte, meek
and modeft : which fhows how wrong it is to judge of
a man s morals by his writings; for the fatires ofPer-
fius are not only licentious, but fharp and full of bit-
ternefs He wrote but feldom; and it was fome time
before he applied himfelf regularly to it.
Perfms was of a weak conftitution, and troubled
in the3 ft0maClJ’iWhlch Was the caufe of his death
n the 30th year of his age. Six of his fatires remain •
in their judgments of which the critics have been much
divided, excepting as to their obfcurity, Perfius beintr
indeed tn, moft obfcure of all the Latin poets A, ?
Ld ;n rVS,Ttamly ,nfenor to Horace and Juvenal •
a m^ karnedT,, 1I1fl‘acCafaUbon' who
, , . nd eiaborate commentary upon him
cannot make h.m equal either of them nsTLiria’
He'was a” VirtUr a'1'5 1.earn,nS: he exceeded them both*
He was a profeffed mutator of Horace ; yet had li-tle
of Horace, w,,, eafc, and talent at ridicule Hi'
dignity 5“,he’
“o* in recmmending ,ir JL integth)” he're it
79 ] PER
that fatire becomes him. He was too grave to court fPerftn.
the mufes with fuccefs : but he had a great foul, fuf-' 
ceptible of noble fentiments, which give a grace but
to indifferent poetry. His cotemporaries thought high-
y of him Quintilian allows, that Perfius, although
he wrote but one book of fatires, acquired a great deal
o true g ory, Mu hum et vera gloria quamvis uno libro
ferjius meruit: and Martial fays much the fame thing,
oapius in hbro memoratur Perjius unoy &c.
PERSON, an individual fubftancc of a rational in¬
telligent nature. Thus we fay, an ambaffador repre¬
sents the perfon of his prince; and that, in law, the
lather and fon are reputed the fame perfon.
The word perfon, perfona, is thought to be borrow-
cd <2perfonando, from perfonating or counterfeiting;
and ,3 fuppofed to have firft fignified a mafic: becaufe,
as Loethuis interim us, in larva concavajonus volvatur:
and hence the a&ora who appeared maficed on the
ftage were fomet.mes called larvati and fometimes/Vr .
fonati He l.kewife fays, that as the feveral aftors
reprefented each a fmgle individual perfon, v'vz. CEdi-
pus, or Chremeij, or Hecuba, or Medea ; for this rea-
PeoPle» who were at the fume time diftin-
gmfiled by fomethmg in their form, charaAer, &c.
r,T7hy Seyrm,-ght be kD0Wnj CQme to be
called by the Latinsperfona, and by the Greeks rrgciroTx.
Again, as aAors rarely reprefented any but great and
illuftnous chara&ers, the word came at length to im-
port the mind, as being that whofe difpofitions cos.
H.tute the charaAer. And thus men, angels, and even
God himfelf were called perfons. Things merely cor-
to/llf1’ 88 a/ft°ne; 3 PuIant’ °r a hoife> were callei by.
po/lafes or fuppq/lta, but never perfons. Hence the
learned fuppofe, that the fame name perfon came to be
ufed to fignify fome dignity, whereby a is di-
ftmgu.fi,ed from another ; as a tether, hufband, judge
&C* 'r rhiS fenfe we arc to -'d-ftafd
that of Cicero : Caster never fpeaks of Pompey but
m terms of honour and refpeA : he does many hard
and injurious things, however, againft his perfon ”
we have already defined to mean an indivi¬
dual fubftance of a reafonable nature. Now a thing
may be individual two ways : 1. Logically, becaufe ft
cannot be predicated of any other ; as Cicero, Pteto
&C. 2. Phyfically ; ,n which fenfe a drop of water
teparated from the ocean, may be called an individual
1 erfon is an individual nature in each of thefe fenfes •
logically, according to Boethius, becaufe perfon ia not
fpoken of umvertels, but only of fingulars and indivte
but of Cice th£ perJ°n °f an animal or a man,
tes’s hand ° T lat°: and PhyficaI1y> Socra-
7, ,hand are never confidered as perfons
Phis teft kind of individual is denominated two ways-
pofitive y, when the perfon is faid to be the whole
principle of aAmg ; for to whatever thing aAion is
a tnbuted, that the philofophers call a perfon ; and ne-
gatively, as when we fay, with the Thomifts, &c. that
a perfon confifts m this, that it does not ex,-ft in an.
oLher as a more perfeA being. Thus a man, though
he confifts of two different things, viz,, body and Hi¬
nt, is not two perfons ; becaufe neither part of itfelf
is a complete principle of aAion, but one perfon, finCe
the manner of his confiftmg of body and fpirit is fuch
as conftitutes one whole principle of aAion ; nor does
he exift in any other as a more perfeA being ; as, for
Z 2
example
PER [180
Perf>n example, Socrates’e foot does in Socrates, or a drop of
^ il .. water in the ocean.
Pertomfy. Person> in grammar, a term applied to fuch nouns
" or pronouns as, being either prefixed or underftood,
are the nominatives in all infle&ions of a verb ; or it
is the agent or patient in all finite or perfonal verbs.
See Grammar.
PERSONAL, any thing that concerns, or is re-
ftrained to, the perfon : thus it is a maxim in ethics,
that all faults are perfonal.
Personal Aalon, in law, is an a&ion levied dtrettly
and foiely againft the perfon ; in oppofition to a real
or mixed aftion. See Action.
Personal Goods, or Chattels, in law, figmfies any
moveable thing belonging to a perfon, whether alive
ordead. See Chattels. .tit
Personal Identity. See Metaphysics, Part 111.
Chap. iii. , . . .
Personal Verb, in grammar, a verb conjugated in
all the three perfons ; thus called in oppofition to an
imperfonal verb, or that which has the third peifon
^PERSONALITY, in the fchools, is that which
conftitutes an individual a diftinft perfon.
PERSONALjE, is the name of the 40th order in
Linnseus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, con fitting
of a number of plants whofe flowers are furnifhed w.th
an irregular gaping or grinning petal, which in figure
fomewhat refembles the fnout of an animal. 1 he bn
of the genera of this natural order arrange them Elves
under the clafs and order didynamia angiofpermia of
the Sexual Meth*d. , .
The reft, although they cannot enter into the arti¬
ficial clafs juft mentioned, for want of the claffic cha-
rafter, the inequality of the ftamina ; yet, in a na¬
tural method, which admits of greater latitude, may
be arranged with thofe plants which they reftmble iq,,
their habit and general appearance, and particularly
in the circumftances expreffed in that title. _ .
PERSONIFYING, or Personalizing, the giving
an inanimate being the figure, fentiments, and lan¬
guage of a perfon. . . , .
Dr Blair, in his Leftures on Rhetoric, gives this
account of pcrfonification. “ It is a figure the ufe
of which is very extenfive, and its foundation laid ceep
in human nature. At firft view, and when confidered
abftraaiy, it would appear to be a figure of the utmoft
boldnefs, and to border on the extravagant and ridi¬
culous. For what can feem more remote from the
track of reafonable thought, than to fpeak of ftones
and trees, and fields and rivers, as if they were living
creatures, and to attribute to them thought and lenla-
tion, afTeftions and aaions ? One might imagine this
t9 be no more than childifh conceit, which no perfon
of tafte could relifh. In faa however, the cafe is
very different. No fuch ridiculous effe<a is produced
by pcrfonification when properly employed; on the
contrary, it is found to be natural and agreeable, nor
is any very uncommon degree of paffion required in or¬
der to make us relifh it. All poetry, even in its moft
eentle and humble forms, abounds w.th it. From
profe it is far from being excluded ; nay, m common
converfation, very frequent approaches are made to
it. When we fay, the ground thirfts for rain, or the
earth fmih with plenty ; when we fpeak of ambition 8
] PER
being re/llefs, or a difeafe being deceitful; fuch expref- Perfonify-
fions fliow the facility with which the mind can ac- ing- ,
commodate the properties of living creatures to things
that are inanimate, or to abftract conceptions of its
own forming.
“ Indeed, it is very remarkable, that there is a
wonderful pronenefs in human nature to animate all
objefts. Whether this arifes from a fort of affimilating
principle, from a propenfion to fpread a refemblance
of ourfelves over all other things, or from whatever
other caufe it arifes, fo it is, that almoft every emotion
which in the leaft agitates the mind beftows upon its
obj'e£t a momentary idea of lire. Let a man, by an
unwary ftep, fprain his ankle, or hurt his foot upon a
ftone, and in the ruffled difeornpofed moment he w ilt
fometimes feel himfelf difpofed to break the (tone in
pieces, or to utter paffionate expreffions againft it, as
if it had done him an injury. If one has been long
accuftomed to a certain ftft of obje&s, which have made
a ftrong impreffion on his imigination ; as to a houi^,
where he has paffed many agreeable years; or to fields,
and trees, and mountains, among which he has often
walked with the greateft delight; when he is obliged
to part with them, efpecially if he has no profpect of
ever feeing them again, he can fcarce avoiu having
fomewhat of the fame feeling as when he is leaving
old friends. They feem endowed with hte. They
become objedfs of his affeftion ; and, in the momeiii.
of his parting, it fcarce ftems abfurd to him to give
vent to his fetliug in words, and to take a formab
adieu. .
“ So ftrong is that imprefiton of life which is made
upon us, by the more magnificent and ftriking objefts
of nature efpecially, that 1 doubt not in the leaft of
this having been one caufe of the multiplication of
divinities in the heathen world. The belief of dryads
and naiads, of the genius of the wood and the god of
the river, among men of lively imaginations, in the
early ages of the world, eafily arofe from this turn
of mind. When their favourite rural objefts had
often been animated in their fancy, it was an eafy
tranfition to attribute to them fome real divinity, fome
unfeen power or genius which inhabited them, or in
fome peculiar manner belonged to them. Imagination
was highly gratified, by thus gaining fomewhat to reft
upon with more {lability ; and when belief coincided
fo much with imagination, very flight caufes would be
fufficierrt to eftablilh it. ,—
“ From this dedu&ion may be eafily feen how it
comes to pafs that perfonification makes fo great a
figure in all compofitions where imagination or paffion
have any concern. On innumerable occafions it is the
very language of imagination and paffion \ and there¬
fore deferves to be attended to, and examined with
peculiar care. There are three different degrees of
this figure, which it is neceffary to remark and diftm-
guifti, in order to determine the propriety of its ufe.
The firft is, when fome of the properties or qualities
of living creatures are aferibed to inanimate o! je£ls j
the fecond, when thofe inanimate objefts are introdu¬
ced as ading like fuch as have life ; and the third,,
when they are reprefented either as fpeaking to us, or
as liftening to what we fay to them.”
The ingenious profeffor goes on to inveftigate the
nature of perfomfication at confidcrable length. v.
. p E R r i
r1^ glv.e ^US 5aut,’6n ^or u^e of it in profe compo-
■ni—— ntions, in which he informs us this figure requires to
be ufed with great moderation and delicacy. “ The
fame liberty is not allowed to the imagination there as
in poetry. I he fame affiftances cannot be obtained
for raifing paffion to .its proper height by the force of
numbers and the glow of fiyle. However, addreffes
to inanimate objefts are not excluded from profe} but
have their place only in the higher fpecies of oratory.
A public fpeaker may on fome occafions very properly
addrefs religion or virtue; or his native country, or
iome city or province, which has fuffered perhaps
great calamities, or been the fcene of fome memorable
action. But we muft remember, that as fuch addreffes
are among the higheft efforts of eloquence, they fhould
never be attempted unlefs by perfons of more than or¬
dinary genius: for if the orator fails in his dcfign of
moving our paffions by them, he is fure of being-
hmghed at. Of all frigid things, the mod frigid are
the aukward and unfeafonable attempts fometimes
81 T PER
made towards fuch kinds of perfonification, efpecially Perfonify,
“ be >ng continued. We fee the writer or ing.
peaker toiling and labouring to exprefs the language 
of fome paffion which he neither feels himfelf nor can
make us fed We remain not only cold, but frozen :
snd are at full leifure to criticife on the ridiculous
figure which the perfomfied objeft makes, when we
ought to have been tranfported with a glow of enthu-
f afm. Some of the French writers, particularly Bof-
fuet and Flech.er, in their fermons and funeral ora-
turns, have attempted and executed this figure not
without warmth and dignity. Their works are ex¬
ceedingly worthy of being confulted for inftances of
this and of feveral other ornaments of ftyle. Indeed
the vivacity and ardour of the French genius is more
mted to this bold fpecies of oratory, than the more
correft but lefs animated genius of the Britifh, who in
their profe works very rarely attempt any of the high,
figures of eloquence.” “ ^
perspective.
13ERSI EC1IV E is the art of drawing on a plane
rrffmblHnce8 or pifturesof objeas,
as the objeas themfelves appear to the eye from any
difiance and fituation, real or imaginary. *
■ t v as in the ibth century thatwas re-
yiveu, or rather reinvented. It owes its birth to paint¬
ing and particularly to that branch of it which was
mpioyed in the decorations of the theatre, where Ian 1-
Jcapes were properly introduced, and which would have
looked unnatural and horrid if the fize of the obie&s
bad not been pretty nearly proportioned to their di-
ftance fr the We learn from vitruvius, that
Agatharchus, inftruaed by ^Efchvlus, was the firft
who wrote upon this fubjeft ; and ihat afterwards the
principles of this art were more didindly taught by-
emocutus and Anaxagoras, the difciples oLwT
themhUS‘ L.0f the5beory of this art, as defcribedly
them, we know nothing; fince none of their writing!
have Heaped the general wreck that was made of aS
cient literature m the dark ages of Europe. However,
^Sor2:rg in It% was acco^-ied
nilTshnffirftrPeIf0n wh° atteiriHed to lay down the
rules ot perfpea-ve was Pietro del Borgo, an Italian
Jem Kt ntj^3 t0 ^ pIaCCd he>"°nd a tranfP»:
r . vq nM l! d e?deaTred t0 traCC the imagC8 Which
ity But'we d emittfb from them, would make upon
attenfm Z k"°W, wha.t fl,ccefs ^ had in this
fubjeft is no?!! G the b°ok wThl.ch he wrote upon this
uopet ls no now extant. It is, however, very much
commended by the famous Egnazio Dante • JJ 1
on the principles of Bnr.jr, ^ ’ Ul3'
a machine ht 1 f,g’ AIbert Durer conftruffed
machine, by which he could trace the pcrfrwtive
appearance of obje&s. p-ripective
Balthazar Femlfi fttidied the writings of Bomo an!
endeavoured to make them more mtelLh.l TV,’ I
we owe the difeovery of points of lo]him
!•» line, that make aj angle o 4 “‘“"f'’
ground-line are drat™, “a litt^timlXTSuS:
rt3iian1’ foUnd that al! the lines that
e piraLel l0 one another, if they be inclined to th~
Ime •"andr,Ii.at°ih‘'1;e|t0 r"* ,h'
line und that through this point alfo, aline drawn
from the eve, parallel to them, will pafs! Thefe urffi
tlPts. together enabled him to make out a pm tv
complete theory of perfpedive. P Uy
fp^iveVv?!?^"1^18 WCre made I-n the rules of per.
1 r l by fubfequent geometricians; particularlv hv
profefTor Gravefende, and Hill more by Dr Brook Taj
lor, whole principle, are in a great meafure new a/d
/at more general than any before him. ’
In order to underflarffithe princi^es of perfpeaive
will be proper to _ Per pexttve.
k be P-P- <0 confider the Xeon'Xffi tl’
reprefejuatmn is to be made as tranfparent, and inter -
- btepXe'd': 'Vta1 fopttr r,h'
dowlooka through an u^riLe^ ^Z;
ojeH beyond it, and, keeping his he?.d filady draw!
the figure of the objedf upon the elafs withal l 1 1
of
tion cf 5V kW°Uld then have a true reprefenta-
eyg. e ° Jt m PeAPccdlye as it appears to hi>
eyV aZthafhe k0' Z” it and h^
tye, and tnat he keeps his eye clofe to the hole • other
wife he might fiuft the pofition of his head, and conffil
quently make a falfe delineation of the obieH
i-Dvmg traced out the figure of the obW, he mav
ZTutVZVyh Ptn "‘d ink; and-ben thaul
o/wiTZ h ^ ^PCr Up°n and trace it there.
1 • • Pencil: then taking away the paper nnri
aymg it on a table, he may fiofft thepifture by givfo>
*' dolours, lights, and lltades, as he /eejthem if
th© r
f$2
PERSPECTIVE.
the objeft itfelf; and thw he will have a true re fern-
blance of the objeft. , . . , f
To every perfon who has a general knowledge ol
the principles of optics, this mull be felf-evident: For
as vifion is occafioned by pencils of rays coming in
ftrai rht lines to the eye from every point of the yifible
objeft, it is plain that, by joining the points in the
tranfparent plane, through which all thofe pencils re-
fpe<ftively pafs, an exadl reprefentation muft. be formed
of the objeft, as it appears to the eye in that particular
pofition, and at that determined dittance : and were pic¬
tures of thing’s to be always firlt drawn on tranfparent
planes, this fimple operation, with the principle on
which it is foun ’.ed, would cornprife the whole theory and
practice of perfpeaive. As this, however, is far from
being the cafe, rules muft tie deduced from the faiences
of optics and geometry for drawing reprefentations of
vifible ohjedls on opaque planes ; and the application
of thefe rules conftitutes what is properly called the
art of perfpedtive.
Previous to our laying down the fundamental prin¬
ciples of this art, it may not be improper to obferve,
that when a perfon ftards right againit the middle ofone
endof along avenue or walk, which is ftraight and equal¬
ly broad throughout, the hides thereof feem to approach
nearer and nearer to each other as they are further
and further from his eye ; or the angles, under which
their different parts are feen, become lefs and lefs ac¬
cording as the diftance from his eye increafes; and if
the avenue be very long, the Tides of it at the fartheft
end will feem to meet: and there an objed that
would cover the whole breadth of the avenue, and be
of a height equal to that breadth, would appear only
to be a mere point. See Optics, n° 219, 220.
Having made thefe preliminary obfervacions, we now
proceed to the pradice of perfpedive, which is built
upon the following
(Fundamental) THEOREM I.
Let abed (fig. 1. Plate CCCLXXXIIL) reprefent
the ground-plan of the figure to be thrown into per-
foedive, and efgh the tranfparent plane through
which it is viewed by the eye at E. Let thefe planes
interfed in the ftraight line k L Let B be any point
in the ground-plan, and B E a ftraight line, the path
of a ray of light from that point to the eye. This
will pafs through the plane efg h in fome point 3; or
B will be feen through that point, and b wnl be the
pidure, image, or reprefentation of B.
If BA be drawn in the ground plan, making any
angle BAK with the common intenfedion, and EV
be drawn parallel to it, meeting the pidure-plane or
perfpedive-plane in V, and VA be drawn, the Point *
f8 in the line VA fo fituated that BA is to EV as £A
t0 For fince EV and BA are parallel, the figure
BAZVEiB is in one plane, cutting the perfpedive-
plane in the ftraight line VA ; the triangles BA*,
EV*, are fimilar, and BA : EV = *A : *V.
Cor 1 if B be beyond the pidure, its pidure *
is above the interfedion kb; but if B be between the
eye and the pidure, as at B', its pidure * is be-
l° 2. if two other parallel lines BA', ES, be drawn,
and A', S, be joined, the pidure of B is in the inter-
fedion of the lines AV and A'S.
3. The line BA is reprefented by *A, or *A is the
pidure of BA ; and if AB be infinitely extended, it
will be reprefented by AV. V is therefore called
the •vawjhing point of the line AB.
4. All lines parallel to AB are reprefented by lines
converging to V from the points where thefe lines in¬
terfed the perfpedive plane ; and therefore V is the
vanilhing point of all fuch parallel lines.
5. The pidures of all lines parallel to the perfpec-
tive plane are parallel to the lines themfelves.
6. If through V be drawn HVL) parallel to k the
angle EVH is equal to BAK.
Remark. The propofition now demonftrated is not
limited to any inclination of the pidure-plane to the
ground-plane ; but it is ulual to confider them as per¬
pendicular to each ocher, and the ground plane as ho-
lixontal. Hence the line * / is called tV^ ground line%
and OH the horizon-line; and VK, perpendicular to
both, is called the height of the eye.
If ES be drawn perpendicular to the pidure-plane,
it will cut it in a point S of the horizon-line dire&ly
oppofite to the eye. This is called t\\t point of fight t
or principal point.
7. The pidures of all vertical lines are vertical, and
the pidures of horizontal lines are horizontal, becaufe
thefe lines are parallel to the perfpedive plane.
8. The point of fight S is the vanifhing point of
all lines perpendicular to the perfpedive plane. _
The above propofition is a fufficient foundation for
the whole pradice of perfpedive, whether on dired or
inclined pidures, and ferves to fuggeft all the various
pradical conftrudions, each of which has advantages
which fuit particular purpofes. Writers on the fubjed
have either confined themfelves to one conftrudion,
from an affedation of fimplicity or fondnefs for fyftem;
or have multiplied precepts, by giving every conftruc-
tion for every example, in order to make a great book,
and give the fubjed an appearance of importance and
difficulty. An ingenious praditioner will avoid both
extremes, and avail himfelf of the advantage of each
conftrudion as it happens to fuit his purpofe. We
{hall now proceed to the pradical rules, which require
no confideration of interfeding planes, and are all per¬
formed on the perfpedive plane by means of certain
fubftitutions for the place of the eye and the original
figure. The general fubftitution is as follows:
Let the plane of the paper be firft fuppofed to be
the ground-plan, and the fpedator to ftand at F
(fig 2.) Let it be propofed that the ground plan is
to be reprefented on a plane furface, {landing perpen¬
dicularly on the line GKI of the plan, and that the
point K is immediately oppofite to the fpedator,
or that I‘K is perpendicular to GL : then FK is
equal to the diftance of tjie fpedator’s eye from the
^ Now fuppofe a piece of paper laid on the plan with
its ftraight edge lying on the line GL ; draw on
this paper KS perpendicular to GL, and make it
equal to the height of the eye above the ground-plan.
This may be much greater than the height of a man,
becaufe the fpedator may be Handing on a place
raifed above the ground-plan. Obferve afto thatjvb
P E R S P E
rsuir be mealurcd on the fame fcale on which the
ground-plan and the diftance FK were meafured.
Then draw HSO paralLl to GL. This will be a ho-
nzontal line, and (when the p-dture is fet upri'"}^ n»»
GL) w.ll be on a level with the fpedator’a eye/and
the point o will ne dirtily oppofite to his eve. It is
therefore called the principal point, or point of fight. The
didanee of his eye from this point will be equal to
Therefore make SP (in the line SK) eq.ial to
X’lv, ana P is the projefting point or fubftitute for
ne piace o the eye. It is fometimes convenient to
place I above S, fometimes to one fide of it on the
Horizontal line, and in various other fitnations : and
writers, ignorant of, or inattentive to, the principles of
the theory, have given it different denominations, fuch
^ point of defiance, point of view, &c. It is merely a
■ ,?r,po'"t K-in fiS' '• and its
ai htuation is below, as in this figure.
1 he art of perfipeftive is conveniently divided into
i:T*XHY;<Which teaches how to make a perfpec!
' T11? 1 ° ll^Ures on 3 P,ane> commonly called the
SCEff®GRAFHY» which teaches how
this plan ° !U fi^UreS’ °r fuch %uref* as are raifed above
Prob-i-
point of the ground-plan. J &
r- „ F'rft general conftruftion.
ecctixin V * B an-d P 2*^ draw 311 y two parallel lines
eccLxxun.BA, PVf cutting'he ground-line and honzon-line inA
^ i. th^Lw'Jf B ’ AV’ Cntti”S ‘:ilCh othcr in i’
For it is evident that BA, PV, of this fiirure are
BA?PV=TAEfv. a"d EV °f ^ '• a"J
f nIf oo be ,drawn Perpendicular to GL, PV will
PS, ,and nc„ed n°t be drawn. A V will be A'S
fame witi, ^rguf^ C0'‘,l'Ua;"n' a"d “ ^
Second general conffregion.
Draw two lines BA, BA", and two lines PV, PD
parcel to them, and draw AV, A"D, cutting each
other s h: 5 is the pidure of B by Cor. a.^This con-
f,rU.a,°n 13 Jhe foundation of all the rules .df perfpedi ve
that are to be fouad in the Looks on this AibL They
appear in a variety of forms, owing to the iVnorance nr
inattention of the authors to the principled The ^
mod generally adhered to is as follows f
i-, 3-). Perpendicular to the ground-
to BA "sS, ,0(r,h|l?°"“ ",f 0Bd f'* 0,r Af! equal
, .yd' S't °LSD. c<lral ‘0 tht ‘liftance of the eve
r'?10" rrora S that e is fr""1 A.
pi4LeE oth E “n 0'’Por,,e fid« “f
p*cture, otherwife fet them the fame way. D is called
the pomt „f d „,nce Ura„ tD; cu,/-
h s is evidently equivalent to drawing and PS
perpenJieuW to the grouud.llue a„,l hliaou Hu"! a!d
*itfc the additltT^Lidah, uf,4,r."''’,,> "’fr lin"’
off ^ and SD, Xh 1. Sdt
This ufual conftrudfion, hoxvev^r >
lar and the point of dinahe.Wr.IVrT n
vtonvenieni j and two points 0, dpia'' , y "P1'
?£ fftS- " f- a" P«n« . o, the g™;rpLr
hrft general ct,nllrua.on requires Hill fewei lines,
C T I V E.
be •dra.'!'n pAptmlicular to GL, becaufe PV
Will then coincide with PS. rv
n Ti a rphi,d ^eDcraI conftruaion.
the i h fr°m §iVen P0int B perpendicular to
rh J f jeAaHd At> to tile P°,nt From
the pomt of diftance D fet off Drf equal to BA on
he fame or the contrary fide a3 s> accoqrd;^°a8BBAi; 2
Join Tr tl,<r/0,mrarJ of ‘ho piaure as the eye.
piau,; of£ r ™fl7'kl to “'t 4 is ,h<;
f- r . ror are equal to tho dif
SD^LlsHr Slven P°int from thePiaure> and
original ^ef'huj0" d°e8 na-tUraIIy arife from the
the? r • ’ f 18 a geoinetncal confequence from
their pofition and magnitude ; and it is of all others
din?* §fTra,Iy TVenient>.aS the P-pendifuLr
aln ct-i • .n^ nutnher °f points may be arramred
Se^dTo the'r^l r ’ a'Ld theh d’rea fitustions
t ansterred to the ground-hue by perpendiculars fuch
^^v^tK:faevha^d"a“iD«para'^
who pradife drawing b''"'-fq„are, ufed by all
Prob, 2. T. put any Jlratght Urn BC (fig. 4.) c/-
th' ground plan m perfpeaive. * 4 J ^
of thp i*1 C p.I<iture8 c> its extreme points by anv
ftrafght ST® COnftrUa:0nS’ a"d joi“ ‘hem by the
very'^Li";co^tti COnl*rUai°" ^
of the fundamental 8 POin'’ by Cor-d'
draweTtordea Lc<>htchon?P« nC' and of the
r i • .1Uch confiru(5lions as are moft fuitaM^
to the mnltiphcity of the figures to be drawn. *
pL 1 pllpS!™’ «/ »“srounj.
blem L'lcUr11"1® iine8 ‘he pro.
The variety of conftruaions of this problem P ,
great, and it would fill a volume ^give rt^
po uts'"^ llTTfi f.0"vJ.nient i! t" <i»d ‘he vanilhing
Jr18 or the bounding fines, and conned thefe with
the po,„ts or their inttrfeaio„ with ,h~r3 "“h
‘0 PUt ‘h£ fqUare ABCD
•o ab: r-.ia
gronnd.line in «, ,, f, ,, a’nd Vaw7v “v’.w'nw
putting each other in %ie,, ,he ^ ^
rpV^' ihe demonftratiofi is evident 4
us conftrudtion, however, runs the figure to oreat
diftances on each fi Je of the mta 11 r i t0 g e 1
»i,„ k c v. . , or Ule middle Ime when anv of
ground li°„e mgn!l' parallel torte
co,n:ehneience0.Wing (*«•«•) -oida this in.
dii ular,^ f: ^T'n' mT,- ,DraW t!,t P"?'"-
tv/, ? » '-e* L‘ , and the lines Ac. Bf Co-
Ur T m0 PD- L>ri» S., S-, 4 and Dl
>, g, 1 h, cutting the former in /, L c j tu*
angles of the picture. » > > "> the
ft is not neceffary that D be the ooint of
only tfor linpo u/* c * ^ or Giltance^
- y tie iineo Aet Bf, Sec. muff be parallel to PD.
Remark.
j8;4 P E R S P E
Remark In all the foregoing conftruaions the ne-
ceffary lines (and even the finifhed piaure) are fre¬
quently confounded with the original figure. To
{■void this great inconvenience, the writers on per-
fpedive direa us to tranfpofe the figure ; that is, to
transfer it to the other fide of the ground line, by pro-
ducing the perpendiculars A«, B'h O, DJ, till aA',
AB', See. are refpeaively equal to Aa, Bd, &c. ; or,
inllead of the original figure, to ufe only its tranfpofed
fubftitute A B C D'. This is an extremely proper
method. But in this cate the point P mutt alfo be
tranfpofed to P' above S, in order to retain the firft
Plate or moll natural and fimple conltruaion, as in fig. 7. ;
cctLxxxm. where it is evident, that when BA=AB', and SP—SP',
and BP' is drawn, cutting AS in we have
bA :^S = B A : P S, = BA : PS, and b is the piaure
of B : whence follows the truth of all the iublequent
^onftruaions with the tranfpofed figure.
Prob. 4. To put any curvilineal Jigure to the ground-
plan into perfpeSive. _
Put a fufficient number of its points in perfpeaive
by the foregoing rules, and draw a curve line through
them. . r cs- 1 r
It is well known that the conic fedrons and iome
other curves, when viewed obliquely, are conic feaions
or curves of the fame kinds with the originals, with
different pofitions and proportions of their principal
lines, and rules may be given for deferibing their pic¬
tures founded on this property. But thefe rules are
very various, unconneaed with the general theory ot
perfpeaive, and more tedious in the execution, with¬
out being more accurate than the general rule now gi¬
ven. It would be a ufelefs afieftation to infert them
in this elementary treatife. , , • r
We come in the next place to the delineation ot
figures not in a horizontal plane, and of folid figures.
For this purpofe it is neceffary to demonftrate the fol¬
lowing
THEOREM II.
The length of any vertical line ftanding on the
ground plane is to that of its piaure as the height of
the eye to the diftance of the horizon line from the
piaure of its foot. „ .
T et BC be the vertical line ftanding on B, and let
EF be a vertical line through the eye. Make ED
equal to EF, and draw DE, CE, BE. It is evident
that DE will cut the horizon line in fome. point CD
will cut the piaure plane in c, and BE will cut it in b,
and that be will be the piaure of BC, and is verti-
cal, and that BC is to ^ as BD to b d, or as EF to
b (I
Cor. The piaure of a vertical line JivUeJ in
the fame ratio as the hue itfeh. l or B_ : BM_
b c \ bm. , „ . 1 ,1 :
Prob. 5. To Pnt a vertical line of a given length tn
Perfpeaive (landing on a given point oj the piaure.
Through the given point b (Fig. 8.) of the pAT-ire,
draw Si A from the point of fight, and draw the ver¬
tical line AD, and make AE equal to the length or
height of the given line. Join ES, and draw b e pa-
lallel to AD, producing be, when neceffary till it
cut the horizontal line in dy and we have be :bd,zz
AD : AE, that is, as the length of the given line to
G T I V E.
the height of the eye, and i r/is the diftance of tine
hoi-:zon-line from the point i, which is the picture of
the foot of the line. Therefore (Theor. 2.) i c is the
required pi&iire of the vertical line.
This problem occurs frequently in views of archi-
te&ure; and a compendious method of folving it would
be peculiarly convenient. For this purpofe, draw
a vertical line XZ at the margin of the picture, or on
a feparate paper, and through any point V of the ho¬
rizon-line draw VX. Set off XY, the height of the ver¬
tical line, and draw VY. Then from any points b, r,
on which it is required to have the pictures of lines
equal to XY, draw bS, rty parallel to the horizon line,
and draw the verticals S«, t v : thefe have the lengths
required, which may be transferred to b and r. Phis,
with the third general conftru&ion for the bafe points,
will lave all the confufion of lines which would arife
from conftru&ing each line apart.
Prob. 6. To put any Jloping line in perfpeaive.
From the extremities of this line, fuppofe perpendi¬
culars making the ground plane in two points, which
we (hall call the bafe points of the Hoping line. Put
thefe bafe points in perfpeftive, and draw, by laft pro¬
blem, the perpendiculars from the extremities. Join
thefe by a ftraight line. It will Le the pidure re¬
quired.
Prob. 7. To put a fqua re in perfpeaive, as feen by a
perfon not funding right againf the middle of either oj
its fides, but rather nearly even with one of its corners.
In fig. 9. let ABCD be a true fquare, viewed by an
obferver, not ftanding at 0, directly againft the middle
of its fide AD, but at O almcft even with its corner
D, and viewing the fide AD under the angle ADD ;
the angle AoD (under which he would have ieen AD
from 0) being 60 degrees.
Make AD in fig. 10. equal to AD in fig. 9. and
draw SP and 00 parallel to AD. Then, in fig. xo.
let O be the place of the obferver’s eye, and SO be
perpendicular to SP; then S ftiall be the point of fight
in the horizon SP.
Take SO in your compaffb, and fet that extent
from S to P : then P (hail be the true1 point of di¬
ftance, taken according to the foregoing rules.
From A and D draw the ftraight lines AS and
DS ; draw alfo the ftraight line AP, interfeding DS
in C.
Laftly, to the point of interfedion C draw BC pa¬
rallel to AD ; and ABCD in fig. 10. will be a true
perfpedive reprefentation of the fquare ABCD in
fig. 9. The point M is the centre of each fquare, and
AMC and BMD are the diagonals.
Prob. 8. To put a reticulated fquare in perfpeaive, as
feeti by a perfon funding oppojite to the middle of one
of its Jules. ... *
A reticulated fquare is one that is divided into fe-
veral little fquares, like net-work, as fig. 11. each fide
of which is divided into four equal parts, and the
whole furface into four times four (or 16) equal
fquares. _ .
Having divided this fquare into the given number
of leffer fquares, draw the two diagonals A * C and
B.vD. . c -
Make AD in fig. 12. equal to AD in fig. 11 - fnd
divide it into four equal parts, as A e, eg, g 1, and 1 D.
Draw SP for the horizon, parallel to AD, anu,
through
P E R S P
through the middle point j- of AD, draw OS perpen-
dicular to AD and SP.-—Make S the point ol fight,
and O the place of the obftrver’s eye.
1 aKe SP equal to SO, and P lhali be the true point
of dittance.— Draw AS and DS to the point of light,
and AP to the point of diftance, interfeding DS in
C : then draw BC parallel to AD, and the outlines
of the reticulated fquare A BCD will be finifhed.
From the divifion points' e, gy i, draw the llraight
lines e f, g h, i k, tending towards the point of light
S ; and draw BD for one of the diagonals of the
fqmne, the other diagonal AC being aheady drawn.
Through the points r and j, where thefe diagonals
cut e/ and //, draw/m parallel to AD. Through
the certrf point x, where the diagonals cut g/j, draw
«« pncild to AD -Daftly, through the points i and
w, where the diagonals cut e/and drawp? paral-
Jd to AD; and the reticulated perfpedfive fquare will
be nniln'ed. 1
This fqunte is truly represented, as if feen by an ob-
lerver handing at O, and having his eye above the ho-
nzontal plane ABCD on which ft is drawn ; as if OS
was the height of his eye above that plane: and the
Date 1‘nes which derm the fmall fquares within it have tl-e
ceci.xxxiiifame letters of reference with thole in %. u. Vvhich
is drawn as it would appear to an eye placed 'perpen¬
dicularly above its centre je.
Prob. 9. To put a circle in per/pedive.
. If a circlf Le vIewed by an eye pht'ed directly over
its centre, it appears perfectly round, but if it be ob
liquely viewed, it appears of an elliptic d Hiape. Th-’s
is plain by broking at a common wine-glafs fet unriobt
on a table. ^ ®
Mike a true reticulated fquare, as fig. u. PJaf«
CCCLXXXriL of the fame diameter as you would
have the circle; and fetting one foot of your conv
pTes in the centre x, defenbe as large a circk as the
fifes of _ the fquare will contain. Then, having put
this reticulated fquare into perfpedive, as m fi r. ,2
01 ferve thcough what points of the crofs lines and dia-
gonals of fig. i i. the circle pfTes ; and through the
JiRe points in fig. 12. draw the ellipfis, which will be
as true a penpediye reprefen tat ion of the circle, as the
Iquare m tij. 12. in of the fquare in fig. 1 1.
iliis ir Mr Fergufon s rule for putting a circle in
perfpedive ; but the following rules by Wolf are per¬
haps more univerfal. J *
If the circle to be put in perfpedive be fmall, dc
fen, e a fquare about it. Draw firft the diagonals of
ti.e iq.uate, and then the diameters l a and de ('fi r r
Plate CCCLXXXIV.) cutting one anolht
tX? gi^W7fchc lines 'S and b c parallel to
ffn vT % i' 1 hrC^h 1 and/™d e ind
fk d ft! gH uineS m<CUn< the ?iOURd 1,fie ®f
- l , ,n t!?e peants 3 and 4. To the principal
po.nt \ draw the firaight lines 1 V, 3 V, 4 V, - V
r A, o tbe F°!nt8 01. f-‘fiance L and iC 2 L and . K
Dafi.y, join the points of iiitevkdkm «, 6, d, f h
eAC> b? ,thf arcs/^ * Jj\ and , h dj hg c’i£
the circle m perfpeftive. J 6 Ue
l(th' circle be Crre fo to make f ■
pra6,ee inconvenient, Infect the ground lire S-\ if
defci ibing, ftom the point of bifeft *„ M , Cenfte , f
feimurcle .nGc (tig. 2. Plate CCCLXXXIV , ' 1
Iron, any num! er of points in the ci^umference C F
Vol. XIV. Pan I.° t!K gru"nJlhc petpendi-’
E C T I V E.
Cl,hr, Cl, Fa, G 3. H 4, I ,, . From tt]e
rmms A, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, B, draw firaight lines to the
principal point or point of fight V, likewife ftraight
lines from B and A to the points of difiance L and
X. . hr0ugh the conyrnon interfedions draw ftraight
I nes as in the preceding cafe ; and you wull have the
points a, c,f, g, h, i, b, reprefentr.tives of A, C, F, G,
?• . The" j°in ,the P°‘nt8 a, c,f, 8cc. as former,
ly dmedted, and you have the perfpedive circle acf*
hibibgfc a. J ^
Hence it is apparent how we may put not only a
cucle out alfo a pavement laid with Hones of any form
in perfpedive. It is likewife apparent how uftful the
fquare is in perfpe&ive ; for, as in the fecond cafe, a
true fquare was deferibed round the circle to be put
m peHpedive, and divided into feveral fmaller fquares,
o in this third cafe we make ufe of the femicircle only
for the fake of brevity infiead of that fquare and circle.
I rob. 10. To put a reticulated fquare m perfpeShe, as
Jeen by a perfon not jlanding right againji the middle
of either of its Jules, but rather nearly even with one of
its corners. " J
In fig. .3. Phte CCCLXXXIII, let O be the place
Ot an obferver, viewing the fquare ABCD almoft even
Wlth lts cornei H -Draw at pleafure SP for the ho¬
rizon, parallel to AD, and melee SO perpendicular to
S. : then S fiiall be the point of fight, and P the
true point of diftance, if SPbe made equ 1 to SO.
Draw AS and DS to the point of fight, and AP
o the point of dtftance, interfeamg 1>S in tbe point
C i then draw EC parallel to AD, and the outline, of
the perfpeihve fquare will he fimihed. This done,
draw the line, trlitch form.the leffer fquatea, a, taurid
m / rob. b. and the work will be comple ted —You may
put a perfpedive circle in this fquare by the fame ‘rule
ss it was done in fig. 12.
Prob. 14 To put a cube in perfpedive, as if viewed
by a perfon Jlanding almoft even with one of its edves,
and feeing three of its Jidesi 6
In fig. tf,. Plate CCCLXXXUL let All be the
■ Hao.h o. either of the itx equal iquare fide, of the
cube A(., i Otcc p. ice ot the obferver, almoft even
W,;„ he edge CD ot tbe cube, S the point of tight,
‘i t Parallel to AD, and P the point of
difiance tuften as before. 1
Make A BCD a true fquare ; draw BS and CS to
the point ot fight, and BP to the pome of diftance,
mterfechng CS in G.— Then draw FG parahel to
BC, and tlie uppermofi perfpedive fquare fide BFGC
ct the culie will be fiuilhed.
Draw DS to the point of fight, and AP to the
point of difiance, interfeding DS in the point I: then
oraw Cl parallel to CD ; and, if the cn! e be an
opaque one, us of wood or metal, all the outl aw of
it will 1 e fimfiied ; and then it may be fiiaded as in the
figure.
But if } 011 want a perfjietdtve view of a tranfpirent
guds cube, all the fi les of which will be f en draw
AH toward the pome of fight, FH parallel to BA
and HI parallel to AD ; then A FI ID will be the
fee bak of rise cube, perfpedivtly parallel to the ton
BIGC ; ABFH will be the fquare fide of ihe cube
para hi to CGID, and FGIH will be the fqnare fi C
parallel to ABCD. 4 L U~c
As to the ftading part of the work,it is fucli mere
ciuiurenB r.-ny, in companfon of drawing the lines
a which
»86
P E P. S P I
whlek form the fljape of any ohjeft, that no rules need
be piven for it. Let a perfon fit with his left fide to¬
ward a window, and he knows full well, that if any
folid body be placed on a table before him, the light
will fall on the left-hand fide of the body, and the
right-hand fide will be ip the (hade.
Prob. i To put any [olid in perfpeBiw.
Put the bafe of the folid, whatever it be, in per-
fpe&ive by the preceding rules From each bound¬
ing point of the bafe, raife lines reprefenting in per-
fpe&ive the altitude of the objeft ; by joining thefe
lines and (hading the figure according to the direc¬
tions in the preceding problem, you will have a fee-
nographic reprefentation of the objeft I his rule is
general; but as its application to particular cafes may
wot be apparent, it will be proper to give the follow-
lowing example of it.
Prob. 16 To put a cule in perfpedive as feen from
one of its angles.
Since the bafe of a cube (landing on a geometrical
plane, and feen from one of its angles, is a fquare fecn
fromoneof itsanglesjdrawtirfi: fuch a perfpe&ivefquare:
then raife from any point of the ground-line DE
(Fig. 3. Plate CCCLXXXIV.) the perpendicular HI
equal to the fide of the fquare, and draw to any point
V in the horizontal line HR the (Iraight lines VI
and VH. From the angles db and c draw the dot¬
ted lines d 2 and c I parallel to the ground line DE.
Perpendicular to thefe dotted lines, and from the
points 1 and 2, draw the ftraight lines L x and M 2.
Laftly, fince HI is the altitude of the intended cube
hi a, Li in c and bt M 2 in d, draw from the point
a the ftraight line fa perpendicular to a E, and from
the points b and r, bg and c e, perpendicular to be 1, and
aide being according to rule, make fl/=:HI, bg — ec
~L I, and h d— M 2. Then, if the points g, h, <?,/,
be joined, the whole cube will be in perfpe&ive.
Prob. 17. To put a fquare pyramid in perfpeSive, as
(landing upright on its bafe. and viewed obliquely.
In fig. 4. n° 1. of Plate CCCLXXXIV. let AD be
the breadth of either of the four fides of the pyramid
ATCD at its bafe ABCD; and MT its perpendicular
height. Let O be the place of the obferver, S his
point of fight, SE his horizon, parallel to AD
and perpendicular to OS ; and let the proper point
of diftance be taken in SE produced toward the left
hand, as far from S as O is from S.
Draw AS and DS to the point of fight, and DL
to the point of diftance, interlefting AS in the point
B. Then, from B, draw BC parallel to AD ; and
ABCD (hall be the perfpeaive fquare bafe of the py-
Draw the diagonal AC, mterfeamg the other dia¬
gonal BD at M, and this point of interfeaion (hall
be the centre of the fquare bafe.
Draw M P perpendicular to AD, and of a length
equal to the intended height of the pyramid: then
draw the ftraight outlines AT, CT, and D T; and the
outlines of the pyramid (as viewed from O) will be
finifhed; which being done, the whole may be fo
(haded as to give it the appearance of a folid body. '
If the olferver had ftood at 0, he could have only
feen the fide ATD of the pyramid ; and two is the
greateft number of fides that he could fee from any
other place of the ground. But if he were at any
height the pyrataidf and had hi? eye directly
: C T I V E.
over its top, it would then appear as in N° 2. and he
would fee all its four fides E, F, G, H, with its top t
juft over the centre of its fquare bafe ABCD ; which
would be a true geometrical and not a perfpe&ive
fquare.
Prob. 18. To put two equal [quarts in perfpeflive%
one of which Jhall be dire Elly over the other, at any
given djjlance from it, and both of them parallel to the
plane of the hori%on.
In fig. 5. Plate CCCLXXXIV. let ABCD be a
perfpeftive fquare on a horizontal plane, drawn accor¬
ding to the foregoing rules, S being the point of
fight, SP the horizon (parallel to AD), and P the
point of diftance.
Suppofe AD, the breadth of this fquare, to be
three feet; and that it is required to place juft fuch
another fquare EFGH dire&ly above it, parallel to it
and two feet from it.
Make AE and DH perpendicular to AD, and two
thirds of its length : draw EH, which will be equal
and parallel to AD ; then draw ES and HS to the
point of fight S, and EP to the point of diftance P,
interfefting HS in the point G : this done, draw FG
parallel to EH ; and you will have two perfpe&ive
fquates ABCD and EFGH, equal and parallel to
one another, the latter direftly above the former, and
two feet diftant from it; as was required.
By this method (helves may be drawn parallel to
one another, at any diftance from each other in pro¬
portion to their length.
Prob. 19. To put a truncated pyramid in perfpedive.
Let the pyramid to be put in perfpeftive be quin-
quangular. If from each angle of the furface whence
the top is cut off, a perpendicular be fuppofed to fall
upon the bafe, thefe perpendiculars will mark the
bounding points of a pentagon, of which the fide.s will
be parallel to the fides of the bafe of the pyramid
within which it is inferibed. Join thefe. points, and
the interior pentagon will be formed with its longed
fide parallel to the longed fide of the bafe of the py¬
ramid. From the ground-line EH (Fig. 6. Plate
CCCLXXXIV.) raife the perdendicular IH, and
make it equal to the altitude of the intended pyramid.
To any point V draw the ftraight lines IV and HV,
and by a procefs fimilar to that in Problem 16. deter¬
mine the fcenographical altitudes a, b, c, d, e. Con-
neft the upper points/,^, h, i, k, by ftraight lines ;
and draw lk,Jm, gn, and the perfpeftive of the trun¬
cated pyramid will be completed.
Cor. If in a geometrical plane two concentric cir¬
cles be deferibed, a truncated cone may be put in
perfpe£Hve in the fame manner as a truncated pyra¬
mid. ✓
Pros. 20. To put in perfpedive a hollow prifm lying
on one of its Jides.
Let ABDEC (fig. 7. n° 1.) be a fe&ion of fuch
a prifm. Draw HI parallel to AB, and diftant from
it the breadth of the fide on which the prifm reds ;
and from each angle internal and external of the prifin
lee fall perpendiculars to HI. The parallelogram will'
be thus divided by the ichrvographical procefs below
the ground-line, fo as that the fide AB of the reap
prifm will be parallel to thr correfponding fide of the
fcenographic view of it.- -To determine the altitude
of the internal and external angles. From H (n° 2.)
raife HI perpeinlicular to the ground-line, and on it
, P E R S P
mark off tke trot altitude! H I, H 2, H 3, H 4, and
n 5. Then if from any point V in the hsrizon be
drawn the ftrarght lines VH, Vi, V2, V3, V t
V 5 or VI; by a procefs fimilar to that of the preced¬
ing problem, will be determined the height of the in-
ternal angles, viz. I==«*, 2=r^, 4~JJ; and of the
external angles, jzzer, and 5-ef ; and when thefe an-
gles are formed and put in their proper places, the fee-
aograph of the prifm is complete.
Pro B. 2 i . To put a fquare table in perfpeaive, /land¬
ing on four upright ftu are legs of any given length 'with
rejped to the breadth of the table.
In fig. 5. Plate CCCLXXXIV. let ABCD be
the xquare part of the floor on which the table is to
fland, and -EFGH the furface of the fquare table,
parallel to the flo«r.
Suppofe the table to te three feet in breadth, and
its height from the floor to be two feet; then two
thirds of AD or EH will be the length of the legs i
Ch’ju perfXr (/and m) being °f ,he ramc
ABrnng two<,e<)ual and Parallel fquare.
BCD and EFGH, as ihown in Prob. 10. let the
legs be fquare in form, and fixed into the table at a
diftance from its edges equal to their thicknefs. Take
A a and D d equal to the intended thicknefs of the
legs, and abznAdc alfo equal thereto. Draw the
diagonals AC and BD, and draw flraight lines from
the points a, b, c d, towards the points of fight S, and
terminating at the fide BC. Then, through the pmnts
here thefe lines cut the diagonals, draw the ftraight
lines n and o / and y, paraUel to AD ; and you will
have formed four perlpedive fquares (like ABCD in
fig. 4^n° I.) for the bafes of the four legs of the table :
and then, it is eafy to draw the four upright legs by
parallel lines, all perpendicular to AD ; and to fhade
them as in the figure.
To reprefent the intended thicknefs of the table-
hoard, draw eh parallel to EH, and HG toward the
point of fight S : then Ihade the fpaces between thefe
finS’ed.^ thC perfpeaive figure of the table will be
Prob. 22. To put five fquare pyramids in perfpeaive,
Jiandmg upnght on a fquare pavement compofed of the
fur faces of 81 cubes. J
In 8 Plate CCCLXXXIV. let ABCD be a
pei peftive fquare drawn according to the forecoi'nir
Tiles i S the point of fight, P the poifi't of dilbncf
AC and BD^the two d^t
D ‘''e'0,9 f'1"al part" (hecaufc 9
• . 9 r ab> be, &c. and from thefe
&c' draw toward
fidcPBC of ,!.ghtr S’ '‘rn’'"atlr'E « <lie furthermoft
„i 1 r ,aie p<luare‘ T-hen, through the points
para,lLi ,fA™aCndlLdlag0rna,A’dT ft'aight """
will be fubdivld’edlmo 8, KP'fVC ^BCU
the upperfurfaceV,” 8. ^fr. Trr’r
the,’, fides in a fquL form ‘ C '0 °ne aI10-
pent ulfro ADf^t'wTN1 T ^ t’ f"d P"-
Of light St then dtaw KL 'U
diftance Irom AD will be equal to A a ATh’'
E C T r V E.
lei to A K ; and the fpace ADLK will be fubdivided
into nine equal fquares, which are the outer upright
ABCD °f tHe mne CUbCS 10 the flde AD of the f<luare
Draw LN toward the point of fight S ; and from
he points where the lines, which are parallel to AD
m this fquare, meet the fide CD thereof, draw Abort
hnes to LN, all parallel to DL, and they will divide
that fide into the outer upright furfaces of the nine
cubes which compofe it: and then the outfides of all
the cubes that can be vifible to an obferver, placed
wilt bPer°add ““ fr°ra th£ COrn'r D °f the f1“a--
As taught in Prob. 17. place the pyramid AE up*
right on its fquare bafe At va, making it as high as
you pleafe ; and the pyramid DH on its fquare bafe
aww D, of equal height with AE.
Draw EH from the top of one of thefe pyramids
top of the other; and EH will be parallel to
Draw ES and HB to the point of fight S, and
■Hr to the point of diftance P, interfe&ing ES in F.
rrom the point F, draw FG parallel to EH ; then
FP-rw?’ an.^ J011 Wl11 have a perfpeaive fquare
FpG^ teal!d ^ ^BCD) whh it8 two diagonals
EG and FH, interfeding one another in the Centre
of the fquare at f. The four corners of this fquare,
1, G, H, give the perfpeaive heights of the four
^1T f t > F’ SG’and DHi a”d the
S u dia^onal8 glves the height of the pyia-
id MI, the centre of whofe bafe is the centre of the
perfpeaive fquare ABCD.
. place the three pyramids BF, CG, MI un
right on their refpeaive bafes at B, C, and M ; and
perfPeaive »-eprefentation will be flniftied,
as in the hgure. *
PT-A3‘ T° ptf, Uprtght PyramUs ” perfpeaive, oh
ejides of an ob/ong fquare or parallelogram ; fo that
their dtflances from one another pea/l be equal to the
breadth of the parallelogram.
fid1" °[rhe for^oln^ operations we have con-
fidered the obferver to be fo placed, as to have an ob-
Pe[fpeaive obJeas : ^ this, we
Plate CCcfxyYTvbr & ^ V1’ew ef ^ 8-
. ate ^LXXXIV. that is, ftanding right againft
t ic middle of the end AD which is neareft to hif eye,
and viewing AD under an angle of 60 degrees. *
Having cut AD in the middle, by the perpendicu-
lar hne b r take S therein at pleafure for the point of
ig r , and thaw LS for the horizon, parallel to AD,
Here b j mult be fuppofed to be produced down¬
ward, below the limits of the plate, to the place of the
obferver; and bL to be produced towards the left hand
beyond E, far enough to take a proper point of di¬
ftance therein, according to the foregoing rules.
A,ake VV ‘r Ple3rfure’ and equal to A d, for
the breadths of the fquare bafes of the two pyramids
A I?F1ACCTXt the eye : then draw AS a,ld
and hkewife DS and g S, to the point of fight S ;
and DG on to the point of diftance, interfe&ing AS
in G : ti en, from G draw G1 parallel to AD, and
you will have the firft perfpe&ive fquare AG ID of
the parallelogram ABcD.
ftafr°m 1 drao1H [° (or tovvard) the point of di¬
ftance, intcrfcamg AS in H; then, from H draw
A a 2 UK
IS7
)S3
HK o-.rallel to AD, and von will have the fecoml
perfpeftive fquare GHKl of the parallelogram.-—Go
on in this manner till you have drawn as many per-
fpeftive fquares up toward o as you pleafe.
Through the point e, where DG interietts gb,
draw bf parallel to AD ; and you will have formed
the two perfpedtive iquare bafes Abe d and e/Dg of
the two pyramids at A and D
PERSPECTIVE.
work. Then, draw LF toward the point of fight
S 5 and, from the points where the lines i, 2, 3, 4,
&c. meet the line DC, draw lines down to LI‘, all
parallel to DL ; and all the vifible lines between the
cubes in the firlt table will be finilhed.
Make iG equal and. perpendicular to&i, and ^ M
equal and parallel to i G : tnen draw GM, which will
be equal and parallel to z q. From the points i l, mnt
From^he1 point8/(tbTupper outward corner of ef &c. draw kn,lo, mp, &c. all parallel to i G, and the
D^) draw/I toward the point of diftance, till it outfides of the feven cubes in the itde G? of the fe*
meets AS in h; then, from this point or meeting,
draw7w parallel to GI, and you will have formed
tne two perfpeftive fquares G h i k and Im Ih, for tne
fquare bafes of the two pyramids at G and I.
* Proceed in the fame manner to find the bafes of all
the other pyramids, at the corners of the retl ^of the
perfpecVtve fquares in the parallelogram AjjCD, as
fhown by the figure.—Then, _ ^
Havino" placed the firft two pyreuruds at A ana D
upright on their fquare bafes, as fhow'n in Prob 9.
and made them of any equal heights at plenfure, draw
ES and FS from the tops of thefe pyramids to the
cond table will be finilhed.
Draw GS and MS to the point of fight S, and MP
to the point of diltance P, interfetting GS in Hj
then, from the point of interfe£tion H, draw HI pa¬
rallel to AD ; and you will have the furface GHIM
of the fecond table of cubes.
From the points «, o, p, <7, &c. draw black lead
lines toward the point of fight S, till they meet the
diagonal MH of the perfpedlive fquare furface GHIM;
and draw s M, with black ink, toward the point of
light.
Prom thofe points where the lines drawn from n, o9
ES an .1 FS rom the top, o he e PX™" £ “ c. mKt fhe di , MH> .iraw black lead line*
pomt of fight S : place all the reft of the pynm.da /./, 8 ^ the wl,ote fitft
upright on their refpeftive bafes, making their tops
touch the llraight lines ES and PS ; and all the work.,
except the lhading part, will be finilhed.
Pros. 24. T0 put a fquare pyramid of equal fixed cubes
in perfhcEtive*
Fig. 2. Plate CCCLXXXV. reprefents a pyra¬
mid of this kind; confiftihg as it were of iquare
to Ml, all parallel to AD; only draw the whole firft
line y 1 with black ink, and the parts 2, 3> 4j anr^
nt, 0 u, pv, See. of the other lines between y N and
MI, and GM and y x, with the fame ; and rub out all
the reft of the black lead lines, to avoid further confu-
fion. Then, from the points where the Ihort lines i,
2, 3, &c. meet the line MI, draw lines down to q P.»
mid - of this kind; con 1 ting as it were or iqua.c - ^ j M and the outer furfuces of the feven
table, of cubes, one table above another; 8i ,n the •“j*”"1*0 . c : and all thefe
loweft, 49 in the next, 25 in the third, 9 in the fourth,
and 1 in the fifth or uppermoft. Thefe are the fquare
numbers of 9, 7, 51 3, and 1.
If the artift is already mafter of all the preceding
operations, he will find lefs difficulty in this than in
attending to the following defeription of it : for it
cannot be deferibed in a few words, but may be exe¬
cuted in a very Ihort time.
In fig. 1. having drawn PS for the horizon, and
taken S for the point of fight therein (the obferver
being at O) draw AD parallel to PS for the fide
(next the eye) of the firft or lowermoft table of cubes.
Draw AS and D8 to the point of fight S, and DP
to the point of diftance P, interfe&ing AS in the
point B. Then, from B, draw BC parallel to AD,
and you will have the furface ABCD of the firft table.
Divide AD into nine equal parts, as A a, a b, b c,
cd, See. then make AK and DL equal to A a, and
perpendicular to AD. Draw KL parallel to AD, and
from the points of equal divilion at a, b, c, Sec. draw
lines to KL, all parallel to AK. Then draw h S to
the point of fight S, and from the divifion points a, b,
c, Sec. draw lines with a black lead pencil, all tending
towards the point of fight, till they meet the diago¬
nal BD of the fquare. _ L1 ..... ’
From thefe points of meeting draw blacK lead lines
cubes in the fide ME will be liniihed ; and all thefe
laft lines will meet the former parallels 2, 3* 4>
the line q E. _ ,,
Make / O equal and perpendicular to yand P
equal and parallel to r O ; then draw OP, w'hich will lie
equal and parallel to ty.—X his done, draw OS and PS
to the point ot light S, and PP to the point of di¬
ftance P in the horizon. Laftly, from the point
where PP interfedls OS, draw QR parallel to OP ;
and you will have the outlines QQJXP of the furfacc
of the third peffpeftive table of cubes.
From the points «, v, w, x draw upright lines to
OP, all parallel to t O, and you will have the outer
furfaces of the five cubes in the fide Oj of this third
table. .
From the points where thefe upright lines meet Ui ,
diaw lines toward the point of fight S, till they meet
the diagonal PQ_J and from thefe points of meeting
draw lines to PR, all parallel to OP, making the parts
2, 2, 4, 5> of thefe lines with black ink which he
between ZY and PR. Then, from the points where
thefe lines meet PR, draw lines down to y N ;
which will bound the outer furfaces of the five cubes
in the fide PN of the third table. •
Draw the line ^ t with black ink ; and, at a fourth
part of its length between $ and Z, draw an up-
• _ . s-% 1 #    X- A. ^ ^ L — 4- I 11 •* t ri V
4, Sec. between h E and DC. _
Having drawn the firft; of thefe lines £ q with black
ink, draw the parts a i, b k, cl. Sec., (of the foimer
lines which met the diagonal BD) with black imc al-
fo ; and rub out the reft of the black lead lines, wbictx
would ctherwife confufe the following psit of the
then draw SV parallel to <r Z, and draw the two up¬
right and equidiftant lines between i Z and SV, ana
you will have the outer furfacea of the three cubes xa
the fide SZ of the fourth table.
Draw SS and VS to the point of fight b in the
horiaon, and VP to the point of diftance therein^ in-
terfca.ng SS m T j then draw TU parallel to SV
and you have STUV, the furface of the fourth tahle’
vvhRh being retrculatcd or divided Into 9 perfpeaive
small fquares, and the uppermoft cube W placed on
the middlemoft of the fquares, all the outlines will be
hmfhed ; and when the whole is properly lhaded, as
in hg. 2. the work will be done.
Prob. 25. 70 reprefent a doublecro/s in perfpe&tve.
Pl!!e CCCLXXXV. i« A BCD and
, , H be tvvo perfpeaive fquares, equal and paral
itl to one another, the uppermoft direcftly above the
iowermoft, drawn by the rules already laid down, and
as rar afunder as is equal to the given height of the
upright part of the crofs ; S being the point of light,
and I the point ot diftance, in the horizon PS taken
parallel to AD,
nAulDIu’ aad CG; then AEHD and
1 H -jL fhad be the two vifible Tides of the upright
part of the crofs ; of which, the length AE is here
made equal to three times the breadth EH.
KidiV,^DHrtu Jhree CqUaI Parts» HI’ IK- ^
ED. Hirough thefe points of divifion, at I and K,
draw MO and PR p rallel to AD; and make the
-p nsMN, 10, PC^KK, each e<,„al to Hi: then
draw hi I and OR parallel to DH.
From M and O, draw MS and OS to the point
o light h ; and from the point of diftance P draw PN
cutting MS in T: from T draw TU parallel to MO,
anc meetmg OS in U ; and you will have the upper¬
moft furface M . UO of one of the crofs pieces ofthe
igure.-_ Fr°m R, draw RS to the point of fight
OItviZ/Tk UudraW rUV Paralld to OR’ and
Vbr the PeifPeafve fquare end next the
e of tn it crols-part.
Draw PMX (as long as you pleafe) from the point
of diftance P through the corner M ; lay a ruler to
Nand S, and draw XN from the line Pcc;~then
Jay the ruler to I and S, and draw YZS.-Draw XF
parallel to MO, and make XVV and YB equal and
perpendicular to XY : then draw WB naraUel t« YY
and WXYB fhall be the fquare nillA^Tof Zll
crofs-part of the figure. nC1
„ j'7npiZ’rd ,he PT of r,sht s : Md
U draw UI to the pent of diiiancs P, interfeaino
is in Z : then, from the interfedion Z, draw Z a
para Id to MO, and Z b parallel to HD, and the
whole delineation will be finifhed.
Phis dene, Jhade the whole, as in fig. 4. and you will
hai e a true perfped.ve reprefentation of a double crofs.
^ rows of upright fquare objeOs
perfpeatve, equalmfi%e, and at equal di/lances from
r™,! 7 °bJong fquare plane, the breadth
Lj’iJtf °f “"s ik
prrfef;“fl.XXXV. i, a perfpeaive re-
long a8a;t ■ ?bI°n? fcluare Plane» three times as
r h t . „ ^r°ad, having a row of nine unright
bl i;C.tJthTaC!\,fit!e’ and
flanba A-L ' a"his*, and at aqua! di-
b°th and crofa-
P the n?,*- 6't the hon’2on’ 8 ^e point of fi^ht,
and AU (paraiid “
,1 E)ra.w and to the point of fight S »
£he point N bang in the middle of the line AD ;-
perspective.
and draw D? to the point of diftance P, interfering
AS in the point B : then, from B draw BC paralll
t0 rru a'ld y°tl 13Ve the PerfP^ive fquare A BCD
1 hrough the point /, where DB interfeds NS
draw a e parallel to AD ; and you will have fubdivided
the perfped.ve fquare ABCD into four leffer fquares,
as A a i N, N / <? D, a B i i, and ikCt.
r 1,rom the point C (at the top of the perfpedive
fquare A BCD) draw CP to the point of diftance P,
mterleding AS in E ; then, from the point E draw
H pmaUcl to AD ; and you will have the ftcond
perfpedive fquare BEFC. .
1 hr'>»eph the point /, where CE interfeds NS, draw
/parallel to AD ; and you will have fubdivided the
fquare BE PC into the four fquares Bblh, klfQ.
0 fL.m l, and Im F/. J ’
F (avBthe ,top of tl,c P'rfp'a^ -
iquare BLFnx) draw fP to the point of diftance P
interfeding AS rn I; then from the point I draw
X parallel to AD ; and you will have the third per¬
fpedive fquare EIKF. p
1 hrough the point n, where FI interfeds NS, draw
eg paralFl to AD; and you will have fubdivided the
fquare EIKFinto four leffer fquares, E c n m, m ng F,
cion, and n 0 l£g, St
From the point K (at the top of the third perfpec-
tive fquare ElKF) draw KP to the point ofdifta^ce
I, mterfedmg AS.in L; then from the point L
draw LM parallel t° AD; and you will have t£
fourth perfpedive fquare 1LMK.
Through the point p, where KL interfeds NS,
craw dh parallel to AD; and you will have fubdivided
tne tquare tLMK into the four leffer fquares l dp 0,
e/> /.> X, dL.qp, and p qMh. P
thus we have formed an oblong fquare ALMD
bisftiperipi 1Ve length is ^ to foar twits’
b.eapth, and it contains 16 equal perfpedive fquares.
-If greater length was ftill wanted, we might pro-
ceed further on toward S. 8 p
l ake A 3 equal to the intended breadth of the fide
of the upright fquare object AQ/all the other fidea
being of the fame breadth), and AO for the intended
height. Draw O 1 8 parallel to AD, and make D 8
onq t0 A tbtn draw 3 5, 4 7 and
n 111 the Pointr^ hght S; and among them we
ftiall have the perfpedive fquare bares of ail the 27
upright objeds on the plane. '
I hrough the point 9, where DB interfeds 8 S
draw 1 ip parallel to AD, and you have the three per!
of theVthfqUare ba %A 1 2 3> 4 5 6 7, S 9 ioPD,
tlu three upright fquarc objeds at A, N, andD.
hrough the point 21, where eb interfeds 8S
thZ I4’fI IA.paraI,el t0 AD; Jind y°u will have the
th.et perfpedive fquares a 14 15 16 17 18 ! 9 20, and
2J. 1 ‘ f 22’ bafes of the fecond crofs row
?iJand D3^2 7’ thS ntXt bey°nd the three at A,
Through the point where CE interfeds 8 S
draw a hne paraHei to BC ; and yon will have three
peifpedive fquares, at B, ht and C, for the bafes of
the third row of objeds ; one of which is fet up at B.
1 hrough the point .v, where/e interfeds 8 S. draw
me parallel to bf; an.! you will have three oerfpec-
ive fquares at b, /, and .v, for the bafes of the fourth
crofs row of objeds. rni
Go on in this manner, 33 you fee in the figure, to
" find;
I £9
*9®
Plate
CCCLXXXV.
P E R S P
find the reft of the fquare bafes, up to LM; and you
will have 27 upon the whole oblong fquare plane, onA
which you are to place the like number of objefts, aa
in fig. 5* .
Having affumed AO for the perfpeftive height ot
the three objedls at A, N, and D (fig. 6.) next the
obferver’s eye, and drawq O 18 parallel to AD, in
order to make the objects at N and D ot the fame
height as that at O ; and having drawn the upright
lines 4 15, 7 W, 8 X, and D 22, for the heights N
and D ; draw OS and RS, 15 ^ anfi Wb, and
22 S, all to the point of fight S : and thefe lines will
determine the perfpetlively equal heights of all the
refi of the upright objects, as Ihown by the two placed
at a and B.
To draw the fquare tops of thefe objefts, equal and
parallel to their bafes, we need only give one example,
which will ferve for all.
Draw 3 R and 2Q_parallel td AO, and up to the
line RS ; then draw PQ^parallel to OR, and OPQR
(hall be the top of the objed at A, equal and parallel
to its fquare bafe A I 2 3—In the fame eafy way the
tops of all the other ©bjeds are formed. .
When all the reft of the objeds are delineated, (hade
them properly, and the whole perfpedive fcheme will
have the appearance of fig. 5.
Prob. 27. To put a fquare box in perfpeSive, containing
a given number of lejfer fquare boxes of a depth equal
to their width.
Let the given number of little fquare bexes or cells
be 16, then 4 of them make the length of each fide
of the four outer fides ab> bc> c d, da, as in fig. 7.
and the depth af is equal to the width ae. Whoever
can draw the reticulated fquare, by the rules laid down
towards the beginning of this article, will be at no
iofs about putting this perfpedive fcheme in pradice.
Prob. 28. To put flairs with equal and parallel Jleps in
iT^uof Plate CCCLXXXVI. let ab be the
given breadth of each ftep, and a i the height thereof.
Make be, td, de, &c. each eqtial to a b and draw
all the upright lines a i, bl, cn, dp, &c. perpendicu¬
lar to ah (to which the horizon jS is parallel) ; and
from the points /, /, n, p, r, &c. draw the equidiftant
lines i B, /C, n D, &c. parallel to ah ; thefe diftances
beint’ equal to that of t B from a h.
Draw x i touching all the corner-points /, n, p, r,
v ; and draw 2 16 parallel to a: i, as lar trom it as
you want the length of the fteps to be.
Toward the point of light S draw the lines a 1, * 2,
/ 2 / 4, &c. and draw 1615, 14 13, 12 11, 109*
8 7 6 ? 43, and 2 «, all parallel to Ah, and meet-
ingdhe lines 5, « 13. &c rin the points 15,
la 11, o 7, 3, and 1 : then from thefe points
drlw 15 14, 13 12> 11 IO’ 98> 76‘ 5 3 2
all parallel to haf and the outlines of the fteps will
be finilhed. From the point 16 draw 16 A parallel
to h a, and A* 16 will be part of the flat at the top
of the uppermoft ftep. This done, (hade the Work as
~-n fig. 2- and the whole will be fimlhed.
Prob. 29. To put fairs with fats and openings
in perfpedive, funding on a horizontal pavement of
IniigT'of Plate CCCLXXXVI.having made S the
point of fight, and drawn a reticulated pavement AB
E C T I V E.
with black leadlines, which may be rubbed Otltagain $
at any diftance from the fide AB of the pavement
which is neareft to the eye, and at any point where
you choofe to begin the Itair at that diftance, as <2,
draw Ga parallel to BA, and take ab it pleafure for
the height of each ftep.
Take ab '\o your compaffes, and fet that extent as
many times upward from F to E as is equal to the
firft required number of fteps O, N, M, L, K; and
from thefe points of divifion in EF draw 1 b, 2d, $f,
4 A, and Eh, all equidiftant from one another, and
parallel to Fa: then draw the equidiftant upright lines
ab, td, uf, vh, w k, and im, all perpendicular to
Fa: then draw mb, touching the outer corners of
thefe fteps at m, k, h, f, d, and b ; and draw ns pa¬
rallel to m b, as far from it as you want the length of
the fteps K, L, M, N, O to be.
Towards the point of fight S draw mn, 1$, ko, i6,
hp, fq, d r, and b s. Then (parallel to the bottom-
line BA) through the points n, 0, p, q, r, s, draw
n8; 5, 14; 6, 1557, 16; I, 17 5 aud 2s : which
done, draw n 5 and 0 6 parallel to l m, and the out¬
lines of the ftsps K, L, M, N, O will be finilhed.
At equal diftances with that between the lines mark¬
ed 8 and 14, draw the parallel lines above marked 9
10 11 12 and 13 ; and draw perpendicular lines up¬
wards from the points n, 0, p, q, r, s, as in the
figure.
Make Hm equal to the intended breadth of the fiat
above the fquare opening at the left hand, and draw
HW toward the point of fight S, equal to the in¬
tended length ©f the flat; then draw WP parallel to
Hwz, and the outlines of the flat will be finiihed.
Take the width of the opening at pleafure, as from
F to C, and draw CD equal and parallel to FE.
Draw GH parallel to CD, and the fhort lines marked
33, 34, &c. juft even with the parallel lines 1, 2, &c.
From the points where thefe ihort lines meet CD
draw lines toward the point of fight S till they meet
DE ; then from the points where the lines 38, 39, 40,
&c. of the pavement meet C^, draw upright lines pa-
tallel to CD ; and the lines which form the opening
will be finifhed.
The fteps P, Q^, R, S, T, and the flat U above
the arch V, are done in the fame manner with thofe
fig. 1. as taught in Prob. 28. and the equidiftant
m *. — —o  . -
parallel lines marked 18, 19, &c. are directly even
with thofe on the left-hand fide of the arch V, and
the upright lines on the right-hand fide are equidiftant
with thofe on the left.
Fr*m the points where the lines 18, 19, 20, &c,
meet the right-hand fide of the arch, draw lines toward
the point of fight S ; and from the points where the
pavement lines 29 30, 31, 32, meet the line drawn
from A towards the point of light, draw upright lines
toward the top of the arch.
Having done the top of the arch, as in the figure,
and the lew fteps to the tight hand thereof, (hade the
whole as in fig. 4. and the wrork will be finifhed.
Prob 30. Td put upright conical objeds in perfpedive,
as iffanding on the Jides of an oblongfquare, at dfiances
from one another equal to the breadth of the oblong.
In fig. 5. of Plate CCCLXXXVI. the bafes ot the
upright cones are perfpe&ive circles inferibed in fquares
of the fame diameter 4 and the cones are let upright
.wM
ftn tfoor bafes by the fame rules as are given for pyra
mids, which we need not repeat here.
In nnoft the foregoing operations we have confi-
dered the obferver’s eye to be above the level of the
tops of all the objedts, as if he viewed them when
{landing on high ground. In this figure, and the firfl
and fecond of the next plate, we (hall fuppofe him to
be {landing on low ground, and the tops of the objedts
to be above the level of his eye.
In fig. 5. let AD be the pevfpedlive breadth of the
oblong fquare A BCD ; and let A a and D^ (equal to
A a) be taken for the diameters of the circular bales
of the two cones next the eye, whofe intended equal
heights (hall be AE and DF.
Having made S the point of fight in the horizon
parallel to AD, and found the proper point of diilance
therein, draw AS and rzS to contain the bafes of the
cones on the left-hand fide, and DS and JS for thofe
en the right.
Having made the two firil cones at A and D of
equal height at pleafure, draw ES and FS from their
tops to the point of fight, for limiting the peifpedtive
heights of all the reft of the cones. Then divide the
parallelogram A BCD into as many equal perfpedlive
iquares as you pleafe; find the bafes of the cones at the
corners of thefe fquares, and make the cones thereon,
as in the figure.
If you would reprefent a ceiling equal and parallel
to A BCD, fupported on the tops of thefe cones,
draw EF, then EFCrH (hall be the ceiling; and by
drawing ef parallel to EF, you will have the thick-
nefs of the floor-boards and beams, which may be what
you pleafe
This (hows how any number of equidiftant pillars
may be drawn of equal heights to fupport the ceiling
of a long room, and how the walls of fuch a room
may be reprefented in perfpe&ive at the backs of thefe
pillars. It alfo (hows how a ftreet of houfes may be
drawn in perfpeftive.
Pros. 31. To put a fquare holh'w in perfpecltve, the
depth of 'which Jhall bear any affigned proportion to its
'width
Fig. 1. of Plate CCCLXXXVH. is the reprefen-
tation of a fquare hollow, of which the depth AG is
equal to three times its width AD ; and S is the
point of fight over which the obfervers eye is fup-
pofed to be placed, looking perpendicularly down into
it, I ut not direftlv over the middle.
Draw AS and DS to the point of fight S ; make
ST the horizon parallel to AD, and produce it to
fuch a length beyond T that you may find a point of
diftance therein not nearer S than if AD was feen
under an angle of 60 degrees
. ^raw DU to the point of diftance, interfering AS
ra B; then from the point B draw BC parallel to
a ^:.ive t^ie perfpeftive fquare
A BCD, equal to a third part of the intended depth.
. ^raw to the point of diftance, interferina- AS
m E; then from the point E draw EF parallel to
n?^andiy°v Wl]! haVe the fecond Perfpeaive fquare
BLIC, which, added to the former one, makes two-
thirds of the intended depth.
. ^raw FW to the point of diftance, interfering AS
sn G; then from the point G draw GH parallel to
-^D ; and you will have the third perfpeaive fquare
PERSPECTIVE.
EGHF, which, with the former two, makes the
whole depth AGHD three times as great as the
width AD, in a peifperive view.
Divide AD into any number of equal parts, as fup¬
pofe 8 ; and from the divifion-points a, b, c, d, &c.
draw lines toward the point of fight S, and ending at
GH ; then through the points' where the diagonals
BD, EC, GF, cut thefe lines, draw lines parallel to
AD ; and you will have the parallelogram AGHD
reticulated, or divided into J92 fmall and equal per-
fpedive fquares.
Make Al and DM equal and perpendicular to AD;
then draw IM, which will be equal and parallel to
AD ; and draw IS and MS to the point of fight S.
Divide AI, IM, and MD, into the fame number
of equal parts as AD is divided; and from thefe
points of dtvifion draw lines toward the point of fight
S, ending refpeaively at GK, KL, and LH.
From thofe points where the lines parallel to AD
meet AG and DH draw upright lines parallel to AI
and DM ; and from the points where thefe lines meet
IK and LM draw lines parallel to IM ; then (hade the
work, as in the figure.
pROB. 32. To reprefent a femicircular arch in perfpec-
tive, as if it were funding on two upright walls, equal
m height to the height of the obfei •'ver's eye.
, hav‘ng gone through the preceding operation,
this will be more eafy by a bare view of fig. 2. in Plate
CCCLXXXVIE than it could be made8 by any de!
Icnption ; the method being fo much like that of
drawing and {hading the fquare hollow.-—We need
only mention, that aTbEA and DFctd are the up-
on W^1CF the femicircular arch is built;
that S is the point of fight in the horizon T t, taken
m the centre of the arch ; that d in fig. 1. fs the
dl(]ance; and that the two perfpeaive fquares
ABCD and BEIC make the parellelogram AEFD of-
a length equal to twice its breadth AI).
Pros. 33. To reprefent a fquare in perfpeaive, as
viewed by an olferver funding dinaly even with
one of its corners.
In fig. 3. Of Plate CCCLXXXVII. let A 9 BC be
a true fquare, viewed by an obferver {landing at fome
diftance irom the coiner C, and juft even with the dia¬
gonal C 9.
Let /SP be the horizon, parallel to the diagonal
AB ; and S the point of fight, even with the diagonal.
C 9. Here it will be proper to have two points of di¬
ftance/> and P, equidiftant from the point of fight S.
Draw the ftraight line 1 17 parallel to AB, and
draw A 8 and B 10 parallel to CS. Take the diftance
between 8 and 9 in your compafles, and fet it off all
the way in equal parts from 8 to 1, and from 10 to.
17.—-ihe line 1 17 (hould be produced a good way-
further both to right and left hand from 9, and divid¬
ed all the way in the fame manner.
Fiom thefe points »f equal divifion, 8, 9, 10, &c.
draw lines to the point of fight S, and alfo to the two
points of diftance p and P, as in the figure.
Now it is plain, that a cb<y is the perfpeftive repre-
fentation of A9BC, viewed by an obferver even with-
the corner C and diagonal C 9.—But if there are other
fuch fquares lying even with this, and having the fame-
pofition with refpeft to the line 1 17, it % evident
that the obferver, who Hands direflly even with the
^ cornet
T9 2
P E R S P
ro",er C ef t’ie firft fquarc, will not be even wkb the
like corners G and K of the other, ; but »' 1 ha«.a"
oblique view of them, over the filler. HJ nod 1K'*h,ch
“eLr-.-ftW.eje: and their p-rfpedhve reprcfenta-
tions will be egfC> and i f i 3, drawn among the hue,
in the fynre : of which, the -.paces taken up by each
i;de Ve between three of the lines drawn toward the
point' of diftance f, and three drawn to the other pent
oi diftance P. . . •
Prob. 34. To reprejevi a common chair, in an oblique in
The original lines to the point of fight S, and points
of diftance p an ] P, bnvg drawn as uv the preceding
operation, chcoie any part of the plane, as ^’7? ' 3’°
which vou would have the chan L to ftand.-- l here
tre juft as many lines (namely two) 1 etween sn
f r i 3 and r, drawn toward the point of d^ance/>, at
ti-e left hard, as between / and 3 3 or m and «, drawn
to the point of diftance P on the n -ht : io that lm,
„ w. ,, , and 1 3 /, form a perfpeft-.ve iquare. ^
From the four corners l, in, n, 13, ot ft’!arv
raile the four legs of the chair to the perfpea.ve per¬
pendicular height you would have them = then m^
li.p feat 0f the chair a fquare equal and parauo to / m n
as ra-ht in Prob. 18. winch will make the two
]4s of f at in the direaion of the hues drawn
towaid the point of diftance/. and the fore and back
, att 0f the feat in direction of the lines ^arawn to the
{ ,r cr point of diftance P. This done, draw the back
otucr po ni o t a kwatd, and the crofs
of the chair leaning a iittk hacJcwa.o, an
bars therein tending toward the point
‘fhen (hade the work as m the figure ; and the pe
fr"*,M«“ ^
j/eff ^ ri«; CCCLXXXVXL M i, - Oblo"?
fquarc »bl, as feen b, ... Xe eve
s -vR r (fee Prob. 33. 1 t e iide next tne esc
be'n M -f^tivelv parallel l the Mtac of the fquare
^ Ao1^ The forenientioned lines drawn from the hne
“ ,t9t'The two points of difUnce >> .nd F, form equal
rl.f Aive ftiurres on the ground -daiie. , f
p CWfe ?;iy ’'»rt of this plane offonare, for the feet
n;,; „( the table be ten feet, itsbrtabtl, will be in,.
; “ wn u the point of diftanc P. Th» done,
l,ne »-u druwu 1° t 1 cWtmg fqum-e, per-
nwke the lea! M ffi >g ‘ th; obls , f t„f ,,r,t
fpta;vely equa. a./P- Then ftade
bg'.re, and the work
" “if O-e line ■ . 7 was prolonged to the tight am! left
, J,, ‘‘nd equaHy divided througnout (a* >t is nom i
La L -dV t> e hues which are drawn born /> and
tm.he^htaml left hand Me. of the plate we.e
£ c T I V E.
prolonged till they came to the extended hne i ip
they would meet ft in the equal points of oivifion. i«
forming large pbns of this fort, the ends of fiips^of
paper mav be palled to the nght and left edges of the
facet on which the plan is to be termed _
Of the Anatnorphqjii, or reformation oj diflorted mages.
Bv this means pi&ures that are fo imlhapra, as to
exhibit no regular appearance of any thing to the mi¬
ked eye, (hall, when viewed by refk&iou, prefent a
regular and beautiful image. The inventor of this in¬
genious device is not known. Simon Stevmus, who
was the firft that wrote upon it,_ does not inform us
from whom he learned it. The principles m it are hid
do<*n by S. Vauzelard in his Perfpeclive Contqueet Cv-
/indrique ; and Gafpar Schott profefies to copy Mp/ius
Bettinus in his defeription of this piece of artificial
maoic. r c
It wilt be fufficient for our purpofe to copy one ot
the fimpleft figures of this writer, as by this means the
inyfterv’ of this art will be fuffic.ently unfmded. Up- Plate
on the cylinder of paper, or pafteboard, AdL lJ, ccclxxxvi,
draw whatever is intended to lie exhibited, as the let- ^ o.
tens 1HS. 1 hen with a needle maise perforations a-
long the whole outline ; and placing a cancue G, ; e-
hind this cylinder, mark upon the ground plane the
(badow of them, which will be diftorted more or lefts,
according to the pofition of the candie or the plane,
&c. This being done, let the pifttire be an exaT copy
of this diftorted image, let a metallic fpecmlum be fuo-
ftitutedm the place of the cylinder, end ..t the eye of
the fpettator have the fame petition beicre the cylin¬
der that the candle had behind it. 1 hen looking up. -
on the fpeculum, he will fee the dtftorted image re-
ftcred to its proper ftutpe. 1 he reformation ot the
;™t he fays, will not eafily be made exad in tins
method, but it will be fufficiently fo to anfwer the
? 1 Other methods, more exaftt and geometrical than
this, were found out afterwards; fo that theie piCvures
could be drawn by certain rules, without the uft of a
candie. Schott quotes one of thete method s hc.m Bet-
t-nus, another from Kerigomus, and another from Kir-
chtr, which may be feen m his Adagio, vol i. p. 162,
&C. He alfo gives an account of the methods of re¬
forming pictures by fpeculums ot conical and other h-
gUinftead of copying ary of thefe methods from Schott
or Bed nus, we ihall picfent cur readers with that
which Dr Smith hath given us m his Optics, vol. 1.
p. 2to, as, no doubt, the betl, and irom wk,ch any
Lrfon mav cafily make a drawing of tuns kmd. t he
Pame defetiptien anfwers to two mmrors, one of which,
fa 7. is convex, and the other, fig. b. is concave.
^Inor ’er to pnnt upon a plane a deformed copy
ABCDEKIHGF of an original picture, which .hail
appear regular, when feen from a given point O, ele-
vated above the plant, by rays rcflcCTd from a pohfti-
ei cyfijuler, placed upon the circle / r/>, equal to Us
?ftveu b-.fe ; fiom the point R, which mnft he fup;x>-
fed to he perpend.scuiavly under O, the place of the eye,
plw two hues 11 rx iJ; which fnal! euher touch the
baF of the cylinder, or eife cut off two Had equal
ferment* freJthe fides of it, according as the copy
intended to be more or lets deformed. l.en t
ki,g Ute vye. rttfed above R.to the g.ven
P E R S P E
fomcwrhat greater than that of the cylinder, fora lumi¬
nous point, defcribe the fhadow a e k f (of a {quire
a f x k, fig. 36. or parallelogram (landing upright up¬
on its bale a e, and containing the pidture required)
anywhere behind the arch / n p. Let the lines driwn
from R to the extremities and divifions of the bafe a,
h, c, (l, e, cut the remoteft part of the (hadow in the
points /] g, h, i, i, and the arch of the bafe in /,
n, o, p; from which points draw the lines /AF,
m BG, n CH, oDI, p EK, as if they were rays of
light that came from a focus R, and were refledled
from the !nfe In p ; fo that each couple, as / A, / R,
produced, may cut off equd fegmeuts from the circle.
Laftly, transfer the lines la f, m b g, &c. and all
heir parts, in the fame order, upon the refpedl've
lines/ “iF, wBG, &c. and having drawn regular curves,
by eftimation, through the points A, B, C, D, E,
through F, G, H, I, K, and through every inter¬
mediate order of points; the figure ACEKHF, fo
divided, will be the deformed copy of the fquare,
drawn and divided upon the original pi£lure, and will
appear fimilar to it, when feen in the polifhed cylin¬
der, placed upon the bafe lnp> by the eye in its given
place O.
The pri&ical methods of drawing thefe images feem
to have been carried to the greateft perfe&ion by J.
Leopold, who, in the Ada Lipfienfia for the year
1712, has defcribed two machines, one for the imiges
to be viewed with a cylindrical, and the other with a
conical, mirror. The perfon poffeffed of this inftiu-
ment has nothing to do but to take any print he pleafes,
and while he goes over the outlines of it with one pen,
another traces the anamorphofis.
By methods of this kind, groves of trees may be
cut, fo as to reprefent the appearance of men, horfes,
and other objedls from fome one point of view, which
are not at all difcernible in any other. This might ea-
fiiy be effe&ed by one perfon placing himfelf in any
particular fituation, and giving dire&ions to other
perlons what trees to lop, and in what manner. In
the fame method it has been contrived, that buildings
of circular and other forms, and alfo whole groups
of buildings, confiding of walls at different didances,
and with different positions to one another, diould be
painted fo as to exhibit the exa£l reprefentation of
particular objefts, which could only be perceived in
one fituation. Bettinus has illudrated this method by
drawings in his slpiaria*
It may appear a bold affertfon to fay, that the very
fhort (ketch now given of the art of peifpe&ive
’s a fufficient foundation for the whole praflice,
-..d includes all the expeditious rules peculiar to the
problems which mod generally occur. It is, however,
true, and the intelligent reader will fee, that the two
tueorerns on which the whole reds, include every pof-
1 e cafe, and apply with equal facility to pi6l ures and
or.gmals in any pofition, although the examples are
{elected of perpendicular piftures, and of originals re¬
ferred to horizontal planes, as being the molt frequent,
ihe fcientific foundation being fo Ample, the drutture
need not be complex, nor fwell into fuch volumes as
have been publifhed on the fubjedl: volumes which,
by their fixe, deter from the perufal, and give the
fun pie art the appearance of intricate mydery: and,
V/\¥ YlTT1 L>  t * J * 7
C T I V E.
by their prices, defeat the defign of their authors,
viz. the diffemination of knowledge among the prac¬
titioners. The treatifes on perfpe/live acquire their
bulk by long and tediogs difeourfes,minute explanations
of common things, or by great numbers of examples ;
which indeed do make fome of thefe books valuable by
the variety of curious cuts, but do not at all inftrudt.
the reader by any improvements, made in the art itfelf.
I or it is evident, that mod of thofe who have treated
this (ubjedl have been more converfant in the pradlice
of defigning than in the principles of geometry ; and
therefore when, in their practice, the cafes which
have offered have put them on trying particular expe¬
dients, they have thought them worth communicating
to the public as improvements of the art; and each
author, fond of his own little expedient (which a
fcientific perfon would have known for an eafy corol¬
lary from tue general theorem), have made it the prin¬
ciple of a practical fydem—and in this manner nar¬
rowing indea i of enlarging the knowledge of the art;
and the praftitioner, tired of the bulk of the volume,
in which a (ingle maxim is tedioully fpread out, and
the principle on which it is founded kept out of his
fight, contents himfelf with a lemembranoe of the
maxim (not underftood), and keeps it (lightly in bis
eye, to avoid grofs errors. We can appeal to the
whole body of painters and draughtfmen fur the truth
of this affertion ; and it muff not be confidered as an
imputation on them of remiflnefs or negligence, but as
a neceffary confequence of the ignorance of the authors
from wham they have taken their information. This
is a (trong term, but it is not the lefs juft. Several
mathematicians of eminence have written on prrfpec-
tive, treating it as the fubj dl of pure geometry, as it
really is ; and the performances of Dr Brook Taylor,
Gravefande, Wolf, De la Caille, Emerfon, are truly
valuable, by prefenting the art in all its perfpicuous
fimplicity and univerfality. The works of Taylor and
Emerfon are more valuable, on account of the very in¬
genious and expeditious conftruitions which they have
given, fuited to every pofiible cafe. The merit of tha
firft author has been univerfally acknowledged by all
the Britifti writers on the fubjedl, who never fail to
declare that their own works are compofed on the
principle of Dr Brook Taylor: but any man of
fcience will fee that thefe authors have either not un-
derilood them, or aimed at pleafing the public by fine
cuts and uncommon cafes; for, without exception,
they have omitted his favourite conftrudlions, which
had gained his prtdiledlion by their univerfality, and
attached themfeives to inferior methods, m rre ufually
expedient perhaps, or inventions (as they thought) of
t^eirJ?j r‘‘ ^ ‘l|at has been given in’this article is not
profiled to be according to the principles of Dr Brook
ay or, becaufe the principles are not peculiar to him,
but tue neceffary refults of the theory itfelf, and incul-
cateu by every mathematician who had taken the trouble
to confider the fubjedl. They are fufficient not only
for diredhng the ordinary pra&ice, but alfo for fag-
gefting modes of conftrudtion for every cafe out of the
common track And a perfon of ingenuity will have
a laudable enjoyment in thus, without much (Ireteh of
thought, inventing rules for himfelf; and will be het-
tei pleafed with fuch fruits of his own ingenuity, than
in reading the tedious explanations of examples devifed
B b fey
194
P E R S P E
by another. And for this purpofe we would, with
Dr Taylor, “ advife all our reader# not to be content¬
ed with the fcheme they find here ; but, on every oc-
cafion, to draw new ones of their own, in all the va¬
riety of circumftances they can think of. This will
take up more time at firft, but they will find the vaft
benefit and pleafure of it by the extenfive notions it
will give them of the nature of the principles.”
The art of perfpe&ive is neccffary to all arts where
there is any occafion for defigning ; as architecture,
fortification, carving, and generally all the mechanical
arts ; but it is more particularly neceffary to the art
©f painting, which can do nothing without it. A
figure in a picture, which is not drawn according to
the rules ol perfpeCtive, does not reprefent what is
intended, but fomething elfe. Indeed we hefitate not to
fay, that a pidture which is faulty in this particular, is as
blameable, or more fo, than any compofition in wri¬
ting which is faulty in point of orthography, or gram-
jnar. It is generally thought very ridiculous to pre¬
tend to write an heroic poem, or a fine difcourfe, upon
any fubjedt, without underftanding the propriety of
the language in which we write ; and to us it feems no
lefs ridiculous for one to pretend to make a good pic¬
ture without underftanding perfpe&ive : Yet how many
pidlures are there to be feen, that are highly valuable in
©ther refpefts,and yet areentirelyfaultyinthispoint? In¬
deed this fault is fo very general, that we cannot remem¬
ber that we ever have feen a pifture that has been en¬
tirely without it; and what is the more to be lament¬
ed, the greateft matters have been the moft guilty of it.
Thofe examples make it to be the lefs regarded ; but
the fault is not the lefs, but the more to be lamented,
and d ferves the more care in avoiding it for the fu¬
ture. The great occafion of this fault, is certainly
the wrong method that is generally ufed in educa¬
ting of perfons in this art : for the young people
are generally put immediately to drawing; and when
they have acquired a facility in that, they are put to
colouring. And thefe things they learn by rote, and
by pradice only ; but are not at all inftruded in any
rules of art. By which means, when they come to
make any defigns of their own, though they are very
expert at drawing out and colouring every thing that
offers itfelf to their fancy ; yet for want of being in-
ftruded in the ftrid rules of art, they do not know
flow to govern their inventions with judgment, and
become guilty of fo many grofs miftakes ; which pre¬
vent themfelves, as well as others, from finding that
iatisfadion they otherwife would do in their per¬
formances. To corredl this for the future, we would
recommend it to the matters of the art of painting,
to confider if it would not be neceffary to eftablifh a
better method for the education of their fcholars, and
to begin their inftrudions with the technical parts of
painting, before they let them loofe to follow the in¬
ventions of their own uncultivated imaginations.
C T I V E.
The art of painting, taken in its full extent, con-
fifts of two parts; the inventive, and the executive.
The inventive part is common with poetry, and be¬
longs more properly and immediately to the original
defign (which it invents and difpofes in the moft pro¬
per and agreeable manner) than to the pidure, which is
only a copy of that defign already formed in the ima¬
gination of the artift. The perfedion of this art of
painting depends upon the thorough knowledge the
artift has of all the parts of his fubjed ; and the beau¬
ty of it confifts in the happy choice and difpofitioit
that he makes of it: And it is in this that the ge¬
nius of the artift difcovers and (hows itfelf, while he
indulges and humours his fancy, which here is not con¬
fined. But the other, the executive part of painting,
is wholly confined and ftridly tied to the rules of art,
which cannot be difpenfed with upon any account ;
and therefore in this the artift ought to govern him-
felf entirely by the rules of art, and not to take any li¬
berties whatfoever. For anything that is not trulydrawn
according to the rules of perfpedive, or not truly coloured
or truly fhaded, does not appear to be what the artift;
intended, but fomething elfe. Wherefore, if at any time
the artift happens to imagine that his pidure would
look the better, if he ftiould fwerve a little from thefe
rules, he may affure himfelf, that the fault belongs to
his original defign, and not to the ftridnefs of the
rules; for what is perfedly agreeable and juft in the
real original objeds themfelves, can never appear de-
fedive in a pidure where thofe objeds are exadly co¬
pied.
Therefore to offer a fhert hint of thoughts we have
feme time had upon the method which ought to be-
followed in inftruding a fcholar in the executive part
of painting ; we would firft have him learn the moft:
common effedions of pradical geometry, and the firft
elements of plain geometry and common arithmetic.
When he is fufficiently perfed in thefe, we would
have him learn perfpedive. And when he has made
fome progrefs in this, fo as to have prepared his judge¬
ment with the right notions of the alterations that fi¬
gures tnuft undergo,(when they come to be drawn on a flat,
he may then be put to drawing by view, and be exercifed
in this along with perfpedive, till he comes to be fuf¬
ficiently perfed in both. Nothing ought to be mere
familiar to a painter than perfpedive; for it i» the
only thing that can make the judgment corred, and
will help the fancy to invent with ten times the eafe
that it could do without it.
We earneftly recommend to our readers the careful
perufal of Dr Taylor’s,Treatife, as publifhed by Col-
fon in 1749, and Emerfon’s publifhed along with hia
Optics. They will be furprifed and delighted with
the inftrudion they will receive ; and will then truly
eftimate the fplendid volumes ©f other authors and fee
their frivolity.
PER
Ferlpee* Perspective is alfo ufed for a kind of pidure or
ttve- , painting, frequently feen in gardens, and at tht ends
0f galleries; defigned exprefsly to deceive the fight by
PER
reprefenting the continuation of an alley, a building,
landfcape, or the like.
Asrial PERSvECTirKt is fometimes ufed as a general
deno-
./ c v r >l: 11 ^ p E c TI YEl .
PUia cccuxxxjn
. N
£ 31
■ -I-—
I
-le;.
Bzl
/..,"iCsy
/ \
/
' -f
x ^ I
 --V-.
O
>f«/\ ^
• /• .^'V,
Perspe o tia e
Plate CCC LXXXIY.
2
rpfrfcg-
PERSFECTTVjE,.
Flatc C C ("LXXXVTL.
Terfpec-
tive.
PER [ i9_f
denomination for that which more reftri&edly is called
aerialperfpeclive, or the art of giving a due diminution
or degradation to the ftrength of light, ihade, and co¬
lours of objefts, according to their different diftances,
the quantity of light which falls upon them, and the
medium through which they are feen ; the chiaro ob-
fcuroy or clair obfcure, which confifts in expreffing the
different degrees of light, lhade, and colour of bodies,
arifing from their own ihape, and the poficion of their
parts with refpedt to the eye and neighbouring objedts,
whereby their light or colours are affedted ; and keep-
5*ng> which is the obfervanceof a due proportion in the
general light and colouring of the whole pidture, fo
that no light or colour in one part may be too bright
or ftrong for another. A painter, who would fucceed
in aerialperfpeaive, ought carefully to ftudy the effedts
which diftance, or different degrees or colours of light,
have on each particular original colour, to know how
its hue or ffrength is changed in the feveral circum-
ftances that occur, and to reprefent it accordingly. As
all objects in a pidture take their meafures in propor¬
tion to thofe placed in the front, fo, in aerial perfpec-
tive, the ftrength of light, and the brightnefs of the
colours of objedts clofe to the pidture, muit ferve a* a
meafure, with refpedt to which all the fame colours at
feveral diftances muft have a proportional degradation
in like circumftances.
Bird s eye view in Perstectife, is that which fup-
pofes the eye to be placed above any building, &c. as
'in the air at a confiderable diftance from it. This is ap¬
plied in drawing the reprefentations of fortifications,
when it is neceffary not only to exhibit one view as
feen from the ground, but fo much of the feveral build¬
ings as the eye can pofiibly take in at one time from
any fituation. In order to this, we muft fuppofe the
eye to be removed a confideruble height above the
ground, and to be placed as it were in the air, fo as
to look dawn into the building like a bird that is fly¬
ing. In reprefentations of this kind, the higher the
horizontal line is placed, the more of the fortification
will be feen, and vice verfa.
Perspective Machine, is an inftrument by which
any perfon, without the help of the rules of art,, may
delineate the true perfpedtive figures of objedts. Mr
I'ergufon has defcribed a machine of this fort of which
he afcribes the invention to Dr Bevis.
Fig. 4. of Plate CCCLXXXVII. is a plane of this
machine, and fig. 5. is a reprefentation of it when
made ufe of in drawing diftant objedts in perfpedtive.
In fig. 4. a b ef is an oblong fquare board, reprc-
fented by ABEF in fig. 5. * andy (X and Y) are
•two hinges on which the part r/J (CLD) is move-
able. Phis part confifts of two arches or portions of
Circles cml (CML) and dnl (DNL) joined together
/iv-n ^ ^ anc^ at bottom to the crofs bar dc
(DC), to which one part of each hinge is fixed, and
the other part to a flat board, half the length of the
board ab ej (ABEF),and glued to its uppermoft fide.
I he centre of the arch c m / is at d, and the centre of
the arch d n 11% at c. \
On the outer fide of the arch Jn/is a Aiding: piece
n (much like the nut of the quadrant of altitude be¬
longing to a common globe), which may be moved to
any part of the arch between d and L: and there is
luch another Aider 0 on the arch c m /, which may be
] PER
fet to any part between c and /.—A thread c p n
(CPN) is ftretched tight from the centre r (C) to the
Aider « (N), and fuch another thread is ftretched from
the centre d (D) to the Aider 0 (O) ; the ends of the
threads being fattened to thefe centres and Aiders.
Now it is plain, that, by moving thefe Aiders on
their refpe&ive arches, the interfecftion /> (P) of the
threads may be brought to any point of the open fpace
within the arches.—In the groove k (K) is a ftraight
Aiding bar i (I), which may be drawn further out, or
puAied further in at pleafure.
To the outer end of this bar I (fig. 5.) is fixed the
upright piece HZ, in which is a groove for receiving
the Aiding piece In this Aider is a fmall hole r
for the eye to look through, in uiing' the machine :
and there is a long Ait in HZ, to let the hole r be
feen through when the eye is placed behind ie, at any
height of the hole above the level of the bar I.
How to delineate the perfpeaive jigu> e of any d'Jlant ob-
jea. or objeas, by means of this machine.
Suppofe you wanted to delineate a perfpeftive re¬
prefentation of the houfe qs rp (which we muft ima¬
gine to be a great way off, without the limits of the
plate), place the machine on a fteady table, with the
end EF of the horizontal board AiiEF toward the
houfe, fo that, when the Gothic-like arch DLC is fet
upright, the middle part of the open fpace (about P)
within it may be even with the houfe when you place
your eye at Z and look at the houfe through the imail
hole r. Then fix the corners of a fquare piece of pa¬
per with four wafers on the furface of that half of the
horizontal board which is neareft the houfe ; and all is
ready for drawing.
Set the arch upright, as in the figure; which it will
be when it comes to the perpendicular fide t of the up¬
right piece st fixed to the horizontal board behind D.
Then place your eye at Z, and look through the hole
r at any point of the houfe, as jyand move the Aiders
N and O till you bring the interfe&ion of the thread*
at P dire&ly between your eye and the point q : theft
put down the arch flat upon the paper on the board, as
at ST, and the interfe&ion of the threads will be at W.
Mark the point W on the paper with the dot of a black
lead pencil, and fet the arch upright again as before:
then look through the hole r, and move the Aiders N
and O till the interfe&ion of the threads comes be¬
tween your eye and any other point of the houfe, asp :
then put down the arch again to the paper, and maice
a pencil mark thereon at the interfedtioa of the threads,
and draw a line from that mark to the former one at
W; which line will be a true perfpedtive reprefenta¬
tion of the corner p q of the houfe.
Proceed in the fame manner, by bringing the inter-
fedtion of the threads fueceffively between your eye and
other points of the outlines of the houie, as r, s, See.
and put down the arch to mark the like points on the
paper, at the interfedtion of the threads : then conned
thefe points by ftraight lines, which will be the per-
fpedive outlines of the houfe. In like manner find
points for the corners of the door and windows, top of
the houfe, chimneys, dec. and draw the finifhing lines
from point to point : then fiiade the whole, making
the lights and Ifiades as you fee them on the houfe it-
felf, and you will have a true perfpedtive figure of it.-^-
Great care mult be taken, during the whole time, that
^ b 2 the
Perfped-
tive.
Perlpce-
tive,
I’^rfpira-
tion.
PER [ i
the pofition of the machine be notfhifted on the table ;
and to prevent fueh an inconvenience, the table (hould
be very ftrong and heady, and the machine fixed to it
either by ferews or clamps.
In the fame way, a iandfeape, or any number of ob-
jefts within the field of view through the arch, may
be delineated, by finding a fufficient number of per-
fpe&ive points on the paper, and connecting them by
llraight or curved lines as they appear to the eye. And
as this makes every thing in ptrfpeOtive equally eafy,
without taking the trouble to leara any of the rules
for drawing, the operations mull be very pleafing and
agreeable. Yet as Icience is ftill more fc,we would by all
means recommend it to our readers to learn the rules
for drawing particular objedts; and todraw landfcapesby
the eye, for which, we believe, no perfpe&ive rules can
be given. And although any thing may be very truly
drawn in perfpedtive by means of this machine, it can¬
not be faid that theie is the leaft degree of fcience iu
going that way to work. •
The arch ought to be at leaft a foot wide at bot¬
tom, that the eye at Z may have a large field ot view
thr ough it : and the eye flrould then be, at It ait, iob
inches’ from the interfe&ion of the threads at 1' when
the arch is fet upright. For if it be nearer, the boun¬
daries of view at the fides near the foot ot the arch
will fubtend an angle at Z of more than 60 degrees,
which will not only drain the eye, but will alfo cauie
the outermoft parts of the drawmg to have a dilagrte-
able appearance.— l o avoid this, it will be proper to
draw back the Aiding bar I, till Z be 14^ inches di-
Uant from P; and then the whole field ot view, through
the foot wide arch, will not fubtead an angle to the eye
at Z of more than 45 degrees; which will give a more
fafy and pleafant view, not only of all the objedts
themfelves, but alfo of their repreientations on the pa
per whereou they are delineated, bo that, whatever
the width of the arch be, the diftance of the eye from
it fhould be in this proportion : As 12 is to the width
of the arch, fo is 14’- to the diitance of the eye (atZ)
from it.
If a pane of gPfs, laid over with gum water, be fix¬
ed into the arch, and fet upright when dry, a perfon
who looks through the hole r may delineate the ob¬
jects upon the glafs which he fees at a diitance
through and beyond it, and then transfer the delinea-
tion to a paper put upon the glafs, as mentioned in the
beginning of the article Perspective. # .
Mr Peacock likewife invented three Ample inftru-
ments for drawing architecture and machinery in per-
ipeitivc, of which the reader will find (ketches and de-
feriptions in the 75th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfaftions. We do not infert thefe descriptions
here, bccaufe we do not think the inftruments fup-nor
to that deferifced by Fergufon, and becaufe we wiih
that our readers who have occalion to draw may make
themfelves fo much mailers of the art of perlpective,
as to be above the aid of iuch mechanical contn-
See
vances.
PhrspectirK Glafs, or Graphical PerfpeEhve
Dioptrics.
PERSPIRATION, in medicine, the evacuation
©f the juices of the body through the pores of the
fkin. Perfpiration is diftinguidied into fenfible anu
infenfible j and here fenfible perfpiration is the fame
96 1 PER
with fweatfng, and infer,Able perfpiration that which
efcapes the notice of the (enfes ; and this lalt is the ^ ^
idea affixed to the word perfpiratwn when ufed alone.
PERSPICUITY, properly fignifies the property
which any thing has of being eahly feen through ;
hence it is generally applied to fuch writings or dil*
courfes as are eafily underllood.
Perspicuity, in compofition. See Oratory* n*
43.'
PERTH, a county of Scotland, including Men-
teith, Braidalbin, Athol, Stiatherne, part oi Oownc,
and Perth Proper ; is bounded by Badenoch and
Lochaber on the nerth and north-weft; by Marr on
the north-eait ; by An-yle and Lennox on the weft and
iouth weft ; having Clackm'Uinanfhire, part of Stilling*
(hire, and the Forth to the louth ; the (hires 0! Ivin-
rols and Fife to the fouth eaft, and Angus to the eait.
It extends above 7^ miles in length, and near 60 at
its gieaceft breadth, exhibiting a variety ot Highlands
and Lowlands ; mountains, hills, dales, and ftraths,
diverfified with pafture-grounds, corn fields, ant. mea¬
dows ; rivers, lakes, foiefts, woods, plantations, in-
clefures, towns, villages, and a great number of ele*
g. nt feats, beautifully iituated, belonging to noble*
men and gentlemen. ’I he chief rivers of Perthfhire
are the Tay, the Teith, and the Erne, beiides a
great number of fubordinate ffreams. i he river ieith
ia famous for its falmon-fifhery, and its fteep cataracf,
near the Blair of Drummond, the noife of which is fo
loud, as to deafen thofe who approach it. I he river Er nc
rifes from Loch Erne, a lake feven miles long, in the
mountainous country of Stratherne : this river, alter
a courle ot 34 miles from weft to eaft, during which it
receives many ftreams and rivulets, falls into the I ay
at Abernethy.
Freeftone, lead, iron, and copper ores, with fomc
lapis calarninaris, are found in different parts ot
Perthfhire. The foil, being generally rich and weft
manuied, produces excellent wheat, and all kinds ot
grain. The hilly country abounds with pafture for
the black cattle, horfes, (beep, goats, and deer. The
heaths, woods, and torefts, are ftored with variety
of game ; the rivers teem with falmon and trout ; the
gardens and orchards are ftored with all kinds of
herbs, roots, apples, pears, cherries, plums, and
almoft every fpecies ot fruit fisund in bouth Bri¬
tain. The houfes and attire, even of the commonalty,
are neat and decent ; and ev^ry peafant can produce a
good quantity of linen, and great ftore of blankets,
made in his own family. Indeed, this is the cafe
through all the Lowlands of Scotland. I'lax is reared
by every hufbandman ; and being dreffed at home,
is fpun by the females of his family into thread for
linen ; this is woven by country weavers, of whom
there is a great number through all the Eftw Country,
and afterwards bleached or whitened by the good-wife
and her fervants ; fo that the whole is urade fit for ufe
at a very fmall expence. They likewife wafh, card, fpin,
and weave their wool into tartan for plaids, keriies, and
coarfe ruflet-cloth, for common wearing, beiides great
part of it which is knit into caps, (lockings, and mitts.
Plaids, made of the fined worlfed, are worn either
plain or variegated, as veils, by women of the lower,
■ and evep of the middle rank ; nay, fome years ago,
ladies of falhion wore filken plaids with an undrefs:
..PER [ ,ry
, Perth, this is a loofe piece of drapery, gathered about the
head, fhoulders, and waift, on which it'is croffed, fo
as to leave the hands at liberty, and produces a very
good effedl: to the eye of the fpedt itor. The Low*
lan'-’ers of Perthfhire are civilized, hofpitable, and
induftriotis : the commerce oi the country confiils
chiefly in corn, linen, and bl .k ! attle ; there art,
moreovrr. fome merchants who trade to foreign coun
tries.—For nn account of the differentdivifions of this
county above-mentioned, fee the articles as they occur
in the order of the alphabet.
Phrth Proper, ftretchiug 20 miles in length, an!
at fume places 15 in breadth, is bounded on the
north eatt, by the Carfe of Gowrie ; on the eaft, by
Angus ; on the weft, by Stratherne ; on the north, by
Athol ; and on the fouth, by the Frith of Tay. This
is likewife a fruitful country, populous and well culti¬
vated, abounding with gentlemen who poffefs opulent
eftates; w th farmers who underftand agriculture ; and
with manufr&urers who turn their induftry to great
account. North eaflward from Perth to Brechin lies
the vale of Srathmore, one of the inoft fertile didlridts
in Scotland, which gives the title of Earl to the noble
family or Lyon.
Perth, the capital of the county of that name, is
an agreeable, populous town, fituated 20 miles with¬
in land, on the fouth bank of the river Tay. It was
otherwife called St JobnJions, from a church dedica¬
ted to St John, as the patron of the pi ice. It is a
royal borough, fecond in dignity to the metropolis,
the feat of a large prefbytery, and gave the title of
Earl to the family of Drummond, which is now for¬
feited. James Drummond, 4th earl, was created duke
of Perth by James II. for adhering to whole interefts
he was outlawed. His two grandfons were attainted
in 1745- No lefs than 14 national councils have been
held at Perth between 1201 and 1459. But the old-
eit was at Scone, A. D. 906. Perth, in the reign of
Edward I. of England, was poffeffed by the Englifh,
who fecured it with fortifications : but after an obfti-
xate reliftance, they were expelled by Robert Bruce.
In the year the rebels made it a place of arms,
and retired to it, after the battle of Dumblane ; but
they were in a little time diflodged by the duke of Ar-
gyle, and retreated northwards with the pretender.
They poffeffed it alfo in 1745* 1 he pretender was
proclaimed king, new magiftrates were appointed, and
» an attempt was made to fortify it. The town is popu¬
lous and handfome ; the ftreets are well paved, and
tolerably clean at all times ; and the houfes, though
not ftately, make a very decent appearance. Both the
ftreets and houfes are, for the greater part, difpofed
Miron's reSularity °f plan> which proves them not to be
'lour* moil remote antiquity. It is indeed true, that
the level iituation, being Angularly favourable to re¬
gularity, might, even from the firft, give this an ad¬
vantage over many of our old boroughs. Several ftreets
run in a direction parallel with the river, as far as a
right can bear this relation to a curve line, nearly between
eaft and weft : thefe are again interfered by others
extending between north and fouth. It fhould feem
that anciently particular ftreets were inhabited, each
by a particular clafs of artifans. The names (till pre-
ferved feem to indicate as much. The fhop-keepers
or merchants occupied one ftreet j the hammermen a
7 1 PER
fecond ; and other crafts occupied, in the fame manner, Perth.
each a fcpaiate ftreet. Many of the houfes in that v—~
ftreet called the Water-Gate, feem co be very old build¬
ings. Towards the fouthern end of the Water-Gate
fi ands the famous palace of the Gowrie family. The Gough's
houfe, and the very room, where the attempt of the Camdtn.
Gownes to feize or affaffinate the king was fuppofed
to have been made, is now converted into barracks for
a tiam of artillery ; but the back-flair, down which
the Ruthvens were thrown, is pulled down. This
ftrange event, however magnified or attehed by con-
temporaiy writers, u made up of fo many improbabi¬
lities, or circumHances for which no reaton can be af-
figned, that Sir David Dalrymple, in reptibhftung the
account printed by authority, 1600, preparatory to his
further obfervations on it, feems juftified in abfoiutely
diferediting a fail; which paffed for problematical with
fo many perfons at the very time. Dr Robertfon fup-
pofee it a plot of Elizabeth to get James into her pow¬
er. Mr Cant having difeuffed the whole ftory of the
confpiracy in his Mufe’s Threnodie, p. 18, — 261,
concludes, “ thst as this would have been a very im¬
politic meafure, the belt way of accounting for it is
by James’s known hatred to the Puritans, and wilh to
get rid of two popular characters.” The king had
been feized and forced from his favourites by the fa¬
ther of the Ruthvens 12 years before (1582;, and
though he affected to forgive him, took the firlt op¬
portunity to condemn and execute him as a traitor,
1584. Mr Camden was too good a courtier to fpeak
with impartiality of any part of this weak monarch’s
conduct. Though the name of Gowrie was aboliihed,
the title of Ruthven was revived in the perfon of Sir
Thomas Ruthven of Freeland, whom Charles II,
165 1, created Lord Ruthven : but the honour, on the
death or his fon David in 1704, devolved on Ifabel fur-
viving daughter of his fecond filter, who married Sir
Francis Ruthven, and was fucceeded, 1732, by his
fon James.
The caltle of Perth Hood near the red bridge, which
terminated the narrow ftreet called Skinner gate. At
the end of the Caftle-ftreet another narrow ftreet leads
weft to the Black-friars called Gouvre feti- row, where
the curfeu bell was. The kings of Scotland before
James II. were crowned at Scone, and refided at Perth
as the metropolis of the nation. James refided and
was educated in the cattle of Edinburgh, and was crown¬
ed there 1437. The parliaments and courts of juftice
were, removed from Perth to Edinburgh, but Perth
kept its priority till 22 James III. 1482.
'The church in which John Knox harangued is Hill
Handing, and is now divided into three ; named the
eajl, the middle, and the wlJI kirks. The eaft kirk
was lately very handfomely modernifed within. There
is an old hofpital, a confiderable building, the found¬
ing of which is aferibed to James VI. The town-
houfe Ihuts up the eaftern end of the High-ftreet. A
monattery of Carthufians was here eitablilhed by King
James I. of Scotland, who loft his life on the very
Ipot, by the treachery of Athol and his accomplices.
The king was buried in a very ftately monument in
this place, which was called monajlerium vallis virtu,
tis, one of the moft magnificent buildings in the king¬
dom, which with the reit was detlroyed by the po¬
pulace, ‘ Janies VI. created George Hay commenda-
tos
PER L 198 ] PER
Perth, tor of the Carthufian pn'ory, giving him all its emo*
laments, with a vote and feat in parliament ; but thefe
not being fufficient to fupport the title, he Surrender¬
ed it back to the king. 1 he only remains of this
magnificent ftru&ure is to be feen in the carved Hones
with which the fouth-eatt porch of St John’s church
is built, now greatly decayed. The king’s garment
Full of (labs was preferved here after the reformation.
The town was anciently provided with a Hone-bridge
over the river, which an inundation fwept away; but
a new and very fine one has lately been built, the moll
beautiful ftru&ure of the kind in North Britain, and was
defigned and executed by Mr Smeaton. Its length is
900 feet; the breadth (the only blemifh) 22 within
the parapets. The piers are founded to feet beneath
the bed of the river, upon oaken and beechen piles,
and the Hones laid in puzzalane, and cramped with
iron. There are nine arches, of which the centre
is 75 feet in diameter. This noble work opens a com¬
munication with all the different great roads of the-
kingdom, and was completed at the expence of 26,000!.
Of this the commifiioners of forfeited eHates, by his
fnajeHy’s permifiion, gave 11,000 1. Perth 20001. pri¬
vate fubferibers 4756 1. the royal boroughs 5001. But
Hill this great work would have met with a check for
want of money, had not the earl of Kinnoul, with his
eharaderiftic public fpirit, advanced the remaining fum,
and taken the fecurity of the tolls, with the hazard
only to himfelf. The whole expence has now been
defrayed, and the toll has ceafed.
Bonn's “ The Tay (fays a late traveller), over which this
1792.bridge is thrown, and on the fouthern bank of which
the city of Perth Hands, is truly a noble river. It
fifes in Braidalbin, on the frontiers of Lome. Be¬
fore it has advanced many miles from its fource, its
fiream is confiderably augmented by the acceffion of
feveral fmall rills. Soon after, it diffufes its waters in¬
to a fmall lake called Loch Dochart; and indeed the
jriver itfelf there bears rather the name of the Dochart.
-Continuing its courfe from Loch Dochart, it foon
a'^ain expands into another lake. Out of tnis it pro¬
ceeds to Killin, Hill bearing, if I remember right, the
name of the Dochart. Here it meets with another ri¬
ver which flows hither by a more north eaHerly courfe.
The waters are dilfufed into the famous Loch Pay,
16 miles in length. Iffuing from this fpacious lake at
Kenmore, the Pay is foon after increafed by the ac-
cefiion of the Lyon. It proceeds onward in an ealt-
*rn diretlion through Athol, receiving as it advances
all the waters in the country, till at Logierait it is joined
by the large river of I ummel. Here it bends to the
fouth, and advancing about 8 miles reaches Dunkeld ;
whence taking a more northern diredlion, it continues
its courfe towards Perth ; being as it advances Hill
augmented by the acceflion of various tributary Hreams,
the moH confiderable of which is the Almond. At
Perth it turns to the fouth-eaH, and receiving as it pro¬
ceeds the waters of the Erne, paffes by Abernetny,
xmee the capital of the Pi&ilh kingdom. Soon alter
this, it expands itfelf to the breadth of three miles.
Contracting its breadth, as it approaches Dundee, it
there opens into the German ocean.
“ Such is the noble river ; on the fouthern bank of
which, where it has increafed into a vaH body of wa¬
ter, and not a great many miles above where it dif-
chargea itfelf into the ocean, Perth is advaotageoufly Perth,
fituated. A perfon acquainted with the general cha- Pertitia*»
rafter of great rivers, and with their influence in deter- ^
mining the afpeft and the fertility of the diflrifts thro*
which they pafs, might readily, without farther know¬
ledge of the local circumflances than what is conveyed
in this account of the crurfe of the Tay, and of the
lunation of Perth upon it, conclude the city to Hand
amid delightful fe enery, and to enjoy moH of the ad¬
vantages which natural circumHances afford, for the
promotion of trade and induHry.”
This town has but one parifh, which has two
churches, befides meetings for feparatiffs, who are
very numerous. One church, which belonged to a
monaffery, is very ancient: not a veffige of the lalt
is now to be feen ; for the difciples of Knox made a
general defolation of every edifice that had given Ihel-
ter to the worflrippers of the church of Rome : it be¬
ing one of bis maxims, to puli down the neffs, and then
the rooks would fly away.
The flourilhing Hate of Perth is owing to two ac¬
cidents : the firil, that of numbers of Cromwell’s
wounded officers and foldiers choofing to refide here,
after he left the kingdom, who introduced a fpirit of
induHry among the people; the other caufe was the
long continuance of the earl of Marr’s army here in
17x5, which occafioned vaH fums of money being
fpent in the place. But this town, as well as all Scot¬
land, dates its profperity from the year 1745; the
government of this part of Great Britain having never
been fettled till a little after that time.
That this town does not owe its origin to William L
1210, as Boethius fays, is evident from its being men¬
tioned as a confiderable place in the foundation char¬
ter of Holyroodhoufe by David I. 1128.
The trade of Perth is confiderable. It exports an¬
nually 150,000!. worth of linen, from 24,000
30,000 bolls of wheat and barley to London and Edin¬
burgh, and a very large quantity of cured falmon. That
fiffi is taken there in vaH abundance ; 3000 have been
caught in one morning ; weighing, one with another,
16 pounds ; the whole capture 48,000 pounds. The
fifhery begins on St Andrew’s day, and ends AuguH
26th old Hyle. The rents of the fiffieries amount to
confiderably upwards of 3000 1. per annum. Smelts
come up this river in May and June. See Pearls.
W. Long. 3. 27. N. Lat- 56. 22.
Pfrth Amboy. See New jbeRSEr.
PERTINAX, was an illuHrious Roman empe¬
ror after the death of Commodus. He was defetnd-
ed of a mean family; and like his father, who was
either a Have or the fon of a manumitted flave, he
for fome time followed the employment of drying
wood and making charcoal. His poverty did not, how¬
ever, prevent him from receiving a liberal education.
For fome time he was employed in teaching a number
of pupils the Greek and the Roman languages in E-
truria. He left this laborious profeffion and became a
foldier, and by his valour and intrepidity gradually rofe
to offices of the highell truH in the army, and was
made, conful by M. Aurelius for his fervices. He was
afterwards entrufied with the government of Mcefia,
and at length he prefided over the city of Rome as go¬
vernor. When Commodus was murdered, Pertinax
wa9 tmiverfallp chofeu to fucceed to the imperial dig¬
nity ;
Pertirax.
PER
nity; and his refufal, on the plea of old age and in-
cretfwg infirmities, did not prevent his being fainted
emperor and Augnftus. He complied with reluctance j
but his mildnefs, his economy, and popularity, con¬
vinced the fenate and the people of the prudence and
the jufiice of their choice. He forbad his name to be
infcribed on fueh places or eitaces as were part of the
imperial domains, and afferted that they belonged not
to him but to the public. He melted all the filver
ftatues which had been raifed to his predecelfor, and
[ 199 ]
PER
elfe recommend him to the army in Illyricum, and to Pertinent,
the Roman people. He punched with great feverity
all thofe who had been acceffary to his death, difband-' l "_v
ed the praetorian guards, honoured his memory with a
*noft magnificent funeral, at which was carried the
effigies of the deceafed prince, pronounced his pane¬
gyric, and caufed him to be ranked in the number
of the gods, appointing the fon chief prieit to his fa¬
ther. The day of his acceffion to the empire was
yearly celebrated with the Circenfian games; and his
he expofed to fale ah his concubines, horfes, arms, and birthday, for many years after, with other fports. He
all the mltruments or his oleafure and  - .u:  r  u i- f • ,
all the inftruments of his pleafure and extravagance.
With the money raifed from thefe relics he enriched
the empire, and was enabled to abollih all the taxes
which Commodus had laid on the rivers, ports, and
highways, through the empire. Thefe patriotic ac¬
tions gained him the affe&ion of the worthiefl and
moft difeerning of his fubje&s ; but the extravagant,
luxurious, and vicious, raifed their clamours againil
him; and when the emperor attempted to introduce
among the pretorian guards fuch difeipline as was ab-
folutely necelfary to preferve the peace and tranquillity
of Rome, the flames of rebellion were kindled, and the
minds of the foldiers totally alienated. Pertinax was
apprized of their mutinying, but he refufed to fly at
the hour of danger. He fcorned the advice of fuch
of his friends as wilhed him to withdraw from the im¬
pending ftorm ; and he unexpectedly appeared before
the feditious troops, and without fear or concern bold¬
ly alked them, whether they who were bound by du¬
ty to defend the perfon of their prince and emperor,
were come to betray him and to fhed his blood f His
undaunted courage and intrepidity would have had the
defired effeft, and the foldiers had begun to retire,
when one of the moft feditious of them advanced and
darted his javelin at the emperor’s breaft, exclaiming,
77»e foldiers fend you this. The reft inftantly followed
the example ; and Pertinax, muffling up his head, and
calling upon Jupiter to avenge his death, remained un¬
moved, and was immediately dilpatched. fdis head
was cut 01F and carried upon the point of a fpear in
triumph to the camp, i his abominable murder hap¬
pened in the 103d year of the Chriftian era.
It was no fooner known that Pertinax had been
murdered, than the emaged populace flocked from all
quarters of the city ; and uttering dreadtul menaces
againil the authors of his death, ran up and down the
ilreets in queft of them. The fenators were no lefs
concerned for his death than the people; the more,
becaufe they were now convinced, that the foldiers
would fufFer none to reign but tyrants. However, as
they had more to lofe than the common people, they
did not offer to revenge his death ; but either fhut
themlelves up in their own houfes, or in thofe of the
foluiers of their acquaintance, thinking themfelves
there molt fafe. Such was the unfortunate and much-
lamented end of Publius Helvius Pertinax, after he
had lived 66 years 7 months and 26 or 28 days; and
reigned, according to Dio CafTius, 87 days, that is,
from the ill of January to the 28th of March. His
body, together with his head, was interred with great
pomp by Didius Julianus, his fucceffor, in the bury¬
ing place of his wife’s family. The emperor Septimius
Severua, with the title of emperor, affumed the name
of Pertinax, which he- knew would above any thing
performed great things, fays Herodian, during his
fhort adminiftration, and would have rellored the em¬
pire to its former luftre, had he been indulged with a
longer reign.
PERTINENT of lands, in Scots law. See Law,
N0 clxvii. 6. p. 670.
PERU, a country of South America, is bounded on
the north by Popayan, on the eaft by Amazonia, on
the fouth by Chili, and on the weft by the Pacific
ocean ; extending from i° 40' north to 26° 10' fouth
latitude, and between 56° and 8111 weft longitude from
Greenwich ; being about 1800 miles in length, but its
greateft breadth does not much exceed 390. *
This country was difeovered by the Spaniards; and How dif-
the firll intelligence they had of it was on the follow- covered
ing occafion. Nunez de Balboa having been raifed to b>'the SP^
the government of the fmall colony at Santa Maria in mards-
Darien by the fuffrages of his companions, was very
defirous of having that authority confirmed by the
court of Spain. For this purpofe he endeavoured to
recommend himfelf to the Spamffl miniftry by fome im¬
portant fervice; that is, by extorting from the Indians
as much gold and filver as he could. He therefore
made frequent inroads into the adjacent country, fub-
dued feveral of the caciques or petty princes, and col-
le&ed a confiderable quantity of gold. In one of
thefe expeditions, the Spaniards contended fo violently
about the divifion of fome gold which they had taken,
that they were on the point of coming to blows with
one another. A young cacique who was prefent,
aftonilhed at fuch contention about a thing of which
he knew not the ufe, tumbled the gold out of the ba¬
lance with indignation, and turning to the Spaniards,
told them, that fince they valued gold fo very highly,
he would condud them to a country where the molt
common utenfils were made of that metal. The Spa¬
niards eagerly catched at this hint ; and upon further
queftioning the cacique, were informed, that at the
diftance of fix days journey, towards the fouth, from
the place where they were at that time, they Ihould-
difeover another ocean, near which thisdefirable coun¬
try was fituated ; but if they intended to attack that
powerful ftate, they muft affemble* a much greater
number of fsrees than had hitherto appeared on the
continent.
_ Balboa was tranfported at the news. He imme¬
diately coacluded, that the ocean mentioned by the
cacique was that which Columbus had fo long fought
for in vain, and that the rich territory deferibed to
him muft be part of the Eaft Indies. He was there¬
fore impatient till he fflould arrive at that happy coun¬
try, in comparifon with the difeovery of which all for¬
mer exploits almoft vaniflied into nothing. In order
therefore to procure a force fuiftcient to enfure fuecefs
PER
[ 200 1
PER
Peru.
In hla entevprife, he firft fecured the friendftip of the
neighbouring caciques, and then difpatched feme of
his officers to Hifpaniola, with a large quantity of
gold as a proof of his paft fuccefs, and an earnetl of
what he expeded. By this means he fecured the
friendfhip of the governor, and procured a coniider-
able reinforcement. But though he now imagined
himfelf fufficiently ftrong to attempt the caicovery,
there were ftill prodigious difficulties to be furmounted.
Difficulties The ifthmus of Darien, though not above 60 miles in
they had tobreadth, has a chain of lofty mountains running
overcome, trough its whole extent. Being fituated between two
vaft oceans, the Atlantic and Pacific, the climate is
exceffivelv moift, infomuch that it rains for two thirds
of the year. In confequenee of this the valleys are
marffiy, aad fo frequently overflowed, that the inha¬
bitants find it neceffary in fome places to build their
houfes upon trees, in order to be elevated at fome di-
ftance from the damp foil, and the odious reptiles en-
gendered in the waters. There are alfo many large
rivers very difficult to be croffed; and as the country
that time was only inhabited by a few wandering
favages, the enterprife of Balboa was looked upon as
the moll difficult that had been undertaken by any
Spanilh adventurer.
On this arduous talk Balboa fet out on the ift day
of September 1513, about the time that the periodica
rains began to'abate. He had only 190 Spaniards
along with him ; but all of them were hardy veterans,
inured to the climate of America, and very much at¬
tached to their leader. A thoufand Indians attended
in order to carry their provifions and other neceffimcs,
and they had along with them fome of thofe tierce dog
fo terrible to the natives of America.
Balboa proceeded by fea, and without difficulty, o
the territories of a cacique whofe friendfhip he had
gained ; but as foon as he began to advance into the
interior parts of the country, he met with all the dif
Acuities above-mentioned. Some of the caciques alfo,
at his approach, fled with all their people to the moun¬
tains, carrying off or deftroying whatever could af¬
ford fubfiftence to an army. Others colle fed t . _
force In order to oppofe him : however, Balboa conu-
r> uAfirft nued unmoved in fpite of all difficulties; and at la ,
oi a fi^ht after a moft painful journey of 25 days, he arrived at
of the ^ the South Sea; when, with the moft extravagant
South Sea. tranfp0tt8 Gf joy, he went into it up to the mic e,
l C . a - ’ r . „„„— ... Em matter’s name.
after their fatigues ; and from thence he lent an
count to the court of Spain of the important difeovery
he had made, demanding a reinforcement of 1 coo men,
in order to conquer the country ^ had ne^y difco-
, 1*1   hiAitpri at once.
Peru.
n order to conquered ,,71 A j T . « - bi.
,«d. Bat here his hope, were bUfted at once-He w
vered. But here ms nopcs wv-tv. j r _ ,-,rived of
The king indeed determined to profeciite the difeo ^ ^
very, but refufed to continue Balboa in bis govern- man(i}
ment, appointing Pedrarias Davila to fuperfede him
and giving him the command of 15 ftout veffils, with
1200 foldiers, to enfure his fuccefs. . .f
Balboa, though much mortified by lus difgrace,
fubmitted to the king’s pleafure without It
wras not long, however, before he met with an addi¬
tional misfortune ; the new governor tried him for
fome pretended irregularities committed before h.s ar¬
rival, and fined him ot almoft all he was worth. I*
the mean time the Spaniards, paying no regard to the
treaties concluded by Balboa with the Indians, plun¬
dered and deftroyed all indifcnmmately, infomuch that
the whole country, from the gulph of Darien to the
lake Nicaragua, was defolated. _ l he new comers had
alfo arrived at the moft unlucky time of the year, name¬
ly, about the middle of the wet feafon, when ^e excet-
five rains produced the moft violent and fatal difeafe*.
To this was joined an extreme fcarc.ty of provdmns ;
fo that in the fpace of a month above 600 Spaniards
periihed in the utmoft mifery.
P Balboa failed not to fend violent remonftrapees to
Spain againft the conduft of the new governor ; and
he, on the other hand, accufed his antagomft of ha-
ving deceived the king by falfe accounts of the coun-
tryfand magnifying his own exploits beyond meafure
At laft the king, fenfible of his error in fuperfeding
Balboa, appointed him adelantado, or l.eutenant-go-
ver^r of the countries 0,1 the South Sea, with very
extenfive privileges and authority; enjoining Pedrams
to fuppovt him in all his enterprifes, and to confulc
with fom in every thing which he himfel under too.
It was impoffible, however, to extinginffi the envy ot
Pedrarias ; and therefore, though a reconciliation took
place in abearance, even fo far, that Pedrarias agreed
to give his daughter in marriage to Baboa, yet h And5put ^
foon after had him condemned and execUtff0nmP.rfedeath,
tence of difloyalty, and an intention to revolt from the
kiOn the death of Balboa, the thoughts of conquer¬
ing Peru were for a time laid afide ; however, it ftdl
remained an objed of defire to all the Spamih adven¬
turers in America. Accordingly, fever*! arinJmenl"
were fitted out with a defign to explore and take
poffeffion of the countries to the eaft ot I anama ; but,
either through the difficulties which attended the un¬
dertaking it folf, or the bad condod « the adventu¬
rers all of them proved unfuccefsful, until at laft 1
t oninion. that Balboa’s fchfcme had been
atfo took poffeffion of the ocean in his mafter’s name,
vowing Jcefend it agsinft ,U bpa.n
That part of the South Sea which Balboa now dif-
covered, he called the Gulf of St Michael;name
it ftill retains, and is fituated to the eaft of 1 anama
From fome of the neighbou.ing caciques he extorted
THOvifions and gold by force ; others feat him pvefents
voluntarily; and he had the fatisfadion to hear, that
the adjacent coafts -abounded with pearl-oyfters. The
inhabitants were alfo unanimous in declaring, that
there was to the fouthward a very rich and populous
country, where the people had tame animals, which
they endeavoured to defenbe to him, meaning the
' ruvian {beep. But, however impatient he might be
to viftt this empire, he confidered it as highly im¬
proper to venture thither with a handful of menex-
haufted by labour and difeafe. ^ He therefore led back
his followers to Santa Maria, in order to refreih them
came a ge n eral o pin ion, that Balboa’s fob,me had been
Lirely vitionary. r .1 ^ A neW f
Still, however, there were three perfons^lettled atpedltionfgt
Panama, on whom the common opinion made fo ht eon fo0tl
impreffion, that they determined to go >n o
country, looked upon to be chimerical by r
lity of them neighbours. Them names were Franajc*
Pizarro Diego de A Image 0, and Hernando Luque. 11-
zamfand Almagro were foUiers of fortune and Luque
was an ecclefiaftic, who affed boln a. pnc , -p d
Biller at Panama. Their coafedtracy was authorifed
ITmt.
PER [
«- ^ ^<3rana8 governor of Panama; an<3 eaeli en^ap-ed
to employ his whole fortune in the adventure. PI-
zarro, being the leaft wealthy of the three, engaged
to take upon himfelf the greateft fhare of the fatigue
and danger, and to command in perfon the armament
which was to go firft upon the difcovery. Almagro
o ered to conduft the fupplies of provifions and rein-
orcements of troops which might he neceflary; and
uque was to remain at Panama, in order to nego-
ciate with the governor, and to fuperintend whatever
p- y Was carrying on for the general intereft.
Meets with In 1524^ Pizarro fet fail from Panama with a fmgle
ilSr* r™ of frnall burthen, and . .2 men; and f„ i;ttle
tie or his countrymen at that time acquainted with the
chmate of America, that the moil improper feafon of
the whole year was chofen for his departure ; the pe¬
riodical winds, which were then fet in, being direAIv
oppofite to the courfe which he propofed to fteer. The
confequence of this was, that after beating about for
l°jTr W'th mrch dan^er and fatW he had ad-
vanced fcarce as far to the fouth-eaft as a IkUful navi¬
gator wi 1 now make in three days. He touched nt
feveral places of Terra Firma ; but finding that conn-
try, exceedingly inhofpitable and unhealthy, he was
obliged to retire to Chuchama, oppofite to the Pearl
from P WherC hc^0^ to reccive reinforcements
m Panama. FJere he was found by Almagro, who
had fet out in qued of him with a reinforcement of 70
men, and had fuffered diftreiTes very much refembiing
thofe of Pizarro h.mfelf. In particular, he had loft
an eye ,n a combat with the Indians. However, he
had auvanced as far as the river of St Juan in the pro-
vmce of Popayan, where the country ftiowing a berter
^peA, and the inhabitants more friendly, our proiec-
tors again began to indulge themfelves in hopes, and
determined by no means to abandon their fcheme.
" returned to Manama, in hopes of recruit-
ing their /battered troops. But the bad accounts of
..e fervice gave his countrymen fuch an unfavourable
men ^ A!ira^r° CouId Ievy no than 80
tnen and thefe with great difficulty. Slender as this
emforcement was, however, the adventurers did not
^eiirate at renewing their enterprife. The di fa tiers
and ai‘appointments they met with in this new at¬
tempt, were fcarce inferior to thofe they had already
*Wl,nekCC<^r^en part t^c arniarnent at laft reach¬
ed the bay of St Matthew on the coaft of Quito, and
landed at Tacamez, to the fouth of the nWof Eme-
raids, where they met with a more fertile and cham-
SweTm1*7 tha.n^Athey had ^ ^n; the natives
a o were more civilized, and clothed *n garments of
andlr W°pkn ftu<F’ ,dOTMd with trinkets of lid
SarS«,' P®”1 notwithlla"<Jin? thefe favourable ap.
powerful em^2l,rr0- v'd T fit ‘onttack fuch a
hauftpd Wlt^ an foldiers already ex-
S^tbtart"'/"^"^™ 'V rMl! M-d
patched Almagro to Panama in h™ dif'
reinforcement ’ m hopes of Staining a
meTu/aSe" “some^T T ^
fonued their friend. oT.hf ^ - '
r E R
20J I
rias, that he prohibited the raffing of new recruits, IW
and even difpatched a veffel to bring home Pizarro and   
h.s companions from the ifiand of Gallo. Almagr®
and Tuque, though much mortified with this difan-
pomtment, privately advifed Pizarro not to relinquifh
an enterprife on which they had built all their hopes.
He therefore pofit.vely refufed to obey the orders of
the governor, and employed all his addrefs in perfua- g
h’S1n-? ”,0t ab,andon hfm- But the calami- Pizarrn
ties to which they had been expofed had fuch an ef- Undone!
feA upon them, that when he drew a line upon the by ali his
fand with his fword, telling fuch as wifhed J return
remafu wb-th 8 °V"'!t’ °"‘r 13 ^
Pizarro with his little troop now fixed their refi-
denCer the inand ofGorgona, which they confidered
aa a fafer retreat than Gallo, as being farther removed
feom the coaft and uninhabited, fo that they might
with the greater fecurity wait for fupplies Here
they continued five months in the mofl unwholefome
climate imaginable, and at laft had come to a refolu-
tion o committing themfelves to fea on a float, when
a veflel arrived from Panama to their relief. This was
the effeAof the continued folicitations of Almagro
and Luque ; who, though they could not prevail upon
fiofafirT-1 d faV°l!- the Undertak‘n^ had Succeeded
I r f f T> ,nduce h,m to fend a veffel to the
relief of Pizarro and his unfortunate affociates. How
oVf Piziro^h effearIIy t0 ^ hi3 dj'%P-bat^
of Hzarro s fcheme, the governor refufed to allow one
landman to go on board of the fhip which he fent —
The hopes of the adventurer?, however, were now ag-ain
revived and Pizarro eafily induced them to re feme
fore1; S; thi tTX^Tj tbe7
ofrp^ud,fHVa7 of GT°;a""
they at ienSr'"^ t0,ucheiat fo,,'e °f Ws note,aU
« . g» h arrjved at Bomhez, remarkable for itstUrcs'
ftately temple, and a palace of the Incas or foverefens
of the country. Here they found that what had been
true • ‘not™ the rIche3 of ^ country was
true, not only ornaments and facred vefTelsbeing-made
o gold and filver, but even fech as were for commot
e- et to attempt the conqueft of this opulent em
p re with their flender force, would have been mad-~
bey COn?ented themfelves therefore with view
'nf P™™™? two of the beafts of burthen cXi
mm, to which they gave the name of ftieep, feme
ve e s-o gold and fiber, and two young men, whom
WkhPth?f°p- t0 inft"UCt in the Caftilian language.
With thefe Pizarro arrived at Panama in the year i r 27
near three years after he had fet out from Iha pile
in his expedition. p ce
The empire of Pen. thus difebvered, is faij to have M-a'* .
recCe'll 7 rb7 ''”d'P'"d™ tribe,, iufll, thfSslj
mn r t •???,mo^ favage eyen in America; livin? Peru,
more like wild beafts than men. For feveral ages the?
th7 b,\th,7naiTr* When fuddenly there appeared on
the banks of a lake called TKcca, a man and woman
of majeftic form, and clothed in decent garments
hey declared themfelves to be the children of the fun*
mankind."6 r ParCTt t0 andtlaS
The names of thefe two extraordinary perfonan-es
were Marw Cafac and Mama Ocla. At Their perfea^
C C flOB,
PER E
Peru, (ion, feveral of the difperfed favagej united, and, re-
—V 1 ceivintr their commands as heavenly injunaions, tol-
lowed&them to Cuzco, where they fettled, and began
to lay the foundations of a city. Manco Capac in-
ftru&ed the men in agriculture, and other ufeful arts ;
while Mama Ocla taught the women to fpm and
weave ; after which Manco turned his attention to¬
wards the introducing of proper laws and regulations
into his new ftate.
Thus, according to"?he Indian tradition, was found¬
ed the empire of the Incas, or lords of Peru. At firil
its extent was fmaH, the territory of Manco Capac
reaching not above eight leagues from Cuzco his capi¬
tal. Within thefe narrow limits, however, he exer-
eifed the moft. perfeft defpotifm, and tne fame was
maintained by his fucceffors, all of whom were_ not
only obeyed as monarchs, but reverenced as aeities.
Their blood was held to be facred, and, by prohibi¬
ting intermarriages with the people, was never conta¬
minated by mixing with that of any other race, d he
family, thus feparated from the reft of the nation, was
diftingui'hed by peculiarities in drefs and ornaments,
which it w’as unlawful for others to affume. Among
the Peruvians, however, it is faid, that this high de¬
gree of veneration was made ufe of by the monaichs
only to promote the good of their fubjefts. If we may
believe the accounts given by their countrymen, the
Peruvian monarchs extended their empire not with a
view to increafe their own power and wealth, but from
a defire ef diffufir.g the bleflings of civilization, and
the knowledge of the arts which they pofteffed, among
the barbarous people whom they reduced, and, dunng
a fucceflion of 12 monarchs, not one deviated from
this chara&er. ,
The Peruvians were taught by Manco to adore the
Creator of heaven and earth, whom they denominated
202 ] PER
not only in honour of the fun, but of their firft In.
ca, Manca Capac, and Coya Mama Ocls, his wife
and lifter, whom the Incas confidered as their firft
parents, defeended immediately from the fun, and fent
by him into the world to reform and poiilh mankind.
At this fellival, all the viceroys, generals, governors,
and nobility, were affembled at the capital city of
Cuzco; and the emperor, or Inca, officiated in perfsn
as high-prieft ; though on other occafions the facer-
dotal funftion was difeharged by the regular pontiff,
who was ufually either the uncle or brother of the
Inca. .
Tlie morning of the feftival being come, the Inca,
accompanied by his near relations, drawn up in or¬
der according to their feniority, went barefoot in pro-
ceffion, at break of day, to the market-place, where
they remained looking attentively towards the eaft
in expectation of the rifing fun. The luminary nofoon-
er appeared, than they fell proftrate on their faces in
the moft profound veneration, and univerfally acknow¬
ledged it to be their god and father.
The vaffal princes, and nobility, that were not of
the blood royal, aftemblcd in another fguare, and per¬
formed the like ceremony. Out of a large flock of
{beep the priefts then chofe a black lamb, which they
offered in facrifice, firft turning its head towards the
eaft. From the entrails of the viftim, on tin’s pc*
cafion, they fuperftitioufly drew prognoftics relating
to peace and war, and other public events.
That the Peruvians believed in the immortality of
the foul, appears from the practice of the Incas, who
conftantly inculcated to the people, that, on leaving
this world, they fhould enter into a ftate of happi-
nefs provided for them by their god and father the
Pern
Carver's
Modern
General
‘Traveller,
11
Religion
the Peru
"vians.
fun- . , • a • u 14
Before the arrival of the Spaniards m America, the yj^gy
Creator of heaven am! earth, whon? .th'r ' pcrl,via„» were acquainted with fome point, of aftro-aeqaaimrf
Paca Camac, that intelligence which animated the had obferved the various motions of with aftro-
world. They feldom built temple, or offeree facrtfice ^ ^ lhe differe„t phafe, of th«“™^„.
LX ** -on The common people divided the y«r only
Spaniards found at their arrival, ere&ed m a V'lley,
thence named the valley of Pacv Camac. ihe facri •*
ces inftituted in honour of the fun confifled chiefly of
lambs ; befides which they offered all forts of cattle,
fowls, and corn, and even burnt their fineft cloths on
the altar by way of incen-fe. They had alfo drink o -
ferings made of maize or Indian corn, deeped in wa¬
ter. Nor were thofe obMion« the only afts o aco-
ration in general ufe among them. When t -fT r.ft
drank after their meals, they dipped the.tip of their
finger into ihe cup, and lifting up their eyes ith
great devotion, gave the tan .tanks or their liquor,
before they prefumed to take a draught of it.
Befides the worffiip of the fun, they paid fome
kind of veneration to the images of feveral animals
and vegetables that had a place in their temples.
Thofe were generally the images brought from the
conquered nations, where the people worflnpped all
forts of creatures, animate or inanimate; it being t e
cuftom, when a province was fubdued^ to remove a
their idols to the temple of the fun at Uizco,
Exclufive of the foie unities ac every full moon, tour
grand feftivals were celebrated annually- .1 he mlt
of thofe, called Raym'u was held in the month of June,
immediately after the fummer folftiee, and was kept
moon,   — r—r- - - ,  
by the feafons; but the Incas, who had difeovered Spaniards.
the annual revolution of the fun, marked out the
fummer and winter folftices by high towers, which
they erefted on the eaft and weft of the city of Cuzco.
When the fun came to rife direftly oppoffie to four
of thofe towers, on the eaft fide of the city, and to
fet againft thofe of the weft, it was ttan the fum*
mer folftice ; and in like manner, when it rofe and
fet againft the other towers, it was the winter folftice.
They had alfo erefted marble pillars in the great
court before tine temple of the fun, by which they
obferved the equinoxes. This obfervation was made
under the equator, when the fun being dire&ly ver*
tical, the pillars call no (hade. At thofe times they
crowned the pillars with garlands of flowers and odo¬
riferous herbs, and celebrating a feftival, offvied to
their adored luminary rich prefents of gold and pre¬
cious ftones. .
They diftinguilhed the months by the moon, and
their weeks were called quarters of the moon , but
tht days of the week they marked only by the ordt*
rial numbers, as firft, fecond, &c. They wcre afto-
piflred at the eclipfes of the fun and moon. ten
the former hid his face, they concluded it was on
account of their fins, imagining that this phenome-
PER
'Peru-
non portended famine, war, and peflilence, or feme
' other terrible calamity. In a fimilar ftate of the moon,
they apprehended that fhe was lick, and when totally
obfeured, that fhe was dying. At this alarming cri-
fis they founded their trumpets, and endeavoured by
every kind of noife to roufe the lunar planet from
her fuppofed lethargy ; teaching their children to
cry out, and call upon mama qudl-a, or “ mother
moon,” that fhe would not die and leave them to
perifh.
They made no predi&ions from any of the ftars,
but confidered dreams, an ! the entrails of hearts
which they offered in facrifice, as inflruftive objeds of
divination. When they faw the fun fet, they ima¬
gined that he plunged into the ocean, to appear next
morning in the eaft.
ineyuau A monhr a PeoP!e wholly void of letters, the fpe-
tearhers of culative ertays of the underflanding mult have been
morality; very rude and impel fed They had, however, among
them amentas, or philofophers, who delivered moral
precepts, and like wife cultivated poetry. Comedies
and tragedies compofed by thofe bards were aded on
their feftivals before the king and the royal family,
the performers being the great men of the court, and
the principal officers of the army. The amentas alfo
compofed font;s and ballads; but if we may judge from
the rudenefs cf the mufic with which they are laid to
have been accompanied, they were far from being
agreeable to a polifhed ear.
That the Peruvians were not unacquainted with
painting and ftatuary, appears from the furniture and
ornaments o^ their temples and palaces ; but in all
f 20.1 1
PER
13
They had
mother of the royal race. This produced a civil war,
in which ^Atabalipa proved vidorious, and afterwards
attempted to fecure himfelf on the throne by putting
to death all the defendants of Manco Capac, ftyled
/,je children of the Sun, whom he could feize either by
force or ftratagem ; however, from a political motive,
he fpp.red the life of his rival Huafcar, who had the
misfortune to be taken prifoner in an engagement,
that, by liming out orders in his name, he mierht more
eafily eftablifh his own authority, and cover the'ille¬
gality of his birth.
This conteft had fo much engaged the attention of
the Peruvians, that they never once attempted to
check the prbgrefs of the Spaniards. It was fome
time, however, before Pizarro was informed of this
conteft, fo much in his favour. The firft intelligence
which he received of it was a meffage from Huafcar
afking his afiifiance againft Atabalipa, whom he re-
prefented as a rebel and an ufurper. Pizarro per-
ceived the importance of the intelligence, and there¬
fore determined to pufh forward, while intertine dif-
cord put it out of the power of the Peruvians to n-
Peni.
tack him with their whole force. Being obliged to
(' 1 -
14
And were
rot unac-
quainteii
with
ing and
ftatuary.
i aii.t implements of mechanic arts they were extremely
15
deficient. Though many goldfmiths were conflantly
employed, they had never invented an anvil of any
metal, but in its ftead made ufe of a hard ftone. They
beat then plate with round pieces of copper in place
of hammers ; neither had they any files or graving
tools. Inrtead of bellows for melting their metals, they
ufed copper pipes, of a yard long,' almoft of the form
of a trumpet. Having no tom-rs to take their heated
metal out of the fire, they made ufe of a flick or
copper bar. Their carpenters had no other tools than
hatchets made of copper or flint ; nor had they learned
the ufe of iron ; though the country dffords mines of
that metal Indead of nails, they faftened their timber
with cords or the tough twigs of trees. A thorn, or
a fmall bone, ferved them for a needle ; and inrtead of
thread, the finews of animals, or the fibres of fome
plant. Their knives were made of flint or copper.
When the Spaniards firft vilited this country, they
linn it fT l a ,-1 K'wr « 1   TT «
vide his troops, in order to leave a r;nrr’f >n in St Mi¬
chael, which might ferve for a place of retreat in
cafe of a difafter, he began his march with only 62
horfemen and to2 foot-foldiers, 20 of whom were
armed witn croB-bows, and only three with mulkets.
He direfted his courfe towards Caxamalca, a fmall
town at the diftance of 12 days march from St Mi¬
chael, where Atabalipa was encamped with a confi-
deraMe body of troops. Before he had proceeded far
an officer difpatched by the inca met him with a va*
luable prefect from that prince, accompanied with a
prouer of his alliance, and his aflurances of a friendly
reception at Caxamalca. Pizarro, according to the
ufual artifice of his countrymen in America, '’pretend¬
ed to come ns the ambaffador of a very powerful mo-
narch, and declared that he was now advancing with
intention to offer Atabalipa his aid againft thofe ene¬
mies who difputed his title to the throne
As theobjebt of the Spaniards in entering their
country was altogether incomprehenfible to the Peru - thefr ijno-
yians, they had formed various conjeftures concerning ranee of the
it, without being able to decide whether they fhould r!10tives of
 L-t- r f . 1 the Spa-
Trberefsofr 1 opania
the Spa- tou"d 11 agltated by a civil war. Huana Capac, the
niardsfaci- I2t“ monarch from the founder of the ftate, was feat-
“y ai r °n t]re- thTone 5 who is rt prefen ted as a prince no
among the ^fs <;onfPlcuous for lus abilities in war than for his
natives; j?a,, c ,vutu,ef'I ^7 the kingdom of Quito was
fubdued, which almoft doubled the extent of’the do¬
minions and power of the Peruvian empire. Notvvith-
itanding the ancient and fundamental law againft pol-
luting the Hood of the Inca with any foreign alliance,
Huana married the daughter of the conquered mol
•narch, by whom he had a fon named Atahualba, com¬
monly written Atabalipa, to whom, at his death in
J529, hdmthe kingdom of Quito, beftowing the
reft ot his dominions upon Huafcar his eldeft fon by a
confer their new gnefls as being, of a fnperior nature, ‘j’bT
wno had vifited them from fome beneficent motive or
as formidable avengers of their crimes, and enemies to
their repofe and liberty. The continual profeffions of
the Spaniards, that they came to enlighten them with
the knowledge of truth, and lead them in the wav of
happinefs, favoured the former opinion ; the outrages
which they committed, their rapacionfnefs and cruel¬
ty, were awftil confirmations of the latter. While in
this ftate of uncertainty, Pizarro’s declaration of his
pacific intentions fo far removed all the Inca’s fears
that he determined to give him a friendly receotion’
In confequence of this refolution, the Spaniards were
allowed to march in tranquillity acrofs the fandy defert
between St Michael and Motupe, where the moft
feeble effort of an enemy, added to the unavoidable
dirt re lies which they fuffered in palling through that
com'ortlefs region, mull have proved fatal to them
brom Motupe they advanced towards the mountains
which encompafs the low country of Peru, and pafs-
C c 2 J ^
PER
t 204 1
PER
Peru,
ed through a defile fo narrow and inacceffi' le, that a
few men might have defended it againft a numerous ar¬
my. But here likewife, from the fame inconfiderate
credulity of the Inca, the Spaniards met with no op-
pofition, and took, quiet poffeffion of a fort ere&ed for
the fecurity of that important ftation. As they now
approached near to Caxamalca, Atahalipa renewed
his profeffioHS of friendfhip ; and, as an evidence of
his fincerity, fent them prefents of greater value than
the former.
On entering Caxamalca, Pizarro took polTefiion of
a large court, on one fide of which was a houfe which
the Spanifh hiftorians call a palace of the Inca, and on
the other a temple of the fun, the whole furrounded
with a ftrong rampart or wall of earth. When he had
polled h:B troops in this advantageous fiation, he dif-
patched Hernando Soto, and his brother Ferdinand,
to the camp of Atabalipa, which was about a league
diilant from the town. He intdructed them to confirm
the declaration which he had formerly made of his pa¬
cific difpofition, and to defire an interview with the
Inca, that he might explain more fully the intention
of the Spaniards in vifiting his country. They were
treated with ail the refpectfui hoipkai'ty ufuai among
the Peruvians in the reception of their moil cordial
friends, and Atabalipa proraifed to vifit the Spanil'll
commander next day in his quarters. f he decent de¬
portment of the Peruvian monarch, the order of his
court, and the reverence with which his iubjedts ap¬
proached his perfon and obeyed his commands, afto-
nifhed thofe Spaniards, who had never met in Ameii-
ca with any thing more dignified than the petty ca¬
cique of a barbarous tribe. But their eyes were ftill
more powerfully attra&ed by the vaft profufion of
wealth which they obferved in the Inca’s camp. The
rich ornaments worn by him and his attendants, the
veffels of gold and filver in which the repafi offered to
them was ferved up, the multitude of utenfils of every
kind formed of thofe precious metals, opened profpefts
far exceeding any idea of opulence that a European of
the J 6th centuiy could form.
On their return to Caxamalca, while their minds
yet warm with admiration and defire of the
*7
Perfidious
fcheme of
Pizarro to
feize the
Inca.
wealth which they had beheld, they gave fueh a de-
feription of it to their countrymen, as confirmed Pi-
*arro in a refolution which he had already taken.
From his own obfervation of American manners du¬
ring his long fervice in the New World, as well as
from the advantages which Cortes had derived from
feizing Montezuma, he knew of what confequence it
was to have the Inca in his power. For this pu-rpofe,
he formed a plan as daring as it was peifidious. Not-
withftanding the chara&er he had affumed of an am-
baffador from a powerful monarch, who courted an
alliance w.th the Inca, and in violation of the repeat¬
ed offers which he had made to him of his own frienu-
fhip and affiftance, he determined to avail himfelf of
the unfufpicious fimplicity with which Atabalipa re¬
lied on his profeffions, and to feize his perfon during
the interview to which he had invited him. He pie-
nand, Soto, and Benalcazar ; his infantry was formed Peru
into one body, except 20 of moft. tried courage, whom ——y—
he kent near his own perfon to fupport him in the
dangerous fervice which he refevved for himfelf; the
attillery, confiding of two field-pieces, and the crofs-
bow men, were placed oppofite to the avenue by which
Atabalipa was to approach. All were commanded to
keep within the fquare, and not to move until the lignal
for action was given.
Early in the morning the Peruvian camp was all in
motion. But as Atabalipa was folicitoun to appear
with the greateft fplendour and magnificence in his
find intetview with the ilrangers, the prep rations for
this were fo tedious, that the day was far advanced
before he began his march. Even then,, left the or¬
der of the proeeffion ftiouid be deranged, he moved fo
flowly, that the Spaniards became impatient and ap-
preheniive that fome fufpicion of their intention might
be the caufe of this delay. In order to remove this,
Pizarro difpatched one of his officers with frelh affu-
rances of his friendly difpofition. At length the Inca
approached. Firft of all appeared 400 men in aa
uniform drefs, as harbingers to clear the way before
him. He himfelf, fitting on a throne or couch, adorn¬
ed with plumes of various colours, and almoft covered
with plates of gold and fiiver enriched with precious
ftones, was earned on the (boulders of his principal at¬
tendants. Behind him came fome chief officers of his
court, carried in the fame manner. Several bands
of fingers and dancers accompanied this cavalcade ;
and the whole plain was covered with troops, amouiu-
ing to more than 30,000 men.
As the Inca drew near the Spanifti quarters, father
Vincent Valverede, chaplain to the expedition, advan¬
ced with a crucifix in one hand, and a breviary in the
other, and in a long difeourfe explained to him the
do&rine ©f the creation, the fall of Adam, the incarna¬
tion, the fufferings and refurreclion of Jefus^Chrift, the
appointment of St Peter as God’s vicegerent on earth,
the tranfmiffion of his apoftolical power by fucceffion to
the pones, the donation made to the king of Caftile by-
pope Alexander of all the regions in the New World.
In confequence of all this, he reqirred Atabalipa to
embrace the Chriftian faith, to scknowledi^e the fit-
preme jurifdidtion of the pope, and to fubmit to the
king of Caftile ns his lawful fovereign ; pvomifing, if
he complied inftantly with this requifition, that the
Caftilian monarch would proteft his dominions, and
permit him to continue in the exercife of his royal au¬
thority ; but if he ffiould impioufly refufe to.obey this
fummons, he denounced war againft him in his maftei s
name, and threatened him with the moft dreadful ef¬
fects of his vengeance.
This ftrange harangue, unfolding deep myfteries,
and alluding to unknown fads, of which no power of
eloquence could have conveyed at once a diftiinff idea
to an American, was fo lamely tranflated by an unflcil-
ful interpieter, little acquainted with the idiom of the
Spaniffi tongue, and incapable of expreffing himfelf
with propriety in the language of the Inca, that its
the interview to which tie naa invucu nun. j.j.c pic- y o o rr, Am
oared for the execution of his fcheme with the fame general tenor was altogether incomprehenfible to Ata-
pared for the execution 01 n rnmnlinr. balipa. Some parts in it, of more obvious meaning.
deliberate arrangement, and with as little compunc¬
tion, as if it had refkaed no difgrace on himfelf or
bis country. He divided his cavalry into three fmall
Squadrons, under the command of lus broth.rs Feidi-
balipa. Some parts in it, of more obvious meaning,
filled him with aftoniffiment and indignation. .His re¬
ply, however, was temperate. He began with oh-
ferving, that he was lord of the dominions over which
■4 ' U
PER
Per a.
he reigned by hereditary fucctfiion ; and added, that
he could not conceive how a foreign pried; fhould pre¬
tend to difpofe of territories which did not belong to
him ; that if luch a prepolterous grant had been made
he, who was the rightful poffeiTor, refufed to confirm
it; that he had no inclination to renounce the religious
r 205. ]
PER
. Atabalipa, charmed with the thoughts of liberty,
immediately fet about performing his part of the agree¬
ment, and difpatched mefi'engers into all parts of the
emp.re, in order to collect the immenfe quantity of
pold whlch hc had promifed ; and though the unfor-
inllitutions eftaldifiied bv his ancefiors*i"Vor"woiddhe moi?arch was now ,n the hands of his enemies,
forfake the fetvlce of the fen, the immortal divimV bWoI^ta4for|lia,,
whom he and his people revered, in order to worth-'n tfi j 1? ° ,eyed Wlth as great alacrity aa
the God of the Spaniards, who ™ m£&VZ«,?. Le “^in e r %1!b^t ^ “ '»>=
that with refpea to other matters contained in his dif ’ Conn rele' fe <ia“£r,"K hlmfelf “g1' the hopes of being
courfe, as he had never heard of them befori and H d £ , /ed’ n * "? PreParafi™s expelling tll?
not now underftand their meaning,he detd’d know ‘ nS-
where he had learned things fo extraordinary. “ In
this book,” anfwered Valverede, reaching out to him
his breviary. The Inca opened ifeagerly; and turn¬
ing over the leaves, lifted it to his ear: “ This ” f3y8
iuVr'J1™1'’* tel,S me ^thing;” and threw it
with difdain to the ground. The enraged monk, run-
ning towards his countrymen, cried out, “ To arms,
Lhtitiians, to arms; the word of God is infulted ; a-
venge this profanation on thofe impious dogs.”
Ptzarro, who during this long conference had with
faculty reftramed his foldiers, eager to feize the rich
fpoils ot which they had now fo near a view, imme¬
diately gave the fignal ofaffault. At once the martial
muiic (truck up, the cannon and muflcets began to
hre, the horfe fallied out fiercely to the charge, the
infantry rufhed on fword in hand. The Peruvians,
Eers.
aftonilhed at the fuddennefs of an'attack whlnWr8’ , mean time the Indians daily a,
did not expeft, and difmaved with the W'th 7*? nqUan!,t,.es °f treafllre 5
did not expedf, and difmayed with the deftrutfive 2
e^is of the fire-arms, and the irrefiftible impreffion of
the cavalry, fled with univerfal confternation on every
fide, without attempting either to annoy the enemy
or to defend themfelves. Pizarro, ^ the head of his
dire.ai)r Incs ; and
AtthaV »bo"gl> his'noWrrrowdS nroun"ahimtithnoCffi:'and V* fo0t-folj:er- and hS of
ZCal' “d fc“ » numbers at his tt wMil rbf^ “ ‘Wr
_ _ i , r 11 • . mm wun Umelons
zeal, and fell in numbers at his feet, while they vied
one with another in facrificing their own livesf that
they might cover the facred perfon of their fovereiVn,
the Spaniards foon penetrated to the royal feat; and
izarro feizmg the Inca by the arm, dragged him to
the ground and carried him as a prifoner to his quar-
ters. 1 he fate of the monarch increakd the oreciDi-
tate flight of his followers The Spaniards pinfeed
them towards every quarter, and, with deliberate and
Unrelenting barbarity, continued to fl mrhter wretched
tugitives, who never once offered at refiflance The
carnage did not ceafe until the clofe of day. Above
4000 1 eruvians were killed. Not a fingle Spaniard
ha V0" 'na\T W0Unded but P;zrirro himfelf,Pwhqfe
and was flightly hurt by one of his own foldiers, wlfile
ftrugghng eagerly to lay hold on the Inca.
but tiaken °n tbiS oc<-'afi°n was immenfe,
but the Spaniards were flill r ^ ’ - - - ’
In a fliort time Pizarro received intelligence that
Aimagro was arrived at St Michael with a reinfcrce-
ment equal to the force he had with him. This was
a matter of great joy to the Spaniards, and no fmali
vexation to Atabalipa, who now confidered his kin^-
com as in danger of being totally over-run by thefe
ft rangers, whofe force he neither knew, nor the means
they had of tranfpofting themfelves. For this reafon
i n ?Ctn m',nfd .t0 Pnt {,,‘s brotl*r to death,
left he fhould jom the ftiangers airainft him. To this
he was the rather inclined, as he had got information
that the captive prince had been making applications
to them, and had offered them a much larger fum
than what was ftipukted for the Inca’s ranfom ; and
in conftquence of this determination the unfortunate
prince loft his life.
In the mean time the Indians daily arrived at Ca-
Tialca with vaft quantities of trenfure ; the fight of
wluca fo much, inflamed the Spaniards, that they in¬
filled upon an immediate divifion : and this being
comphed with, there fell to the fhare of each horfeman
8000 pefos, at that time not inferior to the value of as
many pounds flerling in the prefent century, and half as
much to each foot-foldier, Pizarro and his officers re¬
ceiving {hares proportionable to their dignity. A fifth
part was Ttferved for the emperor, together with fome
vellds or curious workmanfhip as a prefent. In con-
icquence of-this immenfe acquifition of wealth, many
of the Spaniards became chlorous for their difehame *
which was readily granted by their general, as well
no wing that the difplay of their riches would not
ail to ^ure adventurers more hardy, though kfs opu¬
lent, to his ftandard. 6 ^
. After th!s d.'7;fifn ^ the fpoil, Atabalipa was veryPiJm r,
importunate with Pizarro in order to recover his libem folves to ^
y ; but the Spaniard, with unparalleled treachery andput tIie
cruelty, had now determined to put him to death To‘,nc7°
tms he vvas urged'by Almagro’s foldiers, who, though *
they had received an equal fhare with the reft, were
ftill unfatisfied. I he Inca’s ranfom had not been
completed ; and they were apprehenfive, that whatever
fums might afterwards be brought in, the trooos of
Lr 19
le offers
« ”   --■ •-.“siars:; Sfasrs sxs aasfc
wilted to have him put to death.
I htfe ac-
lian
of
reafon
Atabalipa himfelf,
tea*
\
V E R r 20
T ru, too, I -all the misfortune to haflen his owR ruin by his
’ conceiving a contemptuous notion of Pizarro, winch
he had not the precaution to conceal. He had, fince
they were fir ft difcovered by him, admired the Euio-
pean arts of reading and writing, and wifhed much to
know whether he fhould regard it as a natural or ac¬
quired talent. In order to determine this, he defired
one of the foldiers who guarded him to write the name
of God upon the nail of his thumb. This he Ihowed to
feveral Spaniards fucceffively, alking its meaning; and,
to his furorife, they all returned tlie fame anfwer. At
length Pizarro entered ; and, on prefenring it to him,
he blulhed, and was obliged to own bis ignorance ;
which infp’red the Inca with the contemptuous notion
of him above-mentioned.
AtabaUpa In OK-er? however, to give fome fhow of juftice to
accufed andfuch a deteftable aftion, and that he might he ex-
condem- empted from ftanding fingly as the perpetrator, Pi-
ued, zarro refolved to acctifethe Inca of lotne capital enme,
and inftitute a court of judicature for the pirrpofe of
trying him. For this purpofe, he appointed himfelf
and Almagro, with two aftiftants, as judges, with full
powers to acquit or condemn : an attorney-general
was named to carry on the profecution in the king’s
name ; counfellcrs were chofen to affift the prifoner in
his defence ; and clerks were ordained to record the
proceedings of court. Before this ftrange tribunal a
charge was exhibited ftill more amazing. It confifted
of various articles: that Atabalipa, though a batlard,
had difpoftefted the lawful owner of the throne, and
ufurped the regal power ; that he ht'd put his bro¬
ther and lawful fovereign to death ; that he was an
idolater, and had not only permitted, but commanded
the i ftering up of human facritices ; that he had a
great number of concubines ; that fince his imprifon-
Tnent, he had walled and embezzled the royal trea-
fures, which now belonged of right to the conquerors;
and that he had excited his fubje&s to take up arms
againft the Spaniards. On thefe heads of accufation
they proceeded to try the fovereign of a great empire,
over whom they had n^* jurifduflion. 1 o all thefc
charges the Inca pleaded not guilty. With refpea to
the death of his brother, he alleged, that the Spa¬
niards could take no cognizance of the fail. With
regard to the taxes which he had levied, and the wars
he had carried on, they were nothing to the Spa¬
niards ; and as to the confpiracy againft the Spaniards,
he utterly denied it. He called heaven and earth to
witnefs the integrity of his conduft, and how faith¬
fully he had performed his engagements, and the per¬
fidy of his acenfers. He defired to be fent over to
Spain to take his trial before the emperor ; but no
sa regard was paid to his intreaties. He was condemned
And £0 ke burnt alive ; which cruel fentence was mitigated,
firangled. ag a great favour> to firangling ; and the unhappy mo¬
narch was executed without mercy.
The death of the Inca was followed by a revolution
in the Spanifh affairs, who now became generally
odious. Hideous cries were fet up by his women as
the funeral proceffion paffed by their apartment ; many
offered to bury tbemfelves alive with him ; and on
being hindered' ftrangled themfelves out of grief and
vexation. The whole town of Caxamalca was filled
revokoT with lamentation, which quickly extended itfelf over
the Peru- the whole kingdom. Friends and enemies accrued the
vians.
6 1 PER
Spaniards of inhumanity and treachery. ' Loads of P m
gold that were coming to Caxamalca by order of the » 'n'*
cleceafed Inca were now flopped ; and the iofs of the
treafure was the firft unfortunate confequence which
the Spaniards felt from their late iniquitous condutt.
'I he two factions of Indians united againft Pizarro;
and many of the Spaniards not only exclaimed againft
the cruelty of the judges, but would even have mu¬
tinied, had not a fenfe of the impending danger kept
them quiet At Ci zoo the friends of the emperor
Huafcar proclaimed Manco Capac the legitimate bro¬
ther of the late Inca, determining to fupport him to
the la ft againft all the machinations of his enemies.
Pizarro, in the mean time, fet up Paparpa, the fon
of Atabalipa, caufing him to lie treated with all the
honours due to an emperor. Immediately he fet out
for Cuzco, the gaining of which was abfolutely ne-
ceffary for his defign. An army of Indians occupied
the paffes, and refolved to difpute his progrefs.. The
conteft, however, was foon decided ; the Spanifh ca¬
valry bore down every thing before them, and great
numbers of Indians were flain. The conquerors gained
a conftderable booty ; and Pizarro difpatched Alma¬
gro to reduce Cuzco, while he himfelf founded a new
colony in the fruitful valley of Xauna ; which, how¬
ever, was not permanent, being afterwards removed to
the place where Lima now Hands.
While Pizarro was thus employed, another com¬
mander, named Ferdlnando Soto, was detached with
6o horfe to make the heft of his way to Cuzco, and
clear the road for the march of the remainder of the
army. He was oppo'fed by a formidable colle&ion of
Indians, who had fortified themfelves in order to de¬
fend a pafs againft him : for which reafon, fearing left
his ftrength might be unequal, he fent a meffage to
Pizarro, defiring-that the Inca might join him, think¬
ing that his prefence would awe the Peruvians, and
prevent the further effufion of blood ; but his expedi¬
tions were fruftrated by the death of the Inca, which
happened about this time ; fo that there was now a
necefiity for having recourfe to arms ; for as the Spa¬
niards fet up no perfon in his room, the title of Manco
Capac was univerfally acknowledged.
In the mean time, a new fupply of foldiers arriving
from Spain, Benalcazar, governor of St Michael, un¬
dertook an expedition ngainft Quito, where, accor !-
ing to the report of the natives, Atabalipa had left
the greateft part of his treafure. Pie accomphfhed
his purpofe with very great difficulty, having a coun¬
try covered with rocks and mountains to pafs, and
being oppofed by large bodies of the natives. But
when he got poffeffion of the city, to his extreme mor-
tifi. ation, he found that the inhabitants had carried off
all their gold and filver ; for they being now acquaint¬
ed with the ruling paffion of the Spaniards, had
taken care to difappoint it, by removing the treafurcs
which they knew very well had been the caufe of the
expedition. , 24
About the fame time Alvarado governor of Guati- chili mva-
mala, invaded the province of Chili. In this expedi-ded^ J
tion his troops endured fuch hardfhips, and fulleredvar
fo much from the cold among the Andes, that a fifth
part of the men and all the horfes died, and at the
fame time the reft were fo much difpirited and ema¬
ciated, that they became quite unfit for fervice. What
was
P E R
zarro to
abandon
the enter
prife.
Peru, was worft of all, when they had arrived at the end of
'-—'•v—their journey, they met with a body of Spaniards
drawn up in hoftile array to oppofe them. Thefe had
been fent againft him by Pizano, who claimed Chi!i
as part of his jurifdi&ion, and were now joined by
25 Benalcazar, with the troops under his command. AI-
He is obli- varado, however, advanced boldly to the attack; but,
ged by Pi- on tjje interpolition of fome moderate men in each
p rty, the difference was accommodated. Alvarado
engaged to return to his government, upon his being
paid 100,000 peios to defray the expence of his arma¬
ment. However, mold of his followers remained in the
country, and enlifted in the fervice of Piz irro.
In the meantime Ferdinand Pizarro, the brother of
the general, had landed in Spain, where he produced
fuch immenfe quantities of gold and filver as aftonifh-
,ed the court, even after all they had feen of the wealth
of their new-diicovered territories. The general’s au¬
thority was confirmed to .him with new powers and
privileges, and the addition of 70 leagues extending
along the coaft, to the fouthw.rd of the territory
granted in his former patent. Almagro had the title
ot adelantado or governor conferred upon him, with
jnrifdi&ion over 200 leagues of a country lying fouth-
ward from the province alloted to Pizarro ; he hira-
felf was made a knight of the order of St Jago.
Of thefe tranfadions fome accounts were received at
Peru before the arrival of Ferdinand Pizarro himfelf;
and no fooner did Almagro hear that he had obtained
the royal grant of an independent government, than,
[ 207 ]
PER
P<fra.
27
26
Honours
coi ferred
on Pizarro
by the
court of
Spain.
tyrannized in fuch a cibiel manner. Though ffn$Iy
guarded by the Spaniards, he found means to commu¬
nicate his intentions to the ch ef men of his nation,
whom he joined in the year 1536, under pretence of
celebrating a fe-ftival which he had obtained liberty
from Pizarro to attend. Upon this the ftandard of A dreadful
war was immediately erefted, and a moft formidable‘n*“rre^lon
armyj according to the Spanifh hiftorians, of 200,coo °* t^e ^e'‘
men colleded. Many Spaniards were mafiacred ,-nIuvian5j
tlieir habitations, and feveral detachments entirely cut
oft; and while this vafl army laid fxege to Cuzco, ano¬
ther formidable body inverted Tima, and kept the go-
vei nor clofely Hint up. The greatell effort, however,
was made againft Cuzco, which was defended by Pi¬
zarro and his two brothers, with only 170 men. The
hege lafted nine months ; many of toe Spaniards were
killed ; among whom was Juan Pizarro, the general’*
brother, and the belt beloved of them all. j he reft
were reduced to the moft defperate fituation, when
Almagro appeared fuddenly in the neighbourhood of
Cuzco.. Fie had received fuch accounts of the infur-
re6tion in Peru, as would at any rue have determined
him to return to the affiftance of Pizarro ; but befides
this, he had now received the royal patent, creating
Imn governor of Chili, and deemed it certain beyond
ail contradiction, that Cuzco lay within his jurifdic-
tion ; for which reafon he haftened to prevent it from
falling into the hands of the Peruvians. On his arri¬
val his afiiftance was folicited by both parties. The
Inca made many advantageous propofals; but at length
pretending .hat Cuzco the capital’ of all Peru, la,’ defpairiu* of oblaluing afy ciStbn S ffa-
with,a hia jurifd.a.on, he attempted to fe.ze ,t. Pi. nlard, he attacked him in the night by furprife wfth
zarro was no lefs ready to oppofe him ; and a very
dangerous civil war was about to take place, when the
quarrel was made up, on condition that Almagro
fhould attempt the conqueft of Chili ; and if he did
not find there an eftablifhment equivalent to his ex-
peftations, Pizarro fhculd yield up to him part of
Peru.
By this reconciliation Pizarro was left at liberty
to fettle the internal policy of his province, which,
though little qualified for a legiflator, he attempted,
by dividing the country into various diftri&s, ap¬
pointing magiftrates to prefide in each, and eftablifti-
ing fuch regulations concerning the adminiftration of
juftice, the royal revenue, &c. as occurred to him.
The feat of government he removed from Cuzco to Li¬
ma, which he named Ceudad des /os Reyes, and which
name it flill retains among the Spaniards in ail legal
and formal deeds. Its other name, Lima, is a cor¬
ruption of Rimac, the name of the valley in which the
city Hands.
In the mean time Almagro had fet out on his expe¬
dition to Chili; the event of which has been related
under the article Chili ; and while he was thus em¬
ployed, Pizarro encouraged fome of his moft diftin-
guiihed officers to invade thole provinces of the empire
which had not yet been vifited by the Spaniards. 'Phis
he did with a view to keep them employed, and pre¬
vent tumults; but it was attended with very terrible
confequences. No fooner did Manco Capac the fnca
perceive the fecurity of the Spaniards in thus dividing
their forces, than he fe.zed the opportunity of makino-
one vigorous effort to red refs the wrongs of himfelf
aad his countrymen, and expel the invaders, who had
2?
a gieat body of chofen troops. But the Spanifh va-Theyare
lour and Jifcipline prevailed againft all the numbers ofdefeated,
t icir enemies; and the Peruvians were repulfed withan^^“
fuch daughter, that a great part of the remainder dif. Perfed*
perfed, and Almagro advanced to the gates of Cuzco
without oppofition. Pizarro’s brothers took meafures
to oppofe his entrance; but pruden.e for the prefent
restrained both parties from entering into a civil war
while they were furrounded with enemies ; and there¬
fore each leader endeavoured to corrupt the followers
of his antagonift. In this Almagro had the advantage ;
and fo many of Pizarro’s troops deferted in the night,
that Almagro was encouraged to advance towards the
city, where he furprifed the centinels; and inverting
the houte where the two brothers were lodged, he comt
pelled them, after an obftinate-defence, to furrender
diferetion ; and Ahnagro’s authority over Cuzco
was immediately recognized as authentic.
In this fray only two or three perfons were killed ; Civifwar
but matters foon began to wear a more ferious afpeiff. between
brands Pizarro, having difperfed the Peruvians whorizanc>
inverted Lima, and received conhderable reinforce-arQ
ments from other provinces, ordered 500 men under0
the command of Alonfo de Alvarado to march to Cuzco,
in hopes of relieving his brothers, if they were not al¬
ready cut off. They advanced to a fmall diftance from
U.e capital, before they knew that they had a more
formidable enemy than the Indians to encounter. When
they faw their countrymen*drawn up on the hanks of
a river to oppofe them, they were greatly furpnfed ;
however, Almagro, who wifhed rather to gain them
than to fight, began with attempting to feduce their
leader. Alvarado could not by any means be gamed
over 3
PER [ 2'oS ] PER
Peru. 0*er . feut bein^ inferior In military flc’ll, Almagro at- whom he appointed his fiscceffor, by virtue of a power , ^ Pera; ^
tacked him by furorife, entirely defeated and difperfed granted him by the emperor. ^ ’
his armv taking himfelf and feme of his principal of- As during thefe diTenfions all intercourfe with Spain
fscers prifoners. ^ ceafed, it was fome time before the accounts of the civil
This viftory feemed decifrve ; and Almagro was ad- war were received at court. The firft intelligence was
vifed to make it fo by putting to death Gonzalo and given by fome of Almsgro’s foldiers, who had left
Terdinand Pizarro, Alvarado, and fome others whom America on the ruin of their caufe ; and they did not
he could not hope to gain. This advice, however, he fail to reprefent the injuftice and violence of Pizarro
declined from motives of humanity, and a delire of in the flrongeft colours, which ftrongly prejudiced the
making his adverfary appear the aggrelfor- For thefe emperor againft him. In a fhort time, however, l‘er-
reafons, inftead of marching direftlv againft P'zarro, dinand Pizarro arrived, and endeavoured to give mat-
he retired quietly to Cuzco which gave his a^verfary ters a new turn. The emperor was uncertain which
time to recolleft himfelf from the diforder into which of them he ought to believe-, and thert'ore thought it
the news of fo many difafters had thrown him. Fie neceffary to fend over fome perfon with ample powers
began again to pradtife upon Almagro thofe arts to inquire into the merits of the caufe, and to detcr-
Which had before proved fuccefaful; and Almagro mine certainly who was in the wrong. If he found the
again foffered himfdf to be deceived by pretended of- governor ftill alive, he was to affume only the title of
fers of pacification. The negociations for this pur- judge, in order to have the appearance of aft in g ia
pofe were protrafted for feveral months; and while concert with, him; but if he was dead, the viceroy
Almagro was employed in detefting and eluding the might then produce his commiffion appointing him Pi-
fraudulent intentions of the governor, Gonzalo Pi- Sarro’s ftrcceffor in the government. This eomplaifancc
xarro and Alvarado found means to corrupt the fol- to Pizarro, however, proceeded more from a dread of
diers who guarded them, and not only made their own his power than from any other thing ; for in the mean
efcnpe, but perfuaded 60 of Almagro’s men to ac- time, his brother Ferdinand was arrefted at Madrid,
company them. There now remained only Ferdinand and confined to a pvifon, where he remained above 20
Pizarro in the hands of Almagro; and he was delivered years. The perfon nominated to this important truft
by another aft of treachery. ° The general propofed was Chriftoval Vaca de Caftro. _ 3a
that all points of contmverfy {horrid be fubmitted to While this gentleman was preparing for his voyage, Peru (li¬
the decifion of their fovereign : and that Ferdinand Pizarro, confidering himfelf as the unrivalled mafter ofv.ded by
Pizarro ftipuld be inftantly fet at liberty, and return to Peru, proceeded to parcel out its territories among the
Spain, together with fome other officers whom the conquerors $ and had this divifion been ma^e with any
gener’l propofed to fend over to fhow the juftice of degree of impartiality, the extent of country which he
his claims ' Though the intention of Pizarro by ma-. had toheftow was fufficient to have gratified his friends,
kine- this propofal was evident, Almagro was deceived and to have gained his enemies. But Pizarro conduc-
by it, and releafed thofe whom Pizarro wanted; which ted this tranfaftioij, not with the equity and candour of
he had no fooner done, than the latter threw off all a judge attentive to difeover and to reward merit, but
difguife, and openly declared, that arms alone muft with the illiberal fpirit of a party-leader. Large di¬
now decide the matter between them. Fie therefore ftrifts, in parts of the country moil cultivated and po-
immediately fet out for Cuzco with an army of 700 pulous, were fet apart as his own property, or granted
men, to which Almagro had only 700 to oppofe. to his brothers, his adherents, and favourites. To
From the weaknefs of his forces, probably, Almagro others, lots lefs valuable and inviting were affigned.
did not attempt to guard fome ftrong paffes, through The followers of Almagro, amongft whom were many
which Pizarro had to march, but waited patiently for of the original adventurers, to whofe valour and per-
his adverfary in a plain open country. feVerartce Pizarro was indebted for^ his fuccefs, were
yp ' in the mean time, Pizarro advanced without any totally excluded from any portion in thofe lands, toj
Aimagr obftmftion from his enemy ; and an engagement foon wards the acquifition of which they had contributed
defeated happened, in which Almagro was defeated and taken fo largely. As the vanity of every individual fets an
Toner n prifoner. The conquerors behaved with great cruel- immoderate value upon his own ferviecs, and the idea
pn on. , r maffacring a great number of officers, and treating of each, concerning the recompence due to them, rofc
Almagro himftlf with great feverity. The Indians gradually to a more exorbitant height in proportion
had affembled in great numbers to fee the battle, with as their conquefts extended, all who were difappointed
an intention to join the vanquifhed party ; but were fo in their expeftations exclaimed loudly againft the ra-
much overawed by the Spaniards, that they retired pacioufnefs and partiality of the governor. The par-
quietly after the battle was over, and thus loft the tifans of Almagro murmured in fecret, and meditated
only opportunity they ever had of expelling their ty- revenge. . . „ ,
rantg.— Almagro, after having for fome months lan- Rapid as the progrefs of the Spaniards in South
guiffied in prifon, was at length formally tried, and America had been fince Pizarro landed in Peru, their
condemned to die by Pizarro. Notwithftanding his avidity of dominion was not yet fatfffied. The officers
confummate bravery, for which he was remarkable, this to whom Ferdinand Pizarro gave the command of dif-
har ly veteran could not bear the deliberate approach ferent detachments, penetrated into feveral new pro¬
of death, but condefcended to ufe intreaties to f ve his vincea ; and though fome of them were expofed to
life. The Pizarros, however, continued inflexible ; great hardihips in the cold and barren regions of the
and he w^as firft ftrangled in prifon, and then publicly Andes, and others fuffered diftrefs not inferior amidft
jjjngkd. beheaded. He left enc fon by an Indian woman, the wood and marfhes of the plains, they made difco-
i
P>?rn.
. , PER [ 209 ] PER
series and conquefts which extended their knowledge lated his dnfv ».•« j j • » ♦
of the country, as well as added to their power IV. a n° “13 commander, and with having
dro de Valdivia re-aflumed Almapro’s fcheme of inva* , u ^ ^e^ow-foIdiers in apathlefs defert, where v
ding Chili; and, notwithflanding’the fortitude of the h, 7 w hardIy any of fuccefs, or even of fafety,
iiHtivea in defending their poifelon, ma 1 fuch pr“ p“aed LriL h"^,,0'1 ^ "hich th^ «'
ftrefs in the conqneft of the count, ;., that he founded balanced bv he 1 ’ " f°m' meafure'
the city of St Jago, and gave a beginning to the efta viontVn ^ ory 0 having ventured upon a na-
bhfhment of the Spani/h dominion there. But of all" tifn, b ^ "fr f t°aA kaga^ thr°ugh unknown na-
theenterprifes undertaken about this penod, that of and bv Ve jl J W
Gonzales Pizarro was the moft remarkable The p-o our ^ ' unflalful hands, without provifions, with-
.ro.— r . , .. . ulc- -tne go- out a comoafs. or a m nt Rt,*- nr. I  , .
Expedition rj: l r wab re m01tr remarkable. The go-
cf Gonzales Iernor’ w^° feems to have refolved that no perfon in
. X)   . i Vril In r\n Iri T^ /!...▲*  r Ic n • •
■ Pizarro.
Peru ihould poflefs any ftation of diftinguifhed emi¬
nence or authority but thofe of his own family had
deprived Benalcazar, the conqueror of Quito, of his
command in that kingdom, and appointed his brother
Lronzales to take the government of it. He inftru&ed
him to attempt the difcovery and conqueft of the coun¬
try to the ealt of the Andes; which, according to the
ju.ormauon of the Indians, abounded with cinnamon
and other valuable fpices. Gonzales, not inferior to
any of h.s brothers in courage, and no lefs ambitious
ofacquirmg diftmaion, eagerly engaged in this diffi-
cult ferviee. He fet out from Quito at the head of
340 fold,ers, near one half of whom were horfemen
with 4000 Indians to carry their provifions. In for’
eng them way through the defiles, or over the ridges
out a compafs, or a pilot. But his courage and ala-
emy fupphed every defeft. Committing himfelf fear-
lefsly to the guidance of the flream, the Napo bore
him along to the fouth, until he reached the great
channel ° the Maragnon. Turning with it towards
the coaft, he held on his courfe in that direftion He
made frequent defeents on both fides the river,'fome-
times feizing by force of arms the provifions of the
fierce favages feated on its banks, and fometimes pro-
cunng a fupply of food by a friendly intercourfe with
more gentle tribes. After a long feries of dangers,
whmh he encountered with amazing fortitude, and of
diftrefles which he fupported with no lefs magn.animi-
oc5an» where Perils awaited
JV q ^ kefe he bkewife furmounted, and got fafe to
the Spamfh fettlement in the ifland Cubagua; from
thence he failed to Spam. The vanity natural to .tra-
of the Andes, excefs of cold and fatigue, to neitheTof vellers who vTr °Pain* iThe Vamty naturaI to tra'
which they were accuftomed, proved fftal to the greater kind and ^ .regfOHS l|nknown to the reft of man-
part of the wretched attendants. The Spaniards t W n*£\ d ^ a °f 30 adventurer» ^icitous to mag-
more robuft, i„ured to a variety of cZ« ’ fuf " l l'8 °W". concurred i" P—Pting him fo
fered confiderably, and loft fome men- but when’tbe ’ “ an e^tra°rJinary proportion of the marvellous
dtfeended into the low country, thelr diftrcf8tcrca?cdy i f ov"TT ^ '■»“
:£~ => S? - "»-•••»-
either altogether without inhabftants, or occupied by’ the fertife nla TTh bl" * Confldt‘rabIe of
the rudeft and lead induftrious tribes in the New World7 SnV 1 P he had Vlflted- Extravagant as
yielded little fubfiftence. They could not a^ T"’ they gave rIfe t0 an °P>‘nion, that a
ilep but as they cut a road through woods or made it djftinguifhel by the naLe
through marfhes. Such inceffant toil and continu b! a commumty of Amazons, were to
r— - ■ - - ‘ and contmiial ^ found in tins part of the New World and fuch is
the propenfity of mankind to believe what is wonder-
ful, that it has been flow’*, and with difficulty, that
reafon and obfervation have exploded thofe fables'
1 he voyage, however, even when dripped of every ro.
mantic ernbelliffirnent, deferves to be recorded, no/only
as one of the moft memorable occurrences in that ad^
ventrous age, but as the firft event that led to any cer-
tam knowledge of thofe immenfe regions that ftretch
eaftward from the Andes to the ocean.
No words can deferibe the confternation of Pizarro
b^rj -re ,ha„ rufficLt,0Chanvenex.
haufted and difpirited [any troops. But the fortitude
and perfeverance of the Spaniards in the ,6th century
w.re mfuperable. Allured by frequent but falfe J.
counts of rich countries before them, they perfifted in
lr Nan"6" 0n, Tb ^ the banks °^the Coca
m tbP iu™ °F the arge nvers whofe waters pour in-
the Maragnon, and contribute to its grandeur
There, with infinite labour, they built a bark, which
hey expected would prove *of great utilitv VinfV. • m , . —
conveying them over fivers in nrornrm y> -7 10 . No,words can defcr‘be the confternation of Pizarro
and in exploring the country T? ’ g provifions, when he did not find the bark at the confluence of th*
so foldiers, r™otlC toZl^ ^7, ^ ^ ^
the officer next in rank to Pizarro. The ftream ™ n Ju f Um' W°uld not aI|o<v to fuf-
ned them dowm with fuch rapiditv that tbat a man’ wbo.m be bad entrufted with fuch an
fo a.,,^ of thdr couctZe /'who MolTL r 'TUT bc f° ^ -d fo u„Sn"
and with difficulty by land.7 tollow.d flowly as to defert him at fuch a junaure. But imputing hi^
At this diftance from his commander ‘a™ th^ plaCC °f rende2V0lI3 to fome unknown
young man of an afpiring ndnrl . r ° e ana» a a^c'dent, he advanced above co leagues aloncr tbn
  , independent; and, tranfported’with "tT* ailCJ banks of the Maragnon, expefting every moment to
J deferts paflion of the age, he formed the fcherL^f tbe,bark arPear with a fuPP*y of provifions. At
' -ro- mg himfelf as a difeoverer, by following dlftin^lfh: Ie"gth he came up with an officer whom Orellana had
the Maragnon until it joined the ocel and^ f ^ t0 Pf ^ ^ tHe dcfert’ beCaufe he had courage
veying the vaft regions through which it flows ^tH** ^ rf,monftrate »g^hi8 perfidy. From him he learn-
fi-heme of Orellana’s was as bold as it was tfeacherIn«S t . ?t!nt °f crhne’ -d his follow^
Tor, if he be chargeable with ,hf> miilr f v, - US* Perwei\ed at once their own defperate fituation
VOL XIV. J'arf r W“b ‘he SU,lt °f haV"'S ™’ ^prived of their oo)j- refooroe. ?fhe fpfrit of^
D d eft
•?4
e'lana
® ^ down
* i river
1 fagnon.
Pent.
Peru.
' p g it [ ii
hearted veteran funk within him $ artd all demand-
  ed to be led back inftantly. Pizarro, though he af-
P fumed an appearance of tranquillity, did not oppofe
ftrefs of their inclination. But he was now 1200 miles from
Ooi'zales Quito ; and in that long march the Spaniards encoun-
Pizarroandtere;3 hardlhips greater than thofe they had endured in
fcia men. ^ejr progref9 outward, without the alluring hopes
which then foothed and animated them under their fuf-
ferings. Hunger compelled them to feed on roots and
berries, to eat all their dogs and horfes, to devour the
moft loathfome reptiles, and even to gnaw the leather
of their faddles and fword belts. Four thoufand In¬
dians, and 210 Spaniards, perilhed in this wild and
difaflrous expedition, which continued near two yea*-s ;
and as 50 men were aboard the bark with Orellana,
©nly 80 got back to Quito. _ Thefe were naked^like
favages, and fo emaciated with famine, or worn out
with fatigue, that they had more the appearance of
, fpeftres than of men.
A confpira- But, inftead of returning to enjoy the repofe which
cy formed his condition required, Pizarro, on entering Quito,
againft thereccjVed accounts of a fatal event that threatened oala-
govenior; more dreadful to him than thofe through which
he had pafiad. From the time that his brother made
that partial divifion of his conquefts which has been
mentioned, the adherents of Almagro, confidering
themfelves as proferibed by the party in power, no
longer entertained any hope of bettering their condi¬
tion. Great numbers im defpair reforted to Lima,
where the houfe of young Almagro was always open
te them : and the Header portion of his father’s for¬
tune, which the governor allowed him to enjoy, was
fpent in affording them fubfiftence. The warm at¬
tachment with which every perfon who ferved under
the elder Almagro devoted himfelf tohis interefts, was
quickly transferred to his fen, who was now grown up
to the age of manhood, and pOiTefied all the qualities
which captivate the affeftions of foldiers. Of a
ful appearance, dexterous at all martial exercifes, bold,
vpen, generous, he feemed to be formed, for comman.,;
and as his father, confcious of his own inferiority from
the total want of education, had been extremely atten¬
tive to have him inftrufted.in every fcience becoming
a gentler*an, the accompliihments which he had ac¬
quired heightened the refpeA of his followers, as they
rave him diftin&icn and eminence among illiterate ad¬
venturers. In this young man the Almagrians.found
a point of union which they wanted ; and looking up
to him as their head, were ready to undertake any
thing for his advancement. Nor was affection tor Al¬
ma gro their only incitement; they were urged on by
thar own diftreffes. Many of them, deflitute of com¬
mon neceflaries, and weary of loitering away life, a
burden to their chief, or to fuch of their affociates as
bad faved foroe remnant of their fortune from pillage
and confifcation, longed impatiently for an occafion to
exert their Aftivity and courage, and began to delibe¬
rate how they might be avenged on the author of all
their mifery. Their frequent cabals did not pafs un-
©bferved; and the governor was warned to be on his
guard againft men who meditated fome defperate deed,
and had refolution to execute it. But, either from the
native intrepidity of his mind, or from contempt o
perfons whofe poverty rendered their machinations of
little confequcncej he difreganled the. admonitions or
Peru.
a ] PER
his friends. c< Be in no pain (faid he carelefsly) a-
bout my life; it is perfe&ly fafe, as long as every man
Jn Peru knows that I can in a moment put him. to
death who dares to harbour a thought againft it.”
This fecutuy gave the Almagrians foil leifure to digeft
and ripen every part of their fcheme ; and Juan de Her-
rada, an officer of great abilities, who had the charge
of Almagro’s education, took the lead in their conful-
tations, with all the zeal which that conned ion infpi-
red, i and with all the authority which the afeendant
that he was known to have over the mind of Ids pupil
gave him. , -
On Sunday, the 26th of June, at mid-day, the lea-Who is
fon of tranquillity and repofe in all fultry climates, murdered.
Herrada, at the head of 18 of the moft determined
confpirators, failied out of Almagro’s houfe in com¬
plete armour ; and drawing their fwords, as they ad¬
vanced haftily towards the governor’s palace, cried out.
37
“ Long live the king, but let the tyrant die.” Their
14^ i I V V, k LA AW fS * ^ • /""I
affociates, warned of their motions by a fignal, were
in arms at different ftations ready to fupport them.
Though Pizarro was ufually furrounded by fuch a nu¬
merous train of attendants as foiled the magnificence
of the moft opulent fubjeft of the age in which he li¬
ved, yet as he was juft nfen from table, and molt of
his own domcftics had retired to their own apartments,
the confpirators paffed through the two outer courts
of the palace unobferved. They were at the bottom
of the ftaircafe, before a page in waiting could give
the alarm to his mailer, who was converling with a tew
friends in a large hall. The governor, whofe fteady
mind no form of danger could appal, ftarting up, call¬
ed for arms, and commanded I' r ancifco de Chaves to
make fait the door. But that officer, who did not re¬
tain fo much prefence of mind as to obey this, prudent
order, running to the top of the ftaireafe, wildly alk-
ed the confpirators what they meant, and whither they
were going? Inftead of anfwering, they {tabbed him
to the heart, and burft into the hall. Some of the pc,r-
fons who were there threw themfelves from the win¬
dows ; other* attempted to fiy ; and a few drawing
their fwords, followed their leader into an inner apart¬
ment. The confpirators, animated with having the
objeft of their vengeance now in view, ruthed forward
after them. Pizarro, with no other arms than his fword
and buckler, defended the entry, and, fopported by
his half-brother Alcantara and his little knot ot
friends, maintained the unequal contelt with intrepidity
worthy of his p*ft exploits, and with the vigour of a
youthful combatant. Courage (cried he), compa¬
nions, we are yet enow to make thofe traitors repent
of their audacity.” But the armour of the confpira¬
tors proteded them, while every thruff they made took
effedL Alcantara fell dead at his brother’s feet; his
other defendants were mortally wounded. The gover¬
nor, fo weary that he could hardly wield his fword,
and’ no longer able to parry the many weapons fo-
riouffy aimed at him, received a deadly thruft full in *us
throat, funk to the ground, and expired.
As foon as he was flain, the alLffins ran out into
the ftreets, and waving their bloody Iwords, proclaim¬
ed the death of the tyrant. Above 200 of their ailo-
ciates having joined them, they conducted young •
magro in folemn proceffion through the city ; and a -
fembling the magi Urates and principal citizens,
PER
Peru.
pelled them to acknowledge him as lawful fucceflbr to
his father in his government The palace of Pizarro,
*8 together with the hoafes of feveral of bis adherents,
we‘re pillaged hy the foldiers; who had the fatisfadion
at once of being avenged on their, enemies, and of en-
[ an ]
P E E
aiagro
heads the
rebels.
39
He is de¬
feated by
Vaca di
Cuftro,
riching themfelves by the fpoils of thofe through whofe
hands all the wealth of Peru had pafled.
The new governor marched into the heart of the
empire, in order to reduce fuch places as refufed to
acknowledge his authority. A multitude of ruffians
joined him on his march. His army breathed nothing
but vengeance and j lunder: every thing gave way be¬
fore it. If the military talents of the general had
equalled the ardour of his troops, the war had ended
here. Unhappily for Almagro, he had loft his con-
duftor John de Herrada. His inexperience made
him fall into the fnares that were laid for him by Pe¬
dro Alvares, who had put himfelf at the head of the
oppofite party. He loft, in attempting to unravel his
plots, that time that he ought to have employed in
fighting. In thefe circumftances, an event, which no
one could have forefeen, happened to change the face
of affairs.
I he licentiate \ aca di Caftro, who had been fent
from Europe to try the murderers of old Almagro, ar¬
rived at Peru. As he teas appointed to affume the
government in cafe Pizmo was no more, all who had
not fold themfelves to the tyrant haftened to acknow¬
ledge him. Uncertainty and jealonfy, which had for
too long a time kept them difperfed, were no longer
an obftacle to their re union Caftro, who was as re-
folute as if he had grown old in the fervice, did not
fuffer their impatience to languifh, but inftantly led
them againft the enemy. The two armies engaged at
Chapas on the 16th of September 1942, and fought
with inexprelfible obftinacy. Viftory, after having
wavered a long time, at the clofe of the day decided.
in *avoqr of that party whofe caufe was the moft juft
Thofe among the rebels who were moft guilty, dread
ing to langu’fh under difgraceful tortures, provoked
the conquerors to murder them, crying out, like men
in defpair, // was I who killed Pizarro. Their chief
was taken prifoner, and died on the fcaffold.
While thefe feenes of horror were tranfa&ing in A-
rnerjc?., the Spaniards in Europe were employed in
finding out expedients to terminate them ; though no
meafures had been taken to prevent them. Peru had
only been made fubjeft to the audience of Panama,
which was too remote to fuperintend the maintenance
of good order, and had too little influence to make its
decrees refpe&ed. A fupi cme tribunal was then efta
olifhed at Lima for the difpenfation of juftice, which
was to be invefted with authority fufficient to enforce
and to reward a due obedience to the laws. Blafco
Nunez Vela, who prtfided in it as viceroy, arrived in
1544, attended by his fubordinates ih office, and found
every thing in the moft dreadful diforder.
1 o put an end to thefe tumults which now fubfift-
ed, would have required a profound genius, and many
other qualities which are feldom united. Nunez had
none of thefe advantages. Nature had only given him
probity, firmnefs, and ardour; and he had taken no
pains to improve thefe gifts. With thefe virtues, which
were almoft defers in his fituation, he began to fulfil
his commiffion, without regard to places, perfons, or Penn.
circumftances.  v—
Contrary to the opinion of all intelligent perfons, ga^
who wifhed that he fhould wait for frcfli inftru&ionsduift of th®
from Europe, he publifhed ordinances, which declared viceroy Na-
that the lands the conquerors had feifced fhould notncZ Vtla*
pafs to their defeendants, and which difpofTefTed thofe
who had taken part in the civil commotions. All the
Peruvians who had been enflaved by monks, bifhops,
and perfons belonging to the government, were de¬
clared free. Thofe who belonged to other maftefs
were to be freed from their fhackles at the death of
their oppreffors. They could no longer be compelled
to bury themfelves in the mines, nor could any kind of
labour be exadied from them without payment. Their
tribute was fixed. The Spaniards who travelled o«
foot were deprived of the right of taking three In¬
dians to carry their baggage ; and thofe who travelled
ori horfeback, of the right of taking five. The ca¬
ciques were difeharged from the obligation of furniih-
mg the traveller and his retinue with provifions gratis.
Other tyrannical eftabliihments alfo would foou have
been proferibed ; and the conquered people were on
the eve of being fheltered under the proteblion of
laws, which would at leaft have tempered the rigours
of the right of conqueft, if even they had not entirely
repaired the injuftice cf them ; but it fhould feem that
the Spanifh government was only to be unfortunate in
the good it attempted to effeft
A qhange fo unexpe&ed filled thofe with confter.
nation who faw their fortunes wrefted from them, or
who loft the flattering hope of tranfmitting them to
their pofterity. Even thofe who were not atfeaed by
thefe interefted views, being accuftomed to look upc*n
the Indians as the inftruments and vifbims of their
avarice, had no conception that any other ideas could
prevail concerning them. From aftonifhment they
proceeded to indignation, murmuring, and fedition.
. e viceroy was degraded, put in irons, and ba-
mfhed to a defert ifland, till he could be conveyed to
Spain. 3
Gonzales Pizarro was then returned from his bazar-
dons expedition, which had employed him long enough
to prevent him from taking a part in thofe revolutioua
which had fo rapidly fucceeded each other. The an¬
archy he found prewiling at his return, infpired him
with the idea of feizing the fupreme authority. Hi*
fame and his forces made it impofiible that this fhould
be refuied him ; but his ufurpation was marked wfith
fo many enormities, that Nunez was regretted* He was
recalled from exile, and foon collefted a fufficient
number of forces to enable him to take the field. Ci¬
vil commotions were then renewed with extreme fury
by both parties. No quarter was afked or given ou
either fide. The Indians took part in this as they had
done in the preceding wars; fame ranged themfelves
under rhe flandard of the viceroy, others under the
banners of Gonzales. From 15,000 to 20,000 of thefe
unhappy wretches, who were feattered about in each
army, dragged up the artillery, levelled the roadf,
carried the baggage, and deftroyed one another. Their He ;4r
conquerors had taught them to lie fanguinary. After come ami *
a variety of advantages for a long time alternately ob-liiIled bE
tained, fortune at length favoured the rebdlion under n°nza*es
CM a thf‘
PER [si
Peru, tlie walls of Quito in the month of January, in the ■year
—v 1545 ; and Nunez with the greateft part of his men
were mafiacred. ^
Pizarro took the road of Lima, where they were
deliberating on the ceremonies with which they fhould
receive him. Some ofkcers wifhed that a canopy
fhould be carried for him to march under, after the
manner of kings. Othets, with admation ftill more
extravagant, pretended that part oi the walls of the
town, and even fom# houfes, mull; be pulled down ;
as was the cuftom at Rome, when a general obtained
the honours of a triumph. Gonzales contented hirn-
felf with making his entrance on horfeback, preceded
by his lieutenant, who marched on foot, hour bifhops
accompanied him, and he was followed by the magi-
ftrstes. The ftreets were ftrewn with flowers, and
the air refounded with the noife of bells and vari¬
ous mufical inflruments. This homage totally turned
the head of a man naturally haughty, and of confined
ideas. He fpoke and a&ed in the moft defpotic rnan-
ner.
Had Gonzales pofTeffed judgment and the appear¬
ance of moderation, it would have been pofiible for
him to render himfelf independent. The principal
peifons of his party wifhed it. The majority would have
beheld this event with indifference, and the reft would
have been obliged to confent to it. Blind crueltiw, in-
fatiable avarice, and unbounded pride, altered thefe
difpofitions. Even thofe, whofe interefts were con-
nefted with thofe of the tyrant, wifhed for a deli-
41 ^^uch a deliverer arrived from Europe in the perfon
An end fut0f the iJcent;ate Pedro di la Gafca. The fquadron
to thetrou-and the Inces ofthe mountains immediately dedk-
PeTobi 1. re I for a perfon who was invefted with a lawful authc
Peru.
44
Gafca
43
Hard tate
of the Pe¬
ruvians.
rhy to govern them. Thofe who lived concealed in
deferts, caverns, and forefts, quitted their retreats to
join him. Gonzales, who faw no refource left to
fup* 'Ovt him but in fome great atchievemerit, took the
road of Cuzco, with a refolution to give battle. At
fome leagues diftance from this place he met the royal
army, and attacked it on the 9th of June 1548. One
of his lieutenants, feeing him abandoned at the nrlt
charge by his beft foldiers, advifed him to throw him¬
felf into the enemy’s battalions, and penfh like a Ro¬
man i but this weak man chofe rather tofurrender, and
end his life on a fcaffotd. Carvajal, a more able war¬
rior, and more ferocious than himfelf, was quartered.
This man, when he was expiring, boafted that he had
maflacred with his own hand 1400 Spaniards and
20,000 Indians. f ,
Such was the laft feene of a tragedy, of which
every a& has been marked with blood. The govern¬
ment was moderate enough not to continue the pro-
feriptions; and the remembrance of the horrid cala¬
mities they had fuffered kept the Spaniards m the
bounds of fubjeftion. What ftill remained of that
commotion that had been raifed in their minds, infen-
fibly funk into a calm j and the esuntry hath remained
in quiet ever fmce. . , n. 1
With regard to the Peruvians, the moft cruel mea-
fures were taken to render it impoffible for them to re-
bel. Tupac Amaru, the heir of their laft king, had
taken refuge in fome remote mountains, where he lived
- id peace. There he was fo clofely furrounded by the
2 ] PER
troops which had been fent out againft’hitn, that he
was forced to furrender. The viceroy Francis de To¬
ledo caufed him to be accufed of feveral crimes that
he had not committed, and for which he was behead¬
ed in 1571-. All the other defeendants of the Incas
fliared the fame fate, under pretence that they had
confpired againft their conquerors. The horror of
thefe enormities excited fo univerfal an indignation
both in the Old and the New World, that Philip II.
thought himfelf obliged to difavow them ; but the
infamous policy of tins prince was fo notorious, that
no credit was given to this-appearance of his juftice and
humanity. . . ■
The empire of Peru, at the time it was fubdued, Extent of
extended along the South Sea, from the river 0f;he emPirfr*
Emeralds to Chili, and on the land fide to Popayan,
according to fome geographers. It contained with¬
in its extent that famous chain of mountains which
rifes in the Terra Magellanica, and is gradually loft
in Mexico, in order to unite, as it (hould feem, the
fouthern parts of America with the northern. /ww
It is now divided into three giand divifions or a 11 <^1*£>•<?/>Ay.
ences ; Quito, Lima, or Los Reyes, and LosCharcos. 45
As to its climate, mines, foil, and produce, they dif-Province of
fer greatly in different parts of the country. °*
The extenfive province of Qmto is bounded on the
north by Popayan, and includes a part of that govern¬
ment, alfo by Santa Fe de Bogota ; on the fouth by
the governments of Piura and Cbachapoyas *, on tne
eaft it extends over the whole government of Maynas
and the river of the Amazons to the meridian, which
divides the Spaniftr from the Portuguefe dominions ;
and on the weft it is bounded by the South Sea ; ex¬
tending, according to Antonio de Ulloa, 600 leagues
in length, and about 200 in its greateft breadth; but
this greatly exceeds the computation of all other geo¬
graphers. He however obferves, that it muft be own¬
ed a great part of thofe vaft dominions are either in¬
habited by nations of Indians, or have not hitherto
been fufficiently peopled by the Spaniards, if indeed
they have been thoroughly known; and that all the
parts that can properly be faid to be peopled, and
actually fubjeft to the Spanifh government, are thofe
intercepted by the two Cordilleras of the Andes,
which, in comparifon to the extent of the country,
may be termed a ftreet or lane, 15 leagues, or fome-
times more, from eaft to weft ; to this muft be added
feveral detached governments, feparated by the very
extenfive tradds inhabited by free Indians. . 4^
The climate of Quito differs from all others in the Climate
1 tie climate or vgunu uuiv.a fcafons.&c,
fame parallel, fmee even in the centre of the torrid zone,1* this’pro.
or although under the equino&ial, the heat is not only viuce#
very tolerable, but even in feme places the cold is pain¬
ful ; while others enjoy all the advantages of a perpe¬
tual fpring, the fields being conftantly covered with
verdure, and enamelled with floweis of the moft lively
colours. The mildnefs of the climate, free from the
extremes of heat and cold, and the conftant equality of
the day and night, render this country, which from ks
fituation might be thought to be parched by the con¬
ftant heat of the fun, and fcarcely inhabitable, both
pleafant and fertile ; for nature has here difpenfed her
bkffmgs with fo liberal a hand, that this country in fe¬
veral refpefts furpaffes thofe of the temperate zones,
where the viciffitudes of winter and fummer, and the
change
Peru
e •, 47
sou, pro-
ducc, &zc.
per [2
. change from heat to cold, caufe. the extremes of both
to be more fenfibly felt. However, in different parts
of the country, the air is very different; in one part
are mountains of a ftupendous height and magnitude,
with their fumrrufs covered with fnow. The plains
are temperate, the valleys hot, and, according to the
high or low fituation of the country, are found all the
variety of gradations in temperature poffible to be con¬
ceived between the extremes of heat and cold.
Quito, the capital, in o° 13' fouth latitude, and 770
50' weft longitude from Greenwich, is fo happily ft.
tuated, that neither heat nor cold are troublefome,
though both may be felt in its neighbourhood ; and*
what renders this equality more delightful is, that it is
conftant throughout the whole year, the difference be¬
tween the feafons being fcarce perceptible. Indeed
the mornings are cool, the/emainder of the day warm,
and the nights of an agreeable temperature. See
Quito.
I he winds, which are pure and falubrious, blow for
the moft part from north to fouth, but never with any
violence, though they fometimes fhift their quarters
but without any regard to the feafon of the year. Such
fignal advantages refulting from the climate, foil, and
afpeft of this country, would be fufticient to render it
the moft enviable fpot upon earth, as it is fuppofed to
be the mod elevated, if, whilft enjoying thefe delights,
the inhabitants were not haraffed by terror, and ex*
pofed to continual danger ; for here tremendous tem-
pefts of thunder and lightning prevail, which are fuffi-
cient to appal the ftouteft heart ; whilft earthquakes
frequently fpread. univerfal apprehenftons, and ibme-
times bury cities in ruins.
I he diltinction of winter and fummer confifts in a
very minute difference ; the interval between the month
of September and thofe of April, May, or June, is here
called the winter feafon, and the other months compote
the fummer. In the former feafon the rain chiefly pre¬
vails, and in the latter the inhabitants frequently enjoy
whole days of fine weather ; but whenever the rains are
dilcontinued for above a fortnight, the inhabitants are in
the utmoft confternation, and public prayers are offered
UP for theIr return. On the other hand, when they con-
tinue.a ftiort time without interraiflion, the like fears
prevail, and the churches are again crowded with fuppli-
cants to obtan fine weather ; for a long drought pro¬
duces dangerous difeafes, and a continual rain, without
intervals of funfliine, deftrbys the fruits of the earth.
I he city of Quito, however, enjoys one peculiar advan-
tage in being free from mulketoes and other troublefome
iniects, fuch as fleas and venemous reptiles, except the
mgm, or pique, which is a very fmall infeft thaped like
3 bfUt bavdl>r vilible to the %ht. See Chegoe.
he fertility of the foil here is incredible, for the
rmts and beauties of the feveiral feafons are vifible at
ie ame time ; and the curious European obferves with
a pleafing admiration, that while fome herbs of the
neld are fadmg, others of the fame kind are fpringing
tip ; while feme flowers lofe their beauty, others blow
to continue the enamelled profpeft : thus, when the
jruits of the trees have attained their maturity, and the
leaves begin to change their colour, frefti leaves bloi-
fi^an'd • ? are their pr°Per g^^tions in
hz and npenefs on the fame tree. The fame inceffant
fertility is confpicuous m the corn, both reaping and
13 1 PER
fowing being carried on at the fame time ; fo that the Pers,
declivities of the neighbouring hills exhibit all the bean- —v—
ties of the four feafons in one affemblage. Though all
this is generally feen, yet there is a fettled time for the
grand harvell: yet fometimes the moft favourable fea¬
fon for fowing in one place is a month or two after that
of another, though their diftance does not exceed three
or four leagues. Thus in different fpots, and fome-
times in one and the fame, fowing and reaping are
performed throughout the whole year, the forwardnefs
or retardment naturally arifing from the different fi-
tnations, fuch as mountains, rifing grounds, plains,
and valleys; and the temperature being different in
each, the heft times for performing the feveral opera¬
tions of hulbandry rnuft alfo differ.
. The chirimoya is confidered as one of the moft deli¬
cious fruits in the world. Its dimenfions are various,.,,
being from one to five inches in diameter. Its figure
is imperfeftly round, fl itted towards the ftalk, where
it forms a kind of navel ; but all the other parts are
nearly circular. It is covered with a thin foft fhclti
which adheres fo clofely to the pulp as not to befepa-
rated from it without a knife. The outward coat is
green, variegated with prominent veins, forming all
over it a kind of net-work. The pulp is white, and con¬
tains a large quantity of juice refembling honey, of 3 ,
meet talte, mixed with a gentle acid of a moft exquifite
flavour. I he feeds are formed in feveral parts of the
pulp, and are fomewhat flat. The tree is high and
tufted, the ftem large and round, but; with fome ine-
qualities, full of elliptic leaves, terminating in a point.
I he blofibm differs littie from the colour of the leaves,
which is a darkifh green ; and though far from being
beautiful, is remarkable for its incomparable fragrance.
The granadilla in its Ihape refembles an hen’s egg,
but is larger. The outfide of the fhell is fmooth,
gloffy, and of a faint carnation colour, and the infide
white and foft. The fhell contains a vifeous liquid
fubfrance full of very fmall and delicate grains, lefs
hard than thofe of the pomegranate. This medullary
iubitance is feparated from the ihell by a fine and tranf-
parent membrane. Its fruit has a delightful fweetnefa
blended with acidity, very cordial and refrefhing, and
lo wholcfome, that there is no danger of eatino- to
excefs. 0
I he frutll/a, or Peruvian ftrawberry, is very different
from that of Europe in fize ; for though they are here
generally not above an inch in length, they are much
larger in other parts of Peru ; but their tafte, though
juicy, and not unpalatable, is not equal to thofe in 1
Europe.
1 he country is obferved to abound more in women ,
than in men, which is the more remarkable, as thofe
caufes which induce men to leave their country, as tra-
velling, commerce, and war, naturally bring over more
men from Europe than women. But there are many
families in which there are a number, of daughters,
without one fon among them. The women e^njoy a
better ftate of health than the men, which may be
owing in fomc meafure to the climate, and more par¬
ticularly to the early intemperance and voluptuoufnefs
of the other fex.
The Creoles are well made, of a proper ftature, and
of a lively and agreeable countenance. The Meftizaa
are aifo in general well made, often taller than the or¬
dinary
7 ■
-W
PER [ J
. <3i»ary very robuft, and hav-e an agreeable air. The^
Indians, both men and women, are commonly low of
ftatuve, though ftrong and well proportioned ; but
more natural defefts are to be found among them than
in any of the reft. Some are remarkably ftiort, fome
idiots, dumb, or blind. Their hair is generally thick
and long, which they wear loofe on their (boulders ;
but the Indian women plait theirs behind with a rib¬
bon, and cut that before a little above the eye brows,
from one ear to the other. The greateft. difgrace that
can be offered to an Indian of either fex is to cut off
their hair ; for whatever corporal punidunent their
mailers think proper to inflidl on them, they bear with
patience ; but this affront they never forgive ; and ac¬
cordingly the government has intcrpofed, and limited
th is punifhment to the mod enormous crimes I he
colour of the hair is generally a deep black : it is lank,
harfh, and as coarfe as that of a horfe. On the con
trary, the male Meftizos, in order to diffinguifti them*
felves from the Indians, cut off their hair ; but the
female* do not adopt that cuftom
9 The Meftizos in general wear a blue cloth, manu-
dre^.fa£tured in this country ; but though they are the
loweff clafs of Spaniards, they are very ambitious of
diftinguifhing themfelves as fuch, either by the colour
or fafhion of the clothes they wear.
The Meftizo women affeft to drefa ill the fame man¬
ner as the Spanifti, though they cannot equal the la¬
dies in the richnefs of their fluffs. 1 he meaner fort
wear no (hoes ; but, like the men of the fame rank,
go barefooted.
The drefs of the Indians confifts of white cotton
drawers, which hang down to the calf of the leg,
where they are loofe, anl edged w-ith a lace fuitable
to the fluff. The ufe of a fhirt is fupiplied by a black
cotton frock, made in the form of a fack, with three
openings at the bottom, one in the middle for the
bead, and others at the corners for the arms; thus co¬
vering their naked bodies down to the knees. Over
this is a ferge cloak, with a hole in the middle for
putting the head through, and a hat made by the na¬
tives. This is their general drefs, which they never
lay afide, even while they deep ; and they have no ad¬
ditional clothing for their legs or feet. The Indians,
who have acquired fome fortune, particularly the bar¬
bers and phlebotomifts, diftinguifh themfelves from
their countrymen by the finentfs of their drawers, and
by wearing a ffurt, which, though without fleeves,
has a lace four or five fingers in breadth, faflened
round like a kind of ruff or band. They are fond of
diver or gold buckles to their (hoes, though they wear
no (lockings; and inftead of a mean ferge cloak, rear
one of fine cloth, which is often adorned with gold or
filver lace.
There are two kinds of dreffes worn by the Indian
women, made in the fame plain manner with thofe
worn by the men in general, the whole confiding of a
ffiort petticoat and a veil of American baize, but the
drefs of the lowed clafs of Indian women is only a bag
of the fame make and duff as that of the men, which
they faden on their (boulders with two large pins: it
reaches down to the calf of the leg, and is fattened
round the waid with a kind of girdle. Indead of a
veil, they wear about the neck a piece of the fame
PER
Peru.
14 1
coarfe duff, dyed black 5 but their arras and legs are
naked. < 5'0
The people have diffies unknown in Europe; but pooci a>4
are particularly fond of cheefe ; and have excellent drink,
butter in the neighbourhood of Quito. Sweetmeats
are very much admired.
Rum is commonly drank here by perfons of all
ranks, but their favourite liquor is brandy. The dif-
orders anting from the excefiive ufe of fpirituous li¬
quors are chiefly feen among the Meftizos ; and the
b wet clafs of women, both among the Creoles and
Meftizos, are alfo extremely addicted to the fame fpe*
cies of debauchery.
Another liquor much ufed in this country is mate,
which is made of an herb known in all thefe parts of
America by the name of Paraguay, as being the pro¬
duce of that country. Some of it is put into a cala-
ba(h tieped with fiiver, called here matey with fugar
and fome cold water. After it has continued there
fome time, the calabaflr is filled with boding water,
and they drink the liquor through a pip- fixed in the
calabafh. It is alfo ufuai to fqueeze into the liquor a
fmall quantity of the juice of lemons or Seville oranges,
mixed with (ome perfumes from odoriitrous flowers.
This is their ufuai drink in the morning falling, and
many ufe it alfo at their evening regale. The manner
of drinking it appears very indelicate, the whole com¬
pany taking it fuccefiively through the fame pipe, it
being carried feveral times round the company till
all are fatisfkd. This among the Creoles is the high-
eft enjoyment: fo that when they travel, they never
fail to carry with them a fufficient quantity of it, and
till they have taken their dofe of mate they never eat.
The vice of gaming is here carried to an extrava¬
gant height, to the ruin of many families, fome loiing
their docks in trade, others the very clothes from their
backs, and afterward thofe belonging to their wives,
which they hazard, ftioiulated by the hope of recover¬
ing their own.
1 he common people, the Indians, and even the do-
meftics, are greatly addifled to dealing. I he Metti-
zos, though arrant cowards, do not want audacity irt
this way; for though they will not venture to attack
any one in the ftreet, it is a common pra&ice to fnatch
off a perfon’s hat, and immediately feek their fafety in
flight. This acquifition is fometimes of confiderable
value ; the hats worn by perfons of rank, and even by
the wealthy citizens when dreffed, being of white bea¬
ver, worth fifteen dollars, befide the hatband of gold
or filver lace, faftened with a gold buckle fet with dia¬
monds or emeralds. Robberies on the highway are
feldom heard of.
In Quito, and all the towns and villages of its pro- Langua^
vince, different diale&s are fpoken, Spanifh being no
lefs common than the Inga, the language of the coun¬
try. The Creoles ufe the latter as much as the for¬
mer, but both are confiderably adulterated by bor¬
rowed words and expreflions. The fiift language ge- /
nerally fpoken by children is the Inga; for the nurfes
being Indians, many of them do not underttand a word
of Spamfh, and thus they afterward learn a jargon
compofed of both languages. 54
The fumptuous manner of performing the lafl of- Honour
fices for the dead, demonftratea how far the power of paid the
habit ^
Peru.
53
Commerce
54<
Difpofition
rf the in¬
habitants.
PER f 2
habit is capable of prevailing over reafon crul pnulence,
For their oflentation is fo great in this particular, that
many ramihes of credit are ruined by prepofteroufly
endeavouring to excel others ; and the people here
ma]?- be faid to toil and fcheme to lay up wealth, to
enable their fuccefTors to lavirti honours upon a body
jnienfible of all pageantry. ^
The commerce of the province of Quito is chiefly
carried on by Europeans fettled here, and others who
occafionally arrive. The manufactures of this pro¬
vince are only cottons, feme white and ftriped baize
and cloths, which meet with a good market at Lima’
lor fupplymg the inward provinces of Peru. The re’
turns are made partly in filver, and partly in fringes
made of gold and filver thread, and wine, brandy, oil
copper tin, lead, and quickfilver. On the arrival of
the galleons at Carthagena, thefe traders refort thither
to purchafe European goods, which, pt their return,
they confign to their correfpondents all over the pro-
vmce, 1 he coafts of New Spain fupply this province
vmh mo.go, of which there is a very l arge confump.
t.on at the manufactures, blue being univerfally the
colour which this people adopt for their apparel.
Guayaquila, iron and
mak b° H fr°m Europe End the ceaft of Guate-
The difpofition of the Indians in the province of
Qu.to is extremely remarkable, and they appear to
have no refvnnblance to the people found the.e by thofe
who fir ft d.fcoyered the country. They at prefent
f ollefs a tranquillity not to bedifturbed either by for¬
tunate or unfortunate events. In their mean apparel
they are as contented as a prince clothed in the moft
fplendid robes. They /how the fame difregard to
riches ; and even the authority and grandeur within
their reach is fo l.ttle the o’jeft of their ambition, that
to a appearance .t feems to be the fame to an Indian
tt"'6 3,1 aIC3-dC °r 0b%ed t0Perform
t e cihce of a common executioner.
. 7 h'lrLfloth ’» f" Kf'at. that fcarccly any thins nan
.nduce then, work. Whatever ther’efori is nefeffa
ry to be done ,8 left to the Indian women, who are
nnch more aft, ve s they fpin and make the halffliirts
InlirjWeT Wt'ch form ,he '*":y apparel of their
Ribands ; they cook the provifiens, grind barley, and
fn’nm, " a1''11 «and to
d f “7g,0r• ,,.s bms'.'t,C ufl,alfrthe Indians,
• ookmg at his bufy wife. The only domeitic feryice
15 ,0 Plm;Kh their little fpot of land, which is
Zr hnL I nWhf • ^ted on
lf ,'a,r,?> n“ KWi"-d ea» induce tliem to ftiri fo that
one of It: 1,88 l0ft h,'S and ><> i^.e to
that they LCn ,age*’i.' ''y Ck!,rge ,llc‘r W'T,S to %
I'a. I "ot i:t homt- Should the paffenner a
afc • for hn,‘-r C?"age’ thc ,nt,ian "“"M ifill be
hek'in Ee Tg nVight ' “ t comes through a
t ele in the door, he conld not be difeovered ; and
’S J PER
(hould thc llranger eyen fee the Indian, neither en.
ftep'^tShim:"31'1' 'V°Ul‘1 Pre™' ™ to «-
They are lively only in parties of pleafure. reioicimr.
entertainments, and efpecially dancing; but in all thffe
d ink7„lrt;rtJ C':rCUlaK bt'r. and they coto„„=
and Son 7 ^ Cnt'rtl>’dcP™d both of fenfe
It is remarkable that the Indian women, whether
man.s or married, and Indian young men bifore Vhev
are o an age to contraft matrimonf, are „eve“ gS
of this vice : ,t being a maxim among them, <h I
mi ie 'wh 'S t PTkgC '>«-aHerT’of ft!
die , who, when they are unable to take care of
thcmfelves, have others to take care of them
in caUbaZ" .the/.hich!,(J) to theirhuibanda
Savs on d, ’ e, £ur fpint8 are raifed 5 then ona
o th A l P^e tah°r’ whJle other8 dan^. Some
of the beft voices among the Indian women fing fong3
in their own language, an I thofe who do not danC?
fquat down in the ufual pofture till it comes to S
• hen tired with intemperance, they all lie
down together without regarding whether they be
ter TKWrlff ?i • an°threr °r.the'r own or daugh*
. hefe feftivities fometimes continue three or four
days till the prieft coming amAgth^
procure more: ^ C8 India,,S> lcft ^
dJkWfU7h1S|arer1:-C';?e/0,'m"lzedwlth'xceray=
thTS; o7,t 18 fillcdJw,Vh j,lg8 °f chicha, for
tne ioiace of the mourners and other vifitors; the lat-
nat on611 f KUt ,nt° thC ftreet8’ and invite all of their
.at.on who happen to pafs by to come in and drink
to the honour of the dere-iff.rl 'Pis'
four or fix,, d tne aecealed. This ceremony lafts
tour or five days, and fometimes more, ftrone liemor
being their fupreme enjoyment. g 9
The Indians m the audience of Quito are faid to a# rx -SS
corner to all Cher unions in matoal ” to
£ f7 n!Ver ,make c^OIce ofa woman who has not been t atainf,T
ft enjoyed by others, which they confider as a Cer. mani^s?*
tain iiK.icat.on of her perfonal attraftions. After a
o h^Se aW°man’ ^r
her father, and having obtained his confent, they
rtffatherTn'l b!‘ ?0get,h?r as anJ and affift
of thri. r ,n cohivating the land. At the end
of three r r four months, and frequently of a year the
hu/band leaves his bride or wife lithoJt any'ceremo!
ny , and perhaps expoftulates with his father-in-1 uv
for endeavouring to deceive him, by impofing upon
him his daughter, whom nobody die had thought
worthy of making a bedfellow. But if no diSuft
anfes in the man on this account or any other, alter
pc', mg three or four months in this commerce, which
they cad amanarfe, or to habituate one’s felf, they then
marry d h.s cuftom is ftill very common, though
7e whoIe bocjy of the clergy have ufed all their en-
c-tavours to put a ftop to it. Accordingly they always
abfolve
, (a) This is a liquor made from c .c r n • "
till it begin to grow, h dried in the fun then^ ,The Tna'Ze’ rifter be,*n^ foaked in water
been well kneaded, is put with water into a lar Av ff A a}lft^> aod at Iaft ground. The flour, after it has
nearly that of the moft indifferent kind of cyder A A A A-1'"0 °r th"ee dahs ^rment. Its tafte is
will not keep above eight days without turning four r(:frdhing> nounfhing, and aperitive liquor; but
.-‘this pro
\rmce.
P E 11 l 21
F-u. i'ofalve them of^ that Em before they give them the
*1-"—v 1 nuptial benediftion. . f ,
56 It has been obfetved, that the dependencies of the
artce'of"theiurifdiftions of Quito are feated between the two Car-
country in dilleras of the Andes, and that the air ia more or lels
cold, and the ground more or lefs fterile, according to
the height of the mountains. Thefe barren tracks are
called deferts; for though all the Cordilleras are dry,
feme are much more fo than others; and the continual
fnow and frofts render fome parts of them incapable of
producing a fingle plant, and confequently they aie un¬
inhabitable by man or beaft.
Some of thefe mountains, which appear to have their
bafes retting on other mountains, rife to a moft afto-
nifiling height, and, reaching far above the clouds,
are here, although in the midft of the torrid zone, co¬
vered with perpetual fnow. From experiments made
with a barometer on the mountain of Cotopaxi, it ap¬
peared that its fummit was elevated 6252 yards above
the furface of the fea, fomething above three geogra¬
phical miles, which greatly exceeds the height of any
other mountain in the known world.
Cotopaxi became a volcano about the time when the
Spaniards fxrft arrived in this country. A new erup¬
tion happened in 1743, which had been for fome days
preceded by a continual interior rumbling node; after
which an aperture was made in its fummit, as alio
three others near the middle of its declivity ; thefe
parts, when the eruption commenced, were buried un¬
der prodigious mattes of fnow. The ignited fubftan-
ces which were ejefted being mingled with a confider-
•able quantity of fnow and ice, melting araidit the
flames, were carried down with fuch amazing rapidity,
that the plain from Callo to Latacunga was overflow¬
ed, and all the houfes with their wretched inhabitants
were fwept away in one general and inftantaneous de-
ftruftion. The river of Latacunga was the receptacle
of this dreadful flood, till becoming fwollen above its
banks, the torrent rolled over the adjacent country,
continuing to fweep away houfes and cattle, and ren¬
dered the land near the town of the fame name as the
river one vaft lake. Here, however, the inhabitants
had fufficient warning to fave their lives by flight, and
retreated to a more elevated fpot at fomd diftance.
During three days the volcano eje&ed cinders, while
torrents of lava with melted ice and fnow poured down
the fides of the mountain. The eruption continued
for feveral days longer, accompanied with terrible roar¬
ings of the wind, rufhing through the craters which
had been opened. At length all was quiet, ami nei¬
ther fmoke nor fire were to be feen ; until in May
1744 the flames forced a paflage through feveral other
pans on the fides of the mountain ; fo that in clear
Slights the flames, being refleded by the tranfparent
ice, exhibited a very grand and beautiful.illumination.
On the 13th of November following, it ejected iuch
prodigious quantities of fire and lava, that an munda-
ton equal to the foimer foon enfued, anu the inhabi¬
tants of the town of Latacunga for fome time ga%e
themfclves over for loft. _ .,
The molt fouthern mountains of the Cordilleras 13
that of Mecas or Sangay, which is pf a prodigious
'height, and the far greateft part of it covered with
fnow ; yet from its fummit iflues a continual nre, at¬
tended with explofions which are plainly hea.d at 40
Pera.
6 ] , P E R
leagues diftance. The country adjacent to this vol¬
cano is entirely barren, being covered with cinders e-
jefted from its mouth. In this mountain rifes the ri¬
ver Sangay, which being joined by the Upano, forms
the Payra, a large river which difeharges itfelf into
the Maranon.
Pichincha, though famous for its great height, ia
1278 yards lower than the perpendicular height of
Cotopaxi, and was formerly a volcano, but the mouth
or crater on one of its (ides is now covered with fand
and calcined matter ; fo that at prefent neither fmoke
nor fire iffue from it. When Don George Juan and
Don Antonio de Uiloa were ftationed on.it for the
purpofe of making aftronomical obfervations, they
found the cold on the top of this mountain extremely
intenfe, the wind violent, and they were*frequently in¬
volved in fo thick a fog, or, in other words, a cloud,
that an objed at fix or eight paces diftance was fcarcely
difcernible. The air grew clear, by the clouds moving
nearer to the earth, and on all fides furrounding the
mountain to a vaft diftance, reprefenting the fea with
the mountain Handing like an ifiand in the centre.
When this happened, they heard the dreadful noife of
the tempefts that difeharged themfelves on Quito and
the neighbouring country. They faw the lightning
ifiue from the clouds, and heard the thunder roll tar
beneath them. While the lower parts weie involved in
tempefts of thunder and rain, they enjoyed a delight¬
ful ferenity ; the wind was abated, the fky clear, and
the enlivening rays of the fun moderated the feventy of
the cold. But when the clouds rofe, their thicknefs
rendered refpiration difficult: fnow and hail fell con¬
tinually, and the wind returned with all its violence ;
fo that it was impoffible entirely to overcome the fear of
being, together with their hut, blown down the pre¬
cipice on whofe edge it was built, or of being buried
in it by the conftant accumulations of ice and fnow*
Their fears were hkewife increafed by the fall of enor¬
mous fragments of rocks. Though the fmalleft cre¬
vice vifible in their hut was flopped, the wind was fo
piercing that it penetrated through; and though the
hut was fmall, crowded with inhabitants, and had fe¬
veral lamps conftantly burning, the cold was fo great»
that each individual was obliged to have a chafing difh
of coals, and feveral men were conftantly employed
every morning to remove the fnow which fell in the
night. By the feverities of fuch a climate their feet
were fwelled, and fo tender that walking was attended
with extreme pain, their hands covered with chilblains,
and their lips fo fwelled and chopt that every metion
in fpeaking drew blood. _ ^ nf
The next divifion of Peru is the audience of Lima, P|;ov'nce
which is bounded on the north by Quito, on the eaft
by the Cordilleras of the Andes, on the fouth by the
audience of Los Charcos, and on the weft by the Pa¬
cific Ocean, it being about 770 miles in length from
north to fouth, but of an unequal breadth. 58
The climate and foil of this country is uncommonly Climate,
various; in fome places it is exceedingly hot, in others.^ pr0.
infupportably cold, and in the city of Lima, erev|ncet
rain never falls, it is always temperate. The leaions
vary within the compafs of a few miles, and in certain
parts of the audience all the viciffitudes of weather are
experienced in 24 hours. It is extremely remarka e
that no rains fall or rivers flow on the fea-coafts, tho
57
fcra
PER [ 2
the caitntry 1'e tefrefhed by thick fogs, and the heat
abated by denie clouds that never condenfe into fhowers.
This phenomenon has drawn the attention of many na-
turalifts, without their being able fatisfadorily to ac-
coiiRt for it.
Spring begins toward the clofe of the year, that is
about the end of November or the beginning of De¬
cember, when the vapours which fill the atmofphere
during the winter fubfide, and the fun, to the great
joy of the inhabitants, again appears, and the country
then begins to revive, which, during the abfence of his
rays, had continued in a ftate of languor. This >s file-
cceded by fummer, which, though hot from the per¬
pendicular direction of the fun’s rays, is far from being
in [upper table; the heat, which indeed would other-
wife be exceffive, being moderated by the fouth winds,
which always blow at this feafonj though with no great
force. _ Winter begins at the latter end of June or the
beginning of July, and continues till November or De¬
cember, when the fouth winds begin to blow ftronger,
and to produce a certain degree of cold, not indeed
egual to that in countries where ice and fnow are
known, but fo keen that the light dreffes are laid by,
and cloth or other warm Huffs worn. During the win¬
ter the earth is covered with fo thick a fog.^as totally
to intercept the rays of the fun ; and the winds, by
blowing under the flicker of this fog, retain the par¬
ticles they contrafted in the frozen zone. In this fea-
fon only the vapours diflolve into a very fmall dew
which everywhere equally moiftens the earth; by which
means all the hills, which during the other parts of the
year offer nothing to the fight but rocks and walks,
are clothed with verdure and enamelled with flowers of
the moll beautiful colours. Thefe dews never fall in
fiuch quantities as to impair the roads or incommode
the traveller; a very thin fluff will not foon be wet
through ; but the continuance of the mills during the
whole winter, without being exhaled by the funf fer¬
tilizes every part of the country.
Lima is as free from tempefts as from rain ; fo that
thofe of the inhabitants who have neither vifited the
mountains nor travelled into other parts, are abfolute
flrangers to thunder and lightning, and are therefore
extremely terrified when they firft hear the former or
fee the latter. But it is very remarkable, that what is
here entirely unknown fhould be fo common 30 leagues
to the call of Lima; it being no farther to the moun¬
tains, where violent rains and tempefts ef thunder and
lightning are as frequent as at Quito.
But though the capital is freed from the terror of
thefe tempefts, it is fubjeft to what is much more dread¬
ful. Earthquakes happen here fo frequently, that the
inhabitants are under continual apprehenfions of being,
from their fuddennefs and violence, buried in the ruins
of their own houfes: yet thefe earthquakes, though fo
fudden, have their prefages, one of the principal of
which is a rumbling noife in the bowels of the earth
about a minute before the ftiocks are felt, that feems
to pervade all the adjacent fubterraneous part; this is
followed by difmal bowlings of the dogs, whofeem to
prefi-e the approaching danger. The beafts of bur¬
den , fling the ft reels flop, and by a natural inftindl
fprea, ipen their legs, the better to fecure themfelves
from Hmg. On thefe portents the terrified inhabi¬
tants ^ mom their houfes into the ftreets with fuch
Vol. XIV. Parti. UCn
’7 j P E R
precipitation, that if it happens in the night they ap-
P?ay flu‘te naked ; the urgency of the danger at once
bamming all fenfe of delicacy or fhame. Thus the
ftreets exhibit luch odd and Angular figures as might
Eftord matter of diverfion, were it poffible to be di¬
verted in fo terrible a moment. This fudden concourfe
as accompanied with the cries of children waked out
of their Heep, blended with the lamentations of the
women, whofe agonizing prayers to the faints increak
the common fear and confufion. The men are alfo
too much affedled to refrain from giving vent to their
terror; fp that the whole city exhibits a dreadful feene
of confternation and horror.
The earthquakes that have happened at the capitl
are very numerous. The firft fince the eftablilhment
°f th€ Spaniards was in .582; but the damage was
much lefs confiderable than in fome of the fucceeding.
Six years after Lima was again vifited by another
earthquake, fo dreadful, that it is ftill folemnly com¬
memorated every year. In 1609 another happened,
which overturned many houfes. On the 27th of No¬
vember 1630, fuch prodigious damage was done in the
city by an earthquake, that, in acknowledgment of its
not having been entirely demoli/hed, a feftival on that
day is annually celebrated. Twenty-four years after,
on the 3d of November, the moft ftately edifices in the
city, and a great number of houfes, were deltroyed bv
an earthquake ; but the inhabitants retiring, few of
them periftred. Another dreadful one happened in
r l5111 °ne of the moft terriWe was on the 28th
of Oaober 1687. L began at four in the morning,
and c.eftroyed many of the fineft public buildings and
houfes m which a great number of the inhabitants
penihed; but this was little more than a prelude to
what foilowed ; for two hours after the Ihock return¬
ed with fuch impetuous concuffions, that all was laid
in ruins, and the inhabitants felt themfelves happy in
being only fpeftators of the general devaftation, by ha¬
ving faved their lives, though with the lofs of all their
property During this fecond ftiock, the fea retiring
conhderably, and then returning in mountainous waves,
entirely overwhelmed Callao, which is at five miles di-
i.ance from Lima, and all the adjacent country, toge¬
ther with the miferable inhabitants. From that time
fix earthquakes have happened at Lima previous to
that of >746. This laft was on the 28th of Odober
at half an hour after ten at night, when the concuf-
fions began with fuch violence, that in little more than
three minutes the greateft part, if not all the building
in the city, were deftroyed, burying under their ruin*
thole inhaoitants who had not made fufficient hafle in¬
to the ftreets and fquares, the only places of fafety At
length the horrible effeds of the firft fliock ceafed ;
but the tranquillity was of Ihort duration, the concuL
lions fwiftly fucceeding each other. The fort of Cal¬
lao alfo funk into ruins ; but what it fullered from the
earthquake in its building was inconfiderable, when
compared to the dreadful cataftrophe which followed ;
for the fea, as is ufual on fuch occafions, recedin'^ to
a confiderable diftance, returned in mountainous waves
foaming with the violence of the agitation, and fud-
denly buried Callao and the neighbouring country in
its flood. This, however, was not entirely effe&td by
the firft fwellof the waves; for the fea retiring farther
returned with ftill greater impetuofity, and covered both
E e the
Peru.
Peru.
. .*9
Divifions
of the au¬
dience of
Lima..
PER [
the walls and other buildings of the place ; fo that
what even had efcapcd the flrft inundation was totally
overwhelmed by thofe fucceeding mountainous waves.
Twenty-three (hips and vefiels, great and fmall, were
then in the harbour, 19 of which tvere funk, and the
other 4, among which was a frigate named St Fermin,
were carried by the force of the waves to a confider-
able diflance up the country. This terrible inunda¬
tion and earthquake extended to other parts on the
coaft, and feveral towns underwent the fame fate as
the city of Lima ; where the number of perfons who
peri fired within two days after it began, amounted, ac¬
cording to the bodies found, to 1300, befide the maim¬
ed and wounded, many of whom lived only a fiiort
time in great torture.
The country of Lima enjoys great fertility, pro-
flucinaf all kinds of grain and a prodigious variety of
fruit. Here induftry and art fupply that moifture which
the clouds with-hold. The ancient Incas of Peru
eaufed fmall canals to be formed, in order to condudf
the waters of the rivers to every part of the country.
The Spaniards, finding thefe ufeful works executed to
their hands, had only to keep them in order; and by
thefe are watered fpacious fields of barley, large mea¬
dows, plantations, vineyards, and gardens, all yielding
uncommon plenty. Lima differs from Quito, where
the fruits of the earth have no determined feafon ; for
here the harvell is gathered in, and the trees drop their
leaves in the proper feafon.
Although the fummer here is hot, yet venomous
creatures are unknown ; and the fame may be faid of
the territory called Valles^ though here are fome ports,
as Tumbez and Piura, where the heat is almoft as great
as that of Guayaquil. This fingularity can therefore
proceed from n® other caufe than the natural drought
of the climate.
The audience of Lima is divided into four bifhoprics,
Truxillo, Guamanga, Cufco, and Arequipa. The dio-
cefe of Truxillo lies to the north of the archiepifcopal
diocefe of Lima, and like all the others is divided into
feveral jurifdiclions. The city of Truxillo is feated in
8° 6' fouth latitude, in a pleafant fituation, though in
a Tandy foil.
In the diocefe of Guamanga is a rich quickfilver
mine, from which the inhabitants of a neighbouring
town procure their whole fubfiftence; the coldnefs of
the air in that place checking the growth of all kinds
of grain and fruit, fo that they are obliged to purchafe
them from their neighbours. The quickfilver mines
wrought here fupply all the filver mines in Peru with
that neceffary mineral, and notwithftanding the prodi¬
gious quantities already extradled, no diroinution is
perceived.
Cufco, which gives name to another diocefe, is the
moll ancient city Peru, being of the fame date with
the empire of the Incas, and was founded by them
as the capital of the empire. On the mountain con¬
tiguous to the north part of the city are the ruins of a
famous fort built by the Incas ; whence it appears that
their defign was to inclofe the whole mountain with a
prodigious wall, of fuch conftrudlion as to render its
afcenr abfolutely imprafticable to an enemy, in order
to prevent all approach to the city. T. his wall was
entirely of freeftone, and ftrongly built, fome of the
ffones being of a prodigious magnitude. The city of
Cufcp is nearly equal to that of Lima. See Cusco.
218 ] PER
In this bi/hopric are feveral mines of gold and fil- Peru,
ver, that are extremely rich.
The fourth diocefe of the r.tidience of Lima is Are¬
quipa, which contains the city of the fame name, one
of the largeft in all Peru. It is delightfully feated in
a plain ; the houfes are well built of ftone, and are
generally lofty, commodious, finely decorated on the
outfide, and neatly furnifhed within. The tempera¬
ture of the air is extremely agreeable, the cold being
never excefiive, nor the heat troublefome ; fo that the
fields are always clothed with verdure, and enamelled
with flowers, as in a perpetual fpring. But thefe ad¬
vantages are allayed by its being frequently expofed to'
dreadful earthquakes; for by thefe convulfions of na¬
ture it has been four times laid in ruins. The city is,
however, very populous, and among its inhabitants are
many noble families.
In this bifhopric are feveral gold and filver mines,
and in fome parts are large vineyards, from which con*
fiderable quantities of wine and brandy are made. A-
mong the other produftions is Guinea pepper, in which
the jurifdiftion of Africa in this diocele carries on a
very advantageous trade, the annual produce of thefe
plantations bringing in no lefs than 6o,oco dollars per
annum. The pods of this pepper are about a quarter
of a yard in length, and when gathered are dried in the
fun and packed up in bags of rufhes, each bag con¬
taining an aroba or a quarter of a hundred weight, and
thus they are exported to all parts. Other places of
this jurifdiftion are famous for vail quantities of large
and excellent olives, far exceeding the fineft produ¬
ced in Europe, they being nearly the fize of a hen’s
egg- . . . 6s
The audience of Charcas, the laft divifion of Peru, The au-
is equal in extent to that of Lima ; but many of itsd‘ence0f
parts are not fo well inhabited, fome being full of vaft^^arci!>
deferts and impenetrable forefts, while others have ex-
tenfive plains intercepted by the ftupendsus height of
the Cordilleras : the country is inhabited only in fucli
parts as are free from thofe inconveniences. It is
bounded on the north by the diocefe of Cufco, and
reaches fouthward to Buenos Ayres; on the eaft it
extends to Brafil; and on the weft it reaches to the
Pacific Ocean, particularly at Atacama. The re¬
mainder of the province borders on the kingdom of
Chili. _ . .6*
This audience is divided into the archbifhopric of
Plata, and five bifhoprics. We (hall begin with thej^'^
former.
The famous mountain of Potofi is known all over
the commercial world for the immenfe quantity of fil¬
ver it has produced. The difeovery of this amazing
treafure happened at the commencement of the year
1545, by a mere accident, which we {hall mention
afterwards. At a fmall diftance from it are the hot
medicinal baths, called Don Diego, whither fome re¬
fort for health and others for diverfion. 61
At the time when the firft conquefts were made, How th^
when emigrations were moft frequent, the country of^“n^fir6-
the Incas had a much greater reputation for richesfettie(j by
than New Spain; and, in reality, for a long time much the Spa-
more confifierable treafures were brought away from it. niards.
The defire of partaking of them muft neceflarily draw
thither, as was really the cafe, a greater number of
Caftilians. Though almoft all of them went over thi¬
ther with the hope of returning to their country to > ,
- ' enjoy..-
PER l 2
' , ttyoy the fortune they might acquire, yet the majority
fettled in the colony. They were induced to this by
the foftnefs of the climate, thefalubrity of the air, and
the goodnefs of the provifions. Mexico prefented not
the fame advantages, and did not give them reafon to
expect fo much independence as a land infinitely more
remote from the mother-country.
Cufco attracted the conquerors in multitudes. They
found this capital built on a ground that was very ir-
regular, and divided into as many quarters as there
were provinces in the empire Each of the inhabi-
tants might follow the ufages of his native country •
b^e,Vry b°dy was obliged to conform to the worfhip
ettaohfhed by the founder of the monarchy. There
was no edifice that had any grandeur, elegance, or
convenience ; becaufe the people were ignorant of the
firft elements of architedure The magnificence of
"f d"]’/7/3 f efti,prince,
of the blood, and of the great men of his empire, confuted
in the profufion of the metals that were lavilhed in de-
corat.ng them The temple of the Sun was diftin-
gmihed above all ocher edifices; ics walls were incruft-.
cd or Iheathed with gold and filver, ornamented with
divers figures, and loaded with the idols of all the na-
lions whom the Incas had enlightened and fubdued.
As it was not a foheitude for their own prefervation
Which occupied the Spaniards at firft, they had no
fooner pdloged the immenfe riches which had been
amalied at Cufco for four centuries, than they went in
great numbers in 1534, under the order of Sebaftian
de BenakazaV, to undertake the deftruftion of Quito
I he other towns and boroughs of the empire were
over-run with the fame fpirit of rapine ; and the chi-
zens and the temples were plundered in all parts.
I hole of the conquerors, who did not take up their
refidence in the fettlements which they found already
formed, built towns on the fea-coafts, where before
there were none : for the fterility of the foil had not
permitted the Peruvians to multiply much there ; and
they had not been induced to remove thither from the
extremity of their country, becaufe they failed very
f1'- Tru*n,0) c40> plfca> ra/Ariaii
the roa^s which the Spaniards deemed moft conve¬
nient ror the communication they intended to eftablilh
among themfelves and with the mother-country. The
different pofitions of thefe new cities determined the
degree of their profperity.
Thofe which were afterwards built in the inland
parts of the country were not mfted in regions which
prefented a fertile foil, copious harvefts, excellent pa-
ftur.es, a mild and falubrious climate, and all the con-
niencts of hfe.. Thefe places, which had hitherto
III /0 WeU cult>vated by a numerous and flourifhing
people were no* totally difregarded. Very foon thef
x^.biteu only a deplorable pifture of a horrid deffr/
Wdeot ,hiThe Sel^lT'Tr
-cS °f ■The "ho TL fed by £'
foriTar ThoTt'/thd'f0lfte plain3’ oould not
V a'J“0rnnS barbarous and bloody authors of
iuch devaftations, while he refleftel -I
r ing even to the cruel illufionstf T
ianaticifm of conqueft, but to the llu^id^nd abietd de
TiCzr g0 d’ ,thfat they had Sacrificed fo much mire real
\*eafure, and fo-numerous a populatioa, ' 3
3 PER
rhis inratla' Je thin! of gold, which neither tended Pe-j,
to iubftftence, fafety, nor policy, was the only mo-^—
tive for eftabhfhmg new fettlements, fom? of which
have been kept up, while feverai have decayed, and
others have been formed in their ftrad. The fate
of them all has correlponded with the difeovery, pro-
guff, or declenhon, of the mines to which they were
iubordmate. J
Fewer errors hare bren committed in the means ofMannerof
procuring provifions. The natives had hitherto li-ed i!«rg "l
hardly on any thing elfe‘but malee, fruits, and pulKthe DatlVc^
for which they had ufed no other feafoning except fait
nnd pimento. Thei, liquors, which w, re^adeTom
cirterent roots, were more diverfified : of thefi* the 'hi
ZW?Ah\mQl{UuU?\hut thE C0n^uerors were not
latisfied either with the liquors or with the food of the
fhe^Old W7 Id f-mp°rted Vines frora
the Old World, which foon multiplied fufficlently in
the fands of the coafts at lea, Pifca, Nafca, Moque-
qua and i ruxillo, to fUrnifh the colony with the wine
and brandy it wanted. Olives fucceeded ftill better •
and yielded a great abundance of oilj which was much
aipenor to that of the mother-country. Other fruits
were tranfplanted with the fame fuccefs. Sugar fuc-
cornn ^ aj1y °rher Sr0Wth can be
compuied to that which is cultivated in thofe parts,
where it never rams. In the inland country wheat and
barky were fown ; and at length all the European
quadrupeds were foon found grazing at the foot of the
mountains.
This was a confiderable ftep 5 but there ftill remain¬
ed much more to be done. After they had provided
cZeofTJ* 3 gr.eatCr dl°lCC Cf the next
care of the Spaniards was to haveadrefs more commo.
dious and more agreeable than that of the Peruvians
I he.e.were, however, better clothed than any other
American nation. They owed this fuperiority to the
advantage which they alone poffeffed, of havincr the
EawA and 1 acos, domeftic animals which ferved them
for this ufe. See Camelus.
After the conqueft, all the Indians were obliged to
wear clothes. As the opprefiion under which they
groaned did not allow them to exercife their former
induftry, they contented themfelves with the coarfer
cloths of Europe, for which they were made to pay an
exorbitant price. . When the gold and filver which had
e caped the rapacity of the conquerors were exhauft-
ed, they thought of re-eftablifhing their national ma-
u actures. The.e were fome time after prohibited, on
account of the deficiency which they occafioned in the
exports of the mother-country. The impoftibility
which the Peruvians found of purchafing foreign fluffs
and paying their taxes, occafioned permiffion to be
given at the end of ten years for their re-eftablifh-
reent. I hey have not been difeontinued fince that
timej^and have been brought to as great a degree of
perfection as it was pofiiblc they could be under a con¬
tinual tyranny.
With the wool of the vicuna, a fpeclea of wild pa-ManSL
cos, they ma.te, at Cufco and imts territory, ftock-turesJ
mgs, handkerchiefs, and fcarfs. Thefe manufadures
would have been multiplied, if the fpirit of deftruftioii
had not fallen on animals as>ell as on men. The fame
wool, mixed with that of the ftieep imported thither
from Europe, which have exceedingly degenerated,
2 fervee
Peru.
65
Of the
mine- of
gold ami
fiiver.
PER [2
ferves for carpets, and makes alfo tolerably f'ne cloth.
Fleeces of inferior quality are employed in ferges. drug-
sets, and in all kinds of coarfe Huffs.
The manufactures fubfervient to luxury are eftabhlh-
ed at Arequipa, Cufco, and Fima. In thefe three
towns is made a prodigious number of gold toys and
pUt^ for the life of private perfons, and alfo for the
churches. All thefe manufadures are but coarfely
wrought, and mixed with a great deal of copper. We
feldom difeover more tafte in their gold and filver laces
and embroideries which their manufactures alfo pro¬
duce. This is not altogether the cafe in regard to
theirMace, which, when mixed w!th that of Europe,
looks very beautiful. Tins lad manufafture is Com¬
monly in the hands of the nuns, who employ in it
the Peruvian girls, and the young Meltees of the
towns, who for the molt part before marriage pafs fome
years in the convent. ... , ....
Other hands are employed in painting and gliding
leather for rooms, in making with wood and ivory
pieces of inlaid work and fculpture, and in drawing
Lures on the marble that is found at Cucuca, or on
linen imported from Europe. Thefe different works,
which are almoft all manufactured at Cufco, ferve tor
ornaments for houfes, palaces, and temples : the draw-
ing of them is not bad, but the colours are neither
exait; nor permanent. If the Indians, who invent no¬
thing, but are excellent imitators, had able matters and
excellent models, they would at lead make good co-
pviits. At the clofe of the laft century, fome works
of a Peruvian painter, named Michael de St Jacques,
were brought to Rome; and the connoiffeurs difcovcr-
ed marks of genius in them. . . ,
Though the Peruvians were unacquainted with coin,
they knew the ufe of gold and M.er j for they em-
ployed them in different kinds of ornaments. Indepen¬
dent of what the torrents and accident procured them
of thefe metals, fome mines had been opened ol little
depth The Spaniards have not tranfmitted to us the
manner in which thefe rich productions were drawn
from the bofom of the earth. Their pride, which has
deprived us of fo much ufeful knowledge, undoubtedly
made them think, that, in the inventions of a people
whom they called barbarous, there was nothing that
was worthy to be recorded. . , . , , „
The difference as to the manner m which the 1 eru-
vians worked their mines, did not extend to the mines
themfelves. The conquerors opened them on all tides.
At firft the gold mines tempted the avarice ot the
greater number. Fatal experience difeouraged thofe
whom paffion had not blinded. They clearly favv,
that for fome enormous fortunes railed in this manner,
great numbers, who had only moderate fortunes, were
totally ruined. Thefe mines funk into fuch diferedit,
that, in order to prevent them from being abandoned,
the government was obliged to take the 20th part of
their produce, inftead of the fifth whieh it at firil re-
coved. 1
The mines of filver were more common, more equal,
and richer. They even produced filver of a Angular
fpecies, rarely found elfewhere. Towards the fea-
coaft, great lumps of this metal arc found in the
^^here are a great number of other mines which are
infinitely more important, and are found in the rocks
20 ] PER
and on the mountains. Several of them gave falfe
hopeS. Such, in particular, was that of Ucuntaya, '
difeovered in 171 3- This was only an incruilation of
almoft maffive filver, which at firft yielded feveral mil¬
lions, but was fp*on exhautled. ,
Others which were deeper have been alike deferted.
Their produce, though equal to what it was originally,
was not fufficicnt to fupport the expence of working
them, which augmented every day. The mines of Qui¬
to, Cufco, and Arequipa, hafe experienced that revo¬
lution which awaits many of the reft.
There are greater numbers of very rich mines which
the waters have invaded. The difpofition of the ground,
which from the fummit of the Cordilleras goes conti¬
nually ftlelving to the South Sea, muft neceffarily ren¬
der thefe events more common at Peru than in other
places. This inconvenience, which with greater care
and {kill might often have been prevented or diminifh-
ed, has been in fome inftances remedied.
Jofeph Salcedo, about the year 1660, had difeover¬
ed, not far from the* town of Puna, the mine of Lay-
cac»ta. It was fo rich, that they often cut the filver
with a chifel. Profperity had fo elevated the mind of
the proprietor, that he permitted all the Spaniards
who came to feek their fortune in this part of the New
World, to work fome days on their own account, with¬
out weighing or taking any account of the prefents he
made them. This generofity drew around him an in¬
finite number of people, whofe avidity made them
quarrel with each other, and the love of money made
them take up arms and fall upon one another; and their
benefa&or, who had neglected no expedient to prevent
and extinguifti their fanguinary contentions, was hang¬
ed as being the author of them. Whilft he was in pri-
fon, the water got pofl'efiion of his mine. Superftition
foon made it imagined that this was a punifhment for
the horrid aft they had perpetrated againft him. This
idea of divine vengeance was revered for a long time ;
but at laft, in 1740, Diego de Bacna affociated with
other opulent people to avert the fprings which had
deluged fo much treafure. The labours which this
difficult undertaking required, were not finilhed till
j 754. The mine yields as much now as it did at firft.
But mines ftill richer than this have been difeovered.
Such, for example, is that of Potofi, which was found
in the fame country where the Incas worked that of
Porco. ■ . r • r
An Indian, named Hualpa, in 1545, purfuing fome
deer, in order to climb certain fteep rocks laid hold of
a bufh, the roots of which loofened from the earth, and
brought to view an ingot of filver. The Indian had
recourfe to it for his own ufe ; and never failed to re¬
turn to his treafure every time that his wants or his de¬
fires folicited him to it. The change that had hap¬
pened in his fortune was remarked by one of his couft-
trymen, and he difeovered to him the fecret. The two
friends could not keep their coonfel and enjoy their
good fortune. They quarrelled ; on which the indif-
creet confident difeovered the whole to his mafter, Vil-
laroell, a Spaniard who was fettled in the neighbour¬
hood. Upon this the mine became known, and was
worked; and a great number of them were found in
its vicinity ; the principal of which are in the northern
part of the mountain, and their direftion is from nort
Jo fouth, The molt intelligent people of Peru have
obferveOj,
PER
Pm
[
o’jferved, tliat this is in general the direftion of the
richeft mines.
The fame of what was pafling at Potofi foon fpread
abroad ; and there was quickly built at the foot of the
mountain a town, confilting of 60,000 Indians and
10,000 Spaniards. The fterility of the foil did not
prevent its being immediately peopled- Corn, fruit,
flocks, American fluffs, European luxuries, arrived
there from fvcry quarter. Induflry, which everywheie
follows the current of money, could not fearch for it
with fo much fuccefs as at its fource. It evidently
appeared that in 1738 thefe mines produced annually
near 978,000 1. without reckoning the fllver which was
not regiftered, and what had been carried off by fraud.
From that time the produce has been fo much dimi-
niihed, that no more than one-eighth part of the coin
which was formely flruck is now made.
At the mines of Potofi, and all the mines of South
America, the Spaniards, in purifying their gold and
fdver, ufe mercury, with which they are fwpplied from
Guan^a Velica. The common opinion is, tliat this
mine was difeovered in 1564. The trade of mercury
was then ftill free : it became an exclufive trade in
1 571- -At this period all the mines of mercury were
Ihut; and that of Guan^a Velica alone was worked,
the property of which _ the king referved to himfelf.
It is not found to diminifh. I his mine is dug in a
prodigioufly large mountain, 60 leagues from Lima. In
its profound abyfs are feen ftreets, fquares, and a cha¬
pel, where the rnyfleries of religion on all feftivals are
celebrated. Millions of flambeaux are continually kept
to enlighten it. r
Private people at their own expence work the mine
Guanca \ elica. i hey are obliged to deliver to
government, at a ftipulated price, all the mercury
they extradl from it. As foon as they have procured
the quantity which the demands of one year require,
the work is fufpended. Part of the mercury is fold on
the fpot, and the reft is fent to the royal magazines
throughout all Peru ; from whence it is delivered out
at the fame price it is fold for in Mexico. This ar¬
rangement, which has occafioned many of the mines to
drop, and prevented others from being opened, is in-
ex cufable in the Spanifh fyftem. The court of Ma¬
drid, in this refped, merits the fame reproaches as a
mini (try in other countries would incur, that would be
blind enough to lay a duty on the implements of agri¬
culture. &
The mine of Guan$a Velica generally affe&s thofe
who work in it with convulfions: this and t‘he other
names, which are not lefs unhealthy, are all worked
by the Penmans. Thefe unfortunate victims of an in-
iaUable avarice are crowded all together and plunged
naked into thefe abyfles, the greateft part of which
are deep, and all excefiively cold. Tyranny has in-
thlS reJinement in cruelty, to render it impof-
-ible for any thing to efcape its reftlefs vigilance. If
^ Ia^,apny wrctche3 who long furvive fach barbari-
ty, it is the ufe of cocoa that preferves them.
ta.W C C°£ k T • nuar the c!ty of Paz’ fs a
tarn of remarkable height, called //W, which doubt-
Icfs contains immenfe riches; for a crag of it being
feme years ago fevered by a flalh of lightning,and falling
on a neighbouring mountain, fuch a quantity of oold
was found in the fragments, that for fome time that
22 1 ] P E S
metal W'as fold at Paz for eight pieces of eight per
ounce ; but its fummit being perpetually covered with
ice and fnow, no mine has been opened in the rooun-*
tain.
. ^ie chY of La Paz is of a middling fize, and from
its fituation among the breaches of the Cordilleras,
t-ie ground on which it (lands is unequal, and it is alfo
furrounded by mountains. When the river Titicaca is
increafed, either by the rains, or the melting of the fnow
on the mountains, its current forces along large maffes
or rocks with fome grains of gold, which are found
after the flood has fublided. Hence fome idea may
be formed of the riches inclofed in the bowels of thefe
mountains; a remarkable proof of which appeared in
the year 1 730, when an Indian, waihing his feet in
the river, difeovered fo large a lump of gold, that the
marquis de Caftle Fuerte gave twelve thoufand pieces
o( eight tor it, and fent it as a prefent to the king of
opain. °
Balfam of Psrv. See Myroxilon.
PERUGIA, a town of Italy, in the pone’s terri¬
tories, and capital of Perugino. It is an ancient,
handfome, populous, and large city, with a ftrong ci¬
tadel, an univerlity, and a bifhop’s fee. The churches
and many other buildings as well public as private^
are very handfome. It is feated on a hill, in E. Lone.
12. 30. N. I-at. 43. 6. 6
PERUGINO, a province of Italy, in the terri¬
tory of the church, bounded on the weft by Tufcany,
on the fouth by Orvietano, on the eaft by the duchies
of opoleto and Urbino, and on the north by the coun¬
ty of Citta Caftellana. It is one of the fmalleft provin¬
ces in the territory of the church. The air is very
pure, and the foil fertile in corn and good wine ; be¬
sides, the lake Perugia fupplies them with plenty of
hdi. 1 he capital town is Perugia. The lake is eight
miles from the city, and is almoft round, being about
five miles in diameter; in it there are three iflands. This-
province is about 25 miles in length, and near as muck
in breadth.
Perugino. See Montanini.
PERUKE. See Perruke.
PERUVIAN bark. See Cinchona, and
suns Bark. J
PERUVIANA, a general name given to that vaft
penmfula, extending itfelf from the ifthmus of Darien
to Cape Horn, in the form of a triangle, of which the
'Terra Magellanic a and the Cape form the vertex. It
includes the whole of South America, although,*as is
well known, all the countries included within thefe
limits do not acknowledge the dominion of the crown
of Spain. See Terra Firma.
PESARG, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, and duchy of Urbino, with a bifliop’s fee. It
is a large place, whole ftreets are payed with bricks.
Phe caflle is very well fortified, the harbour excel¬
lent, and the cathedral church magnificent. The en¬
virons are remarkable for producing good figs, of
which they fend large quantities to Venice. It is feat-
ed on an eminence at the mouth of the river Fogha,
on the Gulph of Venice. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat*
43-5G
PESCARA, a very ftrong town in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Hither Abruzzo ; feated at the
mouth of a river of the fame name, which falls into
the
P^fcara.
PET r 222 ] PET
■Pefcenius the Gulph of Venice. E. Long. 15. 2. N. Lat.
^’!m , 42PESCENIUS Niger. See Niger.
PESCHIERA, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy,
in the Veronefe, with a caflle, and a ftrong fort; feat-
ed on the river Mincio, or Menzo, which proceeds
from the lake Garda. E. Long, r 1. 4. N. Lat. 45. 27.
PESENAS, an ancient town of France, in Lan¬
guedoc, and in the diocefe of Agde; delightfully
feated on the river Pein, 12 miles north-eaft: of Be-
feirs, and eight north of Agde. E. Long. 3. 34. N.
Lat. 43. 28.
PESSARY, in medicine, a folid fubflance compo-
fed of wool, lint, or linen, mixed with powder, oil,
wax, &c. made round and long like a finger, in or¬
der to be introduced into the exterior neck of the ma¬
trix, for the cure of Lveral uterine diforders.
PEST, a town of Upper Hungary, and capital of
a county of the fame name, feated on the Danube, in
a fine plain, over-againft Buda, 85 miles fouth-eatt of
Prefburg. E.Long. 18. 25 N. Lat. 47 24.
PESTILENCE, in medicine, the fame wifh the
•Plague.
PETAGUEL, a territory of South America, in
Brafil, bounded on the north by Dele ; on the eaft by
the fta; on the fouth by the captainfhip of Rio-
Grande ; and on the weft by Tupuys. It contains
mines of filver*
PETAL, in botany, one of the coloured leaves
which compofe the flower.
PETALISM, a mode of deciding on the guilt of
citizens fimilar to the Athenian Ostracism, it was
introduced in Syracufe about the year before Chrift
460, in order to prevent the tyranny of the richer
citizens, who had often about that time aimed at the
diadem. To prevent, therefore, the evils daily arifing
from thence, and to bring down the afpiring minds of
the wealthy citizens, the Syracufans were forced to
make a law not unlike that of the Athenian oftraciim;
for as at Athens every citizen was to write on a Ihell
the name of the perfon whom they conceived to be
the moft likely, on account of his wealth and adhe¬
rents, to afpire to the crown ; fo at Syracufe they
were to write on ~a leaf the names of fuch as they ap-
-prehended powerful enough to ufurp the fovereignty.
When the leaves were counted, he who had the moft
•fuffrages againft him was, without any farther in¬
quiry, banifhed for five years. This new-contrived
method of impairing the eftates, and weakening the
intereft of the overgrown citizens, was called peta-
Ufm, from the Greek wardpetalon, which fignifies “ a
leaf.” This law was attended with many evil confe-
quences; for thofe who were moft capable of go¬
verning the commonwealth were driven out, and the
adminiftration of public affairs committed to the mean-
eft of the people ; nay, many of the chief citizens,
who were able to render their country great fervice,
fearing to fall under penalties of this law, withdrew
from the city, and lived private in the country, not
concerning themfelves with public affairs : whence all
the employments being filled with men of no merit or
experience, the republic was on the brink of ruin, and
•ready to fall into a ftate of anarchy and confufion.
The law therefore of petaiifm, upon more mature de¬
liberation, was repealed foon after it been firft
enadted, arid the reins of government were again put FeWfd,
into the hands of men who knew how to manae-e
them. —y—a
PETARD, in the art of war. See Gunnery, n®
56, and Plate CCXXIV.
PETAU (Denis), or Dionyfnts PeT/inusi a French
Jefuit of great erudition, born at Orleans in 1583.
His father was a man of literature, and obferving
ftrong parts and an excellent genius for letters in his
fon, he took every means in his power to improve them.
He ufed to tell his fon, that he ought to qualify him-
felf fo, as to be able to attack and confound “ the
giant of the Allophylte meaning that moft eminent
fcholar Jofeph Scaliger, whofe abilities and learning
svere allowed to have done great honour and much fer¬
vice to the reformed. Young Petavius feems to have
entered readily into his father’s views; for he ftudied
molt intenfely, and afterwards levelled much of his
erudition againft Scaliger. He joined the ftudy cf
the mathematics to that of the belles lettres ; and af¬
terwards applied himfelf to a courfe of phitofophy,
which he began in the college of Orleans, and finifha
ed at Paris. He afterwards maintained thefes in Greek,
which was as familiar to him as Latin ; and the Latin,
it is faid,he underftood better than he did his own native
language. Wnen be was pretty well advanced, he had
free accefs to the king’s library, which he often vi-
fited on account of the Latin and Greek manuferipts.
Among other advantages which accompanied his lite¬
rary purfuits, was the friendfhip of Ifaac Cafauhen,
whom Henry IV. called to Paris in 1600. It was at
Cafaubon’s inftigation, that Petavius, though then but
very young, undertook an edition of The Works of
Synefius. In this edition he corrected the Greek from
the manuferipts, tranflated that part which yet re¬
mained to be tranflated into Latin, and wrote notes
upon the whole. He was but 19 years of age when
he was made profeffor of philofophy in the univerfity
of Bourges; and he ipent the two following years in
ftudying the ancient philofophers and mathematicians.
In 1604, when Morel, profeffor of Greek at Paris,
publiflied The Works of Chryfoilom, fome part of
Petavius’s labours on Synefius were added to them i
from the title of w'hich we learn, that he then took
the name of Patus, which he afterwards changed into
Petavius His own edition of The Works of Sy-
nefius did not appear till 1612.
He entered into the fociety of the Jefuits in ificy,
and did great credit to it by his vail and profound eru¬
dition. He became a zealous advocate for the church
of Rome; and there was no way of ferving it more
agreeable to him than that of criticifing and abufing
its adverfaries. He was moft bitter againft Scaliger ;
nor did he even fpare his friend Cafaubon wh'-never he
came in his way.—Petavius excelled particularly in
the dark fcience of chronology ; the learned world in
general being obliged to him for fome exaft and nice
difquifitions on this fubjed. His chief work, which
is in great repute to this day, he intitled, Pat'ionarium
Temporuirt. It is cn abridgement of univerfal hiftoty,
from the earlieft times to 1632, in chronological order,
with refeiences to proper authorities. It was impro¬
ved, and feveral additions made to it, by Perizonius,
and others after his death. This eminent father, aftef
a very laborious life, died at Paris in the end of the
year
pet [ 2
Pe|au year 1652, aged 69. GafTendus, in Ins life of Peref-
PetcheJ/. ch!l,.S, fays he wa8 the .moft confummate fcholar the
-T— ‘ Je^r‘t8 ever hnd ; an opinion very likely to be true,
when we confider that he often contended fuccefsfully
with Scaliger, Salrnafius, and others, whofe abilities
have been univerfally acknowledged. His judgment,
however, was not equal to his erudition, and his con-
troverlial writings are full of fournefs and fpleen. We
have the following character of a great work of Pe-
tavius by an author of much celebrity, but who per¬
haps is as much biaffed on the fide of infidelity as he
thinks this learned Jefuit was in favour of the church
of Rome. The Dogmata Theologica of Petavius are a
work of incredible labour and compafs : the volumes
which relate folely to the incarnation (two folios, eth
and 6th, of 837 pages) are divided into 16 books—the
firft of his hi dory, the remainder of controverfy and
doftrine. The Jefuit’s learning Is copious and cor¬
rect ; his Latinity is pure, his method dear, his argu¬
ment profound and well conne&ed : but he is the Have
or the fathers, the fcourge of heretics, and the enemy
of truth and candour, as often as they are inimical to
the Catholic caufe.
I E TAW, an ancient town of Germany, in the
circle of Auftria, and in Stiria. It is a handfome
place, and is feated on the river Drave, 35 miles north-
eaft of Cilley, and 109 fouth of Vienna. E. Long-,
ly-36’ N. Eat. 46.40.
PETCHELI, a province of Afia, in China, and
the chief in the whole empire ; bounded on the eafl
by the fea, on the north by the great wall, on the
weft by Chanfi, and on the fouth by Chantong and
Honan. “ This province contains nine cities of the
firft clafs, which have feveral others under their jurif-
diaion; thefe are about 40 in number, lefs confide-
rable indeed, but all furrounded with walls and ditch¬
es. Petcheli has few mountains. Its foil is fandy
and produces very little rice; but all other kinds of
grain abound there, as well as the greater part of the
fruit-trees we have in Europe. It pays an annual tri¬
bute to the emperor, which, according to Father Mar¬
tini, confifts of 601,153 bags of rice, wheat, and
millet; 224 pounds of linfeed ; 45,135 of fpun filk ;
13,748 of cotton ; 8,737,248 truffes of ftraw for the
horfes belonging to the court, and 180,870 meafures
of fait, each containing 124 pounds; which is pro-
portionably much inferior to that paid by other pro-
vinces. r
It is remarked that the people of this province
have not the fame aptitude for acquiring the fciences
as thofe who inhabit the fouthern provinces of the em¬
pire ; but they are more tobuft and warlike, and bet-
ter calculated to endure the hardlhips and fatigue of
war. This is the cafe with the Chinefe of all the
other norchern countries.
“ The face of the country here being fiat and level
tioiTof wh- bk °f 3 kind °f carria£e> the conftruc-
tion of which appears to be rather lingular. Father
Martini, one of the firft miffionaries fn China, thus
defenbes it : They ufe, ,n the province of Petcheli,
a kind of chariot with one wheel, and conflruded in
-uch a manner, that there is room in the middle for
only one perfon, who fits as if on horfehack • the
driver pufhes behind, and, by means of wooden levers
makes the chariot advance with fafety and expedition
23 ] P E T
This has perhaps given rife to the report of chariots Petcheli.
driven in that country by the wind, which the Chi- •v—"*
nefe direA over land with fails, as they do (hips at
lea. A French miflionary, who traverfed this pro-
vmce in 1768, feems to have made ufe of the fame
kind of carriage. ‘ We quitted the canal (fays he)
to travel in carts, which is cuftomary in this part of
China ; but it is difagreeable beyond defeription. The
cart is amazingly clumfy, and has a great refemblance
to the carriage of a gun : there is room in it for only
one perfon, who is frequently obliged to fit crofs-leg-
ged, as our taylors do in Europe ; it jolts prodigi-
oufiy ; and, while the traveller is expofed to th'’
Torching rays of the fun, fuch clouds of dull fome-
times anfe as almoft fuffocate him.’
“ I he temperature of the air of this province does
not feem to agree with its latitude. Although Pet-
cheh extends no farther than to the 42d degree of
north latitude, yet all the rivers there are fo much
frozen during four months in the year, thathorfes and*
waggons with the heavieft loads may fafely pafs them.
It deferves to. be remarked, that the whole body of
ice 19 formed in one day, and that feveral are necef-
fary to thaw only the furface. What may appear no
Ids extraordinary is, that during thefe fevere frofts
one does not feel that fharp and pinching cold which
accompanies the produdion of ice in Europe. Thefe
phenomena cannot be accounted for, but by attribu¬
ting them to the great quantity of nitre which is found
diiperfed throughout this province, and to the ferenity
of the {ley, which, even during winter, is feldom ob-
feured by a cloud. The phyfical explanation, which
we have given of this fingular temperature, is fully -
confirmed by experiments lately made by Father A-
miot at Peking, which convinced him, that in this
capital and neighbourhood, as far as feven or eight
leagues around, the water, air, and earth, equally
abound with nitre. 7
. “ W,th regard to water, the facility with which
it freezes, the folidity of the ice and 'its duration,
evidently announce the prefence of nitre. A tub fill¬
ed with water, placed near one of Rheamur’s thermo¬
meters, had its furface immediately frozen, when the
mercury flood only one degree above the freezing
point; and when it flood three degrees below freezing,
'he watsr Became a folid mafs of ice, if the diantetfi
ot the veifel did not exceed a foot and a half, and the
depth of the water four or five inches. This water
wdien the weather was fine, continued in the fame ftate
of congelation as long as the mercury in the ther¬
mometer did not rife higher than three degrees above
o; when the mercury rofe higher, it then began to-
diffolve, but fo (lowly, that two or three davs were
learcely fufficient to reftore it to its former fluidity.”
Grofier goes on to relate other experiments of Father
Amiot, which were made with a view to difeover
the caufe of the water’s freezing fo in this temperate
chmate ; and he then proceeds to tell us, that “ if the
waters of the province of Petcheli contain much
nitre it is no lefs certain, that the air which one
breathes there is abundantly impregnated with it. The
following are indubitable proofs of it : ill, Notwith-
ftandmg unwholefome food, fuch as the flefh of the
greater part of domeftic animals that have died of old
age or difeafe, which the people of this province
greedily
P E T
I'etcKeW greedily devour, not ith{landing filtli and all the in-
p | conveniences refultitig from low, 'amp, and confined
i lodgings, where all the individuals of the fame fa*
truly ?re, as it were, heaped one upon another, the
plague never makes its appearance in Petcheli; and
the people are feldorn attacked by any of thofe epide¬
mical diftenpers which are fo common in Europe.
2cUy, Provifions of every kind may be kept at Peking
a long while, without being fubjeft to corruption. Rai-
fins are eaten there frefh even in May, apples and
pears till midfnmmer ; wild boars, flags, deer, roe¬
bucks, rsbbits, hares, pheafants, ducks, geele, and
all kinds of game brought from Tartary to Peking
after the commencement of winter; filh of every
fpecies, tranfported from the rivers of Eeaotong—will
keep without the afufiance of fait, in their Rate of
congelation, for two or three months, although they
are expofed every day in the markets, carried from
the markets to private houfes, and from private houfes
brought back to the markets until they are all fold,
which does not hapoen before the end of March. It
is certain, that thefe fafts announce an antifeptic qua¬
lity in the air, which muft undoubtedly proceed from
the great quantity af nitre contained in it.
“ 3dly, The earth which forms the foil of Pet¬
cheli abounds no lefs with nitre ; whole fields may be
feen in the neighboui'hood of Peking which are co¬
vered with it. Every morning at funrife the coun¬
try in certain cantons appears as white as if fprinkled
by a gentle fall of fnow. If a quantity of this fub*
fiance be fwept together, a great deal of kien, nitre,
and fait, may be extrafted from it. The Chinefe pre¬
tend, that this fait may be fubftituted for common
fait; however this may be, it is certain, that, in the
extremity of the province towards Siuen-hoa-fou, poor
people and the greater part of the peafants make ufe of
no other. With regard to the kien procured from
the earth, they ufe it for wafliing linen, as we do
foap. Although the land of Petcheli is replete with
nitrous particles, it does not, however, form dry de-
ferts ; it is cultivated with care, and becomes fruitful
by inceffant labour. The earth is frozen in winter to
the depth of two or three feet, and does not become
foft before the end of March. This may fufficiently
explain why the froft kills plants in the neighbourhood
of Peking, which Mr Linnaeus raifed in Sweden, al¬
though it is 20 degrees farther north than the capital
of the Chinefe empire.”
PETECHIiE, in medicine, a name given to thofe
fpots, whether red or of any other colour, which ap¬
pear in malignant fevers.
PETELIA. See Strongoli.
PETER (St), the apoftle, born at Bethfaida,
was fon of John, Jona, or Joanna, and brother of St
Andrew (John i. 42, 43.) Elis fiift name was Simon
or Simeon ; but when our Saviour called him to the
npoflklhip, he changed his name into Cephas, that is,
in Syriac, a ftne or a rock; in Latin, petra, _ whence
Peter. He was a married man; and had his houfe,
bis mother in law, and his wife, at Capernaum, upon
the lake of Gennefareth (Mark i. 29. Mat. viii. 14.
Luke iv. 38.) St Andrew, having been firft called fey
jefus Chrift, met his brother Simon, and told him
(John i. 41.) we have found the Meffiah, and then
brought him to Jefue. Jefus beholding hxm, faid to
PET
him, You are Simon fon of Jona; henceforth you (hall Bsfwr.
be called Cephas, that is, Jione or rock. After having ——v"***-
palled one day with our Saviour, they returned to their
ordinary occupation, which was fifhing. Yet it is
thought they were prefent with him at the marriage
of Cana in Galilee. This happened in the 30th year
of the vulgar Chrilliao era.
Towards the end of the fame year, Jefus Chrift be¬
ing on the fhote of the lake of Gennefareth, faw Peter
and Andrew bufy about their lifhery, and waffling their
nets (Luke v. 1,2, 3.) He entered into their boat,
and bid Peter throw out his nets into the fea, in order
to fifh. Peter obeyed him, though he had already
lifired the whole night without catching any thing.
They took fo many fifties at this draught, that their
own vefiel, and that of James and John fons of Zebe-
dee, were filled with them. Then Peter threw himfelr
at the feet of Jefus, and faid to him, Depart from me.
Lord, for I am a finner. Then Jefus faid to them.
Follow me, and I will make you fiftiers of men. He
faid the fame thing to James and John ; and imme¬
diately they quitted their boats and nets, and followed
our Saviour.
Some time after, Jefus coming to Capernaum entered
into the houfe of Sc Peter, where his mother-ia-lavr
lay fick of a fever. He immediately healed her, and
fhe began to miniiter to him (Luke iv. 38. and Mat.
viii. 14.) A little while befoie the feaft of the pafibver
of the following year, being the 32d of the vulgar era,
after Jefus returned into Galilee, he made choice of
twelve apoftles, among which St Peter has always the
firftplace (Mat. x. 2. Luke vi. 13.) One night that
Jefus Chrift walked upon the waters of the lake of
Gennefareth, St Peter afked him leave to come and
meet .him (Mat. xiv. 28, 29.) Jefus gave him leave;
but lie feeing a great wave coming, was a/raid, and
therefore began to fink. Then Jefus held him up, and
faid, O man of little faith, why was you afraid l Af¬
terwards landing on the other tide of the lake, and the
multitude that he had fed the day before beyond the
lake being come to him at Capernaum, he (poke to
them of his body and of his blood which he was to
give to his difeiples to eat and drink. This fo offend¬
ed the multitude, that feveral of them quitted him
thereupon. He therefore afked his apoftles if they
alfo would leave him; to which Peter replied, To
whom ftiall we go, Lord ; for thou haft the words of
eternal life (John vi. 53, 54, See.) One day, as our
Saviour was near Casfarea Philippi, he afked his apoftles
whom the world took him for ? they anfwered, that
fome faid he was John the Baptift ; others, Elias; and
others Jeremiah, or one of the prophets. But whom
do you fay I am ? fays Jefus Chrift. Simon Peter
anfwered, Thou art Chrift, the fon of the living God.
Jefus then faid usto Peter, Rleffed art thou, Simon
Barjona ; for fkfh and blood hath not revealed it unto
thee, but my father which is in heaven (Mat. xvi. 13,
14, See.) And I fay unto thee, that, as thou art
Peter, fo upon this rock will 1 build my church, and
the gates of hell (hall not prevail againft it ; and 1 will
give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven,
and vvhatfoever thou {halt bind on earth ftiall be bound
in heaven, and whatfoever thou {halt loofe upon earth
ftiall be loofed in heaven. About fix or eight days
after this, our Saviour taking Peter, Janies, and John,
7 Ui>
[ 224 ]
PET
Fftar.
«P a high mountain, apart from the other difciples,
ftowej them a glimpfe of his glory, and was transfi¬
gured before them (Mat. xvii. j, 2, &c. and Luke ix.
28.) Whereupon Peter, feeing Mofes and Elias to¬
gether with Jefus, cried out to them in an ecftacy,
Lord, it is good for us to be here i if you pleafe, we
will make three tents ; one for you, one for Mofes,
and one for Elias.
Jefus returning from thence to Capernaum, thofe
that gathered the tribute-money came to Peter, and
faid, Does not your maker pay tribute ? Where¬
upon Jefus ordered Peter to throw his line into the
fea, and that he fhouid find wherewith to pay the toll
for them two in the mouth of the firft filh he fhouid
take. Peter obeyed ; and finding a piece of money
in the mouth of the filh, he gave it to the tribute-
gatherers, as he was dire&ed. One day, as Jefus was
citfccurling concerning the forgivenefs of injuries (Mat.
xvni. 2t, 22.j, St Peter afked him, how often they
mull forgive, and whether it was fufficient to pardon an
offender fcven times ? Jefus told him, I fay/you mult
pardon not only as far as feven times, but even feven-
ty times feven. Upon another occafion (Mat. xix.
27 —29.), as our Saviour was fpeaking of the danger
of riches, Peter faid to him, Lord, we have left all
things to follow thee; what reward fhall we have for it?
Jefus anfwered him, I tell you in truth, that you who
have left all things to follow me fhall receive an hundred
fold even in this world, and in the other eternal life ;
and at the laid day, when the Son of man fhall come to
judge the world, you fhall fit upon twelve thrones to
judge the twelve tri1 es of Iftael.
On the I uefday before our Saviour’s pafiion, Peter
fhowed him the fig-tree he had curfed the evening be¬
fore, which was now dried up and withered (Mark xi.
lz' 21.); and the day following, as they fat upon
the mountain of Olives, be, with the other apoftles,
afked Jefus when the temple was to be deilroyed
(Mat. xxiv. 1, 2, &c. Mark xiii. r, 2, &c. Lukexxii.)
I 225 ]
P E T
not only to prlfon, but to death itfelf. But Chrift
declared to him, that he would be fo far from follow¬
ing him to death that he would abjure him three times
that very night ‘before the cock fhouid crow, or be¬
fore break of day. When fupper was ended, he went
to the garden of Olives, where, taking Peter, James,
and John, he went with them apart, that they might
be w.tneffes of h,s agony. Peter, though before he
hao mowed fo much refolution, vet fell nfleep with the
reft ; which occafioned Jefus to fay to him, Do you
keep Simon? Could you not watch with me one hour?
(Maik xiv. 37. Mat. xxvi. 40, &c.)
Judas being come with the. foldiers to feize lefus,
1 ete, drew h,s fword, and cut off the right car of one
called Malchus, who was fervrnt to the high priell:
but Jefus bid him put up his fword into the Labbard :
and told him, that ail thofo chat fought with the fword
l eaf d Mni . e fvVOrd : and at ‘he fame time
healed Malchus s ear (John xviii. i0, See.) Peter
followed jefus afar off, as far as the heufe of Caiaphas,
End was let m by means of another difciple, who was
nown m the family. I he foidiers and fervants that
had brought Jefus, havmg lighted a fire in the middle
f lf h?r M' ’JetCr min8iied am°ug them to warm him-
felt alfo ; when a maid-fervant, having looked earneftly
upon him, fai l, Surely this man was with Jefus of
Nazareth. But Peter made anfwtr, 1 know not what
you fay, for 1 do not fo much as know the man. Pre-
iendy after he went out into the porch, when imme¬
diately the cock crew. A little while after another
wfth T rd t0f M°ie thuat Wre prefeT,t> ri’llis man was
with Jefus of Nazareth. But Peter den ed it with an
oath. About an hour after, one of the company af-
iimeu that f etcr was 3 d.fciple of Jefus. Others in-
lifted upon the fame thing ; and faid, that furely he was
one of them, for his very fpeech betrayed him to be a
MalT"' I1"/117’ ^ them’ 7e,ng a kinfman of
Malchus whofe ear Peter had cut off, affirmed the fame
tnmg; and afked him, Did not 1 fee you with him in
IV ef;
On Thurfcla, he was fen, with S, John ,'o prepare all h garden , Peter ‘TAi„H I ‘‘'■l™ wi,h h™ «
thmga for the , affo.er ; a„J at evening, rfhen l.fn. tedi^ hw i I “ *•* P™
tnings tor the j affover; and at evening, when Jtfus
was come into the city with his apoftles, and, being let
down at table, began to fpeak of him that fhouid
betray him, Ptrer made figns to John to afk him
who this fhouid be (John xiii. 24.) After fupper,
the difciples entered into a difpute which fhouid be
the greateft among them : whereupon Jefus Chrift,
Lying afidehis garments betook himfelf co wafh their
feet, to give them an example of humility in his own
perfon. St Peter at firft made fame difficulty, and
would not fuffer his maker to wafh his feet : but Jefus
telling him, that if he did not wafh his feet, he could
) ;ve no part in him ; St Peter replied, Lord, wafh
not only my feet, but my hands and head alfo ( Tohn
xiu. 6—10.) VJ
Some time after, Jefus faid to him (Luke xxii. 31,
32, &c.) Peter, Satan has defired to lift you as men fife
wheat; but I have prayed for you, that your faith may
not fad: am. when you are converted, confirm your
btethren. By this he warned St Peter of his fail, that
Ht bouncing him ; from
wh ch, by the affiftance of God, he was afterwards to
recover. St Peter then afked him, where he was go-
mg and Ltd, he was ready to follow him everywhere,
VoL.AlV. Parti.
teftmg that he did not know the man. And at'the
Lme time the cock crowed the fecond time. Then
.elus, being in the fame hall, and not far from Peter,
looked upon h,m ; and Peter then remembering what
Jefus had faid to him, that before cock-crow he fhouid
deny him thrice, he went out of Laiaphas’s houfe, and
wept bitterly (Mat xxvi. 73, 75. Mark xiv. 34, 72.)
Very probably he remained in fecret, and in tears,
all the time of our Saviour’s paffion, that is, all Enda^
and Saturday following ; but on Sunday morning,
Jefus being rifen, and Mary having been at the tomb
and not hnding the body of Jeffif, ffie came in hafte
into the city, to tell Peter and John that they had
taken away their maker, and that fhe could not find
where they had put him. Peter and John made hafte
tint her, and John coming firft, did not go into the-fe-
puichre. Peter then coming up to him, prefently
itooped down, and law the linen clothes wherein the
body had been wrapt. He went then into the fepulchre
and John with him ; after which they returned to Je-
rufalern, not knowing what had come to pais. But
loon after Jefus appeared to the holy women, who had
come fir 11 to the fepulchre, and bid them give his
apolUes notice of his rcfurre&ion. And the fame dav
F f 7
* r our
Peter.
PET [
our Saviour alfo appeared to Peter, to comfort him,
' and allure him that his repentance had been accept¬
able to him. t
Some days after, St Peter being returned into Galilee
as Jefus had commanded him, and going to filh in the
fea of Galilee, or in the lake of Gennefareth, with fome
otherof the apoftles, Jefus appeavedtothem on theihore,
and bid them throw out their nets on the right fide of
the veffel. They threw them out, and took fuch a mul¬
titude of fifties chat they could not draw up their nets
again. Then St John faid to Peter, It is the Lord. Peter
J ^mediately girded up himfdf, for he was naked, and
fwimming to fhore he came to Jefus: then drawing
their nets to ftiore, Jefus dined with them. After
dinner, Jefus faid to Peter, Simon, fon of Jona, do you
Jove me more than thefe ? He anfwered, Yea, Lord,
you know that I love you. Jefus fays to him, Then
feed my lambs. He put the fame queftion to him
again ; and Peter making the fame anfwer, our Lord
faid to him again, Feed my fheep. This he repeated
a third time ; at which St Peter was troubled, and
faid, You know, Lord, that I love you. Jefus re¬
plied to him, “ Feed my (beep. I tell you for a truth,
that when you were young, you girded yourfelf and
went where you pleafed ; but now you are old, ano¬
ther fiiall gird you, and lead you where you would
not go.” This he faid to let him know what death
he was to die. At the fame time, Peter feeing St John
the Evangelift, faid to our Saviour, Lard, what mud
become of him ? Jefus anfwered, “ If I will that he
tarry till I come, what does that concern you ? Do
you follow me.” Thus he refufed to declare in what
manner St John fhould end his life.
After that Jefus Chrift had afeended into heaven,
and that the apoftles had been witnefTes of his afeen-
fion, they returned to Jerufalem, to wait there for the
Holy Glioft, whom our Saviour had promifed to fend
them ; and being affembled together in a houfe, they
continued there in prayer, and in the union of chari¬
ty, till the time that the Holy Ghoft defeended upon
them, in the form of tongues of fire. During this in¬
terval, S-t Peter propofed to the apoftles, and to the
reft of the aflembly, to fill up the place that the trai¬
tor Judas had left vacant in the apoftlefliip. The pro-
pofal was agreed to by all; and two perfons were pro-
pofed, Jofeph Barfabas- and Matthias: upon this laft
the lot fell; and from that time he was admitted one
of the apoftles. The tenth day after the afeenfion of
our Saviour, being the day of Pentecoft, the Holy
Ghoft having defeended upon the apoftles, and upon
all the faithful that were afternbled with them, and ha¬
ving repleniftied them with fupernatural gifts, and
efpecially with the gift of tongues, all thofe who were
witnefles of this miracle expreffed their admiration at
it; and there being upon that day at Jcrufalem a great
many Jews from feveral provinces of the eaft, they
could not comprehend by what means thefe men, who
were Galileans, ftiould fpeak the languages of all thefe
pagan nations (Adis ii. I, 2, fee.) Some of them faid,
that the apollles were full of new wine. But St Peter
Handing up, told them, that what they heard and faw
was not the effe& of drunkennefs,. but was the comple¬
tion of the promife that the Holy Ghoft had made by
the prophet Joel (ii. 28.), to fend his fpirit upon all
fiiib, and to give the fpirit of prophecy to young and
226 ]
PET
old, to men and women. He afterwards fpoke to them
of Jefus Chrift, and told them that he was the true u
Mefliah, that he was rifen from the dead as the ferip-
ture had foretold he ftiould ; declaring that himielf and
the other apoftles were witnefies of his refurre&ion ;
of his afeenfion into heaven, and of the million of the
Holy Ghoft, the vifible effefts of which they faw with
their own eyes in the gifts of languages wherewith
they had been replenilhed.
Then thofe that heard him were touched with cem-
punftion, and alked the apoftles, Brethren, what fhall
we do ? Peter anfwered them, Repent, and be bap¬
tized, and you fhall receive the Holy Ghoft. Then
he inftrufted them, baptized them, and that very day
three thoufand perfons were added to the church
(Ads iii. x, 2, &c.) Some days after, St Peter and
John, going to the temple at the hour of prayers, met
at a gate of the temple a man who had been lame from
his birth, fo that he was carried about. This man
feeing Peter and John,afked alms of them: upon which
Peter faid to him. Silver or gold I have not ; but fuch
as I have I give thee : In the name of Jefus of Na¬
zareth, rife up and walk. Prefently the man got up,,
and went into the temple along with them, lifting up
his voice, and glorifying God. He held St Peter,
telling the people then afl'embled all that happened un¬
to him. Then Peter, taking this occafion, told the
people, that it was not by his own power that he had
performed the miracle they fo much wondered at, but
that it was by the power of Jefus Chrift that this man
was healed. He then laid before them the great crime
they had committed, in putting Jefus Chrift to death,
who was the Saviour of the world, and the Mefliah ;
and after he had ftxewn them by all the. prophecies
that Chrift was to die thus, he exhorted them to repent¬
ance, and to make a proper ufe of the death of Chrift.
He was thus fpeaking to the people, when the priefts
and Sadducees coming upon them, laid hold on Peter
and John, and put them in prifon, until the day fol¬
lowing, it being now late (Afts iv. 1,2, &c.) But
the number of thofe that were converted this day at
the fecond preaching of St Peter was about five thou-
fand. The day following, the rulers, magiftrates, and
chief priefts being affembled on this occafion, ordered
the apoftles to be brought before them ; and then alk¬
ed them, by whofe authority they performed the mi¬
racle of healing the lame man ? St Peter anfwered,
that it was in the name of Jefus of Nazareth, whom
they had crucified, and whom God raifed again from
the dead. The aflembly were furprifed at the bold-
nefs of the apoftles upon this occafion : but came to a
refolution to difraifs them, charging them at the fame
time to teach no more in the name of Jefus; and
threatening them if they Ihould periift in difcbedience
to thefe orders. The two apoftles returned to their
brethren, and related to them all that had palled j
which having heard, the brethren raifed their voices
to heaven, begging God to give them ftrength and.
courage to declare his word with perle£t liberty ; and'
having finilhed their prayers, the place Ihook wherein
they were aftembied, and they were again filled wuh.-
the Holy Ghoft. ,
At this time many of the faithful f®ld their eftates,
and brought the money to the apoftles {id. y. I» 2>
&c.) Of this number was a man called Ananias, with
' „ bis
Peter.
Peter.
PET [
his wife Sapphira, who, by a private agreement be-
' tween themfelves, concealed a part ,of the money for
which they had fold their land, and brought the reft
to St Peter, as if it were the whole fum. Ananias came
firft ; and St Peter faid to him, Ananias, how came
Satan to feduce you, and to prevail with you to lie to
the Holy Ghoft, by concealing part of the price of
your land ? It is not men that you thought to impofe
on, but God. Immediately Ananias fell down dead,
and they carried him out and buried him. About
three hours after his wife Sapphira came in, and St
Peter faid to her almoft the fame things he had before
faid to her hufband, and immediately fhe fell down
alfo, and gave up the ghoft. This affair infufed a
great awe in the whole church, and amongft all thofe
that heard of it. (See Adts v.)
The number of believers confiderably increafed eve¬
ry day ; fo that they even brought out the lick into
the ftreets, and laid them where Peter was to pafs, that
at leaft his fhadow might cover feme of them, by which
means they were healed of their diftempers. Then the
high-prieft and his affociates, that is, the Pharifees,
caufed the apoftles to be apprehended and put into
prifon. But an angel brought them forth, and bid
them go into ihe temple, and there boldly declare all
the words of life which God had taught them. This
they performed : upon which the princes and priefts
c.auled them to be brought before them ; and having
demanded why they had difobeyed their orders, in
continuing to fpeak ftill in the name of Jefus Chrift,
Peter and the apoitles anfwered, that it was more ne-
ceffary to obey God than man. I his anfwer provoked
them very much, and they were going to condemn
them to death, when Gamaliel prevailed with them to
change their refolution, by reprefenting to them, that
ii this matter proceeded from God, it was in vain for
them to oppofe it; but if otherwife, then it Ihould foon
vanifh of itfelf. . So they difmiffed the apoftles, after
giving them thirty-nine ftripes a-piece, and charged
them to fpeak no more in the name of Jefus Chrift.
After the martyrdom of St Stephen, a perfecution
was carried on againft the faithful at Jerufalem,and they
were obliged to take ftielter in feveral places. The
apoftles alone continued at Jerufalem (Adds viii. i, 2,
3, &c.) St Philip the deacon going to Samaria, the
Samaritans received the word of the Lord, and feveral
of them were baptized. Then St Peter and St John
repaired thither alfo, to give them the Holy Ghoft ;
which St Philip, being only a deacon, had not power
to do. Simon the magician was alfo baptized among
and admiring the power that the apoftles had.
others-
of conferring the Holy Ghoft, would have bought the
lame power of the apoftles, and accordingly offered
money to St Peter. But Peter with indignation re-
p ieato lum, i hy money and thou perifti together,
who thinkeft the gifts of God can be bought with
money . fhou haft no part with us, nor haft any pre-
tenfioiis to this mmiftry, for thy heart is not right be¬
fore God Repent therefore of this wickednefs, and
pray to God if perhaps he will pardon the wicked
thoughts of thy heart. After this Peter and John re¬
turned again to Jerufalem. See Ada viii.
. * iire perfecution being now pretty well ex-
tinguifhed, St Peter departed from JerufalL (Ads
0^1
&c.), and viilting the difciples from city to ci-
227 ] pet
ty, he came alfo to fee the faints that dwelt at Lydda.
Here he found a- man called ./Eneas, who had been
paralytic for eight years. St Peter faid to him, JE-
neas, rife up ; Jefus Chrift the Lord cures you. He
prefently got up ; and all that dwelt at Lydda that
law the miracle were converted to the Lord. There
was alfo at Joppa a certain holy woman, named Tabf-
tha who happening to die while St Peter was at
Lydda, the difciples fent to defire him to come to
them. Whereupon St Peter came, and entering into
the chamber where Tabitha lay dead, he caufed every
body to go out, and betook himfelf to prayers. Then
turning himfelf towards the corpfe, he faid, Tabitha,
anfe. At which mftant Ihe opened her eyes, and fee¬
ing St Peter, Ihe fat up. This miracle was much
famed at Joppa, and was the occafion that many were
converted St Peter ftayed there a good while, taking
up his lodging with one Simon a tanner.
Now there was at Ccefarea of Paleftine a centurion
called Cornelius, a man that feared God (Ads x 1
2, 3.)> and to whom it was revealed by an angel, that
he ftiould fend to Joppa to Peter, who fhould tell him
what he had to do. Cornelius immediately fent two
of his lervants; and while they were upon the road, the
Lord fent a vilion to Peter, to prepare him to go to
th,s man without any fcruple, although he was not a
Jew ; for as yet the door of the gofpel had not been
opened to the Gentiles. St Peter, then being at the
top of the houfe, fell into a trance, and faw, as it were,
a great fheet of linen let down from heaven, which was
full of all kinds of animals and reptiles, both clean and
unclean. He had this vifion three times, and heard a
voice, faying, Arife Peter, kill and eat. But Peter
anfwered, Lord, I have never eaten any thing unclean.
I he voice replied, Call not that unclean which God
has punfied. After which the fheet was again take#
up into heaven. At the fame time, the men came in
that had been fent by Cornelius. They acquainted
him with what had happened to their matter, and de-
hred him to go along with them to Csefarea. The
day following St Peter fet out thither, and was ac¬
companied by fome of the brethren of Joppa. (See.
When Peter was returned to Jerufalem, the faithful
of the circumcifion faid to him, why have you gone
unto the uncircumcifed, and why did you eat with
them f but Peter having related to them all that paffed,
they were fatisfied, and glorified God who had given
the gift of repentance leading to life as well to the
Gentiles as to the Jews. It is thought, that a little
f- this Peter went to Antioch, where 1 e founded
the Chriftian church of which he was hiihop (Gal.
ii. 11.) It is believed that he continued here feven
years, though not conftantly : for during this time, he
went to Jerufalem, and to the provinces of Afia Mi-
nor, to Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Pontus, as is con¬
cluded from the epittle that he afterwards addreffed to
the faithful of thele provinces. From thence he went
to^ Rome, in the q2d year of the Chriftian era ; and
it i« thought that at hia leaving Antioch he there fix¬
ed St Ignatius in his place. Eufebius thinks, that the
chier occafion of his gc ing to Rome was to oppofe Si¬
mon Magus, who by his deceits had perverted a great
number of pertons. However, the prefence of St Pe¬
ter, and the true miracles that he oppofed to the trick*
F f 2 0t-
Peter.
PET [ 228 1 PET
Peter, of Simon, ruined, or much diminifhed, the reputation
“ v0f jmpoftor.
St Peter, leaving Rome, came to Jerufalem at the
pafTover, in the 44th year of the Chriftian era, when
Herod Agrippa began to perfecute the church. That
prince put Si James the Greater, brother of John, to
the fword (Aft* xii. 1, &c.) ; ‘nd perceiving t!iat his
death was agmable to the Jews, he moreover caufed
Peter to be appsthended and put in prifon, with a
defigti of executing him pul liciy after the paffover.
But the very night that Herod thought of putting him
to death, as Peter, loaded with chains, was afleep be¬
tween two folditrs, the angel of the Lord awakened
hi m, broke off his chains, opened the prifon door, and
brought him out the length of a ttreet. 'Then the
angel leaving him, he came to the hr ufe of Mary the
mother of John, where many of the faithful were af-
fembled at prayers; and having knocked at the door,
adamfel named Rhoda came to open it; but when fhe
heard PetePs voice, inltead ot opening the door, (he
ran in a tranfport of joy to acquaint the family that
Peter was at the door. T hofe that heard her could
not believe it, and faid, it was his angel, and not hinr-
felf: hut continuing to knock, and being let in, he
informed them of what had happened to him.
He then left Jerufalem; but we are not told what
became of him till the time of the council he'd at Je¬
rufalem in the year 51. It is thought that before this
time he made hi? feeond journey to Rome, from whence
he wrote his fiiib epitlle.
St Peter was obliged to leave Rome in the year 51
by order of the emperor Claudius, who had bandheJ
all Jews from thence, becaufeof the tumults they con¬
tinually railed there, excited by one Chreftua, as Sue¬
tonius fays, meaning probably by this name Jefus
Chrik. The ai oille then returned into Judea, where
was held the council of Jerufalun ; in which, after a
llrift examination of the matter propofed to Peter and
the apoftles, he fpoke to them with much wifdom,
faying (Adis xv. 7, 8, &c.), that God having given
his Holy Gholt and the gift of faith to the Gentiles
as well as to the Jew?, they ought not to impofe the
vokeof the legal obfervances on the newconverts,which
(as he fays) ne ther we nor our fathers have been able
to bear. But we believe, that it is through the grace
of Jefus Chrill that both we and they fh.di be faved.
St James the Lets, bifhop of Jerufalem, feconded this
opinion of St Peter ; and the council came to this con-
clufion, That no new obligation ihould be impofed on
the Gentiles, but only that they fhould be required to
abitain from fornication, from the ufe of Mood, and
from meats offered to idols. The refolution of this
council was written to the faithful of Antioch, becaufe
it was there this quedion was firid ftarted.
Some time after, St Peter coming to Antioch (Gal.
ii. 11, &c.), he eat and drank with the Gentiles, with¬
out regarding that diflindtion of meats enjoined by the
law. But arter that, when feme of the faithful of Je-
rufalem came to Antioch, being converted Jews, St
Peter, out of fear to offend them, feparated himftlf from
the converted Gentiles, and would no longer eat with
their, as brore. St Paul, fearing that what St Peter
did might be interpreted as if he had a defire to oh
lige the Gentiles to judaize, and to fubmit tkemfelve-.
to the yoke of the law, and fo to revoke and annul
what he himfelf had determined in the council of Je- Peter.
rufalem, he with flood Peter to his face, and openly^ v'—
expoliulated with him, telling him, he was much in
the wrong to endeavour to oblige the Gentiles, at
lead tacitly I y his own manner of acting, to live as
the Jews do ; and St Peter received this repreheniion
with filence and humility.
The particulars of St Peter’s life are little known
from the 51ft year of the vulgar era, in which the
council of Jerufalem was held, till his lad journey to
Rome, which was fome time before his death. Then
being acquainted by revelation that the time of his
death was not far off (2 Pet. i. 14.), he had a mind
to write to the faithful that had been converted by
him, to put them in mind of the truths he had before
taught them. He fait them therefore his fecund
epidie.
St Peter and St Paul came to Rome about the fame
time, in the year of Chrifl 65, where they performed
many miracles, an f made many converts. Simon Ma¬
gus by his tricks continued here to deceive the people,
pretending himfelf to be the Meffiah, and even at-,
tempting to afeend into heaven : for having caufed
himtelf to lie carried up into the air by his daemons,
in a fiery chariot, St Peter and St Paul betook them-
felvcs to their prayers; and then the impoflor, being
forfaken by his daemons, fell down upon the ground,
which fall fome time afterwards occalioned his death.
See Simon Magus.
Soon after this, St Peter was taken up and thrown
into prifon, where it is laid he continued for nine
months ; at laft he was crucified at Rome in the Via
Oftia; with his head downwards, as he himfelf had de-
fired of his executioners. This he did out of a fenfe
of humility, for fear it fhould be thought, as St Am-
■brofe fays, that he affedted the glory of Jefus Chrift,
and the more to augment the pain of his execution.
It is faid, that the body of St Peter was at firft bu¬
ried in the catacombs, two miles from Rome, from
whence it was afterwards tranfported to the Vatic m,
where it has la:n ever fince. His feflival is celebra\ed
with that of St Paul on the 29th of June. St Peter
died in the 66th year of the vulgar era, after having
been bifhop of Rome for about 24 or 25 years. His
age might be about 74 or 75 years. It is generally-
agreed, that St Linus was his fucceflbr. The follow¬
ing is the portraiture that Nicephorus gives us of St
Peter, which he has probably taken from the ancient
pictures that were preferved of this apoftle. He was
not fat, but pretty tali and upright, having a fair and
p.slifh countenance. The hair of his head and beard
was thick, frizzled, and not long. His eyes were
black, and blood-fhot ; his eye-brows protuberant and
lofty ; his nofe fomething long, and rather flat than=
fharp.
The two e pi files of St Peter are addrefled to thofe
jewifh converts who were fcattered throughout Pon-
tus, Galntia, &c. not only upon the perfecution raifed
at Jerufalem, but upon former difperfions of the Jews
into thofe places on feveral other occafions. The firft
epiftle is principally defigned to comfort and confirm
them under thofe fiery trials and manifold tempta¬
tions they were then fubjed to, and to dired and in-
ftrud them how to behave in the feveral fiates and re¬
lations both of the civil and the Chrittian life, that
5 they
PET
Peter.
JSlactwsll's
Sacrtei Claf-
Hct defended.
, niight not be engaged in thofe rebellions againfl
Casfar and his officers, then fomented among the
Jews ; and that they might flop the mouths of thofe
who fpeke againft them as evil doers. In the fecond
epiftle, he profecutes the fame fubjeft, to prevent
their apollacy from the faith, on account of any per-
fecutions tiiey were liable to. He likewife guards
them againft the corrupt principles of the gnoitice,
and thofe who fcoffed at the promife of Chriii’s com-
xng, as if it would never be verified.
St Peter’s ftyle, fays a modern author, exprefTes the
noble vehemence and fervour cf his fpint, the full
knowledge he had of Chriltianity, and the ftrong af.
furance he had of the truth and certainty of his doc-
tnne; and he writes with the authority of the firft
man in the college of the apollles. He writes with
that quicknefs and rapidity of ftyle, with that noble
neglecft of fome of the for mal confequenccs and nice¬
ties of grammar, ftill preferving its true rcafon, and
natural analogy (which are always marks of a fublirae
genius), that you can fcarce perceive the paufes of his
dikourfe and difiinAion of his periods. The great
f i2«J ]
PET
rents being opulent, gave him a learned education. In
his youth, when he ftudied in the univerfity of Paris,
he was exetffively fond of poetry; and when he was
a little further advanced in hie, he became no ids fond
oi rhetoric, to the ftudy of which he applied with the
greateft ardour. From Pans he removed tc Bouonia
- Jtaiy> to acquire the civil and canon law; m tire
knowledge of Loth which he very much excelled. He
appears from his writings to have cultivated me icine,
and feveral branches of the mathematics, with no htue
care and fuccefs. F}ie ftudy of theology was the chief
delight and bufinefs of ins life, in whicn he fpent the
gieateft part of his time, and made the greateft pro-
grefs. But unfortunately it was that fcholaitic theo-
logy, which confided in vain attempts to prove and
explain the many abfurd opinions which then prevailed
in the church, by the fubdeties of Arillotelian logic.
In attempting to explain in this manner tfie molt ab¬
furd of all opinions that ever exifttd amongft mankind,
he was the very firft perlon who employed the famous
word tranfuljlantiatiun, which was loon after adopted
by the church of Rome, and hath ever fince made fo
Tofeoh ScaliW mil* p., 7 /a n, . tuc cnurtn ot and hath ever fince made fo
“IHSr r" - r—
mmmwmSSi
cataftrophe of the vifible world, made Grotius think
this epiftle was wrote after the taking of Jerufalem ;
becaufe that was not to happen till after the deftruc-
tion of that city; upon which he conjedures, that
oimeon bifhop of jerufaltm is the author of this epiftle,
and that the infenption which carries St Peter’s name
is corrupted. But the belt critics admit this epiftle
to be the genuine work of St Peter, who difeovers
himfelf, where he fays, that he was prefent at our
Lord’s transfiguration; and where he tells the Jews,
this was the lecond letter he had written to them.
I he reader may fee this queftion hilly difcufted, and
dom in reproving him for his renaiffoefs in the govern¬
ment of the church. Our author remained in the fame
ftation in the family of archbifhop Baldwin, who fuc-
ceeded Richard, aAing both as his fecretary an i chan--
cellor. He was alfo fent by that prelate on an tm-
oafly to Rome in 1187, to plead his caufe before Pope
Lrban ill. in the famous contmverfy between him
and the monks of Canterbury about the church of
Hackington. _ After the departure of his friend and
patron Baldwin for the Holy Land in 119 , our au¬
thor was involved in various trouoles in his old age,
the caufes ot which are not diftinAly known; and
on the authority of the^Se ond"^^! 1" h'\L>friatwn fru°m hl& works* which may be juftly r’eckoned among
St Peter h “L LLpilUe °/ bt ^eter- the mott valuable monuments of the age in which he
fuch were, his AAs^Jr efai!th^ ot feveraI bt>oks; flounfhed, to have been a man of great integrity and
work about prelchmr /t P V ,Keve k‘3 «««« W. « well a. of a lively iu.enti.e genius and
Rectignitiotit. aferibedfo St Ckmenf td J34 letters wh,ch he collected together at the deiirc
France, from whence he derived his name. His pa. PetekJ.' juft^ftyled' cz™!^
atterw-ards"
'eter.
PET £ 230 ] PET
Peter, afterwards emperor, of Ruffia, founder of the Ruffian
empire ; for though the country was well known, and
of great antiquity, yet it had no extent of power, of
political influence, or of general commerce, in Europe,
till his time. He was born in 1672; and was pro¬
claimed czar when but ten years of age, in exclufion
of John his elder brother, who, being of a fickly con-
ftitution, was at the fame time very weak in his under-
ftanding. The princefs Sophia, his half lifter, made
an infurre&ion in favour of John ; and to put an end
to the civil war, it was at laft agreed that the two
brothers Ihould jointly ftiare the imperial dignity.
Peter had been very ill brought up, not only through
the general defedts of the Ruffian education, but like-
wife through the arts of the princefs Sophia, who fur-
rounded him with every thing that might ftifle his na¬
tural defire of knowledge, deprave his mind, and ener¬
vate it with pleafures, Notwithftanding this, his in¬
clination for military exercifes difcovered itfelf in his
tendereft years. He formed a company of 50 men,
commanded by foreign officers, clothed and exercifed
after the German manner. He entered himfelf into
the loweft poft, that of a drummer ; and never rofe
otherwife than as a foldier of fortune. Herein his de-
fign was to teach his nobility, that merit, not birth,
was the only title to military employments. He re¬
inforced his company with feveral others, till at laft he
had got together a confiderable body of foldiers. As
he then had no war on his hands, he exercifed them
in all forts of mock-engagements, and by this means
fecured to himfelf a body of well-difciplined troops.
The fight of a Dutch veffel, which he had met with
on a lake belonging to one of his pleafure-houfes,
made fuch an impreffion on his mind, that he concei¬
ved the almoft imprafticable defign of forming a navy.
His firft care was to get fome Hollanders to build fome
iinall vefiels at Mofeow ; and he paffed two fucceffive
iummers on board Englifli or Dutch fhips, which fet
out from Archangel, that he might inftruft himfelf in
every branch of naval affairs (a). In 1696 czar John
died, and Peter was now foie mafter of the empire.
In 1698 he lent an embafly to Holland; and went
incognito in the retinue, and vifited England as well as
Holland, in order to inform himfelf fully in the art of
fhip-building. At Arufterdam he worked in the yard
as a private fhip-carpenter, under the name of Peter
Michaelof} but he has been often heard to fay, that if Petef.
he had never gone to England, he had ftill remained
ignorant of that art. In 1700 he had got together
a body of ftanding forces, confifting of 30,000 foot;
and now the vaft projedt he had formed difplayed it¬
felf in all its parts. He opened his dominions, which
till then had been fhut up, having firft fent the chief
nobility of his empire into foreign countries to improve
themfelves in knowledge and learning. He invited
into Ruffia all the foreigners he could meet with, who
were capable of inftructing his fubjedts in any manner,
and offered them great encouragement to fettle in his
dominions. This raifed many difcontents ; and the
defpotic authority he exerted on that occafion was
fcarcely powerful enough to fupprefs them. Jn 1700*
being ftrengthened by the alliance of Auguftus king
of Poland, he made war on Charles XII. king of Swe¬
den. His firft ill fuccefs did not deter him; for he
ufed to fay, I know that my armies muft be overcome
for a great while; but even this will at laft teach them
to conquer. He afterwardr gained confiderable ad¬
vantages; and founded Peterfburg in 1703. In 1709
he gained a complete vidtory over the Swedes at Pul-
towa. In 1712 he was inclofed by the Turks on the
banks of the Pruth; and feemed inevitably loft, had
not the czarina Catherine bribed the grand vifir, and
the czar’s prudence completed his deliverance. In
1716 he made a tour through Germany and Holland,
and vifited the royal academy of faiences at Paris. It
would be endlefs to enumerate all the various eftablifh-
ments for which the Ruffians are obliged to him. He
formed an army according to the manner of the poli-
teft and moft experienced nations : he fitted out fleets
in all the four feas which border upon Ruffia: he
caufed many ftrong fortreffes to be raifed after the heft
plans ; and made convenient harbours : he introduced
arts and faiences into his dominions, and freed religion
from many fuperftitious abufes: he made laws, built
cities, cut canals, &c.; was generous in rewarding,
impartial in punifliing; faithful, laborious, and humble;
yet was not free from a certain roughnefs of temper
natural to his nation. He had indeed cured himfelf
of excefs in drinking ; but he has been branded with
feveral other vices, particularly cruelty. He publifhed
the unfortunate hiftory of his fon prince Alexis (b) ;
towards whom fome blame his feverity, while others
think
(a) The following circumftance, it is faid, in fome meafure determined Peter to attempt thofe reformations
which he afterwards accomplifhed. Great events have been fometimes the effeift ol little caufes; and it is at leaft
poffible, that without the occurrence we are going to relate, Rufiia might ftill have been in a ftate of barbarifm.
A young Genevefe, called Le Fort, about i695> Mofeow with tne Danifh ambaflador. I he czar Peter,
who was then 19 years old, fell in company with this Gentvefe, who had f®on learnt the Ruffian tongue, and
fpoke aimoft all the tongues of Europe. Le Fort ingratiated himfelf with the prince, entered into his fervice,
and foon afterwards into his familiarity. He made him comprehend that there was a different manner of living
and reigning from what had unhappily obtained throughout his vaft and miferable empire. A prince
be born with an uncommon greatnefs of foul to liften readily to a ftranger, and to be able to diyeit bimfelf of
the prejudices of a throne and of his country. The czar was fenfrble that neither himfelf nor his people were
yet to be reckoned among men ; and that he had an empire to form, but could have no affiftance at home.
From that time he took a refolution to leave his dominions; and fet out, like another Prometheus, to borrow
celeftial fire for animating his countrymen. _ . ,
(b) Alexis, like his father, is faid to have married a flave, and, like him, quitted Mofcovy fecretly, but
had not the fame fuccefs in his undertakings; and the being but a bad imitator of his father, coft him his re.
He became an example of the moft terrible feverity that ever was given from the tribunal of.the throne: but, what
?et«r.
• PET [
think it no more than was necefiaiy. He perfeftly
u knew the honour due to perfons of merit j and not
only heaped honours upon them during their life, but
gave them marks of efteem even after their death. He
died of the ftrangury in 1725, and left the world
with the magnanimity of a hero and the piety of a
Chriftian.
Peter was tall of ftature,'and of a bold and majeftic
afpeft, though fometimes disfigured by convulfions,
which altered his features. This deformity was afcri-
bed to poifon, given him, as it is faid, by his filler
Sophia ; but it was, indeed no other than wine and
brandy, which he often drank to excefs, relying too'
much on the Arength of his conftitution. He con-
verfed with perfons in all ftations, from the mechanic
to the general of an army ; and his converfation was
neither like that of a barbarian who makes no diftinc-
t,0P between men, nor of a popular prince who
feeks to pleafe all the world, but that of a perfon
who aims at inftrudion. He loved women as much
as the king of Sweden, his rival, dreaded them, and
23i 1 PET
all were equally agreeable to him as well in bet! as at
card; he valued himfelf on drinking large draughts,'
rather than lipping delicious wines. We are told that
kings and legillators Ihould never fuffer themfelves to
be tranfported by paffion ; but never was any man
more paffionate than Peter the Great, nor more mer-
cileis. In a king this is more than an infirmity for
which we make amends by confeffing it 5 but it was
generally remarked of Peter, and he himfelf faid to
a magiftrate of Holland, at his fecond voyage, “ I
have reformed my nation, and have not been able to
reform myfelf.” It is true, the cruelties with which
he is leproached were not novelties at the court of
Mofcow, any more than at that of Morocco: it was
not uncommon to fee a czar, with his own royal hand
infha 100 la flies of a bull’s pizzle on the naked fhoul-
ders of a prime officer of the crown, or of a lady
of the palace, for fading in their duty, by getting
drunk ; or to try the goodnefs of his fabre, by Itri-
king off the head of a criminal. Peter had himfelf
periormed fome of thofe ceremonies of hie country ;
Le
Petor.
born of another woman, andV^Hotfaffi3^ of t*13t Prince> who was
acting the cruel ftepmother The oreat primp nf f > ' ^3t^eyine was not m the leaft fufpefted of
and his difapproving every thing that was grand and IT" ^IeX1S.w"sJh‘8 b«ng too much a Ruffian,
the nation. One dav h Jin^ fome r g^nd,and In?mortLa1’ .and Pl'°J^ed by his father for the glory of
in the building of P^te.fburg^he fa hi ^°tX h'mCnt,n^. tne ^Supportable fatigues they were to Liergo
to attend his "ther in a jXnX of t o’or 7oo leaguX whi h thl ^ T }<>»?’c ^ he ^
took violent purges for a diitemper which he fnr ’ ^ r ? tzai.°/tcn .nir‘de, he feigned ficknefs. He
ing of brandy, Lpaired his Sh and h^ wits At firA b bT"11-168, °f medit'IneS’ with excefI drink!
with geometry and hillory, and had learnt the German ton H X fb ln,ol,nat,oa to Iearnmg, was acquainted
for which he was molt reproached by hi!Va^hePfr'rh!v h-lifm!^ War’ and WOuId ntver learn i
fenbuttle, fitter of the emprefs conforit to Charles VI Thifm d ^ ,n, 1?I1 t0 the Princefs of Wol-
abandoned for a debauch in brandy, and for Afrofina a Finland ^ Un/°rtdnate ’ the P^ncefs was often
very agreeable. It is reported tha^ the prfncets dtd bf lar^e Lftature’ well made, and
and that afterwards the czarewitz fecretlv efpoufed AfrofiL in ^ f l0r chagnn t0 Prove mortal;
brought him a brother, a, which he had ™ to £ u^rJ” '7'3‘ ^ ,hc Catherine had juft
rathei; 1at, ,e"gth ^
to go into a monaftery. ’ and ttle Pnnce told him that he intended
w.tzs —- ■**
vour, now was the time to declare himfelf- but initead nf * ■ ^ h ^ a^Um y had ? P'Uty formcd in his fa-
creating dependents, he took a journey in his turn havin/with'mf 1£akinff popular, and
lanos of ducats which he had fee re dy borrowed H^tb h v rirdlffif ty, fcraped t0grether fome thou-
Charles VI. brother of his deceafed wife They k^t Mm fo T f f Undei' the pr°tCaion °f the emper^
paifed to Naples, where he refided almoft a year/ while neither hThthcr ^ WhenCe he
place of his retreat. * ’ eitfter 1113 lather «or any perfon in Ruffia knew the
fp=a t'tKS™ b“SCeak1; t falh'[ «-« « where he war received with all the re.
a manufactory, and one p“« be fo“"d 1>“> '» F™ee. If he wen, to v,"t
day. He went to dine at the Duke d’AntiVc nf p °ie 1 f" andther» he was prefented with it the next
at full length, in the fame habit thathZ wore WlXh!^’ wherVhe firf! thinff.he faw was his own piaure
kinds before him, and prefented him with th . , a ! W*8 a lhe royal mmt of medals, they ftruck all
feet, and left hiii to ul Hr he e fX hLfi f "f lr,UCk W,ifch they let d-p - porpofe at hi
The reverfewa, a Fame, and ^unrLr ffi It Jrs ^ PC " 7 ^ ^ WOrd8> ^<he Great.
t0Afternhe had r3117 a-CqUired nCW merit by travelling. ° ' ^ lull°n n° lefs'j'ift than fluttering
to his own, and refumed Ma^everity11"'!^^1^ T™ t0 gentle"ef;5 and indulgence, he returned
whence that young prince was condufted to Mnf g gt "f to r^u™ troTn to Pcterffiurg, from
him of his fucceffion to the throne, by making him fiLTi-I'fT" ‘C dzafr lus ^ther ; who began with depriving
“ confide«tio» of which aa the father p^iftd & at the *ad of^uary i7,4
Br
PET [ 2^ ] PET
Peter, J,e Fort, however (fee note a), had authority enough
—sr-"* over him at times to day his hand even when lifted up
to ftrike, but he had not Le Fort always near him.
The Czar’s tuft marriage is thus related in the me¬
moirs of Peter Heruy Bruce, Efq. “ It took place in 1690,
when he was only 18. He was married to Ottokefla JLa-
puchin, a boyar’s daughter, by whom he had prince A-
lexis; fome time after he turned her away, and (hut her
up in a monailery, on fufpicion of difloyalty to his bed.
It was faid, that in one of her jealous fits fite charged
prince Menzikoft’ with carrying the czar to drabs of
his former acquaintance, who had been his cuftomers
for cakes ; upbraiding him with his firft occupation :
and that Menzikoff ever after bore an irreconcilea >le
enmity to both her and her fon. After the divorce,
one Mifs Mens, a very beautiful young lady, born at
Mofcow, of foreign parents, was much in favour with
the czar; but when he was abroad, Mr Keyferling,
then refiding at Mofcow as envoy from the king of
Pruffia, paid his addreffes to, and married her. When
the czar returned, he was fo much offended at Key-
ferling, that he ordered him to leave Mofcow, which
occafioned his immediate recal by the king his mafter,
■who fent another in his room. It was believed, if
his public chara&er had not protefted him, he would
have fevertly felt his majefly’s difpieafurc.
“ The czar was fome time after fantten with the
chasms of another beautiful young lady, the daughter
of a foreign merchant in this city : he firft faw her in
her father’s houfe, where he dined one day. He was
fo much taken with her appearance, that he offered Peter.
her any terms ftie pleafed, if fhe would live with him; v—'
which this virtuous young woman modeftlf reftifed :
but dreading the effefts of his authority, fhe put on
a refolution, and left Mofcow in the night, without
communicating her defign even to her parents. Having
provided a little money for her fupport, fhe travelled
on foot feveral miles into the country, till fhe arrived
at a fmdl village where her nuri’e lived with her huf»
band and their daughter, the young lady’s fofter-filler,
to whom fhe difeovered her intention of concealing
herfelf in the wood near that village : and to prevent
any difeovery, (he fet out the fame night, accompa¬
nied by the hufband and daughter. The hufband be¬
ing a timber-man by trade, and well acquainted with
the wood, conduced her to a little dry fpot in the
middle of a morafs, and there he built a hut for her
habitation. She had depolited her money with her
nurfe to procure little neceffaries for her fupport, which
were faithfully conveyed to her at night by the nurfe
or her daughter, by one of whom fhe was conftantly
attended in the night time.
“‘The next day after her flight, the czar called at
her father’s to fee her, and finding the parents in an¬
xious concern for their daughter, and himlelt difap-
pointed, fancied it a plan of their own concerting.
He became angry, and began to threaten them with
the effe&s of his difpleafure if fhe was not produced ;
nothing was left to the parents but the moil folemu
proteftations, with tears of real forrowt running down
their
It was not altogether improbable that fuch an a& would have been fome time or other annulled. The czar,
therefore, in order to give it more force, forgetting that he was a father, and only remembering that he was
the founder of an empire, which his fon might overturn, and involve in its ancient barbarity, ordered a public
procefs to be drawn up againft that unfortunate prince, for fome concealment, with which he was charged, in
the confefiion that they had exadfed of him.
An aflembly was held of the bifhops, inferior ecclefiaftics, and profeflbrs ; who found in the Old Teftament,
that thofe who curfe their father or their mother fhould be put to death ; that David indeed had pardoned
Abfalom, who had rebelled againft him, but that Abfalom was never pardoned by God. Such was their opi¬
nion, without drawing any conclufion ; but it was in effedb figning a warrant for his death. Alexis had not in
fadf curfed his father, neither had he ever revolted like Abfalom ; he had never lain publicly with the king’s
concubines, but he had left the kingdom without his father’s permiffion, and had written letters to his
friends, in which he only fignified that he hoped they would one day be mindful of him in Ruffin. But what¬
ever might be his cafe, of 124 lay judges, who were appointed to fit on him, there was not one that judged
his offences lefs than capital; and thofe w'ho could not write, made others fign for them. It is reported in
Europe, that the czar had got tranflated from Spanifh into Ruffian the criminal procefs againft Don Carlos,
that unfortunate prince whom his father Philip II. had confined in a prifon, where the heir of that great
monarchy ended his days. But there was nothing like a procefs carried on againft Don Carlos, nor was it
ever known whether that prince died a natural or a violent death. Peter, the moft defpotic of princes, wanted
not an example. Certain it is that the prince died the day alter the fentence, an 1 that the czar had at Mof¬
cow one of the heft apothecary’s (hops in Europe. It is probable, however, that the prince Alexis, the heir
of the moft extenfive empire in the world, being condemned unaniraoufly by his father’s fubjedfs, which were
one day to be his own, might die of the hidden thock and change given to the body at the apprehenfion of fo
with the broken limbs of his ion’s friends. He beheaded his own brother-in-law Uount L.apm
to his wife Ottokeffa Lapuchin whom he had divorced, and uncle to prince Alexis. The prince’s cenfeffor
had alfo his head cut off. If Mofcovy has been civilized, ihe has, it muft be confeffed, paid dear for her
I)°The remainder of the czar’s life was nothing but a feries of grand projefts, la’ ours, and exploits, that
. feemed to efface the memory of his exceffive feventies. which were perhaps neceffary. He made frequent
fpeeches to his court and to his council. In one he told them that he had facrificed his fon to the welfare of
his dominions.
p E T [2
Peter. their cheeks, to convince him of their innocence, and
—'V"ignorance of what wab become of her ; afiuring him
of their fears that fome fatal difafter muft have befal¬
len her, as nothing belonging to her was miffing, ex¬
cept what fhe had on at the time. The czar, fatis-
tied of their fincerity, ordered great fearch to be made
for her, with the offer of a ccnfiderable reward to the
perfon who ffiould difcover what was become of her,
but to no purpofe : the parents and relations, appre¬
hending (he was no more, went into mourning for
her.
“ Above a year after this fhe was difeovered by
an accident. A colonel who had come from the army
to fee his friends, going a hunting into that wood,
and following his game through the morafs, he came
to the hut, and looking into it faw a pretty young
woman in a mean drefs. After inquiring of her who
fhe was, and how fhe came to live in fo folitary a
place, he found cut at laft that fhe was the lady
whofe difappearvtnce had made fo great a noife : in
the utmolb confufion, and with the moft fervent in¬
treaties, (he prayed him on her knees that he would
trot betray her; to which he replied, that he thought
her danger was now pall, as the czar was then other-
wife engaged, and that fire might with fafety difcover
herfelf, at leaft: to her parents, with whom he would
confult how matters fhould be managed. The lady
agreed to this propofal; and he fet out immediately,
and overjoyed her parents with the happy difeovery :
the iffue of their deliberations was to coniult Madame
Catherine (as fhe was then called) in whatman.ner the
affair fhould be opened to the czar. The colonel went
alfo upon this bufinefs, and was advifed by Madame
to come next morning and fhe would introduce him
to his majefty, when he might make the difeovery
and claim the promifed reward. He went according
to appointment; and being introduced, told the ac¬
cident by which he had difeovered the lady, and re-
prefented the miferahle fituation in which he found
her, and what fhe muff have fuffered by being fo long
fhut up in fuch a difmal place, from the delicacy of her
iex. The czar fhovved a great deal of concern that he
fhould have been the caufe of all her fufferings, decla¬
ring that he would endeavour to make her amends.
Here Madame Catherine fuggefted, that fhe thought
<he beft amends bus majefty could make, was to give
her a handfome fortune and the colonel for a hufband,
who had the beft right, having caught her in purfuit
©f his game. The czar, agreeing perfectly with Ma¬
dame Catherine’s fentiments, ordered one of his fa¬
vourites to go with the colonel, and bring the young
lady home ; where fhe arrived to the inexprefiible joy
of her family and relations, who had all been in
'mourning for her. The marriage was under the di¬
rection and at the expence of the czar, who himfelf
gave the bride to the bridegroom ; faying, that he
prefented him with one of the moff virtuous of wo*
men ; and accompanied his declaration with very va¬
luable prefents, befides fettling on her and her heirs
three thoufand rubles a year. This lady lived highly
efteemed by the czar, and every one who knew her.
Befides the concurring reports of other people, I had
the ftoryfrom her own mouth.”
On the whole, that Peter I. was a great man, few
Vol. XlV. Part I. •
.13. I . PET
will dehy who know what teal greatnefs is. A rtt:- Petrn
nute account of the life of this diftinguifhed emperor
would make a lar^e volume ; we have been able to give
but the mere outlines of it: the anecdotes, however,
at the end, fhow in fome degree the nature of the
man } at all events they fhow one important truth,
that it is a more difficult thing to reform one’!' f'elf
than to reform a kingdom ; to conquer one’s paffions,
than to conquer the world. The Ruffi ns, however,
if there is any good in civilization, owe to him everv
thing i and they feem to t e fenfible of it; for a very
jompous oration was delivered to his memory by-
Michael LomonofToff, before the Academy of Sciences
at St Peterfburgh, on the 26th of April 1755. For
a minuter account of his improvements, &c. fee Rus¬
sia, Petersburg, and Catherine I.
Peter the Wild Bey. This extraordinary creature'
occafioned great [peculation among the learned; but we
do not know that any fatisfadory caufes have been af-
frgned for the linking difference betwixt him and ether
human beings.
The following account of him is excrafted from the
parilh-regiller of North-church, in the county of Hert¬
ford. “ Peter, commonly known by the name of P,*-
ter the Wild Boyt lies buried in this churchyard, oppo-
fiteto the porch. In the year 172$ he was found in
the woods near Hamelen* a fortified town in the elec¬
torate of Hanover, when his Majefty George I. with
his attendants, was hunting in the foreft of Hertfwold.
He was fuppofed to be then about 1 2 years of age,
and had fublifted in thofe woods upon the bark of trees,
leaves, berries, &c. for fome confiderable length ©f time.
How long he had continued in that wild Hate is alto¬
gether uncertain ; but that he had formerly been un¬
der the care of fome perfon, was evident from the re¬
mains of a flrirt collar about his neck at the time when
he tfras found. As Hamden was a town where crimi¬
nals were confined to work upon the fortifications, it
w as then conjedlured at Hanover that Peter might be
the iffue of one of thofe criminals, who had either
wandered into the woods and could not find his way
back again, or being difeovered to be an idiot was in¬
humanly turned out by his parents, and left to perifh
or fhiit for himfdf. In the following year, 1726, he
was brought over to England by the order of Queen
Caroline then princefs of Wales, and put under the care
of Dr Arbuthnot with proper mailers to attend him.
But notwithflanding there appeared to be no natural
deleft in his organs of fpeech, after all the pains that
had been taken with him he could never be brought
diftinftly to articulate a fingle fyllable, and proved to¬
tally in apable of receiving any inftruftion. He was
afterwards intruded to the care of Mrs Titchbourn,
one of the queen’s bed-chamber w^omen, with a hand¬
fome pe-nfion annexed to the charge. Mrs Titchbourn
ufually [pending a few' w-eeks every fummer at the
houfe of Mr James Fenn, a yeoman farmer at Axtcr’s
End in this parifh, Peter was left to the care of the
Fid Mr Fenn, who was allowed 35 1. a-year for his
fupport and maintenance. After the death of James
Fenn he w'as transferred to the care of hia brother
Thomas Fenn, at another farm houfe in this parifh
called Broadway, where he lived with the feveral fuc-
ctffive tenants of that farm, and with the fame provi-
G g mob
PET
Peter, {ion allowed by government to the time of his death,
* V  Feb. 22. 1785, when he was fuppofed to be about 72
years of age.
“ Peter was well made, and of the middle fize. His
countenance had not the appearance of an idiot, nor
was there any thing particular in his form, except that
two of the fingers of his left hand were united by a
web up to the middle joint. He had a natural ear for
Wiufic, and was fo delighted with it, that if he heard
any. mufical inftrument played upon, he would imme¬
diately dance and caper about till he was alrnoft quite
exhaulted with fatigue: and though he could never be
taught the diftindt utterance of any word, yet he could
eafily learn to hum a tune. All thofe idle tales which
have been publifhed to the world about his climbing up
trees like a fquirrel, running upon all fours like a wild
beaft, &c. are entirely without foundation; for he was
fo exceedingly timid and gentle in his nature, that he
would fuffer himfelf to be governed by a child. There
have been alfo many falie itories propagated of his in¬
continence ; bat, from the minuteft inquiries among
thofe who conftantiy lived with him, it does not ap¬
pear that he ever difcovered any natural paffion for
women, though he was fubjedf to the other paffions of
human nature, fuch as anger, joy, &c. Upon the ap¬
proach of bad weather he always appeared fuilen and
uneafy. At particular feafons of the year he fliowed
a ftrange fondnefs for Healing away into the woods,
where he would feed eagerly upon leaves, beech-maft,
acorns, and the green bark of trees, which proves evi¬
dently that he had fubfifted in that manner for a con-
fukrable length of time before he was firft taken. His
keeper therefore at fuch feafons generally kept a ftrict
eye over him, and fometimes even confined him, be-
caufe if he ever rambled to any diftance from his home
he could not find his way back again : and once in
particular, having gone beyond his knowledge, he wan¬
dered as far as Norfolk, where he was taken up, and
being carried before a magiftrate, was committed to
the houfe of corre&ion in Norwich, and punilhed as h
fturdy and obftinate vagrant, who would not (for in¬
deed he could not) give any account of himfelf: but
Mr Fenn having advertifed him in the public papers,
he was releafed from his confinement, and brought
back to his ufual place of abode.
“ Notwithftanding the extraordinary and favage
Hate in which Peter was firft found greatly excited the
attention and curiofity of the public; yet, after all that
has been faid of him, he was certainly nothing more
than a common idiot without the appearance of one.
Bnt as men of fome eminence in the literary world
have in their works publiftied ftrange opinions and ill-
founded eonje&ures about him, which may feem to
itamp a credit upon what they have advanced ; that
oofterity may not through their authority be hereafter
mified upon the fubjeft, this ftiort and true account of
Peter is ^recorded ia the parilh-regifter by one who
PET
conftantiy refided above 30 years in his neighbour- Peter,
hood, and had daily opportunities of feeing and obfer-''’“■“v—
ving him.”
Perhaps it may not be difagreeable to our readers if
we prefent them with Lord Monboddo’s account of
this extraordinary creature (a). “ It was in the be¬
ginning of June 1782 (fays his Lordlhip) that I faw
him in a farm-houfe called Broadway, within a!>out a
mile of Berkhamfted, kept there upon a penfion which
the king pays. He is but low of ftature, not exceed¬
ing five feet three inches ; and although he muft now
be about 70 years of age, has a frelh healthy look.
He wears his beard ; his face is not at all ugly or dif¬
agreeable ; and he has a look that may be called fen-
fible and fagacious for a favage. About 20 years ago
he was in ufe to elope, and to be miffing for feveral
days; and once, I was told, he wandered as far as Nor¬
folk ; but of late he has been quite tame, and either
keeps in the houfe or faunters about the farm. Fie
has been the 13 laft years where he lives at prefent;
and before that he was 1 2 years with another farmer,
whom I faw and converfed with. This farmer told
me, that he had been put to fchool fomewhere in
Hertfordfhire, but had only learned to articulate his
own name Peter, and the name of King George, both
which I heard him pronounce very diftindlly. But
the woman of the houfe where he now is (for the man
happened not to be at home) told me, that he under-
ftood every thing that was faid to him concerning the
common affairs of life ; and I faw that he readily un-
derftood feveral things that file faid to him while I
was prefent. Among other things, fire defired him to
fing Nancy Davvfon ; which he did, and another tune
which (he named. He never was mifehievous, but had
always that gentlenefs of nature which I hold to be
charafteriftical of our nature, at leaft till we became
carnivorous, and hunters or warriors. He feeds at
prefent as the farmer and his wife do ; but, as I was
told by an old woman (one Mrs Collop, living at a vil¬
lage in the neighbourhood called Hempftead, who re¬
membered to have feen him when he firft came to
Hertfordfliire, which (he computed to be 55 years be¬
fore the time I faw her), he then fed very much upon
leaves, and particularly upon the leaves of cabbage,
which he eat raw. He was then, as (lie thought,
about 15 years of age, walked upright, but could
climb trees like a fquirrel. At prefent he not only-
eats flefti, but has alfo got the tatte of beer, and even
of fpirlts, of which he inclines to drink more than he
can get. And the old farmer above-mentioned, with
whom he lived 12 years before he came to this laft
farmer, told me, that he had acquired that tafte before
he came to him, which is about 2 5 years ago. He
has alfo become very fond of fire, but has not yet ac¬
quired a liking for money ; for though he takes it, he
does not keep it, but gives it to his landlord or land¬
lady, which 1 fuppofe is a lefibn that they have taught
him.
I 234 ]
(a) This eccentric writer, in fupport of his hypothefis, that man in a ftate of nature is a mere animal, witly-
®ut clothes, houfes, the ufe of fire, or even fpeech, adduces the oran-outang, or man in the woods, and this
Peter the wild man and others, as examples. He denies the want of the organs of fpeech as an obje&ion, asd
infsft? tfiey only want the artificial ufe of them,.
PET [ 2
hm. -He retains fc ratich of his natural iaftinS, that
he has a fore-feeling of bad weather, growlino- and
howling, and fhowing great diforder, before it comes.
“ Thefe are the particolars concerning him which I
*>bferved myfelf, or could learn by information from
the neighbourhood.” From all thefe fa&s put toge¬
ther his lovdfhip makes the following obfervations
Whatever doubts there may be concerning
the humanity of the oran-oiitang, it was never made a
^jueftion but that Peter was a man.
2dly, 1 hat he was, as the Dean [[Swift'] fays, of
a father and mother like one of us. This, as I have
faid, was the cafe of two favages found in the difmal
fwamps in Virginia, of the one found in the ijfland of
Diego Garcia, and of him that was difcovered by M.
te Roy in the Pyrenees, and in general of all the fa-
vages that have been found in Europe within thefe laft
300 years ; for I do not believe, that for thefe 2000
years pail there has been a race of fuch favatree in Eu¬
rope. h
“ 3dIy> I think there can be no reafon to doubt ef
^hat was written from Hanover, and publifhed in the
teevvipapers, that he was found going upon all four, as
wed as other folitary favages that have been found in
Europe. It is true that others have been found erea-
J/hich was the cafe of the two found in the difmal
Jwamp of Virginia, likewife of the man of the Pyre¬
nees. and of him in the iflan 1 of Diego Garcia : but
thefe I fuppofe were not expofed till they had learned
to walk upright ; whereas Peter appears to have been
abandoned by his parents before he had learned that
ielior-i, but walked as we know children do at Irfl.
“ 4thly, I think it is evident that he is not an idi-
«t, not only from his appearance, as I have deferibed
it, and from his a&ions, but from all the accounts that
we have of him, both thofe printed and thofe attefted
by perfons yet living for as to the printed accounts,
there is not the Jeaft information of that kind in any
. except in one, viz. Wye’s letter, n° 8. where¬
in is faid, that fome imputed his not learning to fpeak
to want of nnderftanding ; which I fhould think lho«v-
cu rather want of underllanding in thofe who thought
to, when it is confidered that at this time he had not
been a year out of the woods, and I fuppofe but a
month or two under the care of Dr Arbuthnot, who
bad taken the charge of his education. The Dean
indeed tells us, that he fufpe&ed he was a pretender
and no genuine wild man, but not a word of his be-
sng an idiot. And as to the perfons living, not one
^ rWr • ™ 1 have COI]verfed appeared to have the
ieait iufpicion of that kind ; though it is natural that
men who were not philofophers, and knew nothing of
!u Pi°g,ref* °f man fi'om the mete animal to the in-
Uj. cr^aturc’ nor of the improvement of our un-
wur fociaI interc°urfe and the arts of life,
t believed that man when he came to a certain age
has from nature all the faculties which we fee him ex¬
ert, and particularly the faculty of fpeech, fhould
.35 1. _ PET
think him an idiot, and wanting even the capacity o£
acquiring underflanding. 1 knew an officer of dra¬
goons, a man of very good fenfe, who was quartered
where Peter then lived for fome months, and faw him
almoft every day, and who allured me that he was not
an idiot, but fhowed common underftanding, which
was all that could be expe&ed from one no better edu¬
cated than he.
■L,addy> ihofe <vho have confidered what I have
faid(B) of the difficulty of articulation, will not be
lurpnfed that a man who had lived a favage for the firft
x4 or 15 years of his life, fhould have made fo little
progrefs in that art. I cannot, however, have the
lead doubt, that if he had been under the care of Mr
Bra id wood of Edinburgh, he would have learned to
ipeafc, though with much more diffic ulty than a man
who lund been brought up tame among people who
had the ufe of fpeech, and who confequently mud
know the advantage of it. And I can have as little
doubt that Mr Braidwood could have taught the oran-
outang in Sir Afhton Lever’s eolle&ion, who learned
to articulate a few words, fo as to fpeak plainly e-
nough.” r 7
Si Petrs Le Port, a market-town of England, in
the fouth-eafl part of Guernfey, in Hampfhire, in the
Bntiffi channel, confifling of only one long and nar-
row flreet. The mouth of the harbour is well fet
with rocks, and is on each fide defended by a caflle
one caked the old caflle, and the other cafth-corncl
1 he governor of the ifland generally refides here, who
has the command of the gamfon in this and all the
other caftles. I he harbour has a good road, from
whence fhips may fail with any wind, and from the
road pafs under the guns of the cartle to the pier, elefe
Up to the town. _ The pier is a noble work, formed
o ,va. “OI]es» joined together with great art and re-
gulanty ; it is not only a fecurity to the fhips, bnu
being contiguous to the town, is hnndfomely paved at
the top with large fmooth flag-ftone, guarded with
parapets, and, being of a great length and breadth
forms a pleafant walk, affording a free profpeft of the
lea and the neighbouring ifiands. Cornet-cafUe, which
commands beth the town and the harbour, ffands on a
rock, feparated from the land by an arm of the fea,
no lefs than 600 yards wide, and not fordable but at
low water in great fpring-tides.
* Peter's IJland, in the lake of Bienne in Swit¬
zerland, remarkable for being one of the retreats of
Rouffeau ; whence it has alfo got the name of Pouf-
Jeau S IJland. It lies towards the fouth fide of the lake
and produces a great variety of fhrubs and trees, pari
ticularly large oaks, beech, and Spanifh chefnut. The
southern fhore flopes gradually to the lake, and is co¬
vered with herbage ; the remaining borders are fteep
and rocky ; their fummita in a few places thinly co¬
vered with fhrubs; in others their perpendicular fides
are clothed to the water’s edge with hanging woods,
ihe views from the different parts of the ifland are
G g 3 beau-
Tetef.
by any teaching or imit’ationf attaffi1 ta the^r ^ ^ aJtlCulat,0n "a‘ural to ,man» rather wonders how he can
Add to this, when-the organs are corml fi r7 P"formance of fuch various and complicated operations
Another. g 8 3rC COtt^Y formed to one language, how hard it is to make them anfwe*
PET [ 236 ] PET
beautiful and diverfified ; that to the north being the
moft extenfive and pleafing. It commands the pro-
fpe£l of the lake, which is of an oval form ; its culti¬
vated holders, interfperfed with villages and caftles,
with the towns of Ni lau and Bienne (landing upon
the farther extremity. Agreeable walks are carried
through the woov's, and terminate in a circular pavi-
lion placed in the centre of the ifl nd. Before the
troubles in France, on Sunday, and particularly the
vintage-time, tins if!and was tilled with parties who
amufed thcrnfelves uith wandering about the woods or
dancing in the circular pavilion. How they employ
themfelves now it is not fo eafy to fay, as it was over¬
run and fubje&ed by the forces of that unhappy na¬
tion, and ot courfe tainted with their dedrudlive prin¬
ciples. It was retaken by the Spaniards, and proper¬
ly belongs to the king of Sardinia. There ir, only one
farm-houfe on the ifland, in an apartment of which
RoufTeau was lodged.
Petkr-Pence, was an annual tribute of one penny,
paid at Rome out of every family at the feafl of St
Pe*:er. And this Ina the Saxon king, when he went
in pilgrimage to Rome about the year 740, gave to
the pope partly as alms and partly in recompence of a
houie ere died in Rome for Englirti pilgrims. And
this continued to be paid generally until the tune of
King Henry VIII. when it was enabled, that from
henceforth no perfon (hall pay any penfions, Peter-
pence, or other impofitions, to the ufe of the bifhop or
fee of Rome.
PETERBOROUGH, a city of Northamptonfhire,
about 82 miles from London. It is the leall city ex¬
cept perhaps Ely, and urqueftionably the poorelt bi-
fhopric, though one of the oldeil towns in England.
It had a monaftery dedicated to St Peter, and founded
as early as the year 655, to which the abbot of Croy-
land and his monks flying for protedlion in the year
870, they were overtaken and murdered in a court of
this monaftery called the monks churchyard, becaufe
they were all buried here ; and to this day is to be
feen the tombftone with their effigies, which had been
erebled over their common grave. Soon after this the
Danes deftroyed both the monaftery and friars, fo that
it lay deftitute for above too years. The monks were,
however, reftored, and lived very fumptuoufly, with a
mitred abbot at their head, till the reformation, when
Henry VIII. converted it into a bi{hop’s fee. The
cathedral, which is faid to be more than 1000 years
old, though apparently more modern, is a mod noble
Gothic fabric, and. was much more fo before it was
defaced in the civil wars. The weft front, which is
156 feet broad, is very (lately ; and belides columns
curioufly adorned, is fupported by three of the taileft
arches in Britain. The windows of the cloillers are
finely ftained with feripture-hiitory and the fucceffion
©f its abbots. There are in the church monuments of
Queen Catharine, wife of Henry VIII and of Mary
queen of Scots ; and the figure of one Mr Scarlet the
fexton, who buried them, and lived to 95, after he had
buried all the houftkeepers of the town twice over.
There is but one parifh-church befides the cathedral.
The city is governed by a mayor, recorder, and aider-
men, by a charter of Henry VIII. All its officers are
tlefted by the dean and chapter, confifting of fix pre¬
bendaries, who are all lords of the manor. Befides the
dean and chapter, who are an ecclefiallical corporation
ditlinft from the bifhop, there are eight petty canons,
four {Indents in divinity, one epiiller, one gofpdler, a
fubdean, fubtreafurer, and chanter, eight chorifters,
eight finging men, two chancellors, beft Its a fteward,
org. nift, See. a grammar ichool.and two charity-fthools.
The river Nen, over which there is here a wooden
bridge, is navigable by barges to Northampton, 50
miles further, which bring coal, corn, &c. and by
which they export in feme years 6000 quarters of
malt, btfides other goods, efpecially the woollen ma-
nufablnres either of cloth or (lockings, in which the
poor are employed. The air of Peter': orough is fai l not
to be very wholefome, by r.eafon of the neighbouring
fens ; but the waterof the river is irefh an ! good, the
high eft fpring tide never coming up within live milea
of the town ; and there is plenty of excellent water in
their wells. The ftreets are very poor, and the ho tiles
but mean; there is, however, a hand form tnarkec-houfe,
over which are kept the aflizes and feffions. Its juriidic-
tion extends over 32 towns and humlets, wherein the
civil magiftrates appointed by the royal commiffion are
veiled with the fame power as judges of affize, and hold
their quarterly feffions in this city.
PETERHEAD, a town in Scotland, in the coun¬
ty of Aberdeen, lies about 30 miles north eaft of that
city. It (land- on the molt eafterly point in Scotland,
and from thence due weft that kingdom is broadeil.
Peterhead is the nearell land to the northern conti¬
nent of Europe, and lies within 300 miles of the capey
which is called the Nance of Norway. I hrough this
channel the grand body of the herrings ptifs in their
annual migrations from Shetland and the north fens t«
the more fouthern latitudes, attended with the ali-de-
vouring cod an ! ling; on which account Peterhead, or,
as it is fometlmes called, Buchannefs, hath always been
the fecond ftation of the Dutch buffts after leaving the
Shetland Hands. Tradition fays, that fome hundred
years ago the Dutch offered Lord Marefchnl, then the
proprietor of the coall, to cover a fmall ifland called
Inch-Keith with filver for the property of it to carry
on their fifheries, which for obvious reafons could not
be accepted. Be that as it may, the Dutch flill fre¬
quent the coaft in July and Auguft, and iometimes too
fail are feen within light of land, bufily employed in
the herring and white filheries. i he natives, to whom
this treafure properly belongs, have lately made fome
attempts towards the white fifhery, of which they cure
and vend chiefly at the London market 4000 barrels
of delicate fmall cod and ling annually. They ; lfo fit
out ft.me veflels for the Hebride filhery off Barrahead
for the Barcelona market; and they claim the merit of
having taught the Handers how to take and cure the
large fifh which abound on their coalis. They have
often gained the highefl premiums allowed by govern¬
ment for curing white fifties.
Few harbours in Great Britain art of more impor¬
tance to navigation than this of Peterhead, as, in cafe
of violent ftorms from the eafterly points, large veffeis
embayed betwixt this and the mouth of the forth
have not a port that they can fafely take at every time
of the tide, that of Aberdeen excepted. If therefore
they cannot make their way to fea in the teeth of a
flrong eaflerly wind, or double this headland that they
may gain the Murray frith, they mull inevitably come
PET [2
Peterheirl, on fhore. This harbour lies on a fpacious bay, where
.Peterhoff verfelg of any burden may ride in all oth;r winds, and
Vj'' v ” jg therefore the general rendezvous of the (hipping
which frequent the northern feas, where they call an¬
chor on-clean ground, and ride fafely till the ftorir.s
have abated. But though nature hath done fo mu:h
for the benefit of navigation, foniething is left for the
exercife of human aid. The harbour can at prefent
contain in perfeft fafety 40 or 50 fid of vefieis draw¬
ing 12 feet water, and is capable of being extended fo
eb to admit a greater number of (hips drawing 20 (eet;
by which means not only cafoal merchantmen but fnrall
fl ips of war with their convoys would find this a molt
definable refuge when purfued by fuperiov force. The
harbour is defended by a good battei y. A confiderable
trade is carried on from this place dircdtly to the Bal¬
tic for deal-, iron, hemp, tar, and other articles. There
is alfo a manufacture or tewing thread, which employs
many young girl>. A mineral well in the (ummer-
months gives great eaiety to the place; its falutary
virtues have long, an 1 we believe very jirflly, been cele-
br -ted. The waters of this fprinsr are powerfully diu¬
retic, and are thought to be efficacious in removing
complaints in the bowels. T ere are here many
elegant houfes for the accommodation of Grangers.
There is aifo a ball-room, under which there are
two falt-water baths. Thcfe baths are much fre¬
quented in nervous diforders: their effedt in ftrength-
ening the conftitution is often furpvifing. Owing to
the open peninfulated fituation, the air of this place is
efteemed peculiarly pure and healthful; even the fogs
riling from the tea are thought to be medicinal: the
town is therefore much enlivened by the concourfe of
company who frequent it on thefe accounts. Upon
the whole, the town is neat and well built, the houfes
are handfome, and the ftreets tolerably fpacious and
very clean; and it has every appearance of a thriving,
plentiful, and happy place.
PETERHOFF, in Ruffia, is fituated about zomiles
from Peterlburg, and is diflinguifhed for its palace
and gardens. The pahce was begun by Peter f. and
finifiied by Elizabeth. As it is placed upon an emi¬
nence, it commands a moll fuperb view of Cronftadt,
Peterlburg, the intervening gulf, and the oppolke coalt
of Carelia. 'The palace is mod magnificently furnifh-
ed, and the fuite of apartments arc truly princely. The
prefence-chamfcer is richly ornamented with portraits
of the fovereigns of the houfe of Romanof, who have
reigned in Ruffia fince i6rq.
, “ The gardens of Peterhoff (fays an intelligent tra-
voi*^” ve1^er) have been celebrated for their tafie and elegance;
j. 4S5. and from the number of jet d’eaus, fountains, bafons,
cafcades, parterres, &c. they have been compared to
thofe of Verfiiilles: and indeed in one refpedt they are
far fuperior; for the water-works of the latter only
play upon particular occalions, while thofe of Peter¬
hoff are perennial. Thefe gardens, which at the time
of their formation were greatly admired m this coun¬
try, though not congenial to the take of the emprefs,
are fuffered to remain in their prefent date; as during
fummer her majedy principally refides at Tzarlkoe-
Selo, where the grounds are difpofed in a more mo¬
dern and pleafing manner.” A vad number of fiiver
dolphins and gilded ftatues are fcattered through them;
but the molt remarkable figures are thofe of two gla-
3
37 ] . PET
diators placed in a lafon of wafer. Thefe are repre-
fented, not with the fword and buckler, the ancient
implements of war, but with a brace of pidols. 'Thefe
they point to each ocher in a threatening poftur.e,
while the water guffies impetuoufly from the barrels.
In that part of the garden which lies between the pa¬
lace and the gulf, clofe to the water, is a building
which was the favourite recre.it of Peter 1. It is pre-
ferved, together .with its furniture, entirely in its ori¬
ginal date with a kind of religions veneration. Its
plainnefs (hows the frugal finiplicity in which that mo¬
narch was accudonaed to live. In the fame celebrate!
gardens there is a remarkable building called the moun¬
tain fer fledges, and often by travellers the flying moun~
tain. “ It dands (fays Mr Coxe) in the middle of an
oblong area, inclofed by an open colonnade, with a dat
roof, which is railed for the convenience of holding
iue&ators. The circumference of this colonnade is at
lead halt a mile. In the middle of the area dands
the Hying mountain, dretching nearly from one end to
the other. It is a wooden building, lupported upon
pillars, reprefeuting an uneven furfiace of ground, or a
mountain compofed of three principal afeents, gradu¬
ally diminiilfing in height, witn an intermediate fpace
to refemble valleys : from top to bottom is a floored
way, in which three parallel grooves are formed. It
is thus uled : a frnall carriage containing one perfon
being placed in the centre groove upon the highefl:
point, goes with great rspidity down one hill; the
velocity which it acquires in its defeent carries it up a
fecoud ; and it continues to move in a fimilar manner
until it arrives at the bottom of the area, where it
rolls for a confiderable way on the level furface, and
flops before it attains the boundary ; it is then placed
in one of the fide grooves, and drawn up by means of
a cord fixed to a windlafs. To a perfon unacquainted
with the mechanifin, this entertainment would appear
tremendous 5 but as the grooves always keep the car¬
riage in its right dire&ion, there is not the lead dan¬
ger of being overturned. At the top of the mountain
is an handfome apartment for the accommodation of
the court and principal nobility ; there is alfo room
for many thoufand fpeedators within the colonnade and
upon its roof. Near the dying mountain is a fpacious
amphitheatre, in which tournaments arc ufually exhi¬
bited.”
PETERS (Father), a Jefnit, was confeffor and
counftilor to James 11. king of England. This prince
difmiffed him in 1688, becaufe he was confidered as
the author of thofe troubles in which the kingdom
was then involved. “ Fie was (fays Bifhop Burnet)
the mod violent of the king’s advifers, and the perfon
mod liflened to. Though he had the honour of be¬
ing nobly defeended, he was a man of no extenfive eru¬
dition, and was eminent only fbr his bigotry and for-
wardnefs.” Though Burnet is not always to be be¬
lieved, yet certain it i?, from the tedimony of other
hidomns, that Father Peters was by no means a per¬
fon properly qualified to diredd King James in the cri¬
tical fituation in which he then flood.
PETERSBURG (St), a city of the province of
Ingria in Ruffia, and capital of the whole empire. It
is fituated in N. Lat. 59. 26. 23. and E. Long. 30. 2.^.
from the fird meridian of Greenwich. It was found¬
ed in the year 1703 by Czar Peter the Great, whofs
ambi-
Peterhoflf
Peterlburg,
PET • I 238 ] PET
frrteifourg. ambition it was to have a fleet on the Baltic; for which houfes were built of timber ; but thefe being fubje& Petcrfeuif,
reafon he determined to found a city which might be- to fudden conflagrations in fpite of all the precautions l—-y—-**
come the centre of trade throughout all hia dominions, that could be taken, the Czar, in the year 1714,
The fpot he pitched upon was a low, fenny, uncuiti- iflued an order, that all new houfes fhouid be walled
vated ifland, formed by the branches of the river Ne- with brick and covered with tiles. The fort is aft.
va, before they fall into the gulph of Finland. In irregular hexagon* with opposite baftions. This, to-
the fummer this ifland was covered with mud ; and in gether with all the reft of the fortifications, was in
winter became a frozen pool, rendered almoft inaccef- the beginning formed of earth only; but in the fequel
fible by dreary forefts and deep mor-afles, the haunts of they were faced with ftrong walls, and provided with
bears, wolves, and other favage animals. Having ta- cafemates, which are bomb proof. In the curtain of
ken the fort of Nattebourg, and the town of Neifchanz, the fort, on the right hand fide, is a noble difpenfary,
in the year t7°3» mighty conqueror aflembled in well fupplied with excellent medicines, and enriched
Ingria above 300,000 men, Ruffians, Tartars, Cof- with a great number of porcelain vafes from China and
fackfq Livonians, and others, even from the moft di- Japan. From one of the gates of the fort a draw*
ftant parte of his empire, and laid the foundation of bridge is thrown over an arm of the river, in which the
the citadel and fortifications, which were finiihed in Czar’s galleys and other fmall veffels are fheltered in
four months, almoft in defpite of nature. He was the Winter. The moft remarkable building within the
ebliged to open ways through forefts, drain bogs, fort is the cathedral, built by the direction of an Ita-
raife dykes, and lay caufeways, before he could pre- / lian architedf. Peterfburg is partly built on little
tend to lound the new city. I he workmen were ill iftinds, fome-of which are connedled by dravz-bridges;
provided with neceflary tools and implements, fuch as and partly on the continent. In the higheft part," on
fpad.es, pick-axes, fhovela, planks, and wheel-barrows : the bank of the Neva, the Czar^ fixed his habitation,
they were even obliged to fetch the earth from a or ordinary retidence* built of freeftone, and fituated
greac diftance in the fkirts of their garments, or in fo as to co'mmand a profpe6l of the greater part of
Kttle bags made of old mats and rags fewed together, the city. Here like wife is a royal foundery; toge-
They had neither huts nor houfes to fhelter them from ther with the fuperb houfes of mftny noblemen. The
the feverity of the weather : the country, which had marfhy ground on which the city is built, being
been defolated by war, could not accommodate fuch a found extremely flippery, dirty, and incommodious,
multitu le with provilions; and the fupplies by the lake the Czar ordered every inhabitant to pave a certain
Ladoga were often retarded by contrary winds. In fpace before his own door. In the year 1716, Peter,
confequence of thefe hardfliips, above 100,000 men taking a fancy to the ifland Wafdi-Ofterno, which he
are faid to have perifhed : neverthelefs the work pro- had given as d prefent to prince Menzikoff, refumed
ceeded with incredible vigour and expedition ; while the grant, and ordered the city to be extended into
Peter, for the fecurity of his workmen, formed a great this quarter. He even obliged the boyars, or nobles,
camp, in fuch a manner, that his infantry continued to build ftone-houfes on this fpot, though they were
in Finland, and his cavalry were quartered in Ingria. already in pofleffion of others on the fide of Ingria :
Some Swedifh cruisers being defevied in the neigh- accordingly this is now the moil magnificent part of
bourhood, the Czar polled a body of troops in the ifie the city. On the other fide of a branch of the Neva
of Rutzari, by whom the Swedes were repulfed* and Hands the Czar’s country or fummer palace, provided
the work met with no farther interruption. The with a fine garden and orangery. On the bank of
buildings of the city kept pace with the fortrefs, the fame river is the flaboda* or fuburbs, in which the
which is the centre of the town, furrounded on all Germans generally choofe their habitation. Peterlburg
fides by the Neva ; and in little more than a year, is very much fubje£t to dangerous inundations. In the
above 30,000 houfes were erefted'. At prefent there year 1715, all the baftions and draw-bridges were either
may be about double that number in Peterfburg, overwhelmed or carried away. The breadth, depth,
though many of them are paultry and inconfiderablek and rapidity of the Neva, have rendered it extremely
In order to people this city, Peter invited hither mer- difficult, if not impracticable, to join the illands and
chants, artificers, mechanics, and feamen, from all the the continent by bridges. Befides, Peter wasaverfe to
difterent countries of Europe ; he demolifhed the town this expedient for another reafon; refolvedto accuftom
of Nieufchants, and brought hither not only the n>a- his fubjefts to navigation, he not only rejected the
terials of the houfes, but the inhabitants themfelves. projeCt of a bridge, but alfo ordered that no boat
A thoufand families were drawn from Mofcow ; he fhouid pafs between the iflands and continent, except
obliged his nobility to quit their palaces and their by the help of fails only. In confequence of this ftrange
villas in and about Mofcew, and take up their refi- regulation, many lives were loft : but at length he
dence at Peterfburg, in a much more cold and comfort- gained liis point; and by habituating his fluggilh
lefs climate. Finally, refolving to remove hither the Mufcovates to the dangers of the fea, in a little time
trade of Archangel, he iflued an ordonnance, import- produced a breed of hardy failors. The adjacent conn¬
ing, that all fuch merchandife as had been conveyed try is fo barren, that the town muft be fupplied with
to Archangel, in order to be fold to foreigners, ffiould provifions from a great diftance ; confequently they
now be fent to Peterfburg, where they ffiould pay are extremely dear. Here are woods in plenty, con-
no more than the ufual duties. Thefe endeavours and filling of pine, fir, alder, birch, poplar,.and elm; but
regulations have rendered this one of the greateft and the oak and the beech are generally brought from Ca^
moft flouriffiing cities in Europe. The Ruffian boyars fan. In winter the weather is extremely cold, and
and nobility have built magnificent palaces, and are hot in the fummer. In June the length of the night
naw reconciled to their fituation. At firft many does not exceed three hours, during which the na¬
tives
PET
yrterfburg.tives e^joy a continued twilight
the fun is not viiible more than three hours above the
horizon.
The Czar Peter, who was indefatigable in his en¬
deavours to improve and civilize his fubjedts, negledted
nothing which he thought could contribute to thefe
purpofes. He condefcended even to inftitute and re¬
gulate aflemblies at Peterfburg: thefe were opened at
five in the> afternoon, and the houfe was fhut at ten :
between thefe hours the falhionable people of both
fexes met without ceremony, danced, converfed, or
played either at cards or at chefs, this laft being a
favourite diverfion among the Ruflians. There was
likewife an apartment appointed for drinking brandy
and frr.oking tobacco. Plays and operas were like¬
wife introduced for the fame purpofes ; but as Peter
had little relifh, and lefs tatie, for thofe entertainments,
they were performed in a very aukward manner in his
lifetime: however, fince his death thefe performances
have been brought to a greater degree of art and de¬
corum.
This great northern legiflator eftablifhed, in the
neighbourhood of Peterfburg, manufadtures of linen,
paper, faltpetre, fulphur, gunpowder, and bricks, to¬
gether with water-mills for fawing timber. He in-
ftituted a marine academy, and obliged every confi-
derable family in Ruffia to fend at leafl one fon or
kinfman, between the ages of ten and eighteen, to
this feminary, where he was inftrudfed in navigation,
learned the languages, was taught to perform his ex-
ercifes, and to live under the fevereft difeipline. To
crown his other plans of reformation, he granted let¬
ters patent for founding an academy, upon a very li¬
beral endowment; and though he did not live to exe¬
cute this fcheme, his emprefs, who furvived him,
brought it to perfedlion. It was modelled on the
plans of the royal fociety in London, and the academy
of France. Mr Bullfinger opened it in the year 1726,
with an eloquent fpeech on the defign gnd utility of
an academy of fcicnces ; and the profeflors, who have
always diflinguifhed themfelves by their merit and
erudition, publifhed an annual colledtion of their
tranfadfions ; a talk the more eafy, as they have the
benefit of printing-preffes, well managed, at Peterf¬
burg.
Peter the Great has been much cenfured for trans¬
ferring the feat of the empire from Mofcow to St Pe¬
terfburg ; the former of which lay nearer to the centre
©f his dominions. But thefe objedtions will have but
little weight with thofe who confider the confequences
of the removal. The new city is nearer than Mofcow
was to the more civilized parts of Europe ; and from'
an intercourfe with them the manners ©f the Ruffians
have been improved, a*nd the nobility in particular
have loft much of their feudal importance. Above all,
the grand objeft of Peter, that of having a formidable
navy in the Baltic, has certainly been obtained, and the
Emprefs of Ruffia is now the arbitrefs of the north,
and in fome degree the mediatrix of all Europe. In
fliort, the ereftion of St Peterfburg was perhaps one
ef the heft ads of Peter’s reign, and has in its confe¬
quences been the moft beneficial. Indeed it is at leaft
probable, that if through any revolution the feat of
government ^fhould be again transferred to Mofcow,
fhould nowhere fee the traces of thofe memorable
l 239 ] PET
but in December improvements, which the paffing c/entury has given Petersburg*
birth to, but in the annals of hi'ftory; and Ruffia would  v—
again, in all probability, relapfe into her original bar-
barifm.
The eredion of fueh a city as Peterfburg in fo
fhort a time is truly wonderful. Mr Coxe fays his
mind was filled with aftonifhment, when he refleded
that fo late as the beginning of this century the ground
on which it ftands was one vaft morafs, occupied by a
very few fifhermens huts. The prefent divifions of the
town, fome of which we have already mentioned, are
called, 1. The Admiralty quarter ; 2. The Vaffili O-
ftrof or Ifland ; 3. The Fortrefs ; 4. The Ifland of St
Peterfburg; and,5. The various fuburbs of Livonia, of
Mofcow, of Alexander Nevfki, and Wiburgh.
The prefent Emprefs has done fo much for this city*
that fhe n ay not improperly he called its fecond foun-
drefs. ^ It is, neverthelefs, ftill an infant place, and, as
Mr Wr ax hall obferves, “ only an immenfe outline,
which will require future emprefles, and.almoft future
ages, to complete.”
“Ihe ftieets in general, fays a late traveller, are Coxe'i
broad and fpacious; and three of the principal ones,*,/,,
which meet in a point at the Admiralty, and reach to
the extremities of the fuburbs, are at leaft two miles
in length. Moft of them are paved ; but a few are
ftill fuffered to remain floored with planks. In feveral
parts of the metropolis, particularly in the Vaffili O-
Urof, wooden houfes and habitations, fcarcely fupe-
nor to commou cottages, are blended with the public
buildings ; but this motley mixture is far lefs common
than at Mofcow, where alone can be formed any idea
of an ancient Ruffian city. The brick houfes are or¬
namented with a white ftucco, which has led feveral
travellers to fay that they are built with ftone ; where¬
as, unlefs I am greatly miftaken, there are only two
ftone ftruftures in all Peterfburg. The one is a pa¬
lace, building by the emprefs upon the banks of the
Neva, called the marlle palace; it is of hewn granite,
with marble columns and ornaments; the other is the
church of St Ifaac, couftruded with the fame mate¬
rials, but not yet finiihed.
. “ The manfions of the nobility are many of them vaft:
piles of building, but are not in general upon fo large
and magnificent a fcale as feveral I obferved at Mof¬
cow: they ire furniffied with great coft, and in the
fame elegant ftyle as at Paris or London. They are
fituated chiefly on the fouth fide of the Neva, either
in the Admiralty quarter, or in the fuburbs of Livo¬
nia andMofcow, which are the fineft parts of the city.”
See Neva.
“ Peterfburg, although it is more compaft than the
other Ruffian cities, and has the houfes in many ftreets
contiguous to each other, yet ftill bears a refemblance
to the towns of this country, and 19 built in a very-
(haggling manner. By an order lately iffued from
government, the city has been inclofed within a ram¬
part, the circumference whereof is 21 verfts, or ia
Engliffi miles.” *
The fame accurate obferver calculates the number
of inhabitants at Peterfburg, and makes the medium
number 130,000.
We have already faid that Peterfburg is very liable
to be inundated. An inundation of a very alarming
nature took place when Mr Coxe was there in Sept
4 temher' .
PET [ 240 ] PET
Fcterflmrg. tember i*]*]*], of which the following account wras gi-
ven in Journal St Peterfburg, September 1777: u In the
evening of the 9th, a violent ftoim of wind blowing at
firft S. W. and afterwards W. railed the Neva and its
various branches to fo great an height, that at five in
the morning the waters poured over their banks, and
fuddenly overflowed the town, but more particularly
the Vafilli Oftrof and the ifland of St Peterlburg.
'.The torrent rofe in leveral flreets to the depth of four
ftet and an half, and overturned, by its rapidity, va¬
rious buildings and bridges. . About feven, the wind
Ihifting to N. W. the flood fell as fuddenly ; and at
mid-day mofi: of the flreets, which in the morning
could only be palled in boats, became dry. For a
flrort time the river rofe 10 feet 7 inches above its or-
dinarylevel.,,
Mr Kraft, profeflor of experimental philofophy to
the Imperial Academy of Sciences, has written a ju¬
dicious treatife upon the inundation of the Neva, from
which the following obfervations were extracted by
Mr Coxe. “ Thefe floods are lefs alarming than former¬
ly, as the fwelling of the river to about fix feet above
its ufual level, which ufed to overflow the whole town,
have no longer any effe<A, excepting upon the lower
parts of Peterlburg ; a circumflance owing to the
gradual railing of the ground by buildings and other
caufes.
“Upontracing the principal inundations,the profef-
for informs us, that the molt ancient, of which there
is any tradition, happened in 1691, and is mentioned
by Weber, from the account of fome filhermcn inha¬
biting near Niefchants, a Swedilh redoubt upon the
Neva, about three miles from the prefent fortrefs of
Peterlburg. At that period the waters ufually rofe
every five years ; and the inhabitants of that diftridf
no fooner perceived the particular ftorrr.s which they
had been taught from fatal experience to confider as
forerunners of a flood, than they took their hovels to
pieces, and, joining the timbers together in the form
of rafts, faftened them to the fummits of the highell
trees, and repaired to the mountain of Duderof, which
is diftant fix miles from their place of abode, where
they waited until the waters fublided.
‘'-The hrgheft inundations, excepthig the laft of 1 777,
were thofe of the rft of November 1726, when the
waters rofe 8 feet 2 inches ; and on the 2d of October
1752, when they rofe 8 feet 5 inches.
“ From a long courfe of obfervations the profefifor
draws the following concfufion. The higheft floods,
namely, thofe which rife about fix feet, have generally
happened in one of the four lall months of the year :
no fenfible effect is ever produced by rain or fnow ; a
i'well is fometimes occafioned by the aecamulation of
maffes of ice at the mouth of the Neva; but the prim
cipal caufes of the overflowing of that river are deri¬
ved from violent ftorms and winds blowing fouth well
or north weft, which ufually prevail at the autum¬
nal equinox ; an d the height of the waters is always in
proportion to the violence and duration of thofe winds.
In a word, the circumftances moft liable to promote
the overflowings ol the Neva, ate when, at the au¬
tumnal equinox, three or four days before or after the
full or new moon, that luminary being near her pe-
rigaeum, a violent north-weft wind drives the waters
of the northern ocean, during the influx of the tide,
into the Baltic, and is accompanied, or inftantane-Peterflnirg.
oully fucceeded, by a fouth weft wind in that fea
the gulf of Finland. All thefe circumftances concur¬
red at the inundation of 1777 : it happened two days
before the autumnal equinox, four before the full
moon, two after her palling through the perigasum,
and by a ftorm at fouth-weft, which was preceded by
ftrong weft winds iu the northern occrn, and ftrong
north winds at the mouth of the Baltic.”
See Notices et Remarques fur lee dehordan-ns de
la Neva a St PeterJbourgt accompagnces d’une carte
reprefentant la crue et la diminution des eaux. Sec.
in Nov. Ac. Pet. for 1777, P- II. p- 47- to which
excellent treatife we would refer the curious reader for
further information.
All our readers have unqueftionably heard of the
equefti ian ftatue of Peter I. in bronz.e. We fhall give
an account of that extraordinary monument in Mr
Coxe’s own words. “ It is (fays he) of a coloflal flze#
and is the work of Monfteur Falconet, the celebrated
French ftatuary, call at the expence of Catherine 11.
in honour of her great predeceffbr, whom (he reveres
and imitates. It repvefents that monarch in the atti¬
tude of mounting a precipice, the fummit of which he
has nearly attained. He appears crowned with laurel,
in a loofe Afiatic veft, and fitting on a houfing of
bear-fkin : his right hand is ftretched out as in the adt
of giving benedidlion to his people ; and his left holds
the reins. The defign is matlerly, and the attitude
is bold amd fpi'rited. If there be any defeat in the fi¬
gure, it confifts in the flat pofition of the right h ind ;
and, for this reafon, the view of the left fide is the
moft ftriking, where the whole appearance is graceful
and animated. The horfe is rearing upon its hind
legs ; and its tail, which is full and flowing, fhghtly
touches a bronze ferpent, artfully contrived to affift
in fupporting the vaft weight of the ftatue indue equi¬
librium. The artift has, in this noble effay of his ge¬
nius, reprefented Peter as the legiflator of his country,
without any allufion to conqueft and bloodfhed ; wife¬
ly preferring his civil qualities to his military exploits.
The concrafl between the compofed tranquillity of Pe¬
ter (though perhaps not abfolutely charadteriftic) and
the fire of the horfe, eager to prefs forwards, is very
ftriking. The fimplicity of the infeription correfponds
to the fublimity of the defign, and is far preferable to
a pompous detail of exalted virtues, which the voice
of flattery applies to every fovereign without fiiftixc-
tion. It is elegantly finifhed in brafs charadters, on
one fide in Latin, and on the oppofite in Ruifian.
Petro primo Catharina fecunda 1782, i. e. Catharine IT
to Peter I.
“ The ftatue, when I wns at Peterfourgh, was not
eredled, but Rood under a large wooden fhed near the
Neva, within a few yards of its enormous pedeftal.
When Falconet had conceived the defign of his fta¬
tue, the bale of which was to be formed by an huge
rock, he carefully examined the environs of Peterf-
burg, if, among the detached pieces of granite which
are fcattered about thefe parts, one could be found
of magnitude correfpondeuc to the dimenllons of the
equeftrian figure. After confiderable refeareh, he dif-
covered a ftupendous mafs half buried in the midft of
a morafs. The expence and difficulty of tranfporting
it were co obftacles to Catherine II. By her order
PET C 241 ] PET
Pcterftmrg. the tnorafs was immediately drained, a road was cut
through a foreft, and carried over the marihy ground ;
and the ftone, which after it had been fomewhat re¬
duced weighed at leaft 1500 tons, was removed to
Peterfburg. This more than Roman work was, in
kfs than fix months from the time of its firft difco-
very, accomplifhed by a windlafs, and by means of
large fri&ion-balls alternately placed and removed in
grooves fixed on each fide of the road. In'this man¬
ner it was drawn, with forty men feated upon its top,
about four miles to the banks of the Neva ; there it
was embarked in a veflel conftrufted on purpofe to
receive it, and thus conveyed about the fame diftance
by water to the fpot where it now Hands. When land¬
ed at Peterfburg, it was 42 feet long at the bafe, 36
at the top, 21 thick, and 17 high; a bulk greatly
furpafiing in weight the molt boafted monuments of
Roman grandeur, which, according to the fond ad¬
mirers of antiquity, would have baffled the fkill of
modern mechanics, and were alone fufficient to render
confpicuous the reign of the moll degenerate emperors.
^ The pedeftal, however, though itill of prodigious
magnitude, is far from retaining its original dimen-
fions, as, in order to form a proper ftation for the
ilatue, and to reprefent an afcent, the fummit where¬
of the horfe is endeavouring to attain, its bulk has
been necefiarily diminifhed. But I could not obferve,
without regret, that the artift has been defirous to im¬
prove upon nature ; and, in order to produce a refem-
blance of an abrupt broken precipice, has been too
lavilh of the chiflel. Near it was a model in plafter,
to the fhape of which the workmen were fafhioning
the pedeftal. It appeared to me, that in this model
the art was too confpicuous ; and that the effeift would
have been far more fublime, if the ftone had been left
as much as poffible in its rude ftate, a vaft unwieldy
ftupendous mafs. And indeed, unlefs I am greatly
miftaken, the pedeftal, when finiftied according to
this plan, will have fcarcely breadth fufficient to af¬
ford a proper bafe for -a ftatue of fuch Coloffal fize.
“ The ftatue was erected on the pedeftal on the 27th
of Auguft 1782. The ceremony was performed with
great folemnity, and was accompanied with a folemn
inauguration. At the fame time the emprefs iffued a
proclamation, in which, among otlier inltances of her
clemency, Ihe pardons all criminals under fentence of
death ; all deferters, who ftrould return to their re-
fpe&ive corps within a limited time ; and releafes all
criminals condemned to hard labour, provided they
had not been guilty of murder.”
Mr Coxe informs us, that the weather is extremely
changeable in this capital, and the cold is at times ex¬
treme; againft which the inhabitants take cave to pro¬
vide (fee Peasa.nt), though fome of them neverthelefs
unfortunately fall vi£tirns to it. “ As I traverfed the
city, fays Mr Coxe, on the morning of 12th January, I
obferved feverai perfons whofe faces had been bitten
by the froft : their cheeks had large fears, and appear¬
ed as if they had been finged with an hot iron. As I
was walking with an Engliffl gentleman, who, inftead
nof a fur cap, had put on a common hat, his ears were
fuddtniy frozen : he felt no pain, and would not have
perceived it for fome time, if a Ruffian, in palling by,
had not informed him of it, and affifted him in rub¬
bing the part affe&ed with fnow, by which means it
Vol. XIV. Fart I.
Petit.'
was inflantly recovered. This, or fri&ion with flan* Peterfoarg
nel, is the ufual remedy ; but Ihould the perfon in that
Hate approach the fire, or dip the part in warm water,
it immediately mortifies and drops off.—The common
people continued at their work as ufual, and the dri¬
vers plied in the ftreets with their fledges feemiugly
unaffe&ed by the froft ; their beards were iucrufted
with clotted ice, and the horfes were covered with
ificles.
“ It fometimes happens that coachmen or Servants,
while they are waiting for their mafters, are frozen to
death. In order to prevent as much as poffible thefe
dreadful accidents, great fires of whole trees, piled one
upon another, are kindled in the court-yard of the
palace and the moft frequented parts of the town. As
the flames blazed above the tops of the houfes, and
call a glare to a confiderable diftance, I was frequent¬
ly much amufed by contemplating the pifturefque
groups of Ruffians, with their Afiatic drefs and long
beards, affembled round the fire. The centinels upon
duty, having no beards, which are of great ufe to
protect the glands ®f the throat, generally tie hand¬
kerchiefs under their chins, and cover their ears with
fmall cafes of flannel.”
Petersburg, in America, is a fea-port town in
Virginia, 25 miles fouthward of Richmond, feated on
the fouth fide of the Appamatox river, about 12 miles
above its junftion with James River, and contained
nearly 300 houfes in 1787, in two divifions ; one is
upon a clay, cold foil, and is very dirty; the other upon
a plain of fand or loam. There is no regularity, and
very little elegance in Peterfburg. It is merely a place
of buiinefs. The Free Mafons have a hall tolerably
elegant; and the feat of the Bowling family is pleafant
and well built. It is very unhealthy. About 2.200
hogftieads of tobacco are infpedfed here annually. Like
Richmond, Williamfburg, Alexandria, and Norfolk, it
is a corporation; and what is Angular, Peterfburg city
comprehends.part of three counties. The celebrated
Indian queen, Pocahonta, from whom defeended the
Randolph and Bowling families, formerly refided at
this place.
PETERSITELD, is a handfome town of Hamp-
fhire in England, and fends two members to parliament.
It is feated in W. Long. 1. 5. N. Lat. 51. 5.
PETERWARAD1N, a fortified town in Sola*
vonia, and one of the flrongeft frontier places the
houfe of Auftria has againil the Turks, feated on the
Danube between the Drave and the Save. L. Lonji.
20. o. N. Lat. 45. 20.
PETIOLE, in botany, the (lender ftalks that fup-
port the leaves of a plant.
PETIT, or Petite, a French word figniTying
little or fmall.
Petite Guerre, denotes the operations of detached
parties and the war of pofts. See War, Part III.
Petit Sergeanty. See Sergeanty.
Petit Trerfon, See Treason.
Petit (John), a do&or of the Sorbonne, very early-
gained to himfelf a character by his knowledge, and
thofe eloquent orations which he pronounced before
the univerfity of Paris. He was employed in the fa¬
mous embafly which was fent from France to Rome,
for the purpofe of healing the fchifm in >407 ; but he
foou loft all the honour which he had acquired. John
H h Sans
PET I 242 1 PET
Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy, having treacheroufly
contrived to affaffinate Louis of France, duke of Or¬
leans, only biother to Charles VL John Petit, en¬
tirely devoted to the views of the murderer, maintain¬
ed in a public deputation, at Paris, the 8th of March
1408, that the murder was lawful. He had the ef¬
frontery to aflert, that “ it is allowable to employ fraud,
treafon, and every other method, however bafe, in or¬
der to get rid of a tyrant; and that no faith ought to
be kept with him.” He dared to add further, that
“ the man who fliould commit fuch an aftion, not on¬
ly deferved to be exempted from punifhment, but to
receive a reward.” This fanguinary do&rine was loud¬
ly exclaimed againft ; but the duke of Burgundy’s pow¬
erful influence flickered Petit for fome time. Some
eminent writers, however, of that period, with Gerfon
at their head, denounced the dotfrine to John de Mon-
taigu, bifhop of Paris, who condemned it as hereti¬
cal the 23d November 1414. It was likewife condemn¬
ed by the council of Conftance the year following at
the inftigation of Gerfon ; but no notice was taken
either of Petit’s name or his writings. In fine, the
king, on the 16th of September 1416, ordered the
parliament of Paris to pronounce a fevere decree again ft
this dangerous perfownance ; and it was alfo cenfured
by the umverfity. But the duke of Burgundy, in
1418, had intereft enough to compel the grand vicars
of the bilhop of Paris, who then lay fick at St Omer’s,
to retraft the fentence which that prelate had pad in
J414. Petit died three years before, i. e. in 1411, at
Hefdin ; and his apology in favour of the duke of Bur¬
gundy, with all the particulars of that infamous tranf-
aftion, may be feen in the fifth volume of the laft edi¬
tion of Gerfon’s works. Father Pinchinat, of the
order of St FVancis, and author of the Diftionary of
Herefies, in 410, has endeavoured to vindicate his or¬
der from a charge brought by fome writers who have
called Petit a Cordelier or Francifcan friar. “ He proves
very clearly (fays Abbe Prevot) that he was a fecular
prieft ; and acids, that upon the fame evidence, Fa¬
ther Mercier, a Cordelier, had a warm difpute in 1717
with M. Dupin, who had given this title to Petit in
his CollecfHon of Cenfures. He reprefented to him
■(fays he), before a meeting of the Faculty, the falfuy
of fuch a claim, and the injury which he offered to
the order of St Francis. Dupin, convinced of his er¬
ror, candidly owned that he was led into it by follow¬
ing fome infidel writers, and promifed to retraeft it in
the new edition of the Cenfures, which was publifhed
in 1720. M. Fleury, who had committed the fame
miftake, promifed alfo to make amends for it by a fo-
lemn recantation ; but dying before he had an oppor¬
tunity of doing that piece of juftice to the Cordeliers,
the continuator of his Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, who had
not fuch opportunities of information, fell into the
fame fault.” {Pour is? centre, tom. x. p. 23.) If we
take the opinion of L’Advocal’s Dictionary, it would
appear no fault was committed ; for it gives a lift of
the penfioners of the dukes of Burgundy, in order to
prove that John Petit was a Cordelier. Indeed, it is
highly probable that if Dupin, Fleury, and Father
Fahre, did not alter their opinion, it was owing to a
firm perfuafion that they had committed no error.
Petit (John Lewis), an eminent furgeon, born at
Paris in 1674. He had fo early an inclination to
furgery, that Mr Littre, a celebrated anatomift, be¬
ing in his father’s houfe, he regularly attended that
gentleman’s le&ures, from his being feven years of age.
He was received mafter in furgery in the year 1700';
and acquired fuch reputation in the practice of that
art, th c in 1726 the king of Poland fent for him to
his court, and in 1734 the king of Spain prevailed on
him to go into that kingdom. He reftored the health
ofthofe princ es ; and they endeavoured to detain him by
offering him great advantages, but he chofe rather to
return to France. He was received into the academy
of fciences in 1715 ; became dire&or of the royal
academy of furgery ; made feveral important difeo-
veries ; and invented new inftruments for the improve¬
ment of furgery. He died at Paris in 1750. He
wrote an excellencTreatifeontheDifeafes of the Bones,
the heft edition of which is that of 1723 ; and many
learned Differtations in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, and in the firft volume of the Memoirs of
Surgery.
PJETITIO principii, in logic, the taking a thing
for true, and drawing conclulions from it as fuch,
when it is really falfe ; or at leaft wants to be proved
before any inferences can be drawn from it.
PETITION, a fupplication made by an inferior
to a fuperior, and efpecially to one having jurifdic-
tion. It is ufed for that remedy which the fubjedft
hath to help a wrong done by the king, who hath
a prerogative not to be fued by writ : In which fenfe
it is either general, That the king do him right;
whereupon follows a general indorfement upon the
fame, Let right be done the party : Or it is fpecial, when
the conclufion and indorfement are fpecial, for this or
that to be done, &c.
By ftatute, the foliciting, labouring, or procuring
the putting the hands or confent of above twenty per-
fons to any petition to the king or either houfe of
parliament, for alterations in church or ftate, unlcfs
by affent of three or more juftices of the peace of the
county, or a majority of the grand jury at the affixes
or feffions, See. and repairing to the king or parlia¬
ment to deliver fuch petition with above the number
of ten perfons, is fubjeff to a fine of 100 1. and three
months imprifonment, being proved by two witneffes
within fix months, in the court of B. R. or at the
affizes, &c. And if what is required by this ftatute
be obferved, care muft be taken that petitions to the
king contain nothing which may be interpreted to re¬
flect on the adminiftration ; for if they do, it may
come under the denomination of a libel: and it is re¬
markable, that the petition of the city of London for
the fitting of a parliament was deemed libellous, be-
caufe it fuggefted that the king’s diffolving a late par¬
liament was an obftruftion of juftice ; alfo the peti¬
tion of the feven biftiops, fent to the Tower by James
II. was called a libel, &c. To fubferibe a petition
to the king, to frighten him into a change of his mea-
fures, intimating, that if it be denied many thoufands of
his fubjeSs will be difeontented, 8cc. is included among
the contempts againll the king’s perfon and govern¬
ment, tending to weaken the fame, and is puniihablc
by fine and imprifonment.
PETITORY action, in Scots law. See Law,
N° clxxxiii, 18. 20.
PETITOT (John), a curious painter in enamel;
6, waa
'PET [ 243 ] PET
Petitot was born at Geneva In 1607. He ftudied tbe art with
II fuch application, that he arrived to a degree of per-
^><‘!ra‘ feftion that may almoft be accounted inimitable. He
was wonderfully patient in finilhing his works, though
he had the addrels to conceal his labour : however, he
only painted the heads and hands of the figures : the
hair, grounds, and drapery, being executed by Bor-
dier his brother-in-law. Thefe two artifts had the
credit of aflbciating and labouring together for fifty
years, without the lead mifunderftanding happening
^between them. It is aflerted by an ingenious French
writer, that Petitot and Bordier derived the know¬
ledge of the moll curious and durable colours proper
for enamelling, fiom Sir Theodore Mayerne at Lon¬
don, who recommended Petitot to Charles I. He
had the honour to paint the portraits of that monarch
and the whole royal family, and continued in England
until Charles’s unhappy end : he then went to Paris,
where he was highly favoured by Louis XlV. and
acquired an ample fortune. Being a Proteftant, the
revocation of the edidtof Nantz obliged him to retire
to Geneva; but fettling foon after at Veray in the
canton of Bern, he palled the remainder of his life in
eafe and affluence. He died in 1691 ; and had 17
children ; of whom one took to painting, and fettled
at London, where he gained good reputation ; but
was much inferior to his father.
Petitot may be called the inventor of painting por¬
traits in enamel. Though his friend Bordier made fe-
veral attempts before him, and Sir Theodore Mayerne
had facilitated the means of employing the moil beau¬
tiful colours ; yet Petitot completed the works, which
under his hand acquired a foftnefs and livelinefs of co¬
louring that will never change, and will ever render
his works valuable. He made ufe of gold and filver
plates, and feldom enamelled on copper. When he
firft came in vogue, his price was 20 louis’s a head,
which he fcon raifed to 40. It was his cuftom to
take a painter with him, who painted the pi&ure in
oil; after which Petitot Iketched ©ut his work, which
he always finilhed after the life. When he painted
the king of France, he took thofe pi&ures for his co¬
pies that moll refembled him ; and the king afterwards
gave him a fitting or two to finilh his work.
PETIVERIA, in botany; A genus of the tetra-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the lithor-
fler, Holorutsa. The calyx is tetraphyllous ; there is no
corolla; and but one feed, with reflexed awns at the
top.
PETRA (Caefar, Lucian), a town of Greece, on
the,coail of Illyricum, near Dyrrhachium, and not
far from the mouth of the river Panyafus.—Ano¬
ther Petra, (Livy); a town of Mtedica, a dillridl
of 1 hrace, lying towards Macedonia; but in what
part ol Macedonia, he does not lay.
Petra (Ptolemy), Petra 1 (Silius Italicus), Petrina
(Italicus), in .both which latt urbs is underllood ; an
inland town of Sicily, to the fouth-well of Engyum,
Now Petragila (Cluverius).
Petra Jecktael ( 2 Kings xiv.), a town of the Ama-
Jekites ; near the Adfcenfus Scorpmnis (Judges i.)
and the valley of Salt in the fouth of Judcea : after-
wards in the pofTefflon of the Edomites, after dellroy-
ing the Amalekites,
Petra Recem, or Rekem, fo called from Rekem ^etra,
king of the Midianites, flain by the Ifraelites (Num. ^>etrarch-1
xxxi.) Formerly called Arce, now Petra i the capi* ^ ~~v~ '
tal of Arabia Petrosa (Jofephus). Ptolemy place# it
in Long. 66. 45. from the Fortunate Wands, and Lat.
30. 20. It declines therefore 80 miles to the fouth
of the parallel of Jerufalem, and 36 miles, more or
lefs, from its meridian to the eall. Jofephus fays,
that the mountain on which Aaron died Hood near
Petra ; which Strabo calls the capital of the Nabatsei;
at the dillance of three or four days journey from Je¬
richo, T. his Petra feems to be the Sela of Ifaiah xvi.
1. and xlii. 11. the Hebrew name of Petra “ a rock
Though fome imagine Petra to be no older than the
time of the Macedonians.
PETRARCH (Francis), a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Arezzo in 1334, and was the fan of Pe-
trarco di Parenzo. He lludied grammar, rhetoric,
and philofophy, for four years at Carpentras ; from
whence-he went to Montpelier, where he fludied the
law under John Andreas and Cino of Piltoia, and
probably from the latter received a tafte for Italian
poetry. As Petrarch only ftudied the law out of
complnifance to his father, who on his vifiting him
at Bologna had thrown into the fire all the Latin poets
and orators except Virgil and Cicero; he, at 22 years
of age, hearing that his father and mother were dead
of the plague at Avignon, returned to that city to
fettle his domeftic affairs, and purchafed a country-
houfe in a very folitary but agreeable fituation, called
Vaudufe; where he firll knew the beautiful Laura,
with whom he fell in love, and whom he has imrnor-
talifed in his poems. He at length travelled into
France, the Netherlands, and Germany ; and at his
return to Avignon entered into the fervice of Pope
John XXII. who employed him in feveral important
affairs. Petrarch was in hopes of being raifed to fome:
conliderable polls ! but being difappointed, he applied
himfelf entirely to poetry ; in which he met whh fuch
applaufe, that in one and the fame day he received
letters from Rome and the chancellor of the univer-
fity of Paris, by which they invited him to receive
the poetic crown. By the advice of his friends, he
preferred Rome to Paris, and received that crown
from the fenate and people on the 8th of April
1341. “ The ceremony of his coronation (fays Gib¬
bon) was performed in the C apitol, by his friend and
patron the fupreme magiflrate of the republic. Twelve
patrician youths were arrayed in fcarlet; fix reprefeu-
tatives of the mofl tlluflrious families, iu green robes,
with garlands of flowers, accompanied the proceffion;.
in the midfl of the princes and nobles, the fenator,
count of Anguillara, a kinfman of the Colonna, af-
fumed his throne ; and at the voice of an herald Pe¬
trarch arofe. After difeourfing on a text of Viigil,
and thrice repeating his vows for the profpemy of
Rome, he knelt before the throne, and received from
the fenator a laurel crown, with a more precious de¬
claration, ‘ This is the reward of merit.’ The people
fhouted, ‘ Long life to the Capitol and the poet!’
A fonnet in praife of Rome was accepted as the ef-
fufion of genius and gratitude; and after the whole
proceffion had vifited the Vatican, the profane wreath
was fufpended before the Ihrine of St Peter. In the
adt or diploma which was prefented to Petrarch, the
H h 2 title
P E T
r 244 l
PET
Petrarch, title and prerogatives of poet-laureat are revived in the
V—Capitol after the lapfe of 1300 years? and he receives
the perpetual privilege of wearing, at his choice, a
crown of laurel, ivy, or myrtle; of afluming the poe¬
tic habit ; and of teaching, difputing, interpreting, and
compofxng, in all places whatfoever, and on all fub-
jedts of literature. The grant was ratified by the au¬
thority of the fenate and people; and the chara&er
of citizen was the recompenfe of his affedtion for the
Roman name. They did him honour, but they did
him juftice. In the familiar focicty of Cicero and
.Livy, he had imbibed the ideas of an ancient patriot;
and his ardent fancy kindled every idea to a fentiment,
and every fentiment to a pafiion.” His love of foli-
tude at length induced him to return to Vauclufe;
but, after the death of the beautiful Laura, Provence
became infupportable to him, and he returned to Italy
in 1352 ; when, being at Milan, Galeas Viceconti
made him counfellor "of date. Petrarch fpent almoft
all the reft of his life in travelling to and from the
different cities in Italy. He was archdeacon of Par¬
ma, and canon of Padua; but never received the or¬
der of priefthood. All the princes and great men of
his time gave him public marks of their efteem ; and
while he lived at Arcqua, three miles from Padua,
the Florentines deputed Boccace to go to him with
letters, by which they invited him to Florence, and
informed him, that they reftored to him all the eftate
of which his father and mother had been deprived
during the diffenfions between the Gueiphs and Gi¬
belines. He died a few years after at Arcqua, in
1374. He wrote many works that have rendered
his memory immortal; thefe have been printed in four
volumes folio. His life has been written by feverai
authors. Amongft thefe there was one by Mrs $u-
fanna Dobfon, in 2 volumes 8vo, collefted and abridged
from the French. In this work we have the follow¬
ing elegant and juft chara&er of Petrarch.
“ Few charafters, perhaps, have fet in a ftrong-
cr light the advantage of well-regulated difpofitions
than that of Petrarch, from the contrail we behold
in one particular of his life, and the extreme mi-
fery he fuffered from the indulgence of an affection,
which, though noble and delightful when jiiftly pla¬
ced, becomes a reproach and a torment to its poffef-
for when once direfted to an improper objed. For,
let us not deceive ourfelves or others; though (from
the character of Laura) they are acquitted of all guilt
in their perfonal intercourfe, yet, as Ihe was a mar¬
ried woman, it is not poffule, on the principles of
religion and morality, to clear them from that juft
cenfure which is due to every defection of the mind
from thofe laws which are the foundation of order and
peace in civil fociety, and which are ftamped with the
i’acred mark of divine authority.
“ In tfiis particular of his chara&er, therefore, it
is fincerely hoped that Petrarch will ferve as a warn¬
ing to thofe unhappy minds, who, partaking of the
fame feelings under the like circumftances, but not
yet fuffering his mifery, may be led, by the contem¬
plation of it, by a generous regard to the honour of
human nature, and by a view to the approbation of
that all-feeing Judge who penetrates the moft fecret
receffes of the heart, to check every unhappy inclina¬
tion in its birth, and deftvoy, while yet in their power
the feeds of thofe paffions which may otherwife de- Petrarch,
ftroy them. ' » 1 *
“ As to the cavils or cenfures of thofe who, in¬
capable of tendernefs themfelves, can neither enjoy
the view of it when prefented in its moft perfed form,
nor pity its fufferings when, as in this work, they
appear unhappily indulged beyond the bounds of
judgment and tranquillity ; to fuch minds I make no
addrefs, well convinced, that, as no callous heart can
enjoy, neither will it ever be in danger of being roifled,
by the example of Petrarch in this tender but unfor¬
tunate circumftance of his charader.
“ To fufceptible and feeling minds alone Petrarch
will be ever dear. Such, while they regret his fail¬
ings, and confider them as warnings to themfelves,
will love his virtues ; and, touched by the glowing
piety and heart-felt contrition which often impreffed
his foul, will ardently defire to partake with him in
thofe pathetic and fublime reftedions which are pro¬
duced in grateful and affedionate hearts, on review¬
ing their own lives, and contemplating the works of
God.
“ Petrarch had received from nature a very dan¬
gerous prefent. His figure was fo diftinguilhed as
to attrad univerfal admiration. He appears, in his
portraits, with large and manly features, eyes full of
fire, a blooming compledion, and a countenance that
befpoke all the genius and fancy which ftione forth in
his works. In the flower of his youth, the beau¬
ty of his perfon was fo very linking, that wherever
he appeared, he was the objed of attention. He pof-
feffed an underftanding adive and penetrating, a bril¬
liant wit, and a fine imagination. His heart w-as can¬
did and benevolent, fufceptible of the moft lively af-
fedions, and infpired with the nobleft fentiments of
liberty. _ #
“ But his failings mull not be concealed. His tem¬
per was, on fome occafions, violent, and his paflioim
headftrong and unruly. A warmth of conftitution
hurried him into irregularities, which were followed
with repentance and remorfe.—No effential reproach,
however, could be call on his manners, till alter the
23d year of his age. The fear of God, the thoughts
of death, the love of virtue, and thofe principles of
religion which were inculcated by his mother, pre-
ferved him from the furrou»ding temptations of his
earlier life.”
A refemblance has been traced, in feverai inftances,
between this admired poet and our late famous \ o-
ric{c.—Both, we know, had great wit and genius, and
no lefs imprudence and eccentricity ; both were ca¬
nons, or prebendaries, the Italian of Padua, &c. and
the Englilhman of York ; they both “ ran over
France, without any bufinefs there.” If the bilhop
of Lombes patronifed and correfponded with the^one,
a prelate j; of the Englifli church, now deceafed, defired, \ Dr Gif-
in a letter, toJhandyife |[ with the other. In their at-bert Arch,
tachments to Laura and Eliza, both married women, ,
thefe two prebendaries were equally warm, and equally jjrace-j
innocent. And, even after death, a moft remarkable ownexpref-
circumftance has attended them both; fome perfon9, fion.
we are told, Hole Petrarch’s bones, in order to fell
them ; and, in like manner, Yorick’s body, it 1* con¬
fidently affirmed, was alfo ftolen, and his fkuli has
been exhibited at Oxford.
PET [ 245 1 PET
Pctre PETRE, or Saltpetre, in chemiftry. See
1) Chemistry, n° 724, See.
PETREA, in botany : A genus of the angiofper-
’ mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 40th or¬
der, Perfonata. The calyx is quinquepartite, very
large, and coloured ; the corolla rotaceous ; the cap-
fule bilocular, and fituated in the bottom of the ca¬
lyx ; the feeds folitary. There is only one fpecies, a
native of New Spain. It rifes to the height of 15
or 16 feet, with a woody llalk covered with grey
bark, fending out feveral long branches. Thefe have
a whiter bark than the ftem, and are garnifhed with
leaves at each joint, which, on the lower part of the
branches, are placed by three round them; hut, higher
up, they are rough, and have a rough furface. The
flowers are produced at the ends of the branches, in
ioofe bnnehes nine or ten inches long, each flower
Handing on a flender flower-ftalk about an inch long :
the empalement of the flower is compofed of live nar¬
row obtufe leaves about an inch long, which are of a
fine blue colour, and much more ccnfpicuous than the
petals, which are white, and not more than half the
length of the empalcment. The plant is propagated
by feeds procured from the places where they are na¬
tives, and of which very few are good ; for though
Dr Houfton, the difeoverer of the plant, fent parcels of
feeds to feveral perfons in England, only two plants
were produced from the whole. The feeds muft. be
fawn in a good hot-bed ; and when the plants come
up, they ftrould all be planted in a feparate fmall pot
filled with light loamy earth, and plunged into a hot¬
bed of tanners bark, where they flioukl afterwards
conftantly remain.
PETREL, in ornithology. See Procellaria.
PETRID1A, in natural hiftory, a genus of ferupi,
of a plain, uniform texture ; of no great variety of
colours, and emulating the external form of pebbles.
PETRIFACTION, in phyfiology, demotes the
eonverfion of wood, bones, and other fubftances, prin¬
cipally animal or vegetable, into Hone. Thefe bodies
are more or lefs altered from their original ftate, accord¬
ing to the different fubftances they have lain buried
among in the earth ; fome of them having fuffeied
very little change, and others being fo highly impreg¬
nated with cryftailine, fparry, pyritical, or other ex¬
traneous matter, as to appear mere maffes of ffone or
lumps of the matter of the common pyrites ; but they
are generally of the external dimenlions, and retain
more or lefs of the internal figure, of the bodies into
the pores of which this matter has made its way. The
animal-fubftances thus found petrified are chiefly fea-
fheLs; the teeth, bony palates, and bones, of fifh; the
bones of land-animals, &c. Thefe are found varioufly
altered, by the iniinuation of ftony and mineral mat¬
ter into their pores ; and the fubftance of fome of
them is now wholly gone, there being only ftouy,
fparry, or other mineral matter remaining in the fhape
and form.
Refpedliug the manner in which petri faff ion is ac-
complifhed, we know but little. It has been thought
by many philofophers, that this was one of the rare
proceffes of nature ; and accordingly fuch places as
afforded a view of it, have been looked upon as great
curiofities. However, it is now' difeovered, that pe-
trifaflion 14exceedingly common; and that every kind Pef ifac.
of water carries in it fome earthy particles, which be- t*on-
ing precipitated fiom it, become ftone of a greater or v "
leffer degree of hardnefs ; and this quality is moft re¬
markable in thole waters which are much impregnated
with felenitic matter. Of late, it has alfo been found ridt Phil,
by forne obfervations on a petrifaffion in Eaft Lothian
in Scotland, that iron contributes greatly to the pro-v‘£’9,l5artI-*
cefs : and this it may do by its precipitation of anyp‘3,5,
aluminous earth which happens to be diffolved in the
water by means of an acid; for iron has the property
of precipitating this earth, though it cannot precipi¬
tate the calcareous kind. The calcareous kinds of
earth, however, by being foluble in water without any
acid, mull contribute very much to the procefs of pe-
trifaflion, as they are capable of a great degree of
hardnefs by means only of being joined with fixed air,
on which depends the folidky of our common cement
or mortar ufed in building houfes.
The name petrifaction belongs only, as we have feen,
to bodies of vegetable or animal origin ; and in order
to determine their clafs and genus, or even fpecies, it
is neceffary that their texture, their primitive form,
and in fome meafure their organization, be Hill dif-
cernible. Thus we ought not to place the ftony ker¬
nels, moulded in.the cavity of fome fhell, or other or¬
ganized body, in the rank of petrifa&ions proper¬
ly fo called.
Petrifa&ions of the vegetable kingdom are almoll
all either gravelly or filiceous ; and are found in gul¬
lies, trenches, &c. Thofe which Hr ike fire with lleel
are principally found in fandy fiffures; thofe which
effervefee in acids are generally of animal origin, and
are found in the horizontal beds of calcareous earth,
and fomelimes in beds of clay or gravel; in which
cafe the nature of the petrifaction is different. As to
the fubftances which are found in gypfum, they feldom
undergo any alteration, either with refpeA to figure
or compofition, and they are very rare.
Organized bodies, in a ftate of petrifa&ion, gene- -
rally acquire a degree of folidity of which they ivere
not poffeffed before they were buried in the earth,
and feme of them are often fully as hard as the
ftones or matrices in which they are enveloped. When
the ftones are broken, the fragments- of petrifaftiona
are eafily found, and eafily diftinguiihed. There are
fome organized bodies, however, fo changed by pe-
trifa&ion, as to render it impoflible to dilcover their
origin. That there is a matter more or lefs agitated,
and adapted for penetrating bodies, which crumbles
and feparates their parts, draws them along with it,
and difperfts them here and there in the fluid which
furrounds them, is a fa£l of which nobody feems to
entertain ’any doubt. Indeed we fte almoft every
fubftance, whether folid or liquid, infenfibly confume,
diminifti in bulk, and at iaft, in the lapfe of time, va-
nifli and difappear.
A petrified fubflance, ftriclly fpeaking, is nothing
more than the Ikeleton, or perhaps image, of a body
which has once had life, either animal or vegetable,
combined with fome mineral. Thus petrified wood
is not in that ftate wood alone. One part of the com-
pound or m?.fs of wood having been deftroyed by local
caufes, has been compenfated by earthy and fandy
fubiUnces, diluted and extremely minute, which the
water® •
PET [ 246 ] PET
Petrifac- waters furrounding them had depofited while they
themfelves evaporated. Phefe earthy fobftances, be-
ing then moulded in the Ikeleton, will be more or lefu
indurated, and will appear to have its figure* its ftruc-
tnre, its fize, in a word, the fame general characters,
the fame fpecific attributes, and the fame individual
dhferences. Farther, in petrified wood, no veflige
©f ligneous matter appears to exift. We know that
common wood is a body in which the volume of fo¬
il'd parts is greatly exceeded by that of the pores.
When wood is buried in certain places, lapidific
fluids, extremely divided and fometimes coloured, in-
linuate themfelves into its pores and fill them up.
Theft- fluids are afterwards moulded and condenfed.
The foltd part of the wood is decompofed and redu¬
ced into powder, which is expelled without the mafs
by aqueous fikrations. In this manner, the places
which were formerly occupied by the wood are now
left empty in the form of pores. This operation of
nature produces no apparent difference either of the
fize or of the flrape ; but it occafions, both at the
furface and in the infide, a change of fubltance, and
the ligneous texture is inverted ; that is to fay, that
which was pore in the natural wood, becomes folid
in that which is petrified ; and that which was fo¬
lid or full in the firlt flate, becomes porous in the
fecond. In this way, fays M. Mufard, petrified wood
is much lefs extended in pores than folid parts, and
at the fame time forms a body much more denfe and
heavy than the firft. As the pores communicate from
the circumference to the centre, the petrifaftion ought
to begin at the centre, and end with the circumfe¬
rence of the organic body fubjefted to the aftion of
the lapidific fluids. Such is the origin of petrifac¬
tions. They are organized bodies which have under¬
gone changes at the bottom of the fea or the furface
of the earth, and which have been buried by various
accidents at diffcient depths under the ground.
In order to underhand properly the detail of the
formation of petrified bodies, it is neceffary to be well
acquainted with all their conftituent parts. Let us
take wood for an example. Wood is partly folid and
partly porous. The folid parts confift of a fubltance,
hard, ligneous, and compaft, v/hich forms the fupport
of the vegetable ; the porous parts confift of veffels
or interftices which run vertically and horizontally
acrofs the ligneous fibres, and which ferve for conduct¬
ing air, lymph, and other fluids. Among thefe vef¬
fels, the trachiae which rife in fpiral forms, and which
contain only air, are eafily diftinguifhed; The cylin-
dric veflels, fome of which contain lymph, and others
the Jucms propriusy are full only during the life of the
vegetable. After its death they become vacant by
the evaporation and abfence of the fluids with which
they were formerly filled. All thefe veflels, whether
afeending or defeending, unite with one another, and
form great cavities in the wood and in the bark. Ac¬
cording to Malpighi and Duhamel, the ligneous fibres
are themfelves tubular, and afford a pafl'age to certain
liquors ; in fhort, the wood and bark are interfperfed
with utriculi of different fhapes and fizes. The aug¬
mentation of the trunk in thicknef', according to
Malpighi, is accomplifhed by the annual addition of
a new exterior covering of fibres and of trachias. O-
thers think that a concentric layer of lap-wood is
every year hardened, whilft a new one is forming from Petrlftc-i
the bark. But it is on all fides agreed that the con- bon.
centric layers of wood are diftinCt from one another, *
becaufe at the point of contadt betwixt any two of
them, the new veflels, as well as new fibres, are more
apparent and perceptible than they are in any other
place. Having made thefe preliminary remarks on
the ftruClure of vegetables, we (hall now proceed to
give an abridged account of the manner in which
M. Mongez explains their petrifaftion.
In proportion to the tendernefs and bad quality of
wood, it imbibes the greater quantity of water;
therefore this fort will unquellionably petrify more
eafily than that which is hard. It is thought that all
the petrified wood fo often found in Hungary has been
originally foft, fuch as firs or poplars. Suppof^ a
piece of wood buried in the earth; if it be very dry,
it will fuck up the moiflure which furrounds it like
a fpunge. This moiiture,jby penetrating it, will di¬
late all the parts of which it is compofed. The tra-
chise, or air-veflels, will be filled firft, and then the
lymphatic veflels and thofe which contain the fuccus
proprius* as they are likewife empty. The water which
forms this moifture keeps in diflblution a greater or
a lefs quantity of earth ; and this earth, detached,
and carried along in its courfe, is reduced to fuch an
attenuated ftate, that it efcapes our eyes and keeps
itfelf fufpended, whether by the medium of fixed air
or by the motion of the w-ater. Such is the lapidific
fluid. Upon evaporation, or the departure of the
menftruum, this earth, fand, or metal, again apoears
in the form of precipitate or fediment in the cavities
of the veflels, which by degrees are filled with it.
This earth is there moulded with exaftnefs: The
lapl'e of time, the fimultaneous and partial attradkioa
of the particles, make them adhere to one another;
the lateral fmftion of the furrounding fibres, the ob-
ftrmftion of the moulds, and the hardening of the
moulded earth, become general; and there confifts no¬
thing but an earthy fubltance which prevents the fink¬
ing of the neighbouring parts. If the depofit is
formed of a matter in general pretty .pure, it pre-
ferves a whiter and clearer colour than the reft of the
wood; and as the concentric layers are only per-
* ceptible and diftimft in the wood, becaufe the vef¬
fels are there more apparent on account of their fize,
the little earthy cylinders, in the ftate of petrified
wood, muft be there a little larger, and confequently
muft reprefent exattly the turnings and reparations
of thefe layers. At the place of the utriculi, globules
are obferved, of which the lhapes are as various as the
moulds wherein they are formed. The anaftdmofes
of the proper and lymphatic veflels, form befides points
of fupport or reunion for this ftony fubftance.
With regard to holes formed by worms in any
bits of wood, before they had been buried in the
earth, the lapidific fluid, in penetrating thefe great
cavities, depofits there as eafily the earthy fediment,
which is exaftly moulded in them. Thefe vermiform
cylinders are fomewhat lefs in bulk than the holes in -
which they are found, which is owing to the retreat
of the more refined earth and to its drying up.
Let any one reprefent to himfelf this colletftion of
little cylinders, vertical, horizontal, inclined in differ¬
ent directions, the itony maffesof utriculi and of anaf-
tomofee.
PET. [ 247 7 PET
Petrifae* tomofes, and he will have an idea of the ftony fub-
tl0n,_ ftance which forms the ground-work of petrifa&ion.
Hitherto not afingle ligneous part is deftroyed ; they
are all exifting, but furrounded on every fide with
earthy depofits ; and that body which, during life, was
compofed of folid and of empty parts, is now entirely
folid : its deftruftion and decompofition do not take
place till after the formation of thefe little depofits.
In proportion as the water abandons them, it pene¬
trates the ligneous fubllance, and deftroys it by an in-
fenfible fermentation. The woody fibres being decom-
pofed, form in their turn voids and intcrftices, and
there remains in the whole piece nothing but little fto-
ny cylinders. But in proportion as thefe woody fibres
difappear, the furrounding moifture, loaded with earth
in the ftate of diffolution, does not fail to penetrate
the piece of wood, and to remain in its new cavities.
' The newdepofitaflumes exactly the form of decompo-
fed fibres-; it envelopes in its turn the little cylinders
which were formed in their cavities, and ends by in¬
corporating with them. We may fuppofe here, that
in proportion as it decompofes, there is a reaftion of
the ligneous part againft the lapidific fluid : from this
reaction a colour arifes which ,ftains more or lefs the
new depofit ; and this colour will make it eafily diftin-
guifliable from that which has been laid in the infide
of the veflels. In all petrified wood this fliade is ge¬
nerally perceptible.-
We have then, fays M. Mongez, four diftindt e-
pochs in the procefs by which nature converts a piece
of wood into Hone, or, to fpeak more juftly, by which
flie fubftitutes a ftony depofit in its place: 1. Perfect
vegetable wood, that is to fay, wood compofed of folid
and of empty parts, of ligneous fibres, and of veflcls.
2. Wood Saving its veflels obflrudted and choaked
up by an earthy depofit, while its folid parts remain
unaltered. 3. The folid parts attacked and decompo-
fed, forming new cavities betwixt the flony cylinders,
which remain in the fame ftate, and which fupport the
whole mafs. 4. Thefe new cavities filled with new
depofits, which incorporate with the cylinders, and
compofe nothing elfe but one general earthy mafs re-
prefenting exactly the piece of wood.
Among the petrifactions of vegetables called clendro-
iites, are found parts of ftirubs, items, roots, portions
of the trunk, iome fruits, 5»c. We muft not, however,
confound the impreflions of mofies, ferns, and leaves,
nor incruftations, with petrifactions.
Among the petrifactions of animals, we find ihells,
cruftaceous animals, polyparii, fome worms, the bony
parts of fifties and of amphibious animals, few or no
real infeCts, rarely birds and quadrupeds, together with
the bony portions of the human body. The cornua
ammonis are petrified ferpents ; and with regard to fi¬
gured and accidental bodies, thefe are lufus nature.
In order, fays M. Bertrand, in his Didlonnairc des
FoJfileS) that a body ftiould become petrified, it is ne-
ceflary that it be, x. Capable ol prefervation under
ground : 2.1 uat it be fheltered from the air and run¬
ning water (the ruins of Herculaneum prove that bo¬
dies which have no connection with free air, preferve
themfelves untouched and entire). 3. That it be fe-
cured from cprrofive exhalations. 4. That it be in a
place where there are vapours or liquids, loaded either
with metallic ar ftony particles ia a ftate of diflblution,
/
and which, without deftroying the body, penetrate it, P^rifae-
impregnate it, and unite with it in proportion as its tion-
parts are dilfipated by evaporation. "" ' v "J
It is a queftion of gicat importance among natural-
ifts, to know the time which Nature employs in pe-
trifying bodies of an ordinary fize.— It was the wilh
of the late emperor, Duke of Lorraine, that fome
means ftiould be taken for determining this queftion.
M. le Chevalier de Baillu, dire&or of the cabinet of
natural hiftory of his imperial majefty, and fome other
naturalifts, had, feveral years ago, the idea of making
a refearch which might throw fome light upon ic. Hia
imperial majefty being informed by the unanimous ob-
fervations of modern hiftorians and geographers, that
certain pillars which are aChially feen in the Danube
in Gervia, near Belgrade, are remains of the bridge
which Trajan conftrufted over that river, prefumed
that thefe pillars having been preferved for fo ma¬
ny ages behoved to be petrified, and that they
would furnifh fome information with regard to the
time which nature employs in changing wood into
ftone. The emperor thinking this hope well founded/
and wiftiing to fatisfy his curiofity, ordered his am-
baflador at the court of Conftantinople to alk permif-
fion to take up from the Danube one of the pillars of
Trajan’s bridge. The petition was granted, and one
of the pillars was accordingly taken up ; from which
it appeared that the petnfaCTon had only advanced
three fourths of an inch in the fpace of 1500 years.
There are, however, certain waters in which this tranf-
mutation is more readily accomplifhed.—Petrifactions
appear to be formed more Ilowly in earths that are po¬
rous and in a flight degree moift than in water itfelf.
When the foundations of the city of Quebec in Ca¬
nada were dug up, a petrified favage was found among
the laft: beds to which they proceeded. Although there
was no idea of the time at which this man had been
buried under the ruins, it is however true, that his
quiver and arrows were ftill well preferved. In dig¬
ging a lead-mine in Derbyfhire in 1744, a human fke^
leton was found among flags horns. It Is impoflibie
to fay how many ages this carcafe had lain there. In
1695 the entire fkeleton of an elephant was dug up
near Tonna in Thuringia. Some time before this e-
poch the petrified fkeleton of a crocodile was found ia
the mines of that country. We might cite another
faft equally curious which happened at the beginning
of the laft century. John Munte, curate of Sltegarp
in Scania, and feveral of his parifhioners, vvifhing to
procure turf from a drained marfhy foil, found, forme
feet below ground, ar entire cart with, the fkeletons of
the horfes and carter It is prefumed that there had
formerly been a lake n that place, and that the carter
attempting to pafs over on the ice, had by that means-
probably perifhed. In fine, wood partly fefiil and part¬
ly coaly has been found at a great depth, in the clay
of which tile was made for the Abbey of Fonienay.
11 is but very lately that fofiil wood was difeovered at
the depth of 75 feet in a well betwixt Iffi and Vauvres
near Paris- This wood was in fand betwixt a bed of
clay and pyrites, and water was found four feet lower
than the pyrites. M. de Laumont, iafpeftor general
Or the mines, fays {'Journalde Pbyjique, Mai 1736), that
in the lead-mine at Pontpean near Rennes, is a fiffure,
perhaps the only one of its kind. In that filfure, feJ
fir ells,
PET [ 248 ] PET
Fetrifac- fhells» rounsled pebbles, and an entire beecb, have been
t1011, found 240 feet deep. This beech was laid horizon-
1 ' tally in the direftion of the fiffure. Its bark was con-
* verted into pyrites, the fap-wood into jet, and the
r centre into coal.
A great many pieces of petrified wood are found in
different counties of France and Savoy. In Cobourg
in Saxony, and in the mountains of Mifnia, trees of
a confiderable thicknefs have been taken from the
earth, which were entirely changed into a very fine
agate, as alfo their branches and their roots. In
-fawing them, the annual circles of their growth have
been diftinguifhed. Pieces have been taken up, on
which it was diftinftly feen that they had been gnaw¬
ed by worms ; others bear vifible marks of the hatchet.
In fine, pieces have been found which were petrified
at one end, while the other ilill remained in the ftate
of wood fit for being burned. It appears then that
petrified wood is a great deal lefs rare in nature than is
Commonly imagined.
Cronftedt has excluded petrifa&ions from any place
in the body of his fyftem of mineralogy, but takes
rotice of them in his appendix. He diftinguifhes them
by the name of Mtneralia Larvata, and defines them
to be “ mineral bodies in the form of animals or vege*
tabi ’S.” The moft remarkable obfervations concerning
them, according to Mr Kirwan, who differs in fome
particulars from Mongez, are as follow. 1. Thofe of
fhells are found on or near the furface of the earth ;
thofe of fifh deeper; and thofe of wood deeper ftilh
Shells in fubftance are found in vaft quantities, and at
confiderable depths. 2. The fubftances moft fufcep-
tible of petrifaftion are thefe which mod refift the pu¬
trefactive procefs ; of which kind are {hells, the harder
kinds of wood, &c.; while the fofter parts of animals,
which eafily putrefy, are feldom met with in a petri¬
fied ftate. 3. They are mod com/ronly found in drata
of marl, chalk,limedone, or clay: feldom in fanddone,
ftill more feldom in gypfum ; and never in gneifs, gra¬
nite, bafaltes, or fchoerl. Sometimes they are found
In pyrites, and ores of iron, copper, and lilver ; con¬
fiding almod always of that kind of earth or other mi¬
neral which furrounds them ; fometimes of filex, agate,
or cornelian. 4. They are found in climates where the
animals themfelves could not have exided. 5. Thofe
found in flate Or clay are compreffed and flattened.
The different fpecics of petrifaftions, according to
Cronttedt, are,
I. Terra Larvata ; extraneous bodies changed into
a limy fubffance-or calcareous changes. Thefe are, 1.
Loofe or friable. 2. Indurated. The former are of
a chalky nature in form of vegetables or animals ; the
fecond filled with folid limeftone in the fame forms.
Some are found entirely changed into a calcareous fpar.
All of them arc found in France, Sweden, and other
Countries in great plenty.
On thtfe petiifaftions Crondedt obfeives, that fliells
and corals are compofed of limy matter evert when fliil
inhabited by their animals, but they are claflVd among
the petrifa&icns as foon as the calcareous particles
have obtained a new arrangement; for example, when
they have become foarry ; filled with calcareous earth
either hardenc d or loofe, or when they lie in the drata of
the earth. “Thefe, fays he, form the greated part of the
fqfiil collections which are fo itiduftriouflj made, often
without any regard to the principal and only ufe they Petrrfac*
can be of, viz . that of enriching zoology. Minermlogids tlon'
are fatisfied with feeing the pofiibility of the changes v
the limedone undergoes in regard to its particles; and
alfo with receiving fome infight into the alteration which
the earth has been fubjeft to from the date of the
ftrata which are now found in it.” The calcined fhells,
where the petritactiona are of a limy or chalky nature,
anfwer extremely well as a manure ; but the indurated
kind ferve only for making grottoes. Gypfeous petri-
fadtions are extremely rare ; however, Chardin informs
us that he had feen a lizard inclofed in a done of that
kind in Perfia.
IT. Larvae, or bodies changed into a flinty fubdance,
Thefe are all indurated, and are of the following fpe-
cies. 1. Cornelians in form of fliells from the river
Tomm in Siberia. 2. Agate in form of wood ; a piece
of which is faid to be in the colledtion of the Count
de Teffin. 3. Coralloids of white flint (Millepora)
found in Sweden. 4. Wood of yellow flint found in
Italy, in Turkey near Adrianople, and produced by
the waters of Lough-neagh in Ireland.
III. LarviS Argillacea; where the bodies appear to
be changed into clay. Thefe are found either loofe
and friable, or indurated. Of the former kind is a
piece of porcelain clay met with in a certain colledtion,
with all the marks of the root of a tree upon it. Of
the latter kind is the ofteocolla; which is faid to be
the roots of the poplar-tree changed, and not to con-
fift of any calcareous fubftance. A fort of fofiile ivo¬
ry, with all the properties of clay, is faid likewife to be
found in fome places.
IV. Larva Infalita; where the fubftances are im¬
pregnated with great quantities of falts. Human bo¬
dies have been twice found impregnated with vitriol
of iron in the mine of Falun, in the province of Da-
larne in Sweden. One of them was kept for feveral
years in a glafs cafe, but at laft began to moulder and
fall to pieces. Turf and roots of trees are likewife
found in water ftrongly impregnated with vitriol.
They do not flame, but look like a coal in a ftrong
fire ; neither do they decay in the air.
V. Bodies penetrated by mineral inflammable fub¬
ftances. I. By pit-coal, fuch as wood ; whence fome
have imagined coal to have been originally produced
from wood. Some of thefe fubftances are fully fatu-
rated with the coaly matter ; others not. Am«ng the
former Cronftedt reckons jet; among the latter the
fubftance called mumia vegetabilis^ which is of a loofe
texture, refembling amber, and may be ufed as fuch.
2. Thofe penetrated by afphaltum or rock-oil. The
only example of thefe given by our author is a kind
of turf in the province of Skone in Sweden. The E-
gyptian mummies, he obferves, cannot have any place
among this fpecies, as they are impregnated artificially
with afphaltum, in a manner fimilar to what happens
naturally with the wood and coaly matter in the laft
fperies. 3. Thofe impregnated with fulphur which has
difiblved iron, or with pyrites. Human bodies, bivalve
and univalve Iheils and infects, have been all found in
this ftate ; and the laft are found in the alum ftate at
Andrarum, in the province of Skone in Sweden.
VI. Larva met allifer a; where the bodies are im¬
pregnated with metals. Thefe are, 1. Covered witk
native lilver; which is found on the furface of iheils
5
PET t H9 ] PET
in England. 2. Where the metal in minerallfed with
copper and fulphur. Of this kind is the fahlertz or
grey filver ore, in the fhape of ears of corn, and fup-
pofed to be vegetables, found in argillaceous Hate at
Frankenberg and Tahlittereri in Hefle. 3. Larva
cuprifera, where the bodies are impregnated with cop¬
per. To this fpeciea principally belong the Turquoife
or Turkey ftonefi, improperly fo called ; being ivory
and bones of the elephant orpther animals impreg¬
nated with copper. See TurCuoise. At Simore in
Languedoc there are bones of animals dug up, which,
during calcination, affume a blue colour ; but accord¬
ing to Cronftedt it is not probable that thefeowe their
colour to copper. 3. With mineralifed copper. Of
thefe our author gives two examples. One is where
the copper is mineralifed with fulphur and iron, form¬
ing a yellow marcafitica! ore. With this fome fhells
tire impregnated which lie upon a bed of loadftone in
Norway Other petrifaftions of this kind are found
in the form of fifh in different parts of Germany. The
other kind is where the copper is impregnated with ful-
phurand filver. Of this kindisthe grey filver ore, like ears
of corn, found in the hate quarries at Hefle. 4. Larva
jerrifera, with iron in form of a calx, which has af-
fumed the place or fhape of extraneous bodies. Thefe
are either lonfe or indurated. Of the loofe kind are,
fome roots of trees found at the lake Langelma in Fin¬
land. 1 he indurated kinds are exemplified in fome
word found at Orbiflan in Bohemia. 9. Where the
iron is, mineralifed, as in the pyritaceous larvae, already
dcfcribed.
VII. Where the bodies are tending to decompofi-
tion, or in a way of deftiuftion. Among thefe, our
author enumerates Mould and Turf, which fee ; as
aifo Cement, Mortar, Rock, Sand, Selenitje,
Stone, and Water. See likewife the article Fossil,
•Fiates CC and CCI, and Mountain.
We fhali add the following defcription of a very cu¬
rious ammal petrifaction. 1 he Abbe de Sauvages,
celebrated for his refined tafte and knowledge in na¬
tural hiftory, in a tour through Languedoc, between
Alais and Uzes, met with a narrow vein of no more
than two toifes wide, which erodes the road, and is
bordered on one fide by a grey dirty foil, and on the
mther by a dry fandy earth, each of a vaft extent, and
on a level with the narrow vein whfSh feparates them.
In this narrow vein only are contained petrified fhells,
cemented together by a whitifh marl. They are in
prodigious plenty ; among which there is one fpecies
which the Abbd does not remember to have known
to have been anywhere deferibed, and may probably
be a new acquifition to natural hiftory.
i his fhell has the fhape of a horn, fomewhat in-
curv ted towards the hafe. (See figure 9. Plate
CCCLXXXVIII.) It feerrs compwfed of feveral
cups, let into each other, which are fometimes found
feparate. 1 hey have ail deep channels, which extend,
as in many other fhells, from thebaic to the aperture ;
the projecting ribs which form thefe channels are moft-
Ky worn away, being rarely to be found htire. Some-
t.mes feveral are grouped together; and as a proof
that they are not a fortuitous ?fft mblage caufed by the
petrifaction, they are fixed together through their
whole length, in fuch fort, that their bafe and aperture
are regularly turned the fame way. The Abbe fhould
Vot. XIV. Part I. ,
have referred this to the genus which Linnarlis and the
Marquis d’Argenville named denta/is, had they not
been let into each other. He found fome of them
whofe aperture or hollow was not flopped up by the
petrifadtion, and feemed as cones adapted to one ano¬
ther (fig. 10.), forming a row of narrow cells, feparated
by a very tlrn partition : this row occupied not more
than one half of the cavity of the {hell.
Our article has already extended to fuch a length as
to preclude any further additions :ywe cannot, how*
ever, finifh it without obferving, that fofiil bones are
very common in Dalmatia. They are of various kinds,
and in their nature, apparently very extraordinary; but
we have found no tolerable account or probable con-
jedlure of their oj igiir. Vitaliano Donati of Padua, in
his Saggio foprala la Jloric naturale dell' Adnatico, was
the fir ft who took notice of them ; and Fortis, in his
travels into Dalmatia, has given a copious account of
them. They are moll common in the ifiands of Cherfo
and Ofero. See Fortis’s Travels into Dalmatia, page
440—465, and our article Vitaliano.'1
PL TRIFIED City. The ftory of a petrified city
is well known all over Africa, and has been believed by
many confiderable perfons even in Europe. Louis XIV.
fo fully perfuaded of its reality, that he ordered
his ambaflador to procure the body of a man petrified
from it at any price. L)r Shaw’s account of this affair
is as follows: “ About 40 years ago (how more than
70), when M. le Maire was the French conful at
Tripoli, he made great inquiries, by order of the
1'tench court, into tlje truth of the report concerning a
petrified city at Ras Sem; and amongft other very cu¬
rious accounts relating to this place, he told me a re¬
markable circumftance, to the great diferedit, and even
confutation, of all that had been fp pofitively advanced
with regard to the petrified bodies of men, children,
and other animals.
“ Some of the janizaries, who, in colle&ing tribute,
traverfe the diftrift of Ras Stnr, promifed him, that,
as an adult ptrfon would be too cumberfome, they
would undertake, for a certain number of dollars, to
bring him from thence the body of a little child.
Alter a great mEny-pretended difficulties, delays, and
difappointrm nts,they produced at length a little Cupid,
which they had found, as he learned afterwards, among
the ruins of Leptis ; and, to conceal the deceit, they
broke off the quiver, and fome other of the diftinguifh-
ing charadeiiftics of that deity. However, he paid
them for it, according to promii'e, 1000 dollars, which
is about 150I. flerling of our money, as a reward for
their faithful fervice and hazardous undertaking; ha¬
ving run the rifle, as they pretended, of being ftrangled
if they fhould have been difeovered in thus delivering
up to an irfidei one of thofe unfortunate Mahometans,
as they take them originally to have been.
“ But notwithftanding this cheat and impofition had
made the conful deiift from fearching after the petri¬
fied bodies of men and other anil’s; yet there was
•one matter of faR, as he told me, which ftill very
ftrangely embarraffed him, and even ftrengly engaged
him in favour of the current report and tradition. Th.’i
was fome little loaves of bread, as he called them,
which had been brought to him from that place. His
reafoning, indeed, thereupon, provided the pretended
matter of fa£l had been clear and evident, was juft and
I t fatiafaclory \
Petrified
City.
PET [ J PET
P«frified fatisraftory ; for where we find loaves of bread, thene,
Clty- as he urged, fome perfons mud have been employed in
making them, as well as others for whom they were
prepared. One of thefe loaves he had, among other
petrifications, very fortunately brought wnth him to
Cairo, where I faw it, and found it to be an echinites
of the difcoid kind, of the fame fafhion with one
I had lately found and brought with v.ie from the
deferts t)f Marah. We may therefore reafonably
conclude, that there is nothing to be found at Ras
Sem, unlefs it be the trunks of trees, echinites, and
fueh petrifications as have been difcovered at other
places.
“ M. le Maire’s inquiries, which we find were fup-
ported by the promife and performance of great re¬
wards, have brought nothing further to light. He
could never learn that any traces of walls, or buildings,
or animals, or utenfils, were ever to be feen within the
verge of thefe pretended petrifications. The like ac¬
count I had from a Sicilian renegade, who was the ja¬
nizary that attended me whilft I was in Egypt; and
as in bis earlier years he had been a foldier of Tripoli,
he aflured me that he had been feveral times at Ras
Sem. This I had confirmed again in my return from
the Levant by the interpreter of the Britifh factory
at Tunis, who was likewife a Sicilian renegade; and
being the libertus or freedman of the baihaw of Tri¬
poli, was preferred by him to be the bey or viceroy
©f the province of Darna, where Ras Sem was imme¬
diately under his jurifdi&ion. His account was like-
wife the fame ; neither had he ever feen, in his fre¬
quent journeys over this diftrift, any other petrifica¬
tions than what are above-mentioned. So that the
petrified city, with its walls, caftles, ftreets, fhops,
cattle, inhabitants, and utenfils, were all of them at
firft the mere inventions of the Arabs, and afterwards
propngated by fuch perfons, who, like the Tripoli
ambafiador, and his friend above mentioned, were cre¬
dulous enough to believe them.
“ However, there is one remarkable circumftance
relating to Ras Sem that deferves well to be recorded.
When the winds have blown away the billows of fand
which frequently cover and conceal thefe petrifications,
they difeover, in fome of the lower and more deprefled
places of this diftrift, feveral little pools of water,
which is ufuafiy of fo ponderous a nature, that, upon
drinking it, it pafies through the body like quickfilver.
This perhaps may be that petrifying fluid which has
all along contributed to the converfion of the palm-
trees and the echini into ftone : for the formation not
only of thefe, but of petrifications of all kinds, may
be entirely owing to their having firit of all lodged in
a bed of loam, clay, fand, or fome other proper nidus
®r matrix, and afterwards gradually been afted upon
and pervaded by fuch a petrifying fluid as we may fup-
pofe this to be.”
To this account it may not be amifs to fubjoin the
memorial of Caffem Aga, the Tripoli ambaffador at
the court of Britain. The city, he fays, is fituated
tw’o days journey fouth from Onguela, and 17 days
journey from Tripoli by caravan to the fouth-eaft.
“ As one of my friends (fays the ambaffador) defired
me to give him in writing an account of what I knew
4 touching the petrified city, I told him what I had
heard from different pexfons, and particularly from the
mouth of one man of credit who had been on thePetrobruft
fpot: that is to fay, that it was a very fpacious city, flans
of a round form, having great and fmall ftreets there- P
in, furnifhed with fhops, with a vaft caflle magnifi-^®^?^311*
cently built: that he had feen there feveral forts of p
trees, the moft part olives and palms, all of ftone, and
of a blue or rather lead colour: that he faw alfo
figures of men in a pofture of exercifing their different
employments; forne holding in their hands fluffs, other*
bread, every one doing fomething, even women fuck-
ling their children, and in the embraces of their
hufbands, all of ftone : that he went into the cattle by
three different gates, though there were many more,
where he faw a man lying upon a bed of ftone; that
there were guards at the gates with pikes and javelins
in their hands : in fhort, that he faw in this wonder¬
ful city many forts of animals, as camels, oxen, horfes,
affes, fheep, and birds, all of ftone, and the colour
above.mentioned.,,
We have fubjoined this account, becaufe it fhows
in ftriking colours the amazing credulity of mankind,
and the avidity with which they fwallow the marvel¬
lous, and the difficulty of difeovering the truth re-
fpefting places or things at a diftance from us.
PETROBRUSSIANS, a religious fe&, which
had its rife in France and the Netherlands about the
year 1110. The name is derived from Peter Bruys, a
Provengal, who made the moft laudable attempt to re¬
form the abufes and remove the fuperftition that dis¬
graced the beautiful fimplicity of the gofpel. His
followers were numerous ; and for 20 years his labour
in the miniftry was exemplary and unremitted. He-
was, however, burnt in the year 1130 by an enraged
populace fet on by the clergy.
The chief of Bruys’s followers was a monk named
Henry ; from whom the Petrobruffians were alfo called
Henricians. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Clugny,
has an exprefs treatife againft the Petrobruffians; in
the preface to which he reduces their opinions to five
heads. 1. They denied that children before the age
of reafon can be juftified by baptifm, in regard it ie
our own faith that faves by baptifm. 2. They held
that no churches fhould be built, but that thofe that
already are fhould be pulled down ; an inn being as
proper for prayers as a temple, and a liable as an altar,
3. That the crofs ought to be pulled down and burnt,
becaufe we ought to abhor the inftruments of our Sa¬
viour’s paffion. 4. That the real body and blood of
Chrxft are not exhibited in the eucharift, but merely
reprefented by their figures and fymbols. 5. That
facrifices, alms, prayers, &c. do not avail the dead.
F. Langlois objects Manicheifm to the Petrobruffians ;
and fays, they maintained two gods, the one good,
the other evil: but this we rather efteem an effedl of
his zeal for the catholic caufe, which determined him
to blacken the adverfaries thereof, than any real fenti-
ment of the Petrobruffians.
PETROJOANNITES, were followers of Peter
John, or Peter Joann is, i. e. Peter the fon of John, who
flourifhed in the 12th century. His doflrine was not
known till after his death, when his body was taken
out of his grave and burnt. His opinions were, that he
alone had the knowledge of the true fenfe wherein the
apoflles preached the gofpel; that the reafonable fotjl
is not the form of man; that there is no grace infufed '
Plate CCnJOX'TU
s///t A
<//a//i<r
r'/./'),// !‘A< It: M•
I
• I
wifi
W.
PET
* See Cbe
fiiiflry, n°
*443-
Petmleum. hy baptlfm ; and that Jefua Chrift was pierced with a
y~ —v lance on the crofs before he expired.
PETROLEUM*, or Rock oil ; a thick oily
fubftance exuding out of the earth, and colleded on
the furface of wells in many parts of the world. It
is found on fome in Italy, and in a deferted mine in
the province of Dalame in Sweden. In this Lift place
it collects itfelf in fmall hollows of limeilone, like
refin in the wood of the pine-tree. It is found trick¬
ling from the rocks, or ifluing from the earth, in
many parts of the duchy of Modena, and in various
parts of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Scotland,
as well as in Afia. It is alfo found not only on the
furface of wells as already mentioned, but mixed with
earth and fand, from whence it may be feparated by
infufion in water. It is of a pungent and acrid tafte,
and fmells like the oil of amber, but more agreeable.
It is very light and very pellucid ; but, though equally
bright and clear under all circumftances, it is liable to
a very great variety in its colour. It is naturally al-
moft colourlefs, and in its appearance greatly refembles
the moft pure oil of turpu tine : this is called white
petroleum^ though it has no more colour than water.
It is fometimes tinged of a brownifti, reddilh, yellowifh,
or faint greenifti colour; but its moft frequent colour
is a mixture of the reddilh and blackifti, in fuch a de¬
gree that it looks bhuk when viewed behind the light,
i>ut purple when placed between the eye and a candle
Or window. It is rendered thinner by diftillation with
water, and leaves a refinous refiduum ; when diftilled
with a volatile alkali, the latter acquires the properties
of fuccinated ammoniac, and coutains the acid of
amber. It is the moft frequent of all the liquid bitu¬
mens, and is perhaps the moft valuable of them all in
medicine. It is to be chofen the pureft, lighteft, and
moft pellqcid that can be had, fuch as is of the moft
■penetrating fmell and is moft inflammable. Monet in¬
forms us that fome kinds of it are of the denfity of
nut-oil. It is infoluble in fpirit of wine ; which, though
it be the great diflblvent of fulphur, has no effeft upon
petroleum, not even with ever fo long a digeftion. It
Will not take fire with the dephlegmated acid fpirits;
as oil of cloves and other of the vegetable efiential oils
do: and in diftillation, either by balneum marise or in
fand, it will neither yield phlegm nor acid fpirit; but
the oil itfelf.rifes in its own form, leaving in the retort
only a little matter, thick as honey, and of a brownilh
Colour.
The finer kinds refemble naphtha. Kirwan is of
Opinion that naphtha is converted into petroleum by a
procefs fimilar to what takes place in eiTential oils when
expofed to the atmofphere; in which cafe the oil ab-
forbs not only the pure, but alfo the phlogifticated,
part of the atmofphere; in confequence of which feveral
alterations take place in them.
Mr Bouldoc made feveral experiments with the white
petroleum of Modena; an account of which he gave to
the Paris academy.
f ]
PET
It eafily took fire (a) on being brought near a csndle, Fetwlwm?.
and that without immediately touching the flame ; and>
when heated in any veffel it will attrad the flame of
a candle, though placed at a great height above the
veffe1; and the vapour it fends Up taking fire, the flame
will be communicated to the veffel of heated liquor,
and the whole will, be confumed. It burns in the
water; and when mixed with any liquor fwims on the
iurface ©f lt, even of the higheft redified fpirit of wine,
which is 4-th heavier than pure petroleum. It readily
mixes with all the eflential oils of vegetables, as oil of
lavender, turpentine, and the reft, and feems very much
of their nature : nor is this very ftrange, fince the al¬
liance between thefe bodies is probably nearer than is
imagined, as the eftential oils of vegetables may have
been originally mineral ones, and drawn up out of the
earth into the veflels of the plants.
. diftinguifhing charafteriftic of the petroleum is
its thicknefs, refembling infpiffated oil: when pure
it is lighter than fpirit of wine ; but, though ever fo
well rectified, it becomes in time thick and black as
before. Petroleum, when fhakea, yields a kw bubbles ;
but they fooner fubfide than in almoft any other liquor,
and the liquor refumes its clear ftate again almoft im¬
mediately. This feems owing to the air in this fluid
bemg very equally diftributed to all its parts, and the
liquor being compofed of particles very evenly and
nicely arranged. This extenfibility of the oil is alfo
amazing. A drop of it will fpread over feveral feet of
water, anu in this condition it gives a great variety of
colours; that is, the feveral parts of W'hich this thin
film is compofed a<ft as fo many prifms. The moft
fevere froft never congeals petroleum into ice; and
paper wetted with it becomes tranfparent as when
wetted with oil; but it does not continue fo, the paper
becoming opaque again in a few minutes as the oil
dries away.
i here are three varieties of it according to Mongez
I. The yellow, found at Modena in Italy ; very light
and volatile. 2. The reddifh, or yellowifti red ; fome
of which is collected at Gabian in Languedoc and in
• uCt'* I^c heavy, black, or brown kind, which
is the moft common, and met wdth in England, France,
Germany,, and fome other countries. It generally
runs out either from chinks or gaps of rocks, or is
mixed with the earth, and guflies out of it; or it
fwims on the water of fome fountains, as already men¬
tioned. According to Dr Lippert, a kind of rofin is
produced by mixing petroleum with fmoking nitrous
acid. The tafte of this fubftance is very bitter, but
t e fmell refembles that of muflt. The vitriolic acid,
according to the fame author, produces a refin Hill
more bitter, but without any aromatic fmell. Cron-
ftedt enumerates the following fpecies.
Maltha, or Barbadoes tar, a thick fubftance re-
fombling foft pitch. It is found in feveral parts of
Europe and Afia ; particularly Sweden, Germany,
and Switzerland; on the coait cf the Dead.Sea in
I I 2 Paleftine ;
f Alonfo Barba, in bis book of metals, elves a very melancholy inftance of the power of petroleum of
'tU
*..d,
PET [25
Petroleum. Palefttne ; in Perfia, in the chinks of rocks, and in
  flrata of gypfum and limeftone, or floating upon water.
It is found alfo in America, and at Colebrookdale in
England. Kirwan tells us, that petroleum expofed
for a long time to the air forms this fubftance. It ia
of a vifcid coniiftence ; and of a brown, black, or
reddifh black colour. .Sometimes it is inodorous, but
generally of a more or lefs difagreeable fmell, particu¬
larly when burned. It melts eallly, and burns with
much fmoke and foot, leaving either afhes or a flag ac¬
cording to the heterogeneous matter it contains. It
contains a portion of the acid of amber. It gives a
bitter fait with mineral alkali, more difficult of folu-
tion than common fait, and which, when treated with
charcoal, does not yield any fulphur.
II. Elajlic Petrol; a very Angular kind of foffil met
with in fome parts of England. This, in colour and
confiftency,exa£ly refembles the Caoutchouc, or ela-
ftic gum-refm, commonly called Irulian rubbery found
in South America, and ufed for rubbing out the traces
of black lead pencils from paper. It is of a dark
brown colour, almoft black ; and in fome pieces has
a y ell owl fh-brown caft like the fame gum-refin. It
can fcarce be diflinguiflied from the caoutchouc with
regard to its elaftic property, excepting that the co-
hefion of its parts is not fo great. It burns with a
fmoky flame, and melts likewife into a thick oily
fluid ; but emits a difagreeable fmell like the Fossil
2 1 PET
Pitch or Barbadoes tar. “ On the whole (fays M. Petroleunt,
Magellan), this foffile feems to confirm the opinion of *“”> -4
thofe mineralogifts who believe that thefe oily com-
buftibles derive their origin from the vegetable king¬
dom. It feems worth trying whether pieces of afphal-
tum, buried in damp beds of fparry rubbiffi or other
kinds of earth, would take the fame elaftic conlift-
ence.” This fubftance was found in the year 1785
near Caffelton in Derbyfhire, but in very fmall quan¬
tities. Some of the fpecimens were of a cylindrical
form, like bits of fmall branches or ftalks of vegeta¬
bles ; tho’ much more flexible, being perfe&ly elattic.
1II. Hardened rock-oily or foffil pitch, an inflammable
fubftance dug out of the ground in many parts of the
world, and known by the names of petroleum indura-
turn, pix montanay indenpechy berghartz,, &c. There are
two fpecies. I. The afphaltum (b), or pure foffil
pitch, found on the fliores of the Dead Sea and ot
the Red Sea; alfo in Sweden, Germany, and Fiance:
See Asphaltum. It isa fmooth, hard, brittle, ino¬
dorous fubftance, of a black or brown colour when look¬
ed at; but on holding it up betwixt the eye and the
light, appears of a deep red. It fwims in water ;
breaks witR a fmooth and fhining furtace ; melts ealily j
and, when pure, burns without leaving any aihes ; but,
if impure, leaves ?.(<hes, or a flag. M. Monet iflerts
that it contains fulphur, or at leaft the vitriolic acid. ,
It is flightly and partially ailed upon by fpirit-of wine
(3) This fpecies is found in great quantity in a bituminous lake or plain in the iflan.d of Trinidad, of
which Mr Anderfon gives the following copious account in the 79th volume of the PhilofophicalTranfadions.
“ A moft remarkable production of nature in the ifland of Trinidad, is a bituminous lake, or rather
plain, known by the name of Tar Lake; by the French called La Bray, from the refemblance to, and
anfwering the intention of, fhip-pitch. It lies in the leeward fide of the ifland, about half-way from the
Bocas to the fouth end, where the mangrove fwamps are interrupted by the fand-banks and hills ; and on a
point of land which extends into the fea about two miles, exadlly oppotite to the high mountains of Paria9
on the north fide of the gulf.
« This cape, or headland, is about 50 feet above the level of the fea, and is the greateft elevation of land
on this fide of the ifland. From the fea it appears a mafs of black vitrified rocks; but, on a clofe examina¬
tion, it is found a compofition of bituminous fcoriae, vitrified fand, and earth, cemented together: in fome
parts beds of cinders only are found. In approaching this cape, there is a ftrong fulphureous fmell, fometimes
difagreeable. This fmell is prevalent in many parts of the ground to the diftance ot eight or ten miles from it.
This point of land is about two miles broad, an i on the call and weft fides, from the diftance of about half a mile
from the fea, falls with a gentle declivity to it, and is joined to the main land dn the fouth by the continua¬
tion of the rri an grove fwamps; fo that the bituminous plain is ovn the higheft part of it, and only feparated
from the fea by a margin of wood which furrounds it, and prevents a diftant profpeft of it. Its fituation is
fimilar to a favannah, and, like them, it is not feen till treading upon its verge. Its colour and even fur-
face prefent at firft the afpeft of a lake of water; but it is poffible it got the appellation of Lake when fee®
in the hot and dry weather, at which time its furface to the depth of an inch is liquid ; and then from its
cohefive quality it cannot be walked upon.
“ It is of a circular form, about three miles in circumference. At my firft approach it appeared a plain,
as fmooth as glafs, excepting fome frnall clumps of (hrubs and dwarf trees that had taken pofleffion of fome
foots of it * but when I had proceeded fome yards on it, l found it divided into areolae of different fizes
and ftiapes : the chafms or divifions anaftomofed through every part of it; the furface of the areolae perfeftly
horizontal and fmooth; the margins undulated, each undulation enlarged to the bottom till they join the
oppofite. On the furface, the margin or firft undulation is diftant from the oppofite from four to fix feet,
and the fame depth before they coalefce ; but where the angles of the areolae oppofe, the chafms or rami¬
fications are wider and deeper. When I was at it, all thefe chafms were full of w^ater, the whole forming
one true horizontal plane, which rendered my inveftigation of it difficult and tedious, being neceffitated to
plunge into the water a great depth in palling from one areolae to another. The trueft idea that can be form¬
ed of its furface will be from the areolas and their ramifications on the back of a turtle. Its more common
confiftence and appearance is that of pit-coal, the colour rather greyer. It breaks into fmall fragments or
PET [ 2?3 1 PET
petpo!eum. anJ tt!:cr. Btfides the countries above-mentioned,
Brunnich informs us that the afphaltum comes from
Porto Principe in the ifhnd of Cuba in the Wed In¬
dies. It is likewife found, according to Fourcroy,
in many parts of China; and is ufed for a covering to
Ihips by Arabs and Indians 2. The pix montana im-
pura contains a great quantity of earthy matter, which
is left in the retort after diitillation, or upon the char¬
coal if burnt in the open fire. It coheres Lke a flag,
and is of the colour of black-lead ; but in a ftrong
heat this earth is foon volatilifed, fo that its nature is
not yet well known. During the diftillation a liquid
fubtlance falls into the receiver, which is found to be
of the fame nature with rock-oil. The fuLdance It- Potroleum.
felf is found in Sweden and feveral other countries. ' 
The pifafphaltum is of a mean confidence between
the afphaltum and the common petroleum. Mongez
fays that it is the fame with the bitumen collected
from a well named la Pege, near Clermont Ferrand
in France.
The people of mount Ciaro, in Italy, have fome years
fince found out a much taher way of finding petro¬
leum than that which they formerly had been ufed to.
This mountain abounds with a fort of greyifli fait,
which lies in large hori/.oncal beds, mingled withftrata
of clay, and large quantities of a fpar of that kind
called
a cellular appearance, and glofly, with a number of minute and Paining particles interfperfed through its fub-
ftance ; it is very friable, and, when liquid, is of a jet black colour. Some parts of the furface are covered
with a thin and brittle fcoria, a little elevated.
“ As to its depth, I can form no idea of it ; for in no part could I find a fubflratum of any other fubftance ;
Jn fome parts I found calcined earth mixed with it.
“ Although I fmelt fulphur very ftrong on paffing over many parts of if, I could difeover no appearance
of it, or any rent or crack through which the fteams might rifue ; probably it was from fome parts of the
adjacent woods : for although fulphur is the bafis of this bituminous matter, yet the frnells are very diffe¬
rent, and eafily diftinguifhed, for its fmell comes the neareft to that of pitch of any thing I know. I
could make no imprcllxon on its furface without an axe : at the depth of a foot I found it a little fofter,
with an oily appearance, in fmall cells. A little of it held to a burning candle makes a hilling or crackling
noife like nitre, emitting fmail fparks with a vivid flame, which extinguifh the moment the candle is re-
n/ovec!. A piece put in the fire will boil up a long time without fuffering much diminution : after a lo»g
time’s fevere heat, ihe furface will burn and form a thin fcoria, under which the reft remains liquid. Heat
feems not to render it fluid, or occupy a larger fpace than when cold ; from which, I imagine, there is but
little alteration on it during the dry months, as the folar rays cannot exert their force above an inch below
the furface. 1 was told by one Frenchman, that in the dry feafon the whole was an uniform fmooth mafa ;
and by another, that the raving contained water fit for ufe during the year. But neither can I believe : for
if, according to the firft affertion, it was an homogeneous mafs, fomething more than an external caufe mull
affeft it to give it the prefent appearances ; nor without fome hidden caufe can the fecond be granted.
Although the bottoms of thefe ramified channels admit not of abforption, yet from their open expofure,
and the black furface of the circumjacent parts, evaporation muft go os amazingly quick, and a fhort time of
dry weather muft foon empty them ; nor from the iituation and ftru&ure of the place is there a poffibility
of fupply but from the clouds. To (how that the progrefs of evaporation is inconceivably quick here, at
the time I viiited it there were, on an average, two-thirds of the time inceffant torrents of rains ; but from the
afternoon being dry, with a gentle breeze (as is generally the cafe during the rainy feafon in this ifiand),
there evidently was an equilibrium between the rain and the evaporation ; for in the courfe of three days
I faw it twice, and perceived no alteration on the height of the water, nor any outlet for it but by evapo¬
ration.
“ I take this bituminous fubftance to be the bitumen afphaltum Linnai. A gentle heat renders it duftile ;
hence, mixed with a little greafe or common pitch, it is much ufed for the bottoms of fhips, and for which
intention it is colle&ed by many ; and I ftiould conceive it a prefeivative againft the borer, fo deftruClive to
fhips in this part of the world.
“ Befides this place, where it is found in this folid ftate, it is found liquid in many parts of the wools;
and at the diftanee of 20 miles from this about two inches thick in round holes of three or four inches dia¬
meter, and often at cracks or rents. This is confequently liquid, and fmells tironger of tar than when
indurated, and adheres ftrongly to any thing it touches } greafe is the only thing that will divelt the hands
of it.
“ The foil in general, for fome diftance round La Bray, is cinders and burnt earths; and where not fo, it
is a ftrong argillaceous foil ; the whole exceedingly fertile, which is always the cafe where there are any ful«
phureous particles in it. Every part of the country, to the diftance of 30 miles round, has every appear¬
ance of being formed by convulfions of nature from fubterraneous fires. In feveral parts of the woods are
hot fprings ; fojjie I tried, with a well-graduated thermometer of Fahrenheit, were 20v and 22° hotter
than the atmofphere at the time of trial. From its polition to them, this pjrt of the ifiand has certainly
experienced the effe&s of the volcanic eruptions, which have heaped up thofe prodigious maffes of moun¬
tains that terminate the province of Paria on the north ; and no doubt there has been, and ftili probably is,
a communication between them. One of thefe mountains oppofite to La Bray in Trinidad, about 30 miles
diftant, has every appearance of a volcanic mountain: however, the volcanic efforts have been very weak
here, as no traces of then! extend above two miles from the fea in this part of the iffand, and the greater
parts,.
PET
Fftrotn?-
Jton.
I 254 1
called by the Germans felenitu ; which ts the common
fort, that ferments with acids, and readily diffolvea in
them, and calcines in a fmall fire. They pierce thefe
Hates in a perpendicular direction till they find water;
and the petroleum which had been difperfed among
the cracks of thofe Hates is then wafhtd out by the
water, and brought from all the neighbouring places
to the hole or well which they have dug, on the fur-
face of the water of which it fwims after eight or ten
days. When there is enough of it got together, they
lade it from the top of the water with brafs bafons; and
it is then eafily feparated from what little water is
taken up with it. Thefe wells or holes continue to
furnifh the oil in different quantities for a confiderable
time; and when they will yield no more, they pierce
the Hates in feme other place.
It is never ufed among us as a medicine ; but the
French give it internally in hylteric complaints, and to
their children for worms : fome alfo give it from 10 to
15 drops in wine for fuppreflions of the menfes. This,
however, is rather the pra&ice of the common people
than of the faculty.
PEVROMYZON, the Lamprey, a genus of fifhes
belonging to the clafs of amphibia nantes. It has fe-
•ven fpiracula at the fide of the neck, no gills, a fitlula
on the top of the head, and no breaft or belly fins.
There are three fpecies, diftinguifhed by peculiarities
in their back fins.
I. The marinus, or fea lamprey, is fometimes found
fu large as to weigh four or five pounds. It greatly
refembles the eel in fhape; but its body is larger, and
its fnout longer, narrower, and (harper, at the termi¬
nation. The opening of the throat is very wide; each
jaw is furniftied with a Angle row of very fmall teeth ;
in the middle of the palate are fituated one or two
other teeth, which are longer, ftronger, and moveable
towards the infide of the throat; the inferior part of
the palate prefents moreover a row of very fmall teeth,
which reaches to the bottom of the throat, where we
find four long notched bones; two Ihort fillulous pro-
P E T
cefles are abfervahle at the extremity of the fuout, and Petromy
there are two others thicker but (till (horter above the Zon-
eyes. Willoughby fuppofes that the latter are the 'r~a'
organ of hearing, and the former the organ of fmclh
His opinion with regard to the auditory faculty of
this fifh is founded on what we read in ancient authors,
that the lifhermen attra&ed the lampreys by whiffling,
and that Craffus had tamed one of them to fuch a de¬
gree that it knew his voice and obeyed his call.
The eyes of the lamprey are fmall, and covered with
a tranfparent light blue membrane; the pupil is bor¬
dered with a circle of a colour refembling gold ; near
the gills, which are four in number, there is a round
hole on both Tides, through which it difeharges the wa¬
ter. The lamprey has no fins on his belly or bread j
on the back we obferve a tin, which begins pretty near
the head, extends to the tail wuich it turns round, and
is afterwards continued to the anus; this Sn is cover¬
ed by the ficin of the body, to which it adheres but
looiely ; the (kin is fmooth, of a red blackifh colour,
and (freaked with yellow; the lamprey advances in the
water with winding motions like thofe of a ferpent,
which is common to it, with all the anguilliform
fi(hes. 6
The lamprey lives on flefh. During the cold it liea
conceale 1 in the crevices of lea-rocks, and confequent-
ly is fifhed for only at certain feafons. It lives in a
dace of hoftility with the poulpe, a kind of fea poly¬
pus, vyhich (buns the combat as long as it can ; but
when it finds the impoflibility of efcape, it endeavours
to furround the lamprey with it* long arms The lat¬
ter flips away, and the poulpe becomes its prey. The
lobfter, we are told, avenges the poulpe, and deftroys
the lamprey in its turn. See Cancer.
