E/3 .'S'
ENCrCLOPMDIA BRITANNICAs
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VOL. XII.
INDOCTI DlUC ANT, ET AMENT MXMTNtSS B P ERJTl.
EDINBURG H,
PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARQtIHM.
MDCCXCYII,
€ntmO in tetationm ipaH in Cermief of tfjc aa of Parliament
Encyclopaedia Britannica,
m i e
Miel, 1\/TIEL (Jan), called Giovanni della Vile, a moll
Mieris. XVJL eminent painter, was born in Flanders in 1599.
He was at firft a difciple of Gerard Seghers, in whole
fchool he made a diftinguilheJ figure ; but he quitted
that artift, and went to Italy, to improve himfelf in
defign, and to obtain a more extenfive knowledge of
the ieveral branches of his art. At Rome he parti¬
cularly ftudied and copied the works of the Caracci
and Corregio; and was admitted into the academy of
Andrea Sacchij where he gave fuch evident proofs of
extraordinary merit and genius, that he was invited by
Andrea to. affift him in a grand defign which* he had
already begun. But Miel, through fome difguft, re-
jefted thole elevated fubje&s which at firll had enga¬
ged his attention, refufed the friendly propofal of
Sacchi, and chofe to imitate the llyle of Bamboccio,
as having more of that nature which pleafed his own
imagination. His general fubjefts were huntings, car¬
nivals, gyplies, beggars, palloral fcenes, and conver-
fations ; of thofe he compofed his eafel-pi&ures, which
are the fineft of his performances. But he alfo paint¬
ed hiftory in a large fize in frefco, and in oil; which,
though they feem to want elevation of delign, and a
greater degree of grace in the heads, yet appear fupe-
rior to what might be expected from a painter of fuch
low fubje&s as he generally was fond of reprefenting.
His pidures of huntings are particularly admired : the
figures and animals of every fpecies being defigned with
uncommon fpirit, nature, and truth. The tranfparence
of his colouring, and the clear tints of his Ikies, enli¬
ven his compofuions; nor are his paintings in any de¬
gree inferior to thofe of Bamboccio either in their
force o^'dultre. His large works are not fo much to
be commended for the goodnefs of the delign as for
the expreflion and colouring ; but it is in his fmall
pieces that the pencil of Miel appears in its greatell
delicacy and beauty. The Angular merit of this mai¬
ler recommended him to the favour of Charles Ema¬
nuel duke of Savoy, who invited him to his court,
where he appointed Miel his principal painter, and
afterwards honoured him with the order of St Mauri¬
tius, and made him a prefent of a crofs fet with dia¬
monds of a great value, as a particular mark of his
efteem. He died in 1664.
MIERIS (Francis), the Old, a juftly celebrated
painter, was born at Leyden in 1635 ; and was
at firll placed under the dirc&ion of Abraham
Toorne Vliet, one of the bell defigners of the
Low Countries, and afterwards entered himfelf as a
difciple with Gerard Douw. In a Ihort time he far
furpaffed all his companions, and was by his mailer
called the prince of his difciples. His manner of
painting fxlks, velvets, Huffs, or carpets, was fo fingu-
lar, that the different kinds and fabric of any of them
Vo L. XII. Parti.
M I E
might eafsly be diflinguilhed. His pi&ures are rarely Mier's.
to be feen, and as rarely to be fold; and when they ——y—»
are, the purchafe is extremely high, their intrinfic va¬
lue being fo incontellably great. Befide portraits, his
general fubjedts* were converfations, perfons perform¬
ing on mufical inllruments, patients attended by the
apothecary or dodlor, chymilts at work, mercers
fhops, and fuch like; and the ufual valuation he fet oil
his piftures was ellimated at the rate of a ducat an
hour. The finell portrait of this mailer’s hand is that
which he painted for the wife of Cornelius Plaats,
which is laid to be Hill preferved in the family, al¬
though very great fums have been offered for it. In
the poffeffion of the fame gentleman was another pic¬
ture of Mieris, reprefenung a lady fainting, and a
phyfician applying the remedies to relieve her. For
that performance he was paid (at his ufual rate of a
ducat an hour) fo much money as amounted to fifteen
hundred florins when the picture was finilhed. The
grand duke of Tufcany wilhed to purchafe it, and of¬
fered three thoufand florins for it, but the offer was
not accepted. However, that prince procured feveral
of his pi&ures, and they are at this day an ornament
to the Florentine collection. One of the moil curious
of them is a girl holding a candle in her hand, and it
is accounted ineltimable. This painter died in 1681.
MIERIS (John), fon of the former, w'as born at
Leyden in 1660, and learned the art of painting
from his father. The young artilf unhappily was fe-
verely afflidted with the gravel and Hone ; and by
thofe complaints was much hindered in the progrefs of
hisftudies. But, after the death of his father, he tra¬
velled to Germany, and from thence to Florence,
where the fame of his father’s merit procured him a
moll honourable reception from the grand duke, who,
when he faw fome of his paintings, endeavoured to re¬
tain him in his fervice. But Mieris politely declined
it, and proceeded to Rome, where his great abilities
were well known before his arrival, and his works
were exceedingly coveted. In that city his malady
increafed ; yet at the intervals of eafe hd continued to
work with his ufual application, till the violence of
hie diftemper ended'his days in 1690,. when he was
only thirty years old. He was allowed to have been
as eminent for painting in a large fize as his father had
been for his works in fmall.
MIERIS (William), called the Young Miens, was
brother to the former, and born at Leyden in 1662.
During the life of h s father, he made a remarkable
progrefs : but, by being deprived of his dire&or when
he was only arrived at the age of nineteen, he had re-
courfe to nature, as the moll inftru&ive guide ; and by
ftudying with diligence and judgment to imitate her,
he approached near to the merit of his father. At
A firfl
MIG [2
'Mleris flrft he took his fubje&s from private life, in the man-
11 ner of Francis ; fuch as tradefmen in their (hops, or a
^Mignard. pcafant felling vegetables and fruit, and fometimes a
*" woman looking out at a window ; all which he copied
minutely after nature, nor did he paint a fingle objedl
without his model. As Mieris had obferved the com-
pofitions of Gerard Laireffe, and^ther great hiftorical
painters, with Angular delight, he attempted to defign
fubjefts in that ftyle ; and began with the ftory of Ri-
naldo fleeping on the lap of Armida, furrounded with
the loves and graces, the fore-ground being enriched
with plants and flowers ; a work which added greatly
to his fame, and was fold for a very high price. This
mafter alfo painted landfcapes and animals with equal
truth and neatnefs; and modelled in clay and wax, in
fo (harp and accurate a manner, that he might juftly
be ranked among the moft eminent fculptors. In the
delicate finifhing of his works, he imitated his father;
as he likewife did in the luftre, harmony, and truth,
of his paintings, which makes them to be almoft as
highly prized; but they are not equal in refpeft of
defign, or of the ftriking effeft, nor is his touch fo
very exquifite as that of the father. The works of
the old Mieris are better compofed, the figures are bet¬
ter grouped, and they have lefs confufion; yet the
younger Mieris is acknowledged to be an artift of ex¬
traordinary merit, although inferior to him, who had
fcarcely his equal. He died in 1747.
Mieris (Francis), called the Toung Francis^ was
the fon of William, and the grandfon of the celebrated
Francis Mieris; and was born at Leyden in 1680. He
learned the art of painting from his father, whofe
manner and ftyle he always imitated; he chofe the
fame fubjefts, and endeavoured to refemble him in his
colouring and pencil. But with all his induftry he
proved far inferior to him : and moft of thofe pictures
which at the public fales are faid to be of the young
Mieris, and many alfo in private colle&ions afcribed
to the eider Francis, or William, are perhaps origi¬
nally painted by this mafter, who was far inferior to
both; or are only his copies after the works of thofe
excellent painters, as he fpent abundance of his time
in copying their performances.
MIEZA, (anc. geog.), a town of Macedonia,
vdiich was anciently called Strymonium, fituated near
Stagirar Here, Plutarch informs us, the ftone feats
and fhady walks of Ariftotle were fliown. Of this
place was Peuceftas, one of Alexander’s generals, and
therefore furnamed Mk%<eus, (Arrian.)
M1GDOL, or Magdol, (anc. geog.), a place in
the Lower Egypt, on this fide Pihahiroth, or between
it and the Red Sea, towards Jts extremity. The term
denotes a tower or fortrefs.. It is probably the Flag-
dolum of Herodotus, feeing the Septuagint render it by
the fame name.
MIGNARD (Nicholas), a very ingenious French
painter, born at Troyes in 1628 ; but, fettling at A-
vignon, is generally diftinguiiiied from his brother Pe¬
ter by the appellation of Mignard of Avignon. He
was afterwards employed at court and at Paris, where
he became reftor of the royal academy of painting.
There art a great number of his hiftorical pieces and
portraits in the palace of the Thuilleries. He died in
1690.
Migka&d (Peter), the brother of Nicholas, was
] MIG
boYn at Troyes in 1610 ; and acquired fo much of the Mtgno*,
tafte of the Italian fchool, as to be known by the name Migration.
of the Roman. He was generally allowed to have a v
fuperior genius to his brother Nicholas; and had the
honour of'painting the popes Alexander VII. and
Urban VI11. befides many of the nobility at Rome,
and fevcral of the Italian princes: his patron, Louis,
fat ten times to him for his portrait, and refpefted his
talents fo much as to ennoble him, make him his princi¬
pal painter after the death of Le Bran, and appoint
him diredlor of the manufa&ories. He died in j 695,
and many of his pieces are to be feen at St Cloud.
MIGMON, or Minjon, (Abraham), a celebrated
painter of flowers and ftill life, wis born at Franckfort
in 1639 ; and his father having been deprived of the
greateft part of his fubftance by a feries of Ioffes in
trade, left him in very necefiitous circumftances when
he was only feven years of age. From tfeat melan¬
choly fituation he was refcued by the friendftiip of
James Murel, a flower-painter in that city ; who took
Mignon into his own houfe, and inftrutted him in
the art, till he was 17 years old. Murel had often
obferved an uncommon genius in Mignon : he there¬
fore took him along with him to Holland, where he
placed him as a difciple with David de Heem ; and
while he was under the direction of that mafter he la¬
boured with inceffant application to imitate the man¬
ner of De Heem, and ev$r afterwards adhered to it;
only adding daily to his improvement, by ftudying
nature with a moil exaft and curious obfervation.—
“ When we confider the paintings of Mignon, one is
at a lofs (Mr Pilkington obferves) whether moft to
admire the freflmefs and beauty of his colouring, the
truth in every part, the bloom on his objedfs, or the
perfect refemblance of nature vifible in all his perform¬
ances. He always fhows a beautiful choice in thofe
flowers and fruits from which his fubjedts are compo¬
fed : and he groups them with uncommon elegance.
Flis touch is exquifitely neat, though apparently eafy
and unlaboured ; and he was fond of introducing in-
fedts among the fruits and flowers, wonderfullyfiniined,
fo that even the drops of dew appear as round and as
tranflqpent as nature itfelf.” He had the ^bd for¬
tune to be highly paid for his works in his Tiretime ;
and he certainly would have been accounted the beft
in his profelfion even to this day, if John Van Huy-
fum had not appeared. Weyerman, who had feen
many admired pictures of Mignon, mentions one of a
moft capital kind. The fubjedt of it is a cat, which
had thrown dovVn a pot of flowers, and they lie Mat¬
tered on a marble table. That picture is in every re-
fpeCt fo wonderfully natural, that the fpedtator can
fcarce perfuade himfelf that the water which is fpilled
from the veffel is not really running down from the*
marble. This pi&ure is diftinguifhed by the title of
Mignon’s Cat. This painter died in 1679, aged only 40.
MIGRATION, the paffage or removal of a thing
out of one place into another.
Migration of Birds.—It has been generally be¬
lieved, that many different kinds of birds annually pafs
from one country to another, and fpend the fummer or
the winter where it is moft agreeable to them ; and
that even the birds of our own ifland will feek the moft
diftant fouthern regions of Africa, when directed by
a peculiar inftindt to leave their own country. It ha*
2 long
MIG [3
Migration. long been an opinion pretty generally received, that
‘—“—v—fwallows refute during the winter-feafon in the warm
xouthern regions ; and Mr Adanfon particularly relates
his having feen them at Senegal when they were obli¬
ged to leave this country. But befides the fwallow,
Mr Pennant enumerates many other birds which mi¬
grate from Britain at different times of the year, and
are then to be found in other countries ; af^er which
they again leave thefe countries, and return to Bri¬
tain. The reafon of thefe migrations he fupppfes to
be a defeft of food at certain feafons of the year, or
the wrant of a fecure afylum from the perfecution of
man during the time of courtlhip, incubation, and
nutrition. The following is his lilt of the migrating
fpecies.
1. Crows. Of this genus, the hooded crow migrates
regularly with the woodcock. It inhabits North Bri¬
tain the whole year : a few are faid annually to breed
on Dartmoor, in Devonfhire. It breeds alfo in Swe¬
den and Auftria : in fome of the Swedifh provinces it
only Ihifts its quarters, in others it refides throughout
the year. Our author is at a lofs for the fummer re?
treat of thofe which vilxt us in fuch numbers in win¬
ter, and quit our country in the fpring ; and for the
reafon why a bird, whofe food is fuch that it may be
found at all feafons in this country, Ihould leave us,
2. Cuckoo. Difappears early in autumn ; the retreat
©f this and the following bird is quite unknown to us.
3. Wryneck. Is a bird that leaves us in the winter.
If its diet be ants alone, as feveral affert, the caufe of
its migration is very evident. This bird difappears be¬
fore winter, and revifits us in the fpring a little earlier
than the cuckoo.
4. Hoopoe. Comes to England but by accident :
Mr Pennant once indeed heard of a pair that attempt¬
ed to make their neft in a meadow at Selborne, Hamp-
fhire, but were frighted away by the curioftty of people.
It breeds in Germany.
5. Grous. The whole tribe, except the quail, lives
here all the year round: that bird either leaves us, or
elfe retires towards the fea-coafts.
6. Pigeons. Some few of the ring-doves breed
here; but the multitude that appears in the winter is
fo difproportioned to what continue here the whole
year, as to make it certain that the greateft part quit
the country in the fpring. It is mo ft" probable they
go to Sweden to breed, and return from thence in au¬
tumn ; as Mr Ekmark informs us they entirely quit
that country before winter. Multitudes of the com¬
mon wild pigeons alfo make the, northern retreat, and
vifit us in, winter; not biit numbers breed in the high
cliffs in all parts ©f this ifland. The turtle alfo pro¬
bably leaves us in the winter, at leaft changes its place,
removing to the fouthern counties.
7. Stare. Breeds here. Pofiibly feveral remove to
other countries for that purpofe, lince the produce of'
thofe that continue here feems unequal to the clouds
of them that appear in winter. It is not unlikely that
many migrate into Sweden, where Mr Berger obferves
they return in fpring.
8. Thrujbes. The fieldfare and the redwing breed
and pafs their fummers in Norway and other cold coun¬
tries ; their food is berries, which abounding in our
kingdoms, tempts them here in the winter. Thefe two
and the Royfton crow are the only land-birds that re-
] MIG
gularly and conftantly migrate into England, and do Migratioai
not breed here. The hawfinch and crofsbill come here
at fuch uncertain times as not to deferve the name of
birds of paffage.
9. Chatterer. The chatterer appears annually about
Edinburgh in flocks during winter; and feeds on the
berries of the mountain-alh. In South Britain it is
an accidental vifitant.
10. Grojbeaks. The grofbeak and crofsbill come
here but feldom ; they breed in Auftria. The pine
grolbesk probably breeds in the forefts of the High¬
lands of Scotland.
11. Buntings. All the genus inhabits England
throughout the year ; except the greater brambling,
which is forced here from the north in very fevere
feafons.
12. Finches. All continue in fome parts of thefe
kingdoms, except the fifkin, which is an irregular vi¬
fitant, faid to come from Ruffia. The" linnets Ihift
their quarters, breeding in one part of this ifland, and
remove with their young to others. AH finches feed
on the feeds of plants.
13. Larks, fly-catchers, wagtails, and warblers*
All of thefe feed on infe&s and worms ; yet only part
of them quit thefe kingdoms; though the reafon of
migration is the fame to all. The nightingale, black¬
cap, fly-catcher, willow-wren, wheat-ear, and white-
throat, leave us before winter, while the fmall and de¬
licate golden-crefted wren braves our fevereft frofts.
The migrants of this genus continue longeft in Great
Britain in the fouthern counties, the winter in thofe
parts being later than in thofe of the north; Mr '
Stillingflcet having obferved feveral wheat-ears in the
ifle of Purbcck on the 18th of November. As
thefe birds are incapable of very diftant flights,
Spain, or the fouth of France, is probaby their
winter-afylum.
14. Swallows and goat-fucker. Every fpecies dif¬
appears at the approach of winter.
Water-Fowl.
Of the vaft variety of water-fowl that frequent
Great Britain, it is amazing to reflect how few are
known to breed here : the caufe that principally urges,
them to leave this country, feems to be not merely the
want of food, but the defire of a fecure rftreat. Our
country is too populous for birds fo flry and timid as
the bulk of thefe are : when great part of our ifland
was a mere wafte, a tradt of woods and fen, doubt-
lefs many fpecies of birds (which at this time mi¬
grate) remained in fecurity throughout the year.—.
Egrets, a fpecies of heron now fcarce known in
this ifland, were in former times in prodigious plen¬
ty ; and the crane, that has totally forfaken this coun¬
try, bred iamiliarly in our marflies : their place of
incubation, as well as of all other cloven-footed wa¬
ter-fowl (the heron excepted), being on the ground,,
and expofed to every one. As rural economy increa-
fed in this country, thefe animals were more and more
difturbed ; at length, by a feriqs pf alarms, they were
neceflitated to feck, during the fummer, fome lonely
fafe habitation.
On the contrary, thofe that build or lay in the al-
moft inacceffible rocks that impend over the' Britifh
feas, breed there ftill in vaft numbers, having little to
fear from the approach of mankind : the only difturb-
A 2 ance
MIG [ 4 ] MIG
Migration.anCe they meet with in general being from the defp'e*
r »- rate attempts of feme Tew to get their eggs.
Cloven-toote'd Water-Fowl.
15. Herons. The white heron is an uncommon
bird, and vifits us at uncertain feafons 5 the common
kind and the bittern never leave us.
16. Gurkws. The curlew breeds fometimes on our
mountains; but, confidering the vaft flights that ap¬
pear in winter, it is probable that the greater part
retire to other countries : the whimbrel breeds on
the Grampian hills, in the neighbourhood of Inver-
cauld.
17. Snipes. The woodcock breeds in the moift
woods of Sweden, and other cold countries. Some
fnipes' breed here, but the greateft part retire elfe-
vvhere ; as do every other fpecies of this genus.
18. Sandpipers. The lapwing continues here the
whole year ; the ruff breeds here, but retires in win¬
ter ; the redfliank and fandpiper breed in this country,
and refide here. All the others abfent themfelves du¬
ring fummer.
19. Plovers ami oyjler.catcher. The long-legged
plover and fanderling vifit us only, in winter ; the dot¬
trel appears in fpring and in autumn; yet, what is very
Angular, we do not find it breeds in fouth Britain.
The oyfier-catcher lives with us the whole year. The
Norfolk plover and feadark breed in England. The
green plover breeds on the mountains of the north of
England, and on the Grampian hills.
We muft here remark, that every fpecies of the ge¬
nera of curlews, woodcocks, fandpipers, and plovers,
that forfake us in the fpring, retire to Sweden, Po¬
land, Pruffia, Norway, and Lapland, to breed: as foon
as the young can fly, they return to us again, becaufe
the frofts which fet in early in thofe countries totally
deprive them of the means of fubfifting ; as the dry-
nefs and hardnefs of the ground, in general, during
our fummer, prevent them from penetrating the earth
with their bills, in fearch of worms, which are the na¬
tural food of thefe birds. Mr Ekmark fpeaks thus of
fhe retreat of the whole tribe of cloven-footed water
fowl out of his country (Sweden) at the approach of
winter; and Mr Klein gives much the fame account of
thofe of Poland and Pruflia.
20. Rath .-mlgallinules. Every fpecies of thefe two
genera continue with us the whole year; the land-rail
excepted, which is not feen here in winter. It likewife
contimies in Ireland only during fhe fummer-months,'
when they are very numerous, as Mr Smith tells us in
the HJft ry of Waterford, p. 336. Great numbers ap¬
pear in Angletea the latter end of May ; it is fuppofed
'that they pais over from Ireland, the pafiage between
the two iflands being but fmall. As we have inltances
of thefe birds lighting on fhips in the channel and the
Bay of Bifcny, we may conjecture their winter-quar¬
ters to be in Spain.
Finned-footed Water-Birds.
2T. Phalaropes. - Vifit us but feldom ; their breed-
Ing place is Lapland, and other arCtic regions.
22. Grebes. The great-crefted grebe, the black and
white grebe, and little grebe, breed with us, and never
migrate ; the others vifit us accidentally, and breed in
Lapland.
Web-Footed Birds.
23. Avofet. Breed near Fofsdike in Lincolnfhire;
but quit their quarters in winter. They are then flrot
in different parts of the kingdom, which they vifit, not
regularly, but accidentally.
24. Auks and guillemots. The great auk or pinguin
fometimes breeds in St Kilda. The auk, the guillemot,
and puffin, inhabit molt of the maritime cliffs of Great
Britain, in amazing numbers, during fummer. The
black guillemot breeds in the Bafs Me, and in St Kilda,
and fometimes in Llandidno rocks. We are at a lofs
for the breeding place of the other fpecies; neither
can we be very certain of the winter refidence of any
of them, excepting of the leffer guillemot and black¬
billed auk, which, during winter, vifit in vaft flocks
the Frith of Forth.
25. Divers. Thefe' chiefly breed in the lakes of
Sweden and Lapland, and in fome countries near the
pole; but fome of the red-throated divers, the northern
and the imber, may breed in the north of Scotland
and its ifles.
26. Terns. Every fpecies breeds here ; but leave*
us in the winter.
27. Petrels. The fulmar breeds in the Me of St
Kilda, and continues there the whole year except Sep¬
tember and part of Oiftober: the fhearwater vifits the
Me of Man in April ; breeds there ; and, leaving it in
Afiguft or the beginning of September, difperfes over
all parts of the Atlantic ocean. The ftormfinch is
feen at all diltances from land on the fame vaft watery
tradl ; nor is ever found near the fhore except by fome
very rare accident, unlefs in the breeding feafon. Mr
Pennant found it on fome little rocky ifles, off the north
of Skic. It alfo breeds in St Kilda. He alfo fufpefts
that it neftles en the Blafquet Ifles off Kerry, and that
it is the gourder of Mr Smith.
28. Merganfers. This whole genus is mentioned
among the birds that fill the Lapland lakes during
fummer. Mr Pennant has feen the young of the red-
breafted in the north of Scotland: a few df thefe, and
perhaps of the goofanders, may breed there.
29. Ducks. Of the numerous fpecies that fortn this
genus, we know of few that breed hert: The fwan and
goofe, the fhield-duck, the eider-duck, a few (hovelers,
garganies, and teals, and a very fmall portion of the
wild ducks.
The reft contribute to form that amazing multi¬
tude of water-fowl that annually repair from moft parts
of Europe to the woods and lakes of Lapland and
other arritic regions, there to perform the functions of
incubation and nutrition in full fecurity. They and
their young quit their retreat in September, and dif-
perfe themfelves over Europe. With us they make
their appearance the beginning of Q&ober ; circulate
firft round our ftiores; and, when compelled by fevere
froft, betake themfelves to our lakes and rivers. Of
the web-footed fowl there are iome oPhardier contti-
tutions than others: thefe endure the ordinary winters
of the more northern countries; but when the cold
reigns there with more than common rigour, they repair
for flicker to thefe kingdoms : this regulates the ap¬
pearance of fome of the diver kind, as alfo of the wild
fwans, the fwallow-tailed ftiield-duck, and the different
forts of goofanders which then vifit Our coafts. Barentz
found the barnacles with their nefts in great numbers
in Nova Zembla. (Colled. Voy. Dutch -Eaft-India Com¬
pany, 8vo. 1703, p. 19.) Clufius, in his Exot. 368.
Migration.
mig r
Migration, alfo obferves, that the Dutch cti(covered them on the
5 v— rocks of that country and in Way-gate Straits. They,
as welt as the other fpeeies of wiid-geefe, go very far
north to breed, as appears from the biftories of Green¬
land and Spftzber-gen, by Egede and Crantz. Thefe
birds feein to make Iceland a refting place, as Horre-
bow obferves: few continue there to breed, but only
vifit that ifland in the fpring, and after a Ihort ftay
retire ftill further north.
•30. Cormorants. The corvorant and (hag breed on
moft ©f our high rocks : the gannet in fome of the
Scotch Jfles, and on the coaft of Kerry: the two firil
continue on our fhores the whole year. The gannet
difperfes itfelf all round the feas of Great Britain, in
purluit of the herring and pilchard, and even as far as
the Tagus to prey on the fardina.
But of the numerous fpecies of fowl here enumera¬
ted, it may be obferved how very few intyuft them-
felves to us in the breeding feafon, and what a dillant
flight they make to perform the firft great diftate of
nature.
There feems to be fcarcely any but what we have
traced to Lapland, a country of lakes, rivers, fwamps,
and alps, covered with thick and gloomy forefts, that
afford fhelter during fummer to thefe fowls, which in
winter difperfe over the greateft part of Europe. In
thofe arftic regions, by reafon of the thicknefs of the
woods,‘the ground remains moift and penetrable to the
woodcocks, and other (lender-billed fowl : and for the
web-footed birds, the waters afford larvae innumerable
of the tormenting knat. The days there are long;
•and'the beautiful meteorous nights indulge them with
every opportunity of collefting fo minute a food: whilft
mankind is very fparingly fcattered over that vaft nor¬
thern wafte.
Why then fhould Linnaeus, the great explorer of
thefe rude defarts, be amazed at the myriads of water-
fowl that migrated with him out of Lapland ? which
exceeded in multitude the army of Xerxes; covering,
for eight whole days and nights, the furface of the river
Calix ! His partial obfervation as a botanift, would
confine their food to the vegetable kingdom, almoft
denied to the Lapland waters ; inattentive to a more
plenteous table of infeft food, which the all-bountiful
Creator had fpread for them in the wildemefs. It may
be remarked, that the lakes of mountainous rocky
countries in general are deftitute of plants : few or
none are feen on thofe of Switzerland; and Linnsews
makes the fame obfervation in refpeft to thofe of Lap-
land ; having, during his whole tour, difcovered only
a fingle fpecimen of a lemma trifulca, or “ ivy-leaved
duck’s meat,” Flora Lap. ^-470.; a few of the fc'ir-
pus lacujlris, or “ bullrufh,” n° 18.; the alopecurvs
geniculatus, or “ flote foxtail.grafs,” n° 38.; and the
ranunculus aquatilis, n° 234.; which are all he enu¬
merates in his Prolegomena to that excellent per¬
formance.
Under the article Swallow will be found the prin¬
cipal arguments for and againil the migration of fwal-
iows. Here we (hail give a (hort abftraft of the ar¬
guments ufed by the Hon. Daines Barrington again!!
the migration of birds in general, from a paper pub-
lifhed by him in the 6id volume of the Philofophical
Tranfaftions. This gentleman denies that any well-
attefted inftances can be produced of this fuppofed mi-
5 1 ,M 1 G
gration; which, he thinks, if there were any fuch perio- M'gr .don,
dical flight, could not pofiibly haveefcaped the frequent ——
obfervation of feamen. It has indeed been aflerted
that birds of paffage become invifible in their flight,
becaufe they rife too high in the air to be perceived, •
and becaufe they choofe the night for their paffage.
The author, however, expreffes his doubts “ whether
any bird was ever feen to rife to a greater height than
perhaps twice that of St Paul’s crofs and he further
endeavours to (how, that the extent of fome of thefe
fuppofed migrations (from the northern parts of Eu¬
rope, for inltance, to the line) is too great to be ac-
countedfor,by having recourfe to the argument found¬
ed on a nodturnal paflage.
The author next recites, in a chronological order,
all the inftances that he has been able to colled, of
birds having been a&ually feen by mariners when they
were croffing a large extent of fea ; and' he endeavours
to Ihow that no ftrefs can be laid on the few cafual
obfervations of this kind that have been produced in
fupport of the doftrine of a regular and periodical mi¬
gration.
Mr Barrington afterwards proceeds to invalidate
M. Adanfou’s celebrated obfervation with refped to-
the migration of the fwallow in particular, and which
has been, confidered by many as perfedly decilive of
the prefent queftion. He endeavours to fhow that the
four fwallows which that haturalift caught, on their
fettling upon his fhip, on the 6th of Odober at about
the diftance of 50 leagues from the coaft of Senegal,
and which he fuppofes to have been then proceeding
from Europe to pafs the winter in Africa, could not
be true European 'fwallows ; or, if they were, could
not have been on their return from Europe to Africa.
His objedions are founded principally on fome proofs
which he produces of M. Adanfon’s want of accuracy
on this fubjed, which has led him, in the prefent in-
ftanee, to miftake two African fpecies of the fwallow -
tribe,.defcribed and engraved by Briffon, for Euro¬
pean fwallows, to which they bear a general refem-
blance ; or granting even that they were European
fwallows, he contends, that they were flitting from the
Cape de Verd Iflands to the coaft of Africa j “ to
which ftiort flight, however, they_ were unequal, and
accordingly fell into the failor’s hands.” See the ar¬
ticle Swallow.—We fliall here only add, in oppoii-
tion to the remarks of Mr Barrington, the following* Natural
obfervations of the Rev. Mr White * in a letter to HiRon <f
Mr Pennant on this fubjed. Selborne,
“ We mill! not (fays he) deny migration in gene-IX*
ral; btcaufe migration ceitainly does fubfift in fome1’ J
places, as my brother in Andalufia has fully informed
me. Of the motions of thefe birds he has ocular de-
monftration, for many weeks together, both fpring
and fall: during which periods myriads of the fwallow
kind traverfe the Straits from north to fouth, and
from fouth to north, according to the feafon. Ami
thefe vaft migrations confift not only of hirundines,
but of bee-birds, hoopoes, oro pendolos, or golden
thruflies, See. See. and alfo of many of our foft-billed
fummer birds of paffage; and moreover of birds which
never leave us, fuch as all the various forts of hawks
and kites. Old Belon, 200 years ago, gives a curious
account of the incredible armies of hawks and kites
which he law in the fpring-time traverfing the Thra-
1 dan
MIG [ 6
Migration, dan Bofphorus from Afia to Europe. Befides the
above mentioned, he remarks, that the proceffion is
fwelled by whole troops of eagles and vultures.
“ Now it is no wonder that birds refiding in Afri-
. ca fhould retreat before the fun as it advances, and re¬
tire to milder regions, and efpecially birds of prey,
whofe blood being heated with hot animal food, are
more impatient of a fultry climate : but then 1 cannot
help wondering why kites and hawks, and fuch hardy
birds as are known to defy all the feverity of England,
and even of Sweden and all north Europe, (hould want
to migrate from the fouth of Europe, and be diffsitis-
fied with the. winters of Andalufia.
“ It does not appear to me that much ftrefs may
be laid on the difficulty and hazard that birds muft
run in their migrations, by reafon of vaft oceans, crofs
winds, &c. ; becaufe, if we refledl, a bird may travel
from England ,to the equator without launching out
and expofing itfelfto boundlefs feas, and that by crof-
fing the water at Dover and again at Gibraltar. And
1 with the more confidence advance this obvious re¬
mark, becaufe my brother has always found that fome
of his birds, and particularly the fwallow kind, are
< very fparing of their pains in croffing the Mediterra-
. nean : for when arrived at Gibraltar, they do not,
— rang’d in figure, wedge their way,
——— “ and fet forth
“ Their airy caravan high over feas
“ Flying, and over lands with mutual wing
“ Eafing their flight.” Milton.
but fcout and hurry along in little detached parties of
fix or feven in a compa'ny; and fweeping low, juft over
the furface of the land and water, direft their courfe
to the oppofite continent at the narroweft pafiage they
can find. They ufually Hope acrofs the bay to the
fouth-weft, and fo pafs over oppofite to Tangier, which
it feems is the narroweft fpace.
“ In former letters we have confidered whether it
was probable that woodcocks in moon-fhiny nights
crofs the German ocean from Scandinavia. As a proof
that birds of lefs fpeed may pafs that fea, confiderable
as it is, I {hall relate the following incident, which,
though mentioned to have happened fo many years
ago, was ftri&ly matter of faft :—As fome people
were {hooting in the pariflr of Trotton, in the county
of Suflex, they killed a duck in that dreadful winter
1708 9, with a filver collar about its neck (I have
read a like anecdote of a fwan), on which were en¬
graven the arms of the king of Denmark. This anec¬
dote the redtor of Trotton at that time has often told
to a near relation of mine ; and, to the beft of my re¬
membrance, the collar was in the pofieffion of the rec¬
tor.
“ At prefent I do not know any body near the fea-
fide that will take the trouble to remark at what time
of the moon woodcokes firft come. One thing I ufed
to obferve when I was a fportfman, that there were
times in which woodcocks were io fluggilh and fleepy
that they would drop again when fluftied juft before
the fpaniels, nay juft at the muzzle of a gun that had
been fired at them : whether his ftrange lazincfs was
the effed of a recent fatiguing journey, I {ball not
;prefume to fay.
“ Nightingales not only never reach Novthumbcr-
] MIG
land and Scotland, but alfo, as I have been always told, St Miguel.
Devonfliire and Cornwall. In thofe two laft counties v “-f
we cannot attribute the failure of them to the want
of warmth: the defed: in the weft is rather a prefump-
tive argument that thefe birds come over to us from
the continent at the narroweft paflage, and do not
ftroll fo far weftward.”
Migration of Fifhes. See Clupea.
St MIGUEL, one of the Azore iflands, fituated
in W. Long. 22. 45. N. Lat. 38. 10. This ifland
appears to be entirely volcanic. The beft account we
have of it hath been publilhed in the 68th volume of
the Phiiofophical Tran fa6f ions by Mr Francis Maffon.
According to him, tfre produftions differ greatly from
thofe of Madeira, infomuch that none of the trees of
the latter are found here, except the faya : it has a
nearer affinity to Europe than Africa. The moun¬
tains are covered with the erica vulgaris, and an ele¬
gant ever-green fhrub very like a phillyrea, which gives
them a moft beautiful appearance.
It is one of the principal and moft fertile of the
Azorian iflands, lying nearly eaft and weft. Its length
is about 18 or 20 leagues; its breadth unequal, not
exceeding five leagues, and in fome places not more
than two. It contains about 80,000 inhabitants.
Its capital, the city of Ponta del Guda, which con¬
tains about 12,006 inhabitants, is lituated on the fouth
fide of the ifland, on a finefiertile plain country, pretty
regularly built; the ftreets ftraight, and of a good
breadth. It is fupplied with good water, which is
brought about the diftance of three leagues from the
neighbouring mountains. The churches and other
religious edifices are elegant and well built for fuch an
ifland. There is a large convent of Fracifcan friars
and one of the order of St Auguftin, four convents
forprofeffed nuns, and three Recolhimentos for young
women and widows who are not profeffed. The vef-
fels anchor in an open road ; but it is not dangerous,
as no wind can prevent their going to fea in cafe of
ftormy weather.
The country round the city is plain for feveral
miles, well cultivated, and laid out with good tafte in¬
to fpacious fields, which aye fown with wheat, barley,
Indian corn, pulfe, &c. and commonly produce an¬
nually two crops; for as foon as one is taken off, an¬
other is immediately fown in its place. The foil is
remarkably gentle and eafy to work, being for the
moft part compofed of pulverifed pumice-ftone. There
are in the plains a number of pleafant country-feats,
with orchards of orange trees, which are efteemed the
beft in Europe.
The fec ond town is Ribeira Grande, fituated on
the north fide of the ifland, < ontaining about as many
inhabitants as the city ; a large convent of Ftancifcan
friars, and one of nuns. It gives title to a count, called
the Cotide Ribeira Grancle, who firft inftituted linen and
woollen manufadlories in the ifland.
The third town is Villa Franca, on the fouth fide
of the ifland, about fix leagues eaft of Ponta del Guda.
It has a convent of Francifcan friars, and one of nuns,
which contains about 300. Here, about half a mile
from the fliore, lies a fmall ifland (Uhao), which is
hollow in the middle, and contains a fine bafon with
only one entrance into it, fit to hold 50 fail of veffela
fecure from all weathet; at prefent it wants cleaning
out.
St Miguel.
1
»
MIG l
oat, as the winter rain wafhes down great quantities
of earth into it, which has greatly diminifhed its depth.
But vefiels frequently anchor between this ifland and
the main.
Befide thefe towns are feveral fmaller, viz. Alagoa,
Agoa de Pao, Brelanha, Fanaes de Ajuda, and a num¬
ber of hamlets, called lugars ot places.
About four leagues north-eaft from Villa Franca,
lies a place called the Furnas$sz\x\<jr a round deep valley
in the middle of the eaft part of the ifland, furrounded
with high mountains, which, though iteep, may be
eaffly afcended on horfeback by two roads The
valley is about five or fix'leagues in circuit. The face
of the mountains, which are very fteep, is entirely
covered with beautiful ever-greens, viz. myrtles, lau¬
rels, a large fpecies of bilberry called uva clc ferra,
&c. and numberlefs rivulets of the pureft water run
down their fides. The valley belbw is well cultivated,
producing wheat, Indian corn, flax, &c. The fields
are planted round with a beautiful fort of poplars,
which grow into pyramidal forms, and by their care-
lefs, irregular difpofition, together with the multitude
of rivulets, which run in all direftions through the
valley, a number of boiling fountains throwing up
clouds of fleam, a fine lake in, the fouth-wcft part
about two leagues round, compofe a profpedl the
fineft that can be imagined. In the bottom of the
valley the roads are fmooth and eafy, there being no
rocks but a fine pulverifed pumice-ttone that the earth
is compofed of.
There are a number of hot fountains in different
parts of the valley, and alfo on the fides of the moun¬
tains : but the moft remarkable is that called the chal-
deira, fituated on the eaftern part of the valley, on a
fmall eminence by the fide of a river, on which is a
bafon about 30 feet diameter, where the water conti¬
nually boils with prodigious fury. A few yards di-
ftant from it is a cavern in the fide of the bank, in
which the water boils in a dreadful manner, throwing
out a thick, muddy, unftuous water feveral yards from
its mouth with a hideous noife. In the middle of the
river are feveral places where the water boils up fo hot,
that a perfon cannot dip his finger into it without being
fcalded ; alfo along its banks are feveral apertures, out
of which the fleam rifes to a confiderable height, fo
hot that there is no approaching it with one’s hand: in
other places, a perfon would think that 100 fmiths
bellows were blowing altogether, and fulphureous
fleams ifluing out in thoufands of places; fo that na¬
tive fulphur is found in every chink, and the ground
covered with it like hoar-frolt; even the buflies that'
happen to lie near thefe places are covered with pure
brimftone, condenfing from the fleam that iffues out
of the ground, which in many places is covered over
with a fubftance like burnt; alum. In thefe fmall ca¬
verns, where the fleam iflues out, the people often boil
their yams.
Near thefe boiling fountains are feveral mineral
fprings; two in particular, whofe waters have a very
ftrong quality, of an acid tafte, and bitter to the
tongue.
About half a mile to the weftward, and clofe by the
river fide, are feveral hot fprings, which are ufed by
fick people with great fuccefs. Alfo, on the fide of a
lull, well of St Ann’s church, are many others, with
7 ] MIG
three bathing-houfes, which are moft commonly ufed. St Miguel.
Thefe waters are very warm, although not boiling hot; —v——'
but at the fame place iflue feveral ftreams of cold mine¬
ral water, by which they are tempered, according to
every one’s liking.
About a mile fouth of this place, and over a low
ridge of hills, lies a fine lake about two leagues in
circumference, and very deep, the water thick, and of
a greeniffi colour. At the north end is a plain piece
of ground, where the fulphureous fleams iflue out in
many places, attended with a furprifing blowing noife.
Our author could obferve ftrong fprings in the lake,
but could not determine whether they were hot or cold:
this lake feems to have no vifible evacuation. The
other fprings immediately form a confiderable river,
called Ribeira Quente, which runs a courfe about two
or three leagues, through a deep rent in the moun¬
tains, on each fide of which are feveral places where
the fmoke iflues out. It difchdrges itfelf into the fea
on the fouth fide, near which are fome places where
the water boils up at fome diftance in the fea.
This wonderful place had been taken little notice
of until very lately : fo little curiofity had the gentle¬
men of the ifland, that fcarcely any of them had feen
it, until of late fome perfons, afflidled with very viru¬
lent diforders, were perfuaded to try its waters, and
found immediate relief from them. Since that time it
has become more and more frequented; feveral per¬
fons who had loft the ufe of their limbs by the dead
palfy have been cured ; and alfo others who were
troubled with eruptions on their bodies.
A clergyman, who was greatly afflidted with the
gout, tried the faid waters, and was in a fhort time
perfeftly cured, and has had no return of it fince.
When Mr Maflbn was there, feveral old gentlemen,
who were quite worn out with the faid diforder, were
ufing the waters, and had received incredible benefit
from them ; in particular, an old gentleman about 60
years of age, who had been tormented with that dif¬
order more than 20 years, and often confined to his
bed for fix months together: he had ufed thefe wa¬
ters about three weeks, had quite recovered the ufe of
his limbs, and walked about in the greateft fpirits ima¬
ginable. A friar alfo who had been troubled with the
faid diforder about 12 years, and reduced to a cripple,.
by ufing them a ftiort time was quite well, and went
a-hunting every day.
There are feveral other hot fprings in the ifland,
particularly at Ribeira Grande ; but they do not pof-
fefs the fame virtues, at leaft not in fo great a degree.
The eaft and weft part of the ifland rifes into high
mountains; but the middle is low, interfperfed with
round conic hills, all of which have very recent marks
of fire; all the parts below the furface confiding of
melted lava lying very hollovy.
Moft of the mountains to the weftward have their
tops hollowed out like a punch-bowl, and contain wa¬
ter- Near the weft end is an immenfe deep valley
like the Furnas called the Sete Cidades. This valley
is furrounded with very abrupt mountains, about feven
or eight leagues round ; in the bottom is a deep lake
of water, about three leagues in circuit, furnifhed
with great number of water-fowls. This water has •
no mineral quality ; neither are there any hot fprings
in the valley. All thefe mountains are compofed of a
white -
MIL [8
white crumbly pumice-ftone, which Is fo loofe, that
if a perfon thru It a ftick into the banks, whole wag¬
gon-loads of it will tumble down. The inhabitants
of the id and relate a ftory, that he who fir ft difcover-
ed it obferved an extraordinary high peak near the
weft end ; but the fecond time he vilited it, no filch
peak was to be feen, which he fuppofed muft hare
certainly funk: but, however improbable this ftory
may be, at fome period or another it muft have cer¬
tainly been the cafe.
MILAN, or the duchy of the Milanefe, a country
of Italy, bounded on the weft by Savoy, Piedmont,
and Montferrat ; by Switzerland on the north ; by the
territories ©f Venice, the duchies of Mantua, Parma,
and Placentia, on the eaft; and by the territories of
Genoa on the fouth.
Anciently this duchy, containing the north part
of the Old Liguria, was called Itifubria, from its
inhabitants the Infubres; who were conquered by
the Romans, as thefe were by the Goths; who in
their turn were fubdued by the Lombards. Di-
dier, the laft king of the Lombards, was taken prifoner
by Charlemagne, who put an end to the Longobardic
empire, and appointed governors of Milan. Thefe go¬
vernors, being at a diftance from their mafters, foon
began to afiume an independency, which brought a
dreadful calamity on the country; for, in 1152, the
capital itfelf was levelled with the ground by the em¬
peror Frederic Barbaroffa, who committed great de-
vaftatioas otherwife throughout the duchy. Under
this emperor lived one Galvian, a nobleman who was
defcended from Otho a Milanefe. Galvian, along
with William prince of Montferrat, ferved in the
crufade, when Godfrey of Boulogne took Jerufalem j
he killed in fingle combat the Saracen general, whom
he ftripped of his helmet, which was adorned with the
image of a ferpent fwallowing a youth ; and this ever
afterwards wms the badge of that family. His grand-
fon. Galvian, having oppofed the emperor, was taken
prifoner, and carried in irons intp Germany, from
whence he made his efcape, rnd returned to Milan,
died in the fervice of his country. From him defcend¬
ed another Otho, at the time that Otho IV. was em¬
peror of Germany, and who foon diftinguifhed him-
felf by the accompiiihments both of his mind and bo¬
dy. When he grew up, he was received into the
family of cardinal Odtavian Ubaldini at Rome. This
prelate, who was himfelf afpiring at the popedom,
was in a (hort time greatly taken with the addrefs and
accompliihments of young Otho, and predicted his
future greatnefs. In the mean time, one Torrefs, or
Torriano, a Milanefe nobleman of unbounded ambi-
tion, was attempting to make himfelf mafter of Mi¬
lan. The popular faftion had fome time before bden
caballing againft the nobility ; and at laft, Torriano,
putting himfelf at their head, expelled the bifhop, and
put to death or banifhed all the nobility : by which
means the popular government was fully eftabh'lhed ;
and Torriano, under this pretence, ruled every thing
as he pleafed. He was, however, foon oppofed by
one Francifco Sepri, who formed a great party, pre¬
tending to deliver the city from Torriano’s haughti-
nefs and cruelty. But while the two parties were
colle&ing their forces againft each other, cardinal
Ubaldini was projecting the deftruCtion of both, by
Nu221.
] MIL
means of his favourite Otho. This prelate had for J
fome time borne an implacable hatred to Torriano,
becaufe he had been by him prevented from carrying
out of the treafury of St Ambrofe’s church at Mi¬
lan, a carbuncle or jewel of great value, which he
pretended to referve for adorning the papal tiara ; for
which reafon he now determined to oppofe hisamhition.
Ubaldini began with naming Otho archbilhop of
Milan ; which, as the pope’s legate, he had a right to
do. This nomination was confirmed by Pope Ur¬
ban IV. ; and the party of the nobility having now
got a head from the pope himfelf, began to gather
ftrength. Otho in the mean time employed himfelf in
collcfting troops ; and had no fooner procured a fhow
of an army, than he advanced towards Lago Mag-
gione, and took pofieffion of Arena, a ftrong poft
near that lake: but Torriano, marching immediately
againft him with all his troops, obliged him to aban¬
don the place, ‘ and leave his party to make the bell
terms they could with the conqueror. This was fol¬
lowed try the deftruCtion of the caftles of Arena,
Anghiari, and Brebia : foon after which Torriano
died, and was fucceeded by his brother Philip, who
had fufticient intereft to get himfelf elefted podefta, or
praetor of Milan, for ten years. During his lifetime,
however, the party of the nobility increafed confide-
rably under Otho, notwithftanding the check they had
received. Philip died in 1265, having loft ground con-
fiderably in the affeCtions of the people, though he ob¬
tained a great reputation for his courage and con¬
duct. His fucceffor Napi rendered himfelf terrible to
nobility, whom he proferibed, and put to death as of¬
ten as he could get them into his power. He pro.
cecded fuch lengths, and acted with iuch fury againft
that unfortunate party, that pope Clement IV. who
had fucceeded Urban, at laft interdicted Milan, and
excommunicated Napi and all his party. By this
Napi began to lofe his popularity, and the public dif-
affeCtion towards him was much heightened by the
natural cruelty of his temper. But in the mean time,
the party of the nobility was in the utmoft diftrefs.
Otho himfelf and his friends, having fpent all their
fubftance, wandered about from place to place; the
pope not being in a capacity of giving them any af-
fiftance. Otho, however, was not difeouraged by his
bad fuccefs, but found means ft ill to keep up the fpi-
rits of his party, who now chofc for their general Squar-
cini Burri, a man of great eminence and courage,
whofe daughter was married to Matthew Vifconti, af¬
terwards called Matthew the Great. At the fame
time they renewed their confederacy with the marquis
of Montferrat, who was fon in-law to the king of
Spain. The marquis agreed to this confederacy chief¬
ly with a view to become mafter of the Milanefe.
The nobility now again began to make head; and
having collected an army, which was joined by 600
Spanifh cavalry and a body of foot, gained fome ad¬
vantages. But in the mean time Napi, having gather¬
ed together a fuperior army, fuddenly attacked Otho
and Burn, and defeated them. After this difafter
Otho applied to the pope ; from whom, however, he
did not obtain the afliftance he defired; and in the
mean time Napi invited the emperor Rodolph into I-
taly, with the promife of being crowned at Milan.
This invitation was accepted of with great readinef*
br
Mil- [ <
by Rcxtalpb ) who conftituted Nip! his governor and
vicar-general in Lombardy, fending to him at the fame
time a fine body of German horfe, thd command of
which was given to Caflbni, Napi’s nephew. On this
Otho again applied to the pope (Gregory X.) ; but
he was fo fat from granting him any affiftance, that
he is faid to have entered into i fcheme of afiaffina-
ting him privately ; but Otho efcaped the danger,
and in 1276 began to recover his affairs. The reafon
of pope Gregory’s enmity to him was, that he and
his party were thought to be Gibelines, and were op-
ofed by great numbers of the nobility themfelves }
ut after that pof e’s death, the Milanefe exiles being
united under one head, foon became formidable.
They now fchofe for their general Godfrey count of
Langufio, a noble Pavian, and an inveterate enemy
of the Torriano family. This nobleman being rich
■and powerful, tnlifted many German and other mer¬
cenaries,' at whofe head he marched towards the La-
go Maggiote. All the towns in that country opened
their gates to him, through the intereft of the Vif-
conti family, who refided in thefe parts. But this fuc-
tefs foon met with a fevere check in an unfortunate
engagement, wherein Godfrey was defeated and taken
.prifoner; after which he and 34 nobles had their heads
ffruck off, and lent from the field of battle piled up
in a common waggon.
This defeat greatly affe&ed Otho ; but having in a
fliort time recovered himfelf, he again attacked his
enemies, and defeated them ; but, fuffering his troops
to grow remifs after their victory, the fugitives rallied,
end entirely defeated him. The next year, however,
Otho had better fuccefs, arid totally defeated and took
prifofier Napi bimfelf. After this victory Caffoni was
obliged to abandon Milan to his competitor, who kept
poftefikm of it till his death, which happened in 1295,
in the 87th year of his age.
Otho was fucceeded by Matthew Vifconti aboVe-
inentioned ; and Milan continued in fubje&ion to that
family without any very memorable occurrence till the
ear 1378, when, by the death of Galeatxo II. his
rother Barnabo became fovereign of Milan. He was
of a brave and aftive difpofition ; but exceflively pro-
fufe in his expences, a$ his brother Galeazfco had alfo
been ; and to ptocure money to fupply his extrava¬
gancies, was obliged to opprefs his fubjecls. Ga-
leazzo had engaged in an enterprife againft Bologna,
and the fiege of it was continued by Barnabo. It
lafted for nine years; and during this time is faid to
have coft 300 millions of gold, a prodigious fum in
thofe days, near 40 millions fterling ; the loweft gold
coin being in value fomewhat more than half-a-crown
Englifh. Both the brothers were exceffively fond of
building. Barnabo erefted a bridge over the Adda,
eonfifting of three ftories; the lowelt ior chariots and
heavy carriages, the middle for horfes, and the up-
permoft for foot-paffengers. He built alfo another
bridge which was carried over houfes without touch¬
ing them. To accompli ill thefe, and many other ex-
penfive fchemes, he became one of the greateft ty¬
rants imaginable, and every day produced frelh in'-
fiances of his rapacity and cruelty. He inftituted a
chamber of inquiry, for pun idling all thofe who had
for five years before been guilty of killing boars, or
Von. XII. Part I.
) ] MIL
even of eating tKem at the table of another. They
whd could not redeem themfelves by money were
hanged, and above loo wretches peridied in that man¬
ner. Thofe who had any thing to lofe were ftripped
of all their fubftance, and obliged to labour at the
fortifications and other public works. He obliged
his fubje&s to maintain a great many hunting-dogs,
and each diftrnfi Was taxed a certain number. The
©verfeers of his dogs were at the fame time the inftru-
ments of his rapacity. When the dogs were poor and
{lender, the owners tfere always'fined ; but when the
dogs were fat, the owners were alfo fined for fuf¬
fering them to live without eXercife.
The extravagant behaviour of Barnabo foon ren¬
dered public affairs ready for a revolution, which was
at laft accomplilhed by his nephew John Galeazzo*
He affected a felitary life, void of ambition, and even
inclining to devotion ; but at the fame time took earn
to have his uncle’s court filled with fpies, who gave
him information of all that paffed. He reduced his
table and manner of living, pretending that he took
thefe fteps as preparatives to a retirement from the
world, which was foon to take place, after he had
paid a religious Vow. In fhort, he a<ffed His part fo
well, that even ' Barnabo, though abundantly cau¬
tious, had ho fufpicion of his having any defigns
againft him ; and fo entirely did he conceal his ambh
tion, that he feveral times made application to his
uncle for his interefi to procure him a quiet retreat as
foon as his religious vows were performed. One o£
thefe was to pay a vifit to the church of the bleffed
Virgin upon mount Varezzio. This was to be done
with fo much fecrecy that all kinds of eye-witneffes
were to be excluded ; and it was with difficulty that
Barnabo himfelf and two of his fons were allowed to
accompany our devotee. But, in the mean time, the
hypocritical Galeazzo had foldiers advancing from all
quarters; fo that Barnabo and his fons were imme¬
diately feized, and the houfes of thofe who had fided
with them given up to be plundered. The booty in
plate, money, and all kinds of rich furniture, was im-*
menfe. The minifters of the late government were
dragged from their hiding-places, and put to death j
and at laft the citadel itfelf fell into the hands of Ga¬
leazzo, Vvho found in it an immenfe fum of money.
Barnabo was carried prifoner to Tritici, a caftle of
his own building, where he had the happinefs to find
one perfon ftill faithful to him. This was his miftrefs,
named Donlnia Porra ; who, when he was abandoned
by all the world, Ihut hetfelf up a voluntary prifoner
in his chamber, and remained with him as long as he
lived,. which was only feven months after his degra¬
dation,
John Galeazzo was the firft who took upon him the
title of the duke of Milan, and was a prince of great
policy and no lefs ambition. He made war with the
Florentines, became mafter of Pifa and Bologna', and
jentirely defeated the emperor in 1401, fo that he en¬
tertained hopes of becoming mafter of all Lombardy,
and cutting off all pofiibilicy of invading it either from
France or Germany ; but his defigns were fruftrated
by death, which happened in 1402, iii the 55th year
of his age. After his deceafe the Milanefe govern-
Blent fell into the rnoft violent cillraftions, fo that it
B could
MIL [ io ] MIL
could not be fupported, even in time of peace, with¬
out an army of 20,000 foot and as many horfe. In
the year 1421, however, Philip duke of Milan be¬
came mailer of Genoa; but though he gained great
advantages in all parts of Italy, the different Hates Hill
found means to counterbalance his fucceffes, and pre¬
vent him from enflaving them : fo that Milan never
became the capital of any extenfive empire; and in 1437
Genoa revolted, and was never afterwards reduced.
Philip died in 1448, and by his death the male line
ef the Vifconti family was at an end. The next law¬
ful heir was Valentina his filler, who had married the
duke of Orleans fon to Charles V. of France. By the
contract of that marriage, the lawful progeny of it
was to fucceed to the duchy of'Milan in failure of the
heirs-male of the Vifconti family ; but this fucceffion
was difputed by Sforza, who had married Philip’s na¬
tural daughter. It is certain, however, that the right¬
ful fucceffion was veiled in the houfe of Orleans and
the kings of France ; and therefore though the Sfor¬
za family got poffelfion of the duchy for the prefeht,
L.ouis XII. afterwards put in his claim, as being grand-
fon to John Galeaz?,o. For fome time he was fuc-
cefsful; but the French behaved in fuch an infolent
manner, that they were driven out of the Milanefe
by the Swifs and Maximilian Sforza. The Swifs
and Milanefe were in their turn expelled by Francis I.
who obliged the Sforza family to relinquilh the go¬
vernment for a penfion of 30,000 ducats a-year. Fran¬
cis Sforza, the fon of Maximilian, however, being af-
filled by the emperor and the pope, regained the pof-
fefiion of the Milanefe about the year 1521 ; and,
eight years after, the French king, by the treaty of
Cambray, gave up his claim on the duchy.
But, in fa6l, the emperors of Germany feem to have
had the fairell title to the Milahefe in right of their
being for a long time fovereigns of Italy. On the
death of Francis Sforza, therefore, in the year 1536,
the emperor Charles V. declared the Milanefe to be
an imperial fief, and granted the inveftiture of it to
his fon Philip II. king of Spain. In his family it con¬
tinued till the year ] 706, when the French and Spa¬
niards were driven out by the Imperialills, and the
emperor again took poffelfion of it as a fief. It was
confirmed to his houfe by the treaty of Baden in 1714,
by the quadruple alliance in 1718, and by the treaty
of Aix-la Chapelle in 1748.
The duchy of Milan is one of the fineft provinces
in Italy. It is bounded on the fouth by the Appe-
nine mountains, arid the territory of Genoa ; on the
north by Switzerland; on the eaft by the Venetian
territories, and the duchies of Mantua, Parma, and
Placentia; and on the weft by Savoy, Piedmont, and
MontferratVextending from north to fouth about ico
miles, and from eaft to weft about 108. It‘is well
watered by the Teffino, the Sefia, the Adda, the Po,
the Oglio, the Lombro, Serio, &c. and alfo by fe-
veral canals and lakes. Of the latter, the Lago Mag-
giore is between 30 and 40 miles in length, and in
fome places fix or feven miles broad. In it lie the
Boromean IJlands, as they are called, viz. Ifola Bella
and Ifola Madre, the beauty of which almoft exceeds
imagination : art and nature feem to have vied with
one another in embelliftiing them. In each of them
is a palace with delicious gardens, belonging to the
Bdromean family. The water of the lake is clear Milan-,
and of a greenifh colour, and abounds with fi/h. The
hills with which it is furrounded prefent a molt charm¬
ing landfcapc, being planted with vines and chefnut- -
trees, interfperfed with fummer-houfes. There is a
canal running from it towards Switzerland, with which
the city of Milan has a communication, ft was an-
ciently called Licus Verbanus. The Lago de Como,
which was called by the Latin poets Lacus Larins,
but had its modern name from the city, near which it
lies, extends itfelf about 30 miles northward from
Como, but its greateft breadth is not above five miles.
From the Lago Maggiore iffues the Teflino ; and
from that of Como the Adda. Of the other lakes,
that of Lugano and Guarda are the chief: that of
Guarda was anciently called Benacus.
The trade and manufactures of this duchy confift
principally in filks, ftflffs, ftockings, gloves, and hand¬
kerchiefs, linen and woollen cloth, hardware, curious
works of cryftal, agate, hyacinths, and other gems; but
their exports are ufually far fhovt of their imports.
As to the revenue of the duchy, it mutt without
doubt be very confiderable. It is faid to have amounted
to 2,000,000 of dollars while the duchy was in the
hands of Spaniards.
In the year 1767, the Auftrian government of
Milan publilhed a law, by which all the rights which
the pope or the biihops had till then. exercifed over
ecclefiaftics, either with regard to their effects or
perfons, is transferred to a council eftablifted for that
purpofe at Milan. By the fame edift, all ecclefiaftics
were obliged to fell the eftates which they had be¬
come poffeffed of fince the year 172-2; and no fubjeit,..
whether ecclefiaftic or fecular, was to go to Rome to
folicit any favour, except letters of indulgence, with¬
out the content of the faid council.
Milan, the capital of the duchy of that name, in
Latin Mediolanum, is a very large city, and has a wall
and rampart round it, with a citadel; yet is thought
to be incapable of making any greatr refiftance.
The gardens within the city take up a great deal of
ground. In the citadel is a foundery for cannon, and
an arfenal furnilhed with arms for 12,000 men. The
governor of it is quite independent of the governor-
general of the Milanefe, who refides in the city, in a
large but old and ill-contrived palace. The yearly-
income of the governor of Milan is faid to be 200,000
guilders. The council belonging to the city is com-
pofed of a prefident and 60 doctors of law, who are
all nobles, and independent of the governor-general-
Milan hath experienced a great variety of fortune,
having been fubjedl fometimes to the French, fome-
times to the Spaniards, and fometimes to the Germans-
A geeat number of perfons of rank and fortune live
in it, efpeci^t* during the winter. The ladies in
France are not allowed more liberty than thofe of this
city : even the aufterities of the monaltic life are fa
far mitigated here, that gentlemen have not only the
liberty of talking with the nuns, and of rallying and
laughing at the grate, but alfo of joining with them
in concerts of mufic, and of fpending whole afternoons
in theif company. The place where the lean monde
take the air, either in their coaches or on foot, is the
rampart betwixt the Porta Orientale and the Porta
Tofa, where it is ftraight and broad, and extremely-
pleafanfe.
MIL [i
Milan, pkafant, being planted with white mulberry-trees, and
commanding a profpeft on one fide of the open country,
and on the other of the gardens and vineyards between
the ramparts and the city. Milan, which is faid to
have been built by the Gauls about 2oo years after
the foundation of Rome, contains a great number of
{lately edifices, as churches, convents, palaces, and
hofpitals. The cathedral is a vaft pile, all of marble ;
and though fomething has been doing for near 400
years towards the outward or inward ornament thereof,
it is not yet finilhed. Of the great number of ftatues
about it, that of St Bartholomew, juft dead alive,
with his ikin hanging oVer his Ihoulders; and of Adam
and Eve, over the main portal, are the fineft. The
pillars fupportisig the roof of the church are all of
marble, and the windows finely painted. This church
contains a treafiare of great value, particularly a flirine
of rock-cryftal, in which the body of St Charles Bo-
romreo is depofited. The other churches moft worthy
a ftranger’s notice are thofe of St Alexander, St Je-
rom, St Giovanni di Cafarotti della Pafiione, that of
the Jefuits, and of St Ambrofe, in which lie the bo¬
dies of the faint and of the kings Pepin and Bernard.
In the Ambrofian college, founded by Frederic Bo-
romseo, 16 profefibrS teach gratis. In the fame col¬
lege js alfo an academy of painting, with a mufeum,
and a library containing a vaft number of printed
books and manufcripts ; among the laft of which is a
tranflation of Jofephua’s Hiftory of the Jews, done by
Rufinus about 1200 years ago, and written on the
bark of a tree ; St Ambrofe’s works on vellum, finely
illuminated ; the orations of Gregory Nazianzen, and
the works of Virgil, in folio, with Petrarch’s notes.
In the mufeum are Leonardi da Vinci’s mathematical
and mechanical drawings, in 12 large volumes. The
feminary for fciences, the college of the nobles, the
Helvetian college, and the mathematical academy, are
noble foundations, and {lately buildings. Of the
hofpitals, the moft remarkable are the Lazaretto, and
that called the great hofpital; the latter of which re¬
ceives fick perfons, foundlings, and lunatics, and has
fix fmaller hofpitals depending on it, with a revenue
of 100,000 rixdollars.
The number of the inhabitants of this city is faid
to be about 200,000. It has been '40 times befieged,
taken 20 times, and four times almoft entirely demo-
lifhed ; yet it hath always recovered itfelf. It is faid
that gunpowder is fold here only by one perfon, and
in one place. The court of inquifition is held in the
Dominican convent, near the church of Madonna
della Gratia. The houfes of entertainment, and the
ordinaries here, are reprefented as very indifferent.
Mr Keyiler fays, it is not unufual for young travel¬
lers, when they go to any of the taverns in Milan, to be
afked, “ whether they choofe a letto fomito, or female
bed-fellow,” who continues malked till (he enters the
feed-chamber. Milan is defcribed as inferior to Turin
both in beauty and conveniency ; many of the ftreets
bing crooked and narrow, and paper-windows much
more frequent than in that city; even in grand pa¬
laces, the windows are often compofed promifcuoufly
of glafs and paper. Two large canal* extend from
hence, the one to the Teffino, and the other to the
Adda ; the Teffino having a communication with the
i ] MIL
Lago Maggiore, and, by a canal, with the Sefia ;
and the Adda iffuing from the Lago di Como, and
having a communication by canals with the Lanjbro
and Serio. In a void fpace in one of the ftreets of
Milan, where ftood the houfe of a barber who had
confpired with the commiffary of health to poifon his
fellow-citizens, is eredled a pillar called Colonna In-
fame, with an infcription - to perpetuate the memory
of the execrable defign. The environs of this cicy
are very pleafant, being adorned with beautiful feats,
gardens, orchards, &c. About two Italian miles
from it, at the feat of jhe Simonetti family, is a build¬
ing, 'that would have been a mafter-piece of its kind
had the architeft defigned it for an artificial echo. It
will return or repeat the report of a piftol above 60
times; and anyfingle mufical inftrument, well touched,
will have the fame effeft as a great number of inftru-
ments, and produce a moft furprifing and delightful
concert. *
According to Dr Moore, “ there is no place in Italy,
perhaps in Europe, v/here ftrangers are received in
fuch an eafy hofpitable manner as at Milan. For¬
merly the Milanefe nobility difplayed a degree of
fplendor and magnificence, not only in their enter¬
tainments, but in their ufual ftyle of living, unknown
in any other country in Europe. They are under a
neceffity at prefent of living at lefs expence, but they
ftill {how the fame obliging and hofpitable difpofition.
This country having, not very long fince, been pof-
feffed by the French, from whom it devolved to the
Spaniards, and from them to the Germans, the
troops of thofe nations have, at different periods, had
their refidence here, and, in the courfe of thefe vi-
ciffitudes, produced a ftyle of manners, and damped a
character on the inhabitants of this duchy, different
from what prevails in any other part of Italy; and
nice obfervers imagine they perceive in Milanefe man¬
ners the politenefs, formality, and honefty imputed to
thofe three nations, blended with the ingenuity na¬
tural to Italians. The great theatre having been
burnt to the ground laft year, there are no dramatic
entertainments, except at a fmall temporary play-houfe,
which is little frequented ; but the company affemble
every evening in their carriages on the ramparts, and
drive about, in the fame manner as at Naples, till it
is pretty late. In Italy, the ladies have no notion of
quitting their carriages at the public walks, and ufing
their own legs, as in England and France. On fee¬
ing the number of fervants, and the fplendor of the
equipages which appear every evening at the Corfo on
the ramparts, one would not fufpeft that degree of
depopulation, and diminution of wealth, which we
are affured has taken place within thefe few years*all
over the Milanefe ; and which proceeds from the bur-
denfome nature of feme late taxes, and the infolent
and oppreffive manner in which they are gathered.”
E. Long. 1 c. 3 5. N. Lat. 38.32.
MILBORN-port, a town of Somerfetflvire in
England, feated on a branch of the river Parret, 115
jnilesfrom London. Though it is reprefented in par¬
liament, is no market-town nor corporation; but it
appears in Domefday-book to have had a market once,
and 56 burgeffes. It is in a manner furrounded by
Dorfetfture, Here are nine capital burgeffes, who
B 2 yearly
Milan,
MUborn.
MIL C 12 J MIL
brook yearly choofe two bailiffs, that have the government
11 of the borough under them, and jointly return the
cw' members to parliament with the two Rewards, who
are chofen yearly out of nine commonalty Rewards,
and have the cuRody of the corporation-feal. Thefe
two Rewards alfo diRribute the profits of the lands
given to the poor here, of which the faid commonalty
Rewards are truflees. The inhabitants are about noo,
the houfes not much above 200. There are two
fairs, June 6th and October 28th.
M1LBROOK, a town of Cornwall, on the weR
fide of Plymouth-Haven. It has a good RRiing*
trade, and has formerly furnifhed our fleet with many
able hands.
MILDENHALL, a town of Suffolk, feven miles
from Newmarket, 12 from Bury, and 70 from Lon¬
don. It is a large populous town on the river Lark,
a branch of the Oufe, with a harbour for boats. It
has a well frequented market on Fridays, efpecially
for fifh and wild-fowl. Its church has a tower or
Reeple 120 feet high.
MILDEW, is faid to be a kind of thick, clammy,
fweet juice, exhaled from, or falling down upon, the
leaves and bloffoms of plants. By its thicknefs and
clamminefs it prevents perfpiration, and hinders the
growth of the plant. It fometimes refls on the leaves
of trees in form of a fatty juice, and fometimes on the
ears of corn. It is naturally very tough and vifcous,
and becomes Rill more fo by the fun’s heat exhaling
its more fluid parts ; by which means the yopng ears
of corn are fo daubed over, that they can never arrive
at their full growth. Bearded wheat is lefs fubjeft to
the mildew than the common fort; and it is obferved
that newly-dunged lands are more liable to mildew
than others. The beR remedy is a fmart Riower of
rain, and immediately afterwards a briflt wind. If
the mildew is feen before the fun has much power,
it has been recommended to fend two men into the
field with a long cord, each holding one end ; and
drawing this along the field through the ears, the
dew will be diflodged from them, before the heat of
the fun is able to dry it to that vifcous Rate in which
it does the mifchief. Some alfo fay, that lands which
have for many years been fubjedt to mildews, have
been cured of it by fowing foot along with the corn,
or immediately after it.,
Mr J. S. Segar, the author of a treatife upon this
..Subject, obferves, that the mildew is of fuch a Riarp
corrofive nature, that it raifes bliflers on the feet of
the Riepherds who go barefoot, and even confumes the
hoofs of the cattle. He fufpe&s that it pofftffes fome
arfenical qualities, though he does not pretend to
affirm this pofitively. Its pernicious influence, ac¬
cording to him, is rendered Rill more powerful by a
variety of circumRances; fitch as fending the cattle into
the fields too early in the fpring ; their drinking water
mixed with ice, or but lately thawed ; their being
kept in Rabies that are two clofe and filthy, and which
are not fufficiently aired. The fame author confiders
the mildew as a principal caufe of epidemical difiem-
pers among the cattle. The mildew producing thefe
difeafes, he fays, is that which dries and burns the
grafs and leaves. It falls ufually in the morning,
particularly after a thunder-Rorm. Itsl poifonous
quality (which does not continue above 24 hours)
never operates but when it has been fwallowed imme- Mile,
diately after its falling. The diforder attacks the Mdetm-
flomach, is accompanied with pimples on the tongue,
lofs of appetite, a deficcation of the aliments in the
Romach, a cough, and difficulty of refpiration. As a
prefervative, the author prefcribes purging in fpring
and in winter. The medicine he advifes is compofed
of 30 grains of fulphur of antimony, and 60 grains of
refin of jalap. He is againR vomiting, and every thing
that is of a heating nature.
MILE, a .meafure of length or diRance, containing
eight furlongs. The Englifh Ratirte-mile is 80 chains,
or 1760 yards ; that is, 5280 feet.
We fhall here give a table of the miles in ufe among
the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces,
60,coo of which make a degree of the equator.
Geometrical paces.
Mile of Ruffia - - - 7 qo
of Italy - 1000
of England - - isco
of Scotland and Ireland - 1 700
Old league of France - - 1500
The finall league, ibid, - - 2QOO
The mean league, ibid. - 2500
The great league, ibid, - - 3000
Mile of Poland - - S^oo
of Spain - - - 3428
of Germany - - 4000
of Sweden - 5000
of Denmark - s - 5000
of Hungary - - 6000
MILETUS (anc. geog.), a town of Crete mem*
tioned by Homer; but where fituated does not appear-
It is faid to be the mother-town of Miletus in Caria*
whither a colony was led by Sarpedon, Minos’s bro¬
ther, (Ephorus, quoted by Strabo). MUejii, the
people, (Ovid).
Miletus (anc. geog.), a celebrated town of Afia.
Minor, on the confines of Ionia and Caria. It was
the capital city of all Ionia, and famous both for the
arts of war and peace. It was fituated about 1 o fla-
dia fouth of the mouth of the river Maeander, near
the fea-coaR. It was founded by a Cretan colony
un^er Miletus, the companion of Bacchus; or (ac¬
cording to others) by Neleus the fon of Codrus; or
by Sarpedon a fon of Jupiter. It has fucceffively
been called Lelegeis, Pithyuja, and AnaQorta. T. he in¬
habitants, called Mtkjii, were very powerful, and long
maintained an obRinate war againR the kings of Ly¬
dia. They early applied themfelves to navigation *
and planted no lefs than 80 colonies, or (according
to Seneca) 380, in different parts of the world. It
was the only town that made head againR Alexander,
and with much difficulty taken. It gave birth to
Thales, one of the feven wife men, and the firR who
applied himfelf to the Rudy of nature. It was alfo
the country of Anaximander, the fcholar and fuccef-
for of Thales, the inventor of fun-dials and the gno¬
mon, and the firR that publifhed a geographical map;
of Anaximance, fcholar and fucceffor to the forego¬
ing ; and of other great men. It was noted for its
excellent wool, according to Virgil; and was alfo ce¬
lebrated for a temple and oracle of Apollo Didy-
masus.. This famous people, from being powerful,
becoming
MIL [
Milfuil, becoming afterwards opulent and abandoned to plea-
Ivlilford. fureS5 ]0ft both their riches and their power.—At
*" '' prefent it is called by the Turks Melas, and not far
diftant from it runs the river Maeander. St Paul go¬
ing from Corinth to Jerufalem paffed by Miletus, and
as he went by fta, and could not take Ephefus in his
way, he caufed the bilhops and priefts of the church
of Ephefus to come to Miletus (Adis xx. 15. &c.),
which was about 12 leagues from them.
MILFOIL, or Yarrow. See Achi llea.
MILFORD, a town of Suflex-county in the De¬
laware ftate, is fituated at the fource of a fmall river,
15 miles from Delaware bay, and 150 fouthward of
Philadelphia., This town, which contains about 80
houfes, has been built, except one houfe, fince the re¬
volution. It is laid out with much tafte, and is by
no means dii'agreeable. The inhabitants are Epifco-
palians, Quakers, and Methodifts.
Miliokd-Haven, one of the fineft harbours in
Europe, and indifputably the heft in Britain, is fitu¬
ated in Pembrokelhire in South-Wales, and lies on
the north fide of the Briitol Channel. It is very large,
fafe, and deep ; there is no danger of going in or out
with the tide, or almoft with any wind. If a ftiip
comes in without a cable or anchor, (lie may run
afiiore on the ooze, and there lie fafe till file is refitted}
and in an hour’s time (he may get out of the harbour
into the open fea. It lies extremely convenient for
fiiips bound from the Englifii or Briftol Channels
to Ireland, or farther weft, and from thence to the
Channels. It is faid, that 1000 fail of any fize may
ride fecure in this haven. It has 16 deep and fafe
creeks, five bays, and 13 roads, all diftinguilhed by
their feveral names. The fpring tide rifes 36 feet j
fo that (hips may at any time be laid aftiore. Dale
harbour is a ready out-let for fmall veffels, where they
may ride in two or three fathoms at low-water.—In
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, before the Spanifti in-
vafion, two forts were begun at the entrance of Mil-
ford-Haven, one on each fide, called Nannie and
Dak blockhoufes; but they were not then fimfiied.—-
The Stack-rock rifes here above water, lying near the
middle of the entrance between Nangle and Dale.
Penermouth is the opening of that branch of the ha¬
ven on which the town of Pembroke is feated, and
where the cuftom-houfe of Milford is kept. The
breadth of the entrance between rock and rock is
but 200 yards at high-water, and 112 at low-water.
There is a ridge of rocky ground that has the name
of Carrs, which runs ahnoft acrofs Milford-Haven,
from Peter-church towards Llanftadwell, where it
renders the landing-place difficult to ftrangers, from
its not appearing at low-w'ater. The great conveni¬
ence of this harbour is, that in an hour’s time a ftiip
may be in or out of it, and in the w^ay between the
Land’s-End and Ireland. As it lies near the mouth
of the Severn, a ftiip in eight or ten hours may be
over on the coaft of Ireland, or off the Land’s-End
in the Englifti Channel; and a’ veffel may get out
hence to the weft much fooner than from either Ply¬
mouth or Falmouth. This harbour has been greatly
improved by new works, at the expence of the go¬
vernment. The parliament, on April 14. 1759,
granted io,cooL for fortifying the harbour of Mil-
3
3 1 MIL
ford, all of which was expended on the fort at Miliary
Neyland, which, however, ftill remains unfinifhed. N
MILIARY, in general, fomething refembling mil- ‘ >iar*(
let-feed.
MiLiARr-Fever. See Medicine, n° 229.
MILITANT, or Church-militant, denotes the
body of Chriftians while here on earth.
MILITARY, fomething belonging to the foldiery
or militia.
Mi 1.1 TARY-Dlfcipline, the training of foldiers, and
the due enforcement of the laws and regulations inlli-
tuted by authority for their condudl.
Next tb the forming of troops, military difcipline is
the firft ohje& that prefents itfelf to our notice : it is
the foul of all armies ; and unlefs it be eftabliflied
amongft them writh great prudence, and fupported
with unfliaken refolution, they are no better than fo
many contemptible heaps of rabble, which aie more
dangerous to the very ftate that maintains them than
even its declared enemies.
Militarx-E x ecu lion, the ravaging or deftroying of
a country or town that refufes to pay the contribution
inllided upon them.
MiliTAkx-Exercife. See Exercise and Words
of Command.
MiLirAR.r*State, in Britifli polity, one of the three-
divifions of the laity. See Laity.
This ftate includes the whole of the foldiery, or
fuch perfons as are peculiarly appointed among the
reft of the people for the fafeguard and defence of the
realm.
In a land of liberty, it is extremely dangerous to
make a diftinft order of the profeffion of arms. In ab»
folute monarchies, this is neceffary for the fafety of the
prince ; and arifes from the main principle of their
conftitution, which is that of governing by fear: but,
in free ftates, the profeffion of a foldicr, taken fingly
and merely as a profeffion,' is juftly an objeft of jea-
loufy. In thefe no man ftiould take up arms but with
a view to defend bis country and its laws: he puts not
off the citizen when he enters the camp; but it is be-
caufe he is a citizen, and would wifii to continue fo,
that he makes himfelf for a while a foldier. The laws,
therefore, and conftitution of thefe kingdoms, know no
fuch ftate as that of a perpetual ftanding foldier, bred
up to no other profeffion than that of war ; and it
was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the kings
of England had fo much as a guard about their per¬
fons.
In the time of the Anglo-Saxons, as appears from
Edward the Confeffor’s laws, the military force of
England was in the hands of the dukes or heretochs,
who were conftituted through every province'and
county in the kingdom ; being taken out of the prin¬
cipal nobility, and fuch as were moft remarkable for
being fapientes, f deles, et animofi. Their duty was tc\
lead and regulate the Englifli armies, with a very un¬
limited power ; front eis vfum fuerit, ad bonorem co¬
rona et ut'ditatem regnu And becaufe of this great
pow'er they were elefted. by the people in their full af-
fembly, or folkmote, in- the fame manner as fiieriffs
were ele&ed : following ftill that old fundamental
maxim of the Saxon conftitution, that where any offi¬
cer was entmfted with fuch power, as, if abufed, might-
tead
M I L
*[ H ]
M I L
Military, tend to the opprefiion of the people, that power was ,.were bound to perform 40 days fervicC in the field, Military.
delegated to him by the vote of the people themfelves. fir ft the alfize ef arms, ena&ed 27 Hen. II. and after- ~ ^ i
So too, among the ancient Germans, the anceftors of wards the ftatute of Winchefter, under Edward I.
our Saxon forefathers, they had their dukes, as well
as kings, with an independent power over the mili¬
tary, as the kings had over the civil ftate. The dukes
were ele&ive, the kings hereditary: for fo only can be
confidently underftood that paffage of Tacitus, Reges
ex nobilitate, duces ex ’uirtute fumunt. In conftituting
their kings, the family or blood-royal was regarded;
in choofing their dukes or leaders, warlike merit: juft
as Cefar relates of their anceftors in his time, that
whenever they went to war, by way either of attack or
obliged every man, according to his eftate and degree,
to provide a determinate quantity of fuch arms as were
then in ufe, in order to keep the peace ; andconftables
were appointed in all hundreds by the latter ftatute, to
fee that fuch arms were provided. Thefe weapons were
changed, by the ftatute 4 & 5 1?h. & M. c. 2. into
others of more modern fervice ; but both this and the
former provifions were repealed in the reign of James L
While thefe continued in force, it was ufual from time
to time for our princes to iflue commiffions of array.
defence, they elected leaders to command them. This and fend into every county officers in whom they could
large {hare of power, thus conferred by the people,
though intended to preferve the liberty of the flibject,
was perhaps unreafonably detrimental to the preroga¬
tive of the crown : and accordingly we find a very ill
ufe made of it by Edric duke of Mercia, in the
reign of king Edmond Ironfide; who, by his of¬
fice of duke or heretoch, was intitled to a large com¬
mand in the king’s army, and by h!s repeated trea¬
cheries at lift transferred the crown to Canute the
Dane.