Rondelet fays, that the (Hhermen confider the bite
of the lamprey as venomous and dangerous, and never
touch it while alive but with pincers They beat it
on the jaws with a (tick, and cut off its head. The
fame naturalift obferves, that its afhes are a cure for
its bite and for the king’s evil. When any one has
been
part of it has had its origin from a very different caufe to that of volcanoes ; but tlufy have certainly laid
the foundation of it, as is evident from the high ridge of mountains which furrounds its windward fide to
protect it from the depredations of the ocean, and is its only barrier againft that overpowering element,
and may properly be called the fkelecon of the ifland.
>^,rorri every examination I have made, I find the whole ifland formed of an argillaceous earth, either in its
primitive ifate or under its differtnc metarnorphofes. The bafes of the mountains are compofed oifchlflus argil-
laceus and talcum lithomargo ; but the plains or lowlands remaining nearly in the fame moift (fate as at its formation,
the component particles have not experienced the viciflxtudes of nature fo much as the more elevated parts
confequently retain more of their primitive forms and properties. As argillaceous earth is formed from the
fedunent of the ocean, from the fituation of 1 rinidad to the continent its formation is eafily accounted for^
granting firft the formation of the ridge of mountains that bound its windward fide, and the high mountains
on the continent that nearly join it: for the great influx of currents into the gulf of Paria from the coafts
of Brazil and Andalufia mu(t bring a vafl quantity of light earthy particles from the mouth of the numerous
large rivers which traverfe thefe parts of the continent: but the currents being repelled by thefe ridges of
mountains, eddies and fmooth water will be produced where they meet andoppofe ; and therefore the earthy
particles would fubfide, and form banks of mud, and by fre(h accumulations added, would foon form dry
land: and from thefe caufes it Is evident fuch a tra& of country as Trinidad muft be formed. But thefe
caufes (till exifi, and the eflfedb from them is evident; for the ifland is daily growing on the leeward fide, as
may be feen from the mud-beds that extend a great way into the gulf, and there conftantly increafe. But from
the great influx from the ocean at the fouth end of the ifland, and its egrefs to the Atlantic again, through
the Bocas, a channel muft ever cxift between the continent and Trinidad.” See Trinidad.
PET [2
Petromy- teen bit by a lamprey, the moft effe&ual method is to
z°n' cut out the part affefted. Lampreys are very dexte¬
rous in faving themfelves : when taken with a hack,
they cut the line with their teeth ; and when they
■perceive themfelves caught in a net, they attempt to
pafs through the mefhes. They hfh for lampreys only
on the pebbly edges of fea-rocks; feme of thefe pebbles
are drawn together to make a pit as far as the water-
edge, or perhaps a little blood is thrown in, and the
lamprey is immediately obferved to put forth its head
between two rocks. As foon as the hook, which is
baited with crab or fome other filh, is prefented to it,
it fwallows it greedily, and drags it into its hole.
There is then occafion for great dexterity to pull it
out fuddenly; for if it is allowed time to attach itfelf
by tire tail, the jaw would be torn away before the fifh
> could be taken. This Ihows that its llrength refides
in the end of its tail ; the reafon of which is, that the
great bone of this fifh is reverfed, fo that the bones,
which in all other fifties are bent towards the tail, are
here turned in a contrary dire&ion, and afeend to¬
wards the head. After the lamprey is taken out of
the water, it is not killed without a great deal of
trouble : the beft way is to cut the end of its tail, or
perhaps to crufti it with repeated blows on the fpine,
in order to prevent it from leaping. This ftiows that
in the lamprey animal life extends to the end of the
fpinal marrow.
M. de Qnerhoent removes our fears concerning the
fuppofed poifon of the lamprey. This fpecies of fifti,
he tells us, abounds on the coafts of Africa and at the
Antilles iftes; it is found likewife on the coaft of Bra¬
zil, at Surinam, and in the Eaft Indies. When taken
with a hook, we muft have the precaution to kill it
before we take it off, otherwife it darts upon the fiftier
and wounds him feverely. Its wounds, however, are
not venomous, M. de Querhoent having feen feveral
failors who were bit by it, but experienced no dffa-
greeable confequences. Lampreys are likewife found
in great abundance at Afceniion Ifland, but particu¬
larly in the feas of Italy : their flefti when dried is ex¬
cellent ; and boiling gives to the vertebra: the colour of
gridelin.
The flefh of the lamprey is'white, fat,foft, and tender j
it is pretty agreeable to the tafte, and almoft as nourifti-
ing as that of the eel; thofe of a large fize are greatly
fuperior to the fmall ones. We know that the moil weal¬
thy of the Romans kept them in fifh-ponds at a great
expence. Vedius Pollio, the friend of Auguftus, who
is diftinguifhed in hiftory for his favage gluttony, on
fuppofition that lampreys fed on human fk/h were
more delicate, ordered his /laves when accufed of the
flightell faults to be thrown into his fi/h-ponds. Wc
are no lefs furprifed, in reading the ancient authors, to
perceive the extraordinary attachment which the cele¬
brated orators Hortenfius and Craffus, men in other
refpe&s fo grave and fenfible, hnd to this animal. One
of them ihed tears at the lofs of a lamprey; the other
improved upon this puerility, and wore mourning at the
death of his favourite. It is remarkable, that this fifti,
which is proper to the fea, and never comes into*the’
rivers, can live and fatten in frefh water. For the ad¬
vancement of natural hiftory, it were to be wi/hed,
that fome perfon who lives near the fea/bore wouW
make obfervations, in order to difeover whether the
j'5 ] PET
lamprey is viviparous: its feales are fo imperceptible, Petromy-
that they have been overlooked by meft ichthvolo- zon
gifts. II
Mr Pennant is of opinion, that the ancients were un-1 —t - - -1
acquainted with this filh; at leaft, he fays, it is cer¬
tain, that which F)r Arbuthnot and other learned men
render the word lamprey^ is a fpecies unknown in our
feas, being the murana of Ovid, Pliny, and others, for
which we want an Englifti name. Thisfifh, the lupus
(our baffe), and the myxo (a fpecies of mullet), formed
that pride of Roman banquets the tripatinam^ fo called,
according to Arbuthnot, from their being ferved up
in a machine with three bottoms. The words lam-
petra and petromyzon are but ef modern date, invented
fi om the nature of the fifti ; the firft a lambendo petras9
the other from and becaufe they are fup¬
pofed to lick or fuck the rocks.
2 The fluviatilis, or leffer lamprey, fometimes grows
to the length of 10 inches. I he mouth is formed like
that of the preceding. On the upper part is a large bi¬
furcated tooth: on each fide are three rows of very mi¬
nute ones: on the lower part are feven teeth, the exte—-
rior of which on one fide is the largeft. The iridea are
yellow. As in all the other fpecies, between the eyes
on the top of the head is a fmall orifice, of great ufe
to clear its mouth of the water that remains on adhe¬
ring to the ftones; for through that orifice it eje&s the
water in the fame manner as cetaceous fifti. On the
lower part of the back is a narrow fin, beneath that
rifes another, which at the beginning is high and angu¬
lar, then grows narrow, furrounds the tail, and ends
near the anus. The colour of the back is brown or
du/ky, and fometimes mixed with blue; the whole un-
derfide filvery. Thefe are found in the Thames, Se¬
vern, and Dee; are potted with the larger kind ; and
are by fome preferred to it, as being milder tailed.
Vaft quantities are taken about Mortlake, and fold to
the Dutch for bait for their cod-fiftiery. Above
uave been fold in a feafon at 40 s, per icooj
and of late, about 100,000 have been fent to Plar-
wich for the fame purpofe. It is faid that the Dutch
have the fecret of preferving them till the turbof
fi/hery,
3* bronchialis, or lampern, is fometimes found
of rhe length of eight inches, and about the thicknefa
of a fwan’s quill; but they are generally much fmaller.
The body is marked with numbers of tranfverfe lines,
that pafs crols the fides from the back to the bottom
of the belly, which is divided from the mouth to the
anus by a flraight line. The back fin is not angular
like that of the former, but of an equal breadth. ‘The
tail is lanceolated, and /hort at the end. They are fre¬
quent in the rivers near Oxford, particularly the Ifis ;
but not peculiar to that county, being found in others
of the Engli/h rivers, where, inftead of concealing
themfelves under the ftones, they lodge themfelves in
the mud, and never are obferved to adhere to any thing
like other lampreys. s
PE FRONIUS was a renowned Roman fenator.
When governor of Egypt, he permitted Herod, king of
the Jews, to purchafe in Alexandria any quantity of
corn which he /hould judge neceffary for the fupply of
his fubjedts, who were a/Hidled with a fevere famine.
When i iberius died,Caius Caligula,who fucceeded him*
took from Vitellius the government of Syria; and gave:
8 it;
/
PET [ 256 ] PET
t*»trnhiu8. it to Petronius, wlio discharged the duties of his of-
•■-“"“v with dignity and honour. I*rom his inclination
to favour the Jews, he run the rifle of lofing the
emperor’s friendfhip and his own life ; for when that
prince gave orders to have his ftatue depofited in the
temple of Jerufalem, Petronius, finding that the Jews
would rather fuffer death than fee that facred place pro¬
faned, was unwilling to have recourfe to violent mta-
fures; and therefore preferred a moderation, dictated
by humanity, to a cruel obedience (We mult not
confound him with another of the fame name, viz..
Petronius Granius, who was a centurion in the eighth
legion, and ferved under Csefar in the Gallic war).
In his voyage to Africa, of which country he had been
appointed qiiccltor, the fhip in wrhich oe failed was
taken by Scipio, who cauled all the foldiers to be
put to the fword, and promifed to fave the qtias ;or’s
life, provided that he would renounce Coefar’s party.
To this propofal Petronius replied, that “ Cacfar s offi¬
cers were accuftomed to grant life to others, and not
to receive it and, at the fame time, he dabbed him-
felf with his own fword.
jPetronws Arbiter (Ticus), a great critic and po¬
lite writer of antiquity, the favourite of Nero, fup-
pofed to be the fame mentioned by Tacitus in the 16th
book of his Annals. He was proconful of Bithyma,
and afterwards conful, and appeared capable of the
oreateft employments. He was one of Nero’s princi¬
pal confidents, and in a manner the fuperintendant of
his pltafures ; for that prince thought nothing agree¬
able or delightful but what was approved by Petronius.
’The great favour fliown him drew upon him the envy
of Tigellinus, another of Nero’s favourites, who accu-
fed him of being concerned in a confpiracy againft the
emperor; on which Petronius was feized,and was fenten-
ced to die. He met death with a finking indifference,
and feems to have tafted it nearly as he had done his
pleafures. He would fometimes open a vein and fome-
times clofe it, converfing with his friends in the mean¬
while, not on the immortality of the foul, which was
no part of his creed, but on topics which pleafed his
fancy, as of love-verfes, agreeable and pafiionate airs ;
fo that it has been faid “ his dying was barely ceafmg
to live.” Of this difeiple of Epicurus, Tacitus gives
the following chara&er : “ He was (fays he) neither
a fpendthrift nor a debauchee, like the generality of
thofe who ruin themfelves ; but a refiued voluptuary,
who devoted the day to fleep, and the night to the
duties of his office, and to pleafure.” This courtier
h much diftinguiflied by a fatire which he wrote, and
fecretly conveyed to Nero ; in which he ingemoufly
deferibes, under borrowed names, the character of this
prince. Voltaire is of opinion that we have no more
of this performance but an extraft made by fome ob-
feure libertine, without either talle or judgment. Peter
Petitdif overed at Traw in Dalmatia, in 1665, a con-
fiderable fragment containingthefequel of Ftimalcion’s
Tea ft. This tragment, which was printed the year af¬
ter at Padua and at Paris, produced a paper war
among the learned. While fome affirmed that it was the
work o* Petronius, and others denied it to be fo, i e-
tit continued to affert his right to the difeovery of the
mamifeript. and fent it to Rome, where it was ac¬
knowledged to be a produftion of the 15th century.
The French critics, who had attacked its authenticity,
were filent from the moment it was depofitec] in the Pctr«ni«,'
royal library. It is now generally attributed to Pe- ——v*~^
tronius, and found in every fubfequent edition of the
works of that rtfined voluptuary. The public did not
form the fame favourable opinion of fome other frag¬
ments, which were extrafted from a manufeript found
at Belgrade in 1688, and printed at Paris hy Nodot in
1694, tho’ they are aferibed by the editor Charpentier,
and feveral other learned men, to Petronius ; yet, on
account of the Gallieiftns and other barbarous expref-
fions with which they abound, they have generally been
confidered as unworthy of that author. His genuine
works are, 1. A Poem on the civil war between Casfar
an 1 Pompey, tranflated into profe lay Abbe de Ma-
rolles, and into French verfe by Prefident Bouhier,
1 737, in ftto. Petronius, full of fire and enthufiafm, and
diigufted with Lucan’s flowery language, oppofed
Pharfalia to Pharfalia ; but his work, though evide itiy
fuperior to the other in fome refpedfts, is by no means
in the true ftyle of epic poetry. 2. A Poem on the
Education of the Roman Youth. 3. Two i’reatifes ;
one upon the Corruption of Eloquence, and the other
on the Caufes of the Decay of Arts and Sciences. 4.
A Poem on the Vanity of Dreams. 5. 1 he Ship¬
wreck of Licas. 6. Refk&ions on the Inconflancy of
Human Life. And, 7. Trnnalcion’s Banquet To
this iatl performance morality is not much indebted.
It is a defeription of the pleafures of a corrupt¬
ed court ; and the painter is rather an ingenious
courtier than a perfon whofe aim is to reform abufes.
The belt editions of Petronius are thofe publiflied at
Venice, 1499, in 4to ; at Amfterdam, 1669, in Bvo,
cum nods variorum; Ibid, with Bc-fchius’s notes, 1677,
in 2410 ; and 1700, 2 vols in 24to. The edition of
i<ir/or«OT was reprinted in 1743, in 2 vols 410, with
the learned Peter Burman’s commentaries. Petronius
died in the year 65 or 66.
Petronius (Maximus) was born in the year 395 of
an illuftrious family, being at firfta fenator and conful of
Rome. He put on the imperial purple.in 455, alter
having effected the alLffin-ition of Valentinian ill.- la
order^to efb.blifh himfelf upon the throne, he married
Eudoxia the widow of that unfortunate prince ; and,
as fhe was ignorant of his viliany, he confefl'ed to her,
in a tranfpprt of love, that the ftrong defire he had of
being her hufband, had made him commit this atro¬
cious crime. Whereupon Eudoxia privately applied
to Genferic, king of the Vandals, who coming into
Italy with a very powerful army, entered Rome, where
the ufurper then was. The unhappy wretch endea¬
voured to make his efcape ; but the foidiers and people,
enraged at his cowardice, fell upon him, and over¬
whelmed him with a fhower of Itones. His body was
dragged*through the ftreets of the city for three days ;
and, after treating it with every mark of difgrace, they
threw it into the Tiber the 12th of June the fame year,
45 5. He reigned only 77 days. He had fome good qua¬
lities. He loved and cultivated the feiences. He was
prudent in his councils, circumfpecl in his aftions, equi¬
table in his judgments ; a facetious companion, and
fteady friend. He had the good fortune to win the
aft'e&ions of every body, while he remained a pr vate
charafter ; but as a prince, fie was fo much the more
deteftable, in that, after he had obtained the throne
by viliany, he kept pofleffion of it only by violence.
.7 The
r
i.’lat** < ’ <' OLWWK
'
it
PET [ 257 1 PET
Petrcfa The crown was fcarcely on his head before it appeared between the kinpf and parliament grew hot, he went Petty,
li 1 to him an infupportable burden. “ Happy Demoeles into the Netherlands and France for three years ; and
e y' > (exclaimed he in his defpair), thou wert a king during having vigoroufly profecuted his ftudies, efpecially in
^ a fingie entertainment 1” phyfic, at Utrecht, Leyden, Atnfterdam, and Paris,
PETROSA ossa, in anatomy, a name given to the he returned home to Rumfey. In 1647, he obtained
fouith $nd fifth bones of the cranium, called alfo ojfa a patent to teach the art of double writing for feven«
temporum. and ojfa fquamofa; the fubftance whereof, teen years. In 164R, he pubiifhed at London “ Ad¬
as their firil and lail names exprefs, is fquamofe and vice to Mr Samuel Hartlib, for the advancement of
very hard. fome particular parts of learning.” At this time he
PETROSELTNUM(apium PExaosELiNUM.Lin.) adhered to the prevailing party of the kingdom ; and
Parjley. This plant is commonly cultivated for cu- went to Oxford, where he taught anatomy and che-
linary purpofes. The feeds have an aromatic flavour, miftry, and was created a do£k>r of phyfic. In 1650,
and are occafionally ufed as carminatives, &c. The he was made profeflbr of anatomy there ; and foon af-
root of parfley is one of the five aperient roots, and ter a member of the college of phyficians in London,
with this intention is fometimes made an ingredient in The fame year he became phyfician to the army in
apozems and diet-drinks: if liberally ufed, it is apt Ireland; where he continued till 1659, and acquired a
to occafion flatulencies; and thus, by diftending the great fortune. After the reftoradon, he was intro-
yifeera, produces a contrary effeA to that intended by duced to king Charles II. who knighted him in i66r.
it: the tafte of this root is fomewhat fweetirti, with ln 1662, he publilhed “ A Treatife of taxes and con-
a light degree of warmth and aromatic flavour. tributions.” Next year he was greatly applauded in
PETTEIA, in the ancient mulic, a term to which Ireland for his invention of a double bottomed (hip.
we have no one correfponding in our language. He died at London of a gangrene in the foot, occa-
The melopoeia, or the art of arranging founds in fioned by the fwelling of the gout, in 1687.
fucceffion fo as to make melody, is divided into three The charafter of his genius is fufficiently feen in
parts, which the Greeks call lepjis, mixis, and chrefis ; his writings, which were much more numerous than
the Latina fumptio, mixtio, and ufus } and the Italians thofe we have mentioned above. Amongft thefe, it is
prefa, mefcolamento, and ufo. The lafl. of thefe is called faid, he wrote the hiflory of his own life, which unquef-
by the Greeks Ttrlfia, and by the lialian&^w/ia ; which tionably contained a full account of his political and reli*
therefore means the art of making a juit difeernment gious principles, as may be conjeftured from what he has
of all the manners of ranging or combining founds left us upon thofe fubjefts in his will. In that he has
among themfelves, fo as they may produce their effed, thefe remarkable words : “ As for legacies to the poor,
*. r. may exprefs the feveral paffions intended to be I am at a Hand ; and for beggars by trade and eledion!
raifed. Thus it fhows what founds are to be ufed, and I give them nothing : as for impotents by the hand
what not; how often they are feverally to be repeated ; 0f God, the' public ought to maintain them : as for
with which to begin, and with which to end ; whe- thofe who can get no work, the magiftrates (hould caufe
ther with a grave found to rife, or an acute one to fall, them to be employed ; which may be well done in Ire-
&c. The petteia conftitutes the manners of the mufic ; land, where are fifteen acres of improveable land for
ehoofes out this or that pafiion, this or that motion every head: as for prifoners for crimes by the king,
of the foul, to be awakened ; and determines whether or for debt by their profecutors, thofe who comp ffion-
it be proper to excite it on this or that occafion. ate the fufferings of any obje£t, let them relieve them-
I he petteia, therefore, is in mufic much what the man- felves by relieving fuch fufferers ; that is, give them
ners are in poetry. . alms (a), &c. lam contented, that I have afliited
It is not eafy to difeover whence the denomination all my poor relations, and put many into a vvay of
fhould have been taken by the Greeks, unlcfs from getting their own bread, and have laboured in public
■minx, their game of chefs ; the mufical petteia being works and inventions, and have fought out real objefts
a fort of combination and arrangement of founds, as of charity; and do hereby conjure all who partake of
chefs is of pieces called «rV,, calculi, or “ chefs-men.” my ellate, from time to time to do the fame at their
PETTY (Sir William), fon of Anthony Petty a peril. Neverthelefs, to anfwer cuftom, and to take
clothier, was born at Rumfey, a little haven-town in the fure fide, I give twenty pounds to the molt want-
Hampihire, in 1623 ; and while a boy took great de- ing of the parifh wherein I die.” As for his religion
light in fpending his time among the artificers there, he fays, “ I die in the profeffion of that faith, and in
whole trades he could work at when but twelve years the praftice of fuch worlhip, as I find eftahlifhed by
or age. I hen he went to the grnmmar-fchool thete : the laws of my country ; not being able to believe what
at 15 he was mailer of the Latin, Greek, and French I myfelf pleafe, nor to worlhip God better than by
tongues, and of arithmetic and thofe parts of pradlical doing as I would be done unto, and obferving the
geometry and ailronomy ufeful to navigation. Soon laws of my country, and exprefling my love and ho-
a^tcr he went to Caen in Normandy, and Paris, where nour to Almighty God, by fuch figns and tokens as
he Ludiea anatomy, and read Vefalius with Mr are underllood to be fuch by the people with whom I
a.obbes. Upon his return to England, he was pre- live.” He died polLfTed of a very large fortune, as
itr,, "V7>inkV r niiVy' In 1^43> w^cn the war appears by his will ; where he makes his real eft ate
Vol. XIV. Parti. Kk ^
(a) In the town of Rnmiey there is a houfe which was given by him for the maintenance of a charity-
ichool; the rent ©i which is Jlill applied to that ufe.
Petty
P E U [
about 65001. per annum, his perfonal efiate about
45,0: ol. his bad and defperate debts 30,000!. anti
the demonftrable improvements of his Irtfh eftate,
40001. per annum ; in all, at fix per cent, intereli,
l$,ooo\. per annum This eftate came to his family,
who were afterwards ennobled
The variety of purfuits in which Sir William Pet¬
ty was engaged, (hows him to have had a genius ca¬
pable of any thing to which he chofe to apply it ; and
it is very extraordinary, that a man of fo adtive and
bufy a fp:rit could find time to write fo many things
as it appears he did.
Petty, any thing little or diminutive, when com*
pared with another
Pj-tty Bag, an office in chancery ; the three clerks
of which record the return of all inquifirions out of
every county, and make all patents of comptrollers,
gaugers, Cuftomers, &c.
PETTY-Chaps, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
PETTY-Foggcr, a little tricking folicitor or attor¬
ney, without either fk 11 or confcience.
Petty, or Pe<^? Larceny. See Larceny.
Petty-Patees, among confectioners, a fort of fmall
pies, made of a rich cruft filled with fweet meats.
Petty-Single*, among falconers, ate the toes of a
hawk.
Petty Tally., in the fta language, a competent al¬
lowance of victuals, according to the number of the
fhip’s comp«: y.
Petty, or Petit, Tteafon. See Treason.
PE i UNSE, in natural hiftory, one of the two fub-
flances whereof porcelain or china-ware is made. The
petunfe is a coarfe kind of flint or pebble, the furface
of which is not fo fmooth w7hen broken as that of our
common flint. See Porcelain.
PETWORTH, in Suftex in England,, five miles
from Midhurft and the Suffix Downs, and 49 from
London, is a large, populous, and handfome town. It
is adorned with ft veral feats of gentlemen, particula-r-
ly the magnificent feat of the Percies, earls of N®r-
thumberland, many of whom lie buried in a feparate
vault of its church. The rectory, the rieheft in the
county, is faid to be worth 6ccl. or 700I. a year, and is
in the Duke of Son erfet’s gift: in whofe armory,in this
place, there is a fword which, by circumftauces, ap¬
pears to have been the weapon of the famous Henry
Hotfpur, though it is not fo unwieldy as other ancient
fword? generally are.
PEUCEDANUM, or sulphur-wort : A genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natur i method ranking under
th? 45th order. Umbe'lata. The fruit is lobated, ftiiated
on both fides, and furrounded by a membrane ; the
involucra are very fhort. There are three fptcies ;
none of which have any remarkable properties except¬
ing the officinale, or common hog’s fennel, growing
naturally in the Englifn fait marfties. This rifes to the
height of two feet, with channelled ftaiks* which di¬
vide into two or three branches, each trowred with an
Umbel c yellow flowers, compofed of feveral fmall cir¬
cular umbels The roots, when bruifed, have a lirong
fetid ftent like fulphur, and an acrid, LitteriPn', unftu-
ous tafte. Wounded in the fpring, they yield a con-
{idetable quantity of yellow juice, which dries into a
gummy refin, and retains the itrong fmell of the root.
Peyiere.
8 1 P E Y
This ffiould feem to be pofleffed of fome medicinal vir- Ptuteman
tues, but they have never been afeertained with any
precifion. The rxprefted juice was ufed by the an¬
cients in lethargic dlforders.
PEUTEMAN (Peter) was horn at Rotterdam
in 1650, and was a good painter of inanimate objedfs;
but the moft memorable particular relative to this ar-
tift was that incident which occafioned hn death.
He w s requefted to paint an emblematical pi&ure \)ia. ef
of mortality, reprefenting human (kulls and bones, [ur- Painters,
rounded with rich gems and mufical inftruments, to
expiefs the vanity of this world’s pleafures, amufe-
ments, or pofieffions ; and that he might imitate na¬
ture with the greater exadtnefs, he went into an ana¬
tomy room, where feveral flceletons hung by wires
from the ceiling, and hones, flculls, &c. lay fcatt med
about ; and immediately prepared to make his de-
figns.
While he was thus employed, either by fatigue, or
by intenfe ftudy, infenfibly he fell afleep; but was fud-
denly roufed by a flto.k of an earthquake, which hap¬
pened at that inftant, on the 18th of September 1692.
The moment he awoke, he obferved the fkeletons
move about as they were fhaken in different dirfftions,
and the loofe fkulls roll from one fide of the room to
the other ; and being totally ignorant of the caufe, he
was ftruck with fuch a horror, that he threw himfelf
down ftairs, and tumbled into the ftreet half dead. His
friends took all poffible pains to efface the impreffion
made on his mind by that unlucky event, and attaint¬
ed him with the real caufe of the agitation of the fke-
ktoos ; yet the tranfa&ion ffill affe£ted his fpirits in
fo violent a manner, that it brought on a diforder^
which in a very ftiort time ended, his days. His ge¬
neral fubjefts were either allegorical or emblematical
allufions to the fhortnefs and mifery of human life.
PEWI r, sea crow, or Mire crow, in ornithology.
See Larus.
PEWTER, a fa&itiotis metal ufed in making dq-
meftic uteniils, as plates, difties, &c.—The bafts of
the metal is tin ; which is converted into pewter by
mixing at the rate of an hundred weight of tip with
tg pounds of lead and fix pounds of brafs.— Befidea
this compofition, which makes the common pewter,
there are other kinds, compounded of tin, regulus of
antimony, bifnuth, and copper, in feveral proportions.
PEYRERE (Ifsac la) was born at Bourdeaux,.
of proteftant parents. He entered into the ft twice of
the Prince of Conde, who was much pieafed with the
Angularity ofhts genius. From the perttfal of St Paul’s
writings he took into his head to aver, that Adam was
not the firft of the human race ; and, in order to prove
this extravagant opinion, he publithed in i6g$ a book,
which was printed in Holl md in qto and in i2mo,.
with this title, Protadamitit,Jive exercitatio fuper vcrfibus
12, 13, 14. cap. 15. Epijio/a: Pauli ad Romanos. This
work was burnt at Par's, and the author i'mprifoned
at Bruffels, through the influence of the archbifttop of
Maiine’s grand vicar. The Prince of Conde having
obtained his liberty, he travelled to Rome in 1656,
and there gave in to Pope Alexander VII. a folemft
renunc'ation both of Calvinifm and Preadamifm. His
converfion was not thought to be fincere, at leaft with
regard to this lail herefy. His defire to be the head
of a new fedt is evident j and hia book difeoven his
l ambition;
(
P E Y
^r.yrfrtf ambition 5 for he there pays many compliments to the
u—v— Jews, and invites them to attend his le&ures. Upon
his return to Paris, notwithftanding the earneft folici-
tations of his holinefs to remain at Rome, he went
again into the Prince of Conde’s fervice in the quality
of librarian. Some time after he retired to the femi-
nary t/es Jrertusi where he died the 30th of January
1676, at the age of 82, after the facraments of the
church had been adminiftered to him. Father Simon
fays, that when he was importuned in his lait moments
to retradd the opinion which he had formed refpetfing
the Preadamites, his anfwtr was, Hi quacunque igno¬
rant, lln/phemant. His having no fixed fentiments of
religion is fuppofed to proceed more from a peculiar
turn of mind than a corruption of the heait; for good
nature, fimplicity of manners, and humanity, feem to
have formed his ehara&er. “ He was, fays Niceron,
a man of a very equal temper, and moft agreeable con-
veilaUon. Fie was a little too fond, however,'of in¬
dulging his wit, which fometimes bordered on raillery;
but he took care never to hurt or wound the feelings
of his neighbour. As to his learning, it was extreme¬
ly limited. He knew nothing either of Greek or
Hebrew ; and yet he ventured to give a new interpre¬
tation of feveral pafiagts of the facred volume. He
piqued himfelf on his knowledge of the Latin ; but
excepting a lew poets which he had read, he was by
no means an adept in that language. His ftyle is very
unequal; fometimes too fwelling and pompous, at o-
ther times low and grovelling.” Befides the work al¬
ready mentioned, he has left behind him, I. A treatife
as lingular as it is fcaree, intitled, Du rappel des Juifs,
*643, in 8vo. The recal of the Ifraelites, in the opi¬
nion of tin's writer, will he not only of a fpiritual na¬
ture, but they will be reinitiated in the temporal blef-
fings which they enjoyed before their reje&ion. They
will again take pofieffion of the holy hnd, which will
. refume its former fertility. God will then raife up to
them a king more juft, and more viftorious, than any
of their former fovereigns had been. Now, though all
this is doubtlefs to be underftood fpiritually of Jefus
Chrift, yet our author is of opinion, that it ought alfo
to be underftood of a temporal prince, who fhall arife
for the purpofe of effcfting the temporal deliverance
of the Jews; and that this prince fhall be no other
than the king of France, for the following renfons,
which, it is Relieved, will carry convidlion to few
minds: 1. Becaufe the two titles of Mo/i Chriflian,
and of Eldejl Son of the Church, are afcribed to him by
way of excellence. 2. Becaufe it is prefumible, if
the kings of l-ranre poffefs the virtue of curing the
evu or fcrofula, which can only afHidt the bodies of
the Jews; that they will likewife have the power of
curtng their ohflinate incredulity and the other inve¬
terate dilVafes of their fouls. 3. Becaufe the kings of
rranee have for their arms a feur de luce ; and be-
catife the beauty of the church is in feripture compared
to the beauty of lilies. 4. Becaufe it is probable that
trance will be the country whither the Jews fhall firft
be invited to come and embrace the Chriftian faith,
and whither they fhail retreat from the perfecution of
tire nations that have* dominion over them ; fot France
is a land of freedom, it admits of no flavery, and
whoever touches it is free. Peyrere, after explaining
lit# it range iyftem, prepofes a method of converting
r 259 ]
P E Y
fays Niceron, Pevrere,
He propofes Peyfonra*.
whole of religion to a bare faith or be
the Jews to Chriftianity • a method,
which will not be acceptable to many,
to reduce the
lief in Jefus Chrift ; taking it for granted, without
any fhadow of proof, that “ it is as difficult to com¬
prehend the articles of our faith, as to obferve the cere¬
monies of Moles.—From this fcheme (Lys he) there
would nfult a double advantage to the church ; the.
reunion of the Jews, and of all thofe Chriftians who are
feparated from the body of the church.” Peyrere, when he
wrote this book, was a Calvinifl ; but his Calvinifm
too nearly refembled the Deifm of our age. He eon-
fdFed himfelf that his reafon for quitting the Prote-
fhnts was on account of their being the firft and prin¬
cipal oppofers of his book concerning the Preadamite,*.
II . A curious and entertaining account of Greenland,
printed in 8vo, 1647. When he was afked, on occa-
lion of this work, why there were fo many witches in
the north ? he replied, “ It is becaufe part of the pro¬
perty of thefe pretended conjurers, when condemned
to fuffer death, is declared to belong to their judges.”
III. An equally interefling account of Iceland, 1663,
8vo. IV. A letter to Philoumus, 1658, in 8vo, in
which he explains the reafons of his recantation, &c»
We find in Moreri the following epitaph of him, writ¬
ten by a poet of his own times.
La Peyrere ici git, ce bon Ifraelite,
Huguenot, Catholique, en.fin Preadamite :
Quatre religions lui plurent a la Fois,
Et Ion indifference etoit fi pen commune,
Qu apres quacre-vingts ansqu’il eut a faire un
choix,
X,e bon homme partit, & n’en choifit pas une.
RONIUS (Francis de la) for a long time
prnclited lurgery at Paris with fuch diftinguifhed eclat,
that he obtained for himfelf the appointment of firil fur-
geon to LouisXV. He improved this favourable fitua-
t ion with his m a jelly, and procured to his profeffion thofe
honours which ha 1 the eifedl to quicken its progrefs, and
thofe eftablifhments which contributed to extend its be¬
nefits. I he RoyalCollegeof Surgery at Paris was found¬
ed by his means in 173L was enlightened by his know¬
ledge, and encouraged by his munificence. At his
death, which happened at Verfailles the 24th of April
1747» he bequeathed to the fociety of furgeons in
Paris two thirds of his etfeas, his ellate of Marigni,
which was fold to the king for 200,000 livres, and
his library. This ufetul citizen alfo left to the focie¬
ty of furgeons at Montpellier two houfes, fituated in
that town, with 100,000 livres, for the purpofe of
eredling there a chirurgical amphitheatre. He ap¬
pointed the fame fociety univerfal legatee for the third
of his eiledls ; and all thefe legacies contain claufes
whofe foie object is to promote the public good, the
pericclion and improvement of furgery ; for which he
always lolicited tire protection of the court. At the
time of the famous difpute between the phyficians and
furgeons, he entreated the Chancellor d’Aguelfan to
build up a brazen wall between the two bodies. “ I
wih do fo, replied the minifter, but on what fide of the
wah (hail we place the lick:'’. Peyronius afterwards
behaved with more moderation.—Pie was a philofo-
pher without any oftentation ; but his philofophy v/as
tempered by a long acquaintance with the world
and with the court. The acutenefs and delicacy of
2 his
P E Z (260 ] P' H iE
Pezay ^{3 underftandlng, joined to his natural vivacity, ren-
PezLn ^ere^ converfation agreeable ; and all thefe advan-
‘ p tages were crowned with a quality ftill more valuable,
an uncommon degree of fympathy for thofe in dirtrefs.
He was no fooner known to be at his eftate in the
country, than his houfe was filled with fick people,
who came to him from the diftance or 7 or 8 leagues
round about. He had once a plan of eitablifiling, on
this fpot, an hofpital, to which he intended to retire,
that he might devote the remainder of his life to the
fervice of the poor.
PEZAY (N. Mafibn, tnarquis of), born at Paris,
very early applied himfelf to the ftudy of letters, and
afterwards went into the army. He was made a cap¬
tain of dragoons ; and had the honour of giving fome
lefibns on taftics to the ill-fated Louis XVI. Being
appointed infpeftcr general of fome coailing vefieis,
he repaired to the maritime towns, and executed his
commifiion with more care and attention than was to
have been expected from a votary of the mufes. But
as, at the fame time, he fiiowed too much haughtinefs,
a complaint was brought againil him to the court,
and he was banifhed to his country feat, where he died
foon after, in the beginning of 1778. He was the
intimate friend and companion of Dorat. He had
ftudied, and fuccefsfully imitated, his manner of wri¬
ting ; but his poems have more delicacy, and are lefs
disfigured with trifling converfations of gallantry. He
has left behind him, 1. A tranflation of Catullus,
which is not much eftecmed. 2. Les Soirees Helve-
tiennes, Alfaciennes, & Franc-Comtoifes, in 8vo, 177°;
a work very agreeably diverfified, full of charming
landfcapes, but written wich too little accuracy. 3.
Les Soirees Provencales, in manufeript, which are faid
to he nowife inferior in merit to the toregoing ones.
4. La Rofiere de Salency; a paftoral in three afts, and
which has been performed with iuccefs on the Italian
theatres. 5. Les campagnes de Mailebois, in 3 vols
410, and a volume of maps.
PEZENAS, a place in France about 24 miles from
Montpellier. The foil about it is fandy. The rock
is lime (tone. The fields are open, and produce corn,
wine, and oil. There are to be teen at this place the
extenfive ruins of a c.iftle, which formerly belonged to
the Montmoren cy family. This ilrong fortrefs was
hewn out of the rock on which it ftands, and appears
to have been complicated and full of art. The walls
are lofty, and above 8 feet in thicknefs. The rock,
which is perpendicular, is a mafs of {hells, fuch as
turbinae, oyfters, cockles, wrth a calcareous cement.
From hence the circumjacent plain, decked with luxuri¬
ant verdure, and {hut in by rugged mountains, affords a
mofl delightfulprofpeA. li.Long.3.35. N.Lat.43.18.
PEZIZA, cup-mufluooro, nr botany; a genus of
the natural order of fungi, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants. The fungus campanulated and
feffile. Linnaeus enumerates 8 fpecies.
PEZRON (Paul), a very learned and ingenious
Frenchman, born at Hennebon in Brittany in 1639,
and admitted into the order of Citeaux in 1660. He
was a great antiquary, and was indefatigable in trace-
ing the origin ot the language of the G-oths ; the re-
fult of which was, that he was led to efpoufe a fyftem
of the world’s being much more ancient than modern
cbionologere have fuppofed. ri his he communicated
to the public in a treatife printed at Paris in 1687, Phaea
4to, intitled, I he antiquity of Time, rejlored and de- ^ |
fended againjl the 'Jews and modern chronologers. This
book of Pezron’s was extremely admired for the in¬
genuity and learning in it; yet caufed no fmall alarm
among the religious, againft whom he never thelefs de¬
fended his opinions. He went through feveral promo¬
tions, the laft of which was to the abbey of Charmoye,
to which he was nominated by the king ; and died in
1706.
PH AC A, in botany* A genus of the decandria or-
der, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 32d order,
Papileonacta.. The legumen is femibilocular.
PHiEA, a famous fow which infefted the neigh¬
bourhood of Cromyon. Thefcus deftroyei it as he
was travelling from TrcezenC to Athens to make him¬
felf known to his father. Some imagine that the boar
of Calydon fprang from this fow. According to fome
authors, Phasa was a woman who proftituted herfelf to
fit angers, whom fhe murdered, and afterwards plun¬
dered.
PHHiACIA, one of the names of the ifland Cor-
cyra, (Homer, Stephanus). Phaaces the people,
(Ovid), noted for their indolence and luxury : hence
Horace ufes Phxax for a perfon indolent and fleck ;
and hence arofe their infolence and pride, (Anftotle).
The ifland was famous for producing large quantities
of the finefl: flavoured apples, (Ovid, Juvenal, Proper¬
tius).
PHiEDON, a difciple of Socrates, who had been *
feized. by pirates in his youth ; and the philofopher,
who feemed to difeover fomething uncommon and
promiflng in his countenance, bought his liberty' for a
fum of money, and ever after efteemed him. Phaedon,
after Socratee’!» death, returned to Elis his native coun¬
try, where he founded a feft of philofophers who com-
pofed what was called the Eliac fchool. The name, of
Phaedon is affixed to one of Plato’s dialogues.
PHiEDRA (fab. hift.) was a daughter of Minos and
Paliphae; flie married Thefeus, by whom ffie was the
mother of Acamas and Demophoon. They had already
lived for fome time in conjugal felicity, when Venus,
who hated all the defeendants of Apollo, becaufe he
had difeovered her amours with Mars, infpired Phaedra
with the ftrongeft paflion for Hippolytus the ion of
Thefeus, by the amazon Hippolyte. This paffion fi:e
long attempted to ftifle, but in vain; and therefore, in
the ahfence of Thefeus, flie addrefled Hippolytus with
all the impatience of defponding love. He rejected
her with horror and difdain. She, however, incenfed
by the reception ffie had met, refolved to punifli his
coldnefs and refufal; and at the return of Thefeus ffie
acculed Hippolytus of attempts upon her virtue. He
liftened to her accufation ; and without hearing Hip-
polytus’s defence, he baniffied him from his kingdom,
and implored Neptune, who had promifi^l to grant
three of his requefts, to puniffi him in an exemplary
manner. As Hippolytus fled from Athens, his horfes
were fuddenly terrified by a fea monfter, which Nep¬
tune had fent on the ffiore ; and he was thus dragged
through precipices and over rocks, trampled under
the feet of his horfes, and crufhed under the wheels
of his chariot. When his tragical end was known at
Athens, Phaedra confeffed her crime, and hung her*
?h£edrus
II
Phston.
P H iE ' [ 261 ]
felf in defpatr, unable to furvive one whofe death her liod and Paufanias ;
extreme guilt had occafioned. The death of Hippo-
_ lytus, and the infamom paflion of Phaedra, is the fub-
je£l of one of the tragedies of Euripides and of Seneca.
She was buried at Troezene, where her tomb was ftill
to be feen in the age of the geographer Paufanias,
near the temple of Venus, which /he had built to ren¬
der the goddefs favourable to her inceftuous paflion.
Near her tomb was a myrtle, whofe leaves were full
of fmall holes, which, it was reported, Phsedra had
done with a hair pin, when the vehemence of her paf-
flon had rendered her melancholy and almoll defperate.
She was reprefented in a painting in Apollo’s temple
at Delphi, as fufpended in the air, while her After
Ariadne flood near to her, and fixed her eyes upon
her.
PFLEDRUS, an ancient Latin writer, who com-
pofed five books of fables, in lambic verfe. He was a
Thracian ; and was born, as there is reafon to conclude,
fame years before Julius Csefar made himfelf mafler of
the Roman empire. How he came into the fervice of
Auguflus is not known: but his being called
freedman in the title of the book, fhows that he had
been that emperor’s Have. The fables of Phredrus are
valued for their wit and good fenfe, exprefled in very
pure and elegant language i and it is remarkable that
they remained buried in libraries altogether unknown
to the public, until they were difeovered and publifhed
by Peter Pithou, or Pithceus, a learned French gentle¬
man, toward the clofe of the 16th century.
Ph^drus ( Thomas) was a profeflbr of eloquence
at Rome, early in the 16th century. He was canon
of Lateran, and keeper of the library in the Vatican.
He owed his rife to the adling of Seneca’s Hippolitus,
in which he performed the part of Phaedra ; from
whence he ever after got the name of Phasdhis. Eraf-
mus, who tells this, fays he had it from cardinal Ra¬
phael Georgianus, in whofe court-yard, before the
palace, that tragedy was afted. The caufe of his death
was very remarkable ; for as he was riding through
the city on a mule, he met a cart drawp. by wild oxen,
and was thrown by his mule, who took fright at them.
Though corpulent, the cart fortunately palled over
him without doing him any hurt, as he fell in the
fpace between the wheels; but fright and the fall to¬
gether fpoiled the whole mafs of his blood fo much,
that he contracted a diftemper, of which, after lan-
guifhing fome time, he died under the age of If
he had lived, he would moil probably have become an au¬
thor; andperhaps,addsliayle, have confirmed what has
been obferved of him, that his tongue was better thaa
his pen. The obfervation was made by Erafmus, who
tells us, that he knew and loved him ; and owns? that
he was called the Cicero of his time. Janus Parrha-
fius, his colleague, was much grieved at his death, and
gave the titles of feveral works, which were almolt
ready for public view.
PHENOMENON, in philofophy, denotes any
remarkable appearance, whether in the heavens or
earth, and whether difcovered by obfervation or expe¬
riment.
PHAE'i'ON, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of the
Sun, or Phoebus and Clymene, one of the Occanidcs.
He was fon of Cephalu^s and Aurora, according to He-
1J H AL
or of Tithonus and Aurora, ac- Phaeton,
cording to Apollodorus. He is, however, more ge- —v—<
nerally acknowledged to be the- fon of Phoebus and
Clymene. He was naturally of a livcdy difpofition,
and a handfome figure. Venus became enamoured of
him, and entrufted him with the care of one of her
temples. This diftinguilhing favour of the goddefs
rendered him vain and afpiring ; and when Epaphus,
the fon of lo, bad told him, to check his pride, that
he was not the fon of Phoebus, Phaeton refolved to
know his true origin, and at the inftigation of his mo¬
ther he vifited the palace of the fun. He begged
Phoebus, that if he really were his father he would give
him inconteilable proofs of his paternal tendernefs, and
convince the world of his legitimacy. Phoebus re¬
ceived him with great tendernefs, and fwore by Styx
to grant whatever he requefted as a proof of his ac¬
knowledging him for his fon. The youth boldly alk-
ed the direction of the chariot of the fun for one day
His father, grieved and furprifed at this demand, ufed
all his arguments to diffuade him from the rafti at¬
tempt ; but all was in vain : and being by his oath re¬
duced to fubmit to his obftinacy, entrufted him with
the reins, after he had directed him how to ufe them.
The y oung adventurer was however foon fenfible of his
madnefs. He was unable to guide the fiery deeds ;.
and loofing the reins, Jupiter, to prevent his confir¬
ming the heavens and earth, ftruck him with a thun¬
derbolt, and hurled him from his feat into the river
Eridanus or Po. His lifters Ph-tethufa, Lambetia, and
Phoebe, lamenting his lofs upon its banks, were changed
by the gods into bla^ k poplar trees; and Cycnus king
pf Liguria, alfo grieving at his fate, was transformed
into a fwan.
The poets fay, that while Phaeton was driving the
chariot of his father, the blood of the Ethiopians was
dried up ; and their fkin became blaik ; a colour which
is ftill preferved among the greateft part of the inha¬
bitants ot the torrid zone. The territories of Libya
were alfo, they tell us, parched up, on account of their
too great vicinity to the luu ; and ever fince, Africa,
unable to recover her original verdure and fruitfulnefs.
has exhibited a landy country and uncultivated walle.
According to thofe who explain this poetical fable.
Phaeton was a Ligurian prince, who ftudied aftrono-
iny, and in whole age the neighbourhood of the Po
was vifited with uncammoti heats.
Phaeton, in ornithology, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order ot anleres; the characters of which
are: Ihe bill is iharp, ftraight, and pointed; the nof-
trils arc oblong, and the hinder toe is turned forward.
There are two fpecies, viz.
J. The demerfus, or red-footed pinguin, lias a thick,
arched, red bill ; the head, hind-part of the neck, and
the bacit, of a duiky purpliih hue, and breaft and belly
white; brown wings, with the tips of the feathers white;
inftead of a tad, a few black bnitles ; and red legs. It
is found on Pinguin ifle, near the Cape of Good Hope*,
is common all over the South Seas, and is about the
fixe of a goofe.
2. The ethereus, or tropic bird, is about rhe fi/a of
a partridge, and has very long wings. The bill is red',
with an angle under the lower mandible. The eyes
are encompafled with black, wfiich ends in a point to-
warelg- -
P H iE [
wards the back of the head. Three or four of the
larger quill-feather8, towards their ends, are black, tip*
ped with white ; all the relt of the bird is white,
except the back, which is variegated with curved lines
of black. The legs and feet are of a vermilion red. The
toes are webbed. The tailconfifts of two long ftraight
narrow feathers, almoft Oi equal breadth from their
quills to their points. See Plate CCCLXXXIX.
“ The name tropic bird (fays Latham), given to this
genus, arifes from its being chiefly found within the
tropic circles ; but we are not to conclude, that they
never ftray voluntarily, or arc driven beyond them j
for we have met with a fewinflanees to prove the con¬
trary (a). It is, however, fo generally found within
the tropical limits, that the fight of this bird alone is
fufficient to inform the mariner of a very near approach
to if not his entrance therein. It has alfo been thought
to portend the contiguity of land (a); but this has
«ftenproved fallacious, as it is not unfrequently found at
very great diflances therefrom. The flight of this bird
is often to a prodigious height; but at other times it is
been, along with the frigate pelican, booby, and other
birds, attending the flying fiihes at their rife from the
water, driven from their native element into the air by
their watery enemies, the fhark(c), porpoife, albicore,
bonito, and dolphin, which purfue them beneath, and
prey upon them. Thefe birds are fometimes obferved
to reft on the furface of the water, and have been now
a»nd then feen in calm weather upon the backs of the
drowfy tortoifes, fupinely floating in the fea, fo that
they have been eafily taken by the long boat manned.
On flrore they w ill perch on trees; and are faid to
breed in the woods, on the ground beneath them.
They have been met with in plenty on the iflands of
St Helena, Afcenfion, Mauritius, New Holland, and
various places in the South Seas ; but in no place fo
numerous as at Palmerfton Ifland, where thefe birds,
as well ss the frigates, were in fuch plenty, that the
trees were abfolutely loaded with them, and fo tame,
that they fuffered themfelves to be taken off the boughs
with the hand. At Otaheite, and in the Friendly iiles,
the natives give them the names of haingoo and toolaiee.
“As the tropic bird fheds the long tail feathers every
year, the inhabitants of fuch ifles as they frequent,
collect and make ufe of them by way of ornameut in
various manners; they are worn in the caps of the
Sandwich iflanders, being in great plenty at Tahoora,
as alfo in various parts of their drefs; but in none more
confpicuous than in the mourning garment of Ota-
263 '] PH A\
heite, in which iflsnd numbers are picked up in the Pfwetom
mountainous parts, where it alfo breeds. The fltfli
cannot be called good, but was found fufliciently ac¬
ceptable to thofe who had long been confined to fait
provifions, and in which circumftance the failor» did
not defpife it.”
There ia a variety of this bird called by Latham
the white tropic bird. It is lefs tlun the one we have
already deferibed, and is found in as many places
as it. The plumage of this bird is in general of a
fllvery white. The yellow tropic bird is a further va¬
riety of the fame fpecies, the plumage being of a yel-
lowifh white. Thefe differences, Mr Latham thinks,
arife merely from age, if they are not the d id in gu lik¬
ing mark of fex.
3. The black-billed tropic bird is fmaller than any
of the former. The bill is black ; the plumage on the
upper part of the body and wings is ftriated, partly
black and partly white ; before the eye there is a large
crefcent of black, behind it is a llreak of the fame ;
the forehead and all the under parts of the body are
of a pure white colour ; the quills and tail are marked
as the upper parts, but the ends of the fipft are white,
and moft of the feathers of the hft are marked with
dufky black at the tips; the fides over the thighs arc
ftriated with black and white; the legs are black..
One of thefe was found at Turtle and Palmerfton
iflands, in the South Seas, and is in the poffefiion of
Sir Jofeph Banks.
4. The red-tailed tropic bird is in length about tw*
feet ten inches, of which the two tail feathers alone
meafure one foot nine inches. The bill is red ; the
plumage white, tinged of an elegant pale rofe-colour ;
the crefcent over the eyes is fomewhat abrupt in the
middle ; the ends of the fcapulars are marked with
black. This bird is diflinguifhed from others by two
middle long tail feathers, which are of a beautif ul deep
red colour, except the {hafts and bafe, which are black;
the files over the thighs are dufky ;»and the legs arc
black.
“ This fpecies (fays Latham) is met with frequent¬
ly at large as the others, but does not feem to be fo
far fpread. Our navigators met with them in various
places, though they were feldom feen by them on fhore
except in the breeding feafon, which is in September
and Otfober. They are found in great numbers in the
ifland of Mauritius, where they make the neft in hol¬
lows in the ground under the trees ; the eggs are two
in number, of a yellowifh white marked with rufous
fpota.
(a) “ Dr Forfter obferves, that they are never feen beyond 28 degrees of latitude; but others talk of their
fpreading far beyond it. In lat. 32. 45. Ell. Narr. ii.p. 64.-33. IO- N Cook’s lajl Voy. iii. p. 178.—38. 34.
S. Park. Voy. p. 132.—38. 29. S. Hawkef. Voy. iii. p. 77. This is mentioned as not being common ; but
Kalm fays he met with thefe in 40 degrees north. See Trav. i. p. 22.—And a friend of mine affured me,
that he faw one in latitude 47-I- north; but at the fama time obferved, that it was the firft inftance he had
ever known of fuch a circiwnfiance.
(b) “ Ulloa's Voy. ii. p.301. He obferves, that they feldom are met with above eight or ten league*
from land. ?
(c) “ Squalus conductor, delphinus phoesna, fcomber thynnus, /comber pelamis, delphinus coryphana. See Phil. Tran/
vol. Ixviii. p. 800. It is there obferved, that the flying filh is able to fly ,60 or more yards at one ftretch,
and repeat it a fecond or even a third time, only the flighteft momentary touch of the furface that can be
conceived intervening; and it is common in theie flight* for them to fly againft fhips, or fall on the deck.
dsena
fpot«. The fame author give# an aecmmt of the
introdu&ion of para:!ife grackle# into the ifland of
Phaiaiia. Bourbon, from whence they fpread into that of Mau-
* 1 » ritius; at firil intended for the very ufeful purpofe of
deftroying the locufts and ^ra(hoppers, which fwarmed
there to a great degree : the refnlt of their prodigious
mcreafe, and the unlocked tor confequence of it, he
has likevvile mentioned. Thefe birds, we are told,
are great enemies to the tropic b rds, ocular de-
monftnition of which was had by M. de Qucrhoent ;
for, being feated beneath a tree in which were perch¬
ed a number of the grackles, he obferved a tropic bird
come to its hole, in order to go to the neft ; but the
grackles attacked the bird all at once, and obliged it
to fly off; it then returned with its confort in com¬
pany, but without effeft, as they were both driven
away, as the Angle one had been before ; when the
grackles returned to their tree, and the fpe&ator left
them in that fituation.
“ 1 his fpecies of tropic bird has been met with in
feveral places of the South Seas ; very common at Pal-
merfton and Turtle iflands ; at Hervey’s ifland in the
greatefl. plenty, and of which conftderable numbers
were killed for provifrons ; and here alfo they make
t.ie nerts in the fame manner as at Mauritius. The
name it is know'n by at Ocaheite and the Friendly ifles
is tawagge and See DiomedeA and Pinguin.
. PHAGEDENA, in medicine, denotes a corro¬
ding ulcer.
PHAGEDENIC medicines, thofe ufed to eat off
proud or fungous flefli; fuch as are all the cauftics.
Phagedenic Water, in chemiftry, denotes a water
made from quicklime and fublimate ; and is very effi¬
cacious in the cure of phagedenic ulcers. To pre¬
pare this water, put two pounds of frefh quicklime
in a large earthen pan, and pour upon it about ten
pounds of rain-water; let them hand together for two
days, ftirring them frequently r at laft leave the lime
to fettle well, then pour off the water hy inclination,
filtrate it, and put it up in a glafs bottle, adding to it
an ounce of corrofive fublimate in powder; which
from white becomes yellow, and links to the bottom
of the veflel. The water being fettled, is fit for ufe
in the cleanfing of wounds and ulcers, and to eat off
fuperfltious and efpedaily in gangrenes; in which
cafe may be added to it a third or fourth part of fpirit
of wine r
* .^^kiENA, the Moth, in zoology, a genus of
meets belonging to the order of lepidoptera. The
o   A lie
feelers are cetaceous, an 1 taper gradually towards the
points; the wings are often bent backwards.
Barhut divides this genus into eight families, and
we are told that there are no lefs than 460 fpecies. The
names of the feveral families are given by Barbut as
o ow* . i. ihe attaci, whofe wings incline down¬
wards and are fpread open : they have pectinated an¬
tenna; without a tongue, or peftinated antenna? with a
jpiral tongue or cetaceous antennas with a fpiral tongue.
2. I he bom! yces, Whofe wings cover the body in a po-
fition nearly hor.zontal, and which have peftinated an¬
tennae. fhey are either elingues, which want the
tongue, or have it fo ffiort as not to be manifeftly
Ipirnl ; their wings are either reverfed or defleaed •
or fpmlingues, which have a fpirai tongue ; and are
either I*ve9 with fmooth backs, or criftat® dorfo with Phal»na,
a kind of creft or tuft of hair on the back. 3. The '
nodfu®, whofe wings are incumbent as in the bomby-
ces, from which they differ chiefly in the formation of
the antennae, which are cetaceous. The no&na? are
either elingues, wanting tongues, or fpirilingues h%-
ving fpiral tongues. 4. The geometrae, wbofe 'ving#
when at reft are extended horizontally ; the antennae
m one fubdivifion of this feaion are peiftinated, in an¬
other cetaceous; the under wings in each of thefe di-
vilions are either angulated, or round with entire edges.
5. The tortrices. The wings are exceeding obtufe,
their exterior margin is curve, and declines' toward#
the fides of the body. They have fllort palpi. 6 The
pyralidcs. The inner margins of the wings in this
feaion are laid one over the other ; the wings them-
felves decline a little towards the fides of the body,
and in fiiape referable a delta ; they have confiderable
palpi of different forms. 7. The tint®. The wings
are wrapped up or folded round the body, fo as to give
the infea a cylindrical form; the forehead is ftretched
out or advanced forwards. 8. The alucitte. The wings
of this divifion are fplit, or divided into branches ai-
moft to their bafe.
The caterpillars of this genus vary much as to fize».
and confiderably as to their lhape and number of feet.
.It is remarkable, that caterpillars of almolt every fpe¬
cies of this genus are found with 10, 12, 14, and 16
feet. The lalt are the molt common and the largeft ;
thofe of 10 and 1 2 feet are called geometrte. /imouglt
the geometras caterpillars (fays Barbut) there are fome
very lingular, whether for their colour, or the tuber-
cula wfveh they bear, or laftly for the difference of
their attitudes. Many refemble fmall branches or bits
o. dry wood ; and that refemblance may be a means of
faving many of thofe inft&s from the voracioufnefs of
birds, who do not fo eafily difeern them. Other cater¬
pillars are very hairy, while feveral are quite fmooth *
the latter have a cleanlier look, whereas the hairy ones
Have fomething hideous, and may even be hurtful when
touched.
“ All the caterpillars of phalaense, after having feve¬
ral times caff their Hough, fpin their cod, in ^which
they are transformed to chryfalids. But the texture
of the cod, the ffnenefs of the Thread of which it i#
competed, and the different matters joined to the
threads, are infinitely various.
“ The ehryfalids of phahenas are generally oblong
ovals, not angulous as thofe ol butterflies, nor fo foon
transformed to perfea inftfts. They remain a much
longer time within the cod, the greateft part not co¬
ming forth till the enfuing year. Some 1 have met
with that remained in that ftate during two or three
years fucceffively. Heat or cold contribute greatly to
forward or put back their final mcturrorphofis ; a fact
which may be afcertained by procuring them a certain
t.egree of moderate heat, by which means one may fee
phalzenae brought forth upon one’s mantle-piece in the
depth of winter.
“ The phalaenas or perfect infeas fprung from thofe
cods, are generally more clumfy and heavy than but¬
terflies ; their colours are likewife more brown, dim3
and obfeure, though there art fome phalacnae whofe co¬
lours are very lively and brilliant. Several of them
fLf
p h a r 264 3
Phalaena. fly only in the evening* keeping quiet and clofe under the thorax.
* 1 -y ' leaves in the day-time ; and this has induced fome au¬
thors to give them the name of night butterflies. In
fummer evenings they find their way into rooms, at¬
tracted by the lights round which they are feen to
hover. And indeed a fure method of catching a great
number of phaltenas is to hunt them by night in a
bower with a lantern. They all refort to the light
of the lantern, about which great numbers of them
may be caught.
A remarkable circumftance has been obferved of
thefe phalaense, which is, that the females of fome of
them are without wings. By their looks they never
would be taken for phalcenaj. They have the appear¬
ance of a large, fhort, fix-legged, creeping animal,
while their male is winged and aftive. Yet this heavy
creature is a real phalsena, eafily diftinguifhed by its
antennae. It even has wings, but fo fhort that they
are no more than fmall protuberances placed at the ex¬
tremity of the thorax, and that appear quite ufelefs.
Thofe phalaenae whofe females are deftitute of wings
are generally in the number of thofe whofe antennae
are peftinated. The unwinged females have antennae
fimilar to thofe of the males, but with fbortcr beards
only. Their body is alfo charged with fcales, the cha-
raCferiftic of infefts of this order.”
To defcribe every fpecies of this extenfive genus
would be impofiible ; we fhall therefore only take no¬
tice of a very few, of which we have given engra¬
vings.
The phalasna attacus pavonia minor.
Plate CCCLXXXIX. The wings of
fays Barbut, are brown, undulated, and
having fome grey in the middle, and
Tine broad ; in its colour yellowifh grey
part has more of the grey cafi, but the extremities of
the wings before the margin have a broad band of
brown. The four wings, as well above as beneath,
have each a large eye, which eyes arc black encom-
paffed with a dun-coloured circle, and above that with
a femicircle of white, then another of red, and laflly
the eye is terminated by a whole circle of black. A-
.crofs the middle of the eye, is drawn tranfverfely a
fmall whitilh line. The caterpillar is green, has 16
feet with rofe-colour tubercula, charged with long
hairs terminated by a Imall knob ; befides which, it
has dun-colour or reddiih rings. It is found upon
fruit-trees.
Phalacna alucita pentadadyla, N° 2. The eyes of
this fpecies are black ; the body is of a pale yellow.
The wings are fnow white, and the infe£t keeps them
, ft retched ^afunder when at reft. The fuperior are di¬
vided in two, or rather appear compofed of two ftumps
of bird's feathers united at the bafe. The inferior ones
are likewife divided into three threads or briftles,
which are furniihed on both fides with fine fringes.
The caterpillar is of a green colour, dotted with black,
arid charged with a few hairs. It feeds upon grnfs,
changes to a chryfalis in or about September, and ap¬
pears a moth in Auguft, frequenting woods.
Phaliena nodtua elinguis humuli, N' 3. In this fpe¬
cies the wings of the male are of a fnowy white , of
the female yellowifh, with itreaks of a deeper hue ;
the fitoulders, abdomen, &c. in both fexes, are ueep
yellow. The antennas are pedtinated and fhorter than
See N° 1.
this infedd,
variegated,
margiu one
The under
P H A
The caterpillar feeds upon the roots of Phalaent.
burdock, hops, &c. changes into a chryfalis in May,
appears in the winged ftate in June, frequenting low
marfhy grounds where hops grow.
Phalaena nodtua pronuba fpirilinguis, N° 4. The
thorax, head, antennae, feet, and upper wings, are of a - ■
brown colour, more or lefs dark, fometimes fo deep as
to be nearly black, but often of a bluilh call. L he
upper wings are moreover fomewhat clouded, and have
two black fpots, one on the middle, the other towards
the outward angle of the lower part of the wing. The
under ones are of a beautiful orange colour, with a
broad black band near the lower edge of the wing, of
which it follows the diredtion. The caterpillar is
fmooth ; to be found on feveral plants, but particularly
upon the thlafpi and fome other cruciferous plants. It
keeps, in concealment during the day, and only feeds
by night. Its metamorphofis is performed underground*
and fome varieties of colour are obfervable amongft
thefe caterpillars; fome being green, others brown;
■which latter yield males, the former females.
.Phalaena tortrix prafinana. The fuperior wings of
this fpecies are of a fine green colour, having two dia¬
gonal yellow bars on each, the body and inferior wings
are whitlfh, fhadedwith yellowilh green. The caterpil-
lar is a pale yellowifh green, ornamented with fmall
brown fpecks or fpots, the tail being forked and tipt
with orange red colour ; feeds on the oak, changes to
a chryfalis in September, and affumesthe fly-ftate about
May, frequenting woods.
PHALANQIUM, in zoology, a genus of infe&s
belonging to the order of aptera. They have eight
feet, two eyes on the top of the bead placed very near
each other, and other two on the fides of the head :
the feelers referable legs, and the belly is round.
There are nine fpecies.
Mr Barbut only deferibes one fpecies, <u/z. the pha-
langium opilis of Lfinnaeus. His defeription is as fol¬
lows : “ Its body is roundifh, of a dufky brown on the
back, with a bulkier fpot of a rhomboidal figure near
the middle of it. The belly is whitish f the legs are
extremely long and flender. On the back part of the
head there Hands a little eminence, which has on it a
kind of double creft, formed as it were of a number of
minute fpines ; the eyes are fmall and black, and are
two in number. It is commonly called the fhepherd
fpider.
“ This fpecies of fpider multiplies fingularly. They
are great ipinners. In autumn the ftubble is quite co¬
vered with the threads of thefe fpiders, by means of
which they travel with eafe, and enfnare their prey.
However, thofe threads are thought rather to be the
produce of a fpecies of tick called autumnal-iveaver. A
fmall degree of attention difeovers an amazing multi¬
tude of thofe ticks ?.lmoft imperceptible, and that is
their work. The threads, when united, appear of a
beautiful white, wave about in the air, and are known
in the country by the name of •virgin’s threads. Some
naturalifts think, that tliofe threads, floating in the air,
ferve the infetf as fails to waft it through the air, and
as a net to entrap infeits on the wing ; for remnants
of prey, fay they, are difcoveraole in them. As to
thofe parcels in which nothing is feen, they are only
effays rejected by thofe travelling infedts. I he analogy
between the phalangium and the crib, and the facility
*■ with
P H A [ 265 1
Tfkilsngttfis vili wlilcTi it parts with its legs to fave the reft of the of feven
.Phalanx, kas raifed a prefumption that its legs might
* •gtow again, as do tho'fe of crabs and lobfters. Country-
people have an opportunity to endeavour at afcertain-
ang the truth of thefe obfervations.”
PHALANGOSIS, in furgery, is a tumor and re¬
laxation of the eye-lids, often fo great as to deform the
eye, and confiderably to impede vifion. Sometimes the
eye-lid when in this ftate fublides or finks down, occa¬
sioned perhaps either by a palfy of the mufcle which
Suftains and elevates the eye-lid, or elfe from a relaxa¬
tion of the cutis above, from various caufes. Some¬
times an cedematous or aqueous tumor is formed on
the eye-lids, fo as almoft entirely to exclude vifion ;
but this laft cafe fhould be diftinguifhed from the other,
and may be eafily remedied by the ufe of internal and
topical medicines, fuch as purges and diuretics given
inwardly, and a comprefs dipped in warmfpint of wine
and lime water. But in the paralytic or relaxed cafe,
the ufe of cordial and nervous medicines muft be pro-
pofed internally ; and outwardly, balfam of Peru and
Hungary water are to be employed. If all thefe fail,
the remaining method of cure is to extirpate a fuffi-
cient quantity of the relaxed cutis ; and then, after
healing up the wound, the remainder will be fulficient-
ly ftrortened.
PHALANX, in Grecian antiquity, a fquare bat¬
talion of foldrers, with their fhicld-s joined and pikes
crofting each other; fo that it was next to impofiibl-e
to break it.
The Macedonian phalanx is fuppofed by fome to
have had the advantage, in Valour and ftrength, over
the Roman legion. Its number was 8000 men. But
the word phalanx is ufed for a party of 28, and feveral
other numbers ; and even fometimes for the whole bo¬
dy of foot. See Legion.
Phalanx is applied, by anatomifts, to the three
r,ws of fmall bones which form the lingers. In na¬
tural hiftory it is a tcn-m which Dr Woodward and
fome other writers of foflils have ufed to exprefs an
arrangement of the columns of that fort of foffil co-
ralloide body found frequently in Wales, and called
Woodward'* lithojlrothn. In the great variety of fpecimens we find
Co//. ofFoJf. of this, fome have the whole phalanx of columns crack-
^ u' ed through, and others only a fewrof the external ones;
but thefe cracks never remain empty, but are found
filled up with a white fpar, as the fmaller cracks of
ftone ufually arc. This is not wonderful, as there is
much fpar in the compofition of this' fofiil ; and it is
eafily walhed out of the general mafs to fill up thefe
cracks, and is then always found pure, and therefore
of its natural colour, white.
The lithoftrotion, or general congeries of thefe pha¬
langes of columns, is commonly found immerfed in a
grey ftone, and found on the tops of the rocky cliffs
about Milford in Wales. It is ufually ereft, though
fomewhat inclining in fome fpecimens, but never lies
horizontal. It feems to have been all white at firft,
but to have been fince gradually tin&ured with the
matter of the ftone in which it lies. The fingle co¬
lumns, which form each phalanx, are ufually round or
cylindric, though fometimes flatted and bent; fome of
' 'them are alfo naturally of an angular figure ; thefe
however, are not regular in the number of thei/angles!
Some confining of three hdes, fome of fire, and fome
V01,. XiV. Part I.
; P H A
fome are hexangular alfo, but thefe are Phalarms
fcarce. They are from five or fix to fixteen inches in v"*—*
length ; and the largeft are near half an inch over, the
leaft about a -quarter of an inch ; the greater number
are very equal to one another in fize ; but the fides of
the columns being unequal, the fame column meafures
of a different thicknefs when meafured different ways;
the phalanges or congeries of thefe are fometimes of a
foot or more in diameter.
The columns are often burft, as if they had been af¬
fected by external injuries; and it is evident that they
were not formed before feveral other of the extraneous
fofiils; for there are found fometimes Ihells of fea-fifhes_
and entrochi immerfed and bedded in the bodies of the
columns. It appears plainly from hence, that when
thefe bodies were waflied out of the fea, and toffed
about in the waters which then covered the tops of
thefe cliffs, this elegant fdffil, together with the ftony
bed in which it is contained, were fo foft, that thofo
other bodies found entrance into their very fubftance,
and they were formed as it were upon them. This
fofiil takes an elegant polilh, and makes in that ftate a
very beautiful appearance, being of the hardnefs of the
common white marble, and carrying the elegant ftruc-
ture vifible in the fmalleft lineaments.
PHALARIS, a remarkable tyrant, born at Crete.,
where his ambitious defigns occafioned his banifhment:
he took refuge in Agrigentum, a free city of Sicily,
and there obtained the fupreme power by ftratagem.
The circumftance which has chiefly contributed to pre-
ferve his name in hiftory is his cruelty ; in one a<ft of
which he gave, however, an example of ftridl juiftice. It
is thusrelated : Perillus,abrafs-fcmnder at Athens,know¬
ing the cruel difpofition of Phakris, contrived a new fpe-
cies of puniftiment for him to inflift on his fubjeffs. He
call a brazen bull, bigger than the life, with an opening
in the fide to admit the viftims ; who being ftnit up in
the body, a fire was kindled under it to roaft them to
death ; and the throat was fo contrived, that their dy¬
ing groans refembled the roaring of a bull. The ar-
tift brought it to the tyrant, expedting a great reward,
Phalaris admired the invention and workmanfhip, but
ordered the inventor to be put into it to make the firft
trial. In allufion to which, Ovid fays,
 Nequt gnim lex esquior ulla,
Q/am necis artifices arte perire fua.
The end of this deteftable tyrant is differently rela¬
ted ; but it is very generally believed, with Cicem,
that he fell by the hands of the Agrigentines ; and,
as fome fuppofe, at the inftigation of Pythagoras.
Ovid tells us, that his tongue was cut out; and that
he was then put into the hull to perifh by the fame
flow fire by which means he had murdered fo many
before. Others fay that he was ftoned to death; and
all agree that his end was violent. He reigned, Eu-
febius fays, 28 years; others fay 16. After all, there
is great uncertainty both as to his life, death, and hi¬
ftory. Many of the circumftances related of him,
as they are colle<fted by Mr Boyle, depend upon the
authenticity of thofe epiftles which go under the name
of the tyrant; and which have been juftly queftioned,
and with great probability rejefted, as the fpurious
produ&ion of fome modern fophift. See Bentley,
p. 177. col. 2.
L1 Phalarisj
P H A r 266 ] P H A
Phalaris Phalaris, or Canary-grafs, in botany ; a genus of
p, c the trigynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
a l f' plants. The calyx is bivalved, carinated, and equal in
~ length, containing the corolla. There are ten fpecies,
of which the moll remarkable are the canarienfis, or
manured Canary-grafs; and the arundinacea, or reed
Can ;ry-grafs. 1 hefe are both natives of Britain. The
firft grows by the road-fides ; and is frequently culti¬
vated for the fake of the feeds, which are found to be
the bell foo l for the Canary and other fmall birds.
The fecond grows on the banks of rivers. It is ufed
for thatching ricks or cottages, and endures much
longer than ftraw. in Scandinavia they mow it twice
n.yesr, and their cattle eat it. There is a variety of
this cultivated in our gardens with beautifully ftriped
leaves. The ftripes are generally green and wiiite ;
but fometirr.es they have a purplifh call. This is com¬
monly called painted lady-grcfs, or ladies treffes.
PHALERJE., among the ancient Romans, were
military rewards beftowed fer fome figrrd adt of bra¬
very. Authors do not agree whether the Phalerac
■were a fuit of rich trappings for a horfe, or golden
chains fomething like the torques, but fo formed as to
hang down to the bread and difplay a greater profu¬
sion of ornament. The lad opinion appears to have
the greater prevalence, but perhaps both are true.
PHALEREUS (Nepos), a village mid_ port of
Athens ; this lad neither large nor commodious, for
which reafon Themiilocles put the Athenians on build¬
ing the Piraeus; both joined to Athens by long walls.
The Phakreus lay nearer the city (Paufanias). De¬
metrius Phalcreus, the celebrated fcholar of Theo-
phradus, was of this place; to whom the Athenians
ere£led above 30Q dntues; which were afterwards de-
flroyed by his enemies, on his flight to Ptolemy king
ef Egypt (Strabo). Here Demodhenes was wont to
declaim*, to accudom his voice to furmount the noiie
and roaring of the fea; a jud and lively emblem of po¬
pular afiemblies.
PHALEUCIAN verse, in ancient poetry, a kind
of veife confiding of five feet; the fird of which is a
fpondee, the fecond a da&yl, and the three lad tro¬
chees.
PHALLUS, the morel, m botany ; a genus of
the order of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamra clafs
of plants. The fungus is reticulated above and fmooth
below. There are two fpecies.
1. The efculentus, or efculent morel, is a native of
Britain, growing in woods, groves, meadows, padures,
&c. The fubdance, when recent, is wax like and
friable ; the colour a whitifh yellow, turning brownilh
in decay ; the height of the whole fungus, about four
or five inches. The dalk is thick and clumfy, fom'e-
what tuberous at the bafe, and hollow in the middle.
The pileus is either round or conical; at a medium
about the fixe of an egg, often much larger, hollow
within ; its bafe united to the dalk ; and its iurface
cellular, or latticed with irregular finufes. The mag¬
nified feeds are oval. It is much edeemed at table both
recent and dried, being commonly ufed as an ingre¬
dient to heighten the flavour of ragouts. We are in¬
formed by Gleditfch, that morels are obferved to grow
in the woods of Germany in the greated plenty in
thofe places where charcoal has been made. Hence
the good women who colled them to fell, receiving a
hint how to encourage their growth, have been accu- Phallus,.
Homed to make fires in certain places of the. woods* I’halri,
with heith, broom, vaccinium, and other materials, in -’""'V'—*
order to obtain a more plentiful crop. This drange
method of cukivating morels being however fometimes
attended with dreadful confequences, large woods ha¬
ving been fet on fire and deitroyed by it, the magi-
ftrate thought fit to interpofe his authority, and the
pradice is now interdided.
2. The impudkus, llinking morel, or dinkhorns, is
alfo a native of Biitain, and found in woods and on
banks. It arifes from the earth under a veil or volva,
fhaped exadly like a hen’s egg, and of the fame co¬
lour, having a long fibrous radicle at its bafe. This
egg-like volva is compnfed of two coats or membranes,
the fpace between which is full ot a thick, vifeid,
tranfparent matter, which, when dry, glues the coats
together, and drines like varnifh. In tue next ilage
of growth, the volva fuddeniy burils inco ftvetal la¬
cerated permanent fegments, from the centre of which
arifes an erecl, white, cellular, hollow llalk, a':,out five
or fix inches high and one thick, of a wax-like friable
fubllance, and molt fetid cadaverous fmell, conical at
each end, the bafe inferted in a white, concave, mem¬
branaceous turbinated cup, and the fummit capped
with a hollow, conical pileus, an inch long, having
a reticulated cellular furface, its bafe detached irons the
ftaik, and its fummit uir.bilicated, the umbilicus fome-
times perforated and fometimes clpfed. The under
fi le of this pileus is covered with a clear, vifeid, gela¬
tinous matter, fimilar to that found between the mem¬
branes of the volva ; and under this vifeid matter, con¬
cealed in reticulated receptacles, are found the feeds,
which when magnified appear ipherical. As foon as
the volva burils, the plant begins to diffufe its intole¬
rable odours, which are fo powerful and widely ex¬
panded, that the fungus may be readily difeovered by
the feent only, before it appears to the light. At this
time, the vifcid matter between the coats of the volva
grows turbid and fufeous ; and when the plant attains-
its full maturity, the clear vifeid fubltance in the pileua
becomes gradually difcoloured, putrid, and extremely
fetid, and foon afterwards turns blackifh, and, toge- L
ther with the feeds and internal part of the pileus it-
felf, melts away. The fetid fmell then begins to re¬
mit, the fungus fades, and continues for a Ihort time
faplefs and coriaceous, and at laft becomes the food of
worms. The cadaverous feent of this fungus greatly
allures the flies; which, lighting upon the pileus, art;
entrapped in the vifeid matter, and perifli. We are
informed by Gkditfch, that the vulgar people in Thu¬
ringia call the unopened volvx by the ridiculous name
of ghojls and daemon’s eggs > and that they coiled, and
dry them either in the fmoke or open air, and when
reduced to powder, ufe them in a glafs of fpirits as aa
aphrodifiac.
Phallus, among the Egyptians, was the emblem
of fecundity. It was very fervently wmrfhipped by
women, efpeciaily by thole who were barren. This
cullom was introduced among the Greeks, and fefti-
vals in honour of it were called phaluca. See Mvsi £-
RiES, n° 38, &c. Among the Hindoos a fimilar em¬
blem called lingam is ufed, and for fimilar purpofes.
See Hinpoop, n° 4.
PHALTI, or Phaltiel, fon of Lailh. He mar¬
ried
3
P H A [ 267 j P H A
{*hiinatic r‘e(i Michal, aTtcr Saul had taken her from David ;
|| but David afterwards took her away from Phalti
Phaor. (r Sam. xxv. 44. 2. Sam. hi. 15.) Some interpreters
_J'1 ’v are cf’opinion Phalti did not meddle with Michal all
the time fire continued in his houfe, for fear that both
of them fhould incur the penalty of death, to he in-
fifted on adulterers (Levit. xx. 10.), becaufe Michal
had not been leg?.lly divorced ; -but thefe reafons are
frivolous. Saul looked upon David as a rebel to his
king, and an outlaw, whofe goods and wives belonged
to him- and which he could abfolutely difpofe of. He
would not have given Michal to Phalti, nor would he
have received her, if he had not thought he might
ufe her as his wife If Michal had no children by
Phalti, by whom then were thofe children that the
feripture fays die had, fmee it is known ihe had none
by David ? See 2 Sam. xxi. 8. and vi. 23.
PHANATIC, or Fanatic, a vifionary ; one who
fancies he fees fpeftres, fpirits, apparitions, or other
imaginary objefts, even when awake; and takes them
to be real. See Phantasy and Fanatic.
Such are phrenetics, necromancers, hypochondriac
perfons, lycant^opi, &c. See Phrenetic, Hypo¬
chondriac, Lycanthropi.
Hence the word is alfo applied to enthufiafts, pre¬
tenders to revelation, new lights, prophecies, &c. See
Enthusiast, and Second Sight.
Ptd ANTASIA was the daughter of Nicarchus of
Memphis in Egypt. It has been fuppofed that fhe wrote
a poem on the Trojan war, and another on the return
•of Ulyffes to Ithaca, from which compofitions Homer
copied the greateft part of his Iliad and Odyffey, when
he vifited Memphis, where they were depofited.
PHANTASM, a term fometimes ufed in a fyno-
nymous fenfe with idea, or notion retained in the mind,
of an external objeft.
PHANTASY, or Fancy, the Imagination; the fe-
eond of the powers or faculties of foul, by which the
fpecies of obje£Is received by the external organs of
fenfe are retained, recalled, further examined, and either
'Compounded or divided. See Imagination ; and Me¬
taphysics, Part I. Chap. ii.
Others define the phantafy to be that internal fenfe
or power, whereby the ideas of abfent things are form¬
ed, and reprefented to the mind as if they were pre¬
sent. In melancholics and madmen this faculty is very
ftrong, reprefenting many extravagant and monftrous
things, and framing its images as lively as thofe of fen-
fation : whence the vifions and deceptions thofe per-
fons are liable to.
PHANUEL, of the tribe of Afher, the father of
a holy widow and prophetefs called Anna, who was in
the temple when our Savioui*was prefented there by
his parents (Luke ii. 36, 37, 38.)
PH A ON, a young man of Mytilene, in the ifland
of Lefbos, received from Venus, as fable reports, an
alabafter vafe filled with an effence which had the vir¬
tue of conferring beauty. He had no fooner anointed
his body with it than he became the moll beautiful of
men. The ladies of Mytilene fell defpeiately in love
with him ; and the celebrated Sappho threw herfelf
down a precipice becaufe he would not encourage her
paffion. He is faid to have been killed by a hufhand
who furprifed him with his wife. We have in Ovid a
letter from Sappho to Phaon, which Mr Pope has
tranflated into Englilh verfe.
PHARA (anc. geog.), a village between Egypt
and Arabia Petroea ; or, according to Ptolemy, at a
promontory fituated between the Sinus Heroopolites
and Elaniticus of the Red Sea; where ifmael is faid
to have dwelt. In Hebrew it is Paran, and in moll
interpreters; Phara%, Septuagint and Vulgate. Pha-
ranila, the people (Ptolemy.) Paran or Pharan, the
name of the wildernefs in its neighbourhood, adjoining
to Kadefii.
PHARdE (anc. geog.), a town of Achaia in Pelo-
ponnefus, on the rivei Picrus, 70 ftadia from the fea,
and to the fouth of Patrae 150 ftadia. Another, of
Crete (Pliny) ; a colony from the Phara of Meffenia
(Stephanas.) A third Pbara, or Phera (Strabo, Pto¬
lemy); Pbara, a:, (Polybius); a town of Meflenia,
on the river Nedo (Strabo-) ; on the north fide of the
Sinus Meflenius, and to the north-weft of Abea. An¬
ciently read Pharis in Homer (Paufunias, Statius),
though now read Phare. Pharitce is the name of the
people.
PHARAMOND is the name which is given
by the generality of hiftorians to the firft king of
France. He is faid to have reigned at Treves, and
over a part of France, about the year 420 ; and
to have been fucceeded by his fon Clodion ; but
the account which is given of thefe two princes is
very uncertain, it is probable Pharamond was pro¬
perly no more than a general of an army, the head
of a military fociety of Franks, who were mailers
of their perfons and their fortunes. Gregory of Tours
ftems to have been of this opinion. “ It is not gene¬
rally known (fays he) who was the firft king of the
French. Sulpitius Severus, who mentions fevera‘1
things refpefting that nation, takes no notice of its
firft monarch; he only fays that it had generals.0 Be
that as it may, the inftitution of the famous Salique
law (fo named from the Salians, the molt illuftrious
of the Franks; is generally attributed to Pharamond.
“ This law fixed the punifhment of crimes, and vari¬
ous points of police. There is no juft ground for be¬
lieving that it exprefsly fettled the right of fucceflion
to the crown ; it only fays, that, with relation to the
Salic land, women have no ftiare of heritage, without
reftrifting it to the royal family in particular; for all
thofe were generally called Sa/ic lands which were held
by right of conqueft; and it is eafy to conceive that a
nation of ibldiers, whofe general was their king, would
not fubmit to be governed by a woman. A long
cuftom, fupported by the principles of the nation,
came in time to be the eftabliihed law of the kingdom.’*
(See M. Slble Millet, Elem. de PHifioire de France,
tom. 1.)
PHARAOH, a common name of the kings of
EgyP1- Jofephus fays, that all the kings of Egypt,
from Minseus the founder of Memphis, who lived fe-
veral ages before Abraham, have always had the namti
of Pharaoh, down to the times of Solomon, for more
than 3300 years. He adds, that in the Egyptian
language the word Pharaoh fignifies a king; and that
thofe princes did not aflume this name but when they
afeended the throne, at which time they quitted alfo
their former name. From hence it comes to pafs,i
-L 1 2 fayg
P H A [ 268 ]
fays Jofeplius, that Herodotus names none of the kings entertained
' of Egypt after Minaeus the builder of Memphis, though
he Lad 330 kings for his fuccefl'ors, becaufe they had
all the name of Pharaoh ; but becaufe this naape did
not pafs to women alfo, he names an Egyptian queen
Nicaule wh® fucceeded them. Laftly, I find, adds
Jofephus, from the ancient records of our nation, that
from the age of bolomon no king of Egypt had any
longer the name of Pharaoh.
But Jofephus is not very accurate in this paflage.
True it is, Plerodotus fays, that Mines, or Minaeus,
was the firft king of Egypt, and founder of Memphis;
that there were 330 kings after him in Egypt ; that
after them there was a queen called Nicotris, and not
Nicaule, as Jofephus writes it; but it is not true that
thefe kings had no other name but Pharaoh. Hero¬
dotus fays exprefsly, that in the books of the Egyp¬
tian priefts were read the names and the catalogue of
330 kings ; that in this num'er of 330 there were
18 Ethiopians, and a woman that was a foreigner
called Nicotris, nnd that all the others were Egyptians.
Thefe princes therefore had every one h s proper name
mentioned in the catalogue of the Egyptian kings. So
likewife we fee in the fragments of Manetho, that every
king of Egypt had a name peculiar to him ; and we
find the name Pharaoh only in Scripture
What Jofephus adds concerning queen Nicaule, or
Nicotris,. whom he pretends to be the f .me as the
queen of Sheba, of whom mention is made in Scripture
( j Kings x. 1,2, &c.), is entirely fabulous ; and as to
what he fays, that finee the time of Solomon the kings
of Egypt have no longer had the name of Pharaoh, is
manifeftly falfe, fince we ftill find this name in the fe-
cond book of Kings, under Hezekiah (2 Kings xvixi.
21.) ; under Jofiah (xxiii. 29, 30, 33, &c ), where this
name is joined to Necho, which was the proper name
of this prince ; under Jehoiakim (xxiii 35.) ; and in
the prophets Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, who are
much later than Solomon. It is very probable that the
Egyptians gave the name of Pharoah to their kings as
long as the Egyptian language was in common ufe, and
as long as their kings were of their own nation : but
after the conqueit of Egypt by Alexander the Great,
and that the Grecians introduced their language with
their government, the name of Pharaoh was known no
longer among them. The firft prince known to us by
the name of Pharaoh was he in whofe time Abraham
went down to Egypt, when Sarah, who pafted only
for Abraham’s fifter, was by the command of Pharaoh
brought to his palace in order to become his wife. See
Abraham. But the Lord fmote Pharaoh and his
family with great infirmities, and gave him to know
that fhe was Abraham’s wife; whereupon Pharaoh
fent for Abraham, reftored him his wife, and at the
fame time gave orders that he ftiould be conduced out
of Egypt, with every thing that belonged to him. See
Sarah. , _ .
The fecond Pharaoh fpoke of by the Scripture is he
that reigned when Jofeph arrived there. I his prince
or his fucceffor had the myfterious dream of the fat
and lean kine, and the feven full and barren ears of
corn, which Jofeph explained fo well to his fatistac-
tion, that he made him governor of his houfe and of
all Egypt, referving only to himfelf the name of a
This is the fame Pharaoh that fent for and
P H A
the patriarch Jacob and Ills family in
Egypt, and gave them the land of Golhen for their '
habitation. See Joseph and Jacob.
The third Pharaoh known in holy writ is he that
perfecuted the Ifraelites. Mofes tells us that he was
a new king, and had no knowledge of Jofeph (Exod.
i. 8.) This prince, obferving that the Ifraelites were
become very numerous and powerful, refolved to de*
jmjfs them by hardlhip and labour ; and fet cruel and
pitilefs tafktmfters over them. But the mote he op-
prefted them, the fafter they multiplied ; infomuch that
he gave orders to the Egyptian midwives, who afiifted
the Hebrew women in their labour, to put all the
male children to death, and to fave alive the females
only. But tins command was not ftriftly executed.
The mid wives feared the Lord, and preferved alive
not only the female children, but the males alfo.
Pharaoh, feeing this projeft did not fucceed to hie
wifhes, publifhed a decree (Exod. i. 22.) that all the
male children born of Hebrew women fhould be thrown
into the Nile, and that only the females ftiould be
fpared. This order was rigoroufly executed ; yet by
the providence of God Mofes was preferved, and even
brought up in Pharaoh’s own court, by his own daugh¬
ter, who by chance had found the child, as he was
expofed upon the Nile.
Mofes being grown up, and having killed an Egyp-;
tian who had abufed an Hebrew, was obliged to fly
from Egypt to avoid that death that Pharaoh had
threatened him with.
Several years after, being about 80 years old, he
returned again by an order from God, and performed
mighty miracles before Pharaoh. See Moses. There
is a good deal of probability that this Pharaoh before
whom Mofes appeared, and in whofe fight he fmote
Egypt with fo many plagues, was a different perfoa
from him who would have laid hands on him after he
had flain the Egyptian. This fame Pharaoh having at
laft been compelled to fend away the Hebrews, and to
fuffer them to go out of Egypt, foon repented of the
leave he had given, and purfued them at the head of
his army with his chariots. But he was drowned in
the Red Sea, wherein he had raflily entered in the
eagernefs of his purfult. Some hiftorians pretend to
give us the name of this Pharaoh ; fome, as Appion,
call him Amofis or Amafis ; Eufebius calls him Chen-
chris ; Ulher calls him Amenophis; but we may allure
ourfelves that there can be nothing certain in all this.
The fifth Pharaoh known to'us is he that gave pro-
te&ion to Hadad fon of the king of Edom, who gave
him to wife the fifter of his own queen, enriched him
with lands,, and brought up his fon Genubah in his
own court. Hadad returned te Idumea after the death
of David
1 he fixth Pharaoh is he that gave bis daughter in
marriage to Solomon king of the Hebrews (1 Kings
iii. 1.) ; and having taken Gezer, he fet it on fire,
drove the Canaanites out of it, and gave it for a pre-
fent to Solomon, in lieu of a dowry for his daughter,
whom he had married to this prince (1 Kings ix. 16.)
The feventh is Shilhak, who entertained Jeroboam
in his dominions, a rebellious fubjeft of Solomon, and
offered him a refuge in oppofition to the king his maf-
ter. The fame Shilhak declared war a-ainft Reho-
boam the fon and fucceffor of Solomon, befieged and
took
Phnrsntu
P H A [2
P&araon, took Jerufalcm, carried away all .the king’s treafures,
u—and thofe of the houfe of God, and particularly the
golden bucklers that Solomon had made. See Shi-
SHAK.
The eighth is that Pharaoh with whom Hezekiah
made a league againft Sennacherib king of AfTyria, in
the year of the world 3290. See Sennacherib. This
Pharaoh is probably the fame whom Plerodotus names
Sethon, prieft of Vulcan, who came to meet Senna¬
cherib before Pelufium, and to whofe affiftance Vulcan
fent an army of rats, which gnawed the bow-firings
and the thongs of the bucklers of Sennacherib’s
v foldiers.
The ninth is Pharaoh-Necho, or Nechos, fon of
Pfammiticus, who made war with Jofiah, and fubdued
him. Herodotus alfo mentions this prince. See Necho,
and Egypt, n® 1 r.
The tenth is Pharaoh Hophrah, who entered into
an alliance with Zedekiah king of Judah, and attempted
to come to his affiftance againlt Nebuchadnezzar king
of Chaldea. It was againft this Pharaoh that Ezekiel
pronounced feveral of his prophecies'(See Ezek xxix.
xxx. xxxi. xxxii ) He is called Apries in Herodotus,
* 1. ii. c. 161. He is alfo mentioned in Habakkuk ri.
15, 16. See alfo Ifaiah xix. xx. and Jeremiah xlvi.
16, Sic. See Apries, and Egypt, n° 13, &c.
PHARAON is the name of a game of chance, the
principal rules of which are : the banker holds a pack
confiding of 52 carJs; he draws all the cards one after
the other, and lays them down alternately at his right
and left hand ; then the pente may at his pleafure fet
one or more flakes upon ose or more cards, either
before the banker has begun to draw the cards, or
after he has drawn any number of couples. The
banker wins the flake of the ponte when the card of
the ponte comes out in an odd place on his right hand,
but lofes as much to the ponte when it comes out in
an even place on his left hand. The banker wins half
the ponte’s flake when it happens to be twice in one
couple. When the card of the ponte being but once
in the flock happens to be the laft, the ponte neither
wins nor lofes; and the card of the ponte being but
twice in the flock, and the laft couple containing his
card twice, he then lofes his whole flake. De Moivre
has ffiown how to find the gain of the banker in any
circumfiance of cards remaining in the flock, and of
the number of times th;:t the pontt’s cards is contained
in it. Of this problem he enumerates four cafes, viz.
when the ponte’s card is once, twice, three, or four
times in the flock. In the fiift cafe, the gain of the
banker is —, n being the number of cards in the flock.
69 ]
P H A
In the fecond cafe, his gain is ^Z. 4- 
nXn — 1 « Xn—1
4«+i
or — 1 ’ fuPP°fing y — i- In the third cafe, his
gain is
iy
2X„—or :v=r. I*
the fourth cafe, the gain of the banker, or the lofg of
, . m—5 m—?
the ponte, is  —  y, or —  ;; .
r «—IX«—2Xh-iX«—3’
fuppofing y = De Moivre has calculated a table,
exhibiting this gain or lofs for any particular circum¬
fiance of the play ; and he obferves, that at this play
the leafl difadvantage of the ponte, under the fame
circumflances of cards remaining in the flock, is when
the card of the ponte is but twice in it, the next
greater when three times, the next when once, and
the greatefl when four times. Pie has alfo demonftrated,
that the whole gain per cent, of the banker, upon all the
money that is adventured at this game, is 2 1. 19s tod.
See De Moivre’s Do&xine of Chances, p. 77, &c.
p. 109, &c.
PHAREZ, fon of Judah and Tamar (Gen. xxxviii.
27, 28, &c.) Tamar being juft ready to lie in, found
herfelf with child of twins. One of them appeared
firft, and putting his arm out, he immediately drew
it back again. The midwife tied a fcarlet thread
upon his arm, to diftinguifh him for the firft born:
but having withdrawn bis hand, his brother got before
him into the world : whereupon he was called by his
mother Pharez, i. e. one breaking forth ; as the other
with the thread on his hand was called Zarah. The
fons of Pharez were Hezron and Hamul (Numb. xxvi.
20, 21.) F. Calmet, upon this article, explains the
text as if Pharez, and not Zarah, had put out his
hand, and drew it in again.
PHARISEES, a famous feft of the Jews, who
diftinguifhed themfelves by their zeal for the tradi¬
tions of the elders, which they derived from the fame
fountain with the written word itfelf; pretending that
both were delivered to Mofes from Mount Sinai, and
were therefore both of equal authority. From their
rigorous obfervance of thefe traditions, they looked
upon themfelves as more holy than other men : and
therefore feparated themfelves from thofe whom they
thought finners or profane, fo as not to eat or drink
with them; and hence, from the Hebrew wordpharisy
which fignifies “ to feparate,” they had the name of
Pharifecs or Separatijls.
1 his fed! was one of the moft ancient and moft con-
fiderable among the Jews ; but its original is not very
well known (a) : however, it was in great repute in
the
(a) The Jefuit Serrarmp. places their firft: rife about the time of Efdras ; becaufe it was then that the
. Jews firft began to have interpreters of their traditions. Maldonat, on the other hand, will not have this fedt
to have arilen among the Jews till a Irttle before the time of Chrift. Others, perhaps with more probability,
refer the origin of the Pharifees to thje time of the Maccabees.
Dr Lightfoot thinks, that Pharifaifm rofe up gradually, from a period which he does not affign, to the
maturity of a fedt. It is certain, from the account given by Jofephua, that in the time of John Hyrcanus
the high prieft: and prince ot the Afmonean line, about 108 years before Chritl, the fedl was not only formed^
but made a confiderable figure ; and that it had advanced to a high degree of popularity and power about 80
years before L-hrift. Jof. Ant. lib. xiii. cap. 10. § 5, 6. cap. 15. 5. & cap. 16. $ 1. According to Bafnage,
Hill, of the Jews, book ii. cap. 9. § 2. one Ariftobulus, an Alexandrian Jew, and a Peripatetic philofopher3
who-
Pkarez,
Phaiifees.
P H A
l 270 1
P H A
Pharifec*. £JlC t|'me of our Saviour; and mud have had its ori-
gjnal at the fame time w ith the traditions, and they
grew up together, till at length they had gained ground
fo far, that the traditional law fwallowed up the writ¬
ten, and thefe who were propagators of it the whole
bulk of the Jewilh nation.
The exraordinary pretences of the Pharifees to righte-
oufnefs drew after them the common people, who held
them in the higheft efteeni and veneration. Our Saviour
frequently, however, charges them with hypocrify, and
making the law of God of no effeft through their tradi¬
tions (Matt, ix 2. xv. 1—6. xxiii. 13—33., and Luke
xi. 39—5-2.) Several of thefe traditions are particul-irly
mentioned in the gofpel ; but they had a vaft number
more, which may be feen in the Talmud, the whole
fubjeft whereof is to dictate and explain thofe tradi¬
tions which this fe£t impofed to be believed and ob-
feryed.
The Pliarifees, contrary to the opinion of the Saddu-
cees, held a refurrefh’on from the dead, apd the exift-
ence of angels and fpirits (Acfs xxiii. 8.) But, ac¬
cording to Jofephus, this refurreclion of theirs was no
more than a Pythagorean refurreftion, that is, of the
foul only, by its tranfmigration into another body,
and being born anew with it. From this refurreftion
they excluded all that were notorioufly wicked, being
of opinion that the fouls of fuch perfons were tranf-
mitted into a ftate of everlafting woe. As to leffer
crimes, they held they were pumfhed in the bodies
which the fouls of thofe who committed them were
next fent into.
jofephus, however, either miftook the faith of his
countrymen, or, which is more probable, wilfully mif-
reprefented it, to render their opinions more refpeft-
ed by the Roman philofophers, whom he appears to
have on every occafion been defirous to pleafe. The
Pharifees had many pagan notions refpe&ing the foul;
but Bilhop Bull, in his Harmnnia /Ipojlollca, has clearly
proved, that they held a refurre&ion of the body, and
that they fuppofed a certain bone to remain uncor-
rupted, to furnifh the matter of which the refurreftion
body was to be formed. They did not, however, be¬
lieve that all mankind were to be railed from the dead.
A refurreftion was the privilege of the children of A-
braham alone, who were all to rife on Mount Zion ;
their incorruptible bones, wdierever they might be bu¬
ried, being carried to that mountain below the furface
of the earth. The ftate of future felicity, in which the
Pharifees believed, was very grofs : They imagined,
that men in the next world, as well as in the prefent,
were to eat and drink, and enjoy the pleafures of love,
each being reunited to his former wife. Hence the
Sadducee, who believed in no refurredlion, and fuppo-
led our Saviour to teach it as a Fharifee, very fhrewd-
ly urged the difficulty of difpofing of the woman who
had in this world been the wife of feven hufbands.
Had the refurredion of Chriftianity been the Phari-
faical refurredion, this difficulty would have been in-
furmountabJe ; and accordingly we find the people, Pharma&v
and even fome of thePharifees themfelves, (truck with II
the manner in which our Saviour removed it. Pharmaco-
This fed feems to have had fome confufed notions, ^c^'a' j
probably derived from the Chaldeans and Perfians, re-
fpeding the pre-exiftence of fouls ; and hence it was
thatChrift’s difciplesalked himcotlcerning the blindman
(John ix 2.), ‘ Who did fin, this man or his parents,
that he was born blind ?’ And when the difeiplea told
Chrift, that fome faid he was Elias, jeremias, or one
of the prophets (Mat. xvi. 14.), the meaning can only
be. that they thought he was come into the world with
the foul of Elias, Jeremias, or fome other of the old
prophets, tranfmigrated into him. With the Eflencs,
they held abfolute predeftination ; and with the Sad-
ducees free-will: but how they reconciled thefe feem-
ingly incompatible dodrines is nowhere fufficiently ex¬
plained The fed of the Pharifees was not extin-
guifhed by the ruin of the Jewifh commonwealth. 1 he
greateft part of the modern Jews are ftill of this fed ;
being as much devoted to traditions or the oral law' as
their anceflovs were. See the articles Cabbamsts,
Caraites, Essenes^ Sadducees, &c.
PHARMACA, among the ancients, meant medi¬
cated or enchanted compofitipns of herbs, minerals, &c.
fome of which, when taken inwardly, were fuppofed
to caufe blindnefs, madnefs, love, &c. others infeded
by touch ; fuch was the garment fent by Medea to
Creufa, prepared feevndum artem ; and others operated
upon perfons at a diftance. Pharmaca foteria were em¬
ployed as antidotes againft thefe mifehievous compofi-
tions : Thus the herb moly preferred UlyfTes from the
magical influence of Circe. The laurel, the rhamnus,
the flea-bane, the jafper-ftone, were ufed for fimilar
purpofes. See Potter's Grec. Ant.
PHARMACI, were two perfons who were em¬
ployed in the luilration or purification of cities. Some
fay they were both men ; but others maintain, that a
man to reprefent the males, and a woman to reprefent
the females, performed this office. They performed
facrifice, and wore figs about their necks called xx.-.Jif,
thofe of the man were blackifh, and thofe of the wo¬
man white. Figs were an emblem of fertility, which
they doubtlefs prayed for on thefe folemn occafions.
PHARMACOCHEMIA, means that part of the
chemical art which treats of the preparation of medi¬
cines. It is fo named by way of diftindion from that
chemiflry which is wholly employed about the tranf*
mutation of metals by means of the philofopher’s ftone;
this being called fpagirico-chemia.
PHARMACOLOGY, is a treatife of medicines,
or the art of preparing them, judging of them, &c.
PHARMACOPCEIA (from remedy, and
woinv to make), means a difpenfatory, or a treatife de-
feribing the preparations of the feveral kinds of medi¬
cines, with their ufes, manner of application, &c.
We have various pharmacopoeias, as thofe of Bau-
deron, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Salmon,
Lemery,
who flourifhed about 125 years before Chrift, and wrote fome allegorical commentaries on the ferrpture, was
the author of thofe traditions by an adherence to which the Pharifees were principally diitingmfhed frora
.other feds.
P H A [ 271 ] E H A
yharmaco- Lemery, Lewis, &c. The lateft ani mail in efteem
rdit are the Edinburgh and London difpenfatories See
1''r Pharmacy.
PHARMA.COPOLA, or Pharmacopof.ius, an
apothecary ; or a perfon who prepares and fells medi¬
cines. (See Apothecary). The word is ferdomufed
but by way of ridicule. It is formed from w^axov and
wumiv, to fell. See Horace, Satire 2. lib. i ver. r.
PHARMACUM, a medicament or me¬
dicine ; whether of a falutary or poifonous quality.
Pharmru
cum.
PHARMACY.
Definition T^HARMACY(a), is the art of preparing, pre-
and d^vi- ferving, and compounding fubdances, for the
pharmacy Pllrpc>fes of medicine. This art has been commonly
divided into two branches, Galenical and Chemical fpL^x-
macy. But for this divifion there is no foundation in
nature : and accordingly prpceflVs in one pharmaco¬
poeia referred to the heai of Chemical, are in another
referred to the head of Galenical. There can be no
doubt, that even the mod fimple pharmaceutical pre¬
parations are to a certain extent chemical. Hence
this divifion, founded on prejudice, and fupported mere¬
ly by a veneration for antiquity, is now bauiffted from
aimed every modern pharmacopoeia.
Pharmacy has alfo been divided into Theoretical and
Pradical; the fird, confiding not merely of fpeculative
opinions, but of a knowledge of fads and principles,
tending to explain the rationale of proceifes; the latter,
comprehending the mere manual labour employed in
precedes.
The former of thefe may therefore be judly ityled
Scientific Pharmacy. And there can be no doubt that
an acquaintance with it is edentially neeefiary to the
phyfician as well as the apothecary: for without it
he mud often err in the forms of preparations and
compolitions which he employs ; and mud be often
deceived in the ededs refulting from compofitions,
when he infers their properties from the known powers
of the ingredients in their feparate date.
The theory of pharmacy therefore is the fame with
that of chemiftry ; as are alfo the operations, which,
remain to be difeuded here only in as far as they are
made fubfervient to the medicinal art, didind ftom
that which is purely chemical. The objeds of phar-n,. ? *
maey, however, are much more limited than thofe of
chemidry; the latter comprehending, in the utmod la¬
titude of the word, almoft every fubftance in nature;
while pharmacy regards only fuch bodies in the vege¬
table, animal, and mineral kingdoms, as, by their ef-
ftds on the human frame, tend to preferve health, or
to redore it when lod.
Part I. ELEMENTS of PHARMACY.
Chap. I. A general View of the Properties and
Relations of Medicinal Subfiances.
Sect. I. Vegetables.
3
Analogy ^ Vegetables are organized bodies, furnifhed with
between a variety of vedels for reception, tranfmiffion, and
ancTam-6* P^Apiration of diderent fluids. Analogous to ani-
jnab. mals, they are produced from feeds an,d eggs, and
are endowed with functions, by which the aliment
they imbibe is changed into new forms, into folids
and fluids, peculiar to particular plants, and to dif-
lerent parts of the fame plant.
The analogy between the vegetable and animal
kingdoms will appear dill more linking, when we
eonfider that the former exhibit, though in a lets
^ degree, all the phenomena of fenfibility and motion.
Pabulum of I he pabulum of vegetables, like that of mod ani-
vt^ctables. mals, is of a mixed nature ; and is compofed of the
necedary union of water, heat, and light, and lefs
necedarily ef air and earth : the office of thefe two laft
elements feems to be that of filtres, or vehicles for
conveying the other principles in proper form.
From varieties in the date and proportion of thefe
feveral agents, a very multiplied diveriity takes place
in the external form, quantity, and quality, of one
and the fame vegetable: hence the difference ofrnflugnceof
plants from the foil, climate, feafon, and other iimi-foil, cli-
lar circumllances. The influence of heat and light, mate, heat,
or what is probably the fame thing, the abforptionand
of the inflammable principle, is perhaps the mod tabksf^
important article in the aliment of vegetables. This
principle, whether derived from the iolar rays, from
putrid matters employed in manure, or from the pu¬
trefaction ot the wild growth, addled by calcareous
earths and other feptics, is found at all times to modify,
in a peculiar manner, the form, the quantity, and even
the lenfible and inherent properties, of vegetables. It is
of importance however to jemark, that the fpundnefs
and fpecific principles of vegetables are not invariably
the more complete in proportion to the vigour of
their growth ; high health, which is always a dange¬
rous date in the conditution of animals, is often the
means
. ?r 11,3 article we are indebted to the liberality of Mr Creech bookfeller in Edinburgh, who, with
vs we 1 known zeal for the cultivation of feience, and, regardlefs of the advantage to be expeided from his
N^'iyf p Permitte^ us t0 infert into this work the third and much improved edition of the Edinburgh
272
likrnent
P H A R M ACT.
Part L
f’lants dif¬
fer in ttic
different
periods of
their
growth.
means of perverting or deftroying the economy of
vegetable life. Thus the finer aromatics, which na¬
turally inhabit the dry and Tandy foils, when tranf-
planted into a mold and rich one, or, in other words,
when placed in mould abounding with the/owrVrj of
inflammable principle, grow with rapidity and vigour,
and have their bulk confiderably increafed ; but lofe
very much of their fragrance, as if their adtive
principles were exhaufted by the luxuriance of their
growth.
Plants are nlfo found to differ confiderably in the
different periods of their growth. Tims, fome herbs
in their infancy abound moil with odoriferous matter;
others again yield little or none till they have attained
to a more’advanced age. Many fruits, in their immature
ftate, contain an auftere acid juice, which by matu¬
ration is changed into a fvvtet one: others, as the
orange, are firll warm and aromatic, and afterwards
by degrees become filled with a ftrong acid. The
common grain, and fundry other feeds, when begin¬
ning to vegetate, are in tafte remarkably fvveet: yet
the kernels of certain fruits prove, at the fame period,
extremely acid. The roots of fome of our indigenous
plants, whofe juice is, during the fummer, thin and
watery, if wounded early in the fpring, yield rich
balfamic juices, which, expofed to a gentle warmth,
foon concrete into folid gummy-refins, fuperior to
many of thofe brought from abroad. In open expo-
fures, dry foils, and fair warrfi feafons, aromatic plants
'become ftronger and more fragrant, while thofe of
an oppofite nature become weaker. To thefe parti¬
culars, therefore, due regard ought to be had in col¬
lecting plants for medicinal ufes.
It may be proper to obferve alfo, that the different
parts of the paits of one plant are often very different in quality
, ?eJ>lant from each other. Thus the bitter herb wormwood
rifes from an aromatic root; and the narcotic popy-
head includes feeds which have no narcotic power.
Thefe differences, though very obvious in the com¬
mon culinary plants, do not feem to have been fuffi-
ciently obferved or attended to, in thofe plants that
have been admitted as articles of the materia rnedica.
Without any obvious dependence on the circum-
ftances above-mentioned, vegetables are, like animals,
alfo obnoxious to difeafes and death ; which, whether
occafioned by intenfe cold, by infers, lightning, or
other caufes, always maintain a ftriking analogy to
the affe&ions of animals. The principal difference
between animals and vegetables is, that the feveral
parts of vegetables do not conflitute fuch a mutually
depending fyftem as thofe of the more perfect ani¬
mals: Hence it is, that a veryconfiderable part of a plant
may be difeafed or dead, while the reft enjoys perfect
good life and health. Though the phyfiology of ve¬
getables is hitherto infufficient for forming any com¬
plete do&rines of the caules and cure of their feveral
difeafes ; yet, in many cafes, it might be ufeful to
attend to the formation of a pathology of the vege¬
table kingdom : in the ftate even of our prefeat know¬
ledge, it is of importance in the ftudy of pharmacy
to be aware that fuch difeafes really exift, and are ca¬
pable of changing or deftroying the a&ive principles
of many of our moft valuable herbs. In the plants
more evidently fenfitive, the difeafes exhibit a very
Different
of different
qualities*
from each
ether.
8
Vegetables
•bnoxious-
to dlfeafe
and death.
clofe analogy to many of thofe of animals : feveral of filements.
the remote caufes are fuch as are known to obftruft
perfpiration, to induce general debility, or ©cherwife
diforder the animal economy. The difeafes alfo are
evidently marked by a diminution of their fenfitive
and moving principle ; and perhaps, in confequence
of this diminution, their folids, their fap, and other
fluids, fhrivel and decay, and the whole plant aflumea
new forms, and is impregnated with inert, or fraught
with noxious principles. Analogous aifo to animals,
the plant, when deprived of the living principle, runs
into all thofe changes common to what is called iW«
nimate matter. We fhall now proceed to examine the
changes to which vegetables are fubjeft.
I. ProduEllons from Vegetables hy Fermentation.
Fermentation is a fpontarveous motion excited in Fermenta<»
dead vegetables and animals, which is peculiar to thofetiuju
organic fubftances in confequence of the principle of
vegetable or animal life. See Fermentation.
The circumftances favouring fermentation are in
general, a certain degree of fluidity, a certain degree
of heat, and the contaft of the air.
There are, however, feveral fubftances, of them-
felves not fufceptible of-fermentation, which never-
thelefs may be brought into that ftate by the admixture
of thofe that are ; as by adding to them, along with
a proper quantity of water, a portion of the yeft or
head thrown up to the furface of fermenting liquors.
Without this expedient many vegetables would rnn
immediately into the acetous, and fonle of them into
the putrefactive, fermentations. It is alfo found, that
though acetous and pucrefa&ive ferments are unable
to flop the vinous fermentation, they are however ca¬
pable of affimilating the liquor to their own nature
in a more perfect form : and hence it is, that in the
manufactures of wine, rum, and vinegar, it is found
ufeful to keep the veflels well feafoned with the K- jo
quor intended to be prepared. Three different kindsThree ^
or ftnges of fermentation have been generally diftin- ferent fta-
guifhed by chemifts. The vinous, which furnilhes al-ge9 of fer-
cohol, or what is commonly called fpirit; the acetous, mentatl0°*
which affords vinegar; and the putrefaftive, which
yields volatile alkali. Being generally conftant in
fucceffion to each other, the whole procefs wall be beft
underftood by confidering each of them apart. All vege¬
table fubftances are not capable of the vinous fermenta¬
tion : the conditions neceffary to its production are,
a faccharo-mucilaginous matter; a fluidity fomewhat
vifeous, the proper degree of which is beft learned
from experience; a heat from 40 to 96 of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer ; a confiderable mafs of matter;
and the accefs of the external air. It
The phenomena exhibited in the vinous fermenta-v;nousfe?,
tion are, a brilk tumultuary motion, the liquor lofes mentation,
its tranfparency and homogeneous appearance, its
bulk and heat are confiderably increafed, the folid
parts are buoyed up to the top, and a great quantity
of a permanently elaftic fluid is difengaged. This
fluid or gas being heavier than atmofpheric air, floats
in feparate maffes near the furface of the liquor ; and
is eafily diftinguiftiable from common air by extin-
guifhing flame and animal life, precipitating lime
from limewater, cryftallifing and rendering mild the
cauftic
4
Part I.
Elements.
13
Wines, va*
rious kinds
•f.
t4
Erodudl of
vinous fer¬
mentation.
P H A R
caufttc alkali: tke j^a* fylveftre of Hclmont, and
the fixed air, aerial acid, or carbonic acid of modern
chemiita. After fame time the tumultuary motion
in the liquor is fuddenly checked, perhaps from the
generation of the alcohol; a fine ley is alfo precipi¬
tated ; and the floating matter, if not purpofely pre¬
vented, iubfides to the bottom of the veflel. In the
wines produced from the grape, a large quantity of
faline concrete is incrufted on the Tides and bottom
•f the calks ; and this is commonly known by the
name of tartar^ the properties of which we fhall af¬
terwards examine. At the termination of thefe phe¬
nomena, the vegetable matter has affumed new pro¬
perties and from being a mild, Tweet, or gently aci¬
dulous infufion, is now become the brifle, pungent,
and inebriating liquor, called wineov vinous liquor.
Fermented or vinous liquors are prepared from a
great variety of fubftances : the faccharine fubftances,
or thofe rendered To by a beginning vegetation, are
in general fitteft for the purpofe; a multitude of col¬
lateral circumflances are alfo neceffary for the pro¬
per management of the procefs; and in vinous li¬
quors great diverfities are obfervable. Thefe diffe¬
rences are not only obiervable in wines produced
From different fubflances, but alfo in thofe prepared
from one and the fame vegetable. Thefe diverfities
may be referred to the different conditions of the
fubftance to be fermented, to the ftates of fluidity
and heat, and to the degree of fermentation to which
the fubjedf has been carried. This laft is principal¬
ly modified by the preceding caufes, and not unfre-
quently by very minute and apparently trifling cir¬
cumflances in the conduct of the operator. Hence
the numerous varieties in the vinous liquors produ¬
ced from the grape, which have been more peculiarly
denominated^ twines. It is an important part of phar¬
macy to inquire into thefe differences with care and at¬
tention.
. The thverfity in vinous liquors is ftill more obvious
in thofe produced from different vegetables. Many
of the native qualities of the fubftances, as colour,
tafte, flavour, &c. often remain in the wine ; not be¬
ing totally fubdued by that degree of fermentation
neceffary for rendering the liquor vinous. Hence the
remarkable difference of wines produced from the
grape and the graminous feeds: the wine produced
from thefe laft has been more ftri&ly called beer;
and ia well known to differ from wines produced from
apples, pears, apricots, or any other fruit.
^ Product of the Vinous Fermentation.
The produft of all thefe fermented vegetables is, as
we have juft now mentioned, the pungent and intoxi-
cnting liquor called wine. It is proper, however, in
pharmacy, to inquire into the different principles
which enter its compofition. As the wine fumiftied
by grapes is the moft valuable and generally known,
we fhall take ,t as an example: Grape-wine, then, i8
compofed of a large quantity of water, of alcohol,
of tartar, and of a colouring matter. It 1*3 proper,
however, that we fhould lay down the proofs of fuch
a combination in wine, and explain the methods by
which it may be decompofed and feparated into the
conttituent parts above mentioned.
^Vo^XlV0^^!^ ^ gCneralIy had t0 thc
M A C Y. 273
afliftance of the fire. The liquor is put into an alem- Elements,
bic ; and as foon as it boils, a white milky fluid, of '
a pungent fmell and tafte, diftils into the recipient.
This fluid is called aquavita, or, in common lan-
guage, fpitit: it is compounded of water and certain
matters capable of fufpenfion in water, of alcohol,
and of a ftnall proportion of oil; which laft commu¬
nicates to it a milky colour: the yellow colour, af¬
terwards affumed, is partly owing to the fame oil, and
partly to a folution of the extra&ive matter of the
wooden cafks in which the aquavitae has been kept.
1 his aquavit#, like wine, always partakes more or
ku> of the flavour of the vegetable from whence it
has been prepared ; but by farther diftillation, and
other proceffes, it is freed of its water, and of the
native principles of the vegetable matter which the
watery parts had kept in folution ; when thus prepa¬
red, it is a pure alcohol or inflammable fpirit, which is
always the fame from whatever vegetable the wine
was produced.
After all the aquavit# has been drawn off, the re-
fiuiium now ceaies to be wine ; it is of a chocolate
colour, of an acid and auftere tafte ; it has now af¬
fumed a heterogeneous appearance, and a great quan¬
tity of falinc cryftala is obferved ia the liquor; thefe cry-
ftals are the tar/a/-. By the above proceffes. then, we
nave fully decompofed wine : but it is to be obferved,
that by this analyfis we have not feparated the diffe-
rent parts of wine in their original and entire ftate ;
nor are we hitherto acquainted with any method of re¬
generating the wine by recombining the aquavit# with
the refiduum : feme produft ©f the fermentation is
therefore changed or deftroyed ; and this product
is probably fome peculiar modification of fixed air or
aerial acid. The refiduum, when evaporated, affumes
the form and confiftence of an extraft; the colouring
part may be abftradted by reel 1 tied fpirit of wine,
but is not feparable from it by the addition of water:
it teems therefore to be of a gummi-refinous nature,
and extra&cd from the grape by means of the alco¬
hol generated during the fermentation.
. £ roin this anaiyfis, then, it is obvious, that winerr-
is compofed of water, colouring matter, alcohol, andl urS C°*
a something that ls. changed or loft. We fhall refer matter, af-
the particular examination of alcohol and tartar to theC0^0^ ^c*
proper places affigned them in this work ; and we
hope that from this general furvey of the fubjedl
the properties of wine, as a folvent of feveral medi¬
cinal fubftances to be afterwards examined, will be
much more readily underftood. Before we go far¬
ther, it. is proper to add, that the ley precipitated
from wine during fermentation, is a compound of
ftones, pieces of grape, tartar, and vitriolated tar¬
tar: the.two firft are. inert bodies; the two laft we
fhall particularly examine in their proper order. We
are now prepared to confider the nature and product
or tne next kind or ftage of fermentation, viz. the
2. Acetous Fermentation.
To underftand the procefs of the acetous fermen-pr 'f c
tetion, we muft leave for the prefent ouranalyfisof.cetousfl
the product of the vinous fermentation, and returnmentation’
to thc wine in its moft perfeCt and entire ftate. It is
proper to. obferve, that though, after the liquor has
become vinous, a partial ceffation of the more obvious -
^ *n phenomena
471. p H A U
Elements. pKenotTieua takes place, yet the wine {till fuffers^a
v >  flow and imperceptible degree of Fermentation. We
are net then to confxder the liq'icr as being in a quief-
cent hate, but as conftantly approaching to the next
Page, vi. the acetous fermentation, which we are now
to confider. 1 his kind of mfenfible fermentation, or
what we may call the intermediate change, feems to
he neceffary to the perfection of the wine. Its de¬
gree, however, is to be regulated under certain limi¬
tations : when too much checked, as by cold, thun¬
der, or fuch like caufes, the wine becomes vapid ;
when too mueh encouraged by beat, contact of air,
&c. it approaches too far to the acetous change : but
in order that the vinous lhal! proceed fully to the ace¬
tous fermentation, feveral eircumftances are required ;
and thefe are in general the it ne that were before ne-
ceflary to the vinous Page. Thefe conditions are, a
temperate dt'gree of heat, a quantity of unfermented
mucilage, an acid matter, fuch as tartar, and the
free acceis of exttrnal air. When thus fituated, the
liquor foon paflts into the acetous fermentation : but
during this Page the phenomena are not fo remark¬
able as in the vinous ; the motion ot air is now lefs
confidcrable, a grofs unduous matter feparates to the
bottom, the liquor lofes its vinous taPe and flavour,
becomes four, and on diflillation affords no inflam-
17 mable fpirit. It is now the acetous acid or vinegar ;
Vinegar. and when feparated by diPiUatlon from the un&uous
Iey> may be preferved a confiderable length of time
without undergoing the putrid change : to this laft,
however, it always approaches in the fame manner
as the vinous constantly verges to the acetous fermen¬
tation ; and this will much more readily happen if
the acid be allowed to remain with the un&uous fecu¬
lent matter above-mentioned. When thus fituated,
the vinegar quickly lores its transparency, affumes a
blackifli colour, lofcs its fournefs and agreeable odour,
has an offenflve talle and fmell, and, when diffilled at a
certain period of the procefs, yields volatile alkali.
The liquor is now arrived to the lap Page, viz.
3. The Putrefactive Fermentation.
From the preceding phenomena, it is obvious, that
the fame fubPtnce which is capable of the vinous and
acetous, is alfo capable of the putrefaftive, fermenta¬
tion. It is perhaps impoffible to induce the PrP
without a mixture of the fecond ; or the fecond with-
78 out a mixture of the third. Hence every wine is a
Phenomenapttle acid ; and there are few vinegars without fome
of putrefac jjjjp0pltjon towards pntrefadfion, or without volatile
alternation alkali, neutralized by the acid which predominates.
NothwithPanding this feeming continuation of one
and the fame procefs, the putrefaftion of vegetables
has its particular phenomena. The vegetable matter,
if in a fluid Pate, becomes turbid, and depofits a
large quantity of feculent matter; a confiderable num¬
ber of air-bubbles are raifed to the top $ but their
motion is not fo brilk in the putrefa&ive as in the vi¬
nous, or even the acetous fermentation ! neither the
bulk nor heat of the liquor feems to be inereafed; but
an acrid pungent vapour is perceived by the fmell,
and which, by chemical trials, is found to be the vo¬
latile alkali ; by degrees this pungent odour is changed
into one lefs pungent, but much more naufeous. If the
fame train of phenomena have taken place in a vege*
MAC Y. Part T,
table confiding of parts fome what folid, its colic don Element*,
is broke down into a foft pulpy mafs ; this mafs, on
drying, entirely lofes its odour, leaving a black cher¬
ry-like -eiiduum, containing nothing but earthy and
faline fubftances.
It is proper to ebferve, that though the circum-
fiances favouring the putrefa&ive are the fame with
thofe requifite to the vinous and acetous fermentations-i
yet thefe fevcral conditions are not fo indifpenfable to
the former as to the two latter Pages. All vegetables
have more or lefs tendency to putrefa&ion, and a great
number of them are capable of the ac etous fenr.entar
tion : but the proportion of thofe capable of the vi¬
nous is not conlideraule ; and thefe laP will run into
the putrid in circumPunces in which they cannot un¬
dergo the vinous or even the acetous fermentations.
Thus flour made into a left palle will become four; but
it muP be perfectly diffolved in water to make it fit for
the vinous flrge ; whereas mere dampnef. lis fufficient
to make it pafs to the putrid fermentation : Leiidt s
the condition of fluidity, a lefs degree of heat, and
a more limited accefs of air, are fuflxcknt for produ¬
cing the putr ia&ive fermentation.
It is therefore probable, that all vegetables, m
whatever Pate'they may be,are liable to a kind of putre-
faftion : in fome the change is flow and gradual, but
never fails at length to break down the texture and
cohefion oi the moP folid.
We formerly obferved, that the vapours feparated
during the vinous fermentation were fixed air or ae¬
rial acid ; and it is indeed true, that in the incipient
Pate of this fermentation a quantity of gas is Pill
evolved, and along with it a quantity of alkaline air:
in the advanced Piite, however, we find thefe vapours
of a different nature ; they now tarnifh filver, and
render combinations of lead with the vegetable acids
black. When produced in large quantity, and much
confined, as happens in Packs of hay put up wet,
they burP into a£iual flame, confuming the hay
to afhes: on other occafions, the eicape of thefe va¬
pours difeovers itlelt by an emiflion of light, as in
the luminous appearance of rotten wood when placed
in the dark. From the above phenomena it is evident,
that thefe vapours abound with the principle of in¬
flammability ; and their odour probably depends on
this principle loofely combined with the water, or
feme other parts of the volatilifed matter. This gasHyJrogcrs.
is therefore different from that feparated during the
vinous fermentation ; it is the phlo riPicated, and
fometimes the inflammable air of Dr PriePley, or the
hydrogen of Lavoifier. See table of chemical nomen¬
clature, See. Chemistry, page 598.
We have thus, for the fake of clearnefs, and in
order to comprehend the whole of the fubje&, traced
the phenomena of fermentation through its diffe¬
rent Pages: it is proper, however, to obferve, that
though every vegetable that has fuffered the vi,
nous will proceed to the acetous and putrefactive
fermentations, yet the fecond Page is not neceffari-
ly preceded by the firP, nor the third by the fe¬
cond ; or in other words, the acetous fermentation
is not neceffarily confined to thofe fubftancea which
have- uadergone the vinous, nor the putrefȣUve. to
thofe which have undergone the acetous fermentation.
Thus it is, that gums diflbived in water pals to the
n acetous
* ^
pm I. P H A R M A C Y. 275
Elements, acetous widio'it uitt!erGfning the vinous fermentation ; ceffion, the feveral prodpefs obtained from the gene- Elements,
. - - and glutinous matter feema to run into putrefaftion rality of vegetables when analyfed in clofe velfels and w~^"r
without fhowing any previous acefcence : and farther, in a naked tire.
thefe changes frequently happen although the matter It^is, however, to be underftood, that the proper-
1 e under tnofe conditions which are favourable to the tion of thefe principles turns out very various ; the
preceding flages. more fucculent yield more water, and the more folidD 5r
1'rom the foregoing ffetch, the importance of this afford a greater quantity of the other principles. Jn' m'difflTcnt
fubjedt in the ftudy of Pharmacy will be obvious at iirfl dependently alfo of this difference,the nature of the pro-vegetables,
fight: it cannot, however, afford us any ufeful infor- duels themfelves are found to differ in different vege though
ination on the native principles of vegetables ; but it tables : thus in the cruciform plants, and in the emul-
pVefent? to us new products, the importance of which five and farinaceous feeds, the faline matter which
is well known in chemiftry, in medicine, and in arts, comes over with the water and oil is found to be alka-
i he neceffity of being well acquainted with tire feve- line ; fometimes it is ammoniacal, from the combina-
rz!^ fadts (for of theory we know- none faidsfadlory), tion of the acid with the volat le aik di paflxng over at
will appear in the pharmaceutical hiftory and pn pa- the end of the procefs ; it is alfo probable, that the
ration of many of our moll valuable drugs. We are acids of vegetables are not all of the fame nature,
next to confider a fet of no lefs complicated operations, though they exhibit the fame external marks. When
II. ProduSions from vegetables by Fiuu.
rodudli- Iv order to analyfe, or rather to decompofe, vege-
is by fire, tables by the naked fire, any given quantity of dry ve¬
getable matter is put into a retort of glafs or earth.
Having tilled the veffel about one half or two thirds,
we place it in a reverberatory furnace, adapting it to a
proper receiver. To colledd the elaftic fluids, which,
if confined, would burfl the veffels (and which, too,
it is proper to preferve, as being real proJudls of the
analyiis), we ufe a perforated receiver with a crooked
tube, the extremity of which is received into a veffel
full of water, or of mercury, and inverted in a bafon
containing the fame fluid : by this contrivance, the li¬
quid matters are colledled in the receiver, and the aeri¬
form fluids pafs into the inverted veffel. if the vege¬
table is capable of yielding any faline matter in a con¬
crete Hate, vve interpofe between the retort and the re¬
ceiver another veffel, upon whofe fides the fait fub-
lunes. Thefe things being properly adjufted, we ap¬
ply at firfl a gentle heat, and increafe it gradually,
that we may obferve the different produdfs in proper
order. . At firft an inlipid watery liquor paffes over,
which is chiefly compofed of the water of vegetation ;
on the heat being a little farther increafed, this wa¬
tery liquor, or phlegm, becomes charged with an oily
matter, having the odour of the vegetable, if it pof-
feffed any in its entire flate ; along with this oil we
alfo obtain an acid refembling vinegar, and which com¬
municates to the oil fomewhat of a faponaceous nature ;
on the heat being carried llill farther, we procure more
acid, with an oil of a dark colour, and the colour gra¬
dually deepens as the diflillation advances. The oil
now ceafes to retain the peculiar odour of the vege¬
table ; and being fcorched by the heat, fends forth a
ftrong di{agreeable fmel! like tar : it is then called em-
pyreumahe oil. About this time alfo fome elaftic va-
pours rufh into the inverted veffel; thefe generally con-
11ft of inflammable or fixed airs, and very often of a
mixture of both ; the volatile fait now alfo fublimes,
if the vegetable was of a nature to furnifh it. By the
time the matter in the retort has acquired a dull red
heat, nothing further will arife : we then flop ; and
allowing the veffel to cool, we find a mafs ef charcoal,
retaining more or lefs the form and appearance of the
vegetable before its decompofuion.
We have thus deferibed, in the order of their fuc-
volatile alkali is obtained, it is always found in the
mild effervefeing ftate ; it is procured, however, from
a few vegetables only ; it is feldom in a concrete form,
being generally diffoived in the phlegm ; and as it or¬
dinarily makes its appearance about the end of the
procefs, it is probable that its formation is owing
to fome peculiar combination of the oil and fixed
alkali. The plants containing much oily combuftible
matter feem to be thofe which more peculiarly yield
inflammable air, while the mucilages appear to be as
peculiarly fitted for affording the fixed air or aerial
acid. The chemical properties of charcoal feem to be
always the fame from whatever vegetable it has been
produced : on a minute examination (which, however,
is not the bufinefs of pharmacy), it is found to con. all compo.
fill of fixed air, the principle of inflammability, afmall^
quantity of earth, faline matter, and a little water.gV;^jr’&
The whole of the analyfis then amounts to air, water,6 ^ C>
earth, and the principle of inflammability; for by re¬
peated diftillations the oil is refolved into water, the
principle of inflammability, and a little earth ; the
faline.matter alfo is a produd ariflng from a combi¬
nation of the earthy matter with water or the prin¬
ciple of inflammability, in fome fhape or other, or per¬
haps with both. That thefe combinations take place,
has at leaft been the opinion of the chemifts.
We formerly faid that charcoal was partly compo¬
fed of faline matter ; it therefore remains that we
fhould next decompofe the charcoal, in order to ob¬
tain or feparate the articles next to be mentioned.
Tie fixed Salts ofi Vegetables.
When vegetable charcoal has been burnt, there re¬
mains a quantity of afhes or cinders of a blackifh grey
or white colour: thefe, when boiled or infufed in
water, communicate to it a pungent faline tafte; the
fait thus held in folution may, by evaporation, be re-
duccd to a concrete ftate: this faline matter, how¬
ever, is generally found to be mixed with ferruginous
earthy and other impurities, and likewife with a num¬
ber of neutral falts of different kinds. In this mixed
condition it is the
Potafijes ufed in Commerce.
This fait, or rather compound of different falts, is Potaflil,
procured by burning large quantities of wood of any how pr<^
kind ; and this pracefs is called incineration: the pre-CUreci*
dominating fait, however, is alkaline ; and as the neu-
M ms tral
»
276 P H A R
^Elements, tral faits are. obtained to better advantage by other
means, they are generally negledted in the purification
of potafhes. Potafhes, then, freed from its impurities,
and feparated from the ocher falts by proceffes to be
hereafter mentioned, is now
The Jlxed vegetable Allali.
Fixed ve Alkalis in general are diftinguifiied by a pungent
£etai>'e a]. the very reverfe of that of fournefs ; by their
kali, cha. defiroying the acidity of every four liquor ; and by
rafters of, their changing the blue and red colours of vegetables
to a green : they attraft more or lefs the moilture of
the air, and fome of them deliquate. The fixed al¬
kalis, which vve fhall at prefent confider more parti¬
cularly, are fufible by a gentle heat : by a greater de¬
gree of heat they are difiipated ; their fixity, therefore,
is only relative to the other kind of alkalis, viz. the
volatile : they diffolvc and form glafs with earths:
and, laftly, when joined with acids tb the point of fa-
turation, they form what are called Neutral Salts.
Thefe charafters will afford fome neceffary and pre¬
liminary knowledge of thefe fubftances in general; and
w'e fhall afterwards find that they are fufficient.to di-
ftinguilh them from all other faline bodies : it is ne-
ceflary, however, to examine them more ^minutely, for
•ur analyfis has not yet reached fo far as to prefent
them in their fimpleil ftate. Previous to the difeo-
veries of Dr Black, the vegetable fixed alkali (which
we at prefent fpeak of particularly), when feparated
from the foreign matters with which it is mixed in the
afhes, was confidered to be in its pureft ftate : we fhall
afterwards find that it is ftill a compound body, and is
really a neutral fait, compounded of pure alkali, and
fixed air or the aerial acid. We prefume, then, that
the particular hiftory of its chemical and medicinal pro¬
perties will be better underftood when we come to thofe
proceffes by which it is brought to its moft pure and
iimple ftate : See Chemistry. We fhall only therefore
obferve for the prefent, that fixed vegetable alkali, not
only in its pure ftate, but alfo when neutralifed by aerial
acid, feems always to be one and the fame thing, from
whatever vegetable it has been produced. Thofe of fome
fea plants muft, however, be excepted : the faline mat¬
ter obtained from thefe laft is, like the former, in a
mixed and impure ftate ; it differs, however, from
potafhes, in containing an alkali of fomewhat different
properties. The cinder of fea-plants containing this
alkali is called
Soda.
Soda, or Soda, then, as we have juft now hinted, is produ-
riatron, ce(} by the incineration of the kali and other fea-plants :
wkerce And from tbj8 j*mpure and ra;xed nr.afs of cinder, is
produced. obta{ne(1 tbe mar;ne) mineral, or muriatic alkali, or
natron, as it is now denominated by the London Col¬
lege. This alkali has acquired thefe names, becaufe
/ it is the bafe of the common marine or fea-falt: it dif¬
fers from the vegetable alkali in being more eafily cry,
ftallizable; when dried, it does not like the former
' attract humidity fufficient to form a liquid ; it is fome¬
what lefs pungent to the tafte, and, according to Berg¬
man, has lefs attraaion for acids than the. vegetable
alkali.
It is, however, to be obferved, that this alkali,
when deprived of fixed air, that ia to fay, when brought
M A C Y.
to its pureft ftate, can fcarcely, if at all, be diftinguifh-
ed from the vegetable alkali; and indeed the true dt«
ftinftion can only be formed from their combinations,
each of them affording with the fame acid very diffe¬
rent neutral falls. It belonged to this place to mention
fome of the chandlers of alkalis in general, and alfo
fome of thofe marks by which the vegetable and mi¬
neral alkalis are diftinguifiied from each other: but
for a more particular hiftory of their chemical and me¬
dicinal properties, we refer to an account ©f the phar¬
maceutical preparations. As the volatile alkali is rare¬
ly produced from vegetables, but is generally obtain¬
ed from animal matter, we (hall confider that kind of
alkali when we come to analyfe the animal kingdom.
Part L
Elements*!
Of Vegetable Earth. ^ „
After all the faline matter contained in the allies ©{Vegetable
vegetables has been wafted off by the proceffes before
mentioned, there yet remains one infipid earthy-like
powder, generally of a whitifh colour, infoluble in wa¬
ter, and from which fome iron may be attracted by
the magnet. It is faid to have formed alum with the
vitriolic acid ; a kind of felenite has alfo been obtained,
but fomewhat different from that produced by the
union of the fame acid with calcareous earthy this re-
fiduum of burnt vegetables differs alfo from calcareous
earth, in not being fufceptible of becoming quicklime
by calcination. It has been found that this refiduum,
inftead of an earth, is a calcareous phofphoric fait, ft-
milar to that obtained from the bones of animals.
We have thus finiftied our analyfis of vegetables by
the naked fire ; and have only to obferve, that, like
the analyfia by fermentation, it can afford us ho ufeful
information on the native principles of the vegetable
itfelf.
When chemiftry began firft to be formed into a ra-»
tional fcience, and to examine the component parts
and internal conftitution of bodies, it was imagined,
that this refolution of vegetables by fire, difeovering
us all their a&ive principles, unclogged and unmix¬
ed with each other, would afford the fureft means
of judging of their medicinal powers. But on profe-
cuting thefe experiments, it was foon found that they
were infufflcient for that end: that the analyfes of
poifonous and efculent plants agreed often as nearly as
the analyfes of one plant: that by the aftion of a burn¬
ing heat, two principles of vegetables are not barely
feparated, but altered, tranfpofed, and combined into >
new forms; infomuch that it was impofiible to know
in what form they exifted, and with what qualities they
were endowed, before thefe changes and tranfpofitions
happened. If, for example, 32 ounces of a certain
vegetable fubftance are, found to yield ten ounces and
a half of acid liquor, above one ounce and five drams
of oil, and three drams and a half of fixed alkaline
fait: what idea can this analylis give of the medicinal
qualitiesS&gum Arabic?
111. Substances naturally contained in vegetables,andfepa«
table by Art without Alteration of their native Qualities.
It has been fuppofed, that there is one general fluid
or blood which is common to all vegetables, and from
which the fluids peculiar to particular plants and their
parts are prepared by a kind of fccretion; To this fup-
8 ppfed
Fart I.
Elements pofed general fluid hotanlfte have given the name of
v- ’ fap. This opinion is rendered plaufible from the ana-
logy in many ocher refpefts between vegetable and
fel^cT f ai“mal fubftances : and indeed if we confider the wa-
▼e° etabk? ter vegetat:on as this general fluid, the opinion is
perhaps not very far from the truth; but the notion
has been carried much farther than fuppofing it to be
mere water ; and the opinion of naturaliils on this
fubjeft does not feem to be well fupported by ex¬
perience. It is difficult to extraft this fap without
any mixture of their conftituent parts. But in a few
vegetables, from which it diftils by wounding their
bark, we find this fuppofed general blood pofleffing
properties not a little various: Thus the iuice effufed
from a wounded birch is confiderably different from
that poured out from an incifion in the vine.
1. Grofs Oils.
Vegetables, like animals, contain an oil in two dif¬
ferent flates. That is, in feveral vegetables a certain
quantity of oil is fuperabundant to their conftitution,
is often lodged in diftinft refervoirs, and does not en¬
ter into the compofition of their other principles : in
moft vegetables, again, another quantity of oil is com¬
bined, and makes a conftituent part of their principles^
Of this laft we formerly fpoke in our analyfis of vege¬
tables by fire; and it is the. former we mean to confi¬
der, under the three following heads..
Grofs oils abound chiefly in the kernels of fruits,
and in certain feeds ; from which they are commonly
extrafted by expreffion, and are hence diftinguiflled
Groff or t^ie name °f exprejjkd oils. They are contained alfo
exprefTed in all the parts ef all vegetables that have been exa-
o£l», pro- mined, and may be forced out by vehemence of fire ;
perties of. |jUt here their qualities are much altered in the procefs
by which they are extrafted or difcovered, as we have
feen under the foregoing head.
Thefe oils, in their common {late, are not diflbluble
either in vinous fpirits or in water, though by means of
certain intermedia they may he united both with the
one and the other. Thus a fldlful interpofition of fu*
gar renders them mifcibl^ with water into what are
called lohochi and oily draughts ; by the intervention of
gum or mucilage they unite with water into a milky
fluid : by alkaline falts they are changed into a foap,
which is mifcible both with water and fpiritous liquors,
and is perfeftly diflblved by the latter into an uniform
iranfparent fluid. The addition of any acid to the
foapy folution abforbs the alkaline fait; and the oil,
which of courfe feparates, is found to have undergone
this remarkable change, that it now diffolves without
any intermedium in pure fpirit of wine.
Exprefied oils expofed to the cold iofe their fluidi¬
ty greatly : fome of them, in a fmall degree of cold,
congeal into a confiftent mafs. Kept for fome time
in a warm air, they become thin and highly rancid :
their foft, lubricating, and relaxing quality is changed
into a fliarp acrimonious one : and in this ftate, inftead
of allaying, they occafion irritation ; inftead ofobtunding
corrofive humours, they corrode and inflame. Thefe
oils are liable to the fame noxious alteration while con¬
tained in the original fubjeft.: hence arifes the ranci¬
dity which the oily feeds and kernels, as almonds and
thofe called the coldfeeds> are fo liable to contraft in
277
keeping. Neverthelefs, on triturating thefc feeds or Elements,
kernels with water, the oil, by the intervention of the ' *~',J'
other matter of the fubjeft, unites with the water, in¬
to an emulfion or milky liquor, which, inftead of grow¬
ing rancid, turns four on ftanding.
It appears then that fome kind of fermentation goes
on in the progrefs of oils in the rancid ftate ; and it
would feem from fome experiments by Mr Macquer,
that an acid is evolved, which renders thetn more fo-
luble in fpirit of wine than before.
In the heat of boiling water, and even in a degree
of heat as much exceeding this as the heat of boiling
water does that of the human body, thefe oils fuffer
little diflipation of their pares. In a greater heat they
emit a pungent vapour, feemingly of the acid kind ;
and when fuffered to grow cold again, they are found
to have acquired a greater degree of confiftence than
they had before, together with an acrid tafte. In a
heat approaching to ignition, in clofe veffels, the great-
eft part of the oil arifes in an empyreumatic ftate, a
black coal remaining behind.
2. Grofs febaceous matter.
From the kernels of fome fruits, as that of the cho- p 30.
colate nut, we obtain, inftead of a fluid oil, a fuhftanceo/febace6-!
of a butyraceous confiftence; and from others, as the ous matter,
nutmeg, a folid matter as firm as tallow. Thefe con¬
cretes are moft commodioufty extrafted by boiling the
fubftance in water: the febaceous matter, liquefied by
the heat, feparates and arifes to the furface, and re¬
fumes its proper confiftence as the liquor cools.
The fubftances of this clafs have the fame general
properties with exprefled oils, but are lefs difpofed to-
become rancid in keeping than moft of the common
fluid oils. It is fuppofed by the ehemifts, that their thick
confiftence is owing to a larger admixture of an acid
principle: for, in their refolution by fire, they yield a
vapour more fenlibly acid than the fluid oils; and fluid
oils, by the admixture of concentrated acids, are redu¬
ced to a thick or folid mafs.
3. Effential Oils.
Effential oils are obtained only from thofe vegfta-£^,^1
hies, orpins of vegetables, thatare confiderably odo-0ils, ^
rous. They are the direft principle in which the whence
odour, and oftentimes the warmth, pungency, and0^13”1'^’
other aftive powers of the fubjeft:,. refide; whence their
name of ejfences or ejfential oils.
Elfential oils are fecreted fluids ; and are often lod¬
ged in one part of the plant, while the reft are entire¬
ly void of them. Sometimes they are found in fepa-
rate fpaces or receptacles ; and are there vifible by the
naked eye : thus, in the rind of lemons, oranges, ci»
trons, and many others, there are placed everywhere
fmall pellucid veficles, which, by prefling the peel near
to the flame of a candle, fquirt out a quantity of efleir-
tial oil, forming a ftream of lambent flame : hence, too,
an oleofaccharum may be made, by rubbing the exte¬
rior furface of thefe peels with a.piece of lump fugar,
which at once tears open thefe veficles, and abforbs
their contained oil.
Eflential oils unite with reftified fpirit of wine, and
compofe with it one homogeneous tranfparent fluid ;
though fome of them require for this purpofe a much
PHARMACY,
T!-eir pro¬
perties.
P H A II
larger proportion of the fpirit than others, The dif¬
ference of their fallibility perhaps „depends on the
quantity of difengaged acid ; that being found by Mr
Macquer not only to promote the folution of elfential
oils, but even of thofe of the undfuous kind. Water
alfo, though it does not diflblve their whole fubftance,
may be made to imbibe fome portion of their more
fubtile matter, fo as to become coniiderably impreg¬
nated with their flavour ; by the admixture of fugar,
gum, the yolk of an egg, or alkaline falts, they are
made totally diffoluble in water. Digefted with vola¬
tile alkali, they undergo various changes of colour,
and fome of the lefs odorous acquire confiderable de¬
grees of fragrance; while fixed alkali univcrfalljimpairs
their odour.
The fpecific gravity of moll of thefe oils is lefs than
that of water : fome of them, however, are fo heavy
as to fink in water ; but thefe varieties thall be noticed
when we come to their prepiircition.
In the heat of boiling water, thefe oils totally ex¬
hale ; and on this principle they are commonly ex-
trafted from fubjefts that contain them ; for no other
fluid, which naturally exifts in vegetables, is exhalable
by that degree of heat, excepting the aqueous moi-
fture, from which the greatcit part of the oil is eafily
feparated. Some of thefe oils arife with a muck lefs
heat, a heat little greater than that in which water be¬
gins vifibly to evaporate. In their refolution by a burn¬
ing heat, they differ little from exprefied oils.
EfTential oils, expofed for fome time to a warm air,
buffer an alteration very different from that which the
expreffed undergo. Inftead of growing thin, rancid,
and acrimonious, they gradually become thick, and at
length harden into a folid brittle concrete ; with a re¬
markable diminution of their volatility, fragrancy,
pungency, and warm ftimulating quality. In this ftate,
they are found to confift of two kinds of matter; a
fluid oil, volatile in the heat of boiling water, and
nearly of the fame quality with the original oil; and
of a groffer fubftance which remains behind, not ex-
hal .ble without a burning heat, or fuch as changes its
nature, and refolves it into an acid, an empyreumatic
oil, and a black coal.
The admixture of a concentrated acid inftantly pro¬
duces, in effential oils, a change nearly fimilar io that
which time effefts. In making thefe kinds of mix¬
tures, the operator ought to be on his guard ; for when
a ftrong acid, particularly that of nitre, is poured ha-
Itily into an eflential oil, a great heat and ebullition en-
fue, and often an explofion happens, or the mixture
bur ft s into flame. The union of exprtffed oils with
acids is accompanied with much lefs conflift.
4. Concrete effential oil.
33 gome vegetables, as rofes and elecampane root, in-
roneiete ftcad ()f a flu;d efiential oil, yield a fubftance poffeffing
the fame general properties, but of a thick'or febace-
ous confluence. This fpbftance appears to be of as
great volatility and fubtility of parts as the fluid oils:
it equally exhales in the heat of boiling water, and
M A G Y. Part!,
Concretes upon the furface of the collefted vapour. Elements.
The total exhalation of this matter, and its concreting 11 'v
again into its original confident ftate, without any
feparation of it into a fluid and a folid part, diftin-
guifhes it from effential oils that have been thickened
or indurated by age or by acids.
5. Camphor,
Camphor is a folid concrete, obtained chiefly from Camphor,'
the woody parts of certain Indian trees. See CAM-fliftmgudh-'
phora (b). It is volatile like eflential oils, and foluble (
both in oils and inflammable fpirits : it unites freely
with u’ater by the intervention-of gum, but very fpa-
ringly and imperfectly by the other intermedia that
render oils milcible with watery liquors. It differs
from the febactous as well as fluid eflential oils, in
futfering no fenflble alteration from long keeping; in
being totally exhalable, not only by the heat of boil¬
ing water, but in a warm air, without any change or
feparation of its parts, the laft particle that remains
unexhaled appearing to be of the lame nature with the
original camphor; in its receiving no empyreumatic
imprefiion, and fuftering no refolution, from any de¬
gree of file to which it can be expofed in cloie veffels,
tnough readily combuftibie m the open air; in being
diflclvtd by concentrated acids into a liquid form ; and
in feveral other properties which it is needlefs to ipe-
cify in this place.
6. Aroma,
Or fpiritus reftor, is the name given to the odo¬
rous principle of vegetables. Thefe bodies differ great-
ly from one another in the quantity, ftrength, and vo-Odorotn
latility of the odorous principle which they contain, princi^lft
It is generally found united with volatile oils; but it
is foluble in alcohol and water as well as in thefe. The
flighteft degree of heat is lufficient to difengage the
aroma of plants. To obtain ir, the plant mult be di-
ftiiled in a balneum manse, and its vapours received in¬
to a cold capital, which may condenle and afterwards
concuft them in a fluid ftate into the receiver. The
product is pure odoriferous water, and is known by
the name ot effential or diftilled water. ri his liquor
is to be confidered as a folution of the aroma or odo¬
rous principle in water. When aromatic water is heat¬
ed, it lofes its fmell in confequence ot the odorous prin¬
ciple being more volatile than the fluid in which it
was difiolved. This principle is alio diflipated by ex-
pofure to the air. Many laCts would induce us to
believe, that the principle of Imeil is one ot the ele¬
mentary piinciples of volatile oils ; but we are as yet
almofl completely ignorant of its chemical nature,
pioperties, and combinations.
7. Refin.
Effential oils, indurated by age or acids, are called charatfea
rejuu. When the indurated mats has been expofed toofrdin.'
the heat of boiling water, till its more fubtiie part, or
the pure effential oil that remained in it, has exhaled,
the grofs matter left behind is iikewiie called rejin. We
find.
(b) It may likewife be procured from moft of the volatile oils, by volatilizing
fsw degrees below that which is fufficient to elevate the camphor.
the oil in a temperature a
Part T. THAR
Element*. tfrH, Jn many vegetables, refins analogous both to one
and the othe. of ti efe concretes; fome containing a
fubtile oi', ft parable by the heat of boiling water;
others containing nothing that is capable of exhaling
in that heat,
Rtiins in general ciffolve in rectified fpirit of wine,
though fonte of them much lefs eafily than others : it
is chiefly by means of this diffolvent that they are e\.
traced from the fubjefts in which they are contained.
They diffolve alfo in oils both exprtfled and effential;
and may 1 e united with watery liquors by means of
the fame intermedia which render the fluid oils mif-
cible with water. In a heat lefs than that of boiling
water, they melt into an oily fluid; and in this hate
they may be incorporated one with another. In their
refolution by fire, in clofe veffels, ihry yield a mani-
' felt acid, and a large quantity of empyreumatic oil.
8. Gum.
Gum differs from the foregoing fubftances in being
ft’.wuifhmg uninflammable ; ro- though it may lie burnt to a coal,
th-ratters and thence to rfh; s, it never yields any flame. It dif-
of. fers remarkably alfo in the proportion of the princi¬
ples into which it is refolved by fire; the quantity of
ernpyreumatic oil being fr.r lefs, and th .t of an acid
far greater. In the heat of boiling water, it fuffers no
dilTipation : nor does it liquefy like re fins ; hut conti¬
nues unchanged, till the heat be fo far increafed as to
feerch or turn it to a coal.
By a little quantity of water, it is foftened into a vif-
cous adhehve mala, called mucilage : by a larger quan¬
tity it is difTolved into a fluid, which proves more or
lefs glutinous according to the proportion of gum.
It does not diflblve in vinous fpirits, or in any kind of
oil: ncverthelefs, when foftened with water into a mu¬
cilage, it is eafily mifcible both with the fluid oils and
w ith refins ; which by this means become foluble in
watery liquors along with the gum, and are thus ex¬
cellently fitted for medicinal purpofes
This elegant method of uniting oils with aqueous
liquors, which has been kept a fecret in few hands,
ap pears to have been known to Dr Grew. “ I took
(fays he) oil ot anifeeds, and pouring it unon another
bedy, I fo ordered it, that it was thereby turned into
a perfeft milk-white balfam or butter; by which means
the oil became mingleable with any vinous or watery
liquor, eafily and inftantaneoufly diflblving therein in
the form of a milk. And note, this is done without
the lead alteration of the fmell, talle, nature, or opera¬
tion of the faid oil. By fomewhat the fame means
any other ilillatitious oil may be transformed into a
milk-white butter, and in like manner be mingled with
water or any other liquor: tfdiich is of various ufe in
medicine, and what 1 find oftentimes very convenient
and advantageous to be done.” ( Grew of Mixture^ chap.
v. tnjl. i. $ 7.) This inquiry has lately been further
profecuted in the firft volume of the Medical Obferva-
tions publifhed by a fociety of phyfieians in London ;
where various experiments are related, for rendering
oils, both effential and expreffed, and different undlu-
ous and refinous bodies, foluble in water by the me¬
diation of gum. Mucilages have alfo been- ufed for
fufpending crude mercury, and fome other ponderous
and infoluble fubftances: the mercury is by this means
not a little divided j but it is found that the particles
M A C Y.
are very apt to run together or fubfide, if a pretty cor.
ftant agitation be not kept up.
As. orjy and rtfinous fubftances are thus united to
water by the means of gum, fogums may in like man¬
ner be united to fipirit of wine by the intervention of
rtfins and effential oils; though the fpirit does not
take up near fo much of the gum as w ater does of the
oil or refin.
2 70
r.kim'n r v
Acid liquors, though they thicken pure oils, or ren¬
der them confiftent, do not impede the diffolution of
gum, or of oils blended with gum. Alkaline falts,
on the contrary, both fixed and volatile, though they *
render pure oils foluble in water, prevent the folution
of gum, and of mixtures of gum and oil. If any pure
gum be ciiffolved in water, the addition of any alkali
will occafion the gum to feparate, and fall to the bot¬
tom in a confiftent form ; if any oily or refihous body
was previouily blended with the gum, this alfo fepa-
rates, and either finks to the bottom, or rifes to the
top, according to its gravity.
9 Gum-refin.
By gum-refin is underftood a mixture of gum and v
refm. Many vegetables contain mixtures of this kind, 0f what ^
in which the component parts are fo intimately united, compound"
with the inceipoficion perhaps of fome other matter,ed*
that the compound, in a pharmaceutical view, may be
confidered as a diftimlft kind of principle ; the whole
mafs diflolving almoft equally in aqueous and in fpiri-
tuous liquors ; and the {elutions being not turbid or
milky, like thofe of the groffer mixtures of gum and
refin, but perfectly tranfparent. Such is the aftrin-
gent matter of biftort-root, and the bitter matter of
gentian. It were to be wifhed that we had fome par¬
ticular name for this kind of matter ; as the term
gum-rejin is appropriated to the groffeft mixtures, in
which the gummy and reiinous parts are but loofely
joined, and eafiiy ieparable from each other.
We (hall afterwards find that it will be convenient
to imitate this natural combination by art. As the
effedfts of medicines very generally depend on their
folubility in the ftomach, it is often neceffary to bring
their more inloluble parts. Inch as reiinous and oily
matters, into the ftate of gum-refin: this is done, as
we have mentioned in the former article, by the me¬
diation of mucilage. By this management thele mat¬
ters become much more foluble in the ftomach ; and
the liquor thus prepared is called an emulfion, from its
wliitifh colour, refembling that of milk.
10. Saline Matter.
Or the faline juices of vegetables there are different
kinds, which have hitherto been but little examined :
the tweet and the acid ones are the moft plentiful and
the heft known.
I here have lately, however, been difeovered a con- rr
fiderable variety of falts in different vegetables. The falt^nve
nuld fixed alkali, which was formerly confidered as a getablee,
irodudt of the fire,, has been obtained from almoft all
dants by macerating them in acids ; the vegetable al¬
kali is the moft common, but the mineral is alfo
found in the marine plants. Befides the fixed alkali,
ieveral other fidts have been detected in different vege¬
tables ; fuch as vitriolated tartar, common fait, Glau¬
ber’s fait, nitre, febrifuge fait, and felenite. From
fbnae
1
sSo 1
PHARMACY.
Part I.
tlements. foms cxpcvimefits, too, the volatile alkali has been fup-
pofed to exift ready formed in many plants of the cru¬
ciform or tetradynamian tribe.
It is, however, to be underftood, that though feme
of thefe falts are really produ&s of vegetation, others
of them are not unfrequently adventitious, being im¬
bibed from the foil without any change produced by
the fun&iona of the vegetable.
The juices of vegetables, expofed to a heat equal
to that of boiling water, fuffer generally no other
change than the evaporation of their watery parts;
the faline matter remaining behind, with fuch of
the other fixed parts as were blended wuth it in the
juice. From many plants, after the exhalation of
great part of the water, the faline matter gradually
feparates in keeping, and concretes into little folid
maffes, leaving the other fubftances diiToived or in a
moift Hate; from others, no means have yet been found
43 of obtaining a pure concrete fait,
particularly The falts more peculiarly native and effential to ve-
the fweet getables are the fwcet and the four ; thefe two are
Teur hC frequently blended together in the fame vegetable, and
. fometimes pafs into each other at different ages of the
plant. Of the four falts ftvcral kinds are known in
pharmacy and in the arts ; fuch as thofe of forrel, of
lemons, oranges, citrons, &c. The faccharme falts
are alfo obtained from a great number of vegetables;
they may in general be eafily difeovered by their fweet
tafte : the fugar-cane is the vegetable from which this
Taline matter is procured in greateft quantity, and with
rnoft profit in commerce. For its medicinal and che¬
mical properties, fee Materia Medjca, Art. VII.
The fweet and four falts above-mentioned diflblve
not only in water, like other faline bodies, but many
of them, particularly the iweet, in re&ified fpif it alio.
The grofs oily and gummy matter, with which they
are almoft always accompanied in the fubjeft, diffolves
freely along with them in water, but is by fpirit in
great meafure left behind. Such heterogeneous mat¬
ters as the fpirit takes up, are almoft completely re¬
tained by it, while the fait concretes; but of thofe
which water takes up, a ccnfidcrable part always ad
Tieres to the fait. Hence effential falts, as they are
called, prepared in the common manner from the wa¬
tery juices of vegetables, are always found to partake
largely of the other foluble principles of the fubjeft ;
while'thofe extraAed by fpirit of wine are more pure.
By means of re&ified fpirit, fome produftione ol this
kind may be freed from their impurities. Perfed fac-
charine concretions obtained from many of our indi-
41 genotis fweets may be thus purified.
'Saline mat- There is another kind of faline matter obtained from
ter often- fome refinous bodies, particularly from benzoin, which
is of a different nature from the foregoing, and fup-
pofed by fome of the chemifts to be a part of the ef¬
fential oil of the refin, coagulated by an acid, with
11. Farina or flour.
Elements.
acin.
This fubftance partakes of the nature of gum, but
has more tafte, is more fermentable, and much more
nutritive. It abounds in very many vegetables, and is
generally depofited in certain parts, feemingly for the
purpofe of its being more advantageoufly accommo¬
dated to their nourifhment and growth. Several of
the bulbous and other roots, fuch as thofe of potatoes,
briony, thofe from which caffnva is extra&ed, falep,
and many others, contain a great quantity of whice
facuU refemhiing and really poffeffing the properties
of fauna. The plants of the leguminous tribe, fuch
as peas and beans, are found alfo to abound with this
matter. But the largeft quantity of farina refides in
grains, which are therefore called farinaceous. Of
this kind are wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, and other
fimilar plants.
At firft fight farina appears to be one homogeneous Farina, of
fubftance : it is, however, found to be a compound of whayrim‘
three different andfeparable parts. To illuftrate thi8,I>ounuC ^ '
we ftiall take as an example, the farina of wheat, being
the vegetable which affords it in greateft quantity, and
in its moft perftd ftatc. To feparate thefe different
parts we form a pafte with any quantity of flour
and cold water; we fufpend this pafte in a bag of
muflin or fuch like doth ; we next let fall on it a
ftream of cold water from fome height, and the bag
may now and then be very gently fqueezed; the water
in its defeent carries down with it a very fine white
powder, which is received along with the water in a
veffel placed below the bag : the procefs muft be con-
tinned till no more of this white powder comes off,
which is known by the water jthat palfes through the
aa
bag ceafing to be of a milky colour. The procefs be¬
ing now nnifhed, the farina is found to be feparated
the acid more predominant or more difengaged than
in the other kinds of coagulated or indurated oils.
Thefe concretes diffolve both in water and in vinous
fpirits, though difficultly and fparingly in both : they
fhow feveral evident marks of acidity, have a fmell like
that of the refin from which they are obtained, ex¬
hale in a heat equal to that of boiling water, or a little
greater, and are inflammable in the fire.
into three different fubftances; the glutinous or ve-
geto-animal part remains in the bag'; the amylom or
ftarch is depofited from the water which has been re¬
ceived in the vefftl placed below the bag ; and, laftly,
a mucous matter is held diffolved in the fame water
from which the flarch has been depofited: this mucous
part may be brought to the confidence of honey, by
evaporating the water in which it is kept in faluticn.
Thefe feveral parts are found alfo to differ remark¬
ably in their fenfible and chemical properties. The
vegeto-animal part is of a whitifh grey colour, is a te¬
nacious, dudtile, and elaftic matter, partly poffeffing
the texture of animal membranes. Diftilled in a re¬
tort, it yields, kke al! animal matters, a true volatile
alkali; and its coal affords no fixed alkali. It is not
only infoluMe, but even indiffufible, in water; both
which app-ar from its remaining in the bag after long-
continued lotions. Like gums, it is infoluble in alco¬
hol, in oils, or ether ; but it is alfo infoluble in wa¬
ter, and yields on diftillation prodftfts very different
from thofe aflorded by gums: it is theiefore of an
animal nature, and approaches perhaps nearer to the
coagulablc lymph of animals than to any other fub¬
ftance.
The fixed alkali, by means of heat, diffolves the
gluten vegeto-animale; but when it is precipitated from
this folution by means of acids, it is found to have loft
Us clafticity. The mineral acids, and efpeciaily the
nitrous,
Part I.
PHARMACY.
43
Of the na-
Elementg. nitrous, are alfo capable of diflblving the vegeto-ani-
mal part of the farina.
The ftarch, amylum, or the amylaceous matter,
makes the principal part of the farina. As we before
noticed, it is that fine powder depofited from the wa¬
ter which has pervaded the entire farina : it is of a
greyilh white colour, but can be rendered much whiter
by making it undergo a certain degree of fermenta-
tion. Starch is infoluble in cpld water ; but in hot
water it forms a tmnfparent glue : hence the necefiity
of employing cold water in fepatating it from the ve-
geto-animal part. Diftilled in a retort, it yields an
acid phlegm ; and its coal affords, like other vege¬
tables, a fixed alkaline fait. As ftarch forms the great-
eft part of the farina, it is probably the princip 1 nu¬
tritive conftituent in bread.
The mucous, or rather the mucofo faceharine mat¬
ter, is only in a very fmall quantity in bread. This
fubftance on diftillaticn is found to exhibit the pheno¬
mena of fugnr. The life of this matter feems to be
that of producing the vinous fermentation : and we
may obferve once for all, that the preparation of good
bread probably depends on a proper proportion of the
three different parts above deferibed; viz. that the vin¬
ous fermentation is promoted by the mucofo faccharine
part, the acetous by the rtarch, and the putrid by the
gluten vegeto-animale. From different ftates or de¬
grees of thefe fereral ftages of fermentation the qua¬
lities of good bread are probably derived.
12. Of the Colouring Matter of Vegetables.
1 he colouring matter of vegetables feems to be of
cokiuHrv>e 30 *nte’me(^a^e nature between the gummy and refi-
raattcr of" nous parts. It is in many plants equally well extract-
vegetables. by water, and by rectified fpirit : it is alfo, how¬
ever, procurable in the form of a lake, not at all fo-
luble in either of thefe menftrua. It would feem that
the colouring matter, flriddly fo called, has hitherto
eluded the refearches of chemifts It is only the bafe
or nidus, in which the real colouring matter is embo¬
died, that chemiftry has as yet reached ; and on the
chemical properties of this lofe, colours are capable of
being extracted by different menftrua, and of being
varioufiy accommodated to the purpofes of dying.
1 he fubftance from which the colours of vegetables
are immediately derived, is without doubt a very fub-
tile body. Since plants are known to lofe their co¬
lour when excluded from the light of the fun, there is
mafon to think that the immediately colouring fub¬
ftance is prim rily derived from the matter of the fun,
ifomcwhat elaborated hy vegetable life.
Many of thefe dyes are evolved or varioufiy modi¬
fied by chemical operations. Thus a colouring mat¬
ter is iomewhat depofited in the form of a f&cula du¬
ring the putrefafhon of the vegetable ; in others it is
evolvec. or chanped by alum, by acids, or by alkali.
We may alfo obferve, that any part of the vegetable
may be the bafe of the colouring matter. 1 his ap¬
pears from the fclubility of the different dyes in their
proper menftrua ; and in thefe feluticns we have not
been able to feparate the real colouring matter from
the bafe in which it is invrfcated. After all, then, we
muft conclude, that a full inveftigation of this fubjeft
more properly belongs to the foblimtr parts of Che-
Vou XIV. Fart 1.
mi stay, than to the bulinefs in which we art at pre- E'ements.
lent engaged. c—y-—o
The colouring drugs are confidered in their proper
places.
In finifhing our hiftory of the vegetable kingdom,
it only remains that we ihpuid offer fome
General Observations on the foregoing Principles.
1. Essential oils, as already obferved, are obtain-
able only from a few vegetables : but grofs oil, refin, 0.Werva_
gum, and ialine matter, appear to be common, m
greater or lefs proportion, to all; fome abounding more
with one and others "with another.
2. The fcveral principles are in many cafes inti¬
mately combined; fo as to be extracted together from
the fubjedt, by thofe diffolvento, in which fome of them,
feparately could not bediffolved. Hence watery infu-
fions and fpirituous tindlurcs of a plant, contain re-
fpedh'vely more fubftances than thofe of which water
or fpirit is the proper diffolvent.
3. After a plant has been fufficiently infufed in wa>
ter, all that fpirit extrafts from the refiduum may be
confidered as confifting wholly of fuch matter as di«
redtly belongs to the adtiou of fpirit. And, on the
contrary, when fpirit is applied firft, all that water ex-
tradts afterwards may be confidered as confifting only
of that matter of which water is the diredt diffol¬
vent.
4. If a vegetable fubftance, containing all the prin¬
ciples we have enumerated, be boiled in water, the ef-
fential oil, whether fluid or concrete, and the camphor,
and volatile effential fait, will gradually exhale with the
fleam of the water, and may be colledted by receiving
the fleam in proper veffels placed beyond the adtion of
the heat. I lie other principles not being volatile in
this degree of heat, remain behind : the grofs oil and
febaeeous matter float on the top: the gummy and fa-
line fubftance, and a part of the refin, are diffolved by
the-water, and may be obtained in a folid form by
draining the liquor, and expofing it to a gentle heat
till the water has exhaled. The reft of the refin, ftill
retained by the fubjedl, may 1 e extradled by fpirit of
wine, and feparated in its proper form by exhaling the
fpirit. On thefe foundations rr.oft of the fubftancea
contained in vegetables may be extra&ed, and obtain¬
ed in a pure Hate, however they may be compounded
together in the fubjedt.
5. Sometimes one or more of the principles is found
naturally difen >aged from the others, lying in diftindt
receptacles within the lubjecl, or extravafated and ac¬
cumulated on the furface. 1’hus, in the dried roots of
angelica, cut longitudinally, the microfcope difeovers
veins of refin. In the flower cups of hyptricum, and
the leaves of the orange tree, tranfparent points are
diftinguifhed by the naked eye : which, at firft view,
feem to be ho'es, 1 ut on a cloftr examination are
found to be little veficles filled with eflential oil. In
the b?.ik of the fir, pine, larch, and fome other trees,
the oily receptacles are extremely numerous, and fo co-
pioufly fupplied with the oily and refinous fluid, that
they frequently hurft, tfpecially in the w rfn climates,
and difeharge their contents in great quantities. The
acacia tree in Egypt, and the plum and cherry among
ourfelve-s, yield almoft pure gummy exudations. From
Nn a
28a P H A R
Elemenfs. g fpeclcs of afh is fecrctcd the faline fweet fiibftance
ii irianna . anj only kini of fugar with which the
ancients were acquainted, appears to have been a na¬
tural exudation from the cane.
6. The forepoing principles are, as far as is known,
all that naturally exifl in vegetables ; and all that art
can extract from them, without iuch operations as
change their nature, and deftroy their original quali¬
ties. In one or more of thefe principles, the colour,
fmell, talle, and medicinal virtues, of the fubject, are
altnoft always found concentrated.
y. In fome vegetables the whole medicinal a&ivity
refides in one principle. Thus, in fweet almonds, the
only medicinal principle is a grofs oil; in horfe-radifh
root, an efiential oil ; in jalap root, a rel.n ; in marih
mallow root, a gum ; in the leaves ot lorrel, a faline
acid iubftafice.
8. Others have one kind of virtue tefiding in one
principle,'and another in another. Ihus Peruvian baik
has an aftringent refin and ?. bitter gum; wormwood
a ftrong flavoured efiential oil and a bitter gum rehn.
q. The grofs infipid oils and febaceous matteis, the
fimple iniipid gums, and the fweet and acid faline _fub-
ftances, feem to agree both in their medicinal qualities
and in their pharmaceutic properties.
jo. But efiential oils, rtlins, and gum-reuns, diner
much in different fubjefts. As effential oils are uni-
verfaily the principle of odour in vegetables, it is ob¬
vious that they muft differ in this refpeft as rauoh as
the fubjefts from which they are obtained. Relins
frequently partake of the oil, and confequently of the
differences depending on it ; with this further diver-
fity, that the grofs refinous part often contains other
powers than thofe which refide in oils. I hus from
wormwood a refin may be prepared, containing not
only the ftrong fmell and fl .vour but likewife the whole
bitternefs of the herb ; from which lait quality the oil
is entirely free. The hitter, a^ringent, purgative, and
emetic virtue of vegetables, relide generally iji different
forts of refinous matter, either pure or blended with
tummy and faline parts; of which kind of combina¬
tions there are many fo intimate, that the component
parts can fcarcely be feparated from each otner, the
whole compound d fTolving almoft equally in aqueous
and fpirituous menftrua.
j j,There are fome fubflances aifo, which, from ■.heir
being totally foluble in water, and not in fpirit, may
be efteemed to be mere gums ; but which, neverthe*
lefs, poffefs virtues never to be found in the fimple
gums. Such are the aftringent gum called acacia, and
the purgative gum extracted from aloes.
i2. It is fuppofed that vegetables contain certain
fubtile principles different in different plants, of too
great tenuity to be colletfed in their pure date, and oi
which oils, gums, and refins, are only the matrices or
vehicles. This inquiry is foreign to the purpofes of
pharmacy, which is concerned only about groifer and
more fenfible ebjefts. When we obtain from an odo¬
riferous plant an effenticl oil, containing in a fmall
compafs the whole fragrance of a large quant,ty of the
fubjeft, our intentions are equally anfwered, whether,
the fubftance of the oil be the dbeft odorous matter,
or whether it has diffufed through it a fragrant prin¬
ciple moreJYibtile than itielf. And when this oil in
long keeping lofes its odour, and becomes & reiin, it i#
M A C Y. Parti.
equarl in regard to the prefect conliderations, whether Element^
the effect happens from the avoktion of a fubtile prin-
ciple, or from a change produced in the fubftance of
the oil itfelf.
Sect. II. Animals.
45
From the hiftory we have already given of the ve-The nature
getable kingdom, our details on animal fubftances may yf animal
in many particulars fee confiderably abridged. AU 1 ’ a cc,•
animals are fed on vegetables, either dxre^lly or by the
intervention of other animals. No part of their fub-
ftance is derived from any other fonree except water.
The fmall quantity of fait ufed by man and fome other
animals, is only neceffary as a feafoning or ftimulus to
the ftomach. As the animal then is derived from the
vegetable matter, vve accordingly find that tke former
is capable of being refolyed into the fame principles as
thofe of the latter. Thus, by repeated ditlillations,
we obtain Irom animal fubilanees, water, oil, air, an
eafily deftru&ible fait, and charcoal. I hefe fecon-
dary principles are by farther precedes at length re-
foluble into the fame proximate principles which we
found in vegetables, viz. water,.air, earth, and the
principle of inflammability. But though the prin¬
ciples of vegetable and animal fubftances are funda¬
mentally the fame, yet thefe principles are combined
in a very different manner. It is exceedingly rare that
animal fubftances are capable of the vinous or acetous
fermentatioas ; and the putrefaftive, into which they
run remarkably faft, is alfo different in tome particu¬
lars from the putrefa&ion of vegetables ; the efcape
of the phlogifton in the form of light is more evident,
and the fmell is much more offenfive, in the putrefac¬
tion of animal than of vegetable fubftances. 1 he pu¬
trefaction of urine is indeed accompsnied with a pe¬
culiar fetor, by no means lo intolerable as that of other
animal matters : this we fuppofe to be owing to the
pungency derived from the volatile alkali, and alio to
the mine containing lefs inflammable matter than the
blood and many other fluids. When analyfed by a
deftrudtive heat, animals afford products very different
from thefe of vegetables : the empyreumatic oil has a
particular and much more fetid odour; and the vola¬
tile fait, inftead of being an acid, as it is in moft ve
getables, is found in animals to be a volatile alkau.
Chemifts have fpoken of an acid procurable from ani¬
mal fubftances; and indeed certain parts of animal oo¬
dles are found to yield a fait of this kind ; but it by
no means holds with animal fubftances in general; and
though the proofs to the contrary were even conclu-
five, it is confeffedly in fo fmali a quantity as not to
deferve any particular regard. In fome animals, how¬
ever, an acid exifts, uncombined and ready formed in
their bodies. -This is particularly manifeft in foine in¬
fers, efpecially ants, from which an acid refembling
the acetous has been procured by boiling them in wa¬
ter. The folid parts of animal bodies, a? the mufcles,
teguments, tendons, cartilages, and even the bones,
when boiled with water, give a gelatinous matter or
glue refembling the vegetable gums, but much more
adhefive. We muft, however, except the horny parts
and the hair, which feem to be little folubk either in
water or in the liquors of the ftomach. T. he acids,
the alkalis, and quicklime, are alfo found to be power¬
ful folvents of animal matters. It is Irom the folid
part*
atfimak
Part I. P H A R
Elements, parts that the greateft quantity of volatile alkali is ob-
tained ; it arifes along with a very fetid empyreumatic
oil, from which it is in fome meafure feparated by re¬
peated re&ificatfons. This fait is partly in a fluid,
and partly in a concrete ftate ; and from its having-
been anciently prepared in the greateft quantity from
the horns of the hart, it has been called J~a& or fpirit of
hartjhorn. Volatile alkali is. however, procurable from
all animals, and from almoft every part of animal bo¬
dies except fat. Though we are fometimes able to
procure fixed alkali from an animal cinder, yet it is
probable that this falc did not make any part of the
living animal, but rather proceeded from the introduc¬
tion of fome faline matter, incapable of being allimila-
ted by the fundfions of the living creature.
Of the fluid In fpeaking of the fluid parts of animals, we fhould
parts of firft examine the general fluid, or blood, ftom whence
the reft are fecreted. The blood, which at firft fight
appears to be an homogeneous fluid, is compofed of fe-
veral parts, eafily feparable from each other, and which
the microfcope can even perceive in its uncoagulated
ftate. On allowing it to Hand at reft, and to be ex-
pofed to the air, it feparates into what are called the
crajfamentum and the ferum. The craffamentum, or
cruor, chiefly confifts of the red globules, joined toge-
ther by another fubftance, called the coagulable lymph:
the chemical properties of thefe globules are not as yet
underftood; but they feem to contain the greattft
quantity of the iron found in the blood. The ferum
is a yellowifh fubvifeid liquor, having little fenfihle
tafte or fmell: at a heat of 160 of Fahrenheit, it is
converted into a jelly. This coagulation of the ferum
is alfo owing to its containing a matter of the fame
nature with that in the crafiamentum, viz. the coagu¬
lable lymph : whatever then coagulates animal blood,
produces that effe£l on this concrefcible part. Seve¬
ral caufes, and many different fubftancee, are capable
of effe&ing this coagulation ; fuch as contact of air,
heat, alcohol, mineral acids, and their combinations
with earths, as alum, and fome of the metallic falts.
The more perfe& neutral felts are found to prevent
the coagulation, fuch as common fait and nitre.
Of the fluids fecreted from the blood, there are a
great variety in men and other animals. The excre-
mentitious and redundant fluids are thofe which afford
in general the greateft quantity of volatile alkali and
empyreumatic oil: there are alio fome of the fecreted
fluids, which, on a chemical analyfis, yield produfts in
fome degree peculiar to themfelves. Of this kind is
the urine, which is found to contain in the greateft
abundance the noted fait formed from the phofphoric
acid and volatile alkali. The fat, too, has been faid
to differ from the other animal matters, in yielding by
diftillation a ftrong acid, but no volatile alkali. There
is aifo much variety in the quantity and ftate of the
combination of the faline and other matters in different
fecreted fluids. But for a fuller inveftigation of this
and other parts of the fubjeft, we refer to Anatomy,
Chemistry, and Physiology; with which it is more
immediately conne&ed than with the elements of phar¬
macy.
Animal oils and fats, like the grofs oils of vege¬
tables, are not of themfelves foluble either in yvater or
vinous fpirits: but they may be united with water by
the intervention of gum or mucilage. Moft of them
M A C Y. 283
may be changed into foap, by fixed alkaline falts; Element*.
and be thus rendered mifcible with fpirit as well as v  ’
water. ^
The odorous matter of fome odoriferous animal-Mifceliane-
fubftances, as mulk, civet, caftor, is, like effential oil, ous ohfer-
foluble in fpirit of wine, and volatile in the heat ofva"'ns
boiling water. Carthufer relates, that from caftor an *
a£lual effential oil has been obtained in a very fmallftances.
quantity, but of an exceedingly ftrong diffufive fmell.
The veficating matter of cantharides, and thofe
parts of fundry animal fubftances in which their pe¬
culiar tafte refides, are diftblved by reftified fpirit, and
feem to have fome analogy with refins and gummy
reiins.
The gelatinous principle of animals, like the gum
of vegetables, dlffolvds in water, but not in fpirit or in
oils: like gums alfo, it renders oils and fats mifcible
with water into a milky liquor.
Some infefts, particularly the ant, ate found to con¬
tain an acid juice, which approaches nearly to the na¬
ture of vegetable acids.
There are, however, fundry animal juices, whicji
differ greatly, even in thefe general kinds of proper¬
ties, from the correfponding ones of vegetables. Thus
animal ferum, which appears analogous to vegetable
gummy juices, has this remarkable difference, that
though it mingles uniformly with cold or warm wa¬
ter, yet on confiderably heating the mixture, the ani¬
mal-matter feparates from the watery fluid, and con¬
cretes into a folid mafs. Some phyficians have been
apprehenfive, that the heat of the body, in certain dif-
eafes, might rife to fuch a degree, as to produce this
dangerous or mortal concretion of the ferous humours:
but the heat requifite for this effedf is greater than the
human body appears capable of fuftaining, being near¬
ly about the middle point between the greateft human
heat commonly obferved and that of boiling water.
The foft and fluid parts of animals are tirongly dif-
pofed to run into putrefaction ; they putrefy much
fooner than vegetable matters; and when corrupted,
prove more offenfive.
This procefs takes place, in fome degree, in the
bodies of living animals, as often as the juices ft agnate
long, or are prevented, by an obftruCtion of the natu,
ral emundtories, from throwing off their more volatile
and corruptible parts.
During putrefaCtion, a quantity of air is generated ;
all the humours become gradually thinner, and the fi¬
brous parts more lax and tender. Hence the tym¬
pany, which fucceeds the corruption of any of the vif.
or the imprudent fupprelfion of dyfenteries by.
Oils and
fats of ani
«n»ls.
attringents; and the weaknefs and laxity of the veffeL
obfervable in feurvies, See.
The crafiamentum of human blood changes by putre¬
faction into a dark livid-coloured liquor ; a few drops
of which tinge the ferum with a tawny hue, like the
ichor of fores and dyfcnteric fluxes, as alto the white
of the eye, the faliva, the ferum of blood drawn from
a vein, and the liquor that oozes from a biifter in deep
feurviea and the advanced ftate of malignant fevers.
The putrid craffamentum changes a large quantity
of recent urine to a flame-coloured water, fo common
in fevers and in the feurvy. .This mixture, after Hand¬
ing an hour or two, gathers a cloud refembling what ig
feen in the crude witter of acute diftempers, with fome
N n 2 eiJy
284 P H A R
Elements, oily matter on the furface like the fcum which floats
•y—' on fCorbutic urine.
The ferum of the blood depofltes, in putrefadion,
a fediment refem! ling well-digefted pus, and changes
to a faint olive-green. A ferum fo far putrefied as tp
become green, is perhaps never to be feen in the vef-
fcl# of living animals; but in dead bodies this ferum is
to he diltinguiftied by the green colour which the flefh
acquires in corrupting. In faked meats, this is com¬
monly afcribed to the brine, but erronecufly; for that
has no power of giving this colour, but only of quali¬
fying the take, and in fome degree, the ill effedds of
corrupted aliments. In foul ulcers and other fores,
where the ferum is left to ftagnate long, the matter is
likewife found of this colour, and is then always acri-
monious. »
The putrefadlion of animal fubftances is prevented
or retarded by molt fahne matters, even by the fixed
and volatile alkaline falts, which have generally been
fuppofed to produce a contrary eftedt. Of all the falts
that have been made trial of, fea-falt feems to refill
putrefadlion the leak ; in fmall quantities it even acce¬
lerates the procefs. The vegetable bitters, as chamo¬
mile flowers, are much kronger antifeptics, not only
preferving flefh long uncorrupted, but likewife fome-
what corredling it when putrid : the mineral acids
have this lak effed in a more remarkable degree. Vi¬
nous fpirits, aromatic and warm fubftances, and the
acrid plants, falfely called alkalefcent, as feurvy-grafs
and horfe-radifh, are found alfo to refill putrefaftion.
Sugar and camphor are found to be powerfully anti-
feptic. Fixed air, or the aerial acid, is likewife thought
to refill putrefadlion ; but above all the vapours of ni¬
trous acid, in the form of air (the nitrous air of Dr
Prieftley), is found to be the moft effedtual m prefer¬
ving animal bodies from corruption. The lift of the
feptics, or of thofe fubftances that promote putrefac¬
tion, is very fttort; and fuch a property has only been
difeovered in calcareous earths and magnefia, and a very
few falts, whofe bafes are of thefe earths.
It is ebfervable, that notwkhftanding the ftrong ten¬
dency of animal matters to putrefaftion, yet broths
made from them, with the admixture of vegetables,
inkead of putrefying turn four. Sir John Pringle has
found, that when animal flelh in fubftance is beaten up
with bread or other farinaceous vegetables, and a pro¬
per quantity of water, into the confiftence of a pap,
this mixture likewife, kept in a heat equal to thaL of
the human body, grows in a little time four; whne
the vegetable matters, without the fltlh, fuficr no Imh
Ch It^vas obferved in the preceding feaion, that fome
few vegetables, in the refolution of them by hre, dif-
cover fome agreement in the matter with bodies o
the animal kingdom ; yielding a volatile alkaline fait
in confiderable quantity, with htne or nothing of the
acid or fixed alkali, which the generality of vegetaoles
afford. In animal fubftances alfo, there are fome ex¬
ceptions to the general analyfis : from animal fats, as
we before obferved, inftead of a volatile alkali, an acid
-liquor is obtained ; and their empyreumatic oil wants
the peculiar offenfivenefs of the other animal-oils.
M A C Y. Parti.
Element^.
Sect. III. Minerals. -y—j
I. On-s and Bitumens.
. 49
In the mineral kingdom is found a fluid oil called oils of the
naphtha or petroleum, floating on the fur.ace of waters, mineral
or ifluing from clefts of rocks, partimlarly in the eaft- Inbv otn*
ern countries, of a ftrong fmcll, very different Irom that
of vegetable or animal oils, limpid ulmotl as water,
highly inflammable, not foluble in Ipirit of wine, and
more averfe to union with water than any other oils.
There are different forts of thefe mineral oils, more
or lefs tinge !, of a more or lefs agreeable, and a
ftronger or weaker, fmell. By the admixture o" con¬
centrated acids, which raife no great heat or confhdl
with them, they become thick, and at length confift-
ent; and in thefe Hates are called bitumens.
Thefe thickened or concreted oils, like the corre-
fponding produtts of the vegetable kingdom, are ge¬
nerally foluble in fpirit of wine, but much more diffi¬
cultly, more fparingly, and for the moft part only p.ir-
tiaily ; they liquefy by heat, but require the heat to
be confiderably ilronger than vegetable products. 1 heir
fmells are various; but all of them, either in the natu¬
ral ftate, when melted or fet on fire, yield a peculiar
kind of ftrong feent, called from them bituminous.
The folid bitumens are, amber, jet, afphaltum, or Bitumens*
bitumen of Judea, and foffil or pit coal. AH thefe
bitumens, when diftilled, give out an odorous phlegm,
or water, more or lefs coloured and faline ; an acid,
frequently in a concrete ftate ; an oil, at ftrft relem-
bling the native petrolea, but foon becoming heavier
and thicker ; and, laftly, a quantity of volatile alkali
is obtained : the refiduum is a charry matter, differing
in its appearances according to the nature of the bitu¬
men which had been analyfed. _ jt
From the obfervations of feveral naturalifts, .it is
probable that nil bitumens are of vegetable and animal
origin ; that the circumllances by which they differ
from the refinous and other oily matters of vegetables
and animals, fire the natural effeefts of time, or of an
alteration produced on them by mineral acids; or per¬
haps they are the effedt of both thefe caufes combined.
Thi? opinion is the more probable, ftnee bitumens, on
a chemical analyfis, yield oil and volatile alkali; neither
of which are found in any other minerals.
II. Earths.
S*
The little impropriety of joining the vegetable and Of vege-
animal earths to* the mineral, muft be overlooked^ far
the fake of bringing both under one fynoptical view.
Under the mineral earths are included Hones; thefeearthr.
being no other than earths in an indurated Hate.—
The different kinds of thefe bodies hitherto taken no¬
tice of are the following.
ly?, Earths foluble in the nitrous, marine, and •vegetable
acids, but not at all, or exceeding fparingly, in the •vi¬
triolic acid. When previoujly diffolved in other acids,
they are precipitated by the addition of this lajl, •which
thus unites with them into infipid, or nearly infipid con¬
cretes, not dijfoluble in any liquor.
Of
Part T.
Element*.
P H A R
Of this kind are,
I. The mineral calcareous earth : dijlinguifhed by its
being convertible in a Jlrong fire, without addition, into an
acrimonious calx called quicklime. This eerth occurs in
a variety of forms in the mineral kingdom : the
fine foft chalk, the coarfcr limeftones, the hard
marbles, the tranfparent fpars, the earthy matter con¬
tained in waters, and which fep rrating from them in-
cruftates the fidcs of the caverns, or hangs in ificles
from the top, receiving from its different appearances
different appellations. How ftrongly fotver fome of
thcfe bodies have been recommended for particular
medicinal purpofes, they are fundamentally no other
than different forms of this calcareous earth ; fimple
pulverization depriving them of the fuperficial cha-
rafters by which they were diftinguifhed in the mat's.
Moft of them generally contain a greater or lefs ad¬
mixture of fame of the indiflbluble kinds of earth ;
which, however, affe&s their medicinal qualities no
otherwife than by the addition which it makes to their
bulk. Chalk appears to be one of the pureff ; and
is therefore in general preferred. They all burn into
a ftrong quicklime : in this ftate a part of them dif-
folves in water, which thus becomes impregnated with
the aflringent and lithontriptic powers that have been
erroneoufly aferibed to fome of the earths in their na¬
tural date.
During the calcination of calcareous earths, a large
quantity of elatlic vapour is difeharged : the abfence
of this fluid is the caufe of the cautticity of quick¬
lime, and of its folubility in water in the form of
lime-water. For a more full inquiry into this fub-
je£t, fee Fixed Air, &c.
2. The animal calcareous earth : burning into quick¬
lime Ike the mineral. Of this kind are oyiter-fhdls and
all the marine (hells that have been examined ; though
with fome variation in the ftrength of the quicklime
produced from them.
3. The earth of bones and horns : not at all burning
into quicklime. This kind of earth is more difficult of
folution in acids than either of the preceding. It is
accompanied in the fubje&s with a quantity of gela-
tinous matter, which may be ft^'arated by lon£ boil¬
ing in water, and more pcrfe&iy by burning in the
open air. The earth may be extradded alfo from the
bone or horn, though difficultly, by means of acids ;
whereas vegetables and the foft parts of animals yield
their pure earth by burning only.
2d, Earths foluble with eafe in the vitriolic as well as
other acids, and yielding, in all other combinations there-
with, fahne concretes foiuble in water.
1. Magnefia alba : compojing with the vitriolic acid a
bitter purgative fait. rI his earth has not yet been found
naturally in a pure ftate. It is obtained from the
purging mineral waters and their falls ; from the bit¬
ter liquor which remains after the cryftallization of
fea-falt from fea-water; and from the fluid which
remains uncryttallized in the putrefaftion of fome forts
of rough nitre. I he aflies of vegetables appear to be
nearly the fame kind of earth.
2. Aluminous earth . cqmpojing with the vitriolic acid
a very ajringent fait. This earth alfo has not been
found naturally pure. It is obtained from alum; which
is no other than a combination of it with the vitrio-
M A G Y. 285
lie acid ; it may likewife be extrs&ed, by ffrong boil- Elements,
ing in that acid, from clays and boles. ' v 1" ^
$d, Earths which by digefling in acids, either in the cold
or in a moderate warmth, are not at all dijfolved.
1. Atgillncleous earth: becoming hard, or acquiring
an additionalhardnefs, in thef te. Of this kind of earth
there are feveral varieties, differing in fome particular
properties : as the purer clays, which when moiftened
with water form a very vifeous mafs, difficultly dif-
fufible through a larger quantity of the fluid, and
flowiy fubfrding from it ; boles, lefs vifeous, more
readily mifcible with water, an 1 more readily fubfi-
ding; and ochres, which have little or nothing of the
vifeolity of the two foregoing', and are commonly im¬
pregnated with a yellow or red ferruginous calx.
2. Cryffatline earth : naturally hard, fo as tofrike
fparks with feel; becoming friable in a Jlrong fire. Of
this kind are flints, cryftals, &c. which appear to con-
fift of one and the fame earth, differing in the purity,
hardnefs, and tranfparency of the mafs.
3. Gypfeous earth : reducible by a gentle heat into a
foft powder, which unites with water into a mafs, fome-
what vifeous and tenacious while vtoif, but quickly drying
and becoming hard. A greater heat deprives the powder
of this property, without occafoning any othir alteration.
Such are the tranfparent Jelenites ; the fibrous ftony
maffes improperly called Englifh talc ; and the granu¬
lated gypfa or pilfer of Paris it ones. Though thefe bo¬
dies, however, have been commonly thought to be
mere earths, of a diftindt kind from the reff, they
appear, both from an>?lytical and fynthetical experi¬
ments, to be no other than combinations of the mine¬
ral calcareous earth with vitriolic acid.
4. I alky earth : fcarcely alterable by a vehement fire*
The maffes of this earth are generally of a fibrous or
leafy texture; more or lefs pellucid, bright or glit¬
tering, fmooth and unftuous to the touch ; too flexible
and elaffic to be eafily pulverifed ; foft, fo as to be
cut with a knife. In thefe refpects fome of the gyp¬
feous earths nearly refem! le them, but the difference
is reaciily difeovered by fire ; a weak heat reducing
the gypfeous to powder, while the ftrongeft makes
no other alteration in the tafky, than fomewhat dimi-
nifhing their flexibility, brightnefs, and unduofity.
III. Metals.
J2
Of metals, the next divifion of mineral bodies, the Metals,
moft obvious charaders are, their peculiar bright ant?
afped, perfed opacity, and great weight ; the lighted iah er*ei‘-
of them is fix, and the heavieft upwards of 19 times
heavier than an equal bulk of water.
To underftand the writers in chemiftry, it is proper
to be informed, that metals are fubdivided into the
ptrfett, the imperfa, and the femimetals.
Thofe pofleffed of dudility and malleability, and
which are not fenfiMy altered by very violent degrees
of heat, are called perfift metals: Of thefe there are
three ; gold, diver, and platiua. It is, however, pro¬
bable, that the mark of their indellrudibility by lire
is only relative : and indeed modern chemifts have
been able, by a very intenfe degree of heat, to bring
gold into the {late of a calx, or fomething very nearly
refembling it.
Thofs?
286 P « A R
Elements. Thofe metallic fuhflailees which pofTefs^the diftmc-
* ■ --v^-— t|ve propertie.1 of the perftft metals, but in a lefj de"
gree, are called the br.perfeS metals : 1 Hefe are, cop*
per, iron, tin, lead. . ^
I.aflly, thofe bodies having the metallic characters
in the moll imperfc£t date, that is to fay, thofe which
have no duaility *nd the lead fixity in the fire, are
didinguifhed by the name of femi-metah : Thefe are,
regains of antimony, bifmuth, xinc, regulus of cobalt',
nickel, and regulus ofi arfenic ; which lad might be
rather confidered as the boundary between the metal¬
lic and the faline bodies.
Mercury has been generally ranked in a clafs by it*
£ t C
All metallic bodies, when heated in clofe veffels,
melt or fufe. This/h/fon takea place at different de¬
grees of heat in different metals; and it does not ap¬
pear that this procefs produces any change in the me¬
tals, provided it be conducted in cloie veffcls. Me¬
tals, expofed to the combined a&ion of air and fire,
are converted into an earth like fubdance caded calx :
by this procefs, which we call calcination, die rnetal
fuffers remarkable changes, Fiom the rUdindfive marks
we have before given of the metallic bodies, it will
be obvious, that the perfeft metals are mod (lowly,
the imperfia more quickly, and the femi-metala mod
eafily and fooneft, affeaed in this operation. This
earth-like powder, or calx, is found to poffefs no me¬
tallic afpedf, but is confiderably heavier than the me¬
tal before its calcination : it has no longer any affi¬
nity with metallic bodies, nor even with the metal
from which it has bear produced.
Belldes this method of calcining metal* by air and
•fire, they may likewife be brought into the (fate of
a calx, by diifolving them in acids, from which they
may be afterwards freed by evaporating the acid, or
by adding to the dilution an alkaline fait. Metals are
slfo forr.etimes dephlogidioated by detonation with
nitre. This change in their obvious properties is ge¬
nerally acompanied with a remarkable alteration in
their medicinal virtues : thus quick(ilver, which taken
into the body in its crude date and undivided, feems
inadive ; proves, when calcined by fire, even in fmall
dofes, a drong emetic and cathartic, and in fmaller
ones, a powerful alterative in chronical diforders;
while regulus of antimony, on the contrary, is changed
by the fame treatment, from a high degree of viru¬
lence to a date of inaftivity. ^ ,
Calces of mercury and arfenic exhale in a beat be¬
low ignition : thofe of lead and bifmuth, in a red or
low white heat, run into a tranfparent glafs ; the
others are not at all vitrefciblc, or not without ex¬
treme vehemence of fire. Both the calces and glaffea
recover their metallic form and qualities again by the
fkilful addition of any kind of inflammable fubdance
that does not contain a mineral acid. 1 his recovery
of the metallic calces into the metallic form is. called
reduQion. During this procefs an^ eladic aerial fluid
efcapes, which is found to be pure air* (
Is the converfion of metals into calces owing to the
difeharge of phlogidon, or to the abforptiori of pure
air ? And is the redu£:on to be aferibed to the ab¬
sorption of phlogidon, cr to the efcape of pure air ?
And again, Is the calcination to he explained by tne
..difcWge of phlogiflon a ad con fcquent’precipitation
M A C Y. Part I;
of pure air ? And is the redu&ion effeAed by the Element^
Ibforption of phlogidon, either furmlhed by inflam-'
triable bodies or precipitated in confequence of the
difeharge of pure air ? On thefe quedions there is
much difpute among modern chemids : We thought
it only neceflary to "date them here, as a full inquiry
into the fubjeft is by no means the province of phar¬
macy. We, however, think it prudent to retain the
doarine of Stahl: and we do this the more readily,
becaufe it has been followed in our article Chemistrv,
and becaufe it is abundantly clear in its illudration of
the pharmaceutical precedes. We do not mean, how¬
ever, to reject any modern difeovery which may ferve
to illudrate our fubjedfs.
All metallic bodies diffolvc in acids ; .ome only ill
particular acids, as diver and lead in the nit'rous: fome
only in compofitions of acids, as gold in a mixture o
the nitrous and marine: and others, as iron and zinc,
ui all acids. Some likewife diffolve in alkaline liquors,
as copper : and others, as lead, in exprefl'ed oils. Fu«
fed with a compofition of fulphur and fixed aikalinc
fait, they are all, except zinc, made foluble in water.
All if-etallic fubdances, diffolved in faline liquors,
have powerful effects in the human body, though many
of them appear in their pure ftate to be inactive.
Their a&ivity is generally in proportion to the quan¬
tity »f acid combined with them : i hus lead, which
in its crude form has no fenfible effect, when united
with a fmall portion of vegetable acid into cerufs, dif-
covers a low degree of the ftyptic and malignant
lity, which it fo ftrongly exerts when blended with
ahrger quantity of the fame acid into what was call¬
ed faccharum faturnl, but now more properly/a//-Am*
hi, or plumbum acelatum : and thus mercury, with a
certain quantity of the marine acid, forms the violent
corrolive fublimnte, which by diminifhing the propor¬
tion of acid becomes the mild medicine called mercurt-
us dulcis.
IV. Acids.
, 53
The falts of this order are very numerous ; but asObferva-
we are at prefent treating of Mmrah, it is only
fore the mineral or fcJU acids we mean to fpeak oi
this place.
Thefe are diflinguiflisd by the names of the con¬
cretes fiom which they have been principally extraft-
ed ; the ’vitriolic from vitriol, the nitrous from nitre
or fab pet re ; and the marine or muriatic^ from common
fea-falt. The form they are generally in, is that of a
watery fluid: They have all a remarkable atcraftion
for water: They imbibe the humidity of the air with
rapidity and the generation of heat. Although heat
be produced by their union with water, yet when
mixed with ice in a certain manner, they generate a
prodigious degree of cold.. Acids change the purple
and blue colours of vegetables to a red: they relid
fermentation ; and laftly, they imprefs that peculiar
fenfatien on the tongue called/ournc/r, and which their
name imports. But it is to be obferved, that they
are all highly corrcjive, infomuch as not to be lately
touched, unlefs largely diluted with water, or united
with fuch fubfiances as obtund or fupprefs their aci¬
dity. Mixed haftily with vinous fpmts, they rails a
violent ebullition and heat, accompanied with a co¬
pious difeharge of noxious fumes: a part of the acid
Pan I. P H A R
Elementj. unites intimately with the vinous fpirit into a new
' compound, void of acidity, called dulcified fpirit. It
is obfervable, that the marine acid is much lefs dif-
pofed to this union with fpirit of wine than either of
the other two ; nevertheltfs, many of the Compound
falls refulting from the combination of earthy and
metallic bodies with this acid, a:e folufcle in that fpi¬
rit, while thofe with the other acids are not. Ail
thefe acids effervefce flrongly with alkaline falts both
fixed and volatile, and form with them neutral falts;
that>%*Juch as difcover no marks either of an acid or
alkaline quality.
The nitrous .and marine acids are obtained in the
form of a thin liquor; the acid part being blendtd
with a large proportion of water, without which it
would be diffufed into an incoercible vapour: the vi¬
triolic (lands in need of fo much lefs water for its con-
denfation as to afiurne commonlv an oily conliitence
(whence it is called oil of vitriol), and in feme circum-
itances even a folid one. Alkaline falts, and the fo-
luble earths and metals, abforb from the acid liquors
only the pure acid part: fo that the water may now
be evaporated by heat, and the compound fait left in
a dry form.
From the coalition of the different acids with the
three different alkalis, and with the leveral foluble
earths and metallic bodies, refult a variety of faline
compounds; the principal of which (hall be particu-
larife l in the fequel of this article.
The vitriolic acid, in its concentrated liquid ftate,
is much more ponderous than the othtr two ; it emits
no vifible vapour in the heat of the atmofphere, but
imbibes morllure which increafes its weight: the ni¬
trous and marine emit copious corrofive fumes, the
nitrous yellowilh red, and the marine white ones. If
bottles containing the three acids be ffopt with cork,
the cork is found in a little time tinged black with
the vitriolic, corroded into a yellow fubdance by the
nitrous, and into a wbitilh one by the marine.
It is above laid down as a chan.&er of one of the
claffes of earths, that the vitriolic acid precipitates
them when they are previoufly diffblved in any other
acid : it is obvious, that on the fame principle this
particular acid may he difliaguiihed from all others.
This character ferves not only for the acid in its pure
date,but likewife for all its combinations that are foluhle
in water. If a folution ot any compound fait, whofe
acid is the vitriolic, be added to a foiution of chalk in
any other acid, the vitriolic acid will part from the
fubftance with which it was before combined, and join
iifelf to the chalk, forming therewith a compound ;
■which, being no longer foluMe in the liquor, renders
the whole milky for a time, and then gradually
fubfrdes.
a his acid may be diffinguiflied alfo, in compound
falts, by another criterion not lefs ftrongly marked :
rf any fait-' containing it be mixed with powdered
charcoal, and the mixture expofed in a clole veffel to
a moderately ftrong fire, the acid will unite with the
direftly inflammable part of the charcoal, and compofe
therewith a genuine fulphur. Common brimftone is
mo other than a combination of the vitriolic acid with a
Small proportion of inflhmmable matter. With any
kind of inflammable matter which is not volatile in
olole veffels, as the coal of vegetables, of animals, or
M A C Y. 287
oi bitumens, this acid composes always the fame iden- Elements,
deal fulphur. ' -
The nitrous acid alfo, with whatever kind of body
it be combined, is both diftinguilhed and extricated by
means of any inflammable fubftance being brought to
a ftate of ignition with it. If the fubjeft be mixed
with a little powdered charcoal and made red hot, a
deflagration or fulmination enfues, that is, a bright
(lame with a hiding noife ; and the inflammable matter
pnd the acid being thus confumed or difiipated together,
there remains only the fubftance which was before com
bined with the acid, and the fmall quantity of afhes
afforded by the coal.
Thefe properties of the nitrou? acid deflagrating
with inflammable fubftances, and of the vitriolic form¬
ing fulphur with them, ferve not only as criteria of the
mpecHve acids in the various forms and difguifes, but
likewiie (or difoovering inflammable matter in bodies,
when its quantity is too fmall to be fenfible on other
trials.
All thefe acids will be more particularly examined
when we come to treat of each of them apart. There
are, however, a few other mineral acids which are of
importance to be known: thefe are, acjua regia; acid
of borax; [parry add; and, laftly, fixed air, which has
of late been called aerial acid, or acid of chalk.
Jfqua regia has been generally prepared by a mixture
of certain proportions of the nitrous and muriatic acids.
It is of little avail in pharmacy whether we confider
it as a diftin£t acid, or only as a modification of the
muriatic. It has been found, that the muriatic acid
when diftilled with manganefe (a peculiar foflile fub¬
ftance, (howing a remarkab’e attradlion to phlogifton),
fuffers a change which renders it capable of difiblving..
gold and platina. Whether this change be produced
by the acid acquiring a redundance of pure air, or by
its being deprived of phlogifton, it is not our bufmefs to
decide. This experiment, however, renders it probable,
that the nitrous acid in the common aqua regia is only
fervient to accompliftiing the fame change in the
muriatic acid which is produced by diitilling that acid
with manganefe.
As aqua regia has been only ufed in the nicer-ope ¬
rations in chemiftry, and in the art of affaying, we
think it unneceffary to fay more of it in this place.
.The acid of borax, or fidat ve fait of Homberg, may
be extracted from berax, a neutral fait, whofe bafe
is mineral alkali. It has aho been found native in
the waters of feveral 1 kes in Tufcany. It is a light,
cryflallized, concrete fait; its tafte is feniibly acid ; it
is difficultly foluble in water ; but the folution changes
blue vegetable colours to a red. With vitrefeent earths
it (ufes into a white glafs : it. unites with the other al¬
kalis, with magnefia, and with quicklime. The falts
refulting from thefe combinations are very imperfeftly
known. I he fait has been culled fedative, from its
(uppofed virtues as an anodyne and refrigerant remedy ;
but modern phyficians hav;; very little faith in this once
celebrated drug..
The /party acid is fo called from its being extrarffed
from a to fill called [parry fiuor, or vitreous [par. It is
net yet determined whether it be a diitindt acid; and
as it has not yet been employed (or any purpofe in
pharmacy, we think it would be improper to attempt,
any farther account of ft here.
Befides
288 PHARMACY. Parti.
Elements. Befules the acids above-mentioned, there h*ve alto with this acid, lay the foundation of many important Blements.
been difcovered acids feemingly of a particular nature,
in amber, in arfenic, and in black-leads but as thefe
have not hitherto been applied to any life in pharmacy,
they cannot properly have a place in this article.
We now come to the laft, but perhaps the moft
generally diffufed, acid in nature : this is the aerial
acid, or
Fixed Air.
54
Nat. re of Jn 0lir pharmaceutical hiftory of this body, we fhall
fixed air, onjy ufe of the two names Jixed air and aerial
acid, being thofe moft generally ufed, and which in
. our opinion are mc-ft applicable to our own fubjeft.
Fixed air is a permanently elaftic fluid, being only
when in a ftate of combination with calcareous earth
or other fubftances from which it may be extricated.
It h as received many different names, according to the
fubftances from which it is difengaged, and to the dif¬
ferent opinions concerning its nature : it is the gas
fihefire of Helmut, the Jixed air of Dr Black, the acid
of chalk, calcareous gas, mephitic gas, viephitic acid, and
aerial acid, of m*ny modern chemills. In accommo¬
dating our account of it to the purpofes of pharmacy,
it is moft convenient to confider it as an acid. The
aerial acid may be extricated by heat, or by other
acids, from all calcareous earths ; that is, from all
thofe earths which by calcination are converted into
quicklime; fuch as chalk, marble, limcftone, fea-fhells,
&c. It is likewife extricated from mild, fixed, and
volatile alkalis, and from magnefia alba. Thus, if
the vitriolic, or almoft any other acid, be added to a
quantity of calcareous earth or mild alkali, a brifk ef-
fervefcence immediately enfues; the fixed air, or aerial
acid, is difcharged in bubbles ; and the other acid takes
its place. If this procefs be conduced with an ap¬
paratus to be afterwards defcribed, the aerial acid, now
feparated from the calcareous earth, may be received
and preferved in clofe veffels. When thus difengaged,
it affumes its real chara&cr, viz. that of a permanently
elafticJluid. Fixed air is alfo feparated in great quan¬
tity during the vinous fermentation of vegetable mat¬
ters. When a calcareous earth is deprived of this acid
by heat, it is converted into the cauftic fubftanc. quick¬
lime. When alkalis, fixed or volatile, are deprived by
any means of their aerial acid, they are rendered much
more cauftic, incapable of cryftallization, or of effer-
veicing with other acids. They are alfo in this deaerated
ftate much more powerful in diffolving other bodies.
By recombining this acid with quicklime, calcined
magnefia, or alkali, any of which had been deprived of
it, thefe fubftances again afl'ume their former weight
and properties. Thefe bodies, then, when combined
with aerial acid, are called mild; mmild calcareous earth,
mild alkali. See.: and when deprived of this acid they
ace called caujlic ; as caujhc calcareous earths, cauftic al¬
kali, &c. : but as magnefia is not rendered cauftic by
calcination, there would perhaps be lefs danger in calling
them aerated and deaerated. i he aenal acid is more
difpoftd to unite with cauftic calcareous earth (quick¬
lime) than with any other fubitance ; next to that, its
attraaion is for fixed alkali, then for magnefia, and
iaftly for volatile alkali. We fhall afterwards find that
thefe relative powers of the different fubitaflees to unite
precedes in pharmacy.
When we pour a fmall quantity of the aerial acid
into lime-water, the liquor inftantly aft’umes a white
colour, and the lime gradually precipitates, leaving the
water clear and taftelefs; the lime in this experiment
has abforbed the acid, and ^as therefore become mild
or aerated earth. The aerial acid is capable of being
abforbed by water, and the water thus impregnated
precipitates lime in lime-water; but if a certain larger
quantity of this impregnated water be added, the lime
is rediffolved, and the liquor recovers its tranfparency.
Water impregnated with aerial acid is capable of dif¬
folving iron ; and in this way are formed native and
artificial chalybeate waters. Zinc is alfo foluhle in the
fame liquor. This acid is eafily expelled from the
water by removing the preffure of the atmofphere, by
boiling, and even by time alone, if the veflel be not
kept clofe {hut. Fixed air extinguifties flame, vegetable
and animal life, and ought therefore to be cautioufly
managed : like ether acids it changes the blue colours
of vegetables to a red, and communicates an acidulous
tafte to the water impregnated with it. The attradfion
of the aerial acid, even to quicklime, is but feeble ; as
we know of no other acids whatever that are not able
to difengage it.
From thefe feveral fadfs it will appear obvious, that
mild or effervescing alkalis, whether fixed or volatile,
ate really neutral falts, compounded of the aerial acid
and pure alkali : like other acids, it unites with thefe
bodies, diminifties their caufticity, and effedts their
cryftallization. In fpeaking, theiefore, of pure alkali^
we ought to confine ourfelves to thofe in the caujlic or
deaerated ftate ; or, in other words, to thofe which are
deprived of their fixe;d air or aerial acid, with which
they formed a compound fait. Many other properties
of this acid might be mentioned, but we have now no¬
ticed all thofe which we thought were concerned in the
bufinefs’of pharmacy. We ftiall have occafion to recur
to the fubjedt when we come to the preparation of fe¬
veral compound drugs.
Let us next take a view' of what pafles in the com¬
binations of acids with different fubftances.
If a fixed alkaline fait be united with a vegetable
acid, as vinegar, and formed into a neutral fait, on
adding to this compound fome marine acid, the acetous
acid will be difengaged, fo as to exhale totally in a
moderate heat, leaving the marine in pofleffion of the
alkali: the addition of the nitrous will in like manner
difpoffefs the marine, which now arifts in its proper
white fumes, though without fuck an addition it could
not be extricated from the alkali by any degree of
heat: on the addition of the vitriolic acid, the nitrous
gives way in its turn, exhaling in led fumes, and leaving
only the vitriolic acid and the alkali united together.
Again, if any metallic body be diflblved in an acid,
the addition of any earthy body that is diflbluble in
that acid will precipitate the metal: a volatile alkaline
fait will in like manner precipitate the earth : and a
fixed alkali will diflodge the volatile ; which laft being
readily exhaled by heat, the remaining (ait will be the
fame as it,the acid and fixed alkali had been joined to¬
gether at firit, without tie intervention of any of the
other bodies.
The
Part I. P H A R
Element The power in bodies on which thefe various tranf-
L1 ~ pofitions and combinations depend, is called by the
Thefe traiif-c^iem'^s or ele^ilve attrdilion ; a term, like the
positions, Newtonian attrailien, defigtled to exprefs not the caufe,
&c. <’f bo but the efFedb. When an acid fpontanethifly quits a
chemiib rn' tal to unIte an alkali, they fay it has a greater
call affinity aJfin,ty or attraSion to the alkali than to the metal : and
»r elective when, on the contrary, they fay it has a greater affinity
iteration, to fixed alkali than to the volatile, they mean only that
it will unite with the fixed in preference to the volatile;
and that if previoufly united with a volatile alkali, it
will forfake this for a fixed one.
The doftrine of the affinities of bodies is of a very
extenftve ufe in chemical pharmacy : n any of the offi¬
cinal proceffes, as we ffiall fee hereafter, are founded
on it: feveral of the preparations turn out very differ¬
ent from what would be expefted by a perfon unac¬
quainted with thefe properties of bodies; and feveral
of them, if, from an error in the precefs, or other
caufes, they prove unfit for the ufe intended, may be
rendered applicable to other purpofes, by fuch tranf-
pcfitions of thtir component parts as are pointed out
by the knowledge of their affinities.
M A C Y. 239
We ffiall therefore fubjoiil a table of the principal Elements,
affinities obferved in pharmaceutical operations, formed —v-—^
from that of the famous Bergman. See other tables ]7Xp|ana.
for more general purpofes in the article Chemistry, tion of the
The table is to be thus underftood. The fubftance table of fia
printed in capitals, on the top of each feries, has theg:.Ie att,:ac,,*
greateft affinity with that immediately under it, a lef8tl0n5*
affinity with the next, and fo on to the end of the feries:
that is, if any of the remote bodies has been combined
with the top one, the addition of any of the interme¬
diate bodies will difunite them ; the intermediate body
uniting with the uppermofl body of the feries, and
throwing out the remote one. Thus,-in the firft feries
of the affinities of the vitriolic acid, a fixed alkali be¬
ing placed between the acid and iron, it is to be con¬
cluded, that wherever vitriolic acid and iron are mixed
together, the addition of any fixed alkaline fait will
unite with the acid, and occafion the iron to be fepa-
rated. Where feveral fubftances are expreffed in one
feries, it is to be underftood, that any of thofe l>odieS'
which are nearer to the upperraoft, will in like man¬
ner difengage from it any of thofe which are more
remote.
Vet. XIV. Tart L
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Elements.
Table of single Attractions continued.
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Part L
'Eleftieiitg.
PHARMACY.
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•294
•Ekmciit’S.
P H A R
Cases of double elective Attractions.
Bv WATER.
1. E-pConi fait with
Mild vegetable alkali,
2. yitrlolic ammoniac
with
Mild mineral alkali,
3. Vitriolated tartar
with
Nitrous felenite,
4. Vitriolated tartar
with
Mercurial nitre,
5. Saltpetre
with
Luna cornea,
6. Vitriolated tartar
with
Luna cornea,
7. Regenerated tartar
with
Mercurial nitre,
e
Vitriolated tartar and
Common magnefia.
2. Glauber’s fait
and
Mild volatile alkali.
Vitriolic felenite
and
Saltpetre.
Vitriol of mercury
and
Saltpetre.
Lunar caullic
and
Cubic nitre..
6. Vitriol of fdver
and
Febrifugal fait.
By HEAT.
I. Vitriolic ammoniac
with
Common fait,
2. Vitriolic ammoniac
with
Regenerated tartar.
3. Vitriol of mercury
with
Common fait,
4. Crude antimony
i with
Corrofive fublimate,.
o
<! —
Glauber’s fait
and
Corrofxve fublimate.
4. Butter of antimony
and
Fictitious cinnabar.
M A <2 Y.
Furnaces.
The moft fimple furnace is the common dove, other-
7. Acetous mercurial fait
and
Saltpetre*
1.Common fal ammoniac
and
Glauber’s fait.
2. Acetous ammoniacal
fait and
Vitiiolated tartar.
57-
Part L
Elements. :
11 mJ
58
Furnace feir
Chap. IL Of the Pharmaceutical Apparatus.
One of the principal- paffce of the pharmaceutical
The ap[ !i- apparatus confilts in contrivances for containing and
cation of applying fire, and for dire&ing and regulating its pow-
nriportance1 er. t^e^e contrivances called furnaces, there are
in pharma, different kinds, according to the conveniency of the
ccutical phee, and the particular purpofes they are intended
prepara- tQ anfwen \ye fijaU here endeavour to give a general
idea of their ftructure, and of the principles on which
they are built; and for particulars refer the reader
' Furnace ; and Chemistry, page 450.
wife called the furnace for open fre. This is ufually n
made of an iron hoop, five or fix inches deep ; with a 1
grate or fome iron bars acrofs the bottom, for fupport-
ing the fuel. It either ftands upon feet, fo as to be
moveable from place to place; or is fixed in brick-work.
In this lalt cafe, a cavity is left under the grate, for re¬
ceiving the afhes that drop through it ; and an aper¬
ture or door, in the forepart of this afh-pit, ferves both
for allowing the afhes to be occafionally. raked out, and
for admitting air to pafs up through the fuel. This
furnace is defigned for fuch operations as require only
a moderate heat; as infuiion, decodlion, and the eva¬
poration of liquids. _ 59
A deeper hoop or body, cylindrical, parallelopipe-^in<^
dal, widening upwards, elliptical, or of other figures ;
formed of, or lined with, fuch materials as are capa¬
ble of fuflaining a ftrong fire ; with a grate and afh-
pit beneath, as in the preceding ; and communicating-
at the top with a perpendicular pipe, or chimney ;
makes a wind furnace. , ^
The greater the perpendicular heightof the chimney,The heatoF
the greater will be the draught of air through the fur-the fire in-
nace, and the more intenfely will the fire burn ; pro-crea^^‘n
vided the width of the chimney is fufficient to allow
free peffage to all the air that the furnace can receive the j erpe^-
through-the grate ; for which purpofe, the area of thedicular
aperture of the chimney fhould be nearly equal to the'1^^.0^
area of the interllices of the grate. t*ie
Hence, where the chimney confifts of moveablepipes,11^
made to fit upon each ether at the ends, fo that the
length can be occafionally increafed or diminifhed, the
vehemence of the fire will be increafed or diminifhed
In the fame proportion. gT
In furnaces whofe chimney is fixed, the fame advan- Another
tage may be procured on another principle. As theF16^0^
intenfity of the fire depends wholly upon the quantity of'^ i^t^
air fuccefiively paffing through and animating the burn¬
ing fuel, it is obvious, that the mofl vehement fire
may be fupprefied or reftrained at pleafure, by clofing
more or lefs either the afh-pit door by which the air
is admitted, or the chimney by which it paffes off; and
that the fire may be more or lefs raifed again, by more
or lefs opening thofe pafiages. A moveable plate, or
regifler, in any convenient part of the chimney, affords
commodious means of varying the width of the paffage,
and confequently of regulating the he«t. This is moft
conveniently accompliihed by keeping the afh-pit door
entirely fhut, and regulating the heat by a range of
holes in a damping plate; each hole is provided with
a proper pin, whereby we may fhut it at pleafure Thefe
holes may be made to bear a certain proportion to each
other ; the fmalleft being confidered as one, the next
to it in fize mull have twice the opening, the next to
that double of the fecond, &c. ; and fo on to the
number of feven or eight; and by combining thefe
holes varioufly together, we can admit any quantity
of air from 1 to 128; as 1. 2. 4. 8. 16. 32. 64.
128. See Furnace, p. 507.
There are two general kinds of thefe wind-furnaces
one, with the chimney on the top, over the middle of
the furnace ; the other with the chimney on one fide,,
and the mouth clear.
las
4
6z
Obferva-
tioiu on
two diffe¬
rent kinds
of wind
furnaces.
In the 'firft, either the upper part of the furnace is
contiacted to fuch an aperture, that the chimney may
■fit upon it; or it is covered with an arched dome, or
with a flat plate, having a like aperture in the micdle.
As in this difpofition of the chimney, the infide of the
■furnace cannot be come at from nbove, a door is made
in the. tide, a little above the grate, for fupplying the
fuel, infpe&ing the matter m the fire, See.
For performing fufions in this furnace, the crucible,
■or melting veffel, is placed immediately among the
fuel, with a flip of brick, or fome Other like fupport,
between it and the grate, to keep the cold air, which
enters underneath, from linking on its bottom.
When defigned as a reverberatory, that is for diftil-
jation m long-necked coated glafs retorts, two iron
bars are placed acrofs, above the fire, for fupporting
the vefiel, whofe. neck comes out at an aperture made
for that purpofe in the fide. This aperture flrould be
made in the fide oppofite to the door above-mentioned ;
or at leaft fo remoie from it, that the receiver, fitted
on the neck of the diftilling veflel without the furnace,
may not he in the operator’s way when he wants to ftir
the fire or throw in frefli fuel.
The oiher kind of wind-furnace communicates, by
an aperture in itsbhck part near the top, either with
• n upng t pipe of its own, or with the chimney of
the room ; in which laft cafe, all other paffages into
the chimney muft be clofed. Here the mouth of the
urnace ferves for a door, which may be occafionally
covered with a plate or tile. Of this kind is the fur-
commonly ufed for fufion in a crucible.
1 his lait conftrudhon, by leaving the mouth of the
furnace clear, affords the conveniency of letting into
*t a bo,linger evaporating pan, a copper ftill, an iron
ru1’ ^ m hartfhorn, ati iron fand-pot, or other
like veffels, of fuch a fine that they may be fupported
the furnace by their rims. The mouth being thus
occupied by the veffels, a door muft be made in the
fide for fupplying and ftirring the fuel.
When a furnace of thia kind is defigned only f„r a
land ath, it is moll commodious to have the fand
■placed on a long iron plate, furnilhed with a ledge of
freeftone or brickwork at each fide. The mouth of
e furnace is to beclofely covered by one end of this
f ; fnd.the canal by which the furnace communi-
cates with its chimney, is to be lengthened and carried
along under the plate, the plate forming the upper
bde ot the canal. In thiskind of fand-bath, digeftfons
&c. requiring different degrees of heat, may be car’
tied °" at oncc 5 /or the heat decreafes gradually from
the end aver the furnace fo the other 7
lln K e?iarge 35 ftnis and prtts for diftil-
bng hartfhorn and aquafortis, are fi*ed b furnaces a
confiderable part of the bottom of the veffelTs com
mon y made to reft upon folid brick-werk.
The large ftill, whofe bottom is nairow in pronor-
tion to its height, and whofe weight, when chared
with liquor, requires great part ofgit to be thus fun
ported expofes but a fmall furface to the adtion of he
iire underneath. To make un for j-7 j h
the heat, which rifes at the further end of a"* long nar¬
row grate i3 conveyed all round the fides of the^veffel
y a fpiral canal, which communicates at top with a
common chimney. p w th a
The pots for diftilling hartfhorn and aquafortis in
A t M A € Y.
the larger way, have part of their great weight ’borne
up by three ftrong pins or trunions at equal diftances
round the pat towards the middle reaching into a
brick-work : fo that lefsfupport being neceffary under¬
neath, a greater furface of the wide bottom lies ex-
pofed to the immediate adlion of the fire.
If a furnace, communicating with its chimney by
a lateral canal, as in the fand furnace above-mentioned
be carried to a confiderable height above the oart
where this canal enters it, and if it be filled with fuel
to the top, and clofely covered, the fuel will burn no
higher than up to the upper fide of the canal through
which the air pafles off; and in proportion as this
lower part of the fuel confumts, it will be fupplied
by that above, which falls down in its place. Hence
in this furnace, called an athanor, a contlant heat may
be kept up for a confiderable length of time without
attendance.
The tower of the athanor, or that part which re¬
ceives the fuel, is commonly made to widen a little
downwards, that the coals may fall the more freely •
but not fo much as that the pert on fire at bottom
may be too ftrongly preffed. A fmall aperture is
made oppofite to the cant! or flue, or a number of
openings according to the fize of the furnace and the
degree of heat required, for fuppiying the air, which
H mor.e conveniently admitted in this manner than
through the grate, as the interftices of the -nte are
m time choaked up by the aflres. b
teriir^11^ ^ ^ f°r h^tinS bodies ex-
IhZ Vr •1 5 Canai °r flue’ 38 'm the band-furnace
already deforihed, pafffs under a fand-bath or water
ba h ; at the farther end of which it riles
y to fuch a height, as may occafron a fufficient
draught of air through the fire. ,ent
w,T,h£,flue, fo wide as to coirefpond to the
whole height of the fire-place. A regifter or IhdL^
pi-te, placed between the flue and the furnace enahlf
ly ,hls,hfsh'- -„requc„t:
7 VT ? «t ty o£ llre» at pleafure. If the foace he
w ,7: ■„ t thc
to ^ en0“gl110 be
e^e feedoafitV
ones are biiih nf mmaces, the fixed Of the m
^ it , brrbks, cemented together by fometerials of
good loam or clav. Auv i 6 , ^ e which fun.
sood loa. o, clay. Atiy kind offo aX cUy^ Z -
polition that is of a proper degree of tenacity^ which naffar€
when made into a pafte with water and well-worked’
dciesnot flick to the fingers,and which, when thorough’
7 dried, neither cracks nor melts in a vehement ffre'
8 fit for ufe. I he purer and more tenacious clays re’
q ire to have their tenacity Mimed by an admixture
grofsly’powdered^ ^ thC fame °f ^ -d
Smaller portable furnaces are made of ftrftna iron or
copper plates, lined, to the thieknefs of an"inch or
more,With the fame kmd of clayey comniofition • which
for this ufe may be beaten with feme horfe-dung, chop¬
ped ftraw, or cut hair or tow. S ”
of^7T'nC’d,’OU8 P°rtab1' fur"ac«. for a btifinef,
of moderate extent, may be formed of the larger kind
of Common black lead melting-pots by cuttinf s ri
at the bottom of the pot for the afh oil annih^ * i 0C‘
this for thp ^ j • ne am'Plt» another above
tms ter the fire-place, and introducing a circular iron
grate of fueh a fize aS may reft between the two doom-
For
o9<5 P H A R
Element:'. For a more particular account of the method of pre-
■~v  paring furnaces, fee Furnace.
Baths.
64 Where a flrong decree of heat is requifite, as in
V^nTcf the fuliou of metis, &c the veffel containing the fub-
baths, and jeft matter is placed among the burning fuel, or ira-
the peculiar me(>;attly OVc.r jt ; this is called operating hi a naked
advant
of each.
fre. Where a fmal'er heat is fufficient, and the veffei
employed is either of glafs, or of the more tender kinds
of earthen, ware, the fund-bath or water-bath is nfe 1 to
defend the vcflel from the immediate aftion of the hie,
and to render the heat lefs flu&uating.
Both thefe baths have their peculiar advantages and
inconveniences. In water, the heat is equal through
every part of the fluid : whereas inland it varies in
different parts or one perpendicular hue, deoeafing
from the bottom to the top. Water cannot be made
to 1 eceive, or to tranfmit to vt-ffels immerfed in it,
above a certain degree of heat, viz. that widen is fif-
fieient to make it boil; an 1 hence it fecuies efh-cfu il¬
ly againfl any danger of an excels of heat in thoffc
operations wherein the product would, be injured by a
h~at greater than that of boiling water : but this ad¬
vantage renders it ufelcfs for proceffes which require a
greater heat, and for which land or other folid intei-
media are necefihnly employed. There is this con¬
venience alfo in the fund-bath, that the heat may
be readily diminifhed or increafed about any parti¬
cular vef.el, by raifing St higher out of the fand or
linking it deeper ; that different fubjefts may be ex-
pofed to different degrees of heat from one fire ; and
that it keeps the veffels Heady, ffbe fund made choice
of fhould be a large coaife grained kind, feparated
from the finer parts by waffling, and from little Hones
by the fieve.
Coating ofGLASsns, I.utes.
Some proceffes require to be performed with glafs
perau.ms veffds in'a naked fire. For thefe purpofes veffels made
glafs veffel? of tpc thinn eft glafs fhould be chofcn ; for thele bear
arerifecl m the foe withoilt cracking, much better than thofe
*naked vvhich are thicker, and in appearance ftronger. _
All glaffes, or other veffels that are apt to crack m
the fire, rnuft be c&utvoufty nealed, that is, heated by
How degrees: and when the procefs is finifhed, they
fhould be as Oowly cooled, unlefs where the veffd is to
be broken to get out the preparation, as in fome lub-
I mations: in this cafe it is more advifable to expofe
the hot glafs fuddenly to the cold air, which will foort
eccafion it to crack, than to endanger throwing down
the fublimated matter among the feces by a blow.
As a defence from the violence of the fire, and to
M A C Y. Parti.
flour and water, or of liiifeed meal (that is, the cake Elements^
left after the expreffion of oil of linfeed), are fufficient v
lutes.
Sometimes cl-iy and chalk are mixed up into a pafle,
and fpread upon flips of paper; and fometimes gum-
arabic is ufed inftead of the clay, and mixed up in the
fame manner.
Wet bladders contract fo ftrongly by drying, that
they not unfrequently break the veffels: and the fat
lute of Mr Macquer, which is a compoiition of clay
and chalk with o 1, is too clofe for ir.oft operations.
Where very elaltic ffean.s are to be condenfed, we are
often obliged, even where the common lutes are em¬
ployed, to leave or make an opening which may be
cccufionaliy flopped by a plug : by this means we give
paffage to a pare of thefe vapours, which prevents the
builting of the veffels and facilitates the condenfatkm
of the*reft. Lf we wiih to colieft incondenfibla va¬
pours, we receive them into ajar inverted under a ba-
fon of water, or quickfiber, as is uftsally done in the
analyfis of vegetables by hre. _ ,
Betides thefe, there are ?.lfo required fome other
kinds of lutes for joining veffels together in operations,
requiring a ft rung heat, and for lining furnaces; for
which fee Chemistrv, n 604, 605.
Vessels.
6*5
Irpfome 0
peratioi
66 s a    
C)f thf S- nreveut thTcontaft of cold air on fnpplying frefh fuel
L. the glafa it to be coated over to the tbekneft of
pbout halfa-crown, wit), Wradfor loam fof.ened w, h
„rter into a proper confidence, and beaten up with
fome horfe.dnng, or with the othrr elaye, compofi-
tions above-mentioned. r r . •
Thefe compofitions fevve alfo as a Jute, for fecunng
the jundures of the veffels in the dift.Uation of the. vo¬
latile falls and fpirits of animals: for the dift.Uation
of acid fpirits, the matter may be moiftened with a lo-
lution of fixed alkaline fait inftead of water. For moft
other pmpofes, a piece of wet bladder, or paHe of
In this place, we (hall only give the operator a few
general cautions with regard to the matter of the veffels
defigned for containing the fubjedt; and refer their de-
feription, to the account of the operations in which
they are employed. See like wife Chemistry, tffyyy,
8tc.
Metalline veffels poffefs the advantage of being able
to bear Hidden alterations of heat and cold, and of be-^g matt^
ing very Hrong, fo as to be capable of confining ela-of other
Hie Hearns; but, except thofe made of gold or HIver, veffels.
they are readily corroded by acids, even by the mild
ones of the vegetable kingdom. Copper veffels are
corroded alfo by alkaline liqudrs, and by fome neutral
ones, as folutions of fid ammoniac. It is o fervible,
that vegetable acids do not a<ft upon this metal by boil¬
ing, fo much as by Handing in the cold ; for even le^
mon juice may be boiled in a clean cooper veffel, with¬
out receiving from it any tafte or ill quality ; whereas-,
in the cold, it foon diflolves fo much as to contract a
pernicious taint. The tin, with which copper-veffels are.
ufually lined, gives likewife a fenfible impregnation to
acid juices; and this impregnation alfa is probably not
innocent, more efpecially as a quant fly of lead is com¬
monly mixed with the tin. From the Want ol tranfpareft.
cy in thefe. vefl'els, we are alfo deprived of the advantage
of feeing the diiT&erit changes during the operation.^
The earthen Veffels poflefs none of the defirable?
qualities for chemical operations, except that of fu-
Haining very violent degrees of heat, without being
melted or otherwife changed. Thefe veffels are lefs
liable to. external cracks iiom Hidden applications of
heat and cold, when they are made with a certain
proportion of land, than with pure clay. Black lead,
too, mixed with the clay, makes the veffels fuflain vio¬
lent degrees and fudden alterations of heat furpnlingly
well: crude clay, reduced to a kind of fand by vio¬
lent heat, and then mixed with raw day, is alio found
tu furaifh veffeis .excellently fitted for thofe operations
wiiere
Pai't T. P H A R
Elements where fand might be corroded : but of all kinds of
c.n—■ / cartjien warej tjie perfe<c^ js p0rceia{n> cBmpofed
of the fineft clay mixed with a ftony matter capable
©f melting in a violent heat. This, however, is too
coftly an article for general ufe. Reaumur difcovered
a method of imitating porcelain, by melting the coar-
fer kinds of glafs with a mixture of land and clay :
this has been found to be nearly of the colour of por¬
celain, to be much ftronger than glafs, and to bear
the moll fudden changes of heat and cold that we have
occahon to apply. There has not hitherto been any
manufadlure of this ware, and of courfe it has not
come into general ufe.
The common earthen veffels are of a loofe porous
texture; and hence are apt to imbibe a conliderable
quantity of certain liquids, particularly of thofe of
the faline kind ; which foon difeover that they have
penetrated the veflcl, by fhooting into faline effloref.
cences on the outfide. Thofe which are glazed have
their glazing corroded by acids : by vin'gar, and the
acid juices of fruits, as well as by the ftronger acids of
the mineral kingdom. And as this glazing confifts
chiefly ©f vitrified lead, the impregnation which it
communicates to thefe liquors is of a very dangerous
kind. If vinegar be boiled for fome time in a glazed
earthen veflel, it will yield,on being iiifpiflated, a pure
fal plumbi, that is, a fait compofed of lead^and the ace¬
tous acid-
1 he veflels called, from their hardnefs and compaft-
refs, Jlone ware, are in a goad meafure free from the
inconveniences of the coarfer earthen ones. Their
glazing being a part of the clay itfelf, fuperficially vi¬
trified by means of the fumes of common fait, appears
to be proof againft acids.
Glafs veflcls fuffer no corrofion, and give no taint,
in any of the pharmaceutic operations. When, there¬
fore, they are made of a proper thinnefs, when they
are well annealed, and when blown into a fpherical
form fo that the heat may be equally applied, they are
preferable to all others, where great and fudden changes
of heat and cold are not to take place, and where
ftrength is n«t required : what is called the Jlintglafs,
which contains a quantity of lead in its compofttion,
is the belt for chemical purpofes.
M A C Y.
The medical or Troy pound is lefs than the Avoir-
dupois, but the ounce and the dram greater. The
Troy pound contains 9760 grains: the Avoirdupois
7000 grains. The Troy ounce contains 480 grains ;
the Avoirdupois only 4374-* The Troy dram 60; the
Avoirdupois dram fomewhat more than 27. Eleven
drams Avoirdupois are nearly equal to five drams Troy ;
12 ounces Avoirdupois to nearly 11 ounces Troy ; and
19 pounds Avoirdupois are equal to fomewhat more
than 23 pounds Troy.
Thefe differences in our weights have occafioned
great confufion in the pra&ice of pharmacy. As the
druggifts and grocers fell by the Avoirdupois weight,
the apothecaries have not in general kept any weights
adjufted to the Troy pound greater than two dtams,
ufing Avoirdupois ounces. By this means it is appa¬
rent, that in all compoiitions, where the ingredients
are prefenbed, fome by pounds and others by ounces,
they are taken in a wrong proportion to each other ;
and the fame happens where any are dire&ed in leffer
denominations than the ounce, as thefe fubdivifions
ufed by the apothecaries are made to a diflerent
ounce.
297
Element*.
Measures.
6c,
mon wine meafures.
A gallon
The pint
The ounce
contains
'eight pints (libra.)
^ fixteen ounces,
.eight drams.
<5S
Weights.
Two kinds Two different kinds of weights are made ufe of in
tifallrf1118 t^,S country > one i’n the merchandife of gold and fil-
pharmacy. VCr; the other for almoft all other goods. The firft
we call 1 roy, the latter Avoirdupois weight.
The goldfmiths divide the Troy pound into twelve
ounces; the ounce into 20 pennyweights; and the
pennyweight into 24 grains. The Avoirdupois pound
is divided into 16 ounces ; and the ounce into 16 parts,
called drams.
The pound of the London and Edinburgh difpenfa-
tories is that of the goldfmiths, divided in the follow¬
ing manner:
The pound
The ounce
The dram f | pcrupjes>
The fcruple j [ twenty grains.
The grain is equal to the goidfmith’s grain.
f twelve ounces.
j» contains drams.
The meafures employed in pharmacy are the com-The mea-
lures ufed
in phar¬
macy the
fame with
thofe com-
Though the pint is called by Latin writers libra or for wine,
pound, there is not any known liquor of which a pint
meafure anfwers to that weight. A pint of the higheft
re&ified fpirit of wine exceeds a pound by above half
an ounce ; a pint of water exceeds it by upwards of
three ounces ; and a pint of oil of vitriol weighs more
than two pounds and a quarter.
The Edinburgh College, fenfible of the many errora
from the promifeuous ufe of weights and meafures,
and of their different kinds, have in the laft edition of
their Pharmacopoeia entirely rejefted meafuree, and
employ the 1 roy weight in dire&ing the quantity
either of folid or fluid fubftances. They have, how¬
ever, taken all pofiible care that the proportion of the
fimples and ftrength of the compounds fhould neither
be increafed nor diminilhed by this alteration. This
change in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia muft be very
particularly adverted to. And it is, we think, to be
regretted, that the London College have not in the
laft edition of their Pharmacopoeia followed the fame
plan.
A table of the weights of certain meafures of dif-a table of
ferent fluids may on many occafions be ufeful, both for die weights
afiifting the operator in regulating their .proportions^certain
in certain cafes, and fliowing the comparative gravities 1^ie^ures
of the fluids themfelves. We here infert fuch a table fluids'mav
for a pint, an ounce, and a dram meafure, of thofe li-frequently
quids whofe gravity has been determined by experi-^ uf£fuh
ments that can be relied on. The wine gallon con¬
tains 231 cubic inches; whence the pint contains 28i,
the ounce l441, and the dram tWV of a cubic inch.
Vou XIV. Part I.
pP
In:eam-
29&
Elements.
p H A R
Fintweighs
Ihvlammable Spirits.
^Ethereal fpirit of wine
Highly-reftified fpirit of wine
Common-reftified fpiritofwine
Proof fpirit
Dulcified fpirit of fait
Dulcified fpirit of nitre
Wines.
Furgundy
Red port
Canary
Expressed Oils.
Oil olive
Linfeed oil
Essential Oils.
Oil of turpentine
of orange p.eel
of juniper-berries
of rofemary
of origanum
of caraway feeds
of nutmegs
of favin
of hyffop
of cummin-feed
of mint
of pennyroyal
of dill feed
of fennel feed
of cloves
of cinnamon
of fafiafras
Alkaline Liquors.
Aqua kalipuri, Pharm. Land.
Spirit of fal ammoniac
Strong foap boilers ley
Lixivium tartari
Acid Liquors.
Wine-vinegar
Beer-vinegar
Glauber’s fpirit of fait
Glauber’s fpirit of nitre
Strong oil of vitriol
Animal Fluids.
Urine
Cows milk
Afles milk
Blood - '
Waters.
DiHilled water »
Rain-water
Spring-water
Sea-water
Quicksilver.
CJ ri
a §
§ -b
11 I
12 $
13 2
14 I
14 4
15 2
36
20
40
3 6
48
4C
14 1 .
15 1 36
15 6 40
Ounce
meafurc
weighs
336
380
40O
426
438
460
426
456
475
14 o c
142 8
12 1
16 o
17 1 1
17 6 24
24 o
15 3 44
15 6 56
1740
20 2 40
28 5 20
15 5 20
15 6 40
1600
16 1 4
f5 1
15 2
3
lS S
2H J
420
428
364
408
419
430
43 2
43 2
43 6
4+3
443
448
448
45°
457
458
476
576
5°3
Dram
meafure
weighs
42
47t
5°
53t
55*
57t
53*
57
59*
52*
53v
45t
51
52v
5 3i
54
54
54i
55\
55t
S6
S6
56i
574-
57*
594-
49*
62I
480
5!4*
534
720
464
476
525
61 o
860
470
475
480
484
456
460
462
470
M A C Y. Part I.
Chap. III. Of the Pharmaceutical Operations. Elements.
60
6444
664
90
58
594
764
1074
58i
594
60
604
57
574-
57*
584
20’ 6440 '805
Sect. I. Solution.
71
Solution is an intimate commixture of folid bodies The nature
with fluids into one feemingly homogeneous liquor. fdution
The diflblving fluid is called a menjlruum or folvent;
and the body diffplved is crdled the fo/vend. dry way.
Objeftions have been made, and perhaps with pro¬
priety, to thefe terms ; as it is fuppofed that the two
bodies uniting in folution a64 reciprocally on each o-
ther: there is, however, no danger from the words
themfelves, if we do not derive them from a miftaken
theory. Solution cannot take place, unlefs one of tlnr
bodies, at leaft, be in a fluid ftate ; and this fluidity i*
effefted either by water or fire : hence folution is faid
to be performed in the humid or in the dry way. fThus,
for inftance, if any quantity of brimitone be diflblved
in a folution of fixed alkali, the brimftone is faid to
be diflblved in the humid way: but if the brimftone
be diflblved by melting it in a pan with the dry alkali,
the folution is faid to be done in the dry way. The
hepar fulphuris is the fame in both. Another kind of
folution refembling that by the dry way, is, however,
to be carefully diftinguifhed from it : if, for example,
a piece of Glauber’s fait is put into a pan over the
fire, the fait very foon affumes a liquid ftate ; but on
continuing the heat, it lofes its fluidity, and becomes
a white powder: this powder is the fait freed from
its water, and it is found to be very refra&ory. This
liquidity depended on the water of cryftallization be¬
ing enabled by the heat to keep the fait in folution,
and the fait ceafed to be fluid as f»on as its cryftalii-
zing water was evaporated. This kind of folution,
then, differs not from the firft, or humid way.
If one of the two bodies to be united is trsnfparent,
the folution, if complete, is a tranfparent compound :
this is the cafe in folutions of alkalis and calcareous
earths in acids. But if the folution be opaque and
milky, as is the cafe with foap and water, it is then
confidered as incomplete.
The principal menflrua ufed in pharmacy are, wa- The yrinri
ter, vinous fpirits, oils, acid and alkaline liquors. pb mcn-
Water is the menftruum of all falts, of vegetable
gums, and of animal gellies. Of falts, it diflblves only m&c'i, as
a determinate quantity, though of one kind of fait water,
more than another; and being thus faturated, leaves
any additional quantity of the feme felt untouched.
Experiments have been made for determining the
quantities of water which different felts require for
the difiblution. Mr Eller has given a large fet in the
Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin
for the year 1750,, from which the following table i#
extracted.
Eight ounces by weight of diftilied water diffolved.
Of refined fiigar
Green vitriol
Blue vitriol
White vitriol
Epfom fait
Purified nitre
Soluble tartar
Common fait
Sal gemmae
oz.
24
9
9
4
4
4
4
3
3
dr. gr.
o o
4
o
4
o
o
o
4
4
o
o
o
o
o
o.
o
o
Sai
Part I.
Elements.
P H A R
Sal cathartlcus Glauberi 3
Seignette’s fait - 3
Alum - • 2
Sal ammoniac - 2
Vkriolated tartar - t
Salt of hartfhorn - i
Sugar of lead - I
Cream of tartar 1
Borax - - o
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
20
Though great care appears to have been taken in
tnaking thefe experiments, it is not to be expedted
that the proportions of the feveral falls, foluble in a
certain quantity of water, will always be found exadlly
the fame with thofe above fet down. Salts differ in
their folubility according to the degree of their purity,
perfe&ion, and drynefs : the vitriols, and the artificial
compound falls in general, differ remarkably in this
refpedf, according as they are more or lefs impreg¬
nated with the acid ingredient. Thus vitriolated tar¬
tar ; perfe&ly neutralized, is extremely difficult of fo-
iution : the matter which remains in making Glau¬
ber’s fpirit of nitre is no other than a vitriolated tar¬
tar ; and it diffolves fo difficultly, that the operator is
obliged to break the retort in order to get it out; but
on adding more of the vitriolic acid, it diffolves with
eafe. Hence many have been tempted to ufe an over¬
proportion of acid in this preparation: and we fre¬
quently find in the fhops, under the name of vitriola¬
ted tartar, this acid foluble fait. The degree of heat
occafions alfo a remarkable difference in the quantity
of fait taken up : in very cold weather, 8 ounces of wa¬
ter will diffolve only about one ounce of nitre; whereas
in warm weather, the fame quantity will take up three
ounces or more. To thefe circumftances are probably
owing, in part, the remarkable differences in the pro¬
portionable folubilities of falls, as determined by dif¬
ferent authors. It is obfervable that common fait is
lefs affefted in its folubility by a variation of heat than
any other; water in a temperate date diffolving near¬
ly as much of it as very hot water: and accordingly
this is the fait in which the different experiments agree
the heft. In the experiments of Hoffmann, Neumann,
and Petit, the proportion of this fait, on a reduction
of the numbers, comes on exatlly the fame, viz. three
ounces of the fait to eight of water ; Dr Brownrigg
makes the quantity of fait a little more ; Dr Grew, a
dram and a fcruple more ; and Eller, as appears in the
above table, four drams more : fo that in the trials of
fix different perfons, made probably in different cir¬
cumftances, the greateft difference is only one fixth of
the whole quantity of fait; whereas in fome other falls
there are differences of twice or thrice the quantity of
the fait. In the experiments from which the table is
drawn, the water was of the temperature of between
40 and 42 degrees of Fahrenheit’* thermometer, or
above freezing by about one-feventh of the interval be¬
tween freezing and the human heat.
Some falls omitted by Eller are here fubjoined ; the
firft is taken from Dr Grew, and the other four from
Neumann.
Eight ounces of water diffolved,
©z. dr. gr.
above 800
-8 o o
M A C Y.
Sugar-candy, both brown and white 900
Sugar of milk - - o 2 40
Effential fait of forrel - o r 20
299
Element*.
Though water takes up only a certain quantity of
one kind of fait, yet whenfaturated with one, it will ftill
diffolve fome portion of another ; and when it can bear
no more of either of thefe, it will ftill take up a third,
without letting go any of the former. The principal
experiments of this kind which have been made rela¬
tive to pharmaceutic fubjefts, are exhibited in the fol¬
lowing table ; of which the two firft articles are from
Grew, and the others from Eller.
Water, 32 parts by weight.
Fully fatured with diffolved afterwards
Nitre Sal ammoniac 101
Common fait Nitre
Nitre Fixed alkali
Common fait Nitre, near
Volatile alkali Nitre
Sal ammoniac Common fait
Soluble tartar Nitre 2
Vitriolated tartar Fixed alkali 2
Glauber’s fait Nitre 1 'Sugar
Epfom fait Sugar 6
Borax Fixed alkali 2
10 Sal ammoniac
7 Common fait
2 Fixed alkali
4 Sugar
2r
2
2
2£
2
In regard to the other clafs of bodies for which wa¬
ter is a menftruum, viz. thofe of the gummy gelati¬
nous kind, there is no determinate point of faturation:
the water unites readily with any proportions of them,
forming with different quantities 1 quors of different
confidence. This fluid takes up likewife, when affift-
ed by trituration, the vegetable gummy refins, as amo-
niacum and myrrh ; the folutions of which, though
i>tiperfe3t that is, not tranfparent, but turbid and of a
milky hue, are neverthdefs applicable to valuable pur-
poies in medicine. It mingles with vinous fpirits, with
acid and alkaline liquors, not with oils, but imbibed
fome of the more fubtile parts of effential oils, fo as to
become impregnated with their fmell and tafte.
Redified^)?riV of oviney or rather alcohol, is the men- ,
ftruum of the effential oils and refins of vegetables ; offplot of
the pure diftilled oils, and feveral of the colouring and wine, oraL
medicinal parts of animals; of fome mineral bituminous c°hol, the
fubftancea, as of ambergris; and of foaps, though n^en^'"uu,Ii
does not adt upon the expreffed oil and fixed alkaline on,
fait, of which foap is compofcd : whence, if foap con-and refins
tains any fuperfluous quantity of either the oil or fait, vege-
it may by means of this menftruum be excellently pu-tal,lcS'
rifled. It diffolves, by the affiftance of heat, volatile
alkaline falls ; and more readily the neutral ones, com*
poftd either of fixed alkali and the acetous acid, as the
fal diureticus, or of the volatile alkali and the nitrous
acid, as alfo the fait of amber, &c. It mingles with
water and with acids ; not with alkaline lixivia.
OiU d'ffolve vegetable reiins and balfams, wax, ani-0ils7Jf..
mal fats, mineral bitumens, fulphur, and certain me-'folve va-
talhc fubftances, particularly lead. The expreffed oils riovis fub*
are, for moft of thefe bodies, more powerful menftrua ^aucc*‘
than thofe obtained by diftillation; as the former are
more capable of fuftaining, without injury, a ftrong
heat, which is in moft cafes neceffary to enable them
to adi. It is faid, that one ounce of fulphur will dif-
folvc in three ounces of expreffed oil, particularly lin-
P P 2 ' feed
Of fixed alkaline fait
bal diureticus
300
Elements.
75
All acids
tiiffolve al¬
kaline falts,
alkaline
earths, and
metallic
♦tibftances.
P H A R
feed oil; but requires fix ounces of effential oil, as tur¬
pentine.
All acids diffolve alkaline falts, alkaline earths, and
metallic fubftances. The different acids differ gieatly
in their a&ion upon thefe laft ; one diffolving only feme
particular metals ; and another, others.
The •vegetable acids diffolve a confider&ble quantity
of zinc, iron, copper, lead, and tin ; and extraft fo
much from the metallic part of antimony, as to be¬
come powerfully emetic : they diffolve lead more rea¬
dily, if the metal be iprevioufly calcined by fire, than
in its metallic ftate.
The marine acid diffolves zinc, iron, and copper ;
and though it fcarcely ads on any other metallic fub-
ftance in the common way of making folutiona, it may
neverthelefs be artfully combined with them all except
gold. The corrofive fublimate, and antimonial cauftic
of the (hops, are combinations of it with mercury and
the metallic part of antimony, effe&ed by applying the
acid, in the form of fume, to the fubje&s, at the fame
time alfo flrongly heated.
The nitrous acid is the common menftruum of all
metallic fubftances, except gold and the metallic part
of antimony; of which two, the proper folvent is a
mixture of the nitrous and marine acids, called aqua
regia.
The vitriolic acid, diluted with water, eafily diffolves
zinc and iron. In its concentrated ftate, and affifted
by a boiling heat, it may be made to corrode, or im-
perfectly diffolve, moft of the other metals.
The aerial acid diffolves iron, zinc, and calcareous
earth ; and thofe felutions muft be condu&ed without
76 beat.
Alkaline Alkaline lixivia diffolve oils, refinous fubflances,
lixivia dif- ancj fulphur. Their power is greatly promoted by the
refinous^' addition of quicklime ; inftances of which occur in the
fubftances, preparation of foap, and in the common cauitic. Thus
and ful- acuated, they reduce the flefh, bones, and other folid
phar. parts of animals, into a gelatinous matter. This in-
creafed acrimony in alkaline falts is owing, to the ab-
flra&ion of their fixed air ; that acid having a greater
attraftion for quicklime than for alkalis.
Solutions made iu water and in fpirit of wine pof-
fefs the virtues of thebodydiffolved; whileoils generally
jheath its aflivity, and acids and alkalis vary its qua¬
lity. Hence watery and fpirituous liquors are the pro¬
per menftrua of the native virtues of vegetable and ani¬
mal matters.
Moft of the foregoing folutions are eafily effe&ed,
by pouring the menftruum on the body to be diffolved,
and fuffering them to ftand together for fome time
^“"txpofed to a fuitable warmth. A ftrong heat is ge¬
nerally requifite to enable oils and alkaline liquors to
perform their office ; nor will acids aft on fome me¬
tallic bodies without its affiftance. The a&ion of wa¬
tery and fpirituous menftrua is likewife expedited by a
moderate heat; though the quantity which they af¬
terwards keep diffolved is not, as fome fuppofe, by this
means ircreafed : all that heat occaiions thefe to take
up, more than they would do in a longer time in the
cold, will, when the heat ceafes, fubfide again. This
at leaft is moft commonly the cafe, though there may
be fome inftances of the contrary.
The aftion of acids on the bodies which they dif-
lolve, is generally accompanied with heat^effervefcencej
M A C Y. Part Ia
and a copious difeharge of fumes. The fumes which Elements,
arife during the folution of fome metals in the vitrio- ~v 1 *
lie acid, prove inflammable : hence in the preparation
of the artificial vitriols of iron and zinc, the operator
ought to be careful, efpecially where the folution is
made in a narrow mouthed veffel, left by the impru¬
dent approach of a candle the exhaling vapour he fet
on fire. This vapour is the inflammable air of Dr
Prieftley and other modern chemifts.
There is another fpecies of folution, in which the
moiflure of the air is the menftruum. Fixed alkaline
falts, and thofe of the neutral kind, compofed of al¬
kaline falts and the vegetable acids, or of foluble
earths and any acid, except the vitriolic, and fome
metallic falts, on being expofed for fome time to a.
moift air, gradually attraft its humidity, and at length
become liquid. Some fubftances, not diffoluble by
the application of water in its grofferform, as the but¬
ter of antimony, are eafily liquefied by this flow ac¬
tion of the aerial moifture. This procefs is called de¬
liquation.
Sect. II. Extraction.
The liquors which diffolve certain fubftances inTh<fcft
their pure ftate, ferve likewife to extract them from q„ors
admixtures of other matter. Thus ardent fpirit, the which dif-
menftruum of effential oils and refins, takes up the vir- f ive fub-
tues of the refinous and oily vegetables, as water does^b'^ ^®
thofe of the mucilaginous and faline ; the inafrive for extrail-
earthy parts remaining untouched by both. Water ing them
extradls likewife from many plants, fubftances which h'<>rn ad-
by themfelves it has little effect upon ; even effential
oils being, as we have formerly obferved, rendered fo - ter>
luble in that fluid by the admixture of gummy and fa-
line matter, of which all vegetables participate in a
greater or lefs degree. Thus many of the aromatic
plants, and moft of the bitters and aftringents, yield
their virtues to this menftruum.
Extraftion is performed, by macerating or Jleeping ]yjCt!i )d. 0f
the fubjecl in its appropriated menftruum in the cold :performing
or digejiing or circulating them in a moderate warmth ; extraction,
or injufmg the plant in the boiling liquor, and fuffering
them to ftand in a covered veffel till grown cold ; or
a&ually boiling them together for fome time. If the
vegetable matter is itfelf fucculent and watery, it is
fometimes only neceffary to exprefs the juice, and eva¬
porate it to the proper confiftence.
The term digejlion is fometimes ufed for maceration;
and in this cafe the procefs is dire&ed to be performed
•without heat: where this circumftance is not expreffed,
digeftion always implies the ufe of heat. Circulation
differs from digeftion only in this, that the fleam, in¬
to which a part of the liquor is refolved by the heat,
is, by means of a proper difpofition of the veffels, coni-
deufed and conveyed back again upon the fubjedl. Di¬
geftion is ufually performed in a matrafs (or bolt-head),
Florence flafk, or the like ; either of which may be
converted into a circulatory veffel, by inverting ano¬
ther into the mouth, and fecuring the jundture with a
piece of wet bladder. A fingle raatrafs, if its neck be
very long and narrow, will anfwer the purpofe as effec¬
tually ; the vapour cooling and condenfing before it
can rife to the top: in a veffel of this kind, even fpirit
of wine, one of the moft volatile liquors we know, may
be boiled without any confidbrable lofs: the ufe of this
inftru-
Parti. P H A R
Elements, fnftrtiment is likewife free from an inconvenience which
V.H—may {jj fome cafe8 attend the other, of the uppermoft
velftl being burft or thrown off. As the long necked
matraO'es here recommended are difficultly filled or
emptied, and hkewife very dear, a long glals pipe may
be oc. afionally luted to the fhorter ones.
Heat greatly expedites extraction; but by this means
proves as injurious to fome fubftances, by occafioning
the menfiruum to take up their grofler and more un¬
grateful parts, as it is nece/Tary for enabling it toex-
tradf the virtues of others. Thus guaiacum and log¬
wood impart little to aqueous liquors without a boil¬
ing heat; whilft even a imall degree of warmth proves
greatly prejudicial to the fine bitter of carduus bene-
didtus. This plant, which infufed in boiling, or di-
geifed in fenfibly hot water, gives out anaufeous tafte,
io offenfive to the ftomach as to promote vomiting,
yields to the cold element a grateful balfamic bitter.
As heat promotes the diffolving power or liquids;
fo cold, on the other hand, diminimes it. Hence tinc¬
tures or extractions made by a confiderable heat, de-
pofue in cold weather a part of their contents, and thus
become proportionally weaker: a circumftance which,
deferves particular regard.
M A C Y. 30I
the fire, the cruft taken off, and the liquor paffed thro* Elements,
a flannel bag. ~v—"■*
Decantation, colature, and filtration, are applicable
to moft of the medicated liquors that fland in need of
purification. Defpumation and clarification very rare¬
ly have place ; fince thefe, along with the impurities
of the liquor, frequently feparate its medicinal parts.
Thus, if the decoftion of poppy heads, for making
diacodium, be folicitoufly fcummed or clarified, the
medicine will lofe almoft all that the poppies commu¬
nicated ; and inflead of a mild opiate, turns out little
other than a plain fyrup of fugar.
It may be proper to obferve, that the common forts
of filtering paper are apt to communicate a difagree-
able flavour; and hence in filtering fine bitters or
other liquors, whofe gratefulnefs is of primary confe-
quence, the part which paffes through firft ought to
be kept apart for inferior purpofes.
Sect. IV. Crthtallization,
8d
Va
79
.notis _ rhere are different methods of depurating or pu-
mc'’ ods of riTying liquors from their feculencies, according as the
de.^ aung llquor itfelf is more or k{s tenac;0U8) w the feculent
f}ing ip matter of greater or lefs gravity.
qcors. 4 readily depofite their more ponderous
impurities upon Handing at reft for fome time in a cool
place ; and may then be decanted or poured off clear,
by inclining the veffel.
Glutinous, undfuous, or thick fubftances, are to be
liquefied by a fuitable heat ; when the grofler feculen¬
cies will fall to the bottom, the lighter ariling to the
furface to be dejpumaied or fcummed off.
Where the impurities are neither fo ponderous as
to fubfide freely to die bottom, norfo light as to arife
readily to 4he furface, they may be feparated in great
meafure by colature through ftrainers of linen, woollen,
or other cloth; and more perfedfly by filtration through
a foft bibulous kind of paper made for the purpofe.
The grey paper, which covers pill-boxes as they
cor e from abroad, is one of the heft for this purpofe :
it does not eafily break when wetted, or tinge the li¬
quor which paffes through it, which the reddifh fort
called blojfom paper frequently does. The paper is fup-
ported by a funnel or piece of canvas fixed in a frame.
When the funnel is ufed, it is convenient to put fome
draws or fmall fticks between the paper and its fidcs,
to prevent the weight of the liquor from prefiing the
paper fo clofe to it, as not to allow' room for the fluid
to tranfude. In fome cafes a funnel made of wire is
put between the paper and the glafs funnel. There is
alfo a kind of glais funnel with ridges down its fidea
made on purpofe for this ufe.
Glutinous and unftuous liquors, wffiich do not eafily
pafs through the pores of a filter or ftrainer, are clari¬
fied by beating them up with whites of eggs; which
concreting and growing hard when heated, and en¬
tangling the impure matter, arife with it to the fur¬
face : the mixture is to be gently boiled till the feum
begins to break, when the veffel is to be removed from
Sect. III. Depuration.
Water, affifted by heat, diffolves a larger proportion Caufes, na-
of moft faline fubftances than it can retain when grown ture> and
cold ; hence, on the abatement of the heat, a part of
the fait feparates from the menftruum, and concretes Sion/*
at the fides and bottom of the veflel. The concretions,
unlefs too haftily formed by the hidden cooling of the
liquor, or difturbed in their coalefcence by agitation,
or other fimilar caufes, prove tranfparent and of regu¬
lar figures, refembling in appearance the natural fpring-
cryftals.
Salts, diffolved in a large quantity of water, may in
like manner be recovered from it in their cryftalline
form, by boiling down the folution, till fo much of the
fluid has exhaled as that the remainder will be too
little to keep the fait diffolved when grown perfedlly
cold. It is cuftomary to continue the evaporation till
the fait fhows a difpofition to concrete even from the
hot water, by forming a pellicle on that part which k.
leaft hot, vt*. on the furface. If large, beautiful, and
perfedly figured cryftals are required, this point ia
fomewhat too late : for if the fait thus begins to coa-
lefce whilft: coniidcrably hot, on being removed into a
cold place its particles will run too haftily and irregu¬
larly together; the pellicle at the fame time falling
down through the liquor, proves a farther difturbance
to the regularity of the cryftallixation.
In order to perform this procefs in perfeftion, the
evaporation muft be gentle, mud continued no longer
than till fome drops of the liquor, let fall on a cold
glafs-plate, difeover cryftalline filaments. When this
mark of fufficient exhalation appears, the veffel is to
be immediately removed from the fire into a lefs warm
but not cold place, and covered with a cloth to pre¬
vent the accefs of cold air, and confequently the for¬
mation of a pellicle.
The fixed alkalis, efpecially the mineral, when fully
faturated with fixed air or the aerial acid, affume a.
cryftalline form ; but thefe cryflals are not fo perfedt
as when the fame alkalis are united with the other
acids; the volatile alkalis cannot cryftaliize, becaufe
they efcape before the menftruum exhales.
^ Some even of the other neutral falts, particnlarlv
thole of which certain metallic bodies are the balls
are fo ftrongiy retained by the aqueous fluid, as not to
exhibit any appearance of cryftaUizaticm, unl€f3 fome
other
✓
jb laments.
P H A R
otKer fubftance be added, with which the water has a
greater affinity. The Table of Affinity (hows that
fpirit of wine is fuch a fubftance ; by the prudent ad-
dition of which, thefe kinds of fait feparate freely from
the menftruum, and form large and beautiful cryftals
icarcely obtainable by any other means.
The operator muft be careful not to add too much
of the fpirit; left, inftead of a gradual and regular
cryftallization, the bafts of the fait be haftily precipi¬
tated in a powdery form. One twentieth part of the
weight of the liquor will in moft cafes be a fufficient,
and in fonie too large a quantity.
Different falts require different quantities of water
to keep them diffolved: and hence, if a mixture of two
or more be diffolved in this fluid, they will begin to
feparate and cryftallize at different periods of the eva¬
poration. Upon this foundation, falts are freed not
only from fuch impurities as water is not capable of
diflolving and carrying through the pores of a filter,
but likewife from admixtures of each other ; that
which requires moft water to diffolve fllooting firft in¬
to cryftals.
It is proper to remark, that a fait, when cryftalh-
zing, {till retains and combines with a certain portion
of water : this water is not effential to the fait as a
fait, but is effential to a fait as being cryftallized ; it
is therefore called by the chemifts the 'water of crjjlal-
li%ation. The quantity of this water varies in different
falts: In fome of them, as in Glauber’s fait, alum,
and copperas, it makes up about one half of their
weight; in others, as in nitre, common fait, and ef-
pecially felenites, it is in very fmall quantity. As
falts unite to the water of their cryftallization by their
attraction for water alone, we accordingly find that
this water is perfectly pure, and contains, in complete
cryftals, no fubftance foreign to the fait. Salts not
only differ in the quantity of water neceffary to their
j oint ion, but fome of them are alfo foluble with equal
facility in cold as in hot water. Sometimes then we
employ evaporation; fometimes cooling; and at other
times both thefe expedients are uled alternately, to le-
paratc different falts diffolved in the iame liquor. It
19 obvious, then, that thofe which are nearly or equally
foluble in cold as in boiling water, can only be cry¬
ftallized by evaporation ; thofe again, which are much
more foluble in boiling than in cold water, are to be
feparated by cooling. ''Of the firft of thefe is common
or marine fait ; of the latter is nitre or faltpetre. It
remains, then, that we ffiould know how to feparate
thefe two fills, when both of them happen to be dif¬
folved in the fame water ; this method confifts in alter¬
nate evaporation and cooling. If in fuch a folution a
pellicle appears in the boiling liquor before cryftals
can be foimed in the cooling, we then conclude that
the common fait predominates: In this cafe we eva¬
porate the water, and feparate the common fait as tail
as it is formed, till the liquor on cooling {hows cry¬
ftals of nitre : we then allow the nitre to cryftallize by
cooling. After all the nitre which had been diffolved
1 y the heat alone has now feparated by cooling, we
-refurr.e the evaporation, and feparate the common fait
t-ill the cooling liqGor again (hows cryftals of nitre.
We thus repeat the fame feries of operations, by whic.i
means thefe two falls may be alternately cryftallized ;
the one by evaporation, the other by cooling, till they
M A C Y. Parti.
are perfe&ly feparated from each other. If in the be- Element*,
ginning of the operation the liquor had, upon trial,
given cryftals of nitre by cooling, before any pdlicie
appeared on its furface when boiling, this would have
indicated that the nitre was predominant in the folu¬
tion ; the nitre in this cafe would have been cryftal¬
lized, firft by cooling, till the quantity of nitre exceed¬
ing that of the common fait having been feparated,
the common fait would next have cryftallized in its
turn by evaporation. The example we have now
given may be applied to other falts, or to a number
of faks which may happen to be diffolved in the fame
liquor. For though there are few fo completely fo¬
luble in cold water as common fait, and few fo fcan-
tily as nitre ; yet there are fcarcely two falts which
either precifely fhow the fame folubility or the fame
appearance of their cryftals. It is obvious, too, that
by cryftallization we difeover the peculiar predominant
fait in any folution of mixed faline matter; but as one
fait always takes down a fmall portion of another, it is
neceffary to rcdiffolve the firft produdds, and repeat
the cryftallization, in order to render the reparation
complete.
We fee, then, that though the cryftal appearance
and form does not alter the fait itfelf, yet that thia
procefs affords an elegant method of difeovering com¬
pound folutions of falts, of judging ot their purity,
and Lilly of feparating different falts very completely
from each other. Cryftallization, then, is one of the
moft important agents in pharmacy, and ought to be
well underftood. We ftlall attempt to explain the
particular management in cryftallizing particular falts,
when we come to treat of each of them feparately.
Sect. V. Precititation.
By this operation bodies are recovered from their Nature of
folutions by means of the addition of fome other fub- precipita-
ftance, with which either the menftruum or the body
diffolved have a greater affinity than they have with metholis
each other;. of perform-
Precipitation, therefore, is of two kinds ; one, where ing this
the fubftunce fuperadded unites with the menftruum, 0PeraU03*
and occaficms that before diffolved to be thrown down;
the ether, in which it unites with the diffolved body,
and falls along with it to the bottom. Of the firft, we
have an example in the precipitation of ftilphur fr^n
alkaline lixivia by the means of acids; of the fecond,
in the precipitation of mercury from aquafortis by fea-
falt, or ics acid.
The fubjedls of this operation, as well thofe which
are capable of being precipitated as thofe which preci¬
pitate them, will readily appear from infpedlion of the
Table of Affinity. See Chemistry, page 438. The
manner of performing it is fo fimple, as not to ftand in
need of any particular dire&ions ; no more being re¬
quired than to add the precipitant by degrees as long
as it continues to occafion any precipitation. When
'the whole of the powder has fallen, it is to be well edul¬
corated, that is, waffied in feveral irefh parcels of water,
and afterwards dried for ufe.
Where metals are employed as precipitants, as in
the purification of martial vitriol from copper by the
addition of freflt iron, they ought to be perfeftly clean
and free from any rufty or greafy matter; othervvife
they will not readily, if at all, diffolve, and confequent-
Part I. P H A R
Element?. Iy the precipitation will not fucceed ; for the fubftance
u-—"v ' to be precipitated feparates only by the additional one
diflblving and taking its place. The feparated powder
often, inftead of falling to the bottom, lodges upon
the precipitant; from which it muft be occalionally
fhaken off, for reafons fufficiently obvious.
Though in this operation the precipitated powder
is generally the part required for ufe, yet fome advan¬
tage may frequently be made of the liquor remaining
after the precipitation. Thus when fixed alkaline fait
is diffblved in water, and fulphur diflblved in this lixi¬
vium, the addition of acids feparates and throws down
the fulphur only in virtue of the acid uniting with and
neutralizing the alkali by which the fulphur was held
diflblved ; confcquently, if the precipitation be made
with the vitriolic acid, and the acid gradually dropt in
till the alkali be completely fatiated, that is, as long aa
it continues to occafion any precipitation or turbidnefs,
the liquor will yield, by proper evaporation and cryllal-
lization, a neutral fait, Compoled of the vitriolic acid
and fixed alkali, that is, vitriolated tartar. In like
manner, if the precipitation be made with the nitrous
acid, a true nitre may be recovered from the liquor;
if with the marine, the fait called fpintus foils mar'ini
tongulatus; and if with the acid of vinegar, the fal
diureticus.
Sect. VI. Evaporation.
r
Nature, Evaporation, the third method of recovering folid
ufe, and bodies from their folutions, is effe&ed by the means of
evapora- ^at; .which evaP°rating the fluid part, that is, forcing
tion, *t off in fleam, the matter which was diflblvcd therein
is left behind in its folid form.
The general rules for evaporation are, to place the
matter in a flat, fhallow, wide veflel, fo that a large
furface of the liquor may be prefented to the air; for
it is only from the furface that evaporation takes place.
The degree of heat ought to be proportioned to the
volatility of the fubftance to be evaporated, and to the
degree of the fixity of the matter to be left: thus, the
lefs fixed the matter to be left is, and the more ftrongly
it adheres to the volatile parts, the lefs the degree of
heat ought to be ; and in fuch cafes, too, a forcible
current of air is fometimes fcarcely admiffible : on, the
contrary, when the matter to be evaporated is not very
volatile, and when the rmtter to be left is very fixed,
and does not adhere ftrongly to the volatile part, the
evaporation nray be urged by a ftrong heat, aided by a
current of air direfted upon the furface of the liquor.
This procefs is applicable to the folutions of all thefe
fubftanccs which are lefs volatile than the menftruum,
or which will not exhale by the heat requifite for the
evaporation of the fluid ; as the folutions of fixed alka¬
line fa Its ; of the gummy, gelatinous, and other inodo¬
rous parts of vegetables and animals in water ; and of
many refinous and odorous fubftances in fpirit of wine.
Water extraAs the virtues of fundry fragrant aro¬
matic herbs, almoft as perfeAly as reAified fpirit of
wine ; but the aqueous infufions are far from bein'?-
equally fuited to this procefs with thofe made in fpirit,
water carrying off the whole odour and flavour of the
fubjeA which that lighter liquor leaves entire behind
it. Thus a watery infufion of mint lofes in evaporation
„ tlie tafte, and virtues, of the herb ; whilft a tinc¬
ture drawn with pure fpirit yields on the fame treat-
303
Element?.
M A C Y.
ment a thick balfamic liquor, or folid gummy refin,
extremely rich in the peculiar qualities of the mint.
In evaporating thefe kinds of liquors, particular care
muft; be had, towards the end of the procefs, that the
heat be very gentle ; otherwife the matter as it grows
thick will burn to the vefiel, and contraft a difagree-
able frriell and tafte : this burnt flavour is called empy~
reuma. The liquor ought to be kept ftirring during the
evaporation ; otherwife a part of the matter concretes
on the furface expofed to the air, and forms a pellicle
which impedes the farther evaporation.
Sect, VII. Distillation.
8 3
In the foregoing operation fluids are rarefied by heat The nature
into fleam or vapour, which is fuffered to exhale in the°f diftilla-
air, but which it is the bufinefs of diftillation to colie A t,0rn’ with
and preferve. For this purpofe the fleam is received [f,:" on the-
in proper vtffels, luted to that in which the fubjeA is manner nf
contained; and being there caoled, condcnfcs into aP’,flirm"
fluid lorm again. mg it.
Theie are two kinds of diftillation ; by the one, the
more fubtile and volatile parts of liquors are elevated
from the grofler; by the other, liquids incorporated
with folid bodies are forced out from them with vehe¬
mence by fire.
To the firft belong the diftillation of the pure inflam,
mable fpirit from vinous liquors ; and of fuch of the ac¬
tive parts of vegetables as are capable of being extraAed
by boiling water or fpirit, and at the fame time of
arifing along with their fleam.
As boiling water extraAs or dilfolves the eflential
oils of vegetables, while blended with the other prin¬
ciples of the fubjeA, without faturation, but imbibes
only a determinate, and that a fmall proportion of them,
in their pure ftate ; as thefe oils are the only fubftances
contained in common vegetables, which prove totally
volatile in that degree of heat ; and as it is in them
that the virtues of aromatics, and the peculiar odour
and flavour of all plants, reiide ;—it is evident, that
water may be impregnated by diftillation, with the
more valuable parts of many vegetables: that this im¬
pregnation is limited, the oil arifing in this procefs
pure from thofe parts of the plant which before render¬
ed k foluble in water without limitation ; hence the
greateft part of the oil feparates from the diftilled
aqueous liquor, and, according to its greater or lefa
gravity, either finks to the bottom or fwims on the
furface : that confequently infufions and diftilled wa¬
ters are very different from each other : that the firft
may be rendered ftronger by pouring the liquor on
frefh parcels of the fubjeA ; but that the latter cannot
be in like manner improved by coliobating or rediftil-
ling them from frefti ingredients.
As the oils of many vegetables do not freely diftii
with a lefs heat than that in which water boils ; as
reAified fpirit of wine is not fufceptible of this decree
of heat; and as this menftruum totally, diffolves thefe
oils in their pure ftate ; it follows, that fpirit elevaten
far lefs from moft vegetables than water; but that ne-
verthelefs the diftilled fpirit,. by keeping all that it
does elevate perfeAly cliffolved, may,. in fome cafes,
prove as ftrong of the fubjeA as the diftilled water.
The more gentle the heat, and the flower the diftii.
lation goes on, the volatile parts are the more perfeA¬
ly feparated in their native ftate.
6 St
3o4 P H A R
Elements ft may obfcrved, that as the parts which are
* ' preferved in evaporation cannot arife in diftillation,
the liquor remaining after the diilillation, properly de¬
purated and infpiflated, will yield the fame extracts as
thofe prepared from the tin&ure or decodtion of the
fubjeft made on purpofe for that ufe; the one of thefe
operations collecting only the volatile parts, and the
other the more fixed ; fo that where one fubjeCt
contains medicinal parts of both kinds, they may thus
be obtained diltindt, without one being injured by
the procefs which collefts the other.
The fubje&s of the fecond kind of diftillation are,
the grofs oils of vegetables and animals, the mineral
acid fpirits, and the metallic fiuid quickiilver; which
as they require a much ftronger degree of heat to ele¬
vate them than the foregoing liquors can fuftain, fo
they likewife condenfe without arifing fo far from the
aftion of the fire. The diftillation of thefe is perform¬
ed in low glafs vefiels, called, from their neck being
' bent to one fide, retorts : to the farther end of the
neck a receiver is luted, which ftanding without the
furnace, the vapours foon condenfe in it, without the
ufe of a refrigeratory: neverthelefs, to promote this ef-
fe<ft, fome are accuftomed, efpecially in warm weather,
to cool the receiver, by occafionally applying wet
.clothes to it, or keeping it partly immerfed in a veffel
of cold water.
The vapours of fome fubftances are fo fluggilh, or
ftrongly retained by a fixed matter, as fcaree to arife
even over the low neck of the retort Thefe are mod
commodioufly diftilled in ftraight-necked earthen vef-
fels called longtiechs, laid on their fides, fo that the va¬
pour paffes off laterally with little or no afcent: a re¬
ceiver is luted to the end of the neck without the fur¬
nace. In this manner, the acid fpirit of vitriol is di¬
ftilled. The matter which remains in the retort or
longneck, after the diftillation, is vulgarly called caput
mortuum
In thefe diftillations, a quantity of claftic air is fre¬
quently generated ; which, unlefs an exit be allowed,
blows off or burfts the receiver. The danger of this
may in good meafure be prevented, by flowly raifing
the tire ; but more effedually by leaving a fmall hole
in the luting, to be occafionally opened or ftopt with
a wooden plug; or inferting at the jun&urc an up¬
right pipe of fuch a height, that the fleam of the di-
ftilling liquor may not be able to rife to the top ; but
it is ftill better done by fitting to the apparatus other
veffels, by which their vapours may be condenfed.
For the procefs of diftilling, and the apparatus made
ufe of, fee Distillation; and Chemistry, 1^574.
Sect. VIII. Sublimation.
. ?4., As all fluids are volatile by heat, and confequently
bmatfon ’ capable of being feparated, in moft cafes, from fixed
cffolids. matters, by the foregoing procefs; fo various fohd
bodies are fubje&ed to a limilar treatment. Fluids are
faid to di/W, and folids to fubUmt ; though fometirnes
both are obtained in one and the fame operation. If
the fubliming matter concretes into a mafs, it is com¬
monly called a fublunate; if into a powdery form,
jlowers. _ x
rl he principal fubjecls of this operation are, volatile
alkaline falts; neutral falts, compofed of volatile al¬
kalis and acids, as fal ammoniac ; the fait, of ambfir,
Ms A C Y. Part L
and flowers of benzoin ; meremial preparations} and Elements,
fulphur. Bodies of themfelves not volatile, are fre-
quently made to fublime by the mixture of volatile
ones : thus iron is carried up by fal ammoniac in the
preparation of the Jlons martia/esy or Jerrum ammonia-
cale.
The fumes of folid bodies in clofe veffels rife but
little way, and adhere to that part of the veffel where
they concrete. Hence a receiver or condenfer is lefs
neceffary here than in the preceding operation; a fingle
veffel, as a matrafs, or tall phial, or the li*ke, being fre¬
quently fufficient.
Sect. IX. Expression.
The prefs is chiefly made ufe of for forcing out the0n thp
juices of fucculent herbs and fruits, and the infipid oilspreffion of
of the unftuous feeds and kernels. juices, &c.
The harder fruits, as quinces, require to be pre-
vioufly well beat or ground ; but herbs are to be only
moderately bruifed. The fubjeft is then included in a
hair bag, and preffed between wooden plates, in the
common ferew-prefs, as long as any juice runs from
it.
The expreflion of oils is performed nearly in the
fame manner as that of juices : only here, iron-plates
are fubftituted for the wooden ones there made ufe of.
The fubje& is well pounded, and included in a ftrong
canvas bag, between which and the plates of the prefs
a haircloth is interpofed.
The infipid oils of all the unftuous feeds are obtain¬
ed, uninjured, by this operation, if performed without
the ufe of heat; which, though it greatly promotes
the extra&ion of the oil, at the fame time impreffes an
ungrateful flavour, and increafes its difpofition to grow
rancid.
The oils expreffed from aromatic fubftances gene¬
rally carry with them a portion of their effential oil ;
htnee the fmell and flavour of the expreffed oils of nut¬
megs and mace. They are very rarely found impreg¬
nated with any of the other qualities of the fubjed :
oil of mutlard-feed, for inftancc, is as foft and void of
acrimony as that of the almond, the pungency of the
muftard remaining entire in the cake left after the ex¬
preflion.
Sect. X. Exsiccation.
There are two general methods of exficcating or-pwo^e<
drying moift bodies; in the one, their humid parts are thods of ex*
exhaled by heat; in the other, they are imbibed or gecating or
abforbed by fubftances whofe foft and fpongy texture drying
adapts them to that ufe. Bodies intimately combined k0*
with, or diffolved in a fluid, as recent vegetables andQl s*
their juices, require the firft ; fuch as are only fuper-
ficially mixed, as when earthy or indiffoluble powders
are ground with water, are commodioufly feparated
from it by the fecond.
Vegetables and their parts are ufually exficcated by
the natural warmth of the air: the affiftance of a gentle
artificial heat may, neverthelefs, in general, be not
only fafely, but advantageoufly, had recourfe to. By
a moderate fire, even the more tender flowers may be
dried, in a little time, without any confiderable lofs
either of their odour or lively colour; which would
both be greatly injured or deftroyed by a more flow
exiiccatixm in the air. Some plants, indeed, particu-
larlr
'PartT. P H A R
Elements, tarly ttofe of tta acrid kind, as horfe-radifli, fcurvy-
grafs, and arum, lofe their virtues by this procefa, how¬
ever carefully performed} but far the greater number
retain them unimpaired, and often improved.
The thicker vegetable juices may be exficcated by
the heat of the fun; ©r, where this is not fufficient,
by that of a water-bath, or an oven moderately warm.
The thinner juices may be gently boiled till they be¬
gin to thicken, and then treated as the foregoing. The
procefs, termed infp'ijfation or evaporation, has been fpo-
ken of already. The juices of fome plants, as arum
toot, briony root, orris root, wild cucumbers, Sec. fc-
parate, upon Handing for fome time, into a thick part,
which falls to the bottom ; and a thin aqueous one,
which fwims above it: this laft is to be poured off,
and the firft exficcated by a gentle warmth. Prepara¬
tions of this kind have been ufually called facult; that
of the cucumber, to be fpoken of in its place, is the
only one which pra&ice now retains.
Indiflfoluble bodies, mixed with water into a thick
confiftence, may be eafily freed from the greateft part
of it, by dropping them cn a chalkjlone, 01 fome pow¬
dered chalk preffed into a fmooth mafs, which readily
imbibes their humidity. Where the quantity of fluid
is large, as in the edulcoration of precipitates, it may
be feparated by decantation or filtration.
We before obferved, that one of the principal cir-
eumftances favouring fermentation, was a certain de¬
gree of molfture. Exficcation is therefore employed
to diffipate humidity, and render vegetables thereby
lefs liable to thofe changes produced by a kind of in-
fenfible fermentation.
Sect. XL Comminution.
CoJminu* Comminutiox is the bare reduftion of folid cohe-
tion, orthe rcnt bodies into fmall particles or powder. The me-
turning of thoda of effc&ing this are various, according to the
into fmaiT3 teXtUrC °f the fubje&-
particles or bodies, or fuch as are brittle and not
powder. very hard, and mixtures of thefe with fome what moift
ones, are eafily pulverifed in a mortar.
For very light dry fubftances, refins, and the roots
of tenacious texture, ihe mortar may in fome cafes be
previoufly rubbed with a little fweet oil, or a few drops
of oil be occafionally added: this prevents the finer
powder of the firft from flying off, and the others
from cohering under the peftle. Campher is commo-
dioufly powdered by rubbing it with a little reftified
fpirit of wine.
Tough fubftances, as woods, the peels of oranges
and lemons, &c. are moft conveniently rafped; and
foft oily bodies, as nutmegs, paffed through a grater.
Vol. XIV. Parti.
M A C Y.
The comminution of tke harder minerals, as cala¬
mine, cryftal, flint, &c. is greatly facilitated by ex-
tinAion; that is, by heating them red-hot, and
quenching them in water: by repeating this procefa
a few times, moft of the hard ftones become eafily
pulverifable. This procefs however, is not to be ap¬
plied to any of the alkaline or calcareous ftones; left*
inflead of an infipid powder, we produce an acrimo¬
nious calx or lime.
Some metals, as tin, though ftrongly cohering in
their natural ftate, prove extremely brittle when heat¬
ed, infomuch as to be eafily divided into fmall particles
by dexterous agitation. Hence the officinal method
of pulverifing tin, by melting it, and at the inftant of
its beginning to return into a ftate of folidity, brifkly
ffiaking it in a wooden box. The comminution of
metals, in this manner, is termed by the metallurgifta
granulation.
On a fimilar principle, certain falts, as nitre, may
be reduced into powder in large quantity, by diffolving-
them in boiling water, fetting the folution over a mo*
derate fire, and keeping the fait conftantly ftirring du¬
ring its exficcation, fo as to prevent its particles, difi.
joined by the fluid, from reuniting together into larger
maffes.
Powders are reduced to a great degree of finenefs
by triturating, or rubbing them, for a length of time,
in a mortar. Such as are not diffoluble in water, or
injured by the admixture of that fluid, are moiftened
with it into the confiftence of a pafte, and levigated
or ground in a flat fmooth marble or iron plate ; or
where a large quantity is to be prepared at a time, in
mills made for that ufe.
Comminution, though one of the moft Ample opera¬
tions of pharmacy, h is, in many cafes, very confider-
able efleA. The refinous purgatives, when finely tri¬
turated, are more eafily foluble in the animal fluids, and
confequently prove more cathartic, and lefs irritating,
than in their groffer ftate. Crude antimony, which,
when reduced to a tolerably line powder, difeover*
little medicinal virtue, if levigated to a great degree of
fubtility, proves a powerful medicine in many chroni¬
cal diforders.
3©5
Elements.
By comminution, the heavieft bodies may be made
to float in the lighteft fluids (c), for a longer or ffiort-
er time, according to their greater or lefs degree of
tenuity. Hence we arc furnifned with an excellent
criterion of the finenefs of certain powders, and a me¬
thod of feparating the more fubtile parts from the grof¬
fer, diftiaguiffied by the name of elutrition or wajhing
over.
Qji
SecTo
(c) Some attribute this effect to a diminution of the fpecific gravity of the body; and, at the fame time,
fuppofe the peculiar virtues of certain medicines, particularly mercury, to be in great meafure owing to their
gravity. If thefe hypothefes were juft, it fhould follow, that the mercurial preparations, by being finely
Comminuted, would lofe proportionably of their efficacy ; and fo indeed mercurius dulcis, for inftance, has
been fuppofed to do. But experience ihows, that this is far from being the cafe ; and that comminution by
ro means leftens but rather increafes its power: when reduced to a great degree of fubtility, it paffes readily
into the habit, and operates, according to its quantity, as an alterative or a fialogogue; while in a groffer
iorm it is apt to irritate the ftomach and bowels, and run off by the inteftines, without being conveyed mt©
the blood. J
So6
Elements.
P H A R
Sect. XII. Fusion.
Fufirnthe Fosion 's the reduftion of folk! bodies into a (late
redmSion of fluidity by fire. Almoil all natural fubftancea, the
cf f< id ho- pure earths and the folid parts ot animals and vege-
d es into a excepted, melt in proper degrees of fire ; fome
f;ill atc in a very gentle heat, while others require its utinoil
J violence.
Turpentine, and other foft refinous fubftances, li¬
quefy in a gentle warmth : wax, pitch, fulphur, and
the mineral bitumens, require a heat too great for the
hand to fupport: fixed alkaline fait, common fait,
nitre, require a red or almolt white heat to melt
them ; and glafs, a full white heat.
Among metallic fubftances, tin, hifmuth, and lead,
flow long before ignition: antimony likewife melts be¬
fore it is vifibly red-hot, bat not before the veflel is
confiderably fo : the regulus of antimony demands a
mi ch ftronger fire. Zinc begins to melt in a red heat;
gold and lilver require a low white heat; copper a
bright white heat; and iron an extreme white heat.
One body, rendered fluid by heat, becomes fome-
times a menftnuun for another, not fufible of itfelf in
the fume decree of fire. 1 hus red-hot fiiver melts on
be’ng thrown into melted lead lefs hot than itfelf:
and thu if (leal, heated to whitenefs, be taken out of
the turn ice, and applied to a roll of fulphur, the iul-
phur infhntly liquefying, occafions the fteel to melt
with it ; hence the chalybs cum fulphure of the fhops.
This concrete, neverthelefs, remarkably impedes the
fufion of fome other metals, as lead ; which when
united with a certain quantity of fulphur is fcarce to
be perfe&ly melted by a very ftrong fire. ^ Hence the
method, deferibed in its place, of purifying zinc ; a
metal upon which fulphur has no effe£l from the lead
fo frequently mixed with it.
Sulphur is the only unmetallic fubftance which
mingles in fufion with metals. Earthy, faune, and
other like matters, even the calces and glaffes prepared
from metals themfelvej, float diftinft upon the furface,
and form what is called fcoria or drofs. Where the
quantity of tlm is large in proportion to the metal, it
is moft commodioufly feparated by pouring the whole
into a conical mould: the pure metal or regulus, though
fmall in quantity, occupies a confiderable height in the
lower narrow part of the cone ; and when congealed,
may be eafily freed from the fconae by a hammer.
The mould fhould be previoufly greafed, or rather
fmoked, to make the metal come freely out; and tho¬
roughly dried and heated, to prevent the explofion
which fometimes happens from the fuddeo contact of
melted metals with moift bodies.
Sect. XLII. Calcination.
Calcination By calcination is underftood the reduftion of folid
reduces bo-b^;^ by the means of fire, from a coherent to a pow-
dies by ^ accompanied with a change of their quali-
firefrom a ty ; in which laft refpedt this procefs differs from com-
coherentto minution.
a powdery t0 tbi9 head belong the burning of vegetaHe and
fhanee^ animal matters, otherwife called upon, incineration, or
their qua- concremation ; and the change of metals into a powder,
ley. which in the fire either does not melt or vitrifies, that
is, runs into glafs.
M A C Y. > Part I,
The metals which melt before Ignition, are calcined Element*,
by keeping them in fufi >n for fome time. The free
admiffion of air is effenttaliy neeeffary to the fuccefs of
this operation ; and hence, when the furface of the
metal appears covered with calx, this muft be taken off
or raked to one fide, otherwife the remainder excluded
from the air will not undergo the change intended.
If any coal, or other inflammable matter which does
not contain a mineral acid, be fuffered to fall into the
veffel, the effect expe&ed from this operation will not
be produced, and part of what is already calcined will
be revived or reduced ; that is, it will return into its
metallic form again.
Thofe metals which require a ftrong fire for fufion,
calcine with a much lefs heat chan is fuftkient to make
them flow. Hence the burning or fcorification of fuch
iron or copper velTels as are long expoied to a con¬
fiderable fire without defence from the air. Goid and
fiiver are not calcinable by any degree or fire.
In calcination, the metals vifibly emit fumes : ne¬
verthelefs the weight of the calx proves greater than
that of the metal employed. The antimonial reguius
gains about one eleventh part of its weight; zinc
fometirnes one tenth ; tin above one fixth ; and lead
in its converfion into minium often one fourth.
The calcination of metallic bodies, gold, fiiver, and
mercury excepted, is greatly promoted by nitre. 1 hia
fait expofed to the fire in conjun&ion with any inflam¬
mable fubftances, extricates their inflammable matter,
and burfts with it into flame, accompanied with a bif¬
fing noife. This procefs is ufually termed cljlagratinn
or detonation.
All the metallic calces and fcorise are revived into
their metallic ftate by fufion with any vegetable or
animal inflammable matter. They are all more diffi¬
cult of fufioti than the refpe&ive metals themfelves ;
and fcarcely any of them, ihofe of lead and bifmuth
excepted, can be made to melt at all, without fome
addition, in the flrongeft fire that can be produced in
the common furnaces. The additions called Jiuxes, em¬
ployed for promoting the fufion, confift chiefly of fixed
alkaline falls. A mixture of alkaline fait with in¬
flammable matter, as powdered charcoal, is called a
reducing flux, as contributing at the fame time to bring
the calx into fufion, and to revive it into metal. Such
a mixture is commonly prepared from one part of
nitre and two parts of tartar, by grinding them well
together, fetting the powders on fire with a bit of
coal or a red-hot iron, then covering the veffel, and
fuffering them to deflagrate or burn till they are
changed into a black alkaline coaly tnafs. This is the
common reducing flux of the chemifts, and is called
from its colour the black fax. Metallic calces of fcorise,
mingled with twice their weight of this compound,
and expofed to a proper fire in a clofe covered cru¬
cible, melt and refume their metallic form; but though
they received an increafe of weight in the calcination,
the revived metal is always found to weigh confider¬
ably lefs than the quantity from which the calx was
made.
For a more particular account of all thefe proceffes,
and an explanation of the principles on which they
depend, fee Chemistry pajim, and the articles them¬
felves as they occur in the order of the alphabet.
3
Part
PHARMACY.
Part II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compeji-
tians.
Part II. PREPARATIONS and COMPOSITIONS.
Containing thofe of the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias.
.107
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
Chap. I. The more Simple Preparations,
7ue preparation of fame fubjlances not foluble in •water. L.
90 POUND thefe fubftancos firft in a mortar; then
sn 1 P°rn T 3 Iittie water’ levi>fe them on a hard
id poliflied, but not calcareous, ftone, that they may
be made as fine as pofiible. Dry this powder on blot-
, '"g'pa,per laici on rchajk» and fet it in a warm, or at
lealt a dry, place, for fome days.
In this manner are to be prepared
Amber, r r *
Antimony,
Calamine,
Chalk,
Coral,
^t^r'^elIs> cleanfed from their impurities,
Crabs claws, firft broken into fmall pieces, muft be
warned with boshng water before they be levigated.
Verdeg.nfe muft be prepared in the fame manner,
here large quantities of the foregoing powders are
to be prepared, it is cuftomary, inftead of the ftone and
mallet, to employ hand-mills m»de for this purpofe,
confiding of two ftones; the uppermoft of which turns
,th-e IoWtr’ and has an aperture in the
middle, for Applying Frefh matter, or of returning that
which has already paffed, till it be reduced to a proper
degree of finenefs. ^ v
n Ffjr cthe .IeviSatlon of hard bodies, particular care
II I taken’ whatever k>nd of inftruments be ufed,
that they may be of fufficient hardnefs, otherwife they
will be abraded by the powders. The hematites, a hard
iron ore, is moft conveniently levigated between two
iron planes ; for if the common levigating ftones be
lutii, the preparation, when finilhed, will contain al-
fnoft as much foreign matter from the inftrument as
the hematites.
It has been cuftomary to moi'ften feveral powders in
levigation, with rofe, balm, and other diftilied waters :
theie, neverthelefs, have no advantage above common
water, fince in the fubfequent exficcation they muft
necefianly exhale, leaving the medicine pofTefiTed of no
other virtae than what might be equally expeded from
it when prepared with the cheaper element.
borne few fubftances, indeed, are more advantage-
oufly levigated with fpirit of wine than with wafer
tUsUcnbftf0ar haS th-e green CoIour ufually expcfted in
thiscoftly preparation confiderably improved thereby
ftance ' ^^ ^ t0 the ^
ances, if the weather be very hot and large quanti-
I™ i°nff hemt ar.e ,PlIePared at prevent thdr ru„-
mg into p.itrefadt.on ; an accident which in thofe cit-
cumftantes fometimes happens when they are levigated
with water only. Crabs-eyes, which abfund with am-
Lconventn”? matter’ Katie to thia
The caution given above for reducing antimony
calamine, and tutty, to the greateft fubtility pofilble,
demands particular attention. The tendernefs of the
parts to which the two laft are ufually applied, re¬
quires them to be perfediy free from any admixture ot
grofs irritating particles. The firft, when not tho¬
roughly comminuted, might not only, by its ftvirp
needle like fpicula, wound the ftomach, but likewife
anfwers little valuable purpofe as a medicine, proving
either an ufelefs load upon the vifeera, or at beft paf-
img off without any other fenfible effed than an in-
creale of the groffer evacuations ; while, if reduced to
a great degree of finenefs, it turns out a medicine of
coniiderable efficacy.
The moft fucceisful method of obtaining thefe pow¬
ders of the requifite tenuity, is, to waffi off the finer
parts by means of water, and continue levigating the
remainder till the whole become fine enough to remain
for fome time fufpended in the fluid ; this procefs is re-
ceived in the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, and there di¬
rected in the preparation of the following article.
Prepared antimony. E.
Let the antimony be firft pounded in an iron mortar, Qt
and then levigated on a porphyry with a little water. 9
After this, put it into a large veffel, and pour a
quantity of water on it. Let the veffel be repeat-
^ t tlheLfiner Part of the powder may
be diffufed through the water; the liquor is then to
be poured oft, and fet by till the powder fettles.
. he Part> whlch the water would not take up.
is to be further levigated, and treated in the fame
manner.
. thls metk°d, which is that commonly pra&ifed
in the preparation of colours for the painter, powders
may be obtained of any required degree of fenuity •
and without the leaft mixture of the grofs parts, which
are always found to remain in them afte^C TontL
nued levigation ; all the coarffr matter fettles at firft,
and the finer powder continues fufpended in the water
longer and longer, in proportion to the degree of its
finenefs 1 he fame procefs may likewife be advan-
tageoufiy applied to other hard pulverifable bodies of
the mineral kingdom, or artificial preparations of them;
provided they be not foluble in, or fpecificaliy lighter
han, water. The animal and abforbent powders, crabs-
claws, crabs-eyes, oylter-fheUs, egg-ffiells, chalk, pearl,
coral, and bezoar, are not well adapted to this treat¬
ment ; nor indeed do thtj require it. Thefe fubftan-
ces are readily foluble in acid juices without much
comminution : if no acid be contained in the firft paf-
lages, they are apt to concrete, with the mucous mat¬
ter ufually lodged there, into hard indiffoluble raaffes-
the greater degree of finenefs they are reduced to, the
more they are difpofed to form fuch concretions, and
become liable to obftruA the orifices of the firiall
veilels.
Qji 2 Pre»
3°®
Prepara.
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
92
n
PHARMACY.
34
95
Prepared calamine* E.
Calamine previoufly calcined for the ufe of thofe who
make brafs, is to be treated in the fame manner as
antimony.
Prepared chall.
Chalk firft triturated, and then frequently wafhed with
water, till it imparts to it neither tafte nor colour,
is to be treated in the fame manner as antimony.
As calamine is intended for external application, and '
often to parts very eafily irritated, too much pams can¬
not be bcftowed in reducing it to a fine powder ; and
the frequent wafting of the chalk may have the dtett
of freeing it from fome foreign matters: But with re¬
gard to this fubftance, the after part of the procefs, if
not improper, is, in our opinion at leaft, unncceilary :
and this obfervation may alfo be made with refpedt to
the oculi, or more properly lapilh cancrorum, which
the Edinburgh college direct to be treated m the lame
manner.
The preparation of hog's lard and mutton fuet* L.
Cut them into pieces, and melt them over a fir.e 5
then feparate them from the membranes by itrain^
Thefe articles had formerly a place alfo among the
preparations of the Edinburgh college: But now they
introduce them only into their lift of the materia me-
dica ; as the apothecary will in general find it more
for his intereft to purchafe them thus prepared, than
to prepare them for himfelf: for the procefs requ.res
to be very cautioufly conduced, to prevent the tat
from burning or turning black.
The purifieation of gum ammoniacum. L.
If gum ammoniac do not feem to be pure, boil it in
water till it become foft ; then fqueeze it through
a canvas bag,, by means of a prefs. Let it remain
at reft till the refinous part fubfide ; then evaporate
the water ; and toward the end of the evaporation
reftore the refinous part, mixing it with the gum,
I*/the fame manner are purified affafeetida and fuch
llkYou mlj^lfa purify any gum which melts eafily,
fuch as Galbanum, by putting it in an ox-bladder, and
holding it in boiling water till it be fo foft that it can
be feparated from its impurities by preffing through a
°Yn^ftrafning all the gums, care fttmld be taken that
the heat be neither great nor long continued ; other-
wife a confiderable portion of the more adive vo¬
latile matter will be loft; an inconvenience which can¬
not by aTc-e be wholly avoided. Henc. the purer
tears, unftrained, are in general to be preferred, for
internal ufe, to the ftfained gums.
As an additional reafon for this preference, we may
add, that fome of the gum-refins, purified m the com¬
mon way, by folution in water, expreffion and evapo-
mien, are not fo eafily foluhk m aqueouamenftru.
after as before fuch depuration. On thefe accounts
this procefs is entirely omitted ^ Edmhurgh col
Part IF.
1V1 jHL VJ
it may be a, .effeftually freed from
time of folution as by this procefa. Compofi-
to be employed in a folid ftate, care ftould e a*en tions.
that the purer parts alone be felected.
The burning of hartjhorn. L.
Burn pieces of hartftorn till they become perfe&ly
white ; then reduce them to a very fine powder.
The pieces of horn generally employed in this ope¬
ration are thofe left after di {filiation. j -i,*
In the burning of hartftorn, a ftrong fire and the
free admifiion of air are neceffary. I he potter s fur¬
nace was formerly direfted for the fake of conveni¬
ence ; but any common furnace or Hove will do.
fome lighted charcoal be fpread on the bottom of the
grate, and above this the pieces of the horns are laid,
they will be burnt to whitenefs, ftill retaining their
00Bum/°hartftom is not now confidered as a pure
earth, having been found to be a compound of cidca-
reou/earth a^d phofphorie acid. U is the weak eft of
the animal abforbents, and is difficultly foluble a
acids ; but whether it be of equal or fupenor ufe a
diarrhoeas to more powerful abforbents, muft be left t»
obfeivation.
The drying of herbs and flowers.
Let thefe, fpread out lightly, be dried by a gentle
HerbY’and*flowers muft be dried by a gentle heat,
from a ftove or common fire. They muft be taken
in fuch quantities at a time, that the procefs will be
fpeedily finifted; for by this means their medical
powers are beft preferved. The moft certain teft
of this is the perfea prefervation of the natural co-
lour • but the leaves of cicuta, and of other plants
containing a volatile matter, muft be immediately
pounded, after being dried, and afterwards kept in
a phial with a ground ftopper. E.
The dire&ions given by the London college are here
lefs explicit, and perhaps lefs proper, than thofe of the
Edinburgh college : for there can be no doubt of the
propriety of drying thefe fubftances haftily, by the aid
£f artificial heat, rather than by the heat of the fun.
In the application of artificial heat, the only caution
requifitePis to avoid burning ; and of this a Efficient
teft is afforded by the prefervation of colour. And
the direction given with regard to cicuta may perhaps
with advantage be followed with moft of the othei
flowers and herbs, afterwards to be exhibited in pow¬
der.
The purifying of honey. L,
Melt the honey by the heat of a water bath, and re¬
move the feum.
The intention of this procefs 18 to purify the ho-
ney from wax, or other droffy matters that have been
united with it by the violence of the prefsin its fep -
ration from the comb, and from meal and fuch like
fubftances, which are fometlmes fraudulently mixed
with it. When the honey is rendered liquid and
thin by the heat, thefe lighter matters rife freely to
the furface.
9T
tms proceis is enurcij      ~ This nrenaration is not fo neceffary for honey that
lege; and in every cafe where a refinous fub- I his prepam ^ ^ a# for that wh h a
lUace, before it be taken, u to be diffolved m water, 19 to be uied as an employed
Part IT. P H A R
Prepara- employed in the preparation of oxymels: hence the
tior.s and Edinburgh college, who have rejefted all the oxymeU,
tions' 0 " kave omitted this procefs.
■l. cj-^e preparaflon of millipeds. L. E.
99 The millipeds are to be inclofed in a thin canvas cloth,
and lufpended over hot proof*fpirit in a clofe vefTel,
till they be killed by the fteam, and rendered
friable.
This is a convenient way of rendering millipeds pul-
ver:fable, without endangering any lofs of fuch viitues
as they may poflefs.
The directions given by both colleges are precifely
the fame, and delivered in almoft the fame words.
The extraftion of pulps. L. E.
Unripe pulpy fruits, and ripe ones if they be dry, are
to be boiled in a fmall quantity of w ater until they
become foft: then prefs out the pulp through a
ftrong hair-fieve, and afterwards boil it down to the
confidence of honey in an earthen vefTel, over a
gentle fire; talcing care to keep the matter conti¬
nually ftirring, to prevent its burning.
The pulp of caffia fiftularis is in like manner to be
boiled out from the bruifed pod, and reduced after¬
ward* to a proper confidence, by evaporating the-
water.
The pulps of fruits that are both ripe and frelh, are
to be preffed out through the fieve, without any
previous boiling.
In the extra&ion of pulps, the dire&ion of both
colleges fo nearly agree, that it is unnecefiary to give
a feparate tranflation of each. We may only obferve,
that the London college, indead of foftening the fruits
by boiling them in a fmall quantity of water, direft
them to be put in a moid place. This diredfion,
though proper in fome cafes, is not generally the mod
fuitable.
The drying of fquillt. L. E.
<101 Let the fquill, cleared from its outer fkin, be cut
tranfvcrfely into thin flices, and dried with a very
gentle heat. When properly managed, the fquill is
friable, and retains its bitternefs and acrimony.
By this method the fquill dries much iooner than
when its feveral coats are only feparated, as has been
ufually direfted ; the internal part is here laid bare,
but, in each of the entire coats, it is covered with a
thin Ikin, which impedes the exhalation of the moif-
ture. The root lofes in this procefs four-fifths of its
original weight; the parts which exhale appear to be
merely watery : fix grains of the dry root being equi¬
valent to half a dram of the frefh ; a circumdance to
be particularly regarded in the exhibition of this me¬
dicine. In the preceding editions of our pharmaco¬
poeias, a particular caution was given> not to ufe an.
iron knife for cutting fquills, but one of wood, ivory,
or bone : the reafon of this caution Is faid to be, not
fo much that the fquill would receive any ill qualities
from the iron ; as, that its acrid juice, adhering to the
knife, might render a wound received by it extremely
painful, or even dangerous : but as no danger is to be
apprehended from fuch an accident, the direftion ap-
peara unaeceffary. Dried fquilli furnifh us with a me-
M A C Y. 309
dicine, fometimci advantageoufly employed as an eme-Prepara-
tic, often as an .xxpe&orant, but dill more frequentlytions and
as a powerful diuretic.
The burning of fponge, '—'“'v {
Beat the fponge, after cutting it in pieces; and, when io*-v
feparated from its gritty matter, burn it in a clofe
iron veflel, until it becomes black and friable ; af¬
terwards rub it to a very fine powder. L.
Put the fponge, cut into fmall pieces, and well freed
from adhering earthy matters, into a clofe earthen
veffel. Place it on the fire, and let it be ftirred
frequently till it become black and friable; then re¬
duce it to a powder ip a glafs or marble mortar.
E.
This medicine has been in ufe for a confiderable
time, and employed againft fcrofulous diforders and
cutaneous foulnefies, indofesof a fcruple and upwards.
Its virtues feem to depend on a volatile fait juft form¬
ed, and combined with its own oil. If the fponge be
diitilled with a ftrong heat, it yields a large proportion *
of that fait in its proper form. The fait is in this pre¬
paration fo far extricated, that if the burnt fponge be
ground in a brafs mortar, it corrodes the metal fo as
to contraft a difagreeable taint, and fometimes an eme¬
tic quality.
Bees, earthworms, and other animal fubftances, have
by fome been prepared in the fame manner, and re¬
commended in different difeafes: but as thefe fub¬
ftances fall much fhort of fponge in the quantity of
volatile Lit producible from them by fire, they are
probably inferior alfo in medicinal efficacy. Of all
the animal matters that have been tried, raw filk is the
only one which exceeds or equals fponge, in the pro¬
duce of fait.
A good deal of addrefs is requifite for managing
this procefs in perfection. The fponge fhould be cut
fmall, and beaten for fome time in a mortar, that all
the ftony matters may be got out, which compared
with the weight of the fponge when prepared, will
fometimes amount to a confiderable quantity. The
burning fhould be difcontinued as foon as the matter ►
is become thoroughly black. If the quantity put int»
the veffel at once be large, the outfide will be fuffi-
ciently burnt before the infide be affefted; and the
volatile fait of the former will in part efcape, before
that in the latter is begun to be formed. The beft
method of avoiding this inconvenience feems to be, to
keep the fponge continually ftirring, in fuch a machine
as is ufed for the roafting of coffee.
And from this circumftance the iron veffel diredted
by the London college is preferable to the earthen one
dire&ed by that of Edinburgh. But the pounding in.
a glafs or marble naortar, direfted by the latter, is a
neceffary caution which the former college have omit¬
ted.
The purification offor ax. L.
Diffolve the ftorax in re&ified fpirit of wine, and ftrain l0{.
the folution: afterwards reduce it to a proper thick-
nefs with a gentle heat.
Storax was formerly directed to be purified by means
of water } hence it was ftyled Jlyracit collatio : but the
method now adopted i» much preferable, for the aftive
p*rts
3i<v
Prepara¬
tion s and
Comppfi-
tion^.
IO4
P I A R M A C Y.
Part II,
parts of the f orax totally diffolve in fpir>t of wine, tl
iiTDuritie- alone being left And as theie active p '.1
105
I06
£07
the
impuntie- alone being left And as theie active p .rta
do not rife in diftillation, the fpirit msy be again re¬
covered by diftillation.
Purified filings of iron. E.
Apply a magnet to a fieve placed on filings of iron, fo
that the filings may be atttafted upwards through
the fieve.
Rufi of iron, commonly called Jhainngs of iron, pre¬
pared. E.
Set purified filings of iron in a moift place, that they
may turn to ruft, which is to be ground into an im¬
palpable powder..
The cleanfing of iron filings by means of a magnet
is very tedious, and does not anfwer fo well as might
be expected; for,if they are rutty, they will not be at¬
tracted by it, or not fufficiently: nor will they by this
means be entirely freed from brafs, copper, or other
metallic fubftances which may adhere to them. It
appears from the experiments of Henckel, that if iron
fee mixed by fufion with even its own weight of any
of the other metals, regulus ©f antimony alone except¬
ed, the compound will be vigoroufly attracted by the
loadftone. The ruft of iron is to be procured at a
moderate rate from the dealers in iron, free from any
impurities except fuch as may be wafhed off by wa-
ter.
The ruft of iron is by fome preferred as a medicine
to the calces or croci made by a ftrong fire. Hoff¬
man relates, that he has frequently given it with re¬
markable fuccefs in obftinate chlorotic cafes accompa¬
nied with exceflive headachs and ether violent fymp-
toms ; and that he ufually joined with it pimpinella,
arum root, and fait of tartar, with a little cinnamon
and fugar. The dofe is from four or five grains to
twenty or thirty ; fome have gone as far as a dram :
but all the preparations of this metal anfwer beft in
fmall dofes, which fhould rather be often repeated than
enlarged.
Scales of iron purified. E.
Let the fcales of iron, which may be had at the anvils
of the workmen, be purified by the magnet; for
the magnet only attracts the fmaller and purer
parts, leaving the more thick and impure behind.
This is perhaps of all the forms the moft eligible
for obtaining the pure matter in fuch a divided ftate
as to render it eafily aCfed on by different menftrua ;
and the mode of purification here propofed is not
only very effectual, but alfo very eafily put into prac¬
tice.
T'/se extra8ion of mucilage. Gen.
Boil the gums or mucilaginous feeds in a fufficient
quantity of water till it becomes vifcid, nearly refem-
bling the white of an egg; and then flrain it by
preffure through a linen cloth.
By this means vegetable mucilage may be eafily ob¬
tained from many different fubftances in its pure ftate.
And although this procefs is not directed in our phar-
macopeeias, yet we tjimk that it might with advantage
be adopted.
Chap. II. Of Govferves*
Prepa-a*
tions and
Compofi-
Conserves are compofitions of recent vegetabletu ns^ .
matters and fugrr, beaten together into an uniform 10g
mafs.
This management is introduced for preferving cer¬
tain fimples, undried, in an agreeable form, with as
little alteration au poffible in their native virtues ; and
to forr.e fubjeCts it is very advantsgeoufly applied Ve¬
getables, whofe virtues are loft or deftroyed by dry¬
ing, may in this form be kept uninjured for a length
of time : for, by carefully fecuring the mouth of the
containing veflel, the alteration, as well as diftipation,
of their a&ive principles, is generally prevented ; and
the fugar preferves them from the corruption which
juicy vegetables would otherwife undergo. There are,
however, fundry vegetables whofe virtues are impaired
by this treatment. Mucilaginous fubftances by long
lying with fugar, become lefs glutinous; and aftrin-
gents become fenfibly fofter on the palate. Many of
the fragrant flowers are of fo tender and delicate a
texture, as almoft entirely to lofe their peculiar quali¬
ties on being beaten or bruifed.
In general, it is obvious, that in this form, on account
of the large admixture of fugar, fubftances of confl-
derable aCfivity can alone be taken to advantage as
medicines. And, indeed, conferves are at prefent con.
fidered chiefly as auxiliaries to medicines of greater
efficacy, or as intermedia for joining them together.
They are very convenient for reducing into bolufes or
pills the more ponderous powders, as mercurius dulcis,
thecalces of iron, and othermineralpreparations; which,
with liquid or lefs confiftent matters, as fyrups, will
not cohere.
The fhops were formerly encumbered with many
conferves altogether infignificant; the few now retained
have in general either an agreeable flavour to recom¬
mend them, or are capable of anfwering fome uleful
purpofes as medicines. Their common dofe is the
bulk of a nutmeg, or as much as can be taken up at
once or twice upon the point of a knife. There is in
general no great danger of exceeding in this particular.
Confierves of woodfor rel;
fea wormwood;
the red rofe ;
the outer rind of the Seville orange. L.
Pluck the leaves from the ftalks, the unblown petals
from the cups, taking off the heels, l ake off the
outer rind of the oranges by a grater ; then beat
each of them with a wooden peftle in a marble mor¬
tar, firft by themfelves, afterwards with three times
their weight of double refined fugar, until they be
mixed.
Conferves of the frejh leaves of mint;
red rofes not blown ;
the outer rind of Seville oranges rafped off by
a grater. E.
Thefe arc diretted to be prepared with triple their
weight of fugar in the fame manner as the conferves
of the London college. The fugar fhould be pound¬
ed by itfelf, and pafled through a fxeve before it
mixed with the vegetable mafs j for without this it
Part IT.
P
Fre; ara-
eion- and
C'ompofi-
tions.
Hep
XIO
Hi H A R
cannot be properly Incorporated. Rofe buds, and
J0;nc other vegetables, are prepared fur mixing w.Vh
iugar by a fmail wooden mill contrived for that per-
— pole. r
In the fame maimer conferves may be prepared from
many other vegetables. But befides the corltrv,s for
winch general dinftions are given, there are others,
for which, either on account of the particular n ode of
preparation, or of the proportion, our pharmacopoeias
have thought it ntceffary to give particular dnedtiu
But before taking noti e of thefe, it is neceilarv to
mention the medical properties of the conftrvca above
enumerated.
Conferve of the leaves of wood-forrel. L.
. .Tt!;Vs,a very elegant aHd grateful conferve; in tafte
it .s lightly acidulous, w ith a peculiar d ivuur, which
iome compare to that ef green-tea It is taken occa-
iicnaliy for quenching tfairft, and cooling the mouth
anc fauces, in dydempers where the heat of the body
is much mcreafed. 1
Conferve of the tope offea 'wormwood. L.
The conferve of wormwood has been celebrated in
dropjlc* j Matthiolus relates, that fevcral perfons were
cured by it of that dtftemper without the affiftance of
any other medteme. Where the diforder indeed pro-
ceeus from a fimple laxity or flacciday of the folids,
tie continued ufe of this medicine may he of fome fer-
vice ; as it appears to be an elegant mild cot rob ,rant.
aboutTb ^ blgcVeU ,0 th£ dofe of half a“ ounce
about three hours before meals.
Conferve of the buds of red rofes. JL E.
This is a very agreeable and ufeful conferve A
dram or two d.flolved in warm milk are frequently
Kdh,r T^ht aftr:ngent’ in wraknds of the ftomachl
a likewife in coughs and phthifical complaints. In the
German ephemendes, examples are related cf very
dangerous phthifes cured by the continued ufe of this
medicne; In 0f thefe cafes, twenty pounds of the
donferve were taken in the fpact of a month ; and in
anotner, upwards of thirty. Kivenus mentions feve-
ral other inftances ot this kind. There is however
ra“Cnor,0a0tmalU-fail’7 fUCh obfer'a'!»“ i as phthifis
has not at ail times been accurately d.aWnilhed from
cbftmate catarrh,, and fome other affcaions, the anti-
Ihui'lnZ^effea0! ^ ^ ^ ^ tome
Confirm of lie Jelkw rind of Seville ormge.peel 1,. E.
.JvtLrofThclelTnl T’ C,oma;";"ga1'
both with regard to the d„Z potently agreeable,
takincr IiJa i r ne and the convemency of
• , p 5* ^ / PIealant warm ftomachic ; and with this
intention is frequently ufed. 11118
rpi Conferv* of the leaves offpear mint. E.
rs; do“ ‘-F*
.ai.e preparations of mint would be lefs prop^ ^
»r 1 r i r. Conferve of arum.
4 Take °f the frc/h ro®t ^ arum brwfed, half a pound .
M A G A
III
rfouhU; refined fngar, * pound and a half. BeatPrepura,
tnem together in a mortar. tioas and
Z1 h* root of arura* in ,t3 '•ecent Hate, is a fubftance Comfofl’
C; gte.c sifti'/ity; but this adivity is almoft entirely 'A1!* a
oh on drymg. Hence the compound powder which
f ' ■;-*rrn< riy a phice iu our pharmacopceias is now re¬
jected. And as neither water nor fpirit extra# if,
activity, this cot,ferve is perhaps the beft form in which
it ,*11 be preferved in our {hops. It may be given to
adults in doles of a dram. ^
Ti
III
Conferve of hips. L.
, e of PnIP of riPe h{PS one pound ; double refined
iuga:,. powdered, twenty ounces. Mix them into
a i nn ; ve.
1 ue comerye of hips is of fame efteem as a foft
cording rciini'rent; three or four drams or more are
gtveE at a t me, in bilious fluxes, lharpnefs of urine,
audJiot indilpohtions of the itomach : A good deal
o ^re 18 rcquifite on the part of the apothecary in
making this conferve ; the pulp is apt to carry with it
ome of the prickly fibres, with which the infide of the
fruit s lined ; if thefe be retained in the conferve, they
the ilomach, fo as to occafiou vomiting.
Conferve of floes. L. E.
Put the Hoes in water upon the fire that they may
fo.ten, taking care that they be not broken ; then,
the floes being taken out of the water, prefs out the
pmp, and mix it with three times its weight of
eoiuie refine^ fugar into a conferve.
This preparation is a gentle aftringwrt, and may be
given as fueh in the dofe of two or three drams. The
degree of its artringency will vary according to the
maturity ol the floes, and the length of time for which
the conferve has been kept.
Conferve offquills.
Take or frefh fquills, one ounce ; double-refined fugar,
nve ounces. Beat them together in a mortar into
a conlerve.
This conferve is dfrefted to be prepared in a fmall
quantity, to guard again# its varying in ftrength. It
may be given to adults from hall a dram to two
Icrupaes, specially when Irefh.
But the conferve of fquills is a more uncertain and
lefs agreeable mode of exhibiting this article, than the
powder of the dried root, particularly when made into
pflis, or given in the form of bolus with any other con-
is*
n6
u7
XIZ
tI3
Conferve of chervil Suec.
Take of frefh leaves of chervil, double-refined fugar.
e^uaI Part3* Peat them together into a hon-
Chervd has by fome been extolled as an ufeful din-
retie; and this is perhaps one of the molt pleafant
forms under which it can be exhibited.
Cos ferve of millipeds. Brun.
Take ofltve milhpeds, one pound ; double-refined fu*
gar, two pounds and an half. Beat them together
into a conferve. 6
If the mAlipeds poffefs thofe virtues which fome
have alleged, this is perhaps one of she bdt forms un¬
de?
irS
119
312
H A R M A C Y.
Prepara¬
tions ard
Compoft-
tions.
Jt, which they csn he exhibited. A"d by cWldre^
to whom they are frequently prefenbed, it may De
eafily taken, when other forma cannot be introduced.
VUrtolated conferve of rofes. Bruti.
-120 To each pound of the conferve of rotes add two dram*
of the diluted vitriolic acid.
This may be in fame cafes an ufeful mea
'creating foLwhat the aftringency of *c co“Icr«
roles- But for the purpofes for which the vitriolic
acid is in general employed, the quantity that can thus
be introduced is too inconfiderable to be of much fe -
vice.
£21
Chap. HI- Of Jukes.
Tecs are obtained from the ftonlent parts of
plants, by including them, after h'u.g prol»erly cot
hruifed &c. in a hair bag, and prefling them, tetwe
wooden cheeks, in the common fcrew-prels, as long as
““Vh^hardeThuhs regnire to he ptevioufly weUbeat.
Z ^rl/t^'a. o^Wfed, :tgrqdnan,i,
o "he herba on ma ter will be forced out along w,.h
the inice Hempen or woollen bag. are apt to com¬
municate a difagreeable flavour s the |bre“d8^;^
likewife fwell in proportion as they imbibe mo ,
fo as in great meafure to prevent the free percclatio
°f Tim fluids thus extraaed from fncculent fruits, both
of U>e acid and fweet kind, from moil of the acrid
herbs as feurvy-grafs and water creffes, from the sad
hi b ’ as forrcl ami wood-forrel, from the aperient lac-
tefeent plants, as dandelion and hawkweed, and from
juices^ on the other^hand, the'fragrant Tur-
W balm, commonly called balm oj Gilead, bavefcarce-
1 ^ tbincf of the flavour of the plants, and feem to
/iffe7l ttlIgfrom Vcoaion. of thlm made in water
bM^ ^ r odlrlfir thCe'I,lyffiSe.;
thefe particufars,^raaitioners>have beellfrequlntly^e4-
CfCd 'h^etlln^eSinatlnthii,^
hfwm:l"';ottLPb; which mint itfelf and its
0tTrheITn?ca«Uthnu.OPorcMy preffed ont from plants,
a;ffer from ^ /^Tf
jncifions ; thefe a , , whoie fubftancC of the
a8 bn elfboit'd diflina veffels, or
I'8 red into oarticular receptacles. From poppy heads,
fecretedintopartic y thick milky liquor,
{lightly wounded, there i w hintQ ;um . whilft
Stice^uUTom turn by preifnre is of a dark-
green colont, and far wc.'t'rv>^“C-al th.ckj v;fc;d.
Juices newly expretled are » ^ ; of grofs
and very impure, f/ becomes thinner, limpid,
S bltuStas J£t
_ _ Part II
ivot entirely pbre: on {landing, it become again
bid, and apt to run into a fermentative or putretaaive Com.)0iU
ftate Clariflcation with whites of eggs renders the titmg
juices more uerfeftly fine ; but there are few that will ^
bear this treatment without a manifeft injury to their
flavour, tafte, and virtue. ,
The moft effe&ual method of purifying and pre-
ferving thefe liquors, is to let the ftrained juices ftand
in a cool place till they have depofited their groffer
feces, and then gently pafs them fevera! time, through
a fine ftrainer till perfettly clear ; when about a lortieth
part of their weight of good fprnt of wine may be
added, and the whole fuffered to ftand as before. a
frefh fediment will now be depofitedj from which the
liquor is to be poured off, ftrained again, and put into
fmall bottles which have been waffled w th fpint and
dried. A little oil is to be poured on the lurface, la
as very nearly to fill the bottles, and the mouths do-
fed with leather, paper, or (topped with ftraw, as the
fla(ks in which Florence wine is brought to us : this
ferves to keep out dull, and fuffers the air which m
procefs of time arifes from all vegetable hquors, to
efcape ; which air would otherwife endanger the burft-
ingof the bottles} or, being afre(h» rCn£
their contents vapid and foul. The bottles arc o be
kept on the bottom of a good cellar or vault, placed
up to the necks in fand. By this method fome juices
may be preferved for a year or two } and others (or a
much longer time.
It has already been obferved, that there are grea-
differences in juices, in regard to their being accom¬
panied in the expreffion with the virtues of the fubjeat.
There are equal differences in regard to their preferying
thofe virtues, and this independently of the volatjh y
of the a&ive matter, or its dffpofitlon to exhale Even
the volatile virtue of feurvy-grafs may by the abo e
method be preferved almoft entire in its juice for a con-
fiderable time : while the adive Par^ of Ae jmee
the wild cucumber quickly feparate and fettle to the
bottom, leaving the fluid part inert. Juices of arum
toot, ins root, bryony root, and fundry other vege¬
tables, threw off in like manner their medicinal parts
to the bottom.
Compound juice of feurvy-grafs.
Take of the juice of garden fcurvy*grafs two pints ;
T biooi iimV nd watfr-crclTes, of each onepiot; Se.
viUe oranges, twenty ounces by meafure. Mix them,
and, after the feces have fubfided, pour off the h-
TrViuicTof'garden feuwy grxfs, wf r-creffes,
both expreffed from the frefn herbs, Seville oranges,
of each two pounds; fpirituous uutmeg^wnter, ha
a pound. Mix them and let them ftand till the fe
ces have fnbfided, then pour off the clear liquor. E.
By this formula the Edinburgh college have rejed
the brook lime and the fu ar of their former cmtiomu
Thefugarwas certainly a very improper addi . ,
though it may preferve dry vegetable matters, ye ,
added to juices largely impregnatea wit
mucilaginous matter, ^ ^ ' "h^produaion of the
very principle moil favourabl ^nd horfe_ra;li(h
vinous fermentation, i or rnc ^
water they have fubftituted the fpirituous water o- ^
megs; Bei'idcs that, this water has the fame prop T
Hi
Part II. P H A R
Vrcpara- of prefervmg the juices from fermentation ; it is alfo
Compofi- muc^ more agreeable to the palate, and will make the
tionsf juices fit eafier on the ftomach. >
The London college have retained nearly their for¬
mer formula, giving it only a more proper name.
Both thefe compofitions are of confiderable ufe for
the purpofes expreffed in the title : the orange juice
is an excellent afliftant to the fcurvy-grafs and other
acrid antifcorbutics; which, when thus mixed, have
been found from experience to produce much better ef¬
fects than when employed by themfelves. Thefe
juices may be taken from an ounce or two to a quarter
of a pint, two or three times a-day : they generally
increafe the urinary fecretion, and fometimes induce
a laxative habit. Preferved with the cautions above-
mentioned, they will keep good for a confiderable time;
though, whatever care be taken, they are found to an-
fwer better when frefii; and from the difficulty of pre-
ferving them fo, they have of late been very much laid
afide, efpecially fince we have been provided with more
convenient and ufeful remedies.
Inspissated Juices.
123 When vegetable juices, or watery or fpirituous de¬
coctions or infufions, are expofed to a continued heat,
the fluid gradually evaporating, carries off with it
fuch volatile matters as it was impregnated with, and
leaves the more fixed united togethei into one mafe..
The mafs which remains from the evaporation of the
, expreffed juice of a plant is called infpijfatedjuice; from
watery deco&ions or infufions, an extra a ; from fpi-
rituous tinftures, a re/tn, or ejfential ext rad. The term
extrad is frequently ufed alfo as a general appellation
of all the three kinds. Infpiffated juices and watery
decoftions, particularly the former, when evaporated
no further than to the confiftence of oil or honey, are
called robs; and fpirituous tin&ures, reduced to a like
confiftence, are called balfams.
What relates to the expreffion of juices has already
been delivered, with the moft effeaual means of pre-
ferving them in their liquid ftate, and a general ac¬
count of what fubftances do or do not give out their
visiles with theirjuices. In the infpiffation of juices,
there is further to be confidered the volatility ®r fixity
of their medicinal parts: if a plant lofes its virtue,
or part of its virtue, in being dried, it is obvious
that the juice muft lofe as much in being infpiffated
to drynefs, how gentle foever the heat be with which
the infpifi’ation is performed. Jt is likewife to be ob-
ferved, that the medicinal parts of fome juices are
Jcept in a ftate of perfeA folution by the watery fluid,
fo as to be completely retainad by it after the liquor
has been made fine by fettling, ftraining, or other
means ; while the medicinal parts of others, not dif-
foiuble by watery menftrua, are only diffufed through
the liquor in the fame manner as the feculencies are,
ai.a feparate along with thefe on ftanding.
Infpijfated juice of the ehlcr-berry. L.
124 Take of expreffed and depurated juice of elder-berries
two pints ; infpifiate it in a water bath, faturated
with fea-falt.
Infpiffated juice, commonly called rob of cider-ber¬
ries. E.
Vol. XIV. Part L
M A C Y. 3,.
Take of juice of ripe elder-berries, flve pounds ; puteftPrepara-
fugar, one pound. Evaporate with a gentle heat^,ons an<*
to the confiftence of pretty thick honey. tions^0^"
This preparation, made with or without fugar, ~v~-^
keeps well, and proves a medicine of confiderable im¬
portance as an aperient, generally promoting the na¬
tural excretions by ftool, urine, or fweat. The dofe
is from a dram or two to an ounce or more. A fpoon-
ful, diluted with water, is ufually taken in common
colds at bed-time.
Infpijfcited juice of wolfsbane. E.
Bruife the frefh leaves of aconitum; and including
them in a hempen bag, ftrongly comprefs them in
a prefs, fo that they may give out their juice : let
the juice be evaporated in open veffels in a water-
bath, to the confiftence of pretty thick honey ‘
An empyreuma is to be avoided by conftantly ftir-
ring the mixture towards the end of the procefs.
After the matter has become cold, let it be put up in
glazed earthen veffels, and moiftcned with re&ified
fpirit-of-wine.
In the fame manner are prepared infpiffated juices of
belladonna or deadly nighcfhadc, and hyofcyamus
or henbane.
In thefe infpiffated juices, the aftive parts of the
plant are obtained in a concentrated ftate, and in a
condition which admits of preparation for a confide¬
rable length of time. They furniffi, therefore, a con¬
venient form for exhibiting thefe articles which, in
the praflice of medicine, are perhaps more frequent¬
ly ufed in the ftate of infpiffated juice than any other.
This is particularly the cafe with the hyofcyamus,
which may often be advantageoufly employed when
opium is indicated, but difagrees with the patient.
But aconite and belladonna may in general, with
greater advantage, be exhibited under the form of
powder made from the dried leaves.
_ It is very remarkable that the London college have
given no place to thefc articles. We cannot how¬
ever help thinking, that their pharmacopoeia would be
enriched by introducing not only the articles them*
Lives, but likewife thefe preparations, efpecially as
they are net unfrequently prefcribed by Britifh prac¬
titioners.
Infpiffated juice of hemloch. E.
Having expreffed the juice of the leaves and ftnlks of i 26
hemlock when flowering, in the fame manner as di¬
rected for that of the aconitum, evaporate it to the
confiftence of pretty thin honey ; when it is cooled,
add of the powder of the dried leaves of the plant
as much as to make it into a mafs fit for forming
pills.. Care, however, is to be taken, that the eva¬
poration proceed only to fuch length, that as much
of the powder can be mixed with the infpiffated
juice as {hall make upabout a fifth part of die whole
mafs.
A preparation fimilar to this was publifhed at Vierir
na by Dr Stoerk, who recommends it as an efficacious
refolvent in many ob ft if; ate diforders, -where the com¬
mon remedies avail nothing. He obferves, that fmall
dofes ihould always be begun with, as two grains,
made info a pill twice a-day; and that by gradually
r \ increafing *
2U ' P H A R
tions^nd ^ncrea^nS dofej it rnay be given to two, three, or
CompoQ- even ^GUr ^rams a-day, and continued in fuch quantities
turns. for feveral weeks: that it may be ufed in fafety in in-
w——y—^ fancy, old age, and pregnancy : that it neither acce¬
lerates nor difturbs the circulation ; neither heats, nor
cools, nor afftcls the animal funftions : that it in-
creafes the fecretions, and renders the mouth moilt;
feldom purges ; very rarely vomits; fometimes aug¬
ments perfpiration; often produces a copious difcharge
of vifcid urine ; but in many patients does not in-
creafe any of the fenffhle evacuations : that it removes
obftru&ions and their confequences ; relieves rheuma¬
tic pains, though of long continuance ; difeuffes feir*
rhous tumors, both internal and external ; and cures
dropfies and confumptions proceeding from fchirrho-
fities: that it often diflblves cataratls, or ftops their
progrefs, and has fometimes removed the gutta fere-
na: that inveterate cutaneous eruptions, feald heads,
malignant ulcers, cancers, the malignant fluor albus
and gonorrhoea of long Handing, obilinate remains of
the venereal difeafe, and caries of the bones, gene¬
rally yield to it : that for the moil part it is neceffary
to continue this medicine for a confiderable time be¬
fore the cure be effedled, or much benefit perceived
from it : that in fome cafes it failed of giving any re¬
lief ; that he met with fome peifons who could not
be.ir its effefls; and that confcquently there muft be
fome latent difference in the habit, the diagnoflic
figns of which are at prefent unknown : that though
it is by no means infallible any more than other me¬
dicines, yet the great number of deplorable cafes that
have been happily cured by it, is fufficicnt to recom¬
mend it to further trials. The efficacy of this me¬
dicine is confirmed by many eminent praftitioners
abroad ; though the trials hitherto made of it iu this
country have not been attended with much fuccefs.
Somewhat, perhaps, may depend on the time of the
plant’s being gathered, and the manner of the prepa¬
ration of the extraft. Dr Stoerk himfelf takes no¬
tice of fome miftakes committed in this refpeft: fome
have left the herb in a heap for fevejal days, whence
part of it withered, part rotted, and the juice became
thick and mucilaginous ; others have taken a very
large quantity of the juice, and boiled it down in
copper veffels with a great heat ; by which means a
ftrong fetor was diffufed to a confiderable diltance,
and the moft efficacious pms diffipated : others, with
officious care, have clarified the juice, and thus ob¬
tained a black tenacious extra61, retaining but a fnrall
degree of the fpecrlic fmell of the plant. The ex-
tra6l, duly prepared, according to the above preferip-
tion, is of a greeni'th brown colour, and a very dif-
agreeable fmeil, like that of mjce. But though there
be reafon to believe that much of the extract ufed
here had been ill prepared, we can by no means ad¬
mit that its general inefficacy was owing to this
caufe ; for though there are not many inftances of its
difeovering any valuable medicinal powers, there are
feveral of its having a6livity enough, even in fmall
dofes, to produce alarming fymptoms.
Modern pratflice, however, feems to hold a middle
place ; being neither influenced by the extravagant en¬
comiums of Dr Stoerk, nor frightened by the wary
fufpicions of Dr Lewis. The iafpiffated juice of the
hemlock is accordingly given with freedom in a great
M A C Y.
Part IL
variety of complaints, without our experiencing the Hrepara-
wonderful effedls aferibed to it by the former, or the t|0HS :ub|
baneful confequences dreaded by the latter. Like^')n'_
other preparations of this valuable herb, it is no doubt —
a very ufeful addition to our pharmacopoeia ; nor does
its ufe ftem to be more hazardous than that of opium
and lome other narcotics.
The London college diredl the infpiffated juice of
cicuta to be prepared in the fame manner as that of the
elder-berry, and without the addition of any of the
powder. This is the moil pure extraft; and the
powder may eafily be pecifionally added. They di-
re6l the cicuta to be collecled as foon as the flowers
appear : And at that time the leaves are moft lully
impregnated with their a6live powers.
Infpiffated juice of black currants. L.
Infpijfated juice of lemons. L.
Thefe two the London college alfo diredl to be 127
prepared in the fame manner with the elder-berry
juice. And under this form the agreeable and nfe-
tul acid of thefe vegetables, in a concentrated Hate,
may be preferved for a confiderable length of time.
Chap. IV. Extralds and Refins.
Obfervatims on Extracts ‘with Water.
Thefe extra6ls are prepared by boiling the fubje<R j
in water, and evaporating the drained deco&ion to
a thick confiftence.
This procefs affords us fome of the more a6live
parts of the plants, free from the ufelefs indiflbluble
earthy matter, which makes the largefl fliare of their
bulk. There is a great difference in vegetable fub-
ilances, with regard t© their fitnefs for this opera¬
tion ; fome yielding to it all its virtues, and others
fcarce any. Thofe parts in which the fweet, gluti¬
nous, emollient, cooling, bitter, auflere, aftringent
virtues refide, are for the melt part totally extra&ed
by the boiling water, and remain almolt entire on
evaporating it : vvhdll thofe which contain the pe¬
culiar odour, flavour, and aromatic qualify, are ei¬
ther not exlradltd at all, or exhale along with the men*
flruum. Thus gentian root, which is almoft fimpiy
bitter, yields an extradl pofTeffing in a fmall volume
the whole tafte and virtues of the root.—Wormwood,
which has a degree of warmth and ftrong flavour join¬
ed to the bitter, lofes the two firil in the evapora¬
tion, and gives an extra6l not greatly different from,
the foregoing : the aromatic quality of cinnamon is
diffipated by this treatment, its adringency remain¬
ing; while an extradl made from the flowers of la¬
vender and rofemary difeovers nothing either of the*
tafle, fmell, or virtues of the flowers.
General Rules for making Extracts with Water.
1. It is indifferent, with legard to the medicine, 12^
whether the fubjett be ufed freih or dry ; fince no¬
thing that can bp preferred in this procefs w-ill be loft,
by drying. With regard to the facility of extrac¬
tion, there is a very confiderable difference ; vege¬
tables in general giving out their virtues more readily
when moderately dried than when frefh.
2. Very
/
Part If.
P H A R
Prepara- 2. Very compa& dry fubftances fhould be reduced
Com'ofi1 11110 excee^‘ng parts, previous to the affuiion of
* t^ie menftruum.
v — i 3. The quantity of water ought to be no greater
than is neceflary for extradting the virtues of the fub-
jeft. A difference herein will fometimes occafion a
variation in the quality of the produdf ; the larger
the quantity of liquor, the longer time will be requi-
fite for evaporating it, and confequently the more vo¬
latile parts of the fubjedt will be diflipated. A long-
continued heat likewife makes a confiderable altera¬
tion in the matter which is not volatile. Sweet fub¬
ftances, by long boiling with water, become nau-
feous ; and the draftic purgatives lofe their virulence,
though without any remarkable reparation of their
parts.
4. The decodtions are to be depurated by cola-
ture ; and afterwards fuffered to Hand for a day or
two, when a confiderable quantity of fediment is
ufually found at the bottom. If the liquor poured
off clear be boiled down a little, and afterwards fuf¬
fered to cool again, it will depofite a frefh fediment,
from which it may be decanted before you proceed to
finifh the evaporation. The decodfions of very refi-
nous fubftances do not require this treatment, and
are rather injured by it; the refin fubfiding along with
the inadlive dregs.
5. The evaporation is mod conveniently performed
in broad (hallow veffels ; the larger the furface of the
liquor, the fooner will the aqueous parts exhale: This
cftedt may likewife be promoted by agitation.
6. When the matter begins to grow thick, great
care is jreceffary to prevent its burning. This acci¬
dent, almoft unavoidable if the quantity be large, and
the fire applied as ufual under the evaporating pan,
maybe effedfuallyprovided againft,bycarryingon the in-
fpiffation after the common manner, no farther than to
the confiftence -of a fyrup, when the matter is to be
poured into fhallow tin or earthen pans, and placed in
an oven, with its door open, moderately heated ; which
adfing uniformly on every part of the liquid, will foon
reduce it to any degree of confiftence required. This
may likewife be more fecurely done, by fetting the
evaporating veffel in boiling water, but the evapora¬
tion is in this way very tedious.
Olfcreations on Extra els with Rectified Spirit.
Redlified fpirit of wine diffolves the effential oils
and refins of vegetables, and does not readily carry
oft the oil in its exhalation ; the heat fufficient to ex¬
hale pure fpirit being much lets than that in which
water, evaporates to any confiderable degree, or moft
effential oils diftil. Hence a refinous or fpirituous ex¬
tract of wormwood, contrary to that made with wa¬
ter, contains the warmth and flavour, as well as bit-
ternefs, of the herb ; one made trom cinnamon pof-
feffes its aromatic virtue, as well as its aflringency ;
and one from lavender and rofemary flowers, retains
great part of their flavour and virtues ; the volatile
parts, which are carried off by water in its evapora¬
tion, being left behind by the fpirit.
The fpirit employed for this purpofe fliould be per¬
fectly free from any ill flavour, which would be com¬
municated in part to the preparation ; and from any
admixture of phlegm or water, which would not only
M A c y.
vary its diffolving power, but likewiie, evaporating^’•epara
towards the end of the infpiflation, would promote thed.1,0^8
diffipation of the volatile parts of the fubjedt. Hence,
alfo, the fubjeft kfelf ought always to be dry : thofe u—y—J
fubftances which lofe their virtue by drying, lofe it
equally on being fubmitted to this treatment with the
pureft fpirit.
The infpilfation fhould be performed from the be¬
ginning, in the gentle heat of a water bath. It itf
not needful to fuffer the fpirit to evaporate in the air:
greateft part of it may be recovered by collecting the
vapour in common diftilling veffels. If the diftilled
fpirit be found to have brought over any flavour from
the fubjedt, it may be advantageoufly rtferved for the
fame purpofes again.
It is obfervable, that though redtified fpirit be the
proper menftruum of the pure volatile oils, and of the
grofler refinous matter of vegetables, and water of
the mucilaginous and faline ; yet thefe principles are,
in almoft all plants, fo intimately combined together,
that whichever of thefe liquors is applied at firft, it
will take up a portion of what is diredfly foluble only
in the other. Hence fundry vegetables, extremely
refinous, and whofe virtues confift chiefly in their re¬
fin, afford neverthelefs very ufeful extradfs witTi wa¬
ter, though not equal to thofe which may be obtain¬
ed by a prudent application of fpirit. Hence alfo
the extradls made from moft vegetables by pure fpirit,
are not mere refins; a part of the gummy matter, if
the fubjedf contained any fuch, is taken up along
with the refin ; an admixture of great advantage to
it in a medicinal view. The fpirituous extradfs of fe-
veral vegetable fubftances, as mint leaves, rhubarb,
faffron, diflblve in water as well as in fpirit.
Pure refins are prepared by mixing, with fpirituous
tindfure of very refinous vegetables, a quantity of wa¬
ter. The refin, incapable of remaining diflblved in
the watery liquor, feparates and falls to the bottom ;
leaving in the menftruum fuch other principles of the
plant as the fpirk might have extradted at firft; along
with it.
Ohfervations on Extracts with Spirit and Water.
There are fundrv vegetables, particularly thofe of a j
refinous nature, which are treated to better advan¬
tage with a mixture of water and fpirit, than with
either of them fingly. The virtues of refinous woods,
barks, and roots, may indeed be in great part ex-
tradfed by long boiling in frefh portions of water;
but at the fame time they fuffer a confiderable injury
from the continued heat neceffary for the extraction,
and for the fubfequent evaporation of fo large a quan¬
tity of the fluid. Redtified fpirit of wine is not liable
to this inconvenience ; but the extradts obtained by
it from the fubftances here intended, being almoft;
purely refinous, are lefs adapted to general ufe than
thofe in which the refin is divided by an admixture
of the -'gummy matter, of which water is the diredt
menftruum.
There are two ways of obtaining thefe compound
or gummy-refinous extradts : one, by tiling proof-fpi¬
rit, that is, a mixture of about equal parts of fpirit
and water, for the menftruum ; the other, by digeft-
ing the fubjedt firft in pure fpirit and then in water,
and afterwards uniting into one mafs the parts which
R r 2 the
316 P H A R
Pre; ara- tlie two mcnftrua have feparately extraded. In fomc
Compofi- ca^cs» w^ere a fufficiency of gummy matter is want-
tions. 0 'n t^ie fuhjeft, it may be artificially fupplied, by
infpifiating the fpirituous tin&ure to the conliftence
of a balfam, then thoroughly mixing with it a thick
folution of any Ample gum, as mucilage of gum-
arabic, and drying the compound with a gentle heat.
By this method are obtained elegant gummy-refins,
extemporaneoufly mifcible with water into milky li¬
quors.
Obfervatwns on extrafts by tong digejlion.
*3* It has been obferved, that the virtues of vegetable
decodions are altered by long boiling. Decodions
or infufions of draftic "vegetables, by long continued
boiling or digeftion, lofe more and more of their vi¬
rulence ; and at the fame time depofite more and
more of a grofs fediment, refulting probably from the
decompofition of their a&ive parts. On this founda¬
tion it has been attempted to obtain fafe and mild
preparations from fundry virulent drugs ; and fome
of the chemifts have ftrongly recommended the pro-
cefs, though without fpecifying, or giving any inti¬
mation of, the continuance of boiling requifite for
producing the due mildnefs in different fubjeds. M.
Beaume, in his Elemens de Pharmacies lately publifh-
ed, has given a particular account of an extrad of
opium prepared on this principle ; of which extrad,
as it is alleged to be very ufeful in pradice, it may
not he improper to give a fhort defcnption: And this
we fhall accordingly i'ubjoin to our account of the opi¬
um purificatum of the London college.
Obfervatwns on particular extracts~
233 Extrad of chamomiles
broom topst
gentians
liquorices
blackhelhborey
rue,
favin. L.
Boil the article in diftilled water, prefs out the decoc¬
tion, Itrain it, and fet it apart that the feces may
fubfxde ; then boil it again in a water-bath fatura-
ted with fea-falt to a confidence proper for making
pills.
The fame kind of hath is to be ufed in the, prepara¬
tion of all the extrads, that the evaporation may be
properly performed.
Extrad of gentian. E.
Take of gentian root as much as you pleafe. Having
cut and bruifed it, pour upon it.four times its quan¬
tity of water. Boil to the confumption of one half
of the liquor ; and ftrongly exprtfiing it, drain. E-
vaporate the decodion to the confidence of thick,
honey in veffels expofed to the vapour of hot wa-^
ter.
In preparing this and every other extrad, it is ne-
ceffary to keep up a condant ftirring towards the end.
of the procefs, in order to prevent an empyreuma, and
that the extrad may be of an uniform confiftence, and
free of clots.
In the fame manner are prepared,
M A C Y. Part IT.
Extraft of the roots of black hellebore; Prepara-
leaves of the pulfatilla nigricans; tionsand
leaves of rue j • C-impoG-
, ci- * nous,
leaves or white poppies; , ^ f
imperfedly ripe feeds of hemlock.
All the above extrads contain the virtues of the ve¬
getable in a date of tolerable perfedion.
The extrad of chamomile lofes in its formation the
fpecific flavour of the plant; but it is faid to furnifti a
bitter remarkably antifeptic, and to be given with ad¬
vantage in different flomach ailments to the extent of a
fcruple or two, either fey itfelf, or in conjundion with
other remedies. The extrad of broom tops is chiefly
employed in hydropic cafes ; and when taken to the
quantity of about a dram, is faid to operate as a pow¬
erful diuretic.
The mode of preparing thefe extrads direded by
the London and Edinburgh colleges is not effentrally
different; but fome advantage will arife from employ¬
ing the diddled water direded by the former ; and
the diredions given by the latter with regard to the
quantity of water to be ufed, and the degree of boiling
to be employed before exprtffion, are not without fome
ufe.
The extrad is the only preparation of the pulfatilla
nigricans, and it feems fufficiently well fulled to be
brought into this form. The extrad of the white
poppy-heads is not perhaps fuperior in any refped to
opium ; but to thofe who may think otherwife, it is
convenient to preferve them in this form for preparing
the fyrup occafionally. The feeds of hemlock have
by fome been thought dronger, or at lead that they
produce giddinefsfooner, than the leaves ; but this ex¬
trad has not hitherto ceme into general ufe.
Compound extrad of co/oquintida. L.
Take of pith of coloqutntida, cut fmall, fix drams ;
focotorine aloes, powdered,an ounce and ahalf; fcam-
mony, powdered, half an ounce ; fmaller cardamon
feeds, hulked and powdered, one dram ; proof fpirit,
one pint. Diged the coloquintida in the fpirit, with a
gentle heat, during four days. To the expreffed tinc¬
ture add the aloes and fcammonywhen, thefe are
diffolved, didil off the fpirit, fa that what remaina
may be of a confidence proper for making pills,
adding the feeds- towards the end of the procefa.
This compofi don anfwers very effe&ually as a ca¬
thartic, fo as to be relied on in cafes where the pa¬
tient’s life depends on that effeft taking place r the
dofe is from fifteen grains to half a dram. The proof
fpirit is a very proper mendruum for the purgative
materials ; diffolving nearly the whole fubftance of the
aloes and fcammony, except the impurities ; and ex¬
tracting from the colocynth, not only the irritating re-
fin, but great part of the gummy matter. In the for¬
mer pharmacopoeias three fpices were employed in this
compofition, cinnamon, mace, and cloves : the carda¬
mom feeds, now introduced, are preferable, on ac¬
count of their aromatic matter being of a lefs volatile
nature though a confiderable part of the flavour,
even of thefe, is diffipated during the evaporation ofi
the phlegmatic part of the proof-fpirit.
Elaterium* L.
'1$
Slit ripe
2
wild cucumbers, and pafs the juice, very
lightly
136
Part II.
P H A R
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
lightly preffed, through a fine hair fieve, into a glafa
veflel; then fet it by for fome hours until the thick¬
er part has fubfided. Pour off the thinner part
fwimming at the top, and feparate the reft by fil¬
tering : cover the thicker part, which remains af¬
ter filtration, with a linen cloth, and dry it with a
gentle heat.
What happens in part in preparing the extraft of
hemlock, happens in this preparation completely, viz.
the fpontaneous leparation of the medicinal matter of
the juice on Handing for a little time ; and the cafe is
the fame with the juices of feveral other vegetables, as
thofe of arum root, iris root, and bryony root. Pre¬
parations of this kind have been commonly called
facuU. The filtration above dire&ed, for draining
off fuch part of the watery fluid as cannot be feparated
by decantation, is not the common filtration through
paper, for this does not fucceed here : the grofler parts
of the juice, falling to the bottom, form a vifcid cake
upon the paper, which the liquid cannot pafs through.
The reparation is to be attempted in another manner,
fo as to drain the fluid from the top : this is ctfefted
by placing one end of fome moiftened ftn’ps of woollen
cloth, flcains of cotton, or the like, in the juice, and
laying the other end over the edge of the veflel, fo as
to hang down lower than the furface of the liquor : by
this management the reparation fucceeds in perfc&ioiu
Elaterium is a very violent hydragogue cathartic.
In general, previous to its operation^ it excites confi-
derable ficknefs at the flomach, and not unfrequently
it produces fevere vomiting. Hence it is feldsm em¬
ployed till other remedies have been tried in vain. But
in fome inftances of afcites it will produce a complete
evacuation of water where other cathartics have had
no cffedf. Two or three grains are in general a fuffi-
cient dofe. And perhaps the heft mode of exhibiting
it is by giving it only to the extent of half a grain at
a time,, and repeating that dofe every hour till it be¬
gins to operate.
ExtraS of logwood. L.
Take of fhavings oflogwood, one pound. Boil it four
times, or oftener, in a gallon of diltilled water, to
one half; then, all the liquors being mixed and
ftrained, boil them down to a proper confiftence.
The extract of logwood has been ufed lor a consi¬
derable time in fome of our hofpitals. It has an agree¬
able fweet tafte, with fome degree of aftringency ; and
hence becomes ferviceable in diarrhoeas, for moderate¬
ly conftringing the inteftines and orifices of the fmall-
er veffels: it may be given from a fcruple to half a
dram, and repeated five or fix times a-day with advan¬
tage. During the ufe of this medicine, the ftools are
frequently tinged red by it, which has occafioned fome
to be alarmed as if the colour proceeded from blood :
the pradtitioner therefore ought to caution the patient
againft any furprife of this kind.
The aftive parts of the logwood are difficultly ex-
trafted by means of water alone: hence the Edinburgh
college call in the aid of fpirit of wine, diredding this
extradd to be prepared in the fame manner as that of
jalap, afterwards to be mentioned. And of the two
modes, we are inclined to confider the latter as intitled
to the preference.
M A C Y.
ExtraS of Peruvian lark. L.
I’rrpara-
tions and
w
J
Take of Peruvian bark, coarfely powdered, one pound;
diftilled water, 12 pints. Boil it for one or fwn . _
hours, and pour off the liquor, which, while hot, 138
will be red and pellucid ; but, as it grows cold, will
become yellow and turbid. The fame quantity of
water being again poured on, boil the bark as be¬
fore, and repeat this boiling until the liquor, being
cold, remains clear. Then reduce all thefe liquor^,
mixed together and ftrained, to a pioper thicknefs,
by evaporation.
This extraft muft be prepared under two forms ;
one foft. and fit for making pills ; the other hardy that
it rray be reducible to a powder.
ExtraS of Peruvian bark with the refin. L.
Take of Peruvian bark, reduced to coarfe powder, one 139
pound ; redlified fpirit of wine, four pints. Digeft
it for four days, and pour off the tiniffure ; boil the
refiduum in to pints of diftilled water to two ; then
ftrain the tindture and dcco&ion feparateiy, evapo¬
rating the water from the decodtion, and diftilling
off the fpirit from the tindhire, until each begins to
be thickened. Laftly, mix the refinous with the
aqueous extradd, and make the mafs fit for forming
into pills.
ExtraS of Peruvian lark. E.
The Edinburgh college, who have not given a place 140-J
to any pure watery extradt of the bark, diredt their'
extradt of this medicine to be prepared in the fame
manner as their extradl of jalap, that is, almoft pre-
cifely in the fame manner as the extradl with refin of
the London college. It is, however, we think with
propriety, that the London college have given a place
to Loth extradls ; for neither is without its ufe.
Peruvian bark is a refinous drug ; the refin melts-
out by the heat, but is not perfedlly-diffolved by the
water : hence, in cooling, it feparates, renders the li¬
quor turbid, and in part falls to the bottom, as appears
manifeftiy upon examining the fediment by fpirit of
wine. This extradl might be made to better advan¬
tage by the affiftance of fpirit of wine, after the fame
manner as that of jalap ; and this method the Edin¬
burgh college have diredled. But all the fpirits which
can be expeded to be employed for this procefs among
us, are accompanied with fome degree of bad flavour :
this adheres moft ftrongly to the phlegmatic part of
the fpirit, which evaporating hit, muft communicate
this ill flavour to the extract ; a circumftance of very
great confequence, as this medicine is defigned for
thofe whofe llomaehs ate too weak to bear a due quan*
tity of bark in fubftance. Ten or twelve grains of the
hard extradl.are reckoned equivalent to about half a ^
dram of the bark itfelf.
In the Peruvian bark, however, we may readily di-
ftinguifh two different kinds of taftes, an aftringent and
a bitter one ; the former feems to refide principally ia
the reflnous matter, and the latter chiefly in the gum-.
my. The watery extradl is moderately ftrong in point
of bitternefs, but of the aftringency it has only a finall f
degree. The pure refin, on the other band, is ftrong,
in.aftringency, and weak in bitternefs. Both qualities :
M A C Y. Part II.
firft, the addition of any alkaline fait will precipitate Prepara-
it. tinns and
Compofi •
Extraft of fenna, L. tions.
Take of fenna, one pound ; diftiiled water, one gallon.
Boil the fenna in the diftilled water, adding after
its decoftion a little re&ified fpirit of wine. Eva¬
porate the {trained liquor to a proper thicknefs.
This extract had no place in our former pharmaco¬
poeias, hut may be confidered as an ufeful addition.
The refinous parts of henna are in fo fmall a propor¬
tion to the gummy, that they ate readily boiled out
together. The fpirit may be added when the decoc¬
tion is reduced to one half or to three pints.
This extract is given as a gentle purgative from to
grains to a fcruple ; or, in lefs quantity, as an affiftant
to the milder laxatives.
P H A R
are united in the extract with the refin ; which ap¬
pears to be the heft preparation of this kind that can
be obtained from this valuable drug.
Extracl of cafearilla. L.
«*
This extract, which is now for the firft time intro¬
duced into the pharmacopoeia of the London college,
and which has not yet obtained a place in that of E-
dinburgh, is dire&ed to be prepared by fpirit and wa¬
ter in the fame manner as the extracl of bark with the
refin. It poflefies, in a concentrated ftate, the aftive
conftituent parts of the cafcarilla, and has according¬
ly been already received into feveral of the heft foreign
pharmacopceias. In fome of thefe, as the Phamaco-
copceia Suecica, it is a mere watery extracl: but in
others, as the Pharmacopoeia Roffica, the aid both of
fpirits and water are conjoined ; and this we confider
as the heft preparation.
Extracl of jalap. E.
Take of jalap root one pound ; rectified fpirit of wine,
four pounds. Digelt four days, and pour out the
tinClure. Boil the remaining magma in ten pounds
of water to two pounds ; then {train the decoftion,
and evaporate it to the confiftence of pretty thin
honey. Draw off the fpirit from the tin&ure by
diftilhtion till what remains becomes thick. Then
mix the liquors thus infp ffated ; and keeping them
conftantly ftirring, evaporate to a proper confift¬
ence.
The extradl of jalap is direfted to be prepared by
the London college in the fame manner as their ex-
traft of Peruvian bark with the refin, which differs in
nothing from the mode of preparation above directed.
This extra61 is an ufeful purgative; by fome thought
preferable to the crude root, as being of more uniform
ftrength, and as the dofe, by the reje6lton of the
woody parts, is rendered fmaller: the mean dofe is 12
grains. If the fpirituous tindlure were infpi(fated by
itfelf, it would afford a refinous mafs, which, unlefs
thoroughly divided by proper admixtures, occafions
violent griping, and yet dees not prove fufficiently ca¬
thartic ; the watery deco6lions yield an extradl which
operates very weakly : both joined together, as in this
preparation, compofe an effe6lual and fafe purge. This
method of making extradls might be advantageoufty
applied to feveral other refinous fubftances, as the dry
woods, roots, barks, &c. A fmall quantity of fpirit
takes up the refin ; and much lefs water than would
otherwife be neceffary, extra6ls all the other foluble
parts.
In a former edition of the Edinburgh Pharmaco¬
poeia, a little fixed alkaline fait was ordered to be added
to the water ia which the jalap is boiled after the ac¬
tion of fpirit; on a fuppofition that this would en¬
able the water to extra6l more from the root than it
could by itfelf. But, fo far as the quantity of the al¬
kaline fait could go, it had the oppofite effe6l, im¬
peding the a6lion of the water. The refinous parts
of the jalap are diffolved by the fpirit; and little other
than the gummy matter remains for water to extra6l.
Now, if pure gum arabic be put into water along with
any alkaline fait, the fait will render the water inca¬
pable of diffolving the gum; if the gum be diffolved
Purified opium. E.
Take of opium, cut into fmall pieces, one pound ;
proof-fpirit of wine, 12 pints. Digeft the opium
with a gentle heat, ftirring now and then till it be
diffolved, and filter through paper: Diftil the tinc¬
ture, fo prepared, to a proper thicknefs.
Purified opium mull be kept in two forms ; onefoft,
proper for forming into pills ; the other hard, which
may be reduced into powder.
Opium was formerly purified by means of water ;
and in this ftate it had the name in our pharmacopoeia
of extraftum thebaicum. But proof fpirit has been found,
by experiments, to be the beft menilruum for opium,
having diffolved three-fourths of dried opium, which was
much more than was taken up either by redlified fpirit
or water. Hence we thus obtained moft entirely the
conftituents of opium free from any adhering impuri¬
ties : but it has been imagined that fome particular
advantages arife from the parts which are extradled by
water, efpecially after long digeftion ; and accordingly
the following extradl of opium has been recommended
by Mr Beaume.
Extraffi of opium prepared by long digejlion.
Let five pounds of good opium, cut in pieces, be boil-
ed about half an hour, in x 2 or 15 quarts of water:
{train the decodlion, and boil the remainder once or
twice in frefh water, that fo much of the opium as
is diffoluble in water may be got out. Evaporate
the {trained decodlions to about fix quarts; which
being put into a tin cucurbit, placed in a fand-bath,
keep up fuch a fire as may make the liquor nearly
boil, for three months together if the fire is con¬
tinued day and night, and for fix months if it is in¬
termitted in the night; filling up the veffel with
water in proportion to the evaporation, and feraping
the bottom with a wooden fpatula from time to time,
to get off the fediment which begins to precipitate
after fome days digeftion- The {ediment needs not
to be taken out till the boiling is finished ; at which
time the liquor is to be {trained when cold, and eva¬
porated to an extradl of a due confiftence for being
formed into pills.
The author obferves, that by keeping the liquor
ftrongly boiling, the tedious procefs may be confider-
ably expedited, and the fix months digeltion reduced
to
Part II. P H A R
Pre: ara to Tour months: that in the beginning of the dige-
ftion, a thick, vifcous, oily matter rifes to the top. and
forms a tenacious ikin as the liquor cools ; this is fup-
pofed to be analogous to effcntial oils, though wanting
their volatility : that the oil begins to difappear about
the end of the firil month, but Hill continues fenfible
till the end of the third, forming oily clouds as often
as the liquid cools: that the refin at the fame time
fettles to the bottom in cooling, preferving for a long
while its refinous form, but by degrees becoming pow¬
dery, and incapable of being any longer foftened, or
made to cohere by the heat : that when the procefs is
finifhed, part of it ftill continues a perfect refin, diflb-
luble in fpirit of wine, and part an indiffbluble pow¬
der : that when the digefted liquor is evaporated to
about a quart, and fet in the cold till next day, it
yields a brownifh earthy faline matter, called the ejfen-
Hal fait of opium, in figure nearly like the fedative fait
obtained from borax, intermingled with fmall needled
eryftals. He gives an account of his having made this
preparation fix or feven times. The vefiel he made ufe
of was about two inches and a half diameter in the
mouth : the quantity of water evaporated was about
24 ounces a-day, and from 130 to 140 quarts du¬
ring the whole digeftion. Out of 64 ounces of opium,
17 ounces remained undifiblved in the water ; the quan¬
tity of refinous matter precipitated during the digeltion,
was 12 ounces: from the liquor, evaporated to a quart,
he obtained a dram of efiential fait, and might, he fays,
have feparated more ; the liquor being then further
evaporated to a pilular confidence, the weight of the
extraft was 31 ounces.
It is fuppofed that the narcotic virtue of opium re-
fides in the oily and refinous parts ; and that the gum¬
my extraft, prepared by the above procefs, is endow¬
ed with the calming, fedative, or anodyne powers of
the opium, diverted of the narcotic quality as it is of
the fmell, and no longer productive of the diforders
which opium itfelf, and the other preparations of it,
frequently occafion. A cafe is mentioned, from which
the innocence and mildnefs of the medicine are appa¬
rent ; 50 grains having been taken in a day, and found
to agree well, where the common opiate preparations
could not be borne. But what (hare it poffefles of the
proper virtues of opium is net fo clear ; for the cure
of convulfive motions of the ftomach »and vomitings,
which at length happened after the extraft had been
continued daily in the above dofes for feveral years
(plujieurs annees), cannot perhaps be aferibed fairly to
the medicine.
If the theory of the procefs, and of the alteration
produced by it in the opium, he juft, a preparation e-
quivalent to the above may be obtained in a much rtrort-
er time. If the intention is to feparate the refinous
and oily parts of opium, they may be feparattd by
means of pure fpirit of wine, in as many hours as the
digeftion requires months. The reparation will alfo
be as complete, in regard to the remaining gum, tho’
fome part of the guna will in this method be loft, a
little of it being-taken up by the fpirit along with the
other principles.
In what particular part of opium its peculiar virtues
relide, has not perhaps been inconteftably afeertained ;
but this much feems dear from experiment, that the
pure gum, freed from all that fpirit can difi'olve, does
M A C Y. 3,g
not differ effentially in its foporific power from the re- Prepara-
finous part. tl ,ns and
There are grounds alfo to prefume, that by what- 40-^)0^'
ever means we deflroy or diminiih what is called the - y •
narcotic, foporific, virulent quality of opium, we (hall de-
ftroy or diminiftr likewife its ialutary operation. For
the ill effedts which it produces in certain cafes, feem
to be no other than the neceffary conkquences of the
fame power, by which it proves fo beneficial in 0-
theis.
Extratt of wormwood. Suec.
Take any quantity of the tops of wormwood, and
pour upon it double its weight of water. Boil it
for a flrort time over a gentle fire, then prefs out
the liquor. Boil the refiduum again in a frefh quan¬
tity of water, and after expreffion, ftrain it. Let
the drained liquor be evaporated in a water-bath to
a proper confiftence.
In this extradl we have one of the ftrongeft vege¬
table bitters in its moft concentrated ftate; and though
it is not perhaps to be confidertd as fuperior to the
extraft of gentian, yet it furnifhes a good variety, and
is a more agreeable form for exhibiting the wormwood
than that of ftrong tindture.
[47
Extra£1 of dandelion. Suec.
This is diredfed to be prepared from the roots of
the dandelion, colledbed early in the fpring, or late in
the autumn, in the fame manner as the extradtum ab-
finthii. And as far as the dandelion really pofl'eftes a
refolvent, aperient, or diuretic power, it furnifhes a
convenient form for obtaining thefe effedts from it.
But as the dandelion is well known to abound with a
milky juice, it is probable that the adhivity of the me¬
dicine would be increafed from employing fpirit alfo
in the extradtion of its medical virtues.
Watery extras of aloes. Suec.
Take of hepatic aloes one pound ; cold fpring-water, ^ ,0
four pounds; juice of citrons, one pound. Mace- r
rate them in a glafs veflel for one or two days., (ba¬
king the vtfiel from time to time. When the re.
finous and feculent parts have fubfided, pour off the
liquor ; and to the refiduum add frefh water, till
by this treatment it obtains a little impregnation. Let
the drained liquors be then evaporated in a warm
bath to the confiftence of honey.
Although aloes are perhaps upon the whole a better
medicine, in their crude ftate, where the gummy and
refinous n atters are united, than in thofe preparations
where' either is letained feparately, yet the gummy
extiadl which is thus obtained is at lead lefs difagree-
able, having little fmel! or tafte, while at the fame time
it is a very powerful purgative : hence it may be uie-
fully employed at lead on fome occafions.
Gummy extraB of myrrh. Brun.
Take of myrrh, half a pound ; fpring-water, four
pounds. Let the myrrh be diffolved by gentle di¬
geftion and repeated agitation of the veffel for four
or five days : let the water fwimming above the
myrrh be then poured off, drained, and evaporated
to the confiftence of an ex trad.
149
This
320
Prepara.
tions and
Coinpoii-
tiong.
P H A R
rt,;> wntery extras of myrrh may be ufeful in fome
cafes, as being much deprived of the heating qualities
which it has in its crude ftate : and if it furnilhes us
in phthilis pulmonalis with that ufeful remedy which
fome imagine, it may probably be moil advantageoufly
exhibited under this form.
Rejined liquorice. Dan.
' 5° Take any quantity of Spanifh liquorice, cut it into
fuwdl fragments, diffclve it in tepid water, and ftrain
the folution. Let the liquor be poured off from
the feculent part after it has fubfided, and infpiffated
by a gentle heat.
The extra£k of liquorice already mentioned, when it
is prepared with due fkill and attention, is unqueftion-
ably an article fuperior to this ; but it is very rarely
met with in the (hops of our druggifts or apothecaries
as prepared by themfelves. In its place they very
commonly employ either the extraft brought from
Spain, or that prepared by the makers of liquorice at
home ; both of which very commonly abound with
impurities. It has even been faid, that a portion of
land is not unfrequently mixed with it to increafe the
■weight : but whether the impurities arofe from this
caufe, or from the flovenly mode of preparing it, con-
liderable advantage mutt arife from freeing it from all
thefe before it be employed for any purpofe in medi¬
cine. And in modern practice it i» frequently ufed,
not only in troches and pills, but alfo for fufpending
powders in waters ; fuch as the powder of Peruvian
bark: and the powder of bark, when thus fufpended,
is in general taken more readily by children than is
any other form. Hence confiderable advantage mu ft
arife from a proper and eafy mode of purifying it,
which the above procefs affords. We are of opinion,
1 therefore, that although a place be with propriety given
to the extract of liquorice prepared by the apothecaries
themfelves, refined liquorice ought alfo to be introdu¬
ced into our pharmacopoeias ; and it would be very
convenient to keep it in the (hops in a foft ooniiftence
fit for making prlls, as it would not only anfwer that
purpofe, but admit of a ready folution in water when
requifite. To this confiftence, indeed, an obje&ion
occurs, from its being apt to grow nrouldy ; but this
may be efFedually prevented by the addition of a fmall
proportion of fpirit.
Befides the extra&s which we have here fele&ed
from the foreign pharmacopoeias, many others alfo ftill
retain a place in ftveral of thefe ; fuch, for example, as
the extrafium arnica, artemifta, bryonia, cardui, ttniaurei,
cochlear'ue, croci, See. Several of thefe had formerly a
place in our pharmacopoeias, but are now with pro-
Tpriety reje&ed ; becaufe, where thefc fubftances are to
be employed, they may with much more advantage be
exhibited under other forms. And, indeed, although
under the form of extvadb we have a condenfation of
fome aftive principles, yet by the adlion of fire others
are very apt to be loft. Hence, where any article can
he conveniently exhibited in fubftance, that form is in
general preferable ; and recourfe fhould be had to ex¬
tracts only with a view to fome particular intention.
Our colleges therefore have with propriety diminifhed
the number of them ; and even thofe which they have
adopted are but feldora to be had recourfe to in pre-
fetence to other forms In the formation of many of
M A C Y. Part If,’
thofe extrafts, retained by the foreign colleges, the i'rcpara.
moft valuable principles are either entirely diflipated ortlons and
deftroyed by the fire. We think, however, that
vantage may fometimes be obtained from adopting j
thefe which are here feledted.
The chapter on extrafts and refins in the London
pharmacopoeia is concluded with the two following
general directions:
r. All the extra&s, during the time of infpiffation,
muft be gently agitated.
2. On all the fofter watery extracts, a fmall quan¬
tity of fpirit of wine muft be fprinkled.
Chap. V. Exprejfed Oils*
Expressed oils are obtained chiefly from certain 154
feeds and kernels of fruits,by thoroughly pounding them
in a ftone mortar, or, where the quantities are large,
grinding them in mills, and then including them in a
canvas bag, which is wrapt in a hair-cloth, and ftrongly
prtfted between iron plates. The canvas, if employed
alone, would be fqueezed fo clofe to the plates of the
prefs as to prevent the oil from running down : by
the interpofition of the hair cloth a free paffage is al¬
lowed it.
Sundry machines have been contrived, both for
grinding the fubject and prefling out the oil, in the
way of bufinefs. To facilitate the expreffion, it is
ufual to warm either the plates of the prefs, or the
fubjedl itfelf after the grinding, by keeping it ftirring
in a proper veflel over the fire; the oil, liquefied by
the heat, feparates more freely and more plentifully.
When the oil is defigned for medicinal purpofes, this
pra&ice is not to be allowed ; for heat, efpecially if its
degree be fufficient to be of any confiderable advantage
for promoting the reparation, renders the oil lefs foft
and palatable, imprefies a difagreeable flavour, and in-
creafes its difpofiucn to grow rancid : hence the col¬
leges both of London and Edinburgh exprcfsly require
the operation to be performed without heat
Nor are the oils to be kept in a warm place after
their expreflion. Expofed for a few days to a heat no
gr-fater than that of the human body, they lofe their
emollient quality, and become highly rancid and acri¬
monious. Too much care cannot be taken for pre¬
venting any tendency to this acrid irritating ftate in
medicines, fo often ufed for abating immoderate irri¬
tation.
v:o much are thefe ©ils difpofed to this injurious al¬
teration, that they frequently contract an acrimony and
rancidity while contained in the original fubjefts.
Hence great care is requifite in the choice of the
undtuous feeds and kernels, which are often met with
very rancid ; almonds are particularly liable to incon¬
veniences of this kind.
Exprefled oils are prepared for mechanic ufes from
fundry different fubjedfs, as nuts, poppy-feed, hemp-
feed, rape-feed, and others. Thofe diredfed for medi¬
cinal purpofes in the London and Edinburgh pharma¬
copoeias are the following:
Oil of almonds. L. E.
Pound frefh almonds, either fweet or bitter, in a mor- j
tar, then prefs out t!ie oil in a cold pref*.
In
Part H.
P H A R
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoli-
tions.
*53
*54
In the fame manner is to be exprefled oil of llnfeed
and oil of muftard-feed.
_ The oil of almonds is prepared from the fweet and
bitter almonds indifferently, the oils obtained from
both forts being exa&ly the fame. Nor are the differ¬
ences of the other oils very confiderable, the diferimr-
nating qualities of the fubjedts not refiding in the oils
that are thus obtained by exprtflion. The oil of lin-
feed requires indeed feme peculiarities from containing
a proportion of vegetable mucilage ; but the oil of
muftard-feed is as foft, infipid, and void of pungency,
as that of fweet almonds, the pungency of the muitard
remaining entire in the cake left after the exprdfion.
The feveral oils differ in feme of their properties from
Taeh other ; but in medicinal qualities they appear to
be all nearly alike, and agree in one common emollient
virtue. They foften and relax the folids, and obtund
acrimonious humours ; and thus become ferviceable in¬
ternally in pains, inflammations, heat of urine, hoarfe-
nefi., tickling coughs, &c in glyflers, for lubricating
the intellines, and promoting the r;eftion of indurated
feces ; and in external applications, for tenfion and
rigidity of particular parts. Their common dofe is
half an ounce; in fome cafes they are given to the
quantity of three or four ounces. The mod commo¬
dious forms for their exhibition we fhall fee hereafter
in the chapter of Emulfions.
Cajlor oil. L.
This oil is dire&ed by the London college to be
prepared in the fame manner as that of almonds, the
feeds or nuts being taken from the hulks before put¬
ting them into the mortar. Palma Chrifti, or cailor
oil, (See Oleum Palma Chri/li, and Ricinus), is a
gentle and ufeful purgative : it ge-nerally produces
its effe&s without griping, and may be given with
fafety where acrid purgatives are improper. With
adults, from half an ounce to an ounce is generally
requifite for a dofe. I his article, however, is very
feldom prepared by our apothecaries, being in general
imported under the form of oil from the Weft Indies;
hence the Edinburgh college have not mentioned it
among their preparations, but merely given it a place
in their lift of the materia medica. But when our
apothecaries prepare it for thtmfelves, they are more
certain of obtaining a pure oil, and one too obtained
without the aid of heat, which is often employed, and
gives a much inferior oil. It is therefore with pro¬
priety that the London college have given direftions
tor the preparation of it by the apothecary himfdf.
But even the London college have not thought it
neceflary to give direftions for the preparation of the
following expreffed oils, which, as well as the oleum
ricim, are alfo introduced into the lift of the materia
medica by the Edinburgh college.
turns.
l5S
M A C Y. 12I
had occafion to mention in Other parts of the work, Prepara-
when treating of the articles from which they are ob- *ions anti
tained. Scc Olea, Mace, &c. Compofi-
Oil of chocolate nuts. Suec.
Exprefs the oil from the nuts flightly toafted, and freed
from their coverings.
In this oil we have the nutritious part of chocolate,
free from thofe aromatics with which it is united in the
ftate in which it is kept in our fheps. And although
under the 'orm of chocolate it fits perhaps more eafily
on the 'homach than in molt other forms; yet where
from any particular circu/nflance, aromatics are con!
traindicated, oil in its pure ftate gives us an op¬
portunity of employing in different ways this mild
nutritious article.
Oil of hyofcyamus. Suec.
This oil is due&ed to be obtained by expreflion from 156
the feeds of the hyofeyamus, in the fame manner as
that of almonds.
Of the narcotic powers of the hyofevamus fome ob-
fervations have already been offered. This oil, although
an expreffed one, is faid to retain thefe virtues ; and
accordingly it has entered the compofition of’fome
anodyne ointments and plrfters. We are, however
inclined to think, that " the fedative power of
hyofeyamus is wanted under the form of oil, it may be
beft obtained from impregnating olive oil by the leaves
of the plant.
Egg oil. Suec.
ExpreJJed oil of bay berries^
tnacey
0 lives y
palm.
Thefe alfo are principally confidered as pofTefling
only an emollient virtue ; but as far as they have beef
fuppofed^o exert any peculiar qualities, thefe we have
Take any quantity of frefh eggs, boil them till they *
be quite hard ; then take out th» yolks, break them 37
in pieces, and roaft them gently in a frying-pan till
they feel greafy when prefled between the fingers •
oft WHlIC Warm int° 3 hair‘baS’ and exprefi
The yolk of the egg is well known to be a mild nu-
tntious fubftance: but notwithftanding the many vir¬
tues at one time attributed to it, of being paregoric
and ftyptic, as externally applied; and of being ufeful
m ftomach complaints, dyfentery, and different affec¬
tions of the alimentary canal, when taken internally ; 
it is much to be doubted whether it be in any other
way ufeful in medicine than as an article of diet • and
we are very uncertain whether any particular purpofe
m medicine will beanfwered by this ekpreffed oil: but
as it holes a place in moft of the foreign pharmaco-
pceias of modern date, it may juftly be confidered as
deiervmg fome attention.
Notwithftanding the juftice of the obfervation re-
fpecting the great fimilarity of expreffed oils in gene¬
ral, yet there can be no doubt that in fome inftances
they obtain a peculiar impregnation. This manifeftly
appears in the oleum ricini, oleum nucis mofehatay and
fome of the others mentioned above. Indeed oils ex¬
preffed from aromatic iubftances in general retain fome
admixture of the eflential oil of the fubjeft from which
they are exprefled. Nor is this furprifing, when we
confider that in fome cafes the effential oil exifts in a
feparate Hate even in the growing plant.
The rinds of the feveral varieties of oranges, lemons
and citrons, yield by a kind of expreffion their effential
S f oil*
3*2
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoli-
tions.
PHARMACY.
Jj8
oils almofl: pure, and nearly fimilar to thofe which are
obtained from them by diitillation. The efTential oils,
in which the fragrance and aromatic warmth of thefe
/ fruits refide, are contained in numerous little veficles,
which may be diftinguiihed by the naked eye, fpread
all over the furface of the peel. If the rind be cut in
llices, and tbe flices feparately doubled or bent in dif¬
ferent parts, and fqueezed between the fingers, the
veficles burft at the bending, and difeharge the oil in
a number of fine flender jets. A glafs plate being fet
upright in a glafs or porcelain vefiel, and the flices
fqueezed againft. the plates, the little jets unite into
drops upon the plate, and trickle down into the veflel
beneath. But though this procefs affords the true
native oil in the fame ftate wherein it exifted in the
fubjeft, unaltered by fire or other agents, it is not
practicable to advantage unlefs where the fruit is very
plentiful, as only a fmall part of the oil it contains can
thus be extrafted or collected. ,
The oil is more perfectly feparated by rubbing the
rind upon a lump of fugar. The fugar, by the in¬
equality of its furface, produces the effect of a rafp in
tearing open the oily veficles, and in proportion as the
veficles are opened the fugar imbibes the oil. When
the outward part of the lump is fufficiently moiftened,
it is feraped off, and the operation continued on the
frefh furface. The oil thus-combined with the fugar
is fit for moft of the ufes to which it is applied in a
fluid ftate. Indeed the pure effential oils obtained by
diflillation are often purpofely mixed with fugar to
render their ufe the more commodious.
Chap, Vl. Ejfential Oils.
Essential oils are obtained only from odoriferous
fubftances ; but not equally from all of this clafs, nor in
quantity proportional to their degree of odour, borne
which, if we were to reafon from analogy, fhould feem
very wrell fitted for this procefs, yield extremely little
oil, and others none at all. Rofes and camomile
flowers, whofe ftrong and lading fmell promifes abun¬
dance, are found upon experiment to contain but a
■fmall quantity ; the violet and jeffamine flower, which
perfume the air with their odour, lofe their fmell upon
the gentlefl coftion, and do not afford the leaf! per¬
ceptible mark of oil on being diftilled unlefs immenfc
quantities are fubmitted to the operation at once j
while favin, whofe difagreeable feent extends to no
great diffance, gives out the largeft proportion of oil
of almofl; any vegetable known.
Nor are the fame plants equally fit for this opera¬
tion when produced in different foils or feafons, or at
different times of their growth. Some yield more oil
if gathered when the flowers begin to fall off than at
any other time. Of this we have examples in lavender
and rue; others, as fage* afford the largeft quantity
when young, before they have fent forth any flowers;
and others, as thyme, when the flowers have juft ap¬
peared. All fragrant herbs yield a larger proportion
of oil when produced in dry foils and warm fummers
than in oppofite circumftances. On the other hand,
fome of the difagreeable ftrong-feented ones, as worm¬
wood, are faid to contain moft in rainy feafons and
when growing in moift rich grounds.
Several of the chemifts have been of opinion> that,
Part II,
herbs and flowers, moderately dried, yield a greater PrePara-
quantity of efl'ential oil than if they were diftilled when ^,W1S
frefh. It is fuppofed, that the oil being already blend-1_ *
ed, in frefh plants, with a watery fluid, great part of
it temains diifufed through the water after the diftilla-
tion, divided into particles too minute to unite and be
colle&ed ; whereas in drying, the oily parts, on the
exhalation of the moifture which kept them divided
and difperfed, run together into globules, which have
little difpofition to mingle with watery fluids, and
eafily feparate from the water employed in the diftil-
lation.
This theory, however, does not appear to be quite
fatisfaftory ; for though the oil be collected in the
fubjeft into diftinft globules, it does not rife in that
form, but is relolved into vapour, and blended and
coagitated by the heat with the vrpour of the water ;
and if the oil in a dry plant was lefs difpofed to unite
with aqueous fluids than in a frefh one, the dry ought
to yield a weaker infufion than the frefh ; the contrary
of which is generally found to obtain. As the oil
of the dry plant is moft perfectly extra&ed and kept
drffolved by the water before the diftillation, it is dif¬
ficult to conceive any reafen why it fhculd have a
greater tendency to feparate from the water after¬
wards.
The opinion of dry plants yielding moft oil feemsto
have arifen from an obfevvation of Hoffman, which has
probably been mifunderftood : “ A pound (he fays)
of dry fpike flowers yields an ounce of oil, but if they
were diftilled frefh they would fcarcely yield above
half an ounce ; and the cafe is the fame in balm,
fage, &c. The reafon is, that in drying the watery
humidity exhales; and as from two pounds of a frefh
plant we do not obtain above one pound of dry, and
little of the fubtile oil evaporates in the drying, it
follows, that more oil ought to be afforded by the
dry than by the frefh.” The meaning of which feema
to be no more than this, that if two pounds of a frefh
plant are by drying reduced to one without any lofs
of the oil, then the one pound dry ought to be equi¬
valent to the two frefh. A late writer quotes an ex¬
periment of Neumann, which appears to be mifunder¬
ftood in the fame manner ; for Neumann, in the place
referred to, fays only that dry wormwood is found to
yield much more oil than an equal weight of the frefh
plant. Trials are yet wanting in which frefh and dry
plants have been brought to a fair comparifon, by di¬
viding a quantity of the fubje£t into two equal weights,,-
and diftilling one while frefh, and the other after it
has been carefully and moderately dried.
But whatever may be -the effeft of moderate exfic-
cation, it is certain, that if the drying be long conti¬
nued, the produce of oil will be dimimfhed, its colour
altered, and its fmell impaired.
With regard to the proportion of water to be em¬
ployed, if whole plants moderately dried are ufed, or
the fhavings of woods, as much of either may be put
into the veffel as, lightly preffed, will occupy half its
cavity ; and as much water may be added as will fill
two-thirds of it. The water and ingredients altoge¬
ther-fhould never take up more than three-fourths of
the ftill: there fhould be liquor enough to prevent any
danger of an empyreuma, but not fo much as to be.
too apt to boil over into the receiver,
r The
Pan II.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Ccinpoli-
tions.
The maceration ihould be continued fo long that the
water may fully penetrate the parts of the fubjedt.
To promote this efFedt, woods ftiould be thinly lhaved
—w acrofs the grain or fawn, roots cut tranfverfely into
thin ilices, barks reduced into coarfe powder, and
feeds flightly bruifed. Very compadt and tenacious
fubftances require the maceration to be continued a
week or two, or longer ; for thofe of a fofter and
loofer texture, two or three days are fufficient; while
fome tender herbs and flowers not only ftand in no need
of maceration, but are even injured by it.
Whether the addition of fea-falt, which fome have
recommended, be of any real fervice, is much to be
doubted. The ufes generally affigned to it are, to
penetrate and unlock the texture of the fubjedt more
efiedtually than Ample water could do, and to prevent
the fermentation or putrefadtion which the matter is
apt to run into during the length of time for which
the maceration is ofttH continued. But fea fait feems
rather to harden and condenfe, than to fofteo and re-
folve, both vegetable and animal fubjc&s ; and if it
prevents putrefadtion, it mart, on that very account,
be injurious rather than of fervice. The refolution
here aimed at approaches near to a beginning putre¬
fadtion ; and faline fubftances, by retarding this, pro¬
long the maceration far beyond the time that would
otherwife be neceflary. It is in the power of the ope¬
rator, when he perceives the procefs coming near this
pitch, to put a flop to it at pieafure, by proceeding
immediately to diftillation. By this means the whole
affair will be finifhed in a very little time, with at lead
equal advantage in every other refpedt} provided the
manual operations of pounding, rafping, and the like,
which are equally neceffary in either cafe, be minutely
complied with.
Bodies of a very vifeous and compaft texture were
diredlcd, in the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, to be fer¬
mented for fome days with a little yefL Half their
quantity of water is fufficient for performing the fer¬
mentation ; as much more as is neceflTary is to be added
afterwards before the diftillation. This procefs un¬
doubtedly promotes the refolution of the fubjeft, and
the extrication of the 01L It rarely happens, however,
that affiftances of this kind are needful. Particular
care muft be had not to continue the fermentation too
long ; or to give a bad flavour to the oil by an ill-
choftn ferment, or ufing too large a quantity of any.
Some chemifts pretend, that by the addition of falls
and acid fpirits they have been enabled to gain more
oil from certain vegetable matters than could poffibly
be got from them without fuch affiftance. Experi¬
ments made on purpofe to fettle this point feem to
prove the contrary: this at leafl is conftantly found
to be true, that where there is any rcafon to think"
the produce greater than ufual, the quality of the oil
is proportionally injured. The quantity of true efiTen-
tial oil in. vegetables can by no means be increafed ;
and what is really contained in them may be eafily fe-
parated without any addition of this kind. All that
, ■ faline matters can do in this refpeft is to make the
? *ater fufceptible of a greater degree of heat than it
C&n fuftain by itfelf, and thus enable it to carry up a
grofs unauous matter not volatile enough to rife with
pure water: this grofs matter, mingling with the
|>ure oft, mcreafes the quantity, but at the fame time
muft neceflarily debafe Its quality. And indeed, when
water alone is ufed, the oil which comes over about
the end of the operation is remarkably lefs fragrant,
and of a thicker confidence, than that which rifes at
the beginning : di'ftilled a fec'ond time, with a gentle
heat, it leaves a large quantity of grofs slmoft infipid
refinous matter behind.
The choice of proper inftruments is of great confe-
quence for the performance of this procefs to advan¬
tage. There are fome oils which pafs freely over the
fwan-neck of the head of the common ftill; otfters,
lefs volatile, cannot eafily be made to rife fo high. For
obtaining thefe laft, we would recommend a large low
head, having a rim or hollow canal round it. In this
canal the oil is detained on its firft afeent, and thence
conveyed at once into the receiver, the advantages of
which are fufficiently obvious.
With regard to the lire, the operator ought to be
expeditious in raffing it at firft, and to keep it up,
during the whole procefs, of fuch a degree that tfffi
oil may freely diftil; otherwife the oil will be expo-
fed to an unneceflary heat; a circumftance which
ought as much as poffible to be avoided. Fire com¬
municates to all thefe oils a difagreeable impregnation,
as is evident from their being much lefs grateful
when newly diftilled, than after they have flood for
fome time in a cool place ; the longer the heat is con¬
tinued, the more alteration it muft produce in them.
The greater number of oils require for their diftil¬
lation the heat of water ftrongly boiling: but there
are many alfo which rife with a heat confiderably lefs;
fuch as thofe of lemon and citron-peel, of the flowers
of lavender and rofe*nary, and of almoft all the more
odoriferous kinds of flowers. Wl: have already ob¬
served, that thefe flowers have their fragrance much
injured, or even deftroyed, by beating or bruifing
them ; it is impaired alio by the immerfion in water
m the prefent procefs, and the more fo in proportion
to the continuance of the immerfion and the heat :
hence oils, diftilled in the common manner, prove
much lefs agreeable in fmell than the fubjeds them-
felves. for the diftillation of fubftances of this clafs
another method has been contrived; inftead of being
immerfed in water, they are expofed only to its va¬
pour. A proper quantity of water being put into
the bottom of the ftill, the odoriferous herbs or flowers
are laid lightly in a bafket, of fuch a fize that it may
ester into the ftill, and reft againft its fides, juft above
the water. The head being then fitted on, and the
water made to boil, the fteam, percolating through
the fubjeft, imbibes the oil, without impairing its
fragrance, and carries it over to the receiver. ^Oila
thus obtained poflefs the odour of the fubjed in an
exquifite degree, and have nothing of the difagreeable
feent perceivable in thofe diftilled by boiling them in
water in the common manner.
. ™ay be proper to obferve, that thofe oils which
rife with a lefs heat than that of boiling water, are
generally called, by the chemical and pharmaceutical
writers, light oils; and thofe which require the heat
of water ftrongly boiling, are calledWe
have avoided thefe expreffions, as they might be
thought to relate to the comparative gravities of the
oils; with which the volatility or fixednefs have no
connedion. Olive oil is lighter thaa moft of the ef-
§ f2. fential
3*3
erepara
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
324 P H A R
Frepara. fential oils; but the heat requifite to make it diftil,
C0rn Tfi cxceeds that in which the heavieft effential oil diftils,
tionsf0 1_ confiderably more than the heat of boiling water ex-
\^‘ ceeds that of ice.
The water employed in the diftillation of eflential
oils always imbibes fome portion of the oil; as is
evident from the fmell, tafte, and colour, which it
acquires. It cannot, however, retain above a certain
quantity; and therefore, fuch as has been already
ufed and confequently faturated with oil, may be ad-
vantageoufly employed, inltead of common water, in
a fecond, third, or any future diftillation of the fame
fubjeft.
Some late chemical writers recommend, not the wa*
ter which comes over, but that which remains in the
ftill, to be ufed a fecond time. This can be of no
fervice ; as containing only fuch parts of the vegetable
as are incapable of arifing in diftillation, and which
ferve only to impede the a&ion of the water as a men-
ftruum, and to endanger an empyreuma.
After the diftilhtion of one oil, particular care
fhould be taken to cleanfe the worm before it be cm*
• ployed in the diftillation of a different plant. Some
oils, thofe of wormwood and anifeeds for inftance,
adhere to it fo tenacioufly, as not to be melted out
by heat, or walhed off by water: the beft way of
cleanfing the worm from thefe, is to run a little fpirit
of wine through it.
Effential oils, after they are diftilled, (hould be fuf-
fered to ftand for fome days, in veffels loofely covered
with paper, till they have loft their difagreeable fiery
odour, and become limpid: then put them up in
fmall bottles, which are to be kept quite full, clofely
flopped, in a cool place : with thefe cautions, they will
retain their virtues in perfe&ion for many years.
When carelefsly kept, they in time gradually lofe
their flavour, and become grofs and thick. Some
endeavour to recover them after they have undergone
this change, by grinding them with about thrice their
weight of common fait, then adding a large propor¬
tion of water, and diftilling them afrefh : the purer
part rifes thin and limpid, poffefling a great degree
of the priftine fmell and tafte of the oil, though in¬
ferior in both refpe&s to the original oil. This rec¬
tification, as it is called, fucceeds equally without
the fait .* the oils, when thus altered, are nearly in
the fame ftate with the turpentines, and other thick¬
ened oily juices, which readily yield their purer oil in
diftiliation with water alone. _ ^
When eflential oils have entirely loft their fmell,
fome recommend adding them in the diftillation of a
frefh quantity of the oil of the fame plant; by which
means they are faid to fatiate themfelves anew with
the odorous mat ter, and become entirelyrenovated. Hus
practice, however, ought doubtlefs to be difapproved,
as being no other than a fpecious fophiftication; for
it can do no more than divide, between the old and
the new, the a&ive matter which belongs to the new
alone. .
Effential oils, medicinally confidered, agree in the
general qualities of pungency and heat; in particular
virtues, they differ as muyli as the fubjedt from...huh
they are obtainedj the oil being the direS principle
M A C Y. Part IF*
in which the virtues, or at leaft a confiderable part of Prepara*
the virtues, of the feveral fubjedls re fide. Thus the
carminative virtue of the warm feeds, the diuretic of tionsr
juniper-berries, the emmenagogue of favin, the ner- —■»»J
vine of rofemary, the ftomachic of mint, the anti-
fcorbutic of fi.urvy-grafs, the cordial of aromatics,
&c are fuppofed to be concentrated in their oil.
There is another remarkable difference in eflential
oils, the foundation of'which is lefs obvious, viz. the
degree of their pungency and heat. Thefe are by
no means in proportion, as might be expe&ed, to
thofe of the fubjed they were drawn from. The oil
of cinnamon, for inftance, is very pungent and fiery}
in its undiluted ftate it is almoft cauftic ; whereas
cl@ves, a fpice which in fubftance is far more pungent
than the other, yields an oil which is far lefs fo. This
difference feems to depend partly on the quantity of
oil afforded, cinnamon yielding much lefs than cloves,
and confequently having its active matter concentrated
into a fmaller volume ; partly on a difference in the
nature of the adtive parts themfelves; for though ef¬
fential oils contain always the fpeeific odour and fla¬
vour of their fubjedts, whether grateful or ungrateful,
they do not always contain the whole pungency; this
refides frequently in a more fixed refinous matter, and
does not rife with the oil. After the diftillation of
cloves, pepper, and fame other fpices, a part of their
pungency is found to remain behind : a Ample tinc¬
ture of them in redlified fpirit of wine is even more
pungent than their pure eflential oils.
The more grateful oils are frequently ufed for re¬
conciling to the ftomach medicines of themfelves dif-
guftful. It has been cuftomary to employ them as
corredtors for the refinous purgatives ; an ufe which
they do not feem to be well adapted to. All the fer¬
vice they can here be of, is, to make the refin fit more
eafily at firft on the ftomach : far from abating the
irritating quality on which the virulence of its opera¬
tion depends, thefe pungent oils fuperadd a frefh fti-
mulus.
Effential oils are never given alone, on account of
their extreme heat and pungency; which in fome is
fo great, that a fingle drop let fall upon the tongue
produces a gangrenous efehar. They are readily im¬
bibed by pure dry fugar, and in this form may be con¬
veniently exhibited. Ground with eight or ten times
their weight of fugar. they become foluble in aqueous
liquors, and thus may be diluted to any afligned de¬
gree. Mucilages alfo render them nmfciL le with wa¬
ter into an uniform milky liquor. They diffolve like-
wife in fpirit of wine ; the more fragrant in an equal
weight, and almoft all of them in lefs than four times
their own quantity ; thefe folutions may be eithei?
taken on fu^ar, or mixed with fyrups, or the likes
on mixing them with water, the liquor grows milky,
and the oil feparates.
The more pungent oils are employed externally
againft paralytic complaints, numbnefs, paiqs, and
aches, cold tumors, and in other cafes where parti¬
cular parts require to be heated or ftimulated. The
tooth-ach is fometimes relieved by a drop of thefe al¬
moft cauftic oils, received on cotton, ant? cautioufty
introdjiced into the hollow tooth.
JLJfential
Part II.
Prepara¬
tion' and
Compofi-
tions.
*59
P H A
EJfenUal oil of anlfey £,.
caraway,
lavender,
peppermint,
Jpearmint,
* origanum,
pennyroyal,
rofemary,
juniper-berry,
fajfafras vot.
Let thefe oils be dratt'n off by diftillation, from an
alembic wkh a large refrigeratory ; but, to prevent
an empyreuma, water rmift be added to the ingre¬
dient ; in which they muft be macerated before di-
ftillation.
The water which comes over with the oil in di¬
ftillation is to be kept for ufe.
EJfenlial oils, E.
Of the herbs of garden mint.
Of peppermint,
Offavin.
Of the tops of rofemary.
Of the flowering fpikes of lavender.
Of an feeds.
Ofjumper-berries.
Of fajfafras root.
Of Jamaica pepper.
160 Thefe are prepared almoft in the fame manner as the
limple diftilled waters, excepting that for procuring
the oil a fomewhat lefs quantity of water is to be
ufed. Seeds and woody matters are firft to be
bruited or rafped. The oil rifes with the water;
and as it is lighter or heavier, fwims on the fur-
face, or finks to the bottom, from which it is af¬
terwards to be feparated.
It is, however, to be remarked, that, in preparing
thefe diftilled waters and oils, fo many varieties mull
necefiarily take place from the goodnefs of the fub.
jedt itfelf, its texture, the time of the year, and
fuch like circumftances, that a certain and general
rule, which fliould ftridlly apply to each example,
can fcarcely be laid down ; wherefore wc have only
explained the general method, leaving many things
to be varied by the judgment of the operator.
To the dired^ions for preparing thefe effential oils
given by the London and Edinburgh colleges, we
(hall here next fubjoin a few remarks on thei\ medical
properties.
EJfential oil of anifeeds. L. E.
161 . This oil pofiefles the tafte and frnell of the anileeds
in pe-edfion. It is one of the miided of the diftilled
oils; 15 or 20 drops may be taken at a time without
danger, thoygh common pradlice rarely goes fo far
as half this number Its fmell is extremely durable
and diffufive; milk drawn from the breaft after ta¬
king it, is found impregnated with its odour; and
poffibly this may be, in part, the foundation of the
pedborai virtues ufually aferihed to it ; in flatulencies
and colics, it is faid by feme to be lefs elfedtual than
the feeds themfelves.
It is remarkable of this oil, that it congeals, even
when the air is not fcuficly cold, into a butyraceous
coafifteoce; and hence, in the ditlillation of it, the
R m a c Y.
operator ought not to be over-felicitous In keepingPrepara-
the water in the refrigeratory too cool: it beKovesnons an(*
him rather to let it grow fomewhat hot, particularly^’™ 01”
towards the end of the procefs ; o*herwife the oil —y—■.
congealing may fo ftop up the worm, as to endanger
blowing off the head of the ftill, or at leaft a confide-
rable quantity of oil will remain in it.
EJfential oil of caraway feeds. L.
The fl avour of this exadtly refemblea that of the 162
caraway itfelf. It is a very hoc and pungent oil; a
fingle drop is a moderate dofe, and five or fix is a
very large one. It is not unfrcquently ufed as a carmi¬
native ; and fuppofed by fome to be peculiarly fer-
viceable for promoting urine, to which it communi¬
cates fome degree of its fmtll.
EJjential oil of lavenderflowers. L. E.
This oil, when in perfedlion, is very limpid, of a 163
pleafant yeilowilh colour, extremely fragrant, poflef-
fing in an eminent degree the peculiar fmell generally
admired in the flowers. It is a medicine of great ufe,
both externally and internally, in paralytic and le¬
thargic complaints, rheumatic pains, and debilities of
the nervous fyftem. The dofe is from one drop to
five or fix.
Lavender flowers yield the mod fragrant oil, and
confiderably the largeft quantity of it, when they are
ready to fall off fpontaneoufly, and the leaves begin
to (how themfelves: the feeds give out extremely
little. The flowers may be feparated from the reft of
the plant, by drying it a little, and then gently beat¬
ing it : they Ihould be immediately committed to di¬
ftillation, and the procefs conduced with a well regu¬
lated gentle heat; too great heat would not only
change the colour of the oil, but likewife make a dif-
agreeable alteracion in its fmell.
EJfential oil of the leaves of peppermint. L. E»
This poflefles the fmell, tafte, and virtues of the i6a.
peppermint in perfection ; the colour is a pale green-
ilh yellow. It is a medicine of great pungency and
fubtilty ; and diffufes, almoft as foon as taken, a glow¬
ing warmth through the whole fyftem. In colics, ac¬
companied with great coldnefs, and in fome hyfteric
complaints, it is of excellent fervice. A drop or two
are in general a fufficient dofe.
bjfential oil of the leaves of common mint. L. E.
This oil fmells and taftes ftrongly of the mint, but 165
is in both relpe&s fomewhat lefs agreeable than the
herb itfelf. It is an ufeful ftomachic medicine; and
not unfrequently exhibited in want of appetite, weak-
nefs of ftwmach, retching to vomit, and ocher like
diforders, when not accompanied with heat or inflam¬
mation : two or three drops, or more, are given for
a dofe. It is likewife employed externally for the
fame purpofes ; and is an uieful ingredient in the fto¬
machic plafter of the ihops.
EJfential oil of the leaves of origanum. L.
This oil has a very pungent acrimonious tafte, and 166
a penetrating fmeil. it has been chiefly employed
externally as aa errhine and for eafing pains of the
325
teeth.
EJfential
P H A R
' TZjfential oil of the leaves of fennyroyaL.
This oil, in fmell and tafte, refembles the original
-  < plant ; the virtues of which it likewife pofTeffes. It
1167 i3 given in hyfteric cafes, from one to four or five
drops.
, EJftntlal oil of rofemary, L. Th
;t;68 The oil of rofemary is drawn from the plant in
flower. When in perfettion, it is very light and thin,
pale, and almoft colourlefs ; of great fragraiicy, though
not quite fo agreeable as the rofemary itfelf. It is
recommended, in the dofe of a few drops, in nervous
and hyfteric complaints. Boerha.-ive holds it in great
efteem againft epilepfies and fuppreffions of the uterine
purgations occafioned by weaknefs and inaftivity.
Efnit ml oil ofjuniper-berries. L. K.
£69 This oil is a very warm and pungent one; of a
flrong flavour, not unlike that of the berries. In the
dofe of a drop or two, it proves a ferviceable carmina¬
tive and ftomachic ; in one of fix, eight, or more, a
ftimulating, detergent, diuretic, and emmenagogue ; it
feems to have fomewhat of the nature of the turpen¬
tines, or their diftilled oil; like which it communi¬
cates a violent fmell to the urine.
The oil of thefe berries refides partly in veficles
fpread through the fubflance of the fruit, and partly
in little cells contained in the feeds : when the berry
is dry, and the oil hardened into a refinous fubltance,
it becomes vifible, on breaking the feeds, in form of
little tranfparent drops. In order therefore to obtain
this oil to advantage, we ought, previous to the diftii-
lation, to bruife the berry thoroughly, fo as to break
the feeds, and entirely lay open the oily receptacles.
EJfentitil oil of fajfafras. L. E.
f 70 This is the moft ponderous of all the known eifen-
tial oils, but rifes in diftillation with fufficient eafe: it
appears limpid as water, has a moderately pungent
tafte, a very fragrant fmell, exa&ly refembling that of
the faflafras. It Hands greatly commended as a fudo-
rific, and for purifying the blood and juices: it is like¬
wife fuppofed to be of fervice in. humoral afthmas and
coughs. The dofe is from one drop to eight or ten ;
though Geoffrey goes as far as twenty.
The deco&ion remaining after the diftillation of the
oil, affords by infpiffation an ufeful extract, of a mild,
bitterifh, fubaftringent tafte. Hoffman fays, he has
given it with great benefit, in dofes of a fcruple, as a
corroborant in cache&ic cafes, in the decline of inter¬
mitting fevers, and for abating hypochondriacal fpafms.
EJfential oil of fainn leaves. I,. E.
471 Savin is one of the plants which, in former editions
of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, were direfted to be
lightly fermented before the diftillation : this, how¬
ever, is not very neceffary ; for favin yields, without
fermentation, and even without any fuch maceration,
a very large quantity of oil. The oil of favin is a ce¬
lebrated uterine and emmenagogue : in cold phlegmatic
habits, it is undoubtedly a medicine of great fervice,
though not capable of performing what it has been
eften reprefented to do. The dofe is, two or three
4rops. or more.
326
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
M A C Y.
Part II.
j i epa-ra-
tions and
EJfential oil of Jamaica pepper. E.
This is a very elegant oil, and may be ufed as a fuc-
cedaneum to thofc of fome of the dearer fpices. It ia*1 11 ‘ — ,
of a fine pale colour; in flavour more agreeable than
the oil of cloves^ and not far ftiort of that of nutmegs.
It finks in water, like the oils of fome of the eaftern
fpices.
172
Oil of fojfll tar. Li.
Diftil foffil tar, the bitumen petroleum, in a fand heat. j'fj
The oil obtained from this tar will be more or lefs
thin according to the continuance of the diftillation ;
and by its continuance the tar will at Lift be reduced
to a black coal; and then the oil will be pretty deep
in colour, though perfectly fluid. This oil has a pro¬
perty fimilar to that of the tipfture of nephritic wood
m water, appearing blue when looked upon, but of an
orange colour when held between the eye and the
light. By long keeping it lofes this property. It is
lefs difagreeable than fome of the other empyreumatic
oils which had formerly a place in our pharmacopceia,
fuch as the oleum lateritium, though very acrid and
ftimnlating.
Oil of turpentine. L.
Take of common turpentine five pounds ; water four 17^
pints. Diftil the turpentine with the water from
an alembic of copper. After the diftillation of the
oil, what remains is yellow refin.
Reclifed oil of turpentine. L.
Take of oil of turpentine one pound: water four pints. 17 5
Diftil. V *
The procefs here propofed for re&ifying this oil, is
not only tedious but accompanied with danger. For
unlefs the luting be very clofe, fome of the vapour will
be apt to get through ; and if this catch fire, it will
infallibly burft the veffels. This redtified oil, which
in many pharmacopoeias is ftyled aethereal, does not
confiderably differ in fpecific gravity, fmell, tafte, or
medical qualities, from the former.
The fpirit of turpentine, as this effential oil has
been ftyled, is not unfrequently taken internally as a
diuretic and fudorific. And in thefe ways it has fome-
times a confiderable effedl when taken even to the ex¬
tent of a few drops only. It has, however, been given
in much larger dofes, efpecialiy when mixed with ho¬
ney. Recourfe has principally been had to fuch dofes
in cafes of chronic rheumatifm, particularly in thofe
modifications of it which are ftyled Jciatica and lumbago.
But they have not been often fuccefsful, and fome-
times they have had the effe& of inducing bloody
urine.
Animal oil. L.
Take of oil of hartlhorn one pound. Diftil three 176
times.
Red fed oil of horns, or animal oil. E.
Take of empyreumatic oil, newly diftilled from the *7^
horns of animals, as much as you will. Diftil with
a gentle heat, in a matrafs furnifhed with a head,
as long as a thin colourlefs oil comes over, which is
to be freed of alkaline fait and fpirit by means of
water.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofl-
tions.
Part If. P H A R
water. That this oil may remain limpid and {rood,
it ought to be put up in fmall phials, completely
filled and inverted, haring previoufly put into each
w—-v   ■ phial a few drops of water, that on inverting it the
water may interpofe itfelf between the oil and the
mouth of the phial.
The quantity of oil employed in this procefs fhould
be confiderable : for it leaves fo much black matter
behind in the feveral diftillations, that it is reduced at
laft to a fmall portion of its original quantity. It is
faid, that the product is rendered more limpid, by
mixing the oil with quicklime into a foft pafte ; the
lime keeping down more of the grofs matter than
would remain without fuch an addition. The quick¬
lime may here alfo perhaps aft by abilrafting fixed
air; to the abforption of which we are difpofed to
refer in fome meafure the fpoiling of the oil on ex-
pofure to the atmofphere.
The oil was firft introduced by Dippelius, whofe
name it has fince generally borne.
Animal oils thus reftified, are thin and limpid, of
a fubtle, penetrating, not difagreeable fmell and tafie.
They are ftrongly recommended as anodynes and an-
tifpafmodics, in dofes from 15 to 30 drops. Hoffman
reports, that they procure a calm and fweet deep,
which continues often for 20 hours, without being
followed by any languor or debility, hut rather leaving
the patient more alert and cheerful than before; that
they procure likewife a gentle fweat, without increa-
ling the heat of the blood : that given to 20 drops or
more, on an empty ftomach, fix hours before the ac-
cefiion of an intermittent fever, they frequently remove
the diforder; and that they are likewife a very gene¬
rous remedy in inveterate and chronical epilepfies
and in convulfive motions, efpecially if gives before
the ufual time of the attack, and preceded by proper
evacuations.
The empyreumatic oils of vegetables, reftified in
the fame manner by repeated diftillations, fuffer a like
change with the animal; lofing their dark colour and
offenfive fmell, and becoming Jimpid, penetrating, and
agreeable : in this ftatc they are fuppofed, like the
animal oil, to be anodyne, antifpafmodic, and diapho¬
retic or fudorific. It is obfervable, that all the empy¬
reumatic oils difiblve in fpirit of wine, and that the
oftener they are reftified or rediftilled, they dififolve
the more readily ; a circumftance in which they differ
remarkably from efiential oils, which, by repeated di¬
ftillations, become more and more difficult of folu-
tion.
How far thefe preparations really pofTcfs the virtues
that have been aferibed to them, has not yet been
fufficiently determined by experience ; the tedioufnefs
and tr®uble of the reftification having prevented their
coming iqto general ufe, or being often made. They
are liable alfo to a more material inconvenience, in re¬
gard to their medicinal ufe, precarioufnefs in their
quality ; for how perfeftly foever they be reftified,
they gradually lofe in keeping the qualities they had
received from th«U procefs, and return more and more
towards their original fetid ftate.
Oil and fait of amber. E.
i*.;8 Take equal parts of amber reduced to a powder and
of pure fsjnd. Mix them, and put them into a
M A C Y.
glafs retort, of which the mixture may fill one half:
then adapt a large receiver, and difttl in a fand-fur-
nace, with a fire gradually increafed. At firft a
fpirit will come over, with fome yellow oil; then
more yellow oil, along with a little fait; and on
raifing the heat, more of the fait, with a reddifh
and blatk coloured oil. When the diftillation is
finiihed, empty the liquor out of the receiver ; and
having collefted together the fait which adheres to
the fides, dry it by gentle prefTure between the folds
of blotting paper; then purify it by folution in
warm water and by cryftallization.
Rectified oil of amber.
Diftil the oil in a glafs retort with fix times its quan¬
tity of water till two-thirds of the water have pafted
into the receiver; then feparate the reftified oil
from the water, and keep it for ufe in clofe ftiut
veftels. E.
Take of oil of amber one pound. Diftil three times. L.
The London college introduce their direftions for
the preparation of the fal and oleum fuccini at an after
part of their work, under the head of faks. Here we
may only obferve, that they direft it to be prepared
from the amber alone, without the intervention of fand.
But this makes no effential difference in the article
when prepared.
The Edinburgh college have tejefted what was for¬
merly called the fpirit, as being nothing elfe than the
watery parts, fraught with the inert impurities of the
bitumen and a very fmall portion of the fait. In the
diftillation of amber, the fire mull for fome time be
continued gentle, fcarce exceeding the degree at which
water boils, till the aqueous phlegm and thin oil have
arifen ; after which it is to be flowly increafed. If
the fire were urged haftily, the amber would fwell up,_
and rife in its whole fubftance into the receiver, with¬
out undergoing the required decompofition or fepara-
tion of its parts. When fand or fimilar intermedia arc
mixed with it, it is lefs fubjeft to this rarefaftion, and
the fire may be raifed fomewhat more expeditioufly ;
though this little advantage is perhaps more than coun¬
terbalanced by the room which the fand takes up in
the retort.
Our ehemifts generally leave the receiver unluted,
that it may be occafionally removed as the fait rifes
and concretes in the neck of the retort; from whence
it is every now and then feraped out to prevent the
oil from carrying it down into the receiver. When a
grofs thick oil begins to arife, and no more fait ap¬
pears, the diftillation is ftopt, though it might perhaps-
be continued longer to advantage.
Mr Pott informs us (in a curious differtation on the
fait of amber, publilhed in the ninth volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin), that
the Pruffian workmen, who prepare large quantities of
this fait for exportation, from cuttings and fmall pieces K
of amber, perform the diftillation without any inter¬
medium, and in an open fire: that fvveeping out the
fait from the neck of the retort being found too trou-
blefome, they fuffer the oil to carry it down into the
receiver, and afterwards feparate it by means of bibu¬
lous paper, which imbibes the oil, and leaves the fait *
dry ; which paper is afterwards fqueezed and diftilied:
that they continue the diftillation till all that can be
4** forced
327
Prepara¬
tion-! and
Compac¬
tions.
*79
3*8 P H A E
i'rq ara- forced over has arlfen, taking care only to catch the
Com aif t^lc^ °ii in a i'eparnte receiver; and that from
fion*. " th'8 they extraft a confiderable quantity of fait, by
c—y——i (baking it in a ftrong veffel with three or four frefh
portions of hot water, and evaporating and cryftaliU
zing the filtered waters.
The fpirit of amber, fo called, is ro more than a
folution of a ftnall proportion of the fait in phlegm or
water ; and therefore is very properly employed for
diffolving the fait in order to its cryltallization.
1 he fait, freed from as much of the oil as fpongy
-paper will imbibe, retains fo much as to appear of a
dark brown colour. Mr Patt fays, the method he has
found to fucceed beft, and with leatl lofs, is, to difiblve
the fait in hot water, and put into the paper, through
which the folution is to be hitered, a little cotton
flightly moiftened with oil of amber : this, he fays,
detains a good deal of the oil of the fait, and the fo¬
lution paffes through the more pure. The liquor be¬
ing evaporated with a very gentle fire, as that of a
water-bath, and fet to fhoot, the firfi cryftals .prove
.tranfparent, with a flight yellowifh tinge ; but thoft
which follow are brown, oily, and bitter, and are
therefore to be fuither depurated in the fame manner.
• The wdiole quantity of cryftals amounts to about one-
thirtieth of the weight of the crude amber employed.
By fublimation from fca-falt, as dire6ed in former edi¬
tions of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, the fait is
thought to be more perfedtly and more expeditioufly
purified : Mr Pott obje&s to fublimation, that a part
of the fait is decompofed by it, a coaly matter being
left behind, even though the fait was previoufly puri¬
fied by cryftallization : it may be prefumed, however,
that this coal proceeds rather from the burning of
fome remains of the oily matter, than from the decom-
poiition of any part of the true fait.
Pure fait of amber has a penetrating, fubaftringent,
acid, tafte. It diflolves both in water and in rectified
fpirit; though not readily in either, and fcarcely at all
in the latter without the afiiftnnce of heat: of cold
-water in fummer, it requires for its folution about
twenty times its own weight ; of boiling water only
about twice its weight. Expofed in a glafs veflel, to
a heat little greater than that of boiling water, it firft
melts, then rifes in a white fume, and concretes again
■in the upper part of the glafs into fine white flakes,
leaving, un efs it was perfeftly pure, a little coaly
matter behind. It eftervefees with alkalis both fixed
and volatile, and forms with them neutral compounds
much refembling thofe compofed of the fame alkalis
and vegetable acids. Mixed with acid liquors, it makes
no ftniible commotion. Ground with fixed alkaline
falts, it does not exhale any urinous odour. By thefe
chara&ers, it is conceived this fait may be readily di-
fiinguifhed from all the other matters that have been
mixed with or vended for it. With regard to its vir¬
tue, it is accounted aperient, diuretic, and, on account
of its retaining fome portion of the oil, antihyfteric :
Boerhaave gives it the chara&er of diunticorum et anti-
hyJUrkorum pnneeps. Its great price, however, has
prevented its coming much into ufe ; and perhaps its
real virtues are not equal to the opinion generaly en¬
tertained of them.
The reftified oil has a ftrong bituminous fmell, and
-a pungent acrid tafte. Given in a dole of ten or
M A C Y. Pa-tlT.
twelve drops, it heats, ftimulatefl, and promotes the PrePar»-
fluid fecretions : It is chiefly celebrated in hyfterical ^
diforders, and in deficiencies of the uterine purgations.tions>r
Sometimes it is ufed externally, in liniments for weak ^
or paralytic limbs and rheumatic pairs. This oil dif¬
fers from all thofe of the vegerable kingdom, and
agrees with the mineral petrolea, in not being foluble
either in its rectified or unreCtified flate, by fpirit of
wine, fixed alkaline lixivia, or volatile alkaline Ipirits ;
the oil, after long digeftion or agitation, feparating
as freely as common oil does from water.
Od <if <wine. L.
Take alcohol, vitriolic acid, of each one pint. Mix jgo
them by degrees, and diftd; taking care that no
black foam pafles into the receiver. Separate the
oily part of the diftilled liquor from the volatile vi¬
triolic acid. To the oily part add as much water
t)f pure kali as is fufficient to take away the fulphu-
-reous fmell; then diftil the ether with a gentle
heat. The oil of wine remains in the retort, fwira-
ming on the watery liquor, from which it is to be
feparated.
Some caution is requifite in mixing the two liquors,
that the confequent heat and ebullition, which would
not only diflipate a part of the mixture, but hazard
the breaking of the veffel and the hurt of the opera¬
tor, may be avoided. The fecurelt way is to add the
vitriolic acid to the fpirit of wine by a little at a time,
waiting till the firft addition be incorporated before
another quantity be put in. By this, the enfuing heat
is inconfiderable, and the mixture is effe&ed without
inconvenience.
FJftntial oil of ’wormwood. RofT.
Let the frefh leaves of wormwood flightly dried he
macerated with a fufficient quantity of water, and
then fubjeft to diftillation ; and let the oil which
comes over be feparated from the water which ac-
comp .nies it.
This is one of the more ungrateful oils: it fmelli
ftrongly of the wormwood, and contains its particular
naufeous tafte, but has little or nothing of its bitter-
nefs, this remaining entire in the deco&ion left after
the diftillation : its colour, when drawn from the frefh
herb, is a dark green ; from the dry, a brownifh yel¬
low. Tinfoil is recommended by Hoffman as a mild
anodyne in fpafmodic contia&ions ; tor this purpofe,
he di.ects a dram of ft to be diffolved in an ounce of
re&ified fpirit of wine, and feven or eight drops of the
mixture taken for a dofe in any convenient vehicle.
Boerhaave greatly commends, in tertian fevers, a me¬
dicated liquor compofed of about feven grains of this
oil ground firft with a dram of fugar, then with two
drams of the fait of wormwood, and afterwards dif¬
folved in fix ounces of the diftilled water of the fame
plant: two hours before the fit is expt&ed, the pa¬
tient is to bathe his feet and legs in warm water, and
then to drink two ounces of the liquor every quarter
of an hour till the two hours are expired : by this
means, he fays, all cafes of this kind are generally-
cured with eafe and fafety, provided there be no febir-
rofity or fuppuration. The oil of wormwood 13
employed chiefly as a vermifuge ; and for this purpofe
is fometimea applied both externally to the belly, and'
» taken!
Part IE
Vrepani* taken 5 ft fa moil ecmveniently exhibited in
e nf ofi! ^-ie *farro P'i’s* «oto which it may be reduced by
^ 1 rising it with crumb of bregd,
u^wyw^ In the ikiue manner with the oil of wormwood, the
.following oils, mentioned on the authority of the
pharmacopoeia Roffica, are alfo dire&ed to be pre¬
pared.
FJjentlal oil of orange-Jlins. Roff.
EJfence of lemons.
*$2 Ofthefe eiTential oils, as exifting in a feparate date
in the growing vegetable, we have already offered
fome obfervations. They are obtained in a very pure
date by diftillation. They are now rejected from our
pharmacopoeias, being employed rather as perfumes
than as medicines. This is particularly the cafe with
the effence of lemons, which is a pleafant oil, of a fine
fmell, very nearly as agreeable as that of the frefh peel;
it is one of the lighted and molt volatile effential oils
we have, perfe&ly limpid, and aimed colourlefs. It
is taken in doles of two or three drops, as a cardial, in
weaknefs of the domach, &c. though more frequently
ufed as a perfume. It gives a fine flavour to the of¬
ficinal volatile aromatic fpitit of the Edinburgh col¬
lege, or the compound fpirit of ammonia, as it is now
flyled by that of the London: and it may be remark¬
ed, that it enters the formula of both colleges, altW
neither of them has given it a place among their pre¬
parations, probably as it is one of thofe articles which
the apothecary rarely preptres for himfelf. When
foap is given in the form of pills, by the addition of a
few drops of this oil they are thought to fit more eafi-
ly on the domach,
EJfen ftal oil of cloves. Hoff.
This oil is fo ponderous as to fink in water, ancf is
not eafily elevated in didillation : if the water which
comes over be returned on the remaining cloves, and
the didillation repeated, fome more oil will generally
be obtained, though much inferior in quality to the
fird. The oil of cloves is ufually deferibed as being
** in tade exceffively hot and fiery, and of a gold yel¬
low colour,” (Boerh.proceff.). Such indeed is the com-
pofition which we receive under this name from Hoi-
land ; but the genuine oil of cloves is one of the mild¬
er oils; it may be taken with great fafety (duly di¬
luted) to the quantity of 10 or 12 drops or more.
Nor is its colour at all yellow, unlefs it has been long
and carelefsly kept, or didilled by too violent a fire ;
when in perfe&ion, it is limpid and colourlefs, of a
pleafant, moderately warm, and pungent tade, and a
very agreeable fmell, much refembling that of the fpice
rtfelf. The Dutch oil of cloves contains a large quan-
tity. of exprefled oil, as evidently appears upon exa¬
mining it by didillation. This, however, cannot be
the addition to which it owes its acrimony. A mean
proportion of a refinous extraft of cloves communi¬
cates to a large one of oil a deep colour, and a great
degree of acrimony.
EJfential oil of camomile. Roil.
184 •/^-n 0il camomile had formerly a place in our
pharmacopoeias made by infufion of the recent plant,
and its flowers in olive oil; and again feparatinp- it bv
Vol. XIV. Part I. & t g y
3*9:
prtflure after impregnating it with the a&ive pa^ts ofPrej aia-
the plant by heat, This, however, was intended only *ion*.*"cl
for external application j but the dTential oil is meant L~
to be ufed internally. w—y—
It is a very pungent oil, of a drong not ungrateful
fmell, refembling that of the flowers: its colour is yel¬
low, with a cad of greenifli @r brown. It is fometimes
given in the dofe of a few drops, as a carminative, in
hyderic difordere, and likewife as a vermifuge : it may
be conveniently made into pills with crumb of bread.
Oil of cinnamon. Rolf.
This valuable oil is extremely hot and pungent, of a 185
mod agreeable flavour, like that of the cinnamon it-
fclf. In cold languid cafes, and debilities of the ner¬
vous fydem, it is one of the mod immediate cordials
and redoratives. The dofe is one, two, or three drops:
which mud always be carefully diluted by the media¬
tion of fugar, &c.; for fo great is the pungency of this
oil, that a Angle drop let fall upon the tongue, undi¬
luted, produces, as Boerhaave obferves, a gangrenous
efehar. In the didillation of this oil, a fmart fire is
required ; and the low head, with a channel round it,
recommended for the didillation of the lefs volatile
oils, ia particularly neceflary for this, which is one of
the lead volatile, and which is afforded by the fpice in
exceeding fmall quantity. The didilled water retains
no fmall portion of the oil ; but this oil being very
ponderous, great part of it fubfides from the water,
on danding for two or three weeks in a cool place.
EJfential oil offennel feeds. Rod.
The oil obtained from fweet fennel-feeds is much j86
more elegant and agreeable than that of the common
fennel. It is one of the milded of thefe preparations:
it is nearly of the fame degree of warmth with that
of anifeeds; to which it is likewife fiimlar in flavour,
though far more grateful. It is given from two or
three drops to ten or twelve, as a carminative, in cold
indifpofitions of the domach ; and in fome kinds of
coughs for promoting expe&oration.
EJfential oil of rhodium. Rod.
This oil is extremely odoriferous, and principally 187
employed as a perfume in Renting pomatums, and the
like. Cudom has not as yet received any preparation
of this elegant aromatic wood into internal ufe among
EJfential oil of mace. Rod.
The edential oil of mace is moderately pungent, 18*8
very volatile, and of a drong aromatic fmell, like that
of the fpice itfelf. It is thin and limpid, of a pale
yellowifh colour, with a portion of thicker and dark¬
er coloured oil at the bottom. This oil, taken inter¬
nally to the extent of a few drops, is celebrated in
vomiting, fingultus, and colic pains ; and in the fame
complaints it has alfo been advifed to be applied exter¬
nally to the umbilical region. It is, however,(but rarely
to be met with in the fhops.
Effential oil of marjoram. Rod.
This oil is very hot and penetrating, in flavour not <5
near fo agreeable as the marj©ram itfelf; when in per- ^
feftion, it is of a pale yellow colour ; by long keeping,
T t it
PHARMACY.
33°
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
'tpo
191
l$2
^93
X94
P H A R
it turns recSdifli : if diftilled with too great a heat, it
rifes of this colour at firft. It is fuppofed by fome to
be peculiarly ferviceable in relaxations, obftru&ions,
and muaous difeharges of the uterus : the dofe is one
or two drops.
EJfential oil of nutmegs. RolT.
The eflential oil of nutmegs pofTefTes the flavour and
aromatic virtues of the fpice in an eminent degree. It
is fimilar in quality to the oil of mace, bait fome what
lefs grateful.
EJfential oil of rue. Rofl".
The oil of rue has a very acrid tafte, and a penetra¬
ting fmell, refembling that of the herb, but rather
more unpleafant. It is fometimes made ufe of in hy-
fteric diforders and as an anthelmintic ; and alfo in
epilepfies proceeding from a relaxed Hate* of the nerves.
Rue yields its oil very fparingly. The larged quan¬
tity is obtained from it when the flowers are ready to
fall off, and the feeds begin to fhow themfelves: fuit-
able maceration, previous to the diftiilation, is here ex¬
tremely necefl'ary.
EJfential oil of favory. Rolf.
Savory yields on diftillation a fmall quantity of ef-
fential oil, of great fubtility and volatility ; and it is
unqueftionably an aftive article, but among us it is
not employed in medicine.
EJfential oil of tanfy. Roff.
Tanfy yields on diftillation an oil of a greeniftt co¬
lour inclining to yellow. It fmells ftrongly of the herb,
and poffeffes at leaft its aromatic property in a concen¬
trated ftate.
Oil of wax. Dan.
Melt yellow bees-wax with twice its quantity of fand,
and diftil in a retort placed in a fand-furnace. At
firft an acid liquor rifes, and afterwards a thick oil,
which flicks in the neck of the retort, unlefs it be
heated by applying live coal. This may be re£ti-
fied into a thin oil, by diftilling it feveral times,
without addition, in a fand-heat.
Roerhaave dire&s the v/ax, cut in pieces, to be put
into the retort firft, fo as to fill one half of it; when
as much fand may be poured thereon as will fill the
remaining half. This is a neater, and much lefs trou-
blefome way, than melting the wax, and mixing it
with the fand before they are put into the retort. The
author above-mentioned highly commends this oil
againft roughnefs and chaps of the fkin, and other like
purpofes : the college of Strafburgh fpeak alfo of ft
being given internally, and fay it is a powerful diure¬
tic (ingens diureticum) in dofes from two to four or
more drops; but its difagreeable fmell has prevented
its coming into ufe among us.
The number of effential oils which have now a place
in the London and Edinburgh pharmacopoeias, and
likewife in the foreign ones of modern date, is much
lefs confiderable than formerly ; and perhaps thofe ftill
retained afford a fufficient variety of the more aftive
and ufeful oils. Moft of the oils mentioned above,
particularly thofe which have a place in the London
and Edinburgh pharmacopeias, are prepared by our
M A C Y. Part II.
chemifts in Britain, and are eafily procurable in a to-Prepara-
lerable degree of perfe£lion : but the oils from, the^ons ai'^
more expenfive fpicer,though ftill introduced among the^^0
preparations in the foreign pharmacopoeias, are, when ■ , — t - 1
employed among us, ufualiy imported from abroad.
Thefe are frequently fo much adulterated, that it is
not an eafy matter to meet with fuch as are fit for
ufe. Nor are thefe adulterations eafily difcoverable.
The groffer abufes, indeed, may be readily detefted :
thus, if the oil be mixed with fpirit of wine, it will
turn milky on the addition of water ; if with expreffed
oils, reftified fpirit will diffolve the effential, and leave
the other behindj if with oil of turpentine, on dip¬
ping a piece of paper in the mixture, and drying it
with a gentle heat, the turpentine will be betrayed by
its fmell. But the more fubtle artifts have contrived
other methods of fophiftication, which elude all trials
of this kind. *
Some have looked upon the fpecific gravity of oils
as a certain criterion of their genuinenefs ; and ac¬
cordingly we have given a table of the gravity of fe¬
veral. This, however, is not to be abfolutely depend¬
ed on : for the genuine oils, obtained from the fame
fubjefts, often differ in gravity as much as thofe drawn
from different ones. Cinnamon and cloves, whofe oils
ufually fink in water, yield, if flowly and warily di-
ftilled, an oil of great fragrancy, which is neverthelefs
fpecifically lighter than the aqueous fluid employed in
the diftillation of it; while, on the other hand, the
laft. runnings of fome of the lighter oils prove fome¬
times fo ponderous as to fink in water.
As all effential oils agree in the general properties
of folubility in fpirit of wine, indiffolubility in water,,
mifeibility with water by the intervention of certain
intermedia, volatility in the heat of boiling water, &c.
it is plain that they may be varioully mixed with each
other, or the dearer fophifticated with the cheaper,
without any poffibility of difeovering the abufe by
any trials of this kind. And indeed it would not be
of much advantage to the purchafer, if he had infal¬
lible criteria of the genuinenefs of every individual oil.
It is of as much importance that they be good, as that
they be genuine; for genuine oils, from inattentive di¬
ftillation and long and carelefs keeping, are often
weaker both in fmell and tafte than the common fo¬
phifticated ones.
The fmell and tafte feem to be the only certain lefts
of which the nature of the thing will admit. If a bark
ftiould have in every refpeft the appearance of good
cinnamon, and (hould be proved indifputably to be
the genuine bark of the cinnamon-tree ; yet if it want
the cinnamon flavour, or has it but in a low degree,
we reject it; and the cafe is the fame with the oil.
It is only from ufe and habit, or comparifons with
fpecimens of known quality, that we can judge of the
goodnefs either of the drugs themfelves or of their oils.
Moft of the effential oils, indeed, are too hot and
pungent to be tafted with fafety ; and the fmell of the
fubjett is fo much concentrated in them, that a fmall
variation in this refpeA is not eafily diftinguifhed; but
we can readily dilute them to any affignable degree.
A drop of the oil may be diffolved in fpirit of wine,
or received on a bit of fugar, and diffolved by that in¬
termedium in water. The quantity of liquor which,
it thus impregnates with its flavour, or the degree of
flavour
Part II. P II A R
Prq^ara- flavour which it communicates to a certain determinate
Com poll- tluant;ify» be the meafure of the degree of good*
tionsf ne^8 tbe oil.
1 "v*“ ' We lhall here fuhjoin the refult of fome experiments,
/howing the quantity of ejfential oil obtained from different
vegetables, reduced into the form of a table. The firfl:
column contains the names of the refpe&ive vegetable
fubftances ; the fecond, the quantity of each which
was fubmitted to the diftillation } and the third, the
quantity of oil obtained. In every other part of this
article, where pound weights are mentioned, the Troy
pound of 12 ounces is meant: but thefe experiments
having been all made by a pound of 16 ounces, it was
thought expedient to fet down the matter of fad in
the original weights: efpecially as the feveral mate¬
rials, in the large quantity commonly required for the
M A C Y. >13
diftillation of oils, are purchafed by weights of the fame Prepara
kind. But to remove any ambiguity which might arifetIons an;*
from hence, and to enable the reader to judge more tCr^poU'
readily of the piodud, a redudion of the weights is  
given in the next column ; which fhows the number of
parts of each of the fubjeds from which one part of
oil was obtained. To each article is affixed the au¬
thor’s name from whom the experiment was taken.
The different diftillations of one fubjed, feveral of
which are inferted in the table, fhow how variable the
produd of oil is, and that the exotic fpices, as well as
our indigenous plants, do not always contain the fame
proportion of this adive principle ; though it muff be
obferved, alfo, that part of the differences may pro¬
bably arife from the operation itfelf having been more
©r lefs carefully performed.
^5 TABLE of the Quantity of Essential Oil obtained from different Vegetables,
Agallochum wood
Angelica root
Anifeed
Anifeed
Anifeed
Afafcetida
Calamus aromnticus
Calamus aromaticus
Caraway feeds
Caraway feeds
Caraway feeds
Caroline thiftle roots
Cardamom feeds
Carrot feeds
Cafcarilla
Camomile flowers
Common camomile flowers
Wild camomile flowers
Wild camomile flowers
Cheivil leaves, frdh
Cedar wood
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Clary feeds
Clary in flower, frefh
Cloves
Cloves - .
Cloves
Copaiba balfam
Copaiba balfam
Cummin-feed
Didamnus Creticus
10 ill-feed
Elecampane root
Elemi
Fennel-feed, common
Fennel-feed, fweet
Galangal root
Garlic root, frefh
Ginger
Horfe-radiffi root, freffi
Hyffop leaves
io lb.
lb.
lb.
Ib.
lb.
oz.
50 lb.
1 lb.
4 lb.
2 lb.
1 cwt.
1 lb.
1
2
1
1
6
1
6
9
1
1
1
4
1
1
4
oz.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
c
130 lb
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
buffi
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
2 oz.
I buffi
1 lb.
2 lb.
1 lb.
8 oz.
2 lb.
o
rT3
■a
f 4 dra.
1 dra.
4 dra.
1 oz.
1 oz.
1 dra.
2 oz.
2 fcr.
2 oz.
9
*3
2r
I
Ir
2 i
dra.
oz.
fcr.
fcr.
dra.
dra.
gra.
dra.
gra.
dra.
gra.
dra.
dra.
fcr. j,
dra,
dra.
fcr.
dra.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
30
5
20
24
30
2
1
2*
6
2
8
2
3v
2t
5
6
8
11 oz.
30 gra.
2 oz.
3t fcr.
I oz.
i fcr.
18 oz.
i dra.
30 gra.
1 dra.
15 gra.
14 dra. j
Tt 2
a.
.O
r 320
128
32
48
64
32
185
192
32
28-r
J53
H
171
128
256
J53
384
307
2304
64
128
f53
851
64
45t
2c6
594
1 of
Gf
24
256
32
245
16
48
128
256
128
2 c6
l 237
Hoff.
Garth.
Neum.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Neum.
Hoff
Neum.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Neum.
Neum. #
Lewis.
Garth.
Garth.
Lewis.
Garth.
Lewis.
Neum.
Marg.
Sala.
Neum.
Lemery.
Garth.
Garth. >
Lewis,
Lewis.
Teichm.
Garth.
Hoff.
Hoff.'
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Neum.
Neum.
Neum.
Lewis.
Garth.
Neum.
Neum.
Neum.
Neum.
Hyffop
3.12
prepara¬
tions and
CompoG-
tions.
PHARMACY.
Hyflbp leaves
Hyfibp leaves
Hyffop leaves, fredi •
Hyffop leaves, frefh
Hyffop leaves, frelh
Juniper-berries
Juniper-berries
Lavender in flower, frefh
Lavender in flower, frefh
Lavender in flower, frefh
Lavender flowers, frefh
Lavender flowers, dried
Lavender flowers, dried
Lavender flowers, dried
Broad leaved lavender flowers, dry
Broad-leaved lavender flowers, dry
Lovage root
Mace
Mace
Marjoram in flower, frefh
Marjoram in flower, frefh
Marjoram in flower, frefh
Marjoram leaves, frefh
Marjoram leaves, dried
Mafterwort root
Milfoil flowers, dried
Mint in flower, frefh
Mint-leaves, dried
Peppermint, frefh
Myrrh
Myrrh
Nutmegs
Nutmegs
Nutmegs
Nutmegs
Nutmegs
Parfley feeds
Parfley leaves, frefh
Parfnip feeds
Pennyroyal in flower, frefh
Black pepper
Black pepper
Black pepper
Black pepper
Black pepper
Pimento
Rhodium wood
Rhodium wood
Rhodium wood
Rhodium wood
Rhodium wood
Rofemary in flower
Rofemary leaves
Rofemary leaves
Rofemary leaves
Rofemary leaves
Rofemary leaves
Rofemary leaves, frefh
Rofes _ r
Rofes
Rofes
Rue - - *
Rue - •
Rue in flower
Rue in flower - -
i lb. 1
1 lb.
2 cwt.
io lb.
30 lb.
8 lb.
1 lb.
48 lb.
3° lb.
134 lb.
2 lb.
4 lb.
2
4
4
1
1
1
1
81
lb.
lb.
Ib.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1341b.
34 lb.
18J lb.
4 lb.
1 lb.
14 lb.
6 lb.
4 lb.
4 lb.
1 lb.
1 lb.
1 lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1
1
1
1
2
238 lb.
8 lb.
13 lb.
2 lb.
I lb.
i lb.
1 lb.
6 lb.
70 lb.
100 lb.
100 lb.
12 lb.
10 lb.
10 lb.
4 lb.
60 lb.
o
nd
<u
OZ.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
cwt.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
l|dra. J
2 dra.
oz.
dra.
dra.
oz.
dra.
12 oz.
6Joz.
60 oz.
4 dra.
2 oz.
1 oz.
l- j: <!
oz.
oz.
dra.
dra.
5 dra.
6 dra.
3? oz-
3t dra.
i4oz.
4 dra.
1 oz.
3° gra-
4 dra.
44 dra.
14 oz.
3 dra'
dra.
dra.
pz.
oz.
dra.
dra.
dra.
dra.
oz.
dra.
dra.
dra.
2 4 dra.
4 for.
1 dra.
3 dra-
3° gra-
3 dra-
2 dra.
3 dra-
3 dra-
4 dra.
8 oz.
2 dra.
3 dra-
3s-dra-
1 dra.
14 dra.
5 oz»
4 dra.
1 oz.
3° £ra*
2 dra.
4 dra.
6
&
<U
eu
r 85
64
S97
427
427
42?-
42r
64
72
4° 3
64
32
32
2 i"j"
64
64
128
25 r
214
347
493
362
592
. 64
256
448
177
424
1704
•>64
42r
16
16
32
21-4
25f
256
1904
512
277
424
82
96
128
256
j6
424
64
424
424
32
224
64
424
121
128
82
224
3200
1600
768
640
320
512
507
■1
Cartb.
Garth.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Hoff.
Garth.
Lewis,
Lewis.
Lewis.
Hoff.'
Lewis.
Hof
Hoff
luff
Garth.
Garth.
Neum.
Garth.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Hoff
Neum.
Neum.
Neum.
Hoff.
Hoff
Hoff
Neum.
Hoff.
Geoff.
Neum.
Sa/a.
Garth.
Garth.
Garth.
Garth.
Garth.
Garth.
Neum.
Garth.
Heijler.
Geoff'.
Neum.
Neum.
Sa/a.
Sala.
Garth.
Garth.
Lewis.
Sala.
Sala.
Neum.
Garth.
Garth.
Lewis.
Lachen,
Homb.
Hoff.
Hoff.
Hoff.
Hoff.
Hoff
Rue
Part If,
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
Part IT.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoii-
tions.
PHARMACY.
Rue with the feeJe
Saffron -
Sage leaves
Sage in flower, frefli
Sage of virtue in flower
Sage of virtue in flower
Saffafras
Saffafras
Savin
Saunders, yellow
Smallage feeds
Stechas in flower, frefli
Thyme in flower, frefli
Thyme in flower, dry
Lemon thyme in flower, frefli
Lemon thyme irf flower, frefli
Lemon thyme, a little dried
Wormwood leaves, dry
Wormwood leaves, dry
Wormwood leaves, dry
Zedoary
72 lb.
i lb.
1 lb.
34 lb.
27 lb.
8 lb.
6 lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
si lb.
2 cwt.
3! lb.
51 lb.
98 lb.
104 lb.
4 lb.
18 lb.
25 lb.
1 lb.
G
£
<u
o
'O
11
2
5
2
r 3 oz-
i^-dra.
5 fcr.
oz.
6 dra.
i-r dra.
| oz.
oz.
oz.
_ dra.
2i fcr.
2 dra.
5tOz.
It dra.
i^oz.
24 oz.
3 oz*
I oz.
ItOZ.
34 oz.
!>
s
o
.S
rTi
O
CO
&
*0
O
ctS
a.
<u
c
ri3
.0
3'8+
77
544
576
681
55
48
64
<i x54
368
652
298
653
627
555
64
192
114
128
Vogel.
Garth.
Lewis,
Lewis.
Lewis.
Hof.
Neum.
Hof
Garth.
Neum.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Lewis.
Neum.
333
Prepara¬
tions and
Campofi-
tions
Vi
Chap. VII. Salts.
Diluted or weal vitriolic acid. L.
Take of vitriolic acid, one ounce by weight; diftilled
water, 8 ounces by weight. Mix them by degrees.
Weak vitriolic acid, commonly called weak fpirit of vi¬
triol. E.
Take of vitriolic acid, one part; water, feven parts.
Mix them.
In the former editions of our pharmacopoeias, direc¬
tions were given for the preparation of the vitriolic
acid by the apothecary himfelf, under the heads of
fpirit and oil of vitriol, fpirit or oil of fulphur by the bell.
Sic.: but as it is now found that all thefe modes are
expenfive, and that this acid may be furnilhed at a
cheaper rate from the trading chemifts preparing it on
a large fcale, it is with propriety that both colleges
have now rejected it from the preparations, and intro¬
duced it only into the lift of the materia medica.
When, however, it is of the degree of concentration
there required, it can be employed for very few pur-
pofes in medicine. The moft Ample form in which it
can be advantageoufly employed internally, is that in
which it is merely diluted with water : and it is high¬
ly proper that there fliould be fome fixed ftandard in
which the acid in this ftate fhould be kept. - It is,
however, much to be regretted, that the London and
Edinburgh colleges have not adopted the fame ftandard
with refpeft to ftrength: for in the one, th« ftrong
acid conftitutes an eighth ; and in the other, only a
ninth of the mixture. The former proportion, which
is that of the Edinburgh college, we are inclined to
prefer, as it gives exactly a dram of acid to the ounce:
but the dilution by means of diftilled water, which is
direfted by the London, is preferable to fpring-water ;
which, even in its pureft ftate, is rarely free from im¬
pregnations in part affecting the acid.
The acid of vitriol is the moft ponderous of all the
liquids we are acquainted with, and the moft powerful
of the acids. Jf any other acid be united with a fixed
alkaline fait or earth, on the addition of the vitriolic,
fuch acid will be diflodged, and arife on applying a
moderate heat, leaving the vitriolic in poffefiion of the
alkali; though without this addition it would not yield
to the moft vehement fire. Mixed with water, it in-
ftan-tly creates great heat, infomuch that glafs veffels
are apt to crack from the mixture, unlefs it be very
flowly performed : expofed to the air, it imbibes moi-
fture, and foon acquires a remarkable increafe of weight.
In medicine, it is employed chiefly as fubfervient to
other preparations : it is alfo frequently mixed with
juleps and the like, in fuch quantity as will be fuffx-
cient to give the liquor an agreeable tartnefs, and it
then is a cooling antifeptic, a reftringent, and a fto*
machic.
It is particularly ufeful for allaying inordinate ac¬
tions of the ftomach, when under the form of fingul-
tus or vomiting. For its medical properties, fee Acids
and Vitriol.
Nitrous acid. L.
Take of purified nitre, by weight, 60 ounces; vi- 197
triolic acid, by weight, 29 ounces. Mix and diftil.
The fpecific gravity of this is to the weight of di¬
ftilled water as 1550 to 1000.
Nitrous acid, commonly called Glauber’s fpirit of nitre. E.
Take of pureft nitre, bruifed, two pounds; vitriolic
acid, one pound. Having put the nitre into a glafa
retort, pour on it the fpirit; then diftil in a fand-
heat, gradually increafing the fire, till the fand-pot
becomes of a dull red colour.
Here the vitriolic acid expels the nitrous, in red cor-
rofive vapours, which begin to iffue immediately on
mixture ; and which the operator ought cautioufly to
avoid. A pound of acid of vitriol is fufficient to ex¬
pel all the acid from about two pounds of nitre, not
from more : fome direft equal parts of the two The
fpirit, in either cafe, is in quality the fame ; the dif¬
ference, in this refpeft, affefting only the refiduum.
If two parts of nitre betaken to one of vitriolic acid,
the remaining alkaline bafis of the nitre is completely
faturated with the vitriolic acid ; and the refuk is a
neutral fait, the fame with vitriolated tartar, as we
/hall
M A C Y. partn.
ed with the water in an earthen or ftone ware vefTel: Prepara-
for unlefs the miKture be made exceedingly flow, ittiorisanc!
grows fo hot as to endanger breaking a glafs one. Compofi-
The fpirit of fea-falt is the weakefl; of the mineral ‘ ^
acids, but ftronger than any of the vegetable : it re¬
quires a greater fire to diftil it than that of nitre, yet
it is more readily diffipate l by the aftion of the air.
It is ufed chiefly as a meoftruum for the making of
other preparations; fometimes, likewife, it is given,
properly diluted, as an antiphlogiftic, aperient, and
diuretic, from 10 to 60 or 70 drops.
P H A R
Ihall fee hereafter. IT more nitre be ufed, a part of
the nitre in fubftance will remain blended with this
neutral fait: if lefs nitre, it cannot afford alkali enough
to faturate the vitriolic acid, and the refiduum will
not be a neutral fait, but a very acid one. In this lad
cafe there is one conveniency ; the acid fait being rea¬
dily foluble in water, fo as to be got out without break •
ing the retort, which the others are not.
Diluted or weak nitrous acid. JL.
Take of nitrous acid, dillillcd water, each one pound*
Mix them.
JVeak nitrous acid. E.
Take of nitrous acid, water, equal weights. Mix them,
taking care to avoid the noxious vapours.
In the old editions both of the London and Edin¬
burgh pharmacopoeias, directions were given for the
preparation of aquafortis fimplex and duplex; but thefe
were no more than different forms of preparing an im¬
pure nitrous acid, unfit for medical purpofes. They
are therefore, with propriety, fuperfeded by the more
Ample formulae of nitrous acid and diluted or weak
nitrous acid, mentioned above. In making the di¬
luted acid, diflilled water is preferable to common wa¬
ter.
The vapour feparated during the mixing of nitrous
acid and water, is the permanently elaftic fluid called
nitrous acid air, which is deleterious to animal life.
The acid of nitre is next in ftrength ,to the vitriolic,
and diflodges all others from alkaline falls or earths.
It differs from all the other acids in deflagrating with
inflammable matters: if a folution of any inflammable
fubftance, as hartfhorn, &c. in this acid, be fet to eva¬
porate, as foon as the matter approaches to drynefs, a
violent detonation enfues. The chief ufe of this acid
is as a menftruum for certain minerals, and as the bafis
of fome particular preparations to be mentioned here¬
after. It has been given likewife, diluted with any
convenient vehicle, as a diuretic, from xo to 50 drops.
Muriatic acid. L.
Take of dry fea-falt, 10 pounds; vitriolic acid, fix
pounds ; water, five pounds. Add the vitriolic acid
firft mixed with the water by degrees, to the fait;
then diftil.
The fpecific gravity of this acid is to diftilled water
as 1170 to 1000.
Muriatic acid, commonly called fpirit of fea-falt. E.
Take of fea-falt, two pounds ; vitriolic acid, water,
each one pound. Let the fait be firft put into a
pot, and brought to a red heat, that the oily impu¬
rities may be confumed; then put it into the retort.
Next mix the acid with the water, and when the
mixture has cooled, pour it upon the fait. Laftly,
diftil in a fand heat with a middling heat, as long
as any acid comes over.
The marine, or muriatic acid, arifes, not in red
fumes like the nitrous, but in white ones. The addi¬
tion of water is more neceffary here than in the fore-
going praccfs ; the marine vapours being fo volatile,
as fcarcely to condenfe without fome adventitious hu-
jmjdity. The acid of vitriol is moll conveniently mix-
Diflilled vinegar.
Take of vinegar five pints. Diftil with a gentle fire, in 2® 3
glafs veffels, fo long as the drops fall free from em-
pyreuma. L.
Let eight pounds of vinegar be diftilled in glafs vef¬
fels with a gentle heat. Let the two firft pounds
that come over be thrown away as containing too
much water ; let four pounds next following be re-
ferved as the diftilled vinegar. What remains is a
ftill ftronger acid, but too much a&ed on by the
heat. E.
This procefs may be performed either in a common
ftill with its head, or in a retort. The better kinds of
wine-vinegar fhould be ufed: thofeprepared from malt
liquors, however fine and clear they may feem to be,
contain a large quantity of a vifeous fubftance, as ap¬
pears from the flimynefs and ropynefs to which they
are very much fubjeft : this not only hinders the acid
parts from rifing freely, but likewife is apt to make
the vinegar boil over into the recipient, and at the
fame time difpofea it to receive a difagreeable impref-
fion from the fire. And indeed, with the beft kind
of vinegar, if the diftillation be carried on to any great
length, it is extremely difficult to avoid an empyreuma.
The beft method of preventing this inconvenience is,
if a retort be ufed, to place the fand but a little way
up its fides, and when fomewhat more than half the
liquor is come over, to pour on the remainder a quan¬
tity of frelh vinegar equal to the liquor drawn off. This
may be repeated three or four times ; the vinegar fup-
plied at each time being previoufly heated. The ad¬
dition of cold liquor would not only prolong the ope¬
ration, but alfo endanger the breaking of the retort.
If the common ftill be employed, it fliould likewife be
occafionally fupplied with frefti vinegar in proportion
as the fpirit runs off; and this continued until the pro¬
cefs can be conveniently carried no farther : the diftil¬
led fpirit mult be rectified by a fecond diftillation in a
retort or glafs alembic ; for although the head and re¬
ceiver be of glafs or ttone ware, the acid will contract
a metallic taint from the pewter worm.
The refiduum of this procefs is commonly thrown
away as ufelefs, although, if ilcilfully managed, it might
be made to turn to good account; the moft acid parts
of the vinegar ftiil remaining in it. Mixed with about
three times its weight of fine dry fand, and committed
to diftillation in a retort, with a well-regulated fire, it
yields an exceeding ftro g acid fpirit, together with
an empyreumatic oil, which taints the fpiru with a dif¬
agreeable odour. This acid is neverthelefa', without
any 1 edification, better for fome purpofes (as a little
6 of
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- 0f it will go a preat way) than the pure fpirit ; par¬
ticularly for making the diuretic or acetated kali
London college ; for there the oily matter, on
which its ill flavour depends, is burnt out by the calci¬
nation.
(The fpirit of vinegar is a purer and ftronger acid than
vinegar itfelf, with which it agrees in other refpe&s.
(SeeViNEGAa). Their principal difference from the mi¬
neral acidcorififts in their being milder,lefs ftimulating,
lefs difpofed to affedt the kidneys and promote the uri¬
nary fecretions, or to coagulate the animal juices. The
matter left after the diftilktion in glafs veffels, though
not ufed in medicine, would doubtlefs prove a fervice-
able detergent faponaceous acid; and in this light (lands
recommended by Boerhaave.
201
Concentrated vinegar. Suec.
Let white wine vinegar be frozen in a wooden veflel in
cold winter weather; and let the fluid feparated from
the ice be preferved for ufe. It may be confldered as
fufficiently ftrong, if one dram of it be capable of
faturating a fcruple of the fixed vegetable alkali.
. This is a very eafy mode for obtaining the acid of
vinegar in a concentrated date, and freed from a con-
fiderable portion of its wrater. But at the fame time
we do not thus obtain the acid either fo much con¬
centrated, or in fopure a (late as by the following pro-
cefs.
Acetous acid. L.
202 Take of verdegrife, in coarfe powder, two pounds. Dry
it perfectly by means of a water-bath faturated with
fea-falt ; then diftil it in a fand-bath, and after that
diflil the liquor. Its fpecific gravity is to that of di¬
alled water as 1050 to 1000.
By this procefs, it may be readily concluded that
we obtain the acetous acid in its mod concentrated
Hate, and with the lead admixture of water. And af¬
ter the re-didillation, it may alfo be fuppofed that it
will be free from all mixture of the copper. But the
internal ufe of it has been objefted to by fome, on the
fuppofition that it may dill retain a portion of the me¬
tal ; and hitherto it has, we believe, been but little em¬
ployed.
CryfaUized acid of tartar. Suec.
203 Take of prepared chalk, frequently wafhed with warm
water, two pounds; fpring water, 32 pounds. Af¬
ter flight boiling, by degrees add of cream of tartar
7 pounds, or as much as is fufficient for faturation.
Removing the veflel from the fire, let it fland for
half an hour, then cautioufly pour off the clear li¬
quor into 2 glafs veflel. Wafh the refiduum or tar-
tareous felemtes by pouring water on it three or four
times. 1 o this refiduum afterwards add of weak
vitriolic acid 16 pounds, let it be digefted for a day,
frequently (lirringit with a wooden fpatula. After
this pour the acid liquor into a glafs veffel: but
with the refiduum mix 16 pounds of fpring water:
dram it through paper, and again pour water on the
refiduum till it become infipid: Let the acid li¬
quors mixed together in a glafs veffel be boiled to
the confidence of a thin fyrup ; which being drain¬
ed, muff be fet wpart for the formation of crydals.
Let the cry dale collected after repeated didillations
M A G Y. 33
be dried on paper, and afterwards kept in a dry Prrpara-
place. . tions and
If before crydallization a little of the infpiffated acid
liquor be diluted with four times its quantity of pure j
water, and a few drops of vinegar of litharge be put
into it,a white fediment will immediately be depofi-
ted. Ifa few drops of the diluted nitrous acid be then
added,the mixture will become limpid, if the tartare-
ous liquor be pure and entirely free from the vitriolic
acid ; but if it be not, it will become white. This
fault, however, may be corre&ed, if the acid of tar¬
tar be diluted with fix pounds of water and a few '
ounces of the tartareous felenites be added to it. Af¬
ter this it may be digefted, drained, and cryftallized.
. By th,‘3 procefs, the acid of tartar may be obtained
m a pure folid form. It would, however, be perhaps
an improvement of the procefs, if quicklime were em¬
ployed in place of chalk. For Dr Black has found
that quicklime abforbs the whole of the tartareoua acid,
and then the fupematant liquor contains only the alka¬
line part of the tartar; whereas, when chalk is employ¬
ed, it contains a folution of foluble tartar, the chalk
taking up only the fuperabundant acid. By this me¬
thod then a greater quantity of tartareous acid might
be obtained from the fediment. The tartareous acid
has not hitherto been much employed in its pure date-
But befides being ufeful for fome purpofes in medi¬
cine, for which the cream of tartar is at prefent in
ufc, and where that fuperfaturated neutral may be
lefs proper, there is alfo reafon to fuppofe, that from
the employment of the pure acid, we (hould arrive at
more certainty in the preparation of the antimonium
tartanzatum, or tartar emetic, than by employing the
cream of tartar, the proportion of acid in which varies
very much from different circumftances. The pure
aerd of tartar might alfo probably be employed with,
advantage for bringing other metallic fubftances to a
iahne lidtc*
Dijlilled acid of tartar. Sued.
Let pounded crude tartar be put into a tubuhted 204
earthen or iron retort till it fills about two-thirds of
it, and let diftillation be performed by gradually in-
creafing the heat. Into the recipient, which ffiould
be very large, an acid liquor will pafs over together
with the oil; which being feparated from the oil, mud
again bediftilled from a glafs retort. If the refiduum
contained in the earthen or iron retort be diluted
with water, drained through paper, and boiled todrv-
nefs, it gives what is called the a/Ia/i of tartar. If
this do not appear white, it may be made fo by burn¬
ing, folution, (training, and evaporation.
I his is another mode of obtaining both the acid and
alkali of tartar in a pretty pure (late ; and, as well as
the former, it is not unworthy of being adopted into
our pharmacopoeias.
Aerated water. Rolf.
Let fpring water be faturated with the fixed air, or
aerial acid, anfing from a iolution of challc m vitri¬
olic acid, or in any fimilar acid. Water may alfo
be impregnated by the fixed air tifing from ferment¬
ing liquors.
The aerial acid, on which wc have already had gccafioa
to
205
330
Prepara-
®tions and
Compofi-
206
10"]
P II A R
to make fame obfmations, befidcs the great Influence
winch it has as aff'eding different falme bodies into
whofe coropofition it enters, ia vtto frequently employ¬
ed in medicine, with a view to its a^ion on the human
body The late ingenious Dr Dobfon, in his Com’
mentary on Fixed Air,* has pointed out many purpo-
fes for which it may be uftfully employed, and ieveral
different forms under which it may be ufed. But there
is no form under which it is at prefent move frequently
had recomfe to than that of aerated or mephitic wa¬
ter as it has often been called. And although rot
yet received either into the London or Edinburgh
pharmacopoeias, it is daily employed in pra&ice, and
is we think juttly iatitled to a place among the ialine
preparations. #
The moft convenient mode of impregnating water
with the aerial acid, and thus having it in our power
to exhibit that acid as it were in a diluted fiate, is by
means of a well known and fufficiently fimple appa¬
ratus, contrived by that ingenious phdofopher Dr
Nooth. Such a machine ought, we think, to be kept
in every (hop for the more ready preparation of this
fluid. Water properly impregnated with the aerial
acid has an agreeable acidulous tafte. It is often em¬
ployed with great advantage in the way of common
drink, by tbofe who are fubje&ed to ftomrch com¬
plaints, and by calculous patients. But, befides tins,
it furnifhes an excellent vehicle for the exhiouion or
many other medicines.
Befides the fimple aerated water, the Pharmacopoeia
Rofilca contains alfo an aqua aeris fixi martiahs, or
ferruginous aerated water. This is prepared by im¬
pending iron wires in that water till the water be ful¬
ly faturated with the metal. And in confequence of
this acid, fimple water becomes a menffruum both lor
different metallic and earthy fubftances. But water
in this Hate may be confidered rather as fitted for thole
purpofes for which chalybeates are in ufe, than as a
preparation of the aerial acid.
Salt and oil of amber. L,
Take of amber two pounds. Diftd in a fand heat,
gradually augmented : an acid liquor, oil, and lait
impregnated with oil, will afcend.
On this article we have already offered fome obfer-
vations under the head of Effential Oils. Fhe direc¬
tions here given by the London college differ chiefly
from thofe of the Edinburgh college formerly men¬
tioned, in no fand being employed : But when care is
taken that the fand be pure, it can give no improper
impregnation to the medicine, and may prevent fome
inconveniences in the diftiUation, particularly that of
the amber rifing in fubftance into the receiver.
Purified fait of amber. L.
Take of fait of amber half a pound ; diftilled water,
one pint. Boil the fait in the diftilled water, and
' fet alide the folution to cryftallize. _
Salt of amber, when perfectly pure, is white, of an
acid tafte, and not ungrateful. It requires, lor its so¬
lution, of cold water, in fummer, about twenty times
its weight; and of boiling water about twice its weight,
it is fcarcely foluble in Knifed fpmt without the af-
filfance of heat.
MAC T.
. „ „ .. Part II.
It is given a* « cooling dittmie in lofei ef a few Prepay
grains, and alfo in hyfterical complaints, • Com puli,
tions,
flowers of benzoin.
Take of benzoin, in powder, one pound, put it in¬
to an earthen pot, placed in faud ; and, with a ilow
fire, fublime the flowers into a paper cone fitted to
the pot. . . ,
If the flowers be of a yellow colour, mix them wiU
white clay, and fublime them a fecond time. L.
Put any quantity of powdered benzoin into an earth¬
en pot, to which, after fitting it with a large coni¬
cal paper cap, apply a gentle heat that the flowers
may fublime. If the flowers be impregnated with
oil, let them be purified by folution in warm water
and cryftallization. B. , . .
Benzoin, expofed in a retort to a gentle fire, melts,
and fends up into the neck white, Arming cryfLllme
flowers, which are followed by an oily fubftance.
Thefe flowers, which are at prefent confidered as a pe¬
culiar acid, are by fome termed acidum benzoicum. On
raiflng the heat a little (a recipient being applied to
the neck of the retort), a thin yellowifh oil comes over,
intermingled with an acid liquor, and afterwards a thick
butyraccous fubftance ; this laft, liquefied in boiling
water, gives out to it a confiderable quantity of fahne
matter (feparable by filtration and proper exhalation),
which appears in all refpefts fimilar to the flowers.
It appears, therefore, that the whole quantity of
flowers which benzoin is capable of yielding, cannot
be obtained by the above proceffes, fince a confiderable
portion arifes after the time of their being drfeontmued.
The greateft part of the flowers anfe with a lefs degree
of heat than what is neceffary to elevate the oil; but
if the operation be batfily conducted, or if the fire bs
not exceedingly gentle, the oil will anfe along with
the flowers, and render them foul. Hence in the way
of trade, it is extremely difficult to prepare them of
the requifite whitenefs and purity ; the heat which be¬
comes neceffary, when large quantities of the benzoin
are employed, being fo great as to force over fome of
the oil along with them. , r
In order, therefore, to obtain tbefe flowers in per-
fe&ion, only a fmall quantity of benzoin flrould be
put into the veffel at a time ; and that this may not be
any impediment to the requifite difpatch, a number or
{hallow, flat-bottomed, earthen diffies may be employ¬
ed, each fitted with another vefl'el inverted over it or
a paper cone. With thefe you may fill a fand ur-
nace i having freffi diffies charged in readmefs to replace
thofe in the furnace, as foon as the procefs ffiah ap¬
pear finiffied in them: the refiduum of the benzoin
Should be feraped out of each of the veffels before a
freffi parcel be put in. ^ r n • c
Thefe flowers, when made in perfeftion, have an
agreeable tafte and fragrant fmell. They totally dii-
folve in fpirit of wine 5 and l.kewife, by the affiftance
of heat, in water; but feparate again from the latter
upon the liquor’s growing cold, {hooting into faune
-fpicula, which unite together into irregu ar maffes.
By the mediation of fugar they remain fufpended n
cold water, and thus form an elegant balfamic .jrup.
Some have held them in great efteem as peAord
898
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi*
tions.
Part II. F H A R
fudorific^ in the dofe of hnlf a fcruple or more : but
at prefent they are rarely ufed, on account of the of-
fenfive oil which, as ufually prepared, they are tainted
with, and from wliich a frelh fuldimation from tobac*
co-pipe clay, as formerly pra&ifed, did not free them
fo effectually as might be wifhed. The obfervations
above related, point out the method of depurating them
more perfe<SUy, •v'vx,. by folution, filtration, and cry-
ftallization.
rI hey enter the compofition of the paregoric elixir,
or tin&ura opii camphorata, as it is now called.
Salt of tartar. E.
£°9 Take of tartar, what quantity you pleafe. Roll it
up in a piece of moift bibulous paper, or put it into
a crucible, and furrounding it with live coals, burn
it to a coal; next, having beat this coal, calcine it
in an open crucible with a moderate heat, taking
care that it do not melt, and continue the calcina¬
tion till the coal becomes of a white, or at leaft of
an afii, colour. Then difiblve it in warm water ;
ftrain the liquor through a cloth, and evaporate it
m a clean iron veffel; diligently ftirring it towards
the end of the procefs with an iron fpatula, to pre¬
vent it from flicking to the bottom of the veffei.
A very white fait will remain, which is to be left
a little longer on the fire, till the bottom of the vef¬
fel becomes almoft red. Laftly, when the fait is
grown cold, let it be put up in glafs veffels well fhut.
Native tartar is a faline fubflance, compounded of
an acid, of a fixed alkali, and of oily, vifeous, and co¬
louring matter. The purpofe of the above procefs is,
to free it from every other matter but the fixed alkali.
From the miftaken notion that tartar was effentially
an acid mixed only with impurities, it has been gene-
rally fuppofed that the effedt of this operation was the
converfion of an acid into an alkali by means of heat.
But fince Mr Scheele has difeovered that the proper
matter of tartar, freed from the oily and colouring
parts, is really a fait compounded of an acid, which is
pi edeminant, and a fixed alkali, we have no farther need
Ot fuch an obfeure theory. The acid of the tartar by
this proeefs is diffipated by means of the heat : and the
oily, vifeous, and colouring matters, are partly diffi-
pated, and partly brought to the ftate of infoluble
earthy matter, eafily feparable by the future lixiviation
from the alkali, wherewith they were loofely combined.
But by the laft of thefie proccffes, fomething farther
M carried on than the feparatios of the more palpable
foreign matters. By allowing the fait, freed from the
water of the lixivium, to remain on the fire till the
bottom of the veflel become almoft red, any oily mat¬
ter that may ftill be prefent feems to be decompofcd
by the united a&ion of the heat and fixed alkali, form¬
ing with a part of the latter, by their reciprocal aAion,
a velatile alkaline fait, which is forthwith difeharged
m elafhc vapours. Befides the complete difeharge of
the above principles, the remaining fixed alkali alfo fuf-
fers a confiderable lofs of il8 fixed a;r> 0r aerial ac;d
with which, when fully faturated, it forms the imper-
fea neutral fait, denominated by Dr Black mild Led
alkali : on th.s account it is fomewhat cauftic, confi-
derably dehquefeent, and in proportion to its pofftflina-
theie properties more or lefs, it more or lefs nearlv
approaches to the ftate of pure alkali, 11 is not, ho J
V ot. XIV. Part I,
MAC Y* 337
ever, fo effe&ually deprived of fixed air as to be fuffi- Prepara.
ciently cauftic for a number of purpofes. Where t‘ons ^
caufticity is not required, the fait thus purified is abun- tionsf° 1
dantly -fit for moft pharmaceutical purpofes ; but as
native tartar generally contains fmall portions of neutral
falls befides the foreign matters already noticed, it is
neceflary, if we wifti to have a very pure alkali for nice
operations, to employ cryftallization and other means,
befide the procefs here d re&ed.