It feems univerfally agreed by all hiftorians, that
king Alfred firft fettled a national militia in this king¬
dom, and by his prudent difcipline made all the fub-
je£ts of his dominions foldiers: but we are unfortunate¬
ly left in the dark as to the particulars of this his fo
celebrated regulation; though, from what was laft ob-
ferved, the dukes feem to have been left in poffeffion
of too large and independent a-power 2 which enabled
confide, to mufter and array (or fet in military order)
the inhabitants of every diftrift ; and the form of the
commiffion of array was fettled in parliament in the
5 Hen. IV. But at the fame time it was provided, that
no man fhould be compelled to go out of the kingdom
at any rate, nor out of his {hire, but in cafes of urgent
neceffity ; nor ftiould provide foldiers unlefs by confent
of parliament. About the reign of king Henry VIIL
and his children, lord-lieutenants began to be introdu-
cecj, as {landing reprefentatives of the crown, to keep
the counties in military order ; for we find them men¬
tioned as known officers in the ftatute 4 & 5 Ph. &
M. c. 3. though they had not been then long in ufe ;
for Cambden {peaks of them in the time of Queen
Elizabeth as extraordinary magiftrates, conftituted
only in times of difficulty and danger.
In this ftate things continued till the repeal of the
ftatutes of armour in the reign of king James I.; after
duke Harold, on the death of Edward the Confeffof, which, when king Charles I. had, during his northern
though a ftranger to the royal blood, to mount for a expeditions, iffued commiftions of lieutenancy, and ex»
fhort fpace the throne of this kingdom, in prejudice of erted fome military powers which, having been long
exercifed, were thought to belong to the crown, it be¬
came a queftion in the long-parliament, how far the
Edgar Etheling the rightful heir.
Upon the Norman conqueft, the feodal law was in¬
troduced here in all its rigour, the whole of which is power of the militia did inherently refide in the kingi
built on a military plan. In confequence thereof, all
the lands in the kingdom were divided into what were
being now unfupported by any ftatute, and founded
only upon immemorial ufage. This queftion, long a-
called knight's fees, in number above 60,000; and for gitated with great heat and refentment on both fides.
every knight’s fee a knight or foldier, miles..
bound to attend the king in his wars, for 40 days in a
year; in which fpace of time, before war was redu¬
ced to a fcience, the campaign was generally finifhed,
and a kingdom either conquered or viftorious. By this
became at length the immediate caufe of the fatal rup¬
ture between the king and his parliament: the two
houfes not only denying this prerogative of the crown,
the legality of which claim perhaps might be fome-
what doubtful; but alfo feizing into their hands the
means the king had, without any expence, an army entire power of the militia, the illegality of which ftep
of 60,000 men always ready at his command. And could nevey be any doubt at all.
accordingly we find one, among the laws of William
the conqueror, which in the king’s name commands
Soon after the reftoration of king Char. II. when the
military tenures were abolifhed, it was thought proper
and firmly enjoins the perfonal attendance of all knights to afcertain the power of the militia, to recogniie the
and others; quod habeant et teneant fe femper in armis foie right of the crown to govern and command them,
et equis, ut decet et oportet: et quod femper Jint prompt's and to put the whole into a more regular method of
tl parati ad fervitium fuum integrum nobis explendum et military fubordination : and the order in which the
peragendum, cum opus adfuerit, fecundum quod debent militia now Hands by law, is principally bailt upon the
■de feodis et tenementis fuis de jure nobis facere. This ftatutes which were then enabled. It is true, the two
perfonal fervice in procefs of time degenerated into laft of them are apparently repealed; but many of
pecuniary commutations or aids ; and at laft the mi- their provifions are re-enafted, with the addition of
litary part of the feodal fyftem was abolifhed at the
Reftoration, by ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. See Feodal-
Syjh
fome new regulations, by the prefent militia-laws
the general fcheme of which is to difcipline a certain
number of the inhabitants of every county, chofen by
_ In the meantime, we are not to imagine that the lot for three years, and officered by the lord-lieutenant,
kingdom was left wholly without defence in cafe of the deputy-lieutenants, and other principal landhold-.
domeftic infurre&ions, or the profpedl of foreign in- ers, under a commiffion from the crown. They are
vaiions. Befides thofe who by their military tenures not compellable to march out of their counties, unlefs
' Military.
MIL t 15 1 MIL
in cafe of invafion or a&ual rebellion, nor in any cafe
compellable to march out of the kingdom. They are
to be exercifed at ftated times : and their difcipline in
general is liberal and eafy ; but, when drawn out into
actual fervice, they are fubjedt to the rigours of mar¬
tial law, as neceffary to keep them in order. This is
the conftitutional fecurity which our laws have pro¬
vided for the public peace, and for protedting the
realm againft foreign or domeftic violence ; and which
the ftatutes declare is elfentially necelfary to the fafe-
ty and profperity of the kingdom.
When the nation was engaged in war, more veteran
troops and more regular difcipline were etteemed to be
neceffary, than could be expedted from a mere mili¬
tia ; and therefore at fuch times more rigorous me¬
thods were put in ufe for the raifing of armies and the
due regulation and difcipline of the foldiery : which
are to be looked upon only as temporary excrefcences
bred out of the diftemper of the date, and not as any
part of the permanent and perpetual laws of the king¬
dom. For martial law, which is built upon no fettled
principles, but is.entirely arbitrary in its decifions, is,
as Sir Matthew Hale obferves, in truth and reality no
law,butfomething indulgedratherthan allowed as a law.
The neceflity of order and difcipline in an army is the
only thing which can give it countenance ; and there¬
fore it ought not to be permitted in time of peace, when
the king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive ju-
flite according’to the laws of the land. Wherefore,
Thomas earl of Lancafter being cenvidled at Ponte-
fradt, 15 Edw. II. by martial law, his attainder was
reverfed r Edw. III. becaufe it was done in time of
peace. And it is laid down, that if a lieutenant, or
•other, that hath commiffion of martial authority, doth
in time of peace hang or otherwife execute any man
by colour of martial law, this is murder; for it is
.againft magna carta. And the petition of right en-
adls, that no foldier ftiall be quartered on the fubjedt
without his own confent; and that no commiffion ffiall
iffue to proceed within this land according to martial
law. And whereas, after the Reftoration, king Ch. II.
kept up about 5000 regular troops, by his own autho¬
rity, for guards and garrifons ; which king James II.
by degrees increafed to no lefs than 30,000, all paid
from his own civil lift ; it was made one of the ar¬
ticles of the bill of rights, that the raifing or keep¬
ing a ftanding army within the kingdom in time of
peace, unkfs it be with confent of parliament, is
againft law.
But as the fafhion of keeping ftanding armies
(which was firft introduced by Charles VII. in France,
1445) has of late years univerfally prevailed over Eu¬
rope (tho’ fome of its potentates, being unable them-
felves to maintain them, are obliged to have recourfe to
richer powers, and receive fubfidiary pcnfions for that
purpofe), it has alfo for many years paft been annually
judged neceffary by our legiflature, for the fafety of
the kingdom, the defence of the pofleffions of the
crown of Great Britain, and the prefervation of the
balance of power in Europe, to maintain even in time
of peace a ftanding body of troops, under the com¬
mand of the crown ; who are however ipfo fatto dif-
banded at the expiration of every year, unlefs conti¬
nued by parliament. And it was ena&ed by ftafute
jo W. III. c. 1. that not more than 12,000 regular
forces fbould be kept on foot i/i Ireland, though paid Military,
at the charge of that kingdom : which permiffion is
extended by ftat. 8. Geo. III. c. 13. to 16,235 men
in time of peace.
To prevent the executive power from being able to
opprefs, fays baron Montefquieu, it is requiiite that
the armies with which it is entrufted ffiould conlift of
the people, and have the fame fpirit with the people ;
as was the cafe at Rome, till Marius new-modelled
the legions by enlifting the rabble of Italy, and laid the
foundation of all the military tyranny that enfued.
Nothing then, according to thefe principles, ought to-
be more guarded againft in a free ftate, than making
the military power, when fuch a one is ueceffary to be
kept on foot, a body too diftinct from the people.
Like ours, therefore, it ffiould wholly be compofed of
natural fuhjefts ; it ought only to be enlifted for a
ftiort and limited time ; the foldiers alfo ffiould live in¬
termixed with the people ; no feparate camp, no bar¬
racks, no inland fortreffes,. ffiould be allowed. And per¬
haps it might be ftill better, if, by difmiffing a ftated
number, and enlifting others at every renewal of then-
term, a circulation could be kept up between the army
and the people, and the citizen and the foldier be more
intimately conne&ed together.
To keep this body of troops in order, an annual aft
of parliament likewife pafies, “ to puniffi mutiny and
defertion, and for the better pay ment of the army and
their quarters.” This regulates the manner in which
they are to be difperfed among the feveral inn-keep¬
ers and victuallers throughout the kingdom; and efta-
bliffies a law-martial for their government. By this,
among other things, it is enafted, that if any officer
or foldier ffiall excite, or join any mutiny, or, knowing
of it, ffiall not give notice to the commanding officer,
or ffiall defert, or lift in any other regiment, or fleep
upon his poll, or leave it before he is relieved, or hold
correfpondence with a rebel or enemy, or ftrike or ufe
violence to his fuperior officer, or ffiall difobey his
lawful commands; fuch offender ffiall fuffer fuch pu-
niffiment as a court-martial ffiall inftift, though it ex¬
tend to death itfelf.
However expedient the moft ftrift regulations may
be in time of aftual war, yet in times of profound
peace, a little relaxation of military rigour would not,
one ffiould hope, be produftive of much inconvenience.
And, upon this principle, though by our ftanding laws-
(ftill remaining in force, though not attended to) de¬
fertion in time of war is made felony without benefit
of clergy, and the offence is triable by a jury, and be¬
fore the judges of the common law ; yet, by our mi¬
litia laws beforementioned, a much lighter puniffiment
is inflifted for defertion in time of peace. So, by the
Roman law alfo, defertion in time of war was punifh-
ed with death, but more mildly in time of tranquil¬
lity. But our mutiny-aft makes no fuch diftinftion :
for any of the faults abovementioned are, equally at
all times, puniffiable with death itfelf, if a court-mar¬
tial ffiall think proper. This diferetionary power of
the court-martial is indeed to be guided by the direc¬
tions of the crown ; which, with regard to military
offences, has almoft an abfolute legiflative power. “ His
Majefty (fays the aft) may form articles of war, and
conftitute courts-martial, with power to try any crime
by fuch articles, and inflict fuch penalties as the articles
4 . direft.’®’
MIL [
Military, -direft.” A vaft and moft itnportant trufl;! an unlimit-
* ' ed power to create crimes, and annex to them any pu-
nHhments not extending to life or limb ! Thefe are in*
deed forbidden to be infli&ed, except for crimes decla¬
red to be fo punifltable by this ad.; which crimes we
have juft enumerated, and among which, we may ob-
ferve, that any difobedience to lawful commands is.one.
Perhaps in fome future revilion of this ad, which is
in many refpeds haftily penned, it may be thought
worthy the wifdom of parliament to afcertain the li¬
mits of military fubjedion, and to enad exprefs ar¬
ticles of war for the government of the army, as is
done for the government of the navy ; efpecially as,
by our prefent conftitution, the nobility and gentry of
the kingdom, who ferve their country as militia offi¬
cers, are annually fubjeded to the fame arbitrary rule
durihg their time of exercife.
One of the greateft advantages of onr law is, that
not only the crimes themfelves which it puniffies, but
alfo the penalties which it inflids, are afcertained and
notorious : nothing is left to arbitrary difcretion ; the
king by his judges difpenfes what the law has previ-
oufly ordained, but is not himfelf the legiflator. How
much, therefore, is it to be regretted, that a fet of
men, whofe bravery has fo often preferved the liberties
of their country, flioul.d be reduced to a ftate of fervi-
tude in the midft of a, nation of freemen 5 for Sir Ed¬
ward Coke will inform us, that it is one of the ge-
nuioe marks of fervitude, to have the law, which is
Cemmint onr ru^e °f adion, either concealed or precarious;
Mifera ejl fervitus, ubi jut ejl vagum out incognitum.
Nor is this ftate. of fervitude quite eohfiftent with the
maxims of found policy obferved by other free na¬
tions. For the greater the general liberty is which
any ftate enjoys, th6 more cautious has it ufually been
in introducing flavery in any particular order or pro-
feflion. Thefe men, as baron Montefquieu obferves,
feeing the liberty which others poflefs, and which they
themfelves are excluded from, arc apt (like eunuchs
in the eaftern feraglios) to live in a ftate of perpetual
envy and hatred towards the reft of the community,
and indulge a malignant pleafure in contributing to de-
ftroy thofe privileges to which they can never be ad¬
mitted. Hence have many free ftates, by departing
from this rule, been endangered by the revolt of their
fares ; while, in abfolnte and defpotic governments,
where no real liberty eitifts, and confequently no invi¬
dious comparifons can be formed, fuch incidents ate
extremely rare. Two precautions are therefore ad-
vifed to be obferved in all prudent and free govern¬
ments: r. To prevent the introdtxftion of flavery at
all: or, 2. If it be already introduced, not to entruft
thofe flaves with arms, who will then find themfelves
tin overmatch for the freemen. Much lefs ought the
foldiery to be an exception to the people in general,
and the only ftate of fervitude in the nation.
But as foldiers, by this annual a<ft, are thus put in
a worfe condition than any other fubje&s ; fo, by the
humanity of out Handing laws, they are in fome cafes
put in a much better. By ftatute 43 Eliz. c. 3. a
weekly allowance is to be ratfed in every county for
the relief of foldiers that are fick, hurt, and maimed :
not forgetting the royal hofpital at Chelfea for fuch as
are worn out in their duty. Officers and foldiers,
that have been in the king's fervice, are by feveral fta-
N°22I.
[6 ] MIL
tutes, ena&ed at the clofe of feveral wars, at liberty Military
to ufe any trade nr occupation they are fit for, in any .1/
town in the kingdom (except the two univerfities), Mli‘um*k
notwithftanding any ftatute, cuftom, or charter to the *
Contrary. And foldiers in a&ual military fervice may
make nuncupative wills, and difpofe of their goods,
wages, and other perfonal chattels, without thefe
forms, folemnities, and expences, which the law re*
quires in other cafes. Our law does not indeed ex¬
tend this privilege fo far as the civil law, which car¬
ried it to an extreme that borders upon the ridiculous j
for if a foldier, in the article of death, wrote any
thing in Woody letters on his (hield, or in the dull ojf
the field with his fword, it was a very good military
teftament.
Military Court. See ChivalxV [Court of).
Military Tenures. See Tenuxe, Feodal Sys¬
tem, and Knight.
Military Ways, [via mllitares), ate the large Ro¬
man roads which Agrippa procured to be made
through the empire, in the time of Auguftus, for the
more convenient marching of troops and conveyance
of carriages. N. Bergier has written the hiftory of
the origin, progrefs, and amazing extent, of thefe
military roads, which were paved from the gates of
Rome to the extreme parts of the empire. See
Way.
MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of fol*
diers, or thofe who make profdlion of arms.
In a more reftrained fenfe, militia denotes the train*
ed bands of a town or country, who arm themfelves*
upon a fhort warning, for their own defence. So
that, in this fenfe, militia is oppofed to regular or
Hated troops. See Military State, and Feodal
Syjlem-
MILIUM, millet, in botany ; A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants j
and in the natural method ranking under the 4th or¬
der, Gramma. The calyx is bivalved, and uniflorous ;
the corolla is very fhort; the ftigmata pencil like.—
There arc five fpecies; of which the moft remarkable
is the panicum, or common millet. This is a native of
India, but is now commonly Cultivated in many parts
of Europe as an efculent grain. It rifes, with a reed¬
like ftalk, three or four feet high, and channelled: at
every joint there is one reed-like leaf, which is joined
on the top of the fheath, and embraces and covers
that joint of the ftalk below the leaf} this fheath is
clofely covered with foft hairs, but the leaf which is
expanded has none. The top of the ftalk is termi¬
nated by a large loofe panicle, which hangs on one fide*
Laving a chaffy flowet, which is fucceeded by a fmall
found feed. There are two varieties; one with white*
and the other with black feeds ; but they do not diffef
in any other particular. This plant is greatly culti¬
vated in the oriental countries, and frorir whence we
are annually furnifhed with it. It is feldom cultivated
in Britain but in fmall gaidens, for feeding of poultry*
where the feeds generally ripen very well. It is ufed
as an ingredient in puddings, and is by fome people
greatly efteemed. The feeds muft be fown in the be¬
ginning of April, Upon a warm dry foil, but not too
niick, becaufe the plants divide into feveral branches,
and fhould have much room. When they come up
they fiiould be cleaned from weeds ? after which they
MIL C 17 J MIL
Milk, will in a (hort time get the better of them> and pre- animal-food, is it heating in the ftomach, and pro- MMJr.
'—" » vent the future growth. In Auguft ftie feeds will duftive of fever; though at the fame time, from its-\r—
ripen, when the plant muft be cut down, and the quantity of coagulable matter, it is more flourilhing
feeds beaten out, as is pra£tifed for other grain ; but than vegetables.
if it is not protefted from birds, they wilt devour it as Milk is the food moll univerfally fuited to all age*
foon as it begins to ripen. and dates of the body ; but it feems chiefly dcfigned by
MILK, a well-known fluid, prepared by nature in nature as the food of infants. When animals are in
the breafts of women, and the udders of other ani- the foetus-date, their folids are a perfeft jelly, inca-
mals, for the nourilhment of their young—According pable of an affimilatory power. In fuch date nature
* to Dr Cullen *, milk is a connedting and intermediate has perfe&ly affimilated food, as the albumen ovi in
Mat. MeJ. fubflance between animals and vegetables. It feems the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly
immediately to be fecretedfrom the chyle, both being fomewhat of the fame kind, as it was necedary the
a white liquor of the fame confidence : it is mod co- veflels fliould be filled with fuch a fluid as would make
pioufly fecreted after meals, and of an acefcent nature, way for an after-afiimilation. When the infant has
In moll animals who lives on vegetables, the milk is attained a confiderable degree of firmnefs, as when it
acefcent; and it is uncertain, though at the fame time is feparated from the mother, yet fuch a degree of
no obfervation proves the contrary, whether it is not weaknefs dill remains as makes fomewhat of the fame
fo likewife in carnivorous animals. But, whatever be indication neceffary, it behoves the infant to have an
in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals who alkalefcent food ready prepared, and at the fame time
■live on vegetables is acefcent. Milk being derived its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is
from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable na- given, which is alkalefcent, and, at the fame time,
ture; for in thofe who live on both promifcuoufly, has a fufficient quantity of acidity to correft that alka-
more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vege- lefcency. As the body advances in growth, and the
table than the animal food. Milk, however, is not alkalefcent tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate
purely vegetable ; though we have a vegetable liquor that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more
that refembles its tafle, confidence, colour, acefcency, fuited to its ilrength of affimilation.
and the feparability of the oily part, viz. an emulfion Dr Cullen obferves, that milk is almod fuited to all
of the nuces oleofoe and farinaceous fubdances. But temperaments; and it is even fo to domachs difpofed
thefe want the coagulable part of milk, which feem* to acefcency, more than thofe fubdanccs which have
to be of animal-nature, approaching to that of the undergone the vinous fermentation ; nay, it even cures
coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, feems the heart-burn, checks vinous fermentation, and pre-
to be of an intermediate nature, between chyle taken cipitates the lees, when, by renewal of fermentation,
tip from the intedines and the fully elaborated animal- the wine happens to be fouled. It therefore very pro¬
fluid. perly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment ;
Its contents are of three kinds : fird, an oily part, although fometimesits acefcency is troublefome, either
which, whatever may be faid concerning the origin of from a large proportion taken in, or from the degree
other oils in the body, is certainly immediately de- of it; for, according to certain unaccountable circum-
rived from the oil of the vegetables taken in, as with dances, different acids are formed in the domach in
thefe it agrees very exadlly in its nature, and would different dates of the body ; in a healthy body, e. g.
entirely if we could feparate it fully from the coagu- a mild one ; in the hypochondriac difeafe, one feme*
lable part. Another mark of their agreement is thefe- times as corrofive as the follil acid. When the aciditv
parability, which proves that the mixture has been of milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove re-
lately attempted, but not fully performed. 2dly, Be- markably refrigerent, and occafion cold crudities, and
fides this oily, there is a proper coagulable part : the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the
And, 3dly, Much water accompanies both, in which common notion of its palling unchanged into the
there is diffolved a faline faccharine fubdance. Thefe blood, it can fuffer no folution. But if we admit its
three can be got feparate in cheefe, butter, and coagulum in the domach, then it mav be reckoned
whey ; but never perfectly fo, a part of each being among foluble or infoluble foods, according as that
always blended with every other part. coagulum is more or lefs tenacious. Formerly rennet,
Nothing is more common, from what has been faid which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an
of its immediate nature, than to fuppofe that it re- acid; but, from late obfervations, it appears, that, if
quires’bo afiimilation ; and hence has been deduced the it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and
reafon of its exhibition in the mod weakly date of the that its coagulum is dronger than that produced by
human body. But wherever we can examine milk, acids. It has been imagined, that a rennet is to be
we always find that it coagulates, fuffers a decompo- found in the domachs' of all animals, which caufes co-
fition, and becomes acefcent. Again, infants, who agulation of milk ; but to Dr Cullen the coagulation of
feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eruc- milk feems to be owing to a weak acid in the domach,
tations, which every body obferves are not of the fame the relifts of our vegetable food, inducing, in healthy
quality with the food taken ; and therefore it appears, perfons, a weak and foluble coagtdum : but in different
that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acefcent domachs this may be very different, in thefe becoming
in the domach, and only enters the chyle and blood in heavy and lefs foluble food, and fometimes even eva--
confequence of a new recompofuion. Itapproaches then cuated in a coagulated undiffolved date both by do-
to the nature of vegetable aliment, but is not capable mach and dool.
of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has As milk is acefcent, it may be rendered fometimes
an advantage over it ; neither from this quality, like purgative by mixing with the bile ; and fome example^
Von. XII. Part I. C cf
MIL r 18
Milk, of this have been remarked. More commonly, how-
—   ever, it is reckoned among thofe foods which occafion
coftivenefs.
Hoffman, ip his experiments on milk, found that
all kinds of it contained much water; and when this
was difiipated, found the refiduum veiy different in
their folubility. But we muft not thence conclude,
that the fame infolubility takes place in the ftomach ;
for extra&s made from vegetables with water are often
very infoluble fubftances, and hardly diflfufible through
water itfelf: therefore, in Hoffman’s extracts, if we
may fo call them, of milk, fomewhat of the fame kind
might have appeared ; and thefe fubitances, which in
their natural ftate were not fo, might appear very in¬
foluble. However, we may allow that milk is always
fomehow infoluble in the inteftines, as it is of a drying
nature, and as cheefe, &c. is very coftive. And this
effeft Ihows that m/lk is always coagulated in the fto¬
mach : for if it remained fluid, no faeces would be
produced, whereas fometimes very hard ones are ob-
ferved. In the blood-veflels, from its animal-nature,
it may be confidered as nutritious; but when we con¬
sider its vegetable contents, and acefcency in the primae
viae, we find that, like animal-food, it does not excite
that degree of fever in the time of digeftion, and that
ftom its acefcency it will refift putrefaftion. Hence
its ufe in hecftic fevers, which, whatever be their caufe,
appear only to be exacerbations of natural feverifh pa-
roxyfms, which occur twice every day, commonly af¬
ter meals, and at night. To obviate thefe, therefore,
we give fuch an aliment as produces the lead exacer¬
bation of thefe fevers : and of this nature is milk, on
account of its acefcent vegetable nature.
: There appears alfo fomewhat peculiar to milk, which
requires only a fmall exertion of the animal-powers in
order to its aflimilation ; and befides, in heftic com¬
plaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approach¬
ing to the animal-nature ; fo that on all thefe accounts
milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in ge¬
neral, to moft convalefcents, and to thofe of inflam¬
matory temperaments. So far of milk in general. We
fhall now fpeak of the particular kinds which are in
common ufe.
The milk of women, mares, and afles, agree very
much in their qualities, being verytlilute, having little
folid contents, and, when evaporated to drynels, ha¬
ving thefe very foluble, containing much faccharine
matter, of a very ready acefcency, and, when coagula¬
ted, their coagulum being tender and eafily broke
down. From this view they have lefs oil, and feem to
have lefs coagulable matter than the reft.
The milk of cows, ftieep, and goats, agree in op-
pofite qualities to the three juft mentioned ; but here
there is fomewhat more of gradation. Cows milk
comes neareft to the former milk : goats milk is lefs
fluid, lefs fweet, lefs flatulent, has the largeft propor¬
tion of infoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the
largeft proportion of coagulable part; its oily and co¬
agulable parts are not fpontaneoufly feparable, never
throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be rea¬
dily extra&ed from it. Hence the virtues of thefe
milks are obvious,being more nouriftiing, though at the
fame time lefs eafily foluble in weak ftomachs, than the
three firft, lefs acefcent than thefe, and fo more rarely
laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of conva-
3 MIL
lefcents without fever. The three firft again are left Milk,
nourifhing, more foluble, more laxative, as more acef- —<t—
cent, and adapted to the convalefcents with fever.
Thefe qualities, in particular milks, are confiderably
diverfined by different circumftances. Firft, Different
animals, living on the fame diet, give a confiderably
different milk ; for there feems to be fomething in the
conftitution, abftra&ing from the aliment, which coir-
ftitutes a confiderable diverfity of milk, not only in the
fame fpecies of animals, but alfo in the fame animal^,
at different ages, and at different diftances after deli¬
very : this applies to the choice of nurfes. Secondly,
Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any
other juice in the human body, being more or left fluid
and dilute, more or lefs folid and nourifhing, in pro¬
portion as thefe qualities are more or left in the alft
roent. The nature of the aliment differs according to
its time of growth, e. g. old graft being always found
more nourifhing than young. Aliment, too, is always
varied according to the feafon, as that is warm or dry,
moift or cloudy.
The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter
for particular purpofes, when fed on proper Food.—
Thus the cow delights in the fucculent herbage of the
vale: if the fheep be fed there he certainly rots, but
on the higher and more dry fide of the mountain he
feeds pleafantly and healthy ; while the goat never
flops near the bottom, but afeends to the craggy fum-
mit: and certainly the milks of thefe animals are al¬
ways beft on their proper foil, and that of goats is beft
on a mountainous country. From a differtation of
Linnaeus, we have many obfervations concerning the
diverfity of plants on which each animal choofts to
feed. All the Swedifh plants which could be colle£l*
ed together, were prefented alternately to domeftic
animals, and then it appeared that the goat lived on
the greateft variety, and even on many which were poi*
fonous to the reft ; that the cow chofe the firft fuccu¬
lent fhoots of the plant, and negledted the fructifica¬
tion ; which laft was preferred by the goal. Hence
may be deduced rules concerning the pafturage of dif¬
ferent animals ; e. g. Farmers find, that, in a pafture
which was only fit to feed a certain number of flreep,
an equal number of goats may be introduced, while
the fheep are no left nourifhed than before.
It is not eafy to affign the difference between milk
frefh-drawn and that detained in the open air for fome
time: but certainly there is fome material one, other-
wife nature univerfally would not have direCled infants
to fucking ; and indeed it feems, better than the other,
fitted for digeftion and nourifhment. Phyficians have
fuppofed that this depended on the evaporation <3f fome
fpt. reflor : but our author cannot conceive any fuch,
except common water here ; and befides, thefe volatile
parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plaufible ac¬
count feems deducible from-mixture : milk new-drawn
has been but lately mixed, and is expofed to fponta-
neous feparation, a circumftance hurtful to digeftion ;
none of the parts being, by themfelves, fo eafily afli-
milated as when they are all taken together. Hence,
then, milk new-drawn is more intimately blended, and
therefore then is moft proper to the weakly and in¬
fants.
Another difference in the ufe of milk expofed for
fome time to the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled.
Phyficians
i
MIL [ i
Phyficians nave generally recommended the former;
; but the reafon is not eafily affigned. Perhaps it is
this: Milk kept for fome time expofed to the air has
gone fo far to a fpontaneous feparation ; whereas the
heat thoroughly blends the whole, and hence its refo-
lution is not fo eafy in the ftomach ; and thus boiled
milk is more coftive than*raw, and gives more fseces.
Again, when milk is'boiled, a confxderable quantity of
air is detached, as appears from the froth on the fur-
face ; and air is the chief inftrument of fermentation
in bodies ; fo that after this prbeefs it is not liable to
acefcency : for thefe reafons it is proper for the rob nil
and vigorous.
Another difference of milk is, according as it is fluid
or coagulated. The coagulated is of two kinds, as
induced by rennet, or the natural acefcency of the
milk. The former preparation makes the firmer and
lefs eafily foluble coagulum ; though, when taken with
the whey unfeparated, it is lefs difficult of folution,
though more fo than any other coagulum in the fame
«afe. Many nations ufe the latter form, which is eafier
•foluble, but very much acefcent, and therefore, in point
of folution, fhould be confined to the vigorous, in point
of acefcency, to thofe who live on alkalefcent food ;
and in the lafl cafe, the Laplanders ufe it as their chief
acefcent condiment. From the fame confiderations it
is more cooling, and in its other effefts like all other
acefcent vegetables.
Milk by evaporation yields a fweet faline matter,
•f which Dr Lewis gives the following proportions:
Twelve,
ounces of
Cows milk
Goats milk
Human milk
Afles milk
Left of dry
matter
13 drams.
12I
8
From which water ex¬
tracted a fweet faline filb-
ftance amounting to
14 drams.
The faline fubflance extra&ed from afles milk was
white, and fweet as fugar; thofe of the others brown
or yellow, and confiderably lefs fweet; that from cows
milk had the leaft fweetnefs of any.
On diftilling 12 quarts of milk in balnea maria, at
leaft nine quarts of pure phlegm were obtained: the
liquor which afterwards arofe was acidulous, and by
degrees grew fenfibly more and more acid as the di-
ftiflation was continued. After this came over a little
fpirit, and at laft an empyreumatic oil. The remain¬
ing folid matter adhered to the bottom of the retort,
in the form of elegant fhining black flowers, which
being calcined and dilated yielded a portion of fixed
alkaline fait.
Milks fet in a warm place, throws up to the fiirface
an unftuous cream, from which, by agitation, the
butter is eafily feparated. The addition of alkaline
Llts prevents this feparation, not (as fome have fup-
pofed) by abforbing an acid from the milk, but by
virtue of their property of intimately uniting oily
bodies with watery liquors. Sugar, another grand
intermedium betwixt oils and water, has this effe& in
a greater degree, though that concrete is by no means
alkaline, or an abforbent of acids.
The fweet faccharine part of the milk remains dif-
folved in the whey after the feparation of the curd or
9 ] MIL
cheefy matter, and may be colle&ed from it in a white
cryftalline form, by boiling the whey tifl all remains
of the curdled fubftance have fallen to the bottom j
then filtering, evaporating to a due confiftence,
fetting it to fhoot, and purifying the cryftals by folu¬
tion in water and a fecond cryftallization. Much
has been faid of the medicinal virtues of this fugar of
milk, but it does not feem to have any confiderable
ones : It is from cows milk that it has been generally
prepared; and the cryftals obtained from this kind of
milk have but little fweetnefs.
When milk is fuffered to coagulate fpontaneoufly,
the whey proves acid, and on (landing grows more
and more fo till the putrefactive ftate commences.
Sour whey is ufed as an acid, preferably to the dire&ly
vegetable or the mineral acids, in fome of the che¬
mical arts ; as for diflblving iron in order to the ftain-
ing of linen and leather. This acid was commonly
made ufe of in the bleaching of linen, for diflblving
and extracting the earthy particles left in the cloth by
the alkaline falts and lime employed for cleanfing and
whitening it. Butter-milk is preferred to plain four-
milk or four-whey : This laft is fuppofed to give the
cloth a yellow colour. Dr Home, in his ingenious
treatife on this fubjedt, recommends water acidulated
with fpirit of vitriol (in the proportion of about half
an ounce, or at moft three quarters of an ounce, to a
gallon), as preferable in many refpedls to the acid of
milk, or of the more direiftly vegetable fubftanees.
He obferves, that the latter are1 often difficultly pro¬
curable, abound with oleaginous particles, and haften
to corruption; whilft the vitriolic acid is cheap, and
pure, and i'ndifpofed to putrefy : That milk takes five
days to perform its gffice, whilft the vitriolic acid
does it in as many hours, perhaps in as many minutes:
That this acid contributes alfo to whiten the cloth,
and does not make it weaker though the cloth be kept
in it for months. He finds, that acids as well as al¬
kalies* extraft an oily matter from the cloth, and lofe
their acidity and alkalicity. Since this treatife ap¬
peared, the ufe of four-milk is very generally fuper-
feded by oil of vitriol.
It is obfervable, that afles milk is greatly difpofed,
on Handing for a little time, to become thick and ropy,
lu the Breflau colle&ion for the year 1720, there is a
remarkable account of milk (which probably was that
of the afs) grown fo thick and tenacious as to be drawn
out into long fixings, which, when dried, were quite
brittle.
New cows milk, fuffered to Hand for fome days oil
the leaves of butterwort or fun-dew, becomes uni¬
formly thick, flippery, and coherent, and of an agree¬
able fweet tafte, without any feparation of its parts.
Frelh milk, added to this, is thickened in the fame-
manner, and this fuccelfively. In fome parts of Swe¬
den, as we are informed in the Swedilh Memoirs, milk
is thus prepared for food.
New milk has a degree of glutinous quality, fo as
to be ufed for joining broken ftone-ware. There is a
far greater tenacity in cheefe properly prepared.
Milk, when examined by a microfcope, appears
compofed of numerous globules fwimming in a tranf-
parent fluid. It boils in nearly the fame degree of
heat with common water ; fome forts rather fooner,
and fome a little later: after boiling, it is lefs dif-
C 2 pofed
Milt.
MIL [ 20 1 MIL
Mite, poftd to grow four than in its natural ftate. It is
coagulated by acids both mineral and vegetable, and by
alkalies both fixed and volatile. The coagulum made
by acids falls to the bottom of the ferum ; that made
by alkalies fwims on the fnrface, commonly forming
(efpecially with volatile alkalies) a thick coriaceous
/kin. The ferum, with alkalies, proves green or fa¬
mous; with acids, it differs little in appearance from
the whey that feparates fpontaneoufly. The coagulum
formed by acids is diffolved by alkalies, and that
formed by alkalies is rediffolved by acids; but the
milk docs not in either cafe refume its oiiginal pro¬
perties. It is coagulated by mod of the middle falts,
v. hofe bafis is an earth or a metallic body ; as folution
of alum, fixed fal ammoniac, fugar of lead, green and
blue vitriol; but not by the chalybeate or purging
mineral waters, nor by the bitter fait extra&ed from
the purging waters. Among the neutral falts that
have been tried, there is not one that produces any
coagulation. They all dilute the milk, and make it
lefs difpofed to coagulate with acids or alkalies: Nitre
feems to have this effedb in a greater degree than the
other neutral falts. It is inftantly coagulated by highly-
reftified fpirit of wine, but fcarcely by a phlegmatic
fpirit. It does not mingle with expreffed oils.. All
the coagula are diffolved by gall.
It has generally been fuppofed by medical authors,
that the milk of animals is of the fame nature with
chyle, and that the human milk always coagulates on
the ftomach of infants; but in a late differtation upon
the fubjedd by Mr Clarke, member of the royal Irf/h
academy, we find both thefe pofitions controverted.
According tohim, woman’s milk, in an healthy ftate, con¬
tains no coagulable, mucilaginous, or cheefy principle,
in its compolition; or it contains fo little, that it can¬
not admit of any fenfible proof. Dr Rutty Hates, that
it does not afford even a fixth part of the curd which
is yielded by cows milk; and Dr Young denies that
it is at all coagulable either by rennets or acids. This is
confirmed by Dr Ferris, who in 1782 gained the Har-
veian prize-medal at Edinburgh by a differtation up-
?njh ‘Tran/.011 m^k. Mr Clarke informs us, that he has made a
jgvrijtS. vaft number of experiments upon woman’s milk with
a view to determine this point. He made ufe of ar¬
dent fpirits, all the different acids, infufions of infants
itomachs, and procured the milk of a great many dif¬
ferent women ; but in no inilance, excepting one or
two, did he perceive any thing like curd. This took
place in confequence of a fpontaneous acefcency ; and
only a fmall quantity of foft flaky matter was form¬
ed, which floated in the ferum. This he looked upon
to be a morbid appearance.
The general opinion that woman’s milk is coagu¬
lable, has arifen from a Angle circumftance, viz. that
infants frequently vomit the milk they fuck in a ftate
of apparent coagulation. This greatly perplexed Dr
Young; who, after having tried in vain to coagulate
human milk artificially, concluded, that the procefs
took place fpontaneoufly in the ftomach ; and that it
would always do fa if the milk were allowed to re¬
main in a degree of heat equal to about g.6 degrees of
Fahrenheit. Mr Clarke took equal quantities of three
different kinds of milk, and put them into bottles
flightly corked, and thefe bottles into water, the tem¬
perature of which was kept up by a fpirit-of-wine
lamp as near as poffible to 96° of Fahrenheit: but af- .
ter frequently examining each bottle during the courfe 1 '
of the experiment, at the expiration of feveral hours
there was not the fmalleft tendency towards coagula¬
tion to be perceived in any of them ; the cream was
only thrown to the furface in a thick and adhefive
form, and entirely feparated from the fluid below,
which had fomething of a grey and wheyifh appear¬
ance. As the matter vomited by infants is fornttimes
more adhefive than we can fuppofe cream to be, Mr
Clarke fnppofed that the curd might be fo entangled
with the cream, as to be with difficulty feparated front,
it; but having colle&ed a quantity of rich cream front
the milk of different women, he repeated the experi¬
ment with precifely the fame event, not being able in
any one inftance to produce the fmalleft quantity of
curd. To determine, however, what effects might be
produced upon milk by the ftomach of an infant, Mr
Clarke made the following experiment: Having taken,
out the ftomach of a foetus which had been deprived
of life by the ufe of inftruments, he infufed it in a
fmall quantity of hot water, fo as to make a ftrong
infufion. He added a tea-fpoonful of this infufion to
equal quantities of cows and human milk ; the confe¬
quence of which was, that the cow’s milk was firmly
coagulated in a ftiort time, but the human milk was
not altered in the leaft ; neither was the leaft coagula¬
tion produced by adding a fecond and third fpoonful
to the human milk. “ Upon the whole, then, (fays
Mr Clarke), I am perfuaded it will be found, that
human milk, in an healthy ftate, contains little or no
curd, and that the general opinion of its nature and
properties is founded upon fallacious analogy and fu-
perficial obfervations made on the matter vomited by-
infants. We may prefume, that the cream of woman’s-
milk, by its inferior fpecific gravity, will fwim on the
furface of the contents of the ftomach ; and being of
an oily nature, that it will be of more difficult digeftion
than any other conftituent part of milk. When an
infant then fucks very plentifully, fo as to over-diftend
the ftomach, or labours under any weaknefs in the
powers of digeftion, it cannot appear unreafonable to
fuppofe, that the cream fhall be firft rejefted by vomit¬
ing. Analogous to this, we know that adults affeft-
ed with dyfpepfia often bring up greafy fluids from
the ftomach by eru&ation, and this efpecially after
eating fat meat. We have, in fome inftances, known
this to blaze when thrown into the fire'fike fpirit of
wine or oil.” Our author derives a confirmation of
his opinion from the following obfervation, viz. that
curds vomited by infants of a few days old are yellow,,
while they become white in a fortnight or three
weeks. This he accounts for from the yellow colour
of the cream thrown up by the milk of women during,
the firft four or five days after delivery.
Mr Clarke likewife controverts that common opi¬
nion of the human milk\>eingfo prone to acidity, that
a great number of the difeales of children are to be
accounted for from that principle. “ Whoever (faya.
he) takes the trouble of attentively comparing human
milk with that of ruminant animals, will foon find it
to be much lefs prone to run into the acefcent or acid:
procefs. I have very often expofed equal quantities
of human and cows milk in degrees of temperature,
varying from the common furamer heat, or 65° to ioo° *
MIL [
and I have conftantly found that cows milk acquires a
greater degree of acidity in 36 hours than the human
did in many days : cows milk becomes offenfively pu¬
trid in four or five days; a change which healthy hu¬
man milk, expofed in the fame manner, will not un¬
dergo many weeks, nay fometimes in many months.
1 once kept a few ounces of a nurfe’s milk, delivered
about fix or feven days, for more than two years in a
bottle moderately corked. It flood on the chimney-
piece, and was frequently opened to be examined. At
the end of this period it fhowed evident marks of mo¬
derate acidity, whether examined by the tafte, fmell,
or paper flained by vegetable blues or purples; the
latter it changed to a florid red colour, whereas cows
milk kept a few days changed the colour of the fame
paper to a green, thereby clearly Ihowing its putre-
fcent tendency.”
Our author next goes on to confider of the proba¬
bility there is of milk becoming fo frequently and
ftrongly acid as to occafion moft of the difeafes of in¬
fants. He begins with an attempt to fhow, that the
phenomena commonly looked upon to be indications
of acrimony are by no means certain. Curdled milk
has already been fhown to be no fign of acidity ; and
th£ other appearance, which has commonly been
thought to be fo certain, wk. green fasces, is, in the
opinion of Mr Clarke, equally fallacious. In fupport
of this he quotes a letter from Dr Sydenham to Dr
Cole; in which he fays that the green matter vomited
by hyflerical women is not any proof of acrid humours
being the caufe of that difeafe, for fea-fick people do
the fame. The opinion of green faeces being an effedt
•f acidity, proceeds on the fuppofition that a mixture
of bile with an acid produces a green colour ; but it
is found, that the vegetable acid, which only can exift
in the human body, is unable to produce this change
of colour, though it can be effedted by the llrong mi¬
neral acids. As nothing equivalent to any of thefe
acids can be fuppofed to exill in the, bowels of infants,
we muft therefore take fome other method of account¬
ing for the green faeces frequently evacuated by them.
“ Why Ihould four milk, granting its exiftence, give
rife to them in infants and not in adults ? Have but¬
ter milk, fummer-fruits of the moft acefcent kind, le¬
mon or orange juice, always this effecl in adults by
their admixture with bile ? This is a queftion which,
I believe, cannot be anfwered in the affirmative.”
On the whole, Dr Clarke confiders the difeafe of
acidity in the bowels, though fo frequently mention¬
ed, to be by no means common. He owns, indeed,
that it may fometimes occur in infancy as well as in
adults, from weaknefs of the ftomach, coftivenefs, or
improper food ; and an indubitable evidence is afford¬
ed by faeces which ftain the blue or purple colour of
vegetables to a red, though nothing can be inferred
with certainty from the colour or fmell.
The DoClor next proceeds to ftate feveral reafens
for his opinion, that the greater number of infantile
difeafes are not owing to acidity ; 1. Woman’s milk
in an healthy ftate contains little or no coagulable
matter or curd. 2. It fhows lefs tendency out of the
body to become acefcent than many* other kinds of
milk. 3. The appearances which have been generally
fuppofed to charaderife its acidity do not afford fatis-
facicry evidence of fuch a morbid caufe. 4, Granting
21 ] MIL
this to be the cafe, we have plenty of mild abforbents,
capable of deftroying all the acid which can be fnppo-
fed to be generated in the bowels of an infant; yet
many children are obferved to die in confequence of
thefe difeafes fuppofed to arife from acidity. 5. Tho’
the milk of all ruminant animals is of a much more
acefcent nature than that of the human fpecies, yet
the young of thefe animals never fuffer any thing like
the difeafes attributed to acidity in infants, y. Hi-
ftory informs us, that whole nations ufe four curdled
milk as a confiderable part of their food without feel¬
ing any inconvenience ; which, however, rnuft have
been the cafe, if acidity in the ftomach were pro¬
ductive of fuch deleterious effects as has been fup¬
pofed.
The reafoning of Dr Clarke feems here to be very
plaufible, and nothing has as yet been offered to con¬
tradict it. The reviewers in taking notice of the trea-
tfie only obferve, that the Doctor’s politions are fup-
ported by great probability ; yet “ they have feeu
them, or think they have feen them, contradicted by
the appearance of difeafes and the effects of medi¬
cines;” fo that they muft leave the fubjedt to farther
examination.
In a memoir by Meflrs Parmentier and Deyeux,
members of the royal college of pharmacy, &c. in Pa*
ris, we have a great number of experiments on the
milk of affes, cows, goats, flreep, and mares, as well
as women. The experiments on cows milk were made
with a view to determine u’hether any change was
made in the milk by the different kinds of food eaten
by the animal. For this purpofe fome were fed with
the leaves of mats or Turkey wheat; fome with cab¬
bage ; others with fraall potatoes ; and others with
common grafs. The milk of thofe fed with the nuns
or Turkey wheat was extremely fweet; that from the
potatoes and common grafs much more ferous and in-
fipid ; and that from the cabbages the moft difagreeable
of all. By diftillation only eight ounces of a colour-
lefs fluid were obtained from as many pounds of each
of thefe milks ; which from thofe who fed upon grafs
had an aromatic flavour; a difagreeable one from cab¬
bage ; and none at all from the potatoes and Turkey
wheat. This liquid became fetid in the fpace of a
month whatever fubilance the animal had been fed
with, acquiring at the fame time a vifcidrty and be¬
coming turbid; that from cabbage generally, but not al¬
ways, becoming firft putrid. All of them feparated a
filamentous mat ter, and became clear on being expofed
to the heat of 250 of Reamur’s thermometer. In the
relkhiums of the diftillations no difference whatever
could be perceived. As the only difference therefore
exifting in cow’s milk lies in the volatile part, "our
authors conclude, that it is improper to boil milk,
either for common or medicinal purpofes. They ob*
ferved alfo, that any fudden change of food, even
from a worfe to a better kind, was attended by a very
remarkable diminution in the quantity of milk. All
the refrduums of the diftillations yielded, in a ftrong
fire, a yellow oil, an acid, a thick and black empy-
reumatic oil, a volatile alkali, and towards the end
a quantity of inflammable air, and at laft a coal re¬
mained containing fome fixed alkali with muriatic acid.
On agitating, in long bottles, the creams from the
milk of cows fed with, different fubftances,, all of themi
wets
MIL [ 22 ] MIL
were formed into a kind of half-made butter 5 of which great expence As t*he moft valuable kinds. No change
that formed from the milk from mais was white, firm, ought to be made in the food } though if the milk
and infipid ; that from potatoes was fofter and more be employed for medicinal purpofes, it may be im-
pinguedinous ? but that from common grafs was the proved by a proper mixture of herbs, &c.
sro 00 ir* /-"afpc rrav#* a IVrnncr f n tVieir pvnprimpnf-ft n-n wnman’a milk
beft of all. Cabbage, as in other cafes, gave a ftrong
tafte.
In the courfe of their experiments, it was endea¬
voured to determine whether butter is actually
In their experiments on woman’s milk, Mefirs Par-
mentier and Deyeux differ fomewhat from Dr Clarke-
They firft tried the milk of a woman who had been
delivered four months; and obferved, that after the
tained in the cream, or whether it be a chemical pro- cream had been feparated the other part appeared of
duftion of the-operation of churning. They could a more perfect white, and that it could not be coa-
not find any reafon abfolutely fatisfa&ory on either gulated either by vinegar or mineral acids; which
fide, but incline to the latter opinion ; becaufe when they attributed to a fuperabundance of ferum. But
cream is allowed to remain among the milk, and the they found that in proportion to the age of the milk
whole curdled promifcuoufly, only fat cheefe, without it was found to be more eafily coagulable ; and this
any butter, is produced. The pily parts cannot be was confirmed by experiments made upon the milk of
feparated into butter either by acids or any other 20 nurfes. Its coagulability was not increafed by
means than churning : even the artificial mixture heat. The cream, by agitation, formed a vifcid unc-
©f oil with the cream is infufficient for the purpofe. tuous matter, but could not be changed into perfeft
The ferum of milk was reduced by filtration to a butter : but they found that it was extremely difficult
clear and pellucid liquor; and, by mixture with fixed to determine the proportions of the various compo-
alkali, depofited a portion of cheefy matter which had nent parts in human milk, as it differs remarkably,
been diffolved in the whey. The fugar of milk was not only in different fubjefts, but in the fame fubjedt
alfo found in this liquor.
at different times. In a nurfe aged about 32 years.
In their experiments upon the milk of various ani- who was extremely fubjeft to nervous affe&ions, the
mals, it was found that the milk of affes yielded by milk was one day found almoft quite colourlefs and
diftillation an infipid liquor, and depofited a liquor tranfparent. In two hours after, a fecond quantity
fimilar to the lymph of cows milk. It is coagulated drawn from the bread was vifcid like the white of an
by all the acids, but not into an uniform mafs, ex¬
hibiting only the appearance of diftindt flocculi. It
affords but little cream, which is converted with dif-
egg. It became whiter in a Ihort time, but did not
recover its natural colour before the evening. It was
afterwards found that thefe changes were occafioned
ficulty into a foft butter that foon becomes rancid. It by her having fome violent hyfteric fits in the mean
has but a fmall quantity of faccharine particles, and time.
thefe are often mixed with muriatic felcnite and com¬
mon fait. Goats milk has a thick cream, and agree-
Sugar of Milk. Under the article Chemistry an ac¬
count has been given of the fugar of milk, with fome of
able to the tafte; and the milk itfelf may be preferved the different methods of making it; but of late we have
longer in a found ftate than any other fpecies, the an account of a method ufed by fome of the Tartar na-
feum on its furface being naturally convertible into tionsofprefervingtheir milk by means of froft; in which
palatable cheefe. It is eafily made into firm butter, operation great quantities of the fugar of milk are acci-
which does not foon become rancid, and has a good dentally formed. The account was given by Mr Fah-'
flavour. The butter-milk contains a large quantity rig of Peterfburgh, who undertook a journey, by or-
cf cheefy matter which readily coagulates; but has der of the academy of Peterfburgh, among the Mogul
ftill lefs faccharine matter than that of affes. Sheeps tribes who inhabit the country beyond the lake Baikal,
milk can fcarce be diftinguifhed from that of a cow, on the banks of the river Salenga. Thefe people al¬
and eafily parts with its cream by Handing. It is of low their milk to freeze in large quantity in iron
a yellow colour, an agreeable flavour, and yields a kettles; and, when it is perfedly congealed, they
great proportion of butter ; but this is not folid, and place them over a gentle fire to foften the edges of
foon becomes rancid. Mare’s milk is the moft infipid the cake, after which it may be taken ont with x
and left nutritious of any; notwithftanding which it wooden fpatula. They commence thefe operations
has been much recommended for weak and canfumptive at the beginning of the cold,’ when they have milk
patients: in which cafes it is probable that it proves ef- in the greateft abundance ; after which it may be pre-
ficacious by being more confonant than any other to ferved with great eafe thioughout the whole winter,
the debilitated powers of digeftion. It boils with a Mr Fahrig having frequent opportunities of feeing
fmaller fire than any other kind of milk, is eafily coa- thefe cakes, foon obferved, that the furface of them
gulated, and the diftilled water does not foon change was covered to a confiderable depth with a farinaceous
its nature. It has but a fmall quantity of cheefy powder; and having eftabliffied a dairy upon the fame
matter, and very few oily particles: the cream can- plan with fhofe of the Moguls, *<e found the faete
not be made into butter; and the whey contains about thing take place with kimfeif. This powder was ex-
as much fugar as cows or goats milk. tremely fweet, and he received platefuls of it from
In this memoir our authors remark, that in order to the natives, who ufed it in their food, and fweetened’
augment the quantity, as well as to improve the qua- their other vi&uals with it. Having' caufed a num-
lity, of the milk of animals, they fhould be well fed, ber of cakes ol frozen milk to be conveyed to the top
their ftalls kept clean, and their litter frequently re- of his houfe, where they’were diredtly expofed
newed : they ftiould be milked at Hated hours, but to the violent cold, he found that the feparation
not drained : great attention ffiould alfo be paid to of the faccharine, powder was greatly promoted by
the breed; becaufe inferior cattle are maintained at as this means. He /craped the cakes every week to the
5 depth
MIL [ 23 1 MIL
depth of two inches, and afterwards fpread out the
powder upon an earthen plate in order to deftroy the
remains of moiflure which might have prevented.it
■it from keeping for any length of time. When ex-
pofed in this manner it had a very agreeable and ftrong
faccharine tafte; diffolved in warm water j and when
ftrongly ftirred fey means of a chocolate-ftick, would
at all* times produce an excellent and well-tafted milk.
Raw milk affords a much larger quantity of this fac-
cbarine matter than fuch as has been boiled, or which
has had the cream taken off it. Neither muft the
milk be fuddenly expofed to the cold before it has
loft its natural heat; for the fudden contact of the
colddrivesallthe cheefy and fat part towards the'middle,
while the external parts confift of little elfe than wa¬
ter. In order to allow the parts of the milk to be all
properly mixed together, Mr Fahrig allowed the milk
when newly taken from the cows to cool, and then
poured ft out into fhallow kettles.
Our author is of opinion that this method of making
milk would be of great fervice to navigators to fup-
ply themfelves with milk during long fea-voyages: and
he affures us, from his own experience, that it will
always fucceed, if proper attention be paid to it. He
is of opinion, however, that all countries are not
equally proper for the preparation of this faccharine
matter: and indeed this feems very evidently to be
the cafe, as the proccfs appears to be a cryftallization
of the faccharine parts of the milk, and a feparatiqn
of them from the aqueous ones by means of extreme
cold. The country in which he made the experiments
is one of the moft elevated in all Afia ; and fo cold,
that, though it lies only in the 50th degree of north
latitude, its rivers are frozen up for fix months of the
year. A very dry cold wind alfo prevails throughout
almoft the whole year; and the dry winds generally
come from the north, being almoft always preceded
by a warm wind from the fouth, which blows for
fome time. The dry rarefied air increafes the eva¬
poration from the ice-cakes, and leaves nothing but
the faccharine or pure conftituent parts of the milk,
which with the addition of water can always recom-
pofe the fluid.
Milk, in the wine-trade. The coopers know very
well the ufe of Ikimmed-nfilk, which makes an inno¬
cent and efficacious forcing for the fining down of all
white wines, arracks, and fmall fpirits ; but is by no
means to be ufed fpr red wines, becaufe it difcharges
their colour. Thus, if a few quarts of well-fkimmed
milk be put to a hogihead of red-wine, it will foon
precipitate the greater part of the colour, and leave
the whole nearly white; and this is of known ufe
in the turning red wines, when pricked, into white ;
in which a fmall degree of acidity is not fo much per¬
ceived.
■ Milk is, from this quality of .difcharging colour from
wines, of ufe alfo to the wine-coopers, for the whiten-*/
ing of wines that have acquired a brown colour from
the calk, or from having been haftily boiled before
fermenting ; for the addition of a little Ikimmed milk,
in thefe^cafes, precipitates the brown colour, and leaves
the wines almoft limpid, or of what they call a water
•whitenefs, which is much coveted abroad in wines as
well as in brandies.
.j/ff/zx of. Lime^ Milk of Sulphur. The name oimilk.
is given to fubftanc *s very different from milk properly
fo called, and which refemble milk only in coloSr.
Such is water in which quicklime has been flaked,
which acquires a whicenefs from the fmall particles of
the lime being fufpended in it, and has hence been
called the milk of lime. Such alfo is the folution of
liver of fulphur, when an acid is mixed with it, by
which white particles of fulphur ftre made to float in
the liquor.
Milk of Vegetables. For the fame reafon that milk
of animals may be confidered as a true animal emul-
fion, the emuluve liquors of vegetables may be called
vegetable milks. Accordingly emulfions made with al¬
monds are commonly called milk of almonds. Rut be-
fides this vegetable milk, which is in fome meafure ar¬
tificial, many plants and trees contain naturally a large
quantity of emulfive or milky juices. Such are lettuce,
fpurge, fig-tree, and the tree which furnifhes the ela-
ftic American refin. The milky juices obtained from
all thefe vegetables derive their whitenefs from an oily
matter, mixed and undiflolved in a watery or mucila¬
ginous liquor. Moft refinous gums were originally
fuch milky juices, which afterwards become folid by
the evaporation of their moft fluid and volatile parts.
Thefe natural milky juices have not been examined
by any chemift. Such an examination would, how¬
ever, procure much efiential knowledge concerning ve¬
getable oeconomy. We ffiould probably find ex->
arnples of all kinds of oils reduced into milky juices;
and this knowledge cannot fail of throwing much light
on the nature of refins and gum-refins.
Milk-Fever. See Midwifery, p. 806.
MiLKr-Hedgey the Englifti name of a ftirub growing
on the coaft of Coromandel, where it is ufed for
hedging. The whole flirub grows very bufhy with
numerous ereft branches, which are compofed of cy¬
lindrical joints as thick as a tobacco-pipe, of a green
colour, and from three to fix inches long : the joints
are thicker than the other parts, but always give way
firft on any accidental violence offered to the plant.
When broken it yields a milk of an exceffively cauftic
quality, which blifters any part of the flein it touches.-
When the joints are broken off at each end, the tube
then contains but very little, milk. _ In this Hate Mr
Ives ventured to touch it with his tongue, and found
it a little fweet. In the hedges it is feldom very woody ;
but when it is, the wood' is pretty folid, and the
bark grey and cracked. This plant, he informs us, has
acquired a great reputation in curing the venereal difeafe,
on the following account. A poor Portuguefe woman,
the oldeft female of her family, had wrought furprifing
cures in the moft inveterate venereal diforders, even
fuch as the European phyficians had pronounced in¬
curable. Thefe facts became fb notorious, that the
fervants of the company, and efpecially their furgeons,
w-ere indilced to offer her a very confiderable premium'
for a difeovery of the medjcine; .but (he always ref li¬
fe d to comply, giving for a reafon, that while it re¬
mained a fecret, it was a certain provifion for the
maintenance of the family in the prefent as well as
in future generations. On account of this denial the
Erigliffi furgeons were fometimes at the pains to have'
her motions without doors carefully watched; and,:
as they were not able to difeover that ftie ever gather¬
ed of. any other .plant or tree but this, they conjec-c
turei
M I L
E 24 ]
MIL
7 lured that the milk of this tree was the fpecific em- down the northern bank, fwept away a large oak
^ ployed. Mr Ives inquired at the black do&ors con- upon the edge of it, and difclofed a long tunnel in the
cerning the virtues of this plant; who all agreed, that jock below. This has been fince laid open in part
it will cure the lues venerea, but differed as to the with a fpade. It appeared entirely uncovered at the
manner of adminiftering it; fome faying that a joint top, was about a yard in width, and another in depth,
of it fhoiild be eaten every morning ; others that the but gradually narrowed to the bottom. The tides
milk only Ihould be dropped upon fugar ; and then thowed every where the marks of the tool on the rock,
put into milk, oil,. &c. and given daily to the pa- and the courfe of it was parallel with the channel. It
was bared by the flood about 25 yards only in length,
but was evidently continued for feveral further ; ha-
tient.
Mtucr-Way.
See Astronomy-/«</(?.v.
MILL, a machine for grinding corn, &c. of which ving originally begun, as the nature of the ground
there are various kinds, according to the different evinces, juft above the large curve in the channel of
methods of applying the moving power
mills, wind-mills, mills worked by horfes, &c.
Mechanics, Sedl. V.
water- the Medlock.
See For the firft five or fix centuries of the Roman ftate,
there were no public bread-bakers in the city of Rome.
The firft obvious method of reducing corn into flour They were firft introduced into it from the eaft, at the
for bread would be, by the fimple expedient of pound- conclufion of the war with Perfeus, and about the year
mg. And that was for ages the only one which was
praftifed by the various defeendants of Adam, and ac¬
tually continued in ufe among the Romans below the
167 before Chrift. And, towards the clofe of the
firft century, the Roman families were fupplied by
them every morning with frefh loaves for breakfaft;
reign of Vefpafian. But the procefs. was very early But the fame cuftom, which prevailed originally among
improved by the application of a grinding power, and the Romans and many other nations, has continued
the introdudlion of mill-ftones. This, like moft of nearly to the prefent time among the Mancunians. The
the common refinements in domeftic life, was pro- providing of bread for every family was left entirely
bably the invention of the antediluvian world, and to the attention of the women in it. And it was
certainly pradtifed in fome of the earlieft ages after it. baked upon (tones, which the Welih denominate grei-
And, like moft of them, it was equally known in the dioU and we gredles. It appears, however, from the
eaft and weft. Hence the Gauls and Britons appear kiln-burnt pottery which has been difeovered in the
familiarly acquainted with the ufe of hand-mills be- Britifli fepulchres, and from the Britifir appellation of
fore the time of their fubmilfion to the Romans ; the an odyn or oven remaining among us at prefent, that
Britons particularly diftinguifliing them, as the High- furnaces for baking were generally known among the
landers and we diftinguiih them at prefent, by the original Britons. An odyn would, therefore, be erec*
fimple appellations of qverns, carnet, or Jlones. And ted at the manfion of each Britifti baron, for the ufe
to thefe the Romans added the very ufeful invention of himfelf and his retainers. And, when he and they
ox water-mills. For this difeovery the world is pretty removed into the vicinity of a Roman ftadon, the oven
certainly indebted to the genius of Italy ; and the would be rebuilt with the manfion, and the public
machine was not uncommon in the country at the bakehoufes of our towns commence at the firft foun-
conqueft of Lancafhire. This, therefore, the Romans dation of them. One bakehoufe would be conftruded,
would necefiarily introduce with their many other re- as we have previoufly ftiown one mill to have been fet
finements among us. And that they aftually did, up, for the public fervice of all the Mancunian families,
the Britilh appellation of a ’water-mill fully fuggefts One oven and one mill appear to have been equally
of itfelf; the melin of the Welfli and Cornifh, the eltabliflied in the town. And the inhabitants of it ap-
mull, meill, and melin of the Armoricans, and the pear immemorially accuftomed to bake at the one and
Irilh muikan and mullind, being all evidently derived giind at the other. Both, therefore, were in all pro-
from the Roman mala and molendinwn. The fubjeft bability conftrufted at the firft introduftion of water-
Britons univerfally adopted the Roman name, but ap- mills and ovens into the country. The great fimilarity
plied it, as we their fucceffors do, only to the Ro- of the appointments refers the confideration direftly
man mill; and one of thefe was probably erefted at to one and the fame origin for them. And the gene*
tVhttaher's every ftationary city in the kingdom. One plainly ral nature of all fuch inftitutions points immediately to
Jilftcry of was at Manchefter, ferving equally the purpofes of the firft and aftual introduftion of both. And, as the
MuncbejUr. the
town and the accommodation of the garrifon. fame ellablifhments prevailed equally in other parts of
And one alone would be fufficient, as the ufe of hand- the north, and pretty certainly obtained over all the ex¬
mills remained very common in both, many having been ter< of Roman Britain, the fame ereftions were as cer-
found about the lite of the llation particularly; and tainly made at every ftationary town in the kingd<—
the general praftice having defeended among us nearly
to the prefent period. Such it would be peculiarly
MILL (John), a very learned divine, was born at
Shap in Weftmoreland, about the year 164 5; and be-
r   r\..C i /A., l*
neceflary to have in the camp, that the garrifon might <-ame a fervitor of Queen’s college Oxford. On hia
be provided againft a fiege. And the water-mill at entering into orders he became an eminent preacher,
Manchefter was fixed immediately below the Caftle- and was made prebendary of Exeter. In t68i, he
field and the town, and on the channel ot the Medlock.
There, a little above the ancient ford, the fluice of it
was accidentally difeovered about 30 years ago. On
is created doftor of divinity; about the fame time he
was made chaplain in ordinary to King Charles II. and
685 he w'as elefted principal of St Edmund’s hall
the margin of Dyer’s-croft, and oppofite to fome new in Oxford. His edition of the Greek Teftament,
conftruftions, the current of the river, accidentally which wall ever render his name memorable, was pub-
fwelled with the rains, and, obftrufted by a dam, broke lilhed about a fortnight before his death, which hap-
N° 2 21. pened
MIL [ 25 ] MI L
Mill pened in June 1707. Dr Mills was employed 30 years
niene PrePar'n£
' ener‘ MILL-stone, the ftone by which corn is ground.
t The mill-ftones which we find preferved from ancient
times are all fmall, and very different from thofe in
. ufe at prefent. Thorefby mentions two or three fuch
found in England, among other Roman antiquities,
which were but 20 inches broad; and there is great
reafoh to believe that the Romans, as well as the
Egyptians of old, and tf\e ancient Jew’s, did not em^
ploy horfes, or wind, or water, as we do, to turn
their mills, but made their fiaves and captives of war
do this laborious work : .they were in this fervice
placed behind thefe mill-ftones, and pufhed them on
with all their force. Sampfon, when a prifoner to
the Philiftines, was treated no better, but was con¬
demned to the mill-ftone in his prifon. The runner
or loofe mill-ftone, in this fort of grinding, was ufually
very heavy for its fize, being as thick as broad. This
is the mill-ftone which is exprefsly prohibited in fcrip-
ture to take in pledge, as lying loofe it was more
cafily removed. The Talmudifts have a ftory, that
the Chaldeans made the young men of the captivity
carry mill-ftones with them to Babylon, where there
feems to have been a fcarcity at that time; and hence,
probably, their paraphrafe renders the text “ have
borne the mills, or mill-ftones which might thus
be true in a literal fenfe. They have alfo a proverbial
exprefiion of a man with a mill-ftone about his neck ;
which they ufe to exprefs a man under the fevereft
weight of affliftion. This alfo plainly refers to this
fmall fort of ftones. .
Rhenijh Stone, is claffed by Cronftedt among
the volcanic produ&s, on account of its appearance,
which is a blackiih grey, porous, and perfectly re-
fembling a lava of Mount Vefuvius.
MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts, a, name gi¬
ven to thofe, in the primitive ages, who believed that
the faints will reign on earth with Chrift 1000 years.
See Millenium.
MILLENER, or Milliner, one who fells rib-
• bands and dreifes, particularly head-dreffes, for wo¬
men ; and who makes up thofe dreffes.
Of this word different etymologies have been gi¬
ven. It is not derived from the French ; for, through
fome ftrange fatality, the Frenph cannot exprefs the
notion of millener, otherwife than by the circumlocu¬
tion" marchand or marchande des modes.
Neither is it derived from the Low-Dutch language,
the great, but neglefted, magazine of the Anglo-
Saxon. For Sewell, in his Dictionary Englifh and
Dutch, 1708; deferibes m'dlener to be “ en kraamer
van lint en andere optonifelon, Franfche kraamer
that is, “ a pedlar who fells ribbons and other trim¬
mings or ornaments ; a French pedlar.”
Littleton, in his Englifti and Latin ditftionary, pub-
lifhed 1677, defines rr.ille'ner, “a jack of all trades
q. d. miHenarius, or milk mercium vetiditor; that is,
“ one who fells a thoufand different forts of things.”
This etymology feems fanciful: But, if he rightly un-
derftood the vulgar meaning of the word mdiener in his
time, we muft hold that it then implied what is now
termed “ a haberdafher of fmall wares,” one who dealt
• in various articles of petty merchandife, and who did
hot make up the goods which he fold.
Vox. XII. Part I.
Before Littleton’s time; however, a fomewhat nicer Milienef
charaiteriftic than feenls cotnpatible with his jiotion, ,
appears to have belonged to them ; fqr Shakefpeare, ‘ ‘' 1
in his Henry IV. makes Hotfpur, when complaining
of the daintinefs of a courtier, fay,
“ He waslike a millener.”
The fa ct feems to be, that there were milleners of
feveral kinds : as, irorfe-miilener:, (for fo thofe perfons
were called who make ornaments of coloured worfted
for horfes) ; haberdaihers of fmall wares, the mhleners
of Littleton; and'm/'&nfrj- fuch as thofe now peculiarly
known by that name, whether male or female,and to
whom Shakefpeare’s allufion feems moft appropriate.
Laftly, Dr Johnfon, in his Diftionary, derives the ’
word from m'daner, an inhabitant of Milan, from
w'hence people of this profeffion firft came, as a Z,cwi-
bard is a banker.
MILLE passus, or Millia Pajfuum ; a very com¬
mon expreffion among the ancient Romans for a mea-
fure of diltance, commonly called a mile. Milliarium,
rarely, ufed. Which Hefychius made to confift of
feven ftadia ; Plutarch, little fhort of eight; but many
others, as Strabo and Polybius, make it juft eight
ftadia. The reafon of this difference feems to be,
fliat the former had a regard to the Grecian foot,
which is greater than the Roman or Italic. This di-
ftance is oftentimes called lapis, which fee. Each
paffus confifted of ftve feet, (Columella).
MILLENIUM, “a thoufand years generally
employed to denote the thoufand years, during which,
according toan ancient traditioji in the church,ground¬
ed on fome doubtful texts in the Apocalypfe and other
feriptures, our bleffed Saviour lhall reign with the
faithful upon earth after the firft refurreftion, before
the finaj completion of beatitude.
Though there has been no age of the church in
which the millenium was not admitted by individual
divines of the firft eminence, it is yet evident from the
writings of Eufebius, Irenaeus, Origen, and others
among the ancients, as well as from the hiftories of
Dupin, Mofheim, and all the moderns, that it was
never adopted by the whole church, or,made an ar¬
ticle of the eftablifhed creed in any nation.
About the middle of the fourth century the .mil-
lenians held the following tenets : .
i/l. That the city of Jerufalem fhonld be rebuilt,
and that the land of Judea fhould be the habitation of
thofe who were to reign on earth 1000 years.
2cfy,That the firft refur reef ion was not to be confined
to the martyrs; but that after the fall of Antichrift all
the juft were to rife, and all that were on the earth
were to continue for that fpace of time.
yl/y, That Chrift (hall then come down from hea¬
ven, and be feen on earth, and reign there with his
fervants.
Atlly, That the faints during this period fiiall enjoy
all the delights of a terreftrial paradife. $
Thefe opinions were founded upon feyeral paffr-
ges of feripture, which the millenarians among the
fathers underftood in no other than a literal, fenfe,
but which the moderns, whojhold that opinion, con-
fider as partly literal and partly metaphorical. Of
thefe palfages, that upon which the gre^teft ft refs has
been laid, v/e believe to be the following:—“And
1 faw an angel come down from heaven, having the
D key
MIL I 26 1 MIL
Millenium. J<ey Gf t]ie ^ottomlejfs pit, and a great chain in his
hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old fer-
pent, which is,the devil and Satan, and bound him
a thoufand years, and caft. him into the bottomlefs pit,
and fhut him np, and fet a feal upon him, that he
Ihould deceive the nations no more tiiltke thouf and years
fliould be. fulfilled ; and after that he muil be loofed
a little feafon. And 1 faw thrones, and they fat up¬
on them, and judgment was given unto them ; and
I faw the fouls of them that were beheaded for the
witnefs of Jefus, and for the word of God, and which
had not worfhipped the bead, neither his image, nei¬
ther had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in
their hands; and they lived and reigned with- Chrift
a thoufand^years. But the reft of the dead lived not
again till the thoufand years were pwjhed. This is the
* Rom. xx. iicft refurredtion This pafiage all the ancient
1 millenarianstook in a fenfe grofsly literal; and taught,
that during the millenium the faints on earth were
to enjoy every bodily delight. The moderns, on the
other hand, conlider the power and pleafure of this
kingdom as wholly fpiritual; and they reprefent them
as not to commence till after the conflagration of the
prefent earth. But that this laft fuppohtion is a mi-
ftake, the very next verfe except one affures ns : for
we are there told, that “when the thoufand years are
expired, Satan fliall be loofed out of his prifon, and
ftall go out to deceive the nations which are in the
four quarters of the earth and we have no reafon to
believe that he will have fuch power or fuch liberty in
“ the new heavens and the new earth wherein dwelleth
righteoufnefs.”
Bor this and other reafons, which our limits will
rot permit us to enumerate, the moft judicious critics
contend, that the prophecies of the millenium point,
not to a relurredlion of martyrs and other juft men to
neign with Chrift a thoufand years in a viftble kingdom
upon earth, but to that ftate of the Chriftian church,
which, for a thoufand years before the general judge¬
ment, will be fo pure and fo widely extended, that,
when compared with the ftate of the world in the ages
preceding, it may, in the language of feripture, be call¬
ed a refurre&ion from the dead. In fupport of this
interpretation they quote two paffages from St Paul,
in which a converlion from Paganifm to Chriftianity,
and a ^reformation of life, is called a refurredfion from
the dead :—“ Neither yield ye your members as inftru-
ments of unrighteoufnefs unto fin; but yield your-
§ Rom. vi. felves unto God asthofe that are alive from the dead§:’>
And again, “ Wherefore he faith, Awake thou that
fleepeft, and arife from the dead, and Chrift {hall give
I Eph. v, thee light t-” It is likewife to be obferved, that in
34* all the deferiptions of the refurredtion and future judge¬
ment which are given us at fuch length in the gofpels
and epiftles, there is no mention made of a jirjl and
fecond refurredtion at the diftance of a thoufand years
from each other. There is indeed an order in the re-
f 1 Chron. furredlion : for we are told f, that “ every man {hall
xv. 23. rife jn his own. order; Chrift the firft fruits, after¬
wards they that are Chrift’s at his coming, &c.” But
were the millenarian hypothefis well founded, the
words ftiould rather have run thus: “ Chrift the firft
fruits, then the martyrs at his coming, and a thou¬
fand years afterwards the refidue of mankind. Then
cometh the end, &c.”
Thefe arguments ftrongly incline us to believe, that Milk
by the reign of Chrift and the faints for a thoufand
years upon earth, nothing more is meant, than that
before the general judgment the Jews fnall be convert¬
ed, genuine Cbriftianity be diffufed through all na¬
tions, and mankind enjoy that peace and happinefs
.which the faith and precepts of the gofpel are calcu¬
lated to confer on all by whom they are fincerely em¬
braced.
Our Saviour’s own account of his religion is, that
from a fmall beginning it will increafe to the full
harveft. The millenium therefore is to be confidered
as the full effeft of the Chriftian principles in the hearts
of men, and over the whole world; and the divines
who have treated of this fubjeift endeavour to prove,
that this is to be expefted from the fa<fts which have
already exiited, and from the importance of the Chri¬
ftian dodtrine.
r. The gradual pr-ogrefs of Chriftianity is no ob-
jefkion to this fact. This is fimilar to the progrefs and
advancement from lefs to greater perfection in every
thing which poflefies vegetable or animal life. Tire
fame thing is obferved in the arts, in civilization, in
focieties, and in individuals—and why {hould it not
be admitted to have place in religion ? There is in¬
deed a general principle on which a gradual progrel-
fion, both in the natural and moral woJd, is founded.
The Almighty never employs fupernatural means
where the thing can be accomplifhed by thofe which
are natural. This idea is of the moft general extent
through the whole of the prefent fyftem of nature.
The poffibility of another plan could eafily be admit¬
ted ; but in this cafe there would be a total alteration
of every part of the works of God or of man that we
are acquainted with. In the fame manner, if the re¬
ligion of Chrift had been irrefiftible, it would have to¬
tally altered its natural confequences. It was necef-
fary, therefore, from the prefent condition of man, as
an aftive, intelligent, and accountable being, that
means (hould be employed ; and wherever means are
employed, the effects produced muft be gradual, and
not inftantaneous.
2. Though the progrefs of a divine revelation be
gradual, yet it is to be expefted, from the wifdonv
and compaffion of God, that it will ftill be advancing-
in the hearts of men, and over the world. In the
firft age of the church, the word of God, fupported
by miracles, and by the animated zeal of men, who
fpake what they faw and heard, grew and prevailed.
In this cafe fupernatural means were neceifary, be-
caafe the prejudices of the world could not.be fubdu.--
ed without them. It was the firft watering of a pla-nt
which you afterwards leave to the dew of heaven.
Miracles at the fame time were employed only as the
means of convi&ion; and they were not continued,
becaufe in this cafe they would have become a con-
ftant and irrefiftible principle, incompatible with the.
condition of man as a reafonable agent. After this
power was withdrawn, there were many ages of igno¬
rance and fuperftition in the Chriftian church. But
what is necdlary to be eftabliftied on this fubjeft is,
not that the progrefs of Chriftianity has never been
interrupted, but thafron the whole it has been advan¬
cing. The effe&s of this religion on mankind, in
proportion as it was received, were immediate and vi-
fibk:
.3
MIL [ :
MH’eniuai. fill It: It deftroyed the grofs fupcrfiition of idol-wor-
fliip ; jt aboliflied the praftice, which was general in
the heatlien world, of reducing to the loweft ftate of
fervitude the greateft part of our brethren : it foftened
the horrors of war even when the vices of mankind
made defence neceffary : it entered into focial and pri¬
vate life ; and taught men benevolence, humanity, and
mercy. It is in thefe bleffed ehefts that we can ob-
ferve the progrefs of Chriftianity even to this day.
Superftition and idolatry were foon engrafted on the
ftem which our Saviour planted in the world ; but the
fimplicity of the gofpel has been gradually undermi¬
ning the fabric of fuperftition ; and the men who are
molt nearly interefted in the deceit are now almoft
afnamed to fhow their faces in the caufe. The prac¬
tice of flavery has, generally fpeaking, been extin-
guifhed in the Chriltian world ; yet the remains of it
have been a difgrace to the Chriftian name, and the
profeffors of that religion have now begun to fee the
inconliftency. War is not only carried on with lefs
animofity, and kfs havoc of the human fpecies; but
men begin to cultivate move generally, and to delight
in, the arts of peace. The increaiing fpirit of charity
and benevolence, of which it were eafy to give unex-
amylel inftances in the prefent age, is a decided proof
of the increafing influence of Chriftianity. At the
fame time, if, inftead of thefe g-eneral principles, we
were to defcend to private examples of infidelity or
of wickednefs, it would be eafy to bring proofs in
fupport of an oppofite opinion : but the reafoning
would by no means be equally conclufive ; for if the
general principles by which fociety is regulated be
more liberal and merciful, it is evident that there is
more goodnefs in a greater number of the human race.
Society is nothing more than a colleftion of individu¬
als ; and the general tone, efpccially when it is on the
fide of virtue, which almoft in every inftance oppofes
the defigns of leading and interefted men. is a certain
evidence of the private fpirit. “To fliow that this re¬
formation is connefted with Chriftianity, it is unne-
ceffary to ftate any comparifon between the influence
of heathen and the influence of Chriftian principles j
between civilization as depending on the powers of the
human underftanding, and on the efficacy of the word
of God. The whole of this controverfy may be ap-
, pealed to an obvious fact, viz. that as any nation has
come nearer to the fimplicity of the gofpel in the
ftandard of its worftiip, it has been more poflefled of
thofe national virtues which we have aferibed to the
influence of Chriftianity. This faft is worth a thou-
fand volumes of {peculation on this fubjeft.
3. A revelation fanftioned by God, for a benevolent
purpofe, will be expefted to produce effects corre-
fponding to the wifdom which gave it, and to the pur-
pofe for which it is employed. It may be gradual;
but it will be increafing, and it muft increafe, to the
fuU.harveft. He that has begun the good work will
alfo finifh it. It is reafonable to expeft this illuftrious
fuccefs of the gofpel, both from the nature of the
- thing, and from the prophecies contained in the facred
fferiptures. The precepts of the gofpel, in their ge¬
nuine fenfe, are admirably calculated for the peace and
welfare bqth of individuals and fociety. The greateft
liberality of mind, the greateft generofity of temper,
the moft unbounded love, and the greateft indifference
7 1 M I L
to the accumulation of this world’s property, if'they Millenium,
glowed from breaft to bread, and operated with equal —~v—
force on all men, would be produftive of equal good
and happinefs to all. We are fcarCely able to perceive
the force of this at firft view, becaufe the deceit and
impofition which yet exift in the world, prevent the
operation of the beft principles even in the beft hearts.
But in proportion to the improvement of mankind,
what is their real intereft, and what are the-real ob-
jefts of happinefs, will gradually unfold. The con¬
tempt of vice will be greater in proportion to the fcar-
city of it: for one villain gives countenance and fup¬
port to another, juft as iron fharpeneth iron. This
opens to our view another faft connefted with the
practice of Chriftianity, namely, that the nearer it
arrives to its perfeft ftate, it will be the more rapid
in its progrefs. The beauty of holinefs will be more
vifible; and, in the ftrong language of the prophet,
“ the earth ftiall bring forth in one day, and a nation
lhall be born at once This future perfeftion of the % jf
gofpel is conflftent with its nature and importance.— 3.
We can fcarcely believe that means fo admirably adapt¬
ed to the reformation of mankind ftiould be without
their effeft; and if the moft difficult part be already
accomplifhed, we have no reafon to apprehend that the
fcheme will not be completed. This faft is alfo clear¬
ly the fubjeft of ancient prophecy. For “ thus faith
the Lord f, I will extend peace to her like a river, f Ver. n,
and the glory of the Gentiles like a flowing ftream, 23.
And it ffiall come to pafs, from one fabbath to ano¬
ther, and from one new moon to another, fiiall all
fifth come to worihip before me, faith the Lord.”—■
“ Violence fhall be no more heard in thy land, wafting
nor deftruftion within thy border ; but thou (halt call
thy walls falvation, and thy gates praife.” (If.lx. 18.)
Without entering more minutely on the prophecy
already quoted from chap. xx. of the book of the Reve¬
lation, it is fufficient to obferve, that Dr Whitby, in
his treatife on the millenium at the end of his com¬
mentary, proves, in the cleareft manner, from the fpi¬
rit of the paffage and the fimilarity of the expreffions
with thofe of other prophets, that it refers to a ftate
of the church for a thoufand years, which ftiall be like
life from the dead. The commencement of this period
is connefted with two events ; the fall of antichrift,
and the converlion of the Jews. The latter of thefe
events muft be confidered as a key to all the prophe¬
cies concerning the millenium. As the Jews were the
ancient people of God, and as their converfion is to
be the previous ftep to the general knowledge of Chrif¬
tianity, the prophecies of the millenium have a chief
relation to this important event. We have already ob-
ferved, that God never interpofes with miraculous
power to produce what can be effefted by natural
means ; and from what we know of human nature, we
cannot but perceive that the converfion of the Jews
will powerfully operate to the general converfion of
mankind. Freed from thofe prejudices which now
make them the objefts of hatred in all nations, and
fired with thatjteal by which new converts are always
aftuated, they will prea<;h the gofpel with a fervour
of which we, who have long been bleffed with its rays,
can hardly form a conception ; and, by their prefent
difperfioa over the whole earth, they will be enabled
to adapt their inftruftions to every individual of the
L 2 human
MIL l 2-
Millepes human race in the language ®f his fathers. Indeed, if
II they are not at fume future period to he employed by
JV'IiiLarium.Providence for this purpofe, it is difficult, if not ifn-
v~~ poffible, to give any reafon for their difperfed ftate
and political exigence. Juft now it muft be confefl-
ed that they are the moil implacable enemies of the
Chriftian name ; but their converfion is not on that ac¬
count more unlikely or improbable than were events
which have taken place of nearly equal importance a
very few years ago. On the whole, the perfetftion of
■ Chfiftianity is a do£lrine of reafonab’e expedftation to
the church ; and it is impoffible for the advocates for
natural religion to deny, that unlimited obedience to
its precepts is confiftent with the pureft ftate of liber¬
ty and of happinefs. This is the only millenium which
the prophets and apoftles, as " e underftand them, pro-
inifeto the faints ; but as men figuring in the very firft
ranks of learning have thought otherwife, we would
not be too confident that our interpretation is juft.—
Such of our readers as wiffi for further information,
will find it in the work', of Mr Mede, biffiop Newton,
Dr Whitby, and Dr Gill; and to thofe mafterly wri-
ters we refer them for that fatisfadlion which in fuch ,
an article as this cannot be given.
MILLEPES, or wood-lousi-, in zoology ; a fpe-
eies of Oniscus. Thefe infefts are found in cellars,
under ftones, and in cold moift places ; in the warmer
countries they are rarely met with. Millepedes have
a faint difagreeable fmell, and a fomewhat pungent,
fweetifh, naufeous tafte. They have been highly ce¬
lebrated in fuppreffions of urine, in all kinds of ob-
fku&ions of the bowels, in the jaundice, weaknefs of
fight, and a variety of other diforders. Whether they
have any juft title to thefe virtues is greatly to be
doubted ; thus mych is certain, that their real effects
come far fhort of the charadler ufually give them.
. MILLEPORA, in natural hiftory, a name by
which Linnaeus diftinguilhes that genus of lithophytes,
of a hard ftru&ure and full of holes, which are not
ftellate or radiated, and whofe animal is the hydra, in
which it differs from the madrepora, and comprehend¬
ing 14 different fpecies.
In the millepora the animal which forms and inha¬
bits it occupies the fubftance ; and it is obferved that
the milleporae grow upon one another ; their little ani¬
mals produce their fpawn ; which attaching itfelf ei¬
ther to the extremity of the body already formed, or
underneath it, gives a different form to this produc¬
tion. Hence the various fhapes of the millepora,
which is compofed of an infinite number of the cells
of thofe little infefts, which all together exhibit diffe¬
rent figures, though every particular cellula has its ef-
fential form, and the fame dimenfions, according to
its own fpecies.
MILLET, in botany. See Milium.
MILLIARD, or Milliarium, a Roman mile,
which confifted of ipo paces, mille p^Jfus, whence the
name.
MILLIARIUM aureum, was a gilded pillar in
the forum of Rome, at which all the highways of
Italy met, as one common centre. From this pillar
the miles were counted, and at the end of every mile
a ftone was put down. The milliary column was
eredted by Auguftus Caefar, and, as we are informed
travellers, is ftffi to be feem
1 MIL
MILLING of Cloth. See Fulling. M
MILLION, in arithmetic, the fum of ten hundred
thoufand, or a thoufand times a thoufand. See A-
RITHMETIC.
MILLO, a part of mount Zion at its extremity ;
and therefore called Mit’o of the city of David
(2 Chron. xxxii.), taken in with the wall that encom-
paffed mount Zion. Uncertain whether Beth-Millo*
(Judges ix. 20.) denotes a place ; if it did, it lay near
Sechem.
MILLOT (Claude Francis Xavier), of the French
academy, was born at Befan5on March 1726, and was
for fome time a Jefuit. He was confecrated for the
pulpit, and continued to preach after he left the fo-
ciety : But the weaknefs of his voice, his timidity,
and the awkwardnefs of his manner, not permitting-
him to continue in this profefiion, he relinquilhed it,
although he had preached Advent fermons at Verfailles,
and Lent fermons at Luneville. The Marquis de Fe-
lino,- minifter of Parma, inilituted an hiftorical clafa
for the benent of the young nobility ; and, at the de¬
fire of M. le Due de Nivernois, he gave the charge of
it to the Abbe Millot. The minifter having occafion-
ed a kind of rebellion among the people by fome in¬
novations which he had made in the ftate, the Abbe
continued attached^to the intcrefts of his patron, and
would not defert him till the ftorm was blown over.
When he was told that he would lofe his place by
this conduCl, he replied, “ My place is with a virtu¬
ous perfecuted man wh,> has been my benefa&or; and
that I ffiall never lofe.” At length, having filled the
hiftorical chair with great approbation, he returned to
France, and was appointed preceptor to M. 1c Due
d’Enghien. In this fituation he died, A. D. 1785,
aged 59. The Abbe Millot did not (hine in company ;
he was cold and referved in his manner ; but every¬
thing he laid was judicious, and exadlly in point.—
D’Alembert faid, that of all his acquaintance the Abbe
Millot had the feweft prejudices and the leaft preten-
fion. He compofed feveral works, which are digeft-
ed with great care, and written in a pure, Ample, and
natural ftyle. The principal are, 1. Element de I’Hif-
toire de France, depuis Clovis ju/que a Louis XIV. 3 vols
in i2mo. The author, feleiting the moft curious and
important fa6ls, has fupprefied every thing foreign to
the fubjeft; and has not only arranged the materials in
their proper order, but chofen them with the greateft
judgment. Querlon thought this the beft abridgment
which we have of the hiftory of France, and prefer¬
red it to that of the Prefident Henault. 2. Element de
VHijloire d'Anghterre, depuis fon origine fous let Romains,
jufqu’ d George II. 3 vols i2mo. In this valuable
abridgment, the author fatisfies, without tiring, his
readers. It is all that is neceffary for thofe who wilh
to gain a general knowledge of the Englilh hiftory,
without entering minutely into its particular parts.—
3. Element de I'HiJbire Univerfelle, 9 vols. 12mo. A
certain critic maintains, that this work is merely a
counterfeit of Voltaire’s general hiftory. But this cen-
fure is altogether unjuft. The ancient hiftory in this
work is wholly compofed by the Abbe Millot; and, no
lefs than the modern part, difeovers his abilities in the
choice of fafts, in divefting them of ufelefs cireum-
ftances, in relating them without prejudice, and in
adorning them with judicious reflections. 4. L'Hi?
Join.
MIL [ 29 ] MIL
M il t, Jlo'ire des Troubadour \, 3 vols. 121110, compiled from the
Mll°' manufcripts of M. de Sainte-Palaie. This work ap¬
pears rather tedious, becaufe it treats of men ajmoft
unknown, and mod of them deferving to be fo. What
is there quoted from the Provencal poets is not at all
interefting ; and, according to the obfervation of a
man of wit, “ it ferves no purpofe to fearch curioufly
into a heap'of old ruins while we have modern palaces
to engage our attention ” 5, Memoires pohtiques et Mi-
Utdires, pour fervir >, I’HiJloire de Louis XIV. el de
Louis XV. compofed from original papers collefted by
Adrian Maurice due de Noailles, marfhal of France,
in 6 vols 12mo. 6. The Abbe Millot publifhed alfo
feveral Difcourfes, in which he difeuffes a variety of
philofophical queftions, with more ingenuity of argu¬
ment than fire of expreffion j and a tranflatjon of the
moft feledt harangues in the Latin hiftorians ; of which
it has been remarked, as well as of the orations ot the
Abbe d’Olivet, that they are coldly correft, and ele¬
gantly infipid. The charader of the author, more
prudent and circumfpedl than lively and animated, fel-
dom elevated his imagination above a noble fimplicity
without warmth, and a pure ilyle without oftentation.
Some of the critics, however, have accufed him of de¬
clamation in lome parts of his hiftories, particularly in
thofe parts which^oncern the clergy: But, in our opi¬
nion, the word declamation is totally inapplicable to
' the writings of the Abbe Millot. He flatters, it L
true, neither priefts nor ftatefmen ; ancf he relates more
inftances of vicious than of virtuous a&ions, becaufe
the one are infinitely more common than the other:
But he relates them coldly; and he appears, to be
guided more by fmcerity and a love of truth, than by
that partial philofophy which blames the Chriftian re¬
ligion for thofe evils which it conde'mns.
MILO, a celebrated athlete of Crotona in Italy.
His father s name was Diotimus. He early accuttom-
ed himfelf to carry the greatelt burdens, and by de¬
grees became a prodigy of ftrength. It is faid that he
carried on his ftioulders a young bullock, four years
old, for above forty yards ; and afterwards killed it
with one blow of his fill, and eat it up in one day.
He was feven times crowned at the Pythian games,
and fix at the Olympian. He prefented himfelf a fe-
venth time ; but no one had the coinage or boldnefs to
enter the lifts againft him. He was one of the dif-
ciples of Pythagoras ; and to his uncommon flxength,
it is faid, the learned preceptor and his pupils owed
their life : The pillar which fupported the roof of
the fchool fuddcnly gave way ; but Milo fupported
the whole weight of the building, and gave the philo-
fopher and his auditors time to efcape. In his old age,
Milo attempted to pull up a tree by the roots, and
break it He partly effe&ed it ; but his flrength being
gradually exhaufted, the tree when half clHt re-united,
and his hands remained pinched in the body of the
tree. He was then alone ; and, being unable to dif-
entangle himfelf, he was devoured by the wild beafts
of the place, about 500 years before the Chriftian
sera.
Milo (T. Annius), a native of Lanuvium, who
attempted to obtain the confulfhip at Rome by intrigue
and mditious tumults. Clodius the tribune oppofed
his views ; yet Milo would have fucceeded but for the
following event: As he was going into the country,
attended by his wife and a numerous retinue of gladi¬
ators and fervants, he met on the. Appian road his
enemy Clodius, who was returning to Rome with three
of his friends and fome domeftics completely armed.—•
A quarrel arofe between the fervants. Milo fupport¬
ed his attendants, and the difpute became general -—
Clodius received many fevere wounds, and was obliged
to retire to a neighbouring cottage. Milo purfued his
enemy in his retreat, and ordered his ferv£nts to dif-
patch him. The body of the murderdd tribune was'
carried to Rome, and expofed to public view. The
enemies of Milo inveighed bitterly againft the violence'
and barbarity with which the facred perfon of a tribune
had been treated. Cicero undertook the defence of
Milo; but the continual clamours of the friends of
Clodius, and the fight of an armed foldiery, which
furrounded the feat of judgment, fo terrified the ora¬
tor, that he forgot the greateft part of his .arguments,
and the defence he made was weak and injudicious.—•
Milo was condemned, and banilhed to Maffilia. Ci¬
cero foon after fent his exiled friend a copy of the ora¬
tion which he had prepared for his defence, in the
form in which we have it now ; and Milo, after he had
read it, exclaimed, 0 Cicero, badj} thou fpoken before my
accufers in thefe terms, Milo would not be now eating fgs
at Murfeilles. The friendlhip arid cordiality of Cicero
and Milo were the fruits of long intimacy and familiar
intercourfe. It was to the fuccefsful labours of Milo
that the orator was recalled from banifhrnent, and re-
ftored to his friends.
MILO, (anciently Melos), an ifland in the Archipe¬
lago, about 50 miles in circumference, with a harbour,
which is one of the largeft in the Mediterranean. The
principal town is of the fame name as the ifland, and
was prettily built, but abominably nafty : the houfes
are two ftories high, with flat roofs ; and are built
with a fort of pumice-ftone^ which is hard, blackifh,
and yet very light.
This ifland was formerly rich and populous, From
the earlieft times of antiquity it enjoyed pure liberty.
The Athenians, not being able to perfuade the Melians
to declare in their favour in the Peloponnefian war,
made a defeent upon the ifland, and attacked them vi-
goroufly. In two different expeditions they failed of
their purpofe: but returning with more numerous
forces, they laid fiege to Melos; and, obliging the
befieged to furrender at diferetion, put to the fword
all the men who were able to bear arms. They fpared
only the women and children, and thefe they carried
into captivity. This aft of cruelty puts humanity to
the blufli, and difgraces the Athenian name. But war
was then carried on with a degree of wild rage, unex¬
ampled in the prefect times. Republics know not
how to pardon, and always carry their vengeance to
an extravagant height. When Lyfander, the Lacede¬
monian general, came to give law to the Athenians,
he expelled the colony which they had fent to Melos,
and re-eftablilhed the unfortunate remains of its origi¬
nal inhabitants.
This ifland loft its liberty when Rome, afpiring to
the empire of the world, conquered all the ifles of the
Archipelago. In the partition of the empire, it fell
to the fharri of the eaftern emperors, vfras governed by
particular dukes, and was at laft conquered by Soli-
man II. Since that period, it has groaned under the
MIL [ 3° ] M I L
yoke of Turkifh defpotifm, and hag loft its opulence To deep over-nlght, or to fpend but one day in the Mifn.
' and fplendor. At the commencement of the prefent ifland, is often enough to occafion his being attacked
century, it boafted of 17 churches, and 11 chapels, with that diftemper.
and contained more than 20,000 inhabitants. It was “ Yet (continues our author) a judicious and en-
very fertile in corn, wine, and fruits; and the whole lightened government might expel thofe evils which
fpace from the town to the harbour, which is nearly ravage Milos. Its firft care would be to eftabliih a la-
two miles, was laid out in beautiful gardens. M. Tour- zaret, and to prohibit veffels whofe crews or cargoes
nefort, who vifited it in the year 1700, gives a line are infetled with the plague from landing. Canals
defcription ofit. “ The earth, being conftantly warm- might next be cut, to drain the marfhes, whofe exha-
ed by fubterraneous fires, produced almoft without in- lations are fo pernicious. The ifland would then be
terruption plenteous crops of corn, barley, cotton, ex- re-peopled. The fulphureous vapours are not the molt
quifite wines, and delicious melons. St Elias, the noxious. Thefe prevailed equally in ancient times, yet
fineft monafteryin the ifland, and iituated on the moft the ifland was then very populous. M. Tournefort,
elevated fpot, is encircled with orange, citron, cedar, who travelled through it a time lefs diftant from the
and fg trees. Its gardens are watered by a copious period when it was conquered by the Turks, and
fpring. Olive trees, of which there are but few in when they had not yet had time to lay it wade, rec-
the other parts of the ifland, grow in great numbers kens the number of its inhabitants (as we have faid)
around this monaftery. The adjacent vineyards afford at about 20 00c. The depopulation of Miivis is there-
excellent w'ne. In a word, all the produftions of the fore to be aferibed to the defpotifm of the Porte, and
ifland are the very heft of their kinds; its partridges, its deteftable police.”
quails, kids, and lambs, are highly valued, and yet The women of Milo, once fo celebrated for their ^utieria„^,
may be bought at a very cheap price.” beauty, are now fallow, unhealthy, and difguftingly Tour up tit
on Were M. Tournefort to return to Milo, M. Savary* ugly ; and render themfelves ftill more hideous byr their Strait^
tt-affures us, he would no longer fee the fine ifland which drefs, which is a kind of loofe jacket, with a white P* *4^
he has deferibed. “ He might ftill fee alum, in the coat and petticoat, thatfearely covers two-thirdsof their
form of feathers, and fringed with iilver thread, hang- thighs, barely meeting the ftocking above the knee,
ing from the arches of the caverns ; pieces of pure Their hind hair hangs down the back in a number of
fulphur filling the cliffs of the rocks ; a variety of mi- plaits ; that on the fore part of the head is combed
neral fprings; hot baths, (though thefe are now only down each fide of the face, and terminated by a fmall
a fet of fmall dirty caves) ; the fame fubterraneous ftiffcurl, which is even with the lower part of the
fires which in his days warmed the bofom of the cheek. All the inhabitants are Greeks, for the Turks
earth, and were the caufe of its extraordinary fertility : are not fond of trufting themfelves in the fmall iflands;
but inftead of 5000 Greeks, all paying the capitation but every fummer the captain bafhaw goes round
-tax (a), he would now find no more than about 700 with a fquadron to keep them in fubjeftion, and to
inhabitants on an ifland iS leagues in circumference, colledf the revenue. When the Ruffians made them-
He would figh to behold the fineft lands lying uncul- felves matters of the Archipelago during the late war,
tivated, and the moft fertile valleys converted into mo- many of the iflands declared in their favour ; but be-
raffes; of the gardens fcarcely a veftige left; three- ing abandoned by the peace, they were fo feverely
fourths of the town in ruins, and the inhabitants daily mul&ed by the Grand Signior, that they have pro-
decreafing. In ffiort, during the laft 50 years, Milos feffed a determination to remain perfectly quiet in fu-
has affumed a quite different appearance. The plague, ture. As the Turks, however, do not think them
which the Turks propagate every where, has cut off worth a garrifon, and will not trull them with arms
one part of its inhabitants; the injudicious admini- and ammunition, all thofe which the Ruffians may
ftration of the Porte, and the oppreffive extortions of choofe to invade will be obliged to fubmit. Tire two
the Captain Pacha, have deftroyed the reft. At pre- points which form the entrance of the harbour, crof-
fent, for want of hands, they cannot cut out a free ling each other, render it imperceptible until you are
channel for their waters, which ftagnate in the valleys, clofe to it. Thus, while you are perfeftly fecure
corrupt, and infed the air with their putrid exhala- within it, you find great difficulty in getting out, par-
tions. The fait marfhes, of which there are numbers ticularly in a northerly wind ; and as no trade is car-
in the ifland, being equally negle&ed, produce the ried on except a little in corn and fait, Milo would
'fame effeds. Add to thefe inconveniences, thofe ful- fcarcely ever be vifited, were it not that, being the
phureous exhalations which arife all over the ifland, firft ifland which one makes in the Archipelago, the
and by which the inhabitants of Milos are afflided pilots have chofen it for their refidence. They live
with dangerous fevers during three-fourths of the year, in a little town on the top of a high rock, which, from
Perhaps they may be obliged to forfake their conn- its fituation and appearance, is called the Cqftle.—
try. Eveiy countenance is yellow, pale, and livid; Partridges ftill abound in this ifland; and are fo cheap,
and none bears any marks of good health. The pru- that you may buy one for a charge of powder only,
dent traveller will be careful to fpend but a very fhort The peafants get them by (landing behind a portable
time in this unwholefome country, unlefs he choofes fereen, with a fmall aperture in the centre, in which
to expofe himfelf to the danger of catching a fever, they place the muzzle of their piece, and then draw
the
(a) Grown up men are the only perfons who pay the capitation tax. Therefore, by adding to the number
of 5000 who paid the tax,, the women, boys, and girls, we find that Milos, in the days of Tournefort, con¬
tained at lead 20,000 fouls.
M I L [ 31 ] MIL
Milftane the partridges by a call. When a fuIHcient number
1' are colle&ed, they fire among them, and generally kill
Miltiadts. from four to feven at a {hot: but even this method of
Wr~ v   getting them is fo expenfive, from the fcarcity of am¬
munition, that the people can never afford to (hoot
them, except when there are gentlemen in the ifland,
from whom they can beg a little powder and {hot.
Milo is 60 miles north of Candia ; and the town
is iituated in E. Long. 2?. 15. N. Lat. 36. 27.
MILS TONE. See Mill-stone.
MILT, in anatomy, a popular name for the
SfLEEN.
Milt, or Melt, in natural hiftory, the foft roe in
fifhes; thus called from its yielding, by expreffion,
a whitifh juice refembiing milk. See Roe.
The milt is properly the feed or fpermatic part
of the male fifh. The milt of a carp is reckoned
a choice bit. It confifts of two long whitifh irre¬
gular bodies, each included in a very thin fine
membrane. M. Petit eonfiders *them as the tefti-
cles of the fifh wherein the feed is preferved; the
lower part, next the anus, he takes for the veficulx
feminaks.
MILTHORP, a port-town of Weflmoreland, at
the mouth of the Can, five miles from Kendal. It
is the only fea-port in the county ; and -goods are
brought hither in fmall veffels from Grange in Lan-
cafhire. Here are two paper-mills. It has a market
on Friday, and a fair on Old May-day ; and there is a
good ftone-bridge over the river Betha, which runs
through the town.
MILTIADES, an Athenian captain, fon of Cyp-
felus. He obtained a vi&ory in a chariot race at the
Olympic games. He led a colony of Athenians to
the Cherfonefus. The caufes of this appointment are
Uniting and Angular. The Thracian Dolonci, ha-
raffed by a long war with the Abfynthians, were di¬
rected by the oracle of Delphi to take for their king
the firfl man they met in their return home, who in¬
vited them to come under his roof and partake his
entertainments. This was Miltiades, whom the ap¬
peal ance of the Dolonci, with their ftrange arms and
garments, had ftruck. He invited them to his houfe,
and was made acquainted with the commands of the
oracle. He obeyed ; and when the oracle of Delphi
had approved a fecond time the choice of the Do¬
lonci, he departed for the Cherfonefus, and was in-
veiled by the inhabitants with fovereign power. The
firfl meafures he took was to flop the further inenr-
fions of the Abfynthians, by building a flrong wall
acrofs the Iflhmus. When he had eftablifhed himfelf
at home, and' fortified his dominions againfl foreign
ihvafion, he turned his arms againfl Lampfacus. His
[ „ expedition was unfuccefsful; he was taken in an am-
bufeade, and made prifoner. His friend Crocfus king
of Lydia was informed of his captivity, and procured
his releafe. He lived few years after he had reco-
() vered his liberty. As he had: no iffue, he left his
kingdom and pofTeffions to Stefagoras the Ton of Ci-
mon, who was his brother by the fame mother. The
memory of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the
Dolonci, and they regularly celebrated feflivals and
exhibited fhows in commemoration of a man to
whom they owed their greatnefs and prefervation.
MiLTiADEs, the fon of Cimon, and brother of
Stefagoras mentioned in the preceding article, was Miltiadei.
fome time after the death of the latter, who died with- ^
out iffue, fent by the Athenians with one Ihip to take
poffefiion of the Cherfonefus. At his arrival Mil¬
tiades appeared mournful, as if lamenting the recent
death of his brother. The principal inhabitants of
the country vifited the new governor to condole with
him ; but their confidence in his fincerity proved fa¬
tal to them. Miltiades feized their perfons, and made
himfelf abfolute in Cherfonefus. To flrengthen him¬
felf, he married Hegefipyla, the daughter of Olorus
the king of the Thracians. His triumph was fhort.
In the third year of his government, his dominions
were threatened by an invafion of the Scythian No-
mades, whom Darius had fome time before irritated
by entering their country. He fled before them ;
but as their hollilities were of fhort duration, he was
foon reftored to his kingdom. Three years after, he
left Cherfonefus ; and fet fail for Athens, where he
was received with great applaufe. He was prefent
at the celebrated battle of Marathon ; in which all
the chief officers ceded their power to him, and left
the event of the battle to depend Upon his fuperior
abilities. He obtained an important viftory over the
more numerous forces of his adverfaries. Some time
after, Miltiades was intrufled with a fleet of 70 fhips,
and ordered to punifh thofe iflands which had revolt¬
ed to the Perfians. He was fuccefsful at firll; but
a hidden report that the Perfian fleet was coming to
attack him, changed his operations as he was befieging.
Paros. He raifed the liege, and returned to Athens.
He was aecufed of treafon, and particularly of hold¬
ing correfpondence with the enemy. The falfity of
thefe accufations might have appeared, if Miltiades
had been able to come into the affembly. But a
wound which he had received before Paros detained
him at home ; and his enemies, taking advantage of
his abfence, became more eager in their accufations,.
and louder in their clamours. Pie was edndemned
to death ; but the rigour of his feutence was retract¬
ed on the recollection of his great fervices to the A-
thenians, and he was put into prifon till he had paid a
fine of 50 talents to the ftate. His inability to dif-
charge fo great a fum detained him in confinement ;
and his wounds becoming incurable, he died a pri¬
foner about 489 years before the Chriflian era. His
body was ranfomed by his fon Cimon ; who was obli¬
ged to borrow and pay the 50 talents, to give his father
a decent burial.—The accufations agaiint Miltiade*
were probably the more readily believed by his coun¬
trymen, when they remembered' how he made him-
felf abfolute in Cherfonefus; and in condemning the
barbarity of the Athenians towards a general, who
was the fource of their military profperity, we mull
remember the,jealoufy which ever reigns among a
free and independent people, and how watchful they
are in defence of the natural, rights which they fee
wrefted from others by violence. Cornelius Nepos
has written the life of Miltiades the fon of Cimon ;
but his hiflory is incongruous and unintelligible, from
his confounding the aftions of the fon of Cimon with
thofe of the fon of Cypfelus. Greater reliance is to ■
be placed on the narration of Herodotus, whofe ve¬
racity is confirmed, and who was indifputably better
informed and more capable of giving an account of
MIL [ 3
tlie life and exploints of men who flourifhed in his
age and 0f which he could fee the living monuments.
Herodotus was born about fix years after the famous
battle of Marathon ; and C. Nepos, as a writer of the
Auguftan age, flourifhed about 450 years after the
age of the father of hiftory.
MILTON (John), the moftilluftfiousof the Eng-
'lifa poets, was defcend&l of a genteel family, feated
at a place of their own name, viz. Mi/ton, in Oxford-
fln’re. He was born December 9. 1608, and received
his firft rudiments of education under the care of his
parents, afiifted by a private tutor. He afterwards
pafied fotne time at St Paul’s fchool, London; in which
city his father had fettled, being engaged in the bufi-
nefs of a ferivener. At the age of 17, he was fentto
Chrift’s college, Cambridge; where he made a great
progrefs in all parts of academical learning j but his
chief delight was in poetry. In 1628, he proceeded
bachelor of arts, having performed his exercife for it
with great applaufe. His father defigned him for the
church ; but the young gentleman’s attachment to the
mufeswas fo ftrong, that it became impofiible to engage
him in any other purfuits. In 163 ’, he took the de¬
gree of mailer of arts; and having now fpent as much
time in the univerfity as became a perfon who deter¬
mined not to engage in any of the three profefiions,
he left the college, greatly regretted by his acquaint¬
ance, but highly difpleafed with the ufual method of
training up youth there for the ftudy of divinity*, and
being much out of humour with the public adminiftra-
■ tion of ecclefiaftical affairs, he grew diffatisfied with
the eilablifhed form of church-government, and difliked
the whole plan of education prndlifed in the univerfity.
His parents, who now dwelt at Horton, near Coin-
. brook, in Buckinghamfliire, received him with una¬
bated affedlion, notwithftanding he had thwarted their
views of providing for him in the church, and they
amply indulged him in his love of retirement; wherein
he enriched his mind with the choiceft {tores of Gre¬
cian and Roman literature : and his poems of Coirius,
IJAllegro, II Penferojb, and. Lyctdas, all wrote at this
-time, would have been fuflicient, had he never produ¬
ced any thing more confiderable, to have tranfmitted
his fame to lateft pofterity. However, he was not
fo abforbed an his ftudies as not to make frequent
excurfions to London ; neither did fo much excel¬
lence pafs unnoticed among his neighbours in the
country, with the moll dillinguiflied of whom he
fometimes chofe to relax his mind, and improve his
acquaintance with the world as well as with books.
—After five years fpent in this manner, he obtained
his father’s permiflion to travel for farther improve¬
ment.—At Paris he became acquainted with the cele¬
brated Hugo Grotius ; and from thence travelling in¬
to Italy, he was every where careffed by perfons of the
moll eminent quality and learning.
, Upon his return home, he fet up a genteel academy
in Alderfgate-llreet.—In 1641, he began to draw his
pen in defence of the Prefbyterian party ; and the next
• year he married the daughter of Richard Powell, Efq;
of Foreft-PIill in Oxfordlhire. This lady, however,
whether from a difference on account of party, her
father being a zealous royalill, or fome other caufe,
/oon thought proper to return to her relations ; which
fo incenfed her hufband, that he refolved never to take
N° 22it
2 ] MIL
her again, and wrote and publilhed feveral tra&s iri
defence of the dodlrine and difi lpline of divorce. He
even made his addreffes to another lady j but this in¬
cident proved the means of a reconciliation with Mrs
Milton.
In 1644, wote his Tiadl upon Education ;
and the reftraint on the liberty of the. prefs be¬
ing continued by ail of parliament, he wrote, bold¬
ly and nobly againft that rellraint. In 1645, he
publifhed his juvenile poems ; and about two years
after, on the death of his father^ he took a fmall-
er houfe in High Holburn, the back of which o-
pened into Lincoln’s-Inn Fields.—Here he quietly
profecuted his ftudies, till the fatal cataftrophe and
death of Charles I. $ on which occafion he publilhcd
his Tenure of Kings and Magiftrates, in juflification
of the fail. He was now taken into the ferv/ce of the
commonwealth, and made Latin fecretary to the coun¬
cil of date, who refolved neither to write to others
abroad, nor to receive dny anfwers, except hi the La¬
tin tongue, which was common to them all. The fa¬
mous »"-• P>ci?LKiv.n coming out about the fame time,,
our author, by command, wrote and publifhed his Ico-
nocltjles the fame year. It was alio by order of his
mailers, backed by the reward of 19O0I. that, in 1651,-
he publifhed his celebrated piece, entitled Pro Papula
Anglicano Dejenfio. “ A Defence of the People of
England, in anfwer to Salmafius’s Defence of the
King which performance {pread bis fame over all
Europe.—He now dwelt in a pleafant houfe, with a
garden, in Petty France, Weflminfler, opening into
St James’s Park. In 16^2, he buried his wife, who
died not long after the delivery of her fourth child %
and about the fame time be-alfo loft his eye-fight, by
a gutta ferena, which had been growing upon him many
years.
Cromwell took the reigns of government into his own
hands in the year 16 73 ; but Milton flill held his of¬
fice. His leifure-hours he employed in profecuting his
ftudies 5 wherein he was fo far from being difeouraged
by the lofs of his fight, that he even conceived hopes
this misfortune would add new vigour *to his genius j
which, in fa<5t, feems to have been the cafe.— 1 bus
animated, he again ventured upon matrimony : his fe-
cond lady was the daughter of Captain Woodflock of
Hackney : fhe died in childbed about a year after.
On the depofition of the prbtedor, Richard Crom¬
well, and on the return of the long parliament, Milton
being ftill continued feerptary, he appeared again in
print; pleading for a farther reformation of the laws
relating to religion ; and, during the anarchy that en-
fued, he drew up feveral fchemes for re-eflablifhing the
commonwealth, exerting all his faculties to prevent
the return of Charles II. England's deftiny, however,
and Charles’s good fortune, prevailing, our author
chpfe to confuk his fafety, and retired to a friend’s
houfe in Bartholomew-Clol'e. A particular profc-
cution was intended againft him ; but the juft e-
ftterrr to which his admirable genius and extraor¬
dinary accomplifliments entitled him, had raifed
him fo many friends, eyen among thofe of the op-
pofite party, that he was included in the general
amnefty.
This ftorm over, he married a third wife, Elizabeth,
daughter of Mr Minftiall a Cheflirie gentleman ; and
8 not
Mi’ton.
i
MIL [ 33 1 M I M
not long after he took a houfe in the Artillery Walk,
leading to Bunhill-Fields. This was bis lait ftage :
here he fat down for a longer continuance than he had
been able to do any where ; and though he had loft
his fortune (for every thing belonging to him went to
wreck at the Reftoration), he did not lofe his tafte for
literature, but continued his ftudies with almoft as much
ardour as ever; and applied himfelf particularly to the
finifhing his grand work, the Paradife Loji; one of the
nobleft poems that ever was produced by human ge¬
nius.—It was publifhed in 1667, and his Parad'ife Re¬
gained came out in 1670.—This latter work fell fhort
of the excellence of the former production ; a'though,
were it not for the tranfcendent merit of Paradife
Loft, the fecond compofuion would doubtlefs have
ftood foremoft in the rank of Englifh epic poems.
After this he publifhed many pieces in profe; for which
we refer our readers to the edition of his Hiftorical,
Poetical, and Mifcellaneous Works, printed by Millar,
in 2 vols 4to, in 1753.
In 1674, this great man paid the laft debt to na¬
ture at his houfe in Bunhill-fields, in the 66th year
of his age; and was interred on the 12th of Novem¬
ber, in the chancel of St Giles’s, Cripplegate,-—A de¬
cent monument was erefted to his memory, in 1737,
in Weftminfter abbey, by Mr Benfon, one of the audi¬
tors of the impreft.—As to his perfon, it was remark¬
ably handfome ; but his conftitution was tender, and
by no means equal to his inceflant application to his
ftudies.—Though greatly reduced in his circumftances,
yet he died worth 15001. in money, befide his houfe-
hold goods.—He had no fon 5 but left behind him three
daughters, whom he had by his firft wife.
MILTON, the name of feveral places in England;
particularly,
Milton, or Middleton, in Dorfetfhire, fouth-weft
of Blandford, near the road to Dorchefter, 114 miles
from London. It is chiefly noted for its abbey, built
by King Athelftan. The church (lands near the fouth
fide of the abbey. It is a large and magnificent pile
of Gothic architedlure, and contains feveral ancient
monuments. Here is an alms-houfe for fix people,
who have 12 s. a-week, and three yards of cloth for a
gown, one pair of (hoes and (lockings, and 10s. each
on St Thomas’s day yearly. Here is a free-fchool,
and a market on Tuefdays.
Milton, in Kent, near Sittinbourn and the Ifle of
Sheppey, 6 miles north-weft of Feverfham, and 40
from London. It is alfo called Middleton from its fi-
tuation near the middle of the county, i. e. from Dept¬
ford to the Downs. The kings of Kent had a palace
here, which was caftellated, and ftood below the church;
but was burnt down in Edward the Confeflbr’s time
by Earl Godwin, &c. Its church Hands near a mile
off. On approaching the town up the Thames, by
the Eaft-Swale, it feems hid among the creeks: yet it
is a large town ; and has a confiderable market on Sa¬
turdays, and a fair on July 24. The oyflers taken
hereabouts are the moft famous of any in Kent. This
town is governed by a portreeve, chofen yearly on St
James’s-day, who fupervifes the weights and meafures
all over the hundred of Milton.
Milton, in Kent, a mile on theeaft fide of Grave-
fend, was incorporated with it in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, by the name of the portreeve, jurats, and
Vol. XII. Parti.
inhabitants of the towns of Gravefend and Milton.
King Henry VIII. raifed a platform or block-houfe
here, for the defence both of this town and Grave¬
fend, and the command of the river. It has a fair
Jan. 25.
MILVIUS Molvics, or MulVios, Pons; a bridge
on the Tiber, built by vEmilius Scaurus the cenfor, in
the time of Sylla, at two miles diftance from the city.
On the Via Flaminia, and repaired by Auguftus. From
this bridge the ambaffadors of the Allobroges were
brought back to Rome, by Cicero’s management, and
made a difcovery of Catiline’s confpiracy (Salluft).
Near it Maxentius was defeated by Conftantine (En-
tropius). Now called Ponte Mode.
Milvius, in ornithology, a fpecies of Falco,
MIMI, Mimes, in the ancient comedy, were buf¬
foons or mimics, who entertained the people by taking
off certain charadlers, ufing fuch geftures as fuited the
perfons or fubjefts they reprefented. There were on
the Roman ftage female performers of this kind called
mirnaf. The word is derived from I imitate.
Some of the mimi acfted their parts to the found of the
tibia ; thefe they called mimauH.
Mimi were alfo a kind of farces or ludicrous comedies,
generally performed by one perfon. They had no
a its, nor any exordium.—The mimi were introduced
upon the Roman ilage long after comedy and tragedy
had arrived at their full perfe&ion. The adlor wore
no mafic, but fmeared his face with foot, was dreffed
in lambfkin, wore garlands of ivy, and carried a bafket
of flowers and herbs, in honour of Bacchus, and di¬
verted the audience with apifh tricks and ridiculous
dances. This was the ftate of the mimi foon after their
firft introdudlion; but they underwent many altera¬
tions, which it would take up too much room to relate,
and which are not of fuflicient importance to juftify
a detailed account. See Pantomimes.
MIMESIS, in rhetoric, the imitating the voice and
geftures of another perfon.
MfMNERMUS, an ancient poet and mufician,
flourifhed about the beginning of the 6th century B. C.
He was of Smyrna, and cotemporary with Solon. A-
thenasus gives him the invention of pentameter verfe.
His elegies, of which only a few fragments are pre-
ferved, were fo much admired in antiquity, that Ho¬
race preferred them to thofe of Callimachus. He com-
pofed a poem of this kind, as we learn from Paufanias,
upon the battle fought between the people of Smyrna,
and the Lydians, under Gyges. He likewife was au¬
thor of a poem in elegiac verfe, quoted by Strabo,
which he entitled Nanno, and in which we may fup-
pofe he chiefly celebrated a young and beautiful girl
of that name, who, according to Athenaeus, was a
player on the flute, with whom he was enamoured in
his old age. With refpecl to love matters, according
to Propertius, his verfes were more valuable than all
the writings of Homer.
Plus in amore valet Mimnermi verfus Homero.
Lily. i. Eleg. 9. v. 11.
And Horace bears teftimony to his abilities, in defcri-
bing that feducing paffion :
Si Mimnermus uti cenfet, Jine amore jocifque
Nil ejl mcundum, vivas in amore jocifque.
Epift. VI. Lib. i. V. 65.
E If,
M I M C 34 1
If, as wife Mimnermus faid,
Life unbleft with love and joy 9
Ranks us with the fenfelefs dead.
Let thefe gifts each hour employ.
Alluding to fome much admired lines of this Greek
poet, which have been preferved by Stobaeus.
T(f Si Pw, ti Si Tips-vo* arip 'AppoSitm, &C.
What is life and all its pride,
If love and pleafure be denied ?
Snatch, fnatch me hence, ye fates, whene’er
The am’rous blifs I ceafe to (bare.
Oh let us crop each fragrant flow’r
While youth and vigour give us pow’r:
For frozen age will foon deftroy
The force to give or take a joy ;
And then, a prey to pain and care,
Detefted by the young and fair,
The fun’s bleft beams will hateful grow.
And only Ihine on fcenes of wo.
MIMOSA, the sensitive plant: A genus of the
polygamia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
33d order, Lomentace*. The hermaphrodite calyx is
quincp) edentate ; the corolla quinquefid ; there are five
or more ftamina, one piftil, and a legumen : The
male calyx is quinquedentate ; the corolla quinquefid ;
with five, ten, or more ftamina.
The name mimofa fignifies “mimic;” and is given
to this genus on account of the fenfibility of the leaves,
which, by their motion, mimic or imitate, as it were,
the motion of animals. See Sensitive Plant.
To this genus Linnaeus joins many of the acacias i
and it comprifes near 60 different fpecies, all natives
of warm climates. Of the forts cultivated here in our
ftoves, &c. fome are of Ihe ftirub and tree kind, and
two or three are herbaceous perennials and annuals.
The fenfitive kinds are exceedingly curious plants in
the very fingular cirqumftance of their leaves receding
rapidly from the touch, and running up clofe together;
and in fome forts the footftalks and all are affected, fo
as inftantly to fall downward as if faftened by hinges,
which laft are called humble fenfitives. They have all
winged leaves, each wing confifting of many fmall
pinnae.
In the Syjlema Vegetalilium, this genus, including
the wimo/iw properly fo called, and the acacias, is di¬
vided into feveral fedtions, diftinguiffied by the figure,
fituation, and arrangement, of the leaves; as, fimple,
fimply-pinnated, bigenlinous and tergeminous, conju¬
gate and pinnated, doubly pinnated. The following
are the moft remarkable
Species, 'with their properties. 1. The Senfttiva, or
common fenfitive humble plant, rifes'with an under-
fhrubby prickly Item, branching ftx or eight feet high,
armed with crooked fpines; conjugated, pinnated
leaves, with bijugated patial lobes or wings, having
the inner ones the leaft, each leaf on a long footftalk ;
and at the fides and ends of the branches many purple
flowers in roundifh heads; fucceeded by broad, flat,
jointed pods, in radiated clufters.—This is fomewhat
of the humble fenfitive kind ; the leaves, footftalks
and all, receding from the touch, though not with fuch
facility as in fome of the following forts.
2. The Pudica, or balhful humble plant, rifes with
M I M
an underfhrubby, declinated, prickly Item, branching Mimofa.
two or three feet around, armed with haiiy , fpines ; ——y"—
pinnated, digitated leaves, each leaf being of five or
more long folioles, attached by their bafe to a long
footftalk, and fpread out above like the finge/s of a
hand ; and at the fides and ends of the branches round¬
ifh heads of greenifh white flowers, fucceeded by fmall
jointed prickly pods.—This is truly of the humble
fenfitive kind ; for by the leaft touch the leaves inftant¬
ly recede, contraiff, clofe, and together with the foot¬
ftalk quickly decline downward, as if afhamed at the
approach of the hand.
3. The Pernambucana, or Pernambuca flothful mi¬
mofa, has unfhrubby, procumbent, unarmed Items,
branching two or three feet around; bipinnated leaves,
of three or four pair of fhort, winged foliola ; and at
the axillas drooping fpikes of pentandrous flowers,
the lower ones caftrated.—This fpecies recedes very
flowlyfrom the touch, only contra&ingiitspinnse a little
when fmartly touched ; hence the name Jlothful mimofa.
4. The Afperata, or Panama fenfitive plant. Of
this curious fpecies, which has been well defcribed by
Dr Browne (but not figured), there is a good figure
in the Reliquice Houfioniame publifhed by Sir Jofeph
Banks. It grows in moift places, and by the fides
of rivulets, in the parifhes of St James and Hanover,
Jamaica. It feldom rifes above three feet in height;
but its flender branches extend confiderably on the
neighbouring bufhes. It is armed with crooked, fharp,
fpines; fo thickly fet on the trunk, branches, and
leaves, that there is no touching it with fafety. But
the plant has a beautiful appearance; the flowers are'
yellow and globular, growing at the extremity of the
branches. The pods are hairy, brown, and jointed; each
containing a fmall, flat, and brown feed. The leaves
are numerous, fmall, and winged : next to thofe of
the mimofa pudica, they are the moft irritabile ; con¬
tracting with the leaft touch, and ■ remaining fo for
feveral minutes after. This fpecies would form a
good hedge or fence round a garden ; and by being
trimmed now and then by a cutlafs or gardener’s fcif-
fars, may be eafily kept from fpreading.
5. The PunSata, or punctated fenfitive mimofa,.
rifes with a fhrubby, upright, taper, fpotted, unarm¬
ed Item, branching eredly five or fix feet high ; bi¬
pinnated leaves, of four or five pair of long winged
folioles, having each about 20 pair of pinnse; and at
the axillas and teimination of the branches oblong
fpikes of yellowifti decandrous flowers, the inferior
ones caftrated ; fucceeded above by oblong feed-pods.
This fort, though naturally fhrubby and perennial in
its native foil, yet in this country it fometimes decays
in winter. It is only fenfitive in the foliola, but quick
in the motion.
6. The Viva, lively mimofa, or fmalleft fenfitive weed,
has many creeping roots, and fpreads itfelf fo as to cover
large fpots of ground. It rifes at moft to two-inches,
has winged leaves, with numerous fmall pinnas. The
flower is globular, of a bluifh colour, and grows in
clufters from the axillae: thefe are followed by little,
fhort, hairy, pods, containing fmooth finning feeds.
This is the moft fenfible of all the mimofas, the pudi-r
ca not excepted. By running a flick over the plant,
a perfon may write his name, and it will remain vi*
Able for ten minutes.
7. The Quadrivalvis, perennial, or quadrivalve humble
2r mi-
M I M [ 35 ] M I M
•sjorajK mimofa, has herbaceous, flender, quadrangular, prickly
fteme, branching and fpreading all around, armed with
recurved fpines ; bipinnated leaves of two or three
pair of winged lobes, having each many pinnce ; and
at the axillas globular heads of purple flowers, fuc-
ceeded by quadrivalvular pods. This is of the humble
fenfitive kind, both leaves and footftalks receding from
the touch.
,8. The Plena, annual, or double-flowered fenfitive
mimofa, rifes with an herbaceous, erect, round, un¬
armed Item, clofely branching and fpreading every
way, three or four feet high ; bipinnated leaves of
four or five pair of winged lobes, of many pairs of
pinnae; and at the axillas and termination of the
branches fpikes of yellow pentandrous flowers, the
lower ones double; fucceeded by fhort broad pods.
This annual is only fenfitive in the foliola, but ex¬
tremely fenfible of the touch or air.
9. The Cornlgera, or horned Mexican mimofa, com¬
monly called great horned acacia, has a fhrubby, upright,
deformed ftem, branching irregularly, armed with very
large, horn-like white fpines, by pairs, connated at
tlie bafe; bipinnated leaves thinly placed; and flowers
growing in fpikes. This fpecies is efteemed a cu-
riofity for the oddity of its large fpines, refembling
the horns of animals, and which are often varioufly
wreathed, twifted, and contorted. *
10. The Farnefiana, or fragrant acacia, grows in
woodlands and wafte lands in moll parts of Jamaica ;
rifing to 25 or 30 feet, with fuitable thicknefs. The
bark of the trunk is brown and fcaly, the branches
are alternate. It is adorned with bipinnated leaves of
a bright green colour; and yellow globular flowers
from the axillas, of a fragrant fmell. The pods are
about three inches long, and half an inch broad: they
are of a light brown colour, fmooth, comprefled, and
contain five or fix fmooth flat feeds. Formerly the
flowers of this tree were ufed as an ingredient in the
theriaca andromachi of the old difpenfatories. The tree
is fometimes planted for a hedge or fence round in-
clofures; and the timber, though fmall, is uteful in
rural economy.
11. The Arlorea, or wild tamarind tree, is com¬
mon in all the woodlands, and efpecially near where
fettlements have been made, in Jamaica. It rifes to
a confiderable height, and is proportionably thick. The
timber is excellent, and ferves many purpofes in rural
economy : it is of the colour of cedar, pretty hard,
and takes a good polifli. The leaves are numerous;
the flowers globular and white. The pods are about
a foot in length, of a fine fearlet colour ; when they,
are ripe they open and become twifted. The feeds
then appear; they are oblong, fmooth, ef a Ihining
black, and quite foft. On the whole, from the leaves,
flowers, and pods, this tree exhibits a Angular and
beautiful contrail. With us this plant is railed in
hot-houfes; but it appears, that with a little pains
it may be made to' grow in the open air. A good
fizeable tree of this fort grew in the garden of the
late Dr William Pitcairn, at Iflington, near Lon¬
don.
12. The Latifolia, fliag-bark, or white wild tama¬
rind. This excellent timber tree is very common in
Jamaica, and rifes to a moderate height and good thick¬
nefs. The trunk is rough and fcaly : The leaves are
numerous, of a rhomboidal figure, and yellowifti call. Mimofa. ^
The flower-fpikes are from the axillae ; their colour is ^ ^
yellow. The feed-veflels are flat, jointed, and fwift-
ed.. The feeds are of the bignefs of a vetch, white,
and finely llreaked with blue.
Of this tree there is a variety which fome botanifts
call M. ferpentina. The chief difference is in the
leaves, which are fmaller, and of a fhining dark green.
13. The Lebeck, or ebony tree. This is a native
of the Eaft Indies, but raifed from feeds in Jamaica
and St Vincent’s. It is figured, though not accu¬
rately, by Plukenet, Tab. 331. fig. 1. To what height
this tree grows, we cannot yet fay ; but it muft be
of a confiderable thicknefs if it be the ebony we have
in ufe here. Time will foon determine this, as the
few plants in the iflands are reared with great care
by Dr Dancer in Jamaica, and Mr Alexander Ander-
fon in St Vincent’s.
14, 15. The Cinerea «-— H Pinnata? Cafhaw bufhes. cCCXI
Thefe fpecies are common about Kingfton and Spa- fig. 4. *
nifh town Jamaica, and rife by llender trunks to about
20 feet.
Dr Roxburgh of Madrafs, amongfl a number of
ufeful difeoveries, has found the lac infeft on this fpe¬
cies tof mimofa*. We have fee n the native gum-lac * See Afi-
on one of the fmall twigs, and a fpecimen of the
plant in the collection of a gentleman here. They^
plant is a variety of the cinerea, and appears rather
to be the M. pinnata, Lin. It is to be hoped, that
in a ftiort time the ufeful infeA juft mentioned may
be tranfported from Afia to the Weft Indies, where
this gum, or rather wax, may be alfo produced.
16. The Scandens, cacoons, or mafootoo wy th (Gigalo-
liumfcandens, Browne’s Jam. p. 362. Phafeolus maximus
perennis, Sloane’s Cat. 68. Per tin Kaku-valli, H. M. viii.
T. 32, 3, 4.) This fpecies of mimofa is frequent in
all the upland valleys and woodlands on the north fide
of Jamaica. It climbs up the talleft trees, and fpreads
itfelf in every direClion by means of its cirrhi or cla-
fpers, fo as to form a complete arbour, and to cover
the fpace of an Englilh acre from one root. This
circumftance has a bad efteft on the trees or bullies
fo lhaded. Light, air, and rain (fo neceflary for all
plants), being fhut out, the leaves drop off, the tree
gradually rots, and the limbs fall down by the weight
of this parafite.
Several authors have mentioned the cacoon; but their
deferiptions of the plant, and particularly the ‘ngures,
are erroneous. On that account we have given a
figure from the herbarium of a gentleman long reft- Fig, 3.
dent in Jamaica; and the following are the charac¬
ters, tranferibed from his field notes.
Folia conjugata. Petioli communis longi ©ppofiti cir-
rho terminali. Pinna: quadrijugx vel duodecim
jugse, oblongae apice obtufe nitidae utrinque
glabrae. Cirrhus longus contortus apice bifidus.
Spica axillareS ereCtae, longiffimse, multiflorae flo-
ribus parvis, colore viride flavo. Calyx quinque-
dentatus minimus. Corolla pentapetala, ereCta,
parva. Filamenta qpmerofa, e bafi corollas, et eo-
dem longitudine. Antherae globofae ereftae. Sty~
lus filiformis, tortus, longitudine ftaminum. Stig~
ma fimplex. Legumen maximum, lignofum du¬
rum, 5 vel 8-pedale longum et 4-5 unciarura
latitudine, varie contortum, compreffum, bivalve.
E 2 Semin*
M I M [ 36 J M I M
Miftiofa. Semina plura, clrciter dccem vel qutndecim nume-
ro, orbiculata, fubcomprefia, cortice duro, nkido-
iufco. Hi/o ntgro breve.
The roots of this plant run fuperficially under the
ground or herbage. The trunk is feldom thicker than
a man’s thigh, and fends off many branches, with nu¬
merous fhining green leaves, each of which terminates
in a tendril or clafper, that ferves to faften it to
trees or buihes. The flower-fpikes are from the axil-
he : they are flender, and the florets on them fmall
and numerous. The pod is perhaps the largeft and
longed of any other in the world; being fometimes
eight or nine feet in length, five inches broad, joint¬
ed, and containing 10 or 15 feeds. Thefe feeds are
biown, fhining, flattened, and very hard, and called
iacbbns. They are the fame mentioned in the Philo-
fophical TranfaftionS, n: 222. page 298. by Sir Hans
Sloane, as being thrown afhore on the Hebrides and
Orkneys. This happens in the following manner :
The feeds or beans fall into the rivers, and are con¬
veyed to the fea. The trade-winds carries them wed-
ward till they fall into the gulf dream, which forces
them northward along the coad of America and Ba¬
hama Hands. As the winds blow frequent and drong
from America, thefe feeds are driven to the eadward,
till at length they are thrown aftiore and left with
the tide as aforefaid.
This bean, after being long foaked in water, is boil-
ed and eaten by fome negroes ; but, in general, there
feems to be no other afe made of it than as a fort of
fnuff-box.
f Mtd. Obf. 17. The Catechv, according to Mr Kerf, grows
Vol IyU>r' only to 12 feet in height, and to one foot in diame-
0 * 1 '£c ter; it is covered with a thick rough brown bark,
* and towards the top divides into manyclofe branches:
the leaves are bipinnated, or doubly winged, and are
placed alternately upon the younger branches: the
partial pinnae are nearly two inches long, and are com-
Plate monly from 15 to 30 pair, having fmall glands in-
CCCX1. ferted between the pinnae : each wing is ufually fur-
** nifhed with about 40 pair of pinnulae or linear lobes,
bcfet with ihort hairs : the fpiues are fliort, recurved,
and placed in pairs at the bafes of each leaf: the
flowers are hermaphrodite and male, and ftand in clofe
fpikes, which arife from the axillae of the leaves, and
aie four or five inches long: the calyx is tubular,
hairy, » d divides at the limb into five oval pointed
fegments: the corolla is monopetalous, whitifh, and
of the fame form as the calyx, but twice its length :
the filaments are numerous, capillary, double the
length of the corolla, adhering at the bafe of the ger-
men, and crowned with roundifh anthera; : the ger-
men is oval, and fupports a flender ftyle, which is of
the length of the filaments, and terminated by a Ample
ftigma : the fruit, or pod, is lance-fhaped, brown,
fmooth, comprefled, with an undulated thin margin ;
it contains fix or eight roundifli flattened feeds which
produce a naufeous odour when chewed. From this
tree, which grows plentifully on the mountainous
parts of Indoitan, where it flowers in June, is pro¬
duced the officinal drug long known in Europe by the
name of terra japonica; for the hiftory and preparation
of which, fee the article Terra Japonica.
18. The Ni let tea, or true Egyptian acacia, rifes to
a greater height than the preceding : the bark of the
trunk is fmooth, and of a grey colour; that of the Mimoft.
branches has commonly a purplifh tinge: the leaves —v—-
are bipinnated, and placed alternately : the partial
pinnae are oppofite, fumiffied with a fmall gland be¬
tween the outermoft pair, and befet with numerous
pairs of narrow elliptical pinnulse, or leafits: the fpines p ate
are long, white, fpreading, and proceed from eachg^CX1,
fide of the bafe of the leaves: the flowers are herma- ' i"
phrodite and male ; they affume a globular fhape, and
ftand four or five together upon flender peduncles,
which arife from the axillae of the leaves : the calyx
is fmall, bell-fliaped, and divided at the mouth into
five minute teeth : the corolla confifts of five narrow
yellowifti fegments: the filaments are numerous, ca¬
pillary, and furniffied with roundifh yellow antherae:
the germen is conical, and fupports a flender ftyle,
crowned with a ftmple ftigma: the fruit is a long pod,
refembling that of the lupin, and contains many flat-
tifh brown feeds. It is a native of Arabia and Egypt,
and flowers in July.
Although the mimofa nilotica grows in great a-
bundance over the vaft extent of Africa, yet gum
arabic is produced chiefly by thofe trees, which
are fituated near the equatorial regions; and we
are told that in Lower Egypt the folar heat is
never fufficiently intenfe for this purpofe. The gum
exfudes in a liquid ftate from the bark of the trunk
and branches of the tree, in a fimilar manner to the
gum which is often produced upon the cherry-trees
&c. in this country ; and by expofure to the air it
foon acquires folidity and hardnefs. In Senegal the
gum begins to flow when the tree firft opens its flow¬
ers 5 and continues during the rainy feafon till the
month of December, when it is collefted for the firft
time. Another colle&ion of the gum is made in the
month of March, from incifions in the bark, which
the extreme drynefs of the air at that time is faid to
render neceffary. Gum arabic is now ufually import¬
ed into England from Barbary; not packed up in
fkins, which was the pra&ice in Egypt and Arabia,
but in large calks or hogfheads. The common ap¬
pearance of this gum is well known ; and the various
figures which it affumes feem to depend upon a vari¬
ety of accidental cifCumftances attending its tranfuda-
tion and concretion. Gum Arabic of a pale yellow-
ifh colour is moft eftee'med ; on the contrary^ thofe
pieces which are large, rough, of a roundifh figure,
and of a brownifh or reddifh hire, are found to be lefs
pure, and are faid to be produced from a different
fpecies of mimofa (M. Senegal) , but the Arabian
and Egyptian gum is commonly intermixed with
pieces of this kind, fimilar to that which comes from
the coaft of Africa near the river Senegal.
Gutn-arabic does not admit of folution by fpirit or
oil, but in twice its quantity of water it diffolves into a
mucilaginous fluid, of. the confiftence of a thick fyrup ;
and in this ftate anfwers many ufeful pharmaceutical
purpofes, by rendering oily, refinous, and pinguibus
fubftances, mifcible with water. The glutinous qua¬
lity of gum Arabic is preferred to moft other gums
and mucilaginous fubftances, as a demulcent in coughs,
hoarfeneffes, and ftther catarrhal affeftions, in order
to obtund irritating acrimonious humours, and to fup*
ply the lofs of abraded mucus. It has been very ge¬
nerally employed in cafes of ardor urinse and ftrangu-
J ary j
£3
riate ccc^r.
J
M I N
C 37 ]
M I N
t Travels t
Vo!. V.
P- 34. 3J»
ary: but it is the opinion of Dr Cullen, “that even
this mucilage, as an internal demulcent, can be of no
fervice beyond the alimentary canal.,, See farther the
article Gvm Arabic.
■ 19. The Senegal is a native of Guinea, and was fome
time ago introduced into Jamaica. Dr Wright tells
us, he law both this and the mimofa nilotica, of the
fize of a cherry tree, growing at Dr Paterfon’s in the
pariih of Hanover, Jamaica. The flowers are glo¬
bular, yellow, and fragrant. The pods are brown,
and of the iize of a goofe-quill. The tree, on being
wounded, exfudes gum arabic, though in lefs quan¬
tity, and lefs tranfparent,than that of the fhops,which
is obtained from the niistua above defqribed.
There are above 40 other fpecies chara&erifed in
the Syjlema Vegetabilium.
On Plate CCCXII. is figured a new fpeeies, of an un¬
common fize, mentioned by Mr Paterfon in his Travels
among the Hottentots, but not particularly defcribed.
Like feveral of the other mimofas, it produces gum,
which is confidered by the natives as a peculiarly de¬
licate fpecies of food : the leaves and lower points of
the branches feem to conftitute the principal aliment
of the Camelopardalis ; and, from the extent of its
boughs, and the fmoothnefs of the trunk, it affords
a lufficient defence to a fpecies of gregarious bird
againft the tribe of ferpents and other reptiles which
would otherwife deilroy its eggs. See the article
Loxt A.
Mr Bruce f defcribes two plants which feem refe¬
rable to this genus; the one named ergett el dimmo,
the other ergett el krone.
The former, in our author’s opinion, fhould be na¬
med m'mofei/anguinea; its name in the Abyffinian lan¬
guage fignifying the bloody ergett, and derived, as he
fuppofes, from its being partly compofed of beautiful
pink filaments. When the bloffoms are fully fpread,
the upper part of them con fills of yellow curled fila¬
ments, and the under part of pink filaments of a fimi-
lar lhape. In its unripe Hate, that part which after¬
wards becomes pink is of a green colour, and com¬
pofed of tubercles of.a larger fize, and more detached
than thofe which afterwards produce the yellow fila¬
ments ; the latter being fmaller, and clofer fet toge¬
ther: the leaves are of the double-pinnated kind.
The name of the other fpecies, in the Abyflinian
language, fignifies the horned ergett; which our author
fuppofes to be given it on account of the figure of the
pods. The flower very much refembles that of the
acacia vera in fize and lhape, excepting that it is at-
tatched to the branch by a ftrong woody ftalk of
confiderable length, which grows out at the bottom
of the branch bearing the leaves, and is flickered as
in a cafe by the lower part of it. The branches are
all covered with Ihort, ftrotig, and Iharp-pointetJ
thorns, having their points inclined backwards towards
the root. The pods are covered with a prickly kind
of hair, which eaiily rubs off with the fingers, flicks
to them, and gives a very uneafy fenfation. They have
thirteen divifions ; in each of which are three hard,
round, and Ifiining feeds, of a dulky brown colour.
Both of thefe Ihrubs Ihut their leaves on the
coming on of the violent rains in the wet feafon, and
never fully expand them till the dry feafon returns.
MINA, or Man e h, a fpecies of money, which pro¬
perly fignifies one part or ounce. It is obferved that Mlnagm-
this word occurs only in the books of Kings, Chro-
nicies, Ezra, and Ezekiel. This prophet (xlv. i2.)MlnJ'aff(m>
tells us, that the minah or maneh was valued at 60 ■ y
lliekels, which in gold make of our Englilh money
about 54J pounds, and in lilver almoft feven pounds.
Thus for the Hebrew maneh. But the Greek or
Attic mina, which is probably that mentioned in the
books of the Maccabees and in the New Teftament,
is valued at 100 drachmas, or about 2I. 173. fterling.
There was alfo a leffer mina, which was valued at 75
drachmae.
MINAGNGHINIM, a pulfatilc inftrument of
mufic, among the Hebrews, which was a fquare table
of wood, fitted with a handle? over this table wa*
ftretched an iron chain, or hempen cord, palling thro'*
balls of wood or brafs, which ftruck againfl the table,
when the inftrument was fhbok, and occafioned a clear
found, which might be heard at a great diftance. Bee
Kircher’s figure of it in Plate CCCXIV.
MINCHA, in the Jewifti cuftoms, offerings of
meal, cakes, or bifcuits, made in the temple of the
Lord. The Seventy have fometimes preferved thia
word in their trarillation ; but inftead of m'mcha they
read manaa, which doubtlefs was the received pronun¬
ciation in their time. We find manaa in the fame
fenfe, in Baruch i. 1 o. Levit. ii. 3. &c. See the Greek
of Jerem. xvii. 26. Dan. ii. 46. 2 Kings viii. 3, [9,
xvii. 7. xx. 12. 2 Chron. vii. 7. Nehem. xiii. 5, 9,
&c.
MINCHING-ha mpton, a town of Gloucefter-
ftiire, 20 miles from Bath and, Briftol, and near 90
from London, with a market on Tuefdays, and two
fairs. The Iparilh is pretty large, being bounded on
the north by the Stroud, and on the fouth by the
brook Avening; and has 12 hamlets belonging to it,
with a common called Amberley. Here is a good
large rectory church, built in form of a crofs, and
worth 2001. a-year. Near it are very large camps,
with deep trenches ; and near Dunkirk in this pariih
are fulling mills.
MINCIUS, a river of the Tranfpadana ; running
from, or rather tranfmitted through, the Lacus Be-
nacus, from north to fouth, iifto the Padus; but ori¬
ginally riling in the Rhetian Alps. Now Mincio or
Menzo, running through the duchy of Mantua into
the Po.
MIND, a thinking intelligent being, otherwife
called fpirity in oppofition to matter or body. See
Metaphysics, Part III.
MINDANOA, or Magindana-o, a large ifland Meat^}
of Afia in the Eaii Indies, and one of the Philippines; y0yaget.
160 miles in length, and 120 in breadth. The inte¬
rior parts contain feveral chains of lofty mountains,
between which are extenfive plains, wdiere vaft herds
of cattle roam at large in the molt delicious paftures.
Several deep valleys alfo interfeft, as it were, certain
parts of the country, through which, during the rainy
feafons, vaft torrents pour from the mountains, and
force their impetuous way to the fea. The rains and
vapours which lodge in the plains diffufe themfelves into
meandering rivulets, , and, colledting a variety of final!
ftreams in their courfe, approach the fea in the form of
confiderable rivers.—The fovereign of Magindanao is
a powerful prince, and has feveral inferior chiefs, wh©
acknow-
MIN [38] MIN
Mlndanoa,acknowledge him as their head. Neverthelefs, there
^he'marC ot^ers them wh° refufe fubmiffion to him, and
. ‘ . are confequently in a continual ftate of war ; fo that
peace, at leaft, does not appear to be one of the blef-
tings of this illand. The Spaniards, indeed, affert
their right to the entire dominion of Magindanao :
but it is mere aflertion ; for though they have forts,
.&c. on the ifland, it is by no means in a ftate of fub-
Je&ion to their nation.
The air is efteemed falubrious, particularly in tke
■vicinity of the fea. The heat there is not, in any de¬
gree, fo intenfe as might be expefted in a country
■which is fituated on the very verge of the torrid zone.
The prevalence of the eafterly winds, in that part of
.the coafts which is waftied by the Pacific Ocean, ren¬
ders the air cool and pleafant, the trade-wind blowing
inceffantly on its Ihores. It a&s, indeed, with fo
■much power as to fweep the whole breadth of the
.ifland ; and though in its paflage it lofes much of its
ftrength, it retains a fufficient degree of force to af¬
ford refreihing breezes to the inhabitants of the weftern
fliore. The interior parts are much colder, from a
very cloudy atmofphere, which frequently hangs over
the fummits of the mountains in thick and humid va¬
pours. The foil, which is very exuberant, is fuited
to the cultivation of the whole vegetable tribes. Rice
is produced in the greateft abundance ; a pecul, or 133
pounds, may be purchafed for a Spaniih dollar. Eve¬
ry part of the ifland abounds with buffaloes, cows,
hogs, goats, See. It affords alfo great variety of
fowls, and a fpecies of duck, whofe head is of a fine
fcarlet colour. Here are alfo a fmall breed of horfes,
remarkable for their fpirit. The natives, however,
principally employ buffaloes in the various branches
of hufbandry and agriculture.
The city of Magindanao is fituated on the fouth-
caft fide of the ifland, has a river capable of admitting
fmall veffels, and carries on a confiderable trade with
Manilla, Sooloo, Borneo, and the Moluccas. Their
exports are rice, tobacco, bees-wax, and fpices; in
return for which they receive coarfe cloths of Coro¬
mandel, China ware, and opium. The village or town
of Samboingan is fituated on the banks of a fmall
rivulet, which empties itfelf immediately into the fea,
and is agreeably lhaded by groves of cocoa-trees. The
number of its inhabitants are about 1000, among
■which are included the officers, foldiers, and their re-
fpettiva families. In its environs there are feveral
fmall look-out houfes, erefied on polls of twelve feet
high, in all of which a conftant guard is kept; fo
that it appears as if the Spaniards were in a continual
ftate of enmity with the natives. The honfes are built
of thofe Ample materials which are of very general ufe
in the eaftern feas. They are ere&ed on polls, and
built of bamboo, covered with mats ; the lower apart¬
ments ferve for their hogs, cattle, and poultry, and
the upper ones are occupied by the family.”
MINDELHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, and in Algow, with a caftle. It
is capital of a fmall territory between the rivers Iller
and Lech, fubjeft to the houfe of Bavaria. It was
taken by the Imperialifts after the battle of Hoc.h-
ftet, who ere&ed it into a principality in favour of
the duke of "Marlborough ; but it returned back to
the houfe of Bavaria by the treaty of Raftat. It is
33 miles fouth-eaft of Ulm. E. Long. 10. 40. N. Minde*
Lat. 4*. 5. H
Mindelheim, a diftri&of Germany, in Suabia, ly- Mine,
ing between the bilhopric of Auglburgh and the ab- —v—
bacy of Kempten, which is 20 miles in length and 16
in breadth.
MINDEN, a confiderable town of Germany in the
circle of Weftphalia; and capital of a territory of the '
fame name; feated on the river Wefer, which renders
it a trading-place. It belongs to the king of Pruffia,
who has fecularized the bilhopric. It is 27 miles eaft-
by-fouth of Ofnaburg, and 37 weft of Hanover. E.
Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 52. 22.
Minden (the principality of), in Germany, lies in
the circle of Weftphalia, to the north of the county
of Ravenlberg, and along each fide of the river Wefer.
It is about 22 miles fquare, and Minden and Peter-
Ihagen are the principal places. It was formerly a
bilhopric, but is now fecularifed ; and was ceded to
the elector of Brandenburg by the treaty of Weft¬
phalia. '
MINDORA, an illand of Afia, in the Eaft Indies,
and one of the Philippines, 50 miles in circumference,
and feparated from Luconia by a narrow channel. It
is full of mountains, which abound in palm-trees and
all forts of fruits. The inhabitants are idolaters,
and pay tribute to the Spaniards, to whom this illand
belongs.
MINE, in natural hiftory, a deep pit under ground,
from whence various kinds of minerals are dug out;
but the term is more particularly applied to thofe
which yield metals. Where Hones only are procured,
the appellation of quarries is univerfally bellowed upon
the places from which they are dug out, however
deep they may be.
The internal parts of the earth, as far as they have
been yet inveftigated, do not confift ef one uniform
fubftance, but of various Jlrata or beds of fubftances,
extremely different in their appearances, fpecific gra¬
vities, and chemical qualities, from one another. Nei¬
ther are thefe ftrata fimilar to one another either i*
their nature or appearance in different countries ; fo
that even in the Ihort extent of half a mile, the ftrata
will be found quite different from what they are in
another place. As little are they the fame either in
depth or folidity. Innumerable cracks and fiffures,
by the miners called lodes, are found in every one of
them ; but thefe are fo ^..tirely different in fize and
lhape, that it is ihipoffible to form any inference from
their fize in one place to that in another. In thefe
lodes or fiffures the metallic ore is met with ; and,
confidering the great uncertainty of the dimenfions
of the lodes, it is evident that the bufinefs of mining,
which depends on that fize, mull in like manner be
quite uncertain and precarious. Mr Price, in his
treatife on the Cornilh mines, obferves, that “ the
comparative fmallnefs of the largeft fiffures to the bulk
of the whole earth is really wonderful. In the fineft
pottery we can make, by a microfcopic view, we may
difeover numerous cracks and fiffures, fo fmall as to
be impenetrable by any fluid, and impervious to the
naked eye ;” as, by the laws of nature originally im-
pofed by the Creator, it happens that matter cannot
contraft itfelf into lolid large maffes, without leaving
fifLr b-tween them, and yet the very fiffures are as
neceffary
MIN [ 39 J MIN
necefiary and ufeful as the ftrata through which they
pafs. They are the drains that carry off the redun¬
dant moiffure from the earth ; which, but for
them, would be too full of fens and bogs for ani¬
mals to live or plants to thrive on. In thefe fiffures,
the feveral ingredients which form lodes^ by the conti¬
nual palling of waters, and the menftrua of metals, are
brought out of the adjacent ftrata, collected and con¬
veniently lodged in a narrow channel, much to the
advantage of thofe who fearch for and puifue them ;
for if metals and minerals were more difperfed, and
fcattered thinly in the body of the ftrata, the trouble
of finding and getting at them would be endlefs, and
the expence of procuring them exceed the value of
the acquifition.
The infides of the fiffures are commonly coated
over with a hard, cryftalline, earthy fubftance or
rind, which very often, in the breaking of hard ore,
comes off along with it, and is commonly called the
capels or walls of the lode : but Mr Price is of opi¬
nion, that the proper walls of the lode are the fides
of the fiffure itfelf, and not the coat juft mentioned,
which is the natural platter upon thofe walls, furnilh-
ed perhaps by the contents of the fiffures, or from
oozings of the furrounding ftrata.
The breadth of a lode is eafily known by the di-
ftance betwixt the two incrufted fides of the ftones of
ore; and if a lode yields any kind of ore, it is a bet¬
ter fign that the walls be regular and fmooth, or at
leaft that one of them be fo, than otherwife; but
there are not many of thefe fiffures which have regu¬
lar walls until they have been funk down fome fa¬
thoms.
Thus the inner part of the fiffure in which the ore
lies, is all the way bounded by two walls of ttone,
which are generally parallel to one another, and in¬
clude the breadth of the vein or lode. Whatever
angle of inclination fome fiffures make in the folid
ftrata at their beginning, they generally continue to
do the fame all along. Some are very uncertain in
their breadth, as they may be fmall at their upper
part and wide underneath, and vice verfa. Their re¬
gular breadth, as well as their depth, is fubjeft to
great variation ; for though a fiffure may be many
fathoms wide in one particular place, yet a little fur¬
ther eaft or weft it may not perhaps be one inch
wide. This exceffive variation happens generally in
very compact ftrata, when the vein or fiffure is fquee-
zed, as it were, through hard rocks which' feem to
comprefs and ftraiten it. A true vein or fiffure, how¬
ever, is never entirely obliterated, but always fhows a
firing of metallic ore or of a veiny fubftance ; which
often ferves as a_ leader for the miners to follow until
it fometimes leads them to a large and richly im¬
pregnated part. Their length is in a great meafure
unlimited, though not the fpace beft fitted for yield¬
ing metal. The richeft ftate for copper, according
to Mr Price, is from 40 to 80 fathoms deep ; for tin,
from 20 to 60; and though a great quantity of ei¬
ther may be railed at 80 or too fathoms, yet “ the
quality (fays our author) is often too much" decayed
and dry for metal.”
Mr Price informs us, that the fiffurts or veins of
the Cornifh mines extend from eaft to weft ; or, more
properly, one end of the fiffure points weft and by
fouth, or weft and by north ; while the other tends
eaft and by fouth, or eaft and by north. Thus they
frequently pafs through a confiderable traft of coun¬
try with very few variations in their directions, un-
lefs they be interrupted pby fome intervening caufe 
But, befides this eaft and weft direction, we are to'
conlider what the miners call the underlying or hade
of the vein or lode ; viz. the defleCtion or deviation
of the fiffure from its perpendicular line, as it is follow¬
ed in depth like the flope of the roof of a houfe, or
the defcent of the fteep fide of a hill. This flope is
generally to the north or fouth ; but varies much in
different veins, or fometimes even in the fame vein :
for it will frequently flope or underlie a fmall fpace
in different ways, as it may appear to be forced by
hard ftrata on either fide.—Some of the fiffures do
not vary much from a perpendicular, while fome devi¬
ate more than a fathom ; that is, for every fathom they
defcend in perpendicular height, they deviate likewife
as much to the fouth or north. Others differ fo much
from the perpendicular, that they affume a pofition
almoft horizontal; whence they are alfo. called hori-
%ontal or flat lodes, .and fometimes lode plots. Ano¬
ther kind of thefe has an irregular pofition with re¬
gard to the reft; widening horizontally for a little
way, and then defcending perpendicularly almoftiike
flairs, with only a fmall firing or leader to follow af¬
ter ; and thus they alternately vary and yield ore in
feveral flat or horizontal fiffures. This, by the Cor-
nifli tinners, is called (but in Mr Price’s opinion erro-
neoufly) z floor or fquat s which, properly fpeaking,
is a hole or chafm impregnated with metal, making
no continued line of direction or regular walls. Nei¬
ther does a floor of ore defcend to any confiderable
depth ; for underneath it there appears no fign of a
vein or fiflurp, either leading direCtly down or any
other way. This kind of vein is very rare in Bri¬
tain. The fiffures moft common in Britain are the
perpendicular and inclined, whether their direction be
north or fouth, eaft or weft.
The perpendicular and horizontal fiffhres (accord¬
ing to our author) probably remain little altered from-
their firft pofition, when they were formed at the in*
duiation of the ftrata immediately after the waters
left the land. The perpendicular fiffures are found
more comixionly fituated in level ground, at a diftance
from hills, and from the fea-fhore } but with regard
to the latter, we find that the upper and under maffes
of ftrata differ in their folidity and other propertieSi
“ Hence, (fays our author) it is very plain, that in¬
clined fiffures owe their defleCtion or underlie to fome
fecondary caufe, violence, or fubfidencerof the earth:
for though perpendicular fiflures are feldom to be
feen, yet fuch as are inclined at very confiderable
depths, become more and more perpendicular as the
more central ftrata, by reafon of the vaft fuperincum-
bent weight, do not feem fo likely to be driven out
of their, polition as thofe which lie nearer the furface
The fiffures are often met with fraCtured as well
as inclined ; the reafon of which, in Mr Price’s opi*
nion,. has been a fubfidence of the earth from fome
extraordinary caufe. “ The original pofition (fays
he) muft have been horizontal, or parallel to the fur-
face of the earth : but we often find thefe ftrata very
fenfibly declined from that firft p.ofition ; nay, fome*.
time*--
MIN L 40 T MIN
Mine, times quite reverfed, and changed into perpendicular,
—Y-—J When we fee a wall lean, we immediately conclude
that the foundation has given way, according to the
angles which the wall makes with the horizon ; and
when we find the like declination in ftrata, we may
conclude, by parity of reafon, that there has been a
like failure of what fupported them, in proportion to
that declination ; or that whatever made the ftrata to
fall fo much awry, muft alfo caufe every thing inclu¬
ded in thofe ftrata to fall proportionably. Wherever
the greateft fubfidence is to the north, the top of the
lode or fiffure will point to the north, and of confe-
quence underlie to the fouth, and vice verfa; the
Aide or heave of the lode manifefts the greater fubfi-
dence of the ftrata ; but the fame lode is frequently
fractured and heaved in feveral places: all of which,
by due obfervation, will fhow us they were occalion-
ed by fo many feveral ftiocks or fubfidencies, and
that the ftrata were not unfooted, lhaken, or brought
to fall once only or twice, but feveral times.”
Mr Price, in the courfe of his work, obferves, that
though the metallic veins generally run from eaft to
weft, they are frequently interfered by veins or lodes,
as he calls them, of other matters, which run from
north to fouth. Some of thefe crofs veins contain lead
or antimony, but never tin or copper. Sometimes
one of thefe unmetallic veins interfe6;s the-true one
at right angles, fometimes obliquely ; and fometimes
the mixture of both is fo intimate, that the moft ex¬
pert miners are at a lofs to difcover the feparated part
of the true vein. When this laft is intercepted at
right angles, it is moved, either north or fouth, a
very little way, perhaps not more than one fathom ;
in which cafe, the miners having worked to a fmall
diftance in one of thefe dire&ions, if they find them-
felves difappointed, turn to the other hand, and fel-
dom fail of meeting with what they expefted. Some¬
times they are directed in their fearch by the point¬
ing of a rib or ftring of the true vein ; but when the
interruption happens in an oblique direction, the
difficulty of finding the vein again is much greater.