The white and red forts of tartar are equally fit
for the purpofe of making fixed fait ; the only dif¬
ference is, that the white affor ’s a fomewhat larger
quantity than the other: from 16 ounces of this fort,
upwards of four ounces of ^xed alka'ine fait may be
obtained. The ufe of the paper is to prevent the
fmaller pieces of the tartar from dropping down into
the afti-hole, through the interflices of the coals, up»
on firft injeding it into the furnace.
. The calcination of the fait (if the tartar was fuffi-
ciently burnt at firft) does not increafe its ftiength fo
much as is fuppofed : nor is the grceniOi or blue
colour any certain mark either of its ftrength, or
of its having been, as was formerly fupoofo', long
expofed to a vehement fire : for if the crucible be
perfedly clean, clofe covered, and has flood the
fire without cracking, the fait will turn out white,
though kept melted and reverberated ever fo long ;
while, on the other hand, a flight crack happen*
mg in the crucible, or a fpark ©f coal falling in,
will in a few minutes give the fait the colour admired.
The colour, in reality, is a mark rather of its contain¬
ing fome inflammable mattei than of its ftrength.
The vegetable alkali prepared from tartar'll s now
no place in the London pharmacopoeia, or at leaft it
is included under the following article.
Prepared kali. L.
Take of pot-afh, two pounds; boiling diftilled wa- 210
ter, three pints. Diflblve and fibre through paper-
evaporate the liquor till a pellicle appears on the
furface ; then fet it afide for a night, that the neu¬
tral falts may cryftallize ; after which pour out the
liquor, and boil away the whole of the water, con-
ftantly ftirring, left any fait fhould adhere to the
pot. In like manner is purified impure kali from
the a flies of any kind of vegetable. The fame fait
may be prepared from tartar burnt till it becomes
of an afli-colour.
Fixed vegetable all-'ine fait purified. E.
Let the fixed alkaline fait, called in Englifli pearl 2II
ajhes, be put into a crucible, and brought to a
fomewhat red heat, that the oily impurities, if there
be any, may be confumed ; then having beat and
agitated it with an equal weight of water, let them
be well mixed. After the feces have fubfided, pour
the ley into a very clean iron pot, and boil to dry-
nefs, diligently ftirring the fait towards the end of
the procefs, to prevent its flicking to the veffel.
This fait, if it hath been rightly purified, though
it be very dry, if rubbed with an equal weight of
water, may be diffolved into a liquor void of colour
or fmell.
The potafti ufed in commerce is an alkali mixed
with a confiderable quantity of remaining charcoal,
k fulphur.
33? PHARMACY. Part If,
i'repara- fu]phar, vitn’oiated tartar, anti oily matter. In the as being purer than thofe made by applying water Prepara.
" large manufaftures, the alkaline part is indeed confi- diredly : for though the fait be repeatedly diffolved ^on* an'l>
tions! derably freed from impurities by mixing the weed' in water, filtered, and exfiorated ; yet, on being li-t^h501 |
u—y—— allies with water, evaporating the clear ley, and burn- quefied by the humidity of the air, it will Hill depo-
ing the refiduum in an oven ; but belides that this pro- fite a portion of earthy matter: but it mud be ob-
cefs is infufficient for the complete feparation of the ferved, that the exnccated fait leaves always an earthy
impurities, it alfo fuperadds a quantity of flony mat* matter on being diilolved in water, as well as on be-
ter, giving to the alkali the pearl appearance (whence ing dehquated in the air. Whether it leaves more
its name), and rendering it altogether unfit for phar- in the one way than iu the other, is not determined
tnaceutical purpofes. By the proceflfes here diredted, with precifion. I he deliquated lixivium is faid to
the alkali is effedually freed from all thefe heteroge- contain nearly one part of alkaline fait to three of an
neous matters, excepting perhaps a fmall proportion aqueous fluid. It is indifferent, in regard to the li-
of vitriolated tartar, or other neutral falts, which may xivium kfelf, whether the white afhes of tartar, or
very generally be negledded. As in the procefs no af- the fait extracted from them, be ufed ; but as the
ter calcination is direded, it is probable that the fix- aflies leave a much greater quantity of earth, the fepa-
ed alkali thus prepared will not prove fo cauftic, that ration of the ley proves more troublefome.
is to fay, is not fo confiderably deprived of fixed air, The water of kali of the prefent edition of the Lon-
as in the procefs direded for preparing the fait of tar- don pharmacopoeia, then, may be confidered as an im-
tar. It is, however, fufficiently pure for moft pur- provement of the lixivium tartari of their former edk
pofes: and we confider the above procefs as the moft tion. But the Edinburgh college, confidering this fo-
convenient and cheap method of obtaining the vege- lution as being in no refped different from that made,
table fixed alkali in its mild ftate. by pure water, have entirely rejeded this preparation
The purified vegetable alkali has been known in our from their pharmacopoeia, and probably with juftice.
pharmacopoeias under the different nanaesof/S/ro/'worm- Wnt?r nf In!', T
‘mood,fait of tartar, &c. But all thefe being now known tv at or oj pare Halt, i..
to he really the fame, the terms, as leading to error. Take of kali, four pounds; quicklime, fix pounds;
have been with juftice expunged ; and it has been a diftilled water, four gallons.' Put four pints of wa- 2v'$
defidetjatum to difeover feme fhort name equally ap- ter to the lime, and let them Hand together for
plicable to the whole. The term employed by th« an hour; after which, add the kali and the reft
Edinburgh college is too long, being rather a deferip- of the water; then boil for a quarter of an hour:
tion than a name ; but to that employed by the Lon- fhffer the liquor to cool, and ftrain. A pint of this #
don college, Kali, objedions have alfo been made, liquor ought to weigh t6 ounces. _ If the liquor
And it muft be allowed, that befides the inconvenience effervefccs with any acid, add more lime.
which arifes from its being an indeclinable word, the A preparation fimilar to this had a place in the
foffil alkali is equally intitled to the fame appellation, former edition of the London pharmacopoeia, un-
Befides this, as a confiderabie portion of the foffil al- der the title of foap-ley.. Quicklime, by_ depriving-
kali is prepared from burning a vegetable growing on the mild alkali,of its aerial acid, renders it cauftic ;
the fea-coafts, which has the name of kali, the Kali hence this ley is much more acrimonious, and ads
fpinofum of Linr.e, fome apparent contradidion and more powerfully as a menftruum of ©ks, iats, &c.
ambiguity may thence arife. And the London col- than a folution of the potaffa alone. Tiie lime ftiourd
lege would perhaps have done better, if they had be ufed frelh from the kiln ; by long keeping, even
adopted the term Potajfa ; a name which has been ap- in clofe veflels, it lofes its ftrength : fuch Ihould be
propriated to this fait by fome of the moft eminent mo- made choice of as is thoroughly burnt or calcined,
dern chemifts. which may be known by its comparative lightnefs.
The purified potaffa is frequently employed in me- All the inftruments employed in this procefs ihould
dicine, in conjnndion with other articles, particularly be either of wood, earthen ware, or glafs: the com-
for the formation of faline neutral draughts and mix- mon metallic ones would be corroded by the ley, fo
tures: But it is ufed alfo by itfelf in dofes from three as either to dffcolour or communicate difagreeable qua-
orfour grains to 15 or io; and it frequently ope- lities to it. If it Ihould be needful to filter or ftrain
rates as a powerful diuretic* particularly when aided by the liquor* care muft be taken that the filter or ftrain-
r proper dilution. See PKAtL-Afh and Pot-ash. er be of vegetable matter : woollen, fijk, and that
r r fort of filtering paper which is made of animal fub-
Water of kali. L. fiances, are quickly corroded and diffolved by it.
^13 Take of kali, one pound, fet it by in a moift place The liquor is moft conveniently weighed in a nar-
tin ft be diffolved, and then ftrain it. row-necked glafs bottle, of fuch a fize, that the mea*
This article had a place in former editions of our fure of a wine pint may arife fome height into its neck j
pharmacopceias under the titles of ley of tartar, or oil the place to which it reaches being marked with a
of tartar per deliquium, &c. It is, however, to be con- diamond. A pint of the common leys of our foap-
fide red as a mere watery folution ©f the mild vege- makers weighs more than 16 ounces: it has been
table alkali, formed by its attracting moiftare from found that their foap ley will be reduced to the flan-
the air ; and therefore it is with propriety ftyled the dard here propofed, by mixing it with fomething iefc
water of kali. t^ian an e(lua^ meafiire 0f water.
Thefolutions of fixed alkaline falts, made by ex- Although this liquor is_ indeed pure alkali diffolved
poling them to a moift air, are generally conixdered ia water, yet we are inclined to give the preference
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- to the name employed by the Edinburgh college, as
'ions anil we]i as to the modes of preparing it, directed in the
Co^o". foUow-,gformula. I r o
^ Caujlic ley. E.
^ r4 Take of freih burnt quicklime, eight ounces ; purified
fixed vegetable alkaline fait, fix ounces. Throw
the quicklime, with 28 ounces of warm water, in¬
to an iron or earthen veffd. The ebullition and
extinction of the lime being perfectly finifhed, in-
ftantly add the alkaline fait ; and having thorough¬
ly mixed them, Ihut the veflel till it cools. Stir
the cooled matter, and pour out the whole into a
glafs funnel, whofe throat muft be flopped up with
a piece of clean rag. Let the upper mouth of the
funnel be covered, while the tube of it is inferted
into a glafs veflel, fo that the Icy may gradually
drop through the rag into that veffd. When it
Srft gives over dropping, pour into the funnel
fome ounces of water ; but cautioufly, and in fuch
a manner, that the water fliall fwim above the mat¬
ter. The ley will again begin to drop, and the
affufion of water is to be repeated in the fame man¬
ner, until three pounds have dropped, which takes
up the fpace of two or three days ; then agitating
the fuperior and inferior parts of the ley together,
mix them, and put up the liquor in a wtll-fhut
veflel.
If the ley be rightly prepared, it will be void of co¬
lour or fmell; nor will it raife an effervefcence with
acids, except perhaps a very flight one. Colour
and odour denote the fait not fufficiently calcined ;
and effervefcence, that the quicklime has not been
good.
The reafons and propriety of the different fteps in the
above procefs will be beft underftood by ftudying the
theory on which it is founded. The principle of
mildnefs in all alkaline falts, whether fixed or volatile,
vegetable or fofiil, is very evidently fixed air, or the
aerial acid : But as quicklime has a greater attraftion
for fixed air than any of thefe falts, fo if this Tub-
fiance be prefented to any of them, they are thereby de¬
prived of their fixed air, and forthwith become cauftic
This is what precifely happens in the above proceffes.
The propriety of clofely (hutting the veffels through
almoft every ftep of the operation, is fufficiently ob¬
vious ; viz. to prevent the abforption of fixed air
from the atmofphere, which might defeat our inten¬
tions. When only a pie-ce of cloth is put into the
throat of the funnel, the operation is much more te¬
dious, becaufe the pores of the cloth are foon blocked
up with the wet powdery matter. To prevent this,
it may be convenient to place above the cloth a piece
of fine Fly’s wirework ; but as metallic matters are
apt to be corroded, the method ufed by Dr Black
is the moll eligible. The Doftor firft drops a rug¬
ged done into the tube of the funnel, in a certain
place of which it forms itfelf a firm bed, while the
inequalities on its furface afford interftices of fuffi-
cient fize for the paffage of the filtering liquor. On
the upper furface of this (tone he puts a thin layer of
lint or clean tow; immediately above this, but not
in contaft with it, he drops a (lone fimilar to the
former, and of a fize proportioned to the fwell iti the
M A C Y.
upper part of the tube of the funnel. The inter Hi
ces between this fecond (tone and the funnel are filled
up with ftones of a lefs dimenfion, and the gradation
uniformly continued till pretty fmall fand is employed.
Finally, this is covered with a layer of coarfer fand
and fmall ftones to fuftain the weight of the matter,
and to prevent its being invifcated in the minute in¬
terftices of the fine fand. The throat of the funnel
being thus built up, the ftony fabric is to be freed of
clay and other adhering impurities, by making clean
water pafs through it till the water comes clear and
tranfparent from the extremity of the funnel. It is
obvious, that in this contrivance, the author has, as
idual, copied nature in the means fhe employs to de¬
purate watery matters in the bowels of the earth 5
and it might be ufcfully applied for the filtration of
various other fluids.
It is a very neceffary caution to pour the water
gently into the funnel; for if it be thrown in a
forcible ftream, a quantity of the powdery matter will
be waihed down, and render all our previous labour
ufelefs. That part of the ley holding the greatefl
quantity of fait in folution will no doubt be heavicft,
and will confequently fink loweit in the veffel: the
agitation of the ley is therefore neceffary, in order
to procure a folution of uniform ftrength through all
its parts. If the fait has been previoufly freed of oily
and other inflammable matters, this ley will be co-
lourlefs and void of fmell. If the quicklime has been
fo effeftually deprived of its own fixed air, as to be
able to abforb the whole of that in the alkali, the
ley will make no effervefcence with acids, being now
deprived of fixed air, to the difcharge of which by
acids this appearance is to be afcribed in the mild or
aerated alkalis.
The cauftic ley is therefore to be confidered as a
folution of pure alkali in water. Seethe article Fixed
Air.
It may be proper to obferve, for the fake of un-
derftanding the whole of the theory of the above
procefs, that while the alkali has become cauftic,
from being deprived of fixed air by the quicklime,
the lime has in its turn become mild and infoluble in
water from having received the fixed air of the alkali.
The cauftic ley, under various pompous names
has been much ufed as a lithontriptic; but its fame
is now beginning to decline. In acidities in the fto-
mach, attended with much flatulence and laxity, the
cauftic ley is better adapted than mild alkalis; as in
its union with .the acid matter it does not feparate
air. When covered with mucilaginous matters, it
may be fafely taken into the ftomach : and by ftimu*
lating, it coincides with the other intentions of cure;
by fome dyfpeptic patients it foas been employed with
advantage.
Pure kart. L.
Take of water of pure kali, one gallon. Evaporate
it to drynefs ; after which let the fait melt on the
fire, and pour it out.
TheJlrongeJl common caujlic. E.
Take of cauftic ley, what quantity you pleafe. Eva¬
porate it in a very clean iron veil'd on a gentle fire
U u z till,
339
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
cions.
' , 
215
2l6
340
Prepara¬
tions ami
Conipofi-
tions.
ii7
218
219
P H A R
till, on the ebullition ceafmg, the faline matter gent¬
ly flows like oil, which happens before the veflel
becomes red. Pour out the cauftic thus liquefied
on a fmooth iron plate ; let it be divided into fmall
pieces before it hardens, which are to be kept in
well-fhut phials.
Thefe preparations may be confidered as differing
in no effential particular. But the directions given
by the Edinburgh college are the moil precife and
diitinCt.
The effeCl of the above proceffes is fimply to dif-
charge the water of the folution, whereby the cau-
iticity of the alkali is more concentrated in any given
quantity. Thefe preparations are ftrong and fudden
cauffics. The cauftic prepared in this way has an in¬
convenience of being apt to liquefy too much on the
part to which it is applied, fo that it is not eafiiy con¬
fined within the limits in which it is intended to ope¬
rate ; and indeed the fuddennefs of its aCtion depends
on this difpofition to liquefy.
Lime with pure kali. E.
Take of quicklime, five pounds and four ounces;
water of pure kali, 16 pounds by weight. Boil
away the water of pure kali to a fourth part; then
fprinkle in the lime, reduced to powder by the af-
fufion of water. Keep it in a veffel clofe flopped.
The milder common caujlic. E.
Take of cauftic ley, what quantity you pleafe. Eva¬
porate in an iron veffel till one-third remains; then
mix with it as much new fhked quicklime as will
bring it to the confiftenceof pretty folid pap, which
is to be kept in a veffel clofely flopped.
Thefe preparations do not effentially differ from
each other, while the chief difference between the
prefent formula and that which flood in the laft edi¬
tion of the London pharmacopoeia is in the name. It
was then fly led the JlrongeJl common caujlic.
Here the addition of lime in fubftance renders the
preparation lefs apt to liquefy than the foregoing, and
confequently it is more eafiiy confinable within the
intended limits, but proportionally flower in its ope¬
ration. The defign of keeping or of flaking the lime
is, that its acrimony may be fomewhat abated.
Expofed long to the air, thefe preparations gra¬
dually refume their power of effervefcence, and k>fe
proportionally the additional a&ivity which the quick¬
lime had produced in them.
Prepared natron. L.
Take of barilla, powdered, two pounds; diftilled wa¬
ter, one gallon. Boil the fearilk in four pints of
water for half an hour, and ftrain. Boil that part
which remains after ftraining with the reft of the
water, and ftrain. Evaporate the mixed liquors to
two pints, and fet them by for eight days; ftrain
this liquor again ; and, after due boiling, fet it
afide to cry (tall ize. Diffolve the cryftals in diftilled
water ; ftrain the folution, boil, and fet it afide to
cryftallize.
The name of natron, here ufed by the London col¬
lege for the fixed fofiil alkali, has, as well as their
name for the vegetable alkali, been objefted to. And
though they are here fupported by the authority of
M A C Y. Part II.
the ancients, yet perhaps they would have done bet- Prepara-
ter in following the beft modern chemifts by employ- tljons an(*
ing the term fait of foda. This article differs in name 1
only from the following. w—y—»
Fixedfojfil alkaline fait purifed. E.
Take of afhes of Spanifli kali, commonly called foda
or barilla, as much as you pleafe, Bruife them j
then boil in water till all the fait be diffolved. Strain
this through paper, and evaporate in an iron veffel,
fo that after the liquor has cooled the fait may con¬
crete into cryftals.
By the above proceffes, the foffil alkali is obtained
fufficiently pure, being much more difpofed to cry¬
ftallize than the vegetable alkali; the admixture of
this laft, obje&ed to by Dr Lewis, is hereby in a
great meafure prevented.
It is with great propriety, that in this, as well as
many other procefles, the London college direft the
ufe of diftilled water, as being free from every impreg¬
nation.
The natron, or fofftl alkali, is found lying on the
ground in the ifland of Teneriff, and fome other coun¬
tries. The native productions of this fait feem to have
been better known to the ancients than to late natu-
ralifts; and it is, with good reafon, fuppofed to be the
nitre of the Bible. How far the native natron may
fuperfede artificial means to procure it from mixed bo*
dies, we have not been able to learn with certainty.
The foffil alkali is not only a conftituent of diffe¬
rent neutrals, but is alfo fometimes employed as a
medicine by itfelf. And in its purified ftate it has been
by fome reckoned ufeful in affe&ions of the ferofu*
lous kind. See Natrum.
Prepared ammonia. L.
Take of fal ammoniac, powdered, one pound ; prepa- 22l
red chalk, two pounds. Mix and fublime.
Water of ammonia. L.
Take of fal ammoniac, one pound ; pot-afh, one pound 222
and a half ; water, four pints. Draw off two pints,
by diftillation, with a flow fire.
Volatile alkali from fal ammoniac, commonly called vo~
latile fal ammoniac.
Take of fal ammoniac, one pound; chalk, very pure 223
and dry, two pounds ; mix them well, and lublime
from a retort into a refrigerated receiver.
Spirit of fal ammoniac. E.
Take fal ammoniac, purified vegetable fixed alkali, of 224
each fixteen ounces; water, two pounds. Having
mixed the falls, and put them into a glafs retort,
pour in the water; then diftil to drynefs with a
fand-bath, gradually raifing the heat.
Thefe articles, which in the laft edition of the Lon¬
don pharmacopoeia were ftyled the volatile fait andfpirit
of fal ammoniac, were then direded to be prepared in
the fame manner.
Sal ammoniac is a neutral fait, compofed of volatile
alkali and marine acid. In thefe proceffes the acid is
abforbed by the fixed alkali or chalk; and the volatile
alkali is of courfe fet at liberty.
The volatile alkali is, however, in its mild ftate,
being
#-
tions and
C’ompufi-
ticins.
Partll. P H A R
Prepara- bem£f combined with the fixed air, or difcharged from
the fixed alkali or chalk on their uniting with the mu¬
riatic acid.
- The fixed alkali begins to aft on the fal ammoniac,
and extricates a pungent urinous odour as foon as they
are mixed. Hence it is moft convenient not to mix
them till put into the diftilling vefiel. The two falta
may be difiblved feparately in water, the folutions
poured into a retort, and a receiver immediately fitted
on. An equal weight of the fixed fait is fully, perhaps
more than fufficient to extricate all the volatile.
Chalk does not begin to aft on the fal ammoniac
till a confiderable heat be applied. Hence they may
be without inconvenience, and indeed ought to be
thoroughly mixed together before they are put into
the retort. The furface ef the mixture may be cover¬
ed with a little more powdered chalk, to prevent fuch
particles of the fal ammoniac as may happen to lie
uppermoft from fubliming unchanged. Though the
fire mud here be much greater than when fixed alka¬
line fait is ufed, it muft not be ftreng, nor fuddenly
raifed ; for if it be, a part of the chalk (though of it-
felf not capable of being elevated by any degree of
heat) will be carried up along with the volatile fait.
M. du Hamel experienced the' juftnefs of this obferva-
tion. He relates, in the Memoirs of the French Aca¬
demy of Sciences for the year 173J, that he frequently
found his volatile fait, when a very ftrong fire was
ufed in the fublimation, amount to more, fometimes
by a half, than the weight of the crude fal ammoniac
employed ; and although not three-fourths of this con¬
crete are pure volatile fait, yet the fixed earthy matter,
when once volatilized by the alkali, arofe along with
it again on the gentled refublimation, diifolved with it
in water, and exhaled with it in the air.
hen all the fait has fubhmed, and the receiver
grown cool, it may be taken off, and luted to another
retort charged with frefh materials. This procefs
may be repeated till the recipient appears lined with
volatile fait to a confiderable thicknefs : the veffcl mud
then be broken in order to get out the fait.
I he volatile fait and fpirit of fal ammoniac are the
pured of all the medicines of this kind. They are'
fomewhat more acrimonious than thofe produced di-
re£tly from animal fuhdances, which always contain a
portion of the oil of the fubjeft, and receive from
thence fome degree ©f a faponaceous quality. Thefe
lad may be reduced to the fame degree of purity by
i.ombining them with acids into r.mmoniacal falls, and
afterwards recovering the volatile alkali from thefe
compounds by the proceffes above directed.
"i’ile.matt5r which remains in the retoit after the
oidillation of the fpirit, and fublimation of the volatile
ial ammoniac, is found to confid of marine acid united
Crfii*CL or chalk employed. When fixed
a aline fait has been ufed as the intermedium, the re-
fiduum, or caj>ut mortuum as it is called, yields, on fo-
ution and crydalhzation, a fait exactly fimilar to
the fpirit of fea-falt coagulated afterwards deferibed 1
and hence we may judge of the extraordinary virtues
formerly attributed to this fait under the names of fal
antihyjiericum, antihypochondriacum, febrifugum, digefti urn
cylvtiy &c.
. The caPut mortuum of the volatile fait, where chalk
is employed as an intermedium, expofed to a moift air,
M A C Y, ' 341
runs htfo a pungent liquor, which proves nearly the Prepara-
fame with a folution of chalk made direftly in the ma-tions ancl
rine acid. It is called by fome oleum creta, oil of chalk,
If calcined fiiells, or other animal limes, be mingled t
with fal ammoniac, a mafs will be obtained, which
likewife deliquefees in the air, and forms a liquor of
the fame kind.
Water of pure ammonia. L.
Take of fal ammoniac, one pound ; quicklime, two 22£
pounds; water, one gallon. Add to the lime two
pints of the water. Let them Hand together an
hour : then add the fal ammoniac and the other fix
pints of water boiling, and immediately cover the
veffel. Pour out the liquor when cold, and diftil off
with a flow fire one pint.
Caujlic volatile alkali^ commonly called fpirit of fal am¬
moniac ‘with quicklime. E.
Take of quicklime, frefh burnt, two pounds; water, 22&
one pound. Having put the water into an iron or
ftone ware veffel, add the quicklime previoufly beat;
cover the veffel for 24 hours; when the lime has
fallen into a fine powder, put it into the retort;
then add 16 ounces of fal ammoniac, diluted with
four times its weight of water; and, fhutting the
mouth of the retort, mix them together by agitation.
Lallly, diftil into a refrigerated receiver, with a very-
gentle heat, fo that the operator can eafily bear the
heat of the retort applied to his hands. Twenty-
ounces of liquor are to be drawn off. In this diftil-
lation the veffels are to be fo luted as thoroughly to
exclude the vapours, which are very penetrating.
After the diftihation, however, they are to be open¬
ed, and the alkali poured out before the retort hath
altogether cooled.
The theory of this procefs is precifely the fame
with that dire&ed for the preparation of cauftic ley.
I he effeft of the quicklime on the fal aaimoniac is
very different from that of the chalk and fixed alkali
in the foregoing precefs. Immediately on mixture a
very penetrating vapour exhales; and in diftillation the
whole of the volatile fait arifes in a liquid form, no
part of it appearing in a concrete ftate, how gently fo-
ever the liquor be re-diftilled. This fpirit is far more
pungent than the other both in fmeli and tafte ; and,
like fixed alkalis rendered cauftic by the fame interme¬
dium, it raifes no effervefcence on mixture with acids.
The whole of the phenomena are to be aferibed to the
abforption of fixed air from the alkali by means of the
quicklime ; and from being thus deprived of the aerial
acid the volatile alkali is brought to a cauftic ftate.
Ihis fpirit is held to be too acrimonious for internal
ufe, and has therefore been chiefly employed for fmel«*
ling to in faintings, &c. though, when properly dilu¬
ted, it may be given inwardly with fafety. It is a
powerful menftruum for fome vegetable fubftances,
as Peruvian bark, from which the other fpirits ex-
tradl little. It is alfo moil convenient for the pur-
pofe of rendering oils mifcible with water, as in the
preparation of what is called in extemporaneous praftice
the oily mixture.
Some have mixed a quantity of this with the offici¬
nal fpirits both of fal ammoniac and of hartfhorn -
which thus become more pungent, fo as to bear an
addition
%
Prepara¬
tions and
Cothpofi-
Uons.
P H A R
acldltton of a conflderabte quantity of water, witlmnt
any danger of the difeovery from the tafte or fmelh
This abtife would be prevented, if what has been tor-
metly laid down as a mark of the ftrength of thefe
fpirits (fome of the volatile fait remaining undifTolved
in them) were attended to. It may be detected by
adding to a little of the fufpe&ed fpirit about one-
fourth its quantity or more of re&ified fpirit of wine ;
which, if the volatile fpirit be genuine, will precipi¬
tate a part of its volatile fait, but occafrons no vifible
f-par at ion or change in the cauftic fpirit, or in thofe
which are fophifticated with it.
Others have fubftituted for the fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac a folution of crude fal ammoniac and fixed alka¬
line fait mixed together. This mixture depofites a
faline matter on the addition of fpirit of wine, like
the genuine fpirit; from which, however, it may be
didinguifhed, by the fait which is thus feparated not
being a volatile alkaline, but a fixed neutral fait. The
abufe may be more readily detected by a drop or two
of foluti6n of filver in aquafortis, which will produce
no change in the appearance of the true fpirit, but will
render the counterfeit turbid and milky.
The volatile liquor> fak, and oil, of hartjhorn. L..
22"] Take of hartfhorn, ten pounds. Diftil with a fire
gradually increafed. A volatile liquor, fait, and oil,
will afcend. The oil and fait being feparated, diftil
the liquor three times. To the fait add an equal
weight of prepared chalk, and fublime thrice, or
till it become white.
The fame volatile liquors, fait, and oil, may be obtain¬
ed from any parts (except the fat) of all kinds of
animals. '
The volatile alkali obtained from hartfhorn, whether
in a folid or fluid ftate, is precifely the fame with that
obtained from fal ammoniac. And as that procels is
the eafieft, the Edinburgh college have entirely rejefted
the prefent. While, however, the names of fpirit and
fait of hartfhorn are ftill in daily ufe, ammonia, or the
volatile alkali, is ftill prepared from bones and other
animal fubftances by feveral very extenfive traders.
The wholefale dealers have very large pots for the
diftiliation ef hartfhorn, with earthen heads almoft like
thofe of the common ftill; for receivers, they ufe a
couple of oil jars, the mouths of which are luted toge¬
ther ; the pipe that comes from the head enters the
lowermoft jar through a hole made on purpofe in its
bottom. When a large quantity of the fubjedt is to
be diftilled, it is cuftomary to continue the operation
for feveral days fuccefiively; only unluting the head
occafionally to put in frefh materials.
When only a fmall quantity of fpirit or fait is
wanted, a common iron pot, fuch as is ufually fixed in
fand furnaces, may be employed, an iron head being
fitted to it. The receiver ought to be large, and a
glafs, or rather tin adopter, inferted between it and
the pipe of the head.
The diflilling vefTel being charged with pieces of the
horn, a moderate fire is applied, which is flowly in-
tnreafed, and raifed at length almoft to the utmoft de¬
gree. At firft a watery liquor arifes, the quantity of
which will be fmaller or greater according as the horns
were more or lefs dry: this is fucceeded by the fait
*nd ©il: the fait at firft diffolves as it comes over in
MAC Y. Pan If.
the phlegm, and thus forms what is called fpirit, Prepara-
When the phlegm is faturated, the remainder of the t*ons an l
fait concretes in a folid form to the fides of the reci- ^
pient. If it be required to have the whole of the fait »
folid and undiffolved, the phlegm fhould be removed
as foon as the fait begins to arife, which may be known
by the appearance of white fumes; and that this may '
be done the metre commodioufly, the receiver fhould
be left uuluted till this firft part of the procefs be
finifhed. The white vapours which now arife fome-
times come with fuch vehemence as to throw off or
burft the receiver. To prevent this accident, it is
convenient to have a fmall hole in the luting, which
may be occafionally flopped with a wooden peg, or
opened, as the operator fhall find proper. After the
fait has all arifen, a thick dark-coloured oil comes over.
The procefs is now to be difeontinued ; and the veffels,
when grown cold, unluted.
All the liquid matters being poured out of the re¬
ceiver, the fait which remains adhering to its fides is
to be wafhed out with a little water and added to the
reft. It is convenient to let the whole ftand for a few
hours, that the oil may the better dffengage itfelf
from the liquor, fo as to be firft feparated by a funnel,
and afterwards more perfectly by filtration through
wet paper. The fait and fpirits are then to be farther
purified as above directed.
The fpirit of hartfhorn met with in the fhops is ex"
tremely precarious in point of ftrength; the quantity
of fait contained in it (on which its efficacy depends)
varying according as the diftiliation in rectifying it is
continued for a longer or fhorter time. If after the
volatile fait has arifen, fo much of the phlegm or watery
part be driven over as is juft fufficient to diffolve it,
the fpirit will be fully faturated, and as ftrong as it can
be made. If the procefs be not at this inftant flopped,
the phlegm, continuing to arife, muft render the fpirit
continudlly weaker and weaker. The diftillation there¬
fore ought to be difeontinued at this period, or rather
while fome of the fait ftill remains undiffolved ; the
fpirit will thus prove always equal, and the buyer be
furnifhed with a certain criterion of its ftrength. Very
few have taken any notice of the above-mentioned in¬
convenience of thefe kinds of fpirits ; and the remedy
is firft hinted at in the Pharmacopoeia Reformata. The
purity of the fpirit is eafily determined from its dear-
nefs and grateful odour.
Volatile alkaline falts, and their folutions called
fpirits, agree in many refpeCts with fixed alkalis, and
their folutions or leys : as in changing the colour of
blue flowers to a green ; effervefeing, when in their
mild ftate, with and neutralizing acids ; liquefying the
animal juices; and corroding the flefhy parts, fo as,
when applied to the fkin, and prevented from exhaling
by a proper covering, to a<9t as cauftics ; diffolving
oils and fulphur, though lefs readily than the fixed
alkalis, on account probably of their not being able to
bear any coniiderable heat, by which their activity
might be promoted. Their principal difference from
the other alkalis feems to confift in their volatility.
They exhale or emit pungent vapours in the coldeft
ftate of the atmofphere ; and by their ftimulating
fmell they prove ferviceable in languors and faintings.
Taken internally, they difeover a greater colliquating
as well as ftimulating power; the blood drawn from a
vein,
tions and
iMinpofi-
tion*.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- vein, after their ufe has been continued for fome time,
id faid to be remarkably more fluid than before; they
are likewife more difpofed to operate by perfpiration,
—' and to act on the nervous fyftem. They are particu¬
larly ufeful in lethargic cafes; in hyfterical and hypo¬
chondriacal diforders ; and in the languors, beadachs,
inflations of the ftomach, flatulent colics, and other
fymptoms which attend them. They are generally
found more ferviceable to aged perfons, and in phleg¬
matic habits, than in the oppofite circumftances. In
fome fevers, particularly thofe of the low kind, accom¬
panied with a cough, hoarfenefs, and a redundance of
phlegm, they are of great utility, railing the vis vh<ey
and exciting a falutary diaphorefis ; but in putrid
fevers, feurvies, and wherever the mafs of blood is thin
and acrimonious, their ufe is ambiguous. As they
are more powerful than the fixed in liquefying tena¬
cious humours, fo they prove mere hurtful where the
fluids are already in a colliquated Hate. In vernal in-
termittents, particularly thofe of the flow kind, they
are often the moft efficacious remedy. Dr Billet
obferves, in his EiTay on the Medical Conftitution of
Great Britain, that though many cafes occur which
will yield to no other medicine than the bark, yet he
has met with many which were only fupprefied from
time to time by the bark, but were completely cured
by alkaline fpirits. He tells us, that thefe fpirits
will often carry off vernal intermittents without any
previous evacuation : but that they are generally more
effedtual if a purge be premifed ; and in plethoric or
inflammatory cafes, or where the fever perfonates a re¬
mittent, venefedlion is necefl'ary.
Thefe falls are molt commodioufly taken in a liquid
form, largely diluted; or in that of a bolus, which
Ihould be made up only as it is wanted. The dofe is
from a grain or two to ten or twelve. Ten drops of
a wdl. made fpirit, or faturated folution, are reckoned
to contain about a grain of the fait. In inter mittents,
15 or 20 drops of the fpirit are given in a tea-cupful
of cold fpring water, and repeated five or fix times in
each intermiffion. •
The volatile falls and fpirits prepared from different
animal fubftances, have been fuppofed capable of pro¬
ducing different effefts on the human body, and to re¬
ceive fpecilic virtues from the fubjedl. The fait of
vipers has been efteemed particularly ferviceable in dif-
orders occafioned by the bite of that animal; and a
lalt drawn from rhe human fkull, in difeafes of the
head. But modern praftice acknowledges no fuch
different effe&s from thefe preparations ; and chemi¬
cal experiments have ffiown their identity. There is
indeed, when not fufficiently purified, a very percep¬
tible difference in the fmell, taite, degree of pungency,
and volatility of thefe falls; and in this ftate their me¬
dicinal virtues vary confiderably enough to deferve no¬
tice : but this difference they have in common, ac¬
cording as they are more or lefs loaded with oil, not
as they are produced from this or that animal fub-
ilance. As firft diftilled, they may be looked on as a
kind of volatile foap, in which the oil is the prevailing
principle ; in this ftate they have much lefs of the
proper alkaline acrimony and pungency than when
they have undergone repeated dittillations, and fuch
other operations as difengage the oil from the fait •
for by thefe means theylofe their faponaceous tju&lhy’
M A C Y,
and acquiring greater degrees of acrimony, become me-Preparu-
dicines of a different cials. I hefe preparations there-tl011s an'l
fore do not differ near fo much from each other, asfe:o!"Poil'
they do from themfelves in different ftat^s of purity.
To which may be added, that when we confider them
as loaded with oil, the virtues of a diftilled animal oil
itfclf are likewife to be brought into the account.
Thefe oils, as firft diftilled, are highly fetid and of-
fenfiye, of an extremely heating quality, and of fuch
ectivny, that, according to Hoffman’s account, half a
drop diffolved in a dram of fpirit of wine is fufficient
to raife a copious fweat. By repeated 1 edifications,
they lofe their oftenfivenefs, and at the fame time be¬
come mild in their medicinal operation. The redi-
fied oils may be given to the quantity of twenty or
thirty drops, and aie faid to be anodyne and antifpaf-
modie, to procure a calm fleep and gentle fw^eat, with¬
out heating or agitating the body, as has been oh-
lerved in treating of the animal oil. It is obvious,
therefore, that the lalts and fpirits muft dift'er, not on¬
ly according to the quantity of oil they contain, but
according to the quality of the oil itfclfin its different
ftates.
The volatile fait and fpirits, as firft diftilled, are of
a brown colour, and a very offenfive fmell: by re¬
peated redification, as direded in the proceffes above
fet down, they lofe great part of the oil on which
theie qualities depend, the fait becomes white, the fpi-
rit limpid as water, and of a grateful odour; and tins
is tlie mark of fufficient redification.
, ^ ^as keen °bjeded to the repeated redification of
tnefe preparations, that, by feparating the oil, it ren¬
ders them fimilar to the pure fait and fpirit offal am¬
moniac, which are procurable at an eaiier rate. But
the intention is not to purify them wholly from the
oil, but to feparate the groffer part, and to fubtilize
the reft, fo as to bring it towards the fame ftate as
when the oil is redified by itfelf. The redification of
Ipint of hart (horn has been repeated twenty times
lucceffiyely, and found ftill to participate of oil, but
of an oil very different from what it was in the firit
diftillation.
r .m? C ,n ^pg-keeping, become again
reud.^ The falts and fpirits alfo, however carefully
redified, fuffer in length of time the fame chan<>-e ;
refuming their original brown colour and ill fmell; a
proof that the redification is far from having diverted
them of oil. Any intentions, however, which they are
thus capable of anfwering, may be as effedually ac-
comphflied by a mixture of the volatile alkali with the
animal oil, in its redified ftate, to any extent that
may be thought neceflary.
Vitviolated hali. L.
Take of the fait which remains after the diftillation of
543
the nitrous acid, two pounds. Diftilled water, two
gallons. Burn out the fuperfluous acid with a ftrong
fire in an open veffel; then boil it a little while in
the water; ftrain and fet the liquor alide to crv.
ftallize. J
The fait thus formed is the fame with the vitriolated
tartar of the laft edition of the London pharmacopoeia;
but it is now prepared in a cheaper and eafier manner*
at leaft for thofe who diftil the nitrous acid. In both
ways a neutral is formed, confifting of the fixed vegc.
7 table
22S-
344
Prepara¬
tions and
Comped-
lions.
229
P H A R
table alkali, united to the vitriolic acid. But a fimt-
lar compound may alio be obtained by the following
procefs ot the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.
Vitriol cited Jlxed vegetable alhaliy commonly called vi-
triolated tartar, E.
Take of vitriolic acid, diluted with fix times its weight
of water, as much as you pleafe. I ut it^ into, a ca¬
pacious glafs veffel, and gradually drop into it, of
purified fixed vegetable alkali, diluted with fix times
its weight of water, as much as is fufficient tho¬
roughly to neutralize the acid. The effervefcence
being finifhed, ftrain the liquor through paper;
and after proper evaporation, fet it afide to cry-
ftallize-
The operator ought to take care that the vapour
feparated during the effervtfcence {hall not be applied
to his noftrils; as fixed air, when applied to the ol-
faftory nerves, is highly deleterious to life.
This is an elegant and one of the leaf* troublefome
ways of preparing this fait. The Edinburgh college,
in their former editions, ordered the acid liquor to be
dropped into the alkaline : by the convcrfe procedure
now received, it is ohvioufly more eafy to fecure a-
gainft a redundance of acidity ; and for the greater
certainty in this point, it may be expedient, as in the
foregoing procefs, to drop in a little more of the al-
kaline ley than the ceffation of the effervefcence feems
to require. . ,
In a former edition of the fame pharmacopctia, the
acid was dire&ed to be diluted only with its equal
weight of vviter, and the alkali with that quantity of
water which it is capable of imoibing from the atmo-
fphere By that imper^eft'en there was not water
enough to keep the vitriolated tartar diffolved ; on
which account, as fad as the alkali was neutralized
by the acid, a great part fell to the in *
powdery form. In order to obtain perfeA and well
formed cry'lals, the liquor fiiould not he fet in the
cold, but continued in mo’erate heat, fuch as the
hand can fcarcely bear, that the water may flowly eva-
P°itt remarkable, that although the yittloHc acid
and fixed alkaline fait do each readily unite with wa
ter and ftrongly attraA moifture, even from the air,
vet the neutral refulting from the combination of the e
two, vitriolated tanar, is one of the falts moft difficult
of folution, very little of it being taken up by cold
Vitriolated tartar, in fmall dofes, as a fcruple or half
a dram, is an ufeful aperient; in large ones, as four or
five drams, a mild cathartic, which does not pafs off fo
haftily as the bitter cathartic fal or fait of Gian -er, and
feenJto extend its adion further. The wholefale deal,
era in medicines have commonly fuMJituted for it an
article otherwife almuft ufilefi m their fhops, the re-
fiduum of Glauber’s fpint of nitre- _ [his may be
looked on as a venial fraud, if the fpirit has been pie-
pared as formerly direfted, and the refiduum d.ffolved
and cryftallized : but it is a very dangerous one if the
vitriolic acid has been ufed in an over proportion, and
the caput mortnum employed without cryftallization ,
the fait in this cafe, inftead of a mdd neutral one, of
a moderately hitter tafte, proving highly acid. . ihe
purchafer ought therefore to infift on^the fait being m
M A C Y. Part II,
a cryffalline form. The cry (lala when perfecl are ob P epara-
long, with fix flat fides, and terminated at each end
by a fix-fided pyramid: fome appear compofed of two(i°^0
pyramids joined together by the bafes ; and many, in ^
the moft perfe& cryfiatlizations we have feen, are very
irregular. They decrepitate in the fire, fomewhat like
thofe of fea-falt, for which they have fometimes been
miftaken.
Salt of many virtues. E,
Take nitre in powder, flowers of fulphur, of each 33©
equal parts. Mix them well together, and inje&
the mixture by little and little at a tim. into a red-
hot crucible : the deflagration being over, let the
fa’t cool, after which it is to be put up in a glafs
veffel well (hut. 1 he fait may be purified by dif-
folving it in w .rm water, filtering the folution, and
exhaling it to drynefs, or by cryftallization.
This is another method of uniting the vitriolic acid
with the common vegetable fixed alkali. Both the
nitre and the finphur are decompounded in the opera¬
tion : the acid of the nitre, and the inflammable prin¬
ciple of the fulphur, detonate together, and are diffi-
pated; while the acid of the fulphur (which, as we
have alreadv feen. is no other than the vitriolic acid)
remains combined with the alkaline bafis of the nitre.
The {hops according’y have fubftituted the foregoing
preparation for the fal pochyrcft.
Vitriolated natron. L.
Take of the fait which remains after the diftillation of 23a
the muriatic acid, two pounds; diftilled water,
two pints and an ha’f. Burn out the fuperfluous
acid with a ftrong fire in an open veffel; then boil
it for a little in the water: {train the folution, and
fet it by to cryftallize.
Vitriolated foda, commonly called cathartic fait of
Glauber. E.
Diffolve in warm water the mafs which remains after
the diftillation of fpirit of sea-fait : filter the folu¬
tion, and cryftallize the fait.
The directions given for the preparation of this fait,
long known by the name of fal mirabik Glauberi, are
nearly the fame in the pharmacopoeias of both colleges;
but thofe of the London college are to be preferred,
as being moft accurate and explicit.
In a former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
peia, it was ordered, that if the cryftals (obtained as
above) proved too {harp, they fhould be again diffolved
in water, and the filtered liquor evaporated to fuch a
pitch only as may difpofe the fait to cryftallize. But
there is no great danger of the cryftals proving too
{harp, even when the fpirit of fait is made with the
largeft proportion of oil of vitr ol dire&ed under that
procefs. The liquor which remains after the cryftalK-
zation is indeed very acid ; and with regard to this
preparation, it is convenient it fliould be fo; for other-
wife the cryftals will be very fnall, and li Ice wife in a
fmall quantity. Where a fufficient proportion of oil
of vitriol has not been employed in the difttllation of
the fpirit, it is neceffary to add fome to tb^. bcluor> m
order to promote the cryftalliz tion of the fait.
The title of cathartic fait, which this fait has often
had, expreffes its medical virtues. Taken from had
8
Part II.
P H A R
Prepara¬
tions and
iDoinpofi-
tions.
233
an ounce to an ounce, or more, it proves a mild and
ufeful purgative ; and in fmaller dofes, largely diluted,
a ferviceable aperient and diuretic. The (hops fre-
^ quently fubftitute for it the bitter cathartic fait,
which is nearly of the fame quality, but fomewhat
more unpleafsnt, and, as is faid, lefs mild in operation.
They are very e&fily diilinguifhahle from each other,
by the eflfedl of alkaline falts upon folutions of them.
The folutions of Glauber’s fait fuffer no vilible change
from this addition, its own bafis being a true fixed al¬
kali : but the folution of the bitter cathartic fait
grows inftantly white and turbid; its bafis, which is
an earth, being extricated copioufly by the alkaline
fait.
Purified nitre. L.
Take of nitre two pounds ; diftilled water, four pints.
Boil the nitre in the water till it be diffolved; drain
the folution, and fet it afide to cryftallize.
Common nitre contains ufually a confiderable por¬
tion of fea-falt, which in this procefs is feparated, the
fea-falt remaining diflblved after the greateft part of
the nitre has cryitallized. The cryftals which fhoot
after the firft evaporation are large, regular, and pure:
but when the remaining liquor is further evaporated,
and this repeated a fecond or third time, the cryftals
prove at length fmall, imperfedf, and tipt with little
cubical cryftals of fea-falt.
When rough nitre, in the ftate wherein it is firft
extra&ed from the earths impregnated with it, is treat¬
ed in this manner, there remains at laft a liquor, call¬
ed mother-ley, which will no longer afford any cryftals.
This appears to participate of the nitrous and marine
acids, and to contain an earthy matter diffolved by
thofe acids. On adding alkaline lixivia, the earth is
precipitated; and when thoroughly walhed with wa¬
ter, proves infipid. If the liquor be evaporated to
drynefs, a bitterifh faline matter is left ; which being
ftrongly calcined in a crucible, parts with the acids,
and becomes, as in the other cafe, infipid.
This earth has been celebrated as an excellent pur¬
gative, in the dofe of a dram or two; and, in fmaller
dofes, as an alterant in hypochondriacal and other dif-
orders. This medicine was for fome time kept a great
fecret, under the name of magnejia alba, nitrous panacea.
Count Palma’s powder, il polvere albo Romano, poudre de
Sentinelli, See. till Lancifi made it public in his notes on
the Metallotheca Vaticana. It has been fuppofed, that
this earth is no other than a portion of the lime com¬
monly added in the elixation of nitre at the Euro¬
pean nitre-works: but though the fpecimens of mag-
nefia examined by Neumann, and fome of that which
has lately been brought hither from abroad, gave plain
marks of a calcareous nature ; yet the true magnefia
muft be an earth of a different kind, calcareous earths
being rather aftringent than purgative. The earthy
bafis of the bitter cathartic fait is found to have the
properties aferibed to the true magnefia of nitre, and
appears to be the very fame fpecies of earth : from
that fait therefore this medicine is now prepared, as
will be feen hereafter. The magnefia alba differs from
calcareous earths, in having a lefs powerful attraction
for fixed air, and in not becoming cauftic by calcina¬
tion.
Vol. XIV. Part L
234
M A C Y. ' 345
l. .SS'
Take of kali one pound ; boil it with a flow fire in
four or five times its quantity of diftilled vinegar ; !
the effervefcence ceafing, let there be added at dif¬
ferent times more diftilied vinegar, until the laft vi-
negar being nearly evaporated, the addition of frefti
will excite no effervefcence, which will happen when
about twenty pounds of diftilled vinegar are confu-
med ; afterwards let it be dried flowly. An im¬
pure fait will be left, which melt for a little while
with a How fire ; then let it be diffolved in water,
and filtered through paper. If the fufion has been
rightly performed, the ftrained liquor will be co-
lourlef? ; if otherwife, of a brown colour. Laftly,
evaporate this liquor with a flow fire, in a very
fhallow glafs veffel; frequently ftirring the mafs,
that the fait may be more completely dried, which
fhould be kept in a veffel clofe flopped. The fait
ought to be very white, and diffolve wholly, both
in water and fpirit of wine, without leaving any
feces. If the fait, although white, fhould depofite
any feces in fpirit of wine, that folution in the fpi¬
rit fhould be filtered through paper, and the fait
again dried.
Acetatedfixed vegetable alkali, commonly called regenera¬
ted tartar. E.
Take of fait of tartar one pound ; boil it with a very
gentle heat in four or five times its quantity of di¬
ftilled vinegar; add more diftilled vinegar at diffe¬
rent times, till on the watery part of the former
quantity being nearly diflipated by evaporation, the
new addition of vinegar ceafes to raife any effer-
vefcence. This happens when about twenty pounds
by weight of diftilled vinegar has been confumed.
The impure fait remaining after the exficcation, is
to be liquefied with a gentle heat for a fhort time
and it is proper that it fhould only be for a fhort
time ; then diffolve ic in water, and ftrain through
paper. If the liquefaction has been properly per¬
formed, the ftrained liquor will be limpid ; but if
otherwife, of a brown colour. Evaporate this liquor
with a very gentle heat in a fliallow glafs veffel, oc-
cafionally ftirring the fait as it becomes dry, that
its moifture may fooner be diffipated. Then put it
up into a veffel very clofely flopped, to prevent it
from liquefying in the air.
This fait had formerly the name of diuretic fait in
the London pharmacopoeia; but that which they now
employ, or perhaps in preference to it, the name of
potajfia acetata, gives a clearer idea of its nature.
The purification of this fait is not a little trouble-
fome. The operator muft be particularly careful, in
melting it, not to ufe a great heat, or to keep it long
liquefied : a little fhould be occafionally taken out^
and put into water ; and as foon as it begins to part
freely with its black colour, the whole is "to be remo¬
ved from the fire. In the laft drying, the heat muft
not be fo great as to melt it; otherwife it will not
prove totally foluble. If the folution in fpirit of wine
be exficcated, and the remaining fait liquefied with a
very gentle fire, it gains the leafy appearance which
has procured it the name terra foliata.
x x * la
235
34^
Vrepara-
tioru and
Compofi-
tions.
237
P H A R M
In the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the corre-
fpondents of the French Academys lately publhhed,
Mr Cadet has given a method of making the fait
white at the firft evaporation, without the trouble of
any farther purification. He obferves, that the brown
colour depends on the-oily matter ©f the vinegar being
burnt by the heat commonly employed in the evapo¬
ration ; and his improvement confilts in diminifhing
the heat at the time that this burning is liable to
happen. The procefs he recommends is as follows :
Diffolve a pound of fait of tartar in a fufficient quan¬
tity of cold water ; filter the folution, and add by
degrees as much diililled vinegar as will faturate it,
or a little more. Set the liquor to evaporate in a
ftone-ware veflel in a gentle heat, not fo ftrong as
to make it boil. When a pellicle appears on the
furface, the reft of the procefs mu'ft be finilhed in a
water-bath. The liquor acquires by degrees an oily
confiftence, and a pretty deep blown colour; but
the pellicle or fium on the top looks whitifh, and
when taken off and cooled, appears a congeries of
little brilliant filver-like plate#. The matter is to Be
kept continually ftirring, till it be wholly changed
into this white flaky matter ; the comolete drying
of which is moft conveniently efledted in a warm
oven.
We ftiall not take upon us to determine whether
the pure or impure fait is preferable as a medicine ;
©bferving only, that the latter is more of a faponace-
©us nature, the former more acrid, though fomewhat
more agreeable to the ftomach. Mr Cadet reckons
the fait prepared in his method fuperior both to the
brown and white forts made in the common way, as
pofiefling both the oily quality of the one and the
agreeablenefa of the other, and as being always uni¬
form or of the fame power: whereas the others are
liable to vary confiderably, according to the degree of
heat employed in the evaporation. They are all me¬
dicines of great efficacy, and may be fo dofed and ma¬
naged as tojirove either mildly cathattic, or powerfully
diuretic : few of the faline deobftruents come up to
them in virtue. The dofe is from half a fcruple to a
dram or two. A bare mixture, however, of alkaline
fait and vinegar, without exficcation, is not perhaps
much inferior as a medicine to the more elaborate fait.
Two drams of the alkali, faturated with vinegar, have
been known to occafion ten or twelve ftools in hydro¬
pic cafes, and a plentiful difcharge of urine, without
any inconvenience.
Water of acetated ammonia. L.
Take of ammonia, by weight, two ounces; diftilled
vinegar, four pints ; or as much as is fufficient to
faturate the ammonia. Mix.
A C Y. Part II,
This is an excellent aperient faline liquor. Taken Prepara-
warm in bed, it proves commonly a powerful dispho-4'00* and
retie or fudorific; and as it operates without heat, it
has place in febrile and inflammatory difordem, where y
medicines of the warm kind, if they fail of procuring
fweat, aggravate the diftemper. Its adion may like-
wife be determined to the kidneys, by walking about
in a cool air. The common dofe is half an ounce, ei¬
ther by itfelf, or along with other medicines adapted
to the intention. Its ftrength is not a Httle precari¬
ous, depending much on that of the vinegar ; an in-
convenience which cannot eafily be obviated, for the
faline matter is not reducible to the form of a concrete
fait.
Tartarized kali. L.
Take of kali one pound; cryftals of tartar, three pounds;
diftilled water, boiling, one gallon. To the fait,
diflblved in water, throw in gradually the cryltals
of tartar, powdered : filter the liquor, when cold,
through paper: and, after due evaporation, fet it
apart to cryftallize.
Tart art-zed vegetable fixed alkali, commonly called foluble
tartar. E.
238
, Spirit of Mindererus. E.
Take any quantity of the volatile alkaline fait of fal
ammoniac, and gradually pour upon it diftilled vi¬
negar till the effervefcence ceafes; occafionally ftir¬
ring the mixture to promote the adfion of the vi-'
negar on the fait.
Though this article has long been known by the
name of Spiritus Mindereri, fo called from the inven¬
tor ; yet that employed by the London college is un¬
doubtedly preferable, as giving a proper idea of its con-
ftituent parts.
Take of purified fixed vegetable alkaline fait one pound;
water, 15 pounds. To the fait diffolved in the boil¬
ing water gradually add cryftals of tartar in fine
powder, as long as the addition thereof raifes any
effervefcence, which almoft ceafes before three times
the weight of the alkaline fait hath been injected ;
then ftrain the cooled liquor through paper, and
after due evaporation fet it afide to cryftallize.
Common white tartar is perhaps preferable for this
operation to the cryftals ufually met with. Its impu¬
rities can here be no objedtion ; fince it will be fuffi-
ciently depurated by the fubfequenr filtration.
The preparation of this medicine by either of the
above methods is very eafy ; though fome chemifts
have rendered it fufficiently troublefome, by a nicety
which is not at all wanted. They infift upon hitting
the very exarft. point of faturation between the alkaline
fait and the acid of the tartar; and caution the opera¬
tor to be extremely careful, when he comes near this
mark, left by imprudently adding too large a portion
of either, he render the fait too acid or too alkaline.
If the liquor be fuffered to cool a little before it be
committed to the filter, and then properly exhaled and
cryftallized, no error of this kind can happen, though,
the faturation ftrould not be very exa&ly hit : for fince
cryftals of tartar are very difficultly foluble even in
boiling water, and when diffolved therein concrete
again upon the liquor’s growing cold, if any more of
them has been employed than is rtiken up by the alkali,
this fuperfluous quantity will be left upon the filter ;
and, on the other hand, when too much of the alkali
has been ufed, it will remain uncryftallized. The cry-
ftallization of this fait indeed cannot he effefted with¬
out a good deal of trouble : it is therefore moft con¬
venient to let the acid fait prevail at firft ; to fepm-
rate the fuperfluous quantity, by fuffering the li¬
quor to cool a little before filtration ; and then pro¬
ceed to the total evaporation of the aqueous fluid, which
will leave behind it the neutral fait required. The moft
proper veffel for this purpofe is a ftoac-ware one ; iron
difcolours the fait.
t-39
Soluble
Part II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tlons.
P H A R
Soluble tartar, in dofes of a fcmple, half a dram, or
a dram, is a mild cooling aperient: two or three drams
commonly loofen the belly ; and an ounce proves pret¬
ty ftrongly purgative. It has been particularly recom¬
mended as a purgative for maniacal and melancholic
patients. Malouin fays, it is equal in purgative virtue
to the cathartic fait of Glauber. It is an ufeful addi¬
tion to the purgatives of the refmous kind, as it pro¬
motes their operation, and at the fame time tends to
corredl their griping quality. But it muft never be
given in conjunction with any acid ; for all acids de¬
compound it, abfor'dng its alkaline fait, and precipi¬
tating the tartar. On this account it is improper to
join it to tamarinds, or fuch like acid fruits ; which is
too often done in the extemporaneous practice of thofe
phyficians who are fond of mixing different cathartics
together.
Tartari%ed natron. L.
240 Take of natron, 20 ounces; cryflals of tartar, pow¬
dered, 2 pounds ; diftilied water, boiling, 10 pints.
Diffolve the natron in the water, and gradually add
the cryflals of tartar: filter the liquor through pa¬
per ; evaporate, and fet it afide to cryftallize.°
Tartar'u&ed foda, commonly called Rachel fait, E.
241 The Rochel fait may be prepared from purified fulfil
alkaline fait and cry Hals of tartar, ia the fame man¬
ner as directed for the foluble tartar.
This is a fpecies of foluble tartar, made with the fait
of kali or foda, which is the fame with the mineral al-
kcdi, or ..afis of fea-falt. It cry Hall izes far more eafi-
ly than the preceding preparation, and does not, like
it, grow moiH in the air. It is alfo conliderably lefs
purgative, but is equally decompounded by adds. It
appears to be a very elegant fait, and begins now to
come into eltecm in this country, as it has long been
in France. 6
Purification of alum. L.
M A C Y. 347
quantity : let it be boiled over a moderate fire tof>repaia-
the confifience of a fyrup ; then put it in a coldtions and
place, that cryflals may be formed. Let the fluid ,(^™pofl‘
which remains be again managed in the fame man- ‘ '‘--v - - »
ner, and let the cryflals formed be walhed with cold
water.
It has been by fome imagined, that the fuperi-
ortty of one milk over another depends on its con¬
taining a larger proportion of tin’s faline or faccharine
part ; and particularly, that upon this the reputed vir-
tues of afs milk depend. Hence this preparation has
been greatly celebrated in diforders of the hreafl, hut
it is far from anfwering what has been expe&ed from
it. It has little fweetnefs, and is difficult of folution m
water. A faline fubflance, much better dcferving the
name of fugar, may be obtained by evaporating new
milk, particularly that of the afs, to drynefs, digefling
the dry matter in water till the water has extra&ed its
ioluble parts, and then infpiffating the filtered liquor,
rhis preparation is of great fweetnefs, though neither
white nor cryftalliae ; nor is it perhaps in the pure
cryltallizable parts of milk that its medicinal virtue®
refide ; and fo little reliance is put on it as a medicine,
that it has no place in the London or Edinburgh phar¬
macopoeias ; although it long has flood, and Hill Hands,
in the foreign cues.
Salt of forrel. Suec.
S42 Take of alum, one pound; chalk, one dram by weight;
diflilled water, one pint. Boil them a little, flrain,
and fet the liquor afide to cryllallize.
We have already offered fome obfervations on alum
(fee Alum); and in general we may fay that it comes
from the alum works in England in a rtate of fuch purity
as te be fit for every purpofe in medicine : according¬
ly we do not obferve that the purification of alum has
a place in any other pharma opoeias ; but by the pre-
ient procefs it will be freed, not only from different
impurities, but alfo from fuptrabundant acid.
Burnt alum. L. E.
243 Take of alum, half a pound. Burn it in an earthen vef-
lel fo long as it bubbles.
to Pro?riety’ ollght rather perhaps
^ Ca,lktf d"ed al1™ tha» burnt alum ; for the only
effea of the burning here direded is to expel the wa^
ter. In this Hate it is fo acrid as to be frequently em-
ployed as an efoharot.c ; and it is with tiffs intention
chiefly that it has a place in our pharmacopoeias : but
l calc TcLT, b':en tak<n iDternaU!> P™1-1?
Salt or fugar of milk. S uec.
244 Take of the whey of milk, prepared by runnet, any
1 ake any quantity of the expreffed juice of the leaves 24?
of wood forrel ; let it boil gently, that the feculent
matter may be feparated ; then flrain it till it be
clear, and after this boil it on a moderate fire to the
confiflence of a fyrup. Put it into long, necked
glafs veflels, and place it in a cold fituation that it
may cryftalhze. Let thefe cryflals be diffolved in
water, and again formed into purer ones,
io make the forrel yield its juice readily, it fhould
e cut to pieces, and well bruifed in a fmall mortar,
before it be committed to the prefs. The magma
wfoch remains in the bag Hill retaining no inconfider-
able quantity of faline matter, may be advantageouflv
Xu led in water, and the deeo&ion added to the ex-
prefled juice. The whole may be afterwards depurated
together, either by the method above di're&ed, or by
running the liquor fevetal times through a linen cloth.
In fome cales the addition of a confiderable portion of
water is neceffary, that the juice, thus diluted, may
part the more freely with its feculencies ; on the fe-
paration of which the fuccefs of the procefs much de¬
pends.
The evaporation fhould be performed either in (hal¬
low glafs bafons, or in fuch earthen ones as are of a
compatff clofe texture fuch are thofe ufually called
/lone-ware. The common earthen veffels are fubjeft
to have their glazing corroded, and are fo extremely
porous, as readily to imbibe and retain a good quan¬
tity of the liquor ; metallic veffels are particularly apt
to be corroded by thefe acid kinds of juices.
I hefe juices are fo vifoid, and abound fo much with
heterogeneous matter, of a quite different nature from
any thing faline, that a pellicle, or pure faline incru-
11 at ion upon the furface, is in vain expedted. Boer-
haave, therefore, and the more expert writers in phar¬
maceutical chemiftry, with great judgment diredt the
evaporation of the fuperfluous moifture to be continued
x 2. until
34s
Prepara¬
tion* and
Compofi-
tions.
P H A R
until the matter has acquired the confiftence of cream.
If it be now fuffered to (land for an hour or two in a
warm place, it will, notwithftanding the former depu-
> rations, depofite a frelh fediment, from which it fhould
be warily decanted before it be put into the veffel in
which it is defigned to be cryftallized.
Some recommend an unglazed earthen vefiel as pre¬
ferable for this purpofe to a glafs one ; the fmoothnefs
of the latter being fuppofed to hinder the fait from
flicking .thereto ; while the juice ealily infinuating it-
felf into the pores of the former, has a great advantage
of fhooting its faline fpicula to the fides. Others
flightly incruftate the fides and bottom of whatever
veflel they employ with a certain mineral fait, which
greatly difpofea the juice to cryltallize, to which ofit-
felf it is very averfe ; but this addition is, with regard
to its medical virtue, quite different from the fait here
intended.
The liquor which remains after the cryilallization
may be depurated by a gentle colature, and after due
infpiffation fet to flioot again ; when a farther produce
of cryftals will be obtained.
The procefs for obtaining this fait is very tedious ;
and the quantity of fait which the juices afford is ex¬
tremely fmall: hence they are hardly ever made or ex-
pefted in the (hops. They may be fomewhat fooner
feparated from the mucilage and other feculencies,
by clarification with whites of eggs, and by adding
very pure white clay.
In the manner above defcribed, falts may alfo be
obtained from other acid, auftere, and bitteriih plants,
which contain but a fmall quantity of oil.
The virtues of the effential falts have not been fuf-
flciently determined from experience. This much,
however, is certain, that they do not, as has been fup¬
pofed, poffefs the virtues of the fubje&s entire, except¬
ing only the acids and fweets. The others fecm to
be almoit all of them nearly fimilar, whatever plant
they were obtained from. In watery extrafts of worm¬
wood, carduus, camomile, and many other vegetables,
kept for fome time in a foft ftate, there may be obfer.
ved fine faline efflorefcences on the furface, which
have all nearly the fame talle, fomewhat of the nitrous
kind. They are fuppofed by fome to be in reality no
more than an impure fpecies of volatile nitre (that is,
a fait compofed of the nitrous acid and volatile alkali):
thofe which were examined by the chemifts of the
French academy deflagrated in the fire, and being tri¬
turated with fixed alkali, exhaled as urinous odour;
plain marks of their containing thofe two ingredients.
Acid fait of borax. Suec.
Take of borax, an ounce and a half; warm fpring-
water, one pound. Mix them in a glafs veffel, that
the borax may be diffolved ; then pour into it three
drams of the concentrated acid of vitriol: evaporate
the liquor till a pellicle appears upon it.; after this
let it remain at reft till the cryftals be formed. Let
them be wafhed with cold water, and kept for ufe.
This fait, which has long been known by the title
of the f dative fait ofHomberg, is not unfrequently formed
by fublimation : but the procefs by cryftallization heie
directed is lefs troublefome, though the fait proves
generally lefs white, and is apt likewife to retain a
M A C Y. PartIL
part of Glauber’s fait, efpecially if the evaporation be Prepara-
long protra&ed. rnmnnff
The fait of borax to the tafte appears to be a neu-tionsp
tral; but when it is examined by alkalis, it fhows the .—-y—
properties of an acid, effervefeing, uniting, and cry-
ftallizing with them, and it deftroys their alkaline qua¬
lity. it diffolves both in water and fpirit of wine, al¬
though not very readily in either.
The virtues attributed to it may in fome degree be
inferred from the name of fedative, by which it was
long diftinguifhed. It has been fuppofed to be a mild
anodyne, to diminifii febrile heat, to prevent or re¬
move delirium, and to allay, at leaft for fome time,
fpafmodical affeaions, particularly thofe which are the
attendants of hypochondrialls and hyfteria. It may be
given in dofes from two to twenty grains.
Purifed fal ammoniac. Suec.
Diffolve fal ammoniac in fpring-water; ftrain the li¬
quor through paper; evaporate it to drynefs in a
glafs veffel by means of a moderate fire.
The fal ammoniac imported from the Mediterranean
often contains fuch impurities as to render the above
procefs neceffary ; but that which is prepared in Bri¬
tain from foot and fe*-falt, is in general brought to
market in a ftate of very great purity. Hence this
procefs is now altogether omitted both in the London
and Edinburgh pharmacopoeias. It furnifiies, however,
when neceffary, an eafy and effe&ual mode of obtain¬
ing a pure ammonia muriata.
Chap. VIII. Magnefia.
White magnejia.
Take of bitter purging fait, kali, each two pounds ;
diftilled water, boiling, 20 pints. Difiblve the bit¬
ter fait and the kali feparately in 10 pints of water,
and filter through paper ; then mix them. Boil the
liquor a little while, and ftrain it while hot through
liren, upon which will remain the white magnefia ;
then walh away, by repeated affuiions of difiilled wa¬
ter, the vitriolated kali. L.
Take of bitter purging fait, purified fixed vegetable
alkali, equal weights. Diffolve them feparately in
double their quantity of warm water, and let the
liquor be {trained or otherwife freed from the feces ;
then mix them, and inftantly add eight times their
quantity of warm water. Let the liquor boil a
little, ftirring it very well at the fame time ; then
let it reft till the heat be fomewhat dimini/hed ; af¬
ter which ftrain it through a cloth: the magnefia
will remain upon the cloth, and it is to be waftied
with pure water till it be altogether void of faline
tafte. E.
The proceffes here dire&ed by the London and E-
dinbnrgh colleges are nearly the fame ; but the former
feem to have improved fomewhat on the latter, both
in Amplifying the procefs, and in the employment of
diftilled water.
The bitter cathartic fait, or Epfom fait, is a combi¬
nation of the vitriolic acid and magnefia. In this pro¬
cefs, then, a double elective attraction takes place : the
24?
24S
tiwis and
Compofi-
tion*.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- vitriolic acid forfakes the magnefia, and joins the mild
alkali, for which it has a greater attraction j while the
magnefia in its turn unites with the fixed air difchar-
ged from the mild alkali, and ready to b-e abforbed by
any fubftance with which it can combine.
We have therefore two new produ&s, viz. a vitriol-
ated tartar, and magnefia united with fixed air. The
former is diflblved in the water, and may be preferved
for ufe ; the latter, as being much lefs foluble, finks to
the bottom of the vefi'el. The intention of employing
fuch a large quantity of water and of the boiling is,
that the vitriolated tartar may be all thoroughly dif-
folved; this fait being fo fcarcely foluble in water, that
without this expedient a part of it might be precipi¬
tated along with the magnefia. It might perhaps be
more convenient to employ the mineral alkali ; which
forming a Glauber’s fait with the vitriolic acid, would
require lefs water for its fufpenfion. By the after
ablutions, however, the magnefia is fufficiently freed
from any portion of vitriolated tartar which may have
adhered to it.
The ablutions fhould be made with very pure water;
for nicer purpofes diftilled water may be ufed with ad¬
vantage ; and foft water is in every cafe neceffary.
Hard water for this procefs is peculiarly inadmifiible,
as the principle in waters giving the property called
hardnefs is generally owing to an imperfeft nitrous
felenite, whofe bafe is capable of being difengaged by
magnefia united with fixed air. For though the at¬
traction of magnefia itfelf to the nitrous acid is not
greater than that of calcareous earths ; yet when com¬
bined with fixed air, a peculiar circumftance intervenes;
whence it is deduci! le, that the fum of the forces
tending to join the calcareous earth with the air of the
magnefia, and the magnefia with the acid, is greater
than the fum of the forces tending to join the calcare¬
ous earth with the acid, and the rnagnefia with the
fixed air.
This phenomenon mud therefore depend on the pre¬
fence of fixed air, and its greater attraction for lime
than for magnefia. On this account, if hard water be
ufed, a quantity of calcareous earth mull infallibly be
depolited on the magnefia ; while the nitrous acid with
which it was combined in the water, will in its turn
attach itfelf to a portion of the magnefia, forming what
may be called a nitrous magnefia.
All the alkalis, and alfo calcareous earths, have a
greater attraction for fixed air than magnetia has:
Hence, if th^ laft be precipitated from its folucion in
acids by cauftic alkali, it is then procured free from
fixed air: but for this purpofe calcination is more ge¬
nerally employed in the manner deferibed in the pro¬
cefs which next follows. Magnefia is fcarcely at all
iolublc in water: the infinitely fmall portion which
this fluid is capable of taking up, is owing to the fix¬
ed air of the magnefia; and it has been lately difeover-
ed, that water impregnated with this acid is capable,of
diifolving a confiderable portion : for this purpofe it
Is necefl’ary to employ magnefia already faturated with
fixed air, as magneiia deprived of this air would quick¬
ly abftradt it from the water, whereby the force of the
latter would be very confiderably diminilhed. Such a
folution of magnefia might be ufeful for feveral pur¬
pofes in medicine.
M A G Y. 349
Magnefia is the fame fpecies of earth with that ob- Prepara-
tained from the mother-ley of nitre, which was for1'1”13 and
feveral years a celebrated fecret in the hands of fome g^’pofl'
particular perfons abroad. Hoffman, who deferibes k—
the preparations of the nitrous magnefia, gives it the
chara&er of an ufeful antacid, a fafe and inoffenlive
laxative in dofes of a dram or two, and a diaphoretic
and diuretic when given in fmaller dofes of i ? or 20
grains. Since his time, it has had a confiderab'le place
in the practice of foreign1 phyficians; and is now in
great efleem among us, particularly in heart burns,
and for preventing or removing the many diforders
which children are fo frequently thrown into from a
redundance of acid humours in the firft paffages ; it is
preferred, on account of its laxative quality, to the
common abforbents, which, unlefs gentle purgatives
be occafionally given to carry them off, are apt to
lodge in the body, and occafion a collivenefs very de¬
trimental to infants.
Magnefia alba, when prepared in perfe&ion, is a
white and very fubtile earth, perfectly void of fmell
or tafte, of the clafs of thofe which diflblve in acids.
It diffolves freely even in the vitriolic acid ; which, in
the common way of making folutions, takes up only
an inconfiderable portion of other earths. Combined
with this acid, it forms the bitter purging or Epfom
fait, very eafily foluble in water; while the common
abforbents form with the fame acid almoft inlipid con¬
cretes, very difficult of folution. Solutions of magne ¬
fia in all acids are bitter and purgative, while thofe of
the other earths are more or lefs auftere and aftringent,
A large dofe of magnefia, if the ftomach contain no¬
acid to diflblve it, does not purge or produce any fen-
fible effedf ; a moderate one, if an acid be lodged
there, or if acid liquors be taken after it, procures
feveral Itools; whereas the common abforbents, in the
famecircumftances, inftead of loofening, bind the belly..
It is obvious, therefore, that magnefia is fpecificaliy
different from the other earths, and that it is applicable
to feveral ufef'ul purpofes in medicine.
Magnefia was formerly made with the mother-water
of nitre evaporated to drynefs, or precipitated by a
fixed alkali. It has gone under different names, as the-
luhite powder of the Count of Palma, powder of fentinelle%
polychrtjl, laxative powder, &c. It feems to have got
the character white, to diflinguifli it from the dark-co¬
loured mineral called alfo magnejta or manganefe; a fub-
flance polTeffing very different properties. We have
uot heard that pure native magnefia has been found in
its uncombined ftate. A combination of it with ful-
phur has been difeovered to cover a ilfatum of coal at
Littry in Lower Normandy. It has alfo been found
in certain ferpentine earths in Saxony, and in marly
and alum earths.
Calcined magnefia.
Take of white magnefia, four ounces. Lxpofe it to 2497
a flrong heat for two hours; and, when cold, fet it
by. Keep it in a veffel clofely flopped. L,
Let magnefia, put into a crucible, be contimfedjn a
red heat for two hours ; then put it up in clofe daTs
veffels. E.
By this procefs the magnefia is freed of fixed air •
which, according to Dr Black’s experiments, conflil
tuteg-
35°
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofl-
tions.
2JO
PHARMACY.
Part II,
tutes about TVtbs of its weight. A kind of opaque
foggy vapour is obferved to efcape during the calcina¬
tion, which is nothing elfe than a quantity of fine par¬
ticles of magnefia buoyed off along with a ftream of
the difengaged air. About the end of the operation,
the magnefia exhibits a kind of luminous or phofpho-
refcent property; and this may be confidered as a
pretty exa£t criterion of its being deprived of air.
Calc:red magnefia is equally mild as when faturated
with fixed air; and this circumltance is fufficient to
eftal lifii a difference between it and calcareous earths,
all of whioh are converted by calcination into a caullic
quicklime.
The calcined magnefia is ufed for the fame general
purpofes as the magnefia combined with fixed air. In
certain affedtions of the ftomach, accompanied with
much flatulence, the calcined magnefia is found pre¬
ferable, not only as containing more of the real earth
of magnefia in a given quantity, but as being alfo de¬
prived of its air. It neutralizes the acid of the fto¬
mach without that extrication of air which is often a
troublefome confequence in employing the aerated
magnefia in thefe complaints. It is proper to obferve,
that magnefia, whether combined with or deprived of
fixed air, is fimilar to the mild calcareous earths in
promoting and increafing putrefaction. The fame has
ev^n been obferved with tefpedl to the Epfom and fome
pther falls which have this earth for their bafe.
Chap. IX. Preparations of Sulphur.
IVajhed flowers of fulphur. L,.
Take of flowers of fulphur, one pound ; diftilled water,
four pints. Boil the flowers of fulphur a little while
in the diftilled water; then pour off this water, and
wafh off the acid with cold water; laftly, dry the
flowers.
* In the former editions of our pharmacopoeias direc¬
tions were given for the preparation of the flowers of
fulphur themfelves; but as a large apparatus is necef-
fary for doing it with any advantage, it is now fcarcely
ever attempted by the apothecaries. When the
flowers are properly prepared, no change is made on
the qualities of the fulphur. Its impurities only are
feparated ; and at the fame time it is reduced to a
finer powder than it can eafily be brought to by any
other means. But as the flowers of fulphur are gene¬
rally fublimed in very capacious rooms, which contain
a large quantity of air, or in veffels not perfe&ly clofe,
fome of thofe that arife at firlt are apt to take fire,
and thus are changed into a volatile acid vapour, which
mingling with the flowers that fublime afterwards,
communicates to them a confiderable degree of acidity.
In this cafe the ablution here dire&ed is for the gene¬
ral ufe of the medicine abfolutely neceffary ; for the
flowers thus tainted with acid fometimes occafion
gripes, and may in other refpe&s be produ&ive of
effects different from thofe of pure fulphur. There
are, however, fome particular combinations to which
they are fuppofed to be better adapted when unwalhed,
Inch as their union with mercury into asthiops mineral;
and accordingly for that preparation the unwaftied
flowers are directed by the London college.
Sulphurated kali. L.
Prepara¬
tions and
Take of flowers of fulphur, one ounce; kali, five
ounces. Mix the fait with the melted fulphur, by
frequently ftirring, until they unite into an uniform
mafs.
Compofi.
tions.
25 X
This preparation, in the former editions of our
pharmacopoeias, had the name of hepar fulphuris, or
liver of fulphur.
It is much more convenient to melt the fulphur firft
by itfeff, and add the fait of tartar by degrees, as here
dire&ed, than to grind them together, and afterwards
endeavour to melt them, as ordered in former editions:
for in this laft cafe the mixture will not flow fufficient-
ly thin, to be properly united by ftirring ; and the ful¬
phur either takes fire or fublimes in flowers, which
probably has been the reafon why fo large a propor¬
tion of it has been commonly directed. Even in the
prefent method a confiderable part of the fulphur will
be diffipated ; and if it were not, the hepar would not
be of its due quality : for one part of iulphur requires
two of the alkaline fait to render it perfectly foluble in
water, which this preparation ought to be.
The hepar fulphuris has a fetid fmell and a naufeous
tafte. Solutions of it in water, made with fugar into
a fyrup, have been recommended in coughs and other
diforders of the breaft. Our pharmacopoeias, never-
thelefs, have defervedly reje&ed this fyrup, as common
pra&ice has almoft done the balfams. Solutions of
the hepar in water have been alfo recommended in
herpetic and other cutaneous affeftions. Some phyfi-
cians have even employed this folution, in a large quan¬
tity, as a bath for the cure of pfora ; and in cafes of
tinea capitis it has often been uled by way of lotion.
The hepar, digefted in re&ified fpirit of wine, im¬
parts a rich gold colour, a warm, fomewhat aromatic
tafte, and a peculiar, not ungrateful fmell. A tincture
of this kind is kept in the Ihops under the name of
another mineral. The hepar fulphuris has been by
fome ftrongly recommended to prevent the effedts of
mineral poifon.
Sulphurated oil and fulphurated petroleum. L.
Take of flowers of fulphur, four ounces ; olive oil,
fixteen ounces. Boil the flowers of brimftone with
the oil, in a pot flightly covered, until they be united.
In the fame manner is made fulphurated petroleum.
Thefe articles are analogous to what had formerly
a place in our pharmacopoeias under the titles of balfa-
mum fulpnuris Jimplex, craffurn, et Barbadenfe. And, be-
fides thefe, a place was alfo given to the balfamum ful¬
phuris anfatum, terebinthinatum, &c. While thefe ar¬
ticles, however, are now banifhed from our pharma¬
copoeias, even thofe retained are kfs in ufe than
formerly.
Thefe preparations are more conveniently and fafely
made in a tall glafs body, with the mouth at lealt an
inch in diameter, than in the circulatory or clofe vef-
fels in which they have commonly been directed to be
prepared : for when the fulphur and oil begin to adt
vehemently upon each other, they not only rarify into
a large volume, but likewife throw out impetuoufly
great quantities of an elaftic vapour ; which, if the
veffcla be clofed, or the orifices not fufficient to allow
• it
tiop.H and
Compofi-
tions.
Pan II. P H A R
Prepara, jt a free exft, will {nfallihly burft them. Hoffman re-
latea a very remarkable hiftory of the effeas of an ac-
cuient of this kind. In the veffel above recommended
— the procefs may he completed, without danger, in four
or five hours, by duly manacrin j the fire, which fhould
be very gentle for fome time, and afterwards increafcd
k> as to make the oil juft bubble or boil; in which
ftate it fhould be kept till all the fulphur appears to
be taken up.
EfTential oils, employed as menftrua for fulphur,
undergo a great alteration from the degree of heat ne-
cefTary for enabling them to diffolve the fulphur 5 and
hence the balfams have not near fo much of their fla¬
vour as might be ^peded. It fhould therefore feem
more eligible to add a proper quantity of the eflential
oils to the Ample balfam : thefe readily incorporate by
a gentle warmth, if the veffei be now and then fhaken.
v\ e may thus compofe a balfam more elegant than
thofe made in the manner formerly recommended, and
which retains fo much of the flavour of the oil as is in
fome meafure fufficient to cover the tafle of the fulphur
and render it fupportable.
The balfams of fulphur have been flrongly recom¬
mended in coughs, confumptions, and other diforders
of the breaft and lungs; but the reputation which they
have had in thefe cafes does not appear to have been
bunt on any fair trial or experience of their virtues.
They are manifeftly hot, acrimonious, and irritating;
amd therefore fhould be ufed with the utmoft caution.
They have frequently been found to injure the appe-
tite, offend the ftomach and vifcera, parch the body,
and occafion third and febrile heats. The dofe of the
Ample balfam is from ten to forty drops: thofe with
effential oils are not given in above half thefe quantities.
Externally, they are employed for cleanfing and heal¬
ing foul running ulcers. Boerhaave conje&ures that
their ufe in thefe cafes gave occafion to the virtues
afcribed to them when taken internally.
Precipitated fulphur. L.
Take of fulphurated kali, fix ounces; diftllled water,
one pound and a half; vitriolic acid, diluted, as
much as is fufficient. Boil the fulphurated kali in
the diftilled water until it be diffolved. Filter the
liquor through paper, to which add the vitriolic
acid. Waffi the precipitated powder by often pour¬
ing on water till it becomes inlipid.
This preparation is not fo white as that of the laft
pharmacopoeia, which was made with quicklime ; and
which in fome pharmacopoeias had the name of m\lk of
Julphur. J
Pure milk of fulphur is not different in quality from
pure fulphur ufelf; to which it is preferred in un¬
guents, &c. only on account of its colour. The white-
nefs does not proceed from the fulphur having loft anv
o its P^rts in the operation, or from any new matter
iuperadded : fot if common fulphur be ground with
alkaline falts, and fet to fublime, it rifes of a white like
colour, the whole quantity of the alkali remaining
unchanged ; and if the milk be melted with a gentle fire,
it returns into yellow fulphur again. b
obferv"d’ that name lac fulphurh, or
rnilk of fulphur, among us to the precipitate,
before th Frenc.h.wr,teurs cf°"fined to the white liquor
before the precipitate has fallen from it. 1
M A C Y.
3J3
351
Chap. X. Preparations of dntimtny. doTiTnd
Antimony is compofed of a metal, united with f:ompofi“
fulphur or common brimftone. u'v'f ^
If powdered antimony be expofed to a gentle fire, the 2C4
fulphur exhales ; the metallic part remaining in
form of a. white calx, reducible, by proper fluxes,
into a whitifh brittle metal, called regu/us. This is
readily diftinguifhed from the other bodies of that
/ clafa, by its not being foluble in aquafortis; its pro¬
per menftruum is aqui-regia.
If aqua-regia be poured on crude antimony, the me¬
tallic part will be difiblved ; and the fulphur thrown
out, partly to the fides of the veffel, and partly to
the furface of the liquor, in the form of a greyilh
yellow fubftance. This, fepnrated and purified by
fubhmation, appears on all trials the fame with pure
common brimftone.
The metal freed from the fulphur naturally blended
with it, and afterwards fufed with common brim-
ftone, refumes the appearance and qualities of crude
antimony.
The antimonia! met?.l is a medicine of the greateft
power of any known fubftance ; a quantity too minute
to be fenfible in the tendereft balance, is capable of
producing violent effefts, if taken diffolved, or in a
foluble ftate. If given in fuch a form as to be imme¬
diately mifcible with the animal fluids, it proves
violently emetic ; if fo managed as to be more flowly
afted on, cathartic ; and in either cafe, if the dofe be
extremely fmall, diaphoretic. Thus, though vegetable
acids extraft fo little from this metal, that the remain¬
der feems to have loft nothing of its weight, the tine-
tures prove in large dofes ftrongly emetic, and in
1 mailer ones powerfully diaphoretic. The regulus has
been call into the form of pills, which afted as vio-
lenf cathartics, though without fuffering any fenfible
diminution of weight in theirpaffage through thebody
and this repeatedly for a great number of times. ’
This metal, divefted of the inflammable principle
which it has in common with other metallic bodies
that are reducible to a calx, becomes indiffoluble and
inactive. I he calx, nevertbelefs, urged with a ftrong
fire, melts into a glafs, which is as eafy of folution,
and as violent, in operation, as the regulus itfelf: the
glafs,. thoroughly mixed with fuch fubftances as’pre¬
vent its fallibility, as wax, refin, and the like, is auain
rendered mild. b
Vecetaeue acids, as has already been obferved,
diffolve but an extremely minute portion of this me¬
tal : the folution neveithelefs is powerfully emetic and
cathartic. The nitrous and vitriolic acids only cor¬
rode it into a powder, to which they adhere fo /light¬
ly as to be feparable in a confiderable degree by wa-
ter, and totally by fire, leaving the regulus in form
of a calx fiimlar to that prepared by fire alone. The
marine acid has a very different effeft: this reduces
the regulus into a violent corrofive ; and though it
difficultly unites, yet it adheres fo very clofely as not
to be feparable by any ablution, nor by fire, the re- -
gulus arifing along with it. The nitrous or vitriolic
acids expel the marine, and thus reduce the corrofive
into a calx fimilar to the foregoing.
Sulphur remarkably abates the power of this me¬
tal : and hence crude antimony, in which the regu-
1 lus
35*
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions
P H A R
lus appears to be combined with fulphur, from one-
fourth to one-half its weight, proves altogether mild.
If a part of the fulphur be taken away by inch ope¬
rations as do not deftroy or calcine the metal, the re¬
maining mafs becomes proportionally moreaflive.
The fulphur of antimony may be expelled by de¬
flagration with nitre : the larger the quantity of nitre,
to a certain point, the more of the fulphur will be
diflipated, and the preparation will be the more aflive.
If the quantity of nitre be more than fufficient to
confume the fulphur, the reft of it, deflagrating with
the inflammable principle of the regulus itfelf, renders
it again mild.
The fulphur of antimony is likewife abforbed in fu-
flon by certain metals and by alkaline falts. 1 hefe
laft, when united with fulphur, prove a menftruum
for all the metals (zinc excepted) ; and hence, if the
fufion be long continued, the regulus is taken up, and
rendered foluble in water.
From thefe particulars with refpedl to antimony, it
may naturally be concluded, that it not only furnifhes
us with an ufeful and active medicine, but that it may
alfo be exhibited for medical purpofes under a great
variety of different forms, and that the effefts of thefe
will be confiderably diverfified. And this has in rea¬
lity been the cafe. For further information refpe&ing
antimony, and its ufes in medicine, we refer our read¬
ers to the articles Antimony ; Materia Medica,
p. 633, &c.; and ChemistrBut although
there is perhaps no preparation there mentioned, which
is not fitted to ferve fome ufeful purpofe; yet the colleges
both of London and Edinburgh have now reftriaed
the number of preparations in their pharmacopoeias
to a few only. And it is highly probable, that from
the proper employment of them, every ufeful purpofe
to be anfwered by antimony may be accomplifhed.
Calcined antimony. L.
M A C Y.
Part IT,
2ee Take of antimony, powdered, eight ounces ; nitre,
powdered, two pounds. Mix them, and call the
mixture by degrees into a red hot crucible. Burn
the white matter about half an hour; and, when
cold, powder it; after which wafh it with diftilled
water.
In the laft edition of the London pharmacopoeia
this preparation had the name of calx of antimony ; and
it may be confidered as at lead very nearly approach¬
ing to fome other antimonials of the old pharmaco-
pceias, particularly to the nitrated diaphoretic antimo¬
ny, wafhed ditto, and ftibiated nitre ; none of which
are now received as feparate formulas of our pharma¬
copoeia, and indeed even the calx of antimony itfelf,
at leaft as thus prepared, has now no place in the Edin¬
burgh pharmacopoeia.
The calx of antimony, when freed by wafhmgfrom
the faline matter, is extremely mild, if not altogether
inaaive. Hoffman, Lemery, and others, affure us,
that they have never experienced from it any fuch
effeas as its ufual title imports : Boerhaave declares,
that it is a mere metallic earth, entirely deftitute of
all medicinal virtue : and the committee of the Lon¬
don college admit that it has no fenfiblc operation.
The common dofe is from five grains to a fcruple, ot
half a dram j though Wilfon relates, that he has
known it given by half ounces, and repeated two or Prepara-
three times a day, for feveral days together. ’
Some report that this calx, by keeping for a length t;ons"c
of time, contra&s an emetic quality : From whence
it has been concluded, that the powers of the regu-
line part are not entirely deftroyed ; that the prepa¬
ration has the virtues of other antimonials which are
given as alteratives; that is, in fuch fmall dofes as not
to ftimulate the primas vise ; and that therefore dia¬
phoretic antimony, or calcined antimony, as it is now
more properly ftyled, is certainly among the mildeft
preparations of that mineral, and may be ufed for
children, and fimilar delicate conftitutions where the
ftomach and inteftines are eafily affe&ed. The ob-
fervations, however, from which thefe conclufions are
drawn, does not appear to be well founded : Ludovi-
ci relates, that after keeping the powder for four
years, it proved as mild as at firft: and the Strafburgh
pharmacopoeia, with good reafon, fufpefts, that where
the calx has proved emetic, it had either been given
in fuch cafes as would of themfelves have been at¬
tended with this fymptom (for the great alexipharmac
virtues attributed to it have occafioned it to be ex¬
hibited even in the more dangerous malignant fevers,
and other diforders which are frequently accompanied
with vomiting) ; or that it had not been fufficiently
calcined, or perfe&ly freed from fuch part of the re¬
gulus as might remain uncalcined. The uncalcined
part being groffer than the true calx, the feparation is
cffe&ed by often waftiing with water, in the fame
manner as dire&ed for faparating earthy powders from
their grsffer parts.
It has been obferved, that when diaphoretic aKti-
mony is prepared with nitre abounding with fea-falt,
of which all the common nitre contains fome portion,
the medicine has proved violently emetic. This ef-
fe& is not owing to any particular quality of the fea-
falt, but to its quantity, by which the proportion of the
nitre to the antimony is rendered lefs.
The nitrum Jllbiatum, as it was called, is produced by
the deflagration of the fulphur of the antimony with
the nitre, in the fame manner as the falpolycbrejly from
which it differs no otherwife than in retaining fome
portion of the antimonial calx.
Notwithftanding the doubts entertained by fome
refpe&ing the a&ivity of the antimonium calcinatum,
yet the London college kave in our opinion done right
in retaining it. For while it is on all hands allowed
that it is the mildeft of our antimonials, there are
fome accurate obfervers who contider it as by no means
inefficacious. Thus Dr Healde tells us, that he has
been in the habit of employing it for upwards of 40
years, and is much deceived, if, when genuine, it be
not produftive of good effe&s.
Nitrated calx of antimony. E.
Take of antimony calcined for making the glafs of
antimony, and nitre, equal weights. Having mixed,
and put them into a crucible, let them be heated,
fo that the matter (hall be of a red colour for an
hour ; then let it be taken out of the crucible, and,
after beating it, wafh it repeatedly with warm water '
till it be infipid.
Although this preparation agrees nearly in name with
256
the
<
tions and
Compcili-
tions.
Fart HI. f' fl A R
^Prepara- Ithe preceding, and has been confidered as being nearly
a complete calx of antimony, yet there can be no
doubt that it is a medicine of a much more aftive
nature than the former ; and in place of being one
of the mildeft of the antimonials, it often operates
with great violence when given in dofes of a few
grains only. t
But as the effedh of every preparation of antimony,
not already conjoined with an acid, tnuft depend on
the quantity and condition of the acid in the ftomach,
fo the ablution of the bafe of the nitre in this procefs
gives full power to the acid of the ftomach to ad as
far as pofiible on the calx ; whereas, when the un-
wafhed calx is employed, a great quantity of the acid
in the ftomach is ‘neutralized by the alkaline bafe of
the nitre adhering to the calx. The nitrated calx of an¬
timony is firppofed to tie nearly the fame with the article
which has teen fo much celebrated, and has tad fuch
an extensive fale under the title of Dr James's fever
powder. And it was as an article which might be
employed in the place of James’s powder, that the
Edinburgh college introduced this into their pharma¬
copoeia. There is, however, reafon to believe, that
the preparation of James’s powder is fomewhat diffe¬
rent from that here direded ; but their effeds, as far
as our obfervation goes, appear to be very nearly the
fame.
The nitrated calx of antimony has been thought by
fome preferable to emetic tartar, where the permanent
effeds of a long-continued naufea are required, and
where we wifh our antimonials to pafs the pylorus and
produce purging. But, like every other preparation
where the reguline part is only rendered adive by the
i*1 ftornach, the nitrated calx of antimony is in
all cafes of uncertain operation: fometimes proving per-
feftly inert, and at other times very violent in its ef-
feds. The dofe is generally 10 or 12 grains, and
this is often given all at once ; an inconvenience not
attending the emetic tartar; the quantity and effeds
of which we can generally meafure with furprifW nii-
uutenefs. b
There is, however, reafon to believe, that by means
of James’s powder, and the nitrated calx, an artificial
termination of fever is fometimes acconrptifhcd, and
that too more frequently than by emetic tartar. This
perhaps may fometimes he the confequence of the vio¬
lence with which they riperate. At the fame time it
rnuft be admitted, that even the meft violent operation
ciy no means enfures an immediate recovery, but that
™,hbadTffera.yit is fcnlctiaies
‘Crocus cf antimorty.
&J7 Take of antimony, powdered; nitre, powdered, of
nut rlT ,P<7d ; fea.faIt’ Mix, and
£ cl bTd.cgrees a red-hot crucible, and
melt them with an augmented heat. Pour out the
rte fcorS T: ’ When C°ld> ftParat';
Equal parts of antimony and nitre are to be injeded
by degrees into a red-hot crucible; when the de¬
tonation is over, feparate the reddifh metallic mat-
ter from the whitifh cruft ; beat it into a powde^
atKl edulcorate it by repeated wafhings with hot
water, till the water comes off infinid. " E.
Vor., XIV. Part L r
M A € Y. 353
Here the antlmonial fulpbur is almoft totally cati-^rerara-
fumed, and the metallic part left diverted of its cor- aRi*
redor. Thefe preparations, given from two to fix tions.
grains, generally ad as violent emetics, greatly dif-v—-J
ordering the conftitution. But the operation, like
that of every preparation of antimony whofe reguline
part is not joined with an acid, muft be liable to va¬
riations, according to the quantity and condition of
the acid in the ftomach. Their principal ufe is in
maniacal cafes, as the bafis of fome other prepara¬
tions ; and among the farriers, who frequently give
to horfes an ounce or two a day, divided into diffe¬
rent dofes as an alterative : in thefe, and other qua¬
drupeds, this medicine ads chiefly as a diaphoretic.
The chemifts have been accnftomed to make the
crocus with a lefs proportion of nitre than what ia
direded above; and without any farther melting than
what enfues from the heat which the matter acquires
by deflagration, which, when the quantity is large,
is very confiderable : a little common fait is added to
promote the fufion. The mixture is put by de¬
grees into an iron pot or mortar, fome what heat¬
ed, and placed under a chimney : when the firft
ladleful is in, a piece of lighted charcoal is thrown
to.it, which fits the matter on fire; the reft of the
mixture is then added by little and little ; the defla¬
gration is foon over, and the whole appears in perfed
fufon : when cold, a confiderable quantity of fcorise
is found on the fnrface ; which fcorise are eafily knock¬
ed. off with a hammer. The crocus prepared after
this manner is of a redder colour than that of the
former editions of the London pharmacopoeia. And
indeed the method now direded by the London col¬
lege'may be confidered as founded on this : It differs
principally from that of the Edinburgh college in the
employment of the fea-falt, by which the procefs is
much facilitated.
Illuriated antimony. L,
Take of the crocus of antimony, powdered ; vitriolic 2jS’
acid, each one pound ; dry fea-falt, two pounds.
Lour the vitriolic acid into a retort, adding by de¬
grees the fea-falt and crocus of antimony, previouf-
iy mixed ; then diftil in a fand-bath. 1 et the di-
ft.lled matter be expofed to the air feveral days,
and then let the fluid part be poured off from the
dregs.
Batter of antimony. E.
1’ake of crude antimony, one part ; Corrofive fubli- *59
mate of mercury, two parts. Grind them firft
ieparately ; then thoroughly mix them together,
taking the utmoft care to avoid the vapours. Put
the mixture into a coated glafs retort f having a
fhort wide neck), fo as to fill one half of it: the
retort being placed in a fand-furnace, and a receiver
adapted to it, give firft a gentle heat, that only a
dewy vapour may arife : the fire being then increa-
led, an oily liquor will afeend and congeal in the
neck of the retort appealing like ice, which is to
be melted down by a live coal cautioufly ap. lied
This oily matter is to be reaified in a glafs retort
into a pellucid liqtrer.
The procefs here direfted by the Edinburgh col¬
lege, »nd which is nearly the fame with what flood in
Y y the
354
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi
tions.
P H A R
the former edition of the London pharmacopoeia, is
extremely dangerous» infomuch that even the life of
the operator, though tolerably verfed in common
pharmacy, may be much endangered for want of due
care. Boerhaave relates, that one, who from the title
he gives him is not to be fuppofed inexpert in che¬
mical operations, or unacquainted with the danger
attending this, was fufrocated for want of proper
care to prevent the burfting of the retort. I he fumes
which arife, even upon mixing the antimony with
the fublimate, are highly noxious, and fometimes iffue
fo copioufly and fuddenly,as very difficultly to be avoid¬
ed. The utmoft circumfpe&ion therefore is neceffary.
The cauftic, or butter as it is called, appears to be
a folution of the metallic part of the antimony in the
marine acid of the fublimate : the fulphur of the anti¬
mony, and the mercury of the fublimate, icmain at the
bottom of the retort united into an sthiops. This fo¬
lution does not fucceed with fpirit of fait in its liquid
ftate, and cannot be effedbed, unlefs (as in the cafe
of making fublimate) either the acid be highly con¬
centrated, and both the ingredients ftrongly heated j
or when the antimony is expofed to the vapours of
the acid diftilled from the black calx of manganefe.
By this laft procefs a perfed folution of the regulus
of antimony in the muriatic acid is effedded. Of this
more firnple, more fafe, and lefs expenfive method of
preparing muriated antimony, an account is given
by Mr Rufiel in the Tranfaftions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh. .
If regulus of antimony were added in the diftilla-
tion of fpirit of fea-falt without water, a folution
would alfo be made. # '
The method, however, now diredbed by the Lon¬
don college, in which vitriolic acid and fca-falt are
employed to give a double ekaive attraftion, is per¬
haps to be confrdered as preferable to any of the
ethers. In this they have followed very nearly the
direaions given in the Pharmacopoeia Suecica, which
are taken from the procefs of Mr Scheele.
When the congealed matter that arifes into the
neck oTthe retort is liquified by the moifture of the
air, it proves lefs corrofive than when melted down
and redified by heat; though it feems, in either
cafe, to be fufficiently ibreng for the purpofes of con-
fuming fungous fleffi and the callous lips of ulcers. It
is remarkable, that though this faline concrete readily
and idmoft entirely diffolves by the humidity of the
air, only a fmall quantity of white powder feparating,
it neverthelefs will not diflblve on putting water to it
diredly : even when previoufiy liquefied by the air,
the addition of water will precipitate the folution.
And accordingly, by the addition of water is formed
that once celebrated article known by the title of mer¬
curic vitx, or Algeroth's ponder. This preparation,
though never ufed by itfelf, is employed both by the
Edinburgh and by feme of the foreign colleges rn
the formation of emetic tartar, the mofb ufeful of all
the antimonials. And although chemifbs are not al¬
together agreed with regard to the beft m°de °f ma¬
king the tartarized antimony, yet we fhall a ter-
wards have occafion to obferve, when treating of that
article, that the preparation of it from the muna*
ted antimony, or rather from its precipitate (Alge-
roth’s powder), is perhaps the bed mode which has
M A C Y. Part IL
yet been pra&ifed. And were it even with no other Prepara-
intention than this, a fafe, eafy, and cheap method of ^
forming a muriated antimony, may be confidered as U
an important improvement in our pharmacopccias. —v——
Antimonial powder. L.
Take of antimony, coarfely powdered, hartfhorn fha- 260
vings, each two pounds ; mix, and put them into
a wide red-hot iron pot, ftirnng conltantly till the
mafs acquires a giey-colour. Powder the matter
when cold, and put it into a coated crucible. Lute
to it another crucible inverted, which has a fmall
hole in its bottom : augment the fire by degrees to
a red heat, and keep it fo for two hours. ^ Laftiy,
reduce the matter, when cold, to a very fine pow¬
der.
In this preparation, the metallic part of the anti¬
mony in a ftate of calx will be united with that part,
of the hartihorn which is indeftrucbible by the aebion
of fire, viz. its abforbent earth. If this powder be
properly prepared, it is of a white colour. It is a
mild antimonial preparation, and ia given as an alte¬
rative from three to fix grains for a dole. In this
quantity, however, it fometimes creates naufea, and
even vomits. In larger dofes it proves emetic, and
operates by llool.
Precipitated fnlphur of antimony. L.
Take of antimony, powdered, two pounds ; water
of pure kali, four pints ; dilbilled water, three pints;
Mix, and boil them with a flow fire for three hours,
contlantly ftirring, and adding the diftilled water
as it fhall be wanted ; ftraih the hot ley through a
double linen cloth, and into the liquor, whilft yet
hot, drop by degrees as much diluted vitriolic acid
as is fufficient to precipitate the fulphur. Walh off,
with warm water, the vitriolated kali.
Go/den fulphur of antimony. E.
Boil; in an iron pot, four pounds of cauftic ley di- 26s
luted with three pints of water, and throw in by
degrees two pounds of powdered antimony ; keeping
them continually ftirring with an iron Ipatula for
three hours, over a gentle fire, and occatjonafty
fupplying more water. The liquor loaded with the
fulphur of antimony being then ftrained through
a woollen cloth, drop into it gradually, while it
continues hot, fo much fpirit of nitre, diluted, with,
an equal quantity of water, as fhall he fufficient to
precipitate the fulphur, which is afterwards to be
carefully wafiied with hot water.
The foregoing preparations are not ftri&ly fulphurs ;
they contain a confiderable quantity of the metallic
part of the antimony, which is reducible from them by
proper fluxes. Thefe medicines mull needs be liable
to great variation in point of ftrength ; and in this re-
feed they are, perhaps, the moil precarious, though
fome have affirmed that they are the moft certain, ,ef
the antimonial medicines-.
They prove emetic when taken on an empty ito-
mach, in a dofe of four, five, 01 fix grains ; but at
prefentthey are fcarcely preferibed with this intention ;
being chiefly ufed as alterative deobftruents, particu¬
larly in cutaneous diforders Their- emetic quality 18
eafily blunted, by making them up into pills
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- fins or extr&&8, and giving them on a full ilomach :
tions and with thefe cautions they have been taken in the quan-
:#ions^° * ti'y grains a-day, and continued for a confider-
able time, without occalioning any difturbance up¬
wards or downwards. As their rtrength is precarious,
they fhoiild be taken at firft in very fmall dofes, and
increafed by degrees according to their effedt.
A compofition of the golden fulphur, with fweet
mercury, has been found a powerful, yet fafe al¬
terative, in cutaneous diforders ; and has completed a
cure after falivation had failed. In venereal cafes, like-
wife, this medicine has produced excellent effedhs. A
mixture of equal parts of the fulphur and calomel (well
triturated together, and made into pills with extradds,
&c.) may be taken from four to eight or ten grains,
morning and night ; the patient keeping moderately
warm, and drinking alter each dofe a draught of a de-
coddion of the woods, or other fimilar liquor. This
medicine generally promotes perfpiration, fcarcely oc-
cafioning any tendency to vomit or purge, or affefting
the mouth.
Tartarized antimony. L.
263 Take of crocus of antimony, powdered, one pound
and an half; cryftals of tartar, two pounds ; diftil-
led water, two gallons : boil in a glafs veffel about a
quarter of an hour ; filtec through paper, and fet
afide the ilrained liquor to cryftallize.
Emetic tartar. £.
264 Take of the butter of antimony what quantity you
choofe ; pour it into warm water, in which fo much
of the purified vegetable fixed alkali has been pre-
vioufiy difiolved, that the antimonial powder may
be precipitated, which, after being well walhed, is to
be dried. Then to five pounds of water add of this
powder nine drams, of cryftals of tartar, beat into
a very fine powder, two ounces and a half; boil for
a little till the powders be diftolved. Let the ftrain-
cd folution be flowly evaporated in a glafs velTel to
a pellicle, fo that cryftals may he formed.
We have here two modes of making the moll com¬
mon, and perhaps we may add the moft ufeful, of all
the antimonial preparations, long known in the fhops
under the name of emetic tartar. Thefe modes differ
confiderably from each other; but in both, the regu-
line part of the antimony is united with the acid of
'tha»tartar. It is perhaps difficult to fay to which mode
of preparation the preference is to be given ; for on
this fubje& the beft chemifts are ftill divided in their
opinion. The mode dire&ed by the London college
is nearly the fame with that in former editions of their
pharmacopoeia, while that now adopted by the Edin-
burgh college in which they have nearly followed the
Pharmacopoeia Roffica, is of later date. That in both
ways a good emetic tartar may be formed, is very cer¬
tain : but in our opinion, when it is formed of the pre¬
cipitate from the muriatic acid, or the poudre d’Alge-
rotti, as it has been called, there is the leaft chance of
its being uncertain in its operation : and this method
comes recommended to us on the authority of Berg¬
man, Scheele, and fome other of the firft names in
chemiftry. Bergman advifes, that the calx be preci¬
pitated by fimple water, as being leaft liable to varia¬
tion ; and this is the dire&ion followed in the Phar-
MAC Y. 355
macopoeia Roffica. But when the calx is precipitated rVepam-
by an alkaline ley, as is directed by the Edinburgh col-
lege, it is more certainly freed from the muriatic acid, t:ions.
and wbll of courfe be milder. w—y—w
In the after part of the procefs, whether precipitate
or crocus have been ufed, the quantity of the antimo¬
nial ought always to be fome drams more than is ab-
folutely necefiary for faturating the acid of tartar, fo
that no cryftals may flioot which are not impregnated
with the adtive metallic part of the antimony. And
in order to fecure an uniform ftrength, fome attention
is neceffary in colledting the cryftals, as fome may con¬
tain more metal than others. After they are all fepa-
rated from the liquor, they ought to be beat together
in a glafs mortar into a fine powder, that the medicine
may be of uniform ftrength.
Emetic tartar is, of all the preparations of antimony,
the moft certain in its operation.
It will be fufficient, in confidering the medicinal ef-
fedts of antimonials, that we fbould obferve, once for
all, that their emetic property depends on two dift'e-
rent conditions ©f the reguline part : the firft is where
the reguline part is only r.dtive, by being rendered fo
from meeting with an acid in the ftomach : the fecond
is where the reguline part is already joined with an
acid, rendeting it adtive. It is obvious, that thofe
preparations, reducible to the firft head, muft always
be of uncertain operation. Such then is the equal un¬
certainty in the chemical condition and medicinal ef-
fedls of the croci, the hepata, and the calces; all of
which procefles are different fteps or degrees of freeing
the reguline part from fulphur and phlogifton. It is
equally plain, that the preparations coming under the
fecond head muft be always conftant and certain in
their operation. Such a one is emetic tartar, the dofe
and effedts of which we can meafure with great exadt-
nefs.
The title of this medicine expreffes its principal ope¬
ration. It is one of the beft of the antimonial emetics,
adling more powerfully than the quantity of crocus con¬
tained in it would do by itfelf, though it does not fo
much ruffle the conftitution. And indeed antimonials
in general, when thus rendered foluble by vegetable
acids, are more fafe and certain in their effedts than the
violent preparations of that mineral exhibited by them-
felves ; the former never varying in their adtion from
a difference in the food taken during their ufe, or
other fimilar circumftances; which occafioning more
or lefs of the others to be diffolved, make them ope¬
rate with different degrees of force. Thus, crude an¬
timony, where acid food has been liberally taken, has
fometimes proved violently emetic; whilft in other
circumftances it has no fuch effedt.
The dofe of emetic tartar, when defigned to pro¬
duce the full effedl of an emetic, is from two to four
grains. It may likewife be advantageoufly given in
much fmaller dofes as a naufeating and fudorific medi¬
cine.
Vitrified antimony. L.
Take of powdered antimony, four ounces. Calcine it
in a broad earthen veffel, with a fire gradually raifed,
ftirring with an iron rod until it no longer emits a ful-
phureous fmoke. Eut this powder into a crucible,
fo as to fill two-thirds of it. A cover being fitted
Y y 2 on,
3i6
Prepara¬
tions ami
Compoft-
V H A R M A C Y.
on, make a fire unc!er it, at fiift moderate, after¬
wards ilronger, until the matter be melted. Pour
out the indeed glafs.
C/ijs of antimony. E.
.Part IT.
266 Strew antimony, beat into a coarfe powder like fand,
upon n fhallow unglazed earthen vtifel, and, apply
a gentle h.:at underneath, that the antimony may
he heated fiowly ; keeping it at the fame time con¬
tinually fLirring to prevent it from running into
lumps. White vapours of a fulphureous i'mell will
arife from it. If they ceafe to exhale with the de¬
gree of heat firfl applied, increafe the fire a little, fa
that vapours may a.;ain arife : go on in this manner,
till the powder, when brought to a red heat, exhales
no more vapours. Melt the ca'x in a crucible with
an intenfe heat, till it affumes the appearance of
melted glafs : then pour it out on a heated brafs
plate or difh.
The calcination of antimony, in order to procure
Jranfparent glafs, fucceeds very {lowly, unlefs the ope¬
rator be wary and circumfpeft in the management of
it. The moll convenient veflel is a broad {hallow difi»,
or a fmooth fl it tile, placed under a chimney. The
antimony fhould be the purer fort, fuch as is ufually
found at the apex of the cones ; this, grofsly powder¬
ed, is to be evenly fpread over the bottom of the pan,
fo as not to lie above a quarter of an inch thick on any
part. The fire fiiould be at firll no greater than isjutl
fufficient to raife a fume from the antimony, which is
to be now and then (lirred : when the fumes begin to
decay, increafe the he?.t, taking care not to raife it fo
high as to melt the antimony, or run the powder into
lumps ; after feme time the veffel may be made red-
hot, and kept in this ftate until the matter will not,
upon being ilirred, any longer fume. If this part of
the procefs be duly condufted, the antimony will ap¬
pear in an uniform powder, without any tumps, and
of a grey colour.
With this powder fill two-thirds of a crucible, which
13 to be covered with a tile, and placed in a wind-fui*
r.ace. Gradually increafe the fire till the calx be in
perfedl fufion, when it is to be now and then examined
by dipping a clean iron wire into it. If the matter
which adheres to the end of the wire appears fmooth
and equally tranfparent, the vitrification is completed,
and the g’afs may be poured out upon a hot {mooth
Hone or copperplate, and fuffered to cool {lowly to
prevent its cracking and flying in pieces. It is ot a
tranfparent yellowiih red colour.
The glafs of antimony ufually met with in the {hops,
is faid to be prepared with certain additions ; which
may, perhaps, render it not fo fit for the purpofe here
defigned. By the method above diredted, it may be
ealily made of the requifite perfedlion without any ad-
dition.
As antimony may be rendered near.y or altogether
inadlive by calcination, it might be expecteci that the
calx and glafs of the prefent-procefs would be hkewife
inert. But here the calcination is far lefs perfect than
in the other cale, where the inflammable principle ot
the regains is totally burnt out by deflagration with
nitre ; there the calx is of perfect whitenefs, and a glafs
made from that calx (with the addition ol any fahne
iiux, for of itfelf it will not vitrify) has little colovir :
but here fo much of the. inflammable principle is left, IWpam-
that the calx is grey,, and the glafs of a high colour. r^ons
The calcined antimony, ia faid by Boerhnave to be vio- ti“f.’"° ^
lently emetic. Experience has fhown that the glafs .is ^
fo, infonmeh as to be uufafe for internal ufe. At pre*
fent it is chiefly employed in forming fome other anti-
monial preparations, particularly .the cerated glafs of
antimony, the next article to be mentioned; and the
wine of antimony, afterwards to be treated of under
the head of wines. It is- alfo not unfrequently em¬
ployed in the formation of emetic tartar; and it waa
directed for that purpofe in the laft edition of the E-
dinburgh pharmacopoeia, being perhaps even iupenor
to the crocus of antimony.
Cerated g/afs of antimony. 'E.
Take of yellow wax, a dram ; glafs of antimony, re- 26.77
duced into powder, an ounce. Melt the wax in an
iron veflel, and throw into it the powdered glafs:
keep the mixture, over a,gentle fire for half an hour,
continually ftirring it; then pour it out on paper,
and when cold grind it into powder.
The glafs melts in the wax with a very gentle heat t
after it has been about twenty minutes on the fire, it
begins to.change its colour, and in ten more comee
near to that of Scotch fnuif; which is a mark of its
being fufficienidy prepared; the quantity fet-down
above lofts about one dram, of its weight in the pio-
cefs.
This medicine was for feme time much efleetned in
dyfenteries : feveral inHances of its good eflefils in thefe
cafes may be feen in the fifth volume of the Edinburgh
Efi’ays, from which the above remarks on the prepara¬
tions are taken. The dofe is from two or three grains-
to twenty, according to the age and ftrength of the
patient. In its operation, it makes fome perfons ii. k
and vomit; it purges almoll every one ; though it has
fometimes eflefted a cure without occaiioning any eva¬
cuation or ficknefs. It is now, however, much lefs
ufed than formerly.
Mr Geoffrey gives two pretty fingular preparations
of glafs of antimony, which feem to have fome affini¬
ty with tins. One is made by digefting the glafs, very
finely levigated, with a folution of mallich made in
fpirit of wine, for three or four days, now and then
{baking the mixture ; and at laft evaporating the fpirit
fo as to leave the maftich and glafs perfedtiy mixed.
Giafs of antimony thus prepared, is faid not to prove
emetic, but to a<ft merely as a cathartic, and that net
of the violent kind. A preparation like this was firft
publiftied by Hartman, under the name of Chylifta.
The other preparation is made by burning fpirit of
wine on the glafs three or four times, the powder be¬
ing every time exquifitely rubbed upon a marble. The
dofe of this medicine is from ten grains to 20 or 30 :
it is faid to operate mildly both upwards and downwards,
and fometimes to prove fudorific.
Cerufe of antimony. Brun.
Take of regulus of antimony, one part; nitre, three 268
parts. Deflagrate them together in the manner di-
refiled for the calcined antimony.
The refultof this procefs and that formerly diredeci
for the calcined antimony are nearly the fame.
It is not neceffary to ufe fo much nitre here as wheu
4 antimony
“Tart IT, P H A R
Prepara- anturifiny itfelf is employed : for the fulphuf which
CbrnHifi- t^ie crilde mineral containa, and which requires for its
tionJ diffipation nearly an equal weight of nitre to the an-
timony, is here already feparated. Two parts of nitre
to one of the regulus are fufScient. It is better, how¬
ever, to have an over, than an under, proportion of
snitre, letl fome parts of the regulus fhould efcape being
iufficiently calcined.
It may be proper to obferve, that though crude
antimony and the regulus yield the fame calces, yet
the falts feparated in wafhing the cakes are verv dif¬
ferent. As etude antimony contains common fulphur,
the acid of the fulphur unites with the alkaline bails
of the nitre, and the refult is a neutral fait. As the
regulus contains the phlogiitic, or inflammable prin¬
ciple, but no fulphur, the nitre is alkalifed, ns it would
be by charcoal or fuch like inflammable bodies, and
is at the fame time rendered more acrimonious than
the common alkaline falts; probably owing to the
calx abforbing the air of the alkali. If only equal
parts of the regulus and nitre be employed, and the
fire kept up, ftrong for an hour or more, the fait will
prove more cauftic than even the potential cauftic of
the fhops. But the caufticity of the fait will Ml be
far greater, if, inftead of the fimple regulus of anti¬
mony, the martial regulus be ufed.
Ktrmes mineral. Suec.
Take of crude antimony, powdered, half a pound;
fixed vegetable alkali, two pounds; boiling water,
eight pounds. Boil them together in an iron pot
for a quarter of an hour, continually llirring the
mixture with an iron fpatula, and hlter as fpeedily
as pofiible while it is hot. The filtered liquor, fet
in cool places, will foon depofite a powder, which
mult be repeatedly wafhed, firll with cold and af¬
terwards with warm water, until it be perfectly in-
fipid.
1 his medicine has of late been greatly efteemed in
Fiance, efpecially under the names-of Ksrmes mineral,
pulyis Larthajianus, poudre des Cbjrtreaux, &c. It was
originally a preparation ol Glauber, and for fome time
kept a great fecret, till at length the French king
purebafed the preparation from jM. de la -Lugerie, for
a coniiderable fum, and communicated it to the public
in the year 1720. In virtue, it is not different from
the fulphurs above-mentioned ; all of them owe their
efficacy to a part of the regulus of the antimony, which
the alkaline fait, by the mediation of the fulphur,. ren¬
ders folubk in water.
Chemifls are, however, divided in their opinions with
refpeff to the precife chemical condition of the regu-
Ime part in the preparations called hepaia of antimony.
borne nave alleged that they contain not a particle of
alkaline ialt: it is at any rate certain, that the quan-
tity^anu condition of the reguline part mufi vary ac-
ccroing to the different proportions of the ingredients,
tie time of the precipitation, the greater or lefs de¬
gree of caufticity of the alkali employed, and feveral
other circumftances. At heft, the whole of them are
liable to the fame uncertainty in their operation as the
calces of antimony.
P anacea of antimony.
OJO Take of antimony, fix ounces; nitre, two ounces;
M A C Y. 357
common fait, an ounce and a half; charcoal, an Prepara-
ounce. Reduce them into a fine powder, and putpQnsan<?
the mixture into a red-hot crucible, by half a fpoon-l~
ful at a time, continuing the fire a quarter of an -—y—
hour after the laft injeftion : then either pour the
matter into a cone, or let it cool in the crucible ;
which when cold muft be broken to get it out. In
the bottom will be found a quantity of regulus ;
above this a compact liver-coloured fubftance ; and
on the top a more fpoagy mafs : this .laft is to be
reduced into powder, edulcorated with water, and
dried, when it appears of a fine golden colour.
This preparation is fuppofed to have been the bafis
of Lockyer s pills, which were formerly a celebrated
■purge. Ten grains of the powder, mixed with an
ounce of white fugar candy, and made up into a mafe
with mucilage ofgum tragacanth, may be divided into
an hundred fmall pills; of which one, two, or three,
taken at a time, are fitd to-work gently by ftool and
vomit. The compadl liver coloured fubftance, which
lies immediately a! -ove the regulus, operates more fe-
•verely. This laft appears to be nearly of the fame na¬
ture with the crocus of antimony, and the former with
the golden, fulphur.
Chap. XI. Preparations offilver.
Nitratedfiver, k.
Take of filver, one ounce ; diluted nitrous acid, four
ounces. Diffolve the filver in the nitrous acid, in a ^
glafs veffel, over a fand-heat ; then evaporate with
an heat gently raifed : afterwards melt the refiduum
in a crucible, that it may be poured into proper
forms, carefully avoiding too great a heat.
Salt of fiver, commonly called lunar caufic. E.
Take ofpureft filver, beat into plates, and cut in pieces, 27#
four ounces ; weak nitrous acid, eight ounces; pureft
water, four ounces. Diffolve the filver in a phial with
a gentle her:t, and evaporate the fdlution to drynefs.
Then put the mafs into a large crucible, and apply the
heat, at firft gently, but augment it by degrees till
t!ie mafs flows like oil; then pour it into iron moulds,
previoufly heated, and greafed with tallow.
Thefe proceffes do not differ in any material parti¬
cular. But the name of nitratedfiver is pieferable to
the more indefinite one of fa/t of fiver.
Strong fpirit of nitre will difiblve fomewhat more
than half its weight of pure filver; and the weaker of
the aqmefories, formerly deferibed, proportionally lefs,
according to their quantity of pure nitrous acid. Some¬
times this fpirit contains a portion of the vitriolic or
marine acids ; which, however minute, renders it un¬
fit for diffolving this metal-, and fhould therefore be
carefully feparated before the lolution be attempted.
The method which the refiners employ for examining
the purity of their aquafortis, and purifying it if ne-
ceffary, is to let fall into it a few drops of a perfect
folution of filver already made : if the liquor remain
clear, and grow not in the lead turbid or whitiih, it is
fit for ufe ; otherwife, they add a fmall quantity more
of the folution, which immediately turns the whole,
of a milky white colour ; the mixture being then fuf-
fered to reft for fome time, depofites a white fediment;
from which it i§ warily decanted, examined afiefh, and.
’** r0
0 5 u
Prcpara.
tions and
Cnm| ofl-
:{ions
PHARMA € Y.
Pan H.
’ 2J3
if need be, farther purified by a frefh addition of the
folution.
The filver beat into thin plates, as diredded in the
fecond of the above procefTes, needs not be cut in
pieces : the folution will go on the more fpeedily if
they are only turned round into fpiral circumvolutions,
fo as to be conveniently got into the glafs, with care
that the feveral furfaces do not touch each other. By
this management, a greater extent of the furface is ex-
pofed to the adbion of the menftruum, than when the
plates are cut in pieces and laid above each other.
Good aquafortis will difi'olve about half its weight of
hlver ; and it is not advifabie to ufe a greater quan¬
tity of the menftruum than is fufficient for effedting
the folution, for all the furplus mutt be evaporated in
the fubfequtnt fufron.
It is neceffary to employ very pure water; for if
hard water were ufed in this procefs, the nitrous acid
would forfake a part of the frlver to join with the cal¬
careous earth of the imperfect nitrous felenite ; where¬
by a part of the filver would be precipitated.
The crucible ought to be large enough to hold five
or fix times the quantity of the dry matter; for it
bubbles and fwells up greatly, and is confequently
apt to run over. During this time, alfo, little drops
are now and then fpurted up, whofe caufticity is in-
creafed by their heat, againft which the operator ought
therefore to be on his guard. The fire mult be kept
moderate till this ebullition ceafes, and till the matter
becomes confiftent in the heat that made it boil be¬
fore: then quickly increafe the fire till the matter
flows thin at the bottom like oil, when it is to be im¬
mediately poured into the mould, without waiting till
the fumes ceafe to appear ; for when this happens, the
preparation proves not only too thick to run freely in¬
to the mould, but likewife lei’s corrofive than it is ex-
pedted to be.
For want of a proper iron mould, one may be form¬
ed of tempered tobacco-pipe clay, not too moift, by
making in a lump of it, with a fmooth ftick firft grea-
fed, as many holes as there is occafion for; pour the
liquid matter into thefe cavities, and when congealed
take it out by breaking the mould. Each piece is to
■be wiped clean from the greafe, and wrapt up in foft
dry paper, not only to keep the air from adting on
them, but likevvife to prevent thdr corroding or dif-
colouring the fingers in handling.
This preparation is a ftrong cauftic ; and is fre¬
quently employed as fuch for confuming warts and
other flelhy excrefcences, keeping down fungous flefir
in wounds or ulcers, and other fimilar ufes. It is
rarely applied where a deep efehar is required, as in
the laying open of impofthumations and tumors ; for
the quantity neceflary for thefe purpofes, liquefying
by the moifture of the flein, fpreads beyond the limits
within which it Is intended to operate.
T/je lunar pills.
Diflblve pure filver in aquafortis, as in the foregoing
procefs ; and after due evaporation, fet the hquor
afide to cryftallize. Let the cryftals be again dif-
folved in common water, and mixed wirh a folution
of equal their weight of nitre. Evaporate this mix¬
ture to drynefs, and continue the exficcation with a
gentle heat, keeping the matter conftantly ftirring Prepara-
till no more fumes arife. tljf’ns an^
Here it is neceflary to continue the fire till the^.^p0
fumes entirely ceafe, as more of the acid is required to -—-
be diflipated than in the preceding procefs. The pre¬
paration is, neverthdefs, in tafte very fliarp, intenfeiy
bitter and naufeous: applied to ulcers* it ads as a
cauftic, but it is much milder than the foregoing.
Boerhanve, Boyle, and others, commend it highly in
hydropic cafes. The former aflures us, that two
grains of it made into a pill with criunb-of bread and
a little fugar, and taken on an empty ilomach (fomc
warm water, fweetened with honey, being drank im¬
mediately after), purge gently without griping, and
bring away a large quantity of water, aimoft without
the patient’s perceiving it : that it kills worms, and
cures many inveterate ulcerous diforders. He never-
thelefs cautions againft ufing it too freely, or in too
large a dofe ; and obferves, that it always proves cor¬
rofive and weakening, efpecially to the ilomach.
Chap. XII. Preparations of iron*
Ammonlacal iron. L.
Take of iron filings, one pound ; fal ammoniac, two
pounds. Mix, and fublime. What remains at the
bottom of the veflel mix by rubbing together with
the fublimed matter, and again fublime.
Martialflowers, commonly called Ens Veneris. E.
Take of colcothar of martial vitriol, waflied and well
dried ; fal ammoniac, equal weights. Having mix¬
ed them well, fublime.
Though the mode of preparation dfreded by the
two colleges is here different, yet the preparation is
fundamentally the fame ; and it is perhaps difficult to
fay which mode of preparation is to be preferred as
the eafieft and beft.
The name of ens veneris has by fome been very im¬
properly applied to this preparation, as it contains not
a particle of copper. The proper ens veneris is pre¬
pared from the blue vitriol; but, as we fhall foon
fee, is often not materially different from the martial
flowers.
The fuccefs of this procefs depends principally on
the fire being haftily raifed, that the fal ammoniac may
not fublime before the heat be fufficient to enable it
to carry up a fufficient quantity of the iron. Hence
glafs veffels are not fo proper as earthen or iron ones :
for when the former are ufed, the fire cannot be raifed
quickly enough, without endangering the breaking of
them. The moft convenient veffel is an iron pot;
to which may be luted an inverted earthen jar, having
a fmall hole in its bottom to fuffer the elaftic vapours,
which atife during the operation, to efcape. It is of
advantage to thoroughly mix the ingredients together,
moiften them with a little water, and then gently dry
them ; and to repeat the pulverization, hume&ation,
and exficcation, two or three times, or oftener. If this
method be followed, the fal ammoniac may be increafed
to three times the quantity of the iron, or farther ;
and a fingle fublimation will often be fufficient to raife
flowers of a very deep orange colour.
This preparation is fuppofed to be highly aperient
and
274
27S
3
Part II.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
fcion*.
and attenuating; though no otherwife fo than tne reii
of the chalybeates, or at moft only by virtue of the
faline matter joined to the iron. It has been found of
fervice in hyfterical and hypochondriacal cafes, and
in dillempers proceeding from a laxity and weaknefs of
the folids, as the rickets. It may be conveniently ta¬
ken in the form of a bolus, from two or three grains
to ten : it is naufeous in a liquid form (unlefs in fpi-
rituous tinfiure) ; and occalions pills to fwell and
erumble, except fuch as are made of the gums.
Rujl of iron. I..
£76 1’ake of iron-fr’ings, one pound ; expofe them to the
air, often moiftening them with water, until thfey be
corroded into ruft ; then powder them in an iron
mortar, and wa(h off with diftilled water the very
fine powder. But the remainder, which cannot by
moderate rubbing be reduced into a powder capable
oi being eafily waihed off, muft be moiffcned, ex¬
posed to the air for a longer time, and again pow¬
dered and waflicd as before. Let the walhed pow¬
der be dried.
Rujl of iron, commonly called prepared iron-filings. E.
Set purified filings or iron in a moift place, that they
may turn to rult, which is to be ground into an im¬
palpable powder.
1 he clcanling of iron nlings by means of a magnet
is very tedious, and dees not anfwer fo well as might
be expefted ; for if they be rully, they will not be at:
tracfed by it, or not fufficiently : nor will they by this
means be entirely freed from brafs, copper, or other
metallic fubftancea which may adhere to them. It
appears from the experiments of Henckel, that if iron
be mixed by fufion with even its own weight of any
of the other metals, regulus of antimony alone except¬
ed, the compound will be vigoroufly attracted by the
loadftone. The ruft of iron is to be procured at a
moderate rate from the dealers in iron, tree from any
impurities, except fuch as may be wafhed off by wa¬
ter. J
The ruft of iron is preferable as a medicine to the
calces or croci, made by a ftrong fire. Hoffman re¬
lates, that he has frequently given it with remarkable
luecefs in obfhnate chlorotic cafes accompanied with
exceffive headachs and other violent fymptoms ; and
that he ufually joined with it pimpine'Ia, arum root,
•rm J r • 1:a^tar, Wlt^ a cinnamon and fugar.
1 he dofe 13 from four or five grains to twenty or thir¬
ty. borne have gone as fi r as a dram : but all the pre¬
parations of this metal anfwer beft in fmall dofes, which
mould rather be often repeated than enlarged.
Rartarized iron. L..
I ake of filings of iron, one pound ; powdered cryftals
ler inti’, Tb0“M„8- M|X tlKm mth “aM wa-
a thick pafte. Expofe it to the air in an
matter drkd ^ day8; then Knnd the
^er ’ t m a bath of fand, to a very fine pow-
^ This isanufeful preparation of iron, in which that
metal is chiefly brought to a faline ftate by means oT
placeTn the L^omf t ^ n'>V f°r th' ^ >
Place in the London pharmacopoeia- but it had before
359
been introduced into fome of the foreign ones, parti-
cularly the pharmacopoeia Genevenfis, under the title *’on,i
of mars tartarifatus ; and indeed it is almoft precifely t;on?f
the fame with the mars fnlulilis of the old editions of ——y—,
the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.
Vitriolated iron. L.
Take of filings of iron, vitriolic acid, each eight
ounces; diftilled water, three pints. Mix them in
a glafs veffel; and when the eflervefcence has ceafed,
place the mixture for fome time upon hot fand ;
then pour off the liquor, {training it through paper;
and after due exhalation fet it afide to cryftallize.
Vitriol of iron, or fait of fleel. E.
Take of purihed filings of iron, fix ounces ; vitriolic 279>
acid, eight ounces ; water, two pounds and a half.
Mix them ; and when the effervefcence cenfes, let
the mixture ftand for fome time upon warm fand;
then (train the liquor through paper, and after due
evaporation fet it afide to cryltallize.
During the diffolution of the iron an elaftic vapour
riles, which on the approach of flame catches fire and
explodes, fo as fometimes to burft the veffel. To thia
particular therefore the operator ought to have due re¬
gard.
T. his vapour is alfo noxious to animal life. It is
the inflammable air of Dr Prieftley.
The chemifts are feldom at the trouble of preparing
this fait according to the diredfions above given ; but
in its Head fubftitute common green vitriol, purified
by folution in water, filtration, and cryftallization.
i he only difference between the tw© is, that the com¬
mon vitriol contains fomewhat more metal in propor¬
tion to the acid : and hence in keeping, its green co¬
lour is much fooner debafed by a nifty brownifh caft.
The fuperfluous quantity of metal may be eafily fepa-
rated, by fuffenng the folution of the vitriol to Hand
for fome time in a cold place, when a brownilh yellow
ochery fediment will fall to the bottom ; or it may be
perfectly diffolved, and kept fufpended by a fuitable
addition of oil of vitriol. If the vitriol be fufpedted
to contain any cupreous matter, which the common
Englifh vitriol feldom does, though almoft all the fo¬
reign vitriols do, the addition of fome bright iron wire
to the folution will both difeover, and effeaually fepa-
rate, that metal: for rise acid quits the copper to dif-
folve a proportionable quantity of the iron ; and the
copper, in its feparation from the acid, adheres to the
undiffolved iron, and forms a fkiri of a true copper co¬
lour on its furface. Even a vitriol of pure copper
may, on this principle, be converted into a pure vitriol
ef iron.
But though the vitriolic acid appears in this opera¬
tion to have fo much ftronger a difpofition to unite
with iron than with copper, that it totally rejefts the
latter when the former is prefented to it; the operator
may neverthclefs give a dangerous impregnation of
copper to the pureft and moft faturated folution of iron
in the vitriolic acid, by the ufe of copper veffels. If
the martial folution be boiled in a copper veffel, it
never fails to diffolve a part of the copper, diftinguiflx-
able by us giving a cupreous ftain to a piece of bright
iron immerfed in it. By the addition of the iron, the
topper
3^* F A H.
<e0:PPer f-'pttt‘a’fce’8 ? Vy‘bofilng it again without iron,
O.mpoii- ITlore t^‘e Cf>ppf-' is diiTolved:; and this may in like
tions. manner be leparated by adding more iron
u,^—'v'-——; The fait of ft eel is one of the moft efficacious pre¬
parations of this metal; and not no Frequently made ufe
of in cacheftie and chlorotic cafes, for exciting the
uterine purgations, ftrengthening the tone of the vif-
cera, and deftroying worms. It may be conveniently
taken in a. liquid lorm, largely diluted with water:
Boerha-ave directs it to be cHFTolved in an hundred
times its weight of water, and the folution to be ta-
]«n in the dofe of twelve ounces on an empty ftomach,
walking gently after it. Thus managed, be fays, it
opens the body, proves diuretic, kiils and expels worms,
tinges the excrements black, or forms them into a
matter like clay, ftrengtbens the fibres, and thus cures
many different diftempers. The quantity of vitriol in
the above dofe oi the fclution is fifty-feven grains and
a half; but in common practice, fuch large dofes of
this ftrong chalybeate are never ventured on. Four or
five grains, and in many cafes half a grain, are fuffi-
crent for the intention in which chalybeate medicines
ate given. Very dilute folutions, as that of a grain
of the fait in a pint of water, may be ufed as fucce-
danea to the natural chalybeate waters, and will in
many cafe| produce fimilar effefts.
Colcotbar of vitriol. E.
5,So Bet calcined vitriol be urged with a violent fire till it
becomes of a very red colour.
In this preparation, the iron which had been brought
to a faline ftate by means of the acid of vitriol, is
again deprived of that acid by the affion of fire, it
may be confi lered therefore as differing in fiothing from
the refiduum which remains in the retort, when vitri¬
olic acid ie diftilled from martial vitriol. The colco-
thar is very rarely employed by itfeif for medical pur-
pofes ; but it is ufed in the prepiration of fome other
ehalybeates, particularly the martial flowers, when pre¬
pared according to the method direfted by the Edin¬
burgh college.
Martial sthhps. Gen.
JeSi Take of the ruft of iron, as much as you ple&fe; olive
oil, a fufficient. quantity to make it into a pafte.
3.ec this be diftilled in a retort by a ftrong fire to
crynefs. Keep the refiduum reduced to a fine pow¬
der in a clofe veflel.
An article under this name had formerly a place in
fome of the old pharmacopoeias, and is deferibed by
Lemery in the Memoirs of the French Academy.; but
it was formed by a tedious procefs, continued for fe-
veral months by the aid of water. Here the procefs
is much fhorter, and is fuppofed to give nearly the
fame produfl. Some have recommended it, on the
fuppofition that the iron is here obtained in a very
fubtile ftate; but it is not in general fuppofed to have
any advantage over the other more common chaly-
beates.
Opening and aflringent croc as of iron.
^$2, Thefe are prepared by mixing iron filings with twice
their weight of powdered fulphur, deflagrating in a
red-hot crucible ; and in the one cafe keeping the
preparation over the fire till it affuities s red dolour;
M A C Y. Partll
in the other, by reverberating it for a long time in tbe'Rrepara-
rnofl extreme degree of heat. tions and
Preparations under thefe names ftiil retain a place
in fome of the foreign pharmacopceias, but they are —-
varioufly prepared. They may, however, be confi-
dered as pofFeffing the fame medical powers ; and al¬
though the preparations mentioned above probably
differ from each other in their virtues, yet that diffe¬
rence is not of fuch a nature as is imported by the
titles by which they are ufually diftinguifhed. For all
the preparations of iron probably a& by an aftringerit
quality; and that which is above denominated the
af.ringent crocus has probably leaft effect in that way.
At one period, thefe preparations were not unfre-
quently in ufe ; pid they were given in the form of
bolus, eleftuary, or pill, from a few grains to a fcruple;
but among us they are at prefent fe little in ufe as t®
have no place in our phafmacopceias.
"Ch ap. XIII. Preparatkns of Mercury.
Wr have already treated of mercury in various parts 2?*
of our work as we found occafion, and what vve have
already difeuffed it is unneceffary to repeat. Bee Mer."
cury, CHEmsTRY'/wr/e.r, Materia Mjedica. p.653.
Metallurgy, andQuiCKSTLVER 'On the whole,it ap¬
pears evident that there is no article which has been em¬
ployed for medical purpofes In a greater variety of forms.
The colleges of London and Edinburgh have admitted
into their pharmacopoeias only a few of thefe; but from
the feleftion they have made, there is reafon to believe
that every qfeful purpofe for which mercury has been
employed may be anfwered ; and thefe pnrpofes are
both numerous and confiderable. ‘-For it is at leaft
very generally allowed among intelligent pradfitioners,
that there are few articles kept in the drops of our
apothecaries which can be confidered as fo extenfively
ufcful. •
Mercury dr quickfilver, in its crude ftate, is a pon¬
derous metal ic fluid, totally volatile in a ftrong fire,
and calcinable by a weaker one (though very difficult¬
ly) into a red powdery fubftance. It diffolves in the
nitrous acid, is corroded by the vitriolic, but not afted
on by the marine in its liquid ftate : it neverthelefs
may be combined with this laft fkilfully applied in the
form of fume. . Quickfilver unites by trituration with
earthy, unftuous, refinous, and other fimilar fubftances,
fo as to lofe its fluidity; triturated, with fulphur, it
forms a black mafs, which by fublimation changes in¬
to a beautiful red one.
For the general virtues'of the mercurial preparations,
fee fome ofthe articles above referred to, and Medicine.
Here*we fhall only obfervc,that while in certain circunx-
ftances they aft as ftimulants, and even as corrofives, to
the parts to which they are applied; under a different
manage'ment, when introduced into the habit, they
feem to forward circulation through even the fmalleft
and moft remote veffels of, the body ; and may be fo
managed as to promote all the excret’ons. But while
they thus operate as a powerful ftimulus to the fangui-
ferous, and probably alfoto the lymphatic fyftem, they
feem to exert but little influence on the nervous fy¬
ftem. By this means they prove eminently ferviceablc
in fome inveterate chronical diforders, proceeding from
obftinate obftruftions of the glands. Crude mercury
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- has no effeft this way. Refolved into fume, or di-
C°ni ^ V1^e<^ ‘nto minute particles, and prevented from re*
tinns^ ** uniting by the interpofition of other fubftances, it epe-
u——y—^ rates very powerfully, unlefs the dividing body be
fulphur, which reftrains its a&ion. Combined with a
fmall quantity of the mineral acids, it a<5ts effe&ually,
though in general mildly; with a larger, it proves
violently corrofive.
Purified quickfifaer. L,.
284 Take of quickfilver, filings of iron, each four pounds.
Rub them together, and diftil from an iron veflel.
As in the diftillation of quickfilver glafs retorts are
very liable to be broken, an iron one is here with pro¬
priety direfted : and by the addition of the filings of
iron, matters which might otherwife arife with the
quickfilver will be more apt to be detained in the re¬
tort. But ftill this happens fo readily, even merely
with that degree of heat which is neceiTary to elevate
the mercury, that it is very doubtful whether much
advantage be obtained from this procefs ; and accord¬
ingly it has now no place in the pharmacopoeia of the
Edinburgh college.
Ac elated quickjilver. L.
285 Take of purified quickfilver, one pound; diluted ni¬
trous acid, two pounds ; water of kali, as much as
is fufficient. Mix the quickfilver with the acid in
a glafs veflel, and diflblve it in a fand-bath ; then
drop in by degrees the water of kali, that the calx
of quickfilver may be precipitated ; walk this calx
with plenty of diflilled water, and dry it with a
gentle heat. Thefe things being done, take of the
calx of quickfilver, above defcribed, one pound ; a-
cetous acid, as much as is neceflary to diflblve the
calx. Mix them in a glafs veflel; and the folution
being completed, ftrain it through paper; then eva¬
porate it till a pellicle appears, and fet it afide to
cryftallize. Keep thefe cryftals in a veflel clofe
flopped.
Of all the faline preparations of mercury, it has
long been the opinion of the beft chemifts, that thofe
in which it was brought to a faline form, by means of
acetous acid, would be the mildtft ; and fuch a prepa¬
ration was conje&ured to be the bafis of a celebrated
pill, prepared and fold by Mr Keyfer. It was, how¬
ever, found to be a veiy difiicult#matter to imitate his
pill, or to obtain a combination of mercury with the
acetous acid : but not long fince, the procefs for pre¬
paring thcCe pills was publifhed by authority at Paris,
after being purchafed by the French king.' The pro¬
cefs here defcribed though in fome particulars much
lefs operofe than that of Mr Keyfer, yet nearly ap¬
proaches to it, and furniihes us with the mildeft of the
faline mercurials.
Calcined quickjilver. L.
385 Take of purified quickfilver, one pound ; expofe the
quickfilver in a flat bottomed glafs cucurbit, to an
heat of about 600 degrees in a fand-bath, till it be¬
comes a red powder.
This preparation may now be made in a fhortertime
than by the procefs formerly directed in the Lon¬
don pharmacopoeia, which in general required feveral
months; for the accefs of air, without which calcina-
V ox. XIV. Part I.
m a c Y. 361
tion cannot be performed, was then very much ex- Prepara-
cluded. Still, however, the procefs is a tedious one, J;0115 an<*
and might perhaps be improved. A veflel might be l~
fo contrived, as to occafion a continual flux of air *
over the furface of the mercury.
This preparation is highly efteemed in venereal
cafes, and fuppofed to be the moft efficacious and cer¬
tain of all the mercurials. It may be advantageoufly
giyen in conjun&ion with opiates: a bolus or pill, con¬
taining from half a grain to two grains of this calx,
and a quarter or half a grain or more of opium, with
the addition of fome warm aromatic ingredient, may
be taken every night. Thus managed, it a&s mildly,
though powerfully, as an alterative and diaphoretic:
given by itfelf in larger dofes, as four or five grains, it
proves a rough emetic and cathartic.
AJh-colouredpowder of mercury. E.
Take of quickfilver, weak nitrous acid, equal weights. 28^
Mix them fo as to diflblve the quickfilver ; dilute
the folution with pure water, and add fpirit of fal
ammoniac as much as is fufficient to feparate the
mercury perfe&ly from the acid ; then wafh the
powder in pure water, and dry it.
In this procefs the mercurial nitre is deconipofed ;
the precipitate, therefore, is a calx of mercury, and the
clear liquor a folution of nitrous ammoniac. From
the great attra&ion which the nitrous acid has for
phlogifton, or from its ready difpofxtion to part with
pure air, the precipitates of mercury from its fblution
in this acid are more completely in the flate of a calx
than thofe from any other menflruum. There are,
however, feveral niceties to be obferved in condu&ing
this procefs. If we employ too fmall a’proportion of
acid, and affiH the folutton by heat, the folution will
contain an excefs of calx capable of being feparated by
the water; and the whole precipitate from fuch a fo¬
lution would be of a white colour. If, on the other
hand, we employ too large a proportion of acid, the
mercury is then fo far calcined as to be capable of
being diflblved by the volatile alkali; and this might*
happen in proportion as the quantity fhould be fuper-
abundant to the neutralization of the acid. The ufe
of the water is to diflblve the nitrous ammoniac as fad
as it is formed, and thereby prevent it from falling
down and mixing with the precipitate. It is neceffiT-
ry to employ the pureft water. If fuch be ufed as
contains a nitrous felenite, not only a part of the mer¬
cury may be precipitated by the bafe of the fdenite,
but this lull might alfo be depofited by the fuccteding
addition of the alkali.
The afli-coloured powder of mercury has of late
years been much celebrated for the cure of venereal af¬
fections. It was firft propofed by Dr Saunders to be made
by precipitating the mercury from calomel, as the bed
fubfiitute for the tedious and expenfive procefs of the
precipitate per fet and of the grey powder produced by
triture with gum arable. From the teftimony of Dr
Home, and feveral other praftitioners, we have no
doubt of its being a very valuable preparation of mer¬
cury. It may be given in a bolus or wafer, in the
quantity of from one to fix or feven grains : the dofe
being gradually increafed according to its effeCls upon
the perfon.
Z z
Quick-
,62 P H A R
u™. fyhiflver whh Ml. L.
Compoli- Take 0f plir[fjed quickfilver, three ounces ; powdered
Vons-   chalk,*five ounces. Rub them together until the
2.88 globules diiappear.
In this preparation, as well as the two former, we
have^lfo the mercury in a date of calx ; but in place
of being brought to that date by the aid of fire or of
acids, what may here be confidered as calcination is
cffe&ed by triture.
This preparation had no place in the former edi¬
tions of the London pharmacopoeia. A preparation
nearly fimilar indeed, under the title of mercurius alkali-
fatus, in which crabs eyes were employed inilead of
chalk, had a place in the old editions of the Edinburgh
pharmacopoeia, but was rejected from the edition of
t 744, and has never again been reftored. One reafon
for rejeding it was its being liable to grofs abufe in
the preparation, by the addition offome intermedium,
facilitating the union of mercury with the abforbent
earth, but diminifhing or altering its power.. The
prefent preparation is liable to the fame objedlion.
Some, however, are of opinion, that when duly pre¬
pared, it is an ufeful alterative. But there can be
little doubt, that the abforbent earth, by deftroying
acid in the alimentary canal, will diminilh the a&ivity
of the mercurial calx.
Muriated quichfilver. L.
289 Take of purified quickfilver, vitriolic acid, each two
pounds ; dried fea-falt, three pounds and an half.
Mix the quickfilver with the acid in a glafs vefiel,
and boil in a fand heat until the matter be dried.
Mix it, when cold, with the fea-falt, in a glafs vef-
fel; then fublime in a glafs cucurbit, with a heat
gradually raifed. Laftly, kt the fublimed matter be
feparated from the fcoriae.
Sublimate corrofive mercury. E.
200 Take of quickfilver, weak nitrous acid, each four
ounces; calcined fea-falt, calcined vitriol, of each
five ounces. Diffolve the quickfilver in the nitrous
acid, and evaporate the folution to a white and tho¬
roughly dry rnafs : then add the fea-falt and vitriol.
Having ground and mixed them well together, put
the whole into a phial, one half of which they ought
to fill; then fublime in fand, firft with a gentle, but
afterwards with an increafed, heat.
The fublimate prepared by either of thefe methods
is the fame, they both confift only of mercury and
the acid of the fea-falt united together. In the pro-
cefs direfted by the Edinburgh college, the materials
being mixed and expofed to the fire, firft the vitriol
parts with its acid, which, diflodging thofe of the
nitre and marine fait, takes their place. The marine
acid, refolved into fume and affifted by the nitious,
diffolves the mercury, now alfo ftrongly heated. This
acid, though it very difficultly a£ls on mercury, yet
when thus once united with it, is more ftrongly re¬
tained thereby than any other acid. The nitious fpi-
rit, therefore, having nothing to retain it (for its own
feafis and that of the fea-falt are both occupied by the
vitriolic, and that which the vitriolic forfook to unite
with thefe, is now fcarcely combinable with it), srifes;
leaving the mercury and marine acid to fublime toge-
M A C Y. Part II.
ther when the heat {hall be ftrong enough to elevate Prepara-
them. Some fmall portion of the marine fpirit arife* ti)on8 an^
along with the nitrous: and hence this compound acid^™p0
has been ufuatly employed inftead oi the compound aqua- . ?
forth, to which it is fimilar, for making the red cor¬
rofive.
It appears, therefore, that the vitriol, and the bnfes
of the nitre and fea-falt, are of no farther ufe in this
procefs, than as convenient intermediums for facilita¬
ting the union of the mercury with the marine acids.
They likewife ferve to afford a fupport for the fub¬
limate to reft upon, which thus affumes the form of a
placenta or cake.
The procefs, however, now adopted by the London
college, is a better and more fimpie one. There the
mercury, corroded by the vitriolic acid into a white
mafs, is mixed with about an equal quantity of fea-
falt, and fet to fublim6 ; the vitriolic acid quits the
mercury to unite with the bafis of the fea fait; an 1
the acid of the fea-falt, now fet at liberty, unites with
the mercury, and fublimes with it into the compound
required. The difeovery of this method is generally
attributed to Boulduc ; though it is found aifo in
Kunckel’s Laboratorium Chymicum. When the pra-
cefsis conducted in this way, the refiduous matter is a
pure Glauber’s fait, and the fublimate is alfo free of
ferruginous matter; a greater or lefs quantity of which
is very generally carried up along with the mercury
when vitriol of iron is employed. Boulduc’s method
has therefore the advantage in this, that the proportion
of mercury ia a given quantity of fublimate mull be
lefs liable to variation.
If the mercury be corroded by the nitrous acid in¬
ftead of the vitriolic, the event will be the fame ; that
acid equally quitting the mercury, and fetting loofe the
marine; and the fublimate made by this method is the
fame with the foregoing ; but as the quantity of fixed
matter is fmaller, it more difficultly affumes the form
of a cake. It requires indeed fome flail in the ope¬
rator to give it this appearance when either procefs is
followed. When large quantities are made, this form
may be eafily obtained, by placing the matrafs no
deeper in the fand than the furface of the matter con¬
tained in it; and removing a little of the fand from
the fides of the glafs, as foon as the flowers, begin to
appear in the neck ; when the heat fhould likewife be
fomewhat lowered, and not at all raifed during the
whole procefs. The fublimation is known to be com¬
pleted by the edges of the cryftalline cake, which will
form on the furface of the caput mortuum, appearing
fmooth and even, and a little removed from it.
Our apothecaries rarely, and few even of the che-
mifts, attempt the making of this preparation them-
felves ; greateft part of what is ufed among us comes
from Venice and Holland. This foreign fublimate has
been reported to be adulterated with arfenic. Some
affirm, that this dangerous fraud may be difeovered by
the fublimate turning black on being moiftened with
alkaline ley; which by others is denied. As this point
feemed of fome importance to be determined, fundry
experiments have been made with this view, whicSi
prove the infufficiency of alkalis for difeovering arfe¬
nic. Alkaline ley, poured into a folution of pure ar¬
fenic, and into a mixture of the two folutions in diffe¬
rent proportion?, produced no blacknefs in any : and
Part H* P H A R
Prepara- though the pure fublimate, and the mixtures of it with
dons and arfenic, exhibited fome differences in thefe trials, yet
Coin pod- differences were neither fo conffant nor fo ftrong-
^ . ly marked, as to be laid down univerfally for criteria
®f the prefence or abfence of arfenic: different fpeci-
mens of fublimate, known to be pure, have been found
to differ confiderably in this refpeft ; probably from
their holding a little more or kfs mercury in propor¬
tion to the acid, or from their retaining fome final!
portion of thole acids which were employed in the pre¬
paration as intermedia.
Some chemifts deny the practicability of this adul¬
teration. There is a procefs common in books of che-'
miftry, wherein fublimate and arfenic being mixed to¬
gether, and fet to fublime, do not arife in one mafs,
or yield any thing ffmilar to the preparation here in¬
tended : the arfenic abforbs the acid of the fublimate,
and is reduced thereby into a liquid or butyraceous
confiftence; while the mercury, thus freed from the
acid, diftils in its fluid form: if the quantity of ar¬
fenic be infufiicient to decompound the whole of the
fublimate, the remainder of the .fublimate concretes di-
ffindl from the arfenical butter. From whence they
conclude, that arfenic and fublimate cannot be united
together into a cryftalline cake, the form in which this
preparation is brought to us.
The above experiment is not altogether decifive ;
for though arfenic and fulphur do not affume the re¬
quired form by the common procefs, it is poflible they
may by fome other management. It will therefore be
proper to point out means for the fatisfadtion of thofe
who may be defrrous of convincing themfelves of the
genuinenefs of this important preparation. Let fome
of the fublimate, powdered in a glafs mortar, be well
mixed with twice its weight of black flux, and a little
filings or fhavings of iron ; put the mixture into a
crucible capable of holding four or five times as much;
give a gradual fire till the ebullition ceafes, and then
haftily increafe it to a white heat. If no fumes of a
garlic fmell can be perceived during the procefs, and
if the particles of iron retain their form without any
of them being melted, we may be fare that the mix-
lure contained no arfenic.
Sublimate is a moft violent corrofive, foon corrupt¬
ing and deftroying all the parts of the body it touches.
A folution of it in water, in the proportion of about a
dram to a quart, is ufed for keeping down proud fleffr,
and cleanfing foul ulcers ; and a more diluted folution
as a cofmetic, and for deffroying cutaneous infeds.
But a great deal of caution is requifite even in thefe
external ufes of it.
Some have neverthelefs ventured to give it inter¬
nally, in the dofe of one-tenth or one-eighth of a grain.
Boerhaave relates, that if a grain of it be diffolved in
an ounce or more of water, and a dram of this folu¬
tion, fweetened with fyrup of violets, be taken twice
or thrice a day, it will prove efficacious in many dif-
tempers thought incurable ; but he particularly cau¬
tions us not to venture upon it, unlefs the method of
managing it be well known.
Sublimate diffolved in vinous fpirit has of late been
given internally in larger dofes ; from a quarter of a
grain to half a grain. This method of uling it was
brought into repute by Baron Van Swietenat Vienna,
-cfpecially for venereal maladies; and feveral trials of
M A C Y. ' 363
it have alfo been made in this kingdom with fuccefs. Prepara
Eight grains of the fublimate are diffolved in fixteen
ounces of reftified fpirit of wine or proof-fpirit; the tionj.
rectified fpirit diflolves it more perfedly, and feems to ——%
make the medicine milder in its operation than the
proof-fpirit of the original prefeription of Van Swie-
ten. Of this folution, from one to two fpoonfuls, that
is, from half an ounce to an ounce, are given twice a-
day, and continued till all the fymptome are removed ;
obferving to ufe a low diet, with plentiful dilution,
otherwife the fublimate is apt to purge, and gripe fe-
verely. It generally purges more or lefs at the begin¬
ning, but afterwards feems to operate chiefly by urine
and perfpiration.
Sublimate confifts of mercury united with a large
quantity of marine acid. There are two general me¬
thods of deftroying its corrofive quality, and render¬
ing it mild ; the one is, combining with it as much
freftr mercury as the acid is capable of taking up ; and
the other, by feparating a part of the acid by means of
alkaline falls and earths. On the firft principle fweet
mercury is formed ; on the latter, white precipitate.
But before entering on thefe, it is proper to give the
following formula.
Solution of corrofive fublimate mercury. E.
Take of corrofive fublimate mercury, fix grains; fal '291
ammoniac, twelve grains. Diffolve in a pound of
diftilied water. If hard water be ufed for this pur-
pofe, the folution fuffers a kind of decompofition
from the nitrous felenite of the water.
The folution of corrofive fublimate in water is very
much afiifted by fal ammoniac. There was a pradtice
fome years ago, of mixing up this folutiou with wheat
flour into the confiflence of pills for internal ufe ; and
the quantity of fublimate in each pill was eafily afeer-
tained.
This folution may alfo be ufed for wafhing venereal
and other fores; but in many inftances it will be
found too acrid for that purpofe, and will require to
be weakened by the addition of a portion of water.
Calomel. L.
Take of muriated quickfilver, one pound; purified 292
quickfilver, nine ounces. Rub them together till
the globules difappear, and then fnblime the mafs.
In the fame manner repeat the fublimation four
times. Afterwards rub the matter into a very fine
powder, and waflr it by pouring on boiling diitilled
water.
Sweet mercury. E.
Take of corrofive mercury fublimate, reduced to a
powder in a glafs mortar, four ounces; pure quick¬
filver, three ounces and a half. Mix them well to¬
gether, by long trituration in a glafs or marble mor¬
tar, until the quickfilver ceafes to appear. Put the
powder into an oblong phial, of fuch a fize that
only one-third of it may be filled ; and fet the glafs
in fand, that the mafs may fublime. After the fub¬
limation, break the glafs; and the red powder which
is found in its bottom, with the whitifh one that
flicks about the neck, being thrown away, let the
white mercury be fublimed again three or four times,
and reduced to a very fine powder*
The
3^4
lJrepara-
tinnsand
Compoli-
tions.
P H A R
TKe trituration of corrofive fublimate with quick-
filver is a very noxious operation : for it is almoit im-
poffible, by any care, to prevent the lighter particles of
the former from rifing fo as to affetl the operator’s
eyes and mouth. It is neverthelefs of the utmoft confe-
quence, that the ingredients be perfeftly united before
the fublimation is begun. It is neceflary to pulverize
the fublimate before the mercury is added to it: but
this may be fafely performed with a little caution ;
efpecially if during the pulverization the matter be
now and then fprinkled with a little fpirit of wine :
this addition does not at all impede the union of the
ingredients, or prejudife the fublimation : it will be
convenient not to clofe the top of the fubliming veffel
with a cap of paper at firft (as is ufually pridtlfed),
but to defer this till the mixture begins to fublime,
that the fpirit may efcape.
The rationale of this procefs deferves particular at¬
tention ; and the more fo, as a miftaken theory herein
has been productive of feveral errors with regard to
the operation of mercurials in general. It is fuppo-
fed, that the dulcification, as it is called, of the corro-^
five mercury is owing to the fpicuke or (harp points,
on which its corrofivenefs depends, being broken and
worn off by the frequent fublimations. If this opi¬
nion were juft, the corrofive would become mild, with¬
out any addition, barely by repeating the fublimation;
but this is contrary to all experience. The abatement
of the corrofive quality of the fublimate is entirely ow¬
ing to the combination of as much frefh mercury as is
capable of being united with it ; and by whatever
means this combination be effefted, the preparation
will be fufficiently dulcified. Triture and digeltion
promote the union of the two, while fublimation tends
rather to difunite them. The prudent operator, there¬
fore, will not be folicitous about feparating fuch mer¬
curial globules as appear diftind after the firft fubli-
mation : he will endeavour rather to combine them
with the reft, by repeating the triture and digeftion.
The college of Wirtemberg require their fweet
mercury to be only twice fublimed, and the Auguftan
but once ; and Neumann propofes making it direftly
by a fingle fublimation from the ingredients of the
corrofive fublimate, by only taking the quickfilver in
a larger proportion.
Mr Selle of Berlin has lately propofei a method of
making fweet mercury nearly fimilar to that of Neu¬
mann. He direfts, that to four ounces of pure quick¬
filver there fhould be added as much ftrong vitriolic
acid. Thefe are to be mixed over a ftrong fire till
they become a folid hard mafs. This mafs is to be
triturated in a ftone mortar with two ounces and an
half of quickfilver and four ounces and an half of
dried common fait. And by a fingle, or at moft two,
fublimations, he aflures us an excellent fweet mercury
is obtained.
If the medicine made after either of thefe methods
fhould prove in any degree acrid, water boiled on it
for fome time will diffolve and feparate that part in
which its acrimony confifts. The marks of the pre¬
paration being fufficiently dulcified are, its being per¬
fectly infipid to the tafte, and indifibluble. by long
boiling in water. Whether the water in which it has
been boiled has taken up any part of it, may be known
by dropping into the liquor a ley of any fixed alkaline
M A C Y. Partir.
fait, or any volatile alkaline fpirit. If the decoftion Prepara-
has any mercurial impregnation, it will grow turbid p0119
on this addition ; if otherwife, it will continue limpid. tions_
But here care muft be taken not to be deceived by y—■ «
any extraneous faline matter in the water itfelf. Moft
pf the common fpring waters turn milky on the addi¬
tion of alkalis; and therefote, for experiments of this
kind, diftilled water or rain water ought to be ufed.
This name of calomel, though for a confiderable time
banifhed from our beft pharmacopoeias, is again re-
ftored by the London college. But we cannot help
thinking, that they might eafily have invented a name
better expreffing the conftituent parts and nature of
the preparation.
Calomel, or fweet mercury, ma^1 be confidered as
one of the moft ufeful of the mercurial prepaiations;
and it may be eftimated as holding an intermediate
place between the acetated quickfilver, one of the
mildeft of the faline preparations, and the muriated
quickfilver, or corrofive fublimate, one of the moft acrid
wf them.
Mild muriated quiclfilver. L.
Take purified quickfilver, diluted nitrous acid, of each 294.
half a pound. Mix in a glafs veflel, and fet it afide
until the quickfilver be dilfolved. Let them boil,
that the fak may be diflblved. Pour out the boiling
liquor into a glafs vefiel into which another boiling
liquor has been put before, confiding of fea-fah,
four ounces; diftilled water, eight pints. After a
white powder has fubfided to the bottom of the
veflel, let the liquor fwimming at the top be poured
off, and the remaining powder be wafhed till it be¬
comes infipid, with frequent affufions of hot water ;
then dried on blotting paper with a gentle heat.
This preparation had a place in former editions of
the London and Edinburgh pharmacopoeias under the
name of mercurim dulcis precipitatus. But the procefs
as now given is fomewhat altered, being that of
Mr Scheele of Sweden, who has recommended this as
an eafy and expeditious method of preparing fweet
mercury or calomel.
It appears from fevcral lefts that this precipitate is
equal in every refpeft to that prepared by the prece¬
ding proceffes. It is lefs troublefome and expeniive,
and the operator is not expofed to the noxious duft:
arifing from the triture of the quicklilver with the
corrofive fublimate, which neceffarily happens by the
common method. The powder is alfo finer than can
be made from the common fublimed fweet mercury
by any trituration whatever. The clear liquor Hand¬
ing over the precipitate is a folution of cubic or rhom-
boidal nitre.
Sweet mercury, which may be confidered as pre-
cifely the fame with the calomel and mild muriated
quickfilver, appears to be one of the beft and fafeft
preparations of this mineral, when intended to aft as
a quick and general ftimulant. Many of the more
elaborate proceffes are no other than attempts to pro¬
duce from mercury fuch a medicine as this really is.
The dofe, recommended by fome for raifing a faliva-
tion, is ten or fifteen grains taken in the form of a bolus
or pill, every night or oftener, till the ptyalifm be¬
gins. As an alterant and diaphoretic, it has been given
in dofes of five or fix grains ; a purgative being occa-
fionally
Fart IT. P H A R
Prepara- fionally in'terpofed, to prevent its afTefting the mouth,
tions and j[^ anfvvers, however, much better when given in
£nsPOfi' fmaller quantities, as one, two, or three grains every
v' --t morning and evening, in conjunftion with fuch fub-
ftances as determine its adtion to the ilein, as the ex¬
tract or refin of guaiacum; the patient at the fame
time keeping warm, and drinking liberally of warm
diluent liquors. By this method of managing it, ob-
ftinate cutaneous and venereal diftempers have been
fuccefsfully cured without any remarkable increafe of
the fenfible evacuations. It is fometimes, however,
difficult to meafure its effects in this way ; and it is fo
very apt to run off by the inteffines, that we can feldom
adminitter it in fuch a manner as to produce thofe
permanent effedls which are often required, and which
we are able to do by other preparations. It has been
lately propofed to rub the gums and infide of the
mouth with this preparation, as a ready and effe&ual
method of producing falivation. rI his practice has
been particularly recommended in the internal hydro¬
cephalus, where it is exceedingly difficult to excite a
falivation by other means. The advantages of this
pra&ice are not fully confirmed by experience; and
when mercury is attended with advantage in hydroce¬
phalus, this is not probably the confequence of any
dilcharge under the form of falivation, but merely of
the mercury being introduced into the fyffem in an
adive ffate, and thus promoting abforption. And
falivation, when it arifes from the internal ufe of mer¬
cury, may be confidered as the flrongeif teff of this ;
but this is by no means the cafe when falivation arifes
from a topical aftion on the excretories of faliva.
M A C Y. _ 36?
We fometimes indeed receive confiderable quantities ^'^Para-
of it from Holland ; but this depends on the compoli-
ents being commonly cheaper there than with us, audtj0R6>
not on any fecret in the manner of the preparation. —y—
This precipitate is, as its title imports, an efcharotic;
and with this intention is frequently employed by the
furgeons with bafilicum and other dreflings, for con-
fuming fungous flefh in ulcers and the like purpofes.
It is fubjed; to great uncertainty in point of llrength,
more or lefs of the acid exhaling according to the degree
and continuance of the fire. The beft criterion of its
ftrength, as already obferved, is its brilliant appearance;
which is alfo the mark of its genuinenefs : if mixed
with minium, which it is fometimes faid to be, the
duller hue will difeover the abufe. JThis admixture
may be more certainly dete&ed by means of fire : the
mercurial part will totally evaporate, leaving the mi¬
nium behind.
Some have ventured to give this medicine internally
in venereal, fcrophulous, and other obftinate chronic
diforders, in dofes of two or three grains or more.
But certainly the milder mercurials, properly managed,
are capable of anfwering all that can be expe&ed from
this ; without occafioning violent anxieties, tormina of
the bowels, and fimilar ill confequences, which the befl
management can fcarcely prevent this corrofive prepa¬
ration from fometimes inducing. The chemitls have
contrived fundry methods of correding and rendering
it milder, by divefling it of a portion of the acid ;
but to no very good purpofe, as they either leave the
medicine ftill too corrofive, or render it fimilar to
others which are procurable at an eafier rate.
Red nitrated quicljilver. L.
Take of purified qnickfilver, nitrous acid, each one
pound ; muriatic acid, one dram. Mix in a glafs
veffel, and diffclve the quickfilver in a fand bath;
then -raife the fire until the matter be formed into
red cryftals.
Red corrrfive, commonly called red precipitated mercury. E.
Take of quickfilver, weak nitrous acid, each one
pound. Let the quickfilver be diflblved in the
acid, and then let the folution be evaporated to a
white dry mafs. This being beat into a powder,
muff be put into a glafs retort, and fubjeCted to a
fire gradually increafed, till a fmall quantity of it,
taken out in a glafs fpoon, and allowed to cool, af-
fumes the form of finning red fquamas. Let the
veffel be then removed from the fire. During the
proofs the matter muff be carefully agitated by a
glafs rod, that it may be equally heated.
The marine acid, in the menliruum ordered in the
firft procefs, difpofes the mercurial calx to affume the
bright fparkling look admired in it; which, though
perhaps no advantage to it as a medicine, ought never-
thelefs to be infilled on by the buyer as a mark of its
goodnefs and ilrength. As foon as the matter has
gained this appearance, it fhould be immediately re¬
moved from the fire, otherwife it will foon lofe it
again. The preparation of this red precipitate, as it
is called, in perfeblion, is fuppofed by fome to be a
fecret not known to our chemiils, infomuch that we
are under the neceffity of importing it from abroad.
Thia refledlioi* feems to be founded on mifinformation.
White calx of quickfilver. L.
Take of muriated quickfilver, fal ammoniac, water of 297
kali, each half a pound. Diffolve firfl the fal am¬
moniac, afterwards the muriatic quickfilver, in dif-
tilled water, and add the water of kali. Wafh the
precipitated powder until it becomes infipid.
White precipitate of mercury. E.
Diffolve corrofive fublimate mercury in a fufficient 29#
quantity of hot water, and gradually drop into the
folution fome fpirit of fal ammoniac as long as any
precipitation enfues. Wafh the precipitated powder
with feveral frefii quantitits of warm water.
Thefe preparations are ufed chiefly in ointment?,
with which intention their fine white colour is no fmall
recommendation to them. For internal purpofes they
are rarely employed, nor is it at all wanted : they are
nearly fimilar to fweet mercury, but lefs certain in
their effefti.
Though the proceffes dire&ed by the London and
Edinburgh colleges be here fomewhat different, yet
the preparations are ultimately the fame. The procela
dtferibed by the Edinburgh college is the moft Ample;
but is liable to fome obje&ions.
Corrofive fublimate, as we have already feen, confifb
of mercury united with a large portion of acid. It is
there dulcified by adding as much frefii mercury as is
fufficient to faturate all the acid ; here, by feparating
all the acid that is not faturated. This lafi: way feems
an unfrugal one, on account not only of the lofs of
the acid, but of the volatile fpirit neceffary for abforb-
ing it. The operator may, however, if it Ihould be
thought
366
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoli*
tions.
299
P H A R
tliouglit worth while, recover the volatile fait from
the liquor, by adding to it, E^ftei the precipitate has
been feparated, a proper quantity of potafli, and diftil-
ling with a gentle heat, in the fame manner as for the
fpirit or volatile fait of fal ammoniac; for a true fal
ammoniac is regenerated, in the precipitation, from
the union of the volatile fpirit with the marine acid of
the fublimate. It is by no mean's advifable to ufe the
hquor ilftlf as a folution of fal ammoniac, or to fepa-
rate the fal ammoniac from it by evaporation and cry-
ftallization, as a part of the mercury might he retained,
and communicate dangerous qualities : but the volatile
fait feparated by diftillation may be ufed v/ithout fear
of its containing any mercury ; none of which will
arife with the heat by which the volatile falls are
diftiiled.
Fixed alkalis anfwer as effe&ually for precipitating
folutions of fublimate as the volatile ; but the precipi¬
tate obtained by means of the former, inftead of being
white, as with the latter, is generally of a reddifh yel¬
low or orange colour. If fal ammoniac be diiTolved
along with the fublimate, the addition of fixed alkalis
will, by extricating the volatile alkali of the fal am¬
moniac, occalion as white a precipitation as if the vo¬
latile fait had been previoufly feparated and employed
in its pure date ; and this compendium is now allowed
by the London college in the procefs which they have
adopted.
There the fal ammoniac, befxdes its ufe in the capi¬
tal intention, to make a white precipitation, promotes
the folution of the fubKmate ; which of itfelf is diffi¬
cultly, and fcarcely at all totally, foluble by repeated
boiling in water: for however fkilfully it be prepared,
fome part of it will have an under-proportion of acid,
and confequently approach to the date of fweet mer¬
cury. A good deal of care is requidte in the preci¬
pitation ; for if too large a quantity of the fixed alka¬
line folution be imprudently added, the precipitate will
lofe the elegant white colour for which it is valued.
Quicijilver ‘with fulphur. L.
Take of purified quickfilver, flowers of fulphur, each
one pound. Rub them together uatil the globules
difappear.
JEthiops mineral. E.
M A C Y. PartlL
already undergone much greater fires, rot only in the frepara-
extraftion from their ores, but likewife in the purifica-ti,ons an^
tions of them dire&ed in the pharmacopoeia. In the
following procefs they are expofed in conjun£h'on to a t
drong fire, without fufpicion of the compound re¬
ceiving any ill quality from it. This much is certain,
that the ingredients are more perfectly united by heat
than by the degree of triture ufually btdowed on
them. From the aethiops prepared by triture, part of
the mercury is apt to be fqueezed out on making it
into an eleftuary or pills ; from that made by fire no
feparation is obferved to happen.
iEthiops mineral is one of the mod ina&ive of the
mercurial preparations. Some practitioners, however,
have reprefented it as pofieffing extraordinary virtues ;
and mod people imagine it a medicine of fome efficacy.
But what benefit is to be expefted from it in the com¬
mon dofes of eight or ten grains, or a fcruple, may be
judged from hence, that it has been taken in dofes of
feveral drams, and continued for a confiderable time,
without producing any remarkable effeft. Sulphur
eminently abates the power of all the more attive mi¬
nerals, and feems to be at the fame time redrained by
them from operating in the body itfelf. Boerhaave,
who is in general fufficiently liberal in the commenda¬
tion of medicines, difapproves ef the xethieps in very
drong terms. “ It cannot enter the abforbent veflels,
the la&eals, or lymphatics, but pafles direftly through
the inteftinal tube, where it may happen to dedroy
worms, if it operates luckily. They are deceived who
expe& any other effe&s from it; at lead I myfelf
could never find them. I am afraid it is unwarily
given, in fueh large quantities, to children and perfons
of tender conditutions, as being a foreign mafs, un¬
conquerable by the body; the more to be fufpe&ed as
it there continues long fluggifh and ina&ive. It does
not raife a falivation, becaufe it cannot come into
the blood. Who knows the effedts of a fubftance,
which, fo long as it remains compounded, feems no
more adtive than any ponderous iniipid earth ?” The
asthiops, with a double proportion of mercury, now
received into our pharmacopoeias, has a greater chance
for operating as a mercurial ; and probably the quan¬
tity of mercury might be dill further increafed to ad¬
vantage.
Take of quickfilver, flowers of fulphur, each equal
weights. Grind them together in a glafs or done
mortar, with a glafs peftle, till the mercurial globules
•totally difappear.
An sethiops is made alfo with a double quantity of
mercury.
We need hardly remark, that thefe preparations,
though now differing in name, are in reality the fame.
Nor need we add, that the diredHon given by the
Edinburgh college, of ufing a glafs or done mortar
and pedle, is neceffary and proper.
The union of the mercury and fulphur might be
much facilitated by the affidance of a little warmth.
Some are accuftomed to make this preparation in a
very expeditious manner, by melting the fulphur in an
iron ladle, then adding the quicklilver, and dirring
them together till the mixture be completed. The
fmall degree of heat here fufficient cannot reafonably
be fuppofed to do any injury to fubftances which have
jRedfulphuraied quichflver. L.
Take of quickfilver, purified, forty ounces; fulphur,
eight ounces. Mix the quickfilver with the melted 30J
fulphur; and if the mixture takes fire, extinguifh it
by covering the veffel; afterwards reduce the mafs
to powder, and fublime it.
It has been cuftomary to order a larger quantity of
fulphur than here diredbed ; but fmaller proportions
anfwer better, for the lefs fulphur the finer coloured is
the cinnabar.
As foon as the mercury and fulphur begin to unite,
a confiderable explofion frequently happens, and the
mixture is very apt to take fire, efpecially if the pro¬
cefs be fomewhat haftily condudled. This accident
the operator will have previous notice of, from the
matter fwelling up, and growing fuddenly confident:
as foon as this happens, the veffel mud be immediately
clofe covered.
During the fublimation, care mud be had that the
.5 matter
Part II.
P H A II
Prepara¬
tions and
Conipofi-
tion‘.
matter riie not into the neck of the veffel, fo as to
block up and burft the glafs. To prevent this, a wide-
recked bolt head, or rather an oval earthen jar, coated,
* Ihould be chofen for the fubliming veffel. If the
former be employed, it will be convenient to introduce
at times an iron wire, fomewhat heated, in order to be
the better affured that the paffage is not blocking up;
the danger of which may be prevented by cautioufly
railing the veffei higher from the lire.
If the ingredients were pure, no feces will remain :
in fuch cafes, the fublimation may be known to be
over by introducing a wire as before, and feei ng there¬
with the bottom of the veffel, which will then be per-
fediiy fmooth : it any roughnefs or inequalities are per¬
ceived, either the mixture was impure, or the fu!di-
mation is not completed : if the latter be the cafe, the
wire will foon be covered over with the rifmg cinna¬
bar.
The preparers or cinnabar in large quantity em¬
ploy earthen jars, which in lhape pretty muchrefemblc
an egg. 1. hefe are of different fixes, according to the
quantity intended to be made at one fublimation, which
iometimes amounts to two hundred weight. The jar
is ufually coated from the fmall end almoll to the
middle, to prevent its breaking by the vehemence or
irregularity of the fire. The greater part, which is
placed uppermoft, not being received within the fur¬
nace, has no occafion for this defence. The whole fe-
cret with regard to this procefs, is the management
of the fire, which fhould be fo ftyong as to keep the
matter* continually fubliming to the upper part of the
jar, without coming cut at its mouth, which is co¬
vered with an iron plate ; care Ihould alfo be taken to
put into the fubliming veffel only fmall quantities of
the mixture at a time.
The principal ufe of cinnabar is as a pigment. It
was formerly held in great efteem as a medicine in cu¬
taneous foulrtfcffes, gouty and rheumatic pains, epilep¬
tic cafes, &c. but of late it has loft much of its repu¬
tation. It appears to be nearly fimilar to the fethiops
already, fpoken . of. Cartheufer relates, that having
given cinnabar tn large quantities to a dog, it produ¬
ced no fenfible effedl, but was partly voided along with
the feces unaltered, and partly found entire in the fto-
roach and inteftines on opening the animal. The ce¬
lebrated Frederic Hoffman, after beftowing high en¬
comiums on this preparation, as having in many in-
fiances within his own knowledge perfectly cured epi-
lepfxes and vertigoes from contufions of the head (where
it is probable, however, that the cure did not fo much
oepend on the cinnabar as on the fpontaneous recovery
of the parts from the external injury), obferves, that
the laige repeated dofes, neceffary for having any effedf,
can be borne only where the firft paffages are ftreng ;
and t at if the fibres of the ftomach and inteftines are
lax and flaccid, the cinnabar, accumulated and con¬
creting with the mucous matter of the parts, occafions
great oppreffion ; which feems to be an acknowledge-
ment that the cinnabar is not fubdued by the powers
o dige.tion, and has no proper medicinal a&ivity.
1 here are indeed fome inftances of the daily ufe of cin¬
nabar having brought on affalivation ; perhaps from
the cinnabar, ufed in thofe cafes, having contained a
Ids proportion of fulphur than the forts commonly met
with. 1 he regains of antimony, and even white ar-
M A C Y. 367
fenio, when combined with a certain quantity of coni-Prepara-
rnon fulphur, feetn to have their deleterious power de- p0IIS an5*
ftroyed : on fepaming more and more of the fulphur,
they exert more and more of their proper virulence. 1 v *
It does not feem unreafonable to prefume, that mer¬
cury rosy have its activity varied in the fame manner;
that when perfectly fatiated with fulphur, it may be
inert ; and that when the quantity of fulphur is more
and more leffened, the compound may have greater
and greater degrees of the proper efficacy of mercu¬
rials.
Cinnabar is fometimes ufed in fumigations againft
venereal ulcers in the nofe, mouth, and throat. Half
a dram of it burnt, the fume being imbibed with the
breath, has occafioned a violent falivation. This effect
is by no means owing to the medicine as cinnabar:
when fet on fire, it is no longer a mixture of mercury
and fulphur, but mercury refolved into fume, and
blended in part with the volatile vitriolic acids ; in
either of which circumftances this mineral, as we have
already obferved, has very powerful effects.
Vitr ’iolated quickjilver. T.
Take of quickfilyer, purified, vitriolic acid, each one
pound. Mix in a glafs veffel, and heat them by
degrees until they unite into a white mafs, which is
to be perfectly dried with a ftrong fire. This mat¬
ter, on the affufion of a large quantity of hot di-
ftilled water, immediately becomes yellow, and falls
to powder. Rub the powder carefully with this
water in a glafs mortar. After the powder has
fubfided, pour ©ff the water; and, adding more di-
ftiiled water feveral times, waffi the matter till it
become infipid.
Tel low mercury, commonly called Turlith mineral E.
rake of quickfilver, four ounces ; vitriolic acid, eight 303
ounces. Cautioufiy mix them together, and diftil
*n a retort, placed in a fand furnace, to drynefs:
the white calx, which is left at the bottom, beiVr
ground to powder, muft be thrown into warm wa¬
ter. It immediately affumes a yellow colour, but
muft afterwards be purified by repeated ablutions.
1 he quantity of oil of vitriol, formerly directed, waa
double to that now employed by the Edinburgh col-
I he redu&ion made in this article greatly fa-
cilitates the procefs; and the proportions of the Lon¬
don college are perhaps preferable.
Boerhaave direas this preparation to be made in an
open glafs, flowly heated, and then placed immediate¬
ly on burning coals ; care being taken to avoid the
fumes, which are extremely noxious. This method
will fuccced very well with a little addrefs when the
ingredients are in fmall quantity ; but where the mix¬
ture is large, it is better to ufe a retort, placed in a
frmd-furnace, with a recipient, containing a fmall quan¬
tity of water, luted to it. Great care fliould be ta¬
ken, when the oil of vitriol begins to bubble, that the
heat be fteadiiy kept up, without at all increafing it,
till the ebullition ceafes, when the fire ffiould be aug¬
mented to the utmoft degree, that as much as poffible
of the redundant acid may be expelled.
If the matter be but barely exficcated, it proves a
cauftic fait, which in the ablution with water will al-
moft all diffolve, leaving only a little quantity of tur-
bith:
368
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
P H A R
bitK : the more of the acid that has been diflipated,
the lefs of the remaining mercury will diffolve, and
confequently the yield of turbith will be greater}
i expelling only fuch part of the acid as is not com¬
pletely fatiated with mercury* while water takes up al¬
ways, along with the acid, a proportional quantity of
the mercury itfelf. Even when the matter has been
ftrongty calcined, a part will ftill be foluble ; this evi-
dently appears on pouring into the wafhings a little fo-
hltion of fixed alkaline fait, which will throw down a
confiderable quantity of yellow precipitate, greatly re-
fembling the turbith, except that it is lefs violent in
operation. > , - , „
From this experiment it appears, that the belt me¬
thod of edulcorating this powder is, by impregnating
the water, intended to be ufed in its ablution, with a
determined proportion of fixed alkaline fait; for by
this means, the walked turbith will not only turn out
greater in quantity, but, what is of more coafequence,
will have an equal degree of ftrength ; a circumftance
which deferves particularly to be confidered, efpecially
in making fuch preparations as, from an error in the
procefs, may prove too violently corrofive to be uied
with any tolerable degree of fafety. It is neceffary to
employ warm water if we are anxious for a fine co¬
lour If cold water be ufed, the precipitate will be white.
It is obfervable, that though the fnperfluous acid be
here abforbed from the mercury by the alkaline fait;
yet in fome circumftances this, acid forfakes tnat lalt
to unite with mercury. If variolated tartar, or vt-
iriolated halt, as it is now called, which is a combina¬
tion of vitriolic acid with fixed alkali, be diflblved in
water, and the folution added to a folution of mercury
in aquafortis, the vitriolic acid will unite with the
raerairy, and form with it a turb.th, which MU to
the bottom; leaving only the alkali diflolved in tie
aquafortis, and united with its acid into a regenera-
ted nitre. On this principle depends the preparation
defcribed by Wilfon under the title of an excellent pre¬
cipitate of mercury ; which is no other than a true tur¬
bith, though not generally known to be fuch. t is
made by diffolving four ounces of variolated kah in
lixteen ounces of fpirit of nitre ; diffolv.ng in this
compound liquor four ounces of mercury ; abilrafting
the menftruum by a fand heat; and edulcorating with
water the gold-coloured mafs which remains.
Turbith mineral is a ftrong emetic, and with this
intention operates the moft powerfully of al the mer¬
curials that can be fafely given internally. Its adion,
however, is not'confined to the prims vis ; it will
fometimes excite a fahyation, if a Purgative !^ n^
taken foon after it. This medicine is ufed chiefly in
virulent gonorrhoeas, and other venereal cafes, where
there is a great flux of humours to the parts. Its
chief ufe at prefect is in fwellings of the tefticle from
a venereal affedion ; and it feems not only to ad as a
mercurial, but alfo, by the fevere vomiting it occa-
fions to perform the office of a difcutient, by acce¬
lerating the motion of the blood in the parts affeded.
It is faid like wife to have been employed with fuccefs
in robuft conftitutions, againft leprous dilorders and
obftinate glandular obftrudions : the dofe is from two
grains to fix or eight. It may be given in dofes of a
grain or two as an alterative and diaphoretic, in the
fame manner as the calcined mercury alieady fpoken
M A C Y. Part IL
of. Dr Hope has found that the turbith mineral is Prepara-
the moft convenient errhine he has had occafion to em-
ploy. tions.
This medicine was lately recommended as the moll < y—J
efFedual prefervative againft the hydrophobia. It has
been alleged there are feveral examples of its prevent¬
ing madnefs in dogs which had been bitten ; and forae
of its performing a cure after the madnefs was begun ;
from fix or feven grains to a fcrupte may be given
every day, or every fecond day, for a little time, and,
repeated at the two or three fucceeding fulls and
changes of the moon, borne few trials have hkewife
been made on human fubjefts bitten by mad dogs j
and in thefe alfo the turbith, ufed either as an emetic
or alterative, feemed to have good effects.
The walhings of turbith mineral are ufed by fome
externally for the cure of the itch and other cuta-
neous foulneffes. In fome cafes mercurial lotions may
be proper, but they are always to be yfed with great
caution : this is by no means an eligible one, as be¬
ing extremely unequal in point of ftrength, more or
lefs of the mercury being diffolved, as has been ob-
fcrved above, according to the degree of calcination.
The pharmacopoeia of Paris direds a mercurial wafti
free from this inconvenience, under the title of sfgua
mercurialis, or Mercurius Itqutdus- It is compofed of
one ounce of mercury, diffolved in a fufficient quan¬
tity of fpirit of nitre, and diluted with 30 ounces of
diftilled water. In want of diftilled water, rain wa¬
ter may be ufed ; but of fpnng waters there are veiy
few which will mix with the mercurial folution with¬
out growing ^turbid and precipitating a part of the
mercury.
Simple mercurial folution. Jof. Jac. Plenck.
Take of pureft quickfilver, one dram ; gum arable, 304
two drams. Beat them in a ftone mortar, adding
by little and little diftilled water of fumitory till
the mercury thoroughly difappear in the mucilage.
Having beat and mixed them thoroughly, add by
degrees, and at the fame time rubbing the whole
together, fyrup of kermes, half an ounce, diftilled
water of fumitory, eight ounces.
This mixture was much celebrated by its author as
an effectual preparation of mercury, unattended with
the inconvenience of producing a falivation ; and he
imagined that this depended on a peculiar affinity
exifting between mercury and mucilage. Hence
fuch a conjunftion, the gammy quickfilver, as it has
been ftyled, has been the foundation of mixtures,
pills, fyrupa, and feveral other formulae, which it is
unnectffary to dwell upon in this place.
By a long continued triture, mercury feems to un¬
dergo a degree of calcination; at leaft its globular ap¬
pearance is not to be difeerned by the beft microfcope;
its colour is converted into that of a greyifti powder ;
and from the inaaive fubftance in its globular form, it
is now become one of the moft powerful preparations
of this metallic body. The ufe of the gum feems to
be nothing more than to afford the interpofition of
a vifeid fubftance to keep the particles at 'a diftance
from each other, till the triture requifite to pro¬
duce this change be performed. _ Dr Saunders has
clearly proved, that no real folution takes Place^?
6
Partir. r H A R
Prcpara- procefs, and that though a quantity of mercu.
Com Part’c^es are ftdl retained in the mixture after
tions. the globular parts have been depofited by dilution
w»y—— with water, yet that this fufpended mercurial matter
is only diffufed in the liquor, and capable of being
perfectly feparated by filtration. That long triture is
capable of efFefting the above change on mercury, is
fully evinced from the well-known experiment of Dr
Boerhaave, in producing a kind of calcined mercury
by expofing quickfilver inclofed in a phial to the agi¬
tation produced by keeping the phial tied to a wind¬
mill for [4 years. By inclofing a pound of quick¬
filver in an iron box, with a quantity of iron nails
and a fmall quantity of water, by the addition of
which a greater degree of inteftine motion is given to
the particles of the mercury, and fixing the box to
the wheel of a carriage, Dr Saunders obtained, du¬
ring a journey of 400 miles, two ounces of a grey-
iih powder, or calx of mercury.
On the above accounts we are not to afcrihe the
effc&s of Plenck’s folution to an intimate, divifion
of the globules of mercury, nor to any affinity, nor
eleftive attraftion, between gum-arabic and mercury;
which laft Mr Plenck has very unphiiofophically fnp-
pofed. The fame thing can be done by means of
gum-tragacanth, by honey, and by fundry b,a!fams.
It is evidently owing to the converiion of the quick-
filver to a calciform nature ; but as this will be ac*
compli(he4rrriore or Icfs completely according to the
different circumftances during the triture, it is certain¬
ly preferable, inftead of Plenck’s folution, to diffufe
if! mucilage, or other vifeid matters, a determinate
quantity of the afii coloured powder, or other calx of
mercury.
It is proper to take notice, that there is in many
inftances a real advantage in employing mucilaginous
matters along with mercurials, thefe being found to
prevent diarrhoea and falivation to a remarkable de¬
gree. So far, then, Mr Plenck’s folution is a good
preparation of mercury, though his chemical rationale
is perhaps erroneous. The diftilled water and fyrup
are of no confequence to the preparation, either as
facilitating the procefs, or for medicinal ufe.
It is always moft expeditious to triturate the mer¬
cury with the gum in the Hate of mucilage. Dr
Saunders found that the addition of honey was an ex¬
cellent auxiliary; and the mucilage of gum-traga-
canth feems better fuited for this purpofe than gum-
arabic.
Chap. XIV. Preparations of Lead.
305 Lead readily melts in the fire, and calcines into a
dufky powder : which, if the flame is reverberated
on it, becomes at firft yellow, then red, and at length
melts in a vitreous mafs. This metal diffolves ealily
in the nitrous acid, difficultly in the vitriolic, and in
fmall quantity in the vegetable acids ; it is alfo foluble
in expreffed oil, efpecially when calcined.
Lead and its calces, while undiflblved, have no con-
fiderable effefts as medicines. Diffolved in oils, they
are fuppofed to be (when externally applied) anti-in¬
flammatory and deficcative. Combined with vegetable
acids, they are remarkably fo ; and, taken internally,
prove a powerful though dangerous ftyptic.
Vm.. XIV. Part L
M A C Y. 369
There are two preparations of lead, red and w&tePrepara-
leady as they are commonly called, which are much ^ons a'J^
more extenfively employed in other arts than in medi-ti^nspo
cine, and of courfe they are prepared in large quan- ——y—W
tities. Thefe formerly flood among the preparations
in our pharmacopoeias ; but they are now referred
to the materia medica. We fhall not therefore, on
the prefent occafion, make any farther obfervations
with refpeft to them, but fhall here infert from the old
editions of the Edinburgh pharmacopcei.i the direc¬
tions there given for preparing them.
Red lead.
Let any quantity of lead be melted in an unglazed 3®^
earthen veffel, and kept ftirring with an iron fpatu-
la till it falls into powder, at firft blackifh, after¬
wards yellow, and at length of a deep red colour,
in which laft ftate it is called minium ; taking care
not to raife the fire fo high as to run the calx into
a vitreous mafs.
The preparation of red lead is fo troublefome and
tedious, as fcarce ever to be attempted by the apothe¬
cary or chemift 5 nor indeed is this commodity ex-
pefted to be made by them, the preparation of it be¬
ing a diftinft branch of bufinefs. The makers melt
large quantities of lead at ©nee, upon the bottom of
a reverberatory furnace built for this purpofe, and fo
contrived that the flame a£fs on a large furface of the
metal, which is continually changed by means of iron
rakes drawn backwards and forwards, till the fluidity
of the lead is deftroyed ; after which, the calx is only
now and then turned. By barely ftirring the calx, as
above dire&ed, in a veffel over the fire, it acquires
no rednefs ; the reverberation of flame on the furface
being abfolutely neceffary for this effect. It is faid,
that 20 pounds of lead gain, in this procefs, five
pounds ; and that the calx, being reduced into lead
again, is found one pound lefs than the original weight
of the metal.
Thefe calces are employed in external applications,
for abating inflammations, cleanfing and healing ul¬
cers, and the like. Their effefts, however, are not
very confiderable ; nor are they perhaps of much far¬
ther real ufe, than as they give confiftence to the pla-
fter, unguent, &c.
Cerufe or white lead.
Put fome vinegar into the bottom of an earthen vef-
fel, and fufpend over the vinegar very thin plates
of lead, in fuch a manner that the vapour which
arifes from the acid may circulate about the plates.
Set the containing veffel in the heat of horfe-dung
for three weeks ; if at the end of this time the
plates be not totally calcined, ferape off the white
powder, and expofe them again to the fleam of
vinegar, till all the lead be thus corroded into pow¬
der.
The making of white lead is alfo become a trade
by itfclf, and confined to a few perfons, who have
large conveniences for this purpofe. The general me¬
thod which they follow is nearly the fame with that
above deferibed. See the Philofophical Tranfadions,
ti°i37. .
In this preparation, the lead is fo far opened by
the acid, as to difeover, when taken internally, the
3 A
37°
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofu
tioas.
P H A R
malignant quality of the metal; and to prove exter¬
nally, when fprinkled on running fores, or ulcers, mo¬
derately cooling, drying, and aftri&ive.
Acelated cerufe. L.
g Take of cerufe, one pound ; diftilled vinegar, one
^ gallon and an half. Boil the cerufe with the vine¬
gar until the vinegar is faturated : then filter thro’
paper; and, after proper evaporation, fet it afide
to crylbllize.
Salt, commonly called fugar of lead. E.
Put any quantity of cerufe into a cucurbit, and pour
upon it ten times its quantity of diftilled vinegar.
Let the mixture ftand upon warm fand till the vi¬
negar becomes fwcet; when it is to be poured off,
and freth vinegar added as often as it comes off
fweet. Then let all the vinegar be evaporated in a
glafs-veffel to the confiftence of pretty thin honey,
s nd fet it afide in a cold place, that cryftals may
be formed, which are to be afterwards dried in the
Jhade. The remaining liquor is again to be evapo¬
rated, that new cryftals may be formed; the eva¬
poration of the refiduous liquor is to be repeated
till no more cryftals concrete.
Cerufe (efpecially that fort cz\\z<$.flake lead, which
is not, like the others, fubjed to adulteration) is
much preferable either to minium or litharge, for ma¬
king the fugar of lead: for the corrofion which it
has undergone from the fteam of the vinegar difpo-
fes it to diffblve more readily. It fhould be finely
powdered before the vinegar be put to it; and during
the digeftion, or boiling, every now and then ftirred
up with a wooden fpatula, to promote its diffolution,
and prevent its concreting into a hard mafs at the
bottom. The ftrong acid obtained from the caput
Wiortuum of vinegar may be employed for this purpofe
to better advantage than the weaker, though purer
acid, above direded. If a fmall quantity of redified
fpirit of wine be prudently added to the folution as
foon as it is duly exhaled, and the mixture fuffered to
grow cold by flow degrees, the fugar will concrete
into very large and tranfparent cryftals, which are
- fcarcely to be obtained by any other method.
If the cryftals be dried in.funflune, they acquire a
blackifti or livid colour. This feems to happen from
the abforption of light and its converfion into phlo-
pifton. If it be owing to the efcape of pure air,
why are the rays of the fun neceffary to this difeharge ?
On whatever principles we account for it, the fad is
the fame ; that the cryftals foon lofe their faline con¬
dition, and the lead gradually reaffumes its metallic
form. From this property of lead readily abforbing
phlogifton, or parting with pure air, a. folution of
the fugar of lead becomes a very convenient fympa-
ihetic ink ; on the fame grounds it is alfo ufed for
a more important purpofe. As lead communicates a
fweetnefs and aftringency very fimilar to the produd
©f the vinous fermentation, a pradice formerly pre¬
vailed among fraudulent dealers, of correding the too
great fharpnefs of acid wines by adulterating^ them
with this metal. The abufe may be deteded in two
different ways: a piece of paper may be moiftened
with the liquor to be examined, and then expofed to
M A C Y. Part If*
the vapours ®f liver of fulphur! the moiftened paper Prepara-
will become of a livid colour, and this will happen ^0I,S ^
though 200 or 300 leaves of a book were interpofed
between the paper and the vapours; by this method,
then, we make a kind of fympathetic ink. .But the
beft way of making the teft is, to drop a fmall quan¬
tity of a folution of the liver of fulphur into the fuf-
peded liquor: if there be any lead prefent, this ad¬
dition will inftantly occafion the precipitation of a li¬
vid or dark coloured cloud.
The fugar of lead is much more efficacious than the
foregoing preparations, in anfwering the feveral in?
tentions to which they are applied. Some have ven?
tured upon it internally, in dofes of a few grains, as
a ftyptic in hsemorrhagies, profufe colliquative fweats,
feminal fluxes, the fluor albus, &c. nor has it failed
their expedations. It very powerfully reftrains the
difeharge ; but almoft as certainly as it does this, it
occafions fymptoms of another kind, often more dan¬
gerous than thofe removed by it, and fometimes fatal.
Violent pains in the bowels or through rhe whole •
body, and obftinate conftipations, fometimes imme¬
diately follow, efpecially if the dofe has been confi-
derable : cramps, tremors, and weaknefs of the nerves, .
generally fooner or later enfue.
Boerhaave is of opinion, that this preparation proves -
malignant only as far as its acid happens to be ab*
/orbed in the body ; for in fuch cafe, he fays, “ it re?
turns again into cerufe, which is violently poifonous.*'
On this principle it would follow, that in habits-
where acidities abound, the fugar of lead would bo
innocent. But this is far from being the cafe. Lead
and its preparations ad in the body only when they
are combined with acid : cerufe poffeffes the qualities
of the faccharum only in a low degree ; and either of
them freed from the acid has little, if any, effed at
all. For the fame reafons, the fait oflead is preferable
to the pompous extras and vegeto-mineral 'water of
Goulard, in which the lead is much lefs perfedly
combined in a faline ftate. It is fometimes conve¬
nient to affift the folution of the fugar of lead in wa¬
ter, by adding a portion of vinegar. The effeda >
of the external application of lead feems to differ from
the ftrength of the folution: thus a very weak
folution feems to diminifli diredly the adion of
the veffels, and is therefore more peculiarly proper in
adive inflammations, as of the eyes; whereas a ftrong
folution operates as a dired ftimulant, and is there¬
fore more fuccefsful in paffive ophthalmia.
Water of acetated litharge. L.
Take of litharge, two pounds and four ounces j di- 31©::
ftilled vinegar, one gallon. Mix, and boil to fix
pints, conftantly ftirring; then fet it afide After
the feces have fubfided, ftrain.
This preparation may be confidered as nearly the
fame with the extrad and vegeto-mineral water of Mr
Goulard. And it is probably from the circumftances
of his preparations having come into a common ufe,
that the London college have given this article a place
in their pharmacopoeia. It may, however, be a matr
ter of doubt whether it be really in titled to a place.
For, as we have already obferved, every purpofe to be
anfwered by it may be better obtained from the cm*.
ploy meat-
Part ft P H A R
Vrepara ploymcnt of a folution of the acetated cerufe in Ample
uons and water. The acetated water of litharge is intended for
S!” external ufc only. ^
Chap. XV. Preparations of tin.
311 Tin eafily melts in the fire, and calcines into a
dulky powder; which, by a farther continuance of
the heat, becomes white. A mafs of tin heated till it
be juft ready to melt, proves extremely brittle, fo as
to fall in pieces from a blow ; and by dexterous agi¬
tation, into powder. Its proper menftruum is aqua-
regia ; though the other mineral acids may alfo be
made to diffolve it, and the vegetable ones in fmall
quantity. It cryftallizes with the vegetable and vitrio¬
lic acids; but with the others, deliquates.
The virtues of this metal are little known. It has
been recommended as an antihyfteric, antiheftic, &c.
At prefent it is chiefly ufed as an anthelmintic.
t Powdered tin. L..
312 Take of tin, fix pounds. Melt it in an iron veffel,
and ftir it with an iron rod until a powder floats on
the furface. Take off the powder, and, when
cold, pafs it through a fieve.
This preparation may be confidered as nearly the
fame with the calx Jovis, which had a place in the
former editions of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia;
but from the late editions the calx has been expunged,
and the filings or powder of tin, has a place only in
their lift of the materia medica. But although feldom
prepared by the apothecary himfelf, it is not unfre*
quently employed as a remedy againft worms, parti¬
cularly the flat kinds, which too often elude the force
of other medicines. The general dofe is from a
fcruple to a dram ; fome confine it to a few grains.
But Dr Alfton affures us, in the Edinburgh Effays,
that its fuccefs chiefly depends on its being given in
much larger quantities : be dire&s an ounce of the
powder on an empty ftomach, mixed with four ounces
of molaffes; next day, half an ounce ; and the day
following, half an ounce more; after which a ca¬
thartic is adminiftered : he fays the worms are ufually
voided during the operation of the purge, but that
pains in the ftomach occafioned by them are removed
almoft immediately upon taking the firft dofe of the
tin‘ ... .
This praflice is fometimes fuccefsful in the expul-
fion of taenia, but by no means fo frequently as Dr
Alfton’s obfervations would lead us to hope.
Amalgama of tin. Dan.
3*3 Take of lhavings of pure tin, two ounces; pure quick-
filver, three drams. Let them be rubbed to a pow¬
der m a ftone mortar.
M A C Y.
Chap. XVI. Preparations of tine and copper.
Calcined zinc. L.
Take of zinc, broken into fmall pieces, eight ounces.
Gaft the pieces of zinc, at feveral times, into an
ignited, large, and deep cru -ible, placed leaning,
or half-uprioht, putting on it another crucible in
fuch a manner that the air may have free r.ecefs to
the burning zinc. Take out the calx as foon as it
appears, and feparate its white and lighter part by
a fine fieve.
Flowers of zinc. E.
Let a large crucible be placeff in a furnace, in an in¬
clined ^fituatiort, only half-upright; when the bot¬
tom of the veffel is moderately red, put a fmall
piece of zinc, about the weight of two drams, into
it. The zinc foon fLmes, and is at the fame time
converted into a fpongy calx, which is to he raked,
from the furface of the metal with an iron fpatula,
that the combuftion may proceed the more fpeedily:
when the zinc ceafes to flame, take the calx out of
the crucible. Having put in another piece of zinc,
the operation may be repeated as often as you pleafe,
Lallly, the calx is to be prepared like antimony.
Thefe flowers, as ufed externally, are preferable for
medicinal purpofes to tutty, and the more impure fub-
limates of zinc, which are obtained in the brafs works;
and likewife to calamine, the natural ore of this me*
tal, which contains a large quantity of earth, and
frequently a portion of heterogeneous metallic mat¬
ter. But befidcs being applied externally, they have
alfo of late been ufed internally. The flowers of
zirtc, in dofes from one to feven or eight grains, have
been much celebrated of late years in the cure of epi-
lepfy and feveral fpafmodic affections t and there are
fufficient teltimonies ol their good effects, where to¬
nic remedies in thofe affections are proper.
White vitriol. E.
Take of zinc, cut into fmall pieces, three ounces;
vitriolic acid, five ounces ; water, twenty ounces; ha¬
ving mixed the acid and water, add the zinc, and
when the ebullition is finilhed ftrain the liquor ;
then after proper evaporation fet it apart in a cold
place, that it may fhoot into cryftals.
This fait is an elegant white vitriol. It differs from
the common white vitriol, and the fait of vitriol of the
fhops, only in being purer, and perfectly free from
any admixture of copper, or fuch other foreign me¬
tallic bodies as the others generally contain.
Purified vitriolated zinc. L.
37i
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
3*4
316
Some have imagined that tin thus aCted on by mer¬
cury is in a more aCtive condition than when exhi¬
bited in a ftate of powder: and accordingly it has been
given in worm cafes. But as both are equally info-
luble in the animal fluids, this is not to be expeCted ;
and to obtain any peculiar properties which tin may
poffefs to their full extent, it will probably be necef-
feiy to exhibit it in fome faline ftate.
Take of white vitriol, one pound ; vitriolic acid, one
dram ; boiling diftilled water, three pints. Mix, ^ ^
and filter through p-'per. After a proper evapora¬
tion, fet it afide in a cold place to cryftallize.
Although the Edinburgh college have given a for¬
mula for the preparations of white vitriol, yet their
diredion is very rarely followed by any of the apothe¬
caries or chemifts, who in general purchafe it as ob¬
tained from the Gofiar mines. When, however, it is
got in this way, it is often a very impure fait, and re-
3 A 2 quire?
3/2
IVepara.
tioos and
Compofu
tions.
318
5r9
P H A R
quices that purification *'uch is here directed, and
which is by no means neceffary for the white vitriol
artificially prepared, in the manner above directed.
But by this procefs, the ordinary white vitriol, in its
common Rate of impurity, will be freed from thofe
impregnationsof earthyand other matters which it often
contains. And in this purified Rate it anfwers many
ufefui purpofes, not only externally but internally ;
and particularly in dofes from ten grains to half a
dram, it operates almoR inRantly as an emetic, and
is ftt the fame time perfe&Iy fafe. By employing it
internally, in fma’der dofes, we may obtain, and per¬
haps even more efie&ually, all the tonic power of the
zinc ; and fome think it in every cafe preferable to the
calx of zinc.
Ammoniacal copper. E.
Take of blue vitriol, two parts ; volatile fal ammo¬
niac, three parts ; rub them together in a glafs mor¬
tar, until they unite, after the effcrvefcence ceafes,
. into a uniform violet-coloured mafs, which muR be
firR dried on blotting paper, and afterwards by a
gentle heat. The produft muR be kept in a glafs
phial, well clofed with a glafs Ropper.
This preparation has been thought ferviceable in
epilepfies ; but from its frequent want of fuccefs, and
the difagreeaUe cenfequences with which its ufe is
fometimeS attended, it has not lately been much pre-
fcribed. It is employed by beginning with dofes of
half a grain, twice a day, and imreafing them gra-
dually to as much as the ftomach will bear. Dr Cul¬
len iometinies increafed the dole to five grains.
Chap.XVII. Simple dijlilled ivatcrs. L. E.
The effluvia which exhale into the air from many
vegetables, particularly from thofe of the odorous kind,
confiR apparently of principles of great fubtility and
aftivity, capable of Rrongly and fuddenly affefting the
brain and nervous fyRem, efpeeially in thofe whole
nerves are of great fenfibility ; and likevvife of opera¬
ting in a flower manner on the fyRem of the groffer
vefftls. Thus Boerhaave obferves, that in hyflerical
and hypochondriacal perfons, the fragrant odour of
the Indian hyacinth excites fpafms, which the Rrong
feent of rue relieves ; that the effluvia of the walnut-
tree occafion headachs, and make the body coRive ;
that thofe of poppies procure fleep; and that the fmell
of bean-blofibms, long continued, diforders the fenfes.
Lemery relates, from his own knowledge, that feveral
perfons were purged by Raying long in a room where
damaflerofes were drying.
Some of the chemiRs have indulged themfelves in
the pleafing furvey of thefe prdiding fpirits, as they
are called, of vegetables j their peculiar nature in the
different fpecics of plants; their exhalation into the
atHiofphere by the fun’s heat,and difperfion by winds;
their rendering the air of particular places medicinal,
or otherwife, according to the nature of the plants
that abou.nd. They have contrived alfo different
means for collecting thefe fugitive emanations, and
con entrating and condenfing them into a liquid form ;
employing either the native moiRure of the fubjetl,
or an addition of water, aa a vehicle or matrix for re¬
taining them.
M A C Y. Parc II,
The procefs which has been judged moft; analogous Prepanu
to that of nature, is the following. The fubjed freRitiior‘i an‘*
gathered at the feafon of its greateR vigour, with the
morning dew on it, is laid lightly and unbruifed in a
(hallow veffel, to which is adapted a low head with a
recipient; under the veffel a live coal is placed, and
occafionally renewed, fo as to keep up an uniform
heat, no gieater thaw that which obtains in the atmo-
fphere in fummer, viz. about85 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer. In this degree of heat there arifes ex¬
ceeding (lowly an invifible vapour, which condenfes
in the head into dewy drops, and falls down into the
receiver ; and which has been fuppofed to be the very
fubRance that the plant would have fpontaneoufly emit¬
ted in the open air.
But on fubmitting many kinds of odoriferous ve- ,
getables to this procefs, the liquors obtained by it
have been found to he very diffeient from the aatural
effluvia of the refpe&ive fubjed.3 : they have had very
little fmell, and no remarkable taRe. It appeared that
a heat, equal to that of the atmofphere, is incapable of
raifing in clofe veffels thofe parts of vegetables which
they emit in the open air. It may therefore be pre¬
fumed, that in this laR cafe fome other caufe concurs
to the effect: that it is not the fun’s heat alone which
raifes and impregnates the air with the odorous prin¬
ciples of vegetables, but that the air itfelf, or the wa¬
tery humidity with which it abounds, acting as a true
folvent, extracts and imbibes them ; fo that the natu¬
ral effluvia of a plant may be confidered as an infufioa
of the plant made in air. The purgative virtue of
the ckmaflc rofe, and the aRringency of the walnut-
tree, which, as above obferved, are in fome degree
communicated to the air, may be totally extracted by
infufion both in watery and fpirituous menttrua, but
never rife in diRillation with any degree of heat: and
the volatile odours of aromatic herbs, which are dif-
fulecl through the atmefphere in the loweR warmth,,
cannot be made to diRil without a heat much greater
than is ever found to obtain in a (haded air.
We apprehend, that the effluvia arifing from grow-
ing vegetables are chiefly exhaled by the living ener¬
gy of the plant: the odorous matter‘is a real fecre-
tron, which cannot be performed independent of atlive
veffels ; and it is as reafonable to allow the fame powers
for the exhalation of thefe effluvia, as for the tranfpi-
ration of their watery parts.
The above procefs, therefore, and the theory on
which it is built, appear to be faulty in two points;
1. In fuppofing that all thefe principles, which natu¬
rally exhale from vegetables, may be colle&ed by di«
Rillation ; whereas there are many which the air ex¬
tracts in virtue of its folvent power ; fome are alfo in¬
capable of being collected in a vifible and inelaflic
form ; and fome are artificially feparable by folventi
only : 2. In employing a degree of heat infufficient
for feparating even thofe parts which are truly txhal*
able by heat.
The foregoing method of diftillation is commonly
called diflillation by the cold jiill} but thofe who have
praCtifed it have generally employed a confiierable
heat. A (hallow leaden veilel is filled with the frefa
herbs, flowers, &c. which are heaped above it; fo that
when the head is fitted on, this ^alfo may be filled a
coiifiderablc way. A little fire is made under the vef-
kif
lions and
Compofi-
Pan II. P H A R
r re para- ftl, fufficicnt to malic the bottom much hotter than
the hand can bear, care being only taken not to heat
it f® far as to endanger fcorching any part of the fub-
- je£t. If the bottom of the vefTel be not made fo hot
as to have this effe<St on the part contiguous to it, it
is not to be feared that the heat communicated to the
reft of the included matter will be fo great as to do it
any injury. By this management, the volatile parts of
feveral odorous plants, as mint, ^re effectually forced
over ; and if the procefs has been Ikilfully managed,
the diffilled liquor proves richly impregnated with the
native odour and flavour of the fubjeCt, without having
received any kind of difagrceable imprtfiion from the
heat ufed.
This procefs has been chiefly praftifed in private
families ; the flownefs of the diftillation, and the at¬
tendance and care neceffary for preventing the fcorch-
ing of fome part of the plant, fo as to communicate
an ungrateful burnt flavour to the liquor, rendering it
inconfvftent with the difpatch requilite in the larger
way of bufinefs.
Another method has therefore been had recourfe to,
viz. by the common ftili, called, in diftin&ion from the
foregoing, the hot Jtill. Here a quantity of water is
added to the plant to prevent its burning ; and the li¬
quor is kept nearly of a boiling heat, or made to boil
fully, fo that the vapour rifes plentifully into the head,
and pa fling thence into a fpiral pipe or worm placed
in aveflel of cold water, is there condenfed, and runs
out in drops quickly fucceeding each other, or in a
continued ftream. The additional water does not at
all weaken the produce ; for the moft volatile parts of
the fubjeA rife firft, and impregnate the liquor that
firft diftils: as (oon as the plant has given over its vir¬
tue fufficiently, which is known by examining from
time to time the liquor that ruus from the nofe of the
worm, the diftillation is to be flopped.
This is the method of diftillation commonly prac-
tifed for the officinal waters. It is accompanied with
one imperfection, affetffing chiefly thofe waters whofe
principal value confffts in the delicacy of their flavour ;
this being not a little injured by the boiling heat ufual-
ly employed, and by the agitation of the odorous par¬
ticles of the fubjeCt with the water. Sometimes alfo a
part of the plant flicks to the fides of the ftill, and is
fo far fcorched as to give an ungrateful taint to the li-
quor.
There is another method of managing this opera¬
tion, which has been recommended for the diftillatiom
of the more volatile eflential oils, and which is equal¬
ly applicable to that of the waters. In this way, the
advantages of the foregoing methods are united, and
their inconveniences obviated. A quantity of water
being poured into the ftiH, and the herbs or flowers
placed in a bafket over it, there can be no pofiibility
of burning ; the water may be made to boil, but fo as
not to rife up into the baiket, which would defeat the
intention of this contrivance. The hot vapour of the
water palling lightly through all the interftices of the
fubjtd matter, imbibes and carries over the volatile
parts unaltered in their native flavour. By this means
the diftiiled waters of all thofe fubftances whofe oils
are of the moft volatile kind, are obtained in the ut-
aauft perfe&ion, and with fufficient difpatch i for which
M A C Y,
cions.
laft intention the ftill may be filled quite up to the Prepara
head, « tions and
In the diftillation of eflential oils, the water, as was Com^o!l
obferved in the foregoing fedlion, imbibes always a
part of the oil. The diftiiled liquors here treated of,
are no other than water thus impregnated with the ef-
fential oil of the fubjeCfc ; whatever fmell, talie, or
virtue is here communicated to the water, or obtained
in the form of a watery liquor, being found in a con¬
centrated ftate in the oil. The eflential oil, or fonie
part of it, more attenuated and fubtilized than the reft,
is the dired principle on which the title of fpiritus
re3or, or prefiding fpirit, has been beftoived.
All thofe vegecables therefore which contain an ef-
fential oil, will give over fome virtue to water by di-
ftillatiou : but the degree of the impregnation of the
water which a plant is capable of faturating with ita
virtue, are by no means in proportion to the quantity
of its oil. The oil faturates only the water that comes
over at the fame time with it: if there be more oil
than is fufficient for this faturation, the furplus fepa-
raies, and concretes in its proper form, not mifcible
with the water that arifes afterwards. Some odori¬
ferous flowers, whofe oil is in fo fmall quantity, that
fcarceiy any viffble mark of it appears, unlefs fifty or
an hundred pounds or more are diftilled at once, give
neverthelefs as ftrong an impregnation to water aa thofe
plants which abound moft with oil.
Many have been of opinion, that diftiiled waters
may be more and more impregnated with the virtues
of the fubjedft, and their ftrength increafed to any af-
figned degree, by cohobation, that is, by rediftilling thenv
a number of times from frefh parcels of the plant.
Experience, however, fhows the- contrary ; a water
fkilfully drawn in the firft diftdlation, proves on every
repeated one not ftronger but more difagreeable. A-
queous liquors are not capable of imbibing above a cer¬
tain quantity of the volitile oil of vegetables; and this
they may be made to take up by one as well as by
any number of difliilations : the oftener the procefs is
repeated, the ungrateful impreflion which they gene¬
rally receive from the fire, even at the firft time, be¬
comes greater and greater. Thofe plants, which do
not yield at firft waters fufficiently ftrong, are not pro¬
per fubjedts lor this procefs, fince their virtue may be
obtained much more advantageoufly by others.
373
General rules for the distillation of the officinal
SIMPLE WATERS.
I. Where they are dire&ed frefh* fuch only rnuft be
employed : but fome are allowed to be ufed dry, as
being eafily procurable in this ftate at all times of
the year, though rather more elegant waters might
be obtained from them while green.
When frefh and juicy herbs are to be diftilled, thrice
their weight of water will be fully fufficient; but dry
ones require a much larger quantify. In general, there
fhould be fo much water, that after ail intended to be
diftilled has come over, there may be liquor enough,
left to prevent the matter from burning to the ftill.
Plants differ fo much, according to the foil and fea-
fon of which they are the produce, and hkewife ac¬
cording to their, own age, that it is impoflible to fix
th©.i
3^
874
Prepara¬
tions and
Oompofi-
tions.
PHARMACY*
Part I!.
$21
t&e quantity of water to be drawn from a certain weight
of them to any invariable ftandard. The diflillation
may always be continued as long as the liquor runs
well flavoured off the fubje&, and no longer.
2. The diftillation may be performed in an alembic
with a refrigeratory, the jundlures being luted.
3. If the herbs are of prime goodnefs, they mull be
taken in the weights prefcribed : but when frefti
ones are fubftituted for dry, or when the plants
themfelves are the produce of unfavourable feafons,
and weaker than ordinary, the quantities are to be
varied according to the difcretion of the artift.
After the odorous water, alone intended for ufe,
has come over, an acidulous liquor arifes, which has
fometimes extrafted fo much from the copper head
of the ftill as to prove emetic. To this are owing
the anthelmintic virtues attributed to certain diftilled
waters. •
4. In a preceding edition of the Edinburgh pharma¬
copoeia, fonle vegetables were ordered to be (lightly
fermented with the addition of yell previoufly to
the diftillation.
The principle on which this management is found¬
ed, is certainly juft; for the fermentation fomewhat
opens and unlocks their texture, fo as to make them
part with more in the fubfequent diftillation than could
be drawn over from them without fome allxftance of
this kind. Thofe plants, however, which require this
treatment, are not proper fubjefts for Ample waters
to be drawn from, their virtues being obtainable to
better advantage by other proceffes.
5. If any drops of oil f'.vim on the furface of the wa¬
ter, they are to be carefully taken off.
6. That the waters may keep the better* about a aoth
part their weight of proof-fpirit may be added to
each after they are diftilled.
A great number of diftilled waters were formerly
kept in the (hops, and are ftill retained in foreign
pharmacopoeias. The faculty of Paris dire£l, in the
laft edition of their Codex Medicamentarius> no lefs than
325 different waters, and 130 different ingredients in
one Angle water. Nearly one half of thefe prepara¬
tions have fcarcely any virtue or flavour from the fub-
je&, and many of the others are tnfignifleant.
The colleges of London and Edinburgh have re-
je&ed thefe oftentatious fuperfluities, and given an ele¬
gant and compendious fet of waters, fufficient for an-
fwering fuch purpofes as thefe kinds of preparations
are applied to in praftice. DiftiUed waters are em¬
ployed chiefly as grateful diluents, as fuitable vehicles
for medicines of greater efficacy, or for rendering dif-
guftful ones more acceptable to the palate and fto-
mach ; few are depended on, with any intention of
confequence, by themfelves.
Dijlilhd ’water. L.
Take of fpring-water, 10 gallons. Draw off by di¬
ftillation, firft, four pints; which being thrown a-
way, draw off four gallons. This water is to be
kept in a glafs or earthen bottle with a glafs ftop-
per.
DtflUled water. E.
Let well or river water be diftilled in very clean vefftls
till about tw© thirds arc drawn off.
Native \Vater is feldom or never foiind pure, and Prepara-
generally contains earthy, faline, metallic, or other“ons a"-d
matters. Diftillation is therefore employed as a means tion3;
of freeing it from thefe heterogeneous parts. For fome —y-—*
pharmaceutical purpofes diftilled water is abfolutely
neceffury J thus, if we employ hard undiftilled water
for diffolving fugar of lead, inftcad of a perfeft folu-
tion, we produce a milky-like cloud, owing to a real
decompofition of parts.
Diftilled water is now employed by the London col*
lege for a great variety of purpofes ; and there can be
no doubt, that in many chemical and pharmaceutical
proceffes, the employment of a heterogeneous fluid,
in place of the pure element, may produce an effentia!
alteration of qualities, or fruftrate the intention in
view. While the London college have made more ufe
of diftilled water than any other, their directions for
preparing it feem to be the beft. For as fome im¬
pregnations may be more volatile than pure water, the
water may be freed from them by throwing away
what comes firft over ; and by keeping it afterwards
in a clofe veffel, abforption from the air is prevented.
Dill-water. L.
Take of dill-feed, bruifed, one pound; water, fuffi- 32^
cient to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off one gal¬
lon.
Simple dill-feed water. E.
Take of dill-feeds, one pound ; pour on as much wa¬
ter as when ten pounds have been drawn off by di-
ftiilation there may remain as much as is fufficient
to prevent an empyreuma. After proper macera¬
tion, let ten pounds be drawn off.
Although the dill-water holds a place, not only in
the London and Edinburgn pharmacopoeias, but alfo
in moft of the foreign ones; yet it is not much em¬
ployed in pradice. It obtains, indeed, a pretty ftrong
impregnation from the feeds, and is fometimes em¬
ployed as a carminative, particularly as the bafis of
mixtures and juleps ; but it is lefs powerful and lefs
agreeable than that of peppermint, cinnamon, and fome
others.
Cinnamon-water. L. E.
Take of cinnamon, bruifed, one pound; water, fuffi- ^23
cient to prevent an empyreuma. Macerate for 24
hours, and drsw off one gallon.
From one pound of cinnamon the Edinburgh col¬
lege dired 10 pounds of water to he drawn oft ; and
if the cinnamon employed be of goo i quality, it may
yield that quantity with a ftrong imp: egnation; but
what comes over brd is uuqueftionaMy the ftrongeft.
This is a very grateful and ufc rul water, poffelfing
in an eminent degree the fragrance and aromatic cor¬
dial virtues oi the fpice. Where real cinnamon wa¬
ter is wanted, care fhould be had in the choLe of the
cinnamon, to avoid the too common impoiition of
caflia being filbftituted in its room. The two drugs
may be eafily diftinguifhed from each other by a va¬
riety of marks, which it is needlefs to introduce in this
place. See Cassia and Cinn^mos. But the effetuial
oils of the two approach fo near, that after diitillation
it is perhaps impoffible to diftinguifh the waters ; and
it is ftill more doubtful how far the one is in any de-
gree preferable to the other.
6 * 8 Ths
Part II.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Competi¬
tions.
The ott of cinnamon ta very ponderous, and arifea
more difficultly than that of any other of the vegetable
matters from which fim^le waters are ordered to be
drawn. This obfervation dire&s us, in the diftillation
of this water, to ufe a qui:-k fire and a low veffel. For
the fame reafon, the water does not keep fo well as
might he wifhed ; the ponderous oil parting from it
in time, and falling to the bottom, when the liquor
lofes its milky hue, its fragrant fmtll, and aromatic
tafte. Some recommend a fmsll proportion of fugar
to be added, in order to keep the oil united with the
water.
Caffia-<waler. E.
From a pound and a half of the caffia bark, ten pounds
of water are dire&ed to be drawn off in the fame
manner as the dill water.
This diftilled water, as we have already obferved,
when properly prepared, approaches fo near to that of
cinnamon, that it is almoft, if not altogether, impof-
fible to diftinguifh the difference between the two.
And although the London college has given it no
place in their pharmacopoeia, yet we may venture to
srfTert, that it is ho flranger fo the fhops of the apothe¬
caries. Nay, fo great is the difference of price, and
the fenfible qualities fo nearly alike, that what is fold
under the name of cinnamon-water is almoft entirely
prepared from caffi'a alone; and not even prepared
from the caffia bark, as dire&ed by the Edinburgh
college, but from the caffia buds, which may be had at
a ftill cheaper rate, and which yield precifely the -fame
effential oil, although in lefs quantity. When caffia-
water is prepared precifely according to the directions
of the Edinburgh college, from containing a larger
proportion of the fubjeft, it has in general a ftronger
impregnation than their genuine cinnamon-water, and
is probably in no degree inferior in its virtues.
Fennel-water. L.
Take of fweet fennel feeds, bruifed, one pound ; water,
fufficient to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off one
gallon.
The water of fennel feeds is not unpleafant. A
water has alfo been- diftilled from the leaves. When
thefe are employed, they fhould be taken before the
plant has run into flower; for after this time they are
much weaker and lefs agreeable. Some have obferved,
that the upper leaves and tops, before the flowers ap.
pear, yield a more elegant water, and a remarkably
finer effential oil than the lower ones; and that the
oil obtained from the one fwims on water, while
that of the other finks. No part of the herb, however,
is equal in flavour to the feeds.
the dried leaves of the plant, which is not greatly Prepara
different in virtue from the diftilled water. t!ions a,l<1
In the diftillation of this water, a confiderable quan-^^’0^”
tity of effential oil generally comes over in its pure -'—,
ftate. And it is not uncommon to employ this for
impregnating other water, with which it may be rea¬
dily mixed by the aid of a little fugar.
Spearmint-water.* L.
Take of fpearmint, dried, one pound and an half; 527:
water, fufficient to prevent an empyreuma. Draw
off one gallon.
The Edinburgh college diretfts this water to be
made in the fame proportion as the preceding. But
probably three pounds of the frefh herb will not give
a ftronger impregnation than a pound and a half of the
dried : fo that the water of the London college may
be confidered to be as flrongly impregnated as that of
the Edinburgh college.
This water fmells and taftes very ftrongly of the
mint; and proves in many cafes an ufefui ftomachic.
Boerhaave commends it (cohobated) as a pleafant and
incomparable remedy for ftrengthening a weak fto«
mach, and curing vomiting proceeding from cold vif-
cous phlegm, and alfo in lientcries.
All-fpice water. L. E.
Take of all-fpice, bruifed, half a pound ; water, fuf- S3®"
ficient to prevent an empyreuma. Macerate for 24
hours, and draw off one gallon.
From half a pound of the pimento the Edinburgh col¬
lege direfts ten pounds of water to be drawn off;
fo that the impregnation is there fqmewhat weaker
than the above.
This diftilled water is a very elegant one, and has ■
of late come pretty much into ufe; the hofpitals em¬
ploy it as a fuccedaneum to the more coftly fpiee-
waters. It is, however, inferior in gratefulnefs to the
fpirituous water of the fame fpice hereafter dire&ed.
Pennyroyal-water. L. E.
Take of dried herb pennyroyal, one pound and an half; $2$^
water, fufficient to prevent an empyreuma. Draw
off one gallon.
The pennyroyal-water is dire&ed to be prepared by
the Edinburgh college in the fame proportions as the
mint and peppermint. Whether prepared from the
recent or dried plant, it pofleffes in a confiderable de¬
gree the fmell, tafte, and virtues, of the pennyroyaL
It is not unfrequently employed in hyfterical cafes,
and fometimes with a good effedf.
375
Peppermint- water.
§26 Take of herb of peppermint, dried, one pound and
an half; water, fufficient to prevent an empyreuma.
Draw off one gallon.
From three pounds of the leaves of peppermint, ten
pounds of water are to be drawn off. A,
This is a very elegant and ufefui water. It has a
warm pungent tafte, exaftly refembling that of the
peppermint itfelf. A fpoonful or two taken at a time
warm the ftomach, and give great relief in cold flatu¬
lent colics. Some have fubftituted a plain infufioa of
Rofe -water. L. E.
Take of frefh petals of the damaik rofe, the white heels 330-
being cut off, fix pounds; water, fufficient to pre¬
vent an empyreuma. Draw off one gallon.
From the fame quantity the Edinburgh college dire&
ten pounds to be drawn off.
This water is principally valued on account of its
fine flavour, which approaches to that generally ad¬
mired in the rofe itfelf. The purgative virtue of the
rofes remains entire in the liquor left in the ftill, which -
has therefore been generally employed for making the
folutive honey and fyiup, inftead of a deco&ion or in-
fuflon of frefh rofes prepared on purpofe f and this
piece<
37 S
prepara¬
tions aM
CompoQ-
tions.
331
332
333
J34
335
P H A R
piece of frugality the college have now admitted. A
diftilled water of red rofes has been fometimes called
for in the (hops, and fupplied by that of damaik rofes
; diluted with common water. This is a very venial
fubftitution ; for the water drawn from the red rofe
has no quality which that of the damafk does not
poffefs in a far fuperior degree ; neither the purgative
virtue of the one nor the ailringency of the other
arifing in dittillation.
Lemon-peel-tvater. E.
From two pounds of recent lemon peel ten pounds of
water are to be drawn off by dillillation.
Grange-peel-water. E.
From two pounds of orange-peel ten pounds of water
are direfted to be drawn off.
Neither of thefe diftilled waters are now to be met
with in the London pharmacopoeia ; and it is probable
that no great lofs arifes from the want of them, for
both the one and the other contain only a very weak
impregnation. They are chiefly employed as diluents
in fevers and other di'forders where the ftomach and
palate are very apt to be difgufted. And perhaps the
only circumftance for which they are valuable is the
fliahtnefs of the impregnation ; lor in fueh affethons,
any flavour, however agreeable at other times, often
becomes highly difguftful to patients. *
The diftilled waters above noticed are the whole
that have now a place in the pharmacopeeias of the
London and Edinburgh colleges ; and perhaps this
fele&ion is fufficiently large for anfwermg every ufeful
purpofe. But befides thefe, a confiderable number of
others are ftill retained even in the modern foreign
pharmacopoeias; fome of which at leait it may not be
improper to mention.
AlexiUrtal water. Brun.
Take of elder flowers, moderately dried,,three pounds;
angelica leaves, frelh gathered, tivo pounds ; fpring
water, forty pounds. Draw oft, by diftillation,
thirty pounds.
This water is fuiHciently elegant with regard to
tafte and fmell; though few expeft from it fuch virtues
as its title feems to imply. It is ufed occafionaliy for
vehicles of alexipharmac medicines, or in juleps to be
drank after them, as coinciding in the intention ; but
in general is not fuppefed to be itfelf of any coniider-
able efficacy.
Camphor-water. Brun.
Take of camphor, an ounce and an half. Let it be
diffolved in half an ounce of the fpirit of rofemary,
then pour on it two pounds of fpring water, and
draw off by diftillation a pound and an half.
This diftilled water, which has no place in our phar¬
macopoeias, is introduced into fome of the foreign
ones. And fince camphor may be confldered as a
concrete effential oil, it naturally occurs as a form un¬
der which that medicine may be introduced with ad¬
vantage in a diluted ftate.
Cajlor-water. Brun.
Take of Ruflia caftor, one ounce ; water, as much as
will prevent burning. Draw off two pints.
M A C Y, P?rt IT,
Caftor yields almoft all its flavour in diftillatlort to Pre> ara-
water, but treated in the fame manner with fpirit of p°ns a'l4
wine gives over nothing. The fpirit of caftor formerly " ;
kept in the (hops had none of the fmell or virtues of
the drug ; while the water here dire&ed proves, when
frefh drawn, very ftrong of it.
It is remarkable, that the virtues of this animal-
fubftance relide in a volatile oil, analogous to the
effential oils of vegetables. Some are reported to have
obtained, in diftilling large quantities of this drug, a
fmall portion of oil, which fmelt extremely ftrong of
the caftor, and diffufed its ungrateful feent to a great
diftance.
This water is ufed in hyfteric cafes, and fome ner¬
vous complaints, though it has not been found to an-
fwer what many people expert from it. It lofes greatly
of its flavour in keeping.
And it is probably from this circumftance that it
has no place either in our pharmacopoeias or in the
modern foreign ones ; but at the fame time, as pof-
feffing in a high degree the fenfible qu?lities of the
caftor, it may be coniidered as juitly deferving futurfc
attention.
Chervil-water. Gen.
Take of frefh leaves of chervil, one pound; fpring *
water, as much as is fnfficient for allowing eight 3^
pounds to be drawn off by diftillation, at the fame
time avoiding empyreuma.
Although the chervil be but little employed in Bri¬
tain, yet among fome of the foreigners it is held in
high efteem ; and the diftilled water is perhaps one of
the moft elegant forms under which its ablive parts can
be introduced. But there is reafon to believe that
thofe diuretic powers, for which it has been chiefly
celebrated, will be moll certainly obtained from exhi¬
biting it in fubftance, or under the form of the expref-
fed juice of the recent plant.
Black-cherry-water. Suec.
Take of ripe black cherries bruifed with the kernels,
20 pounds ; pure water, as much as is fufficient for
avoiding empyreuma. Diaw off 20 pounds by
diftillation.
This water, although now banifhed from our phar¬
macopoeias, has long maintained a place in the foreign
ones, and even in Britain it is not unfrequently to be
met with in the (hops. It has often been employed
by phyfleians as a Vehicle, in preference to the other
diftilled waters ; and among nurfes who have the care
of young children has been the firft remedy againft the
convulfive diforders to which intauts are fo often fub-
jeft. , , .
This water has neverthelefs of late been brought in¬
to difrepute, and has been efteemed poifonous. They
obferve, that it receives its flavour principally from the
cherry (tones; and that thefe kernels, like many others,
bear a refemblance in tafte to the leaves of the lauro
cerafus, which have been difeovertd to yield, by in-
fufion or diftillation, the moft fudden poifon known.
Some phyfleians of Worcefter have lately found, by
trial purpofely made, that a diftilled water very ftrong-
ly impregnated with the flavour of the cherry kernel#
(no more than two pints being diftilled from fourteen
pounds of the cherry (tones) proved in like manner
r poifenou#
tioi s and
Cqmpofi-
dons.
Part II. P H A R
prepara- poffonous to brutfB. The London college repeated
the fame experiment, and fotind the effects agreeable
to thofe gentlemens report.
It by no means follows from tbefe trials, nor after
fuch long experience can it be imagined, that black-
cherry-water, when no ftronger than the fliops have
been accuftomed to prepare it, is unfafe. Thefe ker¬
nels plainly referable opium, and fome other things,
Dthich poifon only when taken in too great a quantity.
The water from the very laurel leaves is harmlefs when
duly diluted ; and even fpirit of wine proves a poifon
of its kind not greatly different, if drank to a certain
degree of excefs. Nor can it be concluded, from the
trials with the ftrong black-cherry water on dogs, See.
that even this will have the fame effects in the human
body ; the kernels of many forts of fruits being in fub-
flance poifonous to brutes, though innocent to man.
It is polTible, however, that this water in any de¬
gree of ftrength may not be altogether fafe to the ten¬
der age of infants, where the principles of life are but
juft beginning as it were to move. It is poflible that
it may there have had pernicious efFe&s without being
fufpefted ; the fymptoms it would produce, if it Ihould
prove hurtful, being fuch as children are often thrown
into from the difeafe which it is imagined to relieve.
On thefe confiderations, both the London and Edin¬
burgh colleges have chofen to lay it afide ; more efpe-
cially as it has been too often counterfeited with a
water diftillcd from bitter almonds, which are known
to communicate a poifonous quality. It is, however,
one of thofe aftive articles which may perhaps be
conlidered as deferving farther attention.
Camomile-jlo'wer >water. Dan.
33^ Take of camomile flowers, dried in the fliade, eight
pounds; water, 72 pounds. Draw off by gentle
diftillation 4H pounds.
Camomile flowers were formerly ordered to be fer¬
mented previoufly to the diftillation, a treatment which
they do not need ; for they give over, without any
fermentation, as much as that procefs is capable of
enabling them to do. In either cafe the fmell and
peculiar flavour of the flowers arife without any of
the bitternefs, this remaining behind in the deco&ion;
which, if duly depurated and infpiflated, yields an
extradft fimilar to that prepared from the flowers in the
common manner. The diftilled water has been ufed
in flatulent colics and the like, but is at prefent held
in no great efteem.
Sira<wlerry-iuater. Suec.
From 20 pounds of ftrawberries 20 pounds of diftilled
water are drawn off, according to the fame diredions
given for the preparation of the black cherry water.
Water thus impregnated with the eflential oil of
the ftrawberries fome people will think of a very agree-
a, le fla» ,ur, but any conftderable medical power is not
to be expected from it.
■5 ■7*»
.3/ t
339
340
M A C Y.
directed in a former edition of the Edinburgh pharma-Prepara-
copeeia for making up the black pe&oral troches, but ai’d
is now exchanged for common water. Few at prefent1
expert any Angular virtues from it, nor is it often to , r-^-
be met with in our fhops, being now expunged from
our pharmacopoeias. It holds a place, however, in
moft of the foreign ones, and among ourfelves there
are ftill fome pra&iticners who frequently employ it.
But there can be no doubt that thofe medical properties
which the hyflbp contains may be more readily and
effe&ually extracted by Ample infulion.
White-lily water. Brun.
Li/y-of the-valley water. Brun.
To any quantity of thefe flowers four times their -w
weight of water is to be added, and water drawn off
by diftillation in the proportion of two pounds to
each pound of the flowers.
Thele waters muft obtain fome impregnation of that
elegant eflential oil on which the odour of flowers in
their growing ftate depends. But they do not poffef*
any remarkable medical properties.
Balm-water. Brun.
The green leaves of the balm are to be macerated with
doable their weight of water ; and from each pound 34*
of the plant a pound and an half of water is to be
drawn off.
1 his water contains a con Aderable impregnation from
the balm, which yields its effential oil pretty freely on
diftillation. Though now banifhed from our pharma-
copceias, it has ftill a place in moft of the foreign ones.
In the Oid editions of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia,
this water was ordered to be cohobated or rediiiilled
from fiefli quantities of the herb. This management
feems to have been taken from Boerhaave, who has a
very h.gh opinion of the water thus prepared: Le fays,
he has experienced in hi'mfelf extraordinary effeds from
it taken on an empty ftomach ; that it has fcarce its
equal in hypochondriacal and hyfterical cafes, the chlo-
rofts, an i palp tation of the heart, as often as thofe
difeufes proceed from a diforder of the fp rits, rather
than from any colledfion of morbific matter.
But whatever virtues are lodged in balm, they may
be much more perfectly and advantageoufly extra&ed
by cold infulion in aqueous or fpirituous menftrua: in
this la ft procefs, the liquor fuffers no injury from be¬
ing returned on frelh parcels of the herb ; a few repe¬
titions will load it with the virtues of the fubjedt,
and render it very rich. 1 he impregnation here is
almoft unlimited; but in diftilied waters it is far other-
wife.
yjfop-waler. Suec.
From four pounds of the frelh leaves of hvffoo Ax
pounds of water are drawn off. 1 r
Hyffi p water has teen held by fome in confiderable
* Vol “xiv “par”! an<1 P'a°ral m'<!icine- It was
Rue water. Roff.
From each pound of rue, with a fufikient quantity of
fpring-water to prevent empyreuma, two pounds of
diftilled water are to be drawn.
Rue gives over in this procefs the whole of its fmell,
and great part of its pungency. The diftilled water
Hands recommended in epileptic cafes, the hyfteric paf-
Aon, for promoting perfpiration, and other natural fe-
metions. But though it is a good deal employed
abroad, it is with us falling into difrepute
3B
343
Savitt*
378
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
344
345
S avia-water.
This is diftilled from the frefh leaves of favin, after the
fame manner as the other already mentioned.
This water is by fome held in confiderable efteem for
the fame purpofes as the diftilkd oil of favin. Boer-
haave relates, that he has found it (when prepared by
cohobation) to give an almoft incredible motion to the
whole nervous fyftem ; and that, when properly ufed,
it proves eminently ferviceable for promoting the menfes
and the hsemorrhoidal flux.
It has now, however, fallen fo much into difrepute
as to have no place either in our pharmacopoeias or in
the beft modern foreign ones: But at the fame time,
when we refleft how readily favin yields a large pro¬
portion of a&ive efiential oil on diftillation, it may
perhaps be conlidered as better intitled to attention
than fome other diftilled waters which are ftill re¬
tained.
Elder-flower water. Brun.
This is diftilled from frefh elder flowers, after the fame
manner as the white-lily water.
This water fmells confiderably of the flowers; but
is rarely ufed among us.
Saxe-aMter, Brun.
346 This is dire&ed to be prepared from the green leaves
of the fage in the fame manner as the balm water.
Sage leaves contain a confiderable proportion of ef-
fential oil. which they yield pretty freely on diftilla¬
tion. But their whole medical properties may with
ftill greater eafe and advantage be extradled by Ample
infufion.
To the Ample diftilled waters the London college
have annexed the following remarks.
We have ordered the waters to be diftilled from the
dried herbs, becaufe frefh are not ready at all times
of the yean Whenever the frefh are ufed, the weights
are to be increafed. But, whether the frefh or dried
herbs be employed, the operator may vary the weight
according to the feafon in which they have been pro¬
duced and colle&ed.
Herbs and feeds kept beyond the fpace of a year
are lefs proper for the diftillation of waters.
To every gallon of thefe waters add five ounces, by
meafurt, of proof-fpirit.
Chap. XVIII. DiftiUed Spirits.
Part IT.
in general, when made to boil, have received as great Prepara,
a heat as they are capable of fuftaining : now, if the1*0118 anc*
extent of heat between freezing and boiling water, as
meafured by thermometers, be taken for a ftandard, .
fpirit of wine will be found to boil with lefs than four-
fifths of that heat, or above one-fifth Lefs than the heat
of boiling water. It is obvious, therefore, that fub-
ftanees may be volatile enough to rife with the heat of
boiling water, but not with that of boiling fpirit.
Thus, if cinnamon, for inftanee, be committed to
diftillation with a mixture of fpirit of wine and water,
or with a pure proof-fpirit, which is no other than a
mixture of about equal parts of the two ; the fpirit
will rife firft, clear, colourlefs, and tranfparent, and
almoft without any tafte of the fpice ; but as foon as
the more ponderous watery fluid begins to rife, the oil
comes over freely with it, fo as to render the liquor
highly odorous, fapid, and of a milky hue.
The proof-fpirits ufually met with in the fliops are
accompanied with a degree of ill flavour; which,
though concealed by means of certain additions, plain¬
ly difeovers itfelf in diftillation. This naufeons relilh
does not begin to rife till after the purer fpirituous
part has come over; which is the very time that the
virtues of the ingredients begin alfo moft plentifully
todiftil: and hence the liquor receives an ungrateful
taint. To this caufe principally is owing the general
complaint, that the cordials of the apothecary are lefs
agreeable than thofe of the fame kind prepared by the
diftiller; the latter being extremely curious in redti-
fying or purifying the fpirits (when defigned for what
he calls fine goods) from all ill flavour.
Ardent fpirit. L. ,
qq-r The flavours and virtues of diftilled waters are
‘ owing, as was obferved in the preceding chapter, to
their being im pregnated with a portion of the efl'ential
oil of the fubjeft from which they are drawn. Spirit
of wine, confidered as a vehicle for thefe oils, has this
advantage above water, that it is their proper mtn-
ftruum, and keeps all the oil that rifes with it perfedf-
ly diflblved into an uniform limpid liquor.
Neverthelefs, many fubftaners, which, on being di-
llilled with water, impart to it their virtues in great
perfedlion ; if treated in the feme manner with fpirit
of wine, fcarcely give it any fmell or tafte. I nis dif¬
ference proceeds from Hence, that fpirit is not fufeep-
tible of fo great a degree of heat as water. Liquids
Take of redfified fpirit of wine, one gallon ; kali,
made hot, one pound and an half; pure kali, one
ounce. Mix the fpirit of wine with the pure kali,
and afterwards add one pound of the hot kali ;
(hake them, and digeft for twenty-four hours. Pour
off the fpirit, to which add the reft of the kali, and
diftil in a water bath. It is to be kept in a veffel
well flopped. The fpecific gravity of the alcohol ia
to that of diftilled water as 815 to 1000.
We have already offered fome obfervations on fpirit
of wine both in the ftate of what is called rectified and
proof-fpirit. But in the prefent formula we have ar¬
dent fpirit ftill more freed from an admixture of water
than even the former of thefe. And in this ftate it is
unqueftionably beft fitted for anfwering fome parpofes.
It may therefore be juftly confidered as an omiffion in
the prefent edition of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia,
that they have no analogous form. Informer editions
of this work, alcohol was directed to be prepared from
French brandy. But this is rather too dear an article
in this country for diftillation ; nor is the fpirit ob¬
tained from it anywife preferable to one procurable
from cheaper liquors. The coarfer inflammable fpirits
may be rendered perfe&ly pure, and fit for the nieeft
purpofes, by the following method.
If the fpirit be exceedingly foul, mix it with about
an equal quantity of water, and diftil with a flow fire
difeontinuing the operation as foon as the liquor begins
to run milky, and difeovers by its naufeous tafte that
the impure and phlegmatic part ia nfing. By this,
a treat-
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- treatment, the fpirit leaves a confidcrablc portion of its
tions and foui 0jiy matter behind it in the water, which now
appears milky and turbid, and proves highly difagfce-
^ , -'t - - » able to the tafte. If the fpirit be not very foul at firft,
this ablution is not neceflary; it extremely fo, it will
be needful to repeat it once, twice, or oftener.
As vinous fpirits arife with a lefs degree of fire than
watery liquors, we are hence directed to employ, in
the diilillation of them, a heat lefs than that in which
water boils; and if due regard be had to this circum-
ftance, very weak fpirits may, by one or two wary di-
ftillations, be tolerably well freed from their aqueous
phlegm ; efpecially if the diftilling veffels are of fuch a
height, that the fpirit, by the heat of a water-bath,
may but juft pafs over them : in this cafe, the phleg¬
matic vapours which rife for a little way along with
the fpirit, will condenfe and fall back again before they
can come to the head. Very pompous inftruments have
been contrived for this purpofe, and carried in a fpiral
or ferpentine form to an extraordinary height. The
fpirit afcending through thefe, was to leave all the wa¬
tery parts it contained in its paffage, and come over
perfe&ly pure and free from phlegm. But thefe in¬
ftruments are built upon erroneous principles, their
extravagant height defeating the end it was defigned
to anfwer: if the liquor be made to boil, a confider-
able quantity of mere phlegm will come over along
with the fpirit; and if the heat be not raifed to this
pitch, neither phlegm nor fpirit will diftil. The moft
convenient iliftrument is the common ftill; between
the body of which and its head an adopter or copper
tube may be fixed.
The fpirit being wafhed, as above direfted, from its
foul oil, and freed from the greateft part of the phlegm
by gentle diftillation in a water-bath, add to every
gallon of it a pound or two of pure dry fixed alkaline
fait. Upon digefting thefe together for a little time,
the alkali, from its known property of attrading water
and oils, will imbibe the remaining phlegm, and fuch
part of, the difagreeable unduous matter as may ttill
be left in the fpirit, and will fink with them to the
bottom of the veffcl. If the fpirit be now again gen¬
tly drawn over, it will rife entirely free from its phlegm
and naufeous flavour; but fome particles of the alka¬
line fait are apt to be carried up with it, and give what
the workmen call an urinous relijh: this may be pre¬
vented by adding, previous to the laft diftillatiou, a
fmall proportion of calcined vitriol, alum, or bitter ca¬
thartic fait; the acids of thefe falts will unite with
and neutralize the alkali, and effedually prevent it
from rifing; while no more of the acid of the falts is
extricated than what the alkali abforbs.
The fpirit obtained by this means is extremely pure,
limpid, perfedly flavourlefs, and fit for the fineft pur-
pofes. It may be reduced to the ftrength commonly
underftood by proof, by mixing twenty ounces of it
with feventeen ounces of water. The diftilled cordials
made with thefe fpirits prove much more elegant and
agreeable, than when the common redified or proof-
fpirits of the fhops are ufed.
If the redified fpirit be diftilled afrefh from dry al¬
kaline fait with a quick fire, it brings over a confider-
able quantity of the fait; and in this ftate it is fup-
pofed to be a more powerful menftruum for certain
M A G Y. 379
fubftances than the pure fpirit. This alkalized fpirit Prepara,
is called tartarized fpirit of ovine. aij5*
The procefs here deferibed, which was long fincet[ons^
recommended by Dr Lewis, will fufficiendy explain ——y—J
the intention of the London college, in the diredions
they have now given for the preparation of alcohol,"
And there can be no doubt, that by their procefs a
very pure alcohol may be obtained. Of this we have
a fuflicient teft in the fpecific gravity of the fluid which
comes over, which is to that of diftilled water only as
815 to 1000, while the fpecific gravity of proper rec¬
tified fpirit is as 835 to 1000.
Spirit of vitriolic <ether. L.
Take of redified fpirit of wine, vitriolic acid, each one
pound. Pour by a little at a time the acid on the
fpirit, and mix them by fhaking ; then from a re¬
tort through a tubulated receiver, to which another
recipient is fitted, diftil the fpirit of vitriolic aether
till fulphureous vapours begin to rife.
Vinous vitriolic acid, commonly called dulcified fpirit of
vitriol. E.
Take of vitriolic ethereal liquor, one part; redified
fpirit of wine, two parts. Mix them.
The laft of thefe procefles is a very ready and con¬
venient method of preparing the dulcified fpirit of vi¬
triol, which only differs from aether by the acid being
more predominant, and lels intimately combined.
In the firft procefs, a good deal of caution is requi-
fite in mixing the two liquors. Some dired the fpirit
of wine to be put firft into the retort, and the oil of
vitriol to be poured upon it all at once ; a method of
procedure by no means advifable, as a violent heat
and ebullition always enfue, which not only diffipate a
part of the mixture, but hazard alio the breaking of
the veffel, to the great danger of the operator. Others
put the oil of vitriol into the retort firft : then by
means of a funnel, with a long pipe that may reach
down juft to the furface of the acid, pour in the fpirit
of wine ; if this be done with fufficient caution, the
vinous fpirit fpreads itfelf on the furface of the oil of
vitriol, and the two liquors appear diftind. On Hand¬
ing for a week or two, the vinous fpirit is gradually
imbibed, without any commotion, and the vefftl may-
then be fafely fliaken to complete the mixture: but if
the fpirit be poured in too haftily at firfl, or if the
veffel be moved before the two liquors have in fome
degree incorporated, the fame effed enfues as in the
foregoing cafe. The only fecure way is, to add the
oil of vitriol to the fpirit of wine by a little quantity
at a time, waiting till the firft addition be incorporated
before another quantity is put in : by this manage¬
ment, the heat that enfues is inconfiderable, and the
mixture is effeded without any inconvenience. •
The diftillation Ihould be performed with an equal le
and very gentle heat, and not continued fo long as till
a black froth begins to appear: for before this time a
liquor will arife of a very different nature from the
fpirits here intended. The feveral products are inolb
commodioully kept apart by ulinga tubulated receiver,
fo placed, that its pipe may convey the matter which
ftrall come over into a vial fet underneath. The junc¬
ture of the retort and recipient is to be luted with a
3 B 2 pafte
3So
prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
«ion.«.
P H A R
pafte made of lintfeed meal, and further fec’^red by a
piece of wet bladder; the lower jundture may be clo-
fed only with fome foft wax, that the vial may be oo
calionally removed with eafe.
The true dulcTied fpirit arifes in thin fubtile va¬
pours, which condenfe on the fides of the recipient in
straight ftriae. It is colourlefa as water, very volatile,
inflammable, of an extremely fragrant fmell, in tafle
fome what aromatic.
After the fire has been kept up for fome time, white
fumes arife ; which either form irregular ftrise, or are
collided into large round drops like oil: On the firft
appealance of £hefe, the vial, or the receiver, if a com¬
mon one is ufed, mu;t be taken away. If another be
fubtlituted, and the diftillation continued, an acid li¬
quor comes over, of an exceeding pungent fmell, like
the fumes of burning brimftone. At length a black
froth begins haftily to arife, and prevents carrying the
procefs further.
On the furface of the fulphureous fpirit is found
fwimming a fmall qnantity of oil, of a light yellow co¬
lour, a firong, penetrating, and very agreeable fmell.
This oil feems to be nearly of the fame nature with the
eflential oils of vegetables. It readily and totally dif-
folves in redified fpirit of wine, and communicates to
e large quantity of that menftruum the tafle and fmell
cf the aromatic or dulcified fpirit.
The matter remaining after the diftillation is of a
dark blackifh colour, and ftill highly acid. Treated
with freih fpirit ot wine, in the fame manner as before,
it yields the fame produdion ; till at length all the
acid that remains unvolatilized being faturated with
the inflammable oily matter of the fpirit, the compound
proves a bituminous fulphureous mafs ; which, expo-
fed to the fire in open vcflels, readily burns, leaving a
confiderable quantity of fixed afhes ; but in clofe ones
it explodes with violence ; with fixed alkaline falts it
forms a compound nearly fimilar to one compofed of
alkalis and fulphur.
The new names adopted by the London and Edin¬
burgh colleges for this fluid, are txpreffive of its com-
pofition ; the one employing the term of Jpintus athe
r'u vltriolici, the other of acidum •vitriolicum vinojum t
the old term offpiritus vitrioli dulcis is lefj properly fit¬
ted to diftinguifh it from other fluids, and to convey
3 juft idea of its naUire.
Dulcified fpirit of vitriol has been for fome time
greatly efteemed, both as a menftruum and a me¬
dicine. It difiblves fome refinous and bituminous fub-
ftances. more readily than fpirit of wine alone, and ex¬
tracts elegant tindures from fundry vegetables. As
a medicine, it promotes peifpiratiou and the urinary
fecretion, expels flatulencies, and in many cafes abates
fpafmodic ftridures, cafes pains, and procures deep.
The dofe is from ten to eighty or ninety drops in any
convenient vehicle It is not effentially different from
the celebrated anodyne liquor of Hoffman ; to which
it is, by the author himfelf, not unfrequently direded
as a fuccedaneum.
Of this fluid, however, or at leaft of an article ftill
more nearly refembling it, we fhall afterwards have
©ceafion to fpeak, when wc treat of the vinous fpirit
©f vitriolic aether.
Vitriolic at her. L.
Take of the fpirit of vitriolic ether, two pounds} wa-
M A C Y. Part II.
ter of pure kali, one ounce. Shake them together, Prepara,
and diftil, with a gentle heat, fourteen ounces bytioni
meafure.
Compoli-
tions.
Vitriolic ethereal liquor. E.
Take of redified fpirit of wine, vitriolic acid, esch
• thirty-two ounces. Pour the fpirit into a glafs re¬
tort fit for fuftaining a fudden heat, and add to it
the acid in an uniform firearm Mix them by de¬
grees, frequently fhaking them moderately; thia
done, inftantly diftil from fand previoufly heated
for that purpofe, into a receiver kept cool with wa¬
ter or fnow. But the heat is to be fo managed,
that the liquor (hail boil at firft, and continue to boil
till 16 ounces are drawn off; then let the retort be
raifed out of the fand-
To the diftilled liquor add two drams of the common
bitter cauftic ; then diftil again in a very high re«
tort with a very gentle heat, into a cool receiver,
until ten ounces have been drawn off.
If fixteen ounces of redified fpirit of wine be poured
upon the acid remaining in the retort after the firft:
diftillation, an ethereal liquor may be obtained by
repeating the diftiliation. This may be done pretty
often.
The preparation of this Angular fluid, now received
into public pharmacopoeias, was formerly confined to
a few hands ; for though feveral procefTes have been
publifhed for obtaining it, the fuccefs of moft of them
is precarious, and fome of them are accompanied alfo
with danger to the operator. The principal difficulty
confifts in the firft part of the diftillation.
It has been ufual to dired the heat to be kept tip
till a black froth begins to appear; but if it is mana¬
ged in the manner here direded, the quantity of asther
which the liquor can afford will be formed and diawn
off before this iuiphureous froth appears. The ufe of
the cauftic alkali is to engage any uncombined vitrio¬
lic acid which may be prefent in the firft diftilled li¬
quor. If a mild alkali were employed for this purpofe,
the reparation of its air by the acid might endanger
the bur fling of the veftels. This laft is indeed an in¬
convenience which attends the whole of this procefs.
It might in a great meafure be obviated by employing
a range pf receivers fuch as the adopter deferibed iu
the firft part of this work.
The asther, or etherial fpirit, is the lighted, raoft
volatile and inflammable of all known liquids. It is
lighter than the moft highly reditied fpirit of wine,
in the proportion of about 7 to 8 : a drop, let fall ora
the hand, evaporates almoft in an inllant, fcarceiy ren¬
dering the part moift. It does not mix, or only in
a fmall quantity, with water, fpirit of wine, alkaline
lixivia, volatile alkaline fpirits, or acids ; but is a power¬
ful difiblvent for oils, balfams, refins, and other ana¬
logous fubftances: it is the only known fubftance ca¬
pable of diffolving the elaftic gum ; it has a fragrant
odour, which, in confequence of the volatility of the
fluid, is diffufed through a large fpace. It has often
been found to give eafe' in violent headachs, by being
applied externally to the part ; and to relieve the
toothach, by being laid on the afflided jaw. It has
been given alfo internally, with benefit, in hooping-
coughs, hyfterical cafes, in afthma, and indeed in al-
moft every fpafmodic affedion, from a few drops to
the
Fa
Pri
tior
Co:
tiof
i**
Part II.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tion? and
Compofi-
tions.
3J1
the quantity of half an ounce, in a glafs of wine or
water ; which fhould be fwallowed as quickly as pof-
fiblc, as the asther fo fpeedily exhales.
Spirit oj nitrous ather. L.
Take of reftified fpirit of wine, two pints; nitrous
acid, half a pound. Mix them, by pouring in the
acid on the Ipirit, and diilU with a gentle heat one
pound ten ounces.
Vinous acid of nitre, commonly called dulcified fpiril of
nitre. E.
Take of re&ified fpirit of wine, three pounds : nitrous
acid, one pound. Pour the fpirit into a capacious
phial, placed in a veflel full of cold water, and add
the ac id by degrees, condantly agitating them. Let
the phial be flightly covered, and laid by for feven
days in a cool place ; then diftit the liquor with
the heat of boiling water, into a receiver kept
cool with water or fnow, till no more fpirit comes
over.
By allowing the acid and re&ified fpirit to ftand
for fome time, the union of the two is not only more
complete, but the danger alfo of the veffds giving way
to the ebullition and heat confequejit on their being
mixed, is in a great meafure prevented. By fixing
the degree of heat to the boiiing point, the fuperabun-
dant acid matter is left in the retort, being too pon¬
derous to be raifed by that degree of heat.
Here the operator mult take care not to invert the
order of mixing the two liquors, by pouring the vinous
fpirit into the acid ; for if he fhould, a violent effer-
vefcence and heat would enfue, and the matter be dif-
peried in highly noxious red fumes. The rr.oft con¬
venient and fafe method of performing the mixture
feems to be, to put the inflammable fpirit into a Lrge
glaL bottleAvith a narrow mouth, placed under a chim¬
ney, and to pour into it the acid, by means of a glafs
funnel, in very fmall quantities at a time ; {baking the
veflel as foon as the effervefoence enfuing upon each
addition ceafes, before a frefli quantity is put in : by
this means the glafs will be heated equally, and be pre¬
vented from breaking. During the aftion of the two
fpirits upon each other, the veflel fhould be lightly co¬
vered : if clofc flopped, it will burft ; and if left en¬
tirely open, feme of the more valuable parts will ex¬
hale. Lemery directs the mixture to be made in an
open veflel; by which unfcientifical procedure, he
ufually loft, as he himfelf obferves, half his liquor;
and we may prefume, that the remainder was not the
medicine here intended.
Several methods have been contrived for obviating
the inconveniences arifing from the elaftic fluid and
violent explofions produced on the mixture of the ni¬
trous acid and rectified fpirit of wine: for preparing
the nitrous secher they are abfolutely necelfary, and
might perhaps be conveniently ufed for making the
dulcified fpirit. The method we judge to be the bell,
is that employed by Dr Black. On two ounces of
the ftrong acid put into a phial, the doftor pours,
flowly and gradually, about an equal quantity of wa¬
ter ; which, by being made to trickle down the Tides
of the phial, floats on the furface of the acid without
mixing with it: he then adds, in the fame cautioua
manner, three ounces of highly re&ified fpirit of wine,
which in its turn floats oil the furface of the water.
By this means the three fluids are kept leparate on ac¬
count of their different fpecific gravities, and a ftratum
of water is interpofed between the acid and fpirit. The
phial is now fet in a cool place : the acid gradually af-
cends, and the fpirit defeends through the water, this
laft ailing as a boundary to reftrain their violent aftion
on each other. By this method a quantity of nitrous
icther is formed, without the danger of producing ela¬
ftic vapours or explofion.
For the preparation of the dulcified fpirit. the li¬
quors, when mixed together, Ihould be fuffered to
reft for fome time, as above dirc&ed, that the fumes
may entirely fubfide, and the union be in fome men-
fure completed. The diftillation Ihould be perform¬
ed with a very flow and well regulated tire; other-'
wife the vapour will expand with fo much force as to
burft the veflels. Wblfon feems to have experienced
the juftnefs of this obfervation, and hence directs the
jundure of the retort and receiver not to be luted,
or but flightly : if a tubulated recipient, with a fuffi*
ciently long pipe, be ufrd, and the diftillation per¬
formed with the heat of a water-bath, the veflels may¬
be luted without any danger: this method has like-
wife another -advantage, as it afeertains the time when
the operation is finifhed : ex .mining the diftilled fpi¬
rit every now and then with alkaline falls, as direded
above, is fufficiently troublefome ; while in a water-
bath we may fafely draw over all that will rife ; for
this heat will elevate no more of the acid than what
is dulcifi vi by the vinous fpirit.
Dulcified fpirit of nitre has been long held, and
not undefervedly, in great efteem. It quenches thirft,
promotes the natural fecretiong, expels flatulencies,
and moderately ftrengthens the ftomach : it may be
given from 20 drops to a dram, in any convenient
vehicle. Mixed with a fmall quantity of fpirit of
hartftiorn, the volatile aromatic fpirit, or any other
alkaline fpirit, it proves a mild, yet efficacious, dia¬
phoretic, and often remarkably diuretic; efpecially
in fome febrile cafes, where fuch a falutary evacuation
is wanted. A fmall proportion of this Ipirit added
to malt fpirks, gives them a flavour approaching to
that of French brandy.
Spirit of ammonia. L.
Take of proof-fpirit, three pints ; fal ammoniac, four
ounces; pot-afh, fix ounces. Mix and diftil with
a flow fire one pint and an half. •
Vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac. E.
Take of quicklime, (6ounces; fhl ammoniac, eight oun¬
ces; reftified fpirit of wine,32 ounces. Having flight¬
ly bruifed and mixed the quicklime and ammoniacaf
fait, put them into a glafs retort; then add the fpi¬
rit, and diftii in the manner directed for the volatila
cauftic alkali, till all the fpirit has palled over.
This fpirit has lately come much into ef^eem, both
as a medicine and a menftruum. It is a folution of
volatile fait in re&ified fpirit of wine ; for though
proof-fpirit be ufed, its phlegmatic part does not rife
in the diftillation, and ferves only to facilitate the ac¬
tion of the pure fpirit upon the ammoniaea! fait.
Re&iikij
381
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi.
cions.
353
382
Prepara¬
tions aid
C’ompofi-
tions.
P H A R
Re^jfifd fpirit of vnne docs not dlflblve volatile nlkft«
line falta by fimple mixture : on the contrary, it pre*
cipitates them, as has been already obferved, when
they are previouflydiflblved in water: but by the pre-
fent procefs, a confiderahle proportion of the volatile
alkali is combined with the fpirit. It might perhaps,
for fome purpofes, be more advifable to ufe with this
intention the volatile fpirit made with quicklime ; for
this may be mixed at once with reftified fpirit of wine,
in any proportion, without the leaft danger of any re¬
paration of the volatile alkali.
The name here employed by the London college,
particularly when put in contradiilinftion to the wa¬
ter of ammonia, conveys a clear idea of the article, and
is, we think, preferable to that employed by the Edin¬
burgh college.
•As a menftruum, the fpirit of ammonia is employ¬
ed to diffolve effential oils, thus forming the volatile
aromatic fpirit, or compound fpirit of ammonicty as it is
now called by the London college, which again is
employed in making the tin&ures of guaiac, valerian,
&c.
The chief medical virtues which the fpirit of am-
rr.onia poflefles, when exhibited by itfeif, are thofe of
the volatile alkali.
Fetid fpirit of ammonia.
353 Take of proof-fpirit, fix pints; fal ammoniac, one
pound ; afafeetida, four ounces ; pot-afh, one pound
and a half. Mix them, and draw off by dillillation
five pints, with a flow fire. L.
Take of vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, eighf ounces ;
afafeetida, half an ounce. Digeft in a clofe veffel
12 hours ; then diftil off with the heat of boiling
water eight ounces. E.
This fpirit, the laft formula of which is in our opi¬
nion the belt, as being molt eaiily prepared without
any rifle of being injured in the preparation, is de-
figned as an antihyfteric, and is undoubtedly a very
elegant one. Volatile fpirits, impregnated for thefe
purpofes with different fetids, have been ufually kept
in the fhops ; the ingredient here made choice of, is
the beft calculated of any for general ufe, and equi¬
valent in virtue to them ail. The fpirit is pale when
newly diftiiled, but acquires a confiderable tinge in
keeping.
Compoundfpirit of anifeed. L.
354 Take anifeed, angelica-feed, of each, bruifed, half
a pound ; proof-fpirit, one gallon ; water, fufficitnt
to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off one gallon by
diftillation.
This compound fpirit is now dire&ed to be prepared
by the London college in the fame manner as in their
former edition. It has no place in the Edinburgh
pharmacopoeia ; but it may juflly be coafidered as a
very elegant anifeed water. The angelica feeds great¬
ly improve the flavour of the anife. It is often em¬
ployed with "advantage, particularly in cafes of fla¬
tulent cholic ; but it has been alleged to be fometimes
joo frequently ufed with this intention as a domeftic
medicine, efpecially by old ladies: for unlefs it be
prudently and cautioufly employed, it may foon be at¬
tended with all the pernicious confcquenccs of dram-
drinking.
M A C Y.
Part II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Spirit of caraway. L.
Take of carasvay feeds, bruifed, half a pound; proof.
fpirit, one gallon ; water, fulficient to prevent an —-v—«
empyreuma.' Draw off one gallon. 355
Spirituous caraway-water. E.
Take of caraway-feeds, half a pound; proof-fpirit*
nine pounds. Macerate two days in a clofe veffd ;
then pour on as much water as will prevent an em¬
pyreuma, and draw off by diftillation nine pounds.
By this procefs the fpirit obtains in great perfec¬
tion the flavour of the caraway-feeds ; and with fome
it is a cordial not uncommonly in ufe.
Spirit of cinnamon. L.
Take of bruifed cinnamon one pound; proof-fpirit,
one gallon ; water, fufficient to prevent an empy¬
reuma. Draw off one gallon.
Spirituous cinnamon-water. E.
From one pound of cinnamon, nine pounds of fpirit
are to be drawn off, in the fame manner as in the
caraway fpirit.
This is a very agreeable and ufeful cordial, but not
fo ftrong of the cinnamon as might be expedited ; for
very little of the virtues of the fpice anfes till after
the pure fpirituous part has dittilled. Hence, in the
former editions of the London pharmacopoeia, the
diftillation was ordered to be protradted till two pints
more than here diredted were come over. By this
means, the whole virtue of the cinnamon was more
frugally than judicioufly obtained ; for the difagreeable
flavour of the feints of proof fpirits, and the acidu¬
lous liquor arifing from cinnamon as well as other ve¬
getables when their diftillation is long continued, give
an ill relilh to the whole ; at the fame time that the
oil which was extradted from the fpice was by this
acid thrown down.
In the Pharmacopoeia Reformata, it is propofed to
make this fpirit by mixing the fimple cinnamon wa¬
ter with fomewhat lefs than an equal quantity of rec¬
tified fpirit: on {baking them together, the liquor
lofes its milky hue, foon becomes clear, and more ele¬
gant than the water diftilled as above: it is equally
ftrong of the cinnamon, and free from the naufeous
taint with which the common proof-fpirits are im¬
pregnated.
Compound fpirit of juniper. L.
Take of juniper-berries, bruifed, one pound; cara-
way-feeds, bruifed, fweet-fennel feeds, of each one
ounce and an half; proof-fpirit, one gallon ; water,
fufficient to pievenc an empyreuma. Draw off one
gallon.
Compound juniper-water. E.
Take of juniper-berries, well bruifed, one pound;
feeds of caraway, Iweet-fennel, each one ounce
and a half; proof-fpirit, nine pounds; macerate
two days ; and having added as much water as will
prevent an empyreuma, draw oft by diftiliation nine
pounds.
This water, mixed with about an equal quantity
of the rob of juniper-berries, proves an ufeful medi¬
cine
tions and
CompoH
tions.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- cine in catarrhs, debility of the flomach and inte-
ftinee, and fcarcity of arme. The water by itfelf is
a good cordial and carminative: the fervice which this
and other fpirituous water do with thefe intentions
is commonly known ; though the ill confequences
that follow from their eonftant ufe are too little re¬
garded.
Spirit of lavender. JL.
358 Take of frefh flowers of lavender, one pound and an
half; proof-fpirit, one gallon. Dra»' off by di-
ftillation in a wr.ter-bath, five pints.
Simple fpirit of lavender. E.
Take of flowering fpikes of lavender, frcfli gathered,
two pounds ; rectified fpirit of wine, eight pounds.
Draw off by the heat of boiling water feven pounds.
This fpirit, when made in perfe&ion, is very grate¬
ful and fragrant: It is frequently rubbed on the
temples, &c. under the notion of refrelhing and com¬
forting the nerves ; and it probably operates as a
powerful ftimulus to their fenfible extremities: it is
likewife taken internally, to the quantity of a tca-
fpoonful, as a warm cordial.
Spirit of peppermint. I..
359 r^a^e ^ herb peppermint, dried, one. pound and
an half; proof-fpirit, one gallon ; water, fufFicient
to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off one gallon.
Spirituous peppermint-water. E.
From a pound and a half of thefe leaves nine pounds
of fpirit are drawn off, as fious the caraway-feeds.
This fpirit receives a ffrong impregnation from the
peppermint. It is employed in flatulent colics and
fimilar diforders; and in thefe it fometimes gives im¬
mediate relief: but where it is indicated, there are
few cafes in which the peppermint-water is not prefe¬
rable.
Spirit of fpearmijit. L.
360 Take of fpearmint, dried, one pound and an half;
proof-fpirit, one gallon ; water, fuflicient to pre¬
vent an empyreuma. Draw off one gallon.
This fpirit has no place in the Edinburgh phar¬
macopoeia. It, however, turns out a very elegant
one, and preferable, in weaknefs of the ftomach,.
retching to vomit, and the like, to many more elabo¬
rate preparations. Where the diforder is not accom¬
panied with heat or inflammation, half an ounce of
this water may be given diluted with fome agreeable
aqueous liquor: but, as was already obferved with re-
gard to the preceding article, there are many cafes in
which the prudent pra&itioner will be difpofed to give
the preference to the Ample diftilled water.
Spirit of nutmeg. E.
361 Take of bruifed nutmegs, two ounces ; proof fpirit
one gallon ; water, fufficient to prevent an empv-
reuma. Draw off one gallon.
Spirituous nutmeg-water. E.
By two ounces of the nutn-ep, wdl bruifed
pounds of ipint are impregnated.
M A C Y. 383
This is an agreeable fpirituous liquor, highly im-Prepara-
pregnated with the nutmeg flavour. It was formerly p0ns *nrd
celebrated in nephritic difdrders, and when combined tions. "
with a few hawthorn flowers, it had evep the title .of—V—j
nephritic water. At prefent it is employed only as a
cordial liquor, and is not even very frequently in ufe.
Spirit of pimento y or all-fpice. L.
Take of all-fpice, bruifed, two ounces ; proof-fpirit, $62
one gallon ; water, fufficient to prevent an empy¬
reuma. Draw off one gallon.
Spirituous Jamaica-pepper water. E.
By half a pound of pimento nine pounds of fpirit
are to be impregnated.
This water is far more agreeable than a fimple wa¬
ter drawn from the fame fpice ; and had long a place
among the cordials of the diftiller before it was re¬
ceived into any public pharmacopoeia : but althoucrh
now adopted both by the London and Edinburgh col¬
leges, it 13 not very frequently ordered from the {hops
of the apothecary. r
Spirit of pennyroyal. L.
Take of the herb pennyroyal, dried, one pound and 363
an half; proof-fpint, one gallon ; water fufficient
to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off one gallon.
This fpmt has no place in the Edinburgh pharma-
copmia. It pcffeffes, however, a confrdcrable ffiare
of the flavour of the pennyroyal, and very frequently
it is empioyed as a carminative and antihyfteric.
Compound fpirit of horfe-rad'i/h. L.
Take of freffi horfe-radifh root, dried outer^rind of 364I
beville oranges, each two pounds ;‘ frefh herb of gar¬
den feurvy-grafs, four pounds ; bruifed nutmegs, one
ounce ; proof-fpirit, two gallons; water, fufficient
to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off two gallons.
1 his fpirit has long been confidered as an elegant
one, and is perhaps as well adapted for the purpofes of
an anufeorbutic as any thing that can be contrived in
t.iis form. It has been alleged, that the horfe-radifh *
and feurvy-grafs join very well together, giving a fimi-
lar flavour, though not a little difagreeable ; that the
nutmeg fuppreffes this flavour very fuccefsfully, with¬
out niperadding any of its own; and that to this
orange-peel adds a flavour very agreeable. Arum
root had formerly a place in this water, but is here de-
iervedly thrown out; for it gives nothing of its pun-
gency over the helm, notwithHanding what is afferted
by lome pharmaceutical writers to the contrary. Mu-
itard-feed, though not hitherto employed in thefe
kinds of compofitions, would feem to be an excellent
ingredient; it gives over the whole of its pungency,
and is likewife lefs penfhable than moft of the other
iubhances of this clafs: this feed wants no addition,
excepting fome aromatic material to furniffi an agree¬
able flavour. 0
But although this procefs may furniffi an agreeable
compound fpirit, yet it is much to be doubted, whe¬
ther it poffefs thofe antifcorbutic powers for which it
was once celebrated. And with this intention the E-
dinburgh college place fo little confidence in it, that
they have now rejeded it from their pharmacopoeia.
Spirit.?
384. P H A' R
prepara- Spirit of rofemary.
Com poll- Take of frefh tops of rofemary, one pound and a
tiom. half; proof-fpirit, one gallon. Diitil in a water-
bath, hve pints. L.
365 Take of flowering tops of rofemary, frelh gathered,
two pounds ; redfified fpiritjof wine, eight pounds.
Diftil in the heat of boiling water till feven pounds
come over. E.
A fpirit fimilar to this is generally brought to us
from abroad, under the name of Hungary-'water.
This fpirit is very fragrant, fo as to be in common
ufe as a perfume : tha£ brought from abroad is fupe-
rior in fragrance to fuch as is generally made among
us. In order to prepare it in perfedtion, the vinous
fpirit fliould be extremely pure ; the rofemary tops
gathered when the flowers are full blown upon them,
and committed immediately to dilfillation, care being
taken hot to bruife or prefs them. The heft, method
of managing the diftillation, is that which was former¬
ly recommended for the diflillation of the more vola¬
tile eflential oils and Ample waters, viz. Srft to place
the fpirit in the Hill, and then fet in, above the li¬
quor, either an iron hoop, with a hair-cloth ftretched
over it, upon which the flowers are to be lightly fpread,
or rather a balket, fupported on three pins, reaching
down to the bottom. A gentle heat being 'applied,
juft fufficient to raife the fpirit, its vapour lightly per¬
colating through the flowers, will imbibe their ftner
parts, without making that difagreeable alteration,
which liquors applied to fuch tender fubjedls, in
their grofler form, generally do. Probably the fupe-
riority of the French Hungary-water, to that prepared
among us, is owing to fome Ikilful management of this
kind, or to employing a perfectly pute fpirit.
In the Wirtemberg pharmacopoeia, fome fage and
ginger are added, in the proportion of half a pound of
the former, and two ounces of the latter, to four pounds
of the rofemary.
But the peculiar agreeable flavour of this water in
all probability depends on the rofemary alone.
Carmelite water, or compound balm-water. Dan.
366 Take of frefh gathered leaves of balm, a pound and a
half; the recent yellow rind of lemons, four ounces ;
nutmeg, coriander, each two ounces ; cloves, cin¬
namon, e’.ch one ounce. The ingredients being
fliced and bruifed, pour upon them redtified fpirit
of wine, fix pounds ; balm-water, three pounds.
Digeft for three days, then draw off fix pounds by
diitillation.
This fpirit has been a good deal celebrated, parti¬
cularly among the French, under the title of
Carmes. Mr Beaume, in his Elemens de Pharmacie, pro-
pofes fome improvements on the procefs. After the
fpirit added to the ingredients has been drawn off in
the heat of a water bath, he orders the diftilled liquor
to be reftified by a fecond diftillation, drawing off
fomewhat lefs than nine-tenths ot i* He recommends,
that all the aromatic fpirits fhould be prepared in the
fame manner. When the common fpirits of this kind
are rubbed on the hands, &c. they leave, after the
more volatile parts have exhaled, a difagreeable empy-
reumatic fmell; and when diluted with water, and ta¬
ken medicinally, they leave, in like manner, a naufe-
M A C Y. Partir.
ous flavour in the mouth. To remedy thefe imper-
fedions, he made many experiments, which fhowed, ^,6n6 anr‘*
that in order to obtain thefe liquors of the delirable tions^0
qualities, the fpirit muft not only be perfe&ly pure at f t
tirft, but that the liquor ought alfo to be redified after
it has been diftiiled from the fubjeds. In this redi-
fication, only the more volatile, fubtile, aromatic part*
of the ingredients arife : there remains behind a white
liquor, acrid, bitter, loaded only with the groffer oil,
and deprived of all the fpecific flavour of the fubjeds.
Indeed the \» ry imperfedion complained of naturally
points out this fecond diftillation >8 the remedy ; for
it fhows the fpirit to contain a grateful and ungrateful
matter; the firft of which exhales, while the other is
left behind. The author fays, that when the aqua
meliffot is prepared as above direded, it has fomething
in it more perfed than any of the odoriferous fpirits,
whofe excellence is cried up, and which have the re»
putation of being the belt.
Aromatic fpirituous liquors have in general lefs
fmell, when newly diftilled, than after they have been
kept about fix months. M. Beaume fufpeds that the
preparations of this kind which have been molt in
vogue, were fuch as have been thus improved by keep¬
ing ; and.found that the good effeds of age might he
produced in a ihort time by means of cold. He plunges
quart bottles of the liquor into a mixture of pounded
ice and fea-fak; the fpirit, after having fuffered, for
fix or eight hours, the cold thence refulting, proves
as grateful as that which has bt-.n kept tor feveral
years. Simple waters alfo, after being frozen, prove
far more agreeable than they were before, though they
are always lefs £0 than thofe which have been drawn
with fpirit, and expofed to a like degree of cold. This
melioration of cliitilled waters by froft was taken no¬
tice of by Geoffroy.
Spirit of feurvy-grafs. Suec.
Take of frefli feurvy-grafs, bruifed, 10 pounds; redi-
fied fpirit of wine, eight pints. With the heat of a
water-bath, diftil off four pints.
This fpirit is very ftrong of the feurvy-grafs ; and
has been given, in thofe cafes where the ufe of this
herb is proper, from 20 to too drops. The virtues
of feurvy-grafs refide in a very fubtile, volatile oil, which,
arifes in diftillation l oth with water and pure fpirit j
and if the liquors are expofed to the air, foon e .nales
from both. The fpirit, newly diftilled, is extremely
pungent ; but if long kept, even in clofe veffels, it be¬
comes remarkably lefs fo : but it is not probable, that
with fuch a pungent vehicle we can ufe a fufficient
quantity of the herb to produce any permanent or con-
fiderable effed ; it has been much recommended as a
diuretic in dropfies.
The makers of this fpirit have frequently added ta
the feurvy-grafs a quantity of horfe radifh root, and
fometiines fubftituted for it one drawn entirely from
the horfe-radilh : the flavour of thefe two fimples be¬
ing fo much alike, that their diftilled fpirits are fcarce-
ly diftinguiihable from each other. Here it may be
obferved, that though arum and dracunculus are ufually
ranked in the fame clafs with the two foregoing vege¬
tables, and confidered as fimilar to them ; this procefs
difeovers a remarkable difference : while the former
l _ yield
Pan If, P H A R
Prepara- yield all tKeiP pting«ney In di ft illation both to water
I tions and an(j {p;rjt. t}ie latter give over nothing to either* and
cions. yet their virtues are deftroyed in the operation.
I 11 Orange-peel water. Suec.
j6B Take of recent orange flcirs,. one pound ; proof-fpirit,
three pounds. Draw off two pounds by the heat
•of a water-bath.
This fpirit, which is now rejected from our phar¬
macopoeias, had formerly a place in them under the
title of aqua corticum aurantiorum fpirhuofa. It is con-
fiderably ftronger of the orange-peel than the Ample
water; and it is ufed as an ul'eiul cordial, ftomachic,
and carminative.
Aromatic fpirit. Suec.
Takeof the tops of rofemary, a pound, and an half; tops
of milfoil, thyme, each hall a pound ; proof fpirit,
16 pounds; macerate for two days, and draw off
by diftiliation eight pounds. If before diftillation
eight pounds of vinegar be added, it forms the ace-
tated aromatic fpirit.
Thefe preparations do not differ materially from the
Ipirft of rofemary or Hungary water ; for on the ef-
fential oil of the rofercary their medicinal properties
may be confidered as chiefly depending. They are
often employed, particularly for external purpofes, and
for impregnating the air with their vapours, to deftroy
the influence of febrile contagions.
Ant 18eric fpirit. Gen.
370 turpentine, an ounce and an half ;
reftified fpirit of wine, half a pound. Diftil with a
gentle heat. Let the oil fwimming above in the
receiver be feparated from the faturated fpirit,whiph
rs to be preferved for ufe.
It has been imagined, that this combination of oil
- of turpentine w-ith ardent fpirit will furnifh an effeaual
folvent for biliary calculi. Hence the origin of the
name here given it; but although it may have fuch an
effect: when copioufly applied to the calculi in a glafs
yeffel; yet this is not to be expedted when it is taken
Into the ftomach, and can only reach them in the courfe
of circulation.
Chap. XIX. Decodlions and infujionr.
Water, the diredt menftruum of gums and fahs,
extradls readily the gummy and faline parts of ve¬
getables. Its adtion, however, is not limited to
thefe ; the refinous and oily principles being, in moft
vegetables, io intimately blended with the gummy and
Lime, as to be in part taken up along with them ;
tome of the refinotis cathartics, and moft: of the aro¬
matic herbs, as well as bitters and aftringents, yield to
water the greateft part of their fmell, tafte, and medi¬
cinal virtue. Even of the pure effential oils, and odor¬
ous refins of vegetables, feparated from the other prin¬
ciples, water imbibes a part of the flavour ; and by the
artificial admixture of gummy or faline matter, the
whole fubftance of the oil or refin is made foluble in
water.
Of pure falls, water diffolves only certain determi-
nate quantities : by applying heat, it is generally en-
abled to take up more than it can do in the cold, and
Vol. XIV. Parti.
M A C Y. jSj
this in proportion to the degree of heat; but as the Prqxira-
liquor cools, this additional quantity feparatea, andh,onsan^
the water retains no more than it would have diffolved *
without heat. With gummy fubftances, on the other ^ ..rf
hand, it unites unlimitedly, diffolving more and more of
them till it lofes its fluidity. Heat expedites the aflion
of the water, but cannot enable it to take up more
than it would do by allowing it longer time in the
cold. The aiffive parts extra&ed from moft vege¬
tables by water, and oils and refms made foluble in
water by the artificial admixture of gum, partake of
this property of pure gums, being foluble without fa-
turation.
It has been imagined, that vegetables in a freffi
ffate,while their oily, refinous, and other adlive parts are
already blended with a watery fluid, would yield their
virtues to water more freely and more plentifully than
when their native moiftme has been difiipated by dry¬
ing. Experience, however, {flows, that dry vegetables
in general give out more than frefh ones, water feem-
ing to have little a£tion upon, them in their recent
ftate. If, of two equal quantities of mint, one be in-
fufed frelh in water, and the other dried, and then
infufed in the like quantity of water for the fame
length of time, the infufion of the dry herb will be
remarkably the ftrongeft ; and the cafe appears to be
the fame in all the vegetables that have been tried.
In all the preparations deferibed in this chapter, it
is to be underftood that the fubje&s mull be moderate,
ly and newly dried, unlefs when they are exprefsly or¬
dered to be taken frelh; in which cafe it is to be
judged that their virtues are deftroyed or impaired by
drying.
1 he native colours of many vegetables are commu*
nicated to water along with their medicinal matter ;
many impart a colour different from their own ; and
others, though of a beautiful and deep colour thenj-
felves, give fcarcely any to the menftruum. Of the
firft kind are the yellow and red flowers ; of the fe-
condj the leaves of moft plants ; of the third, fome of
the. blue flowers, as thofe of cyanus and larkfpur.
Acid liquors change the infufions of moft flowers, the
yellow ones excepted, to a red; and alkalis, both fixed
and volatile, to a green.
From animal fubftances water extracts the gelati¬
nous and nutritious parts; whence glues, jellies, broths,
&c.; and along with thefe, it takes up principles of
more acftivity, as the acrid matter of eantharides. It
diffolves alfo fomc portion of calcined calcareous earths,
both of the animal and of the mineral kingdom, but
has no aftion on any other kind of earthy matter.
The effedt of boiling differs from that of infufion in
fome material particulars. One of the moft obvious
differences is, that as the effential oils of vegetables, in
which their fpecific odours refide, are volatile in the
heat of boiling water, they exhale in the boiling along
with the watery fleam, and thus are loft to the remain¬
ing decoftion; whereas both in cold, and fometimes
in hot infufions, they are preferved ; although in the
latter they are by no means perfeftly fo. Odorous
fubftances, and thofe in general whofe virtues depend
on their volatile parts, are therefore unfit for this
treatment. The foluble parts of thefe may, never-
thelefs, be united in this form with thofe bodies of a
more fixed nature, by boiling the latter till their vir-
3 C < tues
j86 P H A R
Prepara- tues be fufijcicntly extrafted, and then infufing the
rioHS a.d f0fmer Jn this decoftion.
tions! ° * extradtion of the virtue of the fubjeft is ufual-
w—-y—~ ly promoted or accelerated by a boiling heat; but this
rule is lefs general than it is commonly fuppofed to be.
We have already obferved, that Peruvian bark gives
out its virtue more perfectly by cold infufion than by
coftion. In feme cafes, boiling occafions a manifeli
dlfun ion ef the principles of the fubjefl: thus, when
almonds are triturated with cold water, their oil, blend¬
ed with the mucilaginous or other foluble matter of
the almond, unites with the water into a milky liquor
called an emulfion : but on boiling them in water, the
oil feparafces and rifes to the furtace ; and if the moll
perfect emuliion be made to boil, a like feparation hap¬
pens.
This a’fo appears to take place, though in a lefs
evident manner, in boiling fundry other vegetables ;
thus tobacco, afarum, and ipecacuanha, lofe their ac¬
tive powers by boiling : nor does it appear that this
change is effected merely by the difeharge of volatile
parts. From fome late experiments, it has been found,
that the diftilled water of ipecacuanha was infinitely
lefs emetic than the infufion from which it was diflilled,
and that the boiling liquor gradually affumes a black
colour, indicating fome kind of decompofition of parts:
the fame circumftances probably take place in boiling
tobacco, afarum, and perhaps all vegetables whatever,'
though from their not producing fuch fenfible opera¬
tions on the living body, they cannot be fo clearly dif-
covered as in ipecacuanha, tobacco, or afarum. The ex¬
periments we allude to were made by Dr Irving, when
• a fludent in the college of Edinburgh ; and they gain¬
ed him the prize given by the Harveian Society of
that place, for the befl experimental inquiry con¬
cerning ipecacuanha.
It is for the above-mentioned reafons that we think
many of the infufions fhould be made with cold water:
it is, however, to be acknowledged, that this is not
always abfolutely neceflary, and in extemporaneous
praftice it may be often very inconvenient; it is, how¬
ever, proper to point out the advantages to be expell¬
ed from this more tedious, but much more complete
and elegant, method.
Vinegar extrafts the virtues of feveral medicinal
fubftances in tolerable perfe&ien : but at the fame
time its acidity makes a remarkable alteration in them,
or fnperadds a virtue of a different kind; and hence
it is more rarely employed with this intention than
purely aqueous or fpirituous menfltua. Some drugs,
however, for particular purpofes, vinegar excellently
afiiils, or coincides with, as fquills, garlic, ammoniac,
and others: and in many cafes where this acid is
itfelf principally depended on, it may be advantage-
oufly impregnated with the flavour of certain vege¬
tables ; moft of the odoriferous flowers impart to it
their fragrance, together with a fine purplifh or red
colour j violets, for inftance, if frefh parcels of them
are infufed in vinegar in the cold for a little time,
communicate to the liquor a pleafant flavour, and deep
purplifh red colour; Vinegar, like other acids, added
to watery infufions or dece&ions, generally precipi¬
tates a part of what the water had diffolved.
M A C Y. Part II.
Decoftion of tnarJl)mallotws. E, Prepara.
Take of dried marfhmallow roots, four ounces ; raifins Compofu
of the fun, ftoned, two ounces; water, feven pounds, tions.
Boil to five pounds ; place apart the drained liquor ——v——^
till the feces have fublided, then pour out the clear 372
liquor.
The Edinburgh college have fubttituted this for the
more complicated formula of theDecoclumad Nephriticos
of their former pharmacopoeia, and it fully anfwers the
intentions of that preparation : it is intended chiefly
as an emollient, to be liberally drank of in nephritic
paroxyfms ; in which cafes, by foftening and relaxing
the parts, it frequently relieves the pain, and procures
an eafy paffage for the fabulous matter. This medl--
cine is now made more Ample than before, without
any diminution of its virtuej by the rejedbion of wild
carrot feed, reftharrow root, figs, linfeed, and liquorice.
The carrot feeds were indeed unfit for this form, as
they give out little of their virtue to watery liquors.
Decoffion of hartjhorn. L.
Take of burnt and prepared hartfhorn, two ounces ;
gum arabic, fix drams ; diftilled water, three pints.
Boil, conftautly ftirring, to two pints, and ft rain.
This decodtion is ufed as common drink in acute
difeafes attended with a loofenefs, and where acrimo¬
nious humours abound in the primae viae. The gum
is added, in order to render the liquor lightly gluti¬
nous, and thus enable it to fuftain more of the calx ;
which is the ingredient on which the colour, but
probably not the virtue, of the medicine depends.
Calcined hartfhorn has no quality from which it feems
capable either of conftringing and ftrengthening the
veffels, giving a greater degree of confiitency to thin
fluids, or obtunding acrimonious humours. It blunts
and abforbs acid juices; but acrimony and acidity are
very different; there are few (perhaps none of the
acute) diforders of adults attended with the latter ; and
few of infants are unaccompanied therewith. Some
have propofed flarch as an ingredient in thefe kinds of
decoftions; a fmall quantity of this foft, gelatinous,
farinaceous fubftance would feem to be greatly prefer¬
able to the earthy calx. It may be obferved, that the
water is not enabled by the boiling to diffolve any part
of the calx; and that in the decoftion, the earth is
only diffufed in fubftance through the water, as it
would be by agitation.
For thefe reafons, this formula is now reje&ed by
the Edinburgh college, notwithftanding the reputa¬
tion in which it was held by Dr Sydenham, and other'
names of the firft eminence. But as an abforbent of a
fimilar nature, the Edinburgh college have introduced
the following formula.
371
Chalk julep. E.
Take of prepared chalk, one oune’e ; pureft refined fu- * .
gar, half an ounce ; mucilage of gum arabic, two ^
ounces; rub them together; and add by degrees,
water, two pounds and a half; fpirituous cinnamon
water, two ounces. Mix them.
In the former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeia.
/
Pan rr.
PHARMA
Prepara¬
tions and
Comjofi-
tions.
37J
poeia, a preparation of this kind had the title of decoc-
tum cretaceum, and the chalk wds dire&ed to he boiled
with the water and gum. In the prefent formula, the
. chalk is much more completely fufpended by the mu¬
cilage and fugar, which lad gives alfo to the mixture
an agreeable tafte ; it is proper to employ the fined
fugar, as the redundant acid in the coarfer kinds might
form with the chalk a kind of fait. It would perhaps
have been more proper to have added an aromatic, by
fufpendtng the entire powder of cinnamon, or its oil,
by means of the mucilage and fugar : the method here
direfted is, however, lefs exceptionable in this than i‘r
many other preparations, as the precipitated matter of
the fpirituous water will probably be invifcated in the
faccharine and mucilaginous matter. This is a very
elegant form of exhibiting chalk, and is an ufeful re¬
medy in difeafes arifing from, or accompanied with,
acidity in the primse vice. It has been mod frequent¬
ly employed in fluxes proceeding from that caufe. At
the lame time that the mucilage ferves to keep the
chalk uniformly diffufed, it alfo confiderably improves
its virtues by Iheathing the internal furface of the in-
tedines fo often abraded in thefe affe&ions. It is in¬
deed probable, that chalk, as being fomewhat adrin-
gent, is in fome of thefe complaints preferable to mag-
nefia ; both, however, are improper in dyfentery, or
other fluxes attended with putrefeent matter in the
pnnue vise, or a general tendency to a putrefadlion of
the fluids.
JDccoBton of Peruvian bark. L.
Take of Peruvian bark, powdered, one ounce ; didilled
water, one pint and three ounces. Boil, for ten mi¬
nutes, in a covered veflel, and drain the liquor while
hot.
Although a cold watery infufion of bark is in ge¬
neral preferable to any decodHon, yet this form has at
lead the advantage of being more quickly prepared.
And the decoclion here dire&ed, which is boiled only
for a fliort time, and drained while hot, is preferable
to any other.
This decoftion fhculd be pafled only through a coarfe
drainer, and drank while turbid : if fuffered to dand till
clear, the more efficacious parts of the bark will fubfide.
We have formerly obferved, that the virtues of this
drug confid chiefly in its refinous fubdance, which,
though it may be totally melted out by the heat of
boiling water, remains only partially fufpended in that
tnendruum.
378
C Y. 387
Common dec onion. E. Prepara:-
»T' 1 r m n tions and
I ake of camomile flowers, one ounce j carvy feeds, Compoli.
half an ounce ; water, five pounds. Boil for a quar-1'003-
ter of an hour, and drain.
This decoition is intended to anfwer the purpofes
of both the foregoing. It is lefs loaded with ingre¬
dients than either, but not perhaps for that reafon the
lefs ufeful.
It is indeed to be acknowledged, that thefe impreg¬
nations are for the mod part unneceffary for the pur-
pofe of glyders ; and in ordinary cafes the weight of
the water ufually folicits a difeharge before thefe me¬
dicines can produce any effeit.
As to fomentations, their virtues in our opinion are
totally to be afciibed to the influence of the warm wa¬
ter. And when the herbs themfelves are applied, they
adl only as retaining heat
time.
and moidure for a longer
DecoStion of heUebore. L.
Take of the rooc of white hellebore, powdered, one
ounce ; didilled water, two pints ; reftified fpirit of
wine, two ounces. Boil the water with the root to
one pint; and, the liquor being cold and drained,
add to it the fpirit.
White hellebore, as we formerly obferved, is now
very rarely employed internally ; and the prefent for¬
mula is entirely intended for external ufe. Rccourfe
is fomettmes had to it with advantage in cutaneous
eruptions, particularly in tinea capitis. But where the
incrudations are entirely removed, leaving a very ten¬
der Ikin, it is neceflary that the deco&ion ffiould be
diluted previous to its employment.
DecoBion of barley. E.
Take of pearl-barley, two ounces; didilled water, four
pints. The barley being fird walhed with cold wa¬
ter from the adhering impurities, pour upon it about
half a pint of water, and boil the barley a little
time. This water being thrown away, add the di¬
dilled water, boiling, to the barley ; boil it to two
pints, and drain.
Compound decoBion of barley. E.
Take of the decoaion of barley, two pints; raifms,
Honed, figs, fliced, each two ounces; liquorice root,
diced and bruifed, half an ounce ; didilled water,
one pint. Boil t6 two pints, and drain.
379
380
38*
DecoBion for a clyfler. E.
57b Take of the dried leaves of mallow, one ounce ; dried
camomile-flowers, half an ounce; water, one pint.
Boil, and drain. r
I he title of this decoaion fufficiently exprefles its
ufe, as the balls of glyders. The ingredients ffiould
be very lightly boiled, or at lead the camomile flowers
"ffiould not be put in till towards the end, a part of
their virtue being foon lod by boiling.
DecoBion for fomentation. L.
377 Take of the drlcd leaves of fouthernwood, the dried
tops of fea wormwood, dried camomile flowers each
one ounce ; dried bay-leaves, half an ounce ; didilled
water, fix pints. Boil them a little, and drain.
Barley-water. E.
Take of pearl-barley, two ounces.; water, five pints,
rult waffi the barley from the mealy matter that
adheres to it with fome cold water ; then boil it a
little with about half a pint of freffi water, which
will acquire a confidcrable tinge from it. Throw
away this tinged water; put the barley into the five
pints of boiling water preferibed ; and continue the
boiling till half the water be waded.
Thefe liquors are to be drank freely as a diluter in
fevers and other diforders ; hence it is of confequence
that they ffiould be prepared fo as to be as elegant and
agreeable as polfible ; for this reafon they are inferred
in the phaimacopceia, and the feveral circumdances
which contribute to their elegance fet down ; if anT
one of them be omitted, the beverage will be lefs grate*
3 C 2 ful.
38a
3S8
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoli-
tions.
S*3
1384
3^5
V H A R M A C Y.
-
Part II*
ful. However trivial medicines of this clafs may ap¬
pear to be, they are of greater importance in the cure
of acute tiifeafes than many more elaborate prepara¬
tions.
Barley-water, however, is much more frequently
prepared by nurfes than apothecaries, particularly in
ics fhnple hate. The compound decodion contains a
large proportion of faccharine and mucilaginous mat¬
ter, and may be employed for the fame purpofes as
the deco&ion of marihmallows of the Edinburgh phar¬
macopoeia.
Dccoclion of the woods. E.
Take of guaiacum faw-duft, three ounces; raifins of
the fun, ftoned, two ounces ; faffafras wood, lhaved,
liquorice, diced, each one ounce; water, ten pounds.
Boil the guaiacum and raifins with the water, over a
gentle fire, to the confumption of one half; adding,
towards the end, the fafiafras and liquorice. Strain
out the liquor; and having fuffered it to reft for
fome time, pour off the clear from the feces without
expreffion
This deco&lon is very well contrived; and if its ufe
be duly continued, it will do great fervice in fome cu¬
taneous difeafes, iipwhat has been called foulnefs of
the blood and juices, and in fome diforders of the
breaftparticularly in phlegmatic habits. It may be
taken by itfelf to the quantity of a quarter of a pint
two or three times a day, or ufed as an afiiftant in a
courfe of mercurial or antimonial alteratives; the pa¬
tient in either cafe keeping warm, in order to promote
the operation of the medicine. The favv-duft expofes
a larger furface to the action of the water than the
{havings, dire&ed in the former edition of the pharma¬
copoeia.
Decoction of farfaparilla. L.
Take of the root of farfaparilla, fliced, fix ounces ; di-
ftilled water, eight pints. Macerate for two hours,
with an heat of about 195°; then take out the root,
and bruife it ; return the bruifed root to the liquor,
and again macerate it for two hours. Then, the
liquor being boiled to four pints, prefs it out, and
lira in.
This dece&icn is an article in very common ufe, par-
tieularly in venereal affe&ions. And there can be little
doubt, that by this proeefs the medical powers of the
farfaparilla are fully extradled. But it has of late been
much queftioned, whether this article be in any degree
jntitled to the high cbara&er which was once given
of it. Some, as we have already cbferved, are even
difpofed to deny its poffeffng any medical property
■whatever : but the general opinion is; that it has iome-
what of a diaphoretic efildt; and this effed is more
readily obtained when it is exhibited under the form
©fdecodion than under any other.
Compound decoftion of farfaparilla. L.
Take of the root of farfaparilla, fliced and bruifed, fix
ounces; bark of the root of faffafras, rafpings of
guaiacum-wood, liquorice root, bruifed, of each one
ounce ; bark of the root of mezereon, three drams ;
di(filled water, ten pints. Macerate, with a gentle
beat, for fix hours ; then boil it down to five pints,
adding, towards the end, the barkof the root of HtO*
meon, and ftrain the liquor.
This compound decodion is an elegant mode of pre- Prepara¬
paring an article once highly celebrated under the title ti,ons ail?
of the Lilhon diet drink. That formula, for a lone; time
after its firft introduction into Britain, was kept a fe- ,—^ 
cret ; but an account of the method ofpreparation was
at length publifhed in the Phylical and Literary Effavs
of Edinburgh, by Dr Donald Monro. And of the
formula there given, which is in many refpeds an un¬
chemical one, the prefent may juftly be confidered as
an improvement. Even in its original form, but ftill
more in the prefent llate, there can be no doubt, that
it furnilhes us with a very ufeful medicine, particularly
in thofe obftinate ulcers originating from venereal in¬
fection, which refill the power of mercury. And it
is highly probable, that its good effe&s principally de¬
pend on the impregnation it receives from the meze¬
reon. Perhaps, however, even thus improved, it is
more complicated and expenfive than is necefiary : at
lead we are inclined to thinkvthat every advantage de¬
rived from it may with equal eafe and certainty be
obtained from impregnating with the mezereon, in
the manner here directed, a fimple decoCtion of the
guaiacum, bardana, or althaea, without having recourl'e
to feveral articles, or employing one fo expeulive as the
farfaparilla.
Decoftion of fenela. E.
Take of feneka, or rattlefnake root, one ounce ; water, ^86
two pounds. Boil to fixteeri ounces, and ftrain.
The virtues of this decoction will be eafily under-
flood from thofe of the root from which it is prepared.
The dofe,in hydropic cafes, and rheumatic, or arthritic
complaints, is two ounces, to be repeated three or four
times a-day, according to its effeCt.
Deco Sion of elm. L.
Take of the frelh inner bark of elm, bruifed, four 3SJ
ounces; diddled water, four pints. Boil to two
pints, and drain.
It has been ehiedy, if not entirely, under this form
of decodlion, that the elm-baik has been employed for
combating thofe cutaneous eruptions againft which it
has of late been fo highly celebrated. Any experience
which we have had of it, however, in aClual praCtice,
by no means confirms the very favourable account
which fome have given of its ufe.
Mucilage of /larch. E.
Take of ftarch, three drams ; diddled water, one pint. 3S8
Rub the ftarch, by degrees adding the diddled wa¬
ter ; then boil it a little time.
The mucilage thus formed of ftarch is very ufeful
for anfwering thefe purpofes where a glutinous fub-
ftance is required, and in particular it is often fuceels-
fully employed under the form of glyfter.
Muc.lage of gum arabic.
Take of gum arabic, powdered, four ounces ; boiling 389-
diftillcd water, eight ounces. Rub the gum with
the water until it be diffolved. L.
Take of gum arabic, beat into powder, and warm wa¬
ter, each equal weights. Digeft, and frequently ftir
them till the gum be diflolved^ then prela the folu-
tion thtough Linen. E,
Part H. P H A R
Prepara- It is very necefiary to pafs the mucilage through
tion? and HneH,in order to free it from pieces of wood and other
tions*0^' “npuriti68* which always adhere to the gum ; the linen
i,- * may be placed in a funnel.
Mucilage of gum arabic is very ufeful in many ope¬
rations in pharmacy: itisalfo much ufed for properties
peculiar to thofe fubftances of its own clafs, and of all
the gums it feerns to be the pureft.
Mucilage of gum tragacanth. E.
390 Take of gum tragaeanth* powdered, one ounce ; hot
water, eight ounces. Macerate twenty-four hours ;
then mix them, by rubbing brilkly, that the gum
may be difi'olved; and prefs the mucilage through
* linen cloth.
This gum is more difficultly foluble in water than
gum arabic, and feems to be confiderably more ache-
five ; it is therefore fitter for forming troches, and
fuch like purpofes. It has been thought to be more
peculiarly vhat has been called a pedora/, than the
other gums; but this does not feem to be certainly
founded. This mucilage is perhaps preferable to the
foregoing in thcfe operations in pharmacy where much
tenacity is required ; as in the fufpenlion of mercury,
or other ponderous bodies.
Mucilage of quince-feed. L.
391 Take of feeds of the quince, one dram ; diftiiled wa¬
ter, eight ounces, by meafure. Boil with a flow
fire until the water thickens; then pafs it through
linen.
This is a pleafant foft mucilage, of a fomewhat
fweecifii tafte, and a light agreeable fmc-11: in thefe re-
fpedls, and in its eafy folubiliry in water, it differs
from the mucilage of gum tragacanth, to which fome
have fuppofed it fimilar : it has another difference, to
its difadvantage, being apt to grow mouldy in keep¬
ing.
• Compound irfufon of gentian. L.
392 Take of the root of gencian, one dram 5 fvefh outer-
rind of lemons, half an ounce ; dried outer rind of
Seville oranges, one dram and an half. Boiling wa¬
ter, 12 ounces, by meafuve. Macerate for an hour,
and llrain.
Bitter infujton. E.
Take of gentian root, half an ounce ; dried peel of
Seville oranges, one dram ; coriander feeds, half a
dram ; proof-fpirit, four ounces ; water, one pound.
Firft pour on the fpirit, and three hours thereafter
add the writer; then macerate without heat for a
night, and drain.
Thefe formulae do not materially differ. That of
the London college is the moft expeditions mode of
preparation ; but that of the Edinburgh college pcf-
feffes other advantages, which are in our opinion more
than fufficient to outweigh that circumffance.
In the former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeia the water was dire&ed to be boiling : this was at
lealt unnectffary, and was probably liable to the oh-
je&ions obferved againft deco£Hons. The proof-fpirit
is alfo an ufeful addition to the bitter infufion, as it
now Hands in the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia : befides
that it affiffs in exira&ing the refinous parts* and pre-
M A C Y. 389
ferving the infufion from fermentation, it communicates Prepara-
an agreeable pungency to the liquor. To anfwer intloJls an<^
fome meafure thefe intentions, it was formerly direfted
to add to the filtrated liquor a quantity of aromatic , -t »
water. This was certainly a piece of very bad phar¬
macy ; for, befides that the fpirit in this preparation,
when diluted with the water of the infufion, was now-
no longer able to retain the fufpended matter, it would
alfo difpofe the infufion to part with its proper extrac¬
tive mutter ; and in this way the refinous matter of the
aromatic water, and the gummy parts of the bitter
infufion, would both in fome degree feparate to the
bottom of the veffel. l^y the formula now laid down,
the infufion contains the different principles of the in¬
gredients in a manner more nearly approaching to their
natural and entire ffate.
Simple inffion of fenna. L.
Take of fenna, an ounce and a half; ginger, powder-
ed, cne dram ; boiling diffilled water, one pint.
Macerate them tor an hour in a covered vefl’el; and
the liquor being cold, llrain it.
This, although a fimple, is a very elegant infufion
of lenna, the ginger acting as an ufeful corrigent.
But if the fenna were employed to the quantity of a
dram and an half or two drams only, with the fame
menftruuin, in place of the quantity here ordered, it
would be a no lels ufetul medicine, and might be em¬
ployed for one dofe, as it is bell when frefh. Of the
prelent infufion, an ounce or two is a fufficient dofe.
Iartarized infufion of fenna. L.
Take of fenna, one ounce and a half; coriander feeds* 394.
bruifed, half an ounce ; cryllals of tartar, tw© drams;
diiliiled water, one pint. Diffolve the cryltals of
tartar by boiling in the water; then pour the water,
as yet boiling, on the fenna and feeds. Macerate
for an hour in a covered veffel, and llrain when
cold.
In the laff edition of the London pharmacopoeia
this had the n; me of infufum ftnna commune.
formerly an alkaline fait was ufed in the infufisn of
fenna inftead of the acid one here diredted. The firlt
was fuppofed to promote the operation of the medi¬
cine, by fuperadding a degree of purgative virtue of
its own, and by en: bling the water to extract fome,
what more from the capital ingredient than it would
be capable of doing by itfelf; while acids were alleged
to have rather a contrary effect. Experience, how¬
ever, has Sufficiently ffiown, that alkaline falts increafe
the effeefivenefs of the fenna, while cryffals of tartar
conli krably improve the colour of the infufion, and
likewile render the tafie to fome perfons iefs difagree-
aole. Soluble tartar Ihould feem a good ingredient to
theft kinds of compofitions, as it not only improves
the tafte, but promotes the purgative virtue of the
medicine : this addition alio renders the infufion lefa
apt to gripe,, or occafion flatulencies.
Infvfion of tamarinds with fenna. E.
Take of tamarinds, fix drams; cryftals of tartar, fenna,
each one dram ; coriander feeds, half a dram ; brown
fugarcandy, half an ounce; boiling water, eight
ounces. Macerate in a clofe earthen veffel which
hag not beej) vitrified with lead j ftir the liquor now
39£
V
P H A R
and tlien, and after It has ftood four hours flrain it.
It rr.ay alfo be made with double, triple, ^c. the
quantity of fenna.
Both this and the former infufions might be made
with cold water. By this means the aromatic quality
of the coriander feeds would probably be extracted in
a more perfect (late ; but the cryltals of tartar are fo
difficultly foluble in cold water, that for extempora¬
neous ufe it is in fome meafure necefiary to prepare
them in the manner here direfted. It is not indeed
probable, that when Inch foluble matters as acids and
i'ngar are preftnted to water, the water (hall be able to
extract fuch a quantity of the finer volatile part of
aromatics as to afford any coafiderable flavour to the
liquor. Where an aromatic is required, we would
therefore propofe, that fome agreeable aromatic water
ffiould be mixed with the liquor immediately before
fwallowing it; or that a quantity of aromatic oil fhould
be incorporated with the cold infufion by means of
gum, or a part of the fugar which might be referved
for that purpofe. It is a very neceffary caution not
to make this infufion in vdfels glazed with lead, other-
wife the acid might corrode the lead, and communicate
its poifonous effedls to the infufion.
Both thefe infufions are mild and ufeful purges; the
latter in particular is excellently fuited for delicate
ftomachs, at the fame time that it is very much calcu¬
lated for febrile and other acute difeafes. it is ob-
fervable, that fugar added to neutral falts rather in-
creafes than diminiffies their naufeoufnefs; but when
ufed along with an acid, fuch as tamarinds, or a fait
wherein the acid predominates, as in cryitals of tartar,
it is found very much to improve their tafte. The
acid in this infufion, or rather the combination of acid
and fweet, are found to cover the tafte of the fenna
very effe&ually: the aromatic ferves alio the fame
purpofe, but would perhaps be better applied in the
way above propdfed.
Infufion of the rofe. L.
'3q6 Take of red rofe-buds, the heels being cut off, half an
ounce ; vitriolic acid, diluted, three drams; boiling
diililled water, two pints and a half; double-refined
fugar, one ounce and a half. To the water, firil
poured on the petals in a glafs veffel, add the diluted
vitriolic acid, and macerate for half an hour. Strain
the liquor when cold, and add the fugar.
Infufon, commonly called tindure of rofes. E.
Take of red rofes, dried, one ounce; boiling water,
five pounds; vitriolic acid, one dram ; white fugar,
two ounces. Macerate the rofes with the boiling
water in an unglazed veffel four hours ; then having
poured on the acid, ftrain the liquor, and add the
fugar.
Some have dhe&ed the vitriolic acid to be dropped
upon the rofes before the water is put to them: but
this method is certainly faulty ; for fuch of the rofes
as this cauftic liquor falls on undiluted will be-burnt
up by it, and have their texture deftroyed. Others
have made an infufion of the rofes in water firft, and
then added the acid, from an apprehenfion, that if this
acid be added to the water, it would weaken its power
as a menftruum ; but whatever the acid fpiric will
hinder the water from extrading, it muft precipitate
fOjO
Prcpaa.
tions and
■Ccmipoii-
-cions.
M A C Y. • Part II.
if added afterwards; though, in this preparation, the Prepara-
vitriolic acid bears fo fmall a proportion to the water, *‘ons aIl^
that its effeds in this refped will be very little ; and 1
it appears to be of little confequence which of the two ---y — *
ways be followed, only that by the above formula the
'veffele are expofed a fhorter time to the adion of the
acid. The infufion ftiould be made in a glafs or ftone-
ware veffel, rather than a glazed earthen one ; for the
acid will be apt to corrode the glazing of the latter.
This infufion is of an elegant red colour, and makes
a very grateful addition to juleps in hasmorrhagies, and
in all cafes which require mild coolers and fubaftrin-
gents. It is fometimcs taken with bolufes or elec¬
tuaries of the bark, and likewife makes a good gargle.
But although in our pharmacopoeias it has its name
from the rofes, yet its virtues are to be afcribed chiefly,
or perhaps folely, to the vitriolic acid.
Infufion of rhubarb. E.
Take of rhubarb, half an ounce ; boiling water, eight
''ounces ; fpirituous cinnamon water, one ounce. Ma¬
cerate the rhubarb in a glafs veffel with the boiling
water for a night; then having added the cinnamon
water, ftrain the liquor.
In this infufion cold water might perhaps be em-
pldyed with advantage ; we alfo objed. to the fpiritu¬
ous cinnamon-water on the fame grounds as we did
before to the aromatic water in the bitter infufion of
the former edition of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.
This, however, appears to be one of the belt prepara¬
tions of rhubarb when defigned as a purgative ; water
extrading its virtue more effedually than either vinous
or fpirituous menftrua. In this refped rhubarb differs
from moft of the other vegetable cathartics; and we
think the London college might have given it a place
in their pharmacopoeia as well as the wine or tindure
of rhubarb.
Lime-'water.
Take of quicklime, half a pound ; boiling diftilled
water, twelve pints. Mix, and fet it afide in a
covered veffel for an hour; then pour off the liquor,
which keep in a clofe veffel. L.
Take half a pound of frefh-burnt quicklime, put it in¬
to an earthen veffel, and gradually fprinkle on it
four ounces of water, keeping the veffel fliut while
the lime grows hot and falls into powder; then pour
on it twelve pounds of water, and mix the lime
thoroughly with the water by ftirring. After the
lime has fublided renew the ilirring; and let this
be done about ten times, always keeping the veffel
ihut (during the ebullition), that the accefs of the
air may be the more effedually prevented. Laftly,
let the water be filtered through paper placed in &
funnel clofe fliut at its top; and it muft be kept in
very clofe veffels. E.
The reafon of adding the water by degrees to the
lime is, that when poured on at once it reduces the
external part to a kind of muddy fubftance, or foft
pafte, which in fome meafure defends the internal part
from being added on by the water. It does not appear
that the different proportions of water in the two
above prefcriptions occafion any fenfible difference in
the ftrength of the product: the quicklime is far from
yielding all its foluble parts to either proportion ; the
remainder
tions and
C’ompofi-
tions.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- remainder giving a flrong impregnation to many frefh
quantities of water, though not fo ftrong as to the firft.
The caution of keeping the water in clofe-ftopped veflels
ought to be ftriftly attended to; for in open ones the
calcareous matter difl’olved in the liquor foon begins to
feparate, and forms a white cruft on the furface. This
cruft is not of a faline nature, as fome have imagined j
but an tufipid earth, no longer mifcible with watery
liquors. The thepry of the produ&ion of this earth
wall be ealily underftood from what we have faid on
the article Fixed Air. The feparation firft takes
place at the furface, as being the part immediately ap¬
plied to the common air. As long as the cruft re-
mains entire, the clofcnefs of its texture fo excludes
the air, that the reft of the matter Hill remains im¬
pregnated with lime ; but when this pellicle is broken
1 y any means, it focn finks to the bottom, and ex-
poies a new furface for the feparation of the lime. In
this way a fucceffton of crufts and precipitations are
formed, till the whole of the once cauftic and foluble
quicklime is now found at the bottom of the veflel in
the ftate of a mild infoluhle earth, leaving the water
perfectly fniipid.
The formation of thefe crufts, and their fuccefiive
precipitations, are owing to the abforption of fixed
air, or aerial acid, from the atmofphere; and the mild
infoluhle ftate of thefe precipitations is alfo owing to
the fame caufe.
The diftilled water recommended by the London
College is certainly preferable to common fountain wa¬
ter ; the purity of which can rarely be depended on.
Lime-water has been thought of great fervice in
fcrofulous complaints; but perhaps on no very good
foundation. It has alfo been ufed both internally and
externally for various affeftions of the ftcin It feems
to be very confiderably aftringent, and has been ufeful
in fome kinds of alvine fluxes, in diabetes, leucorrhoea,
and in fundry other diforders proceeding from a laxity
or debility of the folids.
Its more common ufe is in affe&ions of the ftomach
accompanied with acidity and flatulence. For which
laft complaint, the mild or aerated earths are lefs
proper, or account of the feparation of air on their
meeting with an acid in the ftomach. Lime-wa¬
ter is alfo capable of diflblving mucus ; and may there¬
fore be ufed where a redundance of the inteftinal mu-
gus affords a nidus for worms, or gives rife to other
comp.amts. It has alfo been found, that lime-water
inje&ed into the anus immediately kills afcarides. The
lithi ntriptic powers of lime-water feem at prefent-to
be much doubted. Lime-water is given in dofes pro¬
portioned to the nature of the complaints; in fome
caits, as in diabetes, it may be given in divided por¬
tions to the extent of two quarts a-day. It is ufed
externally for waftiing what are called foul or ill-cmdi-
tion d ulcen ; it is alfo inje&ed into the vagina and other
parts affefted with preternatural difeharges from laxity.
1 he ufe ol lime-water in feui vy is very doubtful.
Vinegar of fquills.
$99
M A C Y.
quor, and fet it by that the feces may fubfide : laft-
ly, pour off the liquor, and add to it the fpirit. L.
Take of dried root of fquills, two ounces ; diftilled
vinegar, two pounds and a half; reftified fpirit
of wine, three ounces. Macerate the fquills with
the vinegar eight days; then prefs out the vinegar,
to which add the fpirit; and when the feces have
fubfided, pour off the clear liquor. E.
Vinegar of fquills is a medicine of great antiquity ;
we. find in a treatife attributed to Galen, an account
of its preparation, and of many particular virtues then
aferibed to it. It is a very powerful ftimulant, aperi¬
ent, and what is called an attenuant of tenacious juices ;
and hence it is frequently ufed, with great fuccefs,
in diforders of the bread occafioned by a load of thick
phlegm, and for promoting urine in hydropic cafes.
The dofe of this medicine is from a dram to half an
ounce : where crudities abound in the firft paffages, it
may be given at firft in a larger dofe, to evacuate them
by vomiting. It is moft conveniently exhibited along
with cinnamon, or other agreeable aromatic waters,
which prevent the naufea it would otherwife, even in
fmall dofes, be apt to occafion.
Aromatic vinegar. Suec,
Take of tops of rofemary, leaves of fage, each four
ounces; flowers of lavender, two ounces; cloves
two drams ; vinegar, eight pounds. Macerate for
four days, exprefs the liquor, and drain it.
This may be confidered as an elegant improvement
of what had formerly a place in the foreign pharma*
coposias, under the title of acetumprophylaBicuni, which
contained not only the prefent articles, but alio a con-
fufed farrago of others, as wormwood, rue, garlic,
cinnamon, &c.
It is faid, that during the plague at Marfeillcs, four
perfons, by the ufe of the acetum prophylafticum as a
prefervative, attended, unhurt, multitudes of thofe who
were infe&ed : that under colour of thofe fervices, they
robbed both the fick and the dead : and that one of them
being afterwards apprehended, faved himfelf from the
gallows by difeovering the remedy. Tlie preparation •
was hence called Vinaigre des quatre voleurs ; “ The
vinegar of the.four thieves.” It is not to be doubted
that vinegar, impregnated with antifeptie vegetables,
will contribute greatly to prevent the effe<fts of con¬
tagious air And in the prelent aromatic vinegar we
have a ftronger and better impregnation, than from the
numerous articles which were before employed. We
are far, however, from imagining that it will be able
to counteradf the contagion of the plague : but it may-
on different occafions be more powerful than vinegar
in its Ample ftate, for impregnating with antifeptic va¬
pours the chambers of the fick.
39*
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
Take of fquills, dried, one pound ; vinegar, fix pints ;
proof-fpintr half a pint. Macerate the fquills in
vinegar, with a gentle heat, in a gl .fs vefftl,
lor four-and-twenty hours; then prefa ont the H-
Vinegar of rofes. Suec.
Take of the flowers of red rofes dried, any quantity;
add to them twelve times their weight of vinegar.
Macerate for four days, and ftrain through paper.
This has been chiefly ufed for embrocating the head
and temples in fome kinds of headach, &c. in which
it has now and then been of fervice. It has alfo been
ufed for certain cafes of ophthalmia. But before it
3 can
qoo-
402
S93
P H A R
Prepsra- can be applied to tbc eyes, it will in general require to
tion* and |^e diluted with water.
Cortipoti-
i Vinegar of lead. Suec.
402 Take of litharge, triturated, half a pound ; vinegar,
two pounds. Digeft them together, frequently
flirring the mixture with a wooden rod, till the
colour of blue paper be not changed by the vinegar ;
preferve for ufe the clear liquor which is ahcve the
fedlment.
This liquor is of the fame nature with folutions of fu-
gar of lead, or acetatcd cerufe, as it is now called. It is
only ufedexternally aga'nft cutaneous eruptions,rednefs,
Inflammations, &c. But even in thefe cafes foriie think
it is not void of danger : and it is alleged, that there
are examples of its conbnued ufe having occafxoned
fun dry ill confequences. Of this, however, we are very
doubtful. But by means of the acetated cerufe every
purpofe to be anfwered by this may be accornplifhed.
This liquor differs only in the proportions from the
water of acetated litharge of the London pharfnaco-
poe.a.
Vinegar of colchicum. Rofs.
4.03 Take of the recent root of xolchicum cut into flices,
one ounce ; vinegar, one pound. Macerate w'th a
gentle heat for two days : then {train after flight
expreflion.
Although in our pharmacopoeias a place be given to
the oxymel and fyrup of colchicum, both of which are
formed from the vinegar, yet the vinegar itfelf is not
dire&ed to be kept in its feparate ftate : under this
form, however, it may often be employed with advan¬
tage.
Infvfon of Peruvian lark. Suec.
45.04 Take of Peruvian bark, bruifed, an ounce and a half;
river water, boiling, a pound and a half. Digefl:
for two hours, (baking the veffel frequently ; then
{train the liquor with expreffion.
The Peruvian bark, as we have already had occafion
to obferve, gives out its medical properties to water
not lefs readily in the way of infufion than of decoflion.
And in the former, the extradive matter is even more
in a {late of folution. A n infufion, however, not only
more elegant, but ftronger than the prefent, might
be obtained, from employing cold initead of boiling
water, and from continuing the maceration for a great¬
er length of time. But in whatever manner it be form¬
ed, an infufion will often fit on the ftomach, when
the bark either in fubftance or deco&ion cannot be re¬
tained.
Tar-water. Suec.
'-qp Take of tar two pounds; water, one gallon. Stir
them ftrongly together with a wooden rod ; and
after {landing to fettle for twelve hours, pour off
the water for ufe.
Tar-water has lately been recommended to the world
as a certain and fafe medicine in almoll all difeafes ;
a flow yet effedual alterative in cahexies, fcurvies,
chlorotic, hyfterical, hypochondriacal, and other chro-
siical complaints; and a fudden remedy in acute di-
ffempers which demand immediate relief, as pleurfies,
M A C Y. Pan Tf,
peripneumoniesj the fmall-pox, and
in general. The medicine, though
rior to the character that has been gi 7 tions
lefs in many cafes of confiderable utility : it fenfibly - —
raifes the pulfe ; and occafions fome conflderable eva¬
cuation, generally by perfpiration or urine, though
fometimes by (tool or vomit. Hence it is fuppofed to
a<ff by increafing the vis vitas, and enabling nature to
expel the morbific humours.
We {hall here infert, from tie firft public recommend-
er of this liquor (Bifliop Berkeley), fome obfervations
on the manner of ufing it. “ Tar-water, when right,
is not paler than French, nor deeper coloured than
Spanifli, white wine, and full as clear ; if there be not
a fpirit very fenfibly perceived, in drinking, you may
conclude the tar-water is not good. It may be drank
either cold or warm. In colics, I take it to be bell
warm. As to the quantity, in common chronical in-
difpofition?, a pint a-day may fuffice, taken on an
empty (tomach, at two or four times, viz. night and
morning, and about two hours after dinner and break-
fail : more may be taken by ftronger ftomachs. But
thofe who labour under great and inveterate maladies,
muft drink a greater quantity, at lead a quart every
twenty-four hours. All of this clafs muft have much
patience and perfeverance in the ufe of this, as well as
of all other medicine';, which, though fure, muft yet
in the nature of things be flow in the cure of invete-
terate chronical diforders. In acute cafes, fevers of
all kinds, it muft be drank in bed warm, and in great
quantity (the fever ftill enabling the patient to drink),
perhaps a pint every hour, which I jhave known to
work furprifing cures. But it works fo quick, and
gives fuch fpirits, that the patients often think them*
felves cured before the fever has quite left them.,>
Notwithftanding thefe encomiums, tar-water feems
to be faft lofing its reputation. It is not probable that
water can take up any of the more a&ive principles of
the tar; and it would perhaps be more convenient to
feparate its acid by diflillation, and mix it with water
occafionally : for it is pretty certain, that the water
can only take up the acid of the tar, perhaps charged
with a very fmall quantity of oily matter in the ftate
of an acid foap.
Decoflion of catechu. Gen:
Take of catechu, three drams; fpring-water, two 40§
pounds : boil it to one pound ; and add to the drain¬
ed liquor, of fyrup of quinces, three ounces.
This decodlion may be confidered as nearly fimflar
to the decodlum japonicum, and decoftum terrae ja-
ponicse of the former editions of our pharmacopeia r
and like thefe it will be found a very agreeable and
ufeful medicine in fluxes that are not critical or fymp-
tomatic, and in a weak lax ftate of the inteftines. A
fpoonful or two may be taken every hour, or oftener:
thus managed, it produces much better effefls than if
larger dofes are given at once. But for extra&ing the
powers of the catechu, boiling is not requifite. By
Ample infufion in warm water, all its adlive parts are
readily and completely diffolved. It may in this man¬
ner alio be readily united with cinnamon or other aro¬
matics. And an infufum japonicum is, we think, a
formula juftly intitled to a place in our pharmacop oeias.
4 C wAP-
all kinds of fevers Prepara^
certainly far infe- t‘ons ar1^
Part II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Corn peti¬
tions.
4©7
P H A R
Chap. XX. Medicated IVines.
' , ^HE original intention of medicated wines wag,
that medicines, which were to be continued for a
length of time, might be taken in the moft familiar
and agreeable form y by this means a courfe of reme¬
dies was complied with, notwithftanding the repug.
nance and averfion which the lick often manifelt to
thofe direffly furnilhed from the /hops ; and hence
the inferior fort of people had their medicated ales.
Neverthelefs, as vinous liquors excellently extraft the
virtues of feveral fimples, and are not ill fitted for
Keeping, they have been employed as officinal men-
llrua alfo ; and fubftances of the greateft efficacy are
trufted in this form. As compounds of water and in-
flammable fpirit, they take up fuch parts of vegetables
and animals as are loluble in thofe liquors; though
moft of them abound at the fame time with a mucila¬
ginous or vifeous fubftance, which renders them lefs
dfe&ual menftrua than purer mixtures of water and
ipint. They contain likewife a fubtile acid, which
lomewhat further obftru&s their a&ion on certain ve¬
getable and animal matters; but enables them, in pro¬
portion to its quantity, to dilfolve fome bodies of the
metallic kind, and thus impregnate themfelves with
the corroborating virtues of fteel, the alterative ard
emetic powers of antimony, and the noxious qualities
of lead.
To all the medicated wines, after they have been
ftrained, you may add about one-twentieth their quan-
tity of proof fpint, to preferve them from fermenta-
tion. f hey may be conveniently kept in the fame
kind of glafs bottles that wines generally are for com¬
mon ufes, which fhould likewife be corked with the
fame care.'
Wine of aloes. L,.
408 Take of f icotorine aloes, eight ounces; white canella,
commonly called winter's barh, two ounces; Spa-
mfh white wine, fix pints; proof-fpirit, two pints.
I owder the aloes and white canella feparately; when
mixed, pour on them the wine and fpirit: after¬
wards digeft for fourteen days, now and then fha-
king them ; laftly, ftrain. It will not be amifs to
mix white land, cleanfed from impurities, with the
powder, in order to prevent the moiftened aloes from
getting into lumps.
■dloetic wine, or /acred tinSure. E.
Take of focotorine aloes, one ounce ; lefTer cards-
mom feeds, ginger, each one dram ; Spanilh white
wrne, twe pounds. Digeft for feven days, rtirring
now and then, and afterwards ftrain. 6
i his medicine has long been in great efteem, not
7 j8r? ,C?thar|tI,c’ but hkewife as a ftimulus ; the
wme d.fTolving all that part of the aloes in which thefe
qualities refide, a portion only of the lefs a£ive reli-
nen, matter being left The aromatic ingredients are
the U n, Warmr TC n;edlcine’ ^ Somewhat alleviate
. the Hi flavour cf the aloes: white canella, er cloves, are
laid, among numerous materials that have been uied
toanfwer this end the moft fuccefsfully ; hence the
;Lto?;oTc0oVehg:.f01lll£r°fthefe int0 lhe f0imulaof
Vol XIV. Part f.
M A C Y. 3g3
The facred tinfture appear from long experience to Prepara-
be a medicine of excellent fervice ia languid, phleg-tjons and
matic habits, not only for cleanfing the prims vis,
but likewife for ftimulatmg the folids, warming the ^ — *
habit, promoting or exciting the uterine purgations,
and tlie hsmorrhoidal flux. The dofe, as a purgative,
is from one to two ounces or more. It may be intro¬
duced into the habit, fo as to be produftive of excel¬
lent effeas, as an alterant, by giving it in fmall dofes,
at proper intervals : thus managed, it does not for a
coniiderable time operate remarkably by ftool; but at
length proves purgative, and occafions a lax habit of
much longer continuance than that produced by the
other common cathartics.
Bitter wine. E.
lake of root of gentian, half an ounce: Peruvian 4©o
bark, one ounce ; Seville orange-peel, dried, two
drams; white canella, one dram ; proof fpirit, four
ounces; Spaniih white-wine, two pounds and a half.
Firft pour on the fpirit, after twenty-four hours add
the wine ; then macerate for three days, and ftrain.
This wine is intended to fuppiy the place of the
ftomachic tinfture, as it was formerly called. The
wine is a menftruum fully capable of extra&ing the
aiftive powers of the different ingredients ; and it fup-
phes us with a very ufeful and elegant ftomachic me-
dicine, anfwering the purpofes intended much better
than the celebrated elixir of Van Helmont, and other
unchemical and uncertain preparations, which had for¬
merly a place in our pharmacopoeias.
Wine of antimony. E.
Take of vitrified antimony, powdered, one ounce ;
Spanilh white wine, a pint and an half. Digeft for
twelve days, frequently lhaking the veffel, and filter
the wme through paper.
Antimonial wine. E.
Tate of glafs of antimony, finely powdered, one , ro
ounce ; Spamfti white wine, fifteea ounces. Ma- 4
cerate for three days, ftirring them now and then,
and afterwards ftrain the liquor through paper
However carefully the fettling and decantation are
performed, the filtration of the wine through paper
appears to be neceffary, left fome of the finer partsof
the glafs fhould chance to remain fufpended in fub-
itance. It is not here, as in moft other wines and
tinctures, where the matter left undiffolved by the men-
ftruum is of little confequence ; the aitfimonial glafs,
a.ter the afticn of the wine, continues as virulent as
ever, and capable of impregnating frelh parcels of the
liquor as ftrongly as the firft, and this, in appearance'
inexhauftibly. After thirty repeated infufions, it has
been found fcarce fenfibly diminifhed in weight
The antimonial wine poffeffes the whole virtues of
that mineral, and may be fo dofed and managed as to
perform all that can be effeAed by any antimonial pre¬
paration ; with this advantage, that as the adive pare
0 .Jh.f ,antl.mony 18 1,ere already diffolved and rendered
mifcible with the animal fluids, its operation is more
certain Gwen from ten to fifty or fixty drops, it
generally ads as an alterative and diaphoretic • in lar
ger dofes, as a diuretic and cathartic ; while three or
four drams prove for the moft part violently emetic.
5D it
394
Prepara¬
tions ard
Compofi*
tions.
411
412
P H A
It has been chiefly ufcd with this laft intention, in
fome maniacal and apopleftic cafes; and hence it
gained the name of emetic Tvine.
The quantity of the reguline part n?uft, however,
vary according to the proportions of the acid matter in
different wines, and the operation of the medicine muft
be thereby lefs certain in degree ; the vitrum is pre¬
ferable to the crocus for making this preparation. See
the different preparations of Antimony.
Wine of tartarized antimony. L.
Take of tartarized antimony, two fcruples; boiling
diftilled water, two ounces; Spanifh white wine,
eight ounces ; diffolve the tartarized antimony in
the boiling diftilled water, and add the wine.
Wine of antimonial tartar. E.
Take of antimonial tartar, commonly called emetic tar¬
tar, twenty-four grains; and diffolve it in a pound
of Spanifh white wine.
Watery folutions of emetic tartar, on ftanding, pre¬
cipitate a part which is lefa completely in a faline (late ;
by this means, and efpecially if the folution be not
fhaken before nfing it, the dofe of that medicine is
fomewhat ambiguous : in the above formula, the acid
matter of the wine increafes the faline ftate of the an¬
timony, and therefore its folubility, whereby the ope¬
ration of the medicine is more certain, and in many
cafes more powerful. From the certainty of its efFe&s,
this preparation might be very convenient in large
hofpitals or armies, where great numbers of the fick,
and inaccurate nurfing, frequently occafion an uncer¬
tain or dangerous praftice.
In the formula employed by the Edinburgh college,
each ounce of the wine contains two grains of the tar¬
tarized antimony ; but in that of the London college,
each ounce of the menftruum contains four grains :
hence, while an ounce of the one may be employed for
exciting full vomiting, the fame quantity c*f the other
would be too ftrong a dofe. It is much to be regret¬
ted, that, in articles of this aftive nature, the propor¬
tions employed by the two colleges ftiould differ fo
confiderably : and it would perhaps have been better,
had the London college adopted the proportions em¬
ployed by that of Edinburgh, as they have followed
them in adopting this formula.
Wine of iron. L.
Take of filings of iron, four ounces ; Spanifh white
wine, four pints. Digeft for a month, often fhaking
the veffel, and then ftrain.
This formula of the London pharmacopoeia is now
not only fimplified, but improved, when compared
with their former vinum chalyleatum: for the cinnamon
and other articles which were then conjoined with the
iron, were certainly rather prejudicial than otherwife ;
but at the fame time, Rhenifli wine, formerly employ¬
ed, is perhaps to be confideted as a better menftruum
than the Spankh wine now direfted. It may ftill,
however, be juftly confidered as a good chalybeate;
and we think the Edinburgh college have done wrong
in rejebling the formula from their pharmacopceia.
By the London college it was formerly prepared by
maceration, without heat; now, however, they direbl
digeftion for the fpace of a month. Some have ob*
R M A C Y.
Part II,
jefted to the ufe of heat, that it impregnated the wine Prepara-
more ftrongly with the metal, and thus rendered it^ a^‘
more unpleafant to the tafte : but if this was the only tioiJ
inconvenience, the remedy would be eafy, diluting it ■
with more wine. Ideat has another effect, much lefs
defirable, and which art cannot remedy ; making a
difagreeable alteration in the quality of the wine it-
felf; hence it is neceffary that it fhould be very mo-
derate. ,
Steel-wine is a very ufeful preparation of this metal,
and frequently exhibited in chlorotic and other indif-
pofmons where clralybeates are proper.^ Boerhaave
recommends it as one of the nobleft medicines he was
acquainted with for promoting that power in the body
by which blood is made, when weakened by a bare
debility of the over-relaxed folids, and an indolent,
cold, aqueous indifpofition of the juices ; for in this
cafe, fays he, no virtue of any vegetable or animal
fubftance, no diet, nor regimen, can effeft that which
is effe&ed by iron : but it proves hurtful where the
vital powers are already too ftrong, whether this pro¬
ceeds from the fluids or the folids. The dofe is from
a dram to half an ounce ; which may be repeated
two or three times a-day.
Some direa folutions of iron, made in wine or other
vegetable acids, to be evaporated to the confidence of"
an extrad, under the title of extraBum martis. Thefe
preparations have no advantage, in point ot virtue,
above the common chalybeates;-though in fome forms,
that of pills in particular, they may be rather more
commodioufly exhibited than moft of the officinal cha-
lybeates.of equal efficacy. They may be made into
pills by themfelves, and are tenacious enough to re¬
duce other fubftances into that form.
Wine of ipecacuanha.
L.
Wine, or tinBure, of ipecacuanha.
E.
Take of the root of ipecacuanha, bruifed, two ounces; 4T3
Spanifh white wine, two pints. Digeft for ten days,
and ftrain.
Tak? of ipecacuanha, in powder, one ounce ; Spanifh
white wine, fifteen ounces. After three days ma¬
ceration, let the tindlure be filtrated for ufe.
Both thefe wines are very mild and fafe emetics,
and equally ferviceable in dyfenteiies alfo with the ipe¬
cacuanha in fubftance; this root yielding nearly ail its
virtues to the Spanifh white vine here ordered, as it
does a good fhare of them even to aqueous liquors.
The common dofe is an ounce, more or lefs, according
to the age and ftrength of the patient. The college
of Edinburgh added formerly a fcruple of cochineal,
which imparts a fine red colour to the liquor : this ar¬
ticle is now omitted, on a complaint that the red co¬
lour of the matters evacuated fometimes alarmed the
patient, as if it proceeded from a difeharge of blood.
Wine of millepeds. E,
Take of live millepede, bruifed, one ounce ; Rhenifli
wine, eight ounces. Infule them together for twelve
hours, and afterwards prefs the liquor through a
ftrainer.
This wine has been commended ss an admirable
cleanfer of all the vifeera, yielding to nothing in the
iaundri£e aad obftru&ions of the kidneys or urinary
J ^ paffages.
414
tionsand
Coropoli-
tions.
Part IF. P H A R
Prepara- paffages, of excellent ferviee in almoft all chronical di-
ftemperp, even in fcrofulous and llruraous 1'wdlings,
and in defluxione of rheum upon the eyes. But thofe
—y—- who expeded thefe extraordinary virtues from it have
often been deceived; and at prefent there are few who
have any great dependence on it; and hence it is omit¬
ted by the London college, probably without any lofs.
It is diredled to be given from half an ounce to two
ounces.
Wine of rhubarb. L.
415 Take of fiiced rhubarb, two ounces and an half; lefltr
cardamom-feeds, bruifed and hulked, half an oum-e;
faffron, two drams ; Spanilh white wine, two pints;
proof-fpirit, eight ounces. Digeft for ten days, and
drain.
MAG Y. 39y-
!ntended that the fqnills Ihould exert their effects, not^'epara-
on the alimentary canal, but on the kidneys or othertl0ns anc*
excretories. Compoa*
tions.
Zedoary wine. Dan. ”
418
Take of the root of zedoary, gently bruifed, two
pounds ; fpirit of vu'ne, eight pounds. Let them
he macerated for a month ; then add fpring water,
eight pounds. Biftil from thence twelve pounds.
Though this formula has the name of a wine, yet
it is in reality a diltilled fpirit, nothing from the ze¬
doary but a portion of its elfential oil being united
with the ardent fpirit r and we are inclined to think,
that the aftive powers of this article, both as depend¬
ing on aroma and bitternefs, might be better obtained
by a fimple infufion in Spanilh white wine.
Rhubarb-wine-. E.
Take of rhubarb, two ounces; white canella, one dram;
proof-fpirit, two ounces; Spanilh white wine, fif¬
teen ounces. Macerate for feven days, and drain.
By a Hilling the folvent power of the menftruum,
the proof-ipirit in the above formulas is a very ufeful
addition. This is a warm, cordial, laxative medicine.
It is 11 fed chiefly in weaknefs of the ftomach and bowels,
and feme kinds of loofenefies, for evacuating the of¬
fending matter, and firengthening the tone of the vif-
cera. It may be given from half a fpoonful to three
or four fpoonfuls or more, according to the circum-
ftances of the diforder, and the purpefes it is intended
to anfwer.
7"obacco - wine.
426 Take of the dried leaves of the bed Virginian tobacco,
one ounce ; Spanilh white wine, one pound. Ma¬
cerate for four days, and then drain the liquor.
We have already, under the article Nicotiana,
offered feme obfervations on its late introdu&ion into
practice by Dr Fowler, as a very ufeful remedy in
the cure of dropfies and dyfiwies. From his trea-
tife on that fubjedt the prefent formula is taken ; and
we may obferve, that while in pradlice we have
frequently experienced from the tobacco thofe good
effects for which Dr Fowler recommends it, we are
inclined to give the prefent formula the preference
to every other which he has propofed. It feems to
extradf more fully the a&ive principles of the tobacco
than either water or fpirit taken feparately. For fur¬
ther obfervations on the medical virtues of tobacco, fee
the article Nicotiana.
Squill-wine. Suec.
Take of dried fquill, diced, one ounce; ginger, one
dram ; French white wine, two pounds. Macerate
for three days, and then drain.
By the wine employed as a mendruum, the adtive
properties of the fqmlls may be readily extrafted; and
in fome cafes at lead the prefent formula may judly
be confidered as intitled to a preference over either the
vinegar or oxymel of {quills, which have a pla-e in our
pharmacopoeias. The ginger here added to the fquilla
operates as an ufeful corrigent; and on this account
the prefent formula is preferable to the fquill-wine of
fome other pharmacopeias, where the fquilis alone arc
Hied; For rt is chiefly ufed in thofe cafes where it is
Chap. XXI. Tinhhires.
Rectified fpirit of wine h? the diredt menftruum of ^Xrt I
the refins and effential oils of vegetables, and totally ^ ^ '
extradts thefe adri've principles from fundry vegetable
matters, which yield them to water either not at all,
or only in part. It diffolves likewife the fweet faccha-
rine matter of vegetables; and generally thofe parts of
animal bodies in which their peculiar fmell and tafte
refide.
The virtues of many vegetables are extradled almoft
equally by water and redlified fpirit ; but in the wa¬
tery and fpirituous tin&ures of them there is this dif¬
ference, that the adtive parts in the watery excradtions
are blended with a large proportion of inert gummy
matter, on which their folubility in this menfiruum in a
great meafure depends, while redlified fpirit extradls
them almoft pure from gum. Hence, when the fpiri¬
tuous tindlures are mixed with watery liquors, a part
of what the fpirit had taken up fro>t the fubjedl gene¬
rally feparates and fnbfides, on account of its having
been freed from that matter which, being blended
wilh it in the original vegetable, made it foluble in
water. This, however, is not univerfal; for the ac¬
tive parts of fome vegetables, when extradled by redli-
lied fpirit, are not precipitated by water, being almoft
equally foluble in both menftrua.
Redlified fpirit may be tinged by vegetables of all
colours except blue : the leaves of plants in general,
which give out but little of tfreir natural colour to wa¬
tery liquors, communicate to fpirit the whole of their
green tindlure, which for the molt part proves elegant*
though not very durable.
Fixed alkaline falls deeperr the colour of fpirituous
tindlures ; and hence they have been fuppofed to pro¬
mote the diffolving power of the menftruum, though
this does not appear from experience: in the trials that
have been made to determine this affair, no more was
found to be taken up in the deep-coloured tindlures
than in the paler ones, and often not fo much : if the
alkali be added after the extradion of the tindlure, it
will heighten the colour as much as when mixed with
the ingredients at firft. Nor does the addition of thefe
falls make tindlures ufftefs only, but likewife pre¬
judicial, as they in general injure the flavour of aro¬
matics, and fuperadd a quality, fometimes contrary to
the intention of the medicine. Volatile alkaline falts,
in many cafes, promote the adllon of the fpirits. A-
3^2 cids
396
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
42°
421
PHARMACY.
Parc II.
elds generally weaken it; unlefs when the acid hasf
been previoufly combined with the vinous fpirit into
a compound of new qualities, called dulcified fpirit.
loads itfelf with the latter, fo as fcarcely to take up Prepara-
TinBurc of wormwood. E.
Take of the flowering tops of wormwood, properly
dried, four ounces; reftitied fpirit of wine, two
pounds. Macerate for two days ; then prefs out
the fpirit, and pour it on two ounces of wormwood.
Macerate again for four days ; then prefs the. tinc¬
ture through a cloth, and afterwards drain it through
paper.
The aromatic parts of wormwood arc more efpe-
cially found in the flowering tops, and its bitternefs in
the leaves : but as the latter are replete with a muci¬
laginous matter, which might impede the a&ion of the
menftruum on the aromatic parts in this very elegant
formula, the flowering tops are infufed firft, and their
tin&ure made to extradl the bitter parts of the leaves
and ftalks. This preparation may therefore be con-
fidered as containing the whole virtues of the plant.
In the tinfture of wormwood we have one of the
ftrongeft of the vegetable bitters. It is fometimes ufed
as an anthelmintic, and ftill more frequently in fto-
mach ailments: But to moft people it is a very difa-
greeable medicine.
Tindure of aloes. L.
Compound tinEIure of aloes. E.
422
any of the myrrh ; while a tin&ure, extra&ed firtt “ons anc*
1 1 -   - mpofi-
from the myrrh, readily diflblves a large quantity of,
the others. The alkaline fait, commonly ordered in ,
thefe preparations with a view to promote the diflb-
lution of the myrrh, we have already obferved to be
ufelefs ; and accordingly it is now omitted. Inftead
of employing the reftified fpirit alone, the Edinburgh
college have ufed an equal portion of proof-fpirit,
which is not only a more complete menftruum, but
alfo renders the medicine lefs heating.
This medicine is highly recommended, and not un-
defervedly, as a warm ftimulant and aperient. It
ftrengthens the ftomach and other vifeera, cleanfes the
firft paffages from tenacious phlegm, and promotes the
natural fecretions in general. Its continued ufe haa
frequently done much fervice in cache&ic and ifteric
cafes, uterine obftru6tions, and other fimilar diforders £
particularly in cold pale phlegmatic habits. Where
the patient is of a hot bilious confutation and floriu
complexion, this warm ftimulating medicine is lefs pro»
per, and fometimes prejudicial. The dofe may be
from twenty drops to a tea-fpoonful or more, two or
three times a-day, according to the purpofes which it
is intended to anfwer.
Take of focotorine aloes, powdered, half an ounce ;
extra# of liquorice, an ounce and an half; diftiiled
water, proof-fpirit, of each eight ounces. Digeft
in a fand-bath, now and then (baking the veflel, un¬
til the extra# be diffolved, and then ftrain.
In this fimple tin#ure all the a#ive parts of the
aloes, whether of a gummy or refinous nature, are
fufpended in the menftruum. The extra# of liquorice
ferves both to promote the fufpenfion and to cover the
tafte of the aloes; and in thefe cafes where we wifh
for the operation of the aloes alone, without the aid
either of an adjuvans or corrigens, this is perhaps one
of the beft formulae under which aloes can be exhibited
in a fluid ftate.
Take of tin#ure of myrrh, two pints ; faffron, foco¬
torine aloes, of each three ounces. Digeft for eight
days, and (train. •
Elixir of aloest commonly called e/ixir proprietatis. E.
Take of myrrh in powder, two ounces ; focotorine
aloes, an dunce and a half; Englifh faffron, one
ounce ; re#ified fpirit of wine, proof-fpirit, of each
one pound. Digeft the myrrh with the fpirit for
the fpace of four days ; then add the aloes in pow¬
der, and the faffron ; continue the digeftion for two
days longer, fuffer the feces to fubfide, and pour off
the clear elixir.
Thefe two formulae, though the mode of prepara¬
tion be fomewhat varied, do not materially differ from
each other; and both may be confidered as being the
e/ixir proprietatis of Paracelfus, improved with regard to
the manner of preparation. The myrrh, faffron, and
aloes, have been ufually dire#ed to be digefted in the
fpirit together : by this method, the meeftruum foon
Vitriolic elixir of aloes, or proprietatis. E.
Take of myrrh, focotorine aloes, each an ounce and
a half; Englifh faffron, one ounce ; dulcified fpirit
of vitriol, one pound. Digeft the myrrh with the
fpirit for four days in a clofe veffel ; then add the
faffron and aloes. Digeft again four days; and when
the feces have fubfided pour off the elixir.
The Edinburgh college have reformed this prepara¬
tion confiderably; and efpecially by dire#ing the
myrrh to be digefted firft, for the famereafons as were
obferved on the preceding article. Here the dulcified
fpirit of vitriol is very judicioufly fubftituted for the
fpirit of fulphur, ordered in other books of pharmacy
to be added to the foregoing preparation ; for that
ftrong acid precipitates from the liquor great part of
what it had before taken up from the other ingredients;
whereas, when the acid is previoufly combined with
the vinous fpirit, and thereby dulcified, as it is called,
it does not impede its diffolving power. This elixir
poffeffes the general virtues of the preceding, and is,
in virtue of the menftruum, preferred to it in hot con-
ftitutions and weakneffes of the ftomach.
dramatic tincture. E.
423
Take of cinnamon, fix drams: leffer cardamom feeds,
one ounce ; garden-angelica root, three drams; long
pepper, two drams; proof-Ipirit, two pounds and an
half. Macerate for fev-en days, and filter the tinc¬
ture. ,
This preparation is improved from the preceding
editions by the omiflian of fome articles, either fuper-
fluous or foreign to the intention ; galangal, gentian,
zedoary, bay-berries, and calamus aromaticus. As
now reformed, it is a fufficiently elegant warm aro¬
matic.
This very warm aromatic is too hot to be given with¬
out dilution. A tea-fpoonful or two may be taken in
wine or any other convenient vehicle, in languor^
6 vieak-
424
Part IT. P H A R
Prepara- weaknefs of the flomach, flatulencies, and other Ami
me uumacn, naiuiencies, ana otner nmi-
nTrW? Iar comPlaint8; and in thefe cafes it is often employed
Compofi- with advantage. 1
L.
lions.
425
426
427
Tindure of afafxlida.
Take of afafcetida, four ounces ; reftified fpirit of
wine, two pints. Digeft with a gentle heat for fix
days, and itrain.
Fetid tindure. E,
Take of afafcetida, two ounces; vinous fpirit of fal
ammoniac ®ne pound. Macerate for fix days in a
clofe fliut veflel, and drain.
Of thefe two formulae, the lift is perhaps moft ge¬
nerally ufeful: The vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac is
not only a more powerful menftruum than the reftified
ipint of wine, but alfo coincides with the general vir¬
tues ot the remedy.
■ rT/1'8 t*n^ure poflefles the virtues of the afafcetida
Jtfelf; and may be given from ten drops to fifty or
fixty. It was firft propofed to be made with proof-
fpint ; this diflblves more of the afifoetida than a rec¬
tified one ; but the tinfture proves turbid; and there-
tore reftified fpirit, which extracts a transparent one,
J8 very juftly preferred where ardent fpirit is to be em¬
ployed : and with this menftruum we can at lealt ex¬
hibit the afafcetida in a liquid form to a greater ex¬
tent.
Tindure of half am of Peru. L.
Take of balfam of Peru, four ounces; re&ified fpirit
of w-ne, one piut. Digefl until the balfam be dif-
iolved.
The whole of the Peruvian balfam is cliffolved by
fpirit of ume : this therefore may be confidered as a
good method of freeing it from its impurities ; while
at the fame time it is thus reduced to a ft ate under
winch it may be readily exhibited : but at prefent it
us very Itttle employed, unlefs in compofition, either
under this or any other form.
M A C Y.
rit of wine, two pounss. Digeft them in a fand Prep
heat for the fpace of ten days, and then ftrain the tions
balfam. Com
Although the London college have changed the —
name oi this cocnpofition, yet they have made very
little alteration on the formula which, in their laft edi¬
tion, had the name of Traumatic balfam ; a name which
it ftill retains in the Edinburgh pharmacopceia ; and
both may be confidered as elegant contraaions of fome
very complicated compofitions, which were celebrated
under different names; fuch as Baume de Comman-
deur, Wade’s balfam, Friar’s balfam, Jefuit’s drops,
&c. 1 hefe, in general, confided of a confufed far¬
rago of difcordant fubftances. They, however, de¬
rived confiderable aftivity from the benzoin and aloes>;
ana every thing to be expended from them may readily
be obtained from the prefent formulse.
I he compound tiniturc of benzoin, or traumatic
balfam, ftands highly recommended, externally, for
cleanfing and healing wounds and ulcers, for difcuf-
ling cold tumors, allaying gouty, rheumatic, and
ocher old pains and aches ; and likewife internally,
for warming and ftrengthening the ftomach and in-
te(tines, exPehing flatulencies, and relieving colic com¬
plaints. Outwardly, it is applied cold on the part
with a feather ; inwardly, a few drops are taken at a
time, in wine or any other convenient vehicle.
There is, however, reafon to think that its virtues
have been cocfiderably over-rated ; and at prefent it
is much lefs employed than formerly, recourfe being
chiefly had to it in cafes of recent wounds, with the
view of flopping haemorrhagies, and of promoting
healing by the firft intention, as it is called.
Tindure qf balfam of Tolu.
Take of balfam of Tolu, one ounce and an half; rec¬
tified ipmt of wine, one pint. Digeft until the bal-
iam be dmolved, and ftrain. L.
Take of balfam of Tolu, an ounce and an half; re&i-
hed fpirit of wine, one pound. Digeft until the
brdfam be duTolveo, and then ftrain the tindure. F
1 his folution of balfam of Tolu poffeffes all the vir-
‘“'f °,f'h; ballf? I* be tsken internally,
th the feveral intentions for which that valuable bal-
iam is proper, to the quantity of a tea-fpoonful or two
in any convenient vehicle. Mixed with the plain fy.’
rup of iugar, it forms an elegant belfamic fyrup.
Compound tindure of benzoin. L.
4-8 Take of benzoin, three ounces; ftorsx ftrained two
ounces; bslfam of Tolu, one ounce; focoior,"e
a.oee, half an ounce; reftified fpirit of wine, two
aCLi^ W'th h'« three daysi
Traumatic balfam. E.
Take of benzoin, three ounces; balfam of Peru two
ounces; hepat.c aloes, half an ounce; reSified ipX
Tindure of the Spani/h Jlj.
Take of bruifed cantharides, two drams; cochineal, 423
powdered half a dram ; proof-fPirit, one pint and
an half. Digeft for eight days, and ftrain. L.
lake of cantharides, one dram; proof-fpirit, one
p<iund. Digeft for four days, and ftrain through
paper. R. s
Thefe tindures pofTefs the whole virtues of the fly
and are the only preparations of it defigned for inter-
mu ufe : tindures being by far the moft commodious
and fate form for the exhibition of this adive drug
Ihe two tindures are fcarcely different in virtue from
each other. I he cochineal is ufed only as a colour¬
ing ingredient: die gum-guaiacum, camphor, and ef-
kntial oil of jumper-berries, which were formerly a !-
ded, however well adapted to the intentions of cure,
could be of little conftquence in a medicine limited
to fo fmdl a dofe. If any additional fubftances fhould
be thought reqmfite for promoting the effed of the
cantharides, whether as a diuretic, as a detergent in
ulcerations of the> urinary paffages, or as a fpeci^c
leiirmgent or femmal gleets and the fluor albus, they
are more advantageoufly joined extemporaneoufly lo
the tindure, or interpofed by themfelves at proper in¬
tervals. The ufual dofe of thefe tindures is from
ten to twenty drops ; which may be takeo-in a dafs
of water, or any other more agreeable liquor, twice
a day and increafed by two or three drops at a time
according to the effed. *
The tindure of cantharides has of late been highly
celebrateu as a fuceefsful remedy in diabetic caffes j
and
39s
prepara¬
tions and
Composi¬
tions.
430
P H A R
anil in fome inftances of this kind, its life has iie.n
puHied to a very confiderable extent, without giving
rife to any ftrangurious affeaions : But we have not
, found it productive of a change for the better m any
of thofe cafes of diabetes in which we have tried it.
431
■43 2
433
Tincture of cardamom.
Take of leffer cardamom feeds, huflced and bruifed>
three ounces ; proof-fpirit, tv\ro pints. Digelt tor
eight days, and flrain. L. .
Trk'e of leffer cardamom feeds, fix ounces; prooMpi-
rit, two pounds and a half. Macerate for eight
days, and (train through paper. E.
TinCture of cardamom has been in me .or a con¬
fiderable time. It is a pleafant, warm cordial; and
may be taken, along vvith any proper vehicle, from a
dram to a fpoonful or two.
Compound tinBure of cardamom. L.
Take of letter cardamom feeds, hufieed, caraway-feeds,
cochineal, each, powdered, two drams ; cinnamon,
bruifed, half an ounce ; raifins, ftoned, four ounces;
proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft for fourteen days,
and drain. .
This tinfture contains fo fmall a proportion ot car¬
damoms as to be hardly intitled to derive its name
from that article ; and from the large proportion ot
raifins which it contains, the influence of the aroma¬
tics mult be almoft entirely prevented, while, at the
fame time, from thefe it cannot be fuppofed to obtain
any aftive impregnation.
TinBure of cafcarilla. L.
Take of the bark of cafcarilla, powdered, four ounces;
proof-fpirit, two pints Digeft with a gentle heat
for eight days, and (train. #
Proof-fpirit ‘readily extracts the aftive powers of the
cafcarilla; and the tin&ure may be employed to an-
fwer mod of thofe purpofes for which the bark, itfelt
is recommended: But in the cure of intermittents, it
in general requires to be exhibited in fubftance.
TinBure of cajlor.
Take of Ruffia caftor, powdered, two ounces 5 proof-
fpirit, two pints. Digeft for ten nays, and (train.
Take of Ruffia caftor, an ounce and a half; recti¬
fied fpirit of wine, one pound ; digelt them with
gentle heat for fix days, and afterwards (tram off
An alkaline fait was formerly added in this laft pre-
feription, which is here judicipufiy rejefted, as bemg
at lead an ufelefs, if not a prejudicial, in^ent-
has been difputed, whether a weak or redihed fpmt,
and whether cold or warm digeftion, are preferab c
for making this tinfture. To determine this point,
the following experiment has been mentionec.. bo e
fine Siberia caftir having been infufed - good French
brandy, without heat, for twenty days, the tinCture
proved very weak: On the fame individual caftor (the
magma or refiduum of the former tin^Ur6;) Si" of
quantity of reftified fpirit was poured as before ot
brandy ; and after a few hours warm dlgeill° ’ „
tinaJe was extrafted much (tronger than the other.
But this experiment is not fatisfafloiy . t e e .e so
M A C Y. Part It,
the two menftma, and of heat, having been refpec- Opera¬
tively compared in very different circumftances. Spofi-
From other trials, it appears that caftor, macera-t-()ns[
ted without heat, gives out its finer and mod grate* •—v -wrf
f'ul parts to either fpirit, but mod perfedly to the rec¬
tified. That heat enables both menftrua to extrad
greateft part of its groffer, and more naufeous mat¬
ter ; and proof-fpirit extracts this laft more readily
than .edified. #
The tindure of caftor is recommended in moft kinds
of nervous complaints and hyftcric diforders : In the
latter it fometimes docs fervice, though many have
complained of its proving incffedual. rl he dofe is from
twenty drops to forty, fifty, or more.
Compound tinBure of cajlor. E.
Take of Ruffia caftor, one ounce ; afafostida, half an 4^
ounce ; vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, one pound.
Digeft for fix days in a clofe flopped phial, fre¬
quently (baking the veffel; and then drain the tinc¬
ture. _
This compofition is a medicine of real efficacy, par¬
ticularly in hyfterical diforders, and the feveral fymp-
toms which accompany them. The fpirit here ufed
is an excellent mentlruum, both for the caftor and the
afafeetida, and greatly adds te> their virtues.
TinBure of catechu. E-
Take of catechu, three ounces; cinnamon, breufed, 433
two ounces ; proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeit (or
three days, and drain.
Japonic tinBure. E.
Take of'Japan earth, three ounces; cinnamon, twa
ounces ; proof-fpirit, two pounds and a half. Al¬
ter digeftion for eight days, let the tindture be pai-
fed through a (trainer.
A tintture of this kind, with the addition of I e-
ruvian bark, ambergris, and muik, to the ingredients
above direfted, was formerly kept in the (hops. I he
tinfture here received is preferable for general ufe :
where any other ingredients are required, tinaures ot
them may be occafionally mixed with this m extem¬
poraneous prefeription. The cinnamon is a very ufe-
ful addition to the catechu, not only as it warms the
ftomach, &c. but likewife as it improves the rougit*
nefs and aftringency of the other. .
The tinaure is of fervice in all kinds of defiuxions,
catarrhs, loofeneffes, uterine fluors, and other difor¬
ders, where mild aftringent medicines are indicated.
Two or three tea-fpoonfuls may be taken every now
and then in red wine, or any other proper vehicle.
TinBure of cinnamon.
Take of cinnamon, bruifed, one ounce and an half; 436
proof-fpirit, one pint. Digeft for ten days, and
drain. L.
Take of cinnamon, three ounces ; proof-fpint, two
pounds and a half. Macerate for eight days, and
drain. E.
The tin&ure of cinnamon poffeffes the reftnngent
virtues of the cinnamon, as well as its aromatic cor¬
dial ones ; and in this refpe.a it differs from the didd¬
led waters of that (pice. Compound
Part If.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi •
tions.
437
438
439
440
Compound tlnElure of cinnamon. L.
Take of cinnamon, bruifed, fix drams; iefler carda-
t mom-feeds, hufked, three drams ; long pepper, gin¬
ger, of each, in powder, two drams ; proof-fpirit,
two pints. Digeft for eight days and drain.
From the different articles which this tindhire con¬
tains, it mull neceffariiy be of a more hot and fiery
nature than the former, though much lefs ftrongly im¬
pregnated with the cinnamon.
TinSiure of colomha. L.
Take of colomba-root, powdered^, two ounces and an
half; prooffpirit, two pints. Digell for eight
days, and drain.
The colomba readily yields its adiive qualities to
the menftruum here employed ; and accordingly, un¬
der this form, it may be advantageoufly employed
againd bilious vomitings, and thpfe different domach
ailments, in which the colomba has been found ufeful;
but where there does not occur fome obje&ion to its
ufe in fubdance, that form is in general preferable to
the tindure, which is now for the fird time introdu¬
ced into the London pharmacopoeia.
Tintlure of orange peel. L.
Take of the frefh exterior peel of Seville oranges,
three ounces; proof fpirit, two pints. Liged for
three days, and drain.
By this mendruum, both the bitter quality of the
orange fkins, and likewife their peculiar effential oil,
are extra&ed : hence it may be employed for any pur-
pofe in medicine which thefe are capable of anfwering.
It is, however, but rarely ufed ; and, as well as the
former, has now only for the fird time a place in the
London pharmacopoeia.
Tin chi re of Peruvian bark.
Take of Peruvian bark, powdered, four ounces ; proof¬
fpirit, two pints. Diged with a gentle heat for
eight days, and drain. L.
Take of Peruvian bark, four ounces ; proof-fpirit, two
pounds and a half. Diged for ten days, and drain.
E.
A medicine of this kind, has been for a long time
pretty much in edeem, and ufually kept in the drops,
though but lately received into the pharmacopoeias!
Some have employed highly-re&ified fpirit of wine
as a mendruum ; which they have taken care fully to
faiurate, by digedion on a large quantity of the bark.
Others have thought of affiding the adhion of the
fpint by the addition of a little fixed alkaline fait,
which does not however appear to be of any advan¬
tage ; and others have given the prefei'ence to the vi¬
triolic acid, which was fuppofed, by giving a greater
confidence to the fpirit, to enable it to fuftain more
tuan it would be capable of doing by itfelf; at the
fame time that the acid improves the medicine by in-
creafing the roughnefs of the bark. This lad tinc¬
ture, and that made with redified fpirit, have their
advantages ; though, for general ufe, that above di-
refted is the mod convenient of any, the proof-fpirit
extracting nearly all the virtues of the bark. It may
be given from a tea fpooaful to half ao ounce or an
ounce, according to the different purpofes it is intend-Prepar¬
ed to anfwer. dons and
Compofi.
Compound tinffure of Peruvian lark. L. tions.
m
Take of Peruvian l^ark, powdered, two ounces; ex- ^ A
terior peel of Seville oranges, dried, one ounce and ^
an half; Virginian drake-root, bruifed, three drams;
faffron, one dram; cochineal, powdered,two fcruples;
proof-fpirit, twenty ounces. Digeft for fourteen
days, and ftrain.
I his has been for a confiderable time celebrated
under the title of Huxham’s tinciure of bark.
1 he fubdances here joined to the bark, in fome
cafes, promote its efficacy in the cure of intermittents*.
and not unfrequently are abfolutely neceffary. In
fome ill habits, particularly where the viieera and ab¬
dominal glands are obdru&ed, the bark, by itfelf,
proves unfuccefsful, if not injurious ; while given in
conjundtion with dimulating domachics and deob-
druents, it more rarely fails of the due effedt. O*
range-peel and Virginian drake-root are among the
bed additions for this purpofe; to which it is thought
by fome neceffary to join chalybeate medicines alfo.
Asa corroborant and domachic, it is given in dofes
of two or three drams; but when employed for the
cure of intermittents, it mud be taken to a greater
extent. I'or this purpofe, however, it is rarely em¬
ployed, unlefs with thofe who are averfe to the ufe
of the. f ark in fubdance, or whole domachs will not
retain it under that form.
Tinciure of faffron. E.
Take of Engliffi faffron, one ounce ; proof-fpirit, fif- 442
teen ounces. After digeding them for five davs
let the tindlure be drained through paper.
1 his tindlure is fimilar in virtue to the faffron wine.
A fpirituous mendruum is here preferred to the wine,
as a tindlure drawn with the former retains its elegant
colour longer, and is not apt to depodte in keeping
any part of what it had taken up from the faff'ron.
rIhe drops have been accudomed to employ treacle
water as a naenftruurn for faffron, with a view to the
promoting its efficacy with the intention of operating
as an alexipharmac ; but the acid in that compound
water foon dedroys the colour of the tindlure.
Tinflure of muriated iron. E.
i. ake of the rud of iron, half a pound ; muriatic
acid, three pounds ; rectified fpirit of wine, three
pirns. Pour the muriatic acid on the rud of iron
in a glafs veffel; and drake t'he mixture now and
then during three days. Set it by that the feces
may fubfide ; then pour off the liquor : evaporate
this to one pint, and, when cold, add to it the
vinous fpirit.
TinBure of iron. E.
Take of the fcaks of iron, purified and powdered,
three ounces ; muriatic acid, as much as is fufficient
to diffolve the powder. Digeft with a gentle heat;
and the powder being diffolved, add of reclified
Ipirit of wine as much as will make up of the whole
liquor two pounds and a half.
Of thefe two formula:, that of the Edinburgh col¬
lege is, in our opinion, in feveral refpeds mtitled to
the
400
Prepara¬
tions and
Competi¬
tions.
444
PHARMACY. Part II.
the preference. The fealeg are much fitter for giving
a proper folution than the ruft. The flrength of the
muriatic acid is fo variable, that the'quantity is left
to the judgment of the operator. If the acid be fu-
perabundant, the folution is of a green colour; if it
be fully faturated with the iron, it is more or lefs of
a reddilh or yellow colour ; and this ferves as a pretty-
accurate criterion. As the muriatic acid combines
lefs intimately with re&ified fpirit than any of the
fcfTil acids, fo the after-procefs of duldfication fcarce-
)y, if at all, impairs the folvent power of the acid;
though, when the dulcification happens to be more
than ufually complete, a fmall quantity of ferruginous
matter is fometimes precipitated on adding the re&i-
iied fpirit to the folution. But as the reftified fpirit in-
creafes the volatility of the acid, fo if it was added
at firft, we fhould lofe much more of the mentlruum
by the heat employed during the digeftion. When
this tinfture is well prepared, it is of a yellowifh red
colour ; if the acid be fuperabundant, it is more or
kfs of a greenifh hue ; and if the rectified fpirit has
been impregnated with the aftringent matter of oak
calks, it afiumes an inky colour.
AU the tinftures of iron are no other than real
folutions of the metal made in acids, and combined
with vinous fpirits. The tinftures here direfted differ
from each other only in ftrength, the acid being the
fame in both. In our former pharmacopoeias, there
was a tin&ure from the matter which remains after
the fublimstion of the martial flowers; which, though
it appears to be a good vone, is now expunged as fu-
perfluous. Some have recommended dulcified fpirit
of nitre as a menflruum ; but though this readily dif-
folves the metal, it does not keep it fufpended. The
marine is the only acid that can be employed for this
purpofe.
Thefe tin&ures are greatly preferable to the calces
or croci of iron, as being not only more fpeedy, but
likewife more certain in their operation. The latter,
in fome cafes, pafs off through t'he inteftinal tube
with little effeft ; while the tin&ures fcarce ever fail.
From ten to twenty drops of either of the tinftures
may be taken two or three times a-day, in any pro¬
per vehicle ; though it is feldom advifable to ex¬
tend the dofe of any tinftures of iron fo far as the
laft of thefe quantities, efpecially with the tin&ure
in fpirit of fait, which is exceedingly ftrong of the
iron.
<Tir8ure of foot. E.
Take of filming wood-foot, one ounce ; afafeetida,
half an ounce ; re&ified fpirit of wine, proof-fpi-
rit, of each" half a pound. Digeil for fix days, and
ftrain.
The pioof-fpirit is not liable to any obje&ion here,
as giving a turbid tin&ure ; for when foot is added,
whatever fpint employeo, the tinfture will not
prove tranfparent. Fuller, in his Pharmacopoeia Do-
meftica, has a medicine under the title of hyjleric tinc¬
ture, fimilar to this, only with a little myrrh, which
is no very material addition to afafeetida and foot.
Thefe medicines are found ferviceable, not only in
hy.fieric cafes, but likewife in other nervous diforders.
They may be given from a tea-fpoonful to a taule-
fpoonful twice a-day.
This medicine has by fome been thought ferviceable
in obftru&ions of the menfes ; but its a&ivity may Prepare-
be confidered as depending much more on the afafoe• t\on* a
tida than on the foot.
Tindure of galbanum. L. ’
Take of galbanum, cut into fmall pieces, two ounces; -
proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft with a gentle heat
for eight days, and ftrain.
This tin&ure is now for the firfl time introduced
by the London college, and may be ufefully employ¬
ed for anfwering feveral purpofes in medicine. Gal¬
banum is one of the ftrongeft of the fetid gums ; and
although lefs attive, yet much lefs difagreeable than
afafoetida : and under the form of tin&ure it may be
fuccefsfully employed in cafes of flatulence and hy-
fteria, where its effefts are immediately required, par¬
ticularly with thofe who cannot bear afafeetida.
Compound tindure of gentian. L.
Take of gentian root, fliced.and bruifed, two ounces; 44^
exterior dried peel of Seville oranges, one ounce ;
iefler cardamom feeds, hufked and bruifed, half an
ounce ; proaf-fpirit, two pints. Digeft for eight
days, and ftrain.
Bitter tindure, or Jlomachic elixir. E.
Take of gentian-root, two ounces ; Seville orange-
peel, dried, one ounce; white canella, half an ounce;
cochineal, half a dram; proof-fpirit, two pounds
and a half. Macerate for four days, and ftrain
through paper.
Thefe are very elegant fpirituous bitters. As the
preparations are defigned for keeping, lemon-peel, an
excellent ingredient in the watery bitter infufions,
has, on account of the perifhablenefs of its flavour,
no place in thefe. The aromatics are here a very
commodious ingredient, as in this fpirituous menftruum
thev are free from the inconvenience with which they
are attended in other liquors, of rendering them un-
tranfparent. .
Elixir of guaiacum. E.
Take of gum-guaiacum, one pound ; balfam of Peru, 447
three drams ; re&ified fpirit of wine, two pounds
and a half. Digeft for ten days, and ftrain.
This tinfture may be confidered as nearly agreeing
in medical virtues with the two following. It is,
however, lefs in ufe; but it may be employed with
advantage in thofe cafes where an objetftion occurs to
the menftruum ufed in forming the others.
* Eindure of gum-guaiacum. L.
Take of gum-guaiacum, four ounces ; compound fpi- 448
rit of ammonia, a pint and a half. Digeft for three
days, and ftrain. -
Volatile elixir of guaiaam. E.
Take of gum-guaiacum, four ounces; balfam of Pe¬
ru, two drams; diftilled oil of faflafras, half a dram ;
vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, a pound and an halt.
Macerate for fix days in a clofe veffel, and ftrain.
In the laft of thefe formube, the vinous fpirit of
fal ammoniac is lefs acrimonious than the menftruum
directed by the London college ; and the balfam of
Peru, and diftilled oil of faffafras, are ufeful additions,
by
Part II,
Prepara¬
tions and
C'omjofi-
t ion S'
P H A R
449
by tnerpafinjr the permanence of its operation as a
general ftimulant, or more particularly as a diaphore¬
tic.
' Thefe are very elegant and efficacious tinftures;
the volatile fpirit excellently diffolving the gum, and
at the fame time promoting its medic’i*il virtue. In
rheumatic cafes, a tea or even table Ipoonful, taken
every morning and evening in any convenient vehicle,
particularly in milk, has proved of lingular fervicei
TinSure of Hack hellebore. L.
Take of black hellebore root, in coarfe powder, four
ounces ; cochineal, powdered, two fcruples; proof-
fpirit, two pints. Digelt with a gentle heat for
eight days, and ftrain.
Tincture of melampodium, or Hack hellebore.
E.
Take °f black hellebore root, four ounces ; cochineal,
hail a dram ; proof-fpirit two pounds and a half.
Dige!! them together for eight,days, and afterwards
li ter the tin£fute through paper.
I his is perhaps the bell preparation of hellebore,
when deiigned for an alterative, the menllruum here
employed extrading the whole of its virtues. It hag
been found, from experience, particularly ferviceable
in uterine obftruftions; in fanguine conftitutions,
where chalybeates are hurtful, it has been faid that it
ielcom rads of exciting the menftrual evacuations, and
removing the dl confequences of their fuppreffion. So
great, according to fome, is the powder of this medi¬
cine, that wherever, from an ill conformation of the
parts, or other caufes, the expeaed difcharge dots
not fucceed on the ufe of it, the blood, as Dr Mead
has obferved, is fo forcibly propelled, as to make its
way through other paffiagee. A tea fpoonful of the
tincture may be taken twice in a day in warm water
or any other convenient vehicle.
1 he coliege of Edinburgh had formerly a tincture
of this root with wine. Proof fpirit is undoubtedly
preferable, . oth as a menftruum, and as being better
ntted lor keeping.
Tincture of jalap.
Take of powdered jalap root, eight ounce. ; proof-
fpint, two p „ts. Digeft with a gentle heat tor
eight cays, and ftrain. L.
I ake of jalap, in coarfe powder, three ounces; proof-
ipir.t, fifteen ounfces. Digeft them for eight days,
Hnd liram the tincftiire, E.
Kedified fpirit of wine was formerly ordered for
CifT Prfpar.atl°n of thia tinaure; but rectified fpirit
d ftolving huJe more than the pure refinous parts of
the jalap, rendered the ufe of the medicine fomewhat
tfs comma;!,ous than that of the tincture prepared
with proof-fp.nt. Moft of the tinaures mJ€ .P^
ihed fpirit, dihited with water, fo as to be fit for ta¬
king, form a turbid white mixture. Many of them
are fafely taken in this form, without any further ad-
* jIOn * ^ the catharVc ones are never to be ventu-
e l on without an admixture of fyrup or mucilage to
keep the refin united with the liquor ; for if it Ppa-
S^nfg^^ ^ " -er^top^-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
MAC Y. 401
Some have, preferred to the tfnaures of jalap, aD-enara-
xolution m fpirit of wine of a known quantity of the1!011831111
refin extracted from the root; and obferve, that thisg0n,p0^'*
folution is more certain in ftrength than any tin&ure 'lun8, f
that can be drawn from the root dire&ly. For, aa
the purgative virtue of jalap refides in its refin, and aa
ad jalap appears from experiment not to be equally
refinous, fome forts yielding^five, and others not
turee, ounces of refin from fix teen ; it follows, that
although the root be always taken in the fame pro¬
portion to the menftruum, and the menftruum always
exaftly of the fame ftrength, it may, neverthelefs, ac¬
cording to the degree of goodnefs of the jalap, be
impregnated with different quantities of refin, and
confequently prove different in degree of efficacy.
Though this obje&ion againft the tin&ure does not
reach fo far as fome feem to fuppofe, it certainly be¬
hoves the apothecary to be careful in the choice of
the root. The inferior forts may be employed for
making refin of j lap, which they yield in as great
perfection, though not in fa large quantity, as the
bed. Neumann thinks even the worm-eaten jalap as
good for that purpofe as any other.
Tin Bure of gum -kino. E.
Take of gum-kino, two ounces ; proof-fpirit, a pound
and an halt. Digeft eight days, and ftrain.
he fubitance c&Wtzi gum kino feems to be really a
gum-reun ; on which account proof-fpirit is the moll
proper menftruum. Th:s preparation rnuft therefore
poitefs the virtues of the fubftance ; and it is perhaps
one ol toe heft forms under which it can he exhibited
m obftinate diarrheas, and in cafes of lienteria : but
m hemorrhiigies, ,t is in general proper to exhibit ft
either in fubftance or diffufed ; yet we cannot help
thinknig that the want of this tindme is an omiffzon
in the .London pharmacopoeia.
L.
45*
Compound ttnBure of lavender.
Take of fpirit of lavender, three pints; rofemary,
one pmt; cinnamon bruifed, nutmegs bruifed, of
each half an ounce ; red faundtrs, one ounce. Di-
gelt ror ten days, and ftrain.
Compound fpirit of lavender. E.
Take of fimple fpirit of lavender, three pounds; fimple
pint of rolemary, one pound; cinnamon, one
ounce ; cloves, two drams ; nutmeg, half an ounce;
red blunders, three drams. Macerate feven days,
and (train. ' 1 f
Thefe two compofitions, although varying a little
from each other, both with refpeeft to their ingre-
events and names, m y yet be confidered as precifely
the fame. Although the London college, in the pre-
fent edition of their pharmacopeia, hwe made many
u . ‘'i^rat.ons with refped to names, vet the pro.
pnety of the change here adopted may* perhaps be
doubted ; For it cannot with juftice be ftyled a tinc¬
ture of lavender, when the diftilled fpirit of that
plant is employed only as a menftruum. If, there-
ore, it feemed neceffary to refer it to the head of
tinaures, it ought to have been denominated from
the cinnamon or nutmegs; but fince the a&ivity 0f
ihis article very much depends oa the fpirit of la-
^ ^ vender.
45 S
4-02
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
453
P H A R
vender, the old name is in our opinion juftly preferable
to the new one. . . , r
The red faunders is of no farther ufe in thefe com-
politions than as a colouring ingredient, if a yel¬
low fpirit was liked, the yellow faunders would be an
excellent article, as it not only communicates a fine
colour, but likewife a confiderable fhare of medicinal
virtue. A fpirit diftilled from the flowers of lavender
and fage, in due proportion, and digefted in the cold
for a little time with fome cinnamon, nutmegs, and
yellow faunders, proves a very elegant and grateful
one. Where effential oils are employed, particular
care mult be had in the choice of them ; for on their
goodnefs that of the medicine depends. The dige-
ftion of the fpirit with the fpices, &c. fliould be per¬
formed without heat, otherwife the flavour of the me¬
dicine will be injured. Thefe fpirits are grateful re¬
viving cordials : though confiderably more Ample, they
are not lefs elegant or valuable than many other more
elaborate preparations. rlhis medicine has long been
held in great efteem, under the name of Palfy drops,
in all kinds of languors, weaknefs of the nerves, and
decays of age. 'it may be conveniently taken on lu-
gar, from ten to eighty or a hundred drops.
Tinjure of mujh. E.
Take of mufk, two drams ; rectified fpirit of wine,
one pound. Digeft for ten days, and ftrain.
Rectified.fpirit is the moft complete menftruum ior
mufk ; but in this form it is often impoffihle to
give fuch a quantity of the mufk as is neceflary for our
purpofe ; aud hence this article is more frequently
employed under the form of julep or bolus.
M A C Y. Part IL
fing from a like cauie. The dole is from fifteen drops Prepara-
to forty or more. The medicine may doubtlefs be
given in thefe cafes to advantage ; though with us, tions.
it is more commonly ufed externally for cleanfing v *
foul ulcers and promoting the exfoliation of carious
bones.
454
TinBure of myrrh.
Take of myrrh, bruifed, three ounces; proof-fpirit,
a pint and an half; reftified fpirit of wine, half a
pint. Digeft with a gentle heat for eight days, and
ftrain. L. _ r . . ,
Take of myrrh, three ounces; proof-fpint, two pounds
and a half. After digeftion for ten days, ftram oft
the tin&ure. E. _ , , , f
The pharmaceutical writers in general have been of
opinion, that no good tinaure cim be draw.! from
myrrh by fpirit of wine alone, without the affiltance
of fixed alkaline falts. But it appears from proper
experiments, that thefe falts only heighten the colour
of the tinaure, without enabling the menftruum to
diffolve any more than it would by itfelf. Reaified
fpirit extraas, without any addition, all that part ot
the myrrh in which its peculiar fmell and tafte refide,
■viz. the refin : and proof-fpirit diflolves almoft the
whole of the drug, except its impurities : hence the
combination of thefe two direfted by the London
college is perhaps preferable to either by itkl .
Tinaure of myrrh is recommended internally for
warming the habit, attenuating vifeid juices, ftrengt i-
ening the folids, opening obftruaions, particularly
thofe of the uterine veffels, and refilling putrefathon.
Boerhaave gfeatly efteems It in all languid cafes pro¬
ceeding from fimple inadivity; m thofe female dif-
orders which are occafioned. by an aqueous, mucous,
jluggilh indifpofition of the humours, an^ a relaxation
of "the veffels j in the fluor albus, and all difeafes an-
*Tin8ure of opium. L.
Take of hard purified opium, powdered, ten drams ; 45$
proof-fpirit, one pint. Digeft for ten days, and
ftrain.
TinUure of opium, commonly called liquid laudanum. E.
Take of opium, two ounces; fpintuous cinnamon-
water, one pound and a half. Digeft four days,
and ftrain off the tin&ure.
Thefe are very elegant liquid opiates, the menicruum
in the laft diffolves nearly the whole fubftance of the
opium, and effeaually covers ks ill flavour. It were
to be wilhed that the (hops were furnifted with a li¬
quid opiate, in which the proportion of menftruum
was ftill much larger, fo as to admit of the dofe be¬
ing determined by weight or meafure ; the metho .
by drops feeming too precarious for a medicine of fo
powerful a kind. The following preparation is con¬
trived with this view.
Take of thebaic extraft, half a dram ; highly rettt-
fied fpirit of wine, called alcohol, ten ounces ; fimple
cinnamon-water, twenty ounces. Digeft riiiern to¬
gether until the opium be diffolved, and then filter
the folution through paper. , r r n
This preparation is apprehended to be free from all
the inconveniences attending the common opiate tinc¬
tures. The menftruum diffolves the whole of the opi¬
um except the impurities, and confequently the tinc¬
ture is not liable to any uncertainty in point ot
{Length. The dofe may be afeertained to the greatelt
exadtnefs ; one grain of opium is contained in one
ounce by meafure, which is equal nearly to feven drams
by weight. Neither the tin&ures in wine nor proo.-
fpirit arc fo well adapted for keeping as could be
wifbed : in long Handing,, a part of the opium is gra¬
dually thrown off from both, and confequently the
tin&ures become gradually weaker: the part which
thus feparates, amounts fometimes, it is laid, to near
one-fourth of the quantity of opium at firit diflolved :
it floats on the furface of the vinous tin&ure, and in
the fpirituous finks to the bottom. In the prepara¬
tion here recommended, it has not been ooferved tha».
any feparation happens.
Inftead of the cinnamon-water, pure water may be
employed in the mixture and where aroniatiC addi¬
tions are wanted, either with a medicinal intention or
for covering the ill fmell of the opium, any proper
tinaure or diftilled wjter may be extemporaneoully
joined. Saffron, an addition once employed by the
Edinburgh college, has been confidered as a corrector
of opium ; but the qualities it was fuppoled to correct
are merely imaginary ; nor indeed can that article e
of much importance with any intention in the Imail
quantity that enters a dofe of the tin&ure ; a grain o
opium being accompanied with only half a gram o
A preparation in fome refpedls fimilar to that here
recommended was introduced into the Edin
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- pharmacopoeia publlfiied in 1774, under the title of
CVn "off tinftwa meconii. Each ounce of this tinfture con-
tions. tained four grains of opium ; and it was propofed that
■ ' the dofes of it fhould be meafured, not by drops, but
by weight: but as modern phyiicians are much more
bold in giving opium than their predeceflbrs, fuch a
fcnapulous accuracy in the dofe is not thought at all
neceflary ; and it is not probable that any dangerous
confequence will ever arife, merely from a difference in
the fize of drops. This, however, might be the cafe,
where the thebaic tinfture is by accident taken for the
tin&ure of meconium. To fuch miftakes, however,
it was feared that the analogy of the articles, as well
* as the caution necelfary with refpeA to both, might
lead ; and it was on many accounts fafer to have but
one liquid laudanum only. It is, however, much to
be regretted, that the liquid laudanum of the Lon¬
don and Edinburgh colleges, which by the former is
now ftyled tmElura epil, by the latter tin Sura thebaica,
fhould differ fo much from each ocher in point of
ftrength.
Camphorated tinSure of opium. L.
456 Take of hard purified opium, flowers of benzoin, each
one dram ; camphor, two fcruples ; elfeniial oil of
anifeed, one dram ; proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft
for thr^e days.
Paregoric elixir. E.
Take of flowers of benzoin, Englifh faffron, each
three drams; opium, two drams ; effential oil of
anifeeds, half a dram ; vinous fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac, fixteen ounces. Digeft for four days in a clofe
veffel, and ftrain.
Thefe two, though differing not merely in name,
may yet be confidered as agreeing very nearly in their
nature.
The moft material differences in the laft formula
from the firft are the fubftitution of the vinous fpirit
of fal ammoniac for the proof-fpirit, and a larger pro¬
portion of opium; the vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac
is not only, perhaps, a more powerful menftruum, but
in moft inftances coincides with the virtues of the pre¬
paration ; but as the opium is the ingredient on which
we place the principal dependence, fo its proportion
is increafed, in «rder that we may give it in fuch a
dofe as that the acrimony of the menftruum (hall not
prove hurtful to the ftomach.
The London formula is taken from Le Mort, with
the omiflion of three unneceffary ingredients, honey,
liquorice, and alkaline fait. It was originally called
elixir aflhmcticum, which name it does not ill deferve.
It contributes to allay the tickling which provokes fre¬
quent coughing ; and at the fame time is fuppofed to
open the brealt, and give greater liberty of breathing :
the opium procures (as it does by itfelf) a temporary
relief from the fymptoms ; while the other ingredients
tend to remove the caufe, and prevent their return.
It is given to children againft the chincough, &c. from
five drops to twenty ; to adults, from twenty to an
hundred. In the London formula, half an ounce by
meafure contains about a g'.ain of opium ; but in the
Edinburgh formula the proportion of opium is larger.
M A c Y.
403
Thiffure of rhubarb. Prepara¬
tions and
Take of rhubarb, fliced, two ounces ; leffer cardamom Compoft-
feeds, hufleed and bruifed, half an ounce; faffron, ^ons-
two drams; proof fpirit, two pints. Digeft for ”
eight days, and ftrain. L. ^'
Take of rhubarb, three ounces ; leffer cardamom feeds,
half an ounce ; proof-fpirit two pounds and a half.
Digeft for feven days, and ftrain. E.
Compound YinSure of rhubarb. L.
Take of rhubarb fliced, two ounces ; ginger powder¬
ed, faffron, each two drams ; liquorice-root, bruifed,
half an ounce ; diftilled water, one pint ; proof-
fpirit, twelve ounces. Digeft for fourteen days, and
ftrain. *
Bitter tinSure of rhubarb. E.
Take of rhubarb two ounces ; gentian-root, half an
ounce; Virginian fnake-roet, one dram ; proof fpi¬
rit, two pounds and a half. Digeft for feven days,
and then ftrain the tin&ure.
Sweet tinSure of rhubarb. E.
It is made by adding to two pounds an d a half of the
ftrained tindlure of rhubarb, four ounces of fugar-
candy.
The laft of thefe preparations is improved from
the former editions. Two ounces of liquorice and
one of raifins are fupplied, by an increafe of the fugar-
candy.
All the foregoing tin&ures of rkubarb are defigned
as ftomachics and corroborants, as well as purgatives :
fpirituous liquors excellently extract thofe parts of the
rhubarb in which the two firft qualities refide, and the
additional ingredients eonfiderably promote their effi¬
cacy. In weaknefs of the ftomach, indigeftion, laxity of
the inteftines, diarrhoeas, colic, and other fimilar com¬
plaints, thefc medicines are frequently of great fervice :
the fecond is alfo, in many cafes, an ufeful addition to
the Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittents, parti-
larly in cache&ic habits, where the vifeera are obftruft-
ed ; with thefe intentions, a fpoonful or two may be
taken for a dofe, and occafionally repeated.
Elixir of aloes and rhubarb, commonly called facred
elixir. E.
Take of rhubarb, cut fmall, ten drams; facotorine 45s
aloes, in powder, fix drams ; leffer cardamom feeds,
half an ounce ; proof-fpirit, two pounds and a half.
Digeft for feven days, and then ftrain the elixir.
This preparation is very much employed as a warm¬
ing cordial purge, and for the general purpofes of
aloetics ; with which, however, it combines the me¬
dical properties of rhubarb.
Compound tinSure of favin. L.
Take of extraft of favin, one ounce ; tinfture of caftor, 459
one pint; myrrh, half a pint. Digeft till the ex- .
tracl of favin be diffolved, and then ftrain.
This preparation had a place in the laft e lition of
our pharmacopoeia, under the title of Elixir myrrh*:
compojitum.
3 E 2 This
4°4
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
P H A R
This preparation is improved from one defcribed in
fome former difpenfaries under the name of uterine
elixir. It is a medicine of great importance in uterine
obdru&ions, and in hypochondriacal cafes ; though,
pofiibly, means might be contrived of fuperadding more
efFedtuaUy the virtues of favin to a tindfure of myrrh
and eaftor. It may be given from five drops to twen¬
ty or thirty, or more, in pennyroyal water, or any
other fuitable vehicle.
M A C Y.
Part II,
count that the prefent formula has now no place In the Prepara-
London pharmacopoeia. dons and
r ^ Compofi-
Tinfture of fenna. L.
tions.
Take of fenna, one pound ; caraway feeds, bruifed, 46*
one ounce and an half; leffer cardamom-feeds, bulk¬
ed and bruifed, half an ounce ; raifitis, ftoned, fix-
teen ounces ; proof fpirit, one gallon. Digelt for
fourteen days, and ilrain.
Tincture of fquill. L.
460 Take of fq'iills, frefh dried, four ounces ; proof-fpirit,
two pints. Digeil for eight days, and pour off the
liquor.
For extrafting the virtues of fquills, the menftruum
which has hitherto been almoft folely employed is vi¬
negar. There are, however, cafes in wl ;ch ardent
fpirit may be more proper; and by the menltruum here
directed its virtues are fully extradled. Hence it is
with propriety that the London college have introdu¬
ced this form, as well as the vinegar and oxymel. But,
in general, the purpofes to be anfwered by fquills may
be better obtained by employing it in fubftance than
in any other form.
Slntiphthfcal tinBure. E.
461 Take of fugar of had, an ounce and a half; vitriol of
iron, one ounce ; rectified fpirit of wine, one pound.
Let a tindlure be extradited without heat.
The reducing of the [Axsfeparately into powder, and
performing the digeilion without heat, are very necef-
fary circumHances: for if the ingredients be attempted
to be pulverized together, they will grow foft and al-
moft liquid; and if heat be ufed, fcarce any tintture
will be obtained.
This tindture is fometimes given in dofes of twenty
or thirty drops for reftraining immoderate fecretions,
particularly the colliquative fweats attending hedlie fe¬
vers and phthifical diforders ; whence the name anti-
phthijlcal tintture. It is undoubtedly a medicine of
great efficacy in thefe cafes, but too dangerous to be
rafhly ventured on. Some have fuppofed that it does
not contain any of the fugar of lead ; but experiments
made for that purpofe have fnown the contrary.
We mult, however, confider the above preparation
as unfeientific. Both the acetous and vitriolic acid
have a greater attraction for iron than for lead : and
though the vitriolic be capable of difeharging the ace¬
tous acid, yet it n.akes not only in its entire Hate alefs
perfect union with lead than the acetous acid, but it
is now alfo combined with iron, for which it has a
greater'attraftion, andean therefore only adf on the
fait of lead in proportion as it is fuperabundant in the
fait of copperas ; but in proportion as the vitriolic dif-
engages the acetous acid from the lead, the laft, in its
turn, will attach itfelf to the iron. On the whole, it
is difficult to afeertain the precife nature of this prepa¬
ration ; it feems always, however, to contain a quanti¬
ty of lead in a LUne ftate, fufficient to expunge jt
from prudent praftice : or, at leall, if in thefe cafes in
which it has hitherto been employed, lead be thought
neceffary, the fait of lead may with more Lfety and ad¬
vantage be given in its folid ftate, particularly when
“I combined with opium ; and it is probably on this ac-
Compound tinBure of fenna, commonly called Elixir of
health. E.
Take of fenna leaves, two ounces; jalap root, one ounce;
coriander feeds, half an ounce ; proof-fpirit, two
pounds and a half. Digeft for feven days, and to
the ftrained liquor add four ounces of fugarcandy.
Both thefe tin&ures are ufeful carminatives and ca-
thartied, efpecxally to thofe who have accuftomed them-
felves to the ufe of fpirituoua liquors; they oftentimes
relieve flatulent complaints and colics, where the com¬
mon cordials have little eft’edt : the dofe is from one
to two ounces. Several preparations of this kind have
been offered to the public under the name of Daffy’s
elixir; the two above are equal to any, and fuperier to
moft: of them. The laft in particular is a very ufeful
addition to the caftor oil, in order to take off its maw-
kifh tafte: and as coinciding with the virtues of the
oil, it is therefore much preferable to brandy, ftmib,
and fuch like liquors, which otherwife are often found
neceffary to make the oil fit on the ftomach.
Tin Bure offnale root.
Take of Virginian fnake-root, three ounces ; proof-
fpirit, two pints. Digeft; for eight days, and drain.Z..
Take of Virginian fnake-root, two ounces; cochineal,
one dram ; proof-fpirit, two pounds and a half. Di¬
geft. in a gentle heat for four days, and then ftraia
the tindiure. E.
The tmCture of fnake-root was in a former phar¬
macopoeia directed to be prepared with the tinfture of
fait of tartar, which being now expunged, it was pro-
pofed to the college to employ rerffified fpirit ; but as
the heat of this fpirit prevents the medicine from be¬
ing taken in fo large a dofe as it might otherwife be,
a weaker fpirit was chofen. The tinCture made in this
menilruuna, which extradts the whole virtues of the
root, may be taken to the quantity of a ipoonful or
more every five or fix hours ; and to this extent it of¬
ten operates as an ufeful diaphoretic.
TinBureof valerian. L.
Take of the root of wild valerian, in coarfe powder, 464
four ounces ; proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft with
a gentle heat for eight days, and ftrain.
The valerian root ought to be reduced to a pretty
fine powder, otherwife the fpirit will not fufficiently
extract its virtues. The tinfture proves of a deep co¬
lour, and confiderably ftrong of the valerian ; though
it has not be#n found to anfwcr fo well in the cure of
epileptic diforders as the root in fubftance, exhibited
in the form of powder, or bolus. The dofe of the
tindlure is, from half a fpoonful to afpoonful or more,
two or three times a-day.
Volatile
Part II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
465
PHARMACY.
466
Volatile tmBure of valerian.
Take of the root of wild valerian, four ounces; com¬
pound fpirlt of ammonia, two pints. Digeil for eight
days, and ftrain. /,.
Take of wild valerian root, two ounces ; vinous fpirit
of fal ammoniac, one pound. Macerate for fix days
in a clofe vefiel, and ftrain. £.
Both the compound and vinous fpirit of fil ammo¬
niac are here excellent rr.enftrua, and at the fame time
confiderably promote the virtues of the valerian, which
in fome cafes wants an afliftance of this kind. The
dofe may be a tea fpoonful or two.
Tincture of veratrum, or 'white hellebore. E.
Take of white hellebore root, eight ounces ; proof-
fpirit, two pounds and a half. Digeft them toge¬
ther for ten days, and filter the tinfture through
paper.
This tinfture is fometimes ufed for acuating cathar¬
tics, &c. and as an emetic in apoplectic and maniacal
diforders. It may iikewife be fo managed as to prove
a powerful alterative and deobftrnent in cafes where
milder remedies have little effed. But a great deal of
caution is requifite in its ufe: the dofe, at firft, ought
to be only a few drops ; if confiderable, it proves vio¬
lently emetic or cathartic.
405
empty. It is very ufefully conjoined with the bark^repara-
both as covering its difagreeable tafte and coinciding ^orl•, ancl
with its virtues. Compofi-
Sweet elixir of vitriol. E.
tions.
^ 11 mj
This is made of the fame aromatics, and in the fame 468
manner as the aromatic tin&ure ; except that, in
place of the vinous, the dulcified fpirit of vitriol is
employed.
This is defigned for perfons whofe ftomachs are too
weak to bear the foregoing acid elixir ; to the tafte, it
is^ gratefully aromatic, without any .perceptible acidity.
The dulcified fpirit of vitriol, here dire&ed, occafions
little or no precipitation on adding it to the tin&ure.
A medicine of this kind was formerly in great efteem
under the title of Vigani’s volatile elixir of vitriol; the
eompofitioTjrwf which was firft communicated to the
public in the Pharmacopeia reformat a. It is prepared
by digefting fome volatile fpirits of vitriol upen a fmall
quantity ot mint leaves curioufty dried, till the liquor
has acquired a fine green colour. If the fpirit, as it
frequently does, partakes too much of the acid, this
colour will not fucceed : in fuch cafe, it fhould be rec¬
tified from a little fixed alkaline f:.lt.
Acid elixir of vitriol. E.
467 Take of reaified fpirit of wine, two pounds ; drop in¬
to it by little and little fix ounces of vitriolic acid ;
digeft the mixture with a very gentle heat in a clofe
vehel for three days, and then add of cinnamon, an
ounce and a half; ginger, one ounce. Digeft again
m a clofe veftel for fix days, and then filter the tinc¬
ture through paper placed in a glafs funnel.
The intention in this procefs is, to obtain a tincture
®f aromatic vegetables, in fpirit of wine, combined
with a confiderable proportion of vitriolic acid. When
the tindture is firft drawn with vinous fpirit, and the
acid added afterwards, the acid precipitates great part
of what the fpirit had before taken up : and on the
other hand, when the acid is mixed with the fpirit im¬
mediately before the extra&ion, it prevents the diflb:
lution of all that it would have precipitated by the
former way of treatment: by previoufly uniting the
acid and the vinous fpirit together by digeftion. the
inconvenience is fomewhat leffened. 75
This is a valuable medicine in weaknefs and relaxa¬
tions of the ftomach and decays of conftitution, par¬
ticularly in thofe which proceed from irregularities,
which are accompanied with flow febrile fymptome,
or which follow the fupprtfiion of intermittents. It
frequently lucceeds after bitters and aromatics by
themfelyes had availed nothing ; and indeed great
part of its virtues depend.on the vitriolic acid ; which,
barely diluted with water, has, in thofe cafes where
1 t01^ kCiir t^ie ac*dity, produced happy
Fuller relates (in his Medicina GymnafiM that he
was recovered by Mynficht’s elixir, from an extreme
decay of conftitution, and continual retchings to vo-
mrt. It may be given from 10 to 30 or 40 drops or
more, according to the quantity of acid, Twice or
thrice a-day, at fuch times as the ftomach is moft
Camphorated fpirit of wine. E.
Take of camphor, one ounce ; rectified fpirit of wine, 45q
one pound. Mix them together, that the camphor "
may be diftolvcd. It may alfo be made with a
double, triple, &c. proportion of camphor.
This folution of camphor is employed chiefly for
external ufes, againft rheumatic pains, paralytic numb-
nefies, inflammations, for difeufiing tumours, prevent-
ing gangrenes, or reftraining their progrefs. It is too
pungent to be exhibited internally, even when diluted,
nor does the dilution fucceed well; for on the admix¬
ture of aqueous liquors, the camphor gradually ftpa-
rates and runs together into little'mafles.
Hoffman, Rothen, and others, mention a camphora¬
ted fpirit not fubjeft to this inconvenience. It is pre¬
pared by grinding the camphor with fomewhat more
than an equal weight of fixed alkaline fait, then adding
a proper quantity of proof-fpirit, and drawing off one
half of it by diftillation. This fpirit was propofed to
be received into our pharmacopoeias, under the title of
Spirit us camphor# tardiirizatus. But on trial, it did not
anfwer expe&ation : fome of the camphor rifes with
the fpirit in diftillation, though but a fmall quantity j,
whence, mixed with a large portion of water, it does
not fenfibly render it turbid ; but in a proper quanti¬
ty, it exhibits the fame appearance as the more com¬
mon camphorated fpirit: it did not appear, that fpirit
diftilled from camphor, with or without the alkaline
fait, differed at all in this refpeift..
The moft convenient method of uniting camphor
with aqueous liquors, for internal ufe, feems to be by
the mediation of almonds, or of mucilages ; triturated
with thefe, it readily mingles wdth water into the form
of an emulfion, at the fame time that its pungency is
confiderably abated. It may alfo be commodioufly ex¬
hibited in the form of an oily draught, expreffed oils
totally diffolving it.
The anodyne liniment, zommouly czWzd. Anodyne halfam. E.
Take of opium, one ounce j white Caftile foap, four
ounces $
4o6 P H A R
Prepara- ounces; c^mpKor, two ounces; effential oil ofrofe-
tions and mary, half an ounce ; reftified fpirit of wine, two
£mr°fl" pounds. Digeft the opium and foap in the fpirit
■ i for three days; then to the {trained liquor add the
camphor and oil, diligently' Ihaking the veffel.
The feveral ingredients in this formula are exceed¬
ingly well fuited for the purpofes expreffed in the title
of this preparation ; the anodyne balfam has according¬
ly been ufed with much fuccefs to allay pains in {train¬
ed limbs, and fuch like topical affeftions.
Saponaceous la If am or liniment. E.
471 This is made in the fame manner and of the fame in¬
gredients as th<f' anodyne balfam, only omitting the
opium. ^ ,
It is intended as a Amplification and improvement
of what had formerly the name of Opodeldock, and is
employed with the fame intentions as the two prece¬
ding.
TinSure of antimony. Rolf.
472 Take of antimony, in powder, half a pound ; fait of
tartar, one pound ; re&ified fpirit, three pints. Mix
the antimony with the fait of tartar, and inje&jdiem
by little and little into a crucible placed in a ftroog
fire. Let the mixture melt thin, and continue in
this ftate for half an hour; after which it is to be
poured out into a hot and dry iron mortar. Powder
the mafs while hot, put it into a heated matrafs, and
pour the fpirit on it. Digeft them together for
three days, and then ftraxn the tinfture.
In this procefs, the alkaline fait unites with the ful-
phur of the antimony into a hepar; which communi¬
cates to the fpirit a tin&ure fimilar to the tinfture of
fulphur. This antimonial tin&ure is fuppofedto con¬
tain likewife fome of the reguline parts of the mineral,
and is faid to have fometimes provoked a puke when
taken on an empty ftomach, even in a fmall dofe. It
Hands recommended in dofes from ten to fixty dropsor
more, as a deobftruent, promoter of urine, and purifier
of the blood. But there is probably no purpole to be
anfwered by it, which may not be more effedually ob¬
tained by other antimonial preparations, particularly
the wine of tartar of antimony. *
M A C Y. Part II,
In this formula the copper is brought to a faline Prepara-
ftate by means of the volatile alkali. It may therefore ^
be conlidered as veryanalogous to the ammoniacal c®p-t;ons.
per. And where recourfe is had to it in pra&ice, it i—y——<
is employed with the fame intentions.
'Tindure of quaffta. Suec.
Take of quaflla, bruifed, two ounces; proof-fpirit, two 475
pounds and an half. Digeft for three days, and
then ftrain through paper.
By proof-fpirit the medical properties, as well as the
fenfible qualities of the quaffia, are readily extra&ed.
And under this form it may be advantageoufly em¬
ployed for anfwering different purpofes in medicine.
Tinfture of lac. Suec.
Take of gum lac, powdered, one ounce ; myrrh, three
drams ; fpirit of feurvy-grafs, a pint and an half.
Digeft in a fand heat for three days ; after which,
ftrain off the tin&ure for ufe.
This tindure is principally employed for ftrength-
ening the gums, and in bleedings and fcorbutic exul¬
cerations of them : it may be fitted for ufe with thefe
incentions, by mixing it with honey of rofes, or the
like. Some recommend it internally againft fcorbutic
complaints, and as a corroborant in gleets, female
weakneffes, &c. Its warmth, pungency, and manifeft-
ly aftringent bitterilh tafte, point out its virtues in thefe
cafes to be confiderable, though common pradice
among us has not yet received it.
Tinfture of nux vomica. Roff.
Take of nux vomica, an ounce and a half; pro#f-fpi- 477
rit, two pounds. Digeft for fome days, and then
ftrain it.
The nux vomica, a very adive vegetable, has of late,
as we have already had occafion to obferve, been in¬
troduced into pradice as taken internally, for the cure
of intermittents and of contagious dyfentery. In thefe
affedions it may be employed under the form of tinc¬
ture as well as in fubftance ; and in this way it moft
readily admits of being combined with other articles,
either as adjuvantiaor corrigentia.
fin Bure of colocynth. Suec.
4.73 Take of colocynth, cut fmall, and freed from the feeds,
one ounce ; anifeed, one dram ; proof-fpirit, four¬
teen ounces. Macerate for three days, and ftrain
through paper. ^
In this tindure we have the adive purgative power
of the colocynth. And although it be feldom ufed as
a cathartic by itfelf, yet even in ftnall quantity it may
be advantageoufly employed to promote the operation
of others.
Volatile tinBure of copper. Gen.
474 Take of filings of copper, one dram ; fpirit of fal am¬
moniac, an ounce and a half. Mix them, and keep
them in a veflel clofely Hopped, which in to be fre¬
quently agitated, till the liquor becomes of a beau¬
tiful violet colour.
TinBure of amber. Suec.
Take of yellow amber, powdered, one ounce ; vitrio-
lie tether, four ounces. Digeft for three days in a
veffel accurately clofed, frequently {baking the vef¬
fel, and after this ftrain through paper.
The tindure of amber was formerly prepared with
redified fpirit of wine : but the menftruum here di-
refted gives a more complete fclution, and forms a
more elegant and adive tindure. It poffeffes the
whole virtues of the concrete ; and although it has no
place in our pharmacopoeia, yet it is perhaps tp be
confidered as one of the moft valuable preparations of
amber. It has been recommended in a variety of af¬
fedions, particularly thofe of the nervous kind, as hy»
llerical and epileptic complaints. It may be taken
from a few drops to the extent of a tea Ipoonful in a
glafs oi wine or any fimilar vehicle.
Chap-
Fart II.
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
  * <
P H A R
Chap. XXII. Mixtures.
Camphorated mixture. L.
479
Take of camphor, one dram ; refCfied fpirlt of wine,
ten drops ; double-refined fugar, half an ounce ;
boiling difiilled water, one pint. Rub the camphor
firft with the fpirit of wine, then with the fugar ;
laftly, add the water by degrees, and ftrain the mix¬
ture.
While camphor is often exhibited in a folid ftate, it
is frequently alfo advantageous to employ it as diffu-
fed in watery fluids. And with this intention the
prefent formula is perhaps one of the moll fimple, the
union being affefted merely by the aid of a fmall quan¬
tity of fpirit of wine and a little fugar. But perhaps
the more common form of emulfion in which the union
is eftefted, by triturating the camphor with a few
almonds, is not to be confidered as inferior to this.
For the unftuous quality of the almonds ferves in a
confiderable degree to cover the pungency of the cam¬
phor without diminifhing its aftivity. Camphor un¬
der the prefent form as well as that of emulfion, is ve¬
ry often ufeful in fevers, taken to the extent of a table
fpoonful every three or four hours.
Chalk mixture. L.
$80 Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; double-refined
fugar, fix drams ; gum-arabic, powdered, two oun¬
ces ; diflilled water, two pints. Mix them.
M A C Y.
407
mucilage not only ferves to keep the chalk nniformly Prepara-
diffufed, but alfo improves its virtues by fheathing thef!,0Ils a,l^
internal furface of the inteftines. The dofe of thistj^po
medicine requires no nicety. It may be taken to the
extent of a pound or two in the courfe of a day.
Mujk mixture, L.
Take of mufle, two fcruples; gum-arabic, powdered,
double-refined fugar, of each one dram; rofe-wnter,
fix ounces by meafure. Rub the mufk firfl: with the
fugar, then with the gum, and add the rofe-water
by degrees.
This had formerly the name of julepum e mofeho, and
was intended as an improvement upon the hyfleric ju¬
lep with mulk of Bates. Orange-flower-water is di¬
rected by that author ; and indeed this more perfectly
coincides with the mufk than rofe-w^ter : but as the
former is difficultly procurable in perfection, the latter
is here preferred. The julep appears turbid at firft ;
on Handing a little time, it depofites a brown powder,
and becomes clear, but at the fame time lofes great
part of its virtue. This inconvenience may be prevent¬
ed by thoroughly grinding the mufk with gum-arabic
before the addition of the water: by means of the
gum, the whole fubftance of the mufle is made to re¬
main fufpended in the water. Volatile fpirits are in
many cafes an ufeful addition to mufk, and likewife
enable water to keep fomewhat more of the mufk dif-
folved than it would otherwife retain.
/ Almond milk. L.
Chalk-drink. E.
Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; pureft refined fu¬
gar, half an ounce ; mucilage of gum-arabic, two
ounces. Rub them together, and add by degrees,
water, two pounds and an half; fpirituous cinnamon
water, two ounces.
Thefe two preparations agree pretty much both in
their name and in their nature. But of the two for¬
mulas that of the Edinburgh college is moll agreeable
to the palate, from containing a proportion of cinna¬
mon water, by which the difagreeable tafte of the chalk
is taken off.
In the former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeia, a preparation of this kind flood among the de-
codlions, and the chalk was direfted to lie boiled with
the water and gum : by the prefent formula, the chalk
is much more completely fufpended by the mucilage
and fugar; which lail gives alfo to the mixture an
agreeable tafte. It is proper to employ the finell fu¬
gar, as the redundant acid in the coarfer kinds might
form with the chalk a kind of earthy fait. It would
perhaps have been more proper to have added an aro¬
matic, by fufpending the entire powder of cinnamon,
or its oil, by means of the mucilage and fugar: The
method here diredled is, however, lefs exceptionable in
this than many other preparations, as the precipitated
matter of the fpirituous water will probably be inyif-
cated in the faccharine and mucilaginous matter. This
is a very elegant form of exhibiting chalk, and is an
ufeful remedy in difeafes arifing from, or accompanied
with, acidity in the prim as vise. It is frequently em¬
ployed in diarrhoea proceeding from that caufe. The
Take of fweet almonds, one ounce and an half; double- 482
refined fugar, half an ounce ; diltilled water, two
pints. Beat the almonds with the fugar ; then,
rubbing them together, add by degrees the water,
and ftrain the liquor.
Common cmuljion. E.
Take of fweet almonds, one ounce; bitter almonds,
one dram ; common-water, two pounds and a half.
Beat the blanched almonds in a {tone mortar, and
gradually pour on them the common water, work¬
ing the whole well together, then ilrain off the li¬
quor.
Arabic emulfion. E.
This is made in the fame manner as the preceding;
only adding, while beating the almonds, of muci- 3
lage of gum arable two ounces.
All thtfe may be confidered as poffeffing nearly the
fame qualities. But of the three the lalt is the moil
powerful demulcent
Great care fliould taken, that the almonds be not
become rancid by ki ping ; which will not only ren¬
der the emulfion extremely unpleafant, a circumilance
of great confequence in a medicine that requires to be
taken in large quantities, but lilqevvife give it injurious
qualities little expe&ed from preparations of this elnfs.
The addition of the bitter almonds now ordered by
the Edinburgh college in preparing thefe emullions,
may perhaps preferve them in fome degree from fuffer-.
ing the above changes ; but it is much more ufeful as
giving the emulfion an agreeable flavour. And al¬
though the fubllance of bitter almonds be of a delete-
2 1 ribuss -
4° S P H A R
Prepara- r;oug nature, yet nothing is to be apprehended from
Compofi ^ie quantity here employed.
tic.ns. ' Thefe liquors are principally ufed for diluting and
c—y——obtunding acrimonious humours ; particularly in heat
of urine and ftranguries ariilng either from a natural
fharpnefs of the juices, or from the operation of can-
tharides and other irritating medicines: in thefe cafes,
they are to be drank frequently, to the quantity of half
a pint or more at a time.
Some have ordered emulfions to be boiled, with a
▼iew to deprive them of fome imaginary crudity ; but
by this procefs they quickly ceafe to be emullions, the
oil feparating from the water, and floating diftindtly
on the furface. Acids and vinous fpirits produce a
like decompofleion. On Handing alfo for fome days,
without addition, the oily matter feparates and rifes
to the top, not in a pure form, but like thick cream.
Thefe experiments prove the compofition of the emul-
fions made from the oily feeds of kernels, and at the
fame time point out fome cautious to be attended to
in their preparation and ufe.
Ammoniacum milk. JL.
484 Take of ammoniscum, two drams; diftilled water,
half a pint. Rub the gum-refin with the water,
gradually poured on, until it becomes a milk. In
the fame manner may be made a milk of afafeetida,
and of the red of the gum refins.
The ammoniacum milk is ufed for attenuating tough
phlegm, and promoting expe&oration, in humourai
allhmas, coughs, and obftru&ions of the vifeera. It
may be given to the quantity of two fpoonfuls twice a-
day.
The lac afafeetida is employed in fpafmodical, hy-
Iterical, and other nervous affedHons. And it is alio
not unfrequently ufed under the form of injedlion. It
anfwers the fame purpofes as afafeetida in fubltance.
Compound fplrit of vitriolic athtr. I..
485 Take of fpirit of vitriolic rether, two pounds; oil of
wine, three drams. Mix them.
This is fuppofed to be, if not precifely the fame, at
leaft very nearly, the celebrated mineral anodyne li¬
quor of Hoffman ; as we learn from his own writings,
that the liquor which he thus denominated was formed
of dulcified fpirit of vitriol and the siomatic oil which
arifes after it, but he does not tell us in what pro¬
portions thefe were combined. It has been highly ex¬
tolled as an anodyne and antifpafmodic medicine; and
with thefe intentions it is not unfrequently employed
in pradh'ee.
M A C Y. PartU,
By the method here dire&ed, the oils *re w com- Prepura-
pletely diflblved as when diftillation is employed. tiona
Volatile falts, thus united with aromatics, are nottj^^°
only more agreeable in flavour, but like wife more ac- >
ceptable to the ftomach, and lefs acrimonious than in
their pure ftate. Both the foregoing compofitiona
turn out excellent ones, provided the oils are good,
and the diftillation fkilfully performed. The dofe ia
from five or fix drops to fixty or more.
Medicines of this kind might be prepared extempo.
raneoufly, by dropping any proper eflential oil into the
dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac, which will readily
difiblve the oil without the afiiftance of diftillation.
But it is perhaps preferable that they fhould be kept
in the fhops ready mixed.
Succinated fpirit of ammonia. L.
Take of alcohol, one ounce ; water of pure ammonia, 481
four ounces by meafure; rectified oil of amber, one
fcruple ; foap, ten grains. Digeft the foap and oil
of amber in the alcohol till they be diflblved ; then
add the water of pure ammonia, and mix them by
(baking. * x
This compofition is extremely penetrating, and has
lately come into efteem, particularly for fmelling to in
lowneffes and faintings, under the name of eau de luce.
It has been hitherto brought from France. It is not
quite limpid, for the oil of amber diftblves only im-
perfe£fly in the fpirit: if the volatile fpirit be not ex¬
ceedingly ftrong, fcarcely any of the oil will be im¬
bibed.
The tau de luce is not only ufed with the view of
making an imprefllon on the nofe, but is taken inter¬
nally in the fame cafes. It lias likewife of late been
celebrated as a remedy for the bite of the rattlefnake,
when ufed internally, and applied externally to the
wounded part.
Camphorated fpirit. L.
Take of camphor, four ounces; reftified fpirit of wine,
two pints : Mix them, fo that the camphor may be
diflblved.
Of this we have already had occafion to fpeak in
the preceding chapter under the title given to it by
the Edinburgh college.
Simple oily emulfion. Gen/
Take of almond oil, one ounce ; fyrup of althea, an
ounce and a half; gum arabic, half an ounce ;
fpring water, fix ounces. Mix, and make an emul¬
fion according to art.
Compound fpirit of ammonia. L.
,35 Take of fpirit of ammonia, two pints ; eflential oil of
lemon, nutmeg, of each two drams. Mix them.
This differs almoft only in name from the follow¬
ing.
Volatile aromatic fpirit, commonly called volatile oily fpi¬
rit, and faline aromatic fpirit. E.
Take of vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, eight ounces ;
diftilled oil of rofemary, one dram and a half; di¬
ftilled oil of lemon-peel, one dram. Mix them that
the oils may be diffolved.
Volatile oily emulfon. Gen.
Take of almond oil, an ounce and a half; fyrup of
althea, one ounce ; gum-arabic, half an ounce ; vo¬
latile alkaline fait, one dram ; fpring-warter, feven
ounces. Mix them according to art.
Both thefe are elegant and convenient modes of ex¬
hibiting oil internally. And under thefe forms it is
often advantageoufly employed in cafes of cough,
hoarfenefs, and fimilar affections. By means of the
alkali, a more intimate union of oil with water is ob¬
tained than can be had with the intermedium either
of fyrup or vegetable mucilage; and in fome cafes.
Part H. P H A R
j'repaia- alkali both contributes to anfwer the intention in
view, and prevents the oil from exciting ficknefs at
ftomach : But in other inflances, the pungency which
it imparts is difagreeable to the patient and unfavour¬
able to the difeafe. According to thefe circumftances,
therefore, where an oily mixture is to be employed,
the practitioner will be determined in his choice to
have recourfe either to the one or the other formula.
Acid julep. Gen.
Take of weak vitriolic acid, three drams; fituple fy-
rup, three ounces; fpring-water, two pounds. Mix
them.
In this date, the vitriolic acid is fufficiently diluted
to he taken with eafe in coniiderable dofes. And it
may thus be advantageoufly employed in various affec¬
tions ; concerning which we have already had occafion
to make a few remarks in Chemistry, n° 617. (fee
CfiEMisTkY-Index), and which ate to be anfwered, ei¬
ther by it# action on the ftomach, or on the fyftem in
general.
JEther julep. Gen.
Take of pure vitriolic asther, two fcmples ; fpring-
wr'.ter, fix ounces ; refined fugar, half an ounce.
Mix them according to art.
Althohgh it is in general proper that tether firould
he diluted only when it is to be immediately ufed, yet
it is fometimes neceffary tl\at it fhould be put into the
hands of the patient in the (late in which it is to be
taken. In fuch inftances the prefent formula is a very
proper one; for the addition of a little mucilage tends
both to cover the pungency of the tether in the mouth,
and to retain it in a flate of mixture with the water.
Amber julep. Gen.
452 Take of tinfture of amber, two drams; refined fugar,
half an ounce; fpring-water, fix ounces. Mix them
according to art.
Un der this form the tindlure of amber is fo far dilu¬
ted and fweetened, as to form an agreeable mixture ;
and in this manner it may often be advantageoufiy
employed for counteracting nervous affections, and an-
fwering thofe other purpofes for which we have al-
ready mentioned that this article is had recourfe to in
practice.
Saline mixture, or julep. Suec.
4.^ Take of fixed vegetable alkali, three drams ; river-wa¬
ter, half a pound. To this lixivium add, lemon-
juice, half a pound, or as much as is fufficieut to
faturate the alkali ; fyrup of black currants, one
ounce.
This mixture is frequently preferibed in febrile dif-
eafes as a means of promoting a flight difeharge by
the furface : bor where the fkin is parched with great
increafed heat, it generally operates as a gentle diapho¬
retic. It often alfo promotes a difeharge by the kid¬
neys, and is not unfrequently employed to reftiain vo¬
miting. With thefe intentions it is in daily ufe among
Britifh praCfitioners, although it has no place in our
pharmacopoeias, from its being entirely an extempora¬
neous prefeription.
Von. XIV. Part II.
M A C Y.
4°9
Prepara¬
tions and
Mineralfolution of arfenic.
Take of white arfenic, reduced to a fubtile powder,
fixed vegetable alkali, each fixty-four grains; di-   
ftilled water, half a pint. Put them into a floren- 494
tine flilk, and let this be placed in a fand heat, fo
that the water may boil gently till the arfenic be
completely diffolved; then add to the fol ition when
cold half an ounce of fpirit of lavender, and as much
diflilled water as ,to make the folution amom*. to a
pint by meafure, or fifteen ounces and an half by
weight. .
For the introduftion of this remedy we are indebt¬
ed to Dr Fowler of Stafford. We have already
had occafion to mention it in our article Arsenic,
n0i4-; fee alfo Chemistry, n° 1266, &c. In the
former of thefe places we have obferved, that if it
be not precifely the fame, it is at leaff flippofed to be
very anklogous to a remedy which has had a very ex-
tenfive fale in fome parts of England under the name
of the tqftelefs ague drop; and which has been employed
with very great fuccefs in the cure of obftinate inter- ‘
nfittents. But whether the prefent formula in any
degree approaches to the taftelefs ague drop or not,
there can be no doubt, from the concurring teftimony
of many eminent praftitioners, that it is equally fuc-
cefsful in combating intermittents. For this pur-
pofe it is given according to the age and other cir¬
cumftances of the patient in dofes from two to twenty
drops, once, twice, or oftener in the courfe of the
day: And its ufe has been found to be attended with
remarkable fuccefs, although with fome patients even
very fmall dofes have been found to excite fevere vo¬
miting. Befides diftin&ly marked intermittents, this
folution has alfo been fometimes fuccefsful in obftinate
periodical headauhs, and in cutaneous affe&ions of the
leprous kind, refilling every other mode of cure. And
perhaps in every cafe where arfenic can be employed
with faftty or advantage internally, this preparation
is preferable to any other with which we are yet ac¬
quainted.
Chap XXIII. Syrups.
Svrup-s are faturated folutions of fugar, made in 495
water, or watery or vinous infufions, or in juices.
They were formerly coniidered as medicines of much
greater importance than they are thought to be at
prefent. Syrups and diddled waters were for fome
ages ufed as the great rdteratives ; infomuch that the
evacuation of any peccant humour was never attempted
till by a due courfe of thtfe it had firft been fuppofed
to be regularly prepared for expulfiort. Hence arofe
the exuberant yolleftion of both, which we meet with
in pharmacopceias, and like errors have prevailed in
each. As multitudes of diftilled waters have been com¬
pounded from matetials unfit to give any virtue over
the helm ; fo numbers of fyrups have been prepared
from ingredients, which in this form cannot be taken
in fufficient dofes to exert their virtues ; for two-
thirds of a fyrup confift of fugar, and greateft part of
the remaining third is an aqueous fluid.
Syrups are at prefent chiefly regarded as convenient
vehicles for medicines of greater efficacy; and ufed
3 ^ fo?
4io P ' H A R
Prepara^ for fweetening draughts and julqjs, for reducing the
Com of* lighter powders into bolufes, pills, or eleftuaries, and
tiomP°l* other fimilar purpofes. Some likewife may not im-
v——v—' properly be confidered as medicines themfelves; as
thofe of faffron, bfickthorn-berries. and fome others.
To the chapter on Syrups the London college in
their pharmacopoeia have premifed the following ge¬
neral obfcrvationjs.
In the making of fyrups, where we have not direfted
either the weight of the’fugar, or the manner in which
ft fhould be diffolved, this is to be the rule :
Take of double-refined fugar, twenty-nine ounces ;
any kind of liquor, o'q.epint. DifFolve the fugar in
the liquor in a wateM'ath ; then fet it afide for
twenty-four hours ; tike off the fcum, and pour off
the fyrup from the feces if there be any.
The following are the general rules which have com¬
monly been given with refpeft to the preparation of
fyrups.
I. All the rules laid down for making decoftions are
likewife to be obferved in the decoftions for fyrups.
Vegetables, both for deco&ions and infufions, ought
to be dry, unlefs they are exprefsly ordered other-
wife.
II. In both the |London and Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeias, only the purefl or double-refined fugar is al¬
lowed.
In the fyrups prepared by boiling, it has been cu-
ftomary to perform the clarification with whites of
eggs after the fugar had been diffolved in the decoc¬
tion of the vegetable. This method is apparently in¬
jurious to the preparation ; fince not only the impuri¬
ties of the fugar are thus difcharged, but a coniiderable
part likewife of the medicinal matter, which the wa¬
ter had before taken up from the ingredients, is fepa-
rated along with them. Nor indeed is the clarifica¬
tion and defpumation of the fugar, by itfelf, very ad-
vifable; for its purification by this procefs is not fo
perfect as might be expected : after it has undergone
this procefs, the refiners ftill feparate from it a quantity
of oily matter, which is difagreeable to weak fto-
rnachs. It appears therefore moft eligible to employ
fine fugar for all the fyrups; even the purgative ones
(which have been ufually made with coarfe fugar, as
fome what coinciding with their intention) not except¬
ed; for, as purgative medicines are in general ungrate¬
ful to the ftomach, it is certainly improper to employ
an addition which increafes their offenfivenefs.
III. Where the weight of the fugar is not expreffed,
twenty-nine ounces are to be taken in every pint
of liquor. The fugar is to be reduced into powder,
and diffolved in the liquor by the heat of a water-
bath, unlefs ordered otherwifc.
Although in the formula of feveral of the fyrups, a
double weight of fugar to that of the liquor is di-
re&ed, yet lefs will generally be fufficient. _ Firft,
therefore, diffolve in the liquor an equal weight of
fugar, then gradually add fome more in powder, till
a little remains undiffolved at the bottom, which is
to be afterwards incorporated by fetting the fyrup
in a water-bath. , ,
The quantity of fugar fhould be as much as the li¬
quor is capable of keeping diffolved in the cold : if
there is more, a part of it will feparate, ana concrete
into cryftals or candy j if lefs, the fyrup will be fub-
M A G Y. Part IT.
jeft to ferment, efpecially in warm weather, and change Prepara-
into a vinous or four liquor. If in cryftallizing, only ,'‘ons anc*
the fuperfluous fu,-»ar be feparated, it would be of
inconvenience ; but when part of the fugar has can- - f
died, the remaining fyrup is found to have an under
proportion, and is as fubject to fermentation as if it
had wanted fugar at firlt.
IV. Copper-veffels, unlefs they be well tinned, fhould
not be employed in the making of acid fyrups, or
fueh as are compofed of the juices of fruits.
The confeftioners, who are the moll dexterous
people at thefe kinds of preparations, to avoid the ex¬
pence of frequently new tinning their veffels, rarely
make ufe of any other tlwm copper ones untinned, in
the preparation even of the moft acid fyrups, as of
oranges and lemons. Neverthelefs, by taking due care
that their coppers be well fcoured and perfeftly clean,
and that the fyrup remain no longer in them than is
abfolutely rieceffary, they avoid giving it any ill tafte
or quality from the mqtal. This practice, however,
is by no means to be recommended to the apothe¬
cary.
V. The fyrup, when made, is to be fet by till next
day; if any faccharine cruft appears upon the fur-
face it is to be taken off.
Syrup of vinegar. 1^.
Take of vinegar, two pounds and an half; refined fu- 456
gar, three pounds and an half. Boil them till a fy¬
rup be formed.
This is to be confidered as Ample fyrup merely aci¬
dulated, and is by no means unpleafant. It is often
employed in mucilaginous mixtures and the like ; and
on account of its cheapnefs it is often preferred to fy¬
rup of lemons.
Syrup of marfhmal/o'w.
Take of frefh root of marfhmallow, bruifed, one pound; 49^
double-refined fugar, four pounds ; diftilled water,
one gallon. Boil the water wfith the marfiimallow
root to one half, and prefs out the liquor when cold. .
Set it by twelve hours ; and, after the feces have
fubfided, pour off the liquor. Add the fugar,. and
boil it to the weight of fix pounds. L.
Take of marffimallow roots, fomewhat dried, nine
ounces; water, ten pounds; pureft fugar, four pounds.
Boil the water with the roots to the confumption
of one half, and ftrain the liquor, ftrongly expreffing
it. Suffer the ftrained liquor to reft till the feces
have fubfided ; and when it is free from the dregs,
add the fugar; then boil fo as to make a fyrup. E.
The fyrup of marfhmallows feems to have been a
fort of favourite among difpenfatory writers, who have
taken great pains to alter an4 amend it, but have been
wonderfully tender in retrenching any of its articles.
In the laft prefeription, it is lopt of its fuperfluities,
without any injury to its virtues. It is ufed chiefly in
nephritic cafes, for fweetening emollient decoftions,
and the like : of itfelf it can do little fervice, notwith-
ftanding the high opinion which fome have entertained
of it ; for v/hat can he expe&ed from two or three
fpoonfuls of the fyrup, when the decoftion, from
which two or three pounds are made, may be taken
at a draught or two? It is fometimes ufeful in tickling
coughs.
Pan 11. P H A R
Prepara- coughs, by Invlfcating irritating matter diflilllng in
:ions and fauces . ^ w jt fometimeg affords conlider-
tT^ -Me relief.
”1"V Syrup of clove juIyjlo'iOer.
498 Take of freflt clove July-flowers, the heels being cut
off, two pounds; boiling didilled water, fix pints.
Macerate the flowers for twelve hours in a glafs
Veffel; and in the {trained liquor diffolve the double-
refined fugar, that it may be made a fyrup. Z>.
Take of clove July-flowers, frefh gathered and freed
from the heels, one pound ; pureft fugar, feven
pounds and a quarter 5 boiling water, four pounds.
Macerate the flowers in the water for a night; then
to the {trained liquor add the fugar previoufly beat,
and diffolve it by a gentle heat, to make the whole
^ into a fyrup. E.
This fyrup is of an agreeable flavour, and a fine red
colour ; and for thefe it is chiefly valued. Some have
fubftituted for it one eafily preparable at feafons when
the flowers are not to be procured : an ounce of clove
fpice is infafed for fome days in twelve ounces of white
wine, the liquor (trained, and, with the addition of
twenty ounces of fugar, boiled to a proper confiftence;
a little cochineal renders the colour of this fyrup ex¬
actly fimilar to that prepared from the clove July-
flower ; and its flavour is of the fame kind, though
not fo pleafant. The abufe may be readily detected
by adding to a little of the fyrUp fome alkaline fait or
ley; which will change the genuine fyrup to a green
colour; but in the counterfeit, it will make no fuch
alteration, only varying the {hade of the red.
As the beauty of the colour is a principal quality
in this fyrup, no force in the way of expreffion (hould
be ufed in feparating the liquor from the flowers.
Syrup of coichtcum. E.
499 Take of colchicum root, frefh and fucculent, cut into
fmall pieces, one ounce ; vinegar, fixteen ounces ;
pureft fugar, twenty-fix ounces. Macerate the root
ih the vinegar two days, now and then fhaking the
veffel; then ftrain it with a gentle preffure. To
the drained liquor add the fugar, and boil a little,
fo as to form a fyrup.
This fyrup feems to be the beft preparation of the
colchicum ; great care is required to take up this root
in the proper fcafoni and from errors of this kind we
are to afcribe the uncertainty in the effects of this me¬
dicine as found in the (hops.
The fyrup of colchlcum is often fuccetsfully em¬
ployed as a diuretic, and may be taken from a dram or
two to the extent of an ounce or more.
£60
, Syrup af orange-peel.
Take of frefh outer-rind of Seville-oranges, eight
ounces; boiling diftilled water, five pints. Macerate
for twelve hours in a clofe veffel ; and in the {train¬
ed liquor diffolve double-refined fugar to make a
fyrup. L.
Take of yellow rind of Seville orange peel frefh, fix
ounces ; boiling water, three pounds. Infufe them
for a night in a clofe veffel; then ftrain the liquor;
let it ftand to fettle ; and having poured it off clear
from the fediment, diffolve in it four pounds and a
M A C Y. 41
quarter of white fugar, fo as to make it into a fy- Prepara-
rup with a gentle heat. E. Com oil*
In making this fyrup, it is particularly neceffary that^j/1
the fugar be previoully powdered, and diflblved in the y—.
infufion with as gentle a heat as poffible, to prevent
the exhalation of the volatile parts of the peel- With
thefe cautions, the fyrup proves a very elegant and
agreeable one, poffefiing great fhare of the fine flavour
of the orange-peel.
Syrup of fijfron. L.
Take of faffron, one ounce; boiling diftilled water, 501
one pint. Macerate the i'affron, in the water, for
twelve hours, in a clofe veffel; and diffolve double-
refined fugar in the ftrained liquor, that it may be
made a'fyrup.
Saffron is very well fitted for making a fyrup, as in
this form a fufficient dofe of it is contained in a rea-
fonable compafs. This fyrup is at prefent frequently
prefcribed ; it is a pleafant cordial, and gives a fine
colour to juleps.
Syrup of lemon-juice.
Take of lemon-juice, ftrained, after the feces have fub- 50J
iided, two pints; double-refined fugar, fifty ounces.
Diffolve the fugar, that it may be made a fyruo. L.
Take of juice oflemons, fuffered to ftand till the fecea
have fubfided, and afterwards ftrained, two pounds
and a half; double-refined fugar, fifty ounces. DHV
folve the fugar in the juice, fo as to make a fyrup.
E.
Syrup of mulberry juice. Lr.
Syrup of rafpberry juice. L,.
Syrup of black currants. L.
Thefe three are dire&ed by the London college to be
prepared in the fame manner as fyrup of lemons,
which immediately precedes them.
All thefe four are very pleafant cooling fyrUps ;
and with this intention they are occafionally tiled in
draughts and juleps, for quenching thirft, abating heat,
&c. in bilious or inflammatory difttmpers. They are
fometimes likewife employed in gargarifms for inflam¬
mations of the mouth and tonfils.
> Syrup of the •white poppy. L.
Take of the heads of white poppies, dried, and the 505
feeds taken out, three pounds and an half; double-
refined fugar, fix pounds ; diftilled water, eight gal¬
lons. Slice and bruife the heads, then boil them
in the water, to three gallons, in a water-bath fa-
turated with fea-falt, and prefs out the liquor. Re¬
duce this by boiling to about the meafure of four
pints, and ftrain it while hot, firft through a fieve,
then through a thin Woollen cloth, and fet it afide
for twelve hours, that the feces may fubfide. Boil
the liquor, poured oft'from the feces, to three pints,
and diffolve the fugar in it that it may be made a
fyrup.
Syrup of white .poppies, or of meconium, commonly called
diacodium. E.
Take of white poppy heads, dried, and freed from the
3 F 2 feeds.
412
prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
5°4
505
P H A R
feeds, two pounds; to!ling*water, thirty pounds ;
pared fugar, four pounds. Macerate the bruifed
heads in the water for z night; next boil till only
one-third part of the liquor remain ; then drain it,
exprefiing it llrongly. Boil the drained liquor to
the confumption of one half, and drain again; ladly,
add the fugar, and boil to a fyrup. It may alfo be
made by diffolving in two pounds and a half of
fimple fyrup, one drafin of the extract of white
poppies.
This fyrup, impregnatdd with the opiate matter of
the poppy heads, is given to children in dofea of two
or three drams; to adults from half an ounce to on
ounce and upwards, for eafing pain, procuring red,
and anfwtring the other intentions of mild opiates.
Particular care is requifite in its preparation, that it
may be always made, as nearly as polhble, of the fame
drength ; and accordingly the colleges have been very
minute in their defeription pf the procefs.
M A C Y, Part 11*
The liquor remaining after the didiliation of rofes Prepara,
(provided the dill has been perfedtly clean) is as pro- dons and
per for making this fyrup as a fredi infulion ; for the Co«y>oQ-
didilbtion only colledfs thofe volatile parts which are Uoa8' J
diffipated in the air while the infufion is boiling to its ~ *
confidence. This fyrup is an agreea! le and mild pur¬
gative for children, in the dofe of half a fpoonful or a
fpoonful. It likewife proves gently laxative to adulcs;
and with this intention may be of fervice in coltive
habits. Its principle ufe is in folutive glyfters.
Syrup of the red poppy. L.
Take of the fredi flowers of the wild or red poppy,
four pounds; boiling diddled water, four pints and
an half, Put the flowers by degrees into the boil
ing water in a water bath, condantly Airring them.
After this, the veflel being taken out of the bath,
macerate for twelve hours ; then prefs out the li¬
quor, and fet it apart, that the feces may fubfide.
Ladly, make it into a fyrup, with double refined
fugar.
The defign of putting the flowers into boiling water
in a water batii is, that they may be a little fealded,
fo as to dirink enough to be all immerged in the water;
without this artifice they can fcarcely be all got in :
1 ut they are no longer to be continued over the fire
than till this effeft is produced, led the liquor become
too thick, and the fyrup be rendered ropy.
This fyrup has been recommended in diforders of
the brend, coughs, fpitting of blood, pleurifies, and
other difeafes, both as an emollient and as an opiate.
It is one of the lighted of the opiate medicines ; and
in this refpeft fo weak, that fome have doubted of its
having any anodyne quality. We indeed prefume,
that it might be very fafely fuperfeded altogether ;
and accordingly it has now no place either in the
Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, or fome of the bed foreign
ones, though dill retained by the London college.
Rofe fyrup. L.
Take of the dried leaves of the damafk rofe, feven
ounces ; double-refined fugar, fix. pounds; boiling
diddled water, four pints. Macerate the rofe leaves
in water for twelve hours, and drain. Evaporate
the drained liquor to two pints and an half, and add
the fugar, that it may be made a fyrup.
Syrup of pale rofes. E.
Take of pale rofes, frefh gathered, one pound ; boiling
water, four pounds ; white fugar, three pounds.
Macerate the rofes in the water for a night ; then
to the liquor drained, and freed from the dregs, add
the fugar; and boil them into a fyrup.
This fyrup may likewife be made from the liquor re¬
maining after the didillatiou of rofe-water depurated
from its feces.
Syrup of dry rofes. E.
Take of red rofes, dried, f^ven ounces ; white fugar,
fix pounds ; boiling water, five pounds. Inlufe the
rofes in the water for a night, then boil them a
little ; drain out the liquor, and a iding to it the
fugar, boil them to the confidence of a fyrup.
This fyrup is fuppofed to be mil :ly adringent; but
is principally valued on account of its red colour. The
London college have omitted it, having retained others
at lead equal to it in that refpedt.
E.
Syrup of fquills.
Take of vinegar of fquills, two pounds; white fugar,
three pounds and a half. Make them into a fyrup
with a gentle heat.
This fyrup was formerly prepared with fome fpicea,
intended to alleviate the offenfivenefs of the fquills.
But while they had not this effect, they olten counter¬
acted the intention in view, and are therefore omitted.
It is ufed chiefly in dofes of a fpoonful or two, for
promoting expectoration, which it does very power¬
fully.
Simple or common fyrup. E,
Take of pured fugar, fifteen parts; water, eight parts.
Let the fugar be diffolved by a gentle heat.
This preparation is a plain liquid fweet, void of
flavour or colour. It is convenient for fundry pur¬
poses where thefe qualities are not wanted, or would
be exceptionable.
506
Pa.
tiarJ
Cos
507
508
Syrup of buckthorn.
Take of the juice of ripe and frefh buckthorn berries,
one gallon; ginger, bruifed, one ounce ; all fpice,
powdered, one,ounce and an half; double-refined
fugar, feven pounds. Set by the juice for fome
days, that the feces may fubfide, and drain. Mace¬
rate the ginger and ail-fpice in a pint of the drained
juice for four hours, and drain. Boil away the re
of the juice to three pints ; then a Id that part of
the juice in which the ginger and all-fpice have been
macerated ; and, laftly, the fugar, that it may be
made a fyrup. L.
Take of juice of the ripe buckthorn berries, depu¬
rated, feven pounds ana a half ; white fugar, three
pounds and a half. Bod them to the confidence of
a fyrup. E.
Both thefe preparations, in dofes of three or four
fpoonfuls, operate as briik cathartics. The principal
inconveniences attending them are, their being very
unpleafant, and their occafioning a third and drynefs
of the mouth and fauces, and fometimes violent gripes.
Thefe effects may be prevented by drinking freely of
watar->
joc?
Part II. P H A R
prepara- water-gruel, or other warm liquids, during the opera-
tioris and t;on> ungratefulnefs of the buckthorn is endea-
Compoii- voured to be remedied in the firlt of the above pre-
^ n . fcriptions by the addition of aromatics, which, how¬
ever, are fcarcely fufficient lor that purpofe. j. he
fecond alfo had formerly an aromatic material for me
fame intention, a dram of the effential oil of cloves;
which being found ineffectual, is now rejected#
Syrup of balfam of Tolu. L.
?x0 Take of the balfam of Tolu, eight ounces; diftilled
^ water, three pints. Boil for two hours. Mis with
the liquor, ftrained after it is cold, the double-refined
fugar, that it may be made a fyrup.
Baifamic fyrup. E.
Take of fimple fyrup, juft made, and warm from the
fire, two pounds ; tin&ure of balfam ©f Tolu, one
ounce. When the fyrup has grown almoft cold,
ftir into it the tin&ure, by little at a time, agitating
them well together till perfe&ly united.
This Lift method of making the balfarnic fyrup vvas
dropt in one of the preceding editions of the Edin¬
burgh pharmacopoeia, on a complaint that the fpirit
fpoiled the talfe of the fyrup ; which it did in a great
degree when the cin&ure was drawn with male fpirits,
the naufeous oil which all the common malt fpirits are
accompanied with communicating that quality ; and
this was particularly the cafe when the fpirituous part
was evaporated from the fyrup, as was clireited in the
former edition of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia. Par¬
ticular care therefore fhould be taken that the fpirit
employed for making the tindfure.be perftdfly clean,
and well reftified from all ill flavour.
The intention of the contrivers of the two foregoing
proceffea feems to have been fomewhat different. In
the fir ft, the more fubtile and fragrant parts of the
balfam are extradfed from the groffer refinous matter,
and alone retained in the fyrup: the other fyrup con¬
tains the whole fubftance of the balfam in larger quan¬
tity. They are both moderately impregnated with
the agreeable flavour of the balfam.
In fome pharmacopoeias a fyrup of this kind is pre¬
pared from a tindfure of balfam of Peru, with rofe-
water, and a proper quantity of fugar.
Syrup of violets.
rjx Take of the frelh petals of the violet, two pounds;
boiling diftilled water, five pints! Macerate for 24
hours; afterwardsftrain the liquor, without preffing,
through thin linen. Add refined fugar, that it may
be made a fyrup. L.
Take of frefh violets, one pound ; boiling water, four
pounds ; pureft fugar, feven pounds and a half.
Macerate the violets in the water for 24 hours in a
glafs, or at leaft a glazed earthen veffel, clofe co¬
vered ; then ftrain without expreflion,. and to the
ftrained liquor add the fugar powdered, and make
into a fyrup. E.
This fyrup is of a very agreeable flavour; and in
the quantity of a fpoonful or two proves to children
gently laxative. It is apt to lofe, in keeping, the ele¬
gant blue colour, for which it is chiefly valued; and
M A e Y, 4*5
hence fqme have been induced to counterfeit h withPrapara-
niaterials whofe colour is more permanent. Phis
may be readily difeovered, by adding to a little of thet-ons>
fufpedled fyrup any acid or alkaline liquor. If the —~—v "
fyrup be genuine, the acid will change its blue colour
to a red, and the alkali will change it to a green ; but
if counterfeit, thefe changes will not happen. It is
obvious, from this mutability of the colour of the vio¬
let, that the preferiber would be deceived if he ftiould
expect to give any blue tinge to acidulated 01 alkalized
juleps or mixtures by the addition ot the blue fyrup.
. 4.
Syrup of ginger.
Take of ginger, bruifed, four ounces ; boiling oiftilled
water, three pints. Macerate for tour hours, and
ftrain ; then add refined fugar, that it may be made
a fyrup. L. _
Take of powdered ginger, three ounces; boiling water,
four pounds; pureft fugar, feven pounds and a half.
Macerate the ginger in the water in a clofe veftel
for 24 hoars ; then to the liquor, ftrained and freed
from the fects, add the powdered fugar, and make
them into a fyrup. E.
Thefe are agreeable and moderately aromatic fyrups,
lightly impregnated with the flavour and virtues of
the ginger.
Acid of fyrup. Gen.
Take of weak fpirit of vitriol, two drams ; fyrup of
lemons, fix ounces. Mix them.
Where we wifh to obtain a fyrup, not only ftrongly
acidulated, but alio powerfully aflringent, this formula
may Jae confidered as well fuited to anfwer the pur-
pole.
Alkaline fyrup. Gen.
Take of fait of tartar, thiee drams ; fimple fyrup, fix 51#,
ounces. Mix them.
In this fyrup we have in fome degree the converfe
of the preceding; and it may be uiefully employed
either for the deitrudlion of acid in the ftomach, or
for the formation of neutral or effervefeent mixtures.
Syrup of garde. Siiec.
Take ©f the frefh root of garlic, fliced, one pound ;
boiling water, two pounds. Macerate them in a
clofe veffel for an hour. Add to the ftrained liquor,
refined fugar, two pounds. Boil them to a fyrup.
This fyrup formerly held a place in our pharmaco-
pceias, and was recommended for promoting expecto¬
ration in cafes of chronic catarrh and other affections
of the breaft : but, as well as the oxymel of garlic, it
is now banifhed from them; and there can be little
doubt that the fame intentions may in general be an-
fwered by lefs difagreeable medicines. Yet where we
wifh to employ garlic in a watery menftruum, this for¬
mula is perhaps one of the beft under which it can be
exhibited.
Syrup of almonds. Suec.
Take of Bveet almonds, one pound; bitter almonds, 516:
two drams. Let the almonds be blanched and beat
in a ftone mortar with a wooden peltle ; then by
degrees add barley-water, two pounds; ftrain the
liquor,.
4/4 P H A R
,2»'d form :t fy™p. w‘th as much
I'onipofl- couble-rennet! fugar as may be neceffary.
tions. 'J'he agreeable flavour of the almonds is in this for-
•nn v—^ mula communicated to a fyrup, which may be advan-
tageoutly employed to fweeten mixtures, or to form a
pleafant drink when diffufed in water; and the flavour
is not a little^ improved by the addition of the pro¬
portion of bitter almonds here direfted. But even
thefe cannot be fuppofed to communicate any adb’ve
quality to this fyrup, as they are employed in fo fmall
a quantity : and dill lefs is to he expected from the
fweet almonds, which can communicate little more to
the fyrup than their mild oil.
Syrup of cinnamon. Rofl*.
517 Take of cinnamon, bruifed, five ounces; fpirituous
cinnamon water, two pounds. Digeft them in a
clofe glafs veflel for 24 hours ; then add to the
{trained liquor double-refined fugar, three pounds.
Boil it to a fyrup.
Phis fyrup is ftrongly impregnated with the cinna¬
mon ; and where we wifii to fweeten any mixture, at
the fame time adding to it an agreeable aromatic, it is
perhaps one of the bed articles we can employ.
Emetic fyrup. Brun.
518 Take of glafs of antimony, finely powdered, two drams;
Rhenifh wine, twelve ounces. Let them be digcded
for three days in a gentle heat; then drain che liquor
through paper, and mix with the drained liquor 30
ounces of double-refined fugar. Let it be formed
into a fyrup, and kert in a clofe vefiel.
There can be no doubt of this fyrup being drongly
impregnated with the emetic quality of the antimony*
and it will at lead have fo far the advantage of being
very agreeable to the tade, that it may be readily ta¬
ken by very young people. But every good effeft to
be obtained from it may be had with more certainty,
by adding to Ample fyrup any quantity that may be
thought neceflary of the antimonial tartar previoufiy
diffolved in a fmall proportion of water,
Syrup of quichjilver. Suec.
jplp Take of purified quickfilver, one dram; gum arable*
three drams ; rofe-water, as m^ch as fufficient for
reducing the gum to a mucus. Let them be rubbed
in a mortar till the quickfilver totally difappears;
then by degrees mix with it fimple fyrup, four
ounces.
In this we have a preparation fimilar to the mercu¬
rial folution of Dr Plenck formerly mentioned ; and
which, while it does not pofiefs any other advantage
than mere fweetnefs of tade, is liable to the objections
formerly urged againlt that preparation.
Char. XXIV. Medicated Honeys.
*'2o ,^HE more Parts °f vegetables, didblved in
^ watery liquors, may be thence transferred into honey,
by mixing the honey with the watery deco&ion or
juice of the plant, and boiling them together till the
aqueous part has exhaled, and the honey remains of
•sta original confidence. Honey has not probably,
M A C Y. Pan If.
however, any very peculiar advantage ovef fugar, andPrepars-
it is liable to many inconveniences which fugar is freetions a;1(i
from: in particular, it is much more liable to run into,C<>mi>o£i"
fermentation, and in many conftitutioiis produces
gripes, and often violent efie&s. The Edinburgh
college have therefore reje&ed the whole of the oxy-
mels from their lad edition of the pharmacopoeia. And
the number of preparations with honey in mod of the
foreign pharmacopoeias is now much diminifiied. Still,
however, there are feveral much employed by prac¬
titioners of eminence; and of courfe* retained in the
London pharmacopoeia.
Honey of rofei. L.
Take of dfied red rofe-buds, with the heels cut off, rjs
four ounces; boiling diddled water, three pints ;
clanded honey, five pounds. Macerate the rofe
leaves in the water for fix hours; then mix the
honey with the drained liquor, and boil the mixture
to the thicknefs of a fyrup.
1 his preparation is not unfrequently ufed as a mild
cooling detergent, particularly in gargarifms for ulce¬
rations and inflammation of the mouth and tonfils.
1 he rofe-buds here ufed fhould be baddy dried : the
defign of doing fo is, that they may the better preferve
their aftringency.
Honey of [quill*. L.
Take of clarided hsney, three pounds; timdure of 523
{quids, two pints. Boil them in a glafs veflel to
the thicknefs of a fyrup.
The honey will here be impregnated with all the
aftive parts of the fquills which the tin&ure before
contained, and may be employed as an ufeful expecto¬
rant or diuretic.
Oxyniel of verdigrfe. L.
Take of prepared verdegrife, one ounce ; vinegar,feven C2 3
ounces; clarified honey, fourteen ounces. Diflblve
the verdegrife in the vinegar, and drain it through
linen ; then add the honey, and boil the whole to a
proper thicknefs.
This is an improvement of what was formerly known
in our pharmacopoeias under the title of mel JEgyptia-
cum; which, however, was, as then prepared, very
uncertain with rtfpect to drength. It is ufed only
externally for cleanfing foul ulcers, and keeping down
fungous flefli. It :s alfo often ferviceable in venereal
ulcerations of the mouth and tonflls. But there is
fome danger from its application to places from the
fituation of which it is apt to be fwalldwed ; for even
a fmall quantity of verdegrife palling into the Aomach
may be productive of diflreffing, if not deleterious,
effeas.
Oxymel of meadow faffron. L.
Take of the frefii root of meadow-faffron, cut into r2A
thin flices, one ounce; diddled vinegar, one pint;
clarified honey, two pounds. Macerate the, root
of meadow-faffron with the vinegar, in a ghfs veffel,
with a gentle heat, for 48 hours. Strain the liquor,
prefled out drongly from the root, and add the
honey. Ladly, boil the mixture, frequently flir-
ring it with a wooden fpoon, to the tbicknefs of a
fyrup.
This
Part II,
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi
tions
This oxymel may be conficlered as very analogous to
the fyrup of eolchicum, of which we have already made
fome obfervations. Under this foim it was firll intro-
«■—v—*-* duced by Dr Stoerk. And although with certain
conftitutions the fyrup is unqucftionably preferable,
yet it well deferves a place in our pharmacopoeias, as
being an adtive medicine.
Oxymel of fquills. L.
5*5 Take of clarified honey, three pounds; vinegar of
fquills, two pints. Boil them in a glafs veffel, with
a (low fire, to the thicknefs of a fyrup.
The honey was formerly employed for this prepa¬
ration unclarified, and the fcum, which in fuch cafes
arifes. in the boiling, taken off: by this means the im¬
purities of the honey were difcharged ; but fome of the
medicinal parts of the fquills, with which the vinegar
was impregnated, were alfo feparated. For this rea-
fon the college of London have now judicioufly ordered
the honey for all thefe kinds of preparations to be
previoufly clarified by itfelf.
Oxymel of Iquills is an ufeful aperient, detergent,
iand expe&orant, and of great fervice in humoral afth-
inas, coughs, and other diforders where thick phlegm
abounds. It is given in dofes of two or three drams,
along with fome aromatic water, as that of cinnamon,
t© prevent the great naufea which it would otherwife
be apt to excite. In large dofes it proves emetic.
Simple oxymel. L.
Take of clarified honey, two pounds ; drftilled vinegar,
one pint. Boil them in a glafs veffel, with a flow
fire, to the thicknefs of a fyrup.
Fin's preparation may be confidered as analogous to
the fyrupus acet't of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia. It
is not inferior in efficacy to many more elaborate com-
pofitions. It is an agreeable, mild, cooling medicine.
. It is often ufed in cooling detergent gargarifms, and
not unfrequently as an expe&orant.
Oxymel of garlic. Dan.
PHARMACY. 4,.
the honey and the ammoniac, previoufly diffolved fn Prepara-
the vinegar. Mix them together, by g'entlv boilfncrti(,lls and
them. ° Compofi-
them.
title of this compofition expreffes its medical
virtues. It is defigned for thofe diforders of the bread
that proceed from a load of vifeid phlegm, and ob-
ftrudlions of the pulmonary veffels. Two or three
fpoonfuis may be taken every night and morning, and
continued for fome time.
Chap. XXV. Powders.
This form receives fuch materials only as are ca- i2^
pable of being fufliciendy dried to-become pulverifable
without the lofs of their virtue. There are many fub-
ftances, however, of this kind, which cannot be con¬
veniently taken in powder: bitter, acrid, fetid drugs,
are too difagreeable ; emollient and mucilaginous herbs
and roots are too bulky ; pure gums cohere, and be¬
come tenacious in the mouth ; fixed alkaline falls li¬
quefy on expofing the compofition to the air ; and
volatile alkalis exhale. Many of the aromatics, too,
inner, a greater lofs of their odorous principle when
kept in powder; as in that form they no doubt expofc
a much larger furface to the air. r
. The d°k of powders, in extemporaneous preferip-
tion, is generally about half a dram : it rarely exceeds
a whole dram, and is not often lefa than a fcruple.
o lib nances which produce poweiful effefts in fmaller
dofes are not trufted to this form, unlefs their bulk be
incieafed by additions oflefs efficacy ; thofe which re¬
quire to be given in larger ones are better fitted for
other forms.
The ufual vehicle for taking the lighter powders is
any agreeable thin liquid. The ponderous powders,
particularly thofe prepared from metallic fubftances,
require a more confiffent vehicle, as fyrups; for from
thin ones they foon fubfide. Refinous fubftances like-
wife are moft commodioufly taken in thick liquors ; in
thin ones they are apt to run into lumps, which are
not eafily again Soluble.
52,7 Take of garlic, cut in fiices, an ounce and a half;
caraway feeds, fweet fennel feeds, each two drams;
clarified honey, ten ouncesvinegar, half a pint.
Boil the vinegar for a little time, with the feeds
• bruifed, in a. glazed earthen veffel ; then add the
garlic, and cover the veffel clofe ; when grown cold,
prefs out the liquor, and diffolve in it the honey by
the heat of a water bath.
.This oxymel is recommended for attenuating vifeid
juices, promoting expe&oration, and the fluid Secre¬
tions in general, it is doubtlefs a medicine of conff-
derable efficacy, though very unpleafant, the flavour
ci the garlic prevailing notwithftnnding the addition
of the aromatic feeds.
P e El oral oxymel. Brun.
528 Take or elecampane roots, one ounce ; orris root, half
an ounce; gum ammoniac, one ounce; vinegar,
half a pint; clarified honey, one pound ;- water
three pints. Let the roots, cut and bruifed, be
boiled in the water till one-third is wafted : then
ftrain off the liquor; let it Hand to fettle ; ami ha¬
ving poured it off clear, from the feces, add to it
General rules for making powders.
I. Particular care ought to be taken that nothing
carious, decayed, or impure, be mixed in the compo-
, on of powders: the ftalks and corrupted paits of
plants are to be feparated.
. 11. Theory aromatics ought to be fprinkled, du¬
ring their pulverization, with a few drops of any pro¬
per water. 1 t
III. The moifter aromatics may be dried with a very
gentle heat before they are committed to the mortar.
IV. Gums, and fuch .other fubftances as are diffi¬
cultly pulverifable, fhould be pounded alono- with the
drier ones, that they may pafs the fieve together.
V. No part fhould be feparated for ufc until the
whole quantity put into the mortar hai paffed the fieve
and the Several fiftings mixed together ; for thofe parts
of the Subject which are firft powdered may prove dif¬
ferent, at lea ft in degree of efficacy, from the reft.
• Y1- Powders of aromatics are to be prepared only
in fmall quantities at a time, and kept in glafs veffels
very clofely flopped.
If powders are long kept, and not carefully fecured
from the air, their virtue is in a great meafure deftroyed,
although.
416
‘prepara¬
tions and
Compofl-
tions
53°
S31
P H A R
althoutr^ the parta in which it confifts ihould not in
other circum(lances prove volatile. I hus, though the
virtues of ipecacuanha are fo fixed as to remain entire
, even in extrafts made with proper menftrua, yet if the
powdered root be expofed for a long time to the air,
ft lofes its emetic quality.
Aloetic powder. L.
Take af focotorine aloes, one pound ; white canella,
three ounces. Rub them feparately to powder,
and then mix them.
This compcfition has long been known in the (hops
under the title of ktera picra. It furnifhes us with an
ufeful aloettc purgative, the canella operating as a
good ccrrigent for the aloes. But it is more frequently
employed as the hafis of eleftuaries or pills, or of a
tin&ure which was for a long time diilingui(hed by
the appellation of /acred tintlure.
Aloetic powder with iron. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, powdered, an ounce and an
half; myrrh, powdered, two ounces ; dry extract
of gentian, vitriolated iron, of each, in powder, one
ounce. Mix them.
In this powder we have an aloetic and chalybeate con¬
joined. it confide of nearly the fame articles which
formerly entered the compofition of thzpiluU ecphrablicte
cha/jleat<z, as they were called ; and it is perhaps more
frequently employed when brought to the form of pills
by means of fyrups than in powder : but in either way
it is an ufeful medicine, and is particularly employed
with advantage in cafes of obftru6ted meuitruation.
M A C Y. Tart II,
ing the tone tif the vifeera. The c’ofe is from ten I'repaia-
grains to a fcruple and upwards. The fird is conii-^ an„l
derably the warmed. This principally arifcs from the !'‘U
quantity of long pepper which it contains. But it is -y—«mI
perhaps to be doubted whether from this article any
advantage be derived ; and a powder not inferior to
either might, we think, be formed, by fubdituting
caflia for the cinnamon employed by the one college,
or the nutmegs by the other.
Compound powder of afarabacca. L.
Take of the dry leaves of afarabacca, fweet marjoram,
Syrian herb madich, dry flowers of lavender, each
one ounce. Powder them together.
Sternutatory or cephalic powder. E.
Take of the leaves of afarum, three parts; marjoram,
one part. Beat them together into a powder.
Though the former of thefe powders be more com¬
pounded than the latter, yet they differ very little.
They are both agreeable and efficacious errhines, and
fuperior to moil of thofe ufually fold under the name
of herb fnujf. They are often employed with great
advantage in cafes of obdinate headacb, and of oph¬
thalmias redding other modes of £ure. Taken under
the form of fnuff to the extent of five or fix grains at
bed-time, they will operate the fucceeding day as a
powerful errhine, inducing frequent freezing, but dill
more a large difeharge from the nofe. It is, however,
neceflary, during their operation, to avoid expofrre
to cold.
Powder of cerufe. L.
534
Aloetic powder with guaiacum. L.
532 Take of focotorine aloes, one ounce and an half; gum
guaiacum, one ounce ; aromatic powder, half an
ounce. Rub the aloes and gum guaiacum feparately
to powder ; then m.ix all the ingredients together.
In the guaiacum, as well as the aloes, we have a
warm gummi-iefinous purgative ; and both are cor-
reded, as well as more minutely divided, from their
combination with the aromatics. This therefore fur-
niffies us with an ufeful purgative : but when taken
only in fmall dofes, its chief effeft is that of promoting
perfpiratien. It is, however, mote frequently employed
In the form of pills than in the date of powder; and
indeed it conlids of nearly the fame ingredients which
condituted the piluU aromatic a of the former edition
of the London pharmacopoeia.
Aromatic powder. L.
Take of cinnamon, two ounces; fmaller cardamom
^ feeds hulked, ginger, long pepper, of each one
ounce. Rub them together to a powder.
Take of cerufe, five ounces ; farocoll, one ounce and 535
an half; tragacanth, half an ounce. Rub them to¬
gether into powder.
This compofition is the tro'hifci albi of Rhazes
brought back to its original fimplicity with regard to
the ingredients, and without the ntedlefs trouble of
making it into troches. It is employed for external
puipofes, as in collyria, lotions, and injehlions, for re¬
pelling acrimonious humours, and in inflammations.
Compound powder of crabs claws. L.
Take of crabs claws, prepared, one pound ; chalk, red 53^
coral, each, prepared, three ounces. Mix them.
Thefe powders have lofl feveral of their ingredients
without any injury to their virtues ; and poffibly they
would dill bear a farther reduction, for the crabs eyes
and chalk are by themfelves at lead as elfeftual as any
compofition of them with coral. And perhaps every
purpofe to be obtained from them may be accompli (li¬
ed by a more Ample abforbent, as the chalk powder ,
afterwards to be mentioned, or the powder of the
lapilli cancrorum.
Aromatic powder, or aromatic fpices., E.
Take of nutmegs, leffier cardamom feeds, ginger,
each two ounces. Beat them together into a pow¬
der, to be kept in a pMal well fliut.
Both thefe compofitions are agreeable, hot, fpicy
medicines ; and as fuch may be uiefully taken in cold
phlegmatic habits and decayed condicutions, for warm¬
ing the ftomach, promoting digeftion, and ftrengthen-
Compound powder of contrayerva. L.
Take of conirayerva, powdered, five ounces; com¬
pound powder of crabs claws, one pound and an
half. Mix them.
This powder was formerly diredled to he made up
into balls with water, and was then called lapis contra¬
yerva; a piece of trouble now laid afide as needlefs,
for it was neceflary to reduce the balls into powder
7 again
537
I
Sions and
Compofi-
sions.
Part H* P H A R
^repara- againJbeforc tliey could be ufed. Nor did that forn.
contribute, as has been imagined, to their prefervatlon;
for it is fcarcely to be fuppofed that the powder will
lofe more by being kept for a reafonable length of time
in a clofe ftopt glafs than the balls will in the humec-
tation with water and exficcation in the air before they
are fit for being put by to keep. This medicine has
much better claim to the title of an alexipharmac
and fudorific than the foregoing compofitions. The
contrayerva by itfelf proves very ferviceable in low
fevers, where the vis vita Is weak, and a diapho-
refis to be promoted. It is poffible that the crabs
claws are of no farther fervice than as they divide this
powerful ingredient, and make it fit more eafily on
the fiomach.
M A C Y.
417
Compound powder of chalk. L.
£3g Take of prepared chalk, half a pound* cinnamon,
four ounces; tormentil, gum-arabic, of each three
ounces ; long pepper, half an ounce. Powder them
feparately, and mix them.
Chalk powder* T.
Take of white chalk, prepared, four ounces ; nutmeg,
half a dram ; cinnamon, one dram. Mix and make
them into a powder; which may fupply the place
of the cardialgic troches.
The addition of the aromatics in the above formu-
ia, coincides with the general intention of the remedy
which is indicated for weaknef* and acidity in the flo-
mach ; and in loofenefs from acidity.
Compound ponder of chalk with opium. L.
Take of compound powder of chalk, eight ounces;
hard purified opium, powdered, one dram and an
half. Mix them.
From the addition of the opium this remedy be¬
comes Hill more powerful than the above in reflraining
diarrhoea. • 6
Compound powder of ipecacuanha. L.
539 Take ipecacuanha and haVd purified opium, of each,
powdered, one dram; vitriolated kali, powdered,
one ounce. Mix them.
Sudorific) or Dover's powder. E.
Take of vitriolated tartar, three drams ; opium, root
' tot 1Pccacuanha powdered, of each one fcruple.
Mix, and grind them accurately together, fo as to
make an uniform powder.
The vitriolated tartar, from the grittinefs of its
cryftals, ,s perhaps better fitted for tearing and di¬
viding the tenacious opium than any other fait; this
feems to be its only ufe in the preparation. The ope-
rator ought to be carefu! that the ium and • J
cuanha fhall be equally diffufed through the whofe
mafs of powder, otherwife different portions of the
powder muft have differences in degree of ftrength.
The hard purified opium, dire&ed by the London
college, is, from th.s cireumftance, preferable to opium
HMts ordinary Hate, employed by the Edinburglfcol-
TvT XIV. Pan'll thC m°ft Certai" rud0,i&s
that we know of; and as fuck, was recommended by 1?repara
Dr Dover as an effe&ual remedy in rheunaatifm. Mo-tions and
dern pradlice confirms its reputation, not only in rhen-^’^’0^"
matifrn, but alfo in dropfy and fun dry other difeafes, ,< .
where it is often difficult by other means to produce
a copious fweat. The dofe is from five to ten or twelve
grains, according as the patient’s fiomach and ftrength
can bear it. It is convenient to avoid much drinking
immediately after taking it, otherwife it is very apt
to be rejeaed by vomiting before any other effieds are
produced.
Compound powder ofjalap. E.
Take of jalap root, one ounce ; cryftals of tartar, 54®
two ounces. Mix, and diligently grind them to¬
gether for fome time, fo as to form a very fine pow¬
der.
T he ufe of the. cryftals in this preparation is to
breakdown and divide the jalap into very minute par¬
ticles, whereby its operation is thought to be melio¬
rated ; and on this account the twTo articles are dired-
ed to be pounded together, and not feparately. But
whether from this circumftance any advantage arifes
or not, there can be no doubt that this combination
burn 1 flies us with a very ufeful and adive purgative,
in every cafe where it is neceffary to produce both a
full evacuation of the inteftinal canal, and a free dif-
charge from the fyftem in general, under the form of
catharfis.
Compound powder of myrrh. L.
Take of myrrh, dried favin, dried rue, Ruffian caftor, CIS
of each, one ounce. Rub them together iiito a
powder.
This is a reformation of the troches of myrrh a
compofition contrived by Rhazes againft uterine ob-
,5, ions. It .may be taken in any convenient ve¬
hicle, or made into bolufes, from a fcruple to a dram
or more, two or three times a-day.
Opiate powder. L.
1 ake of hard purified opium, powdered, one dram ; ca*
burnt and prepared hartfhorn, nine drams. Mix ^
them. x
The hartfhorn is here intended merely to divide the
Cpium, and to give it the form of powder, although
it may.perhaps have alfo fome influence in rendering
the opium more affive from deftroying acid in the fto-
mach. But whether in this way it has any effea or
not, there can be no doubt that it is a very conve¬
nient formula for the exhibition of opium in powder-
which on fome occafions is preferable to its being
given either in a liquid form or in that of pills. As ten
grains of this powder contain precifely one of the
opium, the requifite dofe may be eafily adapted to the *
circumftances of the cafe. It is often fuccefsfully em¬
ployed as a fweating powder ; and has not, like Do¬
ver’s powder, the effe& of inducing ficknefs or vo¬
miting.
Compound po wder of fcammony.
Take of fcammony, hard extraft of jalap, each two
ounces; ginger, half an ounce. Powder them fr.
parately, and mix them. L,
3 ^ Take
4i8
Prepara¬
tions and
Competi¬
tions.
P H A R
Take of fcammony, cryftals of tartar, each two oun¬
ces ; mix, and grind them diligently into a pow¬
der. E.
J it is much to be regretted, that in the pharmaco¬
poeias publifhed by authority in Britain, two compo-
fitions fhouid be diftinguiflied by the fame name, dif¬
fering confiderably from each other in their nature and
degree of a&ivity.
The compound powder of fcammony in the lalt
edition of the London pharmacopoeia differed confi¬
derably from the prefent : For there, the only addi¬
tion was calcined hartfhorn, intended merely for t-ie
divifion of the fcammony. This purpofe is flill bet¬
ter anfwered by the cryftals of tartar, which at tne
fame time confpire with the operation of the fcam¬
mony as a purgative. But the addition of jalap and
ginger, according to the prefent formula of the Lon¬
don pharmacopoeia, gives not only a purgative confi¬
derably different, but increafes alfo the heating quality
of the medicine, while the cream of tartar has an evi¬
dent refrigerant power. Both may on occafions be
ufeful, but we think that in moft cafes the Edinburgh
formula will be found preferable.
In editions of our pharmacopoeias of ftill older date,
this powder was prepared with another very a&ive
ingredient, diaphoretic antimony. It was much ce¬
lebrated as diftinguifhed by the name of its inventor,
being called from its tirft publifher. Comae hint's pow¬
der. & In a former edition of the Edinburgh pharma-
copceia it was thus direaed to be prepared :
Take of diaphoretic antimony, cream of tartar, fcam¬
mony, each equal parts. Mane them into a pow-
der.
This may be given to the quantity of a dram or
more. In other preferiptions, the tartar and ar.timo-
nial calx bear nearly the fame proportion to the fcam¬
mony as the calcined hartfhorn did in the London
pharmacopoeia. It appears probable, that neither of
thefe ingredients are of any farther ufe, than as they di¬
vide the texture of the fcammony; though Cornachini
fuppofes very confiderable advantage from fome deob-
ftruent quality in the tartar, whereby the veffels fhall
be opened, and the noxious humours prepared for
expulfion j and from the preparation of antimony,
though it have no fenfible oper ition, he expe&s fome
fhare° of the fame fuccefs which fometimes attends
the rougher preparations of that mineral.
Both the prefent formulae may, however, be confi-
dered as poffefiing all the advantages of Cornachini’s
powder.
Powder of'fcammony with aloes. ’ L.
Take of fcammony, fix drams ; hard extract of jalap,
focotorine aloe , of each an ounce and an half; gin¬
ger, half an ounce. Powder them feparately, and
miK them. _ <- r -
In this formula, the combination of fcammony,. ja-
lap, and aloes, furnifhes a very a&ive purgative, which,
with fome intentions at leaft, may be preferable to
either of the preceding. Taken from five to ten
grains, it will operate as a purgative, even in cafes of
obftinate coftivenefs.
Powder of fcammony with calomel. L.
545 Take of fcammony, half an ounce ; calomel, double-
M A C Y. Part II*
refined fugar, of each two drams. Rub them fe-PrePara-
parately to a powder, and then mix them. ^,ons and_
In this formula, we have the fcammony in a moreq°ns
fitnple ftate, united with fuch a proportion of calomel as y—
mult very confiderably aid its purgative power. And
accordingly it may be employed with advantage, both
in cafes of obftinate coftivenefs and in dropfical af¬
fections, where a considerable difeharge is required
from the fyftem.
Compound powder of fenna. L„
Take fenna, cryftals of tartar, of each two ounces ; 54$
fcammony, half an ounce ; ginger, two drams. Rub
the feammony by itfelf, rub the reft together into a
powder, and then mix them all.
This powder is given as a cathartic, in the dofe of
two fcruples or a dram. The fpice is added, not only
to divide, but to warm the medicine, and make it fit
eafter on the ftomach. The fcammony is ufed as a
ftimulus to the fenna; the quantity of the latter ne-
ceflary for a dofe, when not afiifted by fome more
powerful material, being too bulky to be conveniently
taken in this form.
The compofition of this medicine is now confide¬
rably fimplified by the reje&ion both of cinnamon
and cloves, as the ginger alone is found fully to an-
fwer the intention in view.
544
Styptic powder. E.
Take of alum, an ounce and an half; gum-kino, 547
three drams. Grind them together into a fine pow¬
der.
In former editions of our pharmacopoeia, a powder
of this kind was direfted to be made with alum and
dragon’s blood, and was long in repute as an aftrin-
gent, under the title of Helvetius's jlyptic powder. The
gum-kino is judicioufly fubftituted for the dragon’s
blood, as being a much more powerful and certain
aftringent. The chief ufe of this powder is in has-
morrhagies, efpecially of the uterus.
Compound powder of tragacanth. L.
Take of tragacanth powdered, gum arabic. ftarch,
each an ounce and a half; double-refined fugar,
three ounces. Rub them together into a powder.
This compofition is fomewhat fimplitied by the re¬
jection of the marfhmallow, and liquorice-root, which
formerly entered it. But this has not probably pro¬
duced any diminution of its medical properties It
operates as a mild emollient; and hence becomes fer-
viceable in heCtic cafes, tickling coughs, ilrangury,
fome kinds of alvine fluxes, and other diforders pro¬
ceeding from a thin acrimonious ftate of the humours,
or an abrafion of the mucus of the inteftines; they
foften. and give a greater degree of confiftency to
the former, and defend the latter from being irritated
or excoriated by them. All the ingredients coincide
in thefe general intentions. The dofe is from hah a
dram to two er three drams, which may be frequently
repeated.
Anthelmintic powder. Gen.
Take of the flowers of tanfy, worm-feeds, each three 54$
drams; fal martis, one 4ram* Mix them.
Both
Parc II,
P H A R
Prepara-1
tions and
Compoli*
tions.
Both the tanfyand worm.feed pofTefij a confiderable
degree of anthelmintic power, which is not a little
increafed by the fait of Iteel. And from this com¬
bination more effedl in the expuifion of worms, par¬
ticularly of the lumbrici, may be expefted, than from
any of the articles taken by themfelves. This pow¬
der may be taken to the extent of half a dram or up¬
wards for a dofe, proportioned to the age and circum-
Hances of the patient.
Powder Ugainjl the bite of a mad dog. Brim.
Take of alli-coloured ground liverwort, two ounces ;
black pepper, one ounce. Beat them together in¬
to a powder.
The virtue for which this medicine has been cele¬
brated, is exprefied in its title ; the dofe is a dram
and a half, to be taken in the morning failing, in half
a p'nr of cows milk warm, for four mornings toge¬
ther.
At one period it was held, on the recommendation
of Dr Mead and other eminent practitioners, in very
high eiteem. Now, however, it has fallen into fuch
difrepute, as to be baniihed from moll of the modern
pharmacopoeias.
Compound powder of arum. Suec.
Take of arum root, freih dried, two drams; yellow
water-flag roots, burnt faxifrage roots, each one
dram ; white canella, a dram ; fait of wormwood,
one fcruple. Beat them into a powder, which is
to be kept in a clofe veffel.
In former editions of the London pharmacopoeia,
one of the ingredients in this compofition was called
acorui vulgi or vulgaris ; a name which has been ap¬
plied, by different writers, both to calamus aromaticusy
and to gladiolus luteus, or common yellow water-flag.
In this uncertainty, the compounders generally took
the former. But as the medicine was firfl contrived
by a German phyfician (Birkmann), and as in feme of
the German pharmacopoeias, the acorus vulgaris is ex¬
plained to be the water-flag, the Swedifh college have
rather, in conformity to the original prefeription, then
from any opinion of the virtues of the water-flag
(which appears, when the root is dried and powder¬
ed, to be very inconfiderable), made choice of this
laft, and exprefled it by the name which more clearly
diftinguifhes it from the other. The caution of keep¬
ing the powder in a clofe veflel is very neceffary ; for
if it be expofed to the air, the alkaline fait, imbibing
moiflure, would run into a liquid ftate. Two alkaline
falts have been generally direCled ; but as they dif¬
fer from each other only in name, one of them is here
juitly omitted, and fupplied by a proportional increafe
of the other. Crabs eyes were originally an article
in this compofition, but probably ferved little other
purpofe than to inertafe its volume.
Agreeably to the above remark, the college of E-
dinburgh, in a revifal of their pharmacopoeia, had
omitted the crabs-eyes, and continued the former prac¬
tice of ufing calamus aromaticus for the acorus vulga¬
ris. They had likewife exchanged the cinnamon for
the white canella ; and the alkaline fait for a neutral
one, better fuited to the form of a powder. Their
formula was as follows;
MAC Y. 4,9
Take of arum roots, newly dried, two ounces; ca- Tbspara-
lamus aromaticus, burnt faxifrage roots, each one ant*
ounce; white candla, fix drams; vitriolated tar-
tar, two drams. Mix and make them into a pow- —j
der.
This article, which had formerly a place alfo in the
London pharmacopoeia, is ftiil retained in fome of the
beft foreign ones : But it is now altogether rejected
from our pharmacopoeias.
The compound powder of arum was originally in¬
tended as a ftomnehie : and in weaknefles and relaxa¬
tions of the ftomach, accompanied with a furcharge
of vifeid humours, it is doubtlefa a very ufeful medi¬
cine. It frequently has alio good efFefts in rheumatic
cafes : the dofe may be from a fcruple to a dram,
two or three times a day, in any convenient liquor.
It fhoald be ufed as freih as pofiible, for its virtue fuf-
fers greatly in keeping : the arum root in particular,
its capital ingredient, foon lofes the pungency, in
which its efficacy principally confiils.
Digcjlive powder. Suec.
Take of bitter purging falls, rhubarb, each equal 552
parts. Mix them.
in this compofition, the fait will brifken the ope¬
ration of the rhubarb as a cathartic, and the aftrin-
gency of the latter will tend to increafe the tone of
the ftomach : hence, in confequence of evacuating, and
at the fame time ftrengthening the alimentary canal,
it may be prefumed to have confiderable influence in
promoting digeftion.
Idyfenteric powder. Dan.
Take of rhubarb, one ounce ; calcined hartfhorn, half 5^3
an ounce; gum-arabic, three drams ; cafcarilla
bark, two drams. Mix them, and reduce them to
a very fine powder.
Here the rhubarb is combined with another power¬
ful tonic, the cafcarilla ; and while the calcined harts¬
horn ferves to neutralize acid, the gum-arabic will
operate as a demulcent. This compofition therefore
may be very ufeful in dyfenteric cafes, after the vio¬
lence of the difeafe has been overcome, and when
there remains a debilitated and abraded ftate of the in-
teftinal canal.
Fumigation powder. Rolf.
Take of olibanum, amber, maftich, each three parts; rrj
ftorax, two parts; benzoin, labdanum, each one
part. Mix them into a grofs powder.
This powder is intended for the purpofe of fumiga¬
tion ; and when burnt it gives out a fragrant odour :
hence it may be fuccefsfully employed for combating
difagreeable fmells, and countera&ing putrid or other
noxious vapours diffufed in the atmofphere.
Powder for infants. Suec.
Take of magnefia alba, one ounce; rhubarb, redu- 555
ced to a very fine powder, one dram. Let them
be mixed.
This powder is very ufeful for deftroying acid, and
at the fame time reftoring the diminiflied tone of the
alimentary canal: hence it is often advantageoufly em¬
ployed in cafes of diarrhoea, which depend on thefe
3 & 2 morbid
/
420
Trepana¬
tions and
Compoii-
tions.
P H A R
morbid conditions. And it is in general a circutn-
flarce of confiderable advantage, that it does not tend
to check loofenefs very fuddenly. It is particularly
ufeful with infants, and hence the origin of the name
here affixed to it.
Nitrous powder. Suec.
-rj6 Take of purified nitre, three ounces; fait of forrel,
one ounce ; double-refined fugar, ten ounces. Let
them be mixed.
This is a very convenient and agreeable form of ex-
hii icing nitre : for while the fugar ferves not only to
divide and diffufe it, but alfo to correft its tafte, the
fait of forrel adds to its refrigerant power.
Purging Peruvian powder. Gen.
557 Take o? the powder of Peruvian bark, one ounce ;
powder of rhubarb, powder of fal ammoniac, each
one dram and a half.
It has been imagined by many, that particular ad¬
vantage refulted from uniting the Peruvian bark with
fal ammoniac ; and there can be no doubt, that in
fome cafes inconvenience refults from the bark, in con-
fequence of its binding the belly. There are there¬
fore circurnftances in which the combination here pro-
pofed may perhaps be proper : but there is reafon to
believe that the benefit of the fal ammoniac is more
imaginary than real ; and it not unfrequently happens,
that we are difappointed of the benefit which might
other wife be derived from the bark, in confequence
of its proving even of itfelf a purgative. Hence, in
perhaps a majority of cafes, the exhibiting it with the
additions here propofed will be rather prejudicial thaai
otherwife.
Thebaic powder. Suec.
^58 Take of opium, half a fcruple purified nitre, fiye
fcruples and a half; refined fugar, one ounce. Mix
them together into a powder.
In this powder thofe inconveniences which fome-
times refult from opium may with certain conftitutk ns
be corre&ed, in confequence of the refrigerant power
of nitre ; and hence it may prove a very ufeful feda¬
tive powder. The fugar is intended merely to give
form to the medicine ; and in its Hate of combina¬
tion, each dram of it contains a grain of opium ; fo
that a pra&itioner has it in his power eafily to regu¬
late the dofe according to circuir.fiances.
Sponge-powder. Gen.
rrg Take of burnt fpenge, powdered, common fait, each
^ three drams. Mix them, and divide into twelve
powders.
We have formerly noticed the manner of burn¬
ing fponge, (fee n° 98.) It is of veiy confiderable
fervice in fcrofulous affeftions, and particularly in
the cure of the bronchocele. It has of late been,
highly celebrated for thefe purpofes by Mr Wjlmer,
under the title of the Coventry remedy. There it was
fometimes employed merely in its pure ftate, com¬
bined with a fufficient quantity of honey, .to form
it into a bolus ; fometimes it was given united with
calcined cork and pumice-ftone. What advantage,
M A C Y. Part It.
however, it could have derived from thefe additions Prepara-
it is difficult to conceive ; nor can we readily fee how t‘ions an(*
it will be improved by the addition of common fea-
fait here propofed : for this may probably lead to /
new combinations, mateiially altering the qualities
of thofe falls which the fponge itfdf contains ; and
on which its virtues, as far as it has any, muft de¬
pend. At the fame time, for any experience which
w:e ourfelves have had, we are inclined to think, that
thofe virtues which have been attributed to burnt
fponge are more imaginary than real.
Chap. XXVI. Tracks.
Troches and lozenges are compofed of powders ^5^,
made up with glutinous fubfiances into little cakes,,
and afterwards dried. This form is principally ufed
for the more commodious exhibition of certain tfiedi-
cines, by fitting them to difiblve ilowly in the mouth,
fo as to pafs by degrees into the fiomach ; and hence
thefe preparations have generally a confiderable pro¬
portion of fugar or other materials grateful to the pa¬
late. Some powders have likewife been reduced into
troches, with a view to their preparation ; though
pollibly for no very good reafons: for the moifteningr
and afterwards drying them in the air, muft on this
account be of greater injury than any advantage ac¬
cruing from this form can counterbalance.
General Rules for making Troches.
I. The three firft rules laid down for making pow¬
ders, are alfo to be obferved in the powders tor tro-
cWbs.
2,. If the mafs proves fo glutinous as to Hick to the
fingers in making up, the hands may be anointed
with any convenient fweet or aromatic oil ; or elle
fprinkled with powder of ftarch, or of liquorice, or
with flour.
3. In order to thoroughly dry the troches, put them
on an inverted fieve, in a lhady airy place, and fre¬
quently turn them.
4. Troches are to be kept in glafs veflels, or in earthen
ones well glazed.
Troches of Jlarch. L.
Take of ftarch, an ounce and an half; liquorice, fix
drams ; florentine orris, half an ounce ; double re¬
fined fugar, one pound and a half. Rub thefe to
powder, and, by the help of tragacanth, diflbived in
water, make troches. They may be made, if fo cho-
fen, without the orris.
White pettoral troches. E.
Take of pureft fugar, one pound ; gum arabic, four
ounces; ftarch, one ounce ; flowers of benzoin,
half a dram. Having beat them all into a powder,
make them into a proper mafs with rofe-water, fo
as to form troches.
Thefe compofitions are very agreeable pedlorals, and
may be ufed at pleafure. They are calculated for loft-
ening acrimonious humours, and allaying the tickling
in the throat which provokes coughing.
Although not only the name but the ccmpofition
alfo
56b
tions and
C&mpofi-
*xons.
562
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- alfo in the London and Edinburgh pharmacopoeias be
fomewhat different, yet their effetts are very much the
fame.
’Troches of liquoi ice. L.
Take of extra& of liquorice, double-refined fugar,
each ten ounces; tragacanth, powdered, three oun¬
ces. Make troches by adding water.
Black peUoral troches* E.
Take of extraft of liquorice, gum arable, each Four
ounces ; white fugar, eight ounces. Diffblve them
in warm water, and drain : then evaporate the mix¬
ture over a gentle fire till it be of a proper confid¬
ence for being formed into troches.
Thefe compofitions are defigned for the fame pur-
pofes as the white pe&oral troches above deferibed. In
foreign pharmacopoeias there are fome other troches
of this kind, under the titles of Trochifci bechlci JIavi
and rubrl; the fird are coloured with faffron, the lat¬
ter with bole armenic. The diilolving and draining
the extraft of liquorice and gum arabic, as now order¬
ed in the lad of the above preferiptions, is a confider-
able improvement; not only as they are by that means
more uniformly mixed than they can well be by beat¬
ing, but likewife as they are thereby purified from
the heterogeneous matters, of which both thofe drugs
have commonly no fmall admixture.
PeSoral troches with opium. E.
Take of pure opium, two drams ; balfam of Peru, one
dram ; tmfture of Tolu, three drams. Grind the opi¬
um with the balfam and tinfhire previoufly mixed,
till it be thoroughly diffolved; then add by degrees,
of common fyrup, eight minces ; extra# of liquo¬
rice, foftened in warm water, five ounces. While
beating them diligently, gradually fprinkle upon the
mixture five ounces of powdered gum arabic- Ex-
ficcate fo as to form troches, each weighing ten
grains.
The directions for preparing the above troches are
fo full and particular, that no farther explanation is
neceffary. Six of the troches prepared in the manner
iiere ordered, contain about one grain of opium. Thefe
troches are medicines of approved efficacy in tickling
coughs depending on an irritation of the fauces. Be-
fides the mechanical effe# of the invifeating matters
and involving acrid humours, or lining and defending
the tender membranes, the opium mull, no doubt, have
a confiderable fhare, by more immediately diminifhing
the irritability of the parts themfelves.
i he compofition of thefe troches, however, would
perhaps be improved by the omiffion of the balfam of
Teru : for although here direCted only in fmall quan-
tity, yet it gives a tafte to the troches which is to ma¬
ny people very difagreeable ; and it is at the fame time
probable that it adds very little, if any thing, to the
efficacy of the medicine.
563
M A G Y.
-5^4
Troches of nitre.
Take of purified nitre, powdered, four ounces; double-
refined fugar, powdered, ot# pound ; tragacanth,
42S
With the addition of water, Prepara-
powdered, fix ounces.
make troches. L. 'tions and
Take of nitre, purified, three ounces ; double-refined
fugar, nine ounces. Make them into troches with fmr"
mucilage of gum tragacanth. B.
. This is a very agreeable form for the exhibition of
nitre; though, when the fait is thus taken without
any liquid (if the quantity be confiderable), it is apt
to occafion uneafinefs about the ftomach, which can
only be prevented by large dilution with aqueous li¬
quors. The troches of nitre have been laid to be em¬
ployed with fuccefs in fome cafes of difficult degluti¬
tion.
Troches of fulphur.
Take of wafhed flowers of fulphur, two ounces; double-
refined fugar, four ounces. Rub them together ;
and, with the mucilage of quince-feeds, now and then
added, make troches. L.
Take of flowers of fulphur, two ounces ; flowers of
benzoin, one fcruple ; white fugar, four ounces ;
faditious cinnabar, half a dram. Beat them toge¬
ther, and add mucilage of gum tragacanth as much
as is fufficient. Mix aud make them into troches
according to art. E.
Thefe compofitions are to be confidered only as a-
greeable forms for the exhibition of fulphur, no altera¬
tion or addition being here made to its virtues; unJefs
that, by the flowers ©f benzoin in the fecond preferip-
tion, the medicine isfuppofed to be rendered mote ef¬
ficacious as a peftoral.
The faditious cinnabar feems chiefly intended as a
colouring ingredient.
Troches of chalk. L.
Take of chalk, prepared, four ounces ; crabs-claws,
prepared, two ounces ; cinnamon, half an ounce ;
double-refined fugar, three ounces. Thefe being
rubbed to powder, add mucilage of gum arabic, and
make troches.
Troches of magnfia. L..
Take of burnt magnefia, four ounces;, double-refined
fugar, two ounces ; ginger, powdered, one fcruple.
With the addition of mucilage of gum arabic make
troches.
Thefe compofitions are calculated againft that uh-
eafy fenfation at the ftomach, improperly called the
heartburn ; in which they often give immediate relief,
by abforbing and neutralizing the add juices that oc¬
cafion this diforder. The abforbent powders here ufed
are of the moft powerful kind. The former has in
general the effed of binding, the latter of opening, the
belly ; and from this circumftance the praditioner will
be determined in his choice, according to the nature of
the cafe which he may have occalion to treat.
Red lead troches. Dan.
Take of red lead, half an ounce; corrofivc fublimate
mercury, one ounce ; crumb of the finefl bread four
ounces. Make them up with rofe-tvster into oblomr
troches. 6
4 Thefe
56$
$cs
P H A R
-  Tliefe troches are employed only for external pur-
tions and p0j-e3 as efcarotics : they are powerfully fuch, and re-
t:onsPOh" <luire a S0oci deal °f caut;°n in their ufe*
Troches of catechu. Brun.^
422
V repara
tions and
Take of catechu, one ounce ; white fugarcandy, two
ounces; ambergris, rnufk, each ten grains; muci¬
lage of gum tragacanth, as much as is fufficient.
Make diem into troches.
This medicine has long been in efteem as a flight
reftringent; and reftringents thus gradually received
into the ftomach produce better effects than when an
equal quantity is taken down at once. Thefe troches
would he more palatable, and perhaps not lefs fervice-
able, were the muflc and ambergris omitted.
Chap. XXVII. Pills.
M A C Y. Part II.
mortar, until the mercurial globules entirely difap. Prepara-
pear ; then add the golden fulphur and guaiacum, t'ons an<^
with as much mucilage of gum arabic as is fufficient
to make the mixture into a mafs of the proper con-
fiffence for forming pills.
Thefe pills are much more efficacious than thofe of
a former edition ; the ethiops mineral, there ordered,
being exchanged for a more aftive compofition. In
their prefent form, they refemble Dr Plummer’s pills,
deferibed in the Edinburgh Effays, and afterwards to
be mentioned. To it they are preferable in one re-
fpeft, chat they are lefs apt to run off by ftool. They
are an ufeful alterative both in cutaneous and venereal
diforders. One fourth-part of the quantity above
preferibed may be made into fixty pills; of which from
one to four may be taken every night and morning,
the patient keeping moderately warm during the whole
time that this courfe is continued.
569
57°
To this form are peculiarly adapted thofe drugs
which operate in a fmail dofe, and wbofe naufeous and
offenfive tafte or fmell require them to be concealed
from the palate.
Pills diffolve the moll difficultly in the ftomach, and
produce the moff gradual and lafting effedls ol all the
internal forms. This is in fome cafes of great advan¬
tage, in others it is a quality not at all defrrable ; and
fometimes may even be of dangerous confequence, par¬
ticularly with regatd to emetics; which, if they pafs
the ffomach undifiblved, and afterwards exert them-
felves in the inteftines, operate there as violent cathar¬
tics. Hence emetics are among us fcarcely ever given
in pills ; and hence to the refinous and difficultly fo-
luble fubftanc.es, faponaceous ones ought to be added,
in order to promote their folution.
Gummy refins, and infpiffaced juices, are fometimes
f©ft enough to be made into pills without addition :
where any moifture is requifite, fpirit of wine is more
proper than fyrups or conferves, as it unites more rea¬
dily with them, and does not fenfibly increafe their
bulk. Light dry powders require fyrup or mucilages;
and the more ponderous, as the mercurial and other
metallic preparations, thick honey, conferve or ex¬
tracts. # .
Light powders require about half their weight of
fyrup, of honey, about three-fourths their _ weight,
to reduce them into a due confiftence for forming pills.
Half a dram of the mafs will make fix or feven pills of
a moderate fize.
General Rules for making pills.
1. Gums and infpiffated juices are to be firft foftened
with the liquid preferibed ; then add the powders,
and continue beating them all together till they be
perfectly mixed.
2. The maffes for pills are bed kept in bladders, which
ffiould be moiftened now and then with fome of the
fame kind of liquid that the mafs was made up with,
or with fome proper aromatic oil.
Ethiopic pills. E.
Take of quickfilver, fix drams; golden fulphur of an¬
timony, refin of guaiacum, honey, each half an ounce.
Grind the quickfilver with the honey, in a glafs
Pills of aloes. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, powdered, one ounce; ex-
trait of gentian, half an ounce ; fyrup of ginger, as
much as is fufficient. Beat them together.
Aloetic pills. E.
Take of focotorine aloes, in powder, thick extraft of
gentian, each two ounces; make them into a mats
with fimple fyrup.
Thefe pills were formerly direited to be made with
Caffile foap ; from a notion which Boerhaave and
fome others v/ere very fond of, that foap promoted
the folution of refinous and feveral other fubitances in
the ftomach. This, however, feems to be a mihake ;
and, on the contrary, it is highly probable that the
alkaline part of the foap is in moil inftances feparated
from the oily by the acid in the ftomach ; by which
decompofition the foap may poflibly retard inftead of
promoting the folution of the aloes, i hefe pills have
been much ufed as warming and ftomachic laxatives :
they are very well fuited for the coftivenefs fo often
attendant on people of fedentary lives. Like other
preparations of aloes, they are alio ufed in jaundice,
and in certain cafes of obftrudted menfes. 1 hey are
feldom ufed for producing full purging; but if this
be required, a fcruple or half a dram of the mafs may
be made into pills of a moderate fize for one dofe.
Pills of aloes with myrrh. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, two ounces ; myrrh, faffron,
of each one ounce ; fyrup of faffron, as much as is
fufficient. Rub the aloes and myrrh feparately to
powder; afterwards beat them all together.
The common pills, vulgarly called Rufus s pills. E.
Take of focotorine aloes, two ounces; myrrh, one
ounce ; faffron, half an ounce. Beat them into a
mafs with a proper quantity of fyrup.
Thefe pills have long continued in prajftice, without
any other alteration than in the fyrup with which the
mafs is made up, and in the proportion of fafiron. In
our laft pharmacopoeia, the fyrup of wormwood was
ordered, which is here judicioufly exchanged by the
London college for that of faffron; this preferring
57*
572
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- and improving the brightnefs of colour in the medicine,
Com wk‘ch is the chara&eriilic of its goodnefs. The faf-
tions. fron, in the compofition which is attributed to Rufus,
—Y—— is equal in quantity to the myrrh; and in thefe pro¬
portions the pill was received in our firft pharmaco¬
poeia. As the diminution afterwards made in the faf-
fron was grounded on very abfurd reafons, (viz. “ left
the former quantity fhould occafion a fpafmus eyni-
cus),,) the London college have now again increafed
it, and reftored the pill to its original form. The vir¬
tues of this medicine may be eaiily underftood from its
ingredients. Thefe pills, given to the quantity of
half a dram or two fcruplcs, prove confiderably cathar¬
tic, but they anfwer much better purpofes in fmaller
dofes as laxatives or alteratives.
Colocynth pills with aloes, commonly called Cocci/e. E.
5/3 Take focotorine aloes, fcr.mmony, of each two oun¬
ces; fal polychreft, two drams; colocynth, one
ounce ; oil of cloves, two drams. Reduce the aloes
and fcammony into a powder with the fait; then
let the colocynth, beat into a very fine powder, and
the oil be added ; laftly, make it into a proper mafs
with mucilage of gum arable.
, In thefe pills we have a very ufeful and a&ive pur¬
gative ; and where the fimple aloetic pill is not fuffi-
cient for obviating coftivenefs, this will of’.en effe&ual-
ly anfwer the purpofe. Little of their atfivity can
depend upon the fait which enters the compofition ;
but it may afiift in dividing the adlive parts of the other
articles, particularly the aloes and fcammony Thefe
pills often produce a copious difeharge in cafes of ob-
ftinate coftivenefs, when taken to the extent only of
five or ten grains ; but they may be employed in much
larger dofes. They are, however, feldom ufed with
the view of producing proper catharfis. Half a dram
of the mafs contains about five grains of the colocynth,
ten of the aloes, and ten of the fcammony.
Copper pills, E.
£74 Take of cuprum ammoniacum, fixteen grains ; crumb
of bread, four fcruples ; fpirit of fal ammoniac, as
much as is fufficient to form them into a mafs,
which is to be divided into thirty-two equal pills.
Thefe pills had formerly the name of Pilule cerule<e,
but they are now with greater propriety denominated
from the metal which is their balls.
Each ol thefe pills weigh about three grains, and
contain fomewhat more than half a grain of the cup¬
rum ammoniacum. The above pills feem to be the
bell form of exhibiting this medicine. See Cuprum
Ammoniacale, and Chemistry, n0 1034.
Gum pills.
515 Take of galbanum, opopanax, myrrh, fagapenum,
each one ounce ; aiaioetida, half an ounce ; fyrup of
faffron, as much as is fufficient. Beat them toge¬
ther, L. ' b
Take of afafeetidaj galbanum, myrrh, each one ounce-
rectified oil of amber, o, dram. Beat them into a
mafs with fimple fy or • £.
Thefe pills are Jeiigned lor antihyfterka and emme-
M A C Y. 423
nagogues, and are very well calculated for anfwering Prcpara-
thofe intentions; half a fcruple, a fcruple, or more, y,ons anr^
may be taken every night or oftener. The fetid pills ^
of our former pharmacopoeia were confiderably purga- ^
tive : the purgative ingredients are now omitted, as
the phyfician may eaiily, in extemporaneous preferip-
tion, compound thefe pills with cathartic medicines, in
luch proportions as particular cafes Hull require.
Quickfilver pills. L.
Take purified quickfilver, extraft of liquorice, ha- ryS
ving the confiftence of honey, of each t.vo drams;
liquorice, finely powdered, one dram. Rub the
quk kfiiver with the extrafl of liquorice until the
globules difiippear ; then, adding the liquorice-pow¬
der, mix them together.
Mercurial pills. E»
Fake of quickfilver, honey, each one ounce ; crumb
of bread, two ounces. Grind the quickfilver with
the honey in a glafs mortar till the globule:- difap-
pear, adding occafionally a little fimple fyrup; then
add the crumb of bread, and beat the whole with
water into a mafs, which is to be immediately di¬
vided into four hundred and eighty equal pills.
The quickfilver was formerly direfted to !.e ground
with refin of guaiacum and Caftile foap. The former
was fuppofed to coincide with the virtues of the mer¬
cury, and the latter was ufed chiefly to divide the
globules of mercury. For this laft intention Dr Saun¬
ders found that honey, the fubllance here ordered by
the Edinburgh college, is of all he tried the moft ef¬
fectual : hut we would fuppofe with this gentleman,
that fomething farther is done in this procefs than the
mere divifion of the mercurial globules, and that part
of the quickfilver is as it were amalgamated with the
honey, or brought to a ftate fimilar to that in Plenck’s
folution. The fame effed will take place when the
pills are prepared with extrad of liquorice now dired-
ed by the London college.
The mercurial pill is one of the heft preparations of
mercury, and may. in general fuperfede moft other
forms of this medicine. It is neceflary to form the
mafs immediately into pills, as the crumb loon becomes
too hard for that purpofe. Soap was undoubtedly a
very improper medium for triturating the mercury ;
it is not only too hard for that purpofe, but when the
preparation entered the liomach, the alkaline part of
the foap being engaged by the acid in that vifeus, the
mercury would in all probability be immediately fe-
parated. The honey and bread can only be changed
by the natural powers of digeftion, and can never op-
prefs the ftomach. The dole of the pills is from two
to four or fix in the day, according to the effeds we
wilh to produce.
‘Julap pills. E.
Take of extrad of jalap, two ounces ; aromatic pow- P77 •
der, half an ounce. Beat them into a mafs with
fimple fyrup.
This is an ufeful and adive purgative, either for •
evacuating the contents of the inteftinal canal, or pro¬
ducing a difeharge from the fyftem in general.
3 One
4H P H A R
Prepara* Qne 0f j-^e faTne feiiu!, wkTi powdered jalap in fub-
Compo'a- ^ance inftead of the extra5t, is ufed in fame of our hof-
tions. pitals, as a cheap and effeftualputge.
Plummer's pill. E.
Take of fweet mercury, precipitated fulphur of anti*
mony, each fix drams ; extract of gentian, white
Spanifh foap, each two drams. Ett the mercury
be triturated with the fulphur till they be thorough¬
ly mixed, then add the extra61,and forma raafs with
fimple fyrup.
Thefe pills were recommended to the attention of
the public about forty years ago by Dr Plummer, whofe
name they ftill bear. He tepiefented them in a paper
which he publifhed in the Edinburgh Medical EfTays,
as a very ufeful alterative ; and on his authority they
were at one time much employed ; but they are now
lefs extenfively ufed than formerly. And although
they ftiil retain a place in the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeia, yet it is probable that every putpofe to be an-
fwered by them may be more elfedlually obtained from
the common mercurial pill, or from calomel in a more
' iimple Hate.
Opium pills. L.
579 Take of hard purified opium, powdered, two drams ;
extract of liquorice, one ounce. Beat them until
they are perfe&ly united.
'Thebaic, commonly called Pacific pills. E.
Take of opium, half an ounce ; extraft of liquorice,
two ounces ; Caftile foap, an ounce and a half; Ja¬
maica pepper, one ounce. Soften the opium and
cxtra& feparately with proof-fpirit, and having beat
them into a pulp, mix them ; then add the foap,
and the pepper beat into a powder ; and laftly, ha¬
ving beat them well together, form the whole into
a mafs.
Thefe two compofitions, though differing in feveral
particulars, may yet be confidered as fundamentally
very much the fame. The firft is a fimple opiate, in
which every five grains of the mafs contains one of
opium ; and in the opium alone can we fuppofe that
the adlivity of the medicine depends.
Although fome of the articles contained in the lat¬
ter compofition may perhaps be fuppofed to operate
as corrigentia, yet the former compofition, which is
the moll fimple, is in general preferable.
Pills fimilar to the fecond were contrived by a che¬
mical empiric, Starkey, and communicated by him to
Matthews, under whofe name they were fome time ago
greatly celebrated. The form here given differs con-
fiderably from the original, in omitting many ingre¬
dients of no great fervice. Nor indeed arc any of the
ingredients of much confequence, except the opium ;
their quantity being too inconfiderable to anfwer any
ufefut purpofe. Ten grains of the compofition contain
one of opium.
Squill-pills.
Take of frelh dried fquills, powdered, one dram ; gin¬
ger powdered, foap, of each three drams; ammo-
niacum, two drams ; fyrup of ginger, as much as is
fufficient. Beat them together. L.
M A e Y. ' Part It.
Take of gum ammoniac, leffer cardamom feeds. mPrepara-
powckr, extract of liquorice, each one dram ; dried “on8 arbi
root of fquills, in fine powder, one fcruple. '
and form them into a mafs with fimple fyrup. E. '
Thefe are elegant and commodious forms for the
exhibition of fquills, whether for promoting expe&ora-
tion, or with the other intentions to which that me¬
dicine is applied. As the virtue of the compound.it
chiefly from the fquills, the other ingredients are often
varied in extemporaneous prefeription: and probably
no material difference takes place in the two form*
here propofed excepting in the proportion of the fquills,
which in the former conftitutes one ninth, in the lat¬
ter one tenth, of the mafs.
Stomachic pills. E.
Take of rhubarb, one ounce; focotorine aloes, fix 58*
drams ; myrrh, half an ounce ; vitnolated tartar, ©ne
dram ; effential oil of mint, half a dram ; fyrup of
orange peel, a fufficient quantity. Make them into
a mafs.
This pill is intended for moderately warming and
ftrengthening the ftomach,and evacuating crude vifeid
humours. A fcruple of the mafs may be taken twice
a-day.
Bacher's pill. Gen.
Take of extraft of black hellebore, purified myrrh,
each one ounce ; powder of carduus benedi&us, two
fcruples. Mix them into a mafs according to art, to
be dried in the air till it be fit for the formation of
pills, each weighing one grain.
Thefe pills have been ffrongly recommended as a
moft effedua! remedy in dropfical cafes, and have been
alleged to unite an evacuant and tonic power. Hence
they have been confidered as particularly fuited to thofe
cafes where remarkable weaknefs and laxity occur.
Unde^the hands of Mr Bacher the inventor, they ac¬
quired fo great reputation, that, after a trial in the mi¬
litary hofpitals at Paris, the receipt was purchafed by
the French king, and publifhed by authority. But
like many other noftrums fince this publication, Ba-
cher’s pill has by no means fupported the reputation
which it had when kept a fecret. The dofe is varied
according to circumftances, from one to thirty pills ta¬
ken in the courfe of the day.
Pills of elaterium. Suec.
Take of the pureft gum ammoniac, two ounces ; fo¬
cotorine aloes, gamboge, each two drams ; elate¬
rium, half a dram. Mix them, by means of bitter
tinfture, into a mafs, and let pills be formed, each
weighing two grains.
This, as well as the former, is alfo a pill celebrated
for the cure of dropfical affe&ions. And the elaterium,
from which it derives its name, is one of the moft pow¬
erful evacuants in the way of catharfis. Here, how¬
ever, it is united with fuch a&ive articles, particularly
the gamboge, as muft make its effedt fomewhat doubt¬
ful. And we are inclined to think that a preferable
formula for making the pills of elaterium, is to form
it into a mafs, with the extradt of gentian. This is
imagined to have fome influence as corredting its effedl.
583
Pre.pa: a-
tioHs and
Com; oli-
tions.
Part II. P H A R
in excitlncf fickneft. And when each pill is made to
contain haif a grain of the elaterium, the dofe may be
eafily accommodated to the circumftances of the pa¬
tient, one or two pills being taken every hour till they
begin to operate.
The elaterium, whether under the form above men¬
tioned, or in the more fimple ftate which has now
been fuggefted, operates as a very powerful cathartic,
often inducing the difeharge of ftngnant ferum, when
other remedies are found fneffe&ual. But it can be
exhibited only in thofe cafes where the patient ftiil re¬
tains a confiderable degree of ilrength.
Fetid pills. Suec.
M A C Y.
termedium will be fufficient to bring it to the form off’“epsra-
pills. The formula here dire&ed feems well fuited for
the purpofe intended. Each of the pills contains °
about an eighth of a grain of the corrofive ; thus the w-y—~
dofe may be eaiily regulated according to the intention
in view. And thefe pills are not unfrequently em¬
ployed with advantage, both in combating venereal
and cutaneous affedtions, and for the expulfion of worm's
from the alimentary canal. With the latter of thefe
intentions, a fimilar pill was particularly recommend¬
ed by Dr Gardner, in a paper publilhed in the Edin¬
burgh Phyfical and Literary EfTays: and although
not received into our pharmacopoeia, it has been fre¬
quently ufed at Edinburgh.
384 Take of a'-'oetida, catlor, each a dram and a half;
fait of amber, half a dfam ; oil of hartlhorn, half a
fcruple. Make them into a mafs, with tin&ure of
myrrh, to be.divided into pills of two grains each.
Thefe, like the gum-pills formerly mentioned, are
chiefly ufed as an antihyfteric and antifpafmodic me¬
dicine ; and they are particularly ufeful in counteraft-
ing fpafmodic affedlions of the alimentary canal, ef-
peciaily thofe connedted with flatulence.' But the
afafeetida is no lefs fuccefsrul when exhibited in a
more fimple flate, particularly when formed into pills
with an equal quantity of foap, by the aid of fimple
fyrup.
Tar pills. Dan.
Take any quantity of tar, and mix with it as much rgy
powdered elecampane root as will reduce it to a pro¬
per thicknefs for being formed into pills.
The powder here mixed with the tar, though of no
great virtue, is neverthelefs a vefy ufeful addition, not.
only for procuring it a due confidence, but likewife
as it divides the refinous texture of the tar, and thus
contributes to promote its folution by the animal juices.
In. the Edinburgh infirmary, half a dram of the mafs,
made into middle-fized pills, is given every morning
and evening in diforders of the bread, feurvies, &c.
Gamboge pills. Dan.
Take of focotorine aloes, extraft of black hellebore,
fweet mercury, gamboge, each two drams ; diddled
o;l of juniper, half a dram ; fyrup of buekthorn,
as much as is fufficient for forming a mafs of pills.
From the ingredients of which theft pills are con-
ftituted, we need hardly remark, that they mud prove
a very powerful purgative. The gamboge, from which
they derive their name is unquedionably a very aftive
purge. But it is not more fo than the fweet mercury ;
and perhaps from an union of thefe two, as much
might be expefted as from the more compounded for¬
mula here adopted. Yet it is not improbable that
the efiential oil of juniper may in feme degree operate
as a corrigent.
Pills of corro/ive fublimate mercury. Suec.
Take of corrofive fufclimate, purified fal ammoniac,
each one fcruple ; diddled water, as much as is fuf¬
ficient to diffolve them ; powder of the root of al-
thea, fixteen feruplea ; honey, two drams. Mix
them into a mafs for the formation of pills, each
weighing three grains.
Corrofive fublimate in fubdance was long confi-
dered as being fo violent in its effe&s, that it could
not with fafety be taken internally ; but for a con¬
fiderable time it has been ufed with advantage un¬
der the form of folution, either in water or fpirits.
But to both thefe a confiderable objeftion occurs from
their difagreeable brafly tade. This of jedion is how¬
ever entirely obviated,. by reducing the folution, after
it is formed, to a folid mafs, by means of crumb of
bread, or any proper powder: and by the aid of a
httle fai ammoniac, the folution may be made in a very
fmall quantity of water; fo that lefs of any folid m.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Soap-pills. Suec.
Take of hard white foap, two ounces; extract of birch, 58$
one ounce. Let them be formed into a mafs, to
be divided into pills, each containing three grains.
Although many virtues have been attributed to the
birch, yet we are inclined to think, that it here ferves
little other puipofe than to give the form of pills to
the foap. And this article, even when taken in fmall
quantity with fome conditutions, operates as a gentle
laxative. But belides this, it has alfo been fuppofed
to be highly ufeful both in cafes of jaundice and ©f cal¬
culus. There can, however, be little doubt, that the
theories on which it has been inferred that it may be
ufeful in fuch complaints are not well founded ; and
we may perhaps add, that the ufe of it, even to a great
extent, is by no means attended with thofe confequea-
ces which were once alleged to arife from it.
Star ax pills. Suec.
Take of drained dorax, five fcruples ; extra& of II- 58^
quorice, three drams ; opium, one dram. Let the
opium,diflblved in wine, be added to the other ingre¬
dients, fo as to form a mals of proper confidence,
to be made into pills, each weighing three grains.
Thefe pills are principally adlive in confequence of
the opium which they contain. And they are chiefly
meant with a view to a flow folution in the domach,
and confequently producing more giadual and lading
effects. One grain of opium is contained in feventeen
grains of the mafs.
Chap. XXVIII. ElcfUuxrics.
Electuaries are compofed chiefly of powders mix- 59a
ed up with fyrups, &c. into fuch a cor.fidence that
3 ^ the
426
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
lionr.
P H A R
the powders may not feparate in keeping, that a dofe
may be eafily taken upon the point of a knife, and not
prove too ftifF to fwallow.
Electuaries receive chiefly the milder alterative me¬
dicines, and fuch as are not ungrateful to the palate.
The more powerful drugs, as cathartics, emetics, opi¬
ates, and the like (except in officinal eleCtuaries to be
difpenfed bv weight), are feldom trailed in this form,
on account of the uncertainty of the dofe ; difguftful
ones, acrids, bitters, fetids, cannot be conveniently
taken in ft ; nor is the form of an electuary well fitted
for the more ponderous fubftances, as mercurials, thefe
being apt to fubfide in keeping, unlefs the compofi-
tion be made very ftifF.
The lighter powders require thrice their weight of
honey, or fyrup boiled to the thicknefs of honey, to
make them into the confidence of an electuary ; of
fyrups of the common confidence, twice the weight of
the powder is fufficient.
Where the common fyrups are employed, it is ne-
ceffary to add likewife a little conferve, to prevent the
compound from drying too foon ; eleCtuaries of Peru¬
vian bark, for inftance, made up with fyrup alone, will
often in a day or two grow too dry for taking.
Some powders, efpecially thofe of the lefs grateful
kind, are more conveniently made up with mucilage
than with fyrup, honey, or conferve. The three lat¬
ter dick about the mouth and fauces, and thus occa-
fion the tafte of the medicine to remain for a confi-
derable time ; while mucilages pafs freely, without
leaving any tafte in the mouth. A little foft extradl
of liquorice, joined to the mucilage, renders the com-
pofition fufficiently grateful, without the inconveni¬
ences of the more adhefive fweets.
The quantity of an eleftuary, direfted at a time,
in extemporaneous prefcription, varies much according
to its conftituent parts, but it is rarely lefs than the
fize of a nutmeg, or more than two or three ounces.
General rules for making elefiuaries.
3. The rules already laid down for deco&iona and
powders in general, are likewife to be obferved in
making decodtions and powders for electuaries.
.31. Gums, infpiffated juices, and fuch other fubftan¬
ces as are not pulverizafcle, fhoukl be diffolved in
the liquor prefcribed : then add the powders by
little and little, and keep the whole brifkly {lining,
fo as to make an equable and uniform mixture.
III. Aftringent eledtuaries, and fuch as have pulps of
fruit in their compofition, ffiould be prepared only
in fmall quantities ?t a time: for aftringent medi¬
cines lofe much of their virtue on being kept in this
form, and the pulps of fruits are apt to become
four.
IV. The fuperfluous moifture of the pulps ffiould be
exhaled over a gentle fire, before the other ingre¬
dients are added to them.
V. Ele&uaries, if they grow dry in keeping, are to
be reduced to a due confidence, with the addition
of a little Canary wine, and not with fyrup or ho¬
ney : by this means the dofe will be the leaft un¬
certain ; a circumftance deferving particular regard,
in thofe efpecially which ate made up with fyrup,
and contain a proportion of opium.
M A C Y. Part H.
EleBaary of caffia. L. I’repara-
Take of the frefti extraflcd pulp of caffi.i, half a pound; Compdi-
manna, two ounces; pulp of tamarinds, one ounce ;tions.
rofe-fyrup, half a pound. Beat the manna, and  
diffolve it over a flow fire in the rofe-fyrup ; then 59J
add the pulps; and with a continued heat evaporate
the whole to the proper thicknefs of an electuary.
Eleduary of ca/Jia, commonly called iliacajia. E.
Take of pulp of caffia fiftulatis, fix ounces; pulp of
tamarinds, manna, each an ounce and a half; fyrup
of pale rofes, fix ounces. Having beat the manna
in a mortar, diflblve it with a gentle heat in the fy-
rup ; then add the pulps, and evaporate them with
a regularly continued heat to the confiltence of an
electuary.
Thefe compofitions are very convenient officinals, to
ferve as a bafis for purgative electuaries and other fi-
milar purpofes; as the pulping a fmall quantity of the
fruits, for extemporaneous prefcription, is very trou-
blefome. The tamarinds give them a pleafant tafte,
and do not fubjeCt them, as might be expedfed, to
turn four. After {landing for four months, the com¬
pofition has been found no fourcr than when firft made.
This eledtuary likewife is ufefully taken by itfelf, to
the quantity of two or three drams occafionally, for
gently loofening the belly in coftive habits.
Eleftuary of fcammony. L.
Take of fcammony, in powder, one ounce and an half;
cloves, ginger, of each fix drams; eflential oil of
caraway, half a dram; fyrup of rofes, as much as is
fufficient. Mix the fpices, powdered together, with
the fyrup ; then add the fcammony, and laftly the
oil of caraway.
This eledtuary is a warm briflc purgative. It is a
reform of the elettuarlum caryocojllnum of our preceding
difpenfatories; a compofition which was greatly com¬
plained of, as being inconvenient to take on account
of the largenefs of its dofe. A dram and a half of
this, which contains fifteen grains of fcammony, is
equivalent to half an ounce of the other.
592
EhQuary offtnna. L.
Take of fenna, eight ounces ; figs, one pound ; pulp „
of tamarinds, of caffia, of prunes, each half a pound; 3
coriander feeds, four ounces ; liquorice, three oun¬
ces ; double-refined fugar, two pounds and an half.
Powder the fenna with the coriander feeds, and fift
out ten ounces of the mixed powder. Boil the re¬
mainder with the figs and liquorice, in four pints of
diftilled water, to one half; then prefsout and ftrain
the liquor. Evaporate this {trained liquor to the
weight of about a pound and an half; then add the
fugar, and make a fyrup ; add this fyrup by de¬
grees to the pulps, and laftly mix in the powder.
Lenitive electuary. E.
Take of pulp of French prunes, one pound ; pulp of
caffia, pulp of tamarinds, each two ounces and a half;
black fyrup of fugar, commonly called molajfes^ one
pound and a half; fenna leaves, in fine powder*
four
Part H
Pjjepara-
tions and
Conii'ofi-
tions.
P H A R
four ounces $ coriander feeds, in fine powder, half
an ounce. Having boiled the pulps with the fyrup
to the confiftence of honey, add the powders, and
beat the whole into an electuary.
This eledtuary, the name of which is with propriety
changed by the London college, is now freed from
fome fuperfluous ingredients which were left in it at
former revifals, viz. polypody root, French mercury
leaves, fenugreek feeds, and iinfeed. MolafTes is pre¬
ferable to either honey or fugar, as it coincides with
the intention, and is not only of itfelf inapt to ferment,
but likewife prevents fuch fubitances as are this way
difpofed from running into fermentation.
It is a very convenient laxative, and has long been
in common ufe among pra&itioners. Taken to the
quantity of a nutmeg or more, as occafiOn may require,
it is an excellent laxative for loofening the belly in
toftive habits.
'Japonic ekftaary, commonly called Japonic confeBion. E.
Take of Japan earth, four ounces ; gum-kino, three
ounces; cinnamon, nutmeg, each one ounce; opium
difFufed in a fufficient quantity of Spanifh white
wine, one dram and a half; fyrup of dried rofes,
boiled to the confiftence of honey, two pounds and
a quarter. Mix and form them into an eledtuary.
The ingredients in this ele&uary feem extremely
well chofen, and are fo propoitioned to one another,
that the quantity of opium is the fame as in the diaf-
cordium of the former pharmacopoeias of Edinburgh,
viz. one grain in ten fcruples. The gum-kino, now
fubftituted for the tormentil root, is an excellent im¬
provement in the formula.
'Tin eleduary. Brun.
Take of pure tin, quickfilver, each one ounce. Let
them be formed into an amalgam; oyfter-(hells,
prepared, one ounce. Reduce the whole to a powder.
Take of this powder, conferve of wormwood, each
one ounce, and form an ele&uary with fyrup of
mint.
Tin, as we have already had occafion to obferve
above (n°3i2.), has long been celebrated for the
expulfidn of taenia ; and it is alfo well known, that
in mercury we have one of the moft powerful an¬
thelmintics. Such a combination as the prefent, then,
might he fuppofed well fuited for the removal of that
animal from the alimentary canal ; and accordingly it
has been alleged, that this eledtuary has fometimes Suc¬
ceeded after other remedies have failed. It may be
taken twice a-day, to the extent of two or three drams
for a dofe.
M A C Y. 42?
derived from the ’myrrh may be obtained from this Prepara-
eledtuary, which may always be applied with fafety, t‘ons ar'^
and fometimes with advantage. tiom^°
Eleduary of manna. Suec.
Take of manna, refined fugar pounded, fennel-water, 597
each two ounces. Strain the mixture, ufing expref-
fion ; then add fine powder of the root of flo-
rentine orris, one dram; frefh drawn almond oil,
one ounce.
In this eledluary we have a gently emollient laxa¬
tive, which is very ufeful in thofe cafes where obftipa-
tion either arifes from indurated feces, or is fupported
by that enufe. But its cathartic powers are by no
means confiderable.
Nitrous ehftuary. Gen.
Take of purified nitre, half an ounce; conferve of 59%
rofes, four ounces. Mix them.
Under this formula nitre may be introduced to a
confiderable extent, without giving uneafinefs at fto-
raach, while at the fame time its refrigerant power is
combined with the aftringency of the rofes. From
thefe ctrcumftances it may be advantageoufiy employ¬
ed in different cafes, but particularly in initances of
hffimoptyfis.
Terelinthinate electuary. Suec.
Take of fpirit of turpentine, half an ounce ; honey, 50^
one ounce ; powder of liquorice, as much as is fuf¬
ficient for the formation of an eledfuary.
Under this form, the oil of turpentine may he in¬
troduced with lefs uneafinefs than perhaps under al-
moft any other. And it may thus be employed for
different purpofes, but particularly with a view to its
diuretic power. But it has been efpecially celebrated
for the cure of obftinate rheumatifms, and above all,
for that modification of rheumatifm which has the name
of ifchiait and which is found in many inftances cbfti-
nately to refift other modes of cure.
Lenient linBus. Suec.
Take of gnm-arabic, bruifed, two drams; cherry-
water, half an ounce. By trituration in a mortar,
mix with them almond oil, frefti drawn, fyrup of
almonds, each feven ounces.
In this we have a very agreeable emollient linftus,
highly ufeful in recent catarrhal affeftions, for lubri¬
cating the throat and fauces. It may be taken at
pleafure to any extent that the ftomach may eafily
bear.
Eleduary for the gums. Suec.
Take of powdered myrrh, three drams; cream of tar¬
tar, cochineal, each a dram and a half. Grind them
together in a glafs mortar ; then add melted honey,
four ounces ; cloves, in powder, one dram.
Myrrh, particularly under the form of tinfture, has
long been a favourite application to the gums, when in
a fpongy or ulcerated ftate. But the fpirituous men-
flruum there employed, although fometimes favouring
the intention in view, in other inftances occurs as an
objedlion to its ufe. In thefe cafes, the benefit to be
Chap. XXIX. CorfeEUons.
Although the London college have fcpr.rated-thefe £qj
from eleftuaries, yet they differ fo little, that in moft
pharmacopoeias they are ranked under the fame head.
And in that of Edinburgh, there are feveral articles
which have promifeuoufly the name either of confedion
or ekduary. But as no inconvenience arifts from the
reparation, and as we have followed the order of the
London pharmacopceia in other particulars, it would
be improper to deviate from it in this.
3 H 2
Aromatic
42* P H A II
prepara¬
tions and dramatic confeftion. JL.
tionsP<,ri" Take of zedoary, in coarfe powder, fafFron, of each
(L—v~— half a pound ; drilled water, three pints. Mace-
602 tate for twenty-four hours ; then prefs and ftrain.
Reduce the {trained liquor, by evaporation, to a
pint and a half, t© which add the following, rubbed
to a very fine powder ; compound-powder of crabs-
claws, fixteen ounces ; cinnamon, nutmegs, of each
two ounces ; cloves, one ounce ; fmaller cardamom-
feeds, hulked, half an ounce ; double-refined fugar,
two pounds. Make a confection.
This confeCtion is compofed of the more unexcep¬
tionable ingredients of a compofition formerly held in
great efteem, and which was called, from its author,
confedio Ralcighana. The original confeCtion wap com¬
pofed of no lefs than five and twenty particulars; each
of which were examined apart, except one, moor-
grafs, the flower of which is too fmall to be gathered
in fufficient quantity for the general ufe of the medi¬
cine, and the plant is pofitffed of hurtful qualities, as
is experienced in cattle that feed where it grows. In
this examination, many of the extraCfs came out fo
very naufeous, that it was impoffible to retain them,
confiftent with any regard to the tafte of the compofi¬
tion. But fome few, of equal efficacy with any of the
reft, being of a tolerable tafte and flavour, were com¬
pounded in different proportions ; and when, after
many trials, a compofition was approved, the quantity
of each material, that would yield the proportion of
extraCF which entered that compofition, was calcula¬
ted, and from thence the proportions were colleCled as
now fet down : after which the compound extra6l was
made, and found to anfwer expe&atiosi. The London
college, in the prefent edition of their pharmacopoeia,
have ftill farther fimplified this formula, by rejefting
the rofemary, juniper, and cardamoms, which formerly
entered it.
The confeftion, as now reformed, is a fufficiently
grateful and moderately warm cordial ; and frequent¬
ly given with that intention, from eight or ten grains
to a fcruple or upwards, in bolufes or draughts. The
formula might perhaps be ftill more fimplified without
any lofs. The crabs claw powder does not appear to be
very necefl'ary, and is inferted rather in compliance with
the original formula, than from its contributing any
thing to the intention of the medicine ; and the fol¬
lowing formula of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia feema
to us preferable to that of the London, even in its pre¬
fent improved ftate.
Cordial electuary, commonly called cordialconfeBion. E.
Take of conferve of orange-peel, three ounces ; pre-
ferved nutmegs, an ounce and a half; preferved gin¬
ger, fix drama ; cinnamon, in fine powder, half an
ounce ; fyrup of orange peel, as much as will form
the whole into an eledfuary.
In the above fimple and elegant formula, a number
* of trifling ingredients are reje&ed, and th©fe fubfti-
tuted in their place are medicines of approved efficacy.
We therefore confider this preparation as an ufeful re¬
medy for the purpofes expreffed in its title.
ConfcBion of opium. L.
£04 Take of hard purified opium, powdered, fix drams;
M A C Y. part ik
long pepper, ginger, caraway feeds, of each two Prepara-
ou ices ; fyrup of white poppy, boiled to the con-tions
fiftence of honey, three times the weight of theComf'ofi"
whole. Mix the purified opium carefully with fy- ’:ions' , ]
rup gently heated ; then add the reft, rubbed to ~~
powder.
'Thebaic eleftuary. E.
Take of aromatic powder, fix ounces; Virginian fnake-
root, in fine powder, three ounces; opium diffufed
in a fufficient quantity of Spanifh white wine, three
drams ; clarified honey, thrice*the weight of the
powders. Mix them, and form an ele&uafy.
Thefe compofitions confift of very powerful ingre¬
dients, and axe doubtlcfs capable of anlwenng every”
end that can be reafonably expe&ed from the more
voluminous Theriaca of Andromachus. The London
college alfo had formerly their Theriaca compofed of
the lefs exceptionable ingredients of Andromachus’s.
But as thefe medicines have for along time been chief¬
ly employed for external purpofes, by the way of ca-
taplafm, the London theriaca is now’ omitted, and its
place fupplied by a cataplafm compofed of a few well-
chofen articles, under the name of cataplafm of cummin;
of which hereafter. For internal ufe, none of the the-
riacas are at prefent fo much regarded as they have
been heretofore; pra&itioners having introduced in
their room extemporaneous holufes of Virginian fnake-
root, camphor, contrayerva, and the like ; which an¬
fwer all their intentions, with this advantage, that they
may be given either with or without opium ; an in¬
gredient which renders the others prejudicial in cafes
where they might otherwife be proper.
With regard to the quantity of opium in the fore*
going compofitions, one grain thereof is contained in
thirty-fix grains of the coufeftion of opium, and in five
fcruples of the thebaic ele&uary. The proportion of
opium will vary a little, according to the time that
they have been kept; their moifture by degrees ex¬
haling, fo as to leave the remainder ftionger of the
opium than an equal weight was at firft. A change
of this kind is taken notice of by many writers, but
falfely attributed to an imaginary fermentative quality
of the ingredients; by which they were fuppofed, from
their multiplicity and contrariety, to be continually ex¬
alting and improving the virtues of each other.
A good deal of care is requifite in making thefe
compofitions, to prevent the waite which is apt to
happen in the pounding, and which would render the
proportion of opium to the other ingredients preca¬
rious. The intention of diffolving the opium in wine,
for thefe and other ele&uaries, is, that it may be mere
uniformly mixed with the reft.
Thefe compofitions fully fupply the place of two ar¬
ticles, which, though long baniftied from the fhops,
we fhall here fubjoin, as examples of the amazing
height to which compofition in medicine had at one
time proceeded.
MithridatCy or the confeElion of Democrats.
Take of cinnamon, fourteen drams; myrrh, eleven 605
drams; agaric, Indian nard, ginger, faffron, feeds of
mithridate muftard, frankincenfe, chio turpentine, >
each ten drams; camels hay, coitus, or in its ftead
zedoary, Indian leaf, or in its ftead mace, ftechas
long
I
Prepara¬
tions and
Competi¬
tions.
Part It. ' P H A R
long1 pepper, liartwort feeds, hypociftis, ftorax drain¬
ed, opoponax, galbanum {trained, opobalfam, or in
its ftead exprefled oil of nutmegs, Ruffnn caftor,
j each one ounce ; Poley mountain, fcordium, carpo-
baliam, or in its dead cubebs, white pepper, candy-
carrot feed, bdellium {trained, each ftven drams ;
Celtic nard, gentian root, dittany of Crete, red
rofes, Macedonian parfley feed, lefter cardamom
feeds hulked, fweet fennel feed, gum arabic, opium
{trained, each five drains ; calamus aromaticus, wild
valerian root, anifeed, fagapenum {trained, each three
drams ; meum athamanticum, St John’s wort, aca-
c ia, or in its dead terra Japonica, bellies of {kinks,
each two drams and a half; clarified honey, thrice
the weight of all the other ingredients. Warm the
honey, and mix with it the opium diffolved in wine;
melt the llorax, galbanum, turpentine, and opobal¬
fam (or exprefied oil of nutmegs), together in an¬
other veffel, continually ftirring them about, to pre¬
vent their burning; with thefe fo melted, mix the
hot honey, at firlt by fpoonfuls, and afterwards in
larger quantities at a time; when the whole is grown
almoft cold, add by degrees the other fpices reduced
into powder.
Therlaca of Andromachus, or Venice treacle.
Take of troches of fquills, half a pound ; long pepper,
opium ftrained, vipers dried, each three ounces ;
cinnamon, opobalfam, or in its ftead exprefled oil
of nutmegs, each two ounces ; agaric, Florence orris
root, fcordium, red rofes, navew feeds, extraft of
liquorice, each an ounce and a half; Indian nard,
faffron, amomum, myrrh, coftus, or in its ftead
zedoaiy, camel’s hay, each one ounce; cinquefoil
root, rhubarb, ginger, Indian leaf, or in its ftead
mace, dittany of Crete, horehound leaves, calamint
leaves, ftechas, black pepper, Macedonian parfley
feed, olibanum, chio turpentine, wild valerian root,
each fix drams; gentian root, Celtic nard, fpignel,
leaves of Poley mountain, of St John’s wort, and of
groundpine, germander tops with the feed, carpo-
balfam, or in its ftead cubebs, anifeed, fweet fennel
feed, lefler cardamom feeds, hulked, feeds of biftiop’s
weed, of hartwort, and of treacle muftard, hypociftis,
acacia, or in its ftead Japan earth, gum arabic, fto
rax ftrained, fagapenum ftrained, terra Lemnia, or
in its ftead bole armenic, or French bole, green vi¬
triol calcined, each half an ounce; fmall (or in its
ftead the long) birthwort root, iefler centaury tops,
candy carrot feed, ojx>panax, galbanum, ftrained,
Ruflia caftor, Jews pitch, or in its ftead white am¬
ber prepared, calamus aromaticus, each two drams;
clarified honey, thrice the weight of all the other
ingredients. Let thefe ingredients be mixed toge¬
ther, after the fame manner as directed in making
the michridate.
Fhefe celebrated eleftuaries are often mentioned by
medical writers, and may ferve as examples of the wild
exuberance of compofition which the fuperftition of
former ages brought into vogue. The theriaca is
are formation of mithridate made by Andromachus
phyfician to Nero. The mithridate itfelf is faid to
l ave been found in the cabinet of Mithridates king of
Pontus. The firft publifhere of this pompous arcanum
we.re very extravagant in their commendations of its
M A C Y.
virtues; the principal of which was made to confift in
its being a moft powerful prefervative againft all kinds
of venom; whoever took a proper quantity in a morn
ing was infured from being poifoued during that whole
day. This was confirmed by the example of its fup-
poled inventor, who, as Celfus informs up, was by
its conftant ufe fo fortified aga'nft the commonly re¬
puted poifons, that none of them would have any effeft
upon him w'hen he wanted their affiftance. But the
notions of poifons which prevailed in thofe ruder ages
were maniftftly erroneous. Before experience had
furniflied mankind with a competent knowledge of
the powers of fimples, they were under perpetual
alarms from an apprehenfion of poifons, and bufied
themfelves in contriving compofitions which fliould
counteract their effeCts, accumulating together all thofe
fubftances which they imagined to be pofleffed of any
degree of alexipharmac power. Hence proceed the
voluminous antidotes which we meet with in the writ¬
ings of the ancient phyficians; yet it does not appear
that they were acquainted with any real poifon except
the cicuta, aconitum, and bites of venomous animals ;
and for thefe they knew of no antidote whatever. Even
admitting the reality of the poifons, and the efficacy
of the feveral antidotes feparately, the compofitions
could no more anfwer the purpofes expefted from
them, than the accumulating of all the medicinal
fimples into one form could make a remedy againft all
difeafes.
Yet notwithftanding the abfurdity in the original
intention of thefe medicines, and their enormity in
point of compofition, as they contain feveral powerful
materials, whofe virtues, though greatly prejudiced,
yet are not deftroyed, by their multiplicity and con¬
trariety ; the compounds have been found, from re~
peateii experience, to produce very confiderable effe&a
as warm opiate diaphoretics.
Thefe compofitions might without doubt be lopt of
numerous fuperfluities without any diminution of their
virtues; yet as the efFe&s of them, in their prefent
form, are fo well known, fo much regard has been-
paid to ancient authority as not to attempt a reforma¬
tion of that kind. Although thefe forms were origi¬
nally complex, yet fubfequent additions had crept in¬
to them. Neither the defeription in verfe of the
elder Andromachus, nor the profe explanation of the
younger, make any mention of the white pepper after¬
wards added to the theriaca; and the orris root, in
the mithridate of our former pharmacopoeias, is alfo
a fupernumerary ingredient, not warranted by the
otiginal: tbefe therefore are rejefted. Nor is the
afarum in the mithridate grounded on any good au¬
thority : the verfe it is taken from is mutilated and
corrupt ; and the word which fome, on conjedlure
only, fuppofe to have been afarum, others, alfo on
conjedture, choofe to read differently. Till fome
emendation fliall be better founded than merely on
critical gueffes, this tingle fpecies may be fafely paffed
over without any prejudice to the medicine. None of
the ancient deferiptions afford any other light in this
particular; for they either omit this ingredient, and
others alfo, or abound with additions.
Another innovation on both thefe medicines alfo
took place. In each of thefe compofitions were found
both cinnamon and caffialignea j. and it is very evident,
from
429
Prepa-a-
tions and'
Compofi-
43° P H A R
tionTand ^lom ^vCra^ Galen’s works, that the latter
t'ompou- was ^ the ancients only on account of-the great
tions. difficulty of procuring the other ; fo that to retain the
-y— caffia, now that cinnamon is fo common, is a yind
following of thefe writers, without any attention to
• their meaning: the caffia therefore is now reje&ed,
and half the quantity of cinnamom put in its room j
which is the proportion that Galen direfts to be ob-
ferved in fubftituting the one for the other. It is
probable that the cafe is the fame with regard to the
Celtic and the Indian nard ; that the firft had a place in
thefe compofitions on account o£. the difficulty of
procuring the Indian, for Galen exprefsly prefers the
i latter.
There is a material error in regard to the theriaca,
which has paffed through feveral editions of our phar¬
macopoeia : this is the fubftituting the Roman vitriol
for the ancient ehalcitfs, now not certainly known ;
and, in the catalogue of fimples, deferibing the Roman
to be a blue vitriol, whereas the Italian writers are
unanimous it is a green vitriol; and were it not, it
would not anfwer to the effedts of the chalcitis, which
was certainly a chalybeate, and gives the medicine its
black colour. What has chiefly occafioned chalcitis
to be fuppofed a cupreous vitriol feems to be its name,
derived from copper: but it is to be obferved
that all vitriols were formerly imagined to proceed
from copper, and were named accordingly : the green
or martial vitriols are ftill called by the Germans
kupjfer-’iuajfer, and by us copperas. It is probable that
the ancient chalcitis was no other than a native mar¬
tial vitriol, calcined by the heat of thofe warm climates
to a degree of yellowifh red or coppery colour; and
therefore the common green vitriol, thus calcined by
art, very properly fupplies its place.
The preparation of thefe medicines has been fome-
wliat facilitated by omitting the trochifci cypheos ufed
in the mithndate, and the hedychroi and ‘viperini for
the theriaca ; and inferting their ingredients, after
Zwelffer’s manner, in the compofitions they are in¬
tended for. This is done in the theriaca very com-
modioufly ; the ingredients in thefe troches uniting
with thofe in the theriaca itfelf into unbroken num¬
bers. But to render the numbers equally Ample in
the mithridate, it was neceflary to retrench a few odd
grains from fome of the articles, and make a fmall ad¬
dition to fome others. The proportions of the ingre¬
dients in the trochifci cypheos are adjufted from the
original defeription in Galen, the numbers in our former
pharmacopoeia being very erroneous.
Both the London and Edinburgh colleges ventured
at length to difeard thefe venerable relics. The
Edinburgh college at firft fubftituted in their room an
elegant and Ample form, equivalent to them both in
efficacy, under the title of theriaca Edinenjisy Edinburgh
theriaca. In later editions, however, they have en¬
tirely banifhed the name of theriaca from their book,
and have put in its place the more elegant compolition
already mentioned, the thebaic ekftuary.
M ACT. Part If.
may be called medicated waters. Sometimes this im- Prepara-
pregnstion is effe&ed’by the aid of heat, fometimestior,s au<i
without it ; and thus are formed decoctions, infufions,
and the like. But among thofe articles referred to in / j
this chapter, there takes place mere v'atery folution
only, and they are ufed folely with the intention of
acting topically in the way of lotion, inje&ic-n, or at
the utmoft of gargarifm.
Compound alum-water. L.
Take of alum, vitriolated zitic, each half an ounce; 6c^
boiling diftilled water, two pints. Pour the water
on the falts in a glafs veflel, and ftrain.
This water was long known in our fhops under the
title of aqua aluminofa Bateana.
Bates direfted the falts to be firft powdered and
melted over the fire : but this is needlefs trouble, fince
the melting only evaporates the aqueous parts, which
are reftored again on the addition of the water. This
liquor is ufed for cleanfing and healing ulcers and
wounds; and for removing cutaneous eruptions, the
part being bathed with it hot three or four times a-day.
It is fometimes likewife employed as a collyrium ; and
as an inje&ion in the gonorrhoea and fluoralbus, when
not accompanied with virulence.
Styptic water. E.
Take of blue vitriol, alum, each three ounces; water, 60S
two pounds. Boil them until the falts be diffolved;
then filter the liquor, and add an ounce and an half
of vitriolic acid.
This water, though made with the blue in place of
the white vitriol, cannot be considered as diffeiing very
much from the former.- It is formed on the ftyptic
recommended by Sydenham for flopping bleeding at
the nofe, and other external hemorrhagies ; for this
purpofe cloths or doffila are to be dipt in the liquor,
and applied to the part.
IVater of ammoniated copper. L.
Take of lime-water, one pint; fal ammoniac, one
dram. Let them ftand together, in a copper vefl’el,
till the ammonia be facurated.
Sapphire-coloured water. E.
Take of lime-water, newly made, eight ounces ; fal
ammoniac, two fcruples; verdegris, powdered, four
grains. Mix them, and after 24 hours ftrain the
liquor.
This is a much more elegant and convenient me¬
thod than the preceding.
This water is at prefent pretty much in ufe as a de¬
tergent of foul and obftinate ulcers, and for taking
away fpecks or films in the eyes. The copper contri¬
butes mote to its colour than to its medicinal efficacy;
for the quantity of the metal diffolved is extremely
fmall.
Ciiap.XXX. Medicated F/aters-
£26 We have already taken notice of many articles
which are either diffolved in water, or communicate
- -their virtues to it; and in one fenfe of the word thefe
Compound water of acetated litharge. L.
Take of acetated water of litharge, two drams ; diftil- 6^®
led water, two pints; proof-fpirit, two drams. Mix
the fpirit with the acetated water of litharge ; then
add the diftilled water.
This
Part II-
P H A R
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tious.
This 1'qnor is of the fame natDre with folutions of
fugar of lead, and is analogous to the vegeto-mineral
water of Mr Goulard. It is only ufed externally as a
cofmetic againft cutaneous eruptions, rednefs, inflam¬
mation, See. But even here it is alleged that it is
not altogether void of danger, and that there are ex¬
amples of its continued employment having occafioned
fundry ill confequences. But at the fame time the very
frequent ufe that is made of it with perfedt impunity
would lead us to conclude that in thefe obfervations
there mult be fome miltake.
Water of •vifriolatecl zinc with camphor. L..
£il Take of vitriolated zinc, half an ounce ; camphorated
fpirit, half an ounce; boiling water, two pints. Mix,
and filter through paper.
This is an improved method of forming the vitriolic
camphorated water of the former editions of the Lon¬
don pharmacopoeia. It is ufed externally as a lotion
for fome ulcers, particularly thofe in which it is ne-
ceflary to reftrain a great difeharge. It is alfo not
unfrequently employed as a collyrium in fome cafes of
ophthalmia, where a large difeharge of watery fluid
takes place from the eyes, with but little inflammation.
But when it is to be applied to this tender organ, it
ought, at firft at ieaft, to be diluted by the addition
of more water.
Vitriolic water. E.
$12 Take of white vitriol, fixteen grains; water, eight
ounces; weak vitriolic acid, fixteen drops. Diffblve
the vitriol in the water, and then adding the acid,
ftrain through paper.
Where the eyes are watery or inflamed, this folution
of white vitriol is a very ufeful application. The
flighter inflammations will frequently yield to this me¬
dicine without any other affiltance ; in the more vio¬
lent ones, venefe&ion and cathartics are to be premifed
to its ufe.
M A C Y. 43!
It has been fuppofed, that plafters might be ■ im- Piepara-
pregnated with the fpecific virtues of different vege-t’oris anf*'
tables, by boiling the recent vegetable with the oil J ,mi Jl1*
employed for the compofition of the plafter. The - 
coftion was continued till the herb was almoft crifp,
with care to prevent the matter from contracling a
black colour : after which the liquid was ftrained off,
and fet on the fire again, till all the aqueous rnoifture
ha~d exhaled. We have already obferved, that this treat¬
ment does not communicate to the oils any very va¬
luable qualities, even relative to their ufe in a fluid ftnte :
much lefs can plaflers, made with fuch oils, receive any
confiderable efficacy from the herbs.
Calces oflead, boiled with oils, unite with them in¬
to a plafter of an excellent confiftence, and which makes
a proper balls for feveral other plafters.
In the boiling of thefe compolitions, a quantity
of water muft be added, to prevent the plafter from
burning and growing black. Such , water, as it may
be neceffary to add during the boiling, muft be pre-
vioufly made hot ; for cold liquor would not only pro¬
long the procefs, but likewife occafion the matter to
explode, and be thrown about with violence, to the
great danger of the operator : this accident will equally
happen on the addition of hot water, if the plalterb
extremely hot.
Ammonlacum plajler with quichJUver. L.
Take of ftrained ammoniacum, one pound ; purified
quickfilver, three ounces; fulphurated oil, one dram
or what is fufficicnt. Rub the quickfilver with the
fulphurated oil until the globules difappear; then
add, by little at a time, the melted ammoniacum,
and mix them.
This is a very well contrived mercurial plafter. The
amraoniacum in general affords a good bails for the
application of the mercury. In fome cafes, however,
it is not fufficiently adhefive. But this inconvenience,
when it does occur, may be readily remedied by the
addition of a fmall quantity of turpentine.
614-
CHAP. XXXI. Wafers.
Plasters are compofed chiefly of oily and un&uous
fubftances, united with powders into fuch a confiftence
that the compound may remain firm in the cold with¬
out flicking to the fingers ; that it may be foft and
pliable in a low degree of heat, and that by the warmth
of the human body it be fo tenacious as readily to ad¬
here both to the part on which it is applied and to
the fubftanee on which it is fpread.
There is, however, a difference in the confiftence of
plafters, according to the purpofes they are to be ap¬
plied to : thus, fuch as was intended for the breaft
and ftomach fliould be very foft and yielding, while
thofe defigned for the limbs are made firmer and
more adhefive. An ounce of expreffed oil, an ounce
of yellow wax, and half an ounce of any proper powder,
will make a plafter of the firft confiftence: for a hard
one, an ounce more of wax, and half an ounce more
of powder, may be added. Plafters may likewife be
made of refins, gummy refins, &c. without wax, efpe-
cially in extemporaneous prefeription : for officinals
thefe compofitions are lefs proper, as they foon grow
too foft in keeping, and fall flat in a warm air.
PlaJljr of Spanifh files. L.
Take of Spanifh flies, one pound; wax plafter, two
pounds ; prepared hog’s lard, half a pound. Ha- **
ving melted the plafter and lard, a little before
they coagulate fprinkle in the flies, reduced to a very-
fine powder.
Bliferlng plajler> or epfpajlic piajler. E.
Take of hog’s lard, yellow wax, white refin, cantha-
rides, each equal weights. Beat the cantharides in¬
to a fine powder, and add them to the other ingre¬
dients, previoufly melted, and removed from the fire.
Both thefe formulae are very well fuited to anfwer
the intention in view, that of exciting blifters ; for
both are of a proper confiftence, and fufficienjt degnee
of tenacity, which are here the only requifites. Can-
tharides of good quality, duly applied to the ikin,
never fail of producing blifters. When, therefore, the
defired effect does not take place, it is to be aferibed to
theflies either being faultyatfirft,or havingtheiradlivity
afterwards deftroyed by fome accidental circumftance j
fuch as too great heat in forming, in fpreading the
plafter, or the like. And when due attention is paid
5 t»
432 P H A R
Prepara- to thefe particulars) the fimple compofxtions now in-
Compoif troduced anfwer the purpofe better than thofe com-
tions. pound plafters with muftard feed, black pepper, vine-
<~.-v ■ gar, verdegris, and the like, which had formerly a
place in our pharmacopoeias. It is not however im¬
probable, that the pain of bliftering plafters might be
confiderably diminilhed by the addition of a portion
of opium, without preventing the good effeits other-
wife to be derived from them.
Wax-p!after,
616 Take of yellow wax, prepared mutton-fuet, each
three pounds; yellow refin, one pound. Mdt them
together, and drain the mixture whilft it is fluid.
L.
Take of yellow wax, three parts ; mutton-fuet, white
reiin, two parts. Melt them together into a
plafter ; which fupplies the place of melilot pla-
fter. E.
This plafter had formerly the title of drawing plajler,
and was chiefly employed as a drefling after blifters,
to fupport fome difeharge.
It is a very well contrived plafter for that purpofe. It
is calculated to fupply the place of melilot plafter ;
whole gre t irritation, when employed for the dref-
fing of blifters, has been continually complained of.
This was owing to the large quantity of refin it con¬
tained, which is here on that account retrenched. It
would feem that, when defigned only for drefling bli¬
fters, the refin ought to be entirely omitted, unlefs
where a continuance of the pain and irritation, ex¬
cited by the veficatory, is required. Indeed plafters
of any kind are not very proper for this purpofe :
their confiftence makes them fit uneafy, and their ad-
hefivenefs renders the taking them off painful. Ce¬
rates, which are fofter and lefs adhefive, appear much
more eligible : the cerate of fpermaceti will ferve for
general ufe ; and for fome particular purpofes, the ce-
tate of yellow refin may be applied.
Cummin-plajler. L.
gjy Take of the feeds of cummin, feeds of caraway, bay-
berries, each three ounces; Burgundy-pitch, three
pounds ; yellow wax, three ounces. Mix, with the
melted pitch and wax, the reft of the ingredients,
powdered, and make a plafter.
This plafter ftands recommended as a moderately
warm difeutient; and is direfted by fome to be ap¬
plied to the hypogaftric region, for ftrengthening the
vifeera, and expelling flatulencies: but it is a matter
of great doubt, whether it derives any virtue either
from the article from which it is named, or from the
caraway or bay-berries which enter its compofition.
Fetid, commonly called antihyjleric, plajler. E.
S18 Take of common plafter, afafoetida, {trained, each two
parts; yellow wax, drained galbanum, each one
part. Mix, and make them into a plafter.
1 his plaiter is applied to the umbilical region, or
over the whole abdomen, in hyfteric cafes ; and
fometimes with good effeft; but probably more
from its giving an additional degree of heat to the
part, than from any influence derived from the fetid
M A G Y. part jj^
gums. It has indeed beefh alleged, that from the ap- Prepara-
plication of this plafter to the abdomen, the tafte oftions an<t
afafoetida can be diftinftly perceived in the mouth ; <\ompofi'
and it is not improbable, that fome abforption of its ■11>‘ ^ j
atffive parts may take place by the lymphatic veffels
of the furface ; while, at the fame time, the afafos.
tida thus applied muft conftantly, in fome degree, aft
on the nerves eff the nofe. But, in both thefe ways,
its i -fluence can be inconfiderable only ; and much
more effeft may be obtained from a very fmnll quan¬
tity taken internally. And we are on the whole in¬
clined to think, that the addition of the fetid gums
to the common plafter is here more difagreeable than
ufeful.
Lddanum plajler. L.
Take of ladanum, three ounces; frankincenfe, one
ounce ; cinnamon powdered, expreffed oil, called ^
oil of mace, of each half an ounce ; effential oil of
fpearmint. one dram. To the melted frankincenfe
add firft the ladanum, foftened by heat; then the
oil of mace. Mix thefe afterwards with the cinna-
' mon and oil of mint, and beat them together in
a warm mortar into a plafter. Let it be kept in a
clofe veffel.
This has been confidered as a very elegant ftomach
plafter. It is contrived fo as to be eafily made occa-
fionally (for thefe kinds of compofkions, on account
of their volatile ingredients, are not fit for keeping),
and to be but moderately adhefive, fo as not to of¬
fend the {kin, and that it may without difficulty be
frequently taken off and renewed; which thefe forts
of applications, in order to their producing any con-
fiderable effeft, require to be. Bui after all, it pro¬
bably afts more from the mere covering which it
gives to the ftomach, than from any of the articles
abounding with effential oil which it contains.
Litharge-plajler. L.
Take of litharge, in very fine powder, five pounds; ,
olive-oil, a gallon. Boil them with a flow fire,
in about two pints of water, conftantly ftirring
until the oil and litharge unite, and have the con- •
fiftence of a plafter. But it will be proper to
add more boiling water, if the water that was firft
added be nearly confumed before the end of the pro-
cefs.
Common plajler. E.
Take of litharge, one part ; olive-oil, two parts;
boil them, adding water, and conftantly ftirring the
mixture till the oil and litharge be formed into a
plafter.
The heat in thefe proceffes ffiould be gentle, and
the matter kept conftantly ftirring, otherwife it fwelk
up, and is apt to run over the veffel. If the compo-
fiuon proves difcoloured, the addition of a little white
lead and oil will improve the colour.
Thefe plafters, which have long been known under
the nan e of Diachylon, are the common application
in excoriations of the flein, flight flefh wounds, and
the like. I hey keep the part foft, and fomewhat
warm, and defend.it from the air, which is all that
can be expefted in thefe cafes from any plafter. Some
6
Part
€21
622
II. P H A R
of pur imluftnoug iredicmemakers have thought thefe
purpofes might be anfwered by a cheaper compel!*
tion, and accordingly have added a large quantity of
comrcon whitening and hogs lard: this, however, is by
no means allowable, not only as it does not ftick fo
well, but likewife as the lard is apt to grow rancid
and acrimonious. The counterfeit is diltinguilhable
* by the eye.
M A C Y.
part,
fter.
Melt them together, fo as to make a pla-
fhefe plafters are ufed chiefly as adhefives for keep¬
ing on other dreliings, See.
Plajler of Burgundy pitch. L.
Litharge p!after nvlth gum. Iy
Take of lith nrge-plafler, three pounds ; flnined gal-
bannm, eight ounce*; tuipentine, ten drams; frank-
incenfe, three ounces. The galbanum and turpen¬
tine being melted with a flow fire, mix with them
the powdered frankinceqfe, and afterwards the li-
tharge-plafter melted with a very flow fire, and make
a plalier.
Gum-plajler. E.
Take of common phlter, eight parts; gum-ammo-
niacum ftrained, drained galbanum, yellow wax,
each one part. Make them into a plafter according
to art.
B0U1 thefe plafters are ufed as digeftives and fup-
puratives ; particularly in abfceflts, after a part of the
matter has been maturated and difeharged, for fop-
purating or difeuffing the remaining hard part; but
it is very doubtful whether they derive any advantage
from the gums entering their compofitfoo.
L.
Litharge pi after •with qulclljilver.
Take of litharge-plafter, one pound ; purified quick-
lilver, three ounces ; fulphmated oil, one dram, or
what is fufficient. Make the plafter in the fame
manner as the ammoni'acum-plafter with quickfil-
ver.
E.
Mercurial or Hue plajler.
Take of olive-oil, white refin, each one part ; quick-
filver, three parts ; common plafter, fix pvrts. Melt
the oil and refin together, and when this mixture
is cold, let the quickfilver be rubbed with it till
the globules difappear; then add by degrees the com¬
mon plafter, melted, and let the whole be accurate¬
ly mixed.
1 hefe mercurial plafters are looked on as powerful
refolvents and difeutients, afting with much greater
certainty for thefe intentions than any compofition of
fubflances alone; the mercury exerting it-
1 elf in a confiderable degree, and being fometimes in¬
troduced into the habit in fuch quantity as to affcdl
tie mouth. Pams in the joints and limbs from a ve-
Ca,ufe* nodes; .t0PhI» and beginning indurations
of the glands, are faid fometimes to yield to them.
Litharge plaJleK <with refin. L.
Take of Burgundy pitch, two pounds; ladanum, one
pound ; yellow refin, yellow wax, of each four
ounces ; the exprefied oil, commonly called the oil of
mace, one ounce. To the pitch, refin, and wax,
melted together, add firft the ladanum, and then
the oil of mace.
This plafter was at one time much celebrated un¬
der the title of cephalic plajler, the name which it for¬
merly held in our pharmacopoeias. It was applied in
weaknefs or pains.of the bead, to the temples, fore¬
head, &c. and fometimes likewife to the feet. Schulze
relates, that an inveterate rheumatifm in the temples,
which at times extended to the teeth, and occafioned
intolerable pain, was completely cured in two days by
a plafter of this kind (with the addition of a little
opium) applied to the part, after many other reme¬
dies had been tried in vain. He adds, that a large
quantity of liquid matter exuded under the plafter in
drops, which were fo an id as to corrode the cuticle :
but it is probable, that this was much more the effect
of the^ Burgundy pitch than of any other part of the
compofition ; for when applied to very tender Ikin,
it often produces even vefication, and in rnoft inftances
operates as a rubefacient or hot plafter : and as far as
it has any good effedl in headach, it is probable that
its influence is to be explained on this ground.
Soap-plajler. L.
Take of foap, half a pound ; litharge-plafter, three
pounds; mix the foap with the melted litharge pla-
fter, and boil them to the thicknefs of a plafter.
Saponaceous plajler. E.
Take of common plafter, four parts ; gum-plafter,
two parts; Caftile foap, feraped, one part. To
the plafters, melted together, add the foap ; then
boil fora little, fo as to form a plafter.
Thefe plafters have been fuppofed to derive a re-
folyent power from the foap; and in the laft, the ad-
dition of the gums is fuppoied to promote the relol-
vene virtue of the foap : but it is a matter of great
doubt, whether they derive any
from either addition.
material advantage
L.
ake of litharge-plafter, three pounds ; yellow refin,
half a pound. Mix the powdered refin with li¬
tharge plafter, melted with a very flow fire, and
make a plafter. *
Sticking-plajler. E.
TVou m-TaS?"’ fivtp3rt!i Wh''!errf‘”>
Frankincenfe plajler.
Take of frankincenfe, half a pound ; dragon’s blood,
three ounces; litharge plafter, two pounds. To the
melted licharge-plafter add the reft, powdered.
1 bis plalter nad formerly in the London pharma¬
copoeia the title offtrengthening plajler, and is a refor¬
mation ef the complicated and injudicious compofition
deferibed in the former pharmacopoeias', under the
title of Emplqftrum ad herniam. Though far the moft
elegant and fimple, it is as effe&ual for that purpofe as
any of the medicines of this kind. If conftantly
worn with a proper bandage, it will, w children, fre¬
quently do fervice; though, perhaps, not fo much
3 d f om
433
Prepara¬
tions and
Compoli-
tioijs.
624
62S
626;
434 . . P H A R
1'rcpara- from any ftrengtlienlng quality of the ingredients, as
tions and from its being a foft, clofe, and adhefive covering.
CompoG- It has beea fUpp0fed that plafters compofed of ftyptic
!I0I‘S' medicines eonftringe and ftrengthen the part to which
they are applied, but on no very juft foundation ; for
plafters in general relax rather than aftringe, the unc
tuous ingredients neceffary in their compofition coun-
teradling and deftroying the effeft of the others.
Defevjive orJlrcngthemng plajler. E.
627 Take of common phfter, twenty-four parts; white
refin, fix parts ; yellow-wax, oil olive, each three
parts ; colcothar of vitriol, eight parts. Grind the
oolcothar with the oil, and then add it to the othei
ingredients previoufly melted.
This plafter is laid round the lips of wounds and
ulcers over the other drtfiings, for defending them from
inflammation and a fluxion of humours ; which, how¬
ever, as Mr Sharp very juftly obferves, plafters, on
account of their confiftence, tend rather to bring on
than to prevent. It is alfo ufed in weakneffes of the
large mufcles, as of the loins ; and its effe&s feem to
proceed from the artificial mechanical fupport given
to the part, which may alfo be done by any other plafter
that adheres with equal lirmnefs.
MAC Y.
Deadly nlght-JJpa&e plajler. Brun.
628 Take of the juice of the recent herb of belladonna,
linfeed oil, each nine ounces ; yellow-wax, fix oun¬
ces ; Venice turpentine, fix drams; powder of the
herb of belladonna, two ounces. Let them be
formed into a plafter according to art.
There can be no doubt that the belladonna, ex¬
ternally applied, has a very powerful influence, both
on the nerves and blood veffels of the part; and thus
it has very confiderable effed both on the circulation
and ftate of fenfibilitv of the part; and when applied
under the form of this plafter, efpecially in affeflions*
of the mammae and ferotum, it has been faid to have
very powerful influence in alleviating pain, in difcuf-
iing tumors, and in promoting a favourable fuppura-
tion It has however been but little employed in this
country ; and we can fay nothing of it from our own
experience.
Corn plajler. Dan.
* Take of galbanum, diffolved in vinegar, and again in-
fpiffated, one ounce ; pitch, half an ounce ; diachy¬
lon, or common plafter, tw© drams. Let them be
melted together ; and then mix with thein verde-
gris powdered, fal ammoniac, each one fcruple ;
and make them into a plafter.
Of this plafter, as well as the former, we can lay
nothing from our own experience. It has been cele¬
brated for the removal of corns, and for alleviating
the pain which they occafion ; and it is not impro¬
bable that it may fometimes have a good eftedt from
the corrofive articles which it contains : but in other
cafes, from this very circumftance, it inay tend to ag ¬
gravate the pain, particularly in the firft mftance.
Hemlock plajler. Suec.
Take of yellow wax, half a pound ; oil olive, four
ounces 5 gum-ammoniacum, half aa ounce : alter
' ‘ part II
they are melted together, mix with them powder- Prepar¬
ed herb of hemlock, half a pound. Compofi-
This correfponds very nearly with the Emplaftrum donsf
de cicuta cum ammoniaco. which had formerly a place , ■—y—^
in our pharmacopoeias, and was fuppofed to be a
powerful cooler and difeutient, and to be particularly
ferviceable againft fwelliftgs of the fpleen and diften-
fions of the hypochondres. For fome time paft, it
has been among us entirely neglefted ; but the high
refolvent power which Dr Stoeik has difeovered in
hemlock, and which he found it to exert in this as
well as in other forms, intitle it to further trials. .! he
plafter appears very well contrived, and the additional
ingredients well chofen for affifting the efficacy of the
hemlock.
Corrojlve plajler. Gen.
Take of corrofive fublimate mercury, half a dram; 631
hogs lard, half an ounce ; yellow wax, two drams.
Mix them according to art.
There can be no doubt that the muriated mercury
here employed is a very powerful corrofive; and
there may be fome cafes in which it is preferable to .
other articles of the tribe of cauftics : but this would
feem to be a very uneconomical mode of applying it,
as but a very fmall portioh of what enters the plafter
can add ; and even that portion muft have its aftion
much reftrained by the unftuous matters with which,
it is combined.
63°
Plajler of fenugreek, or of mucilages. Gen.
Take of fenugreek-feed, two ounces ; linfeed-oil,
warm, half a pound. Infufe them according to art,
and ftrain ; then take of yellow wax, two pounds
and an half; gum-ammoniac, ftrakied, fix oun¬
ces ; turpentine, two ounces. Melt the gum-am¬
moniac with the turpentine, and by degrees add the
oil and wax, melted in another veffd, fo as to form
a plafter. . ,
This plafter had formerly a place in our pharmaco¬
poeias, but was rejefted ; and although ftill held in
efteem by fome, it is probably of no great value ; at
leaft it would feem to derive but little either from the
fenugreek feed, with which it is now made, or from
the oil and mucilages which formerly entered its com¬
pofition.
Henbane plajler. Suec.
This is dire&ed to be prepared In the fame manner as 633
the emplaftrum e conio, or hemlock-plafter.
From the well-known fedative power of this plant,
as affefiting the nervous energy of the part to which
it is applied, we might reafonably conclude that good
effefts may be obtained from it when ufed under the
form of plafter ; and accordingly it has been with ad¬
vantage employed in this manner, for allaying pain,
and refolving fwelling, in cafes of feirrhus and cancer.
Pitch-plajler. Rolf.
Take of white refin, fix ounces ; /even 634
ounces ; yellow wax, five ounces. Melt them, and
form them into a plafter. r oA
Pitch, applied externally, has been fuppofed to aft
on two principles, by its warmth and by its adhefive
Part U. P H A R
Prepara- quality. In the former way it may have fome effe& •
C°m 3 ff ^Ut ^ ^aS muc^ more influence in the latter ; and par-
tionsf Ocularly it has thus been found to produce a cure in
cafes of tinea capitis. When a pitch-plafter is ap¬
plied to the affe&ed part of the hairy fcalp, and allow¬
ed to remain there for a few days, it becomes fo at¬
tached to the parts, that it cannot be removed with¬
out bringing with it the bulbs of the hair in which
the difeafe is fe-ated : and by this means a radical cure
is not unfrequently obtained, after every other re¬
medy has been tried in vain. But the cure is a pain¬
ful one, and not without danger : for in fome fn-
ftances, inflammations, even of an alarming nature,
have been excited by the injury thus done to the
parts. Hence this mode of cure is rarely had recourfe
to till others have been tried without effeft: and when
it is employed, if the difeafe be extenfive, prudent
pra&itioners direft its application only to a fmall por¬
tion at a time, the fize of a crown-piece or fo: and
after one part is fully cured, by application to another
in fucceffion, the affeftion may be foon completely
overcome. With this intention it is moft common to
employ the pitch in its pure (late: but the plafter here
dire&ed, while it is no lefs adhefive, is more manage¬
able and flexible.
Chap, XXXII. Ointments and Liniments.
Ointments and liniments differ from plafters little
otherwife than in confiftence. Any of the officinal
plafters, diluted wdth fo much oil as will reduce it to
the thicknefs of ftiff honey, forms an ointment: by
farther increafing the oil, it becomes a liniment.
In making thefe preparations, the Edinburgh col¬
lege direft, that fat and refinous fubftances are to be
melted with a gentle heat; then to be conftantly ftir-
red, fprinkling in at the fame time the dry ingre¬
dients, if any fuch are ordered, in the form of a very
fine powder, till the mixture on diminilhing the heat
becomes ftiff.
It is to be underftood that the above general di-
reftions are meant to apply to each particular compo-
fition contained in the prefent edition of the Edin¬
burgh pharmacopoeia. It is alfo to be obferved, that
where any compofitions are ordered, as bafes or in¬
gredients of others, the college always refer to thofe
made according to their own formula.
Ointment of hog’s lard. L.
Take of prepared hog’s lard, two pounds; rofe-wa-
ter, three ounces. Beat the lard with the rofe-wa-
ter until they be mixed ; then melt the mixture with
a flow fire, and fet it apart that the water may fub-
fide ; aitet which, pour off the lard from the wa¬
ter, conftantly ftirring until it be cold.
In the laft edition of the London pharmacopoeia,
this was ftyled Unguentum fimplex-, the name given by
the Edinburgh college to the following.
Simple ointment. E.
Take of olive oil, five parts; white wax, two parts.
Both thefe ointments may be ufed for foftening
the fkin and healing chaps. The laft; is, however,
preferable, on account of its being of one uniform con*
M A C Y. 435
fiftence. For the fame renfon it is alfo to be preferred Prepara-
as the bafxs of other more compounded ointments. b,ons anf*
L Ompou-
Ointment of verdegris. E.
uons.
Take of bafilicon ointment, fifteen parts; verdegris,
one part.
This ointment is ufed for cleanfing fores, and keep¬
ing down fungous fiefti. Where ulcers continue to
run from a weaknefs in the veffels of the part, the
tonic powers of copper promife confiderable advan-
tage..
It is alfo frequently ufed with advantage in cafes of
ophthalmia, depending on fcrofula, where the palpe-
brse are principally affe&ed ; but when it is to be thus
applied, it is in general requifite that it (hould be
fomewhat weakened by the addition of a proportion
of Ample ointment or hog's lard. An ointment fimi-
lar to the above, and celebrated for the cure of fuch
inftances of ophthalmia, has long been fold under the
name of Smellon’s cyefalve.
637
Ointment of the 'white calx of quiclfdver. L.
Take of the white calx of quickfilver, one dram ; <53$
ointment of hog’s lard, one ounce and a half. Mix,
and make an ointment.
This is a very elegant mercurial ointment, and fre¬
quently ufed in the cure of obttinate and cutaneous
affections. It is an improvement of the ointment of
precipitated mercury of the laft London pharmaco¬
poeia ; the precipitated fulphur being thrown out of
the compofition, and the quantity of mercury increa-
fed.
Ointment of calx of zinc. E.
Take of Ample liniment, fix parts ; calx of zinc, one 63^
... ; .
This ointment is chiefly ufed in affeftions of the
eye, particularly in thofe cafes where rednefs arifes
rather from relaxation than from a&ive inflammation.
Ointment of Spantfh flies. L.
Take of Spanilh flies, powdered, two ounces; diftilled 640
water, eight ounces; ointment of yellow refiin, eight
ounces. Boil the water with the Spaniffi flies to
one half, and ftrain. To the ftrained liquor add the
ointment of yellow refin. Evaporate this mixture in
a water bath, faturated with fea-falt, to the thicknefa
of an ointment.
Epifpafic ointment from infufion of canlhar'nbs. E.
Take of cantharides, white refin, yellow wax, each one
ounce; hog’s lard, Venice turpentine, each two
ounces ; boiling water, four ounces. Infufe the
canthsrides in the water, in a clofe veffel, for a
night; then ftrongly prefs out and (train the liquor,
and boil it with the lard till the water be confir¬
med ; then ad,d the refin, wax, and turpentine, and
make the whole into an ointment.
Thefe ointments, containing the foluble parts of the
cantharides, uniformly blended with the other ingre¬
dients, are more commodious, in general occafion lefs
pain, and are no lefs effectual in fome cafes, than the
eompofitions with the fly in fubftance. This, however,
3 I 2 does
436 P H A R
rtepara (!oeR not uniformly Ii©li ; nnd accordingly the Edin-
t'°nc bur^h college, with propriety, Hill retain an ointment
v,ou8^° l~ containing the flies in fubftancc.
Effpajlic ointment, from powder of cantharides. E.
641 Take of bafilicon ointment, feven parts ; powdered
cantharides, one part.
This ointment is employed in the dreflings for bli-
flers, intended to be made perpetual, as they are called,
or to be kept running for a confiderable time, which
in many chronic, and fome acute cafes, is of great fer-
vice. Particular care fhould be taken, that the can¬
tharides employed in thefe compofitions be reduced to
a very fire powder, and that the mixture be made rs
equal and uniform as poffible. But with thefe precau¬
tions, there are fome particular habits in which this
ointment operates with even lefs pain than the former,
while at the fame time it is generally more effedtual.
TV ax ointment. L.
*>42 Take of white wax, four ounces; fpermaceti, three
ounces; olive oil, one pint. Stir them, after being
melted with a flow fire, conftantly and brifkly, until
cold.
This ointment had formerly the title of tmguentum
album in the London pharmacopoeia. It differs very
little from the fimple ointment of the Edinburgh phar¬
macopoeia, and in nothing from the ointment of fpet-
maceti of the London pharmacopoeia, excepting that
in this ointment the proportion of fpermaceti is fome-
what lefs. It is an ufeful cooling ointment for exco¬
riations and other frettings of the fkin.
Ointment of acctated cerufe. L.
643 Take of acetated cerufe, two drams; white wax, two
ounces ; olive-od, half a pint. Rub t e acetated
cerufe, previoufly powdered, with fome part of the
oiive-oil ; then add it to the wax, melted with the
remaining oil. Stir the mixture until it be cold.
Saturnine ointment. L.
Take of fimple ointment, twenty parts; fugarof lead,
one part.
Both thefe ointments are ufeful coolers and defic-
catives; much fuperior both in elegance and efficacy
to the nutritum or triphannacum, at one time very much
celebrated.
Ointment of cerufe, commonly called white ointment. E.
Take of Ample ointment, five parts; cerufe, one part.
H This is an ufeful, cooling, emollient ointment, of
great lervice in excoriations and other iimdar frettings
of the fkin. The cerufe has been obje&ed to by fome,
on a fufpiciop that it might produce fome ill effedls,
when applied, as thefe unguents frequently are, to the
tender bodies of children. Though there does not feem
to be much danger in this external ufe of cerufe, the
addition of it is the lefs neceffary here, as we have an-
other ointment containing a more adlive preparation
of the fame metal, the faturnine ointment juft mention¬
ed ; which may be occafionally mixed with thio,. or
employed by itfelf, in cafes where faturnine applies-,
lions arc wanted.
M A C Y. Part IT.
r 1 • r Prepara-
Ointment of ehmu -L. tjoriS an,t
Take of etemi, one pound ; turpentine, ten ounces ;
mutton-fnet, prepared, two pounds ; olive-oil, two t  -J
ounces. Melt the demi'with the fuet; and having 645
removed it from the fire, mix it immediately with
the turpentine and oil, after which ftrain the mix¬
ture.
This ointment, perhaps beft known by the name of
Unimentum arcei, has long been in ufe for digtiiing,
cleanting, and incarnating ; and for thefe purpofes is
preferred by forne to all the other compofitions of this
kind.
Thefe, however, are much more proceffes of nature
than of art ; and it is much to be doubted whether
it has in reality any influence.
Ointment of white hellebore. L.
Take of the root of ivhite hellebore, powdered, one O4&
ounce; ointment of hog’s lard, four ounces; effence
of lemons, half a fcruple. Mix them, and make an
ointment.
White hellebore externally applied has long been
celebrated in the cure of cutaneous affeftions; and this
is perhaps one of the beft formulae under which it can
be applied, the hog’s 1 ird ointment ferving as an ex¬
cellent bafis for it, while the eflence of lemons com¬
municates to it a very agreeable fmell.
Stronger ointment of quicJfilver. L.
Take of purified quickfilver, two pounds ; hog’s lard,
prepared, twenty-three ounces ; mutton-fuet, pre¬
pared, one ounce. Firft rub the quickfilver with
the fuet and a little of the hog’s lard, until the glo¬
bules difappear ; then add what remains of the lard,
and make an ointment.
Weaker ointment of quichjilver. L.
Take of the ftronger ointment of quickfilver, one part;
hog’s lard, prepared, two parts.
Mix them.
ghtickfilver, or Hue ointment.
E.
Take of quickfilver, mutton-fuet, each one part; hog‘s
hrd, three parts. Rub them carefully in a mortar
till die globules entirely difappear.
This ointment may alfo be made with double or
triple the quantity of quickfilver.
'Thefe ointments are principally employed, not witn
a view to their topical aclion, but with the intention of
introducing mercury in an adive ftate into the circula¬
ting fyftem. And this may be effeded by gentle fric¬
tion on the found fkin of any part, particularly on the
inflde of the thighs or legs. For this purpote, thefe
fimple ointments are much better luited than the more
compounded ones with turpentine and the like, for¬
merly employed. For by any acrid fubftance topical
inflammation is apt to be excited, preventing farther
fridion, and giving much uneafinefs. To avoid this,
it is neceffary, even with the mtldeft and weakeit Oint¬
ment, fomewhat to change the place at which the fric¬
tion is performed. But by thele ointments proper y
managed, mercury may in moft in fiances be -as ad-
vantageoufly introduced, either for eradicating fyp l*
Prepara-
tione and
Corr.pofi-
tiori*.
Part II. P H A II
JIs, or combating other cblUnate cl if: afes, asunder any
form whatever. But to obtain theft: effefts, it is re-
quifitc that the ointment fhonld be prepared with very
great caie : for upon the degree of triture which has
been employed, the activity of the mercury mull en¬
tirely depend. The addition of the mutton-fuet, now
adopted by both colleges, is an advantage to the oint¬
ment, as it prevents it from running into tlje ftate of
oil, which the hog’s lard alone in warm weather, or in
a warm chamber, is fometimes apt to do, and which
is followed by a fepamtion of parts. We are even in¬
clined to think, that the proportion of fuet directed by
the London college is too fmall for this puipoie, and
indeed feerns to be principally intended for the more
effedual triture of the mercury : But.it is much more
to be regretted, that, in a medicine of fueh a&ivify,
the two colleges fhould not have dire&ed the fame
proportion of mercury to the fatty matter. For al¬
though both have directed ointments of different
ftrergth, neither the vreakeft nor the ffrongeft agree
in the proportion of mercury which they contain.
Ointment of nitrated qmclJUver. I..
648 Take of purified quickfilvcr, one ounce; nitrous acid,
two ounces; hug’s lard, prepared, one pound. Dif-
. folve the quickfilver in the nitrous acid ; an3, while
it is yet hot, mix it with the hog’s lard, previoully
melted, and juff growing cold.
Telloxo ointment. L.
Take of quickfilver, one ounce ; fpirit of nitre, two
ounces; hog’s lard, one pound. Liffoive the quick-
filver in the fpirit of nitre, by digeftion in a fand-
heat; and, while the folution is very hot, mix with
s it the lard, previoufiy melted by itfdf, and juft be¬
ginning to grow ft iff. Stir them Lriikly together,
in a marble mortar, fo as to form the whole into an
ointment.
Thefe ointments differ only in name: and that em¬
ployed by the London college is certainly the prefer¬
able appellation: For here the quickfilver, previous to
its union with the lard, is brought to a inline ftate
by means of the nitrous acid. And although itsafti-
vity be very coniiderably moderated by the animal fat
with which it is afterwards united, yet it ftill affords
us a very adlive ointment; and as fuch it is frequently
employed with fuceefs in cutaneous and other topical
affedlions. In this condition, however, the mercury
does not fo readily enter the fyft^m as in the preceding
form. Hence it may even be employed in fome cafes
, with more freedom; but in other inftances it is apt to
excoriate and inflame the parts. On this account a
reduftion of ics ftrength is fometimes requifite; and it
is Oiten alfo neceffary, from the hard confidence which
It acquires, in confequence of the adlion of acid on the
lard.
Tar ointment.
649 Take of tar, mutton fuet prepared, each half a pound
Melt them together, and {train. L.
Take of tar, five parts ; yellow wax, two parts. E.
Thefe compofitions, though the one be formed into
an ointment by means of fuet, the other by wax, can-
M A C Y. 4S7
not be ccnfidered as differing effctltially from each Preparu-
othei. As far as they have any peculiar activity, this^i,onsani?
entirely depends on the tar. And this article, from
the empyreumatic oil and falme matters which it con- ■   - t— «
tains, is undoubtedly, as well as turpentine, of tome
activity. Accordingly, it has been fuccefsfully em-
1’joyed again ft fome cutaneous a fleet ions, particularly
tnofe of domeftic animals. At one time, as well as the
f ifick bafilicon, it was a good deal employed as a drtf-
fing even for recent wounds. But although it ftill re¬
tains a place in our pharmacopoeias, it is at prefent
htcle ufed with any intention.
Ointment of yellow refin. L.
Take of yellow rtfin, yellow wax, each one pound ; ^5°
olive oil, one pint. Melt the refin and wax with a
flow fire ; then add the oil, and ftrain the mixture
while hot.
Bafillcon ointment. E.
Tatce Oi hog s lard, eight parts; white refin, five parts;
yellow wax, two parts.
I hefe are commonly employed in drefiings, for di-
gefting, cleanfing, and incarnating wounds and ulcers.
They differ very little, if at all, in their effeas, from
the llnlmentum areal, or ointment of elemi, as it is now
more properly ftyled. But it is probable that no great
eft'ea is to be attributed to either: For there can be
no doubt that the fuppurative and adhefive inflamma¬
tion are proceffes of nature, which will occur without
the aid of any ointment.
Elder ointment. L.
• %
Take of elder flowers, four pounds; mutton-fuet, pre- ^Sx
pared, three pounds ; olive-oil, one pint. Boil the
flowers in the fuet and oil, firft melted together, till
t.:ey be almoll crifp ; then ftrain with expreffion.
This ointment does not feem fuperior to fome others,
which are much neater, and lefs expenfive. It can
fearctly be fuppofed to receive any confiderable virtue
from the ingredient from which it takes its name.
And accordingly it is not without propriety 'that it is
rejected from tfce pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh
college. °
Ointment offpermaceti. L.
Take of fpermaceti, fix drams; white wax, two drams; 652.
olive-oil, three ounces. Melt them together over a
how fire, ftirring them conilantly and briikly until
they be cold.
I his hao formerly the name of white liniment, and it
is perhaps only in confiftence that it can be confidered
as differing from the limple ointment already mention¬
ed, or the fimple cerate afterwards to be noticed.
Sulphur ointment. L.
Take of ointment of hog’s lard, half a pound; flowers
of fulphur, four ounces. Mix them, and make an
ointment.
Ointment of fulphur, or antipforlc ointment. E.
Take of hog’s lard, four parts; fulphur, beat into a
438
Prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
tions.
P H A R
VPry fins powder, one pivt. T. o each pound of this
ointment add effence of lemons^ or oil of lavender*
half a dram.
Sulphur is a certain remedy for the itch, and fafer
than mercury. Sir John Pringle obferves, that unlefs
a mercurial un£tion was to touch every part of the fkin,
there can be no certainty of fuccefs : whereas, from a
fulphureous one, a cure may be obtained by only par¬
tial undion ; the animalcula, which are fuppofed to
occafion this diforder, being* like other infefta, killed
by the fulphureous fteams which exhale by the heat of
the body. As to the internal ufe of mercury, which
forci'- have accounted a fpecific, there are fevcral in
fiances of men undergoing a complete falivation for
the cure of the lues venerea, without being freed from
the itch : but there are alfo a multitude of infiances of
men undergoing a long courfe of fulphur without ef-
feft, and who were afterwards readily cured by mer-
The quantity of ointment, above dire&ed, fervesfor
four undions: the patient is to be rubbed every night;
but to prevent any diforder that might arife from hop¬
ping too many pores at once, a fourth part of the
body is to be rubbed at one time. Though the itch
may thus be cured by one pot of ointment, it will be
proper to renew the application, and to touch the
parts moft affeaed for a few nights longer, till a fe-
cond quantity aifo be exhaufted ; and in the word;
cafes, to fubjoin the internal ufe of fulphur, not with a
view to purify the blood, but to diffufe the fteams
more certainly through the flan ; there being reafon
to believe, that the animalcula may fometimes he too
deep to be thoroughly deftroyed by external applica*
tions.
M A C Y. _ Part II.
one ounce and an half. Shake them together in a Preparal
phial till they are mixes. ompofi-
This has long been known in the fhops under the tiens<
title of volatile liniment, but is now more properly de-
nominated from the principal adive article, which en¬
ters its compofition. It has been much employed in
pradice, particularly on the recommendation of Sir
John Pringle in his Obfervations on the 1/ifeafes of
the Army? He obferves, that, in the inflammatory
quinfey, or ftrangulation of the fauces, a piece of flan¬
nel, moiftened with this mixture, applied to the throat,
and renewed every four or five hours, is one of the
moft. efficacious remedies. By means of this warm fti-
muiating application, the neck, and fometimes the
whole body, is put into a f veat, which after bleeding
either carries off or leffens the inflammation. Where
the fkin cannot bear the acrimony of this mixture, a
larger proportion of oil may be ufed.
Stronger liniment of ammonia. L.
Take of water of pure ammonia, one ounce: olive oil, 657
two ounces. Shake them together in a phial.
This article differs from the foregoing in flrength
only. This arifes both from its being formed of a
more acrid fpirit, and from its containing that fpirit in
a larger proportion to the oil. It is ufed to fupply
the place of the epithema et emplajlrum volatile of our
former pharmacopoeias, and is a very acrid ftimulating
compofition. Wdien largely applied, it often excites
inflammation, and even vefication, on tender fkin. It
is often, however, fuccefsfully employed againil obfti-
nate rheumatic and ifchiadic pains.
Camphor liniment. L.
654
<555
Tutty ointment.
Take of prepared tutty, one dram ; ointment of fper-
maceti, what is fufficient. Mix them fo as to make
a foft ointment. L.
Take of Ample liniment, five parts; prepared tutty,
one part, E. ,
Thefe ointments have long beep celebrated, and are
ftiil much employed againft affe&ions of the eyes. But
they cannot, we imagine, be efteemed elegant.
Both calamine and tutty aft only by means of the
zinc they contain, and calamine appears to contain the
'moft of the two, and likewife to be the leaft variable
in its contents. But the pure flowers prepared from
zinc itfelf are doubtlefs preferable to either. Hence
the ointment of tutty may be confidered as inferior to
both the ointment of calamine and to the ointment of
the calx of zinc, which have alfo a place in our phar¬
macopoeia. _
Simple liniment. E.
Take of olive oil, four parts ; white wax, one part.
This confifts of the fame articles which form the
fimole ointment of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, but
jperely in a different proportion, fo as to give a thin¬
ner confiftence; and where a thin eonfiiience is requi-
fite, this may be confidered as a very elegant and uie-
ful application.
Liniment of ammonia. E.
Take of water of ammonia, half an ounce; olive-oil,
Take of camphor, two ounces; water of ammonia, fix
ounces ; fimple fpirit of lavender, fixteen ounces.
Mix the water of ammonia with the fpirit. and di-
ftil from a glafs retort, with a flow fire, tixteen
ounces. Then diffolve the camphor in the diftilled
liquor.
This formula, which has now for the firft time a
place in the London pharmacopoeia, approaches to the
volatile effence of that celebrated empyric the late Dr
Ward: But the above is a more elegant and active
formula than either of the receipts publi/hed by Mr
Page, from Dr Ward’s book of receipts ; and there
is no reafon to doubt that it will be equally effedtual
in removing fome local pains, fuch as particular kinds
of headach, in confequence of external application.
Soap-liniment. L.
Take of foap, three ounces ; camphor, one ounce ; 659
fpirit of rofemary, one pint. Digeft the foap in
the fpirit of rofemary until it be diffolved, and add
to it the camphor.
This is the foap liniment of the former edition of
the Lon Ion pharmacopoeia, without any alteration ;
and it differs very little from the foap-balfam of the
Edinburgh college already mentioned, though a lefs
a&ive and penetrating application than the preceding,
it is pernaps no lefs ufeful: and it is often fuccefs1 ully
employed for external purpofes aga-nfl; rheumatic pains,
fprains, bruifes, and fimilar complaints.
^Egyt)-
Part IT. P H A R
Prepara- , ,
tioiig and Egyptian ointment. Gen.
SoJT11 Take of honey, one pound ; ftrong vinegar, half a
U—v—— pvound; verdegris, powdered, five ounces. Let the
660 ingredients be boiled tegether till the verdegris be
diffolved, fo that the ointment may have a due de¬
gree of thicknefs and a purple colour.
This preparation had formerly a place in our phar¬
macopoeias under the title of Egyptian honey : and a
fimilar preparation has now a place under the title of
oxytnel of •verdegris. But in that formula the propor¬
tion is much lefs than in the above. It may jufily be
confidered as a very powerful application for cleanfing
and deterging foul ulcers, as well as for keeping down
fungous flelh. But thefe purpofes may in general be
anfwered by articles lefs acrid, and exciting lefs pain.
Befides this, the above preparation is alfo liable to
confiderable uncertainty with refpeft to (Length ; for
a large proportion of the verdegris will in a fhort time
fubfide to the bottom; thus, what is in the top of the
pot is much lefs active than that in the bottom.
M A C Y. 439
mus, obtained by boiling, two drams; camphor,P^epara-
powdered, two fcruples ; faffron, one fcruple. Mix £0rhs ani*
them into an ointment. tionsf *
The name affixed to this ointment exprefies the pur- —-y—
pofe for which it is applied. From the articles of which
it confifts, it may be concluded, that it poffefles a
gently emollient and anodyne power ; and may there¬
fore afford confiderable relief, where much pain arifea
from external hasmorrhoidal tumors.
Laurel ointment. Suec.
Take of prepared mutton-fuel, eight ounces. After 66$
it is melted and removed from the fire, add to it oil
of bays, one pound ; ethereal oil of turpentine, one
ounce ; rectified oil of amber, half an ounce. Let
them be mixed and rubbed together till they form
an ointment.
This is an improved mode of forming an ointment
which had formerly a place in our pharmacopoeias un¬
der the title of nervine ointment. And it furnifhes a warm
ftimulating nervine application, which may in fome de¬
gree reftore fenfe and motion to paralytic limbs. And
while it at lead ferves to lead to the careful ufe of fric¬
tion, it may fomewhat increafe the benefit which would
rtfult from it.
Ointment of tobacco. Dan.
Take of the leaves of tobacco, three pounds ; juice of
tabacco, nine ounces; hog’s lard, ^ pound and a
half; refin, three ounces. Let the cut leaves be
macerated for the fpace of a night, and then boiled
over a gentle fire. Having drained the fluid ob-
K tained by expreffion, add to it yellow wax, half an
ounce; powder of the root of birthwort, three
ounces. Mix them into an ointment.
There can be no doubt that tobacco externally applied
has very powerful effe&s on the human body ; and that
not merely from its topical a&ion, but fometimes even
as affefting the fyflens in general. From this lad cir-
eumdance it requires to be ufed with great caution.
It has, however, been found, under proper manage¬
ment, to afford an effedtual cure in obdinate cutaneous -
affe&ions. But were it to be ufed with this intention,
we would have a more elegant formula, by merely im¬
pregnating either hog’s lard, or the Ample ointment,
with the a&ive qualities extra&ed by the aid of heat
from the leaves of the prepared tobacco in the date in
which it is ufually brought to us from America, than *
by having recourfe to the recent juice, and to the ari-^
ftolochia and other additions here dire£led.
Ointment ofJlor ax. Suec.
Take of olive oil, a pound and a half; white refin,
gum elemi, yellow wax, each feven ounces. After ’
they are melted together and drained, add liquid
dorax, feven ounces. Mix them together, and agi¬
tate the mixture till it concretes into an uniform
ointment.
An ointment fuppofed to derive its aftivity from the-
florax, although it have no place in-our pharmaco¬
poeias, is received into mod of the foreign ones. And
it has been much celebrated not only as a (Lengthen-
ing application to weakly children, but even for the
removal of affeflions of the bones, as in cafes of rachi-
Anodyne ointment. Gen.
Take of olive-oil, ten drams ; yellow wax, half an
ounce ; crude opium, one dram. Mix them accord¬
ing to art, fo as to form an ointment.
Opium thus externally applied, will in fome degree
be productive of the fame effeft as when ufed under
the form of the anodyne balfam. In that date it pro¬
duces itseffeds more immediately; but under the pre-
fent form its effeCts are more permanent. Befides this,
the prefent ointment furnilhes us with an ufeful dreffing
for fores attended with fevere pain ; to which opium
when diffolved in fpirit cannot be applied. Hence the
prefent, or fome analogous formula, is well intitled to
a place in our pharmaccpceias.
Ointment for an ulcerated cancer. Brun.
662 Take of the recently expreffed juice of the ricinus, one
pound : let ib be expofed to the rays of the fun in a
leaden veffel till it acquire the confidence of an oil;
then to one pound of this infpiffated juice add cal¬
cined lead, white precipitate mercury, each one
pound. Let them be properly mixed.
This acrid application mud poffefs a confiderable
degree of corrofive power. And in fome cafes of can¬
cer, by the proper application of corrofives, much be¬
nefit may be done ; But where the difeafe has made
any confiderable progrefs, thefe w-ill in general have
the effeft rather of haftening its progrefs than of re¬
moving it ; particularly if there be a large indolent tu¬
mor below the ulcer.
Digejlive ointment. Roff.
663 Take of Venice turpentine, one pound ; the yolks of
eight eggs. Mix them together according to art.
This warm dimulating application is well fuited to
promote the fuppurative inflammation, and maybead-
vantageoufly had recourfe to, where it is neceflary to
encourage a large difeharge of pus.
Hccmorrhoidal ointment.
d&p Take faturnine ointment, fix drams; oil of. hyofeya-
44°
•L'repara-
finns anti
Coinpofi*
tions.
663
699
670
671
I1 H A R
tia and tne like. It Is, however, very doubtful how
far thefe properties depend on the Itorax. If it have
really any good effeft, it is probable that this is more
the confequence of the fri&ion merely, than of any of
the articles which enter the compofition of the oint¬
ment. But there is reafon to believe that the virtues
attributed to this ointment are more imaginary than
real.
Onion ointment. Suec.
Take of yellow wax, relin, each half a pound. To
thefe melted, add onions roafted under the afires,
honey, each two pounds and a half 5 black loap, half
a pound. Let them be gently boiled together till
all the moifture be confumed, then {train the liquor,
expreffing it from the materials, and afterwards agi¬
tate it with a wooden peitle that it may unite into
one uniform mafs.
This ointment is applied with the intention of pro¬
moting fappuration. And it has long been fuppofed,
that the onion, efpecially in its roalted flare, has a re¬
markable influence in this way : but there is reafon to
think, that the powers attributed to it have been
greatly over-raced. And there is even ground to pre¬
fume that thefe'effects totally depend entirely on heat
and moiilure. Hence no application is perhaps bet¬
ter fuited for promoting fuppuration than a poultice
of bread and milk, applied as hot as can be borne with
and frequently repeated.
Chap. XXXIII. Cerates.
Cerates arc fubflances intended for external appli¬
cation, formed of nearly the fame materials which con-
Hitute ointments and platters. And they differ prin¬
cipally from thefe in being merely of an intermediate
confidence between the two. Accordingly, they, are
feldom the fubjeft of a feparate chapter by themfeives,
but are claffed either with the one or the other. In
the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia they are claffied among
the ointments: but as the London college have refer¬
red them to a feparate head, v/e (hail here alfo conflder
them by themfeives.
Simple cerate. E.
Take of olive oil, fix parts; white wax, three, parts;
fpermaeeti, one part. Unite them according to art.
This differs from the fimple ointment in containing
a greater proportion of wax to the oil, and in the ad¬
dition of the fpermaceti. But by thefe means it ob¬
tains only a more.firm confiilence, without any effien-
tial change of properties.
Cerate of cantharides, a>r Spanl/h files. L.
Take of cerate of fpermaceti, foftene-l with heat, fix
drams; Spanifh flies, finely powdered, one dram.
Mix them.
Under this form cantharides may be made to adt to
any extent that is requifite. It may fupply the place
either of the bliftering plafter or ointment ; and there
are cafes in which it is preferable to either. It is par-
ticularly more convenient than the plafter of .cantha¬
rides, where the {kin to which the blifter is to be
applied is previoufly much affedted, as in cafes of fmall-
M A C Y. Part II,
pox ; and in fupporting a drain under the form of iffue, Prepara-
it is lefs apt to foread than the fofter ointment.
Calamine-cerate. L.
Take of calamine prepared, yellow v/ax, each half
a pound ; olive oil, one pint. Melt the wax with
the oil'; and, as foon the mixture begins to thick¬
en, mix with it the calamine, and ftir the cerate un¬
til it be cold.
Cerate of calamine. E.
Take of fimple cerate, five parts ; calamine prepared,
one part.
Thefe compofitions are formed on the cerate which
Turner Itrongly recommends in cutaneous ulcerations
and excoriations, and which has been ufually diltin-
guilhed by his name. They appear from experience
to be excellent epulotics, and as fuch are frequently
ufed in practice.
Cerate of acetated litharge. L.
Take of water of acetated litharge, two ounces and a 673
half; yellow wax, four ounces ; olive oil, nine oun¬
ces ; camphor, half a dram. Rub the camphor with
a little of the oil. Melt the wax with the remaining
oil; and as foon as the mixture begins tew thicken,
pour in by degrees the water of acetated litharge,
and ftir conllantly until it be cold ; then mix in the
camphor before rubbed with oil.
This application has been rendered famous by the
recommendations of Mr Goulard. It is unqueftion-
ably in many cafes very ufirful. It cannot, however,
be confidered as varying eflentialiy from the faturnine
ointment, or ointment of acetated cerufe, formerly
mentioned. It is employed with nearly the fame in¬
tentions, and differs from it chiefly in conflftence.
Cerate of yellow rejhi. L.
Take of ointment of yellow refin, half a pound ; yel- ^ ^
low wax, one ounce. Melt them together, and make
a cerate.
This had formerly the name of lemon-ointment. It
is no otherwife different from the yellow bafilicum, or
ointment of yellow refin, than being of a ftiffer conflf¬
tence, which renders it for fame purpofes more com¬
modious.
Soap cerate. L.
Take of foap, eight ounces ; yellow wax, ten ounces ; 675
litharge, powdered, one pound ; olive oil, one pint ;
vinegar, one gallon; boil the vinegar with the litharge
over a flow fire, conftantly ftirring until the mixture
unites and thickens ; then mix in the other articles,
and make a cerate.
This, notwithftanding the name, may rather he con¬
fidered as another faturnine application ; its activity
depending/very little on the foap ; and it may be held
as varying in little elfe but confidence from the platter
of litharge. It can hardly be thought to differ in its
properties from the cerate of acetated litharge juft;
mentioned; for neither the fmall proportion of,cam¬
phor which enters the compofition of the one, nor the
foap which gives name to the other, can be confidered
as having much influence.
« Cerate
Part II.
PHARMACY.
Prepara¬
tions and
Comjofi-
tions.
676
Cerate of Jpermaceti. L.
Take of fperraaceti, half an ounce; white wax, two
ounces ; olive oil, four ounces. Melt them toge-
gether, and ftir until the cerate be cold.
This had formerly the name of ‘white cerate, and it
differs in nothing from the ointment of fpermaceti, or
white liniment, as it was formerly called, excepting in
confidence, both the wax and the fpermaceti bearing
a greater propoition to the oil.
Lip-fahx. Roff.
Take of olive oil, eighteen ounces ; white wax, one
pound; fpermaceti, an ounce and a half; oil of
rhodium, half a dram. Form a cerate, tinging it
with alkanet, fo as to give a red colour.
The name affixed to this cerate points out the life
for which it is intended. It is chiefly employed againft
thofe chops and excoriations of the lips, which &re of¬
ten the confequence of cold weather; and it is very
well fuited for removing affe6lions of that kind. But
excepting in the colour and fmell which it derives from
the alkanet and rhodium, it differs in nothing from the
cerate of ipermaceti, and cannot be confidered as more
effeftually anfwering the intention in view.
Bougies. Suec.
<>78 Take of yellow wax, melted, one pound; fpermaceti,
three drams; vinegar of litharge, two drams. Mix
them, and upon removal from the fire immerfe into
the mixture flips of linen, of which bougies are to
be formed according to the rules of art. Thefe may
alfo be made with double, triple, or quadruple, the
quantity of the vinegar.
It is perhaps rather furprifing, that no formula for
the preparation of bougies has a place in our pharma¬
copoeias : for there carl be no doubt, that although the
preparation of them has hitherto been principally truft-
ed 10 empiiics ; yet in the hand of the fkilful practi¬
tioner they are of great fervice in combating obftinate
afFedions. Although it has been pretended by fome
that their influence is to be aferibed to certain impreg¬
nations ; yet it is on better grounds contended, that
they aft entirely on mechanical principles. The great
objedt is therefore to obtain the union of a proper de¬
gree of firmnefs and flexibility. Thefe qualities the
above compofition pofleftes ; and it‘does not probably
derive any material benefit frorti being prepared with
an additional proportion of the vinegar of litharge.
Chap. XXXIV. Epithems.
By epifbems or ca’taplafms are is general underftood
thofe external applications which are brought to a
due confiltence or form for being propetly applied, not
by means of oily or fatty matters, but by water or wa¬
tery fluids. Of thefe not a few are had recourfe to in
actual praCtice ; but they are feldom prepared in the
Ihops of the apothecaries; and in fome of the Left mo¬
dern pharmacopceias no formulae of this kind are in¬
troduced. T he London college, however, although
they have abridged the number of epithems, ftill retain
a few. And it is not without fome advantage that
there are fixed forms for the preparation of them.
Vou XIV. Part II.
4-41
Cataplafm of curhYnh. L. tionHni
Take of cummin-feed, one pound; bay-herries, dry
leaves of water-germander, or fcordium, Virginian
fnake-root,of each three ounces; cloves, one ounce. 680
Rub them all together ; and, with the addition of
three times the weight of honey, make a catapla fm.
This is adopted into the prefent edition of the Lon¬
don pharmacopoeia with very little alteration from the
laft. It was then intended as a reformation of the
thtrlaca Londlncnjis, which for fome Ume paft has been
fcarcely otherwife ufed than as a warm cataplafm. In
place of the numerous articles which formerly entered
that compofition,, only fuch of its ingredients are re¬
tained as contribute moft to this intention ; but eve«
the article from which it now derives its name, as well
as feveral others which ftill enter it, probably contri¬
bute very little to any medical piopertiea it truy pof-
fefs.
Mujlard-cataplafm. L.
Take of muftard feed, powdered, crumb of bread, 5^
each half a pound ; vinegar, as much as is fufficient.
Mix, and make a cataplafm.
Epithems of this kind are coihmortly known by the
name of fmaplfms. They were formerly not unfre*
quently prepared in a more complicated ftate, con.
taining garlic, black-foap, and other fimilar articles ;
but the above Ample form will anfwer every purpofe
which they are capable of accomplifhing. They are
employed only as ftimulants : they often inflame the
part and raife Wifters, but not fo perfeflly as enntha-
rides.. They are frequently applied to the foies of the
feet in the low ftate of acute difeafes, for raifing the
pulfe and relieving the head. The chief advantage they
have depends on the fuddennefs of their action.
Alum-curd. L.
Take the whites of two eggs; ffiake them with a 68&
piece of alum till they be coagulated.
This preparation is taken from Riverius. It is an
ufeful aftringent epithem for fore, moift eyes, and ex¬
cellently cools and repreffes thin defluxions. Slighter
inflammations of the eyes, occafioned by dull, expo-
fure to the fun, or other fimilar caufes, are generally
removed by fomenting them with warm milk and wa¬
ter, and waffiing them with folutions of white vitriol.
Where the complaint is more violent, this preparation,
after the inflammation has yielded a little to bleeding,
is one of the heft external remedies. It is to be fpread
on lint, and applied at bed-time.
A Table, f owing in ‘what Proportions Mercury or
Opium enter different Formula.
PuLt'is e creta compofitus cum opto. I.. In about forty- •
, four grains, one grain of opium is contained. *
Puli’is ipecacuanha compofitus. L. In ten grains, one
grain of opium.
Pulvis fudortficus. £. In eleven grains, one grain of
opium.
Pulvis cpiatus. L. In ten grafts, one grain of opium.
Pulvis e fcammonio cum calomelane. L. In four grains, '
one grain of calomel.
5 K Pilult
442
prepara¬
tions and
Compofi-
fions.
PHARMACY. . - Part ll.
Pllula ex opio. L. In five grains, one grain of opium.
Pilula thebaic*. E. In ten grains, one grain of opium.
Pilul* ex hydrargyro. L. In two grains and a half,
one grain of mercury.
Pilula ex hydrargyro. E. In four grains, one grain of
mercury.
PiluU plummeri. E. In two grains and two-thirds, one
grain of calomel.
ConftMio opiata. L. In thirty-fix grains, one gram of
opium.
PleSuanum jfapotucuTn. E. In about one hundred and
ninety-three grains, one grain of opium.
Ekauarium Phebaicum. E. In ninety-feven grains, one
grain of opium.
Trochifci bechici cum opio. E. In fifty five grains, one
grain of opium.
Thefe trochifci are not unfrequently ordered cum duplice
opio and under this form are kept in many (hops.
Emplajlrum ammoniacum cum hydrargyro. E. In five
ounces, one ounce of mercury.
Emplajlrum lythargyri cum hydrargyro. L. In five oun¬
ces, one ounce of mercury
Emplajlrum e hydrargyro. E. In three ounces and two-
thirds, one ounce of mercury.
Unguentum hydrargyri Jortius. L. In two drams, one
dram of mercury.
Un ’uentum hydratgyri mitius. L. In five drams, one Pripara-
dram of mercury. ^ . ^ons an^
Unguentum ex hydrargyro. E. In five drams, one dram tjorig^
of mercury. y—
Unguentum hydrargyri nitrati. L. In one dram, four
grains of nitrated quickfilver.
Unguentum ditrinum. E. In one dram, four grains of
nitrated quickfilver.
Unguentum calcis hydrargyri alba. L. In one dram,
four grains and two-thirds of the calx hydrargyri
alba.
Tindura opii (L.) is made with opium, in the pro¬
portion of one grain to about thirteen of the men-
ftruum.
TinBura Thebaica (E.) is made with opium, in the pro¬
portion of one grain to twelve of the menftruum.
Tindura opii camphorata ( L.) is made with opium, in the
proportion of one grain to two hundred and fixty of
the menftruum.
Elixir paregoricum (E.) is made with opium, in the
proportion of one grain to fixty-eight of the men¬
ftruum. _ 4 / V
Balfamum anodynum (E.) is made with opium, in the
proportion of one grain to about thirty of the men¬
ftruum.
r AC STATE DX\i\\zr%z, com-
^ pound water of, n° 610.
Cerate of, 673. Ointment
of acetated cerufe, 643.
’Acetous fermentation, l6, 17.
Acid, 202.
Aerated water, 205.
Aethiops martial, 281. Mine¬
ral, 300.
Acid, carbonic, 12. Account
of the various acids, 53- As
menftrua, 7 1. On various
acids, 196—205- Acid ju¬
lep, 490. Offyrup, 513.
AJJmitiesy tables of, p. 290—
294- a
Airy fixed, nature of, n 54.
Alcohol, 15. The menftruum
of effential oils and refins
of vegetables, 73.
'Ahxiterial water, 333.
Alkali, fixed vegetable, 24.
Acetated fixed vegetable,
235. Tartarized vegetable,
fixed, 239.
Alkaline falls and earths, &c.
diffolved by acids, 75. Lixi¬
via diffolve oils, &c. J]6.
Fixed vegetable purified,
2ii. Fixed fulfil alkaline
falls, &c. 220. Syrup, 514.
AUJpice water, 328. Spirit
36a,
INDEX.
Almonds, oil of, n° 152. Milk
482. Syrup of, 516.
Aloes, watery extraft of, 148.
Wine of, 408. Tin&ure of,
421. Compound do. 422.
Vitriolic elixir of do 423.
Elixir of, 458. Pills of, 571.
Do with myrrh, 572.
Aloetic wine, 408. Powder,
530. Do with .iron, 531.
Do. with guaiacum, 532.
Alum, purification of, 242.
Burnt, 243. Compound,
water of, 607.
Amalgama of tin, 313.
Amber, oil and fait of, 178,
206. Purified fait of, 207.
Tindtureof,478. Julep,492.
Ammoniay prepared, 221. Wa¬
ter of, 222. Do of pure,
225. Water of, acetated,
236. Spirit of, 352. ^Fe¬
tid fpirit of, 353. Com¬
pound fpirit of, 486. Suc-
cinated do. 487. Liniment
of, 656 Stronger do. of,
657\
Ammoniac, volatile fal, 223-
Spirit ef fal, 224. Do.
with quick lime, 226. . Pre¬
pared, 22 1. Vinous fpirit of
fal, 352. Iron, 274. Cop¬
per, 318.
Ammoniacum, gum purification
of, n° 95. Milk, 484. Pla-
fter with quick-filver, 614.
Ammoniated copper, water of,
609.
Andromachus, theriaca of, 605.
Animal oil, 176, 177*
Animals, analogy between them
and vegetables, 3. Nature
of the fubftance of, 45.
Fluid parts, 46. Oils and
. fats of, 47. Mifcellaneous
obfervations on feveral fub-
ftances of, 48. Earths of,
Anife, efiential oil of, 158, 159.
Anifeed, eflential oil of, 159,
161. Compound fpirit of,
354- . .
Anodyne liniment or bauam,
470. Ointment, 661.
Anthelmintic powder, 549.
Antitteric fpirit, 370.
Antihyjleric plafter, 618.
powder, 260. Wine,
410. Wine of tartar, 4.11.
Antimony, prepared, 91. Pre¬
parations of, 254 271.
Wine of, 4x0. Wine of
tartarized, 411. Tin&urc
of, 472.
Antiphthtfical tinfture, 461.
Antipjoric ointment, 653.
Ardent fpirit, n0 348.
Aroma, 35.
Aromatic fpirit, 3§9. Vinegar,
400. Tindture, 424. Pow¬
der or fpices, 533. Confec¬
tion, 602.
Arfenic, mineral folution of,
494*' ,
conferve of,. T14. Com¬
pound powder, 55 !•
Afafcetida, tindlure of, 425.
Afarabacca, compound powder
of> 534-
AJls coloured powder of mer¬
cury, 287.
AttraBions, ele&ive, 55. Ta¬
ble of fingle explained, 56.
Table, p 290, &c. Cafes
of double, p. 294.
B.
BacheAs pills, 582. .
Balm water, 342. Compound-
water of, 366.
Balfam of Peru, tindlure, of
426 ; and of Tolu, 427.
Traumatic, 428. Anodyne,,
470. Saponaceous, 471*
Of Tolu, fyrup of, or balla-
mic fyrup, 510.
Bark, extraft ef Peruvian, 138.
ifar/ey-water, 382.
Barley decobh'on of, 380.
Compound do. 381.
BaJUisQ**
Index.
■Mafilicon ointment, ti°
jBatbs, 64.
Bay berries 1 cxpreffed oil of,
'54-
Benzoin, 41. Flowers of, 208.
Compound tinfture of, 428.
Bitter infufion, 392. Wine,
409. Tincture, 446.
Bitumens, 50.
Black currants, infpiflfated juice
of, 127.' Cherry-water, 337.
B/ue plafter, 622.
BUJlering plafter, 615.
Borax, acid fait of, 246.
Bougies, 678
Buckthorn, fyrup of, 509.
Burgundy pitch, plafter of, 624.
Burning of hartftiorn, 96. Of
fponge, 102,
Butter of antimony, 259.
C.
"Calamine, prepared, 93. Ce¬
rate of, 672.
Calcination, 89.
Calcined zinc, 314.
Calomel, 292.
Camomile, eftential oil of, 184.
Flower-water, 338.
Camphor, 34. Water, 334.
Liniment, 658.
Camphorated tin ft are of opium,
456. Spirit of wine, 469.
Mixture, 47^. Spirit, 488.
Cancer, ointment for an ulce-
* rated, 662.
Cantharides, cerate of, 671.
Carbonic acid, r 2.
Cardamom tinfture, 430. Com¬
pound ditto, 431.
Carmelite water, 366.
Caraway fpirit, or fpirituous
water, 355. Eftential oil of,
158, 159. Seeds, 162.
Cafcari/la, extraft of, 141.
Tinfture of, 432.
Cajfia water, 324. Eleftuary
of, 591.
Cajlor oil, 153. Water, 335'.
Tinfture, 433. Compound
ditto, 434.
Cataplafm of cummin, 680. Of
muftard, 681.
Catechu, decoftion of, 406.
Tinfture of, 435. Troches
of, 568.
Cathartic fait of Glauber, 232.
Cauflic ley, 214. Strongeft
• Common, 216. Milder dit¬
to, 218. Lunar, 272.
Cephalic or fternutatory pow-
^ dcr’ lh*
Cerates, 669—679.
Cerufe of antimony, 268 ; or
white lead, 307. Acetated,
308. Powder of, 535.
P H A R
Ointment of acetated, n0643-
Ointment of, 644.
Chalk, prepared, 93. Julep,
374. Mixture or drink,
4^0. Compound powder
of, &c. and combined with
opium, 538. Troches of,
566.
Chervil, conferve of, 1 18. Wa-
ter, 336.
Chocolate nuts, oil of, 15 17
Cinnamon, effenthl oil of, 1 85.
Water, 323. Spirit of, or
fpirituous water, 336. Tinc¬
ture of, 436. Compound
ditto, 437. Syrup of, 517.
Cloves of julyflower, fyrup of,
498- EiTential oil of, 183.
Clyjler, decoftion for, 376.
Cocci# pills, 573.
Colcothar of vitriol, 280.
Colcbicwn, 403. Syrup of, 499.
Colocynth tinfture, ’473. Pills
with aloes, 573.
Colombo, tinfture of, 438.
Coloquintida, compound extraft
J35*
Comminution, 87.
CW?B0«decoftion,378. Plafter,
620.
ConfeSion, japonic, 394, Of
various kinds, 601—-606.
Conferves, 108—121.
Contrayerva, compound pow-
der of, 537.
Copper, preparations of, and
zinc, 314—319. Volatile
tinfture of, 474. PiHS} 374.
Water of ammoniated, 609.
Cordial eleftuary or confeftion,
603.
Corn plafter, 629.
Corrojive fublimate of mercury,
290. Solution of, 291. Red
of, 296. Pills of, 386.
Plafter of, 631.
Coventry remedy, 339.
Crabs claws, compound pow¬
der of, 336.
Crocus of antimony, 237. O-
pening and aftringent of
iron, 282.
Cryflallization, 80.
Cummin, cataplafm of, 680.
Plafter, 617.
Curd, alum, 682.
CMr/vaTz/j, black, infpiffated juice
of, 127. Syrup of black, 302.
D.
Dandelion, extraft of, 147.
Deadly nightlhade plafter, 628.
Decoctions and iafufions,
371—407.
Defenfive plafter, 627.
Demo crates, confeftion of, 603.
M A C Y.
Depuration, tv® 79.
DiacaJJia, eleftuary of, 391.
Diaoodium, 303.
Digejlion, long,extrafts by,i 32*
Digejlive powder, 332. Oint¬
ment, 663.
Dill or dill feed water, 3 12.
DiJMlation, 83. General rules
for that of the officinal Am¬
ple waters, 320.
Dijlilled water, 321. Spirits,
347-
Dovers powder, 339.
Drying of moifl bodies, 86. Of
her;.;s and flowers, 97. Of
fquills, 101.
Dyfenteric powder, 333.
E.
Earths, vegetable, animal, and
mineral, 51. Alkaline, dif-
folved by acids, 73.
ESi oiI> 157•
Egyptian ointment, 660.
Elaterium, Peels of, 383.
Elderberry, infpiflated juice of,
<26.
ointment, 651. Flower
water, 345-
Electuaries, 390—601. Gene¬
ral rules for making, 390.
Elemi, ointment of, 645.
Elixir, vitriolic, of aloes, 423.
Stomachic, 446. Of guaia-
cum, 447. Volatile of ditto,
448. Paregoric, 456. Of
aloes and rhubarb, called
facred elixir, 438. Of health,
462. Acid elixir of vitriol,
467. Sweet ditto, 468,
Elm, decoftion of, 387.
Emetic fyrup, 318.
Emulfion, common, 482. A-
rabic, 483. Simple oily, or
volatile oily, 489.
Ens Veneris, 273.
Epifpajlic plafter, 613. Oint¬
ment from infufion of can¬
tharides, 640. Ditto from
powder of ditto, 641.
Epit hems, 679—683.
EJfential oils, 138—196.
Ether, vitriolic, fpirit of, 349
and 33b. Nitrous fpirit of,
351. Compound fpirit of
vitriolic, 483. Julep, 491.
Ethiopic pills, 370.
Evaporation, 82.
ExpreJJed, &c. oils, 131 —138.
ExpreJJion, 83.
Exficcation, 86. Of herbs and
flowers, 97. Of fquills, 101.
Extraction, 77, 78.
Extraction of 100. Of
mucilage, 107.
Extracts and refins, 128—151,
3 K a
443
F.
Farina, ti0 42.
Fennel feeds, efiential oil of,
186. Water, 325.
Fenugreek, plafter of, 632.
Fermentation, 9. Different
ftages of, 10, II. Vinous,
produft of, 14, 15. Ace¬
tous, 16, 17. Putrefaftive,
18, 19.
Fetid tinfture, 425. Pills,
584. Plafter, 618.
Filings of iron purified, 104.
Fire, application of, important
in pharmaceutical apparatus,
Fixed air, nature of, 54.
Flowers and herbs, drying of,
97. Of benzoin, 208. Of
xinc, 315.
Fluids, meafures of the weights
of, table of, 70.
Flies, tinfture of Spnnifh, 429.
Plafter of, 615. Ointment
of, 640. Cerate of, 671.
Fomentation, decoftion for, 377,
Fofde tar, oil of, 173. Fixed
foffile alkaline fait purified.
220.
Frankincenfe plafter, 626.
Fumigation powder, 554.
Furnaces, 58,59, 60,61,62, 63.
Fufion, 88.
G.
Galbanum, tinfture of, 445.
Gamboge pills, 585.
Garlic, fyrup of, 515. Oxy-
mel of, 527.
Gentian, compound tinfture of,
446. Extraft of, 134. Com¬
pound infufion of, 392.
Ginger, fyrup of, 512.
Glafs veffels, 65. Coated, 66,
Ot antimony, 266. Cerated
glafs of ditto, 267.
Glauber, cathartic fait of, 232.
Guaiacum, elixir of, 447.
Gum, 37. Ammoniacum, pu¬
rification of, 95. Pills, 573,
Plafter, 621.
Cww-arabic, mucilage of, 389,
Gzwj-kino, tinfture of, 451.
CrKwi-refin, 38.
Ga/w-tragacanth, mucilage of.
39°-
Gam-guaiacum, tinfture of,
44&.
Gums, eleftuary for the, 596.
Heemorrhoidal ointment, 664.
Hartjhorn, burning of, 96,
Volatile liquor, (alt and oil
of, 227. Decoftion of, 373.
Hellebore, decoftion of, 379.
Tinftureof black, 449. Dot,
of
444
of White, 466. Ointment of
white, 64.6.
Hemlock^ infptflated jnice of,
n° 126. Plafter, 630.
Henbane plaller, 633.
Hepar. See Sulphur, &c.
Herbs and floiveis, drying of,
Hips, conferve of, 115.
Hogs hrd and mutton fuet,
preparation of, 94. Oint¬
ment of, 636.
Honeys, the purifying of, 98.
Medicated, 520—529.
i/or/Jr-radiih; compound fpirit
of, 364.
Hornst rectified oil of, T77.
Hydrogene, 19.
Hyofcyamus, oil of, 156.
Hyjfrop water, 340.
Jalap, extraft ef, 142. Tinc¬
ture of, 450. Compound
powder of, 54°* Pi'l** 577’
Jamaica pepper, eflential oil
of, 160. 172. Spirituous
water of, 362.
Japonic tincture, 435. Elec¬
tuary or confedtion, S9^‘
Infants, powder for, 555* .
Jnfujions and decodtions,
371—407.
Jnfpijfated juices, 123 —128.
Ipecacuanha, wine or tincture
of, 413. Compound pow¬
der of, 539. t
Iron, parified filings of, 104.
Ruft of, prepared, 105.
Scales of, purified, ic6.
Preparations of, 274—283.
Wine of, 412. Tin&ure of,
443. Filings prepared, 276.
Juice, compound, of fcurvy-
grafs, 122. Infpiffated of
the elder-berry, 124. Dit¬
to of wolfs-bane, 125. Dit¬
to of hemlock, 126. Ditto
of black currants and lemons,
127.
Juices, exprtffion of, 85. Na-
ture of, and way of ob¬
taining, 121. Infpiffated,
123—128.
Julep acid, 49°* 49
Amber, 492- Saline mix¬
ture, or julep, 493.
July-fovHtx, fyrup of, clove of,
498-
Juniper-bzrry, effential oil of,
159, 160, 169. Compound
fpirit of, or compound juni¬
per-water, 357.
Kali, prepared, 210. Water
of, 212. Ditto of pure, 213.
P H A R
Pure, 215. Lime with, 217.
Vitriolated, 228. Acetated
234. Tartarized, 238.
Kermes mineral, 269.
L.
Lac, tindture of, 476.
Ladanum plafter, 619.
Lard, hog's, and mueton-fuet,
preparation of, 94. Oint¬
ment of, 636-
Laudanum, liquid, 455.
Lavender, effential od of, X59-
Ditto of the flowering tops
of, 160. Ditto of flowers,
163. Simple fpirit eft', 358.
Compound tindlure of fpirit
of, 452.
Laurel ointment, 665.
Lead, preparations of, 305—
311. Vinegar of, 402.
Troches of red, 567.
Leaves of wood-forrel, conferve
of’, 109. Of fpearmint, con¬
ferve of, 11 3.
Lemon-)\\ict, fyrup of, 502.
Aewiowj, infpiffated juice of, 127.,
Effence of, 182. Feel-wa¬
ter, 331.
Lenient lindtus, 600.
Lenitive electuary, 593.
Ley, cauftic, 2 14.
/.i/y-of the-valley water, 341.
Lime with pure kali, 217.
A/ffw-water, 398.
Lin8us, lenient, 600.
Liniments, anodyne, 47°* Sa¬
ponaceous, 471. And oint¬
ments, 635—669.
/Jp-falve, 677.
Liquorice, refined, 150. Tro¬
ches of, 562.
Litharge, acetated waterof, 310.
Compound ditto, 610. Pla¬
fter, 620. Ditto with gum,
621. Ditto with quickfil-
ver, 622. Ditto with refin,
623. Cerate of, 673.
Logwood, extradf of, 137.
Long digeftion, on extradts by,
132.
Aj/nar cauftic, 272. Pills, 273.
M.
Mate, expreffed oil of, 154.
Effential ditto, 188.
Mad-dag, powder to prevent
the poifon of the bite, 550.
Magnejia,zf&—250. Troches,
of, 566.
Manna, ele&uary of, 597.
Marjoram, eflential oil of, iSp.
Marfhmallo'ws, decodtion of,
372. Syrup of, 497.
jfcfar/fa/flowers,275. iEthiope,
28*.
M A C Y.
Meadow faffron, oxymel of,
n° 524-
Meafares in pharmacy, 69. Ta¬
ble of the weights of diffe¬
rent fluid ones, 70.
Meconium, fyrup of, 503.
Medicated wines, 407—4I9-
Waters,606—613. Honeys,
520—529.
Melarnpodiurn, tindlure of, 449*
Menjlrua, principal, for folia¬
tion, 72, &c-
Mercury, preparations of, 283
—3c 5. Pills of the corroiive
fublimate of, 5 86.
Mercurial pills, 576. Or blue
plafter, 622.
Metallic fubfiances diffoRed by
acids, 75.
Metals, 52.
Milk, fait or fugar of, 244.
Almond, 482. Ammonia-
cum, 484.
Millipeds, preparation of, 99.
Conferve of, 119. Wine of,
4I4* . . .
Mindererus, fpirit of, 237.
Minerals, 49. Mineral earths,
51. Mineral kermes, 269.
Mineral folution of arfenic,
494. ;
Minium. See Lead, &c.
Mint, garden, effential oil of
the herbs of, 160. Ditto of
leaves of common, 165.
Mithridate, 605.
Mixture, faline or julep, 493.
Mixtures of various kinds, 479
— 495-
Mucilage, extraction of, 103.
Of ftarch, 388. Of gum-
arabic, 389. Plafter of, 632.
Of gum tragacanth, 390. Of
quince feed, 391.
Mulberry juice, fyrnp of, 502.
Muriated antimony, 258.
Qmckfilver, 289. Mild mu¬
riated ditto, 294.
Muriatic acid, 199-
Mujh, tindlure of, 453. Mix¬
ture of, 481.
Mujlard cataplafra of, 681.
Mutton fuet and hug’s lard, pre¬
paration of, 90.
Myrrh, gummy extrndlof, 145.
Tindlure of, 454. Com¬
pound powder of, 541- Pills
of aloes with, 572.
N.
Natron, 25. Prepared, 219.
Vitriolated, 231. Tartari-
zed, 240.
Night-Jhade, plafter of deadly,
628.
Nitrated calx of antimony, 256.
Index.
Silver, 271. Red quickfilver,
295, Ointment of quick*
filver, 648.
Nitre, purified, 233. Vinous
acid, or dulcified fpirit of,
357. Troches eft, 564..
Nitrous acid, 197. Weak, 198.
Ether, fpirit of, 351. Pow¬
der, 556 EleCluary, 5 v8.
Nutmegs, cffeuiial oil of, 190*
Spirit of, or fpirituous nut¬
meg-water, 361,
Nux vomica, tindture of, 477*
O.
Odorous principle of vegetables*.
35-
Oil of almonds, 152. Of hart-
ftiorn, 227.
Oils, grofs, 29. Effential, 31*
32, 33. Of vegetables, rec¬
tified fpirit of wine a men-
ftruum for, 73. Of the mi¬
neral kingdom, 49. Diffolve
various fubftances, 74. Dif¬
fered by alkaline lixivia, 76.
ExpreffeJ, &c. 151 —
Effential, &c. 158—196-
Salt and oil of amber, 178.
206.
Ointments and liniments, 635—
669.
Olives, expreffed oil of, 154.
Onion ointment, 668.
Opiate powder, 542.
Opium, purified. 144. Extradf
of, prepared by long dige¬
ftion, 145. Tindture of, 455.
Camphorated tindlure of,
456. Pills, 579. Confec¬
tion of, 604.
Orange-peel, conferve of the
yellow rind of that of Se¬
ville, 112. Water,332,368.
Tindlure of, 439. Syrup of,
500.
Orange-Qclns, effential oil of,
182.
Origanum, effential oil of, 159*
Ditto of leaves of, 166.
Oxymel of verdegrife, 523. Of
meadow faffron, 524. Qf
fquills, 525. Simple, 526.
Of garlic, 527. Pedtoralj
528.
P.
Pabulum of vegetables, 4. >
Pacific pills, 579.
Palm, expreffed oil of, 1S4‘
Panacea of antimony, 27Q.
Paregoric elixir, 456.
PeSoral oxymel, 528. White
troches, 561. Black ditto,
562. Troches with opius®,
563.
Pennyroyal, effeatial oil of, 159*
Ditto
Index.
Ditt@ of leaves of, 1-67. Wa¬
ter, 329. Spirit of, 363.
Peppermint, eflential oil of, 1 s 9,
160. Ditto of leave*, 164.
Water, 326. Spirit of, or
fpirituous water, 359.
Peru, tin&ure of tbe baliam of,
426.
PeruvianhdLxk, extraft of, 138,
140. Ditto with reiin, 139.
Decoction of, 375. Infu-
fion of, 404. Tiniture of,
440. Compound ditto, 441.
PurgIng powder, 557.
Pharmacy fehntd, 1. Objedts
of, 2.
Pills, lunar, 273. Of various
kinds, and general rules for
making, 569—590.
Pimento, or all-fpice, foirit of,
362 ; or fpirituous Jamaica
pepper water, ibid.
Pitch, plafter of Burgundy, 624.
Piafter, 634.
Plants, differ in the different
periods of their growth, 6.
Different part of the fame
plant of different qualities, 7.
Plajlers, 613 — 635.
Poppy, fyrup of white, 503.
Ditto of red, 504.
Potajb, 23. (
antimenial, 260. Alh-
coloured of mercury, 287.
Ptnuders, manner of mak:ng,
and various kinds of, 529—
560.
Powdered tin, 312.
Precipitation, 81.
Preparation of fubftances not fa¬
llible in water, 90, &c. Of
hog’s lard and mutton-fuet,
94. Of millipeds, 99.
Prepared antimony, 91. Ca¬
lamine, 92 Chalk,93. Ruff
orlhavingsof iron,105. Kali,
2IG. Natron, 219. Am¬
monia, 221.
Prefs, ufe of, in expreffing jui¬
ces, 85.
Pulps extraction, 100.
Purging Peruvian powder, 557.
Purification of gum ammoniac,
95. Of honey, 98. Of fto-
rax, 1-03. Of alum, 242.
Purified filings of iron, 104.
Scales of iron, 106. Opium,
144. Fixed feffile alkaline
fait,'220. Nitre, 233. Sal
ammoniac, 247.
Putrefactive fermentation, 18,
19.
Sluajfia, tinfture of, 4751.
£>uickJUver, purified, 284. A-
fietated, 285. Calcined, 286.
P H A R
With chalk, 288. Muriated,
289. Mild muriated, 294.
Red nitrated, 295. White
calx of, 297. With fulphur,
299. Red fulphurated, 301.
Vitrielated, 302. Sytupof,
519. Pills, 576. Ointment
of the white calx of, 638.
Strongei ditto, 647. Weak¬
er ditto, ibid; or blue oint¬
ment, ibid. Ointment of ni¬
trated, 648.
Quince-feed, mucilage of, 391.
R.
Rafpberry juice, fyrup of, 502.
Rectified fpirit of wine, a men-
ilruum for efiential oils and
refins of vegetables, 73. On
extracts with, 132. Oil
of turpentine, 175. Oil
of horns, 177. Oil of
amber, 179.
Red nitrated quickfilver, 295.
Corrofiveorprecipitated mer¬
cury, 296 Lead, 306. Pop¬
py fyrup, 504.
Refined liquorice, 150.
Refins, 36. Extracts, .See. 128
— 151. Refinous fubllan-
ces diffolved by alkaline lix¬
ivia, 76. Extraft of Peru¬
vian bark with, 139. Oint¬
ment of yellow, 650. Cerate
of ditto, 674.
Rhodium, effentia! oil of, 187.
Rcubarb,mh\{\oi\oi, 397. Wine
of, 4151. Various tinctures
of, 457. Elixir of, 458.
Rochel fait, 237.
Rob, or infpiliated juice of el¬
der berries, 1 24.
Rofes, hifufion of, 396. Con-
ferve of the buds of red,,
ill. Vitnolated conferve
of, 120. Tin&ure of, 396.
Vinegar of, 401. Syrup of
p le, 505. Of dry, 506.
Honey of, 921. Water, 330.
Rofemary. effenria! oil of, 159.
Ditto of tops of, i 6d, 168.
Spirit of, 365.
Rue, efiential oil of, 19 J. Wa¬
ter, 343.
Rufus pills, 572.
Rufi of iron, prepared, 105,
276.
S.
Saffron, tindure of, 442. Sy¬
rup of, 501. Oxymel of
meadow, 524.
Sage water, 346.
Salammoniac, volatile, 223. Spi¬
rit of, 224. Ditto with
quicklime, 226.
Saline mixture or julep, 493.
Salt and oil of amber, 178,
M A C Y.
206. Purified ditto of am¬
ber, 207. Of tartar, 209.
Fixed vegetable alkaline,
211. Fixed follilc alkalized,
purified, 220. Of harts¬
horn, 227. Of many vir¬
tues, 230. Cathartic of Glau¬
ber, 232. Rochel, 241. Or
fugar of milk, 244. Of
forrel, 245. Acid of bo¬
rax, 246. Ammoniac, pu¬
rified, 247. Of lilver, 272.
Ot fieel, 279, &c.
Salts, and faline preparations
of vegetables, p. 273, n° 39,
40, 41. Alkaline, diffolved
by acids, 75. Chapter on,
&e. 196 —248.
Salve for lips, 677.
Sap of vegetables, 28.
Sapphire■ coinureil water, 609.
Saponaceous balfam or liniment,
471. Plailer, 625.
Sarfaparilla, decodfion of, 384.
Compound ditto, 385.
Sajfafras root, effentiai oil of,
159, and 170.
Saturnine ointment, 643.
Savin, effentialoil of, 160. Dit¬
to of leaves of, 171. Water,
344. Compound tin&ure of,
459-
Savory, effentiai oil of, 192.
Scales of iron purified, 106.
Scammony, compound powder
of, 543. Ditto with aloes,
544. Ditto with calomel,
545. Eleftuary of, 592.
Scurvy-grafs, fpirit of, 367.
Sebaceous matter, 30.
Seneka, decoftion of, 386-
Senna, extraft of, 143. Simple
infufion of, 393. Tartarized
ditto, 394. I nfufion of ta¬
marinds with, 395. Tin&ure
of, 462. Compound powder
of- 546. Eleftuary of, 593.
Seville orange-peel, conferve of
the yellow rind of, r 1 2.
Shavings of rufi of iron, prepa¬
red, 105.
Silver, preparations of, 271——
274-
Simple ointment, 636. Lini¬
ment,. 655- Cerate, 670.
Sloes, conferve of, r 16.
Snahc-rrsot, tindfure 0^463.
Soap pills, 588. Plnfttr, 625.
Liniment,659. Cerate, 675.
Soda, 25. Vitriolated, 232.
Tartarized, 241.
Solids, fublimation of, 84.
Solution, in the humid and dry
way, 71. Principal men-
ftrua for, 72. Simple mer¬
curial,. 3c 4, Mineral of ai-
, . 44J-
feme, 494.
Soot, tindlure of, 444s.
Sorrel, fait of, 245'.
Spanijh flies, tin&ure of, 429.
Piafter of, 615. Ointment
of, 640. Cerate of, 671.
Spearmint, conferve of the leaves
of, 113. Effentiai oil of,
159- Water, 327. Spirit
of, 360.
Spermaceti, ointment of, 652.
Cerate of, 676.
Spices, aromatic, 533.
Spirit of wine rectified, a men-
ftruum for effentiai oils or re-
fins of vegetables, 73. O*
extracts with, 130. On ex¬
tracts with and water, 131-
Spirit of lal ammoniac, 224,
Ditto with quicklime, 2262
Of Mindererus, 237. Cam¬
phorated of wine, 469. Com¬
pound of vitriolic ether, 483’.
Ditto of ammonia, 486. Suc-
cinated ditto of ammonia*,
487. Volatile aromatic,
486. Camphorated, 488.
Spirits, ditlilled, 347—371.
Sponge, burning of, 102. Pow-
^ der, 559.
Squills, drying of, loi. Con-
ferve of, 1 1 7. Vinegar of*
399. Wine of, 417. Tinc¬
ture of, 460. Syrup of, 507.
Honey of, 522. OxymeF
of, 525. Pills, 580.
Starch, mucilage of, 388.-
Troches of, 56 K
Steel, fait of, 279.
Sternutatory or cephalic pow¬
der, 534.
Stihing piafter, 623.
Stomachic elixir, 446. Pills,581,
Storax, purification of, 103,
Pills, 5^9 Ointment of,667®
Strawbery water, 339.
Strengthening piafter, 627.
Styptic powder, 547. .
Sublimate corroftve of mercury^ .
290. Solution of it, 291.
Piils of, 586^
Sublimation, 841.
Sub fiances not foluble in water,
preparation of, 90, &c.
Suet, mutton and hog’s lard*
preparation of, 94.
Sudorific powder, 539.
Sugar, or fait of milk, 244 ; or
fait of lead, 309.
Sulphur diffolved by alkaline li¬
xivia, 76. Preparations of
250, &c. Precipitated of
antimony, 261. Golden oF
antimony, 262. With quick¬
filver, 299. Troches of*.
563. Ointment, 653.
Savest
Sweet mercury, no 293.
Syrup, fimple or common, 508.
Syrups of various forts, 495—
520.
T.
*Table of affinities, p. 290—
294. Of the weights of fome
fluid meafures, n° 70. Of
quantity of effential oil ob¬
tained from various vegeta¬
bles, 195. p. 331, &c. Of
quantity of opium and mer¬
cury in thedifferent eompofi-
tions of the London and E-
dinburgh colleges, 683.
tamarinds, infufionof, with fen*
na, 395. , >
cTanfy, effential oil of, 193.
yar, oil of foffile, 173. Pills,
587. Ointment, 649.
Tor-water, 405.
'Tartar, cryftallized acid of,
203. Diftilled ditto of, 204.
Salt of, 209. Vitriolated,
229. Regenerated, 235.
Soluble, 239. Emetic,. 264.
Antimonial wine of, 411.
fTartarized kali, 238. Vege¬
table fixed alkali, 239. Na¬
tron, 240. Soda, 241. An¬
timony, 263. Iron, 277.
Antimony, wine of, 411.
*Tcrebenthinate ele&uary, 599.
Thebaic powder, 558. Pills,
579. Ele&uary, 604.
Theriaca of Andromachus,6o5.
Tin, preparations of, 311—
314. Ele&uary, 595.
TinSurey facred or aloetic wine,
408 ; or wine of ipecacuan¬
ha, 413.
TinBures of various kinds, 419
. —479*
P H A U
Tobacco wine,n°4i6. Ointment
of, 666.
Tolu, tin&ure of the balfam of,
427. Syrup of ditto, ijio.
Tragacanth, compound pow¬
der, 548.
Traumatic balfam, 428.
Treacle, Venice, 609.
Troches, rules for making, and
various kinds of, 560—569.
Troy weight, 68.
Turbiih mineral, 303.
Turpentine, oil of, 174. Rec¬
tified ditto, 175.
Tutty ointment, 654.
V.
Valerian, tin&ure of, 464. Vo¬
latile ditto, 465.
Vegetables: analogy between
them and animals, 3. Pa¬
bulum of, 4. Influence of
foil, ch'mate, light, and heat
upon. 5. Obnoxious to dif-
eafe and death, 8. Product
of, by vinous fermentation,
14, 15. By acetous fer¬
mentation, 16, 17. By
putrefa&ion, 18, 19. By
fire, 20—42. Sap of, 28,
Grofs oils of, 29. Ef¬
fential oils of, 31. Seba¬
ceous matter of, 30. Na¬
ture of the colouring mat¬
ter of, 43. Pra&ical obfer-
vations on,44. Earths of, 51.
Vegetable alkali, 24. Fixed
vegetable alkaline fait, 211.
Venice treacle, 605.
Veratrum, tin&ure of, 466.
Verdi^rife, oxymel of, 523.
Ointment of, 637.
VeJJ'ds, glafs, naked and coat¬
ed, 65, 66. Cautions with
M A C Y.
refpe&: to the matter of other
veflels, n'J 67-
Vinegar, 17. Diftilled, 200.
Concentrated, 201. Of
Squills, 399. Aromatic,
400. Of rotes, 401. Of
lead, 402. Of colchicum,
403. Syrup of, 496.
/^/zcw fermentation, n. Pro¬
duct of 14, 15. Acid of
nitre, 351. Spirit of fal-
ammoniac, 3^2.
Violets, fyrup of, 511.
Vitrified antimony, 265.
Vitriol of iron, 279- Colco*
thar of, 280. White, 316.
Dulcified fpirit of, 349. A-
cid elixir of, 467. Sweet
ditto, 468.
Vitriolated conferve of rofes,
120. Kali, 228. Tartar,
229. Natron, 231. Soda,
232. Purified zinc, water
of — zinc with camphor,
6ii.
Vitriolic acid, weak, 196. Ether
fpirit of, 349. Acid, vi¬
nous, ib. Ether, or ethereal
liquor, 350. Elixir of aloes,
423. Ether, compound fpi¬
rit of, 485. Water, 6(2.
Ulcerated cancer, ointment for,
662.
Volatile fal ammoniac, 223.
Liquor, fait, and oil of
hartfhorn, 227. Elixir of
guaiacum, 4^8.
Vomica, nux, tin&ure of, 477.
W.
Waters, fimple diftilled, 319—
347. Medicated, 606—61 3.
Water, a priucipal menftruum
in pharmacy, 72. Subftan-
Index#
ees not foluble in prepara¬
tion of, n° 90, &c Extra&g
with, 128. And rules fot
making extra&s with, 129.
Aerated, 205. Of kali,
212. Of pure ditto, 213.
Of ammonia, 222. Of pure
ammonia, 225. Of aceta*
ted litharge, 310.
Wax, oil of, 194. Plafter,
616 Ointment, 642
Weights, two kinds of, ufed, 68.
Table of the weights of dif¬
ferent fluid meafures, 70.
White precipitate of mercury,
298. Vitriol, 316. Lily-
wrater, 341. Poppy, fyrup
of, 503. Ointment, 644.
Wine, various kinds of, 13.
Re&fified fpirit of, a men¬
ftruum for eflential oils or re¬
fins of vegetables, 73. Oil of,
180. Medicated, 407—419.
Camphorated fpirit of, 469.
Wolfsbane, infpiflated juice ©f,
125.
Wood-forrel, conferve of the
leaves of, 108.
Woods, deco&ion of, 383.
Wormwood, conferve of the
tops of fea, no. Extraft
of, 146. Effential oil of,
181. Tin&ure of, 420.
Y.
Tellow ointment, 648. Refin,
ointment of, 650. Cerate
of ditto, 674.
Z.
Zedoary wine, 418.
Zinc, preparations of, and cop¬
per, 314—319. Waterofivi-
triolated, with camphor,61 r.
Ointment of the calx 0^639.
P H A -
Pharos. PHAROS, (Homer, Strabo, &c.), a fmall oblong
v' jfland, adjoining to the continent of Egypt, oyer-
againft Alexandria. On this ifland ftood a cognominal
light-tower, of four fides, each fide a ftadium in length;
and the tower fo high as to be feen 100 miles off. Some
affirm, each of its four corners refted on a large fea
crab of glafs or of hard tranfparent ftone of Ethiopia
or Memphis. Others imagine the crabs were only
added externally to the bafe by way of ornament, or
as emblematical of its fituation and ufe. The architeft
was Softrates the Cnidian, as appears by an infcription
on the tower, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, who laid
out 800 talents upon it. On account of the port of
Alexandria, the entrance to which was difficult and
•dangerous, the Pharos was called the key of the Egyp¬
tian fea, or even of Egypt itfelf (Lucan) : and Pharos,
ifrom being a proper name, is become an appellative to
■dop.otc all light-houfcs.
P H A
Pharos, or Phare, a light-houfe ; a pile raifed near Pharos,
a port, where fire is kept burning in the night, to l'—v“"
guide and dire&: veffels near at hand. The pharos of
Alexandria, built in the ifland of Pharos, at the mouth
of the Nile, was anciently very famous, infomuch as to
communicate its name to all the reft. This moft mag- *
nificent tower confifted of feveral ftories and galleries,
with a lantern at top, in which a light being conti¬
nually burning, might be feen for many leagues at fea,
and along the coaft. It was accounted one of the
fcven wonders of the world. It was built by the famed
architeft Softrates, a native of Cnidos, or, according
to fome, by Deiphanes, the father of Softrates; and
coft Ptolemy Philadelphus 800 talents. The feveral
ftories were adorned with columns, balluftrades, galle¬
ries of the fineft marble and workmanfhip; to which,
fome add, that the archite&: had contrived to fatten
fome looking-glaffes fo artificially againft the bigheft
galleries,
p H A C 447 ] P H A
that one'could fee in them aH the (hip, that enemy kept their rr,„kS> expefting quietly the fignal Phaifaha.
o t att e, anw on the contrary how impatient and un- v—*
iteady ms own men were, running up and down in
creat difnt-fJfr .,,0^*. „r  • • . .
Fharpar, galleries
PharCiha. failed on the fea for a great way. Inftead of which
noble ftrufture, one fees now only a kind of irregular
cadle, without ditches or outworks of any ftrength, the
whole being accommodated to the inequality of the
ground on which it Hands, and which it feems is no
higher than that which it Ihould command. Out of
the midft of this clumfy building rifes a tower, which
ferves for a light-houfe, but which hath nothing of the
beauty and grandeur of the old one. The ColofTus of
Rhodes alfo ferved as a pharos.
PHARPAR, or Pharphar, is one of the rivers
of Damafcus, or rather it is an arm of the Barrady or
Chryforrhoas, which waters the city of Damafcus and
the country about it (2 Kings v. 12.) “ Are not Aba-
na and Pbarpar, rivers of Damafcus, better than all
the waters of Ifrael ?” The river of Damafcus has its
fountain in the mountains of Libanus. At its approach
to the city it is divided into three arms, one of
which palfes through Damafcus. The other two
water the gardens round about, and then reuniting,
they lofe themfeives at four or five leagues from the
city, towards the north. See Maundrell’s Travels
from Aleppo to Jerufalem ; fee alfo the articles Abana
and Damascus.
PHARSALIA, Pharsalium, PbarfaluSy or
Pharfalos, (anc. geog.j, a town of the Phthiotis, a
diflrift ol Iheff ly, near Pherae and Larilfi, to which
Ldl place Pompey fled from the plains of Pharfalus ;
watered by the river Enipeus, which falls into the
Apidanus, and both together into the Peneus. Be¬
tween Pharfalus and Enipens, Pompey drew up his men
at the fatal battle of Pharfalia.
In this battle, the advantage with refpeS to num¬
bers was greatly on the fide of Pompey. That gene¬
ral himlelf was on the left with the two legions which
Csfai had returned to him at the beginning of the
war. Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, was in the
centre, with the legions he had biought from Syria,
and the reinforcements fent by fever ah kings and flates
I he Cilician legion, and fome cohorts
which had ferved in Spain, were in the right, under
the command of Afranius. As Pompey’s right wing
was covered by the Enipeus, he ftrengthened the left
with his flingers, archers, and the 7000 Roman horfe,
on whom chiefly his party founded their hopes of vic¬
tory. The whole army was drawn up in three lines,
with very little fpaces between them, in conformity
to this difpofiiion, Cmlar’s army was drawn up in the
following order : The tenth legion, which had on all
eccafions fignabzed themldves above all the reft, was
placed in the right wing, and the ninth in the left ;
but as the latter had been Confiderably weakened in
the a&ion at Dyrrhachium, the eighth legion was
polled fo near it as to be able to fupport and rein¬
force it upon occafion. The reft of Csefar’s forces filled
up the fpace between the two wings. Marc Antony
commanded the left wing, Sylla the right, and Cneius
Domitius Calvinus the main body. As for Csefar, he
polled himfelf in the right over-againft Pompey, that
he might have him always in his fi^ht.
Thus was the whole plain covered, from Pharfalia
to the Enipeus, with two armies, dreffed and armed
after the fame manner, and bearing the fame enfigns
the Roman eagle*, f ompey obferving how well the
r ,   up anu uown m
great d!forcer for want of experience, he began to be
afraid left his ranks Ihould be broken upon the firft
, t5 and therefore commanded the foot in the front
to keep their ground, and quietly wait for the enemy,
the two arm.es, though within reach of esch other,
kept a mournful filence; but at length the trumpets
founded the charge, and Casfar’s army advanced in
good order td begin the attack, being encouraged by
the example of one Cains Craftinus, a centurion, who
at the head of 120 men threw himfelf upon the ene¬
my s. firft line with incredible fury. This he did to
acquit himfelf of a promife he had folemnly made to
Caeiat-, who, meeting h,m as he was going out of his
tent in the morning, alked him, after feme difeourfe,
at his opinion ivas touching the event of the battle?
Io which he, ftretch.ng out his hand, replied aloud.
Thine is the viEtory, Cafar ; thou Jhalt glorloufly conquer,
"it 1 th'l Uay be the fubjea % praife
« her dead or alive. In purfuance of this promile he
roke out of his rank as loon as the trumpet founded;,
ant, at the head of his company, ran in upon the
enemy and made a great daughter of them. But
t'hrJn h^fl 4 forward> ^cing his way
through the firft line, one of Pompey’s men ran him
in at the mouth with fuch violence, that the point of
iLnT /aTr,out nt the hind Part of his
Upon his death Pompey’s foldiers took courage, and
wi 1 great bravery flood the enemy's onfet. While
tiie foot were thus fharply engaged in the centre,
Pompey s hprfe m the left wing marched up confi-
dently ; and having firft widened their ranks, with
a delign to furround Ctefar’s right wing, charged his
^7’ 4^ ’tlKm t0 glVC ground* Hereupon
Caefar ordered his horfe to retreat a little, and give
^ as a l o" COf°rtr Which he had Fofted in the
as a hoi.y of referve. Thefe, upon a fignal
given, coming up, charged the enemy’s horfe with
that reiolut.on and good order which is peculiar to
men who have fpent all their lives in camps. They
remembered their milruiStions, not ftriking at the leg>
or thighs of the enemy, but aiming only at their facel
defired'eft^cf^ing had the
fired effect. ■ For the young patricians, whom Cse^
being0nabkPto0b 7 y<™& Oncers, not:
be ng able to bear the thoughts of having their faces
deformed with fears, turned their backs, and, covering
heir faces with their hands, fled in the utmoft col
fufion, leaving the foot at the mercy of the enemy
£ingrtLT tldf°i PUrfl,e thC fu^itlves 5 hut char-
g the foot of that wing, now naked and un¬
guarded, furrounded them, and cut molt of them ii*
pieces. **
Pompey was fo tranfported with rage, in feeing the
flower of his forces thus put to flight or cut ^pie¬
ces, that he left his army, and retired flowly towards
h.s camp ooking more like a man diftraAed7 and be-
fide himfelf than one who by his exploits had ac¬
quired the name of the Great. When he had reached'
the camp, he retired to his tent without fpeakin- a
word to any ; and continued there, like one diftraAei
and out of his fenfes, till his whole army was defeated.
Ctefar no fooner faw htmfelf matter of the field than.
* ' ha
P H A
[ 448 1
P H A
WsaflatM. 1,6 matclic3 to attack the enemy’s entrenchments, that
*1 ■ v " 1 Pompey might not have tnxie to recolltdt himfelf.
When Pompey was informed that his rival was advan¬
cing to attack his entrenchments, he then firft feemed
to have recovered his fenfee, and cried out, IVhat, into
my camp too ! He faid no more ; but immediately lay¬
ing abide the marks of his dignity, and putting on
fuch a garment as m:ght beft favour nis flight, he hole
out at the decuman gate, and took the road to La-
rifla, which city had hitherto Ihown great attachment
to him. In the mean time Ciefar began the attack
on the enemy’s camp, which was vigoroufly deiended
bv the cohorts Pompey had le't to guard it; but they
were at length forced to yield. Csefar was not a little
furprifed, when, after having forced the entrench¬
ments, he found the enemy’s tents and pavilions rich¬
ly adorned with carpets and hangings, their couches
ft re wed with flowers, their tables ready fpread, and
fideboards fet out with abundance of plate, bowls,
and glades, and feme of them even filled with wine.
So great was the confidence of Pompey’s party, that
they made preparations before hand for pleainres to be
enjoyed after the vitdery. which they thought certain.
In Pompey’s tent, Caefar found the box in which he
kept his letters: bnt, with a moderation and magna¬
nimity worthy of himfelf, he burnt them all, without
Teading one ; faying, that he had rather be ignorant
■of crimes, than obliged to punilh them.
The next day, when the dead were numbered, it
appeared that Ctefar had fcarce loft 200 men ; among
whom was about 30 centurions, vrhom CffUr caufed
to be buried with great fokmnity. He did particular
honours to the body of Craftinus, who had begun the
battle; and ordered his allies to be depofited in a tomb,
which he erefted to his memory. On Pompey’s fide,
the number of the dead amounted to 15,000 av.'~ord-
ing to fome, and to 25,000 according to others Cac-
far took 24,000 prifonera, eigi* eagles, and 180 en-
flfrPHARSAMA, an epic poem, compofed by Lucan on
the civil war between Pompey and Ooefar, and parti¬
cularly on the viftory of the latter over the former,
of which we have given an account in the preceding
article. It is a poem univerfally acknowledged to have
great beauties and great defers ; but we are the lefs
capable of eftimating its merit as a whole, that either
time has deprived us of the laft books, or its author
has left it incomplete. “ The fubjeft of the Pharfa-
lia (fays an excellent critic) carries undoubtedly all
the epic grandeur and dignity : neither does it want
unity of object, viz. the triumph of Caefir over the
Roman liberty. In the choice of that fubjed, he
thinks, however, that the author was not happy. The
civil wars were too recent to admit in the defeription
of them the embellilhments of fidion and machinery.
The fables of the gods mixed with the exploits of Cse-
far and Pompey, inftead of railing, would have dimi-
nifhed, the dignity ot fuch well known fads.” Another
objedion to the fubjed, perhaps more forcible than this,
arifes from the fuccefs of the war and the abilities of
the generals. Lucan was a friend to liberty, and
wiflred to raife the charader of Pompey and Cato ;
but in fpite of his utmoft efforts, they are always
fcelipfed by the fuperior talents and confequcnt fuccefs
of Cselar. All his ckaradere, however, are drawn
Stair's
JLiilurts.
with fpirit, and with uncommon regard to truth J and Pka’fidia
fome of the fpeeches which he puts into the mouths
of his heroes are equal for moral fublimity to any .
thing that is to be found in all antiquity.
“ There are in the Pharfalia (continues the critic al¬
ready quoted) feveral very poetical and fpirited de-
feriptions. But the author’s chief {Length does not
lie either in narration or deferipticn. His narration
is often dry and harfh ; his deferiptions are often over¬
wrought, and employed too upon difagreea.de objeds.
His principal merit confifts m his fentimenis, which
are generally noble and ftriking, and exprefied in that
glowing and ardent manner which peculiarly diftin-
guifines" him. Lucan is the moft philofophical and
the moft public-fpirited poet of all antiquity. He
was the nephew of the famous Seneca the philofo-
pher ; was himfelf a Stoic; and the fpirit of that phi-
lofophy breathes throughout his poem We muft ob-
ferve, too, that he is the only ancient epic poet whom
the fubjedt of his poem really and deeply interefted,
Lucan recounted no fi6tion. He was a Roman, and had
felt all the direful effeds of the Roman civil wars, and
of that fevete defpotifm which fucceeded the lofs of li¬
berty. His high and bold fpirit made him enter deep¬
ly into this fubjed, and kindle, on many occ fions,
into the molt real warmth. Hence, he abounds in
exclamations and apoftrophes, which are almoft always
well timed, and fupported with a vivacity and fire that
de> him no fmall honour.
“ But it is the fate of this poet, that his beauties can
never be mentioned, without their fuggefting his ble-
mifties alfo. As his principal excellency is a lively
and glowing genius, which appears fometimes in his
deferiptions, and very often in his ientiments, his great
defed in both is want of moderation. He came*
every thing to an extreme. He knows not where to
flop. From an effort to aggrandife his objeds, he be¬
comes tumid and unnatural: and it frequently hap¬
pens, that where the fecond line of one of his deferip¬
tions is fublime, the third, in which he meant to rife
flill higher, is perfedly bombaft. Lucan lived in art
age when the fchools of the declaimers had begun to
corrupt the eloquence and tafte of Rome. . He was
not free from the infedion ; and too often, inftead of
{bowing the genius of the poet, betrays the fpirit of
the declaimer ; but he is, on the whole, an author of
lively and original genius.” .
PHARUS, in botany : A genus of the hexandna
order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the fourth order.
Gramma. The male calyx is a bivalved uniflorous
glume ; the corolla, a bivaived glume ; the female ca¬
lyx the fame with the male ; the corolla an uniffo-
rous, long, and wrapping glume. There is but one
feed.
PHARYNX, in anatomy. See there, p. 708, 709.
PHASCUM, in botany : A genus of the order of
nrafei, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
The anthera is operculated, with a ciliated mouth ; tbr
calyptrse are minute.
PH ASEOLUS, the Kidney-bean ; a genus ot the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs ot
plants. There is only one fpecies; but of this there are
many varieties. Thofe principally cultivated for the
table are, I. The common white, or Dutch kidne-y-
’ bean*.
P H A [ 449 ] P H A
Phafeolus. bean. 2. The fmnller kidney-bean, commonly called
v the Batterfea kidney-bean. And, 3. The upright fort,
called the tree kidney-bean.
1. The firft fort was fome time ago propagated in
England, and is ftill in Holland ; it grows very tall,
and requires long Hakes and poles to climb on, and its
beans are confiderably broad : this makes them lefs
faleable in the markets, people fuppoling them to be
old becaufe they are broad; and they are hence grown
into difufe, though a much more valuable kind for
eating than any other.
2. The fecond fort, or Batterfea bean, is what is
more univerfally cultivated : it never grows very tall,
nor rambles far, and the air can eafily pafs between
the rows, becaufe of its moderate growth ; and this
makes it bear plentifully, and ripen well for the table.
It is the bed tailed bean, except the laft.
3. The third, or tree kidney bean, is alfo a plen¬
tiful bearer, and never rambles, but grows up in form
of a Ihrub ; but its beans are broader than the Batter¬
fea kind, and are not fo well tailed.
They are all propagated from feeds, which are to
be put into the ground in the latter end of March or
beginning of April for an early crop: but thefe fhould
have a warm fituation and a dry foil; they mult alfo
be planted in a dry feafon. The manner of planting
them is, to draw lines with a bough over the bed, at
two feet and a half diftance, into which the feeds are
to be dropped at about two inches afunder; and the
earth is to be drawn over them with the head of a rake,
to cover them about an inch deep. In a week after
fowing, the plants will appear, and the earth Ihould
be drawn up about their ftalks as they rife up ; for a
few days after this they will require no further care,
except to be kept clear from weeds, and, when the
beans appear, to have them gathered twice a-week ;
for if the beans are fuffered to hang on too long, they
not only become of no value, but they weaken the
plant. The fi ft crop of kidney-beans will continue a
month in good_ order ; and, to fupply the table after¬
wards, there Ihould be frelh fowings in March, April,
May, and June ; the laft of which will continue till
the frofts come to deftroy them. Some raife their
early crops on hot-beds; and this is to be done ex¬
actly in the fame manner as the raifxng the early cu¬
cumbers.
A new fpecies of phafeolus, apparently a very ufe-
ful one, has been difeovered by M. Moraney, “ an in¬
habitant of Morne Rouge, dependant on the Cape
we fuppofe Cape Fran5oi8 of the illand of St Domin¬
go. In his fearch for plants, fubfervient to his col-
le&ion of infedls for the king’s cabinet, he was over¬
taken by night, and he paffed it in a cave, to which
he had recourfe for flielter. At its extremity he found
beds of foffils, broken pieces of burnt earthen-ware,
fame tools and other things, which ftiowed ths.t this
cave had formerly been the habitation of the natives.
Near it he faw a climbing plant attached to fome trees,
with clufters of dry pods hanging from it. Thefe he
gathered, and on his return lowed the feed. Some
months after, the plants grew tali and ftrong: they
appeared to referable a phafeolus known at Perpignan
by the name of caraquoe/ay and in the fuperb port¬
folios of the king by that of phafeolus Indicia, cochleato
Jkore, which produced many roots, not unlike the ma-
Vol, XIV. Part II.
nioc. On examining the root after the pods were Phafcs
ripe, he found from three to eight roots of this kind. , H
The force of the vegetation was wonderful ; but dread- 1 hafiaim^
ing the deleterious effe&s of recent manioc, he did
not tafte them, but fubjedted them to a chemical ana-
lyfis, which proved nothing. After boiling them in
water a little falted, he ventured to tafte them, and
found them moift, untftuous, and faccharine, not un¬
like potatoes. He made, after fome hours trial, very
good caflava with them, without being incommoded
by the difagreeable fibres which are met with in the
manioc daring this operation. Since that time, bif-
cuit and bread have been made from thefe roots by
M. Lombart counfellor at the Cape. The plant has
been found to be very common in the woods. It re¬
quires no peculiar management: its roots are in fea¬
fon when the pods blacken* and its fibres run in every
direction, fearching for nourifhment through the clefts
of rocks, and receiving the impreflion of the ftrata
without injury. If the principal root is left, the plant
Ihoots again and flourifhes as before ; but it is not yet
afeertained whether it puts forth any new roots. The
feeds are not alimentary when drefled, as if nature
defigned them only for propagating other plants.
Every ufe which a farinaceous plant can fupply, this
new phafeolus has fuccefsfully anfweied ; and the feeds
in the hands of Meflrs Heretier and Thouin will
probably furnilh a fufficient quantity for curiofity as
well as ufe.
PHASES, in aftronorny, from the Greek word
‘‘ to appear the feveral appearances or quantities of
illumination of the moon, Venus, Mercury, and the
other planets. See Astronomy.
PHASGA, or Pisgah, (Mofes), a mountain on the
other fide Jordan, joined to Abarim and Nebo, and
running fouth to the mouth of the Arnon : from
which Mofes had a view of the promifed land, and
where he died, having before appointed Jofhua his
fucceflbr. Wells takes Pifgah and Nebo to be differ¬
ent names of one and the fame mountain, a part or
branch of the mountains Abarim, (Deut. xxxii. 49.
compared with Dent, xxxiv. 1.) Or that the top of
Nebo was peculiarly called Pijgah ; or fome other part
of it, cut out in fteps, as the primitive word denotes :
and thus it is rendered by Aquila, by a Greek word
figmfying out (Jerome). There was alfo a city
ol this name, id.; and the adjoining country was in like
manner called Pifgah, id.
i HASIANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of gallinse. The cheeks are covered with
a fmooth naked fkiii.
Gibbons, in his Roman Hiftory, tells us, that the
name Phajianus is derived from the river Phasis. the
banks of which is the native habitation of the phea-
fant. See Phasis.
.!• The gallus, or common dunghill cock and hen, Dun^-hili
with a compreffed caruncle or fieftiy comb on the too COi;k.
of the head, and a couple of caruncles or wattles under
the chin. The ears are -aked, and the tail is comprel-
fed and eredfed. Of all other birds, perhaps thisYpe-
cies affords the greateft number of varieties; there be¬
ing fcarce two to be found that exactly referable each
other in plumage and form. The tail, which makes
fuch a beautiful figure in the generality of thefe birds,
is yet found entirely wanting in others ; and not only
3 the
P H A [
rhafanm. the tail, bat the rump alfo. T he toes, which are
ufuislly four in all animals of the poultry kind, yet jn a
fpecies of the cock are found to amount to five. The
feathers, which lie fo fleek and in fuch beautiful order
in moft of thofe we are acquainted with,*, are in a pe¬
culiar breed all inverted, and Hand flaring the wrong
way. Nay, there is a fpecies that comes from Japan,
which inflead of feathers* feems to be covered over with
hair.
It is not well afcertaineti when the cock was firft.
made domeftic in Europe ; but it is generally agteed
that we firft had him in our weftern world from the
kingdom of Perfia. Ariftophanes calls the cock the
Perfian bird; and tells us he enjoyed that kingdom be¬
fore feme of its earlieft monarchs. 1 his animal was in
fadl known fo early even in the moft favage parts of
Europe, that we are told the cock was one of the for¬
bidden foods among the ancient Britons. Indeed, the
domeftic fowl feems to have banifhed the wild one.
Perfia itfelf, that firft introduced it to our acquaintance,
feems no longer to know it in its natural form ; and if
we did not find it wild in fome of the woods of India,
as well as thofe of the ifiands in the Indian ocean, we
might begin to doubt, as has been done with regard to
fheep, in what form it firft exifted in rvftate of nature.
But the cock is ftdl found in the illands of 1 inian,
in many others of the Indian ocean, and in the woous
on the coaft of Malabar, in its ancient ftate of inde¬
pendence/ In his wild condition, his plumage is black
and yellow, and his comb and wattles yellow and purple.
There is another peculiarity alfo in thofe of the Indian
woods; their bones, which, when boiled, with us are
white, as every body knows, in thofe are as black as
ebony.
In their firft propagation in Europe, there were di-
ftinidions then that now fuhfift no longer. The an¬
cients efteemed thofe fowls whofe plumage was reddiih
as invaluable; but as for the white, it was confidered
as utterly unfit for domeftic purpofes. Thefe they re¬
garded ns fubjeft to become a prey to rapacious birds;
and Ariftotle thinks them Ms fruitful than the former.
Indeed, his divifion of thofe birds feems taken from
their culinary ufes : the one fort he calls generous, and
■nolle, being remarkable for fecundity; the other fort,
ignoble ami ufelefs, from their fterility. Thefe diftinc-
tions differ widely from our modern notions of genero-
fity in this animal ; that which we call the game-cock
being by no means fo fruitful as the ungenerous dung¬
hill cock, which we treat with contempt. The Athe¬
nians had their cock-matches as well as we , but it is
probable they did not enter into our refinement of choo-
fing out the moft barren of the fpecies for the purpofes
of combat.
However this be, no artbnal in the world has greater
courage than the cock when oppofed to one of his own
fpecits ; and in every part of the world where refine¬
ment and poliihed manners have not entirely taken
place, cock-lighting is a principal divetfion. In China,
India, the Philippine illands, and all over theEaft, cock--
fighting is the fport and amufement even of kings and
princes. With us it is declining every day ; and it is
to be hoped it will in time become only the paftimeof
the loweft vulgar. See the article Cockpit.
The cock claps his wings before he lings or crows.
His fight is very piercing; arid he never fails to cry in a
Domeftic
hen.
450 1 P H A
peculiar manner, when he difeovers any bird of prey Mali army.
in the air. His extraordinary courage is thought ~ v
to proceed from his being the moft falacious of all
other birds whatfoever. A fmgle cock fuffices for ten
or a dozen hens; and it is faid of him that he is the
only animal whole fpirits are not abated by indulgence.
But then he form growrs old ; the radical moifture is
exhaufted ; and in three or four years he becomes ut¬
terly unfit for the purpofes of impregnation. “ Hens
alfo (to ufe the words of Willoughby), as they for the
greateft part of the year daily lay eggs, cannot fuffice
for fo many births, but for the moft part after three
years become effete and barren : for when they have
exhaufted all their feed-eggs, of which they had but a
certain quantity from the beginning, they mull necef-
farily ccafe to lay, there being no new ones generated
within.”
The hen feldom clutches a brood of chickens above
once a feafon, though inilances have been known in
which they produced two. The number of eggs a do¬
meftic hen will lay in the year are above 200, provi¬
ded Ihe be well fed and fupplied with water and liber¬
ty. It matters not much whether Ihe be trodden by
the cock or no; Ihe will continue to lay, although the
eggs of this kind can never by hatching be brought to
produce a living animal. Her neft is made without any
care, if left to herfelf; a hole fcratched into the ground,
among a few buihes, is the only preparation Ihe makes
for this feafon of patient expectation. Nature, almoft
exhaufted by its own fecundity, feems to inform her of
the proper time for hatching, which Ihc herfelf teftifies
by a clucking note, and by difeontinuing to lay. The
good houfewives, who often get more by their hens
laying than by their chickens, often artificially protraft
this clucking feafon, and fometimes entirely remove
it. Asfoon as a hen begins to cluck, they Hint her in
her provifions ; which, if that fails, they plunge her
into cold water; this, for the time, effe&ually puts back
her hatching ; but then it often kills the poor bird,
who takes cold and dies under the operation.
If left entirely to herfelf, the hen would feldom lay-
above 20 eggs in the fame neft) without attempting to
hatch them : but in proportion as fhe lays, her eggs
are removed ; and Ihe continues to lay, vainly hoping
to increafe the number. In the wild ftate, the hem
feldom lays above 15 eggs ; but then her provifioa
is more difficultly obtained, and Ihe is perhaps fen-
fible of the difficulty of maintaining too numerous a
family.
When the hen begins to fit, nothing can exceed her
perfeverance and patience ; Ihe continues for fome days
immoveable; and when forced away by the importu¬
nities of hunger, Ihe quickly returns. Sometimes alfo
her eggs become too hot for her to bear, efpecially if
ffie be furnifhed with too warm a neft within doors, for
then Ihe is obliged to leave them to cool a little : thus
the warmth of the neft only retards incubation, and
often puts the brood a day or two back in the fhell.
While the hen fits, Ihe carefully turns her eggs, and
even removes them to different fituations ; till a length,
in about three weeks, the young brood begin to give
figna of a defire to burft their confinement. When by
the repeated efforts of their bill, which ferves like a
pioneer on this occafion, they have broke themfeives a
paffage through the ihell, the hen ftill continues to fit
HA [ 45* ] P H A
The ftrong-eft and beft chickens hatched put under him, which he will treat with the Phafamn.
Phsfiami'. till all are excluded.  o  
Cjl"' "v generally are the firft candidates for liberty; the weak-
eft come behind, and fome even die in the Ihell. When
all are produced, fhe then leads them forth to provide
for themfelves. Her affection and her pride feem then
to alter her very nature, and correft her imperfections.
No longer voracious or cowardly, /he abltains from all
food that her young can fwallow, and flies boldly at
every creature that fire thinks is likely to do them mif-
ehief. Whatever the invading animal be. Are boldly
attacks him ; the horfe, the hog, or the maftiff. When
«* marching at the head of her little troop, Ihe a As the
commander ; and has a variety of notes to call her nu¬
merous train to their food, or to warn them ofap.
proaching danger. Upon one of thefe occaiions, the
whole brood have been feen to run forfecurity into the
thickeft part of an hedge, while the hen herfelf ven¬
tured boldly forth, and faced a fox that came for plun¬
der.
fen or twelve chickens are the greateft number that
a good hen can rear and dutch at a time ; but as this
bears no proportion to the number of her eggs, fchemes
have been imagined to clutch all the eggsV an ben,
and thus turn her produce to the greateft advantage.
By thefe contrivances it has been obtained, that a hen
that ordinarily produces but 12 chickens in the year,
is found to produce as many chickens as eggs, and
confequently often above 200. This contrivance is the
artificial method of H atch ing chickens 1 n ftoves, as is
pra&ifed at Grand Cairo; or in a chemical elaboratory
properly graduated, as has been effeAed by Mr Reau¬
mur. At Grand Cairo, they thus prodinre 6000 or
7000 chickens at a time ; where, as they are brought
lorth in their mild Ipring, which is warmer than our
fumnier, the young ones thrive without clutching. But
it is otherwife in our colder and unequal climate ; the
little animal may without much difficulty be hatched
from the ftiell, but they almoft all penffi when exclu¬
ded. To remedy this, Reaumur has made ufe of a
woollen hen, as he calls it ; which was nothing more
than putting the young ones in a warm bafleet, and
clapping over them a thick woollen canopy.
Capons may very eaiily be taught to clutch a freffi
brood of chickens throughout the year ; fo that when
one little colony is thus reared, another may be brought
to fucceed it. Nothing is more common than to fee
capons thus employed ; and the manner of teaching
them is this: Firft the capon is made very tame, fo as
to feed from one’s hand ; then, about evening’ they
pluck the feathers off his breart, and rub the bare fldn
with nettles; they then put the chickens to^am, which
prefently run under his breaft and belly, and probably
rubbing his bare Ikin gently with their heads, allay the
flinging pain which the nettles had juft produced.
I This is repeated for two or three nights, till the ani¬
mal takes an a|FeAion to the chickens that have thus
given him relief, and continues to give them the pro-
teAion they feek for : perhaps alfo the querulous voice
of the chickens may be pleafant to him in mifery, and
invite him to fuccour the diftreffejt. He from that time
brings up a brood of chickens like a hen, clutching
them, feeding them, clucking, and performing all the
funAions of the tendereft parent. A capon once ac-
cuftomed to this fervice, will not give over ; but when
one brood is grown up, he may have another nearly
fame tendernefs he did the former.
The cock, from his falacioufnefs, is allowed to be a
ffiort-lived animal ; but how long thefe birds live, if
left to themfelves, is not yet Weil afeertained by any
hi dorian. As they are kept only for profit, and in
a few years become unfit for generation, there are
few that, from mere motives of curiofity, wdl make
the tedious experiment of maintaining a proper num¬
ber till they die. Aldrovandus hints their age to be
10 years; and it is probable that this may be its tx-
tent. They are fubjeA to fome diforders ; and as
for poifons, befides nux vomica, whifch is fatal to
moil animals except man, they are injured, as Lin-
n.eus a Herts, by elderberries; oh which they are not a
little fond.
Of this fpecies Mr Latham enumerates no lefs than Latin*',
13 varieties, beginning with the wild cock, which is
a third lefs in the body than the domeftic cock. This
variety he imagines to be the original dock from
whence all our domeftic varieties have fprung. They
appear to be natives of the forefts of India. There
are but few places, however, as Mr Latham goes
on to obferve, where the different voyagers have not
met with cocks and hens, either wild or tame ; and
mention has been particularly made of finding them
at St [ago, Pulo Condore, Hie of Timor, Philippine
and Mducca Kies, Sumatra and Java, New Guinea,
liman, and moft of the ifles of the South Seas.—
Phofe of Pulo Condore are very much like our own,
but confiderably lefs, being only of the fize of a crow.
ie cocks crow like ours, but their voices are much
more fmall and Mi-Damp. Voy. vol. i. p. 392.—
Two wild ones were ffiot there Ly our laft vovagers.—
Ellis's Narr. ii. p 54o. Thofe of Sumatra'and Java
are remarkably large, and are called the St Jago breed.
J he cock is lo tall as to peck off a common dining-
table. When fatigued, he fits down on the firft joint
ol the leg ; and is then taller than the common fowls,
Hifl. Sumatr. p. 98. They are found in New Gui¬
nea, but not in great plenty.—-/Vr. Voy. p. joe.
rJ he fowls which were met with wil t at Tinian “ were
run down without much trouble, as they could fcaive
fly farther than 100 yards at a flight.”—Voy.
p.416. border ohferves, that they art plenty at Eafter,
Society, and Friendly .Ifles : at the two laft they are
ot a prodigious li/.e. They are not uncommon at the
Marquelas, Hebrides, and New Caledonia ; but the
Low Ifles are quite deftitute of them.—See Obf. p.
19}.— Ducks and poultry are numerous in the
Sandwich Hies.—Cook's Journal, p, 229. Iu re-
fpeA to Europe, little need be faid, as varieties with¬
out end are everywhere feen, an ! their manners fully
known to every one. It is obferved, however, that
they breed moft freely in the warmer lituations. In
the very cold regions, thou.rh they will live and thrive,
they ceafe to multiply. They are not found to breed
in the northern parts of Siberia ; and in Groenland
are only kept as rarities.—Groen. On the
whole, it feems quite unneceffary. to enlarge further
on a fubjeA wen known to every body. They are fo
common, that every one who wiffies to become ac¬
quainted with their nature and manners, has the means
of fuch knowledge in his power. Thofe who wiffi
lor minuter deferiptions, we muft refer to the authors
3 2 wl10
P H A r 4J2 ]
phafianas, who have profeffedly written on the fubjea ; for the fined ftate.
k    J » • * 1 J    «yt a ^c'r e> v
Pkcafcnts.
varieties which we have already mentioned, we refer
to Mr Latham. ,
The motmot, or Guinea pheafant, is browmfh,
Zath/im’s
iSynopJts*
fomewhat red below, with a wedge-like tail, and wants
fpurs. 3. The colchicus is red, with a blue head, a
wedge-fhaped tail, and papillous cheeks. It 13 a na¬
tive of Africa and Afia. 4. The argus is yellowifh,
with black fpots, a red face, and a blue crea on the
back.part of the head. It is found in Chinefe Tar¬
tar).’ 5. The piftiis has a yellowifh creft, a red
breaft, and a wedge-fhaped tail. It is a native of
China. 6. The neahemerua is white, with a black
creft and belly, and a wedge-fhaped tail. It is a na¬
tive of China. ,
Mr Latham enumerates nine different fpecies ot
pheafants, and of the common pheafant he reckons fix
varieties. The firft which he deferibes is the fuperb
pheafant. This bird Linnaeus deferibed from the va¬
rious reprefentations of it painted on paper-hangings
and Chiaa-ware ; and farther confirmed by a figure
and defeription in a Chmefe book which came under
his infpefrion. ' . .
« We have lately feen (fays Latham) a drawing ot
the tail feather of a bird of the pheafant kind, which
meafured above fix feet in length, and which, it is
probable, muft have belonged to feme bird not hither¬
to come to our knowledge. The drawing is in the
pofleffion of Major Davies, who took it from the on-
g-inal feather; two of which were in the pofldhon ot
a gentleman of his acquaintance, and were brought
from China. They are exa&iy in fhape of the two
middle feathers of the painted pheafant ; the general
colour is that of a fine blue grey, margined on the
Tides with a rufous cream-colhur, and marked on each
fide the (haft with numerous bars of black; between
70 and 80 liars in all ; thofe on the oppofite fides of
the {haft feldom correfponding with each other..
“ The argus, though it be a native of China, is very
commonly found in the woods of Sumatra, where it
is called roo-cw. It is found extremely difficult to
be kept alive for any confiderable time after catching
it in the woods ; never for more than a month. It
feems to have an antipathy to the light, being quite
inanimate in the open day ; but when kept in a dark
place, it appears perfe&ly ateafe, and fometimes makes
its note or call, from which it takes its name ; and
which is rather plaintive, and not harffi like that ot a
peacock. The fielh refembles that of the common
pheafant.” , f .
Mr Latham obferves, that the common pheaiant is
row found in a ftate ®f nature in almoft the whole of
the Oil Continent. They fometimes (he fays) come
into farm yards near woods, and Produce c£°[3 breeds
with common hens. He then fays, “ M. Salerne re¬
marks, that the hen-pheafant, when done laying and
fitting, will get the plumage of the male, and a-ter
that become fo little refpe&ed by him, as to be treat-
cd with the fame incivility as he would ffiow to one
of his own fex. He mentions this as a new obferva-
tion ; but it is far more common than may be gene¬
rally fuppofed, and had been long before mentioned
by Edwards, who gave for example one kept m the
menagery of the duke of Leeds; and icmarcs, t lat
this change is moft likely to happen when in a con-
P H A
   The circumftance of the hen acquiring Phafram^
the plumage of the cock after a certain time is not v
confined to the pheafant; the inftance of the pea hen
belonging to Lady Tynte, now. in the Leverian Mu-
feum, evinces the contrary, which, after having many
broods, got much of the fine plumage of the cock, with
the addition even of the fine train feathers. The female
alfo of the rock manakin is faid to get the plumage of
the oppofite fex after a number of years; and per¬
haps, if obferved hereafter, this may be found to be
the cafe with many other fpeciea. A gentleman of
my acquaintance (continues our author), dead long
Cnee, who ufed to keep thefe birds for his amufe-
ment, obferved the fame to me : and the ingenious Mr
T. Hunter has a well drawn up paper in the Philofo-
phical Tranfadtions * to the fame purport; but, in * Vol. Ixs»
addition to this, I am well informed, that it does notP- 5*7.
always require mature age to give the hen-pheafant
the appearance-of the male, a3 fometimes young birds
will be adorned with his fine plumage. I will not
fay how this happens, and whether it may be peculiar
to this fpecies to grow barren (if that be the reafon)
fooner than any other of the gallinaceous tribe; but I
am aftured that feveral of thefe fpurlefs, cock-like hens,
have proved on eating to be young birds, from their
juicinefs and delicacy of flavour.”
One of the varieties which our author remarks un¬
der this fpecies, he calls the Hybridal pheafant, which
is a mixed breed between the pheafant and cock ; one
of which in the Leverian Mufeum. The two lait
fpecies which our author deferibes, is the parraka and
The parraka is about the fize of a fmah fowl, re-
fembling it in the bill, legs, and body. Its length is
23 inches. The colour of the bill is dark rutous ; the
eyes we brown ; the general colour of the plumage is
a deep brown on the back, and fulvous under the belly :
the top of the head is fulvous, and the feathers aie
fomewhat long', but not fo much as to form a real
creft; the wings are fhort irjthe webs ot fome ot tne
quills are fomewhat rufous ; the tail confifts of 12
feathers, is even at the end, about a foot in length,
and is, for the moft part, carried pendent; the legs-
are of a dark rufous, inclining to black ; the claws
are like thofe of a fowl. .... ,
« It 19 peculiar (fays Mr Latham) in its internal
ftru&ure in refped to the windpipe ; which, inftead
of entering direcdly the breaft, as in moft birds paffes-
over the tide of the left clavicle, and on the outiide of'
the fleffiy part of the breaft, being covered only by
the {kin, then taking a turn upwards, pafles over the
right clavicle into the breaft, and is diftnbuted through
the lungs in the ufual way. The female has not this
circumvolution of the windpipe. The hannequaw,
mentioned by Bancroft, is probably the fame bird.
He fays that it is black, roofts in trees, and may be
heard early in the morning, diftinftly, but hoarfely,
repeating the word (taftly. miftaken for
parrequaw) very loud. Thefe are found in the unfre¬
quented woods of the internal parts of Cayenne, Gui¬
ana, and many parts of South America. At fun-rne
they fet up a very loud cry, which is thought to be
the loudeft of all birds in the new world ; at which
time the eyes appear red, as does a imah km under
the breaft, which ia not at all feen, except when the
P H A
Phafianus. bird makes fuch exertions, or is angry.
very like the word parraquaw ; and is repeated many
times together; and often many cry at once, or an-
fwer one another, hut mod: in breeding-time, which
is twice in the year ; at each time laying from four to
fix eggs ; making the neft in low branches or dumps
of trees, and behaving with their chickens in the fame
manner ns hens. They feed on grain, feeds, and herbs ;
but feed the young in the neft with worms and fmall
infedfs. Thefe, with many other birds, inhabit the
woods by day, coming out into the open favannas
morning and evening to feed ; at which times they are
chiefly killed by the natives and near inhabitants. They
may be brought up tame ; and their flefh is much
efteemed.
“ The courier pheafant is but very imperfectly de-
fcribed by Fernandez; and is raid to be 18 inches
long. The general colour of the plumage is white,
inclined to fulvous ; about the tail they arc black, mix¬
ed with fome fpots of white ; the tail itfelf is long,
and of a green colour, reflefting in fome lights like
the feathers of a peacock : the wings are fhorc. This
fpeciea inhabits the hotter parts of Mexico ; flies flow ;
but is recorded to outrun the fwifteft horfe*.”
Pheafants were originally brought into Europe from
the banks of the Phafis, a river of Colchis, in Alia
Minor ; and from whence they ftill retain their name.
Next to the peacock, they are the mod beautiful of
birds, as well for the vivid colour of their plumes as
for their happy mixtures and variety. It is far beyond
the power of the pencil to draw any thing foglofly, fo
bright, or points fo finely blending into each other.
We are told, that when Crosfus, king of Lydia, was
feated on his throne, adorned with royal magnificence
and all the barbarous pomp of eaftern fplendor, he
afked Solon if he had ever beheld any thing fo fine?
The Greek philofopher, no way moved by the bbjedfg
before him, or taking a pride in his native fimplicity,
replied, That after having feen the beautiful plumage
of the pheafant, he could be aftoniihed at no other
finery.
Thefe birds, tho’ fo beautiful to the eye, are not lefs
* Hifl. dts
I 4.53 I P H A
This cry is delicate when ferved up to the table. Their flelh is con • Phaftanus.
fidered as the greateft dainty ; and when the old phy- —‘-v—
ficians fpoke of the wholefomenefs of any viands, they
made their comparifon with the flefh of the pheafant.
However, notwithftanding all thefe perfections to tempt
the curiofity or the palate, the pheafant has multiplied
in its wild ftate.
A fpirit of independence feeras to attend the phea¬
fant even in captivity. In the woods, the hen-phea-
fant lays from 18 to 20 eggs in a feafonj but in a do-
meftic ftate, fhc feldom lays above 10. In the fame
manner, when wild, (he hatches and leads up her brood
with patience, vigilance, and courage; but when kept
tame, fhe never fits well, fo that a hen is generally her
fubditute upon fuch occafions : and as for leading her
young to their food, Ihe is utterly ignorant of where it
is to be found; and the young birds ftarve, if left folely
to her protection. , JThe pheafant, therefore, on every
account, feeras better left at large in the woods than
reclaimed to priftine captivity. Its fecundity when wild
is fufficient to ftock the foreft ; its beautiful plumage
adorns it; and its flefh retains a higher flavour from its
unlimited freedom.
However, it has been the aim of late to take thefe
birds once more from the woods, and to keep them in
places fitted for their reception. Like all others of the
poultry kind, they have no great fagacity, and fuffer
themfelves eafily to be taken. At night they rooft up¬
on the higheft tree§ of the wood ; and by day they
come down into the lower brakes and bufhes, where
their food is chiefly found. They generally make a
kind of flapping noife when they are with the females;
and this often apprifes the fportfman (a) of their re¬
treats. At other times he traces them in the fnow,
and frequently takes them in fprings. But of all
birds they are fhot moft eafily ; as they always make
a whirring noife when they rife, by which they alarm
the gunner, and being a large mark, and flying very
flow, there is fcarce any miffing them.
When thefe birds are taken young into keeping, .
they become as familiar as chickens : and when they
are defigned for breeding, they are put together in a
yard,
(a) Pheafants may be taken in a variety of ways. One method is, to be welfacquainted with their haunts and
breeding-places; which arc generally young, thick, and well-grown coppices, free from the diflurbances of
cattle, and without a path-way through them ; for they are timorous birds. When their haunts dre difeo-
vered, it will next be neceffary to find out where the brood is. And here it is to be remarked, that phea¬
fants come out of the wood three times a-day to feed in green corn, frefh paftures, or fuch like places. The
times of coming out are in the morning foon after funrife, at noon, and at funfet. The fides of the wood
where they may be fuppofed to come out ought then to be carefully watched, and the young ones will be feen
following the female as a flock of chickens follow the hen. The wood ought alfo to be watched in the eve¬
nings, when the noife of the cock and hemcaliing the young ones together will foon be heard ; and the
fportfman muft then endeavour to get as near-as he can to the place ; and being very ftill and filent, he may ob-
ferve their numbers and difpofition, and learn how to fpread his nets fo as moft: eafily to take the whole brood-
but if by the leaft motion they difeover him, they will all take to their legs, and run to a great diftance • for
they feldom rife on the wing, except when very clofe frighted. By practice fome people have become^bla
to imitate the voice of the old pheafant, fo as to be able to call the young ones together to any place that he
pleafes, when the haunts are once found out, and by this means they are eafily led into the nets The bell
time for ufing this call is in the morning or evening; and the note imitated fhould be that by which they
are called out to feed ; indeed, by learning to imitate the other notes, they may be brought together at any
time of the day. Ihe fportfman who can make this call, muft Ihelter himfelf in fome clofe place, and begin
tfery foftly at firft; then, if none are near enough to be within hearing, he is gradually to raife it louder and
louder, ami at length he will be aafwered as loud, if any are withiu hearing, though at a confiderable di*
ftance j;
P H A [454
phafianus. yard, five hens to a cock ; for this bird, like all of the
v—-v—- Poultry kind, is very falaeious. In her natural ftate
the female makes her neil of dry grafs and leaves: the
fame muft be laid for her in the pheafandry, and Ihe
herfelf will fometimes properly difpofe them. If Ihe
A-efufes to hatch her eg^s, then a common hen muft be
got to fupply her place, which talk Ihe will perform
with perfeverance and fuccefs. The young ones are
very difficult to be reared (b) ; and they muft be fup-
plied with ants-eggs, which is the food the old one
leads them to gather when wild in the woods. To
make thefe go the farther, they are to be chopped up
with curds or other meat ; and the young ones are to
be fed with great exn&nefs, both as to the quantity
and the time of their fupply. This food is fometimes
alfo to be varied ; and wood lice, earwigs, and other
in feds, are to make a variety. The place where they
are reared muft be kept 'extremely clean ; their water
muft be^changed twice or thrice a-day ; they muft not
be exposed till the dew is off the ground in the morn¬
ing, and they Ihould always be taken in before fun-
fet. When they'become adult, they very well can
ftiift for themfelves ; but they are particularly fond of
oats and barley.
] P h A
In order to inereafe the breed, and make it {till more PbaflM
valuable, I.ongolius teaches us a method that appears V"
very peculiar. The pheafant is a very bold bird when
firft brought into the yard among other poultry, not
fparing the peacock, nor even fuch young cocks and
hens as it can mafter ; but after a time it will live tame¬
ly among them, and will at laft be brought to couple
with a common hen. The breed thus produced take
much ftronger after the pheafant than the hen; and in a
few fucceffions, if they be let to breed with the cock-
phe ifant (for the mixture is not barren), there will be
produced a fpecies more tame, ftronger, and more pro¬
lific ; fo that he adds, that it is ftrange why moft of
our pheafandries are not ftocked with birds produced
in this manner.
The pheafant, when full grown, feems to feed indif¬
ferently upon every thing that offers. It is faid by a
French writer, that one of the king’s fportfmen (hoot¬
ing at a parcel of crows that were gathered round a
dead carcafe, to his great furprife, upon coming up,
found that he had killed as many pheafants as crows.
It is even afferted by fome, that fuch is the carnivo¬
rous difpofition of this bird, that when feveral of
them are put together in the fame yard, if one of
them
ftance ; whereas, if he (hould fet up the call too loud at firft, and any of the birds (hould happen to be very
near, they would be frighted away. n.„ , . f , , „ ,
When a pheafant anfwers, the fportfman is to creep nearer and nearer, ftill calling, though not io loud ; and
he will ftill be anfwered, till at length he will be led by the bird’s voice within fight of it. Then he is to fpread
his net and to begin to call again, keeping in fome clofe and well (heltered place behind the net ■, in this place
he is to call till the bird approaches ; and when he has drawn it under the net, he is to appear fuddeuly, and
the bird, rifing up, will thus be caught. • n. j r -k i ;
There is another method of taking pheafants much quicker than that we have juft defenbed, viz. the
having a live cock-pheafant to ufe as a ftale : this bird is to be fixed under the net, and by his crowing he
will foon entice others in. The fportfman muft lie concealed; and when anotlier pheafant comes in, he is
to draw the net over him. Many people take pheafants in fpringes or horfe hair fnares: to fueceed in this,
it will be neceffary to be careful in fearching out their haunts, and the places by which they go out of the woods
into the fields. When thefe are difeovered, a peg muft be fixed in the ground at each, and at each peg two
fpringes mull be laid open ; the one to take in the legs, the other the head. _ When the fpringes are fet, the
fportfman muft go into the woods, and get behind the birds in order to fright them with fome little loile,
fuch as lhall not be enough to raife them to the wing, but only to fet them a-runmng.. I hey will naturally
make their way out of the wood, through their accuttomed paffes, and be then caught in the fpringes.
There is another method of taking thefe birds in winter, provided there be no fnow. I his mult be done
with a net made in the form of a calling net, but with wider mefties ; they may indeed be five inches wide.
Some peas or wheat are to be taken out ; and the path of the pheafants being difeovered, which may eahly
be done by their dung, a pint or thereabout of corn is to be thrown down in the path in a place marked,
fo that the fportfman can come to it again. This muft be done for fome days, till at length the pheafanta
will expeft it every day regularly ; and all of them that frequent the place are brought together to feed
there, and then the net is to be fixed over the place; its top being tied up to fome bough of a tree, and
ks bottom fixed down all around, except in one place, where the walk of the pheafants lies. In this place
it muft be raifed in the form of an arch, and the entrance mull be lined with feveral rods of hazel; the thick
ends of which are to be tied to the net, and the thin ones let into the fpace covered by it ; and thus the
pheafants will eafily get in by parting the fmall ends of the flicks, as fi(h into a wheel, but they will not
eafily get out again. The nets are to be dyed of a ruffet colour, by laying them m a tan-pit ; and they
muft, when planted for this purpofe, be covered with boughs, fo that the birds do not dffcover them, and
thi n they will eafily run into them, and be all taken at once. . ,, . .
(b) The pheafant is fo nearly allied to our common poultry that this affertion may appear odd : it is ne*
verthelefs true ; and the principal caufe may be, that their proper food is not known, or not fufficiently in¬
quired into They feed voracioufiy on ants and various other infeds ; and it is find, that when the muftinefs
if corn or want of cleannefs in their apartments has made them lick, a repaft of ants has recovered them.
When thefe fail, millepedes and earwigs together anfwer as an excellent medicine, along with their common
food (corn), which mSft be very fweet and clean. Thefe birds are very Men, and when coupling time is over,
they are feldom found more than one in a place.
Phafis
I!
PhalTa*
chates
Decline and
Dali of the
Roman Em-
fire.
P H A .. [ 45j-
them happens to fall fick, or feems to be pining^
all the reft will fall upon, kill, and devour it. Such
is the language of books ; thofe who have frequent
opportunities of examining the manners of the bird
itlelt, know what credit ought to be given to fuch
an account.
PHASIS, a river which falls into the Euxine fca
about 700 miles from Conftantinople. “ From the
Iberian Caucafus (fay§ (ribbon), the moft lofty and
craggy mountains of Afia, that river defcends with
fuch oblique vehemence, that in a fhori fpace it is tra¬
veled by 120 bridges. Nor does the ftream become
placid and navigable till it reaches the town of Sara-
pana, five days journey from the Cyrus, which flows
from the fame hills, but in a contrary direftion, to
the Cafpian lake. The proximity of thefe rivers has
fuggefted the pra£ice, or at leaft the idea, of waft¬
ing the precious merchandife of India down the Ox-
us, over the Cafpian, up the Cyrus, and with the cur¬
rent of the Phafis into the Euxine and Mediterranean
feas. As it fuccefiively coJle£s the ftreams of the plain
ofColchoSjthePhails moves with diminiftiedfpeed, tho’
accumulated weight. At the mouth it is 60 fathoms
deep, and half a league broad ; but a fmall woody
ifland is interpofed in the midft of the channel : the
water, fo foon as it has depofited an earthy or metal¬
lic fediment, floats on the furface of the waves, and
is no longer fufceptible of corruption. In a courfe
of 100 miles, 40 of which are navigable for large
veffels, the Phafis divides the celebrated region of
Colchos or Mingrelia, which, on three fides, is for¬
tified by the Iberian and Armenian mountains, and
whofe maritime coaft extends about 200 miles, from
the neighbourhood of Trebizond to Diofcurias and
the confines of Circafila. Both the foil and climate
are relaxed by excefiive moifture : 28 rivers, belides
the Phafis and his dependent ftreams, convey their
waters to the fea ; and the hollownefs of the ground
appears to indicate the fubterraneous channels between
the Euxine and the Cafpian.”
PHASMA 1 A, in phyfiology, certain appearances
anfing from the various tinAures of the clouds by the
rays of the heavenly bodies, efpecially the fun and
moon. Thefe are infinitely diverfified by the different
figures and fituations of the clouds, and the appulfes
of the rays of light ; and, together with the occalional
flafhings and fhootings of different meteors, they have,
no doubt, occafioned thofe prodigies of armies fight¬
ing in the air, &c. of which we have fuch frequent ac¬
counts in moft forts of writers. See 2 Maccab. xi. 8.
Melanfth. Meteor. 2 Shel. de Comet, aim. 1618.
Kircher and Schottus have erroneoufly attempted
to explain the phenomenon from the refleftion of
terreftrial objefts made on opake and congealed clouds
in the middle region of the air, which, according to
them, have the effeft of a mirror. Thus, according
to thefe authors, the armies pretended by feveral hi-
florians to have been feen in the fkies, were no other
than the reileftion of the like armies placed on fome
part of the earth. See Hilt. Acad. Roy. Scienc. ann.
1726, p. 405, & feq.
PH ASS AC HATES, in natural hiftory, the name
3 TT'lPfM PC /"■* 'f 4- V. " . •
f r • c 1 . ucuuc
ot a ipecies of agate, which the ancients, in its various
appearances, fometimes called leucachates and periUu-
1 P H E
PHEASANT, in ornithology. See Phasianus.
Phrasant’$~eye, or Bird?s-eye. See Adonis.
PHEBE, a deaconefs of the port of Corinth, call¬
ed (jenchrea. St Paul had a particular efteem for this
holy woman; and Theodoret thinks the apoftlelodged
at her houfe for fome time, while he continued in or
near Corinth. It is thought fhe brought to Rome
the epiftle he wrote to the Romans, wherein file is
commended and recommended in fo advantageous 3
manner. He fays (Rom. xvi. 1, 2.), “ I commend
unto you Phebe our fifttr, which is a fervant of the
church which is at Cenchrea: that ye receive her in
the Lord, as becometh faints, and that ye afiift her
in whatfoever bufinefs (he hath need of you ; for file
hath been a fuccourer of many, and of myfelf alfo.,,
Some moderns have advanced a notion, that Phebe was
wife to St Paul ; but none of the ancients have faid
any thing like it. It is thought, in quality of dea¬
conefs, file was employed by the church in fome mi-
niftrations fuitable to her fex and condition ; as to vi-
lit and inttruft the Chriftian women, to attend them
in their ficknefs, and diftribute alms to them.
PH EGOR, or Peor, a deity worfhipped at a very
early period by the Midiamtes and Moabites, and pro¬
bably by all the other tribes which then inhabited Sy¬
ria. Much has been faid concerning the fundlions of
this god, and the rank which he held among the Pa¬
gan divinities (fee BAAt-Peor) ; and many conjeftures
have been formed concerning the origin of his name.
Moft of thefe feem to have no better foundation than
the fenfelefs dreams of the Jewifti rabbies. Phegor,
or Peor, is undoubtedly the fame with the Hebrew
word pechor, which fignifies aperuit, and probably re¬
fers to the prophetic influence always attributed to the
folar deity, by which he opened or difeovered things to
come. . Accordingly we fipd Phlgor or Peor gene¬
rally joined to Baaly which was the Syrian and Chal¬
dean name of the fun after he became an objeft of
worfiiip ; hence B(uiLPhegor muft have been the fun
worshipped by fome particular rites, or under fome par¬
ticular charafter. What thefe were, a refolution of
Pechor into its component parts may perhaps inform
us. As this, word, wherever it occurs in Scripture,
has fome relation to diftending or opening the month
wide, it is probably compounded of phah the mouth or
fact) and ehar naked. In thofe countries we know
that the women wore veils; but it would appeal, that
in celebrating the rites of this deity thev were un¬
veiled. It feems even net improbable, that on thefe
occafions the fexes danced promifcuoully without their
clothes; a praftice which would naturally give birth to
the licentious amours mentioned in the 25th chapter
of the book of Numbers. If this be admitted, it will
follow that Phegor was the fun prefidino- over the mv-
fteries of Venus. .
PHELLANDRIUM, water-hemlock; a genua
of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are two fpecies, one of which, viz.
the aquaticum, is a native of Britain. This grows in
ditches and ponds, but is not very common. The
ftalk is remarkably thick and dichotomous, and grows
in the water. It is a poifon to horfes, bringing upon
COS
them, as Linnaeus informs us, a kind of palfy ; which,
however, he fuppofes to be owing not fo much to the
noxious qualities of the plant itfelf, as to thofe of an
1 m-
Pheafant
«
Phefian-
drium.
P H E
r 456 i
P H E
urn's Rip,
o f Fojpls,
4?. 49°'
i3hengitcs infc6t which feeds upon it, breeding within the italics,
and which he calls curculto parapledicus. The Swedes
give fwine’s dung for the cure. The feeds are tbme-
times given in intermittent fevers, and the leaves are
by fome added to difcutient cataplafms. In the win¬
ter, the roots and ftem, difledted by the influence of
the weather, afford a very curious flceleton or network.
Horfes, fheep, and goats, eat the plant; fwine are not
fond of it; cows refufe it.
PHENGITES, among the ancients, the name of a
beautiful fpecics of alabalter. It is a rude irregular
mafs, very {battery anc .riable, but of a brightnefs fu-
perior to that of moft other marbles, aud excelling
them all in tranfparence. The colour is an agreeable
pale, yellowifh, white, or honey colour ; the yellowifh
is more intenfe in fome places than in others, and
fometimes makes an-obfeure refemblance of veins. It
is very weak and brittle in the mafs $ and when redu¬
ced to fmall pieces, may be eafily crumbled between
the fingers into loofe, but confiderably large angular
piece!1, fome perfedt, others complex, irregular, or mu¬
tilated, and all approaching to a flat fhape. The an¬
cients were very fond of this fpecies in public build*
ings ; and the Temple of Fortune, built entirely of it,
has long been celebrated. Its great beauty is its tiani-
parence, from which alone this temple w'as perfeftly
light when the doors were fhut, though it was built
without a window, anti had no other light but what
was tranfmitted through the ftone its walls were built
with. It was anciently found in Cappadocia, and is
hill plentitul there : we have it alfo in Germany and
France, and in our own kingdom in Derbyfhire, and
fome other counties. It takes an excellent polifh, and
is very fit for ornamental works, where there is no
great ftrength required. See Amethyst.
PHENlCE, a port of the ifland of Crete, to the
weft of the ifland. St Paul having anchored at Phe-
nice, when he was carried to Rome (Adis xxvii. 12.),
advifed the fhip’s-crew to fpend the winter there, be-
caufe the fealon was too far advanced.
PHENICIA. See Phoenicia.
PHEONS, in heraldry, the barbed heads of darts,
arrows, or other weapons. , in.
PHEOS, in botany, a name which Theophrafliis,
Diofeorides, and others, give to a plant ufed by fullers
in dreffing their cloths, and of which there were two
kinds, a fmaller called Amply pheos, and a larger call¬
ed hippopheas. This plant is fometimes called phleos ;
and is thus confounded wdth a kind of marfh cudweed,
or gnaphaiium, called alfo by that name ; but it maj al¬
ways be difeovered which of the two plants an author
means, by obferving the fenfe in which the word is
nfed, and the ufe to which the plant was put. I he
phleos, properly fo called, that is, the cudweed, wras
ufed to fluff beds and other fuch things, and to pack
up with earthen veffels to prevent their breaking ; but
the pheos, improperly called phleos, only about cloths :
this was, however, alfo called Jhzbe and cnaphon.
PHERECRATES, a Greek comic poet, was con¬
temporary with Plato and Ariftophanes. After the
example of the ancient corned., ns, who never introdu¬
ced upon the theatre imaginary but living characters,
he added his contemporaries. But he did not abufe the
liberty which at that time prevailed upon the ftage ;
and laid it down as a rule to himfelf never to deftroy
the reputation of any perfon. Twenty-one comedies
are attributed to him, of which there now only remain
fome fragments colledted by Hertelius and Giotius.
From thefe fragments, however, it is eafy to difeern,
that Pherecrates wrote the purefl Greek, and poffeffed
that ingenious and delicate raillery which is called at¬
tic urbanity. He was author of a kind of verfe called,
from his own name, Pherecratick. I he thiee la ft feet
were in hexameter verfe, and the firit of thofe three
feet was always a fpondee. This verfe of Horace (for
example, Quamvisponticapinus) is a Pherecratick verfe.
We find in Plutarch a fragment of this poet upon the
mufic of the Greeks, which has been critically exami¬
ned by M. Burette of the academy of inferiptions. See
the 15th volume of the collection publifhed by that
learned fociety.
PHERECYDES, a native of Scyros, flourifhed
about the year 560 before the Chriftian era, and was
difciple of Pittacus, one of the feven wife men of Greece
(fee Pittacus). He is faid to have been the firft of all
the philofophers who has written on natural fuejects
and the efience of the gods. He was alfo the firit, it
is faid, who held the ridiculous opinion, ‘s that animals
ate mere machines.” He was Pythagoras’s mafter,
who loved him as his own father. This grateful fcho-
hr having heard that Pherecydes lay dangeroufly ill in
the ifiand of Delos, immediately repaired thither, in
order to give every neceffary affiftance to the old man,
and to take care that no means fhould be left untried
for the recovery of his health. His great age, how¬
ever, and the violence of his difeafe, having rendered
every prefeription ineffeftual, his next care was to fee
him decently buried ; and when he had paid the lafl
duty to his remains, and ere&ed a monument to his
memory, he fet out again for Italy. Other caufes have
been afligned for the death of Pherecydes: fome fay
he was eaten up by lice, and others that he fell head-
Jonor from the top of Mount Corycius in his way to
Delphos. He lived to the age of 85 years, and was
one of the firit ptofe writers among the Greeks.
“ Marvellous circumftances have been related of him, Enfield's
which only deferve to be mentioned, in order to ^ow ffolpL
that what has been deemed fupernatural by ignorant
fpedators may be eafiiy conceived to have happened
from natural caufes. A fhip in full fail was at a di-
ftance approaching its harbour ^ Pherecydes predifted
that it would never come into the haven, and it hap¬
pened accordingly ; for a ftorm arofe which funk the
veffel. After drinking water from a well, he pre¬
dicted an earthquake, which happened three days af¬
terwards. It is eafy to fuppofe that thefe prediaions
might have been the refuitofa careful obfeivation of
thofe phenomena which commonly precede ftorms or
earthquakes in a climate where they frequently happen.
“ It is difficult to give in any degree an accurate ac¬
count of the doctrines of Pherecydes ; both becaufe he
delivered them, after the manner of the times, under
the concealment of fymbols ; and becaufe veiy few
memoirs of this philefopher remain. It is molt pro¬
bable that he taught thofe opinions concerning the
gods and the origin of the world which the,ancient^
Grecian theogonilts borrowed from Egypt ; and of
which the reader will find accounts in different arti¬
cles
p n i
Phidias.
rWefima cles of this work. See Ecvpt, Metaphysics, My-
11 steries, Mythology, and Polytheism.
PHERETIMA, was the wife of Battus king of
Cyrene, and the mother of Arcexilaus. After her fon’s
death, Hie recovered the kingdom by means of Amafis
king of Egypt, and to avenge the murder of Arce-
fi'aus, (he caufed all his aflaffins to be cruciPed round
the walls of Cyrene, and fhe cut off the breads of their
wives, and hung them up near the bodies of their huf-
bands. It is faid that Hie was devoured alive by worms;
a punifhment which, according to fomeof the ancients,
was inflidted by Providence for her unparalleled cruel¬
ties.
PHERON, was a king of Egypt, who fucceeded Se-
foftris. He was blind ; and he recovered his fight by
Wafhing his eyes, according to the dire&ions of the
oracle, in the urine of a woman who had never had
any unlawful connexions. He tried his wife firft, but
fire appeared to have been faithlefs to his bed, and ihe
was burnt with all thofe whofe urine could not reftore
fight to the king. He married the woman whofe urine
proved beneficial.
PHIAL, a well known vefiel made of glafs, ufed
for various purpofes.
Leyden Phial, is a phial of glafs coated on both fides
with tin-foil for a confiderable way up the fides, of
great ufe in electrical experiments. See Electricity,
patfun.
PHIDIAS, the mod famous fculptor of antiquity,
Wras an Athenian, atrd a contemporary of the celebra¬
ted Pericles, who flourifhed in the t<3d Olympiad.
Phis wonderful artift was not only confummate in the
tife of his tools, but accomplifhed in thpfe fciences and
branches of knowledge which belong to his profefiion,
as hiltory, poetry, fable, geometry, optics, See. He
firft taught the Greeks to imitate nature perfeXly in
this way ; and all his works were received with admi¬
ration. I hey were alfo incredibly numerous ; for it
was almoft peculiar to Phidias, that he united the great-
eft facility with the greateft perfection. His Nemdls
was ranked among his firft pieces : it was carved out
of a block of marble, which was found in the camp of
the Perfians after they were defeated in the plains of
Marathon. He made an excellent ftatue of Minerva
for the Piateans ; but the ftatue of this goddefs in her
magnificent temple at Athens, of which there are ftill
fome ruined remains, was an aftoniihing produXion of
human art. Pericles, who had the care of this pom¬
pous edifice, gave orders to Phidias, whole prodigious
talenti he well knew, to make a ftatue of the goddefs;
and Phidias formed a figure of ivory and gold 39 feet
high. Writers never fpeak of this iUuftrious ’ monu¬
ment of Ikill withoCit raptures ; yet what has render¬
ed the name of the artift immortal, proved at that time
his ruin. He had ciifved uport the fhield of the god-
xlefs his Own portrait and that of Pericles; and this
was, by thofe that envied them, made a crime in Phi¬
dias. He was alio charged with embezzling part of
the materials which were defigned for the ftatue. Up¬
on this he withdrew to Elis, and revenged himfelf up¬
on the ungrateful Athenians, by making for theElians
the Olympic Jupiter; a prodigy of art, and which was
afterwards ranked among the feveh wonders of the
world. It was of ivory and gold ; 60 feet high, and
Vol. XIV. Part II, ^
l 457 3
? H I
every way proportioned. “The majefty of the work did Phldkfa
^qual the majefty of the god (fays Quintilian), and its j!
beauty'feems to have added luftre to the religion of . phia* *
the country.” Phidias concluded his labours with this c——y—-
mafterpiece ; and the Elians, to do honour to his me¬
mory, ereXed, and appropriated to his defeendants, an
office, which confilled in keeping clean this magnifi¬
cent image.
PH1DITIA, in Grecian antiquity, feafts celebra¬
ted with great frugality at Sparta. They were held
in the public places and in the open air. Rich and
poor aflifted at them equally, and on the fame footing;
their defign being to keep up peace, friendfhip, good
underftandinrg, and equality among the citizens great
and fmall. It is faid that thofe who attended this
feall brought each a bufhel of flour, eight meafures of
wine named chorus, five mince of cheefe, and as many
figs.
PHILA, in mythology, one of the attributes of
Venus, which diftinguifties her as. the mother of love,
from to love.
PHILADELPHIA, in antiquity, were games in-
ftituted at Sardis to celebrate the union of Caracalla
and Geta, the fons of Septimius Severus.
Philadelphia, the capital of the ftate of Penfyl-
vania in North America, fituated in W Lor,g. -75. 8.
N. Lat. 39. 57. It is one of the molt beautiful and
regular cities in the world, being of an oblong form,
fituated on the weft bank of the river Delaware, on an
extenfive plain, about 118 miles (fome fay more) from
the fea. The length of the city eaft and weft, that is,
from the Delaware to the Schuylkill, upon the original
plan of Mr Penn, is 10,300 feet, and the breadth, north
and fouth, is 4837 feet. Not two fifths of the plot
covered by the city charter is yet built. The inhabi¬
tants, however, have not confine! themfelves'within the
original limits of the city, but have built north and
fouth along the Delaware two miles in length. The
longett ftreet is Second-ftreet, about 700 feet from
Delaware river, and parallel to it. The circumference
of that part of the city which is built, if we include
Kenfmgton on the north and Southwark on the foutb,
may be about five miles. Market ftreet is 100 feet
wide, and runs the whole length of the city from river
to river. Near the middle, it is intcrfeXed at right
angles by Broad-ftreet, 113 feet wide, running nearly
north and louth quite acrofs the city.
Between Delaware river and Broad-ftreet are 14
ftreets, nearly equidiftant, running parad'd with Broad-
ftreet acrofs the city ; and between Broad-ftreet and
the Schuylkill, there are nine ftreets equidiftant from
each other. Parallel to Market-ftreet are eight other
ftreets, running eaft and weft from river to river, and
interfeX the crofs ftreets at right angles ; all thefe
ftreets are 50 feet wide, except Arch-ftreet, which is
65 feet wide. All the ftreets which run north and
fouth, except Broad-ftreet mentioned above, are 50
feet wide. There were four fquares of eight acres
each, one at each corner of the city, originally referved
for public and common ufes. And in the centre of
the city, where Broad-ftreet and Market-ftreet inter¬
feX each other, is a fqitare of ten acres, referved in
like manner, to be planted with rows of trees for pub¬
lic walk?. This city was founded in 1682 by the ce-
3 M lebrated
PHI E 458 ] PHI
I’hiladcl- Icbfated William Penn, who in O&ober 1701 granted
Ph|*; ( a charter incorporating the town with city privileges.
" In 1749 the dwelling houfes were computed, and
found to be 2076 ; in 1790, they amounted to 5000.
They are in general handfomely built of brick; and
contain 40,000 inhabitants, compofed of altnoft all na-
tions and religions. Their places for religious wor-
fhip are as follow : The Friends or Quakers have five,
the Prelbyterians fix, the Epifcopalians three, the Ger¬
man Lutherans two, the German Calvinifts one, the
Catholics three, the Swedifh Lutherans one, the Mo¬
ravians one, the Baptifts one, the Univerfal Baptifts
one, the Methodifts one, the Jews one.
The other public buildings in the city, befides the
univerfity, academies, &c. are the following, viz. a
ftate houie and offices, a city < ourt-houfe, a county
court-houfe, a carpenter’s hall, a philofophical fociety’s
hall, a difpenfary, an hofpital and offices, an alms-houfe,
a houfe of corre&ion, a public faftory of linen, cotton,
and woollen, a puflic obfetvatory, three brick market
houfes, a filh market, a public gaol.
The univerfity of Philadelphia was founded during
the war. Its funds were partly given by the ftate, and
partly taken from the old college of Philadelphia. A
medical fchool, which was founded in 1765, is attach¬
ed to the univerfity ; and has profcflbrs in all the
branches of medicine, who prepare the ftudents fwhofe
number yearly is 50 or 60) for degrees in that fcience.
Befides the univerfity and medical fchool, there is the
Proteftant Epifcopal academy, a very flourifhing infti-
tution ; the academy for young ladies; another for
the Friends or Quakers, and one for the Germans;
befides five free fchools.
In Market-ftreet, betweeen Front and Fourth ftreets,
is the principal market, built of brick, and is 1500
feet in length. This market, in refpeft to the quan¬
tity, the variety, and neatnefs of the proviiions, is not
equalled in America, and peihaps not exceeded in the
world.
The Philadelphians are not fo focial, nor perhaps fo
hofpitable, as the people in Bolton, Charleftown, and
New York. Various caufes have contributed to this
difference ; among which the molt operative has been
the prevalence of party-fpirit, which has been and is
carried to greater lengths in this city than in any other
in America ; yet no city can boaft of fo many ufcful
improvements in m;’.nufa£ture?, in the mechanical arts,
in the art of healing, and particularly in the fcience of
humanity. In fliort, whether we confider the conve¬
nient local fituation, the fize, the beauty, the variety
and utility of the improvements, in mechanics, in agri¬
culture, and manufactures, or the induftry, the enter-
prife, the humanity, and the abilities, of the inhabi¬
tants of the city of Philadelphia, it merits to be view¬
ed as the capital not only of the province, but ot the
flourilhing empire of United America.
Several canals are let into the town, which add
much to the beauty and convenience of the place. Its
quay is 2CO feet fquare, to which (hips ot 400 or 500
tons may come up, and lay their broadlides clofe to it;
with wet and diy docks for building and repairing
Ihips, befides magazines, warehoufes, and all other
conveniences for exporting and importing merchan¬
dize. Scarce any thing can appear more beauciful
than the city and the adjacent country, which for fome
miles may be compared to a fine and flourilhing gar» PhiladeL
den.
Though all our readers muft unqueftionably have "v
heard of the malignant fever which fo lately raged in
Philadelphia, yet as fome of them may not be fo well
acquainted with particulars, it will not, we truft, be
thought improper if we give a fliort account of that
dreadful malady in this place. This account we lhall
extraft from a pamphlet written by Matthew Carey,
which had run through no lefs than three editions be¬
fore the end of the laft year.
Of this fever, then, it is obferved, that, generally
fpeaking, the mortality was not fo great among women
as among men, but that corpulent, high-fed, and
drunken men, common proftitutes, and fuch of the
poor as had been debilitated through the want of fuf-
ficient nourilhment, and lived in dirty and confined ha¬
bitations, became an eafy prey to it; whilft thofe who
refided in the fuburbs, enjoying the benefit of country
air, were little affe&ed by it. A fingular fadl is, that
the French refiding in Philadelphia were in a remark¬
able degree exempt from it; a circumllance which can¬
not be accounted for. The report which prevailed
here of the Africans having wholly efcaped the dif-
eafe, proves to be not altogether true, feveral of them
having been feized. The fever, however, was found
to yield move readily to medicine in them than in white
perfons.
We find the following account of the nature and
fymptoms of the diftafe, as deferibed by Dr Currie, in
the third edition of the pamphlet already mentioned.
“ The fymptoms which chaiafterifed the nrft ftage of
the fever were, in the greateft number of cafes, after
a chilly fit of fome duration, a quick tenfe pulfe ; hot
/kin; pain in the head, back, and limbs; flufhed
countenance ; inflamed eye, moift tongue; oppreffion
and fenfe of forenefs at the ftomach, efpecially upon
preffure; frequent fick qualms, and retchings to vo¬
mit, without difeharging any thing, except the con¬
tents laft taken into the ftomach ; coftivenefs, &c.
And when flools were procured, the firft generally
{bowed a defeat of bile, or an obftruftion to its en¬
trance into the inteftinea. But bnfk purges generally
altered this appearance.
“ Thefe fymptoms generally continued with more or
lefs violence from one to three, four, or even five days;
and then gradually abating, left the patient free from
every complaint, except general debility. On the fe¬
brile fymptoms fuddenly fubfiding, they were imme¬
diately fucceeded by a yellow tinge in the opaque cor¬
nea, or whites of the eyes; an increafed oppreffion at
the prsecordia, a conftant puking of every thing taken
into the ftomach, with much {training, accompanied
with a hoarfe hollow noife.
“ If thefe fymptoms were not foon relieved, a vo¬
miting of matter rcfembling coffee grounds in colour
and confiftence, commonly called the
fometimes accompanied with or fucceeded by hemor-^
rhagies from the nofe, fauces, gums, and other parts of
the body; a yellowifli purple colour, and putrefeent ap¬
pearance of the whole body, hiccup, agitations, deep and
diftreflkd fighing, comatofe delirium, and finally death,
are the confeque»ce. When the difeafe proved fatal, it
was generally between the fifth and eighth days.
“ This was the moil ufual progrefs of this for¬
midable
P H I
Piula '.el- mid able difeafe through its feveral ftagcfl. There were,
■ p'^ia' however, verv confiderable variations in the fymptoms
as well as in the duration of its different ftages, accord¬
ing to the conftitution and temperament of the patient,
the ftate of the weather, the manner of treatment, &c.
“ In fome cafes, figns of putrefcency appeared at
the beginning or before the end of the third day. In
thefe, the black vomiting, which was generally a mor¬
tal fymptom, and univerfal yellownefs, appeared early.
In thefe cafes, alfo, a low delirium, and great proftra-
tion of ftre-ngth, were conftant fymptoms, and coma
came on very fpeedily.
In fome, the fymptoms inclined more to the ner¬
vous than the inflammatory type. In thefe, the jaun¬
dice colour of the eye and (kin, and the black vomit-
ing, were more rare. But in the majority of cafes,
particularly after the nights became fenfibly cooler, all
the fymptoms indicated violent irritation and infkm-
matory diathefis. In thefe cafes, the Ikin was always
dry, and the remifiions very obfcure.
“ The febrile fymptoms, however, as has been al¬
ready obferved, either gave way on the third, fourth,
or fifth day, and then the patient recovered ; or they
were foon after fucceeded by a different but much more
dangerous train of fymptoms, by debility, low pnlfe^
cold fkin (which affirmed a tawny colour, mixed with
purple), black vomiting, hemorrhagies, hiccup, anxiety,
reftleffnefs, coma, &c. Many who furvived the eighth
day, though apparently out of danger, died fuddenly
hr confequence of an hemorrhagy.”
Purging the patient with calomel and jalap appears
to have proved the moft fuccefsful treatment; and the
repeated ufc of the lancet, in cafes where no fymptoms
of putridity exifted. Dr Griffits, who had been feized
with the difeafe, “ was bled fevcn times in five days,
and afcribes his recovery principally to that operation.”
Dr Maefe alfo, “ in five days, loft 72 ounces of blood,
by which he was recovered when at the loweft ftage of
the diforder.” It was generally remarked that an ob-
ftinate coftivenefs took place at the commencement of
the difeafe; and when this was removed, by purgatives,
within the firft twelve hours, the patient feldom failed
to do well.
The work concludes with a lift of the committee
for the relief of the fick, of which our author was a
member: alfo the names of a large number of the in¬
habitants who were cut off, a feries of meteorological
tables, and a general account of burials during the pre¬
valence of this fatal complaint. From the latter we
ex craft the following account:
“ Auguft
“ September
Oftober
“ November
“ Jews, returned in grofs
“ Baptifts, do.
“ Methodifts, do.
“ Free Quakers, do
t 459 1
PHI
32S
1442
,99d
118
3
60
32
39
“ German part of St Mary’s congregation 30
Total 4042”
It is not difficult to conceive the general diftrefs
which fuch an evil muft have occafioned to perfons of
every rank and defeription. Some of the moft ftriking
iiiftances our author has related in very affefting terms;
but no pifture of human calamity perhaps ever ex¬
ceeded the following : “ A fervant girl belonging to
a family in this city, in which the fever had prevailed,
was apprehenfive of danger, and refolved to remove to
a relation’s houfe in the country. She was, however,
taken fick on the road, and returned to town, whdre
Ihe could find no perfon to receive her. One of the
guardians of the poor provided a cart, and took her
to the alms-houfe, into which Ihe was refufed admit¬
tance. She was brought back, and the guardian of¬
fered five dollars to procure her a fingle flight’s lodge-
ing, but in vain. And in fine, after every effort made
to provide her Ihelter, Ihe abfolutely expired in the
cart.”
We cannot difmifs the prefent article, though it
has already extended to a fufficient length, without
giving our readers an account of a very extraordinary
people who live within 46 miles of Philadelphia ; where
there is a little town or colony, particularly remark¬
able on account of its origin and the manners of the
people by whom it is inhabited. It was founded by a
German, who, weary of the world, returned into the
country that he might be more ac liberty to give
himfelf up to contemplation. Curiofity brought fe¬
veral of his countrymen to vifit his retreat; and by
degrees his pious, fimple, and peaceable manners, in¬
duced them to fettle near him; when they all formed a
little colony, which they called Euphrates^ in allufion
t« the Hebrews, who ufed to fing pfalms on the bor¬
ders of that river.
This little town forms a triangle, the outfides of
which are bordered with mulberry and apple-trees
planted with great regularity ; and its inhabitants, we
know not for what reafon, are called Dumplsrs. In
the middle of the town is a very large orchard, and
between the orchard and thofe ranges of trees arc
houfes built of wood, three ftories high, where every
Dumpier is left to enjoy the pleafures of his meditation
without riifturbance. Thele contemplative men do not
amount to above 500 ; and the extent of their terri¬
tory is about 250 acres, bounded by a river, a piece
of ftagnated water, and a mountain covered with
trees. '
The men and women live in feparate quarters of the
town, and never fee each other but at places of wor-
Ihip ; for among the Dumplers there are no affem-
blies of any kind but for public bufinefs. Their lives
are fpent in labour, prayer, and fieep. Twice every
day and night they are called forth from their cells
to attend divine fervice. Like the Methodifts and
Quakers, every individual among them has the right
of preaching when he thinks bimfelt infpired. The
favourite fubjefts on which they difeourfe in their af-
femblies, are humility, temperance, chaftity, and the
other Chriftian virtues. They never violate that day
of repofe which all orders of men, whether idle or lu¬
xurious, much delight in. They admit a hell and a
paradife ; but rejeft the eternity of future punifhments.
They abhor the doftrine of original fin as an impious
blafphemy ; and, in general, every tenet that is fevere
to men appears to them injurious to the Divinity.
As they do not allow merit to any but voluntary
works, they adminifter baptifm only to the adult ; at
the fame time, they think baptifm fo effenthlly necef-
£ary to falvation, that they imagine tire fouls of Chri-
3 M 2 ftians
Ph’Iad-d-
phia.
PHI [ 460 ] PHI
Philade’- ft;an9 ;n another world are ernployed in converting
l^‘a thofe who have not died under the law of the Gofpel.
In this ridiculous opinion we have known Chriftians
of other denominations, and who boafted a higher an¬
tiquity, that agreed with them.
Still more dilintereited than the Quakers, they never
enter into any law fuit. One may cheat, rob, and
ahufe them, without being expofed to any retaliation,
or even ta any complaint from them. On them reli¬
gion has ths fame etTecl that philofophy had upon the
Stoics: it makes them infenfible to every kind of in-
fult.
Nothing can be plainer than their drefs. In winter
it is a long white gown, from which there hangs a
hood, which ferves indead of a hat, a coarfe fhirt,
thick fhoes, and very wide breeches. The women are
dreffed very much like the men, except that they
have no breeches. Their common food coniills whol¬
ly of vegetables; not becaufe it is unlawful to eat any
other, but becaufe that kind of abftinence is looked
upon as more conformable to the fpirit ot Chriftianity,
which has an averlion Irom blood.
Each individual follows with cheerfulnefs the branch
of buiintfs allotted him ; and the produce of all their
labours is depofited in a common ftock, for the ufe of
the whole. This union of induilry has not only etla-
bliihed agriculture, manufadlures, and all the arts ne-
ceffary for the fupport of this little fociety, but hath
alfo fupplied, for the purpofes of exchange, fuperflui-
ties proportioned to the degree of its population.
Though the two fexes live feparate at Euphrates,
the Dumplers do not on that account fooliihly re¬
nounce matrimony ; but thofe who find themfelves
difpofed to it, leave the town, and form an eftabhfh-
rtient in the country, which is fupported at the pub¬
lic expence. They repay this by the produce of their
labours, which is all thrown inco the public treafury;
and their children are fent to be educated in Euphra¬
tes, which they confider as their mother-country.—
Without this wife privilege, the Dumplers would be
no better than monks; and in procefs of time they
would Leeorne either favages or libertines. They
are at prefent an innocent, though perhaps deluded,
race.
Philadelphia, an ancient town of Turkey in A-
fta, in Natolia. It is feated at the foot of mount
Tmolus, ! y the river Cogamus, from whence there is
an exceeding fine view over an extenlive plain. This
place was founded by Attains Philadelphws, brother
of Eumenes.
It was very liable to earthquakes, which, perhaps,
arofe from its vicinity to the region called Catakekan-
inene. So fevere were thofe earthquakes, that even
the city wails were not fecure ; and fo trequent were
they, that thefe experienced daily concuffions. The
inhabitants, therefore, who were not numerous, lived
in perpetual apprehenfion, and their conftant employ¬
ment was in repairs. In fact, fo great were their
fears, that their chief refidente was-in the country, the
foil oi which was very fertile. Such is Strabo s ac¬
count of this place. In the year 1097, it 'vas taken
by affault by John Ducas the Greek general. It was
without difficulty reduced alio in the year I 106, un-
der the fame emperor. The i urks marched irom the
plait with a defign to plunder it and the mantims
towns- The Emperor Mamul, in x 175, retired for PMladetc
proteftion from the Turks to this place. In 1300 it Phia-
fell by lot to Karaman. In 1306 it was befieged by 'V““T
Alifaras, and confiderably harafied ; but was not ta¬
ken. In 1391, this place alone refufed to admit Ba-
jazet; but it was at length forced to capitulate for
want of provifions. It has been matter of furprife that
this town was not totally abandoned ; and yet it has
furvived many cities lefs liable to inconveniences, and
is Hill an extenfive place, tho’ in its appearance it is poor
and mean. Some remnants of its walls are ifill Hand¬
ing, but with large gaps. The materials of the wall are
fmall Hones Hrongly cemented. It is thick, lofty, and
has round towers. Near this place, between the
mountains, there is a fpring of a purgative quality ; it
is much elleemed, and many people refort to it in the
hot months. It taHes like ink, is clear, but tinges
the earth with the colour of ochre. The famous wall
which credulity has afieited to be made of human
bones, Hands beyond this and beyond the town. See
the next article.
When Dr Chandler was there, he tells us, “ 'Wit'Traveh
bifhop of Philadelphia was abfent; but the proto-papas
or chief-pricH, his fubHitute, whom we went to vifit,
received us at his palace, a title given to a very indif¬
ferent houfe or lather a cottage of clay. We found
him ignorant of the Greek tongue, and were forced
to difeourfe with him by an interpreter in the Tur-
kiffi language. He had no idea that Philadelphia cx-
ilted before ChriHianity, but told us it had become a
city in confequence of the many religious foundations.
The number ol churches he reckoned at 24., mcdlly irt
ruins, and mere mafles of wail decorated with painted
faints. Only fix are in a better condition, and have
their prieHs. The epifcopal church is large, and or¬
namented with gilding, carving, and holy portraits.
The Greeks are about 300 families, and live in a
friendly intercourfe with the "lurks, of whom they
fpeak well. We were aiTured that the clergy and
laity in general knew as little of Greek as the proto-
papas ; and yet the liturgies and offices of the church
arc read as elfewhere, and have undergone no altera¬
tion on that account.
“ 1’he Philadelphians are a civil people. One of
the Greeks fent us a fmall earthen vellel full of choice
wine. Some families beneath the trees, by a rill of
water, invited us to alight, and part. ke of their re-
freffiments. dhey faluted us when we met; and the
aga or governor, on nearing that we were Pranks, uade.
us welcome by a meffenger.
“ Philadelphia poflefling waters excellent iiv dying,
and being fituated on one of the moH capital roads to
Smyrna, is much frequented, efpecially by Armenian
merchants. The Greeks Hill call this place by its
ancient name, but the Turks call it Allahijur. The
number oi inhabitants are about 7000 or Sooo ; of
whom 2000 ate iuppoied to be Ghrittians. it is
about 40 miles E S. E. ot Smyrna. E Long. 28.
15 N. Lat. 38, 28.
Philjdelphm-Stones-, a name which fotne authors
have ;^iven to what is otherwife called Chnjllun bonesy
found in the walls of that city. It is a vulgar trror
that thefe walls are built of bones ; and the tradition
of the country is, that when the i urks toox the place,
they fortified it for themfelves, aud built their wails
Philadel
phia.
Phi I add
phus.
h-a. c,f
Planiin^
and (iu; -
ft^ain r.
P H I
- of the bones of the Chriftians whom
there. Dr Smyth, in ore of his epiftles, mentions
th is wall aS an inflance of Turkifli barbarity. 'I'hisidle
opinion has gained credit merely from a loofe and
porous done of the fparry kind, found in an old aque-
dudl, which is ftill in the wall. Sir Paul Rycaut
brought home pieces of thefe Hones, which even he
fuppofed to have been bones, but they proved on ex¬
amination to be various bodies, chiefly vegetable, in-
crufted over and preferved in a fpar of the nature of
that which forms incruftations in Knaufborough
fpring, and other places with u?. Thefe bodies aje
often cemented together in confiderable numbers by
this matter, and their true ihape loft, in the congeries,
till a diligent and judicious eye traces them regularly.
PuuADELTHiAN-Socicty, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, an
[ 461 ' ] PHI
they had killed ing branches, which Hand each on its own feparaie fltort Phitadel*
footilalk, and being produced in plenty all over the ,
flirub, both at once feaft the eye and the fmell : The *
eye, by the pleafing appearance it will then have ; the
fmell, as the air at fome diltance will be replete with
the odoriferous particles conftantly emitted from thofe
fragrant flowers. Thefe flow;ers, however, are very
imp-oper iov chimneys, water-glafles, &c. in rooms \
for in thofe places tl;eir feent will be too ftrong ; and
for the ladies in particular, often too powerful.
The double-flowering fyringa, is a low variety of
this fpecies, fcldom riflug to more than a yard high.
The defeription of the other belongs to this fort, ex¬
cept that the leaves and branches are proportionally
fmaller and more numerous, and the bark of the flioots
©f a lighter brown. It is called the Double-jiewcririg
obfeure and inconfiderable fociety of myflics. They fyi'inga, becaufe it fometimes produces a flower or two
were formed about the end of the laft century.by an
Englifh female fanatic, whofe name was Jane Ltadky.
This woman, feduced by her vifions, predictions, and
doblrines, feveral difciples, among whom were perfons
of learning. She believed that all difl'eniicns among
Chriflians would ceafe, and the kingdom of the Re¬
deemer become a feeneof charity and felicity, if Chri-
ftians, difregarding the forms of dodhine or difcipb’ne
of their feveral communions, would all join in commit¬
ting their fouls to the care of the internal guide, to be
inflru&ed, governed, and formed, by his divine im»
pulfe and fuggeflions. But fhe went farther than this:
the even pretended a divine com million to proclaim
the approach ot this glorious communion of faints;
and was convinced that the fociety eftabiirhed by her-
felf was the true kingdom of Chrift. One of her
leading dotftrines was, that of the final refloration of
all intelligent being-s to perfection and happinefs,
PHIL ADEL PH US, in antiquity, was a title or
furname borne by feveral ancient kings; formed from
the Greek “ friend, lover,” and “ bro¬
ther q. d. one who loves his brother or brethren.
See Ptolemy and Egypt.
Philadelphus, the PiPE-TR.EE, or Ivlock orange ;
a genus ot the monogynia order, belonging to the
icofandria clafs of plants.
Species 1. The coronariu=, white fyringe, or mock-
orange, has been long cultivated in the gardens of this
country as a flowering fhrub ; it is not well knov*. n in
what country it is to be found native. It riles feven
or eight feet high ; fending up a great number of
fiender ftelks from the root. Thefe have a grey bark,
branch out from their ikies, and are garnifhei with
oval fpear-fhaped leaves. Thefe lafl have deep inden¬
tures on their edges; their upper tr.rtace being of a
deep green,,but the under furface pale, with the tafte
of a Jrefh cucumber. The flowers are white, and
come out from the files ana at the ends of the
branches in loofe bunches, each ftanding on a difl ncl
foot-ftalk : they have four oval petals, which fpread
open, with a great number of uamina within, fur
rounding the ftyle.
'L his fhrub by its flowers makes a fine figure in May
and June ; for the) are produ ed in cinders both ac
the end and from the fides of the br nebes. They
are of a fine white colour, and exceedingly fragrant.
The petals of win h each is comp fed are large, and
with three or four rows of petals ; whereas, in gene¬
ral, the flowers, which are very few, and ftldom pro¬
duced, are Angle. rI hey are much fmaller than thofe
of the other ; and you will not fee a flower of any
kind on this fhrub oftener perhaps than once in five
years. It is hardly worth propagating on this ac¬
count ; fo that a few plants only ought to be admitted
into a collection, to be ready for obfervation.
The dwarf fyringa is ftill of lower growth than the
other, feldorn arifing to more than two feet in height.
The defeription of the firfi; fort ftill agrees with this ;
only that the branches and leaves are ftill proportion¬
ally fmaller and more numerous, and the bark is ftill of
a lighter Lrown. It never produces flowers.
2- The nanus, with oval leaves fomewhat indented, •
and double flowers, feldom rifes above three feet high; -
the flowers come out fingly from the fides of the
branches, and have a double or treble row of petals of
the fame fizt and form as well as the fame Lent with,
the former ; but this fort flowers very rarely, fo is but
little efteemed.
3. The inodorus, with entire leaves, is a native '
of Carolina, and as yet but little known in Eu¬
rope. It rifes with a Ihrubby ftalk of about 16
feet in height, fending out (lender branches from the
fides oppelite, garmihed with fmooth leaves (harped
like thofe of the pear-tree, and ftanding on pretry long
foot-ilalks. The flowers are produced at the ends of
the branches ; and ate large, white, fpreading open,
with a great number of ihort ftamina with yellow funi-
mits. 1 his is called the Carolina fyringa, is the tailed:
grower by far of any fort of the jyringa, and makes
the gn ndeft (how wnen in blow ; though the flowers
are deflitute of imell.
i he propagation of all the forts is very eafy : They
are incteafed by layers, cuttings, or fuckers. 1. The
mrft certain method is by layers ; for the young twigs
being la:J in the earth in the winter, will be good-
rooted ph nts by tr.e autumn following. 2. 1 hde
plants may be mcreafed by cuttings, which being
pl nted in GCtol.tr, in a fhady moiit border, it any of
them will grow.; though it will be proper to let thofe
of the Carolina fort remain until ipring, an! then to
pi them in pots, and help teem by a little heat in
the bed. By this iffitLnce handy one cutting will
fail. 3 1 hey may be ailo increaied by fuckers ; for
all the Lrts throw out fuckers, though the Carolim
rhilicni,
Philan¬
thropy.
PHI L 46
and be fit for the mirfery ground : nay, the dornble-
flowering and the dwarf forts are always increafed this
way ; for thefe plants having flood five or fix years,
may be taken up and divided into feveral fcores. All
the plants, however, whether raifed from layers, cut¬
tings, or fuckers, fhould be planted in the nurfery-
ground to get ftrength, before they are fet out for
good. They fhould be planted a foot afunder, and
the diftance in the rows fiiould be two feet. After
this, they will require no other care than hoeing the
weeds, until they have flood about two years, which
will be long enough for them to Hand there.
PHILiENI, weretwo brothers,citizensofCarthage,
who facrificed their lives for the good of their c-untry.
At the time when the Carthaginians ruled over the
greatefl part of Africa, the Cyrenians were • Ifo a
great and wealthy people. The country in the middle
betwixt them was all Tandy, and of an uniform ap¬
pearance. There was neither river nor mountain to
diftinguifh their limits ; a circumftance which engaged
them in a terrible and tedious war with one another.
After their armies and fleets had been often routed
and put to flight on both fides, and they had weakened
one another pretty much ; and fearing left, by and by,
feme third people fhould fall upon the conquered and
conquerors together, equally weakened, upon a cefla-
tion of arms they made an agreement, “ that upon a
day appointed deputies fhculd fet out from their re-
fpettive homes, and the place where they met one
another fhould be accounted the common boundary of
both nations.,, Accordingly, the two brothers called
Philaeni, fent from Carthage, made all difpatch to per¬
form their journey. The Cytenians proceeded more
flowly. Thefe laft, perceiving themfelves a little be¬
hind, and turning apprehenfive of punifhment at home
for mifmanaging the affair, charged the Carthaginians
with fetting out before the time; made a mighty
buftle upon it; and, in fhort, would rather choofe any
thing than go away outdone. But whereas the Car¬
thaginians deftred any other terms, provided only they
were fair, the Greeks made this propofal to the Car¬
thaginians, “ either to be buried alive in the place
which they claimed as the boundary to their nation,
or that they would advance forward to what place
they inclined upon the fame condition.” The Philaeni
accepting the offer, made a facrifice of themfelves and
their lives to their country, and fo were buried alive.
The Carthaginians dedicated altars in that place to the
memory of the two brothers. Thefe altars, called
Ar<t PhtUnotum, ferved as a boundary to the empire
of the Carthaginians, which extended from this monu-
'ment to Hercules’s Pillars, which is about 2000 miles,
or, according to the accurate obfervations of the mo¬
derns, only 1420 geographical miles. It is Salluft
who gives this account in his hiftory of the Jugurthine
war.
PHILANTHROPY is compounded of two Greek
words which lignify the love of mankind. It is there¬
fore of nearly the fame import with benevolence (a); and
2 ] PHI
differs from ffiendjhip, as this latter affeftion fubfifts
only between a few individuals, whilff philanthropy
comprehends the whole fpecies.
Whether man has an inftinftive propenfity to love
his fpecies, which makes him incapable of happinef*
but in the midft of fociety, and impels him to do all
the good that he can to others, feeling their felicity
an addition to his own, is a queftion that has been
warmly debated among philofophers ever fince meta-
phyfics was ttudied as a fcience. With the opinions
of the ancients we ftu.ll not, in this detached article,
tf.ou' le our leaders; but it would be unpardonable to
pafs without notice the different theories which on fo
interefiing a fubjeft have divided the moderns.
Hobbes, who believed, or pretended to believe, that
right refults from power, and that in fociety there ia
no other ftandard of juftice than the law of the land,
or the will of the lupreme magiftrate, built his opi¬
nions upon a theory of human nature in which phi¬
lanthropy has no place. According to him, mankind,
in the original Hate of nature, were wholly felfjle.
Each endeavoured to feize, by fraud or force, what¬
ever he thought would contribute to his comfort; and
as all had nearly the fame wants, the inevitable confe-
quence of this felfifhnefs was univerfal war. We are
taught indeed by the fame philofophcr, that, in a feries
of ages, mankind difeovered the miferies of this Hate of
nature ; and therefore, upon the fame bafis of univer¬
fal felfilhnefs, formed focieties, over which they placed
fupreme governors for the purpofe of protedling the
weak againil the violence of the ftrong. He does not,
however, explain how men, whofe angry and felfifh
paflions were thus excited to the utmoff againit each
other, could enter upon this friendly treaty ; or, fup-
pofing it formed, how the ignorant multitude were
induced to pay obedience to the more enlightened few.
Clogged with this and other infurmountable difficulties,
his philofophy of human nature foon fell into merited
contempt; but about the origin of philanthropy thofe
who united in oppofition to him ftill thought very dif¬
ferently from one another.
The elegant Shaftejlury, who had imbibed much of
the fpirit of Plato, endeavoured, like his matter, to
deduce all the duties of man, and almoft all his a&ions,
from a number of internal feelings or inftin&a which
he fuppofed to be interwoven with his conftitution by
the immediate hand of God. This fyftem appeared
fo honourable to human nature, and at the fame time
was fo eafily comprehended, that the noble lord had
foon many followers, and may indeed be confidered as
the founder of a fchool which has produced philofo¬
phers whofe works do honour to the age and country-
in which they flouriftred. Among thefe we muff
reckon Bifloop Butler, Hutchifon, Lord Karnes, Dr Beattie,
and perhaps Dr Reid.
According to the fyftem of thefe writers, the whole
duty of man refults from an intuitive principle, to
which they have given the name of the moral fenfe ;
and with this fenfe they conceive philanthropy to be
infeparably
PhUair*
thropy.
(a) We fay nearly of the fame import; becaufe benevolence extends to every being that has life and fenfe,
and is of courfe fufceptible of pain and pleafure; whereas philanthropy cannot comprehend more than the
Ituman race. 6
Philan¬
thropy.
P H I
inleparably united, or rather perhaps to iraVe an eflen-
. Part (See Moral Philosophy.) If this
theory be carried to its utmoft extent, as it has been
by fome of its patrons, it feems to follow, that peace
and harmony Ihould reign among favages ; and that
a man who had from his infancy grown up in folitude,
would be delighted with the firft fight of a fellow-
creature, and run to him with eagernefs as to a new
fource of enjoyment. This concltlfion, however, is
contrary to acknowledged fadfs. Savages are generally
divided into fmall tribes or hordes; and though the
attachment of individuals to their own tribe appears
indeed to be abundantly ftrong, the tribes themfelves
are frequently at war, and entertain a conflant jealoufy
of each other. Savages, too, are almoft univerfally
afraid of llrangers; and the few folitary individuals,
who have been caught in parts where they had run
wild from their infancy, inftead of being delighted
with the appearance of fellow-men, have either fled
from them with their utmoft fpeed, or been fixed to
the fpot in terror and aftoniihment. Thefe are no in¬
dications of that inftindtive philanthropy for which
fome writers fo ftrenuoully plead. They have indeed
induced others to deny, that in human nature there is
any inftincbve principles at all; and to endeavour to
account for our feveral propenfities by the influence of
education producing early and deep-rooted habits.
r 46.1 ]
P H I
friendly to morals, no man who underilands it will
prefume to. affirm. It appears, indeed, to be mere
confiftent with the neceflity of a revelation from God
than that of Shaftefbury, which has fo many followers:
but notwithftanding this, we cannot help thinking
that the excellent author has carried his antipathy to
inftin&s by much too far (fee Instinct), and that
the truth lies in the middle between him and his op¬
ponents.
Without fome fnftin&s to influence before the dawn
of reafon, it is not eafy to be conceived how children
could be induced to that exercife which is abfolutely
neceflary to life and health ; nor does it appear with
fufficient evidence that the human race are deferted by
every inflindt as foon as their rational powers are
evolved. It feems to be a matter of fa£t which cannot
be controverted, that women have an inftinftive at¬
tachment to their new-born infants } but that thefe,
when they become capable of diftinguifhing obje&s,
are injiinaively attached to their parents, their brothers,
and idlers, is a politico which, though it may be true,
feems incapable of proof. That they foon appear to
be fo attached, is a fadl which we believe no man will
deny: but the attachment maybe accounted for by
the aiTociating principle operating upon that defire of
happinefs which is neceflarily formed as foon as hap-
pinefs is experienced. (See Passion.) An infant
At .u1 r l 1 ji 1? , , " . cApciicuLcu. ^oee i assion.) An infant
At the head of this fchool flood Locke and Hartley, becomes earlier attached to its nurfe than to any other
be former, employing hlmfelf almoft whollv on rho n.rf™ .    A L n an,? 0ttl,er
The former, employing himfelf almoft wholly on the
intdleAual powers of man, and combating the abfurd,
though then generally received, belief, that there are
in the human mind innate principles of fpeculative
truth,, has touched hut incidentally on our principles
of adion. It feems, however, to be evident, that he
did not confider any one of thefe principles as innate;
and his opinion was adopted by Hartley, who ftudied
the fenfitive part of human wature with greater induftry
and fuccefs than perhaps any writer who had preceded
him in that department of fcience. This philofopher
relufes all kinds of inftinft to man, even the 'r'lopy* of
a mother to her new-born infant, and that which has
been generally fuppofed innate—the propenfity of the
inLnt to fuck the breaft. It is therefore needlefs to
fay that in his theory of human nature innate philan¬
thropy can have no place.
The reader, however, muft not fuppofe that the
theory of Hartley is the theory of Hobbes. Though
he admits no innate principles of a&ion in the human
mind, he is far from dreaming that the original ftate
of man was a ftate of war and felfifhnefs, or that the
acquifition of philanthropic fentiments is not natural.
He conliders fuch acquifitions as even necefinry and
unavoidable, and founds them on the great law of
aflociation, which we have elfewhere endeavoured to
explain (See Metaphysics, Part I. chap, v.) Hartley
was a Chrtftian, and appears to have been a man of
great piety. Conceiving with Locke that men are
^orn without any ide s, or any principles either of
knowledge or of adion, but that they are fubjed to
the .iw of aflbeiation as much as to the impreffions of
enfe, be feems to have thought, that the important
purpofe for whic h they are fent into this world is, that
they may acquire habits of piety and virtue, which
operating like inftinds, will fit them for the purer
foaety of a future flate. That this theory ia Un¬
perfon ; becaufe, feeling wants which Ihe fupplies, the
idea of enjoyment becomes foon aflbeiated in its mind
with the perception of the woman. If this woman
be. its mother, a hafty obferver immediately attributes
this attachment to inftind direding the infant to love
its parent; but that inftind has here no place, is evi¬
dent from the well-known fads, that a child is as fond
of a tender nurfe, though no relation, as of the mod
affedionate mother; and as regardlefs of a mother
who feldom fees it, or fees it with indifference, as of
any other perfon. Nay, we have feen children of the
fweeteft difpofitions as fond of the maid with whom
they flept, as of a very affedionate parent by whom
they had been tenderly nurfed : and fure no man will
fay that this could be inftind ; it was evidently a new
affociation of the idea of the maid with the greated
happinefs which they enjoyed after the period of their
fuckli ng was at an end.
It is much in the fame way that children acquire an
attachment to their brothers and fifters. Brothers
and fifters being conflantly together, contiibute to
each other’s amufement: hence arifes that pleafure
which they have in each other’s company, and the
uneafinefs which they feel when feparated. This ge¬
nerates mutual love in their minds, which is ftrength-
ened by the perpetual injundions of their parents ; for
if thefe have any virtue themfelves, they cannot fail to
inculcate the duty of loving each other on their tender
offspring. Benevolence, thus generated, foon extends
to their daily companions ; and takes a wider and a
wider range as thefe companions are multiplied, and
as children advance towards the ftate of manhood.
New objeds then prefent themfelves to the mind. A
man foon difeovers, that, an, he is a member of a com¬
munity, his happinefs as an individual depends in a
great meafure on the profperity of the whole. Hence
arifes patnotifmt and that pleafure which we all take
P!i if,'la¬
th ropy.
Hii Ian •
thropy,
Philemon.
PHI [ 464
in the emmtnce of our countryman. But tns prin¬
ciple of benevolence {tops not here. He whofe mind
is enlarged by a liberal education, conuders all particu¬
lar countries as provinces of one great country ex¬
tended over the whole globe; and all mankind, of
courfe, as not only (haring the fame nature with him-
felf, but as being in reality his fellow-citizens and
brethren. The principles of religion, if he be actuated
by them, mud aid thefe reflexions, atH make him
with the happinefs of all who Hand in the lame relation
with himfelf to the Great Governor of the world.
This is philanthropy ; and we fee how it may fpring,
by the great law of afibciation, from delires which,
in their original date, cannot be confidered as other
than felfifh. It is a calm fentiment, which we believe
hardly ever rifes to the warmth of affedion, and cer¬
tainly not to the heat of paffion.
• Should any of our readers lie difpofed to controvert
this opinion, or to fancy it degrading to human na¬
ture, we will not enter into controvetfy with them 5
we only beg leave to afk, whether they have ever re-
ioiced in the good fortune of a dranger or a foreigner,
or regretted his lofs, with any portion of thofe feel¬
ings Which they have frequently experienced on
hearing of the profperity or the death of a friend
or a neighbour ? We anfwer candidly for our-
felves, that we feel no xntereft which can be called
paffton or afeSibn in the fortunes of a native of
China; and yet we fhould be forry to think that our
philanthropy is lefs than that of other men. A com-
nion clown, we are inclined to believe, feldom extends
his affedion beyond his friends and neighbours; and
though, from having often heard his country praifed,
and knowing that he belongs to that country, he would
probably be offended at the man who fhould prefer
another to it; yet if no misfortune befal himfelf, or
his friends and neighbours, we imagine that his grief
for public calamities may be home with patience. In
his mind no fuch affociations have been formed as
comprife the good of a country, far lefs of all coun¬
tries; and therefore his philanthropy muff be confined
to a very limited range. We doubt not, however,
but that "as opportunity offers, and as cireumftances
permit, fuch a man is ready to feed the hungry and
clothe the naked of all countries; not indeed from
fentiments of affeaion either innate or acquired, but
from the obvious refledlion that he is not exempted
from thofe calamities which have befallen them, and
from a ftill higher principle—a fenfe of duty to that
God who has made of one blood all nations upon
earth, and commanded them to be mutually aiding to
each other.
PHILEMON, a Greek comic poet, was (on to
Damon, and cotemporaty with Menander. Any ad¬
vantage he had over this poet, was owing leis to his
own merit than to the intrigues of his friends. Plau¬
tus has imitated his comedy du' Mar chard. He is re¬
ported to have died laughing on feeing his ais eat
fip-s. He was then about 97 years of age. his ion,
Philemon the younger, was alfo the author of 54 co¬
medies, of which there are ftill extant fome confider-
able fragments collefted by Grotius. ^ 1 hefe c.early
prove that he was not a poet of the fir ft rank, rie
fiourifhed about the year 274 before our Saviour. .
PhiLiiMONj was a rich citizen of Coloffic in,I uiyg'a-
1 PHI
He v/as converted to the Chriftian faith, with Appia
his wife, by Eoaphras the ddciple of St Paul; tor
St Paul himfelf" did not preach at Coloffie, Coloff. ii. _
1. Perhaps we fhould have known nothing or bt Pot-
lemon, had it not been on the account of his flave O-
nefimus, who having robbed him, and run away from
him, came to Rome, where he found St Paul, and was
very ferviceable to him. StPaul converted him. baptized
him, and fent him back to his matter Philemon; to
whom he wrote a letter {till extant, and which paffes
for a mafterpiece of that kind of eloquence, natural,
lively, ftrong, and pathetic, that was peculiar to St
Paul. Philemon (1. 2 ) had made a church of his
houfe, and all his domeftics, as well as himfelf, were
of the houfehold of faith. His charity, liberality, and
compaffion, were a fure refuge to all that were in di-
ftrefs. The Apoftolical Conffitutions fay, that St
Paul made him bifhop of Coloffze ; but the Mcnoea
infinuate, that he went to Gaza in Paleftine, of which
he was the apoftle and firft bifirop. From thence he
returned to Coloffte, where he fuffered martyrdom
with Appia his wife, in the time of Nero. They re¬
late feveral particulars of his martyrdom, and fay,
that his body remained at Coloffse, where it performed
feveral miracles. . ^
PH1LETAS, a Greek poet and grammarian, of
the ifland of Cos, flouriftied under Philip and Alex¬
ander the Great, and was preceptor of Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus. He was the author of fome Elegies, Epi¬
grams, and other works, which have not come down
to us. He is celebrated in the poems of Ovid and
Propertius, as one of the beft poets of his age. Elian
reports a very improbable ftory of him, namely, ‘ that
his body was fo (lender and feeble, that he was obliged
to have fome lead in his pockets, to prevent him from
bein? carried away by the wind.”
PHILETUS. St Paul, writing to Timothy (2 iim.
ii. 16, 17, 18.) in the 65th year of Chriff, and a little
whip before his own martyrdom, fpcaks thus: “ But
fhun profane and vain babblings, for they will increafe
unto more ungodlinefs. And their word will eat as
doth a canker ; of whom is Hymenasus and Philetus;
who concerning the truth have erred, faying, that the
refurredion is paft already, and overthrow the faith
of fome.” We have nothing very certain concerning
Philetus • for we make bi»t fmall account of what is
read in the falfe Abdias, in the life of St James ma¬
jor, even fuppofing this author had not put the name
of Philetus inftead of Phygellus. Phis is the fuo-
ftance of what is found in Abdias. St James the lori
of Zebedee, paffing through the fynagogues of Judea
and Samaria, preached everywhere the faith of Jefus
Chrift. Hermogenes and Philetus ftrenuoufiy oppo-
fed him, affirming, that Jefus Chrift was not the Mef-
liah. Hermogems was a notable magician, and 1 hi-
letus was his difciple, who being converted, was de-
firous to bring his mafter to St James ; but Hermo¬
genes bound him up fo by his magic art, that he could
not come at the apoftle. Philetus found means to
make St James acquainted with whit had happened
to him ; upon which St James unbound him, and I iu-
letus came to him. Hermogenes perceiving how m*
effedtual his art was againft the faint, became himidt
a convert as well as Philetus. „ , ,
PH1LIBEG, is a little plaid, called ako kilt, and
5
Phileta*
II
Philibeg.
PHI L . <
fp a fort of fnort petticoat reaching nearly to the knees,
’"~v worn by the Seotch Highlanders. It is a modern fub-
flitute for the lower part of the plaid, being found to
be lefs cumberfome, efpecially in time of aftion, when
the Highlanders ufed to tuck their brechdan into their
girdle. Almoft all of them have a great pouch of bad¬
ger and other Heins, with tiffels dangling before, in
which they keep their tobacco and money.
PHILIP, foffer-brother of Antiochus Epiphancs
(i Macc. vi. 14, &55- 2 Macc. ix. 29.), was a Phrygian
by birth, and very much in ^ntiochus’s favour. This
prince made him governor of Jerufalem (2 Macc. viii.
8. v. 22.) where he committed many outrages upon the
Jews, to force them to forfake their religion. Seeing
that Apollonius and Seron avere defeated by Judas
Maccabreus, he fent for new fuccours to Ptolemy go¬
vernor of Cado-Syria, who fent him Gorgias and Ni-
canor with a powerful army. Some time after, An¬
tiochus going beyond the Euphrates, to extoit money
from the people, Philip went along with him ; and
Antiochus finding himfelf near his end (1 Macc. vi.
14.) made him regent of the kingdom, put his dia¬
dem into his hands, his royal cloak, and his ring, that
he might render them to his fon the young Antio¬
chus Eupator. But Lyfias having taken poffeffion of
the government in the name of young Eupator, who
was but a child, Philip not being able to cope with
him, durft not return into Syria ; but he went into
■kgypb carrying the body of Epiphanes along with
him, there to implore alfiftance from Ptolemy Philo-
mctor againft Lyfias the ufurper of the government
of Syria. The year following, while Lyfias was bufy
in the w-ar carrying on againit the Jews, Philip got
into Syria, and took pofieffion of Antioch : but Ly¬
fias returning into the country, with great diligence,
retook Antioch, and put Philip to death, who was
taken in the city.
Philip the apoftle was a native of Bethfaida in
Galilee. Jefus Chritt having feen him, faid to him,
“ Follow me,” John i. 43, 44, &c. Philip follow¬
ed him ; and foon after finding Nathanael, Philip faid
to him, “ V/e have found the Meffiah, of whom Mo¬
les and the prophets have fpoken, Jefns of Nazareth,
the fon of Jofeph. Nathanael alked him, “ Can any
thing good come out of Nazareth ! To which Philip
replied, “ Come and fee.” Then he brought Natha¬
nael to Jefus, and they went with him to the mar¬
riage of Cana in Galilee. St Philip was called at the
very beginning of our Saviour’s mifiion ; and when
Jefus Chrift was about to feed the 5000 that followed
Inin ( Luke v 1. 13. IMat. x. 2. John vi. 5~“T"he afked
St Philip, only to prove him, whence bread might be
bought for fuch a multitude of people ? Philip anfwered,
that 200 penny-worth of bread would not be Efficient
for every one to tafte a little. Some Gentiles, having
a cunofity to fee Jefus Chrift, a little before his paf-
iion, they addreffed themfelves to St Philip (Jobnxii.
2J» 22,)» "'ho mentioned it to St Andrew, and thefe
tw@ to Chrift. At the laft fupper, Philip dtfired our
Saviour, that he would be pleafed to fhow them the
Father, being all that they defired (Johnxiv. 8- 10.)
But Jefus told them, that feeing the Son they faw the
Father alfo. This is all we find concerning Philip in
the gofpel. r
The upper Afia fell to this apoftle’s lot, wnere he
Vot. XIV. Part II.
165 1 * PHI
took great pains in planting the gafpel, and by his Philip,
preaching and miracles made many converts. In the  
latter part of his life, he came to Hferapolis in Phry*
gia, a city very much addicted to idolatry, and par¬
ticularly to the worlhip of a ferpent of a prodigious
bignefs. St Philip by his prayers procured the death,
or at leaft the difappearing, of this monfter, and con¬
vinced its wor/hippers of the ahfurdity of paying di¬
vine honours to fuch odious creatures. But the ma-
giftrates, enraged at Philip’s fuccefs, imprifoned him,
and ordered him to be feverely fcourged, and then put
to death, which fome fay was by crucifixion; others, by
hanging him up againft a pillar. St Philip is generally
reckoned among the married apoftles; and it is faid he
had three daughters, two whereof preferved' their vir¬
ginity, and died at Hjerapolis; the third, having led a
very fpiritual life, died at Ephefus. He left behind him
no writings. The gofpel under his name was forged by
the Gnoftics, to countenance their bad principles and
woi fe practices. The Chriftian church obferves the fefti-
val of this faint, together with that of St James, on the
firft day of May. Eufeb. lib. iii. c. 30.
I hi lip, the iecond of the feven deacons, was chofen
by the apoftlee after our Saviour’s refurre&ion. (A&$ vi.
5.) This deacon, they fay, was of Crefarea in Pale-
ftine. It is certain that his daughters lived in this
city (Adds xxi. 8, 9.) After the death of St Ste-*
phen, all the Chriftians, excepting the apoftles, ha-
ving left Jerusalem, and being difperfed in feverai
places, St 1 hilip went to preach at Samaria (/V. viii.
1, 2, See.)f where he performed feverai miracles, and
converted many perfons. Hebaptifed them ; but be¬
ing only a deacon, he could not confer on them the
Holy Ghoft. Wherefore having made known to the
apoilies at Jerufalem, that Samaria had received the
word of God, Peter and John came thither, and the
Samaritans that were; converted received the Holy
Ghoft. St Philip was probably at Samaria when the
angel of the Lord ordered him to go to the fouth
Part of the country, in the road that leads from Je¬
rufalem to old Gaza. Philip obeyed, and there met
with an Ethiopian eunuch belonging to Queen Can¬
dace, who had the care of her revenues, and had been
at Jerufalem to worlhip God there (id. viii. 26, 27,
&c.) He was then returning into his own country
and was reading the prophet Ifaiah as he went along
in his chariot. Philip, hearing the eunuch reading
the prophet Ifaiah, faid to him, Do you Onderffand
what you read ? The eunuch replied, How fhould I
underhand, except fomebody explain it to me? He
defired Philip therefore to come and fit down by him
in the chariot. I he paffage the eunuch was reading
is this, “ He was led as a fheep to the (laughter)
and like a lamb dumb before his (hearer, fo he
opened not his mouth.” The eunuch then fays to
Philip, Pray, whom does the prophet fpeak of
in this place ? Is it of himfelf, or of fome other ?
Then Philip began to inftru& him concerning Jefus
Clirift. And having gone on together, they came to 14
fountain; when the eunuch faid to Philip, Here is wa¬
ter, what hinders me from being baptized ? Philip
told him that he might be fo, if he believed with all
his heart. He replied, I believe that Jefus Chrift is
the fon of God. He then ordered the chariot to ftop,
and they both alighted and went down into the wa-
: 3 N ter.
f
Phil'
ILemprlen-
JSibiiutheca
CfoJJica.
P H I
ter, wLere Philip baptized the eunuch,
out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord took away
Philip, and the eunuch faw no more of him. But
Philip was foun 1 again at Azotus, and he preached
the gofpel in all the . cities he palfed through, till he
arrived at Ctefarea in Psleftine. After this, the fetip-
ture does not inform us of any particulars relating to
Philip. The modern Greeks fay that he went to
Tralles in Afia, where he founded a church, of which
he was the apoftle and bhhop ; and where he reded in
peace, after performing many miracks. The Latins,
on the contrary, fay that he died at Caefarea, and
that three of his daughters were there buried rvith him.
It is thought, that the eunuch converted by St
Philip was the fird apoftle of the Ethiopians ; and that
the Abyffines boad of having received the Chridian
faith from him.
Philip II. was the 4th fon of Amyntas, king of
; Macedonia. He was fent. to Thebes as an hodage by
his father, where lie learnt the art of war un ier Epa-
minondas, and (iudied with the greated care the man¬
ners and the purfuits of the Greeks. He difeovered, fiom
liis earlitft years, that quicknefs of genius and iweatnefs
of courage which afterwatds procured him fo great a
name and" fuch powerful enemies. He w is recalled to
Macedonia; and at the death of his brother Perdiccas he
afeended the throne as guardian and protedor of the
youthful years of his nephew. His ambition, how¬
ever, foon difeovered itfelf, and he made himfelf in¬
dependent about the year 360 before Chrid. The
valour of a prudent general, and the policy of an ex¬
perienced Itatefman, feeroed_ requifite to enfure his
[ 466 ] PHI
Being come of a learned and virtuous preceptor, wrote a letter with
his own hand to the philofopher Aridotle, and beg- ~
ged him to retire from his ufual purfuits, and to de¬
dicate his whole time to the indrudion of the young
prince. Every thing feemed now to confpire to his
aggrandizement; and hidorians have obferved that Phi¬
lip received in one day the intelligence of three things
which could gratify the mod unbounded ambition, and
flatter the hopes of the mod: afpiring monarch : the
birth of a fon, sn honourable crown at the O'ympic
games, and a vidory over the barbarians of Illyricum.
But all thefe increafed rather than fatiated his ambi¬
tion : he declared his inimical fentiments againfl: the
power of Athens, and the independence of all Greece,
by laying fiege to Olynthus, a place which, on ac¬
count of its fituation and eonfequence, would prove
mod injurious to the intereds of the Athenians, and
mod advantageous to the intrigues and military ope»
rations of every Macedonian prince. The Athenians,
roufed by the eloquence of Demodhenes, fent 17 vef-
feds and 2000 men to the affidance of Oiynthus; but
the money of Philip prevailed over all their efforts.
The greated part of the citizens fuftered themfelves
to be bribed by the Macedonian gold, and Oiynthus
furrendered to the enemy, and was inftmtly reduced
to ruins. Philip foon after defeated the Athenians,
and made a great number of them pnfoners, whom he
difmiffed without ranibm, Of this vi&ory, the fruit
of that excellent difeipline which he had eflablifhed
in his army, the Macedonian phalanx had the princi-
p?.l honour. This was a body of infantry heavily arm¬
ed, confiding commonly of 16,000 men, who had each
Philip.
power The neighbouring nations, ridiculing the youth of them a (hield fix .feet high a pn<e 21 feet long,
and inexperience of the new king of Macedonia, a?- (See Phalanx) 1 he fuccefs of h.s arms, and efpe-
peared in arms'; but Philip foon convinced them of
them error. Unable to meet them as yet in the field
of battle, he fufpended their fury by prefents, and
foon turned his arms againft Amphipolis, a colony
tributary to the Athenians. Amphipolis was con¬
quered, and added to the kingdom of Macedonia; and
Philip meditated no lefs than the deftiuaion of a re¬
cially his generofity after viftory, made his alliance
and a peace a defirable objedl to the people of Athens5
and as both parties were inclined to this meafure, it
was concluded without delay. Plis fuccefles were as
great in every part of Greece : he was declared head
of the Amphidtyonic council, and was entrulfed with
the care of the facred temple of Apollo at Delphi. If
oublic which had rendered itfelf fo formidable to the he was recalled to Macedonia, it was only to add frefh
.n. _r ^   ....a claimed fnbmiffion from laurels to his crown, by vuTones over his enemies in
reft of Greece, and had even claimed fubmiffion from
the princes of Macedonia. His defigns, however,
wete as yet immature; and before he could make A-
thene an objed of conqueft, the Thracians and the
Illyrians demanded his attention. He made himfelf
mailer of a Thracian colony, to which he gave the
name of Philippi, and from which he received the
laurels to his crown, by vi&ories over his enemies in
Illyricum and Theffaly. By affuming the mafk of
a moderator and peace-maker, he gained confidence ;
and in attempting to proted the Peloponnefianr, again ft
the inctcaching power of Sparta, he rendered his
caufe popular; and by ridiculing the infults that were
offered to his perfon as he palled through Corinth, he
great eft advantages on account of the golden mines difplayed to the world his moderation and philofophic
in the neighbourhood. Thefe made it a very Impor- virtues. In his attempts to make himfelf mailer of
taut capture. He fettled in it a number of workmen,
and was the firft who caufed gold to be coined in his
own name. He employed his wealth in procuring
fpies and partifans in all the great cities of Greece,
and in making conquefts without the aid of arms. It
was at the fiege of Methone in Thrace that Pnilip had
the misfortune to receive a wound in his right eye
from the ftroke of an arrow. In the midft of his po¬
litical profperity, Philip did not negled the honour
of hia family. He married Olympias the daughter
of Neoptolemus, king of the Moloffi ; and when, lome
time after, he became father of Alexander, the mo¬
narch, confcious of the ineftimable advantages which
arife from the leffons, the example, and- converf&tion
Euboea, Philip was unfuccefsful; and Phocion, who
defpifed his gold as well as his meannefs, obliged him
to evacuate an ifland whofe inhabitants were as infen*
fible to the charms of money as they were unmoved
at the horrors of war, and the bold efforts of a vi*
gilant enemy. From Euboea he turned his arms againft
the Scythians; but the advantages he obtained over
this indigent nation were inconiiderable, and he again
made Greece an objeft of plunder and rapine. He
advanced far in Beeotia, and a general engagement
was fought at Chasronea. The fight was long and
bloody,"but Philip obtained the viaory. His beha¬
viour after the battle refleas great difgrace upon him
as a man and as a monargb. In the hour of ieftivi*
tv*.
P H I
Philip, ty, and during the entertainment which he had given
to celebrate the trophies he had won, Philip fallied
from his camp, and with the inhumanity of a brute,
he infulted the bodies of the flain, and exulted over
the calamities of the prifoners of war. His infolence,
however, was checked, when Demades, one of the A-
thenian cap‘ives, reminded him of his meann'efs, bv ex¬
claiming, “ Why do you, O king, adt the part of a
Therfite?, when you can reprefent with fo much dig¬
nity the elevated character of an Agamemnon ?” The
reproof was felt; Demades received his liberty; and
Philip learned how to gain popularity even among his
fallen enemies, by relieving their wants and eafing
their diftrefies. At the battle of Chasronea the inde¬
pendence of Greece was extinguifhed; and Philip, un¬
able to find new enemies in Europe, formed new en-
terpnzes, and meditated new conquefts. hie was no¬
minated general of the Greeks againft the Perfians,
and was called upon as well from inclination as duty
to revenge thofe injuries which Greece had fuffered
from the invafions of Darius and of Xerxes. But he
was flopped in the midft of his warlike preparations,
being {tabbed by Paufanias as he entered the theatre
at the celebration of the nuptials of his daughter Cleo¬
patra. This murder has given rife to many reflections
upon the caufes which produced it ; and many who
confider the recent repudiation of Olympias and
the refentment of Alexander, are apt to invefligrte
the caufes of bis death in the bofom of his family,
t he ridiculous honours which Olympias paid to her
hnfband s murderer ftrengthened the fufpicion ; yet
Alexander declared that he invaded the kingdom^ of
Perfia to revenge his father’s death upon the Periian
fatraps and princes, by whofe immedijte intrigues the
aflafilnation had been committed. ’I he character of
Philip is that of a fagacious, artful, prudent, an,.l in¬
triguing monarch : he was brave in the field of battle,
eloquent and diffimulating at home, and he poflefled
the wonderful art of changing his conduCt according
to the difpofition and caprice of mankind, without
ever altering his putpofe, or lofing fight of his ambi¬
tious aims.. He poflefled much perfeverance, and in
the execution of his plans he was always vigorous. He
had that eloquence which is infpued by ftrong paf-
fions. . 1 he hand of an afiaffin prevented him from
Achieving the boldeft and the moft extenfive of his un¬
dertakings; and he might have acquired as many laurels,
end conquered ?s many nations, as his fon Alexander
did in the fncceeding reign ; and the kingdom of Perfia
might have been added to the Macedonian empire, per¬
haps with greater moderation, with more glory,'and with
more lafting advantages. The private c! arader of Phi¬
lip lies open to cenfure, and raifes indignation The ad¬
mirer o, his virtues is difgufted to find him among the
meft abandoned proftitutes. and difgracing himlelf by
the. moft unnatural crimes' and ’afi ivious indulgencies
which can make even the moft debauched and the moft
profligate to blufh. He was murdered in the 47th year
of his age, and the 24th of his reign, about 336 years
before the C hriUian era, Hiy reign is become uncom-
monly interefling, and his adminiftration a matter of
inftruClion. He is the firft monarch whcO life and
aClions are def ribed with peculiar accuracy and hifto-
rical faith‘ulrefs. PhiKp was the father of Alexan¬
der the Great and of Cleopatra, by Olympias; he
had alio by Audaca an Illyiian, Cyna, who married
f 467 1
P H I
Amyntas the fon of Perdiccas, Philip’s el:!cr brother; Philip,
by Nicafipolis a ThefTnlian, Nicsea, who married Caf-
fander; by Philsena a LariffiKan dancer, Aridasus, who
reigned fome time after Alexander’s death ; by Cleo¬
patra, the niece of Attains, Caranus and Europa, who
were both murdered by Olympias ; and Ptolemy, the
firft king of Egypt, by Arfinoe, who in the firft month
of her pregnancy wis married to La gus. Of the
many memorable aftions and fayings reported by Plu¬
tarch of this prince, the following are the moft re¬
markable. Being prefent at the fale of fome captives,
hi an indecent pofture, one of them informed him of
it ; “ Set this man at liberty (fays Philip), I did not
know that he was.my friend.” Being folicited to fa¬
vour a lord of his court, who was like to lofe his
character by a juft but fevere fen fence, Philip refufed
to hearken to the folicitation, and added, “ I had ra¬
ther that he be difgraced than myfelf.” A poor wo¬
man was importuning him to do her juftice; and as
he fent her away from day to day, under the pretence
that he had no time to attend to her petition, {he faid
to him with fome warmth, “ Ceafe then to be a
king.” Philip felt all the force of this reproof, and
immediately gave her fatisfadion.—Another woman
came to afle juftice of him as he was going out from
a great entertainment, and was condemned. “ I ap¬
peal (exclaimed flic) 1” “ And to whom do you ap¬
peal (faid the king to her)?” “ To Philip fafting.” This
anfwer opened the eyes of the monarch, who retrad¬
ed his fentence. If he pofiefied any virtue, it was
principally that of fuffering injuries with patience.
Demochajiis, to whom the Greeks gave the furname
of Parrhejiajhs, on account nf his exceflive petulance
of tongue, was one of the deputies whom the Athe¬
nians fent to this monarch. Philip, at the conclufion
of the audience, begged the ambafiadors to tell him,
“ if he could be of any fervice to the Athenians
to which Dcmocharus gave an infolent return, which
he forgave. Having learned that fome Athenian am-
bsflhdors charged him, in full aflembly, with atrocious
calumnies-: “ I am under great obligations (faid he)
to thofe gentlemen, for I {hall henceforwards be fo cir-
eumfpeCf in my Words and aClions, that I ftnll con-
vid them of falfehood.” One faying of Philip, which
does him lefs honour than thofe we have before-men¬
tioned, was, tc Let us amufe children with playthings,
and men with oaths.” This abominable maxim, which
Vi as the foul and fprmg of his politics, gave rife to
the obfervation, “ That he was in full length, what
Louis XI afterwards was in miniature.” It is well
known that Philip had a perfon about him, who call¬
ed out at times, “ Philip, remember that thou ait mor¬
tal but whether we ftiould place this to the account
of his pride or his humility, it is difficult to fay.
Philip V. was'king of Macedonia, and fon of De-
metrius. His infancy, at the death of his father, was
proteaed by Antigonus, one of his friends, who a-
feended the throne, and reigned for 1 2 years, with the
title of Independent monarch^ When Antigonus died,
Philip recovered his father’s throne, though only 15
years of age, and he early diftinguiffied ffimfelf by
his boldnefs and bis ambitious views. Pie came to
the throne in the year 220 before our Saviour, and the
beginning of his reign was rendered glorious by the
conqutfto of Aratus; a general who was as eminent for
his love of juftice as his {kill in war. But fo virtuous
3 N 2 ft
PHI f 468 1 PHI
3 .harafter could hardly fail to hr difagreeable to a pretended prophecy of one of the Sybils, Macedonia
prince who wanted to indulge himfelf in every fpecies was indebted to one Philip for her rife an con e-
} . , rvr ■ 1 •  J Kim nnpnpp amnn.3- nations, and under another rhilip me
Philip,
of diflipation and vice : and indeed his cruelty to him
foon difplayed his character in its true light; for to
the gratification of every vice, and every extravagant
propenfity, he had the meannefs to facrifice this faith¬
ful and virtuous Athenian. Not fatisfisd with the
kingdom of Macedonia, Philip afpired to become the
friend of Annibal, and wilhed to fhare with him the
fpoils which the diftrefles and continual lofs of the
Romans feemed foon to promife. But his expe&ations
quence among nations, and under another Philip Hie
lamented the lofs of her power, her empire, and her
dignity.
"Philip (M. Julius), a Roman emperor, of an ob-
feure family in Arabia, from whence he was furnamed
Arabian. From the loweft rank in the army he gra¬
dually rofc to the highefl offices; and when he was
made general of the pretorian guards, he affaffinated.
Gordian, to make himfelf emperor. T^o fecure him-
were^friiflu'ated ; the Romans difeovered his intrigues; felf on die imperial throne, he left Mefopotamia a
and though weakened by the valour and artifice of the prey to the continual invafions of the Perfians, and
Carthaginian, yet they were foon enabled to meet him hurried to Rome, where his eleftion was u"iverp J
in the field of battle! The conful Laevinus entered approved by the fenate and the Roman people. 1 m-
without delay his territories of Macedonia ; and after li? rendered his caufe popular by his liberality and
he had obtained a vidory over him near Apollonia, profufion ; and it added much to his fplendor and d g •
and reduced his fRet to alhes, he compelled him to nity, that the Romans during his reign com mein ora-
fue for peace. This peaceful difpofition was not per
manent; and when the Romans difeovered that he
had affifted their formidable enemy Annibal with men
and money, they appoined T. Q^Flamimus to pumffi
his perfidy, and the violation of the treaty. The Ro¬
man conful, with his ufual expedition, invaded Mace¬
donia ; and in a general engagement, which was fought
near Cynocephale, the hoftile army was totally defeat¬
ed, and the monarch faved his life with difficulty by
flying from the field of battle. Deftitute of refources,
ted'' the foundation of their city ; a folemnity which
was obferved but once every 100 years, and which
was celebrated with more pomp and more magnificence
than under the preceding reigns. rIhe people were
entertained with games and fptftacles; the theatre of
Pompey was fucceffively crowded during three days
and three nights ; and 2000 gladiators bled in the cir¬
cus at once, for the amufement and pleafure of a ga¬
zing populace. His ufurpation, ho-.vever, was fhort.
Philip was defeated by Deems, who had proclaimed
wdthout friends either at home or abroad, Philip was himfelf emperor in Pannoma; and he was affaffinated
obliged to fubmit to the mercy of the conqueror, and by his own foldiers near Verona, m 7^ o-
to demand peace by his ambaffadors. It was granted his age, and the 5th of his reign. His ,
with difficulty ; the terms were humiliating ; but tiie
poverty of Philip obliged him to accept the conditions,
however difavantageous and degrading to his dignity.
In the midft of thefe public calamaties, the peace of
his family was difturbed ; and Perfes, the eldeft of his
fons by a concubine, raifed feditions againff his brother
Demetrius, whofe condefcenfion and humanity had
gained popularity among the Macedonians, and who
from his refidence at Rome, as an hoffage, had gain¬
ed the good graces of the fenate, and by the modetty
and innocence of his manners had obtained forgiye-
nefs from that venerable body for the hoftilities of his
father. Philip liftened with too much avidity to the
falfe accufations of Perfes ; and when he heard itaffert-
ed thatDemetnuswiffied to rob him of his crown, he no
longer hefitated to puniffi with death fo unworthy and
fo ungrateful a fon. No fooner was Demetrius iacn-
ficed to credulity, than Philip became convinced of his
cruelty and raffinefs ; and to pumffi the perfidy of I er-
fes he attempted to make Antigonus, another fon, his
fucceffor on the Macedonian throne. But he was pre¬
vented from executing his purpofe by death, m the
42d year of his reign, 178 years before the Chrifiian
era. The affaffin of Demetrius fucceeded his
and with the fame ambition, with the fame raffinefs
and oppreffion, renewed the war againft the Romans,
bore the fame name, and who had ffiared with him
the imperial dignity, was alfo maffacred in the arms
of his mother. Young Philip was then in the 1 2ta
year of his age, and the Romans lamented in him the
lofs of riling talents, of natural humanity, and endear¬
ing virtues. >
Philip, a native of Acarnania, phyfician to A-
lexander the Great. When that monarch had been
fuddenly taken ill, after bathing in the Cydnus, Phi¬
lip undeitook to remove the complaint, when the reft
of the phyficians believed that all medical affiftancc
would be ineffe&ual. But as he was preparing his
medicine, Alexander received a letter from Parmenio,
in which he was advifed to beware of his p^y^0^311
Philip, as he had confpired again it _ his hie. The
monarch was alarmed; and when Philip prefented him
the medicine, he gave him Parmenio s letter to perufe,
and began to drink the potien. The ferenity and
compofure of Philip’s countenance, as he read the
letter, removed every fufpicion from Alexander’s
breaft. and he purfued the diredions of his phyfician,
and in a few days recovered.
There were, befides, a vaft number of perfons of this
name in antiquity, and many of them were very emi-
Philip I. king of France, fucceeded his father
Ibi&
and oppreffion, reneweu lhe war aSai , became ^ Henry I. in 1060, when but eight years of age, un¬
till his empire was deftroyed, and M ' . h d ^ regency and guardianffiip of Baudouin V. count
Roman province. of Flandefs, who difeharged his truft with zeal and
polfeed the fame virtues, the fame^ambition^and ^d“av^
kxander'wasWmore fagacious and more intriguing, ^gerfon,11 w^otad iSed
th, »hich belonged to the ehildxen of hi^U
PHI l 469 ] P. H 1 .
lip. dev brother. Philip marched againit him with a war was ended, he made his people enjoy the bleffingS
r  numerous army, which was cut to pieces near Mount of peace. He gave a check to the oppreffions of the
Caflel. Peace was the confequence of the vidiory, and great lords, banifhed the comedians, pumihed > .. ■
the conqueror quietly enjoyed his ufurpation. Philip, phemies, caufed the ftreets and public places oi I ana
after the fatigues of the "war, by way of relaxation to be paved, and anneited to that capital a part of the
gave himfelf up entirely to pleafure and diflipation. adjacent villages. It was inclofed by walls with towers;
Tired of his wife Bertha, and fond of Bertrade, and the inhabitants of other cities were equally proud
fpoufe of Foulques count of Anjou, he carried her off to fortify and embelliih theirs. The Jews having for
from her hulband. Having, in 1093, legally annul- a long time pra&ifed the mod ihameful frauds m
led his own marriage, under the pretext of barren- France, Philip expelled them from his kingdom, and
nefs, and Bertrade’s marriage with the count of An- declared his fubjefts quit with them; an a&ion un¬
ion having been fet abide under the fame pretext, Phi- juft, contrary to the laws of nature, and confequent-
lip and (he were afterwards folemnly married by the ly to religion. The tranquillity of France was iome-
biftiop of Beauvais. This union was declared void by what difturbed by a difference with the count of Flan-
Pope Urban II. a Frenchman by birth, who pronoun- ders, which was however happily terminated in 1104.
cel the fentence in the king’s own dominions, to borne time after he declared war again!! Henry 11.^
which he had come for an afylum. Philip, fearing king of England, and took from him the towns of
that the anathemas of the Roman pontiff might be Iflbudun, Tours, Mans and other places. The epi-
the means of exciting his fubjefts to rebellion, fent demical madnefs of the crufades then agitated all Eu-
deputies to the pope, who obtained a delay, during rope ; and Philip, as well as other princes, caught the
which time he was permitted to ufe the crown. To infection. He embarked in the year 1190, witii
know what is meant by this permiffion, it is neceffary Richard I. king of England, for the relief of the
to recollect, that at that period kings appeared on Chriftians in Paleftine who were oppreffed by Saladin.
public folemnities in royal habit, with the crown on Thofe two monarchs fat down before Acre, which i»
their heads, which they received from the hand of a the ancient 1 tolemais; as did almod all toe Chriftians
bilhop. This delay was not of long duration. Philip of the eaft, while Saladin was engaged in a civil war
was excommunicated anew in a council held at Poi- on the banks of the Euphrates. . When the two Su¬
tlers in 1100 ; but in the year 1104, Lambert bilhop ropean monarchs had joined their forces to thofe of
of Arras, legate of Pope PafchallL at laft brought the Afiatic Chriftians, they counted above 300,000
him his abfolution to Paris, after having made him fighting men. Acre furrendered the 13th of July
promife never to fee Bertrade more ; a promife which 1191} but the unhappy difagreement which took
he did not keep. It would appear that the pope af- place between Philip and Richard, yprals of glory and
terwards approved their marriage ; for Suger informs of intereft, did more mifehief than could be compenfa-
us, that their fons were declared capable of fucceed- ted by the fuccefsful exertions of thofe 300,000 men.
ing to the crown. Philip died at Melun the 29th of Philip,tiredof thefe divifions,and difpleafed with thebe-
July rto8, aged 57 years, after having witneffed the haviour of Richard his vaffal, returned to his own coun-
firft crufade, in which he declined taking any part, try, which, perhaps, he Ihould never have left, or at
His reign, which comprehends a period of 48 years, leal! have feen again with more glory. Befides, he
was the longeft of any of his predeceffors, excepting was attacked (fay hiftorians) with a laaguifhing dif-
that of Clotarius, and of all who came after him ex- order, the effeds of which were attributed to poifon ;
cept thofe of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. It was di- but which might have been occafioned merely by the
ftinguilhed by feveral great events: but Philip, though fcorching heat of a climate fo different from that of
brave in battle, and wife in counfels, was no very excel- France. Fie loft his hair, his beard, and his nails
lent charader. He appeared fo much the more con- nay, his very flelh came off. The phyficians urged
temptible to his fubjeds, as that age abounded with him to return home ; and he foon determined to fol?
heroes. Philip is not the firft of the French mo- low their advice. The year after, he obliged Bau-
aarchs (as is commonly reported), who, in order to douin VIII. count of Flanders to leave him the coun-
give the greater authority to .his charters, caufed them ty of Artois. He next turned his arms againii Ri-
tp be fubferibed by the officers of the crown ; for chard king of England, from whom he took Evreux
Henry I. had fometimes done the fame before him. and Vexin ; though he had promifed upon the holy
Philip II. furnamed Jugujlus, the conqueror and gofpels never to take any advantage of his rival du-
given of God, fon of Louis VII. (called the younger), ring his abfence ; fo that the confequences of this war
King of France, and of Alix, his third wife, daugh- were very unfortunate. The French monarch, repuL
ter of Thibault, count of Champagne, was born the fed from Rouen with lofs, made a truce for fix months;
220 of Auguft 1165. He came to the crown, after during which time he married Ingelburge, princefa
his father’s death in 1180, at the age of 15 years, of Denmark, whofe beauty could only be equalled by
His youth was not fpent like that of the generality her virtue. The divorcing of this lady, whom he
of other princes; for, by avoiding the rock of plea- quitted in order to marry Agnes daughter of the
fure on which fo many are apt to fplit, his courage duke of Merania, embroiled him with the court of
thereby became the more lively and intrepid. The Rome. The pope iffued a fentence of excommuni-
king of England feemed willing to take advantage cation again!! him; but it was taken off upon his
of his minority, and to feize upon a part of his do- promifing to take back his former wife. John Sana-
minionst But Philip marched againft him, and com- terre, fucceeded to the crown of England in 1199,.
pelled him, fword in hand, to confirm the ancient to the prejudice of his nephew Arthur, to whom of
treaties between the two kingdoms. As. foon as the right it belonged. The nephew, fupported by Rh1-
P H I
p. H I [ 47o ]
,-Phiiip^ hp took arms againft the uncle, hut was defeated an army of 150,000 fighting men ; that of Philip was
in Poitou, where he was taken pnfoner, and after- not half fo numerous; but it was compofed of the 1
wards murdered. The murderer being fummoned flower of his nobility. The king run great ha-
before the court of the peers of France, not having zard of his life ; for he was thrown down under the
appeared, was declared guilty of his nephew’s death, horfes feet, and wopnded in the neck. It is faid
Philip.
and condemned to lofe his life in 1203. His lands,
fituated in France, were forfeited to the crown. Phi¬
lip foon fet about gathering the fruit ot his vnfTal’s
crime. He feized upon Normandy, then carried his
victorious arms into Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou,
and brought thofe provinces, as they anciently were,
under the immediate authority of his crown. The
Englifh had no other part left them in France but
the province of Guienne. To crown his good for
30,000 Germans were killed ; but the number is pro¬
bably much exaggerated. The counts of Flanders
and Boulogne were led to Paris v/ith irons upon their
feet and ha,ids; a barbarous cuitom which prevailed
at that time. The French king made no conqueft on
the fide of Germany after this ever memorable aftion;
but it gained him an additional power over his vaflals.
Philip, conqueror of Germany, and pofleffor of al-
moft all the Knglifl^ dominions in France, was invited
tune, John his enemy was embroiled with the court to the crown of England by the fubjeas of King John,
of Rome, which had lately excommunicated him. 1
Rome,
This ecclefiaftieal thunder was very favourable for Phi¬
lip. Innocent II. put into his hands, and transferred
to him, a perpetual right to the kingdom of England.
The king of France, when formerly excommunicated
by the pope, had declared his cenfures void and abu-
five ; he thought very diffetently, however, when he
found himfelf the executor of a bull inveflung him
with the Englifh crown. To give the greater force
to the fentence pronounced by his hclinefs, he em¬
ployed a whole year in building 1700 (hips, and in
preparing the find! army that was ever feen in France.
Europe was in expeftation of a decifive battle between
the two kings, when the pope laughed at both, and
artfully took to himfelf what he had beftowed upon
Philip. A legate of the holy fee purfuaded John
Sans terre to give his crown to the court of Rome,
which received it with enthufiafin. Then Philip was
cxprefsly forbid by the pope to make any attempt up¬
on England, now become a fee of the Roman church,
or againft John who was under her proteftion. Mean¬
while, the great preparations which Philip had made
alarmed all Europe ; Germany, England, and the Low-
Countries were united againft him in the Lme manner as
we have feen them united againft Louis X IV. Fer-
rand, dount of Flanders, joined the emperor Othon IV.
He was Philip’s vaflal ; which was the ftrongeft reafon
for declaring agniwft him. The French king was no¬
wife difeencerted ; his fortune and his courage dif-
fipnted all his enemies. Llis valour was particularly
confpicuous at the battle of Bouvines, which was
fought on the 27th of July 1214, and lafted from
noon till n ght. Before the engagement, he knew
well that fome of his nobles followed him with re-
lu&ance. He aflembled them together; and placing
himfelf in the midft of them, he took a large golden
cup, which he filled with wine, and into which he
put feveral flices of bread. He eat one of them him-
felf, and offering the cup to the reft, he faid, “ My
companions, let thofe who would live and die with
me follow my example.” The enp was emptied in a
moment, and thofe who were the leaft attached to
him fought w th all the bravery that could be expect¬
ed from his wnrmeft friends. It is alfo reported, that
after fhowing the army the crown that was worn by
fovereigns upon thefe cccrfions, he faid, “ If any
one thought himfelf more worthy than he was to wear
it, he had only to explain himfelf; that he fhould be
content it were the prize of that man who fhould dif-
play the greateft valour in battle.” The enemy had
who were grown weary of his tyranny. The king of
France, upon this occafion, condufted himfelf like an
able politician. He perfuaded the Englifli to afk his
fon Louis for their king ; but as he wilhed at the fame
time to manage the pope, and not lofe the crown of
England, he chofe to afiill the prince his fon, with¬
out appearing to a£l himfelf. Louis made a defeent
upon England, was crowned at London, and excommu¬
nicated at Rome in 1216; but that excommunication
made no change upon John’s fituation, who died of
grief. His death extingTiifhed the.refentment of the
Englifh, who having declared themfelves for his fon
Henry III. forced Louis to leave England. Phiiip-
Auguftus died a little time after, at Mantes-, the 14th
of July 1223, aged 59, after a reign of 43 years.
Of all the kings of ti.e 3d race, he made the greateft
acetflion to the crown-lanes, and tranfmitted the great-
eft power to his fucceffors. He reunited to his domi¬
nions Normandy, Anjou,. Maine, Touraine, Poitou,
&c After having fubdued John Sans-terre, he hum¬
bled the great lords, and by the overthrow of foreign
and domeftic enemies, took away the counterpoife
which balanced his autharity in the kingdom. He
was more than a conqueror ; he was a great king and
an excellent politician ; fond of fpiendor on public
occafions, but frugal in private life ; exaft in the ad-
miniftration of juftice ; ikilful in employing alternately
flattery and threatenings. rewards and puniihments 5
he was zealous in the defence of religion, and always
difpofed to defend the church ; but he knew well how
to procure from her fuccours for fupplying theexigen-
cie* of the ftate. 1 he lords of Coucy, Rhetel, Ro-
fey, and feveral others, feized upon the property of
the clergy. A great many of the prelates applied for
protedtion to the king, who promifed them his good
offices with the depredators. But, notwichftanding
his recommendations, the pillages continued. The
biffiops redoubled their complaints, anffintreaced Phi¬
lip to march againft. their enemies. “ With all my
heart (faid he), hut in order to fight them, it is necef-
fary to have troops,and troops cannot be raifed without
money;” The clergy underftood his meaning ; they
furnifhed fubfidies, and the pillages ce.tfed. The en-
terpr zes of Philip-Auguftua were almoll always fuc-
cefsful; becaufe he formed his projesfts with delibera¬
tion, ind executed them without delay. He began by
rendering the French happy, and in the end rendered'
them formidable ; though he was more inclined to
anger than to^gentlenefs, to pumfh than to pardon, he
was regretted by his fubje&s as a powerful genius and
8 as
P H I
r 47
i'h’Iip. as the father of his country. It was in his reign that
the marfhal of France was feen, for the firft: time, at
the head of the army. It was then, alfo, that fami¬
lies began to h ive fixed and hereditary furnames ; the
lords took them from the lands which they pofieffed ;
men of letters from the place of their birth ; the con¬
verted. Jews and rich merchants fi*bm that of their re-
fidence. Two very cruel evils, viz. leprofy and ufury,
were prevalent at that time ; the one infedled the body,
the other proved the ruin of the fortunes of families. The
number of lepers wasfo great, that the fmalleft vill ges
were obliged to have an hofpital for the cure of that dr-
llemper. It is remarkable, that when Philip was on
the point of engaging Richard, the Englilh, who were
lying in ambu h near the Loire, run away with his
equipages, in which he caufed to be carried all the
deeds' or writings refpedHng the rights of the crown ;
a cuftom which is ufed at this day by the grand feig-
nior. Philip caufed copies of his charters to be col-
1-edfed wherever they could be found ; hut after all his
endeavours, fome of them were never recovered. The
furname of Augujlus was given to Philip bv his cotem-
poraries. Me^erai is midaken, when he r.flerts that
Paulas Ernilius was the firfl who rendered the name of
conqueror by that of Auguftus ; a learned critic has
proved the contrary by undoubted authorities.
Philip of Valois, firft king of France of the col¬
lateral branch of the Valois, was fon to Charles count
of V dois, brother of Philip the Fair. He mounted the
throne in 1328, on the death of his* coufin Charles the
Fair, after having held for fome time the regency of
the kimrdom. France was much divided in the begin¬
ning of his reign, by difputes about the fucceffion to
the crown. Edward 111. king of England laid claim
to if as grandfon of Philip the Fair, by his mother;
but Philip of Valois took pofieffion of it as firll prince
of the blood. The people gave him, upon his accef-
fion to the throne, the title offortunate ; to which might
have been added, for fome time, thofe of v'ft'jriovs and
jufl. He marched to the relief of his vafi'al the count
of Flanders, whofe fubjefts, on account of bad ufage,
had taken up arms againft him. He engaged the re¬
bels at CafTel, performed prodigies of valour,"and gained
a fignal vi&ory, the 24th of Augult 1328. Having
made all quiet, he went home, after faying to the
count of Flanders, “ Be more prudent and more hu¬
mane, and you will have fewer difloyal fubje&s’.” The
vi&orious Philip devoted the time of peace to the in¬
ternal regulations of his kingdom. The financiers
were called to an account, and fome of them condem¬
ned to death ; among others Peter Remi, general of
the finances, who left behind, him near 20 millions. He
afterwards enafted the law refpetting freeholds, impo-
fing a tax upon churches, and commoners who had
acquired the lands of the nobility. Then, alfo, began to'
be introduced the form of appealcommt d’alus, the prin¬
ciples of which are more ancient than the name. The
year 1329 was diflinguiihed by a folemn homage paid
to Philip, by Edward king of England, for the
duchy of Guienne, upon his knees, and with his
head uncovered. The interior peace of the kingdom
was difturbed by difputes about the diftin&ion of
the church and ftate. An aflembly was fummon-
ed for hearing the two parties, in the prefence of the
king : and in_ this aflembly Peter de Cugnieres, his
I
1 1 ■ PH
majefty’s advocate, defended the fecular jurifdiRion
with great ability as a man well-informed, and an en-'
lightened philofopher. Bertrand bifhop of Autim,
and Roger archbiihop of bens, pled the caufe of the
clergy with lefs ingenuity and judgment. This did
not, however, prevent the king from fhowing them
favours, though the controvei fy itfelf laid the founda¬
tion of all the difputes which were afterwards agitated
about the authority of the two powers ; difputes which
contributed not a little to confine the ecclefiaftical ju-
rifdi&ion within narrower limits. While Philip was
employing himfelf in fome ufeful regulations, he was
unhappily interrupted by Edward IIL declaring war
agauill France. This prince immediately reccwered
thofe parts of Guienne of which Philip was in poflef-
fion. The Flemilh having again revolted from France
in fpite of oaths and treities, joined the ftandard of
Edward ; and required that he would aflame the title
of king of France, in confequence of his pretenfions to
the crown ; bccaufe then, agreeably to the letter of
their treaty, they only followed the king of France.
Fiom this period is dated the union of the flower-d1*-
luce and leopards in the arms of England. E Iward,
in order to juftify the change of his arms, caufed the
following manifelto to be pubiilhed in the verfe of the
times.
Rcxfum regno rum, hina rat:one, duorum ;
ylnglorum in regno fum rex ego jure pater no ;
Matris jure quidern Fraticorum nuncuprr idem :
Hinc ejl armonm variatis facta meorum.
In the way of a parody to thefe lines, Philip made
the following reply ;
Prado regnorum qui diceris ejfe duorum,
Francorum regno privaleris, atque paterno.
Succedunt mares huic regno, non mulieres :
Jlinc ejl armorum variatio flulta tuorum.
In the mean time Philip put himfelf in a pofture of
defence. His arms were at firft attended with fome
fuccefs ; but thofe advantages were far from compen-
latrng the lofs of the battle of E lufe, in which the
French fleet, conlifting of I 20 large flips, and manned
by 40,000 feamen, was beat by that of England in-
the year 1340. This defeat is to be attributed, in
part, to the little attention which had been paid to
the navy of France, notwithftanding her favourable
fituation, by being wafted by two feas. 'She waa
obliged to make ufe of foreign ftips, which obeyed
tut fiowly, and even with fome reluctance. This war,
which had. been alternately difeontinued and renewed’
begun again with more heat than ever in 1345. The
two armies having come to an engagement the 26th of
Auguft 1346, near Crecy, a village in the county ox
Ponthieu, the Englift there gained a fignal vidory.
Edward had only 40,000 men, while Philip had nearly
twice that number; but the army of the former waa
inured to war, and that of the latter was ill difciplined
and overcome with fatiguing marches. France loft
from 25,000 to 30,000 men ; of which numbers were
John king of Bohemia (who, though blind, fought
gallantly), and about 1500 gentlemen, the flower of
the French nobility. The lofs of Calais, and feveral
other places, was the fad fruit of this defeat. Some
time before Edward had challenged Philip of Valoic
Ifli'f
ip.
PHI [47
to a fingle combat; which he rtfufed, not on the fcore
of cowardice, but from the idea that it was improper
for a fovtreign prince to accept a challenge from a
king who was his vaflal. At length, in i 347> a truce
for fix months was concluded between trance and
England, and afterwards prolonged at different times.
Philip died a fliort time after, the 23d of Auguff: 1350,
gged 57 years, and far from bearing on his monument
the title of Fortunate. He had, however, reunited
Hauphiny to France. Humbert, the laft prince of
that country, having loft all his children, and wearied
with the wars which he had held out againft Savoy,
turned a Dominican, and gave his province to Philip,
in 1 349, on condition that the eldeft fon of the kings
of France fhould bear the title of Dauphin. Philip
likewife added to his domain Roufillon and a part of
Cerdague, by lending fome money to the king of Ma¬
jorca, who gave him thofe provinces as a fccurity ;
provinces which Charles VIII. afterwards reftored
v/ithout any reimburfement. It is furprifing that in
fo unfortunate a reign he fhould have been able to
purchafe thofe provinces after having paid a great
deal for Dauphiny ; but the duty on fik, the rife on
the other taxes, and efpecially the frauds committed
in the coinage of money, are fuppofed to have enabled
him to make thofe acquifitions. The fnftitious and
ideal value of the coin was not only raifed, but a great
deal of bad money was iffued from the mint. The
officers of the mint were fworn upon the gofpels to
keep the fecret: but how could Philip flatter himfelf
that fo grofs a fraud would not be difcovered ?
Philip II. fon of Charles V. and of Ifabella of
Portugal, who was born at Valladolid on the 21ft of
May 1527, became king of Naples and Sicily by his
father’s abdication in 1554. He afcended the throne
of Spain on the 17th of January 1556 by the fame
means. Charles had made a truce with the 1'tench,
but his fon broke it; and having formed an alliance
with England, poured into Picardy an army of 40,000
men. The French were cut to pieces at the battle of
St Quintin, which was fought on the 20th of Auguft
*5 157. That town was taken by affault, and the day
on which the breach was mounted Philip appeared
armed cap-a-pee in order to animate the foldiers. It
was the firft and laft. time that he was obferved to wear
this military drefs. It is well known, indeed, that his
terror was io great during the a£Iion that he maue
two vows ; one, that he ffiould never again be prefent
in a battle ; and the other, to build a magnificent
monaftery dedicated to St Lawrence, to whom he at¬
tributed the fuccefs of his arms, which he executed at
Efcurial, a village about feven leagues from Madrid.
After the engagement, his general, the Duke of Sa¬
voy, wanted to kifs his hand ; but Philip prevented
him, faying, “ It is rather my duty to kifs your’s,
who have the merit of fo glorious a vi&ory and im¬
mediately prefented him with the colours taken during
the aftion. The taking of Catelet, Ham, and Noyon,
were the only advantages which were derived from a
battle which might have proved the ruin of I'ranee.
When Charles V. was informed of this vi&ory, it is
laid he afked the perfon who brought him the intelli¬
gence, “ if hi? fon was at Paris?” and being anfwered
in the negative, he went away without uttering a
fingle word. Tiie Duke of Guife having had time to
2 ] PHI
affemble an nrmy, repaired the difgrace of his country Pf
by the taking of Calais and Thionville. While he
was animating the French, Philip gained a pretty
confiderable battle againll Marfhall de Thermes near
Gravelines. His army was, on this occafion, com¬
manded by Count Egmont, whom he afterwards caufed
to be beheaded. The conqueror made no better nfe
of the vi&ory of Gravelines than he had done of that
of St Qjaintin ; but he reaped confidcrable advantage
from the glorious peace of Cateau-Cambrefis, the
mafter-piece of his politics. By that treaty, concluded
the 13th of April 1559, he gained pofieffion of the
Itrong places of Thionville, Marienbourg, Montmedi,
Hefdin, and the county of Charollois. This war, fo
terrible, and attended with fo much cruelty, was ter¬
minated, like many others, by a marriage. Philip
took for his third wife Elizabeth, daughter of Henry II.
who had been promifed to Don Carlos.
After thefe glorious atchievements, Philip returned-
in triumph to Spain, without having drawn a fword.
His firft care, upon his arrival at Valladolid, was to
demand of the grand inquifitor the fpe&acle of an
auto-da-fe. This was immediately granted him; 40
wretches, fome of whom were priefts or monks, were
ftrangled and burnt, and one of them was burnt alive,
Don Carlos de Seza, one of thofe unfortunate vi&ims,
ventured to draw near to the king, and faid to him,
“ How, Sir, can you fuller fo many wretches to he
committed to the flames ? Can you be witnefs of fuch
barbarity without weeping ?” To this Philip coolly
replied, “ If my own fon were fufpe&ed of hetefy,
I would myfelf give him up to the feverity of the in-
quifition. Such is the horror which I feel when I
think of you and your companions, that if an execu¬
tioner were wanting, I would fupply his place myfelf.”
On other occafions he condu&ed himfelf agreeably to
the fpirit which had di&ated this anfwer. In a valley
ofPiedrr.ont, bordering on the country of the Milanefe,
there were fome heretics ; and the governor of Milan
had orders to put them all to death by the gibbet.
The new opinions having found their way into fome
of the diftri&s of Calabria, he gave orders that the in¬
novators ffiould be put to the fword, with the refer-
vation of 60 of them, of whom 30 were afterwards
ftrangled, and the reft c®mmitted to the flames.
This fpirit of cruelty, and ffiamefui abufe of his
power, had the effe& to weaken that power ufelf.
The Flemilh, no longer able to bear fo hard a yoke,
revolted. The revolution began with the fine and
large provinces of the continent; but the maritime
provinces only obtained their liberty. In 1579 they
formed themfelves into a republic, under the title of
the United Provinces. Philip fent the Duke of Alba
to reduce them ; but the cruelty of that general only
ferved to exafperate the fpirit of the rebels. Never
did either party fight with more courage, or with
more fury. The Spaniards, at the fiegc of Haer-
lem, having thrown into the town the head of a
Dutch officer who had been killed in a fkirmilh,
the inhabitants threw to them the heads of eleven
Spaniards, with this infeription : “ Ten heads for the
payment of the tenth penny, and the eleventh for in-
tereft.” Haerlem having furrendered at diferetion,
the conquerors caufed all the magiftrates, all the pallors,
and above 1500 citizens, to be handed.
PHI [ A
Phitip- The Duke of Alba, being at length recalled, the
■—v—-' grand commander of the Requefnes was fent in his
place, and after his death Don John of Aultria ; but
neither of thofe generals could reftore tranquillity in
the Low Countries. To this fon of Charles V. fuc-
ceeded a grandfon no left, illuftrious, namely, Alexander
Farnefe duke of Parma, the greateft man of his time ;
but he could neither prevent the independence of the
United Provinces, nor the progrefs of that republic
which arofe under his own eye. It was then that Philip,
always at his eafe in Spain, inftead of coming to reduce
the rebels in Flanders, profcribed the Prince of Orange,
and fet 25,000 crowns upon his head. William, fupenor
to Philip, difdained to hiake ufe of that kind of ven¬
geance, and trulted to his fword for his pretervation.
In the mean time the king of Spain fucceeded to
the crown of Portugal, to which he had a right by
his mother Ifabella. This kingdom was fubjected to
him by the Duke of Ali a, in the fpace of three weeks,
in the year 1580. Antony, prior of Crato, being
proclaimed king by tW populace of L'fbon, had the
refolution to come to an engagement ; but he was
vanquished, pur fried, and oMiged to fly for his life.
A cowardly afTaffin, Balthazar Gerard, by a piflol-
fhot killed the Prince of Orange, and thereby delivered
I tinip from his moft implacable enemy. Philip was
charged with this crime, it is believed without reafon ;
though, when the news was communicated to him, he
was imprudent enough to exclaim, “ If this blow had
been given two years ago, the Catholic religion and I
would have gained a great deal by it.”
This murder had not the effect to reftore to Philip
the Seven United Provinces. That republic, already
powerful by fea, affiited England againtt him. Philip
having refoived to diftrefs Elizabeth, fitted out, in
1588, a fleet called the Invincible. It eonfifted of 150
large fliipa, on which were counted 2650 pieces of
cannon, 8000 feamen, 20,000 foldiers, and all the
flower of the Spaniih nobility. This fleet, commanded
by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, failed from Lifbon
when the feafon was too far advanced ; and being over¬
taken by a violent ftorm, a great part of it was dif-
perfed. Twelve fhips, driven upon the coaft of Eng¬
land, were captured by the Englifh fleet, which con-
fifted of 100 fhips ; 50 were wrecked on the coafts of
I i«nce, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, and Denmark.
Such was ic fuccefa of the Invincible. See Armada.
This enterprife, which coft Spain 40 millions of
ducats, 20,000 men, and 100 fhips, was produdfive
only of difgrace. Philip fupported this misfortune with
an heroic refolution. When one of his courtiers told
him, with an air of confternation, what had happened,
he coolly replied, “ I fent to fight the Enghfh, and
rot the winds. God’s will be done.” The day after
Philip ordered the bifhops to return thanks to God
for having preferved feme remains of his fleet; and he
wrote thus to the pope: “ Holy father, as long a8 I
remain mafter of the fountain head, I fhall not much
regard the lofs of a rivulet. I will thank the Supreme
DiTpofer of empires, who has given me the power of
eafily repairing a difafter which my enemies muff at¬
tribute folely to the elements which have fought for
them.” 6
At the fame time that Philip attacked England, he
was encouraging in France the Holy League : the ob-
Vot. XIV. Part II.
173 1 PHI
jea of which was to overturn the throne and divide Philip.
the ftate. The leaguers conferred upon him the title ' * 
of Protedor of their affociation ; which he eagerly ac¬
cepted, from a perfuafion that their exertions would
foon conduft him, or one of his family, to the throne
of France. He thought himfelf fo fure of his prey/
that when fpeaking of the principal cities in France,
he ufed to fay, “ My fine city of Paris, my fine city of
Orleans,” in the fame manner as he would havefpoken
of Madrid and Seville. What was the refult of alt
thofe intrigues? Henry IV. embraced the Catholic
rehgion, and by his abjuration of Proteftantifm made
his rival lofe France in a quarter of an hour.
. Philip, at length, worn out by the debaucheries of
his youth, and by the toils of government, drew near
his tail hour. A flow fever, the molt painful gout,
and a complication of other diforders, could not ctif-
engage him from bufinefs, nor draiv from him the leaft;
complaint. “ What!” faid he to the phyliciana who
hclitated about letting blood of him ; “ What ! are
you afraid of drawing a few drops of blood from the
veins of a king who has made whole rivers of it flow
from heretics ?” At laft, exhaufted by a complication
of diftempers, which he bore with an heroic patience,
and being eaten-up of lice, he expired the 1 3th of Sep¬
tember 1598, aged 72 years, after a reign of 43 years
and eight months. During the laft 50 days of his ill-
nefs he fhowed a great fenfe of religion, and had his
eyes almoft always fixed towards heaven.
. No chara&cr was ever drawn by different hiftorians ,
in more oppofite colours than that of Philip ; and yet, Philip h*
confidering the length and a&ivity of his reign, there
is none which it fliould feem would be more e ify to
afeertain. From the fafts recorded in hiftory, we can¬
not doubt that he poffeffed, in an eminent degree, pe¬
netration, vigilance, and a capacity for government.
1 Jis eyes were continually open upon every part; of his
extenfive dominions. He entered into every branch
of adminiftration; watched over the conduct of his
minifters with unwearied attention ; and in his choice
both of them and of his generals difeovered a confider-
able ffiare of fagicity. He had at all times a com-
pofed and fettled countenance, and never appeared to
be either elated or deprefl'ed. Hia temper was the
moft imperious, and his looks and demeanor were
haughty and fevere ; yet among his Spanifh fubjedb
he was of eafy accefs; liftened patiently to their re-
prefentations and complaints; and where his ambition
and bigotry did not interfere, was generally'willing to
redrefs their grievances. When we have faid thus
much in his praife, we have faid all that truth requires
or truth permits. It is indeed impcflible to fuppofe
that he was infincere in his zeal for religion. But as
Uf^religion was of ihe moft corrupt kind, it ferved to
irftreafe the natural depravity of his difpofition ; and
not only allowed, but even prompted, him to commit
feie moft odious and ftiocking crimes. Although a
prince in the bigotted age of Philip might be perfuaded
that the intereft of religion would be advanced by
falfehood and perfecution ; yet it might be expe&ed,
that, in a virtuous prince, the fentiraents of honour
and humanity would on fome occafions triumph over
the dictates of fuperftition : but of this triumph there
occurs not a (ingle inftance in the reign of Philio ;
who without hefitation violated his moft facred obii-
3 0 gations
P H I [ 474
■Philip. Rations as often as religion afforded him a pretence,
 /-—J and under that pretence exercifed for many years the
moil unrelenting cruelty without reluftance or remorfe.
% His ambition, which was exoroitant ; his refentment,
which was implacable; his arbitrary temper, which
would fubmit to no controul—concurred with his bi-
gotted zeal for the Catholic religion, and carried the
fanguinary foirit, which that religion was calculated to
infpire, to a greater height in Philip than it ever at¬
tained in any other prince oi that or of any former or
fucceeding age. ,, r
Though of a fmall fize, he had an agreeable perfon.
His countenance was grave, his air tranquil, and one
could not difcovcr from his looks either joy in prof-
perity or chagrin in adverfity. The wars againft Hol¬
land, France, and England, cod Philip 564 millions of
ducats; but America furnilhed him with more than
the half of that {'urn. His revenues, alter the junc¬
tion of Portugal, are faid to have amounted to 25 mil¬
lions of ducats, of which he only laid out 100,000 lor
the fupport of his own houfehold. Philip was very
jealous of outward refpetf; he was unwilling that any
(hould fpeak to him but upon their knees. The duke
of Albarhaving one day entered this prince’s cabinet
without being introduced, he received the following
hardi falutation, accompanied with a dormy counte¬
nance : “ An impudence like this of your’s would de-
ierve the hatchett” If he thought only howto make
himfelf te feared, he fucceeded in doing fo ; for few
princes have been more dreaded, more abhorred, or
have caufed more blood to dow, thnn Philip II. or
Spain. He had fuccefiively, if not all at once, war
to maintain againd Turkey, France, England, Hol¬
land, and aimed all the Protedants of the empire, with¬
out having a tingle ally, not even the branch of his
own houfe in Germany. Notwithdandmg fo many
millions employed againd the enemies of Spain, Philip
found in his osconomy and his refources wherewith to
build 30 citadels, 64 fortified places, 9 fea-ports, 25
arfenals, and as many palaces, without inclu ling the
efcurial. His debts amounted to 140 millions of du¬
cats, of which, after having paid feven millions of m-
tered, the gveated part was due to the Genoefe.
Moreover, he had fold or alienated a capital dock of
100 millions of ducats in Italy. He made a law, fix¬
ing the majority of the kings of Spam at 14 years of
age He affeded to be more than commonly devout;
he eat often at the refedory with the monks; he ne¬
ver entered their churches without kiffing all the re¬
lics ; he caufed knead his bread with the water of a
fountain which was thought to poffefs a miraculous
virtue ; he boaded of never having danced, and of ne¬
ver wearing breeches after the Grecian fafhion. Hrave
and folemn in all his adions, he drove from bispiefe,^
a woman who had foiled while he was blowmg ms
nofe. One great event of his domedic life is the death
©f his fon Don Carlos. The manner of this prince’s
death is not certainly known. His body, which lies
in the monument of the efeurial, is there fepatated
from his head; but it is pretended that the head is
fenarated only becaufe the leaden coffin which contains
the body is too fmall. The particulars of his crime
are as little known as the manner in which it was com¬
mitted. There is no evidence, nor is there any pio-
bability, that Philip would have caufed him to be cou-
1 PHI
demned by the InqUifition. All that we know of the Philippi,
matter is, that in 1568 his father, having difeovered * *
that he had fome correfpondence with the Hollanders
his enemies, arreded him himfelf in his own room.
He wrote at the fame time to Pope Pius V. in orcer
to give him an account of his fon’s imprifonment; and
in his letter to this pontiff, the 20th of Januaiy
he fays, “ that from his earlied years the drength of
a wicked nature has difled in Don Carlos every pater-
nal inftru&ion.” It was Philip II. who caufed to be
printed at Anvers, between 1569 and 1572, in 8 vols
folio, the fine Polyglot Bible, which bears his name ;
and it was he who fu! jefted the Hands afterwards call¬
ed the Philippines. He married fucceffivdy, id, Mary
daughter of John HI. king of Portugal'; idly, Mary
daughter of Henry VIII. and queen of England; 3div,
Elizabeth ©f France, daughter of Henry II. : qthly,
Anne, daughter of the Emperor Maximilian II. Don
Carlos was"the fon of his fird wife, and Philip HI. of
the lad. , • •
PHILIPPI (anc. geog.), a town of Macedonia, in
the territory of the Edones, on the confines of Thrace
(Pliny, Ptolemy), fituated on the fide ot a deep emi¬
nence; anciently called Datum and DrenhJes (Appian),
though Strabo feems to didinguidi them. 1 his town
was famous on feveral accounts; not only as taking us
name from the celebrated Philip of Macedon, father
to Alexander the Great, who confidered it a fit
place for carrying on the war againd the Thracians ;
but alfo on account of two battles fought in us neign-
bourhood between Augudus and the repubhean party.
In the fird of thefe battles, Brutus and Cafiius had the
command of the republican army ; while Oitavianus,
afterwards Augudus, and Mark Antony, had the com¬
mand of their adverfaries. The army ot Brutus and
Cafiius confided of 19 legions and 20,000 horie ; the
imperial forces of an equal number of legions, but.
more complete, and 13,000 horfe ; fo that the num^
bers on both fideo were pretty equal. I he troops ot
Brutus were very richly drefled, mod ot them having
their armour adorned with gold and diver ; tor Bru¬
tus, though very frugal in other reipeels, was thus ex¬
travagant wdth refpefl to his men, thinking that the
riches that they had about them would make them ex¬
ert theinfelves the more, to prevent thefe from tailing
into the enemy’s hands. H.e republican gene¬
rals apnear to have been interior in Ikill to Mark An¬
tony ; ‘for as to Odavianus, he is allowed never to
have conquered but by the valour of others. A little,
before the fird engagement, Odavianus, who had been
indifpofed, was carried out M the camp, at the perfua-
don of Artorius his^phydeian, who had dreamed that
he faw a vifion direding him to be removed. Brutus’s
men, who oppofed the wing commanded by Odavia-
nUs, charged without oiders, which caufed great con-
fufion. However, they were fuccefsful ; for part of
them, taking a compafs about, fell upon the enemy a
rear: after which they took and plundered the camp •
making a great daughter of fuch as were in it, and.
among the red putting 2000 Lacedemonians to the
fword who were newly come to the afiillance or Oda-
vianus. The emperor hitnfelf was fought for, but m-
vain, having been conveyed away for the reafon aoove-
mentioned; and as the foldiers pierced the litter in
which he was ufually carried, it was thence reported
2
PHI L 475 ] THI
Philippi, that he had been killed. This threw that whole part
Philippics, of the army into fuch confternation, that when Bru-
tus attacked them ia front, they were mofl completely
routed ; three w’hole legions being cut in pieces, and
a prodigious daughter made among the fugitives. But
by the imprudence of the general in purfuing too far,
the wing of the republican army commanded by Caf-
tius was left naked and feparated from the reft of the
army ; on which they were attacked at once in front
and in flank, and thus they were defeated and their
camp taken, while Brutus imagined that he had gain¬
ed a complete vidlory. Callius himfelf retired to an
eminence at a fmall diftance from Philippi ; whence
he fent one of his greateft intimates to procure intelli¬
gence concerning the fate of Brutus. That general
was on his way, and already in view, when the mef-
fenger fet out. He foon met his friends; but they
furrounding him to inquire the news, Caflius, who be¬
held what pafled, imagined that he was taken prifoner
by the enemy, retired to his tent, and in defpair cau-
fed one of his freed men cut off his head. Thus far at
leaft is certain, that he went into the £ent with that
freedman, and that his head was found feparated from
his body when Brutus entered. However, the freed¬
man was never afterwards feen.
The fecond engagement was pretty fimilar to the
firft. Brutus again oppofed O&avianus, and met with
the fame fuccefs ; but in the mean time Antony, to
whom he ought undoubtedly to have oppofed himfelf,
having to do only with the lieutenants of Caffius,
gained a complete vidfory over them. What was
worft, the fugitives, inftcad of leaving the fitdd of
battle altogether, fled for proteftion to Brutus’s army;
where, crowding in among the ranks, they carried
defpair and confufion wherever they went, fo that a
total defeat enfued, and the republican army was al-
moft entirely cut in pieces. After the battle, Brutus
put an end to his own life, as is related more fully un¬
der the article Rome.
The city of Philippi is likewlfe remarkable on ac¬
count of an epiftle written by St Paul to the church in
that place. It was a Roman colony (Luke, Pliny,
Coin, Infcription). It is alfo remarkable for being the
birth-place of Adraftus, the Peripatetic philofopher,
and difciple of Ariftotle.—The town is Hill in being,
and is an archbifliop’s fee; but greatly decayed and bad¬
ly peopled. However, theie is an old amphitheatre,
and feveral other monuments of its ancient grandeur.
E. Long. 44. 55. N. Lat. 41.0.
PHILIPPICS, QihtmKoi \oy)i, in literature, is a
name which is given to the orations of Demofthenes
againft Philip king of Macedon. The. Philippics are
reckoned the mafter-pieces of that great orator: Lon¬
ginus quotes many inftances of the lublime from them ;
and points out a thoufand latent beauties. Indeed that
pathetic in which Demofthenes excelled, the frequent
interrogations and apoftrophes wherewith he attacked
the indolence of the Athenians, where could they be
better employed ? Whatever delicacy there be in the
oration againft Leptines, the Philippics have the ad¬
vantage over it, were it only on account of the fubjeft,
. which gives Demofthenes fo fair a field to difplay his
‘chief talent, we mean, with Longinus, that of moving
and aftoniftiing.
Dionyfius Halicarnafleus ranks the oration on the
Halofiefe among the Philippics, and places it the eighth Philippic,
in order: but though his authority be great, yet that
force and majefty wherein Cicero charafterifes the Phi-: 1 ,
lippics of Demofthenes, feem to exclude the oration
on the Halonefe out of the number; and authorife the
almoft univerfsl opinion of the learned, who reject it
as fpurious. Libanius, Photius, and others, but above
all the languidnefs of the ftyle, and the lownefs of the
expreffions, which reign throughout the whole, father
it on Hegefippus.
Phi lippic is likewife applied to the fourteen ora¬
tions of Cicero againft Mark Antony. Cicero him¬
felf gave them this title in his epiftles to Brutus ; and
pofterity have found it fo juft, that it has Leen conti¬
nued to our times. Juvenal, Sat. x. calls the fecond
the divine Philippic, and witnefles it to be of great
fame, conjpicua: divina Philippica fama. That orator’s
intitling his lalt and molt valued orations after the Phi¬
lippics of Demofthenes fhovvs the high opinion he had
of them. Cicero’s Philippics coft him his life ; Mark
Antony having been fo irritated with them, that when
he arrived at the trim ate, he procured Cicero's
murder, cut off his head, and ftuck it up in the very
place whence the orator had delivered the Philippics.
PHILIPPINE islands, are certain iflands of
Afia, which lie between 114 and 126 degrees of eaft
longitude, and between 6 and 20 degrees of north la¬
titude ; about 300 miles fouth eaft; of China. They Bemfon't
are faid to be about 1 200 in number, of which there MU. Mem,'
are 400 very confiderablc. They form a principal di»
vilion of that immenfe Indian Archipelago, which
confifts of fo many thoufand iftands, feme of which
are the largeft, and many of them the richeft, in the
world. The Philippines form the northernmoft dri¬
fter of thefe iflands, and were difeovered in the year
1521 by the famous navigator Ferdinand Magellan, a
Portuguefe gentleman, who had ferved his native
country both in the wars of Africa and in the Eaft
Indies; particularly under Albuquerque, the famous
Portuguefe general, who reduced Goa and Malacca
to the obedience of that crown. Magellan having had
a confiderable ftiare in thofe aftions, and finding him-
felf neglected by the government of Portugal, and even
denied, as it is faid, the fmall advance of a ducat a
month in his pay, left the court of Portugal in difguft,
and offered his fervices to Charles V. then emperot of
Germany and king of Spain, whom he conv need of
the probability of difeovering ta way to the Spice
Iflands, in the Eaft Indies, by the weft ; whereupon
the command of five fmall fhips being given him, he
fet fail from Seville, on the 10th of Auguft 1519,
and Handing over to the coaft of South America, pro¬
ceeded fouthward to 3-20, where he fortunately hit up-
on a ftrait, fince called the Strait of Magellan, wL ch
carried him into the Pacific Ocean or South Sea ; and
then fleering northward, repaffed the equator : after
which, he llretched away to the weft, acrofs that valt
ocean, till he arrived at Guam, one of the Ladrones,
on the 10th of March 1521 ; and idon'after failed to
the weft ward, and difeovered the Philippines, whicii
he did on St Lazarus’s day ; and, in honour of that
faint, he called them the Archipelago of St Lazarus.
He took poffeflion of them in the name of the king
of Spain, but happened to be killed in a Ikirmifh
he had with the natives of one of them. His people,
3 O 2 however,
P H
Philippine However, arrived afterwards at the Moluccas, or Clove
llhn'ds. i{]and8j where they left a colony, and returned to
V'" , Spain by the way of the Cape of Good Hope; be¬
ing the firft perfons that ever failed round the globe.—
But there was no attempt made by the Spaniards
to fubdue or plant the Philippine Iflands until the
year 1564, in the reign of Philip II. fon ot Char*
les V. when Don Louis de Velafco, viceroy of Me¬
xico, fent Michael Lopez Delagafpes thither with a
fleet, and a force fufHcient to make a conquett of
thefe iflands, which 1*: named the Philippines, \n ho¬
nour of Philip II. then upon the throne of Spain; and
they have remained under the dominion of that crown
till taken by Sir William Draper. The Philippines
p.re fcarce inferior to any other iflands of Alia in all
the natural produ&ions of that happy climate ; and
they are by far the belt fituated for an exteniive and
advantageous commerce. By their pofltion, they form
the centre of intercourfe with China, Japan, and the
Spice Iflands ; and whillt they are under the dominion
of Spain, they conned the Afiatic and American
commerce, and become a general magazine for the
rich manufadures of the one and for the treafures of
the other. Belides, they are well fituated for a flip-
ply of European goods, both from the fide of Aca¬
pulco and by the way of the Cape of Good Hope.
In fad, they formerly enjoyed a traffic in feme de¬
gree proportioned to the peculiar felicity of their fitu-
ation ; but the Spanifh dominion is .too vaft and un-
conneded to be improved to the belt advantage.—
The fpirit of commerce is not powerful in that people.
The trade of the Philippines is thought to have de¬
clined ; its great branch is now reduced to two ihips,
which annually pafs between thefe iflands and Aca¬
pulco in America, and to a fingle port of Manila in
the ifland of Luconia.
Indeed the Spaniards appear by no means to be ac¬
tuated by the fpirit of induftry ; for, fo far from im¬
proving the fine irtuation of thefe iflands to the ut-
moft, it happens, on the contrary, that the trade is
hurtful to the mother-country ; for (to confine our-
felves to Manila, with which they have moft to do),
inltead of taking Spanifh mamifadmes, they trade
with the Chinefe for fpices, filks, dockings, Indian
fluffs, callicoes, chintz, and many other articles ; and
with\he Japanefe for cabinets, and all fort* of lac¬
quered ware ; for all which they pay in gold or filver.
All thefe commodities, together with what the iflands
produce, and great quantities of wrought plate by the
Chinefe artifans, are colleAed at Manila, and tranl-
ported annually in two fhips to Acapulco in Mexico.
Each of thefe fhips is efteemed worth L. 600,000 Ster¬
ling ; and in the war which began in 1739, and which
was not dillinguifhed by fuch a feries of wonderful fuc-
ctfl'es as that which ended in 1763, the taking of one
of the galleons whfch carry on the trade between Ma¬
nila and America, was confidered as one of the moft
brilliant advantages which we gained. This trade is not
laid open to all the inhabitants of Manila, but is con¬
fined by very particular regulations, fomewhat analo¬
gous to thofe by which the trade of the regilter fhips
PHI
from Cadiz to the Weft Indies is reftrained. The PMHppmc
fhips employed are ail king’s {hips, commiffioned and lflan{**- ,
paid by him ; and the tonage is divided into a cer-
tain number of bales, all of the fame fi/.e. Thefe are
divided among the convents at Manila, but princi¬
pally the Jefuits (a), as a donation to fupport their
miflions, for the propagation of the Roman Catholic
faith. Moft of the religious are concerned in thia
trade, and fell to the merchants at a great price what
room in the fliip they are not to occupy. This trade
is by a royal edidt limited to a certain value, but it
always 'exceeds it, each fhip being generally worth
3,000,000 of dollars. The returns made from Ame¬
rica are in filver, cochineal, fweetmeats, together with
fome European millinery ware fox the women, and
fome ftrong Spanifh wine. It is obvious, that the
greateft part of the treafure remitted does not remain
at Manila, but is difperfed over India for goods.
Many ftrong remonftrances againft this Indian trade
to Mexico have been made to the court of Spain,
wherein they urge, that the filk manufactories of Va-
kntia and other parts of Spain, the linens from Ca¬
diz, and their other mamifa&ories, are hurt in their
fale in Mexico and Peru, by the Chinefe being able
to afford them goods of the fame fort cheaper than
they are able ; that were this trade laid open, the
whole treafure of the New World would centre in
Spain, or with European merchants; but now it en¬
riches only the Jeluits and a few private perfons.
Wife as thefe arguments are, the Jefuits and priefts,
verfant in intrigue, and the moft felfifh fet of men
on earth, had intereft enough at court to ftop the ef¬
fect.
At Cavite in this bay are a fort, a town, and a fine
dock-yard, where thefe large galleons are built and re¬
paired, and where they load and unload, together
with all the other large fhips that trade to this bay.
The principal of the Philippine iflands are Luco¬
nia or Manila, Tandago or Samul, Mafbate, Mindora,
Luban, Paragoa, Panay, Leyte, Bohel, Sibu, Sogbu,
Negros, St John, Xolo, and Mindanao. In xnoft of
thefe, the Spanifh power prevails, and all are under
the governor of Luconia ; but there are fome in which
that nation has little authority, or even influence, fuch
as Mindanao.
The inhabitants of thefe iflands confift of Chinefe,
Ethiopians, Malays, Spaniards, Portuguefe, Pinta¬
dos or Painted People, and Meftees, a mixture of all
thefe. Their perfons and habits rife ruble thofe of the
feveral nations whence they derive their original; on¬
ly, it is obfervable, that the features of the blacks of
thefe iflands are as agreeable as thofe of the white
people. There is not a foil in the world that produ¬
ces greater plenty of all things for life ; as appears by
the multitude of inhabitants to be found in the woods
and mountains, who fubfift almoft entirely by the
fruits of the earth, and the venifon they take. Nor
can any country appear more beautiful; for there is a
perpetual verdure, and buds, bloffoms, and fruit, are
found upon the trees all the year round, as well on the
mountains as in the cultivated gardens. Vaft quanti¬
ties
[ 476 1
(a) We do not know who has the Jefuits fliare fince they were expelled the Spanifh dominions.
PHI [
Philippine ties of gold are wafhed down from the hills by the
, 1 ^'u i and found mixed with the fand of their rivers.
There are alfo mines of other metals, and excellent
load Hones found here; and fueh numbers of wild buf¬
faloes, that a good huntfnrun on borfeback, armed
with a fpear, will kill 10 or 20 in <1 day. The Spa¬
niards take them for their hides, which they fell to
the Chinefe; and their carcafes ferve the mountaineers
for food. Their woods alfn abound with deer, wild
hogs, and goats. Of the latl, there is fuch plenty in
one of theie illands, tint the Spaniards gave it the
name of Cabras. Horfes and cows have been likewife
imported into thefe iflands, from New Spain, China,
and Japan, which have multiplied confiderably j but
the Iheep that were brought over came to nothing.
The trees produce a great vari«ty of gums; one kind,
which is the commoneft, by the Spaniards called brea,
is ufed inftead of pitch ; of the others fome are medi¬
cinal, others odoriferous.
In thofe iflands are monkeys and baboons of a mon-
ftrous bignefs, that will defend themfelves if attacked
by men. When they can find no fruit in the moun¬
tains, they go down to the fea to catch crabs and oy-
flers ; and that the oyfters may not clofe and catch
their paws, they firft put in a {tone to prevent their
ihutting clofe : they take crabs by putting their tail
in the holes where they lie; and when the crab lays
bold of it, they draw him out. There are alfo great
numbers of civet-cats in fome of the iflands. The1 bird
called tavan% is a black fea-fowl, fomething lefs than a
hen, and has a long neck; it lays its eggs in the fand
by the fea-fide, 40 or 50 in a trench, and then covers
them, and they are hatched by the heat of the fun.
1 hey have likevvife the bird faligan, which builds her
neft on the fides of rocks, as the fwallows do againft. a
wall; and thefe are the delicious Bikos-Mejls fo much
efieemed, being a kind of jelly that diflblves in warm
water.
I he Spaniards have introduced feveral of the Ame¬
rican fruits, which thrive here as will as in America ;
the cocoa or chocolate-nut particularly, which increa-
fes fo that they have no occafion now to import it from
Mexico. Here is alfo the Fo us -tj in-‘Tree, from which
the natives draw water; and there is likewife a kind of
cane, by the Spaniards called vaxuco, which, if cut,
yields fair water enough for a draught, of which
theie are plenty in the mountains, where water is molt
wanted.
Thefe iflands being hot and moift, produce abun¬
dance of venomous creatures, as the foil does poifonous
herbs and flowers, which do not kill thofe who touch
or tafte them, but fo infe6t the air, that many people
die in the time of their bloffoming.
The orange, lemon, and feveral other trees, bear
twice a year. A fprig, when planted, becomes a tree
and bears fruit in a year’s time ; fo that without any
hypeibole it may be affirmed, that a more luxuriant
verdant foil can fcarcely be conceived. The woods are
filled with old, large, and lofty trees, and fuch as yield
more fuftenance to man than is to be found in almoft
any other part of the world. Thefe iflands, however
beiides their other inconveniences, of which they have
many, are very fubjea to earthquakes, which often
prove very fatal, bee Manila.
477 ] PHI
PmiTPfiHSi, a religious focirty of young wo.PWlippints
?leU. ^ Rome> ca,leJ from their taking St Philip de II
Nen for their protedfor. The fociety confifts of 100 , Philips*
poor girls, who are brought up till they are of age to
be married, or become nuns, under the direftion of
fume religious women, who teach them to read, write
and work, and inflrua them in the duties of Chriftia-
n‘ty- Th„ey wear a white veil, and a black crofs on
their breafts. See Macedonia,
PHILIPPiSTS, a feft or party among the Lu-
therans; the followers of Philip Melanahon. He
had nrenuoufly oppofed the Ubiquifis, who arofe in
his time ; and the difpute growing ftill hotter after his
death, the umverfity of Witternberg, who efpoufed
Melanahon s opinion, were called by the Flacians, who
attacked it, PhUippiJh. *
PHILIPS (Fabian), was author of feveral books
relating to ancient cuftoms and privileges in England.
He was born at Preftbury in Glouceilerffiire, Sep¬
tember 28th 1601. When very young, he fpent fome
time in one of the Inns of Chancery ; and went from
thence to the Middle Temple, where he became learn¬
ed in the law. In the civil wars, he was a bold afler-
tor of the king’s prerogative ; and was fo paffionate a
lover of Charles I. that, two days before that illuftri-
0U8 monarch was beheaded, he wrote a proteftation
againft the intended murder, and caufed it to be
printed, and affixed to polls in all public places. He
ikewffie publifhed, in 1649, qto, a pamphlet intituled,
/ entas Inconcujfa; or King Charles I. no Man of
blood but a Martyr for his People which was re¬
printed in 1660, 8vo. In 1663, when the courts of
juftice at Weftminfter, efpecialiy the Chancery, were
.V.0*ed down.by Oliver’s parliament, he publiffied,
Conhderat'ona againft the diilolving and taking them
away : for which he received the thanka of William
Lenthal, Efq; fpeaker of the late parliament, and of
the keepers of the liberties of England. He was for
fome time blazer for London, Middlefex, Cambridge-
fhire, and Huntingdonfliire ; and fpent much money
in iearching records, and writing in favour of the royal
prerogative. The only advantage he received for this
attachment to the royal caufe was, the place of one
of the Comnuffioners for regulating the law, worth
E. 200 per annum, which only lafled two years. Af¬
ter the Reftoration of Charles II. when the bill for
taking away the tenures was depending in parliament,
he wrote and publifhed a book to fhow the neceffity
of preferring them, intitled, “ Tenenda non toilenda ;
or, the Neceffity of preferring Tenures in capite, and
. y /knight s-fervice, which, according to their firlt
inititution, were, and are yet, a great part of the fa-
lutpopun, &c. 1660,” 4to. In 1663 he publifhed,
1 he Antiquity, Legality, Reafon, Duty, and Necef-
iity of 1 re-emption and Pourveyance for the King,’*
4t° ; and afterwards many other pieces upon fubj§9
of a fimtlar kind. He affiflcd Dr Bates in his “ E-
lenebus Motuum; efpecialiy in fearching the records
and offices for that work. He died, November 17th
1690, in his 89th vear; and was buried near his wife
in the church of rI wyford in Middlefex. He was a
man well acquainted with records and antiquities *
but his manner of writing is neither clofe nor well di-
geiied. lie publifhed a political pamphlet in i68r,
1 intitled.
Philips.
PHI t 478
intitled, « Urfa Major et Minor; fhowing that there
is no fuch Fear, as is fa&itioufly pretended, of Popery
and arbitrary Power.”
Philips (Ambrofe), an Englifh poet, was de¬
fended from a very ancient and confiderable family of
that name in Leicefterfhire. He received his educa¬
tion at St John’s college, Cambridge; during his ftay
at which univerfity, he wrote his paftorals, which ac¬
quired him at the time fo high a reputation. His
next performance was, The Life of Archbifhop Williams.,
written, according to Mr Cibber, to make known his
political principles, which in the courfe of it he had
a free opportunity of doing, as the archbifhop, who
is the hero of his work, was a ftrong opponent to the
high-church meafures.
When he quitted the univerfity, and came io Lon¬
don, he became a confiant attendant at, and one of
the wits of, Button’s coffee-houfe, where he obtained
the friendfhip and intimacy of many of the celebrated
geniufes of that age, more particularly of Sir Richard
Steele, who, in the firft volume of his Tctler, has in¬
ferred a little poem of Mr Philips’s, which he calls a
IVinter Piece, dated from Copenhagen, and addreffed
to the earl of Dorfet, on which he beftows the higheft
encomiums ; and, indeed, fo much juftice is there in
thefe his commendations, that even Mr Pope himfelf,
who had a fixed averfion for the author, while he af-
fe&ed to defpife his other works, ufed always to except
this from the number.
The fiift diflike Mr Pope conceived againfl Mr Phi¬
lips, proceeded from that jealoufy of fame which was
fo confpicuous in the chara&er of that great poet;
for Sir Richard Steele had taken fo ftrong a liking
to the paftorals of the latter, as to have formed a de-
fign for a critical comparifon of them with thofe of
Pope, in the conelufion of which the preference was
to have been given to Philips. This defign, however,
coming to Mr Pope’s knowledge, that gentleman, who
could not bear a rival near the throne, determined to
ward off this {broke by a ftratagem of the moll artful
kind ; which v/as no other than taking the fame talk
on himfelf; and, in a paper in the Guardian, by draw¬
ing the like comparifon, and giving a like preference,
but on principles of criticifm apparently fallacious, to
point out the abfutdity of fuch a judgment. How¬
ever, notwithftanding the ridicule that was drawn on
him in confequence of his (landing as it were in com¬
petition with fo powerful an antagomft, it is allowed,
that there are, in fome parts of Philips s paftorals, cer¬
tain ftrokes of nature, and a degree of fimplicity, that
are much better fuited to the purpofes of pailoral, than
the more corre&ly turned periods of Mr Pope’s verfifi-
c ition. Mr Philips and Mr Pope being of different
political principles, was another caufe of enmity be¬
tween them ; which arofe at length to fo great a height,
that the former, finding his ar.tagonift too hard for
him at the weapon of wit, had even determined on
making ufe of a rougher kind of argument; tor which
purpofe he even went fo far as to hang up a rod at
Button’s for the chaftifement of his adverfary whenever
he fhouli come thither; which, however, Mr Pope de¬
clining to do, avoided the argumentum bacu/inum, in
which he would, no doubt, have found himfelf on the
weakeft fide of the queftion. Our author alio wrote
] PHI
feveral dramatical pieces; The Briton, Diftreffed Mo¬
ther, and Humphrey Duke of Gloucefter ; all of which
met with fuccefs, and one of them is at this time a
ftandard of entertainment at the theatres, being ge¬
nerally repeated fcveral times in every feafon. Mr
Philips’s circumftances were in general, through his
life, not only eafy, but rather affluent, in confequence
of his being connedled, by his political principles,
with perfons of great rank and confequence. He was
concerned with Dr Hugh Boulter, afterwards sreh-
bifflop of Armagh, the right honourable Richard Weft,
Efq; lord chancellor of Ireland, the reverend Mr Gil¬
bert Burnet, and the reverend Mr Henry Stevens, in
writing a feries of papers called the Free Thinker,
which were all publiihed together by Mr Philips, in
three volumes in 12 mo.
In the latter part of Queen Anne’s reign, he was
fecretary to the Hanover club, who were a fet of
noblemen and gentlemen who had formed an affo-
ciation in honour of that fucceffion, and for the flip-
port of its interefts, and who ufed particularly to di-
ftinguifh in their toafts fuch of the fair fex as were mofl
zealoufly attached to the illuftrious Houfe of Brunfwic.
Mr Philips’s ftation in this club, together with the
zeal fhown in his writings, recommended him to the
notice and favour of the new government. He was,
foon after the accefiion of king George I. put into the
commifiion of the peace, and appointed one of the
commiffioners of the lottery. And, on his friend Dr
Boulter’s being made primate of Ireland, he accom¬
panied that prelate acrofs St George’s Channel, where
he had confiderable preferments beftowed on him, and
was elefted a member of the Houfe of Commons there,
as reprefen tat ive for the county of Armagh. At
length, having purchafed an annuity for life of 400 1.
per annum, he came over to England fome time in the
year 174-8; but having a very bad ftnte of health, and
being morever of an advanced age, he died foon after,
at his lodgings near Vauxhall, in Surry.
“ Of his perfonal character (fays Dr Johnfon) all l
have heard is, that he was eminent for bravery, and
{kill in the fword, and that in converfiition he was fo-
lernn and pompous.” He is fomewhere called Quaker
Philips, but, however, appears to have been a man of
integrity ; for the late Paul Whitehead relates, that
when Mr Addifon was fecretary of ftate, Philips ap¬
plied to him for fome preferment, but was coolly an-
fwered, “ that it was thought that he was already
provided for, by being made a juftice foi Weftirun-
iler.” To this obfervation our author, with fome in¬
dignation, replied, “ Though poetry was a trade he
could not I've by, yet he fcorned 'tb owe fubfiftence to
another which he ought not to live by.”
The following anecdote is told of our author by
Dr Johnfon : “ At a coffee-houfe, he (Philips) was
difeourfing upon pi£luves, and pitying the painters,
who. in their hiftorical pieces, always draw the fame
fort offhy. “ They fhould travel (laid he), and then
they would fee that there is a different in every
country, in England, France, Italy, and fo forth.”
“ Your remark is juft (fail a grave gentleman who fat
by), I have been a traveller, and can teftify what you
obferve is true ; but the greateft variety WJktes tuat I
found was in Poland.” “ In Poland, Sir ? (fays I hi*
bps).”
Philips.
PHI [ 479 J PHI
Philip*, lips).” “ Yes, in Poland} for there is Sobie/%', and
—Sabrun/?y, and Jablon/?^, and Podebra/?y, and many
more Jkiej.”
Philips (Catharine), a very ingenious lady, the
daughter of Mr John Fowler merchant, was born at
London in J nuary 1631, and educated at a fchool
at Hackney. She married James Philips of the prioty
of Cardigan, Efq; and went with the vifcountefs of
Dungannon into Ireland, where Ihe tranflated Cor¬
neille’s tragedy of Pompey into Englifh, which was
feveral times adted there with great applaufe.
She tranflated alfo the four firft a£ts of Horace,
another tragedy of Corneille, the fifth being done by
Sir John Denham. This excellent and amiable lady,
for fuch it feems fhe was, died of the fmallpox in
London, the 22d of June 1664, much and juftly re¬
gretted ; ‘‘ having not left (fays Langbaine) any of
her fex her equal in poetry—She not only equalled
(adds he) all that is reported of the poetefles of an¬
tiquity, the Lefbian Sappho and the Roman Sulpitia,
but juftly found her admirers among the greateft
poets of our age.” Cowley wiote an ode upon her
death. Dr Jeremy Taylor had addrefled to her his
“ Meafures and Offices of Friendfnip:” the fecond
edition of which was printed in 1657, !2iuo. She
a {Turned the name of Orinda. In 1667, were printed,
in folio, “ Poems by the moft defervedly admired Mrs
Catharine Philips, the matchlefs Orinda. To which
is added, Monfieur Corneille’s Pompey and Horace,
tragedies. With feveral other tranflations from the
French and her pifture before them, engraven by
Faiihorne. There was likewife another editron in
1678, folio; in the preface ot which we are told,
that “ fhe wrote her familiar letters with gre.it faci¬
lity, in a very fair hand, and perfedd orthography ;
and if they were colle&ed with thofe excellent dif-
courfes ffie wrote on feveral fubje&s, they would make
a volume much larger than that of her poems.” In
1705, a fmall volume of her letters to Sir Charles Cot-
trel were printed under the title of “ Letters from
Orinda to Poliarchusv The editor of thefe letters tells
us, that “ they were the cffedl of an happy intimacy
between herfelf and the late famous Poliarchus, and
are an admirable pattern for the pleafing correfpond-
ence of a virtuous friendlhip. They will fufficiently
initrudh us, how an intercourfe of writing between
perfons of different fexes ought to be managed with
delight and innocence ; and teach the world not to
load fuch a commerce with cenfure and detradtion,
when it is removed at fuch a diftance from even the
appearance of guilt.”
Philips (John), an eminent Englilh poet, was
born in 1676. He was educated at Winthefter and
Oxford, where he became acquainted with Milton,
whom he ftudied with great application, and traced in
all his fuccefsful tranfiations from the ancients. The
firft poem which diftinguiftied our author, was his
Splendid Shilling, which is in the Tat/er ftyled the
jinejl' burlefque poem in the Engljh language. Fits next
was intitled Blenheim, which he wrote at the requeft
of the earl of Oxford, and Mr Henry St John, after¬
wards Lord Bolingbtoke, on the vidbory obtained there
by the duke of Marlborough in 1704. It was pub-
iifhed in 1705 ; and the year after he finiihed another
poem upon cyder, the firft book of which had been
written at Oxford. It is on the model of Virgil’s
Georgies, and is a very excellent piece. We have no
more of Mr Philips but a Latin ode to Henry St John,
Efq; which is efteemed a mafterpiece. He was con¬
triving greater things; but iilnefs coming on, he was
obliged to drop every thing but the care of his health.
This care, however, did not fave him : for, after ling¬
ering a long time, he died at Hereford, Feb. 15. 1708,
of a confumption and afthma, before he had reached
his 33d year. He was interred in the cathedral of that
city with an infeription over his grave; and had a mo-
nnment eredfed to his memory in Weftminfter-abbty
by Sir Simon Harcourt, afterwards lord-chancellor,
with an epitaph upon it written by Dr Atterbury,
though commonly aferibed to Dr Freind. He was
one of thofe few poets whofe mufe and manners were
equally excellent and amiable ; and both were fo in a
very eminent degree.
Dr Johnfon obferves, that “ Philips has been always
praifed, without contradiftion, as a man modeft, blame-
lefs, and pious; who bore a narrow fortune without clif-
content, and tedious and painful maladies without im¬
patience ; beloved by thofe that knew him, but not
ambitious to be known. He was probably not formed
for a wide circle. His converfation is commended for
its innocent gaiety, which feems to have flowed only
among his intimates; for I have-been told, that he was
in company filent and barren, and employed only up¬
on the pleafures of his pipe. His addition to tobac¬
co is mentioned by one of his biographers, who re¬
marks, that in all his writings except Blenheim he has
found an opportunity of celebrating the fragrant fume.
In common lite, he was probably one of thofe who
pleafe by not offending, and whole perfon was loved,
becaufe his writings were admired. He died honour¬
ed and lamented, before any part of his reputation
had withered, and before his patron St John had dif-
graced him. His works are few. The Splendid Shil¬
ling has the uncommon merit of an original defign,
unlefs it may be thought precluded by the ancient Cen¬
tos. To degrade the founding words and ftately con-
itrudlion of Mdton, by an application to the ioweft
and moft trivial things, gratifies the mind with a mo¬
mentary tiiumpK over that grandeur which hitherto •
held its captives in admiration ; the words and things
are prefented with a new appearance, and novelty is al¬
ways grateful where it gives no pain. But the merit
of fuch performances begins and ends with the firft
author. He that flrould again adapt Milton’s phrafe
to the grofs incidents of common life, and even adapt
it with more art, which would not be difficult, muft
yet expe£l but a fmall part of the praife which Phi¬
lips has obtained ; he can only hope to be confidered
as the repeater of a jeft.
“There is a Latin ode written to his patron St
John, in return for a prefent of wine and tobacco, .
which cannot be pafied without notice. It is gay and
elesrant, and exhibits feveral artful accommodations of
claffic exprtffions to new purpofes. It feems better
turned than* the odes of Hannes. To the poem on
cyder, written in imitation of the Georgies, may be
given this peculiar praife, that it is grounded in truth;
that the precepts which it contams are exaft and juft;
and that it is therefore at once a book of entertain¬
ment and of fcience. This I was told by Miller, tho
greakc
P H I
r 480 ]
PHI
rhiilps
..!)
Phiiitliaes.
pfreat gardener and botanift, whofe exprefllon was, that
‘ there were many books written on the fame fubjeft
in profe, which do not contain fo much truth as that
poem.’ In the difpofition of his matter, fo as to in-
terfperfe precept, relating to the culture of trees, with
icntiments more generally pleafing, and in eaty and
graceful tranfitions from one fubjeft to another, he
has very diligently imitated his mafter; but he unhap¬
pily pleafed himfelf with blank verfe, and fuppofed
that the numbers of Milton, which imprtfs the mind
with veneration, combined as they are with fubjefts of
inconceivable grandeur, could be fultained by images
which at moft can rife only to elegance. Contending
angels may fhake the regions of heaven in blank verfe;
but the flow of equal meafures, and the embellifhment
of rhime, mull recommend to our attention the art of
engrafting, and decide the merit of the redftreak and
pearrnain. What ftudy could confer, Philips had ob¬
tained ; but natural deficiency cannot be fupplied. He
feems not born to greatnefs and elevation. He is ne¬
ver lofty, nor does he often furprife with unexpefted
excellence : but perhaps to his laft poem may be ap¬
plied what Tully (aid of the work of .Lucretius, that
* it is written with much arc, though with few blazes
of genius.”
It deferves to be remarked, that there were two
poets of both the names of our author, and who flou-
rilhed in his time. One qf then* was Milton’s nephew,
and wrote feveral things, particularly fome memoirs of
his uncle, and part of Virgil Traveftied. The other
was the author of two political farces, which were both
printed in 1716; 1. The Earl of Marr married, with
the Humours of Jocky the Highlander. 2. The Pre¬
tender’s Flight ; or a Mock Coronation, with the Hu¬
mours of the facetious Harry St John.
PHILIPSBURG, is an imperial town of Germany,
in the circle of the Upper Rhine. It is very ftrong,
and looked upon as one of the bulwarks of the empire.
It is feated in a morafs, and fortified with feven ba¬
ll ions, and feveral advanced works. The town belongs
to the biflrop of Spire, but all the works and the forti¬
fications to the empire. It has been feveral times ta¬
ken and retaken, particularly by the French in 1734,
when the duke of Berwick was killed at the liege; but
it was rendered back the year following, in confe-
quence of the treaty of Vienna. It is feated on the
river Rhine, over which there is a bridge feven miles
fouth of Spire, 2 2 fouth-eall of Worms, and 40 north-
cait of Strafburg. E. Long. 8. 33. N. Lat. 49. 12.
PHIL1STJEA. (anc. geog.), the country of the
Philiflines (Bible); which lay along the Mediterra-
from Joppa to the boundary of Egypt, and ex
nean,
tending to inland places not far from the coalt. PaLi'-
Jlini, the people; PaLcJiina, the country (Jofephus) :
Afterwards applied to the whole of the Holy Land
and its inhabitants. Philijldfi, the people (Septuagint);
Phili/Hni (Vulgate) ; the Caphtorim and PkUijhm, ori¬
ginally from Egypt, and defendants of Cham (Mofes).
Expelled and dettroyed the Hivites the ancient inha¬
bitants, and occupied their country ; that is, the re¬
gion which retained the name of Philiftim, in which
that of Cophtorim was fwallovved up.
PHILISTINES, were the ancient inhabitants of
Pileftine, well known in facred hiftory. Thefe people
ate fometimes called in Scripture Gherdhitcs and Capb-
torims. The earlier part of their hiftory is, like that of PhIlUUii«.
moft other nations, very oHctire and uncertain. The  *f
authors of the Univerfal Hiftory tell us, that they were
defeended from the Cafluhim partly, and partly from
the Caphtorim, both from the loins of Mizraim the
fon of Ham, the fon of Noah. Mofes tells us (Dcut.
xi. 23.), that they drove out the Avim or Avites even
to Azzah or Gazah, where they fettled ; but when
this happened cannot be determined. On the whole,
however, our learned authors are clearly of opinion,
that the Calluhim and Caphtorim, from whom the
Philiftines are defeended, came originally from Egypt,
and called the country which they had conquered by
their own name (See Palestine). Many interpre¬
ters, however, think, that Caphtor was but another
name for Cappadocia, which they imagine to have
been the original country of the Philiftines. But Fa¬
ther Cilmet, in a particular diftertation prefixed to the
firft book of Samuel, endeavours to fhow that they
were originally of the ifle of Crete. The reafons which
led him to think that Caphtor is irfie ille of Crete are
as follow: The Philiftines were Itrangers in Paleftine,
as appears in various parts of Scripture ; fueh as Gen.
x. 14. Dent. ii. 23. Jer. xlvii. 4. and Amos ix. 7.
whence the Septuagint always tranflate this name
Strangers. Their proper name was Cherethims, for
Ezekiel (xxv. 16.), fpeaking againft the Philiftines,
has thefe words, “ I will ftretch out mine hand upon
the Philiftines, and I will cut off the Cherethims, and
deftroy the remnant of the fea coaft.” Zephaniah (ii.
$.), inveighing againft the fame people, fays, “ Wo
unto the inhabitants of the fea-coails, the nation of
the Cherechites.” And Samuel (Book I. xxx. 14.)
fays, that the Amalekites made an irruption into the
country of the Cherethites, that is to fay, of the Phi-
liftine«i, as.the fequel of the difeourfe proves. And af¬
terwards the kings of Judah ha 1 foreign guards called
the Cherethites and Pe let bites, who were of the number
of the Phtliftines (2 Sam. xv. 18.) The S ptuagint,
under the name Chereibites, underftood the Cretans;
and by Cheritb they underftood Crete. Beiides the
Scripture lays, that the Philiftines came from the ifte
of Caphtor. Now we fee no id and in the Mediterra¬
nean wherein the marks whereby the Scripture de¬
fences Caphtor and Cherethim agree better than in
the ille of Crete. The name Cretim or Cherethim is
the fame with that of Cretenfes. The Cretans are one
of the moft ancient and c elebrated people which inha¬
bited the iflands of the Mediterranean. They pretend¬
ed to have been produced originally out of their own
foil. This ifland was ^ ell peopled in the time ot the
Trojan war. Homer calls it the ifland with a hun¬
dred cities. The city of Gaza in Pdeftine went by
the name of Minoa (Steph. Bi%ant. in Gaza), becaufe
Minos king of Crete coining into that country, called
this ancient city by his own name.
Herodotus acknowledges that the Cretans were oii-
ginally all barbarians, and did not come from Greece.
Homer fays, that a different language was fpoken in
the ifle of Crete ; that there were Greeks there, true
or ancient Cretans, Pelafgians, &c. The ancient Cre¬
tans are the fame as the Cherethites, the Pelafgians as
the Pliililtines or Pelethites of the Scripture : their
language was the fame with that of the Canaanites or
Phoenicians, that is, Hebrew: they were defeended, as
well
PHI [ 4S1
PJnliftines, ivell as Canaan, from Ham, by Mizraim (Gen. x. 6,
13, 14.) The manners, arms, religion, and gods of
Ate. part,
Vo!, i. p.
408. &c.
the Cretans and Philiftines were the fame. The arms
of the one and the other were bows and arrows. Da-
gon the god of the Philife’nes was the fame as the
Di&ynna of the Cretans.
Whether thefe arguments are convincing, it is not for
■us to determine ; but Wells dees not Jiink they are, as
he is of the fame opinion with the authors of the Uni-
verfal Hiftory, who fay, that Coptus, the name of an
old city of Egypt, is a corruption of the ancient Caph-
lor. It is not, however, of great importance to deter¬
mine whether they came from Crete, from Cappa¬
docia, or from Egypt : they had certainly been a
confiderable time in the land of Canaan, when Abra¬
ham arrived there in the year of the world 2083. They
were then a very powerful people, were governed by
kings, and in pofTeflion of feveral confiderable cities.
The race of kings then in power were honoured with
the title of Abimelech. This race, however, was but
of fhort duration ; for their monarchy became an
ariftocracy of five lords, who were, as far as We can
difeover, partly independent of each other, though they
afted in concert for the common caufe. This form of
government was again fucceeded by another race of
kings, diftinguifiied by the title of Achijh, though they
alfo bore that of Alimelech. The kings were always
under great limitations. The Philiftines appear to have
been a very warlike people, induftrious, and lovers of
freedom; they did not circumcife, and in the early pe¬
riods of their hiftory held adultery in the greatett ab¬
horrence. “ Their character (fay the authors of the
Univerfal Pliftory) muft be confidered at different pe¬
riods ; for we may fay they were not always the fame
people. In the days of Abraham and Ifaac, they
were without all doubt a righteous and hofpitable na¬
tion : but afterwards a revolution in government, reli¬
gion, and morals, may have enfued. From thencefor¬
ward they became like other idolatrous nations ; the
fame enormities crept in and prevailed among them.
'I hey are conftantly mentioned in Scripture as ftran-
gers; and, though pofieffed of a moft confiderable part
<of the Eand of Promife, yet God would never fuffer
them to be driven out, they being Egyptians by de-
feent, and not original natives, whofe land only was
promifed to Abraham and his feed. Their arrogance
and ambition were great; and fo irreconcileahle was
their enmity (a) to the Ifraelites, that one would be
almoft tempted to think they were created on purpofe
to be a thorn in their fides; for though the hand of
God was evidently againft them feveral times, and par¬
ticularly when they detained the ark, yet they harden¬
ed their hearts, and clofed their eyes againft convic¬
tion. . They feem to have entertained a very fond ve¬
neration for their deities, in which they perfifled, tho*
Vot. XIV. Part II.
] PHI
they were eye-witnefies of the fhame and ignominyHiilifliner
which befel them in the prefence of the captive ark ;' r—**
nay, they were fo biafled in their favour, as to imagine
that their gods might prevail againft Him who had in
fo glaring a manner put them to fhame and difgrace.
They were much addifted to trade; which, confider-
ing their fituation, they may have exercifed from the
beginning ; but, by the acceffion of the fugitive Edo¬
mites in David’s time, they rofe to fo great a repu¬
tation as merchants, that the Greeks, it feems, pre¬
ferred them to all other nations in that refped, and
from them called all the country bordering on their*
Paleftinc. Their language was not fo different from
that fpoken by the Hebrews as to caufe any difficulty
for them to converfe together, as will be perceived by
their intercourfe with Abraham and Ifaac ; fo that, in
all this region, the feveral nations fpoke one and the
fame tongue, perhaps with fome variation of dialed.
They had doubtlefs the arts and fciences in common
with the moft learned and ingenious among their con¬
temporaries, and perhaps fome of them in greater per-
fe&ion. They had giants among them ; but whether
they were originally of the breed of the Anakims, who
retired hither when they were expelled from Hebron,
or were fprung from accidental births, is not eafily de¬
termined. We muft not forget, that the invention of
the bow and arrow is aferibed to this people.
“ Their religion was different at different times ;
under their firfl race of kings, they ufed the fame rites
with the Hebrews. Abimelech, in the fin he had like
to have committed with Sarah, through Abraham’s
timidir , was favoured with a divine admonition from
God ; a id, by his fpeech and behaviour at that time,
it feems as if he had been ufed to converfe with the
Deity. In after-times, they erred into endlefs fuper-
ftitions, and difterent kinds of idolatry; each of the
principal or five cities feemed to have had an idol of
its own. Marna, Marnas, or Marnafh, was worfhip-
ped at Gaza, and is faid to have migrated into Crete,
and to have become the Cretan Jupiter. Dagon wa*
worfhipped at Azotus ; he feenis to have been the
greateft, the moft: ancient, and mofl favourite god they
had; to which may be added, that he perhaps fubfift-
ed the longeft of any that did not ftraggle out of the
country. To him they aferibed the invention of bread-
corn, or of agriculture, as his name imports. We can¬
not enter into the common notion of his being repre-
fented as a monfter, half man half fifh ; nor confe-
quently into another almoft as common, that he is the
fame with the Syrian goddefs Derceto, who, we are
told, was reprefented under fome fuch mixed form.
Our opinion is, that this idol was in fhape wholly like
a man ; for we read of his head, his hands, and hi*
feet. He Rood in a temple at Azotus, and had priefts
of his own who paid him a very conftant attendance.
3 P Next
(a) From a paffage in Chronicles, it is guefled^o have been of very ancient date ; where it is faid, that
the men of Gath flew the children of Ephraim, w' o would have taken their cattle from them., This in¬
cident is nowhere elfe to be found ; and there are \ rious notions concerning the fenfe in which we mull take
this pafiage. As to the time of the tranfa&iou, ioft people allow it to have been while the children of
Jfrael were ^rners in Egypt. It plainly appears, by the next verfe, that Ephraim himfelf was living at
that period. The Targum fuppofes his children mifcomputed the time they were to ferve in Egypt, and be¬
gan too early an attempt upoh their Promifed Land.”
P H I [ 4§J 3 I* H 1
Piiiliftines Next to Dagon was Baalzebul) the God ofEkron. In
the text of the New Tellsment he is called Beehebub,
and the prince of devils. His name is rendered lord
of flies ; which by feme is held to be a mock appella¬
tion bellowed on him by the Jews ; but others think
him fo (lyled by his worlhippers, as Hercules Apo-
myios, and others, were, from his driving thofe in feds
.away; 2nd urge, that Ahaziah, in his ficknefs, would
fcarcely have applied to him, if his name had carried in
rt anv reproach. But it mult be remembered, it is the
facred hidorian that makes ufe of that contemptuous
term in derition; whereas the idolatrous monarch, who
w’a$ one of his votaries, might call him by his common
name, fuppofed to have been Baal •z.ebaoth, ‘ the lord
of armies,’ or Baal-fhamhn, 1 lord of heaven,’ or fome
other bordering on Baal-zebub. How, or under what
form he was reprefented, is uncertain: fome place
him on a throne, and attire him like a king ; others
paint him as a Not to dwell on this obfeurity,
k appears that he became an oracle of the higheft re¬
pute for ommfeience and veracity ; that he had priefts
of his own ; and that he, in the middle times at leall,
was much fought after by thofe who were anxious about
futurity. Derceto we take certainly to have been the
goddefs of Afcalon ; but we are fupported by pro¬
fane authority, without the leaft countenance f&m
Scripture. Gath is feemingly the only city of all the
five unprovided with a deity; wherefore, as the Scrip¬
ture declares, that Alhtaroth, or Aftarte, was wor-
(hipped by this people, we are ready to place her at
Gath, and the rather, as this of all their cities may
•have had molt communication with Sidon. To fpeak
- in general concerning their religious rites and cere¬
monies, which is all we can do, they feem to have
ere&ed very large and fpacious temples, or very wide
halls, for the celebration of their folemn feafons and
feftivals (for fuch they furely had); their religious
offices were attended with much pomp, and a great
concouife from all parts; and they prefented their
gods with the chief part, of their fpoil, and carried
them about with them when they went to war. We
do not find in Scripture that they facrlficed their chil¬
dren ; and yet the Curetes(B) are faid to be their de-
icendants.”
With refpeft tothehiftory of this extraordinary people,
we find from the above extra&, that they were not com¬
prehended in the number of nations devoted to extermi¬
nation, and whofe territory the Lord had abandoned to
the Hebrews; nor were they of the curfedfeedof Canaan.
* However, jolhua did not forbear to give their lands to
the Hebrews, and to fet upon them by command from
the Lord, becaufe they polfelTed a country which was
promifed to the people of God (Joffi- xv. 45—47- and
xiii. 2, 3.) But thefe conquefls of Jolhua mull have
been ill maintained, fince tinder the Judges, under Saul,
and at th^ beginning of the reign of David, the Phi-
liftines oppreffed the Ifiaelites. True it is, Shamgar,
Samfon, Samuel, and Saul, made head againft them,
but did not reduce their power ; and they ewntrened Pfcffiftinei,
independent down to the reign of David, who fub- Phidyre*.
jefted them to his government. J v ™J
They continued in fubjeftion to the kings of Judah
down to the reign of Jehoram, fon of Jehofhaphat ;
that is, for about 246 years. However, Jehoiam made
war againll them, and probably reduced them to his
obedience again ; becaufe it is obferved in Scripture,
that they revolted again from Uzziah ; and that this
prince kept them to their duty during the time of his
reign (2 Chx. xxi. 16. and xxvi. 6, 7.) During the
unfortunate reign of Ahaz, the Phili(lines made great
havoc in the territories of Judah; but his fon and fue-
celTor Hezekiah fubdued them (2 Chr. xxviii. 18. and
2 Kings xviii. 8.) Laftly, they regained their full li¬
berty under the latter kings of Judah ; and we may
fee by the menaces denounced againft them by the pro¬
phets Ifaiah, Amos, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and Eze¬
kiel, that they brought a thoufand hardlhips and cala¬
mities upon the children of Ifrael: for which cruelties
God threatened to punilh them. Efarhaddon betieged
Alhdod or Azoth, and took it (Ifa. xx. 1.) And ac¬
cording to Herodotus, Pfimmeticus king of Egypt
took the fame city, after a liege of 29 years. There
is great probability, that Nebuchadnezzar, when he
fubdued the Ammonites, Moabites, Egyptians, and
other nations, bordering upon the JewSj reduced alio the
Philiftines. After this, they fell under the dominion
of the Perfians ; then under that of Alexander the
Great, who deftroyed the city of Gaza, the only city
of Phoenicia that durft oppofe him. After the perfe¬
ction of Antiochns Epiphanes, the Afmonaeans fub-
jedted under their obedience feveral cities of the Phi¬
liftines ; and Tryphon gave to Jonathan Maccabseus
the government of the whole coaft of the Mediterra¬
nean, from Tyre as far as Egypt, which included all
the country of the Philiftines.
PHILLYR.EA, mock privet ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. Each flower contains two males and onetfe-
male. Some fay there are {even fpecies, all of them
fhrubby plants, and natives of France or Italy. Others
reckon only three fpecies, which are as follow :
l. Phillyrea media'; the oval leaved phillyrea or mock- P',a-
privet, or the medial leaved phillyrea, a tall evergreen^5'!^C'<,rJ,
Ihrub, native of the fouth of Europe. 2. Phillyrea la-
tifolia ; the bioad-lcaved phillyrea or mock-privet, atall
evergreen Ihrub, native of the fouth of Europe. 3.
Phillyrea anguflifolia ; the narrow-leaved phillyrea or
mock-privet, a deciduous Ihrub, native of Spain and
Italy.
I. The fir ft has three varieties, viz. The firll is the
common fmooth-leaved phillyrea. This plant grows to
be 12 or 14 feet high, and the branches are very nu¬
merous. The older branches are covered with a dark
brown bark, but the bark on the young ffioots is of a
fine green colour. They are oval, fpear-fhaped, and
grow oppofite, by pairs, on ftrong Ihort Footllalks.
(b) « The Curetes facrificed their children to Saturn ; and frpm the fimilitude this name bears to Che-
tethites or Philiftines, it has been advanced that they are the fame people ; but as we have no warrant for fay¬
ing the Philiftinea pra&ifed fo barbarous and unnatural a cuftoxn, we may venture to pronounce, that they
learned it not from them, but borrowed it elfewhere.”
PHI f 483 ]
The Bowers are produced in clufters rrom the wings during th
°f the young branches. They are fmall, and of a kind
of greeniih-white colour; they appear in March, and
are fucceeded by berries, which are firft green, then
red, and black in the autumn when ripe. The fecond
variety is the privet leaved phillyrea, which grows to
. be 10 or 1 a feet high, and the branches of which are
covered with a brown bark. The leaves a little re-
femble the privet ; they are of a fine green colour, and
grow by pairs on the branches. They are of a lan¬
ceolate figure, and their edges are entire, or nearly foj
for fome figns of ferratures fometimes appear. The
flowers grow like others in chillers in March. They
are whitifh, and are fuccceded by fmall black berries.
The third variety, or the olive-leaved phillyrea, is the
meft beautiful of all the forts. It will grow to be about
10 or 12 feet high ; and the branches, which are not
numerous, fpread abroad in a free eafy manner, which
may not improperly be faid to give the tree a fine air.
They are long and flender, and are covered with a
light brown bark; and on thefe the leaves Hand oppo¬
site by pairs at proper intervals on fliort footftalks.
They referable thofe of the olive-tree, and are of fo
delightful a green as to force elteem. 'J heir furface is
exceeding fmooth, their edges are entire, and the mem-
ijrane of a thickifh coufiftence. T he flowers arc fmall
and white, and like the other fotts make no fhovv.
They are fucceeded by Angle round ifii berries.
2. The broad-leaved phillyrea will grow to be abcut
*2 feet high. The branches feem to be produced
ftrooger and more upright than thofe of the former
fpecics. T he bark is of a grey colour, fpocted with
white, which has a pretty effeft; and the leaves grow
©ppefite by pairs. They are of a hesrt-fhaped oval fi¬
gure, of a thick confidence, and a ilrong dark-green
colour. Their edges are fharply ferrated, and ’they
Hand on fhort flrong footflalks. The flowers grow
from the wings of the leaves in clullers in March.
They are ef a kind of greenifh-white colour, make no
ihow, and are fucceeded hy fmall round black berries.
There are alfo three varieties of this fpecies, viz. the
Ilex-leaved phillyrea, the prh kly phillyrea, and the olive
phillyrea with flightly ferrated edges.
3. The narrow-leaved phillyrea is of lower growth,
feldom riling higher than 8 or 10 feet. The branches
are few and Sender, and they alfo are beautifully fpot-
ted with grey fpots. The leaves, like the others, ftand
©ppofite by pairs.. They are long and narrow, fpear-
fliaped, and undivided, of a deep green colour, and of
a thick confiftence. Their edges are entire, and they
alfo ftand on Ihort footftalks. The flowers, like the
ethers, make no fhow. They are whitifh, and grow
in clufters from the wings of the branches, in March ;
and are fucceeded by fmall round black berries. The
varieties of this fpecies are, the rofemary phillyrea, la¬
vender phillyrea, ftriped phifiyrea, &c.
This wgetable is to be propagated by feeds or
layers. r®y feeds.- fhefe ripen in the autumn, and
Ihould be town foon after. The mould rnuft be made
fine; and if it is not naturally fandy, if fome drift f»nd
be added, it will be fo much the better. The feeds for
the moft part remain until the fecond fpring before
they come up; and if they are not fown foon after
they are ripe, fome will come up even the third fpring
ftfter. They mull be fown about an inch deep; and
P H I
following fummer fliould be kept clean from Phillyrsa,
weeds. After they are come up, the fame care muft •
be obferved, and alfo watering in dry weather; and if
the beds are hooped, and the plants lhaded in the hot¬
ted: fcafon, they will be fo much the better for it.
However, at the approach of winter they muft be
hooped, and the beds covered with mats in the hardeft
frofts, otherwife there will be danger of lofing the
whole crop ; for thefe trees, though they are very
hardy when grown tolerably large, are rather tender
whilit feedlings. It will be proper to let them remain
in the feed-beds with this management for two fum-
raers; and then waiting for the firft autumnal rains,
whether in September or Oclober (and having prepa¬
red a fpot of ground), they Ihould at that jun&ure be
planted out, and this will occafion them immediately
to ftrike root. The dillance they fhould be planted
from each other need not be more than a foot, if they
are not defigned to remain long in the nurfery. If
there is a probability of their not bemg wanted for
fome years, they fhould.be allowed near double that di-
ftance; and every winter the ground in the rowsfhould
be well dug, to break their roots, and caufc them to
put out frefh fibres, otherwife they will be in danger of
being loft when brought into the fhrubbery quarters.
2. By layers they will eafily grow. The autumn is
the heft time for this operation, and the young fhoots
are fit for the purpefe. The beft way of layering them
is by making a flit at the joint; though they will
often grow well by a twill being only made. When
tne gardener choofes the method of twilling a young
branch for the layers, he muft be careful to twill it
about a joint fo as only to break the bark ; for if it is
too much twilled, it will die from that time, and his
expectations wholly vani.h. But if it be gently twill¬
ed with art and care, it will at the twilled parts be
preparing to ftrike root, and by the autumn following,
us well as thofe layers that had been flit, will have good
mntt - tfie ftrongell of which will be fit for planting
roots
where they are wanted to remain, whilil the^eaker
and worft-rooted layers may be. planted in the nurfery-
ground like the ieedlings, and treated accordingly.
PHILO, an ancient Greek writer, was of a noble
family among the Jews, and flourilhed at Alexandria
during the reign of Caligula. He was the chief of an
embalfy fent to Rome about the year 42, to plead the
caufe ot the Jews againft Apion, who was fent by the
Alexandrians to charge then; with neglecting the ho¬
nours due to Caefar. Caligula, however, would not
allow him to fpeak, and behaved to him in fuch 3 man¬
ner that Philo was in confiderable danger of lofing his
life. Others again tell us that he was heard; but°that
his demands Were refufed. He afterwards went to
Rome in the reign of Claudius; and then, Eufebius
and Jerome inform us, he became acquainted with St
Peter, with whom he was on terms of friendfliip. Pho-
tius adds, that he became a Chriftian, and afterwards,
from fome motive of refentment, renounced it. Great
part of this, however, is uncertain, for few believe that
St Peter was at Rome fo early as the reign of Clau¬
dius, if he ever was there at all.
Philo was educated at Alexandria, and made very
great progrefs in eloquence and philofopby. After
the fafhion of the time, he cultivated, like many of hie
natioo ami faith, the philofophy of Plato, whole prin-
3 P $ ciple*
PHI [484! p H I ,v _
r0 thoroughly imbibed, and whofe manner he the enemies as were taken, that they might be ren-
Philocles. f0PweU imitated, that it became a common faying, dered unfit for fervice. His plan was adopted^ ya
  “ Aut Plato philonizat, aut Philo platonizat.” Jofe-
phus fays, he was a man “ eminent on all accounts
and Eufebius defcribes him, “copious in fpeech rich
in fentiments, and fublime in the knowledge of holy
writ ” He was, however, fo much immerfed in phi-
lofophv, particularly the Platonic, that he negleded the
Hebrew language, and the rites and cuftoms of his own
people. Scaliger fays, that Philo “ knew no more of
Hebrew and Syriac than a Gaul or a Scythian.
Grotius is of opinion, that “ he is not fully to be de¬
pended on, in what relates to the manners of the He¬
brews and Cudworth goes further ; for “ though
a Jew by nation fays he), he was yet very ignorant of
Jewifh cuftoms.,, Fabricius thinks differently ; for
though he allows fome inadvertencies and errors ot
Philo with regard to thefe matters, yet he does not
fee a fufficient foundation on which to charge fo illu-
ftrious a doftor of the law with ignorance- He al
lows, however, that Philo’s paffion for philofophy had
made him more than half a Pagan ; for it led him to
interpret the whole law and the prophets upon Plato¬
nic ideas 5 and to admit nothing as truly interpreted
which was not agreeable to the principles of the aca¬
demy. Befides, this led him farther; he turned every
the ten admirals except one ; but their expeftations
were fruftrated, and inftead of being conquerors they
were totally defeated at iEgofpotamos by Lyfander,
and Phtlocles was put to death with the reft of his
colleagues.
PHILOCTETES, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of
Paean, was the faithful companion of Hercules ; who
at his death obliged him to fwear not to difeover the
1 1 1 • n   ~ 6.^ n 1 m
Philoc*.
tetes, 1
Philolaufe.
place where his afheswere interred, and prefented ^him
with his arrows dipped in the Hydra’s blood. The
Greeks at the fiege of Troy being informed fey an
oracle that they could never take that city without
thofe fatal arrows, went to Philoffetes, and intifted
upon his difeovering where he had left his friend; when
Philoitetes, to evade the guilt of perjury, let them
know where Hercules was intombed, by ftamping up¬
on the place : but he was punifhed for the violation of
his oarh, by dropping an arrow upon that foot ;
which, after giving him great agony, was at length
cured by Macaon. He was afterwards taken by Ulyf*
fes to the fiege of Troy, where he killed Paris with,
one of his arrows.
PHILOLAUS, of Crotona, was a celebrated phi-
lofopher of antiquity, of the fchool of Pythagoras,
demy.. Befides, o whom that philofopher’s Go/den Ferfes have been
thmg into allegory, and deduced the darkett mean nga ^ ^ h.# incipal objea o(
.'[cToa1:^ is Lin, iSLTan^aKed hiLlf contemplation , and ha, heenid.y (a) fnppofed to have
by itto the feoffs of Celfus and of Porphyry. Philo’s
writings abound with high and myftical, new and fub-
tile, far-fetched and abftraaed, notions; and indeed
the doftrines of Plato and Mofes are fo promifeuoufly
blended, that it is not an eafy matter to affign to
each his principles. There are certainly, however, m
his works many excellent things. Though he.is con¬
tinually Platonifing and allegorifing the Scriptures,
he abounds with fine fentiments and leffons of morali¬
ty ; and his morals are rather the morals of a Chnitian
than of a Jew. Hiftory, together with his own wri¬
tings, give us every reafon to believe that he was a
man of great prudence, conftancy, and virtue.
His works were firft publifhed in Greek by Turne-
bus at Paris 1552. A Latin tranflation made by Gele-
nius was afterwards added, and printed feveral times
with it. The Paris edition of 1640 in folio was the
beft for a whole century ; which made Cotelerms fay,
that “ Philo was an author thatdeferved to have abet¬
ter text and a better rerfion.’’ In 1 fubtietyr'but at The fame time with great obfeunty ;
edition of his work was publiftied . . J r referrinff every thing that exifts to mathematical pm-.
Mangey in two volumes folio ; which is cer y p • j ^ taught, that reafon, improved by mathe-
able if it were only ^ *e paper and prmt, Bnt ,t ta cvlea^ ^ of ?udging yco„cern,
not fo good a one as Philo dele . , , j in the nature Gf things ; that the whole work con-
Many of our readers may be ce 1 ^ ^ fuch ^ Qf infinite and finite ; that number fubfifts by it>
tails refpe£hng this celebiated ma , , ^ / r if ancj i8 the chain which by its power fullains the
therefore to Jofepbus’s Antiquities, eirnarJme of things ; thatV Monad is not the
Hipry, St Jerome s work D^cr^ ort /Voh H. of foie principle of all things, but that the Binary is n.e-
Fabrictus Bibl Grac. Caw Hift. L . cefiary to furnifli materials from which all fubfequent
Monuments of the Greek Lhurcbi , . i „r„ mav Kj, nroduced: that the world is one
PHILOCLES, an adm raU^the Ataman 8e« ““k wS ht a'fit “emre, about which the ten
|htrha0„7oEftch of ceiellial fpherea revolve, heaven, the fun, the planeta.
been the author of that true fyftem of the world which
Copernicus afterwards revived.- 1 his made Bullialdus
place the name of Philolaus at the head of two works,
written to illuftrate and confirm that fyftem.
“ He was (fays Dr Enfield) a difciple of Archytas, jjy ey
and flourifhed in the time of Plato. It was from him Pbilofofbp
that Plato purchafed the written records of the Pytha¬
gorean fyftem, contrary to an exprefs oath taken by
the fociety of Pythagoreans, pledging themfelves to
keep fecret the myfteries of their feft. It is probable,
that among thefe books were the writings of rimseus,
upon which Plato formed the dialogue which bore his
name. Plutarch relates, that Philolaus was one of the
perfons who efcaped from the houfe which was burned
by Cylon, during the life of Pythagoras ; but this ac¬
count cannot be corredf. Philolaus was contemporary
with Plato, and therefore certainly not with Pythago¬
ras. Interfering in affairs of Hate, he fell a facrifics
to political jealoufy.
“Philolaus Heated the do&rine of nature with great
'(A) We fay idly, bccaufiTtfcere is undoubted evidence that Pythagoras learned that fyftem m Egypfe
See Ptui-osoPHy. , / .
P H I
PhUoIaus. the earth, and the moon ; that the fun has a vitreous
furface, whence the fire diffufed through the world is
reflefted, rendering the mirror from which it is re-
fle<?ed vifible ; that all things are preferved in harmo¬
ny by the law of neceffity; and that the world is liable
to deftru&ion both by fire and by water. From this
[ 48* 1
P H I
fummary of the do&rine of Philolaus it appears pro¬
bable, that, following Timaeus, whofe writings he pof.
feffed, he fo far departed from the Pythagorean fyftem
as to conceive two independent principles in nature, God
and Matter, and that it was from the fame fource that
Plato derived his dottrine upon this'fubject,”
Fhilolaus.
PHILOLOGY.
Definition.
gratify our readers of every defeription to the utmoiV
of our power, we fhall endeavour in this place to com¬
municate to them as much information upon that fub-
je6t as the extent of our reading, and the limits prs-
feribed one fiugle article, will permit.
Before we enter upon this fubjedt, we muft obferve,
that it is not our intention to fill our pages with a
PHILOLOGY is compounded of the two Greek
words and and imports “ the defire of
inveftignting the properties and affedions of words.*'
The fages of Greece were, in the moft ancient times,
denominated that is, wife men. Pythagoras re¬
nounced this pompous appellation, and aflumed the
more humble title of ^xoc-opo? that is, a lover of wife
men. J he learned Greeks were afterwards called phi- tedious, uninterefting, catalogue ot barbarous langua-
lofophers ; and in procefs of time, in imitation of this ges, fpoken by favage and incor-fiderable tribes, of
epithet, the wordwas adopted, to import “ a which little, or perhaps nothing, more is known
man deeply verfed in languages, etymology, antiqui- than barely their names. Such an enumeration would
ties, See.” Hence the tzrm philology, which denotes fwell the article without communicating one fingle new
the fcience that we propofe briefly to difeufs in the idea to the reader’s antecedent flock We fhall there-
following article. fore confine our inquiries to fuch languages as have
Though philology, in its original import, denoted been ufed by confiderable Hates and focieties, and
only the fludy of words and language, it gradually ac¬
quired a much more extenfive, and at the fame time a
much more ufeful, as well as more exalted, fignification
which of confequence have acquired a high degree of
celebrity in the regions of the eaft. 4
^ What was the antediluvian language, or whether it Variety of^
Cbjedb and It comprehended the ftudy of grammar, criticifm, ety- was divided into a variety of dialefts as at this dayjdiab&s be*
lology. ^ 1*™0J°gy> the interpretation of ancient authors, antiqui- can only be determined by the rules of analogy ; and j°je t*le
ties ; and, in a word, every thing relating to ancient thefe will lead us to believe, that whatever might have e J^es>
manners, laws, religion, government, language, &c. been the primitive language of mankind, if human
In this enlarged fenfe of the word, philology becomes nature was then conftituted as it is at prefent, a great
a fcience of the greateft utility; opens a wide field of variety of dialedls muft of neceffity have fprung up
intelledlual inveftigation ; and indeed calls for a m®re in the fpace of near 2000 years. If we adopt the Mo-
intenfe exertion ofinduftry, and multifarious erudition, fait: account of the antediluvian events, we muft admit
than moft of thofe departments of literature which that the defeendants of Cain for fome ages lived fe-
cuftom hath dignified with more high-founding names, parated from thofe of Seth. Their manner of life.
It is indeed apparent, that, without the aid of philo- their religious ceremonies, their laws, their form of
logical ftudies, it is impoffible, upon many occafions, government, were probably different, and thefe cir-
to dsvelope the origin ot nations; to trace their pri- cumttances would of courfe produce a variety in their
mary frame and conftitution ; to difeover their man
ners, cuftoms, laws, religion, government, language,
progrefs in arts and arms; or to learn by what men
end what meafures the moft celebrated ftates of an¬
tiquity rofe into grandeur and confideration. The
ftudy of hiftory, fo eminently ufeful to the legiflator,
the divine, the military man, the lawyer, the philofo-
pher, and the private gentleman who wi/hes to employ
his learned leifure in a manner honourable and impro¬
ving to himfelf, and ufeful to his country, will con¬
tribute very little towards enlightening the mind with¬
out the aid of philological refearches. For thefe rea-
fons we ftiall endeavour to explain the various branch¬
es @f that ufeful fcience as fully and as intelligibly as
the nature of the prefent undertaking will permit
language. The pofterity of Cain were an inventive
race. They found out the art of metallurgy, mufic,
and fome think of weaving; and in all probability
many other articles conducive to the eafe and accommo¬
dation of life were the produce of their ingenuity.
A people of this charadler muft have paid no fmall re- 5
gard to their words and modes of expreffion. Wherexefpeciallj-
ever mufic is cultivated, language will naturally be im-arnon£ tfie
proved and rehned. When new inventions are intro-
duced, a new race of words and phrafes of neceffity
fpring up, correfponding to the recent ftock of ideas
to be intimated. Befides, among an inventive race of
people, new vocables would be continually fabricated,
in order to fupply the deficiencies of the primitive
language, which was probably fcanty in words, and
Moft of the branches oi philology have been already its phrafeology unpoliffied. The Cainites, then, among-
ivallp/'i nn.i*-r t-h/*     77 .1 • x • ... - - . ^
Objeft of canvaffed under the various heads of Critic sm, Ety
this article, mo logy, Grammar, Language, &c. Tiiere "ill re¬
mains one part, which has been either flightly touched
upon, or totally omitted, under the foregoing topics ;
we mean, the nature and complexion ot moft of the
oriental tongues; as alfo fome of the radical dialefts
of the languages of the welt* As we .would willingly
their other improvements, cannot well be fuppefed to
have negle&td the cultivation of language.
Many conje&ures have been hazarded both by an¬
cient and modern authors with refpedl to the origin of
writing; an art nearly conne&ed with that of fpeaking.
According to Pliny*, “ the Affyrian letters had al-* Not. h$i
ways exifted pfome imagined that letters had been in‘lib- Vli-
i vemedclP-5s-
6
Origin of
writing.
486 PHILO
Hiftory of vented by tire Egyptian Mercury ; others aferibed the
honour of the invention to the Symns.M The truth
feems to be, that letters were an antediluvian invention,
preferved among the Chaldeans or AHyrians, who
were the immediate defeendants of Noah, and inhabi¬
ted thofe very regions in the neighbourhood-of which
the ark. refted, and where thnt patriarch afterwards
fixed his reiidtnee. This circumftance, we think, af¬
fords a firong prefumption that the ufe of letters was
known before the deluge, and tranfmitted to the Af-
fyrians and Chaldeans by Noah their progenitor, or
at leafl by their immediate anceftors of his family. If,
then, the art of writing was an antediluvian invention,
we think that in all probability it originated among
the polterity of Cain.
The defeendants of Seth, according to the oriental
tradition, were chiefly addicted to agriculture and
tending of cattle. They devoted a great part of their
time to the exercifes of piety and devotion. From this
circumftance they came to be dillinguiflied by the title
of the (k)fons of God. According tothisdelcriptioti,
the Sethites were a fimple (b), unimproved race of
people till they mingled with the race of Cain; after
which period they at once adopted the improvements
and the vices of that wicked family.
It is not, however, probable, that all the defeen*
dants of Seth, without exception, mingled with the
Cainites. That family of which Noah was defeended
"had not incorporated with the race of Cain : it was,
according to the facred hiftorian, lineally defeended
from Seth, and had preferved the worlhip of the true
God, when, it is probable, the greateft part of man¬
kind had apoftatifed and become idolaters (c). Along
with the true religion, the progenitors of Noah had
preferved that fimplicity of manners and equability of
chara&er which had diftinguilhed their remote an¬
ceftors. Agriculture and rearing cattle had been their
favourite occupations. Accordingly we find, that the
patriarch Noah, immediately “ after the deluge,” be¬
came a hufbandman, and “ planted a vineyard.” The
chofen patriarchs,who doubtlefs imitated their pious an¬
ceftors, were Ihepherds, and employed in rearing and
tending cattle. Indeed there are ftrong prefumptions
that the Chaldeans, Affyrians, Syrians, Canaanites,
and Arabians, in the earlielt ages followed the fame
profefiion.
From this deduflion, we imagine it is at leaft pro¬
bable, that the anceftors of Noah perfifted in the ob-
fervance of the fame fimplicity of manners which had
LOGY.
been handed down from Adam to Seth, and from hiitil-»ngttag%
to Enoch, Methlifelah, Lamech, and from this laft to
Noah. According both to feripture and tradition,
innovations were the province of the Cainites, while
the defeendants of Seth adhered to the primitive and
truly patriarchal inftitutions. ■* ^
If thefe premifes are allowed the merit of probabi-The origin
lity, we may juftly infer that the language of Noah,nallan-
whatever it was, differed very little from that of A-
dam (d) ; and that if it is poffible to afeertain the the famiiy
language of the former, that of the latter will of from which
courfe be difeovered. We fhall then proceed to throw Noah
together a few obfervations relating to the language
of Noah, and leave our readers to judge for themfelves.
Wc believe it will be fuperfluous to fuggeft, that our
intention in the courfe of this dedu&ion, is, if pof¬
fible, to trace the origin and antiquity of the Hebrew
tongue ; and to try to difeover whether that language,
or any of its filler dlaledls, may claim the honour of
being the original language of mankind.
Whatever may have been the dialeft of Noah and
his family, that fame dialed, according to the Mofaic
account, muft have obtained, without any tlteration,
till the era of the building of the tower of Babel.—
Upon th’s occafion a dreadful convulfion took place:
the language of mankind was confounded, and men
were featured abroad upon the face of all the earth. 8
How far this cataftrophe (e) extended, is nst the Confufio*
bufmefs of the prefent inquiry to determine. ^netoweroc
thing is certain beyond all controverfy, namely* that
the languages of all'the nations which fettled near the
centre of population were but (lightly affe&ed by its
influence. A very judicious writer has obferved *, that * strait*
3000 years after, the inhabitants of thofe countries ex¬
hibited a very ftrong refemblance of cognation, “ in
their language, manner of living, and the lineaments of
their bodies. At the fame time he ohferves, that the
refemblance in all thofe particulars was mod remark¬
able among the inhabitants of Mefopotamia.” This
observation, with refpeft to language, will, we doubt
not, be vouched by every one of our readers who has
acquired even a fuperficial knowledge of the languages
current in thofe quarters, at a very early period.
It appears, then, that the languages of the Arme¬
nians, Syrians, Affyrians, Arabians, and probably of
the Chanaanim, did not fuffer materially by the cor*,
fufxon of tongues. This obfervation may, we ima¬
gine, be extended to many of the diale&s (f) fpoken
fey the people who fettled in thofe countries not far di-
ftant
(a) From this paffage (Gen. ch. vi. ver. 2.) mifunderftood, oiiginated the abfurd idea of the conneftien
between angels and mortal women. See Jcfeph. AnUq. Jud. 1. 1. cap. 4. See Eufeb. Chron. lib. 1. All the
fathers of the church, almoft without exception, adopted this foolilh notion. See alfo Philo. Jud. p. 19b. ea.
^ Tb) The orientals, however, affirm that Seth, whom they call Edris, was the inventor of aftronomy.
(c) We think it highly probable that Tdolatry was tftablilhed before the flood ; becaufe it prewiled almoft
immediately after that cataftrophe. See Polytheism. ,r j, r »
(d) For the firft language communicated to Adam, fee the article on Language ; alro Shenckford’t Lonnett.
Vol. I. 1. ii. p. IU* ei feq. , r
(e) Jofephus and the fathers of the church tell us, that the number of languages produced by the coutu-
fion of tongues was 72 {but this is a mere rabbinical legend. > , . •
(f) The languages of the Medes, Perfians, Phoenicians, and Egyptians, very much refembled each other m
Sheir original complexion ; and til had a ftrong affinity to the Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, &c. See Waltoa *
* PHILO
Hiftory of ftmt from tke fegioa where the facred hiftorian has
flKtd the original feat of mankind after the deluge
The tnferenre then is, that if Noah and his family
fpoke the original language of Adam, as they moft
profably did, the judgment which affe&ed the confu-
fion of tongues did not produce any considerable al¬
teration in the language of fuch of" the defendants
of Noah as fettled near the region where that pa¬
triarch had fixed hig refidence after he quitted the
5 ark.
S&kinl ^PPofing the changes of language produced
engaged in by the cataftrophe at the building of the tower as
IbaiJdingthe confiderable as has ever been imagined, it does not
Hawer, after all, appear certain that all mankind
L O G Y.
4S7
# Gen.
of mankind , . n ~°, 6-» v,* prouucea
by the cataftrophe at the building of the tower as
_ ; confiderable as has ever been imagined, it does not
tower, after all, appear certain that all mankind without ex'
ception were engaged in this impious projeft. If this
afi'ertion (hould be well founded, the confequence will
he, thr.t there was a chofen race who did not engage
in that enterprife. If there was fuch a family," fo-
ciety, or body of men, it will follow, that this family,
lociety, See. retained the language of its great anceftor
without change or variation. That farh a family did
actually exift, is highly probable, for the following
deafens; 6
1. We think there is reafon to believe, that Ham,
upon the heavy curfe denounced upon him by his fa¬
ther J, retired from his brethren, and fixed his re¬
fidence elfevvhere. Accordingly, we find his defeen-
dants Icattered far and wide, at a very great diftance
from the Gordycean mountains, where the ark is ge¬
nerally fuppofed to have refted immediately after the
flood. Some of them we find in Chaldea, others in
Arabia Felix, others in Ethiopia (c), others in Ca-
naan, and others in Egypt ; and, finally, multitudes
Icattered over all the coait of Africa. Between thofe
countries were planted many colonies of Shemites, in
Elam, Aflyna, Syria, Arabia, &c. We find, at the
fame time, the defeendants of Shetn and Jipheth fet¬
tled, in a great degree, contiguous to each other. This
difperuon of the Hamites, irregular as it is, can
fcarce, we think^ have been accidental] it mult have
been owing to fome uncommon caufe, and none feems
more probable than that affigned above. If, then,
the defendants of Ham feparated early, and took dif¬
ferent routs, as from their pofterior fituations it ap¬
pear^ they did, they could not all be prefent at the
buildirrg of the tower.
tnoie 2‘ ^ not probable that the defeendants of Shem
nat the de- were engaged in this undertaking, fince we find that
pendants they were not atrocJ upon the face of all the
!! Phan x eTtbi chlIdren oF Snem were II Elam, Afliur,
iciXe fi ArPhaxad» Lud, and Aram. Elam fettled near the
of the river Figyis, in the country which, bv
10
and thufe
Gentile writers, was called Zfmais. Above him, ou Lavage
the lame river, lay the demefne of Alhur on the we-  v—1
hern fide. In like manner, upon the fame river, above
him was fituated Aram, who pofftfTed the country ot
Aramea; and oppofite to him was Arphaxad, or Ar-
haces or Arbaches, and his country was denomiaa.
ted Arphachitis. LuJ, as fome think, fettled in Ly¬
dia, among the fons of Japhet; but this opinion feems
to be without foundation (*,). Here, then, there is
Qilperfion, but fuch as muft have originated from the
nature of the thing. The four, or rather the five, bro¬
thers, all fettled contiguous, without being fcatiered
abroad upon (he face of the whole earth. Befides, there
was no confufion of language among thefe tribes ;
they continued to ufe one and the fame Up through
many fueceeding generations.
From thefe circumftances, it appears that the po The’!-
itemy of Shem were not involved in the guilt oftheRuage<*
builders of the tower, and of cenfequence did not un- Adam Pr«-
de,-go their punifliment. If, then, the language of
^e .S ^mite8 'vas ^t confounded upon the eredion ly 0f
of the tower, the prefumption is, that they retained ^
the Janguage of Noah, which, in all probability, was
that of Adam. Some dmledical differences would in
procefs of time creep in, but the radical fabric of the
language would remain unaltered.
3- I'he po (ferity of Shem appear in general to have
cultivated the paltoral life. They imitated the ftyle
of living adopted by the antediluvian oofterity of
heth. No fooner had Noah defended from the arks
an he became JJb ha Adamah, a man of the earth ;
that is, a hufbundman, and planted a vineyard. We
find that fome ages after, Laban the Syrian had flocks
and herds; and that the chief wealth of the patri-
ich Abraham and his children coniifted in their
life8 h,- r Vt'n 1x13 Gent!’le d^«ndants, the
Ifhmaehtes and Midiamtes, fern to have followed the
fame occupation But people of this profeffion are
feldom given to changes : their wants are few, and of
confequence they are under few or no temptations to
deviate from the beaten track. This circumftance ren-
with rhTba/ Anthat thc lanSua2e of Noah, the fame
With that Of Adam, was preferved with little varia- .IS
brahaam°ng ^ defcendants of Arpbaxad down to A- dowiTt®
We have obferved above, that Ham, upon the curfe ^
denounced agaipft hrm by his father, very probably
It t the fociety of his other brothers, and einiVrated
elfewhtre, a. Cain had done in the antedilnvian Lrid
here 18 a tradition ftiU current in the Eaft, and which
was adopted h, many of the Chriftian fathers ( ,), ,|,aj
Noah, m the 93oth yearof his life, b, divine Appoint
^ ment,
thef/we may add the Greek lang™gt as will atpelj'nfofe' tuUy"flow ^ ^ “d t*J- To
[I] JTtt:i.'ntfr 0“^ td!i fj'ZzFAF E hhipian.^,, cip.
The Lydians were celebrated for inventing games • on wL b° I ?* paSe 586. chap. 7. Rhod. 577,
Greeks ^ Lydi or Ludi, from the Hebrew words Irt-'t'd nicknamed by the Aiolian
«vii. ver. to.) thc men of Elam and the men of l “T'- a’ We find (Ezek. chap
;Dhe wtre
4*8 PHILO
Hiftory of ment, did, in the mofl formal manner, divide the
^ whole terraqueous globe among his three fons, obli¬
ging them to take an oath that they would ftand by
the decifion. Upon this happened a migration at the
birth of Peleg, that is, about three centuries after the
flood. It is affirmed, that Nimrod the arch-rebel difre-
garded this partition, and encroached upon the ter¬
ritory of Affiur, which accafioned the firft war after
the flood. 4
• U'e 'ttant»«rrju: was Babelthat this “chief,
tion, which they fuppofed to ha J fuoported by all the Cufhites, and a great number of rhe chil-
* piter 1, Neptune, and Pluto. Plato leems to nave inppo , r .,_r Gl_„
bJ. heard of it (k) ; “ For (fays he) the gods of old ob-
Hom. ^'^htaincd the dominion of the whole earth, according to
lib. xv. the;r |HjTcrent allotments. This was effiefted without
any contention, for they took pofleffion of their feve-
. ral provinces in a fair and amicable way, by lot.
« *„t. Jud. Jofephusf, in his account of the difperfion of mankind,
J .r. .n, j. Philo fu-
LOGY.
ne of the defcendants of Ham, fettled in that coun- tangnage.
try, we are fure th t they were the offspring of that ’ 'r~m^
patriarch. It would not, we think, be eafy to affign
a reafon how one branch of the family of Ham came
to plant itfelf in the midft of the fons of Shem by any
other means but by violence.
It is indeed generally fuppofed, that Nimrod, at
the head of a body of the children of Ham, made war
upon Alhur, and drove him out of the country of Shi- 13
'Upon rx.uiur, rtliu laiw - rpi
nar; and there laid the foundation of that kingdom. The tower
lib.
1. c. 5
, I Olcpilub'y * ii* 1110 r nL*l r
plainly inlinuates a divine deftination ; and Philo Ju-
dtms (l) was of the fame opinion before him.
In confequence of this arrangement, the Ions ot
Shem poffefled themftlves of the countries mentioned
in the preceding pages: the poftenty of Japhet ha
fpread themfelves towards the north and welt ; but the
Hamites, who had feparated from their brethren in
confequence of the curfe, not choofing to retire to
-their quarters, which were indeed very diftant from
the place where the ark refted, feized upon the land
of Canaan (m). Perhaps, too, it might be fuggefted
by fome malicious fpirits, that the aged patriarch was
dealing partially, when he affigned Ham and his po-
fterity a quarter of the world to inhabit not only re¬
mote from the centre of population, but hkew.fe fe-
oueftered from the reft of mankind (n ).
4 Be that as it may, the children of Ham removed
eaftward, and at length defending from the Cardu-
chean or Gordytean mountains, direfted their courfe
weftward, and arrived at the plains of Shinar, which
had been poffeM by tha Alhurim ever f,net the era
of the firft migration at the birth of
cred hiftorian informs us, that the whole ^ was
of one language and of one fpeech that in jour¬
neying from the eaft, they lighted upon the plain of
Shinar, and dwelt there. In this paffage we find no
particular people fpecified j but as we find Nim ,
iUppUlLCU is] «*** ^ ^ 0 1 t 1 f
apoftates from the family of Shem and Japhet who dren of
had joined him, refufed to fubmit to the divine ordi-Ham.
nance by the mouth of Noah, with refpeft to the par¬
tition of the earth; and that he and his adherents
were the people who ere&ed the celebrated tower, in
confequence of a refolution which they had formed to
keep together, without repairing to the quarters af-
figned them by the determination of Heaven. This
was the crime which brought down the judgment of
the Almighty upon them, by which they were feat-
tered abroad upon the face of all the earth. Fhe mans
body of the children of Shem and Japhet were not
engaged in this impious undertaking ; their language,
therefore, was not confounded, nor were they them¬
felves fcattered abroad. Their habitations were con¬
tiguous ; thofe of the Shemites towards the centre of
Afia ; the dwellings of Japhet were extended, towards
the north and north-weft ; and the languages of both
thefe families continued for many ages without the
leaft variation, except what time, climate, laws, reli¬
gion, new inventions, arts, fciences, and commerce,
&c. will produce iu every tongue in a fuccefiion of
^ The general opinion then was, that none but the
progeny of Ham and their affociates were prefent at
the building of the tower, and that they only fuffered
by the judgment (o) confequent upon that attempt.
There are even among the Pagans fonae allufions to
the divifion of the world among the three fona of
Noah. Many of the learned have imagined that this
patriarch was Saturn ; and that his three fons were
Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, as has been obferved
above. _
Ber©-
f Rl Critias, vol. 3. pas. 109. SCrr. Apollodorua mentions a time when the gods refpeamdy fekaed par-
tlcnlar cities and regions, whi^theywete to «ke under teir Js'd'l'fttibution (Dent. ch. xxxii.
(n) L. 10. p. 236. Turn. Pans 1552. » P inheritance, when he feparated the fons of A-
«r. 7.) “ When the mod ^ of thc children of 1^ ; for the Lord’s por-
dam, he fets the bounds of the peop , • . f „ From thi3 paffage it appears, that the whole wae
tion is his people ; Jacob is tae o o Canaan was cxprefsly referved for'the children
arranged bytheappomtment o^o^an^tht rte land o ^ .lGod made of one blood
ad Nations of men, to to dwell on aU the face of the earth, and determ,ned the bounda of them ha-
“mark, according to the mod P^/Xt"^ f-ily of
them from the reft of mankind. _ confufion of language, which the Hebrew calls of Lip, was
removed. Thh they are led to eonclude.
Tom the agreement of the language, of thefe people an after tunes.
PHILO
Hiftory of Berofua *, in his hiftory of the Babylonians, in-
formg that Noah, at the foot of Mount Baris or
Luban, where the ark refted, gave his children their
laft inftructions, and then vanifhed out of fight. It is
now generally believed that the Xithrufus of Berofus
f fiufci. was Noah. Eupolemus f, another Heathen writer,
£v. teJi8 ug> u that the city Babel was firft founded, and
lib. 9. afterwards the celebrated tower; both which were built
by feme of thofe people who efcaped the deluge. They
were the fame with thofe who in after times were ex¬
hibited under the name of giants. The tower was
at length ruined by the hand of the Almighty, and
thofe giants were fcattered over the whole earth.’*
This quotation plainly intimates, that according to
the ©pinion of the author, only the rafcally mob of the
Hamites, and their apoftate afibciates, were engaged in
this daring enterprize.
Indeed it can never be fuppofed that Shem, if he
was alive at that period, as he certainly was, would
co-operate in fuch an abfurd and impious undertaking.
That devout patriarch, we think, would rather em¬
ploy his influence and authority to divert his defeend-
ants from an attempt which he knew was undertaken
in contradiftion to an exprefs ordinance of Heaven :
and it is furely very little probable that Elam, Alhur,
Arphaxad, and Aram, would join that impious con¬
federacy, in oppofition to the remonftrances of their
father.
The building of the tower, according to the moil
probable chronology, was undertaken at a period fo
late, that all mankind could not poflibly have concur¬
red in the enterprize.
Many of the fathers were of opinion, that Noah
fettled in Armenia, the country where the ark refted;
and that his defeendants did not leave that region for
f Epiph. five generations ;{;, during the fpace of 659 years. By
Hurt/. this period the human race muft have been fo amazing-
J0- *• Jy multiplied, that the plains of Shinar could not have
contained them. According to the Samaritan Pen¬
tateuch, and the Septuagint verfion, Peleg was born
in the 134th year of his father Eber. Even admitting
the vulgar opinion, that the tower was begun to be
built, and the difperfion confequent upon that event
to have taken place at this era, the human race would
have been by much too numerous to have univerfally
concurred in one defign.
Fr«m thele circumftances, we hope it appears that
the whole mafs of mankind was not engaged in build¬
ing the tower; that the language of all the human
race was not confounded upon that occafion; and that
the difperfion reached only to a combination of Ha¬
mites, and of the moft profligate part of the two
cither families, who had joined their wicked confede¬
racy.
Vol.XIV. Part II.
LOGY. 489
We have puffued this argument to con fide table Language,
length, be; aufe fome have inferred, from the differ- —v-—’'
ence in languages exifting at this day, that mankind rhen4ore
cannot have fprung from two individuals; becaufe, the original
from the connedtion ftill exifting among languages, language
fome have been bold enough to queftion the fa£t, Prt!'erve<?
though plainly recorded in facred hiftory ; and laftly, ^ fa^^eP
becaufe we imagine that fome of our readers, who do lies,
not pretend to perufe the writings of the learned, may
be gratified by feeing the various opinions refpe&ing
the confufion of tongues, and the difperfion of man¬
kind, collected into one mafs, equally brief, we hope,
and intelligible : and this view of thefe opinions, with
the foundations on which they refpedlively reft, we
think may fuffice to prove, that the language of Noah
was for fome ages preferved unmixed among the de¬
feendants of both Shem and Japhet.
To gratify ftill farther fuch of our curious readers
as may not have accefs to more ample information, ^
we (hall in this place exhibit a brief detail of the cir¬
cumftances which attended this fatal attempt. The
people engaged in it have been held up as a profligate
race. The Almighty himfelf denominates them “ the
children of men,’1 which is the very appellation by
which the antediluvian finners were chara&erized ;
the fans of God fail) the daughters of men, Sic. Their
defign in raifing this edifice was “ to mak* them a name,
and to prevent their being fcattered abroad upon the face
of the whole earth * * Gen.
Whatever refolution the reft of mankind might chaP’X1**
take, they had-determined to maintain themfelves on
that fpot. The tower was intended as a centre of
union, and perhaps as a fortrefs of defence. Such a
ftupendous fabric, they imagined, would immortalize
their memory, and tranfmit the name of their confe¬
deracy with eclat (p) to future ages. This defign
plainly intimates, that there was only a party con¬
cerned in the undertaking, fince, had all mankind been
engaged in it, the purpofe would have been foolifli
and futile. Again, they intended, by making them-
felves a name, to prevent their being fcatcered abroad
upon the face of the earth. This was an adt of re¬
bellion in diredl contradiftion to the divine appoint¬
ment, which conftituted their crime, and brought
down the judgment of Heaven upon their guilty
heads. The confequence of the confufion of languages
was, that the projeftors left off to build (qJ, and
were adlually fcattered abroad, contrary to their in¬
tention.
Abydenus, in his Affyrian annals, records, that the pafr.fn tra-
(r) “ tower was carried up to heaven ; but that thedition coni
gods ruined it by ftorms and whirlwinds, and over- cerning the
threw it upon the heads of thofe who were employed t?wer
in the work, and that the ruins of it were called J?a-
3 Q_ bylon.
f p) Many foolifh and abfurd notions have been entertained concerning this ftruefure. Some have imagined
that they meant to take {helter there in cafe of a fecond deluge; others, that it was intended for idolatrous
purport's; others, that it was to be employed as an obfervatory. Its dimenfiona have likewife been molt
extravagantly magnified. Indeed Strabo, 1. 16. mentions a tower of immenfe fize remaining at Babylon in
his time, the dimenfions of which were a ftadium every way. This, however, feems to have been the remains
ef the temple of Bel or Belus.
(ci_ For a defeription of the tower, fee the article Babel.
(r) See the Greek original of this quotation, Eufeb, Chron. lib. 1. page 13.
* Ph'tllp.
lib. i3.
«i>- 3*
490 PHILO
Hiftory r>( fiyfon. Before tliere was but one language fubfift-
<L"“ 'f~m~ ing among men : but now there arofe »-oxu9?>!p»v», a ma¬
nifold fpeech ; and he adds, that a war foon after broke
out between (s) Titan and Cronus.” (r)The Sybilline
oracles give much the fame account of this early and
important tranfaftion.
Juftin * informs us, that the Phoenicians who built
Tyre were driven from Aflyriabyan earthquake. Thrfe
Phoenicians were thedefcendants of Mizraim theyoung-
eft fon of Ham ; and were, we think, confederates in
building the tower, and were driven away by the ca-
faftrophe that enfued. Many other allufions to the
difperfion of this branch of the family occur in Pa¬
gan authors, which the limits to be obferved in an in¬
quiry of this nature oblige us to omit. Upon the
whole, we think it probable that the country of Shi-
nar lay defolate for fome time after this revolution ;
for the dread of the judgment inflifted upon the ori¬
ginal inhabitants would deter men from fettling in that
inaufpicious region. At laft, however, a new co¬
lony arrived, and Babel, or Babylon, became the ca¬
pital of a flourifhing kingdom.
Our readers, we believe, will expeft that we fhould
fay fometbing of Nimrod the mighty hunter, who is
generally thought to have been deeply concerned in
the tranfa&ions of this period. According to moll
authors, both ancient and modern, this patriarch was
the leader of the confederates who erefted the tower,
and the chief inftigator to that enterprize. But if the
tower was built at the birth of Pheleg, according to
the" Hebrew computation, that chief was f either a
child, or rather not born at that period (u). The
Seventy have pronounced him a giant, as well as a
huntfman. They have tranllated the Hebrew word
gebur, which generally fignifies Jlrong, mighty, by the
word rt/> «c giant; an idea which we imagine thofe
tranflators borrowed from the Greeks. The antedilu¬
vian giants are called Nephelim and Rephaim, but never
Gelurim. The Rabbinical writers, who juftly hated the
Babylonians, readily adopted this idea (x); and the fa¬
thers of the church, and the Byzantine hiftorians,
have univerfally followed them. He has been called
Nimrod, Nebrod, Nymbroth, Nebroth, and Nebris. Not
a few have made him the fab. Bacchus, and compounded
his name of Bar, a fon, and Cujh, that is, the fon of
Cufo. Some have imagined that he was the Orion of
the Pagans, whofe fhade is fo nobly defcribed by Ho-
\ Odyf. 1. 1. mer %. But the etymology of this laft name implies
verb $71. fomething (y) honourable, and very unfuitable to the
idea of the tyrant Nimrod. It muft be obferved, however,
f Bochar.
JPbaleg.
bb. I.
cap 10.
LOGY.
that we find nothing in Scripture to warrant the Arp- Banfruagr,
pofxtion of his having been a tyrant; fo far from it, —-v—-■*'
that (z) fome have deemed him a benefa&or to man¬
kind. See Nimrod.
The beginning of this prince’s kingdom was Babel.
Eufebius gives us firft * a catalogue of fix kings of the * Cbren.
Chaldaeans, and then another of five kings of Ara-lll>-I*
bian extraftion, who reigned in Chaldsea after them. ^ag‘ ,4*
This might naturally enough happen, fince it appears
that the inhabitants of thofe parts of Arabia which
are adjacent to Chaldea were a&ually Cufhites, of the
ffame family with the Babylonians. t ^cn. r.
The Cufhites, however, were at laft fubdued, per.®ze^’xxv***
haps partly expelled Chaldea by the Chafidim, who
probably claimed that territory as the patrimony of
their progenitors. That the Chafidim were neither
Cujhites, nor indeed Hamites, is obvious from the name.
The Hebrews, and indeed all the Orientals deno-f Joftfb.
ruinated both the people who inhabited the eaftern/*"* U*. r*
coaft of Arabia Cujhim, and alfo the Ethiopians whoca^‘ 6c
fprung from the laft mentioned people. Had the later
inhabitants of Chaldea been the defcendants of Cufh,
the Jewifh writers would have called them Gufhim.
We find they called the Phoenicians Chanaanim, the
Syrians Aramim, the Egyptians Mizraim, the Greeks
'Jonim, &c. The Chafidim, therefore, or modern in¬
habitants of Chaldea, were pofitively defcended of one
Chefed or Chafed ; but who this family-chief was,
it is not eafy to determine. The only perfon of that
name whom we meet with in early times is the fourth
fonofNahor$, the brother of Abraham; and fome..
have been of opinion that the Chaldeans were the pro- verfc
geny of this fame Chefed. This appears to us high¬
ly probable, beeaufe both Abram and Nahor were j[ || Gen.
natives of Ur of the Chafidim. The former, we know, chaf>•
in confequence of the divine command, removed t0vcrea8*
Haran, afterwards Charra ; but the latter remained
in Ur, where his family multiplied, and, in procefs
of time, became matters of the country which they
called the land of the Chafidim, from Chefed or Chafed,
the name of their anceftor. This account is the more
probable, as we find the other branches of Nahor’s
family fettled in the fame neighbourhood (a).
How the Greeks came to denominate thefe people Origin of
^aUaioi Chaldcei, is a queftion rather difficult to be re-the name
folved ; but we know that they always affe&ed toChaUs.
diftinguiffi people and places by names derived from
their own language. They knew a rugged, erratic
nation (b) on the banks of the river Thermodon, in
the territory of Pontus, bordering on Armenia the
Lefs
(9) This war was probably carried on between the leaders of the Hamites and Afhur upon their invafion.
(t) Theoph. ad Antol. 1. 2. page 107. ed. Paris 1636.
(u) Gen. chap. 10. verfe 8, 9. “ This man began to be * giant upon the earth; he was the giant hunter
before the Lord God.—As Nymbrod giant hunter before the Lord.
(x) See Mr Bryant’s Analyfis, vol. 3. page 34. et feq.
(y) Orion is compounded of the Hebrew Or “ light,” and ion “one of the names of the fun and O-
rion was probably one of the names of that luminary.
(z) See Shuckford’s Connect, vol. 1. 1. 3. page 179, 180. Alfo the authors of the Univer. Hift. vol. 1.
( a) Huz gave name to the country of Job ; Elihu, one of Job’s friends, was a Buzite of the kindred of Ram or
Aram, another of the fons of Nahor. Aram, whofe pofterity planted Syria cava, was the grandfon of Nahor by
Kemuel. Hence it appears probable that Job himfelf was a defeendant of Nahor by Huz his firft born.
(b) See Euftat. in Dion. Petieg. ver. 768. Strabo, 1.12. page 543. Cafaub. As the Chalybes were famous for
manufa&uriug
*fufUn»
I. cap.
Hi {lory of I-efs. Thefe, in ancient times, were called Alybes, or
t"" Chalybes, becaufe they were much employed in forging
and polifliing iron. Their neighbours, at length, gave
them the name of Cbald or Caled, which imports, in
the Armenian dialeft, jiercey hardy, robujl. This title
the Greeks adopted, and out of it formed the word
X^Szioi “ Chaldeans.”
The Mofaic hiftory informs us (c), that Afhur went
out of that land (Shinar) and built Nineveh and fe-
veral other confiderable cities. One of the fucceffora
of Afhur was the ceiebrated Minus, who firft broke
the peace of the world *, made war upon his neigh¬
bours, and obliged them by force of arms to become
his fubje&s, and pay tribute. Some authors make him
the immediate fucceflbr of Afhur, and the builder of
Nineveh. This we think is not probable ; Eufebius,
as we have obferved above, gives a lift of fix A-
rabian princes who reigned in Babylon. Thefe we
take to have been the immediate fuccefTors of Nim¬
rod, called Arabians ; becaufe thefe people were Cu-
fhites. Minus might be reputed the firft king of the
Affyrians, becaufe he figured beyond his predeceffors;
and he might pafs for the builder of Nineveh, becaufe
he greatly enlarged and beautified that city. We
therefore imagine, that Minus was the fifth or fixth
in fucceffion after Afhur.
Minus, according to Diodorus Siculus •f, made an
alliance with Ariseus king of the Arabians, and con¬
quered the Babylonians. This event, in our opinion,
put an end to the empire of the Hamites or Cufhim in
Shinar or Babylonia. The author obferves, that the
... Babylon which figured afterwards did not then exiil.
* ^ xxn,,This faft is confirmed by the prophet Ifaiah J: “ Be-
^ hold the land ot the Chafidim ; this people was not
till Afhur founded it for them that dwell in the wilder-
refs. They fet up the towers thereof, &c.” After
Babylonia was fubdued by the Afl'yrians under Minus,
the capital was either deftroyed by that conqueror or
deferted by the inhabitants. At length it was re-
edified by fome one or other of the Afiyrian monarchs,
who colle&ed the roving Chafulim, and obliged them
to fettle in the new city. Thefe were fubjed to the
AfTyrian empire till the reign of Sardanapalus, when
both the Medes and Babylonians rebelled againft that
effeminate prince.
PHILOLOGY.
f Lib. *.
. 4-91
The Chafidim were celebrated by all antiquity for Language,
their proficiency in aftronomy, aftrology, magic, and v-—
curious fcxences. Ur or Orchoe (o) was a kind
of univerfity for thofe branches of learning*-. Such
was their reputation in thofe ftudies, that over a great
part of Afu and Europe a Chaldean and an aflrolo-
ger were fynonymous terms. Thefe fciences, accord¬
ing to the tradition of the Orientals, had been invent¬
ed by Seth, whom they call Edris ; and had been cul¬
tivated by his defeendants downward to Noah, by
whom they were tranfmitted to Shem, who conveyed
them to Aiphaxad and his pofterity.
.To us it appears probable, that the religioua fenti-
ments tranfmitted from Noah through the line of Shem,
were kept alive in the family of Arphaxad, and fo
handed down to the families of Serug, Nahor, Te*
rah, Abram, Nahor II. and Haran, &c. The Jewilh
rabbis, and all the Perfian and Mahomedan writers,
make Abraham contemporary with Nimrod ; who, fay
they, perfecuted him moft cruelly for adhering to the
true religion. I hat thefe two patriarchs were con¬
temporary, is very improbable, fince Nimrod was the
third generation after Noah, and Abram the tenth.
Abram has been inverted by the rabbinical writers
vvith every department of learning. According to
them, he tranfported from Charrae into Chanaan and
kgyP1* aftronomy, aftrology, mathematics, geography,
magic, alphabetical writing, &c. &c.
,.rAftr€r1the Babylomfh captivity, when the Jews were Legendary
dilperied over all the eaft, and began to make profelytes^t% con*
of the gate among the Pagans, wonderful things were
reported of Abram with refped to his acquirements aI"'
in human erudition, as well as his fupereminence in
virtue and piety. Thefe legendary tales were believed
by the profelytes, and by them retailed to their con-
ne&ions and acquaintances. But certainly the holy
man either was not deeply verfed in human fciences,
or did not deem them of importance enough to be
communicated to his pofterity ; fince the Jews are, on
all hands, acknowledged to have made little progrefa
in thefe improvements. To think of railing the fame
of Abraham, by clafiing him vvith the philofophers,
betrays in extreme defeA in judgment. He is intitled
to praue of a higher kind ; for he excelled in piety,
was the father of the faithful, the root of the Mef-
3 Qj* fiah, ">
nranufaAunng iron, fo were they celebrated for making the choiceft pieces of armour. They excelled in ma
kmg -.e™,, or coats of mail, or hngantines ufed by the braveft of the Perlian horfemen. Bochart PhaW
1. 3. cap 12 and 13, has proved that the word Che/iba fignifies “ feales of brafs or fteel ” l rom the word 7?’
Itba, the Greeks formed their Chalybes. Xenoph* Cyrop. 1. 3. page 42. Steph. reorefents the U ^
who inhabited a mountainous country bordering upon Armenia, as a very fierce warlike people, lb pa^e ToT
we have an example of their rapacious charafter. Id. ib. 1. 4. page 192. Hen. Steph. we have an'account of
their bravery and of their arms. Another inftance of their rapacity occurs in their plundering the cattle of
, KT-(!lfpVte ho8 arifen ab°Ut the fenfe of verfe IO- chaP* ,0- Out of that land went forth Afhur and
budded Nineveh Some approve our tranflation, which we think is juft ; others, confiderintr that theTn
red writer had been juft fpeaking of Nimrod and the beginning of his kingdom, are of om’nion that >
ftould be tranflated, A^d out of .hi, laud ft (that i, Nim.id, weut into Aihuf and budded nL eh Thia
they make a military expedit.on, and a violent irruption into the territory of A fhur
(n) Ur or Orchoe was fituated between Nilibis and Corduena. See Ammianus Marcel. Expedftio In-
f?,a,r ‘ T5* ^ Ia7. not ^ar ^rom the river Tigris. Strabo,!. 16. page 730, tells us that th/Ch
phdofophers were divided into different feas, the Orcheni, the Borlippeni, a^d feveral others. Diod stu"
ChaHen’n ' t*1’ St^Ph< glves an ^tail of the functions, profeffion, and eftablilhnicnt "of the
Chaldean*, to which we muft refer our curious readers. u racnc °M tne
492
Hiftory of
* Chap. ii.
f Vol I.
PHILO
fiah, 2nd tlie friend of God. before thefe, all other
titles vanifh away. Such of our readers, however, as
have leifure enough, and at the fame time learning
enough to enable them to confult the rabbinical le¬
gends, will be furnifhed with a full and ample detail of
his imaginary exploits and adventures. Others, who are
either not willing or not qualified to perufe the writings
of the rabbins, may confult Dr Hyde * de Relig. vet.
Perf. and the authors of the TJniverfal Hiftory
where they will find materials fufficient to gratify their
curiofity. We fhall only obferve, in addition to what
we have already faid, that the Perfians, Chaldeans^
and Arabians, pretended that their religion was that of
Abraham ; that honourable mention is made of him in
the Koran ; and that the name of Abraham or Ibrahim
was celebrated over all the eaft. See Abraham.
In the progrefs of this difquifition, we have feen
that the language of Noah was, in all probability, the
fame or nearly the fame with that of Adam. Addi¬
tions and improvements might be introduced, but (till
the radical ftamina of the language remained unchan¬
ged. It has iikewife, we hope, appeared, that the
confufion of language at the building of the tower of
Babel was only partial, and affefted none but the re¬
bellious crew of the race of Ham and the apoliate
part of the families of Shem and Japhet. We have
concluded, that the main body of the race of Shem,
at leaft, were neither difperfed nor their language con¬
founded; and that confequently the defeendants of that
patriarch continued to fpeak their paternal dialed! or the
uncorrupted language of Noah. I o thefe arguments we
may take the liberty to add another, which is, that m all
probability the worlhip of the true God was preferved in
the line of Arphaxad, after the generality of the other
feds had lapfed into idolatiy. Out of this family Abra¬
ham was taken, in whofe line the true religion was
to be preferved. Whether Abraham was an idolater
when he dwelt in Chaldea, the feripture does not in¬
form us, though it ieems to be evident that his father
was. One thing, however, is certain, namely, that
Jehovah (e) appeared to him, and pronounced a blef-
fing upon him before fie left Ur of the Chaldees.
This circumftance no doubt indicates, that this pa¬
triarch had made uncommon advances in piety and
virtue, even prior to his emigration. The progeni¬
tors of his family had been diftinguifhed. by adhe¬
ring to the true religion. About this time, how¬
ever, they began to degenerate, and to adopt the
zabiifm of their apoftate neighbours. It was then
that Abraham was commanded by Heaven to “ leave
his kindred and his father’s houfe, and to travel into
a land which was to be ftiown him.” The Almighty
intended that the true religion ftiould be preferved in
his line, and therefore removed him from a country
and kindred, by the influence of whofe bad example
his religious principles might be endangered. His
family had only of late apoftatized ; till that period
they had preferved both the language and religion of
their venerable anceftors. . c x
But however much Abraham might differ from the
elher branches of his family in his religious fentiments,
LOGY.
his language was certainly in untfon with theirs. The Language.
confequence of this unquellionable pofition is, that the
language which he carried with him into Chanaan was
exadftly the fame with that of his family which he re- brew and
linquifhed when he began his peregrinations. But if Chaldean
this be true, it will follow, that the language after-
wards denominated Hebrew, and that of the Chafidim an(-j tjje
or Chaldeans were originally one and the fame. » his firft lan-
pofition, we think, will not be controverted. There issuage
then an end of thedifpute concerning the original lan-«^
gpage of mankind. We have advanced fome preiump-
tive proofs in the preceding pages, that the language
of Adam was tranfmitted to Noah, and that the dia¬
led! of the latter was preferved in the line of Arphaxad
downwards to the family of Abraham : and it now
appears that the Hebrew and Chaldean were originally
fpoken by the fame family, and of courfe were the
fame between themfelves, and were ad!ually the firft
language upon earth, according to the Mofaic hiftory.
Numberlefs additions, alterations, improvements, we
acknowledge, were introduced in the couife of 2000
years ; but ftill the original ftamina of the language
were unchanged. Our readers will pleafe to obferve,
that the Orientals are not a people given to change:
and that this charadler, in the earlieft ages, was ftiil
more prevalent than at prefent. This alfertion, we
prefume, needs no proof.
In confirmation of thefe prefumptive arguments, we
may add the popular one which is commonly urged
upon this occafion, viz. that the names of antediluvian
perfons and places mentioned by the facred hiftorian^
are generally of Hebrew original, and fignificant in
that language. Some of them, we acknowledge, arc
not fo ; but in this cafe it ought to be remembered,
that a very fmall part of that language now exifts, and
that probably the radicals from which thefe words are
defeended are among the number of thofe which have
long been loft.
Sect. I. The Hebrew Language.
Having thus proved the priority of the Hebrew
to every other language that has been fpoken by men, iftks of the
we fhall now proceed to conlider its nature and genius;
from which it will appear ftill more evidently to be an
original language, neither improved nor debafed by
foreign idioms. The words of which it is compoled
are fhort, and admit of very little flexion. The name*
of places are deferiptive of their nature, fituation, ac¬
cidental circumftances, &c. Its compounds are few,
and inartificially joined together. In it we nnd few
of thofe artificial affixes which diftinguifh the other
cognate diale&s ; fuch as the Chaldean, Syrian, Ara¬
bian, Phoenician, &c. We find in it no traces of im-
provement from the age of Mofes to the era cf the
Babylonifh captivity. The age of David and Solo¬
mon was the golden period of the Hebrew tongue ;
and yet, in our opinion, it would puzzle a critic ot
the niceft acumen to difeover much improvement even *
during that happy era. In faft, the Jews were by no
means an inventive people. We hear nothing of their
progrefs in literary purfuits j nor do they lean to ha^e
(f.) Compare Gen. chap. 12, ver. wilU A&s chap. 7. verfe 4.
Sea. I. PHILO
Hebrew been induflrious in borrowing from their neighbours.
Language, iaws an(j ftatutes comnuinirated by Mofea were
*" ' the principal objefts of their ftudies. Thefe they were
commanded to contemplate day and night; and in them
they were to place their chief delight. The confe-
quence of this command was, that little or no regard
could be paid to tafte, or any other fubjedt of phi-
lofophical inveftigation. Every unimproved language
abounds in figurative exprtffions borrowed from fcn-
fible objeds. This is in a peculiar manner the cha-
raderiftic of the language in queftion ; of which it
would be fuperfluous to produce inflances, as the fad
inufl be obvious even to the attentive reader of the
Englifh Bible.
In the courfe of this argument, we think it ought
to be obferved, and we deem it an obfervation of the
greateft importance, that if we compare the other
languages which have claimed the prize of originality
from the Hebrew with that dialed, we (hall quickly
be convinced that the latter has a jail title to the pre¬
ference. The writers who have treated this fubjed,
generally bring into competition the Hebrew, Chal¬
dean, Syrian, and Arabian. Some one or other of
thefe has commonly been thought the original language
of mankind. The arguments for the Syrian and
Arabian are altogether futile. The numerous im¬
provements fuperinduced upon thefe languages, evi¬
dently prove that they could not have been the original
language. In all cognate dialeds, etymologifts hold
it as a maxim, that the lead, improved is likely to be
the moft. ancient.
We have obferved above, that the language of Abra¬
ham and that of the Chefedim or Chaldeans were
originally the fame ; and we are perfuaded, that if an
able critic fhould take the pains to examine flridly
thefe two languages, and to take from each what may
reaionably be fuppofed to have been improvements or
additions fince the age of Abraham, he will find in-
trinfic evidence fufficient to convince him of the truth
of this pofition. There appear ftill in the Chaldean
tongue great numbers of (f) words the fame with the
Hebrew, perhaps as many as mankind had occaiion
for in the moft early ages; and much greater numbers
Would probably be found if both languages had come
Howitwas^own to us entIrc- The conftruftion of the two lan>-
changed guages is indeed fomewhat different; but this difference
arifes chiefly from the fuperior improvement of the
Chaldean. While the Hebrew language was in a
manner ftationary, the Chaldean underwent progreffive
improvements ; was mellowed by antithefes, rendered
fonorous by the difpofuion of vocal founds, acquired
a copioufnefs by compounds, and a majefty by affixes
and prefixes, See. In procefs of time, however, the
difference became fo grsat, that the Ifraelites did not
underftand the Chaldean language at the era of the
5
into what
is called
the Chal¬
dean.
LOGY. 4g3,
Babylonifh captivity. This much the prophet * in- Hebrew
timates, when he promifes the pious Jews prote&ion Language,
“ from a fierce people; a people of a deeper fpeech * ifaiah'^
than they could perceive; of a Hammering tongue,ch. xxxiiL
that they could not underftand.” verf. 19.
The priority of the Chaldean tongue is indeed con¬
tended for by very learned writers. Cambdenf calls f 2?r/V.
it the mother of all languages; and moft of the fathers
were of the fame opinion. Amir a J has made a col-1 Praf. ai
ledlion of arguments, not inconfiderable, in favour of Gram. Syr,
it ; and Myriceus after him, did the fame. Erpe-§ Praf. ai
nius I|, in his Oration for the Hebrew tongue, thought G™***
the argument for it and the Chaldean fo equal, that .
he did not choofe to take upon him to determine i™*,'*
the queftion. Hebr. xi'.
Many circumftances, however, concur to make us
affign the priority to the Hebrew, or rather to make
us believe that it has fuffered feweft of thofe changes
to which every living tongue is more or lefs liable. If
we ftrip this language of every thing obvioufly adven¬
titious, we {hall find it extremely fimple and primitive. „2
1. Every thing maforetical, fuppofing the vowels and Reafons fof
points (g) effential, was certainly unknown in its ori maintain-
ginal character. 2. All the prefixed and affixed letterst*.ie
were added time after time, to give more compafs and °
precifion to the language. 3. The various voices, brew,
moods, tenfes, numbers, and perfons of verbs, were
poftcrior improvements ; for in that tongue, nothing
at firft appeared but the indeclinable radix. 4. In the
fame manner, the few adje&ives that occur in the
language, and the numbers and regimen of nouns,
were not from the beginning. 5. Moft of the Hebrew
nouns are derived from verbs ; indeed many of them
are written with the very fame letters. This rule,
however, is not general; for often verbs are derivedl
from nouns, and even fome from prepofitions. 6. All
the verbs of that language, at leaft all that originally
belonged to it, uniformly cGnfift of three letters, and
feem to have been at firft pronounced as monofyllables.
If we anatomize the Hebrew' language in this manner,
we ffiall reduce it to very great fimplicity 5 we ffiall con¬
fine it to a few names of things, perfons, and actions;
we {hall make all its words monofyllables, and give it
the true charadters of an original language. If at the
fame time we refledt on the fftiall number of (h) radi¬
cal words in that dialedt, we ffiall be more and more
convinced of its originality.