When two metallic veins in the neighbourhood of
each other run in an oblique diredtion, and of confe-
quence meet together, they commonly produce a body
of ore at the place where they interfedt; and if both
are rich, the quantity will be confiderable ; but if one
be poor and the other rich, then both are either en¬
riched or impoverifhed by the meeting. After foine
time they feparate again, and each will continue its
former direftion near to the other; but fometinjes,
though rarely, they continue united.
It is a fign of a poor vein when it feparates or di¬
verges into firings 5 but, on the contrary, when feveral
of them are found running into one, it is accounted
a promifing fign. Sometimes there are branches with¬
out the walls of the vein in the adjacent ftrata, which
often come either obliquely or tranfverfely into it.
If thefe branches are impregnated with ore, or if they
underlie fafter than the true vein, that is, if they dip
deeper into the ground, then they are faid to overtake
or come into the lode, and to enrich it 5 or if they do
not, then they are faid to go off from it, and to im-
poverifti it. But neither thefe nor any other marks
either of the richnefs or poverty of a mine are to be
entirely depended upon : for many mines, which have
N0aii.
a very bad appearance at firft, do neverthelefs turn out Mine,
extremely well afterwards; while others, which in w—v—
the beginning feemed very rich, turn gradually worfe
and worfe : but in general, where a vein has a bad ap¬
pearance at firft, it will be imprudent to be at much
expence with it.
Veins of metal, as has been already obferved, are fre-
quenily, as it were, fo compreffed betwixt hard ftrata,
that they are not an inch wide ; neverthelefs, if they
have a ftring of good ore, it will generally be worth
while to purfue them ; and they frequently turn out
well at laft, after they have come into fofter ground.
In like manner, it is an encouragement to go on if
the branches or leaders of ore enlarge either in width
or depth as they are worked ; but it is a bad fign if
they continue horizontal without inclining down¬
wards; though it is not proper alvnys to difcontinue
the working of a vein which has an unfavourable af-
pedl at fifft. Veins of tin are worth working when
only three inches wide, provided the ore be good ;
and copper ores when fix inches wide will pay very
well for the working. Some of the great mires, how¬
ever, have very large veins, with a number of other
fmall ones very near each other. There are alfo veins
crofting one' another fometimes met with, which are
called contras, vulgarly saunters. Sometimes two veins
run down into the ground in fuch a manner that they
meet in the direction of their depth ; in which cafe,
the fame obfervations apply to them which are appli¬
cable to thofe that meet in an horizontal diredtion.
Sometimes a vein will fuddenly difappear without gi¬
ving any warning, by becoming narrower, or of worfe
quality ; which by the miners is called a Jiart or leap,
and is very common in the mines of Cornwall. In
one day’s time they may thus be difappointed in the
working of a rich vein of tin, and have no further
fign of any thing to work upon : at the fradfured ex¬
tremity of their vein they perceive a body of clay or
other matter ; and the method of recovering their veiu
is to drive on their work in the diredfion of the for¬
mer part, fo that their new work ftrall make the fame
angle with the clay that the other part of the vein
does. Sometimes they fink a ftiaft down from the
furface ; but it is generally a matter of difficulty to re¬
cover a vein when thus loft.
The method of difcovering mines is a matter of
fo much difficulty, that it feems furpriling how thofe
who were totally unacquainted with the nature of
metals firft came to think of digging them out of the
earth. According to Lucretius, the difcovery was
made by the conflagration of certain woods, which
melted the veins of metal in the earth beneath them j
but this feems to be rather improbable. Ariftotle,
however, is of the fame opinion with Lucretius, and
tells us, that fome fhepherds in Spain having fet fire
to the woods, the earth was thus heated to fuch a
degree, that the filver near the furface of it melted
and flowed into a mafs; and that in a (hort time tiie
metallic mafs was difcovered by the rending of the
earth in the time of an earthquake: and the fame
ftory is told by Strabo, who afcribes the difcovery of
the mines of Andalufia to this accident. Cadmus is
faid by fome to have been the firft who difcovered
gold : while others aferibe this to Thoas the Thra¬
cian, to Mercury the fon of Jupiter, or to Pifus king
of
MIN
of Italy } who having left his own country, went into
" Egypt, where he was ele&ed king after the death of
Mizraim the fon of Ham ; and, on account of his dif-
covery, was called the Golden God. Others fay, that
Eadh or Caeacus the fon of Jupiter, or Sol the fon
r 41 1
M I N
cians, who pretended to difcover mines by inchantment.
No mention is made of it, however, before the nth v
century, fmce which time it has been in frequent ufe;
and the Corpufcular Philofophy has even been called
to account for it. But before we pretend to a
of Oceanus, was the firft difcoverer ; but jEfchylus count for phenomena fo very extraordinary as thofe re-
jt ^ _._i—e - _ 1 j i__. n ported of the virgula dtvinalorla, it is neceffary, in the
£rft place, to determine whether or not they exift.
Mr Price, as has been already hinted, believes in it,
though he owns that by reafon of his conftitution of
mind and body he is almoft incapable of co-operating1
with its influence. The following account, however,
he gives from Mr William Cookworthy of Plymouth,
a gentleman of known veracity and great chemical
abilities.
He had the firft information concerning this rod
from one Captain Ribeira, who deferted from the
Spanifh fervice in Queen Anne’s reign, and became .
captain-commandant in the garrifon of Plymouth ; in
which town he fatisfied feveral intelligent perfons of
the virtues of the rod, by many experiments on pieces
of metal hid in the earth, and by an aftual difeovery
of a copper mine nearOakhampton, which was wrought
for fome years. This captain very readily fliowed the
method of ufing the rod in general, but would not by
any means difcover the fecret of diftinguiihing the dif-
attributes the difeovery not only of gold, but of all
ether metals, to Prometheus. The brafs and copper
mines in Cyprus were firft difeovered by Cinyra the
fon of Agryopa ; and Hefiod aferibes the difeovery
of the iron mines of Crete to the Cretan Daftyli
Ida;!. The extraftion of lead or tin from its ore in
the ifland of Caffiteris, according to feveral ancient
authors, was difeovered by Midacritus.—The ferip-
ture, however, aferifiss the invention of brafs and
iron, or at leaft of the methods of working them, to
, Tubal Cain before the flood.
In more modern times, we know that mines have
been frequently difeovered by accident; as in fea-cliffs,
among broken craggy rocks, by the wafhing of the
tides or floods, alfo by irrruptions and torrents of wa¬
ter ifluing out of hills and mountains, and fbmetimes
by the wearing of high roads. Mr Price mentions
another w ay by which mines have been difeoyered, wz.
by fiery corufcations; which, he fays, he has heard
from perfons whofe veracity he is unwilling to que-
a rnu~ ^~~   11 „  
ftion. “ The tinners (fays he) generally compare ferent metals by it; though, by a conftant attention
thefe effluvia to blazing liars or other whimfical like- 1 ’ r<—1 .v..  j r>—
nefles, as their fears or hopes fuggeft; and fearch with
uncommon eagernefs the ground over which thefe
jack-a-lanterns have appeared and pointed out. We
have heard but little of thefe phenomena for many
years; whether it be, that the prefent age is lefs cre¬
dulous than the foregoing, or that the ground, being
more perforated by innumerable new pits funk every
year, fome of which, by the ftannary laws, are pre-
to his praftice, Mr Cookworthy difeovered it. Cap¬
tain Ribeira was of opinion, that the only proper rods-
for this purpofe were thofe cut from the nut or fruit-
trees ; and that the virtue was confined to certain per¬
fons, and thofe, comparatively fpeaking, but few r
but Mr Price fays, that the virtue refides in all per-
fon$ and in all rods under certain circumftances.
“ The rod (fays he) is attrafted by all the metals, by
coals) limeftone, and fprings of water, in the follow-
vented from being filled up, has given thefe vapours a ing order : 1. Gold; 2. Copper; 3; Iron; 4. Silver;
more gradual vent, it is not neceflary to inquire, as
the faft itfelf is not generally believed."
5. Tin ; 6. Lead; 7. Coals; 8. Limeftpne and fprings
of water. One method of determining the different
Mines, however, are now moft commonly difeovered attra&ions of the rod is this : Stand, holding the rod*
by inveftigating the nature of fuch veins, ores, and
flones, as may leem moft likely to turn to account:
but there is a particular fagacity, or habit of judging
from particular figns, which can be acquired only by
long practice. Mines, efpecially thofe of copper, may
alfo be difeovered by the harfh and difagreeable tafte
of the waters which iffue from them ; though it is pro¬
bable that this only happens when the ore lies above
the level of the water which breaks out; for ft does
not feem likely that the tafte of the ore could afeend,
vsnlefs we were to fuppofe a pond or lake of water
Handing above it. The prefence of copper in any wa¬
ter is eafily difeovered by immerging in it a bit of po-
lilhed iron, which will thus inftantly be turned of a
copper colour, by reafon of the precipitation of the
metal upon it. A candle, or piece of tallow put into
water of this kind, will in a fhort time be tinged of a
green colour^
Another and ftill more remarkable method of dif-
covering mines is faid to be by the virgula divinatoria,.
or “ divining rod;” which, however incredible the fto-
ries related concerning it may be, is ftill relied on
by fome, and among others by Mr Price. It is not
known who was the inventor of this method ; but A-
gricola fuppofes that it took its rife from the magi-
Vox.. XII. Part I.
with one foot advanced ; put a guinea under that foot,
and an halfpenny under the other, and the rod will
be drawn down ; fhift the pieces of money, and the
rod will be drawn towards the face, or backwards to
the gold, which proves the gold to have the ftronger
attra&ion.
“ The rods formerly ufed were fhoots of one year’s
growth that grew forked ; but it is found, that two
feparate ffloots tied together with packthread or other
vegetable fubftanee anfwer rather better than fuch as
are naturally forked, as the ftisots of the latter are
feldom of an equal fize. They are to be tied together
by the greater ends, the fmall ones being held in the
hands. Hazle rods cut in the winter, fuch as are ufed
for fifliing rods, and kept till they are dry, do heft ;
though, where thefk are not at hand, apple-tree fuck¬
ers, rods from peach-trees, currants,, or the oak, though
green, will anfwer tolerably well.”
Our author next proceeds to deferibe the manner of
holding the rod;. of which he gives a figure, as he fays
it is difficult to be deferibed. The fmall ends- being
crooked, are to be held in the hands in a pofition fiat?
of parallel to the horizon, and the upper part in an
elevation not perpendicular to it, but at an angle of
about 70 degrees, “ The rod (fays he) being pro.
K ' ' perlj.
MIN. t 42 ] MIN
perly held by thofe with whom it \ffll anfwer, when (fays he) are fometimes found by great Hones above Mine.'
the toe of the right foot is within the femidiameter of ground ; and if the veins be covered, they hunt them ——
the piece of metal or other fubjedt of the rod, it will out after this manner; viz. taking in their hands a
be repelled towards the face, and continue to be fo fort of mattock, which has a fteel point at one end
while the foot is kept from touching or being diredtly to dig with, and a blunt head at the other wherewith to
over the fubjedf ; in which cafe it will be fenfibly and break Hones, they goto the hollows of the mountains,
ftrongly attra&ed, and be drawn quite down. The where the current of rain water defcends, or to fome
... jl. n—i j n.—m r—j . other part of the Ikirts of the mountains, and there
obferve what Hones they meet with, breaking in pieces
thofe that feem to have any metal in them ; whereof
they find many times both middling fort of Hones
and fmall ones alfo of metal. Then they confider the
fituation of that place, and whence thefe Hones can
tumble, which of neceffity mufi be from higher ground.
rod Hiould be firmly and Headily grafped ; for if, when
it has begun to be attra&ed, there be the leafi ima¬
ginable jerk or oppofition to its attra&ion, it will not
move any more till the hands are opened, and a frefh
grafp taken. The flronger the grafp the livelier the
rod moves, provided the grafp be Heady and of an
equal Hrength. This obfervation is very neceffary ;
as the operation of the rod in many hands is defeated and follow the tradh of them up the hill as long as
unrely by a jerk or counteraftion : and it is from they can find anyt)f them,” &c.
' ‘ “ Another way (fays Mr Price) of difeovering lodes
is by working drifts acrofs the country, as we call it,
that is, from north to fouth, and •uicc verfa. 1 tried
the experiment in an adventure under my management,
where I drove ail open at grafs about two feet in the
: and it is from
thence concluded, that there is no real efficacy in the
rod, or that the perfon who holds it wants the virtue:
whereas, by a proper attention to this circumflance in
ufing it, five perfons in fix have the virtue, as it is
called ; that is, the nut or fruit-bearing rod will an-
' - ‘ ‘ ' If a  
•fv/er in their hands. If a rod, or the leafi piece of flielf, very much like a level to convey water upon j.
one of the nut-bearing or fruit kind, be put under the mill wheel: by fo doing I was fure of cutting all lodes
arm, it will totally defiroy the operation of the virgu'a in my way ; and did accordingly difeover five courfes,
■divinatoria, in regard to all the fubjefts of it, except one of which has produced above i8o tons of copper
water, in thofe hands in which the rod naturally ope- ore, but the others were never wrought upon. This
rates. If the leafi animal thread, as filk, or w'orfied, method of difeovering lodes is equally cheap and cer-
©r hair, be tied round or fixed on the top of the rod, tain ; for xoo fathoms in lhallow ground may be driven
it will in like manner hinder its operation; but the at 50s. expence.”
fame rod placed under the arm, or the fame animal In that kind of ground called by our author fea-
fubfiances tied round or fixed on the top of the rod, ftble, and which he explains by the phrafe tender-
will make it uTork in tho^e hands, in which without Jianding, he tells us, that “ a very effeftual, proving,
thefe additions it is not attrafted.” and confequential way is, by driving an adit from the
Such are the accounts of this extraordinary rod, lowefi ground, either north or fouth; whereby there
to which it is probable that few wall affent; and we is a certainty to cut all lodes at 20, 30, or 40 fathoms
believe the infiances of mines having been difeovered deep, if the level admits of it. In driving adits or
by it are but very rare. Another and very ancient levels acrofs, north or fouth, to unwater mines already
mode of difeovering mines, lefs uncertain than the di- found, there are many frefh veins difeovered, which
vining rod, but extremely difficult and precarious, is frequently prove better than thofe they were driving
that called Jhodcing; that is, tracing them by loofe to.”
Hones, fragments, or Jhodes, which may have been fe- After the mine is found, the next thing to be con-
parated and carried off to a confiderable difiance from fidered is, whether it may be dug to advantage. In
the vein, and are found by chance in running waters, order to determine this, we are duly to weigh the na-
on the fuperficies of the ground, or a little under, ture of the place, and its fituation, as to wood, water,
“When the tinners (fays Mr Price) meet with a loofe carriage, healthinefs, and the like ; and compare the
fingle Hone of tin ore, either in a valley or in plough- refult with the richnefs of the ore, the charge of dig-
ing or hedging, though at 100 fathoms difiance from ging, Hamping, wafhing, and fmelting.
the vein it came from, thofe who are accuflomed to Particularly the form and fituation of the fpot
this work will not fail to find it out. They confider, fhould be well confidered. A mine mufi either hap-
that a metallic Hone mufi originally have appertained pen, 1. In a mountain ; 2. In a hill; 3. In a valley ;
to fome vein, from which it was fevered and cafi at a or, 4. In a flat. But mountains and hills are dug with
difiance by fome violent means. The deluge, they much greater eafe and convenience, chiefly becaufe the
fuppofe, moved mofi ©f the loofe earthy coat of the drains and burrows, that is, the adits or avenues, may
globe, and in many places wafhed it off from the upper be here readily cut, both to drain the water and to
towards the lower grounds,-wuth fuch a force, that form gangrways for bringing out the lead, &c. In
mofi of .the backs or lodes of veins which protruded all the four cafes, we are to look out for the veins
themfelves above the faff were hurried downwards with which the rains or other accidental thing may have
the common mafs: whence the fkill in this part of laid bare ; and if fuch a vein be found, it may often
their bufinefs lies much in diredling their meafures ac- be proper to open the mine at that place, efpecially if
cording to the fituation of the furface.” Afterwards, the vein prove tolerably large and rich : otherwife the
however, our author complains, that this art of JJjoding, mofi commodious place for fituation is to be chofen for
•as he calls it, is in a great meafure loft. the purpofe, viz. neither on a flat, nor on the tops of
The following account of a method of finding filver mountains, but on the fides. The beft fituation for a
mines by Alonzo Barba feems to be fimilar to that of mine, is a mountainous, woody, wholefome fpot; of
flioding juft now mentioned. “ The veins of metal a fafe eafy afeent, and bordering on a navigable river.
x The
MIN [
The places abounding with mines are generally healthy,
as handing high, and every where expofed to the air;
yet fome places where mines are found prove poifon-
pus, and can upon no account be dug, though ever fo
rich rthe way of examining a fufpefted place of this
kind, is to make experiments upon brutes, by , expo-
fing them to the effluvia or exhalations to find the
e fit els.
Deyonfflire and Cornwall, where there are a great
many mines of copper and tin, is a very mountainous
country, which gives an opportunity in many places
to make adits or fubterraneous drains to fome valley
at a diftance, by which to carry off the water from
the mine, which otherwife would drown them out
from getting the ore. Thefe adit? are fometimes car¬
ried a mile or two, and dug at a vaff expence, as from
2000I. to 40Q0I. efpecially where the ground is rocky 5
and yet they find this cheaper than to draw up the
-water out of the mine quite to the top, when the
water runs in plenty and the mine is deep. Some¬
times, indeed, they cannot find a level near enough to
which an adit may be carried from the very bottom
.of the mine ; yet they find it worth while to make an
adit at half the height to which the water is to be
raifed, thereby faving half the expence.
The late Mr Coftar, confidering that fometimes from
fmall dreams, and fometimes from little fprings or col-
le&ions of rain-water, one might have a good deal of
water above ground, though not a fufficient quantity
to turn an overfliot-whed, thought, that if a fufficient
fall might be had, this colleftion of water might be
made ufcful in raffing the water in a mine to the adit,
where it may be carrried off.
But now the moft general method of draining mines
is by the fteam-engine. See SiEJM-Eagitie.
Mine, in the military art, denotes a fubterraneous
canal or paffage, dug under the wall or rampart
of a fortification, intended to be blown up by gun¬
powder.
The alley or paffage of a mine is commonly about
four feet fquare ; at the end of this is the chamber of
the mine, which is a cavity of about five feet in width
and in length, and about fix feet in height; and here
the gunpowder is ftowed. The faucifi'e of the mine
is the train, for which there is always a little aperture
left.
Two ounces of powder have been found, by experi¬
ment, capable of railing two cubic feet of earth; con-
fequently 2CO ounces, that is, 12 pound Bounces,
will raiie aco cubic feet, which is only 16 feet fhort
of a cubic toife, becaufe 200 ounces joined together
have proportionably a greater force than 2 ounces, as
being an united force.
All the turnings a miner ufes to carry on his mines,
and through vffiieh he conducts the fauciffe, fflould be
well filled with earth and dung ; and the mafonry in
proportion to the earth to be blown up, as 3 to 2.
The entrance of the chamber of the mine ought to be
firmly fflut with thick planks, in the form of a St. An¬
drew’s crofs, fo that the inclofure be fecure, and the
. void fpaces fhut up with dung or tempered earth. If
a gallery be made below or on the fide of the chamber,
it mull abfolutely be filled up with the ffrongeft ma¬
fonry, half as long again as the height of the earth ;
for this gallery will not only burift, but likewife ob-
43 ]’ M I N
llrufl the effeft of the mine. The powder ffiould al- Mine.'
ways be kept in facks, which are opened when' the
mine is charged, and fome of the powder ftrewed
about: the greater the quantity of earth to be raifed
is, the greater is the effedt of the mine, fuppofing it
to have the due proportion of powder. Powder has
the fame effect upon mafonry as upon earth, that is,
it will proportionably raife either with the fame velo¬
city.
The branches which are carried into the folidity of
walls do not exceed three feet in depth, and two feet
fix inches in width nearly : this fort of mine is molt
excellent to blow up the ftrongeft walls.
The weight of a cubic foot of powffler ftrould be
80 lb. i foot 1 inch cube will weigh 100 lb. and 1 foot
2 inches and 150 lb. and 200 lb. of powder will
be 1 foot 5 inches cube ; however, there is a diverfity
in this, according to the quantity of faltpetre in the
gunpowder. •
If, when the mines are made, water be found at the
bottom of the chamber, planks are laid there, on
which the powder is placed either in facks or barrels
of 100 lb. each. The fauciffe mull have a clear paffage
to the powder, and be laid in an auget or wooden
trough, through all the branches. When the powder
is placed in the chamber, the planks are laid to cover
it, and others again acrofs thefe ; then one is placed
over the top of the chamber, which is fhaped for that
purpofc : between, that. and thofe which cover the
powder, props are placed, which Ihore it up ; fome
inclining towards the outlide, others to the infide of
the wall y all the void fpaces being filled with earrh,
dung, brick, and rough llones. Afterwards planks,
are placed at the entrance of the chamber, with one
aerpfs the top, whereon they buttrefs three ftrong
props, whofe other ends are likewife propped againit.
another plank fituated on the fide of the earth in the.
branch ; which props being well fixed between the
planks with wedges, the branch fflould then be filled
up to its entrance with the forementioned materials.
The fauciffes whiejv pafs through the fide branches
muff be exaclly the fame length with that in the'
middle, to which they join : the part which, reaches
beyond the entrance of the mine is that which conveys
the fire to the other three; the fauciffes being of equal
length, will fpring together.
From a great number of experiments, it appears,
x. That the force of a mine is always towards the
weakeft fide ; fo that the difpofition of the chamber^
of a mine does not at all contribute to determine this
effeft. 2- That the quantity of powder mail be greater
or lefs, in proportion to the greater or lefs weight of
the bodies to be raifed, and to their greater or lefs
cehefion ; fo that you are to allow, for each cubic
fathom
Ofloofe earth,. - - 9 or xolb..
Firm earth, and ftrong fand, 1 1 or 12
Flat clayey earth, - 15 or x 6
New mafonry, not ftrongly bound, 15 or 20
Old mafonry, well bound, 25 or 30
3. That the aperture, or entonnoirof a mine, if right ¬
ly charged,, is a cone, the diameter of whofe bafe is
double the height taken from the centre of the mine.
4. That when the mine has been, overcharged, its en~
tonnoir is nearly cylindrical, the diameter of the upper
F 2 extreme.
MIN C 44 1 MIN
Mineral, extreme not much exceeding that of the chamber. Mineral waters, properly fo called, are thofe in Minerat.
V*4** 5. That befides the (hock of the powder againft the which gas, or fulphureous, faline, or metallic fubftan- * ,[ f-
bodies it takes up, it likewife crulhes all the earth that ces, are difcorered by chemical trials. As many of
borders upon it, both underneath and fidewife.
To charge a mine fo as to have the moft advantaVe-
ous effe£t, the weight of the matter to be carried rnuft
be known ; that is, the folidity of a right cone, whofe
thefe waters are employed fuccefsfully in medicine,
they are alfo called medicinal waters.
Mineral waters receive their peculiar principles by
paffing through earths containing falls, or pyritous
bafe is double the height ef the earth over the centre fubltances that are in a (late of decompofition. Some
of the mine : thus, having found the folidity of the
cone in cubic fathoms, multiply the number of fathoms
by the number of pounds of powder neceffary for rai-
fing the matter it contains; and if the cone contains
matters of different weights, take a mean weight be¬
tween them all, always having a regard to their degree
of cohefion.
As to the difpontion of mines, there is but one ge¬
neral rule, which is, that the fide towards which one
would determine the effedt be the weakeft; but this
varies according to occafions and circumftances.
The calculation of mines is generally built upon
this hypothefis, That the entonnoir of a mine is the
fruflum of an inverted cone, whofe altitude is equal to
the radius of the excavation of the mine, and the
diameter of the whole lefier bafe is equal to the line
of leaft refiftance ; and though thefe fuppofitions are
not quite exadt, yet the calculations of mines deduced
from them have proved fuccefsful in pradlice ; for
which reafon this calculation fhonld be followed till a
better and more fimpie be Found out.
of thefe waters are valuable from the quantity of ufe-
ful falts which they contain, particularly of common
fait, great quantities of which are obtained from thefe
waters; and others are chiefly valued for their medi-
cirtal qualities. The former kind of mineral waters is
an objedt of manufadture, and from them is chiefly ex-
tradted that fait only which is moft valuable in com¬
merce. See Salt.
Many of thofe waters have been accurately analyfed
by able chemifts and phyficians. But notwithftand*
ing thefe attempts, we are far from having all the
certainty and knowledge that might be defired on this
important fubjedf; for this kind of anSJyfis is perhaps
the moft difficult of any in chemiftry.—Almoft all mi¬
neral waters contain feveral differentTubftances, which
being united with water may form with each other
numberlefs compounds. Frequently fome of the prin¬
ciples of mineral waters are in fo fmall quantity, that
they can fcarcely be perceived ; although they may
have fome influence on the virtues of the water, and
alfo on the other principles contained in the water.—
M. de Valliere found that the entonnoir of !a mine The Chemical operations ufed in the analyfis of mineral
was a parabaloid, which is a folid generated by the ro¬
tation of a femiparabola about its axis; but as the dif¬
ference between thefe two is very infignificant in prac¬
tice, that of the fruftum of a cone may be ufed.
MINERAL, in natural hiftory, is ufed in gene-
Yal for all fofiile bodies, whether Ample or compound,
dug out of a mine ; from whence it takes its denomi¬
nation.
Miner at. Waters. All waters naturally impregna¬
ted with any heterogeneous matter which they have
diffolved within the earth may be called mineral wa¬
ters, in the moft general and exteniive meaning of that
name ; in which are therefore comprehended almoft all
thofe that flow within or upon the furfa^e of the earth,
for almoft all thefe contain fome earth or felcnites. But
waters, may fometimes occafion efiential-ahanges in
the fubftances that are to be difeovered. And alfo,
thefe waters are capable of fuffering very confiderable
changes by motion, by reft, and by expofure to air.
Probably alfo the variations of the atmofphere, fub-
terranean changes, fomefecret jun&ion ofanewfpring
of mineral or of pure water, laftly the exhauftion of
the minerals whence waters receive their peculiar prin¬
ciples, are caufes which may occafionally change the
quality of mineral waters.
We need not therefore wonder that the refults of
analyfes of the fame mineral waters made by different
chemifts, whofe (kill and accuracy are not queftioned,
(hould be very different.
The confequences of what we have faid on this fub-
waters containing only earth or felenites are not gene- je£t are, That the examination of mineral waters is
rally called mineral, but hard or crude waters.
Hard waters, which are (imply felenetic, when tried
by the uhemicai proofs, (how no marks of an acid
or of an alkali, nor of any volatile, fulphureous, or
metallic matters. Waters which contain a difengaged
calcareous earth, change the colour fyrup of violets
to a green ; and thofe that contain felenites, being
mixed with a folution of mercury in nitrous acid, form
a tuibith mineral; and when a fixed alkali is added,
they are rendered turbid, and a white fediment is pre¬
cipitated. Thefe waters alfo do not diffolve foap well.
From thefe circumftanccs we may know, that any water
which produces thefe efte&a is a hard, earthy, or felenetic
water. The waters impregnated with gas are alfo hard.
Although the waters of the fea and faline fprings
be not generally enumerated amongil mineral waters,
they might neverthelefs be juftly confidered as fuch :
for befides earthy and felenetic matters, they alfo con-
very difficult talk 5 that it ought not to be attempted
but by profound and experienced chemifts ; th' it re¬
quires frequent repetitions, and at different L,.nes ; and
laftly, that no fixed general rules can be given con¬
cerning thefe analyfes.
As this matter cannot be thoroughly explained
without entering into details connefted w'ith all the
parts of chemiftry, we fhall here mention only the
principal refults, and the moft; effential rules, that
have been indicated by the attempts hitherto made on
this fubjeA.
We may admit the divifion or arrangement of mi¬
neral waters into certain defies, propofed by fome of
the beft chemifts and naturalifts.
Some of thefe waters are called cold, becaufe they
are not naturally hotter than the atmofphere. Some of
them are even colder, efpecially in fummer.
Thofe are called hot mineral waters, which in all
tain a large quantity of mineral falts. We fhall there- feafons are hotter than the air. Thefe are of various
fore confider them as fuch in this article.
degrees offbeat, and fome of them are almoft as hot
MIN [ 45 ] MIN
f Minerai. as boiling Water, In fome mineral waters Certain vo-
' w—v—~ Jatile, fpirituous, and elaftic principles may be percei¬
ved, by a very fenfible piquant tafte t this prindple is
called the gas or fpirit of the waters.
The waters which contain this principle are general¬
ly lighter than pure water. They fparkle and emit
bubbles, at their fpring, but efpecially when they are
lhaken, and poured from one vefiel into another. They
fometimes break the bottles containing them, when
thefe are well corked, as fermenting wines fometimes
do. When mixed with ordinary wine, they give to it
the piquancy and fparklingquality of Champaignewine.
This volatile principle, and all the properties of the
. water dependent upon it, are loft; merely by expofure
to air, or by agitation. The waters containing this
principle are diftinguiihed by the name of fpirituous
mirural waters, or acidulous waters.
Other divifions of mineral waters may be made re¬
latively to fome of their predominant principles. Hence
fome waters are called acidulous, alkaline, martial, neu¬
tral, &c.
When a mineral water is to be examined, wre may
obferve the following rules :
Experiments ought to be made near the fpring, if
pofiible.
The fituation of the fpring, the nature of the ifoil,
and the neighbouring riftng grounds, ought to be exa-
| mined.
Its fenfible qualities, as its fraell, tafte, colour, are
to be obferved.
Its fpecific gravity and heat are to be afcertained
by the hydroftatical balance and the thermometer.
From the properties above-mentioned of fpirituous
mineral waters, we may difcover whether it be one ci
this clafs. For greater certainty we may make the fol¬
lowing trial. Let the neck of a wet bladder be tied to
the neck of a bottle containing fome of this water. By
fhaking the water, any gas that it may contain will be
difengaged, and will fwell the bladder. If the neck of
the bladder be then* tied with a firing above the bottle*
and be cut below this firing, fo as to feparate the blad¬
der from the bottle, the quantity and nature of the
contained gas may be further examined.
I Laftly, we mutt obferve the changes that are fpon-
taneoufly produced upon the water in clofe and in
open veflels, and with different degrees of heat. If
by thefe means any matter be cryftallized ©rdepofited,
. it muft be fet apart for further examination.
Thefe preliminary experiments and obfervations
will almoft certainly indicate, more or lefs fenfibly,
fomething concerning the nature of the water, and
will point out the method to be followed in our further
inquiry.
We muft then proceed to the decompofition of the
water, either without addition, and merely by evapo¬
ration and diftillation, or with the addition- of other
fubftances, by means of which the matters contained in
the water may be precipitated and difeovered. It is
not material which °f thefe two methods be firft prac-
tifed,but it is quite neceffary that the one fhould fucceed
the other. If we begin by evaporating and diftilling,
thefe operations muft be fometimes interrupted, that
the feveral principles which rife at different times of
the diftillation may be obtained and examined fepa-
rately, and alfo to allow the feveral falts that may be
contained to Cryftallize by the evaporation and by Mineral,
cold. U—y—
The fubftances which have hitherto been met with
in mineral waters are,
1. Vitriolic acid. This acid is fometimes found
pure and unmixed with any other fubftance, though
more frequently joined with iron or copper. In it*
pure ftate, it is moft frequently found in the neigh¬
bourhood of volcanoes, where, in the opinion ©f Dr
Donald Monro, it is moft probably “ diftilled from
mines of vitriol or of pyrites-ftmie, decompofed by
fubterraneous fire.” It feems, however, more probably
to proceed from the decompofition of fulphur ; for
neither vitriol nor pyrites will at all give a pure acid-
This only can be obtained from the fumes of fulphur,
which we know abound in all fuch places. Dr Van-
dellius, in a book intitled De Tbermis Agri Patavini,
publifhed in 1761, mentions a cave near to the town
of Latera, about 30 miles from Viterbo, in Italy,
where a clear acid water drops from the crevices of the
rocks, and is colledted by the country people in glazed
earthen veffels. This has a mild agreeable tafte, and
is found to be a pure vitriolic acid much diluted. The
cavern, however, is fo filled with noxious vapours,
that it cannot be entered without danger of fuffocation
except in winter, or when it blows a north wind. A
fimilar native vitriolic water is mentioned by Theophi-
lus Griffonius, near the town of Salvena. Varenius
alio mentions a fpring in the province of Nota in Si¬
cily, the waters of which are fo four, that the neigh¬
bouring people ufe it initead of vinegar. In fome
wafte coal pits, the water taftes four, and effervefees
with alkalies ; but in all thefe the acid is mixed with
much vitriol, or other matter. Dr Monro mentions 4
acid dews collefted in the Eaft Indies: this acid he
fuppofes to be the vitriolic, and that it probably im¬
parts fome acidity to waters upon which the dews fall.
2. Nitrous and marine acids are never found in wa¬
ters pure, though the former is frequently found com¬
bined with calcareous earth, and the latter with foffite
alkali, calcareous earth, or magnefia.
3. Fixed air enters into the compofition of all waters ;
but abounds particularly in thofe of the mineral kind,
at leaft fuch as are cold. It imparts an agreeable
acidulous tafte to fuch water as it is mixed with,
and is found by undoubted experiments to be that
which gives the power and efficacy to the cold kind.
It is known to "be a folvent of iron, and that by its
means this metal is very often fufpended in waters j
and Dr Dejean of Leyden, in a letter to Dr Monro
in the year 1777, fuppofes it to be the medium by
which fulphur alfo is diffolved. “ Having been late¬
ly at Aix La Chapelle (fays he), I mixed a folution
of arfenic in the marine acid with fome of the water
of the emperor’s bath, and immediately a true and
genuine fulphur was precipitated to the bottom of the'
veffel in which the water was contained ; which con¬
vinced me that the fulphur was difl'olved by means ef
fixed air, though Sir Torbern Bergman thinks other-
wile, and that the fulphur is fufpended by means of
phlogifton, and the matter of heat united in the wa¬
ters 5 and he fays, that if the concentrated nitrous
acid be added to thefe waters, it feizes the phlogifton,
precipitates the fulphur, and takes away the hepatic
fmell.” If fulphur is by this medium fufpended in
3 water.
M IN [ 46 ] MIN
water, however, it mufl. be by a natural procefs, with 7. Glauber's fa’t. Many mineral waters contain a Min
which we are entirely unacquainted; for we cannot portion of this fait, though the quantity is common-. 
unite fulphur and fixsM air artificially. We are not ly very fmall. However, M. Boulduc, in the memoirs
informed whether there is any native mineral water im- of the academy of feiences at Paris for 1724, makes
pregpated only with fixed air ; probably, indeed, there mention of the waters of a fpring in the ndghbour-
is not, for water thus impregnated becomes a very ac- hood of a village abdut three leagues from Madrid,
tive folvent of calcareous and other earths, and muft which, by evaporation, yields a true Glauber’s fait.—
undoubtedly meet with fomething or other of this kind This fait, he fays, is found in a concreted ilate about
in pafling through the ground. Many waters in Ger- the Tides of the .fpring, refembling the icicles which
many, particularly in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, in winter hang from the roofs of houfes. from this
are very much impregnated with this acid, and are circumitance, it would feem that the water of the
efteemed otherwife pretty pure ; but they have never fpring was very richly impregnated with the fak ; and
been examined chemically to difcover whether they are Dr Nichola Andrea fpeaks of a water at Sasilia, in
not impregnated alfo with fome proportion of metallic Calabria, which is fo itrongly impregnated with this
or earthy fubftances. kind of fait, that he thinks it would be worth while
4. Vegetable alkali was long fuppofed to be a pro- to prepare it from thence in the way of trade. It is
dudlion entirely artificial ; but fome late authors very probable that fuch waters are frequently to be
feem to think that it is a native fait as well as the met wfith in countries where the foil is impregnated
vegetable a!ka i. M. Margraaf mentions, his having with mineral alkali.
got a true nitre, the balls of which is the ve- Z. Gammon nitre. In fome of the barren provinces of
getable alkali, from fome waters at Berlin. M. Bengal, the earth is fo Itrongly impregnated with this
Monnet fays, that from the Pohoun fpaw water he fait, tl^at the furface is covered with a nitrous cr nitre-
obtained eight grains of a grey-coloured alkaline fembiing hoar-froft ; and in fuch places the waters are
fait from a tefiduunn of twelve Paris pints of the wa- ftrongly impregnated with it, as may naturally be
ter, which he faturated with, the vitriolic acid ; and fuppofed. In colder countries, however, this impreg-
on diluting, evaporating, and cryllallizing, he obtain- nation is more rare, though inllances of perfect nitre
ed a tartarus vitriolatus, and not a Glauber's fait as being found in fprings are not wanting in Europe ;
he expefted. Dr Hoffman affirms, that he obtained a but no natural combination of nitrous acid with foffil
vitriolated tartar from the Seltzer water by mere eva- alkali, or cubic nitre, has yet been met with in any
poration t but as this fait has neither been found in part of the world.
Seltzer nor any other water by other chemifts, it is 9. Sea fait. This abounds not only in the waters of
probable that he has been millaken. the ocean, but in great numbers of fait fprings ; and
5. The fajjil alkali is found in many waters in Hun- there are but few waters fo pure as not to contain
gary, Tripoli, Egypt^ and other countries where that fome portion of it.
fait is found native. It is combined in Seltzer water, id. Aeratedfojfde alkali. This is found in Seltzer, and
and other acidulous waters, with fixed air, and may other waters of that kind, but combined with fuch a
be obtained from them pretty pure by fimple evapora- quantity of fixed air, that the acrid tafte of the alkali is
tion. M. Monnet informs us, that he has obtained it entirely covered, and the water has a brilk acidulous
in tolerable purity from the waters of Auvergne : but one. By evaporating the water, however, this fuper-
in mod of the alkaline waters this fait was in an im- flnous quantity of air is difiipated, and the alkali then
perfeft date, and may be called rather an embryo than appears in its more acrid date.
a perfcfl fait; for it would not crydallize, and made 11. Gypfum, or felenites. This compofition of the
a very imperfeft neutral fait with acids. It was in* vitriolic acid and lime is extremely common in mineral
capable alfo of decompofing the felenites, which was waters. For a long time if was fuppofed to be a fimple
frequently found along with it in the fame water.— earth or done, on account of its difficult folubility in
Bergman makes mention of an imperfedl alkaline fait; water, requiring 700 or 800 times its owu weight of
but obferves, that all of that kind which he had an water to diffolve it artificially, though Dr Rutty in-
opportunity of examining, appeared to him to be no forms us, that the water in which it is originally dif-
other than a genuine mineral alkali mixed with deli- folved will contain four or five times that proportion,
quefeent falls. There are to appearance feveral kinds of this fubdance;
In forne of the mineral waters near volcanoes, this but whether they arife from foreign mixture, or from
kind of alkali has been found fo intimately united any difference in the calcareous earths among them-
with phlogiiton as to be capable of producing a true felves, we know not. It is not, however, conlidered
Pruffian blue, on adding a folution of filver or of as a medicinal ingredient, nor indeed is the internal
green vitriol to the water ; of which an example is ufe of it thought to be very fafe.
■given by Dr Nichola Andrea, in the thermal waters 12. Epfom fait. Bergman and fome other chemids
of a fpring in the ifland of Ifchia. have reduced all the calcareous purging falts in which
6. Volatile alkali has formerly been accounted an in- the vitriolic acid is concerned ; but Dr Monro obferves,
gredient in mineral waters ; but Dr Hoffman, and that thefe falts not only crydallize in various modes,
moil of the later chemidr, have denied this, as the but have different degrees of folubility in water.—
volatile alkali is not a mineral fubdance. It is poffible, Thus the Epfom fait, properly fo called, diffolves in
indeed, that fome waters in the neighbourhood of an equal quantity of water; while the calcareous
great quantities of putrid matter may give fome to- nitres, or purging falts from mineral waters, require
kens of volatile alkali, as was the cafe with Rathbone- from to to 80 times their weight to diffolve them.—
place water, analyfed by the Hon. Henry Cavendiffi. This matter would require the analyfis of a great num-
4 ber
min r
i Mineral, ber of falts obtained from mineral waters in large
I v-—y— quantity, and has hot yet been thoroughly explained.
Thefe falts, however, are feldom met with by them-
fclves in mineral waters, but ufually mixed with fea-
falt, iron, earth, fulphureous matter, &c. Dr Rutty
tells us, that a mineral water begins to be laxative
when it contains ten grains of this fait to a pint, or
So to a gallon.
13. Alnm. This was formerly fuppofed to be a very
common ingredient ih mineral waters ; but more accu¬
rate obfervations have fhown it to be very rare, info-
much that Dr Hoffman thinks it is not to be met with
in any. Dr Layard, however, in the 56th volume of
the Philofophical Tranfaftions, gives an account of a
chalybeate water at oomerfham, from which he got
five grains of alum out of two pounds of the water.
Dr Rutty fuppofes that the mineral water at Bally-
caftle, in Ireland, contains alfo a portion of this fait.
14. Calcareous nitre. This is rarely found in mineral
waters, though common enough in fuch as are Amply
called hard waters. Dr Monro fays, that the only
one containing this ingredient which he ever heard of
is one mentioned by Dr Home, in his treatife on
bleaching.
13. 16. Muriated calcareous earth, and muriated
magnejia. Muriated ca’careous earth is likewife a
rare ingredient in mineral waters, though frequent¬
ly mentioned by writers on this fubjeft. Berg¬
man informs us, that he obtained a fmall quanti¬
ty from a fpring in Oflro-Gothland ; and Dr Monro
got fome from the water of a fait fpring at Pitkeath-
ly, near Perth, in Scotland. It is found, as well as
muriated magnefia, in fea water, though the latter is
much more abundant, and probably to be met with in
ail fait waters whatever, but is very difficult to be ob¬
tained in a cryllalline form ; though its prefence and
nature may always be afcertained, by dropping vi¬
triolic acid into the concentrated liquor fuppofed to
contain' it, which will both precipitate the calca¬
reous earth, and raife the marine acid in vapours.
Muriated magnefia is likewife found in fait wa¬
ters, and abounds in thofe of the ocean. It is the
principal ingredient in the bitter ley remaining after
the fait is extracted from fea-water, and is much more
capable of being cryftallized than the former.
17. Aerated calcareous earth, and aerated magnefia.
Both thefeearths may be dilfolved by means of fixed air,
and frequently are fo in mineral waters, as well as iron.
-They are likewife often found in great quantity in hard
waters ; nor is there probably any kind of water, un-
lefs that which is diftilled, entirely void of them.—
When fuch waters are boiled, the air evaporates, and
the earth falls to the bottom, which will alfo be the
cafe upon long expofure to the air. Hence originates
the cruft upon tea-kettles, the petrefaftions upon dif¬
ferent fubftances immerfed in fome kinds of water, &c.
Hence alfo hard waters become foft, by running in
channels for a confiderable way; and to this caufe we
may with probability afcribc the growth of ftones in
rivulets.
18. Vitriolated copper. This fait is feldom found,
except in waters which flow from copper mines. The
water impregnated with it is emetic and purgative,
and may juftly be accounted poifonous rather than me¬
dicinal. On dipping clean iron into fuch water, the
copper is inftantly precipitated in its metallic ftate, and
47 ] MIN
the iron diffolved in its ftead. Sometimes the quantity Miners!,
of copper is fo great, that it is found advantageous to "m1
extrafl it in this way, as is the cafe in a certain ftream
in Ireland.
19. Vitriolated iron Is found in confiderable quantity
in feveral waters both of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, as well as in many countries on the contine it.
Some authors have imagined, that there is a kind of
volatile vitriol with which waters are fometimes im¬
pregnated. An anonymous author, in a work intitled
delle Terme Porretane, publifiied at Rome in 1768, in¬
forms us, that having fixed a glafs receiver to a hole
through which the vapour of the water rifes from the
aqueduft below, he found in it a month afterwards, as
well as in the mouth of the hole, a concrete and in-
cruftated fubftance, like ftaladite, which by experi¬
ment proved to be a true fait of iron, with a fuper-
abundant quantity of acid. Hence he concludes, that
this water, as it rifes from the fpring, is impregnated
with a fine volatile martial vitriol, in fuch fmall pro¬
portion that it cannot be difcovered in any quantity
that may be analyfed in retorts or ftills, though it
may be difcovered by confining for a long time the
vapour, which is naturally and conftantly fubiimed from
the whole body of the thermal water difcharged from
the fpring, as it pafies through the aqueduds. The
water of this fpring is ftrougly fulphureous, and its
heat 92 degrees of Fahrenheit.
Another kind of fuppofed volatile vitriol is that
compofed of iron, diffolved by fixed air. The notion
of this being a volatile fubftance arofe from obferving
that there are fome waters which tafte ftrongly chaly¬
beate at the fountain, but, after running for a little
way, lofes it entirely. This, however, is founded on
a miftake ; for it is only one of the ingredients, viz.
the fixed air, which flies off when it is combined
with earth ; after which the iron precipitates in a fimi-
lar manner.
20. Vitriolated %inc. This has been found native in
the bowels of the earth; and thence has .been fuppo¬
fed, not without reafon, to be an ingredient in mine¬
ral waters : but none have yet brought any decifive
experiments on this fubjed, except Dr Rutty and
Dr Gmelin, who both fay that they have obtained a
white vitriol from mineral waters which were at the
fame time impregnated with iron and fome other in¬
gredients.
21. Muriated manganefe. Waters impregnated with
this fait are mentioned both by Bergman and Scheele;
but the particular properties of them are not known.
22. Arfenic has been fuppofed fometimes to be an
ingredient in mineral waters, though no certain proofs
of its exiftence have been brought. Poifonous fprings,
fuppofed to be impregnated with it, are mentioned by
Varenius ; and Dr Baldaffari tells us of a fmall
fpring 'near to the Aqua Sanda, in the country of
Siena), the waters of which^kill any animal that drinks
them. He fufpeds this to be owing to arfenic, but
was afraid to analyfe the water.
23. Ffd oils. Almoft all waters, even thofe which
are accounted the moft pure, contain fome portion of
an oily matter, though generally fo fmall hat it car!-*
not be perceived without evaporating a large quanti¬
ty of the liquid. Some contain it in great quantity;
infomuch that, befides impregnating the water as
ftrongly as poffible, a great quantity falls to the bot¬
tom,
MIN t 48 1 MIN
Mineral, tom, or fWims oft the top. The other Ingredients of union betwixt the fulphur and them. Dr Vandel- MineraL.
fen-fa... tjjefe bituminous waters have not been examined ; but Hus, in his treatife de Thermit agri Patavini, already —v—J
in whatever manner the oil is united with the water, a quoted, mentions a fubllance found in the conduits
portion of it adheres very obftinately, fo that it can- of the waters of the baths at Aponum, which he
not be fully feparated even by filtration through pa- calls cryftallized fulphur, and fays that it diflblves ift
per. A fine bituminous vapour rifes from the bottom
of fome wells, and pervades the water, taking fire pn
the application of any flaming fubftance, though no
oil iv obferved >'n the water itfelf. Of this kind are
the burning wells at Brofely and Wigan in Lanca-
fhire in England, and others in different countries —
The caufe of the inflammation of thefe waters was
firft difcoyeeed in 17 59 by Mr Thomas Shirley, who
caufed the waters of the well at Wigan to be drained
away ; and found that the inflammable vapour rofe
from the ground at the bottom, where it would take
fire, as it did at the furface of the water. On apply¬
ing his hand to the place whence the vapour if-
fued, he found the impulfe of it like a ftrong breath
the waters by boiling, recovering afterwards its fo-
lid fortn. This fubftance has not been examined ; but
we know of no other mineral with which fulphur rea¬
dily affumes acryftalline form than terra ponderofa.—
This compound is eafily diffolved in water, and com¬
municates to it a moft powerful tafte and fmell of he-
par fulphuris. Great part of the terra ponderofa,
though not the whole, may be feparated by fixed air,
fo that it is probably this permanent compound which.
Vandellius obferved. Dr Lucas fuppofed that the ful-
phureous waters contain both an acid and phlogifton ;
and Sir Torbern Bergman, that they are impregnated
only with the hepatic gas ; and that this gas confifts
of fulphur united with phlogifton, from which the
vind ; .and the fame fenfation was felt on applying fulphur may be precipitated by the nitrous acid.
his hand to the farface of the water. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. 26.
24. Sulphur. This is a common ingredient in mi-
For an account of the caufe of heat in mineral wa¬
ters, fee the article Springs.
Having now mentioned the principal fubftanccs
neral waters ; and its prefence is known by the ftrong that form almoft all thefe waters, we lhall next fliow
hepatic fmell they emit, as well as by their blackening
filver, &c. Sulphureous waters are frequently very
clear and tranfparent when taken up at the fountain ;
but when kept in open veffels, or bottles not well
flopped, they foon depofit the fulphur they contain
in the form of a dirty white powder, and lofe their
fulphureous fmell. The bottom of the wells containing
fuch waters, or of the channels in which they run,
affume a black colour, and a raggy kind of matter is gaged faline matter.
the proofs by means of which they may be difcover-
ed in water, without decompofing the water by eva¬
poration or by diftillation.
If any portion of difengaged acid or alkali be con¬
tained in water, it may be known by the tafte, by .
changing the colour of violets or of turnfol, and by
adding the precife quantity of acid or of alkali that is
neceffary for the faturation of the contained difen-
depofited on fuch fubftances as they run over for fome
time; and when thefe are taken up and dried, they
Sulphur, and liver of fulphur, may be difcovered in
waters by their fingular fmell, and by the black colour
appear covered with a true fulphur. Some waters which thefe fubftances give to white metals or to their
contain this ingredient in very confiderable quantity.
From that of Harrowgate it may be feparated by fil-
precipitates, but efpecially to filver.
Vitriolic falts with earthy bafis may be difcovered
tration ; and Father de Tertre, in the fecopd volume in water by two proofs : 1. By adding fome fixed al-
of his Hlftoire Naturelle des Antilles, tells us, that when kali, which decompofes all thefe falts, and preci-
he was in the ifland of Guadaloupe, and amufing himfelf pitates their earthy bafis; and, 2. By adding a fo-
cne day with evaporating in a tin plate fome fulphureous lution of mercury in nitrous acid, which alfo decom-
water which he found near the burning mountain, there pofes thefe falts, and forms a turbith mineral with their
remained on the plate a layer of fulphur about the thick- acid. But for this purpofe the folution of mercury
nefs of a leaf of paper. Dr Monro mentions his having ought to have a fuperabundant quantity of acid : for
obtained a true fulphur, by evaporation, from a mine- this folution, when perfe&ly faturated, forms a preci-
ral water at Caftle-Leod,in the county of Bofs, in Scot- pitate with any kind of water, as M. Rouelle has very
land. Dr Brown, in his Travels, informs us, that ha- juftly remarked : and indeed, all metallic folutions in
ving caufed fome of the pipes which carry off the water any acids are ftriftly capable of decompofition by wa-
from the duke’s bath at Baden, in Auflria, to be open- ter alone, and fo much more eafily as the acid is more
*d, he took from thence a quantity of fine fulphur in perfectly faturated with the metal,
powder, fomething like flour of brimftone, which had Martial vitriol or iron combined with any acid, on
been fublimed from the waters. A fimilar kind of even with gas, Ihows itfelf in waters by blackening an
fulphur is obtained from the upper part of the pipes infufion of galls, or by forming a Pruffian blue with the
and conduits which convey the waters of Aix-la-Cha- phlogifticated alkaline lixivium.
pelle from their fources. The vitriol of copper, or copper diflblved by any
From thefe, and other facfts of a fimilar nature, Dr acid, may be difcovered by adding fome of the vola-
Monro concludes, that fulphur is diffolved by fome tile fpirit of fal ammoniac, which produces a fine blue
means or other in the water. Greatdifferences, however, colour; or by the addition of clean iron,, upon the
have taken place among chemifts concerning the mode furface of which the copper is precipitated in its na-
in which fulphur is thus diflblved. Sulphur, we know, tural or metallic ftnte.
may be diffolved by means of an alkali, as well as by Glauber’s fait is difcovered by adding a folution of
calcareous earth ; and there are fome inftances of al- mercury in nitrous acid, and forming with it a turbith
kaline waters containing fulphur, though we are not mineral; or by cryftallization.
abfolutely certain that the alkaline fait is the bond of Common fait contained in waters forms with a fo-
NJ 222. lutioa
MIN [ 49 1
. lution of filver in nitrons acid a white precipitate, or fome of this liquor,
■ luna cornea. It may alfo be known by its cryftalliza-
tion. Marine fait with earthy bafis produces the fame
effeft upon folution of filver. It alfo forms a preci¬
pitate when fixed alkali is added. The acrimony,
bitternefs, and deliquefcency of this fait, ferve to di-
ftinguifh it.
The proofs related for the examination of Tnineral
waters, are only thofe which are moft effential. Many
others may be made to confirm the former proofs : but
the details of thefe are too extenfive to be inferted
he're. We (hall add only two of them, becaufe they
are very general, and may be very ufeful.
The firft is the production of artificial fulphur, or
of the volatile fulphureous acid; by which means the
vitriolic acid may be difcovered in any combination
whatever. For this purpofe, the matter to be exami¬
ned muft be mixed with any inflammable fubftance, and
expofed to a red heat. If this matter contained but a
particle of vitriolic acid, it would be rendered fenfible
by the fulphur, or by the volatile fulphureous acid
thence produced.
The fecond general proof for mineral waters which
we fhall mention here, ferves to difcpver any metallic
fubftance whatever, diflblved in water by any acid.
This proof confifts in adding fome of the liquor fatu-
rated by the colouring matter of Pruffian blue. This
liquor produces no effefts upon any neutral falls with
earthy or alkaline bafes, but decompofes all metallic
falls: fo that if no precipitate be formed upon adding
M I N
. . re may be certain that the water Mirer*!,
does not contain any metallic fait; and on the contrary. —v-"*1
if a precipitate be formed, we may certainly infer that
the water does contain fome metallic fait.
Two kinds only of gas, or the fpirituous volatile
part of fome waters, are hitherto known ; of which
one is the volatile fulphureous acid, and the other is
fixed air. See Aerology, Fixed Air, and Ga?,
pqffm. Air united fuperabundantly with fpirituous
waters is the chief caufe of their lightnefs, piquancy,
and fparkling.
When the nature and quantities of the principles
contained in a mineral water are afijertained by fuitable
experiments, we may imitate artificially this water, by
adding to pure water the fame proportions of the fame
fubftances, as Mr Vend has done in examining feve-
ral waters, efpecially that of Sellers.
We may eafily perceive the neceffity of ufing no vef-
fels in thefe experiments, but fuch as qre perfectly
clean and rinfed with diftilled water ; of weighing the
produfts of the experiments very exa&ly ; of making
the experiments upon as large quantities of water as is
poflible, efpecially the evaporations, cryftallizations,and
diftillations ; pnd of repeating all experiments feveral
times. We may further obferve, that the mixtures
from which any precipitates might be expefted ought
to be kept two or three days, becaufe many of thefe
precipitates require that timei or more, to appear, or
to be entirely depofited.
An Alphabetical Table of the moft noted Mineral Waters in Europe, exhibiting
their Medicinal Properties and Contents.
Names of Countries in which
Springs. . they are found.
Abcourt, Near St Germain’s
in France.
Aberbroth-
ick,
County of Forfar in
Scotland.
Afton,
Aghaloo,
Middlefex county,
England.
Tyrone, Ireland.
Aix-la-Cha- Juliers in Germany,
pelle.
Alford or Aw- Somerfetlhire, Eng-
ford, land.
Alkeron, York {hire, in Eng¬
land.
Antrim, Ireland,
Baden, Swabia in Germany.
Vox.. XII. Part I.
Contents and quality of the
water.
A cold chalybeate water,
containing befides the iron
a fmall quantity of fofiil
alkali faturated with fixed
air.
A cold chalybeate. Con¬
tains iron diffolved in fix¬
ed air.
Contains Epfom and fea
fait. Cold.
Sulphur, fofiile alkali, and
fome purging fait. Cold.
Sulphureous and hot. Con¬
tain aerated calcareous
earth, fea-falt, folfile al¬
kali, and fulphur.
A purging fait along with
fea-falt. Cold.
Contains Epfom fait, aera¬
ted calcareous earth, and
fulphur. Cold.
Hot and fulphureous fprings
and baths, refembling
thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic and purgative. Internally
ufed in dropfies, jaundice, and ob-
ftruftions of the vifeera ; externally
in fcorbutic eruptions, ulcers, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative. Ufed in
indigeftions, nervous diforders, &c.
Strongly purgative, and caufes a fore-
nefs in the fundament.
Alterative and corroborant. Ufeful
in fcrofulous diforders, worms, and
cutaneous difeafes.
Diaphoretic, purgative, and diuretic,
Ufed as baths as well as taken in¬
ternally. Ufeful in iheumatifms, and
all difeafes proceeding from a debility
of the fyftem.
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful when drank in le-
profy, fcabs, and other cutaneous di¬
feafes.
Similar to Barrowdale water, but wea¬
ker.
See Aix-la-Chapelle, and Baden,
in the order of the alphabet.
G Bagnigge,
Names ef
Springs.
Bagnigge,
Balimore,
Ball, or Baud-
well,
Balaruc,
Ballycaftle,
Ballynahinch,
Ballyfpcllan,
Bagniers,
Bareges,
Barnet, and
North-hall,
Barrowdale,
Bath,
Bandola,
Brentwood,
Briiiol,
Bromley,
Broughton,
Buxton,
MIN [ 50 }
Countries in 'which Contents and Quality of the
they are found. Water.
Mlddlefex, near Lon- Epfom fait and muriated
don. magnefia. Cold. Ano¬
ther fpring contains iron
and fixed air.
Worcefterfhire in A fine cold chalybeate, con-
England. taining iron rendered'fb-
luble by fixed air, along
with fome other fait fup-
pofed to be foffile alkali.
Lincolnfiiire in Eng- A cold petrifying water;
land. contains aerated calcare¬
ous earth or magnefia.
Languedoc in Hot, and contain fome pur-
France. ging falts.
Antrim in Ireland.
Down in Ireland.
Near Kilkenny in
Ireland.
Biggore in France.
Chalybeate and fulphureous.
Cold
Iron, fixed air, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and pro¬
bably foffile alkali.
Earth and fulphur. Hot.
Biggore in France. Sea-falt, foffile alkali, cal¬
careous earth, felenites,
fulphur, and a fine bitu¬
minous oil. Hot.
Hertfordffiire in
England.
Cumberland in
England.
Epfom fait; and aerated
calcareous earth.
A great quantity of fea-falt,
aerated calcareous earth,
and fame bittern. Cold.
Somerfetfhire in
England.
Italy.
EfTex in England.
Sbmerfetffiire in
England.
Iron, aerated calcareous
earth, felenite, Glauber’s
fait, and fea-falt. Hot.
Iron, fixed air, foffile alkali,
and a little fulphur.—
Cold.
Epfom fait, and aerated
calcareous earth
Calcareous earth, fea-falt,
Epfom-falt, Glauber’sfalt,
and felenites. Hot.
Kent in England. Iron and fixed air. Cold.
Yorkfhire in Eng- Sulphur, fea-falt, Epfom-
land. fait, and aerated earth.
Cold.
Derby (hire in Eng- A fmall quantity of fea-
land. fait, foffile alkali, Epfom-
falt, and aerated calcare¬
ous earth. Hot. Here
is alfo a' fine cold chaly¬
beate fpring.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues,
Strongly purgative, three half pints be*
ing a dofe. The chalybeate fpring;
alfo proves purgative when the
bowels contain any vitiated matter.
Corroborative, and good in obftru&ions*
of the vifeera. Drank from two to
three pints in a morning.
Corroborative and aftringent. Drunk
to the quantity of two pints, or two
and an half.
Drank as purgatives, and ufed as hot-,
baths. Ufeful in fc.ofulous and cu¬
taneous diforders.
Refembles that of Balemore in virtue.
Ufeful in fcorbitic diforders and dif-
eafes of indigeftion.
Similar in virtue to that of Ba'emore.
The waters ufed in baths, like thofe of.
Aix-la-Chapelle. Some of the fprings,
purgative, others diuretic.
Diuretic and diaphoretic. .Ufeful in-
nervous as well as cutaneous difor¬
ders, in old wounds, and fome vene¬
real complaints. Ufed as. baths, a&
well as taken internally to the
quantity of a quart or three pints.
Purgative.
Strongly emetic and cathartic. Some¬
times ufeful in the jaundice and
dropfy, fcorbutic diforders, and chro¬
nic obftruftions. Ufed likewife as
a bath in cutaneous difeafes. Taken"
in the dofe of a pint, containing
only about feven drams and an half
of fea-falt; fo that a great part of
the virtue muft refide in the aerated
calcareous earth.
Powerfully corroborative, and very ufe¬
ful in all kinds of weakneffcs. Ufed
as a bath, and taken internally.
Gently laxative, diuretic, and diapho¬
retic.
Purgative.
Ufed as a bath ; and drank from four
to eight ounces at a time, to two
quarts per day. Ufeful in confump-
tions, diabetes, floor albus, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Similar to Harrogwate.
Ufeful in gout, rheumatifm, and other
diforders in which tepid baths are
ferviceable. Ufed as baths, and drank
to the quantity of five or fix pints
per day.
Caroline
'Names of
Springs.
“Caroline baths,
Carlton,
' CarnckFergus,
/Carrickmore,
Cafhraore,
Caftle-Connel,
Caflle-Leod,
Caftlemain,
Cawley,
Cawthorp,
Chadlington,
Chaude Fon¬
taine,
Cheltenham,
Chippenham,
Cleves,
Clifton,
Cobham,
Codfalwood,
Colchefter,
Colurian,
Comner,-or
Cumner,
Coolauran,
Corftorphin,
Coventry,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found*
Bohemia.
Nottingham/hire in
England.
Antrim in Ireland.
Cavan in Ireland.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Limerick in Ireland.
Rofs-fhire in Scot¬
land.
Kerry in Ireland.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land.
Lincolnfhirc in Eng¬
land.
Oxfordlhire in Eng¬
land-
Liege in Germany.
Gloucefterlhire in
England.
Wiltlhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Oxfordihire in Eng¬
land.
Surry in England.
Staffordihire in Eng¬
land.
Efifex in England.
Cornwall in Eng¬
land.
Berkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Mid-Lothian in
Scotland.
Warwickfhire in
England.
I. 51 i MIN
Contents and Quality of the Medicinal Virtues,
Water.
Iron, fixed air, aerated Purgative, and ufed as baths. Of fer-
earth, fea-falt, fofiile-al- vice in diforders of the ftomaeh and
kali, Epfom-falt, and bowels, fcrofula, &c,
Glauber’s fait. Hot.
Iron diflblved in fixed air. Diuretic and corroborative,
along with a bituminous
oil, which gives it the
fmell of horfe-dung.—
Cold.
Seems from its bluiih colour Weakly purgative,
to contain a very fmall
quantity of copper. Cold.
Foffile alkali, fixed air, and Purgative and diuretic,
fome purging fait. Cold.
Green vitriol. Purgative, diuretic, and fometimes eme¬
tic.
Iron diflblved in fixed air, Refembles the German Spaw, and is
&C- Cold. in confiderable repute.
Aerated earth, felenites, Diuretic, diaphoretic, and corroborant;
Glauber’s fait, and ful- ufeful in cutaneous difeafes.
phur. Cold.
Iron, fulphur, and fixed air. Corroborant and diuretic.
Cold.
Epfom fait, aerated calca- Gently purgative,
reous earth, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and pro- Purgative, and corre&s acidities,
bably foflile alkali. Cold.
Foflile alkali, fea-falt, and Purgative,
fulphur. Cold.
Aerated earth, foflile alka- Refembles thofe of Aix la Chapelle and
li, and fixed air. Hot. Buxton.
Calcareous earth, iron, Ep> Purgative and corroborant ; taken in
fom fait, and common the quantity of from one to three
fait. Cold. or four pints. Is ufeful in cafes of
indigeftion and fcorbutic diforders j
alfo in the gravel.
Iron diflblved in fixed air. Diuretic and corroborative.
Iron, fixed air, and other Diuretic and corroborant,
ingredients of Pyrmont
water.
Foflile alkali, and aerated Gently laxative, and ufed as a bath for
calcareous earth or fe- cutaneous diforders.
lenite. Cold.
Iron, and fome purging Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant,
fait.
Sulphur, fixed air, and ae- Refembles the Afkeron water,
rated earth.
Epfom fait, and aerated Strongly purgative,
calcareous earth.
Iron, fixed air, and aera- Corroborative and diuretic,
ted earth.
Some purging fait, and pro- Purgative, in the quantity of one, two,
bably aerated earth 5 the or three quarts,
water is of a whitifh co¬
lour.
Iron, fixed air, and aera- Diuretic,
ted earth.
Sulphur, fea-falt, clay, and Diuretic and laxative.
Epfom fait. Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and fome Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant,
purging fait.
G 2
Crickle
Names of
Springs.
Cricklc-Spaw,
Croft,
Crofs-town,
Cunley-houfe,
Das-WildBad,
D’Ax en Foix,
Deddingto n,
Derky,
Dcrryinch,
Dcrrindaff,
Pcrrylefter,
Dog and
Duck,
Dortfliill,
Drig-well,
Dropping-
well,
Drumas-nave,
Drumgoon,
Dublin fait-
fprings,
Dulwich,
Dunnardj
Dunfe,
Durham,.
Egra,
Epfom,.
Fairbum,.
Felftead,
Filah,
Irankfortj
6;
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Yorklhire inEng-
land.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Nuremberg in Ger¬
many.
15 leagues fromTho-
loufe in France.
Oxford in England.
Near the capital of
Derbylhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Cavan in Ireland.
Cavan in Ireland.
St George’s-fields,
London.
Staffordfhire in Eng¬
land.
Cumberland in Eng¬
land.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Leitrim in Ireland.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Ireland.
C 52 1
Contents and Quality of the
lVoter,
Sulphur, fea-falt, and ae¬
rated earth.
Aerated earth, vitriolated
magnefia, and fea-falt.
Martial vitriol.
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
fixed air.
Iron, fixed air, and fome fa-
line matter.
Similar to Aix-la-Chapelle.
Hot.
Iron, fulphur, aerated
earth, fea-falt, or folule
alkali.
Iron dilfolved by fixed air.
W I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Purgative, and refembling Harrowgate
water.
Purgative, and refembling Afkeron
water.
Diuretic,purgative, and fometimes eme¬
tic.
Purgative, and refembling the Afkeron
water.
Corroborant. Ufeful in obftru&ions of
the vifcera, and female complaints.
Ufed as a bath, and alfo drank, like
the Aix-la-Chapelle waters.
Alterative, purgative in large quantity,,
and ufeful in fcorbulic and cutaneous
diforders.
Corroborant.
Sulphur and fofiile alkali. Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Similar to Swadlinghar wa¬
ter.
Aerated magnefia, Epfom
fait, and fea-falt.
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
Similar to the Afkeron water.
Cooling and purgative, but apt to bring
on or increafe the fluor albus in wo.
men.
Corroborant.
Similar to Deddington.
Aerated earth. Ailringent and corroborant.
Sulphur, foflile alkali, with Powerfully diuretic and anthelmintic^,
fome purging fait. and of ufe in cutaneous and fcrofulous
diforders.
Similar to the former.
Sea-fait and Epfom fait. Purgative.
Kent in England. Sea-felt and Epfom felt.
18 miles from Dub¬
lin.
Scotland.
England.
Bohemia.
Surry in England.
Rofs-fhire in Scot¬
land.
Effex in England.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany,.
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
Iron diffolved in fixed air,
with a little fea-falt and
bittern.
Sulphur, fea-falt, and a little
aerated earth. In the mid¬
dle of the river is a felt
Spring-
Similar to Cheltenham wa¬
ter.
Vitriolated and muriated
magnefia, with a final!
quantity of aerated cal¬
careous earth.
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
Glauber’s felt.
Similar to Iflington.
Sea-felt and aerated earth.
Sulphur and fea-felu
Purgative and diuretic. Ufeful in ner»
vous cafes and difeafes proceeding
from debility.
Diuretic and corroborant;
Similar to the former.
Similar to the Harrowgate water.—*
That of the felt fpring ufed as a pur*
gative.
Purgative, and of ufe in wafhing old
fores.
Alterative, and ufeful in cutaneous dif<»
eafes.
Powerfully diuretic and purgative.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Gaisiiboroughj
Names of
Springs.
Galnfborough,
Galway,
Glanmile,
Glaflonbury,
Glendy,
Granfliaw,
Halgh,
Hampftead,
Hanbridge,
Hanlys,
Harrowgate,
Hartfell,
Hartlepool,
Holt,
Jofeph’s well,
Minington,
linglewhite,
Mington,
Kanturk,
Kedleftone,
Kenfihgtoo,
Kilbrew,
Kilburn,
Sillaflier,.
jKillinglhanval-
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Lincolnfhire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland*
Ireland.
Somerfetfhire in
England.
Merns county in
Scotland.
Down in Ireland.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
England.
Lancaihfre in Eng¬
land.
Shropihire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkihire in Eng¬
land.
Annandale in Scot¬
land;
Durham in England.
Wiltftiire in Eng¬
land.
Stock Common near
Cobham in Surry.
Warwickfltire in
England.
Eancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Near London.
Cork in Ireland.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land.
Near London.
Meath in Ireland.
Near London..
Fermanagh in Ire--
land.
Fermanagh, Ireland.
. [ 53 ] MIN
Contents and Quality of the Medicinal Virtues.
Water.
Sulphur, iron, aerated earth, Diuretic and laxative,
and Epfom fait.
Similar to Tunbridge wa¬
ter.
Similar to Peterhead water.
Similar to Clifton water.
Similar to Peterhead water.
Iron ; fimilar to the German
Spaw.
Green vitriol, iron diflblved Emetic and cathartic,
by fixed air, with fome
aerated earth.
Green vitriol,, iron diffol- Alterative and corroborant. The wa¬
ved by fixed air, and a ter is taken from half a pint t* fe-
fmall quantity of aerated vend pints; is better in the morn-
earth. ing than in the middle of the day,
and in cold than hot weather.
Similar to Scarborough wa- Lefs purgative than the Scarborough
ter. water.
Epfom, or other purging Purgative,
fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and fome Alterative, purgative, and anthelmin¬
purging fait. Somecha- tic j ufeful in feurvy, fcrofula, and
lybeate fprings here alfo. cutaneous difeafes. Ufed externally
for {trains and paralytic weakneffes.
Green vitrioL Aftringent and corroborant. Ufeful
in all kinds of inward difeharges of
blood.
Sulphur, iron diflblved by Diuretic and laxative-
fixed air, with fome purg¬
ing fait.
Purging fait, with a large Mildly purgative. Ufeful in old ulcere
quantity of aerated earth. and cutaneous diforders.
A very large proportion of Alterative, purgative, and diuretic.
Epfom falt, and pofiibly a Drank to about a quart, it palfes
little fea-falt. brilkly without griping : taken in
lefs dofes as an alterative, it is a
good antifcorbutic.
Aerated foflile alkali, with Diuretic and laxative,
fome iron diflblved by fix¬
ed air.
Sulphur, and iron diflblved Alterative. Ufeful in fcorbutlc and
by fixed air. cutaneous difeafes.
Iron diflblved by fixed air. Corroborant. Ufeful in lownefs of
fpirits and nervous difeafes. Ope--
rates by urine, and may be. drank in
large quantity.
Similar to the water at Pe¬
terhead.
Sulphur, fea-falt, and aera- Similar to Harrowgate ; but intolerably/
ted earth. fetid.
Similar to Afton water.
A large quantity of green Emetic and cathartic, in the dofe-of half,
vitriol. a pint.
Fixed air, hepatic air, Ep-
fom fait, Glauber’s fait;
muriated magnefia, fea-
falt, aerated earth, and
Sulphur' and fofiile alkali. Similar to Swadlinghar water.
Smilar to Hanly’g cha!f«
beate water, Kilrooty,
M I N
Names of Countries in 'which
Springs. they are found.
Kilroot, Antrim in Ireland.
Kinalton,
Kincardine,
Kingfcliff,
Kirby,
Knarefborough
Knowfley,
• Kuka,
Lancafter,
Latham,
Llangybi,
Leamington,
Leez,
Lincomb,
Lifbeak,
Lis-done-
Vurna,
Loanftury,
Maccroomp,
Mahereberg,
Malton,
Malvern,
Nottinghamfhire in
England.
Merns in Scotland.
Northamptonfhire in
England.
Weftmoreland in
England.
See Dropping-well.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Bohemia.
England,
Lancaihire in Eng¬
land.
Radnor in South
Wales.
Caernarvonfhire in
North Wales.
Warwickfhire in
England.
Effex in England.
Somerfetfhire in
England.
Fermanagh in Ireland.
Clare in Ireland.
Yorkihire in Eng¬
land.
Cork in Ireland.
Kerry in Ireland.
Cork in Ireland.
Yorkflure in Eng¬
land.
Gloucefterfhire in
England.
[ Si I
Contents and Quality of th$
Water.
Nature of Barrowdale wa¬
ter, but weaker.
A purging fait.
Similar to the water of Pe¬
terhead.
Similar to Cheltenham wa¬
ters.
Iron, fixed air, and pro¬
bably fome foffile alkali.
Similar to Scarborough vva-
Aerated fixed alkali.
Similar to Tunbridge water.
Similar to the former.
Three fprings ; a purgative,
a fulphureous, and chaly¬
beate.
Sea-falt and aerated calcare¬
ous earth.
Similar to Iflington water.
Aerated iron, foffile alkali,
and a little Epfom fait.
Sulphur, &c.
Foffile alkali, with much
Sulphur, and fome purging
fait.
Similar to Ilmington water.
Similar to Barrowdale wa¬
ter.
A hot water, fimilar to that
of Briftol.
Iron and fixed air in confide-
rable quantity.
Iron. Two fprings.
Markfhall,
Matlock,
Efiex in England.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land.
Similar to Iflington.
Warm fprings, of the na¬
ture of the Briftol water,
except that they are very
flightly impregnated with
iron, but contain a great
quantity of aerated earth.
They are colder than the
Buxton ; but their vir¬
tues fimilar to thofe of
the two places mentioned.
M I N
Medicinal Firths.
Purgative.
Laxative, and ufeful in corredling aci¬
dities.
Operates by infenfible perfpiration,
fometimes by fpitting, fweat,or mine.
'Jfeful in the feurvy, leprofy, cutaneous
diforders, &c.
Ufeful in diforders of the eyes, fcrofula,
&c.
Emetic and cathartic. Ufeful in old
fores, and cures mangy dogs.
Similar to Swadlinghar water.
Emetic, cathartic, and diuretic.
Ufed only for wafhing mangy dogs and
fcabby horfes.
Similar to Scarborough water, but is
fometimes apt to vomit.
Diuretic and cathartic ; ufed alfo ex¬
ternally. Recommended as excel¬
lent in difeafes of the {kin ; in lepro-
fies, fcorbutic complaints fcrofula,
old fores, &c. Alfo ferviceable in in¬
flammations and other difeafes of the
eyes $ in the gout and ftone, in bi¬
lious and paralytic cafes, and in fe¬
male obftrudtions. The external ufe
is by wafhing the part at the fpout
feveral times a-day, and afterwards
covering it with cloths dipt in the
water and kept conftantly moift ; al¬
fo by general bathing.
Maudfley,
Names of
Spring*.
Maudfley,
Meehan,
Miller’s Spaw,
Moffat,
Mofs-houfe,
Mbreton,
Mount D’Or,
Nevil-Holt,
New Cartmall,
Newnham Re¬
gis*
Newtondale,
Newton-Stew¬
art,
Nezdenicey
Nobber,
Normanby,
Nottington,
Grfton,
Oulton,
Owen Breun,
Rancras,
Rally,
Peterhead,.
Pettigoe,
Pitkeathly,
Plombiers,'
Pontgibault,
Pougues,
MIN
Countries in which
they are found.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
[ 55 ] MIN
Contents and Quality of tfo Medicinal Virtues,
Water.
Sulphur and fea-falt. Similar to Harrowgate.
Sulphur and fofiile alkali. Similar to the waters of Drumgoon.
Lancalhire in png-
land.
Annandale in Scot¬
land.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Shropfhire in Eng¬
land.
France.
Leicefterfhire in
England.
Lancafhire in
England.
Warwickfhire in
England.
Yorkshire in Eng¬
land.
Tyrone in Ireland.
Similar to Tunbridge.
Sulphur, fea-falt; and earth. Alterant, diuretic, and fometimes pur¬
gative. Is ufed as a bath, and the
fleam of the hot water has been found
fervicable in relaxing hard tumors and
fliff joints.
Similar to Iflingtan water. Purges ftrongly.
Similar to Holt water.
Warm, and fimilar to the Diuretic, purgative, and diaphoretic,
waters of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle.
Selenite or aerated earth, Purgative, diuretic, and diaphoretic 
and Epfom fait. Powerfully antifeptic in putrid dif-
eafes, and excellent in diarrhoea, dy*
fenteries, &c.
Sea-falt and aerated earth. Purgative.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Aerated calcareous earth or Afli ingent or tonic,
magnefia.
Similar to Tunbridge.
Germany.
Meath in Ireland.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Dorfetfliife, Eng¬
land.
Nottingham, Eng¬
land,
Norfolk, England.
Cavan, Ireland.
Near London.
Near Paris.
Aberdeen county,,
Scotland.
Donnegal, Ireland.
Perthfhire, Scotland.
Lorraine, France.
Auvergne, France.
Nivernois, France.
Fixed air, foffile alkali, iron, Diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic.,
and earth.
Martial vitriol. Similar to Hartfell.
Sulphur, much fixed air, Similar to Aflceron -water,
fome fea-falt, and Epfom
fait.
Sulphur, foffile alkali, and Ufeful in cutaneous difeafes. .
earth.
Much fixed air, Epfom fait, . Purgative.—It intoxicates by reafbn of
and a little fea-falt, with the great quantity of air contained
fome iron. in it.
Similar to Iflington.
Sulphur, Epfom fait, and Similar to Afkeron water,
foffile alkali.
Epfom fait, and aerated . Diuretic and purgative,
earth.
Similar to Pyrmont water.
A ftrong chalybeate but of Similar to Iflihgton, but more power-
which no analyfis has been ful.
publifhed.
Sulphur and purging fait. Similar to Afkeron water.
Sea-falt, a fmall quantity of Gently purgative. Very ufeful in fero-*
muriated and likewife of fillous and fcorbutic habits,
aerated earth.-
Saline matter, probably fof-' Ufed as a bath, and for walking ulcers;
fil alkali, with a fmall ppr- Inwardly taken it cures complaints :.
tion of oil.—Warm. from acidity, hemorrhagies, See.
Fofiile..alkali and calcareous Diuretic and laxative
earth.
Calcareous earth, magnefia. Diuretic and laxative,
foffile alkali, fea-falt, earth
of alum, and filiceous.
earth.
5
Pyrmont,'.
Names of
Springs.
Pyrmont,
Queen Camel,
Richmond,
Rippon,
Road,
St Bartholo¬
mew’s well,
St Bernard’s
well.
St Erafmus’s
well,
Scarborough,
Scoliienfis,
Sedlitz,
Seltzer,
Sene, or Send,
Seydfchutz,
Shad well,
Shapmoor,
Shettlewood,
Shimon,
Somerlham,
Spaw,
Stanger,
Stenfield,
Streatham,
Suchaloza,
Sutton bog,
Swadlingbar,
Swanfey,
Sydenham,
N0 2 22.
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Weftphalia, Germa-
ny.
Somerfetlhire, Eng¬
land.
Surry in England.
Yorkflure, England,
Wiltlhire, England.
Cork in Ireland.
Near Edinburgh.
Staffordfhire, Eng¬
land.
York (hire, England.
Switzerland.
Bohemia.
Germany.
Wiltfliire, England.
Germany. .
Near London.
Weftmoreland, Eng-
land.
Derbyflrire, Eng¬
land.