It will not be expedted that we fhould enter into a
minute difeuffion of the grammatical peculiarities of
this ancient language. For thefe we muff refer our
readers to the numerous and elaborate grammars of
that tongue, which are everywhere eafily to be found.
We (hall only make a few ftridlures, which naturally
prefent themfelves, before we difmifs the fubjedt.
The generality of writers who have maintained the
fuperior
(f) Moft of the Chaldean names mentioned in Scripture are pure Hebrew words compounded ; fuch an
Nebuchadnezzar^ Neluzaradan, Rahfuakth, Rabmag, Beljhazzar, Rabfaric, Nahar, Malahtha, Phrat or Pharady
Barofus, Carchcmijhy Ur, Cuthay Heb. Cujhy &c. All thefe wotds, and a multitude of others which we could
mention, approach fo near the Hebrew dialedf, that their original is difccrnible at firft fight. Moft of
thefe are compounds, which the limits prefenbed us will not allow us to decompound and explain.
(g) The futility of thefe points will be proved in the following part of this fedtion.
(h) The radical words in the Hebrew language, as it now {lands, are about too.
494
PHILO
a»
AU Ian-
guages in
the eaft
originally
the fame.
Hebrew fuperior antiquity of the Hebrew language, have at the
Language. fame t;me contended that all other languages of Afia,
and moll of thofe of Europe,have been derived from chat
tongue as their fource and matrix. We, for our part,
are of opinion, that perhaps all the languages in the
eaftern part of the globe arc coeval with it, and were
originally one and the fame; and that the differences
which afterwards diftinguilhed them fprung from cli¬
mate, caprice, inventions, religions, commerce, con-
quefts, and other accidental ciufes, which will occur
to our intelligent readers. We have endeavoured to
prove, in the preceding pages, that all mankind were
not concerned in the building of the fatal tower, nor
affefted by the punifhment confequent upon that at¬
tempt : and we now add, that even that punilhment
was only temporal y ; fince we find, that thofe very
Hamites or Culhim, who are allowed to have been af¬
fected by it, did certainly afterwards recover the former
organization of their lip, and dift'ered not more from
the original ftandard than the defeendants of Japhet
and Shem.
The Jewilh rabbis have pretended to afeertam the
number of languages generated by the vengeance of
Heaven at the building of Babel. They tell us that
mankind was divided into 70 nations and 70 languages,
and that each of thefe nations had its tutelar or guardian
angel. This fabulous legend is founded on the num¬
ber of the progeny of Jacob at the time when that
patriarch and his family went down into Egypt. Others
attribute its origin to the number of the fons and grand-
# fons of Noah, who are enumerated Gen. chap.x.
AhJ.Stron. The fathers * of the church make the languages at
Eufd. the confufion to amount to 72 ; which number they
Cl>rgn.lib.i. complete by adding Cainan and Elifhah, according to
Epiphan. ^ geptuagint; who are not mentioned in the Hebrew
Auguji. bV.text. This opinion, they think, is fupported by the
f Deut. words of Mofes, when he faith, that f “ when the Moll
High divided to the nations their inheritance, when
he Separated the fons of Adam, he fet the bounds of
the people according to the number of the tribes of
l^rael.,, That is, fay they, he divided them into 72
nations, which was the number of the children of
Ifrael when they came into Egypt. The Targum of
Ben-Uzziel plainly favours this interpretation ; but
the Jerufalem Tsfrgum intimates that the number of
nations were only 12, according to the number of the
tribes of Ifrael. This paffage, however, feems to re¬
fer to the tribes of the Chanaanim ; and imports, that
the Almighty afiigned to the different fepts of that
family fuch a traft of land as he knew would make
a fufficient inheritance for the children of Ifrael J.
Others have increafed the different languages of the
djfperfion to 120; but the general opinion has fixed
aputiHiercn t0 i^Q 0r 72. Our readers need fcarce be put
tn Catalogo ^ mjn(j thefe opinions are futile and abfuid ; nei¬
ther founded in Scripture, profane hiftory, or com¬
mon fenfe. A t the fame time, it muff not be omitted,
that, according to Horapollo the Egyptians held,
that the ^ odd was divided into 72 habitable regions ;
and that, in coniequence of this tradition, they made
ch. xxxii.
verfe 8.
| Vacanthi
Epifcop.
Bercun.
Epif - 22.
§ 14 P*ge
2J. lioe/cb.
LOGY. Setfl. I.
the- cynocephalus the emblem of the world, becaufe Hebrew
that in the fpace of 72 days that animal pines away ijangu??e*
and dies. —
It has been made a queftion, whether the Hebrew Origin of
language was denominated from Heber the progenitor the name
of Abraham, or from a word which in that tongue im«
ports over, beyond. Moft of theChriftianhathers, prior to
St Origen, believed that both the Gentile name He¬
brew, and the name of the language, were derived
from the name of the patriarch ; but that learned man
imagined, that Abraham was called the Hebrew, not
becaufe he was a defeendant of Heber, but becaufe he
was a transfluvianus, or from beyond the river Eu¬
phrates. The learned Bochart * has ftrained hard Ptaleg,
to prove the former pofition ; but to us his arguments'^*I* c*
do not appear decifive. We are rather inclined to
believe, that Abraham was called Chibri, (Hebrew),
from the fituation of the country from which he emi¬
grated when he came to the country of Chanaan ; and
that in procefs of time that word became a Gentile
appellation, and was afterwards applied to his pofte-
rity (1) often by way of reproach, much in the fame
manner as we fay a Northlander, a Norman, a Tramon¬
tane, &c.
Here we may be indulged an obfervation, namely,
that tbraham, a Hebrew, lived among the Chalde¬
ans; travelled among the Chanaanites, fojourned among
the Philiftines, lived fome time in Egypt ; and in ail
appearance converfed with all thofe nations without
any apparent difficulty. This circumftance plainly
proves, that all thefe nations at that time fpoke nearly
the fame language. The nations had net yet begun
to improve their refpe£tive dialedls, nor to deviate in
any great meafure from the monofyllabic tongue of
the Hebrews. With refpeA to the language of Cha¬
naan, afterwards the Phoenician, its fimilarity to the
Hebrew is obvious from the names of gods, men, ci¬
ties, mountains, rivers, &c. which are the very fame
in both tongues, as might be fhown in numberlefs
cafes, were this a proper place for etymological re-
fearches.
Before we difmifs this part of our fubjedl, we would
wiffi to gratify our unlearned readers with a brief ac¬
count of the Hebrew letters, and of the Maforctical
points which have been in a manner ingrafted on thefe
letters. In the courfe of this deduction, we (hall en¬
deavour to follow fuch authors as are allowed to have
handled that matter with the greateft acutenefs, learn¬
ing, and perfpicuity. If, upon any occafion, we
ffiould be tempted to hazard a conjefture of our own,
it is cheerfully fubmitted to the candour of the pu¬
blic.
Much has been written, and numberlefs hypothefes
propofed. with a view to inveftigate the origin of a/-
pbabctical writing. To give even an abridged account
of all thefe, would fill many volumes. ! he moll
plaufible, in our opinion, is that which fuppofes
that the primary charafters employed by men were
the figures of material objefts analogous to thofe of
the Mexicans, fo often mentioned by the authors who
have
(0 The Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an abomination to the Egyp¬
tians. The Philiffines (Samuel l.fiaf ) always call the Ifraelitea Hebrews by way of reproach.
$e&. I.
Hebrew
Language
H
Origin of
alphabetic
writing.
• Hefycl.
f Lucan.
4 M/. 1.1.
pag. io.
Steph.
y Nat. Hijt,
hb.^ c. ,$6
have written the hiftory of that people at the era of
the Spanifh invafion of their country. As this plan
was too much circumferibed to be generally ufeful,
hieroglypliical figures were in procefs of time invented
as fubfidiaries to this contrafted orthography. In
this fcheme, we imagine, the procefs was fomewhat
more extenfive. A lion might be Ikecched, to import
fiercenefs or valour; an ox> to denote ftrength ; a Jlagt
to fignify fwiftnefs j a hare, to intimate timorouf-
nefs, &c.
The next ftep in this procefs would naturally ex¬
tend to the inventing and appropriating of a few ar¬
bitrary characters, for reprefenting abftraCi ideas, and
other relations, which could not be well afeertained by
the methods above-mentioned. Thefe arbitrary figns
might readily acquire a currency by compaCt, as mo¬
ney and medals do over a great part of the world. 
Upon this plan we imagine the ancient Chinefe form¬
ed their language.
But neither the picture nor the hieroglyphic, nor
the method of denoting ideas by arbitrary characters
appropjiated by compaCt, could ever have arrived at
fuch perfection as to anfwer all the purpofes of ideal
communication. The grand defideratum then would
be to fabricate characters to reprefent limple founds,
and to reduce thefe characters to fo fmall a number
as to be eafily learned and preferved in the memory.
In this attempt the Chinefe have notorioufly failed ;
their letters, or rather their characters, are fo nume¬
rous, that few, if any, of their moll learned and in-
duflrious authors, have been able to learn and retain
the whole catalogue. Indeed thofe people are not
able to conceive how any combinations of 20 or 30
characters Ihould be competent to anfwer all the pur-
pofeg of written language.
Many different nations have claimed the honour of
this invention. The Greeks aferibed it to the Phoe¬
nicians ; and confequently ufed the word *,
io ad the Phcenician, in the fame fenfe with
to read ; and confequently the poet'f' aferibesthe inven¬
tion to the fame ingenious people. The Greeks bor¬
rowed their letters from the Phoenicians, and of courfe
looked up to them as the inventors.
Others have attributed the invention to the Egyp¬
tians. That people aferibed every ufeful and ingeni¬
ous invention to their Thyoth, or Mercury Trifme-
gillus. Plato feems to have believed this tradition (k),
and pretends to record a difpute between the king of
^iat then reigned and this perfonage, with re-
fped to the influence that the art of alphabetic writing
might poflibly have upon the improvements of man¬
kind in fcience and liberal arts. Diodorus the Sici-
lian X gives a fimilar hillory of the fame invention,
but carries it back to the reign ®f Ofiris.
Pliny informs us [j, that Gellius attributed letters to
the fame Egyptian Mercvsry, and others to the Sy¬
rians ; but that for “ his part, he thought that the Af-
fyvian letters were eternal.,, That learned Roman
then imagined, that the Aflyrian letters had exified at
P H I L O L O G ' Y.
a period prior to all the records of hillory; which was
in faCl the cafe. By the Aflyrian letters, he mult
mean the Chaldaic, and by the Syrian probably the
Hebrew. I he earliell Greek hiftorians generally
confound the Jews with the Syrians. Herodotus,
enumerating the people who had * learned circumci-
fion from the Egyptians, mentions the Syrians of Pa-
lelline ; and eiftwhere he tells u*, that Necho f beat
the Syrians, and took Cadytis, a large and populous
city belonging to that people. Hence it is evident
that the Syrian alphabet, or the Syrian letters, were
the fame with the Hebrew. That the Aflyrian or
Chaldaic and Hebrew languages were the fame, has,
we hope, been fully proved already : that their letter*
were the fame in their original llruClure, can fcarce
be controverted. Thefe letters, we think, were an¬
tediluvian ; whether, to ufe the exprefiion of Plato,
they were dictated by fome god, or fabricated by
fome man divinely infpired. As this opinion may ad¬
mit fome difpute, we lhall take the liberty to fubjoin
our reafons.
1. It appear* that the era of this invention is buried
in impenetrable obfeurity. Had an invention of fuch
capital importance to mankind been made in the
polldiluvian ages, we imagine the author would have
been commemorated in the hillorical annals of the
country where he lived (l).
2. The art of writing in alphabetical chara&ers,
according to the facred records, was praClifed at fo
early a period, that there was not a long enough in¬
terval between that and the deluge to give birth to
that noble invention. If we conlider the ilate of the
world during fonie ages after that difaftrous event,
we ftrall quickly be convinced that little refpite could
be found from the labour and indullry indifpenfably
requiiite to provide the neceflaries, and only a few of
the conveniencies, of life. Such a ilate of things was
certainly moil unfavourable to the invention of thofe
arts and improvements which contribute nothing to¬
wards procuring the accommodations of life. The
confequence is obvious.
Mofes has recorded the hiilory of the creation, of
a few of the capital traniaClions of the antediluvian
world, the birth, the age, the death, of the lineal de-
feendants of Seth. He has preferved the dimenfion*
of the ark, the duration of the univerfal deluge, it*
effeCls upon man and all terreftrial animals, the po¬
pulation of the world by the pofterity of Noah, the
age, &c. of the patriarchs of the line of Shem, from
which his own anceilors had fprung. To this he ha*
fubjoined the petty occurrences which diverfified the
lives of Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, and their defeen-
dants. Whence did the hiftorian derive his infor¬
mation ? We believe few of our readers will be fo
enthufiaftic as to imagine that the author received it
from divine infpiration. Tradition is a fallible guide
and in many cafes the accounts are fo minutely pre-
cife, as to defy the power of that fpecies of convey¬
ance. The infpired author muft certainly have ex-
^ traded
495
Hebrew
Language.
* Lib.
c. 104.
f Ibid,
c. IJ5>,
Antediltt*
(k) See Phadrus, page 1*40. See alfo page 374. Phil
„r ,ruyh,e Egypty attribute the mventic to their Thotb, and the Pteniciam to their Hercule.
or Mekcerta or Baal j but thefe were only imaginary perfonage*, i
A96 P H I L O
Hebrew ^a5:ecl hi» abridgment from written memoirs, or hi-
langua^e- ^orje8 0f the tranfaftions of his ancettors regularly
’*“,~rv “,uW from the moft early periods. Thefe annals
be probably abridged, as Ezra did afterwards the hi-
ftwry of the Kings of Ifrael. If this was the cafe, as
- it moft certainly was, the art of writing in alphabeti-
LOGY. Sea. I.
cal letters muft have been known and pra&ifed many Hebrcw
ages before Mofes. It has indeed been pretended, »Lan^uaKC;'
that the jewifh decalogue, infcribed upon two tables
of ftone, was the very firft fpecimen of alphabetical
writing. The arguments adduced in proof of this
fa£t are lame and inconclufive (m). Had that been
the
(m) The moft ingenious and plaufible of thofe arguments which have fallen under our obfervation, is given
by Mr Johnfon vicar of Cranbrook, a writer of great learning and piety, who flounlhed in the beginning
of the prefent century, and whofe works deferve to be more generally known than we have reafon to think
they are at prefent. After endeavouring to prove that alphabetical writing was not pra&ifed before the era
of Mofes, and expatiating upon the difficulty of the invention, this excellent fcholar attempts to fhow, that
she oricinal Hebrew alphabet was a&ually communicated to the jewifh legiflator at the fame time with the
two tables of the law. “ I know not (fays he) any juft caufe why the law fhould be [written by God, or by
an his command, except it were for want of a man that could well perform this part. I his oould
srive no addition of authority to the law, efpecialiy after it had been pubhfhed »n that aftomihmg and mira-
culous manner at Mount Sinai. The true writing of the original was indeed perfe&ly adjufted, and preciiely
afcertained to all future ages, by God’s giving a copy of it under his own hand : but this, I conceive, had
been done altogether as effe&ually by God’s diftating every word to Mofes, had he been capable of per¬
forming- the office of an amanuenfis/’ The learned writer goes on to fuppofe, that it was. for the purpofe of
teaching Mofes the alphabtt, that God detained him forty days in the mount; and thence ue concludes, that
the Decalogue was the firft writing in alphabetical chara&ers, and that thole chara&ers were a divine, and noc
a human invention. r f •
It is always rafh, if not fomething worfe, to conceive reafons not affigned by Go^ himfelf, tor any parw*
cular tr an faction of his with thofe men whom he from time to time infpired with heavenly w if dona, lhat
it was not for the purpofe of teaching Mofes the alphabet that God detained him forty days in the mount,
when he gave him the two tables of the law, feems evident from his detaining him juft as many days when
be gave him the fecond tables after the firlt were broken. If the legiflator of the Jews had not been fufh-
ciently inftrufted in the art of reading during his firft flay in the mount, he would have been detained longer;
and it is not conceivable, that though in a fit of pious paffion he was fo far thrown oft his guard as to
break the two tables, his mind was fo totally unhinged by the idolatry of hi* countiymen, as to forget com¬
pletely an art which, by the fuppofttion, the Supreme Being had fpent/orty days m teaching him But it
Mofes could, at his firft afeent into the mount, perform the office of an amanuenfis, why are the original
tables faid to have been written by the finger of God, and not by him who wrote the fecond; ^ We pre¬
tend not to fay why they were written by God rather than man ; but we think there is fufficient evidence,
that by whomfoever they were written, the chara&ers employed were of human invention. The Hebrew
alphabet, without the Maforetic points, is confefledly defeaive ; and every man wha is in any degree acquam -
ed with the language, and is not under the influence of inveterate prejudice, will readily admit that thole
points are no imptovement. But we cannot, without impiety, fuppofe an art invented by infinite wif om, to
fall ftiort of the utmoft perfeaion of which it is capable : an alphabet communicated to man by God, would
undoubtedly have been free both from defers and from redundancies ; it would have had a diltindl charader
for every Ample found, and been at leaft as perfed as the Greek or the Roman. • . • j u tot
But we need not fill our pages with rcafonings of this kind againft the hypothehs maintained by Mr
Tohnfon. We know that “ Mofes wrote all the words of the Lord,” t. e. the iubftance of all that had been
delivered in Exod. xx, xxi, xxii, xxiii. before he was called up into the mount to receive the tables o
ftone ; nay, that he had long before been commanded by God himfelf to “ write in a book an account of
the vidory obtained over Amalek (Exod. xvii. 14). All this, indeed, the learned writer was aware of; and
to reconcile it with his hyporhefis, he frames another, more improbable than even that which it is meant
to fupuort. “ L is not unreafonable (fays he) to believe that God had written thefe tables of ftone, and put
them in mount Horeb, from the time that by his angel he had there full appeared to Mofes ; and that,
therefore, all the time after, while he kept Jethro’s fheep thereabouts, he had free accefs to thote tables,
and perufed them at diferetion.” But if belief ffiould reft upon evidence, we beg leave to reply, that to
believe all this would be in the higheft degree unreafonablefor there is not a Angle hint in Scripture of
the tables having been written at fo early a period, or upon fuch an occafion, as Goa s firft appearance to
Mofes in the burning buffi. We know how reludtant Mofes was to go upon the embafty to vvhich he was
then appointed; and it is ftnnge, we think puffing ftrange, that when he records lo faithfully h,s own
backwardnefs, and the means made ufe of by God to reconcile him to the arduous undertaking, he ffiould
make no mention of thefe important tables, if at that period he had known any thing ot their extftence.
Beftdes all this is it not wonderful, if Mofes had been praftifing the art of writing, as our author (up-
pofa, from the t^me of the burning bnfl, to the giving of the la., he ihould the„ have ftood m need of
< forty day, teaching from God, to enable h,m to read with cafe the hrft tables i and of «her forty,enable
him to ^write the fecond ? This gives fuch a mean view of the natural capacity of the Hebrew le&fi!ator, as
renders The hypothefis which implies it wholly incredible. > * Collrtion Difcourfes, &x. m volumes, by
the reverend john Johnfon, A. M. vicar of Cranbrook in Kent.
Seel. !•
PHILOLOGY*
497
Hebrew
Language.
*• Gen. xxii
ao, &c.
t Antiq.
lib.L cap. 3
a6
Traditiens
to this pur
pofe.
17. .
The origi¬
nal alpha¬
bet pre-
ferved in
the family
of Noah
the cafe, feme notice mail have been taken of fo pal¬
pable a circumftance. Mofes wrote out his hiilory,
his laws, and his memoirs; and it appears plainly
from the text, that all the learned among his country¬
men could read them. Writing was then no novel in¬
vention in the age of the Jewiih legiflator, hut current
and generally known at that era.
The patriarch Job lived at an earlier period (n). In
that book we find many allufions to the art of wri¬
ting, and fome pafTages which plainly prove its exiil-
ence. This fhows that alphabetical charadlers were
cot confined to the chofen feed, fince Job was in all
probability a defeendant of Huz, the eldeil fon of
Nahor * the brother of Abraham. From this circum¬
ftance, we think we may fairly conclude, that this art
was known and pradtifed in the family of Terah the
father of Abraham.
3. There was certainly a tradition among the Jews
in the age of Jofephus, that writing was an antedilu¬
vian invention J. That hifterian pretends, that the de-
•feendants of Seth ere&ed two pillars, the one of ftone
and the other of brick, and inferihed upon them their
aftronomical obfervations and other improvements.—
This Jegend Ihows that there did txift fuch an opi¬
nion of the antiquity of the art of writing.
4. There mult have been a tradition to the fame
purpofe among the Chaldeans, fince the writers who
have copied from Berofus, the celebrated Chaldean hi-
ftorian(o), fpeak of alphabetical writing as an art well
known among the antediluvians. According to them,
Cannes the Chaldean legiflator gave his difciples 45 an
infight into letters and fcience. This perfon alfo wrote
concerning the generation of mankind, of thtir diffe¬
rent purfuits, of civil polity, &c. Immediately 1 e-
fore the deluge (fay they) the god Cronus appeared to
Sifuthrus or Xifuthrus, and commanded him to com¬
mit to writing the beginning, improvement, and con-
clufion of all things down to the prefent term, and
to bury thefe accounts fecurely in the temple of the
Sun at Seppara.” All thefe traditions may be deem¬
ed fabulous in the main; but ftill they evince that fuch
an opinion was current, and that though the ufe of
letters was not indeed eternal (p), it was, however,
prior to all the records of hiftory ; and of courfe, we
think, an antediluvian difeovery.
This original alphabet, whatever it was, and how¬
ever conftrudled, was, we think, preferved in the fa¬
mily of Noah, and from it conveyed down to fuc-
ceeding generations. If we can then difeover the
original Hebrew alphabet, we (hall be able to invefti-
gate the primary fpecies of letters expreflive of thofe
articulate founds by which man is in a great meafure
diftinguilhed from the brute creation. Whatever
Vol. XIV. Part II.
might be the nature of that alphabet, wC may be con- Hebrew
vinced that the ancient Jews deemed It facred, and
therefore preferved it pure and unmixed till the Ba- v~ '
byloniih captivity. If, then, any monuments are ftill
extant inferibed with letters prior to that event, we
may reft allured that thefe arc the remains of the origi¬
nal alphabet.
There have, from time to time, been dug up at Je-
rufalem, and other parts of Judea, coins and medals,
and medallions, inferibed with letteis of a form very
different from thofe fquare letters in which the He¬
brew Scriptures are now written. ^
When the Samaritan Pentateuch was difeovered yhe^fame
(qJ, it evidently appeared that the inferiptions on with the
thofe medals and coins were drawn in genuine Sama-Samaritan»
ritan ch irafters. The learned Abbe Barthelemi, in
his* differtation 44 on the two medals of Antigonus * </.?
king of Judea, one of the later Afmonean princes^
proves that all the inferiptions on the coins and medals^
of Jonathan and Simon Macabeus, and alfo on his, were C*
invariably in the Samaritan cbara&er, down to the
40th year before the Chriftian era.”
It were eafy to prove, from the Miftina and Jeru-
falem talmud, that the Scriptures publicly read in
the fynagogues to the end of the fecond century were
written in the Samaritan charadter, we mean in the
fame chara&er with the Pentateuch in queftion. As
the ancient Hebrew, however, ceafed to be the vulgar
langua *e of the Jews after their return from the Ba-
bylonifii captivity, the copies of the Bible, efpecially which af-
in private hands, were accompanied with a Chaldaic towards
paraphrafe ; and at length the original Hebrew cha-Save PIace
radlcr fell into difufe, and the Chaldaic was univerfally j’.thc
adopted. 1 daic*
It now appears that the letters inferibed on the
ancient coins and medals of the Jews were written in
the Samaritan form, and that the Scriptures were
written in the very fame chara&eis: we (hall there¬
fore leave it to our readers to judge whether (confi-
dering the implacable hatred which fubfifted between
thefe two nations) it be likely that the one copied
from the other; or at lead that the Jews preferred to
the beautiful letters ufed by their anceftors, the rude
and inelegant chara&ers of their moft detefted rivals.
If, then, the inferiptions on the coins and medals were
aftually in the chara&ers of the Samaritan Pentateuch
(and it is abfurd to fuppofe that the Jews borrowed
them from the Samaritans), the confequence plainly
is, that the letters of the inferiptions were thofe of
the original Hebrew alphabet, coeval with that lan¬
guage, which we dare to maintain was the firft upon
earth.
It may, perhaps, be thought rather fuperfluous to
3 R men-
(n) We have feen a manufeript, which may one day fee the light, in which it is (hown, with great proba¬
bility, that Job was nearly cotemporary with the patriarch Jacob.
(o) Apollodorus, Alexander Polyhi&or, Abydenus. See Syncel/us^ cap. 39. et feq, Eufeb. Chron, 1. 1,
page 3.
(p) Plin. Nat. Hill. 1 7. page 413* quo apparet aternus literarum ufus.
(qJ The celebrated Archbifhop Ulher was the firft who brought the Samaritan Pentateuch into Europe.
In a letter to Ludcvitus Capellus “ he acknowledges, that the frequent mention he had feen made of it by
fome authors, would not fuffer him to be at reft till he had procured five or fix copies of it from Paleftine
and Syria.”
498
PHILOLOGY.
Seft. I.
Hebrew mention, that the Samaritan eolonifls, whom the kings
-I-a tig u age. 0j- Afryr;a planted in the cities of Samaria (r), were
natives of countries where Chaldaie letters wjere cur-
+ Ci ran in
anno 4740.
i Praf. I
Ji<g.
Wh chwas fqiiare Otters of the Chaldeans. This, he thinks, was
rent, and who were probably ignorant of the Hebrew
language and charafters. "When thofe colonills em¬
braced the Jewifh religion, they procured a copy of
the Hebrew Pentateuch written in its native charac¬
ter, which, from fuperfliti©n, they preferved inviolate
as they received it; and from it were copied fucceffively
the others which were current in Syria and Paleiline
■when Archbdhop Ufher procured his.
From the reafons above exhibited, we hope it will
appear, that if the Hebrew alphabet, as it appears in
the Samaritan Pentateuch, was not the primitive one,
it was at leaft that in which the Holy Scriptures were
fit ft committed to writing.
Scaliger has inferred, from a paflage in Eufebiuaf,
and another in St Jerom that Ezra, when he refor¬
med the Jewifh church, tranferibed the Scriptures
from the ancient charaflers of the Hebrews into the
introduced done for the ufe of thofe Jews who, being born du¬
ty Ezra, ring the captivity, knew no other alphabet than that
of the people among whom they were educated.—
This account of the matter, though probable in itfelf,
and fupported by paffages from both Talmuds, has
been attacked by Buxtorf with great learning and no
lefs acrimony. Scaliger, however, has been followed
by a crowd of learned men (s), whofe opinion is now
pretty generally efpoufed by the facred critics.
Having faid fo much concerning the Hebrew al¬
phabet in the preceding pages, we find ourfdves laid
under a kind of neceffity of hazarding a few ftric-
tures on the vowels and Maforetic points ; the JirJl
eftential, and the Lift an appendage, of that ancient
• language. The number of the one, and the nature,
antiquity, and neceffity of the other, in order to read
the language with propriety and with diferimination,
have been the fubjeft of much and often illiberal con-
troverfy among philological writers. To enter into
a minute detail of the arguments on either fide, would
require a complete volume : we fhall, therefore, briefly
exhibit the ftate of the controverfy, and then adduce
a few obfervations, which, in our opinion, ought to
determine the queftion.
The controverfy then is, Whether the Hebrews
ufed any vowels; or whether the points, which are
now called by that name, were fubftituted inftead of
them ? or if they were, whether they be as old as Mo-
3*
The He¬
brew
vowels.
fes, or v/ere invented by Ezra, or by the Maffi>ritcs(T)? Hebrew
This controverfy has exercifed the wits of the moft Lail^ua^e’
learned critics of the two laft centuries, and is ftill " v~”
far enough from being determined in the prefent.
The Jews maintain, that thefe vowel points (u) were
delivered to Mofes along with the tables of the law ;
and confequently hold them as facred as they do the
letters themfelves. Many Chriftian authors who have
handled this fubjedt, though they do not affirm their
divine original, nor their extravagant antiquity, pre¬
tend, however, that they are the only proper vowels
in the language, and regulate and afeertain its true
pronunciation. Though they differ from the Jews
with refpedt to the origin of thefe points, they yet al¬
low them a pretty high antiquity, eferibing them
to Ezra and the members of the great fynagogue. ,z
At length, however, about the middle of the 16th The Mafo-
century, Elias Levita, a learned German Jew who retie points
then flourifhed at Rome, difeovered the delufion, andamod€rr,
made it appear that thefe appendages had never bteninvel u
in ufe till after the writing of the talmuds, about
500 years after Chrift. This innovation raifed Elias
a multitude of adverfaries, both of his own country¬
men and Chriftians. Among the latter appeared the
two Buxtorfs, the father and the fon, who produced
fome cabbaliftical books of great antiquity(x), at leaft
in the opinion of the Jews, in which there was ex-
prefs mention of the points. The Buxtorfs were an-
fwered by Capelins and other critics till Father * Walton,
Morinus §, having examined all that had been urged on arid
both fides,ptoduced his learned differtation on that fub--
jeft ; againft which there has been nothing replied of
any confequence, whilit his work has been univerfally
admired, and his opinion confirmed by thofe that have
beaten the fame field after him.
According to this learned father, it plainly appears
that neither Origen, nor St Jerome, nor even the
compilers of the talmuds, knew any thing of what
has been called the vowel points; and yet thefe books,
according to the fame author, were not finilhsd till
the feventh century. Even the Jewdh rabbis who
wrote during the eighth and ninth centuries, accord¬
ing to him, were not in the leaft acquainted with
thefe points. He adds, that the firft veiiiges he could
trace of them were in the writings of rab&i Bm Aber
chief of the weftern, and of rabbi Ben Naphtali chief of
the eaftern, fchool, that is, about the middle of the
tenth century ; fo that they can hardly be faid to be
older than the beginning of that period.
Some
(r) II. Kings, chap. *vii. ver. 24. “ And the king of Affyria brought men from Babylon, and from Cir-
thah, and from Avah, and from Hamath, and from Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria.”
Babylon, and Cuthah, and Avah, were neighbouring cities, and undoubtedly both fpoke and wrote in the
Chaldaic ftyle. The natives of Hamath fpoke the Syriac, which at that time differed very little from the
Chaldaic.
(s) Cafaubon, Grotius, Voffius, Bochart, Morin, Brerewood, Walton, Prideaux, Huet, and Lewis Capel,
always a fworn enemy to Buxtorf. All, then, have maintained the fame ground with Scaliger : how truly,
appears above. # i* u c
(t) The term maforah or majforeth fignifies “ traditionand imports the unwritten canon by which the
reading and writing of the facred books was fixed. #
(u) Thefe points are 14 in number, whofe figures, names, and effefts, may be feen in moft Hebrew
grammars. *
(x) Thefe books are the Bahir, Zahart and the Kizrt. As for the Kizri, the Jews make it about 1900 years
oldj and the other about a century later. But the fidelity of the Jews in fuch matters cannot be relied upon.
Sea. I. P H I I. O
Hebrew Somt learner] men (y) have afcribed the invention
^Language. cf vowci points in queftion to the rabbis of the
*_I'' fchool of Tiberias ; which, according to them, flonrifh-
ed about the middle of the fecond century. This
opinion is by no means probable, becaufe it appears
plain from hiftory, that before that period all the
Jewifh feminaries in that province were deftroyed, and
their heads forced into exile. Some of thefe retired
into Babylonia, and fettled at Sora, Naherda, and
Pombeditha, where they ertablirhed famous univerh-
ties. After this era there remained no more any rab¬
binical fchools in Judtea, headed by profeffbrs capable
of undertaking this difficult operation, nor indeed of
fufficient authority to recommend it to general prac¬
tice, 1 ad they been ever fo thoroughly qualified foi ex¬
ecuting it.
Capellus and father Morin, who contend for the
late introdu£iion of the vowel-points, acknowledge
that there can certainly be no language without vocal
founds, which are indeed the foul and cffence of
fpeech ; but they affirm that the Hebrew alphabet ac¬
tually contains vowel chnrafters, as well as the Greek
^ and Latin and the alphabets of modern Europe.
The motres ^ hefe are aleph, he, •vau,jrJd. Thefe they call the ma-
leciiunis*. tres leAtoms, or, if you pleafe, the parents of reading.
To thefe fome, we think very properly, add or o'm,
ajin. Thefe, they conclude, perform exadfly the fame
office in Hebrew that their defendants do in Greek.
It is indeed agreed upon all hands, that the Greek
alphabet is derived from the Phoenician, which is
known to be the fame with the Samaritan or Hebrew.
This pofition we ffiail prove more fully when we come
to trace the origin of the Greek tongue. Hitherto
the analogy is not only plaufible, but the refemblance
precife. The Hebrews and Samaritans employed thefe
vowels exadfly in the fame manner with the Greeks ;
and fo all was eafy and natural.
But the afferters of the Maforetic fyffem maintain,
that the letters mentioned above are not vowels but
confonants or afpirations, or any thing you pleafe
but vocal letters. This they endeavour to prove from
their ufe among the Arabians, Perfians, and other
oriental nations : But to us it appears abundantly
ifrange to fuppofe that the Greeks pronounced beta,
gamma, delta, &c. exadfly as the Hebrews and the
Phoenicians did, and yet at the fame time did not
adopt their mode of pronunciation wuth refpedf to
the five letters under confideration. To this argu¬
ment we think every objedfion muff undoubtedly yield.
The Greeks borrowed their letters from the Phoeni¬
cians ; thefe letters were the Hebrew or Samaritan.
The Greeks wrote and (z) pronounced all the other
letters of their alphabet, except the five in queftion,
in the fame manner with their originals of the call :
if they did fo, it otvioufly follows that the Greek and
oriental office of thefe letters was the fame.
Another objtdfion to reading the Hebrew without
the aid of the Maforetic vowel points, arifes from
the confideration, that without thefe there will be a
LOG Y.
34.
©bjtdHons
sniwered.
499
great number of radical Blebrew words, both notin'? HeWew
and verbs, without any vowel intervening amongft
the confonants, which is certainly abfurd. Nothwith- ~
Handing this fuppofed abfurdity, it is a well known
fadf, that all the copies of the Hebrew feriptures,
ufed in the Jewifh fynagogues throughout the world,
are written or printed without points. Thefe cop:es
are deemed facred, and kept in a coffer with the
greateft care, in allufion to the ark of the teftimony
in the tabernacle and temple. The prefedf, however,
reads the portions of the law and hagiographa with¬
out any difficulty. The fame is done by the remains
of the Samaritans at this day. Every oriental fcholar
knows that the people of thefe countries look upon
confonants as the fiamina of words. Accordingly, in
writing letters, in difpatches upon bufinefs, and all
affairs of fmall moment, the vowels are generally'
omitted. It is obvious, that in every original lan¬
guage the found of the vowels is variable and of littld
importance. Such was the cafe with the Hebrew
tongue s Nor do we think that the natives of the
country would find it a matter of much difficulty to
learn to read without the help of the vowels. They
knew the words beforehand, and fo might readily
enough learn by pra&ice what vowels were to be in¬
fer ted. ,
When the Hebrew became a dead language, as it
certainly was in a great meafure to the vulgar after
the return from the Babylonifh captivity ; fuch fub-
fidiaries might, we think, have been ufeful, and of
courfe might poffibly have been adopted for the ufe
of the vulgar : but the feribe, the lawyer, and the
learned rabbi, probably difdained fuch beggarly ele¬
ments. We ffiail in this place hazard a conjedure,
which, to us at lead, is altogether new. We ima¬
gine that the Phoenicians, who were an inventive,
ingenious people, had, prior to the age of Cad¬
mus, who firit brought their letters into Greece,
adopted the more commodious method of inferting
the vowels in their proper places ; whereas the Jews,
zealoufly attached to the cuffoms of their ance-
ftors, continued to write and read without them. In
this manner the Gephurtei J:, who were the followers * Heroi.
of Cadmus, communicated them to the Jones their11'51
neighbours. We are convinced that the materials of^ 5 '
the Greek tongue are to be gleaned up in the eaft ;
and upon that ground have often endeavoured to trace
the origin of Greek words in the Hebrew, Phoe¬
nician, Chaldean, and Arabian languages. Reading
without the vowel points we have feldom failed in our
fearch; but when we followed the method of reading prr,0/that
by the Maforetic points, we feldom fucceeded ; and the Mafo-
this, we believe, every man of tolerable erudition redc points
who will make a trial will find
true.
obje&ion. Upon this bafis, the mod learned Bochart
has ere&ed his etymological fabric, which will be ad¬
mired by the learned and ingenious as long as philolo¬
gy ffiail be cultivated by men.
3 R 2 It
by experience to be ”10“
This argument appears to us fuperior to every L ’
(y) See Buxtorf the father, in Tiber, cap. 5, 6, 7. Buxtorf the fon de Antiq. Punft. P. II. 11.
(z) This is fo true, that, according to Hefychius and Suidas, fooix-gtr/, to ad the Phoenician, fignified “ t.«
read.” «
7
500
HcVew It has been urged by the zealots for the Maforetic
language. fyfiem, that the Arabians and Perfians employ the
' v™"1 vowel points. That they do fo at prefent is readily
granted ; but whether they did fo from the beginning
fcems to be the quellion. That Arabia was overfpread
with Jewish exiles at a very early period, is abundant¬
ly certain. It was natural for them to retire to a
land where they would not hear of war nor the found
of the trumpet. Accordingly we find that, prior to
the age of the Arabian impoilor, Arabia fwarmed
with Jewilh fettlements. From thefe Jew*, it is high¬
ly probable that their neighbours learned the ufe of
the points in queftion ; which in the courfe of their
conquefts the Saracens communicated to the Perfians.
It has been alleged with great fhow of renfon, that
without the vowel points, it is often impofiible to de-
velope the genuine fignification of'many words which
occur frequently in the language ; many words of
different and fometimes oppofite fignifications are writ¬
ten with exaftly the fame eonfonants. Without the
points then, how are we to know the diftindtion ? In
anfwer to this objedlion, we beg leave to obferve, that,
during the firft period of a language, it is impoffible
that there fhould not occur a number of fimilar founds
of different fignifications. This is furely to be attri¬
buted to the poverty of the language. When a few
terms have been once fabricated, men will rather an¬
nex new fignifications to old terms, than be at the ex¬
pence of time or thought to invent new ones. This
mud have been the cafe with the Hebrew in particu¬
lar ; rnd indeed no language on earth is without in-
llances of this inconveniency, which, however, in a
living tongue, is eafily overcome by a difference of ac¬
cent, tone, gefturc, pronunciation; all which, we think,
might obviate the difficulty.
From the preceding arguments, we thihk ourfelvea
authorized to infer that the Mafora is a novel fyftem,
utterly unknown to the mod ancient Jews, and never
admitted into thofe copies of the Scriptures which
were deemed mod facred and mod authentic by that
people.
According to Origen.
Brefith bara Eloeim eth afamaira oueth aares.
Ouaares aietha Thoau ouboou ouofekh al phne The-
6m ourouc eloeim maraepheth al phne amaim.
Ouiomer eloeim iei or oniei or.
Ouiar eloeirw eth a6r khi tob ouiabdcl el6eim ben
aor ouben aoftkh.
Sea. I.
With refpedf to the original introduefion of the Hebrew
points, we agree with the learned and judicious * Dr ^anguaKc-4
Prideaux, who imagines that they were gradually in- *
troduced after the Hebrew became a dead language, pan I.
with a view to facilitate the learning to read that Ian-Book i.
guage, mere efpecially among the vulgar. By whom
they were introduced, we think, cannot eafily be de¬
termined ; nor is it probable that they were all intro¬
duced at once, pr by one and the fame perfon. They
have been aferibed to Ezra by many, for no other
reafon that we can difeover but to enhance their au¬
thenticity, and becaufe the fentiment is analogous to
the other articles of reformation edabiifhed by that holy
pried. If our curious reader fhould not be fatisfied
with the preceding detail, we mud remit him to Ca*
pellus and Morinus on the one fide, and the two Bux-
torfs, Schultens, and Dr James Robertfon profeffor.
of oriental languages in the univerfity of Edinburgh,
on the other. This learned orientalid, in his differ-
tation prefixed to his Clav’is Pentateuchiy has colle&ed
and arranged, with a true fpirit of criticifm, every
thing that has been advanced in favour of the Ma-
foretical fydem.—S: Pergama dextra defendipojfent, etiam
bac defenfa fwjfent.
St Origen, who flourifhed about the beginning of From Ori-
the 3d century, was a profound Hebrew fcholar. He£en’sHex-
publifhed a mod laborious and learned work, which isal^a’
generally called the Hexap/a, becaufe it confided of
fix columns ; the fird of which contained the Hebrew
text; the fecond, the fame text, but written in Greek
chara&ers ; the third column exhibited the verfion of
Aquila; the fourth, that of Symmachus ; the fifth,
the Septuagint; and the fixth, the verfion of Theo-
dotan. In fome fragments of that vad work which
are dill extant, we have a fpecimen of the manner
in which the Hebrew was pronounced in the third
century, by which it appears that it was very diffe¬
rent from that which refults from obferving the Mafo-
retical points. The following is an indance copied
from the beginning of Genefis.
According to the Masorites.
Berefhith bara Elohira eth adnmajim veeth aaretz.
Veaaretz ajetha thoou vaboou, vekhofhek gnal penc
tbeom verouakh efohim merakhepheth gnal pene ham-
malm.
Vai'omer elohim jehi or, vajehi or.
Vajare elohim eth aor ki tob vajabedel elohim bem
aor oubein hakhofhek.
P H I L O L O G Y.
Upon the whole, we prefume to give it as our opi¬
nion, that in the mod early periods, the vowels akph,
he, jod or yod, •vaw or ivaiv, and perhaps oin or ajin,
were regularly written wherever they were founded.
And the This to us appears plain from the pra&ice of the an-
pra&ice of cient, Greeks. It is agreed on all hands that the Sa-
Greeks1^1 mar*tsn an<^ Phoenician alphabets were the fame ; and
that the former was that of the Jews originally. The
Phoenicians certainly wrote the vowels exaftly, for
fo did the Greeks who copied their alphabet: If the
Phoenicians wrote their vowels, fo then did the Jews of
the age of Cadmus; but Cadmus was contemporary
with fome of the earliell judges of Ifrael ; the confe-
quence i» evident, namely, that the Jews wrote their
vowels as late as the arrival of that Coloney-chief in
Greece. We ought naturally to judge of the Hebrew
by the Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabian, its filler dia*
lefts. All thefe languages in ancient ^times had their
vowels regularly inferted ; and why not the Hebrew
in the fame manner with the red ?
As thefe fird vowels, which were coeval with the
other letters, often varied in their found and applica¬
tion, the points, in all appearance, were fird invented
and employed to afeertain their different founds in
different conneftions. Other marks might be invent¬
ed to point out the various tones of voice, like the
tow, or accents, with which the vowels were to be
enounced, as was done among the later Greeks. In
proeds
Se$. I.
Hebrew
Language.
38
Excellen¬
cies of the
Hebrew
language.
I’ HILO
procef? of time, in order to promote celerity of wri¬
ting, the vowels were omitted, and the points fublti-
tuted in their place.
Before we conclude our ohfervations on the He¬
brew language, we ought, perhaps, to make an apo¬
logy for omitting to interlard our details with quota¬
tions from the two Talmuds, the Milhna, the Gema-
ra, the Cabbalas, and a multitude of rabbinical wri¬
ters who are commonly cited upon fuch an occafion.
We believe we could have quoted almoft numberlefs
paffages from the two Buxtorfs, Father Morin, Capel¬
ins, and other Hebrew critics, with no great trouble
to ourfelves, and little emolument to the far greater
part of our readers. But our opinion is, that fuch a
pedantic difplay of philological erudition would pro¬
bably have excited the mirth of our learned, and
roufed the indignation of our unlearned, readers. Our
wifh is to grat’fy readers of both deferiptions, by con¬
tributing to the edification of one clafs without dif-
gufting the other.
We cannot, we imagine, handfomely take leave of
the facred language without giving a brief detail of
thofe excellencies which, in our opinion, give it a
juft claim to the fuperiority over thofe other tongues
which have fometimes contended with it for the prize
of antiquity : and of thefe the following in our appre-
henfion deferve particular notice.
If this language rnnay claim any advantage over its
antagonifts, with refpeft to its being rather a mother
than a daughter to any of them, it is undoubtedly
in confequence of its fimplicity, its purity, its energy,
its fecundity of expreffions and fignifications. In all
thefe, notwithftanding its paucity of words, ib excels
the vaft variety of other languages which are its cog¬
nate dialefts. To thefe we may add the fignificancy
of the names, both of men and brutes; the nature
and properties of the latter of which are more clearly
and more fully exhibited by their names in this than
in any other tongue hitherto known. Befides, its
well authenticated antiquity and the venerable tone of
its writings furpafs any thing left upon record in any
other dialed! now extant in the world. Thefe extra¬
ordinary qualities excite our admiration at prefent un¬
der every difadvantage; and from this circumitance
we may infer its incomparable beauty in theage of the
Jewifh legiflator, and what effects it would naturally
produce, could we know it now as it was fpoken and
written in the days of David an 1 Solomon.
As far, however, as We underftand it in its prefent
mutilated condition, and are able to judge of its cha-
rafter from thofe few books that have come down to
our time, we plainly perceive that its genius is fimplc,
primitive, natural, and exa<5Hy conformable to thecha-
rafter of thofe uncultivated patriarchs who ufed it
themfdves, and tranfmitted it to their defendants in
its native purity and fimplicity. Its words are com¬
paratively few, yet concife and exprefiive; derived
from a very final! number of radicals, without the ar¬
tificial compofition of modern languages. No tongue,
ancient or modern, can rival it in the happy and rich
fecundity of its verbs, refulting from the variety and
fignificancy of its conjugations; which are fo admirably
arranged and diverfified, that by changing a letter or
two of the primitive, they exprefs the various modes
oC afting, fufferlng, motion, reft, &c. in fucb a pre-
LOGY. 5m
cife and fignificant manner, that frequently in one Hebrew
word they convey an idea which, in any other lan- i'angli3gei
guage, would require a tedious paraphrafe. Thefe
pofitions might eafily be iUuftrated by numerous
examples ; but to the Hebrew fcholar thefe would be
fuperfluous, and to the illiterate clafs neither intereft-
ing nor entertaining.
To thefe we may add the monofyllabfc tone of the
language, which, by a few prefixes and affixes without
afftfting the radix, varies the fignification almoft at
pleafure, while the method of affixing the perfon to
the verb exhibits the gender of the objeft introduced.
In the nouns of this language there is no flexion ex¬
cept what is neceflary to point out the difference of gen¬
der and number. Its cafes are diflinguifhed by articles,
which are only fingle letters at the beginning of the
word: the pronouns are only fingle letters affixed; and.
the prepolitions are of the fame charafter prefixed to
words. Its words follovvone anotherinaneafy and natural
arrangement, without intricacy or tranfpofition, with¬
out fufpending the attention or involving the fenfe by
intricate and artificial periods. All thefe flriking and
peculiar excellencies combined, plainly demonflrate the
beauty, the liability, and antiquity of the language
under confideration.
We would not, however, be thought to infinuate
that this tongue continued altogether without changes
and imperfeftions. We admit that many radical
words of it were loft in a courfe of ages, and that
foreign ones were fubftituted in their place. The
long fojourning of the Ifraelites in Egypt, a»d their
clofe conneftion with that people, even quoad facra,
muft have introduced a multitude of Egyptian vo¬
cables and phrafes into the vulgar dialeft at leaft,
which inuft have gradually incorporated with the writ¬
ten language, and in procefsof time have become parts
of its effence. In Egypt, the Ifraelites imbibed thofe
principles of idolatry \vhich nothing lefs than the final
extirpation of their polity could eradicate. If that
people were fo obflinately attached to the Egyptian
idolatry, it is not very probable that they would be
averfe from the Egyptian language. Befidcs, the
Scripture informs us, that there came up out of Egypt ;
a mixed multitude; a circunrftance which muft have in-
fefted the Hebrew tongue with the dialeft of Egypt.
As none of the genuine Hebrew radicals exceed three
letters, whatever words exceed that numl er in their
radical ftate may be juitly deemed of foreign extrac¬
tion.
Some Hebrew critics have thought that verbs con'
ftitute the radicals of the whole language ; but this
opinion appears to us ill founded : for though many
Hebrew nouns are undoubtedly derived from verbs,
we find at the fame time numbers of the latter dedu¬
ced from the former. ^
Before we conclude our detail of the Hebrew Hutchinf^
tongue, a few of our readers may poffibly imagine nianhh»‘
that we ought to give fozne account of the Hutchin-
fonian fyftem ; a fyftem fo highly in vogue not many
years ago. But as this allegorical fclusme of interore-
tation is now in a manner exploded, we ffiall beg leave
to remit our curious Hebraift to Mr Holloway’s
Originals a fmall book in 2 vols 8vo, but replete with
multifarious erudition, efpecially in the Hutchinfoniaa
ftyle and chara&er.—/Vifo fit penes autorem.
Sea. XL
j02
Armine
Language.
40'
Arabic lan¬
guage ori¬
ginally He¬
brew.
PHILOLOGY.
Sea. If.
•i* Gen. x.
25-
+ Gen. ii.
31.
Sect. II. The Arabic Language.
We now proceed to give feme account of the Arabian
language, which ie evidently one of the filler dialects
of the Hebrew. Both,-we imagine, were originally
the fame ; the former highly improved and enlarged ;
the latter, in appearance, retaining its original fim-
plicity and rude afpedl, fpoken by a people ol a genius
by no means inventive. In this inqu'iy, too, as in
the former, we (hall fpare ourfelves the trouble of de-
feending to the grammatical minutire of the tongue ;
a method which, we are perfuaded, would neither gra¬
tify our learned nor edily our unlearned readers. To
thofe who are inclined to acquire the firit elements
of that various, copious, and highly improved tongue,
we beg to recommend Erpenii Rudimtrua Ling. Arab.
Gobi Gram. Arab, the Differ!ations of Hariri, tranfia-
ted by the elder Schultens ; Mr Richardfon’s Perfic
and Arabic Gram. &c.
We have pronounced the Hebrew’ and Arabian
lifter dialedfs; a relation which, as far as we know,
has been feldom controverted : but we think there is
authentic hiftorical evidence that they were poiitively
one and the fame, at a period when the one as well as
the other appeared in its infant unadorned fimplicity.
The following detail will, we hope, fully authenticate
the truth of our poiition.
“ Unto Eber (fays the Scripture *) were born two
fons. The name of one was Peleg, becaufe in his
days the earth was divided ; and his brother’s name
was Joktan,” or rather Yoktan. This laft, fays the
facred hrilorian, “ had thirteen fons ; and their dwel¬
ling reached from Mefha (Mocha) to Sephar(A),” a
mount of the eatl. According to this account, the
defeendants of Yoktan poffelTed all the maritime coafl
of Arabia from Media (Mocha) to mount Sephar to¬
wards the call of that peninfula. Mofes, deferibing
the rivers of paradife, tells us, that one of the branches
of that river f “ encompaffed the whole land of Ha-
vilah, where there was great ftote of gold.” Havilah
was the twelfth fon of Yoktan, whom the Arabians
call Kobtan ; and confequently his territory was fitua-
ted towards the eaftern limit of the poffefiions of the
poilerity of the youngeft fon of Eber. Yoktan or
Kobtan was too young to be concerned in the building
of the tower; and confequently retained the language
of his family, which was undoubtedly the Hebrew.
His defeendants muft have carried the fame language
into their refpedtive fettlements, where it mull have
been tranfmitted to fucceeding generations. The
original language of all the tribes of the Arabians who
inhabit a vail tradl of country along the fouthern fhore,
according to this deduction, was that of their father
Kobtan, that is, the Hebrew. Indeed, the moll
learned Arabians of modern times unanimoufly ac¬
knowledge this patriarch as the founder of their lan¬
guage as well as of their nation.
The other diflri&s of Arabia were peopled by the
offspring of Abraham. The Ifhmaelites, the poitcrity
of that patriarch by Hagar, penetrated into the very Arabic
centre of the peninfula ; incorporated, and in procels
of time became one people with the Kobtanites. Ano- ’ v”
ther region was pofTcffed by the children of the fame
holy man by Cheturah his fecond wife. The Moabites,
Ammonites, Edomites, Amalekites, &e. who fettled
in the various regions of Arabia Petnea, were all
brandies of Abraham’s family, and tiled the fame lan¬
guage with their great progenitor. The Scripture
indeed fpeaks of people who inhabited the country lalt
mentioned prior to the branches of Abraham’s family ;
but thefe, according to the fame hiftory, were extir-
paled by the former. The conclufion then is, if we
credit the Mofaic account, that all the inhabitants of
the three diviftons of Arabia did, in the earlieft periods,
univerfally ufe the Hebrew tongue.
There was, we are fenfible, a region of Arabia in¬
habited by the Cufliim, or defeendants of Cufh. This
diftricl was iituated on the confines of Babylonia. Our
tranflators have confounded this country with the
modern Ethiopia; and have confequently aferibed the
exploits of the Arabian Cufhim to the Ethiopians.
The Arabian kings of Babylon were of thofe Cufhim.
Thefe were conquered and expelled Babylonia by the
Chafidim. Thefe fpoke the Chaldean dialetl, as vv 11
appear when we come to fpeak of that of the Abyfii-
nians. Here the candid reader is defired to refleft
that the Hebrew and Chaldaic are cogn tte di^lefts.
The foregoing proofs, deduced from the Mofaic
hiftoiy, will be corroborated by a mafs of internal evi¬
dence in the fucceeding p ;rts of our inquiry.
The Arabic tongue, originally pure Hebrew, was G..acfJa}jy
in procefs of time greatly transformed and altered from dev;ated
its fimple unfophifticated flate. The Arabians were from that
divided into many different tribes; a circumftanceljmi^c,ty*
which naturally produced many different dialedls.
Thefe, however, were not of foreign growth. No fo¬
reign enemy ever conquered thofe independent hords.
The Perfians, Greeks, and Romans, fometimes at¬
tempted to invade their territories ; but the roughnefs
of the ground, the fear city of forage, the penury of
water, and their natural bravery, always protected
them. They were indeed once invaded by the Abyf-
finians or Ethiopians with fome (how of fuccefs; but
thefe invaders were in a fhort time expelled the coun¬
try. Their language, of confcquence, was never
adulterated with foreign words or exotic phrafes and
idioms. Whatever augmentations or improvements it
received were derived from the genius and indmlry of
the natives, and not from adventitious or imported
acquifitions. From this circumltance we may juftly
infer, that the Arabian tongue was a long time fla¬
tionary, and of courfe differed in no contiderable de¬
gree from its Plebrevv archetype. The learned Schul¬
tens, in his Commentary on Job, hath fhown, to the
conviiftion of every candid inquirer, that it is impof-
fible to underftand that fublime compofition without
having recourfe to the Arabic idioms. That patri¬
arch was a Chuzite. His country might be reckoned
a part of Arabia. His three friends were actually
Arabians,
(a) Sephar, in the Septuagint Sepwfa, and in fome editions Sap-jfa : hence probably Orig, in Job.
cap. xxii. ver. 14. fxtnfe Tint to* 'Ep+cinu Xupug tw Ajs^ikijv titoti.
Sea. II. PHIL
Arabic Arabians, being the dtfctnJants of Ifhmael ami £fau.
Language. j-jjs country bordered upon that of the predatory
Chaldeans, who were an Arabian banditti. When
we confider all thefe circumftances in cumulo, we are
ftrongly inclined to believe that the book of Job was
nftually written in Arabic, as the language flood at
that period ; which, according to the moll probable
opinion, could not have been later than the age of
Mofes. The learned are generally agreed that this
■whole book, the three firft chapters excepted, is a
'poetical compofit on, replete with the moll brilliant
and moft magnificent imagery, the boldell, the juftell,
and moll gorgeous tropes and allulions, and a grandeur
of fentiment wholcly divine. Whoever has read the
poetical compofitions of the modern Arabians, on di¬
vine fubjedls, with any degree of talle, will, we flatter
ourfelves, difeover a linking fimilarity both of diclion
and fentiment. Be this as it may, we think there is
no reafon to conclude that the Arabic dialedl deviated
much from the Hebrew flandard prior to the Chrif-
4l tian era.
The two Of thofe different dialefts which prevailed among
dialectf var,*ous tr‘be8 among which the peninfula of Ara-
Arabia ^ia was divided, the principal were the Hemyaret and
the Koreifh. Though fome of thefe were tributary
to the Tobb«s, or Hemyaret fovereign of Arabia
Felix, yet they took no great p^ins to cultivate the
language of that province, and of courfe thefe people
did not thoroughly underlland it. As for the inde¬
pendent tribes, they had no temptation to cultivate
any other language than their own.
The Koreifh tribe was the noblefl and the moll
learned of all the wellern Arabs; and the kaaba, or
fquare temple of Mecca, was before the era of Mo¬
hammed folely under their proteAion. This temple
drew annually a great concourfe of pilgrims from every
Arabian tribe, and indeed from every other country
where the Sahian religion prevailed. The language
of the Koreilh was ftudied with emulation by the
neighbouring tribes. Numbers of the pilgrims were
people of the firft rank, and pofltfled all the fcience
peculiar to their country or their age. Great fairs were
held during their relidence at Mecca, and a variety of
gay amufements filled up the intervals of their religious
duties. In thefe entertainments literary compofitions
bore the higheft and moft diftinguifhed rank ; every
fnan of genius confidering not his own reputation
alone, but even that or his nation or his tribe, as in-
terelled in his fuccefs. Poetry and rhetoric were
chiefly elleemed and admired ; the firft being looked
upon as highly ornamental, and the other as a neceffary
accomplilhment in the education of every leading man.
An aflembly at a place called Ocadh, had been in confe-
quence eftablilhed about the end of the fixth century,
where all were admitted to a rivalftiip of genius.
The dialedl The merits of their refpeftive productions were im-
refhbe^0" Part'a^ determined by the afiembly at large ; and the
tame the ino^ EPProved °f t^e*r poems, written on fiik, in
politdt, charadters of gold, were with much folemnity fufpend-
and why. ed in the temple as the higheft mark of honour which
could be conferred on literary merit. Thefe poems
were called the Meal/abat, “ fufpended,” or Modhabebatt
“ golden.” Seven of thefe are ftill preferved in many
European libraries.
From this uncommon attention to promote emula-
O L O G Y. 503
tion, and refine their language, the dialedt of the Arabic
Koreilh became the pureft, the richeft, and the moll LanKuaee‘
polite, of all the Arabian idioms. It was fludied with
a kind of predileftion; and about the beginning of the
feventh century it w7as the general language of Arabia,
the other dialects being either incorporated with it,
or Aiding gradually into difufe. By this Angular
idiomatic union the Arabic has acquired a prodigious
fecundity ; whilft the luxuriance of fynonymes, and
the equivocal or oppofite femes of the fame or fimilar
words, hath furnilhed their writers with a wonderful
power of indulging, in the fulleft range, their favourite
pafiion for antithefis and quaint allufion. One inftance
of this we have in the w'ord veil; which fignifies a
prince, a friend, and alfo a Jlave. This fame word,
with the change of one letter only, becomes -va/i;
which, without equivocation, imports a fovereign. Ex¬
amples of this kind occur in almoft every page of every
Arabic diilionary.
But all thofe advantages of this incomparable lan-This lupe-
guage are merely modern, and do not reach higherriority mo'~
than the beginning of the fixth century. Prior to^ern*
that era, as we have obferved above, a variety of dia¬
lects obtained ; and as the Arabs were by their fitua-
tion in a manner fequeftered from all the reft of man¬
kind, it may not perhaps be fuperfluous to inquire
briefly into the caufe and origin of this inftantaneoua
and univerlal change.
For a courfe of more than 20 centuries the Ara¬
bians had been Ihut up within the narrow limits of
their own peninfula, and in a great meafure fecluded
from the reft of the world. Their commerce with
India was purely mercantile, and little calculated to
excite or promote intelleClual improvements. They
traded with the Egyptians from time immemorial ; hut
fince the invafion and ufurpation of the pallor kings,
every Ihepherd, that is, every Arabian, was an abomi¬
nation to the Egyptians. From that quarter, there¬
fore, they could not derive much intelleilual improve¬
ment. Befides, when an extenfive territory is par¬
celled out among a number of petty fepts or clans,
the feuds and contetls which originate from interfering
interefts and territorial difputes, leave but little time,
and lefs inclination, for the culture of the mind. In
thefe circumftances, the military art alone will be cul¬
tivated, and the profeflion of arms alone will be deem¬
ed honourable. Of confequence, we find that, in the
general opinion, poetry, rhetoric, and the profelfion
of arms, were the only fciences cultivated by the
people in queltlon. As for the fcience of arms, we
are convinced that it was both ftudied and pradlifed at
a very early period ; but as to the two former, we
imagine they were very late acquifitions, and fprung
from fome circumllance external and adventitious.
The tribe of the Koreilh were much engaged in
commerce. They exported frankincenfe, myrrh, caf-
fia, galbanum, and other drugs and fpices, to Damaf-
cus, Tripoli, Palmyra, and other commercial cities of
Syria and its neighbourhood. Upon thefe occafions
the Arabian traders muft have become acquainted with
the Greek language, and perhaps with the more amu-
fing and affeding parts of the Grecian literature. They
might hear of the high renowm of Homer and De-
mollhenes; and it is not impoffible that fome of them
might, be able to read their compofitione. Every¬
body
504
Arabic
"Language.
Iiiftitution
at Mecca
fimilar to
the Olym¬
pic games.
PHILO
body knows with wbat unremitting ardour the learned
Arabs, under the firft khaliffs, perufed and tranfiiited
the philofophical works of the Grecian fages. The
very fame fpirit might animate their predeceffora,
though they wanted learning, and perhaps public en¬
couragement, to aroufe their exertions. From this
quarter, we think, the Arabs may have learned to ad¬
mire, and then to imitate, the Grecian worthies.
The Ptolemies of Egypt were the profeffed patrons
of commerce as well as of learning. Under thefe
princes all natrons were invited to trade with that
happy country. The Arabs, now no longer fettered
by Egyptian jealoufy, carried their precious commo¬
dities to Alexandria ; where the Grecian literature,
though no longer in its meridian fplendor, (hone how¬
ever with a clear unfaded luftre. The coutt of the
dirft Ptolemies was the retreat of all the moft celebra¬
ted geniufes of Greece and of the age; in a word,
Alexandria was the native land of learning and inge¬
nuity. Here the ingenious Arab muft have heard
the praifes of learning inceffantly proclaimed ; muft
have been often prefent at the public exhibitions of
the poets and orators ; and even though he did not
underftand them exactly, might be charmed with the
melody of the diftion, and ftruck with furprife at their
effefts on the audience. The reader will pleafe to re-
fieft, that the Arabian traders were the firft men of
the nation, both with refpeft to birth, learning, and
fortune. Thefe wife men, to ufe the language of
.Scripture, infpired with the natural curiofity of their
race, might hear of the celebrated Olympic games,
the public recitations'before that affembly, and the
glorious prize beftowed upon the conquerors. Such
information might animate them to inftitute fome-
thing parallel at Mecca, with a view to improve
their language, and at the fame time to derive honour
and emolument to themfelves. f he Koreilhim might
promife themfelves the like advantages from the efta-
bliihment of the fair and aiTemblyat Ocadh, as the na¬
tives of Elis drew from the inftifution of the Olympic
games. For thefe reafons, we conje&ure, the literary
competitions at the place juft mentioned were inftitu-
tuted at fo late a period, though the nation had exift-
«d more than 2000 years before the eftabliftiment of
this anniverfary. Upon the whole, we are inclined to
believe, that the Arabs, notwithtlanding all the fine
things recorded of them by their own poetical hifto-
rians, and believed perhaps too eafily by thofe of other
countries, were in the days of ignorance like the ear-
lieft Romans, latrones et femibarbari. For our part,
■we think it by no means probable, that a people of
that character fhould, after fo long a courfe of years,
have ftumbled upon fo laudable and fo beneficial an in-
ftitution, without taking the hint from fome foreign
one of a fimilar complexion. 1 his we acknowledge is
only a conjecture, and as fuch it is fubmitted to the
judgment of the reader.
There were, as has been obferved above, two prin¬
cipal dialefts of the original Arabic : The Hamyarite
fpoken by the genuine Arabs, and the Koreifhite or
pure Arabic, which at laft became the general language
of that people. The former of thefe inclined towards
the Syriac or Chaldean; the latter being, according to
them, the language of Ifhmael, was deeply tinctured
with the Hebrew idiom. The oriental writers tell us
logy. Sea. 11,
that Terah, the grandfather of Hamyar, was the firft Arabic
whofe language deviated from the Syriac to the Ara- ^an^uage,
bic. Hence, fay they, the Hamyaritic dialect tnuft
have approached nearer to the purity of the Syriac,
aud of confequence muft have been more remote from
the true genius of the Arabic than that of any of the
other tribes. The fact feems to ftand thus: The Ham-
yarites were neighbours to the Chaldeans and Sy*
rians, and confequently were connedted with thofe
people by commerce, wars, alliances, &c. Thiscircum-
ftance introduced into their language many phrafes and
idioms from both thefe nations. T hat Terah was con¬
cerned in adulterating the dialedt of the Hamyarites, is a
mere oriental legend, fabricated by the Arabs after they
began to perufe the Hebrew Scriptures. The Koreifh
being fituated in the centre of Arabia, were lefs ex-
pofed to intercourfe with foreigners, and therefore pre-
ferved their language more pure and untainted. ^
The learned well know, that the Koran was writ ten The Kora;j
in the dialect: of the Koreifh; a cin. umftance which written in
communicated additional fplendor to that branch of'he Koreith
the Arabian tongue. It has been proved, that the^c“*'
language of the original inhabitants of Arabia was
genuine Hebrew; but upon this fuppofition a queftion
will arife, namely, whether the Arabians actually pre-
ferved their original tongue pure and unfophifticated
during a fpace of 3000 years, which elapfed between
the deluge and the birth of Mohammed ? or, whether, ‘
during that period, according to the ordinary courfe of
human affairs, it underwent many changes and devia¬
tions from the original ftandard i
The admirers of that language ftrenuoufiy maintain
the former pofition ; others, who are more moderate
in their attachment, are difpofed to admit the latter.
Chardin obferves of the oriental languages in general,
that they do not vary' and fhuftunte with time like the
European tongues*. “ Ce qu’il y a de plus admirable, * Voyagt%
dit il, et de plus remarquable, dans ces l-.ngues, c’eft,v< 1. 3.
qu’elles ne changent point, ct n’ont point change duP- 43-
tout, foit a 1’egard de termes, foit a regard du tour;
lien n’y eft, ni nouveau ni vieux, nulle bonne fa-
900 de parler, n’a cede d'etre en credit. L’Alcoran, par
exemple, eft aujourdhui, comme il y a mille annees, le
modele de plus pure, plus courte, et plus eloquer.te dic¬
tion.” It is not to our purpofe to tranferibe the re¬
maining part of the author’s refleftion upon this fub-
je& : From the above it plainly appears that he con¬
cludes, that the Arabian tongue has fuffered no change
fince the publication of the Koran ; and at the fame
time infinuates, that it had continued invariable in its
original purity through all ages, from the days of
Kobtan to the appearance of that book. Whether
both or cither of thefe fentiments is properly authen¬
ticated will appear in the fequel. /
The learned Dr Robertfon, profeflbr of oriental lan- \jeat,s a_
guages in the univerfuy of Edinburgh,’informs us, that dopte.1 by
the Arabians, in order to preferve the purity of theirthe Arabs
language, ftri&ly prohibited their merchants, who were^J5
obliged to go abroad for the fake of commerce, all 0f their lan-
commerce with ftrange women. We know not where b'uage.
this injunction is rcorded, but certainly it was a moft
terrible interdidl to an amorous fon of the defart. If
fuch a prohibition actually exifted, we fiifpedt it ori¬
ginated from fome other fource than the fear of cor¬
rupting their language. Be that as it may, the Doc-
8 tor.
Sea IT,
Arabic tor, ag well as the g^at Schultens, is clearly of opi-
J,ant?uage. njon> tjiat t|,e languagC in queftion, though divided in¬
to a great number of flreama and canals, ftill flowed
pure and limpid in its courfe.
Our readers who are acquainted with the hiftory of
the orientals are already apprized of the fteady at¬
tachment of th«fe people to ancient cuftoms and infti-
tutions. We readily allow, that in the article of Lan¬
guage this fame predileftion is abundantly obvious ;
^ but every oriental fcholar mull confefs, that the ftyle
The ftyle K-oran is at this day in a manner obfolete, and
of the Ko- become almoft a dead language. This fa£, we be-
rtr?0W ^*eve* W,*H not bc queftioned. If the Arabian has de-
oj) o etc, viated fo very confiderably from the ftandard of the
Koran in little more than iooo years, and that too
after an archetype is afeertained; by a parity of reafon
we may infer, that much greater df viations muft have
affedted the language in the fpace of 3000 years.
It is univerfally allowed by fuch as maintain the un-
fullied purity of the Arabian tongue, that it was ori¬
ginally the fame with the Hebrew, or with the ancient
Syriac and Chaldaic. Let any one now compare the
words, idioms, and phrafeology of the Koran with the
remains of thofe three languages, and we think we may
venture to affirm that the difference will be palpable.
This circumltance, one would think, indicates in the
ftrongeft terms a remarkable alteration.
I he Arabs themfelves are agreed, that, notwithftand-
ing the amazing fecundity of their language, vaft num¬
bers of its radical terms have been irrecoverably loft.
' But th is lofs could not be fupplied without either fa¬
bricating new words or borrowing them from foreign
languages. To the latter method we have feen their
averfion; and muft therefore conclude that they adopt¬
ed the former.
The Chaldeans, Syrians, and Phoenicians, had made
innovations on their language at a very early period,
even before conquefts were undertaken : We fee no
rcafon to fuppofe that the Arabs did not innovate as
well as their near^ft neighbours : the Hamyarites did
aftur.lly innovate.
There are, we think, very ftrong reafons to believe,
that Job was an Arabian, and flourifhed prior to Mo-
fes, perhaps as early as Jacob. The ftyle, the genius,
the figurative tone of the compofition ; the amazing
fublimity of the fentiments, the allulions, the pathos,
the boldnefs, the variety, and irregularity ; the poeti¬
cal enthufiafm which pervade the whole poem, ftrong-
ly breath the Arabian fpirit: indeed the very diftion
is peculiar to that Angle book, and differs widely from
And re- that of the Pfalms and every poetical part of the facred
fembling canon. If we compare this book with Mohammed’s
brevTin'its ^or2n> we fcarce find any refemblance of words
phrafeolo- or pht afeology ; but a wonderful fimilarity of figures,
gy. enthufiafm, and elevation of fentiments.
We are then led to conclude, that the Arabic did
^dually lofe and gain a multitude of vocables between
the era of its firft eftablifhment among the defeen-
dants of Joktan and Jfhmael and the birth of the im-
poftor..
The art of writing was introduced among the Arabs
at a very late period : Without the affiftance of this
art, one would think it altogether impcfliblt to pre-
ferve any language in its primteval purity and fimpli-
city. Our curious readers may here expeft fome ac-
Vou XIV. Part II. V
5°$
count of the Arabic charafters: the following detail Arabic
is the moft probable one we have been able to colled! Lan£uaSc^
on that fubjedt. ^ J
It is generally agreed*r that the art of writing was * Pococke't
known among the Hamyarites or Hometites at a very Spedm.
early period. Thefe people were fovereigns of Arabia Ara^‘
during a courfe of many ages. Their chara&er wasArt ^wn-
fomewhat perplexed and confufed. It was called tf/ting among
Mofnady from the mutual connexion of the letters.die Ham-
The alphabet of thefe people refembled that of theyar^te3
Hebrews both in the number and order of the letters,
and is called algad heviz f, from the firft ten letters off /j.
the Hebrew alphabet, artificially thrown together.
“ And this word (fays the learned Chardin J) a, by ^,t v°f u’u
d, is formed of the four letters which were heretofore^’* I^‘
the firft in the Arabian language, as they are ftill in
that of the Hebrews.” The fame traveller is pofitive
that thefe were the ancient charadlers of the Arabs ;
that they differed from Cuphite letters, which were af¬
terwards introduced ; and that they were fumilhed
with vowel points. Thefe, we imagine, were the firft
rude fketehes of the Chaldean chara&er, which pro«
babiy the Hamyarites retained in their priftine unpo-
lilhed form, after they had been polifhed and reduced
to a more elegant fize by the original inventors.
Monuments bearing inferiptions in thefe characters
are, they tell us, ftill to be feen in fome places of Ara¬
bia. Some were engraved on rocks ; and to thefe we
think it probable that the patriarch Job alludes in
thofe paffages where he feems to intimate an inclina¬
tion to have his fufferings recorded in a book, and
graven in the rock for ever. All the Arabians agree,
that the dialect of the Hamyarites inclined towards the
Syriac or Chaldean. This we have imputed to the con¬
nexion of that people with the Chaldeans, who lived in
their neighbourhood. If the Hamyaritic dialed was in-
feded with the Syriac or Chaldaic, there can be no doubt
that they derived their letters from the fame quarter.
We conclude then, that the Hamyarites Jknewthern Chaldaic
art of writing from the earlieft antiquity, and that the chara&ers^
letters they employed were the rude Chaldaic in their
unimproved ftate ||. Some of the Arabians do indeed;{ recocts
hold, that Ifhmael was the firft author of letters ; but Ora/, de
that his charaXers were rude and indiftinX, without Lil‘S-
any interval between letters or words, and that thefe
were adopted by Kedar and his other children : but
this tradition hath met with little credit.
With refpeX to the highly polilhed Koreiftu'teS, it
is agreed on all hands, that they were unacquainted
with the ufe of letters till a few years before the birth of
Mohammed. Two difficulties here prefent themfelves.
The firft is, how the Koreifhite dialeX, without the jz
art of writing, hrppened to excel all the -other dialeXs Art of wri-
of the Arabic tongue, affifted by that art, apparently
fo neceffarv for preferving a language in its originalUl^tc^0ie*~
purity. The fecond is ftill, we think, rather great¬
er, namely, how the Koreifh learned that moft ufeful
art at fo late a period as the fixth century. It is a
well known faX, that ever after the Babylonifh cap¬
tivity Arabia fwarmed with Jewifh villages, in which
the art of writing was generally known ; and almoft;
at the beginning of the Chriftian era, multitudes of
Chriftians retired to the fame country, in order to
avoid the perfecutions which they fuffeted in the Ro¬
man empire. In thefe circumftances, we think it ra-
3 S ther
PHILOLOGY.
5o6 PHILO
Arabic thcr ftrangc, that the Koreifaites, highly polifhed and
Language. acUtc a8 t|jey were> never thought of laying hold on
‘,,^r,W the opportunity of learning an art fo very ufeful. Thefc
two problems we leave to be folved by our more learn,
ed readers.
But however they be folved, it is univerfally ac¬
knowledged, that the Koreiih were ignorant of letters
till a few years before the birch of their prophet.
Ebn Chalican (b), one of their rnoft celebrated hifto-
rians, informs us, that Moramer the fon of Morra,
an Anbarian, a native of Anbaris, a city of Irak (c),
firft invented alphabetical characters, and taught
his countrymen to ufe them, from whom this nol le
invention was derived to the Koreifhites. Thefe
letters, though neither beautiful nor convenient, were
long ufed by the Arabs. They were denominated
Cuphite, from Cupha a city of Irak. In this character
the original copy of the Koran was written. I hefe
we think were the original clumfy characters which
were retained by the vulgar after the beautiful fquare
Chaldaic letters were invented ; and probably ufed by
priefts, philofophers, and the learned in general. Thefe
letters are often at this day ufed by the Arabs for the
titles of books and public inferiptions.
* Robert Abauli the fon of Mocla % about 300 years after
ctav. Pent. ^ death of Mohammed, found out a more elegant and
P- 35; more expeditious character. This invention of Abau-
Improved li was afterwards carried to perfe Aion by Ebn Bow la,
about 30a who died in the year of the hegira 4I3> ^hen Kader
years after was caliph of Bagdad. This character, with little va-
Moham- rlat;onj obtains at this day. As we think this article
' ' Gf fome importance, we (hall, for the fake of our un¬
learned readers, tranferibe an excellent account of this
whole matter from the very learned Schultens.
“ The Cuphic charaCbers.. fays he, which had been
brought from theregion of the Chaldeans to the province
of Htjaz, and to Mecca its capital, in the age of Mo¬
hammed, was employed by the Koieifhites, and in it
the koran was firft written. But as this chara&er was
rude and clumfy, in confequence of its fize, and ill
calculated for expedition, Abauli Ebn Mocla devifed
a more elegant and expeditious one. This ptrfon was
vifir to Arradius the 4111 caliph, who began to reign
in the year of the hegira 322. Accordingly, in the
10th century, under this emperor of the Saracens, the
form of the Arabian alphabet underwent a change ; and
the former clumfy embai railed character was made to
give way to the polilhed, eafy, and expeditious type.
Regarding this expedition alone, the author of the
invention left very few vowel characters; and as the
Hebrew manner of writing admits five long ones and
five fiiort in different lhapes, he taught how to ex-
prefs all the vowels, both long and Ihort, fuitably to
the genius of the language, by three, or rather by
two, fmall points, without any danger of a nuttake:
an abbreviation truly delerving applaufe and admira¬
tion ; for by placing a very fmall line above ^ he at-
pieffed a and e ; and by placing the fame below ,
he meant to intimate i only. To the other Ihort
LOGY. Sea. If.
ones, 0 and he affigned a fmall >waw above. In or- Arabic
der to reprefent the long ones, he called in the matres I-ianguage»
lettionis,\.\\t “ quiefeent letters N;V;” fo thatwith ' "'~v
elif intimated a and 0 long, i. e. kamet% and chokm ,* jod
placed after kef ram became txeri and chirek long. Waw
annexed to damma made fchurek”
In this paffage, this great orientalift acknowledges
that the vifir above-mentioned, who carried the Ara¬
bian alphabet to the pinnacle of perfection, invented
and annexed the vowel points for the fake of eafe and
expedition in writing ; from which we may infer, that
prior to the tenth century the Arabians had no vowel
points ; and confequently either read without vowels,
or contented themfelves with the matres leSionis above-
mentioned.
The defign of the author of the invention in fabri¬
cating thefe points, was confelfedly eafe and expedi¬
tion in writing ; a circumftance which furnilhes a vio¬
lent prefumption that the Hebrew vowel-points were
devifed and annexed at fome late period for the very
fame purpofes.
Some, indeed, have gone fo far as to affirm that the
Arabians were the original fabricators of the vowel-
points. The Arabians^ (fays the learned Dr Gre- the Or&n
gory Sharp) were the original authors of the vowel e/
points. They invented three, called fatha, and dammat Lang.
and kefra : but thefe were not in ufe till feveral years
after Mohammed ; for it is certain that the firft copies
of the koran were without them. The rabbis hole
them from the Arabs.” This, however, is carrying
the matter too far, fince it is certain that the Jews
were acquainted with the points in queftion long be¬
fore the period above mentioned.
Though it is none of our intention to enter into a mi¬
nute detail of the pecularities of this noble language, we
cannot omit obferving one thing, which indeed belongs
to grammar, but is not generally taken notice of by the
Arabic grammarians. The roots of verbs in this dialeCt
are univerfally trilateral; fo that the compofition of the
28 Arabian letters would give near 22,000 elements
of the language. This circumftance demonftrates the
fuprifing extent of it: for although great numbers of Suri riling
its roots are irrecoverably loll, and fome perhaps were
never in ufe ; yet if we fuppofe 10,000 of them,_with-
out reckoning quadriliterals to exiil, and each of them
to admit only five variations, one with another, in form¬
ing derivative nouns, the whole language would then
confift of 50,000 words, each of which may receive a
multitude of changes by the rules of grammar.
Again, the Arabic feems to abhor the compofition
of words, and invariably exprefles very complex ideas
by circumlocution ; fo that if a compound word be
found in any dialed of that language, we may at once
pronounce it of foreign extrudion. This is indeed a
diftinguifliing feature in the ftrudure of this tongue,
as well as of fome of its filter dialeds. This circum fiance
has, in our opinion, contributed not a little to the
amazing fecundity of that language : for as every in¬
gredient in the compofition of a complex idea requires
(b) See this whole detail in Dr Pocock’s Specim, Hifl. Arab. p. 250. etfeq.
(c ) Irak, “ Babylonia,” from Erech, one of the cities built by Nimrod. ! he Arabians have generally refta-
red the ancient names of places. Thus with them Tyre is 7W, Sidon Syd, Egypt Mezn, &c.
Sea. n. PHIL
A'iiMc a word to cxprefs it, as many words became neceflary
Language, to complete the language as theie were fimple ideas to
be intimated by difcourfe. Were all the compounds of
the Greek language to be diffolved, as probably once
they were, the vocables of that tongue would infinitely
exceed their prefent number.
The Arabic authors hoaft moft unconfcionahly of
the richnefs and variety of their language. No human
underftandinsr, fay they, is capacious enough to com¬
prehend all its treafures. Infpiration alone can qua-
& Pococke's lify one for exhaulting its fources *. Ebn Chalawalb,
fyecimen. a mof^ renowned grammarian of theirs, has fpent a
whole volume upon the various names of the lion, which
amount to jco ; another on the names of the ferpent,
which make up 200. Mohammed al Firancabodius
affirms that he wrote a book on the ufefulnefs and
different denominations of honey, in which he enume¬
rates 80 of them ; and after all, he affures us that he
was ftill far from having exhaufted his fubje£t. To
excel in a language fo amazingly copious, was cer¬
tainly a proof of uncommon capacity, and confidered
as no mean talent even among the Koreifhites. Hence
Mohammed, when fome people were exprcffing their
admiration of the eloquence of the koran, told them
that he had been taught by the angel Gabriel the lan¬
guage of Ifhmatl, which had fallen into defuetude.
5$ In a language fo richly replenifhed with the choicefi:
and poetry an<^ mo^: energetic terms, both oratory and poetry
of the were cultivated with eafe. All the difficulty confided
Arabs. in making a choice among wmrds and phrafes equally
elegant. We may compare one of thofe poets or orators
to a young gentleman, of a tafte highly refined, walk¬
ing into a repofitory where a profufion of the richefi:
and moft elegant dreffes are piled up in wild confufion.
Our beau is here diftrefled with variety ; but to be
able to choofe the moft handfome and moft becoming,
he muft have received from nature a fuperior good
tafte; which he muft likewife have cultivated by affi-
duous induftry, and by affociating with the moft gen¬
teel company.
The orations of the Arabs were of two kinds, me¬
trical and profaic. The former they compared to
pearls fet in gold, and the latter to loofe ones. They
were ambitious of excelling in both ; and whoever did
fo, was highly diftinguifhed. His fuectfs in either of
thofe departments was thought to confer honour, not
only on his family, but even on his tribe. In their
poems were preferved the genealogies of their families,
the privileges of their tribes, the memory of their he¬
roes, the exploits of their anceftors, the propriety of
their language, the magnificence of banquets, the
generofity of their wealthy chiefs and great men, &c.
After all, we cannot avoid being of the unpopular
opinion, that this mighty parade of eloquence and
poetry did not reach backward above two centuries
before the. birth of Mohammed, as it certainly vanifhed
at the era of the propagation of his religious mftitu-
tions. The two fucceeding centuries were the reigns
of fuperftition and bloodlhed. The voice of the mufes
is feldom heard amidft the din of arms.
T he ancient Arabs, at whatever time poetry began
to be in requeft among them, did not at firft write
poems of confiderable length. They only exprefled
themfelves in metre occalionally, in acute rather than
harmonious ftrains. I he Proverbs of Solomon, and
o L- o G Y. 507
the book of Ecclefiaftes feem to be eompofed in this Arabic
fpecies of verfification. The profody of the Arabs Language.^
was never digefted into rules till fome time after the ’ ^
death of Mohammed ; and this is faid to h ive been
done by Al Khalti al Farabidi, who lived in the reign
of the caliph Karan of Rafchid.
After fo many encomiums on the copioufnefs of the
Arabic tongue, one clals of our readers may poffibly
expeft that we fhould fubjoin a brief detail of its ge- Genius and
nius and chara&er; and this we (hall do with all pof-character
fible brevity. of the lan-
All the primary or radical words of the languagegl‘ase*
are compofed of different combinations of confonants
by triads ; fo that the various combinations and con-
junftions of radicals m ike more than 10,000, even with¬
out including thofe which may arife from the meet¬
ing of guttural letters. From this quality of "the
language has flowed that {lability of the dialed which
has preferved it pure and entire for fo many thou-
fand years, and fecured it from thofe changes and
that fluduation to which moft other tongues are fub-
jed.
Perhaps, notwithftanding its copioufnefs and varie¬
ty, no other language can vie with the one in que-
ftion in point of perfpicuity and precifion. It is pof-
feffed of a brevity and rotundity which, amidft the
greateft variety, enables it to exprefs with clearnefs
and energy what could not be expreffed in any other
tongue without tedious circumlocutions. To this
purpofe we Ihall beg leave to tranferibe a pafTage from
Bifhop Pocock’s oration on the Arabic language.
As we imagine few of our readers who will have the
curiofity to perufe this article can be unacquainted
with the Latin tongue, we fhall give it as it hands in
the original, without a tranflation :
“ Neque in nulla certe laudis parte, mira ilia qua,
non folutn verborum in fignificando, perfpicuitate, fed
in prolatione, elegantise et dulcedini cave runt, fedu-
litas ; quoque, non folum accurata, inter literas ex fig-
nificata proportione, fenfus vei intenfioni, vel remif-
fioni, prout res poftulaverit, literarum appofitione,
fubdudione, vel juxta organorum, rationem profpe-
xerunt; fed et ne quid delicatulis auribus ingratum, ne
quid horridum, aut reperiatur, effecerunt.
Hoc in genere eft, quod nufpiam in verbo aliquo, ge-
nuinas apud Arabes originis, concurrunt, non interce-
dente vocalis alicujus motione confonantes, cum vel
tres, vel plures, aliis in Unguis frequenter collidantur.
Immo neque, fi adfint, qure afperitati remedio lint, vo-
cales, quas iibet temere tamen committunt confonantes;
fed ita rei natura poftulat, ut concurrere debeant ilia,
quae fe invicem, fine afperitatis indudione confequi, et
inter fe connedi non poffint; illi vel fitus, vel litera¬
rum mutatione, eas abjiciendo, inferendo, emolliendo,
aliifve quibus poffent modis, remedia quaerunt ; adeo
ab omni, quod vel abfonum, vel diffouum eft, abhorrent.
Quod fi nobis fecus videntur, et afperius fonare ab A-
rabibus prolata, illud auribus noftris, et ufui, non lin¬
guae imputandum, nec mollius iihs fonare noftra, quam
eorum nobis cenfendum. Quin et gutturalium, quae
,nobis maxima afperitatis caufa videntur, abfentiam, ut
magnum in lingua Graeca defedum, arguunt Aiates.”
The learned Dr Hunt, late profefl'or of the Plebrew
and Arabic languages at Oxford, is of the fame opi¬
nion with the very learned prelate, part of whofe ora-
3 S 2 tio*
508
Arabic
.Language.
PHILO
tion we have tranfcrlbeJ above, with refpeft to the
delicacy and elegance of the Arabian language:—
y " ' " “ Nufqnana, mihi credite, (inquit ille) auribus magis
parcitur quam in Arabia ; nulla lingua a nanofaxa, alie-
nior quam Arabica. Q^iamquam enim nonnullas ejua
literae minus fortafie fuaviter, immo durius etiam fo-
nuermt, ita tamen Arabes eas temperarunt cum lenibus,
duras cum mollibus, graves cum acutis mifcendo, voces
inde non minus auribus jucundae, quam pronunciatu fa-
ciles confecerint, totique fermoni miram fonorum tam
dulcedinem quam varietatem addiderint. Quod qui-
dem orationis modulandas ftudium in Corano adeo ma-
rifeftum eit, ut primi Ulamifmi oppugnatores cum li-
brum mv.gica ideo arte fcriptum dixerint. Non auri¬
bus tantum gratus eft Arabifmus, fed et anirai con-
ceptibus exprimendis aptus, fonos fuos fententiis femper
accommodans, et fclici verborum jumftura eorum natu-
ram depingens.”
To theie we might add quotations from Erpenius’s
oration on the fame fubjeft, from Golius, Schultens,
Hottinger, Bochart, and bir William Jones; befides
a whole cloud of oriental witnefles, whofe extrava¬
gant encomiums would rather aftomlh than edify the
far greater part of our readers. Thtfe panegyrics may
perhaps be in fome meafure hyperbolical; but in ge¬
neral we believe them pretty well founded. At the
fame time we are convinced that the Arabic, how¬
ever melodious in the ears of a native, founds harfti and
unharmonious in that of a European.
57 When v/e confider the richnefs and variety of the
Difficulty Arabic tongue, we are led to conclude, that to ac-
ef acquiring qUjre a tolerable degree of fkill in its idioms, is a more
knowledge difficult talk than is generally imagined ; at Icaft fome
©fit. people who have acquired the knowledge of the
Greek and Latin, and likewife of the more fathion-
ablc modern languages, with facility enough, have
found it fo. Be that as it may, there are two claffes
of men who, in our opinion, cannot handfomely dif-
penfe with the knowledge of that almoft univerfal
tongue : the gentleman, who is to be employed in the
political tranfa&ions of the moft refpe&able mercan¬
tile company upon earth, in the eaftern parts of the
world ; and the divine, who applies himfelf to invefti-
gate the true purport of the facrcd oracles : without
this, the former will often find himftlf embarrafied in
both his civil and mercantile negociations; and the
latter will often grope in the dark, when a moderate
acquaintance with that tongue would make all fun-
fhine around him.
Bochart, Hottinger, Schultens, Pocock, Hunt,
and Robertfon, &c. have taken wonderful pains, and
lavifhed a profufion of learning, in proving the affinity
and dialectical cognation between the Hebrew and
Arabic. Much of this labour, we think, might have
been fpared. 1We prefume to affirm, that no perfon
tolerably verfed in both languages can read a ^fingle
paragraph of the Arabic verfion of the New Tefta-
ment, or indeed of the Koran icfelf, without being
convinced of the truth of this pofition : it is but ftrip-
ping the latter of its adventitious frippery, and the
kindred features will immediately appear.
The learned profeffors of the univerfity of Leyden
were the firft who entered upon the career of Arabian
learning. To them the European Undents are prin-
L O G Y.
Sea. in.
cipally indebted for what knowledge of that language Chaldean
they have hitherto been able to attain. Though fe- i-'4n^3gc»
veral Italians have contributed their endeavours, yet ^ ‘ »
the fruit of their labours has been rendered almoft ufe-
lefs by more commodious and more accurate works
printed in Holland.
The palm of glory, in this branch of literature, is
due to Golius, whofe works are equally profound and
elegant; fo perfpicuous in method, that they may al¬
ways be confulted without fatigue, and read without
languor. Erpenius’s excellent grammar, and his me¬
morable di&ionary, will enable the ftudent to explain
the hiftory of'Taimur by Ibni drabjhah. If he has once
mattered that fublime work, he will underftand the
learned Arabic better than moft of the Khatabs of
Conftantinople or of Mecca.
The Arabian language, however, notwithftanding
all its boafted perfections, has undoubtedly thared the
fate of other living languages ; it has gradually under¬
gone fuch confiderable alterations, that the Arabic
fpoke and written in the age of Mohammed may be
now regarded as a dead language: it is indeed fo
widely different from the modern language of Arabia,
that it is taught and ftudied in the college of Mecca
juft as the Latin is at Rome.
The dialed of the Highlands of Yemen is faid to
have the neareft analogy to the language of the Ko¬
ran, becaufe thefe Highlanders have little intercourfe
with ftrangers. The old Arabic is through all the
Eaft, like the Latin in Europe, a learned tongue,
taught in colleges, and only to be acquired by the per*
ufal of the beft authors.
Ut folia in fyl-vis pronos mutantur in annost &c.”
Sect. III. Of the Chaldeany Phoenician, Ethio¬
pian or Abyjfiniany and Egyptian Languages.
5*
As there is a very ftrid connedion and dialedi-Connedtion
cal analogy among thefe languages, we have arranged of the
them all under one fedion ; efpecially fince what is Chaldean,
obferved relating to one of them may, without the
leaft ft raining, be extended to them all. We ffiall begin an<i Egyp-
with the Chaldaic. tian lan.
The Chaldeans, or Chafidim, as they are alwaysguag«*
called in Scripture, were the defeendants of Chefed
the fon of Nahor, the brother of Abraham. The de¬
feendants of this patriarch drove the Cuffiim or Ara¬
bians out of Babylonia, and poffeffed themfelves of
that country at a very early period. As thefe Cha-
fidim or Chaldeans were the pofterity of Nahor, the
defeendant of Heber, they undoubtedly fpoke the ori¬
ginal Hebrew tongue as well as the other branches
of that family. But being an ingenious inventive
people, they feem to have poliffied their language with
much care and delicacy of tafte.
The only genuine remains of the ancient Chaldaic
language are to be found in the Hebrew Scriptures
and thofe are contained in 268 verfes, of which we
have 200 in Daniel, reaching from verfe 4th chapter
2d to chapter 8th exclufive ; in Ezra 67, in chapter
4th, 17 verfeschapter 5 th, the fame number;
chapter 6th, 18 verfes; and in chapter 7th, 15;
in Jeremiah, chapter 10th, there is extant only one
verfe. From thefe fragments, compared with the He¬
brew
Hebrew.
Sea.nr. PHIL
Chaldean brew, it plainly appears, that the difference between
l-an^uage, that language and the Chaldaic is fcarce equal to that
. , ^ h , between the Doric and Ionic diale&s of the Greek.
Whatever might have been the form of the moil
ancient Chaldaic letters, it n generally kno vn that
the beautiful fquare charadlets, in which the Hebrew
Scriptures began to be written after the age of Ezra,
were current among them at an era prior to the Ba-
bylonifh captivity. Thofe elegant characters were
probably the invention of the Chaldean academies,
which were eftabhfhed in various parts of that exten-
59 five and fertile country.
Chaldean The Chaldean declenfions and conjugations differ
frorn th ^rom Hebrew modifications, that it would
be almoft fuperfluous to dwell upon them in this fec-
tion. The moft effeftual way to acquire an idea of
the ancient Chaldaic, is to decompound the names
confelfedly of that dialect, which occur in many places
of Scripture. By this method of proceeding, its
beautiful ftnufture and exprdEve energy will be rea¬
dily comprehended even by the moft illiterate clafies
of our readers. At the fame time, we mull obferve,
that the Chaldaic and ancient Syriac bore fb near a
refemblance to each other, that they have generally
been clafied under one head.
The firft Chaldaic word that occurs in the Old
Teftament is bara “ creavit”. This word has all along
been affigned to the language under confidcrationj for
what reafon, we confefs we are not able to difeover.
The greateft part of the Hebrew tongue is now loft.
The words bar, “a fon/’and bara '•'•creavit” (ratherfiii-
avit), may probably be of that number. Another Scrip¬
ture word which is often quoted, and always aferibed
either to the Syriac or Chaldaic, is igar or jegar fa-
hadutha, which fignifies “ a monument of witnefTes.”
Every body knows, that when Jacob and Laban made
their compact, the latter denominated the heap of
ftones reared upon that occafion in this manner; while
the former called it Galeed, as we now write and pro¬
nounce it. This pronunciation, however, does not
appear to us altogether genuine. The word is pro¬
bably compounded of bs gal, cumulus, “ a heap,” and
“W chad, teternitas, feculam, “ eternity, an age:” fo that
"Wba galchad, or galaad as it came to be written after¬
wards, fignified an “ everlafting heap.” Laban then
had refpedt to the end for which the monument was
ere&ed ; but Jacob alluded to its duration. It ap¬
pears, however, upon this and every other occafion,
when Chaldaic words are mentioned, that n, a, was a
favourite letter both with the Syrians and Chaldeans.
We may likewife obferve, that the fame people always
changed the Hebrew w Jhin into rr thau, in order
to avoid the ferpentine found of that confonant.
^ The Chaldaic names of gods, men, places, &c. which
xiamespure occur *n Scripture, appear to be no other than He-
Hebrew. brew polifhed and improved. Bel, Belus in Latin, is
evidently Baal, or we think rather Bechel. The
Phoenicians, and fometimes the Hebrews, ufed it to
fignify the mojl high. The Chaldeans ufed their word
Bel for the fame purpofe ; and becaufe this word ori¬
ginally imported the High One, they dignified their firft
monarch with that name. They denominated their
capital city Ba-Bel, which imports the temple of Bel,
and afterwards Babylon, which intimates the abode or
dwelling of our lord the fun, Nelo was a name of the
60
O L O G Y. 509
moon among the Babylonians, derived from the He- Chaldean
brew Naa, nabah, vatiemari, “ to prophecy.” sizer
the planet Mars, from 'UW' sizer or Ezur, accinxit, ** to    .
gird,” alluding to the girding on of arms. Ahad was
an A {Tyrian name of the fun *, a word deduced from * MeroB.
the Hebrew "VN ahad, units, “ one.” Netzar was the^,I,c^23*
name of an Arabian idol$, which often occurs in the|yj^' *
compofition of Babylonian names. In Arabic it fig- H<y?.
nifies an eagle: we think, however, that the word is
the Hebrew IW naizar, cujlodivit, fervavit, “ to keep,
to preferve.” To thefe names of deities many more
might be added, which the nature of our defiga will
not allow us to mention,
Almoft all the Chaldean proper names which occur
either in facred or prophane hiftory are evidently of
Hebrew original, or cognate with that language. We
{hall fubjoin a few examples: Nabonaffar is evidently
compounded of Nabo and nazur, both Hebrew words.
Nabopollazar is made up of Nabo-Pul, the Lme with
Bel, and Azer or Azor, above explained. Belefis is made
up of Bel and Nrx EJloa, “ fire.” Nebuchadnezzar,
Belfhazzar, Bekilhazzar, Nerigliflar, Nebuzaradan,
Rabmag, Rabfaris, Nergal-Sharezer, Rabfhakeh, E-
zarhaddon, Merodach, Evil Merodach, and number-
lefs others, are fo manifeftly reducible to Hebrew vo¬
cables, when decompounded, that the oriental fcholar
will readily diftinguifh them.
Names of places in the Chaldaic are likewife fo near¬
ly Hebrew, that nothing but the diale&ical tone fepa-
rates them. Thus Ur of the Chaldeans is adlually tin
light, that city being facred to the fun ; Sippura is
plainly the Hebrew word Zipporah; Carchemijh, a city
on the Euphrates, is evidently compounded of Kir or
Kar “ a city,” and Chemojh, a name of the fun. In
{hort, every Chaldean or old Syrian word now extant,
without any difficulty, bewray their Hebrew original.
As for their dialeftical differences, thefe we remit to
the Chaldaic and Syriac grammars and lexicons.
We now proceed to the confideration of the Bhce-p}loenic;an,
nician language, which is known to have been that oflanguage
the ancient Canaanites. That this was one of the^6™^
original dialefts, and confequently a cognate of the{fT0™ the
Hebrew, is univerfally acknowledged. Inftead there- ^t)re'v*
fore of endeavouring to prove this pofition, we may
refer our readers to the works of the learned Mr Bo-
chart, where that author has in a manner demonftrated
this point, by deriving almoft all the names of the
Phoenician colonies from the Hebrew, upon the fup-
pofition that the dialedt of thofe people was clofely
conne&ed with that tongue. St Auguftine, de Civi-
tate Dei, has obferved, that even in his time many of
the vulgar in the neighbourhood of Carthage and Hip¬
po fpoke a dialed, of the old Punic which nearly re-
fembled the Hebrew. Procopius, de hello Goth, in¬
forms us, that there exifted even in his days in Africa
a pillar with this infeription in Hebrew, “ We flee
from the face of Jofliua the robber, the fon of Nun.’*
The names of all the ancient cities built by the Car¬
thaginians on the coaft of Africa are eafily reducible
to a Hebrew original. The Carthaginian names of
p«rfons mentioned in the Greek and Latin hiftory,
fuch as Himilco, Hamilcar, Afdrubal, Hannibal, Han-
no, Dido, Anna or Hannah, Sophonkba, Gifgo, Ma«
harbal, Adherbal, See, all breathe a Hebrew extrac¬
tion.
Thet
J10
ChaLlean
Lan-rua^e,
&c.
6x
Origin of
the Ethio¬
pians.
PHILO
The Greeks borrowed a great part of their religions
worfhip from the people of whofe language we are
treating ; of confequence, the names of moft of their
gods are Phoenician. Almoft every one of thefe is
aftually Hebrew, as might eafily be fhown. The
names of perfons and places mentioned in the frag¬
ments of Sanchoniathon, preferved by Eufebius, arc
all of Hebrew complexion. The names mentioned in
the Hebrew feriptures of places which belonged to the
Canaanites prior to the invafion of the Ifraelites under
Jofhtia, are as much Hebrew as thofe which were af¬
terwards fubllituted in their {lead. The Punic feene
in Plautus has been analyfed by Bochart and feveral
other learned men, by whom the language has been
clearly proved to be deduced from the Hebrew, with
fome dialeftical variations.
The ifland of Malta (Melita now) was inhabited by
a colony of Phoenicians many ages before the Moors
took pofTeffion of it. Among the vulgar of that ifland
many Panic vocables are current to this day, all which
may be readily traced up to the Hebrew fountain. To
thefe we may add many inferiptions on ftones, coins,
medals, &c. which are certainly Phoenician, an 1 as cer¬
tainly of Hebrew extradition. We have thrown toge¬
ther thefe few hints without purfuing them to any
great length, as we deemed it unneceflary to dwell long
on a point fo hackneyed and fo generally acknow¬
ledged.
Before we proceed to treat of the ancient language
of the Ethiopians, we find ourfelves obliged to hazard
a few flridtures on the origin of that ancient nation.
If we can once fettle that fingle point, the difeovery
will open an avenue to their primitive dialedl, the ar¬
ticle about which we are chiefly concerned in the pre-
fent difeufiion.
In our Sedlion concerning the Hebrew language, we
were led often to mention the patriarch Cufh the eldeft:
.Ion of Plam. The pofierity of this family-chief, un¬
der his fon Nimrod, poflefied thcmfelves of Shinar, af¬
terwards denominated Chaldea. Thefe were probably
the Arabians whofe kings (according to Eufebius,
Africanus, and other ancient chronologers) reigned in
Babylon during feveral fuccefiive generations. Thofe
were the Cuflu'm or Cufliites, whom the learned Mr
Bryant has conduced over a great part of the world,
and to whofe induftry and ingenuity he has aferibed
almoft all the inventions, arts, fciences, laws, policy,
religions, &c. which diftinguiftied mankind in the ear-
liefl: ages.
In procefs of time, the pofterity of Chafid or Che-
fed, called Chafdim or Chajidim in the eaft, and Chal¬
deans in the weft, drove out the Cuflrim, and feized
upon their country. The Cufliim retired weftward,
and fpread themfelves over that part of Arabia fitua-
ted towards the fouth-eaft. They probably extended
themfelves over all the eaftern part of that penirifula
from the fea to the wildernefs between Arabia and
Syria. Thofe were the Ethiopians mentioned in Scrip¬
ture by a very unpardonable inadvertency of ourtrauf-
LOGY. ' SedUlL
latora. Thefe, then, we think, were the primitive Chaldean
Cufhirn. f Ean^age,
Jofephus informs us*, that all the Afiatics called ^c’. , j
the Ethiopians of Africa by the name of Cujhim. This* Antiq.
denomination was not given them without good vzz. Jud.Xifo.1.
fon : it imports at leaft, that they deemed them thec-7-
defeendants of Cufh ; it being the conftant pra&ice of
the orientals in the early ages to denominate nations
and tribes from the name of their great patriarch or
founder. The name Cujhim muft then have been given
to the Ethiopians, from a perfuafion that they were
the progeny of the fon of Ham who bore that name.
By wuat route foever the Cufliim penetrated into that
region of Africa which was called by their name, it
may be taken for granted chat they were the defeen¬
dants oi Cufh above mentioned.
It has been obferved above, that the pofterity of
Cufh poflefled the country of Shinar or Chaldea at a
very early period, but were expelled by the Chafidim
or Chaldeans. Upon this cataftrophe, or perhaps
fomewhat later, a colony from the fugitive Cuihirn
tranfported themfelves from the fouth and fouth eaft
coaft of Arabia over the fea, which lies between that
country and Ethiopia. However imperfetl the art of
navigation might be in that age, the diftarree was fo
fmall that they might eafily enough make a voyage
crofs that narrow fea in open boats, or perhaps in ca¬
noes. However that may have been, it cannot be
doubted that the tribes on both fides of that branch
of the fea were kindred nations.
If, then, both the northern and fouthern Cufhim
fprung from the fame flock, there can be no doubt
that both fpoke the fame language. The language of .^3
the Babylonian Cufhim was Chaldaic, and of confe- ^ruage o^-
quence that of the Ethiopian Cufliim was the fame.gmally
We may therefore reft aflured, that whatever changes Chaldean,
the Ethiopian dialedl may have undergone in the
courfe of 3000 years, it was originally either Chaldaic,
or at leaft a branch of that language. Scaliger in¬
forms us, that the Ethiopians call themfelves Chal¬
deans ; and that, fays he, not without reafon, becaufe
of thofe many facred and profane books which are
extant among them, the moft elegant and moft beau¬
tiful are written in a ftyle near that of the Chaldean or
Aflyrian. Marianus Vidlorius, who was the tirft that
reduced the Ethiopic tongue to the rules of grammar,
tells us in his Prosemium, “ that the Ethiopians call
their tongue Cbaldaic; that it fprings from the Ba¬
bylonian ; and is very like the Hebrew, Syriac, and
Arabic: At the fame time (he concludes), that this
language may be eafily learned by thofe who are
mafters of the Hebrew.” The learned Bochart, and
Bilhop Walton in his Proleg. are clearly of the fame
opinion.
The vulgar letters of the Ethiopians, according to ^
Diodorus Siculus, were the fame with the facred
characters of the Egyptians (d). From this account, 5^/
if the Sicilian may be truited, the facred letters of
thefe people, concerning which fo many wife conjec-
2 tures
(d) We find the fame obfervation confirmed by Heliodorus {Ethiop. lib. x. p. 47^0 “ ^he royal letters of
the Ethiopians (fays he) were the facred characters of the Egyptians.” Cafiiodorus like wife aflures us,
£( That the letters inferibed upon the Egyptian obelilks were Chaldeans.” See Sed. Shanfcrit.
between
the Ethio¬
pians and
Egyptians.
Sea. UJ. P H I L
Chaldean tares have been formed, were a&ually Chaldaic. To
Language, catTy on inveftigation a little farther, we may ob-
1 ^c‘ ferve, that Sir William Jones feems to have proved,
by very plaufible arguments, that the Shanfcrit cha-
ra&ers were deduced from the Chfcldaic. This cir-
cumftance afFtirds a prefumption that the Ethiopian
Cufhim were likewife concerned with the Egyptians;
who, as is remarked in the Sedlion concerning the
Shanfcrit, probably introduced the religion of the
Brahmans into Hindoftan. This is advanced as a con-
jedfure only ; and yet when we confider the affinity
between the Egyptian and Gentoo religions, we are
ftrongly inclined to hope that this furmife may one
day be verified by undeniable fa&s.
The original Ethiopians were a people highly civi¬
lized ; their laws, their inftitutions, and efpecially their
religion, were celebrated far and wide. Homer talks
in raptures of the piety of the Ethiopians, and fends
his gods every now and then to revel 12 days with that
devout people. The Sicilian adduces a number of ve¬
ry fpecious arguments to prove that thefe two nations
had fprung from the fame fiock. He mentions a fi-
Antientin- milarity of features, of manners, of cuftoms, of laws,
tercouife of letters, of the fabrication of ftatues, of religion, as
evidences of the relation between thofe two neighbour¬
ing nations. There was, every body knows, a com¬
munion, as to facred rites, between the two countries.
The Egyptians ftnt annually a deputation of their
priefts, furnifhed with the portable ftatues of their
gods, to vifit the fanes of the devout Ethiopians.
Upon this occafion, a folemn religious banquet was
prepared, which lafted 12 days, and of which the
priefts of both nations were partakers. It was, we
imagine, a kind of facramental inflitution, by which
both parties publicly avouched their agreement in the
ceremonies of their religion refpedtively. Thefe ob-
fervations plainly fhow, that the moft ancient Ethio¬
pians were r people highly civilized; indeed fo much,
that the Egyptians were at one time contented to be
their fcholars. The tone of their language was cer¬
tainly the fame with that of the Chaldeans or Arabian
Cufhim, from whom they were defeended. We know
not whether there are any books in the ancient Ethi¬
opia now extant ; fo that it is not eafy to produce
inftances of its coincidence with the Chaldaic. Dio-
genes Laertius* informs us. that Thrafyllus, in his ca¬
talogue of the books conipofed by Democritus, men¬
tions one, vift rav rv Mipot, ttpuv ypo^arav, concerning the
facred letters in the if and of Meroe (e); and another con¬
cerning the faertd letters in Babylon. Had thefe books
furvived the ravages of time, they would in this age
of refearch and curioiity have dctei mined not only the
point under our conftderation, but the affinity of fa¬
cred rites among the Chaldeans, Ethiopians, and E-
gyptians.
We have now ffiown that the Ethiopians were a
colony of Cufhites ; that the Cufhites were originally
fovereigns of Shinar or Chaldea, and confequently
fpoke either Chaldaic or a dialed of that tongue ;
* Lib. 9
f> 461.
Cafaub.
cjducji. 51^
that their colonifts mull have ufed the fame language ; Chaldean
that the ancient Ethiopians were a people highly po-LanhrUiibre>
liffied, and celebrated in the moft early ages on account &c‘ ,
of their virtue and piety. It has likewife appeared, '
that the common letters of that people were the fa-
cred charaders of the Egyptians. Thefe letters, we
imagine, were the Cuphite; for which fee the Sed.
on the Arabic. When they were difearded, and the
modern fubftituted in their room, cannot be deter¬
mined ; nor is it, we apprehend, a matter of much im¬
portance. We fhall therefore drop that part of the
fubjed, and refer our curious and inquifitive readers
to the very learned Job Ludolf’s(F) excellent gram- ^
mar and Did.onary of the Abyffinian or Gecz tongue, .Modern E-
where they will find every thing v/orth knowing on'hiopic
that fubjed. We fliall endeavour to gratify our read-tonSue8'
ers with a very brief account of the modern Ethiopia
or Abyffinian tongue ; for which both they and we
will be obliged to James Bruce, Efq; that learned, in¬
defatigable, and adventurous traveller ; who, by his
obfervationson that country, which he made in perfon,
often at the hazard of his life, has difeovered, as it
were, a new world both to Europe and Alia.
The moft ancient language of Ethiopia, which, we
ffiail now call Abyjfmia (its modern name), according
to that gentleman, was the Gee%, which was fpoken
by the ancient Cuftiite fiiepberds. This, we ihould
think, approaches neareft to the old Chaldaic. Upon
a revolution in that country, the court refided many
years in the province of Amhara, where the people
ipoke a different language, or at leaft a very different
dialed of the fame language. During this interval,
the Geez, or language of the ffiepherds, was dropt, .
and retained only in writing, and as a dead language :
the facred Scriptures being in that tongue only faved
it from going into difufe. 'ihis tongue is exceeding¬
ly harfti and unharmonious. It is full of thefe two
letters D and T, in which an accent is put that nearly
refembles Hammering. Confidering the fmall extent
of lea that divides this country from Arabia, we need
not wonder that it has great affinity with the Arabic.
It is not difficult to be acquired by thofe who under-
ftand any other of the oriental languages ; and as the
roots of many Hebrew words are only to be found
here, it fetros to be abfolutely nectfiary to all thofe
who wifti to obtain a critical Ikill in that language.
The Ethiopia alphabet confifts of 26 letters, each
©f which; by a virguta or point annexed, varies its F.thi(f1"
found in fuch a manner as that thofe 26 form as it alphabet,
were 62 diftind letters. At firft they had but 25 of
thefe original letters, the Latin P being wanting ; fo
that they were obliged to fubftitute another letter in
its place. Faulus, for example, they call Taulus, Au-
lus, or Caulus : Petros, they pronounced Ketros. A t
laft they fubftituted T, and added this to the end of
their alphabet ; giving it the force of P, though it
was really a repetition of a charader rather than the
invention of a new one. Belides thefe, there are 20
others of the nature of diphthongs; but fome of them
are
(e) Where the capital of Ethiopia was fttuated.
(*) A very learned German, who publifiled a grammar and didionary of the Geez in folio, .
512
Chaldean
Language,
&c.
& Chron.
p. 12.
67
Antient
language
of tgyi't
fitter dia¬
lect of
tiebrew.
' PHILO
are probaWy not of tbe fame antiquity with the letters
of the alphabet, but have been invented in later times
by the ft ribes for convenience.
The Amharic, during the long banifhment of the
royal family in Shoa, became the language of the
court, and feven new chara&ers were of neceflity added
to anfwer the pronunciation of this new language}
but no book was ever yet written in any other lan¬
guage than G'fcz. 1 here ts an old law in the coun-
tiy, handed down by tradition, that whoever fhah at¬
tempt to tranflate the Holy Scripture into Amharic or
any other language, his throat lhall be cut after the
manner in which they kill fheep, his family fold to
flavery, and their houfcs razed to the ground.
Before we leave this fubjeft, we may obferve, that
all the ancients, both poets and hiftorians, talk of a
double race of Ethiopians; one in India, and another
in Africa. What may have given rife to this opinion
it is not eafy to difcover. Perhaps the fwarthy com¬
plexion of both people may have led them to this fen-
timent. Eufcbius indeed informs us*, that a nu¬
merous colony of people emigrated from the banks of
the Indus, and crofling the ocean, fixed their refidence
in the country now called Ethiopia.” For our part,
we are rather inclined to believe that the original E-
thiopians tranfported themfelves into India, and there
perhaps co_operated with the Egyptians in digging
the excavations and framing the ftatues, fome. of
which are dill to be feen in that country, and which
we have mentioned in another Sedfion. The Greeks
called thofe people AiSioa-ff, JEthiopes we believe, from
their fun-burnt countenance; but indeed they were
very little acquainted either with the country or its
inhabitants. .
The moft ancient name of Egypt was Mtxrenm, of
confequence the Arabians ftill call it Mefri. It was
a likewtfe diitinguifhed by other names, fuch as Oceana,
Aeria, &c. It appears from the facred hiftorian, that
it was inhabited by the defendants of Mizraim the
fecond fon of Ham. Mizraim had feveral fons, who,
according to the Scripture account, fettled refpeaively
in that country. If we trull to the facred records,
there will be little difficulty in afcertaining the lan¬
guage of the Mizraim. It will appear to be one of
the fUler dialers of the Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic,
haldaic, &c.; and this, to us, appears to be the fad.
But the origin of that people, their language, religion,
laws, and inttitutions, have been fo warped and con¬
founded, both by their own hiftorians and thofe of
othei countries, that one is fcarce able to determine
what to believe or what to rejed^ Herodotus, Dio¬
dorus Siculus, Strabo, Ptolernyf and moft other an¬
cient geographers and hiftorians, are univerfally agreed,
that Egypt, at lead that part of it called Delta, was
overflown by the fea, and confequently uninhabitable
for many centuries after the difperiion of mankind.
When we confider the low fituation of the Delta, and
the violent current of the tide from the coaft of Phoe¬
nicia and Paleftine towards that ffiore, we would be
almoft tempted to adopt this hypothefis ; but the fa-
L O G Y. Se<5l. I IT,
cred records avouch the contrary. According to them, Chaldean
we find Egypt a populous, rich, and flourifhing king-Lan|^e*
dom, as early as the age of Abraham* Had the Low- ■ , ^
er Egypt been a pool of ftagnating water at any
time after the general deluge, we think it could
not have been drained, cleared, cultivated, and flock¬
ed with inhabitants, fo early as the days of Abra¬
ham.
Diodorus Siculus, however, is pofitive that the
Egyptians $ were a colony of Ethiopians; and ^
be endeavours to prove by the fimilarity of features,
cuftoms, law’s, religious ceremonies, &c. between the
two nations. That there was a conftant intercourfe
of good offices between thefe two branches of the
Hamites, cannot he queftioned; and that they nearly
refembled each other in many refpe&s, is too evident
to admit of contradi&ion. The excavations, original¬
ly dug out of the folid rocks of porphyry and marble,
in which the natives refided before the plains were
drained, have been obferved by a moft judicious tra¬
veller (g) very few years ago. At the fame time, the
moft accurate and judicious travellers (h) who have
vifited that region in modern times, are gener lly of
opinion that the land has gained nothing on the fea
fince the period when Herodotus wrote his defeription
of that country ; from which circumftance we may be
led to conclude, that the idea of the inundation of the
Delta is not founded in faft.
But even admitting that the Egyptian Delta ha«
acquired nothing from the fea lince the age of Hero¬
dotus to the prefent, it certainly does not follow that
the region in queftion was never overflown by that
element; fince there are, in many parts of the globe,
large tn:£ts of land, certainly once covered with fea,
which have continued to this day in the very fame
fituation in which they were 2000 years ago. We
leave the decifion of this point to the judgment of our
readers.
We have already hinted our opinion of the nature
of the Egyptian language ; but becaufe Egypt is ge¬
nerally thought to have been the native land of hiero¬
glyphics, and becaufe many are of opinion thafhiero-
glyphical characters w’ere prior to alphabetical, we
ffiall hazard a few conje&ures with refpeCt to that fpe-
cies of writing. _ 68
The end of fpeech, in general, is to enable men toEiryptiaa
communicate their thoughts and ^inceptions one tohierogly-
another when prefent; the ufe of writing is to perform Phics*
the fame office when people are at fo great a diftance
that vocal founds cannot mutually reach them. Hiero¬
glyphics are faid to have been invented to fupply this
defed. The moft ancient languages were everywheie
full of tiopes and figures borrowed from fenfiSle ob¬
jects. As in that ftage of fociety men have not
learned to abftrad and generalize, all their ideas are
borrowed from fuch objeCts as moft forcibly ftnke
their fenfes. This circumftance would naturally fug-
geft to favages the idea of conveying their fentimenta
to each other, when abfent, by delineations of corpo¬
real obie&s. Thus, if a favage alked a loan of hia
J 1 friend’s
(g) See Mr Bruce’s Travels, Vol. I.
(H) Mr Bruce, Dr Shaw, Biffiop Pocock, Savary, Volney, &c.
Sea. III. PHILO
Chaldean friend's horfe, he might find means to have conveyed
to h,m ^ %ure of that animal; and fo of others.
i, y~ - • T hs was the very loweft fj^ecies of ideal communica¬
tion, and has been ftyled piaure-ivriting.
Necefhty would foon impel our favage correfpond-
ents to facricate a method more extenfively ufeful,
which would likewife be fuggelted by the conttant.
uie of the metaphorical mode ol fpeech. Some favage
leader, more fagacious than the vulgar herd, would
obferve that certain fenfible objefts were fitted, accord¬
ing to the rules of analogy, to reprefent certain human
pafikms, and even fome abftraCt ideas ; and this would
be readily enough adopted by the herd ns a new im¬
provement. In this cafe a /born might be the emblem
of power, a /word of bravery, a lion of fury, a fox of
cunning, a ferpent of malice, &c. By and by artificial
ligns might be contrived to exprefa fuch ideas as could
not readily be denoted by bodily objects. This might
be called Symbolical writing. Such was the foundation
of the Chinefe chara&era ; and hence that prodigious
-number ot letters ot which the written language of
that people is compofed. Farther they could not pro¬
ceed, notwithftanding their beaded inventive powers;
and farther, we believe, no nation ever did proceed,
who had once upon a time no other charadlers but
bieroglyphical. The Mexicans had arrived at the
very lowed dage of hieroglyphicai writing, but had
•not taken one dep towards alphabetical. The Hurons
employ hieroglyphical fymbols, but never entertained
a fingle idea of alphabetical. Hieroglyphical charac¬
ters are the images of objc&s conveyed to the mind
by the organs of vilion ; alphabetic are arbitrary arti¬
ficial marks of found, accommodated by compact to
convey to the mind the ideas of obje&s by the organs
of hearing. In a word, we think that there is not
"Were never the leaft analogy between thefe two fpecies to condudb
ill vulgar from the one to the other; we are therefore of opi¬
nion, that hieroglyphical characters were never the
vulgar channels of ideal conveyance amontj civilized
people.
W e know that in this point we differ from many
learned, judicious, and ingenious writers ; fome of
whom have taken much pains to invediga-te the inter¬
mediate lUges through which the fabricators of cha¬
racters mud have paffed in their progrefs from hiero¬
glyphical to alphabetical writing. Thefe writers have
adopted a plan analogous to Bifhop Wilkins’s projeCt
of an artificial language. In this theory, we own, we
are led to fufpeCt that they fuppofed all mankind were
pnee upon a time favages, and were left to hammer
out words, as well as characters, by necefiity, ingenui¬
ty, experience, praCtice-, &c. bor our part, we have
endeavoured to prove, in our feCtion on the Hebrew
•language, that alphabetical writing was an antediluvian
invention ; and we now lay it down as our opinion,
that among all thofe nations which fettled near the
centre of civilization, hieroglyphics were, comparative¬
ly, a modern fabrication.
The Orientals are, at this day, extravagantly de¬
voted to allegory and fiaion. Tlain unadorned truth
with them has no charms. Hence that extravagant
inedley of fables and romance with which all antiquity
is replete, and by which all ancient hidory is difguifed
and corrupted. Every doCtrine of religion, every pre¬
cept of morality, was tendered U> mankind in parablea
Vol. XIV. Part II. r
Vie
LOGY.
and proverbs. Hence, fays the Scripture, to under- Chaldean
dand a proverb, the words of the wife, and their dark Lai
fayings. The eadern fages involved their maxima in &c~ «
this enigmatical drefs for feveral reafons: to fix the
attention of their difciples; to affid their memory ;
t© gratify their allegorical tade ; to fharpen their wit
and exercife their judgment ; and fometimes perhaps
to difplay their own acutenefs, ingenuity, and in¬
vention.
It was among the ancients an univerfal opinion,
that the mod facred arcana of religion, morality, and
the fublime fciences, were not to be communicated to
the uninitiated rabble. For this reafon every thing facred
was involved in allegorical darknefs.
Here, then, we ought to look for the origin of
hieroglyphical or pifture-writing among the civilized ^
nations of the tad. They did not employ that fpe- But em-
cies of writing becaufe they were ignorant of alphabe- Ployt<f to
tical characters, but becaufe they thought fit to con-
ceal the mod important heads of their doCtrines under t^nes from
hieroglyphical figures. The Egyptian prieds were the uninU*
mod celebrated for their fkill in deviling thofe entble- dated;
matical reprefentations; but other nations likewife
employed them. We learn from the fragments of
Berofus the Chaldean hidorian, preferved by Syncellus
and Alexander Pclyhidor, that the walls of the temple
of Belus at Babylon were covered all over with thofe
emblematical paintings, Thefe charafters were called
becaufe they were chiefly employed to reprefent
facred obje&s ; and becaufe they were origi¬
nally carved or engraved. Their name points to their
original ufe. Indead of put firing thefe obfervations,
which the nature of our defign will not permit, we
mud refer our readers to Herodotus, 1. ti. Diodorus
Sic. 1. r. Strabo, 1. xvir. Pint. Ifrs and Ofiris; and
among the Chridian fathers, to Clem. Alex. Eufeb.
Pi aep. Evang.; but chiefly to Horapollo’s Hierogly-
phiea.
From this dedu&ion we would conclude, that this
fpecies of writing was an adventitious mode in Egypt,
peculiar to the prieds, and employed chiefly to exhi¬
bit things facred ; and that among all civilized people
it did not fuperfede the ufe of alphabetical chara&ers,
nor did the ufe of the latter originate from the former.
When alphabetical letters were invented, if indeed And^oft
they were a human invention, they were antecedent dor inW C°
to the other in rtfe and extent. The Egyptian prieds t’me to
alone knew tire true import of thofe facred fymbols ; ;lIl:hahetical
and communicated that knowledge firft to their own tharaaCr8‘
children from generation to generation, then to the
initiated, and lad of all to the grandees of the nation,
all of whom were indeed initiated. The hieroglyphics
of Egypt were not then the fymbols of any facred oc¬
cult language; but figns invented by the prieds and
prophets or wife men, in order to reprefent their
deities, the attributes and perfe&ions of their deities,
and the myderious arcana of their religion, and many
other circumdances relating to obje&s of importance,
which were deemed either too facred or too important
to be imparted to the vulgar.
The Egyptians aferibed the invention of letters
to a pCrfon whom they called Tboth *, Theuth, or* £ rj
Thyotb } the Greeks ; and the Romans Mercn- Prel £v
rius. Piatof calls him a god, or a godlike man ;+ . ‘
Diodorus X makes him privy counfellpr to Ofiris; San-1 , £
3T choniathon ^ U
5*4
Chaldean
tangua^e,
&c.
7*. J
Two kinds
®f alphabe¬
tical cha-
radters in
Egypt.
|i Lib. i.
Strom,
lib- $.
73
The facred
letters and
language
of Egypt
Chaidaic,
PHILO
choniatlion ap. Eufeb. § connefts him with the Phoe¬
nician Cronus or Saturn. To this Mercury the Egyp¬
tians afcribe the invention of all the arts and fciences.
He was probably fa ne very eminent inventive genius,
who flouriilaed during the firft ages of the Egyptian
monarchy, and who perhaps taught the rude lavages
the art of writing.
According to Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians had
two kinds of letters |!; the one facred, the ether com¬
mon : the former the priefts taught their own chil¬
dren, the latter all learned promifeuoufly. In the fa¬
cred charafters the rites and ceremonies of their re¬
ligion were couched ; the other was accommodated to
the ordinary bufmefs of life. Clem. Alexand. men¬
tions three different ftyles of writing employed by the
Egyptians *. “ The pupils, who were initrufted by
the Egyptians, firft learned the order and arrangement
of the Egyptian letters, which is called epijiofography,
that is, the manner of writing letters ; next, the facred
chara&er, which the facred feribes employed ; laftly,
the hieroglyphic chara&er, one part of which is ex-
prefTtd by the firft dements, and is .galled Cyriologic,
that is, capital, and the otherfymbolic. Of the fymbolic
kind, one part explains pr perly by imitation; and the
other is written tropically, that is, in tropes and fi¬
gures ; and a third by certain enigmatical expreffions.
Accordingly, when we intend to write the word fun,
we deferibe a circle; and when the moon, the figure
of that planet appearing horned, conformable to the
appearance of that luminary after the change.” In
this paffage we have an excellent defeription of the
three different modes of writing ufed by the Egyp¬
tians; the common, the facred, and the hieroglyphic.
The laft he deferibes according to its three divilions,
in exadl conformity to our preceding obfervations.
By the defeription above tranftated, it plainly ap¬
pears, that the facred character of the Egyptians was
entirely different from the hieroglyphic; an 1 by this
confideration we are in a good meafure juftified, in
fuppofing, as we have done all along, that the facred
letters of the Egyptians were a&ually the Chaldaic.
The inferiptions on the obelifks mentioned by Caffto-
dorus, fo often quoted, were certainly engraved in the
facred chara&er; and tbcchara&er in which they veere
drawn was that above mentioned. If the facred let¬
ters were Chaldaic, the facred language was probably
the fame.
The Egyptians pretended, that the Babylonians
derived the knowledge of the arts and fciences from
them ; while, on the other band, the Babylonians
maintained, that the former had been tutored by them.
The fa& is, they both fpoke the Came language;
ufed the fame religious rites ; had applied with equal
fuccefs to aftrology, atlronomy, geometry, arithmetic,
and the other fciences; of courfe a rivalfhip had arifen
between the two nations, which laid the foundation of
thofc oppoftte pretenfions.
The rooft faithful fpecimen of the vulgar language
of the Egyptians, is. we believe, ftill preferved in the
Coptic, which, however, is fo replete with Grecifms,
that it nauft be difficult to trace it out.
Under the Ptolemies, the Greek was the language
of the court, and confequently muft have diffufed it-
Self over all the country Hence, we believe, two-
■ thirds of the Coptic are Gre«*k words, diverfified by
L O G Y.
Sea. III.
their terminations, declenfions, and conjugations only. Chaldean
To be convinced of the truth of this, our learned and language,
curious readers need only confult Chriftian Scholtz’s ^' .-,„i
Egyptian and Coptic grammar and dictionary, cor¬
rected and publiihed by Godfred Woide, Oxford,
I788* . . . . 74
The Egyptians and Phoenicians were in a manner The Egyp-
coufin geimans, and confequently muft have fpoken ban and
the fame language ; that is, one of the filter dialectsl,ncEnioau
of the Hebrew, Chaldean, Arabian, Cufhite, &c. — thefetoc?
This is not a mere conjecture ; it may be realized by
almoft numberlefs example?. It is true, that when
Jofeph’s brethren went down to Egypt, and that ruler
deigned to converfe with them, they could not un-
derltand the Egyptian idiom which he fpoke; nor
would he, had he been actually an Egyptian, have
underftood them without an interpreter. The only
conelufion from this circumftance is, that by this time
the Egyptian had deviated confi lerably from the ori¬
ginal language of mankind. The Irifh and Welch,
every body knows, are only different dialects of the
Celtic tongue ; and yet experience proves, that a
native of Ireland and another of Wales cannot well
comprehend each other’s language, nor converfe intel¬
ligibly v'ithout an interpreter. The Erfe, fpoken in
the Highlands of Scotland, and the Irith, are known
to be both branches of the old Celtic; yet a Scotch
Highlander and an Iriftunan can hardly underftand
each other’s fpeech. By a parity of reafon, a He¬
brew and an Egyptian might, in the age of Jofeph,
fpeak only different dialecls of the fame original
tongue, and yet find it difficult to underftand one ano¬
ther. The fad feems to be, the Hebrew dialed had
been in a manner ftationary, from the migration of
Abraham to that period ; whereas the Egyptian, be¬
ing fpoken by a powerful, civilized, and highly culti¬
vated people, muft have received many improvements,
perhaps additions, in the courfe of near two centu-
nes. . . 75
The defeendants of Canaan and of Mizrahn were The vulgar
ftridly conneded in their religious ceremonies : ; they.letters of
worihipped the fame objeds, namely, the Hqfl of
men ; they mourned Ojtr'n and Adonis m concert ; l^ey funVJghi
carried on a joint commerce, and, we thick, fpoke theC!ie de¬
fame language; we may, therefore, conclude, thatbrewor
their vulgar letters were nearly the fame, both in Giceniciaa..
form, difpofition, and number. Their original num¬
ber wss probably x6, viz. five vowels, fix mutes,
fimple and middle, four liquids, and the folitary ?.—
With thefe, it is likely, was joined a mark of afpira-
tion, or an h, fuch as we have in the Roman alphabet,
and find on fome Greek monuments. Cadmus was
originally an Egyptian ; that leader brought a new fet
of letters into Greece. Thefe are generally deemed
to be Phoenician. They were nearly the fame with
the ancient Pelafgic, as will be fhown in- the fedion
of the Greek language. The latter, we think, were
from Egypt, and confequently the former muft have
been from the fame quarter. Danaus, Perfeus, Le-
lex, See. were of Egyptian extradion : they too adopt¬
ed the Cadmean charaders, without fubftituting any
of their own.
The Jonim, or lonians, emigrated from Gaza, a
colony of Egyptians; and their letters are known to
have differed very little from thofe of Cadmus and the
Pdafgh
Sea. IIL P H
Chiildean Pelafgi. The conclafion, therefore, is, Tllx.
1*a-&"age’ ?ar Egyp^an letters were the fame with the Phoeni¬
cian.
We are abundantly fenfihle that there are foun^
upon Egyptian monuments characters altogether dif¬
ferent from thofe we have been deferibing. At what
time, by what people, and to what language, thefe
letters belonged, we will net pretend to determine.
The Ethiopians, the Chaldeans, the Perfians, the
Creeks, the Romans, the Saracens, have, at different
times, been fovereigns of that unhappy country. Per¬
haps other nations, whofe memory is now buried in
oblivion, may have erected monuments, and covered
them with inferiptions compofed of words taken from
different languages, perhaps, upon fome occasions,
whimfically devifed, with a view to perplex the curi¬
ous antiquaries of future ages. Some of thefe are
compofed of hieroglyphics intermingled with alpha¬
betical characters, artificially deranged, in order to
render them unintelligible. Thtfe we do not pre¬
tend to develope ; becaufe the moft inquilitive and fa-
gadous antiquaries are not yet agreed as to their pur¬
port and fignrfication.
We fhall now go on to ftiow, that moft part of the
names of perfons and places, See. which have been
conveyed down to us, may, in general, be reduced to
a Hebrew, Phecnician, Syrian, or Chaldean original.
As the fir ft of thefe languages is moft generally
known, we (hail employ it as our arch-type or ftand-
ard, beginning with thofe terms which occur in Scrip¬
ture.
I he word Pharaoh t the title of the me lech or king
76
Egyptian
oames of
Hebrew
©jigiral,
I 1, O L O Q Y. 515
that the vul- brew word hen or chon fignifies power, wealth, fuf- Chaldea*
ficiency a very proper epithet for the yi/n, who was Language*
thought to beftow thofe bleffmgs. The name of Jo-: .
feph’s wife was Afenath or Afnath, compounded of If-
hah “ a woman,” and Naith or Nek, an Egyptian
name of “ Minerva, a votary of Minerva.”
Almoft all the names of cities belonging to Egypt
which are mentioned in Scripture are evidently He¬
brew. To be fatisfied as to this pofltion, our curious
readers may confult Jamiefon’s Spicilegia, an excellent 77
book very little known. The names of moft of the And figniff.
Egyptian deities are fignificant in the Hebrew tongue;6^ in
and in that dialed the names appear to have been im. ianSuage*
pofed with great judgment and propriety, plainly
indicating fome office affigned them, or pointing to
fome peculiar attribute. We lhall produce a few in-
ftanccs.
■Ojtrh was the great divinity of Egypt; he was cer¬
tainly the fun. The Egyptians gave their deities a
variety of names in allufion to their various offices and
attributes. Jablonfki has in a manner wearied himfelf
with tracing the fignification of this name. In He¬
brew we have OJhir “ to grow rich, to be enriched.”
The fun may be called the great enricher of nature,
and therefore might properly be called by a name al¬
luding to that quality. Jfis was both the moon and
the earth. JJhah is the Hebrew word for woman, and
Horapollo affigns this very derivation. Anuhis was one
of the names of Mercury among the Egyptians : He
was always figured with the head of a dog. He ac¬
companied Jjis in her peregrinations in queft of Ofiris,
and frighted away the wild beafts from attacking' the
nrmrpffi AT.Z 7 •/* ^
princefs. In Hebrew, Nubah fignifies “ to bark.”
Here the analogy, we think, is evident. Many E-
gyptian names begin with Can, fuch as Canobus, Cano‘
pus, See. The Hebrew word Cahcn or Cohen, Syr,
Con or Chm, intimates both a prince and a pried!
Ob or Aub, in Hebrew, imports “ a bottle, a flag!
gon,” any thing round and prominent like the hu-
man belly. In the language of Egypt it was often
of Egypt, is, we thii.k, compounded of two terms!
which plainly difeover a Hebrew original. Accord¬
ing to an oriental tradition, the firft who affumed this
title was the fovtrefgn of the royalfiepherds ; a race
of people from Arabia and Phoenicia. They con¬
quered Egypt at an early period, and kept poffeffion
of it for feveral centuries. They gloried* in the title
iy.ao,, or which, according to jofephus con. A-
f »■ ^Pherd,” The wL Phoraoh .Si^WfunTiollS Z In
t0A f ?f ■» If bullock,” end the temple of Jofitor Ammon o, Amon, in tte defert
■NpN I , f ,'Cd ; • hen<:'ir* Pharachah, at we of Lyl.ia, there wat a ftatue of the god rrprefenlinir
think " ought to be written. The name given to Jo- the ,W of the human body, which was nroUblf
f d'ffVI<knt Trf|kcI -‘h^Hehtew; for -naph- framed in allufton to this fancy. Hence the Pvtl o'
na,h differs very little from the Hebrew verb Kophon, neft, or people who, according to the Scripture had
which figmfiet “to hide, to keep fecretor familiar fpiritt, we,e fin'd to Srophecy by *e fofoi
Pbaneah, fign,Set much the fame with Hk Hebrew ration of at the Delphic pridleft did by that of
Phanah, afpexit: fo that the mme aaually intimates Apollo. Again manv Egvntihn ^ \ ^ u
one who fees hidden things; which was certainly the firis, as Calalris/Termofiris2 This termination iino
!..!!„ he prrnce ,ntended t0 convey by glv»ng him doubt a cognate of the Hebrew and Chaldean far or
that name
Potiphar, or Potipherah, the name of Jofeph’s fa¬
ther-in-law, has likewife a dialedHcal affinity with the
Hebrew idiom. In that language Patah fignifies “ to
open, to explain,” which was one part of the facer-
dotal office ; and Phar imports “ a bullock.” Poti¬
phar was then prieft of the bullock, that is, the ox
apis, facred to the fun (1). Thf» perfon was prieft or
prince of On, which, according to Cyrillus on Hofea,
was an Egyptian name of that luminary. The He-
zar, fignifying “ a prince, or grandee, &c.” The
river Nile'in the Ethiopic dialed* is called Siris; that
is, we believe, the king of rivers. The fame flood feems
to derive the name by which it is generally known, ‘
fom the Hebrew nehel, “ a valley, or torrent running
down a valley.” The fame river was often called Qcea.
nus, a word compofed of og, or oc, or och, which fignifies
“ a king, a leader,” smd the Hebrew oin “ a foun-
tain fo that the word imports the king of fountains.
Ihe Hebrews always denominated the land of Egypt
3 T 2 the
(1) The Septuagint (Gen. xli. v. 45 and 50.) tranflate On by
i6 PHILOLOGY. Sea. IV
Perfian the land of Mizraim ; the Egyptians themfelvcs, in
I.angjagc. ]ater times, feem to have called it AUgyptus,
v <t £gypt}>> •which feme think, is compounded of slu
Hebiew, “ an ifland, a country, a province,” and Copt
or Cupt, “ a famous city in that country.”
From this fpecimen, we hope it will appear that the
Egyptian language in the more early ages was one of
thofe dialefts into which that of the defeendants of
the poftdiluvian patriarchs was divided, and perhaps
iubdivided, a few centuries after the deluge. Among
all thofe, we believe, fuch an affinity will lie found,
as plainly demonitrate# that they originally fprnng
from one common (lock. Here we might eaiily fol¬
low the Egyptian language into Greece ; and there
we are perfuaded we might trace a vaft number of
Egyptian terms into that tongue, which, however,
the nature of this inquiry wilt not permit. If our
learned readers ffiould incline to know more of ihe af¬
finity of the Egyptian tongue with the others fo of¬
ten mentioned, they may confult Bochart’s Chanann,
Dalton’s Proleg. Gcbelin’s Monde Prim. Jamefon’s
Spici/egia, &c.
Sect. IV. Of the Perfian Language.
The Perfian language is divided into the ancient
and modern ; the former of which is at this day very
imperfectly known, the latter is at prefent one of the
hi oft expreffive, and at the fame time one of the moft
highly poliffied, in the world. We ffiall, in treating
of this language, in compliance with the plan we
have all along followed, begin with the ancient. ,
At the When Mohammed was born, and Anu shi/rava'n,
fcirth of whom he calls the jufl king, fat on the throne of Per-
Moharr- ^ two langUages were generally prevalent in that
languages empire (k). The one was called and was the
prevalent dialed of the court, being only a refined and elegant
in Perha, branch of the Parft, fo called from the province of
which Shiraz is now the capital; and that of the learn¬
ed, in which moft books were compofed, and which
had the name of Pahlavt, either from the heroes who
fpake it in former times, or from pahlu, a trad of U nd
which included fome confiderable cities of Iran :
The ruder dialeds of both were fpoken by the ru-
ftics of feveral provinces; and many of thefe diftind
idioms were vernacular, as happens in every kingdom
An/a cwffictenftde extent. Btfides the Parft and Pahlavi,
moreen- a very ancient and abllrufe tongue was known to the
cient Ian- priefts and philufophers, called the language of the
gttage than becaufe a book on religious and moral duties
known on! which they held facred, and which bore that name,
to the" °n ^ had been written in it ; while the Pazend or com-
jjfficfts. ment on that work was compofed in Pahlavi, as a
more popular dialed. The letters of this book were
called zend, and the language avejla.
The Zend and the old Pahhivi are now almoft ex-
tind in Iran, and very few even of the Guebres can
read it; while the Patfi remaining almoft pure in Shab-
nameh, has* by the intermixture of Arabic words, and
many imperceptible changes, now become a new lan¬
guage exquifitely polilhed by a feries of fine writers
both in profe and verfe, analogous to the different Terfian
idioms gradually formed in Europe after the fubverfion
of the Roman empire. go
The very learned and laborious Sir William Jones parfi Ian.
is confident that the Pfir/? abounds with words from language
the Shanfcrit, with no other change than fuch as may ai1^
be obferved in the numerous dialeds of India ; that
very many Perfian imperatives are the roots of Shan¬
fcrit verbs ; and that even the moods and tenfes of the
Perfian verb fubdantive, which is the model of all the
reft, are dcducibk from the Shanfcrit by an eafy and
clear analogy. From this he infers that the Parfi, like
the various idiom dialeds, is derived from the lan¬
guage of the Br.imins. This conclufion, we imagine, is
not altogether juft, fince by the fame train of renam¬
ing we may infer that the Shanicrit is derived front
the Parf
The fame learned gentleman adds, that the multitude
of compounds in the Perfian language proves that it is-
not of Arabic but Indian o iginal. This is undoubtedly
true; but thouah the Parft is not of Arabic original, it
does not neceffarily follow that it is of Shanfcrit. We
might with the fame propriety, and with an equal (how
of reafon, conclude, that the Greek language is de¬
fended of the Shaafcrit, becaufe it too abounds with
compounds. We may then reft affured, that neither the
one nor the other argument adduced by the ingenious
prefident proves that the Parfi tongue is a defendant
of the Shanfcrit.
The gentleman fo often mentioned, affures us, that
the Zend bears a ftrong refembiance to the Shanfcrit ;
which, however, it might do without being actually
derived from it, fince we believe every oriental fcholar
will find that all the languages from the Mediterranean
to the utmoft coaft of Hindoftan exhibit very ftrong fig-
natures of a common original. The Parfi, however, not
being tire original dialed! of Iran or Perfia, we {hall
purfue it no farther at prefent, but return to give fome
account of the Pahlavi, which was probably the pri-
mitive language of the country. We have obferved-The Pahla®
above, that the Pazend or comment on the Zend wasvi
compofed in the Pahlavi for the ufe of the vulgar..
This, according to Sir William, was a dialed! of the
Chaldaic ; and of this affertion he exhibits the follow¬
ing proof.
By the nature of the Chaldean tongue, moft words
ended in the firft long vowel, like fhemaia “ heaven
and that very word, unaltered in a iingle letter, we
find in the Pazend, together with ladia “ night*”
meya “ water,” uira “ fire/' matra ‘‘ rain,” and a
multitude of others, all Arabic or Hebrew, with a
Chaldean termination ; fo zamar, by a beautiful me¬
taphor from pruning trees, means in Hebrew to con.-
pofe verfes, and thence, by an eafy tranfition, to fng
them ; now in Pahlavi we fee the verb %amarunitet%
“ to ling,” with its lorms zamaraunemi “ I fing,” and
zamzunid “ he fang ;” the verbal terminations of the
Perfian being added to the Chaldaic root. All thefe
words are integral parts of the language ; not adven¬
titious like the Arabic nouns and verbals engrafted on
modern Perfian.
From
(k) The moderns cpljl the empire of Perfia Irani a name unknown to the ancients,
Shaufciu,
Sea. IV. PHILO
Perlian From this reafoning it plainly appears, ift, that
Language pa^]avj was ancient language of Perfia ; and, 2d,
that the ancient Perfian was a cognate dialedl of the
Chaldean, Hebrew, Arabic, Phoenician, See. M. An-
quetit has annexed to his tranllation of the Ztndavejla
two vocabularies in Zend and Pahlavi, which he found
in an approved colled ion of Rawnyat or Traditional
Pieces in modern Perfian. His vocabulary of'the Pah¬
lavi tiro ugly confirms this opinion concerning the Chal-
daic origin of that language. But with refpedt to the
Zend, it abounded with vail numbers of pure Shan-
ferit words, to Inch a degree, that fix or ftven words
8^ in ten belonged to that language.
PeriveH From this dedn&ion it would appear, that the old-
from Chal- languages of Perfia were Chaldaic and Shanfcrit:
‘aic a!Kt and that when they had ceafed to be vernacular, the
Pahlavi and Zend were deduced from them rcipedive-
ly, and the Parfi either from the Zend, or immediate¬
ly from the dialed: of che Brahmans : but all had per¬
haps a mixture of Tartarian ; for the ! ell lexicogra¬
phers aifert, that mimberlefs words in ancient Peril m
are taken from the Cimmerians. With refpedt to the
IuPl of thefe, we cannot help being-of opinion, that
colonies ol people from the neighbourhood of Perfia
did tranfpoit themfelyes into Crim Tartary, and per¬
haps into Europe. Thefe colonilis brought along
with them thofe vocables which ftill occur in their
dialed. Emigrants from thofe quarters mull have
found their way into Scandinavia, fince mimberlefs
Perlian words are Hill current in thofe regions. Per¬
haps Odm and his followers emigrated from the neigh¬
bourhood of Media and Ptrfia, and brought with them
the dialed ol the nations from whofe country they
had taken their departure.
The Zend> With refped to the Zend, it might well be a dia-
fiem the led of the Shanfcrit, and was piobably a facred lan¬
guage ; and if fo, concealed from the vulgar, and re-
fervedi for the cfhces of religion. If Zoroailres, or
Zaratufht as the orientals call him, travelled into E-
gypt, and was initiated in the myfterits of the Egyp¬
tian religion, as feme pretend he was, he might be in-
ftruded in the facred dialed of that people by the
priefts under whom he ftudied. When that phi-
lofopher returned into Perfia, and became the apollle
of a new religion, he might compofe the volume of
his laws and religious inilitutions in the facred lan¬
guage of his Egyptian tutors. This language then be¬
came that ol the Magi, who concealed it catefully from
the knowledge of the uninitiated, as the prielta did in
Egypt and the Brahmans in Hindoltan.
In our Sedion on the Shanjcrit language, we fitnil
give a detail of a number of particular, which to us
feem to furnilh a prefumption that the language in
queftion was imported from Egypt into Hindoftan.
We confefs there are not fufficient data to improve
thefe prefumptions into abfolutc certainty ; but we
hope the time is at hand when the worthy members of
the Afiatic Society will difeover abundant materials to
afeertain the truth of this pofition. We are the ra-
ther inclined to adopt this hypothefis, when we ccn-
fider the charader of Zoroailres in connedion with
that of the Egyptian Cohens and of the Indian Brah¬
mans.
If this opinion Ihould one day appear to be well-
founded, we believe the coincidence between the lan-
L O G Y.
fame
four ce
. . 5*7
guage of the Zend and the Shanfcrit will be eafily ac- Perlian
counted for, without making the Hindoos mailers of Langtiage-
Iran or Perils, and then driving them back to the v " ' ^
fhoies of the Ganges. That the nations of Turan or
Scythia did aduaily over-run that country, and make
themfelves mailers of a confiderable part of it at dif¬
ferent times, is vouched by the records and traditions
of the Perfians themfelves. Upon thofe occafions a
number of Tartarian words might be introduced into
the country, and acquire a currency among the inha¬
bitants. As the annals of ancient Perfia have been
long fince dellroyed and configned to eternal oblivion,
it is impoflible to afeertain either the extent or dura¬
tion of thefc irruptions. Indeed the n.ture of our
defigu does not call for that invellfgation.
In order to corroborate the cognation between the
Chaldean and Pahlavi languages, we fhall lubjoin a
few arguments derived from the Mofaic hillory, and 84.
the other writings of the Old Tellament. Thefe we Proofs
believe will be admitted as irrefragable proofs of thefro,P
pofition above advanced by fuch as admit the authen-
ticity of thofe records. TZ fL-
Elam is always allowed to have been the progenitor lavi.
of the Perfians. This patriarch was the eldcfl fon of
Shem the Ion of Noah ; and according to the Mofaic'
account, his pollcrity fettled in- the neighbourhood of
the defeendants of Afhur, Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram,
the other fons of Shem. The country where they
fettled was denominated Elymais *' as late as the be- * Strai»t
ginning of the Chriftian era. This name was retained,I*
till the Saracens conquered and took poflreffion of that
country. If this was the cafe, as it certainly was, the
Elamites or Perfians fpofee a dia'eA of the primary
language, which, in the firll Sedion, we have pioved
to have been the Hebrew.
When the four eallem monarchs invaded the five
cities of the plain in Canaan -f-, Chedbrhomer king f Gen.
of Elam was at the head of the confederacy. Amra- cIiaP-
phel king oi Shinar, that is Babylon or Chaldea, was
one ol the allies; Aitoch king of Elafar w'as another;
and Tidal, king of fome fcattered nations in the fame
neighbourhood, was the fourth. That Chedorlaomer
was principal in this expedition, is obvious from the
hiftorian’s detail ol the fecond, where that prince i»
placed firft, and the reft are named the kin^s that were
with him. This paffage likewife demonftratea, that
Elam, Shinar, and Elazar, lay contiguous, and were
engaged in the fame caule. Wherever the country in
quellion is mentioned in Scripture prior to the era of
Daniel and Ezra, it is always under the name of E-
lam. To go about to prove this would be fuptr-
ftuous.
According to Xenophon the Perfians knew no-f Cy.-rtf,
thing of horfemanlhip before the age of Cyrus : but hb i-
that hillorian informs us, that after that monarch had
introduced the pra&ice of fighting on horfeback, they
became fo fond of it, that no man of rank would deign
to fight on foot. Here it ought to be confidered,
that the hiltonan above mentioned was now writing a
morals military, and political romance ; and therefore-
introduces this anecdote, in order to exalt the cha¬
racter of his hero ; fo that we are not to fuppofe that
the people under confideration were unacquainted with
the art of horfemanlhip till that period.
The very name Phan or Pharas is certainly of He-
i brew
S
PHILOLOGY, Sea. m
Perfian %retv -origin, and allude? to the flcill that people pro*
'l.ahgua^ci felTed in horfemanfhip. The origin::! feetns to be Phar-
fab, ungula “a hoot;” and in the Arabic Pharas inti¬
mates a horfe, and Pharis a horfeman. Confequentlf
the people were denominated Parfal, and the country
Pars, hecaufe they were trained from their infancy to
ride the great horfe, which indeed they deemed their
greateft honour. idiis name was perhaps fir'ft impo¬
sed upon them by the neighbouring nations, and in
procefs of time became their gentile appellation.
Mithras is generally known to have been the chief di¬
vinity of the Perfians ; a name which is plainly derived
from Mither “ great.” We find in Strabo the Perfian
god Amanus, which is plainly a cognate of Hamah
the “ fun or fire.” Hence we believe comes Hnmei-
rim, the “ hearths or chapels” where the fire facred to
the fun was kept burning $ which, we believe, the
* Lib..9. Greeks cahed nuf«Stia or “ tire-temples.” Herodotus*
■ wj>. 8j. mentions a cuflom among the Perfians, according to
which, when they came to engage an enemy, they caft
a rope with a kind of gin at the end of it on their
enemy, and by thofe means endeavoured to entangle
and draw him into their power*. The people of Per-
fia who employed this net or gin were called Sagartes,
from farags.jharag, orferig, a w’ord which in Plebrew,
Arabic, and Chaldaic, fignifies to w hamper or en¬
tangle :” hence perhaps the Greek word a
“ bafket or net.” Sar or zar in Hebrew, Phoenician,
Syriac, &c. fignlfie* “ a lord, a princeand hence
we have the initial fyllable of the far-famed %ar-tujht,
Zoroajlres. In a word, moll of the Perfian names that
occur in the Grecian hiftories, notwithftanding the
fcandalous manner in which they have been difguifed
and metamorphofed by the Greeks, may Itill with a
little /kill and induftry be traced back to a Plebrew,
Chaldaic, Syriac, or Phoenician origin. In the books
of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Either, we find a
number of Perfian names which are all of a Hebrew or
Chaldaic complexion; to inveftigate thefe at much
greater length would be foreign to the defign of the
prefent article. If our curious'reader fhould incline
to be more fully fatlsfied as to this point, he may con-
fult Bochart’s Chanann, D’Herbelot’s Bib. Orient.
Walton’s Proleg. See.
It now appears, we ho’^e, to the entire fatisfaflion
of our readers, that the Pahlavi is a remnant of the
old Perfian, and that the latter is a cognate branch of
the Hebrew. Chaldaic, Syriac, &c. We have like-
wife adduced fome prefumptive proofs that the Zend
was copied from the facred language of the Egyp¬
tians : we fhall now endeavonr to explain by what
changes and revolutions the language firft mentioned
arrived at its prefent fummit of beauty and perfec-
„ tion.
Progrefs of We ^ave obferved above, that the Scythians, whom
’the Perfian the old Perfians called Sac*, and whom the mo-
%nguage. dern call Turan, often invaded and over-ran Perfia at
a very early period. The confequence was, an infu-
fion of Scythian or Tartarian terms, with which that
language was early impregnated. This in all proba¬
bility occafioned the firft deviation from the original
ftandard. The conquefts of Alexander, and the do¬
minion of his fucceffors, muft, one would imagine, in-
»troduce an inundation of Greek words. That event,
however, feems to have aife&ed the language in no
confiderabk degree, at leaft very few Grecian terms oc- Perfian
cur in the modern Perfiaa. t-anguage.
The empire of the Arfacid* or Parthians, we ap- 1 '~i-
prehend, produced a very important alteration upon
the anciext Perfian. They were a demi-Scythian
tribe ; and as they conquered the Perfians retained
the dominion of thofe parts for feveral centuries, and
attually incorporated with the natives, their language
muft necefiarily have given a -deep tindlure to the ori-
girtal diale<St of the Perfians. Sir William Jones has
-obierved, that the letters of the inferiptioos at IJlakhr
or Perfepolis bear fome refemblance to the old Runic
letters of the Scan Imavians. Thofe inferiptions we
take to have been Parthian ; and we hope, as the Par¬
thians were a Tartarian clan, this conjecture may be
admitted till another mere plaufible is difeovered. The
Perfians, it is true, did once more recover the empire;
and under them began the reign of the Deri and Parfi
tongues : the former con fitting of the old Perfian and
Parthian highly polilhed $ the latter of the fame-lan¬
guages in their *ncultivated vernacular drefs. In this
Situation the Perfian language remained till the inva-
fion of the Saracens in 656; when thefe barbarians over¬
ran and fettled in that fine country; demolilhed every
monument of antiquity, records, temples, palaces;
every remain of ancient fuperftiuon ; maffacred or ex¬
pelled the minifters of the Magian idolatry ; and in¬
troduced a language, though not entirely new, yet
widely differing from the old exemplar.
But before we proceed to give fome brief account
of the modern Perfian, we muft tnke the liberty to ha¬
zard one eonje&ure, which perhaps our adepts in mo¬
dern Perfian may not find themfeives difpofed to admit.
In modern Perfian we find the ancient Perfian names
wondei fully diftorsed and defleCfed from that form under
which they appear in the Scripture, in Ctefias, Megafthe-
nes, and the otherGreek authors. From this it has been
inferred, that not only the Greeks, but even the facred
biftorians of the Jews, have changed and metamorphofed
them moft unmercifully, in order to-accommodate them
10 the ftandard of their own language. As to the
Greeks, we know it was their conftant pradb'ce, but we
cannot believe fo much of the Hebrews. We make
no doubt of their writing and pronouncing the names
of the Perfian monarchs and governors of that nation
nearly in the fame manner with the native Perfians. It
is manifeft, beyond all pofiibility of contradiction, that
they neither altered the Tyrian and Phoenician names
of perfons and places when they had occafion to men¬
tion them, nor thofe of the Egyptians when they oc¬
curred in their writings. The Babylonian and Chal¬
daic names which are mentioned in the Old Tefta-
ment vary nothing from the Chaldean original. No
veafon can be alfigned why they fiiould have transform¬
ed the Ptrlian names more than the others. On the
contrary, in Ezra, Nehemiah, and Efther, we find the
Perfian names faithfully prefervtd throughout.
The faft, we imagine, is this: Our modern ad- Nothing
mirers of the Perfic have borrowed their names of the now eiift-
ancient kings and heroes of that country from ro-lfS ,n
mances and fabulous legends-of more modern date and *
compofition. The archives of Perfia were dettroyed older than
by the Saracens : nothing of importance was written the SaraceO
in that country till two centuries after the era of Mo- c°nqueft.
hammed. Wbat fucceeded was all fiction and romance.
4 The
Sea, IV. PHILOLOGY.
Perfian The authors of thofe entcrtain'ug compofitions either
^Language. forge(j names of heroes to aafwer their purpofe, or
■x" ' laid hold on fuch as were celebrated in the ballads of
tteir country, or preferved by vulgar tradition. The
names were no doubt very different from thofe of the
ancient kings and heroes ofPeriia; and probably many
of them had undergone confiderablc changes during
the continuance of the Parthian empire. Upon this
foundation has the learned Mr Richardfon ereded a
very irregular fabric, new, and, to ufe his own expref-
fion, we think built upon pillars of ice He has taken
much pains to invalidate the credit of the Grecian hi-
ftories of the Perfian empire, by drawing up in battle
array againlt their records legions of romantic writers,
who were not born till near a,thoufand years after the
events had taken place ; and to complete the proba¬
bility, who lived 200 years after all the chronicles of
the Medes and Perfians had been finally deflroyed by
the fury of the Saracens.
After the decifive vidlory obtained over the Perfians
at Kadfiffa, their ancient government was overturned,
their religion proferibed, their laws trampled under
foot, and their civil tranfadions difturbed by the for¬
cible introdu&ion of the lunar for the foLr kalendar ;
while, at the fame time, their language became almoft
overwhelmed by an inundation of Arabic words; which
from that period, religion, authority, and faihion, in¬
corporated with their idiom.
From the feventh till the tenth century the Perfian
tongue, now impregnated with Arabic words, appears
to have laboured under much difeouragement and ne-
gledt Bagdad, built by Almanfor, became foon af¬
ter the year 762 the chief refidence of the khalifs, and
the general refort of the learned and the ambitious
from every quarter of the empire. At length the ac-
ceffi'm of the Buyah princes to the Perfian throne
marked in the tenth century the great epoch of the re¬
vival of Perfian learning. About the year 977 the
throne ofPerfia was filled by the great Azaduddawla;
who firtt affume J the title of Sultan, afterwards gene¬
rally adopted by eaftern pridees. He was born in tf-
pahan, and had a ftrong attachment to his native
kingdom. His court, whether at Bagdad or in the
capital of Perfia, was the ftanclatd of tafte and the fa¬
vourite refidence of genius. The native dialed of the
prince was particularly difiingmfhed, and became foon
_ the general language of compofition in almoll every
The moil ^ranch of polite learning. From the end of the tenth
.Sourifalng till the fifteenth century may be confide!ed as the molt
period of flourifhing period of Perfian literature. 'The epic poet
ter ami V* Birdaufi, in his romantic hiftory of the Perfian kings
and heroes, difplays nn imagination and fmoothnefs oF
numbers hardly inferior to Homer. The whole fan¬
ciful range of Perfian enchantment he has interwoven
in his poems, which abound with the nobleJl efforts of
genius. This bard has (lamped a dignity on the mon-
fters and fuff ions of the eaft, equal to that which the
prince of epic poetry has given to the mythology of
ancient Greece. His language may at the fame time
be confidered as the mod refined dialed of the ancient
Perfian, the Arabic being introduced with a very fpa-
ring hand : whilft Sadi, Jami, Hafez, and other fuc-
ceeding writers, iu profe as well as verfe, have blended
in their works the Arabic without referve ; gaining
perhaps in the nervous luxuriance of the one language
what may feetn to have been lofl in the fofter delicacy Perfian
of the other. Hence Ebn Fekreddin Anju, in the
preface to the dictionary called Farhang fehanguiri, v
lays, that the Deri and the Arabic idioms were the
languages of heaven ; God communicating to the an¬
gels his milder mandates in the delicate accents of the
firfi, whilft his ftern commands were delivered in the
rapid accents of the laft.
For near 300 years the literary fiie of the Peffnns
feems indeed to have been almoft extinguifhed ; fince,
during that time, hardly any thing of that people
which deferves attent:on has appeared in Europe :
enough, however, has already been -produced, to in-
fpire us with a very high opinion of the genius of the
eaft. In tafte, the orientals are undoubtedly inferior
to the bell writers of modern Europe ; but in inven¬
tion and fublimity, they are excelled, perhaps equalled,
by none. ’ The Perfiaus affttt a rhetorical luxuriance,
which to a European wears the air of unneccffary re¬
dundance. If to tht-fe leading dlftimffions we add a
peculiar tone of imagery, of metaphor, of allufion,
derived from the difference of government, of manners,
of temperament, and of fuch natural objeds as cha-
ratfferife Afia from Europe; we fhail fee, at one view,
the great points of variation between the writers of
the eaft and weft. Amongft the oriental hiltorians,
philofophers, rhetoricians, and poets, many will be
found who would do honour to any age or people ;
whilft their romances, their tales, and their fables,
ftand upon a ground which Europeans have not yet
found powers to reach. We might here quote the A-
rabian Nights Entertainments, Perfian Tales, Pilpay's
Fables, &c.
We (hall now annex a few ftri&ures on the genius
or that noble language ; though it is c*ur opinion that of the mo~
the province of the philologift is to mveftigate thedernPerfic*.
origin, progrefs, and final improvement of a language,
without defeending to its grammatical minutiae or
peculiar idiomatic diftindtions. We have already ob-
ferved, that the tongue under confidcration is partly
Arabic and partly Perfian, though the latter generally
has the afeendant. The former is nervous, impetuous,
and msfculine ; the latter is flowing, foft, andluxu-'
riant. Wherever the Arabic letters do not readily in¬
corporate w ith the Perfian, they are either changed in.
to others or thrown away. Their letters are the A-
rabic with little variation ; thefe being found more
commodious and expeditious than the old letters of
the Deri and Parfi. Their alphabet confifts of 32 let¬
ters, which, like the Arabic,, are read from right to
left ; their form and order will be learned from any
grammar of that language. The letters are divided
into vowels and confonints as ufual. The Arabic
charaffers, like thofe of the Europeans, are written in
a variety of different hands ; but the Perfians write
their poetical works in the Talick, which anfwers to
the moft elegant of our Italic hands. n
There is-a great refemblance between the Perfian Refem-
and Englilh languages in the facility and fimplicity ofblance be*
their form and conftruffion: the former, as well as therween 1>er'*
latter, has no difference of terminations to mark the En^fc!
gender either in fubftantives or adjeeffives; all inani¬
mate things are neuter; and animals of different fexes
have either different names, oj- are diftinguilhed by
the worda.fler male, and made female. Sometimes in¬
deed
520 PHILO
Perfian ^eeJ a word is made feminine, after the manner of the
I.anguagf. ^rahians, by having » added to it.
The Perfian fuliftantives have but one variation of
cafe, which is formed by adding a fylhble to the no¬
minative in both numbers ; and anfwers often to the
dative, but generally to the accufntive, cafe in other lan¬
guages. The other cafes are exprefied for the rhoft
part by particles placed before the nominative. The
Perfx ins have two numbers, lingular and plural; the
latter is formed by adding a fyllab'e to 'the former.
The Perfian adjedtives admit of no variation but in
the degrees of cotnparifon. The comparative is form¬
ed by adding/«vand the fuperlative by adding ferin to
the pdfitive.
The Perlians have a&ive and neuter verbs like other
nations ; but many of their verbs have both an a6tive
and neuter fenfe, which can be determined only by
the conftru&ion. Thofe verbs have properly but one
conjugation, and but three changes of tenfe : the im¬
perative, the aorill, and the preterite ; all the other
tenfes being formed by the help of particles or of
auxiliary verbs. The paflive voice is formed by add-
ng the cenfes of the fubitantive vsrb to the participle
of the active.
In the ancient language of Perfia there were very
few or no irregularities; the imperative^ which is often
irregular in the modern Perlian, was anciently formed
from the infinitive, by reje&ing the termination eeden:
for originally all infinitives ended in den, till the Arabs
introduced their harth confonants before that fyliable,
which obliged the Perfiirw, who always affected a
fweetnefs of pronunciation, to change the old termi¬
nation of fome verbs into ten, and by degrees the ori¬
ginal infinitive grew quite obfolete ; yet they ft ill re¬
tain the ancient imperative, and the aorifts which are
formed from it. This little irregularity is the only
anomalous part of the Perfian language; which never-
thelefs far furpaffes in fimplicity all other languages an¬
cient or modern. _
With refpeft to the more minute and intricate parts
of this language, as well as its derivations., compofi-
tions, conftrucdions, &c. we mult remit our readers to
Mininlkie’s Injl'.tutiones Lingua Turcica: cum rudimentis
parade Us linguarum Arab, et Perf% Sir William Jones’s
Perlian Grammar; Mr Richardfon’s Arabian and Per-
fian Dictionary; I). Herbelot’s BibL Orient. Dr Hyde
de Re/ig. vet. Per/. Sic. Our readers, who would pene¬
trate into the innermoft recefies of the Perfian hittory,
colonies, antiquities, connections, dialefts, may con-
jfult the laft mentioned author, efpeciaily chap. xxxv.
J)e Perfia et Perfarum nominibus, et de moderna atque
veteri lingua Perfica, ejufquc dialectis. In the preceding
inquiry we have followed other authors, whofe accounts
appeared to us more natural, and much lefs embarraf-
ling.
To con cl u ’e this feCtion, which might eafily have
been extended into a large volume, we fhill only take
bian and ^ ii^erty to put our readers in mind of the valt uti-
“-hty of the Arabian and Perfian languages. Number.
lefs events are preferved in the writings of the orien¬
tals which were never heard of in Europe, and mult
have for ever lain concealed from the knowledge of
its inhabitants, had not thefe two tongues been llu-
died and underftood by the natives of this quarter of
the globe. Many of thofe e vents have b een tranfmit-
‘Utility of
the Ara¬
bian and
LOGY. Seft. IV.
ted to pofterity in poems and legendary tales like the ^erlhn
Runic fragments of the north, the romances of Spain,
or the Heroic ballads of our own country. Such ma- " *
terials as thefe, we imagine, may have fuggefted to
Firdaufi, the celebrated heroic poet of Perfia, many of
the adventures of his Shahnam-e; which, like Homer
when ftript ofthe machinery of fupernatural beings, is
fuppofed to contain much true hittory, and a molt un.
doubted pifture of the fupei llition and manners of the
times. The knowledge of thefe two languages has
laid open to Europe all the treafures of oriental learn¬
ing, and has enriched the minds of Britons with In¬
dian fcience as much as the produce of thefe regions
has increafed their wealth and enervated their contti-
tution. 9t
Before we conclude this feftion, we ttiall fuhjoin a Perfia*
few ftrithires on the nature of Perfian poetry, in order Poeu'f*
to render our inquiry the more complete. The mo¬
dern Perfians borrowed their poetical meafures from
the Arabs; they are exceedingly various and compli-
cated-; they confift of 19 different kinds; but the
mott common of them are the lambic or Trochaic mea*
fure, and a metre that chiefly confitts of thofe com¬
pounded feet which the ancients called E^rpiTuf, which
are compofed of iambic and fpondees alternately. In
lyric poetry their veffes generally confitt of 12 or iS
fyilables: they fometimes, but feldom, confift of 14..
Some of their lyric vtrfes contain 13 fylbbles: but
the mott common Pet fian verfe is made up of 11 ; and
in this meafure are wiittert all their great poems*
whether upon heroic or moral fubjedts, as the works
of Firdaufi and Jami, the Boftar ot Sadi-, and the Mei-
navi of Gelaleddin. This fort of verfe anfwers to our
common heroic rhyme, which was brought to fo high
a degree of perfe&ion by Pope. The ftudy of the
Perfian poetiy is fo much the more nectffary, as there
are few books or even letters written in that language,
which are not interfperfed with fragments of poetry.
As to their profody, nothing can be more eafy and
fimple. When the ftudent can read profe eafily, he
will with a little attention read poetry with equal fa¬
cility.
Sect V. Shanfcrit and Bengalcfe Languages.
92
The Shanfcrk, though one of the moft ancient lan-The Shafta
guages in the world, was little known even in Afla tillfcrit one
about the middle of the prefent century. Since thatof ^ maft
period, by the indefatigable induftry of the very learned
and ingenious Sir William Jones and the other worthy ;n The6
members of that fociety of which he has the honour to wmid.
be prefident, that noble and ancient language has at
length been brought to light; and from it vaft treafures
of oriental knowledge will be communicated both to
Europe and Afia ; knowledge which, without the ex¬
ertions of that happy eftahlifhment, mutt have lain
concealed from the refearches of mankind to the end of
the world, in this fe&ion we propofe to give to our
readers fuch an accouat of that language as the limits
of the prefent article, and the helps we have been able
to procure, fhall permit.
The Shanfcrit language has for many centuries lain
concealed in the hands of the bramins of Hindoftan.
It is by them deemed facred, and is of confequence
confined folely to the offices of religion. Its name
import*
S«a.V. PHILOL OGY.
tl‘' P‘rfca or, iccording to tlie call- mory, according to an unemnjr fcaic.
left Lan- ern ^ language of perfeUion ; and we believe no ' f *' j:—1 - ’ • * •
lansruape ever frinlcen Lw man ;a „
guages. language ever fpoken by man is more juftly intided to
that high epithet.
I. he grand fource of Indian literature, and the pa¬
rent of almoft every dialeft from the Perilan gujph to
the China feae, 13 the Shanfcrit ; a language of the
mod venerable and mod remote antiquity, which, tho’
at prefect (hut up in the libraries of the bramins, and
appropriated folely to the records of their religion, ap¬
pears to have been current over mod of the oriental
world. Accordingly traces of its original extent may
m be difcovCrecl in. almod every didrid of Afia. Thofe
wjj0 are acquainted with that language have often
found the fimilitude of Shanfcrit wr-ds to thofe of
Per dart and Arabic, and even of L tin and Greek ;
and that not in technical and metaphorical terms, which
refined arts and improved manners might have occa-
fionally introduced, but in the main ground-work ©f
language, in monofyllables, the names of numbers, and
appellations of fuch things as would be fird diferirei-
nated on the immediate dawn of civilization.
Phe ancient coins of many different and didant king¬
doms of Afia are damped wutli Shanfcrit characters,
and moftly contain aliufions to the old Shanfcrit my¬
thology. Belides, in the names of perfons and places,
et titles asd dignities, which are open to general no
gunge*.
91
Traces of
every di-
ffrift of
Afia and
eifewhere
lice, even to the farthed limits of Afia, may be found
nianiftd traces of the Shanfcrit. The fcanty remains
of Coptic antiquities afford little fcope for comparifon
between that idiom and this primitive tongue; but
there dill exiils fufficient ground to conjeftuie, that,
at a very early period, a correfpondence did fubfid be-
tween thefe two nations. The Hindoos pretend, that
the Egyptians frequented their country as difciples,
not as mltruCtors ; that they came to feck that liberal
education and thofe feiences in Hindodan, which none
of their own countrymen had fufficient knowledge to
impart. Perhaps we may examine the validity of this
claim hereafter.
But though numberlefs changes and revolutions have
from time to time convulfed Hindodan, that part of
it which lies between the Indus and the Ganges dill
preferves that language whole and inviolate. Idere
they dill offer a thoufand bocks to the perufal of the
curious ; many of which have been religiouffy handed
down from the earlieft periods of human exiitence.
The fundamental part of the Shanfcrit language is
o.vided into three claffes-t Dhaatt or roots of verbs,
which fome call primitive elements; Shubd, or original
nouns ; and Evya, or particles. The latter are ever
indeclinable, as in other languages ; but the words
comprehended in the two former clafles mud be pre¬
pared by certain additions and inflexions to fit them
*or a P^at:e in compofftiou. And here it is that the
ruticot matt of the grammarian has found room to expand it-
jdf, nnu to employ all the powers of refinement. Not
a fyllable, not a letter, can be added or altered but by
.egimen not the mod trifling variation of the fenfe
in the minuted fubdiviffon of declenfion or conjuga¬
tion, can be effeded without the application of feve-
ral rules : all the different forms for every change of
gender, number, cafe, perfon, tenfe, mood, or dto-rCe
are methodically arranged for the affiftance of tbufme-
Vom XIV. Part II.
53*
j ' —^  ^ ****w****.^ lliC Shanfcnt
of the radical or elementary parts is about 700 ; and and
to thefe, as to the verbs of other languages, a very lere I'aa"
plentiful dock of verbal nouns owres its origin ; but
thefe are not thought to exceed thofe of the Greek
either in quantity or variety.
To the triple fource of words mentioned above,
every term of truly Indian original may be traced by
a laborious and critical analyffs. All fuch terms as
are thoroughly proved to bear no relation to any one of
the Shanfcrit roots, are confidered as the produdion
of fome remote and foreign idiom, fubTequently ia-
grafted upon the main dock; ancT it is conjedured,
that a judicious invedigation of this principle would
throw a new light upon the fird invention of many
arts and feiences, and open afrefh mine of philological
difeeveries. We fliall now proceed to give as exad an
account of the condituent parts of this language as the
nature of our defign will permit.
The Shanfcrit language is very copious and nervous, ft i/copi-
I he fird of thefe qualities arifes in a great meafure0,ls ancl
from the vad number of compound words with whichI,ervou3*
it is almod overdocked. “ The Shanfcrit (fays Sir
William Jones), like the Greek, Pcrfian, and G erman,
delights in compounds; but to a much higher degree,
and indeed to fuch excefs, that I could produce words
of more than 20 fyllables; not formed ludicroufly like
94
Number of
books in
that lan¬
guage.
9S
Charaifte-
that by which the buffoon in Ariffophanes deferibes a
feuft, but with perfedi ferioufnefs, on the mod folemn
occafions, and in the mod elegant works.” But the
ftyle of its bed authors is wonderfully concife. In the
regularity of its etymology it far exceeds the Greek
and Arabic; and, like them, has a prodigious number
of derivatives from each primary root. The gramma¬
tical rules alfo are numerous and difficult, though there
are not many anomalies. As one indance of the truth
of this affertion, it may be obferved, that there are
feven declenlions of nouns, all uftd in the fingnlar, the
dual, and the plural numbers, and all of them diffe¬
rently formed, according as they terminate with a con-
fonant, with a long or a fhort vowel; and again, dif¬
ferent alfo as they are of different genders : not a no¬
minative cafe can be formed to any one of thefe nouns
without the application of at lealt four rules, which
vary likewife with each particular difference of the
nouns, as above dated : add to this, that every word
in the language may be ufed through all the feven de*
clenlions, which is a full proof of the difficulty of the
idiom.
T. he Shariicnt grammars are called Beeukcrun^ of
which there are many compofed by different authors ;
fome too abltrule even for the comprehention of mod
bramins, and others too prolix to be ever ufed but as
references. One of the fhorted, named the Sarafcotee,
contains between two and three hundred pages, and
was compiled by Anoobhootee Seroopen.im Acharige,
with a concifenefs that can fcarcely be paralleled ia any
other language.
. The Shanfcrit alphabet contains 50 letters; and it Shamed
13 one boat! of the bramins, that it exceeds all othera’phabet.
phabets in this refpeft: but it muff be obferved, that as
of their 34Confonant8, near half carry combined found',
and that fix of their vowels are merely the correfpond-
ent long ones to as many which are Ihort, the advan-
■i U tage
'542
PHILO
Shanfcrit
and flenga.
lefe Lan¬
guages.
* Plate
CCCXC.
9s
Poetry.
tage feems to be little more than fanciful. Befides
thefe, they have a number of charafters which Mr
Halhed calls conneaed vowels, but which have not
been explained by the learned prefident of the Afiatic
Society. tt» j a *
The Shanfcrit charaaer ufed in Upper Hindoitan *
la faid to be the fame original letter that was firft de-
livesed to the people by Brahma, and is now called
Dieivnagur, or the language of angels, which Ihows
the high opinion that the bramins have entertained of
that charaaer. Their confonants and vowels are won¬
derfully, perhaps whimlically, modified and diverfified;
to enumerate which, in this place, would contribute
very little either to the entertainment or inftruaion of
our readers. All thefc diftmaions are marked in the
Beids O), and muft be modulated accordingly; fo that
they produce all the effea of a laboured recitative .
but by an attention to the mufic of the chant, the
fenfe of the paffage recited equally efcapee the reader
and the audience. It is remarkable, that the Jews in
their fynagogues chant the Pentateuch in the fame
kind of melody ; and it is fuppofed that this ufage has
defeended to them from the remoteft ages.
The Shanfcrit poetry comprehends a very great va¬
riety of different metres, of which the moft common
are thefe: r ,
The munnee hurrenrh rMuW, or line ot iz or 19 lyi-
lables, which is fcanned by three fyllables in a foot,
and the moft approved foot is the anaposft.
The cabee chhund, or line of 11 fyllables.
The anujhtofe chhund, or line of eight fyllables.
The poems are generally compofed in ftanzas or
four lines, called apologues, which are regular or irregu¬
lar.
The moft common alhlogue is that of the amptofe
chhund, or regular ftanza of eight fyllables in each line.
In this meafure the greateft part of the Mahabaret is
compofed. The rhyme in this kind of ftanza fhould
be alternate ; but the poets do not feem to be very
nice in the obfervance of a ftrift correfpondence in the
founds of the terminating fyllables, provided the feet
of the verfe are accurately kept. .
This fhort anujhtofe ajhlogue is generally written by
two verfes in one line, with a paufe between; fo the
whole then affumes the form of a long diftich.
The irregular ftanza is conftantly called anyachhund,
of whatever kind of irregularity it may happen to con-
fift It is moft commonly compounded of the long
line cabee chhund and the (hort anujhtofe chhund alter¬
nately ; in which form it bears fome refemblance to
the moft common lyric meafnre of the Enghih.
To purfue this fubjeft to greater length is fcarce
polfible for us, as matters ftand at prefent. Our read¬
ers muft fufpend their curiofity. tiU more volumes of
the Afxatic Refearches are pubhfhed, where we make
no doubt the whole myftery of this extraordinary lan¬
guage will be plainly unfolded. .
Perhaps our readers may feel a curiofity to be in¬
formed of the origin of this oriental tongue. If we
believe the bramins themfelves, it was coeval with the
race of man, as was obferved towards the beginning of
LOGY. Sedt.V.
this feaion. The bramins, however, are not the pniy^hanferft
people who aferibe a kind of eternity to their own 1;;fe
particular dialeff. V^e find that the bhanferit in its guages.
primitive deftination was appropriated to the offices v
of religion. It is indeed pretended, that all the other 9^9 ^
diale&s fpoken in Hindoftan v/ere emanations from this^ongUCo
that fountain, to which they might be traced back by
a fliilful etymologift. This, we think, is an argument
of no great confequence, fince we believe that all the
languages of Europe, by the fame procefs, may be de¬
duced from any one of thofe current in that quarter of
the globe. By a parity of reafon, all the different dia*
leds of Hindoftan may be referred to the language in
queftion. Indeed, if we admit the authority of the
Mofaic hiftory, all languages whatfoever are derived
from that of the firft man. It is allowed that the lan¬
guage under confideration is impregnated with Per-
fian, Chaldaic, Phoenician, Greek, and even Latin
idioms. This, we think, affords a prefumption that
the Shanfcrk was one of thofe original dialers which
were gradually produced ainong the defeendants of
Noah, in proportion as they gradually receded from
the centre of population. What branch or branches of
that family emigrated to Hindoftan, it is not eafy to
determine. That they were a party of the defeendants
of Shem is moft probable, becaufe the other fepts of
his pofterity fettled in that neighbourhood. The fum
then is, that the Hindoos were a colony confiftmg of
the defeendants of the patriarch Shem.
It appears, however, by almoft numberlefs moau-
ments of antiquity Hill exifting, that at a very early
period a different race of men had obtained fettlements
in that country. It is now generally admitted, that
colonies of Egyptians had peopled a confiderablc part
of Hindoftan. Numberlefs traces of their religion oc¬
cur everywhere in thofe regions. The very learned
prefident himfelf is pofitive, that veftiges of thofe fa-
cerdotal wanderers are found in India, China, japan,
Tibet, and many parts of Tartary. Thofe colonifts,
it is well known, were zealous in propagating their re¬
ligious ceremonies wherever they refided, and where-
ever they travelled. There is at the fame time even
at this day a ftriking refemblance between the facred
rites of the vulgar Hindoos and thofe of the ancient
Egyptians. The prodigious ftatues of Salfette and
Elephanta fabricated in the Egyptian ftyle ; the vaft
excavations hewn out of the rock in the former; the
wooly hair of the ftatues, their diftorted attitudes,
their grotefque appearances, their triple heads, and
various other configurations—plainly indicate a foreign
original. Thefe phenomena fuit no other people on
earth fo exaftly as the fons of Mizraim. The Egyp¬
tian priefts ufed a facred charafter, which none knew
but themfelves; none were allowed to learn except
their children and the choice of the initiated. AH
thefe features mark an exa£t parallel with the bramina
of the Hindoos. Add to this, that the drefs, diet,
luftrations, and other rites of both feds, bore an exad
refemblance to each other. Sir William Jones hathjuftly
obferved, that the letters of the Shanfcrit, ftript of all
adventitious appendages, are really the fqaare Chaldee
(l) The books which contain the religion of the bramins.
guages.
Sedt.V. PHIL
shanfcHt characters. We learn from Cafliodorus * the follow-
and Benga-jng particulars : “ The height of the obelilks is equal
^ to that of the circus; now the higher is dedicated to
the fun, and the lower to the moon, where the facred
rites of the ancients are intimated by Chaldaic figna-
tures by way of letters.” Here then it is plain that
the facred letters of the Egyptians were Chaldaic, and
it is allowed that thofe of the bramins were of the
fame complexion ; which affords a new prefumption of
the identity of the Shanfcrit with thofe juft men¬
tioned.
That the Egyptians had at a very early period pe¬
netrated into Hindoftan, is univerfally admitted. Ofi-
ris, their celebrated monarch and deity, according to
their mythology, conduced an army into that coun¬
try ; taught the natives agriculture, laws, religion,
and the culture of the vine, &c. He is faid at the
fame time to have left colonies of priefts, as a kind of
miffionaries, to inftruft the people in the ceremonies
of religion. Sefoftris, another Egyptian potentate,
likewife over.ran Hindoftan with an army, and taught
the natives many ufeful arts and fciences. When the
paftor-kings invaded and conquered Egypt, it is pro¬
bable that numbers of the priefts, in order to avoid
the fury of the mercilefs invaders who demohfhed the
temples and perfecuted the minifters of religion, left
their native country, and tranfported themfelves into
India. Thefe, we fhould think, were the authors both
of the language and religion of the bramins. This
dialed, as imported by the Egyptians, was probably
of the fame contexture with the facred language of
that people, as it appeared many ages after. The In¬
dians, who have always been an inventive and indu-
ftrious race of men, in procefs of time cultivated, im¬
proved, diverfified, and conftruded that language with
fuch care and affiduity, that it gradually arrived at
that high degree of perfe&ion in which at prefent it
appears.
Had the learned prefident of theAfiatic Society (m),
when he inftituted a comparifon between the deities of
Hindoftan on the one fide and of Greece and Italy
on the other, examined the analogy between the gods
of Hindoftan and thofe of Egypt, we think he would
have performed a piece of fervice ftill more eminent.
Having firft demonftrated the fimilarity between the
divinities of India and Egypt, he might then have
proceeded to inveftigate the refemblance of the Egyp¬
tian and Phoenician with thofe of Greece and Rome.
By this procefs a chain would have been formed which
would have conducted his readerto comprehend at one
view the identity of the Zabian worfhip almoft through¬
out the world.
We forefee that it will be objefted to this hypothe¬
cs, that all the dialefts of Hindoftan being clearly re¬
ducible to the Shanfcrit, it is altogether impoflible that
it could have been a foreign language. To this we
anfwer, that at the early period when this event is flip-
pofed to have taken place, the language of the pofte-
rity of the fons of Noah had not deviated coniiderabJy
from the primitive ftandard, and eonfequently the lan¬
guage of the Egyptians and the Hindoos was nearly
O L O G Y. 523
the fame. The Shanfcrit was gradually improved: Shanfcrit
the language of the vulgar, as is always the cafe, be-
came more and more different from the original ar- guages!''
chetype ; but ftill retained fuch a near refemblance to1 ^
the mother-tongue as proved the verity of its extrac-
tion. I00
To the preceding account of the Shanfcrit language Bergalefe
we ftiall annex a few ftri&ures on the language of Ben-language
gal, which we believe is derived from the other, an^£Cr^fie
is in moft common ufe in the fouthern parts of
doftan.
Though moft of the ancient oriental tongues are
read from right to left, like the Hebrew, Chaldaic,
Arabic, &c. yet fuch as properly belong to the whole
continent of India proceed from left to right like thofe
of Europe. The Arabic, Perfian, &c. are t£e grand
fources whence the former method has been derived ;
but with thefe, the numerous original diale&s of
Hindoftan have not the fmalleft connexion or refem¬
blance.
The great number of letters, the complex mode of
combination, and the difficulty of pronunciation, are
confiderable impediments to the ftudy of the Bengal
language; and the careleffnefs and ignorance of the
people, and the inaccuracy of their charafters, aggra¬
vate thefe inconveniences. Many of their charaOtera
are fpurious ; and thefe, by long ufe and the hurry of
buiinefs, are now almoft naturalized into the lan-
The Bengal alphabet, like that of the Shanfcrit, Ber)gaj
from which it is derived, confifts of 50 letters, whofealphabet,
form, order, and found, may be learned from Mr Hal-
htd’s grammar of the Bengal language. The vowels
are divided into long and ffiort, the latter of which are
often omitted in writing. Moft of the oriental lan¬
guages are conftru&ed upon the fame principle, with
refpeft to the omiffion of the Ihort vowel. The He¬
brews had no fign to exprefs it before the invention
of the Maforetic points ; in Arabic it is rarely ia-
ferted unlefsupon very folemn occalions, as in the Ko¬
ran ; in the modem Perfian it is univerfally omitted :
fo to all the confonants in the Shanfcrit, the ffiort
vowel is an invariable appendage, and is never figni-
fied by any diacritical mark; but where the conftruc-
tion requires that the vowel ihovlld be dropped, a par¬
ticular Itroke is fet under the letter. It is in vain to
pretend, in a Iketch like this, to detail the found and
pronunciation of thefe letters: this muft be acquired
by the ear and by prattice.
In the Bengal language there are three genders, as Geijderg,
in Greek, Arabic, &c. The authors of this threefold &c. of thit|
divifion of genders, with refpetl to their precedence, lanoust»e.
appear to have confidered the neuter as a kind of re-
fiduum refulting from the two others, and as left wor¬
thy or lefs comprehenfive than either (fee Seddion of
the Greek). The terminations ufually applied upon
this occafion are aa for the inafouline, and ee tor the
feminine. In Shanfcrit, as in Greek and Latin, the
names of all things inanimate have different genders,
founded on vague and incomprel enfible diilindhons ;
the fame is the cafe with the Bengal.
3 Us A
(m) See .that gentleman’s difeourfe, Refearches, Vol, L
324 P H I L O
Sharfcrit A Shanfcrit noun, on it3 firft formation from the ge-
»mtBerga-neral rootj exifts equally independent of cafe as of gen-
guagesl" ^cr* It is neither nominative, nor genitive, nor accu-
* —tj fative ; nor is impreffed with, any of thofe modifica-
103 tions which mark the relation and conneftion between
Peculiari- feveral members of a fentence. In this ftate it is
Shacfcnt cahcd an imperfeft or crude noun. To make a nomi-
and Benga-native of a word, the termination mud be changed
lefenouas. and a new form fupplied. Thus we fee, that in the
Shanfcrit, at lead, the nominative has an equal right
with any other inflexion to be called a cafe. Every
Shanfcrit noun has feven cafes, exclufive of the voca¬
tive ; and therefore comprehends two more than even
thole of the Latin. Mr Halhed above mentioned de¬
tails all the varieties of thefe with great accuracy, to
whofe Grammar we muft refer our readers. The Ben¬
gal has only four cafes befide the vocative ; in which
refpeft it is much inferior to the other.
It would be difficult to account for the variety of
words which have been allotted to the clafs of pro¬
nouns by European grammarians. The firft and fe-
cond perfon are chiefly worthy of obfervation : thefe
two fliould feem to be confined to rational and con-
verfable beings only : the third fupplies the place of
every object in nature ; wherefore it muft: neceffarily
be endued with a capacity of (hifting its gender re-
fpe&ively as it ftiifts the fubjeft; and hence it is in
Sh mfcrit frequently denominated an adje&ive. One
of the demonftratives Inc or tile ufually ferves for this
purpofe ; and generally the latter, which in Arabic
has no other name than dhemeer el ghaayb, “ the pro¬
noun of the abfentee,” for whole name it is a fubfti-
104 tute-
Betigalcfe In moft languages where the verb has a feparate in-
pn noun*, fledfion for each perfon, that infledfion is fufficient ro
afeertain the perfonality j but in Bengal compohtibns,
though the firft and fecond perfons occur very fre¬
quently, nothing is more rare than the ufage of the
pronoun of the third ; and names of perfons are infert-
ed with a conftant and difgufting repetition, to avoid,
as it ftiould feem, the application of the words he and
she. The fecond perfon is always ranked before the
brft, and the third before the fecond. The perfonal
pronouns have feven cafes, which are varied in a very
irregular manner. Leaving thefe to the Bengalian
grammar, we ftiall proceed to the verb.
The Shanfcrit, the Arabic, the Greek and Latin
verbs, are furnifhed with a fet of infte&ions and ter¬
minations fo comprehenfive and lo complete, that by
their form alone they can exprefs all the different di*
ftinftions both of perfons and time. Three feparate
qualities in them are perfectly blended and united.
Thus by their root they denote a particular ad, and
by their infleftion both point out the time when it
takes place and the number of the agents. In Per-
fian, as in Englifh, the verb admits but of two forms,
one for the prefent tenfe and one for the aorift ; and
it is obfervable, that while the part tenfe is provided
for by a peculiar inflexion, the future is generally fup¬
plied by an additional word conveying only the idea
of time, without any other influence on the ad im¬
plied by the principal verb. It is aifo frequently ne-
ceffary that the different ftate of the a&ion, as per-
fed or imperfed, be further afceitained in each of the
tenfe8,paft, prefent, and future. This alfo, in the learned
L O G Y. Sea.V.
languages, is performed by other variations of infiec- Shanfcrit
tions, for which other verbs-and other particles are ap- ^eng*-
plied in the modern tongues of Europe and Perfia. ages'"
Every Shanfcrit verb has a form equivalent to the   
middle voice of the Greek, ufed through all the tenfes J05
With a refledive fenfe, and the former is even the moft^11^^
extenfive of the two in its ufe and office: for inghanf°r[t
Greek the refledive can only be adopted intranfitive-verbs,
ly when the adion of the verb defeends to no extra¬
neous fubjed ; but in Shanfcrit, the verb is both reci¬
procal and tranfit’ve at the fame time.
Neither the Shanfcrit, nor the Bengalefe, nor the
Hindoftanic, have any word precifely anfwering to
the fenfe of the verb I have, and confequently the
idea is always expreffed by ejl miki; and of courfe
there is no auxiliary form in the Bengal verb corre-
ipondent to I have written, but the fenie is conveyed
by another mode. The verb fubftatitive, in all lan¬
guages, is defedive and irregular, and therefore the
Shanfcrit calls it a femi-verb. It is curious to obferve
that the prefent tenfe of this verb, both in Greek and
Latin, and alfo in the Perfian, appears plainly to be de¬
rived from the Shanfcrit. In the Bengalefe, this verb
has but two diftiadions of time, the prefent and the
paft ; the terminations of the feveral perfons of which
ierve as a model for thofe of the fame tenfe in all
other verbs rd'pediveJy.
Verbs of the Bengal language may be divided into Qharj^t?-
three claffes, which are diflinguifhed by their penulti*riftics of the
mate letter. The fimple and moft: common form has Ben ralefe
an open confonant immediately preceding the final lct-ver E’
ter of the infinitive. The fecond is compofed of thofe
words whofe final letter is preceded by another vowel
or open confonant going before it. The third confifta
entirely of caufals derived from verbs of the firft and
fecond conjugations. The reader will eafily guefs at the
impoffibility of profecuting this fubjed to any greater
length : we lhall therefore conclude with a few re¬
marks colle&ed from the grammar fo often mention¬
ed, which we apprehend may be more amufing, if not
more inftruding.
The Greek verbs in are formed exa&ly upoi?
the fame principle with the Shanfciit conjugations,
even in the minuteft particulars. Inftauces of this are
produced in many verbs, which from a root form a
new verb by adding the fyllable mi, and doubling
the firft confonant. This mode furnifhes another pre-
fumption of the Egyptian origin of the Shanfcrit.
Many Greeks travelled into Egypt; many Egyptian
colonies fettled in Greece. By one or other of thofe
channels the foregoing innovation might have been
introduced into the Greek language.
To form the paft tenfe, the Shanfcrit applies a fyl-
labic augment, as is done in the Greek : the future
has for us charafteriftic a letter analogous to that of
the fame tenfe in the Greek* and it omits the redu¬
plication of the firit confonant. It may be added,
that the reduplication of the firft: confonaat is not
conftantly applied to the prefent tenfe of the Shau-
feritmore than to thofe of the Greek.
The natural fimplicity and elegance of many of the
Afiatic languages are greatly debafed and corrupted
by the continual kabufe of auxiliary verbs; and this
inconvenience has evidently afferffed the Lerfian, the
Hindoftan, and the Bengal idioms.
The
Setf.vr. PHILO
Shanfcrit The infinitives of verbs in the Shanfcrit and Beng'a-
*kfeiTn kfe are always ufed as fubflantive nouns. Every
"uagcs.” body knows that the fame mode of arrangement very
y—-> often occurs in the Greek.
In the Shanfcrit language, as in the Greek, there
are forms of infinitives and of participles eomprehen-
five of time ; there ate alfo other branches of the verb
that feem to refemble the gerunds and fupines of the
Latin.
All the terms which ferve to qualify, to diftinguifh,
or to augment, enher fubjlance or adion, are claffed by
the Shanfcrit grammarians under one head ; and the
word ufed to exprefs it literally fignifies increafe or
addition. According to their arrangement, a Ample
fentence confifts of three members ; the agent, the ac¬
tion, the fubjefi : which, in a grammatical fenfe, are
reduced to two ; the ncun and the verb. They have
a particular word to fpecify fuch words as amplify
the noun which imports quality, and anfwers to our
adjeffives or epithets : Such as are applied to denote
relation or connection, are intimated by another term
icy which we may tranflate prepojition.
Shanfcrit ^’he adjeftives in Bengalefe have no diftinclion of
ani Bfnga-gender or number ; but in Shanfcrit thefe words pre-
iedives ^erv^ the diflindiion of gender, as in the Greek and
Prepcfitions are fubflitutes for cafes, which could
not have been extended to the number ncceffary for
exprcfling all the feveral relations and predicaments
in which a noun may be found, without caufing too
much embarrr.ffment in the form of a declenfion. Thofe
•re too few in the Greek language, which occaflons
much inconvenience. See feet. Greek.
T he Latin is lefs polifhed than the Greek, and of
confequence bears a much nearer rcfemblance to the
Shanfcrit, both in words, infledtions, and termina¬
tions.
The learned are now convinced that the ufe of nu¬
merical figures was firft derived from India. Indeed
the antiquity of their application in that country far
exceeds the powers of inveftigation. All the nume¬
rals in Shanfcrit have different forms for the different
genders, as in Arabic. i here appears a ttrong pro¬
bability that the European method of computation
was derived from India, as it is much the fame with
the Shanfcrit, though we think the Europeans learn¬
ed it trom the Arabians. The Bengalefe merchants
compute the largeft fums by fours ; a cullom evidently
derived from the otiginal mode of computing by the
fingers.
The Shanfcrit language, among other advantages,
has a great variety in the mode of arrangement; and
the words are io knit and compa£ted together, that
every fentence appears like one complete word. When
two or more words come together in regimine, the 1 aft
of th^m only has the termination of a cafe; the others
are known by their pofition ; and the whole fer.tence
fo connected, forms but one compound word, which is
called a foot.
Sect. VI. Of the Chinefe Language.
*°8 m •
Antiquity The Chinefe, according to the moft authentic ac •
wUhe Chi- counts, are a people of great antiquity. Their iitua-
tion was fuch, as, in the earlieft ages of the world,
U
52i*
in a great meafure fecured them from hoftile inva* Chinefe
fion. Their little commeice with the reft of man- i'anguags»
kind precluded them the knowledge of thofe improve-
ments which a mutual emulation had often generated
among other nations, who were fituated in fuch a man¬
ner, with relation to each other, as ferved to promote
a mutual intercourfe and correfpondence. As China
is a large and fertile country, producing all the necef-
faries, conveniencies, and even the luxuries of life,
its inhabitants were not under the neceflity of looking
abroad for the two former, nor expofed to the temp¬
tation of engaging in foreign commerce, in order to
procure the latter. Perfectly fatisfied with the ar¬
ticles which their own country produced, they ap¬
plied themfeives entirely to the practice of agriculture
and other arts connedted with that profcfiion ; and
their frugality, which they retain even to this day,
taught them the leffon of being contented with little:
of eonfequence, thoagh their population was almoft
incredible, the produce of their foil was abundantly
fufficient to yield them a fubliftence. Their inven¬
tions were their own ; and as they borrowed nothing
from other people, they gradually began to defpile
the reft of mankind, and, like the ancient Egyptians,
branded them with the epithet of barbarians.
Thofe people had at an early period made ama¬
zing proficiency in the mechanical arts. Their pro-
grefs in the liberal fciences, according to the latelt
and indeed the moft probable accounts, was by no
means proportioned. In mathematics, geometry, and
aftronomy, their knowledge was contemptible ; and
in ethics, or moral philofophy, the complexion of
eheir laws and cuftoms proves their fkill to have been
truly fuperficial. T hey value themfelves very highly
at prelent upon their oratorial talents ; and yet of all
languages fpoken by any civilized people, theirs is
c onfelTedly the leall improved. To what this untoward-
ly defeat is owing, the learned have not yet been able
to determine,
The language of the Chinefe is totally different Thar a!
from thofe of all other nations, and bears very ftrong£uaKe an
fignatures of an original tongue. All its words are
rncnofyllabic, and compofitions and derivations are al-
together unknow n. I heir nouns and verbs admit
of no flexions : in fhort, every thing relating to their
idioms is peculiar, and incapable ©f being compared
with any other dialed fpoken by any civilized people.
Moft barbarous languages exhibit forocthing that re-
fembles an attempt towards thofe diacritical modifica¬
tions of fpeech ; whereas the Chinefe, after a fpace
of4oco years, have not advanced one ftep beyond the
very firft elements of ideal communication. This cir-
ciumlance, we think, is a plain demonftration that
they did not emigrate from that region where the
primitive race of mankind is thought to have fixed
its refidence. Some have imagined, we believe with
good reaicn, that they are a Tartarian race, which,
breaking off from the main body of that numerous
and widely extended people, directed their march to¬
wards the fouth-eaft. There, falling in with delight¬
ful and fertile plains which their pofterity now inha¬
bit, they found themfelvcs accommodated fo much to
their liking, that they dropped all defire of changing
their habitations. The country of China is, indeed^,
fo environed with mountains, deferto, and feasr that
5 it
Sl6
PHILO
chinefc It would have been difficult for men in their primitive
Language. ftate t0 have emigrated into any of the neighbouring
region8. Thus fecluded from the reft of mankind,
the Chinefe, in all probability, were left to the ftrength
of their own inventive powers to fabricate a language,
as well as the other arts and improvements neceffary
for the fupport and convenience of life.
It is indeed obvious that their ftock of vocables,
when they emigrated from Tartary, was neither ample
nor properly accommodated to anfwer the purpofes
of the mutual conveyance of ideas. With this len¬
der ftock, however, they feem to have been fatisfied j
for it does not appear that any additions were after¬
wards made to that which was originally imported.
Inftead of framing a new race of terms by compound¬
ing their primitive ones; inftead of diverfifying them
by inflexions, or multiplying them by derivatives, as
is done in every other language ; they rather chofe to
retain their primitive words, and by a variety of mo¬
difications, introduced upon their orthography or pro¬
nunciation, to accommodate them to a variety of fig-
nifications. Were it poffible to ferutinize all the Tar¬
tarian dialeXs,and to reduce them to their primitive mo-
nofyllabic charafter, perhaps the original language of
the Chinefe might be inveftigated and afeertained. We
know that attempts have been made to compare it with
fome of the other Afiatic languages, efpecially the
Hebrew : This labour has, however, proved unfuc-
cefsful, and no primeval identity has been difeovered.
Before this comparifon could be inftituted with the
moft diftant profpeX of fuccefs, the language laft
mentioned muft be dripped of all its adventitious qua¬
lities ; and not only fo, but it muft be reduced to the
monofyllabic tone, and then contrafted with the Chi¬
nefe monofyllables ; an undertaking which we are per-
fuaded would not be readily executed. After all, we
are convinced that no refemblance of any importance
would be difeovered.
The Chiuefe language muft then, in our opinion,
have been a Tartarian dialed, as the people them-
ftlves were colonifts from Tartary. We have obferved
above, that thofe people have not hitherto found outfthe
art of compofttion of words. This is the more furpri-
fing, when we confider that, in the charaXers which
form their written language, they employ many com-
pofitions. For example, the charaXer by which they
reprefent misfortune, is compofed of one hieroglyphic
which reprefents a houfe, and another which denotes
jire; becaufe the greateft misfortune that can befal a
man is to have his houfe on fire. W ith refpeX to the
language which they ufe in fpeech, though they very
often employ many words to exprefs one thing, yet
they never run them together into one word, making
certain changes upon them that they may incorporate
the more conveniently, but always preferve them entire
and unaltered. . - ,
The whole number of words in the Cmneie lan¬
guage does not exceed 1200 : the nouns are but 326.
it muft certainly appear furprifing, that a people whofe
L O' G Y. Sea.VL
manners are fo highly polifhed and refined, fhould be Chinefe
able to exprefs fo many things as muft of neceffity ■LanS!iaoe*
attend fuch a courfe of life by fo fmall a number of '
words, and thofe too monofyllables. The difficulties
which attend this fingular mode muft be felt almoft
every inftant; circumftances which, according to the
ordinary courfe of things, fhould have induced them
to attempt both an augmentation of the number of
their words and an extenfion of thofe which they
had by compofition and derivation. We learn from
DuHalde+thattheChinefe have two different dialeXs: * ffifl.of
I ro
Procefs of
its fabrica¬
tion.
in
Paucity of
ics words
the one vulgar, which is fpoken by the vulgar, and China,
varies according to thef different provinces; the other is vo ' u*
called the Mandarin language, and is current only among
the learned. The latter is properly that which was for¬
merly fpoken at court in the province of Kiang-nan,m\
gradually fpread among the polite people in the other
provinces. Accordingly, this language is fpoken with
more elegance in the provinces adjoining to Kiang-
nan than in any other part of the kingdom. By flow
degrees it was introduced into all parts of the empire,
and confequently became the univerfal language.
It then appears that the modern language of Chi¬
na was originally the court dialeX, and utterly un¬
known to the bulk of the people. From thiscircum-
ftance we think it may fairly be concluded that this
dialeX was deemed the royal tongue, and had been
fabricated on purpofe to diftinguifh it from the vul-
gar dialeXs. We learn from Heliodorus, that the § E- ^
thiopians had a royal language which was the fame
with the facred idiom of the Egyptians. This Man¬
darin tongue was originally an artificial dialeX fabri¬
cated with a view to enhance the majefty of the court,
and to raife its very ftyle and diXion above that of the
reft of mankind. The Chinefe, a wonderfully inventive
people, might aXually contrive a language of that
complexion, with an intention to render it obfeure
and enigmatical (u). Such a plan would excite their
admiration, and would at the fame time greatly ex¬
ceed their comprehenfion. In procefs of time, when
the Chinefe empire was extended, the Mandarines "
who had been brought up at court, and underftood
nothing of the provincial dialeXs, found it conve¬
nient to have the moft eminent perfons in every pro¬
vince taught the language employed by themfelves,
in order to qualify them for tranfaXing the affairs of
government with them in a language which both
underftood. By this means the royal dialeX defeend-
ed to the vulgar, and in procefs of time became uni¬
verfal. The Tartar dialeX formerly in ufe vaniflied ;
only a few veftiges of it remained; which gradually
incorporating with the royal language, occafioned the
variation of provincial tongues above-mentioned.
We are therefore clearly of opinion, that the mo¬
dern language of the Chinefe was deduced from the
original Mandarine, or court dialeX, and that this laft
was an artificial fpeech fabricated by the fleili and inge¬
nuity of that wonderful people. The learned have long
held it up as the primary dialeX, becaufe, fay they, it
bears
(n) An attempt of this nature, among a people like the Chinefe, is by no means improbable ; nor is 11s
fuccefs iefs probable. For a proof of this, we need only have recourfc to Bilhop Wilkins s Artificial Ean
guage, and PfalmanazaFs DiXionary of the tanguage of Fcrmofa.
Sea. VI. PHILO
Chmefe bears all the fignatures of an original unimproved lan-
(Language. guage> Jn Dur opinion, nothing appears more inge-
nioufly artificial. It is univerfally allowed that, in
its ftruAure, arrangement, idioms, and phrafeology,
it refembles no other language. Is not every learned
man now convinced that all the Afiatic languages
yet known, difcover unequivocal fymptoms of their
cognation and family refemblance ? The Ethiopians,
Chaldeans, Arabians, Perfians, Egyptians, Hebrews,
Phoenicians, the Brahmans, Bengalefe, the Hindoos
bordering upon China, all fpeak only different dia¬
lers of one language, varying from the original in dia¬
led only, fome in a greater fome in a leffer degree:
why fhould the Chinefe alone ftand altogether infu-
lated and unailied i
The languages of the North all wear congenial
features. The Tartar, or Tatar diale&s of every
clan, of every canton, of every denomination, exhi¬
bit the mofl: palpable proofs of a near affinity: the
Gothic and Sclavonian dialeds, which pervade a great
part of Europe and fome parts of Afia, are obviouf-
ly brethren, and may eafily be traced up to an Afia¬
tic original. Even fome of the American jargon dia-
le&s contain vocables which indicate an Afiatic or
European original. Our readers, wc flatter ourfelves,
will agree with us, that had the language of the Chi¬
nefe been the original language, a refemblance mull
have ftill exifted between it and its defeendants. If
it had originated from any other language, it would
have retained fome charaderiftic features of its pa¬
rent archetype. As neither of thefe are to be found
in the fabric of the language under -confideration,
the concluflon mull be, that it is a language entirely
different from all other tongues ; that it is conftrud-
ed upon different principles, defeended from different
parents, and framed by different artifts.
The Chinefe themfelves have a common and imme¬
morial tradition, that their language was framed by
Tao their firft emperor, to whom they attribute the
invention of every thing curious, ufeful, and orna¬
mental. Traditional hiftory, when it is ancient, uni-
iorm, and univerfal, is generally well founded : upon
this occafion we think the tradition above-mentioned
lTa may be fairly admitted as a collateral evidence.
A proof of The paucity of vocables contained in this Angular
its artificial language, we think another preemption of its arti-
nruaure. contexture. The Chinefe Onomatheta would
find it an arduous talk to devife a great number of
new terms, and would therefore rell fatisfied with
the fmalltft number poffible. In other languages we
find the like economy was obferved. Rather than
fabricate new words, men chofe fometimes to adapt
old words to new, and, upon fome occafions, even
to contrary lignifications. To fpare themfelves the
trouble of coining new terms, they contrived to join
feveral old ones into one; whence arofe a numerous
race of compounds. Derivatives too were fabricated
to anfwer the fame purpofe. By this procefs, inftead
of creating new vocables, old ones were compounded,
diverfified, defleaed, ramified, metamorphofed, and
tortured into a thoufand different lhapes.
The Greek is defervedly efteemed a rich and copious
language ; its radical words have been curioufly traced
by feveral learned men, who, after the moft laborious
jmd exad ferutiny, have found that they do not amount
LOGY.
5*7
to more than 300. The Shsnfcnt language is highly Chinefe
compounded ; its radical terms, however, are very few Banguag*.
in number. Upon the whole, we think we may con- w’^v J
elude, that the more any language abounds in com¬
pounds and derivatives, the fmaller will be the num¬
ber of its radical terms. The Arabic admits of no
compofition, and of confequence its words have been
multiplied almoft in infinitum ; the Shanfcrit, the Per-
fian, and the Greek, abound with compounds, and we
find their radicals are few in proportion.
There are, we think, three different methods which Three dif.
may be employed in order to enrich and extend the ferent me-
range of a language, ill, By fabricating a multitude t!.lods of en”
of words; the plan which has been purfued by the>e
Arabs. 2d, By framing a multitude of compounds^ ^
and derivatives ; the artifice employed by the Greeks
and the authors of the Shanferit. 3d, By varying
the fignification of words without enlarging their num¬
ber ; the method pra&ifed by the Chkefe and their
colon ills. The^ Arabians, we think, h*ve Ihown the
moft fertile and inventive genius, fince they have enrich¬
ed their language by aftually creating a new and a moft
numerous race of words. The fabricators of the
Shanfcrit and the colle&ors of the Greek have exhi¬
bited art, but comparatively little fertility of genius.
Leaving, therefore, the Arabians, as in juftice we
ought, matters of the field in the conteft relating to
the formation of language, we may range the Greek
and Shanfcrit on the one fide, and the Chinefe on
the other; and having made this arrangement, we
may attempt to difcover on which fide the largeft
proportion of genius and invention feems to reft.
The Greek and Shanfcrit (for we have fele&ed
them as moft highly compounded) exhibit a great
deal of art in modifying, arranging, and diverfifying
their compounds and derivatives, in fuch a manner as
to qualify them for intimating complex ideas ; but rr4
the Chinefe have performed the fame office by the helpThat *-
of a race of monofyllabic notes, fimple, inflexible, inva d,optpd b*
riable, and at the fame time few in number. The ndb1’
queftion then comes to be, whether more art is dif.
played in new-modelling old words by means of de-
clenfions, conjugations, compounds, and derivatives ;
or by devifing a plan according to which monofylla-
bic radical terms, abfolutely invariable, ffiould, by a
particular modification of found, anfwer all the pur-
pofes performed by the other. The latter appears to
us much more ingenioufiy artificial. The former re¬
fembles a complicated machine compofed of a vaft
number of parts, congenial indeed, but loofely con-
ne&ed ; the latter may be compared to a fimple, uni -
form engine, eafily managed, and all its parts proper¬
ly adjufled. Let us now fee in what manner the
people in queftion managed their monofyllabic notes,
fo as to qualify them for anfwering all the purpofes of
fpeech.
Though the number of words in the Chinefe lan¬
guage does not amount to above 1200 ; yet that fmali
number of vocables, by their artificial management,
is fufficient to enable them to exprefs themfelfes with
cafe and perfpicuity upon every fubje&. Without
multiplying words, the fcnfe is varied almoft in infinitum
by the variety of the accents, infkaions, tones, afpi-
rations, and other changes of the voice and enuncia¬
tion j circumftances which make thofe who do not
^ thoroughly
.jsS P H 1 L O
Chinefc thorouglily nn<3crftand the language frequently mtf-
Language. tajte one word for another. This will appear obvious
by an example. r
The word teov pronounced flowly, drawing out the
v and railing the voice, fignifies a /oni or majer. It
it is pronounced with an even tone, lengthening the v,
it fignifies a bos;. When it is pronounced quick and
lightly, it imports a kitchen. If it be pronounced in a
ft long and mafeuline tone, growing weaker towards
the end, it fignifies a column.
By the fame economy, the fyllable po> according to
the various accents, and the different modes of pro¬
nunciation, has eleven different fignifications.^ It fig¬
nifies giafsy to boil, to 'luinnonv rice, wife or liberal, to
prepare, an old woman, to break or cleave, inclined, a
very little, to water, a Jlave or captive. From thefe
examples, and from almoft numberlefs others which
might be adduced, it is abundantly evident that this
language, which at tir'd light appears fo poor and
confined, in confequence of the fmall number of the
monofyllables of which it is compofed, is notwithftand-
ing very copious, rich, and exprefiive.
Again, the fame word joined to various ethers, im¬
ports a great many different things ; for example mou,
when alone, fignifies a tree, wood; but when joined
with another word, it has many other fignifications.
Mou leoo, imports “ wood prepared for building
mou lan, is ‘‘ bars, or wooden grates mou bia, “ a
box mou fang, “ a cheft of drawers mou tfiang,
“ a carpenter;” mou tul, “ a mufhroom;” mou nu, “ a
fort of fmall orange;” mou fing, “the planet Jupi¬
ter mou mien, “ cotton,” &c. This word may be
joined to fcveral others, and has as many different
'fignifications as it has different combinations.
Thus the Chinefe, by a different arrangement of
fheir monofyllables, can compofe a regular and ele¬
gant difeourfe, and communicate their ideas with encr-
gy and precifion ; nay even w-ith gracefulnefs and pro¬
priety. In thefe qualities they are not excelled either
by the Europeans or Aliatics, who ufe alphabetical
letters. In fine, the Chinefe fo naturally ditlinguifh
the tones of the fame monofyliable, that they com¬
prehend the lenfe of it, without making the lealt re¬
flexion on the various accents by which it is deter¬
mined.
y5 We muft not, however, imagine, as fome authors
Ssof this0 have related, that tbofe people cant in fpeaking, and
method on make a fort of rmific which is very difagreeable to the
pronuncia- ear j thefe different tones are pronounced fo curioufly,
li°n- that even ftrangers find it difficult to perceive their dif¬
ference even in the province of Kiang-nan, where the
accent is more pertedt than in any other. Fhe nature
•of it may be conceived by the guttural pronunciation
in the Spaniffi language, and by the different tones thtft
are ufed in the French and Italian: thefe tones are
/ almoft imperceptible; they have, however, different
meanings, a circtimftance which gave rife to the pro¬
verb, that the tone is all.
If the finenefs and delicacy of'their tones are oich
as to be fcarce perceptible to a Granger, we muft fup-
pofe that thev do not rife high, but only by fmall in¬
tervals ; fo that the mufic of their language mutt
fomewhat referable the mufic of the bird#, which is
within a fn all compafs, but nevevthelefs of great va¬
riety of notes. Hence It will follow, that ftrangers
LOGY. Sea. VI.
will find it very difficult, if not impoffible, to le^rn Chinefe
this language ; more efpecialiy if they have not a de-
llcate ear and a flexible voice, and alfo much praXice. v
The great difference then between the Chinefe and
Greek accents confifts in this, that the Greeks had
but two accents, the grave and acute, diftinguifhed by
a large interval, and that not very exadly marked :
for the acute, though it never rifes above a fifth high¬
er than the grave, did not always rife fo high, but
was fometimes pitched lower according to the voice
of the fpeaker. The Chinefe muft have many more ac¬
cents, and the intervals between them muft be much
fmaller, and much more carefully marked; for otherwife
it would be impoffible to diftinguiffi them. At the fame
time, their language muft be much more mufical than
the Greek, and perhaps more fo than any language
ought to be ; but this becomes neceffary for the pur-
pofes above-mentioned. Eu HalJe is pofitive, that
notwithftanding the perpetual variation of accents in
the Chinefe tongue, and the almbft imperceptible in¬
tervals between thefe tones, their enunciation does not
referable finding ; many people, however, who have
refided in China, are equally pofitive that the tone
with which they utter their words does aXually re-
femble canting; and this, when we confider the almoft
imperceptible intervals by which they .are perpetually
railing and lowering the tone of their voice, appears to
lis highly probable.
As the people of whofe language we are treating at
prefent communicate a variety of different figniftca-
tions to their monofyllabic words by their different
accentuation, fo they employ quantity for the very
fame purpofe. By lengthening or ffiortening the
vowels of their words, they employ them to fignify
very different things. The fame they perform by gi¬
ving their words different afpirations, as likewife by
founding them with different degrees of roughnefs and
fmoothuefs ; and even fometimes by the different mo¬
tion, pofture, or attitude, with which their enuncia¬
tion is accompanied. By thefe methods of diverfify-
ing their monofyllables (fays Du Halde), they make
330 of them ferve all the purpofes of language, and
tbefe too not much varied in their termination ; lince
all the words in that language either terminate with a
vowel or with the confonant n, fometimes with the
confonant g annexed.
From this account, we think it is evident that the
Chinefe, by a wonderful exertion of ingenuity, do,
by different tones and profodical modifications, by
means of a very inconfiderable number of words, all in¬
variable radicals, aXually perform all that the moft
polifhed nations have been able to^ atchieve by their
compounds, derivatives. See. diverfified by declenfions,
conjugations, and flexions of every kind ; circum-
ftances which, in our opinion, refleX the greateft ho¬
nour on their inventive powers. ti6
With refpeX to the grammar of this language, as Grammar
it admits of no flexions, ail their words being iildecli-of theChi-
nable, their cafes and tenfes are all formed by parti-nec*
dcs. They have no idea of genders ; and even the
diftinXion of numbers, which in almoft all other lan¬
guages, even the moft unimproved, is marked by a
particular word, is in the Chinefe only indicated by a
p.article. They have only the three Ample tenfen,
naroelv, the paft, prefent, and future; and for want of
different
Sca.Vt. . p H I L
Chinefe diiiercnt fccrmir.ationo, tlie fame word ftnnds either for
language, the verb or the verb's! fubfb.ntive, the adjeftive or the
fubftantive derived from it, according to its pofition in
the fentence. '
Phe Chinefe language being compofed of monofyl-
Jables, and thefe indeclinable, can fcarce he reduced to
grammatical rules : we fhall, however, attempt to lay
before our readers as much of the texture of that An¬
gular dialect as may enable them to form feme vague
idea of its genius and Conftitution. We fhall begin
with the letters, and proceed regularly to the remain-
_ir7 ing parts as they naturally fucceed each other.
letters or ^ art Chinefe monofyllables toge-
eharai5hers ^er js extremely difficult, and requires a very long and
laborious courfe of Itudy.' As they have only figures
by which they can exprefs their thoughts, and have no
accents in writing to vary the pronunciation, they are
obliged to employ as many different figures or charac¬
ters as there are different tones, which give fo many
different figmficatior.s to the fame word. Befides, fome
Angle ch&ra&ers fignity two or three words, and fome-
times even a whole period. For example, to write
thefe words, good morrow. Sir, inftead of joining the
characters which fignify good and morrow with that
of Sir, a different chara&er muft be ufed, and thischa-
ra&er alone expreffes thefe three words. This cir-
cumfiance greatly contributes to multiply the Chinefe
cha rafters.
Phis method of jorning the monofyllables is indeed
fufficient for writing fo as to be underftood ; but it is
deemed trifling, and is ufed only by the vulgar. The
ftyle that is employed, in order to fhine in compofi-
tion, is quite different from that which is ufed in con-
verfation, though the words are in reality the fame.
Jn writings of that fpecies, a man of letters muft ufe
more elegant phrafes, more lofty expreffions, and the
whole muft be dignified with tropes and figures which
are not in general ufe, but in a peculiar manner adapt-
ed to the nature of the fubjeCft in queftion. The cha-
raffers of Cochin china, of long-king, of Japan, are
the fame with thofe of the Chinefe, and fignify the
fame things ; though, in fpeaking, thefe nations do not
exprefs thcmfelves in the fame manner: of confe-
quence the language of converfation is very different,
and they are not able to underftand each other; while,*
at the fame time, they underftand each other’s written
language, and life all their books in common.
The learned muft not only be acquainted with the
characters that are employed in the common affairs of
life, but muft alfo underftand their various combina¬
tions, and the numerous and multiform difpofitions and
arrangements which of feveral Ample ftrokes make the
n? compound characters. The number of their charac-
ters sn™unt«to So,coo ; and the man who knows the
greateft number ot them is of courfe the moft learned.
Prom this circumftance wre may conclude, that many
yeats muft be employed to acquire the knowledge of
ftich a prodigious number of characters, to diftinguifh
them when they are compounded, and to remember
their fhape and import. After all, a perfon who un-
derftands 10,000 characters may exprefs himfelf with
tolerable propriety in this language, and may be able
to read and underftand a great number of books. The
generality of their learned men do not underftand above
A§,ooo or 2o,coo, and few of their doCtors have at-
Vov. XIV. Part II.
iy name
WHIS,
o L O G Y. • 52l)
tamed to the knowledge of above 40,000. This pro- Chinefe
digious number of characters is collected in their great
vocabulary called Hai-pien. They have radical letters, "' 11
which fhow the origin of words, and enable them to find
out thofe which are derived from them: for fnftance, the
characters of mountains, of trees, man, the earth, of a
borfe, under which muft be fought all that belongs to
mountains, trees, man, &c. In this feareh one muft
learn to diftinguifh in every word thofe ftrokes or fi¬
gures which are above, beneath, on the files, or in the
body of the radical figure.
Clemens Alexandrinus (fee Se&ion Chaldean, &c.)
informs us, that the Egyptians employed three forts
of characters: The firft was called the epiftolary, which
was ufed in writing letters; the fecond was "denomi¬
nated yirm/, and peculiar to the facerdotal order ; the
laft hieroglyphical, which was appropriated to monu¬
mental inferiptions and other public memorials. This
mode of reprefentation was twofold: one, and the
moft fimple, was performed by deferibing the picture
of the objeCt which they intended to reprefent, or at
leaft one that refembled it pretty nearly; as when they #
exhibited the fun by a circle and the moon by a cre-
feent : the other was properly fymbolic; as when
they marked eternity by a ferpent with his tail in his
mouth, the air by a man clothed in an azure robe
ftudded with ftars, &c.
Fhe Chinefe, in all probability, had the fame variety
of charafters. In the beginning of their monarchy,
they communicated their ideas by drawing on paper
the images of the objeCts they intended to exprefs j
that is, they drew the figure of a bird, a mountain, a
tree, waving lines, to indicate birds, mountains, fo-
refts, rivers, &c.
There were, however, an infinite number of ideas to
be communicated, whofe objefts do not fall under the
cognizance of the fenfes; fuch as the foul, the thoughts,
the paffions, beauty, deformity, virtues, vices, the ac¬
tions of men and other animals, &c. This inconve¬
nience obliged them to alter their original mode of
writing, which was too confined to anfwer that pur-
pofe, and to introduce charaCfers of a more fimple na¬
ture, and to invent other s to exprefs thofe things which
are the objeCts of our fenfes.
Thefe modern charafters are, however, truly hfero- Ard muly
glyphical, fince they are compofed of fimple lettershierogly-
which retain the fignification of the primitive charac-Phical*
ters. '1 he original charaCler for the fun was a circle,
thus O ; this they called ga : They now reprefent
that luminary by the figure Q, to which they ftill
give the original name. But human inftitutions ha¬
ving annexed to thefe laft framed charaders the very
fame ideas indicated by the original ones, the confe-
quence is, that every Chinefe letter is adually fignifi-
canv, and that it ftill retains its fignificancy, though
conneded with others. Accordingly the word tfai,
which imports “ misfortune, calamity,” is compoied*
of the letter mien “ a houfe,” and the letter ho u fire;”
fo that the fymbolical charader for misfortune is the
figure of a houfe on fire. The Chinefe charaders,
then, are not fimple letters without any fignification
like thofe of the Europeans and other Afiatics; but
when they are joined together, they are fo many hie-
roglyphics, which form images and exprefs thoughts.
Upon the whole, the original charaders of the Chi-
3 X nefc
5 3©
Chinefe
Language.
120
Peculiari¬
ties of the
Chinefe
pares of
£4 eech.
I2l
Their nu¬
merals.
PHILO
nefe were real pi&ures (fee Seftion of the Egyptian
language) ; the next improvement was the fymbolical
charaAer; the third and lull ftage is the prefent mode,
in which artificial figns have been fabricated, in order
to reprefent fuch thoughts or ideas as could not,be re-
prefented by one or other of the methods above de¬
scribed. Du Halde, Vol. II. p. 400, et feq. has fur-
nilhed us with rules for pronouncing the Chinefe vowels
and confonants; a piece of information which, we
apprehend, would be of little confequenCe to our read¬
ers, and which we fhall therefore pafs over, and pro¬
ceed to give a brief account of their grammar. As
the whole language is compofed of mdhofyllables, and
thefe indeclinable, its grammatical ftrufture mutt, be
fimple and obvious : we. fir dl only mention what to us
appears frn;ular and important.
In the Chinefe language there is no diverfity of ren¬
ders or cafes, and of confequence no declenfions. Very
often the noun is not diftinguiflied from the verb;
and the fame word which in one fituation is a fubftan-
tive, in another may become an adjeftive, and even a
verb. , r a •
The adje&ive always goes before the fubitantive ;
but if it follows it, it becomes a fubftantive.
Ti e cafes and numbers are known only by the com-
pofition. The plural number is diftingnifhed by the
particle men, which is common to all nouns ; but
when the noun is preceded by fome word that figni-
fies number, the particle men is not annexed.
The Chinefe genitive, both fingular and plural, when
it comes after nouns, is often made by ti ; and there is
no other cafe in that language. The fame particle is
fometimes placed after pronouns, as if they were deri¬
vatives.^ > . ,
The comparative degree is formed by adding the
particle keng, which is always fet before the noun, and
fignifies much. The particle to is fometimes ufed, which
likewife imports much.
The Chinefe have only three perfonal pronouns,
nqo I,” ni “ thou,” and ta “he:” thefe become plu¬
ral by adding the fyllable men. They are made pof-
fefiive by adding the fyllable ti, as nqo ti “ mine,” nt ti
“thine,” ta ti “ his.” The patronymics are form¬
ed by putting the name of the city, country, &c. after
the pronoun : chon is the pronoun-rehtive who, what,
•which. r 1
Chinefe verbs have only three tenfes, the-pretei-
perfeft, the prefent, and the future. When there is
no particle added to the verb, it is the prefent: the
preterperfeA is made by adding the particle leao :
to diftinguifh the future tenfe they ufe the particle
tfiang or hoei; and thefe are all the varieties incident
to their verbs.
The Chinefe language has no words that are pro-
•nerly adverbs ; they only become fo by cuilom, or by
the place they poffefs in difeourfe. They are often
obliged to employ feveral words to exprefs the adverbs
of other languages: they have none that are demon-
ftrative, or proper for calling or exhorting; but in their
ftead they are obliged to ufe nouns and verbs.
Perhaps our readers may wifh to know the Cbineie
numerals; and may imagine that they bear a re^m-
blance to thofe of the European or other Afiatic dia-
kfts. In this, however, they will be difappointed.
LOGY. Sea. VI.
They Hand as follows; T ch;r‘Gfe
* Language,
Y One WM-y——<
fiut Two
San Three
Sacc Four
Ou Five
Lou Six
Lfi Seven
Po Eight
Kieou Nine
Che Ten
Che y Eleven
Eut che Twelve
San che Thirteen
pe One hundred
Eut pe Two hundred
7 tfien One thoufand
Y ouan Ten tlioufand
Che ouan Twenty thoufand
Eut ouan One hundred thoufand
Che ouan Two hundred thoufand
Ype ouan One million. *
There are a great many particles proper to numbere
in the Chinefe language: they are frequently ufed,
and in a way peculiar to it ; for every numeral has a
particle importing the objeft to which it is attached.
Thus co is ufed for man, and j co for a woman, &c.
hoei is ufed for illuftrious men ; tche or tchi is ufed for
(hips, dogs, hens; mey is ufed for pearls and precious
things ; pen is ufed for books ; teng is appropriated to
oxen and cows; too is ufed for letters and little bun¬
dles of paper; co is employed for corn and puife.
Thofe diftinAions indicate a language manufaAurcd on
purpofe to be employed by people who were too high
and too haughty to converfe with the vulgar. I2i
The (lyle of the Chinefe, in their elaborate compo-style of the
fitions, is myfterious, concife, and allegorical, alter Chinefe
the eaftern manner. It is often obteure to thofe who V,ritv'rs*
do not underftand the language thoroughly ; and it
requires a confiderable degree of (kill to avoid miftakes
in reading an author of elegance and fubhmity. Their
writers exprefs a great deal in few words ; and their
expreflions are lively, full of fpirit, intermingled with
bold comparifons and lofty metaphors. They affeA to
infert in their compofitions many fentences borrowed
from their five canonical books ; and as they compare
their books to piAures, fo they liken thefe_ quotations
to the five principal colours employed in painting; and
in this their eloquence chiefly confifts.
They prefer a beautiful charaAer to the moft finifh-
ed piAure ; and nothing is more common than to fee
a Angle page covered with old charaAers, if they hap¬
pen to be fair and elegant, fold at a very high price.
They honour their charaAers in the moft common
books ; and when they happen to light by chance up¬
on a printed leaf, they gather it up with the gieateft
care and refpeA. ,
In China there are three varieties 01 language; that
of the common people, that of the people of fafhion,
and that employed in writing books. Though the
firft is not fo elegant as either of the other two, it is
not however inferior to our European languages ;
though thofe who are but fuperficially acquainted wuh
Sea. VI. PHILO
Chinefa the Chinefe may, in facl, imagine it uncouth and bar-.
Language. b3r0ug> This low and rude language is pronounced
v and written many different ways, as is generally the
cafe in other countries.
But a more polifhed, and at the fame time a much
more energetic, language, is employed in an almolt in¬
finite number of novels ; fome perhaps true, but many
more the vehicles of fi&ion. Thefe are replete with
lively deferiptions, charafters highly finifhed, morality,
variety, wit, and vivacity, in fuch'a degree as to equal
in purity and politenefs the moft celebrated authors of
Europe. This was the language of the Mandarines;
and though exquifitely beautiful in its kind, was ftill
inferior to the language of books. This Uft might be
ftyled the hyperfub/ime; and of this there are feveral
degrees and intervals before an author can arrive at
what they call the language of the kings. This mode
of writing cannot be well underltood without looking
upon the letters; but when underftood, it appears eafy
and flowing. Each thought is generally expreffed in
four or fix chara&ers : nothing occurs that can offend
the niceft ear ; and the variety of the accents with
which it is pronounced produces a foft and harmonious
found.
The diff rence between the king and their other
books confifls in the difference of the fubjefts upon
which they are written. Thofe of the former are
always grand and fublime, and of courfe the ftyle
is noble and elevated : thofe of the latter approach
nearer to the common affairs and events of life, and
are of confequence detailed in the Mandarin tongue.
In writing on fublime fubje&s no pun&uations are
ufed. As thefe compofitions are intended for the
learned only, the author leaves to the reader to de¬
termine where the fenfe is complete ; and thofe who
are well/killed in the language readily find it out.
The copioufnefs of the Chinefe language is in a
great meafure owing to the multitude of its charadters.
It is likewife occafioned, in fome degree, by the diffe¬
rence of their fignification, as alfo by the artificial
method of their conjunction, which is performed moft
commonly by uniting them two and two, frequently
three and three, and fometimes four and four.
Their books are very numerous and bulky, and of
courfe exceedingly cumbrous. A diftionary of their
language was compiled in this century. It confifted of
95 large volumes. An appendix was annexed of 25 vo¬
lumes. Their other books are voluminous in propor¬
tion. The Chinefe, one may fay, are a nation of
learned men. Few people of rank negledt the belles
lettres; for ignorance in a man of any degree of
eminence is deemed an indelible ftain on his charac-
LOGY. s3,
raerce with them than to receive their homage. They Chinefe
were indeed, at a very early period, hiVhlv revered language,
by the Indians, Perfians, and Tartars. ° In nonfe.
124
M3
Their
hooks nu¬
merous and
bulky.
ter.
For their manner of writing, the implements with
which they write, and the materials upon which they
draw their characters, we muft remit" our readers to
the article Writing. It would, we believe, afford our
readers fome pleafure, could we difeover and explain
the reufons which have hitherto prevented the Chi¬
nefe from adopting the letters employed from time im¬
memorial by the other nations of Europe and Alia.
The Chinefe have ever looked upon themfelves as
greatly fuperior to the reft of mankind. In ancient
times they entertained fuch contemptible notions of
foreigners, that they fcorned to have any further com-
Indians
quence of this veneration, they looked upon them- obflades
felves as the favourites of heaven. They imagined to their im
they were fituated in the middle of the earth, in ptovemeuc
a kind of paradife, in order to give laws to the reft 0finfcffnce
mankind. Other men they looked upon with con - turV'^^
tempt and difdain, and deemed them deformed in body ^
and defective in mind, call out into the remote cor¬
ners of the world as the drofs and refufe of nature.
They boafted that themfelves only had received from
God rational fouls and beautiful bodies, in order to ♦
qualify them for being fovereigns of the fpecies:
Such are the fentiments of the Chinefe; and with
fuch fentiments it is by no means furprifing that their
improvements in language, in writing, and other appen¬
dages of the belles lettres, have not been proportioned
to their progrefs in mechanics. When people are once
fully perfuaded that they have already arrived at the
fummit of perfection, it is natural for them to fie down
contented, and folace themfelves with the idea of their
own fuperior attainments. The Chinefe had early en¬
tertained an exalted opinion of their own fuperiority
to the reft of mankind ; and therefore imagined that
they had already carried their inventions to the neplut
ultra of perfection ; the confequence was, that they
could make no exertions to carry them higher.
Fhe Chinefe, for the fpace of 3000 years, had al-
moft no intercourfe with the reft'of mankind. This
was the confequence of their infulated fituation.—.
They, of courfe, compared themfelves with them felves ;
and finding that they excelled all their barbarian neigh¬
bours, they readily entertained an opinion that they
excelled all the reft of mankind in an equal propor¬
tion. _ This conceit at once ftifled the emotions of
ambition, and deprived them of all opportunities of
learning what was going forward in other parts of the
world.
. Th«y defpifed every other nation. People are little
difpofed to imitate thofe whom they defpffe; and
this perhaps may be one reafon why they are at
this day fo averfe from adopting the European inven¬
tions.
A fuperftltioitt attachment to the cuftoms of the
ancients, is the general charaefter of the Afiatic nations.
This is evidently a kind of diacritical feature among
the Chinefe. 1 he inftitutions of Fohi are looked up
to among them with equal veneration as thofe of
Thoth were among the Egyptians. Among the lat- -
ter, there was a law which made it capital to intro¬
duce any innovation into the mufic, painting, or ft?.-
tuary art, inftituted by that legiflator. We hear of
no fuch law among the former ; but cuftora eftablilh-
ed, and that invariably, for a fpace of 3000 years,
might operate as forcibly among them as a pofitive
law did among the people firft mentioned. An at¬
tachment to ancient cuftoms is often more powerful
and more coercive than any law that can be'promul¬
gated and enforced by mere human authority. Thefe
reafons, we think, may beafiigned as the impediments
to the progrefs of the Chinefe in the belies lettres,
and perhaps in the cultivation of the other fcienecs.
Though the language of the Chinefe is confeffedly
different from all the other known languages in its
3 ^ 2 , chsu
532 P H I L O L O G Y. Sea. VIL
Chinefe chara&er and conftru£lion, it contains, however, a Sim, or Sing, “ a confteliation, a ftar, an element;” Greek
Language. great number of words evidently of the fame origin Hebrew,^™ ; Greek, <r»,«s<ov, o-n^a ; Latin, Jigtmm. Lan^ll2ae;
K-~~v- w;th thofe which occur in other dialects, ufed by peo- Sie, “a man of learning;” Goth. Sax. Engl. “ fee;
Chiuctc ple w^°» according to the natural courfe of things, to fee, feer.” v
words could never have been connected with chat remote Cem, “ a prieft ;” Hebr. cohen ; Syr. con ; Egypt.
found in country. A few of thofe we {hall produce before we
various o- conGlude this fe&ion. We (hail begin with the im-
therlan- - , “
guages. Port t‘ie name G/wzfl.
China, or, as the orientals write it, Sin, is perhaps
the Latinfmus, “ the boforn, the heart, the middle.”
The Chinefe aftually imagine that their country is
fituated in the very middle of the earth, and of con-
fequence call it Cham, “ the middle, the heart;” a de¬
nomination which exactly fuits their opinion.
Tu, in Chinefe, intimates every thing that falls
under the cognizance of the fenfes, every thing that
ftrikes the fight; in Latin, tueor.
Ta, a table, a plank, a figure that renders every
thing fenfible : 2. To fee, to look upon, to appear ;
Greek Tx»t>, whence mvo, tendo.
Tue, to examine attentively, to infpeft carefully.
Tui, the molt apparent, chief, principal, fidl ; 2.
Lightning, thunder.
Teu, a fign by which to know one, letter of ac¬
knowledgment. All thefe ideas are contained in the
Hebrew ‘'n, thu,ftgnum, which we believe has produced
the Egyptian theuth, the god or godlike man who in¬
vented letters, geometry, mufic, attronomy, &c.
Tai, a dye, a theatre; Greek of old then
© sco^ai, “ to fee, to look.”
tTnm, Latin tantum, “ fo much.”
Tan, land, country, region, a fyliable annexed to
the end of a great number of words. Aqui tan, Aqui-
tania, “ a land of water;” Mauri tan, Mauritania, “ the
land of the Moors.” The .orientals prefix s, whence
FarjiJlan, Farfijlan, “ the land or country of the Per-
fians Chuft Jlan, Chhjijian, “ the country of Chuz;”
TurqueJlan, Turquejlan, “ the land of the Turks.”
. Ti, a chief, an emperor, a title of dignity; whence
the Greek “ to honour ;” hence, too, the word di,
“ bright, glorious;” whence “Jupiter, “ di¬
vine the Latin Dius, now Dcus, “ God”, and Di-
vui, with the digamma ALolicum inferted ; the Cel¬
tic Dhia, &c. It fignified originally “ bright, glo¬
rious,” and was an epithet of the Sun.
Turn, Latin tumeo, “ to fwell.”
L'men, “ to love ;” Hebrew ab, kb, “ the heart;”
Latin, Tibet. This word pervades all the dialefts of
the Gothic tongue, ftill retaining either the fame or a
nearly analogous figniftcation.
Li, “ letters;” Latin, lino, “ to daub,” as the Chi¬
nefe a&ually do in forming their letters..
Lo, “ to contain, that which containsCeltic,
log; French, loge, logis, loger.
Lim, “ a rule;” hence Latin, Tinea, “ a line.”
Su, “with ;” Greek, <r»>, “ with;” Celtic, ryn, cy"*;
whence Latin, cum, con, &c.
Xim, “ very high, elevated, facred, perfca La¬
tin, cximius.
Sin, “ the heartPerfian, Sin, “ the heart.”
Sien, “ chief, firft ;” Celtic, can, cean, fan, “ the
head ;” metaphorically, the chief, the firit, the prin¬
cipal; Thibet, ^ fen, or hen, “ great, elevated A-
Vid^c,fame, “ to be elevated or raifed.”
can, cun.
Sfuin, “ a king ; Celtic, hen, lend, “ head, chief
Gothic, koanig; Germ. Flem. Eng. king, alfo queen.
Hu, “a door;” Goth. Germ. Engl, bus, haufen,
houje.
Min, “ a river;” Welch, men, “ the water of a ri¬
ver ;” Latin, mano, “ to flow,” and perhaps amoenus,
“ pleafant.”
Hen, “ hatred;” Greek, “ cruel, horrible, odi¬
ous.”
Kiven, “ a dog ;” Greek id.
Fen, “beauty;” Latin, Venus, venujlas; Iceland.
Swed. oven, “ pleafant;” Scotch, nvinfome.
Han, “ the foul, breath ;” Greek, ; Latin,
anima, animus.
To thefe inftances of the analogy between the Chi¬
nefe language and thofe of the other people of Afia
and Europe many more might be added ; but the
preceding, it is hoped, will ferve as a fpecimen, which
is all that can be expected from an inquiry of the na¬
ture of the prefent.
Sect. VII. Of the Greek Language.
126
Before we enter upon the confideracion of the ef- Origin of
fential and conllituent parts of this noble language, thejGrecks*
we mult beg leave to fettle a few preliminaries, which,
we truit, will ferve to throw fome light upon many
points which may come under confideration in the
courfe of the following difquifition.
The Greeks, according to the moll authentic ac¬
counts, were defcended of Javan or Jon, the fourth
fon of Japhet, the eideft fon of the patriarch Noah.
The Sciiptures of old, and all the orientals to this
day, call the Greeks Jonhn, or Jaunam, or Javenoth*
We have already obferved, in the beginning of the ar¬
ticle concerning the Hebrew language, that only a
few of the defcendants of Ham, and the molt profli¬
gate of the potterity of Shem and Japhet, were con¬
cerned in building the tower of Babel. We {hall not
now refume the arguments then collected in fupport of
that pofltion ; but proceed to inveftigate the charac¬
ter of that branch of the poflerity of Javan which in¬
habited Greece and the neighbouring regions.
At what period the colonifts arrived in thefe parts
cannot be certainly determined ; nor is it of great im¬
portance in the queftion before us. That they car¬
ried along with them into their new fettlements the
language of Noah and his family, is, we think, a point
that cannot be controverted. We have endeavoured
to prove that the Hebrew, or at leaft one or other of
its fifter-dialedts, was the primaeval language of man¬
kind. The Hebrew, then, or one of its cognate
branches, was the original dialedt of the Jonira or
Greeks.
Be that as it may, before thefe people make their
appearance in protane hiftory, their language deviate&
very widely from this original archetype. By what
means, at what period, and in what length of time
7 . this
Sefl. VII. PHIL
Greek this change was introduced, is, we believe, a matter
l-rtogua^e. not eafy to elucidated. That it was progreffive, is
abundantly certain both from the rules of analogy and
reafon.
The colonies, which traverfed a large tra<?t of coun¬
try before they arrived at their deitined fetdements,
ir.uft have ftruggled with numberlefs difficulties in the
courfe of their peregrinations. The earth, during the
periods which immediately fucceeded the univerfal de¬
luge, muft have been covered with forefts, interfered
with fwamps, lakes, rivers, and numberlefs other im¬
pediments. As the neceffaries, and a few of the con¬
veniences of life, will always engrofs the iirft cares of
mankind, the procuring of thefe comforts will, of
neceffity, exclude all concern about arts and fcienccs
which are unconne&ed with thefe purfuits. Hence
we. think it probable, that mofi of thofe colonies
which migrated to a very great diltance from the
plains of Shinar, which we believe to have been the
original feat of mankind, in a great meafure negledhed
the practice of the polite but unneceffiiry modes of ci¬
vilization which their anceftors were acquainted with,
and pradfiftd before the era of their migration: Cer¬
tain it is, that thofe nations which continued to refide
in the neighbourhood of that centre of civilization,
always appear in a cultivated Hate; while, at the fame
Who were tl'me’t^eco^on‘ft8 who removedtoa confiderable diftance
long a ba- aPPear to have funk into barbarifm, at a period more
rous peo- early than the annals of profane hiftory can reach.—
pie* his appears to have been the fituation«of the primary
inhabitants of Greece. Their own hiftonans, the
moft partial to their own countrymen that can well
be imagined, exhibit a very unpromifing picture of their
earlieft progenitors. Diodorus Siculus, in delineating
the charafter of the original men, we believe fketch-
\Ub. i. es his draught from the firft inhabitants of Greece
He reprefents them as abfolute favages, going out
in fmall parties to make war upon the wild beads of the
field, which (according to him) kept them in conti¬
nual alarm. “ Neceffity obliged them to band toge¬
ther for their mutual fecurity ; they had not fagacity
enough to difbnguiffi between the wholtfome and poi-
fonous vegetables ; nor had they {kill enough to lay
up and preferve the fruits of autumn for their fubfift-
Python,
Ode 4*
ence during the winter.” The fcholiaft on Pindar
deferibes the fituation of the inhabitants of Pelopon-
nefus in the following manner ||. “ Now fome have
affirmed that the nymphs, who officiated in perform¬
ing the facred rites, were called MeliJlte. Of thefe
Mnafeas of Patara gives the following account. They
prevailed upon men to relinquiffi the abominable prac¬
tice of eating raw fieffi torn from living animals, and
perfuaded them to ufe the fruits of trees for food.—
Pr r f ^■e^a’ one them, having difeovered bee-hives, ate
theifdvi-1 ^ honey-combs, mingled the honey with water
iization. ^or ^n'nh., and taught the other nymphs to ufe the
fame beverage. She called bees from
her own name, and beftpwed much care on the ma¬
nagement of them.
“ Thefe things (fays he) happened in Peloponne-
fus; nor is the temple of Ceres honoured without
Jl8
O L ' O G Y. sn
nymphs, becaufe they firft pointed out the mode of Greek
living on the fruits of the earth, and put an end to ^anhruage-j
the barbarous praftice of feeding on human fleffi. The u, v
fame ladies, too, from a fenfe of decency, invented gar¬
ments made of the bark of trees.”
Hecatseus the Milelian, treating of the Pelopon-
nefians, affirms*, “that before the arrival of the * Sirabo,
Hellenes, a race of barbarians inhabited that region ;^,J* 7*
and that almoft all Greece was, in ancient times, in¬
habited by barbarians f. In the earlieft times (fays f M lib. r>
Paufaniaa) (o) barbarians inhabited moft part of the
country called Hellas.” The original Greeks, if we
may believe an author of deep refearch and fuperior
ingenuity J;, were itrangers to all the mod ufeful inven- f />/;„. Uat>
tions of life. Even the ufe of fire was unknown till it was HIP-
found out and communicated by Prometheus, who is
thought to have been one of the firfl civilizers of man¬
kind- Hence iEfchylus |f, introduces Prometheus || Prometl*
commemorating the benefits which he had conferred veife 44!..
upon mankind by his inventions, in a ftrain that in¬
dicates the uncultivated ftate of the world prior to the
age in which he flourifhed. For the entertaiment of
our readers, we {hall tranfhte as much of that pafiage
as fuits our prefenc purpofe.
Of the human race
Now hear the tale, how fooliffi erft they were:
I taught them thought and exercife reafon ;
If aught they faw before, they faw in vain.
Hearing, they heard not; all was ffiapelefs dreams
For a long fpace of time, at random mixt
In wild confuiion : for they neither knew
Tile-cover’d houfes Handing in the fun,
Nor timber work ; but, like the earth-bred ant.
They lodg’d in funlefs caves dug under ground :
No certain fign had they of winter cold,
Nor of the flow’ry fpring, or fummerftore.
But blindly manag’d all; till I them taught
What time the flats appear, what time they fet,
Hard to be fcan’d : then arithmetic rare,
That queen cf arts, by dint of patient thought
Defcry’d, I taught them ; and how vocal founds
From letters join’d arofe.”
This chara&er, though applied to mankind in gene¬
ral, was in reality that of the moft ancient Greeks.
Thefe forbidding features had been tranfmitced to the
poet by tradition as thofe of his anceflors : he was a
Greek, and of confequence imputes them to all man¬
kind without diftinftion.
Phoroneus, the fon and fucceffor of Inachus is 5
fai'd to have civilized the Argives, and to have taught “
them the ufe of iome new inventions. This circum-
ftance railed his character fo high among the favage
aborigines of the country, that fucceeding ages ^
deemed him the firft of men. Pelafgus obtained theiib.S. c. 'L
like chara&er, becaufe he taught the Arcadians to
live upon the fruit of the fagus, to build fhtds to fhel-
ter them from the cold, and to make garments of the
{kins of fvvine.
But what clearly demonftrates the unpolifhed cha¬
racter of the moft ancient Greeks is, the extrava¬
gant
The Greeks borrowed this contemptuous epithet from the Egyptians. See Herod. 1. ii. cap. 158.
129
♦A new co¬
lony ar-
iives in
Greece cal¬
led Pelafgi,
534 PHILO
Greek gmt honours laviilied by them upon the inventors
La tv n age. ufeftli antj ingenious arts. Moil of thefe were
advanced to divine honours, and became the objefts of
religious worlhip to fucceeding generations. The
family of the Titans afford a moft finking inflance of
this fpecies of adulation. Jupiter, Juno, Mars, A-
pollo, Venus, Diana, &c. were fprung of this family.
By the ufeful inventions which thefe perfonages com¬
municated to the uncultivated nations of Greece,
they obtained fuch lading and fnch extravagant ho¬
nours, that they juilled out the fidtreal divinities of
the country, and pofTefTed their high rank as long as
Paganifm; prevailed in thofe regions. To thefe tefli-
monies of the favagifm of the original Greeks, others
almofl without number might be added ; but thofe
adduced in the preceding part of this inquiry will, we
hope, fatisfy every candid reader as to the truth of the
pofition advanced.
While matters were in this fituation with refpedt to
the primitive Jonim or Greeks, a new colony arrived
in thofe parts, which in a few years confiderably
changed the face of affairs. The people who com-
pofed this colony were called Pelafgi; concerning
whofe origin, country, charadler, and adventures, much
has been written, and many different opinions exhi¬
bited by the learned. It is not our province to enter
into a detail of their arguments and fyflems ; we fhall
only inform our readers, that the general opinion is,
that they were natives either of Egypt or Phoenicia.
We have feen a difiertation in manufeript upon this
fubjedt, from which we are allowed to extradl the fol¬
lowing particulars.
The author, we think, has proved by very plaufible
arguments, that thefe people could not be defeendants
of the Egyptians nor Phoenicians. He maintains,
that the Pelafgi were a great and numerous tribe; that
they overfpread all the coafl of Afia Minor from
Mount Mycale to Troa's ; chat they were mailers at
one time of all the Afiatie and Grecian iflrnds ; that
they over ran Greece and many of the neighbouring
countries ; and all this in lefs than half a century. -
Thefe fadls he feems to have proved from Homer, He¬
rodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Paufanias, and other Greek
authors of approved authenticity. He fhows, that
they were a civilized generation ; that they were well
acquainted with military affairs, legiflation, agricul¬
ture, navigation, architefture, letters, &c. He infills,
that Phoenicia could not at any given period have fur-
nifhed fuch a numerous body of emigrants, even fup-
pofmg the whole nation had emigrated, and left their
native country a defert. He believes that this event
took place before the invafion of Canaan by the Ifra-
elites; that confeqnently the Pelafgic m:gration was
not occafioncd by that .cataftrophe. He has fhown,
we think by very probable arguments, that the E-
gyptians in the earliefl ages were averfe to foreign
expeditions, efpecially by fea; bccaufe that people
hated this element, and befides could be under no
temptation to emigrate: add to this, they were accu-
ftomed to live on fmall matters, and their country was
exceedingly fertile and eafily cultivated. It appears
(fays he) from Herodotus, that the Pelafgi were not
acquainted with the religion of the Zabir.ns, which
could not have been the cafe had they emigrated from
either of tbefe countries. He makes it app-tm* at
LOGY. Sefl. vi r.
leaft to our fatisfaftion, that Herodotus is miftaken Greek
when he fuppofes that the deities of Greece were de- Langnaae.
rived from Egypt. He demonftrates, that the names
of the greatefl part of thofe deities are of Phoenician
extraflion ; and this opinion he eflabliihes by a very
plaufible etymological deduclion. Heafferts, that had
the Pelafgi been natives of either of the countries
above-mentioned, it would be abfurd to fuppofe them
ignorant of the names and religious rites of their re-
fpe&ive nations. He finds, that tfie Egyptian and
Phoenician colonies, which afterwards fettled in Greece,
were enemies to the Pelafgi, and either fubdued or
expelled them the country, which, he imagines, could
fcarce have been the cafe had both parties fprung
from the fame anceftors. After fettling thefe points,
he concludes, that the people in queflion were the
progeny of the Arabian (bepherds, who, at a very
early period, invaded and fubdued both the Dower
and Upper Egypt. After pofftfiing that country
about a century and a half, they were conquered by A-
menophis king of the Upper Egypt, who drove them
out of the country. Upon this the fugitives retired
to Palelline, where Manecho the Egyptian hiilorian
lofes fight of them, and either through malice or ig¬
norance confounds them with the ifraeiites. Phis
writer fuppofes that thofe fugitives gradually direc¬
ted their courfe for the weft and north-weft coafts of
Alia Minor, wheace they conveyed themfelves over
to Greece.
Such are the arguments by which the author of
the differtation above-mentioned fupports his hypothe-
fis. It is, for aught we know, altogether new, and to
us it appears by no means improbable. If our curi¬
ous readers fhould w'ifh to know more of this fubjedl,
they may confult Gebelin’s preliminary Difcourfe to
his Greek Dictionary, Lord Monboddo’s Inquiry into
the Origin and Progrefs of Language, vol. i. towards
the end, and Mr Bryant’s Analyiis of Ancient My¬
thology, pajf.
Be this as it may, nothing is more certain than
that the Pelafgi were the firft people who in fome de¬
gree civilized the favages of ancient Greece. It is
not our bufinefs at prefent to enumerate the many
ufeful inventions which they communicated to the
Greeks, at that time worfe than barbarians. We deem
It, however, abiblutely neceflary as an introdudlion to tr0„
our fubjedl, to hazard a few conje&ures on the h»n-(juce let-
guage and letters of thofe adventurers; a point flri£lly ters into
conne&ed with the fubjed foon to fall under confi- that couU-
deration. tr^' „
Whether we fuppofe the Pelafgi to have been the
offspring of the Phoenicians, Egyptians, or Arabian
fhepherds, it will make little difference as to their lan¬
guage ; every man of learning and reicarch is convin¬
ced that thofe three nations, efpecially at that early
period, fpoke a dialed of the Hebrew. The Pelafgi,
then, muft have fpoken a dialed of that language when
they arrived in Greece. Perhaps it might have un¬
dergone feveral changes, and acquired fome new mo¬
difications, during fo many years as had paffed iince
they began to be a feparate nation, and in the eourfe
of fo many peregrinations. Same monuments of theirs
ft ill extant prove this fad beyond all contradidion.
As thefe people incorporated with the aborogines of
Greece, the remains of the original language of man¬
kind,
Sea. VII. PHILOLOGY
Greek kind, or at leaft fo much of it as had been retained
language, by. tjlcn3} gradually coalefced with that of the new
fettlers. From this, we think, it is obvious, that
prior to the arrival of the new colonifts from the Eaft,
the language now current among the two united
tribes muft have been a dialedt of the Phoenician, A-
rabian, Hebrew, &c. Be that as it may, Herodo-
II bib. i* tus |J affirms that the Pelafgi in his time fpoke a bar-
59- barons language, quite unintelligible to the modern
Greeks.
The reafon of this difference between the language
of the Hellenes or Greeks in the age of Herodotus
and that of the remains of the Pelafgi at that period,
feems to be this: Prior to the time of that hiftorian,
the Greek language bad, from time to time, under¬
gone many changes, and received vaft improvements;
whereas, on the contrary, that of the remnant of the
Pelafgi, who were now reduced to a very low date,
had remained fiationary, and was then jufi in the fame
predicament in which it had been perhaps a century
after their arrival in the country.
As the Pelafgi, as was obferved above, were a
people highly civilized and well inftru&ed in the va¬
rious arts at that time known in the eaflern world,
they were fkilled in agriculture, archltedlure, mufic,
&c.(p): The prefumption then is that they could not
be unacquainted with alphabetical writing. This mod
ufeful ai t was well known in the countries from which
they emigrated ; and of courfe it is impoffible to ima¬
gine that they did not export this art as well as the
§ Lib 5. °thcrS flbove'ment;ioned. Diodorus Siculus imagines
that § the Pelnfgi knew not the ufe of alphabetical
letters, but that they received them from Cadmus
and his Phoenician followers; that thofe letters were
afterwards called Pelafgic, becaufe the Pclafgi were
the firft people of Greece who adopted them. This
account muff go to the fcore of national vanity, fince
very foon after he acknowledges* that Linus wrote
the exploits of the firft Bacchus -and feveral other
romantic fables in Pelafgic characters ; and that Or¬
pheus, and Pronapides the matter of Homer, employ¬
ed the fame kind of letters. Zenobius likewife in-
\Apud Dr forni8 us f that Cadmus flew Linus for teaching cha-
SbJtp'~s ra<^;ers differing from his. Thefe letters could be none
Stria. Greet other th2? Pelafgic J.
Language- Paufanias, in his Attics, relates |j, that he himfelf
t^See Plate faw an infeription upon the tomb of Coriebus, who
ULiir. i. lived at the time when Crotopus, who was contem-
cap. por try with Dcucaiion, was king of the Argives.
This infeription then was prior to the arrival of Cad¬
mus ; and confequently letters were known in Greece
before they were introduced by this chief. Ic like¬
wife appears from Herodotus himfelf, that the lo-
mans were in pofiefiion of alphabetical charadfers be-
•Lft f°re tHe conrji?g of tbe Phoenicians. “ For (fays
e jg'I* he) * the ionians having received letters from the
Phoenicians, changing the figure and found of fome
of them, ranged them with their own, and in this Greek
manner continued to ufe them afterwards.If, then, Language,,
the lonians (qJ ranged the Phoenician charadters with
their own, it is obvious that they had alphabetic**!
chaiadfers of their own.
Befides thefe hiftorical proofs of the exiftence of
Pelafgic charadters, monuments bearing inferiptions
in the fame letters have been difeovered in feveral
parts of Greece and Italy, which place this point be¬
yond the reach of controveify. What charadters
thefe were may be eafiiy determined. As the Pelafgi
emigrated from Arabia, the prefumption is that their
letters were Phoenician. They are faid by Dr Swin-
ton to have been 13 in number, whereas the Phoeni¬
cian alphabet confifts of 16. The three additional
letters were probably invented by the latter people af¬
ter the Peiafgi had left the eaftern quarters. The
Phoenician letters imported by the Pelafgi were, no
doubt, of a coarfe and clnmfy contexture, unfavour¬
able to expedition in writing, and unpleafant to the
fight. Befides, the Phoenician charadters had not as
yet received theirpiames ; and accordingly the Romans,
who derived their letters from the Arcadian Pelafgi -j-, .
had no names for theirs. The probabibility is, that lib. iTc. 77.
prior to this era the Pelafgic letters had not been di-
ftinguifhed by names. They were of courfe no o-r<iateI^
ther than the original letters of the Phoenicians in * '
their firft uncouth and irregular form : and for this
reafon they eafiiy gave way to the Cadmean, which
were more beautiful, more regular, and better adapt¬
ed to expedition.
Hitherto we have feen the Pelafgi rnd the lonim
incorporated, living under the fame laws, fpeaking
the fame language, and ufing the fame letters. But
another nation, and one too of vaft extent and po-
puloufnefs, had at an early period taken pofieffion of
a confiderable part of the country afterwards diftin-
guifired by the name of //e//as or Greece. The Thra¬
cians were a great and mighty nation; inferior to none
except the Indians*, fays the father of Grecian hi-*
ftory. Thefe people, at a very early period, had ex-lib. 5.
tended their quarters over all the northern parts ofcaP-3-
that country. They were, in ancient times, a learn-Th Jilr,
ed and polifhed nation. From them, in fucceedingcianS * *
ages, the Greeks learned many ufeful and ornamental powerful
fcicnces. Orpheus (r) the mufician, the legiflator, natipn at
the poet, the philofopher, and the divine, is known
to have been of Phracian extraftion. Thamyris and1 d*
Linus were hi* difeiples, and highly refpedted among
the Greeks for their learning and ingenuity. That
thefe people fpoke the fame language with the Greeks,
is abundantly evident from the connexion between
them and thefe Thracian bards. The Thracian lan¬
guage, then, whatever it was, contributed in a great
proportion towards forming that of the Greeks. From
the remains of the I hracian diaieil there appears to
have been a very ftrong refemblance between it and
the
duced ^ ^ “ in mufic They intro-
(A Athenians were originally called Tomans*
^ “-‘h” Though
<
PHILO
^ Strabo,
lib. i & 7.
ija
The Greek
language
compofed
t.irhree dif-
ierent dia¬
le dls.
132
Arrival of
Cadmus in
■Greece.
\ Scaligtr.
133
The letters
introduced
-fey him.
the Chaldean. This pofitlon we could readily fup-
port bp the molt plaufible etymological dediidtion,
did the limits prefcribed us in this article admit fuch an
inquiry. It appears, however, that the ijl T. hracians,
Geta;, and Baei or Bavi, fpoke nearly the fame lan¬
guage. The Goths, fo much celebrated in the annals
of the lower empire, were the defccndants of the
Gette and‘Bad, and confequently retained the dialcdt
of their anceftors. The reader, therefore, muft not
be furprifed, if in tracing the materials of which the
Greek language is compofed, we fhould fometimcs
have recourfe to the remains of the Gothic.
We have now found ^out three branches of the
Greek language ; that of the lonim or Aborigines^ that
of the Pelafgic tribe, and that of the Thracians.
Thefe three, we imagine, were only different dialedbs
of the very fame original tongue, d his affertion we
could readily prove by the comparifon of a great num¬
ber of words taken from the two laft, were this a pro¬
per place for fuch a difcuffion.
Some centuries after the arrival of the Pelafgi, Cad¬
mus, an Egyptian (s) by birth, and a fojourner in
Phoenicia, arrived in Bceotia with a multitude of fol¬
lowers. 1 his colony chief and his countrymen in¬
troduced letters and feveral ether ufeful improvements
into the country in queftion. As thefe people were
natives of Phoenicia and its environs, their alphabet
was that of their native country, confiding of 16
letters. That the Phoenician alphabet was nearly the
fame with the Samaritan and Hebrew, has been fo
often and fo clearly demonftratcd by the ^ learned
of this and the former century, that it would be al¬
together fuperfluous to infill upon it in this ihort in¬
quiry. The Phoenicians; as is generally known, wrote
from right to left, and the old Grecian chara&ers in¬
verted, exadliy refemble the other.
The names of the Cadmean charadfers are Syrian
which (hows the near refemblance between that lan¬
guage and the Phoenician. They (landthusj: alpha, be-
iha, 'gam/a, delta &c. The Syrians ufed to add a
to the Piebrew vocables ; hence alph becomes alpha,
beth, betha or beta, &c. In the Cadmean alphabet
we find the vowel letters, which is an infallible proof
that this was the pradlice ®f the Phoenicians in the
age of Cadmus ; and this very circumltance furniih-
es a prefumption that the Jews did the fame at the
fame period.
After all, it is evident that the oldeft Greek letters,
which are written from right to left, differ very little
from thofe of the Pelafgi. The four double letters
X* are have keen added by Palamedes
about 20 years before the war of i roy. Simonides
is generally fuppofed to have added the letters s, h,
though it appears by fome ancient infcriptions that
feme of thefe letters were ufed before the days of Pa-
punedes and Simonides.
In the year of our I.ord 145^ feven brazen tables
weie difeovered at Engubium, a city of Umbria^in
the Apennines, of which five were written in 1 e-
lafgic or Etrufcan characters and two in Latin. 1 he
full of thefe tables is thought to have been compofed
LOG Y. Sea. VIL
about 168.years after the taking of Troy, or 1206 Greek
years before Chrift. By comparing the infeription on ^ngua-e.
thefe tables with the old Itmic chara&erg, the curious
have been enabled to difeover the refemblance. j .,
The old Ionic chara&er wrote from right to leftpheold
continued in general ufe for feveral centuries : It was Ionic cha-
compofed of the Cadmean and Pelafgic charablers, ratter,
with fome variations of form, pofition, and found.
The Athenians continued to ufe this charadler till
the year of Rome 350. The old Ionic was gradually
improved into the new, and this quickly became the
reigning mode. After the old Ionic was laid afide
the # (BovcrTgofafov') Buftrophodon came into cuftom, *,
which goes backwards and forwards as the ox does
with the plough. They carried the line forward from the
left, and then back to the right. The words were all
placed clofe together, and few fmali letters were ufed
befoce the fourth century. If our curious readers
would wifh to know more of letters and alphabets,
we muft remit them to Chilhul, Morton, Pofteilus, the
great Montfaucon, Gebelin, Aftle, &e. For our part
we are chiefly concerned at prefent with the Phoeni¬
cian and Cadmean fyftems; and on thefe perhaps we
may have dwelt too long. Having now, we hope, • ^
fufficiently proved that the Greek alphabet was de-The Greek
rived from the Phoenician, in order to convince our alphabet
curious but illiterate readers of the certainty of our
pofition, as it were by ocular demonftration, we (hall
annex a fcheme of both alphabets, to which we (hall
fubjoin fome ftri&ures upon fuch letters of the Greek
alphabet as admit any ambiguity in their nature and
application.
A, alpha, had two founds, the one broad like a in
the Engli(h word, all; the other (lender, as e in end,
/pend, defend. The Hebrews certainly ufed it fo. be-
caufe they had no other letter to exprefs that found ;
the Arabs aftuaily call the firft letter of their alpha¬
bet elif; and they as well as the Phoenicians employ
that letter to expo fs both the found of A and E pro-
mifeuoufly. The Greeks call their letter E £S'‘>0V»
that is, E (lender, which feems to have been intro¬
duced to fupply the place of A (lender.
H, da, was originally the 'mark of the fpiritus a/
per, and no doubt anfwered to the Hebrew n. It is
(till retained in that capacity in the word Hf/.ar.sv, and
in words with the fpiritm afper beginning books, chap¬
ters, feftions, &c. E originally marked both the found
of E4,(\ov and Hra< that is, it was fometimes found¬
ed (hort as at prefent, and fometimes long, where it
is now fupplied by H. As it was found convenient
to diftinguilh thefe two different quantities of found
by different letters, they adopted H, the former
ritus afper, to denote the long found of E, and fub-
ftituted the prefent fpiritus afper ['1 in its place.
I, iota, is the Hebrew or Phoenician jod or yod.
We imagine it originally ferved the purpole of both
iota and ypiilon. It had two different founds; the one
broad and full, the other weak and (lender. The lat¬
ter had the found of the modern 'J4-,Xov. That this was
actually the cafe, appears in feveral monumental inscrip¬
tions : And upon this depends the variation of (ome
cafei
(s) Jofeph Scaliger’a account of the origin of the Ionic letters. Eufeb. Chron.
Sea. VII. ; PHILO
Greek cafes of the demon{Irative pronoun and of the fccond
Language declenfion.
L ^ °» omicron or fmall o, in the original Greek had
three different founds. It founded o fhort, as at pre-
fent; and likewifc o long, now denoted by n or large
0. It likewife marked the found of the improper
diphthong founded like the Englifh diphthong go.
The n was taken from the Phoenician wau or V.
'Tyypjilon, we have obferved before, was adopted to
fupply a mark for the found of I flender.
z, zetd) is compounded of Dion. Halic. how*
ever, informs us that this letter fhould be pronounced
i* , according to the Doric plan.
e* theta, was not known in the old Greek. It is
compounded of r and the Jpiritus afper, both which
were of old written feparately thus TH.
3, xi, is compounded of ys, *?, Thefe letters,
too, were originally written feparately.
phi. Phis letter is compounded of and
Jpiritus afper ; thus BH, PH.
x, chi, like the foregoing, is compounded of y, x»
und the Jpiritus nfper as above.
y, pfii like fome of the refl, is made up of
which, too, were originaliy written in fepaiate charac¬
ters.
Thefe obfervations are thrown together purely for
the ufe of Undents who may not choofe to penetrate
into the minutia. We are forry that the nature of
the work will not permit us to extend our reftarches
to greater length. The reader will find an ancient in*
feription on Plate CCCXC, in which the powers of the
letters are exemplified as they were in the firft ftage of
the Greek language. Every language, we believe, was
originally compofed of inflexible words; the variations
which now diftinguifh nouns and verbs were the ef»
fefts of progreffive improvements. What might have
been the ft ate of the Greek" language with refpedf to
thefe variations in its original form, it is not nowpoffible
to difeover. T hat it was rude and irregular, will not,
we imagine, be controverted. One of the firft at¬
tempts towards forming the variations, now denomi¬
nated decknftons and conjugations, would probably be
made up; n the demonftrative article and the JubJantive
verb. This obfervation will be found to hold good
m moft poliflied languages. In the Greek tongue,
this was evidently the method
1^6    -   / 
grigin and The original Greek article was imported from the
flexion of eaft. It was the Hebrew or Phoenician n ha. This par-
tic c. tide fometimes fignifies one, and fometimes it anfwers to
our demonftrative the; both in its adverbial and de¬
monftrative capacity it imports demonftration. In
the earlieft ftages of the two oriental languages, it
was probably written apart, as ha-melech “ the king.” In
procefs of time it Came to he joined with the follow¬
ing word, as Hammelech. From this we think the
Greek article was deduced. It is ftill retained in the
Doric dialed m its priftine charader. The difference
between ho and ha in the eaftern language is nothing.
Here then we have the articles « mafeuline and « fe¬
minine. Upon thefe feveral changes were fuperin-
duced, in order to render them more ufeful for the
purpofes of language. For thefe changes we know
ot no archetype.
•DtTh<: .Grceks then having adopted the Hebrew, or
Phmmcia^^r Chaldean article ha, and changed it in-
L O G Y.
to ho for the mafeuline, feem to have arranged its va«
riations in^he following manner :
Sing. Plu.
i/ng-.
Ncm. «
Gen. o
Dat. o
Acc. o
ac
ov;
In the earlieft ftages of the Greek Iarigt%e, , and
»> were founded-in the fame manner,,.or nearfy fo, as
was obferved above. The actufative^was at firft like
the nominative; for diftindion’s fake it was made to
terminate in v, which letter w?.e likewife adopted to
charadeiize the genitive plural ; f was annexed to tbie
tiative plural, to diftinguifh it from the dative lingular.
The radical word was ftill without inflexion.
When the article was infleded in this manner, the
procefs flood as follows: we take *°yt>c for an ex¬
ample.
Sing.
n \oy fpeech
ou Koy of fpeecb
oi hoy tofpeech
ot hoy fpeech
. this arrangement our readers will obferve, that
in the time under confideration, * was not yet in¬
troduced ; and therefore or little « was the fame
letter in the genitive plural as in the accufative lingu¬
lar; but in the latter cafe it was founded long by wav
of diftindion. v o i j
l he aiticle ha, which is ftill retained in the Doric
diaied, was varied as follows:
537
Greek
Language.
*.37
Its life in
the flexion
of n ions of
the firlfc
and fecond
decknlsous.
Nm.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Plu.
ot hoy fpeeches
uv hoy of Jpeeches
ote hoy to fpeeches
out; hoy fpeeches
Sing,
Nom. «
Gen
Dat.
Acc.
«<"
Plu.
o.tt;
dr
Plu.
oci t i fx. honours
dv Tig. tf honours
a. i rife, to honours
cce Tt/s honours
Thefe variations differ a little from thofe of the
mafeuhne ; and they were no doubt made for the fake
of diftindion, as is ufual in fuch cafes. We fhall now
give an example of the feminine as it rr.uft have flood
before variations were introduced. We /hall employ
TtyLO. “ t
Sing.
Nom. a rt/u. honour
Gen. rri/jt. of honour
* uat. «/ i^tfs. to honour
Acc. dt rife honour
Afterwards, when the Chaldean article da was adopt-
ed for the neuter gender, the letter t or J was changed
into r, and prefixed to it ; and then the Greeks, who,
m their declenfion of adjedives, always followed the
neuter gender, began to prefix it to the oblique
cales. ^
. I,|1fh,'s manner we think the Greek nouns flood ori¬
ginally ; the only change being made upon the ar¬
ticle. At length, mftead of prefixing that word, and
exprefiing it by itfelf, they found it convenient to af¬
fix a fragment of it to the noun, and fo to pronounce
both with more expedition. Thus e „ became
hoy.oti hv hoy^ became and of courfe *oyoc and
heyov, &c. Thefpiritus afper, or rough breathing, was
thrown away, in order to facilitate the coalition.
y°Vns °j; thc ncuter gender, as was neceffary, were
diftmgmfhed by ufing v inftead of ?. In Oriental
words the Greeks often change c into «, and vice verfa.
In this cafe thc Greeks feem to have copied from
3 Y an
8 PHILO
Greek an eaftem arebetype. In Hebrew we find an arrange-
Language. ment exaftly fimilar. To fupply the place of t.ie
  ^ pronouns poffeffive, they affix fragments of the per-
ln this fonals : Thus, they write ben-x “ my fon,” mftead
mode of of hen-anti and debir-nu “ our words, inftead oidehr-
fleKion the anu^ The perfons of their verbs are formed in the
Greeks co- j-ame mannert ln this v;ay, in our opinion, the vana-
tions of the firft and fecbnd declenfxons were produ-
tal$i39 CC After that a confiderable number of their nouns
■Formation _ere arran„ed under thefe two claffes, there remained
de?enfion an almoft infinite number of others which could not
and of its’ conveniently be brought into thefe arrangements ; be-
cafea. caufe their terminations did not readily coaleice with
the articles above-mentioned. Thefe, like nouns of the
neuter gender, were in a manner fecluded from the fo-
ciety of the two other claffifications. It is probable that
thefe for a long time continued indeclinable. At lait,
however, an effort was made to reduce them into a
clafs as well as the others. All thefe excluded nouns
originally terminated with f, which appears from tncir
genitives as they (land at prefent. By obferving this
cafe, we are readily conduaed to the termination of
the priftine vocable. The genitive always ends in
which ending is formed by inferting ° between the ra¬
dical word and ?. By throwing out ° we have the an¬
cient nominative : Thus, T-™v, genitive T,?a»of; taking
out o we have T.ravf, the original inflexible termina¬
tion. A”™’ genitive Awct; throw out -> and you have
a*,too n«\x«r? genitive ; take away o and
there remains *«xx«Jf. opm. genitive Opv.eof; by throw¬
ing out ° we have Av*?. genitive Av^rof) Av«xto
genitive Kpa^c. Kf«T«f; originally Kparif, be-
caufe originally * had the found of », as was obferved
above MsA* genitive MsMrof, Msxirr. EHoo genitive
e^'e^c, the old noun. In ffiort, the genitive is al¬
ways formed by inferting ® immediately before f, which
is always the termination of the nominative ; and by
this rule we eafily difcover the noun fuch as it was
in its original form. . r ,
The dative of this dectenfion was clofen with
i atri/Xurn ; the fame with that of the fecond, namely,
i fubfcriptum. The accufative commonly terminates
with * f but was originally ended with *. 1 he Ro¬
mans imitated the iEolian dialea and they com¬
monly ended it with em or tm. The Greeks, per¬
haps, in this imitated their progenitors, for a was
their favourite vowel. The nominative plural end¬
ed in which nearly refembles the EngJlftl Plu’
ral, and was poffibly borrowed from the ihracians.
The genitive plural in all the declenfions ends m
the dative ends in f-, the ^ being mferted to diftm-
guifh it from the dative Angular. When a ftrong confo-
„ant, which would not eafily coalefce with c, comes im¬
mediately before it, that confonant is thrown out to
avoid a harfh or difficult found. The fum then is ;
the cafes of nouns of the firft and fecond dedenfions
con fill of the radical word with fragments ofthear-
ticl-s annexed, and ,thefe were the firft claffifications
of nouns. The other nouns were left outfo^°^
time, and might be denominated neuters ; at leng
they too were cleffiliej, and their vanacon. formed
as above. In this procefs the Greek, dev.ated from
the oriental plan i for thefe people a rrays decl.ned
their nouns by particles prefixed. Whether the Greeks
LOGY.
141
Genders,
Sea. VII,
were gainers by this new procefs, we will not pretend
pofitively to determine. We are, however, inclined
to imagine that they loft as much in perfpicuity as
they gained by variety. 140
It is generally believed that the Greeks have no Greek ab-
ablative ; to this opinion, however, we cannot affent. lative.
It is true, that the dative, and what we would call the
ablathey are always the fame: yet we think there
is no more reafon to believe that the latter is wanting
in Greek, than that the ablative plural is wanting in
Latin, becaufe in that language both thefe cafes are
always alike.
In the eaftern languages there are only two gen¬
ders, analogous to the eftablifhed order of nature,
where all animals are either male or female. But as
the people of the Eaft are, to this day, ftrongiy ad¬
dicted to perfonification, they ranged all objects of
which they had occafion to fpeak, whether animate
or inanimate, under one or other of thefe two claffes.
Hence arofe what is now called the mafculine znA femi¬
nine genders. The orientals knew nothing of a neuter
gender, becaufe, indeed, all objea* were comprehend¬
ed under the foregoing claffes. The Phoenician feminine
was formed from the mafculine, by adding a/>. In
this the Greeks in many cafes imitated them. The
Greeks and Latins left a vaft number of fubftantives,
like a kind of outcafts, without reducing them to any
gender; this procefs gave rife to the neuter gender,
which imports, that fuch fubftantives were of neither
vender. This has the appearance of a defedl, or ra¬
ther a blemifh, in both. Sometimes, too, they make
words neuter, which, according to the analogy of
grammar, ought to be either mafculine or feminine.
And again, they range words under the mafeuhne or
feminine, which by the fame rule ought to have been
neuter. In fhort, the doftrine of generical diftnbution
feems to have been very little regarded by the fa¬
bricators of both tongues. The beauty which anfes
from variety feems to have been their only objeA. . 14a
Theufeofthe article in the Greek language is, Farther ob-
we think, rather indeterminate ; it is often prefixed to™0"*
proper names, where there is no need of demonltra-t^clc>
tion nor generical diftinAion. On the contraiy, it is
often omitted in cafes where both the one and the
other feem to require its affiftance. In ftiort, in fome
cafes it feems to be a mere expletive. Though both
Lord Monboddo and Mr Harris have treated of this
part of fpeech, neither the one nor the other has af-.
certained its proper ufe. (See Grig, and Progr of
Language, vol. ii. p. 53, Hermes, page 214. et feq).—
We know not any objeAion to the early ufe oi ar¬
ticles among the Greeks fo plaufible as the total ne~
gleA of them among the Romans. But it ought ta
be confidered, that after the flexions were introduced,
the ufe of the article wan in a great meafure negleA-
ed. Accordingly, Lord Monboddo obferves that
it is very feldom ufed as fuch by Homer, but com¬
monly in place of the relative pronoun, °'f, ", <v—
Thus it would appear, that at the time when the Ro¬
man language was reduced to the Grecian ftandar ,
the article was not commonly ufed by the Greeks;
and of courfe the Latina never employed it. there
can be no doubt but the pronoun who, m the northr
trn languages, is the fame with the Greek and the
Hebrew hua> This among the northern people is a*-
ODE/VI (glEJWITOJST. ^/EOKINE S^LEK TO. THOpIO. HO
E S TI7\: EH. TO. TEI TO.EA' TEL HODOI TEIJppULHVTOI
HEBODO. _^4B0I. O/IM.LOIOK TOIEEVESA^TL JMBTO
« ■ \ ■
JUJJHON. E.¥HODEi.KTI.HOI.MO^VES.DEMETBOS
OI.EOBES. A/¥i(^)EJWJ. KAI+(g)07EI0^V. ®EO<¥ IvAI.
Qj/u/ncrf/ ciy/////ia/)f///
6)1 /
Lrm/fM
^ ^ ^ 5>^ ^ 3TI 3? ^57*
^ ^ ^ oo oo TU ^ Hi, 7% ,V !r V1 ^ T J&reZ
(&cm rtecf/'// y JvTise/d
Tf i/t.>t‘/tff ///„
^ ^ Jl. F M F F Y! F M %
vW "^5 3“ TT T7 JT '2' nr ■?=?
Mr '"' /m M<’ * m m* yy ™ v * -¥ 2- M Jl
vi
*}re
enor
*
Sea. VII. PHILO
Greek ways a relative, which affords a prefumption that the
Language. Greeks originally ufed the article in the fame manner
¥ as we do at prefent. The fait is, that the articles ha¬
ving once got into vogue, were often pofitively ufed
as mere expletives to fill up a gap ; and that, on the
other hand, when there was no occafion for pointing
©ut an objedt, it being fully determined by the tenor
of the difcourfe, it was often omitted.
Adjedtives. ^orm*ng' adjectives, they followed the fame plan
that they had done with fubftantives. Their great
effort was to make their adjeftives agree with their
fubftantives in gender, number, and cafe. This ar¬
rangement improved the harmony of fpeech ; and no¬
thing could be more natural than to make the word
exprefling the quality correfpond with the fubjeft to
which it belonged.
As adje&ives denote qualities, and thus are fufcep-
tible of degrees, nature taught them to invent marks
for expreffing the difference of thefe degrees. The
qualities may exceed or fall below each other by al-
moft numberlefs proportions ; it was, however, found
convenient to reftriiSfc thefe increafes and decreafes to
two denominations. The pofitive is, properly fpeak-
ing, no degree of comparifon at all; therefore we need
only point out the formation of the comparative and
fuperlative.
The former is generally thought to be fabricated,
by firft adding the Hebrew word excellent, to the
pofitive, and then affixing the Greek termination 0f ;
and the latter, by affixing the Syrian word tath and
the fyllable °r, in the fame manner.
Every nation, even the moft uncivilized, have early
acquired the notion of number. Numerical chara&ers
and names are the fame in many different languages.
Thefe terms were difeovered, and in ufe, long before
grammar came to any perfeftion ; and therefore re¬
main either inflexible or irregular. The firft way of
computing among the Greeks was by the letters of
the alphabet; fo that A fignified one and ^ twenty-
four : in this manner the rhapfodies of Homer are
numbered ; and fo are the divifions of fome of the
Pfalms, as is generally known. But a more artificial
plan of computation was obvioufly neceffary. They
divided the letters of the alphabet into decades or tens,
from A to 1 = 10. To exprefs the number 6, they in-
ferted (, haw = 6 ; fo that by this means the firft de¬
cade amounted to io. In the next decade every letter
increafed by tens, and fo P denoted ioo. In this de¬
cade they inferted 4 xorjra =90. In the third, every
letter rofe by 100 ; fo that h) c-av*-; =900. By in-
ferting thefe three Phoenician chandlers they made
their alphabet amount to 900. To exprefs chiliads
or thoufands, they began with the letters of the al¬
phabet as before; and to make the diftindlion, they
placed a dot under each character, as the units, tens,
hundreds, were diftinguifhed by an acute accent over
them.
But in monumental inferiptions, and in public in-
ftruroents, a larger and more lading numerical charac¬
ter was fabricated. They began with I, and repeat¬
ed that letter till they arrived at 11=5. This is the
firft letter of 5. Then they proceeded, by re¬
peating I till they came to 10 A, the firft letter of
10. Then they repeated A over and over, fo
that four A = 40. To exprefs 50, they ufed this me-
LOGY.
*44
<3reek nu-
%nerais.
539
thod; they inclofed A in the belly of fJi ~ jj'o, |H[ mu Greek
500 IMI = 50,000, &c. Often, however, X figni- LanguaKe-
lies 1000, and then we have xt\ioi, 2000, rSi;, Xiawi v——'
3000 ; and fo of the reft. t
Tiie word pronoun fignifies a word placed inftead of Pronouns,
a noun or name ; and indeed the perfonal pronouns are
really fuch : this needs no explication. The pronoun
of the firft perfon is one of thofe words which have
continued invariable in all languages ; and the other
perfonals are of the fame charafter. The relatives,
poffeffives, demonftratives, and gentiles, are generally
deiived from thefe, as may be difeerned by a very mo¬
derate adept in the language. Onr readers will there¬
fore, we hope, eafily difpenfe with our dwelling upon
this part of fpeech.
Verb. In moft ancient languages, verbs, according Greek6
to the order of nature, have only three tenfes or times, verbs, how
namely, \X\t pcfl, prefent, and future. The incennedi-^ rnied»
ate tenies were the invention of more refined aces 
The Greek, in the moft early periods, had no other
tenfes but thofe above-mentioned. The manner of
forming thefe we ftiall endeavour to point out, with¬
out touching upon the nature of the reft, fince an idc'a
of them may be acquired from any common gram¬
mar. 5
We have obferved above, that the flexion of nouns
of the firft and fecond declenfions are formed by an¬
nexing fragments of the articles to the radical words ;
and that the variation of the tenfes were produced by
joining the fubftantive-verb, according to the fame an-
alogy. Every Greek verb was originally an inflexible
bihtera!, tnhteral, quadriliteral or diffyllabic radix
I he variations were formed a long while after in the
manner above intimated.
The Greeks had their fubftantive or auxiliary verb.
from the I hcenician or Chaldean verb rrrg fult. This
verb, taking away the gentle afpirate from both be-
ginning and end, a&ually becomes ». This vocable
the Greeks brought along with them from the Eaft
and manutaftured after their own manner, which an*
pears to have been thus : ^
Pref. fa, £{$■, £f, fOjtCEV, ffTf, toa-l,
Cont. u, f<S, fz, eu.cav, firf, ova-t,
Fut. £(Ta, fffZf, t<rof£(v, fcg'
We place ^z in the third perfon plural, becaufe for
many centuries fupplied the found of the diph¬
thong ov. By thefe variations it will appear that the
radical verb was rendered capable of inflexion. We
have obferved that Greek verbs were a colledlton of
biliteral, triliteral, or quadriliteral, radical words 
The following may ferve for examples : r«, x?y, Ma?,
tut fxv, reev, fotr, AatjK, AuX, Arzx.
Thefe radicals are taken at random ; and we believe
our Grecian ftudent, by adding the terminations, will
readily find them all fignificant verbs. With thefe
radicals, then, and the fubftaotive-verb, we -fuppofe the
prefent and future tenfes were formed.
But it is now generally admitted that the modern Origfnal
prefent was not the original one of the verb. ThePrdent that
fecond, or Attic future, appears plainly to have beenwhich is
the nr,oft ancient prefent. When the language w^ndfu* ^
improved, or rather in the courie of being improved, cure,
a new prefent was invented, derived indeed from the
former, but differing widely from it in its appearance
and complexion. Upon this occafion, the old prefent
3 ^ 2 vi a*
PHILOLOGY.
148
Formation
of the mo¬
dern pre-
fexit,
54° ^
Greek was degraded, and inftead of intimating what was do-
Language. ^ at prefentt was made to import what was imme-
U^r“'' diately to be done hereafter. By this means,
contvafted into I am 'writing, came to intimate
J am juft going to 'write. This change was probably
made for the fake of enriching the language, for va¬
riety, for energy. Thus, ru*(u contradted runi, be¬
came TvirTb), Tixw, See. ^.ccording to this the¬
ory, we find, that fuch verbs as now have no fecond
future retain their original form, only the circumflex
has been removed in order to accommodate them to
the general ftandard. GrammarLns have now choftn
the three chara&eriftic letters of adive verbs from the
prefent, firft future, and perfed. The true charac-
teriftic of the original verb was that of the prefent
fecond future. Many verbs are now deftitute of that
tenfe, becaufe, fince the invention of the new prefent,
thofe have fallen into difufe.
Let us now take the verb dico, in order to
make a trial; and let us write the radix and the
auxiliary, firit feparately, and then in conjunction •
Thus,
A.ty-f.j, \ty-tH, xt>—to.Ktv, My-urt, \[y-!o<rtrt. Then
we will have contraded xeyu, \£/i7c, *.syu, xiyov.^tv,
XfyfTrt, xeyao-i. Here, we believe, every thing is felf-
evident.
The Englifh would run thus : Saying / am, fay¬
ing t£ou art, faying he is, See. At firll the radix and
the auxiliary were pronounced feparately, as we do
our helping verbs in Englifh, and would have been
written in the fame manner had words been then di-
ilinguiflied in writing.
Firft future, prefent firft future occupied the fame place that
and it now does, and concurred in its turn to complete
the future in conjundion with the radix. T. hat the
fubftantive verb was infleded in the manner above laid
down, is obvious from its future middle W*', and
from the future of the Latin verb fum, which, was of
old efo, efts, 8cc. Verbs in »«> often take
in the firft future. See Feed. Cret. ap. Marm. Oxon.
1. 67. Verbs in ^ and affume <r by analogy, as
Eurip. Flecub. v. 1057. **K'ra‘H°m. Od x.
5II* rtXXa, riXtra, unde TtKaov, /I, x. v. 707.
cgJoyAVj Find. Nem. Od. 9. Duodcc. 2.
•Fheoc. Idyll. 22. v. 6q. In fine, the iEolic dialed af¬
ter the liquids often inferts v.
It muft be obferved, that the Greeks, in order to ac¬
celerate the pronunciation, always throw out the t and
«, except in verbs ending in ™ i where they gene¬
rally change them into » and a. When the laft letter
of the radix can coalefce with <r after t is thrown out,
they transform it, fo as to anfwer that purpofe ; if
not, they fometimes throw it out. We (hail once more
take X£y« for an example :
XEjc-tffcj, \£y-i<rti(, \1y-ttre1, &C.
Throwing out f, it would ftand *fy-™> &c.
by changing yr into ^ it becomes A 8 and v can¬
not coalefce with o’, therefore they throw them out:
thus, ASo, future firft ; ^’’8", future firft ;
J&VTJTCJy AVV&Vy
Thefe are the general rules with refped to the for¬
mation of the prefent and future of adiye verbs in
the earlieft ftages of the Greek language. 'Phe limits
preferibed will not allow ua to parfue thefe conjec-
149
Sea. vn.
tures; but the reader may, if he thinks proper, carry Greek
them a great way. Lai gua^e.
The prasterite tenfe falls next under confideration.
If we may truft analogy, this, as well as the other Prsscerite
two, muft have owed its conformation to the radix tenfes.
of the verb, and fome other word fitted to eke out its
terminations. It has been thought by fome critics,
that this addition was taken from the Hebrew word
rrn ; and we fhould be of the fame opinion did not
another auxiliary prefent itfelf nearer home, which
appears to us much more congruous to fuch a pur- 15i
pole. Perhaps, indeed, the people from whom we fup-Origin of
pofe it borrowed, derived it from the eaftern quar-the
tere. We have already obferved, that the Thracians ver
were matters of a great part of Greece in the very
earlieft ages. At that time they were a polite and
learned people. From them a confiderable part of
the Greek language was derived. If, therefore, we
Ihould find a word in their language employed for the
fame purpofe, and accommodated to coalefce with the
radical verb, we feel ourfelves very much inclined to
prefer fuch a word.
The word ha pervades many different languages at
an auxiliary verb. From it we have the Italian ho,
the Spanifh he, the French at; and in one fhape or
other it appears in all the German and Scandinavian
dialefts. It is the Gothic auxiliary ; and, we believe,
it forms the termination of the perfedt adtive of the firft
conjugation in the Latin tongue: For there am is the
radix of amo ; in the praeterite am-avi, amavi; and the
prasterperfedt am-hav-eram, i. e. amaveram, compounded
of am, hav, and eram, the imperfedt of the indicative of
the fubftantive verb. This procefs, in the formation of
the praeterite of Latin verbs, will fcarce be queftioned,
and forms certainly a prefurnptive proof that the Greeks
purfued the fame line. From this verb is likewife
derived the Latin habeo, by changing into b, which
are indeed the fame letter. Our readers, after this
detail, will not be furprifed if we fhould now hazard
a conjedture, and declare it as our opinion, that this
fame Gothic auxiliary ha is adtually the additional
part of the prseterite of Greek verbs, and that parr
upon which the conjugation depends.
In forming this combination between the radix and
the auxiliary, the Greeks were obliged to fabricate
feveral devices. As often as the laft letter of the ra¬
dix could not unite with the afpirate in ha, they me-
tamorphofed it into one of the double letters, which
are capable of coalefcing with it. In the verb Xfyw,
y was changed into * ; thus, x*y ha became xt^a, tux-tw
praeterite ha, was combined into In verbs
which had a radix that would not admit this conjunc¬
tion, they hardened the h into *, as in praeterite
Ti-xtt, Axou-xa. Many other ways were contrived to
facilitate this reunion. Thefe are detailed in every
Greek grammar, and fo need not be mentioned.-—
What has been faid with refpe£l to this configuration*
we offer as a pure conje&ure, without the moft remote
intention of obtruding it upon our readers.
If it is admitted, that the auxiliary ha formed the
conjugating termination of the a&ive verb among the
Greeks, it will likewife be admitted, that the radical
verb and the other made originally two diftin& wordst
that, according to this fcheme, the praeterite would
i pro-
Sea. VII,
Greek proceed thtlS, ><> ha, fa id / have ; has, faid thou
Language, . Kty fai^ fa &c. This procefs to us
appears rational, elegant, and advantageous. The
piuperfeA was not then invented, and therefore it does
not come under our confideration. The other tenfes
were all deduced from thofe deferibed ; and in form¬
ing thefe intermediate di tin&ive tenfes, we believe
that both critics and grammarians, and perhaps phi-
iofophers too, were employed. See Grammar.
The eaitern nations have diverlified their verbs, by
affixing fragments of the perfonal pronouns to the ra¬
dix, by which they gained only the advantage of ex¬
hibiting the genders of the perfons engaged in being,
acting, and faffering j but a perpetual repetition of
thefe was unavoidable. The Greeks, by their artifi¬
cial combination of the radix with the two auxiliaries,
avoided the neceflity of repeating their perfonal pro¬
nouns- as we and the other modern inhabitants of Europe
are obliged to do; and at the fame time, by diverfify-
ing the terminations of their nouns and verbs, won¬
derfully improved the beauty and harmony of their
language. The arrangement above infilled on is fo
very different from that of the orientals, and fo entire¬
ly Gothic, that we think there can be no doubt that
the Greeks borrowed this manoeuvre from the Thra¬
cians. Every perfon moderately acquainted with the
Greek language will, upon examination, difeover a
wonderful coincidence between the ftrudture, idioms,
and phrafeology, of the Engliih and Greek languages:
fo many congenial features nuift engender a ftrong
fufpicion that there once fubliiled a pretty intimate
relation between them.
In the preceding dedu&ion, we find ourfelves obli¬
ged once more to differ from the very learned author
of the Origin and Progrefs of Language. As we took
the liberty to quellion his originality of the Greek
language, and at the fame time prefumed to attack
the goodly ftrudture railed by philofophers, critics,
and grammarians ; fo we now totally differ from that
learned writer as to his theory of the creation of
verbs out of the inhabile matter of aa> £«, &c. This
whole fabric, in our opinion, leans on a feeble foun¬
dation.
The apparatus of intermediate tenfes, of augments,
derivation of tenfes, with their formation, participles,
and idiomatical conftruClions, and other eifentials or
appendages, we omit, as not coming within the verge
of the difquifition.
Derivation derivation and formation of the middle and
and forma- paffive voices, would certainly afford matter of curious
tion of the fpeculation ; but the labour necefl'ary to invefligate
miildle connetlion would greatly overbalance the benefit
VCKe, expe&ed.
However, to complete our plan, we fhall fubjoin a
few ftridtures with refpecl to the formation of the
middle-voice, which was, in our opinion, immediately
formed from the adtive.
We have feen alrendy, that the adlive voice in its
original ftate was formed by annexing fragments of
the fubftantive or auxiliary verb to the radix. The
fame economy was obferved in fabricating the flexible
parts of the verb of the middle voice. To demon-
541
ftratc this, we fhall firfl conjugate the prefent tenfe of Greek
the auxiliary paflive upon the principles above laid Language,
down. ~ v' 1 f
Prefent, E'JAMo, ffiraj, ftrau, S0/u.i6u, tovTtti. Such
was the paffive-prefent of the auxiliary. We fhall
now take our example from the verb rwro ; fecood fu¬
ture Tv*-"/** , Jlruck lam, *'r*-“’r«',jlruck thou art, rv*-
1 Tat> Jlruck he is, See. contradted tuh-itou.
The conjundtion and formation here is obvious. Per¬
haps, in the fecond perfon, a- was inferted^ which,
however, is thrown out in the procefs of the perfons.
The future middle is clearly formed, by affixing the
future-paffrve of the verb £s only as » was introduced
ir.to the language for * long, it was generally (r) ftibfti-
tuted inilead of that vowel in verbs endinar in and I«',
and " for o in verbs ending in ««; the two vowels t and
o being originally long as well as fiioit, till » was
adopted to denote the long found of the former, and
y that of the latter. In many verbs, before the con- Plate
jundfion of the radix and auxiliary, £ was thrown CCCXCV
OUt: thus, TVar-fcro/iOK became A£y-Ecr6^ct(, XE^o^ai,
&c. »
The prseterite was deduced from that of the adlive
by a very flight variation, fo trifling, indeed, that it
need not be mentioned ; only we may obferve, that
the afpirate h is never retained in this tenfe, which
originally feems to have been the only diftinguifhing
charadter by which that tenfe of the middle-voice dif¬
fered from the fame tenfe of the adlive.
From the flridl analogy between the mode of fortrr-
ing the three primary tenfes of the adlive and middle
voice, we are led to fufpedt that what is now the
middle was originally the paflive voice.
The immediate formation of the former, by an¬
nexing the paflive auxiliary, is obvious. The middle
voice fliil partakes of the pafiive fignification, fince
it has fomeumes a paflive, though more frequently an
adlive. There are feveral parts of the prefent paflive
quite analogous to the fame tenfes in the middle : and,
laflly, it is the common progtefs, in the courfe of
improvement, to proceed ilep by Hep, and by appro¬
ximation. What is mofl finaple and eafy is the firffc
objedl, then fucceeds what is only a little more diffi¬
cult, and fo on till we arrive at the laft flage, when
human ingenuity can go no farther. Now, it will
readily be admitted, that the paffive voice is much
more embarrafled and intricate in its texture than the
middle; and, therefore, the former fhould have been
pofterior in point of time to the latter.
We are well aware, that the very learned Kufter,
and moft other moderns, deeply fkilled in the origin, .
progrefs, and ilrudlure, of the Greek language, have
thought otherwife. The generai opinion has been,
that the Greek middle voice anfw»red exadlly to
the Hebrew conjugation hithpacha/, and in its prif-
tine fignification imported a reciprocality, or when
the agent ads upon itfelf. For our part, we only in¬
tended a few hints upon the fubjedt, which our learn*
ed readers may purfue, approve, or rejedt, at plea-
fure.
If we might pretend to invelligate the formation
of the paffive voice, we fhould imagine that the mo¬
dern-
PHILOLOGY,
(t) We fay generally, becaufe in verbs ending in ««, the 1 is fbmetimes retained,, m ruj<r«, ugwo-ieu*
54^
Greek
J-anguage
PHILO
tlern prefent was formed from the ancient one, by in-
ferting fueh letters as were found neceffary for beau¬
ty, variety, energy, &c. ; the firft future from the
And of the fecond future middle of the verb once 6sa-
paflivc. This future is ; and, joined to the radix, always
Occupies that place, TEXfOwo-o^ai,
rv<p&*<rop.xi, and fo of the reft: whether t«',
which occur fo frequently as the terminations of the
middle and pafiive voices, are fragments of fome ob-
folete verb, we will not pretend to determine.
From verbs in £"> are formed verbs in
which in the prefent, imperfedt, and fecond aorift, as
it is called, only have a different form, by affuming
with a long vowel preceding it, in the prefent aftive;
which vowel is preserved in each perfon lingular. This
colle&ion of irregular verbs feems to be formed from
the verb £'«'> which in fome diale&s might be In¬
deed the imperfedf »> feems to imply as much: in
this, however, we dare not be pofitive.
In the whole of this analylis of the formation of
verbs, we have laid down what to us appears moft
pUufible. That metaphyfical critics may difcover in-
aecuracies in the preceding detail we make no doubt j
but our candid readers will doubtlefs refleft, that no
language was ever fabricated by philofophers, and that
the elements of language were hammered out by pea-
iants, perhaps by favages. Critics have created a philo-
fophy of language we admit, and have a thoufand times
difeovered wonderful acutenefs and ingenuity in the me-
chanifm of words and fentences, where the original o-
nomathetae never apprehended any, and which poflibly
never exifted but in their own heated imagination. If
our more enlightened readers lliould find any thing in
the preceding detail worthy their attention, fo much
the better; if the contrary ihould happen, we prefume
they will take up with the' hackneyed fyftem. We
have all along negle&ed the dual number, becaufe it
regularly follows the type of the other numbers.
Be that as it may, before we drop this fubjeft we
muft take the liberty to fubjoin an obfervation or two
with refped to the confequences of the practice of
new-modelling the prefent, and of courfe the imperfeft,
tenfes of verbs, ift, After this arrangement they com¬
monly retained all the other tenfes exactly as they had
flood connected with the primitive verb: this needs no
example. 2d, They often collected the tenfes of verbs,
whofe prefent and imperfed were now obfolete, in or¬
der to fupply this defed. Thus we have
tviyia, wvo^a. 3d, They often formed prefent and im-
perfed tenfes without any other tenfes annexed : The
poets in particular feem to have fabricated thefe 'two
tenfes at pleafure.
If this procedure rvas convenient for the poets, it
was certainly rcoft incommodious with refped to the
vulgar, as well as to foreigners who had an inclination
to learn the language. The vulgar, fome ages after
Homer and Hefiod, muft have found it as difficult to
underftand their poems as our people do to compre¬
hend thofe of Chaucer and Spenfer. By this difpofi-
tion, too, the etymology of verbs was almoft entirely
confounded. The prefent fecond future being, as has
LOGY. Sea. VII.
been obferved, the ancient prefent, the attention of the Greek
curious etymologift was naturallydiverted to the modern hai gu^ge,
prefent, where it was utterly impofiible to drfeover the *
radical word. A few examples w il elucidate this point:
teivm, Jlretch, to extend^ old prefent rava; ra» ig the ra¬
dix, which at once appears to be a Perfian word figni-
fying a large tract of country. Hence Mauritania “ the
land of the Mauri,” Aquitania, Bretania ; and with s
prefixed Hindo-ftan, Chufi-ftan, Turque-ftan. The
obfelete verb whence OvToy.on, is evidently derived
from op, an Egyptian name of the moon : ?«<>'-, fecond
future <pa.</u, to Jhow, from the Egyptian word pban or
pan, a name of the fun : tux-tu, future^ fecond Tu:r« ‘> tv*
is obvioully the offspring of sn thapb, “ a drum or tim¬
brel,” from beating or ftriking, «Scc. In fuch etymo¬
logical refearches, the ftudeat muft be careful to turn
the Ionic » into the Doric «; becaufe the Dores were
lateft from the coaft of Paleftine, and confequently re¬
tained the largeft fhare of the Phoenician dialeft: thus
Mia, to rejoice, turning w into » becomes fMta. This
word, throwing away the termination, becomes gath,
plainly fignifying a wineprefs(v). It is likewife to be
obferved, that the iEolians often change a into u, as
inftead of See.
It is not our intention to enter into the arrange¬
ment and peculiar conftrudftions of the Greek lan guage.
There is, however, one, which we cannot well pafs
over in filence. As that tongue is deftitute of thofe Gr
words which the Latins call gerunds, to fupply this flnitivea
defeft they employ the infinitive with the article pre-ufed as
fixed ; thus, E<f to vmi aura? ?><*.«? j in order to their being nouns.
friends ; a*9 t* e'a.e?B«< o-vtovs Eao-iAEa, from their having
elebled a king; E* t« a^-o yivyw aura? extm? from
their flying out of the city. In thefe phrafes the infini¬
tive is faid to affume the nature of a lubftantive noun ;
agreeing with the-article before it, exactly as if it were
a noun of the neuter gender. Idioms of this kind oc¬
cur in our own tongue ; only with us the verb, in¬
ftead of being expreffed in the infinitive, is turned in¬
to the participle. According to this arrangement,
the firft of the preceding phrafes, which, according to
the Greek, would ftand toward to be friends, in Engliih
is, in order to their being friends. This anomaly, then,
if indeed it be fuch, is of no manner of confequence.
The French, if we are not miftaken, would exprefs it
in the very fame manner with the Greek, that is,
etre amis.
From treating of verbs, we fhould naturally proceed
to the confideration of adverbs, which are fo denomi¬
nated, becaufe they are generally the concomitants of
verbs. Every thing relating to that part of fpeech,
in the Greek tongue, may be i’een in the Port Royal
or any other Greek grammar. Inftead therefore of
dwelling upon this beaten topic, we (hall hazard a con-
jedfure upon a point to which the critics in the Greek
tongue, as far as we know, have not hitherto adverted.
The moft elegant and moft admired writers ofQregj^.,ari<
Greece, and efpecklly Homer, and after him Hefiod, tides of
abound with frnall particles, which appear to us pureor‘entaf
expletives, created as it were to promote harmony, or
fill up a blank without fenfe or fignification. How
thofe
(it) Hence it came to fignify rejoicing, from the mirth and revelry attending the treading of the vine-prefs.
Sea VII. PHILO
Greek thofe expletive particles fhould abound in that lan-
Lan^uage. gUag-e beyond any other, we think, is a matter not
eafy to account for. It has been laid by the Zoili,
that if you extract thefe nonentities from the poems
of that hard, qui folus meruit diet poeta, a magnum inanet
a mighty blank would be left behind. We would
willingly do jutlice to that pigmy race of words, and
at the fame time vindicate the prince of poets from
that groundlefs imputation. Plato likewife, the prince
of philofophers, has been often accufed of too fre¬
quently employing thefe fuperfluous auxiliaries.
Thofe particles were no doubt imported from the
eaft. It would be ridiculous to imagine that any de-
feription of men, however enthufiafticaliy fond they
might be of harmonious numbers, would fit down on
purpofe to fabricate that race of monofyllables purely
to eke eut their verfes; mere founds without fignifican-
cy. In the firft place, it may he obferved, that there
is a very ftrift connexion among the particles of all
cognate languages. To this we may add, that the not
underftanding the nature, relations, fignification, and
original import of thofe feemingly unimportant terms,
has occafioned not only great uncertainty, but num-
berlefs errors in tranflating the ancient languages into
the modern. The Greek language in particular lofes
a confiderable part of itff beauty, elegance, variety, and
energy, when thefe adverbial particles with which it is
replete are not thoroughly comprehended. An exaft
tranflation of theie fmall words, in appearance infig-
nificant, would throw new light not only on Homer
and Heliod, but even upon poets of a much po fieri or
date. Particles, which are generally treated as mere
expletives, would often be found energetically fignifi-
cant. It 's, however, altogether impoffible to fucceed
in this attempt without a competent fkill in the He¬
brew, Chaldaic, Arabian, Perfian, and old Gothic lan¬
guages. We fhall here take the liberty to mention a
lew of ihefe particles which are moft familiar, one or
other of which occur in almofi every line of Homer,
and which we believe are either not underftood or mif-
underfiood. Such are A“> v-1*, wroi, ^av, yt, tpi, pa.
yvv. Aa. js nothing elfe but the Chaldaic particle
the parent of the Englifh the. It likewife fignifies by
turns, in your turn : ^ is the fame word in the Ionic
dialed; is a particle of the Hebrew affirmative
amen, fides, veritas. Ma,, a kind of oath by the moon
called mana, almoft over all the eaft ; hence Dor.
an oath by >-««, that is, the earth ; <*-pa, another oath
by the fame element, probably from the oriental word
of fhe fame import; f« is a fragment of “pa mention¬
ed before ; *»►, of ^a the ea/th, and o*1 or an E-
gyptinn name of the fun ; aSt a particle which
pervades all the dialeds of the Gothic language. In
this manner we believe all thefe fmall words that occur
fo frequently in the Greek tongue, and which have
hitherto been held inexplicable, may be eafily render¬
ed in fignificant terms: and were this done, we believe
they would add both beauty and energy to the claufes
in which they ftand. But this difeuffion mull be left
to more accompliihed adepts.
Prepofi- We (hall not explain the nature of prepofitions, be-
*ions, cauie we are convinced that few people will take the
trouble to perufe this difquifition who are not already
acquainted with their import in language. The Greek
jrrtpofitions are eighteen in number, which need not
LOGY. 543
be enumerated here. Moft of thefe might be eafily Greek
fhown to be particles, or fragments deduced from LanS,iage*,
oriental or Gothic words. The ufe of thefe words is ' v '
to conned together terms in difeourfe, and to ffiow
the relation between them. In languages where, as
in Engliffi, all thefe relations are expreffed without
any change on the termination of the nouns to which
they are prefixed, the procefs is natural and eafy. The
whole is performed by juxtapofition. But in the
Greek and Latin tongues, this effed is produced,
partly by prefixing prepofitions and partly varying
the terminations of nouns. Had the Greeks been
able to intimate all thofe relations by varying the ter¬
minations, or had they multiplied their prepofitions to
fuch a number as would have enabled them to exprefs
thefe relations without the cafual variations, as the
northern languages have done; in either cafe their
language would have been lefs embarraffing than it is
in its preftnt flare. According to the prefent arrange¬
ment both prepofitions and the cafual variations are
ufed promifcuoufly to anfwer that purpofe; a method
which appears to us not altogether uniform. Though
this plan might occafioa little embarrafiment to na¬
tives, it muft, in our opinion, have proved fomewhat
perplexing to foreigners. The difficulty would be, as
to the latter, when to adopt the one and wffien the
other expedient.
Another inconveniency arifes from the exceeding
fmall number of prepofitions in that language, which
bear too fmall a proportion to the great variety of re¬
lations which they are appropriaied to intimate. This
deficiency obliged them often to employ the fame
prepofition to denote difi'erent relations : For inftance,.
intimates, ift, upon; as upon the Jlone;
and then it takes the genitive. 2d, It denotes near
upon; as <j> and then it governs the dative.
3d, I he fame prepofition hgii'Siss motion towards; as
E-TTiatv In tov X(60v, be fell upon the Jlone. In thefe in-
ftances the fame prepofition intimates three different
relations ; and, which is ftdl more embarraffing, each
of thefe requires a different cafe. The difficulty in this,
inttance is fo confidera1 le, that even the moft accurate
of the Greek writers thcmfelves often either forget or
neglea the true application. Many examples of this
might be adduced, did the limits affigned us admit
fuch illuftrations. Every man who has carefully per-
ufed the Grecian authors v/ill readily fumiffi himfeif
with examples. 157“
-A-gain» fome prepofitions, which indicate different^r*'cgularlj(*
relations, are prefixed to the fame cafe. Thus, £4ufed»
fignifies from ; as, £* ASXc-^xi frorn Juplter we
begin; «* tpeev from my life, or my courfe of life;
vgo tov 8vpovf lefore the doors ; *go vixn; cyx.a/uiovt an en.
comium before the victory ; ’Avn ayaSov avroJifavai xaxx to
render evil for good; cuno-ov, again/l you. In thefe ex¬
amples, and indeed every where, thofe prepofitions
intimate different relations, and yet are prefixed to the
fame cafes. Sometimes the fame prepofition feems to
aflume two oppofite fignifications : this appears from
the prepofitiou juft mentioned, which intimates
both for, injlead of, and againjl or oppofite to.
Wbat has been obferved with refpedf to the prepo¬
fitions above mentioned, the reader vyill readily enough
apply to Kara, m£t«, a,a, Thefe incongruities
certainly imply foraetking irregular; and feero to inti¬
mate
544 PHILO
Greek jr.nte that thofe anomalies were fo deeply incorporated
Language. w{tj1 conftitution of the language, that the fuhfe-
quent improvers found it impoffible to corredt them.
Indeed to |>r£fix a prepofxtion to a eafe already di-
ftinguifhed by the affixed termination, appears to us a
fuperfluity at leafty if not an abfurdky ; for certainly
it would have been more natural to have faid «*
than fit Some very learned
men, who have inquired into the origin of language, have
been of opinion that prepofitions were the laft invented
fpecies of words. If this opinion is well founded, we
may fuppofe (and we think that this fuppofition is not
altogether improbable) that the cafual terminations of
the Greek language were firll affixed to the radix, in
the manner above exhibited ; and that prepolltions
were afterwards fabricated and prefixed to the caies
already in ufe.
The fyntax or conftruflion of the Greek language
does not, according to our plan, come within the com-
pafs of our prelent inquiry. This the curious Greek
Undent will eaiily acquire, by applying to the gram¬
mars compofed for that purpofe. We have already
hazarded a few conjettures with refpect to the forma¬
tion of the molt important and moft diftinguifhed
daffes of words into which it has been divided by the
molt able grammarians, without,however, defcending to
the minutiae of the language. As prepofitions are the
chief materials with which its other words, cfpeci?.lly
verbs, are compounded, we lhall briefly confider
the order in which they probably advanced in this
piocefs.
Complex ideas are compounded of a certain number
or collection of Ample ones. Of thofe complex no¬
tions, fome contain a greater and feme a fmalltr num¬
ber of Ample conceptions. In language, then, there
•re two ways of expreffing thofe complex ideas, either
by coining a word to exprefs every Ample idea fepa-
rately, according to the order in which they ftand in
the mind; or by trying to combine two or more
Ample terms into one, and by that method to intimate
one complex idea by one Angle word. The Arabians,
notwithftanding all the boafted excellencies of their
language, have never arrived at the art of compound¬
ing their words, in order to anfwer this nolle purpofe;
and the Alter dialers are but llendtily provided with
this fpecies of vocables. Ihe Greeks, of all other
nations (except perhaps thofe who fpake the Shanfcrit
language), are unrivalled in the number, variety, pr®-
priety, elegance, energy, and exprtffion of their com-
pound terms. The Greeks, like the Arabians, in the
earlieft Ihges of their language, had only a collection
of radical disjointed words, conlifting of the jargons
of the aboriginal Greeks, of the Pelafgi, Thracians,
&c. How thefe words were arranged and conftruCtcd,
we have no data remaining upon which we can found
a critical inveftigation. VVe mult therefore remain
fatisfied with fuch probable conjcCtures as the nature
of the cafe, and the analogy of the language, feem to
fuggeft.
The prepofitions were originally placed before the
nouns, whole relations they pointed out. For example,
1st us take the 4uvayfSv«o-KEro toic ixAAoic, he died along
with the ref, or he died out of band along with the others.
Thefe words were arranged thus: o-v, ro.r
awoi; j and «r’fl-3n*crxov eon roi; axAoic. In this manner
LOGY. Sea. VII.
the parts of every compound word were placed fepa- Gree!!:
158
Wed in
compofi-
tion.
Lilt. peu tn V.VWJ J V-V ~   l  l .
ratcly, at kail as much as other words which had no 1RUAk;e:
connexion. 159
The Aril compound words of the Greek language The firft
were the radical nouns with the article, and the radi-compound
cal part of the fubftantive or auxiliary verb. The
fuccefs of this experiment encouraged them to attempt
the fame in other words. By this noble invention
they found themfelves able to exprefs, in one word,
with eafe and AgniAcancy, what in other languages,
an^ formerly in their own, required a tedious ambages
or circumlocution. In procefs of time, as their lan¬
guage was gradually mellowed, they increafed the
number of their compounds, till their language, in that
refpeA, inAnitely excelled all its parent dialedts. In
this procefs they were careful to unite fuch letters as
not only prevented afperity and difficulty of pronuncia¬
tion, but even promoted harmony and elegance. But
this was the labour of pofterior ages.
'1 he Greeks were entirely ignorant of the derivation
or etymology of their language f for this we need only
confult Plato’s Cratylus, Arittotle’s Rhetoric, Deme¬
trius Phalereus, Longinus, &e. In deducing patro¬
nymics, abftra&s, poffeffives, gentiles, diminutives,
verbals, &c. from radicals of every kind, they have
ffiown the greatefl art and dexterity. Examples of
this occur almoft in every page of every Greek author.
But this extended no farther than their own language;
every foreign language was an abomination to the
Greeks. But more of this in the fequel. x6o
The original materials of the Greek tongue were CHg.nal
undoubtedly rough and difeordant, as we have deferi- ^at^eia *
bed them above. They had been collefted from dif-Greek ian.
ferent quarters, were the produce of different coun-gUage;
tries, and had been imported at very dillant periods.
It would therefore be an entertaining, if not an in-
ftrufting, fpeculation, if it were poffible to eiifcover
by what men and by what means this wonderful fabric
was founded, eredled, and carried to perfeftton. The
writers of Greece afford us no light. Foreigners were
unacquainted with that originally infigniAcant canton.
Every thing beyond Homer is buried in eternal obli¬
vion. Orpheus is indeed reported to have compofed
poems ; but thefe were foon obliterated by the hand
of time. The verfes now aferihed to that philofophical
hero are none of his *. Linus wrote, in the Pelafgic * Paufaiu
dialed, the atchievements of the Arft Bacchus; Ta-hb. 1.
myns the Thracian wrote ; and Pronapides the matter 1
of Homer was a celebrated poet. 1 he works of all
thefe bards did not long furviv'e; and it is a certain
fad that the Greek tongue was highly polifhed even
more early than the age in which thefe worthies flou-
rilhed. Homer, no doubt, imitated their produdions,
and fome are of opinion that he borrowed liberally
from them. The Greeks knew no more of the origi¬
nal charader of their language than ot the original
charader and complexion of their progenitors. 1 hey
allowed, indeed, that their language was originally
barbarous and uncouth ; but by what means or by what
perfons it was polifhed, enriched, and Anally arranged,
was to them an impenetrable fecret.
We have already demonflrated that the lonim or
aborigines of Greece were a race of barbarians ; that
confequently their language, or rather their jargon,
was of the fame contexture. The Pelafgi found both
the
sea. VII.
PHIL
Greek
Language
-161
Which was
carried to
its utmoft
perfection
at a very
early pe¬
riod,-
Ida
By the po¬
ets, who
made a
the people and their fpeech in this uncultivated ftate.
Theie people arrived in Greece about the year before
Chrift 1760. It was then that the language of Greece
began to be cultivated. Before the age of Homer
the work feems to have been completed. Nothing of
confequence was afterwards added to the original ftock;
on the contrary, not a few moieties were deducted
from the Homeric treafure. The Pelafgi, as was faid
before, arrived in Greece an. ant. Chr. $760. Ho¬
mer is thought to have been born an. ant. Chr. 1041 ;
eonfequently the cultivation of the Greek tongue was
completed in a period of about 700 years. But upon
the fuppofition that Orpheus, Linus, Tamyris, &c.
wrote long before Homer, as they certainly did, that
language was arrived nigh the ftandard of perfeaion
two centuries before ; by which computation the
period of its progrefs towards its ftationary point is
reduced to 500 years. But as the Pelafgi were a co¬
lony of foreigners, we ought to allow them one cen¬
tury at leaft to fettle and incorporate with the natives,
and to communicate their language, laws, manners,
and habits, to the aborigines of the country. By this
deduction we lhall reduce the term of cultivation to
lefs than four centuries. ,
During this period Greece was furiouny agitated
by tumults and infurredions. That country was
divided into a number of independent ftates, which
were perpetually engaged in quarrels and competitions.
The profeffion of arms was abfolutely neceffary for
the protedion ajid prefervation of the ftate ; and the
man of condud and prowefs was honoured as a demi¬
god, and his exploits tranfmitted with eclat to pofterity.
The Greek tongue was then rough and unpolilhed ;
becaufe, like the ancient Romans, the braveft men
V/ere more difpofed to ad than to fpeak. Every lan¬
guage will take its colour from the temper and cha-
rader of thofe who employ it ; and had it not been
owing to one clafs of men, the Greek tongue would
have continued equally rough to the era of Homer as
h had been a century after the arrival of the Pelafgi.
There has appeared among barbarous or half-
civilized people a defeription of men whofe profeflion
it has been to frequent the houfes or palaces of the
great, in order to celebrate their atchievements, or
thofe of their anceftors, in the fublimeft ftrains of he¬
roic poetry. Accordingly we find that the Germans
had their bards^ the Gauls their fads^ the Scandinavians
idizix fealds ox fealdres, the Irifh their Jikasy all retain¬
ed for that very purpofe. They lived with their chief¬
tains or patrons; attended them to battle; were wit-
nefies of their heroic deeds; animated them with mar
tial ftrains ; and celebrated their prowefs if they pro¬
ved vidorious; or, if they fell, raifed the fong of
woe, and chanted the mournful dirge over their fepul-
chres I hefe bards were always both poets and mu-
ficians. Their perfons were held facred and inviolable.
They attended public entertainments, and appeared in
all national conventions. The chief of them were
employed in the temples of the gods ; and the lefs
illuftrious, like our minftrels of old, ftrolled about
from place to place,and exercifed their fundions where-
ever they found employment.
.Among the ancient Greeks there was a numerous
tribe of men of the very fame defeription, who were
at once poets and muficians, and whofe office it was
Vox.. XIV. Part II.
o L O G Y. 545
to celebrate the praifes of the great, and to tranfmit Greek
their exploits to pofterity in the molt exaggerated en- t-angua^e..
comiums. Thefe poetical vagrants were ftylcd Ao/Joi 1 l,r_"‘v
or fongfters. Some of thefe lived in the houfes of great
men ; while others, lefs ikilful or lefs fortunate, ftrolled
about the country in the manner above deferibed. The
more illuftrious of thofe A;Joi who were retained in
the temples of the gods, were certainly the firft im¬
provers of the language of the Greeks. Among the
Hebrews, we find the firft poetical compofitions were
hymns in honour of Jehovah, and among the pagans
the fame pradice was eftablifhed. In Greece, when
all was confufion and devaftation, the temples of the
gods were held facred and inviolable. There the
AoiSoi improved their talents, and formed religious an¬
thems on thofe very models which their progenitors
had chanted in the eaft.
The language of the Greeks was yet rugged and
unmellowed : their firft care was to render it more foft
and more flexible. They enriched it with vocables
fuited to the offices of religion; and thefe we imagine
^ were chiefly imported from the eaft. Homer every
where mentions a diftindion between the language of
gods and men. The language of gods imports the DiftindHon
oriental terms retained in the temples, and ufed in between
treating of the ceremonies of religion; the language
of men intimates the ordinary civil dialed which GodsVnd
fprung from the mixed diale&s of the country. The of men.
priefts, no doubt, concurred in promoting this noble
and important purpofe. From this fource the ftrolling
Ao,s°l drew the rudiments of their art; and from thefe
laft the vulgar deduced the elements of a polifhed ftyle*
To thefe Aoiici 0f the fuperior order we would
aferibe thofe changes mentioned in the preceding part
of this inquiry, by which the Greek tongue acquired
that variety and flexibility, from which two qualities
it has derived a great lhare of .that eafe, beauty, and
verfatility, by which it now furpafles moft other lan¬
guages. The diverfity of its terminations furnilhes a
molt charming variety, while at the fame time the
fenfe is communicated to the reader or hearer by the
relation between them. By this economy the poet *
and the orator are left at liberty to arrange their vo¬
cables in that order which may be moll foothing to
the ear, and belt adapted to make a lafting impreffion
on the mind.
Few colonies have emigrated from any civilized
country without a detachment of priefts in their train.
The fupreme powers, whoever they were, have always
been worlhipped with mufic and dancing. The He¬
brews, Phcenicians, and Egyptians, delighted in thefe
mufical and jocund feftivals. The priefts who attended
the lones, Dores, jFolians, Thebans, Athenians, 8cc»
from the eaft, introduced into Greece that exquifite
tafte, thofe delicate mufical feelings, which diftinguifti-
ed the Greeks from all the neighbouring nations.
Hence that numerous race of onomatapoeas, by which
the Greek language is invefted with the power of ex-
preffing almoft every paffion of the human foul, in
fuch terms as oblige, it to feel and aftually to affimu-
late to the paffion it would excite. Numberlefs in-
ftances of this occur in every page of Homer, Hefiod,
Pindar, Sophocles, Euripides, and even of Arifto-
phanes: to quote inftances would be to infult the
Greek ftudent.
3 Z
Every
S46
Greek
Language.
P H I L O L O G Y
Sea. Y1L
i6^
Earlieft
poets of
>Greece.
165
prpheas.
*66
Every body knows that the pra&i'ee of writing in
verfe was antecedent to the date of profaic competi¬
tion. Here, then, the and the minitlers of re¬
ligion chiefly difplayed their fkill and difeernment.
By a judicious mixture of fhort and long fyllables ; by
a junction of confonants which naturally Aide into
each other ; by a careful attention to the rythna, or
harmony refulting from the combination of the fyh
lebles of the whole line—they completed the metrical
tone ©f the verfe, guided by that delicacy of mufical
feeling of which they were poffeiTed before rules of
profody were known among men.
Much li1 erty was certainly ufed in tranfpofing let¬
ters, in varying terminations, in annexing prefixes
and affixes, both to nouns and other kinds of words
where fuch adjunAs were poffifcle : and upon this oc-
cafion we think it probable, that thofe particles of
which we have fpoken above were inferted li*e fil¬
ling ftenes thruft in to (top the gaps or chinks of a
building. Verfes were then clumfy and irregular, as
the quantity of vowels was not duly afeertained, and
the collifion of heterogeneous confonants not always
avoided. Probably thefe primitive verfes differed as
widely from the finifhed {trains of Homer and his i'uc-
ceffors, as thofe of Chaucer and Spencer do from the
fmootb polifhed lines of Dryden and Pope.
The Doetical compofnions of the earheft Greeks
were not, we think, in the hexameter^ flyle. As they
were chiefly calculated for religious fervices, we ima¬
gine they refembled the Hebrew iambics preferved
in the fong of Aaron and Miriam, Deborah and Ba¬
rak, Pfalms, Proverbs, &c. which were indeed cal¬
culated for the fame purpofe. Archilochus perhaps
imitated thefe, theugh the model upon which he
formed his iambics was not generally known. the
later dramatic poets feem to have copied from the
fame archetypes. Hexameters, it is probable, were
invented by Orpheus, Linus, Tam y ns, Mu feus, &c.
The fir ft of thefe travelled into Egypt, where he might
learn the hexameter meafure from that people, who
nfed to bewail Mantras and Ojtns m elegiac {trains.
This fpecies of metre was firft confecrated to theolo¬
gy, and the mod profound feiences of moral and na¬
tural philofophy ; at length it was brought down to
cekbtate the exploits of kings and heroes.
Jfes gejlas regvmque, dueuwque et fort: a be I la ^
Sjhio feribi pqjfent nurnero monjlravit Homerus.
We have hazarded n conje&ure above, importing
that the earlieff poetical ccmpofitions of the Greeks
were confecrated to the fervice of the gods. W e
{hall now produce a few fads, which wall furnifh at
leaft a prefumptive evidence of the probability oi that
Orpheus begins his poem with ancient chaos, its
transformations and changes, and purfues it through
its various revolutions. He then goes on to defenbe
the offspring of Saturn, that is time, the aether, love,
and light. In fliort, his whole poem is faid to have been
an oriental allegory, calculated to infpire mankind with-
the fear of the gods, and to deter them from murder,
rapine, unnatural luffs,. &c. f ^ ,
Mufeus was the favourite fcholar of Orpheus, or
’ perhaps his fen. He compofed prophecies and hymns,
r65
Oien.
169
and wrote fucred inftru&ions, which he addreffed to Gr«k^
his fon. He preferibed atonements and hi ft radons; La"SuaSe-i
but his great work was a I neogony, or Hiftoiy of
the Creation, &c. r 16.7
Melampus brought the myfteries of Proferpine from Melampus,
Egypt into Greece. He wrote the whole hiftory of
of the difafters of the gods. This feer is mentioned by
Homer himfelf.
Olen came from Lycia, and compofed the firff
hymn that wes fung 111 Delos at their folemnities ,
he probably emigrated from Patara a city ot Lycia,
where Apollo had a celebrated temple and oracle.
The PIvperborean damfels ufed to vifit Delos, where
they chanted facred hymns in honour of the Delian god.
To thefe we add the great Homer himielf, if in- Kome^anS
deed the hymns commonly annexed to the Odyfley. e 10
are his compofition. Hefiod’s Iheogony is too well
known to need to lie mentioned.
From thefe inftancts we hope it appears, that the
origin of the poetry of Greece is to be found in the
temples; and that there, its meafure, numbers, rythm,
and other appendages were originally fabricated.
The Grecian poets, however, enjoyed another ad¬
vantage winch that clafs of writers have feloom pof-
feffed, which arofe from the different di'aie&s into ^
which their language was divided. All thofe dhleCb Differer.fc
were adopted indifferently by the prince of poets; a dialefU
circumftancc which enabled him to take advantage offilin',
any word from any dialect, provided it fuited his pur-' a
pofe. This, at the fame time that it ren '.ered verfi-
lication eafy, diffufed an agreeable variety over his
compofition. He even accommodated words from
Macedonia, Epirus, and Illyricum, to the purpofes o£
his verlification : Befides, the laws of quantity were not
,then clearly afeertained ; a eircumftance which afford¬
ed him another conveniency. Succeeding poets did
not enjoy thefe advantages, and conlequently have
been more circumfcribed both in their diction and
numbers.
The Greek language, as is generally known, was
divided into many different dialects. Every fept, or
petty canton, had feme peculiar forms of fpeech which
diftinguilhed it from the others. There were, how¬
ever, four different dialectical variations which car¬
ried it over all the others. Thefe were the Attic, io¬
nic, iEolic, and Doric. Thefe four dialectical di-
ftindtions originated from the different countries in
the caff from which the tribes refpeaively emigrated.
The Attics confifted, ifi, of the barbarous aborigines;
2d, of an adventitious colony of Egyptian banes ; ftd,.
a branch of lonians from the coait of Paleftine.
Thefe laft formed the old Ionian dialed*, from which
fprung the Attic and modem Ionic. 1 he A-iohans
emigrated from a different quarter ot the fame coaft ;
the inhabitants of which were a remnant of the old
Canaanites, and confequently different in dialed
from the two firft mentioned colonies. The Dores
fprang from an unpohfbed race of purple fiftiera on
the fame coaft, and confequendy fpoke a diakCt more
coarfe and ruftic than any of the reft, d hefe four
nations emigrated from different regions ; a circunw
fiance which, in our opinion, laid the foundation of
the different dialedts by which they were afterwards
diftinguifhed,
Seft. VII. PHILO
Greek It is Impoffible in this fiiort fketch to exhibit an
jLanguage exa£ vjew t^e diftfnguiihin^ features of each dia-
* left. Such ?.n analyfis would carry us far beyond the li¬
mits of the article in queftion. For entire fatisfaftion on
this head, we muft refer the Grecian (Indent to Mat¬
t-lire’s Greca Lingua DialeRi, where he will find every
thing neceflary to qualify him for underftanding that
fubjeft. We (hall content ourfelves with the few ob-
fervatiems following.
The Athenians being an aftive, brifk, volatile race,
delighted in contraftions. Their ftyle was mod ex-
quifitely polifhed. The mod celebrated authors who
wrote in that dialeft were the following: Plato, Thu-
cidydes, Xenophon, Demodhenes, and the other ora¬
tors ; jEfchylus, Euripides, Sophocles, Aridophanes,
Menander, Diphilus, with the other comic and tragic
poets. That dialeft was either ancient or modern.
The ancient Attic was the fame with the Ionic.
The Ionic, as was faid, was the ancient Attic; but
when that nation emigrated from Attica and fettled on
the coad of Ada Minor, they mingled with the Carians
and Pelafgi and of courfe adopted a number of their
vocables. They were r.n indolent, luxurious, and dif-
folute people ; of courfe their dyle was indeed eafy
and flowing, but verbofe, redundant, and without
nerves. This, however, is the leading dyle in Homer;
and after him a prodigious number of writers on every
'fubjeft have irfed the fame dialeft, fuch as Plerodotus
-of Halicarnaflus the celebrated hidorian ; Ctefias of
Cnidus the hidorian of Perfia and India; Hecataeus of
Mi letus ; Megadhenes the hidorian, who lived under
Seleucus Nicator; Hippocrates the celebrated phyd-
cian of Coos ; Hellanicus the hidorian often mentioned
with honour by Polybins ; Anacreon of Teia; Al-
casus, Sappho of Lelbos, excellent poets; Pherecydes
Syrns the philofopher, and a multitude of other per¬
sons of the fame profeflion, whom it would be fuper-
fluous to mention upon the prefent occafion.
1 he iEolic and Doric were originally cognate dia-
lefts. When the Dorians invaded Peloponncfus and
fettled in that peninfula, they incorporated with the
Bohans, and their two dialefts blended into one
produced the new Doric. The original Dores inha¬
bited a rugged mountainous region about Ofla and
Pindus, and fpoke a rough unpoliflted language
fimllar to the foil which they inhabited. Andreas
Schottus, in his obfervations on poetry, 1. 2. cap. 50.
proves from an old manufcript of “ Theocritus, that
there were two dialefts of the Doric tongue, the
one ancient and the other modern; that this poet
employed Ionic and the modern Doric ; that the old
Doric dialeft was rough and cumbrous ; but that
Theocritus has adopted the new as being more foft
and mellow.” A prodigious number of poets and
philofophers wrote in this dialeft, fuch as Epichar-
mus the poet; Ibycus the poet of Rhegium ; Gorin-
na the poetefs of Thefpis, or Thebes, or Corinth,
who bore away the prize of poetry from Pindar; £-
rynna a poetefs of Lelbos ; Mofchus the poet of Sy-
racufe ; Sappho the poetefs of Mitylcne ; Pindarus
of Thebes the prince of lyric poets; Archimedes
of Syracufe the renowned mathematician ; and almofl:
all the Pythagorean philofophers. Few hiftorians wrote
in that dialeft; or if they did, their works have not
LOOT, v 54*
fallen into our hands. Mod of the hymns fang in Greek
temples of the gods were compofed in Doric ; a cir- Language,
cumftance which evinces the antiquity of that dialeft, v 'J
and which, at the fame time, proves its affinity to the
oriental flandard.
After that the Greek tongue was thoroughly po-The partl-
lifhed by the Heps which we have endeavoured to^hyofrhc
trace in the preceding pages, confcious ©f the fu- to
perior excellency of their own language, the Greeks, tongue'ani
in the pride of their heart, ftigmatized every nation rs evil’com.
which did not employ their language with the con'fe^uence»"
temptuous title of barbarians. Such was the delicacy
of their pampered ears, that they could not indure
the untutored voice of the people whom they called
Bxs€uSoj:z.'vqI' This extreme delicacy produced three
very pernicious effefts; for, ift, it induced them to
metamorphole, and fometimes even to mangle, foreign
names, in order to reduce their found to the Grecian
ftandard ; and, 2d, it prevented their learning the
languages of the eaft, the knowledge of which would
have opened to them an avenue to the records, an¬
nals, antiquities, laws, cuftoms, &c. of the people of
thofe countries, in comparifon of whom the Greeks
themfelves were of yefterday, and knew nothing. By
this unlucky bias, not only they, but even we who
derive all the little knowledge of antiquity we pof-
fels through the channel of their writings, have fuf*
feted an irreparable injury. By their transformation of
oriental names they have in a manner flopped the chan¬
nel of communication between the hiflojiea of Eu¬
rope and Afia. This appears evident from the fragments
of Ctefias'’s Perfian hiflory, from Herodotus, Xeno¬
phon, and all the other Grecian writers who have occa¬
fion to mention the intercom fe between the Greeks and
Pertians. 3d, It deprived them of all knowledge of the
etymology of their own language, without which it was
impofiible for them to underlfand its words,phrafeology,
and idioms, to the bottom. We mentioned Plato’s Cra-
tylus above. In that dialogue, the divine philofopher
endeavours to inveftigate the etymology of only a few
Greek words. His deduftions are abfolutely childifli,
and little fuperior to the random conjeftures of a
fchool-boy. Varro, the mo!t learned of all the Ro¬
mans, has not been more fuccefsful. Both Humbled
on the very threihold of that ufeful faience ; and a
fcholar of very moderate proficiency in our days
knows more of the origin of thefe two noble lan¬
guages, than the greatefl adepts among the natives
did in theirs. By prefixes, affixes, tranfpofitions of
letters, new conjuniiions of vowels and confonants
for the fake of the mufic and rythm, they have fo dif-
guifed their words, that it is almoft impoffible to de-
velope their original. As a proof of this, we remem¬
ber to have feen a manufcript in the hands of a pri¬
vate perfon where the firft twelve verfes of the Iliad
are carefully analyfed; and it appears to our fatisfaftion
that almoft eveiy word may be, and aftually is, traced
back to a Hebrew, Phoenician, Chaldean, or iEgyp-
tian original: And we are convinced that the fame
procefs will hold good in the like number of verfes
taken from any of the moft celebrated poets of
Greece. This inveftigation we found was chiefly con-
dufted by reducing the words to their original inva¬
riable ftate, which wa* done by {tripping them of
3 Z a pre*
54^
Greek
Language
I
Beauty of
the Greek
language.
o
m
The fpiri-
tus afper
and lenis.
17-4
The ac¬
cents.
J See Pul-
fitum.
PHIL
prefixes, affixes, &c. Tliefe ftri&ures are, we think,
well founded; and confequeatly need no apology to
protect them.
Thefe imperfe&ions, however, are counterbalanced
by numberlefs excellencies: and we are certainly much
more indebted to that incomparable people for the in¬
formation they have tranfmitted to us through the
medium of their writings, than injured by them in
not conveying to us and to themfelves more authen¬
tic and more ample communications of ancient events
and occurrences. Without fatiguing our readers with
fuperfluous encomiums on a language which has long
ago been extolled perhaps to an extravagant degree
by the labours of men of the moll enlarged capacity
and the moft refined tafte, we fhall now proceed to
make a few obfervations on fpirits and accents; which
being rather appendages than effentials of the lan¬
guage, we have on purpofe referved for the laft
place.
Every word in the Greek language beginning with
a vowel is marked with a fpirit or breathing: This
afpiration is double, namely lenis et afper> “ the gentle,
and rough or afpirated ” The gentle accent, though
always marked, is not now pronounced, though in
the earlieft periods of the language it was undoubt¬
ed enounced, though very foftly. Both thefe afpi-
rations were imported from the eaft. They were ac¬
tually the Hebrew n he and n heth. The former de¬
noted thefpirilus lenis, and the latter tXxz fpintus afper.
The Hebrew prefixed ha or he to words beginning
■with a vowel, and of courfe the Greeks followed
their example. Thefe people feem to have delighted in
afpirates; and of confequence the letter * is, fome
think, rather too often affixed to the terminations of
their words. Every word beginning with p had the
afpirate joined to p, probably with a defign to render
the afpiration ftill more rough.
* The Greek accents are three in number ; the acute,
the grave, and the circumflex. The acute raifes and
•fharpens the voice ; the grave deprefies and flattens
it ; the circumflex firft raifes and fliarpens the voice,
and then depreffes and flattens it. It is obvioully
compofed of the other two. The learned author of
the Origin and Progrefs of Language has taken much
pains to prove that thefe accents were a&ually mufi-
cal notes, invented and accommodated to raife, de-
prefs, and fufpend the voice, according to a fcale of
mufical proportions. It is fcarce poffible, we think,
for a modern Greek fcholar to comprehend diftinftly
the ancient theory of accents. Thefe the native
Greeks learned from their infancy, and that With fuch
accuracy, that even the vulgar among the Athenians
would have hiffed an a&or or adrefs off the ftage
or an orator off the pulpitum on account of a few
miftakes in the enunciation of thofe notes.
Thefe elevations, depreffions, and fufpenfions of
the voice upon certain fyllables, muft have made their
language found in the ears of foreigners fomewhat
like recitative, or fomething nearly refembling cant.
But the little variety of thofe fyliabic tones, and the
voice not refting upon them, but running them on
without interruption, fufficiently diftinguifhed them
from mufic or cant, Be that as it may, we think it
highly probable, that the wonderful effeds produced
by the harangues of the orators of Greece on the en*
LOGY. Sea. vil
raptured minds of their hearers, were owing in a good Greek
meafure to thofe artificial mufieal tones by which their Language*.
fyllables were fo happily diverfified.
To this purpofe we (hall take the liberty to tran-
feribe a paffage from Dion. Halic. De Stru£lura Orationis,
which we find tranflated by the author of the Origin
and P rogrefs of Language ^ vol. ii. book 3d, partii. chap. y.
page 3B1. “ Rhetorical compofition is a kind of mu¬
fic differing only from fong or inftrumental mufic, in
the degree, not in the kind; for in this compofition
the words have melody, rythm, variety, or change,
and what is proper or becoming : So that the ear in.
it, as well as in mufic, is delighted with the melody,
moved by the rythm, is fond of variety, and delirea
with all thefe what is proper and fuitable. The dit-
ference, therefore, is only of greater and lefs.”
With refpe6t to accents, it may be obferved that
only one fyllable of a word is capable of receiving
the acute accent, however many there be in the word.
It was thought that the raifing the tone upon more than
one fyllable of the word, would have made the pro¬
nunciation too various and complicated, and too like,
chanting.
The grave accr/tf always takes place when the acute is
wanting. It accords with the level of the difeourfe;
whereas the acute raifes the voice above it.
The circumflex accent being compofed of the other
tw’o, is always placed over a long iyllable, becaufe
it is impofiible firit to elevate the voice and then to
deprefs it on a fhort one. Indeed among the Greeks
a long fyllable was pronounced like two ftiort ones ;
and we apprehend it was fometimes written fo, efpe-
cially in later times. It is altogether obvious from
two learned Greek authors, Dion. Halic, and Arifto-
xenus, that the Greek accents were actually mufical
notes, and that thefe tones did not .confill of loud
and low, or fimply elevating and depreffing the voice j
but that they were uttered in fuch a manner as to
produce a melodious rythm in difeourfe.
In a word, the acute accent might be placed upon
any fyilable before the antepenult, and rofe to a
in the diatonical fcale of rnufic} the grave fell to
the third below it. The circumflex was regulated
according to the meafure of both, the acute always
preceding. The grave accent is never marked except
over the laft fyllable. When no accent is marked,
there the grave always takes place. Some words are
called enclitics. Thefe have no accent expreffed, but.
throw it back upon the preceding word. The cir¬
cumflex, when the laft fyllable is fhort, is often found
over the penult, but never over any other fyllable
but the laft or the laft but one.
The ancient Greeks had no accentual marks. They The and-
learned thofe modifications of voice by practice from.ent Greeks
their infancy ; and we are affured by good authority
that in pronunciation they obferve them to this day.marks>
The accentual marks are faid to have been invented
by a famous graiamarian, Ariftophanes of Byzantium,
keeper of the Alexandrian library under Ptolemy Phi-
lopater, and Epiphanes, who was the firii hkewife.
who is fuppofed to have invented punctuation,
centual marks, however, were not in common uie till
about the feventh century; at which time they art found
in manuferipts. II our curious readers would wifli
to enter more deeply into the theory of accents, we
mult
Sea. VII, PHIL
G-etk muft remit them to Origin of Language, volii. 1. 2.
■^angu^c. pajj-m . and to Mr F0fter>s Effay on the" different Na¬
ture of Accent and Quantity.
buch, in general, are the obfervations which we
thought the nature of our delrgn obliged us to make
on the origin and progrefs of the Greek language.
Some of our more learned readers may perhaps blame
us for not interfperfing the whole difquifition with
quotations from the molt celeorated writers in the
language which has been the objett of our refearches.
We are well aware that this is the general pra&ice in
fuch cafes. The books were before us, and we might
have tranfcribed from them more quotations than
the nature of an article of this kind would permit.
In the titfl part there were no books in that lan-
g'uage to quote from, becaufe the Greeks knew no¬
thing of their own origin, nor of that of their Ian-
guage, and confequently have recorded nothing but
dreams and fictions relating to* that fubjea. Even
when we had made confiderabie progrefs in our in¬
quiry, the nature of the plan we have adopted ex¬
cluded in a great meafure the ufeof quotations. When
we drew near the conclufion, we imagined that our
learned readers would naturally have recourfe to the
paffages alluded to without our information, and that
the unlearned would not trouble themfelves about the
matter. 'I he Greek ftudent who intends to penetrate
into the depths of this excellent language, will en¬
deavour to be thoroughly acquainted with the books
j,6 after mentioned.
Books to be Ariftotle’s Rhetoric and Poetics, his book De Inter-
ftudied by pretatiene, efpecially with Ammonius’s Commentary.
wholes AlrArn°niuS ^as a native of Alexandria, and by far the
to be a ma- acllte of all the ancient grammarians.
Dion. 11alic. De Struftura Orationis, where, amidft a
bundance of curious and interefting obfervations, will
be found the true pronunciation of the Gteek letters.
Demetrius Phalereus De Elocutione; a fhort eflay in¬
deed, but replete with inttrudtion concerning the pro¬
per arrangement of words and members in fentences.
Longinus, the prince of critics, whofe remains are
1 See Gaza, above commendation. Theodorus GazaJ and the other
refugees from Conftantinople, who found an hofpitable
reception from the munificent family of the Medici,
and whofe learned labours in their native language
once more revived learning and good taile in Europe.
Thefe, with fome other critics of lefs celebrity, but
, equal utility, wifi unlock all the treafures of Greci¬
an erudition, without however difclofing the fource
from which they flowed. To thefe one might add a
few celebrated moderns, fuch as Monf. Fourmont
the Elder, Monf. Gebeiin, Abbe Pezron, Salmaiius,
and efpeeially the learned and induftrious Lord Mon¬
bod do
We lhall now give a very brief account of the vail
extent of the Greek language even before the Mace¬
donian empire was ere&ed ; at which period, indeed,
it became in a manner univerfal, much more than ever,
the Latin language could accomplifh notwithftanding
177 the vafl: extent of the Roman empire.
™rnt Greece, originally Hellas, was a region of fmall ex-.
Greek Ian- tent’ andyct 'ent out many numerous colonies into diffe¬
rent parts oi tlic world. Thefe colonies carried their na-
tive.language along with them, andinduftrioufly diffu-
fed it wherever they formed a fettlement. The lones,
fter of this
language.
guage.
O L O G Y. J49
jEoles, and Dores, poffeffed themfelves of all the weff Greek
and north-weft coaft of the Lcffer Afia and the ad- Language.
jacent iflands ; and there even the barbarians learned ~v
that polilhed language The Greek colonies extend¬
ed themfelves along the fouth coaft of the Euxine fea
as far as Sinope, now Trebizund, and all the way*
from the weft coaft of Afia Minor : though many ci¬
ties of barbarians lay between, the Greek tongue wag
underftood and generally fpoken by people of rank and
fafhion.
There were Greek cities on the north coaft of the
Euxine fea to the very eaftern point, and perhaps be¬
yond even thofe limits ; likewife in the Taurica Cher-
fonefuu, or Grim 1 artaiy ; and even to the mouth of
the Danube, the ftraits of Caff.n, See. In the neigh¬
bourhood of all thefe colonies, the Greek language
was carefully propagated among the barbarians, who
carried on commerce with the Greeks.
A great part of the fouth of Italy was planted with
Greek cities on both coaits; fo that the country was
denominated Magna Gracia* Here the Greek tongue
univerfitlly prevailed. In Sicily it was in a manner
vernacular. The lonians had fent a colony into Egypt
in the reign of Pfammitichus ; and a Greek fettlement
had been formed in Cyrenia many ages before. The
1 hocians had built Maflilia or Marfeilles as early ag
the reign of Cyrus the Great, where fome remains of
the Greek language are ftill to be difeovered. Caefar
tells us, that in the camp of the Helvetii regiflers
were found in Greek letters. Perhaps no language
ever had fo extenfive a fpread, where it was not pro¬
pagated by the law of conqueft. jjg
I he Greek tongue, at this day, is confined within’GI'eek fpn* •
very narrow limits. It is fpoken in Greece itfelf, ex-ken at
cept in Epirus, and the weftern parts of Macedonia. ^cnt*
It is likewife fpoken in the Grecian and Afiatic
iflands in Candia or Crete, in fome parts of the coaft
of Alia Minor, and in Cyprus: but in all thefe re¬
gions, it is much corrupted and degenerated.
As a fpecimen, we fhall infert a modern Greek
fong, and the advertifement of a quack medicine*
which, with other plunder, was brought by the Rul-’
fians from Chocfim or Chotzim in 1772.
Song in modern Greek.
MI ttoXs/au pi SSucrccuct to X([xo
Eluxi, xat y-WTenveu, xct.) vu v.oniiu
'Lto TTiXxyof tcov crv[t<po£uv pi i’Gux.MvMv noeieov.
ohUffgws o-padgus kxi cjctrrwg.
Ms xiparx xal pui'j xvxnvxc-p^v,
GxAxtre-x yaoxo/xjij), vdhhx uypiopini.
Owb XX/ pi o-xyxtXKix TTigtc-trcl
Tvnpx axoTirypIx xxi x.xixc-vyy^nrpitX>
Kxi m (pxvij pix tutrix, vx i$dy ra pxrix
n^x va iu£ur xuay^x x<xi ^ vfevg),
N’ nxi Sev iiUTro^rZ y^aTi \ipwx 2‘v S-0gZ.
M' UTi'Knijicii Seefcco ora agunx ttS tveo.
ns pi UVTX xxv vx Tcvvyu V) aihxpinvx tvyw}
Ksfi TtSTX xv ^xi-x^ev} e/xsrogaK vx pi ipvAx^dv,
cTranJlation.
With dire misfortunes, pains, and woes,
O’erwhelm’d, infrulph’d, L flruggling fight;
O'er my frail bark proud billows clofe
To plunge her deep in lafting night.
3
Lough
55®
Greet
language.
I L O
P H
Rougli Teas of'Tils incelfant roar.
Fierce winds adverfe, with howling blaft,
Heave furge on furge. Ah 1 far from ihore
My found’ring flcif!' (hall fink at laft.
Involv’d in iow’ring darkfome clouds,
’Mid fultry fogs, I pant for breath ;
Huge foaming billows rend my {hrouds,
While yawning gulphs extend beneath.
From hurfling clouds loud thunders roll,
And dcaf’ning peals terrific fpread ;
Red lightnings dart from pole to pole,
And burft o’er my devoted head.
When fhall the friendly dawning rays
Guide me to pleafures once poffeft;
And breezy gales, o’er peaceful feas,
_Waft to fome port of endlefs reft ?
In dark defpair, with tempefts toft,
I veer my fail from fide to fide.
Conduct me, Heav’n 1 to yond’ fair coaft.
Or plunge me in the ’whelming tide.
LOGY. Sea. VII.
there mil remain about 3000 booia written in that
language. f
We fhall now conclude this feaion with a bnet de-
-v—
179
The Quack B'JI.
BAA2AMON THL ’IEPOYSAAHM, AIIG
TAIS, KAI NOYPIAIS, K.AI
FIAAEAlS PETZETAIY.
TOYTG to /jiTrx'^trix./u.ov c-t$ to a-l'iivoorov rapotyj,
'xj /ZovSh r»)» j^ovivcriv ^vvotfJLc!i'/eH rtjv a-w-WH oAats
7005 ifA<PKoA»«t$ a'pt’Ksi Ci<; TJJ!/ <rivw<T\v /ZitfrOt- Tret”-
Aaiov. ’lar^ioe-i toss Ijuri^iKeis TrAriyac t« V’lSaj, kJ ra ttviv-
aovos Yiyow TrtefjLOvlu. r.itei ros x-xroc^net 'ru^ ywxiKvv. Ei?
Ttis wAryot; ir^nra voe fix^zreci pi to |*vSo too-ov
us woeAatii;;. Gtov ft) iiovia-s^ avxi i> o^aSi«tc,
pet‘S’ % “■XKaL *04/(,f'“*Ta v.ilrnAoy^? <J).ToAeo,
tCj oAa? Tiif irMyxs owit tySxreev e<s to xoxaAo»
Bavpxa-tu?, upiXli Ta avrix ottu Tgt^ovv tpirvo* *«, V«-
-i^sTiOi iuo ^ Tgei? xipTtVs yy^vv s’x^xypxTixs pt^xpirotKi
(Z^ippc'/ov els ocvt'o, @a.vtTcti els txs irXnyupacts^ JovTOJoeiAi-
a7s I'll Sfrov* ixT£iV§4. CtKOpl ^V'iUpU‘H TOC ol-VTCCt 07T«
KHCVV TXi h $eAoyv vi Tiiaovv, enre tJjv ttuvHkXx^.
'H ooo-ij £®-«T£gix5; CCS elvxc hxx y Kj 'burhy.x nepwes as
oAlyo* jog-tcrl, ri v£?ov, to ^ h to /x£-
*■*' 't'vct Soxipw pifixiupaov.
’AA^Sej QxXrxpov t5 BoctriAe/».
Inftead of giving a literal and bald tranfiatioli of
this advertifement, which runs exadly in the ftyle oi
other quack bills, it may be fufficient to obferve, that
the medicine recommended is faid, when taken in¬
wardly, to raife the fpirits, remove coftivenefs and in¬
veterate coughs ; to cure pains of the breaft and bel y-
aches; to aflift refpiration, and remove certain female
obftrudions. When applied externally, it cures wounds
and fores, whether old or frefti, removes ringing of
the ears, faftens the teeth when loofe, and ftrengthens
the gums. . . , ., . .
All this, and much more, it is faul to do in a won¬
derful manner ; and is declared to be the true royal
balfam of Jerufalem, and an univerfal fpecific.
It is indeed next to a miracle that fo many monu¬
ments of Grecian literature are ftill to be found among
men. Notwithftanding the burning of the famous
library of Alexandria, and the almoft numberlefs wars,
xnaffacres, and devaftations, which have from time to
ILime in a manner defolated thofe countries where the
•Greek language once flouriflied ; we are told that
»v ^ 11W VV   -- . . 7
tail of the moft diftinguifired ftages and variations Diftin-
through which this noble tongue made xts progrefsguilhed^
from the age of Homer to the taking of Conkanti-the
nople, an. ant. Chr. 1453 ; a period of more than 2000 language,
years.
Homer gave the Greek poetry its colour and con-
fiftency, and enriched, as well as harmonized, the
language. It feems, from the coincidence of epithets
and cadence in Homer and Hefiod, that the Greek he¬
roic verfe was formed Ipontaneoufly, by the old^Ao-^°‘,
a fort of improvifatari; and that Horner^ and his firft
followers adopted their verfification. The Iliad and
Odyfley have much of the air of extempore compofi-
tions ; an epithet is never wanting to fill up a verfe;
and a fet of expreffioris are mechanically annexed to
fuch ideas as were of frequent recurrence. Hence
that copioufnefs and wafte of words in the old Gree<c
bard, which forms fuch a contrail to the condenfed
and laboured compofition of Virgil.
The Greek profe was of a more difficult ftru&ure ;
and it may be diftributed into different ftyies or de¬
grees of purity. Of the profe authors now extant,
the firft and heft ftyle is that of Herodotus, and of
Plato in the florid or mixed kind, of Xenophon in the
pure and Ample, of Thucydides and Demofthenes m
the auftere. Nothing, perhaps, is fo conducive to
form a good tafte in compofition as the ftudy or thefe
writers. .
The ftyle of Polybius forms a new epoch in the hi-
flory of the Greek language : it was the idiotic or po¬
pular manner of expreffion, efpecially among military
reen, in his time, about the 150th Olympiad. It be¬
came the model of fucceeding writers, by introducing
a Ample unftudied expreffion, and by emancipating
them from the anxious labour of the old Greeks re-
fpefting the cadence and choice of words. The ftyle
of the New Teftament, being plain and popular, fre¬
quently refembles that of Polybius, as has been fhowri
by Raphelius, and by Kirchmaier, de par alls dfmo. N.
T. ei Polybii, 1725. , ,
BeW this hiftorian, the Alexandrian Jews had
formed a new or Helleniftic ftyle, refulting from the
expreffion of oriental ideas and idioms in Greek words,
after that language had loft of its purity, as it
in general ufe, by the conquefts of Alexander. The
Helleniftic is the language of the Septuagint, the A-
pocrypha, the New Teftament, and partly of 1 hilo
and Jofephus. This mixture in the ftyle of the evan-
gelifls and apoftles, is one credential of the authenti¬
city of the beft of ail books, a book which could not
have been written but by Jewiffi authors in the fitft
century. See the fine remarks of Biffiop Warburton,
Dodrine of Grace, book i. ch. 8—10. Critics lafe
their labour in attempting to adjuft the Scripture-
Greek to the ftandard of Atticifm.
The didion of the Greek hiftorians, and geogra¬
phers of the Auguftan age, is formed on that of Po¬
lybius ; but improved and modernized, like the Frig-
lilh of the prefent age, if compared with that ot Cla¬
rendon or Bacon. More perfpicuous than refined, it
was well fuited to fuch compilations as were th^i*
written by men of letters, fuch as Dionyfius, Diodo-
* rus,
Uo]
Han
ef ai
(Grt:
liot
LOGY.
Sea. VII. PHILO
Greek rut;, and Strabo, without much experience or rank in
JLanguage. pUt>i;c lffe.
^ ^ The ecclcfiallical ilyle was cultivated in t!.‘e Chri-
ftian fchools of Alexandria, Antioch, and Condanti-
nople ; rank and luxuriant, full of oriental idioms, and
formed in a great meafure on the Septusbdnt ve, lion.
Such is, for inftance, the ftyle of Eufebius. After
him, the belt Chriftian writers poliihed th(ir compo-
fltions in the fchools of rhetoric under the later So-
phifts. Hence the popular and flowing purity of St
ChryfoiTome, who has more good fenfe than Plato,
and perhaps as many good words.
On the Greek of the Byzantine empire, there it a
good diilertation by Ducange, c/e caufu corrupt* Gr<e-
citatls, prefixed to his Gloflary, together with Portius’s
Sect. VIII. Of the Latin Lar, gangs.
Xat.n
-Language,
IS©
No perfect
ifranflation
ef any
'Greek au¬
thor.
Grammar of the modern Greek. This lafl ft age of
the Greek language is a tniferable pidture of Turkifh
barbariim. And, which is molt furpriflng, there is
no city of Greece where the language is more diffe¬
rent Tom the ancient than at Athens. The reafon
of that is, becaufe it has been long inhabited by a
mixed multitude of different nations.
To conclude, the Greeks have left the moft durable
monuments of human wifdom, fortitude, magnificence,
and ingenuity, in their improvement of every art
and fcience, and in the ffneft writings upon every fub-
jeft neceffary, profitable, elegant, or entertaining.
The Greeks have furnifhed the brightefl: examples
of every virtue and accomplifhent, natural or acqui¬
red, political, moral, or military : they excelled in
mathematics and philofophy ; in all the forms of go¬
vernment, in architecture, navigation, commerce, war:
as orators, poets, and hiftorians, they ftand as yet un¬
rivalled, and are like to ttand fo for ever ; nor are
they lefs to be admired for the exercifes and amafe-
ments they invented, and brought to perfection, in
the inftitution of their public games, their theatres,
and fports.
Let us further obferve, that in vain our readers will
look for thefe admired excellencies in any of the beft
tranflations from the Greek : -they may indeed com¬
municate fome knowledge of what the originals con¬
tain ; they may prefent you with propofitions, charac¬
ters, and events: but allowing them to be more faith¬
ful and more accurate than they really are, or can well
be, fiill they are no better than copies, in which the
fpirit and luftre of the originals are almoft totally loft.
The mind may be inftrufted, but will not be enchant¬
ed : The piffure may bear fome faint refemblance, and
if painted by a mafterly hand give plenfure ; but who
would be fatisfled with the canvas, when he may pof-
fefa the real object ? who would prefer a piece of co-
loured glafs to a diamond ? It is net polfible to pre^
ferve the beauties of the original in a translation. 
The powers of the Greek are vaflly beyond thofe of
any other tongue. Whatever the Greeks dtferibe is
always felt, and almofl feen ; motion and mufic are in
every tone, and enthufrafm and inchantment poffefs
tire mind :
Gratis ingeniumy Gratis dedit ore roiundoy
Mufa loqui. Hor.
This language, like every other fpoken by barba-
mns, was in its beginning rough and uncultivated 
What people the Romans were, is a point in which xSi
antiquarians arc not yet agreed. In their own opinion ^'gin of
they were fpmng from the Trojans *; Dion. Halicar.the K'0~
derives them from the Greeks f; and Plutarch informs^^’;,31^
us+ that fome people imagined that they were fprung langu^ga.
from the Pelafgi. i he fa£t is, they were a mixture
•of people collected out of Latium and the adjacent !ib i,!CaP-*^
parts, which a variety of accidents had drawn toge- f
ther, to eftablilh themfelves on that mountainous re- Xomahb.£,
gion, in order to fecure their own properly, and plun-1 R@-
der that of their neighbours. They were in all pro-OTw/*
bability compofed of Arcadians, Sabines, Latins, He-
trufeans, Umbrians, Ofcans, Pelafgi, &c.; and if fo,
their language mult have been a mixture of the dif-
fcrent dialcdla peculiar to all thefe difeordant
tribes.
The Latin language ought then to be a mingled
maiy of the Arcadian, that 13, the Adolian |j Greek, 11 Strata
tue 1 elafgic, Hetrufcan, and Celtic dialeifts. Thefe lib. v.
jarring elements, like the people to whom they be- Dionyf. Ha*
longed refpe&ively, gradually incorporated, and pro- licary\An~
duced what was afterwards called the Latin tongue. “1’ lb* ^
The Arcadians were a Pelafgic § tribe, and confe- § Stra6o.eS
quently fpoke a dialetl of that ancient Greek pro-Herodotus*
duced by the coalition of this tribe with the iavage
aborigines of Greece. This dialed was the ground-
work of the Latin. Every fcholar allows, that the
Adohan Greek, which was ftrongly tindured with the
Pdafgic, was the model irpon which the Latin language
was formed, from this dedudion it appears, that the
Latin tongue i« much more ancient than the modem
Greek ; and of courfe we may add, that the Greek, an
it flood before it was thoroughly pohftied, bore a very
near refemblance to that language. Hence we think
we may conclude, that the knowledge of tke Latin
language is necefTary in order to underftand the
Greek. Let us not then exped to find the real in¬
gredients of the Greek tongue in the academic groves
of Athens, or in Smyrna, or in Rhodope, or in Hse-
mos; but on the banks of the Tiber and on the fieida
of Laurentum.
A very confiderable part of the Latin tongue was
derived from the Pletrufcan. That people were the
mafters of the Romans in every thing facred. From
them they learned the ceremonies of religion, the me¬
thod of arranging games and public feftivals, the art
of divination, the interpretation oF omens, the me¬
thod of luftrationa, expiations. See. It would, we be¬
lieve, be eafy to prove, that the PJafgi * and Hetruf- *
0 (x) were the fame race of people ; and if this was*,, lib.fr!
the cafe, their languages mult have differed in dialed
only.
The Umbrian or Celtic enters deeply into the com¬
petition of the Latin tongue. For proof of this, we
need only appeal to PeUoutier, Bullet's Memoires de la
Langue Celtiqucy partis premiere, Abbs Pezron’s Origin
(x) The Hetrufci were varioufly denominated by the Greeks and Romani. The former called them
rvgfriyctl
P H I L O
l.atln ef Ancient Nation:> &c. Whether the old Celtic dif-
-Languagc fereci effentially from the Pelafgic and Hetrufcan,
would be a matter of curious inveftigation, were this
a proper fubjeft for the prefent article.
The Latin abounds with oriental words, efpecially
Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Perfian. Thefe are certainly
remains of the Pelafgic and Hetrufcan tongues, fpo-
ken originally by people who emigrated from regions
where thofe were parts of the vernacular language.—
The Greeks, in polifhing their language, gradually
diflorted and disfigured vaft numbers of the rough ea-
ftern vocables, which made a -very great part of it.
(See the preceding feftion).
The Romans, of lefs delicate organs, left them in
their natural ftate, and their natural air readily bewrays
their original. We had collefted a laige lift of La¬
tin words ftill current in the eaft ; but find that Iho-
4 Gltfary. maffin + and Ogerius (y), and efpecially Monf. Gebe-
lin, in his moft excellent Latin Diftionary, have ren¬
dered that labour fuperfluous.
In this language, too, there are not a few Gothic
terms. How thefe found their way into the Latin,
it is not cafy to difcovcr, unleft, as Pelloutier fuppofes,
the Celtic and Gothic languages were originally the
fame : or perhaps we may conje&ure, that fuch words
were parts of a primitive language, which was at one
time univerfal. # .
There are, befides, in the Latin a great number ot
obfolete Greek words, which were in procefs of time
obliterated, andothers fubftituted in theirroom; fothat,
upon the whole, we are perfuaded, that the moft effec¬
tual method to diftinguifh the difference between the
early and modern Greek, would be to compare the
ancient Latin with the latter; there being, we ima¬
gine, very little difference between the ancient Greek
and Latin in the earlieft periods.
However that may be, it is certain that the Roman
letters were the fame with the ancient Greek.—
Forma; Uteris Latinis qua veterrimis Gracorum, fays Ta¬
citus # ; and Pliny f fays the fame thing, and for the
truth of his affertion he appeals to a monument ex¬
tant in his own times. , „
Thefe old Greek letters were no other than the re-
hfgic which we have Ihown from Diodorus Siculus
(fee preceding Sedion) to have been prior to the Cad-
mean. For the figure of thefe letters, fee Aftle, Po-
ftellus, Montfaucon, Pahegraphia Graeca, Moni. Ge-
belin, and our Plates IX and X. . , .
That the Latins borrowed the plan of their declen-
fions from the Greeks, is evident from the exaft re¬
ft-mblance of the terminations of the cafes throughout
the three fimilar declenfions. In nouns of the hrtt
declenfion, the refemblance is too palpable to ttand
in need of illuftratica. In the fecond, the Greek ge-
18*
How far
the Latin
refembles
the Greek.
LOGY. Sea. VIII.
nitive is <n. In Latin the o i* thrown out, and the Latin
termination becomes i. In the Greek fethion, we Language.
have obferved, that the founds of i and v differed very
little ; therefore the Latins ufed , inftead of «. The
Latin dative ends in 0, which is the Greek dative,
throwing away 1 fubferiptum, which was but faintly
founded in that language. No genuine Greek word
ended in ^ or m.
The Hellens Teemed to have abhorred that bellow¬
ing liquid ; it ft, however, certain that they imported
it from the eaft, as well as the other letters, and that
they employed it in every other capacity, except in
that of clofing words. In the termination of flexions,
they changed it into .
The JLatins retained whicii had been imported
to them as a terminating letter at an era before the
Greek language had undergone its laft refinement.—
Hence the Latin accufative in um, inftead of the
Greek *». The vocative cafe, we imagine, was ia
this declenfion originally like the nominative, The
Latins have no dual number, becaufe, in our opinion,
the JEolian dialed, from which they copied, had
none. It would be, we think, a violent ftretch of
etymological exertion, to derive either the Latin ge¬
nitive plural of the fecond declenfion from the fame
cafe of the Greek, or .that of the latter from the for¬
mer ; we therefore leave this anomaly, without pre¬
tending to account for its original formation. The
third declenfions in both language* are fo exa&ly pa¬
rallel, that it would be fuperfluoua to compare them.
The dative plural here is another anomaly, and we
think a very difagreeable one, which we leave to the
conjedures of more profound etymologifts.
For the other peculiarities of Latin nouns, as they
are nearly fimilar to thofe of the Greek, we muft beg
leave to remit our readers to that fedion for informa-
* FacUits,
Anal.
lib. ii.
■+ Nat. Hift.
lib. vii.
xap.jS.
tion. . . . 183
The Latins have no articles, which is certainly a Deficiency
defed in their language. The Pelafgic, from which of articles,
they copied, had not Adopted tfiat word in the de-
monftrative fenfe. Homer indeed feldom ufea it; and
the probability is, that the more early Greek ufed it
lefs frequently, at Icaft in the fenfe above-mentioned.
Thus in Latin, when I fay, video hominebi, it is impof-
fible to find out by the bare words whether the word
hominetn intimates “ a man,” or “ the man;” whereas
in Greek it would be b\et« *»6Puro,, I fee a many
rov avQpuTtoVf I fee the man. Hence the firft expreflion
is indefinite, and the fecond definite. , i?4
The fubftantive verb fum in Latin feems to be Qrigin 0f
partly formed from the Greek and partly not. Some the fubftan-
of the perfons of the prefent tenfe have a near refem-tive verb,
blance to the Greek verb *’« or ‘V‘, While others vary
widely from that archetype. The imperfed pneterite
1 and
, which wa. their true uame. for they aaua y emigrated S ^ ^nTed intol ; hfnc:
Minor and eonfequently Herod.tu. everywhere calls them rv= Th' Johans ^ ^ ^
in that dialed they were called -^-, from 1 he Romans onie8 if religion.
sgas 2ISWSSS ■
■t;.,>j. m*t—^n
ti cmaiy will, in a good meafure, lupply their place.
■Latin
Language.
*85
And of o-
Sea.VilL PHIL
and pra*terperfe£l have nothing common with the
Greek verb, and cannot, we think, be forced into an
alliance with it. The future ero was of old efoy and
is indeed genuine Greek. Upon the whole, in our
apprehenlion the Latin fubftantive verb more nearly
refembles the Perfian verb bejlen than that of any other
language we are acquainted with.
From what exemplar the Latin verbs were derived,
ther verbs. is not> we think, eafily afeertained. We know that at¬
tempts have been made to deduce them all from the
jEolic Greek, and that the Romans themfelves were
extremely fond of this chimera ; but the almoft nmn-
berlefs irregularities, both in the formation and con¬
jugation of their verbs, induce us to believe that only
a part of them were formed upon that model. We
are apt to think that the terminations in bam, has,
bat, bamus, &c. are produced by their union wi h a
fragment of fome obfolete verb, which is now wholly
lolu In the verb amo, e.g. we are fure that the radix am
is the Hebrew word mother; but how am abam, am-
abo, am-arem were fabricated, and vconne£Ied with the
radical am, is not fo eafily determined. That Latin
verbs are compofed of an indexible radix and another
flexible verb, as well as the Greek, cannot be doubted;
but what this flexible auxiliary was, we think, cannot
cow be clearly afeertained. It is not altogether im¬
probable that fuch parts of the verbs as deviate from
the Greek archetype were fupplied by fragments of
the verb ha, which pervades all the branches of the
Gothic language, and has, we think, produced the
Latin verb habeo* When the Greeks began to ety¬
mologize, they feldom overpafled the verge of their
own language : the Latins purfued nearly the fame
courfe. If their own language prefented a plaufible
etymology, they embraced it; if not, they immedi¬
ately had recourfe to the Greek ; and this was the ne
p/us ultra of their etymological refearches. Cicero,
Quintilian, Feftus, &c. and even Varro, the moft learn¬
ed of all the Romans, flop here ; all beyond is ei¬
ther doubt or impenetrable darknefs. The opinion
above-mentioned we offer only as a conjecture ; the
decifion we leave to more able critics.
S)eficien- The want of aorifts or indefinite tenfes feems to us
cies in La- a palpable defeat in the Latin language. The ufe of
tin verbs. t^efe among the Greeks enabled the writer to exprefs
the fpecifrc variations of time with more accuracy and
precifion than the Latins, who never attempted to
fpecify them by any other tenfes but the imperfect and
pluperfeft. Indeed we fhould imagine, that both the
Greeks and Latins were much inferior to the Englifh
in this refpeft. The Latin word lego, for example,
may be tranflated into Englilh three different ways :
iff, I read; 2d, I do read', 3d, I am reading.
The Latins, in reducing verbs to their four conju¬
gations, formed their inflexions in a very irregular
manner. Many verbs of the firft clafs infledf their
praeterite and lupine like thofe of the fecond : thus
domo, inftead of giving am and atum, has ui and itmn,
like monui and mohitum. Again, not a few verbs of
the third conjugation have ivi and itum, as if they be¬
longed to the fourth ; e. g. peto, petivi, petitum. Then,
fome verbs have to in the prefent, ivi in the praeterite,
and itum in the fupine, while, contrary to the rules of
analogy, they in reality belong to the third : fuch are
'cupio, cupivi, cupitum, cupere, &c. Some verbs of the
Vol. XIV. Part II.
sss
Latin
Language.
187
Irregulari¬
ties in the
eonj uga-
-tions.
ISR
O L O G Y.
fecond conjugation have their praeterite and fupine as
if they belonged to the third ; thus, jubeo, juji, jujfum,
jubere ; augeo, auxi, auclum, augere. Some verbs, which
are actually of the fourth conjugation, have their prse-
terite and fupine as if they were of the third ; thus
fentio, fenji, fenfum, /entire; haurio, hauji, haujlum, hau~
rire, &c. If thefe are not manifeft irregularities, we
cannot fay what defervea the name. The fa6t feems
to Hand thus: The Romans were originally a banditti
of robbers, bankrupts, runaway flaves, fliepherds, huf-
bandmen, and peafants of the moft unpolilhed charac¬
ter. They were engaged in perpetual broils and quar¬
rels at home, and feldom enjoyed repofe abroad. Their
profeflion was robbery and plunder. Like old Ilh-
mael, their hands were againft every man, and every
man’s hand againft them. In fuch a ftate of fociety
no time was left for cultivating the fciences. Ac¬
cordingly the arts of war and government were their
foie profeflion. This is fo true, that their own poet
characterizes them in the following manner:
Excudunt alii fpirantia mollius sera, See.
Another blemilh in the Latin tongue is occafioned Uie Latin
by its wanting a participle of the prasterite tenfe in the ^e^c‘c!nt in
aftive voice. This defeCt is perpetually fdt, and is'the paniai!leS,
caufe of an aukward circumlocution wherever it happens
to prefent itfelf. Thus, “ The general having crofted
the river, drew up his army;” Imperator, cum franfuj/et
Jlumen, aciem injlruxit. Here cum tranfiijfet/umen is a ma¬
nifeft circumlocution, which is at once avoided in the
Greeks t«» xotu^ov, Sec. This muft always
prove an incumbrance in the cafe of aCtive intranfltive
verbs. When aCtive deponent verbs occur, it is ealily
avoided. Thus, Csfar having encouraged the fal-
diers, gave the fignal for joining battleCa/ar cobor-
tatus mi/ites, pree/ii commiltendi/gnum dedit.
Another palpable defeCt in this language arifes from
the want of a participle of the prefent pafiive. This
again muft produce an inconveniency upon many oc-
cafions, as will be obvious to every Latin ftudent al¬
moft every moment. ^
The two fupmes are univerfally allowed to be fub-Supines and
ftantive-nouns of the fourth declenfion. How thefe Senm(k•
affumed the nature of verbs it is not eafy to determine.
When they are placed after verbs or nouns, the mat¬
ter is attended with no difficulty; but how they ftiould
acquire an aClive fignincation, and take the cafe of the
verb with which they are connefted, implies, we ftiould
think, a ftretch of prerogative.
The Latin gerunds form another unnatural anoma¬
ly. Every Latin fcholar knows that thofe words are
nothing but the neuters of the participles of the future
paffive. The fabricators of the Latin tongue, how¬
ever, elevated them from their primary condition, gi¬
ving them upon many occafions an active fignification.
In this cafe we muft have recourfe to
■Si vokt ufus.
S/uem penes arbitrium ejl et jus et norma loquendi.
Another inconveniency, perhaps more feverely felt
than any of the preceding, arifes from the want of the
ufe of the prefent participle of the verb fum. Every¬
body knows what a conveniency is derived from the
frequent ufe of the participle in Greek ; and in¬
deed it appears to us iomewhat furprifing that the
4- A Latins
SS4- ...
Latin Latins negle&ed to introduce the participle tns into
Language. t^ejr language. In this we believe they r.re lingular.
Here again a circumlocution becomes nceeflary infuch
a cafe as the following : “ The fenate being at Rome,
pafled a decree.” Inftead of (ay\T\g fenatus ens Roms,
legem tuFit, we are obliged to fay cum fenatus Roma (Jfety
&c. If the words ens or exiflens had been adopted, as
in the Greek, this odious circumlocution would have
been avoided.
Many other defe&s of the like kind will occur to
every perfon who Ihall choofe to fearch for them, and
thofe in the moft approved claflical authors. Perhaps
our mentioning fo many may be deemed invidious by
the admirers of that language ; but we write from
190 conviction, and that muft be our apology.
Different If one take the trouble to compare the ftrufture of
genius of Greek and Latin languages, he will, we think,
lh^atin quickly be convinced that their charaaeriftic features
languages are extremely different. The genius of the former
feems eafy and natural; whereas that of the latter,
notwithftanding the united efforts of poets, orators,
and philofophers, ftill bears the marks of violence and
reftraint. Hence it appears that the Latin tongue
was preffed into the fervice, and compelled _ almoff
againft its will to bend to the laws of the Grecian mo-
del. Take a fentence of Hebrew, Chaldean, Ara*
bian, &c. and try to tranflate it into Greek without
regarding the arrangement of the words, and you will
find it no difficult attempt; but make the fame trial
•with refpeft to the Latin, and you will probably find the
labour attended with confiderable difficulty. To tranflate
Greek into Englifh is no laborious talk ; the texture of
the two languages is fo congenial, that the words and
phrafes, and even the idiomatic expreffions, naturally
Hide into each other. With the Latin the cafe is quite
otherwife ; and before elegant Englifn can be produ¬
ced, one rauft deviate confiderably from the original.
Should we attempt to tranflate a piece of Englifli in¬
to Greek, and at the fame time into Latin, the tranf-
lation of the former would be attended with much
lefs difficulty than that of the latter, fuppofing the
tranflator equally {killed in both languages.
Caufes of This incongruity feems to fpring from the follow-
this ciif- ingcaufe. Before any man of confiderable abilities,
ferenee. either in the capacity of a poet, grammarian, or rheto¬
rician, appeared at Rome, the language had acquired
a ftrong and inflexible tone, too flubborn to be txaaiy
moulded according to the Grecian ftandard. After a
language has continued feveral centuries without re¬
ceiving anew polifh, it becomes like a full grown tree,
incapable of being bent to the purpofes of the mecha¬
nic. For this reafon, it is highly probable, that the
tongue in queftion could not be forced into a com¬
plete affimilation with the Greek. Notwithftanding
all thefe obftru&ions, in procefs of time it arrived at
fuch an exalted pitch of perfeftion, as to rival, perhaps
to excel, all the other European languages, the Greek
only excepted. Had men of the tafte, judgment, and
induftry of Ennius, Plautus, Terence, Cicero, and the
worthies ©f the Auguftan age, appeared »n the early
Sea. VIII,
ftages of the Roman commonwealth, we may believe Latin
that their language would have been thoroughly re- Language.^
duccd to the Grecian archetype, and that the two ^ H
diale&s might have improved each other by a rival-
ftiip between the nations who employed them.
Without pretending to entertain our readers with a
pompous and elaborate account of the beauties ©f that
imperial language which have been detailed by wri¬
ters almoft without number, we (hall endeavour to lay
before them as briefly as poffible its priftine chara&er,
the fteps and ftages by which it gradually rofe to per-
fe&ion, the period when it arrived at the fummit of
its excellence, and by what means it degenerated with
a rapid career till it was loft among thofe very people
to whom it owed its birth. I9Z ,
We have obferved already, that the Latin tongue The Latin
was a colluvies of ail the languages fpoken by the va- tongue
grant people who compofed the firft elements of that j
republic. The prevailing diale&s were the Pelafgic or peiafgic (
Hetrufcan, which we think were the fame; and the and Celtic
Celtic, which w'as the aboriginal tongue of Italy, words.
Hence the primary dialedl of the Romans was com¬
pofed of difeordant materials, which in our opinion ne¬
ver acquired a natural and congenial union. Be that
as it may, this motley mixture was certainly the ori¬
ginal dialed of the Romans. The Pelafgic or Hetruf¬
can part of it retained a ftrong tin&ure of the oriental
ftyle. The Celtic part feems to have been prevalent,,
fince we find that moft of the names of places (z),
efpecially in the middle and northern parts of Italy,
are a&ually of Celtic original. It is therefore clear
that the ftyle of the firft Romans was compofed of the
languages above mentioned. Who thofe firft Romans
were, we believe it is impoffible to determine with any
degree of certainty. The Roman hiftorians afford us
as little information upon that fubjed, as their etymolo-
gifts do upon the origin of their language. Their moft
celebrated writers upon this point were iElius Gallus,
Quintus Cornificius, Nonius Marcellus, Feftus, and
feme others of lefs note. At the head of thefe we
ought to place Terentius Varro, whom Cicero ftyles
the moft learned of all the Romans. From thefe wri¬
ters we are to exped no light. Their etymologies
are generally childifli and futile. Of the language of
the moft ancient Romans we can only reafon by ana¬
logy ; and by that rule we can difeover nothing more
than what we have advanced above.
In the firft place we may reft affured that the dual
number, the articles, the participle above-mentioned,
the aorifts, and the whole middle voice, never appeared
in the Latin tongue ; and accordingly were not current
in thofe languages from which it was copied, at leaft
at the time when it was firft fabricated.
Befides all this, many circumftanees concur to make
it highly probable that, in the earlieft periods of the
language, very few inflexions were introduced, ift.
When the Pelafgi left Greece, the Greek language it-
felf was not fully poliftied. ad, The Arcadians were
never thoroughly cultivated. They weie a ruftic pa-
ftoral people, and little minded the refinements of a ci¬
vilized
PHILOLOGY.
(z) For proof of this our reader# may confult Abbe Pezron, Pelloutier, Bullet’s Mm. Gebelm Pnf. DUl.
Zat. and many others.
Sea. VIII. PHILO
Latin vilized (late j confequently the language they brought
Language jnt0 Jtaly at that era mull have been of a coarfe and
0 irregular contexture. 3d, When the ThelFalian* Pe-
Halicar. lafgi arrived in Italy about the time of Deucalion, the
lib. 1. Greek itfelf was rude and barbarous; and, which is
ftill of more confequence, if we may credit Herodotus
quoted in the former Se&ion, that people had never
adopted the Hellenic tongue. Hence it appears, that
the part of the Latin language derived from the Pe-
lafgic or Hetrufcan (for thofe we believe to have been
the fame) muft have taken a deep tinfture from the
oriental tongues (See preceding Sedtion). If we
may judge of the Celtic of that age by chat of the
prefent, the fame character muft likewife have diftin-
guifhed its fttudlure.
Hence little From thefe circumftances, we think it appears that
in fie died m earlieft language of the Romans was very little di-
itltc 1^mal verfifie<i inflexions. It nearly refembled the ori¬
ental exemplar, and confequently differed widely from
the modern Latin. The effedt of this was, that the
modern Romans could not underftand the language
* Lit. 3. of thefF early progenitors. Polybius*, fpeaking of the
■4hJ> i/iitie. earlieft treaty between the Romans and Carthaginians,
makes the following obfervation : “ Believe me (fays
he), the Roman language has undergone fo many
changes fince that time (a) to the prefent, that even
thofe who are moft deeply (killed in the fcience of a»-
tiquities cannot underfland the words of that treaty
but with the greateft difficulty.”
From this fource we make no doubt has flowed that
vaft number of oriental words with which the Latin
language is impregnated. Thefe were originally in¬
flexible, like their brethren of the eaft. They were
not difguifed as they now are with prefixes, affixes, mc-
tathefes, fyncopas, antithefes, See. but plain and una-
194 domed in their natural drefs.
Sent after- After the Romans became acquainted with the -5bo-
th^Gre'10 ^an ^ree^s» w^0 gradually feized upon both coafts
cian^niodel. towards the fouth, which they called Magna
Gracia, they began to affedt a Grecian air, and to tor¬
ture their language into that foreign contexture. It
appears, however, that at firft the Grecian garb fat ra¬
ther aukwardly, and feveral marks of violence were ca-
fily difeerned. The moft ancient fpecimen of this kind
that we can recolledt confifts of the remains of the
twelve tables. Here every thing is rude and of a clum-
iy caft ; for though by this time confiderable progrefs
Tiad been made in refinement, and the language of Rome
had begun to appear in a Grecian uniform, ftill thofe
changes were not altogether natural. Soon after ap¬
peared Marcus Fabius Pidtor and Sifenna ; hiftorians
often quoted by Livy, but whofe works are long fince
irrecoverably loft. The Fafti Capitolini are often
mentioned ; but they too perifhed in the burning of
the Capitol during the civil wars between Marius and
Sylla. Had thofe monuments efcaped the ravages of
time, we (hould have been able to mark the progrefs
of the Latin tongue from ftage to ftage, and to afeer-
tain with the greateft accuracy its gradual configura¬
tion in the conrfe of its progrefs towards the Grecian
LOGY. 555
ftandard. We muft therefore leave the Latin tongue Latin
during thofe periods rude and barbarous, and defeend ^"ll^uage*
to others better known and more charadleriftically
marked. Thofe commenced after that
Gracia capta ferum vidorem cepit et artes
Intulit agrejli Latio.
In this period we find Ennius, who wrote a Roman The prin-
hiftory in hexameter verfe in 18 books, which he call-cij>al au-
ed Annals ; moft part of which is now loft. He like-
wife tranllated Euhemerus de Origine Deorum; a work was
often mentioned by the Chriftian fathers in their dif- dually po-
putes with the Pagans. It is fometimes quoted bylilheA.
Cicero. Then followed Cains Lucilius the famous fa-
tyrift, and a number of other writers, fuch as Accius,
Valerius, JEdituus, Alpinus, &c. whofe fragments were
publilhed by the Stephens, Paris, 1564. All thefe imi¬
tated the writers of Greece or tranflated from them.
By their perfeverance and a&ive exertions the fpirit
of thefe authors was transfufed into the Latin tongue,
and its (Irufture accommodated to the Grecian plan.
Plautus and Terence, by tranflating the comedies of
Menander and Diphilus into their own language,
taught the Latin mufes to fpeak Attic Greek. To
fpeak that language was then the ton of the times, as
it ia now with us to chatter French. Greek tutors
were retained in every reputable family ; and many
Romans of the firft rank were equally qualified to
fpeak or write both in Greek and Latin. 1 he origi¬
nal jargon of Latium was now become obfolete and
unintelligible ; and Cato the Ancient condefcended to
learn the Greek language at 80.
To pretend to enumerate the various, and we may The go'Jcf-
add inimitable, examples of the Auguftan or golden age of
age of the Roman tongue, would be an infult to the^-0111^
underftanding of our readers : we (hall only take the
liberty to tranflate a few lines from a moft excellent
hiftorian*, who, had his honefty been equal to his */^/foVr
judgment, might have rivaled the moft celebrated wri- Vaterculm,
ters of his country. Having obferved, that the Greek ^ I- “i'*
authors, who excelled in every province of literature,^ *
had all made their appearance nearly about the fame
fpace of time, confined within very narrow limits, he
adds, “ Nor was this circumftance more confpicuous
among the Greeks than among the Romans ; for un-
lefs we go back to the rough and unpoliffied times,
which deferve commendation only on account of their
invention, the Roman tragedy is confined to Accius
and the period when he flourifhed. The charming wft
of Latin elegance was brought to light by Cecilius,
Terentius, and Afranius, nearly in the fame age. As
for our hiftorians (to add Livy alio to the age of the
former), if we except Cato and fome old obfeure ones,
they were all confined to a period of 80 years ; fo
ntiiher has our (lock of poets extended to a fpace
•much backward or forward. But the energy of the
bar, and the finiffied beauty of profe eloquence, fetting
afide the fame Cato (by leave of P Craflus, Scipio,
Laelius, the Gracchi, Fannius, and Ser. Galba, be it
fpoken), broke out all at once under Tully the prince of
4 A 2 his
(a) This treaty, according to the fame hiftorian, was concluded in the confulfhip of Lucius Junius Brutus
and Marcus Valerius, 48 years before Xerxes made his defeent upon Greece.
5i6
Latin
Language.
197
Caufes of
the dege.
neracy of
the Latin
tongue.
PHILO
his profeffion; fo that one can be delighted with none
before him, and admire none except filch as have either
feen or were feen by that orator.,,
From this quotation it plainly appears, that the Ro¬
mans themfelves were convinced of the fhort duration
of the golden age of their language. According to
the moft judicious critics, it commenced with the era
of Cicero’s oratorical produftions, and terminated
with the reign of Tiberius, ®r perhaps it did not
reach beyond the middle of that prince’s reign. It is
generally believed that eloquence, and with it every
thing liberal, elevated, and manly, was banilhed Rome
by the defpotifm of the Caefars. We imagine that the
tranfition was too inifantaneous to have been entirely
produced by that unhappy caufe. Defpotifm was
firmly eilablifhed among the Romans about the middle
of the reign of Aug alius ; and yet that period pro¬
duced fuch a group of learned men as never adorned
any other nation in fo Ihort a fpace of time. Defpo¬
tifm, we acknowledge, might have afiit died the eloquence
of the bar; the noble and important objedts which had
animated the republican orators being now no more :
but.this eircumflance could not affedb poetry, hiltory,
philofophy, &c. The ftyle employed upon thefe fub-
jedis did not feel the fetters of defpotifm. The age
of Louis XIV. was the golden period of the French
tongue ; and we think that age produced a race of
learned men, in every department fuperior in number
and equal in genius to the literati who flounfhed under
the noble and envied conftitution of Britain during the
fame age, though the latter is univerfally allowed to
have been the golden period of this country. I he
Britifh ides, we hope, enjoy ftill as much liberty as
ever; yet we believe few people will aver, that the
writers of the prefent age are equal either in ftyle or in
genius to that noble greup who fiourifhed from the
middle of the reign of Charles 1. to the middle of the
reign of George II. and here defpotifm is quite uncon¬
cerned. _ <
In the eaft the fame obfervation is confirmed. The
Perfians have long groaned under the Mohammedan
yoke ; and yet every oriental fcholar will allow, that
in that country, and under the moft galling tyranny*
the moft amazing produdlions of tafte, genius, and in-
duftry, that ever dignified human nature, have been
exhibited. Under the Arabian caliphs, the fucceffors
of Mohammed, appeared writers of a moil fublime
genius, though never was defpotifm more crutily ex-
ercifed than under thofe fanatics. The revival of let¬
ters at the era of the reformation was chiefly promoted
and cheriftied by petty defpotical princes.
We cannot therefore be perfuaded to agree, that
the defpotifm of the Cxfars banifhed eloquence and
learning from Rome. Longinus indeed has attribu¬
ted this misfortune to that caufe, and tells us,
-rtyap r« ippovriftaTU rav MtyxXofp'.vav r, EAET©EP1A, &CC.
** It is liberty that is formed to nurfe the fentiments
ofgieat geniufes, to pufh forward the propenfity of
conteft, to infpire them with hopes, and the generous
ambition of being the firft in rank.” When Longinus
wrote this, he did not refleft that he himfelf was a
ftriking inftancc of the unfoundnefs of his ©oterva-
As to fcience, the Fa& is undoubtedly on the other
fide. That Seneca was fuperior to Cicero in philofo-
L O G Y. Sea. VIII.
phy, cannot be reafonably contradi&ed. The latter Latin
had read, and adually abridged, the whole extent of Language.
Grecian philofophy : this difplayed his reading rather
than his learning. The former had addidted himfelf rhewriters
to the ftoic fedt; and though he does not write with of thefilver
the fame flow of eloquence as Tully, he thinks more
deeply and reafons more clofely. Pliny's. Naturalj-,;encetjian
Hiftory is a wonderful coliedtion, and contains more their prede-
ufcful knowledge than all the writings of the Auguftanc^lTors.
age condenfed into one mafs. W^e think the hiftorical
annals of Tacitus, if inferior to Livy in ftyle and tna-
jefty of didlion, much fuperior in arrangement and
vigour of compofition. In ftiort, we difeover in thefe
produdtions a deep infight into human nature, an ex~
tenfive knowledge of the fcience of government, a pe¬
netration which no diffimulation could efcape, together
with a fincere attachment to truth both with refpedl
to events and char&dlers; nor is he inferior in the
majefty, energy, and propriety of his harangues, where-
ever an equal opportunity prefents itfelf. Quintilian,
Pliny the younger, Suetonius, Pe'tronius Arbiter, and
Juvenal, deferve high efteem ; nor are they inferior to
their immediate predeceffors. We think there is good
reafon to conclude, that the lofs of liberty among the
Romans did not produce the extinction of eloquence,,
fcience, elevation of fentiment, or refinement of tafte.
There were, we believe, other circumftances which
chiefly contributed to produce that revolution.
The fame Velleius Paterculus whom we have quoted
afligns fome plaufible and very judicious reafons for
this cataftrophe. “ Emulation (fays he) is the nuife
of genius ; and one while envy, and another admiration,
fires imitation. According to the laws of nature*
that which is purfued with the greateft ardour mounts
to the top: but to be ftationary in perfection is a
difficult matter ; and by the fame analogy, that which
cannot go forward goes backward. As at the outfet
we are animated to overtake thole whom we deem be¬
fore us, fo when we defpair of being able to overtake
or to pafs by them, our ardour languiihes together with
our hope, and what it cannot overtake it ceaies to
purfue ; and leaving the fubjeft as already engrofied
by another, it looks out for a new one upon which to
exert itfelf. That by which we find we are not able
to acquire eminence we rehnquiftr, and try to find out,
feme objedl elfenvhere upon which to employ our in-
telleftual powers. The confequence is, that frequent
and variable tranfitions from fubjeft to fubjeft proves
a very great obftacle to perfection in any profeffion.
This perhaps was the cafe with the Romans. The
heroes of the Auguftan age had borne away the prize
of eloquence, of hiftory , of poetry, &c. Their fuc-
ceffors defpaired of being able to equal, much kfs to
furpafs them, in any of thefe walks. They were there¬
fore laid under the neceffity of ftriking out a new
path by which they might arrive at eminence. Confe-
quently Seneca introduced the JUle coupe, as the french
call it; that is, a fhort, fpaikling, figurative diction,
abounding with antithefes, quaintnefles, witticifms,
embellifhed with flowers and meretricious ornaments ;
whereas the ftyle of the Auguflan age w'as natural,
Ample, folid, unaffeCted, and properly adapted to the
nature of the fubjeft and the fentiments of the
author.
The hiftorian Salinft laid the foundation of the un-
r natural
Sea. VlTT. - PHIL
. Latin natuf&l 'fl.yle above mentioned. Notwithftanding all
Language, excellencies of that celebrated author, he every
* where exhibits an afftdlation of antiquity, an antithe¬
tical caft, an air of aufterity, an accuracy, exaftnefs,
and regularity, contrary to that air degage which na¬
ture difplays in her moft elaborate efforts. His words,
his claufes, feem to be adjufted exatfily according to
number, weight, and meafure, without excefs or de-
feft. Velleius Paterculus imitated this writer; and,
as is generally the cafe wich imitators, fucceeded bell
in thoft points where his archetype had failed moil
egregioudy. Tacitus, however excellent in other rc-
fpedfs, deviated from the Auguftan exemplars, and is
thought to have imitated Salluft; but affecting brevity
to excefs, he often falls into obfeurity. The other
contemporary writers employ a cognate ftyle ; and
becr.ufe they have deviated from the Auguilan iland-
ard, their works are held in lefs eilimation, and are
thought to bear about them marks of degeneracy.
That degeneracy, however, did not fpring from the
defpotic government under which thefe authors lived,
but from that aifedlation of Angularity into which
they were led by an eager but fruitlefs defire of figna-
l.zing themfelves in their mode, as their predecefiors
had cone in theirs. But the mifehiefs of this rage
for innovation did not reach their fentiments as it had
done their ilyle ; for in that point we think they’’ were
fo Far from falling below the meafure of the writers of
the former age, that in many inftances they feem to
have furpaffed them.
With refpedt to fentiment and mental exertions,
the authors in queftion preferved their vigour, till
luxury and effeminacy, in confequence of power and
opulence, enervated both the bo.lies and minds of the
Romans. The contagion foon became univerfal; and
a lifflc-ffnefs, or intelitdlual torpor, the ufual concomi¬
tant of luxury, fpread indolence over the mental fa-
cullies, which rendered them not only averfe to, but
e.eti incapable of, induftry and psrfeverance. This
lethargic difpofition of mind feems to have commen¬
ced towards the conclufion of the frlver age ; that is,
about the end of the reign of Adrian. It was then
that the Roman eagles began to floop, and the genius
of Rome, as well in arts as in arms, began to decline.
Once more, the declenfion of the intellcdtual powers
of the writers of that nation did not arife from the
form of the government, but from the caufes above
fpecified.
As the Roman genius, about that period, began to
decline, fo the flyle of the iilver age was gradually
vitiated with barbarifms and exotic forms of fpecch.
The multitudes of barbarians who flocked to Rome
from all parts of the empire; the ambaffadors of foreign
princes, and often the princes themfelves, with their at¬
tendants ; the prodigious numbers of fl ives who were
entertained in all the conlidcrabie families of the capi¬
tal, and over all Italy; the frequent commerce which the
Roman armies upon the frontiers carried on with the
barbarians; all concurred to vitiate the Latin tongue,
and to interlard it with foreign words and idioms. In
fuch circumftanccs, it was impoffible for that or any
other language to have continued pure and untainted.
This vitiated charafter both of flyle and fentiment
became more and more prevalent, in proportion as it
citfeended from the reign of Adrian towards the era
O L O G Y. 557
of the removal of the imperial feat from Rome to Con- Larm
flantinople. Then fucceeded the iron age, when the aas^iair.e*
Roman language became abfolutely rude and barba¬
rous. i _ 199
Towards the clofe of the filver, and during the Writers o£
whole coiarfe of the brazen age, there appeared, how-great ta-
ever, many writers of no contemptible talents. The
xnofl remarkable was Seneca the Uoic, the mailer of ftiv'er an(j
Nero, whefe chara&er both as a man and a writer is brazen
difeuffed with great accuracy by the noble author ofages*
the Charatlerijlics, to whom we refer our readers.
About the fame time lived Perfius the fatyrift, the
friend and difciple of the ftoic Cornutus; to whofe pre¬
cepts, as he did honour by his virtuous life, fo his works,
though fmall, fhow an early proficiency in the fcience
of morals.
Under the mild government ofAdrian and the Anto-
nines lived AulusGellius, or (as fome call him) Agellius;
an entertaining writer in the mifcellaneous way, well
{killed in criticifm and antiquity. His works contain
feveral valuable fragments of philofophy, which are in¬
deed the moft curious part of them.
With A ulus Gellius we may range Macrebius ; not
becaufe a contemporary (for he is fuppofed to have
lived under Honorius and Thecdofius), but from his
near rtfemblance in the charadler of a writer. His works, _
like thofe of the other, are mifcellaneous; filled with
mythology and ancient literature, with fome philofo¬
phy intermixed.
In the fame age with Aulus Gellius flottrifiled Apu-
leius of Madaura in Africa ; a Platonic writer, v/hofe
matter in general far exceeds his perplexed and affedled
ftyle, too conformable to the falfe rhetoric of the age
w-hen he lived.
Boethius was defconded from one of the nobleft of
the Roman families, and was conful in the beginning
of the fixth century. Pie wrote many philoiophical
works; hut his ethic piece on the Confolation of
Philofophy defetves great encomiums, both for the
matter and the ftyle; in which latter he approaches the
purity of a far better age than his own. By command '
of Theodoric king of the Goths this great and good
rnan fuffered death ; with whom the Lathi tongue,
and the lall remains of the Roman dignity, may be
faid to have funk in the weftern world.
There were belides a goodly number both of poete
and hiftorians who flourilhed during this period ; fuch
as Siiius Italicus, Claudian, Aufonius, &c. poets and
hiftorians to a very great number, for whom our readers
may confult Job., Alberti Fabricii Rill. Lat. aoo
There flourilhed, too, a number of ecclefiaftical Elega»t ec-
writers, fome of whom dtferve great commendation.
The chief of thefe is La&antius, who has been de-^atju °
fervedly dignified with the title of the Chrijlian
Cicero.
The Roman authors amount to a very fmall number
in comparifon of the Greek. At the fame time, when
we confider the extent and duration of the Roman
empire, we are juftly furprifed to find fp few writers
of charatxer and reputation in fo vaft a field. We
think we have good reafon to agree with the prince of
Roman poets in the fentiment-quoted p. 56-5.■
Upon the whole, the Latin tongue deferves our
attention beyond any other ancient one now extant.
The grandeur of the people by w.hom it was fpoken-;
the
5i'§
Celtic
Language.
PHILOLOGY.
Sea. ix.
aoi
Excellency
an el ufcful-
nefs of the
Latin
etonguc.
t1ie luftre of its writers ; the empire which it ftill
maintains among ourfelves ; the neceffity we are under
of learning it in order to obtain accefs to almolt all
the fciences, nay even to the knowledge of our own
laws, of our judicial proceedings, of our charters; all
thefe circumltances, and many others too numerous
to be detailed, render the acquifition of that imperial
language in a peculiar manner at once improving and
highly interelling. Spoken by the conquerors of the
ancient nations, it partakes of all their revolutions, and
bears continually their impreflion. Strong an i ner¬
vous while they were employed in nothing but battles
and carnage, it thundered in the camps, and made
the proudeft people to cremble, and the moll defpotic
monarchs to bend their (lubborn necks to the yoke. Co¬
pious and majeftic, when, weary of battles, the Romans
inclined to vie with the Greeks indcience and the gracea,
it became the learned language of Europe, and by its
luftre made the jargon of favages difappear who difpu-
ted with it the poffelfion of that quarter of the globe.
After having controlled by its eloquence, aed huma¬
nized by its laws, all thofe people, it became the
language of religion. In ihort, the Latin language
will be ftudied and efteemed as long as good fenfe
and fine tafte remain in the .world.
Sect. IX. Celtic, Gothic, and Sclavonian Lan-
guages.
§ l. Of the Celtic Language.
soz
Origin cf
ihe Celts,
203
Part of
In treating of the origin of the Latin tongue (fee
Section VIII.), we obferved that a gieat part of it
is derived from the Celtic. We fhall now endeavour
to give fome account of the origin and extent of that
ancient language ; Hill leaving the minutiae to grammars
and dictionaries, as we have done with refpeCt to the
ether dialects which have fallen under our confidera-
tion. Our candid readers, it is hoped, will remember,
that we are aiting in the chara&er of philologers, not
in that of grammarians, and lexicographers.
The defeendants of Japhet having peopled the weft-
ern parts of Afia, at iength entered Europe. Some
broke into that qu iter of the globe by the north,
others found means tocrofs the Danube near its mouth.
Their pofterity gradually afeended towards the fource
of that river; afterwards they advanced to the banks
of the Rhine, which they palled, and thence fpread
themfelves as far as the Alps and the Pyrenean hills.
Thefe people, in all probability, were compofed of
different families; all, however, fpoke the fame lan¬
guage ; their manners and cuftoms bore a near refem-
blance ; there was no variety among them but that
difference which climate always introduces. Accord-
ingly they were all known, in the more early times,
by the general name of Celto-fcythx. In procefs of
time, becoming exceedingly numerous, they were di¬
vided into feveral nations, which were diltinguilhed by
different names and territorial appellations. 1 hefe
who inhabited that large country bounded by the
ocean, the Mediterranean, the Rhine, the Alps,^ and
the Pyrenees, were denominated Gauls or Celts. Ihofe
whom weie ople multiplied lb prodigioufly in the fpace of a lew
rfienomiiw- r . • . 1 . a. ^_a.1 ^1 ^It
denomina- centurjeg) lilat the fertile regions which they then ec-
aU * cupied could not afford them the means ol fubfiftence.
Some of them now paffed over into Britain ; others
croffed the Pyrenees, and formed fettlements in the Celtic
northern parts of Spun. Even the formidable bar-
riers of the Alps could not impede the progrefs of —
the Gauls: they made their way into Italy, and colo¬
nized thofe pares which lie at the foot of the moun¬
tains ; whence they extended themfelves towards the
centre of that rich country.
By this time the Greeks had landed on the eaftern
coaft of Italy, and founded numerous colonies in thofe
parts. The two nations vying as it were with each
other in populoufnefs, and always planting colonies
in the courfe of their progrefs, at length rencountered
about the middle of the country. This central region
was at that time called Lntium. Here the two nations
formed one fociety, which was called the Latin people.
The languages of the two nations were blended toge¬
ther ; and hence, according to fome, the Latin is a
mixture of Greek and Gaehc.
As the Gauls were a brave and numerous people,
they certainly maintained themfelves in their priftine
poffefiions, uninvaded, unconquered, till their civil
animdfities and domeftic quarrels expofed them as a
prey to thofe very Romans whom they bad fo often
defeated, and fometimes driven to the brink of deftruc-
tlon. They were not a people addifted to commerce ;
and, upon the whole, confidering their fituation both
in their primary feats and afterwards in Italy, they had
little temptation or opportunity to mingle with fo¬
reigners. Their language, therefore, mult have re¬
mained unmixed with foreign idioms. Such as it was
when they fettled in Gaul, fuch it muff have continued
till the Roman conquefts. If therefore there is one
primitive language now exifting, it muff be found in
the remains ot the Gaelic or Celtic. It is not, then,
furprifing, that fome very learned men, upon difeo-
vering the coincidence of very great numbers of words
in fome of the Greek diale&s with other words in the
Celtic, have been inclined to effabliih a ftr;£l affinity 104.
between thofe languages. The ancient Pelafgic and ^ ^
the Celtic at leatt mult have nearly rtfembled each tween their
other, admitting a diale&ical difference only, and thatia!1£Uage
diferimination which climate and a long period of time and that
muff always produce. kfk: C ^
Some have thought that the Gauls loft the ufe of ‘ 0 ’
their native language foon after their country was
conquered by the Romans; but Monjieur Bullet, in his
Memoires de la Langue Celtique, has proved almoft to
a demonftration, that the vulgar among thofe people
continued to fpeak it fcveral centuries after that period.
When a great and populous nation has for many ages
employed a vernacular tongue, nothing can ever make
them entirely relinquifh the ufe of it, and adopt un¬
mixed that of their conquerors.
Many learned men, among whom is the lexicographer
above mentioned, have fhown that all the local names
in the north of Italy are a&ually of Celtic extra&ion.
Thefe names generally point out or deferibe fome cir-
cumftances relating to the nature of their fituation;
fuch as expbfure, eminence, lownefs, moiftnefs, drynefs,
coldnefs, heat, &c. This is a very charaaeriftic fea¬
ture of an original language ; and in the Celtic it ia fo
prominent, that the Erfe names of places all over
Scotland are, even to this day, peculiarly diftinguiftied
by this quality. We have heard a gentleman, who
was well ikilled in the dialed of the Celtic ftill fpoken
6 m
Se£l. IX. PHIL
Celnc in the Highlands of Scotland, propofe to lay a bet, at
an^'Ja'?e very gie it odds, that if one fhould pronounce the name
of any village, mountain, river, gentleman’s feat, &c.
in the old Scottifh dialed, he fhould lie able, by its
very name, to give a pretty exaft defcription of its lo-
cal fituation.
To difcover the fourcea from which the Celtic
tongue is derived-, we muft have rccourfe to the. follow¬
ing expedients.
1. We muft con full the Greek and Latin authors,
who have preferved feme Gaelic or Celtic terms in their
writings.
2. We rnnft have reconrfe to the Welfh and
Bretagne dialeds; in which, indeed, there are many
new words, but thefe are eafily diftinguifhed from
the primitive ftock.
3. If one would trace another fource of the Celtic
he muft converfe with the country people and peafants’
who live at a diftance from cities, in thofe countries
where it was once the vernacular tongue. We have
been credibly informed, that a Highland gentleman,
crofting the Alps for Italy, accidentally fell in with an
old woman, a native of thofe parts, who fpoke a lan¬
guage fo near akin to his native Erfe, that he could
underftand her with little difficulty ; and that ffie, on
the other hand, underttood moft of his words. That
an event of this nature fhould a&ually take place is by
no means furprifing, when we confider that the Erfe
fpoken in the Highlands of Scotland is perhaps the
moft genuine remnant of the Celtic now exifting, and
at the fame time refleft that there may he fome remote
cantons among thofe wild and inaeceffible mountains,
the Alps, where fome remains of that tongue may be
ftill preferved.
The moft 4- have ^'d, that the moft genuine remains of
genuine re-the Gaelic tongue are to be found in the Highlands of
theCefti Scotland ; and the reafon is obvious. The Scottifh
in‘the6 nC Highlanders are the unmixed unconquered pofterity of
highlands ancient Britons, into whole barren domains the
of Scot- Romans never penetrated ; not, we imagine, becaufe
knd. they were n?t able, lince they fubdued both North
and South Wales, equaliy inacceffible, but becaufe
they found no feenes there either to fire them ambition
or allure their avarice. Amidft all the revolutions that
from time to time fhook and convulfed Albion, thofe
mountainous regions were left to their primitive lords,
whej, like their fouthern progenitors, hofpital ie in the
extreme, did not, however, fuffer ftrangers to refide
long among them. Their language, accordingly, re¬
mained unmixed,'and continues fo even to this day, efpe-
cially in the moft remote parts and unfrequented iflands-.
The Norwegians fubdued the weftern iftands of
Scotland at a time when the Scottifh monarchy wa3
fti l in its minority. They ereded a kind of princi¬
pality over them, of which the ifle of Man was the
capital. Though they maintained the fovereignty of
thofe iftands for fome centuries, built many forts, and
ftrengthened them with garrifons, and in fine were
the lawgivers and adminiftrators of juftfee among the
natives ; yet we have been informed by the moft re-
fpe&able authority, that there i« not at this day a
fingle vocable of the Ncrfe or Banifh tongue to be
found among thofr ifianders. This fad affords a de-
monftration of that fuperftitious attachment, with which
they were devoted to their vernacular dialeds.
o L O G Y. 5^
The Welfh dialed cannot we think be pure and Celtic
unfophifticated. The Silurts were conquered by the Languaf?e,
Romans, to whom they were admlly fubjed for the ^
fpace of three centuries. Luring this period, a mul-TheWcl/h
titude of Italian exotics muft have been tranfplanted dlaleA not
into their language ; and indeed many of them are dif-Pure’ !!fr
cernible at this day. Iheir long commerce
their Englifh neighbours arrd conquerors hath adul¬
terated their language, fo that a great part of it is
now of an Englifh complexion. The Irifh is now
fpoken by a race of people whofe morality and in¬
genuity are nearly upon a level. Their lateft hifto-
nans have brought them from the confines of Afia,
through a variety of adventures, to people an ifland
extra anni follfque vias. However this genealogical
tale may pleafe the people for whom it was fabrica¬
ted, we muft ftill fufpeft that the Irifh are of Celtic
extradion, and that their forefathers emigrated from
the weftern coaft of Britain at a period prior to all
hiftorical or even traditional annals. Ireland was once
tire native land of faints. The chief adors on this fa-
cred ftage were Romanifts, and deeply tindbured with
the fuperftition of the times. They pretended to im¬
prove the language of the natives; and whatever their
fuccefs was, they improved it in fuch a manner as to
make it deviate very confiderably from the original
Celtic ; fo that it is not in Ireland that we are to
look for the genuine charaders of the dialed under
conlideration.
Though the Hibernian tongue, in our opinion, dif-
fers confiderably from the original Celtic, fome very
ingenious effays have been lately publifhed by the learn¬
ed and laborious members of the Antiquarian Society of 207
Dublin ; in which the coincidence of that tongue, with Coinci-
fome of the oriental dialeds, has been fupported by ^ence
very plaufible arguments. In a difTertation publifhed am!
ia ^.e year ^72> they have exhibited a colledion ofPhosuician.
Pumco-Maltefe words compared with words of the
fame import in Irifh, where it muft be allowed the re-
fembVince is palpable. In the fame diflertation they
have compared the celebrated Punic feene in Plautus
with its tranflation into the Irifh; in which the words in
the two languages are furprifingly irmilar. If Aofe
criticifms are well founded, they will prove that the
Celtic is coeval and congenial with the moft; ancient
languages of the eaft; which we think highly pro¬
bable. be that as it may, the Lanes and Norwegians
formed fettlcments in Ireland ; and the Englifh have
long been fovereigns of that iftand. Thefe circum-
fiances muft have affeded the vernacular idiom of the
natives; not to mention the neceffity of adapting
the language of the conquerors in law, in fciences, in
the offices of religion.
The inhabitants of the highlands and iflands of
Scotland are the defeendants of thofe Britons who
fled from the power of the Romans, and flickered
themfelves among the fens, rocks, and faftneffes of
thofe rugged mountains and fequeftered glyns. They
preferred thefe waftes and wilds, with liberty and in¬
dependence, to the pleafant and fertile valleys of the
fouth, with plenty embittered by flavery. They no
doubt carried their language, along with them ; that
language was a branch of the Celtic. With theft?', no
doubt, fled a number of the druidical priefts, who un*.
queftionably knew their native dialed! in all its beauties
and-
j6°
Celtic
Language.
P HILO
anti varieties. Thefe fugitives in procefs oi time
formed a regular government, ele&ed a king, and be-
  Thev were feaueftered by
scS
Caufes of
Che purity
of the
Scotch dia¬
led of this
ancient lan¬
guage.
came a confiderable ftate. They were fequeftered by
their fituation from the relt of the world. Without
commerce, without agriculture, without the mecha¬
nical arts, and without objeda of ambition or emula¬
tion, they addided themfelvea wholely to the paftoral
life as their bufinefs, and to hunting and fifh.ng aa
their diverfion. Thofe people were not diftinguiflied
by an innovating genius ; and confequent y t eir ^an
iTuage mult have remained in the fame ftate in whic
they received it from their anceftora. 'I hey received
it genuine Celtic, and fueh they preferred it.
When the Scots became mailers of the low coun¬
try, and their kings and a great part of the nobility
embraced the Saxon manners, and adopted the baxon
language, the genuine Caledonians tenacioully retain¬
ed their native tongue, drefs, manners, c anlbips, and
feudal cuftoms, and could never cordially afiimilate
with their fouthern neighbours. 1 heir language,
therefore, could not be polluted with words or idioms
borrowed from a people whom they hated and de-
fpifed. Indeed it is plain from the whole tenor of the
Scottilh hiftory, that neither Caledonian chieftains,
nor their vaffals, were ever fteadily attached to the royal
family after they fixed their refidence m the low
country, and became Saxcnt, as the Highlanders called
them by way of reproach. Indeed the commerce be¬
tween them and thofe of the fouth, till about a cen¬
tury and a half ago, was only traniient and acciden¬
tal ; nor was their native dialed in the leaft affetted
^Their language, however, did not degenerate, be-
caufe there exifted among them a defeription of men
whofe profeffion obliged them to guard agamtt that
misfortune. Every chieftain retained in his family a
bard or pdet laureat, whofe province it was to com-
pofc poems in honour of his lord, to commemorate
the glorious exploits of his anceftors, to record the
genealogy and connedions of the family; in a word,
fo amufe and entertain the chief and hts guefts at all
public entertainments and upon all folemn occafions.
Tbcfe profelfors of the Parnaffian art ufed to vie with
each other and the chiefs of families often aflembled
their refpedive bards, and encouraged them by con¬
fiderable premiums to exert their poetic talents. I he
vidor was rewarded and honoured ; and the. chieftain
deemed it an honour to himfelf to entertain a bard
who excelled his peers.. The ancient Gauls, as we
learn from Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Tacitus, Gl¬
ean, &c. entertained perfons of that profeffion ; an
certainly the ancient Britons did the fame. 1 hole
bards were highly revered; their
edfacred; and they were aiways rewarded wxthlato-
ries in lands or cattle (See fedion Greek.)^ Thofe
poetic geniufes mult have watched over their verna¬
cular dialed wiwh the greateft care and anxiety; be-
caufe in their compofitions no word was to be lo.t,
but as many gained as poffible.
The ufe of letters was not known among the a i-
cient Celt*; their druidical clergy forbade the ufe of
them. All their religious rites, their philofophical
dogmas, their moral precepts, and their, political ma¬
xims, were compofed in verfes which their PuP1,8^ere
obliged to commit to memory. Accordingly letters
LOG IT. SecL IX*
were unknown to the Galfedoniari-Scot's, till they learn- Cdklc
ed them either from the.r fouthern neighbours or
from the Romans. The iriffi, indeed, pretend to
have letters of a very ancient date ; the H.ghlandera
of the country in queftion make no claim to the ule
of that invention. Their bards, therefore, commit-
ted every thif.g to memory; and of courfe the words ot
their language mull have been faithfully preferved We
find that the celebrated poems of Offian, and others
of an inferior character, or at leaft fragments ot fuch
poems (fee Ossiaw), have thus been preferved from
father to fon for more than icoo years. 1 he beau¬
ty, fignificancy, harmony, variety, and energy of thelc
verfes, ftrike us even in a profe tranflation : how in¬
finitely more charming mull they appear in their na¬
tive form and poetical attire ! . .
In order to exhibit the genius of the Celtic in as
ftriking a light as the nature of our prefent defign
will permit, we lhall lay before our readers a very con-
tta&ed fketch of the Gaelic or Caledonian dialect as
it now Hands ; which we hope will go a W'-y
to convince them that this is the genuine offspring ot
the other. In doing this we lhall borrow many hints
from a gentleman * whofe learning feems to equal
xeal for his native language; which, in compliance with &c by
the modern practice, we lhall for Lie future ^ ' Grant,
bv the name of Gaelic. Efq; ad*
* The Gaelic is not derived from any other language vocate0
as far as we know, being obvioufly reducible to its
own roots. Its combinations are formed ol hmple
words of a known fignifkation ; and thofe words are
refolvable into the fimpleft combinations of vowels and
confonants, and even into fimple founds. n uLa/L
guage we may exped that fome traces will be found of
the ideas and notions of mankind living in a ftate Pn*
meval fimplicity; and if fo, a monument is ftdl preferved
of the primitive manners of the Celtic race while as
yet under the guidance of fimple nature, without any
artificial reftraint or controul.
The fudden fenfations of heat and cold, and bodily
pain, are expreffed by articulate founds, which, how¬
ever, are not ufed in this language to. denote heat,
cold, or bodily pain. A fudden fenfation of heat is
denoted by an articulate exclamation Aa// ; of cold,
by id; of bodily pain, by oich. AUthefefoundsmay
be called interjeaions, being parts of fpeechwhiehd
cover the mind to be feized with fome paffion. lew
of the improved languages of Europe prefent fo great
a variety of founds which inftantaneoully convey
notice of a particular paffion, bodily or mental fee
inSThe pronouns he and A are expreffed by the fimple
founds e and and thefe are the marks oi the ma -
culine and feminine genders; for a neuter gender i
unknown in the Gaelic. The compofitions of rude
and barbarous ages are umverfally found to.npproach
to the ftyle and numbers of poetry ; and this too is a
diftinguiLng character of the Bodily fab-
fiftence will always be the principal concern of an un
cultivated people! Hence ed or eid ta ufed upond. ‘o-
very of any animal of prey or game : it is mean
give notice to the hunting companion to be m reaci
Kto feize the animal: and hence we believe ^
“ to eat” in Latin, and ed in Into, fignihes cattle,
likewise in Scotch edal “ cattle,” literally fign.fie*
IX. PHILO
Celtic “ the offspring or generation of cattle.” Coed or cued,
Language. <4 fhare or portion of any fubjedt of property,” lite-
u’"~v rally “ common food.” Faced “ hunting,” literally
“ gathering of food.” Edra “ the time of the morn¬
ing when cattle sie brought home from pafture to give
milk,” literally 41 meal-time.” Thefe are words import¬
ing the fimplicity of a primitive ftate, and are com¬
mon in the Gaelic idiom.
Traces of imitative language remain in all coun¬
tries. The word ufed for conv in the Gaelic language
is Lo, plainly in imitation of the lowing of that ani¬
mal.
In joining together origin'll roots in the progrefs of
409
Fxfellercy
Gaelic.
LOGY. 561
guages were derived from the Gaelic; we rather believe Celtic
that thefe are remains of a primeval tongue, which LaiTu‘1'^gi>
are ftill retained in all the three ; and we produce
them upon the prefent occafion as prefumptions that
the Gaelic is an original, underived language, and of
courfe the mod pure and unadulterated relick of the
improving language and rendering it more copious, its
combinations dxfcover an admirable juftnefs and preci-
fion of thought, which one would fcarce expeft to find in
an uncultivated dialedf. It will, however, he found,
upon examination, that the Gaelic language, in its com-
comj oui.ds bjnation of words, fpecifies with accuracy the known
qualities, ar.d expreffes with precifion the nature and
properties which were attributed to the objedt deno¬
minated.
sfn appears to have been a word of frequent ufe
in this language, and feems to have been originally
a name applied indefinitely to any objeft. Accord¬
ing to Bullet, it was ufed to fignify “ a planet;” hence
the fun had the name ©f grim, which is a compound
of gri “ hot,” and an “ a planet.” Re fignifies
originally and radically “ divifion.” The changes of
the moon and the variety of her phafes were early
employed to point out the divifions of time. The
prefent name for the moon is geulach ; a word derived
from her whitenefs of colour. To thefe we might
add a vaft number more whofe fignification precifely
indicates their (hape, colour, effedta, &c. Many of
thefe would be found exaftly fimilar to Greek and
J.atin words of the fame found and fignification. In
order to fatisfy our curious readers, we {ball annex a
few, though fome of them may perhaps be queftion-
able.
The Venus of the Latins is faid to be a compound
cif ben and jus, which literally fignify “ the firft wo¬
man,” the letter b in Gaelic being foftened into v.
ESag and "f*? fignify “food.” Thefe words are com¬
pounded of the Gaelic words ed or eid and ar ; the for¬
mer denotes/tfc;/ fn: ply, and the laXtzrploughed land.
Thefe are the roots of the Greek and Latin words
edo, “cgoa aro. E<ffa, which fignifies “a feat,” has
an evident reference to food. It is compounded of
two Gaelic words ed and ira, which literally fignify
meal-time.” ESva, which fignifies “ the prelents
which a bridegroom made to his bride,” is a com¬
pound of two Gaelic words ed and na or nuah, literally
lignifying “ raw food.” From ar there are many
Greek derivatives. A-?*?* fignifies “ ploughed land,”
aifo “ crop of corn ;” APTof “ bread.” In Gaelic
a crop of corn and bread are expreffed by arlhar, com¬
monly pronounced arar and aran ; all being equally
derivatives of the root ar. So the Greek and La¬
tin words apo-toc, arabilis, “ arable «p»rPo», aratrutn,
4‘ a plougharator, “ a ploughmanand many
others, are evidently derived from the fame fource.
We would not, however, fugged, in conftquence of
4his coincidence, that either the Greek or Latin Icn-
^ Vot. XIV. Fart II.
Celtic now exifting. If our readers fhould incline to
know more of this fubjedt, they may confult Pezron’i
Origin of Ancient Nations, Bullet's Mem. cle la l.angue
Celtique, Parfon’s Rem. of ffaphet, Gebelin, Monde prim.
See. / 410
When the Celtic language was generally fpoken Copii ufnefs
over Europe, it feems to have been amazingly copious.
By confulting Bullet's Memoires, it appears that its Celtic,
names for the common and various objects of nature
were very numerous. The words denoting water, ri¬
ver, wood, foreft, mountain, lake, &c. were moft pre¬
cifely accommodated to fpecify each modification and
variety, with fuch peculiar exaftnefs as even the Greek,
with all its boafted idiomacical precifion and copiouf-
nefs, has not been able to equal. The appearances
which diverfify the vifible face of inanimate nature,
arreft the attention of men in an uncultivated ftate.
Unaccuftomed to thought and abftradl reafoning, their
minds expand and exercife their powers upon fenfible
objedts, and of courfe mark every minutia and ahnoft;
imperceptible diftindfion with an accuracy to usfeem-
ingly irnpofiible.
We hope it now appears to every reader, that the
Celtic was one of the dialedfs of the primitive lan¬
guage ; that it once overfpread by far the greatell
part of Europe ; that the Gaelic now fpoken in the
northern parts of Scotland and the adjacent iftands is
the moft pure and unmixed relick of that tongue now
anywhere exifting. We would willingly refer our
readers to fome well compofed grammar of that lan¬
guage ; but indeed we know of none that deferves our
recommendation. Some years ago we were flattered
with the profpecl of feeing one publifhed by a gentle¬
man vvhofe deep flcill in that language is univerfally
acknowledged. We have likewife heard of an intend¬
ed dictionary of the fame tongue ; but hitherto our
hopes have been difappointed.
We are, however, happy to find that there is
now publiftiing an excellent tranflation of both the
Old and New TeftamentS into Gaelic, which has
hitherto been a defideratum among thofe who fpeak »
this language. Such a tranflacion will at once con¬
tribute to preferve that ancient tongue, and diffemf-
nate the knowledge of the truth among the natives of
that country.
Every afliftance towards acquiring the knowledge
of a tongue which was once univerfal over a great
part of Europe, will certainly be an acceptable prefent
to the public. The antiquary, who is delirous of tra*
cing the affinity of languages, and wifhes to mark the
migrations of people, ought certainly to apply him-
felf to the ftudy of its remaining branches ; and, if we
miftake not, he will foon be convinced, that they all
breathe a fpirit congenial to the manners and fenti-
ments of a people who are juft entering upon the firfl:
llage of improvement and civilization. 2I^
Perhaps it may be expedled, that, before we con O; igin of
elude this ihort flcetch of the Celtic tongue, we fhould ^
4 15 6lve G«/.
/
562
PHILO
Celtic give fome account of the origin of the words Gaul<sxi&
l anguage. Qa^ t},e tvvo names by which this people was diftin-
' guhhed by the Greeks and Romans. Mr M'Pherfon
imagines, that the appellation of Celt is an adjective
derived from Gael, the aboriginal name ot the inhaoi*
tantd of ancient Gaul. 1'or our part, we can fee no
connexion between Gael and Kelt, nor do we think
that the latter is an adjedive. We believe that thofe
people called themfelves Gael and not Gael. We are
fare that Caledonia, or Cal-don or dun, was an anci¬
ent name of the mountainous parts of Scotland.
Though m.any different opinions have been advanced
with relation to the etymology of this \eord, we ima¬
gine that none is fo probable as that which fuppofes
that it is compounded of the two Celtic words Cal or
Kal, that is, “ Gal or Gaul/’ and dun, which digni¬
ties “ a hil.l or mountain.” Upon this ground, the
Caledonii will import the Gauls of the mountains, or,
which is the fame, the Jdighland Gauls. The Irifh
and Highlanders reciprocally denominate ti.emi^ives
by the general title or Gael, Gael, or Gauls. 1 ney
alfo diftinguilh themfelves, as the Welch originally
did, and as the Which diftinguifh them both at pre-
ft nt, by1 the apnellation of GuidhJi, Guetbel, and Ga-
ihel. The intermediate th, they fay, is left quiefcent
in the pronunciation, as it is in many words of-the
Britilh language ; in which cafe Gathel would im¬
mediately be formed into Gael; and Gathel is
ally founded like Gael Ly both the Inlh and High-
landers at prefent. The appellation ol Gathel, theie-
fore, lay they, was originally the fame with Gael, and
the parent of it. The quiefcent letters in Biitim are
frequently transferred from the middle to the condu-
iion of the'word j by which manoeuvre, -Gathel is c.ran¬
ged into Galath, Galat, Galt, and Celt. It is tiue,
that Gael ot the continent is univerfally denomina'ed
Galata and Celt# l>y the Grecians, and GaJt and Gallta
by the Irifh. The appellations, therefore, of Gathel i,
Galli, Gallat ee, Calst-es, An-calit es, and Cdta, are all
one and the fame denomination, only varied by the
aifonifhing dudfility of the Celtic, and difguifed by the
alterations ever incident to a language that has been
merely oral for ages. # ...
It may perhaps appear prefumptuous in us to dif¬
fer from two fuch rtfpe&able authorities as M‘Pher-
fon and Whitaker: we mull, however, acknowledge,
that neither the one nor the other appears to us well
founded. Befides, they convey no idea of the fignifi-
cation of the words, though in the Celtic language
they mull have been fignificant. The name Gael, the
fame with Gal, was probably given them in the Eaft
from the Greek which in many oriental languages
denotes fair ; and rax»r.« may be eafily derived from
fax or foxafi. Gal or Galath.—Th\% denomination might
be given them by their neighbours, in allufion to their
fair complexion.
§ 2. Of the Gothic Language.
The Celtic and Gothic tongues at one time divided
LOGY. Sea. IX.
Europe between them. Both were of equal sntiqui- Gothic
ty? both originated in Afia, both were dialefts of the l^ngaage.
original language of mankind. The Celtic, however, 213/
was firfl imported into Europe. The Gauls or Celts Ancient
had penetrated fartheft towards the well; a circum-Gothic,
ftance which plainly intimates the priority of their ar¬
rival. In the population of countries, we believe it
may be held as a maxim, that the colonies who emi¬
grated fird were generally impelled by fucceeding emi¬
grants ; and that of conf. quence the mod early were
pufhed forw.rd to the parts mod diftant. The Celts,
then, having overfpread the mod vvedern parts ot
Europe, mud have arrived more early in thofe re¬
gions.
The Goths and Getse were the fame race of people,
according to Procopius *, de hello Goth.; and Strabo j- ^
(b) iiTorms us, that they fpoke the fame 1 mguage
with the Thracians, from whole confines they had Ca;>. 23.
fpread themfelvcs northward as far as the weftern 213
banks of the Danube. Vop:feus, in the Hidory of
Probus, tells us, that this emperor £ obliged “ the language
Thracians, and all the Getic tribes, either to furren-of the
der or accept of his friendfhip.” This exprefilon in-Thracans.
dicates, that the Thracians and the Getic tribes were 1 Llb’ 7*
deemed the fame race of people. From this deduc¬
tion it is clear, that the Getae and Thiacians were
brethren ; that they fpoke the fame language : and
that their laws, mariners, cudoms, and religious tenets,
were the fame, might eafily be Iho vn, were this a pro¬
per place for an inquiry of that nature.
The Thracian language, as might be demondrated
from names of perfons, offices, places, and cudoms,
among that people, was nearly related to the Chaldean
and other oriental languages.
They are thought to have been the defendants of
Tiras, one of the fons of Japhet, and confequentiy
mud have preferved the fpeeeh of the Noachic fami¬
ly. The Gothic language abounds with Pahlavi, or^.U*^
old Perfic words, which are no doubt remains of the the Goths,
primeval dialed of mankind. The Thracians peo¬
pled a confiderable part of the northern coad of Afia
Minor ; and confequentiy we meet with many names
of cities, mountains, rivers, &c. in thofe parts, exadly
comfponding with many names in Europe, evidently
inapofed by our Gothic progenitors. Any perfon to¬
lerably acquainted with the remains of the Gothic
tongue, will be able to trace thefe with little diffi-
C 1 We learn from Herodotus ||, that Darius in hhj^’**
expedition againd the wandering Scythians who lived
on the other fide of the Ider or Danube, in his pro-
grefs fubdued the Getae ; and in the fame palfage the
hidorian informs us, that thefe people held the im¬
mortality of the human foul, and that they were the
braved and mod jud of all the Thiacians. After this
period, we find them mentioned by aimed every
Greek writer, even familiarly ; for Getae in the come¬
dies of that nation, is a common name for a Have.
The Getae then occupied all that large tra& of coun¬
try
, . t •, .. ^ -n . ib;d paec 405. G. (Cafaubon). From this paffage it appears, that the Greek^
e/in. Na,. H*. U U. c*p. U- —‘
Getae called Gaud#.
Sea. IX.
PHILOLOGY.
Gothic try which exteiKlcd from the confines of Thrace to
Language. banks of the Danube : were a brave and virtuous
~'1 people ; and fpoke the fame language with the Thra¬
cians, with whom they are often confounded both by
Greek and Roman hiftorians.
But the name of Goths is by no means fo ancient.
It was utterly unknown both to the ancient Greeks
and Romans. The full time that the name Goth is
mentioned is in the reign of the Emperor Decius,
about the year of Chrift 250. About that time they
turfl out of Getia, and rufhing like a torrent into the
empire, laid wafte every thing with fire and fword.
The name of their leader or king was Cneva. De¬
cius, endeavouring to expel them Thrace, tvas van.
quifhed and fiain.
After this irruption, we find them frequently in the
Latin authors under the name of Geta or Gothi; tho’
the Greeks generally denominate them Scytha. Tor-
\ Hijlory ef feus tells up, that get \ and got is' a&ually the fame
Norway,' word, which anciently, according to him, denoted a
lib. i. “ foldier.” Got in Icelandic fignifies a “ horfe or
horfeman,5, and gata a “ wanderer and this laft
was perhaps the import of the term Geta, they being
originally an unfettled vagrant people. As nations
generally aflame to themfelves fome high aufpicious
denomination, we may believe the Goths did the fame.
We may therefore reft fatisfied, that the Getce affir¬
med the Icrkndic name above mentioned as their
national one : or perhaps, notwithftanding their Greek
denomination, they called themfelves Gots or Goths
aTj from the beginning.
Their fri- The original feat of the Goths was the country
snaryfeat. now called Little ’Tartary, into which they had ex¬
tended themfelves from the frontiers of Thrace. This
country was called Litt/e Scythia by the Greek wri¬
ters ; and it was the ftation whence thofe innumerable
fwarms advanced, which, in cenjunffion with the A-
lani and other barbarous tribes, at length over-ran
and fubverted the weftern empire. One part of the
Gothic nation was allowed by Conftantine to fettle in
Moefia. Before the year 420 moft of the Gothid na¬
tions who had fettled within the limits of the Roman
empire had been converted to the Chriflian faith ;
but, unhappily, the greater part of the apoflles by
whom they had been profelyted, were Arians, which
proved fatal to many of the orthodox Chriftians; for
the Arian Goths perfecuted them with unrelenting
cruelty.
About the year 367, Ulphilas bifhop of the Mcs-
fian Goths, tranflated the New Teftament into the
Gothic language. The remains of this tranflation
furnifh a genuine, and at the fame time venerable, mof
nument of the ancient Gothic dialedl. No more is
now extant of that valuable tranfiation th'ti the four
Gofpels, and another fragment containing put of
the epiftle to the Romans. The Gofpels have been
repeatedly publifhed fince the firft edition by Junius
1665, down to that of Mr Lye. Other fragments of
the Gothic language have alfo been found, which our
curious readers may fee in Lye’s Notes to his Edition
of the Gothic Gofpels. The fragment of the Epiflle
to the Romans was lately difeovered in the library at
"Wolfenbottle, and publifhed by Knitel archdeacon of
Wolfenbottle.
The Goths, prior to the age of Ulphilas, were Jg-
216
Remains
genuine
Gothic.
norant of the ufe of alphabetical characters. The Li- Gothic
fhop fabricated an alphabet for them, which is a med- iLanguage.
ley of Greek and Roman letters, but rather inclining 2I7
to the former. Gothic al-_
This alphabet confifts of 27 letters (fee Plate phabec.
IX). Junius has carefully snalyfed thofe letters, and
pointed out their powers and founds in his Gothic al¬
phabet, prefixed to his Glojfarhtm Gothicum. They
were long retained in all the European languages de¬
rived from the Gothic fource, which will be enumera¬
ted in the fequel.
What kind of language the ancient Gothic was, is
plain from the fragments above mentioned ; but in
what refpedls it agrees with the oriental tongues, or
differs from them, is not eafy to afeertain with preci-
fion. We have obferved in our fe&ion on the Greek,
that a confiderable part of that language mufl have
been derived from the Thracian ; which, according to
Strabo there quoted, was the fame with the Getic or
Gothic. The Thracian tongue will, we are convin-
ced upon comparifon, be found analogous to the Chal-Gothic Ian«
dean or Syrian. The German, which is a genuine£.uage d6'
defeendant of the Gothic, is full of Peril an words :
the old Perfian or Pahlavi appears to be a dialed ofciean &c.
the Chaldean. The learned Junius, near the begin¬
ning of his Gothic alphabet, remarks, that a very
confiderable part of the language in queftion is bor¬
rowed from the moft ancient Greek.
Both the learned Ihre in his Glojfarium Suis Gothi¬
cum, and Wachter in his excellent German and La¬
tin Dictionary, often remark the coincidence of Go¬
thic and German words with oriental vocables of the
like found and of the fame fignification. In the old
Snxon, which is another ramification of the Gothic
tongue, numberlefs terms of the very fame complexion
appear. From this deduction we hope it will follow,
that the Gothic tongue, in its original unmixed fhte
as it was fpoken by the ancient Getse, was a dialedl
of the primeval language ; that language which the
fons of Tiras brought with them from the plains
of Shinar or from Armenia, or from any other re¬
gion where the primitive mortals had fixed their re-
fidence. To confirm this pofition, we fhall annex a
few inilances.
The Thracian tribes, in all probability, firft took
poffeffion of thofe parts of Afia Minor which ftretch
towards the eaft. Thence they croffed the Helle-
fpont, and fpread themfelves far and wide northward.
Strabo fuppofes that they firft fettled in the regions
to the north of thofe ftraits, amd thence tranfport-
ed numerous colonies into Afia Miner. The re-
verfe was probably the cafe Population, we think,
proceeded northward i hut be that as it may, it is uni-
verfally agreed, that both fides of the Hellefpont were
peopled with Thracians.
In Afia Minor we meet with the city Perga,
which, throwing away the a, is Perg. In every
tongue defeended from the Gothic, the word Berg
fignifies a “ rock,” and metaphorically a town or
burgh becaufc towns were originally built on rocks
for the fake of defence. Hence likewife Pergamost
the fort cr citadel of Troy. Beira in Thracian figni-
fied a city the Chatdaic and Hebrew word Beer
imports a “ well,” and is poffibly the original of the
Gothic werd beer, ale. In ancient times, efpecially ia
4 S 2 the
564
Coth'ic
language.
ai9
Modern
tongues
lieduced
from the
Gothic.
PHILOLOGY.
Sea. IS.
t!ie Eafl, it was cuflomary to build cities in the neigh¬
bourhood of fountains. The ancients called the Phry¬
gians Kfuyff, Bryges or Bruges ; the Gothic word coin¬
ciding is obvious. JJyndymus, the name of a city ia-
cred to Cybele, is compounded of two Gothic words
dun and dum, both fignifying “ a height, an emi¬
nence and hence a town, an inclofure. The word
iros feems to be the very Gothic trd/h, “ brave, vali¬
ant.” The words fader, mader, dochter, bruder, are fo
obvioufly Perfian, that every etymologilf has affigned
them to that language.
Many futile etymologies have been given of the fa-
cred name Go^f, which is in reality the Perfian word Cho-
da, commonly applied by them to xkidxr Horma-zd or Oro-
snazes. The Perfian bad or bod fignifies a “ city
the fame word in Gothic imports a “ houfe, a m*n-
fion, an abode.” Band, in Perfic, a “ ftrait place
in Gothic, “ to bend.” Heim or bam, “ a houfe,” is
generally known to be of Periian original. Much critical
fkiil has been difplayed in tracing the etymology of
the Scotch and old Englifh word Yule, “ Chriftmas.”
Yule, derived from iul, was a feftival in honour of the
fun, which was originally celebrated at the winter fol-
ftice. Wick or wicls is a Gothic term {till preferved in
many names of towns; it fignifies “ a narrow corner,
or fmall {trip of land jutting into the fea, or into a
lake or river:” hence Latin vicus, and the Greek
In Spaniih, we have many old Gothic words ; among
others /ji/o a “fon,” the fame with the Gre<.k In
fonie places of Scotland, we call any thing that is little,
fmall, wee; originally fpelt wi, if we miltake not, from
the very fame word.
Thefe few examples wc have thrown together, with-
cut any regard to order, perfuaded that almoft every
word of the language, truly Gothic, may with a little
pains and judgment be traced to feme oriental root or
cognate. We may obferve in palling, that many Go¬
thic nouns end in a, like the^ Chaldaic and Syriac ;
that their fubftantive verb very much reL-mbles that
of the Perfian, Gieek, and Latin ; and that their ac¬
tive and auxiliary verb has furniflied the common prae-
terperfedl tenfe of Greek verbs in the aftive voice :
that verb is haban, but originally ha, as the common
people pronounce it at this day, efpecially in the north
of Scotland, and among the Swedes, Danes, Norwe¬
gians, and Icelanders.
We {hall now leave the other inferior arrangements
of this ancient language to grammarians and lexico¬
graphers, and proceed to inquire what modern tongues
are deduced from it as their flock, and which of them
makes the neareft approaches to its fimplicity and ru-
fticity.
We have already obferved that the Goths, formerly
Getre, were poffeffed of a vaft extent of country,
reaching from the frontiers of Thrace to the banks of
the Ifler or Danube. We have feen that a colony of
them fettled in Moefia under Conftantine II. They
then fpread therafelves into Dacia,/and from thence
into Germany. All thefe countries were fituated in
fuch a manner, that the progrefs of population was
forward, and according to the natural courfe of emi¬
gration. From Germany they extended themfelves
into Scandinavia, that is, Sweden, Denmark, and Nor¬
way, Their whole ancient Edda, Sagas, “ Chro¬
nicles,” {how that the Goths arrived in Scandinavia Gothic
by chiTroute, without, however, fixing the era of that ,Lsn^u:>g<?
event with any tolerable degree of accuracy. By the
Germans, we believe the ancients underflood all the
nations eaftward, weftward, and northward, reaching
from the Danube on the fouth up to the extremity of
Scandinavia on the Northern Ocean ; and from the
Rhine and German Ocean on the weft, to th: river
Chronus or Niemen on the eaft. All thofe nations
fpoke one or other of the Gothic dialects, fome ap¬
proaching nearer, and others deviating farther from,
the parent language.
The Francic is a dialed of the Teutonic, Tudefque,
or old German ; and the Gofpcls ofU'philas bear fuch
a refemblance to the Francic, fragments of which are
preferved in the early 1‘rench hiltorians, that fome
learned men have pronounced thofe Gofpels to be part
of an old Francic verfion ; but others of equal respec¬
tability have refuted this opinion, both from hiltory
and comparifon of the dialedbs. Schiiter has given us
large monuments of the Tudcfque or old German
from the feventh century, which evidently prove that
the Gothic of Uiphiias is the fame language. Wach-
ter’s learned Gloffary of the ancient German like wife
confirms this pofition. Mr Ihre, after helitating vvlie-
ther the Gofpcls of Uiphiias bear mod rclemblance
to the German or Scandinavian dialed! of tne Gothic,
declares at laft in favour of the former. The Anglo-
Saxon is alfo known to be a venerable dialed of the
Tudefque ; and is fo intimately connefted with the
Gofpels, that fome valuable works on this fubjedt are
wholly built upon that fuppofition.
The Icelandic is the oliefl rclid of the Scandina¬
vian. It begins with Arms FroJe in the eleventh
Century, and is a dialed! of the German, ihe re¬
mains we have of it are more modern by four centmies
than thofe of the German : they are more polilhed
than the other. I he words are fhortened, not only
becaufe they are more modern^than the German, but
becaufe the Icelandic was polimed by a long fucceflion
of poets and hiftorians almoft equal to thofe of Greece
and Rome. Hence the Icelandic, being a more po-
lifhed language than the German, has leis affinity with
the parent Gothic. The Swedifh is more nearly re¬
lated to the Icelandic than either the Danifii or Nor¬
wegian. That the Swedflh is the daughter of the
Gothic, is fully ftiown by Mr Ihre above mentioned
in h/s Glojfarium Suio-Gothicum. 1 here it, tlierCiore,
no manner of doubt as to the identity of the Gothic,
preferved in Uiphiias and other ancient remains, with
the German and Scandinavian tongue.
The modern German, a language fpoken in a far
greater extent than any other of modern Europe, re-
fembles the Gothic Gofpels more than the prefent Da-
nifh, Norwegian, or Swedish; and has certainly more
ancient Jlamina. Its likenefs to the Afiatic tongues, iu
harfhnefs and inflexible threknefs of found, is very
apparent.
Bufbequius fhows, that the clowns of Grim ft ar¬
tary, remains of the ancient Goths, fpeak a language
almoft German. Thefe clowns were no doubt defeen-
dants of the ancient Goths, who remained in their
native country after the others had emigrated. . It
is therefore apparent from the whole of this inveftiga?
7 Uon*
SeS. IX. PHI L
Sclavorhn t?on, that tha Gothic \^aa introduced into Europe
linguaee. from the Eaii, and is probably a dialed of the Ian-
<m~ v glinge originally fpoken by men.
§ 3. 0/the Sclavonian Language.
There is another language which pervades a con-
fiderable part of Europe, and this, like the Gothic,
aao feetns to have originated in the Eaib. I he language
Scavonic we niean is t]ie Sclavonic or rather Sl’.vonie, which
language, prev.,jjs £ar .;n^ wjc]e j-n tj)e eadern parts of this divi-
fion of the globe. It is fpoktn by the Dalmatians,
by the inhabitants of the Danubian provinces, by the
Poles, Bohemians, and Ruffians. The word flab) that
is, “Have” (whence the French word efclave, and
our word ySWe), dignifies ‘‘noble, illuftrious but be-
caufe, in the lower ages of the Roman emp:re, vail
multitudes of thefe people were fpread over all Europe
in the quality of flaves, that word came to denote the
fervile tribe by way of dillin£lion, in the fame manner
as the words Get a. Davus, and Syr us, did among the
Greeks at a more early period.
Spoken by The Slavi dwelt originally on the banks of the Bo-
rhe Slavi ryfthenes, now the Dnieper or Nieper. They were
one of the one of the tribes of tire European Sarmatians who in
tribes of the ancJ‘ent times inhabited an immenfe traft of country,
aimatlanS’bounded on the weft by the Viftula, now the Weifel;
on the fouth eaft by the Euxine Sea, the Bofphorus
Cirnmerius, the Palus Moeotis, and the Tanaisor Don,
which divides Europe from Afia.
In this vaft tradl of country, which at prefent com¬
prehends Poland, Ruffia, and a great part of Tartary,
there dwelt in ancient times many contiderable tribes.
To enumerate thefe, we believe, woul 1 not much edify
onr readers: we ftiall only inform them, that among
thefe Sarmatian clans were the Roxoiani, now the
Ruffians, and likewife the Slavi, who dwelt near the
Boryfthtnes, as was obferved above.
The Slavi gradually advanced towards the Danube;
and in the reign of Juftinian having pafied tliat river,
they made themfelves mafters of that part of Illyricum
which lies betw'een the Drave and the Save, and is
to this day from them called Sclavonla. Thefe barba¬
rians by degrees over-ran Dalmatia, Liburnia, the we-
ilern parts of Macedonia, Epirus; and on the eaft
they extended their quarters all along to the weftern
bank of the Danube, where that river falls into the
Euxine. In all ihefe countries, the Sclavonian was
deeply impregnated with the Greek, which was a
thing of courfe, fince the barbarian invaders fettled in
thofe regions, and mingled with the aborigines, who
fpoke a corrupt dial eft of that language.
The Poles, The Poles are the genuine defeendants of the anci¬
ent Sarrnatae (c), and cwnfequencly fpeak a dialeft of
their language, but much adulterated with Latin
words, in confequence of the attachment the Poland-
ers have long profefled to the Roman tongue.
Silefians The Silelians and Bohemians have corrupted their
and S> dialefts in the very fame manner. In thofe countries,
then, we are not to fearch for the genuine remains of
the ancient Sarmatian.
O L O G Y. 565
The modern Ruffians, formerly the Rhox’Uii or Sclavonian
Roxoiani, are the pofterity of the Sarmatte, and arc a 'a '^u‘ ^e,*
branch of the Slavi: they inhabit a part of the coun- i24
try which that people pofibffed before they fell into Ruffuns,
the Roman provinces; they fpeak the fame language,^tReoded
and wear the very fame drefs ; for, on the biftorical^ft ^'^
pillar at Conftantfnople, the Sclavonians are drefted
like the Ruffian boors. If then the Slavi are Sarma-
tee, tire Ruffi ms mull of courfe be the defeendants of
the fame people. They were long a fequeftered
people, and confequrntly altogether unconnected with
the other nations of Europe. They were ftrangeis to
commerce, inhofpitable to ftrangers, tenacious of an¬
cient ufages, averfe to improvements of every kind,
wonderfully proud of their imaginary importance ; and,
in a word, a race of people juft one degree above ab-
folute favagifm. A people of this charafter are, for
the moft part, enemies to innovations; and if we may
believe the Ruffian hiftorians, no nation was ever more
averfe to innovations than the one in queftion. Front
the ninth century, at which era they embraced Chri-
ftianity, it docs not appear that they moved one ftep
forward towards civilization, till Peter the Great, not
a century ago, in cojifequence of hisTefpotic autho¬
rity, compelled them to adopt the manners and cu-
ftoms of their more poliihed neighbours.
We may then conclude, that the Ruffians made as
little change in their language during that period, as
they did in their drefs, habits, and manner of living.
Whatever language they fpoke in the ninth century,
the fame they employed at the beginning of the 18th.
They were, indeed, according to Applan cle bel. Mith-
rld. once conquered by Diophantus, one of Mithn-
dates’s generals; but that conqueft was for a moment
only : they were likewife invaded, and their country
over-run, by the great Timor or/Tamerlane ; but this
invalion was like a torrent from the mountains, which
fpreads devaftation far and wide while it rages, but
makes little alteration on the face of the country.
We find likewife, that upon fome oecalions they
made incurfions upon the frontiers of the Roman em¬
pire ; but w?e hear of no permanent fettlements formed
by them in thefe quarters. Upon the whole, w'e take
the Ruffians to have been, with refpeft to their lan¬
guage, in the very fame predicament with the High¬
landers and Iflanders of Scotland, who, accordiog to
the general opinion, have preferved the Celtic dialeft
pure and entire, in ccnfequence of their having never
mingled with foreigners, '
From this deduction we may infer two tilings; firft,7 jie Ruf.
that the Ruffian language is the genuine Sclavonian ;fian lan-
and, fecondly, that the latter is the fame, or nearly S?u?Pe
the fame, with the ancient Sarmatian. von!c <" ^
In the Ruffian, there are found a great number of
words refembling the old fimple roots of the Greek
both in found and fignification ; its grammatical ge¬
nius is nearly the fame : and we are informed by the
very beft authority, that there is in this language a
tranflatioa of Epiftetus, in which there are whole
pages, in both original and tranflation, without one
(c) This appears by their charaftcr, their laws, their manners, their form of government, their military eqnL
page, their impetuofity, their ariftocratic fplendor.
r
5^ PHILO
Schivonian finglg trinTpofitlcn. Monf. Leveque, who has puh-
, .an^uige. a tranflation of a hidoryof Ruffia, is fo entirely
convinced of the ftrift analogy between the ancient
Greek and the modern Ruffe, that he is pofitive that
the former is derived from the l itter. Monf. Freret,
a very learned French academician, is clearly of the
fame opinion. We are, however, perfuaded that
this opinion is ill founded. We rather imagine,
that thofe coincidences arife from the relicks of the
primitive language of mankind ; vefliges of which, we
bclie'/e, are to be found almolt in every tongue now
exi fling.
It is, however, we allow, uncommonly difficult to
render a reafon for the fyntaxical analogy of the two
languages, without admitting the truth of the one or
the other hypothefis. We have examined with fome
care a good number of Ruffian vocables, and compa¬
red them with Greek ones of the fame fignification.
aa6 We have not, however, found fuch a refemblance as
Refem- we think neceffary to fupport the pofition advanced
b ance be. above. We have indeed found a very ilrong refern-
fiTiTand'1 ~ Glance between the former and many oriental words,
oriental efpecially Hebrew, Chaldean, and old Perfian, of
v/ords. which we could produce feveral inftances, did the na¬
ture of our prefent inquiry admit fuch a deviation.
Every body knows that the Sarmatte were divided
into two great nations, the Afiatic and European ; the
former extended very far eaftward, behind the moun¬
tain Cauc.ifus, the northern ffiore of the Euxine Sea,
and fo forth. Thefe, we may believe, derived their
language from the original tongue long before the
Greek language exifted. This, in comparifon of the
Hebrew, Phoenician, Egyptian, Arabian, Chaldean,
&c. was but of yederday. The Greek, moft learned
men are now convinced, was a late compofition of
many different diale&s, incorporated with the jargon
of the aboriginal lonim or Greeks. The Sarmatian,
on the contrary, was the tongue of a great and popu¬
lous nation, civilized, in all appearance, long before
the Greeks began to emerge from a ftate of favagifm.
We are, therefore, by no means dilpofed to allow, ei¬
ther that the Greek is derived from the Ruffian, or
the Ruffian from the Greek. We believe there is
jult the fame reafon for this conclulion, that the Abbe
Pezroa and Monf. Gebelin pretend to have difeovered,
in order to fupport their pofition that the Greek is
derived from the Celtic. Certain it is, that the re¬
femblance among the oriental languages, of which we
take the Sarmatian to have been one, is fo palpable,
* that any perfon of a moderate capacity who is per-
feftly matter of one, will find little difficulty in ac¬
quiring any other. If, therefore, the coincidence be¬
tween the Greek and Ruffian ffiould adlually exift,
we think this circumftance will not authenticate the
fuppoficion, that either of the two is derived from the
other.
In the courfe of this argument, our readers will be
pleafed to obferve, that we all along fuppofe, that the
•Sclavoniun, of which we think the Ruffian is the mott
genuine remain, is the fame with the old Sarmatian.
We (hall now take the liberty to hazard a conjecture
with refpeft to the fyntaxical coincidence of that lan¬
guage with the Greek ; for we acknowledge that we
are not fo profoundly verfed in the Ruffian dialed! of
LOGY.
Sea. IX.
the Sclavonian as to pretend to pronounce a definitive Sdavomau
fentence. Language,
As the Ruffians were a generation of favages, there “
is no probability that they were acquainted with the
ufe of letters and alphabetical writing till they acqui¬
red that art by intercourle with their neighbours. It
is certain, beyond all contradiction, that few nations 227
had made lefs proficiency in the fine arts than that ^r‘SlQ °^,
under confideration : and we think there is little ap-^ coin'd-1*
pearance of their having learned this art prior to their deuce be-
converfion to Chriftianity. Certain it is, that the tween this
Slavi, who fettled in Dalmatia, Illyria, and Liburnia,*arWla£e
had no alphabetical characters till they were furnifhed
with them by St Jerome. The Servian charadter, which,
very nearly refembles the Greek, was invented by St
Cyril; on which account the language written in that
charadter is denominated Chiurilizza. Thefe Scla¬
vonic tribes knew nothing of alphabetic writing prior
to the era of their convevfion. The Moefian Goths
were in the fame condition till their Biihop Ulphil.iS
fabricated them a fet of letters.
If the Slavi and Goths, who refided in the neigh¬
bourhood of the Greeks and Roman.,, had not learned
alphabetical writing prior to the era of their converfion
to Chrittianity, it mutt hold a fortiori, that the Ruf¬
fians, who lived at a very great dittance from thofe na¬
tions, knew nothing of this ufeful art antecedent to
the period of their embracing the Chriftian faith.
The Ruffians pretend that they were converted by
St Andrew ; but this is known to be a fable. Chri¬
ftianity was firft introduced among them in the reign
of the grand Duke Wolodimur, who marrying the
daughter of the Grecian emperor Bafiliua, became her
convert about the year 9S9. About this period, we
imagine, they were taught the knowledge of letters by
the Grecian mlffionaries, who were employed in teach-
i^b* them the elements of the Chriftian doctrines. Their
alphabet confiits of 3 1 letters, with a few obfolete ad¬
ditional ones; and thefe chara&ers referable thofe of
the Greeks fo exactly, that there can be no donbt of
their being copied from them. It is true, the fhape
of fomp has been fomewhat altered, and a few barba¬
rian ones have been intermingled. The Ruffian li¬
turgy, every body knows, was copied from that of the
Greeks ; and the belt fpecimen of the old Ruffian is
the church offices for Eafter, in the very words of
Chryfoftom, who is called by his name Z!ato-uJlii,
“golden-mouthed.” The power of the clergy in Ruf-
fia was exceffive; and no doubt their influence was pro^
portioned to their power. The firft race of clergy in
that country were undoubtedly Greeks. We know
how a£tive and induttrious thofe people were in pro¬
pagating their language as well as their religion. The
offices of religion might be at firft written and pro¬
nounced in the Greek tongue, but it would foon be
found expedient to have them tranflated into Ruffian.
The perfons employed in this work muft have been
Greeks, who underftood both languages.
As it is confeffedly impoffible that a people fo dull
and uninventive as the Ruffians originally were, could
ever have fabricated a language fo artificially conftrubt-
ed as their prefent dialect; and as it is obvious, that,
till Chriftianity was introduced among them by the
Greeks, they could have no correfpondence with that
8 people—
Sea. IX.
PHIL
Slavonian people—it mufl appear furprifmg by what means their
hang^e. language came to be fafhioncd fo exaftly according to
the Greek model. We have obferved above, that the
Ruffian letters muft liave been invented :yid introduced
into that country by the Greek miffionaries. We
think it probable, that thofe apodles, at the fame time
that they taught them a new religion, likewife intro-
duced a change into the idiom of their language. The
influence of thofe ghoftly teachers over a nation of fa-
vages muft have been almoft boundlefs; the force of
their precepts and example almoft incontrollable. If
the linage converts accepted a new religion from the
hands of thofe Grecian apolllcs, they might wkh equal
fubmiffion adopt improvements in their language. Such
of the natives as w-re admitted to the facerdotal func¬
tion muft have learned the Greek language, in order
to qualify them for performing the offices of their re¬
ligion. A predilection for that language would be the
immediate cohfequence. Hence the natives, who had
been admitted into holy orders, would co operate with
their Grecian mafters in improving the dialed! of the
country ; which, pticr to the period above mentioned,
muft have greatly deviated from the original ftandard*
of the Sarmatian tongue.
Upon this occafion, we imagine the Greek aooflles,
in conjun&ion with their Ruffian difciples, reduced the’
language of the country to a refemblance with the
Greek idiom. They retained the radical vocables as
they found them ; but by a variety of flexions, conju¬
gations, derivations, compofitions, and other modifica¬
tions, transformed them into the Grecian air and ap¬
parel. They muft have begun with the offices of the
church ; and among a nation of favages newly con¬
verted, the language of the new religion would quickly
obtain a very extenfive circulation. When the Gre¬
cian garniture was introduced into the church, the
Urty v ould in procefs of time affume a ftmilsr drefs.
The fabric of the Grecian declenfions, conjugations,
&c. might be grafted upon Ruffian flocks without af-
feding the radical parts of the language. If the dia¬
led! in queflion, like rnoft others of a very ancient date,
laboured under a penury of vocables, this manoeuvre
would contribute exceedingly to fupply that defech
By this expedient the Greek language itfelf had been
enlarged from about 300 radical terms to the prodi¬
gious number of words of which it now confiils.
I he Uatin tongue we have feen above in its original
conflitulion differed widely from the Greek ; and "rot-
withftanding this incongruity, the improvers of the
former have pieffed it into a very ffridl agreement with
the hitter. This, we think, was ftill a more difficult
talk; as, in our opinion, the genius of the Latin dif¬
fers in a much greater degree than that of the Ruffian
does from the Greek. _ We know, that the genius of
tue Gothic tongue and thofe of all its defeendants are
much more in unifon with the Greek than with that of
the Latin. 1 he Spanifh, Italian, and French, have cud¬
gelled many of their Gothic, Teutonic, and Celtic
verbs, into a kind of conjugations, imitating or rather
aping thofe of the Latin. The Perfians have formed
moft elegant and energetic declenfions and conjuga¬
tions, upon inflexible roots, borrowed from the Pahlavi
and Den, and even from Tartar originals.
Upon the grounds above-mefationed we have taken
0 L O G Y.
the libei ty to hazard the following conjectures, which Scfavonian
we_ cheerfully fubmit to the cognizance of our more ±'»«gua^c..
•enlightened readers. " ——.
1. IT at the Sarmatian was a dialed! of the original
language of mankind.
2. That the Sclavonian was a dialed! of the Sarma*
tian.
3. That the Ruffe is the mod genuine unfophiftica-
ted relick <?f the Sclivonian and Sarmatian.
4. That the Ruffians had no alphabetic charadkrs
prior to the era of the introduction of Chriftianity,
that is towards the end of the tenth century.
5. b h it they were converted by Grecian miffionaries,
^ 6. b hat thofe miffionaries copied their prefent letters
from thole of Greece; end in coniundtion with the
more enlightened natives, reduced the original unim¬
proved Ruffe to its prefeni refemblxn. e to the Greek
ftandard.
. ’rhe Ruffian language, hike moft others, contains 2sS'
eight parts 0/ fpeech, noun, pronoun, &c. Its nouns Rufl*au'
have three genders, mafeuline, feminine, ;>.ni neuter; ;t
has alfo a common gender foi nouns, intimating both
Lxcs. It has only two numbers, lingular and plural.
Its cafes are feven, nominative, genitive, dative, accu-
fative, vocative, inftrumental, and prepofittve. Thefe
cafes are not formed by varying the termination, as in
Greek and Latin ; bat generally by placing a vowel
alter the word, as, we imagine, was the original prac-
tice of the Greeks (See Greek Sedion). Thus in
Ruffe, fv* ruk, ‘‘hand;” nominative, “the hand;”
genitive, “ of the hand,” &c. See Les Elm.'de
la Laugue Rujfepar Charpentier. Nouns fufefhntive are 229
reduced to four declenfions, and adjedlives make a fifth Ac3je<5Uvej*-
Thcfe agree with their fubftantives in cafe, gender,"
and number. They have three degrees of comparifon*
as is common in other languages; the pofitive, compa-
lative, and fuperlative. The comparative is formed
from the feminine of the nominative Angular of the
pofitive, by changing-* into te, that is, ale in Engiiffi;
the^ fuperlative is made by prefixing *7^, pie, before the
pefitive. 1 hefe rules are general; for the exceptions,
iccourfe muft be had to the. Ruffian grammar above-
mentioned.
The numeral adjediives in Ruffe have three genders
like the reft, and are declined accordingly. Their
pronouns have nothing peculiar, and are divided and
arranged in the fame manner as in other languages.
Verbs in the Ruffian language are comprehended uu-
der two conjugations. The moods are only three ; the
indicative, the imperative, and the infinitive : ths’fub-
junftive is formed by placing a particle before the in.
dicative. Its tenfes are eight in number; the prefent,
the imperfect!, the preterite fimpie, the preterite com.
pound, the pluperfed!, the future indeterminate, the
future fimpie, the future compound. The verbs’have
their numbers and perfons as in other langua-es. To
enter into a detail of their manner of conjugating their
verbs would neither be confiftent with our plan, nor,
v/e are perfuaded, of much confequence to our readers!
Their other parts of fpeech differ nothing from thofe
of other languages. Their fyntax nearly refembles that
of the Greek and Latin. All thefe articles muft be
learned from a grammar of the language. Whether
there is any grammar of the Ruffian language compo-
fed
a;,o-
Verb?.-
563 >
Sclavonian
1-anguage.
PHILOLOGY. Sea. X,
fed In EngliiTi we know not. That of Monf. Char- original or mother-languages, and
rentier in French, printed at Peter lb urgh in 1768, is given birth to all that are now fpoken m Europe.
The only one we have feen, and which appears to us a Thefe are the ^ a,z
very excellent one. We could wifh to be able to gra- will' not, however, be rmagmed, from^the^rm on^ |
23 r
'Thcenic’an
end Chal¬
dean words
.in Ruffe.
relating to the ftate of the ancient Sarmatae. T-o-
wards the era of the fubverfion of the weftern empire,
the nations who inhabited the countries in queftion
were fo blended and confounded with each other, and
with Finns and other Scythian or Tartar emigrants
that we believe the mott acute antiquarian would find
it impoffible to inveftigate their refpeaive tongues, or
even their orig’nal refidence or extraction. W e J13''e
fele&ed the Rufle as the moft genuine branch of the
old Sclavonian, and to this predile&ion we were ce-
termined by the reafons above mentioned. We are
fovry that we are not fo well acquainted with the
idiom of the Ruffian language as to be able to com¬
pare it with thofe of the eaft ; but upon fuch a com-
parifon, we are perfuaded that the radical materials ot
which it is compofed would be found to have ori¬
ginated in the oriental regions. _ The word T/ar,
for example, is probably the Phoenician and Chaldean
Sar or Zar, “ a prince, a grandee.” Diodorus Sicu¬
lus calls the queen of the Maffagette, v/ho, according
to Ctefias, cut off Cyrus’s head, Zarina ; which was
not many years ago the general title of the emprefs
of all the Ruffias. Herodotus calls the fame pnncefs
Tomyris, which is the very name of the famous i imor
or Tamur, the conqueror of Afia. The former feems
to have been the title, and the latter the proper name,
of the queeen of the Maffagetse. In the old Peihan
or Pahlavi, the word Card fignifies “ a city;/ in Rui-
fxan, Gorad or Grad intimates the very fame idea:
hence Conjlantinoph in old Ruffe is called Tfargrad
or Tfar? of ad. Thefe are adduced as a ipecimen
only ; an able etymologift might, we believe, difeover
a great number. . . ,
The Sclavonian language is fpoken in Epirus, th.
weftern part of Macedonia, in Bofnia, Servia, Bulga¬
ria in part of Thrace, in Dalmatia, Croatia, in Poland,
Bohemia, Ruffia, and Mingrelia in Afia, whence it is
frequently ufed in the feraglio at Conftantinople. Many
of the great men of Turkey underftand it, and fre¬
quently ufe it; and moft of the janizaries having been
Rationed in garrifons in the Turkiffi frontiers in Eu¬
rope, ufe it as their vulgar tongue. 1 he Hungarians,
however, and the natives of Wahachia, ipeak a diffe¬
rent language : and this language bears evioent fig-
natures of the Tartarian dialed, which was the tongue
of the original Huns. Upon the whole, the Sclavo¬
nian is by much the moft extenfive language in Luiope,
and extends far into Afia.
Sect. X. Modern Languages.
If we call all the different dialeds of the various
nations that now inhabit the known earth, languages*
the number in truly great; and vain would be his am¬
bition who ffiould attempt to learn them, though but
m.perfe&ly. We will begin with naming the princi¬
pal of them; There are four, which may be called
confufion ot tongues at tne ouimuig ui tut ^
Babel. We have repeatedly declared our opinion, thatlf^'rve
there is but one truly original language, from which 1 b*
all others are derivatives varioufiy modified. The four
languages juft mentioned are original only as being the
immediate parents of thofe which are now fpoken m
Europe.
I. From the Latin came,
I. The Portuguefe.
z. Spanifh.
3. French.
4. Italian.
From the Celtic,
5. The Erfe, or Gaelic -of the Highlands of Scot¬
land.
6. The Welfh.
7 The Iriffi.
8. Baffe-Bretagne.
From the Gothic,
9. The German.
10. The Dow Saxon or Low German.
II. The Dutch. r .
12. The Engliffi; in which almoft all the noun-iuh-
ftantives are German, and many of the verbs
French, Latin, &c. and which is enriched with
the fpoils of all othef languages.
13. The Danifh.
14. The Norwegian.
15. Swcdilh.
16. Icelandic.
From the Sclavonian,
17. The Polonefe.
18. The Lithuanian.
19. Bohemian.
20. Tranfylvanian.
21. Moravian. r . . T
22. The modem Vandalian, as it is ftill fpoken in Lu
fatia, Pruffian Vundalia, &c.
22. The Croatian. . , . . , „
2I The Ruffian or Mufcovite ; which, as we have
feen, is the pureft dialed of this language.
2 c The language of the Cslmucsand Coffacs. .
26 Thirty-two different dpaleds of nations who inha¬
bit the north-eaftern parts of Europe and Afia,
and who are defeended from the Tartars and Hu-
no-Scythians. There are polyglott tables which
contain not only the alphabets, but alfo the prin¬
cipal diftind charaders of all thefe languages.
II. The languages at prefent generally fpoken in Afi*^
Afia are, . ' . languages.
27. The Turkiffi and Tartarian, with their diflerent
0 Thefe languages are
28. F he Perfian. . J f ken by the Greek
The Georgian or Iberian. I uhriftiansm Afia,under
29.     
-’0 The Albanian or Circaffian. f the patriarch of Con-
31'. The Armenian. J kautinople.
The Danifh miffionaries
who go to Tranquebar,
print books at Hall in
thefe languages.
*34
African
language
Modern 32. The modern Indian.
Languages. Formofan.
' 34. The Indoftanicv
35. The Malabarian.
36. The Warugian.
37. The Talmuiic or Dimulic
38. The modern Arabic.
39. The Tangufian.
40. The Mungalic.
41. The language of the Nigarian or Akar Niga-
rian.
42. The Grufinic or Grufinian.
43. The Chinefe.
44. The Japonefe.
We have enumerated here thofe Afiatic languages
only of which we have fome knowledge in Europe,
and even alphabets, grammars, or other books that
can give us information concerning them. There are
doubtlefs other tongues and diale&s in thofe valt re¬
gions and adjacent ifl mds ; but of thefe we are not
able to give any account.
III. The principal languages of Africa are,
45. The modern Egyptian.
46. The Fetuitic, or the language of the kingdom of
Fetu.
47. The Moroccan ; and,
48. T. he jargons of thofe favage nations who inhabit
the defert and burning regions. The people on
the coaft of Barbary fpeak a corrupt dialed of
# the Arabic. To thefe may be added the Chilhic
language, otherwife called Tamazeght; the Ne-
gritian, and that of Guinea; the Abyffinian; and
the language of the Hottentots.
IV. The languages of the American nations are but
little known in Europe. Every one of thefe, though
diftant but a few days journey from each other, have
their particular language or rather jargon. The lan¬
guages of the Mexicans and Peruvians feem to be the
moft regular and polifhed. There is alfo one called
Poconchi or Pocomana, that is ufed in the bay of Hon¬
duras and toward Guntimal, the words and rules of
which are moft known to us. The languages of
North America are in general the Algonhic, Apala-
chian, Mohogic, Savanahamic, Virginic, and Mexi¬
can : and in South America, the Peruvian, Caribic,
tne language of Chili, the Cairic, the Tucumanian, and
the languages ufed in Paraguay, Brafil, and Guiana.
V. We have already faid, that it would be
philology.
569
*35
American
languages,
136
General re- ..v nave ancauy i.uu, mat it would be a
modem ^ Vain 3nd fenfeIefs undertaking for a man of letters to
languages. at.temPt the ^udy of all thefe languages, and to make
his head an univerfal di&ionary ; but it would be Hill
more abfurd in us to attempt the analyfis of them
in this place : fome general refledh'ons therefore
muft here fuffice. Among the modern languages
of Europe, the French feems to merit great atten¬
tion ; as it is elegant and pleafing in itfelf; as it is
become fo general, that with it we may travel from
one end of Europe to the other without fcarce having
any occafion for an interpreter; and as in it are to he
found excellent works of every kind, both in verfe and
profe, ufeful and agreeable. There are, befides, gram¬
mars and diaionaries of this language which give us
every information concerning it, and very able mnfters
Vol. XIV. Part II.
who teach it; efpecially fuch as come from thofe parts Modern
ot r ranee where it is fpoken corre&ly; for with all its Languages,
advantages, the French language has this inconve-' /—i
nience, that it is pronounced fcarce anywhere purely
but at Paris and on the banks of the Loire. The
language of the court, of the great world, and of men
of letters, 13 moreover very different from that of the
common people; and the French tongue, in general
is fubjea to great alteration and novelty. What pity
it is, that the ftyle of the great Cornedle, and that of
Mol.ere, fliould already begin to be obfolete, and that
it will be but a little t-ime before the inimitable chefs
dccuvres of thofe men of fublime genius will be no
longer feen on the ftage ! The moft modern ftyle of
the French, moreover, does not feem to be the heft
We are inclined to think, that too much concifenefu
the epigrammatic point, the antithefis, the paradox,
the fententious expreffion, &c. diminilh its force ; and
that, by becoming more polilhed and refined, it lofts
much of its energy.
VI. The German and Italian languages merit like-
wift a particular application ; as does the Emdifh
perhaps above all for its many and great excellencies
(bee Language). Authors of great ability daily la ¬
bour m improving them; and what language would
not become excellent, were men of exalted talents ta
make conftant life of it in their works ? If we had
in Iroquois books like thofe which we have in Englifh
Italian, French, and German, fiiould we not be tempted
to learn that language? How glad ftiould we beto un-
derftand the Spamfh tongue, though it were only to
read the Araucana of Don Alonzo D’Ercilia, Don
Quixote, fome dramatic pieces, and a fmall number
of other Spamfh works, in the original; or the poem
ot Gamoens in Portuguefe.
VII. The other languages of Europe have each
their beauties and excellencies. But the greateft dif¬
ficulty in all living languages conftantly confifts in the
pronunciation, which it is fcarce poffible for any one
to attain unlefs he be born or educated in the country
where it is fpoken: and this is the only article for
which a mafter is neceffary, as it cannot be learned but
by teaching or by converfation : all the reft may i e
acquired by a good grammar and other books. In all
languages whatever, the poetic ftyle is more difficult
than the profaic : in every language we ffiould endea¬
vour to enrich our memories with great ftore of words
fcopm verhorumj, and to have them ready to produce on
all occafions : in all languages it is difficult to extend
our knowledge fo far as to be able to form a critical
judgment of them. All living languages are pronoun-
ced rapidly, and without dwelling on the long fyliables
(which the grammarians call moram): almoft all of
them have^ articles which diftinguiffi the genders.
VIII. Thofe languages that are derived from the
Latin have this further advantage, that they adopt
without reftramt, and without offending the ear. La¬
tin and Greek words and expreffions, .and which by
the aid of a new termination appear to be natives of
the language. This privilege is forbidden the Germans,
who in their beft tranflations dare not ufe any fmeio-n
word, unlefs it be fome technical term in cafe of great
neceffity. 6
4 C
*
PHI.
rhlloma-
thes
.11
Philopoe-
men.
PHI - f 570
PHILOMATHES, a lovei of learning or fcience.
PHILOMELA, in fabulous hiftory, was a daugh¬
ter of Pandion king of Athens, and fitter to Procne,
who had married Tereus king of Thrace. Procne fe-
— , parated from Philomela, to whom (he was much at¬
tached, fpent her time in great melancholy till (he
prevailed upon her hulband to go to Athena and bring
her fitter to Thrace. Tereus obeyed ; but he had no
fooner obtruned Pandion’s permiffion to conduit Phi¬
lomela to Thraie, than he fell in love with her, and
refolved to gratify his palfion. He difmiffed the
guards whom the fufpicions of Pandion had appointed
to watch him ; offered violence to Philomela ; and
afterwards cut out her tongue, that (he might not dif-
cover his barbarity, and the indignities (he had fuffer-
ed. He confined her in a lonely cattle; and having
taken every precaution to prevent a difcovery, he re¬
turned to Thrace, and told Procne that Philomela had
died by the way, and that he had paid the laft offices
to her remains. At this fad intelligence Procne put
on mourning for the lofs of Philomela ; but a year had
fcarcely elapfed before (he was fecretly informed that
her fitter was not dead. Philomch, in her captivity,
defcribed on a piece of tapeftry her misfortunes and
the brutality of Tereus, and privately conveyed it to
Procne. She was going to celebrate the orgies of
Bacchus when ffie received it, but (lie difguifed her
refentment; and ?.s during thofe feftivals (he was per¬
mitted to rove about the country, fhe battened to de¬
liver her fitter Philomela from her confinement, and
concerted with her on the beft meafurea of pun (hing
the cruelty of Tereus. She murdered her fon Itylus,
then in the fixth year of his age, and ferved him up as
food before her hulband during the feftival. Tereus,
in the midft of his repaft, called for Itylus; but Procne
immediately informed him that he was then feafting on
his flelh, when Philomela, by throwing on the table
the head of Itylus, convinced the monarch of the
cruelty of the feene. He drew his fword to puniffi
Procne and Philomela ; but as he was going to ttab
them to the heart, he was changed into a hoopoe,
Philomela into a nightingale, Procne into a fwallow,
and Itylus into a pheafant. This tragedy happened
at Daulis in Phocis ; but Paufanias and Strabo, who
mention the whole of the ftory, are filent about the
transformation ; and the former obferves, that Tereus,
after this bloody repaft, fled to Megara, where he laid
violent hands on himfelf. The inhabitants of the place
raifed a monument to his memory, where they offered
yearly facrifices, and placed fmall pebbles inftead of
barley. It was on this monument that the birds called
hoopoes were firft feen ; hence the fable of his meta-
morphofis. Procne and Philomela died through ex-
cefs of grief and melancholy ; and as the nightingale’s
and the fwallow’s voice is peculiarly plaintive and
mournful, the poets have embelliflied the fable by fup-
pofing that the two unfortunate fitters were changed
into birds.
PHILONIUM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomni-
ferous anodyne opiate, taking its name from Philo the
inventor.
^Antienttfni. PHILOPCEMEN, a celebrated general of the A-
verfal Hi/- chaean league, was born in Megalopolis, a city of Ar-
fery, vol. vi. cadja> jn Peloponnefus; and from his very infancy
difeovered a ftrong inclination to the profeffion of
PHI
arms. Pie was nobly educated by Caffander of Man-
tinea; a man of great probity, and uncommon abili¬
ties. He was no fooner able to bear arms than he en-
tered among the troops which the city of Megalopolis
fent to make incurfions into Laconia, and in thefe in¬
roads never failed to give fome remarkable inftance of
his prudence and valour. When there were no troops
in the field, he ufed to employ his leifure time in
hunting and fuch other manly exercifes When
Cleomenes king of Sparta attacked Megalopolis,
Philopoemen difplayed much courage and greatnefs
of foul. He fignalized himfelf no lefs fome time
after, in the battle of Sellafia, where Antigonu*
gained a complete victory over Cleomenes. Antigo-
nus, who had been an eye-witnefs of his prudent and
intrepid behaviour, made very advantageous offers to
gain him over to his intereft ; but he rejefted them,
having an utter averfion to a court life, which he c®m-
pared to that of a (lave, faying, that a courtier was
but a Have of a better condition. As he could not
live idle and ina&ive, he went to the ifle of Crete,
which was then engaged in war, and ferved there as a
volunteer till he acquired a complete knowledge of the
military art; for the inhabitants of that ifiand were ia
thofe days accounted excellent warriors, being fcarce
ever at peace among themfelves. Philopoemen, having
ferved fome years among the troops of that ifland, re¬
turned home, and was upon his arrival appointed ge¬
neral of the horfe ; in which command he behaved fo
well, that the Achaean horfe, heretofore of no reputa¬
tion, became in a fliort time famous all over Greece.
He was foon after appointed general of all the Achaean
forces, when he applied himfelf to the re-eftablifhing
of military difeipline among the troops of the republic,
which he found in a very low condition, and univer-
fally defpifed by their neighbours. Aratus, indeed,
was the lirft that raifed the Achaean ftate to that pitch
of power and glory to which it arrived ; but the fuc~
cefs of his enterprifes was not fo much owing to his
courage and intrepidity as to his prudence and poli¬
tics. As he depended on the friendffiip of foreign
princes, and their powerful fuccours, he neglerfted the
military difeipline at home ; but the inttant Philo-
pcemen was created praetor, or commander in chief,
he roufed the courage of his countrymen, in order to
put them into a condition to defend themfelves with--
out the affiftance of foreign allies. With thb view he
made great imprewements in the Achaean difeipline ;
changing the manner of their exercife and their arms,
v/hich were both very defective. He had thus, for
the fpace of eight months, exercifed his troops every
day, making them perform all the motions and evolu¬
tions, and accuftoming them to manage with dexterity
their arms, when news was brought him that Macha-
nidas was advancing, at the head of a numerous army,
to invade Achaia. He was glad of this opportunity
to try how the troops had profited by his difeipline ;
and accordingly, taking the field, met the enemy in
the territories of Mantinea, where a battle was fought.
Philopoemen, having killed Machanidas with his own
hand, ttruck off his head, and carried it from rank to
rank, to encourage his vi&orious Achseans, who con¬
tinued the purfuit, with great (laughter, and incre¬
dible ardour, to the city of Tegea, which they entered
together with the fugitives. The Lacedaemonians loft
on
Phitopoe-
men.
phi . r 571 phi
PivilopBe- on this oeeafion above 8000 men, of which 4000 were
men. killed on the fpoc, and as many taken prifoners- The
lofs of the Achaean* was very inconliderable, and thofe
that fell were moftly mercenaries. This happened
about the year’before Chrilt 204.
But what moft of all raifed the fame and reputation
of Philopcemen was his joining the powerful city of
Lacedaemon to the Achaean commonwealth ; by which
means the Achaeans came to eclipfe all the other Hates
of Greece. This memorable event happened in the
year 191. In this tranfa&ion we cannot help taking
notice of one circumftance, which, in our opinion, re¬
flects greater luftre on Philopcemen than all his warlike
exploits. The Lacedaemonians, overjoyed to fee them-
felves delivered from the oppreffions they had long
groaned under, ordered the palace and furniture of
Nabis to be fold ; and the fum accruing from thence,
to the amount of 120 talents, to be prefented to Phi¬
lopcemen, as a token of their gratitude. Deputies
therefore were to be appointed, who fliould carry the
money, and defire Philopcemen, m the name of the be¬
rate, to accept of the prelent. On this occafion it was
that the virtue of the generous Achaean appeared in
its greateft luilre; for fa great was the opinion which
the Spartans had of his probity and dilintereiteclnefs,
that no one could be found who would take upon him
to offer the prefent: ftruck with veneration, and fear
of difpleafing him, they all begged to be excufed. At
Ia(t they obliged, by a public decree, one Timolaus,
who had formerly been his gueft, to go to Megalopolis,
where Philopcemen lived, and offer him this teitimony
of their regard. Timolaus, with great reluctance, fet
out for Megalopolis, where he was kindly received and
entertained by Philopoemcn. Here lie had an oppor¬
tunity of obferving the ilri&nefs of his whole conduct,
the greatnefs of his mind, the frugality of his life, and
the regularity of his manners; which ftruck him with
fuch awe, that he did not dare once to mention the
prefent he was come to offer ; infomuch that, giving
Pome other pretence to his journey, he returned home
with the money. The Lacedaemonians fent him again;
but he Could no more prevail upon himfelf now than
the firft time to mention the true caule of his journey.
At laft, going a third time, he ventured, with the ut-
inoft reluftance, to acquaint Philopcemen with the
offer he had to make in the name of the Lacedaemo¬
nians. Philopoemen heard him with great calmnefs ;
but the inftant he had done fpeaking, he fet out with
him for Sparta, where, after having acknowledged his
obligation to the Spartans, he advifed them to lay out
their money in reforming or purchafing thole mifereants
who divided the citizens, and fet them at variance by
means of their feditious difeourfts; to the end that,
being paid for their filence, they might not occafion
fo many diftra&ions in the government: “ for it is
much more advifuhle (faid he) to Hop an enemy’s
mouth than a friend’s ; as for me, I lhall always be
your friend, and you fhall reap the benefit of my
friendfhip without expence.” Such was the difintertff-
«dnefs of this noble Achaean !
About two years after this the city of Meffenc
withdrew itfelf from the Achaean league. Philopce¬
men attacked them; but was wounded, taken prifoner,
and poifoned by the magiftrates. Thus died one of
the greatefl heroes that Greece or any other country Philofo.
ever produced. He was no way inferior in valour, pPj1^
military knowledge, and virtue, to any of the boafted hler»g*
heroes of Rome. Had Achaia been nearer to an Stone,
equality with Rome, he would have preferved hia ——v—«
country from the yoke which the Roman republic
forced it to bear. Both the Greek and Roman wri¬
ters put him upon the level with Hannibal and Scipio,
who were his contemporaries, and happened to die the
fame year. They allow him to have been not only
one of the grcatell commanders, but alfo one of the
greateft ftatefmen of his age. To his valour and pru¬
dence Achaia owed her glory, which upon his death
began to decline, there being none after him in that
republic able to oppofe her enemies with the like
fteadinefs and prudence : whence Philopoemen was
called the laft ol the Greeks, as Brutus was afterwards
ftyled the laft of the Romans.
PHILOSOPHER, a perfon verfed in philofophy;
or one who makes profeffion of, or applies himfelf to,
the ftudy of nature and morality.
Philosopher’s Stone, the greateft objeft of alchemy,
is a long-fought for preparation, which, when found,
is to convert all the true mercurial part of metal into
pure gold, better than any that is dug out of mines or
perfetted by the refiner’s art.
Some Greek writers in the fourth and fifth centu-
ries ipeak of this art as being then knowm ; and to¬
wards the end of the 13th century, when the learning
of the Eaft had been brought hither by the Arabians,
the fame prettnfions began to fpread through Europe.
Jt is fuppofed that this art, called alchemy, was of E-
gyptian origin ; and that, when the ancient Greek
philofophers travelled into Egypt, they brought back
fome of the allegoric language of this Egyptian art, ill
underftood, which afterwards paffed into their mytho¬
logy. Alchemy Was the earlieft branch of chemiftry,
confidered as a philofophical feience : in the othef
parts of chemical knowledge, fa<fts preceded reafoning
or fpeculation ; but alchemy was originally fpeculative.
See Transmutation.
The alchemifts fuppofed the general principals, of
metals to be chiefly two fubftances, which they called
mercury and fulphur ; they apprehended alfo, that the
pure mercurial, fulphureous, or other principles of
which they imagined gold to be compofed, were con¬
tained feparatdy in other bodies : and thefe principles,
therefore, they endeavoured to colled, and to concod
and incorporate by long digeftions; aad by thus con¬
joining the principles of gold, if they could be fo pro¬
cured and conjoined, it might be expeded that gold
would be produced. But the alchemifts pretend to a
produd of a higher order, called the elixir, the medicine
for metals, the tincture, the philofopher’s Jlone; which, by
being projected on a large quantity of any of the in¬
ferior metals in fufion, fliould change them into fine
gold; which being laid on a plate of filver, copper, or
iron, and moderately heated, fliould link into the me¬
tal and change into gold all the parts to which it was
applied ; which, on being properly heated with pure
gold, fliould change the gold into a fubftance of the
fame nature and virtue with itfelf, fo as thus to be
fufceptible of perpetual multiplication ; and which, by
continued codion, fhould have its power more and
4 C 2 more
P H I
L 572 ]
P H I
Philofo-
pher’s
Stone.
more exalted, fo as to be able to tranfmute greater
and greater quantities of the inferior metals, according
to its different degrees of perfedtion.
Alchemifts have attempted to arrive at the making
of gold by three methods : the firft by feparation ; for
every metal yet known, it is affirmed, contains fome
quantity of gold ; only, in moil, the quantity is fo
little as not to defray the expence of getting it out.
The fecond is by maturation ; for the alchemifts
think mercury is the bafts and matter of all metals;
that quickfilver purged from all heterogeneous bodies
would be much heavier, denfer, and fimpler, than the
native quickfilver ; and that by fubtilizing, purifying,
and digefting it with much labour, and long operations,
it is poffible to convert it into pure gold.
This method is only for mercury. With refpedl to
the other metals, it is ineffe&ua!, r. Becaufe their
matter is not pure mercury, but has other heteroge¬
neous bodies adhering to it; and, 2. Becaufe the di-
geftion, whereby mercury is turned into gold, would
not fucceed in other metals, becaufe they had not been
long enough in the mines.
Weight is the inimitable charadfer of gold, &c. Now
mercury, they fay, has always fome impurities in it, and
thefe are lighter than mercury. Could they be purged
away, which they think is not impoffible, mercury would
be as heavy as gold ; and what is as heavy as gold is
gold, gr at leaft might very eafily be made gold.
The third method is by tranfmutation, or by turning
all metals readily into pure gold, by melting them in
the fire, and calling a little quantity of a certain pre¬
paration into the fufed matter ; upon which the feces
retire, are volatilized and burnt, and carried off, and
the reft of the mafs is turned into pure gold. That
which works this change in the metals is called the
philofopker’sJlone. See Transmutation.
Whether this third method be poffible or not, it is
difficult to fay. We have fo many teftimonies of it
from perfons who on all other occafions fpeak truth,
that it is hard to fay they are guilty of direft falfe-
hood, even when they fay that they have been mafters
of the fecret. We are told, that it is only doing that
by art which nature does in many years and ages.
For as lead and gold differ but little in weight, there¬
fore there is not much in lead befide mercury and
gold. Now, if we had any body which would fo agi¬
tate all the parts of lead as to burn all that is not mer¬
cury therein, and had alfo fome fulphur to fix the
mercury, would not the mafs remaining be converted
into gold ? There is nothing in nature fo heavy as
lead except gold, mercury, and platina, which was
not known to thefe ref foners ; it is evident, therefore,
there is fomething in lead that comes very near to gold.
But in lead there is likewife fome heterogeneous mat¬
ter different both from mercury and gold. If therefore
19 ounces of lead be diffolved by the tire, and 8 ounces
be deftroyed by thefe means, it is argued that we fliall
have the reft good gold; the ratio of lead to gold be¬
ing as 11 to 19. Ijf then the philofopher’s ftone can
purify the mercurial matter in lead, fo as that nothing
ihall remain but the pure mercurial body, and you can
fix and coagulate this by means of fulphur, out of 19
ounces of lead you will have 11 of gold : or, if you
reduce the lead from 18 to 14, you will then have
Philofo*
pher’s
S.one.
converted it into mercury ; and if you farther purify
this mercury to the proper ftandard, you will have
gold ; provided you have but a fulphur with which to
fix and coagulate it. Such is the foundation of the
opinion of the philofopher’s ftone; which the alche¬
mifts contend to be a moll fubtile, fixed, concentrated
fire, which, as foon as it melts with any metal, does,
by a magnetic virtue, immediately unite itfelf to the
mercurial body of the metal, volatilize and cleanfe off
all that is impure therein, and leave nothing but a
mafs of pure gold. Many frauds and artifices have
unqueftionably been pra&ifed in this operation, and
there might be political reafons why princes and others
fhould encourage thofe who pretended to a power of
furnifuing this inexhauftible fource of wealth ; but it
would be wrong to cenfure as impoftors all thofe who
have declared themfelves convinced, from their own
experiments, of the tranfmutability of bafe metals in¬
to gold. There are ftrong reafons, however, to be¬
lieve that the authors have been deceived themfelves by
fallacious appearances. Mr Boyle gives art account of
a procefs by which he imagines part of the fubftance
of gold to have been tranfmuted into filver. He alfo
relates a very extraordinary experiment, under the title
of the degradation of gold by an anti-elixir, which,
was publifhed in his own life-time, and fince reprinted
in 1739. Hence many have been led to conclude in
favour of the alchemical doftrine of the trailOnutability
of metals. See an account of this experiment, with
remarks upon it byr Dr Lewis, in his Commerce of Arts^
feft. 12. p. 297, &c.
“ The opinion (fays Holt) that one metallic ox Charatfers
other foreign fubftance might be changed into another,c/th‘KinS*
was, it feems, at this time (reign of Henry VI.
England) propagated by certain chemifts, whofe ob-
fervations on the furprifing effecls and alterations pro-
duced in certain fubftances by' the force of heat carried
their imaginations beyond what found judgment might
warrant. 'The firft inftance of which on record is
in vol. xi. p. 68. of the Feeder a ; wherein Henry VI.
grants a licence to John Cobbe, freely to work in me¬
tals ; he having, by philofophical art, found cut a me¬
thod of transferring imperfect metals into perfect gold
and filver.
“ This pretended fecret, known afterwards by the
name of the philofopher’s flone or powder, was encou¬
raged by four licences, granted to different projeftors
during this reign, and at fundry times after, during
this century particularly, and in fucceeding times, all
over Europe. The frenzy has not entirely ceafed
even to this day, although it mee^s with neither pub¬
lic encouragement nor countenance from men of fober
reafon ; the projedlors having yet found nothing from
their airy fehemes in this mode of fearch but certain
ruin to their property.”
The fame author, when fpeaking of the commerce
of the kingdom, and the wonderful increafe and riches
of commercial cities, fpeaks thus : “ This is the true
philofopher’s ftone, fo much fought after in former
ages, the difeovery of which has been referved to ge¬
nius, when ftudying to improve the mechanic arts.'
Hence a pound of raw materials is converted into ftuffs
of fifty times its original value. And the metals toa
are not, indeed, tranfmuted into gold—they are more;
fosf
PHI [ 573
Thilofo- for the labour of man has been able to work the bafer
pk*c‘ metal, by the ingenuity of art, fo as to become worth
' *"™r more than many times its weight in gold ”
PHILOSOPHIC, or Philosophical, fomething
belonging to Philosophy.
] P
PHILOSOPHICAL
H I
egg, among chemifts, a PHlrfo
thin glafs body or bubble, of the fhape of an egg, phical,
with a long neck or ftem. ufed in digeftions. 1110 1"
PHILOSOPHIZING, rules of. See Newtonian
Philofephy, n° 16. and the following article.
zing.
PHILOSOPHY,
Definitions T S a word derived from the Greek, and literally
of phiiofo- _|_ fignifies the love of wifddm (a). In its ufual
phy* acceptation, however, it denotes a fcience, or collec¬
tion of fciences, of which the univerfe is the objeft;
and of the term thus employed many definitions have
been given, differing from one another according to
the different views of their feveral authors. By Py¬
thagoras, philofophy is defined rav omIuv,
knowledge of things exifting by Cicero, after
Plato, faentia rerum divsnarum ct humanarum cum cau-
sis ; and by the illuftrious Bacon, interpretatio nature.
Whether any of thefe definitions be fufficiently pre-
cife, and at the fame time fufficiently comprehenfive,
may be queflioned ; but if philofophy in its utmofl:
extent be capable of being adequately defined, it is
not here that the definition fhould be given. “ Ex-
* TiHWb planati°n (lays an acute writer*), is the firif of-
Chart and fice of a teacher ; definition, if it be good, is the
S4rutf/ • t'ne *r,Suner a^cei triUb ; but explanation is one
p.rg. ' ^thing, and definition quite another.” It may be
proper, however, to obferve, that the definition given
by Cicero is better than that of Pythagoras, becaule
the chief objeft of the philofopher is to afeertain the
caufes of things ; and in this confifts the difference be¬
tween his fludies and thofe of the natural hiitorian,
who merely enumeiates phenomena, and arranges them
into feparate claffes.
Itsobjedl?. The principal objefts of philofophy are, God, na¬
ture, and man. That part of it which treats of God
is called//aeo/ogy ; that which treats of nature,
and metaphyfes ; and that which treats of man, logic and
ethics. That thefe are not feparate and independent
fciences, but, as Bacon expreffes it (b), branches from
the fame trunk, we (hall endeavour to fhow, after
we have given, agreeably to our ufual plan, a fhort hi-
Itory of philofophy from the earlieft ages to the pre-
fen t day.
To attempt to afiign an origin to philofophy, would
be ridiculous; for every man endeavours to afeet tain Hiflory o!
the caufes of thofe changes which he obfeives in nature; PMofophy’
and even children themfelves are inquifitive after that ’
which produces the found of their drums and their
rattles. Children, therefore, and the molt illiterate
•vulgar, have in all ages been philofophers. But the
firft people among whom philofopby was cultivated as
a profeffion, was probably the Chaldeans. We cer¬
tainly read of none earlier ; for though we have more
authentic accounts of the Hebrews than of any other
nation of remote antiquity, and have reafon to believe
that no people was civilized, before them, yet the pe¬
culiar circumftances in which they were placed, ren¬
dered all philofophical invefiigation to them uftlefs,
and even tended to fupprefs the very fpirit of enquiry.
The Egyptians indeed pretended to be the firft of na¬
tions, and to have fpread the bleffings of religion and
the light of fcience among every other people ; but,
from the earlieft records now extant, there is reafon
to believe that the Chaldeans were a civilized and
powerful nation before the Egyptian monarchy was
founded.
Of the Chaldesn philofophy much has been faid, philofophy!
but very little is known. Aftronomy feems to have of the Chall
been their favourite ftudy ; and at the era of Alexan- deans,
der’s conqueft of their country, they boafted that their
anceftors had continued their aftronomical obfervations
through a period of 470,000 years. Extravagant
claims to antiquity have been common in all na¬
tions (c). Calilthenes, who attended the Macedonian
conqueror, was requefted by Ariftotle to inform hitn-
felf concerning the origin of fcience in Chaldea ; and
upon examining into the grounds of this report, he
found that their obfervations reached no farther back¬
wards than 1903 years, or 2234 years before the
Chriftian era. Even this is a remoter antiquity than
Ptolemy allows to their fcience ; for he mentions no
Chaldean obfervations prior to the era of Nabonalfar,
or
(a) The origin ufually attributed to the term philofophj has been already afligned in the article Philolo¬
gy. M. Chauvin gives it a turn fomewhat different. According to him, the term is derived from ?<*<*, defire
orfudy, and ivijdom ; and therefore he underftands the word to mean the defire or Judy of wifdom; for (fays
r e) Pythagoras, conceiving that the application of the human mind ought rather to be called fudy than
fcienccy fet afide the appellation of wife as too affuming, and took that of philofopher.
(b) Convenit igitur partiri philofophiam in doEirinas tres ; doElrinam de numine, duclrinam de naturdt doSrinam de
homine. Quoniam autem feientiarum non funt lineis diverfia fimiles, quae coeunt ad unum angulum ;
ied potius ramis arborum, qui conjunguntur in uno trunco, qui etiam truncus ad fpatium nonnullum integer eft
et contmuus, antequam fe.partiatur in ramos. Ide ciu&. Scicnt. lib. in, cap. i.
. (c) 'I his claim of the Babylonians is thus reje&ed with contempt by Cicero; “ Contemnamus Babylo-
nios, et eo?, qui e Caucafo cosli figna fervantes, numeris, et motibus, ftellarum curfus perfequuntur : Con-
demnemus, inquam, hos 'A\\tfuhit'uc^ autyanitatlsy aut imprudentix, qui 470 millia annorum, ut ipfi dicunt, rno-
nunaentis comprenenia continent, et mentiri judicemus, nec feculorum reliquortnn judicium, quodde ipfis futuruns
lit, pertimefeere. De Divinations, lib. i. $ 1 q.
574
Hiftory of
Philofophy.
| dptid
Laert. lib. I
5 8.
PHILOSOPHY.
|j §ext.
Etnp* ad
IS'lalth.
lib. 5 - § »
Strabo,
lib. ico.
Cic. de Div
lib. x. §. i.
* Enfield'i
JJiJt. Fhil.
V. i.
4
Indian phi
lofopby
or 747 years before Chrift. That they cultivated
fomething which they called philofophy at a much
earlier period than this, cannot be queftioned ; for A-
rillotle on the credit of the moft ancient records,
fpeaks of the Chaldean magi as prior to the Egyp¬
tian priefts, who were certainly men of learning before
the time of Mofes. For any other fcience than that
of the liars, we do not read that the Chaldeans were
famous ; and this feems to have been cultivated by
them merely as the foundation of judicial allrology.
Perfuading the multitude that all human affairs are
influenced by the liars, and profefiing to be acquaint¬
ed with the nature and laws of this influence, their
tvife men pretended to calculate nativities, and to pre¬
dict good and bad fortune j|. This was the lource of
idolatry and various fuperftitions ; and whilft the Chal¬
deans were given up to fuch dotages, true fcience could
not be much indebted to their labours. If any credit
be due to Plutarch and Vitruvius, who quote Berofus,
(fee Berosus), it was the ©pinion of the Chaldean
tutfe men that an eclipfe of the moon happens when
that part of its body whic h is dellitute of fire is turned
towards the earth. “ Their cofmogony, as given by
Berofus, and preferved by Syncellus, feems to be this,
that all things in the beginning confided of darknefs
and water ; that a divine power dividing this humid
mafs, formed the world ; and that the human mind is
an emanation from the Divine nature *.
The large tra£t of country which comprehended
the empires of Aflyria and Chaldea, was the firlt peo¬
pled region on earth. From that country, therefore,
the rudiments of fcience mull have been propagated in
every direftion through the reft of the world ; but
what particular people made the earlieft figure, after
the Chaldeans, in the hiftory of phiiofophy, cannot
be certainly known. The claim of the Egyptians is
probably bell founded ; but as their fcience was the
immediate fource of that of the Gieeks, we lhall defer
what we have to fay of it on account of the conne&ion
between the parent and the offspring, and turn our
attention from Chaldean to Indian philofophy, as it
has been cultivated from a very eaily period by the
Brachmans and Gymnofophiits. We pafs over Per.
fia, becaufe we know not of any fcience peculiar to
that kingdom, except the doclrines of the magi, which
were religious rather than philofophical ; and of them
the reader will find feme account under the words
Magi, Polytheism, and Zoroaster
From whatever quarter India received its wifdom,
we are certain that its philofophers were held in high
repute at a period of very remote antiquity, fince
they were vifited by Pythagoras and other fii/es of an¬
cient Greece, who travelled in purfuit of knowledge.
Yet they feem to have been in that early age, as well Hiftory of
as at prefenc, more dillinguifned for the feverity of their I'huolophy.
manners than for the acqnifition of fcience ; and, as
Dr Enfield obferves, to have more refembled modern
monks than ancient philofophers. The brachmans or
bramins, it is well known, are all of one tribe; and
the moft learned of them are in their own language
called Pundits or Pandits. The Greek writers,
however, mention a fociety called Saman<tans, who,
voluntarily devoting themfelves to the ftudy of di¬
vine wifdom, gave up all private property, commit¬
ted their children to the care of the ftate, and their
wives to the proteftion of their relations. This fo¬
ciety was fupported at the public expence ; and its
members fpent their time in contemplation, in con-
verfation on divine fubjedls, or in a&s of religion. $
The phiiofophy of the Indians has indeed from the Ingrafted
beginning been engrafted on their religious dogmas,011 ^'g*0**
and feems to be a compound of fanatic metaphyfics
and extravagant fuperftition, without the fmaUeft fea-
foning of rational phyfics. Very unlike the. philofo¬
phers of modern Europe, of whom a great part labour
to exclude the agency of mind from the univarfe, the
Pandits of Hindoftan allow no powers whatever to mat¬
ter, but introduce the Supreme Being as the immedi¬
ate caufe of every effedt, however trivial. “ Brehm,
the Spirit of God, (fays one of their moft revered Bra¬
mins), is abforbed in felf-contemplation. The fame
is the mighty Lord, who is prefent in eveiy part
of fpace, whofe omniprefence, as exprefled in the
Reig Beid or Rigveda, I (hall now explain. Brehm
is one, and to him there is no fecond ; (uch is truly
Brehm. His omnifcience is felf infpired or felf-intel-
ligent, and its comprehenfion includes every poffible
fpecies. To illutlrate this as far as I am able ; the
moft comprehenfive of all comprehenfive faculties is
omnifcience; and being felf-infpired, it is fubjedt to
none of the accidents of mortality, conception, birtht
growth, decay, or death ; neither is it fubjedl to paf-
lion or vice. To it the three diftindtions of time,
pajt, prefent, and future, are not. To it the three
modes of being (d) are not. It is feparated from the
univerfe, and independent of all. 1 his omnifcience
is named Brehm. By this omnifeient Spirit the ope¬
rations of God are enlivened. By this Spirit alfo the .
24 powers (e) of nature are animated. How is this ?
As the eye by the*fun, as the pot by the fire, as iron
by the magnet (f), as variety of imitations by the mi¬
mic, as fire by the fuel, as the (hadow by the man, as
dull by the wind, as the arrow by the fpring of the
bow, and as the (hade by the tree ; fo by this Spirit
the world is endued with the powers of intelledl, the
powers of the will, and the powers of adtion : fo that
if
(d) To be awake, to deep, and to be abforbed in a ftate of unconfeioufnefs—a kind of trance.
(e) The 24 powers of nature, according to the Bramins, are the five elements,yf'e, air, earth, water, and
ahafi (a kind of fubtile tether) ; the five members of adtion, the hand, foot, tongue, anus, and male-organ of
generation ; the five organs of perception, the ear, eye, nofe, mouth, andy^/n ; the five fenles, which they diftin-
guifti from the organs of fenfation ; the three difpofitions of the mind, deftre, pajfon, and tranquillity ; and the
power of confetonjnefs. . „ n. j r r .u
(f) If the work from which this extradt is quoted be of as great antiquity as Mr Halhed iuppoles, the
■Br mins muft have been acquainted with the phenomena of magnetifm at a much earlier period than any other
philofophers of whom hiftory makes mention.
# Prelimi¬
nary r>\fc'
to Halhtd' s
Gentoo
Laws.
PHILO
Hiftoryof if It emanates from the heart by the channel of the
philofopiiy- ear) it catifes the perception of founds ; if it emanates
■1" ' ^ "y from the heart by the channel of the fkin, it caufes
the perception of touch ; if it emanates from the heart
by the channel or the eye, it caufes the perception of
vifible objefb ; if it emanates from the heart by the
channel of the tongue, it caufea the perception of
tafte ; if it emanates from the heart by the channel of
the nofe, it caufea the perception of fmell. This alfo
invigorating the five members of a&ion, and invigo¬
rating the five members of perception, and invigora¬
ting the five elements, and invigorating the five fenfes,
and invigorating the three difpofitkms of the mind,
&c. caufes the creation or the annihilation of the uni-
verfe, while itfelf beholds every thing as an indifferent
fpe&ator
From this pafiage it is plain that all the motions
in the univerfe, and all the perceptions of man, are,
according to the Bramins, caufed by the immediate
g agency of the Spirit of God, which feems to be here
Admits not confidered as the foul of the world. But it appears
the feparate from fome papers in the Afiatic RTearches, that the
matc^andmo^ profound of thefe oriental philofophers, and
’ even the authors of their facred books, believe not in
the exiftence of matter as a feparate fubfiance, but
hold an opinion refpefting it very fimilar to that of
the celebrated Berkeley. The Vedantis (fays Sir
William Jones), unable to form a diftinft idea of brute
matter independent of mind, or to conceive that the
work of Supreme Goodnefs was left a moment to it¬
felf, imagine that the Deity is ever prefent to his work,
and confiantly fupports a feriea of perceptions, which
in one fenfe they call illufory, though they cannot but
admit the reality of all created forms, as far as the
happinefs of creatures can be affedted by them.
This is the very immaterialifm of Berkeley ; and in
proof that it is the genuine dodtrine of the Bramins,
the learned prefident quotes the Bhaga'vnt, which is
believed to have been pronounced by the Supreme Be¬
ing, and in which is the following fentence :
“ Except the JirJl caufe, whatever may appear, and
may not appear, in the mind, know that to be the
. 1 mind’s Maya, or “ delufion,” as light, as dirknefs.”
ITeachesthe We have fhown elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, n°
269-) that the metaphylical dodtrines of the Bramins,
refpedting the human foul, differ not from thofe of
Pythagoras and Plato; and that they believe it to be
an emanation from the great foul of the world, which,
after many tranfmigrations, will he finally abforbed in
its parent fubfiance. In proof of their believing in
the metempfyehofis, Mr Halhed gives us the following
tranflation of what (he fays) is a beautiful ftanza in
the Geeta : “ As throwing afide his old clothes, a
man puts on others that are new ; fo our lives, quitting
the old, go to other newer animals.”
From the Bramins believing in the foul of the world
not only as the foie agent, but as the immediate caufe of
every motion in nature, we can hardly fuppofe them
to have made any great progrefs in that fcience which
in Europe is cultivated under the name of phyjics.
They have no inducement to inveftigate the laws of
nature ; becaufe, according to the firft principles of
their philofophy, which, together with their religion,
they believe to have been revealed from heaven, every
phenomenon, however regular, or however anomalous.
8
lhyGcs of
he Bra-
uns.
S ° P H Y- 575
is prodimed by the voluntary ad! of an intelligent Hillary of
mind. Yet if they were acquainted with the ufe 0f
fire-arms 4000 years ago, as Mr Halhed feems to be- v——'
lieve, he who made that difeovery mufi have had a
very confiderable knowledge of the powers of nature ;
for though gunpowder may have been difeovered by
accident m the Eaft, as it certainly was in the Weft
many ages afterwards, it is difficult to conceive how
mere accident could have led any man to the inven- „
tion of a gun. in afironomy, geometry, and chrono-Their aftr<>
logy too, they appear to have made fome proficiency nomy*
at a very early period. (See Astronomy, n° 4.)
I heir chronology and aftronomy are indeed full of '
thofe extravagant fidtions which feem to be eflential to
all their lyfiems; but their calculation of eclipfes, and
their computations of time, are conduaed upon feien-
tific principles.
“It is fufficiently known (fays Mr Davis f) thatf- ^aifa
the Hindoo divifion of the ecliptic into figns, degrees,
&c. is the fame as ours ; that their aftronomical year isvo1- li*
fid ere al, or containing that fpace of time in which the
fun* departing from a fiar. returns to the fame ; that
it commences on the inftant of his entering the fign
Aries, or rather the Hindoo conftellation Me/ha ; that
ea h aftronomical month contains as many even days
and fradtional parts as he flays in each fign ; and
that the civil differs from the aflronomical account of
time only in rejecting thofe fradlions, and beginning
the year and month at funrife, inftead of the interme¬
diate infiant of the artificial day or night. Hence
arifes the unequal portion of time affigned to each
month dependent on the fituation of the fun’s apfis,
and the diftance of the vernal equinoftial colure from
the beginning of Mefha in the Hindoo fphere ; and
by thefe means they avoid thofe errors which Euro¬
peans, from a different method of adjufting their ka-
lenciar by intercalary days, have been fubjea to.”
Mr Davis obferves, that an explanation of thefe
matters would have led him beyond his purpofe, which
was only to give a general account of the method by
which the. Hindoos compute eclipfes, and to /how
thst the fcience of aftronomy 13 as well known among
them now as ever it was among their anceftors. This
he does very completely 5 but in the prefent fhort hi-
florical fketch, we can neither copy nor abridge his me¬
moir. Suffice it to fay, that he has /hown the practical
part of the Hindoo aftronomy to be founded on ma¬
thematical principles; and that the learned Pandits
appear to have truer notions of the form of the eaith,
and the economy of the univerfe, than thofe which are
aferihed to their countrymen in general.
The fame writer fhows likewife, that the prodigious
duration which the Hindoos attribute to the world, is
the refillt of a fcientific calculation, founded indeed on
very whimfical principles. “ It has been common
with aftronomera to fix on fome epoch, from which,
as from a radix, to compute the planetary motions ;
and the ancient Hindoos chofe that point of time
counted back, when, according to their motions as
they had determined them, they muft have been in
conjunaion in the beginning of Me/ha or Aries, and
coeval with which circumftance they fuppofed the
creation. This, as it concerned the planets only, would
have produced a moderate term of years compared
with the enormous antiquity that will be hereafter
1 ftated z
576
PHILO
Hiftory of ftated: but having difcoverec! a flow motion of the
Philof >phy. nojeS and apfidcs alfo, and taken it into the computa-
t;on) they found it would require a length of time
correfponding with 1955^^4^9° years nowr expiied,
when they were fo fituated, and 2364* 15110 year9
more before they would return to the fame fituation
again, forming together the grand anomaliftick pe¬
riod denominated a Calpay and fancifully afiigned as
the day of Brahma.”
But though the mathematical part of theaftronomy
of the Pandits is undoubtedly refpe&able, their phy-
fi -al notions of the unWerfe are in the highell degree
ridiculous and extravagant. In the Vedas and Puranas,
writings of which no devout Hindoo can dilpute the
divine authority, eclipfes are faid to be occahoned by
J0 the intervention of the monfter Rahu ; and the earth
Strange no-to be fupported by a feries of animals. “ They fup-
tions of thep0fe (fays Mr Halhed) that there are 14 fpheres, fe-
univerfe. ven below and fix ab0ve the earth. The feven infe¬
rior worlds are faid to be altogether inhabited by an
infinite variety of ferpents, defcribed in every mon-
ftrous figure that the imagination can fuggeft. The
firft fphere above the earth is the immediate vault of
the vifible heavens, in which the fun, moon, and liars,
are placed. The fecond is the firft paradife, and ge¬
neral receptacle of thofe who merit a removal fi om the
lower earth. The third and fourth are inhabited by
the fouls of thofe men who, by the pradice of virtue
and dint of prayer, have acquired an extraordinary de¬
gree of fan&ky. The fifth is the reward of thofe who
have all their lives performed fome wonderful ad of
penance and mortification, or who have aied martyrs
for their religion. The higheft fphere is the refidence
of Brahma and his particular favourites, fuch as thofe
men who have never uttered a falfehood during their
whole lives, and thofe women who have voluntarily
burned themfelves with their hufbanda. All thefe are
abforbed in the divine effence.”
On ethics, the Hindoos have nothing that can be
called philofopby. Their duties, moral, civil, and re¬
ligious, are all laid down in their Vedas and Shajlers ;
and enjoined by what they believe to be divine autho¬
rity, which fnperfedes all reafoning concerning their
fitnefs or utility. The bufinefs of their Pandits is to
interpret thofe books, which are extremely ancient,
and written in a language that has long been unintel¬
ligible to every other order of men ; but no Pandit
will alter the text, however impoflible to be reconciled
to principles eftabliihed in his own practice of aftro-
nomy. On fuch occasions, the ufual apology for their
facred books is, that “ fuch things may have been fo
formerly, and may be fo ftill ; but that for aftronomi-
* 7W, cal purpofes, aftronomLal rule, mull be followed * ”
Memoir, The great duties of morality have been prescribed m
Afiatic Re- evcry religious code ; and they are not overlooked in
rearches, tbat Hindoos, though the higheft merit that a
Vo1- U' Biamin can have confifts in voluntary ads of abftinence
and mortification, and in contempt of death.
'I , Of the ancient philofophy of the Arabians and
Se AP,iy Chinefe nothing certain can be faid ; and the narrow
bians and limits of fuch an abftradt as this, do not admit or our
mentioning the conjeftures of the learned, which con-
tradid each other, and are all equally groundleis. _
There is indeed fufficient evidence that both nations
were at a very early period obfervers of the ftars; and
SOPHY.
that the Chinefe had even a theory by which they Hjftory of
foretold eclipfes (fee Astronomy, nQ 2, 3.); but tdaiofophy
there is reafon to believe that the Arabians, like other
people in their circumftances, were nothing more than
judicial aftrologers, who poffeffed not the fmalleft por¬
tion of aftronomical fcience.
Pliny makes mention of their magi, whilft later
writers tell us, that they were famous for their inge¬
nuity in folving enigmatical queftions, and for their
(kill in the arts of divination : but the authors or
Greece are filent concerning their philofophy ; and
there is not an Arabian book of greater antiquity
than the Koran extant. (See Philology, Sec¬
tion II.) , 15
Leaving therefore regions fo barren of information, Early
letuspafsto the Phoenicians, whofe commercial ce-J^n“ of
11
Ethics of
the Hin¬
doos.
Chineie.
lehrity has induced many learned men to allow them
great credit for early fcience. If it be true, as feems
highly probable, that the ftn'ps of this nation had
doubled the Cape and almoft encompafied the penin-
fula of Africa long before the era 01 Solomon (See
Ophir, n'J 10), we cannot doubt but that the Phoe¬
nicians had made great proficiency in the art of navi¬
gation, and in the fcience of aftronomy, at a period of
very remote antiquity. Nor were thefe the only
fciences cultivated by that ancient people : the learn¬
ed Cudworth has, in our opinion, fufficieutly proved
that Mofchus or Mochus a Phoenician, who, according
to Strabo, flouriftred before the Trojan war, was the
author of the atomic philofophy afterwards adopted
by Leucippus, Democritus, and others among the
Greeks ; and that it was with fome of the fucceffors
of this fage that Pythagoras, as Jamblichus tells us,
converfed at Sidon, and from them received his doc¬
trine of Monads (See Pythagoras). Another pioof
of the early progrefs of the Phoenicians in philofophy
may be found in the fragments of their hiftotian San-
choniatho which have been preferved by Eufebiusf. We |
are indeed aware that men of great celebrity have
called in queftion the authenticity of thofe fragments,
and even the very exiftence of fuch a writer as San-
choniatho ; but for this fcepticifm we can difeover no
foundation (See Sanchoniatho). His hiftory may
have been interpolated in fome places by the tranfla-
ter Philo-Byblius; but Porphyry, Eufebius, and Theo-
doret, fpeak of it as a work of undoubted credit, and
affiim that its author flouriftied before the Trojan
war. Nov/ this ancient writer teaches that, according
to the wife men of his country, all things arofe at
firft from the neceffary agency of an aftive principle
upon a paflive chaotic mafs which he calls mot. This
chaos Cudworth thinks was the fame with the elemen¬
tary ivater of Thales, who was alfo of Phoenician ex¬
traction ; but Mofheim juftly obferves that it was ra¬
ther dark air, fince Philo tranflates it Be
this as it may, nothing can be more evident than that
the Phoenicians muft have made fome progrefs in
what muft furely be confidered as philofophy, how¬
ever falfe, fo early as the era of Sanchoniatho ; for
fpeculations about the origin of the world never oc¬
cur to untaught barbarians. Befides Mochus and
Sanchoniatho, Cadmus, who introduced letters into
Greece, may undoubtedy be reckoned among the
Phoenician philofophers; for though it is not pre¬
tended that the alphabet was of his invention, and
2 though
PHILO
Hiftory of though it is by no means certain that the Greeks, at
Philofoj hy. t^e j-ijjj,. Df }u'g arrival among them, were wholly de-
ftitute of alphabetic charafters (See Philology, n°
130.); yet the man who could prevail with illiterate
favages to adopt the ufe of ftrange chara&ers, muft
have been a great mailer of the fcience of human
nature. Several other Phoenician philofophers are
mentioned by Strabo ; but as they flourilhed at a la-
•ter period, and philofophifed after the fyftematic mode
of the Greeks, they fall not properly under our no¬
tice. We pafs on therefore to the philofophy of E-
„ h gypt-
It has been already obferved that the Egyptians
phio up y bca{tecj 0f being the firft of nations, and the authors
of all the fcience which in feparate rays illuminated
the reft of the world. But though this claim was
undoubtedly ill-founded, their high antiquity and early
progrefs in the arts of civil life cannot be controvert¬
ed. The Greeks with one voice confefs that all their
learning and wifdom came from Egypt, either im¬
ported immediately by their own philofophers, or
brought through Phoenicia by the fages of the eaft ;
and we know from higher authority than the hifto-
ries of Greece, that at a period fo remote as the birth
of Mofes, thewifdom of the Egyptians was proverbially
famous. Yet the hiftory of Egyptian learning and
philofophy, though men of the firft eminence both
ancient and modern have bellowed much pains in at¬
tempts to elucidate it, Hill remains involved in clouds
of uncertainty. That they had fome knowledge of
phyfiology, arithmetic, geometry, and aftronomy, are
fads which cannot be queftioned ; but there Is reafon
to believe that even thefe fciences wrere in Egypt
pufhed no farther than to the ufes of life,. That they
believed in the exiltence of incorporeal fubftances is
certain; becaufe Herodotus alfuies us that they were
the firft afierters of the immortality, pre-exiftence, and
tranfmigration of human fouls, which they could not
have been without holding thofe fouls to be at leaft
incorporeal, if not Immaterial.
The author of Egyptian learning is generally ac¬
knowledged to have been Thoth, Theut, or Taaut, cal¬
led by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Romans Mer~
cury ; but of this perfonage very little is known. Dio¬
dorus Siculus fays that he was chief minifter to Ofi-
ris, and that he improved language, invented letters,
inftituted religious rites, and taught allronomy, mufic,
and other arts. The fame thing is affirmed by San-
choniatho, whofe antiquity has been already mention¬
ed ; by Manetho an Egyptian prieft, who flourilhed
during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; and by
Plato, whofe authority, as he refided long in Egypt,
and was himfelf an eminent philofopher, is perhaps
more to be depended upnn than that of the other two.
In the Philebus we are told that Thoth was the in¬
ventor of letters ; and left wre ffiould fuppofe that by
thofe letters nothing more is meant than piflure wri¬
ting or fymbolical hieroglyphics, it is added, that he
Vou XIV. Part II.
SOPHY. - 577
diftinguilhed between vowels and eonfonants, determin- Hiftory of
ing the number of each. The fame philofopher, in
his Phaedrus, attributes ta Thoth the invention ofv
arithmetic, geometry, ajlronomy, and hieroglyphic learn¬
ing ; and fubjoins a deputation faid to have been held
between h-tn anil Thamus then king of Egypt, con¬
cerning the advantage and difadvantage of his newly
invented letters. Thoth boafted that the invention,
by aiding memory, would greatly contribute to the
progrefs of fcience ; whililthe monarch contended, that
it would enervate mens natural faculties by making
them trull to written charters without exerting the
powers of their own minds.
All this, if real, muft have happened before the
era of Mofes ; and fince it is almoft certain that alpha¬
betical chara&ers were in ufe prior to the exod of the
Ifraelites from Egypt (See Philology, n° 24, 25.)
we may as well allow the invention to Thoth, as give
it to an earlier author of unknown name. That arith¬
metic, geometry, and aftronomy, were cultivated in
Egypt from the moll remote antiquity, is affirmed by
all the ancients, and made in the higheft degree pro¬
bable by the fituation of the country. The firft ele¬
ments of aftronomy have certaialy been difeovered by
various nations, whofe habits of life led them to the
frequent obfervation of the heavens; and it is obferved
by Cicero, that the Egyptians and Babylonians, dwel-
hng in open plains where nothing intercepted the
view of the heavenly bodies, naturally devoted them-
felves to the ftudy of that fcience. The annual over¬
flowing of the Nile, which broke up the boundaries
of their lands, would lay the Egyptians under the ne-
ceffity of adopting fome method of fettling thofe boun¬
daries anew ; and neceffity we know to be the parent
of invention. Hence their early acquaintance with prac¬
tical geometry cannot well be doubted. Their cuftom of
embalming their dead, and the perfe&ion to which they
carried that art (g), Ihows infallibly their knowledge
cf the properties of natural fubftances, and gives fome
reafon to believe that they were not altogether ftran-
gers to anatomy : but if we allow them to have been
at this early period anatomifts acquainted with the
powers of drugs, we can hardly refufe them fome
flail in the art of phyfic, which they themfelves traced
up to their gods and demigods, to Serapis, If is, and her
fon Horns or Apollo.
The art of alchymy has been faid to have been
known by the ancient Egyptians ; and from the au¬
thor of the Egyptian philofophy it has been called the
Hermetic art. But though this is unqueftionably a
fiftion, there is evidence that they were poffeflcd of
one art which is even yet a dejideratum in the prac¬
tice of chemiftry. “ Mofes (we are told*) took*
the golden calf, which his brother had made for ido-xx“* ao-
latroua purpofes, and burnt it in the Jire, and ground it
to powder, and ftrowed it on the water, and made the
children of Ifrael drink of it.” Had this fa6l been
related by Herodotus or Diodorus .Siculus, it would
4 ^ have
fl/nG f n 18 ^ th Vhe d.lffeia!on fome mummies has leflened the high opinion long entertained of the
™ wl daBC,eUt EgyPrt,arn8 ,n-the art of yet it muft be8 granted that their knowledge of
fnrhTn dng8 Wa8, ?rCf’ fince, 11 18 nowr certaiuly known even from thefe diffcaions, that by means of
r .gs they contnvcu to prefave rags of cloth from corruption for upwards of 300© years.
578 PHILO
HiHory of have been deemed fufficlent evidence that the Egyp-
yhUofo^hy.jjgjjg were evcn at that early period no ftransrers to
the art of chemiftry : and furely the evidence fhould
not be the worfe for coming from the pen of the He¬
brew lawgiver, who was himfdf educated in the court
of Egypt.
Not carried But though it is thus evident that the rudiments
to hi h per-of almoft every ufeful feience were known in Egypt
fedion. from the remoteft antiquity, it does not appear that
any of them wag carried to a great degree of per ec-
tion, unlefs perhaps chemiftry alone muft be excepted.
One would think that no feience could have been
more indifpenfably requifite to them than geometry.
And yet though Pythagoras is faid to have fpent 22
years in Egypt ftndying that feience and aftronomy,
be himfelf difeovered (h ) the famous 47th Prop, of
Euclid’s iirft book after his return to Samos. This,
though a very ufeful, is yet a fimple theorem ; and finee
it was not reached by the Egyptian geometry, we can¬
not fuppofe that thofe people had then advanced far in
fuch {peculations. The fame conclufion muft be
drawn with refpeA to aftronomy ; for Thales is faid
to have been the firft that calculated an eclipfe of the
f«n; and we nowhere read that the Egyptiani pretend-
Their ed to difpute that honour with him. To this it may
knowle'ge be replied, that Pythagoras was in Egypt undoubt-
of the folar ediy taUght the true conftitution of the folar fyftem,
^ em’ and what is more extraordinary, the dottrine of comets
in particular, and of their revolutions, like the other
planets, round the fun (1). We grant that he was
taught all this; but it was not fcientifically, but dog¬
matically, as fads which the priefts had received by
tradition from their early anceftors, and of which they
had never queftioned the truth nor enquired into the
reafons. Of this we need no better proof than that
the Pythagorean fyftem of the fun was totally ne-
SOPHY.
glefted by the Greeks as foon as they began to frame Hiftory of
hypothefes and to {peculate in philofophy (k). Philofoyhy*
But it may feem ftrange, and certainly is fo, that * ' *
the Egyptian priefts, in the days of Pythagoras,
fhould have preferved fo great a difeovery of their an¬
ceftors, and at the fame time have totally forgotten
the principles and reafoning which led to a conclufion
apparently contrary to the evidence of fenfe. This
is a difficulty which we pretend not to remove, though
the fadft which involves it feeras to be beyond the
reach of controverfy. Perhaps the following obfer-
vatlons may throw upon it a feeble light. Accord¬
ing to Manetho, the written monuments of the firft
Thoth were loft or uegle&ed in certain civil revolu¬
tions or natural calamities which befel the kingdom
of Egypt. After many ages great part of them were
recovered by an ingenious interpretation of the fym-
bols which he had infenbed upon ancient columns ;
and the man who made this interpretation was called
the fecond Thoth or Hermet Trifmegjjius. But thrice
illujlrious as this perfonage was, it is at leaft poftible
that he may have been much inferior to the former
Hermes, and have read his writings and tranferibed
his conclufions without being able to comprehend the
principles or re tfoning which led to thofe conclufions.
Any man who underftands Latin might tranllate into
his own tongue the conclufions of Newton ; but much
more would be requifite to make him comprehend
the demonftrations of his fublime geometry. By what
mode of reafoning the firft Hermes (l) was led to the
true idea of the folar fyftem, or whether it was by
reafoning at all, cannot now be known ; but it feems
very evident, that when the intercourfe between the
Egyptians and Greeks firft commenced, the wifdom
of the former people confifted chiefly in the feience
of legiflation and civil policy, and that the philofo-
pher.
(h) This difeovery he claimed; and his claim was admitted by the Greek writers without having been dl-
reflly controverted fince. An excellent mathematician, however, has lately ffiown that the equality between
the fquare of the hypothenufe of a right angled triangle, mid the fura of the fquares on the other two lides,
•was known to the aftronomers of India at a period long prior to that of Pythagoras. Notwithifanding this,
it is certainly pofiible that the fage of,Samos may have made the difeovery hitnfelf, though we think the
contrary much more probable ; for we agree with the able writer already mentioned, that Pythagoras, who
is generally believed to have converfed with Indian brachmans as well as Egyptian priefts, may hive derived
from them “ fome of the folid as well as the vifionary fpeculations with which he delighted to inftrudft or
amufe his difeiples.” See TranfaSions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii. Memoir xiii. Phylic Cbls. ^
(1) This is recorded by Ariftotle and Plutarch; and thus exprefied by Ammianus Marcellimis.Stel¬
las quafdam, ceteris /miles t quarum ortus orlitufque, qyibus fint temporibus prxjhtuti humanis mentibus ignorari.
^ (k) Fixasin fupremis mundi partibus immotas perfiftere, et planetas his inferiores circa folern revolvi, ter¬
rain pariter moveri curfu annuo, diurno vero circa axem propriam, et folem ceu focnm umverfi in omnium
centre quiefeere, antiquiffima fuit philofophantium fententia. Ab iEgyptiis autem aftrorum antiquiffimis ob-
fervationibus propagatam effe hanc fententiam veriiimile eft. Et etiam ab itlis et a gentibus contermims ad
Graecos gentem magis pbilologicam quam philofophicam, philofophia omnis antiqmor juxta et femor manaffe
videtur ’ Subinde docuerunt Anaxagoras, Democritus, et. alii nonnulli, terram in centre mundi imtnotam
Hare et aftra omnia iu occafum, aliqua celerius, alia tardius moveri, idque in fpatns hbernmis.. Namque
orbis folidi poftea ab Eudoxo, Calippo, Ariftotele, introduai funt; declinante indies philofuphia pnmitus
introdufta, et novis Graecorum commentis paulatim praevalentibus. Qutbus vincuhs antiqui planetas in {pa¬
ths liberis retineri, deque curfu reailineo perpetuo retradas in orbem regulanter agi docucre, non conitat.
Newton de Mundi Sy dentate. , , r n f, <- ,,
( Some authors, deeply {killed in the Hebrew language, have thought that the true fyftem of the fun and pla¬
nets may be perceived in the Scriptures of the Old Teftament, and that it is only fiom the ignorance or carleffnefo
«f the tranflaWM that it does not appear in the Engliffi bible and other verfiona. The writer of this article con-
^ }7
Their mo-
ffal fcience.
En/te/d’s
PHILO
Hiflwy ofpher, the divine, the kgiflator, and the poet, were all
Philosophy united iu the fame perfoa. Their cofmogony (for all
v”""1 the ancients who pretended to fcience framed cofmo-
gonies) differed little from that of the Phoenicians
already menrioned. They held that the world was
produced from chaos by the energy of an intelligent prin-
ciple; and they likewife conceived that there is in nature
a continual tendency towards difl'olution. In Plato’s
Timasus,an Egyptian pried; is introduced deferibing the
deftrudtion of the world, and afferting that it will be
effe&ed by means of water and fire. Theyconceived that
the univerfe undergoes a periodical conflagration ; af¬
ter which all things are reftored to their original form,
to pafs again through a fimilar fucceffion of changes.
“ Of preceptive doclrine the Egyptians had two
kinds, the one facrcd, the other vulgar. The former,
which refpefled the ceremonies of religion and the
, _ duties of the priefts, was doubtlefs written in the fa-
f&ikfojtly, cred books of Hermes, but was too carefully concealed
to pafs down to pofterity. The latter confifted of
maxims and rules of virtue, prudence, or policy. Dio¬
dorus Siculus relates many particulars concerning the
laws, cuftoms, and manners of the Egyptians; whence
it appears that fuperftition mingled with and cor¬
rupted their notions of morals. It is in vain to look
for accurate principles of ethics among an ignorant
and fuperftitious people. And that the ancient E-
gyptians merited this character is fufficiently evident
from this Angle circumftance, that they fuffered them-
felves to be deceived by impoftors, particularly by the
profeffors of the fanciful art of altrology ; concern¬
ing whom Sextus Empiricus juftly remarks, that they
have done much mifehief in the world, by enflaving
men to fuperftition, which will not fuffer them to fol¬
low the dictates of tight reafon.” See Egypt, My¬
steries, Mythology, &c.
- , From Egypt and Phoenicia philofophy pafled into
{Kuioiophy. Greece; where it was long taught without fyftem, as
in the countries from which it was derived. Phoro-
neus, Cecrops, Cadmus, and Orpheus, were among
the earlieft inflrudtors of the Greeks ; and they incul¬
cated Egyptian and Phoenician doftrines in detached
maxims, and enforced them, not by llrength of argu¬
ment. but by the authority of tradition. Their cof-
mogonies were wholly Phoenician or Egyptian dif-
guifed under Grecian names ; and they taught a fu¬
ture Hate of rewards and punifhments. The planets
and the moon Orpheus conceived to be habitable
worlds, and the ftara to be fiery bodies like the fun :
but he taught that they are all animated by divinities ;
an opinion which prevailed both in Egypt and the
<aft: and it does not appear that he gave any other
proof of his doarines than a confident aflertion that
they were derived from fome god. See Orpheus.
IS
©redan
SOPHY. 573
Hitherto we have feen philofophy in its Hate of in* Hiftory of
fancy and childhood, confifting only of a colle£iion of Ph'Iofophr»
fententious maxims and traditionary opinions ; but ‘ 
among the Greeks, an ingenious and penetrating peo¬
ple, it fooa affiimed the form of profound fpeculation
and fyftematic reafoning. Two eminent philofophera
arofe nearly at the fame period, who may be confider-
ed as the parents not only of Grecian fcience, but of
almoll all the llcience which was cultivated in Europe
prior to the era of the great Lord Bacon: Thefe were
Thales and Pythagoras ; of whom the former founded
the Ionic fchool and the latter the Italic: from which
two fprung the various feds into which the Greek
philofophera were afterwards divided. A bare enu-
deration of thefe feas is all that our limits will admit
of; and vve ftrall give it in the perfpicuous language
and juft arrangement of Dr Enfield, referring our rea¬
ders for a fuller account than we can give of their re-
fpeaive merits to his abridged tranflation of Bruckcr’4
hiftory.
Of the Ionic School were, i. The Ionic fea pro- T9
per, whofe founder Thales had as his fucceflbrs An-7,hcl,on^
aximenes, Anaxagoras, Diogenes Apolloniates, and
Archelaus. 2. The Socratic fchool, founded by So¬
crates, the principal of whofe difciples were Xeno¬
phon, ./Efchines, Simon, Cebes, Ariftippus, Phasdo
Euclid, Plato, Antifthenes, Critias, and Alcibiades!
3. The Cyrenaic fea, of which Ariftippus was the
author; his followers were, his daughter Arete, He-
gefias, Anieerris, Theodorus, and Bion. 4 The Me-
garic or Eriftic fed, formed by Euclid of Megara; to
whom fucceeded Eubulides, Diodorus, and Stilpo, fa¬
mous for their logical fubtlety. The Eliac or Ere-*
triac fchool, raifed by Phsdo of Elis, who, though he
clofely adhered to the doarine of Socrates, gave name
to his fchool. His fucceflbrs were Pliftanus and Me-
nedemus ; the latter of whom, being a native of Ere-
tria, transferred the fchool and name to his own coun¬
try. 6. The Academic fea, of which Plato was the
founder. After his death, many of his difciples de¬
viating from his dodrine, the fchool was divided into
the old, new, and middle academies. 7. The Peripa¬
tetic fed, founded by Ariftotle, whofe fucceflbrs in
the Lyceum were Theophraftus, Strato, Lycon, A-
rifto, Critolaus, and Diodorus. Among the Peripa¬
tetics, befides thofe who occupied the chair, were alfo
Dicaearchus, Eudemus, and Demetrius Phalereus. 8.
The Cynic fed, of which the author was Antifthenes,
whom Diogenes, Oneficritus, Crates, Metrocles, Me-
nipus, and Menedemus, fucceeded. In the lift of Cy¬
nic philolophers muft alfo be reckoned Hipparchia, the
wife of Crates. 9. 1 he Stoic fed, of which Zeno was
the founder. His fucceflbrs in the porch were Per*
faeus, Arifto of Chios, Plerillus, Sphasrus, Clcanthes,
4 E> 2 Chry-
”edX;r’S 'Tf IT rear0n th“ ,0 h!m th'
than he for the which he behetea ThTT hl,"eV'r’ b'Kher
readers the fcience ef aftronomy; but LuH the nrinrfoJe fr™ fork n°bler Pur.pofes than to teach its
4y inclined to think that the firft ThotHas ^ r fciencc be fouJd Md be ftrong-
far-famed Ofiris. Were there anv folid ^ monarch to whom be was mmifter was the
Thoth acquired his fcience, and how the ‘ • [uPPoflt.,on’ 11 would b^ eafy to conceive how
«er»l, Igng after they h*d fotgotten the evidence °f t*hc foIilr fyftem in
7 me evidence upon which he communicated thofe notions to their anceftor*,
58°
PHILO
Hiftory of Chryfippus, Zeno oFTarfua, Diogenes the Babylonian,
VfailQfof>hy. ^ntipater, Panaetius, and Pofidonius.
« ' Qf tjie iTAL|C School were, i. The Italic fed
proper : it was founded by Pythagoras, a difciple of
Pherecydes. The followers of Pythagoras were Ari-
ftseus, Mnefarchus, Alcmaeon, Ecphantus, Hippo, Em¬
pedocles, Epicharmus, Ocellus, Timreus,^ Archytas,
H.ppafus, Philolaus, and Eudoxus. 2. 1 he Eleatic
left, of which Xenophanes was the author: his fnc-
ceffors, Parmenides, Meliffus, Zeno, belonged to tne
metaphyiical clafs of this fe£t; Leucippus, Democri¬
tus, Protagoras, Diagoras, and Anaxarchus, to th^.
physical. 3. The Heraclitean fed, which was found¬
ed hy Heraclitus, and foon altervvards expired : Zeno
and Hippocrates philofophifed alter the manner of He¬
raclitus, and other phiiofophers borrowed freely from
his fydem. 4. The Epicurean fed, a branch of the
Eleatic, had Epicurus lor its author ; among whofe
followers were Metrodorus, Polyaenus, Hermachus, 1 o-
lyP.ratus, BafUides, and Protarchus. 5. The Pyrrho-
nic or Sceptic fed, the parent of which was Pyrrho :
his dodrine was taught by Tinaon the Phlialian ; and
after fome interval was continued by Ptolemy a Cyre-
nean, and at Alexandria by iEnefulemus.
Of the peculiar dodrines of thefe feds, the reader will
in this work find a fhon account either in the lives of
their refpedive founders, or under the n imes of the feds
themfelves. We fhall only obferve at prefent, that tho
many of them were undoubtedly abfurd, and many
wicked, it would yet perhaps be going too far to fay
with fome, that the philofophy of Greece became im¬
pious under Diagoras, vicious under Epicurus, hypo¬
critical under Zeno, impudent under Diogenes,co-
▼etous under Demochares, voluptuous under Metrodorus,
fantafticul under Crates, fcurrilous under Menippus, li¬
centious under Pyrrho, and quarrelfome under Clean-
thes. Of the truth of this heavy charge every reader
muft judge for himfelf. We are ftrongly inclined to
think, that there were virtues and vices peculiar to each
fed; ; “ and that the feds themfelves had an affinity
more or lefs dired with the different temperaments of
man ; whence the choice of fedators often depended
on phyfical influence, or a peculiar difpofition of their
organs. Nothing appears more natural than that thofe
men who were born with great force of mind and
ftrong nerves fhonld difeovera prediledion for ftoicifm;
while mortals, endowed by nature with more delicacy
of fibres and keener fenfibility, fled for refuge to the
myrtles of Epicurus. People whofe temperaments
partook of no extremes, were always inclined either
for the Lyceum or the academy. Such as poffeffed fo-
lidity of underftanding ranged themfelves with Ari-
ftotle; and thofe who had only genius, or even preten-
fions to that endowment, went to augment the crowd
of Platonifts.,>
^ All the fyftematical phiiofophers, however, P™ed
mode of t^ejr inquiries into nature by nearly the fame method.
phiJoLph1- Gf thej1r phii0f0phy as well as of ours, the nmverfe,
with all that it contains, was the vaft objed : but the
individual things which compofe the univerfe are in¬
finite in number and ever changing; and therefore,
according to an eftablifhed maxim of theirs, incapable
„ of being the fubjeda of human fcience *. To reduce
Jir^'pby this infinitude, and to fix thofe fleeting beings, they
>. fib. i. eftablifhed certain definite arrangements or claiks, to
Pauiu s
JPhil'iftphi-
.al Differta- ^
titM)
Grecr>*z
sing.
# JSoetb. in
Jpradie. et
SOPHY.
fome of which every thing paft, prefent, or to come,
might be referred; and having afeertained, as they ^ -1?
thought, all that could be affirmed or denied of chefe
clafles, they proved, by a very fliort procefs of fyllo-
giilic rtafoning, that what is true of the clafs muft be
true of every individual comprehended under it. The
molt celebrated of thefe arrangements is that which is
known by the name of categories ; which Mr Harris
thinks at lealt as old as the era of Pythagoras, and to
the forming of which mankind would, in his opinion,
be neceifarily led by the following confidcrations: 22
Every fubjed of human thought is either fubjlance or ,).or<'Aate'’
attribute ; but fubjlance and attribute may each of them*3
be- modified under the different charaders of univerfal
or particular. Hence there arifes a quadruple arrange¬
ment of tilings into fubjlance univerfal and fubjlance pat-
ticular ; into attribute univerfal and attribute particu 'ar;
to fome one of ’which Jour not only our words and
ideas, but every individual of that immenfe multitude
of things which compofe the uuiverfe, may be reduced.
This arrangement, however, the learned author thinks
too limited ; and he is of opinion, that, by attending
to the fubltanoes with which they were furrounded,
the Grecian fchools mull foon have diftinguilhed be¬
tween the attributes ejjential to all lubllances and thole
which are only circumflantial; between the attributes
proper to natural fubftancesor bodies and thofe which
are peculiar to intelligible fubftances or minds.. He
likewife thinks, that the time and place o! the exifteuce
of fubftances not prefent, mult foon have attraded
their attention ; and that in confidering the place of
this or that fubftance, they could hardly avoid think¬
ing of its poftion or fituation. He is ol opinion, that
the fuperindudion ot one fubflance upon another would
inevitably fuggelt the idea of cloutbing or habit, and
that the variety of co-cxjhng fubfances and attributes
would difeover to them another attril ute, viz. that of
relation. Inftead therefore of confining themfelves to
the Ample divifion of fubjlance and attribute, they di¬
vided Attribute itfelf into nine diftind forts, fome ffen.-
tial and others circumjlantial; and thus by felling lub-
ftance at their head, made ten comprehenjive and univer¬
fal genera, called, with reference to their Greek name,
categories, and with reference to their Latin name,
dieaments. Thefe categories are, substance, quali¬
ty, QUANTITY, RELATION, ACTION. PAS-SION, WHEN,
where, position, and habit ; which, according to
the fy Hematic phtiofophy of the Greeks, comprehend
every human 1'cicnce and every fubjed of human
thought. Hiftory, natural and civil, fprings, fays Mr
Harris, out of substance ; mathematics out of quan*
tity; optics out ot quality and quantity; medicine
out of the fame ; ajlronomy out of quantity ani mo¬
tion; mufic and mechanics out of the fame; painting
out of quality and site ; ethics out of relation ;
chronology out of when ; geography out of where ;
eleftricity, magnetifm, and attraSion, <ut of action and
passion ; andfo in other inftances.
To thefe categories, confidered as a mere arrange¬
ment of fcience, vre are not inclined to make many ob-
jedions. The arrangement is certainly not complete :
but this is a matter of comparatively fmall importance;
for a complete arrangement of fcience cannot, we be¬
lieve, be formed. The greateft objedion to the cate¬
gories arifes from the ufe that was made of them by
^ almoft
t#
PHILO
Hiftory of almoft every phllofopher of the Grecian fchoola ; for
Philofophy. th0fe fages having reduced the objefls of all human
fcience to ten geaeral heads or general terms, in dead of
And , re- fetting themfelves to inquire by a painful induction in-
dicables to the nature and properties of the real obje&s before
them, employed their time in conceiving what could
be predicated of Juljlance in general, of this or that
quality, quantity, relation, 8tc. in the abttr.dl: and they
foon found, th. t of fuch general conceptions as the ca¬
tegories there are but five predicables or claiTes of predi¬
cates in nature. The firft clafs is that in whi,ch the
predicate is the genus of theJul'jeB ; the fccond, that in
which it is iht fpecies of the. fubjeft; the third, is when
, the predicate is the fpccific difference of the fubj> 8 ; the
fourth, when it is a property of the fubjebl ; and the
filth, when it is fomething accidental to the fubjetl (fee
1 ogic, Part If. chap ii. and iii.) Having proceeded
thus far in their fyftem, they had nothing to do with
individuals but to arrange them under their proper
categories, which was commonly done in a very arbi¬
trary manner ; and then, with the inrmality of a fyl-
logifm, to predicate of each the predicable of the ge¬
nus or fpecies to which it belonged. But by this me¬
thod of proceeding, it is obvious that no progrefs
whatever could be made in phyfical, metaphyfical, or
ethical fcience ; for if the individual truly belongs to
Are no in- the category under which it is arranged, we add no
ftrumei.ts thing to our (lock of knowledge by affirming or de-
•f fcience. nying of it what we had before affirmed or denied of
tbe whole genus : and if it belong not to the category
under which we arrange it, our fyllogiiing will only
give the appearance of proof to what mult, from the
nature of things, be an abfolute falfehood. It is only
by experiments made on various fubftances apparently
of the fame kind that they can be certainly known to
belong to the fame category ; and when this is done,
all fyllogiftic reafoning from the genus to the fpecies,
and from the fpecies to the individual, is but folemn
trifling, as every propofition in this retrograde courfe
15 takes for granted the thing to be proved.
This j hl- Yet this mode of philofophizing fpread from Greece
fcmlrureda^m°ft over the whole world. It was carried by Alex-
through andei into Afia, by his fuccefibrs into Egypt; and it
the whole found its way to Rome after Greece became a province
World; of the empire. It was adopted by the Jews, by the
fathers of the Chriflian church, by the Mohammedan
Arabs during the caliphate, and continued to be cul¬
tivated by the fchoolmen through all Europe, till its
futility was expofed by Eord Bacon ( m ). The pro-
fefl'ors of this philofophy often difplayed great acute-
nefs; but their fyftems were built on mere hypothefes,
and fupported by fyllogiftic wrangling. Now and
then indeed a fuperior genius, fuch as Alhazen and
our countryman Roger Bacon, broke through the
tramels of the fchools, and, regardlefs of the authority
of the Stagyriteand his categories, made real difeoveries
in phyfical fcience by experiments judicioufly conduc¬
ed on individual fubftances (fee Bacon. {Roger) ; and
s o p H Y. 581
Optics, n°6.); but the fcience in repute ftill conti- Hjftoryof
nued to be that of Generals- Philofophy-
It was indeed a combination of abfurd metaphyfics
with more abfurd theology; and that which is proper¬
ly called phyjics, had in Europe no place in a liberal
education from the end of the eighth century to the
end of the fourteenth. 'Towards the beginning of
this period of darknefs, the whole circle of inftruefion,
or the liberal arts as they were called, confifted of two
branches, the tritium and the quadrivium ; of which
the former comprehended grammar, rhetoric, and dialec¬
tics ; the latter miffic, arithmetic, geometry, and offro no my,
to which was added about the end of the eleventh
century the ftudy of a number of metapbyjiciilfubtleties
equally ufelefs and unintelligible.
Hitherto the works of the ancient Greek philofo-
phers had been read only in imperfeC Latin tranfla-
tions; and before the fcholaftic fyftem was completely
eftablifhed, Plato and Ariftotle had been alternately
looked up to as the oracle in fcience. The rigid
fchoolmen, however, univerfally gave the preference to
the Stagy rite ; becaufe his analyfis of body into mat¬
ter and form is peculiarly calculated to keep in coun¬
tenance the moil incredible dodtrine of the Romifh
church (fee Tkansubstantiation) : and upon the
revival of Greek learning, this preference was conti¬
nued after the fchool philofophy had begun to fall in¬
to contempt, on account of much ufeful information
contained in fome of his writings on fubjedts of natu¬
ral hiftory, and his fuppofed merit as a natural philo-
fopher. At laft the intrepid fpirit of Luther and his
afibciates fet the minds of men free from the tyranny
of ancient names, as well in human fcience as in theo¬
logy ; and many philofophers fprung up in different
countries of Europe, who profefl’ed either to be eclec¬
tics, or to ftudy nature, regardlefs of every authority
but that of reafon. Of thefc the moft eminent be¬
yond all comp". Ton was Francis Bacon Lord Veru-
lam.
This illuftrious man having read with attention the Expofed as
writings of the moft celebrated ancients, and made ^
himfelf mafter of the feiences which were then culti-con
vated, foon difeovered the abfurdity of pretending to ’
account for the phenomena of nature by fyllogiftic
reafoning from hypothetical principles; and with a
boldnefs becoming a genius of the firft order, under¬
took to give a new chart of human knowledge. This
he did in his two admirable works, intitled, 1. De
dignitate et augmentis feientiarum ; and, 'i. Novum orga-
numfeientiarum, five jfudicia vera de interpretationeNaturce.
In the former of thefe works, he takes a very minute
furvey of the whole circle of human fcience, which he
divides into three great branches, hijlory, poetry, and
philofophy, correfponding to the three faculties of the
mind, memory, imagination, and reafon. Each of thefe.
general heads is fubdivided into minuter branches, and
refledlions are made upon the whole, which, though
we can neither copy nor abridge them, will amply re¬
ward
(m) Scientise, quas habemus, fere a Graecis fluxerunt. Quae enim feriptores Romani, aut Arabes, aut re--
centiores addiderunt, non multa, aut magni momenti funt ; et qualiacunque fint; fundata funt fuper bafii*
eorum quse invecta funt a Graecis. Bacon,
582
View of
Bacon’*
Philofoj hy.
Who eda
blifhes a
better me¬
thod of
inquiry.
PHILO
wart? the penifal of the attentive reader. The purpofe
of the Novum Organum is to point out the proper me-,
tbod of interpreting nature ; which the author fhows
can never be done by the logic which was then in fa-
fhion* but only by a painful and fair induction. “ Ho»
mo naturae minifter {fays he) et interpres tantum facit
et intelligit, quantum de naturae ordine re, vel mente
obfervaverit ; nec aniplius fcit aut poteft. Syllogif-
mus ad*principia fcientiarum non adhtbetur, ad media
axiomata fruftra adhibetur, cum fit fubtilitati naturae
ionge in,par. Aflenfum itaque conftringit, non res.
Syllogifmus ex propofitionibus conftat, propofitiones
ex verbis, vei*ba notionum tefleree funt. Itaque fi no-
tiones ipfae (id quod bafis rei eft) confufae fint et te-
rnere a rebus a! ftra<ftae, nihil in iis quae fuperftruuntur,
eft firmitudinis. Itaque fpes eft una in induUione
vera.”
To hypothefes and preconceived opinions, which he
calls ido/a theatri, this great man was not lefs inimical
than to fyllogifms ; and fince his days almoft every
philofopher of eminence, except Defcartes and his fol¬
lowers (fee Dkscartes and Cartesians), has pro-
fefied to ftudy nature according to the method of in-
du&ion fo accurately laid down in the Novum Orga-
num. On this method a few improvements have per¬
haps been made; hut notwithftanding thefe, Lord Ba¬
con muft undoubtedly be confidered as the author of
that philofophy which is now cultivated in Europe,
and which will continue to be cultivated as long as
men ftiall have more regard for matters of faft than for
hypothetical opinions. Of this mode of philofophi-
zing we ftiall now give a ftiort, though we hope not
inaccurate, view, by ftating its obj'-As, comparing it
with that which it fuperfeded, explaining its roles, and
pointing out its ufes ; and from this view it will ap¬
pear, that its author (hares with Aiiftotle the empire
of fcience.
View of his The univerfe, that unbounded objeft of the con-
philofophy templation, the curiofity and the refearches of man,
may be confidered in two different points of view.
In the firft place, it may be confidered merely as a
colle&ion of exiftences, related to each other by means
of refemblances and diftindtion, fituation, fuccefiion,
and derivation, as making parts of a whole. In this
view it is the fubjecl of pure defcription.
To acquire an acquaintance with, or a knowledge
of, the univerfe in this point of view, we muft enume¬
rate all the beings in it, mention all their fenfible quali¬
ties, and mark all thefe relations for each. But this
would be labour immenfe; and when done, an undiftin-
guiihahle chaos A book containing every word of a
language would only give us the materials, fo to fpeak,
of this language. To make it comprehenfible, it muft be
put into fome form, which will comprehend the whole in
a fmall compafs, and enable the mind to pafs eafily from
one word to another related to it. Of all relations among
words, the moft obvious are thofe of refemblance and
derivation. An etymological didlionary, therefore, in
which words are clafled m confequence of their refem¬
blances, and arranged by means of their derivative di-
ftin&iona, will greatly facilitate the acquifition of the
language.
Juft fo in nature: The obje&s around us may be
grouped by means of their retemblancc, and then ar-
SOPHY.
ranged in thofe groups by means of their diftin&ions View of
and other relations. In this cEfiification we are en- *
aided to proceed hy means of our faculty of abftraft- 1
ing our attention from the circumftances in which
things differ, and turning it to thofe only in which
they agree. By the judicious employment of this fa¬
culty we are able not only to diftribute the individuals
into claffes, but alfo to diftribute thofe claffes into
others ftill more comprehenfive, hy difcovcring circum¬
ftances of refemblance among them : for the fewer the
circumftances are which concur to form that refemblance
which has engaged our attention, the greater is the
number of difliinilar circumftances which are negleft-
ed ; and the more extenfive will be the clafs of indi-
viduals in which the rcfemblance is obferved. Thus Natural
a number of individuals refembiing each other in the hiftory
fingle circumftance of life, compofes the moil extenfive
kingdom of animals. If it be required, that they
fhall further refemble in the circumftince of having
feathers, a prodigious number of animals are excluded*
and we form the inferior clafs of birds. We exclude
a great number of birds, by requiring a further fimila-
rity of web feet, and have the order of an seres. If
we add lingua citiata, we confine the attention to the
genus of anates. In this manner may the whole ob-
jt&s of the univerfe be grouped, and arranged into
kingdoms, claffes, orders; genera, and fpecies.
Such a claffification and arrangement is called Na¬
tural History ; and mull be confidered as the only
foundation of any extenfive knowledge of nature. To
the natural hiftorian, therefore, the world is a collec¬
tion of exiftences, the fubjedt of deferiptive arrange¬
ment. His aim is threefold.
1. To obferve with care, and deferibe with accura¬
cy, the various objedts of the univerfe.
2. To determine and enumerate all the great claffes
of objedfs; to diftribute and arrange them into all their
fubordinate claffes, through all degrees of fubordina-
tion, till he arrive at what are only accident;! varie¬
ties, which are fufceptible of no farther diftribution ;
and to mark with precifion the principles of this di¬
ftribution and arrangement, and the charadteriftics of
the various affemblages.
3. To determine with certainty the particular group
to which any propofed Individual belongs.
Description therefore, arrangement, and refe¬
rence, conftitute the whole of his employment; and
in this confifts all his fcience.
Did the univerfe continue unchanged, this would Diftin-
conftitute the whole of our knowledge of nature; but,ruifhed
we are witneffes of an uninterrupted fucceffion of^PP*1**
changes, and our attention is continually called to the
events which are inceffantly happening around us.
Thefe form a fet of objedls vaftly more interefting to
us than the former; being the fources of almoft all the
pleafures or pains we receive from external objedfs.
We are therefore much interefted in the ftudy of
the events which happen around us, and ftrongly in¬
cited to profecute it: but they are fo numerous and
fo multifarious, that the ftudy would be immenfe,
without fome contrivance for abbreviating and facili¬
tating the talk. The fauie help offers itfelf here as in
the ftudy of what may be called quiefeent nature. . E-
vents, like exiftences, are fufceptible of claflification,
in confequence of refemblanccs and diftindion ; and
4
PHILO
View of by attention to thefe, we can acquire a very extenfive
»ilofonhy. acquai.ntance with aftive nature. Our attention muft
be chiefly direfted to thofe circumftancea in which
many events rtfemble each other, while they differ
perhaps in a theufand others. Then we muft attend
to their molt general diftin&ions ; then to diftin&ions
of fmaller extent, and fo on.
. j It is in this way accordingly that we have advanced
in our knowledge of a&ive nature, and are gradually,
and by no means flowly, forming nffemllages of events
more and more extenfive, and diftributin.r thefe with
greater and greater precifien into their different claf-
fes.
In the zealous and attentive profecution of this talk
a very remarkable and interefting obfervation occurs :
In defcribing thofe aircuniftances of limilarity among
events, and particularly in diftributing them according
to thofe iimilarities, it is impoffible for us to overlook
that conftancy which is obferved in the changes of na-
31 ture in the events which are the obje&s of our con-
Co ilancy templation. £venti which have once been obferved to
changes of ^comPany eat'b other are obferved always to do fo.
nature . e n^ag' °f the fun is always accompanied by the
light of day, and his fetting by the darknefs of night.
Sound argument is accompanied by conviction, irn-
pulie by motion, kindnefs by a feeling of gratitude,
and the perception of good by’ delirc. The unexcept-
ed experience of mankind informs us, that the events
of nature go on in certain regular trains ; and if fome-
times exceptions feem to contradift this general affir¬
mation, more attentive obfervation never fails to re¬
move the exception. Moft of the fpontaneous events
of nature are very complicared ; and it frequently re¬
quires great attention and penetration to difeover the
fimple event amidft a croud of uneffential circumftan-
ccs which are at once exhibited to our view. But
when we fucceed in this difeovery, we never fail to
acknowledge the perfeft uniformity of the event to
jt what has been formerly pbferved.
Univerfally But this is not all : We firmly believe that this uni-
expe ted. formjty wiftyM continue ; that fire will melt wax, will
burn paper, will harden clay, as we have formerly ob¬
ferved it to do ; and whenever we have undoubted
proofs that the circumftance of fituation are precifcly
the fame as in fome former cafe, though but once ob¬
ferved, we expea with irrefiftible -and unfhaken con-
fidence that the event will alfo be the fame.
It is not furely neceffary ro adduce many proofs of
the univerfality of this law of human thought. The
Whole language and adions of men are in fiances of
the fad. In all languages there is a mode of conftrhc-
tion which is i fed to exprefs this relation as diftind
from all others, and the converfation of the moft illite¬
rate never confounds them, except when the concep¬
tions themfelves are confounded. 1 he general em¬
ployment of the adive and paffive verb is regulated by
it. Turns ever [a ejl a militxbui ; turris everfa ejl terra
motu, exprefs two relations, and no fchoolboy will con¬
found them. 1 he diftindion therefore is perceived cr
felt by all who can fpe k grammatic illy. Nor is any
language without general terms to exprefs this relation,
caufe—effed —to occafion. Nay, it is a fad in the
mind of brutes, who hourly fhow that they expe ' the
fame ufes of every fubjed which they formerly made
it} and without this, animal# would be incapable
SOPHY. 583
of fubfiftence, and man incapable of all improvement. View of
from this alone memory derives all its value ; and >^ac°n’s
even the conftancy of natural operation would be ufe- ^ hno
lefs if not matched or adapted to our purpofes by this -
expedation of and confidence in that conftancy.
xVfter all the 1 ibours of ingenious men to difeover
the foundation of this irrefiftible expedation, we muft
be contented with faying that fuch is the conftitutioa
of the human mind. Ic is an univerfalfad in human
thought ; and for any thing that has been yet difeo-
vered, it is an ultimate fad, not included in any other
ftiU more general. We lhall foon fee that this is fuf-
ficient for m iking it the foundation of true human
knowledge ; all of which muft in like manner be re¬
duced to ultimate fads in human thought.
We muft coofider this undoubted feeling, this per-
fuafion of the conftancy of nature, as an injlindive
anticipation of events fimilar to thofe which we have
already experienced. The general analogy of nature
ftiould have dilpofed philofophers to acquicfce in this,
however unwelcome to their vanity. In no inilance
of eflential confeqoence to our faiety or . ell-being
are we left to the guidance of our boaftrd reafon ;
God has given us the furer condud of natural mftinds.
No cafe is fo important as this : In none do we fo
much Hand in need of a guide which fhall be power¬
ful, infallible, and rapid in its decifions. Without it
we muft remain incapable of all inftrudion from ex¬
perience, and therefore of all improvement,
Our fenfations are undoubtedly feelings of our mind.
But ail thofe feelings are accompanied by an inftinc-
tive reference of them to fomething diftind from the
feelings themfelves. Hence atifes our perception of
external objeds, and our very notions of this externeity
(pardon the term). In like manner, this anticipation
of events, this irrefiftible connedion of the idea
of fire with the idea of burning, is alfo a feeling of
the mind : and this feeling is by a law of human
nature referred, without reafonmg, to fomething ex¬
ternal as its caufe ; and, like our fenfation, it is con-
fidered as zjign of that external fomething. It is like
the convidion of the truth of a mathematical propo-
fition. This is referred by us to fomething exifting
in nature, to a neceflary and eternal relation fubfifting
between the ideas which are the fubjeds of the pro-
pofition. The convidion is the fign or indication of
this relation by which it is brought to our view. In
precifely the fame manner, the inififtible connedion
of ideas is interpreted as the fenfation or fign of a
necejfary connedion of external things or events. Thefe
are fuppofed to include fomething in their nature
which renders them infeparable companions. To this
bond o! connedion between external things we give
the name of Causation. All our knowledge of thisour lcn0W>.
relation of caufe and effed* is the knowledge or con-ledpe of
feioufnefs of what paffes in our own minds duringcaufation»
the contemplation of the phenomena of nature. If
we adhere to this view of it, and put this branch of
knowledge on the fame footing with thofe called the
ahjlrad fciences, confidering only the. relations of ideas,
we {hall acquire demonjlrative fcience. If we take any
other view of the matter, we fhall be led into inex¬
tricable mazes of uncertainty md error.
We fee then that the natural procedure of our fa¬
culty of abftradion and arrangement, in order to ac-
quire
5^4
View of
Bacon’s
Philufophy
iw—■
34 r
J-aws ot
nature ex-
plained.
• 3? ,
OTSjecfl of
(pkilofophy
P H I
quire a more fpeedy and compveheniive knowledge of
natural events, prefents them to our view in another
form. We not only fee them zsfmilar events, but as
events naturally and neceflhrily conjoined. And the ex-
prtflion of refemblance among events is alfo an expief-
fion of concomitancy, and this arrangement or events in
confequence of their refemblance is in fait the difcovery
of thofe accompaniments. The trains of natural ap¬
pearance being confide red as the appointments ol the
Author of Nature, has occafioned them to be confi-
dered alfo as conf quences of laws impofed on bis
works by their great author, and every thing is faid
to be regulated by fixed laws. But this is the Ian'
gnage of analogy. When a fovereign determines on
certain trains of condudt for his fubjefts, he ilfues his
orders. Thefe orders are laws. _ He inforces the ob-
fervance of them by his authority; and thus a cer¬
tain regularity and conftancy of condudf is produced.
But fliould a ft ranger, ignorant of the promulgation
of thefe laws, and of the exerted authority of the
magiftrate, obfeive this uniformity of conduft, he
would afcribe it to the penius and difpofition of the
people ; and his o' fervation would be as ufeful to him
for diredling the tenor of his own conoudf, as the
knowledge of the fubjea himfelf of the real fource of
this conftancy is for direfting his.
Juft fo in -nature, while the theologian pretends,
from his difcoveries concerning the exiftenee and fu-
perintendance of -God, to know that the conftant ac¬
companiment of events is the confequence of laws
which the great Author and Governor of the umverfe
has impofed on his works, the ordinary philofopher,
a ft ranger to this fcene, and to the unfearchable opera-
tions of the supreme mind, muft afcribe this con¬
ftancy to the nature of the things. 1 here is a great
nfemblance between the expreffion natural law and
grammatical rule. Rule in ftrid language implies com¬
mand ; but in grammar it exprefles merely a genera¬
lity of/aS, whether of flexion or conftru&iQn. In
like manner, a law of nature is to the philofopher
nothing but the expreflion of a generality of faft. A
natural or phyfical law is a generally obferved faft ;
and whenever we treat any fubjeft as a generally ob¬
ferved fa<ft, we treat it phyfically. It is a phyfical
Jaw of the underftanding that argument is accompa¬
nied by convidtion ; it is a phyfical law of the affec¬
tion that diftrefs is accompanied by pity ; it is a phy¬
fical law of the material world that impulfe is accom¬
panied by motion.
And thus we fee that the arrangement of events,
or the difcovery of thofe general points of icfern-
blancc, is in faft the difcovery of the laws of nature ;
and one of the greateft and molt important is, that
the laws of nature are conftant.
There is no queftion that this view of the umverfe
is incomparably more interefting and important than
that which is taken by the natural hiilorian ; contem¬
plating every thing that is of value to us, and, in
Jhort, the whole life and movement of the univerfe.
This ftudy, therefore, has been dignified with the
. name of philosophy and of science ; and natural hi-
ftory has been confidered as of importance only in fo
far as it was conducive to the fuccefsful prolecution
of philofophy. , ... ,
But the philofopber claim* a fepenonty on another
L O S O P H Y.
account: he confiders himfelf as employed in the VIewaf
difcovery of caufes, faying that philofophy is the ftudy pkji0f0phyA
of the objefts of the univerfe as related by caufa- , 
tion, and that it is by the difcovery of thefe rela¬
tions that he communicates to the world fuch impor¬
tant knowledge. Philofophy, he fays, is the fcience
of caufes. The vulgar are contented to confider
the prior of two infeparably conjoined events as the
caufe of the other; the ftroke on a bell, for inftance,
as the caufe of found. But it has been clearly
fliown by the philofopher, that between the blow oa
the bell and the fenfation of found there are mter-
pofed a long train of events. 1 he blow fets the bell
a trembling; this agitates the air in contaa with
the bell; this agitates the air immediately beyond
it ; and thus between the bell and the ear may be
interpofed a numberlefs feries of events, and as many Caufe*
more between the firft imprefiion on the ear 3nd that
laft impreflion on the nerve by which the mind is af-
fedled. He can no longer therefore follow the no-
men lature of the vulgar. Which of the events of
this train therefore is the caufe of the feniation ?
None of them : It is that J’omething w-hich infepara¬
bly connects any two of them, and conftitutes t^eir
bond of union. Thefe bonds of union or caufes he
confiders as refiding iu one or both of the connedf-
ed objeds : diverfities in this refped muft therefore
conftitute the moft important diftin&ions between
them. They are therefore with great propriety call¬
ed the qualities, the properties, of thefe refpedive fub-
lefts.
As the events from which we infer the exiftence ©f
thefe qualities of things refemble in many refpeds
fuch events as are the confequences of the exertion of
our own powers, thefe qualities are frequently deno¬
minated powers, forces, energies. Thus, in the inftance
juft now given of the found of a be*l, vve infer the
powers of impulfe, elafticity, nervous irritability, and
animal fenfibility.
In confequence of this inference of a neceflary con-
nedion between the objeds around us, we not only
infer the pofterior event from the prior, or, in com¬
mon language, the effed from the caufe, but we alfo
infer the prior from the pofterior, tne caufe from the
effed. We not only exped that the prefence of a
magnet will be followed by certain motions in iron-
filings, but when we obferve fuch motions, we infer 37
the prefence and agency of a magnet. Joy is infer-Inferred
red from merryment, poifon from death, fire from™ et>
fmoke, and impulfe from motion. And thus the ap¬
pearances of the univerfe are tire indications of tne
powers of the objeds in it. Appearances are the lan¬
guage of nature, informing us of their caufes. And
as all our knowledge of the fentiments of others is
derived, from our confidence in their veracity ; fo all
our knowledge of nature is derived from our confi¬
dence in the conftancy of natural operations. A veracity
and credulity neceffarily refulting ‘from that law of our
mental conftitution by which we are capable ot fpeech,
condud us in the one cafe; and the conftancy of na¬
ture, and the principle of indudion, by which we
infer general laws from particular fads, condud ua
in the other. As human fentiment is inferred from
language, and the exiftence of external things from
fenfation ; fo are the laws of nature, and the power*
of
PHILO
f Ancient
Metapby-
fia.
38
Vi^w nf of natural onje&a inferred from the phenomena. It
-Thilofophy. !f the ^u.ccefs^u^ °f this language of nature
Vi -t'— that we derive ufeful knowledge. The knowledge of
the influence of motives on the mind of man enables
the ftatefman to govern kingdoms, and the knowledge
of the powers of imgnetifm enables the mariner to pi¬
lot a Ihip through the pathlefs ocean.
Such are the lofty pretenfions of philofophy. It is to
be wilhed that they be well founded ; for we may be
perfuaded that a miilake in this particular will be fa¬
tal to the advancement of knowledge. An author of
great reputation f gives us an opportunity of decid¬
ing this queftion in the way 0f experiment. He fays
3s that the ancients were philofopheVs, employed in the
Difcoveries dneovery of caufes, and that the moderns are only
of Ariftode^atural hiftorians, contenting themfelves with obfer-
tonramT thr "ature’ but PayJng no attention to
pared. . cauie8 Gf things. If he fpeaks of \h<z\xprofejfed
aim, we apprehend that the affertion is pretty juft in
general. With very few exceptions indeed it may
be affirmed of his favourite Ariftotle, the philofopher
■car' h^»v, and of Sir Ifaac Newton. We feleft
thefe two inftances, both becaufe they are fet in con¬
tinual oppofition by this author, and becaufe it will
be allowed that they were the moil eminent ftudente
‘of nature (for we muft not yet call them philofophers)
in ancient and modern times. Ariftotle’s profeffed
a’-ra, in his moft celebrated writings, is the inveftiga-
tion of caufes; and in the opinion of this author, "he
has been fo fuccefsful that he has hardly left any em¬
ployment for his fucceflors befide that of commenting
upon his works. We mull on the other hand acknow¬
ledge that Newton makes no fuch pretenfions, at leafl
in that work which has immortalifed his name, and that
his profefled aim is merely to inveftigate the general
laws of the planetary motions, and to apply thefe to
the explanation of particular phenomena. Nor will
we fay that he has left no employment for fucceeding
inquirers ; but, on the contrary, confefs that he ha^
only begun the ftudy, has difeovered but one law,
and has enabled us to explain only the phenomena
comprehended in it alone. But he has not been un-
fuccefsful; his inveftigation has been complete; and he
has difeovered beyond all poffibility of contradiaion
a/a<? which is obferved through the whole extent of
the folar fyftem; namely, that every body, nay that
every particle in it, is continually deflected toward
every other body; and that this defledion is, in every
instance, proportional to the quantity of matter in
that body toward which the defledion is direded, and
to the reciprocal of the fquare of the diftance from
!t. He has therefore difeovered a phvfical law of im-
menfe extent. Nor has he been lefs fuccefsful in the
explanation of particular phenomena. Of this there
cannot be given a better inftance than the explanation
o the lunar motions from the theory of gravity betnin
by Newton “ Mathefi fua facem prfcferente;” and now
brought to fuch a degree of perfedion, that if the
moon’s place be computed from it for any moment
within the period of two thoufand years back, it will
hot be found to differ from the place on which fhe was
adually obferved by one hundredth part of her own
Breadth.
JOi/cirnus hinc tandem qua caufa argeniea Phcehe
I atfibui baud aquis eat, et ci:r}/ubdita nulii
Vox.. XIV. Part II.
5%5
View of
Bacon’s
Philofophy,
SOPHY.
Haamus ajlronomo, nunteronm frena recufat.
Qua toties animos veterum torfere fophorum,
Quaque fcho/as hodie rauco certamine vexant,
Obvia confpicimusy nube pellente matheft ;
Qua fupetos penetrate domos, et ardua cceli
Neiutoni aufplcils jam dal contingere templa.
We may now defire the champions of the feience
of caufes to name any one caufe which has really been
difeovered by their great matter, whether in the ope-
rations of mindor of body. But they muft not on
this occafion adduce the inveftigation of any natural
law in which he has fometimes fucceeded. With ftill
greater confidence may we challenge them to produce
any remarkable inftance of the explanation of natural
phenomena either of mind or body. By explanation
w e mean an account of the produdion, and an apprecia¬
tion of all the circumflances, fufceptible of a ferupu-
lous companion with fad, and perfedly confiilent
with it. It is here that the weaknefs of this philo¬
fopher s pretenfions 13 moft confpicuous ; and his fol¬
lowers candidly acknowledge, that in the enquiries
which proceed by experiment, we have not derived
great affiftance from Ariflotle’s philofophy. But this
7 th,7’rd°?8 R°lt der°gate from the pre-eminence of
his philofophy, becaufe he has ffiown that the parti-
eular fields of obfervation are to be cultivated only bv
means of experiment. But furely every field of obftrvL
tion is particular. There is no aljlraB objed of phi-
lofophical refearcb, the fludy of which fhall terminate
m the philofophy of umverfals. In every kind of inqui-
ry, that caufe alone muft be fuppofed to ad which we
underfland fo far as to be able to appreciate its effed*
in particular circumftances, and compare them with
fad, and fee their perfed coincidence. If we have
difeovered caufes, they are known as far as they are
d.fcovered. Their genuine effeds arc known; and
therefore the phenomena which refult from their a g ene v
are under flood. ^ When therefore it is acknowledged,
as it muff be acknowledged, that mankind have made
but htde advances in the knowledge of nature, not-
withftanding the pretended difeovery of caufes by A-
nflotle, and the conduding clue of his philofophy, til!
of late years; and when it is alfo allowed that now
while we are every day making great additions to this
lubordinate knowledge, the caufes which Ariflotle
has difeovered are forgotten, and his philofophy is ne-
gleded ; there is great room for fufpeding (to fay the
Jeaft), that either the caufes which philofophy pretendu
to have difeovered are not real, or that Ariflotle and
Ins followers have not aimed at the difeovery of cau-
fes, but only ac the difeovery of natural laws, and
have failed in the attempt.
There feems here to be a previous queftion .* A it , 39
pojib/e to di/cover a philofopbical caufe, that foracthing
which is neither the prior nor the poflerior of the two difeovered
immediately adjoining events, but their bond of union on)y
and this diftind from the union itfelf? It is evident
that this is an enquiry purely experimental. It is of
human knowledge we fpeak. this mult depend on the
'nature of the human mind. This is a matter of con¬
tingency, known to us only by experiment and obfer
vatiun. By obferving all the feelings and operations
of the mind, and claffing and arranging them like any
other object of fcience, -we difeover the general laws
oi human thought and human reafoning; and this is
4 E ‘ all
40
In the e-
vents.
cg6 PHILO
View of aH the knowledge we can ever acquire of it, or of any
Bacon’* thin5r elfe.
Phiiofophy. has been written on tViis fubje£t. 1 he molt
acute obfervation and found judgment have been em¬
ployed in the ftudy ; and we may venture to fay, that
confiderable progrefs has been made in ptieumaunogy-
Many laws of human thought have been obferved, and
very diftin&ly marked ; and philofophers are bufily em-
pteyed, fome of them with confiderable fuccefs, in the
diftribution of them into fubordinate claifes, fo as to
know their comparative extent, and to mark their i-
ftinguiihing charafters with a precifion fimilar to what
has been attained in botany and other parts of natural
hiftoiy; fothat we may hope that this ftudy will advance
like others. But in all thefe refearches, no phenomena
have occurred which look like the perception or con¬
templation of thefe feparate ohjefts of thouSh^’ th^.e
philofophical caufes, this power it. abftraao. No phi-
lofopher has ever pretended to ftate fuch an objeft ot
the mind’s obfervation, or attempted to group them
into claffes. . . ,
We may fay at once, without entering into any de¬
tail, that thofe caufes, thofe bonds of necefl'ary union
between the naturally conjoined events or objects, are
not only perceived by means of the events alone, but
are perceived folely in the events, and cannot be di-
ftinguiftied from the conjunAions themfelyes. 1 hey
are neither the objefts of feparate obfervation, nor the
productions of memory, nor inferences drawn from
refteCtion on the laws by which the operation of our
own minds are regulated ; nor can they be derived
from other perceptions in the way ol argumenta¬
tive inference. We cannot infer the paroxyfm of
terror from the appearance of impending dciti udaon,
nor the fall of a ftone when not fupported, as we
infer the ineonunenCurability of the diagonal and
fic'c of a fquare. This laft is implied in the very
conception or notion of a fquare ; not as a con-
fequence of its othrr properties, but as one of its ef-
fential attributes : and the contrary proportion is not
only falfe, but incapable of being diftinftly conceived.
This is not the cafe with the other j henomenon, or
any matter of faft. The proofs which are brought of
a mathematical propofition, are not the reafon of its
being true, but the fteps by which this truth _ is
brought into our view; and frequently , as m the in-
ftance now given, this truth is perceived, not direftly,
but confequentially, by the inconceivablenefs of the
contrary propofition. _
Mr Hume’s Mr Hume derives this irrefiftible expectation of
the/ry a/V-events from the known efteft of cuftom, the atlocia-
titiu frinci- ;Gn 0f ;deas The corelated event is brought into
the mind by this well known power of cuftom, with
that vivacity of conception which conftitutes be .ie or
expectation. But without infilling on the futility o
his theory of belief, it is fuffi-ient to obferve, that
this explanation begs the very thing to oe Pro^ed.
when it aferibes to cuftom a/ower of any kind. It ys
the orio-in of this very power which is the fubjeft in
difpute. Befides, on the genuine principles ot Icepti-
c:fm this cuftom involves an acknowledgement ot
part events, of a feme thing different from prefent im-
preffions, which, in this doanne (if doarme it can
be called), are the only certain exiftences m nature ;
and, taftly, it is known that clear experience is a
fufiicient foundation for this unfhaken confidence and
SOP H Y.
41
anticipation. Oeneral cuftom can never, on Mr View of
Hume’s principles, give fuperior vivacity to any par- p^;lof0phy<
ticular idea. # f
’Phis certain nonentity of it as a feparate object or 42
obfervation, and this impoffibility to derive this no-Another
tion of neceffary and caufd conneftion between the
events of the univerfe from any faurce, have in- C3Ufslt c()lU
duced two of the moft acute philofophers of Eu- nt&ion.
rope, Mr Leibnitz and Father Maiebranche, to deny
that there is any inch connection, and to affert that
the events of the univerfe go on in correfponding
trains, but without any. caufal connection, juft as a
well-regulated clock will keep time with the motions
of the heavens without any kind of dependence on
them. This harmony of events was pre-eftablilhed by
the Author of the Univerfe, in fubferviency to the
purpofes he had in view in its formation.
All thofe purpofes which are cognifable by us, may
certainly be accomplifhed by this perfeCt adjuftment.
But without infilling on the fantaftic wildnefs of this in¬
genious whim, it is quite enough to obferve, that italfo
is a begging of the queftion, becaufe it fuppofes caufa-
tion when it aferibes all to the agency of the Deity.
Thus have fee fearched every quarter, without be¬
ing able to find a fource from which to derive this
perception of a neceffary conneClion among the events
of the univerfe, or of this confident expectation ot
the continuance of phyfical laws ; and yet we are cer¬
tain of the feeling, and of the perfuafion, be its origin
what it may : for we fpeak intelligibly on this fub-
jed ; we fpeak familiarly of caufe, effed, power, ener¬
gy, neceffary connedion, motives and their influence,
argument and convidion, reafons and perfuafion, al¬
lurements and emotions, of gravity, magnetifm, irti"
tability, &c.; and we carry on converfations on thele
fubjeds with much entertainment and feeming inftruc-
tion. Language is the expreffion of thought, and
every word expreffes fome notion or conception or
the mind ; therefore it muft be allowed, that we have
fuch notions as are expreffed by caufe, power, energy.
But it is here, as in many cafes, we perceive di-
ftindion without being able to exprefs it by a defini¬
tion ; and that we do perceive the relation of carna¬
tion as diftind from all others, and in particular as
diftind from the relation of contiguity in time and
place ; or the relation of agent, adion, and patient,
muft be concluded from the uniformity of language,
which never confounds them except on purpofe, and
when it is perceived. But even here we fhall find,
that none of the terms ufed for expreffing thofe pow¬
ers of fubftam e which are conceived as the caufes ot
their ch-trader!flic phenomena, really exprels anjr
thing different from the phenomena themfelves. Let
any perfon try to define the terms gravity, elafticity*
fenfibility, and the like, and he will find that the de¬
finition is nothing but a defeription of the phenome¬
non itftlf. The words are all derivatives, molt ot
them verbal derivatives, implying adion, gravitation,
&c. As the general refemblances in lhape, colour, &c.
are expreffed by the natural hiftorian by generic terms,
fo the general refemblances in event are expreffed by
the philofopber in generic propofitions, which, in the
progrefs of cultivation, are alfo abbreviated into gene¬
This abundantly explains the confiftency ot our
language oa this fubjed, both with itfelf and with
PHILO
View of the operatiohs of nature, without however affording
Bacon’s any argument for the truth of the affumption, that
Phiioloph) ■caufes are ojjjgfts of philofophic reiearch as fepa-
rate exiftences ; or that this fuppofed neceffary connec-
43 tion is a necejjfary truth, whether fupreme or fubordi-
The pec- nate. But fince the perception of it has its foimda-
ception of tjon jn confiitution of the human mind, it feems
nefti^n a ^titled to the name of a Jhjlprinciple. We are hard-
firftpri/i- ly allowed to doubt of this, when we confider the
ciple. importance of it, and the care of nature to fecure us
in all things effential to our fafety and well-being,
from all danger, from inattention, ignorance, or indo¬
lence, by an inftintt infallible in its information, and
inftantaneous in ita decifions. “ It would not be like
her ufual care (fays Hume), if this operation of the
mind, by which we infer like effe&s from like caufes,
and vice verfa, were entrufted to the fallacious deduc¬
tion of our reafon, which is flow in its operations, ap¬
pears not in any degree during the firfl years of in¬
fancy, and in every age and period of human life is
extremely liable to error. It is more conformable to
her ordinary caution (mark the acknowledgment) to
fecure fo necelfary an a& of the mind by fomc in-
ftinct, or blind tendency, which may be infallible
and rapid in all its operations, may difeover itfelf
at the firft appearance of life, and may be independent
of all the laboured deductions of reafon. As Ihe has
taught us the ufc ef our limbs, without giving
us any knowledge of the nerves and mufcles by
which they are actuated ; fo flie has implanted in us
an inftinft, which carries forward the thought in a
courfe conformable to that eftablifhed among external
objeCts, though we be ignorant of the powers and for¬
ces on which this regularity depends.”
Such a knowledge is quite unneceffary, and there¬
fore caufes are no more cognofcible by our intellectual
powers than colours by a man born blind : nay, who¬
ever will be at the pains to confider this matter agree¬
ably to the received rules and maxims of logic, will
find that neceffary connection, or the bond of caufa-
tion, can no more be the fubjeCt of philofophical dif-
cuflion by man, than the ultimate nature of truth. It
is precifely the fame abfurdity or incongruity, as to
propofe to examine light with a microfcope. Other
rational creatures may perceive them as ealily as we
hear founds. All that we can fay is, that their exilt-
ence is probable, but by no means certain. Nay, it
may be (and we may never know it) that we are net
the efficient caufes of our own aCtions, which may be
cffeCted by the Deity or by miniftering fpirits; and
this may even be true in the material world. But all
this is indifferent to the real occupation of the philo-
fopher, and does not affect either the certainty, the
extent, or the utility of the knowledge which he may
acquire.
We are now able to appreciate the high pretenfions
of the philofopher, and his claim to fcientific fuperi-
44 ority. We now fee that this can neither be founded
of the ihi on any Ic>ent‘fic fuperiority of his objeCt, nor of his
lofopher employment. His object is not caufe# ; and his dif-
the difeo- coveries are nothing but the difeovtry of general facts,
■veiy of the difeovery of phyfical laws: and his employment is
laws1^ ^ie ^ame with that of the deferiptive hiftorian. He
obierves and deferibes with care and accuracy the
events of nature ; and then he groups t hem into claffes,
in confequence of refembling circumftances, detected
SOPH Y. 5S;
in the midft of many others which are diflirmlar and ^
occafional. By gradually throwing out more circum-
fiances of refemblance, he renders his claffts more ex-
teniive ; and, by carefully marking thofe circumftan¬
ces in which the refemblance is obferved, he charac-
terifes all the different claffes : and, by a companion
of thefe with each other, in refpeCt to the number of
refembling circumftances, he diftributes his claffes ac¬
cording to their generality and fubordination ; thus
exhaufting the whole affemblage, and leaving nothing
unarranged but accidental varieties. In this proce¬
dure it is to be remarked, that every grouping of ft-
milar events is, ip/b fafto, difeovering a general faCt, a
phyfical law ; and the expreffion of this affemblage is
the expreffion of the phyfical law. And as every ob-
fervation of this conffancy of fact affords an opportu¬
nity for exerting the inftinctive inference of natural
connection between the related fubjeCts, every fuch ob
fervation is the difeovery of a power, property, or
quality, of natural fubftance. And from what has
been laid, this obfervation of event is ail we know of
the connection, all we know of the natural power.
And when the philofopher proceeds farther to the ar¬
rangement of events, according to their various de¬
grees of complication, he is, ipfo fa3o, making an ar¬
rangement of ail natural powers according to their
various degrees of fubordinate influence. And thus
his occupation is perfectly fimilar to that of the de¬
feriptive hiftorian, claffiftcation and arrangement; and
this conftitutes all the faience attainable by both.
Philosophy may therefore be defined, the iludy of philofophy
the phenomena of the univerfe, with a view to difeo-defined,
ver the general laws which indicate the powers of na¬
tural fubftances, to explain fubordinate phenomena,
and to improve art : Or, in compliance with that na¬
tural inftinCt fo much fpoken of, Philofophy is the
ftudy of the phenomena of the univerfe, with a view
to difeover their caufes, to explain fubordinate pheno¬
mena, and to improve art.
The talk is undoubtedly difficult, and will exercife
our nobleft powers. The employment is manly in it¬
felf, and the refult of it important. It therefore juft-
ly merjts the appellation of philofophy, although its
objeCts are nowife different from wlut occupy the at¬
tention of other men. .
The employment of the philofophtr, like that of The em-
the natural hiftorian, is threefold; description, AR-ployment
rangement, and reference; while the objeCts are of thc P11**
not things but events. lofopher.
The defeription, when employed about events, may¬
be more properly termed hifory. A philofophical
hiftory of nature confifts in a complete or copious enu¬
meration and narration of facts, properly feleCted,
cleared of all unneceffary or extraneous circumftances,
and accurately narrated. This conftitutes the mate¬
rials of philofophy. We cannot give a better ex¬
ample of this branch of philoiophical occupation than
aftronomy.
From the beginning of the Alexandrian fchool to
this day, aftronomers have been at imriienfe pains in
obfervmg the heavenly bodies, in order to deteCl their
true motions. This has been a work of prodigious
difficulty: for the appearances are fuch as might
have been exhibited although the real motions had
been extremely different. Not that our fenfes give
4 E 2 ua
J88
View of
Bacon’s
Philofophy,
« 47
Phenome-
nology.
48
Jnveftiga*
eion.
PHILO
us falfe information ; but we form hafty, and frequent¬
ly falfe judgments, from thefe informations ; and call
’thofe things deceptions of fenfe, which are in fa& er¬
rors of judgment. But the true motions have at laft
been difcovered, and have been defctibed with fuch
accuracy, that the hiftory may be confxdered as near¬
ly complete. This is to be found in the ufual fyftems
of aftronomy, where the tables contain a moft accurate
and fynoptical account of the motion ; fo that we can
tell wuh precifion in what point of the heavens a
planet has leen feen at any inftant that can be named.
Sir Ifaac Newton’s Optics is fuch another perfeft
model of philofophical hiflory, as far as it goes.
This part of philofophy may be called Phenomeno-
logv.
Having in this manner obtained the materials of
philofophical defeription, we muft put them into a
compendious and perfpicuous form, fo that a general
knowledge of the univerfe may be ealily acquired and
firmly retained. This is to be done by claflification
and arrangement, and this claffification muft proceed
on refemblances cbferved in the events; and the fub-
fequent arrangement muft be regulated by the di-
ftin&ions of which thofe refemblances are ftill fufeep-
tible. This affemblage of events into groups muft
be exprefted. They are faffs ; therefore the expreflion
muft be propofitions. Thefe propofitions muft be
what the logicians call general or abJlraSt propnfitlons ;
for they exprefs, not any individual faft of the alfem-
blage, but that circumftance in which they all re-
femble. Such propolitions are the following : Proof
is accompanied by belief; kindnefs is accompanied by
gratitude ; impulfe is accompanied by motion. Thefe
are ufually called general fads ; but there are none
fuch ; every faff is individual. This language, how¬
ever inaccurate, is very fafe from mifconllru&ion,
and we may ufe it without fcruple. Thefe propoft-
tions are natural or physical laws ; and then the
dete&ing and marking thofe refemblances in event, is
the inveftigation of phyfical laws ; and we may deno¬
minate this employment of the philofopher Investi¬
gation.
In the profecution of this talk, it will be found that
the fimilarities of faff are of various extent : and thus
we fhall form phyftcal laws of various extent; and we
fhall alfo find that fome are fubordinate to others;
for the refemblance of a number of faffs in one cir¬
cumftance does not hinder a part of them from alfo
refembling in another circumftance : and thus we fhall
find fubordinations of faff, in the fame way as of qui-
efeent qualities. And it is found here, as in natural
hiftory, that our aflemblage of refembling events will
be the more extenfive as the number of refembling
circumftances is fmaller ; and thus we fhall have king¬
doms, claffes, orders, genera, and fpecies of pheno.
mena, which are exprefled by phyfical laws of all thofe
different ranks.
It has been already obferved, that this obfervation
of phyfical laws is always accompanied by a reference
of that uniformity of event to a natural bond of
union between the concomitant faffs which is con¬
ceived by us as the caufe of this concomitancy ; and
therefore this procedure of the philofopher. is confi-
dered as the difeovery of thofe caufes, that is, the dif-
covery of thofe powers of natural fubftances which
SOPHY.
conftitute their phyfical relations, and may juftly be of
 j:a.:    rr>L • - Eicon’*
called their diftinguifhing qualities or properties. This p,
view of the matter gives rife to a new nomenclature 11
and language. We give to thofe powers generic
names, fuch as fenjibihty% intelligence, irritability, gra¬
vity, elajlicity,fluidity, magnetifm, &c. Thefe terms, with¬
out exception, mark refembling circumftances of event;
and no other definition can be given of them but a
defeription of thefe circumftances. In a few cafes
which have been the fubjeffs of more painful or re-
fined difeufiion, we have proceeded farther in this
abbreviation of language.
We have framed the verb “ to gravitate,” and the
verbal noun “ gravitation,” which purely expreffes the
fail, the phenomenon; but is conceived to exprefs the
operation or energy of the caufe or natural power. It
is of importance to keep in mind this metaphyfical re- ^
mark on thefe terms ; for a want of attention to the Aitlology*
pure meaning of the words has frequently occaiioned
very great miftakes in philofophical fcience.
We may with propriety call this part of the philo-
fophet’s employment Aitiology.
We fhall give an inftance of its moft fuccefsful
application to the clafs of events already adduced
as an example of philofophic hiftory or phenomenon
logy.
Kepler, a celebrated Pruffian aftronomer, having
maturely confidered the phenomena recorded in the
tables and obfervations of his predeceftbrs, difcovered, KQ
amidft all the varieties of the planetary motions, three Kepler’s
circumftances of refemblance, which are now knowndaws an in.
by the name of Kepler’s laws. ftance.
1. All the planets deferibe ellipfes, having the fun
in one focus.
2. The elliptic areas deferibed by a planet in the
different parts of its orbit, are proportional to the times
of defeription.
3. The fquares of the periodic times are propor¬
tional to the cubes of the mean diftanees from the
fun.
By this obfervation or difeovery, the ftudy of the
planetary motions was greatly promoted, and the cal¬
culation of their appearances was now made with a
facility and an accuracy which furpaffei all hopes : for
the calculation of the place of a planet at any propofed
inftant was reduced to the geometrical problem of
cutting off an area from an ellipfe of known dimen-
fions, which fhould bear the fame proportion to the
whole area, as the time for whofe duration the motion
is required, has to the known time of a complete re¬
volution.
Long after this difeavery of Kepler, Sir Ifaac New¬
ton found that thefe laws of Kepler were only parti- ^
cular cafes of a fadt or law (till more general. Hecompre-
found that the deflexions of the planets from uniform bended un.
redtilineal motion were ail direXed to the fun ; andl^eronei
that the fimultaneous defleXions were inverfely pro-raHavy61
portional to the fquares of the diftances from him.
Thus was eftablifhed a phyfical law of vaft extent:
but further obfervation ftiowed him, that the motion
of every body of the folar fyftem was compounded
of an original motion of projeXion, combined with a
defleXion towards every other body; and that the fi-
njultaneous defleXions were proportional to the quan¬
tity of matter in the body towards which they wers
direXedi,
PHILO
View of cJire&ed, and to the reciprocal of the fquare of the di-
*>viaCf°nhv ^ance ^rom i1* Thus was the law made (till more
i o^op • general. He did not flop here. He compared the
defledtion of the moon in her orbit with the fimulta-
neous defledfion of a ftone thrown from the hand, and
deferibing a parabola ; and he found that they follow¬
ed the fame law, that ip, that the deflection of the
moon in a fecond, was to that of the flone in the fame
time, as the fqnare of the ftone’s diflance from' the
centre of the earth, to the fquare of the moon’s diftance
from it. Hence he concluded, that the defledtion of
a flone from a flraight line was jufl a particular in-
ftance of the defledtions which took place through the
54 whole folar fyftem.
Galled gra- ^ The ckfledtion of a ftone is one of the indications
vttation. jt gives 0f {t8 being gravis or heavy ; whence he calls
it gravitation. He therefore exprefles the phyfical law
which obtains through the whole folar fyftem, by fay-
irg that “ every body gravitates to every other body ;
and the gravitations nre proportional to the quantity
ot matter in that other body, and inverfely propor¬
tional to the fquare of the diftance from it.”
Thus we fee how the arrangement of the celeftial
phenomena terminated in the difeovery of phyilcal
laws f and that the expreflion of this arrangement is
the law itfelf.
Since the fall of a heavy body is one inftance of
the phyfical law, and iince this fall is confidered by all
as the effect of its weight, and this weight is confider¬
ed as the caufe of the fall, the fame caufe is afligned
for all the defledtions obferved in the folar fyftem; and
all the matter in it is found to be under the influence
of this caufe, or to be heavy; and thus his dodtrine
has been denominated the fyjlem of univerfal gravita¬
tion.
Philofophers have gone farther, and have fuppofed
that gravity is a power, property, or quality, refiding
in all the bodies of the falar fyftem. Sir Ifaac New¬
ton does not exprefsly fay fo, at leaft in that work
where he gives an account of thefe difeoveries. He
contents himfelf with the immediate confequence of
the firft axiom in natural philofophy, viz. that every
body remains in a ftate of reft, or of uniform re&ili-
ueal motion, unlefs affedted by fome moving force.
Since the bodies of the folar fyftem are neither in a
ft.ite of reft, nor of uniform redtilineal motion, they
muft be confidered as fo affedfed ; that is, that there
operates on every one of them a moving force, di-
redfed towards all the others, and having the propor-
53 tions obferved in the defledlion.
Attempts Other philofophers have endeavoured to fliow, that
this, hren5ral deteded by Sir Ifaac Newton, is in-
under im- c^Uf'e^ in another ftill more general, viz. that every
pulfe, body moves which is impelled by another body in
motion. They aflert, that all the bodies of the folar
fyftem are continually impelled by a fluid which they
call ether, which is moving in all places, and in all di-
redlioKs, or in circular vortices, and hurries along with
it the planets and all heavy bodies. It would feem
that the familiarity of motion produced by impulfe,
at leaft in thofe inftances in which our own exertions
are moft employed, has induced philofophers to adopt
inch notions ; perhaps, too, they are influenced by an
obfeure and indiftindt notion affixed to the term ac-
tiop, as applied to changes in the material world,
5 O P H Y. 589
and which has given rife to an axiom, “ that a body View ot
cannot aft at a diftance, or where it is notand ^acon’3
thus have thought theinfelves obliged to look out for piil!o|~°Ph>r;
an immediate and contiguous agent in all thofe pheno¬
mena.
But the philofophers who profefs to be moft feru-
pulous in their adherence to the rules of phi’ofophic
difeuffion, deny the legitimacy of this pretended inve-
ftigation of caufes, faying that this doftrine is in di-
reft oppofltion to the procedure of the mind in acqui¬
ring che knowledge of caufes. Since the faht of im- Whi’lft im-
puife is not really obferved in the celeftial defleftions, pulfe itfelf
nor in the motions of heavy bodies, the law cannot be is never ob‘
inferred. They fay that it is not even neceflary to lhow^Crvcd*
that the phenomena of the celeftial motions are unlike
the phenomena of impulfe, although this can be done in
the completeft manner. It is enough that neither the
fluid nor the impulfe are obferved; and therefore they
are in the right when they aflert, that there is inherent
in, or accompanies all the bodies of the fyftem, a
power by which they defleft to one another. (See
Optics, n° 66, 67.)
The debate is foreign to our prefent purpofe, which
is only to fhow how the obfervation and arrangement
of phenomena terminates in the difeovery of their
caufes, or the difeovery of the powers or properties of
natural fubftances.
This is a talk of great difficulty, as it is of great
importance. There are two chief caufes of this diffi¬
culty.
1. In moft of the fpontaneous phenomena of nature
there is a complication of many events, and fome of
fhem efcape our obfervation. Attending only to the
moft obvious or remarkable, we conjoin thefe only in Cauibf „f
our imagination, and are apt to think thefe the con- the difficuL
comitant events in nature, the proper indication of the t.v of phllo-
caufe, and the fubjefts of this philofophical relation, lo^hical.in-
and to fuppofe that they are always conjoined by na_ velllSauon*
ture. Thus it was thought that there refided in a vi¬
brating chord a power by which the fenfation of found
was excited, or that a chord had a founding quality.
Bat late obfervations have ftiown clearly that there is
an inconceivable number of events interpofed between
the vibration of the chord and the fenfitive afteftion
of our ear ; and therefore, that found is not the effeft
of the vibration of the chord, but of the very lafl:
event of this feries : and this is completely deroonflrated
by ftiowing that the vibration and the found are not
necejfarily. connefted, becaufe they are not always con¬
nected, but require the interpolation of air or of fome
other daftic body.
Thefe obfervations fliow the neceffity of the moft
accurate and minute obfervacion of the phenomena,
that none of thofe intermediate events may efcape us,
and we be thus expofed to the chance of imaginary
conneftions between events which are really far afun-
der in the procedure of nature. As the ftudy has im¬
proved, miftakes of this kind have been corrected;
and philofophers are careful to make their trains of
events under one name as ihoit as poffibie. Thus, in
medicine, a drug is no longer confidered as a fpecific
remedy for the difeafe which is fometimes cured when
it.has been ufed, but is denominated by its moll imme¬
diate operation on the animal frame : it is no longer
called * febrifuge, but a fudorific.
•2. When.
,59->
Vitw of
5*
Means of
infuring
fuccefs.
P H I L O
*. When ma»y natural powers combine their, in-
Bacon’s flaence in a fpontaneous phenomenon of nature, it is
Philoibphy. freqUCRtly very difficult to difcover what part of the
complicated effeft is the efFeft of each; and to ftate
thofe circumftances of fimilarity which are the founda¬
tion of a phyfical law', or intitle us to infer the agency
of any natural power. The moft likely method for
infuring fuccefs in fuch cafes is to get rid of this com¬
plication of event, by putting the fubjedl into fuch a
fituation that the operation of all the known powers of
nature (hall be fuipended, or lo modified as we m iy
perfeftly underftand their efTefts. We can thus ap¬
preciate the effe&s of fuch as we could neither modify
nor fufpend, or we can difeover the exiftence of a new
law, the operation of a new power.
This is called making an experiment; and is, of all, the
moft effectual way of advancing in the knowledge of na¬
ture, and has been called exserimental philosophy.
It feems, however, at firft fight, in dired oppofition
to the procedure of nature in forming general laws.
Thefe are formed by indudion from multitudes of in¬
dividual fads, and muft be affirmed to no greater ex-
fi, tent than the indudion on which they are founded.
A feeming Yet Jt is a matter of fad, a phyfical law of human
anomaly thought, that one fimple, clear, and unequivocal expe¬
riment, gives us the moft complete confidence in the
- /- 1 1 C   C   ♦■/'v i rv-> ilar1
ciplained.
truth of a genera! conclufion from it to every fimilar
cafe. Whence this anomaly ? It is not an anomaly
or contradidion of the general maxim of philofophical
inveftigation, but the moft refined application of it.
There is no law' more general than this, that “ Nature
is conftant in all her operaticns.,, The judicious and
limple form of our experiment infures us (we imagine)
in the complete knowledge of all the circumftances of
the event. Upon this fuppofition, and this alone, we
confider the experiment as the faithful representative
of every pofiible cafe of the conjundion. This will
be more minutely confidered afterwards.
The laft branch of philofophic occupation is the
58 explanation of fubordinate phenomena. This is no-
Theory or thing more than the referring any particular phenome-
< xplanation to that cjafs which it is included ; or, in the
of pMofophy, i, i, the pointing out the
vi, J. general law, or that general fad of which the pheno¬
menon is a particular inftance. Thus the feeling of
the obligations of virtue is thought to be explained,
when it is (hown to be a particular cafe of that regard
which every perfon has for his deareft interefts. 1 he
rife of water in pumps is explained, when we (how it
to be a particular cafe of the preffure of fluids, or of
the air. The general law under which we (how it to
be properly arranged is called the principle of the ex¬
planation, and the explanation itfelf is called the theo¬
ry ©f the phenomenon. T hus Euler s explanation of
the lunar irregularities is called a theory of the lunar
motions on the principle'of gravitation.
This may be done either in order to advance our
own knowledge of nature, or to communicate it to
others. If done with the firft view, we muft examine
the phenomenon minutely, and endeavour to deted
every circumftance in it, and thus difeever all the
known laws of nature which concur in its produdion ;
we then appreciate the operation of each according
to the circumftances of its exertion ; we then com¬
bine all thefe, and compare the refult with the pheno-
SOPHY.
menon. If they are fimilar, we have explained the View of
phenomenon. We cannot give a better example than
Franklin’s explanation of the phenomena of thunder ^ ‘ ^
and lightning. See Lightning, and Electricity
Index.
If we explain a phenomenon from known prin¬
ciples, we proceed fynthetically from the general law
already eftabliflied and known to exert its influence in
the prefent inftance. We (late this influence both in
kind and degree according to the circumftances of the
cafe ; and having combined them, we compare the
rt fult with the phenomenon, and (how their agreement,
and thus it is explained. Thus, becaufe all the bodies
of the folar fyftem mutually gravitate, the moon gra¬
vitates to the fun as well as to the earth, and is con¬
tinually, and in a certain determinate manner, defle&ed
from that path which (he would deferibe did (he gra¬
vitate only to the earth. Her motion round the earth
wdi be retarded during the firft and third quarters of
her orbit, and accelerated during the fecond and
fourth. Her orbit and her period will be increafed
during our winter, and diminiihed during our fummer.
Her apogee will advance, nnd her nodes will recede;
and the inclination of her orbit will be greateft when
the nodes are in fyzigee, and lead; when they are in
quadrature. And all thefe variations will be in certain
prec;fe degrees. I hen we (how that all thefe things
actually obtain in the lunar motions, and they are con¬
fidered as explained.
This fummary account of the objeft and employ¬
ment in all philofophleal difeuffion is fufficient for
pointing'out its place in the cucle of the feiences, and
will ferve to diredt us to the proper methods of profe-
cuting it with fuccefs. Events are its objedt ; and
they are confidered as connedfed with each other by
caufation, which may therefore be called the philofo¬
phical relation of things. The following may be
adopted as the fundamental propofition on which all
philofophical difeuffion proceeds, and under which
every philofophical difeuffion or difeovery may be
arranged: ... 59
“ Every change that we obferve in the Jlate or condition pundamen.
of things IS considered Br us as an effed, indicating the talpropojh j
agency, charaderijing the kind, and determining the degree*™"^'
of its inferred cau/e.” < # difeuifion
As thus enounced, this propofition is evidently a
phyfical law of human thought. It may be enounced
as a neceffary and independent truth, by faying, every
change in the Jlate and condition of things is an effect,^ &c.
And accordingly it has been fo enounced by Dr Reid*; * EJaysn
and its title to this denomination has been abundantly tbt Intdln-
fupported by him. But we have no occafion to con-^^^
fider it as poffeffing this quality. We are fpeaking oi'J
philofophy, which is fomething contingent, depending
on the exiftence and conftitution of an intelle&Nal be¬
ing fuch as man ; and, in conformity to the view which
we have endeavoured to give of human knowledge in
the fubje&s of philofophical relation, it. is quite fuffi¬
cient for our purpofe that we maintain its tide to the
rank of an univerfal law of human thought. . Ibis
will make it a firft principle, even although it may
not be a neceffary truth.
All the proof neceffary for this purpofe is umverU-
lity of fad ; and we believe this to be without excep-
tion.- We are not to expefi that all mankind have made,
6 or
PHILO
View of or will ever make, a formal declaration of their opi-
®ac°!),,s nion ; but we may venture to fay that all have made
. ‘p0P y it. and continually do make it, virtually. What have
the philofcphers of all ages been employed about but
the difeovery of the caul'es of thofe changes that are
ince{Tandy going on ? Nil turpius phyfico (lays Cicero)
quam jieri Jine caufd qu'ujquam die ere. Human curiofity
has been diredled to nothing fo powerfully and To
conftantly as to this. Many abfurd caufes have been
afllgned for the phenomena of the univerfe ; but no
fet of men have ever faid that they happened without
a caufe. This is fo repugnant to all our propenfities
and inftinfts, that even the atheiftieal fe&, who, of all
others, would have profited moft by the do&rine, have
never thought of advancing it. To avoid fo (hocking
an abfurdity, they have rather allowed that chance,
that the concourfe of atoms, are the caufes of the
beautiful arrangements of nature. The thoughdefs
vulgar are no lefs felicitous than the philofophers to
difeover the caufe of things ; and the poet expreffes
the natural and inlliu&ive pafiion of all men, when he
fays,
Felix qui potuit rerum cognofcere caufas.
And this anxiety is not to nourifil, but to get rid of
fuperftitious fears : for thus
  metus omnesy et inexorabtle fatum
Subjecit pedilus, Jlrepitumque Acherontis avari.
Had men never fpeculated, their condud alone gives
fufficient evidence of the univerfality of the opi¬
nion. The whole conduct of man is regulated by it,
nay almoft wholly proceeds upon it, in the moft im¬
portant matters, and where experience feems to leave
us in doubt : and to aft otherwife, as if any thing
whatever happened without a caufe, would be a decla¬
ration of infanity. Dr Reid has beautifully illuftrated
this truth, by obferving, that evem a child will laugh
at you if you try to perfuade him that the top, which
he miftes from the place where he left it, was taken
away by nobody. Tou rftay^erfuade him that it was
taken away by a fairy or a fpirit; but he believes no
more about this nobody, than the mailer of the houfe
when he is told that nobody was the author of any
piece of theft or mifehief. What opinion would be
formed, fays Dr Reid, of the intellefls of the juryman,
on a trial for murder byperfons unknown, who fhould
fay that the fraflured lkull, the watch and money gone,
and other like circumftances, might poffibly have no
60 caufe ? he would be pronounced infane or corrupted.
Contro- We believe that Mr Hume is the firft author who
verged by has ventured to call the truth of this opinion in quef-
Mr Hume tion ; and even he does it only in the way of mere
poffibihty. He acknowledges the generality of the
opinion ; and he only obje&s to the foundation of this
generality : and he objects to it merely becaufe it does
not quadrate with his theory of belief; and therefore
it may happen that fome men may have no fuch opi¬
nion. But it muft be obferved on this occafion, that
the opinion of a philofopher is of no greater weight
in a cafe like this than that of a ploughboy. If ft be
a firft principle, dire&ing the opinions and adions of
all, it muft operate on the minds of all. The philofo¬
pher is the only perfon. who may chance to be without
it: for it requires much labour, and long habits refo-
SOPHY. 5^z
lutely maintained, to warp our natural fentiments ; and View of
experience (hows us that they may be warped if we are paeon’s
at fufficient pains. It is alfo worthy of rem ark, thatPhilcf^
this philofopher feems as much under the influence of v
this law as ordinary mortals. It is only when he is
aware of its not tallying with his other doilrines that
his fcruples appear. Obferve how he fpeaks when off witn great
his guard : “ As to thofe imprt ffions which arife from inconfift-
the fenfes, their ultimate caufe is, in my opinion,eflCy*
perfectly inexplicable by human reafon ; and it will
always be impoffible to decide with certainty whether
they arife immediately from the o'je6l, are produced
by the creative power of the mind, or are derived from
the Author of our being.”
Among thefe alternatives he never thought of their
not being derived from any caufe.
But it is not enough to Ihow that this is a phyfical
law of the human mind : we have affumed it as a firft
principle, the foundation of a whole Icience; therefore
not included in or derived from anything more general-
Mr Hume’s endeavours to (how that it is not a necef-
fary truth, fhow with fufficient evidence that moft at¬
tempts to derive it in the way of argument are petitiones
principii; a thing very commonly met with in all at- 6i
tempts to prove firft principles. It cannot be proved This pro-
by indudlion of fa<fts that every event has a caufe, be- pofnion a.
caufe induction always fuppofes an obferved fact or Pr¬
event. Now in by far the greateft number of events
the caufes are unknown. Perhaps in no event what-proof. *
ever do we know the real cufe, or that power or
energy which, without any intervention, produces the
effeft No man can fay, that in the limpleft event
which he ever obferved, he was fully apprifed of every
circumftance which concurred to its produ&ion. We
fuppofe that no event in nature can be adduced more
fimple than the motion of a fnfpended glafs ball when
gently ftruck by another glafs ball; and we imagine
that moft of our readers will fay that he perfedlly fees
every thing which happens in this phenomenon. We
believe, too, that molt of our readers are of opinion
that a body is never put in motion but by the impuife
of another, except in the cafes of animal motion ; and
that they are difpofed to imagine that magnets put iron
in motion, and that an eledlnfied body moves another
by means of an interpofed though inviftble fluid fome-
how circulating round them. Now we muft inform
fuch readers, that unlefs the ftroke has been very fmart,
fo fmart indeed as to flrntter the glafs balls, the motion
of the fulpended ball was produced without impuife :
that is, the two balls were not in contadl during the-
ftroke; and the diilance between them was not lefs
than the gcooth part of an inch, and probably much
greater. We muft fay farther, that it is not certain
that even the moft violent ftroke, fuch as would {hatter
them to pieces, is enough to bring them into real con-
ta6l. The proofs of this Angular pofition are too long
for this place ; but the evidence will be fufficiently feem
by confulting the article Optics, n° 66, 67.
Unlefs, therefore, our readers are willing to allow
that the fufpended ball was put in motion by a* repul-
five force inherent in one or both balls, they muft ac¬
knowledge that they do not fully know all the circum¬
ftances of this fo fimpie phenomenon, or all the train-
of events which happen in it; and therefore they ara
reduced to the neceffity of fuppofing, although they do
note
59
PHILO
View of fcot fee it, ati intervening fluid or matter, by the imme-
Bacon’s (j;ate aftion of vbofe adjoining particles the motion is
“^•produced.
This being the cafe in the fimpleft phenomenon
that we can pitch upon, what fhall we fay of the num-
fccrlefs multitudes which are incomparably more com¬
plex ? Muft we not acknowledge that the efficient
caufes, even in the vulgar fcnfe of the word, the im¬
mediately pteceding events, are unknown, becaufe the
conjunctions arc not obferved? and therefore it cannot
be fa id that it is from experimental induction that this
tiuth gains univerfal belief. Experience, fo far from
Supporting it as a direCt proof, feems rdther the ftrongeft
argument againft it ; for we have no experiment of
tinqueftionable authority but the narrow circle of our
own power exerted on our thoughts and aCtions. And
even here there are perhaps cafes of change where we
cannot fay with certainty that we perceive the effi¬
cient caufe.
‘Nothing feems to remain, therefore, but to allow
that this phyfical law ©f human judgment is inftinCtive,
a conftituent of the human foul, a firft principle ; and
incapable of any other proof than the appeal to the
feelings of every man.
Simply to fay, that every change is confidered as
an effeCt, is not giving the whole characters of this
but inferred phyfical law. The caufe is not always, perhaps never,
frtim the 0l)j'erved, but is inferred from the phenomena. The in-
which are ference is therefore in every inftance dependant on the
phenomenon. The phenomenon is to us the language
of nature: It is therefore the foie indication of the
caufe and of its agency t It is therefore the indication
of the very caufe, and of no other. The obferved
change therefore charaCterifes the caufe, and marks its
kind. This is confirmed by every word of philofophi-
cal language, where, as has already been obferved, the
names of the inferred powers of nature are nothing but
either abbreviated deferiptions of the phenomena, or
terms which are defined folely by fucb deferiptions.
In like manner, the phenomenon determines the caufe
in a particular degree>zn& in no other ; and we have no
immediate meafure of the degree of the caufe but the
phenomenon itfelf. We take many meafures of the
Caufe, it is true; but on examination they will be found
not to be immediate meafures of the caufe, but of the
effeft. Affuming gravitatiori as the caufe of the pla¬
netary deviations from uniform rcCtilineal motion, we
fay that the gravitation of the moon is but -j^g^th
part of the gravitation of a ftone thrown from the
hand : but we fay this only from obferving that the
defied ion of the ftone is 3600 times greater than the
fimultaneous defleCtion of the moon. In fhort, our
whole knowledge of the caufe is not only founded on
our knowledge of the phenomenon, but it is the fame.
This will be found a remark of immenfe confequence
63
Canfes not
©bferved
the lan¬
guage of
nature.
in the profecution of philofophical refearches ; and a
ftriCI attention to it will not only guard us againft a
thoufand miltakes into which the rcafoning pride of
man would continually lead us, but will alfo enable us
folly to deteCt many egregious and fatal blunders made
in confequence of this philofophical vanity. Nothing
can be more evident than that whenever we are puzzled,
it would be folly to continue gropingamong thofe ob-
feure beings called caufes, when we have their proto¬
types, the .phenomena themfelveg, in our hands.
SOPHY.
Such is the account which may be given of philo-
fophy, the ftudy of the works of God, as related by
caufation. It is of vaft extent, reaching from an atom
to the glorious Author of the Univerfe, and contem¬
plating the whole connected chain of intelligent, fenfi-
tive, and inanimate beings. The philofopher makes
ufe of the deferiptions and arrangements of the natu¬
ral hiftoriart as of mighty ufe to himfelf in the begin¬
ning of his career ; confiding in the uniformity of na¬
ture, and expeCting that fimilarity in the quiefeent
properties of things will be accompanied by fome re-
femblances in thofe more important properties which
conftitute their mutual dependences, linking them to¬
gether in a great aad endlefsly ramified chain of e-
vents.
We have endeavoured to afeertain with precifion the
V’iew of
Bacon’s
Philofophjw
peculiar province of philofophy, both by meahs of its
objeCt and its mode of procedure. After this it will
not require many words to point out the methods for
profecuting the ftudy with expedition and with fuccefs.
The rules of philofophizing, which Newton premifes
to his account of the planetary motions, which he fo
fcrupuloufly followed, and with a fuccefs which gives
them great authority, are all in ftridt conformity to
the view we have now given of the fubjeCt.
The chief rule is, that fimilar caufes are to be af- The chief
figned to fimilar phenomena. This is indeed the fourcerule of phi*
of all our knowledge of connected nature; and with-
out it the ur.iverfe would only prefent to us an incom- ai
prehenfible chaos. It is by no means, however, ne-
ceffary to enjoin this as a maxim for our procedure :
it is an inftinCtive propenfity of the human mind. It
is abfolutely neceffary, on the contrary, to caution us
in the application of this propenfity. We muft be ex¬
tremely confident in the certainty of the refem! lance
before we venture'to make any inference. We are
prone to reafon from analogy: the very employment
is agreeable ; and we are ever difpofed to embrace op¬
portunities of engaging in it. For this reafon we are
fatisfied with very flight refemblances, and eagerly run
over the confequences, as if the refemblances were com¬
plete ; and our refearches frequently terminate in falfe-
hood.
This propenfity to analogical reafoning is aided by
another equally ftrong, and equally ufeful, when pro¬
perly direCfed ; we mean the propenfity to form ge¬
neral laws: it is in fad a propenfity to difeover caufes,
which is equivalent to the eftablifhing of general laws.
It appears in another form, and is called a love of or
tafte for fimplicity ; and this is encouraged or jufti-
fied as agreeable to the uniformity and fimplicity of
nature. “ Natura Temper fibi fimilis et confona,” fays
Newton ; “ Fruftra fit per plura, quod fieri poteft per
pauciora,” fays another. The beautiful, the wife eco¬
nomy of nature, are phrafes in every body’s mouth ;
and Newton enjoins Us to adopt no more caufes than
are fufficient to explain the phenomena. All this is
Very well, and is true in its own degree ; but it is too
frequently the fubterfuge of human vanity and felf-
love. This inordinate admiration of the economy and
fimplicity of nature is generally conjoined with a rra-
nifeft love of fyftem, and with the adual prbduftion
of fome new fyftem, where from one general principle
fome extenfive theory or explanation is deduced and
offered to the world. The author fees a fort of refeni-
r blance
6S
A true
cstufe ex¬
plained.
PHILO
View of blance between a certain feries of phenomena and the
Bacon's confeq-iences of fome principle, and thinks the prin-
Fh'iof phy c;p;e adequate to their explanation. Then, on the
anthority of the acknowledged firaplicity of nature,
he roundly excludes all other principles of explanation ;
becaufe, fiys he, this principle is fufficient “ et fruf-
tra fit per phira,” 8<c. We could point out many in-
ftances of this kind in the writings of perhaps the firfi
mathematician and the poortft philofopher of this cen¬
tury; where extenfive theories are thus cavalierly ex¬
hibited, vvhich a few years examination have fhown to
he nothing but analogies, indiftinftly obferved, and,
what is worfe, inaccurately applied.
1 o regulate thefe hazardous propenfities, and keep
philofophers in the right path, Newton inculcates an¬
other nne, or rather gives a modification of this in-
jundion of fimplicity. He enjoins, that no caufe (hall
be admitted but what is real. His words are, that no
caujes Jhall be admitted but fwh as are true,, and fujjident
to account for the phenomena. We apprehend that the
meaning of this rule has been miftaken by many phi-
lofophers, who imagine that by true he means caufes
which really exift in nature, and are not mere creatures
of the imagination. We have met with feme who
would boggle at the dodrines of Aritfotle refpeding
the planetary motions, viz. that they are carried along
by ronduch’ng intelligent minds, becaufe we know of
none fuch in the univerfe ; and who would neverthelefs
think the dodrine of the Cartefian vortices deferving
of at lead: an examination, becaufe we fee fuch vor¬
tices exift, and produce effeds which have fome re-
femblance to the planetary motions, and have juftly
rejeded there, fo/r/y becaufe this refemblance has been
very imperfed. W e apprehend Newton’s meaning by
thefe words is, that no caufe of any event flnll be ad¬
mitted, or even confidered, which we do not know to
be adually concurring or exerting fome influence in
that very event. If this be his meaning, he would re-
jed the Cartefian vortices, and the cenduding fpirits
of Ariftotle for one and the fame reafon ; not becaufe
they were not adequate to the explanation, nor becaufe
fi<Cii cai.fcs did not exifl in nature, but becaufe we did
not fee them anyhow concerned in the phenomenon un¬
der confideration. We neither fee a fpirit nor a vor¬
tex, and therefore need not trouble ourfelves with en¬
quiring what effeds they would produce. Now we
know that this was his very condud, and what has di-
liinguidied him from all philofophers who preceded
him, though many, by following his example have al¬
io been rewarded by fimilar fuccefc. This has pro¬
cured to Newton the charader of the modeji philofo-
pher ; and mode 11 his procedure may, for diitindion’s
1 kc, be called, btcaufe the contrary procedure of
others did not originate fo much from ignorance as
irom vanity. Newton’s condudor in this was not mo-
< el.y, but fagacity, prudence, caution, and to fay it
purely, it was found judgment.
lor toe bonds of nature, the fuppofed philofophical
cauies are not obfetved; they are inferred horn the phe¬
nomena. \\ hen two fubfiances are obferved, and on¬
ly when they are olferved, to be tonntded in any fe¬
ries Of events, we infer that they are conneded by a
natural po wer : but v*hen one of'the fubfiances is not
ken, but fancied, no law of human thought produces
any inference whatever. For this reafon alone Ntw-
Vol XIV. Part H.
s o p n y. 593
ton flopped ihort at the lafl fact which he could dif- vitw of
cover in the folar fyftem, that all bodies were defleded *?acf>n s,.
to all other bodies, according to certain regulations of1 h' (,foPhA
diftance and quantity of matter. When told that he
had done nothing in philofophy, that he had difeo-
veted no caufe, and that to merit any praife he mult
ihow how this defledion was produced he faid,
that he knew no more than he had told them ; that
he few nothing caufxng this defledion ; and was con¬
tented with having deferibed it fo exadly, that a good
mathematician could now make tables of the planetary-
motions as accurate as he pleafed, and with hoping in
a few years to have every purpofe of navigation and of
philofophical curiofity completely anfwered ; and he
was not difeppointed. And when philofophers on all
fides were contriving hypothetical fluids and vortices
which would produce thefe defledions, he contented
hirnfelf with /bowing the total inconfiftency of thefe
explanations with the mechanical principles acknow¬
ledged by their authors; /bowing that they had tranf-
gre/Ied both parts of his rule, their caufes neither be¬
ing real nor fiifncient for explaining the phenomena.
A caufe is fufficient for explaining a phenomenon only
when its legitimate confeqnences are perfe&Iy agree¬
able to thefe phenomena.
Newton’s difeoveries remain without any diminution
or change: no philofopher has yet advanced a flep fur¬
ther.
66
But let not the authority, or even the fuccefs, ofThisdoc-
Newton he our guide. Is his rule founded in rea-trine fou:^-
fon ? It furely is. For if philofophy be only the in-el il4 rea-
terpretation of nature’s language, the inference off°n‘
caufes from the phenomena, a fancied or hypotheti¬
cal phenomenon cm produce nothing but a fanciful
cauie, and can make no addition to our knowledge of
real nature. 6
All hypothefes thererore muft be hanifhed from phi-
lo tophi cal difeufiiori as frivolous and ufeiefs, admini-
ftering to vanity alone. As the explanation of any
appearance is nothing but the pointing out the ge¬
neral taft, of which this is a particular inftance, a hv-
pothefis can give no explanation: knowing nothing of 67
cau.e and. effedt but the conjun&ion of two events, we^an£rer
fee nothing of caufation where one of the events is hy.hypot^cfeJ*
potheucal. Although all the legitimate confequences
of a hypothetical principle /hould be perfeAly rimffer
to the phenomenon, it is extremely dangerous to af-
fume this principle as the real caufe. It is illogical to
make ufe of the economy of nature as an argument for
the truth of any hypotbtfis : for if true, it is a phyfi-
cd truth, a matter or faft, and true only to the extent
in which it is obferved, and we are not intitled to
C*1/,t- 't, 'S °ne farther; therefore not in this
cafe tiU it be olferved. But the proposition that nature
is fo economical is falfe ; and it is aftoni/hing that it
has been fo lazily acquiefeed in by the readers of hvpo-
tuefts. for it is not the authors who are deceived ! y it,
they are generally led by their own vanity. Notmn ’
is more obfervable than the prodigious variety of na¬
ture. That the feme phenomena may be produced by
c.derent m^ans is weil known to the aftronomers, who
mufl all grant, that the appearances of motion will be
piectfcly the feme whether the earth moves round
the fun hke the other planets, or whether the fun with
his attendant planets moves round the earth ; and that
4 F thc
59+ PHILO
View nf the demon ft ration of the firft: opinion is had from a
Baron’s fa£ totally unconnedted with all the defle&ions or
0 even with their caufea : for it may be aflerted, that
Dr Bradley’s difcovery of the aberration of the fixed
ftars, in confequence of the progreflive motion of light,
was the firft tiling which put the Copernican fyftem
beyond queftion; and even this is ftill capable of being
explained in another way. The Author of Natuie
feems to delight in variety ; and there cannot be na¬
med a tingle purpofe in which the moft inconceivable
fertility in refource is not obferved. It is the moft
delightful occupation of the curious mind and the fen-
iible heart to contemplate the various contrivances of
nature in accomphfhing fimilar ends.
As a principle therefore on which to found any
maxim of philofophical procedure, this is not only in¬
judicious, becaufe imprudent and apt to miflead, but
as faife, and almoft fure to miflead. In conformity
to this obfervation, it muft be added, that nothing has
done fo much harm in philofophy as the introduiftion
of hypothefes.
Authors have commonly been fatisfied with very
flight refemblancea, and readers are eafily mifled by
the appearances of reafoning which thefe refemblances
have countenanced. The ancients, and above all A-
riftotle, were much given to this mode ot explanation,
and have filled philofophy with abfurdities. I he flight-
eft refcunblances were with them fufficient foundations
of theories. It has been by very flow degrees that
men have learned caution in this refpeft ; and we ate
forry to fay that we are not yet cured of the difeaie
of hypothetical fyftematizing, and to fee attempts made
by ingenious men to bring the frivolous theories of
antiquity again into credit. Nay, modern phitofophers
even of the greateft name are by no means exempted
from the reproach of hypothetical theories Their
writings abound in ethers, nervous fluids, animal Ipi-
rits, vortices, vibrations, an 1 other invifible agents.
■We may affirm that all thefe attempts may be fliown
to be either unintelligible, fruitlefs, or faife. Either
the hypothefis has been fuch that no confequence can
be diftin&ly drawn from it, on account of its obfeu-
rity and total want of refemblance to any thing we
know; or the juft nd legitimate confequences of the hy¬
pothefis are inconfiftent with the phenomena (n). This
is remarkably the cafe in the hypothefes which have
been introduced for the explanation of the mechanical
SOPHY.
phenomena of the univerfe. Thefe can be examined View nf
by accurate fcience, and the confequences compared
without any miftake; and nothing elfe but a perfect JAl,.
agreement fhould induce us even to liften to any by-
pothefis whatever.
It may here be afleed, Whether, in the cafe of the
moft perfedft agreement, after the moft extenfive com-
parifon, the hypothefis fhould be admitted? We be¬
lieve that this muft be left to the feelings of the mind.
When the belief is irrefifttble, we can reafon na more.
But as there is no impoflibility of as perfed an agree¬
ment with fome other hypothefis, it is evident that it
does not convey an irrefragable title to our hypothe¬
fis. It is faid, that fuch an agreement authorises the
reception of the hypothetical theory in the fame man¬
ner as we mujl admit that to be the true cypher of a
letter which will make perfed fenfe of it. But this
is not true : in decyphering a letter we know the
founds which mujl be reprefented by the charaders,
and that they are really the conftituents of fpeech :
but in hypothetical explanations the firft principle ii
not known to exift; nay, it is poffible to make two
cyphers, each of which ffiall give a meaning to the let¬
ter. Inftances of this are to be feen in treadfes on
the art of decyphering; and there has been lately dif-
covered a national charader (the ogam difeovered in
Ireland) which has this property.
We conclude our criticifmon hypothetical explana¬
tions with this obfervation, that it is impojfible that
they can give any addition of knowledge. In every
hypothefis we thruft in an intermediate event between
the phenomenon and fome general law; and this event
is not feen, but fuppofed. Therefore, according to the
true maxims of philofophical inveftigation, we give no
explanation ; for we are not oy this means enabled to
affign the general law in which this particular pheno¬
menon is included : nay, the hypothefis makes no ad-<
dition to our lift of general laws ; for our hypothefes
muft be Jele£led, in order to tally with all the pheno¬
mena. The hypothefis therefore is underftood only
by and in the phenomena ; and it muft not be made
more general than the phenomena themfelves. The
hypqthefis gives no generalifation of fads. Its very
application is founded on a great coincidence of fads j
and the hypothetical fad is thruft in between two
which we really obferve to be united by nature. The
applicability therefore of the hypothefis is not more
8 extenfive
fNl It has often been matter of amufement to us to examine the hypothetical theories of ingenious men,
and to obferve the power of nature even when we are tranfgreffing her commands, Naturam expellat furea, tamen
■uraue revertitur. The hypothefis of an ingenious man is framed in perfed conformity to nature 3 didates :
fofyou will find that the hypothetical caufe is touched and retouched, like the firft fitting of a pidure, t,U
it i J made to refemble the phenomena, and the caufe is ftill inferred, nay explained, m fpite of all his inge¬
nuity from the phenomenon ; and then, inftcad of defiring the fpedators to pay him his ^ Praife, by fay-
ine that the pidure is Uke the man, he infills that they lhall fay, what gives him no credit that the man
islike the pidure. But, alas' this is feldom the cafe : The pidure is generally an anamorphofis, unlike any
thinsr extant in nature, and having parts totally incongruous. We have feen fuch pidures, where a wood is
Handing on the fea, and an eye is on the end of an elephant’s trunk ; and yet when this was viewed through
a droper glafs, the wood became an eyebrow to the eye, and the probofcis was a very pretty ringlet of hair.
We beg indulgence for this piece of levity, becaufe it is a moft appofite illuftration of a hypothetical theory.
The rdemblance between the principle and phenomenon is true only in detached unconneded ffiraps, and
the Vinciple itfelf is an incongruous patchwork. But by a perverfion of the rules of logic, all thefe mcon-
fiftencies are put out of view, and the explanation is fomething like the phenomenon.
View of
Bacon’s
Philofophy
68
On what
occafions
they may
be ufeful.
69
True nvde
of philofo-
phical pro¬
cedure.
PHILO
extcnfive than the fimilan’ty of fa6ts which we obferve,
and the hypothetical law is not more general than the
/obferved law. Let us then throw away entirely the
hypothetical law, and infert the obferved one in our
lilt of general laws : it will be in different language
from the hypothetical law, but it will exprefs the fame
fa&s in nature.
It is in experimental philofophy alone that hypo-
thefes can have any juft claim to admifiion ; and here
they are not admitted as explanations, but as conjec¬
tures ferving to direct our line of experiments.
Effeds only appear ; and by their appearance, and
the previous information of experience, caufes are im¬
mediately afcertained by the perfed fimilarity of the
whole train of events to other trains formerly obferved:
Or they are fuggefted by more imperfed refembiancea
of the phenomena; and thefe fuggeftions are made with
ftronger or fainter evidence, according as the refem-
blance is more or lefs perfed. Thefe fuggeftions do
not amount to a confidential inference, and only raife
a conjedure. Wifhing to verify or overturn this con-
jedure, we have recourfe to experiment; and we put
the fubjed under confideration in fuch a fituation, that
we can fay what will be the effed of the conjedural
caufe if real. If this tallies with the appearance, our
conjedure has more probability of truth, and we vary
the fituation, which will produce a new fet of effeds of
the conjedured caufe, and fo on. It is evident that
the probability of our conjedure will increafe with the
increafe of the conformity of the legitimate effeds of
the fuppofed caufe with the phenomena, and that it
will be entirely deftroyed by one difagreement. In
this way conjedures have their great ufe, and are the
ordinary means by which experimental philofophy is
improved. But conjedural fyftems are worfe than non-
fenfe, filling the mind with falfe notions of nature, and
generally leading us into a courfe of improper condud
when they become principles of adion. This is ac¬
knowledged even by the abettors of hypothetical fy¬
ftems thenr.felves, when employed in overturning thofe
of their predeceffors, and eftabliihing their own : wit-
nefs the fucceffive maintainers of the many hypotheti¬
cal fyftems in medicine, which have had their ftiort-
lived courfe within thefe two laft centuries.
Let every pe»-fon therefore who calls himfelf a phi-
lofopher refolucely determine to rejed all temptations
to this kind of fyftem-making, and let him never con-
fider any compofuion of this kind as any thing better
than the amufement of an idle hour.
After thefe obfervations, it cannot require much
difeuffion to mark the mode of procedure which will
infure progrefs in all philofophical inveftigations.
The fphere of our intuitive knowledge is very limi¬
ted ; and we muft be indebted for the greateft part of
our intclltdual attainments to our rational powers,
and it muft be dedudive. In the fpontaneous pheno¬
mena of nature, whether of mind or body, it feldom
happens that the energy of that natural power, which
is the principle of explanation, is fo immediately con-
neded with the phenomenon that we fee the connec¬
tion at once. Its exertmns are frequently concealed,
and in all cafes modified, by the joint exertions of
other natural powers: tire particulai exertion of each
muft; be confidered apart, and their mutual connec¬
tion traced out. It is only in this way that we can
SOPHY. j9j
difeover the perhaps long train of intermediate opera- View of
tions, and alfo fee in what manner and degree the real
principle of explanation concurs in the oftenfible pro- * hofophy.
cefs of nature. v "
In all fuch cafes it is evident that our inveftigation
(and inveftigation it moft ftridly is) muft proceed by
fteps, conduded by the fine hand of logical method.
To take an inftance from the material world, let us
liften to Galileo while he is teaching his friends the
caufe of the rife of water in a pump. He fays that it
is owing to the preffure of the air. This is his prin¬
ciple; and he announces it in all its extent. AH mat¬
ter, fays he, is heavy, and in particular air is heavy.
He then points out the connedion of this general
principle with the phenomenon.  
Air being heavy, it muft be fup-
ported: it muft lie and prefs on
what fupports it: it muft prefs 0
on the furface AB of the water
H G
E
in the ciftern furrounding the
pipe CD of the pump; and alfo
on the water C within this pipe.
He then takes notice of another
general principle which exerts
its fubordinate influence in this
procefs. Water is a fluid; a
fluid is a body whofe parts yield
to the fmalleft imprtflion ; and,
by yielding, are eaflly moved a-
mong themfelves : and no little
parcel of the fluid can remain at
reft unlefs it be equally prtffed
in every diredion, but will re¬
cede from that fide where it fu-
ftaius the greateft prelfure. In
confequence of this fluidity,
known to be a property of wa¬
ter, if any part of it is preffed,
the preffure is propagated thro’
the whole; and if not refilled on
every fide, the water will move
to that fide where the propaga¬
ted preffure is not refifted. All
thefe fubordinate or collateral
propofitions are fuppofed to be
previoufly demonftrated or al¬
lowed. Water therefore muft
yield to the preffure of the air
unlefs preffed by it on every fide,
and muft move to that fide
where it is not with held by
fome oppofite preffure. He then
proceeds to fhow, from the ftrudure of the pump, that
thcie is no opp >fing preffure on the water in the infide
of the pump. “For(fays he) fuppofe the pifton thruft
down till it touches the furface of the water in the
pipe ; fuppofe the pifton now drawn up by a power
fufficient to lift it, and all the air incumbent on it;
and fuppofe it drawn up a foot or a fathom there
remains nothing now (fays he) that I know of, to
piefs on the fur lace of the water. In fhort (fays he),
gentlemen, it appears to me, that, the water in the
pump is in the fame fituation that it would be in were
there no air at all, but water poured into the ciftern to
a height AF j fuch, that the column of water FABG
4 F 2 prefles
B
596 PHILO
View of prefTea on the furface AB as much as the air does.
Bacon’s jntow jn ti]{s Cj,fe vve know that the water at C is
^h]lo^>P} y.prciled upwards with a force equal to the weight of a
V"^M column of water, having the fection of the pipe for its
bafe and CH for its height. The water below C
therefore will be preffed up into the pipe CD, and will
rife to G, fo that it is on a level with the external
water FG ; that is, it will rife to H. This is a ne-
cefiary confequence of the weight and preffure of the
incumbent column FAEG, and the fluidity of the wa¬
ter in the cittern. Confcquences perfectly limilar mutt
neceflarily follow from the weight and preffure of the
air; and therefore on drawing up the pifton from the
furface C of the water, with which it was in contact,
the water mutt follow it till it attain that height which
will make its own weight a balance for the preffure of
the circum mbient air. Accordingly, gentlemen, the
Jtalian plumbers inform me, that a pump will not raife
water qu te fifty palms ; and from their information I
conclude, that a pillar of water fifty palms high is
fin me * hat heavier than a pillar of air of the fame bale,
and reaching to the top of the atmofphere.”
The f m- Thus is the phenomenon explained, The rife of
thetic"me- the water in the pump is fhown to be a particular cafe
thod. of the general fact in hydroftatics, that fluids in com¬
municating veffels will ttand at heights which are in-
verfely as their denfities, or that columns of equal
weights are in equilibrio.
This way of proceeding is called arguing a priori,
the fynthetic method. It is founded on jufl princi¬
ples ; and the great progress which we have made in
the mathematical feiences by this mode of reafoning
{flows to what length it may be carried with irrdiit-
ible evidenc e. It has long been confidered as the on¬
ly inlet to true knowledge ; and nothing was allowed
to be known with certainty which could not be de-
monttrated in this way co be true. Accordingly lo-
<ijc, or the art of reafoning, which wasalfo called the
art of difeovering truth, was nothing but a fet of rules
for fuccefsfully condufting this mode of argument.
Under the direefion of this infallible guide, it is not
furely unreafonable to expect that philofophy has made
fure progrefs towards perfedtion; and as we know that
the brighteft geniufes of Athens and of Rome were
for ages folely occupied in philofophical refcarches in
every path of human knowledge, ic is equally reafon-
able to fuppofe that the progrefs has not only been
fure but great. We have feen that the explanation of
an appearance in natur? is nothing but the arrange¬
ment of it into that general clafs in which it is com¬
prehended. The clafs has its diftinguifhing mark,
which, when it is found in the phenomenon under con-
fiderat on, fixes it in its clafs, there to remain for ever
an addition to our ftock of knowledge. Nothing can
be loll any other way but by forgetting it; and the
dodtrines of philofophers mutt be ttable like the laws
of nature.
We have feen, however, that the very reverfe of all
this is the cafe ; that philofophy has but very lately
emerged from worfe th. n totaldarknefs and ignorance;
that what puffed under the name of philofophy was
nothing but fyftems of errors (if fyftems they could be
called >, which were termed dodhines, delivered with
the moft impofing apparatus of logical demonftration,
but belied in almott every inftance by experience, and
SOPH Y.
affording us no affiftance in the application of the ^,e'v
powers of nature to the pur puffs of lire. Nor will this ^ „
excite much wonder in the mind of the enlightened ^ -A*
reader of the prelent day, who refledls on the ufe that
in this dialed!ic procefs was made of the categories^ and
the method in which thofe categories were formed.
From firft principles fo vague in themfelves, and fo
gratuiteufly affirmed, ingenious men might deduce ma¬
ny different conclufions all equally erroneous: and that
this was actually done, no furer evidence can be given,
than that hardly a lifetime elapfed in which the whole
fyttem of dodlrines which had captivated the minds
of the molt penetrating, have been oftener than once
exploded and overturned by another fyttem, which
flourifhed for a while, and then was fu.pplanted by a
third which fhared the lame fate. Here was an infal¬
lible proof of their error, for inftability is incompatible
with truth.
It is allowed by all that this has been the cafe in
thofe branches of ttudy at leaft which contemplate the.
phiiofophical relations of the material world, in aflro-
nomy, in mechanical philofophy, in chemittry, in phy-
fiology, in medicine, in agriculture. It is alio ac¬
knowledged, that in the courtt of iefs than two cen¬
turies back we have acquired much knowledge on thefe
very fubje&s, call it philofophy, or by what name
you will, fo much more contormable to tire natural
courfe of things, that the deductions made from it
by the fame rules of the fynthetic method are more
conformable to fadt, and therelore better fitted to di-
reft our con dud. and improve our powers. It is alfo
certain that thefe bodies of dodriue which go by the
name of philofnphical fyftems, have much more {labili¬
ty than in ancient times ; and though forretimes in
part fuperfeded, are feldom or never wholly explo¬
ded.
This cannot perhaps be affirmed with equal confi¬
dence with refped to thofe (peculations which have
our intelled or propenfitics for their objed: and vve
have not perhaps attained fuch a reprefentation of hu¬
man nature as will bear comparifon with the original ;
nor will the legitimate dedudions from fuch dodrines
be of much more ffrvice to ua for direding our conduct
than thofe of ancient times : and while we obferve
tiffs difference between thefe two general daffes of
fpeculations, we may remark, that it is conjoined with
a difference in the manner of conduding the ttudy.
We have proceeded in the old Ariftoteiian method
when inve(ligating the nature of mind ; hut we fee
the material philofophers running about, palling much
of their time away trom books in the (hop of the ar-
tifan, or in the open fields engaged in obfervation, la¬
bouring with their hands, arid bufy with experiments.
But the fpeculatift on the intelled and the adive powers
of the human foul feems unwilling to be indebted to
any thing but his own ingenuity, and his labours are
confined to the clofet. In the firft clafs, we have met
with fomething like fuccefs, and we have improved ?T
many arts : in the other, it is to be feared that we No inlet t®’
are not much wifer, or better, or happier, for all our truth,
philofophic attainments.
Here, therefore, mud furely have been fome great,
fome fatal mitlake. There has indeed been a material
defied in our mode of procedure, in the employment of
this method of reafoning as an inlet to truth. The
7 fad
View <>f
Bacon’s
Ffailofophy
P H I I, O S
r*
Bat the
art of com-
muiicatin;^
kaowkcge.
fa.^ Is, t1iat philofophers have totally miflaken the
road of difcovery, and have pretended to fet out in
■ thetr inveftigation from tfe very point where this jour¬
ney (hould have terminated. J
The Aridotelian logic, the fylloglftic art, that art
fo much bodied ot as the only inlet to true know¬
ledge, the only means of difcovery, i8 in diread oppofi-
tion to the ordinary procedure of nature, by which we
every day, an 1 in every adlon of our lives, acquire
knowledge and difcover truth. It is not the art of
djfeovering truth, it is the art of communicatin r
knowledge, and of detecting error : it is nothing more
than the application of this maxim, ‘ whatever is true
of a whole elafs of obje&s, is true of each individual
ot tuat clafs.” 1 his is not a juft account of the art
of difcovering truth, nor is it a complete account of
the art of reafoning. ileafoning is the producing
belied; and whatever mode of argumentation invariably
and irrefrlthly produces belief, is reafoning. The
ancient logic fuppofes that all the firlt principles are
already known, arid that nothing is wanted but the
application of them to particular fads. But were tin's
true, the application of them, as we have already ab-
ferved, can hardly be called a difcovery : but it is not
true , and the fact is, that the firft principles are ge¬
nerally the chief objeftsof ourrefearch, and that they
have come into view only now and then as it were by
accident, and never by the labour of the logician He
indeed can tell us whether we have been miftaken ; for
if our general principle be true, it muft influence every
particular cafe. If, therefore, it be falfe in any one of
thele ,t is not a true principle. And it is here that
v e difcover the fource of that fluauation which is fo
much complained of in philofophy. The authors of
i) items give a fet of confecutive propofitions logically
deduced from a firft principle, which has been haftiiy
adopted, and has no foundation in nature. This does
not hinder the amufement of framing a fyflem from
it, nor this fyftem from pleafing by its fymmetry ;
and it takes a run : but when feme officious follower
thinks of making fome ufe of it, which reouires the
companfon with experience and obfervationi they are
found totally unlike, and the whole fabric mull be
abandoned as unfound : and thus the fucceffive fyftems
were continualiy putting out their predeceffors, and
prefently met w.th the lame treatment.
How was this to fe remedied ? The ratiocination
was feldom egregioufly wrong ; the fyllogitfic art
ijad ere now attained a degree ofpetfedtion which left
little room for improvement, and was fo familiarly
underftood by the philofophical praaitioners, that
they ieldom committed any great blunders Muft
we examine the firft principles ? This was a talk quite
new in fcience; and there were hardly any rules in the
received fyftems of logic to dired us to the fuccefsful
performance of it Ariftotle, the fagacious inventor
nf thofe rules, had not totally omitted it; but in the
fervour of philosophic fpecuktion he had made little
uie of them.. His fertile genius never was at a lofs
for firft principles, which anfwered the purpofe of ver-
bal cilqu ution without much rifle of being belied on
account of its diffimi.itude to nature; for there was
frequently no prototype with which his fvftematfc doc¬
trine could be compared. Hi# enthufiaftic followers
° P H Y- 597
found^ abundant arnufement in following his example ; View of
and phdofophy, no longer in the hau ls of men" ac- Racon,!i
qua in ted with the world, converfant in the great book Phlitfphy;
ot nature, was now confined almoft entirely to reclufe ^
monks, equally ignorant of men and of things. But
curioficy was awakened, and the men of genius were
fretted as well as difgufted with the difquifitions of
the rchoo!s, which one moment raifed expeditions by
the fymmetry of compofition, and the next moment
biafted them by their irtcoufiftency with experience.
I hey faw that the belt way was to begin de novo,
to throw away the firft principles altogether, without
exception or examination, and endeavour to find out
new ones, which ttould ftan i the teft of logic; that
is, ttould in every cafe be agreeable to fad.
. PMofophers began to refled, that under the unno- The me-
ticed tuition of kind nature we have acquired much‘hoi of i„.
lltef n I 1/ n rvilM. ro T*. a. 1 -T - 1*11 ...
* iixij ijcjLuiv. v, ^ iiavT acquired ranch ^ of i
u.etul knowledge. It is therefore highly probable
that her method is the mod oror. - / pointed out
hat her method is the moll proper for acqiiring^
knowledge, and that by imitating her manner we X
ttall have the like fuccefs. We c.re too apt to flight
the occupations of children, whom we may obferve
continually bufy turning every thing over and over^
putting them int© every fituation, and at every di-
11 a nee. We excufe it, faying that it is an innocent
amufemrnt ; but we ttould tty with an ingenious
pbilofopher (Dr Reid), that they are moft ferioufly
an., rationally employed : they are acquiring the ha¬
bits of obfervition ; and by merely indulging an unde¬
termined cunofity, they are making themfelves ac¬
quainted with furrounding objects : they are ftru -k
by fimiUtudes, and amufed with mere claffification.
lr fome new effea occurs from any of their little plays
they are eager to repeat it. When a child has for
the firft time tumbled a fpoon from the table, and is
pleafed with its jingling noife on the floor, if another
lies within its reach, it is fare to ttire the fame fate.
It the child is indulged in this diverfion, it will re¬
peat it with a greedinefs that deferves our attention.
. hij ve,7 fifft eager repetition fliows a confidence
m t ie conftancy of natural operations, which we can
hardly aferibe wholly to experience ; and its keennett
to repeat the experiment, fhows the intereft which it
takes in the exercife of this rnoft ufeful propenfity
It is beginning the ftudy of nature; and its occupation
)s tne fame with that of a Newton computing the
motions of the moon by his fublime theory, and
comparing h;s calculus with obfervation. The child
and the philofopher are equally employed in the
contemplation o! a fimilarity of event, and are anxi¬
ous that this fimilarity ttall return. The chil!, it is
true, thinks not of this abftradl objeft of contempla¬
tion, but throws down the fpoon again to have the
pleafure of hearing it jingle. The (phdofopher fu-
tpedis that the conjun&ion of events is the confe-
quence of a general law of nature, and tries an expe¬
riment where this conjua&ion recurs. The child is
happy, and eager to enjoy a pleafure which to us ap¬
pears highly frivolous ; but it has the fame founda¬
tion vyith the pleafure of the philofopher, who re¬
joices in the fuccefs of his expetiment: and the fact
formerly a trifle to both, now acquires importance.
Both go on repeating the experiment, till the fa&
ceafes to be a novelty to either : the child is fatisfied,"
ami
598
View of
Bacon’s
Philofoph)
PHILO
an.1 the philofopher has now eftablifhed a new law of
nature.
74
Is a juft
logic.
IS
f ts chief
rule
Such (fays this amiable philofopher) is the educa¬
tion of kind nature, who from the beginning to the
end of our lives makes the play of her fcholars their
moll inftruftive leffons, and has implanted in our mind
the curiofity and the induaive propenfity by which
we are enabled and difpofed to learn them. The ex-
ercife of this indudive principle, by which nature
prompts us to infer general laws from the obfervation
of particular fads, gives us a fpecies of logic new m
the fchools, but old as human nature. It is certainly
a method of difeovery ; for by thefe means general
principles, formerly unknown, have come into view.
It is a juft and rational logic; for it is founded on,
and indeed is only the habitual application of, this
maxim, “ That whatever is true with refped to every
individual of a clafs of events, is true of the whole
clafs ” This is juft the inverfe of the maxim on
which the Ariftotelian logic wholly proceeds, and
is of equal authority in the court of reafon. Indeed
the expreflion of the general law is only the abbrevi¬
ated expreffion of every particular intiance. _
This new logic, therefore, or the logic of mdudion,
muft not be confidered as fubordmate to the old, or
founded on it. See Logic, Part III. chap. 5. In fad,
the ufe and legitimacy of the Ariftotelian logic is
founded on the indudive,
All animals are mortal;
All men are animals : therefore
All men are mortal. , , r
This is no argument to any perfon who choofes
to deny the mortality of man : even although he ac¬
knowledges his animal nature, he will deny the major
It is befide our purpofe to fhow, how a point fo
general, fo congenial to man and fo familiar, remain
?d fo long unnoticed, although the difquifkion is cu¬
rious and fatisfadory. It was not till within thefe
two centuries that the increafing demand for prac¬
tical knowledge, particularly in the arts, made in-
quifitive men fee how ufelefs and insufficient was the
learning of the fchools in any road of inveftigation
which was conneded with life and bufmefs ; and ob-
ferve that fociety had received ufeful information
chiefly from perfons adually engaged in the arts which
the fpeculatifts were endeavouring to illuftrate; and that
this knowledge confifted chiefly of experiments and
obfervations, the only contributions which their au¬
thors could make to fctence. ... . ,,
The Novum Organum of Bacon, which points out
the true method of forming a body of real and ufeful
knowledge, namely, the ftudy of nature in the way
of defcrfption, obfervation, and experiment, »s un¬
doubtedly the nobleft prefent that fcience ever received.
It may be confidered as the grammar of nature s lan¬
guage, and is a counter-part to the logm of Anftotle ,
not exploding it, but making it effedual.
As Pthe logic of Ariftotle had its rules, fo has the
Baconian or fncU.ai.e i and th„ »<>*. the
£anum Scientiarum, contains them all. The chief r ,
fnd indeed the rule from which all the reft are but
j • ;« that “ the induction of particulars muft
"ed t a. «hc general affirmation .hich
SOPHY.
is deduced from them.” If this be not attended to, n‘^
the mind of man, which from his earlieft years (hows pj^f
great eagernefs ih fearching for firft principles, will    ,
frequently aferibe to the operation of a general pnn- 7*
ciple events which are merely accidental. Hence thcFor difco-
popular belief in omens, palmiftry, and all kinds of
fortune-telling. ciples,
This rule mpft evidently give a new turn to the
whole track of philofophical inveftigation. In order
to difeover firft principles, we muft make extenfive
and accurate obftrvations, fo as to have copious in-
dudions of fads, that we may not be deceived as to
the extent of the principle inferred from them. We
muft extend our acquaintance with the phenomena,
paying a minute attention to what is going on all
around ns ; and we muft ftudy nature, not Ihut up in
our clofet drawing the pidure from our own fancy,
but in the world, copying our lines from her own
features.
To delineate human nature, we rauft fee how men
ad. To give the philofophy of the material world, we
muft notice its phenomena.
This method of ftudying nature has been profe-
cuted during thefe two laft centuries with great ea-
gernefs and fuccefs. Philofophers have been bufy
in making accurate obfervations of fads, and copious
colledions of them. Men of genius have difeovered
points of rtfembl .nee, from which they have been able
to infer many general powers both of mind and body;
and refemblances among thefe have fuggefted powers
ft ill more general.
By thefe efforts inveftigation became familiar; pm-
lofophers ftudied the rules of the zrl, and became more
expert; hypothefea were banifhed, and nothing was
admitted as a principle which was not inferred from
the rooft copious indudion. Conclufions from fuch
principles became every day more conformable to ex¬
perience. Miftakes fometimes happened ; but tecourfe
being had to more accurate obfervation or more copi- 77
ous indudion, the miftakes were correded. In the^id^;
prefent ftudy of nature, our fteps are more flow, and [ak(^
hefitating and painful; our conclufions are more lirmt-
ed and modeft, but our difeoveries are more certain
and progreffive, and the refults are more applicable to
the purpofes of life. This, pre-eminence of modern
philofophy over the ancient is feen in every path of
inquiry. It^vvas firft remarkable in the ftudy of the
material world ; and there it ftill continues to be moft
confpicuous. But it is no lefs to be feen in the later
performances of philofophers in metaphyfics, pneuma-
to!ogy, and ethics, where the mode of inveftigation
by analyfis and experiment has been greatly adopted ;
and we may add, that it is this julter view of the cm- >
ploy merit which has reftored philofophcrs to the
world, to fociety. They are no longer to be found
only in the academies of the fophifts and the cloi ters
of a convent, but in the difeharge of public and pri¬
vate duty. A philotophic genius is a genius for ob¬
fervation as well as refledtion, and he fays, HomoJumf
humani a me nihil alienum puto.
After faying fo nmch on the nature of the employ-of
ment, and the mode of procedure, it requires no deep the philofo-
.  „ .v,a ..lino the nhilnfnnhieal phic cna
mein, dULi Lilt lliwv-i v I'lL rhil*
penetration to perceive the value of the philofophica phic cn
1 rr .1   o r^r^nfit-v in the human mind
character. If there is a propenfity in the human mind
which
PHILO
Vkw Of which diainguhhes us from the inferior orders of fen-
Ph;iXphy.{lent beingS’ withoUt the Jeaft circumftance of inter-
w—v--—< icrence, a propenfity which alone may betaken for the
characteriltic of the fpecies, and of which no trace is
to be found in any other, it is difinterefted intelle£lual
cunofity, a love of difcovery for its own fake, inde-
pendent of all its advantages.
, .^ertJ’!in!i k’ghty (and W1'th great juftice do we
tnmk lo) of our rational powers ; but we may carry
this too far, as we do every ground of felf-eflimation.
lo every man who enjoys the chearing thought of
living under the care of a wife Creator, this boafted
prerogative will be viewed with more modefly and dif-
79 hdence; and He has given us evident marks of the
We fhould 111 which He eReems the rational powers of man
think mo- In no cafe that is of effential importance, of indifpen-
our rational ^ab e "^ceflity, notonly to our well-being but to our
powers. <-xldencej has He left man to the care of his rea-
fon alone; for in the firft inflance, He has given us
reafon b
To guide the helm, while paffion blows the gale.
God has not trulled either the prefervatfon of the in-
dividual or the continuance of the race to man’s no¬
tions of the importance of the talk, but has committed
them to the furer guards of huneer and of fexual de-
3!^. n manner, He has not left the improvement
ot his Hobleft work, the intelleaual powers of the foul
of man, to his own notions how important it is to his
comfort that he be thoroughly acquainted with the
ou 0‘Je<^s around him. No: He has committed this
Importance alfo to the fore hand of curiofity: and He has made
Of norm- this fo firong in a few foperior fouls, whom He has
appointed to give light and knowledge to the whole
ipecies, as to abftract them from all other purfoits,
and to engage them in intelledual refearch with an
ardour which no attainment can ever quench, but, on
knowfodgj7’ lnfhmeS k the more by evcry draught of
But what need words
8 0 p H Y. ' fg9
diftimftion of our nature is a continual difpofition to View of
rehnemetit, of which few traces are to be found in the Bacon’s
a&ions of other animals. There is hardly a gift ofPHtofophy*
nature fo grateful in itfelf as to pleafe the freaki/h ^ 87~^
nund of man till he has moulded it to his fancy. Not Our d-Tpo-
contented with food, with raiment, and with fhelter,^1”011 t0
he muft have nice cookery, ornamental drefs, and ele!rcfmcment
gant houfes. He hunts when he is not hungry, and
he refines fexual appetite into a moft elegant paffion.
In like manner he has improved this anxious defire of
the knowledge of the objeds around him, fo as to derive
ftorn them the means of fubfillence and comfort, into
the moft elegant and pleaiing of all gratifications, the
accumulation of intelleauai knowledge, independent
of all confideration of its advantages. And as every
man has a title to the enjoyment of foch pleafores as
he can attain without injuring his neighbour ; fo it is
allowable to foch as have got the means of intclle&ual
improvement, without relinquiftiing the indifpenfabie
focial duties, to pufti this advantage as far as it will go :
and, in all ages and countries, it has been confidered
as forming the greateft diftinftion between men of eafy
fortune and the poor, who rr.uft earn their fobfiftence
by the fweat of their brow. The plebeian muft learn
to work, the gentleman muft learn to think-; and no¬
thing can be a forer mark of a groveling foul than for
a mat^of fortune to have an uncultivated mind. g2
Let us then cherifh to the utmofl this diftinguiftiing®uffbt to
openfity of the human foul: but let ns rln cherifh-
80
ed as far as
ftin&ive
principles.
To paint its power? For this the daring youth
Breaks from his weeping mother’s fondling arms
In foreign cl.mes to rove. The penfive fage,
Heedlefs of fleep, or midnight s hurtful vapour.
Hangs o’er the fickly taper.—Hence the fcorn
Uf all familiar profpeas, though beheld
With tranfport once. Hence th’ attentive gaze
Of young aftonifhment.
Such is the bounteous providence of Heaven
In every breaft implanting the delire
Of objeas new and ftrange, to urge us on
With unremitting labour to attain
The facred ftores that wait the rip’ning foul
In Truth’s exhauftlefs bofom. Aihenftde.
But human life is not a fituation of continual necef-
fity • this would ffifoit the plana of its Beneficent
Author: and it is from induaion of phenomena to¬
tally oppofite to this, and from foch induaion alone,
that we have ever thought of a wife Creator. His
wudom appears only in His beneficence. Human life
w a Icene fil ed with enjoyment; and the foul of man
38 Itored with propenfities and powers which have plea-
Jure, m dired terms, for their objed. Another ftriking
like philofophers. Let us cultivate it as'it is; as the * 171^
handmaid to the arts and duties of life; as the guide vient to the
to lomething yet more excellent. A charaaer is not to dudes of
be eftimateJ from what the perfon knows, but fromlife*
what he can perform. The accumulation of intelleaual
knowledge is too apt to create an inordinate appetite
for it; and the man habituated to fpeculation is like
*b/7- t0° aPl to P^ace t^lat plealure in the mere
pojjejfton, which he ought to look for only or chiefly in
the judicious ufe of his favourite objea. Like the
mifer, too, his habits of hoarding up generally unfit
him for the very enjoyment which at felting out he
propofed to himfelf. Seldom do we find the man
who has devoted his life to fcientific purfoits for their
own fake, poffeired of that foperiority of mind which
the aaive employ to good purpofe in times of perplexi¬
ty ; and much feldomer do we find him pofleffed of
that promptitude of apprehenfion, and that decifion of
purpofe, which are neceflary for palling through the
difficult feenes of human life.
But we may ufe the good things of this life without
abufing them ; and by moderation here, as in all other
purfuits, derive thofe folid advantages which philofo-
phy is able to bellow. And thefe advantages are great.
To enumerate and deferibe them would be to write a
great volume. We may juft take notice of one, which
is an obvious confequence of that ftrift and fimplc
view which we have given of the fubjeft; and this is,
a modeft opinion of our attainments. Appearances Limitsof
are all that we know ; caufes are for ever hid from ourour
view ; the powers of our nature do not lead us fo far.led^e’
Let us therefore, without hefitation, relinquilh all
purfuits which have foch things as ultimate principles
for objeas of examination. Let us attend to the fobor-
dinations of things which it is our great bufinefs to
explore-.
I
600
View of
B acoi.’s
Philofophy
PHILO
explore. Amoni? thefe there Is fuch a fubordination
as that of means to ends, and of inftrunaents to an
operation. All will acknowledge the abfatdity of the
projeft of viewing light with a microfcope. It is
equally abfurd for us to examine the nature of know¬
ledge, of truth, of infinite wifdom, by our intellectual
powers. We have a wide field of acctfiible knowledge
in the works of God ; and one ot the greateft advan¬
tages, .md of the moft fublime pleafures, which we
can derive from the contemplation, is the view which
a judicious philofophicai refearch will moft infallibly
give ns of a world, not confiding of a number of de¬
tached objeas, conneaed only by the fleeting tie of
coexiftence, but an univerfe, n fyjlem o{ beings, all
conneaed toaether by caufation, with innumerable de¬
grees of fubordination and fubferviency, and ail co¬
operating in the ptodudion of one great and glorious
purpofe. The heart which has but a fpark of fenhbi-
lity mud be warmed by fuch a profpea, mud be
pleafed to find itfelf an important part of this dupen-
dous machine; and cannot but adore the ineompre-
henfible Artid who contrived, created, and dire&s the
whole. Let us not liden, then, to the timid admoni-
tions of theological ignorance, which fhrinks with fu-
perditiou < horror from the thoughts of accounting for
eveiy thing by the powers of nature, and con fid era
t-miniopni" thefe attempts as an approach to atheifm. Philofo-
cai d.fquifi phical difquifition will, on the contrary, exhibit thele
tion gives eiai jaw8 0f the univerfe, that wonderful concate-
God and nation and adjudment of every thing both material
of «ur own and intellednal, as the mod driking indance of incom-
fouls. prehenfible wifdom ; which, by means fo few and 1?>
fimple, can produce effedfs which by their^ grandeur
dazzle our imagination, and by their multiplicity elude
84
Philnfoph
Phi’.ofopby
SOPH Y.
all poflibility of enumeration. Of all the obftacles ^iew f
which the weaknefs, the foily, or the finful vanity of
men, have thrown in the way of the theologian, there j
is none fo fatal, fo hodile to all his endeavours, as a
cold and comfortlefs fydem of materialifm, which the
reafoning pride of man firll engendered, which made
a figure among a few fpeculatitis in the lad century, but
was5 foon forgotten by the philofophers really bufy
with the obfervation of nature and of nature’s God.
It has of late reared up its head, being now cheridied
by all who wilh to get rid of the dings of remorfe, as
the only opinion compatible with the peace of the li¬
centious and the fenfual: for we may fay to them as
Henry IV. faid to the Prince of Wales, “ Thy wifh
was, father Harry, to that thought.” In vain will
the divine attempt to lay this devil with the metaphy-
fical exorcifms of the fchools ; it is philofophy alone
that can deted the cheat. Philofophy Angles out
the chara&eridic phenomena which didinguilh every
fubdance; and philofophy never will hefitate in faying
that there is a fet of phenomena which charadterife
mind and another which charadferife body, and that
thefe are toto ctelo dilferent. Continually appealing to
fact, to the phenomena, for our knowledge of every
caufe, we (hall have no difficulty in deciding th<it
thought, memory, volition, joy, hope, are not com¬
patible attributes with bulk, weight, eladicity, fluidity.
Tuta fub agide Pallas ; philofophy will maintain the
dignity of human nature, will detedf the fophifms of
the materialids, confute their arguments; and fhe alone
will redove to the countenance of nature that ineffable
beauty of which thofe would deprive her, who would
take away the fupreme Mind which fliines from with¬
in, and gives life and expreffion to every feature.
PHI
Natural Philosophy. See Natural Philofophy, Phi¬
losophy, and Physics.
Experimental Philosophy. See ExpmRWENTAl Phi-
l0j°Nloral Philosophy. See Moral Philofophy. _
PHILOSTORGIUS, an ecclefiaftical hidonan of
the 4th century, was born in Cappadocia, and wrote
an abridgment of ecclefiaftical hiltory, in which he
t eats Athanafius with fome feverity. This work con¬
tains many curious and interefiing particulars. 1 he
heft edition is that of Henry de Valors in Greek and
Latin. There is alfo attributed to him a book againit
Porphyry. .
PH1LOSTRATUS (Flavius), was an ancient
Greek author. He wrote the Life of Apollonius
Tyanenfis, and fome other things which have come
down to our time. Eufebius agarnft Hierocles calls
him an Athenian, becaufe he taught at Athens; but
Eunapius and Suidas always fpeak of him as a Lem-
iiian : and he hints, in his Life of Apollonius, that he
ufed to be at Lemnos when he was young. He tre-
ouented the fchools of the fophifts ; and he mentions
bis having heard Damianua of Ephefus, Proclus Nau-
cratitas, and Hippodromua of Lariffa. This feems to
prove that he lived in the reign of the emperor Severus,
Ixom 193 to 212, when tbofe fophifts flounffied. He
P H I
became known afterwards to Severus’s wife Julia Au-
guita, and was one of thofe harned men whom this
• philofophic emprefs had continually about her. It was
by her command that he wuotetbe Life of Apollonius
Tyanenfis, as he relates himfelf in the fame place where
he informs us ot his connections with that learned ladv.
Suidas and Hefychius lay that he w-as a teacher o*
rhetoric, firft at Athens and then at Rome, fiom the
reign of Severus to that of Philippus, who obtained the
empire in 244.
Philoliratus’s celebrated work is his Life of Apol¬
lonius 5 which has enoneoufly been attributed to Lu¬
cian, becaufe it has been printed with fome of th*t
author’s pieces- Philoftratus endeavours, as Cyril ob-
ferves, to reprefent Apollonius as a wonderful and ex¬
traordinary perfon ; rather to be admired and adored
as a god than to be confidered as a mere man. ^ Hence
Eunapius, in the preface to his Lives of the Sophith,
fays that the proper title of that work would have
been, The Coming of a God to Men; and Hierocles, in
his book againft the Chriftians which was called Phiia/r-
thes, and which was refuted by Eufebius in a work Itill
extant, among other things drew a companion between
Apollonius and Jefus Chrilt. it has always been fup-
pofed that Philoftratus compofed his work with a view
to diferedit the miraelt# and dodtrines of our Lord,
by
tus.
phi r €0t
by fitting up other miracles and other doftrines a^fiinft
them, and this fuppofition may be true; but that Apol¬
lonius was really an impoftor and magician may not be
fo certain. He may, for what we know, have been a
wife and excellent perfon ; and it is remarkable, that
Eufebius, though he had the worft opinion of Philo-
ftratus’s hiftory, fays nothing ill of Apollonius. He
concluded that that hiftory was written to oppofe the
hiftory of Jefus; and the ufe which the ancient infidels
made of it juftifies his opinion ; but he draws no in¬
formation from it with regard to Apollonius. It
would have been improper to have done fo; fince the
fophiftical and affeaed ftyle of Philoftratus, the fources
from whence he owns his materials to have been drawn,
and, above all, the abfurdities and con traditions with
which he abounds, plainly {how his biftory to be no¬
thing but a colletion of falies, either invented or at
leaft embeliifhed by himfelf.
The works of Philoftratus, however, have engaged
the attention of critics of the firft clafs. Gncvius had
intended to have given a coiret edition of them, as
appears from the preface of Meric Cafaubon to a differ,
tation upon an intended edition of Homer, printed at
London in i6<;8, 8vo. So had Bentley, who defigned
to add a new Latin verfion of his notes ; and Fabricius
fays that he faw the firft ftieet of Bentley’s edition
printed at Leipfic in 1691. Both thefe defigns
were dropped. A veiy exaft and beautiful edition
was publifiled at length at Leipfic, 1 709, in folio, by
Oleanus, profeffor of the Greek and Latin tongues
in that univerfity ; who has proved himfelf perfe&Iy
qualified for the work he undertook, and fhown all the
judgment, learning, and induftry, that are required in
an exoelJent editor.
J PHI
Philoftratus’s Letters; but feme of thefe, though it is
not eaiy to determine which, were written by a nephew
to our Philollratus, of the fame name, as werealfo the
laft eighteen in the book of images. This is the rea-'
fon why the title runs not PhilcJ/rati, but Philqftratorum
qua fiiperfunl omnia.
There were many perfons of the name of Philoftratua
among the ancients ; and there were many other works
of the Philoftratus here recorded, but no others are
extant befides thofe we have mentioned.
PHILOTIS, a fervant maid at Rome, faved her
countrymen from deftruaion. After the fiege of
Lome by the Gauls, the Fidenates affembled an army,
and marched againft the capital, demanding all the
wives and daughters in the city as the only conditions
of peace. This demand aftoniftied the fenators; and
when they refufed to comply, Philotis advifed the:*;
to lend ad their female fiaves difguifed in matron’s
clothes, and /he offered to march herfelf at the head
Her advice was followed; and when the Fidenates had
feafted late in the evening, and were quite intoxicated
and fallen afleep, Philotis lighted a torch as a fignal
for her countrymen to attack the enemy. The whole
was fuceefsful; the Fidenates were conquered ; and
the fenate, to reward the fidelity of the female {laves,
permitted them to appear in the drefs of the Roman
matrons.
PHILOXLISiUS, an officer of Alexander, who
received Cilicia at the general divifion of the provinces.
A fon of Ptolemy, who was given to Pelopidas
as_ an hoitage. A dythyrambic poet of Cythera.
Philotis
II
Philter.
:e Apol.
jlONIUS,
P- Tz7-
col. 1. and
Blount
[Charles).
T T • 1 1 r J LIlCIcU
He enjoyed the favour of Dionyfius tyrant of Sicily
for fome time, till he offended him by feducing one of
At the end of Apollonius'e Life there are 9j Letters Z
itch go tinker his name. They are not, however, which he had delineated the charafter of the^y’ran?
under the name ©{ Polyphemus, and reprefented his
miftrefs under the name of Galatsea, and himfelf un¬
der that of Ulyffes. The tyrant,’ who was fond of
writing poetry, and of being applauded, removed Phi-
loxenus from his dungeon ; but the poet refufed to
purchafe his liberty by faying things unworthy of him-
ielr, and applauding the wretched verfes of Dionyfius
which go under his name,
believed to be his; the ftyle of 'them being’v "ry'aB
fefted, and like that of a fophift, while they bear in
other refpe&s all the marks of a forgery. Philoftratus
fays that he faw a colle&ion of Apollonius’s Letters
m Hadrian’s library at Antium, but had not inferted
them all among thefe. They are fliort, and have in
them little elfe than moral fentenrea. The Lives of
the Sophifts contain many things which are to be met
with nowhere elfe. The Heroics of Philoftratus are
only a dialogue between a vintner of Thracian Cher-
fonefus and a Phosmcian, in which the former draws
chi rafters of Homer’s heroes, and reprefents feveral
things differently from that poet; and this upon the
faith of Pro'cefilaus’s ghoft, who had lately vilited Ws
farm, which was not far from the tomb of this hero.
Olearius conjeftures, with much probability, that Phi-
loftrstus s defign in this dialogue was fecredy to criti-
cile fome things in Homer, which he durft not do
openly on account of the great veneration then paid to
him. and for fear of the odium which Zoilus and others
had incurred by cenfuring him too freely. The
images are elegant deferiptions and illuftrations of fome
ancient paintings and other particulars relating; to the
fine arts: to which Olearius has fubjoined the deferin.
t.on of fome ftatues by Calliftratus; lor the fame rea-
ion that he fubjoined Eufebius’s book againft Hiero-
cles to the Life and Letters of Apollonius, namely
becaufe the fubjefts of thefe refpeftive works are re’
feted to each other. The felt piece is a collection of
VOL. XIV. Part II.
and therefore he was fent to the quarries. Being fet
at liberty, he fome time after Was alked his opinion at
a lea It about fome verfes which Dionyfius had juft re¬
peated, and which the courtiers had received with the
greateft applaufe. Philoxenus gave no anfwer, but he
ordered the guards that furrounded the tyrant’s table
to take him back to the quarries. Dionyfius was
pleated with his pleafantry and with his firmnefs, and
immediately forgave him. Philoxenus died at Ephefus
about 380 years before Chrift.
PHILTER, or Philtre, (P hilt rum), in pharma¬
cy, &c. a ftrainer.
1 hilier, is alfo ufed for a drug or preparation
which it is pretended will excite love.—The word is
formed from the Greek “ I love,” or
“ lover.” *
Philters are diftinguiftied into true and fpurious, and
were given by the Greeks and Romans to excite love.
(See Love in medicine.) The fpurious are fpells or
charms, fuppofed to have an eft'eft t eyond the ordinary
laws of nature by fome magic virtue ; fuch are thofe
laid to be given by old women, witches, &c. The true
4 G philters
Phinehas
P H I
t 602 ]
PHI
Phllvca filters are thofefuppofed to work theireffea by fome the high-pnefthood from one family to the other
Ph iye* philters are tnoic iupFu  , diirnitv continued in the race of Phinehas, fron
natural and magnetical power. There are many grave
authors who believe the reality of thefe philters, and
allege matter of fad in confirmation of their fenciments:
among the reft, Van Helmont, who fays, that upon
holding a certain herb in his hand for fome time, and
taking afterwards a little dog by the foot with the fame
This dignity continued in the race of Phinehas, from
Aaron down to the high-prieft Eli, for about 335
years. See Aaron.
The manner and caufee of this change are unknown.
It re-entered again into the family of Eleazar under
the reign of Saul, when this prince having put to
Phinehs*,-
Phineus,
hand ^thedos" followed him wherever hewent, and death Abimelech, and the other pried, of Nob, he
cuitedeferteAis former matter; which he pretends to gave the high-pnetthood to Zadok, who war of the
aeeoent for ihm The heat communicated to the herb, race of Phinehaa. At the fame t.me, David had A-
not coming alone, but animated by the emanation, of biathar with him, of the race of
the natural fpirits, determines the herb towards the ed the funaions of high-pneft. So that after
man, and identifies it to him : having then received
this ferment, it attrads the fpirit of the other objed
magnetically, and gives it an amorous motion. But
this is mere cant; and all philters, whatever fa&s may
be alleged, are mere chimeras.
PHILYCA, in botany. See Phylica.
PHILYRA (fab, hift.').’was one of the Occam
^       ~r So that after the
death of Saul, David continued the priefthood to Za¬
dok and Abiathar conjointly. But towards the end
of David’s reign, Abiathar having efpoufed the inte-
reft of Adonijah, to the prejudice of Solomon, he
was in difgrace, and Zadok only was acknowledged
as high-ptieft. The priefthood continued in his fa¬
mily till after the captivity of Babylon, and even to
PHILYRA toelcape the deftruftion of the temple. But from the begin
tmlrvigilance of Rhes, changed himfelf into a ning of Zadok'. priefthood alone, and the exelufion
horfe, to enjoy the company of Phdyra, by whom he
had a fon half a man and half a borfe, called Chiron.
Philyra was fo aftiamed of giving birth to fuch a mon¬
ger, that (he entreated the gods to change her na-
of Abiathar, to the ruin of the temple, is 1084 years.
We read of another memorable aftion of Phinehas,
in which he Hill (bowed his zeal for the Lord. 1 his
was when the Ifraelites that were beyond Jordan had
ture.
She ^as ^cccmdingty metamorphofed into a raittd upon the tank, of .hi, river a vaft heap^of
tree, called by her name among the Greeks.
PHIMOSIS, in medicine, a diforder of the penis,
in which the prepuce is fo ftridft or tenfe, that it can¬
not be drawn back over the glans. See Surgery.
PHINEHAS, or,as the Jews pronounce it, Pin ch as,
■was the fon of Eleazar, and grandfon of Aaron. He was
earth (Jo(h. xxii. 30, 31.). Thofe on the other fide fear¬
ing they were going to forfake the Lord, and fet up
another religion, deputed I^hinehas and other chief
men among them, to go and inform themfelves of the
reafon of erecting this monument. But when they
had found that it was in commemoration of their
jheyr^o He is particularly —^ ^ ^ation"^ f?fp.ae“ ^ “
Scripture for the zeal he mowed in vimucaung ti c ^ r of the death of
glory of God, when the M,dram.es ^fe ‘ ‘h«' mdo nonexact., ^ ^ ^ of Jofcua>
daughters into the camp of Ifrael, to fhe . , beff)re the'firft fervitude under Chuftxan-riftra-
bed both man and woman at one D o^^ntm^pa.IS ^ h“penea> aB alfo fhat of the tribe of Dan,
Uporwhich theC"pbgue or diftemper ceafed with when they made a conqueft of Lailhj ^nd the «or.
which the Lord had already begun to pundh the If¬
raelites. This happened in the year of the world 2553.
Then the Lord faid to Mofes, Phinehas the fon of
Eleazar the high-prieft has turned away my wrath
from the children of Ifrael, becaufe he has been zea-
mity that was committed upon the wife of the Le-
vite of the mountain of Ephraim (Judges xx. 28.)^
Phinehas’s fucceffor in the high-priefthood was Abie-
or Abiftmah.
zer
The Rabbins allow a very long life to Phinehas.
from the children of lirael, becauie ne n - f ^ believe he lived to the time of
lous in my caufe, and has hindered me from deftroying ^/^rkft ETi. or even to the time of Samfon..
them : wherefore acquaint him, t a giv J n.-V,prC «.;!! have it. that he was the fame as Eli, ©1
covenant of peace, and the pnefthood (hall be given
to his pofterity by a perpetual covenant, becauie he
has been zealous for his God, and has mace atone¬
ment for the crime of the children of Ifrael. Phis
•promife that the Lord made to Phinehas, to give him
the priefthood by a perpetual covenant, interpreters
obferve, evidently included this tacit condition, that
his children (hould continue faithful and obedient;
fince we know that the priefthood paffed out of the
Others will have it, that he was the fame as Eli, ©r.
rather as the prophet Elias, which would ftid prolong
his life for feveral ages.
PHINEUS (fab. hift.), was a fon of Agenor, king
of Phoenicia, or according to fome of Neptune. He be¬
came king of Thrace, or, according to the greater part
of mythologifts, of Bithynia. He married Cleopatra-the
daughter of Boreas, called.by fome Cleobu/a.by whom he
had Plexippus and Pandion. After her death,be married
fince we know that t of Ithamar, idiea the daughter of Dardanus. Idsea, jealous of his for
family of.Eleazar ,an^"epofterIty 0f Eleazar mer wife’s children, accufed them of atrempts upon their
and that it returned not to the potter y father>8 life and crown, or, as others affett, of attempts.
"I what^sr^rmug th. Wanton of upon her vto; on whinh they were condemned^
P H L [ 603 ] P tt L
Phleboto- Phineus to he deprived of their eyes. This cruelty
my was foon after punifhed by the gods; for phineus fud-
p,, denly became blind, and the Harpies were fent by Jit™
, 1 piter to keep him in continual alarm, and to ipoil the
meats which were placed on his table. He was after¬
wards delivered from thefe dangerous monfters by his
brothers-in-law Zetes and Calais, who purfued them
as far as the Strophades. He likewife recovered his
fight by means of the Argoitauts, whom he had re¬
ceived with great hofpitality, and whom he inftrufted
in the eaiieft and fpeedieft way of arriving in Colchis.
The caufes of the blindnefs of Phineus are a matter
of difpute among the ancients ; feme fuppoling that
this was inflidled by Boreas for his cruelty to his
grandibn ; while others attribute it to the anger of
Neptune, becaufe he had direfted the fons of Phry-
xus how to efcape from Colchis to Greece. Many,
however, imagine that it proceeded from his having
rafhly attempted to develope futurity'; while others af-
fert that Zetes and Calais put out his eyes on account
of his cruelty to their nephews. The fecond wife of
Phineus is called by fome Diti, Eurjtia, Danae, and
Idothta. — He was killed by Hercules.
PHLEBOTOMY, the opening of a vein with a
proper fharp-edged and pointed inftrument, in order
to let out a certain quantity of blood either for the
prefervation or recovery of a perfon’s health. See
Surgery
PHLEGM, in the animal economy, one of the
four humours whereof the ancients fuppofed the blood
to be compofed. The chemifts make phlegm or water
an elementary body ; the characters of which are flui¬
dity, infipidity, and volatility.
PHLEGMAGOGUES, in medicine, a term an¬
ciently made ufe of for fuch medicines as were fup¬
pofed to be endowed with the property of purging off
phlegm; fuch as hermodadlyls,agaric, turbith,jalap,&c.
PHLEGMATIC,among phyficians, an appellation
given to that habit or temperament of body wherein
phlegm is predominant; which gives rife to catarrhs,
coughs, &c.
PHLEGMON, denotes an external inflammation
and tumor, attended with a burning heat.
PHLEGON, who was furnamed Tra/llanus, was
born in Trallis a city of Lydia. He was the empe¬
ror Hadrian’s freed man, and lived to the 18th year
of Antoninus Pius ; as is evident from his mentioning
the confuls of that year. He wrote fever'al works of
great erudition, of which we have nothing left but
fragments. Among thefc was a Hiftory of the Olym¬
piads, A Treatife of Long-lived Perlons, and another
of Wonderful Things ; the flrort and broken remains
of which Xylander tranflated into Latin, and pub-
liflied at Bafil in 1568, with the Greek and with
notes. Meurfius publilhed a new edition of them
with his notes at Leyden, in 1622. The titles of
part of the reft of Phlegon’s writings are preferved by
•Suidas. It is fuppofed that the Hiftory of Hadrian,
publiflred under Phlegon’s name, was written by Ha¬
drian himfelf, from this paffage of Spartianus : “ Ha¬
drian thirfted fo much after fame (fays he), that he
gave the books of his own life, drawn up by himfelf,
to his frecdmen, commanding them to pubiifli thofe
books under their own names ; for we are told that
Hadrian w rote Phlegon’s books.”
Phlegon’s name has been more familiar among the
moderns, artd his fragments have had a greater degree
of regard paid to them than perhaps they deferve. Phlo^iflon;
merely becaufe he has been fuppofed to fpeak of the "
darknefs which prevailed during our Lord’s paflion.
The book in which the words are contained is loft ;
but Eufebius has preferved them in his Chronicon. They
are thefe: “ In the 4th year of the 202d Olympiad,
there was a greater and more remarkable eclipfe of the
fun than any that had ever happened before : for at
the fixth hour the day was fo turned into the darknefs
of night, that the very ftars in the firmament were
vifible ; and there was jn earthquake in Bithynia
which direw down many houfes in the city of Nicaea.”
Eufebius thinks that thefe words of Phlegon related
to the prodigies which accompanied Chrift’s cruci¬
fixion ; and many other fathers of the church have
thought the fame: but this opinion is liable to many
difficulties ; for no man had ever a ftronger defire than
Phlegon to compile marvellous events, and to obferve
the fupernatural circumftances in them. How was it
then poflible that a man of this turn of mind ffiould
not have taken notice of the moft furprifing circum-
ftance in the eclipfe which it is imagined he hints at,
viz. its happening on the day when the moon was at
the full ? But had Phlegon done this, Eufebius would
not have omitted it; and Ongen would not have faid
that Phlegon had omitted this particular.
It was a matter of controverfy fome time ago,
whether Phlegon really fpoke of the darknefs at the’
time of our Lord s paflion; and many differtacions
were written on both fidea of the quertion. This difpute
was occafioned by the above paflage from Phlegon be¬
ing left out in an edition of Clarke’s Boyle’s Ledures
publifhed after his death, at the infiance of Sykes!
who had fuggefted to Clarke, that an undue ftrefa had
been laid upon it. Whifton, who informs us of this
affair, expreffes great difpleafure againft Sykes, and
calls “ the fuggefiion groundlefs.” Upon this, Sykes
publiffied “ A Diflertation on the Eclipfe men¬
tioned by Phlegon : or, “ An Inquiry whether that
Eclipfe had any relation to the darknefs which hap¬
pened at our Saviour’s Pafiion, 1732,” 8vo. Sykes
concludes it to be moft probable that Phltgon had in
view a natural eclipfe which happened November 24.
in the ift year of the 202d Olympiad, and not in the
4th year of the Olympiad in which Chrift was crucified.
Many pieces were written againft him, and to fome of
them he replied ; but perhaps it is a controverfy which
concerns the learned world merely, fince the eaufe of
religion is but little affe&ed by it.
Photius blames Phlegon for expatiating too much on
trifles, and for colle&ing too great a number of an-
fwers "pronounced by the oracles. “ His ityle (he
tells us) is not altogether flat and mean, nor does it
everywhere imitate the Attic manner of writing.
But otherwife, the over nice accuracy and care with
which he Computes the Olympiads, and relates the
names of the contefts, the tranfadtions, and even
oracles, is not only very tirefome to the reader, where¬
by a cloud is thrown over all other particulars in that
book, but the diction is thereby rendered unpleafant
and ungrateful; and indeed he is every moment bring¬
ing in the anfwers pronounced by all kinds.of deities.”
PHLOGISTON, a terra ufed by chemifis to ex-
prefs a principle which was fuppofed to enter the com-
pofition of various bodies.
4 G 2
The
P H L
[ 604 ]
P H L
Phlogiftom The bodies which were thought to contain it in
Vj ]arge{^ quantity are the inflammable fubftancea;
and the property which thefe fubftances pofTefs of be¬
ing fufceptible of inflammation was thought to de¬
pend on this principle ; and hence it was fometimes
called the Principle of Inflammability. Inflammation,
according to this doftrine, was the reparation of this
principle or phlogifon from the other matter which
corapofed the combuftible body. As its reparation
was always attended with the emiflion of light and
heat, fome of the chemifts concluded that it was light
and heal combined with other matter in a peculiar
manner, or that it was fome highly elaftic and very fub-
tile matter, on certain modifications of which heat
and light depended.
Another clafs of bodies which were fuppofed to
contain phlogifton are the metals; and the chemifts
fuppofed that the peculiar luftre of the metals depend¬
ed on this principle. Of this they thought themfelves
convinced by the evidence of their fenfesin two ways;
viz. firft, becaufe by expofing a metal to the action
of a long continued heat, it loft its metallic luftre, and
was converted into an earthy-like fubftance called calx
metallicus ; and fecondly, becaufe by mixing this calx
with any inflammable fubftance whatever, and fubjedft-
ing the mixture to certain operations, the inflammable
matter difappeared, and the metal was reftored to its
former ftate and luftre, without fuffering much dimi¬
nution in quantity, efpecially if the proceffes had been
conduced with care and attention.
This faft relative to the metals was thought to be
a full demonftration of itfelf, independent of other
proofs which were brought to fupport the doctrine.
Thefe were, that a combuftible body, by the a£t of in-
jflammation (i.e. by the diffipation of its phlogifton in
the form of heat and light), was converted into a body
that was no longer combuftible, but which might have
its property of combuftibility rdtored to it again by
mixing the incombuftible remains with any kind of in¬
flammable matter, and fubmitting the mixture to cer¬
tain procefles. In this way the body was reftoted
to its former ftate of inflammability.
They were alfo at fome pains to prove that the
phlogfon or the principle of infammabiltty was the fame
in all inflammable bodies and in the metals. This
identity of phlogifton they thought to be evident
from the fa£t, that the calx of a metal might be re¬
ftored to its metallic ftate, or that the remains after
the conabuftion of a combuftible body might be again
reftored to its original ftate of combuftihility by the
addition of any inflammable body whatever, taken
either from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms.
Thefe and feveral other facts were brought to prove,
not only the exiftence of phlogifton, but its effe&s in
mixture with other fubitances ; and the objedhons
which were made agaiuft the dodftrine were removed
with wonderful ingenuity. The chief obje&ion againft
it was, that if the inflammation of a combuftible body,
or the converfion of a metal into calx, depends on the
(diffipation or extrication of phlogifton ; then it muft
follow, that the remains of a combuftiblc body after
inflammation, and the calx of the metal, muft be lefs
than the matter from which they were produced r. but
this is contrary to fa£t; for when we colledt with care
all the vapour into which the pureft inflammable bo¬
dies are converted by combuftion7 thefe incombuftibie
remains are much heavier than the inflammable body Phlogifton,.
was from which they were produced, and the calx in- ——v—^
to which a metal is converted by long expofure to the
aftion of heat is heavier than the metal from which
it was produced. This confideration made feveral
people doubt of the truth of the dodlnBe ; but the
Ejection was removed by faying, that phlogifton was
fo fubtile, a? not only to have no weight, but to pof.
fefs an abfolute levity ; and that when it was taken,
from an abfolutely heavy body, that body muft, by
lofing fo much abfolute levity, become heavier, in the
fame manner as the algebraifts fay, that a poficive
quantity is augmented by the fubftraftion of a nega¬
tive quantity. This fophifm fatisfied the minds of moft
of the chemifts, efpecially thofe who were algebraifts.
The opinion that phlogifton was heat and light
fomehow combined with other matter, was proved,
not only by the faft, that heat and light were emitted
from a combuftible body during itscombuftion,but from
the redudlion of certain metallic calces to their ori¬
ginal metallic ftate again, at leaft in fome degree, by
Ample expofure to heat and light. The white calx
of filver for inftance, when expofed in clofe fealed
glafs veflels to the light and heat of the fun, refumes a
black tinge, and is in part rettored to its metallic luftre
without any addition whatever ; but then this reftora-
tion, like the others above mentioned, is attended with
a lofs of weight.
Befides conftituting the principal part of inflam¬
mable bodies and metals, phlogifton was thought to
be the caufe of colour in all vegetable and animal fub¬
ftances. This was concluded from the fa& of plant#
growing white when defended from the adtion of the
fun’s rays, and in having their green colour reftored
by expofure to his rays again ; and fo far did the che¬
mifts fufter themfelves to be deceived, that they actu¬
ally thought the green colouring matter, which they
extracted from freth plants by certain chemical pro¬
ceffes, to be an inflammable fubftance. A very mate¬
rial objection was made to this argument, viz. if
plants owe their colour to phlogifton imparted by
the fun’s rays, why do the fun’s rays deftroy vegetable
colours that are expofed to them ? for we know that
the fun’s rajs are very effectual in diminilhing the
luftre of cloth dyed with vegetable colours, and in
bleaching or taking out various ftains from linen and
other fubftances. All this was removed by faying, that
the fun’s rays pcffefled different powers on living and
on dead vegetable matter, and that the living vegetables
had the power of abforbing phlogifton from the fun’s
rays, which dead vegetable matter had not.
Since the exiftence of phlogifton, as a chemical prin¬
ciple in the compofition of certain bodies, is now fully
proved to be falfe, we ftrall not trouble our readers
with any farther obfervations on it, except adding,
that although the chemifts were Satisfied with the
proofs they gave of its reality, they were sever able
to exhibit it in a feparate ftate, or thow it in a pure
form, unmixed with other matter.
Phlogifton feems to have been admitted as a prin¬
ciple in the compofition of certain bodies,, and to have
been fuppofed the caufe of certain modifications of
matter, merely with a view to explain fome of thofe
natural phenomena which the authors of it were un¬
able to explain on other principles. Subfequent dif-
coveries in natural philofopby and in chemiftry have
repxe*
p h l r
Phlogifton. reprefen ted things in a very different light from that
r la. which the old chemifts viewed them. The old che-
mifts knew nothing but ckemiftry; they feldom ex¬
tended their views to the obfervation of obje&s be¬
yond their laboratories, and It was not till philofophers
became chemiftfi, and chemifts philofophers, that che-
nultry began to wear the garb of feience. The epoch
in which this change began was in the time of Lord
Verulam, who firlt removed the dimnefa from the che-
mift’s eyes, and to him fucceeded the Honourable Mr
u- l'l S,r lfaac Ntwton’ with the little afiidance
which his predeceffors in this branch of fcience afford¬
ed him, is in reality the firft who eftablifhed chemiftry
on foientiffc ground. It muft, however, be acknow-
ledged, that although he made a great proorefs, he left
much undone ; and fubfequent chemifts, who were lefs
accuiate obfervers of nature, admitted principles un-
warrantabiy From the time of Sir Ifaac Newton
till the rmdcle of the 18th century, no real improve-
ment was made in fcientific chemiftry ; and the pro¬
gress this fcience has made fioce that period is owW
to the important difoovery of the exiftence of heat in
a date of compofition with other matter. Heat thus
combined lofes its activity or becomes infenfible, juft
m the fame way as any other adive fubftance lofes its
apparent qualities in compofition. Acids, for ex¬
ample, when combined in a certain proportion with
fubftances for which they have ftrong attraftion, as
alkalis or abforbent earths, lofe all their obvious acid
qualities, and the compound turns out mild, and to¬
tally conceals the acid which it contains. In a fimi-
ar manner, heat, when combined in certain propor¬
tions with other matter, lofes its fenfible qualities, and
the compound conceals the heat which it contains,
ideal, m this combined ftate, was called by its ingeni¬
ous difeoverer, Dr Black, W and it was found
to be very abundant in the atmofphere, which owes
its exiftence as an elaftic fluid to the quantity of latent
heat that it contains After thiVdifeovery was made,
Dr Crawford, conhdenng that air was abforbed by a
605 ] P H L
find under tke words Heat, Isflammatiou, Flame, PMoKonix,
Chemistry, Calcination of Metals, Oxygen, Phlomis.
PHLOGONl^E, acLf of compound, inflammable ‘‘T—-^
and metallic foflils, found in fmall maffes of determi
nately angular figures; comprehending the pyricub.a,
pyroctogonia, and pyripolygonia.
PHLOMIS, the Sags-tree, or Jerufakm Save •
a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the
didynamia clals of plants. There are 14 fpecies, all of
which have perennial roots, and of many the ftalka
alio are perennial. The latter rife from two to five or
fix feet high ; and are adorned with yellow, blue or
purple flowers in whorls. They are all ornamental
piants} and deferve a place in gardens, as they are
lumciently hardy to endure the ondinary winters in
fitu tforj1316 : reclui're» however, a pretty warm
There are two fpecies of this plant, which are pc-
cuharly adapted to the flarubbery, viz. the Phlomis (hnom^al
frunic of a, a native of Spain and Sicily, and the Phlo Gartiening'
mis purpurea. Of the firft fpecies there are three va¬
rieties, 1. 'I he broad-leaved Jerufalem Sage-tree, is now
very common in our gardens, its beauty is great
and its culture very eafy. It grows to be about five feet
nigfi, and fpreads its branches without order all
around The older branches are covered with a dirty
greemfti, dead, falling, ill-looking bark ; and this is*
the worft property of this flirub : but the younger
fhoots are white and beautiful; they are four-confer-
ed, woolly, and foft to the touch. The leaves are
roundilh and oblong, and moderately large ; and thefe
grow oppofite at the joints of the flirub on long foot-
italks. 1 hey are hoary to a degree of whitenefs, and
their footftalks alfo are woolly, white, tough, and
ftrong I he flowers are produced in June, July, and
AlUgi'ftj f th,e t0p j°int8 ef the y°ung ftoots, in large
whorled bunches. They are of the labiated kind, eafh
coniifting of two lips, the upper end of which is fork-
ed, and bends over the other. A finer yellow can
Ztlf. Crr^_thf.n_the^oIow*.°f. -hich tbey are- ,
burning body, concluded that the heat which appears poffeffed6- thC whl‘ch they are
"l l CAm^fti°n °f 3 cornhuftible body, is the heat flowers at a th™ g°IJen
that had before exifted in the air whiVh «,ao ^ r j r a. a &reat dmance, caufing thereby a hand-
hy the burning body Mr Lavoifie and ^ !bmfC,fl,OW- 2- The
fecuting this inquiry, found that the combuftiblebody than aTa'rd^or fo!' 'f ^ g1?0."1 higher
while it is burning, unites with the hnfi« ]-l r four feet, f his fhrub is in every refpedt
and that the health^ ^ ,°thfr ; 0nIy the ^ ^em to havl a more
was tt'31 thef hef,whi?h the air contained, and which
exnelle ?CaiTk°f air.ex,ft,nS in the ftate of air, is
expelkd. 1 his alforption of the bafis of the air by
the burnmg body, and the reduftion of this bafis to a
iohd form, accounts for the increafe of weight which
a ^ in other word8> g^es
a reaforKwhy the matter into which a combuftible
body is converted by combuftion, is heavier than the
body from which it was produced. The Lme abforn
turn of a.r is obfervable, when a metal is converted in-
f ,Ca x’ and th.er additional weight of the calx is
f?rnd ^ Precifely equal to the weight of the air
abforbed during the calcination. On thefe principles
therefore, we now explain the phenomena fn a much
more fatisfa&ory manner than by the fuppofition of
phfogifton, or a principle of inflammability. *
1 his theory is more fully elucidated in feveral ar
tides in the former part of this work ; we /hall not
therefore, m this place, repeat what the reader may
upright tendency of growth. The leaves alfo, which,
are narrower, are more inclined to a lanceolate form -
i hey are numerous in both the forts, and hide the
deform, ty of the bark on the older fit ms, which renders-
them lefs exceptionable on that account. In fhort.
theie forts are qualified for fhrubberies of all kinds, or
to be iet in borders of flower-gardens, where they will
flower, and be exceeded even in that refpeft by very
few fhrubs. 3 Cretan Sage-tree, is ftill of lower growth
than either of the former, feldom arifing to a yard in
height. The leaves are of the fame white hoary na-
a n J thn/L arf Very broad’ and ftand on ^ng foot-
ftalks. 1 he flowers are alfo of a delightful yellow co¬
lour, very large, and grow in large whorls, which give
tile plant great beauty. 6
The fecond fpecies, which is Purple Phlomis or Par.
V Sage, is four feet high; the ftalks are woody,
and fend forth feveral angular branches, which are co¬
vered with a white bark. The leaves are fpear-fha-
Fd,
P H O [ 6°(5 ] P H O
'  r,*rvai fiVVit feet j the ^reateft circumference, five feet} near Fhoca. ^
?f>hlomis ped, oblong, woolly under neat i, cr i . ’ j •„ JLori8 the tail 20 inches; and the weight is about 800 lb. '~"^v "rf.
" on ftiort footHalks The flower. .«proJuc=d m whorl. *e ^ that of a p«g.dog,but the head
from the joints of the branches. y if fuddenly ; the teeth lock into one another when
purple colour, and mvrdu Jhey^ ^ ^ ; ^ ^ Urge . he t
pear in June and July, but are fLcies large and prominent, and may be covered at pleafure
feeds in England. There is a variety or ^ ^ ^ , o n n ,   ipnrrfV, of the fare-lecra
Thoca.
«,“h iron coloured Sowers, and another with flower.
°f Therehare fome other fhrnbby forts of phlomts, of
creat beauty ; but thefe not only often lofe their leaves,
Td even baches, from the M froft, bn, are fre-
by a flelhy membrane. The length of the f©re-lega
is 24 inches ; they are like thofe of other quadrupeds,
not immerfed in the body like thole of feals ; the feet
are formed with toes like thofe of other animals, but
are covered with a naked flcin, fo that externally they
« n    Ktn^prro rP nVPfi
and even branches, from the hrft froft, ^ut are^re- bg a ^p^fg maf8 . ’the hind-legs are fixed
gently wholly dcaroycd. -f it happen ^ ^ ^ to ^ body quite behind, like thofe of com nfl
They arc low ftrnbs, very beautiful, and look well
among perennial flowers, where they will not only
elafs as to fize with many of that fort, but, being
rather tender, may with them have inch extraordi¬
nary care as the owner may think proper to allow
The propagation of the above forts is, as we have
already hinted, very eafy, and is accomphihed either
by layers or cuttings. 1. If a little earth be thrown
reem to UC a -- o
to the body quite behind, like thofe of common ieals ;
but are capable of being brought forward, io that the
animal makes ufe of them to fcratch its head.
Thefe animals are found in the northern feas. They Pennant'r
are found in amazing quantities between Kamtfchatka Araic
and America ; but are fcarcely known to land on the W-
Afiatic Ihore : nor are they ever taken except in the
three Kurilian illands, and from thence in the Bobro-
woie More, or Beaver Sea, as far as the Kronofki
by layers or cuttings, x. If a little earth be t. rown ^me , river Kamtfchatka, which compre-
upon the branches any tune m the wmter, they wdl headtanu north latitude. It is oh-
ftnke root and be good plants by the autumn follow- bends only trom 5° d _ .k ,  r
^ ^ i  culture bv
ing, fit for any place. Thus eafy is the culture by
that method. 2. The cuttings will alio grow, if
planted any time of the year. Thole p.anted in win¬
ter Ihould be the woody Ihoots of the former fummer:
Thefe may be fet clofe in a fltady border ; and be.ng
watered in dry weather, will often grow. This flrmb
may be propagated by young flips alfo, in any o. the
fummer months. Thefe Ihould be planted in a lhady
border, like fage, and well watered if the border is
not naturally lhady, the beds mutt be hooped, and cc>
vered with matting in hot weather. Watering muft
be conftantly afforded them ; and with this care and
management many of them will grow.
PFLOX, Lychnidea, or Bq/lardLychnis; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandna
clafc of plants. There are feven fpecies, all of them
natives of North America. They have perennial roots,
from which arife herbaceous Ualk, from n.ne tnches to
nenas omy num ..v, c
fervable that they never double the fouthern cape ot
the peninfula, or are found on the weftern fide in the
Penfchinflta lea : but their great reforc has been ob-
ferved to be to Bering’s iflands. They are as regu¬
larly migratory as birds of paffage. They firft appear
off the three Kuril! iflands and Kamtfchatka in the
earlieft: fpring. There is not one female which does
not come pregnant. Such as are then taken are
opened, the young taken out and ikinned. They are
found in Bering’s ifland only on the weftern Ihore,
being the part oppofite to Afia, where they firft ap¬
pear on their migration from the fouth.
Ur fine feals are alfo found in the fouthern heim“
fphere, even from under the line, in the ifle of Galh-
pagos (a), to New Georgia, in fouth latitude 54. x J.
and weft longitude 37. t 5. In the intermediate parts,
they are met with in New Zealand, in the ifle ol Juan
Fernandez, and its neighbour Maffa Fuera, and pro-
from which arife herbaceous ftalks from nine inches to b enmntxez -^ ^
two feet in height, In Juan Fernandez, Staten Laird, and
a purple colour. They are propagated by oftsets,
and will bear the winters in this country. 1 hey re¬
quire a moift rich foil, in which they thrive better and
grow taller than in any other. . o
h pHLYCTENiE, in medicine, fmall eruptions on
the fkin.
Staten Land. In Juan Fernandez, Staten Land, and
New Georgia, they fwarm * as they do at the northern
extremity of this vaft ocean. Thofe of the fouthern
hemifphere have alfo their feafons of migration.—
Alexander Selkirk, who paffed three lonely years on
the ifle of Juan Fernandez, remarks that they come
i . •; 4.:n Cantain
*   EflC lUC U1 j U«11 X v4.^—--- A •
PHOCA, in zoology, a genus of quadruped^ of foynluhem^gafn m dieir /lace of remigration
the order of fer*. There are fix ” f^^irabundancef on Staten Land and New Geor-
the upper jaw, the outermoft ,bfC,nS th.dunder s{a ?n the months of December and January ; and
blunt, parallel, diftina, equa! fore-teeth in the under g)on ^ found them on the Falkland iflands m
There is but one dog-tooth, and nve or iix - - . a Ore^n-
1 ^ w * . t . -1 _ L ! — A c f n rt* unitPf*
jaw. ’ There is but one ^ the month of February. According to the Green-
three-pointed grinders ; and h variety of landers, this fpecies inhabits the fouthern parts of their
r~ - - v/jtVmVilf1 a Iheep’s tail. There are a variety or ^ > q^ey call it Auvekajak. That it is very
fierce, and tears to pieces whatfoever it meets ; that it
lives on land as well as in water, and is greatly dreaded
by the hunters. ,
During the three months of fummer they lead a molt
& indolent
fo'^fo'rcfcmhle a fheep’. tail. There are a variety of
^h^ZTS^a^ormSc feal, has efer„a.
ears. The male is greatly fupenor in fize to the
The bodies of each are of a conic form, very thick be¬
fore, and taper to the tail. The length of a large one is
. „ , tt zrc pje fayg that thev are neither fo numerous there, nor is their fur fo fi
P H O [ 607 ] P H O
Phoca.
Pennant,
ibid.
indolent life : they arrive at the iflands vaftly fat; but
J during that time they are fcarce ever in motion,
confine themfelves for whole weeks to one fpot, fleep
a great part of the time, eat nothing, and, except the
employment the females have in fuckling their young,
are totally ina&ive. They live in families : each male
has from 8 to 50 females, whom he guards with the
jealoufy of an eaftern monarch ; and though they lie
by thoufands on the fnores, each family keeps itfelf
feparate from the reft, and fometimes, with the young
and unmarried ones, amount to 120. The old animals,
which are deftitute of females, or deferted by them,
live apart, and are excefiively fplenetick, peevifh, and
quarrelfome: are exceeding fierce, and fo attached to
their old haunts, that they would die fooner than quit
them. They are monftroufiy fat, and have a moft hir-
cine fmell. If another approaches their ftation, they
are roufed from their indolence, and inftantly fnap at it,
and a battle enfues ; in the conflidf, they perhaps in¬
trude on the feat of another : this gives new caufe of
offence, fo in the end the difcord becomes univerfal,
and is fpread through the whole fhore.
The other males are alfo very irafcible : the caufes
of their difputes are generally thefe. The firft and
moft terrible is, when an attempt is made by another
to feduce one of their miftreffes or a young female of
the family. This infult produces a combat; and the
conqueror is immediately followed by the whole fera-
glio, who are fure of deferting the unhappy vanquifh-
cd. The fecond reafon of a quarrel is, when one in¬
vades the feat of another : the third arifes from their
interfering in the difputes of others. Thefe battles are
very violent; the wounds they receive are very deep,
and referable the cuts of a fabre. At the end of a
fight they fling themfelves into the fea, to wafh away
the blood.
The males are very fond of their young, but very
tyrannical towards the females ; if any body attempts
to take their cub, the male ftands on the defenfive,
while the female makes off with the young in her
mouth ; fhould fhe drop it, the former inflantly quits
his enemy, falls on her, and beats her againft the
ftones, till he leaves her for dead. As foon as fhe re¬
covers, fhe comes in the moft fuppliant manner to the
male, crawls to his feet, and wafhes them with her
tears: he, in the mean time, ftalks about in the moft
infulting manner ; but in cafe the young one is carried
off, he melts into the deepeft aflii&ion, and fhows all
figns of extreme concern. It is probable that he feels
his misfortunes the more fenfibly, as the female ge¬
nerally brings but one at a time, never more than
two.
They fwim very fwiftly, at the rate of feven miles
an hour. If wounded, they will feize on the boat, and
carry it along with vaft impetuofity, and oftentimes
fink it. They can continue a long time under water.
When they want to climb the rocks, they faften with
the fore-paws, and fo draw themfelves up. They are
very tenacious of life, and will live for a fortnight after
receiving fuch wounds as would immediately deftroy
any other animal.
The Kamtfchatkans take them by harpooning, for
they never land on their fhore. To the harpoon is
fattened a long line, by which they draw the animal
to the boat after it is fpent with fatigue ^ but in the
chafe, the hunters are very fearful of too near an ap- Phoca,
proach, leaft the animal fhould faften on, and fink -v—
their veffel.
The ufes of them are not great. The flelh of the
old males is rank and naufeous ; that of the females is
faid to referable lamb ; of the young ones roafted, a
fucking pig. The fkins of the young, cut out of the
bellies of the dams, are efteemed for clothing, and are
fold for about three fhillings and fourpence each; thofe
of the old for only four fhillings.
Their remigration is in the month of September,
when they depart exceflively lean, and take their
young with them. On their return, they again pafs
near the fame parts of Kamtfchatka which they did
in the fpring. Their winter retreats are quite un¬
known ; it is probable that they are the iflands be¬
tween Kurili and Japan, of which we have fome brief
accounts, under the name of Compagnie Land, Statet
Land, and Jefo Gajima, which wer£ difeovered by
Martin Uriel in 1642. It is certain, that by his ac¬
count the natives employed themfelves in the capture
of feals. Sailors do not give themfelves the trouble
of obferving the nice diftinftion of fpecific marks ; we
are therefore at liberty to conjecture thofe which he
faw to be our animals, efpecially as we can fix on no
more convenient place for their winter quarters. They
arrive along the (bores of the Kurili xflands, and part
of thofe of Kamtfchatka, from the fouth. They land
and inhabit only the weftern fide of Bering’s ifle
which faces Kamtfchatka; and when they return in
September, their route is due fouth, pointing to¬
wards the difeoveries of Uriel. Had they migrated
from the fouth-eaft as well as the fouth-weft, every
ifle, and every fide of every ifle, would have been
filled with them ; nor fhould we have found (as we
do) fucb a conftant and local refidence.
2. The leonina, fea-lion, or bottlenofe, is found near
the fouth pole. One variety of this fpecies is deferibed
at fome length by the publifher of Anfon’s voyage.
However, according to others who have written on this
fubje<ft, the name of fea-lion belongs not fo properly
to this as to another, which has a mane like a true 1 < 1,
Of thefe we have the following account from Pernet, a •
Hiftorical Journal. “ The hair that covers the back
part of the head, neck, and (boulders, is at leaft as long
as the hair of a goat. It gives this amphibious ani¬
mal an air of refemblance to the common lion of the
foreft, excepting the difference of fize. The fea-lions
of the kind I fpeak of are 25 feet in length, and from
19 to 20 in their greateft circumference. In other
refpedb they referable the common fea-lions. Thofe of
the fmall kind have a head refembling a malliff’s, with
clofe cropt ears.
“ The teeth of the fea lions which have manes, are
much larger and more folid than thofe of the reft. In
thefe, all the teeth which are inferted into the jaw¬
bone are hollow. They have only four large ones,
two in the lower and two in the upper jaw. The reft
are not even fo large as thofe of a horfe. 1 brought
home one belonging to the true fea-lion, which is at
leaft three inches in diameter, and feven in length,
though not one of the largeft. We counted 22 of the
fame fort in the jaw-bone of one of thefe lions, where
five or fix were wanting. They were entirely folid,
and proje&ed fcarce more than an inebj or an inchaitf
s
P H O
[ 608 ]
P H O
Phoca. a half beyond their fockets. They are nearly equal in
folidity to flint, and are of a dazzling white. Seve¬
ral of our feamen took them for white flints when they
found them upon the Ihore. I could not even perfuade
them that they were not real flints, except by rubbing
them againft each other, or breaking fome pieces off,
to make them fenfible that they exhaled the fame fmell
as bones and ivory do when they are rubbed or
feraped.
« Thefe fea-lions that have manes are not more
tnifehievous or formidable than the others. They are
equally unwieldy and heavy in their motions ; and
are rather difpefed to avoid than to fall upon thofe
who attack them. Both kinds live upon fiih and
water-fowl, which they catch by furprife. They
bring forth and fuckle thtir young ones among the
corn-flags, where they retire at night, and continue
to give them fuck till they are large enough to go to
fea. In the evening you fee them aflembling in herds
uron the fhore, and cal’ing their dams in cries fo much
like lambs, calves, and goats, that, unlefs apprifed
of it, you would eaiily be deceived. The tongue of
thefe animals is very good eating : we preferred it to
that of an ox or calf. For a trial we cut off the tip
of the tongue hanging out of the mouth of one of
thefe lions which was juft killed. About 16 or 18 of
us eat each a pretty large piece, and we all thought it
fo good, that we regretted we could not cut more of it.
“ It is faid that their flefh is not abfolutcly difa-
greeahle. 1 have not tafted it: but the oil which is
extra&ed from their greafe is of great ufe. This oil is
extracted two ways; either by cutting the fat in pie¬
ces, and melting it in large cauldrons upon the fire ; or
by cutting it in the fame manner upon hurdles, or
pieces of board, and expofing them to the fun, or
only to the air : this greafe diffolves of itfelf, and
runs into veflels placed underneath to receive it.—
Some of our feamen pretended, that this laft foit of
oil, when it is frefti, is very good for kitchen ufes :
this, as well as the other, is commonly ufed for dref-
fing leather for veflels, and for lamps. It is preferred
to that of the whale : it is always clear, and leaves
no fediment.
“ The fkins of the fia-lions are ufed chiefly in ma¬
king portmanteaus, and in covering trunks. When
they are tanned, they have a grain almoft like Moroc¬
co. They are not fo fine, but are lefs liable to tear,
and keep frefh a longer time. They make good
fhoes and boots, which, when well feafoned, are wa¬
ter-proof.
“ One dav Mr Guyot and fome others brought on
board five fea Honeffes. They were about feven feet
long, and three and a half in circumference, tho’ their
inteftines were drawn, Thefe gentlemen had landed on
a fmad ifland, where they found a prodigious number
of thefe animals, and killed eight or nine hundred of
them with flicks. No other weapon is necefiary on
thefe oceafions. A Angle blow with a bludgeon, three
feet or three feet and a half locg, almoft full at the
three balls in the throat of one while he opened his Phaes,
mouth to defend himfelf, and three mufket-fhot in his - » IJl
body. The blood gufhed from his wounds like wine
from a tap. However, he crawled into the water and
difappeared. A failor attacked the other, and enga¬
ged him for a long time, ftriking him on the head with
a bludgeon, without being able to knock him down :
the failor fell down very near his antagonift, but had the
dexterity to recover himfelf at the initant the lion was
going to gorge him. Had he once feized him, the
man would infallibly have been loft: the animal would
have carried him into the water as they ufually do their
prey, and there feafted upon him. In his retreat to
the fea this animal feized a pingtiin, and devoured him
inftantaneoufly.,,
Mr Pennant defevibes three feuls of different fpe-
cies, which are called Jia-lions, viz. the phoca leoninat
or hooded feal; the phora leon'ma, or bottlenofe ; and
the beflia marina, or leonine feal. He differs in fome
particulars from the author juft quoted ; and fuch of
our readers as defire to know thefe differences, we re¬
fer to his works.
3. The vitulina, fea-calf, or common feal, inhabits
the European ocean. It has a fmooth head without
external ears ; and the common length is from five to
fix feet. The fore-legs are deeply immerfed in the
fkin of the body : the hind-legs are placed in fuch &
manner as to point dire&ly backwards : every foot is
divided into five toes ; and each of thofe connefted by
a ftrong and broad web, covered on both lides with
fhort hair. The toes are furniftied with ftrong claws,
well adapted to aflift the animal in climbing the rocks
it b?fks on: the claws on the hind-feet are {lender and
ftraight ; except at the ends, which are a little incur-
vated. The head and nofe are broad and flat, like
thofe of the otter ; the neck fliort and thick ; the
eyes large and black; in lieu of external ears, it has
two fmall orifices : the noftrils are oblong : on each
fide the nofe are feveral long Itiff hairs ; and above
each eye are a few of the fame kind. The form of
the tongue is fo Angular, that were other notes want¬
ing, that alone would diftinguifh it from all other qua¬
drupeds ; being forked, or fiit at the end. The cut¬
ting teeth are Angular in refpeft to their number, be¬
ing fix in the upper jaw, and only four in the lower.
It has two canine teeth above and below, and on each
fide of the jaw five grinders; the total 54. The whole
animal is covered with fliort hair, very clofely fet to¬
gether : the colour of that on the body is generally
dufky, fpotted irregularly with white ; on the belly
white : but feals vary greatly in their marks and co¬
lours, and fome have been found entirely white.
The feal is common on moft of the rocky (bores of
Great Britain and Ireland, efpecially on the northern
coafts : in Wales, it frequents the coafts of Caetnar-
vonfliire and Anglefey. They inhabit all the Euro¬
pean feas, even to the extreme north ; are found far
within the arftic circle, in the feas both of Europe and
Afia, and are even continued to thofe of Kamtfchatka*. * Stiller.
nefe of thefe animals, knocks them down, and kills It preys entirely ©n fiih, and never mokfts the fea' ‘com.°Patrtf ',
them on the fpot.
“ This is not altogether the cafe with the males:
their fize is prodigious. Our gentlemen encountered
two of them for a long time, with the fame weapons,
They lodged
without being able to oveicome them.
fowl: for numbers of each are often feen floating on ^ ' Q<
the waves, as if in company. Seals eat their prey
beneath the water ; and in cafe they are devouring
any very oily fiflt, the place is known by a certain
fmoothnefs of the waves immediately above. The
i power
P H O
Pfioca.
power of oil In Hilling the waves excited by a ftorm is
mentioned by Pliny: the moderns have made the ex¬
periment with fuccefs ; and thereby made one advance
towards eradicating the vulgar prejudices againft; that
great and elegant writer.
Seals are excellent fwimmers, and ready divers; and
are very bold when in the ha, fwimming carelefsly
enough about boats : their dens or lodgments are in
hollow rocks or caverns near the fea, but out of the
reach of the tide : in the fummer they will come out
of the water, to balk or deep in the fun on the top of
large Hones or fhivers of rocks; and that is the op¬
portunity our countrymen take of (hooting them : if
they chance to efcape, they haiien towards their pro¬
per element, flinging Hones and dirt behind them as
they fcramble along; at the fame time exprefiing their
fears by piteous moans: but if they happen to be over¬
taken, they will make a vigorous defence with their
feet and teeth till they are killed. They are taken for
the fake of their Heins, and for the oil their fat yields :
the former fell for 4 s. or 4 s. 6 d. a-piece; which,
when drefled, are very ufeful in covering trunks, ma¬
king waiftcoats, (hot-pouches, and feveral other con¬
veniences. We remember fome years ago to have feen
a young fed in fome degree domeHicated. It was ta¬
ken at a little diHance fr©m the fea, and was generally
kept in a veffel full of fait water; but fometrmes it was
aHowed to crawl about thehoufc, and even to approach
the (ire. Its natural food was regularly procured for
it, and it was taken to the fea every day and thrown
in from a boat. It ufed to fwim after the boat, and
always allowed itfelf to be taken back. It lived thus
for feveral weeks; and we doubt not would have lived
imich longer had it not been fometimes too roughly
ufed by the boys who took it to and from the fea!
T. he fle(h o( thefe animals, and even of porpoifes,
formerly found a place at the tables of the great; as ap¬
pears from the bill of fare of that vaft feaft that Arch-
bilhop Nevill gave in the reign of Edward IV. in which
is feen that feveral were provided on the occafion.
They couple about April, on large rocks or fmall
idands not remote from the (hore ; and bring forth in
thofe vafl: caverns that are frequent on our coaHs: they
commonly bring two at a time, which in their infant
ftate are covered with a whitiHi down or woolly fub-
itance. The feal hunters in Caithnefs fay, that their
growth is fo Hidden, that in nine tides from their birth
(ic8 hours) they will become as a&ive as their pa-
Tents. On the coaft of that country are immenfe ca¬
verns opening into the fea, and running fome hundreds
of yards beneath the land. Thefe are the refort of
feals in the breeding time, where they continue till
their young are old enough to go to fea, which is in
about fix or feveti weeks. The firft of thefe caves is
near the Ord, the laft near ThrumHer : their entrance
is fo narrow as only to admit a boat; their infide very
fpacious and lofty. In the moath of Oaober, or the
beginning of November, the feal-hunters enter the
mouth of the caverns about midnight, and rowing up
as far as they can, they land ; each of them being pro-
vided with abludgeon, and properly flationed, they light
their torches, and make a great noife, which brings
down the feals from the farther end in a confufed body
■with fearful (lirieks and cries: at firft the men are obli¬
ged to give way for fear of being overborne; but when
Vol, XIV. Part II.
L 609 1
P H O
the firft crowd is pa ft, they kill as many as ftraggle Phoca.
behind, chiefly the young, by linking them on the 
nofe; a very flight blow on that part difpatches them.
When the work is over, they drag the feals to the
boat, which two men are left to guard. This is a moft
hazardous employment; for fliould their torches go out,
or the wind blow hard from fea during their continu¬
ance in the cave, their lives are loft. The young Hals
of fix weeks age yield more oil than their emaciated
dams: above eight gallons have been got from a (ingle
whelp, which fells from 6 d. to 9 d. per gallon ; the
fldns from 6 d. to 1 s. each.
The natural hiftory of this animal may be further
elucidated by the following extracts from a letter of
the reverend Dr William Borlafe, dated O&ober the
24th 1^63. <4 1 ne teals are feen in the greateft Pennant's
, „ _ are __
plenty on the ihores of Cornwall in the months 0f Zoo-
May, June, and July. T hey are of different fizes
fome as large as a cow, and from that downwards to
a fmall calf. They feed on moft forts of fi(h which
they can mafter ; and are feen fearebing for their prey
near (bore, where the whillling fi(h, wraws, and po-
lacks, refort. They are very fwift in their proper depth
of water, dive like a (hot, and in a trice rife at 50 yards
diftance ; fo that weaker fifties cannot avoid their ty¬
ranny except in (hallow water. A perfon of the parifli
of Scnnan faw not long fince a feal in purfuit of a mul¬
let (that ftrong and fwift fifh) ; the feal turned it to
and fro in deep water, as a gre-hound does a hare:
the mullet at laft found it had no way to efcape, but
by running into (hoal water: the feal purfued; and
the former, to get more furely out of danger, threw it¬
felf on its fide, by which means it darted into (hoaler
water than it could have fwam in with the depth of its
paunch and fins, and fo efcaped. The feal brings her
young about the beginning of autumn : our fifhermen
have feen two fucking their dam at the fame time, as
(he flood in the fea in a perpendicular pofition. Their
head in fwimming is always above water, more fo than
that of a dog. They fleep an rocks furrounded by the
fea, or on the lefs acceffible parts of our cliffs left dry
by the ebb of the tide ; and if difturbed by any thing,
take care to tumble over the rocks into the fea. They
are extremely watchful, and never fleep long without
moving; feldom longer than a minute ; then raife their
heads, and if they hear or fee nothing more than or¬
dinary, lie down again, and fo on, raifing their heads
a little and reclining them alternately in about a mi¬
nute 3 time. Nature feems to have given them this
precaution, as being unprovided with auricles or ex¬
ternal ears; and confequently not hearing very quick
nor from any great diftance.”
Thefe animals are fo very ufeful to the inhabitants
of Greenland and other ar&ic people, that they may
be called their flocks. We cannot give a better ac¬
count of thefe ufes than in the words of Mr Crantz
who was long refident in thofe northern regions. *
“ Seals (fays he) are more needful to them than
flieep are to us, though they furnilh us with food and
raiment; or than the cocoa-tree is to the Indians al-
though that prefents them not only with meat to eat,
and covering for their bodies, but alfo houfes to dwell
in, and boats to fail in, fo that in cafe of neceflxty they
could live folely from it. The feals flefti (together
with the rein-deer, which is already grown pretty
4 H fcarce)
Phoca.
» n,j}.
4jrctnl.
i. J30.
p H 0 [ 610 j
fcarce') fupplies the natives with their mod palatable
and fubftantial food. Their fat furnifhes them with
oil for lamp-light, chamber and kitchen fire ; and
whoever fees their habitations, prefently finds, that it
they even had a fuperfluity of wood, it would not do,
they-can ufe nothing but train in them. They alio
mollify their dry food, moftly fiOi, in the tram ; and
finally , they barter it for all kinds of neceffanes with
the fa£tor. They can few better with fibres of the
feak finews than with thread or 'filk. Of the fkins of
the entrails they make their windows, curtains lor
their tents, Ihirts, and part of the bladders they ufe at
their harpoons; and they make train bottles of the
maw. Formerly, for want of iron, they made all man-
ner of inftruments and working tools of their bones,.
Neither is the blood wafted, but boiled with ,n;
gredients, and eaten as foup. Of the Ikin of the fed
they ft and in the greatelt need ; for, fuppofing tue
fkins of rein-deer and birds would furmfh them with
competent clothing for their bodies, and coverings
for their beds; and their flefh, together with filh, with
fufficient food ; and provided they could drefs their
meat with wood, and alfo new-model their houfe-keep-
Jner fo as to have light, and keep themfelves warm
with it too ; yet without the feals-fkins they would
not be in a caoacity of acquiring thefe fame rein deer,
fowls, fifties, and wood; becaufe they mull cover over
with feal-lkin both their hrgeand fmall boats in which
they travel and feek their provifion. They muft alfo
cut their thongs or firags out of them, make the blad¬
ders for their harpoons, and cover their tents with
them; without which they could not fubiilt m fum-
“ Therefore no man can pafs for a right Greenlan¬
der who cannot catch feds. This is the ultimate end
they afpire at, in all their device and labour from their
childhood up. It is the only art (and in truth a dif¬
ficult and dangerous one it is) to which they are train¬
ed from their infancy; by which they maintain them¬
felves, make themfelves agreeable to others, and
come beneficial members of the community * .
“ The Greenlanders have three ways.cf catching
feals: either fingly,with the bladder; or in company,
by the clapper-hunt ; or in the winter on the me:
whereto may be added the ftiooting them with a
P M O
gU“ The principal and moll common way is the ta¬
king them with the bladder. When the Greenlander
fets out equipped, and fpies a feal, he tries to furpnfe
it unawares, with the wind and fun m his bai.k, that
he may not be heard or feen by it He tries to con¬
ceal himfelf behind a wave, and makes haftily but ioft-
lv up to it. till he comes within four, five, or fix fa¬
thom of it'; meanwhile he takes the utmoft care that
•the harpoon, line, and bladder, he in proper oruer.
Then he takes hold of the oar with his left hand, and
the barpeon with his right by the hand-board, and .0
away he throws it at the feal, in fuch a manner that
tve whole dart flies from the hand-board and leaves that
jn his hand. If the harpoon hits the mark, and bu¬
ries itfelf deeper than the barbs, u wdl chreaiy difen-
rage itfelf from the bone joint, and that from tne
(haft • and alfo unwind the firing from its lodge on
the kaiak. The moment the feal is pierced, the Green-
lander xnuft throw the bladder, tied to the end of the
firing, into the water, on the fame fide as the feal runs I'hctx. ^
and dives; for that he does inftantly like a dart. *
Then the Greenlander goes and takes up the fhaft
fwimming on the water, and lays it in its place. Fhe
feal often drags the bladder with it under water, the’
it is a confiderable impediment, on account of its great
bignefs ; but it fo wearies itfelf out with it, that it
muft come up again in about a quarter of an hour to
take breath. The Greenlander haftens to the fpot
where he fees the bladder rife up, and fmites the feal
as foon as it appears with a great lance. Inis lance
always comes out of its body again; but be throws it
at the creature afrelh every time it comes up till it is
quite fpent. Then he runs the little lance into it, and
kills it outright, but ftops up the wound diredly to
preferve the blood ; and laftiy, he blows it up, bke a.
bladder, betwixt Ikin and fldh, to put it into a better
capacity of fwimming after him ; for which purpofe
he faftehs it to the left fide of his kajak or boat.
“ In this exercife the Greenlander is expofed to the
moft and greateft danger of his life ; which is probably
the reafon that they call this hunt or fifhery tamavod’,
i. e. “ the extinction,” viz. of life. For if the line
ftiould entangle itfelf, as it eafily may, in its hidden
and violent motion ; or if it ftiould catch hold of the
kajak, or ftiould wind itfelf round the oar, or the hand,
or even the neck, as it fometimes does in windy wea¬
ther ; or if the feal (hould turn fuddenly to the
other fide of the boat, it cannot be otherwife than
that the kajak muft be overturned by the firing,
and drawn down under water. On fuch defperate oc-
cafions the poor Greenlander ftands in need of every
pofiible art to difentangle himfelf from the firing, and
to raife himfelf up from under the water fevend times
fucceffively; for he will continually be overturning till
he has quite difengaged himfelf from the line. Nay,
when he imagines himfelf to be out of all danger, and
comes too near the dying feal, it may (lid bite him in
the face or hand; and a iemalc feal that has young, iu-
ftead of flying the field, will fometimes fly at the
Greenlander in the moft vehement rage, and do him a
mifehief, or bite a hole in his kajak that he muft
fink.
“In this way, fingly, they can kdl none but tbe
carelefs ftupid feal called atlarfoak. Several in com¬
pany mu ft purffie the cautious kaffigiak by the clapper-
hunt! In the fame manner they alfo furround and
kill the attarfoit in great numbers at certain feafons of
the year ; for in autumn they retire into the creeks or
inlets in ftormy weather, as in the Nepifet found in
Ball’s river, between the main land and the ifland
Kangek, which is full two leagues long, but very nar-
row.& There the Greenlanders cut off their retreat,
and frighten them under water by fhoutmg, clapping,
and throwing ftones; but as they muft come up again
continually to draw breath, then they perfecute them
again till they are tired, and at laft are obliged to
ffay fo long above water that they furround them,
and kill them with a kind of dart for the purpofe.
During this hunt we have a fine opportunity to fee
the agility of the Greenlanders, or, if I may call it fo,
their huffar-like manoeuvres. When the feal rifes out
of the water, they all fly upon it as if they had wings,
with a defperate noife ; the poor creature is forced to
dive again dire&ly} and the moment he does they^dd-
F H O
f 611 ]
F H O
ftioau pcrfe again as faft as they eame, and every one gives
y——/ jjec(i h;g p0jj t0 fec where it will Hart up again ;
which is an uncertain thing, and is commonly three
quarters of a mile from the former fpot. If a feal has
a good broad water, three or four leagues each way,
it can keep the fportfmen in play for a couple of hours
before it is fo fpent that they can furround and kill
it. If the feal in its fright betakes itfelf to the land
for a retreat, it is welcomed with flicks and ftones by
the women and children, and prefently pierced by the
men in the rear. This is a very lively and a very pro¬
fitable diverfion for the Greenlanders, for many times
one man will have eight or ten feals for his fhare.
“ The third method of killing feals upon the ice is
moflly praftifed in Difko, where the bays are frozen
over in the winter. There are feveral ways of pro¬
ceeding. The feals thexnfelves make fometimes holes
in the ice, where they come and draw breath ; near
fuch a hole a Greenlander feats himfelf on a ftool,
putting his feet on a lower one to keep them from
the cold. Now when the feal comes and puts itsnofe
to the hole, he pierces it inftantly with his harpoon ;
then breaks the hole larger, and draws it out and kills
it quite. Or a Greenlander lays himfelf upon his belly
on a kind of a fledge, near other holes, where the feals
come out upon the ice to baik themfelves in the fun.
Near this great hole they make a little one, and an¬
other Greenlander puts a harpoon into it with a very
long fhnft or pole. He that lies upon the ice looks
into the great hole, till he fees a feal coming under the
harpoon ; then he gives the other the fignsl, who runs
the feal through with all his might.
“ If the Greenlander fees a feal lying near its hole
upon the ice, he Hides along upon his belly towards it,
wags his head, and grunts like a feal; and the poor
feal, thinking it is one of its innocent companions, lets
him come near enough to pierce it with his long dart.
When the current wears a great hole in the ice in the
ipring, the Greenlanders plant themfelves all round it,
till the feals come in droves to the brim to fetch
breath, and then they kill them with their harpoons.
Many alfo are killed on the ice while they lie fleeping
and fnoring in the fun."
To this long quotation, which we think both cu¬
rious and interesting, we fhall fubjoin the following ob-
fervations of Mr Pennant, which are not kfs worthy of
attention.
“ Nature (fays this intelligent writer) has been fo
niggardly in providing variety of provifion for the
Greenlanders, that they are neceflitated to have re-
courfe to fuch which is offered to them with a liberal
hand. The Kamtfchatkan nations, which enjoy feve¬
ral animals, as well as a great and abundant choice of
fifh, are fo enamoured with the taftc of the fat of feals,
that they can make no feaft without making it one of
the diHres. Of that both Ruffians and Kamtfchatkans
make their candles. The latter eat the ffe/h boiled, or
clfe dried in the fun. If they have a great quantity,
they preferve it in the following manner :
“ They dig a pit of a requifite depth, and pave it
with Hones; then fill it with wood, and fet it on fire
fo as to heat the pit to the warmth of a Hove. They
then colled all the cinders into a heap. They ftrew
•the bottom with the green wood of alder, on which
&hey place feparately the flefh and the fat, and put
Jirltic Zoo-
iogy, v. i.
between every layer branches of the fame tree; when
the pit is filled they cover it with fods, fo that the va¬
pour cannot cfcape. After fome hours they take out
both fat and fleffi, and keep it for winter’s provifions,
and they may be preferved a whole year without
fpoiling.
“ The Kamtfchatkans have a moll finguhr ceremo¬
ny. After they take the flefh from the heads of the
feals, they bring a veffel in form of a c noe, and fling
into it all the flculls, crowned with certain herbs, and
place them on the ground. A certain perfon enters
the habitation with a fack filled with tonchitche^ fweet
herbs, and ■* little of the bark of willow Two of the
natives then roll a great Hone towards the door, and
cover it with pebbles; two otiiers take the fweet herbs
and difpofe them, tied in little packets. The great
Hone is to fignify the fea-fhore, the peobles the - aves,
and the packets feals. They then bring three difhes
of a hafh called tolhoucha: of this they make little balls,
in the middle of which they flick the packets of herbs:
of the willow-bark they make a little canoe, and fill it
with tolkoucha, and cover it with the fack. After
fome time the two Kamtfchatkans, who had put the
mimic feals into the toikoucha, take the balls, and a
veffel refembling a canoe, aud draw it along the fani
as if it was on the fea, to convince the real feals how
agreeable it would be to them to come among the
Kamtfchatkans, who have a fea in their very jurts or
dwellings. And this they imagine will induce the
feals to fuffer themfelves to be taken in great mfmbcrs.
Various other ceremonies, equally ridiculous, are prac-
tifed; in one of which they invoke the winds, which
drive the feals on their fhorea, to be propitious.
“ Befides the ufes which are made of the flefh and
fat of feals, the fkins of the largeft are cut into foies
for fhoes. The women make their fummer boots of
the undreffed /kins, and wear them with the hair out-
mofl. In a country which abounds fo greatiy in furs,
very little more ufe is made of the Heins of feals in the
article of drefs than what has been mentioned. But.
the Koriaks, the Oloutores, and Tchutfchi, form with
the fkins canoes and veffels of different fizes, fome large
enough to carry thirty people.
“ Seals fwarm on all the coafts of Kamtfchatka, and'
will go up the rivers eighty verfts in purfuit of fiffi.
The Tungufi give the milk of thefe animals to their
children inflead of phyfic. The navigators obferved
abundance of feals about Bering’s ifland, but that they
decreafed in numbers as they advanced towards tire
ftraits; for where the walrufes abounded, the feajs
grew more and more fcarce.
“ I did not obferve any feai-fkin garments among
thofe brought over by the navigators, fuch as one
might have expected among the Efquimaux of the
high latitudes they vifited, and which are fo much in
ufe with thofe of Hudfon’s Bay and Labrador. That
fpecies of drefs doubtlefsly was worn in the eariiefl:
times. Thefe people wanted their hiftorians; but we
are affured that the Maffagetae clothed themfelves in
the fkins of feals. They, according to D’Anville, in¬
habited the country to the call of the Cafpian fea, and
the lake Aral, both of which waters abound with feals..
• “ Seals are now become a great article of commerce.
The oil from the vaft whales is no longer equal to the
demand for fiipplying the magnificent profufion o£
4H % lamps
Phocs.'
Phoca.
* Phil.
'Iranf.
Ahr. vt.T^
tab v,
xlvii, 120.
■f- iVou. Com
Petrop. ii.
apo.
^ Muller s
Vtp.
1 Dr Pal-
tas, £5*
Defer.
Kamtfchat~
&a} 420.
P H O [61
lamps in and round our capital. The chafe of thefe
animals is redoubled for that purpofe ; and the (kins,
properly tanned, are in confiderablc ufe in the manu-
fadlory. of boots and /hoes.”
4. The phoca barbata, er great feal, has long white
whilkers with curled points. The back is arched; hair
black, very deciduous, and very thinly difperfed over
a thick fkm, which is almoll naked in fummer. The
teeth of this fpecies are like thofe of the common feal;
the fore feet are like the human hand, the middle toe
being the longell and the thumb fhort. They are up¬
wards of 12 feet long.
The inhabitants of Greenland cut out the fkin of
this fpecies thongs and lines, a finger-thick, for the
feal-fifhery. Its flefh is as white as veal, and is efteemed
the moll delicate of any. They produce plenty of
lard, but very little oil. The fkins of the young are
lometimes ufed to lie on. — It inhabits the high fea
about Greenland, is very timid, and commonly refts
on the floating ice. It breeds about the month of
March, and brings forth a Angle young on the ice,
generally among the ifiands ; for then it approaches a
little nearer to the land. The great old ones fwim
very flowly.
On the northern coaft of Scotland is found a feal
twelve feet long. A young one, fsven feet and a half
long, was fhown in London fome years ago, which was
fo far from maturity as to have fcarcely any teeth * :
yet the common feals have them complete before they
attain the fize of fix feet, their utmoft growth.
A fpecies larger than an ox was found in the Kamt-
fchatkan feas from 56 to 64 north latitude, called by
' the natives lachtak\. They weighed 800 pounds, and
were eaten by Bering’s crew ; but their flefh was very
loathfome t- The cubs are entirely black.
Steller has given accounts of other feals found in
thofe wild feas; but his deferiptions are fo very im¬
perfect as to render it impofiible to afeertain the fpe¬
cies. He fpeaks in his MSS. of a middle-fized kind,
wholly and moft elegantly fpotted; of another which is
black with brown fpots, having the belly of a yellow-
ifh white, and as large as a yearling ox. He mentions
a third fpecies, black, and with a particular formation
of the hinder legs; and a fourth of a yellowifh co¬
lour, with a gre^t circle on it of the colour of cher¬
ries !|.
5. The phoca foetida, or rough feal, is diftinguifhed
by a fhort nofe and fhort round head ; a body almoft
elliptical, covered with lard almoft to the hind feet.
This fpecies feldom if ever exceeds four feet in length.
Their hairs are clofely fet together, foft, long, and
fomewhat ere£I, intermixed with curled. They are of
a dufky colour, mixed with white, which fometimes
varies to white, with a dufky dorfal line.
This fpecies never frequents the high feas, but keeps
on the fixed ice in the remote bays near the frozen
land ; and when old never forfakes its haunts. They
couple in June, and bring forth in January on the fix¬
ed ice, its proper element. In that cold fituation they
have a hole for the benefit of fifhing; near which they
generally remain folitary, being rarely found in pairs.
They are very incautious, and often fleep on the fur-
face of the water, by which means they become an ea-
fy prey co the eagle. They feed on finall fifh, fhrimps,
&c. The Ikin, tendons, and lard, are ufed in the fame
3
2 1 P H O
way with thofe of other feals. The flefh Is red and Phoca
foetid, efpecially in males, which is naufeated even by Phoca!a-)
the inhabitants of Greenland.
The feal-hunters in Newfoundland have a larger
kind, which they call the fquare phipper, and which
weighs 500 pounds. Its coat is like that of a water-
dog ; fo that it appears by the length of its hair to be
allied to this fpecies ; but the vaft difference in fize
admits not of certainty in thi> refpedt.
6. The phoca leporina, or leporine feal, has hair of
a dirty white colour, tinged with yellow, but never
fpotted. The hairs are ere&, interwoven, and foft
like thofe of a hare, efpecialiy in the young. The
head is long ; the upper lip fweiling and thick ; the
whifkers very ftrong and very thick, ranged in 15
rows, covering the whole front of the lip, fo that it
appears bearded ; the eyes are blue, and the pupil of
them black ; the teeth are itrong ; the fore feet are
fhort; the membranes of the hind feet are even and not
waved; the tail is flioi t and thick, it being four inches
two lines in length ; the cubs are of a milk white co¬
lour. The length of the fpeciea is about fix feet fix
inches, and the circumference where greateft five feet
two.
This fpecies inhabits the White Sea in the fummer
time, and afeends and defeends the mouths of rivers
with the tide in queft. of prey. It is likevvife found on
the coafts of Iceland, and within the polar circle from
Spitzbergen to Tchutki Nofs, and from thence fouth-
ward about Kamtfchatka.
There are fcveral other fpecies of this genus, and a
variety of curious particulars refpefting them, which,
our limits permit us not to give. Such of our readers,
however, as wifh for further information on this fub-
je£t, will find themfelves amply gratified by a careful
perufal of what Mr Pennant has written on the fub-
je<ft, from whofe labours we have extra&ed much of
our article. See his Hljlory of Quadrupeds, Vol. II.
p. 518 536- his Arftic Zoology, Vol I. p. 151 
177. and his Britijh Zoology, as alfo the feveralauthors
whofe works he quotes.
PHOCiEA, the laft town of Ionia, (Mela, Pli¬
ny) ; of iEolis, (Ptolemy), becaufe fituated on the
right or north fide of the river Hermus, which he
makes the boundary of iEolis to the fouth. It flood
far in the land, on a bay or arm of the fea; had two
very fafe harbours, the one called Lampter the other
Naujlatimos, (Livy). It was a colony of lonians, fi¬
tuated in the territory of ^Eolis, (Herodotus). Mafil-
lia in Gaul was again a colony from it. Phocaenfes,
the people, (Livy) ; Phocaicus, the epithet, (Lucan) ;
applied to Marfeilles, It was one of the 12 cities
which affembled in the panionium or general council
of Ionia.
Some writers tell us, that while the foundations of Ancient
this city were laying, there appeared near the (bore '
great fhoal of fea-calves; whence it was called Plwcaa,
the word phoca fignifying in Greek a fea calf. Ptole¬
my, who makes the river Hermus the boundary be¬
tween iEolia and Ionia, places Phoctea in iEolis ; but
all other geographers reckon it among the cities of
Ionia. It flood on the fea-coaft, between Cuma to
the north, and Smyrna to the fouth, not far from the
Hermus; and was, in former times, one of the moft
wealthy and powerful cities of all Alia j but is now a
poos
PHD [ <
Fhofica. poor beggarly village, though the fee of a bifhop. The
“^'Y " Phocaeans were expert mariners, and the firR among the
Greeks that undertook long voyages; which they per¬
formed in galleys of fifty oars. As they applied them-
felves to trade and navigation, they became acquaint¬
ed pretty early with the coafts and iflands of Europe,
where they are faid to have founded feveral cities,
namely, Velia in Italy ; Alalia, or rather Aleria, in
Corfica ; and Marfeilles in Gaul. Neither were they
unacquainted with Spain; for Herodotus tells us, that,
in ihe time of Cyrus the Great, the Phocaeans arriving
at Sarteflus, a city in the B:ty of Cadiz, were treated
with extraordinary kindnefs by Arganthonius king of
that country; who, hearing that they were under no
fmall apprehenfion of the growing power of Cyrus, in¬
vited them to leave Ionia, and fettle in what part of
his kingdom they plealed. The Phocseans could not
be prevailed upon to forfake their country; but accept¬
ed a large fum of money, which that prince generoufly
prefented them with, to defray the expence of building
a ftrong wall round their city. The wall they built on
their return ; but it was unable to refill the mighty
power of Cyrus, whofe general Harpagus, invefting
the city with a numerous army, foon reduced it to the
utmoft extremities. The Phocaeans, having no hopes
of any fuccour, offered to capitulate; but the condi¬
tions offered by Harpagus feeming fevere, they begged
he would allow them three days to deliberate ; and, in
the mean time, withdraw his forces. Harpagus, though
net ignorant of their defign, complied with their re-
queft. The Phocteans, taking advantage of this conde-
feenfion, put their wives, children, and all their moft va-
luable effedls, on board feveral veffels which they had
ready equipped, and conveyed them fafe to the ifland
of Chios, leaving the Perfians in poffeffion of empty
houfes. Their defign was to purchafe the (Enef-
fian iflands, which belonged to the Chians, and fettle
there. But the Chians not caring to have them fo
near, left they fhould engrofs all the trade to themfelves,
as they were afea-faring people, they put to fea again;
and, having taken Phocaea, their native country, by
furprife, put all the Perfians they found in it to the
fword. They went to Corfica ; great part of them
however returned very foon, as did the reft alfo in a
few years. They then lived in fubjeftion either to the
Perfians, or tyrants of their own. Among the latter
we find mention made of Laodamus, who attended Da¬
rius Hyftafpis in his expedition againft the Scythians;
and of Dionyfius, who, joining Ariftagoras, tyrant of
Miletus, and chief author of the Ionian rebellion, re¬
tired, after the defeat of his countrymen, to Phoenicia,
where he made an immenfe booty, feizing on all the
fbips he met with trading to that country. From Phoe¬
nicia he failed to Sicily, where he committed great de
predations on the Carthaginians and Tufcans ; but is
faid never to have molefted the Greeks.
In the Roman times the city of Phocsea fided v/ith
Antiochus the Great ; whereupon it was befieged, ta¬
ken, and plundered, by the Roman general; but allow¬
ed to be governed by its own laws, kn the war which
Anftonicus brother to Attains, king of Pergamus,
raifed againft the Romans, they affifted the former to
the utmoft of their power; a circumfknce which fo
tlifpleafed the fenate, that they commanded the town
tx> be demolifhed, and the whole race of the Phocseans
S13 ] P H O
to be utterly rooted out. This fevere fentence would Phoca*.
have been put in execution, had not the Maffilienfes, a ^^
Phocasan colony, interpofed, and, with much difficulty,
afTuaged the anger of the fenate. Pompey declared
Phocaea a free city, and reftored the inhabitants to all
the privileges they had ever enjoyed ; whence, under
the firft emperors, it was reckoned one of the inofl
flourifhing cities of all Afra Minor. This is all we
have been able to colletft from the ancients touching
the particular hiftory of Phocaea.
PHOCAS, a Roman centurion, was raifed to the
dignity of emperor by the army, and was crowned at
Conftantinople about the year 603. The emperor
Mauritius, who was thus deferted both by the army
and the people, fled to Chalcedon with his five children,
whom Phocas caufed to be inhumanly murdered before
his eyes, and then he murdered Mauritius himfelf, his
brother, and feveral other perfons who were attached
to that family.
Phocas, thus proclaimed and acknowledged at Con-Ancient
ftantinople, fent, according to cuftom, his own image
and that of his wife Leontia to Rome, where theyv'15'
were received with loud acclamations, the people there
being incenfed againft Mauritius on account of the cruel
exaftions of the exarchs, and his other minifters in Ita¬
ly. Gregory, furnamed the Great, then bifhop of
Rome, caufed the images to be lodged in the oratory
of the martyr Csefarius, and wrote letters to the new
emperor, congratulating him upon his advancement to
the throne, which he faid was effefted by a particular
providence, to deliver the people from the innumerable
calamities and heavy opprefiions under which they had
long groaned. Had we no other character of Phocas
and Leontia but that which has been conveyed to us-
in Gregory’s letters, we fhould rank him amongft the
beft princes mentioned in hiftory; but all other writers
paint him in quite different colours; and his aftions,
tranfmitted to us by feveral hiftorians, evidently fpeak
him a moft cruel and blood-thirfty tyrant. He was cf
middling flature, fays Cedrtnus, deformed, and of a
terrible afperft: his hair was red, his eye-brows met*
and one of his cheeks was marked with a fear, which,
when he was in a paffion, grew black and frightful:
he was greatly addicted to wine and women, blood-
thirfty, inexorable, bold in fpeech, a ftranger to com-
paffion, in his principles a heretic. He endeavoured,
in the beginning of his reign, to gain the affe&ions of
the people by celebrating the Circenfian games with
extraordinary pomp, and diftributing on that occafion
large fums amongft the people; but finding that inftead
of applauding they reviled him as a drunkard, he or¬
dered his guards to fall upon them. Some were killed,
many wounded, and great numbers were dragged to
prifon : but the populace rifing, fet them at liberty,
and thenceforth conceived an irreconciieable averfion
to the tyrant.
As foon as the death of Mauritius was known,
Narfes, who then commanded the troops quartered on
the frontiers of Perfia, revolted. Phocas, however
managed matters fo as to gain him over to his intereft
and then treacheroufly and cruelly burnt him alive.
He endeavoured to ftrengthen his caufe by refpedtabla
alliances; but his cruelty was fuch as to render him ge¬
nerally hated, for he ipared neither fex nor age, and
amongft others he murdered Conftantina the widow of
Mauritius^
PlvicJon.
PHO [614] PHO
ph«ca* Mauritius, and her daughters. Thefe cruelties were fpoke as poignantly again ft their vices as Demofthcocs Photic*.
11 length the caufe of his downfall. He became uni- himfelf; infomuch that tuis orator once told him, _ v
verfally hateful; and perfons in great authority near his ‘ The Athenians, Phocion, in fome ef their mad fits,
perfon confpired again ft him. This confpiracy, how- will murder thee.’ ‘ The fame (anfwered he) may
ever, was difeovered, and the perfons concerned in it fall to thee, Hemofthenes, if ever they come to be
were all put to death. The following year,'however, fober. ^
610, he was overtaken by the fate he had fo long de- He was afterwards appointed to command the army
ferved. which was fent to affift the Byzantines againft Philip,
whom he obliged £0 return to bis own dominions.
This truly great man, whom (though extremely poor)
Heraclius, the fon of the governor of Africa, who
bore the fame name, taking upon him the title of em
OOlc me lame iicirncj w j & 9 7 v_ , 0 *
peror, and being acknowledged aaj’uch by the people of no fum could bribe to betray his country, and who at
Africa, failed from thence with a formidable fleet, and
a powerful army on board, for Con'Aantinople, while
Nicetas marched thither by way of Alexandria and the
Pentapolis. Heraclius (leered his courfe to A >ydu8,
where he was received with great demonltrations or joy
by feveral perfens of rank, who had been banifhed by
Phocas. From ASydus he failed to Conftantinople,
where he engaged and utterly defeated the tyrant’s
fleet. Phocas took refuge in the palace; but one
Photinus, whefe wite he had formerly debauched, pur-
fuing him with a party of foldiers, forced the gates,
dragged the cowardly emperor from the throne, and
having dripped him of the imperial robes, and clothed
him with a black veft, carried him m chains to Heraclius,
who commanded firft his hands and feet, then his arms,
and at laft his head, to be cut off c the remaining part
of his body was delivered up to the foldiers, who
burnt it in the forum. We are told, that Heraclius
having reproached him with his evil adminiftratlon, he
anfwered, with great calmnefs, ‘‘ It is incumbent upon
you to govern better.” Such was the end of this cruel
tyrant, ’ after he had reigned feven years and fome
months.
PHOCIL1DES, a Greek poet and pbilofopher of
Miletus, flouriftied about 540 years before the Chriiiian
era. The poetical piece now extant, attributed to him,
is not of his compofition, but of another poet who li¬
ved in the reign of Adrian.
PHOCION was a diftinguifhed Athenian general
and orator in the time of Philip II. of Macedon. His
charader is thus deferibed in the Ancient Univerfal
'Ancient Hiftory. “ He was too modeft to folicit command,
ifniv. Hi/}. nor did he promote wars that he might raife his an-
5* thority by them ; though, taken either as a foldier,
orator, ftatefman, or general, he was by far the molt
eminent Athenian of his time. As he was a mod dif-
interefted patriot, he could entertain no great affe&ion
every ri(k on all occaficns gave them found advice, was
at length accufed by his ungrateful countrymen. This
event happened in the year before Chrift 31^*
was fent to Athens by Polyperchon head of a fa&ion
in Macedonia, together with his friends, chained in
carts, with this meffage, “ That though he was con¬
vinced they were traitors, yet he left them to be judged
by the Athenians as a free people.” Phocion de¬
manded whether they intended to proceed againft him
by form of law ; and fome crying out that they would,
Phocion demanded how that could be if they were
not allowed a fair hearing ? but perceiving, by the
clamour of the people, that no fuch thing was to be
expefted, he exclaimed, “ As for myfelf, I confefs
the crime objefted to me, and fubmit to the judgment
of the law; but confider, O ye Athenians, what have
thefe poor innocent men done that they fliould be in¬
volved in the fame calamity with me ?” The people
replied with great vociferation, “ They are your ac¬
complices, and that is enough.” Then the decree was
read, adjudging them all to death, viz. Phocion, Ni-
cocles, Aheudippus, Agamon, and Pythocles ; thefe
were prefent: Demetrius, Phalereus, Callimedon, Cha-
tides, and others, were condemned in their abfence.
Some moved that Phocion might be tortured before he
was put to death ; nay, they were for bringing the
rack into the affembly, and torturing him there. 1 he
majority, however, thought it enough if he was put to
death, for which the decree was carried unanimoufly *
force putting on garlands of flowers when they gave
their votes. As he was going to execution, a perfon
who was his intimate friend alked him if he had any
meffage for his fon? “ Yes,” replied Phocion; “ tell
him it is my laft command that he forget how ill the
Athenians tteated his father.”
The fpleen of his.enemies was not extinguiflied with
his life: they paffed a decree whereby his corpfe was
difpofi- banned the A^n.an tenitones; they like.ife forbad
r 1 •    • tW were anv Athenians to furmfh fire for his funeral pile. One
lion of his countrymen, and how unlikely they were
long to fupport fuch meafures as were neceffary to
humble the Macedonian power, he did not exprefs
himfelf vehemently, but chote rather to cultivate the
efteem which on all occafions Philip iTiowed for the
ft ate of Athens, as a mean of prefervtng her, when fhe
(hould be reduced to that fituation which he conceived
they wanted virtue to prevent. From this character
the reader will eafily difeern that Demofthenes and he
could not well agree. The former was always warm,
his language copious, and his defigns extenfive • and
Phocion, on the other hand, was of a mild temper,
delivered his opinion in very few words, and propofed
fchemes at once neceffary and eafy to be effedied. Yet
ihe feldom or never concurred with the people, but
any Athenians to furnifh fire for his funeral pile. One
Conopian took up the corpfe, and catried it beyond
Eleufina, where he borrowed fome fire of a Megarian
woman and burned it. A Meganan matron, who at¬
tended with her maid, raifed on the place an honorary
monument; and having gathered up the bones, carried
them home, and buried them under her own hearth}
praying at the fame time thus to the Penates : ^ lo
you, O ye gods, guardians of this place, I commit the
precious remains of the moft excellent Phocion. Pra¬
ted! them, 1 befeech you, from all infults ; and deliver
them one day to be repofited in the fepukhre of his
anceftors, when the Athenians fhall become wafer. It
was not long before this opportunity occurred. When
the Athenians began to cool a little, and remember
D the
4
P H O (6
fhecit. the many fervices they had received from Phocion, they
Lfmnrmm~/ decreed him a ftatue of brafa; ordered his bones to be
brought back at the public expence ; and decreed that
his accufers (hould be put to death. Agnonides, who
was principally concerned in that tragedy, fufftred ;
but Epicurus and Demophdus, who were alfo accom¬
plices in it, fled. However, Phocion’s fon met with
them, and executed his revenge upon them ; which
was almoft the only good aftion he ever performed, as
he had a very fmall (hare of his father's abilities, and
not any of his virtues. Such is the flcklenefs and fuch
the injuftice of popular governments ; failings which,
if we are to judge from univerfd experience, are abfo-
lutely infepirable from them.
PHOCIS, (Dcmoflhenes, Strabo, Paufanias) ; a
country of Greece, contained between Boeotia to the
eaft, and Locris to the weft, but extending formerly
from the Sinus Corinthiacus on the fouth to the fca
of Euboea on the north, and, according to Dionyfius,
as far as Thermopylse; but reduced afterwards to nar¬
rower bounds. Phoc nfes, the people; Pbocicus, the
epithet, (Juftin); Bellum Phocicum^ the facred war
which the Thebans and Philip of Macedon carried on
againft them for plundering the temple at Pdphi ;
and by which Philip paved the way to the fovereignty
of all Greece, (Juftin.) Its greateft length was from
north to fouth, that is, from 38° 45' to 39° 20', or
about 39 miles; but very narrow fiom eaft to weft,
not extending to 30 miles, that is, from 23° 10' to
230 40' at the wideft, but about 23 miles towards the
^orinthian W. and much narrower ftill towards the
1J. nortj:ii country generally allowed to have
taken its name from Phocus the fon of Ornytion, a
native of Corinth ; but having been foon after invaded
by the Eginetce, under the conduft of another Phocus,
who was the fon of Eacus king of Enopia, the me¬
mory of the firft infenftbly gave way to that of the
fecond.
Jn Phocis there were many celebrated mountains,
fuch as Cythcron, Helicon, and Parnassus. The
la ft two we have already noticed in the order of the
alphabet. Cythaeron was confecrated to the mufes as
well as the other two, and was confequently much ce¬
lebrated by the poets. Both it and Helicon contend
with mount Parnaffus for height and magnitude. There
were no remarkable rivers in Phocis except Cephifus,
which runs from the foot of Parnaftus northward, and
empties itfelf in the Pindus, which was near the boun¬
dary of that kingdom. It had feveral very confider-
ahle cities; fuch as Cyrra, Criffa, and Antecyra,
which, according to Ptolemy, were on the fea coafts ;
and Pythia, Delphi, Daulis, Elatia, Ergofthenia, and
Baulia, which were inland towns. Elatia was the
largeft and richeft after Delphi.
Deucalion was king of that part of Phocis which
lies about Parnaffus, at the time that the Cecrops flou-
riflred in Attica ; but the Phocians afterwards formed
themfelves into a commonwealth, to be governed by
their general affemblies, the members of which were
chofen from among themfelves, and were changed as
often as occrllon required. Of the hiftory of the
Phocians but little is known till the time of the holy
war, of which we have the following account in the
Ancient Univcrfal Hiftory.
5 j P H O
“ Tke Phocians having prefumed to plough the FWs
territories of the city ot Cyrra, confecrated to the p .
Delphic god, were fummoned by the other Grecian P ‘oe‘1,a*’J
ftates before the court of the Amphi&yons, where a
confiderable fine was impofed upon them for their fa-
crilege. They refufed to pay ir, on pretence that it
was too large ; and at the next affembly their domi¬
nions wrere adjudged confifeated to the ufe of the
temple. This fecond fentence exafperated the Pho¬
cians ftill more ; who, at the inftigation of one Phiio-
melus, or, as he is called by Plutarch, Philomedes,
feized upon the temple, plundered it of its treafure,
and held the facred depofitum for a confiderable time.
This fecond crime occafioned another affembly of the
Amphi&yon?, the refult of which was a formal decla¬
ration of war againft the Phocians. The quarrel being
become more general, the feveral ftates took part in it
according to their inclinations or intereft. Athens,.
Sparta, and forne others of the Peloponnefians, decla¬
red for the Phocians; and the Thebans, Thefialians*
Locrians, and other neighbouring ftates, againft them.*
A war w'as commenced with great fury on both fides,
and ftyled (be holy war, which lafted ten years ; during
which the Phocians, having hired a number of fo¬
reign troops, made an obftinate defence, and would
in all probability have held out much longer had not
Philip of Macedon given the finiftiing ftroke to their
total defeat and pumfhment. The war being ended,
the grand council afiembled again, and impofed an an¬
nual fine of 60 talents upon the Phocians, to be paid
to the temple, and continued till they had fully repaired
the damage it had fuftained from them ; and, till this
reparation ftiould be made, they were excluded from
dwelling in walled towns, and from having any vote in
the grand afiembly. I hey did not, however, continue
long under this heavy fentence : their known bravery-
made their affiftance fo neceffary to the reft, that they
were glad to remit it; after which remifllon they con¬
tinued to behave with their ufual courage and rcfolu-
tion, and foon obliterated their former guilt."
We cannot finifti this article without mentioning
more particularly Daulis, rendered famous, not fo much
for its extent or richnefs, as for the ftature and prow'efs
Oi its inhabitants; but ftill more for the inhuman re-
paft which w'as ferved up to Tereus king of Thrace
by the women of this city, by whom he was foon after
murdered for the double injury he had done to his
fifter-in-law^ Philomela, daughter of Pandion king of
Athens. See Philomela.
PHCEBUS, one of the names given by ancient
my thologifts to the Sun, Sol, or Apollo. See A-
FOLLO.
PHOENICIA, or more properly Phoenice, the
ancient name of a country lying between the 34th and
36th degrees of north latitude ; bounded by Syria on
the north an ; eaft, by Judaea on the fouth, and by the
Mediterranean on the weft. Whence it borrowed its
name is not abfolutely certain. Some derive it from
one Phoenix; others from the Greek word phoenix, Univ. Hijfr
Signifying a palm or date, as that tree remarkablyv-
abounded in this country. Some again fupppfe that
Pheenice is originally a tranflation of the Hebrew word
Edom, from the Edomites who fled thither in the days
of David. By the contraction of Canaan it was alfo
called
P II O { 61
called Chna, and anciently Rhabhothin and Colpith (a).
' The Jews commonly named it Canaan; though fome
part of it, at leaft, they knew by the name of Syro-
phccnice (b). Bochart tells us that the moft probable
etymology is Phene /liiak, i. e. 44 the defcendmts of
Anak.” Such were the names peculiar to this fmall
country; though Phoenice was fometimes extended to
all the maritime countries of Syria and Judaea, and Ca¬
naan to the Philiftines, and even to the Amalekitee.
On the contrary, thefe two names, and the rek, were
moll generally fwallowed up by thofe of I aleiline and
Syria (c).
There is fomedifagreement among authors with re-
fnea to the northern limits of this country. Ptolemy
makes the river Eleutherus the boundary of Phcenice
to the north ; but Pliny, Meh, and Stephanus, place
it in the bland of Aradus, lying north of that river.
Strabo obferves, that fome will have the river Eleu¬
therus to be the boundary of Seleucis, on the fide of
Phoenice and Coelefyria. On the coaft of Phoenice,
and fouth of the river Eleutherus, flood the following
cities: Simyra, Orthofia, Tripolis, Botrys, Byblus,
Palaebyblus, Berytus, Sidon, Sarepta, Tyrus, Palae-
tyrus. v . rs -i i
Phoenice extended, according to Ptolemy, even be¬
yond mount Carmelus ; for that geographer places in
Phoenice not only Ecdippa and Ptolemais, but Syca-
mimim and Dsra, which {land fouth of that mountain.
Thefe, however, properly fpeaking, belonged to Pa
leftine. We will not take upon us to mark out the
bounds of the midland Phcenice. Ptolemy reckons in
it the following towns : Area, Palaebyblus (Old Byb¬
lus). Gabala, and Casferia Panise. This province was
confiderably extended in the times of Chriftiamty ;
when, being eonfidered as a province of Syria, it in¬
cluded not only Damafcus but Palmyra alfo.
The foil of this country is good, and produftive of
.many neeeflaries for food and clothing. 1 he air is
wholefome, and the climate agreeable. It is plenti¬
fully watered by fmall rivers ; which, tunning down
from mount Libanus, fometimes fwell to an immode¬
rate degree, either increafed by the melting of the
fnows on that mountain, or by heavy rains. Upon
thefe occafions they overflow, to the great danger and
hinderance of the traveller and damage of the country.
Among thefe rivers is that of Adonis.
It is univerfally allowed that the Phoenicians were
Canaanites (d) by defeent: nothing is plainer or lefs
6 ] P H O
contefled, and therefore it were time lofl to prove it.
We fhall only add, that their blood mull have been
mixed with that of foreigners in procefs of time, as it
happens in all trading places; and that many ftrange
families muft have fettled among them, who could
confeque-ntly lay no claim to this remote origin, how
much foever they may have been called Phoenicians,
and reckoned of the fame defeent with the ancient
proprietors.
The Phoenicians were governed by kings; and their
teiritory, as fmall a flip as it was, included feveral king¬
doms; namely, thofe of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, Beiy-
tus, and Byblus. In this particular they imitated and
adhered to the primitive government of their iorera-
thers; who, like the other Canaanites, were under
many petty princes, to whom they allowed the fove-
reign dignity, referving to themfelves the natural rights
and liberties of mankind. Of their civil laws we have
no particular fyflem.
With regard to religion, the Phoenicians were the
mofl grofs and abominable idolaters, d he Baal-benth,
Baalzebub, Baalfamen, &c. mentioned in Scripture,
were fome of the Phoenician gods; as were alio the
Moloch, Afhtaroth, and Thammuz, mentioned in the
facred writings.—The word Baal, in itfelf an appella¬
tive, was no doubt applied to the true God, until he
rejefted it on account of its being fo much profaned by
the idolaters. The name was not appropriated to any
particular deity among the idolatrous nations, but was
common to many; however, it was generally imagined
that one great God prel'ided over all the reft. Among
the Phoenicians this deity was named Baal-famen;
whom the Hebrews would have oMeA BaalJhemim, or
the God of heaven. In all probability this was alfd
the principal Carthaginian deity, though his Punic
name is unknown. We have many religious rites of
the Carthaginians handed down to us by the Greek
and Roman writers; but they all beftowed names of
their own gods upon^thofe of the Carthaginians,
which leads us to a knowledge of the correfpondence
between the charadera of the Phoenician and European
deities. The principal deity of Carthage, according
to Diodorus Siculus, was Chronus^or Saturn. The
facrifices offered up to him were children of the befl
families. Our author alfo tells us, that the Carthagi¬
nians had a brazen flatue or coloffus of this god, the
hands of which were extended in a<ft to receive, and
bent downwards in fuch a manner, that the child laid
thereon
(A) This laft name is a tranflation of the firft. RMotfin is in phr™ or
already obferved, that in its largefl extent it fometimes comprehended Phoenice and Ccele y
plainly confonnds thefe three names ; we mean, ufes one for th' ot>“ “f of the curfe denounced
on\heir^progenitorf'and^errified'bywarn fo vigoroufly and ^ [he dangefof
wns. Heidegger conjeautca alfo that they were afitamed of their nnceftor Canaan.
P H 0
^Wnicia
thereon immediately fell down into a hollow where
there was a fiery furnace. He adds alfo, that this in¬
human praflice feemed to confirm a tradition, handed
down to the Greeks from very early antiquity, viz. that
Saturn devoured his own children.
_ The goddefs Cceleftis, or Urania, was held in the
higheft veneration by the Carthaginians. She is
thought to have been the fame with the queen of hea¬
ven mentioned in Jeremiah, the Juno Olympia of the
Greeks. According to Hefychius, the fame word ap¬
plied in the Punic language both to Juno and Venus:
Nay, the ancient Greeks frequently confound Juno,
Venus, and Diana or the moon, all together; which
is to be attributed to the Egyptians and Phoenicians,
from whom they received their fyftem of religion; who
feem in the moft ancient times to have had but one
name for them all. Befides thefe there were fevetal
other deities of later date, who were worfhipped among
the Phcsnicians, particularly thofe of Tyre, and con-
fequently among the Carthaginians alfo. Thefe were
Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, and Bacchus. Jupiter was
worfhipped under the name of Belus or Baal. To him
they addreffed their oaths ; and placed him for the
moil part, as there is reafon to believe, at the head
of their treaties. The fame name was alfo given to
the other two, whence they were frequently miftaken
for one another. Apollo or the fun went either by
this name Amply, or by others of which this made a
part.
T he Carthaginian fuperflition, however, was not
confined to thefe deities alone. They worfhipped alfo
the fire, air, and other elements; and had gods of
rivers, meads, &c. Nay, they paid divine honours to
the fpirits of their heroes, and even to men and women
themfelves while yet in life ; and in this adoration
Hannibal the Great had for fome time a fhare, not-
withHanding the infamous conduct of his countrymen
towards him at laft. In order to worfhip thofe gods
with more conveniency on all occafions, the Carthagi¬
nians had. a kind of portable temples. Thefe were
only covered chariots, in which were fome fmall images
reprefenting their favourite drities ; and which were
drawn by oxen. They were alfo a kind of oracle ;
and their refponfes were underftood by the motion
impreffed upon the vehicle. This was likewife an
or Libyan cultom ; and Tacitus informs us
that the ancient Germans had fomething of the fame
kind. The tabernacle of Moloch is thought to have
been a machine of this kind ; and it is not improbable
that the whole was derived from the tabernacle of the
Jews in the wildernefs.
Befides all the deities above-mentioned, we {till find
another, named the Damon or Genius of Carthage,
mentioned in the treaty made by Philip of Macedon
and Hannibal. What this deity might be, we know
not ; however, it may be obferved, that the pagan
world m general believed in the exiftence of demons,
or intelligences who had a kind of middle nature be¬
tween gods and men, and to whom the adminiftration
of the world was in a great meafure committed. Hence
it is no wonder that they fhould have received religious
honours. For when once mankind were pofTeffed with
the opinion that they were the minifters of the gods
and trufted with the difpenfation of their favours, as
vefi as the mfli&lon of their punifhments, it is natural
[ 617 ]
P H O
to fuppofe that they would be defirous of making their
addrefles to them. See Astarte and Polytheism.
. Herodotus fuppofes the Phoenicians to have been
circumcifed; but Jofephus afferts, that none of the
nations included under the vague name of Paleftine
and Syria ufed that rite, the Jews excepted ; fo that
if the Phoenicians had anciently that cuflom, they came
in time to negled it, and at length wholly laid it aiide.
They abftained however from the flefh of fwine.
Muchisfaid of their arts, fciences, and manufa&ures;
but as what we find concerning them is couched in
general terms only, we cannot defcant on particulars.
The Sidonians, under which denomination we compre¬
hend the Phoenicians in general, were of a moft happy
genius. They were from the beginning addi&ed to
philofophical exercifes of the mind ; infomuch that a
Sidonian, by name Mofchus, taught the do&rine of
atoms before the Trojan war: and Abomenus of Tyre
puzzled Solomon by the fubtilty of his queftions.
Phoenice continued to be one of the feats of learning,
and both Tyre and Sidon produced their philofophers
of later ages; namely, Boethus and Diodatus of Sidon,
Antipater of Tyre, and Appollonius of the fame place;
who gave an account of the writings and difciples of
Zeno. Fortheir language, fee Philology, n°6i. As
to their manufa&ures, the gl ifs of Sidon, the purple of
lyre, and the exceeding fine linen they wove, were
the product of their own country, and their own in¬
vention ; and for their extraordinary Ikill in working
metals, in hewing timber and ftone ; in a word, for
their perfedl knowledge of what was folid, great, and
ornamental in architecture—we need only put the read¬
er in mind of the large fhare they had in erefting and
decorating the temple at Jerufalem under their king
Hiram. Their fame for tafte, defign, and ingenious
invention, was fuch, that whatever was elegant, great,
or pleafing, whether in apparel, veflels, or toys, was
diftihguifhed by way of excellence with the epithet of
Sidonian.
The Phoenicians were like^ife celebrated as mer¬
chants, navigators, and planters of colonies in foreign
parts. As merchants, they may be faid to have en-
grofled all the commerce of the weftern world : as na¬
vigators, they were the boldeft, the rnoft experienced^
and greateft difeoverers, of the ancient times: they
had for many ages no rivals. In planting colonies
they exerted themfelves fo much, that, confidering their
habitation was little more than the flip of ground be¬
tween mount Libanus and the fea, it is furprifing how
they could furnifh fuch fupplies of people, and not
wholly depopulate their native country.
It is generally fuppofed that the Phoenicians were in¬
duced to deal in foreign commodities by their neigh¬
bourhood with the Syrians, who were perhaps the
moft: ancient of thofe who carried on a confiderable
and regular trade with the more eaftern regions: and
this conjecture appears probable at leaft ; for their
own territory was but fmall, and little able to afford
any confiderable exports, if we except manufactures.;
but that their manufactures were anyways confiderable
till they began to turn all the channels of trade into their
own country, it is hard to believe. In 'Syria, which was
a large country, they found ftore of productions.of the
natural growth of that foil, and many choice and ufe-
ful commodities brought from the eaft. Thus, having
4-1 a
Phoenicia-
——y—
P H O [ 61
a fafe coart, with convenient harbours, on one fide, nnd
excellent materials for Ihip-building on the other; per¬
ceiving how acceptable many comcnodities that Syria
furnilhed would be In foreign parts, and being at the
fame time, perhaps, fhown the way by the Syrians
themfelves, who may have navigated the Mediterra¬
nean—they turned all their thoughts to trade and na¬
vigation, and by an uncommon application footi eclip-
fed their mafters in that art.
It were in vain to talk of the Edomites, who fled hi¬
ther in David’s time ; or to inquire why Herodotus
fuppofes the Phoenicians came from the Red Sea;
their origin we have already feen. I hat fome of the
Edomites fled into this country in the days of David,
and that they were a trading people, is very evi¬
dent : what improvements they brought with them
into Phcenice, it is hard to fay ; and by the way, it is as
difficult to afeertain their numbers. In all probability
they brought with them a knowledge of the Red Sea,
and of the fouth parts of Arabia, Egypt, and Ethio¬
pia ; and by their information made the Phoenicians
acquainted with thofe coafts; by which means they
were enabled to undertake voyages to thofe parts, for
Solomon, and Pharoah Necho, king of Egypt.
Their whole thoughts were employed on fchemes to
advance thtir commerce. They affedled no empire but
that of the fea; and feemed to aim at nothing but the
peaceable enjoyment of their trade. 1 his they extend¬
ed to all the known parts they could reach ; to the
Britifh ifles, commonly undtrftood by the Caffiterides;
to Spain, and other places in the ocean, both within
and without the Straits of Gibraltar ; and, in gene¬
ral, to all the ports of the Mediterranean, the Black
Sea, and the Lake Mseotis. In ah thefe parts they
had fettlements and correfpondents, from which they
drew what was ufeful to themfelves, or might be fo to
others; and thus they exercifed the three great branch¬
es of trade, as it is commonly divided into importation,
exportation, and tranfportation, in full latitude. . Such
was their fea-trade; and for that which they carried on
by land in Syria, Mefopotamia, Affyria, Babylonia,
Perfia, Arabia, and even in India, it was of no lefs
extent, and may give us an idea of what this people
once was, how rich and how defervedly their merchants
are mentioned in Scripture as equal to princes. Their
country was, at that time, the great warehoufe, where
every thing that might either adminifter to the necef-
rtties or luxury of mankind was to be tound ; which
they diftiibuted as theyjudged would be bell for their
own intereft. The purple of Tyre, the glafs of Sidon,
and the exceeding fine linen made in this country,
together with other curious pieces of ait in metals and
wood, already mentioned, appear to have been the
chief and almoft only commodities of Phosnice itfelf.
Indeed their territory was fo fmall, that it is not to be
imagined they could afford to export any of their own
growth; it is more likely that they rather wanted than
abounded with the fruits of the earth.
Having thus fpoken in general terms of their trade,
we ffiall now touch upon their fhipping^and fome
things remarkable in their navigation. Their larger
embarkations were of two forts; they divided them in¬
to round (hips or gauli; and long (hips, galleys, or tri¬
remes. When they drew up in line of battle, the gauli
were difpofed at a fmnll diltance from each othei in the
8 ] P H O
wings, or in the van and the rear : their triremes were Phcenicop-
contra£led together in the centre. If, at any time,, terU8, ,
they obferved that a ftranger kept them company in
their voyage, or followed in their track, they were fure
to get rid of him if they could, or deceive him if pof-
fible; in which policy they went fo far, as to venture
the lofs of their (hips, and even their lives ; fo jealous
were they of foreigners, and fo tenacioufly bent on
keeping the whole trade to themfelves. In order to
difeourage other nations from engaging in commerce,
they pra&ifed piracy, or pretended to be at war with
fuch as they met when they thought themfelves ttrong-
eft. This was but a natural ftroke of policy in people
who grafped at the whole commerce of the then known
world. We muff not forget here the famous filhery of
Tyre, which fo remarkably enriched that city in par¬
ticular. See Astronomy, n° 7. Ophir, and Pyre.
PHOENICOPTERUS, or Flamingo, in orni- plate
thology, a genus of birds belonging to the order ofcccxc{?,
grail*. The beak is naked, teethed, and bent as if it
was broken ; the noftrils are linear; the feet are pal-
mated, and four-toed. There is but one fpecies ; viz.
the Baharaenfis of Catelby, a native of Africa and
America.
This bird refembles the heron in (hape, excepting
the bill, which is of a very fmgular form. It is two
years old before it atrives at its perfe& colour; and
then it is entirely red, excepting the quill-feathers,
which are black. A full-grown one is of equal weight
with a wild duck; and when it Hands ereft, it is five
feet high. The feet are webbed. The flerti is deli¬
cate ; and moft refembles that of a partridge in tafte.
The tongue, above any other part, was in the higheft
efteem with the luxurious Romans. Thefe birds make
their nefts on hillocks in (hallow water; on which they
fit with their legs extended down, like a man fitting on
a (fool. They breed on the coafts of Cuba and the
Bahama ifiands in the Weft Indies ; and frequent falt-
water only. By reafon of the particular (hape of its
bill, this bird, in eating, twifts its neck from fide to
fide, and makes the upper mandible touch the ground.
They are very ftupid, and will not rife at the report of
a gun ; nor is it any warning to thofe who furvive,
that they fee others killed by their fide ; fo that, by
keeping himfelf out of fight, a fowler may kill as many
as he pleafes.
Thefc birds prefer a warm climate. In the old Latlan't
continent they are not often met with beyond 40 de- ‘Wi"*
grees north or fouth. They arc met with everywhere
on the African coaft and adjacent ifles, to the Cape
of Good Hope; and fometimes on the coafts of
Spain, Italy, and thofe of France lying in the Medi¬
terranean Sea ; being at times found at Marfeilles, and
for fome way up the Rhone. In fome feafons they
frequent Aleppo and the parts adjacent. They are feen
alfo on the Perlian fide of the Cafpian Sea, and from
thence along the weftern coaft as far as the Wolga ;
tbo* this is at uncertain times, and chiefly in confide-
rahle flocks coming from the north-eaft, moftly in Oc¬
tober and November; but fo foon as the wind changes
they totally difappear. They breed in the Cape Verd
ifles, particularly in that of Sal. They go for the mod
part together in flocks, except in breeding time. Dam-
pier fays, that, with two more in company, he killed
14 at once, which was cffe&ed by fecreting themfelves;
6 for
P H O [6
ph«i>icop. for they are fo very fhy, that they will by no means fufter
te us any one to approach openly near enough to Ihoot them.
, Ph<^n!ic-, Kolben tells us, that they are very numerous at the
v Cape ; keeping in the day on the borders of the
lakes and rivers, and lodging themfelves at night in the
long grafs on the hills. They are alfo common to va¬
rious places in the warmer parts of America, frequent¬
ing the fame latitudes as in other quarters of the world;
being found at Peru, Chili, Cayenne, and the coaft of
Brafil, as well as the various iflands of the Weft Indies.
Sloane found them in Jamaica ; but particularly at the
Bahama Iflands and at Cuba, where they breed. When
feen at a diftance, they appear as a regiment of foldiers,
being ranged along-lide one another, on the borders of
the rivers, fearching for food ; which chiefly confifts of
frnall fifh or the eggs of them; and of vvater-infefts,
which they fearch after by plunging in the bill and part
of the head, from time to time trampling with their
feet to muddy the water, that their prey may be raifed
from the bottom. Whilft they are feeding, one of
them is faid to ftand centinel, and the moment he founds
the alarm the whole flock takes wing. This bird, when
at reft, hands on one leg, the other being drawn up
dofe to the body, with the head placed under the wing
on that fide of the body it ftands on.
They are fometimes caught young, and are brought
up tame ; but are always impatient of cold : and in this
ftate will feldom live a great while, gradually lofmg
their colour, flefli, and appetite, and dying for want of
that food which in a ftate of nature at large they were
abundantly fupplied with.
PHOENIX, in aftronomy. See there, n° 406.
Phoenix, the Great Palmy or Date-tree ; a genus of
plants belonging to the order of palmae. There is only
one fpecies, viz. the da&ylifera, or common date-tree,
a native of Africa and the eaftcrn countries, where it
grows to 50, 60, and 100 feet high. The trunk is
round, upright, and ftudded with protuberances, which
are the veftiges of the decayed leaves. From the top
ifl'ues forth a clufter of leaves or branches eight or nine
feet long, extending all round like an umbrella, and
bending a little towards the earth. The bottom part
produces a number of ftalks like thofe of the middle,
but feldom {hooting fo high as four or five feet. Thefe
ftalks, fays Adanfon, diffufe the tree very confider-
ably ; fo that, wherever it naturally grows in forefts,
it is extremely difficult to open a paflage through its
prickly leaves. The date tree was introduced into Ja¬
maica foon after the conqueft of the ifland by the Spa¬
niards. There are, however, but few of them in Ja¬
maica at this time. The fruit is fomewhat in the
fliape of an acorn. It is compoftd of a thin, light,
and glofiy membrane, fomewhat pellucid and yellow-
iih ; which contains a fine, foft, and pulpy fruit, which
is firm, fweet, and fomewhat vinous to the tafte, ef-
cuknt, and wholefome ; and within this is inclofed a
folid, tough, and hard kernel, of a pale grey colour
on the ©utfide, and finely marbled within like the nut¬
meg. For medicinal ufe dates are to be chofen large,
full, frefh, yellow on the furface, foft and tender, not
too much wrinkled ; fuch as have a vinous tafte, and
do not rattle when fhaken. They are produced in
many parts of Europe, but never ripen perfedly there.
The heft are brought from Tunis; they are alfo very
-fine and good in Egypt and in many parts of the caft.
19 ] P H O
Thofe of Spain and France look well; but are never
perfectly ripe, and very fubjett to decay. They are
preferved three different ways; fome preffed and dry ;
others preffed more moderately, and again moiftened
with their own juice ; and .others not preffed at all,
but moiftened with the juice of other dates, as they
are packed up, which is done in bafkets or fkins.
Thofe preferved in this laft way are much the belt.
Dates have always been efteemed moderately ftrength-
ening and aftringent.
Though the date-tree grows everywhere indiferimi-
nately on the northern coafts of Africa, it is not cul¬
tivated with care, except beyond Mount Atlas ; be-
caufe the heat is not fufficiently powerful along the
coafts to bring the fruits to proper maturity. We fhall
here extraft fome obfervations from Mr Des Fontaines
refpe&ing the manner of cultivating it in Barbary,
and on the different ufes to which it is applied. All
that part of the Zaara which is near Mount Atlas,
and the only part of this vaft defert which is inhabi¬
ted, produces very little corn ; the foil being fandy,
and burnt up by the fun, is almoft entirely unfit for
the cultivation of grain, its only productions of that
kind being a little barley, maize, and forgo. The
date-tree, however, fupplies the deficiency of corn to
the inhabitants of thefe countries, and furnifhes them
with almoft the whole of their fubfiftence. They have
flocks of fheep ; but as they are not numerous, they
pieferve them for the frke of their wool; befides, the
flefh of thefe animals is very unwholefome food in
countries that are exceffively warm ; and thefe people,
though ignorant, have probably been enabled by ex¬
perience to know that it was falutary for them to
abftain from it. The date trees are planted without
any order, at the diftance of 12 feet one from the
other, in the neighbourhood of rivulets and ftreams
which iffue from the fand. Forefts of them may be
feen here and there, fome of which are feveral leagues
in circumference. The extent of thefe plantations de¬
pends upon the quantity of water which can be pro¬
cured to water them; tor they require much moifture.
All thefe forefts are intermixed with orange, almond,
and pomegranate trees, and with vines which tvvift
round the trunks of the date trees ; and the heat is
ftreng enough to ripen the fruit, though they are ne¬
ver expofed to the fun.
Along the rivulets and ftreams, dykes are ere&ed
to flop the courfc of their waters, in order that they
may be diftributed amongft the date trees by means «f
fmall canals. The number of canals is fixed for each
individual ; and in feveral cantons, to have a right to
them, the proprietors are obliged to pay an annual fum
proportionable to the number and extent of their plan¬
tations. Care is taken to till the earth well, and to
raife a circular border around the root of each tree,
that the water may remain longer and in larger quan¬
tity. The date trees are watered in every feafou, but
more particularly during the great heats ot fummer.
It is generally in winter that new plantations of this
tree are formed. For this purpofe thofe who culti¬
vate them take (hoots of thofe which produce the belt
dates, and plant them at a fmali diftance one from the
other. At the end of three or four years thefe (hoots,
if they have been properly taken care'bf, begin to bear
fruit: but this fruit is £s yet dry, without fweetnefs,
4 I 2 and
P- H O
and even without kernels; they never reach the high-
eft degree of perfe&ion of which they are fufceptible
till they are about 15 or 20 years old.
Thefe plants are however produced from the feeds
taken out of the fruit, provided they are frelh. They
fhould be fown in pots filled with light rich earth, and
pfungcd into a moderate hot-bed of tanners bark,
which fttould be kept in a moderate temperature of
heat, and the earth frequently refrefhed with water.
When the plants are come up to a proper fize, they
fhould be each planted in a feparate fmall pot, filled with
the fame light earth, and plunged into a hot-bed
again, obferving to refrelh them with water, as alfo
to let them have air in proportion to the warmth of
the feafon ancf the bed in which they are placed. Du¬
ring the fummer-time they ftiould remain in the fame
hot bed ; but in the beginning of Auguft, they fhould
have a great {hare of air to harden them againft the
approach of winter ; for if they are too much forced,
they will be fo tender as not to be preferred through
the winter without much difficulty, efpecially if you
have not the conveniency of a bark-ftove to keep them
in. The foil in which thefe plants fhould be placed,
muft be compofed in the following manner, viz. half
©f light frefh earth taken from a pafturc-ground, the
other half fea-fand and rotten dung or tanners bark
in equal proportion ; thefe fhould be carefully mixed,
and laid in a heap three or four months at leaft before
it is ufed, but fhonld be often turned over to prevent
the growth of weeds, and to fweeten the earth.
The trees, however, which fpring from feed never
produce fo good dates as thofe that are raifed from
ffioots ; they being always poor and ill tafted. It is
undoubtedly by force of cultivation, and after feveral
generations, that they acquire a good quality.
The date trees which have been originally fown,,
grow rapidly, and we have been allured that they bear
fruit in the fourth or fifth year. Care is taken to cut
the inferior branches of the date tree in proportion
as they rife ; and a piece of the root is always left of
fome inches in length, which affords the eafy means
of climbing to the fummit. Thefe trees live a long
time, according to the account of the Arabs; and in
order to prove it, they fay that when they have attain¬
ed to their full growth, no change is obferved in them
for the fpace of three generations.
The number of females which are cultivated is
much fuperior to that of the males, becaufe they are
much mare profitable. The fexual organs of the date
tree grow, as is well known, upon different ftalks, and
thefe trees flower in the months of April and May, at
which tinae the Arabs cut the male branches to ina-
P H O
pregnate the female. For this purpofe, they make rheeni*,
an incifion in the trunk of each branch which they —v~"
wifh to produce fruit, and place in it a ftalk of male
flowers; without this precaution the date tree would,
produce only abortive fruit (a). In fome cantons the
male branches are only fhaken over the female. The
pra&ice of impregnating the date tree in this manner
is very ancient. Pliny deferibes it very accurately in
that part of his work where he treats of the palm,
tree.
There is fcarcely any part of the date tree which is >v
not ufeful. The wood, though of a fpongy texture,
lafts fuch a number of years, that the inhabitants of
the country fay it is incorruptible. They employ;,
it for making beams and inltruments of hufbandry ;
it burns flowly, but the coals which refult from its^
combuftion are very flrong, and produce a great heat.
The Arabs ftrip the bark and fibrous parts from
the young date trees, and eat the fubftance, which
is in the centre; it is very nourifhing, and has a
fweet tafte : it is known by the name of the mar¬
row of the date tree. They eat alfo the leaves, when
they are young and tender, Vith lemon juice ; the old
ones are laid out to dry, and are employed for making
mats and other works of the fame kind, which are
much ufed, and with which they carry on a confi-
derable trade in the interior parts of the country.
From the fides of the flumps of the branches which
have been left arife a great number of delicate fila¬
ments, of which they make ropes, and which might
ferve to fabricate cloth.
Of the frefh dates and fugar, fays Haffelquift, the
Egyptians make a conferve, which has a very plea-
fant tafte. In Egypt they ufe the leaves as fly-flaps, for
driving away the numerous infe&s which prove fo
troublefome in hot countries. The hard boughs are
ufed for fences and other purpofes of hufbandiy; the
principal flem for building. The fruit, before it is
ripe, is fomewhat aftringent; but when thoroughly
mature, is of the nature of the fig. The Senegal
dates are fhorter than thofe of Egypt, but much thick¬
er in the pulp, which is faid to have a fugary agree¬
able tafte, fuperior to that of the bell dates of the Le¬
vant.
A white liquor, known by the name of milli, is
drawn alfo from the date tree. To obtain it, all the
branches are cut from the furnmit of one of thefe trees,
and after feveral incifions have been made in it, they
are covered with leaves, in order chat the heat of the
fun may not dry it.
The fap drops down into a veffel placed to receive
it, at the bottom of a circular groove, made below
the
r 620 ]
(a) The celebrated Linnaeus, in his Differtation on the Sexes of Plants, fpeaking of the date tree, fays,
€l A female date-bearing palm flowered many years at Berlin without producing any feeds; but the Berlin
people taking care to have fome of the bloffoms of the male tree, which was then flowering at Leipfic, fent
to them by the poft, they obtained fruit by thefe means ; and fome dates, the offspring of this impregna¬
tion, being planted in my garden, fprung up, and to this day continue to grow vigoroufly. Koempfer for¬
merly told us, how neeeffary it was found by the oriental people, who live upon the produce of palm-trees,
and are the true Lotophagt> to plant fome male trees among the females, if they hoped for any fruit; hence
it is the practice of thofe who make war in that part of the world to cut down all the male palms, that a
famine may afflift their proprietors; fometimes even the inhabitants themfelves deftroy the male trees whea
they dread an invafion, that their enemies may find no fuften&nce in the Gauntry.” ;
P HO [ 621 ] P H O
Pheenis. the Incifions, The milk of the date tree has a fweet
-—V ' and agreeable tafte when it is new; it is very refrefh-
ing, and it is even given to lick people to drink, but
it generally turns four at the end of 24 hours. Old
trees are chofen for this operation, becaufe the cut¬
ting of the branches, and the large quantity of fap
which flows from them, greatly exhault them, and of¬
ten caufe them to decay.
The male flowers of the date tree are alfo ufeful.
They are eaten when ftill tender, mixed up with a
little lemon juice. They are reckoned to be very pro¬
vocative : the odour which they exhale is probably
the caufe of this property being afcribed to them.
Thefe date trees are very lucrative to the inhabi¬
tants of the defert. Some of them produce 20 bunch¬
es of dates; but care is always taken to lop off a part
of them, that thofe which remain may become larger*;
10 or 12 bunches only are left on the moll vigorous
trees.
It is reckoned that a good tree produces, one year
with another, about the value of 10 or 12 (hillings
to the proprietor. A pretty confiderable trade is car¬
ried on with dates in the interior part of the country,
and large quantities of them are exported to France
and Italy. The crop is gathered towards the end of
November. When the bunches are taken from the
tree, they are hung up in fome very dry place where
they may be iheltered and fecure from infedls.
Dates afford wholefome nouriihment, and have a
very agreeable tafte when they are frefh. The Arabs
eat them without feafoning. They dry and harden
them in the fun, to reduce them to a kind of meal,
which they lay up in ftore to fupply themfelves with
food during the long journeys which they often under¬
take acrofs their deferts. This Ample food is fuiflcient
to nourifh them for a long time.—The inhabitants of
the Zaara procure alfo from their dates a kind of ho¬
ney which is exceedingly fweet. For this purpofe they
choofe thofe which have the fofteft pulp ; and having
put them into a large jar with a hole in the bottom,
they fqueeze them by placing over them a weight of
eight or ten pounds.—The moft fluid part of the fub-
ftance, which drops through the hole, is what they
cull the honey of the date.
Even the ftones, though very hard, are not thrown
away. They give them to their camels and (heep as
food, after they have bruifed them or laid them to
(often in water.
The date, as well as other trees which are cultiva¬
ted, exhibits great variety in its fruit, with refpedt to
(hape, flze, quality, and even colour. There are rec¬
koned to be at leaft twenty different kinds. Dates
are very liable to be pierced by worms, and they foon
corrupt in moift or rainy weather.
Irom what has been laid, itmayeafily be perceived,
that there is, perhaps, no tree whatever ufed for fo
many and fo valuable purpofes as the date tree,
Phoenix, in ornithology, a bird famous in anti¬
quity, but generally looked upon by the moderns as
fabulous. The ancients fpeak of this bird as Angle,
or the only one of its kind ; they deferibe it as of the
fize of an eagle ; its head finely crefted with a beauti¬
ful plumage, its neck covered with feathers of a gold
colour, and the reft of its body purple, only the tail
white, and the eyes fparkling like liars : they hold,
that it lives 500 or 600 years in the wildernefs; that Pl cenix.
when thus advanced in age, it builds itfelf a pile of ~v 
fweet wood and aromatic gums, and fires it with the
wafting of ics wings, and thus burns itfelf ; and that
from its alhes arifes a worm, which in time grows up
to be a phoenix. Hence the Phoenicians gave the
name of pheenix to the palm-tree ; becaufe when burnt
down to the root it rifes again fairer than ever.
In the fixth book of the Annals of Tacitus, fe£l.
28. it is obferved that, in the year of Rome 787, the
pheenix revificed Egypt; which occafioncd among the
learned much fpeculation. This being is facred to the
fun. Of its longevity the accounts are various. The
common perfuafion is, as we have mentioned above,
that it lives 500 years; though by fome the date is
extended to 1461. The feveral eras when the phoe¬
nix has been feen are fixed by tradition. The firft,
we are told, was in the reign of Sefoftris ; the fecond
in that of Amafis ; and, in the period when Ptolemy
the third of the Macedonian race was feated on the
throne of Egypt, another phoenix direfted its flight
towards Heliopolis. When to thefe circurnftances
are added the brilliant appearance of the phoenix, and
the tale that it makes frequent excurfions with a load
on its back, and that when, by having made the ex¬
periment through a long traft of air, it gains fufficient
confidence in its own vigour, it takes up the body of
its father and flies with it to the altar of the fun to be
there confumed ; it cannot but appear probable, that
the learned of Egypt had enveloped under this alle¬
gory the philofophy of comets.
Phoenix, fon of Amyntor king of Argos by Cleo-
bule or Hippodamia, was preceptor to young Achilles.
His father having proved faithlefs to his wife, through
fondnefs for a concubine called Clytia, Cleobule, who
was jealous of him, perfuaded her fon Pheenix to in¬
gratiate himfelf with his father’s miftrefs. Phoenix
eafiiy fucceeded ; but Amyntor difeovering his in¬
trigues, he drew a curfc upon him, and the fon was
foon after deprived of his fight by divine vengeance.
Some fay that Amyntor himfelf put out his fon’seyes,
which fo cruelly provoked him that he meditated the
death of his father. Reafon and piety, however,
prevailed over paflion; and that he might not become
a parricide, Phoenix fled from Argos to the court of
Peleus king of Phthia. Here he was treated with
tendernefs; Peleus carried him to Chiron, who refto-
red him to his eye-fight; fcon after which he was made
preceptor to Achilles, hia benefadlor’s fon. He was
alfo prefented with the government of many cities, and
made king of the Dolopes. He went with his pupil <
to the Trojan war; and Achilles was ever grateful for
the inftrudtions and precepts which he had received
from him. After the death of Achilles, Phoenix, with
others, was commiffioned by the Greeks to return in ■
to Greece, to bring to the war young Pyrrhus. This
commiflion he fuccefsfully performed ; and after the
fall of Troy, he returned with Pyrrhus, and died in
Thrace. He was buried, according to Strabo, near
Trachinia, where a fmall river in the neighbouihood
received the name of Phoenix. There was another Phee¬
nix, fon of Agenor, by a nymph who was called 7V-
Icphajfay according to Apollodorus and Mofchus, or,
according to others, Epimedufcu Perimcda> or slgriope.
He was, like his brother Cadmus, and Cilix, fent by
his'
P H O 16
9hoh9. lug father in purfuit of hk fitter Europa, whom Ju-
^ v ' piter had carried away under the form of a bull; and
when his inquiries proved unfuccdTsful, he fettled in a
country, which, according to fonae, was from him call¬
ed Phamicta. From him, as fome fuppole, the Car¬
thaginians were called Pttni.
Plate PHOLAS, a genus of infe&'s, belonging to the
CCCXCII. or(jer Gf vermes teftacea. The Ihell is double-valved
and divaricated ; the cardo is turned backwards, and
connefted by a cartilage. There are fix fpecies, di«
ftinguifhed by the figure of their (hells.
The word pholas is derived from the Greek, and
fignifics fomething which lies hid. Phis name they de¬
rive from their property of making themfelves holes in
the earth, fand, wood, or ftone, and living in them.
The means of their getting there, however, are as yet
entirely unknown. All that we can know with cer¬
tainty is, that they mutt have penetrated thefe fub-
fiances when very fmall; becaufe the entrance of the
hole in which the pholas lodges is always much lefs than
the inner part of it, and indeed than the (hell of the
pholas itfelf. Hence fome have fuppofed that they were
hatched in holes accidentally formed in ttones, and
that they naturally grew of fuch a fhape as was ne-
cefiary to fill the cavity.
The holes in which the pholades lodge are ufually
twice as deep, at kaft, as the (hells themfelves are long;
the figure of the holes is that of a truncated cone, ex¬
cepting that they are terminated at the bottom by a
founded cavity, and their pofition is ufually fomewhat
oblique to the horizon. The openings of thefe holes
are what betray the pholas being in the ftone ; but
they are always very fmall in proportion to the fize
of the fifh. There feems to be no progreflive motion
of any animal in nature fo (low as that of the pholas;
it is immerfed in the hole, and has no movement ex¬
cept a fmall one towards the centre of the earth; and
this is only proportioned to the growth of the animal.
Its work is very difficult in its motion ; but it has
great time to perform it in, as it only moves downward,
finking itfelf deeper in the ftone as it increafes itfelf jn
bulk. That part by means of which it performs this,
is a flefhy fubftance placed near the lower extremity of
the (hell; it is of the (hape of a lozenge, and is con-
liderably large in proportion to the fize of the animal;
and though it be of a foft fubftance, it is not to be
wondered at that in fo long a time it is able, by con*
flant work, to burrow into a hard ftone. I he manner
of their performing this may be feen by taking one of
them out of the ftone, and placing it upon fome foft
clay; for they will immediately get to work in bend¬
ing and extending that part allotted to dig for them,
and in a few hours they will bury themfelves in the
mud In as large a hole as they had taken many years
to make in the ftone. Ihey find little refiftance in fo
foft a fubftance; and the necefiity of their hiding them¬
felves evidently makes them haften their work. . The
animal is lodged in the lower half of the hole in the
ftone, and the upper half is filled up by a pipe of a
flefhy fubftance and conic figure, truncated at the end:
this they ufually extend to the orifice of the hole, and
place on a level with the furface of the ftone; but they
feldom extend it any farther than this. I he pipt’,
though it appears fingle, is in reality compofed of two
pipes, or at ieaft it is compofed of two parts feparatci
22 1 P H O
by a membrane. The ufe of this pipe or probofeis is Phofa*.
the fame with that of the probofeis of other fhell-fifh,
to take in fea-water into their bodies, and afterwards
to throw it out again. In the middle of their bodies
they have a fmall green veflel, the ufe of which has
not yet been difeovered. This, when plunged in fpi-
rit-of-wine, becomes of a purple colour : but its co¬
lour on linen will not become purple in the fun like
that of the murex ; and even if it would, its quantity
is too fmall to make it worth preferving.
The phoias is remarkable for its luminous quality.
That this fifti is luminous was noticed by Pliny, who
obfervea that it (hines in the mouth of the perfon who
eats it; and if it touch his hands or clothes, it makes
them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moifture. The light of this fifh has furnilhed
matter for various obfefvations and experiments to M.
Reaumur and the Bolognian academicians, efpecially
Beccarius, who took fo much pains with the fubjed of
phofphoreal light.
M. Reaumur obferves, that whereas other fifties give
light when they tend to putrefcence, this is more lu¬
minous in proportion to its being frefti; that when
th«y are dried, their light will revive if they be moift-
ened either with frefti or fait water, but that brandy
immediately extinguilhes it,. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fuc-
ceeded.
The attention of the Bolognian acamedicians wag
engaged to this fubjed by M. F. Marfilius in i'724»
who brought a number of thefe fifties, and the (tones
in which they were inclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination.
Beccarius obferved, that though this fifti ceafed to
(bine when it became putrid, yet that in its moil pu¬
trid ftate it would ftiine, and make the water in which
it was immerfed luminous when it was agitated. Ga-
leatius and Montius found that wine or vinegar ex-
tinguifhed this light; that in common oil it continued
fome days, but in redified fpirit of wine or urine
hardly a minute.
In order to obferve in what manner this light wag
affefted by different degrees of heat, they made ufe of
a Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water ten¬
dered luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light tid
the heat arrived to 450, but that it then became fud-
denly extind, and could not be revived again.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folutton of fea-
falt increafed the light of the luminous water ; a folu-
tion of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminiftied it a little, oil of tartar per r/e/i-
quium nearly extingutfticd it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frefti calcined gypfum, rock
cryftal, cerufe, or fugar, became more luminous. He
alfo tried the effeds of it when poured upon various
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguiftied the light, but that
of tartar increafed it.
This gentleman had the curiofity to try how diffe¬
rently coloured fubftances were afieded by this kind
of light; and having, for this purpofe, dipped feve-
ral ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft,
next to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the
other colours could hardly be perceived# It was not,
however,
P H O [ 623 ] P H O
PhoUs however, nny particular colour, but only light, that
t was perceived in this cafe. He then dipped boards
W~-y painted with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes
filled with fubftances of different colours, in water ren¬
dered lununous by the fiihes. In both thefe cafes, the
red was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brighteft,
and the violet the dulleft. But on the boards, the
blue was nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more
languid ; whereas in the glades, the blue was inferior
to the green.
Of all the liquors to which he put the pholades, milk
■was rendered the mofl luminous. A fingle pholas
made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the faces
of perfons might be diftinguifhed by it, and it looked
as if it was tranfparent.
Air appeared to be neceffary to this light; for when
Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes, no
agitation would make it fhine unlefs bubbles of air
were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loft
its light, but the water was fometimes made more lu¬
minous ; which they afcribed to the riling of bubblea
of air through it.
Beccarlus, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte
with flour, and found that it would give light when it
was immerfed in warm water; but it anfwered beft to
preferve the fifh in honey. In any other method of
prefervation, the property of becoming luminous would
not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
had lafted above a year ; and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
had done. See Barbut’s Genera Verminum> p. 14. &c.
PHOLEYS, or Foclies, are a people of Africa,
of very peculiar manners. Some authors tell us,
that the kingdom of Pholey, from whence they de¬
rive their name, is divided from that of Jaloff by a
lake called in the language of the Mundingoes Ca-
yor; and that it ftretches from eaft to weft about
180 miles; but that, though it extends a great way
fouth, its limits in that direction are not exa&ly as¬
certained.
Gw rop/j ^oore’ however, gives a very different account,
VofT. and fays, that the Pholeys live in clans, build towns,
p.443. and are in every kingdom and country on each fide
the river ; yet are not fubject to any of the kings of
the country, though they live in their territories ; for
if they are ufed ill in one nation, they break up their
towns, and remove to another. They have chiefs of
their own, who rule with fuch moderation, that every
aft of government feems rather an aft of the people
than of one man. This form of government is tafily
adminiftered, becaufe the people are of a good and
quiet difpofition, and fo well inftrufted i’n what is juft
and right, that a man who does ill expofes himfelf to
univerfal contempt.
. The natives of all thefe countries, not being avari¬
cious of land, defire no more than they can ufe ; and
as they do not plough with horfes or other cattle, they
can ufe but very little ; and hence the kings willingly
allow the Pholeys to live in their dominions, and cub
■ tivate the earth.
The Pholeys have in general a tawney complexion,
though many of them are of as deep a black as the
Mundingoes; and it is fappofed that their alliances PhoJeys.
with the Moors have given them the mixed colour be-—v—-
tween the true olive and the black. They are rather
of a low ftature, but have a genteel and eafy fhape,
with an air peculiarly delicate and agreeable.
Though they are ftrangers in the country, they are
the greatefl planters in it. They are extremely indu-
ftrlous and frugal, and raife much more corn and cot¬
ton than they confume, which they fell at reafonable
rates ; and are fo remarkable for their hofpitality, that
the natives efteem it a blefiing to have a Pholey town
in their neighbourhood ; and their behaviour has gain¬
ed them fuch reputation, that it is efteeraed infamous
for any one to treat them in an unhofpitable manner.
Their humanity extends to all, but they are doubly
kind to people of their race ; and if they know of any
one of their body being made a Have, they will rea¬
dily redeem him. As they have plenty of food, they
never fuffer any of their own people to want; but fup-
port the old, the blind, and the lame, equally with the
others.
Thefe people are feldom angry; and Mr Moore ob-
fervea that he never heard them abufe each other ; yet
this mildnefs is far from proceeding from want of cou¬
rage, they being as brave as any people of Africa, and
very expert in the ufe of their arms, which arc javelins,
cutlafles, bows and arrows, and upon occafion guns.
They ufually fettle near fome Mundingo town, there
being fcarce any of note up the river that has not a
Pholey town near it. Moft of them fpeak Arabic,
which is taught in their fchools ; and they are able to
read the Koran in that language, though they have a
vulgar tongue called Pholey. They are ftrift Maho¬
metans, and fcarce any of them will drink brandy, or
any thing ftronger than fugar and water.
They are fo fleilful in the management of cattle,
that the Mundingoes leave theirs to their care. The
whole herd belonging to a town feed ail day in the
favannahs, and after the crop is off, in the rice-
grounds. They have a place without each town for
their cattle, furrounded by a circular hedge, and with¬
in this er.clofure they raife a ftage about eight feet
high, and eight or ten feet wide, covered with a
thatched roof; all the fides are open, and they afeend
to it by a ladder. Round this ftage they fix a num¬
ber of flakes, and when the cattle are brought up at
night, each beaft is tied to a feparate flake with a ftrong
rope made of the bark of trees. The cows are then
milked, and four or five men flay upon the ftage all
night with their arms to guard them from the lions,
tygers, and other wild beafts. Their houfes are built
in a very regular manner, they being round flruftures,
placed in rows at a diftance from each other to avoid
fire, and cash of them has a thatched roof fomewhat
refembling a high-crowned hat.
They are alfo great huntfmen, and not only kill
lions, tygers, and other wild beafts, but frequently go
20 or 30 in a company to hunt elephants; whofe teeth
they fell, and whofe flefti they fmoke-dry and eat,
keeping it for feveral months together. As the ele¬
phants here generally go in droves of 100 or 2CO, they
do great mifebief by pulling up the trees by the roots,
and trampling down the corn ; to prevent which, when
the natives have any fufpicion of their coming, they
make fires round their corn to keep them out.
They
P H O
' PholU They are almoft the only people who make butter,
Phormium ant^ ^ catt^e at ^ome diftance up the river. They
v • or^1Uim are very particular in their drefs, and never wear any
other clothes but long robes of white cotton, which
they make themfelves. They are always very clean,
efpecially the women, who keep their houfes ex¬
ceedingly neat. They are, however, in fome parti¬
culars very fuperftitious ; for if they chance to know
that any perfon who buys milk of them boils it, they
will from thenceforth on no confideration fell that per-
‘fon any more, from their imagining that boiling the
milk makes the cows dry.
PHOLIS, in natural hillory, is the name of a ge¬
nus of fofiils of the clafs of gypfums or plafter-ftones.
Its diftinguifhing chafa&ers are, that the bodies of it
are tolerably hard, compofed of particles fomewhat
broad, and of a bright cryftalline luftre. The name
is derived from a fcale orfmallflake, becaufe they
are compofed of particles of that form.
The fpecies of this genus are very valuable, and
perhaps the moft fo of all the gypfums, becaufe. they
burn to the beft and fineft plafter, but fo far as is yet
known, there are but two of them : the fine plafter-
ftone of Montmartre in France, called by us plafler of
Paris flone and parget; and the other, the coarfer and
fomewhat reddilh kind, common in many parts of
England, and called ball plafler. See Plaster, of
Paris.
Pholis, in ichthyology, is the name of a fmall an-
guilliform fifh. The back is brown, the belly is white,
the whole back and fides are fpotted, and the Ikin is
Toft, free of feales, but with a tough mucilaginous mat¬
ter like the eel. This fpecies moft of all approaches to
» the alauda; and tho’ ufually larger, yet Mr Ray doubts
whether it really differs from it in a»y thing effential;
the diftinttion is its colour, which though a very ob¬
vious is certainly a very precarious one.
PHONICS, the doftrine or fcience of found?, other-
wife called Acoustics. See that article.
PHORMIUM, Flax-PL ANT, {Phormium tenax,
Forft.) is a name which we may give to a plant that
ferves the inhabitants of New Zealand inftead of hemp
and flax. Of this plant there are two forts ; the leaves
of both referable thofe of flags, but the flowers are
frnaller, and their clufters more numerous ; in one kind
they are yellow, and in the other a deep red. Of the
leaves of thefe plants, with very little preparation,
they make all their common apparel, and alfo their
firings, lines, and cordage, for every purpofe ; which
are fo much ftronger than any thing we can rtiake
with hemp, that they will not bear a comparifon.—
From the fame plant, by another preparation, they
draw long {lender fibres, which fhine like filk, and are
as white as fnow : of thefe, which are very ftrong,
they make their fineft cloths; and of the leaves, with¬
out any other preparation than fplitting them into
proper breadths, and lying the ftrips together, they
. make their fifhing-nets, iome of which are of an enor¬
mous fize.
The feeds of this valuable plant have been brought
over into England ; but, upon trial, appeared to have
loft their vegetating power.
The mentous parts of different vegetables have
been employed in different countries for the fame me¬
chanic u'fts as hemp, and flax among us. Putrefaction*
P H O
and in fome degree alkaline lixivia, deftroy the pulpy Phormium,
or flefliy matter, and leave the tough filaments entire, Phofphstr^
By curioufiy putrefying the leaf of a plant in water, v J
we obtain the fine flexible fibres which conftituted
the bafis of the ribs and minute veins, and which fixm
as it were a fkeleton of the leaf. In Madagafcar, dif¬
ferent kinds of cloth are prepared from the fila¬
ments of the bark of certain trees boiled in ftrong
ley; and fome of thefe cloths are very fine, and ap¬
proach to the foftnefs of filk, but in durability come
fllort of cotton : others are coarfer and ftronger,
and laft thrice as long as cotton ; and of thefe fi¬
laments they make fails and cordage to their veffels.
The flalks of nettles are fometimes ufed for like pur-
pofes, even in France ; and Sir Hans Sloane relates,
in one of his letters to Mr Ray, that he has been in- "
formed by Feveral, that muflin and callico, and moft:
of the Indian linens, are made of nettles. A ftrong
kind of cloth is faid to be prepared in fome of the
provinces of Sweden of hop-ftalks; and in the 1 ranf-
aclions of the Swedifh Academy for 1750, we have an
account of an experiment relating to this fubjedt: A
quantity of the ftalks was gathered in autumn, which
was equal in bulk to a quantity of flax fufficient to
yield a pound after preparation. The ftalks were put
into water, and kept covered with it during the win¬
ter. In March they were taken out, dried in a ftove,
and dreffed as flax. The prepared filaments weighed
nearly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and white ;
they were fpun and wove into fix ells of fine ftrong
cloth. Unlefs the ftalks are fully rotted, which will
take much longer time than flax, the woody part will
not feparate, and the cloth will prove neither white
nor fine.
PHOSPHAT, is a mineral found in Eftremadura,
It is of a whitifti colour, and of great folidity, though
not fufficiently hard to ftrike fire with fteel. If tritu¬
rated in an iron mortar in th* dark, or even if two
pieces of it be rubbed together, it becomes luminous ;
but when it has once loft this property, it does not,
like fome natural phofphori, receive it again by being
expofed to the rays of the fun.. If reduced to a very-
fine powder, and laid on coals, it does not decrepitate,
but burns with a beautiful green light ; though, if the
coals be very hot, and the powder coarfe, decrepitation
will take place.
According to the analyfis made by thefe chemifts,
100 grains of the calcareous phofphat is refolvable into
the following elements :
Carbonic acid - * 1 ^ grain
Muriatic acid - - t
Iron - * 1
Quartzous earth - - 2
Pure calcareous earth - 59
Phofphoric acid - - 3+
Fluoric acid - , 2X
100 grains.
We have the following account of an analyfis of a
native phofphat of lime (earth of bones) by Mr Haf-
fenfratz in the Annals of Chemiflry. “ The phofphat
of lime of Eftremadura, found by Mr Prouft, deter¬
mined me to examine on the coals a phofphoreicent
powder which 1 collected at Kobaia-Polyana neat'
r Sigeth,
[ =623 1
P H O
T?hcf,hat, Sigeth, in the county of Marmarofch, during the me-
rhufplurus tanurg,;c tour j mac]e through Hungary by command
of government. Though this powder gives abfoiutely
the fame appearance when treated on the coals as
the fluat of lime (Jfath-jluor)y yet no fluoric acid is
difengaged from it when heated with fulphuric acid.
It diflblves in nitric acid (dephlcgifticated nitrous
acid) ; and fulphuric (vitriolic) acid precipitates from
this folution a confxderable quantity of fulfat of lime
(gypfum) : the liquor filtered, and concentrated by
evaporation, gives a new precipitate fimiiar to the for¬
mer. The liquor again filtered, and evaporated to
t 625 ]
P H O
firuck with any hard body ; white fugar is htminoua Phofghoras
when grated or feraped in the dark ; and the folution 1
of phofphorus in fpirit of wine is luminous only when
dropped into water; and even then the light is only
perceived where the drops fall into the liquid. One
p-irt of phofphorus communicates this property to
600,coo pai ts of fpirit of wine.
Tnere is a remark,ble difference between the light Remarka*
of rotten wood, filhes, and th it of phofohorus 0f,,le
urine, even when it is not in an ignited dale; for this bf'
laft dots not ceafe to be luminous even when included [Tht of va,
within an exhaufted receiver; the contrary of which riou phof-'
drynefs, left a flight refiduum. This refiduum, after happens to rotten wood An’ fiihes. If air is ilrongly h fic bo-
having been expofed to a fire fuffieiently ftrong to blown upon this phofphorus from a pair o bellows it "
make the vefT#1! ronfaimner it rnrl-fint anj  ..:/C . !• r , . . ’
make the veffel containing it red-hot, and difengage
the nitric and fulphuric acids which might have re¬
mained united with it, was foluble in diflilled water,
which it acidified. This acid did not precipitate ba-
rytic muriat ; it caufed a white precipitate from the
folutions of fulfat of iron (green vitriol), and nitrat of
mercury (mercurial nitre), and formed a thick and
copious one in lime whiter : hence it is evident, that
this acid was the phofphoric, and the powder was
phofphat of limed'
The phofphat of foda is obtained by combining the
phofphoric acid with the mineral alkali. It has, we
are told, been given with fuccefs as a purge; and M.
die
will extinguifh its light for iome time, which is not
the cafe with the other kin ‘s. When kept in water*
and placed in a warm air, the pholphoru, of urine dif.
cbarges fuch large and bright ilaihes into the air above
it, as arc apt to furprife and even frighten th.de who are
unacquainted with it Thefe coruications are centric-
ted in their paffage through the water, but expand as
foon as they get above it; however, the experiment can
only be tried to alvantage in warm we .tiler, an i in a
cylin Irical glafs not above three quarters filled with
water.
The phenomena exhibited by the earthy phdfphori Phenomena,
are very curious ; both on account of the fingular cir 0f earthy
. ; » . o.    —*ciy euuuu*; uota on account or tne lingular cir ct earthy
relietier thinks it may be applied to the foldering of cumftances in which thry exhibit their li dit and the lJho<phoru
metals inftead of borax : and indeed it refemMes this
fubftance fo much in many of its properties, that it
has been fuppofed that phofphoric acid is one of the
conftituent principles of borax. See Chemistry,
t n° 904.
Phofpho- PHOSPHORUS, a name given to certain fubftan-
tus defined ces which /hine in the dark without emitting heat. By
ndfiied m" t^18 c,'rcumftancc they are di Hnguiflied from the J>yro
varieties obferved in the light itfelf. All thefe, as has
been already mentioned, emit no light tnl they have
been fiiit expofed to the light of the fun, or fome other
luminous body. After that, they are luminous in the
dark lor a confi.lerable time ; but by degrees their
light dies away, and they emit no more till after ano¬
ther expofure to the fun. But if this happens to be
too long continued they are then irrecovertd ly fpoil-
tbori which though they take fire on being expofed ed. The fame thing will happen from b ing too much
to the air, are vet entirely defiirute of li^ht before   r.._„ 11. * , . .
to the air, are yet entirely defticute of light before
4 this expofure.
•Divided in- Phofphori are divided into feveral kinds, known by
[? vard?Uj names of Bologntan phs/phorus, Mr Canton's phof-
ortis. Baldwin's phofphorus., phofphorus of urine, &c.
©f which the laft is by far the moft remarkable both
with refpefl to the quantity of light which it emits,
and its property of taking fire and burning very
fiercely upon being flightly heated or rubbed. For
the method of preparing thefe, fee CnEMisTRr-Index.
Befides thefe, however, it has been found that almoft
all terreftrial bodies, upon being expofed to the light,
... 1 • t . r . . , , & » “ ciu xauwever, wita au tne care
iwid in.r, ‘ a?pCar Umi?t,U,S. °r a.llttle tlme ™ th! mc; ,hat ™ be Ihtfe phofphori are very far from
i\ .urr, tals only excepted. I his points out a general divifion of beino-nenctnal •- nm- hoc n.,,. —1 1  r.n
heated without any expofure to light. Indeed, if a
phofphorus, which has juft ceafed to be luminous be
heated, it will again emit light without any expofure
to tne fun ; but oy this it', phofphoric quality is wea¬
kened, and will at laft be deftroyed. lud.ed thefe
phofphori are fo tender, and impatient either oc light
or heat, that the lied method of rendering th.m lumi¬
nous occafionslly is by dif'barging an eltcfric bortle
near them. The lighc of the fl till immediately km lleff
the phofphorus, and it concinues luminous for a conii-
derable time, after which it may again be revived by
another flaih, and fo on However, with all the care
o two onIy excepted. I'his points out a general divifion of
Jaffe*. phofphori into twoclaffes; namely, fuch as require
to be expofed to the light either of the fun or of fome
artificial fire, before they become luminous; and fuch
as do not. Of the former kind are the Bolognian phof¬
phorus, Mr Canton's pholphorus, the phofphoti from
earths, &c. O' the latter kind are rotten wood, the
ficins of fifties, and the phofphorus of urine. To thefe
we may add fome other fuhftances which become lumi¬
nous in another way; viz. the mafs which remains af-
ter the diftillation of vol til fal ammoniac with chalk,
being perpetual; nor has any method been yet fallen
upon to render them fo.
The Angularities in the light of the phofphori a-
bove-mentioned are, that they emit light of many dif¬
ferent and moft beautiful colours. This difference of
colours feems to be natural to them ; for fome will at
firft emit a green, others a red, others a violet, &c-
at their formation However, the beft kinds agree
in this ftrange property, that rf they are exioled to a
red light, they emit a red light in the dark ; and the
fame of other colours. But this muft not be under-
. , r ' ,—, a.ju 1 iuis muit not oe under-
loaf-iugar, and tne phofphorus of urine ffiflolyed in flood without limitation ; nor is the phofphoreal light
fpirit of 'v,ne:, fir?’ w llch I3 * compofition of at any time fo bright as the luminous body, whatever
the mann. »c.d of the fal ammoniac «.th the chalk. It was, by which it was kinJIcd. Neither are we to
Vot?XIV. P “ ^a[cruabl', L’"°mc61“mino“8 *he“ ™^"'t “"y particular phofphoms has a partial-
4 K lar
P H O
[ G26 ]
P H O
Miena ex
plained.
f See the
article
Gold.
Phofphoruslar kind of liglit appropriated to it; for the fame phof-
  v ' phorns which at one time emits a purple light, will at
another perhaps emit a green, or a light of fome other
6 colour.
^ ^ ex^anat,on t^ie principal phenomena of phof-
ric^j heno- ”p^orus i9 deducihle from what has been ihown concern¬
ing the nature of lire, compared with what is mentioned
under the article Quicklime. Under thislallarticle it
is fhown, that, when calcareous earths are deprived of
their fixed air, a proportionable quantity of aftive fire
is abforbed by them ; that is, the echerial fluid which
pervades all bodies* has a violent tendency to expand
itfelf, or to all around every particle of the calci¬
ned earth, as from a centre. Of confequence, if this
tendency was not counteradfed by fome other power,
thefe fubftances would emit a perpetual flame. This
power, however, is found in our atmofphere ; which
has already been Ihown either to be the politive prin¬
ciple of cold, or to contain itf. Hence, the latent fire
in thefe fubftances is checked, and cannot aft, except¬
ing within the very fubftance itfelf. But if any other
body comes in contaft with the calcined earth, in which
the principle of cold is lefs vigorous than in the atmo-
fphere, the aftive flic in the quicklime immediately
Ihows itfelf, and the body either becomes hot, or is
confumed as if by fire. Hence it will follow, that if
a very inflammable body is touched by quicklime, it
ought to he fet on fire. But of this we have no in¬
fiance, becaufe it is impofiible for the quicklime to
part with any of its fire, unlefs it receives fomething
in exchange. This indeed it might receive from the
atmofphere ; which could fupply it either with more
fire, if it was in a ftate of ignition; or with fixed air,
if any fubftance was at hand to receive the fire. But
the atmofphere refufes to part with the fire which it
contains, becaufe the effort of the fire in the quick¬
lime is not fufliciently ftrong to overcome the oppofition
it meets with in other bodies; and, on the other hand,
the effort of the fire in the quicklime is fufficient to
keep the earth from attrafting fixed air out of the at¬
mofphere. But when water, for inflance, is poured
on the quicklime, the dry earth abforbs it very gree¬
dily, and parts with a proportionable quantity of its
latent fire, which the water alfo abforbs much more
readily than the atmofphere. Hence the mixture be¬
comes fo exceedingly hot as fometimes to fire combu-
ftible bodies. Now if, inftead of water, we fuppefe
the lime to be mixed with oil, this alfo will abforb the
fire, but not with fuch force as the water; neither is
the heat by any means fo confiderable ; becaufe oil is
capable of detaining a vaft quantity of heat in a latent
ftate, the only confequence of which is an increafe of
its fluidity, without any very perceptible change of
temperature. At the fame time, however, we muft
remember, that if the oil is in very fmall quantity, and
intimately combined with the quicklime in that peculiar
ilate which was formerly calledphlogiJ}on,\\. isealy tocon-
ceive, that it may be fo much faturated with fire, as to
be unable to contain any more without being ignited.
In this cafe, if more fire is forced into the compound,
a quantity ofthe phlogiftic matter which it containswill
be decompounded ; and of confequence, the fire which
it has imbibed will be thrown out, as in the common
and the continuance of it be. If the quantity of heat Phoffborui
is very great, the phl«gifton will be difiipated all at '
once ; but if otherwife, the ignition will continue for
a much greater length of time, as is the cafe with a
common fire.
To apply this to the accenfion of phofphori, we pjie ^
rnuft confuler that thefe fubftances are all formed by p(.fltjon 0f
calcining calcareous fubftances, and combining them different
with fome portion of phlogiftic matter. Baldwin's ph0fph°ri*
phofphorus is made by diffolving chalk in the nitrous
acid, afterwards evaporating the folution, and driving
off moft of the acid. The confequence of this is, that
the eaith is left in an exceedingly cauftic ftate, as the
acid expels the fixed air more completely than could
be done almoft by any calcination whatever ; at the
fame time that any phlogiftic matter which might have
been contained in the mixture is moft accurately diffu-
fed through it, and combined with it. The Bolog-
nian phofphorus is compofed of a gypfeous earth,
which contains a quantity of vitriolic acid ; and as no
mineral is to be found perfectly free from phlogiftic
matter, the vitriolic acid unites with it during the c?d*
cinaton into an exceedingly inflammable fulphur ; for
the greater the quantity of acid there is in proportion
to the phlogifton, the more inflammable is the com¬
pound*. Thus the Bolognian, as well as Baldwin’s * see the
phofphorus, is a compound of quicklime and inflam-articleSuu
triable matter ; and the cafe is ftiil more plain with
gard to Mr Canton’s, where the quicklime is mixed
with fulphur, and both calcined together.—Neither
are the phcfphori made by calcining oyfter-fliells with¬
out addition to be accounted any way different from
thofe already mentioned ; fince the ftiells always con¬
tain fome portion of infla.nmable matter, which, being
reduced to a coal by the aftion of the fire, furnilhes a
quantity of phlogifton, and imparts it to the whole of
the calcareous matter.
Having thus feen that the phcfphori of which we^^
now fpeak are all compofed of pure calcareous earth
and phlogifton, we are next to confider, that the phlo- &
gifton muft be in fuch a (late as it is when faturated
with fire and ready to inflame. It is not indeed in
the ftate of vapour, becaufe this would require a quan¬
tity of fire detached from any other fubftance, and in-
terpofed between the particles of the vapour, in order
to keep them at a diftance, or to give it elafticity. But
the fire which ought to do this is confined by the cal¬
careous earth, which alfo detains the phlogifton itfelf.
As long therefore as the balance is thus preierved, the
phofphorus cannot fhine; but as foon as a frelh quan¬
tity of light is difeharged upon it, then more light or
fire (for they are the very fame in this cafe) enters the
quicklime than it can contain. The confequence of
this is, that the quantity which cannot be retained by
the earth, exerts its force upon the phlogifton ; which
having already as much as it can hold, not only the fu-
perfluous quantity is difeharged, but alfo part of that
which the phlogifton had abforbed before. The" burn¬
ing indeed is very flow and weak, becaufe the phlegi-
fton is obftinately retained by the earth, which botb
impedes the ignition, and prevents the diflipation of
the phlogifton in vapour. However, as fcon as the
lime has by its aftion impeded the farther extrication
ignition of vapour; and in proportion to the degree of ofthe phlogifton, the balance is reftored, the fire goes
heat thus communicated, will the degree of ignition out, and the phofphorus ceafes to be luminous. Heat
7. will
P H 0 ' [
PhofphiruswHl kindle it again; but thus a larger quantity of
^ ', r' phlogiflic matter is difiipated, and the phofphorus is
foon deftroyed. Light does the fame, but in a much
more moderate degree ; and therefore the phofphorus
may be frequently rekindled by means of light, and
vill continue its fplendor for a long time. But if the
light is too long continued, cr too violent, it will pro¬
duce the fame confequence v/hether it is attended with
9 perceptible heat or not.
With regard to the phofphorus of urine, the cafe is
phofphorus t^e k*me ’ ontyJ ,nftca^ °f t*16 calcareous earth, we
af urine. l|ave here an acid joined with phlogiflon. The latter
is in exceeding fm-H quantity, and of confequenee fo
loaded with fire that the leaft additional heat, rub¬
bing, or alteration in the weather, forces more fire
upon it than it can bear, and therefore part of it is
continually flaOiing off in thofe corufcations formerly
mentioned. The reafon why this phofphorus flafhes
like lightning, and the others give only a fteady light
like coals, is, that the compound is very volatile. It
requires indeed a violent fire to diftil it at fir It ; but
in the diffillation fo much fire is imbibed, that itfeems
ever afterwards ready to evaporate fpomaneoufly; and
therefore phofphorus, when once made, is eifily re-
xo diffilled in clofe veifels.
Why it Jt now remains only to fhow the reafon why the
fiiinesun- phofphorus of .mine and fome others will ihine under
water, oi in an exhaulted receiver, while rotten wood,
&c. will not. This feems to arife from the quantity
ol fire which they have internally, and which requires
no fupply from the external air, as in the cafe of com¬
mon fire : and hence the phofphorus of urine fliines
more briikly in vacuo than in the air; becaufe the
preffure of the atmofphere is then taken off, and the
evaporation of the phlogiffic matter promoted. The
light of fifhes and rotten wood feems to be of an
ele&ric nature; and therefore ceafes when the air is ex-
haufied, as on this fluid all the phenomena of elee-
ii tricity are found to depend.
Caufe cf With regard to the various colours of phofphoric
.oLurs'of8 fome have imagined that the earthy fubftance
phofphoric w: s caP?ble of imbibing a certain quantity of light,
light. and emitting it afterwards in the very fame ftate,
and having the fame colour which it had before. But
this is now known to be a miftake, and the light
of the phofphori is found to be owing to a true ac-
cenfion, though weak, as in other burning bodies.
Hence it is very probable that the colour of the light
depends upon the degree of accenfion ; for we fee that
even in common fires the colour depends in a great
meafurc on the flrength of the flame. Thus the fl ime
of a candle, where it is not well kindled at bottom,
always appears b'ue. The flame of a fmali quantity
of fulphur, or of fpirit of wine, is blue ; but if a large
quantity of either of thefe fubftances be fet on fire,
the flame will in many places appear white. A ftrong
flame mixed with much fmoke appears red ; a weak
one in fimilar circumflances appears bre^vn, &c. 
Hence if the phofphoric is weakly kindled it will emit
a brown, violet, blue, or green flame; if ttrsugly, a
red cr white one.
It has already been mentioned, that almoft all ter-
reftrial bodies have a phofphoric quality : however
this, in moft of them, is extremely weak, and continues
627 1 p H o
only for a very (hort time. Signor Beccaria, whoPhof, horns
difeovered this property, in order to find out what ' v—
fubftances were phofphoric and what were not, had g^nJ12ge^
a machine contrived like a dark lanthorn, in which hecaria’s ex-
included himfelf, in order to perceive with the greater perimenu
facility any fmall quantity of light which might be
emitted by the fubftances which he defigned to exa¬
mine. In the fide of the machine was a cylinder ca¬
pable of being turned about without admitting any
light. Upon this were parted the fubftances he de¬
figned to examine, and by turning the cylinder he
immediately brought them from the light of the fun
into intenfe darknefs ; in which fituation there were
bat few fubftances which did not afford a fufficient
quantity of light to render themfelves viiible. This
phenomenon, however, is evidently fimihr to an op¬
tical iilufion by which we are made to fee what is not
prefent before us ; for if we look very intensely upon
any thing for fome time, fuifering no more light to
enter our eyes than what is refiedled from that objed,
we will imagine that we ftill fee it, though we remove
into the dark or fhut our eyes The reafon of this
is, that the nervous fluid being once put in motion
after a certain manner, continues that motion for a
fhort fpace of time after the moving caufe is removed.
In like manner, as the light is partly refle&ed from
bodies, and partly penetrates them, when any body
is expofed to the light, and then is fuddenly brought
into a dark place, the etherial fluid within its fub-
flance being once put into motion does not ceafe to
move immediately, but for a time produces that vi¬
bration which we call light; for the fubftance of light
is prefent in the moft intenfe darknefs as well as in fun-
fhine. Hence almoft all fubftances are capable of
emitting light in the dark, after being expofed to a
vigorous funfhine ; though the reafon of their doing
fo may be very different from that by which the pho-
fphori become luminous. ^
Many entertaining experiments may be made with Other ex-
the various kinds of phofphori, efpecially with that ofperituenta
urine. This laft, however, is fometimes dangerous on
account of the violence with which it burns. If dif-
folved in oil of cloves, it lofes this property, but con¬
tinues to be as luminous as before ; fo that this mix
ture, called liquid phofphorus, may be ufed with fafety.
As on fome occafions it may be wifhed to have it in
powder, it is proper to obferve that this may be done
with fafety by pouring fome hot water upon the phof¬
phorus in a gdafs mortar. The compound melts, and
while in a fott ftate is eafily reducible to powder of any
degree of fiuenefs.
Mr Margraff endeavoured to combine phofphorus On the
with metals by diftillation ; but zinc and copper werecombina-
the only two metals that fhowed any figns of combina-tion of Pho’
tion (See Chemistry, n° 1413.) The great analogy,
however, that has been obferved between the properties tals.1
of phofphorus and thofe of fulphur and arfenic, indu¬
ced M. Pelletier long ago to fufpeft, that phofphorus
would really combine with metals, and that the effential
point was to retain the phofporus in contaft with the
metal in a ftate of fufion. ThH happy idea led him
to a method from which he has obtained all the fuc-
cefs that could be defired. Of this we have already
given a very contrafted account after the word Phof-
4 K 2 phorut
P H O
[ 628 ]
P H O
i*hf.fphoru?^/5o/,M/ In the Index to our article Chemistry ; we
^ fhall now extend that account, by giving that in the
fir It volume of Annals of Chemijlry.
“ Each of the combinations which are now to be
xj defcribed, M. Pelletier has phofphorattd metal.
phofphoret ** M. Pelletier mixed half an ounce of gold of part-
tf gold.
ifl
Of Platina
ing, in powder, with an ounce of phofphoric glafs and
about a dram of powdered charcoal; he put this mix¬
ture into a crucible, covering it with a finall quantity
of charcoal powder; and then applied a degree of heat
fufficient to melt the gold. During the operation, a
confiderable quantity of vapours of phofphorus was
difengaged, but all the phofphorus which was produ¬
ced was not diffipated ; a fmall quantity united with
the gold, which was whiter than in its natural ft*te,
broke under the hammer, and had alfo a cryllallized
appearance.
“Twenty four grains of this phofphoret of gold, pla¬
ced on a cupel in a heated muffle, loft only one grain,
and the button of gold that remained had the peculiar
colour of that metal.
“ A mixture, confiding of an ounce of platina, an
ounce of phofphoric glafs, and a dram of powdered
charcoal, being put into a crucible, and covered with a
little charcoal powder, M. Pelletier gave it a degree of
heat nearly equal to what would have fufed gold: this
he continued for an hour. Having broken the cru¬
cible, he found underneath a blackifti glafs a fmall
button of a fiiver white, weighing more than an ounce.
On the inferior part of the button were well defined
cryftab of the fame fubftance, the figure of which was
a perfeff cube. The fame experiment, frequently re¬
peated, conftantly afforded the fame refult.
“ The phofphoret of platina is very brittle, pretty
hard, and ftrikes lire with fteel: it is not a&ed upon by
the magnet, and when it is expofed naked to a fire ca¬
pable of fufing it, the phofphorua is difengaged, and
burns on its furface. Expofed to the fire in a cupel¬
ling furnace on porcelain lefts, the phofphorct of pla¬
tina leaves a black glafs, wh‘ch furrounds the metallic
fubftance. The colour of the glafs is owing to iron
contained in the platina; and if it continue expofed to
the fame heat in frelh tefts, the portions of glafs that
form latterly have not fo deep a colour, are more or
lefs greenifl^, have fometimes a bluilh tinge, and be¬
come at laft of a tranfparent white. This obfervation
led M. Pelletier to imagine, that phofphorus was well
adapted for feparating iron from platina, and that it
was one of the beft means of feparating it entirely from
that metal. But the glafs which refults from the com-
buftion of the phofphorus and its combination with the
oxyd (calx) of iron, forms a cruft which obftrufls the
combuftion of the phofphorus that ftill remains com¬
bined with the platina. To overcome this obftacle,
M. Pelletier thought of expofing the phofphoret of
platina to the fire, in cupels made of calcined bones,
which, a* they eafily abforb the glafs of lead, ought
alfo to have the property of abforbiag the phofphoric
glafs. He repeated the operation, therefore, feveral
times fucceflively, changing the cupel. A buttoo-of
platina, which had been thus operated on four times,
he prefented to the academy : in this ftate it was ca¬
pable of being reduced into plates, but was brittle
when heated.
“ Since the reading of his memoir, M. Pelletier has Pr.ofykonn
purfued his procefs,-and has advanced fo far as to be
able totally to free the platina from the phofphorus,
fo that it may be worked when heated : thus he has
procured us a method of purifying this metal more ad¬
vantageous probably than any hitherto attempted.
The phofphoret of platina detonates ftrongly when it
is thrown on nitre in fufion. A mixture of phofpbo-
ret of platina, and oxygenated muriat of potaffi f dephlo*
gijlicated digejlivefalt), thrown into a red hot crucible,
produces a brilk detonation, and the platina remains
pure in the crucible.
“ Half an ounce of fiiver, treated with an ounce °^of{ilTcf
phofphoric glafs and two drams of charcoal, acquired
an increafe of weight of one dram. The phofphoret
formed was white : it appeared granulated, and as it
were cryftallized: it broke under the hammer, but
was capable of being cut with a knife. Placed in a
cupel in a heated muffle, the phofphorus was difenga¬
ged, and the fiiver remained quite pure.
“ in preparing phofphorus in the large way, M. Pel- Of copper,
letier obferved, that the phofphoric acid attacked in
fome degree the copper bafons, which are in other re-
fpe&s very convenient for this operation ; and in the
retorts which he made ufe of for the diftillation, he
found phofphoret of copper, fometimes in fmall di-
ftinft grains, at others in large mafles, according as
the degree of heat which finiftied the operation was
more or lefs intenfe. This phofphoret he exhibited to
the academy, and thence it was mentioned in the che¬
mical nomenclature. The phofphoret of copper is al¬
fo obtainable by a procefs fimilar to that which we
have defcribed for obtaining that of gold, fiiver, and
platina. The proportions which M. Pelletier employ¬
ed were an ounce of ftireds of copper, an ounce of
phofphoric glafs, and a dram of powdered charcoal.
This phofphoret appears whitifh, is fometimes varie¬
gated with the different colours of the rainbow;
changes on expofure to the air like pyrites, lofcs its
luftre, and affumes a blackifti hue.
“ Margraff had formed phofphoret of copper by di-
ftilling the oxyd of copper, called crocvs venerisy with
phofphorus; and M. Pelletier alfo obtained it by the
fame procefs : but he did not obferve the property at¬
tributed to it by Margraff, of running when applied to-
a candle. Having placed the phofphoret in a cupel
in a heated muffle, it was fufed, the phofphorus in¬
flamed on its furface ; a blackifti fubftance refembling
fcorise remained in the cupel, which was penetrated
with a glafs that gave it a blue colour.
“ The phofphoret of iron produced by the fufion of
an ounce of phofphoric glafs, and an ounce of ftireds of
iron, mixed with half a dram of powdered charcoal,
was very brittle, and broke white, with a ftriated and
granulated appearance t in one cavity it was cryftalli¬
zed in rhomboidal prifms. It is the fame fubftance
which Bergman conceived to be a peculiar metal.
“ This phofphoret, placed in a cupel in a heated
muffle, foon entered into a ftate of fufion ; in the cu¬
pel remained a brittle fubftance, which is an oxyd of
iron, and the cupel was penetrated with a matter fi¬
milar to that which M. Pelletier had obferved on treat¬
ing in the fame manner phofphoret of platina, obtain¬
ed from platina not purified. • .
^ * “fhe
P H O
Of lead.
ao
©f tin.
Phofyhfirus “ The phofphoret of lead, obtained by the procefs
' already defcribed, appears little different from com¬
mon lead. It is malleable, and eafily cut with a knife,
but it lofes its luflre fooner than lead, and when melt¬
ed on charcoal by the blow-pipe, the phofphorus burns,
leaving the lead behind.
“ The phofphoret of tin, which M. Pelletier ob¬
tained by his procefs, was divided into feveral grains,
becaufe he had not given a fnfficient degree of fire to
unite them. Thefe grains did not appear different
from the metal itfelf; but being melted with the blow¬
pipe, the phofphorus burnt on the furfa<;cof the metal,
as in the fimiiar experiment with lead.
“ In fufing tin or lead with the charcoal powder
and phofphoric glafs, care muft be taken not to urge
the fire, as the phofphorus eafily flies off from either
of thofe metals.
“ From the experiments of M. Pelletier, it appears
that phofphorus may be combined with gold, platina,
filver, copper, iron, tin, and lead ; and that it deprives
the five former metals of their du&ility. M. Pelletier
propofes to make further experiments, to afcertain
whether it be poffible or not to combine a greater
quantity of phofphorus with the two latter, and whe¬
ther they will retain their malleability in that cafe. In
another memoir he will examine the adlion of phof¬
phorus on femimetals : he propofes alfo to afcertain
the order of its affinity with the metals and femi¬
metals.
“ It is much to be wiffied that M. Pelletier may
carry to perfedlion a work which will enrich chemiftry
with a fpecies of combination hitherto almolt entirely
unknown, and which he has difeovered means of ef-
fefting by a procefs equally fimple and ingenious.”
In the 10th volume of th« fame Annals we find an
account of the a&ion of lime, and of forne metallic
oxyds on phofphorus, by Dr Raymond.
M. Gengembre difeovered, that by boiling phof¬
phorus in a folution of potaih, a peculiar kind of gas
was produced, which had the fingular property of ta¬
king fire on 'coming into contaA with the atmofphere,
and to which the French chemitts have given the ap¬
pellation of phofpkorixed hydrogen gas. Dr Raymond
thought of varying the procefs, in order to difeover
eel's varied, whether this gas might not be produced in feme other
way. He took two ounces of lime flaked in the air,
a dram of phofphorus cut fmatl, with half an ounce of
water, which he mixed up into a foft pafte, and put
into a ftone retort; to this retort a tube was fitted,
the internal diameter of which, he fays, ought not to
exceed a line and a half, communicating with a re¬
ceiver full of water. As foon as the retort was well
heated, the phofphorized hydrogen gas was generated
fo abundantly, that, from the quantity of ingredients
here mentioned, no lefs than three quarts of it were
obtained. The refiduum was found to have all the
charafters of the native phofphat of lime. Hence the
Doftor fuppofes, that the water was decompofed du¬
ring the procefs, and that its oxygen fewed to acidify
the phofphorus; which, in this ftate, was combined
with the lime, and formed the phofphat; while its hy¬
drogen, affuming a gafous ftate, carried with it a part
of the phofphorus, to which the property of taking
fire by c©nta& with the air muft be aferibed. The
gas foon lofea this property, and the phofphorus is
[ 629 ]
P H O
M. Gen-
gembre’s
difeovery
©f a pecu¬
liar kind
of gas.
21
Tbe pro-
condenfed on the files of the receiver : great caution,PhTphoru«
however, is neeeftary ; for though a part of the gas  v"11
may feem to have depofited its phofphorus, and to be
reduced to pure hydrogen, yet another part, in the
fame receiver, may retain enough to caufe a formidable
/ explofion, when in contaft with air.
The facility with which water was thus decompo¬
fed led the author to fufpedf that a fimiiar effect might v
be produced by the fame mixture in the mean tempe¬
rature of the atmofphere. Accordingly he found that
in ten days time a fmall quantity of hydrogen gas was
generated in the vials, in which the ingredients were
placed : this, however, was not phofphorized, the heat
not being fufficient to volatilize the phofphorus.
Animated by this fuccefs, Dr Raymond refolved to Another
try what could be eftedled by metallic Oxyds. He variation-
made two mixtures like the former: but inftead of
lime, he fubftituted in the one the white oxyd of zinc,
and in the other the black oxyd of iron. After long
diftillation with great heat, he obtained from both
phofphorifed hydrogen gas: but it was produced in
much lefs time, and in greater quantity, from the
oxyd of zinc than from that of iron ; which he
aferibed to the clofe affinity of the former to the phof¬
phoric acid.
In the 12th volume of the fame valuable work, we prof^t fer
have an account of a procefs for making Kunkel’s making
pliofphorus from urine, which is (horter and more eco* Kunkel’s
nomical than that by which Mefirs Scheele and Ghan ph°fph<,ru3
extraft it from the bones of animals, by M. Giobert. f‘om urine‘'
This method is founded on the property df the metal¬
lic falts to feparate the phofphoric acid from urine,
which Margraff, we believe, firft difeovered : but M.
Giobert has greatly improved on the procefs direfted
by the German chemift, as he avoids the tedious and
difgufting operations of evaporating the urine, and
expofing it to putrefa&ion. Fie tells us, that it is in¬
different whether the urine be that of healthy or dif-
eafed perfons; and that of horfes is nearly as good for
this purpofe as that which is human. He gradually
pours into it a folution of lead in the nitric acid, till
the precipitation ceafes which this had occafioned;
the whole is then diluted with a confiderable quantity
of water, and afterward filtrated through a linen cloth.
The precipitate, which is phofphat of lead, muft be
made up into a pafte with powder of charcoal, and-
well dried in an iron or copper pan: it muft afterward
be diftilled ; when it will yield, firft, an ammoniacal,
and then an empyreumatic, oil ; thefe oils proceed
from the urine, from which it is difficult to purify the
phofphat. As foon as the oil ceafes to come over, a
clean receiver muft be applied, and the fire be greatly
increafed. The phofphorus generally appears in about
half an hour ; and, within eight hours, twelve or four¬
teen ounces of it may thus be obtained. If the pro¬
cefs be conduced with care, M. Giobert thinks that a
hundred parts of phofphat of lead will yield between
fourteen and eighteen of phofphorus.
If on the phofphat of lead thus precipitated from
urine, a folution of fulphat of ammoniac be poured,
and this, after digefting during twelve hours, be filtra¬
ted and evaporated, phofphat of ammoniac will be ob¬
tained ; and if fulphat of foda be ufed, the refult will
be phofphat of foda.
Acid of PaosmoRus. This acid, called glfo the mi.
(rocofmii
p h o r
] nu,H>han)yerocofmic aeiM, has already been defcrlbed. See ChK'
ms riM-Index at Phofphoric Acid (a). It has been dif-
covered by Mr Scheele, that an acid capable of ma¬
king phofphorus is producible from calcined bones or
hartfhorn and the vitriolic acid. The procefs for pro¬
curing this acid recommended by that gentleman was
todnTolve the bones in nitrous acid; afterwards to pre¬
cipitate the earth by means of the vitriolic acid; to fil¬
ter and evaporate the liquor to drynefs; and, after dri¬
ving off the nitrous acid, the phofphoric acid remains.
This procefs, however, is expenfive on account of the
wafte of nitrous acid ; and is likewife very inconveni¬
ent, becaufe a great deal of the earthy matter continues
diffolved even after the vitriolic acid is poured in ;
and therefore the phofphoric acid is never to be ob¬
tained pure : for which reafon the following procefs is
preferable.
Take of calcined bones or hartffiorn, one pound; oil
of vitriol, 14 ounces. Let the bones be reduced to
fine powder ; then pour on the acid undiluted, and
rub both together till they are as accurately mixed as
poflible. Having let them remain for fome hours in
this fituation, pour on as much water, ftirnng and dif-
foiving the lumps, into which the mafs will now be
concreted, till it is all equally diftribuced through the
liquid, and has the confidence of thick gruel. Let
ir remain 24 hours, and then pour it into a canvas
cloth in order to let the liquid drain from it. This is
a very tedious operation, as frefh water mull conti¬
nually be pouring on till all the faline matter is walhed
oft*. When this is done, pour into the liquid a quan¬
tity of cauttic volatile alkali, which wdl occafion a co¬
pious precipitation ; for the earth of bones is much
lefs ftrongly attra&ed by acids than even the caultic
volatile alkali. The liquid being now filtered a fecond
time, which will be done with fufficient eafe, and af¬
terwards evaporated, there remains a mafs compofed of
phofphoric acid and vitriolic fal ammoniac. By in-
creafing the fire, the latter is difiipated in vapour; and
if the procefs has been fuecefsful, four ounces or more
of pure phofphoric acid will remain.
With regard to the properties of this acid, it is not
yet afeertained whether they are exaftly the fame with
the microcofmic acid or not. Indeed, as far as yet ap¬
pears, they ftem to be different; and there arc very
ftrong reafons for fuppoiing that the phofphoric acid
thus produced is no other than the vitriolic altered by
its combination with the earth of bones. See the ar¬
ticle Bones.
Idquor of Phosphorus. See Chemistry, n° 2d 957.
1521.
630 1 P H O
PHOTINIANS, in ecclefi ifiic&l hillory, were a PlnMniaru,
feft cf heretics in the fourth century who denied the
divinity of our Lord, They derive their name from u"‘"v—
Photinus their founder, who was bifhop of Sirmium,
and a difeiple of Marcell us. Photinus publilhed in the
year 343 his notions respecting the Deity, which were
repugnant both to the orthodox and Arian fyffems.
He afferted, that Jefus Chrild. was born of the Holy
Ghoft and the Virgin Mary ; that a certain divine
emanation, which he called the Word, defeended upon
Him; and that becaufe of the union of the divine word
with his human nature, Pie was called the fon of God,
and even God himfelf; and that the Holy Ghoft was
not a prrfon, but merely a celeftial virtue proceeding
from the Deity. Both parties condemned the bifhop
in the councils of Antioch and Milan, held in the years
345 and 347. He was condemned alfo by the council
at Sirmium in 351, and was afterwards degraded from
the epifeopai dignity, and at lait died in exile in the
year 372 or 375- His opinions were afterwards re¬
vived by Socinus.
PHOTIUS, patriarch of Conftantinople, was one
of the fineft geniufes of his time, and his merit raffed '
him to the patriarchate; for Bardas having driven Ig¬
natius from the fee, Photius was cenfecrated by Afbef-
tus in 859. He condemned Ignatius in a fynod, where¬
upon the pope excommunicated him, and he, to balance
the account, anathematized the pope. Bafilius of Ma-
cedon, the emperor whom Photius had reproved for
the murder of Michael the late emperor, expelled
him, and reftored Ignatius; but afterwards re-ellablifil¬
ed Photius, upon Ignatius’s death, in 878. At laft,
being wrongfully accufed of a confpiracy againft the
perfon of Leo the philofopher, fon and fucceffor to
Bafilius, he was expelled by him in 886, and is fup-
pofed to have died foon after. He wrote a Bih/iothecci,
which contains an examen of 280 authors : we have
alfo 253 epiftles of his; i\\t Nomacanon under ^titles;
an abridgment of the a£ts of feveral councils, &e. This
great man was born in Conftantinople, and was defeend¬
ed from a very illuftrious and noble family. His na¬
tural abilities were very great, and he cultivated them
with the greateft affrduity. There was no branch of
literature, whether facredor profane, and fcarcely any
art or fcience, in which he was not deeply verfed. In¬
deed he appears to have been by far the greateft man
of the age in which he lived ; and was fo intimately
concerned in the chief tranfaftions of it, that eccleli-
aftical writers have on that account called it Seculum
Photianum. He was firft raifed to the chief dignities
of the empire, being made principal fecretary of ftatc,
captain
(a) See particularly n° 904. In addition to what has been ah’eady faid on the acid of phofphorus, we may
juft obi'erve, that M. Pelletier has a memoir on this fubjedt in the 14th volume of the Chemical Annals.
This philofopher’s method of preparing the phofphorous acid differs little from that which was fome years ago
propofed by M. Sage, and which, we believe, is now pretty generally known. The principal alterations ma le
by the author of the prefent memoir confift in his putting each flick of phofphorus. into a glafs pipe, the
lower part of which is fhaped like a funnel, terminating in a very fmall opening; and in covering the appa¬
ratus with a tubulated receiver, which he can open at pleafure. By thefe means he can diffolve a greater
quantity of phofphorus without danger of an explofion. His method of converting the phofphorus into the
phofphoric acid, by the nitric or the oxygenated muriatic acid, is tire fame with that difeovered by M. La-
voifier, which is deferibed in bis Elements of Chemiftry.
P H R
Phraates captain of the guards, and a fenator.    
tions he acquitted himfelf with a diftin&ion fuitable to
iue great abilities ; for he was a refined ftatefimn, as
well as a profound fcholar. His rife to the patriarch¬
ate was very quick ; for when he was chofen to that
office he was only a layman : but that he might be as
Phreafis.
it were gradually raifed to that dignity, he was made
monk the firll day, reader the next, and the following
days fub-deacon, deacon, and pried;. So that in the
fpace of fix days he attained to the higheft office in
the church. On the whole, however, his ardent love
of glory and unbounded ambition made him commit
ex edit s which rendered him a fcourge to thofe about
him.
Fahricius calls this Bibliotheca or library, non liber,
fed injignis thefaurus, “ not a book, hut an illuftrious
treafure,” in which are contained many curious things
relating to authors, and many fragments of works
which are no where elfe to be found. It was brought
to light by Andreas Schottus, and communicated by
him to David Hoefchelius, who caufed it to fee print¬
ed in 1601. Schottus, confidering the great utility of
this work, tranflated it into Latin, and printed his
tranfiation alone in 1606. "The Greek text, together
with the tranflation, were afterwards printed ?t Gene¬
va in 1611. The laft edition of this work, the lar-
geft, and the faireft, was printed at Rouen in 1653,
folio.
PHRAATES, or Ph rah axes. There were four
kings of this name in Parthia. See Part hi a.
PHRASE, in grammar, an elegant turn or manner
of fpeech, peculiarly belonging to this or that oc-
cafion, this or that art, or this or that language. Thus
[ 631 1 P H R
In all thefe fta- ed hi's caufe in his bark ; and if found guilty, was com. Phrcn
nutted to the mercy of the winds and waves, or, as II
feme Ly, fuffered there condign puniffiment; if inno-Phryg
cent, he was only cleared of the fecond faR, and, ac-' ^
cording to cuftom, underwent a twelvemonth’s ba-
mfhment for the former. See Potter’s Gr.Antiq. vol i.
p. in.
PHRENETIC, a term ufed to denote thofe who
without bang abfolutely mad, are fubjed to fuch fir oner
falhes of imagination as in feme meafure pervert them
judgment, and caufe them to ad in a way different
from the more rational part of mankind.
PHRENI PIS, the fame with Phrensy ; an in¬
flammation of the meninges of the brain, attended with
an acute fever and delirium. See Medicine, ^176 -
alfo an a degree of phrenr.y which
attacked Charles VI. of France in the article France,
n° 88, 90. *
PHRYGANE A is a genus of infeds, of which
Rarbut gives the following charaders. “ The mouth
is without teeth, but furniffied with four palpi; the
fiemmata are three in number: the antennm are fili¬
form, and longer than the thorax. The wings are in¬
cumbent ; the under ones are folded.”
The fame author informs us, that the genus is divi¬
ded into two fedions : the firil of which is charaderi-
zed, by having two truncated fetm at the extremity of
the abt-omen, referobling the beard of an ear of corn •
whde the fecond has the abdomen Ample, or without
appendices. The tarfi of the feet of the firft family
confift of three articulations; thofe of the fecond are
compofed of five. The wings of this fedion decline
from the inner margin towards the Tides, fo as to re-
'll f •» a poetical fonbkthe it
thr*fi: *A«oraphrafi.  ward, at their extremity. « Thi, infca (f™, Mr'
Barbut), before it becomes an inhabitant of the air
has lived under-water, lodged in a kind of tube or
/heath, the inward texture of which is filk ; outwardly
coveyed with fand, firaws, bits of wood, /hells, &c
When the hexapod worm is about to change to a clirv-
faus, he flops tip the opening of his tube with thread*
of a loofe texture, through which the water makes h*
way, but prevents the approach of voracious infed
1 he chryfahs is covered with a thin gauze
tt'hir'K flit* r.ptxt trw™ • r o • “
Ihrase is fometimes aifo ufed for a fliort fentence
or fmall fet or circuit of words conftruded together.
In this fenfe, Father Buffier divides phra/es into com¬
plete and incomplete.
Phrafes are complete where there is a noun ?nd a
verb, each in its proper fundion ; i. e. where the noun
exprefies a fubjed, and the verb the thing affirmed
of it.
Incomplete phrafes are thofe where the noun and the * 11W yjail8 JS „ovcrea Wlth a ..
verb together only do the office of a noun ; confining which the new form of the infed . fafiC J trhr°1,gh
of feveral words without affirming any thing, and which The phryeanea on the nnint r f K ^a% difeerned.
ntight be expreffed in a fingle word/ Thus, ,ba,M ^T fnrfaee of ITw^
" M '“complete pbrafe, which might be ex- fc, i„t0 the air, and enjoy, the fw’etts of the ^ n’
prefied in one word, truth ;k, ,ha, M it truefeh- flutter, upon flower, and Lea.hut , foo„ cailT"'^'’
t0 the water-fide to dennlne _ led awar
1 HRAbEOLOGY, a colledion of the phrafts or
elegant expreffions in any language. See Phrase.
1 HREATIb, or Phreattium, in Grecian anti¬
quity, was a court belonging to the civil government
of Athens,, fituated upon the fea-/hore, in the Pirseus.
The name is derived from tv ?f£a?ofsbtcaufe it flood
in a pit ; or, as others fuppofe, from the hero Phreatus.
I his court heard fuch caufes as concerned perfons
who had fled out of their own country for murder, or
thofe that fled for involuntary murder, and who had
afterwards committed a deliberate and wilful murder.
The firft who was tried in this place was Teucer, ori
a groundlefs fufpicion that he had been acceffory to
the death of Ajax. The accufed was not allowed to
come to land, or fo much as to call anchor, but plead-
to the water- fide to depofile it, eggs, whence pro“"^
it, poitei ity. ihefe aquatic larvie are often found in
ftagnating waters, where they w,ap themfdve, up fi, the
water-lent, cut out into leguiar fqiiares, a„d fi,“d
one to another 1 rout, are very greedy of thefc L *
I wh,C ‘ ,s th! rjafo“. that in fomc countries, afur
£7S£?Jta',r C°StS’ 'hay-fake ufe of them
There are a variety of different fptcie, of the phry.
ganea i but except the ptryganea bicanda and ftriata
they do not materially difler from one another, excepl
m fixe and colour. Ihe bicauda i, of a deep da-k-
brown colour; having a fingle yellow longitudinal band
running actofs the head and thorax. The lev, are of
a brown colour, a, are the antenna,; which Ae a!f„
long and hliform. Two brown threads, almoil 1,
^0Ii£b
P H R t 632 1 .p H R .
Phrygia. Jon» as the antenna*, terminate the abdomen. The did not take place till Troas was fuhdued hy the Phr/p^
 v-  wings, which are about a third longer than the body, Phrygians; and hence it is more conli !ered by fame *
are veined with brown fibres, are narrow at the top, Roman writers as a p rt of Phrygia, than Bithynia,
broad below, and are as it were ftuck upon the body ; Cappadocia, or any other of the idjacent provinces,
which they infold, croffing one over the other. This In after ages, the Greater Phrygia was divided into
infe6V, which is met with on the banks of rivers and two diftrifts or governments : one called Phrvgia Paca*
{landing-waters, carries its eggs in a duller at its ab- tiana, from Pacatianus, w' o, under Conil ntine, bore
dornen, like fome fpiders. the greet office of the praeredus pratono of tne Eaft;
The flriata is a large fpecies, of a dun colour, except the oP er Phryiria 3 dutaris, from fome miraculous cure#
the eyes, which are black, and has a confiderable re- fuppofed to have been performed there by the archan.
femblance to the phalena in the carriage of its wings, gel Michael. _ ...
The antennae are as long as the body, and are borne This country, and indeed all Afia Minor, as lying
ftraight foivvard. The wings are a third larger than in the fifth and fixth northern climates, was in ancient
the body, having veins of a colour rather deeper than times greatly celebrated for its fm lity. It abounded
the reft. The feet are large, long, and fomewhat finny, in all forts of grain ; being, for the moft part, a plain
Mr Yeats tells us, that the perlae of Geoffrey, and country covered with a deep rich foil, and plentifully
phryganete of Linnaeus, do not differ genetically. It watered by final! rivers. It was in fome parts produc-
appears, however, from Yeats’s experiments, that the tive of bitumen • nd other combuftible fubltances. It
phryganese remain longer in the cbryfalis than the was well (locked with cattle, having large plains and
pafture erounds The air was anciently deemed moft
The leffer phryganese very much refemble the tines; pure and wholefome, though it is now in fome parts
but, upon examining them w'th a glafs, the former thought extremdy grofs, great part of the country ly-
will be found to 1 e covered with fii all hairs inflead of ing uncult vated. . •
the feales which adorn the wings of the latter. > In Phrygia Major were anciently feveral cities of
PHRYGIA, a country in Afia. From whence it great celebrity; fuch as Apanea Laoimcea, Hiera-
derived its name is not certain : fome fisy it was fiom pocis, Gordium, See—'There were aho fome famous
the river P^ryx (now Sarabat), which divides Phry- rivers ; fuch as Marfyas, Msean !er. Sec. i he M®an.
JrutcHt V- gis from Carls, and emoties itfelf into the Hermus; der is now called MaJre or Minclre, and was much ce-
//^§thers from Phrygia, the* daughter of Afopus and Eu- lebrated by the ancLnts for its windings and turn-
Jlory, v°£’3-ropa> The Greek writers tell us, that the country ings; from whence all fuch windings and turnings have
P*44l‘ &C t0ok its name from the inhabitants, and thefe from the been denominated mz.inders.
town of Brygium in Macedonia, from wheme they firft The Phrygians accounted themfelves the moft ao«
paffed into Afia, and gave the name of Phrvgia or cient people in the world. Phtir or gin, however 18
Brvgia to the country where they fettled. Bochart ia tirmelydark and uncertain Jofephua and St Jerome fay,
of opinion that this trad was c ailed Phrygia from the they were defeended from Togarmah, one of Corner’s
Greek verb W" “ to hum or parch which, ac- fons ; and that they were known to the Hebrews under
cording to him, is a tranH; tion of its Hebrew name, thenameof Tigrammanes Tae Heathen authors lenvc
derived from a verb of the fame fignification. them Irom the Brygians, a people o( Mace onia. But
No lefs various are the opinions o* aut’ ors as to the this is but mere conjecture ; and it is a conjecture to-
exa& 1 oundaries of thiscountiy; an urcertainty which t lly unfupported, except by the fimilanty of name#,
gavt rife to an obfervation made by Strabo, viz. that Bochart thinks that the Phrygim* were the offspring
the Phrygians and Mvfians had diilind boundarie#; but of Gomer the eldtft fon of Japhet , the wor 1 Phrygia
that it was fcarce pofli’ le to aftertam them. The Came being the Gre-rk tranflation of his name Jofiphu#
writer adds, that the Trojpns, Myfians, and Lydians, makes Gomer the father of the Galatians; but he, by
are, 1 y the poets, all blended under the common name the Galatians, mull ntccffiarily me n the Phry 1 ns itv-
of Phrygians, which CaudLn extends to the Pifi ’ians, habiting that pare of Phrygia w.iich the Galatians had
Bithynians, and Ionian?. Phrygia Proper, according made themielves maflers of; the defeendants of Lromer
to Ptolemy, whom we choofe to follow, was bounded being placed by Ezekiel northward o Ju Iki, near
on the north bv Pontus and Bithynia; on the weft by Togarmah (which B »caart takes to be Capp docia),
Myfia, Troas, 'the ^Egean Sea, Lydia, Maeonia, and long before the G uls p.iffed over into Aba We are
Caria; on the fouth by Lycia; on the eafl by Pamphy- willing to let Gomer enjoy the fine country wh.ch Bo-
Ha and Galatia. It lies t> tween the 37th and 41ft de chart is pleafed to p-ive him, and allow him the honour
greesofnorth latitude, extending in long-'tude from 56 of being the progenitor of the Prirygians, fince we know
to 62 degrees Hie inhabitants of chis country, men no other perfon o : whom it can be conferred with any
tioned by Ptolemy, are the Lycaones aqd Anthemife- degree of probability.
nii, towards Lycia ; and Moccadelis 01 Moccaihm, the The ancient Pory.ians are defenbed as fuperft-.tious,
Cyddefes or Cydiffes to war Is Bithyoia ; md ! etwten voluptuous, and effeminate, without any prudence or
thefe the Peltini or Speitim, the Moxiaoi, Phyiacenfes, forecaft, an 1 of fuch a fervile temper, tnat notmng
and Hierapolitae To thefe we m y add the Berecyn- but ftripes an ! ill ufage coni 1 make them comply with
tee mentioned by Strabo ' their duty ; whi. h g :ve rife to feverai tnte an ! well
Phrygia is commonly divided into the Greater and known proverbs (a) l hey are IjuI to h ive been the
Leffer Phryifia, called alfo Troas. But this divifion firft inventors of divination by the finging, flying, and
8 feeding
(a) 14 Phryges fero fapiunt, Phryx verberatus melior, Phryx non minus ^uam Spyntharus, &c.
Phryne.
^ ^ • — '»•» ^ knowledge of ^
Their government wa. certainly montrchical ■ for °7 haV£ "" °f r01”" on that the n»Tg>'an Ian.
all Phrygia wa., during tfce reigns of feme W/fuK E'b,7 a.grcat..re*“blanc' “ Greek; hut
j' Ct to one prince. Ninnacus^ Midas Manif V k- k k mdnlf'ft .ttora t,>e fe''' Phrygian words
dius, and his defendants, were undouht^fovere^ ffted b^Bo^h T- and "arefu% c^
of all Phrvgia. But W time before the Tro^n ^ Ieded by Bochart and Rudbechms. To thefe we
we find thil canntrl T;,TL^ rZ^J .'T* W*r’ add,thf Strabo, who, after attempt-
ing to derive the name of a Phrygian city from the
oreek, concludes, that it is a difficult matter to dif-
cover any fimilitude between the barbarous words of
the Phrygian language and the Greek, The Phry¬
gian tongue, after the experiment made by Pfamme-
tichus king of Egypt, was looked upon by the Egyp-
tians as the mold ancient language of the world. ?But
other nations, particularly the Scythians, refufed to
lubmit to their opinion, as founded on an argument
of no real weight. “ As the two children (fay they)
had never heard the voice of any human creature, the
word- tec, or bdlos, the firll they uttered, was onlyN
an imitation of the goats that had fuckled them, and
happened to be a Phrygian word figmfying bread (B).
We have already fid, that the Phrygians were fu-
perltitious ; their k’ols were confequently very nume¬
rous. The chief of tbefe was Cybele, who went by
a variety of names. (See Cybele.) They alfo wor-
fhipped Bacchus under the name of Sabazios ; and hia
pneffs they called Sabot.
The hittory of their kings is dark and uncertain,
and the dates of their ftveral reigns and aft ions cannot
now be fixed ; we fliall refer fuch of our readers, there¬
fore, as wiffi to know what is certain refpe&ing them.
accordingly, and'pTaced 6ZiiZ'7a “S ,‘han onc^n'"^’^! “orc
Jo • tunc uciure tne i rojan war,
we hnd this country divided into feveral petty king¬
doms, and read of divers princes reigning at the fame
time. Apollodorus mentions a king of Phry -ia con
temporary with Ilus king of Troy. Cedrenus and
others ipeak of ore Teuthrans, king of a fmall country
m 1 hrygia, whofe territories were ravaged by Ajax,
f imfclr fiain in Angle combat, his royal feat laid in
afhes, and his daughter, by name Tecmefla, carried
away captive by the conqueror. Homer makes men¬
tion of Phoreys and Afcanius, both princes and kad-
ers of the Phrygian auxiliaries that came to the relief
ot 1 roy. i antalus was king of Sipylus only, and its
oirtnct; a prince no lefs famous for his great wealth
t.)an infamous for his covetoufnefs and other deleft!
a.oe vices. That Phrygia was fubdued either by Ni-
nus, as Diodorus Siculus informs us, or by the Ama¬
zon,,, as we re ;d in Suidas, is not lufficientlv warrant-
ed. Molt authors that fpeak of Gordius tell us, that
the 1 iirygians having fent to confult an oracle in or.
t0, kn<fw hLow, they ra!iht P’Jt an end to the inte-
Itme broils which rent their country into many fae-
t-ons and parties, received for anfwer, that the moft
efteaual means to deliver themfdves and their coun¬
try from the calamities they groaned under, was to
commit the government to a king. This advice they
followed
throne.
As to their commerce, all we can fay is, that Aoa-
mea was the chief emporium of all Alia Minor.—
1 hither reforted merchants and traders from all parts
o. Gieece, Italy, and the neighbouring iflauds. Be-
fiues, we know from Syncelius, that the Phrygians
were for feme time matters of the fea ; and none but
trading nations ever prevailed on that element. The
country pro need immy choice and ufetul commodi¬
ties, which afforded confiderable exports. They had
a faie coaft, convenient harbours, and whatever may
incline us to think that they carried on a confiderable
iade. But as moft of the Phrygian records are loft
we will not dwell on conjectures fo difficult to be af’
certained.
We have no fet form of their laws ; and as to their
learning, fince we are told that for feme time they
enjoyed the fovereignty of the fea, we may at lead
allow them a competent fkiU in geography, geome-
v::dxIvn7iiiind add to ,h£fe’ f~-' "hat -
than once m the prefent article. See alfo Gordius.
Mp£rSDw; F°r Phrygia Mfnor> Troy.
GIAN Stone, in natural hiftory, is the
name of a ftone deferibed by the ancients, and ufed by
them in dying ; perhaps from feme vitriolic or alumi'-
nmis lalt contained in it, which ferved to enliven or
fix the colours ufed by the dyers. It was light and
fpungy, refembling a pumice ; and the whiteft and
lighten: were reckoned the heft. Pliny gives an ac¬
count of the method of preparing it for the purpofe
of dying, which was by moiftening it with urine, and
then heating it red hot, and fuffering it to cool 
I his calcination was repeated three times, and the
ftone was then fit for ufe. Diofcoridex recommends
aftringentCinC ^ bUrning 5 he faysit was dry'«gand
PHRY?iANS’ 3 ChriftJanfea. SeeCATAPHRY-
Gians and Montanist.
PHRYNE, was a famous proftitute, who flourifhed
at Athens about 328 years before the Chriftian era.
bhe was miftrefs of Praxiteles, who drew her pi&ure,
* 4 ^ which
manner, than to preven^ffiem^y popewLafine^^Th^ " T ^ misfortunes in an unmanly
The Done mood was a kind of gfav^and folid mnf ‘ hT r^r t0°’ W3S fuited to their eff^minate temper^
the Phrygian chiefly calculated to effeminate aud enenate'the^'ind" a7 ef“k ““('“T1"151' l'arm0n’' * but
others. enervate the miud. But this charader is conttatliaed b»
(b) Gpropius Becanus makes ufe of rht* f-tm..
mother-tongue ol the weld, becaufe ^ ^ «
P H R l 634
fhrynicus which was one of his beft pieces, and was placed in
II the temple of Apollo at Delphi. We are told that
Phryxus. A lleg painted his Venus Anadyomene after he had
1" y " feen Phryne on tlie fea-fhore naked, and with difhevel-
led hair. Phryne became fo very rich by the liberality
of her lovers, that fhe offered to rebuild Thebes at
her own exptnce, which Alexander had deftroyed,
provided this infcription was placed on the walls :
Alexander dlrmt, fed meretrix Phryne refeat; which was
refufed. See Plin. 34. c. S. There was another
of the fame name who was accufed of impiety. When
fhe found that fhe was going to be condemned, fhe
unveiled her bofom, which fo influenced her judges,
that fhe was immediately acquitted.
PHRYN1CUS, a general of Samos, who endea¬
voured to betray his country, &c. -A flatterer at
Athens. -A tragic poet of Athens, difciple to
Thefpis. He was the firft who introduced a female
charafter on the ftage.
PHRYN1S was a mufician of Mitylene. Me was
the firft who obtained a mufical prize at the Pana-
themea at Athens. He added two firings to the lyre,
which had always beeu ufed with feven by all his pre-
deceffors. He flouriihed about 43 8 years before the
Chriftian era. We are told that he was originally a
cook at the houfe of Hiero king of Sicily. There
was another of the fame name, a writer in the reign ot
Commodus, who made a colledtion, in 36 books, ot
phrafes and fentences from the beft Greek authors,
PHRYXUS (fab. hill.), was a fon of Athamaa
king of Thebes, by Nephele. When his mother was
repudiated, he was perfecuted with the moft inveterate
fury by his ftep-mother I no, becaufe he was to fit on
the throne of Athamas, in preference to the children
of a fecond wife. His mother apprized him of Ino s
intentions upon his life ; or, according to others, his
preceptor; and the better to make his efcape, he fe-
cured part of his father’s treafures, and privately left
Boeotia with his fifter Helle, to go to their friend and
relation ^etes king of Colchis. They embarked on
board a fhip, or, as we are informed by the fabuious
account of the poets and mythologiils, they mounted
on the back of a ram, whofe fleece was of gold, and
proceeded on their journey through the air. Ihe
heip-ht to which they were earned made Helle giddy,
and fhe fell into the fea. Fhryxus gave his fifter a
decent burial on the fea-fhore, and after he had called
the place HelUfpont from her name,, he continued his
flip-lit, and arrived fafe in the kingdom of A-etes,
where he offered the ram on the altars of Mars. 1 he
king received him with great tendernefs, and gave him
Chalciope his daughter in marriage. She had by him
Phrontis Melas, Argos Cylindrus, whom fome call
Cvtorus. He was afterwards murdered by his father-
in law, who envied him the pofTeffion of the golden
fleece ; and Chalciope, to prevent her children from
fharing their father's fate, feut them privately from
Colchis to Boeotia, as nothing was to be dreaded there
from the jealoufy or refentment of Ino, who was then
dead. The fable of the flight of Phryxus to Colchis
on a ram has been explained by fome, who obferve,
that the fhip on which he embarked was either called
by that name, or carried on her prow a figure o. tnat
] P H T
animal. The fleece of gold is accounted for, by ob-Phthiriafis,
ferving that Phryxus carried away immsnfe treafures hthl !9‘,
from Thebes. Phryxus was placed among the con- 'r""
ftellations of heaven after death. The ram which car¬
ried him to Afn is faid to have been the fruit of Nep¬
tune’s amour with Theophane the daughter of Altis.
This ram the gods had given to Athamas in order to
reward his piety and religious life ; and Nephele pro¬
cured it for her children, juft as they were going to
be facrificed to the jealoufy of Ino. Phryxus’s mur¬
der was fome time after amply revenged by the
Greeks ; it having occafioned the famous expedition
atchieved under Jafon and many of the princes of
Greece, which had for its objeft the recovery of the
golden fleece, and the punifhment of the king of Col-
chis for his cruelty to the fon of Athamas.
PHTHIRIASIS, the lousy evil, from “ a
loufe.” It is a loufy diftemper; children are frequent¬
ly its fubjefts, and adults are fometimes troubled with
it. The increafe of lice, when in a warm moift fitu-
ation, is very great; but a cold and dry one foon de-
ftroys them. On the human body four kinds of lice
are diftinguifhed: 1. The fedicult, fo called becaufe
they are more troublefome with their feet than by their
bite. Thefe are in the heads of children, efpecially if
fore or fcabby ; and often in thofe of adults, if they
are flothful and nafty. 2. Crab-lice, fee Lice.
2. Body lice ; thefe infeft the body, and breed in the
clothes of the nafty and flothful. 4. A fort which
breed under the cuticle, and are found in the hands
and feet: they are of a round form, and lo minute as
often to efcape the fight: by creeping under the fcarf-
Ikin they caufe an intolerable itching ; and when the
fkin burfts where they lodge, clutters of them are
found there. See Acarus.
A good diet and cleanlinefs conduce much to the
deftrudlion of lice. V/hen they are in the head, comb it
every day; and, after each combing, fprinkle the pulv.
fern, ftaph. agr. or coccul. Ind. among the hairs every
night, and confine it with a tight cap.
&Codrochiua, in his treatife on lice, fays, that the
powdered coc. Ind. exceeds all other means; and that
it may be mixed in the pulp ®f apple, or in lard, and
applied every night to the hair. Some writers affert,
that if the pulv. core. rad. faffafr. is fprinkled on the
head, and confined with a handkerchief, it deftroys
the lice in one night.
The body-lice are deftroyed by any bitter, four,
fait, or mercurial medicine, if applied to the Ikin.
The black foap, and the flowers called cardamine
or lad/s-fmoct, are faid to be fpecitics in all cafes of
lice on the human body.
PHTHISIS, a fpeeies of confumption, occafioned
by an ulcer in the lungs. See Medicine, n 237*
^£C* • -o
Since our article Medicine was publiftied, Dr Beu-
does has fuggefted f a new theory of phthifis, found-f
ed on the prevailing pneumatic dodlrine in chemntry. ^aturiani
Thinking that much cannot be gained by adhering to Cureoj cd>
eftablilhed principles and modes of praaice, and being Sw*
unawed by any pretenfions to fuccefs from experience,/^,
he enters into the province of fpeculation. He fixes
on the effea of pregnancy in fufpending the progrets
of phthifis, as a which, by its mode of operation,
, r might ,
P H T
PhtWHs.
* Monthly
Rev. Nov.
2793,
V- a73*
fnggeft a method of diminilhing thehavock oc-
cafioned by this diftemper. We fliall give his expla¬
nation of this interefting faft :
“ The foetus has its blood oxygenated by the blood
of the mother through the placenta. During preg¬
nancy there feems to he no provifion for the reception
of an unufual quantity of cxygene. On the contra¬
ry, in confequence of the impeded adb'on of the dia¬
phragm, lefs and lefs fiiould be continually taken in by
the lungs. If, therefore, a fomewhat diminifhed pro¬
portion of oxygene be the effedt of pregnancy, may
t 1
P H T
contains only a fmall portion of blood, which has been Phthifis,
conveyed to the placenta; and that the blood in the heart ^
and arteries of the foetus is not florid.—For many in-
we will prefent our readers with his concluding re¬
marks on this fubjeft : a
. “ ^hc more you refleft, the more you will be con¬
vinced, that nothing would fo much contribute to re-
. , . , . ,, ‘  j’"‘"j fCHe the art of medicine from its prefent helolefq rnn
^ h f'h 5'f7y ;D,r re pcr0grtf' of ,iit''0n’ M lhc dlr“''C1!’ of the means of remfatiL the
ph Ms ? and if fo, .» there not an exeefs of oxgyene conftitution of the atmofphere. It would be no left
in the fyftem of confumptive perfons ? and may we delirable to have a convenient method of red„c"n° he
d,fXS 8 C0"r ' CUr£ " t,m ^ OXreCne t0 .'8 °r io 111 ,co- of ;„crTfi„g''itla
Dr Beddoes thinks, that ,hi, fuppofition is counte- diffnfiofoTiw bfoot ThTmtutft
nanced by the deficiency of oxygene m the blood of portions of the organs of motion fenfe and thnnXt
pregnant women, of afthmatic patients, and of thofe muft be affeded bv anv k ™ tn.ou^f»
who labour under fea-feurvy ; and by the foperabun. fluir WheVher hbe *3^ hra^ 'n
dance of i, in the blood of phthifica, perfona! indie by dream, ofarter,ft! to hatThe affiof'of
ted by its colour as well as by the aggravate of the every organ is a flimulus to the fyftem inenerii and
fymptoms o. confumptton by breathing oxygene air, confequcntly to every other organ in partfoular it ft
W- «■« -eft6of oxyVnetVur off
with carbonic acid air ; and, laftly, from the finall pro-
ponion of deaths among fea-faring people. Suppo-
fing acids to adl by decompofition, their alleged effects
in producing confumption are confittent with the au¬
thor’s do&rine, as well as the emaciation preceding
and accompanying phthifis. From thefe facts, Dr
Beddces concludes, that “ i. The phthifical inflam¬
mation may fo alter the ftru&ure of the lungs, as to
caufe them to tranfmit a more than ordinary portion
of oxygene to the blood ; or, 2. Some unknown
caufe having enabled them to tranfmit, or the blood
itfelf to attradt, more oxygene, an inflammation of the
lungs might enfue.”
From thefe principles, the Doftor thinks himfelf
juftified in propofing, in a difeafe which is incurable
by prefent modes of pradlice, to diminiflr the fupply
of oxygene by the two channels through which it is
introduced ; namely, through the lungs, by lowering
the atmofpheric air with azotic or hydrogene air ; and
through the ftomach, by giving fuch nourifliment as
contains a fmall portion of oxygene.
Such is Dr Beddoes’s theory of confumption ; on
which the following remark has been made by a" cri¬
tic * who poffeffes an equal degree of candour and
judgment. It is affumed by Dr Beddoes, that the
blood of pregnant women has a diminilhtd proportion
of oxygene : but pregnant women have the fame cir-
cumfcribed ipot of florid red in their countenances
which is apparent in he&ics. If, then, the prefence
of this colour be fufficient to prove an txcefs of oxy¬
gene in the one cafe, it rnutl hav<5 the fame weight in
the other. Another quell ion is, whether lefs oxveene
rx>n v,., 1  J ■. .
be reallv taken in hv tk*. 1 j • , -n6 fDfn acquaints us more particularly wil
lor although the diaphragm be impeded in the free¬
dom of its a&ion, the frequency of breathing is pro¬
portionally increafed.—A third circumftance which
demands attention is, in what degree the foetus has its
blood oxygenated by the blood of the mother through
the placenta. It appears highly probable, that the
foetal blood receives a very trifling fupply of oxygene
*roin tkod of the mother ; that the foetal heart
Jrom the lungs, the funaions of the brain ceafe : per¬
haps there may be a mixture of azotic and oxygene
airs, more Favourable to the intelleftual faculties than
that which is found in the atmofphere ; and hence
chemiftry be enabled to exalt the powers of future
poets and pkilofophers. That difeafes of excitement
on the one hand, and debility on the other, might be
cured almoft folely by a proper air, one can hardly
doubt, as well as feverai diforders at prefent highly
dangerous or defperate, which one cannot, upon the
faith of any obvious phenomena, refer to either head-
ihe materia rnedica might, therefore, undergo a ftiil
greater redudfion than it has lately undergone, in con-
fequenee of the purification of medicine from it j grof-
fer abfurdities ; and hence the treatment of difeafes
be at once rendered infinitely more pleafant and more
e^lcaclous.,,
Our author, in a fubfequent publication *, gives an * ^ LttUr
account of his treating with fuccefi ftveral cafes of^ Erafmu3
phthifis according to the principles of this theory.
Alter diftinguiftung confumptions into two kinds, the
florid and the pituitous or catarrhal, he obferves, “ that
the fyflem may be as varioufly affected by means of
the lungs as of the ftomach : that it is impoffible to
doubt that we are nourilhed by the lungs as tn-ly as
by the ftomach : and that what we take in at the for¬
mer entrance, becomes, like our food, a part of the
fubftance of our folids aa well as of our fluids. By
the lungs we can alfo introduce effedual alteratives of
the blood, and by confequence of all the parts nouriflt-
ed by the blood.”
He then acquaints us more particularly with the an-
ftiould be able to furndh azotic, hydrogene, carbonic
and oxygene airs : our author having, as he fays, nd
intention to confine himfelf to one incurable chforder
2dly, The relervoirs fhould be large, that the natienta
may be fupplied with any quantity that their ffmptoma
may require : and, ^dly, It is n^effary to '> able to
mix thde airs with one another, as well 3s with atmo¬
fpheric air, in any proportion.”. Theft cbjeas, we
4 T 2 ^
Phul
II
Phyllis.
P H. Y [ 6]6 ]
told, have been completely attained by a conftruftion fea and perirtied.
not very unlike to that employed in the gazometers of
i M. Lavoifier and Dr Van Marum.
PHUi., or Pul, king of Aflyria, is by fome hifto-
rians faid to be Ninus under another name, and the
firft founder of that monart hy : A renowned warrior.
He invaded Ifrael in the reign of Manahem, who be¬
came tributary to him, and paid him 1000 talents of
filver for a peace, hlourilhed 771 B C.
PHUT, or Phuth, the third fon of Ham (Gen x.
6.) Calmet ifi of opinion, that Phut peopled either
the canton of Phtemphu, Phtemphuti, or Phtembuti,
fet down in Pliny and Ptolemy, whofe capital was Tha
V *■   J  — J / A '
ra in Lower Egypt, inclining towards Lybta ; or the
canton called Phtenotes, of which Buthus was the ca¬
pital. The prophets often fpeak of Phut. In the
time of Jeremiah, Phut was under the obedience of
Necho king of Egypt. Nahum (iii. 9.) reckons up
his people in the number of thofe who ought to have
come to the affidance of No-ammon or Diofpolis.
PHYLAC 1'ERY, in the general, was a name given
by the ancients to all kinds of charms, fptlls, or cha-
ra&ers, which they wore about them, as amulets, to
preferve them from dangers or difeafes.
Phylactery particularly denoted a flip of parch¬
ment, wherein was written fome text of Holy Scripture,
particularly of the decalogue, which the more devout
people among the Jews wore on the forehead, the
breaft, or the neck, as a mark ©f their rebgion.
The primitive Chriflians alfo gave the name phylac¬
teries to the cafes wherein they inclofed the rehcks of
their dead. _ ,
PhylaSeries are often mentioned in the New L etta-
ment, and appear to have been very common among
the Pharifees in our Lord’s time.
PHYLICA, b astard alaternus; a genus of the
monogvnia rirder, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants/ There are fix fpecies, of which three are kept
jn the gardens of this country ; but, by reafon of their
being natives of warm climates, they require to be kept
in pots, and houfed in winter. 1 hey are all flirubby
plants, rifing from three to five or fix feet high, and
adorned with beautiful clufters of white flowers. They
are propagated by cuttings.
PHYLLANPHUS, sea-side laurel; a genus
of the triandria order, belonging to the monoecia c)als
of plants. There are fix fpecies, all of them natives
of warm climates ; and rife from 12 or 14 feet to the
height of middling trees. They are tender, and can-
no/be propagated in this country without artificial
^PHYLLIS (fab. hift ), was a daughter of Sithon,
or, according to others, of Eycurgus king of Thrace,
who received Demophoon the fon of i'hefeur ; who,
at his return from the 1 rojan war, had flopped on her
eoafts. She became enamoured of him, and did not
find him infenfible to her paffion. After fome months
of mutual tendernefs and aftedlion, Demophoon fet fail
for Athens, where his domeflic affairs recalled him.
Pie promifed faithfully to return as fooo as a month
was expired ; but either his diflike for Phyllis, or the
irreparable fituatbn of his affairs, obliged him to vio¬
late Lis engagement; and the queen, grown defperate
cm account of his abfence, hangec herfeh, or, accord¬
ing to othcioj, threw herfelf down a precipice into the
PHY
   Her friends raifed a tomb over her
body, where there grew up certain trees, whofe leaves,
at a particular feafon of the year, fuddenly became wet
as if fhedding tears for the death of Phyllis. Accord¬
ing to an old tradition mentioned by Servius, Virgil’s
commentator, Phyllis was changed by the go Is into
an almond tree, which is called phylia by the Greeks.
Some days after this metamorphofis, Demopfioon re-
vifited Thrace; and when he heard of the fate of Phyl¬
lis, he ran and clafped the tree, which, though at that
time ftripped of its leaves, fuddenly fhot forth, and
bloffomed as if ftill fenfible of tendernefs and love. The
abfence of Demophoon from the houfe of Phyllis has
Phyfalis
II
Phyfcter,
given rife to a beautiful epiftle of Ovid, fuppofed to
have been written by the Thracian queen about the
fourth month after her lover’s departure.—A country
woman introduced in Virgil’s eclogues.—The nurfe of
the emperor Domitian.—A country of Thrace near
mount Pangsus.
PHY3ALIS, the winter cherry ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are 16 fpecies; of which the moft re¬
markable is the alkekengi, or common winter-cherry.
This grows naturally in Spain and Italy. 1 he roots
are perennial, and creep in the ground to a great di-
ftance if they are not confined. Thefe, in the fpring,
{hoot up many ffalks, which rife to the height of a
foot or more, garniflied with leaves of various forts;
fome of which are angular and obtufe, fome oblong
and {harp pointed, with long foot-ffalks. The flowers
are produced from the wings. Handing upon flenuer
foot-ffalks; are of a white colour, and have but one
petal. They are fucceeded by round berries about the
{ize of fmall cherries, inclofed in an inflated bladder,
which turns red in autumn, when the top opens and
difclofes the red berry, which is foft, pulpy, and filled
with flat kidney-fhaped feeds. Soon after the fruit is
ripe, the ftalks decay to the root. The plant is eafily
propagated, either by feeds or parting the roots
PHYS "aLUS. See Scolopendra.
PHYSETER, or Spermaceti fish, in zoology,
a genus belonging to the order of cete. There are four
fpecies ; the moft remarkable are,
1. The microps, or black-headed cachalot, with a
long fin on the back, and the upper jaw coftfiderably
longer than the under one. A fifti of this kind was
caff afhore on Cramond. ifle, near Edinburgh, Decem¬
ber 22- 1769; its length was 54 feet ; the greateft
circumference, which was juft beyond the eyes, 30 :
the upper jaw was five feet longer than the lower,
whofe length was ten feet. The head was of a moft
enormous fize, very thick, and above one-third the
fi/e of the fifti: the end of the upper jaw was
cuite blunt, and near nine feet high : the fpout-hole
was placed near the end of it. The teeth were pla¬
ced in the lower jaw, 23 on each fide, all pointing
outwards; in the upper jaw, oppofite to them, were
an equal number of cavities, in which the ends of the
teeth lodged when the mouth was clofed. One of the
teeth meafured eight inches long, the greateft circum¬
ference the fame. It is hollow within-fide for the depth
of three inches, and the mouth of the cavity very wide,
it is thickeft at the bottom, and grows very fmall at
the point, bending very much; but in fome the flexure
is more than in others. Thefe, as well as the teeth o
all
PHY
, frhyfcter. »![ other whales we have obferved, arc very hard, and
' T CHt like ivory. The eyes are very fmal!, and remote from
the nofe. The pcftoral fins were placed near the cor-
ners of the mouth, and were only three feet lon^r : it
had no other fin, only a larqe protuberance on the
middle of the back. The tail was a little forked, and 14.
feet from tip to tip. The penis fevcn feet and a half long.
Linnaus informs us, that this fpecies purfues and ter¬
rifies the porpoifts to fuch a degree as often to drive
ther.1! on fhore.
2. The catodon, or round headed cachalot, with a
fiftula in the fnout, and having no back-fin. Of this
fpecies, 102 of different fizes were caft afhore at one
time on one of the Orkney Ifies, the largeft 24 feet in
length. . Fhe head is round, the opening of the mouth
fmatl. SJbbaid fays it has no fpout-hole, hut only no-
ftrils : But Mr Pennant is of opinion, that the former
being placed at the extremity of the nofe, has been
miftaken by him for the latter. Some teeth of this
fpecies are ♦n inch and three quarters long, and in the
largeft part of the thicknefs of one’s thumb. The
top is quite flat, and marked with concentric lines ;
the bottom is more {lender than the top, and pierced
1 637 j
PHY
with a fmall orifice : 'inftead of a back fin, there was a
rough fpace.
For the method of extra&ing the fpermaceti from
the brain of thefe creatures, fee the article Spexma-
CETI.
PHYSIC, or Phy,sick, the art of healing; pro¬
perly called Meimcine. The word is formed from the
Griek “nature;” in regard medicine confifts
principally in the obfervation of nature. See Phy¬
sics and Medicine.
• f°meth''ng belonging to, or really
exiiing m, nature. In this fenfe we fay a phyfical
point, m oppofition to a mathematical one, which only
exi.s »n the imagination; a phyfical fubftance or body,
111 or metaphyfical fubftance. &c.
rhtYMClAN, a perfon who profeffes medicine, or
the art of healing* difeafea See Medicine.
Physicians, College of, in London and Edinburgh. See
College of Phyficians.
PHYSICO-mathematics, includes thofe branches
of phyfic which, uniting obfervation and experiment to
mathematical calculation, undertake to explain the phe¬
nomena of nature.
Phyfic
Phy.'ico.
Mathema.
tics.
physics.
f I ^AKEN in its moft enlarged fenfe, comprehends
I'hylks.
»
A more
particular
1 the whole ftudy of nature ; and Natural
Philosophy is a term of the fame extent: but or¬
dinary language, and efpecially in this country, em¬
ploys both of thefe terms in a much narrower fenfe,
which it is proper in this place to determine with
fome precifion.
Under the srticle Philosophy^ we gave 3 psrticu-
explanat -ar account view ot nature in which the ob-
•f die term.our attencIon are contidered as cowneded by
caufation ; and we were at fome pains to point out
the manner in which this ftudy may be fuccefifully
cultivated. By a judicious employment of the means
pointed out in that article, we difeover that the ob-
jeds of our contempi tion compofe an Universe,
which conlifts, not of a_ number of independent ex-
ilienees folitary and detached from each other, but
of a number of fubftances connedled by a variety of
relations and dependencies, fo as to form a whole which
may with great propriety be called the System of
Nature.
This afllmbling of the individual objeds which
compofe the univerfe into one fyftem is by no means
the work of a hafty and warm fancy, but is the re-
fult of fober contemplation. The natural hiftorian
attempts in vain to deferibe objeds, by only informing
' U8 o* tbeir lhape, colour, and other fenfible qualities.
He finds himfelf obliged, in deferibing a piece of
marble, for inftance, to tells us that it takes a fine
polifh ; that it ftrikes fire with fteel; that it burns to
quicklime ; that it diffolves in aquafortis, and is pre¬
cipitated by alkalis ; that with vitriolic acid it makes
gyp firm, &c. &c. &c. and thus it appears that even
the defeription of any thing, with the view of afeer.
taming its fpecifie nature, and with the foie purpofe
©f difcrimination, cannot be accompliftieft without
taking notice of its various relations to other things. Introduce
Hut wfiat do we mean by the nature of any thin r ? dfcn.
We are ignorant of its effence, or what makes it that  v  
thing and no other thing. We muft content ourfelves
with the difcovery of Its qualities or properties; and it is
the aflemblage of thefe which we call its nature. But this
is very inaccurate. Thefe do not conftitute its effence'
but are the confequences of it. Yet this is ail we Ihall
ever know of its nature. Now the term property is no¬
thing but a name expuffing forne relation which the fub-
Itance under confideration has to other things. This is
true of all fuch terms. Gravity, elatHcity,fenfibility, gra-
titude, and the like, exprefs nothing but certain mat-
ten of fact, which may be obferved refpedin..r the ob--
jed of our contemplation in different circumftances
of htuauon with regard to other things. Our di-
ftmet notions of individuals, therefore, imply their re¬
lations to other things.
The flighted obfervation of the univerfe fhows air AH parts of:
vident connedion between all its paits in their va-the univerfe
nous properties. All things on this earth are conned evHently
ed with each other by the laws of motion and of mind* C0Tfted
We are connefted with the whole of the fol.r f, flem riow pb?"
by gravitation. If we extend our obfervations to the pmieW
fixed liars, the connedion feems to fail; but even
here it may be obferved. Their inconceivable diitance
it is true, renders it impoffi de for us to obtain any fx-
tenfive information as t» their nature. . But thefe bodies
are conneded with the folar fyftem by the famenefs
of tue light which they emit with that emitted by our
un or any fhining body. It moves with the fame ve¬
locity, it confifts (in moft of them at leaft) of the
fame colours, and it is refieded, refraded, and infix¬
ed, according to the fame laws.
In this unbounded feene of contemplation^ our at*
tention will be direded to the different claffes of ob-
PHYSICS.
4
Our atten¬
tion natu¬
rally di-
re&ed in
t' e firft in
dance to
our fellow-
men.
Nature cf
intention.
All o'bjeiSls
divided in¬
to thinking
and un¬
thinking
freings.
jefts neatly in proportion to tlie intereft we take in
them. There is nothing in which we are fo much
interefted as our fellow men ; and one of the firft fteps
that we make in our knowledge of nature, is an ac¬
quaintance with them. We learn their difonclive na¬
ture by attending to \S\z\x charafterijlic appearances;
that is, by obferving their a&ions. We obferve them
continually producing, like ourfelves, certain changes
in the fituation or condition of furrounding obje&s;
and thefe changes are evidently direfted to certain ends
which refpeB themfehes. Obferving this fubferviency of
the effe&s which they produce to their own .accommo¬
dation, we confider this adjuftment of means to ends
as the effedt of an intention, as we experience it to
be in our own cafe, where we are confcious of this in¬
tention, and of thefe its effedls. We therefore inter¬
pret thofe a&ions of other men, where we obferve this
adjuftment of means to ends, as marks or figns of in¬
tention in them fimilar to our own. And thus a qua¬
lity, or power, or faculty, is fuppofed in them by means
of its fign, although the quality itfelf is not imme¬
diately cognifable by our fenfes. And as this intention
in ourfelves is accompanied by perception of external
objefts, knowledge of their properties, defire of good,
averfion from evil, volition, and exertion, without all
of which we could not or would, not perform the
actions which we daily perform, we fuppofe the fame
perception, knowledge, defire, averfion, volition, and
exertion in them.
Thus, by the conftitution of our mind, we confi¬
der the employment of means, by which ends termi¬
nating in the agent are gained, as the natural figns of
deiign or intention. Art, therefore, or the employ¬
ment of means, is the natural fign of intention ; and
wherever we obferve this adjuftment of means to ends,
we infer the agency of defign.
A fmall acquaintance with the obje&s around us,
obliges us to extend this inference to a great number
of beings befirles our fellow men, namely, to the whole
animal creation : for in all we obferve the fame fub¬
ferviency to the ends of the agent, in the changes
which we find them continually producing in the ob-
jeas around them. Thefe changes are all adjufted to
their own well being. In all inch cafes, therefore, we arc
forced, by the conftitution of our own minds, to infer
the exiftence of defign or intention in thefe beings alfo.
But in numberlefs changes produced by external
oMea.s on each other, we obferve no fuch fitnefs in
the effefts, no fuch fubferviency to the well being of
the agent. In fuch cafes, therefore, we make no fuch
inference of thought or defign.
Thus, then, there is prefented to our obfervation an
important diftiudlion, by which we arrange all exter¬
nal objects into two claffes. The firft refembles our-
feives, in giving external marks of that thought or in¬
tention of which we are confcious ; and we fuppofe in
them the other properties which we difeover in our-
fclves, but cannot immediately obferve in them, viz.
thought, perception, memory, forefight, and all that
collection of faculties which we feel in ourfelves, and
which conftitute the animal. The other clafs ot ob-
iefts exhibit no fuch appearances, and we make no
fuch inference. And thus we divide the whole of ex¬
ternal nature into the claffes of thinking and un¬
thin king beings.
Our firft judgments about thefe clalies will be very
Introdue*
non.
inaccurate} and we will naturally aferibe the diffe.
rences, which we do not very well underftand, to the  _
differences in organical ftru&ure, which we clearly ^
obferve. But when we have knocked down or How we
perhaps fmothered an animal, we find that it no long-
er gives the former marks of thought and intention, ^
and that it now refembies the clafs of unthinking be-
kigs : And yet it ftili retains all that fitnefs of orga-
nical ftrudture which it had before ; it feems only to
want the intention and the will. Bhis obliges us to
conclude that the diftinfhon does not arife from a de¬
ference in organical ftruCfure, but from a diftimft fub-
ftance common to all thinking beings, but feparable
from their organical frame. To this lubftance we aferibe
thought, intention, contrivance, and all that colle&ion
of faculties which we feel in ourfelves. To this fubftance
in ourfelves we refer all fenfations, pleafures, pains, re¬
membrances, deiires, purpofes; and to this aggregate,
however imperfe&ly underftood, we give the name
mind. Our organical frame, which feems to be only
the inftrument of information and operation to the
mind, we call our body. S
As the animating principle is not, like our body, the The nature
immediate objed of the fenfes, we naturally conceive
it to be a fubftance effentially different from thofe b) ma^kiluJ
which are the objedts of our fenfes. -The rudeft people jn rude
have fhown a difpofition to form this conclunon, Ob-ages,
ft, ing that animal life was conne&ed with breathing,
it was natural to imagine that breathing was living,
and that breath was life. It is a remarkable faft, that
in moft languages the term for exprefling breath is at
leaft one of the terms for expreffing the foul ; np,
■jr-tfu/jia., fpiritus, in the Hebrew, Crteek, and Tatin, ex-
prefs both; gheift or ghojl, in the Teutonic, comes from
gheifen, to “ breathe or figh ducha or ditha, “ the
foul,” in Sclavonic, comes from duichaty “ to breathe;”
fo in the Gaelic does anal come from anam ; and the
fame relation is found between the two words in the
Malay and other eaftern languages. We believe that
moft perfons can recoiled fome traces of this notion in
their early conceptions of things ; and many who do
not confider themfelves as uncultivated, believe that
the foul quits the body along with the lajl breath. A-
mong the Tartar nations hanging is confidered with
particular horror, on account of the ungraceful and
filthy exit which the foul is obliged to make from the
body. 9 .
But the obfervation of the fame appearances of Their opi-
thought and intention in fifties and other animals™°n3not
which do not breathe, would foon ftiow that this wasJ
but a rude conception. Very little refinement indeed
is necefi'ary to convince us that air or breath cannot
be the fubftawce which thinks, wifhes, and defigns ;
and that the properties of this fubftance,_ whatever it
is, mull be totally different from, and incompatible
with, any thing that we know of the immediate objefta
of our fenfes. 1°
Hence we are led to conclude that there are two Of the two
kinds of fubftancea in nature: One, which is the prim“ °ej
ciple of fenfation ; and therefore cannot be the obje&in nature>
of our fenfes, any more than light can be the object of one is the
the microfcope. This fubftance alone can tetl, think,ohjeA^
defire, and propofe, and is the object of refieBion alone. ^e the
The objects of our fenfes compoie the othci clafs, and0!jiero{tliC
therefore can have none of the other properties which(enfe*.
are not cognofcibk by the fenfes. Thefe have all the
properties
is very im
portant
r JHI *
Introdue. proptrties which our fenfe! can difcover! and we can
n*ve no evidence of their having any other, nor indeed
any conception of their having them. This clafs is
not confined to the unorganized mafles of matter ; for
we fee that the bodies of janimals lofe after death*that
orgnnical form, and are aflimilated to all the reft of
unthinking beings. It has arifen from fuch views as
this, that while all nations have agreed to call this
clafs of objects by the name body, which originally
exprdfts oar organical frame, fome nations, farther ad¬
vanced in cultivation or refinement, have contrived an
ab ft raft term to exprefs this general fubftance of which
all inanimate beings are cotnpofed. Such a term we
ii ^ have in the words materiesy
Thediftine- Matter then, is that fubftance which is immediate-
tween ma- y cognofcible by our fenfes. Whatever, therefore,
terial and 13 not thus immediately cognofcible by our fenfes is
fuMtances1 Tl! ^ u exPrefred b7 a negative term, and
called immaterial: hence it is that mind is faid to be
. 'TaLe.rial- lt is importance to keep in mind this
diltmftion, merely grammatical. Little more is ne-
ceffary for detefting the fophifms of Helvetius. Mira-
beau, and other fages of the Gallic fchool, who have
been anxious to remove the ties of moral and religious
obligation by lowering our conceptions of our intel-
leftual nature. Jt will alfo ferve to fhow how haftily
have formed their opinions who have aferibed to
the immediate agency of mind all thofe relations which
are obferved in the aftions of bodies on each «ther at
a diitance. The connefting principles of fuch rela¬
tions e dt/lante (if there are any fuch), are not the im¬
mediate o.njefts of our fenfes: they are therefore im¬
material. But it does not follow that they are minds.
Ihere may be many immaterial fubftalices which are
not minds. \\ e know nothing of any objeft what-
tver but by the obfervatfon of certain appearances,
which fuggeft to our minds the exiftence and agency
of its qualities or powers. Such phenomena are the
natural figns of thefe qualities, and it is to thofe figns
that we muft always have recourle when we wiih to
conceive without ambiguity concerning them. What
Ir thj./2C 'ara?5rittlc phenomenon of mind, or what is
the dijhnguijhing quality which brings it into view ? It
is intention : and it maybe aft'erted with the utmoft
confidence, that we have no other mark hy which
mind is immediately fuggefted to us, or that would
ever W made us fuppofe that there exifted another
mind befides our own. The phenomenon by which this
quality is fuggefted to us is art, or the employment of
means to gain ends; and the mark of art is the fup-
pofed conducivenefs of thefe ends to the well-being of
the agent. Where this train is not obferved, defign
or intention ,s never thought of; and therefore where
intention is not perceived in any immaterial fubftance,
if any fuch has ever been obferved, it is an abufe of
language to call it mind. We do not think that even
perception and intelligence intitle us to give the name
mind to the fubftance in which they are inherent, be
caufe it is from marks of intention alone that we infer
the exiftence of mind; and although thefe muft be
accompanied with perception and intelligence, it does
not follow that the fubftance which can perceive and
onderftand muft alfo defire and propofeP However
difficult we may find it to feparate them, they are evi¬
dently feparable in imagination. And'lc/not this
* 1 ^ 6r0
aftertion be too haftily objefted to; for the feparation Jntroduc-
has been made by perfons moft eminent for their know- tiori*
ledge and difeernment. When Leibnitz aferibed to  
hiS MONades, or what we call the ultimate atoms of
matter, a perception of their fituation in the univerfe
and ® motion precifely foiled to this perception, he
was the fartheft m the world from foppofing them
animated or endowed with minds. It is true indeed
jat others, who think and call themfelves philofo-
phers, are much more liberal in their application of
this term. A modern author of great metaphyfmal
emmence fays ? I call that mind which moves,7 and
that which is moved.” This clafs of philofophers
aflert that no motion whatever is begun except by
the agency of an animating principle, which (after
Anftotle) they call Nature, and which has in thefe
days been exalted to the rank of a god. All this jar-
con (tor It i<3 «ir„\ 1  * r r .
 * ,L . . , . ^ wa a mis iar-
gon (for it is nothing dfe) has arifen from the puzzle
;n wh.lch naturahfts think themfelves involved in at '
tempting to explain the produftion of motion in a
body at a diftance from that body which is conceived
as the caufe of this motion. After having been re-
luftantly obliged, by the reafonings of Newton, to
abandon them methods of explaining foch phenomena
2 ^KPUff8 °l.an .intervemng fluid, nothing feem-
ed left but the affertion that thefe motions were pro¬
duced fcy minds, as in the cafe of our own exertion!
Thefe explanations (if they deferve the name) cannot
be o jefted to m any other way than as an abufe of
anguage, and as the introduftion of an unmeaning
jargon We have, and can have, no notion of mind
dtfteieiit from thofe of our own minds; and we difeo-
ver the exiftence of other minds as we difcover th-
exiftence of bodies, by means of phenomena which a!
charafteriftic of minds, that is, which referable thofe
p enomena that follow the exertion of our own mental
afo!?/ aV8’ by,the emP,oyment Of means co at-
obfo^f1^3 •ftnd VVhfere fUC'h aPPearances are not
oblerveti, no exiftence of a mind is inferred. When
out fo! I3 man faU/r0,n tht t0P of a h°nfe, and dafh
m!h lrT °n-thf Pavement’ we nevei- aferibe this
of the" reify *1 ^ Ajth°U'b tbe ^nefa of many
ol the celeftial motions for moft important purpofes
makes us fuppofe defign and contrivance fomewhere
?nd therefore a Supreme Mind, we no more think of
inferring a mind m the earth from the fitnefs of its
motions for purpofes moft beneficial to its inhabitants,
than ot inferring a mind in a bit of bread from its
fitnefs for nouriftung our bodies. It is not from the
mere motions of animals that their minds are inferred
but from the conducivenefs of thefe motions to the
well-being of the animal.
The fenn mind therefore, in the ordinary lanmave^ 11 ■
of all men, is applied to what defires and wills af the iH^hat
tbaf UJe/CeiVe8 ancl underftands. If we which pro.
all that mm I which produces motion, we muft derive duces mo~
our notions of its qualities or attributes from obfervfng 0°”’ ^
their eftefts. We muft therefore difcover the Irene J 7 WhlCJ:
a„s b, which they ?a. ,h« i,, the genera, la^ ob S*
fawed m thofe motions which we confider as their
tftedls. Now thefe are the general laws of motion ;
and m none o. thefe can we find the leaft coincidence
w.th what we are accuftomed to call the laws of mind.
Nay, it has been the total want of fimilarity which has
given rife to the diftindtioa which ail men/in all ages
and:
640
PHYSICS,
Introduc- ani countries, have made between m nd and matter.
*3
The prin¬
ciple of
This diilinaion is found in all languages; and it is
an unpardonable liberty which men take with Ian-
guages when they ufe a term of di/ltnftion, a fpecific term*
to exprefs things of a different fpecies. What theie
authors have been plf afed to call mind, the whole world
befides have called by another name, force ;
though borrowed from our own exertions, is yet fum-
ciently diftindive, and never leads us to confound
things that are different, except in the language o.
fome modern philofophers, who apply it to the laws
of the agency of mind ; and, when fpeaking of the
•force of motives, &c. commit the lame miftakes which
the followers of Ariftotle commit in the ufe of the
term mind. Force, in the language of thefe philofo¬
phers, means what connefts the operations of min 1 ;
as mind, in the language of Lord Monboddo, is that
which connects the operations of body.
Thofe are not lefs to blame who confider this hature
of Ariftotle, this principle of motion, as an exiftence
motion not or {Yibftance diffeient both from matter and from the
difhtiA minds of intelligent creatures. Anftotle calls it in fome
places «*-**/» He might with equal propriety,
and equal confiftency with his other doctrines, have
called mind rtxof, or an "^P Bdides,
we have no evidence for the feparability of this ^-P
'1'VX" from body as we have for the feparability of fuch
minds as our own, the genuine Nay, his whole
do&rines, when maturely confidered, aflume their an-
folute infeparability. . , , .
Elemental This doarine of elemental minds, theroore, as the
minds are immediate caufes of the phenomena of the material
an abufe of woru ;8 an abufe of language. It is a jargon ; and
language. .t i3 a frivolou8 abufe, for it offers no explanation
whatever. The phenomena are totally unlike the
phenomena of ordinary minds, and therefore receive
no explanation from them ; and iincc our knowledge
of thefe quqft minds mull be derived entire y from the
phenomena, it will be precifely the fame, although we
exprefs it in common language. We (hall not indeed
raife the wonder of our hearers, as thofe do who till
the world with minds which they never futpeded to
exift • but we fhall not bewilder their imaginations,
confound their ideas, and miflead their judgments. _
r5 We flatter ourfelves that our readers will not think
Introdufet
tioo.
from mat
ter ami
mind.
*4
Elemental
, we natter ouncivcs - ..
The dread-thefe obfervations unfeafonable or mifplaced. Of all
materia
ilifm.
tqucCn°ce^f miftakes that the naturalift can fall into, there is none
-   more fatal to his progrefs in know edge than the con¬
founding things which are effentially different; and of
all the difttn&ions which can be made among the ob-
ie&s of our contemplation, there is none of equal phi-
lofophicai importance with this between mind and
matter- And when we confider the conferences
which naturally follow from this coniufion ol ideas,
and particularly thofe which follow from finking the
which blafts every hope of future excellence—we can¬
not be too anxious to have this capital diftindfion put
in the plaineft point of view, and expreffed in the moft
familiar characters, “ fo that he who runneth may
« read.” When we fee the frenzy which the reafon-
ing pride of man has raifed in our neighbourhood, and
hear the dictates of philofophy inceffantly appealed to
in defence of whatever our hearts fhudder at as fhocking
and abominable ; and when we fee a man (a), of great
reputation as a naturalift, and of profeffed humanity and
political moderation, congratulating his countrymen on
the rapid improvement and almoft perfeftion of philo¬
fophy ; and alter giving a fnort fketch of the confti-
tution of the vifible univerfe, fumming up all with a
table of ele&ive attra&ions, and that particular com¬
bination and mode of cryftallization which conftitutea
God (horrejeo referensl)—is it not full time for us to
ftop fhort, and to alk our own hearts “ whither are
you wandering?”—But found philofophy, reafoning
from effefts to their caufes, will here liften to the
words of our facred oracles : “ By their fruits ye ftiall
know them. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs
of thiftles ?” The abfurd confequences of the fceptical
philofophy of Berkley and Hume have been thought,
by men of undoubted dilcernmeni, fufHcienc realona
for rejeding it without examination. The no lefa
abfurd and the ihocking confequences of the mechani¬
cal philoiophy now in vogue ftiould give us the lame
abhorrence ; and fhould make us abandon its blood-
ftained road, and return to the delightful paths of na¬
ture, to furvey the works of God, and feaft our eyea
with the difplays of mind, which offer themfelves on
every hand in defigns of the moft extenfive influence
and the moft beautiful contrivance. Following the
guidance of heavenly wifdom, we (hall indeed find, that
“ all her ways are ways of pleafantnefs, and all her
paths are peace.” .
Such is the feene of our obfervation, the fubjedt olThe extent
philolophical ftudy. Its extent is almoft unbounded, of phjlofo.
reaching from an atom to God himlelf. It is abfo-P.^
lately neceffary for the fuccefsful cultivation of this
immenfe field of knowledge that it be committed to
the care of different cultivators, and that its various
portions be treated in different ways : and, according¬
ly, the various taftea of men have given this cunofity
different dire&ions ; and the ftudy, like all other talks,
has been promoted by this divifion of labour.
Some philofophers have attended only to the ap¬
pearances of fitnefs which are exhibited in every quar¬
ter of the univerfe ; and by arranging theie into dif¬
ferent claffes, and interpreting them as indications of
thought and intention, have acquired the knowledge
of many claffes of fentient and intelligent beings, a&u-
ated by propeniities, and directed by reafon. . _ 17
While the contemplation of thefe appearances indi- The.natiirs
I bl
I 11
I
I cl
I n
5
I (■
of mechanics or chemiftry, confequences which the
experience of the prefent eventful day (hows to be
deftruaive of all that is noble or defirablein human
nature, and of all that is comfortable in this life, and
thefe claffes, and brings its propeniities and purp.oie8
of aftion, and the ends gained by thtfe actions, into
view, the contemplation of thefe propenfities, purpoles,
and ends, occafions an inference of a much more gene¬
ral
(a) M. de la Metherie, editor of the Journal clc Pbyftque.
,793> January and July.
See his preface* to the volumes for 1792 and
PHY
rel kind. All thefe intelligent I cings give indications
of knowledge and of power ; but their knowledge
bears, in general, no proportion to their power of pro¬
ducing changes in nature, and of attaining important
ends; and their power is neither always, nor in the
itioft important cafes, the cenfequence of their know¬
ledge. Where the effeft of their aftions is moft emi¬
nently conducive to their important interefts, the
power of attaining thefe valuable ends is generally in¬
dependent on any attention to the fitneisof the means,
and the exertion is frequently made without even
f thinking of the important end. The well-being of the
individual is fecured againft any danger from its igno¬
rance, indolence, or inattention, by an inftinftive
propenfity, which leads it to the performance of the
neceflary aftion, which is thus made immediately and
ultimately defirablc, without any regard to its ultimate
and important end. Thus, in our own nature, the
fupport of animal life, and the improvement of the
means of lubfiftence by a knowledge of the objects
which furround us, are not intruded to our apprehen-
fions of the importance of thefe ends, but are com-
mitted to the furer guides of hunger and curiofity.
There is a he fame obfervers difeover a connexion between
connexion the individuals of a clafs, different from that which
the^nTvi ar^es ^rom t^e mere refemblance of their external ap-
dualsofa Pearance> or even of their propenfities and purfuits;
clafs of ani- the very circumftances which produced the claffifica-
mals diffe tion. They obferve, that thefe propenfities are ftich,
rent from t[jat while each individual fecks only its own enioy-
femblance. ment’ thele enjoyments are m general fuch as contn-
bute to the fupport of the fpecies and the enjoyment
of other individuals. Thus, in the claffes of animals,
and in human nature, the continuance of the race, and
the enjoyment of the whole, are not intruifed to the
apprehenfion we entertain of the importance of thefe
ends, but are produced by the operation of fexual love
jp and the love of fociety.
There is al- The fame obfervers find that even the different claffes
fo a hrk of of fentient beings are conne&ed together ; and while
bctween°n t^ie w^°^e eac^ c*afs aim only at their own enjoy-
fentient be-,Tient» they contribute, in fome way or other, to the
ings of dif- well-being of the other clafles. Even man, the felfifh
ferentclaf- lord of this fublunary world, is not the unconnefted
inhabitant of it. He cannot, in every inftance, reap
all the fruits of his fituation, without contributing to
the enjoyment of thoufands of the brute creation. Nay,
it may be proved to the fatisfa&ion of every intelligent
man, that while one race of animals, in confequence of
its peculiar propenfities, fubfiits by the deftruftion of
another, the fum total of animal life and enjoyment is
prodigioufly increafed. See a very judicious dillertation
on this curious and puzzling fubjed, intitled A Philo-
ffophical Survey oj the Animal Creation; where it appears
that the increafe of animal life and enjoyment which is
produced by this means, beyond what could poflibly
obtain without it, is beyond all conception. See like-
wife the lafl edition of King’s Origin of Evil, by Dr Law
late bifhop of Carlifle.
Thus the whole affemblage feems conne&ed, and
this connec-jointly employed in increafing the fum total of poffible
tion is the happinefs. This fitnefs of the various propenfities of
tbn ofhap. fentient and intel,‘gent beings, this fubferviency to a
pinefs. ^ general purpofe, ftrikes thefe obfervers as a mark of
intention, evidently diftind from, and independent of,
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Ccs
20
The end of
SICS. 641
all the particular intentions, and fuperior to them all ; hntroduc-
and thus it irrefiftibly leads them to infer the exiftence n'',5•
of a supreme mind, dire&ing the whole of this in- ’ v" ”
tellectual system, while the individuals of which
it confifts appear the unconfcious inftruments in the
hand of a great Artift, with which he executes his
grand and beneficent purpofes.
But the obfervation goes yet further. The bodies All nature,
of the inanimate creation are not only connc&ed with animate
each ether by a mutual dependence of properties, and a!-c*inanh
the relation of caufation, but they are alfo conne&ed
with the fentient beings by a fnbferviency to their in[} UnS
purpofes of enjoyment. The philofopher obferves thinking,
that this conBeftion is admirably kept up by the con-are co'1'
ftancy of natural operations and the expedhtions 0fn£^e(i*
intelligent beings. Had either of thefe circumftances
been wantiftg, had either the operations of nature been
without rule, or had fentient beings no perceotion or
expedation of their uniformity ; the fubferviency would
be totally at an end. This adjuftinent, this fitnefs, of
which the effett is the enjoyment of the fentient inha¬
bitants of the univerfe, appear to be the effed of an
intention of which this enjoyment is the final caufe.
This conftancy therefore in the operations of nature,
both in the intelle&ual and material world, and the
concomitaRt expe&ation of fentient beings, appear
the effe&s of laws impofed on the different parts of
the univerfe by the Supreme Mind, who has formed
both thefe claffes of beings fo admirably fuited to each
other.
To fuch obfervers the world appears a work of art, The origia
a fyftem of means employed for gaining certain pro-of natural
pofed ends, and it carries the thoughts forward to an Ecology.
artist; and we infer a degree of fkill, power, and
good intention in this Artift, proportioned to the in¬
genuity, extent, and happy effed which we are able
to difeern in his works. Such a contemplation of na¬
ture, therefore, terminates in Natural Theology,
or the difeovery of the exiftence and attributes of
God.
Our notions of this Supreme Mind are formed from Our mode
the indications of defign which we obferve, and which °1 reafon-
we interpret in the fame way as in the aftions of men.in? on.the
Thefe notions, therefore, will differ from our notions
of other minds only in the degrees which we are able to
obferve, and which we affign to thefe faculties; for
the phenomenon or the effedt is not only the mark,
but alfo the meafure of its fuppofed caufe. Thefe
degrees muft be afeertained by our own capacity of
appreciating the extent, the multiplicity, and the va¬
riety of the contrivance. Accordingly, the attributes
of the Supreme Mind, in the theological creed of a
rude Indian, are much more limited than in that of a
European philofopher. In proportion as our under-
ftandings are enlarged, and as our ^iquaintance with the
operations of nature around us is extended, we fhall
perceive higher degrees of power, of fkill, ayd of kind
intention: and fince wc find that the feene of obfer¬
vation is unbounded, we cannot affix any boundaries
to thefe attributes in our own imagination, and we
are ready to fuppofe that they are infinite or unbound¬
ed in their own nature. When our attentive furvey of
this univerfe, and a careful comparifon of all its parts,
as far as we can underftand or appreciate them, have
made us conclude that it is one defign, the work of one
4 M Ariijl;
64*
PHYSICS.
itudy of
mind.
0.6
Introduc- Art':ft; we are under the neceffity of inferring,
tion. -with refpcA to this univcrfe, his power, wifdom, and
,-J " benevolence, are indeed infinite.
The fyflem When men have been led to draw this conclufion
of nature from the appearances -of fitnefs which are obfeiWed
is govern- everywhere around them, they confider- that conilancy
nuaflaw? which they obferve in natural operations, whether in
the material or the intelleftual fyftem, and that ex-
peftation of, and confidence in, thi? conftancy, which
rendets the univerfe a fource of enjoyment to its fen-
tient inhabitants, as the confequences of laws impofed
by the Almighty Artift on his works, in the fame
manner as they would confider the confiancy in the
conduct of any people as the confequences of laws pro¬
mulgated and enforced by the fupreme magiflrate.
The nature* There can be no doubt of this view of nature being
and pro- extremely captivating, and likely to engage the curio-
grefs of the fjty of fpeculative men ; and it is not furprifing that
ihiHv ,a t|ie plienomena 0f tnind have been keenly ftudied in
all ages. This part of the ftudy of nature, like all
others, was firft cultivated in fnbfervieacy to the wants
of focial life ; and the general laws of moral fentiment
were the firtt phenomena which were confulered with
The rife of attention. This gradually ripened into a regular fyf-
moral fen- tern of moral duty, accompanied by its congenial ftudy,
timents and tjie jnVeftigation or determination of the fummum bonum,
of moral ^ ^ COntlituents of human felicity ; and thefe two
branches of intelleftual fcience were always kept in a
ftate of aflbeiation by the philofophers of antiquity.
Jurifprudence, the fcience of government, legiflation,
end p' lice, were alfo firft cultivated as arts, or at leaft
in immediate fubferviency to the demands of cultivated
fociety ; and all thefe fo nearly related parts of the
ftudy of human nature, had made a very confiderable
progrefs, in the form of maxims or precepts, for direct¬
ing the conduft, before fpeculative men, out of mere
curiofity, treated them as fubjedts of philofophical
ftudy. Our moral fentiments, always involving a
feeling of obligation, are expreffed in a language con-
fiderably different from the ufual language of pure
philofophy, fpeaking of things which ought to be rather
than of things which are ; and this diftinCtion of lan¬
guage was increafed by the very aim of the writers,
which was generally to influence the conduct as well
as the opinions of their fcholars. It was referved for
modern times to bring this ftudy into the pure form
of philofophy, by a c areful attention to the phenome¬
na of moral fentiment, and clalfing thefe according to
their generality, and afeertaining their refpeCtive ranks
by an appeal to experiment, that is, to the general
con hnft of mankind : and thus it happens that in the
modern treatifes on ethics, jurifprudence, &c. there is
lefs frequent referen e made to the ojficm or duties, or
to the eon ftituents of the fummum bonum^ than among
the ancients, and a more accurate defeription of the
human mind, and diferimination of its various moral
feelings.
Th-o igin It was hardly poffible to proceed far in thefe dif-
cf iogxandquifitions without attending to the powers of the un-
t>t,.er in- derftmding. Differences of opinion were fupported
by reafonings, or attempts to reafoning. Both tides
could not be in the right, and there mnft be fome
court of appeals. Rules of argumentation behoved to
be acquiefced in by both parties* and-it could hardly
tt .lectuft
lutiices.
efcape the notice of fome curious m!nd«, that there Introduc*
were rules of truth and falfehood as well as of right
and wrong. Thus the human underf drifting became an v
object of ftudy, firft in fubferviency to the demands of
the moralifts, but afterwards for its own fake ; arid it
gradually grew up into the fcience of logic. Still
further refinement produced the fcience of metaphyfics,
or the philofophy of univerfals. But all thefe wen*
in fad pofterior to the doctrines of morals; and dif-
quifitions on beauty, the principles of tafte, the pre¬
cepts of rhetoric and criticifm, were the laft add tions
to the ftudy of the phenomena of mind. And n >w,
fince the world feems to have acquiefced in the m >de
of investigation of general laws by experiment and
obfervation, and to agree that this is all the know¬
ledge that we can acquire of any fuLje£t whatever, it
is to be expefted that this branch of philofophical
difeuffion will attain the fame degree of improvement
(eftimated by the coincidence of the doftrines with
fu£l and experience) chat has been attained by fome
others.
The occupations, however, of ordinary life have jjar,
oftener directed our efforts towards material objedts, rial prac-
and engaged our attention on their properties and re-1- oi n.a-
lations ; and as all fciences have arifen from arts,
were originally implied in the maxims and precepts ofpretefjed
thole arts, till feparated from them by the curious a s iludy
fpeculatift, the knowledge of the material fyftem of'
nature was poffeffed in detached feraps by the pradti-eLce°
tionevs in the various arts of life long before the natu¬
ral philofopher thought of collecting them into a body
of fcientific dodtrinea. But there have not been want¬
ing in all ages men of curiofity who have been {truck
by the uniformity of the operations of nature in the
material world, and were eager to difeover their
cuufes.
Accordingly, while the moralifts and metaphyficians
turned their whole attention to the phenomena of
mind, and have produced the fciences of pneumatolo-
gy, logic, ethics, jurifprudence, and natural theology,
thefe obfervers of nature have found fufficient employ¬
ment in confidering the plienomena of the material
world. _ 2(?
The bodies of which it confifts are evidently con-The natun*
netfted by means of thofe properties by which we of the nu’
ofcferve that they produce changes in each other’s fi. jerial fy-i
tu tion. This affemblage of objedbs may therefore
juftly called a fyftem. We may call it the material n;t;on 0f
system. It is frequently termed nature; and thethatand
terms natural appearancss, natural causes,other
natural laws, have been generally re ft r idled toto:"ms'
thofe which take place in the material fyftem. This
reftridtion, however, is improper, becaufe there is no
difference in the manner in which we form our notions
of thofe laws, and reafon from them, both with re-
fpedl to mind and body. Or if there is to be any
reftridlion, and if any part of the ftudy of the univerfe
is to be excluded in the application of thefe terms, it
is that part only which confiders moral obligation, and
rather treats of what ought to be than of what is. Aa
has been already obferved, there is a confiderable dif¬
ference in the language which muft be employed ; but
ft ill there is none in the principles of inveftigation.
We have no proof for the extent of any moral law
but
F H Y
Smij-ochic- but an appeal to tlie feelings of the hearts of men, in-
tJon. dicafced by the general laws or f; dls which are obferved
u~'v in their actions.
The unre- But this is only a queftion of the propriety of lan-
ftridted guage. And no great inconvenience would arife from
fenfe in the reftriftion now mentioned if it were fcrupuioufly
adhered to ^ but unfortunately this is not always the
thefe terms cale* Some authors ufe the term natural law to ex-
are ufed, prefs every coincidence of fa<St; and this is ceitainly
and its had proper ufe of the term. The French writers ge-
coniegucri- nera]jy llfe {-pe ^erm lot phyjique in this enlarged fenfe.
But many authors, milled by, or taking advantage of,
the ambiguity of language, after having eftablilhed a
law founded on a copious and perhaps unexcepted in¬
duction of the phenomena of the material fyftem (in
which cafe it muft be considered in its reftri&ed fenfe),
have, in their explanation of phenomena, extended
their principle much farther than the induction on
which they had founded the exiftence of the phyfical
law. They have extended it to the phenomena of
mind, and have led their folic wers into great and dan¬
gerous miftakes. Languages, like every other pro¬
duction of human dull, are imperfeCt. They are de¬
ficient in terms, and are therefore figurative. The
molt obvious, the moll frequent, and the mod inte-
refting ufes of language, have always produced the
aj*propriated terms, and the progrefs of cultivation has
never completely fupplied new ones. There are cer¬
tain analogies or refemblances, or certain afibciations
of ideas, fo plain, that a term appropriated to one
very familiar objeCl will ferve to fuggeft another ana¬
logous to it, when aided by the concomitant circum-
ftantes of the difcourfe; and this with fufficient pre¬
cision for the ordinary purpofes of focial communica¬
tion, and W'ithout leading us into any considerable
miltakes : and it is only the rare and refined difquifi-
tions of the curious Ipeculatift that bring the poverty
and imperfeClion of language into view, and make us
w ith for words as numerous as our thoughts. There
is hardly a fentence, even of common difcourfe, in
which there are not fevcral figures either of iingle
words or of phrafes; and when very accurate diferimi-
mtion is required, it is almoft impoffible to find words
or phrafes to exprefs diftinCtions which we clearly feel.
We believe it impofiible to exprefs, by the foamy vo¬
cabulary of the Hebrews, the nice diftinCtions of
thought which are now familiar to the European phi-
lofopher. In nothing does this imperfection of lan¬
guage appear fo remarka: ly as in W'hat relates to mind.
Being a late fubjeCt of feparate difcuffion, and intereft-
ing only to a few fpeculatifts, we have no appropriated
vocabulary for it; and all our difquifitions concerning
its operations are in continual metaphor or figure, de¬
pending on very flight analogies or refemblances to
the phenomena of the material world This makes
the utmoft caution neceflary ; and it juftifies the Bri-
tifh philofophers, who have been the moft fuccefsful
in profecuting the ftudy of the intellectual fyftem, for
having, almoft without exception, reftrifted the terms
natural laws, natural caufes, natural philofophy, and
fuch like, to the material fyfttm. With us pneuma-
tology makes no part of phyfics And we may ven¬
ture to affirm, that the fciences have fared better by
the reftri&ion of the terms. In no country has the
fpirit of liberal difcuffion Been more encouraged and
SICS. 643
indulged than in Britain ; and her philofophers have Introduc-
been equally eminent in both branches .of Lienee., Uon .
Their performances in ethics, jurifprudence, and na¬
tural theology, are confi iered by all our neighbours as
the fountains of knowledge on thefe fubjefts ; and
Locke and Clarke are names lefs familiar on the
continent than Newton. The licentious and degra¬
ding doCtrines of the Galilean fchool have as yet made
little impreffion here ; and man is ftill confidered among
us as a glorious creature, born to, and fitted for, the
nobleft profpe&s. , t
Phyfics, then, is with us the ftudy of the material The teim
fyftem, including both natural hiftory and philofophy.de.'
The term is not indeed very familiar in our language ; feneraby
and in place of phyftcus and difeip/ina phyfica, we more under flood
generally ufe the terms naturalijl and natural knowledge, in Britain, j
The term natural philofophy, in its common acceptation,
is of lefs extent. i he field of phyfical inveftigation is
ftiil of prodigious extent; and its different quarters
require very different treatments, make very difterent
returns, and accordingly have engaged in their parti¬
cular cultivation perfoas of very different talents and
taftes. It is of iome importance to perceive the .di-
ftinClions, and to fee how the wants and propenfities
of men have led them into the different paths of in¬
veftigation ; for, as has been more than once obferved,
all feitnees have fprung from the humble arts of life,
and both go on improving by means of a clofe and
conftant correfpondence.
All the phenomena of the material fyftem may The phe-
he arranged into twe* claftes, diflinguftlicd both bynomena
their objeCts and by the proper manner of treatingthe,
them. ' 1 ^ arranged11
The fir ft clafs comprehends all the appearances which into two
are exhibited in the fenjtble motions of bodies, and their claffeii*
aCfions on each other producing^w/^/f motion.
The fecond clafs comprehends the appearances which
are exhibited in the infenftble motions and aCtions of
the invifible particles of matter. ,
Of the phenomena of the firft clafs we have examples Examples
in the planetary motions, the motions of heavy bodies, of t,lofe
the phenomena of impulfe, the motions and adions of ^ef[lrfl!
machines, the preffure and motions of fluids, the fen-'*1'1'’
fible adbons of magnetical and ele&rical bodies, and
the mot ons of light.