Yorklhire, England.
Huntingdonlhire,
England.
Liege in Germany.
Cumberland, Eng¬
land.
Lincolnlhire, Eng¬
land.
Surry, England.
Hungary.
Oxfordlhire, Eng¬
land.
Cavan in Ireland
Glamorganfliire in
North Wales.
Kent in England.
[ 1
Contents and Quality of iht
Water.
Aerated iron, calcareous
earth, magnefia, Epfom
fait, and common fait.
Sulphur, fea-falt, foJTUe al¬
kali, calcareous earth, and
bituminous oil.
Similar to A&on water.
Sulphur; fea-falt, and aera¬
ted earth.
Sulphur, iron, foflile alkali,
and fixed air.
Foffile alkali, iron, and fixed
air.
Sulphureous volatile acid
and phlogifton.
M I N
Medical Virtues.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and laxative. Re¬
commended in cafes where the con-
ftitution is relaxed ; in female com-
plaints, in cutaneous difeafes, in ner¬
vous diforders, in the gravel and uri¬
nary obftru&ions ; and confidered as
among the beft reftoratives in decay¬
ed and broken conftitutions.
Ufed in fcrofulous and cutateous dif¬
orders.
Diaphoretic and alterant.
Ufeful in fcrofula, fcurvy, and cuta¬
neous diforders.—Afts as a laxative.
Similar to Tilbury water.
Somewhat congenial with Moffat and
Harrowgate. In nervous and fto-
machic cafes, analeptic and reftora-
tive; in fcorbutic, fcrofulous, and
moft dropfical cafes, reckoned a fpe-
cific.
Similar to Barrowdale water.
Aerated calcareous earth,
Epfom fait, fea-falt, and
iron.
Iron, foflile alkali, and a
great quantity of fixed
air.
Epfom fait.
Calcareous earth, magnefia,
foflile alkali, and fixed air.
Similar to Iflington.
Similar to Seidlitz.
Green vitriol.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Diuretic and purgative.
Excellent in colic pains, both as a cure
and preventative.
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful in the gravel, rheuma-
tifm, fcurvy, fcrophula, &c.
Emetic and cathartic.
Similar to Aikeron water.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Sulphur, fea-falt, and pur- Similar to Harrowgate.
ging fait.
Green vitriol, alum, and fix- Corroborant and alterative. Ufeful for
ed air. wafhing foul ulcers and cancers.
Foflile alkali, iron, aerated Diuretic and purgative. Serviceable in
earth, Epfom fait, and many diforders. See the article
fea-falt. Spaw.
Green vitriol. Emetic and cathartic.
Similar to Orfton.
Aerated earth, Epfom fait. Purgative,
fea-falt, and muriated
magnefia.
Similar to Nezdenice.
Sulphur, foflile alkal1, and Alterative and laxative,
fea-falt.
Sulphur, earth, fea-falt, and Alterative and diaphoretic,
foflile alkali.
Green vitriol. Similar to Shadwell.
Similar to Epfom, but weak¬
er.
Tarleton,
Names of
Springs.
|. Tarleton,
Tewk&ury,
Thetford,
Thoroton,
Thurflt,
Tibflielf,
Tilbury,
Tober Bony,
Tonftein,
Tralee,
Tunbridge,
Upminfter,
Vahls,
Wardrew,
t Weatherftack,
Wallenfrow,
Weft Afliton,
Weft wood,
Wexford,
Whiteacre,
Wigglefworth,
Wildungan,
Witham,
Wirkfworth,
Zahorovice,
M I N
Countries in luhich
they are found.
Lancaftiire in Eng¬
land.
Gloucefterlhire in
England.
Norfolk in England.
Nottinghamlhire in
England.
Yorkftiire in Eng¬
land.
Derbylhire in Eng¬
land.
Effex in England.
Near Dublin in Ire¬
land.
Cologne in Germany.
Kerry in Ireland.
Kent in England.
M I N
Medical Virtu,
r 57 3
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Similar to Afton.
Foflile alkali, fixed air, and Purgative and diuretic.
Effex in England.
Dauphiny in France.
Northumberland.
Weftmoreland in
England.
Northamptonihire in
England.
Wiltlhire in Eng¬
land.
Derby fliire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Lancaftiire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkftiire in Eng¬
land.
Waldech in Germa-
ny._
Effex in England.
Derbyfliire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Similar to Scarborough.
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
Foffile alkali.
Foffile alkali, earth, and bi¬
tuminous oil.
Foflile alkali.
Similar to Caftle Connel.
Iron, fome fea-falt, with a
little felenites and calca¬
reous earth.
Sulphur, foflile alkali, and
purging fait.
Foflil alkali.
Sulphur, earth, and fea-falt.
Iron, fea-falt, and a fmall
quantity of hepatic gas.
Similar to Illington water.
Similar to Iflington.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Iflington.
Aerated iron and probably
calcareous earth.
Sulphur, earth, and com¬
mon fait.
Similar to the waters of
Bath.
Aerated iron, and common
fait.
Sulphur, purging fait, and
aerated iron.
Similar to Nezdenice water.
Similar to Spaw water.
Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Similar to Tilbury.
Similar to Seltzer, but more purgative.
An excellent chalybeate, ufeful in all
difeafes for which the Spaw is recom¬
mended.
Purgative and diuretic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Purgative.
Similar to Shadwell. Ufed for wafti-
ing ulcers of the legs.
Somewhat aftringent.
Emetic in the quantity of two quarts, and
faid to be cathartic in the quantity of
three; a Angular circumftance if true.
Ufeful in fcorbutic and gouty difeafes.
Diuretic, alterative, and corroborant.
Ufeful in fcrofulous and cutaneous
difeafes.
Much efteemed in fcrofulous cafes.
MINEHEAD, a town of Somerfetftiire, 166 miles
from London. It is an ancient borough, with a har¬
bour in the Briftol channel, near Duniter caftle, much
frequented by paffengers to and from Ireland. It
was incorporated by Queen Elifabeth, with great pri¬
vileges, on condition the corporation ftiould keep the
quay in repair; but its trade falling off, the quay was
neglected, and they loft their privileges. A ftatute
was obtained in the reign of King William, for reco¬
vering the port, and keeping it in repair, by which
they were to have the profits of the quay and pier for
36 years, which have been computed at about 200 1.
a year ; and they were at the expence of new-build
ing the quay. In purfuance of another aft, confirm-'
ing the former, a new head has been built to the quay,
the beach cleared, &c. fo that the biggeft ftiip may
enter, and ride fafe in the harbour., The town con¬
tains about 500 houfes, and 2000 fouls. It was for-
Voi. XII. Parti.
merly governed by a portreve, and now by two con-
ftables chofen yearly at a court-leet held by the lord
of the manor. Its chief trade is with Ireland, from
whence about 40 veffels ufed to come hither in a year
with wool; and about 4000 chaldrons of coals are
yearly imported at this place. Watchet and Poriock,
from South Wales, which lies direftly oppofite to it,
about feven leagues over, the common breadth of this
channel all the way from Holmes to the Land’s End.
Here are feveral rich merchants, who have fome trade
alfo to Virginia and the Weft Indies; and they corre-
fpond much with the merchants of Barneftaple and
Briftol in their foreign commerce. Three or four
thoufand barrels of herrings, which come up the Se¬
vern in great flioals about Michaelmas, are caught,
cured, and Ihipped off here every year, for the Medi¬
terranean, &c. The market here is on Wednefday,
and fair on Whitfun-Wednefday.
H MINERALOGY,
[ J8 3
MINER
IS that fcience which teaches us the properties of mi-
neral bodies, and by which we learn how to cha-
rafterife, diftinguifn, and clafs them into a proper or¬
der.
INTRODUCTION.
Mineralogy feems to have been in a manner co¬
eval with the world. Precious ftones of various kinds
appear to have been well known among the Jews and
Egyptians in the time of Mofes ; and even the moil
rude and barbarous nations appear to have had fome
knowledge of the ores of different metals. As the
fcience is nearly allied to chemiftry, it is probable that
the improvements both in chemiftry and mineralogy
leave nearly kept pace with each other; and indeed it
is but of late, tince the principles of chemiftry were
well underftood, that mineralogy has been advanced
to any degree of perfe&ion. The beft way of ftudy-
ijig mineralogy, therefore,, is by applying chemiftry to
it -, and not contenting ourfelves merely with infpedt-
ing the outfides of bodies, but decompounding them
according to the rules of chemiftry. This method
has been brought to the greateft Jperfeftion by Mr
Pott of Berlin* and after him by Mr Cronftedt of
Sweden. To obtain this end, chemical experiments
in the large way are without doubt neceflary : but as
a. great deal of the mineral kingdom has already been
examined in this manner, we do not need to repeat
A L O G Y,
all thofe experiments in theit whole extent, unlefs
fome new and particular phenomena fhould difeover
themfelves in thofe things we are examining ; elfe the
tedioufnefles of thofe proceffcs might difeourage fome
from going farther, and take up much of the time of
others that might be better employed. An ealier
way may therefore be adopted, which even for the
molt part is fufficient, and which, though made in
miniature, is.as fcientifical as the common manner
of proceec&ng in the laboratories, lince it imitates
that, and is founded upon the fame principles. This
confifts in making the experiments upon a piece of
charcoal with the concentrated flame of a candle
directed through a blow-pipe. The heat occafioned by
this is very intenfe ; and the mineral bodies may here
be burnt, calcined, melted, and fcarified, &c. as Well
as in any great works.
For a defeription of the blow-pipe, the method of.
ufmg it, the proper fluxes to be employed, and the
different fubjefts of examination to which that inftru-
ment is adapted, fee the article B low-Pipe, where all
fhofe particulars are concifely detailed. It may not
be improper here, however, to refume thofe details at
greater length; avoiding, at the fame time, all unne-
ceffary repetitions. After which we flrall exhibit a
fcientific arrangement of the mineral kingdom, ac¬
cording to the molt approved fyltem.
Part. 1. EXPERIMENTAL MINERALOGY; with a Description of the
Necessary Aepar'atus(a).
Sect. I. Of Experiments upon Earths and Stones.
Wh en any of thefe fubftances are to be tried,.we mull
not begin immediately with the blow-pipe j but fome
preliminary experiments ought to go before, by which
thofe in the fire may afterwards be direfted. For in-
ftance, a ftone is not always homogeneous, or of the
fame kind throughout, although it may appear to the
eye to be fo. A magnifying glafs is therefore necef-
i'ary to difeover the heterogeneous particles, if there
be any ; and thefe ought to be feparated, and every
part tried by itfelf, that the effe&s of two different
things, examined together, may not be attributed to
one alone. This might happen with fome of the finer
micae, which are now and then found mixed with fmall
particles of quartz, fcarcely to be perceived by the eye.
The trapp (in German fchivartzjle'in') is alfo fometimes
mixed with very fine particles of feltfpar (fpatum fein-
tiilans) or of calcareous fpar, &c. After this expe¬
riment, the hardnefs of the llone in queftion mull be
tried with fteel. The flint and garnets are com¬
monly known to ftrike fire with fteel; but there
are alfo other ftones, which, though very feldom, are
found fo hard as likewife to ftrike fire. There
is a kind of trapp of that hardnefs, in which no par¬
ticles of feltfpar are to be feen. Coloured glaffes re--
femble true gems; but as they are very foil in pro¬
portion to thefe, they are eafily difeovered by means
of the file. T he common quartz-cryftals arc harder
than coloured glaffes, but fofter than the gems. The
loadftone difeovers the prefence Nof iron, when it is
not mixed in too fmall a quantity in the ftone, and
often before the ftone is roafted. Some kinds of haema¬
tites, and particularly the coerulefcens, greatly refemble
fome other iron ores; but this diftinguilhes itfelf from ,t
them by a red colour when pounded, the others gi¬
ving a blackilh powder, and lb forth.
The management of the Blow-pipe has been deferibed
under that article ; but a few particulars may be here
recapitulated, or added.
The candle ought to be fnuffed often, but fo that
the top of the. wick may retain fome fat in it, becaufe
the flame is not hot enough when the wick is almoft
burnt to alhes ; but only the top rnuft be fnuffed off,
becaufe a low wick gives too fmall a flame. The blue
flame is the hotteft; this ought, therefore, to be
forced.
(a) From Engeftrom’s Treatife on the Blow-Pipe, and Magellan’s. .Defeription of Pocket-Laboratories, &s.
fubjoined to the, Englilh Tranflation of Cronfltdt't.Mineralogy, 2d ediu iu 2 vols. Diby.
,^nl. MINER
-t! On forced out when a great heat is required, and only the
u |jrths and p0jnt 0f the flame mull be diredled upon the fubjett
’tone< which is to be efiayed. M. Magellan recommends, as
v being mod cleanly and convenient, that the candle be
made’ of wax, and the wick fhould be thicker than or-
| dinary. Its upper end muft be bended towards the
matter intended to be heated, rfnd the dream of air
mud be dire&ed along the furfece of the bended part,
fo as not abfolOtely to touch it.
The piece of charcoal made ufe of in thefe expe¬
riments mud not be of a difpolition to crack. If this
Ihould happen, it mud gradually be heated until it
does not crack any more, before any aflay is made up-
;? on it. If this be not attended to, but the aflay made
immediately with aflrong flame, fmall pieces.of it will
1 fplit off in the face and eyes of the affayer, and often
11 throw along with them the matter that was to be af-
| fayed. Charcoal which is too much burhl confumes
too quick during the experiment, leaving fmall holes
in it, wherein the matter to be tried may be lod; and
| * charcoal that is burnt too little, catches flame from
the candle, burning by itfelf like a piece of wood,'
which likewife hinders the procefs.
Of thofe things that are to be affayed, only a fmall
piece mud be broken off for that purpofe, not bigger
than that the flame of the candle may be able to ad
upon it at once, if required ; which is fometimes ne-
ceffary, as, when the matter requires to be made
Hi red hot throughout, the piece ought to be broken as
thin as poffible, at lead the edges j the advantage of
which is obvious, the fire having then more influence
upon the fubjeft, and the experiment being more
ju quickly made.
Some of the mineral bodies are very difficult to be
kept fleady upon the charcoal during the experiment,
I before they are made red hot; becaufe, as foon as the
flame begins to upon them, they fplit afunder with
violence, and are difperfed. Such often are thofe which
are of a foft confidence or a particular figure, and
If' which preferve the fame figure in however minute par¬
ticles they are broken; for indance, the calcareous fpar,
the fparry gypfum, {parry fluor, white fparry lead-
i! ore, the potters ore, the tefl'ellated mock-lead or
blende, &c. even all the common fluors which have no
j | determinate figure. Thefe not being fo compacft as
common hard dones, when the flame is immediately
urged upon them, the heat forces itfelf through and
into tlieir clefts or pores, and caufes this violent ex-
panfiori and difperfion. Many of the clays are like¬
wife apt to erack in the fire, which may be for the
mod part aferibed to the humidity, of which they al¬
ways retain a portion.
The only way of preventing this inconv nience is
to heat the body as flowly as poffible. It i bed, fird
K of all, to heat that place of the charcoal where the
piece is intended to be put On ; and afterwards lay it
thereon : a little crackling will then enfue, but com¬
monly of no great confequence. After that, the flame
is to be blown very flowly towards it, in the beginning
not diredlly upon, but fomewhat above it, and fo ap¬
proaching nearer and nearer with the flame until it
become red hot. This will do for the mod part;
'•i but there are neverthelefs fome, which, notwithftand -
ing all thefe precautions, it is almoft impoffible to
1 keep on the charcoal. Thus the fluors are generally
A L O G Y. 59
the mod difficult; and as one of theiV principal cha- On
rafters is difeovered by their effefts in the fire J>er fc, Earth9 at1d
tfiey ought neceffarily to be tried that way. To this Stones*
purpofe, it is bed to make a little hole in the charcoal ’ ^
to put the fluor in, and then to put another piece of
charcoal as a covering upon this, leaving only a fmall
opening for the flame to enter. As this done will
neverthelefs fplit and fly about, a larger piece thereof
than is before-mentioned mud be taken, in order to
have at lead fomething of it left.
But if the experiment is to be made upon a done
whofe effefts one does not want to fee in the fire perfet
but rather with fluxes, then a piece of it ought to be
forced down into melted borax, when always fome
part of it will remain in the borax, notwithdanding
the greated part may fometimes fly away by cracking.
I. Offubjtances to be tried in the jire per fe. As the
dones undergo great alterations when expofed to the
fire by themfdves-, whereby fomc of their charafterif-
ticks, and often the mod principal, are difeovered,
they ought fird to be tried that way, obferving what
has been faid before concerning the quantity of mat¬
ter, direftion of the fire, &c. The following are ge¬
nerally the refults of this experiment.
Calcareous earth or jlone, when it is pure, does not
melt by itfelf, but becomes white and friable, fo as to
break freely between the fingers; and, if fudered to
cool, and then mixed with water, it becomes hot, juft
like common quick-lime. As in thefe experiments
only very fmall pieces are ufed, this lad effeft is belt
difeovered by putting the proof on the outlide of the
hand, with a drop of water to it, when inflantly a
very quick heat is felt on the fkin. When the calca¬
reous fubdance is mixed with the vitriolic acid, as in
gypfum, or with a clay, as in marie, it commonly
melts by itfelf, yet more or lefs difficultly in propor¬
tion to the differences of the mixtures. Gypfum pro¬
duces generally a white, and marie a grey, glafs or
flag. When there is any iron in it, as a white iron
ore, it becomes dark, and fometimes quite black, &c.
The Jilicece never melt alone, but become generally
more brittle after being burnt. Such of them as are
cbloured become colourlefs, and the fooner when it
docs not arife from any contained metal; for indance,
the topazes, amethids, &c. fome of the precious Hones,
however, excepted: And fuch as are mixed with a
quantity of iron grow dark in the fire, as fome of the
jafpers, &c.
Garnets melt always into a black flag, and fometime*
fo eafily that they may be brought into a round glo¬
bule upon the charcoal.
The argillaceee, when pure, never melt, but become
white and hard. The fame effefts follow when they
are mixed with phlogiflon. Thus the foap-rock
is eafily cut with the knife ; but being burnt it cuts
glafs, and would drike fire with the deel, if as large
a piece as is neceffary for that purpofe could be tried
in this way. The foap-rocks are fometimes found of
a dark brown and nearly black colour, but neverthelefs
become quite white in the fire like a .piece of China
ware. However, care mud be taken not to urge the
flame from the top of the wick, there being for the
mod part a footy fmoke, which commonly will darken
all that it touches ; and, if this is not obferved, a mif-
take in the experiment might eafily happen. But if
Ha it
Co MINER
On Jt Js mixed with iron, as it is fometimes found, it does
Earths and not f0 eafiiy part with its dark colour. The argiliaceae
. Sto"eii when mixed with lime melt by themfelves, as above-
,r~’' mentiosed. When mixed with iron, as in the boles,
they grow dark or black ; and if the iron is not in too
great a quantity, they melt alone into a dark flag ;
the fame happens when they are mixed with iron and
a little of the vitriolic acid, as in the common clay, &c.
Mica and afbejlos become fomewhat hard and brittle
in the fire, and are more or lefs refra&ory, though
they give fome marks of fufibility.
’i'YitJluors difcover one of their chief chara&eriftics
by giving a light like phofphorus in the dark, when
they are flowly heated , but lofe this property, as well
as their colour, as foon as they are made red hot.—
They commonly melt in the fire into a white opaque
flag, though fome of them not very eafily.
Some forts of the zeolites melt eafily, and foam in
the fire, fometimes nearly as much as borax, and be¬
come a frothy flag, &c.
A great many of thofe mineral bodies which are im¬
pregnated with iron, as the boles, and fome of the
white iron ores, &c. as well as fome of the other iron
ores, vi^. the bloodftone, are not attracted by the
loadftone before they have been thoroughly roalted, &c.
2. Of fubjlances heated with fluxes. After the mine¬
ral bodies have been tried in the fire by themfelves,
they ought to be heated with fluxes to difcover if
they can be melted or not, and fome other phenomena
attending this operation. For this purpofe, three dif¬
ferent kinds of falls are ufed as fluxes, viz. fal fodae,
borax, and fal fufible microfmicum; (fee the article
Slops-Pipe).
The fal fodee is, however, not much ufed in thefe
fmall experiments, its effects upon the charcoal render¬
ing it for the molt part unfit for it; becaufe, as foon
as the flame begins to adt upon it, it melts initantly,
and is almoft wholly abforbed by the charcoal. When
this fait is employed to make any experiment, a very
little quantity is wanted at once, viz. about the cubical
contents of an eighth part of an inch, more or lefs.
This is laid pon the charcoal, and the flame blown
on it with the blow-pipe ; but as this fait commonly
is in form of a powder, it is necefiary to go on very
gently, that the force of the flame may not difperfe
the minute particles of the fait. As foon as it begins
to melt, it runs along on the charcoal, almoit like melt¬
ed tallow ; and when cold, it is a glafly matter of an
opaque dull colour fpread on the coal. 1 he moment
it is melted, the matter which is to be tried ought to
be put into it, becaufe otherwife the greateft part of
the fait will be foaked into the charcoal, and too little
of it left for the intended purpofe. 1 he flame ought
then to be dire&ed on the matter itfelf; and if the fait
fpreads too much about, leaving the proof almoit aione,
it may be brought to it again by blowing the flame on
its extremities, and directing it towards the fubjeCt of
the experiment. In the aflays made with this fait, it is
true, we may find whether the mineral bodies which arc
melted with it have been diflblved by it or not: but
we cannot tell with any certitude whether this is done
haftily and with force, or gently and flow; nor whe-
A L O G Y. • Parti.
ther a lefs or a greater part of the matter has been On
diflblved: neither can it be well diftinguilhed if the mat- Earths l>
ter has imparted any weak tincture to the flag; be- S;o"'‘c
caufc this fait always bubbles upon the charcoal during /
the experiment, nor is it clear when cool; fo that
fcarcely any colour, except it be a vey deep one, can
be difeovered, although it may fometimes be coloured
by the matter that has been tried.
The following earths are entirely foluble in this flux
with effervefcence : Agate ; chalcedony ; carnelian ;
1 urkey ftone-j-, fcos Turcica)', fluor minerals f ;
onyx ; opal ; quartz ; common flint; ponderous fpar.
The following are dim fib Le in it with or without effer-
vefcence, but not entirely foluble : Amianthus; af-
beitus; bafaltes; chryfolitef ; granatef ; hornblende ;
jafper ; marlltone ; mica ; the mineral of alum from
Tolfa ; petrofilex ; aluminous flate and roof flate from
Helfingia ; emeralds ; fteatites ; common flint; fchoerl ;
talc ; trapp ; tripoli; tourmalin. And the following
are neither fufible nor divifible in it: Diamond; hy¬
acinth ; ruby ; fapphire ; topaz.
The other two falls, viz. borax and the fal microcof-
micum, are very well adapted to thefe experiments, be¬
caufe they may by the flame be brought to a clear un¬
coloured and tranfparent glafs ; and as they have no
attraction to the charcoal, they keep themfelves always
upon it in a round globular form. The fal fufible mi¬
crofmicum J is very fcarce, and perhaps not to be met§ See
with in the ftiops ; it is made of urine.
The following earths are foluble in borax, with more
or lefs effervefcence : Fluor mineralis f ; marie ; micaf ;.
the mineral of alum from I’olfa; aluminous flate, and
roof-flate from Helfingiaf ; ponderous fpar ; fchoerl ^
talc f ; tourmalin. And the following without effer-
vefcence ; Agate ; diamond; amianthus ; afbeftus ; ba¬
faltes; chalcedony ; cornelian; chryfolite; cos turcica;
granate; hyacinth * ; jafper ; lapis ponderofus ; onyx t.
opal; petro-filex ; quartz * ; ruby ; fapphire ; com¬
mon flint * ; fteatite ; trapp; trippel, or tripoli p..
topaz ; zeolite ; hydrophanes.
In the microcofmic fait, the following are foluble with
more or lefs effervefcence : Bafaltes f ; turkey ftone j; ;
fluor mineralis f ; marie ; mica ; the mineral of alum
from Tolfa ; fchiftus aluminaris, fchiftus tegularis
from Helfingia+ ; fchoerl; fpathum ponderofum
tourmalin -j- ; lapis ponderofus. And the following,
without vifible effervefcence ; Agate ; diamond ; ami¬
anthus ; afbeftus ; chalcedony; carnelian; chryfohte
granate ; hyacinth ; jafper; onyx || ; opal ; petrofi¬
lex ; quartz || ; ruby ; fapphire ; common flint [j ;
emerald; talc; topaz; trapp; trippel; zeolite; horn-
blend; hydrophanes; lithomarga; fteatites.
Calcareous earth, ponderous fpar, gypfum, and
other additaments, often afixft the folution, as well in
the microcofmic fait as in borax. To which it is ne-
ceffary to add, that in order to obferve the effervef¬
cence properly, the matter added to the flux fhould
be in the form of a fmall particle rather than inline
powder; becaufe in this laft there isalwaysair between
the particles, which being afterwards driven off by
the heat afford the appearance of a kind of effer¬
vefcence (a).
(a) In the above lifts, the articles marked -J- effervefee very little ; thofe marked J not at all; thofe mark,
cd * require a larger quantity of the flux and a longer continuance of heat than the reft; thofe marked ft are
snore difficultly diffolved than the others.
Parti. MINER
On The quantity of thofe two falts required for an ex-
Earthsand periment isalmoft the fame as the fal joda ; but as the
r Stone!' former are cry ftallifed, and coniequently include a
Ujl * great deal of water, particularly the borax, their bulk
is confiderably reduced when melted, and therefore a
little more of them may be taken than the before-men¬
tioned quantity.
Both thofe falts, efpecially the borax, when ex-
pofed to the flame of the blow-pipe, bubble very
much and foam before they melt to a clear glafs,
which for the moft part dep'ends on the water they
contain. And as this would hinder the affayer from
making due obfervations on the phenomena of the ex¬
periment, the fait which is to be ufed mull firft be
brought to a clear glafs before it can ferve as a flux;
it muft therefore be kept in the fire until it become
fo tranfparent that the cracks in the charcoal may be
feen through it. This done, whatfoever is to be tried
is put to it, and the fire continued.
Here it is to be obferved, that for the affays made
with any of thefe two fluxes on mineral bodies, no
larger pieces muft be taken than that altogether they
may keep a globular form upon the charcoal; becaufe
it may then be better diftinguilhtd in what manner
the flux a&s upon the matter during the experiment.
If this be not obferved, the flux, communicating itfeif
with every point of the furface of the mineral body,
fpreads all over it, and keeps the form of this laft,
which commonly is flat, and by that means hinders the
operator obferving all the phenomena which may hap¬
pen. Befides, the flux being in too fmall a quantity
in proportion to the body to be tried, will be too weak
to a£t with all its force upon it. The belt proportion
therefore is about a third part of the mineral body to
the flux ; and as the quantity of the flux above men¬
tioned makes a globe of a due fize in regard to the
greateft heat that is poffible to procure in thefe expe¬
riments, fo the fize of the mineral body muft be a
third part lefs here than when it is to be tried in the
fire by itfeif.
The fal foda, as has been already obferved, is not of
much ufe in thefe experiments ; nor has it any parti¬
cular qualities in preference to the two laft mentioned
falts, except that it diffolves the zeolites eafier than
they do.
The microcofmic fait fltows almoft the fame effedts in
the fire as the borax, only differing from it in a very few
circumftances ; of which one of the principal is, that,
when melted with manganefe, it becomes of a crim-
fon hue inftead of a jacinth colour, which borax takes.
This fait is, .however, for its fcarcity ftill very little in
ufe, borax alone being that which is commonly employed.
Whenever a mineral body is melted with any of thefe
two laft mentioned falts, in the manner already deferi-
bed, it is eafily feen. Whether it quickly diflblves ; in
which cafe an effervefcence arifes, that lafts till the
whole be difiblved : Whether the folution be flowly
performed ; in which cafe few and fmall bubbles only
rife from the matter: or. Whether it can be diflblved
at all; becaufc, if not, it is obferved only to turn round
in the flux, without the leaft bubble, and the edges
iook as fharp as they were before.
In order farther to illuftrate what has been faid about
thefe experiments, we ftiall give a few examples of the
of b,orax upon the mineral bodies,—The calca-
A L O G Y. Gv
reous fubftances, and all thofe ftones which contain any On
thing of lime in their compofition, diflblve readily and Ea/'ths an(1
with effervefcence in the borax. The effervefcence is tones' {
the more violent the greater the portion of lime contain-
ed in the ftone. This caufe, however, is not the only
one in the gypfum, becaufe both the conftituents of
this do readily mix with the borax, and therefore a
greater effervefcence arifes in melting gypfum with the
borax than lime alone.—The jiluca. do not diffolve ;
fome few excepted which contain a quantity of iron.—■>
The argiiluene, when pure, are not acted upon by the
borax : but when they are mixed with fome heteroge¬
neous bodies, they are diffolved, though very flowly ;.
fuch are, for inilance, the ftone-marrow, the common
clay, &c.
The granules, zeolites, and trapp, diffolye but flowly.
The Jluors, ajbejlitue, and micacea, diffoive for the moft
part very ealily ; and fo forth.—Some of thefe bodies
melt to a colourlefs tranfparent glafs with the borax ; ,
for inftance, the calcareous fubftances when pure, the
fluors, fome of the zeolites, &c. Others tinge the bo¬
rax with a green tranfparent colour, ,viz. the granates, -
trapp, lome ot the argillaceas, and fome of the micacese
and albeftinas. This green has its origin partly from-
a finall portion of iron which the granatesparticularly
contain, and partly from phlogifton.
Borax can only dilfolve a certain quantity of the
mineral body proportional to its own. Of the calca¬
reous kind it diflblves a vaft quantity ; but turns at
laft, when too much has been added, from a clear
tranfparent to a white opaque flag. When the quan¬
tity of the calcareous matter exceeds but little in pro¬
portion, the glafs looks very clear as long a* it remains
hot: but as foon as it begins to cool, a white half
opaque cloud is feen to arile from the bottom, which
fpreads over the third,.half, or more of the glafs globe,
in proportion to the quantity of calcareous .matter;
but the glafs or flag is neverthelefs Alining, and of a
glally texture when broken. If more of this matter be
added, the cloud riles quicker and is more opaque,
and fo by degrees till the flag, becomes quite milk
white. It is then no more of a fhimng, but rather
dry appearance, .on the furface ; is very brittle, and '
of a grained texture when broken.
Sect. II. Of Experiments upon Metals and Ores.
What has been hitherto faid relates only to the
fonts and earths; We ftiall now proceed to deferibe the
manner of examining metals and ores. An exa£t know¬
ledge and nicety of procedure are fo much the more
neceffary here, as the metals are often fo difguifed in
their ores, as to be very difficultly known by their ex¬
ternal appearance, and liable ibmetimes to be miftaken
one for the other: Some of the cobalt ores, for in¬
ftance, refemble much the pyrites arfenicalis ; there are
alfo fome irpn and lead ores, which are nearly like one
another, &c.
As the ores generally confift of metals mineralifed
with fulphur or arienic, or fometimes both together,
they ought fir-ft to be expofed to the fire by them-
felves, in order not only to determine with which of
thefe they are mineralifed, but alfo to fet them free
from thofe volatile mineralifing bodies : i his ferve a
inftead of calcination, by which they are prepared for
further affays.
h Here
'6-2
M I N E R A
Here it mull be repeated, that whenever any me¬
tal or fufjble ore is to be tided, a little concavity mull
be made in that place of the charcoal where the mat¬
ter is to be put; becaufe, as foon as it is melted, it
forms itfelf into a globular figure, and might then roll
from the charcoal, if its lurface was plain ; but when
borax is put to it, this inconvenience is not k> much
to be feared.
Whenever an ore is to be tried, a fmall bit being
broke off for the purpofe, it is laid upon the charcoal,
and the flame blown on it flowly. Then the lulphur
or arfenic begins to part from it in form of fmoke :
thefe are eafily diftinguilhed from one another by their
fmell; that of fulphur being fufficiently known, and
the arfenic fmelling like garlick. The flame ought
to be blown vety gently as long as any fmoke is leen
to part from the ore.; but after that, the heat mull
be augmented by degrees, in order to make the cal¬
cination as perfect as poffible. If the heat be applied
very ftrongly from the beginning upon an ore that
-contains much fulphur or arfenic, the ore will prelent-
ly melt, and yet lofe very little of its mineraliiing
bodies, by that means rendering the calcination very
imperfect. It is, however, impofltble to calcine the
eres in this manner to the utmolt perfe&ion, which is
eafily feen in the following inltance, viz. in melting
down a calcined potter’s ore with borax, it will be
found to bubble upon the coal, which depends on the
fulphur which is ftill left, the vitriolic acid of this
"Uniting with the borax, and caufing this motion. How¬
ever, lead in its metallic form, melted in this manner,
bubbles upon the charcoal, if any fulphur remains in
it. But as the lead, as well as fome of the other metals,
may ra'ife bubbles upon the charcoal, although, .they
are quite free from the fulphur, only by the flames
being forced too violently on it, thefe phenomena
ought not to be confounded with each other.
The ores being thus calcined, the metals contained
in them may be difcovered, either by being melted
-alone or with fluxes; when they fliow themlelves ei¬
ther in their pure metallic ftate, or by tinging the flag
with a colour peculiar to each of them. In thefe expe-
'riments it is not to be expected that the quantity of
metal contained in the ore fhould be exactly deter¬
mined ; this mull be done in larger laboratories. This
cannot, however, be looked upon as any defeat, fince
it is fufficient for a mineralogill only to find out what
fort of metal is contained in the ore. There is an¬
other cireumftance, which is a more real defect in the
miniature laboratories, which is, that fome ores are not
at all capable of being tried by fo fmall an apparatus ;
for inltance, the gold ore called pyrites aureus, which
confifts of gold, iron, and fulphur. The greatell quan¬
tity of gold which this ore contains is about one
ounce, or one ounce and an half, out of 100 pounds
of the ore, the reft being iron and fulphur: and as
only a very fmall bit is allowed for thefe experiments,
the gold contained therein can hardly be difcerned by
the eye, even if it could be extrafted ; but it goes
along with the iron in the flag, this laft metal being
in fo large a quantity in proportion to the other, and
both of them having an attra&ion for each other.
The blendes and black-jacks, which are mineral
zinc ores, containing zinc, fulphur, and iron, cannot
t)e tried this way, becaufe they cannot be perfeftly
LOGY. Part
calcined, and befides the zinc flies off when the iron On
fcorifics. Neither can thofe blendes, which contain Mete!* and
lilver or gold mineralifed with them, be tried in this °res‘
manner, which is particularly owing to the imptrfeti '[~»•'
calcination. Nor are the quickfilver ores fit for thefe
experiments; the volatility of that femimetal ma¬
king it impoflible to bring it out of the poorer fort
of ores ; and the rich ores, which iweat out the quick-
filyer when kept clofe in the hand, not wanting any.
of thefe allays, &c. Thofe ores ought to be allayed
in larger quantities, and even with fuch other method*
as cannot be applied upon a piece of charcoal.
borne of the rich lilver ores are eafily tried : for in-
ftance, minera argenti vitrea, commonly called Jiiver-
giajs, which conlilts only of lllver and lulphur. When
this ore is expofed to the flame, it melts inftantly, and
the finphur goes away in hmie, leaving the lilver pure
upon the charcoal in a globular form. If this lilver
Ihouid happen to be of a dirty appearance, which of ten
is the cafe, then it mult be melted anew with a very
little borax ; and after it has been kept in fulion for a
minute or two, fo as to be periedily melted and red-
hot, the proof is fuffered to cool: it may then be
taken oft the coal; and being laid upon the fteel-
piatef, the filver is feparated from the flag by one or ^See the
two Itrokes of the hammer f. Here the tile of the article
brafs ringf is manifeft; for this ought firlt to be placed
upon the plate, to hinder the proof from flying oil by xciX.
the violence of the ftroke, which otheiwile would
happen. The lilver is then found incloled in the flag
ot a globular form, and quite Ihining, as if it was po-
lilhed. When a large quantity of filver is contained
in a lead ore, viz. in a potter’s ore, it can likewife be
diCcovered through the ufe of the blow-pipe, of which
more will be mentioned hereafter.
Tin may be melted out of the pure tin ores in its
metallic ftate. Some of thefe ores melt very eafily,
and yield their mecal in quantity, if only expofed to
the fire by themfelves : but others are more refradfory ;
and as thefe melt very flowly, the tin, which fweats
out in form of very imall globules, is inftantly burnt
to alhes before thefe globules have time to unite in
order to compofe a larger globe, which, might be feen
by the eye, and not fo foon deftroyed by the fire ; it is
therefore neceffary to add a little borax to thefe from
the beginning, and then to blow the flame violently at
the proof. The borax does here preferve the metal
from being too foon calcined, and even contributes to
the readier colledting of the fmall metallic particles,
which foon are feen to form themfelves into a globule
of metallic tin at the bottom of the whole mafs, near-
eft to the charcoal. As foon as fo much of the me¬
tallic tin is produced as is fufficient to convince the
operator of its prefence, the fire ought to be difeon-
tinued, though the whole of the ore be not yet melt¬
ed ; becaufe the whole of this kind of ore can be fel-
dom or never reduced into metal by means of thefe
experiments, a great proportion being always calcined:
and if the fire is continued too long, perhaps even the
metal already reduced may likewife be burnt to alhes;
for the tin is very foon deprived of its metallic ftate by
the lire.
Moft part of the lead ores may be reduced to a
metallic ftate upon the charcoal. The minera plumbi
calciformes, which are pure, are eafily melted into lead;
7 but
Parti. M I N E I
I °n but fuch of them as are mixed with an ocbra ferri, or
M?tais andany 0f as clay} lime, &c. yield very little
. U‘cs' of lead, and even nothing at all, if the heterogenei are
combined in any-large quantity: this happens even
with the minera plumbi caiciformis arfenico mixta. Thefe
therefore are not to be tried but in larger laboratories.
However, every mineral body fufpe&ed to contain
any metallic fubftance may be tried by the blow-pipe,
fo as to give fufficient proofs whether it contain any
or not, by its eftefts being different from thofe of the
ftones or earths, &c.
The minera plumbi mineralifata leave the lead in a
metallic form, if not too large a quantity of iron is
mixed with it. For example, when a teffellated or
fteel-grained lead ore is expqfed to the flame, its ful-
phur, and even the arfenic if there be any, begins to
fume, and tlje ore itfelf immediately to melt into a
globular form ; the reft of the fulphur contimies then
to fly off, if the flame be blown flowly upon the mafs;
but, on the contrary, very little of the fulphur will go
off, if the flame be forced violently on it: in this cafe,
it rather happens that the lead itfeif crackles and diflx-
pates, throwing about very minute metallic partic es.
The fulphur being driven out as much as pofiible,
which is known by finding no fulphureous vapour in
fmelling at the proof, the whole is fuffered to cool,
and then a globule of metallic lead will be left upon
the coal. If any iron is contained in the lead-ore,
the lead, which fs melted out of it, is not of a metal¬
lic fhining, but rather of a black and uneven, furface :
a little borax muft in this cafe be melted with it, and
as foon as no bubble is feen to rife any longer from
the metal into the borax, the fire muft be difcontinued:
when the mafs is grown cold, the iron will be found
fcorified with the borax, and'the lead left pure and of
a fliining colour.
Borax does not fcorify the lead in thefe fmall expe¬
riments when it is pure : if the flame is forced with a
violence on it, a bubbling will enfue, refembling that
which is obferved when borax diflolves a body melted
with it; but when the fire ceafes, the flag will be
perfedly clear and tranfparent, and a quantity of very
minute particles of lead will be feen fpread about the
borax, which have been torn off from the mafs during
the bubbling.
If fuch a lead ore is -rich in filver, this laft metal
may likewife be difeovered by this.experiment ; becaufe
as the lead is volatile, it may be forced off, and the
filver remain. To effeft this, the lead,which is melt¬
ed out of the ore, muft be kept in conftant fufion with
a flow heat, that it may be confumed. This end wall
be fooner obtained, and the lead part quicker, if du¬
ring the fufion the wind through the blow-pipe be
direfted immediately, though not forcibly, upon the
melted mafs itfelf, until it begin to cool; at which
time the fire muft be dire6ted on it again. The lead,
which is already in a volatilifing ftate, will by this ar¬
tifice be driven out in form of a fubtil fmoke ; and by
thus continuing by turns to melt the mafs, and then
to blow off the lead, as has been faid, until no fmoke
is any longer perceived, the filver will at laft be ob¬
tained pure. The fame obfervation holds good here
alfo, which was made about the gold, that, as none
but very little bits of ores can be employed in thefe
experiments, it will.be difficult to extract the. filver
t A L O G Y. 63
out of a poor ore ; for fame part of it will fly off with On
the lead, and what might be left is too fmall to be dif- Metals au4
cerned by the eye. The filver, which by this means 0res‘
is obtained, is eafily diftinguilhed from lead by the *
following external marks, viz. that it muft be red-hot
before ic can be melted : it cools fooner than lead :
it has a filver colour; that is to fay, brighter and
whiter than lead: and is harder under the hammer.
The minerx cupri calciformes (at leaft fome of them),
when not mixed with too much ftone or earth, are
eafily reduced to copper with any flux ; if the copper
is found not to have its natural bright colour, it muft
be melted wdlh a little borax, which purifies it. Some
of thefe ores do not all difeover their metal if not im¬
mediately melted with borax ; the heterogenea con¬
tained in them hindering the fufton before thefe are
fcorified by the flux.
The grey copper ores, which only confift of copper *
and fulphur, are tried almoft in the fame manner as
above mentioned. Being expofed to the flame by
themfelves, they will be found inftantly to melt, and
part of their fulphur to go off. The copper may af¬
terwards be obtained in two ways : the one, by keep¬
ing the proof in fuiion for about a minute, and after¬
wards fuffering it to cool; when it will be found to
have a dark, and uneven appearance externally, but
which after being broken difeovers the metallic copper
of a globular form in its centre, furrounded with a re-
gulus, which Itill contains fome fulphur and a portion
of the metal: the other, by being melted.with borax,
which laft way fometimes makes the metal appear
iboner.
The minera cupri pyritacea, containing copper, ful¬
phur, and iron, may be tried with the blow-pipe if
they are not too poor. In thefe experiments the ore
ought to be calcined, and after that the iron fcorified.
For this purpofe a bit of the ore muft be expofed to
a flow flame, that as much of the fulphur as poffible
may part from it before it is melted, beeaufe the ore
commonly melts very foon, and then the fulphur is
more difficultly driven off. After being melted, ic
muft be kept in fuiion with a ftrong fire for about <r
minute, that a great part of the iron may be calcined;
and after that, fome borax muft be added, which fco-
rifies the iron, and turns with it to a black flag. If
the ore is very rich, metallic copper will be had in the
flag after the Icorififation. If the ore be of a moderate
richnefs, the copper will ftili retain a little fulphur,,
and lomeiimes iron: the produdt will therefore be
brittle, and muft with great caution be feparated from
the flag, that it may not break into pieces ; and if
this product is afterwards treated in the fame manner
as before faid, in fpeaking of the grey copper-ores,
the metal will foon be produced. But if the ore is
poor, the produdt after the firft feorifleation muft be
brought into fufion, and afterwards melted with fome
frefli borax, in order to calcine and fcorify the remain¬
ing portion of iron; after which it may be treated as
mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The copper
will in this laft cafe be found in a very fmall globule.
The copper is not very eafily fcorifi^d with this ap¬
paratus, when it is melted together with borax, unlefs
it has firft been expofed to the fire by itfelf for a while
in order to be calcined. When only a little of this
metal is diffolved, it inftantly tinges the flag of a red-
diffi’
64 MINER
On dlfh ferowti colour, and moftly opaque ; but as foon as
Metals and th;s flag js J^ept in fufion for a little while, it becomes
r^es' quite green and tranfparent: and thus the prefence of
the copper may be difcovered by the colour, when it
is concealed in heterogeneous bodies, fo as not to be
difcovered by any other experiment.
If metallic copper is melted with borax by a flow
fire, and only for a very little time, the glafs or flag
becomes of a fine tranfparent blue or violet colour, in¬
clining more or lefs to the green : but this colour is
not properly owing to the copper, but it may rather
be to its phlogifton; becaufe the fame colour is to be
had in the fame manner from iron ; and thefe glafles,
which are coloured with either of thofe two metals,
foon lofe their colour if expofed to a ftrong fire, in
which they become quite clear and colourlefs. Be-
iides, if this glafs, tinged blue with the copper, is again
melted with more of this metal, it becomes of a good
green colour, which for a long time keeps unchanged
in the fire.
The iron ores, when pure, can never be melted
per fe, by the means of the blqw-pipe alone ; nor
do they yield their metal when melted with fluxes;
becaufe they require too ftrong a heat to be brought
into fufion ; and as both the ore and the metal itfelf
* wery foon lofe their phlogifton in the fire, and cannot
be fupplied with a fufficient quantity from the char¬
coal, fo likewife they are very foon calcined in the fire.
This eafy calcination is alfo the reafon why the fluxes,
for inftance borax, readily fcorify this ore, and even
the metal itfelf. The iron lofes its phlogifton in the
lire fooner than the copper, and is therefore more eafily
fcorified.
The iron is, however, difcovered without much dif¬
ficulty, although it were mixed but in a very fmall
quantity with heterogeneous bodies. The ore, or
•thofe bodies which contain any large quantity of the
metal, are all attra&ed by the loadftone, fome without
any previous calcination, and others without having
being roafted. When a clay is mixed with a little
iron, it commonly melts by itfelf in the fire; but if
' this metal fe contained in a limeftone, it does not pro¬
mote the fufion, but gives the ftone a dark and fome-
times a deep black colour, which always is the charac¬
ter of iron. A minera fern calciformis pura cryflalFifata,
is commonly of a red colour : This being expofed to
the flame, becomes quite black ; and is then readily
attrafted by the loadftone, which it was not before.
Befides thefe figns, the iron difeovers itfelf, by tinging
the flag of a green tranfparent colour, inclining to
brown, when only a little of the metal is fcorified; but
as foon as any larger quantity thereof is diflblved in
the flag, this becomes firft a blackilh brown, and after¬
wards quite black and opaque.
Bifmuth is known by its communicating; a yellow-
ifti brown colour to borax ; and arfenic by ’its volatili¬
ty and garlick fmell. Antimony, both in form of re-
gulus and ore, is wholly volatile in the fire when it is
not mixed with any other metal except arfenic; and is
known by its particular fmell, eafier to be diftinguilh-
•ed when once known than deferibed. When the ore
of antimony is melted upon the charcoal, it bubbles
conftantly during its volatilifing.
Zinc ores are not eafily tried upon the coal; but
N° 2il.
A L O G Y. Parti.
the regulus of zinc expofed to the fire upon the char- On
coal burns with a beautiful blue flame, and forms it-Metals
felf almoft inftantly into white flowers, which are the C''lc"
common flowers of zinc. —-y—
Cobalt is particularly remarkable for giving to the
glafs a blue colour, which is the zaffre or fmalt. To
produce this, a piece of cobalt ore mull be calcined
in the fire, and afterwards melted with borax. As
foon as the glafs, during the fufion, from being clear,
feems to grow opaque, it is a fign that it is already
tinged a little ; the fire is then to be difeontinued, and
the operator muft take hold, with the nippers, of a little
of the glafs, whilft yet hot, and draw it out flowly
in the beginning, but afterwards very quick, before
it cools, whereby a thread of the coloured glafs is
procured, more or lefe thick, wherein the colour may
eafier be feen than in a globular form. This thread melts
eafily, if only put in the flame of the candle without
the help1 of the blow-pipe.—If this glafs be melted
again with more of the cobalt, and kept in fufion
for a while, the colour becomes very deep; and thus
the colour may be altered at pleafure.
When the cobalt ore is pure, or at leaft contains
but little iron, a cobalt regulus is almoft inftantly
produced in the borax during the fufion ; but when
it is mixed with a quantity of iron, this laft metal
ought firft to be ieparated, which is eafily performed
fince it fcorifies fooner than the cobalt; therefore, as
long as the flag retains any brown or black colour, it
muft be feparated, and melted again with frelh borax,
until it ftiows the blue colour.
Nickel is very feldom to be had; and as its ores are
feldom free from mixtures Of other metals, it is very
difficultly tried with the blow-pipe. However, when
this femimetal is mixed with iron and cobalt, it is
eafily freed from thefe heterogeneous metals, and re¬
duced to a pure nickel regulus by means of fcorifica- 4
tion with borax, becaufe both the iron and cobalt
fooner fcorify than the nickel. The regulus of nickel
itfelf is of ,a green colour when calcined : it requires
a pretty ftrong fire before it melts, and tinges the
borax with a nyacinth colour. Manganefe gives the
fame colour to borax; but its other qualities are quite
different, fo as not be confounded with the nickel.
By means of the foregoing explanations, and thofe
given under the article Biotr-Ftpe, any gentleman,
who is a lover of this fcience, will be able, in an eafy
manner, to amufe himfelf in difeovering the properties
of thofe works of nature, with which the mineral
kingdom fumilhes ’us; or more ufefully to employ
himfelf by finding out what ions of ftones, earths,
ores, &c. there are on his eftate, and to what econo¬
mical purpofes they may be employed. The feienti-
fic mineralift may, by examining into the properties
and effe&s of the mineral bodies, dilcover the natural
relation thefe bodies Hand in to each other, and there¬
by furnilh himfelf with materials for eftabliihing a mi¬
neral fyjfem, founded on fuch principles as Nature herfelf
has laid down in them; and this in his own ftudy, with¬
out being forced to have recourfe to great laboratories,
crucibles, furnaces. &c. which is attended with much
trouble, and is the reafon why fo few can have an op¬
portunity of gratifying their defire of knowledge in
thh
Part I. MINER
Portable this part of natural hiftory. Farther improvements
Apparatus. 0f this apparatus may ftill be made by thofe who
1 " > - choofe to beftow their attention upon it.
A great number of fluxes might, perhaps, be
found out, whofe effe&s might be different from
thofe already in ufe, whereby more diftinct cha¬
racters of thofe mineral bodies might be difcover-
ed, which now either Ihow ambiguous ones, or which
it is almoft impoffible to try exactly with the blow¬
pipe. Inftead of the fal foda, fome other fait might
be difcovered better adapted to thefe experiments.
But it is very neceffary not to make ufe of any other
fluxes on the charcoal than fuch as have no attrac¬
tion to it: if they, at the fame time, be clear and
tranfparent, when melted, as the borax and the fal
fujibile microcofmicum, it is ftill better: however, the
tranfparency and opacity are of no great confequence,
if a fubftance beeffayed only in order to difcover its
fufibility, without any attention to its colour; in
which cafe, fome metallic flag, perhaps, might be ufe-
fkd.
When fuch ores are to be reduced whofe metals
are very eafily calcined, as tin, zinc, &c. it might
perhaps be of fervice to add fome phlogiftic body,
fuch as hard refin, fince the charcoal cannot afford
enough of it in the open fire of. thefe effays. The
manner of melting the volatile metals out of their
or<zs per defcenfum might alfo, perhaps, be imitated:
for inftance, a hole might be made in the charcoal,
wide above and very narrow at the bottom; a little
piece of the ore being then laid at the upper end
of the hole, and covered with fome very fmall pieces
of the charcoal, the flame muft be dire&ed on the
top : the metal might, perhaps, by this method, run
into the hole below, concealed from the violence of
the fire, particularly if the ore is very fufible, &c.
The ufe of the apparatus above referred to, and
which may be called & pocket laboratory (as the whole
admits of being eafily packed into a fmall cafe), is
chiefly calculated for a travelling mineralift. But a
perfon who always refides at one and the fame place,
may by fome alteration make it more commodious
to himfelf, and avoid the trouble of blowing with the
mouth. For this purpofe he may have the blow-pipe
go through a hole in a table, and fixed underneath
to a fmall pair of bellows with double bottoms, fuch
as fome of the glafs-blowers ufe, and then nothing
more is required than to move the bellows.with the
feet during the experiment; but in this cafe a lamp
may be ufed inftead of a candle. This method would
Plate be attended with a ftill greater advantage, if there
CCCX1II. were many fuch parts as r, fig. 13. the openings of
which were of different dimenfions : thofe parts might
by means of a fcrew be faftened to the main body of
the blow-pipe, and taken away at pleafure. The ad¬
vantage of having thefe nozzles of different capacities
at their ends, would be that of exciting a ftronger
or weaker heat as occafion might require. It would
only be neceffaryto obferve, that in proportion as the
opening or nozzle of the pipe is enlarged, the quan¬
tity of the flame muft be augmented by a thicker
wick in the lamp, and the force of blowing encreafed
by means of weights laid on the bellows; a much in-
tenfer heat would thus be produced by a pipe of a
confiderable opening at the end, by which the expe-
Vot.XII. Parti.
A L O G Y. 65
riments muft undoubtedly be carried farther than the Portable
common blow-pipe. Apparatus.
A traveller, who has feldom an opportunity 'of
carrying many things along with him, may very well
be contented with this laboratwy and its apparatus,
which are fufficient for moft part of fuch experiments
as can be made on a journey. There are, however,
other things very ufeful to have at hand On a journey,
which ought to make a feparate part of a portable la¬
boratory, if the manner of travelling does not oppofe
it: this confifts of a little box including the different
acids, and one or two matraffes, in order to try the
mineral bodies in liquid menftrua if required.
Thefe acids are, the acid of nitre, of vitriol, and
of common fait. Moft of the ftones and earths are
attacked, at leaft in fome degree, by the acids; but
the calcareous are the eafieft of all to be diffolved by
them, which is accounted for by their calcareous pro¬
perties. The acid of nitre is that which is moft ufed
in thefe experiments; it diffoives the limeftone, when
pure, perfectly, with a violent effervefcence, and the
folution becomes clear : when the limeftone enters in¬
to fome other body, it is neverthelefs difcovered by
this acid, through a greater or lefs effervefcence in
proportion to the quantity of the calcareous particles,
unlefs there are fo few as to be almoft concealed from
the acid by the heterogeneous ones. In this manner
a calcareous body, which fometimes nearly refembles
a filiceous or argillaceous one, may be .known from
thefe latter, without the help of the blow-pipe, only
by pouring one or two drops, of this acid upon the
fubjeft ; which is very convenient when there is no
opportunity nor time of ufing this inftrument.
The gypfa, which conlift of lime and the vitriolic
acid, are not in the leaft attacked by the acid of
nitre, if they contain a fuificie^t quantity of their own
acid; becaufe the vitriolic acid has a ftronger attrac¬
tion to the lime than the acid of nitre: but if the
calcareous fubftance is not perfe&ly faturated with
the acid of vitriol, then an effervefcence arifes with
the acid of nitre, more or lefs in proportion to the
want of the vitriolic acid. Thefe circumftances are
often very effential in diftinguifiiing the calcarea and
gypfa from one another.
The acid of nitre is like wife neceffary in trying the
zeolites, of which fome fpecies have the Angular ef¬
fect to diffolve with effervefcence in the abotfe mention¬
ed acid ; and within a quarter of an hour, or even
fometimes not until feveral hours after, to change the
whole folution into a clear jdly, of fo firm a con-
fiftenee, that the glafs wherein it is contained may
be reverfed without its falling out.
If any mineral body is tried in this menftruum, and
only a fmall quantity is fufpedled to be diffolved,
though it was impoflible to diftinguilh it with the eye
during the folution, it can be eafily difcovered by
adding to it adfaturitatem a clear folution of the al¬
kali, when the diffolved part will be precipitated, and
fall to the bottom. For this purpofe the fal focLe may
be very ufeful.
The acid of nitre will fuffice for making experiments
upon ftones -and earths; but if the experiments are
to be extended to the metals, the other two acids are
alfo neceffary.
Another inftrument is likewife neceffary to a
I complete
66 MINER
Portable complete Pocket Laboratory, viz. a waftiing-trough
Afpirnus. (fig. 21.), In which the mineral bodies, and particu-
’ latly the ores, may be feparated from each other, and
from the adherent rock, by means of water. This
trough is very common in laboratories, and is ufed of
different fizes ; but here only one is requited of a
moderate fize, fuch as 12 inches and a half long, three
inches broad at the one end and one inch and a half
at the other end, doping down from the fides and
the broad end to the bottom, where it is three quar¬
ters of an inch deep. It may, however, be made of
much fmaller dimenfions. It is commonly made of
wood, which ought to be chofen fmooth, hard, and
compaft, wherein are no pores in which the minute
grains of the pounded matter may conceal themfelves.
It is to be obferved, that if any fuch matter is to be
waffied as is fufpefted to contain fome native metal,
fuch as filver or gold, a trough fhould be procured
for this purpofe of a very fhallow flope ; becaufe the
minute particles of the native metal have then more
power to affemble together at the broad end, and fe-
parate from the other matter.
The management of this trough, or the manner of
waffling, coniifts in this: That when the matter is
mixed with about three or four times its quantity of
water in the trough, this is kept very loofe between
two fingers of the left hand, and fome light ftrokes
given on its broad end with the right, that it may
move backwards and forwards; by which means the
heavieft particles affemble at the broad and lower end,
from which the lighter ones are to be feparated by
inclining the trough and pouring a little water on
them. By repeating this prqpefs, all fuch particles
as are of the fame gravity may be colle&ed together,
and feparated from thofe of different gravity, provided
they were before equally pounded: though fuch as
are of a clayey nature, are often very difficult to fe-
parate from the reft, which, however, is of no great
confequence to a fldlful and experienced wa flier. The
waffling procefs is very neceffary, as there are often
rich ores, and even native metals, found concealed
in earths and fand in fuch minute particles as not to
lie difeovered by any other means.
fr E c r. 111. Defcripllon of an Improved Portable Laboratory
for ajfaying Minerals.
The chief pieces and implements of the portable
laboratories are reprefented in Plate XCIX. at Bloiv-
Pipe, and in Plate CCCX1II. annexed to the prefent
article.
I.The firft contains thofe belonging to the Dry Labo¬
ratory, fo called on account of its containing whatever
is required to try all kinds of foffils in the dry way by
fire, without any of the humid menftruums. They
are made to pack in a box of the fize of an o&avo
book, lined with green velvet, and corered with black
fiih-fkin ; the infide divided into different compart¬
ments, fuited to the fize, form, and number of the
implements it is to contain. Of thefe the principal'
are deferihed under Blow-Pipe. We muff here, how¬
ever, add the following remarks and alterations of that
inftrument by Mr Magellan.
D and Q^(fig. 13.) are the two pieces that form
CCJCXllI. the blow-pipe, which is here reprefented entire. This
very ufeful inlirument has been confiderably improved
A L O G Y. Part L
of late in England. The mouth-piece aa is made of PordaHle
ivory, to avoid the difagreeable fenfation of having a Apparatus.
piece of metal a long time between the teeth and lips, “T”—*
which, if not of filver or £old, may be very noxious
to the operator; a circumftance that has been hardly
noticed before.
1. If the mouth piece aa be made of a round form,
it cannot be held for any length of time between the
teeth and lips, to blow through it, without ftraining
the mufcles of the mouth, which produces a painful
fenfation. It muft, therefore, have fuch an < xternal
figure, as to adapt itfelf accurately to the lateral
angles of the lips, having a flattiffi oval form external¬
ly, with two oppofite corners to fit thofe internal
angles of the mouth, when it is held between the lips,
as may be feen in that reprefented in the figure.
7. The fmall globe bb is hollow, for receiving the
moifture of the breath ; and muft be compofed of two
hemifpheres, exaftiy ferewing into one another in bb ;
the male-fcrew is to be in the lower part, and foldered
on the crooked part Q_of the tube Q_D, at fuch a
diftance, that the infide end of the crooked tube be
even with the edge of the hemifphere, as reprefented
by the pointed lines in the figure. But the upper he¬
mifphere is to be foldered at the end of the ftraight
tube D. By thefe means, the moifture arifing from
the breath falls into the hollow of the lower hemi¬
fphere, where it is colle&ed round the upper infide
end of the crooked part Q_of the blow-pipe, with¬
out being apt to fall into it.
3. The fmall nozzles, or hollow conical tubes, ad-
vifed by Meffrs Engeftrom, Bergman, and others, are
wrong in the principle; becaufe the wind that paffes
from the mouth through fuch long cones lofes its ve¬
locity by the lateral fri&ion, as happens in hydraulic
fpouts; which, when formed in this manner, do never
throw the fluid fo far as when the fluid paffes through
a hole of the fame diameter, made in a thin plate of a
little metallic cap that ferews at the end of the large
pipe. It is on this account that the little cap c is em¬
ployed, having a fmall hole in the thin plate, which
ferves as a cover to it ; and there are feveral of thefe
little caps, with holes of fmaller and larger fizes, to
be changed and applied whenever a flame is required
to be more or lefs ftrong.
4. Another convenience of thefe little caps is, that
even in cafe any moifture fhould efcape falling into the
hemifphere bby and pafs along with the wind through
the crooked pipe Qj it never can arrive at nor ob«
ftruft the little hole of the cap r, there being room
enough under the hole in the infide, where this moif¬
ture muft be flopped till it is cleaned and wiped out.
The ftream of air that is impelled by the blow¬
pipe (as feen in fig 3.) upon the flame, muft be con-
llant and even, and muft laft as long as the experi¬
ment continues to require it. This labour will fatigue
the lungs, unlefs an equable and uninterrupted infpi-
ration can at the fame time be continued. To fucceed
in this operation without inconvenience, fome labour
and pradice are neceffary, as already explained render
the detached article.
Every affay ought always to begin by the exterior
flame, which muft be firft direded upon the mafs un¬
der examination ; and, when its efficacy is well known,
then the interior blue flame is to be employed.
After
Pan!. MINER
PorcsMe After the ore is roafted, it is to be rounded up-
Aiparams. ot) |ieei plate by the hammer; the particles being
V y prevented from being dilfipated by the ring H (fig. 9.
Plate XCIX.), within which the pieces to be broken
are to be put.
Among the apparatus, befide the particulars al¬
ready mentioned, three phials are neceffary, contain¬
ing the required fluxes, viz. the burax, the fal fodte,
and fal fufibile microcnfmicum. Other ufeful particulars
are, A fmall link of hard fteel, to try the hardnefs or
foftnefs of mineral fubftances, and alfo to ftrike fire
for lighting the candle when required : A piece of
black flint, to ferve as a touch-rtone; (for being rubbed
with any metal, if it be gold the marks will not be
corroded by aquafortis); and alfo to ftrike fire, when
neceflary, with the link of fteel: An artificial load-
ftone, properly armed with iron, for the better pre-
fervation of its attractive power; (it ferves to difcover
the ferrugineous particles of any ore after it has been
roafted and powdered :) A triple magnifier, which,
differently combined, produces feven magnifying
powers, the better to diftinguifh the ftrudture and me¬
tallic parts of ores, and the minute particles of native
gold, whenever they contain that metal: A file, to try
the hardnefs of ftor.es and cryftals, &c.: Some pieces
of dry agaric or tinder, and fmall bits or fplinters of
wood tipped with brimftone, to ferve as matches for
lighting the candle ; and various other little articles of
life in thefe experiments.
II. For performing experiments in the Humid Way,
the chief additional articles (and which muft be kep
in a fepararc cafe) confift of a colle&ion of phials,
containing the principal acids, lefts, precipitants, abd
re-agents, both for examining mineral bodies by the
humid way, and for analyfing the various kinds of mi¬
neral waters. Thofe with acids and corrofive folutions
have not only ground ftoples, but alfo an external cap
to each, ground over the ftople, and fecured down¬
ward by a bit of wax between both, in order to con¬
fine the corrofive and volatile fluids within. But thofe
which contain mild fluid liquors have not fuch external
caps ; and thofe with dry inoffenfive fubftances are
only flopped with cork. Befides thefe phials, there
are two fmaller cylindrical ones, which ferve to exhi
bit the changes of colour produced by fome of the re¬
agents in thofe analytical affays. There are alfo two
or three fmall matraffes, to hold the fubftances with
their folvents over the fire; a fmall glafs funnel for
pouring the fluids ; a fmall porcelain mortar, with its
peftle ; one or two crucibles of the fame lubftance ; a
fmall wooden trough to waih the ground ores ; fome
glafs fticks to ftir up the fluid mixtures ; and, finally,
pieces of paper tinged red, yellow, and blue, by the
tin&ures of Fernambuc wood (commonly called Brafil
wood), turmeric, and litmus, thickened with a little
ftarch.
The following lift contains the names of the various
fluid lefts and re-agents that are neceflary for thefe af-
fays. But the whole number being too lame to be all
contained in a portable cafe, every one may give the
preference to thofe he likes beft.
1. Concentrated vitriolic 2. Nitrous acid, purified
acid, whole fpecific by the nitrous folution
gravity may be expref- of filver.
led in the outfide.
A L O G Y.
3. Concentrated marine 4. Marine acid dephlo- I>orfai3:
acid, with its fpecific
gravity.
5. Aqua regia for gold,
viz. 2 nit. and 1 ma¬
rine.
7. Nitrous folution of fil¬
ver.
9 Muriatic folution of
barytes.
11. Muriatic folution of
lime.
13. Corrofive fublimate
of mercury
15. Nitrons folution of
filver.
17. Acid of fugar.
19. Hjjpar fulphuris.
21. Salt of tartar.
23. Pearl-afties.
25. Common fait.
(cop-
27. Vitriol of ii
peras.)
29 Acetous folution of
lead.
31. Phlogifticated alkali
by the Pruffian blue.
33. Lime-water phlogifti¬
cated by the Pruflian
blue.
35. Mild volatile alkali
(Ary)
37. Aither.
gifticattd.
6. Aqua regia for pl ilina,
viz. half marine and
half, nitrous acid.
8. Nitrous folution of mer¬
cury, made’in the co'.dk
10. Nitrous folution of
lime.
12. Mercury in its metal¬
lic ftate.
14. White arfenic.
16. Nitrous folution of
copper.
18. Liquor probatorius
vini.
20. Oil of tartar per deli-
quium.
22. Cauftic vegetable al¬
kali.
24. Soap-makers ley.
26. Vitriolated argilla
(alum.)
48 Nitrous folution of iil-
33. Acetous folution of
barytes.
jr. Lime-water.
34. Cauftic volatrl alkali.
36. Re&ified fpirit (al¬
cohol )
38. Spirituous tindlure
of galls.
The following tefts are very fit aifo for thefe aflayS,
viz. 39. Spirituous folutions of foap ; 40. Syrup of
violets; 41. Tindure of litmus; 42. Tindure of Braiii
wood; 43. Tindure of turmeric; 44. Oil of olives;
4 v Oil of linfeed ; 46. Oil of turpentine; 47. Eftential
fait pf wild-forrel; 48. Hepar fulphuris; 49. Sugar of
lead; 50. Solution of alum.
The method of applying the above tells of acids
and re-agents may be feen in Bergman’s trea'.ifes of
the Analyfis of Waters, and of Allaying by the Hu¬
mid Way ; in Kirwan’s Elements of Mineralogy ; in
the Elements of Chemiftry of Dijon ; in the Memoirs
of the fame Academy; in Fourcroy’s Ledures of Che¬
miftry, &c.
III. The Lamp-furnace Laboratory, for experiments
both by the humid and the dry way, is a very curious and
ufeful, though fmall apparatus. It is an improvement
of that which was contrived by M. de Morveau, in
confequence of the information he received from his
friend the prefident de Virly, who faw at Upfal how
advantageoufly the late eminent profeflbr Bergman
availed himfelf of this convenience for many analytical
procefles in miniature, by the ufe of very fmall glafs
veffels about one inch diameter, and other implements
of proportional fize, for performing various chemical
operalions. (See the Dijon Memoirs for 1783, Part 1.
p. 171.)
I 2
There
68 MINER
Portable There can be no doubt but that whenever thefe
Apparatus. proccf]'es are properly conducted, though in miniature,
1 the lamp-furnace will prove amply fufficient to per¬
form in a few minutes, and with very little expence,
the various folutions, digeftions, and diftillations,
which otherwife would require large veflels, ftills, re¬
torts, reverberatory furnaces, &c. to afcertain the com¬
ponent parts of natural bodies; though it is not always
fufiicient to afcertain their refpe&ive quantities. In
this laft cafe, operations muft be performed in great
laboratbries, and on a large fcale, at a confiderable
expence. But the fubdances are fometimes too valu¬
able ; as, for inftance, when precious ftones are exa¬
mined; and of courfe the laft way never can be at¬
tempted in fuch cafes.
Thefe fmall proceffes have likewife another advan¬
tage before noticed, which cannot be obtained in
works at large. It'coniifts in one’s being able to ob-
ferve the gradual progrefs of each operation; of eafily
retarding or urging it, as it may require ; and of as¬
certaining at pleafure each ftep of every experiment,
together with the phenomena attending the fame.
The lamp-furnace is mounted in a fmall parallelo¬
gram of mahogany, about fix inches long and four
Nate w‘de, marked fig. 5. This is kept fteady over the
COCXIII. edge of a common table, by means of the metallic
clamp ivw, which is fattened by the ferew x. The
pillar n is ferewed in a vertical pofition on the plate
being about ten inches high ; the other is ferewed to
the oppofite corner, marked pi, and is only •ji inches
long ; both are compofed of two halves, that ferew at
tt, to be eafily packed up with all the implements in
a cafe covered with black fifii-fkin, and lined with
- green velvet, like the other laboratory already de-
feribed.
The lamp l, fig. 3. is fupported on the .plate f,
which has a ring l that runs in the column pi, and
may be fixed by its ferew / at the required height.—
This lamp has three fmall pipes of different fixes, to
receive as many wicks of different thicknefs, and to
be filled with fpirit of wine. By a fimilar method,
a piece of charcoal is mounted and fupported by the
pliers or little forceps ferewed to the arm ac, fig. 1.
which has all the motions requifite for being fixed by
means of proper ferews, at a proper diftance from
the flame of the wick h. The blow-pipe, fig. 4. is,
by a fimilar mechanifm, mounted on the fmaller co¬
lumn pq, at fuch a diftance as to blow the flame hi to
the piece of ore m, which is upon the charcoal^/.
Every thing being difpofed in this manner, the ope¬
rator blows through the mouth'-piece of the blow¬
pipe, fig. 4. and remains with his hands free to make
the changes and alterations he may think proper.—.
[IVi B. The large round cavity e in the middle of the
parallelogram, fig. 5. is to receive the lamp i, fig. 3.
when all the implements are packed up in their cafe
of black fifh-fkin ; and the cover of the lamp is re-
prefented by fig. 12.3
But if the operator has the double bellows, fig. 14.
and 15. he fixes them, at a due diftance, to the fame
table by the brafs dampy.. He then unferews the
blow-pipe at az .* joins the mouth m of the flexible
tube to the hemifphere z z, pafiing each orifice, thro’
the leather tube fig. 1 1. and tying both ends with a
waxed thin pack-thread. If he works with his foot
A L O G Y. Parti.
on the pedal, the firing of which is feen hanging from Portable
the end of the bellows, fig. 15. (and is always up, on A; paratm.
account of the weight e), then the air is abforbed by " '
the bellows fig. 15. from whence it is propelled by
the motion of the foot on the pedal to the bellows,
fig. 14. whofe conftant weight r drives it out through
the flexible pipe, fig. 10. it of courfe enters the
curbed part 2 zi of the blow-pipe, and drives the flame
on the piece m of the ore, that is to be examined upon
the charcoal.
[W. B. 1. This double bellows is packed up by it-
felf in a mahogany cafe, about 9 inches long, 64- wide,
and about 34 deep, outfide meafure. 2. The laft
blowing bellows, fig. 14. has an infide valve, which
opens when the upper furface of it is at its greateft
height; in order to let the fuperfluous air efcape out,
as it would otherwife iffue with great velocity out of
the tube, fig. 11. and fpoil the operation.]
If the operator choofes to apply the vital or dephlo-
gifticated air in his procefs, let him fill the glafs-jarA,
fig. 17. with this air; and put it within the tub
marked by abze, filled with water, fattening the neck
of the jar within by a crofs-board ed, which has a
hole in it for that purpofe ; then introducing the two
ends of the flexible hollow tube, fig. 16. both to the
mouth of the jar and to the hole of the bellows fig. 15.
he opens the hole m of the jar, that was flopped
with the ftople n ; the column of the water paflea in
through m, and forces up the vital air, which enters
the bellows, and of courfe, by the alternate motion
of the pedal, pnfles through the end of the blow-pipe,
to urge the flame upon the piece of ore m, fig. 2. on
t>; charcoal But the dephlogifticated air may be
alfo received at the fame time that it is produced, by
tying the pipe, fig. 16. to the,mouth of an earthen
retort, or even of a glafs retort well-coated, accord¬
ing to the method of Mr Willis, deferibed in the
Tranfaftions of the Society of Arts, Vol. V. p. 96.
This laft confifts in difl'olving two ounces of borax in
a pint of boiling water, and adding to the folution as
much flacked lime as is necefihry to form a thin pafte.
this glafs retort is to be covered all over with it, by
means of a painter’s brufh, and then fuffered to dry.
It muft then be covered with a thin pafte made of
linfeed oil and flacked lime, except the neck that en¬
ters into the receiver. In two or three days it will
dry of itfelf; and the retort will then bear the great-
eft fire without cracking. Two ounces of good nitre,
being urged in the retort, by a good fire on a cha-
fingdifh, will afford about 700 or 800 ounce-meafures
of dephlogifticated air.
To make any other kind of chemical aflays, the
forceps of fig. 2. which fupports the charcoal, is ta¬
ken off, by unferewing the ferew b ; the blow-pipe is
alfo taken off, by loofening the ferew n; the hoop
fig. 7. is put in its place, where the metallic bafin of
fig. 19. is put filled with fand : the piece of fig. 8. is
fet on the other pillar rs, fig. 1. to hold the matrafs>
fig. 18. upright, or the receiver fig. 20. &c.
In the fame manner, the retort, fig. 9. may be put
in the fand-bath inftead of the matrafs, with its re¬
ceiver fig. 20. which may be fupported on a bit of
cork or wood, hollowed to its figure, and held by the
pliers, inftead of the charcoal fig. 2.
But if the operation is t® be made in the naked
fire,
Part II. MINERALOGY. 69
Of fire, the neck of the retort, fig. 9. being luted to the
Arrange- rece{Ver, or balloon, fig. 20. may be hanged by a little
■r n^n ’ chain with its ring over the flame, being fufpended
* from the piece of fig. 7. or 8. fcrewed to either of the
pillars as may be moft convenient. Otherwife the
receiver, fig. 20. maybe fupportedby the round hoop
of brafs, fig. 8. or 7. fcrewed at a proper height to
the pillar, fig. 1. tying round it fome packthread
to defend the glafs from the contact with the me¬
tallic fupport.
The piece of fig. 6. may be fcrewed by its collar
and fcrew r/to any of the pillars; carrying with it
the retort and its receiver, at proper diftances, higher
or nearer to the lamp according as the flame is more
or lefs violent.
'It eafily may be conceived, , that thefe imple¬
ments afford all forts of conveniences for making any
kind of fmall operations and aflays in miniature, pro¬
vided the operator pays a proper attention to the dif-
pofition requifite for each procefs or operation^
Every glafs retort, receiver, matrafs, bafon, fmall
funnels, &c. are made by the lamp-workers, that
blow beads, thermometers^ and other fmall glafs in-
ftruments.
, It is dire&ed that the lamp h, fig. 3. be filled
with fpirit of wine, becaufe it gives no difagreeable
fmell, and does not produce any fuliginous and difa¬
greeable cruft on . the veflels as oil does : moreover,
the fpirit gives a dry flame, without fmoke, and
ftronger than oil; befides the fpots and difagreeable
confequences this laft caufes, if fplit, &e. M. de
Morveau adds, that the expence of fpirit is quite in-
confiderable ; and that he performed in eight or ten
minutes, with this apparatus, various diffolutions, eva-
porations, and other procefles, which otherwife would
have taken more than three hours, with the expence
only of two or three halfpence for the fpirit of wine,
whilft the fuel of charcoal would have coft near ten
or eleven pence.
But a very important circumftance is, as Morveau
obferves likewife, that many philofophers do not ap¬
ply themfelves to chemical operations, for want of op¬
portunity of having a laboratory to perform them : it
requiring a proper room, and fuitable expences of
many large furnaces, retorts, crucibles, and numerous
other implements, &c. whilft thefe miniature laborato¬
ries may in great meafure afford the fame advantages;
at leaft to that degree of fatisfa&ion fufficient to afcer-
tain the contents and produ&s of any fubftance that
is fubje&ed to trial: for with this Ample apparatus
a man of fome abilities may, without any embarafs-
ment, in a very fliort time, and with little expence,
perform fuch diftillaiions as require a reverbatory fur¬
nace ; all forts of proceffes, digeftions, and evapora¬
tions, which require a regular fand heat; he may
vary his experiments or trials, and multiply them to
a great number of various performances, draw up his
conclufions, and reafon upon them, without lofs of
time, without the hinderance of long preparations to
work at large. And even when fuch large works are
to be performed, he may obferve beforehand various
phenomena of fome fubftances, which being known in
time, would otherwife impede the proceffes at large,
or make them fail abfolutely ; and all this without the
rifle of a conuderable lofs, and without expofing him-
felf to a great fire, &c.
■PartII. ARRANGEMENT(a) of MINERAL BODIES(b).
rpHE>bodies belonging to the mineral kingdom are
divided into four different claffes, viz.
1. Earths (c), or thofe fubftances which are not
duftile, are moftly indiffoluble in water or oil,
and preferve their conftitution in a ftrong heat.
2. Salts : thefe diffolve in water, and give it a tafte ;
and when the quantity of water required to keep
them in diffolution is evaporated, they concrete
again into folid and angular bodies.
3. Inflammables, which can be diffolved in oils, but
not in wafer, and are inflammable.
4. Metals, the heavieft of all bodies ; fome of which
are malleable, and fome can be decompounded.
Here, however, it muft be obferved, that thefe claf-
Tes are unavoidably blended one with another ; and
therefore fome exceptions muft be allowed in every
one of them : for inftance, in the firft clafs, the calca¬
reous earth is in fome meafure diffoluble in water, and
pipe-clay with fome others diminiflr fomewhat in their
bulk when kept for a long time in a calcining heat..
In the third clafs, the calx of arfenic has nearly the
fame properties as falts ; and there is no poffible defi¬
nition of fait that can exclude the arfenic, though at
the fame time'it is impolfible to arrange it elfewhere
than among the femimetals. In the fourth clafs it is
to be obferved, that the metals and femimetals, per¬
fect or imperfedi, have not the fame qualities common
to them all; becaufe fome of them may be calcined,
or deprived of their phlogifton, in the fame degree of
fire in which others are not in the leaft changed, un-
lefs particular artifices or proceffes are made ufe of:
fome of them alfo may be made malleable, while others
are by no means to be rendered fc. That the convex
fiirface metals take after being melted, is a quality not
particularly belonging to them, becaufe. every thing
that is perfectly fluid in the fire, and has no attra&ion •
to the veffel in which it is kept, or to any added mat¬
ter, takes the fame figure ; as we find borax,- fal fufl-
bile microcofmicum, and others do, when melted upon
a piece of charcoal: therefore, with regard to all that
has
(a) According to the fyftem of Cronjledt f ; altered, augmented, and improved from the Obfervations cf.
other Mineralogifts. * Mineralo '-
(b) Of the different bodies enumerated in the following claffification, full explanations are given under rd editiony
their refpeftive names as they occur in the courfe of this Woik, See alfo Metallurgy, and Chemistry-*’’ 2 vol*>
Index. by Magd- ■
(c) By earths, the author (Mr Cronftedt) does not mean (ftri&Iy fpeaking) only earths,-but includes1™’
under that, title all the kinds of Hones, or foffils not inflammable, faline, or metallic.
7° MINER
, ■Ea^th!,» haa been faiJ, it is hardly worth while to invent fuch
definitions as fliall include feveral fpecies at once ; we
ought rather to be content with perfe&fy knowing
them feparately.
Class I. EARTHS.
'Earths, are thofe mineral bodies, not dudlile, fot
the moft part not difloluble in water or oils, and which
preferve their conftitution in a ftrong heat.
A L O G Y. Part IT.
Thefe bodies are here arranged according to their; C<j hare on*
conftituent parts, fo far as hitherto difeovered; and are Earl,',s'
divided into five orders. See the article Earth. ' v—^
OrderI. Calcareous Earths (d).