We have examples of the fecond c’afs in the plieno-Anruff
mena of heat and mixture, and thofe exhibited in the of the
growth of animals and vegetables, and many pheno- *econ£k
mena of folid, fluid, magnetical, electrical, and lumi¬
nous bodies, in which no change of place can be
obferved.
ihua it appears that there is a diftinCtion in the Thi-far-
phenomena fufficiently great to warrant a divifion 0frangemenC
the ftudy, and to make us expeA a more rapid im-18
provement by this divifion. Nay, the divifion hasSb"
been made by nature herfelf, in the acquaintance
whicn men have attained with her operations without
ftudy, betore feienee appeared, and while art confti-
tuted all our knowledge.
Before man had recourfe to agriculture as the moft Of the pro,
certain means of procuring fubliftence, our acquaint- grefs of
ance with external fubftances was principally that 0fknowle,!S«
the natural hiftorian; confifting of a knowledge 0f u‘rudG
their fitnefs for food, medicine, or accommodation atjeS’
their places of growth or habitation, and the means of
4 M a procuring
644
Introduc-
37. .
The origin
of agricul¬
ture, phy-
fic, furgery,
and che*
miftry.
PHY
procuring them, depending on their manner of life or
exiftence. It required a ftudied attention to thefe
circumftances to give rife to agriculture, which there¬
fore generally made its appearance after men had been
in the praftice of keeping flocks ; by which means they
were more at their eaf.% and had fomeleifure to attend
to the objefts around them, and in particular to thofe
circumflances of foil and weather which affe&ed the
growth of their pafture.
When agriculture and a rude medicine were thus
eftabliflied, they were the firft arts which had their
foundation in a fyjlem of laws, by which the operations
of nature were obferved to be regulated ; and with
thefe arts we may begin the general Jludy of nature,
which were thus divided into two different branches.
The rude phyfician would be at firft: a colle&or of
fpectfics; but by degrees he would obferve refemblances
among the operations of his drugs, and would clafs
them according to thefe refemblances. He would
thus come to attend lefs to the drug than to its mode
of operation ; and would naturally fpeculate concern¬
ing the conneftion between the operation and the
economy of animal life. His art now becomes a fcien-
tific fyftem, conne&ed by principle and theory, all
proceeding on the obfervation of changes produced by
one kind of matter on another, but all out of fight.
The frequent recourfe to the vegetable kingdom for
medicines would caufe him to attend much more mi¬
nutely to the few plants which he has occafion to
ftudy than the hufbandman can do to the multitude he
is obliged to rear. The phyfician rauft learn to think,
the hufbandman to work An analogy between the
economy of animal and vegetable life could hardly fail
to engage the attention of the phyfician, and would
make him a botanift, both as a claffifier of plants and
SICS.
which have with greater or lefs evidence been eftablifh- Introduce
ed on thefe fubjefts, the aftion of medicines, and the tlon- ,
whole praftice of phyfic and furgery, has been efta- ’
bliflied in the form of a liberal or fcientific art. 38
The hufbandman in the mean time muft labour the The origin
ground which lies before him. He, too, is greatly ,he
interefttd in the knowledge of the vegetable economy, 0fth^ me-
and forms fome fyftems on the fubjeft by which he re-chanical
gulates his labours : but he fees, th at whatever is the powers,
nature of vegetable life, he muft work hard, and he
fearches about for every thing which can tend to di-
minifh his labour. The properties of the lever, the
wedge, and the inclined plane, foon become familiar
to him ; and without being able to tell on what their
efficacy depends, he ufes them with a certain fagacity
and effect. The flrength of timber, the preflure and
force of water, are daily feen and employed by him
and other artifans who labour for their mutual ac¬
commodation ; and fome rude principles on thefe
fubje&s are committed to memory. Many tools and
fimple machines are by this time familiar ; and thus
the general properties of matter, and the general laws
of the actions of bodies on each other, become gra¬
dually matter of obfervation and reflexion ; and the
pra&ical mechanic will be frequently improving his
tools and machines. The general aim is to produce a
greater quantity of work by the fame exertion. The
attempts to improvement will be aukward, and fre¬
quently unfuccefsful. When a man finds, that by in-
creafing the length of his lever he increafes his power
of overcoming a refiftance, a fmall degree of curiofity
is fufficient to make him inquire in what proportion
his advantage increafes. When he finds that a double
length gives him a double energy, he will be furprifed
and mortified to find, that at the end of the day he
has not performed twice the quantity of work : but,
after much experience, he will learn that every increafe
as a philofopher.
He would naturally expeft to unite the fervices of _
his drugs by combining them in his recipes, and would of energy, by means of a machine, is nearly compen-
be furprifed at his difappointments. Curious and un- fated by an increafe of time in the performance of his
expefted changes would frequently occur in his mani¬
pulations : the fenfible qualities, and even the external
appearances of his fimples, would be often changed,
and even inverted by their mixture ; and their medi¬
cinal properties would frequently vaniftr from the com¬
pound, and new ones be induced. Thefe are curious,
and to him interefting fafts ; and he would naturally
be inquifitive after the principles which regulate thefe
changes. His Ikill in this would by degrees extend
beyond the immediate ufe for the knowledge; and the
more curious fpeculatift would lay the foundations of a
moft extenfive and important icience, comprehending
all the phenomena of heat and mixture.
Along with this, and fpringing from the fame fource,
another feience muft arife, contemplating the appear¬
ances of animal and vegetable life, and founded on a
careful obfervation and accurate defeription of the won¬
derful machine. The moft incurious of men have in
all ages been affefted by the difplays of wifdom and
contrivance in the bodies of animals, and immediately
engaged in inveftigation into the ufes and fumftions of
their various parts and organs. The phenomena have
been gradually diferiminated and arranged under the
various heads of nutrition, concodion, fecretion, ab-
forption, jffirnilation, rejedion, growth, life, decay,
difeafe, and death j and, in conformity to the dodrinea
talk ; and thus one of the great and leading principles
of pradical mechanics was inculcated in a manner not
to be forgotten, and the pradical mechanic was brought
to fpeculate about motion and force, and by gradual
and eafy fteps the general laws of fimple motions were
eftablilhed. 39
It is evident that thefe fpeculations cannot be car-The origia
ried on, nor any confiderable knowledge acquired,of mathe-
without fome acquaintance with the art of meafure-111^1^
ment: and the very queftions which the mechanic
wilhes to folve, prefuppofe fome advances in this art,
which in procefs of time refined itfelf into mathema*
tics, the molt perfed of all the fciences. All the phe¬
nomena' of fenfible motion afford employment to the
mathematician. It is performed in a double or triple
time, through a double or triple fpace, by a double or
triple body, by the exertion of a double or triple force,
produces a double or triple effed, is more to the right
or to the left, upwards or downwards, &c. In Ihort,
every aftedion of motion is an objed of mathematical
difeuffion. Such a icience muft have appeared ere
now in the form of an art, in confequenee of the mu¬
tual tranfadions of men. I hefe among an uncultivated
people are chiefly in the way of barter. If i want
corn from a peafant, and have nothing to give for it
but the cloth which 1 have made, we muft fall on fome
way
PHY
way of adjuftlng our terms in refpe& of the quantity.
We fliould foon difcover that the length, and breadth,
and depth, of the box or bag, were equally important;
and it was not difficult to fee, that if any of them were
doubled or tripled, the quantity of grain would be fo
too ; if two of them were doubled, the grain would
be quadrupled ; and if all the three were doubled the
quantity of grain would be increaled eight times: the
fame thing would be obferved with refpect to my cloth.
By fuch tranfa&ions as thefe, a few of the properties
of plane and fclid numbers and figures would become
known, and the operations of multiplication and divi-
fion, where arithmetic is combined with geometry :
and daily obfervation fhows us, that the more abftrufe
properties of number and figure, -which to the genera¬
lity of mankind are fo infignificant, lay hold on the
fancy of fome individuals with fuch force, as to abtlraft
them from every other intelleftual entertainment, and
are ftudied with a keennefs and perfeverance almoft
unequalled in any other walk of fcience. To moft
men the performance of a machine is a more attra&ive
objed than the properties of a figure, and the property
of a figure more entertaining than that of a number ;
but the faft feems to have been otherwife. Before
Pythagoras had invented the theorem that bears his
name (fee Philosophy, n° 15. and note h.), and which
is among the firft elements of geometry, he had re¬
formed the Grecian mufic by the addition of a note to
their fcale, and this addition proceeds on a very re¬
fined fpeculation on the properties of numbers; fo that
among the Greeks arithmetic muft have made confi-
derable progrefs, while geometry was yet in its cradle:
and we know to what aftonilhing length they profecu-
ted the fcience of pure geometry, while their know¬
ledge of mechanical principles was almoft nothing. Al-
fo the Arabs hardly made any addition to the geome¬
try of the Greeks, if they did not rather almoft com¬
pletely forget it; whilft they improved their arithme¬
tic into algebra, the moft refined and abftrafted branch
of human knowledge. There is fuch a diftance, in
point of fimplicity, between pure mathematics and the
moft elementary mechanics, that the former continued
to make rapid fteps to improvement in more modern
times, while the latter languiftied in its infancy, and
hardly deferved the name of fcience till very lately,
when the great demand for it, by the increafe and im¬
provement in manufactures, both interefted many in
the ftudy, and facilitated its progrefs, by the multitude
of machines which were contriving on all hands by
the manufacturers and artifans : and even at prefent it
muft be acknowledged, that it is to them that we are
indebted for almoft every new invention in mechanics,
and that the fpeculatift feldom has done more than im¬
prove the invention, by exhibiting its principles, and
thus enabling the artift to correCt its imperfeCtions ;
and now fcience and art go hand in hand, mutually
giving and receiving affiftance. "I he demands of the
navigator for mathematical and aftronomical know
ledge have dignified thefe fcieaces ; and they are no
longer the means of elegant amufement alone, but me¬
rit the munificence of princes, who have erefted ob-
fervatories, and furnifhed voyages of difeovery, where
the mathematical fciences art at the fame time che-
riffied and applied to the moft important purpofes.
This ftiort iketch of what may be called the natural
SICS. 64s
Kijlory of phyjicalfciences will not, we hope, be thought Introduce
improper or unprofitable. It tends to confirm an af- tl(^ri* «
fertion often alluded to, that the profecution of the
ftudy of nature will be more fuccefsful, if we imitate
her mode of proceeding, and divide the labour. It
will be ftill further confirmed by attending to the fei-
entific difference of the phenomena, which marks out
a different mode of proceeding, and a difference in the
knowledge which we (hall ultimately acquire, after our
moft fuccefsful refearches, 40
In both claffes of phenomena already diftinguiffied The con-
(n° 6.) we muft grant, that the principle which con fie.<^'”? .
vr./, . P . .r,- principle oE
nects the pairs of concomitant events, rendering the j0nconii-
one the infeparable compmion of the other, is totally tant event*
unknown to us, becaufe it is not the immediate obje<!ft is totally
of our perception. unknown.
But in the phenomena of the firft clafs, we fee the jn t^e gr^-
immediate exertion of this principle, whatever it may be;clafs, how-
we can obferve the exertion with accuracy; we can ever, the
determine its kind and degree, which are the figns an(^
meafures of the kind and degree of the unperceived
caufe. This exertion, being always fome modificationbe accu-*
of motion, allows us to call in the aid of mathematicalrately oW
knowledge, and thus to afeertain with the precifion?^rve^»
peculiar to that fcience the energy of the caufe, judge-
ing of the tendency and quantity by the tendency
and the quantity of the obferved effedt. " 4*
But in the fecond clafs of phenomena the cafe is But not in
very different. In the operations of chemifiry, for in-1*16 fecond;;
ftancc, the immediate exertion of the caufe is not per¬
ceived : all that we obferve is the affemblage of parti¬
cles which obtains before mixture, and that which
takes place when it is completed, and which we con-
fider as its refult. The procedure of nature in produ¬
cing the change is unfeen and unknown. The fteps
are hid from our obfervation. We are not only igno¬
rant of the caufe which determines one particle of our
food to become a part of our body while others are re-
jefted, but we do not fee the operation. We are not
only ignorant of the caufe which determines a particle
of vitriolic acid to quit the foffil alkali with which it is
united in Glauber fait, and to attach itfelf to a particle
of magnefia already united with the muriatic acid,
which alfo quits it to unite with the alkali, but we do
not fee the operation. The particles and their motions
are not the objects of our fenfes ; and all that we fee
is the Epfom fait and common fait feparated from the
water in which we had formerly diffolved the fal mira-
bile and the muriated magnefia. The motions, which
are the immediate effects of the changing caufes, and
therefore their only indications, charatler jlics, and mea-
fares., fitted to ftiow their nature, are hid from our
view. 43
Gur knowledge therefore of thefe phenomena muff And there»
be lefs perfeft than that of the phenomena of the for-^ore fhe
mer clafs; and we muft here content ourfelves with thej’^11^^"
difeovery of more remote relations and remote caufesi flcond claf*
and with our ignorance of the very powers of nature are !ef- un-
by which thefe changes are brought about, and which
are cognofcible only by their immediate effe&s, viz.
the motions which they produce unfeen. The know¬
ledge which we do really acquire is fomewhat fimilar
to what the mechanical philofopher has acquired when
he has difeovered, by many experiments and invefti^
tions, that magnets attract each other by their dim- #
3 milar
\
44
Though
fome {hilo
fophers
have at¬
tempted
to explain
them by
the doc¬
trine of
motion;
45
But their
attempts
have been
unfuceela-
ful.
p h y s
roikr potea, and repel each other by their fimilar poles,
and do not aft at all on any bodies but loadftones and
iron. Here we leave undifcovered all that is molt cu¬
rious in the phenomenon, •viz. how thefe attraftions
and repulfions are produced ; and even here the mag-
netical philofopher Ins the advantage of feeing the a-
gents and the operation.
But philofophers attending to this circumfiance,
that, even in thefe cafes, the changes are produced by
motions, or confift in motions, however unperceived
thefe may be, have concluded, that the laws according
to which nature operates in producing thefe changes
are fimilar to the laws which regulate her operations in
the fenfible aftions of bodies, or are included in them;
and that the motions, though unfeen, and the moving
forces, are perfeftly fimilar. They have therefore em¬
ployed fimilar modes of invefligation, applying the laws
of impulfe, and calling in the aid of mathematical know¬
ledge.
Of this we have many examples in the writings of
DrFreind, Ke l, Bernoull’, Helfham, Boerhnave, Hart¬
ley, and others, who have delivered theories of fermenta¬
tion, folution precipitation,cryflallization, nutrition, fe-
cretion, mufcular aftion, nay even of fenfation and intel¬
ligence, founded, as they think, on the laws of motion,
and illuflrated and fupportcd by mathematical reafon-
ing. Lord Bacon himfelf, that careful and fagacious
diilinguiflier of intelleftual operations: has gone into
the fame track in his explanation of the phenomena
of fire and combufHon : and Sir ifaac Newton has
made feveral attempts of the fame kind, although with
peculiarities which always charafterife his difcuffions,
and make them very different from thofe of an inferior
clafs.
But the fticcefs of thefe philofophers has hitherto
been very difcouraging : indeed they had no title to
expeft any ; for their whole trains of reafoning have
proceeded on analogies which were not obferved, but
afl’umed or fuppofed without any authority. There is
not that fimilarity in the phenomenon, or in the vifible
effeft, which is abfolutely neceflary for a fuccefsful rea¬
foning by analogy. We do not obferve any local mo¬
tion, any change of place, which alone enables us to
reafon mathematically on the fuhjeft. And to make the
cafe defperate, this ill-founded anology has been mixed
with hypothefes completely gratuitous. Certain forms
have been affigned to the particles, and certain modes
of aftion have been laid down for them, for whofe rea¬
lity we have not the leaft argument or indication : and
to complete the matter, thefe fancied forms and laws of
aftion have been fuch as are either felf contradiftory
and inconfiftent, or they have been fuch as, if allowed
to aft in a way analogous to what we obferve in the
fenfible motions of bodies, would produce effefts totally
different from thofe which are obferved. Thefe ato¬
mical theories, as they are called, tranfgrefs every rule
of philofophical difeuflion, and even the heft of them
are little better than trifling amufements. By far the
greateft part of them only ferve to raife a fmile of pity
and contempt in every perfon at all acquainted with
mechanical philofophy. Whenever we fee an author
attempting to explain thefe hidden operations of nature
by invifible fluids, by aethers, by collifions, and vibra*
tioas, and particularly if we fee him intfcducing ma-
I c s.
thematical reafonings into fuch explanations—the heft
thing we can do is to flint the book, and take to fome
other fubjeft. That we may not be thought to fpeak
prtfumptuouffy on this occalion, we only beg leave to
remind our readers, that the united knowledge of the
moft eminent mathematicians of Europe has not yet
been able to give any thing move than an approxima¬
tion to the folution of the problem of three bodies';
that is, to determine with accuracy the motions of
three particles of matter afting on each other in the
fimpleft of all poffible minners, viz. by forces varying
as the fquares of the diftances inverfely : and the vi-
br- tions of elaftic bodies, of any but the very fimplefl:
pofiible forms, are to this day beyond the reach of in¬
vefligation. What then fhould be our expeftations in
cafes where millions of particles are afting at once,
of forms unobferved, and with forces unknown, and
where the objeft is not a determination of an average
refult of many, where the precife ftate of an individual
particle need not be known, but where it is this very
precife ftate of each Angle particle that we want to
know ? What can it be but uncertainty and mi¬
ff ake ?
Notwithstanding thefe difcouraging circumftances, Thetdvan'
we muff: obferve that this kind of inquiry has greatly tage de-
improved of late years, along with the improvement rived in
and extenfion of mathematical philofophy, and fince ^
phiiofophers have given over their inceffant attempts to f-orn^a-
expiain every thing by impulfe ; and we need not de-thematical
fpair of making itill farther advances, if we will con- P mofophy,
tent ourfelves with going no farther than Newton has
done in his explanation of the planetary motions. He
has immortalized his own name, and has added im-
menfely to our flock of tifeful knowledge : yet he has
flopped fhort at the difeovery of the fad of univerfal
gravitation ; and ail who have endeavoured to explain
or account for this faft have only expofed themfdves
to pity. We may perhaps be one day able to demon-
ftrate from the phenomena that the particles of mat¬
ter have certain mutual tendencies to or from each
other, exerted according to fixed or invaried rules ;
and from thefe tendencies we may be able to explain
many other phenomena, and predift the confequences,
with as much certainty and evidence as an aflronomer
calculates a future eclipfe. This would be a great ac-
quiiition, and perhaps more is impoflible: and the road
to this has been hinted by Sir Ifauc Newton, who has
exprefled his fufpicion, that as the great movements of
the folar fyftem are regulated by univerfal gravitation,
fo the mutual aftions of the particles of matter are
produced and regulated by tenderfeiesof a fimihir kind,
equally but not more inexplicable, and of which the
laws of aftion are to be difeovered by as careful an at¬
tention to the phenomena, and by the fame patient
thinking, which he ha^ employed on the planetary mo¬
tions. And a beautiful introduftion to this new and
almoft unbounded field of enquiry has been given us
by the celebrated Abbe Bofcovich, in his Theory of
Natural Philofophy, where he has fhown how fuch mu¬
tual tendencies, fimilar in every ultimate particle of
matter, and modified by conditions that are highly
probable, nay almoft demonftrable, will not only pro¬
duce the fenfible forms of folidity, hardnefs, elafticity,
duftility, fluidity, and vapour, -Under an inconceivable
variety
47
i>ur ig:'0~
ance full
;reat, and
he proba
)!e inci
ifk
edge a-
nonir po¬
lity.
4b
he parti-
lar divi-
)ns of
lyfical
nee in
:uain.
PHY
van’ety of fubordinate appsarancea, and the obferved
laws of fenfible motion, but will go far to explain the
phenomena of fufion, congelation, folution, cryftalliza-
tion, &c. &c. &c. both in chemiftry and phyfiology.
We earneflly recommend this work to the pei-nfal of
all who with to obtain a diftinft notion of the inter¬
nal conftitution of natural bodies, and of the way in
which the uniting forces produce their ultimate and
fenfible effe&s. Any perfon, pofiefled of a moderate
fitare of mathematical knowledge, will be convinced
that the procefs of nature is not very different from
what he deferihes ; and that much of what we obferve
mtift happen as he fays, even although the ultimate
atoms of matter are not inextended mathematical points,
accompanied with attra&ing and repelling forces.
But we have many fteps to make before we begin
th is ftudy : Nature opens to us an immenfe volume ;
snd we doubt not that our poflerity will long find era-
•eafe pl°yn?ent in the perufal, even though advancing with
the eagernefs and fuccefs of the laid century. We
have not yet arrived at the threfhold in many parts of
this refearch : In many parts of chemiflry, for in-
ftance, we are as yet uncertain with refpedf to the phe¬
nomena themfclves, which are to he the fubjefts of this
difeuffion. The compofition of bodies mud be fully
underftood before we begin to fpeak of the forces
which unite their particles, or fpeculate about their
modes of a&ion. As long as water was confi lered as
an element, we were ignorant of the forces inherent in
its particles ; we are perhaps ftill ignorant of this; but
we now know that they are extremely different from
what we formerly fuppofed them to be. It is but in
a very few, if in any, cafes of chemical combination,
that we even know what are the ingredients : till we
know this, it is too foon to fpeculate about their mode
of union. Our ignorance in the real events in the ani¬
mal and vegetable economy is ftill greater. Our firfl
talk therefore is to proceed, as we are now doing, in
the accurate examination and claffification of the phe¬
nomena themfelves; and, without attempting te bring
them within the pale of mathematical philofophy, by
attempting what are called mechanical explanations, let
us give up the confideration of thefe hidden operations,
and augment to the utmbft our lift of fecondary laws
ofvifible but remote connexions. All the mechanical
fpeculations of the honourable Robert Boyle about the
fenfible qualities of things are now forgotten; but his
chemical experiments preferve all their value, and are
frequently referred to. The fame may be faid of the
fngacious Dr Hales, whofe fanciful notions of internal
confliXs, and collifions, and vibrations, derogate no¬
thing from the value of the curious faXs which he
has eflablifned both in the animal and vegetable eco¬
nomy.
This diftinXion in the nature of the phenomena, and
this difference in the nature of the knowledge which
is to be acquired, and the means which are to be em¬
ployed for the furcefsful profecution of thefe two
branches of general phyfics, has occafioned a ftill far¬
ther reftn’Xion (at leait in Britain) of the term na¬
tural philosophy. It is particularly applied to the
ftudy of the phenomena of the hrft clafs, while thofe
of the fecond have produced the fciences of chemis¬
try and physiology.
SIC?. 647
Natural philofophy and chemtftry have generally Iiitror’uc-
been made particular inftitutions in our feminines of tion-
learning, but phyliology has more commonly been *
taught in conjundion with anatomy, medicine, and bo¬
tany.
The phenomena of the fir ft clafi, have been ufuaily
called mechanical, in order to diftinguifh them from
thofe obferved in the operations of chemiftry, and in
the animal and vegetable economy ; and the explana-
tions which have bee'n attempted of fome of the laft,
by applying the laws obferved in the phenomena of
the firft clafs, have been called mechanical explanations.
As this firll clafs is evidently but a part of gene¬
ral phyfics, there is fome improoriety in giving the
name natural philofophy to a courfe of doXrines which
is confine to thefe alone. Indeed at the firft inftitu-
tion of univerfitie?, the leXures given in the Schola
Phyfica were much more extenfive, comprehending al-
molt all the phenomena of the material world : but as
all arts and fciences have improved moft where the la¬
bour has been moti divided, it was found more condu¬
cive to the advancement of knowledge that feparate
inftitutions ihould be founded for the ftudies of natu¬
ral hiftory, chemiftry, phyfiology, &c. ; and thus the
phenomena, purely mechanical, and a few others in
magnetifno, eleXricity, and optics, which either were
fufceptible of mathematical treatment, or had little
connexion with the ftudies of chemiftry and phyfio¬
logy, were left to the care of the profeffor of natural
philofophy.
As the terms chemijhy and phyjiotogy have been ap¬
plied to two very important branches of general phy-
lics, we think that a more fpecilic or charaXeriftic
name might be appropriated to the other, and that
it might very properly be termed mechanical philo¬
sophy.
It only remains to make a few obfervations on the
diftinXive means of proftcuting thefe Undies with fuc¬
cefs, and to point out fome of the advantages which
may reafonably be expeXed from a careful profecution
of them : and as the fecond branch has been fully-
treated under the feveral articles of Chemistry, Phy¬
siology, See. we ihall confine ourfelves to what is ufu¬
aily called natural philosophy.
Mechanical Philosophy may, in conformity with Mechanical"
the foregoing obfervations, be defined, “ the ftudv ofXnlofophy
the fenfible motions of the bodies of the univerfe, and ,efin.ed»
of their aXions producing fenfible motions, with the pn^dple*
view to difeover their caufes, to explain fubordinate explained
phenomena, and to improve artT
The principle upon which all philofophical difeuf¬
fion proceeds is, that every change auhich zt>e obferve in.
the condition of things is confclered by us as an ejfefi, indi¬
cating the agency, charaderifing the kind, and meafuring the
degree, of its caufe.
In the language of mechanical philofophy, the caufe
of any change of motion is called a moving or change,
ing force.
The difquifitions of natural philofophy muff; there¬
fore begin with the confideration of motion, carefully
noticing every affeXion or quality of it, fo as to efta-
blifli marks and meafures of every change of which it
is fufceptible ; for thefe are the only marks and mea-
4 fares
648 PHY
Mechanical fures of the changing forcei. This being done, it on*
Philofophy. jy rcma;n9 to apply them to the motions which we
obferve in the univerfe.
The liws From the general principle of philofophical difcuf-
of motion fion already mentioned, there flow direftly two axi-
and their
application.
1. Every body perfeveres in a Jlate of rejl or of uniform
reBilineal motion, unlefs affected by fame moving force.
2. Every change of motion is in the diretlian and in the
degree of the force imprejfed.
Thefe are ufually called the laws of motion. They
are more pioperly laws of human judgment, with re-
fpeft to motion. Perhaps they are neceffary truths,
unkfs it he alleged that the general principle, of which
they are neceffary confequences, is itfelf a contingent
though univerial truth.
By thefe two axioms, applied in abflraSo to every
•variety of motion, we eftablifh a fyflem of general
do&rines concerning motions, according as they are
iimple or compounded, accelerated, retarded, rec¬
tilineal, curvilineal, in fmgle bodies, or in fyftems
of connefted bodies ; and we obtain correfponding
cbarafteriftics and meafures of accelerating or retard¬
ing forces, centripetal or centrifugal, fimple or com¬
pound.
We have an illuftrious example of this abftraft fy-
ftem of motion and moving forces in the tirfl book of
Sir Ifaac Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natu¬
ral Philofophy. Euler’s Mechanka five Scientia Mo-
tus, Herman’s Phoronomia five de Viribus Corporum,
and D’Alembert’s Eraite de Dynamique, are alfo ex¬
cellent works of the fame kind. In this abftradl
fyftem no regard is paid to the cafual dilTerences of
moving forces, or the fources from which they arife.
It is enough to charafterife a double accelerating force,
for inftance, that it produces a double acceleration.
It may be a weight, a dream of water, the preffure of
a man ; and the force, of which it is faid to be double,
may be the attra&ion of a magnet, a current of air, or
the adion of a fpring.
Having eftabliihed thefe general do&rines, the phi-
lofopber now applies them to the general phenomena
of the univerfe, in order to difeover the nature of the
forces which really txiil, and the laws by which
their operations are regulated, and to explain inte-
refting but fubordinate phenomena. This is the
chief bufinefs of the mechanical philofophcr; and it
may with fome propriety be called the mechanical hi/lory
of nature.
Ofthe ar- Some method muft be followed in this kiftory of
tangement mechanical nature. The phenomena muft be claffcd
of the me- by means of their refemblances, which infer a refem-
’ ' blance in their caufes, and thefe claffes muft be ar¬
ranged according to fome principle. We have feen
no method which appears to us lefs exceptionable than
the following.
The principle of arrangement is the generality of
the phenomena ; and the propriety of adopting this
the pheno- principle, arifes from the probability which it gives us
niena is the o£ more reagiJy difeovering the moil general actuating
Irf arrange- forces, whofe agency is implicated in all other pheno-
ment. mena of lefs extent; and therefore (hould be previoully
51
chanical
phenome¬
na of the
univerfe.
5*
The gene
rality of
SICS.
phenomena, and are thus the marks of the diftinguifh-
ing and inferior natural powers. Phnoiophy,
The moft general of all phenomena is the curvilineal ^ "
motion of bodies in free fpace ; it is obferved through The laws of
the whole extent of the folar fyftem. motion are
The mechanical hiftory of nature begins therefore
with aftronomy. Here, from the general phenomena micai p)lcj
of the planetary motions, is evinced the faB oi the mu-uomena.
tual deflection of every body towards every other body,
and this in the inverfe proportion of the fquares of the
diftance, and the direCt proportion of the quantity of
matter. This is the fa£t of universal gravitation,
indicating the agency, and meafuring the intenfity, of
the univerfal force of mutual gravity.
Having eftablifhed this as an univerfal fa6t, the na¬
tural philofopher proceeds to point out all the particu¬
lar faCis which are comprehended under it, and whofe
peculiarities charaderife the different movements of the
folar fyftem. That is, in the language of philofophy,
he gives a theory or explanation of the fubordinate phe¬
nomena ; the elliptical motions of the planets and co¬
mets, their mutual difturbances ; the lunar irregulari¬
ties j the oblate figure of the planets ; the nutation of
the earth’s axis; the precifion of the equinoxes ; and
the phenomena of the tides and trade winds : and he
concludes with the theory of the parabolic motion of
bodies projeded on the furface of this globe, and the
motion of pendulums. 54.
As he goes along, he takes notice of the applica- The appli-
tions which may be made to the arts of life of the^bon
various doftrines which are fuccefiively eftablifhed ;ence to ^
fuch as chronology, aftronomical calculation, dialling,arts of
navigation, gunnery, and the meafuring of time. life.
If a fquare parcel of fand be lying on the table, an<^
the finger be applied to any pait of it to pufh it along o{ gravita.
the table, that part is removed where you will, but thetion,
reft remains in its place; but if it is a piece of fand-
ftone of the fame materials and fhape, and the finger
is applied as before, the whole is moved ; the other
parts accompany the part impelled by the finger in all
its motions.
From the moon’s accompanying the earth in all its And of to-
motions round the fun, we infer a moving force whichhe^on‘
connefts the moon and earth. In like manner, we
muft conqjude that a moving force conncds the par¬
ticles of the ftone; for we give the name force to every
thing which produces motion : We call it the force
of cohesion; a term which, like gravitation, expreffes
merely a fad.
This feems to be the next phenomenon of the uni¬
verfe in point of extent. ^
Having, from the general phenomenon, eftablifhed Mode of
the exiftenceof this force, the philofopher proceeds toii.veftiga-
afeertain the laws by which its exertions are regulated;c(l.
which is the afeertaining its diftindive nature and pro-hegon<
perties. This he does in the fame way that he afeer-
tained the nature of planetary gravitation, vi%. by ob-
ferving more particularly the various phenomena.
Here is opened a moft extenfive and varied field of
obfervation, in which it muft be acknowledged that
very little regular and marked progrefs has been made.
The variety in the phenomena, and the confequent va<
36
difeufied, that we may deted the diferiminating cir-
cumftances which ferve to charaderife the fubordinate
nety in the nature of the conneding forces, appear
as yet inconceivably great; and there feems little pro*
bability
PHY
Mechanicalba^li’ty ©f our beJng able to deteft in them all any
rlulofophy. famenef3, combined with the other diftinguilhing cir-
cumftances, as we have done in the cafe of gravity.
Yet we fhould not defpair. Bofcovich has (hown, in
the moft unexceptionable manner, that although we
flvdl fuppofe that every atom of matter is endued
with a perfectly fimilar force, adting in a certain de¬
termined ratio of the fmall and imperceptible diftances
at which the particles of matter are arranged with re-
fpett to each other, the external or fenfible appearances
fnay, and muft, have all that variety which we obferve.
He alfo (hows very diftinftly how, from the operation
of this force, muft arife fome of the moft general and
important phenomena which chara&erife the different
forms of tangible bodies.
We obferve the chief varieties of the a&ion of this
corpuscular force on the bodies which we denomi¬
nate hardy fofty/olid, Jluidy vaporous, brittle, dudile, elajlic.
We fee inftances where the parts of bodies avoid each
other, and require external force to keep them toge-
ther, or at certain fmall diftances from each other.
1 his is familiar in air, vapours, and all comprcflible
and elaftic bodies.
This i.s evidently a moft curious and interefting fub-
jed of inveftigation. On the nature and adion of
thefe corpufcular forces depends the ftrength or iirm-
neis of folids, their elafticity^ their power of commu-
meating motion, the preffure, and motion, and impulfe
of fluids; nay, on the fame adions depend all the che¬
mical and phyfiological phenomena of expanfion, fu-
fion,.congelation, vaporifation, condenfation, folution,
precipitation, abforption, fecretion, fermentation, and
animal and vegetable concodion and aflimilation.
Out of this immenfe ftore of phenomena, this inex-
hauftible fund of employment for our powers of invef¬
tigation, the natural philofopher feleds thofe which
lead diredly to the produdion or modification of fen¬
fible motion.
He will therefore confider,
1 he communication of motion among detached
1 c s> 649
logics between the phenomena of gravitation andcohe- Mechanica/
non, will be at leaft ready to entertain very different PIlilof0phy*
notions of this matter. He will be fo far from think-   
mg that the produdion of motion by impulfe is the
moft familiar fad in nature, that he will acknowledge
it to be comparatively very rare ; nay, there are fome
appearances in the fads which are ufually confidered
as mftances of impulfion, which will lead him to doubt,
and almoft to deny, that there has ever been obfervedzn
mftance of one body putting another in motion by co¬
ming into abfolute contad with it, and ftriking it •
and he will be difpofed to think that the produdion
of motion in this cafe is precifely fimilar to what we
obferve when we gently pufh one floating magnet to¬
wards another, with their fimilar poles fronting each r
other. There will be the fame produdion of motion Motion
m the one and diminution of it in the other, and thefeemi* to be
fame uniform motion of the common centre of gravi- Produ«<l
tv f anrl in ♦V.ln ««r„ „r .i__  • n from the
53
he pro
iiftion of and free bodies, eftablifhing the laws of impulfe or col-
nrdfe has^^’j^11-8 ^ ®lway8 been confidered as the elemen-
feen tar7 dodnne of mechanical philofophy, and as the
ouphtthe^10^ familiar fad obferved in the material world ; and
oft fami- in all ages philofophers have been anxious to reduce all
uuief in aftlons,of bodies on each other to impiilfe, and have
never thought a phenomenon completely explained or
accounted for till it has been fhown to be a cafe of
impulfe. This it is which has given rife to the hy-
pothefes of vortices, ethers, magnetic and eledric fluids,
animal fpirits, and a multitude of fancied incermediums
between the fenfible maffes of matter, which are faid
jn common language to ad on each other. A heavy
body is fuppofed to fall, beoaufe it is impelled by a
.cam of an invifible fluid moving according'to cer¬
tain conditions fuited to the cafe. The filings of iron
are fuppofed to be arranged round a magnet, by means
of a ftream of magnetic fluid ifluing from one pole, cir¬
culating perpetually round the magnet, and entering
at the other pole, in the fame manner as we obferve
the flote grafs arranged by the current of a brook.
r  „ **ut *;he philofopher who has begun the mechanical
.non is ttudy of nature by the abftrad dodrines of dynamics
i fable ^ made[t8 hrft application to the celeftial phenome-’
na, and who has attended carefully to the many *na,
Vol. XIV..Part. II, 7
11 this
ty .- and, in this cafe of the magnets, he fees complete-frn°m| >he e
ly the neceflity of a law of motion, which is not an oT*mon
axiom but is obferved through the whole of nature, and reac-
and which receives no explanation from any hypothe-tioB*
fis of an intervening fluid, but is even totally inconfift-
ent with them. We mean, “ that every adion of one
body on another is accompanied by an equal and op-
pohte adion of that other on the firft.', This is ufu-
ally called the equality of adion and reaction : it is not
intuitive, but it is univerfal; and it is a neceffary con¬
sequence of the perfed fimilarity of the corpufeular
forces of the fame kinds of matter. This general fad
unaccountable on the hypotheiis of impelling fluids, is
conlidered in the planetary motions as the unequivocal
indication of the famenefs of that gravity which regu¬
lates them all. The rules of good reafoning Ihould make
us draw the fame conclufion here, that the particles
of tangible matter are conneded by equal and mutual
forces, which are the immediate caufes of all their fen¬
fible adions, and that thefe forces, like gravitation,
vary with every change of diftance and fituation.
_ laws of collifion and impulfion being now efta-
blifhed, either as original fads or as confequenccs of
the agency of equal and mutual forces which conned
the particles of matter, the philofopher confiders,
c Prodlf&*on of motion by the intervention of Of motion
o id bodies, where, by reafon of the cohefion of mat-as re-
ter, fome of the motions are neceffarily confined tofpe<5tsthe 1
certain determinate paths or diredions. This is the theo^,of
cafe in all motions round fixed points or axes, or along Sc! 11 ^
planes or curves which are oblique to the adion of the
forces.
This part of the ftudy contains the theory of ma-MEci?*-
chines, pointing out the principles on which their ener- Nics*
gy depends, and confequently furniihing maxims for
tneir conftrudier, and improvement. But thefe obfer-
vations do not complete the difeuffion of the mecha-
nifm of folid bodies : they are not only folid and inert
but they are alfo heavy; therefore the adien of gravity
muft be combined with the confequences of folidity.
This will lead to difeuffions about the centre of gravity”
the theory and conftruftion of arches and roofs, the*
principles of liability and equilibrium, the attitudes of
animals, and many particulars of this kind.
3. The philofopher will now turn his attention to The nature
another form, in which tangible matter exhibits many a.nd defini.
intcreftmg phenomena, viz. fluidity. The firft thine-t*on
4 N
6j® PHY?
Mechanical to be attencle ! to here i3> What is thai pirticular form
Vhilofophy.&f tx)j}iace p What is the precife phenomenon which
charaAeriies fluidity? What is the definition of a fluid?
This is by no means an eafy queftion, and confiderable
objections maybe ftated againft any definition that has
been given of it. Sir Ifaac Newton fays, that a fluid
is a hotly ’whofe particles yield to thefmallejl impreffton, and
by f0 yielding are eajily moved among themfelves. It may
be doubted whether this be fufficiently precife ; what
is meant by the fmallejl impreffion P and what is eajily
moving ? Is there any precife degree of impreflion to
which they do not yield; and do they oppofe any re-
fiftance to motion ? And a ftronger objection may be
made : It is not clear that a body fo conftituted will
exhibit all the appearances which a body acknowledged
to be fluid does really exhibit. Euler oflers fome very
plaufible reafons for doubting whether it will account
for the horizontal furface, and the complete propaga¬
tion of preflure through the fluid in every dire&ion ;
and therefore prefers fele&ing this lajl phenomenon, the
piopagation of preflure qudqua-verfum, as the charac-
teriilic of fluidity,becaufe a body having this conftitution
(on whatever circumftances it may depend) will have
every other obferved property of a fluid. But this
definition is hardly Ample or perfpicuous enough ;
and we think that the objections againit Newton’s more
Ample and intelligible definition are not unanfwerable.
Bofcovich defines a fluid to be, a body <whofeparticles
exert the fame mutual forces in all directions ; and (hows,
that fuch particles muft be indifferent, as to any pofi-
tion, with refped. to each other. If no external force
aft on them, they will remain in every pofition, and
will have no tendency to arrange themfelves in one po¬
fition rather than another; differing in this refpeft
from the particles of folid, or foft, or vifeid bodies ;
which require fame force to change their refpedtive
pofitions, and which recover thefe pofitions again when
but gently difturbed. He illuftrates this diftin£tion
very beautifully, by comparing a parcel of balls thrown
on quickfilver, and attracting each other, with a par¬
cel of magnets in the fame iituation. The balls will
ftick together, but in any pojition; whereas the magnets
6. will always affe£t a particular arrangement.
Of the pref- When the chanfateriftic phenomenon of fluidity has
fure and been felefted, the philofopher proceeds to combine
equilibrium thj8 pr0perty with gravity, and eftabliflies the do&rinea
hydrofta-0rof hydrostatics, or of the preffureand equilibrium of
tic*. ’ heavy fluids, the propagation of this preflure in every
dire6tion ; and demonitrates the horizontality of fur-
face affumed by all perfect fluids.
Thefe doctrines and principles enable us to deter¬
mine feveral very interefting circumilances refpeft-
ing the mutual preffure of falids and fluids on each
other; the preffures exerted on the bottom* and fides
of veflels ; the fupport and whole mechanifm of float-
ing bodies, &c. , , .
©f the mo- He then conflicts how fluids will move when their
tion of equilibrium of preffure is deftroyed ; and eftabhfhea
fluids, or the do&rines of hydraulics, containing all the modi-
hydraulics. gcatjons (,f this nootion, arifing from the form of the
veflels, or from the intenfity or direaion of the pref¬
fure which occafionsit. And this fabjeft is completed
by the confideration of the refiftance which fluids op¬
pofe to the motion of falid bodies through them, and
their impulfe on bodies oppofed to their action.
lies.
Thefe are very important matters, being the foun- Mechamcjl
dations of many mechanical arts, and furnilhing us with 11 Q‘°P
fame of our moil convenient and efficacious powers for
impelling machines. They are alfo of very difficult The im.
difauffion, and are by no means completely uiveiliga- Por^nce
ted or eitabliflied. Much remains yet to be done both
for perfe&ing the theories and for improving the arts branches of
which depend cm them. ( fcience.
It is evident, that on thefe doftrines depend the
knowledge of the motions of rivers and of waves; the
buoyancy, equilibrium, and (lability of (hips j the
motion of (hips through the waters ; the a&ion of the
winds on the fails ; and the whole arts of marine con-
ftruftion and feamanffiip. . 67
There is another general fbrm of tangible matter The naturs
which exhibits very different phenomena, which are and drfini.
alfo extremely interefting ; we mean that of vapour. ^
A vapour is a fluid; and all the vapours that we11 u '
know are heavy fluids: they are therefore fubjed to
all the laws of preffure and impulfe, which have been
confidered under the articles Hydrostatics and Hy¬
draulics. But they are fafceptible of great com-
preffion by the action of external forces, and expand
again when thefe forces are removed. In confequence
of this compreflion and expanfion, the general pheno-
mena of fluidity receive great aad important modifica¬
tions ; and this clafs of fluids requires a particular con¬
fideration. As air is a familiar inftance, this branch
of mechanical philofaphy has been called pneumatics. ^
Under this head we coniider the preffure of the at-The doc-
mofphere, and its effeds, both on falid and fluid bo-
dies. It produces the rife of waters or other fluids in ^
pumps and fyphons, and gives us the theory of their
conftrudion: it explains many curious phenomena of
nature, fuch as the motions in the atmofphere, and
their connedion with the preflure of the air, and its
effed on the barometer or weather-glafs. Air*
when in motion, is called wind; and it may be em¬
ployed to impel bodies. The theory of its adion, and;
of its refiftance to moving bodies, are therefore to be
confidered in this place.
But befides their motions of progreffion, &c. fuch a&
we obferve in winds, compreffible or elaftic fluids are faf¬
ceptible -of what imy be termed internal motion', a kind
of undulation, where the contiguous parts are thrown
into tremulous vibrations, in which they are alternate¬
ly condenfed and rarefied ; and thefe undulations are
propagated along the mafs of elaftic fluid, much in the
fame way in which we obferve waves to fpread on the
farface of water. What makes this an interefting fab-
jed of confideration is, that thefe undulations are the-
more ordinary caufes of found. A trembling chord, or
fpring, or bell, agitates the air adjoining to it: thefe
agitations are propagated along the air, and by its in¬
tervention agitate the organ of hearing. The mecha¬
nifm of thefe undulations has been much ftudied, and
furniflies a very beautiful theory of mufical harmony. <fy,
The philofopher examines the law of compreJibilityOithe
of air and other elaftic fluids; and thus gets the know- '
ledge of the conftitution of the atmofphere, and oftheelaftic
adion of thofe fluids when employed to impel_ falid fluids and
bodies. Gunpowder contains an immenfe quantity of us core*
permanently elaftic air, which may be fat at liberty byluen
inflammation. When this is done at the bottom of a
piece of ordnance, it will impel a ball along the barre >
71
PHY
WecWiraland dlfcharge it from the muzzle, in the fame way
‘hilofophy. t^at an arrow is impelled by a bow. And thus ha-
   ving difcovered in what degree this air prefles in pro¬
portion to its expanfion, we difeover its adtion on the
ball through the whole length of the piece, and^the
velocity which it will finally communicate to it. Here
then is contained a theory of artillery and of mines,
the cor- Chemiftry teaches us, that molt bodies can be con-
/erfion of verted by fire into elallic fluids which can be em-
Udies into p^0ye(j to a(a; oa other bodies in the way of preffure or
w fire impulfe- Thus they come under the review of the
} * mechanical philofophcr y-and tney have become inte-
reding by being employed as moving forces in fome
very powerful machines.
Thefe difeuflions will nearly exhauft all the general
mechanical phenomena. There remain fome which are
much more limited, but furnifit very curious and im¬
portant fubjedti of mveftigation.
!)f the phe- The phenomena exhibited between loadftones or
lomena of magnets and iron have long atcrafted attention ; and
oadftf ne, the ufe to whi^ h the polarity of the loadftone has been
magne- appi;S(j} namely, the diretSling the courfe of a fhip
through the pathleb. ocean, haa rendered thefe pheno¬
mena extremely inteiefting. They are fpecified by the
term magnetism. Confi ferable progrefs has been made
in the arrangement and generalization of theTi ; but
we have by no means been able hitherto to bring them
all under one fimpla fa&. The attention has been too
much turned to the difeovery of the ultimate caufe of
magnetifm; whereas we (hould have rather employed
cur ingenuity in difeovering all the general laws, in
the fame manner as Kepler and Newton did with re-
fpedt to the celeftial phenomena, without troubling
themfelves with the caufe of gravitation. Dr Gilbert
of Colchefter was the firft who confidered the magne-
tical phenomena in the truly philofophical manner;
and his treatife De Magnete may be confidered as the
firft and one of the moft perfect fpecimens of the Ba¬
conian or indu&ive logic. It ia indeed an excellent
performance; and when we confider its date, 1580, it
is a wonder. iEpinus’s Tentamen Theorix Magnettfriu is
a moft valuable work, and contains all the knowledge
which we have as yet of the fubjett.
There is another clafs of mechanical phenomena
which have a confi terable affinity with the magnetical;
we mean the phenomena c Jlcd electrical. Certain
bodies, when rubbed or otherwife treated, attract and
repel other bodies, and occafion a great variety of fen-
fible motions in the neighbouring bodies. Philofo-
phers have paid much attention to thefe appearances
of late years, and eftablifhed many general laws con¬
cerning them. But we have not been more fuccefsful
in bringing them all under one fa6t, and thus efta-
blifhing a complete theory of them, than in the cafe of
magnetifm. Franklin and jtpinus are the authors
who have been moft fuccefsful in this refpeft. Dr
Franklin in particular has acquired great celebrity by
bis moft fagacious comparifon of the phenomena ;
which has enabled him to tftablifh a few general laws,
almoft as precife as thofe of Kepler, and of equally ex-
tenfive influence. His difeovery too of the identity of
thunder and eleftricity has given an importance and
dignity to the whole fubjeft.
rhefe are There are many phenomena of eledfricity which
iwt all me- caunot be called mechanical, and are of the moft cu-
hamcal.
71 .
>f ek&ri
al pheiJO'
uena.
SICS. 6ji
rious and interefting kind. As thefe iave Lttle cori*
nedfkm with any of the other great branches of phy- 1
fical fcience, they have generally been confidered in
treatifes of natural philofophy ; and along with inqui¬
ries into the original caufe of eledtricity in general,
continue to engage much of our attention. ^4
The appearances which are prefented to us by our Of the pfie-
fenfe of feeing form another clafs, which have always 0
been confulered as making a branch of natural philo¬
fophy in all feminaries of learning. It does not, how¬
ever, obvioufly appear, that they are mechanical phe¬
nomena. The intimate nature of light is ftill a fecret.
Fortunately it is not neceffary to be known to give us
a very perfedf theory of the chief phenomena. The
general laws of optics are fo few, fo fimple, and fo
precife, that our theories are perhaps more perfect
here than in any other branch of phyfics; but thefe
theories are as yet far removed from the rank of pri¬
mary fadts. Many unknown events happen before the
phenomenon comes under the hands of the ordinary
optician, fo as to become the fubjedls of the Ample
laws of refledlion and refra&ion. It may even be it haffice*
doubted, and has been doubted, whether the phenome- doubted
Ha of optics are cafes of body in motion ; whether
the lines which the optician draws are any thing but
the diredlions along which certain qualities arc exerted.
The fide of a ball which is next the candle may be
bright and the other fide dark, juft as the fide of a ball
which is next the electrical globe is minus and the
other fide plus ; and all this without any intervening
medium. Apparition or vifibility may be a quality of
a body, depending on the proximity and pofition of
another body, without any thing between t*hem, juft
as weight is ; and this quality may be cognizable by
our faculty of feeing alone, juft as the preflure of a
heavy body is by our feeling alone. ^5
The firft thing which made it probable that mecha- How optic*
nical philofophy had any thing to do with the pheno- canie to he
mena of optics, was the difeovery of Mr Roemer,
that apparition was not inftantaneousthat fomcmechanicii
time elapfed between the illumination of a body andphilolvphy,
its being feen at a diftance. He difcovered, that it
was not till 40 minutes after the fun illuminated one
of Jupiter’s fatellites that it was feen by an inhabitant
of this globe. If therefore a fun were juft created,
it would be 40 minutes before Jupiter would be illumi¬
nated by him, and 200 before the Georgian planet
would be illuminated. Here then is motion. It is
therefore highly probable that there is fomething mo- ,7
ved ; but it is ftill doubted whether this fomething, The nature
which we call light, is a matter emitted from theot %htis
Alining body, and moving with great velocity, and
afting on and affefled by other bodies, in the various
phenomena of optics ; or whe ther it is a certain Jlate of
a medium which is thus propagated, as we fee that
waves are propagated along the furface of water, or
fonorous undulations through the mafs of air, while
the water or air itfelf is hardly moved out of its place.
Either of thefc fuppofitions makes optics a legitimate
branch of mechanical philofophy ; and it is the philo-
fopher’s bufinefs to examine both by the received lawg
of motion, and fee which of them gives confequenees
which tally with the phenomena. This has been done;
and we imagine that a complete incompatibility has
been demenftrated between the confequences of the un-
4 N 2 dula-
optics
The pro¬
bable in-
creafe ef
the above
cxtenfive
6S* PHY
Mechanical dulations of an claftic medium, and the phenomena of
v, ^ Coptics ; while the confequences of the other or vulgar
notion on this fubjeft are perfectly confident with me¬
chanical laws. There are feme things in this hypo-
thefis very far beyond our power to conceive diftinft-
ly ; but they are all fimilar in this refpeft to many
fafts acknowledged by all; and there is no phenome¬
non that is inconfiftent with the legitimate confequen¬
ces of the hypothefis. This gives it great probability ;
and this probability is confirmed by many chemical
fafts, and by fafts in the vegetable (economy, which
give ftrong and almotl undeniable indications of light
being a body capable of a chemical union with the
other ingredients of fublunary bodies, and of being af¬
terwards fet at liberty under its own form, as the caufe
*8 or medium of vifion.
But this But thefe are queftions fimilar to thofe about the
feTth? af'caufe of gravJty> and tot:% unneceffary for cftablilhing
feience of a complete theory of the optical phenomena, for ex¬
plaining the nature of vilion, the effe&s of optical in-
Uruments, the caufe of colours, the phenomena of the
rainbow, halos and periheliums, &c. &c. &c. Only
all this theory is unconne&ed with the principles called
mechanical.
Such is the field of obfervation to the mechanical
philofopher of the prefent day. We may hope to ex¬
tend it, and by degrees apply its do&rines even to the
unfeen motions which take place in chemiftry and
field of ob-phyfiology. But we mud, in the firft place, perfedf
fervation. our knowledge and defeription of the fenfible motions
and afkions of bodies. Thofe of fluids ftill demand
much inveftigation ; and till thefe are thoroughly un-
derftood, it is not time to attempt penetrating further
into the receffes of yature.
In the profecution of this ftudy, it is found that
law that1' every change which can be obferved in the ftate of a
action body, with refpedt 10 motion by the aftion of ano-ther
always body, is accompanied by an equal and oppofite change
equal and in the ftate of that other body. Thus, in the pheno-
ru&iou t0 raena gravitation, it is obferved that the defle&ions of
the fun and planets are mutual. The fame thing is
obferved in the aftions of magnets on each other and
on iron ; it is alfo obferved in the attractions and re-
pulfions of eleftrical bodies; and it alfo obtains in all
the phenomena of impulfe and of corporeal preffure.
It is therefore an univerfal law of motion, that aftion
it always equal and oppqfite to reaction : but this muft
be confidered merely as a matter of faCl, a contingent
law of nature, like that of gravitation. The contrary
is perfectly conceivable, and involves no contradiction.
That this is fo, is evident from the proceedings of phi-
lofophers, who in every new cafe make it their bufi-
nefs to difeover by experiment whether this law was
obferved or not. It was among the laft difeoveries
made by Sir Ifaac Newton in his examination of the
celeftial motions. This being the cafe, it fhould ne¬
ver be aflumed as a principle of reafoning till its ope¬
ration has been afeertained by obfervation. It has
been owing to this improper procedure that much falfe
reafoning has been introduced into mechanical philo-
rccafioned ^°pby» and particularly into the theory of impulfion or
much the communication of motion by rmpulfe. In confi-
•wrangling dering this fubjeCt, a term has been introduced which
and mifeon-has occafioned much wrangling and mifconception ;
tins fub- ” we me£n t^ie term inertia. It ferves indeed to ab-
je&. breviate language, but it has often milled the judge-
80
Inveftiga-
S I c s,
ment. When ufed with cautious attention to every MecbaniciJ-
circumftance, it expreffes nothing but the necefiity ofPhiloftfphy,
a caufe to the production of any effeCt: but it is ge- —-v~—'
nerally ufed as exprefiing a quality inherent in matter,
by which it rejijls any change of ftate, or by which it
maintains its prefent ftate. Matter is faid to be inert;
and as every thing which changes the motion of a body -
is called a force, and as this inertia of A is fuppofed to
change the motion of B, it is called •ois inertia ; and
yet matter is faid to be indifferent as to motion or reft,
and to be inaftive. Thefe are furely very incongruoug
expreffions. This obfeure difeourfe has arifen from
the poverty of all languages, -which are deficient in ori¬
ginal terms, and therefore employ figurative ones.-
Force, aCtion, refiftance, are all appropriated terms
related to our own exertions; and fome refemblance
between the external effeCts of thefe exertions and the
effeCts of the connecting qualities of natural bodies, has
made us ufe them in our difquifitions on thefe fubjeCtu.
And as we are confcious that, in order to prevent our
being pufhed by another from our place, we muft: re¬
fill, exerting force ; and that our refiftance is the rea-
fon why this other man has not accomplilhed his pur-
pofe, we fay, that the quiefeent body refifts being put
in motion, and that its inertia is difeovered by the di-
minuti' »* made in the motion of the impelling body t
and upon the authority of this vis inertia as a firft prin¬
ciple, the phenomena of impulfion are explained, and
the law of equal aftion and reaftion is eftablilhed.
But all this procedure is in contradiftion to the rules
of induftive logic ; and the obfeurity and confufion
which has arifen from this original mifconception, the
confequent incongruity of language, and the aukward
attempts that have been made to botch and accommo¬
date it to the^real ftate of things, have occafioned a
difpute, and the only difpute, in natural philofophy
which has not yet been fettled, and never can be fet¬
tled, while fuch mifconceptions are allowed to re¬
main. g
If the word inertia be taken as exprefiing, not a qua- hs proper
lity of matter, but a law of human judgment refpeft-meaning,
ing matter, as exprefling our necefiity of inferring the w*t^) ai1
agency of a moving force whenever we obferve a change amP^c*
of motion, all difficulties will vaniffi, and the equality
of aftion and reaftion will be inferred, as ic fhould be,
from the phenojnena of collifion. There will be infer¬
red a vis infita carport impellents, not qua moventi, but
qua corpori and this inference will carry us through ail
the myfteries of corporeal aftion, as it conducted Sir
Ifaac Newton in his grand refearches. * t.
Let us juft confiderhow we reafon
in a new cafe. Let A and B be two
magnets fattened on the ends of two
long wooden laths AE, BF,. which
turn horizontally on pivots C, D, like
compafs needles, with their noith poles
fronting each other, 12 inches apart;
and let A be puttied towards B, fo
that it would move uniformly with the
velocity of two inches in a fecond.
The phenomena which have been ob¬
ferved are as follow 1 A will gradually
diminiffi its velocity ; and when it has
advanced about nine inches,, will ftop
completely. B, in the mean time,
will gradually acquire motion j and E 27
wkea
D
PHY
Mechanical when it has advanced about nine inches, will have a
. 1 0 ^ velocity of about two inches per fecond, with which
it will continue to move uniformly.’ Now what is in¬
ferred from thefe phenomena ? Becaufe the motion of
A is gradually retarded, we infer that a retarding
force, that is, a force in the diredtion BA has a&ed
on it. And lince this would not have happened if B
had not been there, and always happens when B is
there, we infer that B is either its caufe or the occa-
fion of its adtion. The vulgar fay that B repels A }
fo fay the dynamics. The abettors of invifible fluids
fay, that a ftream of fluid ifliiing from B impels A in
the oppofite diredtion. All naturalifts agree in faying,
that an adtive force connedted with B has deftroyed
the motion of A, and conlider this curious phenomenon
as the indication and charadteriftic of a difeovery. The
fame inference is made from the motion produced in
B : it is confidered by all as effedted by a force exerted
or occafioned by the prefence of A ; and the dyna-
mifts and the vulgar fay that A repeh B. And both
parties conclude, from the equal changes made ©n both
bodies, that the changing forces are equal: here ac¬
knowledging, that they obferve an equality of aaion
and readtion ; and they add this to the other inftancea
of the extent of this law of motion.
All this while no one thinks of the inertia or inacti¬
vity of B, but, on the contrary, conclude this to be a
curious inftance of its adfivity; and moft people con¬
clude that both bodies carry about with them a vis in-
Jitd both when at reft and when in motion.
Ft is doubt- If other phenomena give unqueftionable evidence
ful whether that, in ordinary colliftons, there is the fame changes
t A has°n' °f motl*on? produced without mathematical conua,
as the fame inferences muft be drawn ; and a fcrupulous
naturalift will doubt whether contadl fhould make any
change in our reafoningf on the fubjed, and whether
adtual ccntad ever has been or can be obferved. He
will alfo be convinced, that while this is the general,
or perhaps univerfal, procefs of nature in producing
motion by impulfe, all explanations of the adion of
bodies e di/lanti, by the intervention of ethers and other
invifible fluids, are nothing but multiplying the diffi¬
culties ; for in place of one fad, the approach of one
..her- &c T!5aSnet (for inftance) to another, they fubftitute mil-
L Cl lions of unfeen impulfes, each of which equally needs
an explanation. And if this fluid be fuppofed to pro¬
duce its effeds by my peculiarity in its cqnftitution, as
in the cafe of Newton’s elaftic ether propofed by him
to explain gravitation, the hypothefis fubftitutes, in
the moft unqualified manner, millions of fimilar pheno¬
mena for the one to be explained ; for there is the
fame want of a fecond fluid in order to produce that
mutual recefs of the particles of the ether which con-
ftitutes its elallicity.
The quality And this feems to be the limit to our inquiries into
of bodies all the clafles of natural phenomena. We find the
Ihev'affed maf|reS 0r the PartJcles of matter endued in fad with
<nherbodies(!uaIlties wh,ch affea the ^ of other particles or
Minfcru. mafles, at fmaller or at greater diftances from each
table by us. other according to certain general rules or laws. This
ultimate ftep in the conftitution of things is inferu-
table by us. It is arrogance in the higheft degree for
us to fay, that becaufe we do not comprehend how
there is inherent in a body any quality by which ano¬
ther body may be afleded at any diftance from it,
has
ever been
obferved.
8+
The folly
of fuppo-
f:n£ inter¬
vening
SICS. 653
therefore no fuch quality is pojftlk. It is no lefs fo Mechanical
to fay, that matter has no adive property but that ofi'ililof°llh)r*
moving other matter by impulfe ; and that becaufe it ^ v—
^ may be fo moved, and alfo by the agency of our own
% minds, therefore, when it is not moved by impulfe, it
is moved by minds. The fame almighty fiat which
brought a particle of matter into exiftence could brim/
thofe.qualities equally into exiftence; and the how in
both 13 equally beyond our comprehenfion.
. on r^e other hand, we muft guard againft the Thnfftould
incurious reftin^ on this confideration as a ftop to fur-not, how-"
ther inquiry. There may be fpecies of matter poflef-ever> ftop
fed of the mechanical powers, and which notwith-^urt^er
Handing is not cognifable by our fenfes. All the pro.^111^
perties of matter are not known to a perfon who is
both deaf and blind; and beings poftefled of more
fenfes may perceive matter where we do not; and
many phenomena may really be produced by the adion
of intervening matter, which we, from indolence or
from hafte, aferibe to the agency of inherent forces.
1 he mduftry of philofophers has already difeovered
intermedia in fome cafes. It is now certain that air
is the conveyer of found, and it is almoft certain that '
there is fuch a thing as light. Let us therefore in¬
dulge conje&ures of this kind, and examine the con¬
jectures fey the received laws of motion, and rejeCt
them when we find the fmalleft inconfiftency ; and al¬
ways keep in mind that even the moft coincident with
the phenomona is ftill but a pofiibility.
e may conclude the whole of thefe obfervations Thef/ob=
with the remark, that thefe queftions about the a&ivity fervationa
or inactivity of matter are not phyfical, but metaphy- are not
fical. Natural philofophy, it is true, commonly takes w
it for granted that matter is wholly inaa.’ve ; but it isphyS**
not of any moment in phyfics^whether this opinion is ' ~
true or falfc ; whether matter is aCted on according to -
certain laws, or whether it ads of itfelf according to
the fame laws, makes no difference to the natural phi-
lofopher. It is his bufinefs to difeover the laws which
really obtain, and to apply thefe to the folution of
fubordinate phenomena : but whether thefe laws arife
from the nature of fome agent external to matter, or
whether matter itfelf is the agent, are queftions which
may be above his comprehenfiou, and do not imme-
dfctely concern bis proper bufinefs.
The account we have now given of natural philofo-The above
phy points out to us in the plaineft manner the way in account
which the ftudy muft be profecuted, and the helps}1oirKs ou!:
which muft be taken from other branches of human the ,be^ c
knowledge. Sy°d °f
The caufes, powers, forces, or by whatever name 89
we choofe to exprefs them, which produce the mecha-^‘8me"
nical phenomena of the univerfe, are not obferved and ^ fur"
are known to us only in the phenomena themfelves.SneTand-
Our knowledge of the mechanical powers of nature exempli-'
muft therefore keep pace with our knowledge of thefied*
motions, and indeed is nothing different from it. In
order to difeover and determine the forces by which
the moon is retained in her orbit lound the earth we
muft know her motions. To a terreftrial fpeftator
fhe appears to deferibe an ellipfe, having the earth in
one focus ; but, in the mean time, the earth is car-
ried round the fun, and the moon’s real path, in ab-
folute fpace, is a much more complicated figure. Till
we know this figure, and the variations in the velocity
with
«54 PHY
Mechanical wIlTi wljich it id defcribe l, we know nothing of the
h'hilol'ophy forces which actuate the moon in her orbit.
’ When Newton fays that the forces by which (he is
The mean- retained in this elliptical orbit are dire&ed to the
jng of fame earth, what does he mean? Only this, that the de-
terrns ufcd f]e£tion from that uniform reCtilineal motion which
-^fhe would otherwife have performed are always in this
f lalmo- diveftion. In like manner, when he fays that thefe
cions. forces are inverfely proportionate to the fquares of her
diftaiiccs from the earth, he only means that the de-
fle&ions made in equal times in different pins of her
motion are in this proportion. Thefe defledtions are
confhlered as the charaftcriltics and meafures of the
forces. We imagine that we hare made all plain when
we call this indicated caufe a tendency to the earth ;
but we have no notion of this tendency to the earth
different from the approach itfelf. This word ten¬
dency, fo fafhionable among the followers of Sir Ifaac
Newton, is perverted from its pure and original fenfe.
Tendere verfus folem, is, in the language of Rome, and
alfo of Newton, to go towards the fun ; but we now
ufe the words tend, tendency, to fignify, not the approach,
but the caufe of this approach. And when called upon
to fpeak Itill plainer, we defert the fafe paths of plain
language, and we exprefs ourfelves by metaphor;
fpeaking of nifut, conatus Jefe mutuo accedende, vis centri-
peta, 8cc. When thefe expreffions have become fami¬
liar, the original fenfe of the word is forgotten, and
we tahe it for granted that the words never had ano¬
ther meaning ; and this metaphor, fprung from the
poverty of language, becomes a fruitful fource of
mifconception and miftake. The only way to fecure
ourftlves againft fuch myftrcnl notions as are introdu¬
ced by thefe means into philofophy, is to have recourfe
to the way in which we acquire the knowledge of
thefe fancied powers ; and then we fee that their
names are only names for phenomena, and that uni-
verfal gravitation is only an univerfal mutual approach
among the parts of the folar fyftem.
The abfitr- There is one cafe in which we fondly imagine that
dity of rea-we know the caufe independent of the efleft, and that
‘ we could have predicted the phenomenon d pritn ; we
mean the cafe of impulfe : and hence it is that we are
fo prone to reduce every thing to cafes of impulfion,
and that we have fallen upon all thefe fubterfuges of
ethers and other fubtile fluids. But we might have
faved ourfelves all this trouble; for after having, by
much falfe reafoning and gratuitous aflumptions, fhown
that the phenomenon in queftion might have been produ¬
ced by impulfe, we are no nearer our purpofe, becaufe
that property by which matter in motion puts other
matter in motion, is known to us only by and in the
effeft.
w e Know ^a'r an^ dedu&ion from all this is, that
nothirfr of we mud not expeft any knowledge of the powers of
the imme- nature, the immediate caufes of the motions of bodies,
diate caufe* kut mean8 ef a knowledge of the motions them-
cxcept bySa^ves» anc^ t^iat cvery midake in the motions is ac¬
knowledge companied by a fimilar midake in the caufes. It is
of the mo- impoffible to demondrate or explain the gravitation of
* *k  the planets to him who is ignorant of the properties of
the ellipfe, or the theory of gunnery to him who does
not know the parabola.
A notion has of late gained ground, that a man
may become a natural philofopher without mathema-
S I c s.
toning a
priori.
tical knowledge ; but this is entertained by none who Mechanical
have any mathematics themfelves •, and furely thofe 11
who are ignorant of mathematics fhould not be fu- -
darned as judges in this matter. We need only appeal a man can¬
to fa6t. It is only in thofe parts of natural philofo-not be a
phy which have been mathematically treated, that the fai°phiiofe-
invedigations have been carried on with certainty, fuc-p^gj. with-
cefs, and utility. Without this guide, we mud expeftout being a
nothing but a fchool-boy’* knowledge, refembling that mathematw
of the man who takes up his religious creed on theciaa'
authority of his pried, and can neither give a reafon
for what he imagines that he believes, nor apply it
with confidence to any valuable purpofe in life. We
may read and be amufed with the trifling or vague
writings of a Noilet, a Fergufon, or a Priedley; but
we (hall not underdand, nor profit by the truths com¬
municated by a Newton, a D’Alembert, or De la
Grange.
Thefe obfervations, on the other hand, (how us the
mture of the knowledge which may be acquired, and
the rank which natural philofophy holds among the
92
"We know
fciences.
94
tions them-
felves.
Motions are, the real and only obje&s of our obfer-The mo-
vation, the only ful je£ls of our difeuffion. In mot‘on
is included no ideas but thofe of fpace and time, 0bje(a8
fubjeds of pure mathematical difquifition. As foon, Df 0i,ferVa-
therefore, as we have difeovered the faft, the fnotion,tion, are
all our future reafonings about this motion are purely
mathematical, depending only on the affe&ions 0^thematical
figure, number, and proportion, and mud carry along
with them that demonftration and irrefidible evidence
which is the boad of that fcience. To this are we
indebted for that accuracy which is attained, and the
progrefs which has been made in fome branches of
mechanical philofophy ; for when the motions are di-
dinftly and minutely underdood, and then confiJercd
only as mathematical quantities, i*dependent of all
phyfical confiderations, and we proceed according to
the jud rules of mathematical reafoning, we need not
fear any intricacy of combination or multiplicity of
Heps ; we are certain that truth will accompany us, even
though we do not always attend to it, and will emerge
in our final propofition, in the fame manner as we fee
happen in a long and intricate algebraic analyfis. 95
Mechanical philofophy , therefore, which is cultivated MechamoaJ
in this way, is not a fydem of probable opinions, thu«°cuki-
a difeiplina occur at a, a demondrative fcience. To vated i* a”
fefs it, however, in this form, requires confiderable demo'ftra-
preparation. The mere elements of geometry and al-tive fcience.
gebra are by no means fufficient. Newton could not
have proceeded fine “ Jua matheji facem preferente and,
in creating a new fcience of phyfics, he was obliged to
fearch for and difeover a new fource of mathematical .
knowledge. It is to be lamented that the tade forTfte iamen«,
the mathematical fciences has fo prodigioufly declined table decay
in this country of late years ; and that Britain, which of mache-
formerly took the lead in natural philofophy, fliould^1^*n
now l>e the country rvhere they are lead cultivated.
Few among us know more than a few elementary doc¬
trines of equilibrium ; while, on the continent, we find
many authors who cultivate the Newtonian philofophy
with great alfiduity and fuceefs, and whofe writings
are confulted as the fountains of knowledge by all our
countrymen who have occafion to employ the difeo-
veries in natural philofophy in the arts of life. It is
to
PHYSIC
Mechanical to the foreign writers that we have recourfe in our
Philofophy feminarlee, even for elementary treatifes; and while
' y the continent has fupplied us with mod elaborate and
ufeful treatifes on various articles in phyfical aftrono-
nomy, praftical mechanics, hydraulics, and optics,
97 there has not appeared in Britain half a dozen treatifes
Notwith- worth coafulting for thefe lad forty years ; and this
ftandinir  1: ^1.-  n„i„j -c r
fiandnic^^notwithdanding the unparalleled munificence of our
Drefent fovereitm. who has oriven more liberal
the amt
encourage- Patent fovereign, who has given more liberal patro-
ment from nage t® the cultivators of mathematical philofophy,
the crown, and indeed of feience in general, than any prince in
Europe. The magnificent edablifhments of Louis XIV,
originated from his infatiable ambition and define of
univerfal influence, dire&ed by the fagacious Colbert.
And his patronage being exerted according to a regu¬
lar plan in the edablilhment of penfioned academics,
and in procuring the combined efforts of the mo/l emi¬
nent of all countries, his exertions made a confpicuous
figure, and filled all Europe with his eulogills. But
all this was done without the fmalled felf-denial, or re¬
trenchment of his own pleafures, the expences being
furnifoed out of the public revenues of a great and
opprtffed nation ; whereas the voyages of difeovery,
the expenlive obfervations and geodetical operations in
Britain, and the munberlefs unheard-of penlions and
encouragements given to men of fcience and a&ivity,
were all furniflied out of the private eftate of our ex¬
cellent fovereign, who feems to delight in repaying,
by every fervice in his power, the attachment of a
loyal and happy nation. It is therefore devoutly t®
be wilhed that his patriotic efforts were properly fe-
conded by thefe whom they are intended to ferve, and
that the tafle for the mathematical fciences may again
turn the eyes of Europe to this country for inftruflion
and improvement. The prefent feems a moll favour¬
able era, rvhile the amazing advances in manufactures
of every kind feem to call aloud for the affiftance of
the phiiofopher. What pleafure would it have given
to Newton or Halley to have feconded the ingenious
efforts of a Watt, a Boulton, a Smeaton, an Arkwright,
a Dollond ? and how mortifying is it to fee them in¬
debted to the fervices of a Belidor, a Bofl'ut, a Clai-
raut, a Bofcovich ?
We hope to be pardoned for this digrefiion, and re.
^ turn to our fubjeft.
Mechanical It appears from what has been faid, that mechani-
jhiiofoyhy cal philofophy is almofl; wholly a mathematical ftudy,
wholly a an^ that ^ 'S to.be fucce^fuily piofecuted only under
mathtmati-tbl'8. ^°rrri : but our endeavours to initiate the young
cal ftudy. beginner, it will be often found to require more lleadi-
nefs of thought than can generally be expe&ed for
keeping the mind engaged in fuch abftrad fpecula-
tions. The objed prefented to the mind is not readi¬
ly apprehended with that vivacity which is neceffary
for enabling us t© reafon upon it with clearnefs and
fteadinefs, and it would be very defirable to have fome
means of rendering the conception more eafy, and the
attention more lively. This may be done by exhibit¬
ing to the eye an experiment, which, though but a
ne fi- g‘Ve8 US 3 feni’i'0,e obje& of perception,
iiifure^he*0wb*cb we f311 contemplate and remember with much
attention ol mo^e fteadinefs than any mere creature of the imagi¬
nation. We could, by an accurate defeription, give
fuch a conceptioji of a room that the hearer fnould
perfedly comprehend our narration of any occurrence
in it: but one moment’s glance at the room would be
6
^ 65$
infinitely better. It is ufual therefore to employ ex* ^‘rperimen-
periments to afiift the imagination of the beginner; and ta* PM0-
moft courfes of natural philofophy are accompanied
by a feries of fuch experiments. Such experiments,
conneded by a flight train of argumentative difeourfe,
may even ferve to give a notion of the general doc¬
trines, fufficient for an elegant amufement, and even
tending to excite curiofity and engage in a ferious
profecution of the ftudy. Such are the ufual courfes
which go> by the name of experimental philofophy :
but this iV a great mifapplication of the term ; fuch
courfes are little more than illujlrations of known doc¬
trines by experiments.
Experimental Philosophy is the inveftigation Experiniesr*
of general laws, as yet unknown, by experiment; and1*1 lhilolo~
it has been obferved, under the article Philosophy,11*17defina<i
that this is the moft infallible (and indeed the foie) Xlued*
way of arriving at the knowledge of them. This is
the Novum Organum Scientiarum ftrongly recommended
by Lord Bacon. It was new in his time, though not
altogether without example ; for it is the procedure
of nature, and is followed whenever curioftty is excited.
There was even extant in his time a very beautiful
example of this method, viz. the Treatife of the
Loadftone, by Dr Gilbert of Colchefter; a work which
has hardly been excelled by any, and which, when we
confider its date, about the year 1580, is really a won-
deiful performance.
The moft; perfed model of this method is the Op¬
tics of Sir Ifaac Newton. Dr Black’s Effay on Mag-
riefia is another very perfeft example. Dr Franklin’s
.Theory of Eleftncity is another example of great
merit. That the inveftigation is not complete, nor
the conclufions certain, is not an objection. The me¬
thod is without fault ; and a proper direction is given
to the mind for the experiments which are ftill necef¬
fary for eftablifhing the general laws. Tr,f
It were much to be wiftied that fome perfon of-Agood
talents and of extenfive knowledge would give a ttea-on
tife on the method of inquiry by experiment. Although ^ mc'.hot£
 j r. , , . . 6 ot inquiry
99
Experi¬
ments are,
however,
youne
minds.
many beautiful and fuccefsful examples have been given
as particular branches of inquiry, we have but toonrent very
many inftance# of very inaccurate and inconclufive in-neceflarlr»
veftigatioiis. Experiments made at random, almoft
without a^ view, f'erve but little to advance our know¬
ledge. They are like fhapdefs lumps of ttone, merely
detached from the rock, but ftill wanting the fkill of
the builder to fdedb them for the d-fferent purpofes
which they may chance to ferve; while well contrived
experiments are blocks cut out by a Ikilful workman,
according as the quarry could furnifh them, and of
forms fuited to certain determined ufes in the future
edifice. Every little feries of expeiiments by Mar-
grraf terminates in a general law, while hardly any
general conclufion can be drawn from the numberlefs
experiments of Pott. Lord Bacon has written much
on this fubjed, and with great judgment and acute-
nds of diftindion ; but he has exceeded in this, and
has fatigued his readers by his numerous rules; and 1
there is in all his philofophica! works, and particularlv
in this, a quaintnefs and aftedation that greatly ob-
feure his meaning, fo that this moft valuable nart of
his w ritings is very little read. 1 " ro,,
A formidable objedion has been made to this rre-An
thod of inquiry. Since a phyfical law is onlv ti to e..--
n. pc'r.ment-ai
cxnreLion :.Mq,u:r%
6$6
PHYSICS.
Expenmen-exprefiiort °f a geneTal fa^, ani Is eftabliflied only in
tai Philo- confeqUencc of our having obfcrved a fimilarity in a
Sophy.
to.y
The objec¬
tion an-
fwered,
-’With ex¬
amples
great number of particular fafts ; and fince the great
rule of indu&ive logic is to give the law no greater
extent than the indudion on which it is founded—how
comes it that a few experiments mtifl be received as
the foundation of a general inference ? This has been
anfwered in very general terms in the article Philoso¬
phy. But it will he of ufe to confider the fubjeft a
little more particularly. Our obfervations on this
fubje& are taken from in the diflertation on evidence
by Dr Campbell in his Philofophy- of Rhetoric.
An attentive confideration of .the objects around us,
will inform us that they are generally of a complicated
nature, not only as confiftmg of a complication ofthofe
qualities of things called accidents, fuch as gravity,
ihowing the mobility, colour, figure, folidity, which are common
ceruin^oft0 fi°^e8 5 fiut aifo as confifting of a mixture of a
this mode va''hty of fubftances, very different in their nature and
©f inquiry, properties; and each of thefe is perhaps compounded
of ingredients more fimple.
Moreover, the farther we advance in the knowledge
of nature, we find the more reafon to be convinced of
her conftaney in all her operations. Like caufes have
always produced like effefts, and like efiedts have al¬
ways been preceded by like caufes. Inconftancy
fometimes appears in Nature’s works at frjlfight; but
a more refined experience fhows us that this is but an
appearance, and that there is no inconftancy : and we
explain it to out fatiafaftion in this way.
Moft of the obje&s being of a complicated nature,
we find, on an accurate ferutiny, that the effects aferi-
bed to them ought often to be folely aferibed to one
or more of thefe component parts, while the others
either do not contribute to them, or hinder their pro¬
duction ; and the variety of nature is fo great, that
hardly any two individuals of the fame fpecies are in
every refpeCt like any other. On all thefe accounts
we expeCt diflfimilitudes in the phenomena accompany¬
ing perfectly fimilar treatment of different fubjeCts of
the fame kind ; but we find, that whenever we can be
affured that the two fubftances are perfectly alike, the
phenomena arifing from fimilar treatment are the fame :
and long and extenfive obfervation teaches us, that there
are certain circumftancee which infure us in the per¬
fect fimilarity of conftitution of fome things. When¬
ever we obferve the effeCt of any natural agent on one,
and but one, of thefe, we invariably expeCt that the
fame will be produced on any other.
Should a botamft meet with a plant new to him,
and obferve that it has feven monopetalous flowers, he
•will conclude with the utmoft confidence that every
phnt of this fpecies will have monopetalous flowers;
but be will not fuppofe that it will have feven, and no
more than feven, flowers. Now thefe two fads feera
to have no difference to warrant fuch a difference in
the conclulion j which may therefore feem capricious,
fince there is but one example of both.
But it is not from this example only that he draws
the conclufion. Had he never before taken notice of
any plant, he would not have reafoned at all from
thefe remarks. But his mind runs immediately from
this unknown fpecies to all the known fpecies of this
genus, and to all the genera of the fame order; and
having experienced in the figure of the flower an
uniformity in every fpecle«, genus, and order, which
admits of no exception, but, in the number of flowers, tai
a variety as boundlefs as are the circumftances of foil,. _ •
climate, age, and culture, he learns to mark the dif¬
ference, and draws the above-mentioned conclufions.
Thus we learn, that perftft uniformity is not to be
expefted in any inftance whatever, becaufe in no xn-
ftancc is the fimplicity of conftitution fufficiently great
to give us affurance of perfeCt uniformity in the cir¬
cumftances of the cafe ; and the utmoft that our expe¬
rience can teach us is a quick diferimination of thofe
.circumftances which produce the occafional varieties.
The nearer that our inveftigations carry us to the
knowledge of elementary natures, the more are we con¬
vinced by general experience of the uniformity of the
operations of real elements ; and although it may per¬
haps be impofiible for us ever to arrive at the know¬
ledge of the fimpleft elements of any body, yet when
any thing appears fimple, or rather fo exaftly uniform,
as that we have invariably obferved it to produce fimi¬
lar effeCts on difeovering any new effeCt of this fub-
ftance, we conclude, from a general experience of the
efficient, a like conftancy in the energy as to the reft.
Fire confumes wood, melts lead, and hardens clay. In
thefe inftances it aCts uniformly, but not in thefe only.
We have always found, that whatever of any fpecies ia
confumed by it in one inftance, has been confumed by
it on trial at any time. If therefore a trial be made
for the firft time of its influence on any particular fub-
ftance, he who makes it is warranted to conclude that
the eflfeCl, whatever it may be, is a faithful reprefen-
tative of its effeCls on this fubftance in all paft and fu¬
ture ages. This conclufion is not founded on thia
fingle inftance, but upon this inftance combined with
the general experience of the regularity of this element
in its operations.
This general conclufion, therefore, drawn from one
experiment, is by no means in oppofition to the great
rule of indu&ive logic, but, on the contrary, it is the
moft general and refined application of it. General
laws are here the real fubjeCd of confideration ; and a
law {till more general, viz. that nature is conjlant in all
its operations, is the inference which is here applied as
a principle of explanation of a phenomenon which is
itfelf a general law, viz. that nature is conjlant in this
operation.
The foundation of this general inference from one
experiment being fo firmly eftablifhed, it is evident
that experiments muft be an infallible method of at¬
taining to the knowledge of nature ; and we need only
be folicitous that we proceed in a way agreeable to
the great rule of inductive logic; that is, the fubjeft
muft be cleared of every accidental and unknown cir-
cumftance, and put into a fituation that will reduce
the interefting circumftance to a ftate of the greateft
poffible fimplicity. Thus we may be certain that the
event will be a faithful reprefentative of every fimilar
cafe: and unlefs this be done in the preparation, no¬
thing can refultfrom the moft numerous experiments
but uncertainty and miftakes. 104
The account which has been given of mechanicalMachema*
philofophy would feem to indicate that experiment not
was not of much ufe in the farther profecution of it. t^‘ecufe o£
The two laws of motion, with the affiftance of mathe- experi*
matics, feem fully adequate to the explanation of every mtut.
phenomenon;
Cource.
PHY
Fr^er’mfcn.phenomenon ; and fo they are to a certain degree. But
t f ^>ht^1"8 ^e?ree *8 38 yet very limited. Our mathematical
t V .: . knowledge, great as it is in comparifon with that of
former times, is dill infufficient for giving accurate
folutions even of very fimple (comparatively fpeaking)
queftions. We can tel!, with the utmolt precilion,
what will he the motions cf two particles of matter,
or two bodies, which aft on each other with forces
proportioned to the fquares of the dittances inverfely;
but if we add a third particle, or a third body, afting
by the fame law, the united fcience of all Europe can
JO„ only give an approximation to the folution.
Experiment What is to be done then in the cafes which come
is often the continually before us, where millions of particles are
only re- a&;
ng at once on each other in every variety of fitu-
ation and didance ? How (hall we determine, for in-
ftance, the motion of water through a pipe or fluice
when urged by a pifton or by its own weight ? whnt will
be its velocity and direftion ? It is impoffihle, in the
prefent ftate of mathematical knowledge, to tell with
any precifion or certainty. And here we muft have
recourfe to experiment. But if this be the cafe, muft
the experiment be made in every poffible variety of
fituation, depth, figure, preffure ? or is it pofiible to
find out any general rules, founded on the general laws
of motion, and rationally deduced from them ? Or, if
this cannot be accomplished, will experiment itfelf fur-
nifh any general coincidences which fiiow fuch mutual
dependences, that we may confider them as indications
of general pr’nciples, though fubordinate, complicated,
and perhaps infcrutiible ? This can be difeovered by
experiment alone.
The attention of philofophers has been direfted to
each of thefe three chances, and confiderable progrefs
not always ^as ^een ma^e in alh Numerous experiments
bemadc. ^ave ?'een made, almoft fuffiJent to direft the praftice
in many important cafes, without the help of any rule
or principle whatever But there are many cafes, and
thefe of by far the greateft importance, fuch as the
motion of a (hip impelled by the winds, refifted by the
water, and tofied by the waves, where diftinft experi-
t0^ ments cr.nnrt be male.
Example of Newton Bernoulli, D’Alembert, and others, have
the neceffi- laboured hard to deduce from the lav/s of motion rules
for determining what may be called the average mo¬
tion of water in thefe circnmftances, without attempt¬
ing to define the path or motion of any individual
particle; and they have aftually deduced many rules
which have a great degree of probability. It may
here be alkcd, why do you [^probability ? the rules,
as far as they go, fhould be certain. So they are :
they are ftrift deduftions from their premifl’es. But
the premiffes are only JuppoJitions, of various degrees of
probability, aflumed in order to fimplify the circum-
ftances of the cafe, and to give room for mathematical
reafoning ; therefore thefe deduftions, thefe rules, muft
be examined by experiment. Some of the fuppofitions
are fuch as can hardly be refufed, and the rules dedu¬
ced from them are found to tally precifely with the
phenomena. Such is this, “ that the velocities of
ifluing water in fimilar circumftances are in the fub-
duplicate ratio of the preflures.” And this rule gives
a moft important and extenfive informatics to the en¬
gineer. Other fuppofitions are more gratuitous, and
she rules deduced from them are lefs coin«ident with
Vol. XIV. Part II.
657
106
Accurate
experi¬
ments can-
S I c $.
the phenomena. The patient and fagaeioils Newtoti Frcp^rimen
has repeatedly failed in his attempts to determine what tal
is the abfolute velocity of water iftuing from a hole in -1''y' .<
the bottom of a teflel when urged by its weight alone, V
and the attempts of the others have hardly fuceeeded
better. Experiment is therefore abfolutely neccfiary
on this head.
Thofe who have aimed at the difeovery of rufet
purely experimental on this fubjeft, have alfo been
pretty fuccefsful; and the Chevalier Buat has, from a
comparifon of an immenfe variety of experiments made
by himfelf and various authors, deduced an empirical
rule, which will not be found to deviate from truth
above one part in ten in any cafe which has yet come
to our knowledge.
This inftence may ferve to (how the ufe of experi¬
ments in mechanical philofophy. It is proper in all
cafes by way of illuftration ; and it is abfolutely ne-
ceflary in moft, either as the foundation of a chatafter-
iftic of a particular clafs of phenomena, or as argu¬
ment in fupport of a particular doftrine. Hydrolta-
tics, hydraulics, pneumatics, magnetifm, deftricity,
and optica, can hardly be ftudied in any other way ;
and they are at prefent in an imperfeft ftate. and re¬
ceiving continual improvement by the labours of expe¬
rimental philofophers in all quarters of the world. 108
Having in the preceding paragraphs given a pretty The advan»
full enumeration of the different fubjefts which are tota^'^e'
be confidered in the ftudy of natural philofophy, it [he^udy1*
Will not be neceffary to fpend much time in a detail of of philoi'o-
the advantages which may reafonably be expefttd fr mphy
a fuccefsful profecution of this ftudy It Hands in no
need of panegyric: its intim:te conneftion with the
arts gives it a fufficient recommendation to the atten¬
tion of every perfon. It is the foundation of many
arts, and it gives liberal afliftance to all. Indebted to
them for its origin and birth, it has ever retained its
filial attachment, and repaid all their favours with the
molt partial afftftion. I0^
To this fcience the navigator muft have recourfe In navigjc
for that aftronomical knowledge which enables himtloD*
to find his place in the tracklefs ocean : and although
very fmali feraps of this knowledge are fufficient for the
mere pilot, it is neceflary that the ftudy be profecuted
to the utmoft by fome perfons. that the unlearned pilot
may get that fennty pittance which muft direft hi*
routine. The few pages of tables of the fun’s decli¬
nation, which he ufes every day to find his latitude,
required the fuccefiive and united labours of all the
aftronomers of Europe to make them tolerably exaft ;
and in order to afeertain his longitude with precifion,
it required all the genius of a Newton to deleft the
lunar irregularities, and bring them within the power
of the calculator ; and, till this was done, the refpeftive
pofition of the different parts of the earth could not be
afeertained. Vain would have been the attempt to do
this by geodffitieal furveys independent of altronomicai
obfervation. It is only from the moft refined mecha¬
nics that we can hope for fure principles to direft us
in the conftrufticn and management of a fhip, the
boaft of human art, and the great means of union and
communication between the different quarters of the
globe- . ir®
A knowledge of mechanics not much inferior to rn architec-
this is neceffary for enabling the architeft to execute tures
4 Q fouie
658
physics.
Ex} crimen-feme of his greateft works, fuch as tke ere&ion of pofition that matter was fubjeeb only to mechanical Erpen’men
ml t'hilo- ^nmes aruj arches, which deoend on the niceft adiuft- laws,
lophy.
in
In gunnery
and other
engines,
Sec.
1J2
In law,
513
In hillory,
„ IT4.
Jn medx-
domes and arches, which depend on the niceft: adjuft-
ment ot equilibrium. Without this he cannot unite
economy with ftrength; and his works mult either be
clumfy mafles or flimfy fhells.
The effeds of artillery cannot be underftood or fe-
cured without the fame knowledge.
The whole employment of the engineer, civil or mi¬
litary, is a continual application of almoft every branch
of mechanical knowledge ; and while the promifes of
a Sraeaton, a Watt, a Belidor, maybe confided in as
if already performed, the numberlefs failures and dif-
appointments in the moft important and coftly projeds
fhow us daily the ignorance of the pretending crowd
of engineers.
The microfcope, the fteam-engine, the thunder-rod,
are prefents which the world has received from the na¬
tural philofopher ; and although the compafs and tele-
fcope were the produdions of chance, they would have
been of little fervice had they not been ftudied and
improved by Gilbert, Halley, and Dollond.
But it is not in the arts alone that the influence of
natural philofophy is perceived : it lends its aid to
every fcience, and in every ftudy.
It is often necefiary to have recourfe to the philo¬
fopher in difmites concerning property; and many ex¬
amples might be given where great injuftice has been
the confequence of the ignorance of the judges. Know¬
ledge of n iture might have prevented many difgrace-
ful condemnations for forcery.
The hiftorian who is ignorant of natural philofophy
eafily admits the miraculous into his narrations, ac¬
companies thefe with his refledions, draws confequen-
ces from them, and fills his pages with prodigies,
fables, and abfurdity.
It is almoft needlefs to fpeak of the advantages
which will accrue to the yihyfician from this ftudy. So
dofe is the connedion between it and medicine, that
our language has given but one name to the naturalift
and to the medical philofopher. Indeed, the whole
of his ftudy is a clofe obfervation of the taws of mate¬
rial nature, in order to draw from them precepts to
<lired his pradice in the noble art of healing. Du¬
ring the immaturity of general knowledge, while na¬
tural philofophy was the only ftudy which had acquired
any juft pretenfion to certitude either in its principles
or method of inveftigation, the phyficians endeavoured
to bring the objeds of their ftudy within its province,
hoping by this means to get a more diftind view of it;
and they endeavoured to explain the abftrufe pheno¬
mena of the animal fundions by reducing them all to
motions, vibrations, collifions, impnlfes, hydroftatic
and hydraulic preflures and adions, with which the
mechanical philofophers were fo ardently occupied at
that time. But unfortunately their acquaintance with
nature was then very limited, and they were but little
habituated to the rules of juft reafoning; and their
attempts to explain the economy of animal life by the
taws of mechanics did them but little fervice either for
the knowledge of c’ifeafes or of the methods of cure.
The mechanical theories of medicine, which had confi-
der; ble reputation about the end of laft century, were
many of them very ingenious, and had an impofing
appearance of fymmetry and connedion ; but are now
forgotten, having all been formed on the narrow fup-
tal Phiio-
fophy.
HI
But the difeovery of error diminiflies the chance of
again going wrong, efpecially when the caufe of error
has been difeovered, and the means pointed out of
deteding the miftakes; and the vital principle muft
combine its influence with, or operate on, the proper¬
ties of rude matter. It appears therefore evident that
a knowledge of the mechanical laws of the material
world is not only a convenient, but a neceflary, accom-
plifhment to the phyfician. We are fully juftified in
this opinion, by obferving medical authors of the pre-
fent day introducing into medicine theories borrowed
from mechanical philofophy, which they do not under-
ftand, and which they continually mifapply. Appear¬
ance of reafoniRg frequently conceals the errors in
principle, and fddom fails to miflead.
But there is no clafs of men to whom this fcicnce [n 2e%itm>
is of more fervice than to thofe who hold the honour¬
able office of the teachers of religion. Their know¬
ledge in their own fcience, and their public utility,
are prodigioufly hurt by ignorance of the general frame
and confutation of nature ; and it is much to be la¬
mented that this fcience is fo generally negleded by
them, or confidered only as an elegant accompliftiment:
nay, it is too frequently (hunned as a dangerous attain¬
ment, as likely to unhinge their own faith, and taint
the minds of their hearers. We hope, however, that
few are either fo feebly root ed in the belief of the great
do&rines of religion as to fear this, or of minds fo bafe
and corrupted as to adopt an i inculcate a belief which
they have any fufpicion of being ill-founded. But
many have a fort of horror at all attempts to account
for the events of nature by the intervention of general
caufes, and think this procedure derogatory to the
Divine nature, and inconfiftent with the dodlrine of
his particular providence ; believing, that “ a fparrow
does not fall to the ground without the knowledge of
our heavenly Father.” Their limited conceptions can¬
not perceive, that, in forming the general law, the
Great Artift did at one glance fep it in its remoteft and
moft minute confequence, and adjuft the vaft aflembtage
fo as completely to anfwer every purpofe of His pro¬
vidence. There never was a more eager inquirer into
the laws of nature, or more ardent admirer of its glo¬
rious Author, than the Hon. Robert Boyle. This gen¬
tleman fays, that he will always think more highly of
the (kill and power of that artift who (hould conftrudt
a machine, which, being once fet a going, would of it-
felf continue its motion for agesj and from its inherent
principles continue to anfwer all the purpofes for which
it was firft contrived, than of him whofe machine re¬
quired the continual aid of the hand which firft con-
ftru&ed it. It is owing to great inattention that thi*.
averfion to the operation of fecondary caufes has any
influence on our mind- What do we mean by the in¬
troduction of fecondary caufes ? How do we infer the
agency of any caufe whatever ? Would we ever have
fuppofed any caufe of the operations of nature, had
they gone on without any order or regularity ? Or ,
would fuch a chaos of events, any more than a chaos
of exiftences, have given us any notion of a forming and
directing hand ? No furely. We fee the hand of
God in the regular and unvaried courfe of nature, on?
ly becaufe it is regular and unvaried. The philofo?
7 pte*
PHY
ph" toby, faying, that the phenomena
Tophy. P,oceefl ,jnalterable laws. Greatly miftakenthere-
rore are they who think that we fupcrfede the exilt*
ence ot mind and of providence when we trace things
to their caufes. A. phyfical law being an unvaried
rad, is an indication, and the ftrongeft poffible indi¬
cation, of an unerring mind, who is incapable of change,
and mu ft do to day what He always did: for to chan-e
* Ftrgufon's 18 to deviate from what is bed*. The operations of un-
iv'Er ^ w,!1 therefore be regular* and invariable.
why heal laws, therefore, or fecondary caufes, are the
bed proofs of unerring wifdom. Such regularity of
conduft is univerfally confidered as indications of wif¬
dom among men. The wife man is known by the
conitancy of his conduift, while no man can depend on
the future condud of a fool.
And what aftonifhing evidences of wifdom do we
not obferve in the general laws of the material world*
I hey will ever be confidered by the intelligent philo-
lopher as the moft glorious difplay of inconceivable
witdom, which has been able, by means fo few and fo
bmple, to produce effeds which by their grandeur
aftomfii our feeble underftandings, and by their inex-
haufi.b e variety elude all poffibility of enumeration.
, Whde the teachers of religion remain ignorant of
the beautiful laws of nature, the great charaderiftics
o* the wifdom and goodnefs of the Almighty Creator
tneir hearers are deprived of much fublime pleafure
Ood is robbed of that praife which he would have re¬
ceived from an enlightened people ; and the-only wor-
ihip he receives is tainted with mean notions of his at-
tributes, and groundlefs fears of his power.
Let not our minds be haunted with fear of the per-
muous effeds of philofophy, in confequence of the
f.readlul explofion which the vanity of man has lately
nia^.e in France. The ruffians who now rule in that
unhappy country, through the fupport of the licen¬
tious mob of Pans, are continually imputing to the
illumination of philofophy the ardour which now ani-
mates them in the caufe of liberty ; and they aie con¬
tinually faying, that juftice and morality are the order
of the day. But their whole phrafeclogy is equally a
perverfion of every thing in language and in fenti-
inent 1 he facred name of philofophy is as unfit for
their raithlefs and bloody mouths as the names of li.
berty or virtue, and is equally inifapplied. No won-
der that religion fled from the torch of their philo-
lophy: for their philofophy confifts exprefsly in the
confounding the moft diftind claffes of phenomena and
of beings, in affimilating the heavenly animating fpark
within us to a piece of rude matter, and in degrading
hian to the leyd °f the brutes, and thus Cutting out
his faireft profpeds. It is not by the ordinary dialec-
t.cs of the theologian that this facrilegious confufion
can be /edified : this requires an intimate acquaint-
ance with what is charaderiftic of mind, and what is
c, trader ft ic of matter, and a comprehenfive view of
the general laws which regulate the appearances in
both claffes of objeds. Thus, and thus alone, will the
divine be able to confute the deteftable fophifms of Mi-
rabeau and Diderot and the other foi-difant fages of
^ ranee j and perfuade their willing hearers to “ render
tai Phib-
fophy.
S * C o. ^
unto Ctefar the things that are Caffar’s, and to God Experimen.
the things that are God’s.”
But befides thefe advantages which accrue to diffe¬
rent claffes of men from this ftudy, there are fome ef¬
feds which are general, and are too important to be
palled ever unnoticed.
lhat fpirit of difpaffionate experimental inquiry And in o-
which has fo greatly promoted this ftudy, will carrythe[-
with it, into every fubjed of inquiry, that precifienence4*
and tliat conftant appeal to fad and experience which
charadenfe it. And we may venture to affert, that
the fuperior good order and method which diitinguiffi
tome of the later produdions in other fciences, have
-e.c? ,n a Sreat meafure owing to this mathematical
Ipint, the fuccefs of which in natural philofophy ha*
gained it credit, and thus given it an unperceived
influence even over thofe who have not made it their
It ud y.
The truths alfo which the naturalift difeorers are More L
fuch as do not in general afted the paffions ef men, neral Jd/
and nave there•> rrrx^A   • . . 7 
, * i r ° . — WMW OI men. iierai ad-
and have therefore a good chance of meeting with ava’?ta£e*°f
. Thofe whofe intereft it is to keep men P11110^*
I ICrimiQ 1 n    . r> 1 r r> ~
candid reception     „ ls to Keep men
m political or religious ignorance, cannot eafily fufped
bad confequences from improvements in this fcience-
and if they did, have hardly any pretext for checking-
Us progrefs. And difeoveries accuftom the mind to no°-
velty; and it will no longer be ftartled by any confe¬
quences, however contrary to common opinion Thus
the way is paved for a rational and difereet fcepticifm
and a free inquiry on other fubjeds. Experiment!
not authority, will be confidered as the tell of truth •
and under the guidance of fair experience we need
fear no ill as long as the laws of nature remain as they
Daftly, fince it is the bufinefs of philofophy to de-
icribc the phenomena of nature, to difeover their cau-
ies, to trace the connedion and fubordination of thefc
caufes, and thus obtain a view of the whole conftitu-
tion of nature; it is plain that it affords the fureft path
fo.-am.'ng at the knowledge of the great caufe of all,
of God himfdf, and for form.ng proper conception.
Of him and of our relations to him: notions infinitely
more juft than can ever be entertained by the carelefa
fpedator of his works. Things which to this man ap.
pear folitary and detached, having no other connec¬
tion with the reft of the univerfe but the ffiadowy and
fleeting relation of coexiftence, will, to the diligent
philofopher, declare themfelves to be parts of a gleat
and harmonious whole, conneded by the general law*
of nature, and tending to one grand and beneficent
purpofe. Such a contemplation is in the higheft de¬
gree pleafant and cheering, and cannot fail of impref-
fiHg us with the wiffi to co-operate in this glorious
plan, by adiing worthy of the place we hold amon-r
the works of God and with the hopes of one day en"
joyingall the fatisfadion that can arife from confcious
worth and coofummate knowledge; and this is the
worftup which God will approve. “ This univerfe
(fays Boyle) is the magnificent temple of its great
Author; and man is ordained, by his powers and qua¬
lifications, the high pneft of nature, to celebrate divine
lervice in this temple of the univerfe.”
A 0 2
PHY-
Phyfiogno..
mks.
x
Various de¬
finition' of
phyfiogno-
my ancient
und mo¬
dern.
PHY [ 660 ] PHY
PHYSTOGNOMONICS, among pliyficlans, de- body and mind: and hence the art of reducing tlufe 1
iote fuch fig ns as, being taken from the countenance,
ferve to indicate the ftatej difpofition, &c. both of the
uouy auu uuua i x
figns to pradice ia termed phy/tognomy.
PHYSIOGNOMY,
I
S a word formed from the Greek nature, and
  y:.L'cx.a J knoau, It is the name of a fcience \\hich
occupied much of the attention of ancient philofo-
pher?, and which, fince the revival or learning, has in
a >reat degree been difregarded. Till of late it ha*
feldom in modern times been mentioned, except in
conlundion with the exploded arts of magic, alchemy,
and judicial aftrology. Within the two laft centuries,
no doubt, the bounds of human knowledge have been
greitly extended by means of the patient purfuit or
iad and experiment, inflead of the hafly adoption of
conjedure and hypothefis. We have certainly difco-
vered many of the ancient fyflems to be merely crea-
tuies of imagination. Perhaps, however, in fome in-
hances, we have decided too rapidly, and rejeded real
knowledge, which w’c wmuld have found it tedious
rnd croublefome to acquire. Such has been the fate
of the fcience of phyfiognomy; which certainly merits
to be confldered in a light very different from alcnemy
fnl thofe other fanciful ftudies with which it had ac¬
cidentally been coupled. The work lacely publ.fhed
by M. Lavacer on the fubjed Ins indeed excited at
tention, and may perhaps tend to replace phyfiognomy
in that rank in the circle of the fciences to which it
feems to be intitled. . , ,
It does not appear that the ancients extern cd t e
oompaft of phyfiognomy beyond man, or at leafi ani¬
mated nature : But the fludy of that art was revived
in the middle ages, when, mified probably by the com-
prehenfivenefs of the etymological meaning of the
word, or incited by the prevalent tafte for *lie mar*
vellous, thofe who treated of the fubjeft fit etched the
yantre of their fpeculation far beyond the ancient li¬
mits. The extenfion of the fignification of the term
was adopted univerfally by thofe naturahfts who ad¬
mitted the theory of fignatures (fee Signature) ; and
phyfiognomy came thus to mean, the knowledge of
internal properties of any corporeal cxiltence from
the external appearances. Joannes Bapt.fla Por a, for
inflance, who was a phyfiognomifl and philofopher of
confiderable eminence, wrote a t.eatife on the phyfi¬
ognomy of plants (philognomontca), in which he em¬
ploys phyfiognomy as the generic term. There is a
ueatife likewife De Phyftognomia written we
believe by the fame perfon. In the Magta Phyftogno-
mca of Gafpar Schottus, phyfiognomia humana is made a
ftbdiirfion of the tcience. .
Boyle too adopts the extenfive fignification men¬
tioned, which indeed feems to have been at one time
the ufual acceptation of the word (a). At prefent
phyfiognomy feems to mean no more than a know¬
ledge of the moral chara&er and extent of intelle&ual
powers of human beings, from their external appear¬
ance and manners.” In the Berlin 1 ranfaftions for
the years 1769 and 1770 there appears a long con-
troverfial difcufiion on the fubjeft of the definition of
phyfiognorny between M. Pernetty and M. Le Cat,
two mo lern authors of fome note. Pcrnetty contends,
that all knowledge whatever is phyfiognomy ; Le Cat
confines the fubjeft to the human face. Neither feems
to have hit the medium of truth. Soon after the ce¬
lebrated book of Lavater appeared. Pie indeed de¬
fines phyfiognomy to be, “ the art of difcovering the
interior of man by means of his exterior; but in diffe¬
rent paffages of his work he evidently favours the ex¬
tended fignification of Pernetty. This work gave oc-
cafion to M. Fortney’s attack upon the fcieace itielf
in the fame Berlin Tranfadfions for 1775- Formey
ftrenuoufly controverts the extent afiigned by Lavater
to his favourite fcience
Before the era of Pythagoras the Greeks had little Pythagoras
or no fcience, and of courfe could not be fcientificalF^ably
phyfiognomifts. Phyfiognomy, however, was nrnch this fcience
cultivated in Egypt and India ; and from thefe coun-to Greece,
tries the fage ol Samos probably introduced the rudi¬
ments of this fcience, as he did thofe of many others,
generally deemed more important, into Greece. 3
In the time of Socrates it appears even to have It was a
been adopted as a profeffion. Ot this the well-known F'"'"™ e
anecdote of the decifion of Zopyrus, on the real cha- o£ Socrates,
ra&er of Sscrates himfelf judging from his counte¬
nance, is fufficient evidence. Plato mentions the fub-
jed} and by Ariftotle it is formally treated of in a
book allotted to the purpofe. _ _ 4
it may be worth while to give a brief outline of A-General
riftotle’s fentiments on the fubjed. XiftoVe's
Phyfiognomy, he in fubftance °^rJe8’ had ,b!5" opinions
treated of in three ways : Some phuofophers ctallea on
animals into genera, and aferibed to each genus a cer-jea.
tain mental difpofition correfponding to their cforpo-
real appearance. Others made a farther difiindion of
dividing the genera into fpecies. Among men, for
inflance, they diftinguilhed the Thracians, the Scy¬
thians, the Egyptians, and whatever nations were ftn-
kingly different in manners and habits, to whom ac¬
cordingly they affigned the diftindive phyfiognomical
charaderiftics. A third fet of phyfiognomifts judged
of the adions and manners of the individual, and pre¬
fumed that certain manners proceeded Irom certain
difpofitions. But the method of treating the fubjed
adopted by Ariftotle himfelf was this: A peculiar
form of body is invariably accompanied by a peculiar
difpo*
(a) They’ll find P the phyfiognomies
O' th' planeU all mens deftinies.
Hudibras.
Theopbraf
tus’s ethic
charatfters
form an
important
branch of
^hyfiogno-
PHYSIOGNOMY.
(SifpofiOon of mind ; a human intelleft is never found
in the corporeal form of a bead. The mind.and body
reciprocally affe& each ocher : thus in intoxication
and mania the mind exhibits the afftdions of the bo¬
dy ; and in fear, joy, &c. the body difphys the affec¬
tions of the mind.
From fuch fads he argues, that when in man a
particular bodily charadltr appears, which by prior
experience and obfervation has been found uniformly
accompanied by a certain mental difpofition, with
which therefore it muft have been neceffavily conneft-
ed ; we are intitled in all fuch cafes to infer the dif¬
pofition from the appearance. Our obfervations, he
conceives, may be draws from other animals as well as
from men : for as a lien poffeffee one bodily form and
mental chara&er, a hare another, the corporeal cha-
raderiftics of the lion, fuch as ftrong hair, deep voice,
large extremities, difcernible in a human creature, de¬
note the ftrength and courage of that noble animal j
while the flender extremities, loft down, and other fea¬
tures of the hare, vilible in a man, betray the mental
character of that pufillanimous cixature.
Upon this principle Aviftotle treats of the corpo¬
real features of man, and the correfpondent difpolitions,
fo far as obferved : he illuftrates them by the analogy
juft mentioned, and in fome inftances attempts to ac-
■ccunt for them by phyfiological reafoning.
At the early period in which Ariftotle wrote, his
theory, plaufible certainly, and even probable, difplays
his ufual penetration and a conftderable degree of know-
ledge. ^ He diftindhly notices individual phyllogtiomy,
national pliyfiognomy, and comparative pbyfiognomy.
j. he ftate ol knowledge in his time did not admit of a
complete elucidation ot his general principles; on that
account his enumeration ol particular obfervations and
precepts is by no means fo well founded or fo accurate
as his method of ftudy. Even his ftyle, concife and
energetic, was inimical to the fubjeif ; which, to be
made clearly comprehenfible, muff require frequent pa-
raphrafes. Ariftotlc’s performance, however, fuch as
it is, has been taken as the groundwork and model of
every phyfiognomical treatife that has fince appeared.
The imitators of this great man in the 16th and
i^tn centuries have even copied his language and
manner, which are fententious, indiferirnin ite, and ob-
feure. His comparative phyfiognomy of men with
beafts has been frequently though not univerfaliy adopt-
Beftrles his treatife exprefsly on the fubjeft, ma¬
ny incidental obfervations on phyfiognomy will be
form 1 interfperfed through his other works, particu¬
larly in his hiftory of animals.
- Next after Ariftotle, his difciple and fucceffor The-
t^jhraftus would deferve to be particularly mentioned
as a writer on the fubjedt in queftion. His ethic cha-
radfers, a fingular and entertaining performance, com-
pofed at the age of 99, form a diftina treatife on a
moff important branch of phyfiognomy, the phyjlogiiomy
of manners : but the tranflations and imitations of La
Bruyere arc fo excellent, that by referring to them we
do greater juft ice than would otherwife be in our
power, both to Theophraftus and to our readers. We
cannot, however, omit obferving, that the accuracy of
66ii
obfervation and livelinefs of defeription difplayed in
the work of Theophraftus will preferve it high in claf-
fieal rank, while the feience of man and the prominent
charadferiftics of human fociety continue to be objedts
of attention. g
Pokmon of Athens, Adamantius the fophift, and Other
feveral others, wrote on the fubjedt about the fame pe- tfreek au*
riod. Lately there was publiftied a colleftion of all
the Greek authors on phyfiognomy : the book is inti-jed.
tied, Phy/iog'nom:a vetcrisfcriptores Greed. Gr. & Lat. a
Fran-d'o Altenb. 1780, 8vo. From the number of thefe 7
authors, it appears that the feience was much cultivated The Science
in Greece; but the profefibrs feetn foon to have con-was then
netted with it fomething of the marvellous. This we vvjhfume
have caufe to fufpedf from,the ftory told by Apion ofthingofthe
Apelles: Imaginem culeo Jimi/itudinis indiferetee pinxit, nt marvellous*
fineredibde ditht) Apion Gramaticus Scriptum reliquerit
quondam ex facie hominum addivinantem (quos melapofcopos
vacant) ex iis dixffe aut futura mortis annos, aurpr&teritirf. t Pliny
The novitiates of the Pythagorean fchoo! were fubjedfed ^at-
to the phyfiognomic obfervation of their teachers, and §’■ 35'ar^
it is pro-able the firjl phyfiOgnomifts by profeffion y;. '1
among the Greeks were of this fedt. They, too, to
whom, from the nature of their dodlrines and difei-
plme, myftery was familiar, were the firft, it is likely,
who expofed the fcience ol phyfiognomy in Greece to
difgrace, by blending with it the art of divination. g
1‘rom the period of which we have been treating to The obfer-
the clofe of th; Roman republic, nothing worthy of vat*ons of
remark occurs in the literary hiftory of phyfiognbmy. R®man 3n<*'
About the laft mentioned era, however, and from thence wru
to the decline of the empire under the later emperors,
the fcicnce appears to have been cultivated as an im¬
portant bran di of erudition, and affumed as a profeffion
by perfons who had acquired a fuperior knowledge in it.
In the works of H ppocrates and Galen, many
phyfiognomical obfervations occur. Cicero appears to
have been peculiarly attached to the fcience. In his
oration againft Pifo, and in that in favour of Rofcius,
the reader will at the fame time perceive in what man¬
ner the orator employs phyfiognomy to his purpofes,
and find a curious inftance of the ancient manner of
oratorical abufe. v
Many phyfiognomical remarks are to be found like-
wile in the writings of Salluft, Suetonius, Seneca,
Pony, Aulus Geliius, Petronius, Plutarch, and others;
That in the Roman empire the feience was prac*
tifed as a profeffion, ample evidence appears in the
writings of feveral of the authors juft mentioned. Sue-
tonius, for intlaace, in his Fife of "Titus, mentions
th:it Narciffus employed a phyjiognomifl to examine the
features of Britannicus, who preditted that Britanni-
cus would not fucceed, but that the empire would de¬
volve on Titus.
The fcience of phyfiognomy fhared the fame fate Th- ? -
with ail others, when the Roman empire was over-fdlwith
thrown by the northern barbarians. About the be-the Roman
ginning of the fixteenth century it began again to be emPirc»
noticed.—From that time till the clofe of the feven-&c*
teenth, it was one of the moft faftiionable ftudies.
Within that fpace have appeared almoft all the au-
proved modern authors on the fubjeft (a.)
It-
They are,. Bartholem. Cocks, Baptifta Porta, Honoratus Nuquetius, Jacobus de Indagine, Alftedius,
Michael*
662
PHYSIOGNOM
It has been unfortunate for phyftngnoroy, that by
many of thefe writers it was held to be connected with
doftrines of which the philofophy of the prefent day
would be afhamed. With thefe do&rines it had almoft
to funk into oblivion.
In every period of the hiflory of literature there
pecuiiarlrVe may ca^^7 marked a prevalence of particular ftudies.
prevailed at In the early period, for inftance, of Grecian literature,
particular mythological morality claimed the chief attention of the
tunes. philofophers. In the more advanced ftate of learning
in Greece* and in Rome, poetry, hiflory, and oratory, held
the pre-eminence. Under the latter emperors, and for
fame time afterwards, the hiftory of theological contro-
•verjies occupied the ^reateft part of works of the learn¬
ed. Next fucceeded metaphyjics, and metaphyjical theo¬
logy. Thefe gave place to alchemy, magic, judicial
ujlrology, the do&rine of fignatures and fympathies, the
tnyjlic, theofophic, and Rojicrucian theology, with phy fiog-
nomy. Such were the purfuits contemporary with the
fcience which is the objedl of our prefent inquiry. It
is no matter of furprife, that, fo alfociated, it Ihould
have fallen into contempt. It is not unufual for man¬
kind haitily to rejeft valuable opinions, when acciden¬
tally or artificially connected with others which are ab-
furd and untenable. Of the truth of this remark, the
hiftory of theology, and the prefent tone of theological
opinions in Europe, furniflr a pregnant example.
To phyfiognomy, and the exploded fciences laft
mentioned, fucceeded clajficphilology ; which gave place
to modern poetry and natural philofophy; to which recent¬
ly have been added the ftudies of rational theology, che-
miflry, the philofophy of hiflory, the hijlory of man, and
it the fcience of politics.
The obfer- About the commencement of the eighteenth cen-
the*writers Iury» ant^ thence forward, the occult fciences, as they
of the pre- are termed, had declined very confiderably in the efti-
fent centu- nation of the learned; and thofe who treated of phy-
ry on this fiognomy forbore to difgrace it by a connexion with
iubject. thofe branches of ideal learning with which formerly
it had been invariably conjoined. In Britain, Dr Gwi-
ther noticed it with approbation.—His remarks are
publfthed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. xviii.;
and Dr Parfons chofe it for the fubjett of the Croo-
uean le&ures, publifhed at firft in the fecond fupple-
ment to the 44th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, and afterwards (1747) in a feparate treatife, en¬
titled Human Phyfiognomy explained.
The obfervations, however, of thefe writers, as well
as of Lancifius, Haller, and Buffon, relate rather to
the tranfient exprefiion of the paffions than to the per¬
manent features of the face and body. The well-
known chara&ers of Le Brun likewife are illuftrative
of the tranfient phyfiognomy, or (as it is termed) pa-
,4 thognomy.— See Passions in Painting.
We fin'd During the prefent century, although phyfiognomy
nothing been now and then attended to, nothing of impor-
portant" tance aPPcareJ on tlie fubjedt till the difeufilon already
till the
mentioned between Pernetty and LeCat, in the Berlin
Tranfadtions. The fentiments of thefe authors, in fo
far as relates to the definition of phyfiognomy, have been
above noticed. Their effays are befides employed m
difeuffing the following queftions: ifi, Whether it
would or would not be advantageous to fociety, were
the charadter, difpofition, and abilities, of each indi¬
vidual fo marked in his appearance as to be difco-
vered w ith certainty ?
2dly, Whether, on the fuppofition that by the higheft
pofiible proficiency in phyfiognomy, we could attain a
knowledge in part only of the internal charadter, it
would be advantageous to fociety to cultivate the ftudy,
mankind being in general imperfedt phyfiognomifts ?
No reafoning a priori can poffibly determine thefe
queftions. Time and experience alone muft afeertain
the degree of influence which any particular acquifition
of knowledge would have on the manners and charac¬
ters of mankind ; but it is difficult to conceive how
the refult of any portion of knowledge, formerly un¬
known, and which mankind would hz permitted to dif-
covtr, could be any thing but beneficial. x
Soon after this controverfy in the Berlin Tranfac-l,avaterr*
tions, appeared the great work of M. Lavater, dean celebrated
of Zurich, which has excited no inconliderable portion wor^*
of attention in the literary world. The work itfelf is
magnificent: that circumftance, as well as the nature
of the fubjedt, which was fuppofed to be fanciful, have
contributed to extend its fame ; and certainly, if we
may judge, the book, though many faults may be de¬
tected in it, is the moft important of any that has ap¬
peared on the fubjedt fince the days of Ariftotle. La¬
vater profeffes not to give a complete fynthetical trea¬
tife on phyfiognomy, but, aware that the fcience is yet
in its infancy, he exhibits fragments only illuftrative of
its different parte. His performance is no doubt defui-
tory and unconnedted. It contains, however, many
particulars much fuperior to any thing that had ever
before appeared on the fubjedt.
With the fcholaftic and fyftematic method adopted
by the phyfiognomifts of the lait and preceding centu¬
ries, Lavater has rejedted their manner of writing,
which was dry, concife, indeterminate, and general:
his remarks, on the contrary, are for the molt part
precife and particular, frequently founded on diftinc-
tions extremely acute. He has omitted entirely (as
was to be expedted from a writer of the prefent day)
the attrological reveries, and fuch like, which deform
the writings of former phyfiognomifts ; and he has
with much propriety deduced his phyfiagnomical ob¬
fervations but ieldom from anatomical or phyfiologi-
cal reafoning. Such reafoning may perhaps at fome
future period become important ; but at prefent our
knowledge of fadls, although extenfive, is not fo uni-
verfal as to become the liable foundation of particular
dedudtions. Lavater has illuftrated his remarks by en¬
gravings ; a method firft adopted by Baptifta Porta—
Lavater’s
fy between — -
wd LeCat Michael Schottus, Gafpar Schottus, Cardan, Taifnierus, Fludd, Behmen, Barclay, Claromontius, Con ring? us,
the commentaries of Auguftin Niphus, and Camillus Balbus on the Phyliognoraica of Ariftotle,—Spontanus,
Andreas Henticus, Joannes Digander, Rud. Goclenius, Alex. Achillinus, Job. Praetorius, Jo. Belot, Guliel.
Gratalorus, See. They are noticed in the Polyhillor. of Morhoff, vol. i. lib. 1. cap. 15. $ 4. andvol. u. hb. 3.
cap. x. $ 4.
. 14
His opi¬
nions the
refuit of
obferva-
tion.
, .
His ima¬
gination
has, how¬
ever, often
outflript
his judge¬
ment.
* Vol. I.
V- 33—38.
Vol. II.
p. 89.
French
tranfla-
tion.
t Vol I.
p. 116.
16
Other
vveaknefies
of this
#reut nby_
fi' gnomift.
PHYSIO
Lavafer’s engravings are very numerous, often exprcf-
Ixve, and tolerably executed.
The opinions of this celebrated phyfiognomift are
evidently the refult of a&ual obfervation. He appears
indeed to have made the fcience his peculiar ftudy, and
the grand purfuit of his life. His performance exhi¬
bits an extended comprehenfion of the fubieff, by a
particular attention to ojfeal phyfiognomy, and the ef-
fe<ft of profiles and contours. His liyle in general is for¬
cible and lively, although fomewhat declamatory and
uigrefllve. His exprtflions are frequently precife, and
itrikmgly charaaerillic ; and the fpirit of piety and
benevolence which pervade the whole performance ren-
cer it highly Jntercfting.
The defefts of the work, however, detract much
from the weight which Lavater’s opinions might other-
wife challenge. His imagination has frequently fo far
outftript his judgment, that an ordinary reader would
often be apt to rejeft the whole fyftem as the extrava¬
gant reverie of an ingenious theorift. He has clothed
his favourite fcience in that affe&ed myfterious air of
importance which was fo ufual with his predeceffors,
and defcnbes the whole material world to be objefts of
the^ uni verbal dominion of phyfiognomy*. He whim-
fically conceives it neceffary for phyfiognomift to he
a well-lhaped handfome man f. He employs a lan¬
guage which is often much too peremptory and deci-
im, difproportioned to the real fubftancc of his re¬
marks, or to the occafion of mi king them. The re¬
marks themfelve-s are frequently oppofite in appearance
to common obfervation, and yet unfupported by any
ulultrations of his. 1 1
Lavater certainly errs in bellowing too great a reli¬
ance on fingle features, as the foundation of decifion
on c iarafter. His opinions on the phyfiognomy of
the ears, hands, nails, and feet, of the human fpecies,
on hand-writing, on the phyfiognomy of birds, inftfts,
reptiles, and fillies, are obvioully premature, as hither¬
to so fufficient number of accurate obfervations have
been made, in regard to either of thefe particulars to
authorize any conclufion. He has erred in the oppo
fite extreme, when treating of the important topic of
national phyfiognomy, where he has by no means profe-
^U-ted the fuhject fo far as fads might have warranted.
We mull farther take the liberty to objed to the fre
quent introdudion of the author’s own phyfiocrnomv
throughout the courfe of his work. His fingular re-
marks on his own face do not ferve to prejudice the
reader m favour of his judgment, however much his
charader may juftify the truth of them. We muft
regret likewife, for the credit of the fcience, that the
author’s Angularly fanciful theory of apparitions bhould
fo nearly refemble a revival of the antiquated opinions
ot the lympathifts
To thefe blemifhes, which we have reludantly enu¬
merated, perhaps may be added that high impaffioned
tone of enthufiafra m favour of his fcience everywhere
difplayed throughout the work of this author which
is certain-y veiy oppofite to the cool patient inveft.Va-
tion befitting phiiofophy. To that enthufiafm, how¬
ever, it is probable that in this infiance (as is, indeed
110 unfrequent effed of enthufiafm) we are indebted
ior the excellency which the author has attained in his
purfuit j and it pofieffes the falutary tendency of put-
G N ° m y.
;xn;ryf^0: w?0 imp,;c!t ae’u;£f"""
a fo"mfi a^rli-n TranraaionS for there appears Hi, work
a fcnmal attack upon Lavater’s work by M. Formey.
1 his ellay we have already mentioned. After difDutimrcd in the
the propriety of the extenfive fignificatioii applied by
Lavater and Pernetty to the term phyfiognomy, M.tMjU
Formey adopts nearly the fame definition which we ^4
conceive to be the moft pioper, and which we have
put down as fuch nor the beginning of this article.
He dlows that the mental charader is intimately con-
neded with, and fenfibly influenced by, every fibre cf
‘e bo.dy i but his principal argument againtt phyfioer-
nomy 18 that the human frame is liable to innumerable
accidents, by winch it may be changed in its external
^Pr?carra.nce’ without any correfpondent change of the
ifpofition ; fo that it furpaffes the extent of the flcill
of mortals to difimguifh the modifications of feature
that are natura! from thofe which may be accidenta"
Although, therefore the fcience of phyfiognomv may.
exerc.Tet ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ thc can
climl.^Tr^" C°ntend3’ that education, diet,
mace, and fuddtn emotions, nay even the tempera-
ments of anceftors, alfed the call of human Sres"
fo that the influence of mental charader on thefe fea!
tures may be fo involved with, or hidden by, acciden¬
tal t ircumftances, that the ftudy of phyfiognomy muftr
ever be attended by hopelefs uncertainty. ^ The^fe ob-
jtdions are worthy of notice, but they are by no
means conclufive. * /no
We /hall give a fpecimen of M. Lavater’s manner nf r .
iiT-Tfoe 'r'lbj'a0n.,bV0PPoi5:c "f the q„ef mSTf* '
• p umen, not in Lavater’s precife words, buttreaunK'
conveying more fiiortly an idea at once of his fenti hisrubje&*.
ments, and of his manner of expreffing them. ' IO
iufti^deXs he’ eX.Cepti"? mathematics, morePhy/io*.
^ t. • . t0 terraed a fcience than phyfiogno-nomY is
my. It is a department of ohvfirR f.. -1 iuftlv call*
J , UC Urrmea a Jcience than phyfioono-nomY »
^ 18 ,a dePartment of phyfics, including theofogy if h'CJ
and belles iettres, and in the fame manner with thffe
fciences may be reduced to rule. It may acqurea^*
cated and ^aught^ ^ ^ ^ *>/ -mmunL
Truth or knowledge, explained by fixed principles
herneT nr- Word.8’Hne8> rules’ clefinftionsfare
the medium ot communication. The queftion, then
t0 Ph)fi°gnomy, will thus be fairly ftated*
Can the linking and marked differences which are vifi,
b e between one human face, one human form, and an¬
other, be explained, not by obfeure and confufed con¬
ceptions, but by certain chafers, figns, and ex-
preflions . Are thefe figns capable of communica-
ting the vigour or imbecillity, the ficknefs or health
of the body; the wifdom, the folly, the maena-’
mind? thC InCannefa, the Vir£ue> or ^he vice, o?the
Jt is onjy to a certain extent that even the experi-F*- 2?
mental pbrlofopher can purfue his refearches. The ac- t iS*
tive and vigorous mind, employed in fuch ftudies, willin extent, .
often form conceptions which he fhall be incapable of
exprefiing in words, fo as to communicate his ideas to
the feebler mind, which was itfelf unable to make the
difeovery : but the lofty, the exalted mind, which
foars beyond all written rule, which pofTeffea feelines
aud
66+ PHYSIO
and energies reducible to bo law, mult be pronounced
unfcientific. , . ,
PhJ* n0. It will be admitted, then, that to a certain degree
mical truth phyfiognomical truth may as a feience be defined and
may be de- communicated. Of the truth of the feience there can-
finedand not exift a dou>,t> Every countenance, every form,
otedTona every created exiftende, is individually diftinc^, as well
certain as different, in refpetd of clafs, race, and kind. No
ilength* one being in nature is precifely fimilar to another.
This propofition, in fo far as regards man, is the foun-
dation-ftone of phyfiognomy. There may exift an in¬
timate analogy, a ftriking fimilanty, between two
men, who yet being brought together, and accurately
compared, will appear to be remarkably different. No
two minds per feAly referable each other. Now, is it
poffible to doubt that there muft be a certain native
analogy between the external varieties of countenance
and form and the internal varieties of the mind. By
anger the mufcles are rendered protuberant : Are not,
then, the angry mind, and the protuberant mufeks, as
caufe and effeft ? The man of acute wit has frequent¬
ly a quick and lively eye. la it poffible to refift the
conclufion, that between fuch a mind and fuch a coun¬
tenance there is a determinate relation ?
Every thing in nature is eftimated by its phyfiogno¬
my ; that is, its extemal appearance. The trader
iudges by the colour, the finenefs, the exterior, the
phyfiognomy of every article of traffic 5 and he at once
decides that the buyer “ has an honeft look, or a
pleating or forbidding countenance. #
,4 That knowledge and feience are detrimental to
TeSbC-man, that a ftate of rudtnefs and ijnoranca arc pre-
eve? impro-ferahle and productive of more happintfs, arc tenets
ved, would now defervedly exploded. They do not merit fenous
"A be de- The extenfion and increafe of knowledge,
tumental IF ^ obieA of importance to man : and what
-.0 man. » can ^ fo imp0rtant as the knowledge of man
bimfelf ? If knowledge can influence his happinefs, the
knowledge of himfelf muft influence it the mod. This
ufeful knowledge is the peculiar province of the fcience
of phyfiognomy. To conceive a juft idea of the advam
tages of phyfiognomy. let us for a moment fuppofe that all
phyfiognomical knowledge were totally forgot ten among
men ; what confufion, what uncertainty, what num-
berlefs miftakes, would be the confequence . Men de •
tined to live in fociety muft hold mutual mtercourfe.
The knowledge of man imparts to this intercourie its
foirit, its pleafures, its advantages.
P Phyfiognomy is a fource of pure and exalted menta
Tt afford^ ratification. It affords a new view of the perfeAion
M':S De“y- it difplayB a new fcenc of harmony and
earion. beauty in his works ; it reveals internal mo i >
which without it would only have been d.icovefcd m
the world to come. The phyfiognormft cliftinguifhes
accurately the permanent from the habitual, the haui-
tual from the accidental, in charafter Difficulties^no
doubt, attend the ftudy of this fcience. The molt
*4 minute (hades, fcarcely difcermble to the unexpenenceu
©.^cutties denote often total oppofition of charaAer. A fmall
inflexion, diminution, lengthening or ffiarpenmg, even
y though but of a hair’s breadth, may alter in an afto-
nifhing degree the expreffion of countenance and cha-
raAer How difficult then, how impoffible indeed,
muft this variety ef the fame countenance render preci-
lion ? The feat of charaAer is often fo hidden, lo maik-
G N O M Y.
ed, that it can only be deteAed in certain, perhaps
uncommon, petitions of countenance. Phefe pofinom
may he fo quickly changed, the figns may fo inftanta-
neoufly difappear, and their impreffion on the mind oi
the obferver may be fo flight, or thefe diftinguifhing
traits themfelve* fo difficult to feize, that^ it (hall be
impoffible to paint them or deferibe them in language.
Innumerable great and fmall accidents, whether phyfi-
cal or moral, various incidents and paffion?, the diver*
fity of drefs, of pofition, of light or fhade, tend to
difplay the countenance often in to difadvantageous a
point of view, that the phyiiognomift is betrayed into
an erroneous judgment of the true qualities of the
countenance and charaAer. Such caufes often occa-
fion him to overlook the effential traits of charaAer,
and to form a decifion on what is purely accidental.—
How furprifingly, for inftance, may the fmallpox
disfigure the countenance, and deftroy or confound, or
render imperceptible, traits otherwife the moftdecifive?
We fliall, then, continues Lavater, grant to the May one
oppofer of phyfiognomy all he can alk ; and yet we
not live without hopes that many of the difficulties
(hall be refolved which at firft appeared inexplicable. _ a6
He then proceeds to a fpecific illuftration of hisrhenaturs
fubjeA under a great variety of titles, in which be ofi-avater*»
treats of human nature in general, and of each particular
feature feperately. r , . , ,
To enumerate the different divihons of his book
would not be more fatisfaAory to our readers than the
perufal of the contents of the book itfelf; and an at¬
tempt to epitomize even the eflential fubftance of the
vaft multiplicity of matter contained in his effays,
(which are yet only fragments, and to which indeed
he himfelf does not pretend to give any higher appel¬
lation) would extend this article to a difpToportionate
length Such an abridgement, after all, would convey
no^olid information on a fubjeA which meiits ad the
time and flu !y that an attentive perufal of Livater’s
works at large would require. a?
From the hiftorical deduAion of the literary progrefs Probable
i f   Vicix/p fVmQ Tittemnted to lav caules
rrom tne nmoLiv.ai   ' \
of phyfiognomy which we have thus attempted to ay
. r 1 .jranenrs. that although tllC _ •
before our readers, it appears, that although the pure into
fcience has fallen into difrepute, there can fcarcely be which this
mentioned a period in which any cultivation of fcience fcience h*
took place when phyfio.nomy was not likewtfe the^en.
ftudy nay fonKtimes even the profeffion, oi men ol
the moft eminent abilities and the greateft learn-
,n^f he reafons why at prefent fo little attention is paid
to the fubjeA probably are, . M . .
ift. That it has been treated m conjundflon with
fubfeAs now with propriety exploded : And, _
2f//y, That it has been injured by the injudicious al-
fertions and arguments of thofe who have undertaken
its defence. , , . ,
Sometimes, however, the wife and the learned may
The ufe of any thing muft not be rejeAed forno
i .  Pernana
better reafon than that it is capable of abufe. Perhaps
the era is not diftant when phyfiognomy mall De
re inflated in the rank which fhe merits among the va¬
luable branches of human knowledge, and be dudied
with that degree of attention and Perfe^ra,nCe-tuhlS
a fubjeA deferves fo effentially conneAed with the
fcience of man.
icnce oi man. ,
That there is an intimate relation between the ffi.l-
PHYSIO
There is a P°^tl0.n9 t^ie m‘n^ cn^ the features of the counte-
relation be-.iS a which cannot be queftioned. He who
tween the J8 finking under a load of grief tor the death of an af-
difpohtions feftionate wife or a dutiful child, has a very different
and thefea- of ^eature,8 froni the man who is happy in the pro-
tures of the * eCt meeting his miflrefs. A perfon boiling with
face. anger has a threatening air in his countenance, which
the moil heedlefs ofeferver never miftakes ; and if any
particular difpofition be indulged till it become habi-
U N O M Y.
tual, there cannot be a doubt but that the correfpond-
ing traces will be fo fixed in the face as to-be difeerni-
ble by the fkilful phyfiognomifl, under every effort
made to difguife them. But when we attempt to de¬
cide on a man’s intelleaual powers by the rules of this
fcience, we are often deceived; and in this refpea we
have reafon to believe that Lavater himfclf has fallen
into the groffeft miflakes.
66S
PHYSIOLOGY,
Definition.
Divifion.
. 3
Utility of
fhvftolo^y
4
Its near ap
proach to
metaphy-
fics, arid
the differ¬
ence point¬
ed out.
IS a Greek word, which, in ftrift etymology, fig-
mfies that which difeourfes of nature : but in
its common ufe, it is reftri&ed to that branch of phy-
fical fcience which treats of the different funft.ons
and properties of living bodies; while by living bodies
are meant thofe which are by a certain organized
itructure enabled to grow and propagate their kind.
By this definition, phyfiology mufl nectffarily have
for its objed the explanation of that internal orgamcal
economy in plants and animals, which nature has devi¬
led for the prefervation of the individual, and for the
continuance and propagation of the fpecics.
It is naturally divided into two kinds, particular and
general. 1 he former treats of the properties and func¬
tions of the individual or fpecies, as may be feen in the
arUcde Anatomy- ; the latter is the ftibied of our pre-
fent difeuffion, and treats of thofe functions and pro¬
perties which are general or common to all living bo-
To the genuine naturalift no fubjeftprefents fuch a
• held of amufement and inftrudion. When as com-
piete as the ftate of cotemporary fcience will admit, it
will exhibit a general refult of all thofe experiments
and observations that have purpofely been made or oc-
cafionally contributed to illuftrate 'the phenomena of
animated matter; and when it fhall reach that fummit
of perfection to which the efforts of genius may carry
U, it may be enabled to diffufe a light, of which the na-
turalid of the prefent day can have no juft or adequate
conception : Particularly in phyfic, anatomy, botany,
and in natural hiftory, its happy effects may be nume¬
rous and great. On many occafions it may there in¬
troduce order for confufion, certainty for doubt; and
may be expected to enthrone fcience in various places
which are now occupied by fancy and conje&ure.
CX all the branches of phyfical fcience it certainly
makes the neareft approach to the region of metaphy-
fics; hut yet there is a difference between thefe, though
it may not be very eafy to point out the precife line
• °.f t^mmation. Phyfiology, as already defined, beincr
that fcience which has for its objea the organical eco!
nomy of living bodies, the word organical, we think
here fhould mark the difUndtion. ’
Wherever the economy of living bodies indicates
dengn, and cannot refult from any combination or ftruc*
ture of organs, it rauft be fuppofed the effed of forne-
thmg different from matter, and whofe explanation be¬
longs to tftat which is called metaphyjics, or which we
might term the phihfiphy of mind. By aferibing indeed
to the glandular contents within the cranium and to
Vol. XIV. Part II.
that fidion animal fpints, the motives of adion, the Prelimlna-
iuperhcial and ill informed may have been led to an ry obfer-
opimon that perception, memory, and imagination, are vation3-
the fundions of the cerebrum, the medulla oblongata,
and cerebellum ; that the foul is a consequence of or¬
ganization ; and the feien ’e which treats of it only a
particular branch of phyfiology. But mind and its
faculties are now fo well underlfood and inveftigated
that this opinion can feldom prevail but where pene-
tration is not remarkable for its acutenefs, or where
refiedion, reading, and refearch, have long been con-
nntrd. within the limits of a narrow circle.
In dead of mind being the eifed of organization, we
readily allow that every living fyftem of organs fup-
pofes mind, and that in the ftudy of fuch fyftems the
phyfiologift muft often meet with many phenomena
that aie lefs Angular than fim.^le perception, and yet
for which he cannot account by any knowledge which
he pofTeffes of organic powers. This truth we partly
acknowledge, when, like ancient Athens ereding'her
altars to unknown gods, we retreat to thofe afylums of
ignorance, the vis infita, the vis nervea, the vis vitalis
the vis medicatrix, and a number of others of the fame
kind.
We choofe here to mark precifely the bounds of The bound*
pnyliology, becaufe we have always been led to ima- Pkyholo-
gme that it would be extremely fortunate for fcience gy'eanJ the
1 at al1 accurately defined, that eachleToC'
were reilruaed to its own fphere, where alone it is nfc. attending
.ul, and were never allowed to make encroachments ontotheQ1*
the province of another, where its only tendency can
be to mifleau and fubvert all ideas of arrangement
In its progrefs of improvement, phyfioiogy has been
much and often retarded from a want of attention to
this circumftance. The time has been when its place
was occupied almoll entirely by an abfurd and ridiculous
phi oiophy, which accounted for every tiling by an hv-
pothefis, and which pretended to cure wounds a hun¬
dred miles diftant by a powder of fympathy.
Nay, as if its nature were not yet" afeertained, in Introduc-
ome ooks whole titles promife raueh information on tion of lopi4
the functions of organs, we meet wydi only a pleafin?1111:0
account of defign and intelligence, and a few leffons logy*
when the fancy is warm, how to exclaim and how we
fhould wonder; or, after fimilar profeflions in the
V-rf °th1fc:rs> we are prefented with only a curious
duplay of the arc of logic.^ To a fa£t or two we fee
numerous chains of reafomng appended. On thefe
chains are hanging important and general conclufions *
ana thefe concluiiona aiterwirds uniting,fufjpend an ela-
4 ^ borate
666 PHYSIO
Prelimina- borate fyftem of pathology. The whole has a won»
ry obfer- jerfuUy fpecious appearance ; but upon applying the
^ vations. touc^one 0f experiment, the fyftem falls, the conclu-
^ fions turn out to be falfe, the chains are found con-
nedled with the faft by only a conje&ure or fome po¬
pular opinion of the time; moft of their links are crea¬
tions of fancy, and their joinings fuch logical aflbciations
7 as have no analogy or prototype in nature.
And of ma- Inftead of logic, however, a pompous parade of ma¬
thematics. thematical learning has been/omc/iWr introduced. This
has always an impofing afpeft, and its prefence here
may require to be examined with fome care, ft muft
be allowed, that it would have indeed been rather fur-
priling if logic and metaphyfios had been employed,
and mathematics carrying fcience in their name had
not been thought of. Their chara&er had always been
defervedly high; and there was fcarcely a department
of knowledge to which they had not in fome refped
contributed their aid : their refearches, too, had not
been confined to mere number and quantity alone; they
had explained the momentum of bodies, and all thofe
motions which arife from percuflion and gravitation ;
they had afcertained the diftance of the ftars, the ve¬
locity, magnitude, and orbits of the planets; they had
accounted for the phafes of the moon, the phenomena
©f eclipfts, and return of comets ; and bringing their
knowledge from the heavens to the earth, they had
fhown the canfes of the days and nights, of the years
and the ftafons, in all their varieties throughout the
globe: they had taught the chronologer how to difpofe
of the periods of time, r.nd how he might bell afirlt the
hiftorian to arrange his events: they had pointed out
the origin of tides ; had informed the mariner how to
dire£t his courfe through the ocean ; and had taught
the geographer how to deferibe the regions of the
earth, and aflifl the traveller in his laudable purfuits
after knowledge and fcience : they, in fhort, had un¬
folded the wonders of mechanifm ; and, diffufing light
over every branch ol that philolophy which is called
mechanical^ and has long been dignified with the name
of natural, had afforded the fined fpecimens of reafon-
g ing with which the human mind is acquainted.
Introduced A fcience of fuch didinguifhed utility could hardly
by Bellini. fa;} t0 excite the admiration of nil who knew it, or
even had heard of it. And at a period when it was
falhionable, it was fcarcely poffible for the phyfiologifl
to pafs it unnoticed : the truth is, he very foon difeo-
vexed its excellency. Bellini of Florence firft introdu¬
ced it ; and it was at latl fo warped with phyfiology,
9 that there were fome who could hardly conceive a phy-
Extended fiology exifting without it. The juftly celebrated
by Borelli, profefror Borelli, one of its moft enthufiaftic admirers,
employed it fo well in ftiowing how the mufcles a&ed
as ropes and the bones as levers, that he thence ex¬
plained with the happieft effect the phenomena of {fund¬
ing, of walking, of leaping, of flysng, and of fwimming,
i» different animals: this t. flc he performed in the firft.
part of his famous work De Motu Ammahum. But,
wilhing to know more of the animal economy, and feel¬
ing himftlf infpired with new hopes, he ventured in
the fecond to explain alfo in the fame way the interior
motions and their proximate caufes on the principles
of mechanifrrj: he there gives a minute account of the
motion of the mufcles, of the he*rt ard its pulfation,of
tl»c circulating blocd^of the office of the lungs, the kid-
L O G Y.
neys, and the liver, of the nervous fluid and the feminal Prelimi a-
fecretion; of vegetation, generation, nutrition, of him- ‘
gtrand thirft, of pain, of laffitude, and the heat of v
fever.
Mathematics by him were confldered as almoft univer-
fal interpreters; for except the mechanical he feemed to
acknowledge no other fecondary powers in nature. He
thought, with Plato, that God himfelf was always geo-
metriiing; and was fully perfuaded that phyfical know¬
ledge could not be acquired but through the medium
of geometrical demonftrations and forms. Thefe opi¬
nions had begun to be general, when his learned work
was publifhed at Rome in the year 1676; and they were
no unequivocal fymptoms that the reigning pbilofophy
of that time was now in the Uft ftage of decay.
Still, however, as the fpirit of that philofophy was
not wholly extinguifhed, phyfiology continued to be
much infelted with its metaphyfical and logualdifputes,
and with its phyfical doftrines of forms of particular
ferments, its antipathies, fympathies, its occult quali¬
ties, and fubtile atoms.
For thefe reafons, in his inaugural differtation at pitcasrn{)
Leyden, delivered in the year 1692, the learned Pitcairn and others,
expteffes a wifli that medicine w-ere made a diftindt
fcience ; that it were eftablifhed on mechanical prin¬
ciples, on fewer poftulates, and more data ; and that it
weie fupported by a clear train of mathematical reafon-
ing, which would defy the attacks of the fophift, and
which would not be liable to the fluduations of opinion
and prejudice. Thefe fentiments were warmly fupport¬
ed by the great Boerhaave, who, in his aphorifms, has
founded his reafonings on the ftru&ure of the parts
and the laws of mechanics, and to whom an edition of
Borelli was dedicated in 1710. t
Pitcairn, however, was not content with barely ex-
prefling his willies. Seeing with regret, that the ftate of
medicine could never be improved as long as it was con-
nefifed with the philofophy which was then in falhion,
he feemed anxious to effect a reparation; and for fuch a
ftep he wiflv.d to have only fomt plauiible pretext. This Abaie&
pretext ivas not long nvanting ; and was, to be fure, one
of the moft whimiical that could well have prefented
itfelf to his fancy. It occurred to him that the ftudy
of medicine was prior to philofophy ; that it had be¬
gun its courfe with aftronomy^at the time when dif-
cafes were fuppofed the confequence of offended Deity;
that all along, as it had {hared the fate of aftronomy,
and had equally fuffered in the common difgrace of
judicial aflrology, it was highly reafonable, in his opi¬
nion, that it fhould ftiil follow the fate of its friend 1
that it Ihould be efiablifhed on flmilar principles, and
ftiould be demonftrated by that reafoning which might
experience the fhock of ages w ithout being moved.
So attached was he to the geometrical mode of demon-
ftration, that in his differtation* he appeared to confi-
der it as indeed the only fpecie* of evidence, excepting
the fenfes, that could be relied on. But here he wa«
ceitainly venturing too lar ; fo ralh an opinion, and
one whiih, had he previoufly confulted with prudence,
might h^ve been fuppreffed,was fatal to his caufe. We
mult here therefore date the commencement of thofe
attacks to which his fyftem was afteiwards expofed.
Such an indifereet fpecies of pedantry was but ill
calculated to procure a generally favourable reception
for a book with fo extraordinary a title as the Phyjico-
mathematical
P H Y S I
Jh'elimin#- math'mafic at Elements of Medicine. Many learned
ry o'lfcr- airj ingenious men, the greater part of whofe know-
va i»n8‘ ty, ^^.^^P1JrchrAvc29.Ahfi:fsto'y
Rejedttd. awakened eye, his boafted demonftrations. The con-
fequence was that which might have been expedted :
the refult of their inquiries was wholly inaufpicious to
thofe new applications of geometry; they found that
his fadls and experiments were few, that his populates
were endlels, and that no mathematical reafoning what¬
ever could extract truth from a falfe hypotkefis, or
could fairly deduce a general conclufion from particu¬
lar premifes. The Dosftor, they ohferved, had impofed
upon himfelf, in imagining that either certainty or truth
w is naturally inherent in any mere geometrical forms;
thefe for;rs, they far'd, had been often a''ufed : Plato
had thought them fomewhat divine ; the fuperftitious
had employed them as charms; Pythagoras had made
them the fyndbob? of his creed ; and even in the writ¬
ings of the learned Profeflbr himfelf they frequently
ferved no other purpofe but to give an air of impor¬
tance to tnlks ; to beitow on error the appearance of
feience ; and to give a (imple and a trite remark the
13 look of refearch, and of acute and profound erudition.
^ 18 unnecefrary to recal here the f lyrical wit, or
ra y* more properly the fcurrilous abufe, with which this
fyflem and its author were treated. The mechanic
phyiiology has nf>w' funk into fuch contempt, that
the molt illiterate affe& to fmile at the meut;on of
its name ; they feem to forget, or, what is more pro¬
bable, thty never knew, that it once was honoured with
the great names of Borelli, Boerhaave, an 1 Newton ;
and their reading perhaps cannot inform them that it
was a noble ftep to improvement; that it explained the
ftru&ure of the eye, the movement of the bone, and
force of the mufcle, and that it m <y yet perhaps be the
means of many interefling difeoveries in the living bo¬
dy : difeoveries, however, which Heaven will referve
for other minds than thofe which it makes merely to
,4 receive the imprdTtonu of the day.
fntroduc- A frequent miftake into which the mechanical phi-
rion of lofophers had fallen, was their hopes of being able to
cnenullry. account for digeflion by the mufcular force and adion
of the Ifomach. The more they reafoned from this
fuppolition, the more widely they wandered from the
truth. A thought of Vallifneri, that in adting mecha¬
nically, the ftomach was as liable to be affedfed as its
contents, gave a h nt to Reaumur. On this hint
he began immediately a ftt of experiments ; and fro n
a number that were clear and decifive, concluded
that digeftion was performed by a folvent. Here was
a fair introduftion to chtmiftry ; the action of folvents
was never yet fatisfaddorily explained by mechanic pow¬
ers. A new era therefore commences; and chemiftry
now, in phyfiologit al inveftigations, holds that place
whic h was formerly pofltffed by geometry and mecha-
15 nifS* .
Chemical Nor is ehemiftry nndeferving of this rank. From a
invethga- fmall beginning, and from modeftly profeffing to obferve
tions. merely the different phenomena' which are the effedts
of heat and of mixture, it has rifen like aftronomy to
the fir It eminence among the fciences. By its nume-
Difcoveries vous refearches it has found widely diffufed over na^
concerning ture a vaiiety of fingularly adtive bodies, which are
calledOf thefe fake it has noticed fame which
O L O G Y. 66;
change a blue vegetable tindure into green, and others Prelimina-
which change that tindure into red : the former of ry 0.b^:r*
thefc it has called alkalis, and the latter are known ‘ .
uylhd name oT aettts. It has obferved, chat when * *
acids and alkalis are brought into contad, and either
°. fhem ncariy in a fl^id Hate, they encounter with
violence, effervefcence and heat, and form a fait, which
being neither acid nor alkaline, is called neutral. It
has been remarked that all thefe falts, whether volatile
or fixed, whether fluid or concrete, have each perma¬
nently uniform charaders; and that, though fometimes
blended in a mixture, or made to evanilh in a folution,
yet when they are feparated they refume their tafte*
their finell, their colour, and their form, and exhibit, as
before, the fame power in diffolviHg earths, metals, and
Itones, and in making inflammable bodies to fmoke,
to kindle, and explode with a loud noife. All, how-
n0t a*li<e 11^°n * thofe acids which
dillolve iron remain quite harmiefs upon gold. And
cfomiltry here has been led to obferve that particul.r
ialts fhow a preference for jiarticuiar bodies, that there
is in them an appearance of choice, and that their cha¬
racter is never to be known but by Itudying their diffe¬
rent elective attractions.
Befides fait , chemiftry of late has alfo difeovered a GH.
number of bodies that art ftiil more wonderful, ftdl
more aaive,and fume of them at leaft ftill more widely
diftuled over nature. Thefe are certain aeriform fluids
which are called gafes : theft gafes, like the mind it-
fdt, are diicermWe only by their effe&s; all are ehftic,
and all are combined with the principle of heat. Their
kinds are variou,; tome are inflammable, fome are faline
and foluble in water, fome are neither the one nor the
other, and fome diftmguilhed by the name of airs, main¬
taining combuition and rtfpiration ; their importance
is Inch that there is not a Angle procefs in chemiftry
nor perhaps one regular proceis in nature, “ in which
the phenomena of the difengagement or fixation of heat
and the difengagement or fixation of elaitfo fluids, are
not onferved either feparattiy or together^* Two of
thele fluids compofe water, two the nitric acid, two
ammonia, and three of them are found in atmofpher.'e
air ; one of them is thought, with a good deal of rea-
fon, to be the aikaligenoua principle in bodies, and two
of them to be the conftituents of oil: the principle of
acidity is already known to be one of the two which
compote water. The fame fluid oxidates metals, fop.
poits flame during combultion, communicates heat to
the circulating blood, and maintains life in the a<ft of
refpiration.
By that knowledge which it thus has acquired of
faks an.4 of gafes, by its more ingenious modes of ana¬
lysis, and by tome difooveries which it has made con-
terning the nature of heat and of light, chemiftry is
now aole to ac ount for many phenomena that before
were inexplicable. In France particularly it has been
recently extending its refearches with a good deal of
ardour cowards the phenomena of both the animal and
vegetable kingdoms : ic has there found its fait and its
gafes, its heat, and its light, a&ive and bufy.
It is more than a century fince it obftrvtd that plants pt. V® A
were nourifhed by pm e water and atmofphenc air; of plam*.
that from thefe alone they derived their extraAs, their
mucilage, their oil, their coal, their acids, their alkalis,
and aroma. But fince the difeovery o^different kinds
s 4 P 2
668
PHYSIOLOGY.
rrelinuoa- 0f elaftic fluids, it has farther remarked that they grow
rvaSonT rapwtfy in hydrogenous gas (a), and in air mixed with
« - > carbonic acid; that ..ffifl-j f Lf ^V
feydrugcnc faum watcr> csirbonc frorn the scid of which
they are fo fond ; and thus decompofing the one and
the other, difengage from both theoxigenous principle
or vital air, and reftore to the atmofphere falubrity and
health.
Leaving vegetables, which, by analyfis in clofe
veffels and in red-hot pipes, it has reduced to hydro-
gene, oxigene, azote, and charcoal, it has made dif-
Animal coveries no lefs important in the animal kingdom. It
f!l®wers. has found that the food of the nobler animals, which
immediately or remotely is prepared by vegetables, is
generally acted upon by a folvent: it has proved by
experiment that the animal orgajia can fix azote ; can
decompofe atmolpheric air ; can form lime, iron, and
carbonic acid, as well as vegetables, produce a number
of faline fubftances, which no art could deted in their
food. Nor is it here that fuch difeoveries are meant
to terminate ; thefe feemingly creative powers of ve¬
getation and of animahzation, with other phenomena in
the ftrudure and economy of living bodies, cheoaiftry ima¬
gines that it will yet be able to explain. We mayfafely
venture,however, topredid thatfomething more thanits
prefent knowledge of the various effeds of heat and of
mixture will in this cafe be found neceffary to enfure
fuccefs. The late difeovery of elaftic fluids and their
Angular properties afford the ftrongeft reafons to fufped
that we yet maybe ignorant of many agents whichnature
employs in the fundions of bodies. But whatever be the
truth, we are almoft certain that thefe agents difeovered
’Electricity by the chemifts are not alone concerned. Eledricity,
^»nd magae-magnetifm, and what have been called animal eledricity
ihfm, anci animal magnetifm,muft not be excluded from ading
fome part. The growth of plants, it is well known,
is confiderably affeded by the eledrical ftate of the at-
mofphere ; it is feniibly promoted by a proper ufe of
the vegeto eledrometer, and has been faid to indicate
a difference between the negative am^pofitive eledri-
cities, whether thefe be kinds or dates of the fluid.
Such too is our preient knowledge, that eledriaty as
yet feems the only caufe to which we can aferibe the
feeming chemical affinities of the dew ; its conftant
pradice in avoiding fome bodies, its prediledion for
others, and particularly its attachment to the living
points of plants and of leaves: nor is this eledricity
wholly unconneded with the animal kingdom ; when
we think of its Angular fondnefs for points, it occurs
that one intention of our hairs may probably have been
to colled and diffufe it. It is plainly excited in crofs
rubbing the hair of fome animals, and when we weaf
filk,it is frequently accumulated upon the furfaceof our
own bodies. *
The iron found in plants and in animals is certain¬
ly fomewhat of a ftriking circumftance, and cannot be
denied to be one teafon why magnetifm flrould not be
wholly overlooked.
As for animal eledricity, or what has been called
ckdrkily f°> 11 now’ we believe, generally allowed to hold an
important place in the fyftem. It is very perceptible
in all thofe nerves which are fubfervient to voluntary Prelimin?.-
motions; nor is it limited to thefc alone. In feveral ry ohfer-
• u.-^    , - - , t:. ’ ^ .1. <■ vations.
the heart, which nature has dettined to ipontaneous
motions, they were feen to awaken the dormant powers
in the mufcular fibres of that vifeus. We here fpeak
only of the nerves ; but the Torpedo, the Gymnotus
eledricus, and Silurus eledricus, poffefs a particular
ftrudure of organs for colleding this fluid, for dif*
charging it at pleafure, and for giving a fhock. If
thofe who are accuftomed to the common kind of
eltdrical experiments, may at firfl; be furprifed that this
eledric fluid in the animal is not difeharged from the
nerves by water, or any other metallic condudor that
is pure and unmixed, another fad, which is fully as
ftriking, though it has not been hitherto mentioned by
any obferver known to us, appears to merit equal at¬
tention : Cut away the leg of a frog, uncover a part
of the crural nerve, place the limb now on a table on
which an eledrifying machine is working, you will
fee the mufoles ftrongly convulfed at every fpark which
you draw from the condudor, bat remaining motion-
lefs upon the difeharge of the Leyden phial.
Animal eledricity naturally fuggefts animal magne-AndanimaJ
tifm. This laft has been produdive of more wonders niagneufm.
in the human frame than all the preceding agents to¬
gether. Under the management of Mefmer at Paris,
and his pupil Ddlon, it filled all who obferved its ef¬
feds with furprife and aftonifhment. It feemed to un¬
hinge the powers of the mind, and affed the whole
animal economy ; it excited the moft extraordinary
emotions ; it roufed and allayed the different pafiions;
it changed averfion into love, and love into averfien ;
it created pain, it healed wounds, and cured difeafes as
if by inchantnunt.
Thefe difeoveries were made by a quack, who
knew not the caufe by which he produced fo lingular
appearances. The celebrated Franklin, who firft fup-
pofed that the eledrical fluid was the thunder, was
placed at the head of thofe gentlemen who demonftra-
ted that this fpecies of magnetifm was the fame power
that had long been known under the name of imagina¬
tion.
This laft difeovery, if the blulhing pride of modem
philofophy could but ftoop to improve an important »
hint, though originally fuggefted by an empiric, might
greatly enlarge our knowledge of mind, and explain
fome things in the animal economy which appear yet
to require a folution. At any rate, it fuffieiently
proves that the influence of mind is very extenfive in
the higher parts of aninuil creation. Many fads would
argue that it increafes as we rife in the fcale : but the
foie intention here was to ftiow, that chemical agents
are neither almighty nor everywhere prefent; that in
the internal orgaifieal economy of living bodies they
ad but a part; and that, like the other agents in na¬
ture, they are obliged to confine their operations with¬
in thofe limits which the great Author of being has
preferibed. # ^
The aid which anatomy affords to phyfiology is phe uf-e 6f
now to be confidered. Phyfiology in general and the anatomy ie
ftudy phyliology.
(a) Hydrogenous gas ads with more energy than any other fubftance in diffolving carbone ; it mixes with
carbonic acid aad with axote, fometiraes fluids in folution fulphuc and pflofpflorus. See Fourcroy’s DiL
courfe on modern cfleraiftry.
♦
*
P H Y S I
Prelimi'na. ftudy of anatomy arc fo clofely conneded, that, as Hal-
Nation!" ^er ^mag‘ne^> they can hardly be feparated even in
become a pKyfi^j0 •«- man who fhould attempt to
wifely as the mathematicil?®11.1. anatomy, would ad as
wheels or the pinions, or without knowTng'ttftFiAh$
the proportions, or the materials cf any machine, would
yet prefume from mere calculation to determine its
powers, its properties, and ufes. In this comparifon,
the importance of anatomy, we are really perfuaded, is
not reprefented in a light too ftrong ; nor does that
medium through which it has been viewed appear to
24 have magnified beyond nature,
Anatcmy a Whether art or fcience, anatomy is one of thofe
ed branch em*nent; accompliflrments without which no one is able
of human to profecute his ftudies with half that pleafure and fuc-
knowledge.cefs which he might in either the animal or vegetable
kingdoms. Having been always accuftomed to affign
it one of the highefi and moft honourable places among
thofe branches of human knowledge which are ftyled
liberal, we muft beexcufed if we dwell a little in expo -
fing an attempt to convert it to a craft.
The illibe- It is with furprife, and a mixture of regret, that we
fomJof its feC 3 of dil},’nbruifil<:d wifiring thus to de-
profeflbrs. £radc 0nd faking to confine it as well as phyfiolo-
logy to that profeffion which chanced to be his own.
The dignity of a fcience, which he confidered as his
glory and his pride, fiiould have certainly extinguiftied
in a generous mind the low and difguiting policy of
his trade. It is indeed with reafon that he thinks it
unfortunate, “ that thofe who, from the nature of their
education, are beft qualified to inveftigate the intiica*
cies, and improve our knowledge of the animal econo¬
my, are compelled to get their living by the pradtice
of a profeffion which is confiant employment.” We
lament the misfortune as much as he can ; but we rea¬
fon not from it in the fame way. Inftead of complain¬
ing that “ idle profeffional men,” particularly “ of the
church, fhould become plulofophers andphyfioligifts as
it were inftinaively,” we are happy" to learn that
men of enlightened and cultivated minds are thus fo
readily difpofed to affift us; that nature condufts them
38 it were by inftind; and that happily they enjoy all
that leifure which is deemed fo neceffary for fuch an
undertaking. . The genius of fomc, and the liberal
education which they all muft have had opportunities
of acquiring, by no means imprefs us with any unfa¬
vourable ideas of their aid.
Our author allows them to look through micro-
fcopes and examine the red globules of the blood :
I hey may too, he fays, view ammalculse, and give us
a candid relation of what they fee; but ffiould not
prefume to carry their reafoning into a fcience of
which they can know nothing, or hope to throw light
on a fubjeft which it is impoffible they can underiland.
But, to fpeak freely, after confidering the great phy-
fiological difcovery of Prieftley with refpedl to rejp'i.
ration, the moft important probably, not even except¬
ing that of the fyfiem of abforbents, that the fcience
has witneffed in the prefent age, we fee no grounds
for prefcribing fuch la ws or fixing fuch limits: and al¬
though he may treat the illuftrious Reaumur and Abbe
Spalanzsni as nothing more than' makers of experi¬
ments, and declare a refolution to place no confidence
In thofe whi£h are made by gentlemen aud prufts • he
O L O G Y, 669
will not certainly deny that others have as well as he a Prelimina-
juft right to think for themfelves. ry obfer-
Were fuch fentiments to become univerfa!, it is dif-, vatlon&, ,
ficult to fay what would be the confequence. In this V~""
the law and the church require from their
fional, they have ’alfd"alfdfiacdh^Aj, j?efides the profef-
the univerfity. To our medical claffes bo'ys are ad¬
mitted from the ffiop and from the fchool, and may
afterwards pafs the two colleges of furgeons and phy-
ficians, by exhibiting a little fkill in their art, or at
leaft by paying the ftated fees. On thefe accounts,
being anxious already for the fate of a profeffion which
we refpedt, and confidering the degeneracy to which it
is expofed, not we hope the degeneracy into which it
is finking’, vve firould be forry to fee it deprived of that
refpedtability which it may derive from the counte¬
nance of men pofieffiug general literature and fcience.
It is very true, that gentlemen and priefts may not
be anatomifts; and not a few anatomical difputes might
feem to infinuate, that perfons may be very eminent
anatomifts without being either gentlemen or priefts.
Still, however, there is nothing incompatible in thofe
characters; and, were we to judge from their writings,
it was certainly a thing of which Bacon, Newton, and
Locke, never dreamed, that the ft tidy of tire prieft, or the
mere circumftance of being a gentleman, was to blunt
their acutenefs for phyfical refearch, or in after times
to afieCt their reputation as men of genius.
tt When men have begun to reafou correctly (faya Hr
Hunter), and to exercife their own judgment upon their
obfervations, there muft be an end to delufions. Ma¬
ny doCtnnes of old phyfxciana and of old women will
meet with proper contempt; the tyranny of empty
pomp and myftery of pkyfic will be driven out of the
land, and forced to feck Ihelter among lefs cultivated
focieties of men.”
If the learned profeffions wifii to be refpeCted, let
them refpeCt each other: for our part, we efteem them
ail: and whatever affiftance either they or others
may afford to phyfiology, they may be afiured that
they will not find us anywife difpofed to detraCf from
res merit. Hivefted of prejudice, we value as hierffiy
the difcovery of Prieftley, which explains refpiratlon,
as if it had come from Albinus or Haller; and with
as much readinefs acknowledge obligations to the cele¬
brated painter Leonardo da Vinci, as if he had been a
doClor of phyfic. See Anatomy, p. 667.
But while we are thus impartial to others, we would Then- ]a-
not be unjuft to profeffional anatomifis. Their learn-hours and
rng, their patience, and ardour, have been great; and <hfcoverie5» •
candour obliges us to affert their claim to the moft nu¬
merous and important difeoveriea that have yet been
made in phyfiological fcience. The pains which they
. ,.ve taken, the prejudices which they have furmount-
ed, and thofe feelings which they have facrificed in de¬
ferring the parts of the dead body, place their labours
beyond all prarfe.
But their difeoveries have not been confined to a
mere knowledge and defeription of parts, in the ft ill
fabric, juft as in a time-piece or a broken orrery with¬
out motioc, the whole prefents a very confufed and
even an uninterefting appearance. In this cafe, fh.->l; i
the man o? refle&ion happen to afle, where are the 1 r.
gans of the different funaions? all would be fikyree,
a:wi
670 P H Y S I
Prelimlna- an^ nothing wo'.iid be found to tnake a reply to fuch
iy obfer- an The arttrial fyftem is relaxed and empty;
. vatl° ' t]ic cnufcular fibre cannot be roufed ; the heart has
ceafed from its wonted 1 eatingp; and the nerve refufes
to convey fenfations. On this fcene^ thy^
Cuiiofity would induce him to look
beyond it, and ftudy thedefign. He would foon per¬
ceive, th t to know the ufes of the feveral parts, they
mull he feen alive and inaction. But here new difficul¬
ties would*arife, and feelings of compaffion would ex¬
claim againld any farther purfutt. The natural zeal^
however, of inquiry, the good of mankind, and the
love of fciencein a generous mind, are not eafily refilled.
To his lafting praife, ; nd the fingulr.r improvement
of true phy fiolo • y, the auatomiit has ex^m.ned the li¬
ving t»ody, and has there obferved, that all motion pro¬
ceed immediately from the mufculnr fibre ; that the
mufcular fibre again derives its power from the nerve,
which terminates in the brain ; that fibre, and nerve,
and the whole fyftem, are nouriihed by the blood which
comes from the heart ; and that the wafte of blood is
fupplied by the lafteals, which abforb nutritious mat¬
ter from the food as it paffes along the inteftinal canal.
He has alfo obferved, that the blood, which is in
continual motion, has a circular courfe ; that other
vcfiels along with the ladeals are employed to ahforb ;
{'nd by means of injeftion has fhown the route of the
different fluids as clearly in the dead as they could
have been feen in the living fubjeft
When his eyes have failed in tracing objefts that
were too minute for unaided fight, he has called in the
help of the microfcope, and dif overed the red globules
of the blood, animalcuhe in the femen, an 1 the anaflo-
mofesof the arteries and veins; and when the microfcope
could lead him no farther, he has had recourfe to che-
miral analyfis, and irr.de difeoveries equally important
in demonftrating the bodies which compofe the feveial
fluids and the folids.
Btfides thefe Cervices which the anatomift has ren¬
dered to phyfiology, the fcience is likewife greatly in¬
debted to him for thofe various and ingenious methods
which he has taken to diffufe his knowledge. What¬
ever has occurred remarkable or rare, he has ftudie 1 to
preferve either dried or m fluids that refill putretadfion.
By corroding the parts which he has injetted in a cer¬
tain acid, he has given an idea of the vafcular fyfiem,
which is at once inftruttive and elegant. Where it
has been neccffary to deftroy the parts when inca-
pable of pnfervation. or where the prtfervarion would
have been txpenfive, he has not ncglefted to reprefent
them in models of wax, or to perpetuate them in ac¬
curate calls of lead, or of ilucco : and, lallly, that the
valuable fruits of his labours might not be confined in
his room of preparations or to his pwpils, he has de-
fcribed moft of them in drawings, has multiplied his
drawings by corrcdh engravings ; he has even pu' hihed
his numerous engravings, and to render them intelli¬
gible, has illuftrated each with copious explanations.
TheViews From this account it might be (uppofed that the
ef the ana- anatomill has done all that can be ret fonabiy excec-
tomiftofented from him. If we drew, however, fuch a concui-
too c< n- fion, we might certainly be charged with precipita¬
tion. Hts views hi ve hitherto been too confined, nor
have they been directed with r11 that flcill which a la-
O L O G Y.
tion.il and comprehenlive phyfiology would require, ^elimina*
As if chiefly guided by the rant of the poet, that rb olller-
“ the noblcft fludy of mankind vatl0^** «
vated his art prmoipi%l'{1^'t(Vpfe<^e,u human L-ody
with a tedious minutenefs, he h.-.s feldom looked into
thofe of I rutes but when he hag wilhed to iliuitrate a
theory or'eftablifh an hypothefis. ^
As fome apology for fuch a conduft, there is indeed obftacles 1*
but little immediate or pecuniary advantage to be:hewa> of
derived from comparative anatomy ; and thofa who ^ i‘'
have heard of the fox and the grapes will readily Per'oUnatJa.y.
ceive, that few will be difpofed to commend a fcience
which reflects not much credit on their knowledge, and
which they are led from fentiments of pride to treat
as either contemptible or ulelefs. The decifive tone
and affected air of fuperior dilcernment being not
unufually a very tender part of the character, they
often form that mark of diitinCtion which is feldom
refigned but with the utmoft degree of reluftince.
It is, however, allowed, that any oppolition from thtfe
enufes ought not to frighten an afpiring genius. Hi*
nobler mind fhuuld look beyond pecuniary profpe&s ;
and he ought to have fortitude enough to defpife the
fneers and malevolence of pompous ignorance. The
other difficulties which he has to eucouuter in his own
eftimation may not be fo fmall. .
In feeking to enlarge the field of inquiry, he will phe want
foon experience that he wants a language, or at leaftofano-
a nomenclature fitted to exprefs the different objefl8ineuci<lture*i
which muff neceffarly occur in his rtfeirches. He
will find too that he wants thofe proper clalfifications
of the anim 1 kingdom, which are equally nectffary
both to abridge and direft his labours.
The firlt nomenclature of the anatomift was formed
upon the diffeCtion of brutes ; and moll of its terms, rhe anato-
as the rete miralile, are now ufrlefs, or ten 1 to miflead nilcal n°-
thofe who employ them in tlnir diffeftions of the hu-menclaturei
man body. The few of its parts which ftill kre retain¬
ed, as the different names and divifions of the gut, are
much more applicable to the ufual appearances in cer¬
tain quadrupeds, than to any thing which we meet with
in man.
This firft nomenclature declined with the {Indies
whi h gave it birth, and with the decline of that fu-
perftition which permitted no other lludies of the
kind. Since the days of Vefalius the human body has
been chiefly differed; and the nomenclature w iich has
thence arifen, and has fince been affuming the form of
a language, if adapted at all, is peculiarly adapted to
that fubjeCff. Were we now therefore difpofed to ex¬
amine the internal economy of animals in general, we
fhould fee at once that the prefer.t nomenehtute is as
ill fuited to comparative anatomy as the former nomtn-
clsture was to the diffe&ion of the human body. The
feveral iadts which confirm this affertion are but too
numerous. To give one or two: In a late work, ’The
Phxjtalogy of Ft/hes% the celebrated author is obliged
to inform his reader in a note, that when he make#
ufe of the following terms, fuperior, interior, anterior,
and pofterior, the fifh is fuppofed to be Handing ereilH
in the attitude of man : and m his ingenious Lonteni-
platt'n on Nalw'e, Bonnet, 1 efides the al tur 1 prcdfice
of calling nerve by the name of rn srrow, has been plea-
led to obferve, that in ceitain infedts the fpinai mar«
row
romencia
lure.
P H Y S I
Frelimfna* rov? i« not Jn tine fpine, I ut in the oppofite fide of the
ry o’ fer- foody, runn'n^ longitudinally along the breaft.
. ^ Applying octafionally this nomenclature to the fmall
31 number of birds t>.nd quadrupeds which we have dif-
Defefta f f feded, it was much /trained w ith refpedt to their l3<e-
the yrefcnt leton8. Even forced analogy could not bring it toex-
romencia- prepfl raany diftributions of the nerves and blood, veflels;
and when it was employed in naming the mufcies, in
moft cafes it turned out to be ufelefs or abfurd.
We wete firft led to obferve its defeats on hearing
of the namelefs hones of the pelvis, called the os ilium,
the os ifchium, and the os pubis, united behind by an
©s facrum, which is tipped with a coccyx or bone of a
cutkow: we thought it likewife fomewhac remarkable
to find a goat, a boat, and a conch fhell, among the
external parts of the ear; and within the tympanum a
hammer and its (haft, a ftithy, a ftirrup, and a peiiwinkle.
But thefe defeds were moft ferioufty felt in raifing the
different mufcies of a dog, and comparing them feve-
rally with Albinus’s tables. Thefe tables and mufcies,
to our great furprife, did not refled that mutual light
upon one another which we expeded. To obtain here
more accurate ideas we got the comparative myography
of Douglas. At one glance the etymological table of
this work demonftrated the confufion and the imper-
fedion of the nomenclature. In his, as in other books
of myography, the mufcies are explained by defcribing
their origins, infertions, and ufes: but the table Ihows,
that their names are never, excepting only in a few
cafes, derived from any of thele three circumftances,
which in every description are uniformly noticed in all
mufcies. Their names on the contrary are frequently
taken from their particular form and appearance in the
human body, or from thofe circumftances which are
conftantly varying in every animal ; juft as if mnfcles
of the fame origin, infertion, and ufe, Ihould in all ani¬
mals have a fimilar colour, a fimilar mode of inl'ertion
and .origin, a fimilar compofition and variety of parts,
a fimilar courfe and diredion of fibres, a firnilar tigure
and fhape, a fimilar paffage through certain places, a
fimilar proportion with refped to one another, or
fhould be formed of a fimilar fubftance.
If w'e pafs to the membranes, as expreffed in this
nomenclature,, we (hall not difcover that their names
are more philofophical. A periofteum covers the bones,
a pericranium the fkull ; the cavity of the thorax is
lined with a pleura, that of the abdomen with a peri¬
toneum; and what is furely fomewhat remarkable, bones
which are hollow have a periofteum on their infide :
the membranes in the fkull are by way of diftindion
denominated mothers ; the one which lies next to the
cranium is the dura mater or hard-hearted mother,
while that which immediately enwraps the brain is the
mater pia or the affedionate mother.
Of all the Terms, however, that occur, the cavity of
the Ikull contains the moft extraordinary colledion :
we there meet with a Turkifh feddie and with the feet
o L O G Y. 671
of a fea-horfe, with a ring, with a lyre, with a fickle, Prelmvna-
with a bridge, with a writing pen, and a wine-prefs. ^ <>f)fer-
A few of thefe names belong to the fubftance of the vati'>n,‘
brain itfelf: where one part is called from its hard- 'r'W
nefs the callous body, another from fome fancied ana¬
logy the medullary fubftance, and a third from being
on the outfide is n tmed the corticle, and from its colour
the cineritious. Thefe are not all: there are befidea
footftalks of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; the thighs
and arms and fore and hind legs of a grand divifion,
the medulla oblongata ; there is alfo a vault and two
or three pillars, one pair of flriated bodies, two beds,
and a couple of horns ; fome cavities which, from a
fuppofed refcmblance to ftomachs, are called ventricles
choroid coats ; two bodies, named from the olive, two
from a pyramid, and one from a rirte, which is chiefly
remarkable for having once been thought the rtfidence
of the foul. At fome dillance in the cerebellum we are
however pleafed to meet with a name that is fomewhat
elegant, the tree of htfe. In this there is a degree of
refinement, which muft ftnke one as it comes unex*
pcdtedly. The following names are in the loweft ftyle
of obfeenity ; they are wormlike and mammillaiy pro-
ceffes, they are nates, teftes, an anus, and a vulva ;
which, in order to favc the 1 lufhes of our leaders, we
fhall leave in the language in which they were con¬
ceived. A lingular part is placed immediately under
a funnel, and is named from its life the pituitary gland;
it wes meant originally to fecrete a phlegm, but it
holds that office now as a finecure (b).
Ridiculous and whimfical as many of thefe appella¬
tions are, they generally have fome allufion to their
ful jeft, and are by no means the moft exceptionable in
this nomenclature. 1 he names of difeoverers which,
hove been impofed upon various p^rts, contain no de-
feription at ail; and the only purpofe which they can
ferve is not to promote the intereft of fcience, but to
immortalize the anatomifts. As many of thofe have
not been more than infenfible to tame, they or their
friends have taken the freedom to introduce parts to
our notice, not by telling us what is their nature, but
by demooftrating who was the firft that obferved them.
Dpon reading therefore the catalogue of names that
occur in anatomy, one would imagine that many of
thefe ingenious diffedtors had fuppofed themftlves not
the difeoverers but the inventors of feveral parts in the
animal economy. In our vafcular fyftem is the ring
of Willis, the vein of Galen, and the large wine-preS
of Herophilus. We have in our brain the bridge of
Varolius ; and in our nerves we poffefs the property of
various difeoverers. The holes of Vidius, and the ca¬
verns of Highmore, ate in our bones fome fmall
mufcies in the foie of our foot is the flefhy mafs of Ja¬
cobus Sylvius; a part of our eye is the membrane of
Iluyfch; and in thofe cafes where they are to be found,
Couper lays claim to particular glands ; two canals-
from our mouth to our ears are the tubes of Eufta-
chius j.
tn
<») That our rearltr. n,a, judge whether or not thefe name, be fairly „inflated, we fubjoin the oria mak here
* ""te- ,In, If incus, Jape,, cochlea : in the cavity of the ftul!, fr/la
7araa,,tede, hppoccmp,,aar,uh, pfallo,d« vd l3ra, fat* due. matrn, pen, Vaeohi, calc,™ fr,p,Lu„
iorculexr HerophtS, corpm calkjum, JjfianUa medal lari,, fabjaatia cor,kali, -ml dr.erea, pedaacali cer.hri e, IrelePo
femora, brack,a, crara aaUrwra e, pofenora medulla obloagata, form*, corpora friata, thalami uerverum opticorul
ZTa^:mj:rzi ‘ore°ra ^ ^
PHYSIOLOGY.
672
Frelimina- cbius j the daft of our pancreas is the right of Vir-
ry obfer- fungus . Poupart has a ligament almoft in our groin j
, vatK)i:s- a lobe 0f our liver belongs to SpigeKus; and the fe-
~ male would certainly {tare at being told, that among
the diftinguidiing marks of her fex are the tubes of
* Morfus Fallopius, a tench’s mouth, and fevcral vefliges of the
dinboli. devil’s teeth *.
31 ,r s The man who will readily otiTerve the defeats of this
mo^apUG*nomenclature is not he who has learned it already, and
perceive who no longer is acquiring his ideas through its im-
thefe de- perfect and confufed medium ; nor is it he whofe ftu-
fe&s. jjgg are COnfined to the human body, the particular
fubjeft on which it was formed : He who will fenfibly
feel its inconvenience is the young anatomift, who muft
receive his knowledge through its channel, commit its
vocables to his memory, and ufe them afterwards in
recalling his ideas. Another who muft foon perceive
its failings, is he who engages in comparative anato¬
my, and who is anxious to extend his views beyond
that which the foolifh indolence of conceited bombaft
has called the microcofm. A third will be he who
has remarked the numerous fynonymes which different
authors have thought themfelves warranted to fubfti-
tute in place of the old terms : for thefe repeated at¬
tempts at amendment are aftrong proof of that eftima-
tion in which it is held by the anatomical writers m
general: And, laftly, that man cannot hefitate long to
pifa upon it a condemnatory fentence, who, like Wil¬
kins, Locke, Condillac, and Reid, is a perfon of ex-
tenfive and profound reflection, who is well acquainted
with the intimate connection between accurate ex-
prefiions and accurate ideas ; who knows how much
the improvements of language are able to faciliute the
progrefs of fcience ; or who has experienced the won¬
drous effefts that have already refulted from the ex¬
ample and labours of Linnseus, and particularly from
the new nomenclature in chemiftry, which can hardly
„. be too much valued and admired.
Hints re- Our intention here is not to fuggeft a particular
fpe&ing a p|?n for any new anatomical nomenclature: the ftate
new no- our knowledge may in this refpeft be yet too im-
menc ai;ure'perfe(c|;> and perhaps it may be neceffary to fee more of
the animal economy, before we fhould venture on fuch
an undertaking. We may however, in general, ob-
ferve, that this nomenclature, like the languages of
nations, ought not to be formed with any view to an
individual, a fpecies, or genus ; and after that be care-
lefsly extended by fanciful analogies to new ohje&s,
and from thefe again be extended to others ; thus
making metaphor to fpring out of metaphor without
end, until the original figure be loft, and revived and loft
again, times without number. It ought to contain aa
many as poffible of thofe terms which, underflood in
their primary fenfe, might apply to the whole animal
kingdom and living bodies, without any metaphorical
expreflions, if, in deferibing the taftes and colours,
fuch expreffions can be avoided. Inftead of the words
anterior, pofterior, inferior, ?nd fuperior, which are
perpetually fhifting their meaning with a change of at¬
titude, it ought to have words of one conftant invari¬
able import, exprtfiing the regions of the head and
the back and their two oppofites. Thefe terms, with
right and left, would be found in anatomy to anfwer
nearly the fame purpofe that the degrees of longitude
and latitude, or the points of the compafs, do in geo¬
graphy. Every part would then be confidercd as ly* Prehmjna*
ing within or as pointing to fix different regions, the ,
right, the left, the head, the back, and their two op- *
pofites. If more particular deferiptions were wanted,
the definitive terms might then be taken from the
more immediately furrounding parts; thus giving an ac¬
count of the ethmoid bone, D’Azyr borrows the defi-
nitive words from the regions of the cranium, the fin-
cipital, bafilar, facial, and occipital; or from the re-
g’ons in immediate contact, the cerebral, palatine, na-
fal, and fphenoidal.
If an ohje& attainable, this nomenclature too fhould
be derived from one origin, and not like the prefent be
a wild incoherent Babylonhh gibberifli of a num¬
ber of mixtures. It ought to aim at conveying its
ideas with clearnefs and precifion, and yet fully, con-
cifely, and promptly. In point of fimpiicity it ought
to ftudy the eafe of the memory in receiving, retain¬
ing, and in recolledting. To prevent a needlefs mul¬
tiplicity of terms, it ought to avoid puerile minu-
tise, which ferve no end but to render defeription te¬
dious and confufed ; it ought to avoid fuch tiivial
divifions, as thofe of the gut into duodenum, jejunum,
ileum ; or thofe of the artery into fubclavian, axil¬
lary, brachial; and, laftly, it ought to be formed on a
plan containing certain rules of conflru£Uon for giving
names not ofily to parts already difeovered, but to
thofe parts which are ftill unknown, or which diftin-
guifh individual and fpecies.
In impofing names, it might perhaps be of fome
advantage to examine not only together, but feparate-
ly, the great conftituent parts of the fyftem ; as the
bones, the ligaments, the cartilages, the mufcles, the
membranes, and the glands; the nervous, the fangui-
ferous, and abforbent fyftems; and all thefe with their
properties and ufes perfpicuoufly arranged. How far
a regularity in compofition, and a uniform variety of
terminations, might be of ufe in this nomenclature, can
beft ^ conje<ftured from their great importance in the
new philofophical language of chemiftry.
It has been obferved, that fuch a nomenclature, to
encourage and aflift the comparative anatomift, is ftill
wanting; and it alfo was remarked, that we yet are
unacquainted with proper cLffifications of animals,
peculiarly fitted to diredt and abridge the anatsmift’a
labour, and to fatisfy the inquiries of the phyfiologift. ^
Our prefent phyfiological arrangements are, like our The pre¬
nomenclature, principally ftiited to the human body.fent phyfi«-
To take our inftance from the celebrated Haller, ^j^eaieriti
begins his Outlines with the Ample fibre, and the cel-t0(J con^
lular texture, of which he is anxious to compofe asfine(j,
many of the folids as he can. He then .proceeds, to
more of the organs, deferibing with great erudition
and care their different ufes and ftrudture in man.
Thefe organs, however, which he deferibes, and thofe
analogous with refpe<ft to their ftru&ure, arc confined ^
to a part of the animal creation. As different claffesTwo kinds
of the enimal kingdom have with fimilar functions va-of arrange-
rieties of organs, and as one fumftion is confequently
performed in different ways, it is evident that org^n8 the func-
ought not to form the general divifions in any phyilo-tiOIUj or ac-
logical fyftem of arrangement, becaufe we flioul l then cording to
have a new arrangement for every new fpecies of or'* a^or*
gans. Of tins truth Haller and others have^ not been
ignorant. They have alfo divided their fubjeef into
. functions:
P H Y S I
'•Pfelfwina- fundlions j but ftill they are funfHons in the manner
t'L°s Va' Perf°rmed by lhe human body* Thj8 body has en-
fo much of phyfiology, that we often fee the
funiftiong explained with fcarcely any allullon to their
organs; as thefeare fuppofed to be always the fame, and
already known from the ufual di/feAions.
Haller’s Haller’s phyfiology is profeffedly that of the human
phyfiology body. His .conduft here was feemingly the elffedl of
TvftoSthed ^nera^ cu^.om ! ^ d‘d not an^e ^rom any contempt
human bo- °f comparative anatomy. There have been few who
dy. efleemed it fo highly, who have ftinlied ir
r--   utcu icw wno
efteemedjt fo highly, who have ftudied it more, or
applied it fo fkilfully. He declares there are many
parts of our bodies whofe funftions can never be fully
explained, unlefs we examine their ftruaure in qua¬
drupeds, in birds, in fifhes, and even in infefts; thouo-h
he therefore had diffeaed of human fubjeds to the
number of 350, yet the number which he diffeaed of
brutes, and, what is more, difleaed alive, was much
greater. Numerous, however, as were his diffedions,
they were too confined for general phyfiology. That
requires a range more extenfive; and, to ihorten the
labour, different claffifications of animals from any of
thofe to be ufually met with. This aflertion hardly
37 needs a proof. }
Zoobgical There is nothing more certain, than that were the
longic^lr-,'a"art0mift to dlffeA animals as they occur in the fyftem
^angement. -Linnseus, or any other naturalift, his toil would be
immenfe, and the knowledge which he thence would
acquire of fundions would fcarcely be found to bear
to it even the fmalleft proportion. By this obferva-
tion we mean not to objed to thofe ingenious claffifi¬
cations which Linnaeus and others have employed to
facilitate the ftudy of zoology. All their claffifications
may be ufeful; and many difplay that extent and
clearnefs of comprehenfion, that diftinguiffiing acute-
nels, and that laudable ardour for the intereft of
fcience, which ought to render their authors immortal
and intitie them to the gratitude of future ages. Yet
thefe fyftemo are formed with a view different from
that which principally ought to dired the phvfiologift
I hey were meant to contain a full enumeration of the
objeds of zoology fo far as known ; to exhibit them
arranged in different claffes and fubordinate divifions
according to fuch obvious and diftind marks as might
ftrike at a glance, or appear on a curfory examination.
I o him who is entering on the ftudy of zoology, they
fhow at once the extent of his fubjed; they elevate
his mind by the grandeur of the profpeft; and when
better employed than in pleafing the fancy or in
roufing the rapturous feelings of a poet, they draw
his attention to thofe fignificant and marked figns in
which the language of nature is written. They affift
his judgment in the art of arrangement, and give to
his memory a power of recolledion which it had
0 L 0 G Y- 671
not before. Fo the natural hiflomn they perform a Prebmir a-
lervice equally important, if not effential, to his under-7 obferva-
taking : to him they fupply the place of chronology;^ .
and inftrud jus readers by the chain of connedion V
which they give to his thoughts, and by that perfpi-
CUInZ wbtcb tbey invariably beftow on his language.
ihefe arrangements, however, with all their advan-n ff.38
tages are not the arrangements which the phyfiologift between'6
would wiffi the anatom,-ft to obferve in his diffedions. them
1 hey are certainly ufeful in ftudying the manners, dif-
pofitiong, and habits of different animals, and all that
part ofthe outward economy which indicates fomething
of theirwifilom and defign. But they little illuftrate that
1 ternal ftrudure on which this outward economy is
founded, or tend to explain the more fecret fundions
which not depending on the will of the creature,
ly difplay the power and ommfcience of him who
rV1'- T c3 c,°^fecluence is eafiiy conceived, from
confidenng the difference between zoology and what
led tneen here dlfined Phyriol°fiT- Zoology is chiefly
fenr, animal kinSdom 28 k dually pre-
ents itfdf to the eye, including a great variety ofob-
j.ds ; phyfiology only that fingle part of tlj animal
economy which is chiefly made known by anatomy
and chemiftry. Zoology has been wont to divide its
kingdom into fo many claffes or orders of animals •
phyfiology would naturally divide its economy into fd
n any fundions. Zoology has fudivided its claffes by
ceitain obvious and exterior marks, a* the teeth and
fund’Pbyfiol°gy w°uld naturally fubdivide its
fundions by the many varieties of thofe organs which
are deftined to perform them, as the different kinds of
ngs and of Itomachs. Zoology but curforily men-
animVk ' 33 a Part of the hiffory of
animals ; phyfiology takes notice of animals only when
hey are of ufe to illuftrate its fundions. Y FroZ
this companfon it will readily appear, that things
which are primary ,n a zoological will often be fecon-
ttaTfb" 3 Phj:fltglCaI fpecieS of arrangement; and
that things which are primary in a phyfiological will
of en be no more than fecondary objeds in a zoologi-
arLd d-h T18 very J°.nfP,cuoufly the cafe in one ofthe
grand divifions of Linnams into mammalia, where the
important fecretory organs of the milky fluid are no!
ticed only, hke the colour of hair or the length of a tail
as a good outward mark of diftindion ; and likewife in
the excellent tabJe of D’Aubenton, where the fundion
of digelhon is not even alluded to at all; although he
tureTS3 31 W38 m°ie °f art tha« ^ "a!
t re m the common arrangements, that claffification
by outward marks had confounded things of a different
ftrudure, and that the leffer divifions ftould be made
only by marks relating to the fundions.
Vet. XIV. Part II.
4 Q.
animals.
J
40
Whence
materials
might be
P H Y S I
ry ob!fe ^ ^ from ^“8 t»Me, and from what we have
tlon*.efVa mentioned concerning Haller, that it would be inju-
ftice to anatomills and naturalifts to fay they have
never paid any attention to the phyfiological modes of
arrangements. It can only be faid that they have not
paid to them all that attention which they deferve;
and that no general phyfiological fyftem of arrange¬
ment, excepting D’Azyr’s, has, fo far as we know,
been yet attempted.
How fuch an arrangement ought to be made is eafily
„c dcfcribed, though by no means very eafily executed,
collededfor needs not a proof that fun&ions fhould form its
a phyfiolo- primary divifions; that its fubdivifions fhould be the
fSemerr variet'!8 ,of theft: funaions ; that the whole (hould be
‘ ' ' both diftinguifhcd and explained by the kinds and va¬
rieties of thofe organs, by which they are performed ;
that the defcriptions of tbefe organs might partly be
colle&ed from the feveral works of natural hiftorians
and comparative anstomifts, as from the difieftions of
the French academy, from numerous fragments of the
Cuneux de la Nature^ from the colledions of Blafius
and Vallentini, from the writings of Haller, from the
works of the celebrated Hunters and Monros, from
the publications of Hewfon and Cruiklhank, and thofe
who have lately been making difcoveries in the fyftem
O L O G Y. 67,
of ahforhents. D’Azyr has mentioned a great many Frelmina-
more. He particularly recommends Perrault, Du r7 (>tferva-
Verney, Collins, and D’Aubenton, on Birds and Qua-1‘°118‘ ,
drupeds ; Charas, Jloefel, and Fontana, on Reptiles; ’ '
Ray and Willoughby, Artedi, the Gouans, and Brouf-
fonet, on Fillies; Swammerdam, Malpighi, and Reau¬
mur, the Geoffreys, Bonnet, and Lyonnet, on In¬
fers ; and, laftly, the curious refearches of Willis,
Ellis, and Donati ; of Trembley, Baker, Barter, and
Boadfch; of Forfkal, of Adanfon, of Muller, Pal-
las, Spalanzani, and Hiquemare, concerning Worms
Zoophytes, and Polypes. Wbere any errors are to
be corrected, or where any deficiencies are to be Ap¬
plied, it is needlefs for us to obferve that rccourfe mufl
be had to new examinations and to new difleaions,
where it may he of feme ufe to attend to the foods of
animals, to their places of abode, and their modes of
life, as circumftances leading to fome internal varieties
of ftrudture. I o the lift of authors we might have
added Campfer on Fifties ; and we fhould not forget the
excellent writings of D’Azyr himfelf, whofe table of
phyfiological arrangement is a work of merit that be-
fpeaks refleftion, ingenuity, and labour, and which
follows here, with only a fsnall variation in ferra.
4i
D’Azyr’s
arrange¬
ment.
A TABLE o/’ the Functions or Properties of Living Bodies.
1. Digestion.
2. Nutrition.
3. Circulation.
4. Respiration.
5. Secretion.
6. Ossification.
7. Generation.
8. Irritability.
9. Sensibility.
tionlnTlife^ ^ ^ °r °f thefe fuftaions are obferved t0 be confidered ss poMng ovganiza<
Nu
TRITION.
f
Digestion. ^
T3
O
W
be
/ f Man.
One or more ftomache, eafily diftinguirtiable ] Q3adruPeds->
from the cefophagus and inteftinal-canal, 1 animals.
| Birds.
{_ Cruftaceous animals.
A ftomach diftinguifhablc only by certain I £v,Par0U8 quadrupeds,
expanfions from the oefophagus and intefti- < ^,erp.C.nt8.•
nal canal, j cfrt‘«gmdus fifties.
(. Fifties properly fo called.
An alimentary canal, not diftinguiftiable intoj^^5,
cefoDhap*iis. ftomarh. anrl i orms.
cefophagus, ftomach, and inteftines
vNeither ftomach nor inteftines.
J
-a
o
pq
bo
t Zoophytes.
Plants.
Man.
Quadrupeds.
Cetaceous animals.
Birds.
-a sri * - . * . / Oviparous quadrupeds.
By veffels beginning from internal cavities, ^ Serpents.
Cartilaginous fifties.
Fifties properly fo called.
Infefts.
Cruftaceous animals.
By veffels opening upon the external furface,
Worms.
Plants.
4 0^
ClF.J
676
Prelimina¬
ry obferva-
tions.
PHYSIOL
Circulation. ■{
bo l
a
O G Y.
^ r Man.
Having a heart with two ventricles and two! Quadrupeds.
aur;cles | Cetaceous animals.
l Birds.
With one ventricle divided into feveral cavi- J Oviparous quadrupeds,
ties and two auricles, \ Serpents.
. . \ Cartilaginous filhes.
With one ventricle and one auricle, \Yi{hts properly fo called.
PreHmia*^
iry obferva°»
Sion*.
Cruftaceous animals.
Itn fe<as.
Worms.
veffel, tuberous and_ contraaile, in which <j In fom‘ crug.aceoU8 animal9 there
there is a whitifh fluid inftead of blood,
18-
obferved
heart.
fomething refembling a
In which no heart has been yet obferved, but1
' only veffels filled with juices of a nature
different from that of blood, 1
1 Zoophytes.
1 Plants.
T
Hespiration.
w
M
r Man.
cy lungs free from all adhefion, and fpongy, J Quadrupeds. _
C Cetaceous animals.
By lungs free from all adhefion, veficular, C Oviparous quadrupeds,
and mufcular, l Serpents.
By lungs adhering to the ribs, and provided { Birds.
r Cartilaginous fifhes,
^ Fifhes properly fo called.
C Cruftaceous animals,
f Infefts.
X Earth worms.
Secretion.
f 5 f
l!
i 11
ia l
with appendages
By gills of different forms,
By ftigmata or holes in different rings.
By an opening called trachea, or by exter- 5 . ^ wormfc
nal fringes, (
By tracheae, •. _ Plants,
f In which there have been difeovered neither \ p ivoe8
t ftigmata nor tracheae, 1 7P *
[ r
1
i 1
. There are no bodies in which fecre^
1 tions are not carried on.
r
Ossification.
Internal and offeoue,
Internal and cartilaginous,
External and corneous,
External and cretaceous,
V
^External and ligneous,
Which have no fkeleton,
f Man.
(Quadrupeds.
Cetaceous animals.
^ Birds.
(Oviparous quadrupeds.
Serpents.
L Fifhes properly fo called.
Cartilaginous fifhes.
‘ PerfeA infefts.
" _ Lithophytes.’ _
’Cruftaceous animals.
Shell-fifh.
Madrepores.
The greateft part of Zoophytes*
Plants.
^Infefts in their firft ftate.
3 Worms.
(.Polypes.
\
y. Ge-:
PfeUmina.
ry obferra-
P H Y
tions.
/ °
Generation. ^ ^
r
-Viviparous,
U lu u u
/•Man.
677
Oviparous, whether the evolution of the eggs
takes place within or without the female.
V.
^ Which propagate by /lips,
A body mufcular or contra&ile,
8 . o * /
Irritability. ^ ^ Mufclescovering the fkeleton,
u
°]$
\
Sensibility
I „
|
• I'L'
A llceleton covering the mufcles,
No mufcular power ; no fpontaneous move-
\ meats,
Nerves and brain eafily diftingui/hable from
the fpinal marrow,
Nerves and brain fcarcely diftinguifhable from
the fpinal marrrow,
In which there have not yet been difcovered
nerves or brain, or fpinal marrow.
} Quadrupeds.
C. Cetaceous animals.
"Birds.
Oviparous quadrupeds.
Serpents.
Cartilaginous fi/hes.
<| Fi/hes properly fo called.
Infe6fe.
Cruftaceous animals.
Worms.
Plants,
r Worms.
-< Polypes.
C Plants.
f Greateft part of infers in the firfl
J ftate of their transformation.
I Worms,
t Polypes,
f Man.
I Quadrupeds.
Cetaceous animals,
j Birds.
Oviparous quadrupeds.
Serpents.
Cartilaginous fi/hes.
Fifhes properly fo called,
i Perfe«St infects.
£ Cruftaceous animal*.
^Plants,
f Man; j
I Quadrupeds.
Cetaceous animalsi
j Birds.
1 Oviparous quadrupeds.
Serpents.
.* Cartilaginous fi/hes.
I Fi/hes properly fo called.
C Infedts.
j Cruftaceous animals.
C Worms.
J Zoophytes.
[.Plants.
Prelimina¬
ry obferva-
tions.
The above table, which has its divifions marked by
the fundtions, and their kinds and varieties by the
kinds and varieties of thofe organs by which they
are performed, differs confiderably from a zoological.
Borrowing its feveral marks of diftinftion from internal
characters, it more clearly demonftrates the difference
between the mineral, vegetable, and animal, than any
fyftem that attempts to arrange by outward appear*
ances.
Difference No mineral*, whatever be their forms or the regu*
rS™Tve-larXand beaUty °f their %ure8’ wcre ever faid to
getable,andP°“eany Hhe organs of nutrition; and how*
aaitnal, frequently fome may recover their loft /hapes,
they are never fuppofed either to produce, or affift
in producing, their own kind by generative powers.
And no plants, however much may be faid of ani¬
mals that, want a nervous fyftem and a heart, and are
fixed, without the power of locomotion, to one place 3
we fay no plants, though fome may reprefent a few of
the fimpler effedts of fenfation, and others may be free
to float through the ocean, were ever faid to difeover
any figns of voracity, to poffefs any thing refembling
a ftomach, to diftend their body by fwallowing their
food, to apply their food to the mouths of abforbenta
opening internally ; and when the nutritious juices
were extradted, to ejedf it m cumulo. It has been faid
that zoophytes prefent fitnilar phenomena. But what
are zoophytes ? One half of their name would imply
that they are animals, and another half would infinuate
that they are plants. D’Aubenton reafons with clearnefs
on this fubjedf. True, fays he, the greateft part of
them are branched like plants, and like plants are com.-
pofed of concentric circles. Some have a foft exterior
iubilftnee which is called bark, and a hard interior
which
PHYSIOLOGY.
678
Prelimina wV»ch is called wcod. Along tHelr branShes, and at
ty obferva- extremities, they put forth veficles which refembie
T on8‘ buds ; and when a part fails from the whole, it is fuf-
ficient, like a vegetable flip, to produce a zoophyte:
but do thefe appearances prove that they are plants?
If ramifications conftitute a plant, then many cry-
ftallizations will he plai ts; the fliootinga of frofl on
our windows will be plants ; the filver tree of Diana a
plant; our veins will be plants, our arteries plants;
and our very feet which ramify into toes, and our
hands into fingers, will have fome title to be called
plants. The truth is, ramification is not univerfal in
the vegetable kingdom ; and although it be general,
it is no more peculiar to plants, than fwimming is to
fillies or flying to birds. If concentric circles con¬
ftitute a plant, fome bones of animals will then be
plants, and fome minerals nuft alfo be plants. The
wood and the bark are only two metaphorical expref-
fions, which with equal propriety might have been
ufed of the bone and periofteum. But once fuppoie
the zoophyte a plant, it was natural to carry on the
analogy, and certainly necefiary to have it provided
with wood and bark; though it muft be allowed that a
corneous fubftance is not what we commonly mean by
bark, nor an evidently hard calcareous fubftance what
we mean by wood. 1 he‘fmall veficles, except in ap¬
pearance, have no fimilarhy to buds or fruits: they
are the refidences of fmall polypes, to whom the whole
ftru&ure has been owing, by whom the whole either
is now or hss been inhabited, and to whom it anfwers
the fame purpofe as the fhell does to teflaceous ani-
43 rnals.
Difference After thus endeavouring to point out the boundaries
"between li- between the mineral, the plant, and the animal (a),
andma 1CS before we begin to treat of the fundions, we muft alfo
shines. take notice of another diftindion ; the want of which
has occafioned much unneceflaty trouble, and has given
rife to not a few ridiculous difputes. This is the
diftindion between living bodies and fome ingenious
contrivances of art, which are called machines. It
has not been afferted that any machine can either grow
or propagate its kind ; that it can affimilate the par¬
ticles of matter that come in contad; that it is able
to repair the injuries which it may fuffer; that it can
accommodate itfelf to circumftances, can create heat
when the cold is keen, or cold when the heat becomes
too violent: yet it has been fuppofed, from eftablifhed
prejudices, and from the fucceffive evolution of parts
in plants and in animals, that there is an analogy be¬
tween a machine and a living body. The living body
has been called a machine ; and notwithftanding the
acknowledged truth of that obfervation fo often re¬
peated fince the days of Hippocrates, That the whole
is a circle, that nothing is firft and nothing laft in the
animal economy, we are ftill talking as if living ^relimsna*
bodies were nought but machines; we are ftill rea- T obfer,r9-a
foning as if their parts had exifted in fuccefTion, had
a&ed in fucceffion, were combined in fucceffion ; we
are ftill feeking for what is prior and what is pofterior,
for what is derive! and what is original in point of
ftructure, as if we were examining a work of art; we
fpeak gravely of the vifeera, of the thorax deriving a
coat from the membranous pleura, the abdominal vif¬
eera from the peritoneum, and the branches of nerves
deriving a pair from the dura and pia mater of the
head ; we argue with people who maintain that
fafehe are nervous expanfions, and the mufcles them-
felves but nervous productions : and although we be 44.
hardly able to conceive how the brain could be nou-The vital
riihed without blood thrown from the heart, or the®^”® .
heart move without the affiitance of nerves from the coeVal m
brain, we are ftill difputing about which was prior and point of er*
which was pofterior in point of exiftence ; a difpute
that will probably terminate as foon as that of the an¬
cients, whether the firft eggs were from birds, or the
firft birds were hatched out of eggs. ^
Thtfe dark and infcrutable myfteries of nature we FunftionS
prefume not to explain: they point out almoft thcformacir-
creatrve hand, and bring us almoft into the immediate^* ^
prefence of that Being by whom w’e live, move, and
exift ; and before whom the truly feeling and elevated
mind is left difpofed to examine than adore. We arc
only to obferve, that from this coeval formation of
parts which the microfcopic part of anatomy has of¬
ten diitinguiftied from their evolutions, and from this
mutual dependance of organs one on another, we are
left at freedom to begin at any part of the circle, and
treat of the general properties and funftions of living
bodies.
We now venture on a rude Iketch of the order and
manner in which thefe properties may be explained,
and in which the fads in general phyfiology may be
afterwards arranged. Another opportunity may pro¬
duce fomething more full and corred. In the prefect
Iketch, many imperfedipns will no doubt be found ;
we already are able to forefee many from our own
inability to treat the fubjed according to its merit.
And perhaps the reader, who is pofiefied of temper
and candour, will impute fome to the newnefs of the
plan, and the prefent infant ftate of the feience.
Without blaming the arrangement of d’Azyr,
whofe genius and labours we (hall always refped, we
have been induced to adopt the following, from thofe
reafons with which the reader is now to be acquaint¬
ed.
Attending minutely to a living body, which alrea¬
dy has efcaped from the feed, the egg, or membranes
of the parent, which is wholly difengaged From the
placenta,
(a) It is curious to obferve how carelefs we are in annexing precife ideas to our words. Bonnet fuppofes
that in fome world mare perfed than ours, the rocks may be organized, plants may feel, brutes may reafdn, and
men may be angels. In this paffage the form was all that feems to have entered into bis idea of the man and
the brute; andlfo new was his notion of a perfed world, that one who believed in the metempfyehofis, would
naturally imagine that he here had been fancying a ftate for the damned, where angry Heaven was to fetter
the angel in the form of a man, a man in that of a brute, a brute in that of a vegetable, and a vegetable in
that of an uncouth rock. How much to be pitied would the creatures be that reafoned and felt, and were at
the fame time more incapable of moving than an oyfter or a limpet 1 4
)
?‘ftPrrrrrf{fr'"M
IfHYSIOLO G-Y
<9
Plate rccxci
c3,
T
n
cf
in
it
P H Y S I
Prelimlna placenta, and depends for the future on the operations
Sn°8 3 ?f *tB ?.Wn “rgans (B)» we ma>r obferve, that in or-
^ t — ^er *lve» it muft be allowed the free ufe of air, as
46 applied by the organs of—Refpiration.
The ar- That, in order to grow, it muft have likevvife a fup-
"ffStonsP17 °f £?od’. which '8 a fubftance fomehow adapted to
in this ar. 'ts conftltution ; and which, on being received into the
fiicle. fyftem, is
Prepared by—DigeJ!iont
Taken up hy—slh/orption,
Diftributed by—Circulation,
A film dated by—Nutrition,
And the whole carried on by means of—Secretion.
We next may obferve, that in order to enjoy the
free exercife of thefe fundtions, it muft be fecured from
the more common and external injuries of its fituation;
and that this is done by certain integuments originally
produced, ?nd when it is necefTtry, afterwards renew-
cd by that function ; which, till we receive a new nu-
menclature, we ftiall venture to call by what may be
rather an uncouth word—Integumation,
We again may perceive, that thefe funaions are all
dependant on a general principle—Irritability ;
By which the fyftem is rendered by ftimulants fuf-
ceptible of—Motion ;
Accommodates itfelf to different circumftances by
means of— Habit; 1
Alters its fhape by fucceffive—Transformation ;
Produces the ipecies by— Generation ;
And When the bufinefs of life is finifhed, is, after
many a languid affe&ion from the influence of— Sleep,
At laft fubje&cd to the general fate of all living bo-
dies—Death.
. Thefe we imagine are the general properties of li-
vmg bodies; and fuch is the order in which wc are now
to take a ftiort and curfory view of them.
0 L ° O y. g79
the fyftem, and by which it is prepared in particular Refpir*.
organs, that in fome refpeft fucceed the placenta in tior-
tne general economy. lor as any interruption of the v——'
ufual intercourfe between the placenta and foetus in Refutation
ovo proves foon fatal, fo when that communication na-defined.
tuiaLy ceafes, and the new one fucceeds between the
ungs and external air, it is likewife found, that any
preternatural interruption of this laft is in all living
odies prefently attended with various fymptoms of
increahng languor, and in many with an almoft inftan-
taneous death.
So eflential is refpiration to the fyftem, that fnails., • 48
am^lpnno onrl  i >• ^ , Jts impor*
Sect. I. Refpiration
Is that funftion by which air is brought into
1 1 ^ w v-itv. uiidL mans, u *
chameleons, and fome other animals, can live for yearstan^toT-’
upon air alone; We have feen a chameleon that lived vingbodied
and was vigorous for twenty-two months without any
00c, and which might have continued to live much
longer but for an unfortunate bruife by a fall.
Other phenomena equally dernonllrate the import-
tance of air to the living body. The frog leaps away
wanting its heart; it furvives the lofs of the greateft
part of its fpinal marrow. Without its head, ’it lives
lor fome days, and its heart continues to circulate its
wood (c). Spalanzam took one from the back of a
emale, cut off his head, and after performing this
whimfica! experiment, faw the gallant return fo his
m! .57 gra!P. her ,n h,s arn,s' and fini<b the tafle
which he had begun : And Boreifi found, that eels
and ferpents, though their bodies be opened, and
the whole of their vifcera be taken out, are able to
move for a day after; and yet notwithftanding, in
all thefe animals, the life i8 obferved to be fudden-
y extinguifhed when the all-vivifying air is exclud¬
ed. Even the fmalkft infed has died, and the plant
iol its vegetative power, when retained for any
while in a vacuum. The fi/h itfelf, when placed
under the exhaufted receiver, has ftarted anxioufty to
tae furfaco- of the water in quell of frelh air; and find.
Sons6' haS fUnk t0 thC b°tt0ra and eXpire<1 in con‘
If
uterus, and beforf they begin to depend"entireTy on thrir^noJ 2rC n°UU{^A a"d fuPP°rted in the egg and
CCCXCL), reprefenting embryos of various kinds The 3 p,ate Cfee Plat-
is the membrane containing the infed, the fecond the mr. 1 t h.llrt,s are from Swammerdam : the firft
i,fea led by abforbf«s, ^nlng o'S™; °f th' ^ .■» th,
Ihe fourth, fifth, and fixth figures, are from Orrw . c,, .1 <* ,
the lobes. In the fifth and fixth the lobes of the feed are feeJcniT 3 rP5cad,n8: ,ts feminal roots into
The feventh to the twelfth reprefent the tranXmtions of the ? int° (emmal ieaVes-
Aquapendtns, the reft are from Blafius, who got them from MtbiriS m 0,°: th<:l‘rlto, « front
Aquape“dcn3! th' - «U«« a fith that Is fometimes ov-lparoa.
Plants and animals are here obferved fpreadino their rmfa .’r. ^ r t m,
oeerlookert not being neceffary to convey the idea which I,'here ^ ^ are
i LI LztLhi: at rth thc
very confidemble force. Its heart likew.Te eontS P,o b“ .V k , r ,I- t0e8.""re !Iurt- k j“n>P«l with
as to empty itfelf and circulate the blood. “ about foity times m a minute, and fo ftrongly-
part of' tt^fp'narmlrrow'wdi1 iife cL'aeq.dn^ whic^thev c" U”dt™011 ‘r“ I took ont all that
fenfibie to common injuries, and lay motionllfs • vet the f * l i r 1 ^1lower, extiremitl^ were tendered in.
cd parts of their backs cStrifed, Ind thrbots of th^ h* wT^011?8 thereafter» snd -ound.
culating freely in their veffele.” Experiments on the N iegs ^hich 1 fraa“red wei;e reunited, the blood cir.
ifig the nature and effeds of animal dcdricity. ^ S^em' madc chlcfiy Wlth the ^ of determia-
6 So
Refplra
tion.
49l
Seeming
P H Y S 1
ir obleftinna fliould be made to thefe trials perform-
ed in a vacuum, if it fhould be faid that under the re¬
ceiver the (hrivelled fruit fwells and turns plump, that
the body of the frofr is ftrangely inflated, that its tur¬
gid eyes grow prominent in its head, and that thin phi¬
als corked full of air are broke by its expanfion ; ftill
there are fadfs which do not admit of the like ecpuvo-
cal interpretation. All living' bodies will die in the air
which they have refpired j and when ice covers the
whole of the water, many of the fiflies are known to
perifh ; or if an opening be made in the ice, to haften
to the air, and rather than retire, quietly fuffer them-
felves to be caught. . .
seeming To this general dependance of life upon refpuation,
excejitlcms there occur but few things like an exception . thefe
are fome ferpents and wornss and crultaceous animals
found alive in the hearts of ftones, fome infefts that
were found in wood, and a number of toads which in
different places have been taken from the hearts of trees
and of rocks, where they left an impreffion, and where
they were fuppofed in fome cafes to have lived for cen¬
turies without air. Thefe fafts, real or pretended,
have been the caufe of much fpeculation. Some phi-
lofophers, who imagine that nature is always obliged
to a£t agreeably to thofe ideas which they have alrea¬
dy formed of her laws, are, notwithftanding the high
authorities by which fome of thefe faAs arc attefted.dif
pofed to doubt them. General analogy, which regularly
oppofes Angular phenomena, is upon their fide ; and
without her concurrence, they will grant exiftence to
no living body that will not fubmit to the old eftablifli-
50 cd modes of refpiration. Others again, who would not
Animals in-prefume to di&ate for nature, who have long experi-
Clofed in £nced that {lie J8 not forward to obtrude her fecrets,
ftones, tkc. ^ ^ ^ bei;evc tbat fte may have ftill fome to
communicate, conflder thefe fadts as fomething new
which flie means to impart; and as one of the mftances
where (he feems to deviate from general analogy in ad¬
hering to her grand accommodating principle by which
fhe fits every living body for a certain range of varying
circumftances. r , ,
Thefe laft, receiving the fadfs as fufhciently authen¬
ticated, have ftudied only how to account for them.
Opinions on When ftones therefore were thought coeval with the
^J»isfubje<a. world itfelf, they fuppofed their toads to have fpru.ng
from the ova that were fcattered through the earth at
its firft formation ; they did not recolledt, that if the
earth muft have exifted before thefe ova could have
beenfown, and that if the ftones were coeval with the
earth, the ova could not have entered their fubftance.
When they afterwards learned that the confolidation
of ftones is an operation ftill earned on in the mineral
kingdom, they acknowledged their ova to be lefs an¬
cient, but did not perceive that all thefe ova involved
fuppofitions that cannot be admitted by found reafon.
Tor how was an ovum to grow without air and with¬
out food ? and how particularly was jt to grow with
' fuch a force as to make an impreffion in a folid rock .
This would imply a power of expanfion fcarcely to be
equalled by gun powder, and which we ought not to
be rafti in aferibing to the nutritive effeas of abftinence
and nothing. W^ere it not for the toad, the expan¬
fion itfelf might have found a folution in a theory of the
jEarfi&j which has call all its ftones in a foundery under
CLOG Y,
the water, where the moifture might have rendered Refplra-
their apt to be formed with numerous cavities. b°n’ t
Perhaps the way to remove thefe difficulties con- U***V*,-,I#
cerning the toad, would be to afceitain its mode of
exiftence in the heart of the ftone. Sufpe&ing that
the air communicated fomehow with the folitary cell,
we procured a toad that was crawling out from its den
in the evening. It was put into a glafs juft large
enough to hold it with cafe. The mouth of the glafs
was filled with cork fufficiently clofe to retain water;
the glafs was then laid on its fide, and the animal re¬
fpired for feveral days without difeovering figns of un-
eafinefs ; but fuppofing that air might ftill be admit¬
ted, the cork received a covering of wax, and the ani¬
mal died ten hours after.
From this experiment, and the fate of toads when
put under an exhaufted receiver, from an air pafiage in
the cruft of chryfalids, from the porous texture of the
white fpeck, or the opening which the fnail leaves in
the membrane that is fpread over the mouth of its
ftiell, we were led to think on d'Aubenton’s remark,
that the inclofed toads might have breathed, and that
the wood has been always cleft, and the ftone broken,
before it was ftiown how the external air was ex-
duded f.
On farther refle&ion, our own experiment appeared
inconclufive; and d’Aubenton’s remark, after clofe ex-4t pa’rtie *.
amination,feemed not entitled to much attention. Hep. 6io.
would have it fuppofed that a toad is lurking in every
block of ftone and of wood ; and on this filppofition
would have an inquiry to be regularly made, whether
or not there be any communication between this fup¬
pofed animal and air; becaufe, when the ftone or wood
is in fragments, the attempt to difpreve fuch commu¬
nication is in his opinion impoffible.
But are we certain that the admiffion of external
air would remove the difficulty ? We are not fo pofi-
tive now as we were upon this fubjedl. In the fura-
mer months, we recoiled to have drowned frogs which
were living in the fields, by keeping them fome hours
■under water: but if we allowed them to rife to the
furface, and; refpire at pleafure, they became at laft
fo accuftomed to that element, that if the tempera¬
ture was not much above that of fpring-water, they
lay in the bottom not only for days but for weeks
together.
In the winter feafon, it is well known that frogs
are fometimes difeovered in clufters below ftones and
under water in the neighbourhood of fprings ; and
often feen in the bottom of ponds, marlhea, and ditch¬
es, where water is colledled, and the whole furface
covered with ice. In this ficuation, we have frequent¬
ly examined their fides and their noftrils, and can ven¬
ture to affert, that they did not refpire in the fame
manner tliat they did when on land ; for the moment
that this animal is put under water, the palpitating
motions of its fides and its noftrils are obferved to
ceafe ; and Chaptal has feen them fufpending refpira¬
tion as it were at pleafure even when in air j.
While they move, however, and exhibit indications
of adlive life, we would not fay that air is excluded.
In the roots of plants, in aquatic worms, in polypes,
and in the placenta itfelf, the fame organs feem to per¬
form the double office of lungs and abforbents. When
2 under.
Refptra-
tion.
Si
Snme
things re¬
lating to
frogs aad
"eoads.
PHYSIOL
under water, what are the functions of thefe organs in
frogs and in toads ? It is not difputed that in moift
places they can live longeft without food ; and fome
phenomena whidi have been abferved relating to this
fubjeft appeared to us not unworthy of attention. Iii
the beginning of the fummer 1793, while we were
making a few experiments on the nervous influence
with fome metals, a frog was taken out of the water
in the dulk of the evening, and put into a deep and
wide-mouthed glafs till next morning : but next morn¬
ing a quantity of water was found in the glafs, the
animal was dead, its mouth full of foam, and the
greater part of its body covered with froth. The fol¬
lowing auturnh a boy came With a couple of toads
Wrapt up in tow. Till we had teifure to make our ex¬
periments, they were allowed to remain as they were
for three days in the corner of a room. When taken
out, their colour Was pale, their bodies much fwelled,
and a quantity of water collefted between the fkin and
the mufcles. When held in the hand with their head
upwards, the water was evacuated downwards by the
anus. It was one of thefe toads that afterwards died
when confined in the glafs without air. Its body was
put into a folution of madder for two days ; and when
the flein and mufcles were removed, the honea, which
are ftill preferved, were found red. A live frog in the
fame folution, though allowed to breathe, expired in
a few hours. In three days its bones became of the
red colour, but not fo deep as that of the toad’s. An¬
other frog died in the folution ; but the bones, from
age or fome other caufe, did not receive the colour of
the madder. In all cafes the /kins were found red.
.As we know not how far the great accommodating
G Y.
681
Refpira •*
tion.
54
\Vhat forts
-5 3
Differ ent
functions * • i - -- — —- ^
of their ab- Pnnc!Ple of nature may he extended, perhaps the ab-
forbents. forbents opening externally may in thefe animals fome-
times fupply the place of the lungs, as the lungs fup-
plied the place of the gills which they ufed when tad¬
poles, and as the gills had formerly fupplied the place
of a placenta, or the primary abforbents, through
which they derived their nouriihment in ovo.
Thofe ftones which inclofe animals are known to
clofe°SnSi-n’be fuch ‘l® haVC £radua,Iy aflumed the folid form, and
mals, and thofe which have been inclofed are known to
what fort be fuch as in other cafes have been fubje&ed to the tor-
of animals pid ftate : But this ftate has not been examined with
arc,nclofeckall the attention which it deferves. From this ftate,
*Encyc!oj>e- Bonnaterre fays, in his introdu&ion to Ereptology *,
that it is impoflible to roufe the animal by the loudeft
uoife, the rudeft ihock, or the deepeft wound ; the
internal motion is juft fufficient to preferve the fyftem
from that decompofition to which animal fubftances are
expofed. It retains only the form of what it was. It
appears neither to live nor to grow; and the whole
tnafs, if what is expofed to the air be excepted, is not
fenfibly altered while the torpor continues. All the
fenfes are ftmt up ; all their fun&ions are entirely fuf-
pende.d : digeftion is no longer in the ftomach ; all re¬
spiration has apparently ceafed; and it has been doubted
whetheror notthis funsftionbein fomecafesatallretained.
When the genial warmth, however, returns, in fix in
Vol. XIV. Part II.
die Mg'
tbodi^ue.
eight, or in ten months, according to that variety of cli¬
mates between the frigid poles and the tropics, the animal
revives. But the queftion is, if the firft circumftances
in which the animal became torpid had been artificially
or naturally continued, how long in this way might
the different funftions of life have been fufpended; and
how far are we warranted by the analogy of feeds and of
eggs to lengthen this period of their exiftence, with¬
out fuppofing a decompofition or deftru&ion of or¬
gans ?
Experiments muft tell what are the limits which na-Egg/Li
ture has here preferibed to herfelf. New eggs, when feeds Pre"
covered with varnifti, or placed under the exhaufted re-ferved
ceiver, are fecured againft the attacks of corruption. Txcluckd.^
Bomare, in his Dictionary, has mentioned three,
which, protefted from air, were found freih in the
wall of a church after a period of 300 years (d). 
And if it be true that a fnake found in a block of
marble died as foon as expofed to the air, or if the
parts in contadl with air be the only ones which’ in
torpid animals appear to be changed, it would feem
probable that a total exclufion of this varying and ac¬
tive element would tend more to the prefervatiou of
torpid animals, in certain inftances, than a free admif-
fion, which, in thofe cafes where all vital fun&ions
have ceafed, is regularly found a principal aeent in
their diffolution.
M. Heriffant of the French Academy was the firftHeriflLt’*
phuoiopher who, by means of experiment, thought ofexPeri-
interrogating nature herfelf upon this iubjeft. On the ments re-
21 ft of February 177 x, he with great accuracy ftiutSingthc
up three toads from the air, two of which were taken
out alive on the 8th of April 1774. D’Auben ton faysf,
after a period of 18 months; but in this inftance webhZd
depend more on the friend t of Fontana, who has men- ^
tioned the dates. The two toads were again inclofed tom' 2‘
and Heriffant died before there was a fecond infpec-
tion. D’Aubenton fays, that when taken out their MtrviUUs
bodies were hard and flirivelled, and their whole moif-^ Nat,
ture totally abforbed. A fourth toad that had beenAniinaU£
inclofed was heard to croak whenever the box in which r'T5 '
it was confined happened to be ftiaken. Since that pe-
nod the pra&tce 13 common of confining fmils in a
fealed phial, where they exift in torpor for years.
Thefe phenomena ftill excite wonder, but to won¬
der Jefs, and examine more, would fooner procure us
that information which we are wanting. In thefe ob-
fervations concerning toads, have no circumftances been
overlooked ? Has it been determined whether they
lived in the heart of ftones, or, exifting merely in a
torpid ftate, had come alive when expofed to air ? We
have feen a toad that was dead for two days ; it?
body was opened ; its heart was feen motionlefs, ’bat
expofed to air in a few feconds it began to beat.—
Confidering the complex fundion of abforbents, we
perhaps might conceive how a toad could five In the
clefts of rocks, or the hearts of trees, where there is
moifture ; but has it yet been determined whether all
ftones in which toads have been found fupplied them
with moifture ? We at leaft are certain that they did not
4 & abforb
CEa!> *na * fuUer i,CC0Unt 0f rhs fan,e jo the Viaindr.t df
682
B.efpira-
tion.
P H Y S I
abforb the animal fluid?, like the plafter ufed by the
French academicians.
One of the toads was heard to croak after being; in*
clofed. In making their experiments, has it, therefore,
been thought a matter of indifference by the French
philofophers, whether the animal was immured alive
in the full ♦xercife of all its funftions, or exifting on¬
ly in its torpid ftate ? nnd with refpea to this lingular
{late, (might not the queftions be fairly put), have its
federal kinds, have the caufes which induce it, or thole
degrees to which it may be carried in diiferent animals,
been yet afeertained ? Is not our knowledge of the
torpid ftate at this moment principally the refult of ca-
57 fual ohfervation ? Has it not been oftener than once
lucr es re-fuppofed that the torpor of all animals is fimilar, or
fpr&jn* takes place to a fimihr degree ? Have not torpid ani-
^zU been therefore fpoken of in general terms ? and has
mlL'. it not been afferted that they retain a portion of heat
and internal motion ? though font have been found con¬
gealed in the ice, and many been dried to fuch a de¬
gree that they could be revived only by moifture.
•* That fnakes and fifties, after being frozen, have
{fill retained fo much of li^e as when thawed to refume
their vital funaions, is a fad,” fays Mr Hunter,‘‘ fo
well attefted, that we are bound to believe it. riow
came it, we would afk, that fifties which had been
frozen by this truly ingenious phyfialogift never reco¬
vered ? He recovered parts of different animals which
had been frozen ? Had the fnakes and fifties of which
he had heard been only partially congealed in the ice .
or had the fifties which he felefted for thefe experiments
been properly chofen ? or may all animals with equal
fairnefs he made the fubjeft of fuch experiments- and
may all tranfitions from heat to cold, and from cold to
heat, whether flow or rapid, if not in the extremes, be
viewed as netrly of the fame confequence . Ape all
feafons and conditions of body equally favourable to
this ftate of torpor ? and will thefe caufes which induce
torpor by operating externally in the months of autumn
be able to continue it by the like aftion in the months
t-e of fpring ? We can anfwer, no. .
Reabf<rp- It has been fa id that animals fubfift m their torpid
titn ef fat ftate by the reabforption of fat. Has it there.ore been
in the tor. ed that aU animals, not to fay living bodies, are
Pid five. £offe{red of fat? or jf they be, has it been demonftrated
that they have a fuperfluous quantity to be reabforbed?
Has it been fhown that their wafte of fat is always oc-
cafioned by this reabforption ; or has this reabforption
in all cafes been of that kind to counteraft the effects
of nbftinence ? If it has not been proved that all ani¬
mals contain fat, and that this fat is reabforbed in
Their torpid ftate, ought not the general affertion to
be limited ? Granting that in many refpefts it were
true, have not philofophera been here amufing them-
fclves with logic, where they could have been employ¬
ed in making experiments ? Have they not venture to
give us conclufions, where we had reafon to expedt
fads ? and on this account has not their condudt been
fomewhat fitmlar to that of navigators who, lading
along the coaft of Patagonia on one fide, and obterving
Rcfpira-
tion.
59
O L 0 G Y.
a few men of an uncommon ftature, have from .thence
peopled the whole of the country with a race of
giants? or rather to that of fume calculators, who, from
feeing a few parts of a continent, have ventured to
give a map of the whole, to deferibe kingdoms that
are yet unexplored ; and by their flcill in addition and
fubtradion to exhibit the figure, the extent, and pro¬
portion of lands unknown ?
Leaving therefore the torpid ftate as one of thofe
fubjeds with which we at prefent are little acquainted,
and of which we therefore cannot fpeak with certain¬
ty in the general abftrad language of fcience; it will
naturally be afleed. In what refped is air fo neceffary
to all living bodies in their adive ftate, and how it
contributes to the regular performance of the different
fu:*dions? , j *
The ancients, who were led by the heat of the blood Opinions of
to fuppofe a vital fpark in the heart, who had noticed ancients
the appearance of fmoke in the breath, and who had the ufe of
obferved that fire was extinguilhed when deprived ofrcipiration,
air, naturally inferred that the end of refpiration was
to fupport their imaginary flame, to ventilate the blood
in the arteries and lungs, and to keep alive their vtvir
fying fpark. They were far, however, from being
agreed as to the manner how this was effeded. Some
were of opinion that a certain principle of the air was
abforbed, to which they gave the name of the proven-
der of life or the food of the fpiritj; while others f Pabulum
were perfuaded that the air aded as a re^r*gelatory»^ Spirjtus
and was merely intended to moderate the fire, alimentum.
affift in expelling the fuliginous vapour, and preferve
the fyftem in an equal temperature.
The moderns, who,after all their refearches, have been
unable to difeover this vital {park of the ancients, are
more puzzled to afiign an adequate caufe for the heat
than for any cold which they difeover. T o account
for this fingular phenomenon, they have been ranfack-
ing nature for caufes; and perceiving that putrefcence,
mixture, and fridion, are in many inftances accompa¬
nied with heat, have thence conjedured that they
fometimeg operate in producing the warmth of the li¬
ving body. But thefe are theories which have beei*
imported from the hot-bed, the laboratory, and me¬
chanic’s (hop, and which have never yet been coun¬
tenanced by phyfiological fads and obfervations. N©
one has been able to Ihow that putrefcence exifts m a
healthy ftate, except in the feces : no one has proved
that any mixture which regularly occurs in the f. e-
mentary canal or veffels, generates heat; and though;
fridion has been a favourite hypothefis, yet thofe cir-
cumftances, in which it evidently produces heat, have
not been difeovered in the living body ; and it is not
determined whether it be there a fridion of the fluids,
a fridion of the folids, or a fridion of the fluids and
folids together. . , . , 6s
Of animal heat, the moft rational theory, we think, Opinion of
is one which properly belongs to the laft century ; itVerheyea,
is confirmed by modern difeovenes, and lias afcribed
this heat to refpiration. Many had obferved, that thole
animals whic' vefeire moft have the waimtft b oo (t)-
Lower
(,) Quod auum ,„imdU didiora Wu, refpiren, non proMt rrfpirauon^
fan^oinia refrigenum, qoam calorem ilium intenfum product a va u i p . - fricido extiuguimur.
xque, at magi, probabila apparet: quia fccuadum ommutu fcatenttam caltdo vrnmu,, tr.gido ext g ^
' 6
fir
Supporfed
Lrt’wer deracnflrated, that this blood received a new
and a brighter colour in palling through the lungs (f).
Verheyen and Borelii both proved, that the air loft
fomething by coming in contact with that organ (g).
Mayow fhowed,that this fomething which the air lofes is
contained fn nitre (h). Experience taught the work¬
ers in nitre, that this fomething was abforbed from the
*ir (x): and Verheyen remarked, that it is alfo ab¬
forbed by the lungs ; and is probably that which main¬
tains comb.uftion; which qualifies the air for giving
fupport to animal life, aad imparts to the blood the
vermilion colour (k).
. How well the whole of this reafoning was founded,
vJry of^Dr1*5 Pr0.ve^ ^y the late difcoveries of Prieftley and other
Prieftky’s. c^em’ft8* There is now obtained, in a feparate ftate,
an aerial fluid, which maintains both life and combuf-
tion, and crimes a vermilion colour to the blood. It is
extra&ed in a very large quantity from nitre ; is one
of the component parts of the atmofphere, and the vi¬
tal principle of that element; without which, in moft
animals, life is extinguiflied. From fome phenomena
which happen in combuftion, it has been termed /m-
cipium forlile. It was called dephlogifticated air by
Prieftley the firft difeoverer; as the great acidifying
caufe in nature, the French nomenclature has given it
the name of oxygenous gas ; and, as one of the caufes
on which the exiftence both of fire and of life depends,
6» it is named empyreal or •vital air.
Kefpiration Late difcoveries have Ihown farther, how this air
animal1 C *n refp'ration produce heat. From the moft ac*
heat, and curate inveftigations, it appears, that caloric, or the
liow this principle of heat, is a diftinft fubftance in nature}
J3 Pro’that it combines with different bodies in different de¬
grees ; that it is the caufe of fluidity in allj and
that, in proportion to that capacity which they have
for it, and to that diftance at which they arc removed
from the fluid ftate, the more or lefs caloric they con-
PHYSIOLOGY.
CSj
tain. Aerirorm bodies being ail therefore exceedingly Refpira-
flmd, it muft be evident, that when they are fixed or tion-
condenfed in the blood, and made to approach nearer l"
folidity, a quantity of heat muft be evolved. Apartofthis
is very plainly evolved In the lungawherethe air isabforb-
ed, a8 appears by the breath ; and a part evolved by the
aflion of veffels, as appears from nearly an equal heatover
the fyftem, from the partial heat of a morbid part, and
the fudden tranfition from heat to cold, and from
cold to heat, over the furface, when the veffek arc
affected by either internal or external ftimuli. When
the heat, thus evolved by the gradual fixation of that
body with which it was combined, has been fuccefsful
in making its efcape by the lungs and integuments,
the blood returns in a dark and a ftuggifh ftreem by
the veins, and mingles again with the genial fluid,
which before gave it fpring, a&ivity, and life.
. Of that oxygene which remains in the fyftem, part
is employed in forming different faline combinations
and fupplying the wafte occafioned by that conftant re-
abforption } which, from many experiments that have
been made with folutioas of matter, is known to take
place tn the fohd bones. The ufe of that oxygenous
gas which returns with the breath, is beft underftood
after knowing its affinities. Its balls oxygene, combi¬
ning with hydrogene, which is the bafis of inflamma¬
ble air, forms water ; and combining with carbone, the
carbonic acid. It canies, therefore, back with the
breath a part of the carbone produced by the flight
Combuftion of the blood, and a quantity of hydrogene
arifing from the watery fluid decompofed.
But oxygenous gas does not alone enter the longs. Of Gafeswhkfi
loo parts of the atmofphere, but 28 are oxygenous gascomP"fe the
*3-5^carbonicacid, and 72 are azoticgas(L). Thefelaft atmolihere
though intended chiefly for other beings different from We
man, which are in immenfe numbers on the globe, but and their
which, like him and the nobler animals are not form-ufc *n reffi-
4 R 2 e(j.ration.
lit promdc non videatur ahqmd a natura datum effe, quo intenditur frigus vitse contrarium. Verheyen
Tract. 2. cap. 7. de Ufa Refpiratwnis. "aeyen,
. (FX PoftqHam circulatio fanguinis innotnit, diu creditum fuit fanguinem venofum colore illo coccineo rurfns
mdm m ventncuhs cordis, et pnecipue ubi calor, quern judicebant iftius colon's authorem, eft interior • At
negotmm iftud peragi m pulmombus, nempe refpirationis beneficio, evidenter oftendit cl. Lowerus eyoe-i
mentis. fe>td.
(g) Inquiramus quale fit iftud aereum adeo nobis et multis animalibus neceffarium. Ut eius defeffu viri
extinguatur citiffime. yulgans en.m aef dici non poteft, cum ilium per meatus notabilimes fanguini immi tt
ronvemret, fitque expenentia cert.ffimum, animalia refpirantia non tantum acre fimpliciter; fed et.am rece.
contmuo indigere, unde concludendum eft tantummodo aliquas particulas fubtiliores ab acre fecerni et malTV
iangmnis immifeen, qmbus fpoliatus ad ulteriorem refpirationem fit inidoneus. ’
.(H) <lu'^cm verifimile eft, inquit Mayow, particulas quafdam indolis nitrofalinse, eafque valde fubtiles
agues, fummeque fermentativas ab acre pulmonum minifterio fecerni, inque cruoris maffam tranfmitti Aden*
emm ad vitam quameunque fal iftuc acreum neceffarium eft, ut ne plants quidem, in terra, ad qu'am aeris
acceffus p.ecluditur vegetan poffint; fin autem terra ifta aeri expofita, fale hoc fiecundante denuo impreenctur
ea demum plantts alendis iterum idonea evadet. r o »
(1) In acre autem quid nitrofum contineri norunt ipfi vulgaris nitri confeaores, qui terram aut laterum
fragmenta ex qmbus mtrum ehxiviare intendunt, afri liberiori diu multumque exponunt ; utque ab eodem
undique ea tangente ac perfluente uberms impregnetur, faepius vertunt, atque ita fuorum fumptuum et labo
rum amphorem mellem mercederaque referunt. r
(k) Infuper, fi poll confeiftionern nitri terra aut laterum fragmenta exponantur libero acri, ea denuo ooft
auquod temporis fpatium, quodam fale n.trofo abundabunt. Eft autem verifimile, aerem gratia dufdem ma
ten* et vit* noftr* continuatroni et ignis accenfioni neceffarium effe ; pnecipue cum rurfus experientia doceat
ruborem fanguinis e corpore euu&i, per additionem falis nitri intenfum iri in eodem prorfus modo fecuti per re
Jpirationem in corpore vivente. Zhul. r »t -r -'t-
(l) Thefe are nearly the proportions.
684
PHYSIOLOGY.
Fxfplra- eA to breathe the empyreal air, muft notwithftandirig
tion^ Qf fome important and cflential ufe to all living bo-
dieg. It has accordingly been found by experiment,
that pure and unmixed oxygenous gas cannot be breath¬
ed for 303.’ veryconfiderable time without danger ; that
fome azote is contained in the blood, and has been ex-
traded from the mtxfcular fibre, when properly treated
with the nitric acid. According to Bertholiet, five of
its parts with one of hydrogene forms ammonia or vo¬
latile alkali; which difpels the glandular tumours of
the body, and prevents the coagulation of blood and
the thickening of mucus which arife from acids (m).
The azotic gas may therefore in part unite with hy¬
drogene, may prevent the coagulation of ferum, the
catarrhous formation of vifcid mucus, and many com¬
binations that oxygene might form, injurious to the
fyftera. The carbonic acid, which is TVo carbone
and TV<y of oxygene, may alfo be necefiary in regula¬
ting the effeds of the other two; In aerated water,
its ufes are very generally known; it allays the pain of
the urinary bladder when excited by calculus ; it has
been employed in the cure of wounds, and been thought
ufeful in the pulmonary phthifis. It is generated in the
lungs of thofe animals which refpire oxygene. In fmall
proportions it favours the growth of the vegetable tribes.
Thefe tribes readily decompound it; and, with the ad¬
dition of other prepared oxygene from water, reftore
what is pure to the general mafs of the vital fluid,
that plants and animals might thus live by the mu¬
tual performance of kind offices.
We return again to animal heat. Every theory that
pretends to account for animal heat, ought alfo to ac¬
count for that Angular equality of heat which the fyf-
tem preferves, or endeavours to preferve, in different
temperatures. The above theory explains it fimply in
the following manner.
How an Venous blood, if expofed to the air, is known to
animal pre-^kforb a portion of oxygene, and affume that colour
ferves its which it has in the pulmonary veins and aorta. Sup-
warmth in pofe an abforption of a fimilar kind taking place in
a cold tem-the lunge, a faft which may be proved by deufive ex-
yerature. pCriments; it is plain that the oxygene by this ab¬
forption muft recede from its gafeous or fluid ftate;
that a quantity of heat muft be therefore evolved,
which, along with the heat of the refluent blood, is
carried away by that vapour which iffues from the
lungs. In the courfe of circulation, the oxygene
will naturally incline with hydrogene to form wa¬
ter ; it will tend likewife to the formation of many
other compounds ; and, as it enters into new
iiates, and is farther removed from gafeous fluidi¬
ty, it muft ftill be giving out a portion of heat.
If the furrounding temperature be cold, this repara¬
tion will be eafily effeaed. The caloric will, in that
cafe, be greedily abforbed from the interior furface of
the lungs and exterior furface of the whole body.
The oxygene, meeting with the neceffary temperature,
will readily pafs into new forms ; and the venous blood
returning to the lungs, will demand a fupply which
will be either greater or lefs according as the cold, by RerpJra-
favouring the efcape of the caloric, and promoting new , tloa
combinations with oxygene, had removed it from the
point of ufual faturation. . 65
The gradual evolution of heat is a proof that the And its na
temperature muft be fometimes reduced before the oxy~tural cool-
gene can properly enter into all the ufual combinations^*^ tem-
of the fyftem. Suppofe the body then to be placed perat‘uret
within a hot circumambient atmofphere. This atmo-
fphere, if warmer than the animal, will be more apt to
part with heat than to receive it; and the oxygene ab¬
forbed, being thus unable to difpofe of its caloric, will
be prevented from paffing into thofe combinations and
forms where heat is evolved. The venous blood will
therefore conduit it back to the lungs, and make a de¬
mand for a new fupply; but proportionally lefs ac¬
cording as the hot circumambient air, by preventing
the efcape of the caloric, and the ufual facility of new
combinations, has confined its removal to a fmaller di-
ftance from the point of faturation.
In this laft cafe the thing principally entitled to no¬
tice is a very curious effort of nature to refill the grow¬
ing increafe of heat. In the warm atmofphere, as
during violent mufcular exertion, the exhaling vapours
is commonly difeharged in a greater quantity from the
furface of the body ; and confequently the heat furnilh-
ed with an excellent temporary conduflor, that in fome
meafure counterafts the dangerous efft&s from without.
After all, the reader is not to fuppofe that he here 55
has received a general theory of refpiration. All li-The air ra¬
ving bodies are not fupported by the fame kind of ae-fpired bY
riaffood. Oxygenous gas has indeed been honoured
w’ith the flattering appellation of vital air ; and nitro- different
genous gas been ufually diftinguifhed by that degradingfrom what
epithet azotic ; a word which fignifies deftru&ive ofj’ refV1'ed
life. But though man, and all the warm-blooded ani- y raa*i
mals that have yet been examined, may die in lefpiring
the nitrogenous gas, this gas however, which conftitutes
more than two thirds of the whole atmofphere, may in
general be called the vital air of the vegetable tribes,
and of not a few of the orders of infefts which thrive
and live in it. For while man, and others which re¬
fpire as he does, emit both the hydrogene and carbone,
and return the nitrogene not fenfibly diminilhed; molt
vegetables and many infedls eagerly inhale them, and
emit oxygene as noxious or ufeiefs. Theie effefts are
the indications of a radical difference in conftitution. E-
ven the fibres of thofe living bodies which exhale oxy¬
gene, will, after death, attract it fo powerfully, as to
decompofc the nitric acid ; but thofe bodies which in¬
hale nitrogene, have fa very weak an affinity tooxygene^
and fo ftrong a one to fome of the bodies with which
it is combined, that they can eafily decompofe water
and carbonated air.
What fiflies refpire is not afeertained. Neither the
change of the air, nor of the water which tbey occafion
when in clofe veffels, have, fo far as we know, been ful-0f fjftes,
ly examined. Chaptal is affured, that, like other ani-and their
mals, they are fenfible of the a&ion of all gafes. Four-tempera
croy
ture.
(M) Weak volatile alkali diffelves mucus, whofe morbid vifeidity Fourcroy has aferibed to a too great ab,
forption of oxygene. „
/'
O L O G Y. 685
various economical operations. What thcfe are, in Refpira >.
the different kinds of plants and animals, is not known. tian*
The bear, the hedge hog, the dormoufe, and the bat,
may probably net digeff when reduced to 70°, 750, or Certain de-
8o°. The frog, however, will digeft at 6o° (n) ; andgreesof
the birch before it at arrives at 473(o). It would feem heat natu*
that refpiration, befides imparting aerial food, was in-™11? eveiT
tended to preferve and regulate thefe different degrees ' S’
ot heat. It raifes the heat after a meal j it fuffers it
to fall in the time of deep; it withdraws the fupply
when the atmofpbere is warm, and increafes it again
when the atmofphere is cold. It Ihould therefore be
remembered, that heat merely is not the objeft which
is folely aimed at in refpiration. All living bodies *,
have their congenial degrees of heat. The regulation Regulated
of thefe is important: on the one fide, it prevents the !)>' refpira-
diflipation, on the other the coagulation, of their iiuids;11011*
it preferves the living power of their organs ; and, by
a natural and proper temperature, aflifts their a&ion in
mixing, compofing, in decompofing, and in varioady
preparing the different parts for fecretion, excretion,
abforption, reabforption, and affunilation (p).
As various fixations of the vafcular fiuid are regular¬
ly taking place in the different parts of the living bo¬
dy, and as air is not the only fluid concerned, it
Ihould almoft be unneceffary again to obferve, that the
whole of the heat is not evolved in the lungs, nor the
whole that is evolved difengaged from air.
It
O) See obfervations on certain parts of the animal economy by Mr Hunter. We allude here to his expe¬
riments and obfervations on animals, with refpedl to the power of producing heat.
(o) See Dr Walker’s excellent Paper on the motion of the fap in trees, lit volume Pbllofophlca l Tranfaalonst -
Edinburgh.
(p) 'The ingenious Dr Crawford has publiflied a theory of animal heat different from that which we have
here prefented to our readers. Affuming as a fadt, that heat and phlogiiton arc two oppofite principles in na¬
ture, he goes on as follows.
“ Animal heat feems to depend upon a procefs flmilar to a chemical eledtive attradHon. The air is received
into the lungs containing a great quantity of abfolute heat; the blood is returned from the extremities highly
impregnated with phlogifton ; the attradlion of the air to that of the phlogifton is greater than that of the
blood. I his principle will therefore leave the blood to combine with the air : by the addition of the phiogil-
tdn, the air is obliged to depofit a part of its abfolute heat ; and, as the capacity of the blood is at the fame
moment incrcafed by the fiparation of the phiogifton, it will inffantly unite with that portion of heat which
had been detached from the air.
“ We learn frem Dr Prieftley’e experiments with refped to refpiration, that arterial blood has a ftrong at-
tradfion to phlogifion (become a vague word with different meanings in different authors). It will confe-
quently, during the circulation, imbibe this principle from thofe parts which retain it with the leaft force, or
from the putreicent parts of the fyftem : and hence the venou* blood, when it returns to the lungs, is found
to be highly impregnated with phlogifton. By this impregnation its capacity for containing heat is diminifh-
ed. In proportion, therefore, as the blood which had been dephlogifticated by the procefs of refpiiation be¬
comes again combined with phlogifton in the courfe of circulation, it will gradually give out that heat which
it had received in the lungs, and diffufe it over the whole fyftem.
“ To account for the liability of animal heat, he obferves, that as animals are continually abforbing heat from
the air, if there were not a quantity of heat carried off equal to that which is abforbed, there would be an
accumulation of it in the animal body. The evaporation from the furface, and the cooling power of the air
are the great caufes which prevent this accumulation : and thcle are alternately increafed and diminiftied in
Inch a manner as to produce an equal effedl. When the cooling power of the air is diminifhed by thefummer
heats, the evaporation from the furface is increafed : and when, on the contrary, the cooling power of the air
is increafed by the winter colds, the evaporation from the furface is proportionally diminilhei.” See Cra^tuford
on Animal Heat, p. 73—84. J
Befides, fuppofing that the principles of fire and inflammability are oppofites in nature ; this theory fuppo-
fee that the blood, while in the lungs, gives out pblogifton and takes in heat; but that, during the remaining
courfe of circulation, it gives out heat and take* in phlogifton : it fuppofes, that this phlogifton is collected
fsiom parts that retain it with little force, or from the putrefeent parts of the fyftem ; it is not faid where : it
5 fuppolhs
Refpira-
tiori.
68
Tempera¬
ture of
plants.
P H Y S I
croy fays, that they do not generate the carbonic
acid ; and that the air which Prieftley and he found in
the air veficles of carp was nitrogene gas. Their
thermemetrical heat is fo low, that in D’Aubenton’s
table they are reckoned among the cold-blooded ani¬
mals.
The temperature of plants is ftill lower. The heat
of a tree which the very ingenious Hunter examined,
though feveral degrees above that of the atmofphere
when below the 56th divifion of Fahrenheit, was always
fevcral degrees below it when the weather was warm.
When taken out, the fap was obferved to freeze at 32®;
while in the tree, it would not freeze below 470. The
very profufe perfpiration of vegetables greatly mode¬
rates the heat in their furface; and as air which ab-
forbs moifture expands, and becomes thereby fpecificai-
ly lighter, there is a regular current produced, and
evaporation rapidly promoted by the denfe air difpla-
cing the rarefied.
To adopt here a general language with refpedl to the
natural heat heat which is developed in all living bodies, it is pro-
hodles^f to Por^one^ to quantity of matter which is by means
he efti- ’ 0,C t^ie v‘taI powers reduced to a ftate naore nearly ap-
n ated. preaching folidity; to the kinds of the fubftances which
are reduced, and to the degrees and kinds of the re¬
duction.
In ad living bodies there appear to be certain de¬
grees of heat, peculiarly fitted for carrying on their
69
How the
68 S
P H Y S I
Refpira-
tion.
It may farther be remarked, that the whole of the
. air does not enter by the lungs ; much is contained in
' * ; the liquid and folid parts of the food. It is extricated
>}% often in the procefs of digeftion; and when the organs
All the air are vigorous and healthy, is made fubfervient to the
in a living general economy. If the organs, however, ihould hap-
Tn.dy dots pen to be languid it fcorns their authority, which
by cannot be enforced ; from being friendly, it foon be-
lungs, ror comes inimical to the fyftem. and threatening danger
is contained rccutnuiates> not only in the ftomach and inteftines,
in them. buJ. jn otjier cavicies. It has been found in the cellu¬
lar membrane ; in certain veficles formed for itfelf; in
the uterus ; in an abfcefs; and in gun-ihot wounds:
It has fume times burft from the vagina with a fort of
•See Qhftr- noife *. And in a nephritic complaint of a horfe, we
nations 'vn obferved ft flowing in a ftream from what the
LHgeJtwn,
furriers denominate theJheath.
McHuntS. In fome kinds of aquatic plants, in eggs, and in a
variety of fiflres, there are certain veficles containing
air, which item to have certain neceflary funftions al¬
lotted them by nature. In the plants ami in fifhes
they were once fuppofed to liave been wholly intended
for fwimming (oj. It was remarked, that thofe fifhes
which remain conftantly at the bottom of the water
have no air veficle ; and that a fifh whofe veficle was
Dc Katatu, burft. by means of the torricellian vacuum, though it
prop. 209. jjved for a whcle month after in a pond, was never
KlcTl If able to rife to the furface f. The praftice, however,
CUmiftry, which fome fifhes have ©f afcending at times to inhale
voi. i. § j. a;rj and defending after their veficle is filled ^ ; the
Xh7;,2;,Wcoirnninication w^Ic^» in fome filhee, this air veficle
jiejCfucf has with the ftomach ; that power in.the pigeon and
the Demoi• fome other birds of introducing air into the crop || ;
jMe of Nu-an(^ iaftly, the air which is uniformly found in impreg-
TV/r ! y h nated egSE—would us to believe that thefe na*
Academy. tura^ colleftions of air, with their other ufts, piay per-
73 form fome effential fervice in nutrition.
Refpiratory Having explained the general intention of refpira-
tfngans. tion, we are now to inquire, what are the kinds of
refpiratory organs, and in what manner their fun&ions
are performed ? The preceding table has in fome mea-
fure made us acquainted with this fubjeift. Some ani¬
mals breathe by a trachea and lungs ; infetts, by either
ftigmaia or tracheae, opening into air velfels; plants,
^■Borelli <?c
JMotu Ani-
m,ilium,
-eap. 23.
O L O « Y.
by air veflcls and leaves; fiflres, and numbers of the Refpir*’
watery element, if they do not breathe, at lead receive tlon' ,
air by their gills ; the foetus in ovo, the polypus tribe,
and many more organized bodies, by the fame organs
which convey their food. ^
The abforbeTita appear to be the firft and moft ge Abfoftents,
neral way by which living bodies are fupplied with
air : the mouths of thefe veflels are like fmall tubercles,
fcattered over the body of the infedt while wrapt in
its membrane. In the horfe and the bird they are
blood-veflcls fpreading on a membrane, and deriving
nourifhment from the uterus or egg, that had been it-
felf nouriflied by abforbents: In a cow, they are vefiels
which, fpreading on a membrane, terminate in glands;
thefe glands being oppofite to others which adhere to
the ucerus; and the membranous and uterine glands,
when iu contadl, incloling a third gland like a kernel.
In man, they are veifels fpreading on a membrane, and
entering a large glandular body called the placenta.
In the moufe and the hare, they are likewife veffels
branching on a membrane, and entering a placenta:
this placenta, when it happens to be fixed, receives
large veins from the parent, and which may be either
inflated or inje&ed from the cavity of the uterus. 75
Thefe which are properly refpiratory organs, exer-®£iP^raE®lr7
cife not their function till circulation and nutrition are^^^c?te
begun : though, if the obfervation of Garman be juft, thtir
that the air may become a real food for the clafs offun&ions.
fpiders, or if it be true that the larvse of ants as well
as of feveral infefts of prey, increafe in bulk, and under¬
go their metamorphofes without any other nourifh¬
ment than air $, this law is not univerfal. It may, ^ chaptaVf
however, be doubted, whether fome moilfrire be not Elements 6/
abforbed. With regard to the ant, we have reafon to Chemiftry,
fufpeft that the obfervations on which fuch a conclu- v°l*ll* § x»
fion was founded have not been accurate. ar ^
Not only are the refpiratory organs thus late in ex-someumes
ercifing their functions ; in many vegetables a great renewed,
pa«t of them is annually renewed and laid afide in the
torpid ftate. In thofe infefts which undergo the moft ^
remarkable kinds of transformation theyfuffer a change; kind,
and in all thofe animals which fpend their earlier days
in the water, and afterwards come to live in the air,
they are altered in kind.
In
fuppofes that the blood, in paffing through the lungs, receives heat only: that the whole of this heat is evolved
in the lungs by precipitation ; and is thence diffufed over the fyftem as from a centre or focus: in which cafe,
we muft alfo fuppofe that the lungs are the warmeft part of the body; and that the heat of the other parts will
be in proportion to their diftance from the lungs, or the length of the veflels through which it has palled.
As for the liability of animal heat, this theory aferibee it entirely to foreign caufes; to the different degrees
of evaporation ; or to the varying ftates of the air.
The finpular meaning which this theory gives to the word phlogifton, muft ftrike every one who knows the
etymology0of that word. The celebrated Stahl found it in the Greek; and applied it naturally to fignify
pure elementary fire, or the moft pure and fimple inflammable principle in a ftate of combination. Mr Kirwan
has fince ufed it to exprefs hydrogene: Dr Pi4ftley has called the azotic phlogifticated air: and Dr Crawford,
who feems to take phlogifton in the fenfe of Mr Kirwan, fpeaks likewife as if he underftood it in the fenfe of
Dr Prieftley. Mr Kirwan’s phlogifticsted air, however, will not kindle without oxygene :,Dr Prieftley’s will
extinguifh fire: and Dr Crawford’s is directly oppofed to that principle. Thefearenot the ancient.doftrmes of
.Stahl: they are new ideas expreffed in one of his antiquated words; the meaning of that great, man is neglected.
The founds which he uttered, like the dead language of an old ritual, are among a few ftill in veneration.
(cl) Borelli has fhewn how, by contra&ing the air veficle or allowing it to expand, the fifh can rife, fink, or
itemain ftationary in the water. Bor dll de Natatu.
ft
P H Y S I
• Refptra- In all living bodies the proper fun&ion of one p.*.rc
. tlon' of the refpiratory organs is, to fecretr from the water
or air that particular aeriform flu!J which mingles with
their juices, and which is neceffary to life and nutri¬
tion. In many cafes thefe organs are placed external¬
ly, and are always in contact with the air or water from
which they fecrrte. In other cafes they are lodged in¬
ternally ; and air or water are then alternately admit¬
ted and expelled by varieties of organs which ferve as
yj auxiliaries.
Refp.ra- The plants fecrete their aeriform fluid from water and
tory orgaas air- They receive air along with the liquids of their
oJ plants; abforbents, which open on the roots, the trunk, and
the branches, and upon the inferior furfaces of leaves ;
or, if nature has plunged thefe leaves under water, the
abforbents open a»d imbibe their fluids on both fides.
In many, however, the upper furface of the leaf is in¬
tended to inhale air. Bonnet obferved, that when this
furface was applied to the water the leaf dieu foon;
but that when the lower furface was applied, it lived
for months. It has alfo been remarked, that the up¬
per furfaces of feme leaves will repel water; and that
the death of the leaf will enfue when its breathing
pores are obftru&ed with oil *. We hence learn why
aquatic plants rife up to the furface of the water and
fpread their leaves in the open air : and as it is pro¬
ved by Ingenhouze and others, that the refpiration of
many leaves is aflifted by light, we fee a reafon why
plants growing in a dark room turn to the place where
light is admitted ; why the flowers and the leaves of
many plants follew the diurnal courfe of the fun ; why
the branches of trees, which require much light, die
when placed in a thick lhade ; why moonlhine in au¬
tumn contributes fo much to the ripening of grain ;
and why leaves and branches are arranged in fuch a
manner as ieaft to intercept that quantity of light
which nature has allotted to the genius of each.
The air veffels in the body of plants are thofe veflels
which contain juices but atcertain times, and which du-
jhig the greateft part of the feafpn are filled with air f.
- This air is colle&ed from the fap of the roots as it
a,°ng the d,araetral insertions, and from thofe
| /iU b. 3.' ^flels which open upon the trunk and upon the leaves}:.
ch. a. Like pulmonary tubes, which are feen branching
.78 through the bodies of infers, they perform an office
O* infects ;gmijar to tkat cf ljlc tracheae anci bronchia ; and are
thofe general receptacles of air from which the neigh-
* Botanic
Garden,
note 37.
f Grenv't
An at. of
O L O G Y.
bouring parts of the plant fecretc what is needed : for
in plants and a certain number of infedls, the fundions
of the lungs, the ftomach, and the heart, are generally
diflfufed. The feveral parts can refpirc, digelt, and
circulate fluids on their own account; and if they
fliould chance to be fevered from the whole, can live
and grow, and propagate their kind.
. The air veffels are furrounded by thofe which con¬
tain a liquid during the whole time of the growth.
They are the largell veflels of the wood, as diftinguifh-
ed from the bark; and in the leaves they may fome-
times be feen even without the affiflance of glafles.
Their cavity is formed by certain fibres which wind
fpnally like a cork-fcrew. In the leaf they generally
approach and recede like the filaments of nerves ; but
they never inofculate from one end of the plant to the
other, except at the extremities $ ; they refemble the $ Gre-w'*
pulmonary tube* of infeds by their general difperfion AnatZf
over the fyftem, and the fpiral rings of which they Plants, B. 3.
are compofed(R); they differ in this, that the pubnona-ch,3*§ *7—
ry tubes are frequently obferved to anaitomofe in theirs9 pad,
larger branches, as the ramifications of a vein or arte-ch.4. § 17—I
ry do in their fmaller capillary twigs. 19.
The refpiratory organs, which aie fimilar either to
the gills of filhes or the lungs of man, can hardly here
claim a defeription, as their nature and forms are fo
generally known. There is one ciicumftance, how¬
ever, in birds which arrefts our attention : the cells of
their bones, and the numerous veficles of their foft
parts which communicate with the lungs, have been
defervedly a matter of furprife to moft phyfiologifts.
In accounting for their ufe, the ingenious Hunter 9•
fuppofed that they leflened the fpecific gravity and monsoon-
afliited flying ; that being the circumftance which he ccrning the
thought molt peculiar to birds. Learning afterwards PulmonarY
that they were in the ottrich and not in the bat, he Krds^
fuppofed that they were appendages to the lungs. In &c. *
amphibious animals, in the fnake, viper, and many
others, he obferved, that “ the lungs are continued
dowrv through the whole belly in form of two ba js,
of which the upper part only can perform the office^of
refpiiation with any degree of effed, the lower ha¬
ving comparatively but few air vtfle.'a (s).'’ In thefe
animals, the ufe of fuch a conformation of the lungs-
was to him evident. “ It is in consequence of this
ftrudure,” faid he, “ that they require to breathe lefs
frequently than others.” From this reafoning he na-
turally
(r) See the fpiral rings in the pulmonary tubes of a bee, Plate XVII. fig. 10. Swammerdam’s Book of
Nature, or Hiltory of Infeds.
(s) The fame obfervations were long ago made by the immortal Harvey. After obferving that both the
tranlverre and longrtudina! membranous diaphragms of birds contributed to refpiration, he adds, “ Et alia, ut
nunc taceam. Avis pras casteris animahbus non modo facillime refpirat, fed vocem etiam in cantu diverfimode
modumur : cum tamtn ejus pulmones lateribus et coftis adeo affixi funt, ut parum admodum dilatari, aflureere
et contrahi poflrnt. 5'-lc*
Qmnetiam fq.uod tamen a nemine hadenus obfervatum memini) earum bronchia five afpene arterijg fines in
abdomen pertorantur. Aeremque infpiratum intra cavitates illarura membranamm recondunt. Quemacimo-
dum puces et ferpentes intra amplas veficas in abdomine pofitas, eundem attrahunt et refervant, eoque faciliua
natare exmimantur. Et ut lanae ac bufones cum inflate vehementius refpirant, aeris plus folito in veliculas nu-
merofillimaa ablorbent (unde earum tarn ingens tumor) quo eundem poftea in coaxatione liberaliter exfnirent,
Jta penn^tis pulmones^ potius tranfitut et via ad re/prationem videatur quam hujus adequatum organum.
688 P H Y S I
Refpira* turaily inferred, that the motion of flying might ren-
tion. jgj. tjie frequency of refpiration inconvenient ; and
that a refervoir for air might therefore become Angu¬
larly ufeful. The bat and the oftrich, however, are here
as formidable objections as before. The bird refpires
frequently when at relt, and when it flies to our bo-
fom from the hawk; that frequency feems to have
been increafed by what is a general and a common
caufe, an increafed degree of mufcular exertion. Had
air cells been intended merely to prevent the effeCts of
a rapid motion on refpiration, we might expeCt to fee
them in greyhounds and a number of quadrupeds,
much more readily than in fome birds whofe flights are
neither rapid nor long. .
This great phyfiologift was not aware that the cir-
cumftance moft peculiar to birds was not their att of
flying, but their feathers, which contain a large quan¬
tity of air, and which require a regular fupply, whe¬
ther they foar on the wings of the eagle, or remain on
the ground, attending the oftrich (t).
Both in amphibious animals and birds, the air of
the veficles has palled the refpiratory furface of the
lungs. In the tracheae of plants and the pulmonary
tubes and veficles of infefts, it is only proceeding on its
way to be refpired. Would it be worth while to inquire
whether vegetable fubftances, and thofe which are call¬
ed corneous in animals, require a different preparation
of air from what is the common preparation of lungs ?
whether hair grows beft, or the cuticle thickeft over
foft parts that are cellular and fpongy (u) ? and whe¬
ther the animals that bear horns have larger flnufes in
the frontal bone of their cranium than others ? From
the general diffufton of air through the birds, and the
fituation of their veficles beyond the lungs, it would
appear that the pulmonary vifcus in thefe animals does
.not refpire or fecrete air for the whole fyftem ; and we
O L O G Y.
are certain, that in plants and infers moil parts re- fe-cfinra^
fpire the air for themfelves, and that there is no par- u^n‘
ticular part appointed to fecrete air for the whole. "" go"""
We here fpeak of refpiratory organs as thofe which Air abforb-
fecrete an aeriform fluid from water and air; but cured by the
language probably had been more accurate had we
called them the organs in which an aeriform fluid the^refpira--
abforbed by their liquid contents, as thefe flow by, t«ry fur-
either wholly or in part, in their courfe through the face,
fyftem. It was long denied that any abforption of
the air took place from the pulmonary furface; and
fpeculative reafoners had attempted to prove that no
air could pafs to the blood through the membranes of
the lungs, becaufe air had refufed upon fome occaiions
to pafs through pieces of wet leather that had been ex-
pofed to it for that purpofe. Borelli, however, en¬
deavoured to (how how air in the lungs might mingle
with the blood,and how fome always difappeared in re¬
fpiration. There ate few doubts now entertained on
this fubjeft. Venous blood inclofed in a bladder
by the celebrated Prieftley difcovered fsch an at¬
traction for oxygene, that it abforbed the aeriform
fluid through all the coats of the refilling medium, ex¬
hibiting an inftance and beautiful illuftration of the
chemical affinities which take place in this furt&ion. gr
The reader will obferve, that the two words refpi- Two kinds
ratory organs art here employed in what may be ra-of refyira-
ther a particular fenfe. The truth is, there are two tory or^a*s«
kinds of refpiratory organs, which, though fometimes
included in the general expreffion, fnould always be
confidered as perfectly diftinft. The firft kind com¬
prehends thofe in which the water and air is decom-
pofed ; the fecond, tbofe by which thefe fluids are
properly applied to the Yefpiring furfacesof the former.
We obferve thefe laft in the fluttering motion of the
leaf itfelf, or in that tendril which turns the furface of
the
(t) “ The ufe of this retention (of the air in the veficles of birds) is not well known to us, at leaft in refpeft
of the upper pouches; fo in regard of the lower Ones. The ufe of this retention has been explained in the de-
fcription of the ostrich : where it was fliown that there is a probability that the air contained in the lower
pouches ferves to comprefs the vifcera, ant! make them rife upwards. Some do think that this retention of air
ferves birds to render them lighter in flying, likeas the bladder which is in fifti helps them to fwim. And
this conjedlure would have fome foundation, if the air contained in the bladders of birds were as light in-pro¬
portion to the air in which they fly, as the air contained in the bladders of fifll is in proportion to the water
in which they do fwim. But to fay fomething which hath at leaft a little more probability, waiting till we
have a more certain knowledge of the truth and ufe of this retention of air, we confider that the birds gene-
rally rifing very high, and even to the place where the air is a great deal lighter than it is near the earth, might
be deprived of the principal advantages of refpiration for want of an air whofe weight might make on the
heart and aiteries the compreffion neceffary to the diftribution and circulation of the blood : If they had not
the faculty of containing a long time a portion of air, which being rarefied by the heat which this retention
produceth therein, might, by enlarging itfelf, fupply the defed of the weight of which the air that they
do breathe in the middle region is deftitute.- For if there be a great many birds which do never rife very
hi.di into the air, whofe lungs have notwithftanding thefe bladders in which the air is retained ; there are alfo
great many that have wings which they ufe not for flying. And it may be obferved, that there are found
fome parts in animals which have not any ufe in certain fpecies, and which are given to the whole genus, by
reafon that they have an important ufe in fome of the fpecies. It is thus that in feveral kinds of animals
the males have teats like the females ; that moles have eyes; ©ftriches and eaffowars wings ; and that land to*-
toifes have a particular formation of the veffels of the heart which agrees only with water tortoifes, as it is ex¬
plained in the defeription of the Tortoise.” The Anatomical Defcriptionof a Cajfowar, by the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris. We can hardly anfwer for the juftnefs of this reafoning, which maintains that the genus has
^ufelefs parts merely in complaiiance to the fpecies. .
(u) Nails and hair grow after death, and a quantity of air is evolved in putrefaftton.
S*
tion.
82
Auxilary
organs of
reij iratiun
l *3
lifTifled by
lie pref-
lire of 'be
liMofphere
I S4 .
I 3W this
leffme
i|fes the
t ira.H,
P H Y S I
the,leaf to the fun. We lee them producing thefe
olciilatory motions in the branching gills of the pukx
arborefctns. When the breathing furface is within the
body we difcover them again in the trachete of plants,
whofe cavity f3 formed by a fpiral fibre that is feem-
».ngly intended for fome kind of perHlaltic motion,
e <eteft them like^ife in the pulmonary tubes, in
t.ie fpiral rings, and in the abdominal movements of
muds. We he them in fiflies fwallowing the water
BI? Proptlling it onward through the fringes of the
gills. In the frog, we note them by the motions of
the pouch between the lie mum and the lower jaw.
After this animal is divided tranfverfely behind the
ore legs, this pouch continues to fill and to empty
itfell downwards by the trachea where the lungs were.
When the whole integuments and fome of the mufcles
ttween the jaw bone and fternum are removed, we
fee how the pouch was dilated and comraded by a
broau cartilage conne&ed with the trachea, and attach-
. by mu.(clc8 to the infide of the fternum and the
neighbouring parts. When the pouch is enlarged, the
air rufries m through the two noftrils at that time ex¬
panded • and when it is contrafting, the glottis ftarts
up with an open mouth to the middle of the pouch,
,r'n< tae f71[ ,!s Preihed down through the trachea to the
lungs. I his amufing fight will fometimes continue
Cr a w’hole hour. In man and all the warm-blooded
quadrupeds, the thorax or cavity where the lungs are
placed is dilated and eontraded by the diaphragm and
mufcles attached to the ribs. In the time of dilata¬
tion the glottis opens, as we fee in birds : the air
rufhes in, lupports the incumbent weight of the at-
mofphere, and enables the thorax to expand wider,
i he expanding powers having made at Jaft their ufual
cHort, their an tagomfts fucceed, exert their force, and
the air is expelled.
In applying either the water or air to the breathing
nr face, ad thefe auxiliary organs are aflifted by the
circumambient fluid which preffes equably on all fides.
When a Florentine flalk is applied to the mouth, and
all communication between the larynx and external air
entirely cut off, it requires an effort to bring the air
of the flaflc into the lungs. The weight of the at-
mofphere ,s therefore aflifting in refpiration ; and the
air, whether in the lungs or the thorax (x), muft not
be fo denfe as that which is without. When Verheyen
perforated the thorax of a dog, and reftored the equi¬
librium betwixt the external and internal air, the re-
pirafion of the lungs ceafed, though for fome time
the alternate admiffion and expulfion of air was conti¬
nued through canolas introduced into the wounds.
It cannot furely be afked here, how the preffure of
the atmofphere ftiould be aflifting in raifing the thorax,
and thus feenu’ngly ccunteraa itfelf ? The heat of the
lungs expands the air as foon as it enters. The air
rapidly abfoibs moifture; and though not ufualiy no¬
tices by phdofophers, yet the hidden expanlion, which
is always the confequence of that abforption, is a very
general phenomenon in nature. By this heat, or by
this abforption, the air would occafion greater dilata¬
tion, were it not for the lungs, which feek to collapfe;
Von. XIV. Part II. ^ ’
o L O G Y.
the cartilages of the fternum, which feek to recoi!;
and the ftretched-out mufcles, which either fpontane-
oufty, or directed by the will, endeavour to contrail:
and produce expiration.
. Hav'ng feen how the air will rufli in on the open¬
ing of the glottis, we may alfo conceive how the (hut¬
ting of the glottis will rtfift the force of internal
expanfion, and fupport a weight laid upon the breaft.
1 he confined air will expand equally on all fides, and How {he
the preffure muft be great before the fpace which falls cxpanfio*
to the glottis can exceed its own mufcular force andiscontl*
the weight of the atmofphere. It is this diffufednued*
preffure of fluids that produces fuch ftriking wonders
in hydraulics ; and which explains how the droppings
of the ureters ftiould expand the bladder even to a
palfy, and overcome the abdominal mufcles.
lo account for the aftion of thefe organs which Opinion*
ierve as auxiliaries in refpiration, there have been fup- concerning
pofed an appetice for air which prompts as a ftimulus •the orgIal!8
an influence of the will, though we breathe while?refpira“
afleep ; and a natural inftina:, which indeed may exift,
but explains nothing. In fpecifying the feveral organs
concerned, we have heard of an expanfile power of the
lungs, of a certain preffure of tlie phrenic nerve, of a
mufcular diaphragm, and of the aftion of oblique in-
tercoftals. But thefe explanations are from a limited
view of the fubjeft. The expreffions ufed may indeed
be general ; but their meaning is particular, narrow,
and confined ; and their aliufion is only to man, or per¬
haps to a few of the warm-blooded quadrupeds: for
where are the intercoftals of the frog i where is the
mufcular diaphragm of birds ? where the preffure of
their phrenic nerve ? and where the expanfile power of
their lungs? ^
It is fortunate for man that thefe aflifting refpira-whator-
tory organs are in fome meafure fubjeft to his will Sans form
By this fubjeaion he produces vocal found whenr'l??0
he pleafes, divides it into parts, varies it by tones,
forms it into words, and enjoys the diftinguifhed and
numerous advantages that may be derived from a fpo-
ken language. r
Sect. II. Digejiion.
As refpiration fucceeded the placenta in one of its DlJLn
offices by maintaining life, the fvm&ion of digeftion
fucceeds it in another by eitjber continuing or fup-
porting the growth of the living body. It depends
on refpiration for a portion of heat, and is that func¬
tion by which the liquid and folid food undergoes its
firft preparation in the fyftem. „
Though gafeous fluids, including the principles ofGafeous
heat and light, may be proved to nourifh and compofefluid,com
/*i 1« ^.c — n ii ’ 1 1 * . * pofc the
1 r 1 n r * 1  emu uumpoiC r
the fubftances of all living bodies, yet a part only can rAn C
enter the fyftem in a gafeous ft ate. This part isofauT*
changed by^ the lungs, or by thofe fluids which they v,ng bo-
con tain. The organs of digeftion, before they can and
aft on aerial bodies, muft have them reduced to fome C,Wf° thc
new form. For the food of vegetables, this form re.wATE*A
quires to be water, whofe 100 parts are found to con-
fift of Sgf of oxygene and I5f of hydrogene, ^ee
Water.
4 S Whea
(x) Suppofing that there be any in the thorax.
690
Dipefinn.
P H Y S ' I
When the gates have p^fTed through both the watery
ami vegetable ftates, they, as juices or folids, become
the food of a great many animals. Thefe animals
produce new changes, and by their preparation the
Ufes become the food of others which are called car¬
nivorous ; and then the carnivorous and all living bo¬
dies, when the vivirying principle has ceafed within
them, and when they are haltening to a ftate of dif-
folution, are devoured by others who feed on corrup¬
tion, are partly converted into water and gas, and be¬
come in their turn the food of the kinds on which
they had fed. , _ .
As thefe effeas of the digefting and affimilating
powers are more furprifing than any chemical procefs
of art, it may not be unplcafing to take a more parti¬
cular view of them. It has long been obferved, that
thofe animals which are not carnivorous feed upon
plants ; and, fince the days of Van Helmost and
Boyle, it has been fufpeaed that plants live upon wa¬
ter and air. This fufpicion has now been contirmed by
■Vegetables numerous experiments. Plants have been raifed from
live 1 n pure diftilled water without earth, and, mllead of requiring
water. a vegetable mould, have fpread their roots in mofs, in
paper, in cotton, in pieces of cloth, in pounded glafs,
and powder of quartz. From thefc fafts, the ingeni
ous Chaptal has been led to fuppofe that foils aft but
as fo many fponges, affording water in different pro¬
portions, and in different ways ; and that all that the
plant wants from the foil is a firm fupport, a permiffion
to extend its roots where it choofes, and that propor¬
tioned fupply of humidity which will fecure it againft
01 the alternatives of being inundated or dried up. To
life of foil anfwer, however, thefe feveral conditions, he allows it
to vegeta- neceffary in many cafes “ to make a proper mixture
of the primitive earths, as no one in particular poffeffes
them. Siliceous and calcareous earths (he fays) m sy be
confidered as hot and drying, the argillaceous as moift
and cold, and the magnefian as poffcffing intermediate
properties. Each, in particular, has its faults, which
render it unfit for culture. Clay abforbs water, but
90 _
kies.
o L O G Y.
does not communicate it; calcareous earth receives Pigcftlon*
and gives it too quickly; but the properties of thefe ’
earths are fo happily oppofed that they correct each
other by mixture. Accordingly we find, that by add¬
ing lime to an argillaceous earth, this laft is divided,
and the drying property of the lime mitigated, at the
fame time that the ftiffnefs of the clay is diminifhed.
On thefe accounts it is that a fingle earth cannot con-
ftitute manure, and that the charadler of the earth in¬
tended to be meliorated ought to be ftudied before the
choice of any addition is decided on. 1 he belt pro¬
portions of a fertile earth for corn are three eighths of
clay, two eighths of fand, and three eighths of the frag¬
ments of hard ftone. 9*
The advantages of labour confill in dividing the Ufe of a-
earth, aerating it, deftroying ufelefs or noxious plants, g^ure
and converting them into manure by facilitating their blea> & ■
dccompofition.”
So far is vegetable mould from communicating any
thing new to plants, that it rather owes its formation
to them*, and if fea fait (hould at times be requifite to * Chapter*
marine vegetations, it is to be remembered that falts,
fulphur, and lime, are all produffs of organized bodies; vol ^
that iron (y) itfelf has been difeovered in plants and 5 art 4.
animals; and that even diamonds, quartz, cryftals, § V-the
fpars, gypfum, &c. are found only in thofe earths that
are partly compofed of an impoverifhed vegetable refi .ue, arr> ^
which provident nature Teems to have referved for the 93
reproduction or reparation ©f the earthy and metallic Earths and
fubftances oftfhe globe ; while the vegetable mould on
thefe organic parts that remain are made to ferve as prQ(jm«
nourilhment for the growth of fucceeding plants (z). tions.
If thofe earths in which plants are reared, and
which contain no vegetable mould, {hould ever be fen-
fibly diminifhed in weight, a circumitance, we believe,
which feldom takes place if proper precaution be ufed
to prevent it; yet if it {hould hajppen, it {hould not in
that cafe be forgotten that gafes are the general ce¬
ments in nature ; that they mix intimately with the
hardeft bodies; and that this fenfible diminution of
weight
(yWhether iron exifts formally in organized bodies, or is the refult of decompofition, it derives its origin ul¬
timately from gafes. Blood gradually decompofed by putrefadion yielded not only more fclts and lime, but
much more iron than blood, fuddenly decompofed by lime. Though the greater partef an animal or vegetable,
therefore be without fuch fubftances as fait, lime, iron ; yet when decompofed its parts may recombine, and thua
nroduce them. 6ce Surgical and Pbyjtcal EJfays, by Mr John Aberncthy. r rp, •
P ( \ « Vegetables in their analyfis prefent us with certain metals, fueh as iron, gold, and manganefe. The
forms near one-twelfth of the weight of the afties of hard wood, fuch as oak^ It may be ext raffed by the
magnet. We read in the Journaux dc Phyjique an obfervation, in which it is affirmed that it was found in me¬
tallic grains in fruits. Vegetables watered with diftilled water afford it as well as others.
“ Beecher and Kunckel afeertained the prefence of gold in plants. M. Sage was invited to repeat the pro-
ceffes by way of afeertaining the fad. He found gold in the afires of vine twigs, and announced it to t p b-
35c After this chemift, moft perfons who have attended to this objeff have found gold, but in much lefs quam-
tity thanM.1 Sage announced.^ The moft accurate analyfes have fhown no more than two grams, whereas M.
Sage had fpokef of feveral ounces in the quintal. The procefs for extraffing gold from the affies confifts in
fufmg them with black flux and minium.
“ Scheele obtained manganefe in the analyfis of vegetable afhes. ., . . . - , »•
«• Lime coallantly enough form, feven-Unth, of the fixed ref,due of vegetable '"cmerat'on. Next to hme.
alumine i, the malt abundant earth in vegetable,, and next magnefia. b,hceou, «>‘h 'k''v,fe ex, t,, but
lefs abundantly ; the leaft common of aU is the barytes. Chaptal s Elements of Chemijlry, rart iv. $ 5.
^SeVsalts, Sulphur, Iron, Lime, in Elements of Chemijlry. See the Matrix of Diamonds i fee Chaptah
vol. iii» Part 4. $ 5- art. 3.
PHYSIOL
Digeftion
• Surgtal
4tnd Phyji-
nlogual Ef-
fayt by Mr
Jlhcrnetby.
§ Lib. de
Fife, lib i.
Cap. 12.
94
Some ani¬
mals live
on water
alone.
• weight may he owing entirely to Tome diflolution of
' the folid parts, and the confequent extrication of the
gafeous fluids (a).
“ Before we had acquired a knowledge of the con-
ftituent principles of water,” refutnes Chaptal, “ it was
impoffible to explain or even to conceive the growth of
plants by this Angle aliment. In fadt, if the water
were an element, or indecompofable principle, it would
afford nothing but water in entering intp the nutrition
of the plant, and the vegetable would of\ourfe exhibit
that fluid only ; but when we confider water as form¬
ed by the combination of the oxygenous and hydroge¬
nous gafes, it is eafily underflood that this compound
is reduced to its principles, and that the hydrogenous
gas becomes a principle of the vegetable, while the
oxygene is thrown off by the vital forces. According¬
ly we fee the vegetable almoft entirely formed of hydro¬
gene. Oils, refins, and mucilage, confifl of fcarcely any
thing but this fubftance ; and we perceive the oxyge¬
nous gas efcape by the pores where the aftion of light
caufcs its difengagement.”
■ But though water conflitute the aliment of plants,
we muft not fuppofe that it is the aliment of thefe
alone : the leech and the tadpole* are nourifhed by wa¬
ter, and many animals have no other food. “ Rondeletf
cites a great number of examples of marine animals
which cannot fubiiil but by means of water by the very
conftitution of their organs. He affirms, that he kept
during three years a hffi in a veffel conftantly maintain¬
ed full of very pure water. It grew to fuch a fize, that
at the end of that time the veffel could no longer con-
O G Y*
tain it. He relates this as a very common fa&. We Digcftion.
likewife obferve the red fiffies which are kept in glafs 'r~~t
veffels, are nourifhed, and grow, without any other af*
A fiance than that ©f water properly renewed +.” * Chaptdl'*
The ingenious Borelli, who knew that plants and Elem- eS
feveial animals fubfifted wholly by water and air, was^f”-
likewife of opinion that fome animals lived upon fand. part 4**
He could difeover nothing but fand in the flomachs of§ 2* art.
many teftaceous animals that live in the water, and par¬
ticularly in the ftormchs of the fmaller kinds that live
buried in the fand of the fea He could not conceive Somc^ani*
what elfe could be the food of thofe fmall Afhes ornialsfup-
worms which penetrate the fubftance of the hardeft Pofed to
rocks, and form excavations that always bear a proper-l•ive,up03
tion to their bulk. He had regularly found that the why!
flomachs of fwans which he had examined were full of
fand ; and, recolledfing the pebbles in the gizzards of
fowls, he was led to infer that thefe fubftances wore
fomehow diftblved in a gaftric juice, and ferved to
nourifh the harder ^parts, as the ffiells, the feathers,
and the bones (n). ihefe fentiments, on a flight view,
might not be unnatural. From obferving children
of depraved appetites fwallowing fand, alhes, and
cinders; from having fomccimes met with fand in the
ftomacha of wild ducks; from the ufual fasces of the
earth-worm ; and from the difle&ion of feveral toads
dug up in a garden, in whofe ftomachs we could fee
nothing but a quantify of earth, with pieces of coal,
ftone, and of flate, that had accidentally happened to
be mixed with it(c), we long entertained a flmilar
opinion with this celebrated author: but on recolIe&,
4^2 Jng
folIow3 ‘s.from .the 33^ additional note of Dr Darwin’s Botanic Garden.
“ r, f flle£ o!)tained air.of grater or iefs purity, both vital and azotic, from almofl all the fofiil fub*
fiances he fubjeded to experiment. Four ounce weight of lava from Iceland, heated in an earthen retort
yielded twenty ounce meafures of air. lcn reL°rt#
4 ounce weight of
7 
2  
ii 
1 
7 
4 
4 
4  
5  
3  
3r 
4  
Lava
Bafaltes
Tondftone
Granite
Elvain
Gyp Aim
Blue flate
Clay
Lime ftone fpar
Limeftonc
Chalk
White iron ore
Dark iron ore
Molybdena
Stream tin
Steatites
Barytes
Black wad
Sand ftone
Coal
gave 20 ounce meafures of air.
104    
  40 
" 30
- 23°
■ 230
- 20
- 830
Il6o
630
■ 560
• 4IO
‘ 25
20
40
26
80
7S
700
“ Int ‘,hi8 T°mt the Td a'r WM P"™"1]/ wtrafied from the limeftone, by acid., and the heat apolied
much lefs than was neceffary to extra# all the air from the bodies employed.” applied waa
See ^ANGOLm." inferCnCC Wa8 made Mr Burt uPon opening the ftomach of the pangolin of Hindoftan.
to coverthra’a,id dcttroy the ^
96
Ufe of
balh or
692 P H Y S I
Uigdliun. jng that many fubftanees which enter the ftomach are
not nutritious; confidering the balls of hair and of fea¬
thers which the carnivorous animals return, and that
quantity of laecal matter which is difcharged by the
inteliines; having frequently experienced that a fenfe
of fulntfs removes hunger, and obferved perfons as it
were by inllinft prefling on the empty Itomach with
their hand—we began to fufpedt that the fwailowing of
fand, and a number of other indigeftible fubftances,
might not be to nourifh but to prevent fome cravings
of the ilomach, and that thefe cravings were in part
occafioned by a deficiency of the ufual preflure which
it receives from the neighbouring parts. In this opi¬
nion we were more confirmed, by hearing it was cufto-
mary among fome of the tribes of the north of Afia
to repel or mitigate the attacks of hunger by placing
a board over the region which is called epigaftric, and
fandin^he comprefiing it gradually by means of cords as the fio-
ftomach. mach collapfes; and by learning afterwards, on a further
inquiry, that a fimilar pra&ice, and from limilar mo¬
tives, was likewife common with fome individuals in
this country ; who, to alleviate the fenfation of hunger,
ftraiten the epigaftric region with their handkerchief.
This pradtice, however, being often impofiible with the
brute kind, inftead of bringing the neighbouring parts
to prefs on the ftomach, they are obliged to diitend the
Itomach, and to bring it to prefs on the neighbouring
parts. Of the, two ways of producing this preflure,
the laft is certainly the moft natural. Senebier has fup-
pofed that diftenfion of the ftomach is the caufe of the
fecretion of the gaftric liquor; but how well or ill his
opinion may be founded, daily experience permits not a
doubt, that, in order to fatisfy the calls of hunger, the
flomach requires not only to be nourifhed, but to be
filled, or at leaft to have fomething like a fenfe of ful-
nefs ; and this may probably be one rcafon for thole
balls which are found in the flomachs of the chamois,
which likewife fwallows fand, and in the ftormchs of
the cow, the fheep, and of the horfe, “ when they do
pafs away the winter in fnowy mountains, where they
97 can find no grafs” (d).
The orgins From this general view of the food, the natural tran-
cf ‘ligeftion plt.jon j8 to thofe organs by which it is prepared. As
all plants are fed on nothing grofler than liquids, we
fee the reafon why they are all nourifhed by abforbenta,
and why, inftead of one common alimentary canal,
they are furnifhed with a number of capillary veflels,
which by their aftion aflift the living power in moving
the fluids along the trunk, the branches, and the leaves.
in the ve¬
getable.
O L O G Y.
Thefe fluids are obferved to move between the different Digeftioo.
ligneous circles,*' and the more copioufly as the wood
is younger or the nearer the circles are to the bark.
In the circles themfelves, it has been remarked that the
fap veflels, from being empty during a great part of
the growing feafon, have been called air veflels ; that
they are formed of fpiral fibres, adapted to fome peri-
ftaltic motion(E): and it is plain, that by this ftrufture
they are well fitted to propel their contents, whether
water or air, upwards or downwards, backwards or
forwards, according to the different pofitions of the
plant.
Befides the particular a&ion of the veflels, a gene-The,;r ac¬
ral concuflion is received from the movement of the wa-tion how¬
lers or winds, which ferves as an exercife ; a general P‘‘onloteft°
dilatation is occafioned by both moifture and he-at; and
a general contraction by drynefs and cold, which pro¬
duce a motion fomething fimilar to that of the
thorax f Borelli Je
In the fpringing feafon the fap afeends through the Generat. et
empty veflels before the leaves begin to appear. When Vpfetf'
the vcflels are filled through their whole extent, the
buds fwell, the leaves fpread, and the flowers blow; ^
the evaporation from the furface is increafed ; the fap
is diminifhed by the abforption ; the fucciferous veffeis
now ceafe to bleed(f); and the roots being unable to
fupply the wafte, the rains and the dews enter by the
trunk, the branches, the leaves, and the petals of the ^
flowers. When the evacuations are immoderately in-Abforption
crcafed by excefiive heat, or preternaturally obftructed of moUlnre
by the plucking of the leaves, by too much Humidity,111 lh«ve*
or other caufes which prevent perfpiration, the plant11 e*
foon either fickens or dies. The chyle, which is form¬
ed in the fap veflels, has generally fomething of a fac-
charine ta'le. Ioo
Confidering the farms of animal food, we may na- fn the ani-
turally expeft in the animal kingdom a greater variety mal.
of thofe organs employed in cligeflion. Moft animals
have indeed, like the vegetable, both inhaling and ex¬
haling velitls, by which fome of their fluids are ab-
forbed, and evacuations regularly carried on. Except,
however, in thofe animals which fubfift by liquids,
thefe veffeis are of little importance in receiving food
or eje&ing what is faecal trom the fyftem. In thefe
animals the abforbents terminate in a hollow vifcus»
which is called the alimentary canal, where the fluids
undergo a preparatory change, and are partly reab-
forbed for afiimilation. In all others the food enters
by a probofeis (g), or by an aperture which is called
the
(d) Bartholine, quoted by the French Academy, thought that thefe balls were compofed of the hair which
the cows lick from their fkin, or of the wool which the fheep eat. But the horfe does not lick himfelf, and
many of thefe balls feem to be compofed of ligneous fibres. The balls which are found in the chamois are
called by Velfchius German be%oar. See Anat. Defcription of Chamois or Gemp, by the French Academy.
(e) “ The fuperior part of the inteftine, which contained about thirteen inches, had a veiy particular flruc-
ture ; for, inftead of the ordinary circumvolutions of the inteftines, the cavity of this was tranlverfely interrupt¬
ed with feveral feparations, compofed of the membranes of the inteftine folded inwards. Thefe leparations were
near half an inch diftant from each other, and turned round like the fhell of a fnail or of a ftaircafe with an
open newel.” Anat. Defcription of the Sea fox} ibid. Thefe membranous folds running fpirally, are not uncom¬
mon in the alimentary canals of animals.
(f) This happens in a great many plants. _ .
(g) Every perfon may have an opportunity of feeing a probofeis in a number of thofe winged inleCts which
extract juices from plants. It is very ealily diicernible in the butterfly. In this infedt it is a fine moveable
DigcAIon. the mouth
alimentary duft. It is very generally furnifhed with a
tongue (h), which is ufually affifting in deglutition j
and if the food he of that nature to require cutting,
tearing, or grinding, it is likewife furnilhed with the
j-roper inllruments (i) for thefe operations. When
the food is teflaceous orfoine hard vegetable fubftanc
ioi
Food tri¬
turated in
the mouth
•r dcmach
Jo»
In wiiat
manner di¬
luted
i©3
In different
animals.
PHYSIOLOGY. 6o.
' o* m°u,.h “ Pr°PerI>' of ‘«K ™«m the P*rrot was obfer.ed by the gentlemen of Dtgefttua.
the freiich academy. It has fmee been obferved in  '
rooks, macaws, cockatoos, and others : and Mr Hun-
ter, to whom phyfiology i3 fo much indebted, difeo- 104
vered, tuat the male and the female pigeon fecrete inRuaiiru-t
their ingluviea a certain liquor for feeding their young°f
the jaws^ and frmll pebbles which the animals fwallow To the ruminating kinds the diluting fac is by no Par?o? the
means peculiar. The porpoife has one, though it doe&ftornach
not ruminate ; and many of thofe animals which have^/*8 a
none, as the rat, the hog, and the horfe, have a part rVOir‘
of the ftomach covered with a cuticle, and which mult
therefore principally ferve as a refervoir. The aullets
of feveral fiihes and ferpents are facs of this kind. It
frequently happens that a part of their prey is projed-
mg from the mouth, while another part fills up the
guhet and gradually dtfeends, to be reduced in the
ioivent below. So very dilatable are the ftomachs and
guhets of fome animals, that ferpents have been often
feen to fwallow whole animals which, prior to the
gorging, were larger than themfelves ; and many po-
ypes, and even fouie of the loufe kind, will, by fwal-
ferve it for teeth
Befides mere trituration or grinding, the folid food
will often require to be mixed with "fome additional
liquid (k). In thofe carnivorous animals which chew,
this liquid during the time of maftication flows
into the mouth from certain glands placed in the
neighbourhood. In fome fpecies of the ape kind a
previous dilution takes place in two pouches fituated
©n the fices of the lower jaw. In granivorous birds
this dilution is very ufually performed in a faefe),
which is a dilatation of the canal; and the food being
macerated there by the glands or exhaling veffels, gra¬
dually paflls down (m), as is needed, to be triturated
and farther prepared in the llomach. In the rumina¬
ting kind the dilution is performed in a fimilar man¬
ner : but thefe having no mufcular ftomach fitted for
tfrrinntnrr t r» A ^ C  J * r * • .
lowing food, more than double their own bulk.
up again into the mouth, and is then after the proper
maftication fent to the ftomach. If the food require
no maftication, it is fent diredly that way at firft : a
circumftance which fhows a curious difeernment with
refpeft to foods, and proves that their alimentary canal
is fubjed to the aftion of voluntary mufcles as far
as the ftomach. _ Some of thofe birds which have a
diluting fac or ingluvies feem likewife to ruminate.
Ipecies of animals which ruminate have two ftomachs, or
at leaft two divifions in one; that fome have three, as the
gazella; and fome four, as the cow, the dromedary, and
the fheep : but it muft not be fuppofed that the number
of ttomachs is any proof of a ruminating power. It was
laid already that the porpoife has two ; the porcupine
has three dmlions in one; and the fingular caffowar,
although it be found to have four ftomachs, does not
rumi»
tube, polTeffing a great ,aricty ofaftlon. It term for a hand, a mouth, and a gullrt; and when not e,
tended ,n fearch of food ,t .. coded up m etrcnlar fold,. The elephant has both a month and probofch and
this probofcis is one of the moft fingular of living organs. pioooicis, and
(n) The crocodile has no tongue , the oftricb, the feal, and fome others, have forked tongues - the cor
tnorant has a double tongue ; fome hke the eagle, have a cartilaginous tongue; fome, ifke the notcu-
p,ne, have .t tootned. We have found a bone m the tongue of a goofe ; the Tongue of the camcLfn ;8 a
hollow trunk hke a protofc.s; the tongue of the frog 1, forked and long_it is robed up in the month Tnd
ot.gmates horn the fore-part of the lower jaw In fome the tongue is the organ of tafte ; in other" th’eTn
ftrument for fe.z.ng then prey. In d.ftmgn.lh.ng food, moll animals rely ehiefly on fmell
(i) rhefe in liniments arc corneous, bony, or calcareous; they are teeth or bill.; their fituation is the
tongue, he jaws, the palate, or the ftomach. Many teeth feem intended only for attack or defence for
feizmg, kilhng, or retaining the prey. This is remarkable in the fangs of ferpents, and in the We tudb^f-
thc elephant, the barbiroufla, and fome other animals, where they have fome resemblance to horns, Ll Jllcf
fiom the mouth. The philodotus and ant-eater have no teeth; the larvae of infe&s have generally two
which are placed externally, and cut like a forceps. generally two,
ofir.lJi'V",™"7 petfons whofe tongue, and mouths are naturally dry, and when they fwallow a olece
hr ad muft call for water or fome other moiftener. This complaint is even fometimes general in a family
iby mouths ^ eVj thr°“Sh ,t3 diffacnt brM<:hes- Cockatoos and parrots have likewife-
glariSs.rhC bultarl1 haS n° rac °f tl‘S kinii but the a'foPhaf:us « remarkable for the largencfs if its
the(giLIanrd.he°ftriChthe relbPhaS"s Palr“ a»<l returns, and the crop opens from below upwards rut*
694
PHYSIOLOGY.
IG>7
Oigeftion. ruminate; nor, although granivoroun, is any one of the
four a gizzard.
Somewhat different from thefe expanfions which we
have been mentioning aa exifling in the firft part of
the alimentary canal, is a fort of pouch (n) which
hangs from the neck and the lower mandible of feveral
birds, and which, like the two pouches of apes, may
be ufed either to macerate the food or to carry pro-
Refervoira vifions from a diflance to their young. The pelican,
of water a native of warm countries, employs this pouch fome-
in the pe- tjmes to carry a quantity of water ; and another na-
JamdT tivc of the fame countries, we mean the dromedary,
was obferved to have at the top of the fecond of the
four ventricles a number of fquare holes, which being
■the orifices of as many cavities between the membranes
which compofe the ventricle; reminded the gentlemen
of the French academy of thofe large refervoirs of wa¬
ter which Pliny mentions to be in camels ; and for
which, according to his ftory, their guides have open¬
ed them fometimes in cafes of extreme tbirft.
We come now to one of the principal agents in di-
geftion. Independent of the fluids which mingle with
the food in the mouth, the gullet, or macerating facs,
there is one denominated the gajlric juice, and which,
either by itfelf or along with others from the aliments
The gaftrkor fyitem, ads in fome meafure as a folvent. It is fe-
juice.
crcted from 1 .rge glands at the entrance of the giz¬
zard, from veflels o? glands in the coats of the fto-
mach, and perhaps moft plentifully near the pylorus:
it powerfully relifts the puttefaftivc fermentation ; it
coagulates milk and the white of an egg ; it diffolves
food even when inclofed in metallic tubes; and when
life ceafes, it ads frequently on the very ftomach from
which it was fecreted. Its tafte, its colour, and its fol¬
vent powers, are different in different claffes of animals.
It feems to be modified according to the age, the
health, the habit, and the different aliments on which
they live. The hck and the child are incapable of di-
getting the food that is proper for a healthy man.
The hawk kind, after loathing bread and throwing it
up without any change, can be gradually brought to
take it for food ; and Gafiendi has mentioned a certain
lamb which, being fed on bread, cheefe, and on fleth, re-
* Bordlidt fufed afterwards to tafle grafs *. But what is moft
Nutritionc furprifing in the gaftric juice is, that it fpares all li-
Animnl. vj bodies, as thofe worms which exift in the ftomach,
W-1?4* and the fh ■mach itfelf while it is alive; and it differs
otherwife from a chemical folvent, in that it has an af-
fimilnting power, and reduces all fubftances, whether
animal or vegetable, on which itadfs, to a certain fluid
of determinate properties, which is called chyle.
Befides the gaftric, the food again, after pafiing
through the ftomach, is mingled with a greenifh i'apo-
naceous liquor, which is called bile, and which flows
either immediately from the liver or from a veficle in¬
to which it had regurgitated as into a blind gut ; at
the fame time nearly it is mingled with another refcm-
bling the faliva from the pancreas or fweet bread ; a
gland or glands whofe place is fupplied in a great ma¬
109
The bile
and pan¬
creatic
juice.
ny fifhes by a number of vermicuhr appendages to the Digcftiofl.
ftomach. . ""no
In fhort, from one extremity of the alimentary ca- Qthcr
nal to the other, fluids are perpetually flowing into its juice*,
cavity from glands, veffels, or organic pores ; and the
membranes conftantly fecreting a mucus to prote&
themfelves from the acrimony of their contents- This
acrimony muft often be confiderable near to that end
of the canal where the faeces are dlfcharged; for as the
firft part of the canal has generally one or more dilata¬
tions which are called Jlomachs, and fecretes atleaft-onc
fluid which is ftrongiy antifeptic, fo the la ft part has rIt
generally appendages which are c lied caca, where the The caeca
food always remains for fome time, and where, from of the ali-
the quantity of animal matter that happens to be mix-™^arT
ed with it, it becomes putrefcent. The office of the
caeca is fometimes fupplied by the largenefs and con¬
volutions of the colon(o); to which gut the ileum can¬
not, when it enters laterally, fo tafily communicate its
periftaltic motion. As the ftomachs were the recep¬
tacles of the food when it entered, the coeca are re¬
ceptacles of the fcecal matter before it be difebarged.
They are of various forms and capacities ; they are
often larger than the ftomach itfelf; are often com-
pofed of proportionally thin and tranfparent mem¬
branes ; and from their contents have often a colour
fomewhat refembling that of the gall-bladder. Their
number is different in different animrds. Some have
but one. The birds which have them have generally
two; the buftard has three; and Swammerdam has dif¬
fered infects which had four. As fome ftomachs have
a number of folds which hang pendulous within their
cavity, and increafe their furface, fo have often the
caeca as well as fome portions of the canal. The cae¬
cum of both the rabbit and the hare is curioufly form¬
ed. It is large and beautitul; it is rolled up like a
cornu ammonis ; it has the like outward appearance;
and a fold running fpirally is obferved within. The
animals which live on vegetable food have ufually the
greateft length of the canal, and the greateft number
of ftomachs and of caeca : yet the caffowar, which
has no gizzard, has no caecum; and the polype, which
is faid to be all ftomach, is properly (peaking rather
all caecum J.
To fee more fully the procefs of digeftion, we muft A&ion of
not overlook that general and organic aftion which the alimen-
takes place through the whole alimentary canal. Thetary canal,
power of maftication exerted in the mouth is obvious
to all. But the force of fome ftomachs has til! very
lately been known to few ; we allude here to that of
the mufcular or gizzard kind : for Abbe Spallanzani
has divided ftomachs into three forts ; the mufcular,
the membranous, and intermediate. The immortal ^ IX3 .
Borelli, who was probably the firft that tried the force
of the mufcular ftomachs by throwing into them nuts ft,;rnachs
of filberds; hollow fpheres of glafs, hollow cubes of fii ft efti-
lead, fmall pyramids of wood, and feveral other very mated by
hard fubftances, fuppofed that the power exerted by 01 e **
the ftomach of the Indian cock ( p) was equal to -35°
pounds
(n) A pouch of this kind is obferved in our common rook.
(o) The bear, whofe intettines are 40 feet long, has nothing refembling a colon or a coecum.
(p) The original h ga/fus fndicus, which in the writings of Longalius, Gefn-er, and Aldrovandus, means a
8 bird
P H Y S I
Blgefticm. pounds weight. The force of an intermediate ftomach
* cannot he fo great, and that of a membranous one muft
be fiill lefs. Each feems to have more of the folvent
as it has lefs of the mufcular power. The moll mem¬
branous are affifted by the aftion of the neighbouring
parts, ar^‘tjexp ll their contents as readily as the ftrong-
eft. I'l^mufcular fort is either wholly or principally
confined to certain kinds of birds and of filhes, as na¬
ture has meant that the grain or the fhells which they
life as food fhould firft be triturated before it be fub-
jefted to the gaftric juice. This comminution takes
place in their ilomach, becaufe it is plain that had
bones or mufcles, fully equal to all thefe etlefts, been
placed in the head, the form of the animal muft have
been altered, or that equilibrium which it preftrves in
thofe fluid elements through which it moves been com-
1*4 pletely overturned.
^alirnetf . As.t0 ^ movements of the alimentary canal, the
taryVanaL-<3Jre^'on hair8 found in the ftomachs, and the balls
of hair which are thrown up, would appear to indicate
a circular motion. The intcftinal part has a motion
fimilar to that of a worm, and is called the vermicular
or perifta/tic. Here every portion retains its own mo¬
tion, although it be feparated from the reft by liga¬
tures. The ftomach of the polype, the gullets of the
ruminating kinds, and the coeca, have this motion in
different directions at different times ; and that ob-
ferved in the alimentary canal of a loufe is, when view-
0 L O G Y. 695
ed through a microfcope in the time of action, ama* Digeftion.
singly rapid ; the ftimulating caufes employed are the
food, the different liquors with which it is mixed, the
air, the nerves where they exift, and a portion of heat.0f ftimuli
Some degree of heat is neceffary to every procefs of di employed,
geftion both in the animal and vegetable kingdom :
what that degree is depends on the nature of tlu li¬
ving body; and is various according to its age, its
health, its employments, and habits. The ingenious
Hunter has mentioned the digeftive and generative
heats; and thofe gardeners who are verfant id the ope¬
rations of hot-houfes, have on their thermameters the
fwtiling, flowering, and the ripening heats, with a
great many others for the feveral plants which they
mean to raife. Irg
Among the other caufes of digeftion fome authors The vinousa
have ranked fermentation: and it mull be allowed,acetous,and
that fomething fimilar to the putrefaClive fermenta-^'lti^efa^‘v<s^
tion takes place in the cceca and the lower extremity tjonj^n
of the inteftine, and that the vinous and acetous fer¬
mentations but too frequently occur in our ftomach
when that vifeus is morbidly affe£led(Qj.
_ Much of the hiftory of living bodies relates to the HeaVne-
different degrees of heat, the varieties of foil, and the ceffary to-
kincls of food concerned in digeftion. The plants digcftion*'
grow where the foil and the he t are congenial to
their nature ; and thofe which admit of the greateft
variety with refped to foil, and the largeft range on
the
bird different from the cocq <TInde or Turkey cock. Johnfton has called it gallus Perficus. See The Anato*
m’calDefcriplton of two Indian Cocks by the French Academy. Galltna Indica is Ainfworth’s Latin for
the Guinea hen. See Borelli de Nutrit. Animal. Prop. 189, 190, 191.
• ^ ma^ °e ' 38 an ax'orn (fays Mr Hunter), that two proceffes cannot goon at the fame time
in the fame part of any fubftance; therefore neither vegetable nor animal fuhftances can undergo their fpontane*
ous changes while digeftion is going on in them ; a procefs fuperior in power to that of fermentation. But if
the digeftive power is not perfeft, then the vinous and acetous fermentation will take place in the vegetable and
the putrefa&ive in the food of thofe animals which live wholly on flefh. The gaftric juice therefore preferves
from_ running into fermentation and animal fubftances from putrefadlion ; not from any antifeptic
quality in the juice, but by making them go through another procefs, prevents the fpontaneous change from
taking place. °
In moft ftomachs there is an acid, even although the animal has lived upon meat for many weeks: this,
however, is not always the cafe ; therefore we muft fuppofe it is only formed occafionally. Whether the
ilomach has a power of immediately ft-creting this acid, or firft fecretes a fugar which afterwards becomes
acid, is not ealily afeertained : but we fhould be inclined to fuppofe from analogy the lall to be the cafe ; for
animals in health feern to have the power of fecreting fugar, as I find in the milk, and fometimes in the
urine from difeafe. d he acid prevails fcmetimes to fo great a degree as to become a difeafe, attended with
very difagreeable fymptoms; the ftomach converting all fubftances which have a tendency to become
acid into that form: the fugar of vegetables, and even fometimes vinous fpirits, turning direftly into
acid. 1
** afeertain whether there is an acid naturally in the ftomach, it will be proper to examine the contents
before the birth, when the digeftive organs are perfect, and when no acid can have been produced by dif¬
eafe or any thing that has been fwallowed. In the (link calf, near the full time, there is acid found fn the
ftomach, although the contents have the fame coagulating powers with thofe of animals who have fucked.
. “ Spallanzani gives the opinion of authors refpefting digeftion ; and fo anxious is he to combat the idea of
its being fermentation, that he will hardly allow that fermentation ever takes place in the ftomach. That
fermentation can go on in the ftomach, there is no doubt. It is often found that milk, vegetables of all kinds,
wine, and whatever has fugar in its compofition, become much fooner four in fome ftomachs than they would
if left to undergo a fpontaneous change out of the body ; and even fpirits in certain ftomachs almoft imme¬
diately degenerate into a very ftrong acid All oily fubftances, particularly butter, very foon become lancid
after being taken into the ftomach ; and this rancidity is the effeeft of the firft procefs of the fermentation of
oil. Mr Sieffert has been able to reftore rancid oils to their original fweetnefs, by adding to them their
due quantity of fixed air ; the lofs of which I confider as the firft procefs in this fermentation, fimilar to what
happens in the fermentation of animal and vegetable fubftances.” Obfervations on Digejlion by Mr Hunter,
6g6
118
One inten¬
tion of the
locomotive
power in
living bo¬
dies to pro
cure food
119
Exerted by
.plants.
120
Farther oh'
fervations
on the lo¬
comotive,
power.
P H Y S I
the feale of heat, are the fartheft chfpeifed over the
globe. As every foil has ufually fome regulai fupply
of moifl’irc, the plants that can live upon that fupply
extend their roots under the furface where their li¬
quid food is the leaft expoled to evaporation, and
meeting there with the conllant nourifhment which
they require, they remain in that fituadon for life(R).
If their trunks be fo feeble as to need a fupport, they
creep on the ground, they climb the face of a neigh¬
bouring rock, or clin^- to the body of fome of the
flatelier children of the foreft. Their lange for foo.4
is extremely limited: it is chiefly confined to the fmall
fpace which happens to be occupied by their roots and
branches; yet if any uncommon exertion be neceflhry,
the branches will bend, and the leaves turn to drink
of the water that is palling by. If the roots be laid
bare, they will again plunge into the earth; if a ftone
or a ditch be thrown in the way, they will move round
or will dip downwards, and fpread into the foil on the
other fide: if there they arrive at one that is unfriend¬
ly, they will not enter ; but if a favourite earth Ihould
be near, though not in their direction, they will twift
about, advance as they grow, and at lait meet it. In
all theie cafes the prop, the water, and foil, mud
be nectfiary ; they mud alfo be within a very fmall
didance, otherwife the plants cannot perceive them, or
will fail in their languid attempts to approach them.
It may be confidered as a general fa<5t, that where-
ever food is liberally fupplied for a whole lifetime in
one place, the creatures which ufe it have feldom much
locomotive power, or much inclination to cxercife it in
.a long continued and progrelfive line. The curious in-
fe£t is therefore obferved to depofit its offspring in
thofe places where the profpett of genial warmth and
of plenty feem to preclude the future neceffity of wan¬
dering or refearch ; and when this offspring is about
to pafs into a new Hate, and the organs foretel that a
change or perhaps a variety of food will foon be re¬
quired, the appearance either of wings or of legs do
likewife forefhow that the power of locomotion is to
be increafed. Even nobler animals in their fetal date,
where they live upon one fpecies of food, and where
that is afforded in regular plenty, do fpread out their
roots, adhere to their foil, and become as ftationary as
the plant itfelf; and even when that fupply is with¬
drawn, and they are expelled, yet if the ftate into
which they emerge be helplefs and feeble, if their or¬
gans of digeftion have a weak folvent or mafticating
power, particularly adapted to fome eafily aflimilated
food, and if that food be prefented either by their pa¬
rent or nature without their exertion, their powers of
locomotion is not great, nor is it exercifed in wander¬
ing afar. It is when the organs of digeftion are
O L O G Y.
ftrong, and the appetite inclines to variety of aliment, Cigeftioru
that they are difpofed and feel themfeives able to wan* v
der in fearch of it ; and that then they may be ready
to move at intervals from place to place, when the
enemy comes or the fpirit prompts them, nature has
direfted them to folid food, and has given, them a
large alimentary canal with ftomachs, witfrebnvolu-
tions, and cceca, where they may lay up proviiiona
for a journey ; but afraid to entruft them with too
much freedom, left in their excurfions they might wan¬
der from the places where fubfiftence is found, there
are two appetites, hunger and thirft, which never tail
in a ftate of health to remind them of their duty.
This variety of food, and the manner in which it is
affedled by climate, are the caufe of the many and Angu¬
lar migrations from fpot to fpot, from country to coun- rlT
try, and from fea to fea : they are the caufe of a ff ate Some final
of torpor in the hedgehog and the bear, and they part-caufes of
ly explain the provident forefight of the ant and of^J01"?*^
the bee. Animals of great locomotive power, in or-1
der to provide for themfeives and their offspring, re¬
move to a diffant country or climate when they fee
the figns of approaching famine. Thofe of lefs loco¬
motive power, and who are incapable of migrating far,
as if warned by heaven, lay up a ftore for the fcarcity
to come ; or ffrould their food be of that kind as not
to be eafily preferved for a feafon, they receive no fe«
cret warning to hoard it at the time when it fails,,
their fyffetn becomes fufceptible of torpor, and they
are enabled to fleep through the ftorm of trouble and
of want. The fource of this want is in moft inftances
to be traced to the nature of the plant and infedf. The
plant which has little heat of its own depends on the
fun or fome other agent for one of the great caufes of
digeftion. When this agent refufes the neceffary heat,
the plant muff decline ; its leaves, its juices, and its
fruits muff fail. .The infedl tribe, which had no other
food, or which like the plant could not maintain their
vivifying warmth, mutt likewife fubmit to the fame fate.
The various animals which live on either the one or
the other, according to their feveral difpofitions and
characters, retire to their itores, to their dens of tor¬
por, or migrate to a country to which they are led by*
unfeen guides to lhare in its abundance. Of thefe bail
the rail (s) and the fvvallow are the only two which
are fornetimes arretted, and which, with the bear, the
hedgehog, and the toad, are obliged to remain in the
dwellings of torpor till the genial feafon of warmth
and of plenty.
Sect. III. Alforption.
When the food has undergone the firft preparation,
which is called digcjlion^ and the chyle (t) is formed in
the
(r) Many of the fat plants live chiefly by the abforption of moifture from the air; and many fevplants
float through the ocean, and having plenty of food wherever they go, they fend out no roots In order to
feUrch for it.
(s) All the birds on the lakes of Siberia are faid by Profeflbr Gmelin to retreat fouthward on the com¬
mencement of froft, except the rail, which fleeps buried in the fnow. Account of Siberia quoted by Dr Dar¬
win in his 'The Loves of the Plants.
(t) The chyle of different living bodies has not yet been amlyfed ; in man it ia generally a whitifh fluid
referabling milk, and yielding water, oil, fugar, and a coagulable lymph.
P H Y S I
^Uo-ption. tfrc aliwenury C*m\ cr fpp vejTcls, ft is thence taken
I ZI UP ^7 means of pbfoiptjon for the ufe of the fyflrm.
Farther From the veflels it pafies into the whole cellular tifiue,
progrefs of corr.pofed of veficles, and clofely interwoven with ail
tlantfi01 li C! C va/t,l),3r Pa, t °Pt^e pi int. From the veficles or utri-
F cles of the cellular tiffue it enters the vafa propria and
glands, which contain and prepare the fluids and fe-
cretions peculiar to the fpecies.
In the animal economy it was always fuppofed that
t chyle w'as abforbed by the ramifications of the red
vein,8 fpreadinff on tfcegut, till the 1622, when Afelliua
U an ltaIian difcoyered the ladeals (c) running on the
mefentery of a livmg dog, and printed his account of
them in 1627. As he had net traced their ceurfe
very far, he naturally thought that they went to the
liver, which was then imagined to he the organ of fnn-
gmfication. This opinion, with rdped to the place
where they enteied the veins, continued to be general
till 1651, when Pecquet in France publifhed his ac¬
count of the thoracic dud (x). With great candour
this author acknowledged, that he had been led to
make the difeovery by obferving a whitifh fluid mixed
with the Hood in the right nun He of the heart of a
dog, which kind of animal it had been cuflomary to
difled alive fince the time of A fell ins. “ This pradice
of opening living animals furnilhtd likewife occafions
(fays Dr Hunter) of difeovering the lymphatics. This
good fortune fell to the lot of Rudtec firft, a young
Swedrlh anatomift, and then to Thomas Bartholine(v)
a Dnmlh anatomift, who was the firft who appeared in
lymphaticsPnrit upon the lymphatics. His book enme out in
Sred 'ToTxiv’prt rr8 al‘'r th“of K'iuct*i,nii
{n animals.
1 *4
in 162a.
i*5
Thoracic
duct difeo-
ve ed in
I65I.
T2.6
o L o G Y. 697
then it was evident that they had been fecn before by ^kfo-ption.
Dr H ghmore and others, who had miftaken them for  '
ladeals; but (adds Dr Hunter) none of the anatomifta
fhofe timt;s could make out the origin of the lym¬
phatics, and none of the phyfiologifts could give a fa-
°{ t!:dr ufe(z) He had not known Ufe of7the
1 rr 1 1 'i0n, ^ 10 wr°te in 1654, has aferibed to thefe lymphatics
velie.s the office of carrying the lubricating lymphdifcoverc:i1
from the fever d cavities back into the blood; and ^
that Frederic Hoffman has expreffed the dodrine of 1 ^
their being abforbents very explicitly*. R™n‘C’
It was on the 19th of June 1664 that Swammer-^rjib. i.
dam discovered the valves of thefe veffels; and Ruyfch, § a- caP- 3-
who had feen them, perhaps very nearly about that 148
time firft gave an account of them in a fmall treatife Tf?eir
w hich he publiftied at the Hague in 166c. valves cif-
U.e felt n oi.e of derronflraung the lymphatics 1664.
we probably owe to the celebrated Nuck, who, as a
ir-ecimen of that complete fyftem of Lymphography
winch he meant to publifh (a), printed in 1691 his „
.d«nWy, or defcriptlon of th. glands. In .hismieS '
r^a 1 'j' pot only telle us how he brought them iuto^’^h mcr-
view, but in his plates reprefents many of them as cury before
filled with his new mercurial injedions ; a happy in-l69U
vention, which perh ps was fuggefted by remarkine
the extreme fubcihty of mercury when employed in
the cure of venereal inftdion.
A method by which he inflated thefe veffels led him
to fuppofe that they took their origin from vein* or
artenes either immediately or through the interven¬
tion of feme follicles (b). The celebrity of his name
procured credit to this miftake ; and notwithftanding
4T th?
^ Ga,en- ,„„g before been feen by EradP.rau,, who called
! V ! Tb'S ^'ra ■ ’’'T’i''," befor' hr Eup«'li;«s- See Ee/nri. J, Ftna/m,pari
'vcre ra“de m tlc lcars ^ *■>«> *-
forL'^a^^h^lfh^nlrU leaLr^h^L '""A* ^ The
affernon. The latter feems to have made the difcoverl in Ppea8to,.h^ pup^b for the truth of the
Dr Tef,bu, in varii, Aninalilu,. Before the printinT of thf. rhef^ DrEbik wldt‘" °c " “ ^thc,5,
concerning the valvular lymphr.tics had been long entertained by Dr Hunter T him °Plnion>
Dr Hunter’s ledure* in Loudon ; heard the whole dodri^ of the n 1 I?/n Dr Monr° attendcd
1757 reprinted his opinion at Berlin without taking notice of Dr Hn J ^ aU/8 V,try fu, y exPla’ned ; and in
and the charge is retorted by Dr Monro g °‘ Dr HuDt€r *’ who charges h‘m with plagiarifm 5
(a) Lymphographiae, quod offertur fpecimen, uhi Icdori non ingratum i>erreoero » r
|,aNuik"L"dTr'-nre T'm d!,aibu' f'^rHenre,. J/ ML,raptiam ,ranClUrUS tUn,
the fpsces between tVe ribs, in the loins, on the diaphraom on the heart’ rh «■ membrane of the lungs, on
bladder, on the ftomach, on the mefemery, cn the tunica^albuginea of the tefle ^ f " t^e Lthe
ha (continues he), ut multipfiu expenemia et ^ ^ ^ ,n the hand»-
ZrUmy b^tianvm fyftma a capite ad ealeem mihi compofucrim. cujus delineationem^ibente^cecHm Ut
Lyirphographiara
varia me hanc circa fpeculationem molitum^uiffrvahis exper^nil^ d,fm J
taffe, cafuque tandem oionnulla detexiffe qu* lucem, hie adferre poffunt. otdinano conatu) vana ten-
fum in^rteriam fj^ent^Tminfudia^ni,*^'"piHtu^ortius^dado ncTt ?Pe‘ ^ C°^
ms vidi clevari veficulas, led ex lifdem vefSl v^ M ’ TJ T eX,?Ua8 in ^P^ficie lie.
tantia vidi, et quo diutius arteria fuit inflata eo Jymphatica, flatu etiam turgida et lienem perrep-
, quo uiuuus arteria ruit inflata, eo mrjorem notavi vaforum numetum, ita ut, hac arte per in-
fliduna
)
6gS
P H Y S I
Abforption. the founder opinion of Gliffon, of Hoffman, and fome
l—v—1 others, the old notion that the veins performed the of¬
fice of nbforbents came fo far down as the great names
of Haller and of Meckel. The arguments, however,
by which it was fupported are (hown now, and parti¬
cularly by thofe of the Hunterian fchool, to have been
*3° injections that were not{kiliful>obferv tionsthat were not
Difcovered accurate, and conclufions that were not logical ; while
in birdsamlthe Rafted affertion that birds,and filhes were without
laCteals and without lymphatics, has been difproved by
the fortunate difcoveries of Mr Hewfon and Dr Mon¬
ro. Excepting, therefore, in the penis and placenta,
and in thofe animals whofe veins may be injeCted from
the gravid uterus, the lymphatics leem to perform the
whole bufinefs of abforption. They contain a fluid
that is coagulable like the lymph of the blood, and are
called valvular to diftinguifh them from the arteries that
do not admit the red globules. They derive their ori¬
gin from the cellulat membrane, from the different ca¬
vities, and from the furface. Some authors fay that
they have feen them in the brain (c), and thefe Maf*
131 cagni has ventured even to defcribe in prints. i. hat
Have been fome indeed may exill in the brain, has not been de-
fetn in the nied; but to believe that they have been found, and to
truft affertions which are not countenanced by the ob-
fervations of fkilful anatomifts, requires a faith which
for our part we do not pretend to. Both they and the
la&eals derive their name from the colour of the fluids
which they contain. They both empty themfelves into the
veins; but moll of the lymphatics in the human fubjeft,
and all the laicals firfl unite in the thoracicduft, which
near the heart leads into the courfe of thecirculation.
Sect. IV. Circulation.
After part of the food is converted into chyle, and
this chyle abforbed by the la&ea’s, and brought into
the courle of the circulation, it remains to be ddbri-
131
iruin.
O L O G Y.
bated to all the different parte of the fyftem. On this Cimila-
account, Hippocrates fpeaks of the ufual and conftant tion^
motion of the blood j:, of the veins and arteries as the " j
fountains of human nature, as the rivers that water the Hippocra-
whole body, and which if they be dried up man dies tea fpojte of
He fays tnat the blood veffds are for this re»ifon every-
where difperfed through the whole body ; that they i,jood ^,ut
give fpirits, moilture, and motion ; that they all fpringhis lan-
from one ; and that this one has no beginning and no^uage is
end, for where there is a circle there is no beginning (d).
In fuch language was the prince of phyficians accut Morlh ‘
tomed to exprefs his vague ideas of a circulation ; forp. 137.
fo far was he from having acquired accurate conccp- § H'.ppocrat
tions on this fubjedt, that when he faw the motions of LjC ^orae’ |
the heart, he believed that the auricles were two bel-
lowfcs to draw in air, and to ventilate the blood.
When after his time anatomy came to be more ftu-
died, the notions of the ancients refpecting the blood Arteries j
were better defined ; and, however chimerical they may dificuvered !
ietm to us, they were partly derived from difledtion
and experiment. On opening dead bodies, they found out b:00d':
that the arteries were alrnofi empty (e), and that very in dead
nearly the whole of the blood was collefted in the bodies,
veins, and in the right auricle and ventricle of the
heart. They therefore concluded that the right ven¬
tricle was a iort of laboratory ; that it attracted the
blood from the Cavas; by fomc operation rendered, it fit
for the purpofe of nutrition, and then returned it by the
way that it came. From the almott empty ftate of the
arteries, they were led to fuppofe that the right ventricle
prepared ai-r, and that this air was conveyed by the ar¬
teries to temper the heat of the feverai parts to which
the branches of the veins were diitributed.
To this laft notion entertained by Erafiftratus, Ga- 134
len added an important difeovery. By certain experi- Proved by
meats, he proved that the arteries contained blood as
well as the veins. But this difeovery was the occafion Wooti ,n
of living bo*
dies.
fii&um vafis lymphaticis vulnus aer immiffus, membrana linealis fere tota lymphaticis duttibus obfefla file-
^Abeo tempore conjicere caepi vaf irum lymphaticorum principia ab arteriarum furculis emanare, idque aliquan-
do intermedia velicula, aliquando deficiente velicula, immediate ab ipfa arteria venave. Jdenographia curiofa, cap. 4.
(c) Sed rogare videris, utrum in cerebro etiam vafa occurrant lymphatica ? Qjiamvis ex recentioribus,
nonnulli in eorum deferiptione fatis iibefales, eadem concedant et facile admittam : Verum, quod pafiim
obfervo fyftemata in proprio cerebro formant et vifeera ex fuo placito componunt: ad experimenta enim pro-
vocati nihil egregii prseflare valent. Nunquam hac in parte, ut ingenue loquar, hailenus Scopum attingere
notui. Interim non negandum cenfeo aliquando cerebri lymphatica in una aut altera parte fuiffe vifa ; et non
ita pridem, anatomicus quidam mihi amicilfimus, inter alia inventa, haec nobifeum, communicat. “ Vidi, inquit,
lymphaticum in cerebro Bovino, quod examine tuo (ut originem feias et infertionem) erit dignifiimum. Non
longe a glandula pineali, a qua ramos forte habet, incumbit plexui choroideo, ad mfundibuli latera fefe exten-
dens ” Ante biennium dudum lymphaticum ex pini glandula eodem modo ut aliis glandulis, exeuntera vidi.
Ita ut quidera certiffimum, et cerebrum fuos habere rivulos aquofos, fed nondum diftinde, in lucem protrados.
Jipift. Anat. .
(d) Hippocrat. de Venis. “ Plato, in his Timaeus, fpeaks of the heart as a watch-tower aompletely forti¬
fied as the knot of the veins, and the fountain from whence the blood arifes, and briflcly circulates through
all the members. The blood he calls the pafture of the flefh ; and adds, that for the fake of nourifhing the
remoteft parts, the gods have opened the body into a number of rivulets like a garden well flocked with plenty
of canals, that the%eins might by this means receive their fupply of moiilure fiom the heart as the common
fource, and convey it through ail the fluices of the body.” The reft of the paffage cited by Longinus .is as
full of nonfenfe as it well can hold : and indeed Longinus feems chiefly to have admired it for lomething
which had.ftruck him as divine and unparalleled in its tropes, as making the head a citadel, the neck an ifth-
bqus, the vertebras hinges, and the flelh a rampart. See Longinus on the Sublime, § $2.
(e) Eraftftratua opened, dead bodies at Alexandria.
Circula¬
tion.
fuppofed
the blond
to pafs be¬
tween the
right ai.d
left ven-
P H Y S I
of feme emharraffment. Kow was the blood to get
from the right to the left ventricle ? To folve the dif¬
ficulty in which his new difcovery had involved him, he
fuppofed that the branches of the veins and arteries
anakomofed (f) ; that when the Wood was carried to
the lungs by the pulmonary vein, it was partly pre¬
vented by the valves from returning ; that therefore
during the contraction of the thorax it palled through
How Galen moft ulating branches to the pulmonary vein,
and was thence conveyed along with the air to the left
ventricle to flow in the aorta (g). This opinion, fo
agreeable to fad, unfortunately afterwards gave place
to another that was the refult of mere fpeculation.—
This notion was, that the left ventricle received air by
heart ^ Pulmonai'y vein, and that all its bloed was derived
through pores in the feptum of the heart.
The paffage thro’ the feptum being once fuggefted,
and happening to be more eafily conceived than one
turo the lungs, it was generally fuppofed the only one
for a number of centuries; and fupported likewife, as it
was thought, by Galen’s authority, it was deemed blaf-
phemy in the fchools of medicine to talk of another.
1543> however, Vefalius having publilhed his im¬
mortal work upon the ftrudture of the human body,
and given his reafons in the fixth book why he ventu-
fc0!i?„>t0-Cd t0 .dlirent from Galen, he particularly (bowed how
refuted by' f was ,mPoffi!'Ie that th" Wood could pa'fs through the
Vefalius. eptum of the hearc. His reafoning roufed the at
137 tention of anatomifts; and every one grew eager to dif-
Sid’tbe •OVer thr real Paffa£e which the Wood mult take
Xmion m ^°in& frora the riSht to the left ventricle. The dif-
of anato- covery of this fell firft. to the lot of Michael Servede,
mifts to a bpanifli phyfician, who publilhed his opinion, and re-
difcover the vived the old dodrine of Galen, in 1553 (H). But his
of the blood opmion did not fpread at the time ; the book in which
between t.t made its appearance contained herefy, and was there-
the ven- fore deflroyed by public authority. Fortunately, how-
triclesg ^ver> the fame difcovery was again made by Realdus
rhep3ffageC° UmbuS’ Profeffor of anatomy firft at Padua and af-
Jifcovered, terwards at Rome, who printed his account of it in
md Galen’s JSS9- Many others who were engaged in the fame re-
ipinion re- fearch were equally fuccefsful, and Andreas Caftalpiuus
Viichael^ even fingularly lucky. It appears by his peripatetic
iervede qucftions printed at Venice in 15 Ji, and reprinted there
:id others. w‘th his medical queflions in 1593, that he knew not
only the lefler circulation, but had oblerved that there
were times when the blood flowed from the branches of
the veins towards their trunks, and that veins fwdled
136
Another
opinion
Ci,tL,°,GY- 699
between their ligature and the extremities, and not be- Circula.
tween the ligature and the heart. From thefe obfer- tio«-
vations, he neceflaiily inferred that the veins and arte-' 
nes anaftomofed; and having alfo contemplated the The1 whole
nature of all the valves which were then known, and circulation
had been known lince the days of Galen, he ventured^ ncarI#
to aflert that the blood could not return by the arteries uifcnvered
.0 tile left ventricle One Ihould Imagine that from
concluhons he muft have difcovered the true circula-
tion ; but he did not. Being a zealous peripatetic, he
thought himfelf bound to maintain with Ariflotle that
the blood flowed, like the tides of Euripus, back¬
wards and forwards m the fame channel; and therefore
fuppofed that it flowed from the arteries into the veins
in the time of fleep, and from the veins back into the
arteries in the time of waking. The greater circu¬
lation, io far as we can learn, was not even dreamed of
by th.s writer. A farther ftep was yet to be made to-
wards tts difcovery ; and this was referved for another
proteffor of the Paduan fchool.
In 1574, Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Had ILoft
while he was fceking for a caufe to explain the varicofeforced iTelf
Iwellings of fome veins which had arifen from fridionUpfin ,Fdbri-
and ligature, he to his great joy and afionifhment dif- AquaL.
covered their valves m one of his difTediona : and heredente.P
again the true theory of circulation feemed almoft una¬
voidable. Yet whoever reads the fmall treatife Be Ve-
natum 'jTtolis, firft printed by Fabricius in 1603, will
loon perceive that he was as far from entertaining a juft
notion of the circulation as his predeceffors. Notwith-
ft an ding all that lie faw, he ftill was of opinion that the
blood flowed from the heart to the extremities even in
the veins. He thought that the valves were intended
by nature only to check and moderate its force. He
calls them an mftance of admirable w.fjom, and miftakes
his own aukward conjedure for one of the defigns of
infinite intelligence. In another refped, it muft be con-
fehed that he bore no inconfiderable (hare in promotinsr
the difcoyery of the circulation (1). By writing on the
valves, the formation of the fetus, and the chick in
ovo, he direded the attention of his pupil Harvey to
thofe fubjeds where it was likely that the motion of
the blood would frequently occur. T4T
Harvey was born at Folkfton in Kent in 1578 At laft dif.
completed his ftudies at the univerfity of Cambridge’covered
went to Padua, and was there admitted to the decree ^ '“n7
of do dor, with unufual marks of approbation, in ted by hi!"
1002. He examined the valves with more accuracyPUP‘G-Iar«
4 T 2 thanve7'
(f) In toto eft mutua anaftomofis atque ofculorum apertio arteriis fimul cum venis. Zb- B/'u, part 6 can to
blind' 7? " T?0nr°r H™’ that motion of the lungs and the pulie of the arteries was to cool the*
blood, and to expel the fuliginous vapour. That he had juft ideas of the leffer circulation through the hint,
m ? cap' yme ”at"re 9 ,e ”lw' “ ev!d“t from thc cil«d by Harvey, JM M„,u Cofji,, Exdfi-
JH22’b' wori* m wb:ch he meJ(f) * * * * * * * * * * * r,.t'0n8 ,h:' 1,ifc»very are ihefe : “ Non per parietem cordi., mi vuI»o cred/tnr
h " ^o a''K 10 a.tltxtro cordis ventnculo, longo per pulmones dudu agitatur fanguis fubtiiis.” Beinar
rn a Vida Nuova m the kingoom of Arragon, he fometr'nnes called himfelf Michael VI|la„ovanu«' Or f.moV
Villanovanua. in the ..tie ot all h.s ooka he takes the name of 1W, which is formed from S rvede ^
throw"'? cut the * and tranfpofing the five letter, that remain. The took m which h.s difcover. ^a me/
iT„v , » tT ,nd m,tiled Ghrijlianity R'Jloncl. Being firft imprifoned at Vienne „ Sa^
pinny, and a,te,wards allured to Geneva by the treachery of uis correfpondent and confide.,: John Calvin
df Vd V?.” . t rrfor">y’«. a,CC’,fed °< >>Wpb™,y. and condemned to the James in , e „ ’
CoUibu W° oteWa ptoS ^ iB dUe t0 ttc F^'dUC,, ^ °{ M =«
7co
PHYSIOLOGY.
in this
siicuverp.
H3
How the
Wood is
circulated
than his mafter Fahric'us; and explained their ufe in a
trentife which fie puhliihed fume time a tcr. It i» un¬
certain when he firit conceived his celebrated doft.ine
of the circulation ; but about the 1616 he taught it
in his leftures, and printed it in 1628. He was the
firft author who fpoke confidently of the motion of the
blood, and v\ho, unbiaffed by the doitrine of the an-
J4Jt cients, drew rational comlufions from his experiments
The merit and obfervations. His books prefent us with many in-
cf Harvey dications of a great mind, acute difeernment, unwea¬
ried application, original remark, bold inquiry, an 1
a clear, forcible, and manly reafoning (k) ; and every
one who confiders the futprife which his doctrine oc-
cafioned among the anaiomifts of thofe days, the
ftrong oppofition that it met with from fome, and thofe
numerous and powerful prejudices which it had to en¬
counter from the function of time and of great names,
mull allow it was new, an 1 that the author has from
its importance a title to rank in the fird clafs of emi¬
nent difeoverers ancient or modern.
His difeovery fhowed, that in mod animals the
blood circulates in arteries and veins, and through the
medium of one, two, or of more hearts : that in arteries
it moves from the trunk to the branches ; and that,
meeting there with the branches of veins, it returns
in a languid dream to the heart; that the heart commu¬
nicates a new impulfe; that it drives it on to the trunk
of the arteries ; and that the arteries, by the thicknefs
of their coats, exerting a force, do pufh it onwards
again into the veins.
In every part of this circulating courfe, there are
valves fituated where it is neceflary; they are meant to
preveut the return of the blood ; they are at the be¬
ginnings of the great arteries, and arc found in different
places of the veins where their feeble aftion requires
to be afiided.
The veins, before they enter the heart, generally ex¬
pand into a thin mufcular fac, which is called the au¬
ricle. It receives the blood while the heart is con-
tra&ing ; and when the heart admits of dilata¬
tion, contracts itfelf, and throws the blood into the
ventricle.
We have here called the ventricle a heart; though
what is ufually meant by the heart be a ventricle and au¬
ricle ; or fometimes a ventricle and two auricles, where
the veins approach in different diredtions, and, without
bending to meet one another, expand at two different
places. Two hearts are fornetimes united, fo as in ap¬
pearance to form but one.
*44 From our having mentioned more than one heart,
wunSs. »t will be fuppofed that the modes of circulation are
various. In fome animals the heart throws its blood
to the remote!! parts of the fyftem (l) j in othrr
animals it throws its blood only into the refpiratory
organs: from thefe organs it is collected by the branches
of veins; and thefe branches, uniting in a trunk, con¬
vey it to an artery, which renews the impulfe, and adls
as a heart. In a third fet of animals, the blood from
the rcfpirctory organs is carried by the veins to ano¬
ther heart; and this fecond he.rt, united in the fame
c-.pfule with the firft, diftributes the blood by the
channel of its arteries to the feveml parts. In the
human foetus, and the foetus of thofe animals which
have two hearts, a part of the blood, without taking
the paffage through the lungs, proceeds directly from
auricle to auricle. In amphibious animals, the auricu¬
lar paff<ge continues open during their life, and is em¬
ployed, when th£ breathing ceafes, under the water.
In many infers, a number of hearts, or expanfiona
which anfwer the purpofe of hearts, are placed at in¬
tervals on the circulating c iurfe ; and each renews the
impulfe of the former, where the momentum of the
blood fails. In the Sepia Laligo the two feparate parts
of the gills are each fupplied by a heart of its own :
the blood from both is colle&ed into one; which, by
two arteries opening at two different parts, fend it at
once to the oppofite extremities. In numbers of ani¬
mals, the heart, like the ftomach, is in the extremity
oppofite to the head. _
After the difeovery of the circulation, the moll in- How the
terelling ohjedt wkh anatomHs was to demonftrate it circulation
in a clear, {atBfa&ory, and eafy manner. Harvey, to»^*'
fhow it with every advantage that he could think dead bodies*
was obliged to open animals alive : but whether the
animals were dead er alive, the larger branches of the
veins and arteries were only to be feen, and even thefe
but in certain cafes, when they happened octafionally
to be full of blood. That admirable method, which is
now obferved in demonilrating the courfe of the circa- 1
lation, we owe to the great anatomifts of Holland
who flourilhed in the laft century. About 1664, Reg-Difeovery
nier de Graaf invented the fyringe, which is now ufed;^**!
and, accompanied with a print, publiihed an account “•
of it in 1669. His injeftion was ufually a thin fluid
of a blue green or fome other colour; this injeebon
tranfuded through the vtfiVh, allowed them to collapfe
by its general drffufion, and broke out through the
firit opening that happened in its way. A fluid which
hardened after being inje&ed, and which preferved. the
veffels diftended, was a happier contrivance. This at
firit was either melted tallow or wax, of a colour fuit-
ing the talte of the anatomift. So early as the year Of Swam*
1667, the celebrated Swammerdam inje&ed the veffelsmerdara»
running on the uterus with cetaceous matter ; and,.
lealnua
145
(x) Dr Hunter fays, that “ none of his writings fhow him to hive been a man of uncommon abilities. It
were eafy to quote (he fays) many paffages which bring him nearly to a level with the reff of mankind. He
lived a! mo ft 20 years afte/Afellius publilhed the Lafteals, yet to the laft feemed melt inclined to think that no
fuch veffels exifted. Thirty hours at any time fhould hive been fufficient to remove all hia doubts ; but this
fubiect taken up in felf-defence (continues the Doclor) grows unpleafant/’ Dr Hunter was here thinking ot
his own difeovery when brought in comparifon with that of Harvey’s. When this companion was Ids imme¬
diately in view, he fays that “ Dr Harvey, as appears by his writings, was certainly a firft-rate genius tor la-
gacity and application ; and his name is defervedly immortal on account of the many obfcnration# Md im¬
provements he made in anatomy and phyfiology.” Dr Dunter’t Ftrfl IntroduSory Lt8urc,
(c) We never exclude the action of the arteries.
P H Y S I
jealous left another fhcild claim the merit of fuch an
invention, he tnnfm'ttel prepirations, accompanied
with p! tes, and with a foil account of his method, to
the Royal So iety of London in 1672. Soon after,
Cf Ruyfth,hlg riend Ruyfch acquired fuch fk ll in the art of in'
je<fting, th ic he has not heen furp fTed hy any fince his
time, fde difcovered veflels in many parts where they
were not fuppofed to have had an exiftence; and, con¬
trary to the opinion of the great Malpighi, he Ihowed
that even many of the glands were entirely vafcular ;
and that what had been iuppofed excretory dufts, de¬
riving their origin from fome follicle, were but termina¬
tions of arteries continued: yet even Ruyfch could
not exhibit in all cafes the courfe of the veffels fo well
as we do now. . Another difcovery was yet to be made
for demon flrating their fmall capillary branches run¬
ning through a part. This was refcrved for the very in¬
genious Dr Nicholls of London ; who invented the me¬
thod of corroding the flelhy parts with a menftruum, and
leaving the wax, as it was moulded by the veffels, entire.
From thefe refearches, which evince circulation to
ke a lundlion fo general among animals, fome are dif-
Circulation pofed to think it takes place in all living bodies But
"°twithftanding the fafhionable language of circulating
bodies •’fluids, of veins, arteries, anrt .r-. 1...... .*» * u „
fuiuofed
149
©f Dr Ni-
choll*.
*50
l'£T fl 'J r * .   o o \.»i v-uiaiiiiK
fluids, of veins, arteries, and even of valves in the ve¬
getable ftru&ure; yet nothing performing the office of
a heart, and nothing that feems to conduft fluids in a
circular courle, has been found in plants. In the ve¬
getable kingdom, the chyle is diftributed to all the
parts from the numerous veflels which convey the fap:
and thefe veffels, being fitted by their ftruflure to carry
151 e*ther downwards or upwards, from the branches
None in to the roots, or from roots to the branches; is the rea-
£!ants nor f0n why plants inverted in the ground will fend forth
animals. [00t8 the PliCC of their branches, and fend forth
branches from the place of their roots. Even a fimilar
diftribution of the chyle takes place in fome animals.
In the human tcenia, in the fafciola hepatica of fheep,
and in moft polypes, the chyle, without a circulating
fyftem, is conveyed direftly to the different parts from
the aliment.-ry canal. The tafte for circulation may at
o L O G Y.
laft fubfide. Till the bufmefa of abforption from the in-
teftines w is, of late, fully fecured to the lacleals, V^e were
wont to have alfo learned diflertations upon a circular
motion of the bile. The jaunt which it took wis not * lupp0<e
very cleanly; but it was focial: it went with the foeces circul* ion
down the inteftinea, and returned with the blood intlle biIe*
the meferaic veins.
Befides the circulation, another circumftance refpec-Ophbm
ting the blood, which fometimes has engaged the conccrn‘nS
thoughts of phyfiologifts, is the colour which it hasthfred,
in moft animals. The late Mr Hewfon was of ooinion,theblo^d
that the lymphatics, with the fpleen(M) and the thymus, *
contributed greatly to the formation of the red globules.
He was feemingly led to entertain this opinion from
that attention to the lymphatics which made him
afenbe much to their power, and from feeing red par¬
ticles in the abforbents which rife from the fplenic and
the thymic gland. His reafoning, however, though very
ingenious, is not conclufive. The celebrated Nuck, who
had often obferved a reddifh fluid in the lymphatics,
allures us, without any hypothefis, that fuch an ap!
pearance was always preternatural; and was either oc-
cafioned by a fcarcity of lymph, or by fome irregular
and too much accelerated motion of the blood (n). t-
It is well known that the blood receives its vermilion Refpirttiort
colour in palling through the lungs; that animals with Ganges the
lungs have the blood redder than thofe which are feem-coloU1'of
mgiy without that organ ; and that the colour, as well'^ bi°od*
as the heat, is in proportion to the extent and perfec¬
tion of the lungs. It has alfo been obferved, that
oxygenous gas is abforbed in refpirnion ; and been
proved by experiment, that t.he red globules of the
blood, and the red only, contain iron. It thence would
appear, that the colour is owing to iron calcined by
the pure air, and reduced to the ftate of a red oxid.
hrom this manner of conceiving the phenomena, fays
Chaptal, we may perceive why animal fubftances a're
fo advantageous in affiftiag and facilitating the red
dye (o),
A great variety of experiments have Ihewn how
much the colour and confidence of the blood is altered
by
. (M) Before we can expeft to arrive at a proper knowledge of the fpleen, we have firft m r
its proportion, its fituation, its numbers,, and its different circumftauces in different •'mm 1*. ^ ^
®f. b br c,8p 'e,ns “nd as many .afa brc.la; that in the otter it was fartenej
it 1 ^p'p’pl0011' ,n th^ 9an.aJa thc Rreat ventr,‘cIe 5 and they found thatiu the porcupine and ffa fox
it was double. Since-their time Dr Monro has obferved two large fpleen s one attachedtn tZ f 1
Cher ,0 the large curvature of the ftomaeh of the fqualu, fquatina ot ^H^ whlft b o'/eoc • |hC
«d particles ; and the lame eminent phyfiologift found in a dirge on no fewer than feven, one of the fix/
a dried horfe-bean, and the reft about the bulk of a dried garden pea * h f °f
(n) Inttnm non diffiteor vafa ilL lymphatica lympham fubinde vehere rubicundo colore tinAam
remLVrn'Jtum^^in dSm
,ing“ntU,• ^ mirUm ^ hifCC “ ““>•“ « eddi^tnguineam!
fo) (haptal's'Ghemjflry on the Properties of th Blood. The phyfiologifts of laft century accounted for tb.
paratum aotabihter rubeat, m quo, prater aquam, vix aliud quam fal et fulphur repetibile ell: eF\ZQ
(qiioa
702
Nutrition
155
A&ion of
the veffeh
change's
the colour
and quali¬
ties 01 the
blood.
156
Great va¬
riety of thi;
a&ion.
P H Y S I
by tbe mere aftion of tbe veflels; and this difeovery
has enabled us to conjedture with more certainty tnan
we did formerly, why in infants and phlegmatic perfons
the blood is paler, in the choleric more yellow, and in
the fanguine of vermilion red. It explains likewife, in
fome rr.eafure, why the blood varies in the fame indi¬
vidual, not only with regard to the Hate of health, but
likewife at the fame inftant; and why the blood which
circulates through the veins has not the fame intenfity
of colour, nor the fame confillence, as that of the ar¬
teries 1 and why the blood which flows through the
organs of the breaft differs from that which pafTes^ lan¬
guidly through the vifeera of tlte lower belly. Ihis
power of the veffels over the blood will bring us aifo
to the true caufe why the veflels vary in the denfity of
their coats and in their diameters; why they are fome
? times convoluted in a gland ; why they fometimes de-
pofite their contents in a follicle ; why they are fome¬
times of a fpiral form ; why the branches ttrike off at
various angles ; why they are varioufly anaftomoieu ;
why they fometimes carry the blood with difpatch and
fometimes flowly through a thoufand windings. Ly
thofe means their adtion is varied, and the blood pre¬
pared in numerous ways to anfwer the ends of nutrition
and fecretion.
Sect. V. Nutrition.
Nutrition is the function which affimilates the
food in the feveral parts, and which finifhes the
j procefs aheady begun in the ftomach, in the lungs,
Pood chan-and the vafcular fyftems. In perledl animals fome
ped by dif- of the ftages of this procefs are diffindily mark-
ferentor- ecj> The chyle, which has fomc refemblance to milk,
^ail5‘ is the work of the alimentary canal: it undergoes
fome new changes by the adfion of the ladfeals and
of their glands, when they exift- In the courfe of
circulation it paffes along the refpiratory organs, and
is mixed with oxygene or fome other gas|: by this mix¬
ture, the confequent heat, and the adtion of the vefltls,
it is turned into blood. 1 he blood, when examined,
fpontaneoufly feparates into three parts ; an albumi¬
nous part or a ferum, a coagulable lymph (p), and red
globules. The two firft are analagous to the white
parts of an egg, by which the chick in ovo is nourifh-
ed ; the globules have fome refemblance to the yolk,
which ferves afterwards as food to the chick in the more
advanced period of life. The three parts contain each
a variety of principles which are originally compofed
of gafes: thefe principles, conveyed through veflels of
various forms, of various diagonals, and with various
degrees of motion and of beat, and all along varying ciS
O L O G Y.
they pafs, arrive at laft on the confines of the parts Nutrition,
which are wrapt up in a cellular tiffue or fome other » 1
membrane. The tiffue or membrane gives a new change;
the parts nourifhed perform the cilice of fecreting or¬
gans ; and as the adtion of the veffels is varied according
to the place to which they are tendmg and the parts
which they enter, wre partly fee the manner in which
bone, mufcle, cartilage, and nerve, are all fecreted from
a common m.ifs.
In worms and polypes, the fundtion of nutrition is Aflimilated
after digeftion carried on almoff entirely by the cellu-by the cel¬
lar tiffue ; and in plants by a tiffue cellular and veficu iubr tiffue
lar. In all living bodies the celiuiar tiffue, befides
giving a form to the parts, and befides preventing fric-are nou-
tion and cohefion, certainly performs fome important rilhed.
office. Many have thought it the organ of nutrition ;
and it furely is one of the organs employed m affilting
to affimilate the nutritious fluid. But it flrould be re¬
membered, that all the parts of the living body are af-
fimilating organs ; that esch part affimilates for itfclf;
and that the ffomach, the refpiratory organs, the vef¬
fels, and nerves where they exilt, are aibflant to the
whole and to one another.
It is lingular how any ffiould have imagined that Opinions
the nerves are peculiarly the organs of nutrition, or thatco earning
growth Ihould be owing to the addition of fomt orga-“^r‘^n
nic and vivifying particles pre exirting in |the f°od. a^ang con-
Thefe phyfiologiits have not demonftrated the exiffencecerned.
of nerves in all living bodies; and thefe organic and
vivifying particles have as yet been difeovered but in
their lancy. Dr Monro has condefcended to prove,
that the limb of a frog can live and be nourifhed,
and its wounds heal, without any nerves: and Mr Hun¬
ter has given many curious inliances of a living and nu¬
tritious power in the blood.
In plants and animals, the affimilating power has
always certain limits preferibed to it: its influence is
very generally confined to the fort of food congenial
to the fpecies: and its ftrength is varied according to
circumltances; as the age, the habits, and the ftate of
health. Thofe which are young affimilate fafter ih^xh/rapi-
thofe which are old ; and one fpeexes, which may part-djty and
ly be owing to the nature of their food, will affimilateflawnefs of
much fafter than another. Certain worms that feedf
on animal and vegetable fubttances will, in 24 ^o^circutn^ln-
after their efcape from the egg, become not onlyces>
double their former fi/.e, but will weigh, according
to Redi, from 155 to 210 times more than before.
Molt oils are of very difficult affimilation ; and thofe jgr
which are effential will often refiit the long continued Effential
and the varied action of the living organs; will mingle0'ls cbffi-
withcu.1‘1y
nutated.
(quod fulphure abundare probat butyri inflammabilitas), fi coquatur cum fale lixiviofo, colorern plane fanguine-
um contrahat; quod fimiliter decodum ex aqua, fulphure vuigari, et fale tartari ad confedionem la&is ful-
phuris paratum ruhefcat; quod ceievifla et quaedam alia diuturniori co&ione ruborem contrahentia, nfdem
principiis fcateant, &c. . , . r , n ■ r •
Ad intenfiorem fangoinis rubedinem multum quoque contnbuunt particmae nitroise, qi ae benehcio relpira-
tionia ex a re in fanguinis maffam jugiter tranfmittuntur: fiquidem color ille coccineus raagifque fplcndens quo
paffira fanguis arteriofus a venofo diftinguitur, in pulmonibus jugiter alitur ac renovatur.
' Rubediuem autem hoc modo facile excitari poffe amplius confirmatur ex eo, quod vitrum, etiam centum h-
brarum capax per unicam unciam fpiritus nitri rarefadi, omnino repietCim appareat materia rubefeente. Ner-
heyen de Sanguificalione. Verheytn ufes the word fulphur for any inflammable fubftance.
(p) Sense was the firlt who difeovered this lymph.
P H Y S I
Secretion, with the parts, and, undecompounded, communicate
T their flavour.
, An afflmilating power is not peculiar to living bodies;
16a 18 ohferved in ferments and contagion^nd isfoobvi-
Affimila ous with refpeft to fl’.me which is neither living nor or-
ting power ganized, that v'hole nations who have feen it feeding on
o ame. inflammable fubftances, have been difpofed to think it
wa* animated, to call it the principle of life itfelf, and
to pay it a kind of religious homage as the proper em¬
blem of that Being by whom the whole univerfe is ud-
held.
In living bodies nutrition is only a fpecies of fecre-
tion.
Sect. VI. Secretion
Is a fundtion in which a part is feparated from the
whole, and generally with feme change of its quali¬
ties. In the cafe of nutrition it was obferved, that all
parts fecrete for therr.felves; and that fome few, as the
lungs, the Itomach, the veflels, and the nerves, ofli-
cute befides for the general ufe of the whole fyftcm.
I* ^ ingefta were to remain and to be aflimilated,
inTLte oyfthe bod)r. would on continually increafing. But li-
conftant bodies are conftantly in a flate of wade and re¬
pair. In moft animals part of the ingefla is earned
off by evacuation, without having entered the mouths
of the abforbents ; part, which enters the- ablorbents
and veins, is thrown off exhaling arteries or the
urinary paffage : and experiments with madder prove
that the lymphatics, beiides originating from all the
cavities and carrying back the lubricating fluids, do
enter the fubftance of the hardeft bones, and convey
particles that had been aflimilated back into the blood.
This office has not been generally aferibed to the ab¬
forbents ; nor has it been very generally fuppofed
163
Every
wafte and
repair.
164
An office
not gene¬
rally aferi- T , 1! . vefy Seneraily fuppofed
bed to the that the blood receives the excrementitious matters of
abforbents. the fyftem, and that one intention of the circulation
was either to return them for reaffimilation, or to dif-
charge them by exhaling veflels or by the kidneys.
Decayed parts, however, are difeovered in the feces
evacuated by the inteftines, in the clouds, the fedi-
Hient, and colour of the urine, and by the fmell of
the perfpirable matter. The two laft, on certain
occafions, and for fome time, have often fupplied the
16$ P^ce of one another; and all the three, the feces,
Sweat and the urine, and perfpirable matter, we .have reafon to
changed^61""believc are remaikably diftinguifhed by two kinds of
and their odour * the. peculiar to the whole fpecies, the
odour, other peculiar to the individual. By the perfpirable
matter which adheres to the ground, and of which the
odour is diffufed by moitture, the dog not only diftin-
° L o G Y. ?0
guiflies a man from any other animal, but is able to Secretion,
trace his mafter through a crowd. v-n
T. he natural evacuations of plants, and of fome few-
animals which feed by abforbents, are all by perfpira-tions'of"
tion or exhaling veflels. The urine in quadrupeds is pis ms by
before emiflion colle&ed in a veficle, and thence carried
off by the genital organ. In birds, and in a number 0fvdrei8-
fiflies, the ureters empty themfelves into the reftum,
and their contents are evacuated along with the feces.
Betides being ufed to denote the funaion, the word Some Lt-
fecretion is fometimes employed for the matters fecre-*ers evacu-
ted. In this fenfe there are various fecretions. Be-^ted’^>nle
fides the feces, the urine, and the fweat, and the va-ufeS6!^
pour from the lungs, which are excrementitious, there pefes.
are fecretions which anfwer ufeful purpofes in the
fyftem. Of thefe the moft important and general are
the bile, the faliva, the gaftric juice, and the pan¬
creatic, which aflift in digeftion; the lymph and the
fat, which lubricate the parts; the mucus, which pro¬
teas them from acrid fubftances ; the nervous fluid,
which forms a very confpicuous link between body and
mind ; the feminal fluid employed in generation to
propagate the fpecies ; and the haeft intended for
fome while to fupport the young after they emerge from
the fetal Hate.
. The faliva is a fluid that mixes with the food in the rheUiva.-
time or mafticafion. In man it is fecreted from the
parotid, the fublingual, and ftibmaxillaty glands (qJ;
it is watery and fomewhat vifeid ; it is found to retard
and moderate fermentation : it has fometimes a ten¬
dency to. form calculi like the urine. By thefe con-r 169
cretions it incrufts the teeth and fometimes obftruastiomform-
the fall vary duds. It is the feat of the rabies canina. ed by it.
Upon fii-ft examination the gaftric liquor feems to 170
poflefs a folvent power upon animal and vegetable fub- — C gaflnc
fiances without any great preference of affinity. The^”'
reafon is, it varies according tothe natureof thealiment;
“it is fometimes acid,.fometimes infipid. Brugnatelli has
found {fays Chaptal) in the gaftric juice of carnivorous
buds and fome others a difengaged acid, a refin, and
an animal fubftance, unitech with a fmall quantity of
common fait. The gaftric juice of ruminating animals
contains ammoniac, an extractive animal fubftance, and
common fait. In our time the phofphoric acid has
been found difengaged in the gaftric juice” of the gra-
memvorous kinds. 6
r ofienb'-e, becrete^ by the liver is glutinous or im- ph I,’?I
perfectly fluid like oil, of a very bitter talle- a green ^ 1
colour inclining to yellow, and froths by agitation like
the lolution of ioap. Its conftituent principles are wa¬
ter, a fpiritus rector, a coagulable lymph, a refmous
2 oil,
, . W Jb^fe glands are veiy rarely met with in birds. It is mentioned as a Angular circumftance in th, d •
fc leof N„m,d,a ,b,t “ in lower beak, o„ both Mesofthe tongue, under tb ^ol t ‘ ^1.''
there were found two gkndulous bod.es, from whence proceeded fe.eral lymplmdufts which opened i„o,e
mouth, and there difeharged .being fqueezed, a white and vifeous humour. There were two of them towa
^thT^in^.^1 gg" tha" ,he 0ther8' ThC t0n»U£ at top and cartilaginous under!
7°4
Secretion.
Concre¬
tion- f- rm
ed by if.
173
.'Mufcular
fibre con¬
verted into
fat.
174
The pan¬
creatic
juice.
l'75 ‘
The lymph
P H Y s r
oil, and foda. The refinous part differs from vepc-
t ible rdins; btcaufe tbefe do not form a foap with
fixed alkalis ; becaufe they are more acrid and in¬
flammable : and becaufe the animal refm melts at the
temperature of 40 degrees, and acquires a fluidity
fimilar tq that of fat. From fat it differs in not be¬
ing foluble in cold alcohol, in which refpeft it ap¬
proaches to fpermaceti, which alcohol cannot drffolve
without heat.
Bile, like other foaps, removes fpots of oil from
thefe fubflances to which they are adherent; when its
prfffages are ohftru&ed the motion of the inteftines be¬
comes languid. It is neither alkaline nor highly pu-
trefeent. In putrefrftion it yields fomething of a
tnufky colour ; the foffil alkali precipitates from it a
green fediment; and with diflilled vinegar rt produces
a mixture neither acrid nor fweet. Like faliva and
• urine, it has a tendency to form concretions which are
called biliary calculi or gallJicnes. They are fometimes
found of an irregular texture, of a brown, black, yel-
lowifh, or grecnifh colour. They fometimes confifl; of
tranfprrent chryftalline laminae, like mica or talc, and
are fometimes radiated from the centre to the circum¬
ference. They are always inflammable, of a more folid
confidence than the generality of animal oils, and re-
•femble fpermaceti both in their folidity and chryftalli-
zation ; they are foluble in ardent fpirit when aflifted
by a moderate heat: the warm folution, when filtered,
depofites by cooling a number of laminated white bril¬
liant cryftals, fuchas Poulletier de la Salle found in the
bile, and which have been compared to the fait of ben¬
zoin, the concrete acid of borax, and to fpermaceti. Ma¬
ny of their charafters indicate that they are a fubftance
of the fame nature with the laft mentioned. Fourctoy
found that the fubftance of which thefe cryftals are
compofed exifts not only in the cryffallized gall-ftones
or bile ; he obferved it to a very confiderable degree
in a human liver which had been txpofed to the air for
fevcral years, and had loft its volatile parts by putre-
faftion. He dete&ed it alfo in a faponaceous form
in bodies which had been many years buried under
ground ; and lately Dr Pearfon of London has artifi¬
cially converted the mufcular fibre into a fubftance of
a fimilar kind,highly inflammable, and refembling fptr-
maceti (r).
The pancreatic juice refembles the faliva, and was
examined in the laft century, with a good deal of care,
by De Graaf and Swammerdam. It has often been
obferved forming ftony concretions (s).
The lymph confifts chiefly of water, but, like the
ferous part of the blood, contains a fubftance which is
O L O G Y,
176
Fat,
*77
coaguiable by heat, by acids, and by fpirlt of wine. Seeretimu
It is found in the cellular membrane, in the ventricles ¥" 1 "
of the brain, in the pericardium, on the furfaee of the
pleura, in the abdomen, in the burfae mucofae, and
in the joints under the name of fynovia, where it has
more than an ordinary degree of vifeidity and of the lu¬
bricating quality. Sometimes, when it ftagnates in the
iheathes of the tendons and bur fee mucofae, it acquires a
thickntfs and forms indolent tranfparent tumors, which
bee omeat laft gelatinous. Itisfecretedchh flyby arteries.
Animal tat is a fubftance of a nature fimilar to thefe
oils which are called fat ia the vegetable kingdom. Its
colour is ufually white, fometimes yellow, and its tafte
infipid. Its confidence is various in different animals In
cetaceous animals and fifhes it is nearly fluid : in car¬
nivorous animals more fluid than in the furgivorous :
in birds, finer, fweeter, and more unduous, and gene¬
rally lefs folid, than in quadrupeds. In the fame am- m
malitis more folid near the kidneys and under the (kin
than in the vicinity of the moveable vifeera. As the ani¬
mal grows old it becomes yellower and more folid ; and
in moft animals is more copious in winter than in funi-
mer. In man and fome other animals, it is coliecled
in particular follicles of the cellular membrane, accu¬
mulated in great quantities in the groin, in the axilla,
in the epipiploon around the kidneys and around the
blood veffcis : it is likewife fecreted on the furface of
the fkin which it prote&s from acrid fubftances, and
where it fometimes concretes, often trom a want of
cleanlinefs, in the form of fmall worms. In cetaceous where
animals and fifties it is generally dilpofed in certain re-found in
fervoirc, fuch as the cavity of the cranium and the
tehrse ; in fome it is chiefly confined to the liver; in
ferpents, infefts, and worms, to the vifcera of the low¬
er belly, where it is difpofed in fmall tumps, and only
a fmall quantity found on the muicies a id under the
fkin : in frogs it is colle&ed in certain bags which di¬
verge, as it were, from a common trunk, and feem like
appendages to the ovaria and teiles. In many places
it feems to be fecreted by organic pores, and under ^
the furface of the fkin by glands. It is accumulated Analogous
from a diminution of perfpiration, from the nature ofto the bile,
the aliments, from morbid afff&ion, and from idiofyn-
crafy. It is of the fame nature as the fixed oil of
plants; and Lorry has found a ftriking analogy be*-
tween it and the bile *. * Sec Fouf*
It is a bad condu&or of heat, and preferves thefr^iSo
warmth of thofe regions where it is fituated. H >8 it* uie»»
more adhefive and lefs apt to evaporrte than water,
and is therefore a better lubricating fluid. When re-
abforbed, it countera&s the faline impregnation if too
j copious;
fa) The means which he ufes is digeftion in water; and the procefs fuppofes a previous acquaintance with
what is common and what peculiar to the fibre and the fat. He maintains that the fibre is entirely compofed
of carbonc, oxvgene, hydrogene, and azote. In a high temperature thefe are decompofed, or at leaft feparated,
without producing fat. But when the fibre is kept in water in a low temperature, the carbone unites with the
hvdioeene of the water, and forms a fat refembling fpermaceti, and highly inflammable. Part of the oxygene,^
ioo, uniting with azote, forms the nitric acid ; and part of the azote uniting with the hydrogene conftitutes
ammonia ; Ifo that three fubftances are thus formed. „ , , . , . „ „ „ *
(s) De Graaf was of opinion, that calculi might be formed in all glands. He had feen them a .ove twenty
imes in the pineal gland, that was long thought the refidence of the foulHe fays, too that they occur more
frequently in the pineal gland of Frenchmen than of Dutchmen ; and very pleafantly affign* tins reafon, that
4he volatile fpiric of a Frenchman requires more ballaft than that of a Hollander. De Succo Pancreattco, cap. 7.
i8r
Vegetable
Cat.
i8x
The mu-
cue.
■83
P H Y S I
^Secretion, copious { and its nutritive power is as three to one
tl" * '" ’ when compared to that of the mufcular fibre. Thefe
properties may partly ferve to explain its ufes around
the feveral branches of the blood-vefiels in thofe parts
which require warmth, and in thofe which are any-
wife expofed to motion. They will likewife account
for its being more copious in winter than in fummer(T);
and for its being found in great quantities in the mar¬
mot, the dormoufe, in the bear, and thofe animals in
general which are conftrained to a long abftinence. It
forms fometimes fteatomatous tumours, and contains
the febacic acid, which afls readily on lead, copper,
and iron.
The vegetable fat is contained chiefly in the fruit;
and is known by the names of fat oily facet oily and oil
by exprejfion. It freezes in different degrees of heat,
and varies according to the nature of the plant by
which it is afforded.
The mucus is more vifeid than the lymph, and is
not coagulable by fire or alcohol. It is mild, not dif-
pofed to corruption, nor foluble in water. This fe-
cretion is performed by glands. Thefe glands, in the
pulmonary phthifig, fecrete often a mucus that refembles
pus, and occafions a fiifpicion of ulcers where there
are none. Mucus is found in the nofe, through the
whole length of the alimentary canal from the mouth
to the anus, in the afpera arteria, in the bronchia, in
the kidneys, Qreters, bladder, and moft of all in the
Concretions urethra; It forms hard ftony concretions fometimes in
formed by the lunggt
* 184 The feminal fluid has been feldom the fubjeft of
Thcfemi- chemical analyfis. It is heavier than water, foluble in
aai fluid-, urine, ddiquefces in air and with heat, it hardens
with the fixed alkali, and is not coagulable by alcohol.
It contains a number of animatculae ,* and in the fyftem
in which it is fecreted, it affefts the paffions, the man¬
ners, and the voice, the tafte of the mufcles, the fe-
cretion of fat, and the growth of the hair. In many
fiihes this fluid it contained in a fort of bags. In moil
animals it is fecreted by glands, which are called tejles-y
and is accumulated in the vafa deferentia, or where
they cxifl in the feminal veficles. Of thefe vefides
Swammerdam obferved long ago, that in the fcorpion
they were probably “ adapted by nature to fecrete a
feminal matter different from that fupplied by the tef-
ticles ; they are largely (he fays) fupplied with glandules
to anfwer that purpofe, and confift of a confideratly
thick and fpongy fubftance.” Mr Hunter fince has
endeavoured to fhow that they fecrete a particular
fluid in all animals.
So little are we acquainted with the nervous fluid,
that fome have doubted of its exiftence. The difeo-
very, however, of Galvani, and the numerous experi¬
ments that have fince been making on animal ele&ri-
city, leave us not without all hope that fomething yet
may be known of its properties that will greatly illu-
ftrate feveral phenomena in the animal economy.
T - r The lafteal fecretion is generally confined to one
ky ^ex’ ant* Pecu^ar t0 t^ie °f mammalia, though
■' fomething fimilar may perhaps be fecreted in the crops
of pigeons.
Vol. XIV. Part. II.
^ 185
The ner¬
vous fluid.
186
O L O O Y.
It would be impoflible here to enumerate or to tell Secretion.
the ufes of all the different kinds of fecretions in living v—^
bodies. We cannot enumerate all that we know with-n^fpe
out running into tedious detail. The effential oils, cies hi pe.
the camphor, the gums, the balfams, the refins, and cu‘'ar fccr««
many others, are various fecretions of the vegetable tioru•
kingdom. Each fpecies of plant and animal has ge¬
nerally fome peculiar fecrecion ; and this fecretion in
the individual has often fome diffinguilhing quality,
difcoverable by tafte, by colour, or by fmell Thefe
different fecretions have likewife each their particular
ufes. We know the intention of the oily juice with
which the bird drefles its feathers, of the glutinoui
fluid of the filh, of the vifeid mucilage of the fnail ;
we fee the purpofe for which the viper fometimes em¬
ploys its virulent humour, and for which the fcuttle-
fifh eje&s its ink : but yet we know only in part. jgg
The difference among the various fecretions of the Caufe of
fame fyftem feem principally owing to a difference ofdiffcrence
ftimulants, and to fome difference in the aftion, the
form and the irritable power of the fecretory organ.
Paffions of the mind very often affe& the fecretions ;
and it frequently happens that paffion and medicine
affeft one fecretory organ and not another. It is
therefore probable that the organs of fecretion, and
the fmalleft fibre is an organ of this kind : we fay, it is
probable that the organs of fecretion, like the eye, the
ear, and all the different organs of fenfe, are each af¬
fected in fome meafure by peculiar ftimulants ; as the
ftomach by hunger, the fauces by thirft, and the geni¬
tal organs by venereal orgafmns. jgp
Fermentative mixture, and fome original impregna-To wha«
tion of the organs, have alfo been brought to explain rfduced ,by
the feveral phenomena of fecretion. We conclude with analyfis.
obferving, that however much the vaiious fluids of
living bodies may differ in appearance, chemical ana¬
lyfis has generally reduced them to a water, a gluten,
a faline impregnation, and an oil.
Sect. VII. Integumation.
All living bodies are furnifhed with one, two, orlnteluma-
with more integuments, which are prepared by fecre-tlon-
tory organs, and which are a defence againft thofe
injuries to which their fituation is commonly expo-
fed. . Of thefe integuments, fome prevent the dif- Som? inte-
fipation of the fluids, fome again refift acrid and cor-guments
rofive fubftances, fome are indigeftible in the ftomach, |ndigeftible
and fome are feemingly incorruptible in the earth. Byin t^e ftoj
thefe properties they preferve feeds and the ova of in cor-
fefts for a number of years, waiting the change ofruption in
foil or of feafon. They proteft both from the aClion the earth,
of weak membranous ftomachs, and make thofe ani¬
mals who choofe to fwallow them contribute likewife
to their propagation. The gelatinous fubftance ejected
by birds, and called the tremella-nojioc or Jlarfally
we have lately found, by numerous experiments, to be
a fubftance of this kind. It is nothing elfe than the
ovidu&s of frogs, which, as the embryo in form of an
egg moves along their winding canal, are intended by
nature to fecrete that tranfparent and vifeid glaire
4 U which
(t) The efficient caufe may be diminiflied by perfpiration.
7o6 p h y s i
Integwna- which conftltutes the albuminous part of the ovum,
, tl0n~ and feeds and protects the embryo in water (u).
Some integuments are chiefly ufeful by cheir ftrength
S. me inte- and hardnefa. The (hells of the beetle are an excellent
gnments defence for the membranous wings which the creature
form a de- jg feen pack up in folds when it inclines to creep
their hard- 5nto t^e earth* The (hell of the fnail lodges the in-
uefs; teftines (x) when the animal comes forth to fearch for
its food, and it furniflies a fafe retreat for the body
when any danger is threatened from without. Some
animals, confined to their (hells, can open and clofe
them by a mufcular power ; and fome (hells, like the
feales obferved on fifties and infedfts, are difpofed into
plates, to as to be no hinderance to motion. Several
infers which fpend a part of their time in the water
always compcfe a (bell for themfelves where it is need¬
ful. The ufual materials are fand, draws, or mud,
which they cement by a vifeid fecretion. The ftiells
of mod infetde are corneous. Swammerdam found
that cretaceous (hells are compofed of layers of ind<il
rated membranes, and that they are fometimes covered
193 with a cuticle.
liy their Some integuments are covered with feathers, fome
,rVn’with hair or a thick down. Befides many other ob-
vious uies or thele coverings, they ierve in general to
repel infefts ; and being bad conductors of heat, main¬
tain a genial and neceflary warmth.
When the integuments are covered with prickles,
they repel attacks by the drength of their points, or
by the venom which they infufe, as the dings of
nettles and the downs of fome infeCts and plants.
When they are rnoidened with a vifeid fecretion,
they prefer-Te the neceffary foftnefs of the parts, pre
vent evaporation, refib acrimony, enable plants to de-
droy their enemies, and alfid the fnail in performing
its motions.
Both plants and animals, but particularly the former,
P.y their ef-are Gften protefted by an odorous eftluvia from their
lUVia’ integuments. This effluvia is the finer part of their
volatile oil, always inflammable, and fo fubtile, that
the continual emiflion of it from wood or flowers does
not fenfibly diminifti their weight. To this fragrance
it is owing, that the deadly nightfliade, the henbane,
hounds-tongue, and many others, are feen on aimed
every high road untouched by animals. The rmnei-
nelie-tree of the Wed Indies emits fo very dangerous
vapours, that the natives poifon their arrows with its
juices, and thofe have died who have ventured to fleep
under fts (hade. The lobelia longiflora of America
produces a fuffocating oppreflion in the bread of thcofe
* who refpire in its vicinity. The return of a periodical
diforder has been attributed to the exhalation of the
rhus toxicodendron. Every one knows, fays Chaptal,
the ebefts of mufle and oriental faffron on certain per-
fons. Ingenhoufz mentions a young lady whofe desth
was occafioned by the imell of lilies; and Triller re-
194
By their
prickles;
*95
a vifeid
fecretion:
196
O L O G Y.
ports an indance of another who died in confequenee (nteuama-
of the fmell of violets. The felection of grades by tioB’
different animals feems to be owing to the manner in
which the volatile aroma affedds their fenfes. But of
all the vegetable exhalations known, thofe emitted by
the bohun-upas, or poifon-tree of Java, are the mod
remarkable. For many miles round no animal can
breathe the air, no plant dares to peep from the foil,
the fifties die in the poifoned ftream, and the birds that
venture athwart the atmofphere with defpairing fttrieks
fink down lifclefs. Such often is the ufe of the fragrant
oils in the vegetable economy. The fhrubs and drees
that are covered with thorns are in general a grateful
food to animals. They generoufly avow their manner
of attack, and fcorn the dark affafflnation by poifons. T
The various colours of the integuments, as well as By their
the aroma, is a fnecies of defence. “Caterpillars which colour;
feed on leaves (fays Darwin) are generally green ; and
earth-worms the colour of the earth which they inha¬
bit. Butterflies which frequent flowers are coloured
like them. Small birds which frequent hedges have
greenifh backs like the leaves, and light-coloured bel¬
lies like the Iky, and are hence lefs vilible to the hawk
who paffes under them or over them. Thofe birds
which are much amongfl flowers, as the goldfinch, are
furnifhed .with vivid colours. The lark, partridge,
hare, are the colour of dry vegetables or earth on
which they reft ; and frogs vary their i -dour with the
mud of the dreams which they frequent (y), and thofe
which live on trees are green. Fifh which are gene:-
rally fufpended in the water, and fwallows which are
generally fufpended in the air, have their backs the
colour ot the diftant ground, and their bellies of the
Iky.” Thefphinx-convolvt:li,or unicorn-moth,refembles
in colour the flower on which it reds ; and among
plants, the neftary and petals of the ophrys, and of
fome kinds of the delphinium, refemble both in form
and colour the infects which plunder them, and thus
fometimes efcape from their enemies by having the
appearance of being pre-occupied. From colour being.
19S
 — —•— r   . By their
thus employed as a defence, many animals vary their c]ian^e
colours with the feafons and circumftances ; and thofeColour.
which are of different colours in fummer according to
the places which they inhabit, do all in winter afl'ume
in common the colour of the fnow.
But a change of colour is not the only change of
the integuments. As the outmoft are often infenfii le
to ftimulants, and for obvious reafons poffefs little of ,99
the vital principle,in all cafes where they cannot be en-Are chaw-
larged to admit an additional increafe of growth, or£ec* theca-
where they are not furnifhed with necefl'ary organs to
repair thofe injuries which they may fufi’er from difeafe
or accident, the body is endowed by nature with a
power to throw them off, and to produce others in
their dead (z). For thin reafon we fee the tree cafting
annually its exterior bark, the lobfter his (heil, the
bird
(u) We have often inflated the ovidufts of frogs, and dried them ; and afterwards putting finall pieces of
them into water, have feen them fwoln in a few hours to a large fize, and forming the tremella-noftoc or
ilarfall, ' t . 1
(x) This fuail is found in our gardens, and carries its (hell, including the inteftines, upon its back.
(y) The fame is the cafe with many fifties that live in likes.
(z) Several fmall animals in changing their integumeots change likewife the interior coat of the alimentary
canal, which they void with the faeces. 4
P H Y S I
fttfobillty. bird Ms feathers, the quadruped his hair, and feme-
v times his horns, the ferpent his ik'n, and man himfelf
renewing the fcaies of the epidermis. Thefe changes
100 finally take -ilace once a-year, twice frequently with re-
Toads eat fpedt to ferpents, and oftener in toads, who have been
the Skin, obferved to devour the fkin which they throw off. All
the integuments of ova and feeds, being wholly the pro¬
duction of parental organs, neither are nor can be re¬
paired.
Sect. VIII. Irritabilityt
?°r £L*8.t^at ProPerty of the living fibre by which it
rn a i ity, afts in confequenee of ftimulants. Being one of the
great cauies of motion in living txadies, no property
has excited more wonder, been the caufe of more er¬
ror, or exhibits fuch a number of ftriking phenomena
to the fenfes. 1 hefe effeCts, however, have arifen ra¬
ther from the nature of the ftimulants than from any
Th!t!eno-[hmg,myfterio°S in irritabJ1‘ty. Many of the ftimulants
mena of ir.. y which this property in bodies is difplayed are often
ritabiliry 1 Bv1.1. ’ unknown, or unthought of; and men being
have led toConfcious that a number of their motions proceed from
ftrangecor-a ftimulant, that is, under the diredion of a mental
ciiions. power, they readily conclude from a fort of analogy,
that every motion in plant and infeCt that feems to an-
fwer a ufeful purpofe, and is caufed by fame invilible
lumulant, is the confequence of mind direfting from
within. They further fuppofe that irritability is in all
cafes the confequence of nerves, which are thofe or¬
gans which nature has employed in the animal king¬
dom to convey ftimuli between body and mind. Thefe
Angular conclufions have led to others that are lefs ad-
miffible even than themfelves. It has been imagined
that creatures the moft ftupid pofiefs within them a
principle of mind that is incapable of further improve¬
ment, but which notwithftanding is in many refptCts
fuperior to reafon, and a furer guide in whatever re¬
lates to felfiprefervation or that of the fpecies : it en¬
ables the animal to predift without forefight, and to
aft rationally without intelligence. This wondrous
principle has been called inftinft : and in order to ac¬
count for fome of the fingular phenomena of vegetables,
2C3
iome of
hefe con-
iufioDs.
O I. o G Y. 70,
a lhare of it has gracioufly been allowed to plants ; Irritability,
which having become favourites of late, have been alfo
prefented with the privilege of fenfation, permitted to
fall in love, and to marry, and en fome occafions to
exercife the faculty of volition.
At thefe concefiions the metaphyfician will natural¬
ly fmile. He knows how many impofe on themfelves
by the mere found of their own words, as if by calling
the fnow black they were to difeover a new property;
which curious difeovery would turn out at laft to be
only a grofs ignorance of language, and the fooli/h
nufapplication of a fyllable. He who has ftudied the
phiiolophy of mind, and been accuftomed to view ob-
jefts through another medium than the magic colour¬
ings of pailion and of fancy, readily perceives a fome-
thing of abfurdity in aferibing fuch wifdom to plants
and infeftg. With refpeft to animals, thefe gentlemen
do not recolleft that voluntary aftions are of two 204
kinds, as they proceed from defign or propenfity ; that Voluntary
in performing one of thefe kinds the mind itfelf has an adtinT of
objeft in view, and is properly the fource whence they k]n^s’
originate ; but that in the other the mind is merely a and propen”
fecondary agent, is afting under the influence of fti-fhy.
mul^nts, is often not awaie of the confequences, or
although aware is often fo infatuated as not to regard
them, however fatal. It is generally well known
to the naturalfft, that not a few of thefe prooenfities a- w
rife from the form and ftrufture of the body, from proSne.
toe manner in which the optic nerve is affefted by anfe,
colours, the olfaftory by fmells, the guftatory by
taftes,. and the auditory by founds ; from the different
ways in which the fauces are affefted by thirft, the fto-
mach by hunger, and the genual parts by venereal or-
gafmus.
Befi '.es thefe and other propenfities which ope-They ttft a*
rate as ftimulants in the fyftem itfelf, the naturalift has Simulants
iOund that light, heat, and moifture, in various de-tliroagh
grees, from abfolutc darknefs, coldnefs, and drynefs, tlle mecliunl
aft as ftimulants upon living bodies: he has experienced nerV“9,
that eleftricity is a general agent, that feveral plants
emitflalhes(A), and that fome animals even give ftiocks
refembling the electric. He has made it probable that
4U2 it
(A) <• In Sweden (fty, the amhor of the Z»TO, of ,h, Plant,) a very curious phenomenon has been obfervetl
on certam flower, by M Haggeren leaurer on natural pbilofophy. One evening he perceived a faint fklh of
light dart from a mangold : furpnfed at fuel, an uncommon appearance, he refolved to examine it with at-
tention ; and to be alfured that tt was no decepf on of the eye, he placed a man near him with ordet, to make
a %nal at the moment when he obferved tne hght. They both faw it conftantly at the fame moment; the
g n was mod bnlliant on mangolds of an orange or flame colour, but fcarcely vifible on pale ones; the flafh
was frequently feen on the fame flower two or three time, in quick fucceffion, but more commonly a interval,
of-feveral mmutes ■, and when fever,,1 flower, the fame place emitted their light together, it could be oh.
ferved at a confiderable diftauce. This phenomenon was remarked in the months of July and Augufl at fun-
^ ' ’”d.f°r b?‘f a" hour "I-en the atmofphere was clear, but after a rainy day or when the atmofphere
The of ‘‘ "'»» f«"- The following flower, emitted flalhe, more or lefs vivid in
th.s order The mangold, garden nafturt.on, orange lily, African marigold t fometimes it was alfo obferved
thi. fithr"’?“"f “ * bUt br,rht’ ye I”’ n°r flsm'colour- Itemed in general neceflary for the produflion of
this light, for ,t was never feen on the flowers of any other colour. The flower, were carefully examined
with a mmrofeope without any infea, or phofphoric worms being found. M. Haggeren, after having oh
fo™dth='f!h!'rrh? h'0rjTr l y’ a”*l;er“ “f '''hich area eonf,durable fpace diftant from the petals,
bv the o II h Peoeeeded frqm the petals only, whence he conclude., that this dearie light i, caufed
by the pollen which, in flymg off, is fcattered upon the fetal, (Obfirv. Phyfyue far M Ratirr, vet. xxxi.i.
fuDDof.s ZfitT" f ^ DOtn T Trp’mhm' ,hc Lm“ ‘f ,hl The author of thia beautiful poem
Morbed durLg™e°day 'W g “ e“m" ei“endcd by d,fftre"t b°d!eS the M ^
7c8
Irriu’iilitv.
ao?
Irritable
principle
affedled by
various fti-
znuiants.
ac8
Singular
motions in
plants. .
P H Y S I
it produces all the wonders of cryftallization; and that
the caufe of chemical affinity, and of all the pheno¬
mena difplayed by the magnet, if not fimply a modifi¬
cation, is at leaft akin to it. In the male parts of
plant and animal, he has feen both the fluid and the
pollen that give the ftimulus in generation, and are
accompanied with fo extraordinary changes in the fyf-
tem. He has found that much of the vegetable eco¬
nomy, and that even the funftien of generation itfelf,
as the developement of the fecundating powder, and
its application to the female organ, is partly carried on
by wind, heat, and other fuch agents. He has reafon
to conjefture that many general agents in nature are
yet unknown. By the help of chemiftry, he has found
out lately a confidera'de number which are called gafes,
which are of the very higheft importance in both the
animal and vegetable economy, and which, like the
aromas of plants, or the caufcs of contagion, produce
their effefts without being vifible. It is only, too, of
a late date that the celebrated profeffor Galvani of Bo¬
logna has excited fo much curiofity through Europe*
by the dilcovery of a certain ftimulus that refides in
the nerves, that paffes along eleftric conduftor?, and
which by a certain application of metals occafions a
vivid flafh in the eye, convulfes the body of a living
frog, and roufes the detached limbs into aftion. The
change of colour in the integuments according to dif¬
ferent feafons and circumftanoes, though it anfwer a
rational and ufeful purpofe, proceeds from a caufe that
does not feem to be very well known. Even many
agents which are not invifible, nor yet unknown, exert
their influence in a fecret manner, fo as not to be obvi¬
ous to the fenfes. It is generally known that many
Angular movements of plants are owing to heat, many
to light, and feveral to moifture. The barley-corn is
often obferved to creep on the ground 'by means of its
awp, which dilates and contrails according to the dif¬
ferent degrees of moifture. The wild oat, employed as
an hygrometer, moves through the barn,travels through
the fields, nor ceafes to be changing its fituation till
its beard fall off, or till it meet with a foil where it
conveniently may ftrike root. Upon a fimilar princi¬
ple of motion, the ingenious Edgeworth conftru&ed
an automaton which moved through a room which it
inhabited. It is eafily conceived how thefe lingular
effects, arifing from caufes that are unknown, invifi-
bie, or unthought of, Ihould give birth to the notions
of witchcraft and of inftin£t, and imprefs the fancy
with an idea of fomething refembling fenfation and vo¬
lition in the vegetable kingdom. Thefe agents, whe¬
ther invifible, unknown, or unthought of, directed
by regular and uniform laws under the great Au¬
thor of nature, produce effefts that indicate pre-
icience, wifdom, and defign, and caufing a tran-
iient or permanent propenfity in the mental part,
frequently controul by refifdefs fway the finite minds
O L O G Y.
that refide in matter. Thefe minds, in a living bo - Irritability^
dy, have generally been found accompanied with - ^
fome fyftem of nerves ; and thefe nerves happening
with equal facility and promptnefs to convey fti-
muli from the mind to the body and the body to
the mind, the great difficulty has been to determine
with refpedt to others when the adtion proceeds folely
from defign, folely from piopenfity, or from defign
and propenfity together. The uniform condudt of the
brute creation would feem to imply that their mind has3r*^s
little of inventive power ; that it generally adts from chiefly fron*
the impulfe of propenfity; and that its manners are va-propcnlky.
ried, not in confequer.ee of a change ol fentiments,
but from the induction of new habits, and the appli¬
cation of new ftirnul?.nts.
It has been obferved, that in all aninaals the vigour 2ll>
of mind has fome relation to the quantity of brain, and Vigour of
to the perfection of its organization; and that the mind de-
acut&nefs of the different fenles is generally proportion-1^^°“
ed to thequantity of nerve beftowed on their organs (B).th(I acute’
Man has a greater proportion of brain than any othernefs 0£ the
animal ; but many an animal has a much greater pro-fenfeson the
portion of nerve beftowed on different organs of the^eot;_
Many animals have therefore acuter fenfes than man;gaus-
but man has a greater vigour of mind than any other
animal on this globe.
The brain of quadrupeds is fomewhat fimilar to that air
of man, but proportionally fmaller, and not perhaps pjie brain
fo well organized. Willis has obferved, that among of quadru»
animals the ftru&ure of the cerebrum is more variable feas
than that of the cerebellum ; that the former general¬
ly furnifhes nerves to the voluntary mufcles, and the
latter with the medulla oblongata to the involuntary.
He has likewife remarked, that the round prominences
commonly called the nates and teftes are large in the
quadrupeds, which are aftive and vigorous, and in
fome meafure able to procure their own fubfiftence at
birth; that the tuber annulare is large in the quadru¬
peds that are diftinguiihed for their fagacity ; that
wherever the tuber annulare is fmall, the prominences
are large, and wherever it is large the prominences
are fmall. From thefe obfervationa he has con¬
cluded that the tuber annulare is the feat of genius,
and the round prominences the feat of what has been
called inftinft (c).
The brain of birds is feemingly the reverfe of the hu-
man brain ; the cortical fubftance is the interior, and the
ventricles are fituated in the white part on the outfide.
In the brain of the bird there are no circumvolutions
like the inteftines, no fornix, corpus callofum, nor cor¬
pora ftriata. ... 213
The brain of fifties is in many refpe&s fimilar in itsThe brain
ftruiture to the brain of birds. It is very fmall in0ffi(bes,
proportion to their body, and is generally furrounded
with an oily matter. In one genus of fifties, the ga-
dus, I)r Monro found fpheroidal bodies between the
dura
(b) The acutenefs of the fenfes depends upon the readintfs with which their organs are affefted by ftimuli.
This readinefs depends on irritability. It is not neceffarily conne&ed with mind, nor ftiould it ever be con¬
founded with perception, which in claffical language fignifies a property of the mental principle.
(c) Few perhaps who have difiedled different animals, and who, befides a number of ftru&ures, have feen a
variety of tubercles and lobes exifting in the brain, will be rafh in aferibing to any one of them one particular
office. The pineal gland waa for fome time thought the feat of the foul. It was afterwards found to be of-
■ - . - - -
P H Y S I
Irritability
*14
Of reptile?,
215
Of infers.
ai6
A move-
able brain
in a fpecies
of inail.
dura and pia mater, and covering the greater part of
the nerves like a coat of mail. The iwo fenfes, feeing
and hearing, in many filhes are often acute. By laying
one ear on the water, and linking the furface at fome
diftance, this element is found to he a better conduc¬
tor of found than even the air.
The reptile tribes have very little brain, and like the
fifties have no ganglions upon their nerves.
Molt infers have no brain at all, but a nervous cord
that is full of ganglions, that runs from one extremity
to the other, and is denominated the fpinal marrow.
This knotty cord, however, is not marrow ; the infedt
has nothing refembling a fpine ; and the fituation of
the cord in the animvd is often not along the back but
the breaft. In the filk-worm, and moll other infedls,
this cord is in contadl with the alimentary canal; and
the firit ganglion, which is fometirnes called the brain,
though not in the head, divides, in order to give a paf-
fage to the ftomach, and again unites in a fecond
ganglion. Swammerdam found in a fpecies of fnail a
brain with two lobes, in contact with the ftomach,
moveable by mufcles, and without a fixed place in the
217 b0dy* . . • r
Polypes. The polypes exhibit no appearance of brain or of
nerve, as in other animals. Their Ikin, however, is
obferved to be full of a number of fmall granulaty
bodies, which are connedled by a glareous matter that
refembles a thread. Like rows of bead-lirings, they
extend from one extremity to the other, and along the
arms. TrcmHey learned from a number of experiments
that they received their colour from the food, and
therefore fuppofed them to be veiicles or glands. If not
like the tuberous nerves of the infefts, they at leaft are
hoc very different in appearance Irom the nerves ol the
O L O G Y. yog
gadus that are covered with a number of fpheroidal Irritability,
bodies like a coat of mail. '
Some things would infinuate that a nervous fyftera
does not feem to be neceffarily connected with mind, under other
The ftimuli of nerves may be brought into adtion by agent* be-
other caufes befides mind. Even many nerves are not^lde5
fubjedted to the influence of mind; and the mind often
by its own inattention may lofe the power which it ori¬
ginally poffeffed over nerves. Many perfons can move
the mulcies oi the ear, and others may have loft that
power through negleft. After Fontana had obferved
that the heart was a voluntary mufete in a wheel polype,
he learned to retard and accelerate the motions of his
own at pieafure. If fome nerves, from a fort of pre-
feription, thus ceafe to be obed’ent to the power of
mind, others by frequent fervice and habit become fo
obedient as to convey their ftimnli to- the mufcles al-
moft without the conlcioufnefs of mind. The motions
excited by the ftimuli of nerves are in many cafes ex¬
ceedingly rapid. Thefe may be feen in the wings of
moft inledts, but are moil noticed in dancers, tumblers,
and apes, and all thofe animals that are exhibited for
feats of agility.
The motions which we fee excited in the body by The great-
the ftimuli of nerves have often been fo vigorous and influence of>
prompt, as to have torn the mufcle from the bone, andthe nervet,
to have broken the bone itfelf. They often affeft the
organs of fecretion, have often unhinged the fabric of
the tyftem, occafioned death, and accounted for the-
miracles that have been aLribed to the power of fancy.
1 he prompt motions of what have been named fenfkive
plants feem owing to a different fpecies of ftimulaats-
adling on extremely irritable fibres (o).
In the animal kingdom all mufcles in the time of
adiou
ten filled with ftony concretions ; and the celebrated Nuck, inftead of affigning to it any prerogative, coa»
tented himfeif with writing its epitaph.
VIATOR
Gradum. Silte.
Omnique Conatu. CONARIUM.
Refpice. Sepnltum.
Partem. Tui. Corporis. Primam.
Ut. Glim. Volebant.
Animae. Sedem.
OLANDULAM. P1NEALEM.
Hoc. Seculo. Natam. Et. Extindam.
Cujus. Majeftatem. Splendoremque.
Fama. Firmarat.
, Opinio. Confetvarat.
Tamdiu. Vixit.
Donee. Divinae. Particulas. Aura.
Avolaverat. Tota.
Lymphaque. Limpida.
Locum. Suppleret.
Abi Sine. Glance. Viator.
JLyrophamque. Ut. Aliis. Conario. Concede.
Ne tuam Pofteri
Mirentur Ignorantiam.
(d) In many inftances the prompt motions of animals feem moure owing to the irritability of their fibres than
to what has been called the fenfibility of their nerves. The poet was miftaken when he fuppofed that the
mangled infed would feel as fenfibly as a mangled giant. When the gad-fly fixes fairly on the hand, you may-,
cut off its wings, its legs, its antennas, and a part of the lower divilioa of its body, without diftorbing its
gratification, or apparently occafioifing to it aueh trouble.
7»o P H Y S I
imta' iiity. a£lion are obferved to difcharge a quantity of their
"" » anc^ thofe mufcles which are naturally white are
What moft irritable. In all living bodies, the irritable
cle- are power will ceafe to obey the adion of a ftimulant if
moft itrita-either long or violently applied. After exercifej, thcre-
c'2lI lore, the irritable fibre requires reft, after heat cold,
EffcAs cf aa^ter waking fieep, before it again becomes fubmifilve
ilimulus to the adtion of the ftimulant that overwhelmed it.
when loog This is the reafon that in plants and animals there are
continued. certa;n exertions and fundtiona of the fyftem that can
only be continued at intervals and feafons. The na-
tural ftimuli of involuntary mufcles continue to aft,
and the mufclts continue to obey through hfe.
Organs of The organs of fenfe were former! to m rk the difte*
ten^d”" rencc °f Simulants; yet living bodies are affefted by
Kivediftind^kt without having eyes, by founds without having
impreffi n5.ears» hy odorous effluvia without having fmell, and by
lapid bodies without having tafte. It is eafily con¬
ceived how thefe objefts, by their inherent properties
or motion,, may produce a confufed fort of excitement
in every highly irritable fibre. But the organs of fenfe
are peculiarly fitted to receive accurate and diftinft im-
preflion$ from each of thefe objefts ; and thefe diffe-
rent imprefiions feem not to arife from any difference
Biffeient in the kind of nerves by which they are received. All
feded'd'f" ^ ^'^erence tkat has been obferved arifes from the
ferently by ftru&ul‘e of the organ itfelf, and from the manner in
the fame which the nerve is diftributed through it. Other parts
ftimulus. of the animal body, as the ftomach, the fauces, and
genital organs, are thus affefted by particular ftimu-
lants; and many animals, and even vegetables, may be
affefted in vat ions manners, and by various ftimulants,
of which neither our feelings nor out fenfes can give
intimation of any thing analogous.
©ffc'ife^115 With refpeft to the feveral organs of fenfe, fome
animals have many eyes without any motion, and fome
animals have few eyes with varieties of motion. The
entrance to the ear in fome animals is from the mouth,
as happens in the frog ; and the bones of the ear are
without the cranium, as in fome fifiies. The fenfe of
fmelling is found in the nofe : this fenfe is afloniftiing
in dogs; and even fheep, in diftinguifhing their lambs,
truft to it more than to^feeing or hearing. The fenfe
of tafte is far from bein g general; and the fenfe of touch
can hardly be faid to relide peculiarly in any one organ.
Sect. IX. Motion.
44 J
Motion.
locomo¬
tion
Irritability is one of the great fources of motion
in all living bodies; and this power is brought into ac¬
tion immediately by nerves or fome other ftimulants.
Locomotion here is principally ccnfidered ; for altho’
the kinds of internal motion employed in fecretion and
the other funftions be as remarkable, in the eye of the
philofopher they have not fo generally attrafted the
attention. Moft animals are capable by nature of
changing the place which their body occupies ; for
this reafon the irritable fibres being formed into bun¬
dles, which are called mufcles, are in moft animals attach¬
ed to bones, cartilages, or hard integuments, which
they move as levers : thefe levers, with their mufcles
attached, are in moft cafes formed into wings, fins, and
legs of various kinds, and are employed in performing
o L o G Y,
the motions of flying, fwimming, walking, leaping, and Motion,
creeping. So very neceffary, in the opinion of fomc —
of the ancients, was one or other of thefe inftruments f7
to progreffive motion, that the movement of the fer- by fins
pent was otten aferibed to a preternatural caufe, was wm^sjegs*
fuppofed to refemble the inceffm deorum, and procured
to the animal one of the higheft and moft honourable
ranks among the emblematic kinds of divinities. Even
Mofes himfeif, who was unwilling to allow it the eha- Bythfelaf.
rafter of an agathodiEtnon or good genius, was yet fo t'c f .ring
puzzled at its being able to move without feet, that ofthebocIy;
he pronounces it a tool of the devil; and fays that it
was deprived of its feet by a curfe from heaven for fe-
ducing mankind into idolatry, Notwithftanding, how- 229
ever, the furprife that has been occafioned by its lin- rnufc?e*l
gular movement, the motion of fnails, though not fo ^creuln^
rapid, is in many refpefts as extraordinary : they
adhere by a certain vifcid fecret on, on dry ground
this fecretion forms a pavement over which they glide;
and they proceed by the aftion of mufcles without
bone, cartilage, or (hell, to which thefe muicles can be
attached.
No animal walks without legs or flies without
wings (e); but there are many that fwim without
fins, and that leap and creep without any legs. The pends not
rapidity of movement is not proportioned to the num-on the num¬
ber of inftruments chat are employed : if the fpout- bcr <lf in-
fifli be obferved to move flowly with one leg, the fea envT^ed
urchin moves (fill flower with many thoufands; the Different *
oyiter moves by fquirting out water; the feallop by ways of
the jerk of its fhell, and when in the water it rifes tomoviuS the
the furfaee and fails before the wind.
Many animals are formed by nature to fly, walk,, f7’1
leap, and fwim : the fate of thofe is rather uncommon 0f loconio^
whofe mufcles or feet are by nature attached to their tion chan-
integuments ; the lobfter is obliged to throw off itsged-
fhell, and the caterpillar all its feet with the /kin, and
in that fituation to remain liationary tul it receive new
inilruments of motion.
Whoever has read the celebrated work De Motu Many*
Animalium, needs not to be told that, befides the or- things na-
gans which are here mentioned, the form, the ftruc-ceffai7 td
ture, and even the fpeeific gravity of the body, as de-eXf:la'n lo*
pending on the nature of the bones and roufcles, or ascomotloI]*
varied by air, veficles, and bubbles, with a great variety
of other circumftances, are neceffary to explain the dif¬
ferent phenomena of locomotion.
As to vegetable motions, they evidently depend on Morions of
external agents : The motion of the wild oat has been vegetables,
mentioned ; the wings of feeds only fit them to be
carried by the wind, their fpeeific gravity to float in
the water, and their legs or tentacula to adhere to bo¬
dies that are in motion ; the lingular motions which
have been aferibed to fleeping, to waking, to fenfa-
tion, and volition, in the vegetable kingdom, feem on¬
ly the confequence of light, heat, moifture, and fuch
ftimuknts, afttng invifibly or with fecret influence ;
the opening and doling of the meteoric flowers are al¬
ways correfpondent to the ftates of the atmofphere ;
and the opening and doling of the equinoftial and
tropic flowers, to the light, the length, or fhortnefs of
the day.
Ttl*
(e) The fins of the flying fi(h enaUe it rather to fpring thin fly.
Habit.
*34
Intention
of locomo¬
tion.
Habit;
*36
IfS effects
™ . P H Y S I
, principal intentions of locomotion are to pet
tood, to fhdfi danger, to promote intereourfe, and dif-
p^rie the fpecies.
Sect. X. Halit.
Habit here deviates a little from its ufual meaning.
7 7 ^ Chlit Prina>Ie in living b?-
es by which they accommodate themfelves to cir
cumltancep, alTume as it were a different nature, and
in manj refpedts undergo a fpecies of transformation,
on veeeta ♦ ’k0 Vei y d° fome ’"^‘^uals of the vegetable
ties; g tribe accommodate themfelvee to different fituations, to
foil, to climate, and the Rate of cultivation, that thofe
natura ,fls who have net been accuftomed to nice and
accurate difcrimmatioris, have frequently miftaken the
variations of the fame plant forfo man/fpecies. Thefe
vanafons may be daily feen by examining the pint
as it grows on the mountams, in the valleys, in thegar-
den, or in the helds; or by bringing it from a rude un-
' ™l'Z when 11 Sometimes lays alide its lor-
^ t ’ “d cha“gcs the coluur anJ
an'fal’the. d'Hcacy and v,>our of
andintegu.^,,^"1111^10" arc of^ner ttie effeds of habit and
merits; cumdance than original conformation. We have
mentioned already the varying colour of the inte ni-
ments and the purpofe which it ferves in changing
} T \ may here add’th^ ^.imals co^
vered with a down or hair have it thick' or thin, W
orHhort, according to the different exigencies of clf-
Thofe changes produced on their body are accom¬
panied with others which are the caufes of new taftes
or new propenfities, and new manners. At the Care
of Good Hope the oftrich inclines to fit on her egg8
day and night like any other bird ; but in Senegal
v itre the heat is great, {he is fomehow difpoft/ to
leave tc.em to the fun during the day. In thofe conn-
tries where provifions can be found during the greateft
part of the year, the bee gradually loles the p jpenty
of laying up ftores for the feafon ot winter; and in
mfe countries infefted with monkeys, many birds
(fays an amufing and inftruaive writer) which in
other climates build in buOies and the clefts of trees
fufpend their nefts upon (lender twigs, and by this in
gemous device elude the rapacity of their enemies.”
Man, from imitation, is expofed to a greafnumber of
habits peculiar to himfelt; ana phi fical caufes have in-
genioufly been affigned (or the variety of his features
and complexion.
'xperfen‘s h"e y« inftituted with a
.nknown.;^ w to ihow llow far ^is accommodating principle in
71 I
Habit.
Min
o L o G Y.
nature may be extended in the different fpecies of plants
and animals. It is known, however, that the lamb and
the cove can be made carnivorous; and that the hawk,
laying afide his ferocity, can be brought by art to live
upon grain.
Of ail the effeas of this fingular principle, the mod
wonderful are thofe which are feen to take place with
refpea to generation. The fad is far from being new
to the naturahft, that certain animals, oviparous at one
leafon, are viv.paroHs at another. 'Fhis indicated much ,4r
ot accommocating power, though far inferior to what How far is
has been fince witne-flVd anrl . ^or w]JO fr t accommo-
, . , - .. dates with
238
On man¬
ners and
propenli-
ties;
*39
Jn man.
240
The extent
has been fince witneffed and difphyed .- lor wno from a g~-:-
all thrs could fufpeft, that any' animal which ufually to
propagates by an intercourfe of fexes, could in any cir-generation
cumitanee accommodate fo far as to multiply its fpe¬
cies another way. Bonnet of Geneva, ho wever, has
diicovered, that the puceron or vine fretter, which ge¬
nerally propagates by an intercourfe of fexes, is not
only oviparous at ©ne period and viviparous at another
but in all cafes where the union of the fexes is not tj
be obtained, can eafily accomplilh all the purpofes of
generation without it. Similar experiments have likc-
wife proved, that many plants can biing to maturity a
productive iced, though the male parts of the flower be
deftroyed before they can in the ufual way have any
impregnating effedt on the female. In this cafe the
conciulioas drawn have been fomewhnt new From
thde experiments it has been inferred, that the fexuai
iyfte n is ill-founded, and that moft of the learned na-
turahlts of Europe are on this fubjedt labouring at
prefent under a miftake. This reafoning, however is
not fatisiactory : for why, ic might be afleed, in the
vegetable kingdom more than in the animal, (hould
the mode of generation be neceffarily uniform ? Tho’
fome plants may, like fome animals, propagate with¬
out fexuai diflindlions, the conclufion is not logical
tliat thefe diftinaions are ufelefs in all; and though
tome (ew may, in particubir inflances, propagate with¬
out that impregnation to which they were accuftomed
vvid any one demwnftrate, that accommodating nature
does not here as in the puceron adopt a new method
to accompli(h her defigns?
In all living bodies, it frequently happens that feve-1 * *£-*<*
ral charadtenftic diftindtions, as the colour, the fea-laginffnd
tures, and a number of difeafes that are originally thef<jmet>mes
efledts ©F circumftance, do at la ft become Co fixed ia
the.fyftem, that they are afterwards traufmitted to po-
(terity through (ome generations (f). With regard
to animals thefe fafts are well known ; and as tifve-
getables, it has been obferved by a pupil of Linnaeus
that the apple-trees which are Cent from Britain to
New England bloffom at find too early for the climate,
and
neLL ; ^ How *any 'eLIl3™ irpotcrity hal1'^' r° f°rm m»n"'onial con-
features, mean ^ ^4-able
and mind, there are few that may not in fome Le r f pt ^ . more extraordinary properties of bodv
willing that what 1*3 very eminentLuL ..er be extend ,t,ed '? ^ t'™ ™-
^ ^ f4tUCU” °r dCranSedi W iM0 ““da *•*>! are chie^^
*44
And medi¬
cal pre-
fcriptions
P H Y S I
and bear no fruit; and that it ia only after fome years
that they conform to their fituation : and this circum-
ftance, by the way,explains why roots and feeds germi¬
nate fooner when brought from foutherft than when
they are brought from northern latitudes. The very
permanency of thefe effefts has often been the caufe of
much confufion and error in philofophy : for the na-
„ .M3r th turalift, miftaking the lading though temporary quali-
refukofe/-ties of habit for the real and eflfential qualities of fpe-
periments cies, has not unfrequently drawn conclufions from his
deluiive, experiments that have ireen contradifled fry fimilar ex¬
periments in other circumftances. This is one of the
obvious reafons why experiments exhibit fo many in-
confiftencies and contradittions, and why we are amu-
fed with fuch a multitude of vilionary theories about
the properties of living bodies.
From not attending to the numerous circumftances
that induce habits, and to that general accommodating
icnpimi.* principle in living bodies, many medical preferiptions
often dan- are found to be not only uftlefs but mffehievous; and
many parents, by ftudying the health and comfort of
their children, bring on habits that prove the fources
of perpetual ficknefs or the certain prefages of an early
death.
The accommodating principle is one of the confe-
quences of irritability. Its various effects arife from
the aftions of different ftimulants on the irritable fibre;
and the after-duration of thefoeffects, from the modi¬
fications of the irritable fibre, become habitual from
the frequently repeated aftion of the ftimulants.
The defign of this accommodating principle is to fit
both the plant and the animal for a more extenfive and
a more varied range of exiftence.
Sect. XI. Transformation.
Transfer- More remarkably ftriking than any of thofe chan-
mation ges to w7hich the plant and animal are expofed, from
the variations of habit or the change of integuments,
are thofe alterations which they undergo from meta-
morphofis or transformation. It has indeed been ?.f-
ferted, that thefe alterations confift in throwing off
certain temporary coverings or envelopes: but there
is here a want of precifion in the ideas, and confe-
quently a want of accuracy in the expreffion. The
fame perfons who make this aftertion inform us, that
caterpillars change their {kin, and many of them even
feveral times, previous to the period of their transfor-
mation. Transformation, therefore, and a change of
!N©t merely integuments, by their own conceffions, are different
a change The truth is, transformation frequently takes
temporary , independent of any change of integuments ; and
c^lopc, Ph« the mt.gumons without
transformation or any appearance of a new form : but
a new form or change of appearance ir-always implied
in metamorpbofis or transformation. This new iorm
is fometimes cccaftoned by a change of ftiape, eonfift-
ency, and colour ; as when the lobes of a feed are con-
In what it verted into feminal leaves. It is fometimes occafioned
confifts.andby a change of proportions among the parts: the pro-
different portion Gf a fetus, every one fees, are different from
kind* of it. thofe of a full grovvn man . and the painter, merely
by obferving the proportions, reprefents a child, a
dwarf, and a giant, on the fame feale. It is fome¬
times occafioned by the addition of new organs; tib
t*hai the emmet receives wipge, and the plume of the
gerous.
445 .
Its origin;
*46
Its defign.
O L O G y.
feed is fed by new roots ftriking into the ground } or Transfer,
it is occafioned by a change of both the form and the ^ ,
organs, and their mode of operation, as happens re¬
markably in fome infefts : for though all living bo¬
dies, plants and animals without exception, undergo
partial or general transformations, yet thefe changes 450
are chiefly obfervable among infefts. Many infeftsTransfor-
appear to confift of two diftinft animal bodies one £at»m <*
within the other: the exterior, a creature of an ugly
form, refiding in the water or under the earth, brei th-
mg by gills or fometimes by tracheae projefting from
the tail, poffefiing a voracious and groveling appetite,
and having a fyftera of fanguiferous veffels that circu¬
lates the blood towards the head. When all its parts
decay and fall off, the creature inclofed fucceeds in its
ftead : this often is an animal of a different form, ge¬
nerally lives in a different element, feeds on a different
fpecies of food, has different inftruments of motion,
different organs of fenfe, different organs of refpira-
tion, and differently fituated; and being endowed with
the parts of generation, inclines to gfatify the fexual
propenfity, atod produces an embryo which becomes
like the firft, and from which afterwards in procefs of
time a creature is evolved fimilar to itfelf. 451
If the embryo or egg be depofited on a leaf, the Accammo-
leaf frequently is obferved to bend, to wrap it in *
intended for the purpofe, and to proteft it from ‘nju-p£nts an(j
ries and danger. If depofited in the body 01 an am* animals,
mal or plant, they accommodate themfelves to its wants
and neceffities, and furnifh a tumour which feryes it
for a nidus, and befides, like an uterus, fupplies it
with nouriftiment; and if depofited in the body of an
infeft, the creature provides for the future deftination
of its young charge with all the tender care of a pa¬
rent, and then dies. . *1*
Thefe circumftances, added to the great variety of Difficult
forms which infefty affume, render it fometimes diffi-Sometimes^
cult to know who is the parent. We cannot, for «n-parents 0(
fiance, pronounce with certainty wh© isthe true parent n<c£is.
of the gdldius, known by the name of xhefeta equina, or
hair eel. A^fet of experiments, which we once began
with a view to throw fome light on the fuhjeft, were
interrupted unfortunately by an accident, and we have
not fince had leifure to refume them. We.learned
only, from a number of obfervations, that certain black
beetles about the end of the fummer months have the
ftrongeft propenfity to run into the water, where they
foondie; and that one or two, and fometimes three or
more, of thofe eels gradually drop from the beetle by the
anus. Whether other infefts provide for the gorchus m
this manner we have not yet been able to determine. ^
The tranfmutations of fome animals are moft ob-wheH
fervable in the uterus and egg. Some early transfer-transforma,
.nation, of the chick may be feen in the plate
iny to this article ; and anatomy has often
the change which happens at birth with reflect to eir-majs>
culation, refpiration, digeftion, and the other func-
If the reader wifh to be much acquainted with the
manners and transformations ef infefts, he will derive
information and pleafure from consulting the plates
and memoirs of Reaumur. If he wifh to know their
intimate ftruftute, the laborious Swammerdam can in¬
troduce him to a new and amufing fpecies of anatomy.
This laft author had before Reaumur defined and de-
2 icribed
tion in
plants and
animals.
^55
Transfor¬
mation ac-
« P H Y S I
Transfor- fcribed tbe kinds of tranfmutations among infers snd
mation fome other animals. He has fhown fimilar tranfmuta-
X~~~^ tions in plants; and in plate 46 of his Book of Nature,
Similar has compared the frog and the clove July-flower under
transforma their fix different forms.
In all living bodies poffefled of mind, the changes
of form, as well as the change of habit and of age, are
ufually accompanied with new propenfities, appetites,
and paffions. It may therefore be inferred, that we
ougrht not to look for the caufe of temper in either
withnew^ t^ie ^ra’n or t^le nerV0118 fyftem ; or to imagine, that
propenfi- the propenfities, appetites, and paffions, are properties
ties, &c. of mind : they feem only affedfions happening to mind
25<s in conference of ftimuii and organic ftrufture.
Is an evolu- Microfcopic obfervations having demonltrated, that
tion of parts the forms of the plant and animal exifted previouf-
tion11^* ^ ^ee<^ or emhry°, transformation nruft be
owing entirely to the evolution of the different parts
357 ky ^eans of nutrition.
Tfedefipn What nature intends by transformation, we pretend
of transfer-n0£ to fay. ^ut means 0f transformation different
mation. are peopled, the different feafons varioufly
adorned, and animated nature wonderfully diverfified
without a multiplication of beings.
7^
Genera¬
tion-
ajS
Generation.
Sect. XII. Generation.
Many of the caufes which contribute to the for¬
mation of a living body have hitherto eluded human
refearch ; may in all probability never be difeovered ;
and perhaps are beyond human compreherfion. Some
philofophers. confidering the extreme divifibility of
a6o
Objections
to this liy-
pothefis.
359
One hypo-
thefis, that
bod es1 were matter’ an<^ learning from the microfcope that trans
formed at formation is but the developement of certain parts that
once, and previoufiy exifted, have thence imagined that genera-
brought m-tion is fomewhat analogous; that all regularly orga-
to view by mfiwj bodies received their form at the beginning;
that the firft of every genus and fpecies contained by
involution the numerous millions of fucceeding genera¬
tions ; and that the union of the two fexes gives only
a ftimulus, and brings into view forms that had exifted
fince the world began.
This hypothefis has attempted to explain a thing
that is unknown by what muft for ever remain ineom-
prehenfible to the human mind in its prefent ftate.
It appeals abfurdly from pbfervation to conje&ure ;
and fuppofes that bodies which are originally brought
into view, which are daily augmented, frequently re¬
paired, and fometimes renewed by organic a&ion, do
neverthelefs in their firft formation require an effort
fuperior to what omnipotent power is able to perform
by fecondary agents.
Had the fupporters of this hypothefis confidered
renewaUf t^at rnany herbaceous plants produce new flowers
when the firft fet are untimely cut off, that lob-
fters and many a fpecies of infe& renew their limbs,
and that certain polypes can raife fo perfeft ve¬
getable forms as to puzzle the naturalift whether
or not he fhould clafs them under plants ; they would
not furely have preferibed fuch bounds to omnifeient
wifdom and almighty power, or declared with fuch
confidence what the Author of Nature, to fpeak with
the vulgar, muft neceffarily perform by his own
hands, or what he may intruft to fecondary caufes re¬
gulated by his laws.
Thefe philofophers will find it difficult to account
in a very fatisfaftory manner for monftrous pro-
Vou. XIV. Part II.
461
Does not
part*,
O L O G Y.
du&ions, and for thofe changes of ftru&ure and of
form which for a while continue hereditary from the
influence of habit. They objetff to others, that all 1 ^
the parts of a living body are mutually depend-Nor the
ent on one another, and that they muft neceffarily prochuSion
have been coeval or exifted at once. But thoughnion”
every attempt that has yet been made to afeertain
which of the vital organs are prior and which pofterior '
in a living body has proved unfuccefsful, it has not
been demonftrated that either themfdves or their
fun&ions are coeval. It may, on the contrary, beProceedsoa
plainly demonftrated from obfervation, that the lungsqueilion-
and the ftomach do not begin to perform their func-a^e ^aU*
tions fo early as the heart and the vafcular fyftem ;
that the heart and its fyftem perform their fun&ions,
even with fome confiderable changes, immediately
after birth ; that the vegetable tribes are without
nerves ; and that brain and nerves in the animal 4
kingdom perform more and more of their fun&fons
as the fyftem approaches towards maturity. It has
even been ftiown that bones will unite, and the limbs
of an animal continue to be nourifhed without nerves ;
that there is a principle of life in the blood ; that the
heart will a& under other ftimuii befides that of nerves;
and that found logic does by no means require us to
fuppofe that the firft a&ions of the festal heart, or the
pun&um fallens, are owing to the influence of ftimuii
from the brain, or that the brain muft have exifted
when the heart firft moved.
Although the minutenefs and tranfparency of theEtr.bryd
parts may prevent us from feeing the firft gradual for-f(,)imed ’“jr
mation of the embryo, yet every obfervation corroho-^0^^
rates the opinion that it is formed by fecondary caufee, aU C*'
and through the medium of organic powers. ^
It has been allied, whether or not is the embryo By <v-p of
formed by the joint operation of the two fexes ? or isthe felces
it formed entirely by the one, and brought into adlionor
by a ftimulus from the other? The former of thefe
queftions fuppofes that each of the fexes has a feminal
fluid ; that fome mixture takes place in the uterus,
and produces an embryo, in the fame manner that a
neutral fait affumes a certain and determinate form.
The notion implies fome general and confufed idea of
chemical combination ; but does not befpeak a very-
clear head, profound refle&ion, or much acquaintance
with the nature and properties of living bodies. 2(56
For a long time paft the moft rational phyfiologift$T.he opb
have generally agreed that the embryo is formed gra-j!(.,n<)f
dually and (lowly in one or other of the two fexes, e-arcs'Her*
not by chemical combination and mixture, but avey.and
fyftem of organs, directed by laws and prompted by>he!r f°l-
Itimuli, with many of which we are yet unacquainted.lovvtrs’
From the great Hippocrates downwards to Aqunpen-
dens and Harvey, the credit of furnifhing the foetal
•mbryo was almoft univerfally given to the females of
thofe animals which are named oviparous. Among
the viviparous, appearances were fuch, that the female
was left to conteft it with the male. At laft the eclat 267 "
of Leeuwenhoek’s difeoveries feemed to put an end toOIHummej
all doubts entertained upon the fubjeft. He very i-etuwen~
plainly faw through his microfcope that very great
profufioa of particles that move to and fro with ama-lowers,
zing rapidity in the male femen. Upon this he em¬
braced the do&rfne of Hamme, who had feen them
before, aad fuppofed from their motions that thefe par¬
ticles were not only animalcules, buc the principles or
4 X rudiments
7H
Gerrera.
* Vic!.
yiarv. dc
Jdartu,
269
The former
P H Y S I
rudiments of that animal in whom they were formed,
, 1 U1* and that they were depofited in the uterus of the fe-
46S male only to be nourilhed and augmented in fize.
Objections What raifed filfpicions apainft this theory were the
to this laft numerous animalcules difcoverable by the microfcope
opinion. other flu{cjg? an(l that vaft profufion of young em¬
bryos in thofe cafes where never more than one or two
arrive at maturity. It was an ohjeftion to it, that
fome females had been impregnated where the hymen
remained unbroken, and where the vulva had been
fhut fo clofely as to leave only a paffage for the urine.
The male femen in thefe inftances cauld have reached
only the mouth of the uterus. It was another*, that
in all birds which have mo intrant penis the male femen
is never fent farther than the mouth of the vulva, and
that a Angle aft of the male impregnates the whole
eggs of the ovarium. A third objeftion is the pollen
of flowers, which is not applied immediately to the
feed, but often to a diftant part of the veflel in which
it is contained. A fourth may be taken from frogs
and fifhes, and all thofe animals whofe eggs are im¬
pregnated after emiflion. And, laftly, Haller had ob-
ferved the pullet completely formed in thofe eggs that
were not fecundated.
Suppofing animalcules in every kind of prolific fe-
opinion bet-mer!) yet jt frequently happens that this femen under-
ter lupportr ^oeg a changC before it can he applied to the embryo.
The femen of the frog is diflblved in water ; and that
which is injefted difappearing fuddenly after coition,
would feem to intimate, that in thofe animals which
have been examined it had met with a folvent fome-
where in the uterus, and produced its effeft after the
change. It is now, we believe, pretty generally
known, that the embryo does not commence its ex-
iftence in the cavity of the uterus. De Graaf obferved
it on its paflage down the Fallopian tube ; he faw the
place where it fir ft began in the tefticle of the female;
and cafes have occurred where it has miffed the Fallo¬
pian tube, where it has fallen into the abdomen, where
the placenta has been formed, and the foetus has grown
270 among the vifeera of the lower belly.
More gene- From thefe fafts it has been concluded, notwith-
rally adopt* ftanci;ng fome feeble objeftions, that the female tefticles
ed‘ are real ovaries containing eggs; that thefe eggs are
brought into aftion by the ftimulating power of the
male iemen, which is fometimes thrown into the cavity
of the uterus, fometimes applied only to its mouth,
271 and fometimes fprinkled over the egg after emiffion.
Difference «pbe principal difference, therefore, that occurs between
between ovjpar0us and viviparous animals, confidered as fuch,
and^viTiL-appears to be this : the former are accuftomed to ejeft
rous ani- their embryo before it efcapes from the membranes of
mnls and the egg ; the latter retain it long in the uterus until it
piauts. acquires a considerable fize, until the membranes can
hold it no longer, and then ejeft it when the membranes
O L O G Y.
are burft. A plant is oviparous when it yields feed ;
viviparous when it produces a gem, a bud, a bulb, or
an eyed root. The membranes of the feed being re¬
moved, an incipient embryo is feen through the mi¬
crofcope.
Some animals, according to the feafon, ejeft the Some anf-
embryo inclofed in its membranes, or retain it in the mals ovlpa-
uterus till the membranes are broken. Thefe are r^us ar d
the animals which are faid to be oviparous at one pe_V1ParoUa•
riod and viviparous at another. The fpider-flies re¬
tain their young till they be as large as the natural
fize of their own bodies, and have undergone all their
transformations within the expnnfile membranes of the
egg, and an uterus as expan file as the ftomach of a
ferpent* . . . *73
In moft cafes generation requires a temporary union Union of
of two fexes : but it has been faid, that in Senegal the fexes.
there is a fpecies of ftiell-fifh among whom this opera¬
tion is the joint work of three individuals. In our
own country, too, three frogs are frequently obferved
adhering together, though the labours of the third have
generally been thought more officious than neceffary.
In fome animals the fexual union is almoft inilantaneous.
It conftitutes nearly the bufihefs of life in the laft ftage
of the ephemeron; and the male both of the frog and toad
often continues on the back ofthe female not for hours
and for daysonly butfor fome weeks. Upon examination
it has been found, that with his fore-feet he affifts the
female to protrude her eggs through the windings of
the ©viduft; and when they at laft arrive at the anus, a
fpecies of the toad has been obferved to draw them out
with his hind legs. Thefe animals were probably the
firft of the mafeuline gender who praftifed this arL
But due honour has not been aferibed to the difeo-
verers. In former days, the generous and grateful
fpirit of the ancients made them ready to acknowledge
their obligations to different animals for the arts of
bleeding, clyftering, and purging ; hut fuch is the de¬
generacy of modern times, that many write only to
claim the difeoveries of others. On this account we
ought not to wonder that many accoucheurs, in pub-
lifhing encomiums on their own merit, have invidioufly
concealed the fuperior pretenfions of the obftetrical
toad.
Among all living bodies the two fexes are generally Piffer^it
fimilar ; and the male fex generally diftinguifhed by fu- appearance
perior ftrength, beauty, and courage. The law,however, of the tw&
does not hold universally. The females of foroe car-lexes'
nivorous animals, who are left by the male to provide
for their offspring, are larger, ftronger, and more fe¬
rocious than he. Among fome infefts the male and
female have no fimilarity even in form. The male of
the glow-worm is a beetle, which flies in the dark, and
is attrafted not by the form, but the brilliancy of his
miftrefs (g). The female gall infeft is a large mafs like a
vegetable
(g) Such glowing beauty allures enemies as well as lovers. “ In Jamaica, in fame feafons of the year,
(fays Dr Darwin), the fire-flies are feen in the evenings in great abundance. When they fettle on the ground,
the hull-frog greedily devours them ; which feems to have given origin to a curious, though cruel, method of
deftroying thefe animals : If red-hot pieces of charcoal he thrown towards them in the dufk of the evening,
they leap at them, and, haftily fwallowing them, are burnt to death.” Botanic Garden. From this faft the
romantic moralift and fpiritualizer might derive fome hints for amufing declamation ; and in their diffuafives
might plaufibly demonftrate, that in moft cafes beauty is fatal to the objeft beloved, to the lover, and
deft rover. S
475
Male and
female
pai ts of
animals.
ft7(?
P H Y S I
vegetable exctefcence, without locomotion; the male
a fmull fly full of aftivity. The one is as unlike to
the other as a Harpy to a Venus, and as difproportion-
ed in paint of bulk as a horfe to an elephant.
In many animals the diftinftions of fex are concealed
in the body. When any of their parts are placed ex¬
ternally, or protruded occafionally, the male parts are
ufually prominent, and the female hollow, in order to
receive them. In the acari, however, in many flies,
and a few hornets, the cafe is reverfed; the female
parte fuffer eredion, and the male parts are open and
hollow for their reception.
477
Atidrogy-
i;ous ani¬
mals.
f Sivam-
mtrd. tiijl.
Infetfs,
p. I. ch. 9.
Theirfitua- he external fltuation of thefe parts is very much
eion. varied in different animals. In many worms it is near
to the head. It is often upon the fide of the fnail;
near to the breafl: in the female of the dragon-fly. It
is at the extremity of the antennae in the male fpi-
der. The vulva enters from the re&um in birds. Its
common fltuation in moft animals is well known.
—The male penis, where there is one, is fome-
times found to enter the vulva, and fometimes not:
it is fometimes imperforated, fometimes forked, fome-
times, double, fometimes fielhy, fometimes bony,
fometimes ftraight, fornetimes winding fpirally like
a fcrew, fometimes with a knob and fometimes with
a point at its extremity, according to the kinds and
varieties of animals.
Few individuals have more than one fex. Many
fnails, however, are androgynous, and have two. In
copulation they perform the office of two fexes, and
are mutually impregnated-j-. This circumfiance has
often led the fenfualifl to wifh that he were a fnail.
With equal reafon the Epicure might wifh to be one
of thofe worms that imbibe by abforbents, and fuck
in nourifhment by a thoufand mouths. The organs
employed may be more in number, the continuance of
their fundlion may be much longer, and yet the gra¬
tification may be lefs. The difcreet beauty can afford
a million of pkafures to her lover which no fnail or
fenfualift enjoys, and which proftitution can never
yield.
The male and female parts of the vegetable are
reman: fometimes both on the fame flower, fometimes on
pans of ve-Separate flowers, and fometimes even on different plants
getables. of the fame fpecies. Befides the flower, another organ
of generation is found in vegetables. This is the co¬
rona, from which the buds and branches proceed. It
is a fubftance between the pith and the ligneous
circles, and from ^hich the diametral infertments
diverge.
. *79 The corona is moft confpicuous at the time when it
leratio'i ge"^en<^8/ort^ ^,oots* fl°wcr comes forth only at
hange, andthe time when the feed is to be formed; and the
ometimes tefticles and ovaries of thofe animals which procreate
hfappear. . only at Hated periods are diminiffied in fize, and fome-
ftimes difappear, till the genial feafon. Even fome
-females, when they ceafe to be prolific, as thepheafant,
for inflance, affume many marks of the other fex, as
if their former fex had been affumed only for a while
and to anfwer fome temporary purpofe.
In all animals the incipient embryos are perhaps
Reuters, and the fex determined according to the pre¬
dominancy of the male or female ttimttluson the parts,
it would not a little confirm this opinion, were the ob-
a?8
Male and
female
O L O G Y.
fervation to be well founded, that certain bulls are very
apt to beget males and others females, and that certain
cows which have females always when they are young
bring forth males when they grow old. The different incipient
proportions of males and females in different climates embryo*
might alfo ferve to illuftrate this doftrine. It is nol'crhaPs
obje&ion to it that the order of male and female births neutm*
in the fame family is often irregular. The proportional
force of the two flimuh will naturally be different at
different times. It may depend on the quantity or
quality of the fluid fecreted, upon the difference of ar¬
dour m the part.es, on the fancy, the paffions, the
particular ftate of the fyftem at the time, and a thou-
iand circumftances, befides the age, and the ufual or
general habit of the body. We mean only to infer at
prefent, that wherever a male or female is produced
the ftimulus of that particular fex, whatever was the
caufe, had during the time of coition and conception
acquired the afcendency over the parts that were to
become fexual in the embryo. We cannot fo readily
anfwer the queftion, Why the offspring fhould poffefs
the form and difpofitions of one parent, and the fex of
the other ? In this cafe the different ftimuli may have
adted differently on different parts ; in the cafe of her¬
maphrodites, which are very common in the horfe, the
als, the cow, and the fhetp, the two parents feem to
divide the form, the fex, and the difpofitions, equally
between them. J
The particular caufe which excites the orgafmus iaPenSeor
the femak organs is not afceriained. That vifcous*gafaius.j
fluid which young lafcivious females eje& when fond
of the male, is chiefly a fecretion from the glands of
the vagina, the mouth of the uterus, and the neigh¬
bouring parts. In fome refpe&s it appears to be iimi-
lar to thofe periodical difeharges of females which fre¬
quently affume the ereft pofture ; and thefe difeharges
being ufually difeontinued during the times of preg¬
nancy and fuckling, we muft fuppofe that it is a por¬
tion of that fluid which nature has prepared for the
me of the foetus. Thefe difeharges are always a proof
that the female has arrived at the age of puberty ; that
her ovary is now performing its office; and that ffie is
difpefed to propagate her kind. Whatever be the catife
of the female orgafmus, it is often fo (trong as to coun-
teraft the natural effeas of the feminal fluid, and pre¬
vent impregnation. For this reafon, few young and
lafcivious females coaceive immediately after their
marriage ; and after coition, therefore, in cattle, it
is fometimes a prance to beat the female, to plunge
her in water, to weary her with running, and to .ufe
other means to prevent the return of the fexual
defire.
In man, and fome of the nobler animals, the influ-rnflue*cenf
ence of fancy over the organs of generation is unquef-fancy oSe*
tionably great ; but the extent and mode of its arencythe Part« of
is not defined. Thofe who allow it fo much powergene'a ■oa*
in impreffing marks, and altering the form and colour
of the foetus, fupport their opinion rather by the num¬
ber than the ftrength of their arguments. Many of the
ftones which they adduce as a fort, of-proofs are evi.
dently fabulous, and have brought the truth of the
whole into queftion. I he reports, however, of the
French commiffioners who were appointed to examine
the nature of animal magnetifm, ought to deter.the ean-
.4 ^ 2 did
PHYSIOLOGY.
did inquirer from drawing very hafty conctufions.—
The queries of Fienus(H) concerning the powers of
this mental faculty are important and curious, and
might be of ufe in diredling our refearches ; but they
ought to be anfwered by accurate experiments, and not
by acute metaphyfical reafoning and hiilorical anec«
dotes that are ill authenticated.
To prevent a confufion of genera and fpecies, ani-
283
The mix¬
ture of tpe- ma]8 are generally reftri&edby propenfity to their own
vented6* ^in^> anc^ t^'e feminal fluids, hefides, being various in
how. * various animals, they cannot indiferiminately a<^l as a
ftimulus on all female organs of generation. The chan¬
ges of form induced by habit, which is owing itfelf to
the influence of flimuli, will partly explain the manner
in which the progeny is made to refemble the male.
As the irritability of different parts is of different
kinds, the ftimulus will have a different effedl on dif¬
ferent organs: and in thefe cafes where either genera or
fpecies are mixed, the parts which are moil and leaft
affefted by the ftimulus of the male will be obvious in
the ftiape and form of the offspring.
We have hitherto fpeken of generation as being per-
ivithout formed by the temporary intercourfe of two fexes; but
ftxual di- the puceron is an inftance where fexual diftinftions are
it’nations in n<)t alvvays neceffary. Even where they exift they are
a iimalT daily difpenfed with in the vegetable kingdom. Plants
grow from the gem, the bulb, the leaf, or the root.—
They propagate by flips, by fuckers, and by layers,
and fome of them multiply by fpontaneous repara¬
tion (1). In many animals the diftintftions of fex are
totally unknown. It has been obferved, that infufory
animalcules multiply their fpecies by continual divi-
fions and fubdivifions of their own body ; that fome
polypes, by fpontaneoua feparation, fplit tranfverfely.
fome longitudinally, and that forne fend off ftioots. Ganer*.
When experiments have been made upon thefe animals, tH>a'
it has been difeovered that the numerous and artificial —“"V""
divilions of their body or their head produce entire
animals. Trembley learned that they might be en¬
grafted upon one another, and produce monilers as
wild and extravagant as poet or fabulift has ever
dreamed of.
184
Generation
It was noticed already that the alimentary canal °f i»iants and
fome animals diftributed nourilhment through the whole fome ani-
body without the intervention of circulating vtffels, niab a con-
and that the vital organs of vegetables were generally
diffufed through the wisole fyitem. The cafe is the a*
fame in polypes as in plants. Every part is a minia¬
ture of the whole. It is found to have fimilar organs
of digeftion, of refpiration, of circulation, and of ge¬
neration. In perfect animals all the parts are more de¬
pendent on one another; the vital organs have diftintt
fituations, and their powers are concentrated in diftinbt
places. The arm of a man has no heart; it has ua
lungs ; it has no ftomach, and no organs of genera¬
tion ; but the branch of a tree has as complete a fyf-
ttm of organs as the trunk itfelf, and is as indepen¬
dent of that body from which it grew as the graft is
independent of the flock.
The feveral parts of perfeft animals all contribute Difference
to make one whole ; the feveral parts of a plant or po-between
lype, when united together, form only a congeries offbuu* imd
living bodies. Thefe faffs contribute to explain the ef
principal phenomena in this mode of propagation.
Sect. XIII. Sleep.
Sleep is rather an affeftion of mind than a property 3ieep
of body, and is therefore more naturally a fubjeft of
metaphyfics
187
(h) The fmall work of Fienus to which we allude is intitled De Viribus Imaginationis Tradatut. The fob
lowing queftions ferve to give an idea of its contents, and are named Index ^ueejl'wnum hujus JLibri.
QuajVto. I. An anima habeat vim agendi in ulium corpus?
II. In quae corpora agere pofiit, et qua affione ? , ,
III. Per quas potentias illos motus et aftiones exerceat ?
IV. An aniraa agat aliquid per potentiam imaginativam ?
V. An phantafia poflit ulium corpus movere localiter?
VI. An poffit altcrare ?
VII. An phantafia pofiit vim ullam acquirere ab influxu coelorum ?
Vi II. An ergo phantaiia nullatn habeat vim agendi ?
IX. Per quiS potentias phantafia corpora immutet ?
X. Quid poflit in corpus proprium, etfpec\alitery an poffit in co create morbos ?
XI. An poffit morbos creare ?
XII Quid poffit in alienum externum?
XIII. Quid poffit in alienum propinquum feu foetum?
XIV. Quomodo etqua ratione festum immutet ?
XV. Quomodo poffit conformatricem dirigere ?
XVI. Quaenam imaginatio habeat illam fignandi poteftatem ? qua: non ?
XVII. Cur non omnis imaginatio quam animi paffiones fequuntur fignat?
XV III. An omnes animi paffiones fignant ?
XIX. Quaenam imaginatio figntt, an tantum matris an etiam patris ?
XX An etiam brutorum imaginatio fignet ?
XXI Quo tempore fignet, an tantum graviditatis, an etiam conceptus ?
XXII Quantam permutationem poffit in foetum inducere, et quas fignaturas poffit caufare ?
XXIII. Cur phantafia non ftmper imprimit in foetum res inoaginatas eodem inodo, fed fsepe taradiverfifr?
3&IV. Cur non eidem femper parti fed diverfis not® inducuntur ?
(1) As the houfe leek and fome graffea.
Sleep.
a88
An affec¬
tion of
mind.
Favours
nutrition.
P H Y S I
metapliyfics than of phyfiology. Tin’s afifeftion is of*
J ten induced by fatigue and exercife ; an 1 feveral per-
fons, when they are weary and no longer able to move
their limbs, fay they are exhaufted. Though the word
exhaujied, in this exprefiion, has feldom any precife
meaning, it feems, however, to have been the means-
of fu^gefting a theory with regard to fleep. This
theory fuppofes that fleep is occationed by the exhau-
ftion of irritability in the living fyftem; but it feems to
be founded on very limited and partial obfervations, or
rather has been formed, like a great many others, prior
to any obfervations at all, and afterwards tortured to
account for fails which it does not comprehend. It
does not account for the periodical returns of fleep,
for the almoft unremitting drowfinefs of infants, and
for that liftiefs lethargic ina&ion fo often attendant on
old age. When no exhauftion of initability can well
be fuppofed to have taken place, the propenlity to fleep
on many occafions becomes irrefiftible, from the ef-
fe&s of monotonous fpeaking, from ftillnefs, darknefs,
or from the famenefs of feenery around us ; and when
one ftiraulus, after long application, can roufe no
more (a plain proof that the irritable principle is by
no means exhaufted), another ftimulus that is lefs
powerful in ordinary cafes is accompanied with excite¬
ment.
Of thefe phenomena, we frankly confefs that we
can affign no phyfical caufe that is fatisfaftory. It
is eafy, however, to fee the intention which nature has
in view by inducing fleep. It has long been obferved,
that in all living bodies there is a continual wafte and
repair, or, to fpeak with more precifion and accuracy,
one procefs of afSmilation and another of diffolution
conftantly taking place in all the different parts of the
fyftem. It is alfo true that this aflimilation, when the
body is healthy, predominates in youth; that diffolu
tion prevails in e 1 age ; and that the two are nearly
on a par during the vigour and meridian of life. An¬
other fail which admits of demonftration. is, that a
gentle and moderate exertion of mind and body will
promote both. And laltly, it is certain that immode¬
rate exertion in either refpeil, or any exertion that is
not fuited to our ftrength, habits, or period of life,
prevents ailirnilation, haftens d Ablution ; and that the
means which nature employs to reftore the balance is
ufualiy by inducing a ftate of fleep.
When the balance is reftored, and ail the parts are again
a d waking repaired for dif. barging their office, man awakes; but
eaih fui ed waking period is of fhort duration. If appetite or
fundHonOi Pa®on not cnga^e him in fome purfuit, if hi& mind
the fyitem! be not occupied with fome objedl, or if no ttimuh be
applied from without. This period feems chiefly
intended for collecling food, and for being employed in
thofe exertions which promote refpiration, digeftion,
abforption, circulation, and fecretion ; while fletp,
after the food is collebted, aflifts nutrition, and pro¬
motes affimilation throughout the fyftem If what is
the natural food of the fpecies cannot be coiledled by
the plant or animal in a fhort time, the period of fleep
is proportionally reftri(fled. If the food received be
difficultly affimilated, the period of fleep is propor¬
tionally extended. If the food be not prepared for afli¬
milation, the fleep is difturbed. If it be difficultly
prepared Ly the organs, the abiive exertions are more
vigorous j if eafily prepared, they are more feeble. If
2$J
ago
Sleeping
O L O G Y.
it be colleAed during the day, the fleep is is the night;
if colle&ed in the night, the fleep rakes place during
the day ; and all living bodies are direbted by. nature
to felebk that time and fpecies of food which is molt
fuited to their nature, their habits, their circumftances,
and age.
To favour nutrition, not only the body, but even the Violent ex-
mind, muft be allowed to indulge in reft. The child
fleeps, and his mental faculties are under reftraint, that
thofe funtftiens employed in nutrition may not be dif- fu! to the
turbed. The mental faculties are ftill feeble in a more fyftem.
advanced period of life; and the moderate exertions of
mind and body which are natural to youth are chiefly
fuch as favour the preparatory organs of the fyftem,
and promote growth : but^he st<ftiue and vigorous ex¬
ertions of manhood, confidered with refpe<5t to mind
or to body, foon caufe diflblution to preponderate in
the fcale, and old age becomes liftiefs, inadlive, and
drowfy, and the mind returns to childhood or dotage,
becaufe living bodies are known to accommodate them-
felves to circumftances, and becaufe the prevailing dif¬
folution is retarded by the frequent returns of reft and
of fleep, which favour fo much the affimilating powers,
counteraft re-abforption, and oppofe decay
During fleep the irritable principle is more languid, ex~
and all the fenfes are more obtufe. The mind then isertion
withdrawn to its reft, and does not attend to ftimulicounterai^
from without. The fame happens when the mind 18nutrUlou*
abforbed in profound thought : but profound thought
is hurtful to the fyftem. The mind then is engaged
in purfuits peculiarly its own, and is lefs attentive to
the calls of nature. In the time of fleep it withdraws
feerningly, not fo much for its own fake as that of the
body, which then being freed from the interruption of
voluntary motions, all thofe organs which adt fponta-
neoufly can more eafily difehavge their fundions.
Forthe bell of reafon«,themind is not allowed to judge
for itfelf when it is proper to eat, to drink, to fleep,
to wake, and to propagate the fpecies. Thefe and the
like are offices too important to be wholly intruded
with a being of fo very limited intelligence. In all
thefe cafes, it is therefore directed by certain propen-
flties refulting from the body in confequence of llimuli
or organic ftrudlure. Being often amufed with thoughts 293
and ideas on thofe obje£ls which are purely intellectual,
as the notes of memory, the forms of fancy, and its n^t
own operations in the way of reafoning; being in veil-traded by
ed with fome little power in roofing, calming, and re-the mind,
gulating the paflions, the defires, and appetites ; and'ftere^ rc
having the command ot all the voluntary movements
of the body ; it fomedmes negleils its charge of the
fyttem, deftroys it fometimes by exceffive indulgence,
and fometimes employs it in accompliihing ends pecu¬
liarly its own. One fhould imagine that the mental
principle in the lower animals flumld occafion but little
diftuibance to the fyftem|; yet it has been obferved that
geefe fatten fooner in the dark than they do in light,
where the mind is entertained with varieties of objeCls:
and this circumflante will partly explain why man dot 9
not fatten fo regularly as the brute, and why caftra-
tion, which prevents fo much anxiety and paffion and
exhaufting efforts, affifts growth and the organs of nu- .
trition. The venereal ftimulus, for this reafon, is not
ftrongly felt at a very early period of youth, nor is
very troublefome in old age. In the lornrer cafe it
6 would
fleep.
195
Sleep of
plants.
P H Y S I
, foulJ prevent the growth of the fyftem i in the latter
it would haften its diflblution.
The fyftem The natural returns of waking and fleeping may be
accommo- altered by the prefence or abfence.of ftimuli^ and are
rdSaTm CUrioufly affeaed b7 the influence of habit. Although
the commencement of one of thefe periods happen to
be changed, the commencement of the other will con¬
tinue as before. liaperfon be accuflomed to fleep pre-
cifely at nine in the evening, and to rile again at fix in
the morning, though his fleep in the evening may now
and. then be kept off till twelve, he will waken at fixj
and though continued by darknefs, quiecnefs, or fuch
like caufes, till the day be advanced, it will recom¬
mence in the evening at nine. The ftate of phyfiology
is fuch at prefent that we cannot aflign any precife
phyfical caufe for the natural kinds of fleeping and
waking, or for their regular periods of return. As
for the caufes which occafion morbid fleeping and
waking, we refer our readers to books on patho-
logy.'
1 rants too have been faid to fleep. At the approach
of night, many of them are obferved to change their
appearances very confiderably, and fometimes even to
fuch a degree as fcarcely to be known for what they
were before. Thefe changes happen principally to
the leaves and the flowers. During the night, many
leaves, according to the nature and genus of the plant,
are feen to rife up, to hang down, or to fold themfelves
in various ways for the prrte&ion of the flowers, the
buds, the fruits, or young ftems ; and many flowers, to
efcapea fuperabundance of moifture,to hang down their
mouths towards the earth, or wrap themfelves up in
their calixes. It was mentioned already, that thefe
phenomena are owing to flimuli adding from without :
we may add here, that mod of the motions are per¬
formed at the joints where the leaves and petals arti¬
culate with the ftem. A period of reft is as neceflary to
plants as fleep is to animals. TL he irritable principle
cannot aft long under the influence of the fame ftimu-
lant, except at intervals ; and the rapid growth obfer-
vable in plants during the night, is a ftrong proof that
the organs employed in affimilation had been difturbed
in difeharging their funftions during the .day, when
expofed to the attions of heat and light and of other
ftimulants.
Sect. XIV. Death.
JOcath? . I)eath }s cefiation and total abfence of the li¬
ving principle in organized bodies. It is fometimes
imitated by fleep and fwoons; and a ftate of torpor in
many initances can hardly be diftinguilked from it.
Several mofles and a few animals, as the ears of blight-
Death.
O L O G Y.
eil wheat, the feta equina, the wheel polype, anil
iome fnails as we learn from the Philofophical Traiif-
aftions, may be fafely preferved as dried preparations,, ,iy7 .
not lor months only but for years; and after irritabili-
ty and fenfation have been totally fufpended, will re-diftinguilh.
turn to life upon the proper application of moifture. a^e from a
A wheel polype was put by Fontana upon a bit of ft‘te of tor’
glafs, and expofed during the whole fummer to theP°r‘
noonday fun ; another was expofed in a fimilar man¬
ner for a year and a half; and after they were like a
piece of hardened glue, were reftored to the ufe of all
their funftions by a few drops of water ( k). Where-
ever there is death, there muft therefore be likewife a
partial or general decompofition of one or more of the
vital organs. . This decompofition takes place natural- a 498,
ly in fome living bodies after a few hours, in fome af-per^Tof
ter a few days ; the life of others is extended to weeks; al'o*te4
fome are vigorous for months or a feafon. Man has1? the fPe_
often feen more than fourfeore; and the hardy oakC‘e3'
furvives the Ihock of two or three centuries. Thefe
obfervations confpire to ftlow that there is a cer¬
tain period of exiftence allotted by nature to every 2Q0
fpecies of living bodies. In the individual this pe-Accommo-
nod is fometimes abridged, and may be fometimes dates with
extended by circumftances ; but yet there is a boundrefpe^to,
which it cannot pafs, when the vital organs muftindlVldua
be decompofed, and the fyftem return to moulder
with the dull. The time of incubation and the time
of geftation are pretty much defined in every fpecies,
becaufe the circumftances of the individual in thefe
cafes are generally fimilar; but after emerging from the
fostal ftate, the individuals are partly entrufted to their
own organs and the chances of life, which are much
varied; and hence we account for the difference of
their age. ^
. Tile in general feems to be proportioned to therirf?*
fpace occupied by that feries of fueftions which the portioned
fpecies is evidently deftined to perform: and here fome- to the feries
times the accommodating principle is finaularly re-of T"*1011*
markable. As the period of decay is never feen to formed^"
commence in the fpecies till that of propagation be
nearly elapfed, and as propagation in the lower tribes
of plants and of animals is often the immediate harbin¬
ger of ceath ; fo many animals which have not pro¬
pagated, indulged the propenfity, nor became uneafy
from the languor of defire, continue vigorous longer
than ordinary, as if it were waiting for an opportu¬
nity to multiply their kind. And in the vegetable
kingdom, where no individual is ever the viftim of de*
fire or pafllon, annuals, if prevented from flowering
and feeding in their proper feafon, will live double
and fometimes triple, the ufiul time, till thefe funftions
be
authomy*01 BoogT.r,°as tlZl'JZS'T? ^ ^
air or in the Imoke of a chimney, has the property of cominn- Paain rr b -g 3nd dned ,n the °Pen
to the fun in ftagnant nnd corrupted water. But! adds the Doctor it would exP°red, for fome day*
an Indian to credit the teftimony of the Jefuit. Experiments and OhC / W 3 7^ reC|Ulre the cre:'ullty of
ly Richard Fo'wlsr. With regad ,o ,hi. /eport, we
to life after it was dead : but if the Tefuit meant rmKr tk,* v ’ * , ^ 1 . would not readily return
funftions had been fufpended, we muft fay, that if his reoort be ^ iVa8 dn'ed’ and 'tS ^veral
been fufficiently difp.oved. 7 P b' "0t outhentlcated, neither has«
Death.
301
P H Y S I
be fomchow performed, and then die. But when all
the organs are fully evolved and have difeharged, or
have continued for the ufual time capable of difehar-
Symptoms f th°fe officesfor wllIch they were intended ; difib-
of decay. *-UtI°n commences, the aflimilating organs begin gra-
dual.y to lofe their tone, and the reabforbents carry
off more from the different parts than what they re¬
ceive in the way of nutrition : the irritable fibre then
becomes rigid ; the membranes and cartilages begin to
oflify; the bones grow harder; the fmalier veffeis col-
lapfe and difappear; the parts no longer are obedient,
as before,to the aftion of ftimulants; and death enfues.
Some, in order to account for this event, imagine that
the body receives at firft a certain portion of irritabi-
0 l ° G Y. 7I!>
Iity, and continues to live till that be exhaufted : but Death.
this theory explains nothing ; and without pretending '   >
to a great deal of forefight, we will venture to predi & * 502
fciftedV ^ Which 11 h“!-
uiltinguilhed for its longevity. for death.
With regard to the periods by which the life, the 3°3
runctions, and difeafes of living bodies are fo frequent-Ph£CcaI
y regulated, and which periods may fometimes be va-eafilyaf-C
ned but not evaded, the mail prudent language that, hgned for
perhaps, can be adopted in the prefent ftate of phy„Feriodical
fiological fcience is this of the Divine That the qL Phenomena
who formed us hath numbered our days, determined'^ f)f'
our times, and prefenbed the limits of our exifteirce.
The following Table may be confidered as in feme refpea a fummary view of the
foregoing Se&ions, and as a Supplement to the Table of D’Azyr.
f Diffufed through the fyftem.
1 Confined to one place.
Situated externally.
Situated internally.
In the courfe of circulation.
Not in the courfe of circulation.
Within or without the courfe of circulation at pleafure.
Without tracheas (m).
With tracheae ramified through the fyilem where the refpiratory organ, are eenerallv diffnfed. -
\ formed Win s0”81 ‘ ^ re‘j,!n“°T O'g*"* confined.
c y rings.
 by fegments of rings on one fide, and a membrane on the other.
 by continuous rings running fpirally like a ferew.-
o
2, 1
be
C/2
 admitting air by one entrance.
 by feveral entrances.
 wholly concealed in the body.
 partly projefting from the body.
 opening at the head.
 at the oppofite extremity.
 upon one fide.
 upon both fidea.
Without teeth.
With teeth in the mouth.
   in the ftomach.
-I
TJ
O
-O
bo
J CO l
  ftones or artificial teeth in the ftomach.
  glands in the mouth for fecreting a liquor to be mixed with the food.
  pouches in the mouth where the food is kept and moiftened.
  a fac or bag where the food is kept and moiftened*
•   a membranous ftomach.
■  a mufcular ftomach.
•   an intermediate ftomach.
Without a ccecum or blind gut.
With a ccecum. *1 Thefe parts, as well as
•   two coeca. [ruminating ftomachs and
  three coeca. f their cefophagus, have an*
 — four cceca. ) tiperiftaltic motions.
  one entrance or mouth.
  many entrances by abforbents.
Plants
(l) The gentlemen of the French Academy, who have been attentive to mark the number of lobes in the
Kings and livers of different animals, have fufficiently demonftrated, by the fads which they relate, that many
of thofe phyfiological conclufions which have been drawn from the number of lobes in thefe two vifeera are
juft as delufive ass many of thofe which have been drawn from the number of lobes and the different tubercles
found in the brain.
(m) Where the refpiratory organs are fituated externally.
I
720
o
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PHYSIOLOGY.
Plants liave many alimentary canals ( n ).
Some polypes have alimentary canals that branch through the body, , ., .
The alimentary canals of plants, of feme polypes, and worms, diftributc the fluids without the aid of a
circulating fyftem.
1
CO
I <
P<
By vefTels beginning from the alimentary canal.
    from the cavities.
   from the fiirface.
 veins in the penis and placenta.
 reabforbents originating from all the parts of the fyftem.
O
s
o
co
*1 £
(* b£) ^
No circulating fyftem. .
A circulatinti fyftem with one heart. *
  L.1 a heart for dlftributing the blood through the Terpiratoty organs, and
an artery for diftributirtg it through the fyftem. , .
  one heart for the refpiratory organs, and one for the fyftem, both m
one capfule. t. r a
      two hearts for the refpiratory organs, and one for the tyltem.
     a pulmonary heart, or a heart for the refpiratory organs in the courfc
of circulation. - r . , .
 a pulmonary heart within or without the cotirfe of circulation
pleafure.
       - a heart fiiuated in the breaft.
      .   •  near to the head.
  - in the oppofite extremity.
fBy the alimentary canal.
  the la&eais.
j  the refpiratory organs.
^ ^ — the circulating fyftem.
^ — the cellular membrane.
[ And by the feveral parts in which it becomes finally affimilated.
*1
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By vefTels.
— exhaling veflels.
— excretory organs.
— orgapic pores.
An^by^ail the parts of which the fy ftem is compofed.
Which are fcaly.
  fhelly.
- - membranous.
corneous.
• cretaceous.
• ligneous.
, covered with down.
  hair.
   — prickles.
 feathers.
   —— a vifeid matter.
change their colour.
their covering.
are changed themfelves.
8. IftRa-
(H) The fubterraneous bulbs, the fwoln flefhy parts of the we have not ventured to
tain water, ferve often as retovoirs of food to the plant, although ^ even to all thofe re-
call them ftomachs. Stomach would be a and^V which feme of^hefe animals are preferved
fervoirs of water or fecreted fluids which we find > 7
alive on the dry fhore till the tide return integuments, or integuments with bones, as
(o) There feems to be a want of precifion in claffing bones with integuments, os ia
J
CUTJ
H <£
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By
P H
ftimulants invifible.
  unknown.
unthought of.
Y S I O L O G Y.
- the nervous influence.
- i/ght.
^ — heat.
— moifture.
— ele&ricity.
— falls.
— gafes.
.— bodies that a£l mechanically.
7aj
iz
o
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s
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a.
a
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^1
By legs.
— wings.
— fins.
— the tail.
— organs which fall not properly under thefe defcriptions.
— the fpringinefs of the body or of fome part of it.
contrivances which fit living bodies for being moved by foreign agents (p)«
VoL.XIV.' Part II.
4Y
10, Habit.
?s done in D’Azyr’s table. Comparatively fpeaking, bones are confined to a few genera of living- bodies
L,, a„im"k J t0 Pen°d‘Cal Cha,,geS ,ike the iotegum€Ilt3 or cuticular coat o/thc alimentary^ hi
fin Jr,°Vhe fa-ke °f perf?icJ^y» k fcouId have becn wInied that either anatomifls or phyfiologifts had de
fined bones m a manner d^erent from what they have done, and as far as poffible avoided thofeloofe and
inaccurate expreffions which difgrace fcicnce ; Nfor fome fpeak of animals having their bones by which thev
mean Ihd s, on them outfide, and the mufcles within them. Some fpeak of folid'and compaa bones that were
once cartilages, membranes, nay a mere jelly ; and fome fpeak of bones in general as tl/hardefl moll folid
and moft^nflex.ble parts of the organized body. From all this we are led Jinfer, tit integumentr/f hard’
fohd. anc mflexi.de, may be called bones j that the heart and blood veffels, if converted into? hard fol;d and
hatTn I TV"37 ^ b?,ne8 5 and that a a membrane, or a cartilage, iHt can be So fed
certa nlv^f f they w,1Iflbcfome folid, and inflexible, may likewife be called bones But
certainty if hardnefs, fohdity, and inflexibility, be to conftitute the chanaeriftics of bones in a living lodv
however o.cen we may be neceffitated to include fhells, wood, horns, and ftony concretions under thir Arr/*
mmation, we can never with propriety fptak of bones that are cartilaginous, membranous, or’ even a mere jelly*
Thefe exprelfionsmtgln be proper enough were offification confideredlerely as a natura oIcci^ntTl dr urn*
lv is extended m > i • , r . torm,t.he. skeleton of fome animals, an induration which occafional-
ftrcdw ThnT n0t'n"*'e imagined with the ft“„a0re of hone,• the
.ofn7sd h‘w f frJ
Sfotf MZZ memb/antT'fupSrfntlve^y ^ ’"f
nature, which accommoclate^erSf tLireumftaL7ea„ 7 “ 'l P''ere"t- Wl,e" 11 is 3Wen,,
her new produdlions with a periotleum. For manv eveei!e°i "h r 1 tln-C T tnr0t^el.wa)r* antI sfterwarda cover
readers to the Ofltolopy of the late Di Monro \Ja t' ^ ^ 10 O Jhrvauona on bones, we refer our
Stf,rn of Anatomy. M ’ snd P»t'=“l3Sy t« the volume already publiflted of Mr Bell's
fcr(,t tea’s tm"'he ^ “LS'" Mow the feeds
with the feces. P P h 1 remainin* »ndegiftible, are carried to a diflance, and difcharged
722
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PHYSIOLOGY*
To refpiration.
—— digellion.
abforption.
— circulation.
— nutrition.
— fecretion.
— integumation.
— irritability.
— motion.
— transformation.
— generation.
— deep.
— death.
— form. ' "
— fize.
— climate.
— propenfity.
— the healing of parts that are morbid.
— the renewal of thole that are broken off.
By a change of proportion among the parts,
of their form.
— throwing off old parts.
— an addition of new ones of a different ufe, flru&ure, and form.
— a change of the whole form together.
   of qualities, propenfities, manners.
By the temporary union of two fexes.
— the fpontaneous reparation of parts.
— organa fituated in the breatl.
 in the fide.
 near to the head.
 in the oppofite extremity.
  an intrant organ of the male and a recipient organ of the female.
  an intrant organ of the female and a recipient organ of the male.
— the ftimina and piftils of flowers. > .
  the feminal fecretion of the male thrown into the organs of the female.
      fprinkled at the entrance of the female organs.
      .    thrown upon them from a diftam e.
        -  tranfported to them by the winds.
    fprmkled on the embryo after emiflion. _
         diffolved in a fluid fecreted by the female before it can rightly
perform its office.
 diffolved in water. r c a-
^ diffolved perhaps fometimes in air, as in the calc of d.oecoua
plants, where it probably afts like an aroma.
t
Oh-W
r By quietnefs.
I — the abfence of Hamuli.
i
m f u 3 ] —
* -
- J K.2 t
the famenefs of ftirnuli when long continued.
deficient SbUity,’ which is owing fometimes to the weaknefs, inattention, or confiaed
powers of the mental principle.
u
R oo
^ .a
O O
i e->
r 2-
a o
After hours.
  days.
—— weeks.
   months.
  feafons.
—— years.
Not till after centuries.
AU living bodies are much exhaufted after performing the ad of generation, and many of ths inferior pla^S
and animals begin immediately to ficken and decay.
PHYSIOLOG Y.
. ^ e °jnc‘v^ b Mnfcjfing., that concerning many ufes of is jlill referredfor farther reading, for farther olfervaYeon,
the pai tty and ccncrning different Jpecies of variety in the and for future physiological arrangement*
jorniy Jlrudure, and pofition of the organs, muchy after all%
7*S
P I A
'Phytolacca PHY I OLACCA, pokewbed, ox American night-
II fl?ade,\n botany, is of the decandn’a icofandria clafs of
t •ac^r‘^a• plants. It grows naturally in the province of Virginia
Brunt's America. It hath a thick, flefhy, perennial root,
flora Dia- divided into feyeral parts as large as middling parfneps.
tttka. F*'om this rife many purpliftj, herbaceous ftalks, about
an inch thick, and fix or feven feet long, which break
into many branches, irregularly fet with large, oval,
fharp-pointed leaves, fupported on fhort footftalks.
T. hefe at firft are oi a frelh green colour, but as they
grow old they turn reddifh. At the joints and divi-
fions of the branches come forth long bunches of fmall
bluilh-coloured flowers, confifting of five concave pe¬
tals each, furrounding ten (lamina and ten llyles. Thefe
are fucceeded by round deprefled terries, having ten
cells, each o‘ which contains a Angle fmooth feed.
In Virginia and other parts of America the inhabi¬
tants boil the leaves, and eat them in the manner of
ipinach. They are faid to have an anodyne quality,
and the juice of the root is violently cathartic. The
Hems when boiled are as good as afparagus. The
Portuguefe had formerly a trick of mixing the juice of
the berries with their red wines, in order to give them
a deeper colour; but as it was found to debafe the fla¬
vour and to make the wine deleterious, the matter was
reprefented to his Portuguefe Majefty, who ordered all
the Items to be cut down yearly before they produced
flowers, thereby to prevent any further adulteration.
The fame practice was common in France till it was
prohibited by an ed’dl of Touis XVI. and his prede-
ceflbr under pain of death. This plant has-been faid
to cure cancers; ! ut the truth of this aflertion has not
been indilputably proved, and does not appear vet y pro¬
bable.
PHY1 OLOGY, a difcourfe concerning the kinds
and virtues of plants. See Botaky, and Materia
Medica
PHYTON, a general of the people of Rbegium
again ft Dionyfius, the tyrant of Sicily. He was ta¬
ken by the enemy, and tortured, and his fon was
thrown into the fea. See Syracuse.
PIA mater. See Anatomy, n° 130. p. 756, &c.
PI A BA, in ichthyology, is a fmall frcfh-water fifh,
caught in all the rivers and brooks in theBrafils, and in
fome other parts in America. It is about the bignefs
©f thecommon minow ; is well tafted, and much efteem-
ed by the natives.
PIABUCU , in ichthyology, is an American fifh
eaten in many places by the natives. It is ravenous,
and fo greedy of blood, that if a perfon goes into the
water with a wound in any part of his 1 ody, the pia-
bucu will make up to it to fuck the blood. * It feldom
exceeds four nchesin length.
PIACENZA is a city of Italy, in the duchy of
Parma, in E. Long. 10. 25. N. Lat. 45. It is a large
handfome city,whofe name is derived Ly fome from its
pleafar.t fituation, in a fruitful plain, on the Via iEmi-
lia, about half a rr.ile from the Po, it is the fee of a
P I A
bifhop fuffragan of Bologna, and has a univerfity, but Piacenza,
of no great fame. It is defended by a wall and a Piaftus.*
flrong citadel, and is reckoned about three miles Heir- v—
cumference, fo that it is fomewhat bigger than Parma.
I he houfes are low, but prettily built; the great flreet
called thzStradone is in a direft line and of equal breadth,
with a foot-way fenced with ports on each fife like
London, and is about 3000 feet long. The houfes are
generally built of brick, and fome of them are prettily
painted. The cathedral is an old ftru&ure, but well
adorned within. The duke of Parma, who is fovereign
of Piacenza, has a palace its the city built by Vigno¬
la.. There are many excellent paintings in this place.
There are two chapels painted, one with the hiftory of
St Catharine, and the other with a pidure of Chrift, as
as alfo the altar of the church of St Auguftin, all by Por-
denone. In the fame church there is a fine picture of the
bluffed virgin, St Peter, and St Paul, by Paolo Veronefe.
At theCapuchins there is a Francis by Guercino. There
is a fountain faii to have been eredled here by Julius
Crefar, ?.nd the equeftnan ftatues of the famous general
Alexander I. duke of Parma and Placentia, and of his
fon Ranuccio, both in the great fquare. In the pa-
L.ce of Scotti, there are a great many fine pictures by
Lanfranco, who had been a page in their family, and
among the reft the rape of Helen, the taking of'Troy,
the bleffed virgin, and St Francis. The trade of this
city con lifts chiefly in their checfe, as at Parma, thefe
cities being furrounded with the richeft pallure grounds
in Itrdy ; though the greateft part of what we call
’•ParmeLn cheefe is made tn the duchy ot Milan, *■
an 1 particularly at Lodi. See Parmefan Cheese ——
Without the walls, which are wafhej by the rivers
Treo. ia and Po, there is a large Seminary 01 college,
magnificently ciefted by cardinal Alberoni, a native
of this cty, but confiderably hurt by the modem
Goths in the Lft wsr. 1 owards the north of the ci¬
ty is the mouth of the river Trebbia, famous for the
vidory which Hannibal obtained over the Romans.
PIAofUS, a native of Poland, was originally a
wheelwright and the fon of Cofiifco, a citizen of Cruf-
witz. He flourished in the year 830, when on the
extinction of the family of Popiel great difputes a-
rofe about his fueceffor, and Cracow was alfiifted
with a fevere famine. During this extremity, when the
people were dropping down in the ftreets. two anads , ...
in human forms, as the ftory is told, took up their re- SL
fidence with Piaftus, who was celebrated for his piety vol.xi
and extenfive charity. He had nothing left but a fmall P- 336»
caSk of the common liquor of the country, and this he &C*
prefented to his new guefts, who, charmed with his
hofpitality, promifed him the crown of Poland. The
faith of Piaftus was equal to his other virtues : he im¬
plicitly believed the wonLof his guefts, and pioufly
followed their dire&tons in every particular. He was
ordered to distribute the liquor out of his little cafii to
the multitude: he did fo, and found that it was inex¬
haustible. The people were aftonifhed j all cried out,
4Y 2
p i b r 724 ] pic
Piaftus ** A miracle I” anJ the eleilors determined to chufe
P broch a Per^on *n wh°fe favour Heaven had fo vifihly deela-
^* red : Piaftus was accordingly taken from his fliop, and
raifed to the ducal dignity.
Such is the relation of the canon of Cracow, which
differs in many particulars from the account given by
Guagnini, and feveral other hiftorians. According to
them, Piaftus had prepared a fmall collation, to enter¬
tain fome friends who were affembled at the birth of a
child. Two pilgrims, Paul and John, afterwards mur¬
dered at Rome, came about this time to Cracow. They
begged charity at the door of the eleftion hall,and were
rudely repulfed ; upon which they Humbled on the houfe
of Piaftus, and were kindly received. The miracle we
have mentioned was wtought by them ; ani the two
pilgrims, and not angels, were the inftruments of the
elevation of the hofpitable wheelwright. Though
we pay but little regard to the marvellous means by
which Piaftus afeended the ducal throne of Poland, it
would be prefumptuous entirely to omit a fadf attefted
by all the writers upon this fubjetf : it v/as proper,
therefore, to take notice of it, and we leave the reft to
7 m
the reader’s judgment.