The properties of thefe are as follow :
i. Friability and falling into a fine white powder
after calcination.
2 Partial lolution in water, wi’ i which they con¬
tract
(d) Calcareous earth is moft commonly found in the form of lime-ftone ; hard, compaCt, and of various
colours ; under which general name may be comprehended all the elifferent kinds of marbles. Near Bath in
England is found a kind of grey done, rather foft than hard. This contains calcareous earth in a mild ftate,
and likewife feme in a ftate of caufticity : hence, when newly dug out of the earth, it will diflblve ful-
phur, or make lime-water without any calcination. By attraction of fixed air from the atmofphere, it foon
hardens after it has been dug up.
Mr Williams * divides the lime-ftones of Scotland into the following fpecies : * ^
1. Grey, wbitifti, and pure white; regularly ftrathied ; of a granulated texture; and much ufed in they;/,,'
Highlands for building bridges. Some of it is compofed of fine glittering fpangles like the feales of fifties; Mineral
and fome is as pure white as the beft refined fugar, which kind he thinks may be called Parian marble. Kingdom,
2. Coarfe-lookiug grey mountain limeftone, hard and ftrong, of a granulated texture, difficult to work 2 vols*
in fome places rough and unequal, in others fmooth and even. Sometimes regularly llratified, at other times
appearing like one vaft irregular bed or rock, of various thickneftes.
3. Affi-colouied mountain-limeftones, confifting of fmall grains of a fine fmooth texture ; when broken re-
fembling flint. In the Highlands there are hills of this kind of ftone, which our author informs us he has
feen ; fome of which have regular ftrata, while others appear in one vaft mafs like a rock of granite.
4. Regularly-ftratified lime-ftone, found in the low countries, exhibiting a vaft variety of colours ; as black,
blue, grey, brown, purple, red, and alh coloured, with various mixtures, of all degrees of hardnefs and purity.
5. Limeftone accompanying coal, and frequently the immediate roof of the vein. This likewife ftiows a great
variety of colour, texture, and quality ; fome being fo much adulterated with clay and other heterogeneous
mixtures as to be good for nothing, while others are very pure and fine. Thefe limeftones are always found
in regular ftrata. “ They are found (fays our author) as regular as the coals they accompany; and the
coal ftrata are more regular in continuation upon the bearing-, as far as the clafs of itrata belowging to
the coal reaches, than any other that I have inveftigated; and I look upon it, that this obfervation may be
of ufe in practice.”
For difeovering limeftone at fome diftance, Mr Williams gives the following direftions:—“Let them
keep the line of ftretch, or bearing of the ftrata'; and, in the coal country, they will be fure to diicover it
at nearly the fame parallel diftance from a feam of coal or other given ftratum, as the place where it was Jail
feen. But many of the mountaindimeftones are not much to be depended on. Though you may have
a good and plentiful quarry in one pla.ee, yet, perhaps,, half a mile, or half a quarter of a mile farther tbr-
waid, you cannot difeover it: it is dwindled away to nothing, and yxt will appear again farther forward;
which makes the mountain-limeftones uncertain to be difeovered where you do not fee them; as thefe rocks
very frequently grow thicker or thinner, and fometimes fqueezes out to nothing : and I comprehend under
this denomination all the limeftones not accompanying the coals and coal-metals.-—The limdtones of the
coal-fields are often diftinguiftiable by containing a great variety of {hells, coral, and other marine bodies,
which are found blended in the heart and compolition of the ftone.”
6. The Scotch marbles are of great variety and beauty ; and the parts of the kingdom moft unfit for cul¬
tivation are found to abound moft in them. Affint in Sutherland has a kind of white ftatuary marble,
which Mr Williams fays is the ptireft and beft he ever faw. “ I am perfuaded (fays he) there is none
better, if any fo good, in all Europe, and there is enough of it to ferve ail Britain; perhdly folid and pure;
free of any hlemifires, flaws, or ftains, and blocks or flabs of any lize may be cut out: but there is bad accefs
to it; nor would it be eafily quarried, there being a little cover above it, of a foft, loofe, whitiih limeftone.
This marble accompanies a prodigious rock of grey limeftone, of a granulated texture, appearing in re¬
gular ft rata at Affint; but it is one of thofe which varies in thicknefs as you advance along the bearing
of the ftrata. The good white marble of Affint is only to be feen in the bed of the river, near a con-
fiderable houfe a mile or two fouth of the church ; but I cannot remember the name of the particular place.'-’
Near Blairgourie in Perthfirire, not far from the fide of the high road, is an excellent, granulated, broad-
bedded limeftone, of a fugar-loaf texture, and as white as the hneft ftatuary marble, which Mr Williams
fuppofes to be a good fpecies of the true Parian marble, and that it requires only to be known and brought
into ufe to become of great value. In the duke of Gordon’s lands, in the fqreft of Glenavon, there is alfo
a kind of marble compofed of broad glittering grains like fpangles, as large as the fcaks of fifhes ; but the
fituation is remote, and difficult of accefs.
In
Part II MINER
Calcareous trad great heat, and by fprinhling with water they
^ fiarths. fa}j m<3re readily into powder.
' j Infufibility without addition.
4. They attrad the fixed air from the vegetable
and mineral alkalies, and thus rendering them much
more cauftic, becoming at the fame time mild them-
felvcs.
5. Solubility in all acids except the vitriolic, tar-
tarous, and fome anomalous vegetable acids.
6. Fufibility with borax and microcofmic falts.—•
The fufion is attended with effervefcence, and the re-
fult is a tranfparent and colourlefs glafs.
7. With metalline calces they melt into a currofive
Mg-
8. They imperfedly reduce the calces of lead and
bifmuth, and have even fome effed upon thofeof cop¬
per and iron.
The calcareous earth is found,
I. Pure.
1. In form of powder. Agaricus miner alls, ox lac lance,
a. White, in moors, and at the bottom of lakes.
1. Red.
c. Yellow.
2. Friable and compad. Chalk, creta.
a White, creta alba- Chalk is a nam aelfo applied
to other earths ; whence we hear of chalks of va¬
rious colours: but there are none which are
known to be of a calcareous nature, except this
kind here deferibed, and of which there are no
other varieties, otherwife than in regard to the
loofenefs of the texture, or the finenefs of the
particles.
3. Indurated, or hard ; Limdlone; Lapis calcareous.
A. So’id, or not granulated.
a. White.
b. Whitifh yellow.
c. Flefh-coloured, found in loofe made3.
d. Reddifh brown.
e. Grey.
/. Variegated with many colours, and particular¬
ly called marble,
g. Black.
B- Grained or granulated limeftone.
T. Coarfe-grained, and of a loofe texture, called
falt-flag in Svvedilh, from its refemblance to
lumps of fait.
a Reddilh yellow. 1. White.
A L O G Y. 71
i. Fine-grained. Ca’careous
a. White, b. Semi-tranfparent, from Solfatara ^arttls; .
in Italy, in which native bfimftone is found. v
3. Very fine grained.
a. White and green, b. White and black.
C. Scaly limeftone
1. With coarfe or large feales.
a. White, b. Reddifh yellow.
2. With fmall feales.
a. White.
3. Fine glittering or fparkling.
a. White, b. Of many colours.
D. Lime or calcareous fpars.
(1.) Of a rhomboidal figure.
A. Tranfparent or diaphanous.
1. Rtfrafting fpar ; Spatum iflandicum ; Iceland
fpar, or Iceland cryftal.—This reprefents the
objefts feen through it double,
2. Common fpar, which (hows the objeft Angle.
a. White, or colourlefs.
b. Yellowilh and phofphorefcent.
B. Opaque.
1. White. 2. Black 3. Brownilh yellow.
(2.) Foliated or plated fpar.
a. Opaque white.
E. Cryftallized calcareous fpars. Spar. Drufen (e )
(1.) Tranfparent.
a. Hexagonal truncated.
b. Pyramidal.
1. Dog’s teeth ; Pyramidales diJlinSce.
2. Balls of cryftallized fpar, Pyramidala concrete.
F. Stalaftitical’fpar ; Stalactites calcareus. Stalaftites,
Stone-icicle, or Drop-ftone.
(i.) Scaled ftalaftites of very fine particles,
a. Of a globular form,
r. White, the pea-ftone.
2. Grey, pifolithus, oolithus. Alfo the hammites,
from its refemblance to the roes or fpawn
of fiftt. It has been exhibited by authors as
petrified roes. The Ketton free-ftone, of
Rutlandlhire, is a remarkable ftone of this fort.
1. Hollow, in the form of a cone.
t. White.
c. Of an indeterminate figure.
d. Of coherent hollow cones.
(2.) Solid ftalaftites of a fparry texture.
a. Hollow, and in form of a cone.
I. White, and femitfanfparent.
II. Sa¬
in Lochaber, near the farm houfes on the north fide of the ferry of Ballachylifti, is a limeftone or marble
rock, of a beautiful afhen-grey colour, and a fine regular uniform grain or texture ; capable of being
raifed in blocks or flabs of any fize, and of receiving a fine polifh. It is beautifully fprinkled with fine
bright grains of mundick or pyrites, and likewife with grains or fpecks of beautiful lead ore of a fine
texture.
About three miles fouth of Fort-William, in the bed of a river, is a curious kind of marble with a black
ground, flowered with white, like fine needle-work, or rather refertibling the froft flowering upon glafs
windows in winter; and this flowering is not only on the outfide, but quite through all parts of the body
of the ftone.
Scotland has alfo chalk in abundace ; fome of which is regularly ftratified, and much appears in thick
irregular maffes like fediment.
(e) The tranflator of Mr Cronftedt’s Treatife has adopted this German term drufen into the Engliih language,
for a clufter of regular figured bodies, as a groupe conveys the idea of a duller only, whether regular or of
% indeterminate figures.
72
Calcareous H. Saturated or combined with the acid of vitriol.
. Karths- Gypfum, Plafter-ftone, or Parget.
1. Loofer and more friable than a pure calcareou
earth.
2. Either crude or burnt, It does not excite any
effervefcence with acids ; or, at moft, it effervefces
but in a very flight degree, and then only in pro¬
portion as it wants fome of the vitriolic acid to
complete the faturation.
3. It readily falls into a powder in the fire.
4. If burnt, without being red-hot, its powder rea¬
dily concretes with water into a mafs, which foon
hardens; and then,
5. No heat is perceived in the operation.
6. It is nearly as difficult to be melted by itfelf as
the limeftone, and ftiowa moftly the fame effefts
with other bodies as the lime-ftone: the acid
of vitriol feems, however, to promote its vitri¬
fication.
7. When melted in the fire with borax, it puffs
and bubbles very much, and for a long while,
during the fufion, owing to the nature of both
the falts.
8. When a fmall quantity of any gypfum is melted
together with borax, the glafs becomes colour-
lefs and tranfparent; but fome forts of alabaftei
and fparry gypfa, when melted in fome quan¬
tity with borax, yield a fine tranfparent yellow
coloured glafs, refembling that of the bell to¬
pazes. This phenomenon might probably hap¬
pen with every one of the gypfeous kind. But it
is to be obferved, that if too much of fuch gyp¬
fum is ufed in proportion to the borax, the glafs
becomes opaque, juft as it happens with the pure
limeftone.
9. Burnt with any inflammable matter, it emits a
fulphureous fmell; and may as well by chat
means, as by both the alkaline falts, be decom¬
pounded ; but for this ptirpofe there ought to be
five or fix times as much weight of fait as of
gypfum.
10. Being thus decompounded, the calx or earth
which is left Ihows commonly fome marks of iron.
The gypfeous earth is found,
(1.) Loofe and friable. Gypfeous earth, properly
fo called; Gubr.
si. White.
(2.) Indurated.
A. Solid, or of no vifible particles, Alabafter.
a. White, alabafter.
1. Clear and tranfparent.
2. Opaque.
b. Yellow.
1. Tranfparent, from the Eaftern countries.
2. Opaque.
B Gypfum of a fcaled or granulated ftrudhue.
This is the common plafter-ftone.
1. With coarfe fcales. a. White.
2. With fmall fcales. a. Yellowifh. b. Greyilh.
C. Fibrous gypfum, or plafter-tlone, improperly
(though commonly) called Eng/i/h talc by our
druggifts.
1. With the fibres coarfe. a. White, from Li¬
vonia.
N° 222.
Part II.
2. With fine fibres, a. White. Calcareous
D. Spar-like gypfum. Sele'nites, by fome alfo Earths,
calledmaria; and confounded with the clear T lu^
and tranfparent mica.
1. Pure felenites.
A. Tranfparent.
a. Colourlefs. h. Yellowifh.
2. Liverftone, fo called by the Swedes and Ger¬
mans.
E. Cryftallifed gypfum. Gypfeous drufen.
(1.) Drufen of cryftals of pure fparry gypfum.
a. Wedge-formed, compofed of a pure fpar-
like gypfum.
a. Clear and colourlefs. b. Whitifh yellow.
b. Capillary.
a. Opaque, whitifh yellow, b. Hexagonal,
prifmatic. e. Globular, confifting of cune-
ated rays proceeding from the centre.
F. Stalaftitical gypfum. Gipfum ftnter.
1. Of no vifible particles ; in French, grignard.
A. Of an irregular figure.
a. Yellow, b. White.
2. Of a fpar-like texture.
A. In form of a cone.
a. White and yellow.
b. Of an irregular figure.
a. White.
III. Calcareous earth faturated with the acid of com¬
mon fait. Sal ammoniacum Jixum naturals.
This is found, 1. In fea-water. 2. In falt-pits.
IV. Calcareous earth corfibined or faturated with fparry
acid, known by the name of fparry jluor and blue
john.
Thefe are commonly called fluxing, vitrefeent, or
^/a/r- fpars; becaufe moft part of them have a fparry
form and appearance : they are, however, often met
in an indeterminate figure.
They are only known in an indurated ftate, and di-
ftinguifh themfelves from the other earths by the fol¬
lowing charafters.
1. They are fcarce harder than common calcareous
fpars, and confequently do not ftrike fire with
ft eel.
2. They do not ferment with acids neither before
nor after calcination.
3. They do not melt by themfelves ; but crack and
fplic to pieces when expofed to a ftrongfire But,
4. In mixtures with all other earths they are (ge¬
nerally) very fufible, and efpecially with calca¬
reous earth, with which they melt into a corro¬
ding glafs that diffolves the ftrongefl, crucibles,
unlefs fome quartz or apyrous clay be added
thereto.
5. When heated flowly, and by degrees, they give
a phofphorefcent light: but as foon as they are
made red-hot, they loofe this quality. The co¬
loured ones, efpecially the green^give the ftrongeft
light, but none of them any longer than whilft
they are well warm.
6. They melt and diffolve very eafily by the addi¬
tion of borax ; and, next to that, by the micro-
colmic fait, without ebullition.
A. Indurated fluor.
MINERALOGY,
0-)
Part II. MINER
Calcareous (i.) Solid, of an indeterminate figure; of a dulll
Earths. texture, femitranfparent, and full of cracks in the
^ v rock.
a. White.
(a.) Sparry fluor. This has nearly the figure of
fpar ; though on clofe obfervation it is found not
to be fo regular, nothing but the gloffy furfaces
of this ftone giving it the-refemblance of fpar.
a. White, b. Blue. c. Violet, d. Deep green.
e. Pale green, f. Yellow.
(3.) Cryftallifed fluor.
1. Of an irregular figure, a. White, b. Blue.
c. Red.
3. Of a cubical figure, a. Yellow. 1. Violet.
3. Of a polygonal fpherical figure, a. White.
b. Blue.
4. Of an o&oedral figure, a. Clear, colourlefs.
V. Calcareous earth faturated with a particular acid,
perhaps o"f the metallic kind, viz. the tungftenic
acid. The tungjlein of the Swedes.
This refembles the garnet-ftone and the tin-grains;
is nearly as heavy as pure tin ; very refraftory in the
are, and exceffively difficult to reduce to metal. Iron
has, however, been melted out of it to more than 30
per cent. It is very difficultly diffolved by borax and
alkaline falts, but melts very eafily with the microcof-
mic fait, giving a black flag; and for this reafon the
l&lt mentioned fait muft be employed in the affays of
this ftone. It is found,
1. Solid and fine-grained.
a. Reddilh or fleflr-coloured. 1. Yellow.
2. Spathofe, and with an unftuous furface.
a. White, b. Pearl-coloured.
VI. Calcareous earth united with the inflammable fub-
ftance.
Thefe have a very offenfive fmell, at leaft when rub¬
bed. They receive their colour from the phlogifton,
being dark or black in proportion as it predominates.
(1.) Calcareous earth mixed with phlogifton alone;
Lapis fuillus, fetid ftone and fpar, or fwine-ftone
and fpar.
A. Solid, or of no vifible or diftinft particles.
a. Black.
B. Grained.
a. Blackifti brown,
C. Scaly, particulis micaceis.
1. With coarfe fcales, a. Black.
2. With fine fparkling fcales. a. Brown,
D. Sparry.
a. Black, b. Light brown, c. Whitiflr yellow.
E. Cryftallifed.
1. In a globular form.
VII. Calcareous earths blended with an argillaceous
earth. Marie, Marga.
1. When crude, it makes an effervefcence with a-
cids : but,
2. Not after having been burnt; by which opera¬
tion it is obferved to harden, in proportion as
the clay exceeds the calcareous fubftance.
3. It eafily melts by itfelf into a glafs, and even
when it is mixed with the moft refractory clay.
4. It is of great ufe in promoting the growth of
vegetables, fince the clay tempers the drying qua¬
lity of the calcareous earth.
Vol. XII. Part I.
A L O G Y* 73
5. When burnt in a calcining heat, it readily attra&s Calcareous
water: and, expofed to the air, in time it falls Earths.
into a powder. '
The varieties , of this kind worthy to be taken
notice of, depend on the different quantities of
each of their component parts, and on the quality
of the clay. The following are fpecified as ex¬
amples.
A. Loofe and compact, Marga friabilis.
a. Reddiftr brown.
b. Pale red. This, when burnt, is Of a ytllowiffi
colour, and ufed for making earthen ware in
fome places.
B. Semi-indurated; which is nearly as hard as ftone
when firft dug up, but moulders in the open air.
a. Grey, b Red.
C. Indurated, or ftone marie.
A. in loofe pieces, Marga indurata amorpha ; by
the Germans called duchjiein or tophjlein.
a. White, b. Grey, formed from a fediment
which the water carries along with it.
B. In continued ftrata. Hard flaty marie.
VIII. Calcareous earth united with a metallic calx.
Here, as well as in the others, fuch a mixture or
combination-is to be underftood, as cannot be difeo-
vered by the eye alone without the help of fome other
means.
The fubjefts belonging to this divifion lofe the pto*
perty of raifing an effervefcence with acids, when they
are rich in metal, or contain any vitriolic acid. How¬
ever, there have been found fome that contained 20
or per cent, of metal, and yet have ffiown their cal¬
careous nature by the nitrous acid.
There are no more than three metals hitherto known
to be united in this manner with the calcareous earth)
viz.
(1,) With iron. White fpar like iron ore, Miner a
ferri alba. The JlahlJlein or iveifes eifenerz of the
Germans.
1. This ore, however, is not always white, but
commonly gives a white powder when rubbed.
2. It. becomes black in the open air, as likewife
in a calcining heat,
3. In this laft circumftanee it lofes 30 or 40 per
cent, of its weight, which by diftillation has
been found owing to the water that evaporates;
and it is poffible that fome fmail quantity of
vitriolic acid may, at the fame time, evaporate
with the water.
4. It is of all the iron ores the moft eafy to melt,
and is very corrofive when melted.
This kind is found,
A. Loofe ; the mouldered part of the indura-
, ted fort.
a. Black, like foot.
b. Dark brown, fomewhat refembling umbre.
B. Indurated.
1. Solid, of no diftinft particles.
a. Red. Looks like red ochre, or the
red haematites, but diffolves in the acid
of. nitre with a great effervefcence.
2. Scaly, particulis micaceis.
a. White.
b. Blackifti grey.
3. Spar-like.
a. Light brown.
K
4. Drufem
74
Calcareous
£a*th5.
M I N E R A
4. Druftn.
a. Blackifh brown.
b. White.
1. Porous. This is often called eifen-
llutef or Jlos Jerri.
2. Cellular.
(?.) With copper.
Loofe and friable. Mountain blue; Germa-
nice, Bergblau. This diffolves in aquafortis
with effervefcence.
£. Indurated.
1. Pure calcareous earth mixed with calx of
copper. Armenian {tone, lapis Armenus.
2. Gypfeous earth united with calx of copper.
Is of a green colour; and might perhaps be
called lurquoife ore, or malachites ; though we
do not know if all forts of turquoife ore are
of this nature.
a. Semi-tranfparent, is found at Ardal in
Norway.
(3.) With the calx of lead.
This is a lead ochre, or a fpar-like lead-ore,
which, in its formation, has been mixed with a
calcareous earth, and for that reafon effervefces
with acids.
A Loofe and friable.
1. White.
£. Indurated.
1, Scaly.
a. Yellowifli.
Both thefe varieties contain a confiderable
quantity of lead, -viz. 40 per cent, more or
lefs; and the calcareous earth is as equally
and intimately mixed with it, as in the white
iron ore.
IX. The following compounds of calcareous earth
with different mineral fubftanees are added from
Mr Kirwan’s Elements of Mineralogy.
I. A compound of calcareous and barotical earths :
of this {peeks are fome yellowilh ftones found in
Derbyfhire, confifting of lamps of limeftone in-
terfperfed with nodules of barofelenite. Many
more may occur as compounds of gypfum and ba-
rofelenite, ffuor arid barofelenite, &c. &c.
*. Compounds of calcareous and magnefian. earths
fuch as,
a. The white marble, interfperfed with fpots 'of
fteatites or foap-rock, either green or blacky
called by Cronftedt kohnord marble. This
marble is of a fcaly texture.
b. The pietra takhina of the Italians, which con-
fifts qf white fpar with veins of talc.
t. The iserde antic 0 of the Italians, which is alight
green marble, with deep green, black, white,,
and purple fpots. According to Mr Bayen,.
k contains 62 parts of mild calcareous earth,
30 of green talc, 1 of magneiia, and 1 of fe-
miphlogifticated iron.
Compounds of calcareous and argillaceous earths
fuch as,
a. The green Campan marble from the Pyrenees.
St is flaty and fomewhat magnetic. Accord¬
ing to Mr Bayen, it contains 65 of mild cab
careous earth, 32 of the argillaceous, and 3 of
kmiphlogifficated iron.
£
1
LOGY. Part II. i
b. The red Campan marble: this is not magne- Calcareou
tic; it contains 82 parts of mild calcareous a&RTW!! 1
earth, 11 of argillaceous fliiflus, and 7 of de- "" '' : »
phlogifticated iron.
c. Yellow figured marble from Florence : accord¬
ing to Mr Bayen, it contains 7 5 parts of mild
calcareous earth, 13 or 14 of {hiftus, and 4 or
5 of dephlogifticated iron.
d. Griotte marble from Autun of Burgundy in
France : it contains 67 parts of mild calcare¬
ous earth, 26 of reddifh fchiftus, 2 of iron,
and r of magnefian earth.
e. The Amandola, which is a green marble, ho¬
ney-comb like, with white fpots. It contains
76 parts of mild calcareous earth, 20 of fchiftus,,
and 2 of femiphlogifticated iron. The cellular ' 3
appearance proceeds from the fchiftus.
4. Compounds of calcareous earth and mica; fuch.
as,
a. The cipoKb from Autnn in France : it is of a
green colour, and confifts of 83 parts of chalk,
1 2 of green mica, and 1 of iron.
b. The micaceous limeftone, is of a glittering ap¬
pearance, of various degrees of hardnefs, and
effervefces with acids. Such as the macigno of
the Italians; their yellow pietra bigia; and
their blue pietra columbina or turkina.
5. Compounds of calcareous and filiceous earths;
fuch as,
a. The calcareous quartz and pudding-Hone: this
confifts of lumps of quartz, and fometimes of.
felt-fpar in a calcareous cement.
b. The limeftone with veins of quarts; fuch as-
the Jaxum fablbergenfe, and feveral marbles of
Sweden and Siberia, which ftrike fire with;
fteel.
6. Calcareous volcanic pudding-ftone ; fuch as, .
a. The cierchina, which confifts of lump* of fpar
and lava in a calcareous cement, mentioned by
Mr Ferber.
b. The marble mixed with veins of black or green.:
lava, mentioned by the fame anthor.
7. Compounds of calcareous earth, mixed with two
or more kinds of earth ; fuch as,
a. The cipolin from Rome, wliich is a green;
marble with white zones : it flrikes, though;
difficultly, fife with fteel: it contains 67,8;
parts of mild chalk, 25 of quartz, 8 of (hiftus,,
and 0,2 of iron, befidea the iron contained in .
the argillaceous {hiftus.
b. The calcareous porphyry, which confifts of;
quartz, felt-fpar, and mica in feparate grains.;
united by a calcareous cement,
c. The limeftone interfperfed with ftioerl and:
mica.
d- To thefe compounds belongs the pyritaceous-
Jimeftone called by the French Pierre de St:
Ambroix- It is of an iron grey colour,, inter-
Iperfed with fhining particles. Its texture is
compaft, and fcarcely gives fire with fteel. Its
fpecific gravity is 2,7034. It is folublejn acids,
and moftly with effervefcence; calcines in a
ftroug fire ; makes nitre {lightly detonate |
and if diftilled affords a fmall portion of vitrio¬
lic add, and fome fulphur fublimes. Its com¬
ponent
M I N E R A
•ponent parts are 7^ of mild calcareous earth
and 25 of pyrites ; in Which are contained 14
of argill, 7 of quartz and fulphur, and 4 of
iron*
Order II. PoNDfcRbus Earth.
Ponderous earth, (Terra PonJerofa) : Caufc, or
calk. S ee Earth, Art. I. This is a particular kind
of earth (like chalk in appearance, but with fome
Very different properties), difcovered in Sweden about
1774, which by its refults with other bodies has fome
fimilarity to the known alkalis. It has not yet
been found pure, but mixed with other fubftances:
however, its great fpecific weight eafily diftinguiihes
•it from the others, it being the heavieft of all earths.
1. Its fpecific gravity when confiderably purified
by art is 3,773.
a. This earth combines with aerial acid: arid in
this cafe effetvefces with ftronger acids.
3. With vitriolic acid it forma the ponderous fpar,
which is infoluble in water*
4. Its cryftallization, after being combined with the
nitrous, or with the muriatic acids, is hardly fo-
luble;
5. But with acetous acid, it becomes deliquefcent,
S. When pure; viz. without any mixture of acid
o* alkali, it does net vitrify in the fire.
7* If deprived of the aerial Acid (fixed air) by cal- •
cination, is then foluble in 900 times its weight
of boiling water. This folution expofed to air,
forms a creinor, like that of lime-water in the
fame circumft'ances, and like it changes alfo the
vegetable colours.
8. Whilft combined with aerial acid, it is only fo¬
luble in about 1550 times its weight of water,
chiefly if the water ^has been impregnated alfo
with the fame aerial acid.
19. It expels the cauftic volatile alkali from ammo-
niacal fait.
to. Mixed with brimftone it produces a hepar fril-
phuris, whofe folutioh in water is but incom¬
pletely decoriipofed either by the nitrous or the
muriatic acid, on account of the great attrac¬
tion between this earth and the acid of fulphur*
which is fo ilrong that it
j!. Separates this acid (the vitriolic) from the ve¬
getable alkali.
I. Combined with aerial acid { Terra pmderofa aerata.
See CkEMISTRY*/«*/<?X.
It refembles alum, but is hard and ftriated, as if
compofed of radiating fibres coming from a
centre. It is found in Alfton-moor in England.
A. Spar-like gypfum.
1. Semitranfpartnt,j(2>a/Hm Bononienfe. The Borio-
nian {lone, or native phofphorus.
2. Opaque, a. White, b. Reddifli.
B. Ponderous Drufen fpar.
1. Jagged, irij/atum. Thefe refemble cock’s combs,
and are found in clefts and fiffures accreted on
the furfaces Of balls of the fame fubftaricc.
2. White.
3. Reddifli.
II. United with phlogifton and the vitriolic acid.
LOGY. 75
Leberjlein of the Germans and Swedes. Lapis Magnefiaft
hepaticus. Earth 3.^
This ftone in fome fpecimeris conftantly, but in '
others only when rubbed, fmtlls like the hepar
fulphurhy or guri-powder.
It is found.
A. Scaly.
1. With coarfe fcales. a. Whitifli yellow.
t. With fine fparkling fcales. a. Black.
Order III. Magnesian, Micaceous, and
Asbestine Earths.
$ t. MagneJtaA Earths.
MagnesIa is a white, loofe, and light earth, only-
known fince the beginning of this cerittiry. It is ge¬
nerally found combined or mixed with other hetero¬
geneous fubftances, as other Ample earths are.
1. When pure its fpecific gravity is 2,330, and
then
2. It neither hardens, coritradls, nor melts by the
application of heat, even by the folar rays.
3. But it melts eafily with borax, or microcofmiG
fait; though it is fcarcely affeifted by fixed al¬
kalis or calces of lead.
4. Mixed with other earths, it produces by fire
different hard maffes.
5. It gives do caufticity except to the volatile al¬
kali : and
6. Does not effervefce with any acid.
7. When mixed with water it fliows a very fmall
degree of heat, but without any effervefcence*
And when the water exceeds the weight of
magnefia about 7,692 times, it is totally dif-
folved.
8 and 9. Teing put in water arid afterwards dried,,
it contains VA parts of its weight j though when
fatUrated with aerial acid, it will abforb and re¬
tain after being dried parts of water.
io* This earth combiried with aerial acid is more
foluble in cold than in hot water.
11. Combined with vitriolic acid it cryftallizes int©
a bitter fait, knov/h by the name of Epfom ani.
Seydliiz, or Seidfchulit-z fait, which is foluble in
little more than its Own weight of water.
12. With nitrous acid it forms a deliquefcent fait.
13. With the muriatic or the acetous acids it does
not cryftallize: arid the mafs being dried, at¬
tracts humidity from the air.
14. It has a ftronger attraction to the floor acid
than to any other (Berg.) : and cryftallizes with
it into hexangular prifms whofe ends are formed
of two low pyramids, of three rhombs (Rome de
l'Ip); . . . . '
15. It is not'precipitated from other acids by the
vitriolic, as calcareous earth is.
16. According to Eavoifier and Macquer, whes
magnefia is calcined, it becomes phofphorefceht.
1. Magnefia combiried with vitriolic arid other
acids.
A. When faturated with the vitriolic acid, it forms
a bitter fait, called Englt/h or Epfom, Seydjhutz
nr Sedlitz. fait. The falts known under thefe dif-
K 2 ferent
$>art II.
MINER
ferent names only differ from one another on ac¬
count of fome heterogeneous fubftance, which
is combined in them, the vitriolated magneiia
being the characleriftic and principal ingredient
in them all.
B. Magnefia is found not only combined with the
vitriolic acid in the waters of Epfom, Sedlit/.,
&c. but alfo with the marine acid to a confide-
rable quantity in fea-water and other fait fprings.
C. It is contained frequently in frefh waters, where
it is diffolved by means of a quantity of aerial
acid.
II. Combined with other earths.
yi. Magnefia, when combined with filiceous earth,
is commonly unftuous to the touch, and more
of lefs difficult to be cut or turned in propor¬
tion to its different degrees of hardnefs.
It is not diffufible in water : grows hard, and
is very refraflory in the fire.
When pounded and mixed with water, it will
not eafily cohere into a pafle : however, if it is
managed with care, it may be baked in the fire
to a mafs, which being broken, ffiows a dull and
porous texture.
It takes for the moll part, and without much
labour, a fine poliffi. It is found,
{i.) Compact and foft; Smt8is, Briangon or French
chalk.
a. White, from the Lands-End, in Cornwall.
b. Yellow.
c. Red and white, from the Lands-End: the foap-
earth, from Switzerland: it looks like Cailile-
foap.
{2.) Solid and compadl; of impalpable particles:
Steatites or foap-rock.
a. White, or light green, b. Deep green —
c. Yellow.
{3.) Solid, and of vifible particles; ferpentine ftone.
a. Of fibrous and coherent particles.
This is compofed, as it were, of fibres, and might
therefore be confounded with the afbeftus, if its
fibres did not cohere fo clofely with one another,
as not to be feen when the ftone is cut and po-
liffied. The fibres themfelves are large, and feem
as if they were twifted.
*. Deep green. It is fold for the lapis nephrlticus,
and is dug at fome unknown place in Ger¬
many. b. Light green, from Skienffiyttan, in
Weftmanland ; is ufed by the plate-fmiths
inftead of French chalk.
b. Of granulated particles ; fine grained fepentine
ftone, the Zo^blitz ferpentine.
a. Black, b. Deep green, c. Light green, d.
Red. e. Bluiffi grey. /. White. Thefe co¬
lours are all mixed together in the ferpentine
ftone from Zoeblitz, but the green is the moll
predominant colour.
B. Porcelain earth mixed with iron ; terra porcellanea
'This is,
A. Diffufible in water.
a. Red, from Montmartre, and China. The wa-
ter-clinkers which are imported from certain
places in Germany feem to be made of this
. kind.
76
Mignefian
A L O G T.
b. Indurated.
1. Martial foap earth,
a. Red.
2. Martial foap rock.
a. Black.
b. Red.
C. The telgften of the Swedes ; lapis ollarls.
a. Light grey. b. Whitiffi yellow, c. Dark
grey. Dark green.
The ferpentine ilone has many varieties ; being
found, ^1.) Veined or fpotted with green fteatites.
(2.) Red, with veins of albeftos. (3.) Red, green,
yellow, or black with veins or fpots of white calca¬
reous fpar, is called potzevera. The black is called
nero di prato; the green verde dl Swz,a; but thefe
names are not reftrained to this fpecies. (4.) Veined
or fpotted with gypfum. (5.) Veined or fpotted with
barofelenite. (6.) Veined or fpotted with ffiiftus *—•
And, (7.) With veins of quartz, feltfpar, or Ihoerl.
(Ktr-tuan’s Mineralogy.')
What is commonly called ferpentine is a true lapis ollaris;
but being variegated with green, yellowilh, and brown
fpots, like the {kin of fome common ferpents, it is cal¬
led by that name. Great quantities of this ftone are
found in Italy and Switzerland, where it is often
worked into the ffiape of dilhes and other vafes. {Fa~
broni.) And the gabro of the Italians is nothing elfe
but a kind of ferpentine, {Kirwan.)
$ 2. Micaceous Earths.
Partll.
Ma^nefkn
Eartbs.
Thefe are known by the following charadters :
1. Their texture and compoiition confift of thin
flexible particles, divifible into plates or leaves,
having a fhining furface.
2. Thefe leaves or feales expofed to the fire lofe
their flexibility and become brittle, and then
feparate into inner leaves: but in a quick and
ftrong fire, they curl or crumple, which is a ftep
towards fufion ; though it is very difficult to re¬
duce them into pure glafs by themfelves or with¬
out addition.
3. They melt pretty eafily with borax, the micro-
cofmic fait, and the alkaline fait: and may by
means of the blow-pipe be brought to a clear
glafs with the two former falls. The martial
mica is, however, more fufible than the unco¬
loured ones: its fpecific gravity is 3,000.
A. Colourlefs or pure mica; daze, glimmer, or gliil.
1. Of large parallel plates ; Muicovy glafs. This*
is tranfparent as glafs; found in Siberia and Elf-
dalen in the province of Wermeland.
2. Of fmall plates, from Silfverberget, at Runne-
by, in the province of Blekingc.
3. Of fine particles like chaff; chaffy mica.
4. Of twifted plates; crumpled mica.
B. Coloured and martial glimmer.
1. Brown, femi-tranfparent.
2. Of fine and minute feales.
a. Brown, b. Deep green, c. Light green.
d. Black.
3. Twifted or crumpled glimmer.
a. Light green.
4. Chaffy glimmer,
a. Black.
4 5. Chry-
Part II.
MINERALOGY.
Magnefian
5. Chryftallized glimmer.
a. Of concentrated and ere£t fcales.
b. Of hexagonal horizontal plates.
The tranfparent Mufcovy glafs is ufed for windows,
and upon all occafions where panes of glafs are want¬
ed. Perhaps it might alfo be advantageoufly employ¬
ed to cover houfes.
The twilled or crumpled mica, which is found at
Hardol in Jemtland, is there manufactured into kettles
and other velfels, as alfo for hearths of chimnies: and
the powder which falls in the working may be mixed
with the common fait for the dilliliation of the muria¬
tic acid.
$ 3. AJheJline Earths.
Thefe are only yet difcovered in an indurated Hate;
and their characters are as follows :
1. When pure, they are very refraCtory in the fire.
2. In large pieces they are flexible.
3. They have dull or uneven furfaces.
4. In the fire they become more brittle.
5. They do not ftrike fire with the fteel.
6. They are not attacked by acids.
7. They are eafxly brought into fufiori by borax
or alkali.
In this feCtion are included both thofe varieties
which by foffitagifts have been mentioned under the
names of amiantus and ajbejlus, and have often been
Confounded together.
I. Albeftus, which is compounded of foft and thin
membranes; amiantus Walkrii.
A. Of parallel membranes .* Corium, five caro mon-
tana ; Mountain-leather.
1. Pure. a. White.
2. Martial, a. Yellowilh brown.
B. Of twilled foft membranes ) mountain-cork,
1. Pure. a. White.
2. Martial, a. Yellowilh brown.
II. Of fine and flexible fibres: Earth-flax ; ajbejhts
Wallerii.
A. With parallel fibres : Byjfus.
1. Pure and foft. a. Light green. 1. White.
2. A little martial, and more brittle.
a. Greenilh, from Baltnas Grufva, at Ryddar-
hyttan in Weftmanland. There it forms the
greatell part of the vein out of which the cop¬
per ore is dug; a great part of it is confequently
melted together with the ore* and is then brought
to a pure femi-tranfparent martial flag or glafs.
B. Of broken and recombined fibres.
1. Martial, a. Light green.
Order IV. Siliceous Earths.
Siliceous earth is, of all others, the moll diffi¬
cult to deferibe and to dillinguilh perfectly ; however,
it may be known by the following characters, which
are common to all bodies belonging to this order.
I. In its indurated Hate it is hard, if not in regard
to the whole, yet at lealt in regard to each par¬
ticle of it, in a degree fufficient to llrike fire
with Heel, and to fcratch it, when rubbed againlt
it, though the Heel be ever fo well tempered.
a. When pure, and free from heterogeneous par¬
ticles, it does not melt by itfelf, neither in a re-
verbatory nor in a blall furnace.
3. After being burnt, it does not fall to a powder,
neither in the open air nor in water, as the cal¬
careous earth does, but becomes only a little
loofer and more cracked by the fire, unlefs it has
been very flowly, and by degrees, heated.
4. It excites no effervefcence with acids.
5. In the fire it melts eafieft of all to a glafs with the
fixed alkaline fait; and hence it has got the name
of vitrefeent, though this name is, properly
fpeaking, lefs applicable to this order than to a
great many other earths.
To the above we may add the following properties^
from Bergman.
6. It is not foluble in any of the known acids, the
fluor-acid only excepted. But,
7. It may be diifolved by the fixed alkali, both in
the dry and wet way.
8. If the fixed alkali is only half the weight of the
filiceous earth, it produces , a diaphonous and
hard glafs: but when it is in a double or triple
proportion, then the glafs deliquefees of itfelf
by attracting the humidity of the atmofphere.
9. It melts ealily with borax; but
10. With microfcomic fait it is more difficult, and
requires a longer time to melt.
11. This earth has a great analogy to acids, as it is
perfectly diflblved in that wonderful natural hot-
water fpout above ninety feet high at Geyfer, in
Iceland, where by cooling it forms a filiceous
mafs.
$ 1. Gems, or precious fanes.
I. Diamond. Adamasgemma. See Diamond.
1. Of all (tones, it is the hardell.
2. Is commonly clear, or tranfparent; which qua-
. lity, however, may, perhaps, only belong to its
cryftals, but not to the rock itfeif from which
they have their origin.
3. Its fpecific gravity is neared 3,500. When
brought to Europe in its rough date, it is> in
the form either of round pebbles with fhining
furfaces, or of crydals of an oCtoedral form.
a. Colourlefs, or diaphonous, or the diamond pro¬
perly fo called.
But it alfo retains this name when it is
tinged fomewhat red or yellow. Being rub¬
bed, it difeovers fome eleCtrical qualities, and
attraCls the maftic.
1. Red ; Ruby. Adamas ruber; Riibims.-—
Which, by lapidaries and jewellers, is, in re¬
gard to the colour, divided into,
1. The ruby of a deep red. colour inclining a
little to purple.
2. Spinell, of a dark colour.
3. The balafs, pale red, inclining to violet,
Thisisfiippofed tobe the mother of the rubies.
4 The rubicell, reddilh yellow.
However, all authors do not agree in the
characters of thefe flones.
II Sapphire. Sapphyrus gemma.
It is tranfparent, of a blue colourand is faid.
to be in hardnefs next to the ruby, or diamond.
HI. To*
MINER
l*TI. Topaz. Topazius gemma,
a. The pale yellow topaz ; which is nearly un-
tfoloured.
1. The yellow topaz.
c. Deep yellow, or gold coloured topaz, or orien*
tal topaz.
d. Orange-coloured topaz.
e. The yellowifh green topaz, or chryfolite.
f. The yellowifh green, and cloudy topaz, the
chry/oprafe (a).
g. Bluilh green topaz, or the beryl.
This varies »n its colours; and is called, when
1. Of a fea-green colour, the aqua-marine.
2. When more green, the beryl,
2V. Emerald. Smaragdus gtmma.
Its chief colour is green and tranfparent. It
is the fofteft of precious ftones, and when heated
it is phofphorefcent like the fluors.
V. To the precious ftones belong alfo the jacinths,
or hyacinths; which are cryftals harder than
quartz cryftals, tranfparent, of a fine reddifh*
yellow colour when in their full luftre, and form¬
ed in prifms pointed at both ends': thefe points
are always regular, in regard to the number of
the facets, being four on each point; but the fa*
A L O G Y. Part Ui
cets feldom tally i the Tides alfo which form the Siliceous
main body, or column, are very uncertain in re- ea»th**
gard both to their number and fhape ; for they t”“‘ f
are found of four* five, fix, feven, and fometimes
of eight, fides: further, the column or prifm
is in fome alfo fo comprefted, as aim oft to re*
femble the face of a fpherical facetted garnet.
Mr Cronftedt fays, he got fome jacinths of a
quadrangular figure, which did not melt in the
fire, but only became colourlefs.
VI. The amethyft is a gem of a violet colour, with
great brilliancy, and as hard as the beft kind of
rubies or fapphires, from which it only difierg
by its colour. This is called the oriental ame-
tbyjl; and is very rare : when it inclin es to the
purple, or rofy colour, it is more efteemed than
when it is nearer to the blue.
Thefe amethyfts have the fame figure, hard-
n^fs, fpecific gravity, and ofher qualities, as the
belft fapphires ®r rubies *, and come from the fame
places, particularly from Perfia, Arabia Arme¬
nia, and the Weft Indies.
The amethyfts called occidental, are of the
fame nature as rock cryftals, and have the fame
gradations, viz. of a violet inclining to the
purple
(a) In the Annals of Chemifry, Voh T. We have the following account of the method of digging for the
xhryfoprafus, and of the earths and ftones with which it is accompanied.
This precious ftone is found in certain mountains in Silefia, which feem to begin thofe of Tradas, extend¬
ing to within half a league of Glatz. Thefe mountains appear, in general, to eonfift of a number of ftrata*
horizontal or inclined, compofed chiefly of fubftances containing magnefia, but likewife mixed with calcare*
ous, argillaceous, and filiceous earths- The greateft part of thefe confift of ferpentine, mixed with alheftos
and anianthus, grey argillaceous earths, boles, and red or green ochres, ftone marrow, fteatites, or foap-
ftone, and talc. In thofe mountains alfo we meet with quartz, petrofiiex, opal, and chalcedony, in detach¬
ed fragments, and fometimes in continued Veins. We alfo difeover in them veins of fand, of the nature of
granite. Sometimes the ferpentine is met with at the furface ; fometimes at the depth of 20 or 30 feet. The
none marrow feems here to be produced by the decompofition of a very milky fpecies of opal agate named
■ cacholovg ; for at the depth of 50 feet and upwards the veins of this foapy earth affume a degree of folidity,
and we find nothing but hard and femitranfparent cacholongs.
The above-mentioned ftrata are crofted by a great number of cracks filled with green-coloured earths and
ftones; but thefe frequently do not contain a fingle true chryfoprafus. They are fometimes found immediate¬
ly under the vegetable mould, or at the depth of fome feet, in lhapelefs malfes, covered with a heavy day,
and fometimes enveloped by an undtuous earth of a beautiful green colour, which it derives from the calx of
nickel. In other places, the chryfoprafus has been found in uneven lamina? of feveval yards in length and
breadth, either immediately under the mould, or in the upper ftrata of ferpentine, which have little folidity ;
and very beautiful ones have been fonnd at the depth of feven or eight fathoms ; and fome have been met with
in grey clay at the depth of four fathoms. In fome places a’fo they are met with in a kind of red ochre*
which is attracted by the magnet; in others they are found in the clefts of rocks. The beautiful green chry¬
foprafus is found moft plcntifui y in the mountain of Glaflendorf. In another mountain named Kofsmutz,
where it is alfo found, the pieces are fo porous, and fo much fpotted with white, &c. that fometirties upwards
of 1 coo of them have not afforded one large enough for the ufe of the jewellers. The defefts are frequently
on y difcoverable on polifhing, as the green opal, while rough, perfectly refembles the chryfoprafus ; but, on
pohfhing the ftones in which ft is contained, it is dete&cd by its want of luftre.
The quantity in which thefe ftone® are found is not fufficient to afford the expefices of regular mining; the
moft profitable way, therefore, of obtaining them is by making trenches in the earth from four to fix feet
deep. Almoft all tire mountain of Kofemutz, however, has already been examined in this manner; fo that
they now dig for the chryfoprafus in quarries by uncovering a bank of earth or ftone, and defeending to
- other banks by fteps in the open air, fo as to throw the rnbbifh back from bank to bank. This method, how¬
ever, cannot be continued farther than 24 or 30 feet, otherwife the produce would not defray the expence.
I he only tools employed in digging for the chryfoprafus are a fpade and pick-ax ; the former lo remove the
earth, the latter to detach the chryfoprafus itfelf from the ftones which furrouud it.
Various accounts have been given «f the component parts of this precious ftone. Lehmann thinks, that
thfi
Part IT.
MINER
Siliteou* purple or rofy colour, or inclining to the blue ;
Earths. very 0ften they are femi tranfparent, without
any colour in one end, and violet towards the
’ other. The beft are found in the Vic moun¬
tains of Catalonia in Spain, and at Wiefenthal
in Saxony, as well as in Bohemia in Germany,
in Italy, and in the province of Auvergne in
France.
Cryftals within the geodes, or hollow agathe-
balls, are very often found of an amethyil co¬
lour, and fome are very fine.
What we call amethyjl root, or mother of ame-
thyjl, is but a fparry floor, of which we have
plenty in Deibyfhire : many fine ornamental
pieces are made of this fubltance in different
form? and flrapes.- Thefe fpars are found in in-
fulated maffes, fometimes pretty large; but never
in the form of large rocks.
VII. The garnet, (Granatuu) This ftone, when
tranfparent and of a fine colour, is reckoned
A L O G Y. 79
among the gems: but it varies more than any, Siliceous
both in the form of its cryftals and in its colour, E^RTH**
fome being of a deep and dark red, fome yel- .
lowilh and purpliih, and fome brown, blackifh, ■'
and quite opaque. In general, their luftre is
lefs than that of other gems, as well as their
hardnefs, which yields to the file, although they
may ftrike fire with fted. But as to their form,
thefe cryftals take almoft all forts of figures, as
the rhomboidal, tetradecaedral, See. and fome are
of an irregular form.
Their colour proceeds from the iron which
enters into their compofition; and, according to
M. de SaufTure, even the fineft oriental garnets
attraft the magnetic needle at a fmall diftance.
The Syrian garnet is the fineft and beft efteem-
ed. It is of a fine red, inclining to the purple
colour, very" diaphanous, but lefs brilliant than
the oriental amethyft. It feems to be the ame-
thy/iizontas of Pliny: the Italians call it ruli'no di
rocca.
the co’our of it is owing to fome ferruginous particles modified in a particular manner: but the experiments
he adduces for this opinion are not fatisfadlory. Mr Sage attributes the colour to cobalt from the blue colour
it imparts to glafs. Mr Achard thinks the ftone contains ca’x of copper as well as calx of iron ; becaufe a
part of the metal feparable from it may be diffolved in volatile alkali. The following are the experiments of
M. Klaproth upon the fubjeft.
1. On heating feveral pieces of very pure chryfoprafus red hot, and quenching them in water, the co’our
was changed from green to bluifti grey ; and, on repeating the operation, it became a white grey-. They
were found to have loft in weight one and an half per cent, and were eafily pulverable in a glafs mortar.
2. Three hundred grains of chryfoprafns were mixed with doub’e its weight of mild mineral alkali, and the
mixture heated for fome hours ted hot, in a porcelain crucible. The mafs was then powdered, and digeftecL
in diftiiled water. By filtration, a yellowifti grey reiiduum was obtained, weighing 44 grains; the filtered-
liquor was limpid and colourlefs, a copious precipitate being formed with muriatic acid, which being wafti-
cd and dried was found to be filiceous earth.
3. The 44 grains of yellowifti grey refiduum were digefted in aretort, with 352 grains of aqua regia ; a great:
part of which was evaporated. The acid which came over was returne“d into the retort, and filtered after a«
fecond digeftion. The refiduum was a very fine white filiceous earth, which, after being waftied, dried, and*
heated red hot, weighed 20 grains.
4. The filtrated folution was of a pale green, but on fuperfaturation with volatile alkali immediately turn¬
ed of a bluifli colour, precipitating a fmall quantity of brownifli gelatinous matter ; which, when collected,
twice diftiiled with nitrous acid, and afterwards ftrongly heated, yielded a brown ea’x of iron, weighing no'
more than a quarter of a grain : whence our author concludes,, that iron does not contribute to the colour of-
the chryfoprafus, as we know many co’ouriefs ftones which contain as great a quantity of that metal. This
faiall quantity of calx was left after digefting the gelatinous refiduum On precipitating the fodib’e parts,
they appeared to confift of aluminous earth, in an exceffively divided ftate ; which being walked and dried,
weighed half a grain.
5. To find whether the folution contained calcareous earth or not, he mixed with that, foperfaturated
with volatile a'kali, a faturated fo’ution of mild mineral alkali, which precipitated four grains and an half of-
white and very pure calcareous earth.
6. Nothing more was precipitated from the folution, either by acids or alkalies,, after the feparation of the
calcareous earth, though it ftill retained a bluiih colour. It was poured into a retort, and evaporated to-:
drynefs ; the refiduum was of a yellowifti colour, which became green on being diftblved in diftiiled water.
Mild mineral alkali threw down only a little earth of a greenifti white colour ; which being; re-diffelved in de-
phlogifticated nitrous acid, and-precipitated with-Prufiian alkali,, the liquor yielded 17 grains-of a fea-green
powder. . This precipitate, in our author’s opinion, is the colouring principle of the chryfoprafus 5 and this -
principle he afterwards found to be calx of nickel.
7. Our author likewife attempted to analyfe the chryfoprafus in the moift way by concentrated vitrio’ic acid 5
in which procefs his chief view was to difeover whether or not the ftone contained any volatile particles or not.
On an ounce of crude chryfoprafus, therefore,, when put into a retort, he poured an equal quantity of recti¬
fied vitriolic acid, and two parts of diftilled water. After the latter had pafled over into the receiver, the fire
was increafed to force over the fuperabundant acid ; a part arofe in white vapours, and fome fell into the re¬
ceiver with an hifiing noife. Boiling water, which had been diftilled, was then poured upon the refiduum,.
and the folution filtered. The powdered chryfoprafus left on . the filter had not been gerfe&ly diffblved,. anti,.
in,
8o
MINER
Silicemt*
Earths.
Gems.
’fcctHi and is found in Syria, Calcutta, Cananor,
Camboya, and Ethiopia.
The fine garnet of a red inclining to a yellow
colour, is the of the ancients, the ver¬
meil! e of the French, and the giacinto guarnacino
of the Italians. Its name is taken from So-
rian, or Surian, a capital town of Pegu, from
whence thefe gems are brought: when they
have a brawnifh taint, they are then called hy¬
acinths.
The occidental garnet is of a deep and daj-k
red, and its hardnefs is lefier However, fome
very fine hard garnets are found in Bohemia.—
Garnets are alfo found in Hungary, at Pyrna in
Silefia, at S. Sapho in the canton of Berne, in
Spain, and in Norway.
The garnet melts in the focus of a good burn-
iug glafs into a brown mafs, which is attracted
by the loadftone ; and this Ihows that iron enters
confiderably into its compofition.
Some garnets are found, which contain a little
gold. Thofe called zingraupen by the Germans
contain tin.
VIII. Tourmalin ; Lapis ehBricus.
This is a kind of hard Hone, lately brough t
A L O G Y. Part II.'
into notice by its ele&rical properties. See Siliceous
Tourmalin. Earths.
1. Its form is a prifm of nine fides of different .
breadths, moftly truncated, and feldom termi¬
nating in a pyramid at each end, whieh is
either compofed of three pentagons, or of nine
triangles. •
2. When heated in the fire, it gives figns of con¬
trary ele&ricity on the two oppofite ends of
their prifmatic form. But many of thefe {tones
are not in the leafl eleftric. However, on being
rubbed, they become electric in their fides, like
other diaphanous gems.
3. It is as hard almolt as the topaz, and ftrikes fire
with fteel.
4. It melts by itfelf in a ftrong fire, though with
difficulty.
5. With the microcofmic fait it melts perfectly ;
but only in part with borax.
6. With mineral alkali it is divided into a kind
of powder.
7. The three mineral acids diffolve it when firft re¬
duced to a powder.
8. It bears a greater fimilarity to fchoerl than
to any other ftone : but its component parts
fhow
;
in general, had undergone but little alteration, fo that he could not by this method determine the component
parts. M. Achard, however, was more fuccefsful, and by a fimilar method determined the component parts
of this |fem to be five grains of an earth, which, diftilled with vitriolic acid, became volatile ; eight grains of
calcareous earth, fix grains of magnefia, two grains of calx of iron, three grains of calx of copper, and
456 of filiceous earth.
M. Klaproth never met with any volatile, earth or magnefia in his experiments on this gem ; and therefore
concludes, that the chryfoprafus ufed by him had been efientially different from that made ufe of by M.
Achard; and he feems not to give credit to the account of any copper being found in it.
8. One part of crude chryfoprafus, well powdered and wafhed with two parts of mild vegetable alkali,
yielded a violet-coloured glafs, which in the atmofphere ran into a brownifh coloured liquor.
. 9. Five parts of the gem, with four of mild alkali, gave a beautiful violet-coloured glafs after being two
hours in fufion.
10. Equal parts of crude chryfoprafus and mild mineral alkali, yielded a tranfparent glafs in thin lamina”,
of a brown colour, refembling that of the tourmalin, the furface being marked with fine reticulated veins $
which veins arofe from fmall grains of very fine reduced nickel placed in lines againft one another.
11. Equal parts of crude chryfoprafus and calcined borax, gave a clear, tranfparent, and brown glafs, re¬
fembling the fmoky topaz.
1 2^. Equal parts of chryfoprafus, extra&ed by vitriolic acid and calcined borax, yielded a fimilar glafs of a
c1ear brown colour ; “ which proves (fays our author), that the vitriolic acid was incapable of perfectly ana-
lyfing the chryfoprafus, though I had ufed a double portion of the earth.”
13. Eighty grains of prepared filiceous earth, fixty grains of mild fixed alkali, with three grains of calx
ef nickel procured from the chryfoprafus, yielded a beautiful, clear, and violet-coloured glafs.
14. On fubftituting three grains of calx produced from an ore of nickel, a glafs was produced exaftly like
the former.
15. Sixty grains of prepared filiceous earth and calcined borax, with three grains of calx of nickel from,
the chryfoptafus, yielded a tranfparent glafs of a clear brown colour.
16. Si-xA-y grains of prepared filiceous earth and vitrified phofphoric acid, with three grains of calx of nic¬
kel from the -chryfoprafus, gave a glafs of the colour of honey.
17. Thus the attempts of M. Klaproth to recompofe the chryfoprafus proved abortive. From his experi¬
ments, however, he deduces the following conclufions : 1. The blue colour obfervable in the glafs produced
by fufing the chryfoprafus with vegetable alkali, arifes entirely from the nickel contained in the gem; and the
experiment {hows that the calx of nickel, when purified as much as poffible, has the furprifing property of
tinging glafs frits prepared with vegetable alkali of a blue colour. “ But (fays he) why was not this colour
alfo obtained with foda ? and what is the caufe of a difference fo little to be expe&ed ?” 2. By thefe experi¬
ments the fuppofition of M. Sage is refuted, that the metallic matter which colours the chryfoprafus is co¬
balt : “ many metallic fubitancesbefides cobalt, it is well known, give by certain proceffes a blue glafs; thus
N° 222. cobalt,
Pan IT. MINER
ffiow that ft may be ranged with propriety in
this place, along with other precious ftones : as
the argillaceous earth is alfo the molt prevalent
in its competition.
a. The oiiental tourmalines are found in the
ifland of Ceylon. They are tranfparent, of a
dark brown yellow ; and their fpecific gravity
is from 3062 to 3299.
i. From Brafil. Tranfparent. Thefe are green
for the moft part t but there are alfo fome red,
blue, and yellow : their fpecific gravity is from
3075103180.
e. From Tyrol. Of fo dark a green as to ap¬
pear opaque. Their fpecific gravity is about
3050. Thefe are found in beds of fteatites
and lapis ©Haris, among the micaceous veins,
talcs, and hornblende of Schneeberg, Jurzagl,
and Zilierthal, in the mountains of Tyrol.
d. From the mountains of ©Id Caftile in Spain.
Thefe are tranfparent, and have the fame pro¬
perties as the preceding ones.
IX. The opal, Opalus ; the girafok of the Italians.—
This is the moft beautiful of all the flint kind,
owing to the changeable appearance of its co¬
lours by refle&ion and refraction, and muft there¬
fore be deferibed under both thefe circumftances.
I. The opal of Nonnius, the Sangenon of the In¬
dians. This appears olive-coloured by reflec¬
tion, and feertis then to be opaque ; but when
held againft the light, is found tranfparent and
of a fine ruby red colour.
There is, however, another of the fame kind
in Sweden, which by reflection appears rather
brown ; but by refraCtion it is red, with violet
A L O G Y.
8r
fo much valued as thofe which are more Siliceous
opaque, becaufe it is eafier to be imitated
by art. . j
§ 2. Of Quart*..
This ftorte is very common in Europe, and Cafiet to
be known than deferibed. It is diftinguifhed from
the other kinds of the filiceous order by the following
qualities.
1. That it is moft generally cracked throughout,
even in the rock itfelf; whereby,
2. As well as by its nature, it breaks irregularly,
and into ftiarp fragments.
3. That it cannot eafily be made red-hot without
cracking ftill more.
4. It never decays in the air.
5. Melted with pot-afties, it gives a more folid
and fixed glafs than any other of the filiceous
order.
6. When there has been no interruption in its
natural accretion, ks fubftance always cryftal-
lifes into hexagonal prifms pointed at one or
both ends.
7. It occurs in clefts, fiffures, and fmall veins in
rocks. It very feldom forms large veins, and
ftill feldomer whole mountains, without beino-
mixed with heterogeneous fubftances.
According to Mr Kirwan, quartz neither lofes
its hardnefs nor its weight by calcination. Its
texture is lamellar. Thefe ftones are in general
the pureft of the filiceous kind, though moft
contain a (light mixture of other earths; the
moft obvious diftinclion among them arifes from
their tranfparency or opacity.
Quartz is found,
vemsi
2. The white opal. Its ground is white, of
glafs-like complexion, from whence are thrown (1.) Pure,
out green, yellow, purple, and bluilh rays ; but A. Solid, of no vifible particles,
it is of a reddifli or rather flame-colour when r ^
held againft the light.
a. Of many colours ; the oriental opal.
b. Of a milky colour.
c. Bluifli, and femi-tranfparent. This is not
Vol. XII. Part I.
r ^ . - ith a g’offy fur-
face. Fat quartz.
a. Unco’oured and clear. This has no cryftallifed
form, but is neverthelefs as clearas quartz cryftals
of the beft water.
b. White, the common fat quartz.
-k c. Blue
cobalt gives a blue colour to combinations of thb mineral alkali with phofphoric acid, to mineral alkali itfelf
to potafh, and to borax. The acid of tungften (falfely fo called) alfo give® a blue colour to frits made with
phofphoric falls, but not to thofe made with borax ; the calx of nickel gives a blue colour only to frits made
with potafh, brown to thofe with mineral alkali and'borax, and yellow, like honey, to combinations of phof¬
phoric acid with mineral alkali.” 3. As the chryfoprafus gives a brown colour with borax, and the folutkm
of this ftone in muriatic acid gives no figns of cobalt difiblved in the fame acid; this fliows that there is no
cobalt in the ftone. Mr Sage, indeed, pretends, that be has obtained a blue glafs from the chryfoprafus Wd
borax ; but this is contradicted by experience. 4. The mineralogical chara&er of the chryfoprafus, therefore
is a quartz coloured green by nickel. Three hundred grains of it contain 288^ of filiceous earth calcined to
rednefs, one quarter ef a grain of pure aluminous earth, two grains and an half of calcareous eartli calcined
to rednefs, three grains of calx of nickel, and one quarter of a grain of calx of iron. All thefe were
extrafted in the experiments ; and there were befides five grains and an half of wafte.
Our author mentions, that in. the collections of chryfoprafus which have been brought to him, he has con-
flantly obferved green opal* in bits of vein from half an inch to an inch, and fixed in its borders: the reddifh*
yellow, and white opals, on the contrary, are generally met with on a green or brownifh petrofilex. But the
white opal, which, as well as the green, is found in pieces of the nature of matrix, differs from the true opal
approaching the chalcedony and the opaque milky quartzes. This kind of tranfparent opal, radiated with a
whitifti blue, contains the following ingredients in its compofition : Siliceous earth, 237 grains • aluminous
earth, a quarter of a grain ; calx of iron, a quarter of a grain-in all, 2-7-4. grains. In 240 grains were two
and an half of wafte. The colour of this ftone, as well as the chryfoprafus, in our author’s opinion is Ae
rived from nickel. r ‘ ’ u
Part II.
Siliceous
Earths.
Gems.
mineralogy.
c. B’ue.
d. Violet.
B. Grained.
a. White, L. Pale green.
C. Sparry quartz.
This is the fearceft; and ought not to be con¬
founded with the white felt-fpat, being of a
fmoother appearance, and breaking into larger
and more irregular planes.
a. Whitifh 'yellow, b. White.
D. Crtffrallifcd' quartz. Rock cryftal. Quartz
cryftal. '
j. Opaque, or femi-tranfparent.
a. White, or of a milk colour.
b. Red, or of a carnelian colour.
c. Black.
2. .Clear.
a. Blackifh brown, fmoky topaz, or rauneb topaz
of the Germans.
b. Yellow; found in Bohemia, and fold inftead
of topazes.
c. Violet ; the amethyft from Saxony, Bohe¬
mia, and Dammemore in Upland (b.)
d. Uncoloured ; rock cryfta1, properly fo called.
When thefe coloured cryftals are not clear,
they are called Jlufs ; for inilance, topaz-Jlufs,
amethyJl-Jlufj, &c. (c.)
(z ) Impure quartz.
a. Mixed with iron, in form of a b’ack calx.—
This is of a glofly texture, and contains a great
quantity of iron.
b. Mixed with copper in form of a red calx,
n. Red.
$ 3. Of Flintt.
The flint (Sikx pyromachus, Lapis corneiis, or the
hornjlein of the Germans) forms a kind^of- interne- Siliceous .jj
diate fubftance between quartz andjafper ; both which, ]
however, it fo nearly refeplbles, that it is not eafy to «
point out fuch characters as (hall readily diftinguifh it 1
from them. We can only, therefore, fpeak of its
properties comparatively.
1. It is more uniformly folid, and not fo much,
cracked in the mafs as fhe quartz ; and,
2. It is more pellucid than the jafper.
3. It bears being Cxpofed to the air without de¬
caying better than the jafper, but not fo well aa
the quartz. ' . |
4. It is better for making of glafs than the jafper,.
but is not quite fp good as quartz for,that pur-
pofe.
5. Whenever there has been an opportunity in this
matter of its {hooting into cryftals, quartz cry- ■
ftals are always found in it; juft as if the qtiartz
made one of its conftituent parts, and had in cer¬
tain circumftances been fqueezed out of it : this
is to be feen in every hollow flint, and its clefts,
which are always filled up with quartz.
6. It often {hows moft evident marks of having beeB
originally in a foft and flimy tough ftate like glue
or jelly.
The feveral varieties of this fpecies have ob¬
tained more diftindt names with reipeft to their
colours than from any real difference in their
fubftance ; but thefe are ftill nece{fary to be re¬
tained, as the only names ufed by jewellers and
others, who know how to value them accord-
iugly.
I. Jade. Lapis nephriticus. Jafpachates.
The true lapis nephriticus feems to belong to
this filiceous order, as it gives fire with tteel,
and is femi-pellucid like flint; it does not har-
. den
(b) The moft tranfparent are calleddiamonds, Brijlol, Kerry Jlones, and Alencon diamonds, 8cc. The
coloured tranfparent cryftals derive their tinge generally from metallic calces, though in exceeding fmall por¬
tions : they all lofe their colours when ftr.ongly heated. Thefe are what we call falle gems, viz.
The red, from Oran in Barbary, fa/fe rubies.
The yellow, from Saxony, falfe topazes.
The green, from Dauphiny, (very rare) falfe emeralds, or prafes.
The violet, from Vil in Catalqnia, falfe amethyfls.
The blue, from Puy in Valay, France, falfe fapphires.
There are alfo opal, or rainbow cryflals, fame of which make a very fine appearance ; the various colours of
which are thrown out in zones acrofs the furface, though they never ftiine like the oriental opal.
(c) M. Fourcroy.makes a remarkable difference between the cryftals and the quartz, by affirming
that the former are unalterable in the fire, in which they neither lofe their hardnefs, tranfparency, nor co¬
lour ; whilft the quartz lofes the fame qualities, and is reduced by it to a white and opaque earth. He'
clafles the rock cryftals,
ift, According to their form, viz. X* Infulated-hexagonal-cryftals, ending in two pyramids of fix faces,
which have a double refraflion, or {how two images of the fame objeft when looked through. 2. Hexagonal
cryftals united, having one or two points. 3. Tetrsedral, dodecsedral, Hated cryftals ; and which, though
hexagonal, have neverthelefs their planes irregular. 4. Cryftals in large mafles, from the. ifland of Mada-
gafear, which have a fimple refraction.
zdly, As to the colour, they are either diaphonous, reddifh, fmokey, or blackiftn
3dly, As to accidental changes, fome are hollow : feme contain water within one or more cavities : fome
arc cafed, viz. one within the other : fome are of a round form, as the pebbles of the Rhine : fome have
a cruft of metallic calces, or of a pyrites : fome are of a geodical form, viz. cryftallifed in the infide of a ca¬
vity : fome feem to contain amianthe, or afbeftus, and others contain ftiirls.
The fame author reckons among cryftals, the oriental topaz, the hyacinth, the oriental fapphire, and the
amethyft. Mr Daubenton has always looked on this laft as a quartzous cryftah
irt ir.
MINERALOGY.
den in fire, 'but melts by the folar heat in the
focus of a burning lens into a tranfparent green
glafs with fome bubbles. That called by the
name of circoncifion Jlrjnc> which comes from the
Amazon river, (melts eafier, in the fame folar
fire, into a brown opaque glafs, which is far lefs
hard than the ftone itfelf. (Macquer.')
This ftone is fuperior in hardnefs to quartz,
though from its un&uofity tO' the touch, one
would fufpeft it to contain a large portion of
argillaceous earth, or rather of magnefian earth,
as Mr Kirwan feems to fufpedt.
'Its fpecific gravity is from 2,970 to 3,389.—
It is of a granular texture, of a greafy look, and
exceedingly hard : is fcarcely foluble in acids,
at leail without particular management, and is
irtfufible in the fire. M. Sauffure feems to have
extracted iron from it.
a. It is fometimes of a whitilh milky colour, from
China; but moftly
l. Of a greenifh, or
a Deep-green colour, from America.
d. Grey, yellowifh, and olive colour : thefe are the
vulgar lapis nephriticusy they being fuppofed to
cure the nephritic pains by their external appli¬
cation to the loins.
The femi-pellucidity, hardnefs, and fpecific gra¬
vity, are the characters by which the lapis ne-
phriticus may be diftinguifhed from other ftoues.
II. Cat’s eye ; Pfeudopalus. The fun-ftone of the
Turks, called guneche.
This ftone is opaque, and reflects green and yel¬
lowifh rays from its furface : it is found in Sibe¬
ria. It is very hard and femi-tranfparent, and
has different points, from which light is reflected
with a kind of yellow-brown radiation, fomewhat
fimilar to the eyes of cats, from whence it had
its name. Jewellers do not fail to cut them
round to the greateft advantage. The beft of
thefe ftones are very fcarce. One of thefe of one
inch diameter was in the cabinet of the grand
duke of Tufcany.
III. Hydrophones, or 0cuius Mundi ; alfo called Lapis
mutabilis.
The principal property which diftinguifhes this
from all other ftones, is that it becomes
tranfparent by’ mere infufion in any aqueous
fluid; but it gradually refumes its opacity when
dry.
IV. The onyx. Onyx camehuja. Memphites. It is
found of two forts.
a. Nail-coloured onyx, having pale flefh-coloured
and white lines.
b. With black and white lines. The oriental
onyx.
V. The chalcedony, or white agate, is a flint of a white
colour, like milk diluted with water, more or lefs
opaque : it has veins, circles, and round fpots.
It is faid to be fofter than the onyx, but much
harder than thofe agates which are fometimes
found of the fame colour.
a. The white opaque chalcedony, or caholong,
from the Buckharif?! Calmucks. This vvasfirlt
made known by one Renez, a Swedifh officer,
who for feveral years had been in that country.
The inhabitants find this flint on the banks of
their rivers, and work idols and domeftic vef-
fels out of it.
b. Of white and femi-tranfparent ftrata; from
Ceylon.
c. Bluifh grey ; from Ceylon and Siberia.
VI. The carnelian. Carniolus.
Is of a brownifh red colour, and often entirely
brown. Its name is originally derived from its
refemblance to flefh, or to water mixed with
blood.
a. Red.
b. Yellowifh brown, looks like yellow amber. It
is faid not to be fo hard as the chalcedony.
VII. The.fardonyx.
This is a mixture of the chalcedony and carnelian,
fometimes ftratumwife, and fometimes confufedly
blended and mixed together.
«. Striped with white and red ftrata : this ferves
as well cut in cameo as the onyx.
b. White, with red dendritical figures. This
very much rcfembles that agate which is called
the mocha Jlone ; but with this difference, that
the figures are of a red colour in this, inftead
of black, as in that agate.
Between the onyx, carnelian, chalcedony,
fardonyx, and agate, there feems to be no real
difference, except fome inexplicable degrees of
hardnefs.
VIII. The agate ; Achates.
This name is given to flints that are variega¬
ted with different colours, promifcuoufly blended
together; and they are efteemed in proportion to
their mixture of colours, their beauty, and ele¬
gance. Hence alfo they have obtained variety
of names, moftly Greek, as if the buiinefs of the
lapidary in cutting of them, and admiring their
feveral beauties and figures, had been derived from
that nation alone (d).
a. Brown opaque agate, with black veins, and
dendritieal figures ; the Egyptian pebble.
b. Of a chalcedony colour ; achates chalccdonifans,
c. Semi-tranfparent, with lines of a blackifh
brown colour, and dendritical figures; the mo¬
cha ftone.
d. Semi-tranfparent, with red dots; Gemma divi
Stephani. When the points are very minute,
fo as to give the ftone a red appearance, it is
by fome called Sardea.
e. Semi-
(d) On the fide of a hill near the church of Rothes in Moray, is a quantity of fine agate of elegant red
and white colours. It is very hard, heavy, of a fmooth uniform texture, and of a confiderable brightnefs;
in which, the red'are remarkably clear, and finely mixed and fliaded through the ftone. Mr Williams fays
that this is the largeft and moft beautiful agate rock he ever faw; and fo fine and hard as to be capable of
the higheft luftre in polifhing.
*4
Si iceoti*
Earthj.
Gems.
M I N E R A
t. Sfmi-tranfparent, with clouds of an orange co*
lour.
/. Deep red or violet, and femi-tranfparent.
Of many colours, or variegated.
h. Black.
IX. Common Flint; Pyromachus.
This, in reality, is of the fame fubflance as the
agate ; but as the colours are not fo flriking or
agreeable, it is commonly confidered as a diffe¬
rent fubftance.
a. Blackiih grey, from the province of Skone.
i. Yellow femi-tranfparent, from France.
c. Whitilh grey.
d. Yellowifh brown.
When the flints are fmall, they are in Eng¬
land called pebbles; and the Swedilh failors, who
take them as ballaft, call them fingeL
X. Chert ; Petrqfilex, Lapis Cornetts. The •hornjlein
of the Germans.
This is of a coarfer texture than the preceding,
and alfo lefs hard, which makes it confequently
not fo capable of a polifli. It is femi-tranfparent
at the edges, or when it is broke into very thin
pieces.
a. Chert of a flefh colour, from Carl-Schakt, at
the filver-mine of Salberg, in the province of
Weftmanland.
1. Whitifh yellow, from Salberg.
c. White, from Kriilierfberg, at Nya Kopparber-
get in Weftmanland.
d. Greenifti, from Preftgrufvan, at Hellefors in
Weftmanland.
Chert runs in veins through rocks, from whence
its name is derived. Its fpecific gravity is from
2590 to 2700. In the fire, it whitens and de¬
crepitates like filex, but is generally fo fufible as
to melt per fe. It is not totally diffolved in the
dry way by the mineral alkali ; but borax and
sucracofmic fait diffolve it without effervefcence.
Its appearance is duller and lefs tranfparent than
common flint. The reddifti Petro-filex ufed in
the Count de Lauragar’s porcelain manufafture,
and called there felt fpaty contained 72 per cent.
of filex, 22 of argill, and 6 of calcareous earth.
"I here are not yet any certain charadters known
by which the cherts and jafpers may be di-
ftinguilhed from each other : by fight, how¬
ever, they can eafily be difcerned, viz. the for¬
mer (the cherts) appearing tranfparent,. and of
a fine fparkling texture, on being broken;
whereas the jafper is grained, dull, and opaque,
having the appearance of a dry clay. The chert
is alfo found forming larger or fmaller veins, or
in nodules like kernels in the rocks ; whereas the
jafper, on the contrary, fometimes conftitutes the
chief fubftance of the higheft and moll extend¬
ed chain of mountains. The chert is likewife
found plentifully in the neighbourhood of fcaly
limeftone, as flints in the ftrata of chalk. What
conne&ion there may be between thefe bodies,
perhaps time will difcover.
But flints and agates being generally found in-
LOGY. Part II?(
loofe and fing’e irregular noduler, and hardly in Siliceous I
rocks, as the chert, it is a circumftanee very in-
fufficient to eftablilh a difference between them ; Jaj
for there is the agate-ftone, near Conftantinople,
running vein-like acrofs the rock with its coun¬
try of the fame hardnefs, and as fine and tranf¬
parent as thofe other agates which are found in
round nodules at Deux-ponts. We muft, there- jl
fore., content ourfelves with this remark con¬
cerning flints, viz. That they feem to be the only
kind of ftone hitherto known, of which a very
large quantity has been, formed in the fliape of
loofe or feparate nodules, each furrounded with
its proper cruft; and that the matter which con-
llitutes this cruft has been feparated from the
reft of the fubftance, in like manner as fandiver
or glafs-gall feparates from, and fwims upon,
glafs, during its vitrification ; though fometimea
the formation of this cruft may be prevented by
the too fudden hardening of the matter itfelf.
Other fpecies of ftones, which are found in loofe
pieces or nodules, except ores and fome forts
of ftala&ites, ftiow evidently by their cracks*
angles, and irregular, figures, that they have been
tarn from rocks, rolled about, and rubbed againft
one another in torrents, or by feme other violent
motions of water.
That flints had originally been in a foft ftate,
M. Cronftedt obferves, is eafy to be feen in the
Egyptian pebbles, which have imprellions of
fmall ftones, fand, and fometimes, perhaps, grafs;
which, however, have not had any ingrefs into
the very flint, but feem only to have forced the
above agate-gall or cruft out of the way.
S 4- Of Jafpers.
Jasper, (the diafpro of the Italians), is a
name given to all the opaque flints whofe texture re-
fembles dry clay, and which have no other known qua¬
lity whereby they may be diftinguifhed from other
flints, except that they may be more eafily melted in
the fire ; and this quality perhaps may proceed from,
the heterogeneous mixture, probably of iron.
I. Pure jafper ; which by no means yet known can
be decompounded.
a. Green with red fpecks or dots; the helio¬
trope y or blood-ftone. b. Green, c. Red.
d. Yellow. e. Red with yellow fpots and
veins, f. Black.
II. Jafper containing iron ; Jafpis martialis S'mople.
A Coarfe-grained.
a. Red and reddifh brown ; ftnople.
B. Steel-grained, or fine grained.
a. Reddifh brown : looks like tire red ochre or
chalk ufed for drawing ; and has partition
veins, which are un&uous to the touch, like
a fine clay, and other like kinds.
C. Of a folid and fliining texture, like a flag.
a. Liver-coloured; and, b. Deep red. c. Yel¬
low. This laft mentioned, when calcined, is
attra&ed by the loadftone; and being affayed,.
yields from 12 to 15 per cent, of iron, (e.)
§ 5-
(e) Near Portfoy in Banff-flu're is an extenfive rock of jafper; fome parts of which contain a beautiful
mixture of green, and red, which appear finely fliaded and clouded through the body of the ftone when, go*
lilhed. Mr Williams ia of opinion that it would be a very valuable quarry if worked*
Part IT.
Silkeous
b A AT Hi,
Gm>’
M I N E R A
$ S' Telufpan,
1. Rhombic quartz ; Spatum fclntillans.
This has its name from its figure, but feems to
be of the fame fubftance as the jafper. We have
not, however, ranked them together, for want of
true marks to diftingui/h the different forts of the II.
flinty tribe from one another.
This kind is found,
j. Sparry.
White., 1. Reddifh brown, c. Pale yellow.
, *: d. Greenifh.
2. Cryftallifed.
a. In feparate or diflindf rhomboklal cryftals.
IT. Labradore Hone ; Spatum rutilum verjicolor.
Its colour is commonly of a light or of a deep
grey, and moftly of a blackifh grey : but when
held in certain pofitions to the light, difeo-
vers different varieties of beautiful fhining co¬
lours, as lazuly-bluc, grafs-green, apple green,
pea-green ; and feldom a citron-yellow ; feme
have an intermediate colour betwixt red-copper
and tombac-grey ; befides other colours between
grey and violet. Thefe colours are feen for
molt part in fpots ; but fometimes in {tripes, on
the fame piece.
III. White feltfpar ; Terra Silicea Magnejia & ferro
intime mixta.
This flone has been deferibed by Mr Bayen :
and is found at St Marie aux mines in Terrain.
—It is of a white opaque colour, fpotted with
ochre on the outfide.
§ 6. 0/ the Garnet Kinds.
The fubftances of this genus (which is confidered by
Cronftedt as an order) are analogous to gems ; fince
all thefe are compofed of the filiceons, calcareous, and
argillaceous earths, .with a greater or lefs proportion
of iron. The opaque and black garnets contain about
20 hundredths of iron ; but the diaphanous ones only
two hundredths of their weight, according to Berg¬
man, The garnets, properly fo called, contain a
greater quantity of filiceous earth than the fhirls, and
both are now juftly ranked with the .filiceous earths.