Being now raifed to the fupreme dignity, he was not
intoxicated with his profperity. His natural charity,
benevolenee, and fweetnefs of difpofition, remained :
nothing was altered but his power of doing good. He
was truly called the father of his people; the injured
never returned unredreffed, nor merit unrewarded.
Piaftus wiped the tear from the eyes of the widow ;
and was himfelf the guardian of the orphan, and the
general patron of the poor and diftreffed. His excel¬
lent inclinations ftrved him in the room of great abi¬
lities; and the happinefs that his people enjoyed made
them forget that their prince was not born a ftatefmen
and a warrior. Several inteftine commotions arofe du¬
ring his adminiftration, all which he quelled by the
mildneis and c lemency of his nature : his nobility were
afhamed of rebelling againft a fovereign who devoted
his whole life to render his people happy. He remo¬
ved the court from Crufwitz, a city which he deteft-
ed, becaufe it was the feene of Popiel’s crimes and tra¬
gical end, and fixed his refidence at Gnefna, where he
died beloved, efteemed, and even adored by his fub-
je&s.
It is in memory of this excellent prince, that all the
natives of Poland, who have been fince promoted to
the ducal or regal dignity, were called Piaftes, in con-
tradiftinftion to the foreigners.
Piaftus affociated his fon Ziemovitus with him in
the government before his death; a circumftance of
much benefit to the people. ^
PIAZZA, in building, popularly called piache^ an
Italian name for a portico, or covered walk, fupported
by arches.
The word literally fignifies a broad ©pen place or
fquare ; whence it alfo became applied to the walks or
porticoes around them.
PIBROCH, fays Dr Beattie *, is a fpecies of tune
Tb Beattie, peculiar, I think, to the Highlands and Weftern Ifles
8vo edit. ’ of Scotland. It is performed on a bagpipe, and differs
i>„ 42a. totally from all other mufic. Its rythm is fo irregular,
*i0te* and its notes, efpecially in the quick movement, fo
mixed and huddled together, that a ftranger finds it
almoft impoffible to reconcile his ear to it, fo as to
perceive its modulation. Some of thefe pILroehs, he- Pies
ing intended to reprefent a battle, begin with a grave . ,
motion refembling a march, then gradually quicken lcar s‘
into the onfet; run off with noify confufion and tur¬
bulent rapidity, to imitate the conflict and purfuit;
then fweil into a few flourifhes of triumphant joy; and
perhaps clofe with the wild and flow wailings of a fu¬
neral proceflion. 1
PICA, in ornithology. See Convus. fp. 9.
Pica marina, in ornithology. See H/ematopus,
and AtcA, n° 3.
Pica, in medicine, a depravation of appetite, which
makes the patient tong for what is unfit for food, or
incapable of naurifhing ; as chalk, afhes, coals, plufter-
lime, &c. See Medicine, n°37i.
Pica, orpye, had formerly the fame fenfe as ordi¬
nal, meaning a table or dire&ory, pointing out the
order in which the devotional fervices appointed for
different occafions were to be performed. According¬
ly we are told it is derived from rii, a contra&ion of
jrivocg, a tab[e ; and by others from /ilera picata, a great
black letter at the beginning of fome new order in the
prayer. The term was ufed in a fimilar fenfe by offi¬
cers of civil courts, who called their kalendars or al¬
phabetical catalogues diredting to the names and things
contained in the rolls and records of their courts the
pyes.
PICARD, a native of the Netherlands, who found¬
ed a fedt the profeffors of which were called Picards.
See Picards.
I icard (John), an able mathematician, and one
of the moft learned aftronomers of the 17th century,
was born at Fleche, and became prieft and prior of Rillie
in Anjou. Going to Paris, he was in 1666 received into
the Academy of Sciences in quality of aftronomer. In
1671, he was fent, by order of the king, to the caftle
of Uraniburg, built by Tycho Brahe in Denmark, to
make aftronomical obfervations there; and from thence
he brought the original nnnuferipts wrote by Tycho-
Brahe, which are the more valuable as they differ in
many places from the printed copies, and contain a1
book mere than has yet appeared. He made impor¬
tant difeoveries in aftronomy ; an^ was the firil who
travelled through feveral parts of France, to meafure
.a degree of the meridian His works are, 1. A trea-
tife on levelling. 2. Fragments of dioptrics. 3. Ex-
perimenta circa aquas efjlumtes. 4. De menjuris. 5. De
menfura liquidorum aridorum. 6. A voyage to U-
raniburg, or aftronomical obfervations made in Den¬
mark. 7. Aftronornical oofervations made in feveral
parts of France, &c. 1 hefe, and fome other of his
works, which are much efteemed, are in the fixth and
feventh volumes of the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences.
PICARDS, a religions fedf which arofe in Bohe¬
mia in the 15th century.
Picard, the author of this fedf, ftom whom it derived
its name, drew after him, as has been generally faid, a
number of men and women, pretending he would reftore
them to the primitive ftate of innocence wherein mats
was created : an* accordingly he affuraed the tide of
the New Adam. With this pretence he caught his fol¬
lowers to give themfelves up to all impurity ; faying
that therein confifted the liberty of the fons of God ;
and that all thofe not of their fed were in bondage.
He
*
P I c
Pkards.
He fir ft publi’i'hed his notions in Germany and the low
' countries, and perfuaded many people to go naked,
and gave them the name of Adamites. After this
he feized on an illand in the river Laufnecz, fome
leagues from Thabor, the head quarters of Zifca,
where he fixed himfelf and his followers. Hia women
were common, but none were allowed to enjoy them
without his permiffion : fo that when any man delired
a particular woman, he carried her to Picard, who gave
him leave in thefe words, Go, increafe, multiply, and Jill
the earth.
[ 725 1
P I C
Piccolo.
mini.
—V—u
of the 14th century, when the eftablilhment of the La- Picardy
tin rites caufed great diiturbance. On the commence¬
ment of the national troubles in Bohemia, on account
of t^ie oppofition to the papal power f fee Moravians),
tne Picards more publicly avowed and defended their
religious opinions; and they formed a confiderable
body in an ifland by the river Launitz or Laufnecz, in
the diftrift of Bechin, and lecurring to arms, were de¬
feated by Zifca. Kncyclup. art. Picards.
PICARDY, a province in France, is bounded on
1 ryr « cv t t /t* korth by Hainault, Artois, and the Straits of Ca* „ ,
/f however, Z1 fca^generrd of ebe Huffites, lais ; on the eaft by Champaigne ; on the fouth by
(famous for his yidones over the emperor S.gifmund), the ifle of France ; and on the weft by Normandy vJPif'
and the Englilh Channel ( a ). This province is long P-464*
and narrow, being ufualiy compared to a bent arm
hurt at their abominations, marched againft them,
made himfelf mafter of their ifland, and put them all
to death except two ; whom he ipared, that he might
learn their do&rine. ,
Such is the account which various writers, relying
on the authorities of Aineas Sybi sand Varillas, have
givtp of the Picards, who appear to have been a party
of the Vaudois, that fled from perfecution in their own
country, and fought refuge in Bohemia. It is indeed
doubtful whether a feift of this denomination, charge¬
able with fueh wild principles and fuch licentious con¬
duit, ever exifteft ; and it is certainly aftonifhing that
Mr Bayle, in his art. Picards, fhould adopt the re¬
proachful reprefent tions of the writers juft, mention¬
ed : for it appears probable at leaft th,t the whole is
a calumny in'* ted and propagated in order to dif-
gra e the Picard?, merely becaufe they deferted the
communion and protefted againft the errors of the
church of Rome. Lafuius inrorms us, that Picard,
together with 40 other perfons, befides women and
children, fettled in Bohemia in the year 1418. Bal-
binus the Jeluit, in his Epitome Perum Bohemicarum,
lib. ii. gives a iirmlar account, and charges oh the Pi¬
cards none of the extravagancies or crimes aferibed to
them by Sylvius. Sehieita, fecretary of Ladiflaus,
king of Bohemia, in hia letters to Erafmus in v/hich
he gives a particular account of the Picards, fays that
they confidered the p pe, cardinals, and bifhops of
Rome, as the true Ancichrifts, and the adorers of the
confecrated elements in the eucharift as downright
idolaters; th it they denied the corporal prefence of
Chrift in this ordinance ; that they condemned the
worflup of faints, piayers for the dead, auricular con-
* fefiion, the penance impofed by priefts, the feafts and
vigils obferved in the Romifh church ; and that they
confined themfelves to the obfei vance of the fabbath,
and of the two great feafts of Chriftmaa and Pencecoft.
From this account it would appear that they were no
other than the Vaudois ; and M. de Beaufobre has
fhown that they were both of the fame fedt, though
under different denominations. Befides, it is certain
that the Vaudois .were fettled in Bohemia in the year
2178, where fome of them adopted the rites of the
Greek, and others thofe of the Latin church. The
former were pretty generally adhered to till the middle
and in this figure is nearly 150^ miles in length, but
not above 40 in breadth, and in many places not above
20. it is generally a level country ; and produces
wine, fruit of all kinds, plenty of corn, and great
quantities of hay : but wood being Farce, moft or the
inhabitants burn turf. They have, however, fome
pit-coal, but it is not fo good as that of England. It
was united to the crown of France in the year 1643 ;
and is fuppofed to contain 533,000 inhabitants.
Its principal rivers are the Somme, the Oife, the
Canche, *the Lanthie, the Lys, the Aa, the Searpe,
and the Deule. r
Ihe fituation of this province on the fen, its many
navigable rivers and canals, with the induftry of the
inhabitants, render it the feat of a flourifhing trade.
In it are made beautiful filk fluffs, woollen fluffs, coarfe
bnen, lawn, and foap ; it alfo carries on a large trade
in corn and pit-coal. In the government of Calais and
Boulogne are annually bred 5000 or 6000 colts, which
being afterwards turned loofe in the paflures of Nor-
mandy, are fold for Norman horfes. The fifheries on
this coafl are alfo very advantageous. This province
is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Picardy ;
and is again fuhdivided into four deputy-governments.
1 he principal town is Amiens.
PICAR I (Bernard), a celebrated engraver, fan of
Stephen Picart, a.lo a famous engraver, was born at
Pans in 1673. He learned the elements of his art
.rom his father, and ftudied architedture and perfpec-
tive under Sebaftian le Clcrc. As he embraced the re¬
formed religion, he fettled in Holland to enjoy the tree
exerciie of it; where his genius produced thofe mafter-
pieces which made him eiteemed the moll ingenious
auift of his age. A multitude of books are embel-
lifhed with plates of his engraving. He died in 1722
PICCOLOMINI (Alexander), archbifliop of Pk.
tras, and a native of Sienna, where he was born about
the year 1508, was of an illuflrious and ancient family,
which came originally from Rome, but afterwards fet¬
tled at Sienna. He compofed with fuccefs for the
theatre; but he was not more diftinguifhed by his ge¬
nius, than by the purity of his manners, and his regard
to virtue. Plis charky was very great; and was chiefly
exerted
Tht the ,n?'?e of,th{s Province does not date earlier than A. D. 1200. It was an academical
j xe ; an epitnet firfl applied to the quarreifome humour of thofe Undents in the univerfuy of Paris who
came from the frontier of France and Flanders, and hence to their country. Valji Notitia Jalharul l 44 “
'Lotguentc, Lejcnption de la France} p. 5 2. 3 J ' I
pic r 72S i pic
exerted In relieving the necefiities of men of letters.
He has left behind him a number of works in Italian.
The moft remarkable of which are, 1. Vatious Drama¬
tic Pieces, which laul the firft foundation of his charac¬
ter as a writer. 2. A Treatife on the Sphere. 3.AThe-
ory of the Planets. 4. A TranfLtion of Aruhotle’s
Art of Rhetoric and Poetry, in 4to. A Syftetnof
Morality, publiihed at Venice, 1 57 in 4to ; tranflited
into French by Peter de Lr.rivey in 4to ; and printevi
at Paris, 1581. Thefe, with a variety of other works,
prove his extenfive knowledge in natural philofophy,
mathematics, and theology. He was the firft who
made ufe of the Italian language in writing upon phi-
lofoph:csl fubje&s. He died at Sienna the 12th of
March 1578, aged 70. A particular catalogue of his
works may be feen in the Typographical Dictionary.
There is one performance aferibed to this author, in-
titled Dialogn della bella Creanta delle Donne, (printed at
Milan, 1558, and at Venice, 1574, in 8vo.) ; which
but ill fuits the dignity of a prelate. It is filled with
maxims which have an evident tendency to hurt the
morals of young women. Piceolomini’s name, indeed,
is not in the title page; and it has all the appearance
cf being a juvenile production. It is very fcarce; and
the public would fuftain no lofs by its being entirely
out of print. It was tranflated into French by F.
d’Amboife, and publiihed at Lyons, in 16mo, under the
title of InJlruR'wn des jcur.es dames. It was afterwards
reprinted in 1583, under that of Dialogue Demis des
Demoifelles
Piccolomini (Francis), of the fame family with the
foregoing, was born in 1520, and taught philofophy
with fuccefs, for the fpace of 22 years, in the moft ce¬
lebrated univerfities of Italy, and afterwards retired to
Sienna, where he died, in 1604, at the age of 84.
The city went into mourning on hisde&th. His works
are, t. Some Commentaries upon Ariftotle, printed at
Mayence, 1608, in 4to. 2. Univerfa Ph'dofophia de
Moribus, printed at Venice, 1583, in folio. He la¬
boured to revive the do&rine of Plato, and endeavour¬
ed alfo to imitate the manners of that philofopher.
He had for his rival the famous James Zabarella, whom
he excelled in facility of expreffion and neatnefs of
difeourfe ; but to whom he was much inferior in point
of argument, becaufe he did not examine matters to
the bottom as.the other did; but preffed too rapidly
from one propofiuon to another.
Piccolomini of Aragon (Odtavius), duke of Amalfi,
prince of the Empire, a general of the emperor’s army,
nnd knight of the or'er of the Golden Fleece, was
born in 1599. He firft bore arms among the Span:fh
troops in It dy. He afterwards ferved in the army
of Ferdinand II. who fent him to the relief of Bohe¬
mia, and entrufted him with the command of the im¬
perial troops in 1634. After having fignalized himfeif
at the battle of Nortlingue, he made M.rfhal de Cha-
tillon raife the fiege of St Omer. He had the good
fortune to gain a vi&ory over Marquis de Feuquieres
in 1-639: nor did the lofs of the batttle of Wolfenbut-
tel, in 1651, impair his glory. He died on the 10th
of Auguft 1656, being five years after, aged 57, with¬
out iflue; and with the charafter of an able negotiator
and an a&ivc general. The celebrated Caprara was his
iiephew.
Piccolomini (Jaraea), whofe proper name was^m-
manati, took that of Piccolamini in honour of his pa¬
tron Pius II. He was born in a village near Lucca
in 1422. He became bifiiop of Maffa, afterwards of j
Frefcati; a cardinal in 1461, under the name of Car¬
dinal de Pam'ie; and died in i479> at the age of 57, of
an indigeftion of figs. He left 8000 piftoles in the
bankers hand*, which Pope Sixtus IV. chimed ; and
of which he gave a part to the Hofpital of the Holy
Ghift. His works, which confift of fome Letters,
and a Hiftory of his own time, were printed at Mi¬
lan, in 152 1, in folio. Plis hiftory, Commen¬
taries, commences the 18th of June 1464, and ends
the 6th of December 1469. They may very proper¬
ly be confidered as a Sequel of Pope Pius II.’s Com¬
mentaries, which end with the year 1463
Piccolomini, (iEneas Sylvius). See Pius II.
PICENTIA, (Strabo, Pliny), the capftal of the
Picentini, whofe territory, called Ager Picentinus, a
fmall diftrift, lay on the Tufcan Sea, from the Promon-
torium Minerva, the fouth boundary of Campania on
the coaft, to the liver Silarus, the north boundary of
Lucania, extending within-land as far as the Samnites
and Hirpini, though the exadl termination cannot be
afiigned. The Greeks commonly confound the Picen¬
tini and Picentes, but the Romans carefully diftinguifh
them. The former, with no more than two towns that
can be named, Sthrnum and Picentia; the fituation cf
both doubtful: only Pliny fays the latter flood within-
land, at fome diftance from the fea Now thought to be
(Holfteniu3),in the Principato Citra of Naples.
P1CENUM, (Cmfar, Puny, Floras); Picenus
Acer, (Cicero, Silluft, Livy, Tacitus); Ager Pi-
centium, (Varro) : a territory of Italy, lying to the
eaft of Umbria, from the Apennine to the Adriatic ;
on the coaft extending from the river Aefis on the
north, as far as the Pratutiani to the fouth. In the
upper or northern part of their territory the Umhri
excluded them from the Aptnnine, as far as Cameri-
num, (Strabo); but in the lower or fouth'ern part they
extended from the Adriatic to the Apennine. A very-
fruitful territory, and very populous Picentes, the
people, (Cicero) ; from the Angular, Picens, (Livy) :
different from the Picentini, on the Tufran fea, though
called fo by the Greeks ; but Pcolemy calls them Pi-
cent, as does alfo Pliny. Their territory at this day
is fuppofed to form the greateft part of the March of
Ancona, (Cluverius).
PICHFORD, in the county of Salop in England;
on the fouth-eaft fide of Shrewfbury, near Condover.
It is noted for a fpring of pitchy water (from whence
fome derive its name), on the top of which there al¬
ways flows a fort of liquid bitumen. Over moft of the
coal pits hereabouts there lies a ftratum of blackifh
rock ; of which, by boiling and grinding, they make
pitch and tar, and alfo diftil an oil from it.
PICHINCHA, a mountain inPeru. SeePERU,nrt56.
PICKERING, in the north riding of Yorkihire in
England, 13 miles from Scarborough, and 225 from
London, is a pretty large town belonging to the du¬
chy of Lancafter, on a hill among the wild mountains
of Bkkemore ; having the foreft of Pickering on the
north, and Pickering-common on the fouth. It is
faid to have been built 270 years before Chrift L>y Pe-
ridurus, a king of the Britons, who was buried here.
It had once a caftle, the ruins of which are ftill to be
• .p 1 c [7
Picker/ feen ; to whofe jurifdidion imny of the neighbouring
villages were fubject: and the adjacent territory, com¬
monly called Pickering-Lath, or the libeity or foreft of
Pickering, was given by Henry III. to hisfon Edmund
earl of Lancafter. A court is kept here for all aftions
under 40 s. arifing within the honour of Pickering.
PICKERY, in Scots law, petty theft, or Healing
things of fmall value.
PICKETS, in fortification, Hakes fharp at one end,
r.nd femetimes Ihod with iron, ufe^ in laying out the
ground, of about three feet long; but, when ufed for
pinning the fafcines of a battery, they are from three
to five feet long.
Pickets, in artillery, are about five or fix feet long,
fhod with iron, to pin the park lines, in laying out the
boundaries of the park.
Pickets, in the camp, are alfo flakes of about fix
or eight inches long, to fatten the tent cords, in pitch¬
ing the tents; alfo, of about four or five feet long, dri¬
ven into the ground near the tents ol the horfemen, to
tie their horfes to.
_ Picket, ?.n out-guard pofled before an army, to
give notice of an enemy approaching.
Picket, a kind of punifhment fo c.dled, where a fol-
d:er Hands with one foot upon a fharp pointed Hake ;
the time of his Handing is limited according to the of¬
fence.
PICKLE, a brine or liquor, commonly compofed
of fait, vinegar, &c. fometimes with the addition of
fpicesj wherein meat, fruit, and other things, are pre-
ferved and feafoned.
I iCO, one of the Azore Iflands, is fo called from
feme lofty mountains on it; or rather from one very
high mountain, terminating like Teneriffe in a peak,
and reputed by fome writers equal to it in height.
This ifland lies about four leagues fouth-wefl from St
George, twelve from Terrera, and about three It agues
fouth-eafl of Fayal; in W. Long. 28. 21. and N. L t.
38 29. The mountiin Pico, which gives name to the
ifiand, is filled with difmal dark caverns or volcanoes,
which frequently vomit out flames, fmoke, and afires,
to a great diflance. At the foot of this mountain to¬
wards the eafl is a fpring of frefh water, generally cold,
but fometimes fo heated with the fubterraneous fire,
as to rufh forth in torrents with a kind of ebullition
like boiling water; equalling that in heat, and fending
forth a fleam of fulphurecus fetid vapours, liquefied
Hones, minerals, and flakes of earth *11 on fire, in fuch
quantities, and with fuch a violence, as to have formed
a k nd of promontory vulgarly called Myjlcrws, on the
declivity of the coaft, and at the diflance of 1200
paces from the fountain. Such at leaft is the account
of Ortehus ; though we do not find this lafl circnm-
flance of the promontory confirmed by later obferva-
tions. The circumference of Pico is computed at
about 15 leagues: and its mofl remarkable places are
Pico, Lagoas, Santa Cruce or Cruz, San Sebaflian,
Pefquin, San Ro :ko, Playa, and Magdalena;, the inha¬
bitants of which live wholly on the produce of the
ifland, in great plenty and felicity. The cattle are va¬
rious, numerous, and excellent in their feveral kinds:
it is the fame with the vine ; and its juice, prepared
into different wines, the beff in the Azores. Befides
cedar and other timber, they have a kind of wood
which they call tow, folid and hard as irony and ve-in-
27 J
ed,
when finely poliflied, like a rich fcarlet tabby ; Hie
Pi crania ,
xm.
46. See*
/ X 7   '
which colour it has in great perfc&ion. The longer
it is kept, the more beautiful it grows: hence it is,
that the teixo tree is felled only for the king’s ufe or
by hie order; and is prohibited from being exported
as a common article of trade.
Pico Marina, a fea fifh common at Kongo in Afri¬
ca, derives its name from the refemblance of its mouth
to the beak of a wood-pecker. It is of a large fizc, un}v
and prodigious ttrength, has four fins on its back, three Hiftory,
under its belly, and one on each fide of its head; its tailvo1-
is large and forked, by which it cuts the waves with1'* "
furprifing force and velocity. It is at war with every
fifh that fwims, and with every tiling it meets in its
way, without being intimidated by the largeil vcffels;
a furprifing inffance of which intrepidity, we are toll
by fome miflionariee, whofe fhlp was attacked by one
of them, near thefe coals, in the dead of night. The
violence of the fhock which it gave to the veffel quick¬
ly awakened the captain and the reft of the people ;
who immediately ran to the fhip’s fi !e, where they per¬
ceived, by'moon light, this huge monfter faftened by
its forehead to the veffel, and making the ftrongeft ef¬
forts to di fen gage itfelf; upon which fome of them
tried to pierce him with their pikes, but he got off be¬
fore they could accomplifh their aim. On the next
morning, upon vifiting that fide of the veffel, they
found, about a foot below the furface of the wrater, a
piece of its bony fnout ftuck faft into the wood, and
two or three inches of it proje&ing outwards. They
went prefently after to vifit the inlide of the fhip, and
difeovered about five or fix inches mere of the point of
the horn which had penetrated through the plank.
PICQUERING, a flying war, orfleirmifh, made by
folJiers detached from two armies for pillage, or be¬
fore a main battle begins.
PICQUET, or Picket. See Pi QUET.
PICRAMNIA, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tandria order,' belonging to the dieecia clafs of plants 5
and in the natural method ranking with thofe that are
doubtful. The calyx ia tripartite; the coro’la has three
petals ; the flamina from three to five, aw! fhaped, and
feem to join together at the bafe ; there are two ftyli9
which are fliort and bent backwards; the berry is
roundifh, and contains two oblong feeds, and fometimes
one feed only. There is only one fpecies, viz. the
antidefma, or murjoe hufh. This fhrub is frequent in
copies and about the fleirts of woods in Jamaica, ri-
fing about eight or nine feet from the ground. The
leaves are of an oval form, pointed and placed in an al¬
ternate form along the branches; the flower fpikes are
long, pendulous, and flender; the florets fmall and
'white : the berries are numerous; at firft red, then of
a jet black colour ; the pulp is foft, and of a purple
complexion.—The whole plant is bitter, and efpecialiy
the berry.. The negroes make a decoftion of them",
and ufe it in weaknefles of the ftomach and in venereal
cafes.
1TCRANIA amara, or Bitter Wood, is a tall and
beautiful timber tree, common in the woods of Jamai¬
ca. It is a new genus, belonging to the pentandrix
monogynia of Linnaeus. The name is expruTive of its
fenfible qualities.
Every part of this tree is intenfdy bitter; and even
after the- tree has been laid for floors many years, who¬
ever
PIcris
.11
PicSe?.
PIC [728
ever rubs or fcrapes the wood, feels a grent degree of
bitternefs in their mouth or throat. Cabinet-work
/ made of this wood is very ufeful, as no infedt will live
near it.
This tree has a great affinity to the Quajfia Amara
of Linnaeus; in lieu of which it is ufed as an antifeptic
in putrid fevers. When uf d, lefs of it will do than
of the Quaffta Amara of Surinam. See Quassia.
PICRIS, Ox-tongue; a genus of the polygamia
tequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia cl?.fa of
plants. There are four fpecies, of which the only re¬
markable one is the echioides, or common ox-tongue,
growing fpontaneoufly in corn-fields in Britain. Jt
has undivided leaves embracing the ftem, with yellow
bloflbms, which fometimes clofe foon after noon, at
other times remain open till nine at night. It is an
agreeable pot-herb while young. ■ The juice is milky,
but not too acrid.
PICRIUM, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe that are
doubtful. The calyx is monophyllous and quinquefid;
the corolla monopetalous, and its tube is fliort; the fi¬
laments are four in number, and hooded at the place of
their infertion ; the flyle long and thick ; the ftigma
bilamellated^ the capfule is round, bivalved, and con¬
tains a number of fmad feeds. — There are two fpecies,
viz. the fpicata and ramofa ; both natives of Ouaiana.
Both fpecies are bitter, and employed in dyfpepfy,
and to promote the menfes: they are alfo recommended
in vifceral obftruftions.
PICTET (Beuedidt), born at Geneva, in 1655,
of a diftinguiihed family, profecuted his ftudies with
great fuccefs. After having travelled into Holland and
England, he taught theology in his own country with
an extraordinary reputation. The univerfity of Leyden,
•after the death of Spantreina, folicited him to come
and fill his place; but he thought that his own country
had the bell right to his fervices : and for that genero-
fity he received its thanks by the mouth ©f the mem¬
bers of council. A languifiung diforder, occafioned
by too much fatigue, haftened his death ; which hap¬
pened on the 9th of June 1724, at the age of 69 years.
This minifter had much fweetnefs and affability in his
manner. The poor found in him a comforter and a
father. He publifhed a great number of works in La¬
tin and French, whi h are much efteemed in Proteftant
countries. The principal of thefe are, 1. A Syftem
of Chriflian Theology in Latin, 3 v6ls. in qt© ; the
beft edition of which is that of 1721. 2. Chriflian
Morality, printed at Geneva, 1770, 8 vols in i2mo.
3. The Hiflory of the nth and 1 2th centuries; in¬
tended as a fequel to that of Sueur, printed in 1713,
2 vols. in qto. The Continuator is held in higher
eftimaticn than the firft author. 4. Several Contro-
verfial Treatifes. 5. A gre-.t number of tra&s on
morality and piety ; among which we mnft diftinguilh
“ the Ait of Living and dying well;” publifhed
at Geneva, 1705, in i2mo. 6. Some Letters. 7.
Some Sermons, from 1697 to 1721 ; 4 vols. in 8vo.
With a vaft number of other books, the names of
which it would be tedious to mention ; but which, as
Mr Sennebier fays, “ all fhovv evident marks of piety
iftnd good fcnfe.,,
] PIG
Pictet (John-Louis), a counfellor of Geneva, born
in 1739, was of the fame family. He was member
of the Council of Two Hundred; Counfellor of State ,
and Syndic; and died in 1781. He applied himfelf
to the ftudy of aftronomy, and made feveral voyages
into France and EngLnd for his improvement. Few
men were ever bleffed with a clearer or more enlight¬
ened underftanding. He has left in manufeript the
“ Journal of a Voyage which he made to Ruffia and
Siberia in 1768 and 1769, in order to obferve the tran-
fit of Venus over the fun's difk A work very inte-
refting, from the lively deferiptions which it gives
both of men and of nature.
PICTLAND. See Pentland.
PICTS, the name of one of thofe nations who an¬
ciently poffeffed the north of Britain. It is generally
believed that they were fo called from their cuttom of
painting their bodies ; an opinion which Camden
fupports with great erudition. (See Gough’s edition,
Vol. 1. p. xci. of the preface). It is certainly liable,
however, to confiderable objeftiens; for as this cuftom
prevailed among the other ancient inhabitants of I3ri-
tai/r, who ufed the glajhim of Pliny and the vitrum of
Mela for the like purpofe, it may be rfked, Why the
name of Pi8i was confined by the Romans to only
one tribe, when it was equally applicable to many
others? Why fhould they defign them only by an epi¬
thet without ever annexing their proper name ? Or
why fhonld they impofe a new name on this people
only, when they give their proper name to ever * other
tribe which they have occation to fpeak of? As thefe
queftions cannot be anfwered in any fatisfaftory man¬
ner, it is plain we muff look for fome other derivation
of the name.
The Highlanders of Scotland, who fpeak the ancient
language of Caledonia, exprefe the name of this once
famous nation by the term Pidlch; a name familiar to
the ears of the mofl illiterate, who could never have
derived it from the Roman authors. The word Pic-
tick means pilferers dr plunderers. The appcll ;tion was
probably impofed upon this people by their neigh¬
bours. or affumed by themfelves, fome time after the
reign of Caracalla, when the unguarded (late of the
Roman province, on which this people bordered, gave
them frequent opportunities of making incurfions thi¬
ther, and committing depredations. Accordingly this
name feems to have been unknown till the end of the
3d century. Eunrenius the panegyrift is the firft Ro¬
man author who mentions this people under their new
n-'me of Piaich, or, with a Latin termination, Picli.
When we fay that tin's* name may have been probably
affumed for the reafon juft now mentioned, we muft
obferve, that, in thofe days of violence, the charafter
of a robber was attended with no difgrace. If he had
the addrefs to form his fchemes well, and to execute
them fuccefsfully, he was rather praifed than Mamed
for his condudl; providing he made no encroachments
on the property of his own tribe or any of its allies.
We mean this as no peculiar ftigma upon the Fids j
for other nations of antiquity, in ihe like rude ftate,
thought and adted as they did. See 'Thucydides, lib. 3.
p. 3. and Virg. TEn. 7. 745 et 749-
Concerning the origin of the Pidls, authors are
much divided. Boethius derives them from the Aga-
^ thyrfi.
PI<5et
If
Pi6b.
t
Name.-
Origin.
Pi<Sls.’
s' SziZstt-
derive them from the K ,^ ’ ,'he <:o’mt>’ of Sutherland from a part of Rofs, was the
niiA.?'” .°m the Thracians. But the moft pro- boundary of the Piffilh dominion,. Accordingly we
find in the life of ClolnmKtt ^  a.u_
, , 1 . . . ”   -■ ‘atat-tuuo. XJUL Ific mou pro-
bahle op.mon is, that they were the defendants of the
cld Caledonians. Several reafons are ur^ed in fupport
of this opinion by Dr Macpherfon ; and the words of
xiumenes, “ Caledonum, aliorumque Pi(f»-orum, filvas ”
&c. plainly imply that the Fids and Caledonians were
one and the fame people
j   * —^.ccurunigiy we
find in the life of Columba, that, in travellinpf to the
palace of Brndius, king of the Fids, he travelled over
Drumalbin, the Dorfum Britannia of Adamnan. On
the other fide, the territory of the Fids was bounded
by the Roman province. After Britain was relin-
quilhed by the emperor Honorius, they and the Saxons
bv turns were maftpra  l* l i- t
As there h.is JT * u i . . ^ <lui‘hed by emperor Honorius, they and the Saxons
tnnrrnp «roo i-Vi» C"'^• wh^h make it plain that their We learn from Bede, that the Saxons were maft^flCof
3
.anguage
j     .uan.t il pjdiii tnatmeir
tongue was the Gaelic or Celtic ; and thefe reafons
are a further confirmation of their having been of Ca-
ledoman extrad. Through the call and north ealt
coalts of Scotland (which were pofleffed by the Fids)
we meet with an innumerable lift of names of places,
rivers, mountains, 8cc. which are mamfeftly Gaelic.
From a very old regifter of the priory of St Andrew’s
(Dalrymplc s Colled ions, p. 122.) it appears, that in
the days of Hungns, the laft Piftilh king of that name.
St Andrews was called Mukrofs; and that the town
now called gueensferry had the name of Jrdchinneachan.
Both thefe words are plain Gaelic. The firft fignifies
«< ^ ratu °r PrQ^°rntory of boars;” and the latter,
1lght °r Pf.nnnfuIa of KeHneth.” In the lift of
ridilh kings publilhed by Father Tnnes, moft of the
names are obvioufly Gaelic, and in many inftances the
fame with the names in the lift of Scottilh or Caledo¬
nian kings publilhed by the fame author. Had Innes
uncerftood any thing of this language, he would not
have fuppofed with Camden that the Fids fpoke the
Entilh tongue It was unlucky that the two words
on wmch they built their conjedure (Strath and Aler)
-are C°m.n!?n in t*36 Gae.llc 33 they could have been
in t..e Bntilh, and at this day make a part of the
names ef places in countries to which the Pidilh em¬
pire never extended. The names of StrathjUlan and
LiOchaber may ferve as inflam es.
. 1 be venerable Bede, as much a ftranger to the Cel¬
tic as either of the antiquaries juft now mentioned, is
equally unhappy in he f'-ecimen Xh ^ 1 *« <>f *»y Kaift king. The hiftory of Dru/l
the Plain, language in the word °, fh ^ W,° ^ l,ave ra'Sned ovtr the Pid« ■"
 „ „ . word pewaM, “ the head the beeinmn? of the fifth o* xt- • _
rritory.
^ ^ , rrj — w in c/I
the P'Ctilh language in the word penuahd, “ the head
of the wall,” Allowing the coirmutation of the ini¬
tial/ .nto r, as in feme other cafes, this word has ftill
p-xi-n”16 in Gaelic which Bede gives it in the
i idilh. It is true, there might have been then, as
well as now, a confiderable difference between various
oialeds of the Celtic; and thus, perhaps, that pious
author was led to difcover five languages in Britain
agretably to the Jive, books of Mofes ; A conceit from
Which the good man derived a great deal of harmltfs
iatisfadion.
■ .Thei!I<as of the earb'eft ages, as appears from the
joint teftimony of all writers who have examined the
Vox.. XIV. Part II.
_I7   — LUC river i weea.
\Ve learn from Bede, that the Saxons were mafters of
Galloway when he tiniflied his Ecclefiaftical Hiftory.
I he Fids, however, made a conqueft of that country
foon alter; fo that, before the extinction of their mo¬
narchy, all the territories bounded on the one fide by
the Forth and Clyde, and on the other by the Tweed
and Solway, fell into their hands.
The hiftory of the Fids, as well as of all the other Hiftory.
ancient inhabitants of Britain, is extremely dark. The
Irifh hiftorians give us a long lift of Pidilh kings, wh®
reigned over Pidavia for the fpace of eleven or thir¬
teen centuries before the Chriftian era. After them
Innes, in his Critical Effay, gives us a lift of above
fifty, of whom no lefs than five held the feeptre, each
for a whole century. It is probable that thefe writers
had confounded the hiftory of the Fids with that of
their anceftors the old Caledonians. In any other view,
their accounts of them are highly fabulous ; and have
been long ago confuted by Dr Macpherfon of Slate,
an antiquary of much learning and refearch. The
Fids, as has been already ohferved, were probably not
known by that name before the 2d or 3d century. A-
damnan, abbot of Iona, is the firft author that ex-
p ref sly mentions any Pid.fh king; and the oldeft af¬
ter him is Bede. We are informed by thefe two wri¬
ters, that St Columba converted Brudius king of the
Fide to the Chriftian faith. Columba came into Bri¬
tain in the year of the vulgar era 365. Before that
period we have no general record to afeertain fo much
as the name of any Pidifh king. The hiftory of Drufl
u ;   iv.it.utu over UIC X-1CI8 in
the beginning of the fifth century, when St Ninian
firft preached the gofpel to that nation, has all the ap¬
pearance of fidion (b). His having reigned a hun¬
dred years, and his putting an end to a hundred wars,
are ftones which exceed all the bounds ofprobabi-
Brudius, the contemporary of Columba, is the firft;
nien.t‘oned hy snY writer of authority,
figure his anceftors made, or who were his
iucceffors on the throne of Pidavia, cannot be afeer-
tained. Bede informs us, that, during the reign of
one of them, the Fids killed Egfred king* of Northum¬
berland in battle, and deftroyed the greateft part of
4 ^ his
p. $ Jr “**• 0/ <W'”’ VoL <• P-*C- and the CW/,/ Vol. XVII.
« ft r- 630. in the fouthern Piaiih p^
, V.U were leparated by fruitful mountains, were converted by Columba,
PIC f 730 ] PIC
Piils. his army. The fame author mention* another of their
kings called Naitan, for whom he had a particular
regard. It was to this Naitan that Ceolfiid, abbot of
Wiremouth, wiotehis famous letter concerning' Eafter
an 1 the Tonfurc (c) ; a letter in which Bede himfelf
is fuppofed to have had a principal hand. Roger Ho-
veden and S mon of Durham mention two other Pic-
tifti kings Qnnuji and Kinoth, the firlt of whom died in
761, and the latter flourifhed about the 774, and gave
an afylum to Alfred of Northumberland, who was
much about that time expelled his kingdom. The
accounts given by the Scots hiftorians of feveral other
Pidtifli kings cannot be depended on; nor are the (lo¬
ries told by the Britifh hiftorians, GeoflYoy of Mon¬
mouth and the author of the Eulogium Britannixy wor*
thy of much greater credit.
In the ninth century the Pi£li(h nation was totally
fubdued by the Scots in the reign of Kenneth Mac-
alpin. Since that time their name has been loft in
that of the conquerors, with whom they were incor¬
porated after this conqueft; however, they feem to
have been treated by the Scottifh kings with great le¬
nity, fo that for fome ages after they commanded a
great deal of refpedt. The prior of Hogulftead, an
old Engliih hiflorian, relates, that they made a con-
fiderable figure in the army of David the Sunt, in his
difputes with Stephen king of England. In a battle
fought in the year 1136, by the Englifii on one fide,
and the Scots aad Pifts on the other, the latter in¬
filled on their hereditary right of leading the van of
the Scots army, and were indulged in that rtqueft by
the king.
The principal feat of the Piftifh kings was at A-
bernethy. Brudius, however, as appears from the ac¬
counts given by Adamnan, in his life of Colum* a,
had a palace at Invernefs, which was probably near
the extremity of his territory in that quarter; for
there is no good reafon for believing, with Camden,
that this king had any property in the Weftern Ifles,
or that he had made a gift of Iona to St Columba
^ when he vifited him in that place.
Manners. With refpedt to the manners and cuftoms of the
Pi&s, there is no reafon to fuppofe they were any
ether than thofe of the old Caledonians and Scots, of
which many paiticulars are related in the Greek and
Roman writers who have occafion to fpeak of thofe na¬
tions.
Upon the decline of the Roman empire, cohorts of
barbarians were raifed, and Pi6b were invited into the
fervice, by Honorius, when peace was every where re-
ftored, and were named Honoriaci. Thofe under Con-
flantine opened the paffes of the Pyrenean mountains,
and let the barbarous nations into Spain. From this
period we date the civilization of their manners, which
happened after they had by themfelves, and then with
the Scots, ravaged this Roman province.
Piers Wally in antiquity, a wall begun by the em*
peror Adrian, on the northern bounds of England, to il
prevent the incurfions of the Piifts and Scots. It was
firft made only of turf (lengthened with pdifadoes,
till the emperor Severus, coming into Britain in per-
fon, built it with folid (lone. This wall, part of
which ftill remains, begem at the entrance of the Sol¬
way Frith in Cumberland, and running north-eaft ex¬
tended to the German Ocean. See Aotti'VJt and Ss-
VERUS.
PICTURE, a piece of painting, or a fubjedl reyre-
fented in colours, on wood, canvas, paper, or the like.
See Painting
PICTURESQUE beauty, fays a late writer on
tint fubjeft, refers to ‘‘ fuch beautiful ofje&s as are
fuited to the pencil.” This epithet is chiefly applied
to the works of nature, though it will often apply to
works of art alfo. Thofe obje&s are moft properly
denominated pi<5turefque which are difpofed by the
hand of nature with a mixture of varied rudenefsy /ini’
plicity, and grandeur. A plain neat garden, with little
variation in its plan, and no linking grandeur in it*
pefition, difplays too much of art, defign, and unifor¬
mity, to be called pidlurefque. “ The ideas of neat
and fmooth (fays Mr Gilpin), inftead of being pi&u-
refque, in (adl difqualify the objedl in which they re-
fide firm any preteofions to pidlurefque beauty. Nay,
farther, we do not fcruple to affert, that rough-
nefs forms the moft eflential point of difference be¬
tween the beautiful and the picfturelque ; as it feems
to be that particular quality which makes objedfts chief¬
ly pleafing in painting. I ufe the general term rough’
nefs; but properly fpeaking roughnefs relates only to
the furfaces of bodies : when we fpeak of their deli¬
neation, we ufe the word ruggednefs. Both ideas, how¬
ever, equally enter into the pifturefque, and both are
obfervable in the fmaller as well a* in the larger parts
of nature ; in the outline and bark of a tree, as in the
rude fummit and craggy fi les of a mountain.
“ Let us then examine our theory by an appeal to
experience, and try bow far thefe qualities enter into
the idea of pi£ture(que beauty, and how far they mark
that difference among objefts which is the ground of
our inquiry.
“ A piece of Palladian archite&ure may be elegant
in the lalt degree ; the proportion of its parts, the
propriety of its ornaments, and the fymmetry of the
whole, may be highly pleafing ; but if we introduce it
in a pifture, it immediately becomes a formal objefl,
and ce des to pleafe. Should1 we wifli to give it pic-
turefque beauty, we muff ufe the mallet inftead of the
chiffel; we mu(t beat down one half of it, deface the
other, and throw the mutilated members around in
heaps; in (hort> from a fmooth building we mud turn
it into a rough ruin. No painter who had the choice
of the two objefts would hefitate a moment.
“ Again,
(c) We are told by fome authors that Columba taught the Pi6ls to celebrate Eaftrr always on a Sunday
between the 14th and 20th of March, and to obferve a different method of tonfure from the Romans, leaving
an imperfect appearance of a crown. This occafioned much difpute till Naican brought his fubje&s at length
to the Roman rule. In that age many of the Pidls went on a pilgrimage to Rome, according the cuftom
of the times; and amongft the reft we find two perfons mentioned in the antiquities of St Peter’s church;
yijeriui count of the Pi€ts, and Syra with his countrymen, performed their vow.
PIC- [ 73* ] PIC
riAurefque “ Again, why does an elegant piece of garden-
„ Be^ut,» ground make no figure on canvas ? the fhape is plea-
fing, the combination of the obje£ls harmoniouSi and
the winding of the walk in the very line of beauty.
All this is true ; but the fmoothnefe of the whole,
though right and as it fliould he in nature, offends in
pifture. Turn the lawn into a piece of broken ground,
plant rugged oaks inftead of flowering fhrubs, break
the edges of the walk, give it the rudenefs of a road,
mark it with wheel tracks, and fcatter around a few
fiones and brufhwood; in a word, inftead of ma¬
king the whole fmooth, m; ke it rough, and you make
it alfo pidfurefque. All the other ingredients of beau¬
ty it already pofiefled.” On the whole, pidhurefque
compofition confifts in uniting in one whole, a variety
of parts, and thefe parts can only be obtained from
rough objifts.
It is poflible therefore to find pifturefque objefts
among wr.rks of art; and it is poflible to make ohjecfs
fo ; but the grand fcene of picturefque beauty is na¬
ture in all its original variety, and in all its irregular
grandeur. “ We feck it (fays our author) amon.’- all
the ingredients of landfeape, trees, rocks, broken
grounds, woods, rivers, lakes, plains, valleys, moun¬
tains, and diftances. Thefe ohjedfs in themfelves pro¬
duce infinite variety ; no two rocks or trees are exact¬
ly the fame ; they are varied a fecond time by combi*
nation ; and almoll as much a third time by different
lights and fhades and other aerial effedts. Sometimes
w,e find among them the exhibition of a whole, but
oftener we find only beautiful parts.”
Sublimity or grandeur alone cannot make an obje&
piAurefque : for, as our author remarks, “ however
grand tne mountain or the rock may be, it has no
claim to this epithet, unlefs its form, its colour, or its
accomp iniments, have fome degree of beauty. No*
thing can be more fublime than the ocean; but wholly
unaccompanied, it has little of the picturefque. When
we talk therefore of a fublime obje£f, we always under-
fiand that it is alfo beautiful; and we call it fublime
or beautiful only as the ideas ©f fublimity or fimple
beauty prevail. But it is not only the form and the
compofition of the objects of landfcnpe which the pic*
turefque eye examines, it connects them with the at-
mofphere, and leeks for all thofe various effedts which
are produced from that vaft and wonderful ftorehoufe
of nature. Nor is there in travelling a greater pleafure
than when a fi ene of grandeur burfts unexpe&edly up.
on the eye, accompanied with fome accidental circum-
ftance of the atmofphere which harmonizes with it,
and gives it double value.”
. 1 here are few places fo barren as to afford no pic-
turefque fcene.
 Believe the mure,
She does not know that inaufpicious fpot
Where beamy is thus niggard of her iiore.
Believe the mufe, through this terrelfrial wafte
d he feeds of grace are fown, profufely fown,
Even where we leaft may hope.- 
Mr Gilpin mentions the great military road between
Newcaftle and Carlifle as the moft barren tradt of
country in England ; and yet there, he fays, there is
“ always fomething to amufe the eye. The inter¬
changeable patches of heath and green fward make an
agreeable variety. Often too on thefe vafl trafts PiAurefque
of interfedling grounds we fee beautiful lights, foften- .
ing off along the Tides of hills ; and often we fee theni C^‘m'
adorned with cattle, flocks of fheep, heath-cocks, grous, , -T r
plover, and flights of other wild-fowl. A group of
cattle Handing in the fhade on the edge of a dark hill,
and relieved by a lighter diflance beyond them, will
often make a complete pidture without any other ac¬
companiment. In many other fituations alfo we find
them wonderfully pleafing, and capable of making pic*
tures amidft all the deficiencies of landfcape. Even x
winding road itfelf is an objedf of beauty ; while the
richnefs of the heath on each fide, with the little hil-
locks and crumbling earth, give many an excellent
leffon for a fore ground. When we have no opportu*
nicy of examining the grand feenery of nature, we
have every where at leaft the means of obferving with
wnat a multiplicity of parts, and yet with what gene*
ral iimplicity, fhe covers every furfacc.
But it we let the imagination loofe, even feeneg
like thefe adminitier great amufermnt. The imagi¬
nation can plant hills ; can form rivers and lakes in
valleys ; can build cuftles and abbeys; and if it find no
other amufemtnt, can dilate itfelf in vaft ideas of
fpace.”
Mr Gilpin, after deferibing fuch objedts as may be
called picturefque, proceeds to confider their fources of
amuiement. Wc cannot follow our ingenious author
through the whole of this confideration, and {halt
therefore fimfh our article with a fhort quotation ftom
the beginning of it. “ We might begin (fays he) in
moiai Lyle, and confider the objedts of nature in a
higher light than merely as amufement. We might
obferve, that a fearch after beauty flioull naturally
lead the mind to the great origin of all beauty ; to
the
 good, firfl perfedt, and firft fair.
But though in theory this feems a natural climax, we
infilt the lefs upon it, as in fact we have fcarce ground
to hope that every admirer of piaurefque beauty is an
admirer alfo of the beauty of virtue ; and that every
lover of nature refledfs, that J
Nature is but a name for an ejftd,
Whofe cau/e is God. — 
If, however, the admirer of nature can turn his amufe*
ments to a higher purpofe ; if its gieat feenes can in*
fpire him with religious awe, or its tranquil feenes
with that complacency of mind which is fo‘nearly al¬
lied to benevolence, it is certainly the Letter. Jpponat
hero. It 1? fo much into the bargain ; for we dare
not promife him more from pidurefque travel than
a rational and agreeable amufement. Yet even this
may be of fomt u(e in an age teeming with licentioas
pleafuie ; and may in this light at leaft be confidered
as having a moral tendency.”
PICUIP1N1M l, in ornithology, is the name of a
fpecies of pigeon in Brafil. it is fo very fmallas fcarce
to exceed the lark in fize. Its head, neck, and wings,
aie of a pale lead colour, with a black femilunar mark
at the extremity of each wing ; but its long wing-
feathers, which are feen when the wings are expanded
in flying, are of a reddifh brown on one fide, and Llack-
ifh on the other, with black ends or tips; the tail is
4 Z 2 long.
Pic [ .732 ] PIC
Fkumnus, long, and is variegated with black, white, and brown;
Picus. keiiy i8 covered with white feathers, every one of
' v 1 which has a brown mark of the (hape of a half moon
at the end.
P1CUMNUS and Pilumnus, were two deities at
Rome, who prefided over the aufpices required before
the celebration of nuptials. Pilumnus wa# fuppofed
to patronize children, as his name feems in fome man¬
ner to indicate quod pellat mala infantia. The manu¬
ring of land was firft invented by Picumnus, from
which reafon he is is called SterquVinlus. Pilumnua is
alfo invoked as the god of bakers and millers, as he is
faid to have firft invented the art of grinding corn.
PICUS, the Woodpf.cker, in ornithology, a geaus
belonging to the order of picae. The beak is ftraight,
and confifts of many fides, and like a wedge at the
point ; the noftrils are covered with briftly feathers;
the tongue is round like a worm, very long, and (harp
at the point, which is befet with briftles bent backwards.
The grand chara&eriftic, fays Latham, of thefe
birds is the tongue (which in no bird is fimilar, the
wryneck excepted, whofe other charafters, however,
differ too widely to give it place in this clafs), the mui-
cles neceffary to the motions of which are fingular and
worthy of notice ; affording the animal means of dart¬
ing it forwards the whole length, or drawing it within
the mouth at will. See Ray on the Creation^ p. 143.
Derham's Phyftc. Theol. p. 342. Note c. Will. Orn.
p. 136. t. 2 l.
The fame intelligent orniihologift enumerates no lefs
than 50 different fpecies of woodpeckers, befides va¬
rieties of fome of them which amount to nine more..
Each of thefe fpecies our readers cannot expeft us to
defcribe; we {hall therefore content ourfelves with fuch
as appear to be moft remarkable.
1. The picus martius, or greateft black woodpecker,
is about the fize of a jackdaw, being about 17 inches
long; the bill is nearly two inches and a half in length,
of a dark afh-colour, and whitifh on the fides; the
irides are pale yellow, and the eyelids are naked, ac¬
cording to Scopoli; the whole bird is black, except
the crown of the head, which is vermilion; the firft
quill-feather is the fhorteft, and the two middle tail-
feathers, which are longer than the others, make it
appear a little rounded ; the legs are of a lead colour,
covered with feathers on the fore part for half their
length.
“ The female differs from the male in having the
Latham's heacj on]y recjj and oot the whole crown of the
vot/m head ; and the general colour of the plumage has a
p,_5^2« * fitong caft of brown in it. It has likewife been ob-
ferved, that the red on the hind head has been wholly
wanting ; and indeed both male and female are apt
much to vary in different fubje&s; fome having a
much greater proportion of red on the head than others.
This fpecies is found on the continent of Europe, but
not in plenty except in Germany. It is not an inha¬
bitant of Italy, and is very rarely feen in France.
Erifch mentions it as a bird common to his parts; and
it is foqnd alfo in Sweden, Switzerland, and Denmark,
but not in winter.
“ It is faid to build in old afh and poplar trees,
making large and deep nefts; and Frifch obferves, that
they often fo excavate a tree, that it is foon after blown
down with the wind ; and that under the hole of this JPicus.
bird may often be found a bufhel of duft and bits of —-v—
wood. The female lays two or three white eggs, the
colour of which, as Willoughby obferves, is peculiar to
the whole of the woodpecker genus, or at leafl all
thofe which have come under his infpe&ion.”
2. The picus principalis, or white-billed woodpeck¬
er, is fomewhat bigger than the laft, being equal in
fize to a crow. It is 16 inches long, and weighs about
20 ounces. The bill is white as ivory, three inches
long, and channelled; the irides are yellow, and on
the hind head is an ereft pointed creft, of a ^ne red
colour, fome of the feathers of which are two inches
long; the head itfelf, and the body in general, are
black; but the lower part of the back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts, are white ; from the eye there a-
rifes a ftripe of white, which paffes on each fide of the
neck down to the back ; three or four of the prime
quills are black, but the reft are white ; the tail is cu¬
neiform, and of the fame colour as the body ; the legs
and claws are alfo black.
“ This fpecies inhabits Carolina, Virginia, New
Spain, and Brafil, and is called by the Spaniards car.
penter, and not without reafon, as this as well as moft
of the other fpecies make a great noife with the bill
againft the trees in the woods, where they may be
heard at a great diftance, as if carpenters were at work,
making, according to Catelby, in an hour or two a
buftiel of chips. He adds likevsife, that the Canadian
Indians make ufe of the bills of thefe birds for coro¬
nets, fetting them round in a wreath with the points
outwards; and that the northern Indians purchafe them
of the fouthern at the rate of two and three buck-fkins
per bill. Kalm fays they are found in New Jerfey,
though very feldom, and only at certain feafons.”
3. The picus erythrocephalus, or red headed wood¬
pecker, is about eight inches three quarters long, and
weighs two ounces. The bill is an inch and a quarter
in length, of a lead colour, with a black tip ; the iri-
des are dufky ; the head and the neck are of a moft
beautiful crimfon ; the back and wings are black ;
the rump, breaft, and belly, are white; the ten firft
quills are black, the eleventh black and white, and the
others are white with black fhafts; the tail is black
and cuneiform ; the legs and claws are of lead colour.
The cock and hen are very nearly alike.
“ This fpecies inhabits Virginia, Carolina, Canada,
and moft of the parts of North America ; but at the
approach of winter it migrates more or lefs to the
fouthward, according to the feverity of the feafon ;
and upon this circumftance the people of North Ame¬
rica foretel the rigour or clemency of the enfuing win¬
ter. Kalm obferves that it is a very common bird, ,,
and is very deftru&ive to the maize-fields and orch¬
ards, pecking through the ears of maize, and deftroy-
ing great quantities of apples. In fome years they are
more numerous than in others, when they attack the
orchards where the fweet apples grow, which they eat
fo far that nothing remains but the mere pills. Some
years fince there was a premium of twopence per head
paid from the public fund, in order to extirpate this
pernicious bird ; but this has been negle&ed much of
late. They are faid likewife to be very fond of acorns.
In Virginia and Carolina they ftay the whole year, but
are
PIC
Picus. are notfeen infuch numbers in winter as in fummer. Du-
~ » ring the winter they are very tame, and are frequently
known to come into the houfes in the fame manner as
the redbreaft is wont to do in England. It is obferved
that this fpecies is found chiefly in old trees; and the
noife they make with their bills may be heard above a
mile diftant. It builds the earlieft of all the wood¬
peckers, and generally pretty high from the ground.
It is accounted by many people very good eating.
BufFon is of opinion, that it is neceffity alone that
caufes thefe birds to feed on vegetables of any kind,
as it is contrary to the nature of the gemis.”
4. The picus puhefcens, or little woodpecker, ac¬
cording to Catefby, weighs only about an ounce and
an half. Briffon fry*, it is larger than the fmalle/t of
our European fpecies, being about f.ve inches and a
C 733 ]
P I C
wards r* foon as it has pierced through the found part,
till it is^at laft a foot and a halt below the firft open-
^ female lays three white and nearly round
eggs, and the young are hatched about the beginning
of April. The male bears his (hare in the work with
the female, and in her abfence keeps centinel at the
entrance of the hole. The note of this bird is a kind
of whittle fix times repeated, of which the two or
three laft: are in a graver accent than the others. The
female wants the red band on the fide of the head
which is feen in the male.
“ Specimens vary; fome are of that dirty white, as
Briffon deferibes it, others of a light yellow ; which
laft is the cafe in a fpecimen in the Lev’erian muff um:
this is 13 inches in length.
' In the place referred to above, we find a bird im-
Picus.
1 in rn, 0 . . ,   scicnca 10 aoove, we lind a bird im-
halflGHfr. rhe is about eight Unes long, and of pcrMly deferibed by Mr Fcrrain : he merely faya
a horn colour ; the tot) of the head is black, and nn tka*- ^ ^ ’
a horn colour; the top of the head is black, and on
each fide above the eye is a white line ; the hind head
is red; the hind part of the neck, the back, and rump,
are black, which is divided into two parts by aline of
white palling down the middle to the rump ; the fca-
pulars, upper wing and tail coverts, are black ; the
greater wing coverts and quills are fpotted with white;
the under parts of the body are pale grey ; the tail is
black; the four middle feathers are plain, the reft aie
barred with white and black ; and the legs and claws
are black.
The female has no red on the hind head. Linnseus
tells us, that the outer tail feather is white, marked
with four black fpots. This fpecies inhabits Virginia
and Carolina. According to Kalrn, it abounds in New
Jerfey, where it is efteemed of all others the moft dan¬
gerous to orchards, and is the moft daring. As foon
as it has pecked one hole in a tree, it makes another
clofe to the firft, in an horizontal direftion, proceed¬
ing till it has made a circle of holes quite round the
tree; and the apple trees in the orchards have often
feveral of thefe rings of holes round the ftem, info-
much that the tree frequently dries up and decays.
5. The yellow woodpecker is about nine inches
long. The bill is of a yellowifh white, and more than
an inch long ; the hind head is crefted; the head it-
felf, the neck, and whole body, are covered with dirty
white feathers; from the lower jaw to the tars, on
each fide, there is a red ftripe ; the wing coverts are
brown and edged with yellowifh, and fome of the
greater ones are mixed with rufous on the inner web;
the quills are brown or rufous ; the tail is black ; the
legs and claws are grey.
“ This fpecies is common at Cayenne, and is called
there charpentier jaune* It makes its nett: in old trees
which are rotten within ; making with its bill a hole
from without, at firft horizontal, but declining down-
tiiat it is a large fpecies ; that it has a fine red creft on
tne head ; the neck, breaft, and belly, of a citron co¬
lour; and the wings blueifh above. He only adds,
that it may be diftinguifhed from others by the ftrokes
of the bill, which it gives to the trees, and may be
heard at a great <iiftance.,,
The picus auratus, or gold-winged woodpecker,
is about 11 inches long, and weighs about 5 ounces.
1 he bill is an inch and a half long, and is fomewhat
bent, and is not fquare but roundifh, ridged only on
the top, the point being fharp ; the upper parts of the
head and neck are afh-coloured; the hind head is red;
the fidesof the head, throat, and fore part of the neck,’
are pale yellow; on each fide of the head is a ftripe of
black, from the bafe of the lower jaw to the neck ;
the back, fcapulars, and wing coverts, are of a grey
brown colour, tranfverfely ftriated with black lines ;
the rump is whitifh; the breaft, belly, and fides, are
whitifh yellow, and each feather is marked with a
round black fpot at the tip ; on the middle of the
breaft there is a large crefcent of black; the thighs,
upper and under tail coverts, are black and white mix¬
ed ; the quills are brown, with yellow fhafts fpotted
with biown on the outer edge ; the tail is blackifh,
being outwardly edged with grey ; the outer feather
is dotted with whitifh on the margins; the fhafts of
all but the two middle feathers are yellow half way
from the bafe; and the legs and claws are browm.
T. he female differs in having the crown and neck
behind grey brown ; the hind head of a lefs vivid red ; r
and the greater quills not fpotted on the edges. She
alfo wants the black lift on the throat, but otherwife
like the male. ^
This fpecies inhabits Virginia, Carolina, and Cana¬
da, and is plenty in New Jerfey and about New York,
where it is called by fome hittock or pint, and by others
high-hole Both the firft names have fome relation to
its
KV haI?Irteiy re/n 8 Latham) in the Leverian mufeum a bird which appears to be a mere variety,
though brought from a far different country. This was much l.ke the picus auratus in colour, but rather left
m bl11 made like that bird, and brown ; on each fide of the jaw is a ftripe of crimfon like
a whifleer ; the under part of the wings of a pale red colour, not unlike what is called red lead; and the fhafts
^ tKe^U^ Svand taiv Whl<lh ?n the °ther bird are yellow» in this are red 5 tlie plumage on the upper parts of
A? V1li;ace“us»Amarked with round black fpots; tail black, pointed, and each feather
bifurcated at the tip, exacftly like the American one. This was brought from the Cape of Good Hone, I -
have feen two fpecimens of this bird,” r ^ u A
Picus.
Pic r 734 1 PIC
Its note; ami perhaps the latter, from the fitivlon of
the neft. It is almofl continually on the ground, and
is not obfervcd to climb on the trees, like others of
the genus. It lives chiefly on infedts(B), and is com¬
monly very fat, fo as to be thought very palatable for
the table. It flays all the year ; and as it cannot at
all times get infefts, it muft perhaps eat fome kind of
grafs or plants in the fields. Its form and fome of its
qualities make it refemhle the cuckow(c). Though it
climbs not on trees, it flies to their tops ani fits occa-
fionally on the branches.
Forfter, in the Philofo^hical Tranfaftions, obferves,
that it is a bird of paflage in the northern parts of
America, vifiting the neitrhbourhood of Albany Fort
in April, and leaving it in September: that it lays from
four to fix eggs, in hollow trees, and feeds on worms
and other infefts. Called by the natives eu-thee-quun--
now.
The following fpecies are pretty well known in Bri¬
tain.
7. The viridis, or green woodpecker, weighs fix
ounces and a half; its length is 13 inches, the breadth
20 and a half; the hill is dufky, triangular, and near
two inches long ; the crown of the head is crimfon,
fpotted with black ; the eyes are furrounded with
black, and the males have a rich crimfon mark beneath
the hlacknefs; the back, neck, and lefier coverts of
the wings, are green ; the rump of a pale yellow ; the
whole of the under part of the body is of a very pale
green, and the thighs and vent are marked with
dufley lines; the legs and feet are of a cinereous green;
the tail confifts of ten It iff feather?, whofe ends are ge¬
nerally broken, as the bird refts on them in climbing ;
their tips are black; the reft of each is alternately bar¬
red with dufky and deep green. Thefe birds teed en¬
tirely on infeds; and their principal a&ion is that of
climbing up and down the bodies or boughs of trees :
for the firft purpofe they are provided with a long {len¬
der tongue, armed with a {harp bony end barbed on
each fide, which by the means of a curious apparatus
of mufcles they can exert at pleafure, darting it to a
great length into the clifts of the bark, transfixing and
drawing out the infeds that lurk there. They make
their nefts in the hollows of trees: in order therefore
to force their way to thofe cavities, their bills are
formed ftrong, very hard, and wedge-like at the end ;
Dr Derham obferves, that a neat ridge runs along the
top, as if an artift had defigned it for ftrength and
beauty. Yet it has not power to penetrate a found
tree ; their perforation of any tree is a warning to the
owner to throw it down. Their legs are Ihort, but
ftrong ; their thighs very mufcular; their toes difpo*
fed two backward, two forward ; the feathers of the
tail are very ftifF, (harp pointed, and bending down¬
wards. The three firli circumftances do admirably con¬
cur to enable them to run up and down the fi les of
trees with great fecurity ; and the ftrength of the tail
fupports them firmly when they continue long in one
place, either where they find plenty of food, or while
they are forming an accefs to the interior part of the
timber. This form of the tail makes their flight very
aukward, as it inclines their body down, and forces
them to fly \yith {hurt and frequent jerks when they
would afeend, or even keep in a line. This fpecies
feeds oftener on the ground than any other of the ge¬
nus : all of them make their nefts in the hollows of
trees; and lay five or fix eggs, of a beautiful femi-
tranfparent white.
Willoughby fays that the female lays five or fix eggs;
which Pennant(D) alfo obferves; adding, that they are
of a beau iful femitranfparent white.
“ Thefe birds iometimes build in a hollow afp or
other tree, 1 y or 20 feet from the ground. The male
and female take it by turns to bore thiough the living
part of the wood, till they come to the rotten part,
wherein, after being hollowed out to a proper depth,
they lay their eggs(E), which are generally five and
fometimes fix(Fj in number, gretnifla, with fmall black
fpots. The young ones climb up and down ths trees
before they can fly. It is worthy of remark to obferve
with what nicety the holes of the woodpecker are
made, as perfectly round as if made by the afliftance of
a pair of compafles. Nuthatches, darlings, and bats,
frequently build in thefe holes when deferted.
“ Both Frifch and Klein miftake in faying that the
females have not the red crown, for even the voung
ones in the neft have the appearance of it ; and I have
had them brought to me w:.cn they could fcarcely fly,
when the red was mixed with brown ; but they da
not become of a full red till after the firft moult.
They are faid to be fond of bees in winter, making
great havock among them. Salerne obferves, that
they are found in the markets in Italy, at Bologna ;
but this is not extraordinary, for the Italians eat all
fmall birds aimoft without exception.
“In bir A. Lever’s mufeum there is a variety of
this bird, of a itraw-colour throughout, except the
crown, which is faintly marked with red.”
8. The major, or great fpotted woodpecker, weighs
two ounces three quarters ; the length is nine inches ;
the breadth is 16. The bill is one and a quarter long,
of a black horn colour. The irides are red. The fore¬
head
(b) “ In defeft of infefts I have been informed (fays Mr Latham), that it feeds on the berries of the red
cedar, and grows fat on thtm. This food has been both difgorged by the mouth, after being {hot, as weil
a? found in the ftomach on difltftion.”
(c) “ Linnaeus, in his tenth edition of the Syjlema Natura, had ranked this with the cuckows; and Buffon,
from its fimilarity to this genus, has placed it at the end of the woodpeckers of its clnfs.”
(n) Br Zool. p.242. where fome pettintnt obfervations on thefe birds may be found. Let the reader
alfo confult Ray on the Creation, p. 143. and Derh im's Phyfico-theol. p. 193, -339, 342.
(e) “ This is fometimes fo deep that they maft feed their young quite in the dark; for I have been told
by one, that he was obliged to thruft his whole arm to the Ihoulder down the hollow of a tree before he
could reach the eggs.'”
(f) “I have feen fix young ones together in one neft.” Will. Qrn. p. 136.
Picu*.
 Y—=>
:iu.
^ 1 C r 735 ]
hefuHs of a pale buff colour ; the crown of the head a
glofiy bla k ; the hind-part marked with a rich deep
crimfon fpot. The cheekb are white; bounded be¬
neath by ^ black line that paffes from the corner of
the mouth and furrounds the hind part of the head.
The neck io encircled with a black colour. The throat
. and bread; are of a yellowilh white ; the vent feathers
of a fine light crimfon. The back, rump, and co¬
verts of the tail, and leffer coverts of the wings, are
black 5 the fcapular feathers and coverts adjoining to
them are white. The quill feathcra are black, elegant¬
ly marked on each web with round white fpots. The
four middle feathers of the tail are black, the nexttfp-
ped with dirty yellow; the bottoms of the two out-
moft black ; the upper parts a dirty white. The ex¬
terior feathers marked on each web with two black
fpots ; the next with two on the inner web, and only
one on the other. The legs are of a lead colour. The
female wants that beautiful crimfon fpot on the head ;
in other refpe&s the colours of both agree. This fpe-
riesis much more uncommon than the preceding ; and
keeps altogether in the woods. 1 his bird is pretty
common in England, France, Germany, and other
pi’ts of Europe, frequenting the woods like the reft
of its genus, and is likewife met with in America. It
is a very cunning bird ; for wdien a perfon has feen one
on a tree, he is almdlt fure to lofe fight of it, if the
tree is large, and the obferver not very attentive ; for
the moment it fpies any one it will creep behind a
branch, and there lie ftcure till the danger is over.
The extreme facility with which birds of the wood¬
pecker kind defcend as well as afcend the trees is wor¬
thy admiration, feem ng to do both with equal eafe to
itlelf. We do not find any one who hns noticed the
colour of the eggs; but Buffon mentions having
found a neft with fix young ones in an old decayed afp
tree, 30 feet from the ground.
9. The rnedius, or middle-fized woodpecker, agrees
with the preceding in colours and fize, excepting that
the crown of the head in this is of a rich crimfon ; the
crown of the head in the male of the former black ;
and the crimfon is in form of a bar on the hind part.
Birds thus marked have been fhot in Lancafhire and
other parts of England ; but Mr Pennant is doubtful
whether they are varieties, or diilimft fpecies. “ Brif-
fon (fays Latham), quotes many authors who have de-
fcribed this bird, but I am not clear in its being a dif-
tind fpecies. It is certainly much more fcarce in Eng¬
land than any other. Buffon is reconciled to its being
a variety only; but if fo, this variety is regular, at lead,
in all the fpecimens which I have feen.”
ic. The minor, or lead fpotted woodpecker, fcarce
weighs an ounce : the length is fix inches; the breadth
eleven. The forehead is of a dirty white : the crown
of the herd (in the male) of a beautiful crimfon : the
cheeks and fides of the neck are white, bounded by a
bed of black beneath the former. The hind part of
the head and neck, and the coverts of the wings, are
black : the back is barred with black and white r the
fcapulars and quill feathers fpotted with black and
white : the four middle feathers of the tail are black ;
the others varied with black and white : the breaft and
belly are of a dirty white: the crown of the head (in
the female) is white ; the feet are of a lead colour. It
has all the chara&ers and actions of the greater kind,
P I c
but is not fo often met with. Salerne tells ua that this
bird is not found in France ; but Buffon affirms that
it inhabits meft of the provinces there. It approaches
near habitations in winter, and maybe feen in orchards
adjoining to houfes, which no doubt it does for the
fake of food, finding about the trunks of the trees both
caterpillars and larvae of infeas of all kinds. It builds
m an hole of a tree, and often difputes the right of
poffeffion with the little coiemoufe, which laft, as it is
much weaker of the two, mult yield the vidory
Willoughby fays it is called in England by the name of
hickwall. Linnaius, in his fynonymes of this bird
quotes Haffelquilt for the fame ; but whoever will di!
11 gently read what this author fays of the matter, will
be convinced that the reference ffiould be to the
greater rather than the leaft of this genus. It is faid
by him to inhabit the higher parts of Afia.
Mr Sohnerat mentions a bird found by him at
Antigue, in the ill .n J of Panay, with the top of the
head, and hind part of the neck, of a greyilh black -
on each fide of the neck, two-thirds downwards, ia a
llnpe of white, which begins juft above the eye’ and
under th.s another of black from the eye to the ffioul
der. The upper part of the body is black and white,
1 he under parts pale yellow, fpotted with black. The
tail is black above, and beneath barred with a dirty
white and yellowilh colour. The bill and legs blackifh
The head had no red on it. Buffon fuopofes it to
have been a female, and a variety only ‘of our leaffc
fpotted woodpecker.
1 icus (fab. hid.), a king of Latium, fon of Sa¬
turn. He married Venilia, alfo called Canens, by
whom he had Faunus. He was tenderly loved by the
goddeis Pomona, and he returned her affedion. Ashe
was one day hunting in the woods, he was met by
Circe, who became deeply enamoured of him, and who
changed him into a woodpecker, called by the name
of picus among the Latins. His wife Venilia was fo
difconfolate when <he was informed of his death, that
(he pined away. Some fuppefe that Picus was the fon
of Pilumnus, and that he gave out prophecies to hi*
fulje£b by means of a favourite woodpecker; from
which circumftance originated the fable of his beinp-
metamorphoied into a bird. 0
Picus (John), earl of Mfrandola, a prodigy of
parts and learning, was the youngeft child of John
Francis Picus earl of Mirandola and Concordia ; and
was born in the year 1463. The progrefs that he
made in letters was fo extremely rapid, that it was
matter of aftonifiiment to fee even a boy one of the
firft poets and orators of his age. He was the fcholar
°f R. Jochanan, a German Jew, who confirmed his
natural fondnefs for the cabaliftical writings, infomuch
that he is reported to have declared, that thofe who
dived into them dived in the true head fprfng ; where¬
as thofe rivulets that had flowed thence into Greece
were no better than conupt and ftagnated waters
After vifiting the moft famous univerfities of France
and Italy, he went to Rome ; where, in i486, befoie
he was. 24 years of age, he publifhed 900 propofitions
in logic, mathematics, phyfics, divinity, cabaliftic
learning, and magic, drawn not only from Greek and
Latin, but even from Jcwifh and Arabian writers ^
fubjoining to his advertifement, that, “ if any philol
fopher or divine would come to Rome to difpute with
1 hina
Picus.
; Picrrs
. W
Pieces.
]
-PIE [ 736
lu’m upon any or all of them, he -vcould defray the ex-
pences of his journey from the remoteft corners of
Italy.” He enjoyed, however, the honour of this dif-
putatious challenge quietly, without danger to his cre¬
dit : for envy procured fome of his proportions to be
charged with herefy, and he was forbid to difpute up¬
on them. As a proof of the ignorance of his oppo-
fers, we are told that a theologian who had fliown him-
felf very zealous in cenfuring his book, being afked
what was the meaning of the word cabbala ? anfwer-
ed, that he was a wicked man and a heretic, who had
written againft Jefus Chrift, and that thofe who follow¬
ed his opinion were called cabbalifts. At the age of
28, he confined himfelf wholly to the ftudy of the
fcriptures ; and undertook to combat the Jews and
Mahometans, as well as to confound judicial aftrology;
hut in this intention his credit was alfo faved, though
with the lofs of his life, by his dying in 1494, in his
3 2d year. He was called the phcenix of hit age, and
by Sealiger Monflrum fine Vitio. He compofed a great
number of works, which have often been printed both
ieparattly and together. The following epitaph is up¬
on his tomb :
Hie fitus eft Picus Mirandola, ccetera norunt
Et Tugus et Ganges., forfan et Antipodes.
Picus (John Francis), prince of Mirandola, ne¬
phew of John Picus mentioned above, was born about
the year 1469. He cultivated learning and the feienees
after the example of his uncle ; but he had a principa¬
lity and dominions to fuperintend, which involved him
in great troubles, and at lafl coft him his life. He was
twice driven from his principality, and twice refto-
red ; and at laft, in 1531, was, together with his eldefl
fon Albert, aflaflinated in his own caftle by his nephew
Galeoti. He was a great lover of letters ; and fuch of for them.
his works as were then compofed were inferted in the
Strafburgh edition of his uncle’s in 1504, and conti¬
nued in future impreffions, befides fome others which
were never collefted.
PIECE, in matters of money, fignifies fometimes
the fame thing with fpecies ; and fometimes, by adding
the value of the pieces, it is ufed to exprefs fuch as
have no other particular name. For the piece of eight,
or piaftre, fee Mow^r'Table.
Piecr, is alfo a kind of money of account, or ra¬
ther a manner of accounting ufed among the negroes
on the coaft of Angola in Africa, Sec MoNEr-Table.
Piece, in heraldry, denotes an ordinary or charge.
The ‘honourable pieces of the fhield are the chief,
fefs, bend, pale, bar, crofs, faltier, chevron, and in
general all thofe which may take up one-third of the
field, when alone, and in what manner foever it be.
See Heraldry.
Pieces, in the military art, include all forts of
great guns and mortars. Battering pieces are the
larger fort of guns ufed at fieges for making the
breaches ; fuch are the 24-pounder and culverine, the
one carrying a 24 and the other an 18 pound ball.
Field pieces are 12-pounders, demicuFerines, 6-poun¬
ders, lackers, minions, and 3 pounders, which march
with the army, and encamp always behind the fecond
line, hut in day of battle are in the front. A foldier’s
•iirelock is likewife called his piece.
P I E
PIEDMONT, rcountry of Italy, with the title Piedmont^
of a principality, is bounded on the north by Savoy —v—
and Italy ; on the weft by France ; on the fouth by the
Mediterranean and the republic of Fenoa; and on the
eatft by the duchies of Montferrat and Milan ; extend¬
ing about 150 miles from north to fouth, but much
lefs from eaft to weft. It is called Piedmont, and in
Latin Piedmontium, from its fituation at the foot of the
mountaina, or Alps, which feparate Fiance from Italy.
This country is in fome parts mountainous, but is
everywhere very fruitful. The plains produce fine corn,
and Montferrat and the Milanefe yield great quantities
of Turkey wheat, which commonly ferves for bread,
and with which the people of the middle rank mix
rye ; the pods are ufed for fuel, and the ftalks being
thick ferve to mend the roads. The hills produce
plenty of wine, which, like the Italian wines, is very
lufeious when new, efpecially the white. There is
alfo a tartifh red wine called ‘vino bru/co, faid to be very
wholefome for fat people, and, on the other hand, the
fweet wine is recommended as a ftomaebic. The
neighbourhood of Turin is famous for its fine fruits,
and many long walks of chefnut and mulberry trees,
which produce both pleafure and profit. Marons, or
large chefnuts, are a favourite dainty among the com¬
mon people. Thefe are put into an oven, and, when
thoroughly hot, and cooled in red wine, are dried a
fecond time in the oven, and afterwards eaten cold.
Truffles grow here in fuch abundance, that Piedmont
has obtained the name of \d\ztrufile country. Some are
black, others white marbled with red. Their price is
rated according to their fize. Sometimes they are found
of 12 or 14 pounds weight; and many country peo¬
ple earn from 60 to 70 dollars a-year merely by digging
for them. The trade in cattle is faid to bring into
Piedmont no lefs than three millions of livres per an¬
num. The cultivation of filk is alfo a profitable article,
the Piedmontefe filk being, on account of its finenefs
and ftrength, efteemed the beft in Italy. The Pied¬
montefe gentry breed vaft numbers of filk-worma un¬
der the care of their tenants, who have the eggs and
mulberry leaves delivered to-them, and in return they
give half the filk to their mafters. ’This principality
comprehends eleven fmall provinces : Piedmont proper,
the valleys between France and Italy, the valley of
Saluza, the county of Nice, the marquifate of Sufa,
the duchy of Aoft, the Canavefe, the lordfflip of Vet-
fail, the county of Aft, and the Langes. It was for¬
merly a part of Lombardy, but now belongs to the
king of Sardinia, and lies at the foot of the Alps,
which feparate France from Italy. It contains many
high mountains, among which there are rich and fruit¬
ful valleys, as pleafant and populous as any part of
Italy. In the mountains are mines of feveral kinds,
and the forefts afford a great deal of curious game,
among which the tumor is an ufeful animal. il The
mules (fays Mr Watkins) are very fine in this coun¬
try ; but the inhabitants have other beafts, or ra¬
ther monfters, which they find very ferviceable, though
vicious and obftlnate. Thefe are produced by a cow
and an afs, or mare and bull, and called jumarres or
gimerri (a). I cannot fay that I have ever feen any
of them, but I am told they are very common.”
The
( a) Thefe equivocal animals, however, if we may fo term them, are fo generally mentioned by travellers in
^ thi«
P I E
ffiedmqnt. The Piedinontefe have more fenfe than the Savoy-
arJs, but then they are not fo fincere. Some authors
reprefent them as lively, artful, and witty, the inhabi¬
tants of the mountain of Aofta excepted, who are
farther diflinguifhed by large wens, as even their horfes,
dogs, and other animals. Mr Baretti, however, in his
'Account of Italy, vol. ii. p. 116. gives the following ac¬
count of them. “ One of the chief qualities (fays he),
■Which diflinguifh the Piedmontefe from all other Ita¬
lians, is their want of cheerfulnefs. Piedmont never
produced a fingle good poet, as far as the records of
the country can go, whereas there is no other province
of Italy but what can boaft of fome poet ancient or
modern ; and yet the Piedmontefe are not deficient in
C 737 1
P I E
t
rvlli.
feveral branches of learning, and fome of them have
fucceeded tolerably well in civil law, phyfic, and the
mathematics. It is likewife obferved of this people,
that none of them ever attained to any degree of ex¬
cellence in the polite arts, and it is but lately that they
can boaft of a painter, Cavaliero Bomente ; a ftatuary,
Signor Lodetto ; and fome architects, Conte Alfieri,
Signor Borra, and others, who yet, to fay the truth,
are far inferior to numberlefs artifts produced by the
other provinces of Italy. They have, on the other
hand, greatly advanced when confidered as foldiers ;
though their troops have never been very numerous,
trvury body converfant in hiftory knows the brave Hand
they made for fomc centuries paft againft the French,
Spaniards, and Germans, whenever they have been in¬
vaded by thefe nations. The ikill of the Piedmontefe
in fortification is likewife very great, and their Berto-
las and Pintos have fhown as much genius as the Vau-
bans and Cohorns, in rendering impregnable feveral
places which inferior engineers would only have made
iecure.”
The chief trade of this principality confifts in hemp
and filk. Indeed, fo great is their trade in raw filk,
that the Engliih alone have purchafed to the value of
200,coo lb. in a year. The fiik worm thrives fo well,
that many peafants make above (b) ioo lb. of filk an¬
nually; and it is not only abundant, but univerfally
known to be ftronger and finer than any in Italy. The
land owners divide the profit with their tenants. The
Piedmontefe workmen, however, are faid to want ex-
pertnefs, though they finifh their work equally well
with thofe of other nations. The high duty and land-
carriage on mules likewife tend to leflen the value of
this trade. They have befides corn, rice, wine, fruits,
flax, and cattle.
In the valleys of Lucerne, Peyroufe, and St Mar¬
tin, which have always belonged to Piedmont, live the
celebrated Waldenfes or Vaudois, a name which figni-
fiespeople of the valleys. Thefe have rendered themfelves
famous in hiftory for their diflent from the Romifh
church long before the time of Luther and Calvin, and
for the perfecutions they have fuffered on that account;
but fince the year 1730 they have not been openly mo-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
lefte l for their religion, but, in order to fupprefs them
by degtees, a popiih church has been built in every
parifh. They are heavily taxed, and labour under
great oppreffions. The number of people in thefe
valleys fcarce at prefent exceeds r 0,000, of which jooo
are C&tholics. The chief river csf Piedmont is the Po,
which flows out of Mount Vifo. The river Sefia, the
Doria, Baltea, the ancient Druria, the Tenaro, and
feveral others, run into it. The Var, nnciently called
the Varus, rifts in the county of Nice, and after wa¬
tering it empties itfelf into the Mediterranean. The
language of the Piedmontefe is a mixture of French
and Italian. In this country are about 50 earldoms,
15 marquifates, a multitude of lordfhips, and 20 ab¬
beys. Though the country be entirely popifh, except
fome valleys inhabited by the Waldenfes, the king re*
ferves to himfelf the greateft part of the power in
church affairs, which in many other places is given up
to the pope, and the confti^ution unigenitus is here uni¬
verfally oppofed. Towards the end of the laft centu¬
ry, the French king perfuaded the duke of Svvoy to
drive them out of the country ; in confequence of which
200,000 of them retired to Germany, England, and
Holland, and yet they are not all extirpated, though,
as we have obferved, they are obliged to have a Roman
Catholic church in every parifb.
, Turin, the general refidence of the king of Sardi¬
nia, to whom this principality belongs, is the chief
city. See Turin. The number of inhabitants, Mr
Watkins fays, in Piedmont and Savoy, amount to
2,695,727 fouls, of which Turin contains about
77,000.
PIENEb, a fmall ifland of Japan, over againft the
harbour of Saccai, is famed not only for the beauty of
its walks, to which crowds of people refort from the
city, but for a deity wor/hipped there, to which vaft
numbers of perfons devote themfelves. They go from
his temple to the fea fide, where they enter into a boat
provided for the purpofe ; then,launching into the deep,
they throw themfclves overboard, loaded with ftones,
and fink to the bottom. The temple of that deity*
which is called Canon, is very large and lofty, and fo
are many others in the city itfelf; one in particular,
dedicated to the gods of other countries, is thought
the fineft in the whole empire.
PIEPOUDRE (Court of), the loweft, and at the
fame time the moft expeditious, court of juftice
known to the law of England. It is called piepoudre,
(mm pedis pulverivati), from the dufty feet of the
fuitors ; or, according to Sir Edward Coke, becaufe
juftice is there done as fpeedily as duft can fall from
the foot: Upon the fame principle that juftice among
the Jews was adminiftered in the gate of the city, that
the proceedings might be the more fpeedy, as well as
public. But the etymology given us by a learned
modern writer is much more ingenious and fatisfac-
tory; it being-derived, according to him, from pied
5 ^ puldreaux*
^labourers Eur0Pc> that we have no doubt of their exiftence, nor of their being found hardy and ferviceaMe
(b) Each pound is valued in Piedmont at 18 su The little-village of La Tour, in the valley of Lucerne.
^60 oooblOVStc°iing0 b* annUa y’ and thC e*port8 cve,7 year to the fingle city of Lyon* amount to more than
Piertet,
Piepoudre.
<—■i—i ■ a
PIE [ 738 1
pulclreaux, u a pedlar/’ in old French, and therefore died in the year
fignifying the court of fuch petty chapmen as refort
to fairs or markets. It is a court of record, incident
to every fair and market ; of which the fteward of him
who owns or has the toll of the market is the judge.
It was inflituted to adininifter juftice for all commer¬
cial injuries done in that very fair or market, and not
in any preceding one. So that the injury mud be
done, complained of, heard, and determined, within
the comnafs of one and the fame day, unlefs the fair
continues longer. The court hath cognizance of all
matters of contrad that cm pofiibly arife within the
precinA of that fair or market; and the plaintiff muff
make oath that the caufe of an aAIon arole there.
Irom this court a writ of error lies, in the nature of
an appeal, to the courts at Weflminfter. The reafon
of its inftitution feems to have.been, to do juftice ex-
peditioufly among the variety of perfons that refort
from diftant places to a fair or market ; lirce it is pro¬
bable, that no other inferior court might be able to
ferve its procefs, or execute its judgments, on both or
perhaps either of the parties ; and therefore, unlefs this
court had been ereAed, the complaint muft ncceffarily
have reforted even in the firft inftance t© fome fuperior
judicature.
PIER, in building, denotes a mafs of ftone, &c.
oppofed by way of fortrefa to the force of the fea, or
a great river, for the fecurity of fiiips that lie at har¬
bour in any haven.
PiEksof a Bridge. See Bridge.
PIERCE A. Sec Rivinia.
FIERI A (snc. geog.), a diftriA of Macedoma, con¬
tained between the mouths of the rivers Ludias and
Peneus ; extended by Strabo beyond the Ludias, to
the river Axioa on the north, and on the fouth no far¬
ther than the Aliacmon, along the weft fide of the Si¬
nus Thermaicus.— Another Pteria of Syria, the north
part of Sdeucij, or Antiochena^ fituated on the Si¬
nus Ifilcus, and lying next Cilicia to the north-weft,
PIERIDES, in fabulous hiftory, the daughters of
Picrusa Macedonian prince, prefuming todifpute with
the roufes for the prize of poetry, were turned in¬
to magpies. The name of Pierides was alfo given to
the mufes, from mount Pieris in Theffaly, which was
confecrated to them ; or, according to others, from
Pierus, a Thefialian poet, who was the firft who facri-
ficed to them. See Pieris.
PIERINO del Vaga, an eminent Italian painter,
born of poor parents in Tufcany, about the year 1 500.
He was placed apprentice with a grocer in Florence,
and got fome inftruAions from the painters to whom
he was fent with colours and pencils; but a painter
named Vaga taking him to Rome, he was called Del
Vaga> from living with himt his real name being Buo-
nacorji. He ftudied anatomy with the fciences necef-
fary for his profefiion ; and had fomewhat of every
thing that was good in his compofitrons. After Ra¬
phael’s death, he joined with Julio Romano and Fran-
cifco Penni to finifh the works in the Vatican which
were left imperfeA by their common mafter ; and to
confirm their friendihip married Penni’s filler. He
gained the higheft reputation by his performances in
the pAace of prince Doria at Genoa: but the multi¬
plicity of his bufinefs, and the vivacity of his imagina¬
tion, drained his fpirils in the flower of his age ; for he
P I E
. , 15-17* Of all Raphael’s difctpies,
1 lenno kept the charaAer of his mafter longeft, i. e. his
exterior charaAer and manner of defigning ; for he fell
very Ihort of t’** finenefa of Raphael’s thinking. He
had a particular genius for the decoration of places
according to their cuftoms. His invention in that
kind of painting was full of ingenuity ; grace and or¬
der are everywhere to he met with, and his difpoli-
tions, which are ordinary in his piAures, are wonder¬
ful in his ornaments : fome of thefe he has made little,
and fome great, and placed them both with fo much
art, that they fet off one another by comparifon and
contrail. His figures are difpofed and defigned ac¬
cording to Raphael’s gufto ; and if Raphael gave him
at firll fome flight Iketches of ornaments, as he did to
Giovanni d’Udine, he executed them to admiration.
The tapeftries of the feven planets, in feven pieces,
which Pierino defigned. for Diana de Poitiers, and
whjch were, when De Piles wrote, with Monfieur the
firft. prefi lent at Paris, (hows fufficiently what he was,
and that the above charaAer does not exceed the
truth.
PIERIS (anc. geog.), a mountain which is thought
to have given name to Pieria of Macedonia ; taking its
name from Pierus a poet, who was the firft that fa-
crilked to the Mufes, thence called Pierides, if cre¬
dit may be given to an ancient fcholiaft on Juvenal.
PIERRE d’auto'mne is a French name, tranllated
from the Chinefe, of a medicinal ftone, celebrated m
the eaft for curing all diforders of the lungs. Many
imagine it had its name of the autumn-ftone from its
being only to be made at that feafon of the year; but
it may certainly be made equally at all times. The
Chintfe chemifts refer the various parts of the body
to the feveral feafons of the year, and thus they refer
the lungs to autumn. This is evident in their writings,
and thus the ftone for difeafes of the lungs came to be
called autumnJlone. It is prepared as follows : They
put 30 pints of the urine of a ftrong and healthy
young man into a large iron pot, and fet it over a gen¬
tle fire. When it begins to boil, they add to it, drop
by drop, about a large tea-cup full of rape oil. They
then leave it on the lire till the whole is evaporated to
a thick fubftance like black mud. It is then taken
out of the pot, and laid on a flat iron to dry, fo that
it may be powdered very fine. This powder is moift-
ened with frefli oil, and the mafs is put into a double
crucible, furrounded with co ds, where it Hands till it
be thoroughly dried again. This is again powdered,
and put into a china vcffel, which being covered with
fiik cloth and a double paper, they pour on it boiling
water, which makes its way, drop by drop, through
thefe coverings, till fo much is got in as is fuffi'eient to
reduce it to a palle. This pafte is well mixed together
in the vefltl it is kept in, and this is put into a veffel
of water, and the whole fet over the hre. The mat¬
ter thus becomes again dried in ba/neo maria:, and is
then finilhed. Obferv. fur Us Gout, de I'Ajie, p. 258.
Pierre (St), is a large river in North America,
fcarcely inferior to the Rhine or the Danube, and na¬
vigable alraoft to its fource. Together with many
other large ftreams, it falls into the great river Mif-
fiflippi.
Pierre (St), or St Peter's, the capital of Martini-
co, was built uu 1665, in order to overawe the muti-
seers
KerU,
Pierre,
Pierre
R
Pxrtf.
, PIE [ 7
neere of tiie ifland who rebelled agat&ft k* proprietors,
the fecond Weft India company, who were at the fame
time the proprietors of all the French Antilles. It is
fituated on the weftern fide of the ifland. The town
extends along the Ihore, and a battery that commands
the road is ere&ed on the weft fide, which is wafhed
by the river Royolan, or St Peter. The town is di
vided into three wards ; the middle, which is properly
St Peter’s, begins at the fort, and runs wellward to the
battery or St Nicholas. Under the walls of the fecond
ward (hips at anchor-tide more fecurely than under the
fort, on which account this ward is called the Anchor.
Ti e third ward, called the Gallery, extends along
the fea fide from Fort St Peter to the Jefuits’ River,
'8 the moft populous part of the city. The houfes
am
of St Peter’s ward are neat, commodious, and elegant,
particularly thole of the governor of the ifland, the
intendant, and the other officers. The parilh church
of St Peter is a magnificent done building which be¬
longed to the Jcfuits, with a noble front of the Doric
order. The church of the Anchorage, w hich belongs
to the jacobine friars, is likewife of ftone. It is a
place of cotifiderable trade, and is built with tolerable
regularity.. The houfes are moflly conftru&ed of a
giey pumice-ftone or lava, which is found on the
brand ; and the high-ftreet is, according to Dr Ifert,
above an Englilh mile in length. It is fuppofed to
contain about 2000 houfes, and 30,000 inhabitants,
including negroea. St Pierre, with the whole of the
flourifhing ifland of Martinico, was taken from the
French in the month of March 1794, by the Britilh
l «d and fea forces under the command of Sir Charles
Grey and Sir John Jervis, and will now, we prefurne,
continue annexed to the Britilh crown: 125 veftels loa led
with the produce of the ifland, and of great value, were
captured, 71 of which were in the harbour of St Pierre.
PIE 1 IS I S, a religious fe& fprung up among the
Jrroteltants of Germany, feeming to be a kind of mean
between the Quakers of England and the Quietlfts of
the Romilh church. They defpife all forts of eccleii-
aftical polity, all fchool theology, and all forma and
ceremonies, and give therafelves up to contemplation
and the myftic theology. Many grofs errors are charged
on the I ictifts, in a book intitled Manipuhu Obferva-
ttonum Antlpldtjlicurum but they have much of the air
of polemical exaggeration, and are certainly not at all
juft. Indeed there are Pietifts of various kinds : Some
running into grofs illufions, and carrying their errors to
the overturning of a great part of the Chriftian do&rine,
while others are only vifionarics; and others are very
honeft and good, though perhaps mifguided, people.
They have been difgufted with the coldnefs and forma¬
lity of other churches, and have thence become charm¬
ed with the fervent piety of the Pietifts, and attached
to their pyty, without giving into the grofleft of their
errors. See Mo(heim>i Eccl. Hijiory, vol. iv. p 4C4.
Pietist*, otherwife called the Brethren and Sifters
&f the Pious and Chriftian Schools, a fociety formed in
the year 1678 by Nicholas Barre, and obliged by their
engagements to devote themfelves to the education of
poor children of both fexes.
PI El OLA, anciently called Andes, is a place
within two Italian miles of Mantua, famous for fceincr
the birth-place of Virgil. ®
iaE i Y, is a virtue which denotes veneration for the
39 1 PIE
Deity, and love and tendernefs to our friends. This
diftmguifhed virtue, like many others, received among
the Romans divine honours, and was made one of their
gods. Acihus Glabrio firft ere&ed a temple to this
civinity, which he did upon the fpot on which a wo¬
man had fed with her own milk her aged father, who
had been imprifoned by order of the feoate, and de¬
prived of all aliments. The ftory is well known, and
is given at length in authors which are in the hands
of every fchoobboy. See Cicero de div. 1. and Vale-
nus Maximus, 5. c. 4. and our article Filial Pietv,
p. 238. col. 2d. J
If piety was thus. pra&ifed and thus honoured in
Heathen antiquity, it furely ought not to be lefs fo
among Chriltians, to whom its nature is better defined
and to the pra&ice of which they have motives of
greater cogency. A learned and elegant writer has
laid that the want of piety arifes from the want of fen-
fibility ; and his obfervations and arguments are fo juft
3nd fo well expreffed, that we cannot do better than
tranfenbe them.
“ It appears to me (fays Dr Knox), that the mind
of man, when it is free from natural defe&s and ac¬
quired corruption, feels no lefs a tendency to the in¬
dulgence 0/ devotion than to virtuous love, or to any
other of the more refined and elevated affe&ions. But
debauchery and excefs contiibute greatly to deftroy
all the fufeeptible delicacy with which nature ufualiy
.urnifhes the heart ; and, in the general extin&ion of
our better qualities, it is no wonder that fo pure a
fentiment as that of piety fhauld be one or the firft to
expire.
“ It is certain that the underftanding may be im¬
proved in a knowledge of the world, and in the art*
of iucceeding in it, while the heart, or whatever con-
ftitutes the feat of the moral and fentimental feelings,
is gradually receding from its proper and original per-
jection. Indeed experience feems to evince, that it is
hardly poflible to arrive at the chara&er of a complete
man of the world, without lofing many of the moft va¬
luable fentiments of uncomipted nature. A comulet*
man of the world is an artificial being; he has dif-
carded many of the native and laudable tendencies of
his mind, and adopted a new fyftem of obje&s and
propenfit.es of his own creation. Thefc are common¬
ly grofs, coarfe, fordid, felfifh, and fenfual. All, or
either of thefe attributes, tend dire&lyto blunt thefenfe
of every thing liberal, enlarged, difinterefted ; of eve¬
ry thing which participates more of an intelle&ual than
of a fenfual nature. When the heart is tied down to
the earth by luft and avarice, it is not ex trad'd in ary
that the eye fliould be feldom ii.ied up to heaven. To
the man who fpenda his Sunday (becaufe he thinks the
day fit for little elfe) in the counting houfe, in travel¬
ling, in the tavern, or in the brothel, thole who go to
church appear as fools, and the bufinefs they go upon
as nonfenfe. He is callous to the feelings of devotion •
but he is tremblingly alive to all that gratifies his fenfes
or promotes his interelh
“ It has been remarked of thofe writers who have
attacked Chriftianity, and reprefentei all religions
merely as diverfified modes of fuperftition, that°they
were indeed, for the moft part, men of a metaphyfical
and a difputatious turn of mind, but ufualiy little di-
ftinguifhed fer benignity and generofity. There was,
5 & z amidft
PIE [ 740 ] PIG
Piety, amldft all their pretenfions to logical fagacity, a clou-
,m dinefs of ideas, and a coldnefs of heart, which render¬
ed them very unfit judges on a queftion in which the
heart is chiefly interefted ; in which the language of
nature is more expreffive and convincing, than all the
dreary fubtleties of the difmal metaphyficians. Even
the reafoning faculty, on which we fo greatly value
ourfelves, may be perverted by exceffive refinement;
and there is an abftrufe, but vain and fooliflt philofo-
phy, which philofophizes us out of the nobleit parts
of our noble nature. One of thofe parts of us is our
inftinflive fenfe of religion, of which not one of thofe
brutes which the philofophers jnoft admire, and to
whofe rank they wifh to reduce us, is found in the
flighteft degree 10 participate.
“ Such philofophers may be called, in a double
fenfe, the enemies of mankind. They not only en¬
deavour to entice man from his duty, but to rob him
of a moft exalted and natural pleafure. Such, furely,
is the pleafure of devotion. For when the foul rifes
above this little orb, and pours its adoration at the
throne of celeftial Majefty, the holy fervour which it
feels is itfelf a rapturous delight. Neither is this a de¬
clam* tory reprefentation, but a truth felt and acknow¬
ledged by all the fons of men ; except thofe who have
been defective in fenfibility, or who hoped to gratify
the pride or the malignity of their hearts by fingular
and pernicious (peculation.
“ Indeed all deputations, controverfial and meta-
phyfical writings on the fubjeft of religion, are unfa¬
vourable to genuine piety. We do not find that the
moft renowned polemics in the church militant were
at all more attentive than others to the common of¬
fices of religion, or that they were a&uated by any
peculiar degree of devotion. The truth is, their reli¬
gion centered in their heads, whereas its natural reli¬
gion is the heart. The heart! confined, alas! in col¬
leges or libraries, unacquainted with all the tender
charities of hufband, father, brother, friend ; fome of
them have almoll forgotten that they pofiefs a heart.
It has long ceafed to beat with the pulfations of love
and fympathy, and has been engroffed by pride on
conquering an adverfary in the fyllogiftic combat, or
by impotent anger on a defeat. With fuch habits,
and fo defe&ive a fyftem of feelings, can we expeft
that a do&or of the Sorbonne, or the difputing pro-
fefibr of divinity, fhouli ever feel the pure flame of
piety that glowed in the bofbms of Mrs Rowe, Mrs
Talbot, or Mr Nelfon ?
, (( It is however certain, that a devotional tafte and
habit are very delirable in themfelves, exclufive of their
efFe&s in meliorating the morals and difpofition, and
promoting prefent and future felicity. They add dig¬
nity, pleafure, and fecurity to any age: but to old age
they are the moft becoming grace, the moft fubftan-
tial fupport, and the fweeteft comfort. In order to
preferve them, it will be neceflary. to preferve our fen¬
fibility ; and nothing will contribute fo much to this
purpofe as a life of temperance, innocence, and fira-
plicity.”
Of piety, as it denotes love and tendernefs to our
friends, there have been many diftinguifhed inttances
both in ancient and modern times. See Filial Piety,
Fraternal and Parental Aff'eSion, &c.
The following example of filial piety ia Chins, ta¬
ken from P. Du Halde’s defeription of that country, Piety
will not we truft be difagreeable to our readers. “In . II '
the commencement of the dynafty of the Tang, Lou- rigan’0l>i
tao-tfong, who was difaffefted to the government, be¬
ing accufed of a fault, which touched his life, obtain¬
ed leave from thofe who had him in curtody, to per¬
form the duties of the Tao to one of his deceafed
friends. He managed matters fo well, that giving hia
keepers the flip, he fled to the houfe of Lou Nan kin,
with whom he had a friendfhip, and there hid himfelf.
Lou Nan-kin, notwithftanding the ftrift fearch that
was made, and the feverity of the court againft thofe
who conceal prifoners that have efcaped, would not
betray his friend. However, the thing coming to be
difeevered^ Lou Nan-kin was imprifoned ; and they
were juft on the point of proceeding againft him, when
his younger brother prefenting himfelf before the
judge. It is /, Sir, faid he, 'who have hidden the prifon-
er ; it is I who ought to die, and not my elder brother.
The eldeft maintained on the contrary, that his young¬
er brother accufed himfelf wrongfully, and was not at
all culpable. The judge, who was a perfon of great
fagacity, fifted both parties fo effedhialiy, that he not
only difeovered that the younger brother was innocent,
but even made him confefs it himfelf: It is true. Sir,
faid the younger all in tears,/have accufed myfelf falfely;
but 1 have very Jlrong reafons for fo doing. My mother
has been dead for fome time, and her corps is not yet buried;
1 have a fjler aifo who is marriageable, but is not yet dif-
pofed of: thefe things which my brother is capable of ma*
naging, I am not, and therefore defire to die in his jledd.
Vouchfafe to admit my tefimony. The commifiioner gave
an account of the whole affair to the court, and the
emperor at his felicitation pardoned the criminaL,''
PIG, in zoology. See Sus.
Guinea-Pig. See Mus.
Pig of lead, the eighth part of a fother, amounting
to 250 pounds weight-
PIGANIOL de la force (Jbhn Aymar de), a
native of Auvergne, of a noble family, applied himfelf
with ardour to the ftudy of geography, and of the hr-
ftory of France. With the view of improving himfelf
in this ftudy, he travelled into different provinces 5 and,
in the courfe of his travels, made fome important ob-
fervations on the natural hiftory, the commerce, the
civil and ecclefiaftical government of each province.
Thefe obfervations were of great ufe to him in com¬
piling the works he has left behind him, of which the
chief are, 1. An Hiftorical and Geographical Deferip¬
tion of France ; the largeft edition of winch is that of
1753, in 15 vol. limo. ft is the beft work which
has hitherto appeared upon that fubje<ft, though it
contains a great number of inaccuracies and even er¬
rors. 2. A Defeription of Paris, in 10 vol. 12mo ;
a work, equally entertaining and inftru&ive, and much
more complete than the defeription given by Germain
Brice : belides, it is written with an elegant limplicity.
He publiflied an abridgment of it in 2 vol. i2mo. 3.
A Defcriptioa of the Caftle and Park of Verfailles,
Marly, &c. in 2 vol. i2tno: it is very amufirig, and
pretty well executed. Piganiol had alfb a concera
with Abbe Nadal in the Journal of Trevoux. He
died at Paris in February 1753, at the age of 80 years.
This learned man was as much to be refpefted for hia
manners as for his talents. To a profound and varied
knowledge
PIG [ 741 J PIG
Hgeon. knowledge he united great probity and honour, and
-"V all the politenefs of a courtier.
PIGEON, in ornithology. See Columba.
PiGucN-Houfe is a houfe erected full of holes within
for the keeping, breeding, &e. of pigeons, otherwife
called a dove cote.
Any lord of manor may build a pigeon-houfe on
his land, but a tenant cannot do it without the lord’s
licence. When perfons fhoot at or kill pigeons within
a certain diftance of the pigeoa-houfe, they are liable
to pay a forfeiture.
In order to ereft a pigeon-houfe to advantage, it
will be necefTary, in the firft place, to pitch upon a
convenient fituation ; of which none is more proper
than the middle of a fpacious court-yard, becaufe pi¬
geons are naturally of a timorous difpofition, and the
kail noife they hear frightens them. With regard to
the fize of the pigeon-houfe, it mull depend entirely
upon the number of birds intended to be kept; but it
is better to have it too large than too little j and-as to
its form, the round Ihould be preferred to the fquare
ones; becaufe rats c innot fo eafily come at them in
the former as in the latter. It is alfo much more com¬
modious ; becaufe you may, by means of a ladder turn¬
ing upon an axis, eafily vifit all the nefts in the houfe,
without the leaft difficulty; which cannot fo eafily be
done in a fquare houfe. In order to hinder rats from
climbing up the outfide of the pigeon-houfe, the wall
Ihould be covered with tin plates to a certain height,
about a foot and a half will be fufficient; but they
Ihould projeft out three or four inches at the top, to
prevent their clambering any higher.
The pigeon-houfe Ihould be placed at no great di-
flance from water, that the pigeons may carry it to
their young ones; and their carrying it in their bills
will warm it, and render it more wholefome in cold
weather. The boards that cover the pigeon-houfe
Ihould be well jained together, fo that no rain may
penetrate through it : and the whole building fhould
be covered with hard plafter, and white-walhed within
and without, white being the molt pleafing colour to
pigeons. There mull be no window, or other open¬
ing in the pigeon-houfe to the eaftward ; thefe Ihould
always face the fouth, for pigeons are very fond of the
fun, efpecially in winter.
The nefts or covers in a pigeon-houfe Ihould confift
of fquare holes made in the walls of a fize fufficient to
admit the cock and hen to Hand in them. The firft
range of thefe nefts Ihould not be kfs than four feet
from the ground, that the wall underneath being
fmooth, the rats may not be able to reach them. Thefe
ntfts Ihould be placed in quincunx order, and not di-
re&ly over one another. Nor mull they be continued
any higher than within three feet of the top of the
wall: and the upper row Ihould be covered with a
board projedling a confiderable diftance from the wall,
for fear the rats Ihould find means to climb the outfide
of the houfe.
M. Duhamel thinks that pigeons neither feed upon
the green corn, nor have bills ftrong enough to fearch
for its feeds in the earth ; but only pick up the grains
that are not covered, which would infallibly become
the prey of other animals, or be dried up by the fun.
“ From the time of the fprouting of the corn, fays he,
pigeons live chiefly upon-the feeds of wild uncultivated
plants, and therefore leflen confiderably the quantity Pigeon,
of weeds that would otherwife fpring up ; as will ap- v—■
pear from a juft eftimate of the quantity of grain ne.
ceflary to feed all the pigeons of a well ftocked dove-
houfe.,> But Mr Worlidge and Mr Lifle allege fadta
in fupport of the contrary opinion. The latter relates,
that a farmer in his neighbourhood allured him he had
known an acre fowed with peas, and rain coming on
fo that they could not be harrowed in, every pea was
fetched away in half a day’s time by pigeons: and
the former fays, “ It is to be obferved, that where the
flight of pigeons falls, there they fill themfelves and
away, and return again where they firft rofe, and fo
proceed over a whole piece of ground, if they like it.
Although you cannot perceive any grain above the
ground, they know how to find it. I have feen them
lie fo much upon a piece of about two or three acres
fown with peas, that they devoured at kaft three parts
in four of the feed, which, I am fure, could not be all
above the furface of the ground. That their fmeliing
is their principal dire&or, I have obferved; having
fown a fmall plat of peas in my garden, near a pigeon-
houfe, and covered them fo well that not a pea appear¬
ed above ground. In a few days, a parcel of pigeons
were hard at work in difeovering this hidden treafure 5
and in a few days more I had not above two or three
peas left out of about two quarts that were planted ; .
for what they could not find before, they found when
the buds appeared, notwithftanding they were hoed in,
and well covered. Their fmelling alone dire<fted them,
as I fuppofed, becaufe they followed the ranges exact¬
ly. The injury they do at harvelt on the-peas, vetches,
&c. is fuch that we may rank them among the great-
eft enemies the poor hulbandman meets withal; and
the greater, becaufe he may not ered a pigeon-houfe,
whereby to have a Ihare of his own fpoils; none but
the rich being allowed this privilege, and fo fevere a
law being alfo made to proted thefe winged thieves,
that a man cannot encounter them, even in defence of
his own property. You have therefore no remedy a-
gainft them, but to affright them away by noifes or
iuch like. You may, indeed, Ihoot at them ; but you
muft not kill them.? or you may, if you can, take them
in a net, cut off their tails, and let them go ; by which
means you will impound them : for when--they are in
their houfes, they cannot bolt or fly out of the tops of
them, but by thevftrength of their tails.; after the thus .
weakening of which, they remain prifoners at home.,,
Mr Worlidge’s impounding the pigeons reminds us *
of a humorous ftory of a;gentkman who, upon a neigh¬
bouring farmer’s complaining to him, that his pigeons
were a great nuifance to his land, and did fad mifehief
to his corn, replied jokingly, Pound them, if you catch
them trefpaffing. The farmer, improving the hint, .
iteeped a parcel of peas in an infufion of coculus indi-
cus, or fome other intoxicating drug, and ftrewed them -
upon his grounds. The pigeons fwallowed them, and -
foon remained motionlefa on the field: upon which the
farmer threw a net over them, inclofcd them in it, and
carried them to an empty barn, from whence he fent
the gentleman word that he had followed his direc¬
tions with regard to the pounding of his pigeons, and
defired him to come and releafe them.
Carrier-PiGEQN* See Carmek-Pigeon and Co-
LUMBA.
Pigeon
PIG
Wiomv (Peter Charles Francis), curate of St Pe¬
ter ^Regard, in the dioccfe of Bayeux, wsa one of
the priefts htely beloa >inpr to the kin/’e houfe at Win-
chefter. He was born in Lower Normandy, ofhoneft
and virtuous parents, and of a decent fortune. His
inclinations early ltd him to embrace the ecclefiallical
Hate, from which neither the felicitations of his friends,
nor the prof cedi of a more ample fortune on the death
of his elder brother, could withdraw him. Several of
his fchoolfellows and mailers, who are now refident in
the king’s houfe at Winchefter, bear the moll ample
teftimony to his affiduity, regularity, piety, and the
fweetnefs of his difpofition, during the whole courfe of
his education. The fweetnefs of temper, in particular,
was fo remarkable, and fo clearly depidfed on his coun¬
tenance, as to have gained him the efieein an i affec¬
tion of fuch cf the inhabitants of Winchefter as by any
means had become acquainted with him. He v/as fe-
ven years employed in quality of vicar, or, as we Ihould
call it, curate, of a large parifh in the diocefe of Seez,
where his virtues and trlenta had ample fcope for ex¬
ertion. His pradti-e was to rife at five o’clock every
morning, and to fpend the whole time till noon (the
ufualtimeof dining for perfons in his (lation) in prayer
and fludy. The reft of the day, till evening, he de¬
voted to vifiting the fkk, and other exterior duties of
his function. In 1789, the year of the French Revo¬
lution, M. Pigeon was promoted to a curacy, or rather
a redtory, in the diocefe of Bayeux, called the pari/h of
St Peter du Regard, near the town of Conde fur Noe-
reau. It was eafy for him to gain the good-will and
the protedTon of his parilhioners ; but a Jacobin club
in the above-mentioned town feemed to have no other
fubjedt to deliberate upon than the various ways cf ha-
rafling and perfecuting M. Pigeon and certain other
priefts in the neighbourhood, who had from motives
of confcience refufed the famous civic oath. It would
be tedious to relate the many cruelties which were at
different times exercifcd upon him, and the imminent
danger of lofing his life to which he was expofed, by
the blows that were infiifted cn him, by his being
thrown into water, and being obliged to wander in
woods and other foiitary places, without any food or
place to lay his head, in order to avoid his perfecutors.
We may form fome judgment of the fpiiit of his per¬
fecutors from the following circumftance. Being dif-
appointed on a particular occafion in the fearch they
were making after M. Pigeon, with the view of amu-
fing themftlves with his fufferings, they made them-
felves amends by feizing his mother, a refpc&able lady
of 74 years of age, and his two lifters, whom they
placed upon affes with their faces turned backwards,
obliging them in derifion to hold the tails of thefe ani¬
mals. Thus they were conduced in pain and igno¬
miny throughout the whole town of Conde, for no
other alleged crime except being the neareft relations
of M. Pigeon. At length the decree for tranfporting
all the ecclefinftics arrived ; and this gentleman, with
feveral others, after having been ftripped of all their
money, was fhipped from Port Beffin, and landed at
Portfmouth, where he was Ihortly after received into
the eftablilhment at Foxton, and, upon that being dif-
folved in order to make room for prifoners of war, into
the king’s houfe at Winchefter. Being of a ftudious
turn, he was accuftomed, as many of his brethren aifo
l 74* 3
PIG
were, to betake hin felf to the neighbouring lanes ftud
thickets for the fake of greater folitude. With this
view having about ten o’clock in the morning, Aug,
28.1793, retired to a certain little valley, on the north-
eaft fide of a place called Oram's Arbour, the fame
place where the county eleAions for Hampfhire are
held, he was there found, between three and four
o’clock in the afternoon, murdered, with the upper
part of his Ikull abfolutely broken from the lower part,
and a large hedge-ftake, covered with blood, lying by
him, as were the papers on which he had been tran-
feribing a manufenpt fermon, with the hearing of which
he had been much edified, and the fermon itfelf which
he was copying, together with his pen, imbrued in
blood. His watch was carried away, though part of
the chain, which had by fome means been broken, was
left behind. He was writing the word paradife, the
laft letters of which remained unwritten when the fatal
blow was given him, which appears evidently to have
been difeharged upon him from a gap in a hedge which
was immediately behind him. At firft the fufpicion
of this cruel murder fell upon the French democrats,
who, to the number of 20c, fare prifoners of war, at
the neighbouring town of A-lresford, as one of that
number, who had broken his parole, had, about three
weeks before, been taken up in Winchefter, and both
there and at Alresford had repeatedly threatened to
murder his uncle, a prieft, whom he underftood to be
then at Winchcfter, not without fervent wifhes of ha¬
ving it in his power to murder the whole eftabliihment,
ccnfifting of more than 600 perfons. However, as no
French prifoner was leen that day in the neighbour¬
hood of Winchefter, as none of them were known to
have left Altesford, it is evidently reafonable to ac-
quiefee in the verditt of the coroner ; namely, that the
murder was committel by a perfon or perfons un¬
known. The moll noble marquis of Bu kingham,
whofe munificence and kindnefis to thofe confeientioua
exiles, the emigrant French clergy, can only be con¬
ceived by thofe who have been witneffes of the fame,
with the truly refpt’Cla%le corps of the Buckingham-
(hire militia, then quartered at Wincheftef, joined in
paying the laft ma-k of refpedt to the unfortunate de-
ceafed, by attending his funeral, which was perform¬
ed at the Roman Catholic burying-ground, caljed Si
'James's, near the laid city, on Saturday, Auguft 29.
He was juft 38 years of age when he was murdered.
PIGMEN PS, preparations ufed by painters, dyers,
&c. to unpart colours to bodies, or to imitate particu¬
lar colours. See Colour-and Dyeing.
P1GNEROL is a town of Italy in the province of
Piedmont, in E Long. 7. 15. Lat 44. 45. fituated on
the river Chizon, 10 miles fouth-weft of 1'urin, at the
foot of the Alps, and the confines of Dauphiny. The
town is fmall, but populous, and extremely well forti¬
fied by the king of Sardinia, fince the treaty of U-
trecht. It is defended by a citadel, on the top of the
mountain, near which is the caftle of Peroufe, which
was built at the entnnee of the valley of that name.
PIGNUT, or Earthnut- See Bunium.
PIGUS, in ichthyology, is the name of a fpecies of
leather mouthed fifh, very much refembling the nature
of the common carp ; being of the fame fhape and frze,
and its eyes, fins, and flelhy palate, exa&ly the fame ;
from the gilU to the tailthere is a crooked dotted line;
> the
I
Pike.
P I K
Pi !j*Wretk the aai fsdes are bluiOi,
It is covered with targe fcaies; from the middfe of each
 . of wh'ch theri" fifes a fine, pellucid, prickle, which ia
very flyarp. It is an excellent fifh for the table, being
perhaps preferable to the carp : and it is in feafon in
the months of March and April. It is caught in lakes
jn ^ome parts of Italy, and is mentioned by Pliny, tho’
without a name. . Artedi fays it is a fpecies of cypri-
nus, and he calls it the cyprinus, called pick and pivus.
PI-HAHIROTH, (Mofes); underftood to be a
mouth or narrow pals between two mountains, called
Gbiroth, or Eiroth, and lying not far from the bottom
of the wefterm coaft of the Arabian gulf; before which
mouth the children of Ifrael encamped, juft before their
entering the Red Sea, (Wells).
PI1SSKER, in ichthyology, is a fifh of the muftela
kmd, commonly called the fojftie mujle/a, or fojji/e fijh.
They are generally found as long ?.s an ordinary man’s
hand is broad, and as thick as one’s finger ; but they
fometimes grow much longer: the hack is of grey with
a number of fpots and tranfverfe ftresks, partly black
and partly blue ; the belly is yellow, and fpotted with
red, white, and olack ; the white are tire larger, the
others look as if they were made with the point of a
needle ; and there is on each of the fides a longitudinal
black and white line. There are fome fleftiy excre-
icences at the mouth, which are expanded in fivim-
trung; and when out of the water, they are contradf-
ed. Thefe fifties' run into caverns of the earth, in the
fides of rivers, in marfhy places, and penetrate a great
way, and are often dug up at adiftance from waters.
Often, when the waters of brooks and rivers fwell be¬
yond their banks, and again cover them, they make
their way out of the earth into the water ; and when
Jt deferts them, they are often left in vaft numbers up¬
on the ground, and become a prey to fwine. It is
thought to be much of the fame kind with the fifgum
fifii ; and it is indeed peflibie that thepascilia of Schone-
feldt is the fame.
PIKE, in ichthyology. See Esox.
The pike never fwims in fhoals as moft other fifh do,
but always lies alone ; and is fo hold and ravenous, that
he^ will fefze upon almoft any thing Id's than himfelf.
Qf the ravenous nature of this fifh we ftinll give the
following inftances. At Rycott in Oxfordftiire, in the
year 1749, in a moat fnrrounding the earl of Abincr.
don’s feat, there was a jack or pike of fueh a moeftrous
iize, that it had defiroyed young fw^ns feathers ani
all. An old cobb fwan having hatched five young,
one after another was loft till four were gone. At
length an under gardener faw the fifh fei'/e the fifth.
The old one fought him with her beak, and with the
afliftance of the gardener, releafed it although he had
got it under water. In the year 1765 a targe pike
was caught in the river Ouze, which weighed upwards
of 28 pounds. and was fold for a guinea. On gutting
the fifh, a watch with a black ribbon and two fteel
feals were found in its ftomach, which, by the maker’s
name, &c. was found to belong to a perfon who had
been drowned about fix weeks before. This fifh breeds
but once in a year, which is in March. It is found
in almoft: all frefh waters; but is very different in
goodnefs, according to the nature of the places where
st lives. The fineft pike are thofe which feed in
clear rivers j thofe in ponds and meres are inferior to
r 743 j r 1 k
and the belly reddifh. thefe, and the worft of all are thofe of the fen ditches
They are very plentiful in thefe laft places, where the
water is foul and coloured ; and their food, fuch as
frogs and the like, very plentiful, but very coarfe ; fo
that they grow large, but are yellowifh end high bel.
ned, and differ greatly from thofe which live in the
clearer waters.
The nfhermen have two principal ways of catching
the pike ; by the ledger, and by the walking-bait.
1 he ledger-bait is fixed in one certain place, and
may continue while the angler is abfent. This muff be
a live bait, a fifii or frog: and among fifh, the dace,
roach, and gudgeon, are the heft:; of frogs, the only-
caution is to choofe the largeft and yellovveft that can
be met with. If the bait be a fifh, the hook is to be
ftuck through the upper lip, and the line muft be 14
yards at leaft: in length ; the other end of this is to be
tied to a bough of a tree, or to a flick driven into the
ground near the pike’s haunt, and all the line wound
round a forked flick, except about half a yard. The
bait will by this means keep playing fo much under wa«
ter, and the pike will foon lay hold of it.
If the bait be a frog, then the arming wire of the
hook fhould be put in at the mouth, and out at the
iu e ; and with a needle and fome flrong filk, the hia-
der-leg of one fide is to be faftened by one flitch to the
wire-arming of the hook. The pike will foon feize
this, and mull have line enough to give him leave ta
get to his haunt and poach thfc bait.
The trolling for pike is a pleafant method alfo of
taking them : in this a dead bait ferves, and none is fa
proper as a gudgeon.
I his is to be pulled about in the water till the pike
feizes it ; and then it is to have line enough, and time
to fwal’ow it: the hook is fmall for thisfport, and has
a fmooth piece of lead fixed at its end to fink the bait;
and the line is very long, and runs through a ring at
the end of the rod, which muff not be too flender at
top.
The art of feeding pike, fo as to make them very
fat, is the giving them eels; and without this it is not
to be done under a very long time; otherwife perch,
while fmall, and their prickly fins tender, are the beii
food for them. Bream put into a pike-pond are a very
proper food : they will breed freely, and their young
ones mnke excellent food for the pike, who will take
care that they ftiall not increafe over much. The ima
merous Ihoals of roaches and ruds, which are continu-
ruly changing place, and often in floods get into the
pike’s quarters, are food for them for along time.
Pike, when ufed to be fed by hand, will come up to
the very fhore, and take the food that is given them
cut of the fingers of the feeder. It is wonderful to-
fee with what courage they will do this, after a while
prahiding; and it is a very diverting fight when there
are feveial of tnem nearly of the fame fize, to fee what
flriving and fighting there will be for the Left bits
when they are thrown in. J he moil convenient place
is near the mouth of the pond, and where there ia
about haif a yard depth of water; for, by that means,
the offal of the feedings will all lie in one place, and
the deep water will ferve for a place to retire into and*
reft in, and will be always clean and in order.
Carp will be fed in the fame manner as pike; and
though by nature a fifh as remarkably % and timo-
4 JOUS
Tike,
.P'ke,
Pila.
P I L [ 744 1
row aa the pike ia bold and fearlefa, yet by cuftom name of pila.
they will come to take their food out of the perfon’s
hand ; and will, like the pike, quarrel among one ano¬
ther for the niceft bite.
Pike, in war, an offenfive weapon, confiding of a
wooden {haft, 12 or 14 feet long, with a flat fteel head,
pointed, called the /pear. This weapon was long in
mfe among the infantry ; but now the bayonet, which
is fixed on the muzzle of the firelock, is fubftituted in
'Its ftead. It is ftill ufed by fome of the officers of in¬
fantry, under the name of fponton. The Macedonian
phalanx was a battalion of pikemen. See Phalanx.
PILA marina, or the fea-bal/ in natural hiftory,
is the name of a fubdancc very common on the fhores
of the Mediterranean, and elfewhere. It is generally
found in the form of a ball about the frze of the balls
of horfe-dung, and compofed of a variety of fibrillae
irregularly complicated. Various eonjeftures have been
• given of its origin by different authors. John Bau-
inne tells us, - that it confifls of imall hairy fibres and
ftraws, fuch as are found about the fea plant called
alga vitriariorum ; but he does not afcertain what plant
it owes its origin to. Imperatus imagined it conlified
■of the exuviae both of vegetable and animal bodies.
Mercatus is doubtful whether it be a congeries of the
fibrillae of plants, wound up into a ball by the motion
of the fea water, or whether it be not the workman-
ihip of fome fort of beetle living about the fea fhore,
and analogous to our common dung beetle’s ball, which
it elaborates from dung for the reception of its pro¬
geny. Schreckius fays it is compofed of the filaments
of fome plant of the reed kind : and Welchins fup-
pofes it is compofed of the pappous part of the flowers
of the reed. Maurice Hoffman thinks it the excrement
of the hippopotamus ; and others think it that of the
phoca or fea calf. Klein, who had thoroughly and
minutely examined the bodies themfelves, and alfo
what authors had conje&ured concerning them, thinks
that they are wholly owing to, and entirely compofed
of, the capillaments which the leaves, growing to the
woody fbik of the alga vitriariorum, have when they
wither and decay. Thefe leaves, in their natural ftate,
are as thick as a wheat ftraw, and they are placed fo
thick about the tops and extremities of the Ilalks, that
they enfold, embrace, and lie over one another; and
from the middle of thefe clufters of leaves, and indeed
from the woody fubftance of the plant itfelf, there
arife feveral other very long, flat, fmooth, and brittle
leaves. Thefe are ufually four from each tuft of the
other leaves } and they have ever a common vagina,
which is membranaceous and very thin. This is the
flyle of the plant, and the pila marina appears to be a
duller of the fibres of the leaves of this plant, which
cover the whole ftalk, divided into their conilituent
fibres ; and by the motion of the waves firft broken
and worn into Ihort Ihreds, and afterwards wound up
together into a roundilh or longilh ball.
Pila, was a ball made in a different manner accord¬
ing to the different g mes in which it was to be ufed.
Playing at ball was very common amongft the Romans
of the firft niftin&ion, and was looked upon as a man¬
ly exercife, which contributed both to amufement and
health. The pifa was of four forts: ift, Follis or
balloon ; 2d, Pila Trigonalis ; 3d, Pila Paganica;
4th, Harpajlum. All thefe come under the general
3
Pilafter,
Pilate.
P I L
For the manner of playing with each
of them, fee the articles Follis, Trigonalis.
PILASTER, in archite&ure. See there, n°
5-0, &c.
PILATE, or Pontius Pilate, was governor of
Judea when our Lord was crucified. Of his family or
country we know but little, though it U believed that
he was of Rome, or at leaft of Italy. He was fent
to govern Judea in the room of Grains, in the year 26
or 27 of the vulgar era, and governed this province
for ten years, from the 12th or 13th year of Fiberiu*
to the 2 2d or 23d. He is reprefented both by Philo
and Jofephus as a man of an impetuous and obftinate
temper, and as a judge who ufed to fell juftice, and to
pronounce any fentence that was defined, provided
he was paid for it. The fame authors make mention of
his rapines, his injuries, his murders, the torments
that he infli&ed upon the innocent, and the perfon#
he put to death without any form of procefs. Philo, in
particular, deferibes him as a man that exercifed an ex-
celfive cruelty during the whole time of his government,
who difturbed the repofe of Judea, and gave occafios
to the troubles and revolt that followed after. St
Luke (xiii. 1, 2, &c.) acquaints us, that Pilate had
mingled the blood of the Galileans with their facri-
fices; and that the matter having been related to Jefus
Chrift, he faid, ^ Think you that thefe Galileans were
greater finners than other Galileans becaufe they fuf-
fejred this calamity. I tell you nay 1 and if you do not
repent, you (hall all perilh in like manner. It is un¬
known upon what occafion Pilate caufed thefe Gali¬
leans to be flain in the temple while they were f«cri-
ficing ; for this is the meaning of that exprefilon of
mingling their blood with their facrifices. Some think
they were difciples of Judas the Gaulonite, who
taught that the Jews ought not to pay tribute to fo¬
reign princes ; and that Pilate had put fome of them
to death even in the temple; but there is no proof of
this fa&. Others think that thefe Galileans were Sa¬
maritans, whom Pilate cut to pieces in the village of
Tirataba f, as they were preparing to go up to mount [Jofepb.
Gerizim, where a certain impoftor had promifed to Ant.\ib.\l,
difeover treafures to them ; but this event did not hap- c- 5*
pen before the year 35 of the common era, and con.
fequently two years after the death of Jefus Chrift.
At the time of our Saviour’s pafiion, Pilate made
fome endeavours to deliver him out of the hands of the
Jews. He knew they had delivered him up, and pur-
fued his life with fo much violence, only out of malice
and envy (Matt, xxvii. 18.) His wife alfo, who had
been difturbed the night before with frightful dreams,
fent to tell him Ihe defired him not to meddle in the
affair of that juft perfon (ib. 19.) He attempted to
appeafe the wrath of the Jews, and to give them fome
fatisfaftion, by whipping Jefus Chrift (John xix. 1.
Matth. xxvii. 26.) He tried to take him out of their
hands, by propofing to deliver him or Barabbas, on the
day of tlie feftival of the paffover. Laftly, he had a
mind to difeharge himfelf from pronouncing judgment
againft him, by fending him to Herod king of Gali¬
lee (Luke xxiii. 7, 8.) When be faw all this would
not fatisfy the Jews, and that they even threatened
him in fome manner, faying he could be no friend to
the emperor if he let him go (John xix. 12, 15.), he
caufed water to be brought, walhed his hands before
all
Pi'
au the people, and publicly declared himfelf innocent
of the blood of that juft perfon (Matt, xxvii. 23, 24.)}
yet at the fame time he delivered him up to his foldiers,
-that they might crucify him. This was enough to
juftify Jefus Chrift, as Calmet obferves, and to fhow
that he held him as innocent; but it was not enough to
vindicate the confcience and integrity of a judge, whofe
duty it was as well to affert the caufc of oppreffed inno¬
cence as to punifh the guilty and criminal. He ordered
to be put over our Saviour’s crofs, as it were, an abftraft
of his fentence, and the motive of his condemnation
(John xix. i9.), Jefus of Nazafeth, king of the Jews,
which was written in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
Some of the Jews found fault with it, and remonftrated
to Pilate that he ought to have written Jefus of Na¬
zareth, who pretended to he king of-the Jews'1. But Pi¬
late could not be prevailed with to alter it, and gave
them this peremptory anfwer, That what he had written
he had written.
Towards evening, he was applied to for leave to
take down the bodies from the crofs, that they might
not continue there the following day, which was the
paffover and the fabbath-day (John xix. 31.) This he
allowed, and granted the body of Jefus' to Jofeph of
■Arimathea, that he might pay his laft duties to it,
(ib. 33.) La Illy, when the prieits, who had folicit-
ed the death of our Saviour, came to defire him to fet
a watch about the fepulchre, for fear his difciples
ftiould fteal him away by night, he anfwered them, that
they had a guard, and might place them there them-
felves (Matt, xxvii. 65.) This is the fubftance of what
the gofpel tells us concerning Pilate.
Juftin Martyr, T ertullian*, Eufebius, and after them
feveral others both ancient and modern, allure us, that
it was formerly the cuftom for Roman magiftrates to
prepare copies of all verbal proceffes and judicial a&s
wrhich they palled in their feveral provinces, and to
fend them to the emperor. And Pilate, in compliance
to this cuftom, having fent word to Tiberius of what
had paded relating to Jefus Chrift, the emperor wrote
an account of it to the fenate, in a manner that gave
reafon to judge that he thought favourably of the re¬
ligion of Jefus Chrift, and Ihowed that he ftiould be
willing they would decree divine honours to him. But
the fenate was not of the fame opinion, and fo the
matter was dropped. It appears by what Juftin fays
of thefe a&s, that the miracles of Jefus Chrift were
mentioned there, and even that the foldiers had divided
his garments among them, Eufebius infinuates that
they fpoke of his refurredtion and afcenlion. Tertul-
lian and Juftin refer to thefe adds with fo much confi¬
dence as would make one believe they had them in their
bands. However, neither Eufebius nor St Jerome,
who were both inquifitive, underllanding perfons, nor
any other author that wrote afterwards, feem to have
feen them, at kail not the true and original adls; for
as to what we have now in great number, they are not
authentic, being neither ancient nor uniform. There
are aifo fome pretended letters of Pilate to Tiberius,
giving a hillory of our Saviour, but they are univer-
fally allowed to be'fpurious.
Pilate being a man that, by his exceffive cruelties
and rapine, had difturbed the peace of Judea during
the whole t me of his government, was at length de-
pofed by Vitellius the proconful of Syria# in the 36th
Vol. XIV. Part II. ' ^
Pilatre,
Pilchard.
year of Jefus Chrift, and fent to Rome to give an ac*
count of his condudl to the emperor. But though Ti¬
berius died before Pilate arrived at Rome, yet his fuc-
ceffor Caligula banilhed him to Vienne in Gaul, where
he was reduced to fuch extremity that he killed himfelf
with his own hands. The evangelifls call him governor,
though in reality he was no more than procurator of
Judea, not only becaufe governor was a name of gene¬
ral ufe, but becaufe Pilate in effeft afted as one, by-
taking upon him to judge in criminal matters; as his
predeceffors had done, and other procurators in the
fmall provinces of the empire where there was no
proconful, conflantly did. See Calmeds DiBionary
£chtrd’s Ecclefaftical Hijlory, and Beaufobre’s Annot. *
. With regard to Pilate’s wife, the general tradition
is, that fte was named Claudia Procula or Profcula ;
and in relation to her dream, fome are of opinion that
as Ihe had intelligence of our Lord’s apprehenfion, and
knew by his character that he was a righteous perfon,
her imagination, being ftruck with thefe ideas, did na¬
turally produce the dream we read of; but others think
that this dream was fent providentially upon her, far
the clearer matiifeftation of our Lord’s innocence.
I iLAl RE du Rosier (Francis), was born at
Metz the 30th of March 175b- He was firft appren¬
tice to an apothecary there, and afterwards went to
Paris in queft of farther improvement. He applied
himfelf to the ftudy of natural hiflory and of natural phi-
lofophy, and had already acquired fome reputation,
when the difeovery of M. de Montgolfier had juft afto-
mfhed the learned world. On the 25th of Oaober
1783, he attempted an aerial voyage with the Marquis
of Arlande. . He performed feveral other excurfions
m this way with brilliant fuccefs, in the prefence of the
royal family of France, of the king of Sweden, and
of Prince Henry of Pruflia. He then refolved to pak
into England by means of his aerial vehicle, and
for that purpofe he repaired to Boulogne, whence he
rofe about 7 o’clock in the morning of the lyth June
1785; but in half an hour after he fet out, the balloon
took hre, and the aeronaut, with his companion M.
Romaine, were crufhed to death by the fall of that ma¬
chine, which was more ingenious, perhaps, than ufe-
ful*. Pilatre’s foeial virtues and courage, which were * See Aero*
very diftinguifhed, heightened the regret of his friends-M™.
for his lofs. His merit as a chemift, and his experi-nC34“
ments as an aeronaut, procured him fome pecuniary
reward, and fome public appointments. He had a
penfion from the King, was intendant of Monlieur’u
cabinets of natural philofophy, chemiftry, and natural
hiftory, profeftor of natural philofophy, a member of
feveral academies, and principal diie&or of Monfieur’a
mufeum.
PILCHARD, m ichthyology, a fifh which has a
general likenefs to the herring, but difters in fome par¬
ticulars very efl'entid. The body of the pilchard is left
oomprefted than that of the herring, being thicker and
rounder: the nofe is fhorter in proportion, apd turns
up ; the under jaw is ftiorter. The back is more ele¬
vated the belly left fharp. The dorfal fin of the pil¬
chard is placed exaftly in the centre of gravity, fo that
when taken up by it, the body preferves an equilibri¬
um, whereas that of the herring dips at the head. The
feales of-the pilchard adhere very clofely, whereas
thofe of the .herring .very eafily drop off. The pil-
.5 & chard
P I L [ 746 ] P I L
fi chird, chard is in general lefs than the herring ; but it is fat-
ter, or more full of oil.
Yhe pilchard appears in vail (hoals off the Cornilh
eoftfta about the middle of July, difappearing the bc-
ginninjf of winter, yet fometimes a few return again
after Chriftmas. Their winter retreat is the fame with
that of the herring, and their motives for migrating
4See Clu- the fame f. They affe&, during fummer, a warmer la-
fu*. titude ; for they are not found in any quantities on
any of our coalts except thofe of Cornwall, that is to
fay, from Fowey harbour to the Scilly ides, between
which places the fhoals keep fh'fting for fome weeks.
The approach of the pilchard is known by much the
fame fi-rns as thofe that indicate the arrival of the her¬
ring. Perfons, called in Cornwall huers, are placed on
the cliffs, to point to the boats ffationed off the land
the courfe of the fifh. By the iff of James I. c. 23,
iifhermen are empowered to go on the grounds of others
to hue, without being liable to aiiions of trefpafs,
which before occaftoned frequent law-fuits.
The emoluments that accrue to the inhabitants of
that county are great, and are bell expreffed in the
words of Dr W. Borlafe, in his Account of the Pil¬
chard Fijhery. ‘‘ It employs a great number of men
on the fea, training them thereby to naval affairs ; em¬
ploys men, women, and children, at land, in faking,
preffing, walking, and cleaning, in making boats, nets,
ropes, calks, and all the trades depending on their con-
ftruftion and falc. The poor is fed with the offals of
the captures ; the land with the refufe of the filh and
fait ; the merchant finds the gains of commiflion and
honeft commerce ; the filherman, the gains of the
filh. Ships are often freighted hither with fait, and
into foreign countries with the filh, carrying off at
the fame time part of our tin. The ufual num¬
ber of hoglheads of filh exported each year, for
ten years, from 1747 to 1756 inclufive, from the
four ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St
Ives, in all amounts to 29,794; fince it appears
that Fowey has exported yearly 1732 hoglheads;
Falmouth, 14,631 hoglheads and two-tbirds ; Pen¬
zance and Mounts-Bay, 12,149 hogflieads and one-
third; St Tvea, 1282 hoglheads. Every hoglhead for
ten years lalt paid, together with the bounty allowed
for each when exported, and the oil made out of each,
has amounted, one year with another at an average,
to the price of L. 1 : 1 3 :3 ; fo that the cafh paid for
pilchards exported has, at a medium, annually amount¬
ed to the film of L. 49,532, 10 s.” The numbers
that are taken at one Ihooting out of the nets is ama¬
zingly great. Mr Pennant fays, that Dr Borlafe af-
fured him, that on the 5th of Odlober 1767, there
were at onetime inclofed in St Ives’s Bay jooo hogs¬
heads, each hoglhead containing 35,000 filh, in all
245,000,000.
PILE, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a wedge,
contrafting from the chief, and terminating in a point
towards the bottom of the Ihield.
Pile, among the Greeks and Romans, was a pyra¬
mid built of wood, whereon were laid the bodies of
the deceafed to be burnt. It was partly in the form
of an altar, and differed in height according to the
quality of the perfon to be confumed. Probably it
might originally be cenfidered as an altar, on which
the dead were confumed as a burnt-offering to the in¬
fernal deities. The trees made ufe of in the ereftion
of a funeral pile were fuch as abounded in pitch or
rofin, as being moft combuftible; if they ufed any
other wood, it was fplit that it might the more eafily
catch fire. Round the pile were placed cyprefs boughs
to hinder the noifome fmell. See Funeral.
Pile, in building, is ufcd for a large itake rammed
into the ground in the bottom of rivers, or in marihy
land, fora foundation to build upon.
Pile is alfo ufed among architects for a mafs of build¬
ing-
Pile, in coinage, denotes a kind of puncheon, which,
in the old way of coining with the hammer, contained
the arms or other figure and infcription to be ftruck
on the coin. See Coinage.
Accordingly we Hill call the arms-fide of a piece of
money the pile, and the head the crofs; becaufe in an¬
cient coin, a crofs ufually took tlie place of the head
in ours.
PiLE-Engine, a very curious machine invented by
Mr Vauloue for driving the piles of Weftminfter-bridge.
It is reprefented Plate CCCXCIII. A is a great
upright fhaft or axle, on which are the great wheel B,
and the drum C, turned by horfes joined to the bara
S, S. The wheel B turns the trundle X, on the top
of whofe axis is the fly O, which ferves to regulate the
motion, and alfo to aft again!! the horfes, and to keep
them from falling when the heavy ram QJs difeharged
to drive the pile P down into the mud in the bottom
of the river. The drum C is loofe upon the (haft A,
but is locked to the wheel B by the bolt Y. On this
drum the great rope HH is wound ; one end of the
rope being fixed to the drum, and the other to the fol¬
lower G, to which it is conveyed over the pulleys 1 and
K. In the follower G is contained the tongs F, that
takes held of the ram QJby the ftaple R, for drawing
it up. D is a fpiral or fufy fixed to the drum, on which
is wound the fmall rope T that goes over the pulley U»
under the pulley V, and is faftened to the top of the
frame at 7. To the pulley-block V is hung the conn-
terpoife W, which hinders the follower T from acce¬
lerating as it goes down to take hold of the ram ; for
as the follower tends to acquire velocity in its defeent,.
the line T winds downwards upon the fufy, on a larger
and larger radius, by which means the counterpoifc W
afts ftronger and ftronger againft it; and fo allows it
to come down with only a moderate and uniform velo-
city. The bolt Y locks the drum to the great wheel,
being pufhed upward by the fmall lever 2, which goes
through a mortife in the fhaft A, turns upon a pin in
the bar 3, fixed to the great wheel B, and has a weight
4, which always tends to pu(h up the bolt Y through
the wheel into the drum. L is the great lever turning
on the axis m, and refting upon the forcing bar 5,5,
which goes through a hollow in the Ihaft A, and bears
up the little lever 2.
By the horfes going round, the great rope H is
wound about the drum C, and the ram QJs drawn up
by the tongs F in the follower G, until the tongs come
between the inclined planes F; which, by fhutting the
tongs at the top, opens it at the foot, and difeharges
the ram which falls down between the guides h b upon
the pile P, and drives it by a few ftrokes as far into the
mud as it will go; after which, the top part is fawed
off clofc to the mud by an engine for that purpofe.
Immediately
P I L
^PiJc. Immediately after the ram is difchirged
I 747 1 P I L
upon the follower G takesholdo'fth^opcs n ofwh'ch Uhf'tlJZJlr !*' ■ ^ th-3t p'^c
raife the end of the lever L, and catife its end N to de- W, Md mo.in^ Sal^lT T'^ ^
fcend and prefs down the forcing bar ; upon the little not come in conSft whl, th. .v..?.r'.*i°f .veloc‘,t)r ,caD'
lever 2, which) by pulhagdown the bolt Y, unlocks che
drum C from the great wheel B ; and then the follower
being at liberty, comes down by its own weight to the
ram; and the lower ends of the tongs flip over the
uaple R, and the weight of their heads caufes them to
tall outward, and fhut upon it. Then the weight 4
pufhes up the bolt Y into the drum, which locks it
to the great wheel, and fo the ram is drawn up as
before. r
As the follower come-down, it caufes the drum to
turn backward, and unwinds the rope from it, whilft
Ihe horfes, great wheel, trundle, and fly, go on with
an uninterrupted motion ; and as the drum is turning
backward, the counterpoife W is drawn up, and its
rope T wound upon the fpiral fufy D.
There are feveral holes in the under fide of the drum,
and the bolt Y always takes the firft one that it finds
when the drum flops by the falling of the follower up-
on the ram ; until which ftoppage the bolt has not time
to Hip into any of the holes.
This engine was placed upen a barge on the water,
and lo was eahly eonveyed to any place defired. The
ram was a ton weight; and the guides bb, by which it
was let fall, were 30 feet high.
1 ^ "evvxI"acjline for driving piles has been invented
lately by Mr S. Bunce of Kirby ttreet, Hatten ftreet,
London. It will drive a greater number of piles in a
given time than any other; and can he conftrmfled
more Amply to work by horfea than Mr Vaulouc’s
engine above defcribed.
rpvfMtt F,i?‘ ' and 2 rePrefent a and front feaion of the
X U machine. The chie.fPart9 are A> fi£- which are two
endlels ropes, or chain* connected by crofs piec«« of iron
B (fee fig. 2) correfponding with two crofs grooves cut
diametrically oppofite in the wheelC (fig. 1.), into which
they are received ; and by which i*neans the rope or
chain A is carried round. FHK is a fide-view of a
itrong wooden frame moveable on the axis H. D is a
wheel, over which the chain pafles and turns within at
the top ot the frame. It moves occafionally from F
to G upon the centre H, and is kept in the pofition
F by the weight I fixed to the end K. Fig. 3. L is the
iron ram, which is connedted with the crofc pieces by
the hook M. N is a cylindrical piece of wood fufpend-
cd at the hook at O, which by Aiding freely upon the
bar that conntdls the hook to the ram, always brings
the hook upright upon the chain when at the bottom
of the machine, in the pofition of GP. See fig. 1.
When the man at S turns the ufual crane-work, the
ram being connedled to the chain, and pafiitig between
the guides, is drawn up in. a perpendicular direction ;
and when it is near the top of the machine, the pro-
jeding bar Q_of the hook flrikes pgainfl a crofs piece of
wood at R (fig. 1.) ; and confequently difchargee the
ram, whilft the weight I of the moveable frame inftantly
dr;.ws the upper wheel into the pofition fhown at F,
and keeps the chain free of the ram in itsdefeent. The
hook, while defending, is prevented from catching
not come in contaa with the iron till it is at the hot-
tom and the ram flops. It then falls and again conned*
before °k ^ ^ Cha,n’ Which draWs U? the ram>
Mr *Bunce has made a model of this machine which
performs perfedly well; and he obferves, that, as the
,tbeftWhmmC uni*nterrupted, there appears
to be the leaft poffible time loft in the operation.
r Py*LEr~Wo™s' fre a kind of worms found in the piles
of the fea-dikes in Holland. They are of very various
fizes; for feme of the young ones are not above an inch
or two in length, while others have been found thirteen
or fourteen inches long. The heads of thefe crea¬
tures are coveted with two hard fhells or hemicrania 5
which together form a figure refembling an auirre;
and with which they bore the wood. The bell reme¬
dy againft them is, to perforate the pile with many
imad holes about an inch afunder; then it muft be
done over with a varnifn in the hotteft fun; and, while
the varnifh is hot, brick-duft muft be ftrewed over it t
and this being feveral time* repeated, the pile will be
covered with a ftrong cruft abfolutely impenetrable to
all infe&s.
PILES, in medicine, the fame with hemorrhoids,
oec Medicine, n° 240, &c.
PILEUS, in Roman antiquity, was the ordinary
cap or hat worn at public fhows and facrifices, and by
the freedmen. It was one of the common reward*
ailigntd to fuch gladiators as were Haves, in token of
their obtaining freedom.
f■Ranunculusfcari^ Lin.), the root.
I his is a very fmall plant, found in moift meadows and
by hedge fides. The roots conlift of flender fibres with
iome ittle tubercles among them, which are fuppofed to
relemble the hremorrhoids. From thence it has been
concluded, that this root muft needs be of wonderful
efficacy for the cure of that diftemper : to the tafte, it
is little other than mucilaginous ; and although ftili re¬
tained in feveral of the foreign pharmacopoeias, it is
hardly in ufe in this country.
PILGRIM, one who travels through foreign coun-
tries to vifit holy places, and to pay his devotion to the
reheks of dead faints. See Pilgrimage.
I he word is formed from the Flemifh prfgrim, or
I talian pelegnno, which fignifics the fame ; and thofe
originally from the Latm peregrinus, a “ ftranger or
traveller. ” &
1 1LGRIMAGE, a kind of religious dlfcipline,
which confifts m taking a journey to fome holy place
in order to adore the relicks of fome deceafed faint. Pil¬
grimages began to be made about the middle ages of
the church ; but they were moft in vogue after the
end of the 1 ith century, when every one was for vifit*
ing places of devotion, not excepting kings and princes
themlelvcs ; and even biftiops made no difficulty of be-
ing abfent from their churches on the fame account
I he places moft vifited were Jerufalem, Rome, Com*
poiteUa (a), and Tours; but the greateft numbers now
relort 16 Loretto, in order to vifit the chamber of the
5^2 tiefted
Pits
!! \
Piljjri-
muge.
CO It defer™ to be remarked here, that k the year 1428, under the re%n of VI. abundant7f i;.
cences
P I L [ 748 ] P I L
Pilcjri- blffTed virgin, in which ftie was born, and brought up
*iage. hgj. fon jefu8 till he was 12 years of age. For the
pilgrimage of the followers of Mahomet, fee Mahome¬
tanism, p. 465.
In every country where popery was eftablifhed, pil¬
grimages were common ; and in thofe countries which
are ftdl popidi, they continue. In England, the (hiine
of St Thomas 'a Becket was the chief refort of the
pious; and in Scotland, St Andrew’s; where, as tradi¬
tion informs us, was depofited a leg of the holy apoltle.
In Ireland they Rill continue; for, from the beginning
of May till the middle of Auguft every year, crowds
of popilh penitents from all parts of that country re¬
fort to an ifland near the centre of Lough-Jin, or White
Lake, in the county of Donnegal, to the amount of
3000 or 4000. Tbefe are moltly of the poorer fort,
and many of them are proxies for thofe who are richer;
feme of which, however, together with fome of the
priefts and bifhops on occafion, make their appearance
there. When the pilgrim comes within fight of the
holy lake, he mult uncover his hands and feet, and thua
walk to the water-fide, and is taken to the idand for
fixpence. Here there are two chapels and 15 other
houfes; to which arc added confefiionals, fo contrived,
that the prieft cannot fee the perfon confefiing. The
penance varies according to the circumttances of the
penitent; during the continuance of which (which is
fometimes three, fix, or nine days) he fubliits on oat¬
meal, fometimes made into bread. He traverfes lharp
Hones on h s 1 are knees or feet, and goes through a va¬
riety of other forms, paying fixpence at every different
confefiion. When afi is over, the prieft bores a gimblet-
hole through the pilgrim’s Raff near the top, in which
he faRens a crofs peg; gives him as many holy pebbles
out of the lake as he cares to carry away, for amulets
to be prefented to his friends, and lo difmifTes him, an
objedi of veneration to all other papiRs not thus initi¬
ated; who no fooner fee the pilgrim’s crofs in his hands,
than they kneel down to get his blefiing.
There are, however, other parts of Ireland facred to
extraordinary worship and pilgrimage ; and the num¬
ber of holy wells, and miraculous cures, &c. produced
by them, is very great. That fuch things Ihould exdR
in this enlightened age, and in aProteRant country,is in¬
deed Rrange ; but our wonder ceafes, when we reflcdl
that it is among the lo well, and perhaps the woril of the
people. They who carry external religion to an ex¬
treme, aftd place that confidence in ceremony which be¬
longs only to the fpirit ot it, are feldom diRinguilhed ei¬
ther for their wifdom or their virtue. We do not deny,
however, that they who carry matters to the other ex¬
treme, may be equally defiitute of real knowledge and
genuine morality.
I)r Johnfon, in his Rajelas, gives us fome obferva-
tions on pilgrimage, which are fo much to the purpofe,
that we think we cannot do better than lay them be- Pf’gri-
fore our readers. “ Pilgrimage (faid Imlac, into whofe
mouth the observations are put), like many other adts
of piety, may be reafonable or fuperRitious according _-v—
to the principles upon which it is performed. Long
journeys in fearch of truth are not commanded. Truth,
fuch as is necefiary to the regulation of life, is always
found where it is honefily fought: change of place is
no natural caufe of the increafe of piety, for it inevi¬
tably produces diffipation of mind. Yet fince men go
every day to view the fields where great adlions have
been performed, and return with flronger impreffions
of the event, curiofity of the fame kind may naturally
difpofe us to view that country whence our religion
had its beginning: and I believe no man furveys thofe
awful feenes without fome confirmation of holy refolu-
tions. That the Supreme Being mny be more eafily
propitiated in one place than in another, is the dream
of idle fuperfiition ; but that fome places may operate
upon our own minds in an uncommon manner, is an
opinion which hourly experience will jufiify. He who
fuppofes that his vices may be more fuccefsfully com¬
bated in PaleRine, will, perhaps, find himfelf miRaken;
yet he may go thither without folly : he who thinks
they will be more freely pardoned, diihonours at once
his reafon and religion.”
PILKINGTON (Lastitia), a famous poetical ge¬
nius, the daughter of Dr Van Lewin, a phylician of
Dublin, where fire was born in 1712 She was mar¬
ried very young to the Rev. Matthew Pilkington,a poet
alfo of no inconfiderable merit; and thefe two wits, as
is often the cafe, lived very unhappily together. They
were at length totally feparated, on the hufband acci¬
dentally difeovering a gentleman in her bedchamber at
two o’clock in the morning ; a circumRance which the
accounted for in a very unfadsfadlory manner. The
Rory is told at large in her Memoirs ; where the fays,
“ Lovers of learning, I am fure, will pardon me, as I
folemnly declare it was the attra&ive charms of a new
book, which the gentleman would not lend me, but
confented to Ray till 1 read it through, that was the
foie motive of my detaining him.” As there are
not wanting fome who form obje&icns to marrying
learned wives, the chance of fuch literary affigna-
tions may oerhaps be added to the liR of them. Af¬
ter this unlucky adventure, Mrs Pilkington came to
London ; and having recourfe to her pen for fubfiR-
ence, through the means of Colley Cibber, (he lived
fome time on the contributions of the great. She was
however thrown into the Marfhalfea for debt; and be¬
ing fet at liberty, opened a pamphlet (hop. She raifed
at length a handfome fnbfcription for her Memoirs;
which are written with great fprightlinefs and wit,
containing feveral entertaining anecdotes of dean Swift
with whom fire was intimate, as well as many pretty*
little
cences were granted from the crown of England to captains of Engliffi fhips, for carrying numbers of devont
perfons to the Ihrinfc of St James of CompoRelk in Spain ; provided, however, that thofe pilgrims Ihould firtt
take an oath not to take any thing prejudicial to England, nor to reveal any of its fecrets, nor to carry oat
with them any more gold or filver than what would be fufficient for their reafonable expences. In this year
there went out thither from England, on the faid pilgrimage, the following number of petfons. From Lon¬
don 280, BriRol 200, Weymouth 122, Dartmouth 90, Yarmouth 60, Jerfey 60, Plymouth 40, Exeter 303
poole 24, Ipfwich 20, in all 926 perfons.
P I' L [ 749
little pieces of her poetry. This ingenions but unhappy
woman is faid at lail to have killed herfelf with drink¬
ing at Dublin, in ty^o.
PILL, in pharmacy, a form of medicine refembling
a little ball, to he fwallowed whole; invented for fuch
as cannot take bitter and ill-tafted medicinal draughts;
as alio to keep in readinefs for occafional ufe without
decaying. See PnAkyiACY-fnclex.
PILLAR, in archite&ure. See Architecture.
Pillar, in the manege, is the centre of the ring, or
manege ground, round which a horfe turns, whether
there be a pillar in it or not. Befides this, there arc
pillars on the circumference or fides of the manege-
ground, placed at certain diftances, by two and two,
from whence they are called the two pillars, to di-
ftmguiih them from that of the centre. The ufe of
the pillar in the centre is for regulating the extent
or ground, that the manege upon the volts may be
performed with method and juilnefs, and that they
may work in a fquare, by rule and meafure, upon the
four lines of the volts; and alfo to break unruly high-
mettled horfes, without endangering the rider. The
two piliars are placed at the diftance of two or three
pai.es one from the other; and the horfe is put between
thofe, to teach him to rife before and yeik out behind,
and put him fell upon ruifed airs, See. either by the aids
or chaftifements.
Pompey’s Pillar. See Alfxandria, p. 393.
PILLARS, in antiquarian topography, are large
Angle Hones fet up perpendicularly. Thofe of them
whi#h are found in this country have been the work
of the Diuids ; hut as they are the moft frmple of all
monuments, they are unqueHionably more ancient than
druidifm itfelf. They were placed as memorials re¬
cording different events ; fuch as remarkable inllances
of God’s mercies, contra&s, fingular vidories, bound¬
aries, and fometimes fepnichres. Various inftances of
thde monuments ereded by the patriarchs occur in
the Old Teffament: fuch was that raifed by Jacob at
Lug, afterwards by him named Bethel; fuch alfo was
the piiiar placed by him over the grave of Rachel.
They were Hkewife marks of execrations and magical
talifmans.
Thtfe Hones, from having long been confidered as
objeds of veneration, at length were by the ignorant
and fuperllitious idolatroufly worfhipped; wherefore,
after the introdudion of Chriftianky, fome had croffes
cut on them, which was conlidered as fnatching them
from the fervice of the devil. Vulgar fuperftition of
a later date has led the common people to confider
them as perfons transformed into Hone for the punifh-
mentof fome crime, generally that of fabbath-breaking;
but this tale is not confined to fingle ftonec, but is told
alfo of whole circles: witnefs the monuments called
the burlers in Cornwall, an.l RollorickJlones in Warwick-
fh.re. The Erff are by the vulgar fuppofed t© have
been once men, and thus transformed as a puniihment
t@r playing on the Lord’s day at a game called hurling;
the latter, a pagan king and his army.
At Wiltqn, where the earl of Pembroke has a very
magnificent houfe, there is a pillar of one piece of
white Egyptian granite, which was brought from the
temple of Venus Genetrix at Rome, near 14 feet high
and 22 inches diameter, with an infeription to Affarte
•or Venus.
1 P I L .
PILLORY (collijlrigium, “ collum ffringens;”
pilloria, from the French pilleur, i. e. depeculator, or
pelori; derived from the Greek janua, a “ door,”
becaufe one Handing on the pillory puts his head as
it were through a door, and ’video), is an engine
made of wood to punish offenders, by expofing them to
public view, and rendering them infamous. There is a
fiatute of the pillory, 5 \ Hen. Hi. And by ffatute it is
appointed for bakers, foreffallers, and thofe who ufe
Life weights, perjury, forgery, &c. 3 Lift. 219. Lords
of leets are to have a pillory and tumbrel, or it will be
the caufe of forfeiture of the leet; and a village may be
bound by prefeription to provide a«pillory, &c. 2 Hawk,
L. C. 73.
PILOT, the officer who fuperintends the naviga¬
tion, either upon the fea-coaff or on the main ocean.
It is, however, more particularly applied by our mari¬
ners to the perfon charged with the direction of a fhip’a
courfe on or near the fea-coaff, and into the roads, bays,
rivers, havens, &c. within his refpe&ive diffridt
Pilots of flrips, taking upon them to conduct any
Ihip from Dover, &c. to any place up the river Thames,-,
are to be firff examined and approved by the maffer
and wardens of the fociety of Trinity Houfe, &c. or
fhall forfeit 10 1 for the firff offence, 20 1. for the fe-
cond, and 40 1. for every other offence; one moiety to
the informer, the other to the mafter and wardens; but
any mafter or mate of a (hip may pilot his own veflel.
up the river: and if any fhip be loft through the ne¬
gligence of any pilot, he fhall be for ever after difabled
to aft as a pilot. 3 Geo. I. c. 13. Alfo the lord-war¬
den of the cinque ports may make rules for the govern¬
ment of pilots, and order a fufficient number to ply at
La to conduft ffxipsup to the Thames: 7 Geo. 1. c. 2 r.
No perfon (hall aft as a pilot on the Thames, &c. (ex¬
cept in collier Ihips) without a licence from the mafter
and wardens of Trinity Houfe at Deptford, on pain of
forfeiting 201. And pilots are to be fubjeft to the go¬
vernment of that corporation ; and pay ancient dues,,
not exceeding 1 s. in the pound, out of wages, for the
ufe of the poor thereof. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 20.
By the former laws of France, no perfon could be
received as pilot till he had made feveral voyages and.
palled a ftrift examination ; and after that, on his re¬
turn in long voyages, he was obliged to lodge a copy-
of his journal in the admiralty ; and if a pilot occa-
fioned the lofs of a fhip, he had to pay 100 livres fine,
and to be for ever deprived of the exercife of pilotage j.
and if he did it defignediy, be punilhed with death.
Lex Mercat. 70 71.
The laws of Oleron ordain, That if any pilot defign¬
ediy ralfguide a Ihip,. that it may be call away, he %ll.
be put to a rigorous death, and hung in chains : and
if the lord of a place, where a firip be thus loft, abet
fuch villains in order to have a fhare of the wreck, he
fhall be apprehended, and all his goods forfeited for
the fatisfaftion of the perfons fuffering ; and his per¬
fon lhall be faftened to a ftake in the midft of his owtv
maniien, which, being fired on the four corners, lhall
be burned to the ground, and he with it. Leg,,01,
e. 25. And if the fault of a pilot be fo notorious, thac
the Ihip’s crew- fee an apparent wreck, they may lead
him to the hatches, and ftrike off his head ; but tha
common law dentes this ha tty execution: an ignorant
pilot
Pillory,
Pilot.
P I L [ 750 1 P I L
PiW* pilot Is fenteneei to pafs thrice under the (hip’s keel
^ py i-tw,8 0f Denmark. Lex Mercat. 70.
The regulations with regard to pilots in the royal
navy are as follow: “ The commanders of the king’s
(hips, in order to give all reafonable encouragement to
fo ufeful a body of men as pilcfts, and to remove all
their objections to his Majefty’a fervice, are ftriftly
charged to treat them with good ufage, and an equal
refpedt with warrant-officers.
The purfer of the (hip is always to have a fet of
bedding provided on board for the pilots; and the cap¬
tain is to order the boatfwain to fupply them with ham¬
mocks, and a convenient place to lie in, near their du¬
ty, and apart frolh the common men ; which bedding
and hammocks are to be returned when the pilots leave
the (hip.
“ A pilot, when conducing one of his Majefty’s
fh’ps in pilot water, (hall have the foie charge and com¬
mand of the (hip, and may give orders for (teering, fet-
ting, trimming, or furling the fails; tacking the (hip;
or whatever concerns the navigation : and the captain
is to cake care that all the officers and crew obey his
orders. But the captain is diligently to obferve the
conduft of the pilot; and if he judges him to behave fo
ill as to bring the (hip into danger, he may remove him
from the command and charge of the (hip, and take
fuch methods for her prefervation as (hall be judged
neceffary ; remarking upon the log book, the exaft
hour and time when the pilot was removed from his
office, and the reafons affigned for it.
“ Captains of the king’s (hips, employing pilots in
foreign parts of his majelly’s dominions, (hall, after
performance of the fervice, give a certificate thereof to
the pilot, which being produced to the proper naval
officer, he (hall caufe the fame to be immediately paid;
but if there be no naval-officer there, the captain of
his majefty’s fnip (hall pay him, and fend the proper
vouchers, with his bill, to the navy-board, in order to
be paid as bills of exchange.
“ Captains of his Majefty’s (hips, employing foreign
pilots to carry the (hips they command into or out ot
foreign ports, (hall pay them the rates due by the efta-
bliftiment or cuitom of the country, before they dif-
charge them; whofe receipts being duly vouched, and
fent, with a certificate of the fervice performed, to the
siavy-board, they (hall caufe them to be paid with the
fame exadtnefs as they do bills of exchange.” Regu¬
lations arid InJlruSions of the Sea-fervice, &c.
Pkte PiLOT-Fi/h, or Gajlerojieus Duftor, in ichthyology,
CCCXCII. js a fpecJeg 0f the gafterefteus, and is found in the
Mediterranean and in the Atlantic ocean, chiefly to-
w^de the equator. Cacefby, who gives a figure of it
in its natural lize, together with a (hort defeription,
calls it perca marina fefteria, or rudder-fifh. One of
them, which Gronovius deferibes, was about four inch¬
es in length, and its greateft breadth little more than
an inch: the head is about a third of the body, and
covered, excepting the fpace between the fnout and the
eye, with feales fcarcely perceptible, and covering one
another like tiles ; the iris of the eye is a filver grey ;
the jaws are of equal fize, and Furnifhed as well as the
pahte with fmall teeth difpofed in groups; there is
alfo a longitudinal row of teeth on the tongue. The
trunk of the pilot-fiih is oblong, a little rounded, but
it appears quadrangular towards the ta:l, becaufe at
this place the lines are thicker, and form a kind of Pilot,
membranaceous projedtien. The back fin is long, and Pilten’
furnifhed with faveil radii; on the fore-part of this fin
are three moveable prickles very (hott; the fins on the
breaft have each of them 20 radii, forked at their ex¬
tremity; the abdominal fins have fix; that of the anus
has 17 branches, of which the firft is longed ; this fin
is preceded by a fmall moveable prickle ; that of the
tail is thick, Urge, and forked. The pilot-fiffi is of a
brownifli colour, changing into gold; a tranfverfai
black belt erodes the head; a fecond pafles over the
body at the place of the breaft; a third near the move-
able prickles of the back ; three others near the re¬
gion of the anus; and a feventh at the fail.
Seafaring people obferve, that this fi(h frequently
accompanies their veflels; and as they fee it generally
towards the fore part of the (hip, they imagined that
it was guiding and tracing out the courfe of the vef-
fel, and hence it received the name olpilotfifh.
0(bec tells us, that they are (haped like thofe mack¬
erels which have a tranfverfai line acrofs the body.
“ Sailors (continues he) give them the name of pilots,
becaufe they clofely follow the dog-fith, fwimming in
great (hoals round it on all Tides. It is thought that
they point out fome prey to the dog-fiftr; and indeed
that fiih is very unwieldy. They are not only not
touched, but alfo preferved by it againft all their ene¬
mies Pfalm cvi. vet. 2. ‘ Who can utter the mighty
a£ts of the Lord ? Who can (how forth all hU praifeJ*
Thi: fcarce and remarkable fifh I had an opportunity
of deferibing : it is Scomber cceruleo-albus cingutis tranf-
verjis nigris fex, dorfo monopterygio. See the Memoirs
oj the Sauedi/h Academy of Sciences for the year i755»
vol. xvi. p. 71. of the Swedilh edition.”
It likewife follows the (hark, apparently for the
purpofe of devouring the remains of its prey. It is
pretended that it adds as its pilot. The manner in
which it attends the (hark, according to M. Dauben-
ton, may have given rife to this name. It is faid to
fwim t«.t the height of a foot and a half from the fnout
of this voracious animal, to foHow and imitate all its
movements, and to feize with addrefs every part of its
prey which the (hark allows to efcape, and which is
light enough to buoy up towards the furface of the
water. When the (hark, which has its mouth below,
tunas to feize any fifh, the pilot-fifli ftarts away; but
as foon as the (hark recovers his ordinary fituation, it
returns to its former place. Barbut informs us, that
thefe fifties propagate their fpecies like the (hark. He
adds- that in the gulph of Guinea thofe fifties follow
(hips for the fake of the offials and human excrements ;
and hence the Dutch give them the name of dung-jjjh.
It is remarkable, that though fo fmall they can keep
pace with (hips ia their fwifteft courfe.
PILTEN, a divilion of Courland, which lies in
Courland properly fo called, derives its name from the
ancient caftle or palace of Piiten, built by Valde-
mar II. king of Denmark about the year 1220, when he
founded a bifhop’s fee in this country for the more ef-
feddual converfion of its Pagan inhabitants. This di-
ftndt afterwards fueeeffively belonged to the Germans,
then again to the king of Denmark, the duke of Cour¬
land, and to Poland ; and by virtue ot the inftrumenfc
of regency drawn up for this diftndt in the year 1717,
the government is lodged in feven Polifh ienators or
coun.
Vilum,
Pimento
r„ . P 1 M r 7S1! 1 p I M
““"Si0'!’ “ aSPfal !k* .«»*' «»?• fpontaneoufly, having fUCc«dtd.
method of f r>rm i n re •* ** ‘ _ _ %
The bifhop of Samogitia alfo %le8 bimfelf bihop^f h*™8 fuccecdfed* The ufual Pi«e«^.
Pilten. 6 y 0p 0t mefho^ {or^nS a new p.mento plantfttion (in Ta-
The mod remarkable part of this diftrift is the pro- oromiat^V^‘ C 3 Roth'rt:< more than to ap- ia‘
montory of Domefnefs, which projefts northward mto of aPDlanrarPie<7 of,wood.^.nd» in the neighbourhood
the gulf of Livonia. From thi^cape a fand-iiank runs the t.tereT.t? are'fS’£ ™
woods of which being Wien, the trees are fuffered to
ST Tn^ gr°UrndFtm ^ becom^ rotten and
penlh. In the courfe of twelve months after the firft
fmmd’ abundanC.e of ynounS Pimento plants will be
found growing v.goroufly in all parts of the land be^
ing without doubt produced from ripe berries fcatter
ed there by the birds, while the fallen trees, &c afford
them both ffdter and (hade. At the end of two vtrs
it will be proper to give the land a thorough cleanfin-r
Imne"5 ^ Pirnent0 trCes as Lve a goo^d
appearance, which will then foon form fuch groves as
thofe I havn deferibed, »„d, exetpt perhapf forth’
tcrta°d“r.°r ' 5'ear’’ rCqUirc Very Httle attentim “f‘
“ Soon after the trees are in hloffom, the berries be
come fit for gathering; the fruit not being fuffered to
npen on the tree, as the pulp in that date, being rn0S
and glut,nous, is difficult to cure, and when d^y be
comes black and taftelefs. It is impoffibie, hovvever
°u ^ r,>C bern'e3 ^xing Jffh
1C^ Pnce ofTh^rntd^n^fi^^r" ^
It is gathered by the hand ; one labourer on the
b ‘ lUiS ^dpe a iana-hank runs
lour German miles farther into the fea, half of which
lies under water, and cannot be difeerned. To the
eaft of this promontory is an unfathomable ahyfs, which
is never obferved to be agitated. For the fafety’of vef-
fels bound to Livonia, two fquare beacons have been
erefted on the coalt, near Domefnefs church, oppofite
to the fand bank,, and facing each other. One of thefe
3S twelve fathoms high, and the other eight; and a
large fire is kept burning on them from the firft of Au-
guft ..o the firft of January. When the mariners fee
theie fires appear as one in a direft line, they may
conclude that they are clear of the extremity of the
fand bank, and confequently out of danger^ but if they
iee both beacons, they are in danger of runn ng upon
U. The diftrid of Pilten contains feven panfties, but
no towns worthy of notice. The inhabitants are chief¬
ly of the Lutheran perfuafion.
P1LUM, a miffive weapon ufed by the Roman fol-
diers, and in a charge darted upon the enemy. Its
point, we are told by Polybius, was fo long and fmall,
that after the firft difeharge it was generally fo bent as
to be_ ren 'ered ufelefs. The legionary foldiers made
ule^ol the pilum, and each man carried two. The pilum
unc erwent many alterations and improvements, info
much that it is jmpoffiUe with any precifion to deferibe
it. Julius Scahger laboured much to give an accurate
account of it, and would have efteemed fuccefs on this
' herd amongft the greateft bleffings of his life. This
weapon appears, howt-ver, to have been fometimes
round, but moft commonly fquare, to have been two
cubits long in the ftaff, and to have had an iron point
of the fame length hooked and jagged at the end. Ma¬
ntis made a material improvement in it;, for during the
CimBrian war, he (b contrived it* that when it ftnek
m the enemies ffiield it ffiould bend down in an angle
in the part where the wood was conneifted with the
iron, and thus become ufflefs to the perfon who re¬
ceived it.
PIMENTO, or, as Mr Edward writes, Piemento,
in botany, or Jamaica pepper, or Jill pice, a fpeciesof
the myrtus. See Myrtus.
“ I^e pimento trees grow fpontaneoufty, and in
great abundance, in many parts of Jamaica, but more
particularly on hilly fitnations near the fea, on the
northern fide of that iflandwh ;re they form the
moft delicious groves that can poffibly be imagined ;
filling the air with fragrance, and giving reality, tho’
in a very diftant part of the globe, to our great poet’s
ctkription of thofe balmy gales which convey to the
delighted voyager
‘ Sabean odours from the fpicy (here
‘ Of Araby the bleft.
‘ Chear’d with the grateful fmell, old ocean rmiles.*
“ This tree is purely a child of nature, and feems to
mock all the hbours of man in his endeavours to ex¬
tend or improve its growth : not one attempt in fifty
to propagate the young plants, or to raife them from
the feeds, in parts of the country where it is not found
, , . - — , uuc idoourer on the
tree, employed in gathering the fmall branches will
give employment to three below (who are generally
women and children) in picking the berries; and Z
induftrmus picker will fill a bag of yolbs. in the day
feafn returns from a pimento wallc in a favourable
fo v,d -r' Lr m'S'7k A fi"8le tree hM known
to yield f 50 lbs. of the raw fruit, or one cwt. of the
dried fpice; there being commonly a lofs in weight of
one third in curing ; but this, like many other of the
-nor produaions, is exceedingly uncertain, and per-
yeaL” ^ pIente°US croP °^ur* but once in five
PIMPINELLA, burnet saxifrage ; ?. genus of
DLnfsgyTt°rde,> rC Onging t0 thc Pentandria cl; fs of
of w Lh f ' "ri Cn rpeC,eR; the moft remarkable.
of which are, t. The major, or greater burnet faxifrage
^growing naturally m chalky woods, and on the fides^of
ti e banks near hedges, in feveral parts of England
I he lower leaves or this fort are winged; the lobes are
deeply fawed on the,redoes, and fitclofe to the midrib
of a dark green. 1 he ftalks are more than a fqot hiod/
dmeng into, four or five branches. The lower parfof
theftalk isgarniffied with winged leaves, ffiaped like
hofe at the bottom, but fmailer : thofe upon the
branches are ffiort and trifid ; the branches are ter mi!
r.ared by fmall umbels of white flowers, which are com-
poied of fmaller umbels or rays. The flowers have five
hemt ffiaped petals, which turn inward, and are fuc-
^edcd b^two narrow> oblong, channelled feeds.
2. I he amfum, or common amfe, is an annunl plants
M U grZ‘ ”atU7 y in ^rpt ; but i» cultivated in
Malta and Spain, from whence the feeds are annually
imported into Britain. The lower leaves of this plant
are divided into three lobes, which are deeply cut on
their edges , the ftnlk nfes a foot and a half high, di¬
viding into feveral (lender tranches, garniihed with
aarrow
P I N
[ 752 3
P I N
Pin.
Pimpine’la narrow leaves, cut into three or four narrow fegments,
terminated by pretty large loofe umbels, compofed of
fmaller umbels or rays, which Hand on pretty long
footftalks. The flowers are fmall, and of a yellowifli
white ; the feeds are oblong and fwelling.—The for¬
mer fpecies requires no culture ; the latter is too ten¬
der to be cultivated for profit in this country. How¬
ever, the feeds will come up if fown in the beginning
of April upon a warm border. When they come up,
they fhould be thinned, and kept clear of weeds, which
is.all the culture they require.
Ufes. Both thefe fpecies are ufed in medicine. The
roots of pimpinella have a grateful, warm, very pun¬
gent tafte, which is entirely extracted by redlified fpi-
rit: in diftillation the menftruum arifes, leaving all
that it had taken up from the root united into a pun¬
gent aromatic refin. This root promifes, from its
fenfible qualities, to be a medicine of confiderable uti¬
lity, though little regarded in common pradlice : the
only officinal compofuion in which it is an ingredient
is rhe pulvis an compojitus. Stahl, Hoffman, and other
German phyficians, are extremely fond of it} and re¬
commend it as an excellent ftomachic, refolvent, deter¬
gent, diuretic, diaphoretic, and alexipharmac. They
frequently gave it, and not without fuccefs, in fcorbu-
tic and cutaneous diforders, foulnefs of the blood and
juices, tumors and obllrudtions of the glands, and dif-
eafes proceeding from a deficiency of the fluid fecre-
tions in general. Boerhaave diretts the ufe of this
medicine in afthmatic and hydropic cafes, where the
ilrongeft refolvents are indicated : the form he prefers
is a watery infufion; but the fpirituous tinfture pof-
fefies the virtues of the root in much greater perfec¬
tion.
Anifeeds have an aromatic fmell, and a pleafant
warm tafte, accompanied with a degree of fweetnefs.
Water extracts very little of their flavour ; rectified
fpirit the whole.
Thefe feeds are in the number of the four greater
hot feeds : their principal ufe is ;n cold flatulent dif¬
orders, where tenacious phlegm abounds, and in the
gripes to which young children Ere fubject. Frederic
Hoffman ftrongly reeommmends them in weaknefs of
the ftornnch, diarrhoeas, and for ftrengthening the tone
of the vifeera in general; and thinks they well deferve
. the appell ition given them by Helmont, intejlinurum fo-
/amen. The fmaller kind of anileeds brought from
Spain are preferred.
PIMPLE, in medicine, a fmall puftule arifing on
the face. By mixing equal quantities of the juice of
houfe leek, feclum minus, pafTed through paper, and of
fpirit of wine rectified by itfelf, a white coagulum of a
very volatile nature is formed, w hich Hr Bughart com¬
mends for curing pimples of the face ; and fays, that
the thin liquor feparated
an excellent remedy for
breaft.
PIN, in commerce, a little neceffary inftrument
made of brafs-wire, chiefly ufed by women in adjuft-
ing their drefs.
In the year 1543, by ftatute 34 and 35 of Hen¬
ry VIII. cap. vi. it was enafted, “ That no perlbn
ftrall put to falc any pinnes but only fuch as fhall be
double headed, and have the heads foldered faft to the
ihank of the pins, well fmxt ed, the fl ank ved-fha-
i'rom it with fugarcandy is
thick vifeid phlegm in the
pen, the points well and round filed, canted, #nd lharp*
cned.” From the above extrad. it fltould appear that w
the art of pin-making was but of late invention, pro¬
bably introduced from France; and that our manufac¬
tories fmee that period have wonderfully improved.
Though pins are apparently fimple, their manufac¬
ture is, however, not a little curious and complex. We
fhall therefore give our readers an account of it from
Ellis’s Campagna of London.
“ When the brafs-wire, of which the pins are form¬
ed, is firft received at the manufaftory, it is generally
too thick for the purpofe of being cut into pins. The
firft operation therefore is that of winding it off from
one wheel to another with great velocity, and caufing
it to pafs between the two, through a circle in a piece
of iron of fmnlier diameter : the wire being thus redu¬
ced to its proper dimenfions, is ftraitened by drawing
it between iron pins, fixed in a board in a zig-zag
manner, but fo as to leave a ftraight UneLetween them:
afterwards it is cut into lengths of three or four yards,
and then into fmaller ones, every length being fufficient
to make fix pins ; each end of thefe is ground to a
point, which was pet formed when I viewed the manu-
taftory by boys who fat each with two fmall grinding
ftones before him, turned by a wheel. Taking up a
handful, he applies the ends to the coarfeft of the two
Hones, being careful at the fame time to keep each
piece moving round between his fingers, fo that the
points may not become flat: he then gives them a
fmoother and (harper point, by applying them to the
other (tone, and by that means a lad of 12 or 14 years
of age is enabled to point about 16,000 pins in an
hour. When the wire is thus pointed, a pin is taken
off from each end, and this is repeated till it is cut in¬
to fix pieces. The next operation is that of forming
the heads, or, as they term it, head-fpinning ; which is
done by means of a fpinning-wheel, one piece of wire
being thus with aftonifhing rapidity wound round an¬
other, and the interior one being drawn out, leaves a
hollow tube between the circumvolutions: it is then
cut with fheers ; every two circumvolutions or turns
of the wire forming one head; thefe are foftened by
throwing them into iron pans, and placing them in a
furnace till they are red-hot. As foon as they are
cold, they are diftributed to children, who fit with
anvils and hammers before them, which they work
with their feet, by means of a lathe, and taking
up one of the lengths, they thruft the blunt end
into a quantity of the heads which lie before them,
and catching one at the extremity, they apply them
immediately to the anvil and hammer, and by a
motion or two of the foot, the point and the
head are fixed together in much lefs time than it
can be deferibed, and with a dexterity only to be
acquired by pra&ice ; the fpe&ator being in con¬
tinual apprehenfion for the fafety of their fingers
ends. The pin is now finifhed as to its form, but lull
it is merely brafs; it is therefore thrown into a cop¬
per, containing a folution ot tin and the leys of wine.
Here it remains for fame time ; and when t iken out
affumes a white though dull appearance : in order
therefore to give it a polifti, it is put into a tub con¬
taining a quantity of bran, which is fet in motion by
turning a ihaft that runs through its centre, and thus
by means of friction it becomes pafe&ly bright. Hie
pin
Knacfa
P 1 N [
pm being1 complete, nothing remains but to feparate it
Pindar. J,™”? the !:)I'an> ^bich is performed by a mode exadllv
  limner t O 1f* n; i n n rv rr* t r» ^ ~ I ^ .
'   ,1 uy * luoue exactly
— ’'77 to the winnowing of corn ; the bran flying off
and leaving the pin behind fit for immediate fa!e. I
was the more plenfed with this manufaftory, as it an
peared to afford employment to a number of chil ’ren
or both fexes, v^ho are thug not only prevented from
acquiring the habits of i lenefs and vice, but are on
the contrary initiated in their early years in thofe of a
beneficial and virtuous induftry.” vSee Needles.
PINA CIA, among the Athenians, were tablets of
brafs mferibed w-th the names of all thofe citizens in
each tribe who were duly qualified and willing to be
judges of the court of Areopagus. Thefe tablets were
raft into a veffel provided for the purpofe, and the
fame number °f beans, an hundred being white and
a.l the reft black, were thrown into another. Then
the names of the candidates and the beans were drawn
out one 1 y one, and they whofe names were drawn
out together with the white beans were elected judges
or fenators. In Solon’s time there we?e only four
tribes, each of which chofe ioo fenators; but the num-
ter of tribes afterwards increafing, the number of fe¬
nators or judges increafed to fo many hundreds more
PfNANG, the Chinefe name of the Jreca Catel,
JLm. See Arfca.
PINCHBECK. See Zinc,
PINDAR, the prince of lyric.poets, was born at
Ehebes, about 520 years B. C He received his firft
mulical mftru&ions from his father, who was a flute-
player by profeffion ; after which, according to Sui-
das he was placed under Myrtis, a lady of diftinguidl¬
ed abilities in lyric poetry. It ivas during this period
that he became acquainted with the poetefs Corinna,
who was l.kewife a fludent under Mvrtis. Plutarch
tells us, that Pindar profited from the leffons which
i onnna, more advanced in her ftudies, gave him at
this ichool. It is very natural to fuppofe, that the
firft poetical effufions of a genius fo full of fire and
imagination as that of Pindar would be wild and luxu¬
riant ; and Lucian has preferved fix verfes, faid to
have been the exordium cf his firft effay • {n which he
crowded almoft all the fubjeds for fong which ancient
hiftory and mythology then furnifhed. Upon commu-
meating this attempt to Corinna, fhe told him fmibner
that he fhould fow with the hand, and not empty his
whole fack at once. Pindar, however, foon quitted
the leading firings of thefe ladies, his poetical nurfes,
and became the difciple of Simonides, now arrived at
extreme old age : after which he foon furpaffed all hia
mafttrs, an^ acquired great reputation overall Greece:
but, like a true prophet, he was lefs honoured in his
own country than elfewherc ; for at Thebes he was
frequently pronounced to be vanquifhed, in the muTi-
czl and poetical contefts, by candidates of inferior
merit.
The cuftom of having thefe public trials of /kill ;n
all the great cities of Greece was now fo prevalent
Vol, XIV. Part II. P ’
753 J PIN
that but little fame was to be acquired by a mufiefan Pindar.
or poet any other way than by entering the lifts •   
and we find, that both Myrtis and Corinna public^
dfffnited the prize with him at Thebes He obtained
a vi&ory over Myrt.a, but was vanquifbed five diffe-
hke thTS h7 THe jU^e8> llP°n occafions
bke thefe, have been frequently accufed of partiality
or ignorance, not only by the vanquifhed, but by po-
ftenty: and fi the merit of Pindar was pronounced
inferior to that of Corinna five feveral times, it was,
ai/ran,a8’ the judges were more fenfible
poetrv ^ "n" t0 th°fe of mufic
AnTl^r’ ,Wa8 11 "ot Grange, faid the Scythian
Anacharfis, that the Grecian artifts were never judged
by artifts, their peers?
ul'Th’ bv°reTAh? quI,ted Thebas> the vexa¬
tion to_ fee his D.thyrambics traduced, abufed, and
turned into ridicule, by the comic poets of his time ;
and Athenxus tells us, that he was feverely cenfured
by his brother lyrics, for being a Kpogram Jatift, and
thrfetter^30 Wb T he had^communicated
letter S. \\ hether thefe cenfures proceeded front
envy or contempt cannot now be determined ; Z
fa,/ Ze ChertrIyMUflful,t0,Pindar, 8Ild — necef.
^ry that he ffould be lafhed for fuch puerilities
Thebes feems to have been the purgatety of 0“;
young bare.: when he quitted that city, as his judge-
ment was matured, he avoided moft of the errors for
which he had been chaftifed, and fuddenly became the
wonder and delight of all Greece. Everv hero, prince
rLm.^0118 °f ^ courtei "the
He feems frequently to have been prefect at the
mean^atd Tg '™ 6’ °f the 01>’mPhn> -Pythian, Ne-
n.ean, and Ifthmian games, as may be inferred from
everai c.rcumftances and expreffions in the odes which
he compofed for the victors in them all. Thofe at O.
lympia, who were ambitious of having their atchieve" '
0" whfcf3^^^11^ appl,‘ed t0 fo-n
haIi’7oCvbWa8 ^ thC Prytane^ ^ town-
fer an C?1)1mpia1’ whcre there ^ banqueting room.
He Plrt fT thC of the conquerors
Here the ode was rehearfed by a chorus, accompanied
fame ft 1 W3g aftenvards performed in the
me manner at the triumphal entry of the vi&or in.
to h13 own country ,n proccfflons, or at the facrifiees
occaW m "“h gre3t P°inp and foleranity on the
fo P;rdar’ ^ hIs fec°nd Iflhmian ode, has apologized
for the mercenary cuftom among poets, of receiving
momy for their compofitions. “ The world (fa^
he) is grown interefted, and thinks in general with
Ph,l°f0p!,er /t\rifto(lemu8> that only
males the man : a truth which this fage himfclf exoc"!
nenced, having with his riches, loft all his friends ”
It isfuppoftd that Pindar here alludes to the avarice
Simonides, who firft allowed his mufe tg fell her fa
vours to the higheft bidder. %
$ ^ There
«ureAifPh"'rwhfiT; TZ’^ ^ ^ * * P-
ssrwith herh£ad “■“o ^
PIN _ L 7)4
There is no grciit poet in antiquity whofe mon.l
rharafter has been lefs cenfured than that of Pindar.
Plutarch has preferved a fingle verfe of his Epicedium
or Dirge that was fung at his funeral j which, fliort
and fimpleas it is, implies great praife : This man was
pltajuig to ft rangers, and dear to his fellow-citizens. Ilis
works abound with precepts of the pureft morality :
and it does not appear that he ever traduced even his
enemies; comforting himfelf, for their malignity, by
a maxim which he inferted in his fxrft Pythic, and which
afterwards became proverbial, Thai it is better to be en¬
vied than pitied.
Paufanias fays, that the eharader of poet was truly
cpnfecrated, in the perfon of Pindar, by the god of
verfe himfelf; who was plea fed, by an exprefs oracle,
to order the inhabitants of Delphos to fet apart for
Pindar one half of the fxrll-fruit offerings brought by
the religious to his Purine, and to allow him a confpi-
cuous place in his temple, where in an iron chair he
ufed to fit and fmg his hymns in honour of that god.
This chair was remaining in the time of Paufanias,
Jtveral centuries after,and fhown to him as a relick not
unworthy of the fan&ity and magnificence of that
place.
But though Pindar’s mufe was penfioned atDelphos
and well p id by princes and potentates elfewhere, (lie
fee ms, however, fometimes to have fung the fponta-
neous ftrains of pure friendfhip. Of this kmd were,
probably, the verfes befoswed upon the nmfician Mi¬
das, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who had twice obtain¬
ed the palm of vidory by his perform-m e on the flute
at the Pythic games (b). It is in his 12th Pythic
ode that Pindar cele1 rates the vidmy ofMilas over ail
Greece, upon that injlrument which Minerva herfelf had
invented (c)
Fabricius tells us, that Pindar lived to the age of
90 ; and, according to the chronology of Dr Blair, he
died 435 years B. C. aged 86. His fellow citizens
ereded a monument to him in the Hippodrome at
Thebes, which was ftill fubfiiliag in the time of Pau¬
fanias ; ai.d his renown was fo great after his death,
thst his pofferity derived very confiderable honours and
privileges from it. When Alexander the Great at¬
tacked the city of Thebes, he gave exprefs orders to
his foldiers to fpare the houfe and family of Pindar.
The Lacedemon ans had done the fame before this pe¬
riod ; for when they ravaged Boeotia and burned the
capital, the following words were written upon the
door of the poet; Forbear to burn this houfe, it -was
the dwelling of Pindar. Refped for the memory of
this great poet continued fo long, that, even in Plu¬
tarch’s time, the belt part of the facred vidim at the
Theoxenian feftival was appropriated to his defeend-
ants.
in ode formed in
See Poetry, n°
1 PIN
PINDARIC ODE, in poetry,
imitation of the manner of Pindar.
136, &e.
PINDUS (anc. geog.), not a fiugle mountain, but
a chain of mountains, inhabited by different people of
Epirus and Theffaly; feparating M acedonia, Theffaly,
and Epirus: An extenfive drain, having Macedonia to
the north, the Perrhuebi to the weft, the Dolopes to
the fquth, and the mountain itfelf of Theffaly (Stra¬
bo).
Pindus, a Doric city of iEtolia, ficuated on the
cognomina! river, which falls into the Cephiffus (Stra¬
bo).
PINE, in botany. See Pinus.
Pink-/ipple. See Bromelia.
PINE A, or pig me, in commerce, is a term ufed in
Peru and Chili, for a kind of light, porous mafl'es, or
lumps, formed of a mixture of mercury and filver-dufb
from the mines. The ore, or mineral, of filvet, when
dug out of the veins of the mine, is iirfl broken and
then ground in milk for the purpofc, driven by water
with iron peftles, each of 200 pounds weight. The
mineral, when thus pulverized, is next fifted, and then
worked up with water into a p fte ; which, when
half dry, is cut into pieces, called cuerpos, a foot long,
weighing each about two thoufand five hundred pounds.
Each piece or cuerpo is again kneaded up with fea-
falt, v/hich, diffolving, incorporates with it. They
then add mercury, from 10 to 20 pounds for each
cuerpo, kneading the pafte afrefh until the mercury
be incorporated therewith. This office, which is ex¬
ceedingly dangerous on account of the noxious quali¬
ties of the mercury, is always made the lot of the poor
Indians. This amalgamation is continued for eight or
nine days ; and fome add lime, lead, or tin ore, See. to
forward it ; and, in fome mints, they are o liged to
ufe fire. To try whether or no the mixture and a-
malgamation be fufficient, they wafh a piece in water ;
and if the mercury be white, it is a proof that it has
had its efftA ; if black, it muft be ftiil faither work¬
ed. When finifhed, it is fent to the lavatories, which
are large bafons that empty fucceffively into one ano¬
ther. The pafte, See. being laid in the uppermoft of
thefe, the earth is then wafhed from it into the reft by
a rivulet turned upon it ; an Indian, ail the while, ftir-
ring it with his feet, and two other Indians doing the
like in the other bafons. When the water runs quite
clear out of the bafons the mercury and filver are found
at bottom incorporated. This matter they call pella,
and of this they torm the pineas, by expreffing as much
of the mercury as they can ; firft, by putting it in
woollen bags, and prefiing and beating it ftrongly ;
then, by ftamping it in a kind of wooden mould, of
an o&sgonal form, at bottom whereof is a brafs plate
pierced
Pindaric'
I!
Pin$a.
(b) This Midas is a very different perfonage from his long-eared majefty of Phrygia, whofe decifion in
favour of Pan had given fuch offence to Apollo; as is manifeft, indeed, from his having Teen cotemporary
with Pindar.
(c) The mod extraordinary part of this mufician’s performance that can be gathered from the fchohaft
upon Pindar, was his finifhing the folo, without a reed or mouth-piece, which broke accidentally while he
was playing. The legendary account given by the poet in this ode, of the occafion upon which the flute
was invented by Minerva, is diverting : “ It was (fays he) to imitate the howling of the Gcrgons, and the
biffing of their fnakes, which the goddefs had heard when the head of Medufa (one of thefe three anti-graces)
was cut off by Pcrfeua.’*
Pineal)
Gland,
Hneau
P I
pierced fill of little holes.  ,  __
out of the mould, is laid on a trivet, under which is a
l.'irjre veffel full of water; and the whole being covered
with r.n earthen head, a fire is made around it.
The mercury Hill remains in the mafs and is thus
reduced into fumes, ami, at length condenfing, it ij
precipitated into the water, leaving behind it a mafs
of filver grains of different figures, which, only joining
or touching at the extretnes, render the matter very
porous and light. This, therefore, is the pinea. or
pigne, which the workmen endeavour to fell fecretly
to veffels trading to the South fea ; and from which
thefe, who have ventured to engage in fo dangerous a
commerce, have made fuch vaft gains. Indeed the
traders herein muft be very careful ; for the Spanifh
miners are arrant knaves, and to make the pignes
weigh the more, they often fill the middle with fand
or iron.
PINEAL Gland. See Anatomy.
PINEAU (Severin du), who died at Paris in 16*9,
was a native of Chartres, and firft fmgeon to the king
of France. He was very fkilful in lithotomy; and has
left ‘ ehind him, j. A Hifcourfe concerning the Ex-
trp.dlion of the Stone in the Bladder, pubiiihed mi6io
in 8vo. 2. A treatife Vlrgmitatis Notts-, printed at
Leyden 1641, in 1 2mo. Thislaft performance, how¬
ever ufeful it may be to tnen offcience, we would not
venture to recommend to the perufai of young people,
on account of fome particulars which it was perhaps
unneceffary to expofe to the eyes of the public.
Pineau (Gabriel du), was born at Angers in IJ73,
where he followed the proftffion of a lawyer with a
reputation above his years. He went afterwards to
Paris, and pled with eclat before the parliament and
gi eat council. Upon his return to Angers, he became
a counfellor in the prefidial court. He was confulted
by all the neighbouring provinces, and had an a drive
hand in all the great affairs of his time. Mary de Me-
tlicis conferred upon him the office of mafter of re.
quefis, and. in her difgrace wifhed to fupport herfdf
by his credit and counfels ; but l_)u Pineau, always at-
tentive to what he owed on the one hand to the mo¬
ther of his king, and on the other to the kino- himfelf
never ceafed to infpire that princefs with fentiments
of peace.
. In 1642 Louis XIII. by way of reward, appointed
him mayor and c iptain general of the city of .nc-ers;
a fituation in which he merited the flattering title of
Father of the People. He had no refpedl of perfons ;
for he was equally acceffible to the poor and the great.
This worthy citizen died the 15th of O&ober 1644,
at the age of 71. His houfe was a kind of academy,
where regular conferences were held, and attended by
young officers, advocates, and other literary charac¬
ters. In thofe conferences every one freely Hated the
difficulties which occurred to him upon fubjedls either
of law or hfftory; and when Pineau fpoke.all was made
clear; but he was always the lait in delivering his fen¬
timents, becaufe he perceived that too much deference
was paid to hia opinion. His writings are, 1. Latin
rotes, in addition to thofe of Du Moulin, upon the
canon law, end printed along with the works of that e-
minent lawyer by the care of Francis Pinfon. 2. Com-
mentaries, obfervations, and confulcations, upon feveral
important qudriona refpe&ing the laws both of An.
N [ 755 3 PIN
I he matter, when taken jou and of France, with fome difiertations ujion dif¬
ferent fubjefh, See. reprinted in 1725 in 2 vcl. fol. by
the care of Livoniere, who has enriched them with
very ufeful remarks. The editor fays, that “ Du Pi-
netu is a little inferior to the celebrated Du Moulin
on the civil law, but that he is more accurate than the
other upon the cjnon law.”—Menage made thefe two
verfes upon his death :
Pine/lus periit, ThemlJis plus Ule facerFs,
In propno judex /mine perpetuus.
PINEDA (John), who was born at Seville of a
noble family, entered into the fociety of Jtfuits in
1572. He taught philofophy and divinity in feveral
colleges ; and devoted his time to the Itudy of the
Holy Scriptures. That he might render that fludy
the eafier, he made himfelf mailer of the oriental lan¬
guages. We have of his writings, 1. Two volumes of
Commentaries upon the book of Job, in folio. 2. Two
upon Ecclefiaffes. 4. A General Hillory of the
Church, in Spaniffi, 4 vol. in folio. 4. A Hitloiy of
Ferdinand Hi. in the fame language, in folio. He
died in 1637, much regretted by the members of hi#
fociety, and by the public in general.
P1NELLI (John Vincent), born at Naples, was
fon of Count Pinelli, a noble Genoefe, who had fet-
tlcu in that city, and had acquired a handfome fortune
in the way of trade. After receiving a liberal educa¬
tion he quitted the place of his nativity, and repaired
to Padua, where he took up his relidence at the age
of 24* Being a great lover offcience, he gave a pre¬
ference to that city on account of its famous umver-
fity, which brought to it a number of learned men. He
had tn excellent library, which confided of a choice
colledlion of books and manuicripts, and which he
continued to enrich til! the hour of his death. His
literary correfpcndenoe, not only in Italy, but through
the molt of Europe, procured him all the new works
which were worthy of a place in his colle&ion. The
authors themfelves were often forward to pay their re-
fpeds to him. In many cities of Italy he had peribns
employed to fearch, at lea ft once a month, the italfs of
thofe artificers who nuke ufe of old parchments,fuch a«
lute-makers, fievewrights, and others*; and by this means
he had the good fortune often to fave from deftru&ion
fome valuable fragments. His paffion for knowledge
embraced all the fciences; but h’.ftory, medals, anti¬
quities, natural hitiory, and particularly botany, were
h;s favourite itudies. He was confulted from all quar¬
ters, and the extent of his acquaintance with the learn¬
ed world, was very great. He correfponded with Juf-
tice Liplius, Jofeph Scaliger, Sigotrius, Poffevin, Peter
Pithou, and a great many others, who have adl paid
the higheft compliments to his erudition. Infmfible
to all the pleafures of life, and acquainted only with
thofe of the mind, he had a great diflike to plays, en¬
tertainments, ffiows, and every thing which molt ex¬
cites the curiofity of other men. During the fpaceof
43 years that he lived at Padua, he was never known
to be out of the city but twice; once on oecalion of
a plague which infclied it ; and afterwards on a voy¬
age to Naples, which he made at the earneit foiicita-
tion of his friends. In ffiort, Pinelli was generous,
Sympathizing, and compaffionate, particularly to men
oi letters, whole wants he often anticipated. His zeal
5 C 2 fov
Pitied,
Puielii.
P 'I N
Crtifier*s
General De¬
scription of
China,yoi.i
f. <)2.
for the progrcfs and advancement of feience renderei
him very communicative of his knowledge and of his
books; but this was always done with judgment and
difcretion. He died in 1601, aged 68, without ha
ving publifhed any work. Paul Gualdo, who has writ¬
ten Pinelli’s life, does not fpeeify the number of vo-
lumesof which his rich library confide i: he only informs
us, that whin it tt'as tranfported by fea to Naples, it
was packed up in 130 cheils, of which 14 contained
manufcripts; but it did not go wholly to his heirs.
The lenate of Venice caufed their feal to be fet upon
the manufcnpts, and took away whatever concerned
the affairs of the republic, to the number of 200
pieces.—“ I compare v(fays Prefident de Thou) PU
uelii to Fitus Pomponius; tor, as that illuftrious Ro¬
man was called Atti h, thnelli alfo bore the title of Ve¬
netian, on account of the great affedtion which the re-
pu“ lie of Venice had lor him.
PINE P (Antony du), lord of Noroy, lived in the
16th century, and was a native of Befan^on. He was
ftrongly attached to the Proteftant religion, and a hit¬
ter enemy to the church of Rome. His hook, inti-
tled La Confonmte des Eg life s Reformes de France, ami
de VEglife primitive, printed at Lyons, 1564, in 8vo;
and the notes which he added to the French tranfla-
tion of the Fees of the Pope’s Chancery, which was
printed at Lyons, in 8vo, 1564, and reprinted at Am
fterdam in 1700, in 1 zmo, plainly difeover his fenti
ments He publifhed the lait mentioned performance
under this title : Eaxe des parties cafuelles de la boutique
du Pape, in Latin and French, with fome notes taken
from decrees, councils, and canons, in order to afccr-
tain the difcipline anciently obferved in the church.
In the epiftle dedicatory, heaffumes the tone of a de¬
clared enemy to the court of Rome. He apologizes
for having prefented this book “ to a fociety fo holy
as yours (the Proteftants), in which are heard only
hymns, pfalms, and praifes, to the Lord eur God :
but it is proper to Ihow to the villain his villany, and
the fool his lolly, left one Ihould be thought to re-
femble them.” We fee by this fpecimen, that Pinet
had no more politenefs in his ftyle than in his manners.
His tr.inllation of Pliny’s Natural Hiilory, printed at
Lyons, in 2 vol. folio, 1566, and at Paris, 1608, was
formerly much read. Though there are a good ma¬
ny errors in it, it is yet very ufeful at prefent, efpe-
cially for thofe .who underhand Pliny’s Latin, on ac¬
count of the tranflator’s refearches, and a great num¬
ber of marginal notes. Pinet alfo publifhed Plans of
the principal fortreffes in the world at Lyons, 1 564, in
folio.
PING-leang fou, a city of China in the Pro¬
vince of Chen-fi. It is one af the moft conliderable
cities of the weftern part of the province, and is fi-
tuated on the river Kin-ho. The air here is mild ;
and the agreeable views which the furrounding moun¬
tains prefent, added to the ftreams which water the
country, render it a very delightful refidence. It has
under its jurifdi&ion three cities of the fecond clafs
and feven of the third. In this diftrict is a valley fo
deep and narrow, that it is almoft impervious to the
light: a large highway, paved with fquare ftones, runs
through it.
PINGU1CULA, Butterwort } a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies; of which the moft re-
t 7J6 ]
PIN
markable is the vulgaris, or common butterwort, grow- Pinguicula,
ing commonly on bogs or low moift grounds in Eng- Pmguiu.
land and Scotland. Its leaves are covered with foit, ’ - t ~
upright pellucid prickles, fecreting a glutinous liquor.
The flowers are pale red, purple, or deep violet co¬
lour, and hairy within. If the frefli gathered leaves
of this plant are put into the ftrainer through which
warm milk from the cow is poured, and the milk fet
by for a day or two to become acefeent, it acquires a
confiftency and tenacity, and neither whey nor cream
feparate from it. In this ftate it is an extremely grate¬
ful food, and as fuch is ufed by the inhabitants of the
north of Sweden. There is no further occaflon to have
recourfe to the leaves; for half a fpoonful of this pre¬
pared milk, mixed with frefh warm milk, will convert
it to its own nature, and this again will change ano¬
ther quantity of frefh milk, and fo on without end.
The juice of the leaves kills lice ; and the common
people ufe it to cure the cracks or chops in cows ud¬
ders. The plant is generally fuppofed injurious to
fhcep, by occafioning in them that difeafe called the
rot. But from experiments made on purpofe, and con-
ducted with accuracy, it appears, that neither flreep,
cows, goats, horfes, or fwine, will feed upon this
plant.
Wherever this plant, called alfo Torkjhire fanicle, is
found, itisacertain indication of a boggy foil. From the
idea that the country people have of its noxious opera¬
tion on fheep, this plant has been called the wbite rot;
fince as they imagine it gives them the rot whenever
they eat it, which they will not do but from great ne-
ceffity.
The Laplanders, like the Swedes with the milk
of cows, receive that of the rein deer upon the
frefh Laves of this plant, which they immediately
ftrain off and fet afide till it becomes fomewhat ace¬
feent ; and the whole acquires in a day or two the
confiftence of cream without feparating theferum,and
thus becomes an agreeable food. When thus prepa¬
red, a fmall quantity of the fame has the property of
rennet in producing the like change on frefh milk.
1TNGU1N, or Penguin, in ornithology, a genus of
birds of the order of palmipedes ; diftinguifhed by Mr
Latham by the following chara&ers. The bill is ftrong,
ttrait, more or lefs bending towards the point, and fur¬
rowed on the ixdes; the noflrils are linear, and placed
in the furrows ; the tongue is covered with ftrong^
fpines, pointing backwards; the wings are fmall, very
like fins, and covered with no longer feathers than the
reft of the body, and are uftlefs in flight; the body i&
clothed with thick ftiort feathers, having broad fhafes,
and placed as compaiifly as the feales of fifties; the
legs are ftiort, thick, and placed very near the vent;
the toes are four, and are all placed forwards, the in¬
terior are loofe, and the reft are webbed $ the tail i&
very ftiff, confifting of broad lhafts fcarcely webbed.
It is agreed that Pinguins are inhabitants of fouthera.
latitudes only ; being, as far as is yet known, found
only on the coafts of South America from Port Defire
to the Straits of Magellan ; and Frezitr fays they are
found on the weftern fhore as high as Conception. la
Africa they feem to be unknown, except on a fmall
ifle neaf the Cape of Good Hope, which takes its name
from them. They are found in vaft numbers on land
during the breeding feafon ; for they felciom come on
Ihore but at that time : they form burrows under
7 ground
A
P I N
FfcKin’fi. ground like rabbits; and the ifles they frequent are
perfe&Iy undermined by them.
Their attitude on land is quite ere&, and on that
account they have been compared by fome to pygmies,
by others to children with white bibs. They are very
tame, and may be driven like a flock of flieep. In
water they are remarkably abtive, and fwim with vail
ftrength, aflifled by their wings, which ferve inftead
cf fins. Their food in general is filh ; not but that
they will eat grafs like geefe.
Mr Lartham remarks, that this genus appears to hold
the fame place in the fouthern divifion of the earth
that the awks do in the northern ; and that, however
authors may differ in opinion on this head, they ought
not to be confounded with one another. The pinguin
is never feen but in the temperate and frigid zones
fouth of the equator, while the awk only appears on
the parallel latitudes north of the equator ; for neither
of thefe genera have yet been obferved within the tro¬
pics. Forfler, in his voyage (vol. i. page 92.), fays, he
iaw one for the firlt time in lat. 48. fouth, nor are they
ever met with nearer than 40 degrees fouth. Id. Introd.
on Pinguins, Comment. Got. vol. 3d.
f he wings of the pinguin are f arcely any thing elfe
than mere fins, while the awk has real wings and gills,
though they be but fmall. The former has four toes on
each toot, the latter only three. While fwimming, the
pinguin finks wholly above the hrealt, the head and neck
only appearing out of the water ; while the awk, like
moil other birds, fwims on the furface. There are feveral
other peculiarities which ferve to diftinguitfi the two
genera, but what we have mentioned are doubtlefs fuf-
ficient.
“ The bodies of the pinguin tribe (fays our author)
Y^atla ’ are coramonly and clofely covered with feathers
Synopfu. tkal: no wet can penetrate ; and as they are in general
exceffively iat, thefe circumftances united fecure them
from cold. They have often been found above 700
leagues from land ; and frequently on the mountains
of ice, on which they feem to afeend without difficul¬
ty, as the foies of their feet are very rough and fuited
to the purpofc ” Mr Latham enumerates nine dif¬
ferent fpeciesof this genus, befides two varieties of the
black-fcoted pinguin or diomedea.
1.The firft, which is a very beautiful fpecies, our au¬
thor calls the crejled pinguin. The birds of this fpecies
are 23 inches long; the bill ?s three inches long, and
. of a red colour, with a dark furrow running along on
each fide to the tip ; the upper mandible is curved at
the end, the under is obtufe ; the irides are of a dull
red ; the head, neck, back, and fides are black. Over
each eye there is a fttipe of pale yellow feathers, which
lengthens into a creft behind, nearly four inches long;
the feathers on each fide of the head, above this ftripe,
are longer than the reft, and ftand upward, while thofe
of the creft are decumbent, but can be erefted on
each fide at pleafure; the wings, or rather fins, are
black on the outfide, edged with white j on the infide
they are white ; the hreaft and all the under parts are
alfo white ; the legs are orange, and the claws are
dufky. The female has a ftreak of pale yellow over
the eye, but it is not prolonged into a creft behind as
in the male.
This fpecies inhabits Falkland’s Iflands, and was like-
vife met with in Kerguelen’s Land, or file of Lefo-
P I N
lation, as well as at Van Diemen’s Land, r.nd New Pinguin.
Holland, particularly in Adventure Bay. They are r—
called hopping pinguins and jumping jacks, from their
adtion of leaping quite out of the water, on meeting
with the leaft obftacle, for three or four feet at Icaft ;
and indeed, without any feeming cauie they often do
the fame, appearing chiefly to advance by that means.
This fpecies feems to have a greater air of livelinefs in
its countenance than others, yet is in fadl a very ftu-
pid bird, fo much fo as to fuffer itfelf to be knocked
on the head with a flick when on land. Forfler fays
he found them difficult to kill, and when provoked,
he adds, they ran at the failors in flocks, and pecked
their legs, and fpoiied their clothes. When anger¬
ed too they ereft their crefts in a beautiful manner.
Thefe birds make their nefts among thofe of the peli¬
can tribe, living in tolerable harmony with them ; and
lay feldom more than one egg, which is white, and
larger than that of a duck. They are moftly ften
by themfelves, fcldom mixing with other pinguins,
and often met with in great numbers on the outer
fhores, where they have been bred. They are frequent¬
ly fo regardlefs as to fuffer themfelves to be taken by
the hand. The females of this fpecies lay their eggs
in burrows, which they eafily form of th-emfelves with
their bills, throwing out the dirt with their feet. In
thefe holes the eggs are depofited on the bare earth.
The general time of fitting is in Odiof er ; but fome
of the fpecies, efpecially in the colder pans, do not fit
till December, or even January. How long they fit
is not known.
2. The fccond fpecies mentioned by Latham is the PriPIate r
patagonian. It is diftinguifhed by this name not only CcXC,,‘r
becaufe it is found on that co iff, hue alfo becaufe it
exceeds in bulk the common pinguins as much as the
natives are faid to do the common race of men. It
was firft difeovered by Captain Macbride, who brought
one of them from Falkland Iflands off the Straits.of
Magellan. The length of the fluffed fkin of this par¬
ticular bird meafured four feet three inches, and the
bulk of the body feemed to exceed that of a fwan. The
bill was four inches and a half long, flender, ftraight,
bending on the end of the upper mandible, with no
noftrils. The tongue half the length of the bill, and
Angularly armed with flrong fharp fpikes pointing
backwards. The plumage is molt remarkable, the
feathers lying over one another with the compaftnefg
of the feales of a fifh ; their texture equally extraordi¬
nary ; the fha*ts broad and very thin ; the vanes un¬
webbed ; the head, throat, and hind part of the neck,
are of a deep brown colour; from each fide of the head
to the middle of the fore part of the neck are two lines
of bright yellow, broad above, narrow beneath, and
uniting half way down ; from thence the fame colour
widens towards the breaft, fading away till it is loft
in pure white, of which colour is the whole under fide
of the body, a dufky line dividing it from the colour
of the upper part. The whole back is of a very deep
afh-colour, altnoft dufky ; but the end of each feathet is
marked with a blue fpot, thofe about the jun&ion of the
wings larger and paler than the others. The wings are
in this fpecies, as in all the others, extreme ly fhort in refpeA
to the fize of the bird; hang down, and have the appear*,
ance of fins, whofe office they perform ; their length i»
only 14 inches $ on the outfide they arc dufky, and co->
vered
C 7J7 1
Pinpuin.
P 1 N [ 75g
veredwith fcale lkc feathers,or at heft, with fa^hwhofe
(hafts are fo broad and flat as fcarce to be dillinguiflied
frooi fcalea { thofe on the tid^e of the wings conflftipg
entire.y of ihait ; the larger, or quill feathers, have
feme very (hort webs. The tail conlifls of 30 brown
feathers, or rather thin (hafts, refembling fplit
whale-bone ; fl t on the upper fide, concave on the
under, and the webs fhoit, unconneiffed, and bnftly.
from the knees to the end of the claws fix inches,
covered with ftrong pentangular bhek feales 5 the fore
toe fcarce an inch long, and the others fo remarkably
(hort, as to evince the necefiity of that ftrength of the
tail, which feems intended as a fupport to the bird in
its ereft attitude ; in the fame manner as that of the
woodpecker is vdien it dings to the fides of trees :
between the toes is a ftrong femilunar membrane, con¬
tinued up even part of the claws ; the middle claw is
near an inch long, and the inner edge very (harp and
thin ; the interior toe is fmall, and placed very high.
The (kin is extremely tough and thick ; which, with
the clofenefs of the feathers, guards it eflPedually in
the element wherein it is fo converf nt.
This fpecies, which was, as we have feen, firty: met
with in Falkland T(lands, has finee been feen in Kergue¬
len’s I.and, New Georgia, and New Guinea. M. Bou
gainvilie caught one, which foon became fo tame as to
follow and know the perfon who had care of it: it fed on
flefh, fifh, and bread ; but after a time grew lean, pined
away, and died. The chief food,when at large, is thou ht
to be fifh ; the remains of which, as well ns crabs, (hell-
fifli, and molufcse, were found in the ftomach This
fpeciea is the fatteft of the tribe; and therefore moft
fo in January when they moult. They are fuppofed
to lay and fit in October. They are met with in the
moft deferted places. Their flefh is black, though not
very unpalatable. This has been confidered as a foli
tary fpecies, but has now and then been met with in
confiderable flocks. They are found in the fame places
ns the papuan pinguins, and not unfrequently mixed
with them ; but in general (how a difpofition of a(fo-
ciating with their own fpecies.
i 3. The third fpecies is denominated papuan. It is
about feet long, being a little bigger than that
which is called the Cape Pinguin. This fpecies inha¬
bits the Ifle ot Papos, or New Guinea; and has been
met with at Falkland Ides and Kerguelen’s Land; it
is often found among the p tagonian pinguins.
4. The antar&ic pinguin is about 25 inches long,
and weighs about 11 i pounds. The bill is upwards
of 2J inches long; the upper pwts of the body are
black, the under are gloffy white; beneath the chin
there is a narrow ftreak of a blackilh colour, paffing
backward towards the hind head, a little bent -bout
the region of the ears; the wings are much the fame
as in the other fpecies ; the tail is cuneiform; the fea¬
thers, or rather bridles, of which it is oompofed are
black and in number 32 ; the legs are of a fl, (h colour,
and the foies of the feet are black.
“ This fpecies (fays Latham) inhabits the fouth fea,
from 48 degrees to the antar&ic circle ; and is fre¬
quently found on the ice mountains and iflanda, on
which it afeends; it is a pretty numerous fpecies. Our
lad voyagers found them in plenty in the Kle of l)e-
folation. And it was ol ferved, that in an ifiand they
touched at, not greatly didant, the rocks were almod
] PIN
covered with pinguins and (hags ; the fird mod pro¬
bably of this fort.” ^
5. For the black-focted pinguin, or diomedea demer-
fa, fee D/omfdea.
6. The magellanic fpecies is r.bout the fize of the
antarftre pinguin. They are about 2 feet and fome-
times 2J- feet long, and weigh 11 pounds. The bill is
black, having a traidverfe b.iiid acrofs near its tip ; the
head and neck are black, except a few markings here
and there ; the upper parts of the body and wings are
of the fame colour ; toe under parts of both are white
from the bread, except a narrow band of black paffing
at a little didance within the white on the bread, and
c.ownwar is on each fide, beneath the wings quite to
the thighs ; the legs are of a reddiflr colour, irregular-
ly (potted on t e thighs; and the claws are black.
1 his Ipecits, which is very numerous, inhabits the
Straits of Magellan^ Staten Land,Terra del Fuego, and
baikland iflands. Far from being timid, thefe birds
will often attack a man and peck his legs. As food
they are not at all unpalatable. They often mix with
fea-wolves among the rufhes, burrowing in holes like
a fox. They fwim with prodigious fwiftnefs. They
lay their eggs in collefdive bodies, reforting in incre¬
dible numbers to certain fpots, which their long refi-
dence has freed irotn grata, and to which were given
the name of towns.—Penrofe'obferves, that they com-
pod d their neds of mud, a foot in height, and placed as
-near one another as may be. It is poffible that they
may have different ways of neding, according to the
pla es they inhabit; or perhaps the manners of this
may be blended with thofe of another. “ Here, (fay*
he, 1. e. in the places they frequent), during the breed¬
ing feafon, we were prefented with a fight which con¬
veyed a mod dreary, and I may fay awful, idea of the
defertion of thefe ifinnds by the human fpeciesa
general dillnefs prevailed in thtfe towns ; and whene.
ver we took our walks among them, in order to pro¬
vide ourfelves with eggs, we were regarded indeed
with fide-long glances, but we carried no terror with us.
“ The eggs are rather larger than thofe of a goofe,
and laid in pairs. When we took them once, and
fomttiraes twice in a feafon, they were as often repla¬
ced by the birds; but prudence would net permit us
to plunder too far, led a future fupply in the next
year’s brood might be prevented.” They lay fame
time in November, driving away the albatroffes, which
have hatched their young in turn before them. The
eggs were thought palatable food, and were prefetved
good for three or four months.
7. The collared pinguin is a very little lefs than the
papuan,being 18 inches long. The hill, which is black,
is iimiiar to that of the paUgonian pinguin ; the irides
are Mack ; the eye is furrounded with a bare (kin of a
blood colour, of an oval fhape, and three times as large
as the eye itfelf; the head, thro t, hind part of the
neck, and fides, back, wings, and tail, are all black ;
the fore part of the neck, bread, belly, and thighs, are
white, extending round the neck, where the white be¬
gins, like a collar, except that it does not quite meet
at the back part; the legs are black.
This fpecies inhabits New Guinea. It was alfo
feen by Dr Foder near Kerguelen’s Land ; and again
on two ides a •-joining to the ifland of South Geor¬
gia.
8.,For
Pingu;
P I N
r 7^9 ]
P I N
fe p!A‘or phae,on l!e!r-erfl,!- STJ-^T, Pi “his w »»»»*
. 9- The/™//, or, a. Latham e.Il, it, the M,ptngvin, we 1 k^wn w ht^c;err\P,h|'£”r0n’en?'1VW,‘io!; th°'
, ahmttthe hae „t a tea,, b;V„.: ,5 iache, ^ ^The
Wprtfr o mt^rA * ~  a.„L C- - l .-rat i ‘
Pinna.
Plate
CCCXCII
be of a cinereous blue colour, of which colour aie the
ends of the feathers ; the bafe of them, however, is
brown black, and the /hafts of each of the fame co¬
lour ; the under parts from chin to vent art white ; the
wings are du/ky above and white i eneath ; the tail,
which is exceedingly ihort, con fids of 16 fiiff feathers’
which are fcanely perceptible; the letrs are of a dull
red colour; the webs are dufky, and' the claws are
black.
This fpecies is pretty commonly found among the
rocks on the fouthern parts of New Zealand, kut they
F.re mod frequent at Du/ky Bay. They make deep
burrows on the fides of the hills, in which they lay
their eggs: thefe holes are fo thick in f me parts,
that a ptrfon is fenredy able to walk three or four fteps
without faihng into one of rhem up to the knees. The
inhabitants of Queen Charlotte’s bound kill them with
flick , and, after fkinning them, efteem the fle/h as
good food. They are known at New Zealand by the
mme cf &orora.—“ Thefe bird* (fays Latham), 1 have
found to vary both in fize and colour: fome are much
fm Her than others, quite ! la^k above, and meafure
only 13 inches in length ; others are rather larger, and
of a plain lead-colour on the upper parts,and the wings
black, though all are white, or nearly fa, beneath.
The legs in thefe two la ft are marked with black at
the ends of the toes ; and the claws are b’aek.”
PINION, in mechanics, an arbor, or fpindle, in
the body whereof are feveral not hes, which catch’the
teeth of a wheel that ferves to turn it round, or it is a
lefier wheel that plays in the teeth ofa larger.
PINK, a name given to a fhip with a very narrow
ftern ; whence all vcffels, however final!, whofe Herns
are fa/hioned in this manner, are called pinipmed.
Pink, in botany. See Dianthus.
PINNA, in zoology; a genus belonging to the or-
’der of vermes teftacea. See Mvtilus, n° 6. The
animal is a flug. The fhell is bivalve, fragile, and
furnifhed with a beard ; gnpes at one end ; the valves
hinge without a tooth.    
caHed thePiiny (fib. 9. 51.) Vays, the
fmalleft of all the kinds is called the pmnoteres, and
ti.erelore liable to injury ; this has the prudence to
hme itfdf in the /hells of oyfters. Again, lib. 9. 66.
he lays, the pinna is of the genus of /hell fifh ; it is
produced in muddy waters, always ere ft, nor ever
wit ,out a companion, which fome call the pinnoteres,
ot.iers thepinnophylox. This fometimes is a fmall fquill
lometimes a crab, that follows the pinna for the fake
of food. The pinna, upon opening its /hell, expofes
itfell as a prey to the fmaileft kind of fifhes; for they
immediately affault her, and, growing bolder upon
finding no refiftance, venture in. The guard wat hmg
its time gives notice !)y a bite ; upon wfiieh the pinna,
doling lts /hell, fhuts in, kills, and gives part of what.-
ever happens to be there to its companion.
The pi ina and the crab together dwell,
For mutual fuccour, in one common Iheil.
^1 hey both to gain a livelihood combine;
i hat takes the prey, when this has given the fign.
from hence this crab, above his fellows fam’d.
By ancient Greeks waspinnvleres nam’d.—Oppian^
The pinnae ra rime differ lefs fr&m muffles in the
fi/.e of their ihells than in the finenefs and number of
certain brown threats which attach them to the rocks,
hold them in a fixed fituation, fecure them from the
roiling of the waves, efpecially in tempefts, and pffift
them in laying hold of ILme. See Myfilus, p 611.
note (b). Thefe threads, fays Rondelet, are as fine
compared with thofe of muffles, as the fine ft flax is
compared with tow. M. de Reaumur fays, that thTe
threads are nearly as fine and beautiful as filk from the
lilk woim, and hence he calls them the /ilk-worms cf
thefea. Stuffs, and ffveral kinds of beautiful manu-
facture, are made of thefe threads at Palermo ; ia
many placeUhey are the chief objea of fifhing, and
become a filk proper fer many purpsffs. it requires
a confiderable number of the pinnae marinte for
They inhibit the coall. of one pair of ftocking,'. Nothing bn di"
Inoian ocean. Iheffnrefl carv of this r?:. r rb1
Provence, Italy, and the Indian ocean. The ffrgeft
and moil remarkable fpecies inhabits the Mediteira-
nran. It is blind, as are all of the genus; but fur-
m'fhed with very ftiong calcareous valves. The ffuttle-
fl/h (fepia), an inhabitant of the fame fea, is a dead¬
ly foe to this animal : as foon as the pinna opens its
fhell, he ru/hts upon her like a lion ; and would always
devour her, but for another animal whom /he protects
within her /hell, and from whom in return fne re-
cacy of this Angular thread. It is fo fine, that a pair
01 (lockings made of it can be eafily contained in a
inuff-box of an ordinary fize. In 1754, a pair of
gloves or/lockings :0f theff materials was preffnted t©
Pope Benedict XIV, which, notvvithitanding their ex¬
treme fineneff, Retired the leg 1 oth from cold and heat,
A robe of the fame Angular materials was the gift of
the Roman emperor to the Satraps of Armenia. See
frocks de Edif. lib. 3. c. 1. A great many manu*'
CT1-V7,;mrant y ]t “ ■» a"iraal “Bhc luMuCtSS;
crab kind (fee Cancer, nw ic.), naked like the her. «or;^,0 a.J J  , g .thelc tnread*
end) kind (fee Cancer, nw 15.), naked like the her¬
mit, and very quick fighted. This cancer or crab the
pinna receives into her covering ; and when /he opens
her valves in queft of food, lets him out to look for
prey. During this the ffuttle fifh approaches ; the
crab returns with the utmoft fpeed and anxiety to his
into various fluffs at Palermo nnd other places.
The men who are employed in fi/hing up the pinna
marina, inform us, that it is neceffary to break the
tuft of threads. They are fifhed up at Toulon, from
the depth of 13, 20, and fometimes more than 30
feet, with an inftrument called a cramp. This is a
hoLf, who bc,„g thus wafned of tho dange’r (huts kl.d of fori ofiron, bfwHch the ^
k« door,, aod k«rs eat enemy. That ,er, faga. dicular with refpea to the handle. Eadt of them ",
about
Pinna
II
Pint.
«
PIN [ 7<5o 1 PIN
about eight feet in length, and there is a fpnce between
them of about fix inches ; the length of the handle is
in proportion to the depth of the water ; the pinna:
are feized, feparated from the rock, and raifed to the
furface by means of this inftmment. The tuft of filk
iffues direffly from the body of the animal; it comes
from the fhcll at the place where it opens, about four
or five inches from the fummit or point in the large
pinnae.
M. de Renumur, Mem. de l' Acad, des Sciences, 1711,
page 216, and 1717, page 177, confiders the pinna
as the moft proper of all fhell-fifli to elucidate the for¬
mation of pearls. It produces many of them of dif¬
ferent colours, as gtey or lead coloured, red, and fome
of a blackiih colour, and in the form of a pear.
M. d’Argcnvilie diftirguifhes three kinds of the pin-
nse : ijl, The large kind, which are red within, and
which have reddifh mother-of-pearl, fimilar to the fub-
ftance of the finell itfelf. 1 here are of thofe fhells
which weigh near 15 pounds. This is the ajlura of
the Venetians.
2d, The frr.aller kind. Some of thefe are (lender,
papyraceous, of the colour of horn, a little (haded
with pale red.
3^, The kind called perna. Thefe are adorned with
points in the channels of their fliell ; but what is very
lingular, the edges of the (hell are thicker at the open¬
ings than at the joining of the valves.
The animal which lodges in the pinna marina rare¬
ly fhows itfelf, becaufe the valves are feldom opened.
Its head is below, its largeft extremity oppofite ; it is
kept in the fhell by four vigorous mufcles, placed at
the extremities of the valves ; the (hell has no hinges,
but a flat and blackifh ligament, which is equal in
length to one-half of the Ihcll. See Pinnoterus and
Pearl.
PINNACE, a fmah veflel navigated with oars and
fails, and having generally two malls, which are rig¬
ged like thofe of a fchooner.
Pinnace is aifo a boat ufually rowed with eight oars.
See the article Boat.
PINNACLE, in architefture, the top or roof of
an houfe, terminating in a point. This kind of roof
among the ancients was appropriated to temples;
their ordinary roofs were all flat, or made in the plat¬
form way.
PINNATED leaves, in botany. See Botany,
P-44?- n° 232,
P1NNATIFTD, do. p. 442. n° 103.
PINN.OTERUS, or Pinnophylax, is a kind of
crab-fifh, furnilhed with very good eyes. It is faid to
be the companion of the pinna marina. They live
and lodge together in the fame Ihell, which belongs to
the latter. When it has occafion to eat, it opens its
valves, and fends out its faithful purveyor to procure
food. If during their la' our the pinnoterus perceives
the polypus, it immediately returns to warn its blind
frien 1 of the danger, when, by fhutting its valves, it
efeupes the rage of its enemy; but when the pinno¬
terus loads itfelf with booty without moleftation, it
makes a gentle noife at the opening of the Ihell, and
when admitted the two friends fealt on the fruits of its
induftiy. See Pinna, &c.
PINT (pinta), a veflel, or meafure, ufed in efli-
naating the quantity of liquids, and even fometimes of
dry things.-—Budjeus derives the word from the Greek Pinfad
iruS-a • others from the German pint, a little meafure
of wine ; Nicod from the Greek crmiv, “ to drink.” v
The Englif}) pint is twohrld ; the one for wine-mea-
fure, the other for beer and ale-meafure. See Mea¬
sure.
FINTADA, a fpecies of Procellaria.
PINTLES, certain pints or hooks faiiened upon
the back part of the rudder, with their points down¬
wards, in order to enter into, and rell upon, the^cw-
gingi, fixed in the ftern-poft, to hang the rudder. See
Helm.
PiNTOR (Peter), born at Valentit in Spain, in
the year 1420 was phyfician to Alexander VI. whom
he followed to Rome, where he p radii fed with great
fuccefs. He has left behind him two performances of
confiderable merit, 1. Aggregator Sententiarum Dotlorum
de Curationc in Pejlilentia, printed at Rome 1499, in fo¬
lio. 2. De Morlo Fcedo & Occu/to his Eemporihus Af-
Jiigenti, &c. printed at Rome, 1500, in 4to, black let¬
ter ; a l ook extremely fcarce, unknown to Luifini and
Aftruc, and which traces the venereal difeafe to the
year 1496. Pintor died at Rome in 1503, aged 83
years.
PINTURJCCIO (Bernardino), a celebrated Ita¬
lian painter, born at Perufia in 14^4. He was the
difciple of Peter Perugino. under whom he became fa
good an artift, that he employed him on many occa-
fions as hi* afiiilant He principally painted hiRory
and grotefque ; but he alfo excelled in portraits, among
which thofe of pope Pius II. and Innocent VIII.
of Giulia Farnefe, Caelar Borgia, and queen ILbella
of Spain, are particularly dillinguifhed. The mod
memorable performance of Pinturiccio isthehiftory of
Pius II. painted in ten compartments in the hiRory of
Siena ; in which undertaking, Raphael, then a young
man, and bred under the fame mailer, aflilled him fo
far as to (ketch out cartoons of many parts of the com-
pofition. The Rory of his death is worth relating,
efpecially as it illuftrates his cbaradler. The latl work
he was engaged in was a Nativity for the monaftery
of St Francis at Siena : the monks accommodated him
with a chamber to work in, which they cleared of all
the furniture, except one old trunk or cheR that ap¬
peared too rotten to move ; but Pinturiccio, naturally
pofitive and peevifn, infiRing on its being taken away,
the monks, willing to gratify him, compl ed. It was
no fooner ftirred than one of the planks burRing, out
tuna! led 500 pieces of gold, which had been fecreted
there for many years. The monks were overjoyed at
finding this treafure, and the,painter proportionably
mortified at lofing his chance of the difeovery by his
indifereet obllinacy : it a lit died his fpirits fo much
that he furvived but a few months, and it was general¬
ly confi lered as the caufe of his death.
P1NUS, the Pine-tree ; a genus of the monodel-
phia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
The pine-tree was well known to the ancients, and has
been deferibed and celebrated both by their philofo-
phers and poets. Pliny enumerates no lefs than fix
fpecics of trees of this genus ; and it is mentioned by
Virgil both in his Eclogues, his Georgies, and his
jEneid ; by Horace in his Odes ; by Ovid in his Me-
tamorphofes ; by Statius; and by Catullus, &e. Ma-
crobiua relates a pleafant anecdote concerning the cones
P^nu*.
PIN
of pine.trecj, which in common lanqruaje were called
poma ptnea, « pine-apples.” There lived in the Au-
[ 761 I
P I N
T ?• The'-^, commonly called the Scots fir or bins
jruftan age one Vatinius, who by fome means had ir- thoualfn*5H°-U 1 Sc?ilaJC,,1 whence ,t9 name;
ntated the Roman people fo much that they pelt' d of F nrn-e ivr a Ut-t ,n ? 0 r C ie °^ier countries
him with ftOI1es. vvhea ht entertained 5f.E',ro:e' ¥'<iul Hf1"''. “f the Royal Acdemy of
® Saturn
lib. 3.
cap. 6.
f Lib. t3
Ep. *5.
—v “ ‘*5 uul- “ppicn in me am-
phitheatre. It accidentally happened that at this time
Caicelhus, eminent for his wit as well as knowledge of
the law, was confulted on the queftlon, whether a pine¬
apple (the cone of the pine) was legally included in
the term p»mum, “ an apple ?” It is an apple (faid
he) if you intend to fling it at Vatinius*. A deci-
fion by which the edia in his favour did not much
mend his fitustion : for Martial reprefents it danger¬
ous to come under this tree, becanfe the cones in'his
tune were of fo great a fize and weight, probably en¬
larged by cultivation for ages.
Mucei Pinea.
Porna fumus Cybeles : procul hinc difeede, viator,
Ne cadat in miferutn nojlra ruina caput •}'.
There are generally reckoned 14 fpecies of this ge¬
nus ; of which the moft remarkable are thefe following :
1. 1 he pmea, pineqfler, or &ild pine, grows natu¬
rally on the mountains in Italy and the fouth of France.
It grows to the fize of a large tree; the branches ex¬
tend to a confiderable diftance ; and while the trees
are young, they are fully garnifhed with leaves, efpe-
cially where they are not fo clofe as to exclude the air
from thofe w.thin ; but as they advance in age, the
branches appear naked, and all thofe which are fituated
below become unfightly in a few years; for which rea-
ion they are now much lefs in efteem than formerly.
2. I he pinus pinea, or ftone pine, is a tall ever¬
green tree, native of Italy and Spain. It delights
in a fandy loam, though like moft others it will
grow well in almoft any land. Refoeding the ufes
of this fpecies, Hanbury tells us that “ the ker¬
nels are eatable, and by many preferred to almonds.
In Itaiy they are ferved up at table in their deferts.
— I hey are exceeding wholefome, being good for
coughs^ colds, confumptions, 8cc. on which account
only this tree deferves to be propagated.” Hanbury
continues : “ It may be very proper here to take no¬
tice of a very great and dangerous miftake Mr Miller
has committed, by fay ing, under this article of ftone-
pine, that feeds kept in the cones will be good and
.t , „ ,—:— - or mis tree 1a
the red or yellow deal, which is the moft durable of
any of the kinds yet known. The leaves of this tree
are much fhorter and broader than thofe of the former
fort, of a greyifh colour, growing two out of one
eath; the cones are fmall, pyramidal, and end in
narrow points; they are of a light colour, and the feeds
are imail.
4. The pinus pkea, or yew-leaved fir, is « tall ever-
green and a native of Scotland, Sweden, and Germany,
ihis fpec.es includes thefilver fir and the balm of Gi.
°f thefe is a no:>le uPri£ht tree.
Mr Marfham fays, “ The talleft trees I have feen were
ip nice and filver firs in the valleys in Switzerland. I
faw feveral hrs ,n the dockyards in Venice 40 yards
long; and one of 39 yards was 18 im hes diameter at the
mall end. I was told they came from Switzerland.”
the branches are not very numerous, and the bark
is Imooth and delicate. The leaves giow finely on the p,a’,t‘HS an
branches, and their ends are flightly indented. Their
upper furface is of a fine ftrong green colour, and their ^
un.er has an ornament of two white lines running
kngtWt „„ each h ie the midrib , on account of
Which filvery look this fort is called the fiher fir. The
cones are large, and grow ereft ; and, when the warm
weather comes on, they foon fhed them feeds; whH*
Ihould be a caution to ail who wilh to raife this plant,
to gather the cones before that happens. ^
The balm of Gilead fir has of all' the firts been moll
coveted, on account of the great fragrance of its leaves;
though this is not its only good property : for it is a
Ve7 beautiful tree, naturally of an upright growth
and the branches are lo ornamented with them taW '
leaves, as to exceed any of the other forts in beauty.
he leaves, which are very clofely fet on the branches,
are broad 5 and their ends are indented. Their upper
furface, when healthy, is of a fine dark-green colour,
and their under has white lines on each fide the mid¬
rib lengthwife, nearly like thofe of the filver fir. Thefe
leaves when bruifed are very finely Rented ; and the
DUus, which fwell in the autumn for the next year’s
Ihoot are very ornamental all winter, being tumid,
and of a fine brown colour: and from thefe alfo exudes
* ,    - goou ana
ST, LTLT^ZTrZ [hltrintl It : ki„°; aofTtbrn colaur: s,nd from ,M'
feed, of this fortf whether kep, i„ the Vonl. or “kt Se^t °f
. ^    /   f ••‘•W VilVISJ'll
lometimes a few plants will come up from the feeds
that are kept in the cones for two years before, yet
this is but feldom ; neither muft a tenth part of acrop
be expected. This caution is the more neceflary, as
feveral gentlemen who had cones, upon readmtr Mr
damage when kept there, deferred the work for a
feafon or two, when they thought they fhould have
more conveniently either of men or ground for their
purpofe ; and were afterwards wholly difappomted, no
p.ants appearing, the feeds being by that time fpoiied
and worth nothing.”
Vol. XIV. Part II.
ry fays, o it i tuppckl ^m^obr^fonZS:
whence the balm of Gilead is taken, which occafions
this tree being fo called. _ But this is a miftuke ; tor
the true bdm of Gilead is taken from a k'nd of tere-
ln h«8; rthoU^h.1 ara [Conned, that what has been
Miller’s book, and finding the feHs would ta/e no' collet frXtZ ht b'nVenfov^t" f" Tl
damage when kept there, deferred the work for a from America (where ,t rrn* J-r ‘oj,0*1™*
f A . , , .    i-ngiana
from America (wnere it £ro*8 naturally), and often
fold in the {hops for the true fort.”
The filver fir is very hardy, and will grow in any
loil or fituation, but always makes the greateft pro aefa
in rich loamy earth. The balm of Gilead fir muft be
planter. 10 deep, rich, good earth; nor will it live lon^
c D -
•> ia
PIN [76
in any other. The foil may be a black mould, or of a
fandy nature, if it be deep enough, and if the roots
have room enough to ftrike freely.
5. The p'mus abies, or European fpruce fir, a native
of the northern parts of Europe and of Afia, includes
the Norway fpruce and long-coned Cornifh fir. ^he
former of thefe is a tree of as much beauty while grow¬
ing as its timber is valuable when propagated on that
account. Its growth is naturally like the filver, up¬
right : and the height it will afpire to may be eafily
conceived, when we fay that the white deal, fo much
coveted by the joiners, &c. is the wood of this tree ;
and it may perhaps fatiefy the curious reader to know,
that from this fir pitch is drawn. The leaves are of a
dark-green colour ; they ftand fingly on the branches,
but the younger (hoots are very clofely garnilhed with
them. They are very narrow; their ends are pointed 5
and they are poffeffed of fuch beauties as to excite ad¬
miration. The cones are eight or ten inches long, and
hang downwards.
The better the foil is, the fafter will the fpruce fir
grow, though it will thrive very well in moll of our
Enylilh lands. In llrong loamy earth it makes a fur-
prifing progrefs; and it delights in frelh land of all forts,
which never has been worn out by ploughing, &c.
though it be ever fo poor. The long-coned Cornilh fir
differs fcarcely in any refpe<ft from the Norway fpruce,
except that the leaves and the cones are larger.
6. The p'mus Canadenfist American or Newfound¬
land fpruce fir, a native of Canada, Pennfylvania, and
other parts of North America, includes three varieties.
The white Newfoundland fpruce, the red Newfound¬
land fpruce, and the black Newfoundland fpruce.
Thefe, however, differ fo little, that one defeription is
common to them all. They are of a genteel upright
growth, though they do not fhoot fo freely or grow
So faft with us as the Norway fpruce. The leaves are
of the fame green, and garnilh the branches in the fame
beautiful manner as thole of thatfpecies; only they are
narrower, fhorter, and ftand clofer. The greateft dif¬
ference is obfervable in the cones; for thefe are no more
than about an inch in length, and the feales are clofely
placed. In the cones, indeed, confifls the difference
of thefe three forts: thofc of the white fpecies are of
a very light brown colour; thofe of the red fpecies
more of a nut-brown or reddifh colour; and thofe of
the bla k fpecies of a dark or blackifh colour. Befides
this, there is fcarcely any material difference ; though
it is obfervable, that this trifling variation feems to be
pretty conftant in the plants raifed from the like feeds.
Thefe forts will often flower, and produce cones when
only about five or fix feet high; and indeed look then
very beautiful: but this is a fign of weaknefs in the
plant, which it does not often fairly get over.
7. The p'mus balfamea, or hemlock fir, a native of
Virginia and Canada, pofftffes as little beauty as any of
theVir tribe; though, being rather fcarce in proportion,
it is deemed valuable. It is called by fome the
kaved fry from the refemblance of the leaves to thofe
of the yew-tree. It is a tree of low growth, with but
few branchest and thefe are long and (lender, and spread
abroad without order. The leaves do not garnrfh the
branches fo plentifully as thofe of any other fort of fir.
The cones arc very fmall and rounded; they are about
2 ] PIN
half an inch long ; and the feales are loofely arranged. I’
We receive thefe cones from America, by which we —
raife the plants; though this caution (hould be given to
the planter, that this tree is fond of raoift rich ground,
and in fuch a kind of foil will make the greateft pro-
grefs.
8. The pinus orientalis, or oriental fir, a native of
the Eaft, is a low but elegant tree. The leaves are
very (hort, and nearly fquare. The fruit is exceeding
fmall, and hangs downward; and the whole tree makes
an agreeable variety with the other kinds.
9. The frobusy Lord Weymouth’s pine, or North
American white pine. This grows fometimes to the
height of 100 feet and upwards, and is highly valued
on account of its beauty. The bark of the tree is very
fmooth and delicate, efpecially when young; the leaves
are long and (lender, five growing out of one (heath;
the branches are pretty clofely garniftied with them,
and thus make a fine appearance. The cones are long,
(lender, and very loofe, opening with the firft warmth
of the fpring ; fo that if they are not gathered in win¬
ter, the fcales open and let out the feeds. The wood
of this fort is efteemed for making mafts for (hips. In
Qjaeen Anne’s time there was a law made for the pre-
fervation of thefe trees, and for the encouragement of
their growth in America. Within thefeJail 50 years
they have been propagated in Britain in coufiderable
plenty.
With refpeft to the culture of this fpecies, Mr Han-
bury, after fome more general directions, continues thus,
“ 1 have known gentlemen, who, in attempting to
raife thefe trees, have feen the young plants go off
without perceiving the caufe; and the more watering
and pains they have taken, have found the plants per-
fift in this way more and more, to their great mortifi>-
cation and aftoniftiment. In the fpring following thefe
plants fhould be pricked out in beds half a foot afunder
each way ; and here they may ftand two years, when
they may be either finally planted out, or removed into
the nurfery, at the diftance of one foot afunder, and
two feet in the rows. If care has been taken of them
in the nurfery, they may be removed at a confiderabk
height with great affuraace of fuccefs: for it is much
eafier to make this pine grow than any of the other
forts : fo that where they are wanted for ornament in/
parks, open places, &c. a (how of them may be made in
a little time.
« The foil the Weymouth pine delights in moft is
a fandy loam; but it likes other foils of an inferior na¬
ture: and although it is not generally to be planted on
all lands like the Scotch fir, yet 1 have feen it luxuri¬
ant and healthy, making flrorg (hoots, on blue and red
clays, and other forts of ftrong ground. On (tony and
and flaty ground, likewife, I have feen fome very fine
trees ; fo that I believe whoever is defirous of having
plantations of this pine, need not be curious in the
choice of his ground.”
1 o. Thepmus taday ©r fwamp-pine, is a tall evergreen
tree, a native of the fwamps of Virginia and Canada.
There are feveral varieties of this genus whicn Han-
bury enumerates and deferibes; fuch as, iff, The three-
leaved American fwamp^pine. 2d, The two-leaved
American pine. 3d, The yellow American pine, the
yellow tough pine, and the tough pine of the plains j
2 among
FIj'Us.
An
P I N
among which there is but little variety,
baftard pine. 5th, The frankincenfe pine.
The dwarf pine.
“ There are many (continues our author) other
forts of American pines, which we receive from thence
with the like cant names of thofe of the above,
which 1 have chofen to retain, as they will probably be
continued to be fent over; and that the gardener re¬
ceiving them as fuch may beft know what to do with
them. In many of thofe forts I fee at prefent no ma¬
terial difference; fo am induced to think they are the
fame, fent over with different names. Some of the
forts above-mentioned differ in very few refpeifts ; but
I have chofen to mention them, as a peifon may be
fupplied with the feeds from Pennfylvania, Jerfey, Vir¬
ginia, Carolina, &c. where they all grow naturally:
and having once obtained the feeds, snd from them
plants, they will become pleafuig objeds of his niceft
obfervations.”
The puius cedrusy ranked by Tournefort and
11,
others under larix, famous for its duration, is that po
pularly called by us the cedar of Lebanon, by the an¬
cients cedrus magna or the great cedar; alfo cedrelate,
and fometimes the Phoenician or Syrian ce¬
dar, from the country where it grows in its greateft
perfedion. It is a coniferous evergreen, of the bigger
fort, bearing large roundifh cones of fmooth fcales,
Handing ered, the leaves being fmall, narrow, and
thick fet.—They fometimes counterfeit cedar, by
dying wood of a reddifh hue : but the fmell difcovers
the cheat, that of true cedar being very aromatic. In
fome places, the wood of the cajou-tree pafils under
the name of cedar, on account of its reddifh colour
and its aromatic fmell, which fomewhat refemble that
of fantal. Cedar-wood is reputed almoft immortal and
incorruptible ; a prerogative which it owes chiefly to
its bitter tafle, which the worms cannot endure. For
this reafon it was that the ancients ufed cedar tablets
to write upon, efpecially for things of importance, as
appears from that expreffion of Perfius, Et cedra digna
locutus. A juice was alfo drawn from cedar, with
which they fmeared their books and writings, or other
matters, to preferve them from rotting; which is al¬
luded to by Horace: by means of which it was, that
Numa’s books, written on papyrus, were preferved en¬
tire to the year 535, as we are informed by Pliny.
Solomon’s temple, as wTel! as his palace, were both
of this wood. That prince gave king Hiram feveral
cities for the cedars he had furniihed him on thefe oc-
cafions. Cortes is faid to have created a palace at
Mexico, in which were 7000 beams of cedar, moft of
them 120 feet long, and twelve in circumference, as
we are informed by Herrera. Some tell us of a cedar
felled in Cyprus 130 feet long, and 18 in diameter.
It was ufed for the main-mart in the galley of king
Demetrius. Le Bruyn allures us, that the two biggeft
be faw on mount Lebanon, meafured, one of them 57
palms, and the other 47, in circumference. In the
temple of Apollo at Utica, there were cedar trees near
2000 years old ; which yet were nothing to that beam
in an oratory of Diana at Seguntum in Spain, faid to
have been brought thither 200 years before the de-
rtru&Ion of Troy. Cedar is of fo dry a nature, that
it will not endure to be fartened with iron nails, from
[ 763 3 PIN
4th, The which it ufually fhrinks 5 fo that they commonly faflen
it with pins of the fame wood.
“ The ftatue (fays Hanbury) of the great goddefs
at Ephefus was made of this material; and, if this tree
abounded with us in great plenty, it might have a
principal fhare in our moft fuperb edifices. The efflu¬
via conftantly emitted from its wood are faid to purify
the air, and make rooms wholefome. Chapels and
places fet apart for religious duties, being wainfcotted
w ith this wood, infpire the worfhippers with a more
foiemn awe. It is not obnoxious to worms; and emits
an oil which will preferve cloth or books from worms
or corruption. The favv-duft will preferve human bo¬
dies from putrefa&ion; and is therefore faid to be
plentifully ufed in the rites of embalming, where piac-
tifed.”
It is remarkable that this tree is not to be found as
a native in any other part of the world than mount Li-
banus, as far as hath yet been difcovered. What we find
mentioned in Scripture of the lofty cedars can be nowife
applicable to the common growth of this tree ; fince,
from the experience we have of thofe now growing in
Lngland, as alfo from the teftimony of feveral travellers
who have vifited thofe few remaining trees on mount
Libanus, they are not inclined to grow very lofty, but
on the contrary extend their branches very far ; to
which the allufion made by the Pfalmift agrees very-
well, when he is deferibing the flourifhing ftate of a
people, and fays, “ They fhall fpread their branches
like the cedar tree.”
Ran wolf, in his Travels, fays, there were not at
that time (i.e. anno 1574') upon mount Libanus more
than 26 trees remaining, 24 of which flood in a circle*
and the other two, which flood at a fmall diftance*
had their branches almoft con fumed with age ; nor
could he find any younger tree coming up to fucceed
them, though he looked about diligently for fome.
Thefe trees (he fays) were growing at the foot of a
fmall hill, on the top of the mountains, and amongft
the fnow. Thefe having very large branches, com¬
monly bend the tree to one fide, but are extended to a
great length, and in fo delicate and pleafant order, as
if they were trimmed and made even with great dili¬
gence, by which they are eaiily diftinguifhed, at a
great diftance, from fir-trees. The leaves (continues
he) are very like to thofe of the larch-tree, grow¬
ing clofe together in little branches upon fmall brown
fhoots.
Maundrel, in his Travels, fays, there were hut id
large trees remaining when he vifited the mountain,
fome of which were of a prodigious bulk, but that
there were many more young ones of a fmaller fizc :
he me ifured one of the largeft, and found it to be 12
yards fix inches in girth, and yet found, and 37 yards
in the fpread of its boughs. At about five or fix
yards from the ground it was divided into five limbs,
each of which was equal to a great tree. What Maun¬
drel hath related was confirmed by a gentleman who
was there in the year 1720, with this difference only,
viz. in the dimenfions of the branches of the largeft
tree, which he meafured, and found to be 22 yardi
diameter. Now, whether Mr Maundrel meant 37
yards in circumference of the fpreading branches, or
Pimw.
the diameter of them, cannot be determined by his
5-^2 words p
PIN f 764
words; yrt eitlier of them well agrees with this la ft
account.
12. There is another fpecieSj viz. the larch-tree,
which the old hqtanifts ranked under larix, with deci¬
duous leave*, and oval obtufe cones. It grows natural¬
ly upon the Alps and Apennines, and of late has been
very much propagated in Britain. It is of quick
growth, and the trunk rifes to 50 feet or more; the
branches are (lender, their ends generally hanging
downward, and are garnhhed with long narrow leaves
which arife in clufters from one point, ipreading open
above like the hairs of a painter’s brufh : they are of
a light green, and fad away in autumn. In the month
of April the male flowers appear, which are difpofed
in form of fmall cones; the female flowers are col¬
lected into oval obtufe cones, which in fome fpecies
have bright purple tops, and in others they are white:
thefe differences are accidental; the cones are about an
inch long, obtufe at their points; the feales are i'mooth,
and he over each other: under each fcale there are ge¬
nerally lodged two feeds, which have wings. There
are other two varieties of this tree, one of which is a
native of America, and the other of Siberia. The cones
of the American kind which have been brought to
Britain feem in general to be larger than thole of the
common fort.
“ Many encomiums (fays Hanbury when fpeaking
of this (pecies) have been beftowei on the timber of
the larch : and we find fuch a favourable account of it
ancient authors, as (hould induce us to think it
] 'PIN
Of the common larch there are
3n
would be proper tor almolt any ufe, Evelyn recites a
ftory of Widen, a Dutch writer, that a (hip biu't
of this timber and cyprefa had been found in the
Numidian fea, twelve fathoms under water, found and
entire, and reduced to fuch a hardnefs as to refift the
(harped tool, after it had lain fubmerged above 1400
years. Certain it is this is an excellent wood for (hip
and houle-building. At Venice this wood is frequent¬
ly ufed in building their houfes, as well as in Switzer¬
land, where thefe trees abound : fo that, without all
doubt, the larch excels for malts for (hips, or beams for
houfes, doors, windows, &c. particularly as it is faid
to refift the worm.
“ In Switzerland (a) their houfes are covered with
boards of this wood cut out a foot fquare ; and, as it
emits a refinous fubftance, it fo diffufes itfelf into every
joint and crevice, and becomes fo compadt and dole,
as well as fo hardened by the air, as to render the co¬
vering proof againft all weather. But as fuch cover¬
ing for houfes would caufe great devaftation in cafe of
fire,the buildings are confined to a limited diftance by
an order of police from the magiftrates. The wood,
when firft laid on the houfes, is faid to he very white;
but this colour, in two or three years is changed, by
means of the fun and rdin, to a black, which appears
like a fmooib (hinmg varni^h.,,
feveral varieties.
The flowers which the commoneft fort exhibits eany
in the fpring are of a delicate red colour; another fort
produces white flowers at the fame fcafon, and thefe
have a delightful effett among thofe of the red fort;
whdft another, called the Black Newfoundland lar'ix, \vt-
creafes the variety, though by an afpeft little differing
from the others. There are alfo larches with greenilh
flowers, pale red, &c. all of which are accidental varie¬
ties from feeds. Tnefe var.eties are eafily diftin. ui(h-
ed, even when out of blow : the young ('hoots of the
white-flowering larch are of the lighted green, and the
cones when ripe are nearly white. The red fl iwering
lurch has its (hoots ot a reddiih caft, and the cones are
of a brown colour ; whilft the cones and (hoots of the
black Newfoundland Loch are in the fame manner pro¬
portionally tinged, i he cones, which are a very great
ornament to feveral forts of the pines, are very little to
thefc. Their chiet beauty eonhfts in the manner of
their growth, the nature and beauty of their pencilted
leaves and fair flowers; for the cones that fuccted them
are fmall, of a whitiih, a reddifh, or a blackfih brown
colour, and make no figure.
I he pinus cedrus and pmus larix are propagated by
fowing in March on a bed of light earth expofed to the
morning fun. The feed muft be covered half an inch
thick with fine light earth, and the beds watered at
times when the weather is dry. In about fix weeks the
plants will appear ; they muft at this time be carefully
guarded from the birds, (haded from the fun and winds,
and kept very clear Ot weeds in the latter end of
April the following year, they may fee removed into
beds of frefti earth, placing them at ten inches diftance
every way. They are to be kept here two years, and
luch of them as feem to bend muft be tied up to a flake
to keep them upright. They may afterwards be plant¬
ed in the places where they are to remain. They thrive
well on the (1 es ol barren hills, and make a very pretty
figure there.
Refpe&ing the ufes of this tree, Dr Pallas, in
his Flora Roffica, informs us, that if it is burnt,
and the w'ood confumed, the internal part of the
wood diltils copioufly a drying reidifti gum, a lit¬
tle lefs glutinous than gum arabic, fomewhat of a
refinous tafte, but wholly foluble in water. At the
mitigation of M. Kinder, this gum has lately been
fold in the Ruffian Ihops under the name of gumrni'
Ortnburgenjis, but which our author thinks (hould be
called gummi uralienfe or laricis. It is eat by the Wo-
guli as a dainty, and is faid to be nutritious and anti-
fcorbutic. Some manna was gathered from the green
leaves, but it could never be condenfed. The Ruffian*
ufe the boletus laricinus as an emetic in intermittents,
and to check the kucorrheea. At Bafchir and Siberia
the inhabitants fprinkiethe dry powder on the wound*
of oxen and horfes, aa a detergent and anthelmintic.
The
(a) “Between Bex and Bevieux (fays Coxe in his Travels in Switzerland), I obferved the larch in erea!
,lcmy. Parnter,. from the time of Pli„y to thut of Raphael, trailed their work, to this wood, which the
Roman naturalift (tiles immortale lignum. 1 he wood is reckoned excellent for all works which are to lie un-
^er water: and the borderers on the lake of Geneva prefer it for building their veffels. In thefe parts 1 faw
inoft beautiful woods of chefnut. Haller fays that they extend fome leagues : he aU'o informs us, that they are
iound in other parts of Switzerland, and even in defert places in fome of the tranfalpine parts. Accident muff
havebrought them thither, as it appear* from Pliny that thefe trees were firft introduced into Europe Iron!
Pinui.
PIN f y^S ] PIN
The nut* of the plnas cembra, the fame author affertR, a little thicker. This is verv tlifferent frr™ ,11 ^
are » lexunea ,n Ruffia, and are even exported kind, of refin and turpen^ffn X™ Xn’erl'
with the fame view. I he uunpe cones give a very fold to be ufed in the making of flambeaux inftead of
fragrant o.l, termed balfamto. The inhabitant, of Si- white bees wax. •I'he mattir that i. renewed in »h!
bena ufe the tender tops, and even the bark rubbed off hole at the bottom is taken up with ladles^ and out in
in the fprtng, as an antifcorbutic. The kernels of the a large bafket. A great part ol this immediatelv runs
?Utt°!^C amyp1sih‘8 nana l,v.e a v5ry Pleafing fl lvour through, and this is the common turpentine. " This is
Prnufc
to brandy ; ;>nd, when preffed, afford a bitter oil in
large quantities. J’he way of deltroying the bitter is
by digelting it in the fuu with fpirit of wine, and it
then becomes fweet and extremely agreeable.
From the larch-tree is extracted what we errone
oufly call Fenice turpentine. This fubltanee, or na¬
tural balfam, Hows at firft without incifion ; when it
has done dropping, the poor people who wait in the
fw woods make mcifions at about two or three feet
from the ground into the trunks of the trees, into
which they fix narrow troughs about 20 inches long.
The end of theft troughs is hollowed like a ladle;
and in the middle is a fmall hole bored for the turpen¬
tine to run into the receiver which is placed below it.
As the gummy fubRance runs from the trees, it psffea
along the Hoping gutter or trough to the ladle, and
from thence runs through the holes into the receiver.
The people who gather it vifit the trees morning and
evening from the end of May to September, to colled
the turpentine out of the receivers. Wh. n it flows out
ot the tree, Venice turpentine is clear like water, and
of a yellowifh white; but, as it grows older, it thickens
and becomes of a citron colour. It is procured in
the greateft abundance in the neighbourhood of Ly
ens, and in the valley of St Martin near St Lucern in
Switzerland.
. Though we have already noticed, the manner of cul-
tivating fome of the particular fpecieg of this genus,
and have alfo remarked the ufes ol fome of them, we
fhali flnifh the article with a tew general obfervatious
on the culture and ufes of the whole.
Culture. All the forts of pines are propagated by
feeds produced in hard woody cones. The way to
get the feeds out of thefc cones is to lay them before
a gentle fire, which will caufe the cells to open, and
then the feeds may be eafily taken out. If the cones
are kept entire, the feeds will remain good for fome
years ; fo that the fureil wiy of prefervmg them is to
let them remain in the coner, till the time for fowing
the feeds. If the cones are kept in a warm place in
fummer, they will open and emit the feeds; but if
they are not expofed to the heat, they w.ll remain
clofe for a long time. The beft feafon for fowing the
pines is about the end ol March. When the feeds are
fown, the place fhould be covered with nets to keep
off the birds; other-vife, when the plants begin to
appear with the hulk of the feed on the top of them,
the birds will peck off the tops, and thus deltroy them.
Ufes. From (lit tirlt fpecies is extracted the corn-
men iurpent.ne, much ufed by farriers, and from which
is drawn the oil of that name. The procefs ot making
pitch, Ur, rdin, and turpentine, from thefe trees is
ver) 'amiliar. In the fpring time, when the fap is
molt free in running, they pare off the bark of the
pine tree, to make the fap run down into a hole which
they cut at the bottom to receive it. In the way, as
it runs down, it leaves a white matter like cream, but
received into (tone or earthen pots, and is ready for
laie. ( he thicker matter, which remains in the balket,
they put into a common alembic, adding a large quan¬
tity ot water. They diltil this as long as any oil is
feen fwimming upon the water. This oil they feparate
from the furface in large quantities, and this is the
common oil or fpirit of turpentine. The remaining
matter at the bottom of the Hill is common yellow re-
fin. When they have thus obtained all that they can
from the fap of the tree, they cut it down, and, hew¬
ing the wood into billets, they fill a pit dug in the
earth with thefe billets, and, letting them on tire, there
runs from them, while they are burning, a black thick
matter. 1 his naturally falls to the bottom of the pit,
an . this is the tar i he top of the pit is covered with
tiles, to keep in the heat; and there is at the bottom a
httie hole, out at which the tar runs like oil. If this
hole be made too large, it fets the whole quantity of
the tar on lire * but, if fmali enough, it runs quietly
out. . * ^ 7
The tar, being thus made,is put up in barrels; and
if it be to be made into pitch, they put it into large
boiling vclleis, without adding any thing to it. It is
then luffered to boil a while, and being then let out,
is foun : when cold to be what we call pitch.
A decoction of the nuts or feeds of the firft fpecies in
milk, or ol the extremities of the branches pulled in
fprmg, is faid, with a proper regimen, to cure the
molt inveterate feurvy. Fire wood of this fpscies is
not valued ; but that of the Scots pine is fuperior t»
any of the reft. It is obfervable of the Scots pine
that, when planted in bogs, or in a moift foil, though
the plants nuke great progrefs, yet the wood is wh-te,
foft, and little edeemed ; but w'hen planted in a dry-
foil, though the growth of the trees is there very How,
yet the wood is proportiona! ly better. Few trees have
been applied to more ules than this. The tailed and
ftraighteft are formed by nature lor mails to our navy.
The timber is refinous, durable, and applicable to num-
berlefs domeftic purpofes, fuch as flooring and wainf- ■
cotting of rooms, making ot beds, chefts, tables,
boxes, &c. from the trunk and branches of this, as
well as moil others of the pine tribe, tar and pitch is
obtained. By incifion, bairas, Burgundy pitch, and
turpentine, are acquired and prepared. The refinous
roots are dug out ol the ground in many parts of the
Higniands, and, being divided into fmali fplinters, arc
uied by the inhabitants to burn inftead of candles.—
At Loch-Broom, in Kofs-lhire, the filhermen make
ropes of the inner bark ; but bard neceffity h is taught
the inhabitants ot Sweden, Lapland, and Kamtfchatka,
to convert the fame into bread. To effe& this, they,
in the fpring feafon, make choice of the tallell and
faireft trees ; then ftnpping off carefully the outer bark,
they collefl the fo;t, white, fucculent interior bark,
and dry it in the lhade. When they have occafion to
ufe it, they firft toaft it at the fire, then grind, and af-
A ' ies>
PIP [ 766 1 PIP
■pioneer* ter ftcepjng the flonr in warm water to take of?1 the re*
)l finoua tafte, they make it into thin cakes, which are
, 'l,e' , baked for ufe On this ftrange food the poor inhabi¬
tants are fometimes conflrained to live for a whole year;
and, we are told, through cuftom, become at laft even
fond of it. Linnseus remarks, that this fame bark-
bread w'ill fatten fwine ; and humanity obliges us to
wilh, that men might never be reduced to the neceflity
of robbing them of fuch a food. The interior hark,
of which the above mentioned bread is made, the Swe*
difli boys frequently peel off the trees in the fpring,
and eat raw with greedy appetite. From the cones of
this tree is prepared a diuretic oil, like the oil of tur¬
pentine, and a refinous extra&, which has fimilar vir¬
tues with the balfam of Peru. An infufion or tea of
the buds is highly commended as an antifcorbutic.
The farina, or yellow powder, of the maie-flowere, is
fometimes in the fpring carried away by the winds, in
fuch quantities, where the trees abound, as to alarm
the ignorant with the notion of its raining brimftone.
The tree lives to a great age ; Linrteus affirms to 400
years.
PIONEERS, in the art of war, are fuch as are
commanded in from the country, to march with an
army for mending the ways, for working on intrench*
ment* and fortifications, and for making mines and
approaches. The foldiers are likewife employed for
all thefe purpofes. Moft of the foreign regiments of ar¬
tillery have half a company of pioneers, well inftruc-
ted in that important branch of duty. Our re¬
giments of infantry and Cavalry have three or four
pioneers each, provided with aprons, hatchets, faws,
fpades, and pick-axes. Each pioneer muft have an
ax, a faw, and an apron ; a cap with a leather crown,
and a black bears-ffiin front, on which is to be the
king’s creft in white, on a red ground ; and the num¬
ber of the regiment is to be on the back part of it.
PIP, or Pep, a difeafe among poultry, confiding
«f a white thin (kin, or film, that grows under the tip
of the tongue, and binders their feeding. It ufually
arifes from want of water, or from the drinking pud¬
dle-water, or eating filthy meat. It is cured by pull¬
ing off the film with the fingers, and rubbing the
tongue with fait. Hawks are particularly liable to
this difeafe, efpecially from feeding on {linking fleffi.
PIPE, in building, &c. a canal, or conduit, for
the conveyance of water and other liquids. Pipes for
water, water-engines, &c. are ufually of lead, iron,
earth, or wood : the latter are ufually made of oak of
elder. Thofe of iron are caft in forges; their ufual
length is about two feet and a half: feveral of thefe
are commonly fattened together by means of four
ferews at each end, with leather or old hat between
them, to ttop the water. Thofe of earth are made by
the potters ; thefe are fitted into one another, one end
being always made wider than the other. To join
them the clofer, and prevent their breaking, they are
covered with tow and pitch: their length is ufualiy
about that of the iron pipes. The wooden pipes are
trees bored with large iron augres, of different fizes,
beginning with a Id's, and then proceeding with a lar¬
ger fucceffively ; the firft being pointed, the reft be¬
ing formed like fpoons, increafing in diameter, from
one to fix inches or more: they are fitted into the ex¬
tremities of each other (as reprefented fig. a.), and are Pip**
fold by the foot. " *—«
Wooden pipes are bored as follows. The machine P)
reprefented fig. 1. is put in motion by the wheel A, CCCXCUI.
which is moved by a current of water ; upon the
axle of this wheel is a cog-wheel B, which caufes
the lanterns C, D, to turn horizontally, whofe com¬
mon axis is confequently in a perpendicular direftion.
The lantern D turns at the fame time two cog¬
wheels, E and F : the firft, E, which is vertical, turns
the augre which bores the wood ; and the fecond, F,
which is horizontal, caufes the carriage bearing the
piece to advance by means of the arms H, I, which
takes hold of the notches in the wheel K. The firft,
H, by means of the notches, draws the wheel towards
F ; and the other, I, putties the under-poft of the
wheel in an oppofite direftion ; both wdiich motions
tend to draw the carriage towards F, and confequent¬
ly caufe the augre to pierce the wood. The augre be¬
ing from 9 to 12 feet in length, and of a proportion-
able bignefs, it will be neceffary to have two pieces, as
L, L, to fupport its weight, and caufe it to enter the
piece to be bored with the fame uniformity.
For the conftrudlion of leaden pipes, fee the article
Plumbery,
Air-PiFF.S. See Ant-Pipes.
Pipes of an Organ. See Org/Jn,
Bag-Pipe. See Bag-Pipe.
Horn-PiPE. See Hornpipe.
Tobacco-PiFB, a machine ufed in the fmoking ot’
tobacco, confiding of a long tube, made of earth or
clay, having at one end a little cafe, or fnrnace, call¬
ed the bowl, for the reception of the tobacco, the
fumes whereof are drawn by the mouth through the
other end. Tobacco pipes are made of various fa-
ffiioua ; long, ftiort, plain, worked, white, varniffied,
unvarnifhed, and of various colours, &c. The Turks
ufe pipes three or four feet long, made of ru/hes, or of
wood bored, at the end whereof they fix a kind of a
pot of baked earth, which ferves as a bowl, and which
they take off after fmoking.
Pipe, alfo denotes a veffel or meafure for wine, and
things meafured by wine-meafure. See Barrel and
Measure.
Pipe, in mining, is where the ore runs forwards
endwife in a hole, and doth not fink downwards or in
a vein.
Pipe, Pipa, in law, is a roll in the exchequer, call¬
ed alfo the great roll. See the next article.
PiPE-OJfice, is an office wherein a perfon called the
clerk of the pipe, makes out leafes of crown-lands, by
warrant from the lord-treafurer, or commiffioners of
the treafury, or chancellor of the exchequer. The
clerk of the pipe makes out alfo all accounts of ftie-
riffs, &c. and gives the accountants their quietus ejl.
To this office are brought all accounts which pafs the
remembrancer’s office, and remain there, that if any
ftated debt be due from any perfon, the fame may be
drawn down into the great roll of the pipe : upon which
the comptroller iffues out a writ, called the fummons of
the pipe, for recovery thereof; and if there be no
goods or chattels, the clerk then draws down the
debts to the lord treafurer’s remembrancer, to write
eftreats againft thsir lands. All tallies which vouch
the
PIP [
the payment of any fum contained in fuch accounts
are examined and allowed by the chief fecondary of
the pipe. Befides the chief clerk in this office, there
are eight attorneys or fworn clerks, and a comp¬
troller. r
Pipe Fijh, in ichthyology. See Syngnathus.
Sea-Pipes, in zoology, are univalve {hells, of an ob-
long figure, terminating in a point, fometimes a little
bending, and fometimea ftraight. Sea ears, figures of
which we have given along with the fea-pipes, are aho
univalve flat (hells, refembling in (hape the ear of a
man. In fea ears it is not uncommon to find fmall
pearls, the feeds of which are often found in the mid¬
dle of their cavities, which are of the fineft naker or
mother-of-pearl colour. There are ridges on both (ides;
thofe without form a kind of volute or fpirc, termi¬
nating in an eye. In thefe ftiells there is a row of
round holes, fix of which generally go quite through.
'I here is a (hell of this kind, which is longer in pro¬
portion to its width, and much lefg common, for it is
never found in our feas. 'There is yet another, very fine
and thin, of a dirty grey colour, neither nakered nor
perforated as the others are; the inner rim is fpiral,
and at fome diftance from the outer.
The fea-pipes are diftinguiflted from fea-worms by
having their pipes ficgle; whereas the others form an
aflemblage of pipes joined together. The fea worms,
from the number and jun&ion of their parts, are mul¬
tivalves. The (hells ot pipes called dentales and antales
are diftinguiihed from each other only by their fize,
the antales being much the lead. The fea pencil, or •wa¬
tering /pout, is the meft remarkable fhell of this tribe,
and mud be confidered as having a fpecific chara&er
either by its form which is draight, or the Angularity
of its fuperior extremity, which is perforated like the
fpout of a watering pot.
In Plate CCCXCII. the (hell, fig. i. pierced with
many holes, is found with its natural covering in our
fpas. It is finely nakcred within, and in the middle of
its hollow or cavity contains many fmall pearls. Fig. 2.
is placed on its upper fide to (how its fpots, which are
red upon a ground of the pured white ; the ridges are
prominent ; the rim and the eye are irregular and
notched. Fig. 4. the Angularity of this (hell confids
in its being neither nakered nor perforated, and in
turning very much up near the eye of its (pire or con¬
tour. Fig. 5. is a pencil or watering fpout; at the head
is a kind of ruff, and within it is formed like the end
of a watering fpout, perforated with many holes,
which, when the fifh is alive, are filled with very fine
threads, like the hairs of a painter’s pencil. Fig. 6.
are called dentals from their refemblance of elephants
teeth ; the point or apex is white, and the other extre-
mity green. They are both ribbed and nnkered, and
are didinguiflied from each other only by fome excref-
cences which appear on the uppermod. Fig. 7. are
two fmall (hells of the dental figure, called for didinc-
tion an tales. They are perfedly fmooth ; one is white,
and the other reddilh.
PIPER, in ichthyology. See Trig la.
767 ] PIP
Piper, Pepper; a genus of the trigynia order, be¬
longing to the diandria clafs of plants. There are 20
fpeciea, of which the mod remarkable is the firiboa,
7-, 07a,’- hearVfhaPed» nerved leaves, and reflexed
fpikes. 1 his is the plant which produces the pepper fo
much ufed m food. It is a (hrub whofe root is (mail,
fibrous, and flexible ; it nfee into a dem, which re-
quires a tree or a prop to fupport it. Its wood has the
lame fort ot knots as the vine ; and when it is dry it
exactly refembles the vine-branch. The leaves, which
have a ftrong fmell and a pungent tade, are of an oval
rhape; but they diminifli towards the extremity, and
terminate in a point. From the flower-buds, which
are white, and are fometimea placed in the middle
and fometimes at the extremity of the branches, are
produced fmall berries refembling thofe of the currauc-
tree. Each of thefe contains between 20 and 30 corns
of pepper; they are commonly gathered in O&ober
and expofed to the fun feven or eight days The fruit*
which was green at firfl, and afterwards red, when
dripped of its covering affumes the appearance it has
when we fee it. The larged, heaviefi, and lead ftui-
veiled, is the bed.
The pepper plant flouriflies in the iflands of Java
bumatra (a), and Ceylon, and more particularly on the
Malabar coad. It is not iown, but planted j and great
mcety is required in the choice of the (hoots. It pro
duces no fruit tiU the end of three years; but bears
io plentifully the three fucceeding years, that fome
plants yield between fix and feven pounds of pe-mer
1 he bark then begins to (brink ; and the (hrub declines
1° tad, that in 12 years time it ceafes bearing.
The culture of pepper is not difficult: it is fufficient
to plant it in a rich (oil, and carefully to pull up the
weeds that grow in great abundance round its roots
efpec.ally the three firit years. As the fun is highly
neceiiary to the growth ot the pepper plant, when it 13
ready to bear, the trees that fupport it mud be lopped
to prevent their (hade from injuring the fruit. When
the feafon is over, it is proper to crop the head of the
plant. Without this precaution, there would be too
much wood, and little fruit.
The pepper exported from Malabar, which was for.
merly entirely in the hands of the Poi tuguefe, and is
at prefent divided between the Dutch, Britifh, and
french, amounts to about 10,000,000 weight. Betel
or betle, is a fpecies of this genus. See Betel. It is
a creeping and climbing plant like the ivy ; and its
leaves a good deal referable thofe of the citron, though
they are longer and narrower at the extremity, it
grows m all parts of India, but thrives bed in moid
p aces. I he natives cultivate it as we do the vine
placing props for it to run and climb upon ; and it is
a common pradice to plant .it againd the tree which
bears the areca nut.
t ^1 aii 5ime3,of the and even in night, the
Indians chew the leaves ot the betel, the bitternefs of
which is corrected by the ateca that is wrapped up in
them I here is condantly mixed with it the chinam
a kind of buthtlime made of (hells. The rich frequent-
Piper;
or Llhe iVew rinnual Regflcfio^i 783? p! pCPPer in Sum*tra’ifl Mr Marfden’e Rtfoy of Sumatra*
p I p
r 7*8 i
p 1 p
part
|>. 376
Pirer, fy add perfumes, either to gratify their vanity or their
lenfuality.
It would be thought a breach of politenefs among
the Indiana to take leave for any long time, without
prefenting each other with a purfe of betel. It is a
pledge of friendihip that relieves the pain of abfence.
No one dares to fpeak to a fuperior unlefs his mouth is
perfumed with betel; it would even be rude to negledl
this precaution with an equal. The women of gallan¬
try are the moft lavifli in the ufe of betel, as being a
powerful incentive to love. Betel is taken after meals;
it is chewed during a vifit ; it is offered when you meet,
and when you fcparatc ; in fhort, nothing is to be done
without betel. If it is prejudicial to the teeth, it afliils
and ftrengthens the ftotnach. At leaft, it is a general
fafhion that prevails throughout India.
London Me- The piper amalago, or b’ack pepper, and the piper
d'ual y°ur- 'mequale, or long pepper of Jamaica, with fome o;her
nal, vol. vm ppecje8 are indigenous, and known by the names of
tiarf ill. ,r, 1* n , r 11
&Q.j9tnt 'wood, or peppery elders. 1 he hrlt bears a imall
fpike, on which are attached a number of fmall feeds
of the fize of muftard. The whole of the plant has the
exaft tafte of the Eafl India black pepper. The long
peppei bufh grows taller than the amalago. The leaves
are broad, fmooth, and fhining. The fruit is fimilar
to the long pepper of the fhops, but fmsller. The com¬
mon people in Jamaica feafon their mefTes with the
bla.'k pepper. To preferve both, the fruit may be
(lightly fcalded when green, then dried, and wrapped
in paper. Perhaps hereafter they may be deemed wor¬
thy of attention.
PIPRA, in ornithology; a genus of birds of the
order of pajferes. Tatham gives it the name of mana-
kin, and fo does Buffon, who informs us that it was
beftowed upon them by the Dutch fettlers in Surinam.
JLatham defcribes 25 different fpecies, and five varie¬
ties. The general charafter of the genus is, that the
bill is fhort, ftrong, hard, and flightly incurvated, and
the noftrils are naked. The middle toe is connedfed
to the outer as far as the third joint : this charafter,
however, is not altogether univerfal, fome of the fpe-
cies differing in this particular. The tail is fhort. This
genu* has a confiderable refemblance to the genus pa-
rus, or titmoufe. They a’e fuppofed to inhabit South
America only ; but this is not true, for Mr Latham
afl'ures ns that he has feen many of thofe fpecies which
he has defcribed which came from other parts, but
which neveuhelefs certainly belong to this genus.—
BufFon differs widely in his arrangement from Mr La¬
tham. and only enumerates fix diftinft fpecies With¬
out particularizing thofe differences, however, we (hall
give from BufFon the following elegant account of the
genus in gencial : “ The natural habits common to
them all were not known, and the obfervations which
have f fen made are ftill infufficient to admit an exadt
deta 1. We fliall only relate the remarks communicated
to us by Sonin! of Manoncour, who fawminy of thefe
birds in their native climates. They inhabit the im-
menfe foreffs in the w„rm parts of America, and never
emerge from their reccffes to vifit the cleared grounds
or the vicinity of the plantations. They fly with eon-
fidenble fwiftnefs, but always at a fmall height, ?nd
to fhort diflances ; they never perch on the fummits
of trees, but on the middle branches; they feed upon
fmaU wild fruits, and alfo eat infedfa. They generally
occur in fmall bodies of eight or ten of the fame fpe-k-
cies, and fometimes intermingled with other flocks of
the fame genus, or even of a different genus, fuch as
the Cayenne warblers, &c. It is commonly in the
morning that they are found thus aflembled, and then
feem to be joyous, and warble their delicate little
notes. The frefhnefs of the air feems to infpire the
fong, for they are filent during the burning heat of the
day, and difperfe and retire to the fhade of the thickeft
parts of the foreft. This habit is obferved, indeed, in
many kinds of birds, and even in thofe of the woods
of France, where they colleft to fing in the morning
and evening; but the manakins never affemble in the
evening, and concinue together only from fun-rife to
nine or ten o’clock in the forenoon, and remain fepa-
rate during the reft of the day and the fucceeding
night. In general they prefer^ cool humid fituation,
though they never frequent marfhes or the margin* of
lakes.”
I. The pipra rupicola, or crefted manakin, is .about
the fize of a fmall pigeon, being about 10 or 1 2 inches
long. The bill is about an inch and a quarter long, and
of a yellowifh colour. The head is furnifhed with a
double round creft ; the general colour of the plumage
is orange, inclining to faffron; the wing coverts are loofe
and fringed ; the quills are partly white and partly
brown ; the tail feathers are in number 12; the bafe
half of the ten middle ones is of an orange colour,
from thence to the end* they are brown ; the enter
feathers are brown, and the bafe half of the inner web is
orange ; all of them are fimilarly fringed ; the upper
tail coverts are very long, loofely webbed, and fquare
at the ends ; the legs and claws are yellow. The
female is altogether brown, except the under wing
coverts, which are of a rufous orange ; the creft is
neither fo complete nor rounded as that of the male.
Both males and females are at firft grey, or of a very
pale yellow, inclining to brown. The male does not
acquire the orange colour till the fecond year, neither
does the female the full brown.
“ This beautiful fpecies (fays Latham), inhabits va¬
rious parts of Surinam, Cayenne, and Guiana, in rocky
fituations ; but is nowhere fo frequent ss in the moun¬
tain Luca, near the river Oyapoc, and in the mountain
Courouaye, near the river Aprouack, where they build
in the cavernous hollows, and the darkeft receffes.
They lay two round white eggs, the fize of thofe of a
pigeon, and make the ntft of a few dry bits of flicks.
They are in general very fhy, but have been frequently
tamed, infomuch as to run at large among the poultry.
It is faid that the female, after fhe has laid eggs for fome
years, and ceafes fo to do more, becomes at the enfu-
ing moult of the fame colour as the male, and may be
miftaken for him ; in this imitatingthe females of vari¬
ous kinds of poultry, fuch as the peacock, pheafant, &c.
(See Pavo. 6cc.) A moft complete pair is in the Leverian
Muffcum.”.Our author defcribes a variety ©f this fpecies,
which he calls the Peruvian manakin. It is longer than
the preceding, efpetially in the tail, and the upper co¬
verts of it are not truncated at the ends; the wing co¬
verts are not fringed, as in the rock manakin, and the
creft is not fo well defined as in that bird ; the general
colour of the plumage inclines much to red ; the fe¬
cond
Fipra,
J
. yV/<r///( ' r//,i r/t/t/€ >'
f /Zs' r y/r////,>UJfO .
rA^/tss/dt'* •
k^/z/tej
a /
i’latc CCCXCXt
Plate CCOXCIH.
Pipra*
Piquet
P I [ yfig
cond coverts and rump are of an afc colour; the wln^s
  ^ r -l1 j8re J" ^C^ ’ .tlie and ^eP8 8re 38 in the lalfc
delcnbed. It is an inhabitant of Peru, from whence
its name.
2. 1 he next and laft fpecies which we fhall deferibe
(tor it would be impoffible to enumerate them all), Mr
Latham calls the tuneful manahin. Its length is four
inches; the bill is dufky, the forehead yellow, and the
crown and nape blue ; the chin, Tides of the head be¬
low the eyes, and the throat, are black ; the upper
part of the back, the wings, and the tail, are dufky
black; the tail is very fhoit; the lower part of the
back and rump, the breaft, belly, vent, and thighs, are
orange coloured • the legs are dufky. It is a native of
bt Domingo, where it has gained the name of organifte
from its note, forming the comphteeftave in the moft
agreeable manner, one note fucceflively after another.
It is laid not to be uncommon, but not eafy to be fhot,
as, like the creeper, it perpetually fhifts to the opoo-
fite pait of the branch from {he fpedator’s eye, fo as
to elude his vigilance. It is moil likely the very bird
mentioned by Du Prrtz, above quoted, whofe notes,
he fays, are fo varied and fweet, ami which warbles fo
tenuerly, that thofe who have heard it value much lefs
the long of the nightingale. It is faid to fmg for near
two hours without force taking breath, and after a
refpite of about the fame time begins again. Du Pratz,
who himfelf has heard it, fays that it i'ung perched on
an oaK, near the houfe lie was then in.
PIQUE i , or Picket, a celebrated game at cards,
much in ufe throughout the polite world.
It is played between two perfons, with only ^2
cards; all the duces, threes, fours, fives, and fixes, be¬
ing let afide.
In reckoning at this game, every card goes for the
number it bears, as a ten for ten ; only all court cards
go for ten, and thea-e for eleven : and the ufual game
is one hundred up. In playing, the ace wins the
king, the king the queen, and fo down.
Twelve cards are dealt round, ufuaily by two and
two ; which done, the remainder are laid in the middle:
if one of the gamefters finds he has not a court-card in
his hand, he is to declare he has carte-blanche, and
tell how many cards he will lay out, and defire the
other to difeard, that he may fhow his game, and fa-
tisfy his antagonift that the carte-blanche Is real; for
which he re Icons ten.
Each perfon difeards, i. e. lays afide a certain num¬
ber of his cards, and takes in a like number from the
flock. The firft of the eight cards may take three,
four, or five; the dealer all the remainder, if he
pleafes.
After difearding, the eldefl hand examines what fuit
he has moft cards of; and reckoning how many points
he has in that fuit, if the other have not fo many in
that or any other fuit, he tells one for every ten of
that fuit. He who thus reckons moft is faid to win
the point.
The point being over, each examines what fequences
he has of the fame fuit, viz. how many tierces, or fo
<1060068 of three, quartes or fours, quintes or fives, fix-
iemes, or fix’s, &c. For a tierce they reckon three
points, for a quarte four, for a quinte 15, for a fixieme
16, &c. And the feveral fequences are diftinguifhed
in dignity by the cards they begin from ; thus ace
Vol. XIV. Part. II.
1 p I Q.,
king, and queen, are called tierce major ; king, queen,
and knave, tierce to a king ; knave, ten, and nine,
tierce to a knave, &c. and the beft tierce, quarte, or
quinte, i. e< that which takes its defeent from the beft
card, prevails, fo as to make all the others in that
hand good, and deftroy all thofe in the other hand.
In like manner, a quarte in one hand fets afide a tierce
in the other.
1 he fequences over, they proceed to examine how
many aces, kings, queens, knaves, and tens, each
holds ; reckoning for every three of any fort, three :
but here too, as in fequences, he that with the fam-
number of threes has one that is higher than any the
other has, e. gr. three aces, has all his others made
good hereby, and hia adverfary’s all fet afide. But
^l'r °f any fort> which is called a quatorze, always fets
alide three.
All the game in hand being thus reckoned, the el-
deft proceeds to play, reckoning one for every card he
plays above a nine, and the other follows him in the
lun ; and the higheft card of the fuit wins the trick.
Wote, unlefs a trick be won with a card above a nine
(except the laft trick), nothing is reckoned for it ;
though the trick ferves afterwaids towards winning the
cards; and that he who plays laft does not reckon for
his cards unlefs he wins the trick.
The cards being played out, he that has moft tricks
reckons ten for winning the cards. If they have tricks
alike, neither reckons any thing. The deal bein^- fi.
mfhed, and each having marked up his came, they
proceed to deal again as before, cutting "afrelh each
time for the deal.
If both parties be within a few points of being up
the carte blanche is the firft thing that reckons, then
the point, then the fequences, then the quatorzes or
threes, then the tenth cards.
He that can reckon 30 in hand by carte-blanche,
points, quintes, &c. without playing, ere the other
has reckoned any thing, reckons go for them ; and
this is called a reptque. If he reckons above 30, he
reckons fo many above 90. If he can make up’30,
part in hand and part play, ere the other has told any
thing, he reckons for them 60. And this is called
a pique. Whence the name of the game. He that
wins all the tricks, inftead of ten, which is his right
for winning the caids, reckons 40. And this is called
a capot.
Mr de Moivre, who has made this game the objeft
of mathematical inveftigations, has propofed and folved
the following problems: x. To find at piquet the pro*
bability which the dealer has for taking one ace or more
in three cards, he having none in his hand. He con¬
cludes from his computation, that it is 29 to 28 that
the dealer takes one ace or more. 2. To find at piquet
the probability which the eideft has of taking an ace
or more in five cards, he having no ace in his hand.
Anfwer; 232 to 91, or 5 to 2, nearly. 3. To find
at piquet the probability which the eideft hand has of
taking an ace and a king in five cards, he having none
in his hand. Anfwer ; the odds againft the eideft hand
taking an ace and a king are 331 to 315, or 21 to 20
nearly. 4. To find at piquet the probability of having
12 cards dealt to, without king, queen, or knave,
which cafe is commonly called cartes-blanches. An¬
fwer ; the odds againft cartes-blanches are 1791 to 1
5 ^ aearly.
?iry
fir
u-n
Pira.
P I R [ 77° ] P I R
nearly. 5. To find how many different fets, effential- known by the name piraya. Piraquiba, or Ipiraquiba, Piram*. ^
ly different from one another, one may have at piquet ia the name of a fiih originally Brafilian, which fome
before taking in. Anfwer ; 28,967,278. This num- writers apply to the remora ox fucking Jifh.
ber falls Ihort of the fum of all the diftinA combina* PIRAEUS portus, (anc. geog.), a celebrated
tions, whereby 12 cards may be taken out of 32, this port to the welt of Athens, confrIHng naturally of
number being 2 25,792,840 ; but it muff be confidered three harbours or bafons, (Thucydides); which lay
that in that number feveral fets of the fame import, negle&ed, till Themiftocles put the Athenians on ma^-
but differing in fuit, might betaken, which would not king it a commodious port, (Nepos) ; the Phalrus,
introduce an effential difference among the fets. The a fmall port, and not far from the city, being what
fame author gives alfo fome obfervatlons on this game, they ufed before that time, (Paufanias, Nepos). Pi-
which he had from an experienced player. See Doc- rteeus was originally a village of Attka, (Paufanias) 4
trine of Chances, p. 179, &c. M. de Monmort has an ifland, (Strabo) ; and though diftant 40 ftadta frona
treated of piquet in his Amilyfe des Jeux de Hazard^ Athens, was joined to it by two long walls, (Thucy-
p. 162. dides), and itfeif locked or walled round, (Nepos) i
PIRA, is a name by which a variety of foreign A very commodious and fafe harbour. The whole of
fifties aie diftinguiffed. The pira aca is a little horned its compafs was 60 ftad'a, including the Munichia.
fifh of the Welt Indies, called by Clufitis and others Not far from the Pirasus flood the fepufehre of The-
the monoceros or unicorn fijh. The pira acangata is the miftocles ; whither his friends conveyed his bones from
name of a Brafilian fifti, which rc-fembles the perch Magnefia, into the Hither Affs, (Cicero, Plutarch,
both in fize and fhape. It feldom exceeds four or five Paufanias). The entrance of the Piraaus is narrow, Chandler'*
inches in length; its mouth is fmall ; its tail fork- and formed by two rocky points* one belonging to the Travels /'.■»
ed. On the back it has only one long fin, which is promontory of Eetion, the other to that of Alcimus.
fupported by rigid and prickly fpines. This fin it can Within were three ftations for fhipping ; Kantharus,^ l^’
deprefs at pleafure, and fink within a cavity made for fo named from a hero ; Aparodifium, from a temple of
it in the back. Its feales are of a filvery white colour ; Venus ; and Zea, the refort of veffels laden with grain,
it is wholefome and well tailed. Pira bebe is the name By it was a demos or borough town of the fame name
of the milvus, or klte-fifti. Pira coaba is an American before the time of Themiftocles, who recommended
fifti of the truttaceous kind, of a very delicate flavour, the exchanging its triple harbour for the ftngle one of
It grows to the length of 12 inches ; its nofe is point- Phalerum, both as more capacious and as better fitu-
ed, and its mouth large, but without teeth ; the up- ated for navigators. The wall was begun by him when
tier jaw is longer than the under one, and hangs over archon, in the fecond year of the 75th Olympiad, 477
like a cartilaginous prominence; its eyes are very years before Clirift ; and afterwards he urged the A the-
large, and its toil is forked ; under each of the gill ninns to complete it as the impeltance of the place de-
fins there is a beard made of fix white filaments, and ferved. This whole fortification was of hewn ffone*
covered with filvery feales. Pira jurumenbeca is a Bra- without cement or other material, except lead and iron,
filian fifti, otherwife called bocca molle. It lives in the which were ufed to hold together the exterior ranges
muddy bottom of the American feas, and is a long bo- or facings. It was fo wide that the loaded carts could
died not flatted fifti. It grows to a great fize, being pafs on it in different directions, and it was 40 cubits
found nine, and fometimes even ten or eleven, feet high, which was about half what he had defigned.
long, and two feet and a half thick. It has one long The Pirseus, as Athens flourifhed, became the
fin on the back, the anterior part of which is thin and common emporium of all Greece. Hippodamus an
pellucid. There is alfo a cavity on the back, as in the archiceCl, celebrated, befides other monuments of his
pira acangata, into which the fin can be de-preffed at genius, as the inventor of many improvements in houfe
pleafure ; the tail is not forked, and the feales are all building, Was employed to lay out the ground. Five
of a filvery colour and brightnefs. The fifh is very porticoes, which uniting formed the Long Portico^
well tailed ; the pira pixanga is another Brafilian fifh were erefted by the ports. Here was an agora or mar-
of the turdus or wraffe kind, and called byT fome the ket place, and, farther from the fea, another called
val’oifh. It is generally about four or five inches long ; Hippodamia. By the veffels were dwellings for the ma¬
lts mouth is pretty large, and furnifhed with very fmall riners. A theatre was opened, temples were raifed*
and very fharp teeth ; its head is fmall, but its eyes are and the Piraeus, which furpaffed the city in utility, be-
large and prominent, the pupil being of a fine turquoife gan to equal it in dignity. The cavities and windings
colour, and the iris yellow and red in a variety of fhades. of Munychia, natural and artificial, were filled with
The coverings of the gills end in a triangular figure, houfea ; and the whole fettlement, comprehending
and are terminated by a fhort fpine or prickle; its Phalerum and the ports of the Piraeus, with the aife-
fcales are very fmall, and fo evenly arranged, and clofe- nals, the florehoufes, the famous armoury of which
iy laid on the flcfh, that it is very fmooth to the Philo was the architedl, and the fheds for 300, and af-
touch ; its tail is rounded at the end ; its whole body, terwards 400, triremes, refembled the city of Rhodes,
head;, tail, and fins, are of a pale yellow colour, varie- which had been planned by the fame Hippodamus.
gated all over with very beautiful blood-coloured fpots; The ports, on the commencement of the Peloponnefian
thefe are round, and of the bignefs of hemp-feed on war, were fecured with chains. Centinels were fla-
the back and fides, and fomething larger on Ihe belly; tioned, and the Pirseus was carefully guarded,
the fins are all fpotted in the fame manner, and are all The Pirseus was reduced with great difficulty by
tcarked with an edge of red. It is caught among the Sylla, who demolifticd the walls, and fet fire. to the
r ocks, and about the fhores, and is a very well tafted armoury and arfenals. In the civil war it was in a de-
nih. Piranha is an American filh, more generally fencelefs condition. Caknue, lieutenant to Casfar,
x feized
Plratus,
■Piracy.
p 1 R f 771 1
ieized it, invefted Athen?, and ravaged the territory, rily to a pirate
Sfrfarvn verity   .1  *.L _ _ ' ^ A n J ' *
_, otrabo, who lived under the emperors Auguftua and
Tiberius, obfervee* that the many wars had deftroyed
the long walls, with the fortrefs of Munychia, and
had contrafted the Piraeus into a fmall fettlement by
the ports and the temple of Jupiter Saviour. This fa¬
bric was then adorned with wonderful pidtures, the
works of illuftrious artifts, and on the outfide with
ftatues. In the fecond century, befides houfes for tri-
lesnes, the temple of Jupiter and Minerva remained,
with their images in brafs, and a temple of Venus, a
portico, and the tomb of Themiftodes.
r^'^e port of the Piraeus has been named Porto Lione,
from the marble lion feen in the chart, and alfo Porto
T)raco, T he lion has been defcribed as a piece of ad-
fnirable fculpture, io feet high, and as repoftng on
its hinder parts. It was pierced, and, as fome have
conjf ftured, had belonged to a fountain. Near Athens,
in the way to Eleufis, was another, the poifure couch-
Hntj probably its companion. 13oth thefe were re¬
moved to Venice by the famous general Morofini, and
are to be feen there before the arfenal. At the mouth
of the port are two ruined piers. A few velfcls, moft-
!y fmall craft, frequent it. Some low land at the
head feems an incroachment on the water. The build¬
ings are a mean cuftomhoufe, with a few fheds ; and
by the fhore on the eaft fide, a warehoufe belonging to
the French; and a Greek monaltery dedicated to St
Spiridion. On the oppofite fide is a rocky ridge, on
which are remnants ol the ancient wall, and of a gate¬
way towards Athens. By ihe water-edge are veftiges
of building ; and going from the cuftorahoufe to the
city on the right hand, traces of a imall theatre in the
fide of the hill of Munychia.
PIRACY, the crime of robbery and depredation
upon the high fe: s.
By the ancient common law, piracy, if committed
by a fubjeft, was held to be a fpecies of treafon, being
contrary to his natural allegiance ; and by an alien, to
be felony only : but now, fmee the ffatute of treafons,
£5 Edw. III. c. 2. it is held to be only felony in a
fiibjedl. Foimerly it was only cognizable by the ad¬
miralty courts, which proceed by the rules of the ci¬
vil law. But, it being inconfillent with the liberties
of the nation, that any man’s life fhould be taken
away, unlefs by the judgment of his peers, or the
common law of the land, the ftatute 28 Men. VIII.
e. 15. eftablifhed a new jurifdi&ion for this purpofe ;
which proceeds according to the courfe of the common
law.
The offence of piracy, by common law, confifls in
committing thole acts of robbery and depredation upon
the high feas, which, if committed upon land, would
have amounted to felony there. But, by llatute, fome
other offences are made piracy alfo : as, by ftatute
11 and 12 W. III. c. 7. if any natural-born febjeCt
commits any adt of hoftility upon the high feas, a-
gainft others of his majefty’s fubje&s, under colour
of a commiflion from any foreign power ; this, though
k would only be an aft of war in an alien, fhali be
conftrued piracy in a fubjeft. And farther, any com¬
mander, or other feafaring perfon, betraying his trull,
and running away with any fhip, boat, ordnance,
ammunition, or goods; or yielding them up volunta¬
ry
P I R
- _ onfpiring to do thefe afts ; or
any perfon affauking the commander of aveffel, to hin¬
der him from fighting in defence of his fhip ; or con¬
fining him, or caufing or endeavouring to caufe a re¬
volt on board ; fhall, for each of thefe offences, be ad¬
judged a pirate, felon, and robber, and fhall fuffer
death, whether he be principal, or merely acceffory
by fetting forth fuch pirates, or abetting them before
the faft, or receiving or concealing them or their goods
after it. And the ftatute g. Geo. I. c. 11. exprefsly
excludes the principals from the benefit of clergy.
By the ftatute 8 Geo. I. c. 24.. the trading with
known pirates, or furnilhing them with ammunition,
or fitting out any veffel for that purpofe, or in any-
wife confulting, combining, confederating, or cmre-
fponding with them ; or the forcibly boarding any
merchant veffel, though without feizing or carrying
her off, and deftroytng or throwing any of the goods
overboard j fhall be deemed piracy : and fuch aceef-
fories to piracy as are deferibed by the ftatute of king
William are declared to be principal pirates ; and ail
pirates convifted by virtue of this aft are made felons
without benefit of clergy. By the fame ftatutes alfo,
(to encourage the defence of merchant-veffels againft
pirates), the commanders or feamen wounded, and
the widows of fuch fearaen as are flain, in any pirati¬
cal engagement, fhall be entitled to a bounty to be di-
vided among them, not exceeding one fiftieth part of
the value of the cargo on board : and fuch wounded
fcamen flv.il be intitled to the penfion of Greenwich
hofpital; which no other feamen are, except only fnch
as have ferved in a fhip of war. And if the command¬
er fhall behave cowardly, by not defending the fhip, if
fhe carries guns or arms ; or fhall difeharge the mari¬
ners from fighting, fo that the fhip falls into the hands
of pirates ; filch commander fhall forfeit all his wages,
and fuffer fix months imprifonment. Laftly, by ftatmte
18 Geo. II. c. 30. any natural born fubjeft or denizen,
who in time of war fhall commit hoftilities at fea againft
any of bis fellow-fubjefts, or fhall affift an enemy on
that element, is liable to be tried and convifted as a
pirate.
PIRATE, (w£ifa7>K, Gr.); a fea-robber, or an
armed fhip that roams the feas without any legal com¬
miflion, and feizes or plunders every veffel fhe meets in-
difcriminately, whether friends or enemies.
The colours ufually difplayed by pirates are faid
to be a black field, with a death’s head, a battle-axe,
and hour glafs. The laft inftrument is generally fup-
pofed to determine the time allowed to the prifoners,
whom they take, to confider whether they will join
the pirates in their felonious combination, or be put
to death, which is often perpetrated in the moft cruel
manner.
Amongft the moft celebrated pirates of the north
is recorded Alvilda, daughter of a king of the Goths
named Sypardus. She embraced this occupation to
deliver herfelf from the violence impofed on her incli¬
nation, by a marriage with Alf, fon of Sigarus king
of Denmark. She dreffed herfelf as a man ; and com-
pofed her band of rowers, and the reft of her crew,
of a number of young women attired in the fame
manner. Amongft the firft of her cruizes, fhe touched
at a place where a company of pirates bewailed the
4 2 death
Piracy,
Pirate.
P I R [ 77
i'jrcue death of their captain. The ftrangers were captivated
Til on vvhh the agreeable manners of Alvilda, and chofe her
Tfor their chief. By this reinforcement fhe became fo
formidable upon the fea. that prince Alf came to en¬
gage her. She fuftaintd his attacks for a confiderable
time: but, in a vigorous aftion, Alf boarded her
veffel, and having killed the greateft part of her crew,
feized the captain, namely herfelf; whom neverthelefs
he knew not, becaufe the princefs had a cafque which
covered her vifage. Being matter of her perfon, he remo¬
ved the cafque ; and in fpite of her difguife, inltantly
recognized her, and offered her his hand in wedlock.
PIRENE, (Pliny); a fountain facred to the mufes,
fpringing below the top of the Acrocorinthns, a high
and fteep mountain which hangs over Corinth. Its
waters were agreeable to drink, (Paufanus); extreme¬
ly clear, (Strabo) ; very light. (Athenaeus); and pale,
(-Perhus): having relation either to the grief of Pirene,
mother of Cenchrea, from whofe tears this fountain
arofe, (Paufanias) ; or to the palenefs brought on by
the too eager purfuits of the mufes.
PIROivfALLl (Paul), a dominican of Calabria,
w?s f: nt a mifhonary into the tad. Pie remained a
long time in Armenia, where he had the happinefs to
bring back to the church many fchifmatics and Euty-
cheans, and the patriarch himfelf, who had before
thrown every obdacle in his way Pie afterwards paf-
fed into Georgia an'1 Pnfii, then into Poland, in qua¬
lity of Pope Urban VHP’s nuncio, in order to apueafe
the difturbanees which had been occafioned there by
the difputes of the Armenians, who were very nume¬
rous in that country. Piromalli reunited them ia the
profefiionof the fame faith, and obfervance of the fame
ceremonies. In his recurn to Italy, he was taken by
fome Corfairs who carried him prifoncr to Tunis. As
foon as he was ranfomed, he went to Rome, and gave
an account of his million to the pope, v'ho conferred
upon him fome fi^nal marks of his efteem. His holi-
nefs entrufted him with the revifal of an Armenian
Bible, and fent him again into the eaft, where he was
promoted, in 1655, to the bilhopric of Naflivan. Af¬
ter having governed that church for nine years, he
returned, to Italy, and took the charge of the church
of Bafignano, where he died three years after in 1667.
His charity, his zeal, and other virtues did honour to
the Epifcopal office. There are extant of his writings,
1. Some works of Controverfy and Theology. 2. Two
Di&ionaries ; the one a Latin Perfian, and the other
an Armenian-Latin- 3. An Armenian Grammar.
4. A Direftory, which is of great ufe in correfling
Armenian books. All thefe works equally dillinguilh
him for virtue and for learning.
PI RON (Alexis), whole father was an apothecary,
was born atDijon the 9th of July 1689,where he pjlfed
more than 3.0 years in the idle and deftruftive diffipa-
tion too common to young men. He was at length
obliged to quit the place of his nativity, in order to
avoid the reproaches of his fellow citizens, on account
of an ode which he had written, and which gave great
offence. His relations not being able to give him
much affiftance, he fupported himfelf at Paris by means
of his pen, the ftrokes of which were as beautiful and
fair as thofe of an engraver. He lived in the houfe of
M. de Beilille as his fecretary, and afterwards with a
j&nancier, who did not know that he bad a man of ge-
J ] P I R
nius under his roof. His reputation as a writer com- Piron.
mencei with fome pieces which he publifhed for the  v—«■«*
entertainment of the populace, and which Ihowed ftrong
marks of original invention; but what fully eftablifhed
his charafter in this way was his comedy intitled Ms-
tromany, which was the bell that had appeared in
France iince Regnard’s Gamefter. This performance,
in five afts, well condufted, replete with genius, wit,
and humour, was aded with the greateit fuccefs upon
the French llage in 1738. The author met with eve¬
ry attention in the capital which was due to a man of
real genius, and whofe flalhes of wit were inexhauilible.
We (hail infert a few anecdotes of him, which will
ferve to fhow bis character and turn of mind. In Bur¬
gundy the inhabitants' of Beaune are called the AJfes of
Beaune Piron often indulged his fatirical difpolition
at their expence. One day as he was taking a w Ik
in the neighbourhood of that city, he diverted himfelf
with cutting down all the thirties which he met with.
When a friend alked him his reafon for doing fo, he
replied, J'al a me p/aindre des beaunois ; je leur coupe let
vivres, i. e. “ I am forry indeed for the Beaunians ;
for I am cutting down their food.” Being told again
that thefe people would certainly be revenged of him,
Alle%) (fays he) Allez: je ne crainspoint leur impuijfunt
couroux ;
lit, quand je ferais feu/yje let battero\s tout.
“ Get you gone, get you gone : I fear not their feeble
revenge ; for tho’ alone, I ihould beat them all.” Go¬
ing into a theatre one time where a play was adling,
he allied what it was ? The Cheats or Seapiri, gravely
replied a young Beaun’an. “Ah! Sir, (fays Piron,
after thanking him), I took it to be the Cheats of
Oreftes.” In the time of the play, fome body ad-
drefles the company with “ Silence there, gentlemen,
we don’t hear.” “ It is not at ieaft (cried Piron) for
w: nt of ears.” A biffiop one day allied Piron, during
the difputes about J mfenifm, “Did you read my man¬
date, Mr Piron f ’ “ No my lord; and you The
converfation turning very warm, the hilhop reminded
him of the ditlance which birth and rink had put be¬
tween them. “ Sir (fays Piron), 1 have plainly the
fuperiority over yon at this moment; for I am in the
right, and you arc in the wrong.”—Voltaire’s Semira-
mis did not meet with a very favourable reception the
firfttime it was afted The author finding Piron be¬
hind the feenes, allied him what he thought of his per¬
formance ? ‘‘ I think (n plied he) you would have
been pleafed that I had been the author ot it.” The
performer of the chara&er Ferdinand Cortez (the
titleof one of Piron’s Tragedies)having requerted fome
correftions to be made on the play the firit time it was
adled, Piron fired at the wordL correSions. The player,
who was deputed to wait upon the author with this
requeft, cited the example o- Voltaire, wko corre&ed
fome of his pieces in order to grati'y the tafte of the
public. ‘ The cafes are widely different (replied Pi-
ritm) ; Voltaire works in chequer-work, and I call in
brafs.” If this anfwer be not very modelt, we mull
allow that it does not want wit. He thought himfelf,
if not fuperior, at leaft equal to Voltaire. Some per¬
fon congratulating him on having compofed the bell
comedy of this age, he anfwered, with more franknela
than modetly, “ Add too, and the bell'tragedy.” Phe
following veriea are well known, in which he fays:
9
Psron,
PiU
P I s
I?n deux mots voule^-vous dijiinguer & connoitre
l c rimeur Dljonnm & U Pan/ten ?
Lt premier ne fut rien, iff ne vou/ut rien etre;
Lj auti e voulut tout etre. iff ne fut prefrjue rien*
We ke by thefe different traits that Piron had a
lufficient ftock of felf-conceit. What helped to in-
creafe it, and make him fancy himfeif fuperior to the
nioft celebrated of his contemporaries, was, that his
company, on account of his original humour, of which
he had an uncommon fhare, was more courted than that
of Voltaire, who was otherwife too lively, too capti¬
ous, and crabbed. But thofe who have favoured us
with an account of his many witticifms in converfation,
would have done more honour to his memory if they
had paffed over fnch as were either indecent or inhpid.
A thing often pleafes over a glals of wine, which will
not give the lame fatisfadlion when it is repeated, efpe-
cftllly if. in repeating it,you want to make it appear of
fome importan e. Be that as it may, Piron’s mifehie-
vous ingenuity was partly the caufe which excluded
him from the French Academy.—“ I could not (faid
he) m .kc thirty-nine people think as I do, and I could
ffill lefs think as thirty-nine do.” He called that cele-
brated fociety very unjultly /es invafides du bei efpnt,
the invalids of wit; ’ and yet he otten endeavoured
to be one of thofe invalids. His death was baldened by
a fall which he got a little before. He died the 21ft
of January 1 773, at the age of 83. He had prepared
for himklt the following epitaph, in the way of an epi¬
gram :
Ci git Piron, qui ne fut rien,
Pas me me academicien.
“ ,^ere 1^8 Piron, who was nothing,not even an acade¬
mician.”
His wife Maria 1 here fa Quenandon, who died in
1751, he deferibes as a fweet and moil agreeable com¬
panion. They lived together for feverai years; and no
hufband ever difeharged his duty with more fidelity
and attention
A collection of his works appeared in 1776, in 7 vol.
8vo, and 9 vol. 121110. The principal pieces are, The
School of fathers; a comedy a&ed in 1728 under the
title of Ungrateful Sons. Calhfthenes ; a tragedy, the
fubject of which is taken from Jullin. I he Myftenous
JLover, a comedy. Guftavus and Ferdinand Curtez,
two tragedies; fome feenes of which difeover an origi
nal genius, but the verfification neither plcafes the
car nor affe&s the heart. Metromany, a comedy. The
Gourfes of I’empe, an ingenious paltoral, in which the
manners both ot the town and country are pleafantly
drawn. Some odes, poems, fables, and epigrams. In
this laft kind of poetry lie was very fuccefsful, and he
may be placed after Marot and Rouffeau. There was
no occafion for loading the public with 7 vols of his
works ; the half of that number might have fufficed.
For, excepting Metromany, Guftavus, the Courfes of
Tempe, fome odes, about 20 epigrams, three or four
fables, and fome epiftles, the reft are but indifferent,
and have no claim to any extraordinary merit.
PISA, a large town of Tufcanv in Italy, fituated
on the river 'rno, 52 miles from Florence. It was a
famous republic, till fubdued, firft by the duke of Milan,
and then by the Florentines in the year 1406. Before
it- loll its freedom, it is faid to bave contained near
230,qco inhabitants, but now it has not above 16,000
C 1
P I S
or 17,000. It was founded, we are told, by the Pifans
ot Peloponnefus* and afterwards became one of the 12
municipn of 1 ufcany. Its neighbourhood to Leghorn,
Wiiich is now the chief part in the Mediterranean,
though formerly of little or no note for trade, has con¬
tributed greatly to the decay of Pifa, which, however,
begins to lilt up its head again, under the ufpices of
the prefenL gr ind duke, who. h-s made it his winter
refideoce. Between Pifa aad Legnorn is a canal i(5
Italian miles in length.—Its territory is very fruitful;
abounding in Corn, wine, and fruit, and fine cattle.
I ae houfes are well built, and the ftreets even, broad,
and well paved; but in many places over-run with
grafs. ^ 1 he umverfity is well endowed, and has able
profelfors, but is not in a verv flounlhing condition.
I he exchange is a flately ftruaure, but little frequent-
ed. 1 he grand duke’s galleys are built, and common-
Pifa.
ly llaciontd here. Th's city is alfo tne principal refi
dence of the order of St Stephen, and the fee of an
archbiihop. The cathedral, a large Gothic pile, con¬
tains a great number of excellent paintings and other
cunofities. This church is dedicated to St Mary; is
very advantageoufly fituated in the middle of a large
piazza, and budt out o: a great heap of wrought mar¬
ble, luch as pillars, pedeftals, capitals, cornices, and
architraves, part of the fpoils which the Pif.ins took
m their eaftein expeditions, when the republic was in
a flourifhing condition. The roof is fupported by 76'
hig.r marble pillars of different colours, and finely gilt.
Both the church and the cupola are covered with lead.
The choir is painted by good hands, and the floor is
Mofaic work. The brazen doors are curioufly wrought
with the hiftory of the Old and New Teftament, by
Bonanno, an ancient tiatuary. The chapel of St
Rainenus is richly adorned with gilt metals, columns
ofpor hyry, arid fine paintings. In the middle of
the nave of the church you fee two brazen tombs,
raifed upon pillars. The marble pulpit was carved by
John Pifano, and the choir by Julian da Majana. Join¬
ing thereto is the nltar, over which is preferved a hol¬
low globe or vcffel of marble, wherein they kept the
facrament for the new baptized, according to the opi¬
nion of Father Mabillon. In the fquare before the
church, you fee a pillar upon which is the meafure of
the ancient Roman talent. In the fame fquare with
the dome, Hands the baptiftry, a round fabric fupport¬
ed by (lately pillars, and remarkable for a very extraor¬
dinary echo.
On the north fide of the cathedral is the burying
place, called Campo Santo, being covered with earth
brought from the Holy Land. This burying place
is inclofed with a broad portico, well painted, and pa¬
ved with grave (tones. Here are a great many ancient
tom':s, among the reft that of Beatrix, mother of the
countefs Mathilda, with marble baffo relievos, which
the Pifans brought from Greece, where you fee the
hunt of Meleager, which affifkd Nicholas of Pifa in
the reftoration of fculpture. The walls of the Campo
Santo are painted by the befl mafters of their times.
Giotto has drawn fix hiftorical pieces of Job ; and
Andrea Orgagna has given a fine p ece of the laft
judgment. Under the portico there is a decree of the
city, ordering the inhabitants to wear mourning a year
for the death of Ciefar. Near the church you fee a
fteeple ia the form of a cylinder, to which you afeend
%
rWa
. I) .
Pifcidia.
„ . p 1 S [ 774 ]
by T53 fteps; it inclines i$ feet on one fide, which two fpecies, viz.
fome afcribe t® art, but others to the finking of the
foundation. Its inclination is fo great that a plumb-
line let fall from the top touches the ground at the di-
ftance of almoft 15 feet from the bottom. It was built
by John of Infpruck and Bon mno of Pifa, in 1174.
Near this fleeple is a line hofpital, dependent on that
of St Maria Nuova in Florence.
The fteeple of the church ot the Auguftinians is alfo
very fine, being an o&agon, adorned with pillars, and
built by Nicholas of Pifa. In the great market-place
there is a ftatue of Plenty, by Pierino da Vinci. In
the church of St Matthew, the painting of the ceiling
by the brothers Melani. natives of this city, is an ad¬
mired performance. The church of the knights of St
Stephen, de orated with the trophies taken from the
Saraceiifi, is all of marble, with marble fteps, and a front
adorned with marble ftatues. In the fquare there is a
-ftatue of Cofmo I. upon a very fine pedeftal. Conti¬
guous to the church is the convent or palace of the
knights, which is-worth feeing, as alfo the churches
Dtdla Madonna and Della Spina^ the lafi of which was
built by a beggar, whofe figure you may fee on the
•outfiJe of the wall. It is pretended that one of the
thorns of the crown which was placed on our Saviour’s
head is preferved here. Belonging co the univerfity
there is a great number of colleges, the chief of which
is the Sapienza, where the profeffors read their public
It&ures ; next to which are the colleges Puteano, Per-
dinando, Ricci, and others. Be Tides the public palace,
and that of the grand duke, there are feveral others
with marble fronts, the fineft of which is that of Lan-
franchi, which, with the reft along the banks of the
Arno, makes a very fine appearance. There is here a
good dock, where they build the galleys, which are
conveyed by the Arno to Leghorn.* They have a
famous aqueduit in this town, confiding of 5000
arches, which conveys the water from the hills at five
miles diftance. This water is efteemed the belt in Ita¬
ly, and is carried in flafks to Florence and Leghorn.
The neighbouring couatry produces great ftore of
corn and wine, but the hitter is not much efteemed.
They have very good butter in this neighbourhood,
which is a fcarce commodity in Italy. The city for
its defence has a moat, walls, a caftle, fort, and cita¬
del ; the laft of which is a modern work. The Arno
is of a coniiderable breadth here, and has three bridges
over it, one of them of marble : two leagues below
"the town it falls into the fea. The -phyfic-garden is
very fpacious, ccntains a great number of plants, and
is decorated with water works: over the door leading
into it are tbefe words, Hie Hrgus fed non Briareus
cjlo : i. e. Employ the eyes of Argus, but not the hands
of Briareus. The air is faid to be unwholefome here
in fummer, on account of the neighbouring merafles.
Many buffaloes are bred in the neighbouring country,
and their flefh is commonly eaten. Between Pifa and
.Lucca are hot baths. E. Long. 10. 17. N. Lat 43.
43-
PISCARY, in our ancient ftatutes, the liberty of
fifhing in another min’s waters.
PISCES, in aftronomy, the 12th fign or conftella-
tion of the zodiac.
PISCIDIA, a genus of the decandria order, be¬
longing to the diadelphia clafe of plants. There are
P I s
I. The erythrina, or dog-wood tree.
This grows plentifully in Jamaica, where it rifes to the
height of 25 feet or more ; the ftem is almoft as large
as a man’s body, covered with a light-coloured fmooth
bark, and fending out feveral branches at the top with¬
out order ; the leaves are about two inches long, wing¬
ed, with oval lobes. The flowers are of the butterfly
Lind, and of a dirty white colour ; they are fucceeded
by oblong pods, with four longitudinal wings, and
jointed between the cells which contain the feeds.
2. The Carthaginienfis, with oblong oval leaves, is alfo
a native of the Weft Indies. It differs from the
former only in the iKape and confidence of the
leaves, which are more oblong- and differ; but in
other refpe&s they are very fimilar. Both fpecies
arc eafily propagated by feeds ; but require artificial
heat to preferve them in this countty.—The negroes
in the Weft Indies make ufe of the bark of the firlt
fpecies to intoxicate fifti. When any number of gen¬
tlemen have an inclination to divert themrelves with
fifhing, or, more properly fpeaking, with fifh-hunting,
they fend each of them a negro-flave to the woods, in
order to fetch fome of the bark of the dog-wood tree.
This bark is next morning pounded very fmall with
ftones, put into old facks, carried into rocky parts of
the fea, fteeped till thoroughly foaked with fait-water,
and then well fqueezed by the negroes to exprefs the
juice. This juice immediately colours the fea with a red-
difti hue ; and, being of a poifonous nature, will in an
hour’s time make the fifties, fuch as groopers, rock-
fifh, old wives, Welchmen, Sec. fo drunk or intoxica¬
ted, as to fwim on the furface of the water, quite heed-
lefs of the danger: the gentlemen then fend in their
negroes, who purfue, both fwimming and diving, the
poor inebriated fifties, till they catch them with their
hands; their mafters in mean time ftanding by, on high
rocks, to fee the paftime.
It is remarkable, that though this poifon kills mil¬
lions of the fmall fry, it has never been known to im¬
part any bad quality to the fifh which have been caught
in confequence of the intoxication.
The wood of this tree, although pretty hard, is only
fit for fuel; and even for this purpofe the negroes very
feldom, if ever, employ it, on account of its lingular
quality juft mentioned. The bark is rough, brown,
and thick ; the tree fends forth a confiderable number
of branches, and is well clothed with leaves, which
refemble thofe of the pea, are thick, cottony, and of a
deep green. The bark ufed for the above-mentioned
purpofe is chiefly that of the roots.
PISCINA, in antiquity, a large bafon in a public
place or fquare, where the Roman youth learned to
fwim ; and which was furrounded with a high wall, to
prevent filth from being thrown into it—This word is
alfo ufed for a lavatory among the Turks, placed in
the middle court of a mofque or temple, where the
Muffulmen wafti themfeives before they offer their
prayers.
PISISTRATUS, an Athenian who early diftin-
gaiftied himfelf by his valour in the field, and by his
Pifcidh.
II
Pififtratu*
addrefs and eloquence at home,. After he had render
cd himfelf the favourite of the populace by his libera¬
lity and by the intrepidity with which he had fought
their battles, particularly near Salami's, he refolved to
make himfelf mafter of his country. Every thing feem-
ed
TUlliodfc1*
ClaJJlca by
LemprierS*
PIS
■Piflfirat’1*: ed favourable to his ambitious views; but Solon alone
• V who was then at the head of affairs, and who had late-
ly enforced his celebrated laws, oppofed him, and dif-
coyered his duplicity and artful behaviour before the
public aflcmlly. Pifxftratus \va§ not diflieartened by
the meafures of his relation Solon, but he had recourfe
to artifice. In returning from his country-houfe, he
cut hirafelf in various places ; and after he had expofed
his mangled body to the eyes of the populace, deplo¬
red his misfortunes, and accufed his enemies of at¬
tempts upon his life, becaufe he was the friend of the
people, the guardian of the poor, and the reliever of
the oppreffed, he claimed a chofen body of 50 men
from the populace to defend h:s perfon in future from
the malevolence and the cruelty of his enemies- The
tmfufpebt'ng people unanimoufly granted his rcqueft,
though Solon oppofed it with all his influence; and
Pifiliratus had no fooner received an armed band on
whole fidelity and attachment he could rely, than he
feized the citadel of Athens, and made himfelfabfo-
lute. I lie people too late perceived their credulity;
yet, though the tyrant was popular, two of the citi¬
zen?, Megacles and Lycurgus, confpired together a-
againft him, and by their means he was forcibly eject¬
ed from the city. His houfe and all his elfe&s were
expofed to fale; but there was found in Athens only
one man who would buy them. The private difleH-
fions of the friends of liberty proved favourable to the
expelled tyrant; and Megacles, who was jealous ofLy-
curgus, fecretly promifed to reftore Pififtratus to all his
rights and privileges in Athens, if he would marry his
daughter. Pififtratus confentej; and by the aftifiance
of hrs father-in htw, he was foon enabled to expel Ly-
curgus, and to re-eftablifh himfelf. I3y means of a wo-
m<iU caLed Phyat whofe fhape was tall, whofe features
were noble and commanding, he impofed upon the
people, and created himftif adherents even among his
enemies. Phya was conducted through the ftreets of
the city, and ihowing herfelf fubfervient to the arti¬
fice of Pififtratus, fhe was announced as Minerva, the
goddefs of wifdom, and the patronefs of Athens, who
was come down from He; ven to re-eftablifh her favou¬
rite Pififtratus in a power which was fandtioned by the
will of Heaven, and favoured by the affe&ion of the
people. In the midft of his triumph, however, Pifi¬
ftratus found himfelf unfuppovted ; and fome time after,
when he repudiated the daughter of Megacles, he found
that not only the citizens, but even his very troops,
were alienated from him by the influence, the htfrigues,
and the bribery of his father-in-law. He fled from
Athens where he no longef- could maintain his power,
and retired to Euboea. Eleven years arter he was
drawn from his obfeure retreat, by means of his fon
Hippias, and he was a third time received by the
people of Athens as their mafter and fovereign. Upon
this he facrificed to his refentment the friends of Me¬
gacles, but he did notlofe fight of the public good,and
whilehefought the aggrandizement of his family, he did
not negledt the dignity and the honour of the Athenian
name. He died about 5 2 8 years before the Chriftian era,
after he had enjoyed the fovereign power at Athens for
33 years, and he was fucceeded by his fon Hipparchus.
Pififti atus claims our admiration for his juftice, his li¬
berality, and his moderation. If he was dreaded and
detefted as a tyrant, the Athenians loved and refpedt'
I 775 1
p 1 s
ed his private virtues and his patriotifm as a fellow-PififiJ’atns,
citizen; and the opprobrium which generally falls on
his head may be attributed not to the feverity of his 
adminiftration, but to the republican principles of the
Athenians, who hated and exclaimed againft the mo¬
deration and equity of the mil left fovereign, while
they flattered the pride ?.nd gratified the guilty defiree
of the moft tyrannical of their fellow fubjc&s. Pifi¬
ftratus often refufed to punifh the infolence of his ene¬
mies ; and when he had one day been vrrqlently accu-
fed of murder, rather than inflia immediate punifh-
ment upon the man who had criminated him, he went
to the areopagus, and there convinced the Athenians
th.-it the accufations of his enemies were groundlefs^
and that his life was irreproachable. It is to his la¬
bours that we are indebted for the prefervation of the
poems of Homer; and he was the firft, according to
Cicero, who introduced them at Athens in the order
in which they now ftsnd. He alfo eltablifhed a public
library at Athens ; and the valuable books which he
bad diligently colle&ed were carried into Perfia whea
Xerxes made hirr.felf mafter of the capital of Attica.
Hipparchus and Hippias the fons of Pififtratus, who
have received the name of Pifijlratida, rendered them-
felves as illuftrious as their father; but the flames of li¬
berty were too powerful to be extiuguifhed* The Pi-
fiftratidas governed with great moderation, but the
name of tyrant or fovereign was infupportable to the
Athenians. Two of the moft refpe&able of the citi¬
zens, called Harmodius and Arijlogiton, confpired againft:
them, and Hipparchus was difpatched in a public af-
fembiy. This murder was not, however, attended
with any advantages ; and though the two leaders of
the confpiracy, who have been celebrated through eve-
ry age for their patriotifm, were fupported by the
people, yet Hippias quelled the tumult by his uncom¬
mon firmnefs and prudence, and for a while preferved.
that peace in Athens which his father had often been-
unable to command. This was not long to continue.
Hippias was at baft expelled by the united efforts of
the Athenians and of their ailies, and he left Attica, -
when he found himfelf unable to maintain his power
and independence. The reft of the family of Pififtra¬
tus followed him in his banilhment; and after they had
refufed to accept the liberal offers of the princes of
’I heff ily, and the king of Macedonia, who wifhed them
to fettle in their refpeftive territories, the Pififtratidtsr
retired to Sigseiim, which their father had in the fum-
mit of his power conquered and bequeathed to his
pofterity. After the banilhment of the Pififtratidas,
the Athenians became more than commonly jealous of
their liberty, and often facrificed the moft powerful of*
their citizens, apprehenfi-ve of the influence which po¬
pularity and a well-direfted liberality might gain among
a fickle and unfettled populace. The Pillftratidae were
banifhed from Athens about 18 years after the death
of Pififtratus.
PI SMI RES,, are a kind of infefts very common in.
Africa ; of which there is fo great a variety, and fuch
innumerable fwarms, that they deftroy not only the
fruits of the ground but even men and bealts in fo little
a time as one fingle night; and would, without all
doubt, prove mere fatally dcftru&ive to the inhabitants,,
were they not fo happily deftroyed by a proportionable
number of monkeys, who greedily ferret and devour;
them.
p I
s
them. For a farther accountifcf thefe, and fome other
~ grievous plagues with which the far greater part of the
vaft continent of Africa is affli&ed, particularly that
moft horrid vifitation of locufts, which feldom fail a
year of laying wafte fome of the provinces, fee Gryl-
xus, p. i6t.
PISO (Lucius Calpurnius), furnamed Fmgi on
account of his frugality, was defeended of the iiluf-
trious fvuily of the Pifos, w^hich gave fo many great
men to the Roman republic. He was tribune of the
people in the year 149 before Chiift, and afterwards
conful. During his tribunefhip, he publilhed a law
againft the crime of concuflion or extortion, intitled Lex
<Calpurnia de pecuniis repetimdis. He happily ended the
war in Sicily. To reward the fervices of one of his
ions, who had diftinguilhed himfelf in that expedition,
he left him by his will a golden crown, weighing 20
pounds. Pifo joined to the qualities of a good citizen
the talents of a lawyer, an orator, and hiftorian.
Piso (Caius Calpurnius), a Roman conful in the
year 67 before Chrift, was author of the law which
forbid canvafTing for public offices, intitled Lex Cal-
purnia de ambitu. He difplayed all the.firmnefs worthy
of a conful in one of the moft ftermy periods of the
tepubhe. The Roman people^ deceived by the flat¬
tery of Marcus Palicanus, a turbulent and feditious fel¬
low, were on the eve of loading thcmfelves with the
greateft difgrace, by putting the fupreme authority in¬
to the hands of this man, who deferved punilhment
rather than honours The tribunes of the people, by
their harangues, inflamed the blind fmy of the multi¬
tude, already fufficiently mutinous of themfelves. In
this fituation, Pifo mounted the roftrum, and being
alked if he would declare Palicanus conful, in cafe the
fuffrages of the people ftiould concur in the nomina¬
tion, he inftantly replied, that “ he did not think the
republic was yet involved in fuch daiknefa and defpair
as to be capable of committing fo infamous an adtion.”
Being afterwards ftrongly and repeatedly called upon
to fay, “ what he would do, if the thing ffiould hap¬
pen ?” his anfwer was, “ No, I would not name him.”
By this firm and laconic anfwer he deprived Palicanus
of the dignity to which he afpired. Pifo, according to
Cicero, was not pofiefled of a quick conception, but
lie thought maturely, and with judgment, and, by a
proper firumefs, he appeared to be an abler man than
he really was.
Piso (Cneius Calpnrnius), was conful in the reign of
Auguftus, and governor of Syria under Tiberius,
•whofe confident he was. It is faid, that, by the order
of this emperor he caufed Germanicus to be poifoned.
Being accufed of that crime, and feeing himfelf
abandoned by every body, he laid violent hands on
himfelf in the 20th year of our Lord. He was a man
of infupportable pride and exceffive violence. Some
inftances of his wicked cruelty have been handed down
to us. Having given orders in the heat of his pafficn
tocondudlto punifhment a foldier, as guilty of the
f 776 ]
PIS
mon whom he was accnfed of having killed made his PilTafphaL
appearance again. Whereupon the centurion, whofe tum-
office it was to fee the fentence executed, ordered the ' »
executioner to put up his fword into the fcabbard.
Thofe two companions, after embracing each oth$r,
are conduced to Pifo, amidft the acclamations of the
whole army, and a prodigious crowd of people. Pifo,
foaming with rage, afcen ls his tribune, and pronoun¬
ces the fame fentence of death againft the whole three,
without ex epting the centurion who had brought
back the condemned foldier, in thefe terms : “ You
I order to be put to death becaufe you have been al¬
ready condemned ; you, becaufe you have been the
caufe of the condemnation of your comrade ; and you,
Lecaufe having got orders to put that foldier to death,
you have not obeyed your prince.”
PISSASPHALTUM, earth-pitch ; a fluid,
opaque, mineral body, of a thick confidence, ftrong
fmell, readily inflammable, bu't leaving a refiduum of
greyifti aflies after burning. It arifes out of the cracks
of the rocks, in feveral places in the ifland of Sumatra,
and fome other places in the Ea-ft Indies, where it is
much eftcCmed in paralytic diforders. There is a re¬
markable mine of it in the ifland of Baa, (fee Bua),
of which the following curious defeription is given us
by the Abbe Fortis. “ The ifland is divided into two
promontories between the north and weft, croffing over
the top of the latter, which is not half a mile broad,
and defeending in a right line towards the fea, one is
conduced to a hole well known to the inhabitants.
This hole extends not much above 12 feet, and from
its bottom above 25 feet perpendicular, arife the mar¬
ble ftrata which fuftain the irregular mafles that fur-
round the top of the mountain,
“ The place feemed to me (continues our author),
fo worthy of obfervation, that 1 caufed a drawing of
it to be taken. 1’he hole AAA is dug out of an ir- Plate
regular ftratum of argillaceous fandy earth, in fome cccxc*a
parts whitifh, and in others of a greenifh colour ; part
of it is half petrified, and full of numifmales of the
largeft kind, lenticulares, and fragments, with here
and there a fmall branch of madreporites, and fre¬
quently of thofe other foffil bodies called by Gefner
cornua ammonis Candida, minima, &c. The mafs B is
fallen from the height of the rock, and lies ifolated.
The excavation, made by feme poor man in the fofter
matter, reaches a little below the extremity CC of the
ftratum DD. This is feparated by the line EE from
the ftratum FF, which is of hard common marble,
with marine bodies without flints. The upper part aa
is of hard lenticular ftone, interfperfed with flints full
of lenticulares. The mafs H does not difeovef the di-'
vifions of its ftrata on the cutfide, and tranfpires very
fmall drops of pifTafphaltum, fcarcely difcernible ; but
the tears 111 of the fame matter, which flow from the
filTures and chinks of the whitifti ftratum DD, are very
obfervable. They come out moft abundantly when the
iun falls on the marble rock in the heat of the day.
I ' o J       h/**, 1 V/V.XV j 11 Li.iv, uv-ai Ui Lliv u<ty.
death of one of his companions, becaufe he had gone. This piflafphaltum is of the moft perfed quality, black
out of the camp with him and returned without him, and fhining like the bitumen Judaicum ; very pure
no prayers or iiotreaty could prevail with Pifo to fu-
fpend the execution of this fentence until the affair
fhpuld be properly inveftigated. The foldier was led
without the entrenchments, and had already prefented
tin head to receive the fatal ftroke, when his compa-
odorous, and cohefive. It comes out almoft liquid,
but hardens in large drops when the fun fets. On break¬
ing many of thefe drops en the fpot, I found that al¬
moft every one of them had an inner cavity full of Tery'
clear water* .
4 - “ The
P I s
Plffeteum, The greatefl breadth of the tears that I faw was
u two inches, and the common breadth is half an ineh.
The chinks and fiflures of the marble, from whence
this bituminous pitch tranfudes, are not more than the
thicknefs of a thread j and for the moft part are fo
imperceptible, that were it not for the pitch itfelf
whereby they are blackened, they could not by any
means be diftinguiftied by the naked eye. To the nar-
rownefs of thefe paffages is, no doubt, in part owing
the fmall quantity of piflafphaltum that trafirpires.”
After fome conjectures about the origin of this mine,
our author proceeds to inform us that the piflafphaltum
of Bua is correfpondcnt to that foflil produaion which
by Haflelquift, in his Travels, is called mi/jn/a miner ale,
and mumia nativa Perjiana by Kempfer, which the
t Egyptians made ufe of to embalm their kings (a). It
is found in a cave of mount Caucafus, which is kept
ihut, and carefully guarded by order of the king of
Terfia. One of the qualities alligned by M. Linnaeus
to the fineft bitumen is to fmoke when laid on the fire,
as ours does, emitting a fmell of pitch notdifagreeable.
He believes it would be very good for wounds, as the
oriental mumia is, and like the pitch of Caftro, which
is frequently ufed by the Roman chirurgeons for frac¬
tures, contufions, and in many external applications.
See Mineralogy.
PISSELiEUM indicum, Barbadoes Tar ; a mi¬
neral fluid of the nature of the thicker bitumens, and
of all others the moft approaching, in appearance, co¬
lour, and confiftence, to the true piflafphaltum, but dif-
fering from it in other relpefts. It is very frequent in
many parts of America, where it is found trickling
down the fides of mountains in large quantities, and
fometimes floating on the furface of the waters. It has
been greatly recommended internally in coughs and
other diforders of the breaft and lungs.
PISTACIA, turpentine-tree, Pljlachia nut and
Majlich-tree i a genus of the pentandria order, belong¬
ing to the dioecia clafs of plants. There are nine
fpecies* of which the moft remarkable are, i. The te-
rebinthns, or piftachia-tree. This grows naturally in
Arabia, Perfia, and Syria, whence the nuts are annu¬
ally brought to Europe. In thofe countries it grows
to the height of 25 or 30 feet: the bark of the ftem
and old branches is of a dark ruflet colour, but that of
the young branches is of a light brown. Thefe are gar-
niftied with winged leaves, compofed fometimes of two,
at other times of three, pair of lobes, terminated by an
odd one : thefe lobes approach towards an oval ftiape,
and their edges are turned backward ; and thefe, when
Vol. XIV. Part II.
f 777 1
P I S
brmfed, emit a fmell frmilar to that of the (hell of the PiftacFa.
nut. borne of thefe trees produce male and others fe-  v-—
male flowers, and fome have both male and female on
the lame tree. The male flowers come out from the Tides
of the branches in loofe bunches or catkins. They
have no petals, but five fmall ftamina crowned by large
foor-cornered fummits filled with farina ; and when this
is difeharged, the flowers fall off. The female flowers
come out in clufters from the fides of the branches :
they have no petals, but a large oval germen fupport-
ing three reflexed ftyles, and are fuccceded by oval
nuts. 2. The lentifeus, or common maftich-tree, grows
naturally in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Being an
evergreen, it has been preferved in this country in or¬
der to adorn the green-houfes. In the countries where
it is a native, it rifes to the height of 18 or 20 feet,
covered with a grey bark on the ftera* but the
branches, which are very numerous, are covered with
a reddifh-brown bark, and are garnilhed with winged
leaves, compofed of three or four pair of fmall fpear-
(haped lobes, without an odd one at the end. 3. The
orientalis.or true rriaftich-treeof the Levant, from which
the maftich is gathered, has been confounded by moft
botanical writers with the lentifeus, or common maftich
tree, above deferibed, though there are confiierable
differences between them. The bark of the tree is
brown ; the leaves are compofed of two or three pair of
fpear-ftiaped lobes, terminated by an odd one : the
outer lobes are the largeft ; the others gradually dimi-
nilh, the innermoft being the leaft. Thefe turn of a
brownifli colour towards the autumn, when the plant©
are expofed to the open air .; but if they are under
glaffes, they keep green. The leaves continue all the
year, but are not fo thick as thofe ofrthe common fort,
nor are the plants fo hardy.
Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated by its nuts ;
which ftiould be planted in pots filled with light kitchen-
garden earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed to
bring up the plants: wdien *befe appear, they ftiould
have a large (hare of air admitted to them, and by de¬
grees they ftiould be expofed to the open air, which at
laft they will bear in all feafons, though not without
great danger of being deftroyed in fevere winters. The
fecond fort is commonly propagated by laying down
the branches, though it may alfo be raifed from the
feed in the manner already direfted for the piftachia-
nut tree: and in this manner alfo may the true maftich-
tree be raifed. But this being more tender than any of
the other forts, requires to be conftantly flickered in
winter, and to have a warm fituation in fummer.
5 f Piftachia
(A) “ Mumiahi, or native Pcrfian mummy. It proceeds from a hard rock in very fmafl quantity. It is a bi-
tuminotis juice, that tranfudes from the ftony fuperficies of the hill, refembling in appearance coarfe flioem.1-
kers wax, as well in its colour as in its denfity and du&ility. While adherent t© the rock it is lefs folid, but
is formed by the warmth of the hands. It is eafily united with oil, but repels water ; it is quite void of fmell
and very like in fubftance to the Egyptian mummy. When laid on burning coals, it has the fmell of fulphur
tempered a little with that of naphtha, not difagreeable. There are two kinds of this mummy; the one is va¬
luable for its fcarcity and great activity. The native place of the beft mummy is far from the accefs of men,
from habitations, and from fprings of water, in the province ef Daraab. It is found in a narrow cave, not
above two fathoms deep, cut like a well out of the mafs, at the foot of the ragged mountain Caucafus.”  
Kempfer. Am<xn. Perf.
This defeription agrees perfcftly with the; piffafphaltum or foflil mummy of Bua, differing only in the prb
vation of fmellj which it is difficult tQ imagine is totally wanting in the Perfian mummy.
[
Pifton.
P I s
Piftachva nuti are moderately large, containing a
kernel of a pale greenilh colour, coveted with a red-
. diih fkin. They have a pleafant, fweet, unftuous tafte,
refcmbling that of almonds ; and they abound with a
fweet and well-tailed oil, which they yield in great
abundance on being preffed after bruifmg them : they
are reckoned amongft the analeptics, and are wholefome
and nutritive, and are by fome efteemed very proper to
be prefcribed by way of reftoratives, eaten in fmall
quantity, to people emaciated by long illnefs.
PISTIL, among botanifts, the little upright co*
lumn which is generally found in the centre of every
flower. According to the Linnaean fyftem, it is the
female part of generation, whole office is to receive and
fecrete the pollen, and produce the fruit. It confifts of
three parts, viz. germcn, ftylus, and ftigma. Sec Bo¬
tany, p. 434, and p. 454, 2d columns.
PISTOIA is a city of Italy, in the duchy of Tuf.
cany, fituated on the river Stella, in a beautiful plain
near the foot of the Apennine mountains. By Pliny
it is called Pi/lorium, and is faid to have been once a
Roman colony. At prefent it is a bilhop's fee, fuffra-
gan of Florence. The ftreets are broad and regular,
the houfes tolerably well built, but poorly inhabited
for want of trade. Formerly it was an independent
republic, but fince it was fubdued by the Florentines
in I2CO, it has been in a declining condition. The
cathedral has a very handfome cupola, and a magnifi¬
cent ftaircafe to afeend to it. In the chapel dedicated
to St James, where his relics are preferved, the walls
are almoft. covered with plates of filver. Here are four
marble ftatues of very gooi workmanfhip. The mar¬
ble pulpit, the baffo relievos, the veffel that holds the
holy water, and the fquare ffecple, are the work of
John Pifano. The Jefuits have a very fine college,
and the Francifcans, Dominicans, and Auguitinians,
good churches. In the church of Madonna dell* Umil-
ta there are two ftatues, one of Leo X. and the other
of Clement VII. The public palace, fituated in a large
fquare, is a handfome building ; feveral of the nobili¬
ty have aifo very good houfes. In the neighbouring
mountains, called by the name of Piftoia, there are
mmy large villages, the chief of which is that of S.
Marcello, belonging to the family of Cartoli. Thefe
mountains are a part of the Apennines, and border on
the territory of Bologna and the county of Vernio;
higher up is the fource of the river Reno. The coun¬
try about Priloia, efpecially towards Florence, is ex¬
ceeding fertile and delightful, covered with all forts of
fruits, corn, wine, &c. and containing a vaft number
of little towns, wealthy villages, and country feats, fo
as to be reckoned the richeft and molt beautiful in all
Tufcany. It is about 20 miles N. W. of Florence,
and 30 N. E. of Pifa. E. Long. 11. 29. N. Lat.43. S5*
PISTOL, the fmalleft piece of fire-arms, borne at
the faddle-bow, on the girdle, and in the pocket.
PISTOLE, a gold coin, ftruck in Spain and in fe¬
veral parts of Italy, Switzerland, &c.—-The piftole
has its augmentations and diminutions, which are qua¬
druple piitoles, double piftoles, aad half pifloles. Sec
Mon ftc-Table.
PISTON, in pump-work, is a fhort cylinder of me¬
tal or other folid fubitance, fitted exaftly to the cavity
of the barrel or body of the pump. See Hyd-rosta-
^cs, fe£t. v.
778 ] PIS
PISTOR1US (John), born at Nidda in 1546, ap- Piftorlu*,
plied himfelf at firll to the ftudy of medicine, and was
admitted ado&or with applaufe 5 but his preferiptiona ^
not being attended with all the fuccefs which he ex¬
pelled, he quitted that profeffion, and fludied the law.
His merit procured him the appointment of counfel*
lor to Erneft Frederick margrave of Bade-Dourlach.
Pie had embraced the Proteftanc religion ; but fome
time after he changed his opinion, and returned to the
communion of the church of Rome. He became
afterwards a doftor of divinity, one of the emperor’s
counfellors, provoft of the cathedral of Breflaw, and
domeftic prelate to the abbot of Fulda. We have of
his writings, 1. Several Controverfial Tra&s againll
the Lutherans. 2. Artis Cabaliflic* Scriptorcs, printed at
Bale 1587; a fcarce and curious colle&ion. 3. Scrip,
tores rerum Polouicarum. 4. Scriptores de rebus Germa.
nicis, in 3 vols. folio, from 1603 to 1613. This is a
curious and fcarce performance, but might have been
better digelted. The author died in 1608, at the age
of 52.
PISUM, PEASE ; a genus of the decandria order,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants. The fpe-
cies are, 1. The fativum, or greater garden pea, whofe
lower ftipulae are roundilh, indented, with taper foot-
Italks, and many flowers on a foot-ftalk. 2. The
humile, or dwarf pea, with an creft branching ftalk,
and leaves having two pair of round lobes. 3. The
umbellatum, rofe, or crown pea, with four pointed
acute ffipuli, and foot-ffalks bearing many flowers,
which terminate the (talks. 4. The maritimum, or fea-
pea, with foot-ftalks which are plain on their upper
fide, an angular ftalk, arrow-pointed ftipulse, and foot-
ttalks bearing many flowers. 5. The Americanum,
commonly called Cape-Horn pea^ with an angular trail¬
ing ftalk, whofe lower leaves are fpear-lhaped, Iharp-
ly indented, and thofe at the top arrow-pointed. 6. The
ochrus, with membranaceous running foot-ftalks, ha¬
ving two leaves and one flower upon a foot-ftalk.
There is a great variety of garden peafe now culti¬
vated in Britain, which are diftinguifhed by the gar¬
deners and feedfmen, and have their different titles; but
as great part of thefe have been feminal variations, fo
if they are not very carefully managed, by taking away
all thofe plants which have a tendency to alter before
the feeds are formed, they will degenerate into their
original ftate i therefore all thofe perfons who are cu¬
rious in the choice of their feeds, look carefully over
thofe which they defign for feeds at the time when they
begin to flower, and draw out all the plants which they
diffike from the other. This is what they call roguing
their peafe ; meaning hereby the taking out all the bad
plants from the good, that the farina ©f the former may
not impregnate the latter ; to prevent which, they al¬
ways do it before the flowers open. By thus diligently
drawing out the bad, referving thofe which come ear*
lieft to flower, they have greatly improved their peafe
of late years, and are conftantly endeavouring to get
forwarder varieties j fo that it would be to little pur-
pofe in this place to attempt giving a particular ac¬
count of all the varieties now cultivated therefore we
fhall only meation the names by which they are com-*
roonly known, placing them according to their time of
coming to the table, er gathering for ufe.
Thi?
Pifum.
P I
The ffolJen hotfpur.
The Charlton.
The Reading hotfpur.
Matter’s hotfpur.
Eflex hotfpur.
The dwarf pea.
The Aiijar pea.
Spanitti Morotto.
s [
Nonpareil.
Sugar dwarf.
Sickle pea.
Marrowfat.
Rofe or crown pea.
Rouncival pea.
Gray pea.
rp, 1- r . Pig pea.; with fume others.
he -^nghlh fea-pea is found.wild upon the fiiore in
bufiex and feveral other countiea in England, and is
undoubtedly a different fpecies from the common pea.
1 fie htth fpecies hath a biennial root, which conti¬
nues two years. This was brought from Cape Horn by
Cord Anfon’s cook, when he paffed that Cape, where
thefe peafe were a great relief to the failors. It is kept
here as a curiofity, but the peafe are not fo good for
eating as the worft fort now cultivated in Britain. It
is a low trading plant ; the leaves have two lobes on
each foot-ftalk : thofe below are fpear-fhaped, and
lharply indented on their edges ; but the upper leaves
are Imall, and arrow-pointed. The flowers aie blue,
each toot-ftaik futtaining four or five flowers; the pods
are taper, near three inches long ; and the feeds are
round, about the fize of tares.
i he fixth fort is annual. This grows naturally
among the corn in Sicily and fome parts of Italy, but
is here preferved in botanic gardens for the fake of va¬
riety. It hath an angular (talk, rifingnear three feet
high ; the leaves ftand upon winged foot-ftalks, each
luftaining two oblong lobes. The flowers are of a pale
yellow colour, ihaped like thofe of the other fort of
pea, but are fmall, each foot-ftalk fuftaining one
flower; thefe are fucceeded by pods about two inches
long, containing five,or fix roundifh feeds, which are a
little compreffed on their fides. Thefe are by fome
perfons eaten green ; but unlefs they are gathered very
young, they are coarfe, and at beft not fo good as the
common pea. It may be fown and managed in the
fame way as the garden pea.
We (hall now proceed to fet down the method of
cultivating the fevcral forts of garden peafe, fo as to
continue them throughout the fcafon.
It is a common pra&ice with the gardeners near
London to raife peafe upon hot-beds, to have them
very early in the fpring { in order to which, they few
their peafe upon warm borders, under walls or hedges,
about the middle of October; and when the plants
come up, they draw the earth up gently to their ftems
with a hoe, the better to protedl them from frofl. In
thefe places they let them remain until the latter end
of January, or the beginning of February, obferving
to earth them up from time to time as the plants ad¬
vance in height (tor the reafoas before given); as alfo
to cover them in very hard froft withpeafe-haulm,ftraw,
or fome other light covering,, to preferve them from
•being deftroyed; they then makeahot-bed(in proportion
to the quantity of peafe intended), which mutt be made
of good hot dung, well prepared and.properly mixed to¬
gether, that the heat may not be too great. The dung
fhoul<*l be laid for two or three feet thick, according as
the beds are made earlier or later in the feafon; when
the dung is equally levelled, then the earth (which
Ihould be light and frefh, btit not over rich) mutt be
laid thereon about fix or eight inches thick, laying it
equally all over the bed. '1 his being done, the frames
779 ] PIS
(which Ihould be two feet high on the back fide, and
about 14 inches in front) mutt be put on, and covered
with glaffes; after which it fhould remain three or four
days, to let the Hearn of the bed pafs off before you
put the plants therein, obferving every day to raife
the glaffes to give vent for the riling fleam to pafs off;
then, when you find the bed of a moderate tempera-
ture for heat, you fhould, with a trowel, or fome other
inttrumeot, take up the plants as carefully as poflible
to preferve the earth to their roots, and plant them into
the hot-bed in rows about two feet afunder, and the
plants about an inch diftant from each other in the
rows, obferving to water and (hade them until they
have taken root; after which you mutt be careful to
give them air at all times when the feafon is favour¬
able, otherwife they will draw up very weak, and be
fubjeft to grow mouldy and decay. You fhould klfo
draw the earth up to the (hanks of the plants as they
advance in height, and keep them always clear from
weeds. The water they fhould have mutt be given
them fparingly; for if they are too much watered, it
Will caufe them to grow too rank, and fometimes rot
off the plants at their (hanks juft above ground. When
the weather is very hot, you fhould cover the glaffes
with mats in the heat of the day, to fereen them from
the violence of the heat of the fun, which is then
too great for them ; but when the plants begin to
fruit, they fhould be watered oftener, and in greater
plenty than before ; for by that time the plants will
have nearly done growing, and the often refrefhing
them will occafion their producing a greater plenty of
fruit.
The fort of pea which is generally ufed for this pUr-
pofe is the dwarf; for all the other forts ramble too
much to be kept in frames : the reafon for fowing them
in the common ground, and afterwards tranfplanting
them on a hot-bed, is to check their growth, and caufe
them to bear in lefs compafs ; for if the feeds were
fownlupon a hot-bed, and the plants continued there¬
on, they would produce fuch luxuriant plants as could
not be contained in the frames, and would bear but
little fruit.
The next fort of pea which is fo-vn to fucceed .thofe
on the hot bed is the hotfpur; of which there are
reckoned feveral varieties, as the golden hotfpur, the
Charlton hotfpur, the Matter’s hotfpur, the Reading
hotfpur, and fome others ; which are very little differ¬
ing from each other, except in their early bearing, for
which the golden and Charlton hotfpurs are chiefly
preferred ; though if either of thefe forts are cultivated
in the fame place for three or four years, they are apt
to degenerate, and be later in fruiting ; for which rea¬
fon, moft curious perfons procure their feeds annually
from fome diftant place ; and in the choice of thefe
feeds, if they could be obtained from a colder fituation
and a poorer foil than that in which they are to be
fown, it will be much better than on the contrary, and
they will come earlier in the fpring.
Thefe mutt alfo be fown on warm borders, towards
the latter end of Oilober ; and when the plants are
come up, you fhould draw the earth up to their fhanks,
and iJeat them in every other refpeA as above direfted.
In the fpring you mutt carefully clear them from
weeds, and draw fome frefh earth up to their ftems j
but do not raife it too high up to the plants, left -by
5 E 2 burying
Piiara.
Pifum
p 1 s t
burying their leaves you fhotild rot their items, as is
fometimes the cafe, efpecially in wet feafons. You
(hould alfo obferve to keep them free from vermin,
which, if permitted to remain amongft the plants, will
increafe fo plentifully as to devour the greateft part of
them. The chief of the vermin which mfeft peafe are
flugs, which lie all the day in the fmall hollows of the
earth, near the ftems of the plants, and in the night¬
time come out and make terrible deftruftion of the
peafe; and thefe chiefly abound in wet foils, or where
a garden is negle&ed and over-run with weeds: there¬
fore you fhould make the ground clear every way round
the peafe to deftroy their harbours; and afterwards in
a fine mild morning very early, when thefe vermin are
got abroad from their holes, you fhould flake a quan¬
tity of lime, which fhould be (trewed over the ground
pretty thick, which will deftroy the vermin wherever
it happens to fall upon them, but will do very little in¬
jury to the peafe, provided it be not fcattered too
thick upon them.
If this crop of peafe fucceeds, it will immediately
follow thofe on the hot-bed ; but for fear this fhould
mifcarry, it will be proper to fow two more crops at
about a fortnight or three weeks diftance from each
other, fo that there may be the more chances to fuc-
ceed. This will be fufficient till the fpring of the year,
when you may fow feveral more crops of thefe peafe at
a fortnight diftance from each other. The late fovv-
ings will be fufficient to continue the early fort of
peafe through the feafon; but it will be proper to
have feme of the large fort to fucceed them for the
ufe of the family : in order to which, you fhould fow
feme of the Spaniffi Morotto, which is a great bearer
and a hardy fort of pea, about the middle of February,
upon a clear open fpot of ground. Thefe muft be fown
in rows about four feet afunder, and the peafe fhould
be dropped in the drills about an inch diftanre, cover¬
ing them about two inches deep with earth, being very
.careful that none of them lie uncovered, which will
draw the mice, pigeons, or rooks, to attack the whole
fpot; and it often happens, by this negleft, that a
whole plantation is devoured by thefe creatures; where-
_ as, when there are none of the peafe left in fight, they
do not eafily find them out.
About a fortnight after this you fhould fow another
fpot, either of this fort or any other large fort of pea,
to fucceed thefe ; and then continue to repeat fowing
once a fortnight, till the middle or latter end of May;
only obferving to allow the marrowfats, and other very
large forts of peafe, at leaft four feet and a half be¬
tween row and row; and the rofe-pea fhould be al¬
lowed at leaft eight or ten inches diftance plant from
plant in the rows; for thefe grow very large, and if
they have not room allowed them, they will fpoil each
other by drawing them up very tall, and will produce
no fruit.
When the plants come up, the earth fhould be drawn
tip to their fhanks (as was before dire&ed), and the
ground kept entirely clear from weeds; and when the
plants are grown eight or ten inches high, you fhould
ftick fome brufhwood into the ground clofe to the peafe
for them to ramp upon, which will fupport them from
trailing upon the ground, which is very apt to rot the
growing forts of peafe, efpecially in wet feafons ; be-
fides, by thus fupporting them, the air can freely pafs
between them, which will preferve the blofibms frem
780 ] PIS
falling off before their time, and occafion them to bear
much better than if permitted to lie upon the ground, u
and there will be room to pafs between the rows to ga¬
ther the peafe when they are ripe.
The dwarf forts of peafe may be fown much clofer
together than thofe before-mentioned; for thefe feMorn
rife above a foot high, and rarely fpread above half a
foot in width, fo that thefe need not have more room
than two feet row from row, and not above an inch
afunder in the rows. Thefe will produce a good quan¬
tity of peafe, provided the feafon be not over dry; but
they feldom continue long in bearing, fo that they are
not fo proper to fow for the main crop when a quan¬
tity of peafe is expe&ed for the table, their chief ex¬
cellency being for hot-beds, where they will pro luce
a greater quantity of peafe (provided they are well-
managed) than if expofed to the open air, where the
heat of the fun foon dries them up.
The large growing forts may be cultivated for the
common ufe of the family, becaufe thefe will produce
in greater quantities than the other, and will endure
the drought better ; but the early kind are by far the
fweeter-tafted peafe.
The heft of all the large kinds is the marrowfat,
which, if gathered young, is a well-tafted pea; and this
will continue good through the month of Auguft, if
planted on a ftrong foil.
The gray and other large winter peafe are feldom
cultivated in gardens, becaufe they require a great deal
of room, but are ufually fown in fields. For the pro¬
per method of managing them, fee Agriculture,
n° 150.
In the Mufeum RuJUcum, Vol. I. p. 109. we find
the following method of preparing peafe for hog meat,
which we (hall give in the words of the ingenious far¬
mer who communicated it.
“ A few years ago (faye he), I had a plentiful crop
of peafe on a ten acre piece, which lies near my houfer
when they were full podded and nearly ripe, 1 had
them hooked in the ufual manner ; but before I could
get them in, there came a heavy ftiower of rain which
wetted them through and through ; and the dull heavy
weather, with frequent fliowers which followed, pre¬
vented their drying for a confiderable time.
“ I caufed the wads to be from time to time turn,
ed, to prevent the haulm from rotting ; and at length
- a few days funfhine dried them enough to be inned ;
for as they lay hollow, the wind was greatly affiftant
to the operation.
“ Before I got them in, on examining fome of the
pods, I found that the peafe were all fprouted to a
confiderable length: this was what I had expe£ted, as
I gave my crop over for loft, till after a little recol-
ie&ion, as the weather ftill continued fine, I determi¬
ned to threfh them in the field.
“ This was accordingly done ; and the corn, after
it was caft and riddled in' feparate it from the rubbiffi,
was dried on my malt kiln;
“ When this operation was over, I began to refleft
in what manner I ffiould difpofe of my peafe, being
fenfible that they could not be proper for feed, and
ftanding no chance of difpofing of them to any advan¬
tage in the market.
“ At length, as it was then a time of war, and of
courfe there was a great demand for pork for the nfe
of the navy, I determined to buy a confiderable num¬
ber
Pilum:
PIT [ -
Pi'/cTaJ ^Cr ^eaQ ^C^S’ ^at ^ by their means con-
‘' °a * furne this crop on my own premlfes, and in that man-
ner make the moll of it.
“ My expe6>ation8 were more than anfwered ; for I
found, by repeated experience, that three bufliels of
the peafe I have mentioned went nearly as far in fat¬
tening the hogs I bought ns four bufhels got in dry
and hard in the manner ufually praftifed.
“ This difcovery I made fcveral years ago, and it
has turned out to my advantage ; for fince that time
I have been quite indifferent as to the weather in
which my peafe are hooked, being rather better plea-
fed, as far as relates to them, with wet than dry wea¬
ther ; but if the weather happens to be dry at the
time they are ripe, I always caufe as many as I want
for feeding my hogs, which are not a few in a year,
to be regularly malted in the fame manner nearly as
my barley : this management has of late fucceeded ve¬
ry >vell with me, and 1 therefore intend to continue it.
“ Befides feeding my hogs with thefe malted peafe,
I have often given them to my horfes, with which
they agree very well, and are heartening food.
“ Turkeys will fatten apace on them alfo, and be
fine meat.
“ I have applied my malted peafe to many other
ufes, which I have not at prefect time to enumerate :
but were they only ufed for feeding hogs and horfes,
it is ftill worth while to prepare fomc in this manner
every year.”
PIT-coal, or Stone-coal. See Coal and Li-
THANTHRAX.
Mr Bertrand, in his Oryflo/ogic Dt&ionary, reduces
all kinds of coals to fix general clafTes, viz. i. Lithan-
thrax ligneus ; 2. Petrofi'us ; 3. Terreftris ; 4. Piceus ;
5.F;fiilis; 6. MineraliTtus. He favs, that the Scots
coals are heavier, and burn not fo well as thofe of New-
caftle ; that thofe of Liege burn quicker; and thofe
from Bralfac in Auvergne, and from La FofTe, burn
with a more agreeal ie flame, &c. But Mr Morand,
in his Nomenclature Raifonnee, diftributes all forts of pit-
coals into four claffes: In the firft he places nine va¬
rieties, beginning with the gagas or fuccmum nigrum,
to the variegated lithanthrax; in the fecond he reckons
feven varieties, beginning with the lithanihrax eleganti
JlruBura, to that facie granu/ata: and he forms the
fourth clafs with the earthy and poorer kinds of foflil
coals. He feems, however, to have been puzzled with
the flaty coals, as he ranges them in a feparate clafs,
perhaps to fhelter himfelf from the criiical objections
of thofe numerous fuperticial naturalifts, who only look
for the apparent configuration, without almoft any re¬
gard to the component parts of loflils.
The coal-trade is of infinite importance to Great
Britain, which never could have arrived at its piefent
commercial eminence without it ; and this eminence it
will be impcfiible to retain if coal ihould ever become
fcarce. This we trufl is not likely to be the cafe, though
Mr Williams exprefies great fears for it,and informs us
thatatNewciftleand in many parts of Scotland themines
near the fea are already wafted, the firft confequence of
which muft be an enormous rife in the price. See
his ©bfervations on this fubjed in his Natural Hijlory
if the Mineral Kingdom, p. 15 6, &c. This author fays,
that coal was not difeovered till between the middle of
the 1 zth and beginning of the 13th centuries: it is
therefore, according to him, 400 years fince it was firft
’81 3 . pit
difeovered in Britain, but they have not been in com- Pitahap,
mon ufe for more than 200 years. The fame author Pitcairne.
gives us many pertinent obfervations on the appear- 
ances and indications of coal, inftrudions about fearch- '
ing for it, remarks on falfe and doubtful fyraptoms of
coal; for all which, together with his obfervations on
the different kinds of Scots coal, we fhall refer our
readers to the work itftlf; the firft part of which, oc-
cupying the largeft proportion of the firft volume, is
xipon the frata. of coal, and on the concomitant Jlrata.
See alfo our article Coalery.
PITAHAYA (Cafius Pitajaya, Lin. Syjl. Vegeta*
lilium. Jacquin Amer. 151. ed. 2. p. 75. M. E. Car-
thagena), a fhrub peculiar to California, is a kind of-
beech, the fruit of which forma the greateft harveft of
the natives. Its branches are finely fluted, and rife
vertically from the ftem, fo as to form a very beauti¬
ful top. The fruit is like a horfe-chefnut. In fome
white, in others yellow, and in others red, but always
exquifitely delicious, being a rich fweet, tempered with
a grateful acid. See Cactus.
PITCAIRNE (Dr Archibald), a moft eminent
phyfician and ingenious poet, was defeended from the
ancient family of the Pitcairnes of Pitcairne in Fife-
fhire, and was born at Edinburgh on the 25th of De¬
cember 1652. He commenced his ftudics at the fchool '
of Dalkeith ; and from thence he was removed to the
univerfity of Edinburgh, where he improved himfelf
in claffical learning, and completed a regular courfe of •
philofophy. His friends, according to the authors of
the Biograthia Britannica, were denrous that he fliould
follow the profcfiion of theology. The unpleafant
gloom, however, which at that time hung over reli¬
gion and its proftflbrs in Scotland, could not but very
ill fuit with that native cheerfulnefs of temper and li¬
berality of mind which made him, long after, a mark
for the arrows of precifentfs and grimace. The law
feems to have been his own choice, and to this fcience
he turned his attention. With an ardour peculiar to
himfelf, and an ambition to excel in whatever he un¬
dertook, he purfued it with fo much intenfenefs, that
his health began to be impaired. On this account,
his phyficians adviftd him to fet out for the fouth of
France. By the time he reached Paris, he was hap¬
pily fo far recovered, that he determined to renew his
ftudies ; but being informed that there was no able
profefibr of law in that city, and finding feveral gen¬
tlemen of his acquaintance engaged in the ftudy of
phyfic, he went with them to the lectures and hofpi-
tals, and employed himfelf in this manner for Lvera!
months till his affairs called him home.
On his return, he applied himfelf chiefly to the ma¬
thematics. It is not ufual to fee the briars of this
fcience and the flowers of poetry growing in the fame
foil. Here, however, they were happily united ; and
to this union perhaps was owing that lingular com¬
mand of judgment, over one of the livelieft of fancies,
which appears in every part of his works. His intimacy
with Dr David Gregory, the celebrated mathematical
profeffor, began about the fame time ; and probably
conduced to cheri/h his natural aptitude for this ftudy.
It was then, in a great meafure, new to him ; it foon
became his principal delight ; his progrefs in it was
rapid, and correfpondent tc his progrefs in other pur-
fuits. His improvements on the method of infinite
feries then adopted, which Dr Wallis of Oxford after-
5 ward*
PIT [ :782 ] PIT
fStea’ime. warJg publifhed, were a confpicuouB and early proof
of his abilities in this fcience.
Had Dr Pitcairne continued to profecute the ftudy
of the law, and could he have moulded his principles
to the times, the firft offices and honours of the ftatc
might have been looked for without prefumption as
the probable reward of fuch talents as be poifefied.
Struck, however, with the charms of mathematical
truth which had been lately introduced into the philo-
fopby of medicine, and hoping to reduce the healing
art to geometrical method, he unalterably determined
on this lefs afpiring profeffion. At the period when
he formed this refolution, the ideas of the medical
world, already fufficiently confufed, were ftill farther
jumbled by the difeovery of the circulation of the
blood, which had as yet produced nothing but doubt,
uncertainty, and aftonifliment. In Edinburgh at that
time there was no fchool, no hofpital, no opportunity
of improvement but the chamber and the (hop. He
therefore foon after returned to Paris. Genius and
indultry are unhappily not often united in the fame
chara&er: of fuch an union, however, Dr Pitcairne is a
celebrated inftance. During his refidence in France,he
cultivated the obje&of his purfuit with his natural en-
thufiafm, and with a fleadinefs from which he could
not be diverted by the allurements of that joy which,
in his hours of focial and fellive intercourfe, he always
felt and always gave. Among his various occupations,
the ftudy of the ancient phyftcians Teems to have had
a principal (hare. This appears from a treatife which
he published fome time after his return ; and it fhows,
th it he wjfely determined to know the progrefs of me¬
dicine from its earlieft periods, before he attempted to
reionti and improve that fcience.
On the i 3th ot Auguft 1680, he received, from the
facuhy of Rheima the degree of Do&or ; which, on
the 7th of Auguft 1699, was bkewife conferred on
him by the univerfity of Aberdeen ; both being at¬
tended with marks of peculiar diftin&ion. Other me¬
dical honours are faid to have been conferred on him
in France and elfewhere ; but nothing affords a more
unequivocal teftimony to his abilities than that which
the furgeons of Edinburgh gave, in admitting him,
freely and unfolicited, a member of their college.
None had fuch opportunities of judging of bis merit as
a pradlitioner, and on no phyfician did they ever beftow
the fame public mark of refpeft. Soon after his gra¬
duation at Rheims, he returned to Edinburgh; where,
on the 29th of November i68r, the Royal College of
PhyGcians was inftituted; and his name, among others,
graced the original patent from the crown.
In his Solutio Prcbl'ematis de Inventoribiu> the trea¬
tife above alluded to, he difeovera a wonderful degree
of medical literature, and makes ufe of it in a man¬
ner that does great honour both to his head and his
heart. His objeift is to vindicate Dr Harvey’s claim
to the difeovery of the circulatioH of the blood. The
difeovery was, at firft, controverted by envy, and re¬
probated by ignorance. When at length its truth
was fully eftabliffied, many invidioufly attempted to Pitcairne.
tear the laurels from the illuftrious Engliffiman, and to y—^
plant them on the brows of Hippocrates and others.
Had the attempt been direfted againtt himfelf, the
generous foul of Pitcairne could not have exerted more
zeal in adefence; and his arguments remain unanfwered.
During his refidence in Scotland, his reputation
became lb confiderable, that, in the year 1691, the
univerfity of Leyden folicited him to fill the medical
chair, at that time vacant. Such an honourable tefti*
mony of refpe&, from a foreign nation, and from fuch
an univerfity, cannot perhaps be produced in the me¬
dical biography of Great Britain. The luftre of fuch
charafters refleifls honour on their profeffion, and on
the country which has the good fortune of giving
them birth ; and ferves to give the individuals of that
country not only a ufeful eftimation in their own eyes,
but in thofe aifo of the reft of the world. Dr Pit-
cairne’s well-known political principles excluded him
from public honours and promotion at home: he
therefore accepted the invitation from abroad ; and,
on the 26th of April 1692, delivered, at Leyden, his
elegant and mafterly inaugural oration: Uratio qua
ojienditur medicinam ab omni philofophorum feBa ejje libe-
ram. In this he clears medicine from the rubbifh of
the old phdofophy ; feparates it from the influence of
the different feds ; places it on the broad and only
fure foundation of experience ; fhows how little good
inquiries into the manner how medicines operate have
done to the art; and demonftrates the necefiity of a
fedulous attention to their effeds, and to the various
appearances of difeafe.
Nothing (fays an elegant panegyrift* of our author) *nrC!hark9
marks a fuperiority of intellect fo much as the cou-Wcbrter»‘n
rage requifite to item a torrent of obftinately prevail-
ing and groundlefs opinions. For this the genius and^Cat fu’
talents of Pitcairne were admirably adapted; and, indlnburgh
his oration, he difplays them to the utmoft. It wasfor the Feaf
received with the hightft commendations; and the ad- ^^®Irt
miniftrators, to teflify their fenfe of fuch an acquifitionformance "
to their univerfity, greatly augmented the ordinary ap- the prefenC
pointment of his chair. article is
He difeharged the duties of his office at Leyden tradedeX"
as to anfwer the moft fanguine expe&ations. Hetra 6
taught with a perfpicuity and eloquence which met
with univerfal applaufe. Independently of the enco¬
miums of Boerhaave and Mead, who were his pupils,
the numerous manufeript copies of his le&ures, and
the mutilated fpecimen of themf which found its way ^
into the world without his knowledge, fhow how juft-Medicin*.
ly it was beftowed. At the fame time, he was not
more celebrated as a profeffor than as a pra&ical phy¬
fician ; and notwithftanding the multiplicity of his bu-
finefs in both thefe charafters, he found leifure to pub-
lifh feveral treatifes on the circulation, and fome other
of the moft important parts of the animal economy (a )»
At the clofe of the feffion he fet out for Scotland,
with an intention of returning in time for the fucceed-
ing one. On his marrying (b) the daughter of Sir
Archibald
(a) Dr Boerhaave gives the following charadter of thefe and fome other of Dr Pitcairne’s differtations,
which were collected and publifhed at Rotterdam, anno 1701 : “ Haec feripta optima funt et perfedta, five
letfas Differtationem de Motu Sanguinis per Pulmones, five alia opufcula, five ultimum tradtatum de Opio.”
Methodus Jludit, ab Hallero edita, p. 569.
(b) He had been married before to a daughter of Colonel James Hay of Pitfour, by whom he had a fon
and daughter, who both died young.
1? I T r
ArchibaU Stevcnfon, th= objca of hi. jocroev he^^eoJwh,' b .b v ^ 1 T
relatjons would on no account content to parLvith to falTbefor^ fu^e[five of formef onea, was P'tcaime.
him again. He was therefore reluftantly obhVed o tfelf K °‘he1r\burt a llttle "’ore fatiafaftory than ~v—
remain ; and he wrote the univerfity a polite^ ^rv Phyfician8,f P^ed more from geo"
gy, which waa received with the utmoft regret. He tTe founder ’ rC°Uld grant* Th<T made it
e.en d^h„ed the moll flattering felicitations and temp! J?e8 !nd 3 r A °f 30 aUxiIiary to ^ inqui-
tmg offers to fettle in London* Indeed he foon came mathematS ‘'f ? ‘° Part3 °f natUre not admitting
into that extenfive praftice to which his abilities in- afterwards to ^f 3* • ?y PayinS more attention
titled him, and was a!fo appointed titular profeffor of ciole the f h f“Pr^me ,nflucnce of the living prin-
medicine in the univerfity of Edinburgh. the bodv ^ ? i thLe motion8 and fundions of
The uniformity of a profeffional life is teldom inter. pLined t ^J3,8 fou;d ^ thefe couid not be ex_
rupted by incidents worthy of record. Specimens are ^ 7 of. chJei!llftry Gt mechanifm. They
“f"1" -• -t ' 1 be delighted ftand^ "^,''1'^^“"'!’'* a?<l “>«-!*•
hr;., y f wurtuy or recora. Specimens,
however of that brilliant wit with which he delighted Handing 7he ,a OD,cunty i notwith-
his friends .n rb,. -r u.v _ K r d ^ th® numberlef3 ,mptovements which have ta
* ken place in the feiences connefted with medicine
1 will nerhans rrm^m  e i ‘cencme.
, . f , ‘ w‘i« wmen ne delightec
ma friends In the hours of hts leifnre, continue to en-
tertam u, (c) j and the effeftj of that eminent /kill „i|l oerhan." V"’ .t10,,,,'c;ea w>‘h medicine,
“d ofTofte,!^' C“re °f difafe' “> >>“ P-fen'L^of entrncf' Wh'‘e
The difeovery of the circulation, while in fome cine" f° ^Tly pro&refnve 38 thatof medi-
meafure it exploded the chemical and Galenical doc vain’for tn Ih •rne ^ 3 dtal* By louring in
tnnes, tended to introduce mathematical and mecha- drudgery and'^eb ^’ hCi ffcd many ifme
meal reafonmg m their {lead. Of this theory (d) ther. He not nnJ 7 the neccffity of ano-
/ P.,tcaijne wa? the principal fupport, and the firft the chemifls and eX(? °dfd Iman>r falfe notions of
who introduced it into Britain. A mathematical turn but many of thlf?? ^ f prc7aiIed "1 hl'8 time,
of mind, and a wilh for mathematical certainty in me- lar LTn ) 5 OWn fea- In
feme, biaffed him in its favour, and he pufhed it to and their^uT^t " of refernng all diteafes
ns utmoft extent One is at a lofs whether mod to !he do of tecr !ion ^ He refuted
admire or regret fuch a wafte of talents in propping a rently ftaued/lT b ir pe^0tmed ^ Pores d^*
^ b rently leaped (f), Bellini’s opinion of effervefcences in
-  the
-^ss^utsss^sssn^ *” s
the Biographia Britannia ; and it is to be regretted that it is the 18 c°m™ented on by the authors of
to throw light .. Some part, (fay the,) of Vhi, p«m c ft ?ne„™ “;h'ch ‘h'y have been folicitona
fiance in the Doftm'a^ lifS, wtiidl he "iften towf unT never wflrfe.111'' "’'thoUt I1"?' ving a circum-
ftory of the two Platonic philofophers, who promifed one h?!! f°T- ^motIon* h is » well known
viht to his furviving companion. This ftorv hem<r r,,A ^ T^ ’r ^r whlch.ever died firfl: ffould make a
vifit to his furviving companion. This ftory being read dl’ed,firft fllould make a
being both then very young, entered into the fame engaJem^nt Soon ate r t0S^ ^Y,
lioufe in Fife, dreamt rmw rv,orni*nrr T   5e“lent* ooon after, Pitcairne, at his father’s
houfe oi; mo,;rg Aitli'ndUThrS'tr"'- ^ Pi'“ - - -  
was not dead, as was commonly reported, but ftiil alive and I, "i • ans’ carac to h,m» told him he
could not yet carry him. By the Lute of the poll nL came 7 " phce’ to whl'ch
fuddenly the morning of the dream. When this *L knowr n ’ .>indJfy 3 f eath, which happened very
common degree of beauty. 0Wn’ fhe Poem 18 e>fllY underftoot!, and fhmes with n^
“ ^yndefi ! Styg>a8 jamdudum veae per undas,
otagnaque Cocyti non adeunda mihi t
Excute pauhfper Leth^i vincula fomni,
'r Ut Sriaot animilni carmina noftra tuura.
1 e nobis, te redde tuis, promiffa daturus
xr ^audia ’ ^ed Proavo fis comitante redux ;
Narnq.ue novos viros mutataque regna videbis,
Paffaque Teutomcas feeptra Britanna manus*. * Written
" .Prc5Ced8 t0 exc,Iaim aKai’nft principles and praaices which produced this Tentnnlr. • i ‘n i63^
;ZftlLftt,lhrCCPtrC> “d C0“dUdei Lnlfey might b^Rhltnlr^rLt^
“ Uf^3 abeft fcelerum vindex Rhadamanthus; amice,
“ -Dii faciant reditus fit comes ille tui!
b? ~ad-
(d) See the article Physiology, n° 7 — 14.
Edin-tdi'- *»*3- Dc »r'« V- corpora acU, v.l altalica in enra-
C5') circulatione fanguims per vafa minima.
PIT [ 784
ritcaime. the animal fpirits with the blood, and BorelH’n of air
-v— entering the blood by refpiration (g). He proved the
continuity of the arteries and veins (h); and feems to
have been the firll who ihowed that the blood flows
from a fmaller capacity into a larger ; that the aorta,
with refpeCt to the arterial fyftem, is the apex of a
xone'(i). In this therefore he may be confidered as
the latent fpring of the difcoveries refpe&ing the
powers moving the blood. He introduced a fimplici-
ty of prefeription unknown in pharmacy before his
time(K) ; and fuch was the ftate of mediqne in this
country, that fcarcely have the works of any cotem¬
porary or preceding author been thought worthy even
of prefervation (l). As to the errors of his philofo-
phy, let it be remembered, that no theory has as yet
ftood the teft of many years in an enlightened period.
His own hung very loofely about him(M) ; and the
prefent generally received practice differs from his very .maxims.
] PIT
PITCA1THLY. See Pitkeathly.
PITCH, a tenacious oily fubltance, drawn chiefly
from pines and firs, and ufed in/hipping, medicine,
and various arts i or it is more properly tar infpiflated
by boiling it over a flow fire. See Tar.
Fojfd Pitch. See Petroleum.
PITCHING, in fea-affairs, may be defined the
vertical vibration which the length of a /hip makes
about her centre of gravity ; or the movement by which
/he plunges her head and after-part alternately into
the hollow of the fea. This motion may proceed from
two caufes: the waves which agitate the veffel; and
the wind upon the fails, which makes her /loop to every
blaft thereof. The firft abfolutely depends upon the
agitation of the fea, and is not fufceptible of inquiry 5
and the fecond is occafioned by the inclination of the
mafts, and may be fubmitted to certain eftabli/hed
Pltcalthlf
II
Pitho. 1
little in reality. He treated inflammatory and hemor¬
rhagic difeafes by bleeding, purging, and bliftermg, as
has been done uniformly and foleiy on the different
theories fince. His method of adminiftering mercury
and the bark is obferved at this day; and with refpeft
to febrile, nervous, glandular, and dropfical affe&ions,
they feem to be as often the opprobriums of the art
now as they were then.
Dr Pitcairne was univei'fally confidered as the firft
phyfician of his time. No one appears ever to have
had fo much prattice in this country, or fo many con-
iultations from abroad; and no one, from all accounts,
ever pra&ifed with greater fagacity and fuccefs. The
higheft thought themfelves honoured by his acquaint¬
ance, and the loweft were never denied his afliftance
and advice. The emoluments of his profeflion muft
have been great; but his charities are known to have
been correfpondent. The poffeffion of money he poft-
poned to more liberal objefts : he collected one of the
fineft private libraries in the world; which was purcha*
fed, after his death, by the Czar of Mufcovy. Not-
withftanding the fatigues he underwent in the exercife
of his profefiion, his conftitution was naturally deli¬
cate. About the beginning of Oftober 1713, he be¬
came affe&ed with his laft illnefs; and on the ^jd he
died, regretted by fcience as its ornament, by his coun¬
try as its boift, and by humanity as its friend. He
left afon and four daughters: of whom only one of the
latter now furvives. The prefent noble family of Kelly
are his grandchildren.
Some anonymous publications are attributed to Dr
Pitcairne, particularly a treatife De Legibus HiJtorU
Naturalise &c.; but the only ones he thought proper
to legitimate arfe his Differtat'iones Medic#) and a ihort
effay De Salute.
When the wind a£ls upon the fails, the maft yields
to its effort, with an inclination which increafes in
proportion to the length of the maft, to the augmenta¬
tion of the wind, and to the comparative weight and
diftribution of the /hip’s lading.
The repulfion of the water, to the effort of gravity,
oppofes itfclf to this inclination, or at leaft fuftains it,'
by as much as the repulfion exceeds the momentum,
or abfolute effort of the maft, upon which the wind
operates. At the end of each blaft, when the wind
fu/pends its aftion, this repulfion lifts the veffel; and
thefe fucceflive inclinations and repulfions produce the
movement of pitching, which is very inconvenient;
and, when it is confiderabie, will greatly retafd the
courfe, as well as endanger the maft, and ftrain the
veffel.
PITH, in vegetation, the foft fpongy fubftance
contained in the central parts of plants and trees *.
PITHO, (fab.hift.) the goddefs of perfuafion among
the Romans. She was fuppofed to be the daughter of
Mercury and Venus, and was reprefented with a diadem
on her head, to intimate her influence over the hearts
of man. One of her arms appeared raifed as in the at¬
titude of on orator haranguing in a public affembly ;
and with the other /he holds a thunderbolt and fetters,
made with flowers, to fignify the powers of reafoning
and the attra&ions of eloquence. A caduceus, as a
fymbol o^jerfuafion, appears at her feet, with the wri¬
tings of Demofthcnes and Cicero, the two moft cele¬
brated among the ancients, who underftood how to com¬
mand the attention of their audience, and to roufe and
animate their various paflions.—A Roman courtezan.
She received this name on account of the allurements
which her charms poffeffed, and of her winning ex-
preffi0"S> PITHOM.
(g) De diverfa mole qua fanguis fluit per pulmones.
(h) De circulatione fanguinis per vafa minima.
(1) De circulatione fanguinis in animalibus genitls et non gehitis.
(k) Elementa Medicina, lib. i cap. 21, et pafiim. , , ^ f ,
(l) The fir ft medical publication which diftingui/hed this country* aftef Df Pitcairne’s, was that o t £
Edinburgh Medical Effays, in the year 1732. Vid. the article Monro. > _ v N
(m) Patet {fays he) medicinam effe memoriam eorum quae cuilibet motbo ufus oftendit fuiffe utiha. an*
notas non effe corporum intra venas fluentium aut confiftentium haturas, adeoqiie fola obfervaticne innote cere
quid cuique morbo convcniat, poftquam faspius eadem eidem xsorbo profuiffe comperirous. De Dtv. -Morin,
I* I T r 78? I pit
KrL ™ LThrlh'„ct;^rEx^c;n,nndt:f r^r1^m'c^?bn«'d *»h:™ «*«».
r , - —  — * ...a ,„ probably
lam? c.ty w.th Pathnmoa mentioned by Herodotus
which he places upon the can’l made by the kings Ne-
. ho and Darius to join the Red fea with the Nile, and
by that means with the Mediterranean, We find alfo
in the ancient geographers, that there was an arm of
tne Nil? called Palkmeticus, Phatmlcus, Phatnicus, or
Phatmticus. Bochart fays, that Pithoin and Raamfes
are about five leagues above the divifion of the Nile,
find beyond this river: but this affertion has ho oroof
from antiquity. This author contents him (elf with re-
luting what was faid of Egypt in his own time. Mar-
mam will have Pithora to be the fame as Pelufium cr
Damietta.
PITHOL/ or Pithoeus (Peter), a Frenchman of
great literary eminence, w*:s defcended from an ancient
i-.nd noble, f'amily in Normandy, and born at Troyes in
* 39• His tafle for literature appeared very early, and
his father cultivated it to the utmo'l. He firft ftudie 1
at Troyes, and wap afterwards fent to Peris, where he
became firft the fcholar, and then the friend, of Tur-
nebus. Having finifhed his purfuits in languages and
tue belies lettres, he was removed to Bourges, and
placed under Cujacius in order toiludy civd law. His
f.ther wss well ficilled in this profefilon, and has left
no inconfiderable fpecimen of his judgment in the ad¬
vice he gave his fon with regard to acquiring a know¬
ledge of it; which was, not to fpend his time and pains
upon voluminous and barren commentators, but to con¬
fine his readipg chiefly to original writers. He made
fo rapid a progrefs, that at feventeen he was able to
foeak extempore upon the moft difficult queftions; and
bis mailer was not aihamed to own, that even himfelf
had learned fome things of him. Cujacius afterwards
removed to Valence; and Pithoeus followed him,andcon-
tinued to profit by his leftures till the year 1 i;6o. He
then returned to Paris, an 1 frequented the bar of the
parliament there, in order to join pra&ical forms and
tifaee? to his theoretic knowledge.
In 1563, being then 24, he publifhed Jiiverfaria
Subfecvva. a work highly applauded by Turnebup, Lip-
fius, and other learned men; and which laid the foun-
c’ation of that great and excenfive fame he afterwards
acquired. Soon after this, Henry ill. adv need him
to fome confiderable polls ; in which, as well as at the
bar, he acquitted himfdf mofl honourably. Pithceus
being a Protefhnt, it was next to a miracle that he
was not involved in the terrible maflacre of St Bartho¬
lomew in 1372; for he was at Paris where it was com¬
mitted, and in the fame lodgingp with feveral Hugue¬
nots, who were all killed. It feems indeed to have
frightened him out of his religion ; which having, ac¬
cording to the cuflom of converts, examined and found
to be erroneous, he foon abjured, and openly embraced
the Catholic faith. He afterwards attended the duke
of Montmorency into England ; and on his retuft?,
from his great wifdotn, good nature, and amiable man¬
ners, he became a kind of oracle to his countiymen,
pnd even to foreigners, who confulted him on all
important occafions: an inflance of which we have
in Ferdinand the Grand Duke of Tufiany, who
not only confulted him, but even fubmitted to his de
termination in a point contrary to his intercfls. Hen*
Vot,. XIV. Part II.
ich he had recourfe to
Pitifcu*
II
Pitot.
his pen as well as to other means.
Pithoeus died upon his birth-day in 1596, leaving
behind him a wife whom he had married in 1579, an 1
fome children. Thuanus fays he was the moft excellent
and accomplifhed m?.n of the age in which he lived ;
and all the learned have agreed to fpeak well of him.
He collefted a very valuable library, containing a va¬
riety of rare manuferipts, as well as printed books; ^
and he took many precautions to hinder its being dif-
perfed after his death, but in vain. Fie publifhed a
great number of works upon law, hiflory, and
claffical literature; and he gave feveral new and cor-
re& editions of ancient writers. He was the firft
who made the world acquainted with the Fables of
Pbsedrus: which, together with the name of their an-
thor, were utterly unknown and unheard of, till pub¬
lifhed from a manufeript of his.
PITISCUS (Samuel), a learned antiquary, born
at Zutphen, was reeftor of the college of chat city,
and afterwards of St Jerome at Utrecht, where he
died on the firft of February 1717, aged yo. He
wrote, 1. Lexicon Anttquitatum Romanorum, in. two
volumes folio; 3 work which is efteemed. 2. Edi¬
tions of many Latin authors, wich notes; and other
works.
PI PKEATHLY, or Pitcaithly, is the name of
an eftate in Strathern in Scotland, famous for a mine* 1
ral fprmg. An intelligent traveller * gives thefollow- •Heron’s
mg account of it. “ The fituation of the mineral Journey
fpring at Pitcaithly, the efficacy with which its waters
are Lid to operate in the cure of the difeafes for which M/eJie,n
they are ufed, and the accommodations which the neigh- ‘s^t’aajf
bourh>od affords, are all of a nature to invite equal¬
ly the fick and the healthy. Two or three houfes are
kept in the flyle of hotels for the reception of llrano;ers.
There is no long-room at the well; but there are plea-
fing walks through the adjoining fields. Good roads
afford eafy accefa to all the circumjacent country.
This delightful traft of Lower Scrathern is filled with
houfes and gardens, and flations from which wide and
delightful prof pedis may be enjoyed; all of which offer
agreeable points to which the company at the well may
diredb their forenoon excurfions; converfation, mufic,
dances, whiff, and that beft friend to elegant, lively,
and locial oonverfe, the tea-table, are fufficient to pre¬
vent the afternoons from becom-ng languid: and in the
evenings nothing can be fo delightful as a walk when
the felting fun fheds a foft flaming light, and the dew
has juft not begun to moiflen the grafs.—Thus is Pit¬
caithly truly a rural watering place. The company
cannot be at any one time more in number than two
or three families. The amufements of the place arc
Amply fuch ps a fingle family might enjoy in an
agreeable fituation in the country ; only the fociety
is more diverfified by the continual change and fluctua¬
tion of the company.” See Mineral Waters, p. 55.
PITOT (Henry), of a noble family in Langue¬
doc, was born at Aramont in the diocefe of Ufez,
on the 29th of May 1695, and died there on the
27th of December 1771, aged 76. He learned the ma¬
thematics without a mailer, and went to Paris in 171S,
where he formed a clofe friendlhip with the illuftrious
5 G- / Reaumur.
Reaumur. In 1724, he was admitted a member of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and in a few
years rofe to the degree of a penfioner. Befides a vaft
number of Memoirs printed in the collection of that
fociety, hepublifhed in 1731 the Theory of the Work¬
ing of Ships, in one volume 4to ; a work of confider-
a!>le merit, which was tranflated into Englifh, and
made the author be admitted into the Royal Society
of London. In 1740, the ftatea-geneml of Languedoc
made choice of him for their chief engineer, and gave
him at the fame time the appointment of infpeftor ge¬
neral of the canal which unites the two feas. That
province is indebted to him for feveral monuments of
his genius, w? ich will tranfmit his name with iuilre to
pofterity. The city of Montpellier being in want of
water, Pitot brought from the diftanre of three leagues
two fprings which furnifh a plentiful fupply of that ne-
cefiary article. They are brought to the magnificent
Place du Peyron, and thence are diftributed through
the city. This aftonifhtng work is the admiration of
all Grangers. The illuftrious marfhal de Saxe was the
great patron and friend of Pitot, who had taught this
hero the mathematics. In 1754 he was honoured
■with the order of St Michael. In 1735 he had mar¬
ried Maria-Leonina Pharambier de S.-bballoua, de
feended of a very ancient noble family of Navarre. By
this marriage he had only one fon, who was firft advo-
cate-general ©f the Court of Accounts, Aids, and Fi¬
nances of Montpellier. Pitot was a pradtical philofo-
pher, and a man of uncommon probity and candour.
He was alfo a member of the Royal Society of Sci¬
ences of Montpellier; and his eulogium was pronounced
in 1772 by M. de Ratte perpetual fecretary, in pre¬
fence of the ftates of Languedoc; as it likewife was at
the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris by Abbe de
Fouchi, who was then fecretary.
PITS (John), the biographer, was born in 1560,
at Aulton in Hamplhire, and educated at Wykeham’s
fchool, near Winchefter, till he was about t8 years of
age; when he was fent to New-college in Oxford, and
admitted probationer fellow. Having continued in
that univerfify not quite two years, he left the king¬
dom as a voluntary Romifh exile, and retired to
Douay ; thence he went to the Englifh college at
Rheims, where he remained about a year; and then
proceeded to Rome, where he continued a member of
the Englifh college near feven years, and was made a
pried. In 1589 he returned to Rheims; and there,
during two years, taught rhetoric and the Greek
language. He now quitted Rheims on account of
the civil war m France; and retired to Pont a Mouf-
fon in Lorrain, where he took the degrees of mafter
of arts ?md bachelor in divinity. Hence he travelled
Into Germany, and refided a year and a half at Triers,
where he commenced licentiate in his faculty. From
Triers he vifited feveral of the principal cities in Ger¬
many ; and continuing three years at Ingoldftadt in
Bavaria, took the degree of do&or in divinity. Thence
havi g made the tour of Italy, he returned once more
to Lornin ; where he was patronifed by the cardinal
of that duchy, who preferred him to a canonry of Ver¬
dun ; and a1 out two years after he became confefibr
to the duchefs of Cleves, daughter to the duke of
Lorrain. During the leifure he enjoyed in this em¬
ploy meat, he wrote in Latin the lives of the kings,
bifhops, apoftolical men, and wricers of England.
The lafl of thefe, commonly known and quoted by this 1
title, De illujlribus Anglia feriptoribus, was published af¬
ter his death. The three firft remain ftill in manufeript
among the archives of the collegiate church of Liver-
dun. The duke of Cleves dying after Pit had been
about twelve years confeffor to the duchefs, the re¬
turned to Lorrain, attended by our author, who was
promoted to the deanery of Liverdun, which, with
a canonry and officialfhip^ he 'enjoyed to the end of
his life. He died in 1616, ;nd was buried in the
collegiate church. Pits was uudoilbted'y a fcholar,
and not an inelegant writer; but he isjuftly accufed
of ingratitude to Bale, from v/hom he borrowed hia
materials, without acknowledgment. He quotes Le-
land with great familiarity, without ever having feen
his book: his errors are innumerable, and his par¬
tiality to the Romifh writers moft obvious; neverthe-
lefs we are obliged to him for his account of fev ral
popifli authors, who lived abroad at the beginning of
the Reformation.
PITT (Chriftopher), an eminent Engliih poet, cele¬
brated for his excellent tranfiation of Virgil’s iEneid,
was born in the year 1699. H wing ftudied four years
at New-college, Oxford, he was prefented to the living
of Pimperne in Dorfetfhire, which he held during the
remainder of his life. He had fo poetical a turn, that
while he was a fchooi-boy he wrote two large folios
of manufeript poems, one of which contained an en¬
tire tranflation of Lucan. He was much efteemed
while at the univerfity ; particularly by the celebrated
Dr Young, who ufed familiarly to call him his fon.
Next to hie fine tranflation of Virgil, Mr Pitt gained
the greateft reputation by his excellent Englifh tranfla¬
tion of Vida’s art of poetry- This amiable poet died
in the year 1648, without leaving, it is faid, one
enemy behind him.
Pitt (William) earl of Chatham, a mofl celebrated
Britifh ftatefman and patriot, was born in November
1708. He was the youngeft fon of Robert Pitt, Efq;
of Boconnock in Cornwall; and grandfon of Thomas
Pitt, Efq; governor of Fort St George in the Eaft
Indies, in the reign of queen Anne, who fold an ex¬
traordinary fine diamond to the king of France for
135,000!. and thus obtained the name of Diamond
Pitt. Ht« intelle&ual faculties and powers of elocu¬
tion very foon made a diftinguifhed appearance; but
at the age of 16 he felt the attacks of an hereditary
and incurable gout, by which he was tormented at
tirades during the reft of his life.
Hia lordfhip entered early into the army, and ferved
in a regiment of dragoons. Through the intereft of
the duchefs of Marlborough he obtained a feat in
parliament before he was 21 years of age. Hia firft;
appearance in the houfe was as reprefentative of the
borough of Old Sarum, in the ninth parliament of
Great Britain. In the 10th he reprefented Seaford,
Aldborough in the nth, and the city of Bath in the
1 2th ; where he continued till he was called up to the
houfe of peers in 1766. The intention of the duchefs
in bringing him thus early into parliament was to op-
pofe Sir Robert Walpole, whom he kept in awe by
the force of hia eloquence. At her death the duchefs
left him 10,000 1. on condition, as was then reported,
that he never Humid receive a place ia adminiftratioa,
<8 Hott’everj,
p 1 t r 787 ] fit
However, if any fuch condition was made, it certainly imperious temper of our minifter. However, thefe very
was not.kept on his Lotdftiip’s part. In 1746 he qualities were fometimes produdlive of great ana good
was appointed vice-treafurer of Ireland, and foon after confequences, as appears from the following anecdote,
paymader general »f the forces, and fworn a privy- —Preparatory to one of the fecret expeditions during
counfellor. He difeharged the office of paymafter the war which ended in 1763 the minifter had given
with fuch honour and inflexible integrity, refufing orders to the different prefiding officers in the military,
even many of the perquifites of his office, that his navy, and ordnance departments, to prepare a large
bittereft enemies could lay nothing to his charge, and i ody of forces, a certain number of fliips, and a pro*
he foon became the darling of the people In 1755 portionable quantity of ftores, &c and to have them
he refigned the office of paymafter, on feeing Mr Fox all ready againft a certain day. To thefe orders he re¬
preferred to him. 'Ihe people were alarmed at this ceived an anfwer from each of the officers, declaring
refignation ; and being difgufted with the unfuccef- the total impoffibility of a compliance with them,
ful beginning of the war, complained fo loudly, that, Notwichftanding it was then at a very late hour, he
on the 4th December 1756, Mr Pitt was appointed fe- fent immediately for his fecretary; and after expreffing
cretary of ftate in the room of Mr Fox afterwards Lord his refentment at the ignorance or negligence of his
Holland; and other promotions were made in order majefty’s fervants, he gave the following commands:
to fecond hie plans. He then took fuch meafures as —“ I defire, Mr Wood, that you will immediately
were neceffary for the honour and intereft of the na- go to Lord Anfon ; you need not trouble yourfelf to
tion ; but in the month of February 1757, having fearch the admiralty, he is not to be found there; you
refufed to affent to the carrying on a war in Ger- muft purfue him to the gaming houfe, and tell him
many for the fake of his majefty’s dominions on the from me, that if he does not obey the orders of go-
continent, he was deprived of the feals on the 5th of vtrnment which he has received at my hands, that I
April following. Upon this the complaints of the will moft affuredly impeach him. Proceed from him
people again became fo violent, that on the 29th of to Lord Ligonier; and though he ftiould be bolftered
June he was again appointed fecretary, and his friends with harlots, undraw his curtains, and repeat the fame
tilled other important offices. The fuecefs with which meffage. Then direct your courfe to Sir Charles Fre-
the war was now condufted is univcrfally known ; yet derick, and affure him, that if his majefty s orders are
on the 5th of Oftober 1761, Mr Pitt, to the aftonilh- not obeyed, they {hall be the laft which he {hall receive
ment of almoft the whole kingdom, refigned the feals from me.” In confequence of thefe commands, Mr
into his majefty’s own hands. The reafon of this was, Wood proceeded to White’s, and told his errand to the
that Mr Pitt, having received certain intelligence that firft lord of the admiralty; who infifted that the fccre-
the family-compadl was ligned between France and tary of-ftate-was out of his ienfes, and it was impoffi-
Spr.in, and that the latter was about to join France ble to comply with his wiflies: “however, (added he),
againft ua, thought it neceffaty to prevent her by com- as madmen muft be anfwered, tell him that I will
mencing hoftilities firft. Having communicated this do my utmoft to fatisfy him.” From thence he went
opinion in the privy-council, the other minifters urged to the commander in chief of the forces, and delivered
that they would think twice before they declared war the fame meffage. He alfo faid that it was an impof-
againft that kingdom. “ I will not give them leave fible bufinefs; “ and the fecretary knows it, (added the
to think (replied Mr Pitt) ; this is the time, let us old lord) : neverthelds, he is in the right to make ut
crufh the whole houfe of Bourbon. But if the mem- do what we can; and what is poffible to do, inform him,
bers of this board are of a different opiftion, this is the ffiall be done.” The furveyor general of the ordnance
laft time I fhall ever mix in itseouncils. I was called was next informed of Mr Pitt’s refolution ; and, after
. into the minifti*y by the voice of the people, and to feme little confideration, be began to think that the or-
them I hold myfelf anfwerable for my conduft. I am ders might be completed withinthetime preferibed. The
to thank the minifters of the late king for their fup- confequence at laft was, that every thing, in fpite of xm«
port; 1 have ferved my country with fuccefs ; but I poffibilities themfelvefr, was ready at the time appointed,
will not be refponfible for the conduft of the war any After his refignation in 1761, Mr Pitt never had
longer than while 1 have the direiffion of it.” To this any {hare in adminiftration. He received a penfion of
bold declaration, the lord who then prefided in coun- 30001. a-year, to be continued after his deceafe, du~
ril made the following reply. “ I find the gentleman ring the furvivancy of his lady and fon ; and this gra-
»determined to leave us; nor can I fay that i am forry tuity was dignified with the title of Baronefs of Cha-
for it, fince he would otherwife have certainly compelled tham to his lady, and that of Baron to her heirs male.
us to leave him. But if he is refolved to affume the right Mr Pitt at that time declined a title of nobility ; but
of advifing his majefty, and direding the operations of in 1766 accepted of a peerage under the title of Ba~
the war, to what purpofe are we called to this council? ron Pynfent and Earl of Chatham, and at the fame time
When he talks of being refponfible to the people, he he was appointed lord privy-feal.
talks the language of the houfe of commono, and for- This acceptance of a peerage proved very prejudi-
gets that at this board he is refponfible only to the cial to his lordfhip’s charaaer. However, he conti-
king. However, though he may poffibly have con- nued ftedfaft in his oppofition to the. meafures of ad-
vinetd himfelf of his infallibility, ftiil it remains that miniftration. His latt appearance in the Houfe of
we fhould be equally, convinced before we can refign Lords was on the 2d of April 1778. He was then
our underfiandings to his direaion, or join with him very ill and much debilitated : but the queftion was
in the meafure he propofes.” important, being a motion of the duke of Richmond
This converfation, winch was followed by Mr Pitt’s to addrefs his majefty to remove the minifters, and
refignation, is fufficicnt to ffiow the haughtiuefs and make peace with America on any terms. His lord-
6 5 G 2 {hip
Pit:.
Pitt.
PIT [ 788 ■ ] PIT
fhip made a long fpeecb, which had certainly overcome much improved, were always deranged.
cf
J’itt, Earl
tf ChatbuM.
his fpiiits: for, attempting to rife a fecond time, he
fell down in a convulfive fit; and though he recovered
for that time, his diforder continued to increafe till the
I ith of May, when he died at his feat at Hayes. His
death was lamented as a national lofs. Asfoon as the
news reached the Houfe of Commons, which was then
fitting, Colonel Bane made a motion, that an addrefs
fhould be prefented to his majefly, requefting that the
Karl of Chatham fhould be buried at the public ex¬
pence. But Mr Rigby having propefed the erecting
of a ftatue to his memory, as more likely to perpetuate
the fenfe of his great merits entertained by the public,
this was unanimoufly carried. A bill was foon after
palled, by which 4000I. a-year was fettled upon John,
now earl of Chatham, and the heirs of the late earl
to whom that title may defcend.— His lordfhip was
married in 1754 to Lady Heften, fifter to the earl
of Temple ; by whom he had three fons and two
daughters.
Never perhaps was any life fo multifarious as that of
Lord Chatham; never did any comprife fuch a number
of interelling functions. To bring the fcattered fea¬
tures of fuch a chara&er into one point of view, is an
arduous talk. The :.uthor of the hiftory of his life *
the Llf: oj has attempted to do it ; and with the outlines of what
William he has faid in fumming tip his character, we fhall finifh
our biographical fketeh of this wonderful man.
“ One of the firlt things that (trikes us, in the re¬
collection of Chatham’s life, is the fuperior figure he
makes among his cotemporaries. Men of genius and
attraction, a Carteret, a Townlhend, and I had alrnoft
laid a Mansfield, however pltafing in a limited view,
appear evidently in this comparifon to Ihrink into nar¬
rower dimenfions, and walk a humbler circle. All
thatdeferves to arreftthe attention, in taking a general
lurvey of the age in which he lived, is comprifed in
the hiftory of Chatham. No charadter ever bore the
more un lifputed ftamp of originality. UnrefemMed
and himftlf, he was not born to accommodate to the
genius of his age. While all around him were depref.
led by the uniformity of fsfhton, or the contagion of
venality, he flood aloof. He confulted no judgment
but his own; and he adled from the untainted didtates
of a comprehenfive foul.
“ The native royalty of his mind is eminently con-
fpicuous. He felt himfelf born to command; and the
free fons of Britain implicitly obeyed him. In him
was realifed the fable of Orpheus ; and his genius, his
fpirit, his eloquence, led millions in his train, fubdued
the rugged favage, and difarmed the fangs of maligni¬
ty and envy. Nothing is in its nature lo inconfitlent
as the breath of popular applaufe: and yet that breath
was eminently his during the greater part of his life.
Want of fuccefs could not divert it ; inconfiftency of
condudt could not change its tenor. The aftoniihing
extent of his views, and the myfterious comprehenfion
of his plans, did not in one refpedl fet him above little
things: nothing that was necefiary to the execution
of his defigns was beneath him. In another refpedl,
ho wever, he was infinitely eftranged to little things:
fwallowed up in the buiinefs of hie country, he did not
think of the derangement of his own private affairs ;
for, though indifpofed to all the modes of difiipated
expence, his affairs, even when his circumftances were
But the fea- r.t*.
tures that feem mod eminently to have charadlerifed v—^
him, were fpirit and intrepidity : they are confpicuoua
in every adlion and in every turn of his life ; nor did
this fpirit and intrepidity leave him even at the hit.
“ The manners of lord Chatham were eafy an d bland,
his converfation was fpirited and gay, and he readily
adapted himftlf to the complexion of thofe with whom
he affociated. That artificial referve, which is the
never-failing refuge of felf-diffider.ee and cowardice,
was not made for him. He was unconflrained as art-
lefs infancy, and generous as the noon-day fun : yet
had he fomething impenetrable that hung about him.
By an irreliftible energy of foul, he was haughty and
imperious. He was incapable of affociatiug council ,
and he was not formed for the fweetell bands cf ioci-
ety. He was a pleafing companion, but an unohant
friend.
“ The ambition of our hero, however generous iu
its ffrain, was the fource of repeated enors in hia con-
dutl. To the refignation of lord Carteret, and again,
from the commencement of the year 1770, his pro¬
ceedings were bold and uniform. In the intermediate
period they were marked with a verfatility, incident
only in general to the moll flexible minds. We may
occafionally trace in them the indecifion of a candidate,
and the fupplenefa of a courtier. In a word, he aim¬
ed at the impoffible t-fle of flattering at once the pre¬
judices of a monarch, and purluing unremittedly the
interells of the people.
“ A feature, too, fufficiently prominent in his cha-
radter, was vanity, or perhaps pride and confcious fu-
periority. He dealt furely fomewhat too freely with
invedlive. He did not pretend to an ignorance of his
talents, or to manage the difplay of his important fer-
vices. Himfelf was too often the hero of his tale ; and
the fucceffes of the laft war the burden of his iongj. f Ending 13
“ Patriotifin was alio the fource of fome of hia im-
perfedtions. He loved his country too well; or, if that
may found abfurd, the benevolence at lealt, tnat em¬
braces, the fpecies, had not iufficient fcope in his mind.
He once ftyied himfell a lover oj honourable ru>ar ; and
in fo doing he let us into one trait of his chaiadter.
The friend of human kind will be an enemy to all war.
He indulged too much a puerile antipathy to the
houfe of Bourbon : and it was furely the want of ex-
panfive affedlions that led him to fo unqualified a con¬
demnation of American independency.
“ But the eloquence of lord Chatham was one of
Ids mbit Unking charadteriliics. He far QUtiiripped
his competitors, and Hood alone Ure tival o: anti¬
quity.
“ His eloquence was of every kind. No man ex¬
celled him in clofe argument and methodical dedudtion:
but this was not the ftyle iuto which lie naturally leit.
His oratory was unlaboured and fpontaneous: he ruffl¬
ed at once upon the fubjedt ; and ulually iliuffrated it
rather by glowing language and original conception,
than by cool reafoning. His perfon was tall and dig¬
nified ; his face was the face ot an eagle ; his piercing
eye withered the nerves, and looked through the fouia
of his opponents ; his countenance was item, and the
voice of thunder fat upon his lips : anon, however, he
could defcend to the eafy and the playful. His voice
feenaed fcarcely more adapted to energy and to terror,
than
P I T
rittacus. than it did to the melodious, the in firmating, and the
—fportive. If, however, in the enthufi^fm of admira¬
tion, we can find room for the frigidity of criticifm,
his a&ion feemed the molt open to olje<ftion. It was
forcible, uniform, and ungraceful. In a word, the moll
celebrated orators of antiquity were in a great meai'ure
the children of labour and cultivation. Lord Chatham
was always natural and himfelf.”
To the misfortune-of the republic of letters, End of
pofterity, his lordfhip never fought the prefs. Lord
Chefterfield fays, “ that he had a molt happy turn for
poetry : but it is more than probable that Chefterfield
was deceived ; for we are told by his biographer that
his verfes to Gi.rrick were very meagre, and lord Cha¬
tham himfelf laid that he fcldom indulged and feldom
avowed it. It fhould feem, then, that he himfdf ftt
no great value upon it. Perhaps a proper confidence
of one’s fell is efiential to all extraordinary merit.
Why fhould we ambicioully aferibe to one mind every
fpecies of human excellence ? But though he war no
poet, it is more than probable, that he would have ex¬
celled as much in writing prole as he did in fpeaking
it.
PITTACUS, a native of Mitylene in Lefoos, was
one of the feven wife men of Greece : hb father’s
name was Hyrradius. With the afiittance of the fons
of Alcaeus, he delivered his country from the oppref-
iion of the tyrant Melanchrus; and in the war which
the Athenians waged againft Lefbos, he appeared at
the head of his countrymen, and challenged to fingle
combat Phrynon the enemy's general. As the event
of the war feemed to depend upon this combat, Pitta-
ous had recourfe to artifice; and when he engaged, he
entangled his adverfary in a net which he had concealed
under his fhield, and eafily difpatched him. He was
amply rewarded for this vibtory ; and his countrymen,
fcniible of his merit, unanimoufiy appointed him go¬
vernor of their city with unlimited authority. In this
capacity Pittaeus behaved with great moderation and
prudence; and after he had governed his fellow-citizens
with the ft ride It juitiee, and after he had eltablifhed
and enforced the moft falutary laws, he voluntarily re-
figned the fovereign power after having enjoyed it for
io years, obferving that the virtues and innocence of
private life were incompatible with the power and in¬
fluence of a iovereign. His dilintereftednefs gained
him many admirers; and when the Mityleneans wifhed
to reward his public fervices by prefenting him with
an immeKfe trad of territory, he refilled to accept
more land than what fhould be contained in the dif-
tance to which he could throw a javelin. He died in
the ycth year of his age, about 579 years before Chrift,
after he had fpent the Lift 10 years of his life in lite¬
rary eafe and peaceful retirement.
The following maxims and precepts are aferihed to
Pittacus : The firft office of prudence is to forefte
threatening miatortunes, and prevent them. Power dif-
covers the man. Never talk of your fchemes before
they 1 re executed; left, if you fail toaccomplifh them,
you be txpoied to the double mortification of difap-
pointment and ridicule. Whatever you do, do it wdl.
l)o not that to your neighbour which you would take
ill from him. lie watchful for opportunities.
Many of his maxims were inferibed on the wall* of
Apollo’s temple at Delphi, to ihow to the world how
P I T
great an opinion the Mityleneans entertained of his Pi teen-
abilities as a phiiofopher, a moralift, and a man. By weem.
one of his laws, every fault committed by a man when /~“
intoxicated deferred double punifirment.
PI P PENWLEM, a fmall town fituated on the
Frith of Forth, towards the eallern extremity of the
county of Fife in North Britain. It takes its name
from a fmall cave in the middle of it anciently called
a nueem, and is remarkable for nothing but the ru¬
ins of a religious houfe, which is fometimes called
an aUey and fometimes a/>r/ory. Which of thefe is
the proper denomination it is hardly worth while to
inquire; but it appears from the arms of the mo-
naftery, ftili preserved over the principal gate, that the
fuperior, by whatever title he was called, had the pri¬
vilege of wearing a mitre. This edifice, which feems
never to have been large, was, with other monuments
of miftaken piety, alienated from the church at the
Reformation ; and what parts of it now remain are put
to very different ufes. Some of the cells of the monks
furniffi habitations tolerably convenient for the fer-
vants of him who, in the ceafelefs change of property,
has.got poffeffion of the lands which formerly belong¬
ed to them. That which feeras to have been the gra¬
nary is a decent pariffi church. The porch of the
chapel, the only part of that building which exifts, has
been alternately employed as a liable and a flaughter-
houfe; and the meat killed there has been commonlyex-
poffd to lale in the lower part of the»fteeple of that
edifice which is now dedicated to the offices of paro¬
chial devotion. Had the moralizing traveller *, who tjohiifonif
compofed the beautiful and pathetic meditation on the J ~
ruins of /ona, condefcended to viiic Pfftenweem, he
vould not have viewed the abbey without emotion.
Infignificant as the placeac prefent is, it feems to have
been of fome confequence in the laft century ; and we
are-led to infer, from the following extrafl from the
records, that the inhabitants were opulent, and that
the town was fortified.
“ Pittenweem, deciiro quarto Feb. 1651. The bai¬
lies and council being convened, and having received
information that his majefty is to be in progrefs with his
court along the coaft to-morrow, and to ftay at Anftru-
ther houfe that night, have thought it expedient, accord¬
ing to their bounden duty, with all reverence and due
refpe&, and with all the fame folemnity they can, to wait
upon his majefty, as he comes through this his majefty’s
burgh, and invite his majefiy to eat and drink as he
pa fits; and lor that effedt hath ordained, that the
morn afternoon the town’s colours be put upon the
bertifene of the fteeple, and that at three o’clock the
bells begin to ring, and ring on ftili til! his majefty
comes hither, and paffes to Anftruther : And ficklike,
that the minifter be fpoken to, to be with the bailies
and council, who are to be in their bell apparel, and
with them a guard of 24 of the ableft men, with par-
tizans, and other 24 with mulkets, all in their bell
apparel, William Sutherland commanding as captain
01 the guard ; and to wait upon his majefty, and to
receive his highnefs at the Weft Port, bringing his
majefty and court through the town, until they come
to Robert Smith’s yeet, where an table is to be co¬
vered with my Lord’s * belt carpet: and that George ^
Pletherwick have in readinefs, ol fine flour, fome great *f^eSjjEsr*
bimns, and other wheat-bread of the belt order, baken'1 ^
with
[ 789 1
PIT [ 790
Pltufpo- with fugar, cannell, and other fpices fitting ; and that
"‘j11 James Richardfon and Walter Airth have care to have
Pityocaxn- ready eight or ten gfhons_ of good ftrong ale, with
pafis. Canary, fack» Rhenifh wine, tent, white and claret
wines, that his majefty and his court may eat and drink;
and that in the mean time, when his nr jefty ie prefent,
the guard do diligently attend about the court ; and fo
loon as his majefty is to go away, that a fitrn be made
to Andrew Tod, who is appointed to attend the co¬
lours on the fteeple head, to the effeft he may give
fign to thofe who attend the cannon of his majefty’s de¬
parture, and then the haill thirty-fix cannons to be allJhot
at once. It is ?.lfo thought fitting, that the minifter,
and James Richardfon the oldeft bailie, when his ma¬
jefty comes to the taMe, fhow the great joy and fenfe
this buri'h has of his maieftv’n f'nn
this burgh has of his rrajefty’s condefcendence to vifit
the fame, with fome other expreffions of loyalty. All
which was afled.” N. Lat. 56. 11. W. Long. 2* 40.
PI PTOSPO RUM, in botany; a genus of the m«no-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is pentaphyllous, inferus and deciduous. The
petals are five in number; the ftyle thread Ihaped;
the capfule fomewhat angular, trilocular, and contain
three or f®ur angulated feeds, adhering to the capfule
by means of a liquid refin in the loculaments. Of this
there are three fpecies, viz. 1. Tenuifolium. 2. Umbel-
latum. 3. Coriaceum. The firft and fe-cond are natives
of the Cape of Gopd Hope ; the third grows in Ma¬
deira, and flowers in May and June.
PITUITARY Gland. See Anatomy, p. 758.
PI I YOCAMPASISjin entomology,the caterpillar
of the pine-tree, received its compound name from that
fubftance. It was confidered as a poifon, and as a re¬
medy, according to its different employment ; but our
chief information is derived from M. Reaumur, who
has attentively o’ ferved its manner of life. The ani¬
mal cannot bear much cold, and is therefore never
found in the higher latitudes. It is ftyled proc< flion-
ary, v ecaufe it never leaves its hold, where many fami¬
lies refide, till the evening, when it feeds in trains, led
on by two or three, *nd this train leaves a ribband of
filk in its way for thofe behind follow exadily the fteps
of thofe which preceded, and each leaves its fibre of fiik.
Their nefts are found in autumn ; they are born the
middle of September, become torpid in .December, and
recover their ftrength again in fpring. They then de
feend from the trees, plunge into the earth, and under¬
go their laft change. It is the bombix pityocampa of Fa-
biicius, (Manti/fa Inferior, tom. ii. p. 114. n° 66.), and
greatlyrefembled the proceffionarycaterpillaref the oak.
The ancients ufed it as a veficatory, and the acrimony
vfeems to refide chiefly in a dull which is concealed in re¬
ceptacles on its back. This is its offenfive weapon, for it
is thrown out at will, and produces very troublefome ef-
fefts, though the hair of the animal and every part of
its body feem to have a fimilar. but weaker power The
effeft is alfo weaker in w inter ; but thrift may depend
on the diminifhed irritability of the human body, as
well as on the torpid ftate of the infed. Their fiik is
not fufficiently ftrong for the loom, and in hot water
melts almoft to a pafte. In the earth it forms nefts of
flronger fiik, but it is then found with difficulty: in
boxes its fiik is extremely tender. Adding to all thefe
inconveniencies, handling the cones produces all the
bad effefts of the duff. Matthiolus recommends them
] p 1 u
as a ftyptic, and perhaps they may ferve for burning
on the flein inftead of moxa, the downy fiik of a fpecies
of artemifia. The ancients, afraid of its hurtful quali¬
ties, ufed them with caution, and enadted laws ag daft
their being fold promifeuoufly : the modern planter is
chiefly afraid of them becaafe they deftroy the beau¬
ty of his trees, and he endeavours to colledt the eggs
by cutting off the branches, which are burnt imme¬
diately.
PWAT, or Pivot, a foot or fhoe of iron or other
metal, ufually conical or terminating in a point, where¬
by a body, intended to turn round, bears on another
fixed at reft, and performs its revolutions. The pivot
ufually bears or turns round in a foie, or piece of iron
or brafs hollowed to receive it.
PIUS II. (aEneas-Sylvius Piccolomini), WT# born
on the 18th of Odtober 1405, at Corfigni in Sienefe,
the name of which he afterwards changed into that of
Pienza. His mother Vi&oria Forteguerra, when ftie
was with child of him, dreamed that (he fiiould be de¬
livered of a mitred infant; and as the way of degra¬
ding clergymen at that time was by crowning them
with a paper mitre, ffie believed that /Eneas would be
a difgrace to his family. But what to her had the ap¬
pearance of being a difgrace, was a prefage of the
greateft honours. /Eneas was carefully educated, and
made confiderable proficiency in the belles lettres. Af¬
ter having finiflied his ftudies at Sienna, he went in
1431 to the council of Bale with Cardinal Capranica,
furn.imed De Fermo, beenufe he was entrufted with the
government of that church. /Eneas was his fecretary,
and was then only 26 years of age. He afterwards
a&ed in the fame capacity to fome other prelates, and
to Cardinal Albergati. The council of Bale honour¬
ed him with different commiffions, in order to recom-
penfe him for the zeal with w ich he defended that
affembly againft Pope Eugene IV. He was afterwards
fecretary to Frederic III. who decreed to him the* poe¬
tic crown, and fent him ambaflador to Rome, Milan,
Naples, Bohemia, an ! other place*. Nicolas V. ad¬
vanced him to the biftxopric of Triefte, which he quit¬
ted lome time after tor that of Sienna. At laft, after
having diftingutfhed himielf in various nunciatures, he
was inverted with the Roman purple by Calixtus III.
whom he fucceeded two years after on the 27th of
Auguil 1458. Pius II. now advanced to the holy
fee, made good the proverb, Hunores mutant mores. From
the commencement of his pontificate, he appeared jea¬
lous of the papal prerogatives. In 1460 he iffued a
bull, “ declaring appeals from the pope to a council to
be null, erroneous, detcftable, and contrary to the fa-
cred canons.” That bull, however, did not prevent
the procurator-general of the parliament of Paris from
appealing to a council in defence of the Pragmatic
fan (ft ion, which the pope had ftrenuoufly oppofed.
Pius was then at Mantua, whither he had gone in or¬
der to engage the Catholic princes to unite in a war
againrt the Turks. The greater part of them agreed
to furnifh either troops or money; others refufed both,
particularly the French, who from that moment in ur-
red his holinefs’s averfion. That averfion abated under
Louis XL whom he perfuaded in 1461 to abohth the
Pragmatic fandion, which the parliament of Paris had
fupported with fo much vigour.
The following year, 1462, was rendered famous by
Pius.
P * U [ 79« 1 P I U
* Mintriwi-fy which took place bctwten the Cordeliers from their origin to the year 14,-ft. e. Two hooks on
and Dom,mens, whether or not the blood of Jehus oofmography. 4. The hiftoty of Frederic III. whofe
Had been. This performance was
Plus.
Chrift wa<? fepjrated from his body while he lay
in the grave. It was alfo made a queftion whether it
wa‘ feparated from his divinity. The Cordeliers affirm¬
ed that it was, but the Dominicrms were of an oppo
fite opinion. 1 hey calied each other heretics; which
obliged the pope to iffue a bull, forbidding them un¬
der pain of cenfure to brand one another with fu.h
odious epithets. The bull which his holintfs pu' liffi
ed on the 26th of April, retracing what he had writ
ten to the council of B ile when he was its fecretary,
did not redound much to his honour. “ I am a man
(fays he), and as a man I have erred. I am far from
denying that a great many things which I have faid
and written may defeive condemnation. Like Paul,
I have preached through deception, and I have perfe-
cuted the church of God through ignorance. I imi¬
tate the bleffed Auguftin, who having fuffered fonse
erroneous fentiments to creep into his works, retract¬
ed them. I do the fame thing; I frankly acknow¬
ledge my ignorances, from a fear left what I have writ¬
ten in my younger years fhould be the occafion of any
error that might afterwards be prejudicial to the inte-
refta of the holy fee. For if it he proper for any one
to defend and fupport the eminence and glory of the
firft throne of the church, it is in a peculiar manner
my duty, whom God, out of his merev and goodnefs
akne, without any merit on my part, has raifed to
the dignity of vicar of 'Jefus Chriji. For all thefe rea-
fons, we exhort and admonifh you in the Lord, not to
give credit to thofe writings of ours which tend in any
degree to hurt the^authority of the apoftolic fee, and
which eftabliffi opinions that are not received by the
Roman church. If you find, then, any thing contra¬
ry to her do&rine either in our dialogues, in our letters,
or in any other of our works, defpife thefe opinions,
rejeft them, and adopt our prefent fentiments. Be¬
lieve me rather now that I am an old man, than when
I addrefled you in my earlier days. Efteem a fovereign
pontiff more than a private perfon ; except againft
iEncas Sylvius, but receive Pius II.” It might be
obje&ed to his holinefs, that it was his dignity alone
which had made him alter his opinion. He antici¬
pates that objedtion, by giving a ffiort account of his
life and adfions, with the vvhele hiffory of the council
of Bale, to which he went with Cardinal Capranica in
1431 ; “ but (fays he) I was then a young man, and
without any experience, like a bird juft come from its
neft.” In the mean time, the Turks were threaten¬
ing Chtiftendom. Pius, ever zealous in the defence of
religion againft the infidels, forms the refolution of fit¬
ting out a fleet at the expence of the church, and of
paffing over into Afia himfelf, in order to animate
the Chriftian princes by his example. He repaired to
Ancona with a defign to embark ; but he there fell
fick with the fatigue of the journey, and died on the
i6th of Auguft 1464, aged 59 years. Pius was one
of the moft learned men of his time, and one of the
moft zealous pontiffs ; but being of an ambitious and
pliant difpofition, he fometimes facrificed to that am¬
bition. His principal works are, I. Memoirs of the
council of Bale, from the fufpenfion of Eugenius to
the.ek&ion of Felix. 2, The hiftory of the Bohemians,
vice-chancellor he     ^
puMifhed in in folio, and is believed to b7prnty
^ accurate and very particular. 5. A treatife on the
education of children. 6. A poem upon the paffion
of Jefus Chrift. 7. A colle&ion of 432 letters, print¬
ed at Milan, 1473> in hollo, in which are found fome
cur’otrs anecdotes. 8. The memoirs of his own lifet
pubhihed by John Gobelin Perfonne his fecretary, and
punted at Rome in 4to in 1584. There is no doubt
of this being the genuine produ&ion of that pontiff.
9. Hijloria rerum ubicumque geflarum, of which only the
firft part was publiihed at Venice in 1477 in folio.
Hu works were printed at Helmftadt in 1700, in fo-
lio, at the beginning of which we find his life. That
verfe of Virgil’s Aneid (lib. i. v. 382.) which begins
thus,
Sum plus /Eneas,   -
and the end of the following verfe,
 -fama Juper athera notus,
have been applied to him.
Pius IV. (John Angel Cardinal de Medicis), of s
du.erent family from that of Florence, was born at
Milan in 1499. to Bernardin Medechini,
and brother of the famous Marquis de Marignan,
Charles Vth’s general. He raifed himfelf by his own
merit, and filled feveral important offices under Popes
Clement VII. and Paul III. Julius III. who had en-
trufted him with ftveral legations, honoured him with
a cardinal’s hat in 1549. After the death of Paul IV.
he was advanced to St Peter’s chair on the 25th of De¬
cember 1559. His predeceffor had rendered himfelC
deteftable to the Romans, who treated his memory
with every mark of indignity, and Pius IV commen¬
ced his pontificate by pardoning them. He did not,
however, extend the fame clemency to the nephews of
Pope Paul IV.; for he caufed Cardinal Caraffe to be
ftrangled in the caftle of St Angel, and his brother,
the Prince de Palliano, to be beheaded. His zeal was
afterwards direaed againft the Tmks and heretics. In
order to flop, if poffible, the progrefs of thefe laft, he
renewed the Council of Trent, which had been fufpend-
ed. He knew well (fays Abbe de Choify), that that
council might make fome regulations which would have
the effect to leffen h a authority ; but on the other hand,
he perceived that great inconveniences might refult
from its not being affemhled; and “ in the main (faid he
to his confidents) it is better to feel evil for once than to be
always in dread of it.” In 15C1 he difpatehed nuncios
to all the Catholic and Proteftant princes, to prefent
them with the bull for calling that important affembly*
An end was, however, put to it by the induftry of his
nephew, S. Charles Borromeus, in 1563 ; and, on the
26th of January the year following, he iffued a bull for
confirming it decrees. In 1565 a confpiraey was
formed againft his life by Benedict Acolti, and fome
other vifionaries. Thofe madmen had taken it into
their head that Pius IV. was not a lawful Pope, and
that after his death they would place another in St Pe¬
ter’s chair, with the title of Pope Angelicas, under whom
errors might be reformed, and pea^ t reftoi-ed to the
. hurch. Phe cohfpiracy was dxfcovered, and the fa*
natic Bcnedid put to death. This pontiff died a lit-
clg -
p i u r 792 ] p r u
tie Utr.e after, on the 9th of December 156^, f eed 66
years, c urbing to the grave with him the hatred of the
Romans, whom his feverities had exfperated. He was
a man of great addrefs, and very fruitful in his refour-
res. He adorned Rome with feverai public edifices ;
but thefe ornaments tended greatly to impoveriih it.
If he was the inftrument of rnifing his relations in the
world, it mull be allowed, at leaft, that the greater
part of them did him honour.
Pius V, (S. Michael Ghifleri), born at liofehi or
Bofco, in the diocefe of Fortona, on the ryth of Janu*
ary 1504, was, according to Abbe de Choify, fon to
n fenator of Milan. He turned a Dominican friar.
Paul IV. informed of his rgerit and virtue, srave him
the bifhopric of Sutri, created him cardinal in 15 ^7,
and made him inquifkor-general of the faith among the
Milanefe and in Lombardy ; but the feverity with which
he exercifed his office obliged him to quit that country.
He was fent to Venice, where the ardour of his zeal met
with ftill greater obftacles. Pius IV. added to the car¬
dinal’s hat the bifhopric of Mondovi. After the death
of that pontiff, he was advanced to St Peter’s chair in
1566. The Romans expreffed but little joy at his co¬
ronation : he was very fenfible of it, and faid, “ I hope
they will be as forry at my death as they are at my eletlion)”
but he was miftaken. Raifed by his merit to the firft
eculefinftical preferment in Criftendom, he could not
diveit himfelf of the feverity of his charafter ; and the
fituation in which he found himfelf rendered, perhaps,
that feverity neceffary. One of his firft obje&s was to
reprefs the luxury of the clergy, the pride of the car¬
dinals, and the licentious manners of the Romans. He
caufed the decrees of reformation enafted by the Coun¬
cil of Trent to be put in execution ; he prohibited
bull baiting in the Circus; he expelled from Rome the
women of the town; and allowed the cardinals to be pro-
fecuted for their debts. The errors which overflowed
the Chriftian world gave him great uneafinefs. After
having employed gentle and lenient meafures in there-
claiming of heretics, he had recouffe to feverity, and
feme of them ended their days in the flames of the
inquifition. He particularly difplayed his zeal for the
grandeur of the Holy See in 1568, by ordaining that
the bull In ccena domtnu which was p'ubliflied at Rome
every year on Maunday Thurfday, and which Cle¬
ment XfV. fupprefltd, fhould be publifhed like-
wife throughout the whole church. That bull, the
work of feveral fovereign pontiffs, principally re¬
gards the jurifdi&ion of the ecclefiaftical and civil
power. It anathematizes thofe who appeal from the
decrees of popes to a general council; thofe who fa¬
vour the appellants ; the univerfities which teach that
the pope is fubjeft to a general council; the princes
who would reftrain the ecclefiaftical jurifriidion, or
who exadl contributions from the cleigy. It was re-
je&ed by all the fovereign ftaten, excepting a very few.
In 1580, fome bifhops having endeavoured to intro-
tiu:« it into their diocefes, the parliament caufed their
temporalities to be feized upon, and declared thofe
guilty of high treafon who fhould imitate the fanati-
cifm of thofe prelates. Pius V. for fome time medi¬
tated an expedition againft the Turks. He had the
courage to make war on the Ottoman empire, by
forming a league with the Venetians and Philip II.
king of Spain. This was the firft time that the
'Sandard cf the two keys was feen difplayed again!! the
crefcnt. The naval armies came to an engagement,
on the 7th of O&ober 1571, in Lepanto Iky, in
which the confederate Chriftian princes obtained a fig- .,
nal viftory over the Turks, who loft above 30,000
men, and near 2CO galleys. This fuccefs was princi¬
pally owing to the Pope, who exhaufted both his
purfe and perfon in fitting out that armament. He
died of the gravel fix months after, on the 30th of
April 1572, aged 68. He repeated often, in the midft
of his fufferings, “ 0 Lord! inert afe my pains and my
patience'' His name will for ever adorn the lift of Ro¬
man pontiffs. It is true thst his hull again!! queen
Elifabeth, and his other bull in favour of the inquifi-
tion, with his rigorous profecution of heretics both
in France an ! Ireland, prove that he had more zeal
than fweetnefs in his temper ; but in other refpe&s he
poffeffed the virtues of a faint and the qualities of a
king. He was the model of the famous Sixtus Quin¬
tus whom he gave an example of amaffing in a few
years fnch favings as were fufficient to make the Holy
See be regarded as a formidable power. Sultan Selim,
who had no greater enemy than this pope, caufed pub¬
lic rejoicings to be made at Conftantinople for his death
during the fpaee of three day?. The pontificate of
Pius is alfo celebrated for the condemnation of Baius,
the extin&ion of the order of Humifies, and the re¬
formation of that of the Ciftercians. He was canoni¬
zed by Clement XI. in 1712. There are extant feve¬
ral of his letters, printed at Anvers in 1640, in 4ta,
Felibian, in 1672, publifhed his Life, tranflated from
the Italian of Agatio di Snmrna ; but we cannot vouch
for the fidelity of the tranfiation.
PIX. See Mint-Marks.
PIZARRO (Francis), a celebrated Spanifh gene¬
ral, the difeoverer and conqueror of Peru, iu conjunc¬
tion with Diego Alniagro, a Spanifh navigator.
They are both charged with horrid cruelties to the in¬
habitants; and they fell vi&ims to their own ambition,
jealoufy, and avarice Almagro revoltintr* was defeat¬
ed and beheaded by Pizairo, who was affaffiuated by
Almagro’s friends in 1541. See Peru.
PLACE, locus, in philofophy, a mode of fpace,
or thac p rt of immoveable fpace which any body pof-
ftff.s. See Metaphysics, n° 185.
Place, in aftronomy. The place of the fun, a
ftar, &c. denotes the fign and degree of the zodiac
which the luminary is in ; or the degree of the ecliptic,
reckoning from the beginning of aries, which the
planet or ftar’s circle of longitude cuts ; and therefore
coincides with the longitude of the fun, planet, or
ftar. As the fine of the fun’s greateft declination
2 f 30' : to the fine of any prefent declination given
or obfeiwed, for inftance, 230 1/ : : fo is the radius
10 : to the fine of his longitude 8i° 52' ; which, if
the declination were north, would give 204’ 52’ of ge-
mini ; if fouth, 20° 52 of capricorn, for the fun’s
plat e. See Declination, &c.
The place of the moon being that part of her orbit
wherein file is found at any time, is ot varions kinds,
by reafon of the great inequalities of the lunar motions,
which render a number of equations and redudfions
necefiary before the juft point be found. The moon’s
fiftitious place is her place once equated ; her place
nearly true, is her place twice equated ; and her true
place thrice equated. See Astronomy, pajfim.
Place, in wai, a general name for all kinds of for-
treffea
riu*
I!
Placs.
7
P L A f
p!jf" treiT:?s wlhere a party may defend tlicmfelveg. Thus,
Pltceatia. f‘ ftr.°In? or fortified place is one flanked, and co-
<_v 1 vered with baftions. 2. A regular place, one whofe
angles, tides, baftions, and other parts, are equal*
and this is ufually denominated from the number of its
angles, as a pentagon, hexagon, &c. 3. Irregular
place is one whole Tides and angles are'unequal.—
4. Place of arms is a ftrong city or town pitched up¬
on for the chief magazine of an army ; or, In a city
or garnfon, it is a large open fpot of ground, ufually
rear the centre of the place where the grand guard is
commonly kept, and the garrifon holds its rendezvous
at reviews, and in cafes of alarm to receive orders
from the governor. 5. Places of arms of an attack,
in a liege, is a fpacious place covered from the enemy
Ly a parapet or epaulement, where the foldiers are
polled ready to fuftain thofe at work in the trenches
again:! the foldiers of the garrifon. 6. Place of arms
particular, w a garrifon, a place near every baftion,
where the foldiers fent from the grand place to the
ejuarters afligned them relieve thofe that are either up¬
on the guard or in fight. 7. Place of arms without,
is a place allowed, to the covert way for the planting
of cannon, to oblige thofe who advance in their ap¬
proaches to [retire. 8. Place of arms in a camp/a
large place at the head of the camp for the army to be
ranged in and drawn up in battalia. There is alfo a
^!rlCe/,0r.eack Part‘cular body, troop, or company, to
afiemble in.
Common-Place. See Common-Plate.
PI. ACEiN I A, in anatomy and midw'ifery, a foft
roundilh mafs, found in the w'onib of pregnant women ;
which, from its refembiance to the liver, was called by
the ancients hepar uterinumt uterine liver.
PLACENTIA, called by the natives Piacenza^ is
a town of Italy, and capital of a duchy of the fame
name, with a bi/hep’g fee. It is feated about 100
paces from the river Po, in a very fertile pleafant plain,
watered by a great number of rivulets, and furround-
ed with hills, abounding in all forts of fruits. In its
territorj' these are fait Iprings, from which they make
a very white fait; and there are alfo mines of iron,
woods, and warrens. If contains a great number of
nurcharts, and is reckoned three miles in circumfe¬
rence. Its fortifications arc inconfiderable, but the ci-
tadel is pretty ftreng. The ftreets are ftraight, and
the principal ftreet, called Stradone, is 25 common p?ces
broad and 3000 feet long, in a direct line, with 600
ftone polls, for feparating the foot from the carriage¬
way, and on both fides are 1 r fpacious convents. The
other buildings of the city are not very remarkable,
though it contains 45 churches, 28 convents, and two
alms-houfes. The cathedral is pretty much in the Go¬
thic tafte ; but the church of the Auguftines is reck¬
oned tne moft beautiful, and efteemed worthy of its ar-
,chite&, the celebrated Vigncli. The ducal palace,
though large, makes no great appearance on the out-
fide ; but within are fume gcod apartments. In the
area before the town-houfe ftands two admirable brafs
ftatues of Alexander and RenatuslV. both of the houfe
of Tarnefe, and dukes of Parma and Placentia. The
bifhap is fuffragan to the archbifhop of Milan. At
this city begins the Via ^Emilia, which extends as far
as Rimini pn the Adriatic. The number of the in¬
habitants *s about 30,000, among whom there are 2000
Von. XIV. Part II.
793 1 P L A
ccdefiailica. This city has been taken fevers! times Pb-urv
in the wars of Italy. The king of Sardinia took pof- II
lemon of it in 1744, it being ceded to him by the PIa&uek
queen of Hungary; but it was taken from him in
1746, after a. bloody battle. It has a famous univer-
lity, and the inhabitants are much efteemed for their
pohtenefs. There is a great fair here every year on
the 15th of April, which is much frequented. It is
about 32 miles north-weft of Parma and 83eaft of Tu¬
rin. E. Long. to. 24. N. Lat. 45. 5.
PLAGIARY, in philology, the purloining ano.
ther man s works, and putting them off as our own.
Among the Romans, plagiarius was properly a per-
fon who bought, fold, or retained a freeman for a
have; and was fo called, becaufe, by the Flavian laW',
Inch perions were condemned adpfogas, « to be whip¬
ped,” “
Thomafms has an exprefs treatife De piagio literario;
wherein he lays down the laws and meafures of the
right which authors have to one another’s writino-s 
“ Dictionary-writers, at leaft fuch as meddle with artt
and feiences (as is pertinently obferved by Mr Cham¬
bers), feem exempted from the common laws of tneutn
and tuum; they do not pretend to fet up on their own
bottom, nor to treat you at their own coft. Their
works are fuppofed, in great meafure, compofitions
of other, peoples; and what they take from others,
they do it avowedly, and in the open fun.—In effe&f
their quality gives them a title to every thing that may
be for their purpofe, wherever they find it; and if
they rob, they do not do it any otherwife than as the
bee does, for the public fervice. Their occupation is
not pillaging, but colleding contributions ; and if you
afle them their authority, they will produce you the
practice of their predeceffors of all ages and nations.”
I LAGIUM, in law. See Kidnapping.
I LAGUE, Pestilence, or Pejlikntial Fever, is a
very acute, malignant, and contagious difeafe; being
a putrid fever of the worft kind, and feldom failing t<>
Prove mortal. Though it is generally defined a ma-
hgnant fever, Diemerbroek thinks they ought to be
diftinguiffied, fince the fever is not the effence of the
difeafe, but merely a fymptom or effeft of it. See
Medicine, n° 221.
The plague, as is generally agreed, is never bred
or propagated in Britain, but always imported from
abroad, efpecially from the Levant, Leffer Afia, E-
gypt. &c. where it is very common. Sydenham has
remarked that it rarely infefts this country oftener than
once in 40 years, and happily we have been free of it
for a much longer period.
Authors are not as yet agreed concerning the nature
of this dreadful diftemper. Some think/hat infeds
are the caufe of it, in the fame way that they are the
caufe of blights, being brought in fwarms from other
climates by the wind, when they are taken into the
lungs in refutation; the confequence of which is, that
they mix with the blood and juices, and attack and
corrode the vifeera. Mr Boyle, on the ether hand,
thinks it originates from the effluvia or exhalations
breathed into the atmofphere from noxious minerals,
to which may be added ftagnant waters and putrid bo¬
dies of every kind.
Mr Gibbon thinks that the plague is derived from
damp, hot, and (iagnating air, and the putrefaction
; J H <xt
P L A C 79+ ] P L A
Plague, of animal fubftances, efpecially locuftfl. See Gibbon’i
Roman Hiftory, 4to edit. vol. iv. p. 327—332, where
there is alfo a very particular account of the plague
which depopulated the earth in the time of the Em-
peior Juftioian.
The Mahometans believe that the plague pr®ceeds
from certain fpirits, or goblins, armed with bows and
arrows, fent by God to punifh men for their fins; and
that when the wounds are given by fpe&ree of a black
colour, they certainly prove fatal, but not fo when the
arrows are ihot by thofe that appear white. They there¬
fore take no precaution to guard themieiveo again'l it.
The wifer profeflbrs of this religion,however, at piefent
aft otherwife ; for we find a receipt recommended by
Sidy Mohammed Zerroke, one of the moll celebrated
Marabout’s, prefaced with thefe remarkable words:
“ The lives of us all are in the hands ef God, when it
is we rouft die. However, it hath pleafed him to fave
many perfons from the plague, by taking every morn
ing while the infeftion rages one pill or two of the
following compofition ; viz. of myrrh two parts, iaf-
fron one part, of aloes two parts, of fyrup of myrtle-
berries, q.f But this remedy is confined to the more
enlightened ; for the bigotry of the lower fort is fo ex¬
treme as to make them defpife all precautions which
people of other nations ufe. Of this extreme and
foolifh prejudice Dr Chandler gives an intcrelling ac¬
count when fpeaking of the plague at Smyrna. 1 his
learned author is of opinion that the difeafe arifes from
animalc ules, which he fuppoles to be invifible. See
Chandler’s Travels in Afia Minor, p. 279, &c.
It is a remarkable faft, that plagues are fometimes
partial,and that they only attack particular animals, or
a particular defeription of perfons, avoiding others al¬
together, or attacking them but (lightly. Thus her*
nelius informs us of a plague, or murrain, in 1514,
which invaded only cats. Dionyfius Haiicarnafleus
mentions a plague which attacked none but maids;
and that which raged in the time of Gentilis, killed
fcarce any women, and very few bnt lufty men. Bo-
terus mentions another^ plague, which aflauited none
but the younger fort; and we have inftances of the
feme kind of a later (landing (a). Cardan {peaks of
a plague at Bafil, with which the Switzers were in¬
fected, and the Italians, Germans, or French, exempt¬
ed : and John Utenhovius takes notice of a dreadful on«
at Copenhagen, which, tho* it raged among the Danes,
{pared the Germans, Dutch, and Englilh, who went
with all freedom, and without the lead danger, to the
houfes of the infefted. During the plague which
ravaged Syria in 1760, it was obferved that peo¬
ple of the founded conditutions were the mod liable
to it, and that the weak and delicate were either {pared
er eafily cured. It was mod fatal to the Moors ; and
when it attacked them it was generally incurable.
When the plague raged in Holland in 1636,3 young
girl was feized with it, had three carbuncles, and was
removed to a garden, where her lover, who was be¬
trothed to her, attended her as a nurfe, and flept with
her as his wife. He remained uninfefted, and (he re¬
covered, and was married to him. The dory is related
by Vine. Fabticius in the Mlfc. Cur. Ann. II. Qbf. Plague.
188. v <—
Many methods have been adopted in different coun¬
tries to prevent the importation of this dreadful fcourge
of the human race, and to (lop the progrefs of infec¬
tion after it has been imported. In England, mayors,
bailiffs, head officers of corporations, and juftices of
peace, have power to tax inhabitants, houfes, and lands,
&c. within their precinfti, for the relief of perfons in¬
fefted with the plug e ; and jufitces of the county may
tax perfons within five mile" round, on a pariih’s ina¬
bility; the tax to -be levied by diitrefs and fele of goods,
or in default thereof by imprifonment. Infefted per¬
fons going abroad, after being commanded to keep
houfe for avoiding farther infeftion, may be refilled
by watchmen, &c. and punilhed as vagrants, if they
have no fores upon them ; and if they have infeftious
fores on them it is felony. Juftices of peace, Sec. are to
appoint fearchers, examiners, and buriers of the dead,
in places infefted, and adminifter oaths to them for
the performance of their duties, ike. Jlat. 1 Jac. 1.
cap. 31. See Qvaaantine.
The coaiirdfion at Mofcow having, in the year
1770, invented a fumigation-powder, which, from fe-
veral leffer experiments had proved efficacious in pre-*
venting the infeftion of the plague; in order more
fully to afeertain its virtue in that refpeft, it was de¬
termined, towards the end of the y?ar, that ten male-
faftors under fentence of death (liould, without un¬
dergoing any other precautions than the fumigations,
be confined three weeks in a lazaretto, be laid upon
the beds, and dreffed in the clothe?, which had been
ufed by perfons fick, dyin?, and even dead, of the
plague in the hofpital. The experiment was accord¬
ingly tried, and none of the ten malefaftors were then
infefted, or have been fince ill. The fumigation-pow¬
der is prepared as follows.
Powder of the frft ftrcngtb*'] Take leaves of juni¬
per, juniper-berries pounued, ears of wheat, guaiacura-
wood pounded, of each fix pounds ; common faltpetre
pounded, eight pounds ; fulphur pounded, fix pounds;
Smyrna tar, or myrrh, two pounds ; mix all the above
ingredients together, which will produce a pood of the
powder of fumigation of the firft ftrength. [hV. B. A.
pood is 40 pounds Ruffian, which are equal to 35
pounds and a ha.for 36 pounds Englifh avoirdupoife.J
Powder of the ftcond Jlrenglh.~\ Take fouthern-
wood cut into fin ail pieces, four pounds ; juniper-ber¬
ries pounded, three pounds; common feltpetre pound¬
ed, four pounds ; fnlphur pounded, two pounds and a
half; Smyrna tar, or myrrh, one pound and a half s
mix the above together, which will produce half a
pood of the powder of fumigation of the fecund
ftrength.
Odoriferous powder.1 Take the root called balmus
cut into fmall pieces, three pounds ; leaves of juni¬
per cut into fmall pieces, four pounds; frankincenfe
pounded grofsly, one pound ; llorax pounded, and
rofe-flowers, half a pound; yellow amber pounded,
one pound ; common faltpetre pounded, one pound and
a half; fulphur, a quarter of a pound : mix all the
ubnve
(a) See the account of the ye/Zoiu fever under the article Philadelphia, where we find that that difeafe
was lefa fatal to fame forts of perfons than to ethers.
P L A
C 79 J 1
above together, which will produce nine pounds and
three quarters of the odoriferous powder.
on the powder of fumigation.-] If guaiacum
cannot bt had, the cones of pines or firs may be ufed
in its ftead ; likewife the common tar of pines and firs
may oe uied ini.ead of the Smyrna tar, or myrrh, and
mugwort may lupply the place o: foutbernwoed.
Thucydides, who was himfelf infefted, lib. ii ’gives
us an account of a dreadful plague which happened at
Ataeua about the year before Chrift 430, while the
reloponnefians under the command of Archidamus
wafted all her territory abroad ; but of thefe two ene¬
mies the plague was by far the moft dreadful and fe-
vere.
The moft dreadful plague that ever raged at Rome
was in the reign of Titus, A. D. 80. The emperor
P L A
furm the tneaaeft offices} fome loading themfelves with
beams, and others carrying bafkets "full of lime and '
nails, while perfons of all ranks flripped themfelves of
t eir moft valuable effedts, which they threw into empty
^ogfheads placed in the ftreets to receive the charita¬
ble contributions. Their violent agitation, however,
and the increafing heats, diffufed the malady through
the whole city, and the ftreets and the ftairs of the
churches were filled with the dead ; the number of
whom, for fome time of the month of July, amounted
daily to 15,000.
The viceroy now ufed all poffible precautions to
abate the fury of the diflftemper, and to prevent its
fpreading to the provinces. ‘The infeftion, however,
defobted the whole kingdom, excepting the provinces
or Otranto and the Farther Calabria, and the cities of
Plagtle.
U(t no remedy unattempted to .hate the m.fon tvof r ", ? . v **
the diSemper, aaing during it. eontinnance ike a fa SS "m ?'lved"c- The general
-l - . t • r • B - nuance uxe a fa- calamity was increafed in Naples by malecontents, who
ther to his people. The fame fatal difeafe raged in all
the provinces of the Roman empire in the reign of M.
Aurelius, A. D. 167. and was followed by a dreadful
famine, by earthquake, inundations, and other cala¬
mities. The Romans Mieved that -lEfculapiua forae-
timea entered into a ferpent, and cured the plague.
About the year 430 the plague vifited Britain, juft
after the PiAs and Scots had made a formidable inva-
fion of the fouthern part of the ifland. The plague
raged with uncommon fury, and fwept away moft of
thofe whom the fword and famine had fpared, fo that
the living were fcarce fufficieut to bury the dead.
About the year 1348 the plague became almoft ge¬
neral over Europe. A great many authors give an ac¬
count of this plague, which is faid to have appeared
firft in the kingdom of Kathay in the year 1346, and
to have proceeded gradually weftward to Conftantino-
ple and Egypt. From Conftantinople it paffed into
Greece, Italy, France, and Africa, and by degrees
along the coafts of the ocean into Britain and Ireland,
and afterwards into Germany, Hungary, Poland, Den¬
mark, and the other northern kingdoms. According
to Antoninus archbilhop of Florence the diftemper
carried off 60,000 people in that city, among whom
was the hiftorian John Villani.
In the year 1656 the plague was brought from
Sardinia to Naples, being introduced into the city by a
tranfport with foldiers on board. It raged with ex-
celfive violence, carrying off in lefs than fix months
400,000 of the inhabitants. The diftemper was at
firfl called by the phyficians a malignant fever; but
one of them affirming it to be peftilential, the viceroy,
who was apprehenfive left fuch a report would occafion
ail communication with Naples to be broke off, was
offended with this declaration, and ordered him to be
imprifoned. As a favour, however, he allowed him to
return and die in his own houfe. By this proceeding
of the viceroy, the diftemper being negle&ed, made a
moft rapid and furious pvogrefs, and filled the whole
city with confternation. The ftreets were crowded
with confufed proceffions, which ferved to fpread the
infe&ion through all the quarters. The terror of the
people increafed their fuperftition; and it being
reported that a certain nun had prophefied that the
peftilence would ceafe upon building a hermitage fer
her fifter nuns upon the hill of St Martin’s, the edi¬
fice was immediately begun with the moft ardent zeal
infimiated that tne diftemper had been defignedly in¬
troduced by tne Spaniards, and that there were people
in difgulfe who went through the city fowing poifoned
duft. This idle rumoui^nraged the populace, who be¬
gan to infult theSpasiihfoldierSjand threaten a fedition;
fo that the viceroy, to pacify the mob, caufed a criminal
to be broke upon the wheel, under pretence ihat he was
a difperfer of the duft. A violent and plentiful rain
tailing about the middle of Auguft, the diftemper be¬
gan to abate; and on the eighth of December the
phy ficians made a folemn declaration that the city was
entirely free from infeftion.
Of the dreadful plague which raged at London in
the year 1665:, the reader will find an account in the
article London, n* 21. In 1720 the city of Marfeilles
was vifited with this d.eftiuftive difeafe, brought in
a fh p trom the Levant; and in feven months, during
which time it continued, it carried off not lefs than
60,000 people This defolation is not yet obliterated
from the minds o! the inhabitants} fome furvivors re¬
mained alive but a few years ago to tranfmit a tradi¬
tional account of it to after ages. There are two fine
piftures painted by Puget reprefenting fome of the
horrid feenes of that time. “ They"are (fays lady
Craven) only too well executed. I faw ftveral dying
figures taking leave of their friends, and looking their
laft anxious, kind, and wilhful prayers on their fick in¬
fants, that made the tears flow down my cheeks. I
was told the phyficians and noblemen who were aflift-
ing the fick and dying, were all portraits: I can eafily
conceive it; for in fome faces there is a look of reflec¬
tion and concern which could only be drawn from the
life.” Letters, p. 34, 35. This fatal event has caufed
the laws of quarantine to be very ftriftly enforced in
the Lazaretto here, which is an extenfive infulated
building.
The ravages of this difeafe have been dreadful
wherever it has made its appearance. On the firft ar¬
rival of the Europeans at the ifland of Gran Canaria,
it contained 14,000 fighting men, foon after-which,
two thirds of the whole inhabitants fell a facrifice to
the plague, which had doubtlefs been introduced by
their new vifitors. The deftruftion it has made in
Turkey in Europe, and particularly in Conftantinople,
muft be known to every reader; and its fatal effeft*
have been particularly heightened there by that firm
  }     ....... belief which prevails among the people of predeftina-
Pcrions of the higheft quality ftrove who fhould per- tion, &c. as has been already mentioned. It is generally
S 5H2 brought
P L A [ 796 ] P L A
Plain brought into European Turkey from Egypt; where
us 58 ver^ ^retl,:!ent> especially at Grand Cairo. To
'ancU8' give even a lift of all the plagues which have de-
foiated many flourif-h.ng comuries, would extend
this article beyond all hounds, and minutely to de-
lcriue them all would be impoflxble. For the plague
?t Smyrna, we refer to Ch ndler's Travels as above.
Relpcdtiag that which raged in Syria in 1760, we re¬
fer to the Abbe Mariti’s Travels through Cyprus,
Syria, and Paleftine, vol. ift, p. 278—296. This
plague was one of the moft malignant and fatal that
Syria ever experienced ; for it fcarcely made its ap¬
pearance in any part of the body when it carried off
the patient.
PLAIN, or Plank, in general, an appellation given
to whatever is fmooth and even, or iimple, obvious,
and eafy to be underftood ; and, confequently, Rands
oppofed to rough, enriched, 01 laboured.
A plain figure, in geometry, is an uniform furface ;
from every point of whofe perimeter right lines may
be drawn to every other point in the fame
A plain angle is one contained under two lines, or
furfaces, in contradiftinClion to a folid angle. See
Angle.
The doftrine of plain triangles, as thofe included
tinder three right lines, is termed plain trigonometry.
See the article Tr’gonometry.
Plain Chart. See the article Chart.
Plain-Sailing. See Navigation, p. 685.
PLAISE, the Englifh name of a fpecies of pleuro-
ne&es. See Pleuronectes.
PLAN, in general, denotes the reprefentation of
fomething drawn on a plane; fuch are maps, charts,
ichnographies, &c. See Map, Chart, &c.
The term plan, however, is particularly ufed for a
draught of a building, fuch as it appears, or is intend¬
ed to appear, on the ground, fhowing the extent, di«
vifion, and diftrihution of its area or ground plot into
apartments, rooms, paflages, See.
A geometrical plan is that wherein the folid and
vacant parts are reprefented in their natural propor¬
tions.
The raifed plan of a building is the fame with what
is otherwife called an elevation or orthography. See Or-
THOGRAPHY.
A perfpe£live plan is that exhibited by degradations
or diminutions, according to the rules of perfpe£tive.
See Perspective.
To render plans intelligible, it is ufuai to diftinguifh
the maffives with a black walh; the proje&ures oh the
ground are drawn in full lines, and thofe fuppofedover
them in dotted lines. The augmentations or alterations
to be made are diftinguifhed by a colour different from
what is already built; and the tints of each plan made
lighter as the Rories are raifed.
In large buildings it is ufuai to have three feveral
plans for the three firft Rories,
PLANCUS (Francis), do&or of phyfic, born at
Amiens in 1696, and who died on the 19th of Sep¬
tember 1765, aged 69 years, is author of fome works
which do honour to hia memory. 1. A complete
Syftem of Surgery, in 2 vols in i2mo ; a treatife much
recommended by furgeons to their pupils. 2. A choice
Libraryof Medicine, taken from periodical publications,
both French and others ; this curious coik&ion, con¬
tinued and completed by M. Gotilin, makes 9 vola in Phne,
4to, or 18 vols in 12010. 3. A Tranflatirtn of Vander planet-
Wiel’a Obfervations on Medicine and Surgery, i7s'S»
2 vols in l2mo. Plancua was the editor of various
editions of works on medicine and furgery, and enrich¬
ed them with notes. He {hut himfelf up in his ftudy
for a long time before he practlfed his profeftion.
PLANE, in geometry, denotes a plane fiirtnce, or
one that lies evenly between its bounding lines: and a*
a right line is the ihorteli extenfion from one point to
another, fo a plane furface is the fhorteft extenfion
from one line to another.
In aftronomy, conics, 8tc. the term plane is frequent¬
ly ufed for an imaginary furface, fuppofed to cut and
pafs through folid bodies ; and on this foundation is
the whole doflrine of conic fe&ions built. See Astro¬
nomy, Conic SeSions, &c.
In mechanics planes are either horizontal, that is,
parallel to the hori/on, or inclined thereto. See Me¬
chanics.
The determining how far any given plane deviates
from an horizontal line, makes the whole bufinefs of
levelling. See the article Levelling.
In optics, the planes of reflection and refraftion arc
thofe drawn through the incident and reflected or re¬
fracted rays. See Optics.
In perfpedtive we meet with the perfpedtive plane,
which is iuppofed to be pellucid, and perpendicular to
the horizon; the horizontal plane, fuppofed to pafi
through the fpc&ator’s eye, parallel to the horizon ;
the geometrical plane, like wife parallel to the horizon,
wherein the objedt to be reprefented is fuppofed to be
placed, &c. See Perspective.
The plane of projection in the ftereographic projec¬
tion of the fphere, is tiiat on which the projection is
made, correfponding to the perfpe&ive plane. See Pro¬
jection.
Plane, in joinery, an edged tool or inftrument for
parting and {having of wood fmooth—It confifts or a
piece of wood very fmooth at bottom, as a ftock or
fhaft; in the midft of which is an aperture, through
which a fttel edge, or chiffel, placed obliquely, paffes ;
which, being very {harp, takes off the inequalities of
the wood along which it Hides.
PiANE-Tree, in botany. See Platanus,
PLANET, a celeftial body, revolving round the
fun as a centre, and continually changing its pofition
with refpeCt to the fixed ftars ; whence the name pla¬
net, which is a Greek word, fignifying “ wanderer.’*
The planets are ufually diftinguifned into primary
and fecondary. The primary ones, called by way of
eminence planets, are thofe which revolve round the
fun as a centre; and the fecondary planets, more ufually
called fate Hites or moons, are thofe which revolve round
a primary planet as a centre, and conftantly attend it
in its revolution round the fun.
The primary planets are again diftingutftied into
fuperior and inferior. The fuperior planets are thofe
farther from the fun than our earth; as Mars, Jupi¬
ter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus ; and the infe¬
rior planets are thofe nearer the fun than our earth, as
Venus and Mercury. See Astronomy.
That the planets are opaque bodies, like our earth,
is thought probable for the following reafons. 1 ■ Since
in Venus, Mercury, and Mars, only that part of the
diik
P L A
Planet clffk illuminated hy the fun is
u . TJ  ~ 1“11 •" f°und lf> ihlnej and
Planetary. *^in’ ^ ^mis anc^ Mercury, when between the earth
v—i. ari^ t“cfJun» aPpear like dark fpots or maculas on the
fun’s diik ; it is evident, that Mars, Venus, and Mer¬
cury, are opaque bodies, illuminated with the borrowed
light of the fun. And the fame appears of Jupiter,
from its being void of light in that part to which the
fhadow of the fateliites reaches, as well as in that part
1 797 1 P L A
and habitants, &c. Huygens and Fontenelle biraj fevtra! Planetar,
probable arguments for the reality of planetary animals, K
plants, men, &c. See Planet. Planifphuere
See Planet.
Planetary Syjlem, is the fyftem or affemhlage of the
planets, primary and fecondary, moving in their refpec-
tive orbits, round their common centre the fun. See
Astronomy.
and"1 refie^the CfunV abundantly’ ftt^n
this people the planets were direftors. And hence it
is, that in moft European languages the days of the
week are ftill denominated from the planets : Sunday.
Monday, &c. See Week.
Planet ary Tears, the periods of time in which the
feveral planets make their revolutions round the fun or
earth,—As from the proper revolution of the fun, the
folar year takes its original; fo from the proper revo**
lutions of the reft of the planets about the earth, fo
many forts of years do arife, viz. the Saturnian year*,
which is defined by 29 Egyptian years, 174 hours, 58
minutes, equivalent in a round number to 30 folar
years.—The Jovial year, containing 317 days, 14.
hours, 59 minutes.—The Martial year, containing 32I
days, 23 hours, 31 minutes—For Venus and Mer¬
cury, as their years, when judged of with regard to
the earth, are almoft equal to the folar year; they are
more ufually eftimated from the fun, the true centre
of their motions: in which cafe, the former is equal
to 224 days, 16 hours, 40 minutes; the latter to 87
days, 23 hours, 14 minutes.
PLANIMETRY, that part of geometry which
confiders lines and plain figures, without confidering
their height or depth. See Geometry.
PLANISPHERE, fignifies a proje&ion of the
fphere, and its various circles on a plane; in which
fenfe, maps, whereon are exhibited the meridians
and other circles of the fphere, are planifpheres. See.
Map.
than that of the reft of the planets; it k paft doubt
thst he too with his ^ttend^nts are opaque todies#
2. Smv.e the fun s light is not tranfmitted through
Mercury and Venus, when placed againft him, it is
plain they are denfe opaque bodies ; which is likewife
evident of Jupiter, from his hiding the fateliites in his
fhadow; and therefore, by analogy, the fame may be
concluded of Saturn. 3. From the variable fpots of
Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, it is evident thefe planets
have a changeable atinofphere ; which changeable at-
niofphere may, by a like argument, be inferred of the
fatellites of Jupiter ; and therefore, by firnilitude, the
fame may be concluded of the other planets. 4. In
like manner, from the mountains obferved in Venus,
the fame maybe fuppofed in the other planets. 5. Since,
then, Saturn, Jupiter, and the fatellites of both, Mars,
Venus, and Mercury, areopaque bodies ftiining with the
fun’s borrowed light, are furnifhed with mountains,
and encompafled with a changeable atmofphere; they
have, of confequence, waters, feas, &c. as well as dry
land, and are bodies like the moon, and therefore like
the earth. £>. E. D. And hence it feems alfo highly
probable, that the other planets have their animal in¬
habitants as well as our earth.
PLANETARIUM, an aftronomical machine, fo
called from its reprefenting the motions, orbits, &c.
of the planets, agreeable to the Copernican fyftem. See
Astronomy, and Plate LXXXVIH.
PLANETARY, fomething that relates to the pla¬
cets. Hence we fay, planetary worlds, planetary in-
END OF THE FOURTEENTH VQLUME,
errata.
Vol. X. p. $66. col. 2.1. io. from the bottom. Tor ** Eulea, n»w the Black Sea/* read 4< Euboea, now
Negropont.”
Vol. II. p. 374. col. 2.1. 27. For “the old EngUfh writers call thofe large mulkets &c.‘' read
the old Engh'rti writers call the hand-gun a ealiver, and that which was fired with a reft fometimca
a mujket and fometimes a harquebtfs. See Shakefpearet 2d part Henry IV. Steevens.**
%r0L. III. p. 19, article Baroco. Read
Omnit homa eft bipes,
liquid animal non eft bipes f
Aliquid animal non eft homo.
p. 417. col. 2. 'For ** Bosworta,” read “ Bosworth.
1. 21. For “ R'uhard” xzz& “ Richmond*” for Henry III.”1 read M Henry VIl.0
N. B d’hefe errors in the article Bosworth do not ran through the whole
impreflion.
p. 439* col. 1.1. 26. from the bottom. For “ b b, arijia” read ** a% a, arifta.”
col. 2. I. 1. from the top. Read “ tropoeolum.0
p. 493. col. 1. 1. 22. For ‘‘ manners,read “ mmers ’*
col. 2. 1. 13. from the bottom. Read “ Sir Roger Man-wood chief-baron.**
Vol. IV. p. 342. col. 1. 1. 10. from the bottom. Read “ Plate CXXVI.**
p. 360. col. 2. 1. 22. from the bottom. Read “ L. 40 a-year.’* ,
Vol. V. p. 57. col. 2. 1. 4. For read
p. 89. col. 2. 1. 16. from the bottom. Read ** felony without benefit of clergy, by flat. &c.**
p. 105. col 2. 1.16. For “ falfe,” read “ refs.”
p. 135. col. 2. 1. 24. For “ Redcliffe,” read “ Ratcliffc.**
p. 496. col. 1. For M ally,*’ read “ tally."
p. 509. col. 2.1. 14. For “ Cambridge,” read ” Oxford.**
p. 720. col. 2. 1. 14. For “ goddefa,” read ‘‘ god.”.
Vol. IX. p. t6o. col. 1.1. 9. from the bottom. For “ Edward II.** read u Richard I.”
Vol. XIII. p. 131. col. 1. 1. 13. For ” meek,” read “ mock.**.
p. 132. col. 1. 1. 28. from the bottom. For “ call,** read “cull/*
p. 169. Note (a;. Read “ the perfon was fworn &c.**
p. 210. col. 1. 1. 1$. For “ fpreads,” read “ fpread.”
col. 2. 1. 27. For “ fit,” read ” fet.”
s p. 263. col. 1. 1. 10. from the bottom. For “ infeparable,” read “ meafurable.”
col. 2. 1. 29. For fhinrng,” read “ thinning.**
p. 287. and p. 288. to be cancelled.
p. 289. col. 1. To Cor. 6. add, “ This propofitlon is true in lenfes and mirrors, but net in Angle
refrafting furfaces.”
p. 521. laft line. For “ Prommetichus,” read ” P-fammetichus.**
p. 683. col. 1.1.17. fr«n the bottom. For ** others appears,” read ** others appear.’*
col. 2. h 15. For “'Brteagne,” read “ Bretagne.**
'^Vcl. XIV. p. 118. col. 2. to 1. 7. from the end, add, “ For if the femicircle deferibed on the diameter BN,
which correfponds to the whole arch AN, be divided into an indefinite num¬
ber of equal arches Gg, &c the fum of all the lines NF will be equal to as
many times NK as there are arches in the fame circle equal to G.g’.”
p. ti 9. col I. 1. 15. For “ corrupody,’* read “ corrcfponding.”
p. 137. at the end of the article “ Pentland,” dele “ See Pictland.”
Part I.
iplate CCCLXXVIII.l
DIRECTIONS for flacing the PLATES of Vol. XIV.
face
CCCLXXIX.
CCCLXXX.
CCCLXXXI.
CCCLXXXII.
CCCLXXXIII.
CCCLXXXIV.
CCCLXXXV
$
to face
L.
7:l
Page 16
in
*34
136
194
Plate CCCLXXXVI. X f
CCCLXXXVII. j to
CCCLXXXV1II.
CCCLXXXIX.
CCCXC.
CCCXCI.
CCCXCII. 1
CCCXCIII.I
Part II,
Page 194
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