The fpecies are,
1. Garnet; Granatus.
This is a heavy and hard kind of Rone, cryflalliTiog
in form of polygonal balls, and moftly of a red, or
reddifh brown colour.
ji. Garnet mixed with iron ; Granatus martialis.
1. Ccarfe-grained garnet-ftones, without sny
particular figure; in Swedifh called Granat-
berg ; in German, Granatjiein.
a. Reddifh-brown garnet, b. Whitifli-yellow.
c. Pale yellow.
2. Cryftallifcd garnet.
a. Black, b. Red : femi-tranfparent, and crack¬
ed ; tranfparent. c. Reddifh-yellow ; tranf-
parent ; the jacinth, or hyacinth, d. Red¬
difh brown, e. Green, f. Yellowifh-green.
g. Black.
B. Garnet mixed with iron and tin.
i. Coarfe-grained, without any particular fi-
gUKU
a. Elackoih-brown-
LOGY.
2. Cryflallifed.
a. Blackifh-browm
b. Light-green or white.
C. Garnet mixed with iron and lead.
I. Cryftallifed.
Reddifh-brown.
Cockle, or fhirl. Corneous cryjlallifatus Wablerti;
Stannum cryjlallis columnarilus nigris Linntei.
This is a heavy and hard kind of ftone which fhoots
into cryftals of a prifmatical figure, and whofe
chief colours are black or green. Its fpecific
gravity is the fame as the garnets, viz. between
3000 and 3406, though always proportionable
to th&ir different folidjty.
A. Cockle, or fhirl, mixed with iron.
1. Coarfe, without any determined figure.
a. Green,
2. Sparry.
a. Deep green, (the mother of the emeralds',
from Egypt.
b. Pale green.
c. White. This occurs very frequently in
the fcaly limeftones ; and its colour changes
from deep green to white, in proportion
as it contains more or lefs of iron.
3. Fibrous, ftriated cockle, or fhirl: it looks like
fibres or threads-made of glafs.
a. Of parallel fibres, a. Black, b. Green
c. White.
B. Of concentrated fibres : The flarred cockle,
or fhirl, from its fibres being laid fteflarwife.
a. Blackifh green, b. Light green, c. White.
4. Cryftallifed cockle, or fhirl.
u. Black. To this variety belong moft of thdfe-
fubftances called imperfect ajbejli; and as the
cockle perfectly refembles a flag from an
iron furnace, both in regvd to its metallic
contents and its glaffy texture, it is no won¬
der that it is not foft enough to be taken
for an afbeftus. It has, however, only for
the fake of its ftrufture, been ranked among
the afbefti. The ftriated cockle, or fhirl,.
compared to the afbefti, is of a fliining and
angular furface (though this fometimes re¬
quires the aid of the magnifying-glafs to
be difeovered), always fo mew hat tranfpa¬
rent, and is pretty eafily brought to a glafs
with the blow-pipe, without being conium-
ed as the pure afbefti feem to be.
b. Deep green. -
c. Light green.
d. Reddifh brown. The taujfstsin is of this
colour, and confifts of two hexagonal cry¬
ftals of cockle grown together in form of a
crofs this the Roman Catholics wear as an
amulet, and is called in Latin lapis crucifery
cr the crafs ftone.
The figure of the cockle cryftals is uncertain,
but always prifmatical: the cockle from Yxiio
at Nya Kopparberg,,is quadrangular : the French,
kind has nine fides or planes ; and the tnuffstein
is hexagonal.
The name cockle for thefe fubftances is an old
Cornifh mineral name; but is alfo given fometimea.
to other very diherent matters.
W*
86
Siliceous
Earths.
Gems.
MINER ALOGY. Part II.
We have not in England any great quantity of
fpecies of cockles ; the chief are found in the
tin mines of Cornwall, and fome Sne cryftallifed
kinds have been.brought from Scotland.
The Englilh mineral name of call, has been ufed
by fome authors as fynonymous with roci/ej, and
they are confounded together at the mines ; but
the call, definitely fpeaking, is the fubftance call¬
ed wolffram by the Germans, &c.
Garnets, though final!, are often found in mica¬
ceous ftones in England ; but extreme good-gar¬
nets are found in great plenty alfo in like Hones
in Scotland.
III. Rowley rag, (Kirwan.) This ftone Is of a
duiky or dark grey colour, tyith numerous minute
fhining cryftals. Its texture is granular : by cx-
pofure to the.air it acquires ap ochry cruft. Its
fpecificgravity is 2748. Headed in an open fire
it becomes magnetic. In ftropg heat it melts
per fe, but with more difficulty than bafaltes
According to Dr Withering's analyfis, ico parts
of it contain 47,5 of filiceous earth, 32,5 of ar¬
gil, anft 20 of iron.
IV. Siliceous muriatic fpar, [Id.') This ftone is of
a hard, folid, and fparry texture ; of a grey,
ochry, dull colour, but internally bright. It gives
fire with fteel: yet it effervefccs with acids. In
a ftrong heat it grows brown ; but at laft it melts
per fe. One hundred parts of this ftone contain
■ fifty parts of filex: the remainder is mild rcag-
neiia and iron ; but in what proportion is not
mentioned [See Journal de Phyfique, Supplement,
vol. xiii. p. 216.)
\. Turky ftone ; cos Turcica, [Id.) This ftone is
of a dull white colour, and often of an uneven
colour, fome parts appearing more compadt than
others, fo that it is in fome meafure (battery. ’ It
is ufed as a whetftone: and thofe of the fineft grain
are the beft hones for the moft delicate cutting
tools, and even for razors, lancets, &c. Its fpe¬
cific gravity is 2598. It gives fire with fteel;
yet effervefces with acids. Mr Kirwan found
that 100 parts of it contains 25 of mild calcareous
earth, and no iron. There probably are two forts
of ftones known by this name, as Mr Wallerius
affirms, that which he defcribes neither to give
fire with fteel nor effervefce with acids.
VI. Ragg ftone. The colour of this ftone is grey.
Its texture is obfcurely laminar, or rather fibrous,
but the laminae or fibres confift of a congeries of
grains of a quartzy appearance, coarfe and rough.
Its fpecific gravity is 2729. It effervefces with
acids ; and gives fire with fteel. Mr Kirw'an
found it to contain a portion of mild calcareous
earth, and a fmall proportion of iron. It is ufed
as a whet-ftone for coarfe cutting tools.
[The filiceous grit, cos arenarius, and other
compounds of the filiceous earth, &c. will be
found in a fubfcquent divifion of this article.]
Obfervations on the (economical Ufes of the Siliceous Order.
The Europeans have no farther trouble with' the
precious ftones than either to cut them from their na¬
tural or rough figure, or to alter them when they have
been badly cut in the Eaft Indies; in which latter eh-
cumftances they are called labora : and it may be ob-
ferved, that for cutting the ruby, fpinell, ballas, and
chryfolite, the oil of olive is required, inftead of any _
other liquid, to be mixed with the diamond powder,
in the fame manner as for cutting the diamond it-
felf.
If the petty princes in thofe parts of the Indies,
where precious ftones are found, have no other power
nor riches proportionable to the value of thefe gems,
the reafon of it is as obvious as of the general weak-
nefs of thofe countries where gold and (ilver abound,
vi%. becaufe the inhabitants, placing a falfe confidence
in the high value of their poffeffions, negleft ufeful
manufa&ures and trade, w-hich by degrees produces a
general idlenefs and ignorance through the whole
country.
On the other hand, perhaps, fome countries might
fafely improve their revenues by fuch traffic. In
Saxony, for example, there might probably be other
gems found befides aqua marines and topazes ; or
even a greater trade carried on with thefe than at pre-
fent, without danger of bad confequences, efpecially
under the direftion of a careful and prudent govern¬
ment.
The half-precious ftones, fo called, or gems of lefs
value, as the common opal, the onyx, the chalcedony,
the cornelian, and the coloured and colourlefs rock
cryftals, have been employed for ornaments and econo¬
mical utenfils, in which the price of the workmaufhip
greatly exceeds the intrinfic value of the ftones. The
ancients ufed to engrave concave and convex figures
on them, which now-a-days are very highly valued, but
often with lefs reafon than modern performances of
the fame kind. Thefe ftones are worked by means of
emery on plates and tools of lead, copper, and tin, or
with other inftruments; but the common work on
agates is performed at Oberftein with grind-ftones at
a very cheap rate. Wben once fuch a manufa&oty is
eftabliffied in a country, it is neceffary to keep it up
with much induftry and prudence, if we would wiffi it
to furmount the caprice of faffiions ; fince, howmuch-
foever the natural beauties of thefe ftones feem to
plead for their pre-eminence, they will at fome periods
unavoidably fink in the efteem of mankind ; but they
will likewife often recover, and be reftored to their
former value.
The grindftones at Oberftein are of a red colour,
and of fuch particular texture, that they neither be¬
come fmooth, nor are they of too loofe a compofi-
tion.
Moft part of the flinty tribe is employed for ma¬
king glafs, as the quartz, the flints, thq -pebbles, and
the quartzofe fands. The quartz, however, is the
beft ; and if ufed in due proportion with refpeft to the
alkali, there is no danger of the glafs being eafily at¬
tacked by the acids, as has fometimes happened with
glafs made of other fubftances, of which we had an
inflance of bottles filled with Rhenifh and Mofelic
wines during-.the time of a voyage to China.
In the fmelting of copper ores, quartz is ufed, to
render the, (lag glaffy, or to vitrify the iron ; quartz
being more ufefubthan any other ftone to prevent the
calcination of the metal.
The quartzofe (and which conftitutes part of many
ftones, and is alfo ufed in making crucibles and fuch
veffels.
Siliceous
Earths.
Gems.
Part If.
Argillace- veffels, contributes moft of all to their power of refill-
ous ing fire.
Earths^ jt appears. Ijkewife probab'e that the quartzofe
'J' “ matter makes the grind and whetftone fit for their in¬
tended purpofes. [Magellan.)
Carder V. T/je Argillaceous Earths.
The principal chara&er whereby thofe may be di-
ftinguifhed from other earths is, that they harden in
the fire, and are compounded of very minute particles,
by which they acquire a dead or dull appearance when
broken.
I. Argilla aerata ; lac lun<t.
This fanciful name was heretofore thought to de¬
note a very fine fpecies of calcareous earth; but
Mr Screber has lately fiiown, that the earth to
which this name is given, is a very uncommon
fpecies of argill. It is generally found in fnaail
cakes of the hardnefs of chalk ; and like that, it
marks white. Its hardnefs is nearly as that of
fteatites, and it does not feel fo fat as common
clay does. Its fpecific gravity is 1669 ; its co¬
lour fnow white. When examined with a mi-
crofcope, it is found to confift of fmall tranfpa-
rent cryftals ; and by his experiments it appears
plainly to be an argill faturated with fixed air.
It effervefces with acids, and contains a very fmall
proportion of calcareous earth and fometimes of
gypfum, befides fome feeble traces of iron. It
is found near Halles.
II. Porcelain clay ; Terra porcellaneat vulgo Argyll a
apyra, very refractory the kaolin of the Chinefe.
(1.) Pure.
A Diffufible in water.
1. Coherent and dry-
a White.
2. Friable and lean.
a. White.
(2.) Mixed with phlogifton
A. Diffufible in water.
n.Whiteand fatpipeclay.^. Of a pearl colour,
c. Bluiih grey. d. Grey. e. Black./. Violet.
Thefe contain a phlogifton, which is difcovered
by expofing them to quick and ftrong fire, in
which they become quite black interiorly, affuming
the appearance of the common flints, not only: in
regard to colour, but alfo in regard to hardnefs :
but if heated by degrees, they are firft white, and
afterwards of a pearl colour. The fatter they feem
to be, which may be judged both by their feeling
fmooth and unftuous, and by their Ihining when
fcraped with the nail, they contain a larger quanti¬
ty of the inflammable principle. It is difficult to
determine, whether this ftrongly inherent phlogifton
be the caufe of the above-mentioned pearl-colour,
or prevents them from being burnt white in a ftrong
fire ; yet no heterogeneous fubftance can be extract¬
ed from them, except fand, which may be feparated
from fome by means of water ; but which fand does
not form any of the conftituent parts-of the clays.
If they be boiled in aqua regis in order to extradt
any iron, they are found to lofe their vifcofity.
III. Stone-marrow; Lithomarga. Keflekil of. tha
Tartars..
87
r. When dry, it is as fat and flippery as foap ; Argillace
but, _ ... Earths.
2. Is not wholly diffufible in water, in which it
only falls to pieces, either in larger bits, or
refembles a curd-like mafs,
3. In the fire it eafily melts to a white orreddi/h
frothy flag, confequently is of a larger volume
than the clay was before being fufed.
4. It breaks into irregular fcaly pieces.
A. Of coarfe particles : Coarfe ftone-marrow.
a. Grey.
b. Whitifh yellow, from the Crim Tartary,
where it is called kijfekil, and is faid to be
ufed for walhing inftead of foap.
2?. Of very fine particles ; fine ftone-marrow.
a. Yellowifn brown ; Terra 'Lemma.—Is of a
ihining texture, falls to pieces in the water
with a crackling fioife ; it is more indu¬
rated than the preceding, but has otherwife
the fame qualitiesi
IV. Bole, (iron clay.)
This is a fine and denfe clay of various-colours,,
containing a great quantity of iron, which makes
it impoffible to know the natural and fpecifical
qualities of the bole itfelf, by any eafy. method
hitherto in ufe. It is not eafily foftened in wa¬
ter, contrary to what the porcelain and the com¬
mon clays are, (I. & VI.);. but either falls to
pieces in form of fmall grains, or repels the wa¬
ter, and cannot be made dudfile. In the fire it
grows black, and is then attradfed bytheloadftone.
A. L oofe and friable boles, or thofe which fall to a
powder in water.
a. Flefti-coloured bole.
b. Red.
1. Fine ; Bolus Armenus.
2. Coarfe ; Bolus communis officinalis.
3. Hard : Terra rubric a.
c. Green Terre verte.
1. Fine*
1. Coarfe.
d. Bluifh-grey, is dudfile as long as it is in the
rock, but even then repels the water; it con¬
tains 40 per cent, of iron ; which metal be¬
ing melted out of it in a clofe veffel, the iron
cryftallifes on its furface.
e. Grey.
1. CryftaUifed in a fpherical polygonal fi¬
gure. _
2; Of an undeterminkte figure.
B. Indurated bole.
A. Of no vifible particles.
This occurs very often in form of flate, or
layers, in the earth ; and then is made ufe of as •
an iron ore. However, it has ufually been
confidered more in regard te its texture than
to its conftituent parts ;; and has been called
Jlate> in common with feveral other earths
which are found to have the fame texture^
a. Reddiflr-brown,; in, moft collieries, between
the feams of coaL
b. Grey.
b. Of fcaly particles.—The hornblende of ths
Swedes,
MINERALOGY,
5
MINER
ft is diflinguiihcd from the martial glimmer,
or mica, by the fcales being lefs fhiniiig, thicker,
and redtangular.
a. Black.—This, when rubbed fine, gives a
green powder.
b. Greenilh.
V. Zeolyte.
This is defcribed in its indurated ftate in the
Tranfaftions of the academy of fciencesat Stock¬
holm for the year 1756, and there arranged as
a ftone fui generis in regard to the following qua¬
lities.
X. It is a little harder than the fluors and the
other calcareous fpars; it receives, however,
fcratches from the fteel, but does not Itrike
fire with it.
2. It melts eafily by itfelf in the fire, with a
like ebullition as borax does, into a white
frothy flag,, which cannot without great dif¬
ficulty be brought to a folidity and tranfpa-
rency.
3. It isrmore eafily diflblve'd in the fire by the
mineral alkali (fal foda), than by borax or
the microcofmic fait.
4. It does not ferment with this laft fait, as lime
does ; nor wilh the borax, as thofe of the
gypfeous kind,
5. It diffolvea very flowly, and without any
effervefcence, in acids, as in oil of vitriol
and fpirit of nitre. If concentrated oil of
vitriol be poured on pounded zeolites, a heat
arifes, and the powder unites into a mafs.
6. In the very moment of fufion it gives a
phofphoric light.
There have lately been difcovered.fome of
the zeolites, particularly at Adelfors’s gold
mines in Smoland, in Sweden; of which
fome forts do not melt by themfelves in the
fire, but diflblve readily in the acid of nitre,
and are turned by it into a firm jelly.
The zeolyte is found in an indurated ftate :
(e.) Solid, or of no vifible particles.
J. Pure.
a. White.
B. Mixed with filver and iron.
a. Blue, Lapis laiull.
( 2 ) Sparry zeolite. This rtfembles acalcareousfpar,
though it is of a more irregular figure, and is more
brittle.
a. Light red, or orange-coloured.
(3 ) Cryftallifed zeolite. This is more common
than the two preceding kinds 5 and is found,
sl. In groupes of cryftals, in form of balls, and
with concentrical points,
n. Yellow.
b White.
B. Prifmatical and truncated cryftals.
a. White.
C. Capillary cryftals, which are partly united in
groupes, and partly feparate. In this latter
accretion they refemble the capillary or fea¬
thery filver ore; and are perhaps fometimes call¬
ed jius ferrl, at places where the nature of that
kind of Hone is not yet fully known.
a. White.
N° 223.
A L O G Y.
VI. Tripoli.
This is known by its quality of rubbing or wear,
ing hard bodies, and making their furfaces to
Ihine 5 the particles of the tripoli being fo fine
as to leave even no fcratches on the furface. This
efleft, which is called polijh'mg, may likewife be
effe&ed by other fine clays when they have been
burnt a little. The tripoli grows fomewhat
harder in the fire, and is very refra&ory : it is
with difficulty diflblved by borax, and Hill with
greater difficulty by the microcofmic fait. It
becomes white when it is heated : when crude,
it imbibes water, but is not diffufible in it: it
taftes like common chalk, and is rough or fandy
between the teeth, although no fand can by any
means be feparated from it. It has no quality
common with any other kind of earth, by which
it might be confidered as a variety of any other.
That which is here defcribed is of a yellow co¬
lour, and is fold by druggifts.1 This kind of
tripoli has been lately difeovered in Scotland.
Blit the rotten-Jlone, fo called, is another fort
found in England, viz. in Derbylhire. It is
in common ufe in England among workmen for
all forts of finer grinding and poliftiing, and is
alfo fometimes ufed by lapidaries for cutting of
ftones, &c.
The tripoli is found,
1. Solid : of a rough texture.
a. Brown.
b. Yellowifh.
c. Spotted like marble.
2. Friable and compadl.
a. Granulated.
b. Brown.
r. Yellowilh.
VII. Common clay, or brick clay.
This kind may be diftinguiftied from the other clays
by the following qualities :
1. In the fire it acquires a red colour, more or
lefs deep.
2. It melts pretty eafily into a greenifti glafs.
3. It contains a fmall quantity of iron and of the
vitriolic acid, by which the preceding eft efts
are produced.
It is found,
A. Diffulible in water.
1. Pure.
a. Red clay.
b. Flefh-coloured, or pale-red.
c. Grey.
d. Blue.
e. White.
/. Fermenting clay.
2. Mixed with lime. See Marle, above.
B. Indurated.
1. Pure.
a. Grey flaty.
b. Red ftaty.
2. Mixed with phlogifton, and a great deal of
the vitriolic acid. See Blum Ores, above.
3. Mixed with lime. See Lime,above.
VIII. Argillaceous fiffile ftones.
Thefe and many other different kinds of earth
have been comprehended under the denomination
6 of
Part II.
Argillace- 9
MINER
of fchyii} hot to Rvo’d ambiguity' \ye will confine
this name to ftones of the argillaceous kind,
i. The b\ui(h purple fchiftus, or common roof
flate ; ‘fcbijius tegularis.
Its colour varies to the pale, to the (lightly
purple, and to the bluifh.
a. The dark-blue date, fchiftus fcriptorius.
it. The pyritaceous fchiftus.
A L O G Y.
OrderI. Acid Salts.
09
For the characters, properties, and phenomena of
thefe, fee the article Acio, and Chemist a
Till of late no more mineral acids were known
than the vitriolic and marine ; the boracic or fedative
fait being reckoned as produced artificially : but later
.difcoveries have proved that we may reckon at leaft
This is of a grey colour, brown, blue, or eltven mineral acids; out of which only two or three
black. have been found in an uncombined ftate. Thofe hi-
3. The bituminous fchiftus. therto known are the following, viz. the vitriolic, the
This is generally black, of a lamellar tex- nitrous, t\iz marine, the fparry, the arfenical, the molyb-
ture, and of different degrees of hardnefs. den^ t]-ie tungftenic, the phofphoric, the boracic, thefuc-
cinous, and the aerial. See the article Acid, and
Chemistry-Index.
I. The vitriolic acid. See Chemistry-/^*,
II. Nitrous acid.
This acid is by fome excluded from the mineral
4. Flag (tone.
This is of a grey, yellowifti, or reddilh white
colour.
3. The argillaceous grit.
This is called alfo /and Jlone and free Jlone,
beeaufe it may be cut eafily in all directions.
6, Kiilas.
This done is of a pale grey or greenifti co¬
lour ; either lamellar, or coarfely granular.
It is found chiefly in Cornwall.
y. Toadftont
kingdom, becaufe they fuppofe it to be pro¬
duced from putrefaCIion of organic bodies. But
thefe bodies, when deprived of Hfe, are again re¬
ceived amongft foffils, from whence their more
fixed parts were originally derived. For the na¬
ture of this acid, fee Chemistry-/«^.
Dr Withering, who has given an analyfis of j|j Gf common or fea-falt. See Chemistry-
this ftone, defcribes it as being of a dark /ff^} at Acid and Marine.
brownilh grey colour, of agranular texture, ^tejluor acid, or fparry fluor acid. See Che-
not giving fire with fteel, nor effervefcing U\STKV-Index.
with acids. It has cavities filled with cryftal-
lifed fpar, and is fufible per ^ in a ftrong
heat. It is found in Derbyfliire. See Toad-
stone.
For the ceconomical ufes of the argillaceous
earths, fee the article Clay.
. [The compounds of this and other earths will
fall to be mentioned under a fubfequent divi-
fion.]
Class II. SALTS.
By this name thofe mineral bodies are called
which can' be diffolved in water, and give it a tafte ;
and which have the power, at kaft when they are
mixed with one another, to form new bodies of a fo-
lid and angular (hape, when the water in which they
are diffolved is diminilhed to a lefs quantity than is re¬
This acid is obtained by art, as it has never
been found difengaged, but united, to calcareous
earth, forming a fparry fluor called Derbyjhire * qe«
fuor, Cornijh fiuor, blue John, or amethyfl root,
when of a purple colour. See p. 72. col. 2.
concerning the fubftances arifing from the com¬
bination of this acid with calcareous earth.
V. The acid of arfenic. See Chemistr.y-Index.
VI. The acid of molybdena. Ibid.
VII. The acid of tungften. Ibid.
VIII. The phofphoric acid. Ibid.
IX. The boracic acid. Ibid.
X. The fuccinous or amber acid. Ibid.
XI. Aerial acid, or fixed air. Ibid.
Order II. Alkaline Mineral Salts-
For the characters, properties, and phenomea of
quired to keep them in folution ; which quality is call- thefe, fee the article Alkali ; alfo ChemistRY-Z/wfe**
led cryjlallifation.
In regard to the principal known circumftances or
qualities of the mineral falts, they are divided into
x. Acid falts, or mineral acids.
2. Alkaline falls, or mineral alkalies.
Vol. XII. Part I.
at Alkali and Alkalies.
New acidsjare daily deteCted; but no additions have
been made to the three fpecies of alkali longfince known.
•Thefe alkaline falts are,
I. Vegetable fixed alkali (a.)
M Vegetable
(a) With regard to the origin of the vegetable fixed alkali, there are fufficient proofs that it exifts al¬
ready formed in plants, and alfo that a portion is formed by combuftion : but in each cafe, the alkali is
obtained in an impure ftate through the admixture of other matters, which muft be feparated before it ca*
be ufed for chemical purpofes.
The cendres gravelees are made by burning the hufles of grapes and wine lees. They contain the pureft
alkali met with in common, and are ufed by the dyers.
Pot-am is made by burning wood and other vegetables. This alkali is much phlegifticated, and contains
-many foreign and faline matters, which, however, may be feparated.
That which is obtained from the allies of wood burned in kitchens is the mod pure of all. On the con¬
trary.
M I N E R A
Vegetable fixea alkali, deprived of every acid,
is not found any where by itfelf; but it is fome-
times met with in combination with the vitriolic
acid or the muriatic, generally with the nitrous,
rarely with the aerial (b.)
The fixed vegetable aik^ii (orpotajfe of Morveau),
is of a powdery appearance, and of a dead white
colour. When pure, it is much more cauftic
than the neutral fait; it forms with the aerial
acid, and even corrodes the fkin (c.)
j. It changes the blue colours of vegetab’es into a
deep green.
2. It has no fmell when dry ; but when wetted, it
has a flight lixivious odour.
3. Its tafte is ftrongly acrid, burning, cauftic, and
urinous (d). This laft fenfation arifes from the
volatile alkali|it difengages from animal fiibftances.
4. When expofed to the air, it attrafts humidity,
and is reduced into a tranfparent colourlefs li¬
quor. According to Gellert, it attra&s three
times its own weight of water.
5. It likewife attradfs fometimes the aerial acid
from the atmofphere, and is thereby deprived of
its property of deliquefcing.
6. When it is diflblved in an equal weight of wa¬
ter, it has an oily feel, owing to its aftion on the
fatty parts of the fkim, whence it is, though im¬
properly, called oil of tartar.
7. In a moderats heat it melts ; but in a more vio¬
lent fire, it is difperfed or volatilized.
8. It is a moft powerful folvent by the dry way:
in a proper heat, it diflblves calcareous, argilla¬
ceous, filicepus, and metallic earths : and when
the alkali is nearly equal in quantity to the earth,
it forms various kinds of hard, folid, and tranf¬
parent glafs.
9. But if the alkali be in quantity three or four
times that of the earth, the glafs is deliquef-
cent.
jo. The mild vegetable alkali unites with the vi¬
triolic acid with a violent effervefcence, and pro¬
duces vitriolated tartar.
LOGY. Part 'll.
11. With the nitrous acid, it forms the cryftalli- Alka'ir.e
fable fait, called nitre. Sac js.
12. With the marine acid it forms a kind of fait ~~v
lefs grateful than common fait, which is called
the febrifuge fait of Sylvius.
13. With vinegar it forms a neutral deliquefeent
fait of a flrarp tafte, called terra foliata tarlari.
14. With cream of tartar it forms tartarized tartar.
15. It diffolves fulphur, and forms the fubftance
called liver of fulphur, which is a powerful folvent
of metallic fubftances.
16. It attra&s the metals, and diflblves fome of
them with peculiar management. Silver, mer¬
cury, and lead, are more difficultly diflblved than
gold, platina. tin, copper, and efpecially iron.
Th<    " ~
'he laft gives a fine reddifh faffron colour, firfl
obferved by Stahl, who called it the martial al-
. haline tincture.
17. It diflblves in the dry way all the dephlogifti-
cated metallic calces.
18. It unites with oils and other fat fubftances,
with which it forms foap.
19. This alkali becomes opaque when expofed to
the flame of the blow-pipe : it decrepitates a
long time, and forms a glafly button, which is
permanent in the little fpoon ; but is abforb-
ed with fome noife on the charcoal when blown
upon it.
II. Folfile fixed alkalis.
A. Alkali of the fea, or of common fait (e.)
1. Pure.
This has nearly the fame qualities with the
lixivious fait, which is prepared from the afties
of burnt vegetables. It is the fame with the
fal foddi, or kelp : for the kelp is nothing
elfe than the aflres remaining, after the burn¬
ing of certain herbs that abound in common
fait; but which common fait, during the
burning of thofe vegetables, has loft its acid
(rj.
The properties of the foffile alkali are as
follows :
i. It
trary, that which is got from tartar, properly burned, then diflblved in boiling water, and purified by filtra¬
tion and cryftallifation, is called fait of water. It is the beft.
(b) The vegetable alkali is feldom found in the earth, except in wells of towns, as at Doway, or in
the argillaceous alum-ore of la Tolfa: it is found alfo united to the nitrous acid, near the furface of the earth,
ip Spain and in the Eaft-Indies, probably from the putrefaftion of vegetables.
(c) Common vegetable alkali, fait of tartar, and pot-afli, were formerly confidered by chemifts as
fimple alkalis; but E)r Black has dem»nftrated them to be true neutral falls, arifing from the com¬
bination', of the vegetable alkali with the aerial acid. From hence it follows, that the above common
alkalies, even after any other extraneous fubftance has been extrafted, muft be freed from this acid, byr
putting each in a crucible, and expofing it to a ftrong fire, which will diflipate this aerial acid. The alkali
£b purified, is to be put in a glafs vial before it be entirely cold, and kept clofe with a proper itopple ;
otherwife the aerial acid which floats in large quantities on the atmofphere will combine again with the
pure alkali. (Mongez.) ^
(d) The alkali muft be largely diluted with water, in order to be tafted ; otherwife it will aft on the
tongue, and. corrode the parts where it touches. (Macquer.)
(e) This fait is not met with pure in Europe ; but it is laid to be found in both the Indies, not only in
great quantity, but likewife of a tolerable purity : it is there collefted in form of an efflorefcence in the ex-
tenfive deferts, a profitable trade being carried on in it for the making of foap and glafs ; and, therefore, it
is very probable that the ancients meant this fait by their natron or bcurach. (MageJan.;
(f) The mineral alkali is often combined with the vitriolic, and marine acid, and 'alfo with the aerial
acid .3;
Tart IF.
MINER
1. It effavefces with acids, and unites with
them.
2. Turns the fyrupof violets to a green colour.
3. Precipitates fublimate mercury in an orange-
coloured powder.
4. Unites with fat fub(lances, and forms foap.
5. Difiblves the filiceous earth in the fire, and
makes glafs with it, &c. It diftinguiflies it-
ftlf from the fait of the pot afiies by the fol¬
lowing properties (g).
6. It (hoots eafily into rhomboidal cryftals;
which
7. Fall to powder in the air, merely by the lofs
of their humidity (h).
8. Mixed with the vitriolic acid, it makes the
fal miralik Glauberi.
9. It melts more eafily, and is fitter for produ¬
cing the fal commune regeneratum, nitrum cu~
bicum, See. Perhaps it is alfo more conveni¬
ently applied in the preparation of feveral me¬
dicines.
A L O G Y.
10. It is fomewhat volatile in the fire.
III. Volatile mineral alkali.
This perfectly refembles that fait which is extrac-
ted from animals and vegetables, under the name
of alkali volatile, or fal urihofum, and is com-
monly confidered as not belonging to the mine¬
ral kingdom ; but fince it is difeovered, not only
. in moft part of the clays, but likewife in the fub-
limations at Solfatara, near Naples, it cannot pof-
fibly be quite excluded from the mineral king-
kingdom (1).
Its principal qualities are,
a. In the fire it rifes in forma ficca, and volati-
lifes in the air in form of cOrrofive vapours,
which are offenfive to the eyes and nofe (k).
1. It precipitates the folution of the mercurial
fublimate in a white powder.
c. It alfo precipitates gold out of aqua-regia, and
detonates with it; becaufe,
d. It has a re-aftion in regard to the acids, tho*
not fo llrongly as other alkalies.
M 2 e. It
acid; with which lad it retains not only the name but many of the properties of a pure alkali, becaufe this
lad acid is eafily expelled.
It is eafily known by its crydallifation and its folubility in two times and an half of its weight of water,
at the temperature of 60 degrees.
One hundred parts of this alkali, when pure and recently crydallifed, contain 20 of mere alkali, 16 of
aerial acid, and 64 of water. {Macquerl)
Mineral alkali is found in Hungary, in marfhy grounds, of an argillaceous or marly nature, either mixed
with water or crydallifed and tjfflorefcing. It is found alfo in Egypt at the bottom of lakes, and dried
up by the dimmer’s heat ; and alfo in the province of Suchena, 28 days journey from Tripoli, where it
has the name of Trona ; in Syria, Perfia, as well as in the Ead-Indies, and China, where it is called kien.
It fometimes germinates on walls, and is called by many aphronitron. In its native date, is frequently mix¬
ed with magnefian earth, common fait, muriatic magnefia, and marine felenite. [Kirwan.)
(c) This mineral alkali likewife differs from the vegetable, 1. By its tade, which is lefs corrofive and
hurning. 2 By its not deliquefeing. 3. By the fmall degree of heat it produces if calcined, and after¬
wards added to water. 4. By its property of crydallifiog, by evaporating the water from its folution, as
is pra&ifed with neutral (alts; whereas the vegetable alkali does not crydallife unlefs combined with a large
portion of aerial acid.
(h) This alkali being a very ufeful commodity, and effentially neceffary in a number of manufactories,
many ingenious proceffes have been contrived and attempted to procure it at a cheap rate, by decomposing
the fea-falt; but it is believed, that till lately none of thefe new manufa&ures have fucceeded, except that
of Mr Turner, mentioned by Mr Kirwan in the fecond part of the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1782.—
The procefs is faid to confid in mixing a quantity of litharge with half its weight of common fait, which,
on being triturated with water till it affumes a white colour, is left to. dand fome hours ; after which, a
decompofition enfues, the alkali being left alone, whild the acid unites to the metallic calx ; and this lad
being urged by a proper degree of fire, produces a fine pigment of a greenifli yellow colour, whofe fale
pays for the mod part of the expences.
Mr Kirwan fays, in the place already quoted, that if common fait perfectly dry be proje&ed on lead
heated to incandefcence, the common fait will be decompofed, and a-horn-lead formed, according to Margraaf.
He adds alfo, that according to Scheele, if a folution of common fait be digeded with litharge, the com¬
mon fait will be decompofed, and a cauitic alkali produced ; and, finally, that Mr Scheele decompofed
common fait, by letting its folution (lowly pafs through a funnel filled with litharge.
(1) It is eafily known by its fmell, though in a mild date, by its volatility, and by its aftion .on copper f
the folutions of which, in the mineral acids, are turned blue by an addition of this alkali. It is frequently
found, though in fmall quantities,-in mould, marl, clay, fchidus, and in fome mineral waters. It probably
derives its origin, in the mineral kingdom, from the putrefaftion or combudion of animal or vegetable
fubdances. {Kirovan.)
The fame is caudic when uncombined with any acid, not excepting even the aerial acid. It differs from
the other two alkalies in many effential particulars. 1. By its aeriform or gafeous nature. For the
volatile alkali, in a date of purity, is nothing more than an alkaline gas diffufed in water, as Dr Priedley
has demondrated. 2. By its volatility. 3. By the nature of the falts It forms with acids, which are very
■different from thofe whofe bafes are formed either of the vegetable or mineral alkali. {Monger.)
_(k) Pure volatile alkali, in an aerial form, refembles atmofpheric air, but is more heavy, its fmell is
pens-
MINER
e. It tinges the folution of copper blue, and dif-
iblves this metal afrefti if a great quantity
is added (l).
f. It deflagrates with nitre, which proves that it
contains a phlogifton.
It is never found pure.
Order III. Neutral Salts.
Acids united to alkalies form neutral falts. Thefe
difftxved in water are no ways diiturbed by the ad¬
dition of an alkali; and generally, by evaporation,
concrete into cryftals. If, by proper tefts, they ihow
neither acid nor alkaline properties, they are laid to
be perfeB nautra's; but imperfeB, when, from deleft
in quantity or ftrength of one ingredient, the pecu¬
liar properties of the other more or lefs prevail.
I. Vitriolated tartar, vitriolated vegetable alkali, or
(as Morveau calls itJ the vitriol of pol-ajh.
This is a perfectly neutral fait, which refults from
the combination of the vitriolic acid with the vege¬
table fixed alkali. According to Bergman, it
feldom occurs fpontaneoufly in nature, unlefs
where tracks of wood have been burnt down t
and Mr Bowles, quoted by Mr Kir wan, fays it
is contained in fome earths in Spain. See Che-
M i s t r y-Index.
It is eafily obtained, by pouring the vitriolic
acid on a folutioh of fixed vegetable alkali till
it is faturated. Cry Hals of this neutral fait are
then formed. This cryftallifation fucceeds bet¬
ter by evaporation than by cooling, according to
Mongez.
The taite of this fait is difagreeable, though fome-
what refembling common fait.
II. Common nitre, (Alkali vegetabile nit rat urn).
This is known in commerce by the name offalt-
petre, and is alfo called prifmatic nitre., to diitin-
guiflr it from the cubic nitre after-mentioned.—
it is perfe<-t neutral fait; refulting from the com¬
bination of the nitrous acid with the pure vege¬
table alkali.
According to Bergman, it is formed upon the fur-
face of the- earth, where vegetables, efpeciaily
when mixed with animal-fubitances, putrify.—
See Chemistry-/«J«c, at Nitre.
III. Digeftive fait, fait of Sylvius, (Alkali vegetabile
Jalitum).
This neutral fait is fometimes, though rarely, met
A L O G Y. PartlT,
with on the earth, generated perhaps, as profef- Neutral
for Bergman obierves, by the deftruciion of ani- Sacts.
mal and vegetable fubftances. ~ '
According to -lacquer, this fait has been very
wrongly called regenerated marine fait; and the
epithet of febrifuge has alfo been given to it,
without any good reafon, to evince, that it has
fuch a property. But M. de Morveau calls it
muriate de potafje with great propriety
This fait is produced by a perfect combination of
the vegetable alkali with marine acid. It haa
been wrongly confounded with common fait.—
It is found in fome bogs in Picardy, and in fome
mineral waters at Normandy, according to Mot
net, quoted by Kirwan. Mongez adds alfo the
fea-water, as containing this fait, and that it
is never found in large quantities, although its-
components parts are abundantly produced by
nature. See Chemistry-A^x, at Digejlive.
IV. Mild vegetable alkali, (alkali vegetabile aeratum.)
This fait was formerly confidered as a pure al¬
kali, known by the name of potafh and fait of
tartar: but fince the difeovery of the aerial acid,
it is very properly clafled among the neutral falts,
and ought to be called aeratedpotajfe.
It refults from a combination of the vegetable al¬
kali with the aerial acid, and is hardly ever«found
native, unlefs in the neighbourhood of woods
dettroyed by fire.
On being expofed on a piece of charcoal, urged
by the blow-pipe, it melts, and is abforbed by the
coal; but,
In the metallic fpoon, it forms a glaffy bead, which
becomes opaque when cold.
V. Vitriolated acid faturated with mineral alkali; Glau¬
ber’s fait. Alkali minerale vitriolatum.
This is a neutral fait, prepared by nature (as
well as by art), containing more or lefs of iron,
or of a calcareous earth; from which arifes alfo
fome difi'erence in its effedis when internally
ufed. It fhoots eafily into prifmatical cryftals,
which become larger in proportion to the quanr
tity of water evaporated before the chryftallifa-
tion. When laid oh a piece of burning char¬
coal, or elfe burnt with a phlogifton, the vitriolic
acid difeovers itfelf by the fmell refembling the
hepar fulphuris.
It is found in a diffolved ftate in fprings and
wells. Some of the lakes in Siberia and Aftra-
7 can.
penetrating, and fuffocates animals. Its tafte is acrid and cauftic. It quickly converts blue vegetable
colours to green, and produces heat during its combination with water. But if the water be frozen, it
melts, producing at the fame time an extreme degree of cold. It has a remarkable adtion on moft metals,
particularly copper.
This fubftance is obtained by the putrefadlive fermentation from animal and fome vegetable matters. It
is this fait which caufes that llrong fmell which is perceived in drains and privies on a change of weather,
'(Monger.)
Its volatility arifes from a very fubtile and volatile (or phlogiftic) oil, which enters as a principle into its
compofition. (Macquer.)
( l) The folution of copper by this alkali, which is of a fine blue, prefents a remarkable phenomenon.
For if it be kept in a well clofed phial, the colour decays, and at length difappears, giving place to tranfpa-
rency. But on opening the phial, the furface or part in contadt with the air becomes blue, and the
colour is communicated through the whole mafs. This experiment may be many times repeated with the
fame fuccefs.
Part If,
MINERALOGY.
Neutral can, and matiy fprings in other places, contain
Salts. this fait, according to Bergman. It is found
,J » ■ in the fea-water ; alfo jn the earth, at feveral
parts of Dauphine in France, and in Lorraine ;
and fometimes it germinates on the furface of the
earth, according to Monet, quoted by Kirwan.
It is found, in a dry form, on walls, in fuch places
where aphronitrum has efflorefced through them,
and the vitriolic acid has happened to be pre-
fent; for inftance, where marcafites are loaded
in the open air. This fait is often confounded
with the aphronitum or mild mineral alkali.
VI. Cubic or quadrangular nitre, sllkali miner ale ni-
tratum.
This is the neutral fait which refults from the
combination of mineral alkali with nitrous acid.
It has almoft all the charafters of prifmatic or
common nitre, from which it only differs on ac¬
count of its bafe ; and takes its denomination
from the figure of its cryftals, which appear cu¬
bic.
This fait rarely occurs but where marine plants
putrify. According to Bowles, quoted by Kir¬
wan, it is found native in Spain. See Chemistry,
n° 741, &c.
VII. Common fait, or fea-falt; Alkali miner ale fall turn,
• fal commune.
This fait fhoots into cubical cryftals during the
very evaporation ; crackles in the fire, and at¬
tracts the humidity ef the air. It is a perfectly
neutral fait, compofed of marine acid, faturated
with mineral alkali. It has a faline but agree¬
able flavour. See Chemistry -Index, at Sea-
fait.
A. Rock fait, foffile fait; Sal montanvm. Occurs
in the form of folid ftrata in the earth.
1. With fcaly and irregular particles.
a. Grey, and
b. White. Thefe are the moft common, but
the following are fcarcer :
c. Red;
d. Blue; and
e. Yellow, from Cracow in Poland, England,*
Salzberg, and Tirol.
Z- Cryftallifed rock fait; fal gemma.
a. Tranfparent, from Cracow in Poland,
and from Tranfylvania.
j§. Sea-fait.
This is produced alfo from fea-water, or from
the water of fait lakes by evaporation in the fun,,
or by boiling*.
The feas contain this fait, though more or lefs
in different parts. In Siberia and Tartary there
are lakes that contain great quantities of it.
£.. Spring fea-falt.
This is produced by boiling the water of the
fountain's near Halle in Germany, and other
pkces.
Near the city of Lidkoping, in the province of
Weftergotland, and in the province of Dal,
fait-fprings are found, but they contain very
little fait: and: fueh weak water is called folen
by the Swedes.
VIII. Borax.
This is a peculiar alkaline fait, which is fup-
pofed to belong to the mineral kingdom, and
cannot be otherwife deferibed, than that it is
...... diffoluble in water, und vitrefcible;
, that it is fixed in the fire ; and melts
to a glafs ; which glafs is afterwards diil'oluble in
water. See the detached article Borax.
IX. Mild mineral alkali; Alkali minerale aeratum. Na¬
tron, the nitre of the ancients.
This neutral fait is a combination of the mine¬
ral alkali with the aerial acid or fixed air. It is
found plentifully in many places, paiticularly in
Africa and Afia, either concreted into cryftal¬
lifed ftrata, or fallen to a powder; or efHorefcing
on old brick walls ; or laftly, diffolved in fprings.
It frequently originates from decompofed com¬
mon fait.
Neu
S.
This is an imperfect neutral fait, and was for¬
merly confidered as a pure alkali; but the difeo-
very of the aerial acid has fliown the miftake.
x. It has nearly all the properties of the pure
mineral alkaliNQII. i. (p. 90.), but with
lefs energy. .
2. The vegetable blue colours are turned green*
by this fait; it efllorefces with acids, and
has an urinous tafte
3. It is foluble in twice its weight of cold wa~
water; but if the water is hot", an equal
weight is fuflicient for its folution.
4. It efflorefees when expofed to the aflion of
the atmofphere.
5. It fufes eafily on the fire, but without be¬
ing decompofed.
6. Facilitates the fufion of verifiable earths,
and produces glafs more or lefs fine accord¬
ing to their qualities.
7. It is decompofable by lime and ponderous
earth, which attraft the aerial acid.
8. And alfo by the mineral acids ; but thefe
expel the aerial acid of this fait, by feizing.
its alkaline bafis, {Monge%.)
Wallerius confounds this fait with the aphroni¬
trum after-mentioned, and calls it halinitrum, when
it contains fome phlogifton. Mr Kulbel, quoted
by Waierius, fhowed that it exi its in fome vege¬
table earths, and takes it to be the caufe of their
fertility; but this (M. Magellan obferves) can
only be on account ,of its combination with the
oily parts of them, and forming a kind of foap,
which is mifcible with the watery juices.
X. Vitriolic ammoniac, {Alkali volatile vitriolatum.)
This neutral fa ft was called fait of Glauber,
and is a combination of the volatile alkali with
vitriolic acid. According to Bergman, it is
fcarcely found any where but in places where the
phlogifticated. fumes of vitriolic acid arife from
burning fulphur, and are abforbed in putrid places
by the volatile alkali. Thus at Fahlun the acid
vapour from the roafted minerals produces this
fait in the neceffary-houfes. Dr Withering, how¬
ever, obferves, that as volatile alkali may be ob¬
tained in large quantities from pit-coal, and pro¬
duced by proceffes not dependent upon putrefac¬
tion, there is reafon to believe that the vitriolic
ammoniac may be formed in feveral ways not no¬
ticed by the above author.
M I N E R A
It is laid to have been found in the neighbour¬
hood of volcanoes, particularly of Mount Vefu-
vius, where, indeed, it might well be expe&ed;
yet its exiftence feems dubious,- fmce Mr Berg¬
man could fcarce find any trace of it among the
various fpecimens of falls from Vefuvius which
he examined- Thereafon (according to M. Ma¬
gellan) probably is, that the vitriolic acid difen-
gaged by the combuftion of fulphur is in a phlo-
gifticated ftate 5 and ad its combinations in this
llate-are eafily decompofed by the marine acid,
which p'entifully occurs in vo’canoes. It is alfo
faid to be found in the mineral lakes of Tnfcany,
which is much more probable, as the vitriolic acid
when united to water eafily parts with phlogifton,
and recovers its fuperiority over other acids. It
is faid likewife that this neutral fait is found on
the furface of the earth in the neighbourhood of
Turin.
1. This fait is of a friable texture, and has an
acrid and urinous tafte.
2. Attracts the moifture of the atmofphere.
3. Is very foluble in water, it requiring only
twice its weight of cold water, or an equal
weight of boiling water, to be diffolved.
4. It becomes liquid on a moderate fire ; but if
urged, -
5. It becomes red hot, and volatilizes.
6. The nitrous and muriatic acid decompofe
this fa’t by feizing the volatile alkali. But
7. Lime, ponderous earth, and pure fixed al¬
kali, fet the volatile alkali free, and combine
with the vitriolic acid.
8. According to Kirwan, 100 parts of this
fa’t contain about 42 of real vitriolic acid,
40 of volatile alkali, and 18 of water.
This vitriolic ammoniac is eafily known ; for if
quicklime or fixed alkali be thrown into its fo-
lution, the fmell of the yolatil alkali is perceived ;
and if this folution be poured into that of chalk
or ponderous earth by the nitrous acid, a precipi¬
tate will appear.
XL Nitrous ammoniac, (Alkali volatile nitratum.')
This is a neutral fait, which refu’ts from the com’
bination of the nitrous acid with the volatile
alkali. It is frequently found in the mother-li¬
quor of nitre. When mixed with a fixed alkali,
the volatile betrays itfelf by its fmell.
1. It is of a friable texture, of a fharp bitter,
and of a nitrous or cooling tafte.
2. According to Mongez, it attracts the moif¬
ture of the atmofphere ; but Rome de ITfle
afterts, that its cryftals are not deliquefcent:
the experiment may be eafily tried, and the
truth afcertained.
3. It is folu'ble in cold water; but half the
quantity of water, if boiling, is fufficient
for diftblving it.
4. It liquefies on the fire, and afterwards it
becomes dry.
5. It detonates with a yellow flame before it
is red hot; and what is peculiar to this fait,
it needs not, like common nitre, the contaft
of any combuftible matter for its detonation;
LOGY. Part II.
from whence it appears that the volatile al- Neutral
kali itfelf poffefs a great (hare of phlogifton. ‘Sa t-T
6. Its component parts, viz. the nitrous acid
and the volatile alkali, are not very intimate¬
ly united ; and of courfe,
7. It is eafily decompofed by all the fubftances
that have any affinity to either of them.
8. Mixed with the muriatic acid -it makes
aqua regia.
9. One hundred parts of this neutral fait con¬
tain 46 of nitrous acid, 40 of volatile al¬
kali, and 14 of water, as Mr Kirwan
thinks.
XII. Native fal ammoniac. The muriatic (or marine)
acid faturated with a volatile alkali.
This is of a yellowiffi colour, and is fublimed from
the flaming crevices, or fire-fprings, at Solfata-
ra, near Naples.
XIII. Aerated or mild volatile alkali.
This neutral fait refults from the combination
of volatile a1 kali united to the aerial acid. It
was formerly confidered as a pure alkali-
But the difcovery of the aerial acid (or fix¬
ed air) has ffiown it to be a true neutral fait,
though imperfect ; as it retains ftili all the pro¬
perties ©f an alkali, though in a weaker degree,
on account of its combination with the aerial
acid, which is itfelf the moft weak of all acids,
and of courfe other ftrosiger acids eafily dillodge
it from its bafe, and fiom various ammonial falls.
1. This imperfeft neutral fait has an urinous
tafte, and a particular fmed, which is very
penetrating, though lefs pungent, than the
pure volatile alkab ; and in the fame manner
it turns the blue vegetable juites green.
* But,
2. It effervefces with other acids ftronger than -
the aerial one, which the pure or cauftic vo-
latil alkali does not-
.3. It fublimes very eafily with a fmall degree
of heat ;
4. And diflblves in twice its weight of cold
water; but in a leffer quantity, when this
laft is boiling hot.
5. It a£ks on metallic fubftances, chiefly on cop¬
per, with which a blue colour is produced.
According to Bergman, this fait was found in
a well in London (Phil. Tranf. for 1767), at
Frankfort on the Mein, and at Lauchftadt.——
Mefl’rs. Hierne, Henkel, and Brandt, have
found alfo this fait in the vegetable earth, in va¬
rious kinds of argil, and in fome ftony fubftances.
Mr Vozel found it alfo in fome of the incrufta-
tions at Gottingen ; and Mr Malouin in fome
acidulous waters of France.
M. Magellan obferves, that the borax and the
three aerated alkalis are called imperfea neutrals;
whilft the other neutral falls have acquired the
name of perfett, becaufe thefe laft do not exhibit any
of the diftinguiffiing properties of their component
parts. The three aerated alkalis have a very diftintx
alkaline charafter, as they turn blue vegetable juices
green, though not of fo vivid a colour as the cauftic
alkali
Part U.
Earthy alfca’i cTces; and the borax is capable of receiving al-
Neutral rnoft an equal quantity of its fedative acid, v/ithout
. Sa^ts- lofing all its alkaline properties.
^pr^v"' '' In general, thofe neutral falls, confifting of fixed al¬
kalies combined with acids, are more faturated than
thofe compofed of vo’atile a’kali called ammoniacal
falls, or thofe called aerated ; which lafi^are only com¬
pofed by the combination of the aerial acid, united
to any alkaline or earthy bafe.
The aerated alkali's are called alfo by the name of
mild alkalis, becaufe they poffefs no longer that fharp
corroding quality which they exhibit when deprived of
the aerial acid or fixed air; in which cafe they are
termed cauftic alkalis.
Thefe aerated alkalis differ alfo from the cauftic
ones, not only on account of the mildnefs of their
tafte, from which comes their epithet of mild alkalis,
but alfo by their property of cryfta’lifing, and by their
effervefcing with other acids, which expel the aerial
one, the weakeft of all acids we know.
^ Order IV. Ha.vl'T t\Y Neutral Salts.
The compounds of earths and acids which pofiefs
folubility are decompofed and precipitated by mild,
,, but not by phlogifticated alkalis.
I. Calcareous earth combined with vitriolic acid.—
Vitriolated calx; Selenite; Gypfum. Seep. 72.
col. 1. fupra. t
The gypfum, or plafter, is not only found dif-
folved in various waters, but alfo in many places
it forms immenfe ftrata. It is placed by all mi-
neralogifts among the earths, which it greatly re-
fembles ; but it rather belongs to the faline fub-
ftances of the neutral kind, as appears by its
conftituent parts. When burnt, it generateTheat
with water, but in a lefs degree than lime does.
Berg. Scrag. $ 59.
This fait has a particular tafte, neither bitter nor
aftringent,. but earthy, when applied to the
tongue; and it is owing to it that fome waters,
chiefly from pumps and wells, are called hard wa¬
ters, becaufe they lie heavy on the ftomach.
It is unalterable whilft kept in a dry place; but
on being' expofed to a moift air, it is much altered,
and fuffers a kind of decompofition.
When expofed to fire fo as to lofe the water off
its cryftalifation, it aflumes a dead white co¬
lour ; and it is then what we call plafter of Paris;
but if the fire is too ftrong, it melts and vitri¬
fies, after lofing the vitriolic acid with which it is
faturated. See Gypsum.
The moft famous quarries of gypfum in Europe,
are thofe of Montmartre, near Paris. Steifour-
nalde Phyftque; 1780, vol. xvi p. 289 and ^82,
vol. xix. p. 173.
It is found alfo in the vegetable kingdom.—Mr
Model found that the white fpots in the root
of rhubarb are a felenitical or gypfeous earth
{Journal de Phyf vol vi p. 14 )
What is called foflil flour [farine fojfde in
French), generally found in the fiffures of- rock
and gypfeous mountains, is very different from
the agaricus mineralis p. 71. col. 1. and from the
iac lunse p. 87. col. i.j as it is a truegypfeous.
M I N E R A L O G Y.
earth, already defcribed p. 72. col. 1, which, ac¬
cording to Mongez, is of a white and fhining
colour, though fometimes it affumes a reddifh or
blueifti colour, on account of fom e martial mix¬
ture.
II. Nitre of lime, (Calxnltrata.)
This earthy fait is fometimes found in water,
but very fparingly. It is faid that the chalk hills
in fome parts of France become fpontaneonfly
impregnated with nitrous acid, which ma T be
waftied out, and after a certain time they will be¬
come impregnated with it again. It is a com¬
bination of the nitrous acid with calcareous
earth. (Per?. Sciagr.)
X. It is deliqucfcent; and is foluble in twice its
weight of cold water* or in an equal weight
of boiling water.
2* Its tafte is bitter.
3. Is decompofed by fixed alkalies, which
form the cubic and the prifmatic nitres.
4. But cauftic volatile alkali cannot decom-
pofe it.
5. It does not deflagrate in the fire ; yet paper
moiftened with a faturaced folution of it
crackles in burning.
6- In a ftrong heat it lofes its acid.
7. Its'folution does not trouble that of filver iir
nitrous arid.
8. The vitriolic acid precipitates itsbafis.
9. As does likewife the acid of fugar.
10. One hundred parts of it contain, when
well dried, about 33 of nitrous acid, 32 of
calcareous earth, and 35 of water.
It exifts in old mortar, and in the mother li¬
quor of nitre; and alfo in the chalk rocks near
Roche Guyon, in France. (Kirwani)
III. Muriatic chalk, or fixed fait ammoniac. Acidum
falls communis terra calcarea faluratum.
This fipmewhat deliquefces, or attradls the humidity
of the air. It is- found in the fea water.
It is with great impropriety that this fait has ob¬
tained the name of ammoniac, on account only
of its being formed in the chemical laboratories
during the decompofition of the ammoniacal fait
with lime, in the procefs for making the cauftic
volatile alkali. In this cafe, the muriatic acid
unites to the calcareous bafis, while this laft gives
its water to the volatile alkali; which, therefore,
comes over in a fluid cauftic ftate: but if chalk
is employed inftead of lime, the volatile alkali
receives the aerial acid .nftead of. water, and comes
over in a concrete form. In neither cafe, the new
combination of calcareous earth with muriatic
fait has any volatile alkali to deferve the name of
ammoniacal fait. ; Macqucri)
1. This earthy fait has a faline and very difa-
greeabie bitter tafte. It is fuppofed to be
the caufe of that bitternefs and naufeous
tafte of fea-water.
2. It fufes in the fire, and becomes phofphoref-
cent, after undergoing a ftrong heat.
3. It becomes hard,fo as to ftrike fire with fteeh
4. It is then the phofphorus of Homberg.
5. It is decompofable by ponderous earth andi
fixed alkalis.
S. 6. And:
95
MINER
6. And rTo by the Vitriolic or nitrons ac'd }
which expel the muriatic acid, to unite
with the calcareous bafis. (JWongez..)
7. Its folution renders that of filver in the ni¬
trous acid turbid, at the fame time that
8. It makes'no change in that of nitrous felenite.
9. Itobftinately retains its acid in a red heat,
10. One hundred parts of this earthy fait con¬
tain, when well dried, about 42 of marine
acid, 38 of ca'careous earth, and zo of water.
xi. It is found in mineral waters, and in the
fait works at SaltzLurg. (Kir<wan.)
IV. Aerated chalk, (Calx aerata.)
Whenever calcareous earth is over faturated with
the aerial acid, it becomes a true earthy neu¬
tral fait 5 becomes foluble in water, and has a
flight pungent bitter tafte. it is commonly found
diffolved in waters, in confequence of an excefs
of the aerial acid. When this greatly abounds,
the water is faid to be hard (cruda). By hoiling
or by evaporation, it depofits ftreaks or crufts of
calcareous matter.
But when the calcareous earth is only faturated
with the aerial acid without excefs, it is not ea-
fily foluble; it is then the calcareous fpar p. 71.
col. 2. and is properly referred to the clafs of
earths, p. 71. col. I.
V. Vitriolated ponderous earth. Terra ponderofa vi-
triolata ; barytes vitrlolata.
This earthy fait, known by the name of pon¬
derous fpar, is a combination of the ponderous
earth defcribed in p. 75. col. 1. with the vitriolic
acid; and has been already treated of.
The nitrous ponderous earth, according to Berg¬
man, has not yet been found, although it may
perhaps exift fomewhere, and of courfe be dif-
covered in nature.
VI. Muriatic barytes, marine baro-felenite. Barytes
falita.
This earthy fait confifts of marine acid united to
the ponderous earth. It is faid to have been
found in fome mineral waters in Sweden ; and
may be known by its eafy precipitability with
vitriolic acid, and by the great infolubility and
weight of this refulting compoynd, which is the
true ponderous fpar of the preceding fedlion.
VII- Aerated ponderous earth. Barytes aerata.
This earthy neutral fait was found by Dr Wither¬
ing in a mine at Alftonmore in the county of
Cumberland in England. He fays that it is
very pure, and in a large mafs. This fubftance
is a new acquifition to mineralogy, and may be
turned to ufefirf purpofes in chemiftry.
1. I t effervefces with acids, and melts with the
blow-pipe, though not very readily.
2. ’n a melting furnace, it gave fome figns of
fufion ; but did not feel cauftic when applied
to the tongue, nor had it loft its property of
effervefcing with acids.
3. But the precipitated earth from a faturated
folution of it in the marine acid,, by the mild
vegetable or mineral alkali being burned, and
thrown into water, gave it the properties of
lime-water, having an acrid tafte in a high
N°223.
A L O G Y, Pan IT.
degree : and a Tingle drop of it added Iq the Eanhy
folutions of vitriolated faits, as the' Glauber’s Neutral
fait, vitriolated tartar, vitriolic ammoniac, Sa1't5’ ,
alum, Epfom fait, felenite, occafioned imme- ^
diately a precipitation; from whence it appears
to be the niceft teft to difcover the vitriolic
acid. By it the marine acid may alfo be ealily
freed from any mixture of vitriolic acid, by
means‘of this calx of ponderous earth. See
Chemistry, n° 1049. etfeq,
VIII. Vitriolated magnefia.
This earthy neutral fait is called by the Eng-
llfh Epfom Jalt; Sel d' Angleierrc by the French,
and alfoyt/ de Sedlil%, de Seydfchut%, fel amer, fel
cathartique amer, &c. Thefe various names arc
given to it, either on account of its properties,
it being a very mild purgative; or from the places
where it is found, befides many others, as in the
waters of Egra, of Creatzbourg, Obernental,
Umea, &c. It has alfo been found native, mix¬
ed with common fait and coaly matter, germi¬
nating on fome free ftones in coal mints. See
Kir wards Mineralogy, p. 183.
1. It has a very bitter tafte.
2. It is foluble in one part and a half of its weight
of cold water: but in hot water, a given weight
of it diffolves the double of this fait.
3. It efflorefces when expofed to a dry atmo-
fphere, and is reduced to a white powder.
4. Expofed to the fire, it lofes the water of its
cryftallifation,and is reduced into a friable mafs.
5. This earthy fait is decompofed by fixed and
volatile alkalies.
6. Lime-water precipitates the magnefia from its
folution, the calcareous earth of lime-water
* combining itfelf with the vitriolic acid, and
forming a felenite. N. B. By this teft the
vitriolated magnefia is eafily diftinguifhed from
the vitriolated mineral alkali or Glauber’s fait
which it refcmbles.
7. But crude chalk, or aerated calcareous earth,
has not fuch an effeft in the fame cafe; which
fhows how much the efficacy of this fubftance,
viz. the calcareous earth, is diminiftred merely
by its union with the aerial acid.
8. When urged by the flame with the blow-pipe,
it froths ; and may be melted by being re¬
peatedly urged with that inftrument.
9. With borax it effervefces, and alfo when
burned with the microcofmic fait.
10. According to Bergman, ioq weight of this
fait contains only 19 parts of pure magnefia,
33 of vitriolic acid : and 48 of water. But
11. According to Kirwan, 100 parts of it con¬
tain about 24 of real vitriolic acid, 19 of mag-
nefian earth, and 57 of water.
IX. Nitrated magnefia ; nitrous Epfom fait.
This earthy fait is ufuaily found together with
nitre. It is a combination of the nitrous acid
with the magnefian earth.
1. It has an acrid tafte, very bitter.
2. Attra&s the moifture from the atmpfphere,
and deliquefces.
3. Is very foluble in water.
4. Is
MINER
4. Is eafity decompofatle by fire.
5. The ponderous and calcareous earths decent*
pofe it, and alfb the-alkalies.
6. Oh being urged by the blow-pipe, it fwells
up with fome noife, but does noj; detonate.
’7. If Xaturated Tolutions of nitrous felenite artd
of this fait be mixed, a precipitate will appear}
but,
8. Neither vitriolic acid, rtor mild magnefia, will
occafion any turbidnefs in its foluiiort.
5. One hundred parts of this fait contain about
36 of real nitrous acid, 27 of magnefian earth,
and 37 of water.
It exifts in bid mortar, and is found alfo irt
the mother liquor of nitre. As lime-water de-
compofes it, M. de Morveau has indicated the
life of this procefs, hot only to complete its an*
alyfis 5 but alfo to feparate, in large quantities,
and at a very cheap rate, the magnefian from the
calcareous earth, as M. Mongez relates upoh
this fubjedf.
Muriatic magnefia.' fvlognejia falita.
This earthy fait is a combination of magnefian
earth with the muriatic acid. According to
Bergman, it is found in the fea in greater plenty
than any other fait except the fea-falt.
1. It ha's a very bitter talk : and being always
mixed in the fea-water, it is the principal Caufe
of its bittemefs.
2. It is very deliquefeertt, and folubk in a fmhll
quantity of water.
3. All the alkalies, even the catlftie volatile al¬
kali and lime, decompofe it by precipitating
its balls.
q. The vitriolic, nitrous, and boracic acids ex¬
pel the muriatic acid from the bafe of this neu¬
tral fait.
5. Its folutiort does not trouble that of nitrous
or marine felenite 5 but,
6. It caufeS a cloud in the nitrous folutiori of
filver.
•7. The vitriolic acid throws down no vifible pre¬
cipitate from the foltition of this neutral fait.
8. it lofes its acid in a red heat.
&I. Aerated magnefia.
Common magnefia, with ah efccefs of abrial acid,
is a true neutral fait, like the aerated fele¬
nite of p 96. cdl. 1. and becomes foluble in cold
water. Otherwife it is fcarce foluble at all; and
is then claffed among the earths.
This neutral fait is decompofable by fire, by
which its water and its acid are expelled ; and it
may become phofphoric.
When urged by fire, it agglutinates a little: and
fome pretended that it melts. But it muft be
in an impure ftate to vitrify at Jill.
The three mineral acids, and the alkalies, diffolvC
' this fait with effervefcencc, by expelling the ae¬
rial acid.
II. Argillaceous earth combined with vitriolic acid.
The alum kind. See Alums and ChemjstRy-
Index.
a. With a friiall quantity of clay ; native ot plu-
mofe alum.
It is found on decayed aluth ores in very fmall
Vol XII. Part I.
A L O G Y.
quantities; and therefore, thfOUgh iglkr&tlck,
the alabaftrites and felenites, both of which are
found among moft of the alum Hates, are often
fiibftituted in its Head, as is alfo fometimes the
albeftus,notwithftanding the great difference there
is between the aluirt and thefe both in regard
to their ufes and effedts.
b. With a greater quantity of pure clay; white aluitf
t. Indurated pale-rCd alum ore, (fchljlus ahmlnit
Romanus.) It Is employed at Lumini, not
far from Civita Vecchia in Italy, to make the
pale-red alum called rveh alum. This is, of
all alum ores, the moft free from iron ; and
the reddifh earth which can be precipitated
from it, does not ihoW the leaft marks of any
metallic fubftance.
e. With a very large quantity of martial clay,
which likewife contains an inflammable fub¬
ftance : Common alum ore. This is com¬
monly indurated and flaty, and is therefore
generally called alum JlaU.
It is found,
1. With parallel plates; having a dull furface ;
from Andrarum in the province of Skone,
Hunneberg and Billingen in the province of
Weftergottland, Rodoen in the province of
Jemtland, and the ifland of Oeland, &c. In.
England, the great alum works at Whitby
fn Yorkfhite are of this kind.
2. Undulated and wedge like, with a ftiining
furface. This at the firft fight refembles pit-
coal; it is foiliid in great abundance in the
parifll Of Nas ift Jemtland.
XIII. Argillaceous earth faturated with muriatic acid.
Argllia falita.
Profeflbr Bergman fays, that the combinations
Of the argillaceous earth with the nitrous, muria-
tic, and aerial acids, had not yet been found na¬
turally formed as far as he knew. But Dr Wi¬
thering affirms, that he found the muriatic argil
to exift in a conflderable quantity, in the Nevil
Holt water, when he analyfed that mineral water
About the year 1777 : and he adds, that it is pro*
bably contained alfo in the Ballycaftle water in
Ireland.
XIV. Argillaceous 'earth mixed with volatile alkali.
(^Although this mixture is by no means a neu¬
tral fait, this feems to be the place to treat of it
according to the order of faline fubftances adopt-1
ed in this article.]
The greateft part of the c’ays con'ain a vo'a*
latile alkali, which difcove'rs itfelf in the diftilla¬
tion of the fpirit of fea-falt. &c.
Order V. Metallic Salts.
The native falts belonging to this divifion may be
diftinguiftied by the phlogifticated alkali, which preci¬
pitates them all. The few which have faline pro¬
perties, according to the definition of falts formerly
given, {hall be mentioned here ; referring the reft to
the mineralifed metals; as the lund corneay the faline
quickfilver or muriatic mercury, &c.
N I. Vi*
9$ M I N E R
Metallic I. Vitriol of copper; bine vitriol. Vilrwlum veneris,
Neutral cypriliw.
. ' , This neutral metallic fait is a combination of
the vitriolic acid with copper, and is found in all
tziment waters, as they are called. , Its colour Is a
deep blue ; and being long expofed to the air, it
degenerates into a rufty yel’ow blue. Urged by
the dame of the blow-pipe on a piece of charcoal,
it froths at firft with noife, giving a green flame,
' and the metallic partie'es are often reduced to a
fhining g’obule of copper, leaving an irregularly
fijrured fcoria. But with borax the fcoria is
diffolved, and forms a green glafs.
This fait rare’y occurs cryftaUifed: but is often
found naturally diflblved in water in Hungary,
Sweden, and Ireland : from this water a blue vi¬
triol is generally prepared. Thefc natural wa¬
ters are called cementatory or ceme.*ing ones. Ac¬
cording to Moriet, this concrete fa't, when found
naturally formed, only proceeds from the evapo¬
ration of fuch waters. It is alfo occafiona'ly ex-
trafted from fulphurated copper ores after torre-
faftion. See ChemiSTRY-Ac/ex, at Vitriol.
II. Muriatic copper, or marine fait of copper. Cuprum
falitum.
This fait has been found in Saxony, in the mine
of Johngeorgenftadt. i. It is of a greenifh
colour, and foliated texture. 2. It is moderate¬
ly hard. 2. Sometimes it is tranfparent and cry-
ftallifed.
It has been taken for a kind of mica : but Pro-
feffor Bergman found it to confift of copper
and marine acid, with a little argillaceous earth.
Another fpecimen of a purer fort was depoiited
in the mufeum of Upfal. This is of a bluifli
green colour, and friable. It effervefeed with ni¬
trous acid, to which it gave a green colour: and
by adding a proper folution of fi'ver, a luna cor¬
nea was formed, by which the prefence of the
muriatic acid was afeertained. [Kirwan and Berg¬
man )
III. Martial vitriol; vitriol of iron. Common green
vitriol or copperas.
This is the common green vitriol, which is na¬
turally found diffolved in water, and is produced
in abundance by decayed or calcined marcafites.
This metallic neutral fa't refults from the com¬
bination of the vitriolic acid with iron.
1. It is of a greenifh colour when perfeftly and
recently cryftallifed ; but,
2. Efflorefces by being expofrd to the air, be¬
comes yellowifh, and is covered with a kind of
rufl. Sometimes it becomes white by long
Handing.
3. It requires fix times its weight of water, in
the temperature of 60 degrees, to be diffolved.
4. Jthas an aftringent, harfh, and acidulous tafte.
j. Expofed to a moderate heat, even to that of
the funfhine, it falls into a yellowifti powder:
but,
6. On being expofed to a fudden heat, it me1ts ;
and on cooling, affumes a whitifh brown colour.
7. When flrongly urged by fire, it lofes its acid,
becomes of a dark red colour, and is then call¬
ed colcothar; a powder which is employed in
joliftung metals, and to which our artifts have
A L O G Y.
applied the improper name of crocus martis,
though this name only belongs to the yellow
preparations of the iron-calces, ufed in phar¬
macy and in enamelling, &c.
8. Pure fixed alkali precipitates the iron from its
folution in deep greep flakes ; the mild alkali,
in a greenifh white colour ; pure volatile alka¬
li, in fo deep a green, that it appears black ;
but the mild volatile alkali precipitates it in a
greyifn-green colour.
9. All vegetable aftring.ents, as the tinfture of tea,
quinquina, gales, &c. precipitate the iron in a
black colour: hence they are ufed as tells
to difeover its prefence in chemical analyfes;
and it is from this black precipitate that the
common writing ink is made, being diluted
in water, and there fufpended by the Arabic or
Senegal gums.
10. One hundred parts of this fait, recently cry-
flallifed, contain 20 of real vitriolic acid, 25
of iron, and 5 5 of water.
11. Its acid is known by this, that its folu¬
tion mixes without turbidity with the folutions
of other falts that contain vitriolic acid; as-
Epfom, felenite, vitriolated tartar. See.
12. And the balls of this metallic fait is known
by the black colour produced by the folution
of vegetable aftringents.
13. On being urged by the flame thrown by the.
blow-pipe, it offers the fame phenomena as the
vitriol of capper, except that it does hot colour
the flame.
Green vitriol is frequently found native, ei¬
ther in coal mines or in the cavities of pyrita-
ceous mines, or adhering to their fcaffolds in a
llalaftitical form. It is found alfo in fma.ll
round Hones, called ink-Jlones, of a white,, red,
grey, yellow, or black colour, which arealmoll
foluble in water, and contain a portion of copper
and zinc. Alfo fometimes in form of fchillus
or flaty pyritaceous Hones. But the greateft
part of that in ufe is prepared by art, h om the
martial pyrites or mundic. See Chemistry,
n° 619.
IV. Aerated iron. Ferrum aeratum.
This metallic fait is a combination of the ae¬
rial acid with iron ; and is found in the light
chalybeate waters, where it is diffolved by an ex-
cefs of this acid.
Mr Lane was the firll who difeovered in Eng¬
land the aftion of the aerial acid on iron, when.
the water is impregnated with that menflruum.
The late M. Rouelle demonftrated the fame
phenomenon in France upon this and other me¬
tals. But Profeffor Bergman feems to have pre¬
ceded them both nearly about the fame time,
though neither had any knowledge of each other’s
difeoveries.
The great volatility of this acid is the caufe why
this neutral fait is not often found. For the
mere evaporation of the ferruginous mineral Wa¬
ters, in order to analyfe them, is fufficient to let
Joofe the aerial acid ; fo that the iron which was
there diffolved by its power falls down to the
bottom in the form of a light ore, which amounts
to nearly the weight of the water; and
when*
Part If.
Metallic
Neutral
Salts.
| Part II. MINER
Metallic TvKen frtfh retains fo much phlogifton as to obey
Sali^ t^ie maSnet> as Bergman fays.
. ' A ' ‘ ■ V. Vitriol of cob.alts or vitriolat,ed cobalt.
This metallic fait refults from the combination of
the vitriolic acid with cobalt.
1. When found native, it is always in an efflo*
* refcent Itate; whence it arifes that, in this
cafe,
2. Its colour is greenilh, mixed with a grey tint:
but,
3. It is of a rofy colour when artificially made;
4. Effiorefces when expofed to the adtion of the
atrnofphere ; and,
5. Takes then a greehifii colour mixed with a
pale purple, or a Lilias colour, as the French
call it.
6. It is difficultly foluble in water; and,
7. Its folution is of a red colour.
The phlogifticated alkali precipitates the co¬
balt from the folution of this fait, which with
borax gives an azure glafs.
By the above qualities, chiefly the rofy co¬
lour of the folution of this neutral fait, its ba-
fis is fufficiently diftinguiflied. As to its acid,
it is eafily known by the fame tells as thofe of
the preceding vitriols.
It is faid to be folind native in fmall pieces,
mixed with a greenifli efflorefcence in- cobalt
mines. {Kir’van and Mongez.) -
VI. Vitriol of zinc, vitriolated zinc, or white vitriol.
This neutral metallic fait refults from the combina¬
tion of vitriolic acid with zinc.
1. Its colour is white. It,
2. Requires little more than twice its weight of
water to diflblve it in the temperature of 66
degrees pf Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and de-
pofits a greyilh yellow powder.
3. Its fpecific gravity is 2000.
4. Its tafte is very llyptic.
5. It mixes uniformly with vitriolic neutral falts.
6. Precipitates nitrous or marine felenites from
their folutions, by which its acid is afcer-
tained.
7. It is precipitable in a whitilh powder by al¬
kalies and earths; but,
8. Neither iron, copper, nor zinc, precipitate it;
by which circumllanee its bafis is fufficiently
indicated.
9. If it contains any other metallic principle,
this may be precipitated by adding more zinc
to the folution ; excepting iron, which will
of itfelf precipitate by expofure to the air or
boiling in an open veflel.
10. One hundred parts of this metallic fait con¬
tain 22 of vitriolic acid, 20 of zinc, and 38
of water.
i 1. Urged by fire, it lofes a good part of its acid.
12. Treated with the blow-pipe, it exhibits nearly
the fame phenomena as other metallic vitriols ;
except only that the flame is brilliant when
the zinc is reduced, and gives out white floes
called jloivers of •zinc
This neutral metallic fait is fometimes found
mative, mixed with vitriol of iron; and in the
form of white hairy cryftals; or in a ftalac-
A L O G Y.
titical form in the mines of Hungary, or
as an efflorefcence on ores of zinc. It is alfo
found diffolved in mineral waters, and gene¬
rally with fome proportion of vitriols of iron
and copper. Bergman fays, it is fometimes
produced by the decompofition of pfeudoga*
Isena, or black-jack ; but this rarely happens,
becaufe this fubftance does not readily decom-
pofe fpontaneoufly.
But that in common ufe is moftly prepared
at 'Goflaar^frpm an ore which contains zinc,
copper, and lead, mineralifed by fulphur and
a little iron. The copper is firit feparat'ed as'
much as poffible : the remainder after torre-
fadfion and dilrillation is thrown red-hot into
water and lixiviated. It is never free from
iron. (^Kir’wan, Mongez.)
VII. Vitriolated nickel, or vitriol of nickel
This neutral metallic fait 'refults from the com¬
bination of the vitriolic acid with nickel. It ex-
ifts fometimes in confequence of the dec6mpofi-
tion of the fulphureous ores of this femimetal.
It is found native, efflorefeing on Kupfer-nickel;
and generally mixed with vitriol of iron.—-It is
of a green colour, as well as its folution. It is
precipitated by zinc; but when joined with iron,
this laft is not precipitated by the fame.
Its origin is perhaps owing to the decompofition
of the pyritaceous and fulphureous ore of Kupfer-
nickel, mentioned by Wallerius. This ore con¬
tains a great quantity of arfenic and fulphur, as
well as cobalt, nickel, and iron. And if it comes
to be decompofed in the bowels of the earth, it
is natural to expedf that the vitriolic acid of the
fulphur will attack the nickel and the iron, with
which it will form neutral metallic falts (Mongez,
Kir man).
VIII. Muriatic manganefe. Mangancfium falitum.
M. Hielm is the only perfon who has as yet
found this middle fait in fome mineral waters of
Sweden. It is compofed by the combination of
the regulus of Manganefe with muriatic acid.
1. It is precipitated of a whitiih yellow colour,
by the Pruffian (phlogifticated) alkali ; and of a
brownifh yellow, by the mineral alkali. 2. It
does not cryftaliife in any diflirnft; form. 3. It
abllrafts the moifture of the air. 4. Tq obtain
its bafis free from iron, it muft be • precipitated
by the mineral alkali; rediflblved in nitrous acid;
then calcined until this acid is expelled ; and the
refiduum is to be treated with diftilled vinegar,
which will then take up on'y the .manganefe.
( Kir wan.)
OrderVI. Triple Salts.;
The neutral falts hitherto enumerated are fuch as
are cornpofed of two ingredients only ; but fometimes
three or more are fo united as not to be feparated by
cryftallization. The vitriols that We are acquainted
with are hardly ever pure ; and two or three of them
fometimes are joined together.
Sometimes likewife it happens that neutral falts join
earthy falts, and earthy falts metallic ones. Bergman
generally diftinguiihes compound falts according to
N 2 the
10,0 MINER
TripU the number of their principles, whether the fame acid
Neutral j0inecl to feveral bafes, or the fame bafe to diffe-
i, bAI-TS' rent acids ; or, laftly, whether feveral menllrua and
feveral bafes are joined together. Hence arife falts
triple, quadruple, &c. which the diligence of after¬
times muft illuftrate. The mod remarkable examples
of triple and quadruple native falts which have yet
occurred are,
I. Mineral alkali, with a fmall quantity of calcareous
earth. A^kal'yfalis communh. Aphronitrum.
This is fo ftrongly united with the calcareous
earth, that the latter enters with it into the very
eryitals of the fait : though by repeated folutions
the earth is by degrees feparated from it, and
falls to the bottom after every folution.
It grows in form of white froft on walls, and
under vaults; and in places where it cannot be
waflred away by the rain.
Hence* it would appear, that this is not only a
triple, but a multiple fait ; as thefe pieces of old
mortar covered with this white froff, on ancient
walls,, are the very fame from which the faltpetre
makers ex-tratt the mother-water of nitre, after
mixing therewith the vegetable allies, to furnifh
the alkaline bafe to it. M. Fourcroy fays in his
feventeenth Le&ure, that this mother-water con¬
tains not only nitre, but five other kinds of fait,
viz. the marine fait, nitrous magnefia, calcareous
nitre, magnefia nitrata, and calx faLla ; to which
the chemilts of Dijon add the digejlive fait of Syl~
ulus, and in fome cafes various vitriols with alka¬
line or earthy bafes.
When it contains any confiderable quantity of
the calcareous earth, its cryllals become rhom-
boidal, a figure which the calcareous earth often
affumes in (hooting into cryftals : but when it is
purer, the cryftals (hoot into a prifmatic figure.
This is a circumftance which necelfarily muft con-
fufe thofe who know the falts only by their
figure ; and (hows, at the fame time, how little
certainty fuch external marks afford in a true
diftinftion of things.
This fait is very often confounded with the
fal miralnle Glauheri.
II. Common fait with magnefia ; or muriatic mineral
alkali contaminated by muriatic magnefia.
This is a compound of the common fait with
muriatic magnefia : and by the expreffion conta¬
minated (inquinatum) of profeffor jBergman, we
may fuppofe tjbat the magnefian fait is not inti¬
mately united to the alkaline bafe.
This triple fait is very deliquefcent; a quality
it owes to its integrant part the muriatic magne¬
fia, (p. 97. col. 1.) For the pure muriatic alkali
does not deliquefce : tut this degree of purity is
feldom found, even in the native foffil ottfalgem,
(p. 93. col. z.) In general all the earthy marine
falts are very deliquefcent, as the muriatic chalk*
the muriatic barytes, and the muriatic magnefia.
Bergman, Macquer, and Monger.
III. Mineral alkali with fuccinous acid and phlogifton^
This fubftance will be afterwards inentioned'among
the inflammables.
IV. Vitriolated magnefia with vitriol of iron. Epfom
fait contaminated with copperas.
A L O G Y. Part II,
Found in fome mineral waters, according to Mr Mo* Triple
net, (Treatife on Mineral IVaters). Neutral
V. Native-alum consummated by copperas. Vitriola* Sal 13‘ ^
ted argil with vitriol of iron. ’
Found in the aluminous fchiftus. It fometimea
efflorefces in a feathery form. Perhaps this is
the plumofe alum of the ancients.
VI. Native alum, contaminated by fulphur.
At the places about Wednclbury and Bilftcm, in
Staffordlhire, where the coalpits are, on fire,
this fubftance fublimes to the furface*; and may
be colle&ed, in coniiderable quantity, during
dry «r frofty weather.
A fimilar compound fubftance fublimes at the
Solfaterra near Naples.
VII. Native alum contaminated by vitriolated cobalt.
In the mines of Herregrund and Idria this fait
may be feen (hooting out into long (lender fi¬
laments. Perhaps this is the tnchites of the
Greeks.
1. Diffolved in water, it immediately betrays
the prefence of vitriolic acid upon the ad¬
dition of terra poderofa falita (muriatic acid
faturated with heavy earth).
2. By the addition of phlogifticated alkali, a,
precipitate of cobalt is thrown down, which,
makes blue glafs with borax or microcofmic
fait. (Berg. Sciag.J
VIII. Vitriol of copper with iron.
This fait is of a bluifh green colour. It is the
vitriolum ferreo-cupreum cyaneum of Linnteus. Its
colour varies, being fometimes more or lefs green,,
and fometimes more or lefs blue. It is found at
Saltzberg and at Falhun. This vitriol is called
vitriol of Hungary, becaufe it is found in the
Hungarian mines is of this kind. (Monger.)
IX. Vitriol of copper, iron, and zinc.
This is the vitriolum ferreo-zinceo cupreum cyaneum
of Linnxus. Its colour is of a blue inclin¬
ing to green. If rubbed on a poliftied furface of
iron, the copper is not precipitated thereby, as
it happens to the blue vitriol; which (hows that
the vitriolic acid is peifedly faturated in this fait
by the three metallic bafes.
,X. Vitriol of copper and zinc.
This is the blue vitriol from Collar. According^
to Mongez it is the vitiiolum zinceo-cupreum caru-
hum of Linnxus.
XL Vitriol of iron and zinc.
This is the green vitriol from Goftar in the
Hartz. According to Mongez, this is the vitri¬
olum %\nceo-ferreum viride of JLinnxus, 105. 6. Its
colour is a pale-green call.
XII. Vitriol of iron and nickel.
This fait is of a deep-green colour, and is con¬
tained in the ochre, or decayed parts, of the me*
kel, at the cohalt-mines of Los, in the province
of Helfingland.
Class III. Mineral INFLAMMABLE Sub¬
stances.
To this clafs belong all thofe fubterraneous bodies.
that are diffolubk in oils, but not in water, which they
3 lepelj
Part II.
MINERALOGY.
lOl
Inflam- repel; that catch flame in the fire ; and that are elec-
.,niablts- trical.
- ’ ' " It is difficult to determine what conftitutes the dif¬
ference between the purer forts of this clafs, fince they
all muft be tried by fire, in which they all yield the
fame product; but thofe which in the fire fhow their
differences by containing different fubftances, are here
coniidered as being mixed with heterogeneous bodies:
that fmall quantity of earthy fubffance, which allphlo-
gifta leave behind in the fire, is, however, not attend¬
ed to.
I- Inflammable air; firedamp.
This aeriform fnbftance is eafily known by its
property of inflaming when mixed with twice or
thrice its bulk of common atmofpheric air ; and
it is aflerted to be the real phlogiiton almoft pure.
See Aero log Y'/nr/tw, and Invlammable Air.
It admits confiderable varieties, acording to the
nature of the fubftances from which it is pro¬
duced, and often gives different refiduums upon
combuftion, fome of which are of the acid kind.
If it is produced from charcoal, it yields aerial
acid or fixed air : from folutions of metallic fnb-
llances in the vitriolic, nitrous, or marine acids,
it yields thefe refpedtive acids, as M. Lavoifier
afferts.
JEther, converted into vapour in a vacuum, gives
a permanent elaftic vapour, which is inflam¬
mable. The atmofphere, which floats round the
fraxinella, is inflammable from the admixture
of its vapours, which feem to be of the nature of
an effential oil: fo that on approaching the flame
of a candle under this plant, in hot weather, it
takes, fire in an inftant; although the effential oil,
extracted from this plant by diftillation, is not in¬
flammable on account of the watery particles
mixed with it, as M. Bomare afferts.
Mr Scheele is of opinion^ that every inflamma¬
ble air is compofed of a very fubtile oil. This
coincides with the idea entertained by chemifts of
their phlogifton ; and is confirmed by the fadf,
of its being naturally found in thofe fprings from
whence iffues petrol, whofe exhalations are very
inflammable.
The refiduum, which remains in the atmofphere
after the combuftion of inflammable air, ^is ex¬
tremely noxious to animals. . Dodtor Pneftley
takes it to be a combination of phlogifton with
pure air, and on this account calls it phlogijliea-
ted air. But M. Lavoifier, on the contrary,
confiders it to be a primitive fubftance of an un¬
changeable nature, and gives it the Angular name
of atmofpbsric mephitis.
II. Hepatic air.
This air feems to confift of fulphur, held in fo-
lution in vitriolic or marine air. It is inflam¬
mable w’hen mixed with three quarters of its
bulk of common air. Nitre will take up about
half the bulk of this air ; and when fatmated
with it, will turn filver black : but if llrong de- Inflam-
phlogifticated nitrous acid be dropped into this rc*^169*
water, the fulphur will be precipitated. -y—■
One hundred cubic inches of this air may hold
eight grains of fulphur in folutioa in the tern-
perature of 6o° ; and more, if hotter,
Atmofpheric air alfo decompoies hepatic ait5.
It is found in many mineral waters, and par¬
ticularly in the hot baths of Aix-la-Chapelle.
The caufe and manner of their containing fulphur,
which was long a problem, has at laft been hap¬
pily explained by Mr Bergman.
It plentifully occurs in the neighbourhood of volca¬
noes and in feveral mines.
Hepatic air is eafdy obtained by art, from all
forts of liver of fulphur, whether the bafe be an
alkali, an earth, or a metal, if any acid is poured
upon it ; and the better, if ufe be made of the
marine acid,becaufe it contains phlogifton eno\ighr
and does not fo ftrongly attract that of the hepar
Julphuris. For this reafon the nitrous acid is not
fit for this procefs, as it combines itfelfiwdth the
phlogifton, and produces nitrous air. It may
alfo be produced, by diltilling a mixture of ful¬
phur and powdered charcoal, or of fulphur and
oil, &c. See the detatched article Hepatic Air,
and AeRO-LOGYrludex.
III. Phlogifton combined with aerial acid 3 black-
lead, or wadd. Plumbago. See the detached article
Black -Lead.
It is found,
a. Of a.fteel-grained and dull texture. It is na¬
turally black, but when rubbed it gives a dark-
lead colour.
1. Of a fine fcaly and coarfe-grained texture 5
coarfe black-lead.
IV. Mineral tallow. Serum minerale.
This was found in the fea on the coafts of Fin¬
land in the year 1756. Its^ fpecific gravity
is 0.770 ; whereas that of tallow is 0.969, It
burns with a blue flame, and a fmell of greafe,
leaving a black vifeid matter, which is with more
difficulty confumed.
It is foluble in fpirit of wine only when tarta-
rifed : and even then leaves an infoluble refi¬
duum ; but expreffed oils diffolve it when boil-
ing. *
It is alfa found in fome rocky parts of Perfia^.
but feems mixed with petrtff, and is there called-
fckebentiaad, ijlenpen, kodreii.
Dr Herman of Strafburg mentions a fpring in the
neighbourhood of that city, which contains a
fubftance of this fort diffufed. through it, which
feparates on ebullition, and may then be col¬
lected. ( Kiriuan ).
V. Ambergris. Ambra grifea.
It is commonly fuppofed to belong to the mi¬
neral kingdom, although it is faid to have doubt¬
ful marks of its origin (a).
a. It
(a) Ambergris, according to the affertion of M. Aublet (in his Hiflcirc de la Guiane),. is nothing more
than the juice of a tree inipiffated by evaporation into a concrete form. This tree grows in Guyana, and is
• called
MINER
It has in agreeable fmell, chiefly when burnt:
h. Is.confumed in an open fire :
c. Softens in a flight degree of warmth, fo a*
to flick to the teeth like pitch.
*/. It is of a black or grey colour ; and of a dull
or fine grained texture (b).
The grey is reckoned the beft* and is fold very
■dear. This drug is brought to Europe from the
Indies. It is employed in medicine ; and alfo as
a perfume (c).
VI Amber. Ambra Jlava, fuccinum, eleSrum, Lat.
Corale, French. Agtjlein, Bernjiein, Germ.
This fubftance is dug out of the earth, and found
on the fea-coafts. According to the experi¬
ments of M. Bourdelin, it confifts of an in¬
flammable fubftance, united with the acid of
common fait, which fcems to have given it its
hardnefs.
A L O G Y. Part II.
It is fuppofed to be of vegetable origin, fince it
is faid to be found together with wood in the
earth. -■
By diftiilation it yields water, oil, and a volatile
acid fait, which the above mentioned author
has thought to be the acid of common fait
united with a fmall portion of phlogifton.
Infedts, fifh, and vegetables, are often found in¬
cluded in it, which teftify its having once been
liquid.
It is more tranfparent than moft of the other
bitumens; and is doubtlefs the fubftance which
firll gave rife to eleSrkal experiments (on account
of the power it pofiefles of attrafting little bits
of ftraw, or of other light fubftances, when rub¬
bed).
Its varieties are reckoned from its colour and
tranfparency. It is found,
A.
Called cuma, but has not been inveftigated by other botanifts. When fome branches are broken by high
winds, a large quantity of the juice comes out; and if it chances to have time to dry, various mafles (fome of
which had. been fo large as to weigh 1200 pounds and more) are carried into the rivers by heavy rains, and
through them into the fea : afterwards they are either thrown into the fliore or eaten by fome fifti, chiefly
the fpermaceti whale, known by the name of Phyfeter-macrocephalus among ichthyologifts. This kind of
whale is very greedy of this gum-refin, and fwallows fuch large quantities when they meet with it, that they
generally become fick ; fo that thofe employed in the fiftiery of thefe whales, always expeft to find fome
amber mixed with the excrements and remains of other food in the bowels of thofe whales who are lean.
Various authors, among whom is Father Santos in his Ethiopia Oriental's, who travelled to various places of
the African coaft, and Bomare, fay, that fome fpecies of birds are fond of eating this fubftance as well
as the whales and other fifties. This accounts very well for the claws, beaks, bones, and feathers of
birds, parts of vegetables, ftiells, and bones of fifti, and particularly for the beaks of the cuttle fifh or fepia
oFtopedia, that are fometimes found in the mafs of this fubftance. Dr Swediar, however, attended only to thefe
lalt, though he had mentioned alfo the other fubftances in his paper inferted in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 17S3 ; wherein he attempts to eftablifti an opinion, that the amber is nothing elfe^but a pre-
ternaturally hardened dung, or feces, of the phyfeter whale. Dr Withering and Mr Kirwan have embraced
this notion ; as did alfo, inadvertently, the editors of this Work. See Ambergris.
(b) Mr Aublet brought fpecimens of this gum-refin, which he colle&ed on the fpot, from the cuma
tree at Guiane. It is of a whitifti brown colour with a yellowifti {hade, and melts and burns like wax on
the fire. The Angularity of this gum-refnuds, that it imbibes very ftrongly the fmell of the aromatic fub-
ftances which furround it ; and it is well known that perfumers avail themfelves very confiderably of this
advantage. M. Rouelle examined very carefully this fubftance brought over by Mr. Aublet, and found that
k produced the very fame refults as in other good kind of amber. Befides Mr Aublet’s authority, which is
decilive, as being grounded upon direft proofs of faft, Rumphius, quoted by Bergman, long fince men¬
tioned a tree called Nanarium, whofe infpiftated juice referable? amber. It cannot therefore at prefent be
doubted that the origin of this phlogiftic fubftance is the vegetable kingdom, although it may be often found
and reputed as a prodtuk of the foible kind.
This fuftance being analyfed by Meffrs Geoffrey and Newman, quoted by M Fourcroy, yielded them the
fame principles as the bitumens ; viz. an acid fpirit, a concrete acid fait, fome oil, aud a charry refiduum ;
which evidently, evinces, that all thefe fat and oily foffile fubftances have their origin fiom the other two
kingdoms of nature.
(c) Ambergris is not only brought from the Eaft Indies, but from the coafts of the Bahama Iflands, Brafil,
Madagafcar, Africa, China, Japan, the Molucca iflands, the coafts of Coromandel, Sumatra, &c. DrLippert,
in a treatife'he publiftied at Vienna in 1782, entitled Phlogijlologia Minera/is, has copied chiefly from Wal-
lerius what he afferts of this fubftance. He affirms that there are eight known fpecies of amber ; five of a
fingle colour, viz. the white and the black from the ifland of Nicobar, in the gulph of Bengal, the afti-
coloured, the yellow, and the blackifti; and two variegated, viz. the grey coloured with black fpecks, and
the grey with yellow fpecks. This laft he aflerts to be the moft efteemcJ pn account of its very fragrant
fmell, and to come from the South coaft of Africa and Madagafcar, as well as from Sumatra ; and that
the black dark coloured amber is often found in the bowels of the cetaceous fifties. The fame author adds
alfo from Wallerius, that by diftilling the oil of yellow amber (fuccinum) with three parts and a half of
fuming nitrous acid, a refiduum remains like rofin, which emits a perfect fineii of mulk ; whence fome
conclude, that the ambergris belongs to the foffile kind : the contrary, however, is evinced in the preceding
note, 4
MINER
J. Opaque.
a. Browrii
l. White.
c. Blackiih.
B. Tranfparent.
a. Colourlefs.
1. Yellow.
The greattil quantity of European awber is
found in Pruffia ; but it is, befides, collefted on
the fea coaft of the province of Skone, and at
Biorko ; in th6 lake Malaren in the province of
Upland; as alio in France and in Siberia. It is
chiefly employed in medicine and for making
varniihes (d).
VII. Rock-oil.
This is an inflammable mineral fubftance, or a
thin bitumen, of a light brown colour, which
cannot be deeompofed ; but is often rendered
impure by heterogeneous admixtures- By length
of time it hardens -in the open air, and then
refembles a vegetable refm ; in this ftate it is of a
black colour, whether pure or mixed with other
bodies. It is found,
A* Liquid,
i.. Naphtha.
This is of a very fragrant fmell, tranfpa*
rent, extremely inflammable, and attrails gold. *
It is col’efted on the fijrface of the water in
fome wells in Perfia. See Naphtha.
2. Petrol.
This fmells like the oil of amber, though
Part n.
Inflam¬
mables.
A L O G Y.
I <3*3
more agreeable; and likewife very readily takes Lflam-
fire. It is colledted in the fame manner as the .
Naphtha from fome wells in Italy. See Pe- v 'll/
TROLEUM.
B. Thick and pitchy; Petroleum tenax. Barba-
does-tar.
This refembles foft pitch-
It is found at the Dead Sea in the*Holy
Land ; in Perfia, in the chinks of rocks, and in
ftrata of gypfum and limeftone, or floating on
water; alfo in Siberia, Germany, and Switzer¬
land, in coal-pits ; and in America : likewife in
Colebrookdah in England.
C. Elafiic petrol.
This is a very Angular fofiil, found of late in
England.
By its colour and confiftency, it exadUy re¬
fembles the Indian-rubber, or the gum-refin,.
from the north part of Brafil, called caoutchouc.
It is of a dark brown colour, almoft black ; and
fome is found of a yellowiih brown call, like the
fame gum-refin.
With refpeft to its elaftic corfiflence, it hard¬
ly can be diftinguiflied from it, except irf the co-
hefion of its particles, which is weaker.
It has the fame property of rubbing off from
paper the traces of black-lead pencils.
It burns likeyvife with a fmoky flame ; and
alfo melts into a thick oily fluid ; but emits ;i
difagreeable fmell, like the folfile. pitch, or Bar-
badoes tar.
It
tc> ')
:-yellow, • (
on-yellow, f"
p red, _)
tranfparent.
(d) Amber, fays M. Fourcroy, is found in fmall detached pieces, for the mod part under coloured fands,
difperfed in beds of pyritaceous earth ; and above it is found wood, charged with a blackilh bituminous matter. •
Hence it is ftrongly fuppofed that it is a refinous fubftance, which has been altered by the vitriolic acid of
the pyrites, notwithllanding that we know that acids, when concentrated, always blacken and charry refinous-
fubftances. In fa<?t, the chemical analyfis of this fubftance rather confirms that fuppofition.
The Angular opinion of Dr Girtanner, about the yellow amber being produced by a kind of ants, may
be feen in Journal de Phyfique for March 1786, page 227. Or fee the article Amber in this Di&ionary.
The colour, texture, tranfparency, and opacity of this fubftance, have ftiown fome othe: varieties befidet-
thefe mentioned in the text. The principal ones'are the following :
6. The yellow fuecinum, A 9. The white,
7. The coloured green or blue by f i 10. The pale-yellow
foreign matter. > opaque, j j. The citron-yi ”
8. The veined fuccinurq, J 12. The deep r
The golden yellow tranfparent amber, mentioned in the text, is what tiie ancients .called chryjohdruiry
and the white opaque was called hucnUdrum
But we muft be cautious about the value pf the fpecimens remarkable for their colour, fize, tranfparency,.
"and the well-preferved jnfefts they contain internally; fince there is a probability of deception, feveial per-
fons poffeffing the art of rendering it tranfparent and coloured, and of Ibftening it, fo as to introduce foreign
fubftances, &c into it at pleafure.
M. Fourcroy fays, that two pieces of thisTubftance may be united, by applying them to one another, after
being wet with oil of tartar and heated. And Wallerius mentions, that pieces of yellow amber may be
foftened, formed into one, and even diffolved by means of oil of turnip-feed, in a gentle heat; and that
according to fome authors, it may be rendered pure and tranfparent, by boiling it in rape-feed oil, linfeed oil,
falt-water, &c.
Mr Maequer fays, that for the purpofe of making varnifli, this fubftance muft undergo beforehand a pre-
tious decompofition by torrefa&ion, in order to be diffolved by linfeed-oil or effential oils. See Varnish.
Befides the making of varnifties, this fubftance was much employed formerly in making various pieces of
ornament and jewellery. The bell pieces were cut, turned, carved, or plained, to make vafes, heads of
canes, collars, bracelets, fnuff-boxes, beads, and other toys, fmall fine chefts, &c. But after diamonds and:
beautiful hard ftones were brought into ufe, thefe trinkets are little confidered in Europe : neverthelefs,.
they are .frill fent ta Perfia, China, and to various other eafrern nations, who efteem them frill as great!
swiofities.
MINERALOGY.
Part II,
It is found in the fame earthy and ilony beds
as petrol. Some fpecimens are of a cylindrical
form, like bits pf thin branches or ftalks of ve¬
getables, though much more flexible, being per-
i'eftly elaftic.
M. Magellan obferves, that this foffil feems to
favour the opinion of thofe mineralogifts, “ who
’believe that thefe oily combuftibles derive theif
origin from the vegetable kingdom. It feems
worth trying, whether pieces of'afphaltum, bu-
iried in damp beds of fparry rubbifh, or other kind
of earths, would take the fame elaftic confiftence.
But fince many beds of (hells and other foffile
fubftances, both of the vegetable and animal kind,
as impreffions of various plants, and the re¬
mains of various quadrupeds, &c. have been found
in different parts of the globe, whofe individual
fpecies undoubtedly exift no longer alive ualefs
-in far diftant climates, and in the moft remote
countries from the fpot where thfcir exuvia are
dug""out; why (hould we not allow that this new
foffil may be the fame original elaftic gflttt, now
growing naturally in Braffl, China, and other hot
climates, only altered in its fmell, and in the
tenacity of its particles, by its long depofition
during centuries in the bowels of the earth ?”
This elaftic petrol was found in 1785, near
Caffeltown, in the county of Derbyffiire in Eng¬
land, but .in very inconfiderable quantities.
JD. Hardened rock-oil; foffile pitch. Petroleum in-
Juratum, 'Pix ■montana.
jr. Pure afphaltum.
This leaves no afhes or earthy fubftance when
it is burnt.
It is a fmooth, hard, brittle, inodorous, black
or brown fubftance. When looked through in
fmall pieces, appears of a deep red colour. It
• Jwims in water.
It breaks with a fmooth (hining furface.——
Melts eafily: and, when pure, burns without
leaving any adies ; but if impure, leaves afhes or
a flag.
According to M. Monet, it contains fulphur,
.or at leaft the vitriolic acid.
It is (lightly and partially afted on by alcohol
•and aether.
From this, or the preceding fubftance, it is
probable the afphaltum was prepared that the
Egyptians ufed in embalming their dead bodies,
.and which is now called mummia.
It is found alfo on the (bores of the Red Sea,
in the Dead Sea, in Germany, and France.—•
{Kirvcn.)
And it comes likewife from Porto Principe,
in the ifland of Cuba. (Brun*)
It is found alfo in many parts of China: and is
employed as a covering to (hips by the Arabs
and Indians, {Fourcroy.)
3. Impure ; Pix monlarta impura. Piffaphaltum.
This contains a great quantity or earthy mat¬
ter, which is left in the retort after diftilla¬
tion, or upon the piece of charcoal, if burnt
in an open lire ; it coheres like a flag, and is
of the colour of black-lead: but in a calcin-
ing heat, this earth quickly volatilifes, fo that
the nature of it is not yetN known.
N° 223.
It is found in Moflgmfvan in Norberg, and Inflam-
in Grengierberget, both in the province of Weft-
manland } and alfo in other places. ,
The piffaphaltum is of a mean cor.fiftence
between the afphaltum and the common pe¬
troleum. It is the very bitumen which is collee-
ed in Auvefgne in France in the well called de
la Pege, near Clermont Ferrand.
VIII. Jet. Gagat, Succinum nigrum.
This is a very compact bitumen, harder than afphaU
turn, always black, and fufceptible of a good pa-*
Ii(h. It becomes eleftrical when rubbed ; attra&s
light bodies like the yellow amber j and it fwims
on water.
It feems to be nothing elfe than a black am¬
ber, or fuccinum ; but fpecifically lighter, on ad-
count of the greater portion of bitumen that en¬
ters into its compofition. When burned, it
emits a bituminous fmell. See the article Jet,
IX. Mineral phlogifton united with earths.
With calcareous earth.
I. With pure calcareous earth. This is the fe¬
tid or fwine fpar formerly defcribed.
B. United with calcareous, argillaceous, pewderous,
and (iliceous earth and vitriolic acid. Liver-
ftone : Lapis hepaticus.
C. With an argillaceous earth ; Pit or Stone Coah
1. With a fmall quantity of argillaceous earth
and vitriolic acid. Lithanthrax. See the ar¬
ticles Coal and Pit-coal.
This is of a black colour, and of a flrining
texture : it burns with a flame, and is moftly
confumed in the fire ; but leaves, however, \
fmall quantity of afties.
a. Solid coal. 3. Slaty coal.
2. Culm-coal, called Holm by the Swedes.
This has a greater quantity of argillaceous
earth and vitriolic acid, and a moderate pro¬
portion of petrol.-
It has the fame appearance with the pre¬
ceding one, though of a more dull texture : it
burns with a flame ; and yet is not confumed,
but leaves behind a flag of the fame bulk oi*
volume as the coal was.
From England, and among the alum rock
^at Moltorp and Billingen in the province of
Wellergottland.
3. Slate-coal.
This coal contains abundance of argillaceous
earth. It burns with a flame by itfelf,.other-
wife it looks like other dates.
It is found at Gullerafen in the parifh of
Rettwik, in the province of Dalarne, and alfo
with the coals at Boferup in Skone.
This feems to be the fame with the bitumi¬
nous fchiftus, already defcribed among the ar¬
gillaceous earths.
4. Cannel-coal.
Mr Kirwan has put together this variety of
coal with that other called Killlenny-coal, tho’
they have fortte different properties.
The cannel coal is of a dull black colour}
breaks eafily in any dire&ion ; and, in its
fracture, prefents a fraooth conchoidal furface,
if broken tranfverfely.
It contains a confiderable quantity of petrol,
in
M I N E R A
tn a Icfs denfer ftate than other coals 5 and
burns with a bright lively flame, but is very
apt to fly in pieces in the lire. It is faid,
however, to be entirely deprived of this pro¬
perty, by being previoufly immerfed in water
for iome hours.
Its fpecific gravity is about 12705 and
being of an uniform hard texture may be
eafily turned in the lathe, and receive a good
polilh.
It is from this kind of coal that fmall vafes,
as ink-llands, various trinkets, and other curi-
olities, are made in England, which appear as
if made of the fineft jet.
j. Kilkenny-coal.
This contains the larged proportion of pe¬
trol or afphaltum ; burns with lefs flame and
fmoke, and more llowly, though intenfely,
than the cannel-coal.
The quantity of earth in this ceal does not
exceed one twentieth of its weight. Its fpe¬
cific gravity is about 1400. It is frequently
mixed with pyrites.
It is found in the county of Kilkenny, be¬
longing to the province of Leiniter in Ireland.
The quality of this coal burning almoft with¬
out fmoke, is mentioned in a proverb by
which the good qualities of this county are
expreffed.
6. Sulphureous coal.
This confrfls of the former kinds of coal,
mixed with a notable proportion of pyrites :
hence it is apt to moulder and break when ex-
pofed to the air. It contains yellow fpots
that look like metal; aad burns with a ful-
phureous fmell, leaving either red alhes, or a
flag, or both. Water a&s upon it, after it
has mouldered. Its fpecific gravity is = 1500,
or more.
Befides the above varieties, fchidus, mica-
. ceous fchidus, and gneifs, are frequently found
in the neighbourhood of coal-mines, fo pene¬
trated with petrol bitumen as to conditute
an inferior fpecies of coal; but the bitumen
being burnt, they preferve their form, and in
fome meafure their hardnefs. Alfo fome grey
Hates, that are fo foft as to be fcraped with the
nail, and are greafy to the touch, burn like coal.
All the differences of coal arife from a mix¬
ture of the varieties already mentioned ; and
it is ftbfervable, that wherever coals exidy
Hates are generally found near them. Salt
or mineral fprings are alfo often found in their
neighbourhood. [Kir wan.)
7. Bovey coal. Xylanthrax.
This is of a brown, or browniih black co¬
lour, and of a yellow laminar texture.
The laminae are frequently flexible when
fird dug, though generally they harden when
expofed to the air.
It confids of wood penetrated with petrol
or bitumen ; and frequently contains pyrites,
alum, and vitriol.
Its afhes afford a fmall quantity of fixed al-
Von.XII, Parti.
LOGY. i0
kali, according to the German chemids 5 but li flaue-
according to Mr Mills they contain none. inan t..
By diffillation it yields an ill fmelling U- v~“~
quor, mixed with a volatile alkali and oil, part
of which is foluble in fpirit of wine, and part
infufible, being of a mineral nature
It is fourtd in England, France, Italy, Swif-
ferland, Germany, Ireland, &c. {Ku wait.)
8. Peat. Geanthrax.
There are two forts of inflammable fub-
dances known by this name, viz.
The fird of a brown, yellowilh brown, or
black colour, found in moorilh grounds ; in
Scotland, Holland, and Germany. When
fredi, it is of a vifcid confidence, but hardens
by expofure to the air. It confids of clay
mixed with calcareous earth and pyrites; and
fometimes contains common fait. While foftj
it is formed into oblong pieces for fuel, after
the pyritaeeous and ffony matters are fepa-
rated; When diddled, it affords water, acid,
oil, and volatile alkali. Its alhes contain a
fmall proportion of fixed alkali. They are
either white or red, according as it contains
more or lefs ochre or pyrites.
The fecond is found near Newbury in
Berklhire. It contains but little earth ; but
confids chiefly of wood, branches, twigs,
roots of trees, with leaves, grafs, draw, and
weeds. (Kirwan.)
9. Stone-turf.
Cronfledt has ranged the turf among the
foflils of his Appendix ; but -as that called in
England by the name of Jlone-turf contains a
conliderable proportion of peat, it may be men¬
tioned with propriety in this clafs.
Soon alter it is dug out from the ground,
where it keeps a foft confidence, it at fird har¬
dens ; but afterwards k crumbles by long ex¬
pofure to the air
As to the other common turf, it only con¬
fids of mould interwoven with^the roots of
vegetables ; but when thefe roots are of the
bulbous kind, or in a large proportion, they
form the word kind of turf.
Although it may appear incredible, it is
neverthelefs a real fa<d, that in England pit-turf
is advantageoufly employed in Lancaffiire to
fmelt the iron-ore of that county. Mr Wil-
kinfon, brother-in-law to Dr Priedley, and fa¬
mous for his undertakings in the extenlive iron¬
works, perhaps the greated in Europe, makes
ufeof pit-turf in his large fmelting furnaces of
that province.
hose foffil fubllances, which furnilh fuel for the
various purpofes of human life, are didinguilhed by
the name of coalsy on account of their being a fucce.
daneum for wood and other vegetable produ&ions, *
which; when dry or of an oleaginous kind ferve for
the fame ufes. If thelc vegetable fubdances are de¬
prived of the accefs of air, by covering them after ig- -
nition, the half-confumed remainder, which is of a
black colour, is called by the name of coal or char¬
coal ; and from hence the fofftl which affords fuel has
O alfo
io6
Inflam¬
mables.
miner
alfo been called by the fame name, though of a very
different nature.
Pit-coal and earth-coal are fynonymous, and mean
coals dug out of a pit or from the earth. But the
lithanthrax denotes ftone-coal, and more properly in¬
dicates the cannel-coal, which has the greateft fimi-
larity to a ftony fubftance, by the dull appearance
of its frafture and by the uniform texture of its
parts.
.All thefe coals are in general a bituminous black
or brown and dark fubftance : for the moft part they
have a lamellated texture, which breaks eafily, and al¬
ways with a fhining furface.
The varieties of pit-coals above-mentioned are the
moft remarkable, by which they may be diftinguifti-
ed from one another. But they are far from being
homogeneous in each kind ; as the accidental quali¬
ties, and the various proportions of their component
parts, produce a far greater number of properties,
which renders them more or lefs fit for different pur-
pofes ; though thefe are generally overlooked, and
confounded with the common one of affording fuel
for making fire to warm our rooms, or for culinary
operations.
This foflile bitumen, as Fourcroy remarks, being
A L O G Y. Part If.
heated in contact with a body in combuftion, and a Inflam- '!
free accefs of air, kindles the more flowly, and with mables. ij
more difficulty, as it is more weighty and compaft.
When once kindled, it emits a brilk and very durable
heat, and burns for a long time before it is confumed.
If extinguifhed at a proper time, the remaining cin¬
ders may ferve feveral times for a new firing with
a fmall addition of frefh coals. The matter that is
burned, and produces the flame, appears vety denfe,
as if united to another fubftance which retards its de-
ftruftion. Upon burning, it emits a particular ftrong
fmell, which is not at all fulphureous when the earth-
coal is pure, and contains no pyrites.
When the combuftible, oily, and moft volatile parts,
contained in the earth-coal, are diffipated and fet on
fire by the firft application of heat; if the combuftion
is flopped, the bitumen retains only the moft fixed
and leaft inflammable part of its oil, and is reduced to
a true charry Hate, in combination with the earthy
and fixed bafe. Pit coals in this chairy ftate are call¬
ed coais, which are capable of exciting the moft in-
tenfe heat; and are employed all over Britain in the
fmelting of iron, copper, and other metallic ores, to
the greateft advantage. See Coaks, Coal, Coal-
ery, and Pit-coal (e).
X. The
\ Nat. Hift. rpjjg coal-metals, or Hone ftrata inclofing coals, are very numerous. Mr Williams % gives the following
mrjl Kim- general account of thofe in Scotland.
dim. The fand-ftones. Of thefe there is a great variety, diftinguifhable by colour, texture, and degrees of
hardnefs, generally difpofed into thick, middling, and thin ftrata. The only fpecies our author takes notice
of is the regular broad-bedded free-ftone of a laminated texture. This commonly rifes in thin or middling
ftrata ; appearing at the edges of a fe&ion, when broken or cut, to be formed of thin lamina or layers of fand,
equally laid on the whole breadth of the ftone, and well cemented together. A great deal of both red and
white free-ftone rife in layers of five or fix inches, and fo upwards, with regular flreaks of a fifth or fixth
part of an inch appearing the whole length of the ftone, when the edge of a flab is polifhed, as if fo many
gentle waves of water had formed the layer.. The regularity of the ftru&ure of this ftone correfponds exaftly
w ith the regularity of its layers ; and our author is of opinion, that the flaggy grey-ftrata of free ftone, with
many of the black and grey-ftrata of coal metals, the grey flate, as well as many other thin ftrata of the coal
meta’s, may be ranked with this free ftone for perfedt and regular ftratification.
Along with thefe he claffes fome of the thin argillaceous ilrata. “ Many of the grey regularly ftratified
mountain limeftones (fays he) are alfo ftreaked or ftriped; and the ftreaks in thefe appear more confpicuous
when broken than the ftreaked free ftones. Some of the hard regularly ftratified mountain rocks are alfo ftra¬
tified ; and in all thefe three kinds of ftones, the ftreaks are regularly and exa&ly parallel to the bed of the ftone.”
Another remarkable inftance of regularity of ftrata is met with in the grey flaggy ftrata of Caithnefs.—
Throughout all the low country of Caithnefs, a fquare of about 10 or 15 miles, there are bluiflr argillaceous
ftrata, with generally a fmall quantity of lime in the compofition of the ftone, which is indurated to a greater
degree than is common to fuch thin ftrata. The ftone is ftrong and tough, every where difpofed in thin
broad-beded, regular ftrata; and in feveral parts of the country the flags are fo thin and regular, and are
raifed fo light and broad, that they are ufed for covering houfes ; and three or four of them will cover the fide
of a fmall one. Our author mentions a gentleman who has an eftate on the fouth fide of the Pentland frith,
and who in a bay there raifes flags of any fize and thicknefs he pleafes; “ fo truly flat and fmooth, that he
lias only to fquare the edges to make of them good loft-floors, partitions, chefts, mangers, roofs of houfes; in
fhort, he does every thing with them. The face of thefe flags are as fmooth and true a plane, as if artificially
finilhed by the beft workman.”
In moft coal fields there are a great variety of ftrata of different kinds accompanying and lying between
the feams of coal, of all forts of colours, confiftencies, and dimenfions; all of them blended together without
any certain order or regularity ; fo that if there be 20 feams of coal, it is pofiible that there may be as many
different roofs ; that is, the ftratum which is the immediate roof of one feam of coal, fhall differ from that of
another feam in quality, thickaefs, and colour, fo that perhaps no two of the twenty fliall be in any refpeft alike.
The various kinds of coal-roofs (a) commonly met with are the following.
1. Ba¬
ta) The ftratum which is placed immediately above a feam of coal, is called the rox>f of the coal, and that which is placed im¬
mediately below the feam, is called the pavement of the coal : which three, viz. the ftratum of coal, and its roof and pavement,
with the other concomitant ftrata lying above and below them, always preferve their ftations and parallclifin; that is, are all
ftretchtd out and ipread one above another upon the-fame inclining plane, and have the fame line of bearing and of declivity.
Parc II. MINER
rnflam- X. The mineral phlogifton or bitumen, united with
mablen. the vitriolic acid : fulphur or brimftone. See the
article Sulphur.
This is very common in the earth, anddifcovers it-
felf in many and various forms. It is found,
.rftf. Native. Sulphur nativum.
A L O G Y. 107
In this the two conftituent parts are mixed Ma1”'
in due proportion in regard to each other, ac- mat>le,i*
cording to the rules of that atttra&ion which
is between them. It is eafily known,
1. By its inflammability, and by its flame.
2. By its fmell when burnt; and,
O2 3.B>
1. Bafaltes. This is very common in Scotland, where it is frequently called 'whin ftone ; and at Borrowf-
tounnefs there are feveral thick beds of it between the feams of coal. One of them being the immediate roof
of a feamof coal there at Hillhoufe lime quarry, there is a thin feam of coal beneath a beautiful bed of colum¬
nar bafaltes. In the Bathgate hills to the fouthward of Linlithgow, alfo, there are feveral ftrata of coal blended
with thofe of bafaltes. Thefe bafaltine ftrata are always very hard, frequently very thick, and generally of a black
or blackifh grey colour. “ There are but few people (fays Mr Williams) fufficientiy verfed in natural hiftory, to
know that they are bafaltes, as this kind of rock, both in England and Scotland, goes by the name of whin rock.
In the north of Scotland it is called Jhurdy ; and among the miners in Cornwall it has the name of cockle (3).”—
2. Strata of limejlone of various thicknefles are met with in different coal-fields. Sometimes the lime is the
immediate roof; but fometimes there is an argillaceous ftratum of about the thicknefe of a foot between the
coal ftratum and that of lime. In the coal-fields at Gilmerton, near Edinburgh, are feveral beds of limeftone,
fome of them very good, and of confiderable thicknefs. At Blackburn in Weft Lothian, alfo, there is a
ftratum of limeftone fix or feven feet thick, which is the immediate roof of a feam of coal about five or fix feet
thick. At Carlops and Spittlehaugh in Tweedale, they have a feam of coal immediately below their lime
quarries, which they work for burning their lime.
3. Pojl-jloney. a kind of thick and folid ftratum of free ftone, is one of the roofs of coal, generally without
the intervention of any argillaceous ftratum, though fometimes a ftratum of this kind is interpofed. Fre¬
quently this kind of ftone is rendered very hard by a mixture of iron or pyrites. In moft coal fields, thinner
ftrata of free ftone are met with as the roofs of coal feams.
4. Dogger-hand, as it is called by the Scots colliers, is frequently met with as the roof of coal feams. This
name is applied to various fubftances. Sometimes they call ftrata of iron-ftone dogger bands ; fometimes the
name is reftridfed to the ball iron-ftone ; fometimes to pyrites ; and fometimes the dogger band is a kind of
imperfeft ftone, compofed of feveral heterogeneous mixtures, among which pyrites bears a confiderable pro¬
portion, and by which the whole is fo ftrongly bound together, that it is frequently very difficult to break
through it.
5. IVhin-Jlone, properly fo called, not of a bafaltic nature. Thefe roofs are ahvays very hard, and of vari¬
ous colours, as black, blackifti grey, brown, red, &c. fometimes not above two or three feet in thicknefs, but
fometimes much more.
6. Pojl-ftone, of a fofter nature than that already mentioned. This has no mixture of ferruginous matter.
7. Regular Jlrata of free-Jlone, of various colours, textures, and thickneffes, but not fufficientiy thick to de-
ferve the name of pojl-jlone, which our author thinks they do not, unlefs they are above three or four feet.
Thefe thin ftrata of free ftone are very numerous in coal fields, and very frequently form the roofs of coal-
feams. Some of them are three or four feet thick, while others do not exceed three or four inches. They
make good roofs, eafily cut through, and may be readily quarried out for other purpofes.
8. Grey-lands, or grey-coloured free-ftone, frequently form the roofs of coal feams. A great number of
them are generally arranged in one place, lying immediately above one another; and they are frequently found
of all degrees of thicknefs from one to twenty inches, though the moft common dimenfions are from two to
fix. By the Scots colliers thefe are called grey fekes as well as grey bands. Frequently they are found of mo¬
derate hardnefs, and fufficientiy ftrong to make good flags and covers for fewers. Thefe roofs are ftrong
and fafe when the ftone partakes of the nature of the coal, and has a black or blackifti grey colour ; but when
they have a mixture of tilly or argillaceous matter, they are more friable.
9. Blaes, when hard, ftrong, and well ftratified, are reckoned tolerably good coal-roofs. Thefe are always of
a bluifli-black or black-grey colour, and are of great variety in refpeft to hardnefs and ftrength. Some of the
ftrongeft and hardeft are either entirely black or greyifti black ; while fome of the different Ihades of black are
pretty thick, and others are but thin. The thickeft, however, are not above 18 inches, and the thinneft two
or three inches or lefs. The medium thicknefs is from one foot to three or four inches. Some of them are fuf¬
ficientiy hard to make a good and fafe coal-roof; but they feldom acquire fuch a degree of hardnefs as to give
any confiderable obftruiStion in fucking. All of them feem to have a confiderable quantity of black argillaceous
matter in their compofition; and the ftrong blaes have alfo a confiderable quantity of fand ; often alfo contain¬
ing a large portion of empyreumatic oil, and fometimes have a confiderable mixture of coaly matter. There is
a great variety both in the thicknefs and quantity of thefe blaes found above feams of coal. In fome places
he thinneft ftrata make the immediate roof; in others, the thickeft. Sometimes we find only five or fix inches
blaes upon the coal; in others as many fathoms, or even much more ; and it is common to find them of all
intermediate thickneffes. . ./7
10. JVhitjJh,
(^'Ve muft obferve, however, that according to Bergman and other eminent mineralogies, the cockles or Jhirh ought not to
wticle^d®^ Wltfi bafaltes; which jlaft name does not at all fit thofe fubftances. See Vdani; FroducU in the Appendix to this
M I N E R A
3. By its producing a liver of fulphur, when
mixed with a fixed alkali, like that made
from artificial fulphur. It is found,
a. Pellucid, of a deep yellow colour.
b. Opaque, white, and greyifh,
Thefe are found in Siberia, at Bevieux in
Swifferhnd, and at Salfatara near Naples.
c. Cryfiallifed in oftoedral prifms, with blunted
points.
d. Tranfparent. Mr Davila had been informed
that this was bi ought from Normandy in
France. (£run.)
LOGY. Part II.
I. Native fulphur is found in different forms, I fUm.
viz. either inTolid pieces of indeterminate m-'kie*.
figure, running in veins through rocks; v—J
or in fmall lumps, in gypfum and lime-
ftones; in confiderable quantities at Sol-
fatara, and in the neighbourhood of vol¬
canoes; or cryftallifed in pale, tranfparent,
or femitranfparent, o&ogonal, or rhom-
boidal cryftals, in the cavities of quartz ;
and particularly in the matrices of ores ;
or in the form of fmall needles over hot
fprings, or near volcanoes (Kirwan).
Some-
xo. Whitijb and afb-colourtd argillaceous Jlrata, of middling ftrength, are frequently found to be the immedi¬
ate roofs of coal. Some of thefe are of middling thicknefs, others thin. They are commonly found from
two inches to two feet in thicknefs. A great many of thefe roofs are very dangerous on account of their fra¬
gility ; while others are quite fafe, owing to the more perfeft formation of their ftrata, or to fome ingredi-
ent in their compofition.
11. Streaked roofs. Thefe are of two forts: 1. Such as are compofed chiefly of fand, with a very final!
mixture of clay and blaes; and, 2. Thofe compofed principally of clay or blaes with a fmall quantity of fand.
Some of thefe have large, others fmall, llreaks or ribs. Mr Williams fays that he has feen them fo beautifully
ftreaked as to rtfemble the finell ftriped cotton fluffs. Thefe ftripes or ftreaks always lie exactly parallel to
one another, as well as to the bed of the ftone, and are always fpread out the whole breadth of the ftratum.
Their colours are various in different ffrata, fome of the ftripes being nearly black and white, others white and
red, and others yellow and red. In fome the ftripes appear of a lighter and darker grey colour. Some
of the finely ftriped ftones have their ftreaks about a quarter of an inch in diameter; fometimes lefs : and it is
common to fee ftripes from a quarter to three quarters of an inch broad ; but in the finely ftriped ftones it is
rare to find thqm a full inch thick without fome different fliade on one fide or other of the ftripe. The fe-
cond kind of thefe ftreaked roofs, viz. fuch as are compofed of blaes, with a fmaller mixture of fand, differ
but little from the former; only the colours are not always fo bright, nor the ftripes fo fine ; neither is the
roof quite fo hard.
12. The foft blae roofs fometimes confift of pretty thick ftrata ; others of fuch as are thin or of middling
thicknefs. There are likewife arrangements or clafles of regularly ftratified blaes, found immediately above
feams of coal, from three or four inches to feveral fathoms in thicknefs, though fome are even met with little
exceeding one inch in thicknefs ; though in the fame place there might be a confiderablc thicknefs of blass
above the coal, taking in all the different ftrata, thick and thin, which lay above it. Some of thefe roofs have
an oily appearance on the outfide, and through all the fiffures and joints of the ftrata; that is, they appear
fmooth and glofly, and are very flippery to the touch. Others have no appearance of this kind ; but all of
them are tender, weak, and fragile, fo that they make a very indifferent and dangerous roof.
13. Another kind of coal-roof confifts likewife of blaes, but fuch as are mperfeElly f ratified. It is alto¬
gether the fame in quality and colour as the laft, the only difference that can be diftinguilhed being in the dif¬
ferent degrees of ftratification. The beds of this kind are not perfect, but unequal ; whence it is a bad and
dangerous roof, as great pieces of it are frequently apt to fail down by reafon of the inequality and different
joints of the ftrata. Some of thefe blaes appear in thick, and others in thin or middling thick beds ; while
lome have an oily fmoothnefs, called by the Scots colliers creejhy (greafy) blaes. It is owing to this oilinefs par¬
ticularly that thefe kinds of roofs are fo dangerous; for the oil pervades the joints, and, rendering them flip¬
pery, makes the pieces more apt to fall out as foon as the coal is worked away from below them. Some of
theie have fuch a quantity of natural oil, that they will flame a little in the fire; and in fome places there are
hard blaes which will burn when fire is fet to them, though they will not confume. At Pitfirran in Fifefhire
there is a fpecies of this blaes fo inflammable, that when fire is fet to one corner of a hillock it will burn through •
out the whole; neverthekfs it is not reduced in bulk by this ccmbuftion, nor does it produce any afhes. Inftead
of this itbecomes confiderably harder than before, and acquires a pale red colour. By reafon of its hardnefs, it is
proper for being laid upon horfe and foot paths, but is not lo for roads over which heavy wheel-carriages pafs.
14. Soft blues notJhatfedat all. Of thefe there is no more than one bed fiom two or three inches to feveral
fathoms in thicknefs, without any others either above or below it. They are as common as any above the coal
feams ; but their fubftance is not always uniform throughout the whole ftratum. Some of them are found di¬
vided into fmall angular mafles, and others into larger ones; but whether thefe are uniform or not, they always
make a bad and dangerous roof Thefe argillaceous ftrata are fometimes called beds of till; the uniform fort
are called dauh, and the glebous kind Upey blaes, by the Scots colliers. Both the uniform and glebous foft blae'
frequently contain a quantity of ball iron-ftone, though fome of it contains none at all. The regular cOnU»uo'J
ftrata of iron-ftone are commonly found in ftratified foft.blaes. There is a variety of foft coal-roofs of a gT
colour, and of which fome are regularly ftratified, and fome not.
Part II.
Inflam
miib.ta.
M I N E R A
Sometimes it is formed in old privies:
of this Mr Magellaa faw fome lumps that
were found in a very old one at Paris.
2. United with day in the aluminous ore
of La Tolfa, and alfo at Tarnowitz in
Silefia. This laft refembles a light grey
earth ; when dry, burfts or cracks in the
water like marl; and poffdTes a ftrong
peculiar fmell like camphor. If diftilled,
the fulphur fublimes. One hundred parts
of this earth afford eight of fulphur, be*
fides gypfum and a quantity of iron.
3. Mixed with clay, iron, and felenite. This
compound is of a grey, brown, or black
colour,found near Rome, Auvergne, Spain,
and Iceland.
LOGY. 109
4. With limeftone in the form of a calcare- Tnflcn-
ous hepar. This is found at Tivoli, near giaWes- j
Rome, and elfewhere in Italy. It is fome- “ ~
times diflblved in mineral waters, three
pounds of which contain as much as 25
grains of fulphur. It often forms incruf-
tations on the brinks of thefe fprings.
5. In the form of an alkaline hepar. This
is faid to be found in fome waters in Ruf-
fia ; as will be hereafter noticed.
6. United to iron and clay of pyrites, See.
of which hereafter.
7. United to metallic fubftances, as hereafter
fpecified.
£. Saturated with metals (f).
1. With iron. Pyrites, or copperas-flone ; Py¬
rites.
15. Regularly faft grey coal-roofs.—Of thefe there are feveral forts. Some have a confiderable quantity of
fand in the compofition of the ftrata ; and many of thefe are as regularly ilratihed as any coal-metals what¬
ever. Numbers are found very thin, and others of middling thicknefs ; though in all cafes they are fo tender
and friable, that they make very bad and dangerous roofs. Some of them indeed look pretty well at firft
but they foon crumble and come down, efpecially when they have been expofed to the air. This, in the
©pinion of Mr Williams, is owing partly to their having too much clay in their compofition, and partly to
the want of a fufficient quantity of natural cement to conneft the feveral particles of the ftone together.
16. Soft grey regular jlrata, or grey bands of an argillaceous kind; and of thefe there is likewife a confi¬
derable variety. Some are of a dark, others of a lighter grey ; fome thick, others thin : they are very nu¬
merous in coal-fields, and are frequently to be found as the immediate roofs of coal. Thefe, as well as the
black kinds, are found in all quantities or degrees of thicknefs above different coals, from a few inches up to
feveral fathoms; but whether they be in great or fmall quantity, the roof they compofe is generally very frail
and tender.
17. Soft grey argillaceous bands-, imperfeQly Jlratified. Thefe differ little or nothing in fob fiance from the
former ; the only difference is in the flratification. Many of the ftrata of the former are of a middling thick¬
nefs, or rather thin, finely and regularly fpread out, and every part of each ftratum of an equal thicknefs. But
this fort, though it has the appearance of ftrata, .is clumfy and irregular; that is, the feveral beds are unequal,
and divided by many irregular joints into unequal mifhapen maffes, which makes this a very bad roof; the
maffes being apt to leparate at the joints, and to fall down when the coal is worked out from below them.
18. Soft grey argillaceous beds of metal or coal roofs not f ratified at all. Thefe are of two kinds, viz. 1. fuel*
as are found broken or formed in the ftratum into glebes or mafles; and, 2. fuch as are found in one uni¬
form mafs throughout the whole bed, without any divifion into maffes or ftrata. Thefe grey foft roofs are
of all degrees of thicknefs, from a few inches up to many fath&ms, as well as the black ; and there is but very
littlS difference between them in any refpe& excepting the colour. But in this, as well as in the black 1111-
ftratified blaes, and that both in the glebous and uniform beds, ball or glebous iron-ftone is frequently found ;>
and ftrata of iron-ftone are alfo found in the ftratified foft grey blaes.
19. White and ajh-coloured foft argillaceous coal-roofs ; and of thefe there is alfo a great variety. Some of this
kind are regularly ftratified, others imperfe&ly, and fome not at all. Some of the whitilh argillaceous roofs
are compounded of gritty fand and clay ; others appear to be chiefly compofijd of pure clay ; and fome of a
loamy clay. Thofe which are regularly ftratified and mixed with fand, either coarfe or fine, are of great
variety with regard to thicknefs and the arrangements of the ftrata ; but all of them are tender and fragile,
and thus make very troublefome and dangerous roofs.
20. Whitfjh argillaceous roofs, Jlratified, and of a homogeneous quality, or not mixed with fand. Some of
thefe are finely and perfectly ftratified, and are of different degrees of hardnefs; but in general, make but a
weak roof. Some of them are found in irregular ftrata, with' all the other varieties and imperfedlions al¬
ready mentioned.
21. White and ajh-coloured argillaceous coal-roofs, not Jlratified at all. Sometimes thefe are found in very
tlpck beds in the coal-fields ; and fome of thefe, as well as of the black foft roofs, rife in glebes and mafles of
different fizes ; while others are homogeneous throughout the whole bed, however thick, from two or three
inches to feveral fathoms. Some of thefe beds of white argillaceous marle-like matter are found to be a fandy
or loamy clay ; others a pure homogeneous clay, which does not feel gritty between the fingers nor in the
mouth. The (hades and varieties of this kind are as numerous as thofe of any of the foregoing; and all of
them, by the Scots colliers, are called daub, whatever be their coour. Mr Williams informs us, that he has
frequently taken fome of thefe fine white clays to wa(h his hands, and has found them anfwer almoft as well
^oaP’ . . . , f
(f) Sulphur is the mod common mineralifer of metals; and therefore moft of its combinations with thole
fubftances fall to be ranked hereafter among the metallic ores.
no MINER
Inflam- rites. This is the fubftance from which moft
, mable9‘ . fulphur is prepared, and is therefore ranked
T ' here with all its varieties. It is hard, and. of a
metallic fhining colour.
a. Pale yellow pyrites; Pyrites fulfavus. Mar-
cafite. This is very common, and contains
a proportionable quantity of fulphur with
refpedt to the iron; when once thoroughly
inflamed, it burns by itfelf.
a. Of a compatt texture ; Polita piedra del
ynca, Mfpanorutn.
b. Steel-grained.
c. Coarfe-grained.
d. Cryftallifed. It fhoots moftly into cubi¬
cal and oftoedral figures, though it alfo
cryftallifes into innumerable other forms.
b. Liver-coloured marcafite. Its'colour can¬
not be defcribed, being betwixt that of the
preceding marcafite and the azure copper
ore. The iron prevails in this kind ; it is
therefore lefs fit to have fulphur extracted
from it, and alfo for the fmelting of copper
ores. It is found,
a. Of a compaft texture.
b. Sfeel-grained.
c. Coarfe-grained.
C. Varioufly combined with iron and other metallic
fubftances.
1. With iron and copper; forming yellow or
marcafitical copper ore.
2. With iron, filver, and lead ; potters lead ore.
3. With iron and zinc ; mock lead, blackjack
or blende.
4. With iron and arfenic ; arfenical pyrites.
5. With iron and cobalt.
6. With iron and bifmuth.
7. With iron and nickel.
8. With iron and gold ; pyritical gold ore.
9. With filver ; glafs filver ore.
10. With copper ; grey or vitreous copper ore.
11. With lead ; potters lead ore.
12. With bifmuth.
13. With quickfilver ; cinnabar.
14. With arfenic ; orpiment, realgar.
XI. Mineral phlogifton mixed with metallic earths.
This is not found i* any great quantity : in regard
to its external appearance, it refembles pit-coal;
and the fat fubftance contained in it, at times,
partly burns to coal, and partly volatilifes in a
calcining heat.
The only known varieties of this kind are,
A. Miner a cupri phlogifiica.
When it has been inflamed, it retains the fire,
and at laft burns to allies, out of which pure
copper can be fmelted.
B. Miner a ferri phlogijlica.
A L O G Y. Part II.
This is not very different in its appearance from Mstais.
the pit-coal or foflile pitch, but it is fome-
what harder to the touch. There are two va¬
rieties of this fpecies:
1. Fixt in the fire ; Minera ferriphkgijlica fixes.
Expofed to a calcining heat, it burns with a
very languid though quick flame 5 it pre-
ferves its bulk, and lofes only a little of its
weight. It yields above 30 per cent, of iron.
a. Solid, which refembles black fealing-wax.
b. Cracked, and friable.
2. Volatile in the fire.
This is unalterable in an open fire, either of
charcoal, or even upon a piece of charcoal
before the flame of the blow-pipe; bat under
a muffle the greateft part of it volatalifes, fo
that only a fmall quantity of calx of iron re¬
mains. It is found,
a. Solid.
b. Cracked.
This laft kind leaves more alhes : thefe alhes,
when farther expofed to the fire, become
firft yellowilh-green, and afterwards red-
dilh-brown; when, befides iron, they then
alfo difcover fome marks of copper: it has,
however, not been poffible to extradl any
metallic fubftance from them, the effects
of the loadftone, and the colour communi¬
cated to the glafs of borax, having only
given occafion to this fufpicion.
Class IV. METALLIC SUBSTANCES.
Metals are thofe minerals which, with refpeft to
their volume, are the heavieft of all known bodies.
Some of them are malleable ; and fome may be de¬
compounded ; and, in a melting heat (g), be brought
back again to their former ftate by the addition of
the phlogifton they had loft in their decompofition.
See Metallurgy, Part I. SeA. i. and Chemistry-
Jndex at Metallic Calces and Metals.
All the metallic fubftances contain phlogifton ; and
when, to a certain degree, deprived of it, fall into a
powder like an earth ; but their attra&ions for phlo¬
gifton are different.
Moft of them, when melted in a common way, and
expofed to the air, have an earthy cruft formed upon
the furface, which cannot again be reduced to metal
without the addition of fome inflammable matter. The
bafe metals have this property.
But the noble metals, vi%. platina, gold, and filver,
arc fo firmly united to the phlogifton, that they never
calcine under fufion, however long continued; and, af¬
ter being changed into a calx in the liquid way, when
melted in the fire, they reaffume their metallic form
without any other phlogifton than what is contained
in the matter of heat.
Quick-
(g) The various degrees of heat required to reduce metals to a fluid ftate, are feen in the following table,
which was extrafted, for the moft part, by Dr Withering, from the printed treatifes of the late celebrated
, ro k 0^1rrgTa-ri‘ ^ ex^bits, in a Ample view, 1. The fpecific gravity of each metal; 2. The degree of
heat by Fahrenheit's fcale, in which it melts; 3. The quantity of phlogifton it requires for its faturation ; and,
2 4. Its
tart IT. MINER
ji Petals. Quickfilver holds a kind of middle place : for, like
' the !»afe metals, it may be calcined, though not rea¬
dily ; and, like the noble ones, it may be reduced by
heat alone.
We may therefore reckon four noble or perfeft me¬
tals ; viz. gold, platina, filver, and mercury ; becaufe,
when calcined, they recover their phlogifton without
the addition of any phlogiftic fubftance.
But as tin, lead, copper, and iron, cannot be redu¬
ced without fuch addition, thefe are called ignoble and
imperfeQ or bafe metals. Kir wan's Mineralogy.
A L O G Y. in
However, all thofe eight metals (even mercury, when Metals.
folid) are malleable to a confiderable degree, and are
called entire metals. But
Bifmuth, zinc, antimony, arfenic, cobalt, nickel,
manganefe, molybdena, and wolfram, are fcaree at all
malleable, and hence they are called femimetals. Ne-
verthelefs, zinc and purified nickel are more malleable
than any of the other femimetals; fo that we have
four perfect or noble metals, four imperfect or bafe,
eight entire, and nine femimetals (h).
Order
4. Its attra&ion to the fame faturating phlogifton. We muft, however, obferve, that if the fecond column
be'compared with that of Wedgwoo.d’s thermometer, their great difagreements betray fome fundamental error
in the affumed data : for the degrees of heat affigned by Mr Wedgwood for melting gold, filver, and copper,
are more than quadruple of thofe affigned by Bergman, and that for melting iron is more than eleven times
greater; although they both nearly agree in the red heat of iron, which Bergman fays to be 1050 degrees,
and Wedgwood 1077. Mr Magellan is of opinion, that the fault lies in Mortimer’s thermometer, which
Bergman quotes with fome diffidence fSedl. 197. of his Sciagraphia); and thinks it probable, that the changes
caufed by heat, on this metallic thermometer, are in a much lefs increafing proportion by intenfe fire, than
thofe indicated by the contraction of the pure clay, happily employed by Wedgwood in his thermometer. He
therefore added another column to this table, marked Wedgw. with the degrees of the melting heats already
afcertained by this laft thermometer, as being the n«areft to truth.
Gold
Platina
Silver
Quickfilver
Lead
Copper
Iron
Tin
Bifmuth
f common [
Nickel
n l
{pure }
Arfenic
Cobalt (cotnmonI
l Pure 3
Zinc
Antimony
Manganefe
Specific
Gravity.
19,640
21,000
I°,5j2
14,1IO
'MI*
8,876
7,800
7,264
9,670
7,000
9,000
8,308
7,790
6,862
6,860
6,850
Berg
1301
IOGO
40
595
14JO.
i6oi
4i5
494
1301
1601
Wedgio.
5237
4717
—40
4587
17977
3" J45o
{ 1601
699
809
Very great
Saturating
Phlogifton.
394
756
100
74
43
312
342
114
57
156
109
Ig2
120
227
Attraction
to faturating
Phlogifton.
I or 2
1 or 2
3
4
10
8
it
9
7
N. B. By faturating phlogifton, Profeffor Bergman means to exprefs the proportionate quantities taken
away from each metallic fubftance, when diffolved by means of acids, and of courfe reduced to a calciform
date. The laft column only expreffes their attraction to this part of their phlogifton, not to that which ftill
remains united to them in a calciform ftate. Withering.
(h) Mr Mongez remarks, that the following are the general properties of metals, when confidered as phy-
fical bodies; viz. their opacity, great fpecific gravity, duaility, tenacity, cryftallization, flavour, and even ■
fmell, at leaft in fome of them.
It is from their denfity that their gravity and opacity proceed ; this laft being fuch, that, even reduced to *
the thinned plates* no rays of light can pafs through their particles, unlefs there remains an interftice or pore
quite free from the metallic fubftance. Gold leaf muft, however, be excepted;, which exhibits a fine -green by
tranfmitted light.
As to their cryftallization, it has been found to take place whenever they are pure, and left to cool very
flowly by themfelves, after having been perfectly fufed. (See Journal de Phyfique for July 1781, p, 74.) T-he
flavour and fmell above mentioned are very perceptible in the reguline fubftances of arfenic and antimony, as
well as in lead, copper, and iron. .....
AH metals are conductors of ele&icity ; and more perfectly fo than any .other bodies during their union-
with phlogifton.
iis M I N E R A
Mstais.
, G^J’ . Order* I. Noble or Pekfect Metals.
I. Gold; Aurum fol ehymicorum. See the articles
Gold; alfo Chemistry-//^*;; and Metal¬
lurgy, Part II. left. I.
Tfiis is efteemed the principal and firft among
the metals; and that partly for its fcarcity, but
chiefly for the following qualities :
t. It is of a yellow fhining colour.
2. It is the heavieft of all known bodies, its fpe-
cific gravity to water being as 19,640 to 1000.
3. It is the moft tough and duftile of all metals;
becaufe one grain of it may be ftrctched out fo
as to cover a filver wire of the length of 98 yards,
by which means tuts-uu a £ra‘n becomes vi¬
able to the naked eye.
4. Its foftnefs comes neareft to that of lead, and
confequently it is but very little elallic.
5. It is fixed and unalterable in air and water, and
is indellru&ible by the common a&ion of fire.
N< 223.
L O G Y, part n.
6. When melted, it refle&s a bluilh-green colour Metals,
from its furface. Gold.
7. It diflblves in aqua-regia, in the depMogiflicated '
marine acid, and alfo (according to Crell ia f Journal it
an acid obtained by diftilling vitriolic acid from
off manganefe. S t/?8*
8. When mixed with a volatile alkali and a little1'
of the acid of nitre, by means of precipitation
out of aqua-regia, it burns off quickly, in the
leaf! degree of heat, with a llrong fulmination.
9. It is diffolved, in forma ficca, by the liver of ful-
phur.and alfo fomewhat by the glafsof bifmuth(i).
10. It is not carried away by the antimony du¬
ring the volatilifation of that femi-metal, and
is therefore conveniently feparated from other
metals by the help of crude antimony; in which
procefs the other metals are partly made volatile,
and fly off with the antimony, and partly unite
with the fulphur, to which the gold has no at¬
traction, unlefs by means of fome uniting body,
or by a long digeffion (k).
u. The
They are foluble either in nitrous acid and in dephlogifticated marine acid, or in aqua regia ; and are pre-
cipitable in fome degree by cauftic alkalies; and except platina by the Prufiian alkali.
Whea dephlogifticated, they communicate a tinge to borax and to microcofmic fait, of at leaft render
them opaque.
They affume a convex furface when melted, and even a globular form, if in a fmall quantity ; and though
they mix for the moft part with one another whilft fufed, yet they refufe to unite with unmetallic fubftances,
even their own calces, iron only excepted, which does to its own calx ilightly dephlogifticated and to plum¬
bago. Nickel alfo, and fome other's, may contain fulphur in their reguiine ftate.
Metals, when calcined, are capable of uniting with other calces and falls.
Three of the metallic calces have been found to be of an acid nature ; vi%. the arfenical, molybdenic, and
tungftenic 5 from which, by analogy, the nature of other calces may be conje&ured.
The phlogifton contained in metals is in a pure ftate ; viz. without water and aerial acid, with which it is
invariably accompanied in all other compounds except acid airs and. fulphur.
When metallic fubftances are naturally found in the earth united to their full fhare of phlogifton, and confe¬
quently poffeffing their peculiar properties, they are called native.
But when they are found more or lefs deprived of their phlogifton and of their properties, combined with
other fubftances, they are then called mineralifed. This is the moft common ftate of‘the mineral kingdom.
The fubftance fo combined with them is called the mineralifer, and the whole is called ore ; by which name are
alfo diftinguiihed thefe earths and ftones in which metallic fubftances are contained.
But if both metallic fubftances are mixed together in their metallic or reguiine form, without the lofs of
phlogifton, they are then faid to be alloyed.
When the mineralifer is of a faline nature, and renders the metallic combination foluble in lefs than 23
times its weight of water, the compound is ranged among falls. Thus the vitriols of iron, copper, and zinc,
are rather claffed with falls than with ores.
The moft common'mineralifers are, fulphur, arfenic, and fixed air or aerial acid. The leaft common are
the vitriolic and the marine acids. The phofphoric has been found only in two inltanoes; viz. united to lead,
difcovered by Gahn ; and to iron, in the fiderite, as Mr Meyer believes.
Thofe metallic fubftances, mfneralifed by aerial acid, are called calciform ores.
M. Magellan obferves, that if the new dodtrine of the French chemifts, who affert, that calces of metals
are a compound of dephlogifticated or vital air with the metallic fubftance, were juft, all calciform ores fhould
produce this vital air inftead of aerial acid, when they are reduced to their metallic form ; which is not the
cafe : neither fhould all the bafe metals and femimetals abfolutely require the mixture of fome phlogiftic fub¬
ftance in order to their being reduced from the ftate of calces to their metallic form, which otherwife would
be quite ufelefsj. if their reduction limply confifted in their feparation from the vital or dephlogifticated air.
(1) Neither fulphur nor fixed alkali has any action on gold; but the liver of fulphur, which is a com¬
pound of both, can diffolve it in the dry way ; fo that if a proper quantity of gold-leaves be pot in a cru¬
cible together with liver of fulphur, and it be melted in a brilk fire, the gold is thoroughly .diffolved ;
and if the whole be diluted in water, the gold will be kept in the fclution, and even pafs through the fibre
along with it.
(*) Antimony is ufed alfo to refine gold from its alloy, as it attenuates and carries off all other metallic
1 fubftances
Fart II.
Perfe<5l
MeTALS.
Gold.
M I N E R A
it, Tlie phofpliorus is faid to have ingrefs into
. gold (t,).
12. If mixed with a lefs portion of filver, platina,
copper, iron, and zinc, it preferves tolerably
well its duftility. But,
13. When mixed with tin, it becomes very brittle;
and it attracts likewife the fmoke of that metal,
fo as to be fpoiled if melted in an hearth
where tin has been lately melted (m).
T 4. It requires a ftrong heat before it melts, nearly
as much or a little more than copper.
15. It mixes or amalgamates readily with quick-
iilver. See Metallurgy, Part II. feft. i. (n).
16. It is not dilfolved by the glafs of lead, and
therefore remains on the cupel.
A. Native gold. With refpedt to the figure or the
quantity in which gold is found in one place, it
is by miners divided into,
1. Thin fuperficial plated or leaved gold ; which
confifts of very thin plates or leaves, like paper.
2. Solid or mafiive, is found in form of thick
pieces.
3. Cryftallifed, confifts of an angular figure.
4. Walh gold, or gold dull, is walked out of
fands, wherein it lies in form of loofe grains
and lumps (o). See other diftindtions of
form under the article Gold.
i?. Mineralifed gold. This is an ore in which the
gold is fo far mineralifed, or fo entangled in other
bodies, as not to be diflblved by the aqua-regia.
Vol. XII. Part I.
LOGY.
1. Mineralifed with fulphur by means of iron.
Marcafitical gold-ore ; Pyrites aureus.
2. By means of quickfilver. It is found in
Hungary.
3. By means of zinc and iron, or filver. The
Schemnitz blende.
See other varieties of mineralifed gold ores
under the detached article Gold, already re¬
ferred to.
II. Silver: Argentum, Luna. See the article Silver.
See alfo Chemis -Index; and Metallurgy,
Part II. feft. hi. and Part III. fedt. iii.
This metal is,
a. Of a white Ihining colour.
b. Its fpecific gravity to water is, according to
Cronftedt, as 11,091 to 1000; according to
Bergman, = 10,552; and according to Kir-
wan, 11,095.
c. It is very tough or dudfile, fo that a grain of
it may be ftretched out to three yards in
length and two inches in breadth.
d. It is unalterable in air, water, and fire.
e. It diffolves in the acid of nitre, and alfo by
boiling in the acid of vitriol.
f. If precipitated out of the acid nitre with
the common fait, or with its acid, it unites
fo ftrongly with this laft acid, that it does not
part from it, even in the fire itfelf, but melts
with it into a mafs like glafs, which is called
luna cornea (p).
IIJ
Perfect
Metals.
fubftances mixed with it, without excepting the filver ; whilft lead leaves this laft behind, and even adds fome
of its own to the gold. PauBon, p. 659.
( l) Gold, reduced into thin leaves, is not a died upon by the phofphoric acid in the humid way, though
the fire be urged till luminous decrepitations take place; but when it pafies that point which feparates
the humid fiom the dry way, Mr Margraaf obferved that fome purple fcoria were formed, which is an
indication that this concrete acid had partly calcined the gold during its fufion. Elements de Chymie de
Dijon, Vol. III. p. 131.
Befides this, a drop of the phofphoric acid on the folution of gold by aqua-regia precipitates the metal in
its revived ftate, as afferted by the academicians of Dijon. Magellan.
(m) The fumes of a fingle grain of tin ,are capable of rendering hard eight ounces of gold ; but it eafily
recovers its malleability by being melted on the fire. (Wallerius and Bomare's Mineralogy.) But when gold
is mixed with arfenic, cobalt, nickle, bifmuth, or with the regulus of antimony, it only lofes great
part of its malleability; and when in a certain proportion, it may be calcined and vitrified with them.—■
( Fabroni.)
(n) Bergman doubts if ever gold has been found perfe&ly pure ; and Mr Kirwan fays that it is very feldom
found fo, being generally alloyed with filver, copper, or iron, or all three. As to the gold commonly ufed
in toys and other objefts of luxury, every one knows that it is puipofely debafed by the artifts with copper
or ofher metals ; and of late it has been employed in various! pieces of jewellery, to form ornaments of
various colours 5 thus a great alloy of filver (viz. one-third part), gives it a lhade of a green colour ; a fimilar
quantity of copper, a reddifti one ; a mixture of arfenic, or filings of fteel, in the proportion of one-
fourth part, gives it a bluifli caft ; fo that having the yellow naturally in the pure gold, and the white in
pure filver, the jewellers have almoft all the colours to diverlify their work. Even, in the currency of
money, there is none coined out of pure gold, which, by common agreement, is called gold of 24 carats.
The gold coin of England, France, and Portugal, only contains 2 z parts of pure gold, and two of alloy,
viz. it is only 22 carats, in the common faying : that of Spain is but of 2iy?- carats : but the ducat of
Holland is of 23-f^ carats ; and the zecchino of Venice, of 23 j|- carats : which laft therefore, it would feem,
is the pureft gold coin of Europe. [PauBon's Metrologie.)
(o) M. Daubenton, in his Methodical Tables of Minerals, enumerates eight forts of native gold, viz.
3. In powder ; 2. In grains ; 3. In fmall fpangles ; 4. In maftes of lumps; 5. In filaments 5 6. In branches
like vegetables ; 7. In lamella; and 8. In o&oedral cryftals.—He obferves alfo, that gold, in its reguline
Hate, is formed, either, 1. Into angular cryftals, compofed of yellow oftoedres ; or, 2. Into irregular yellow
snaffes, which, being broken, fhow a granular fubftance.
(p) The marine acid attracts the calx of filver, but cannot remove its phlogifton 5 and therefore cannot
diflblve
MINER
g. It does not unite with the femi-metal nickel
during the fufion.
h. It amalgamates eafily with quickfilver.
i. It is in the dry way diffolved by the liver of
fulphur.
k. It has a ftrong attra&ion to fulphur, fo as rea¬
dily to take a reddifh yellow or black colour
when it is expofed to liver vapours.
/. It has no attraftion to arfenic ; whence, when
the red arfenical lilver ore, or rothgulden ert%
of the Germans, is put into the fire, the arfe¬
nic flies off, and leaves the fulphur (which in
this compound was the medium uniens, behind,
united with the filver in form of the glafs fil-
ver ore, or glafs ertz.
m. It is not diflblved by the glafs of lead, and
confequently it remains on the cupel.
«. It is exhaled or carried off by volatile metals
and acids; as by the vapours of antimony,
zinc, and the acid of common fait.
o. According to Cronftedt, it melts more eafily
than copper ; and this was a general opinion.
But the contrary, as Mr Magellan remarks,
has been proved by means of the nice ther¬
mometer lately invented by Wedge wood.—-
See Thermometer.
Silver is found,
yf. Native or pure ; which moft generally is nearly
of 16 carats ftandard (q^)
T. Thin, fuperficial, plated or leaved.
2. In form,
a. Of fnaggs, and coarfe fibres.
b. Of fine fibres. Capillary filver.
c. Arborefcent.
d. Cryftalline or figured. This is very rare :
it has diftinft fibres, with fhining furfaccs.
$. Mixed or alloyed with other metals.
The following are the known inftances of thefe
mixtures :
l. United to gold, (Bergman’s Sciagraphia, § 154.')
2. Mixed with copper ; (Berg. Sc § 155-)
3. United to gold and copper; {.Z?er§-. Sf. $ 156.)
4. Amalgamated with mercury, found in the
mines of Salberg ; (Fofter’s notes to Brunnich.)
5. United to iron ; (Berg. Sc. § 157.)
6. United to lead, fometimes in fuch quantities
as to be worth the expences attending the fe-
paration.
7. United to arfenic ; (Journaldephyfique, 1778,
p. 50.)
8. United to antimony; (Berg. Sc. $ 159-)
9. Joined to the regulus of arfenic and iron ;
(Berg. Sc. § 160.)
10. Mixed with the alkaline limeftone from
A L O G Y. Partll,
Annaberg, defcribed by Mr Jufti; (Brun- Perfedt
nich.) S**
H. Sandy filver-ore, without any metallic fhining., * 'v‘r’ .
12. Silver-ore in a red-brown fchiftus, defcribed
by Lehman : it is compofed of argillaceous
earth, micaceous hematites, fulphur, calcare¬
ous fpar, fluor mineralis, lead, and filver.—
It contains about feven or eight ounces of fil¬
ver on the hundred weight.
13. Soft filver-ore. It is found among the marled
and argillaceous earths ; and is of various co¬
lours, either fingly or mixed.
C. Diffolved and mineralifed.
(1.) With fulphur alone. Glafs. filver-ore.
This is du&ile, and of the fame colour as
lead ; but, however, becomes blacker in the
air. It has therefore, though very impoper-
ly, got the name ot glafs-ore ; for that name
rather belongs to the minera argenti corneay
or horn filver ore, if indeed any filver ore.
can be confidered as glaffy.
It is found,
1. In crufts, plates, or leaves.
2. Grown into
a. Snaggs, and
b. Cryftalline figures.
It is generally either of a lamellar or a
grained texture.
The glafs filver ore is the richeft of all filver
ores; fince the fulphur, which is united
with the filver in this ore, makes but a very
fmall quantity of its weight.
(2.) Arfenico-martial filver ore, (Weill ert*y
Germ.)
This ore contains filver and iron mineralifed
by arfenic ; the arfenic in a larger propor¬
tion than the iron. This is the Pyrites ar-
genteus of Henckel.
1. It is a hard fubftance, of a white fhining
appearance, and of a compadl, lamellar, or
fibrous texture. (Kirovan, fp. 7.)
2. Of a yellowifh white colour, and of a ftri-
ated fttufture, refembling bifmuth, but
much harder. (Kirovan, fp. 3.)—It is
found near Guadanal canal in Spain.
3. Near the fame place is found alfo another
ore of the fame kind, w’hich is very foft and
eafily cut ; and when cut, has a brilliant
metallic appearance. It confifts of con-
choidal laminas. The quintal contains only
from four to fix ounces of filver; but it is
eafily reduced • by evaporating the arfenicr
which then leaves the filver flightly conta
minated with iron. (Kirovan, fp. 4.)
(3.) With.
diffolve it in its metallic flate, (Bergman.) However, the marine acid, if well concentrated, or rather re¬
duced into an aerial form, diffolves filver in its metallic ftate, (Fabroni.)
Mr Scheele, and after him Mr Bertholet, affert pofitively, that the marine acid, being dephlogifticated by
its diftillation over maganefe in the form of a yellow air or gas, diffolves all the metals, without excepting
gold, filver, or mercury. See Scheele’s Effay 5. § 25. H.
The vitriolic acid being diftilled alfo over the maganefe, diffolves filver, gold, and mercury, as Dr Crell
afferts, (Journal de Phyftque, Oft. 1785, p. 297.)
Silver is precipitated from the vitriolic and nitrous acids by the marine ; and from the nitrous, in grea*
meafure, by the vitriolic, (Kirovan.)
(O Wallerius dillinguifhes feven fpecies of filver: (fee the article Silver). Daubenton reckons eights
varieties of native ’white filver, arifing from their peculiar forms.
fart II.
M I N E R A 1 O G Y.
ll5
Perfedl
Metals.
{3.) With fulphur and arfenic. The red . or v
ruby-like hlver ore. The rothgulden of the
Germans.
The colour of this ore varies as the propor¬
tion of the ingredients varies in the mix¬
ture, viz. from dark grey to deep red ; but
when it is rubbed or pounded, it always
gives a red colour.
a. Grey arfenical iilver ore.
1. Plated, crulled, or leaved.
2. Solid.
1. The red atfenical filver ore 3
1. Plated, crafted, or leaved 5
2. Solid or fcaly.
3. Cryftallifed (a.)
In this laft form it fliows the moft beau¬
tiful red colour, and is often femi-
tranfparent. It contains about 60 per
cent, in filver.
{4.) With fulphur, little arfenic, and iron—
(Schwartz, ertz, Schwartz guldent Silber mulm.
Germ.)
This is a friable, weathered, decayed ore.
a. Of a black or footy colour; and is there¬
fore called by the Germans filberfchwartz,
or rujigtes-ertz.
(5.) With fulphurated arfenic and copper. The
iveiffgulden of the Germans.
This, in its folid form, is of a light grey co¬
lour, and of a dull and fteel-grained tex¬
ture. Its proportion of filver is from 10 to
30 per cent.
(6.) With fulphurated arfenic and iron. The
weifertz, or white filver ore of the Germans.
This is an arfenical pyrites, which contains
filver ; it occurs in the Saxon mines, and fo
exactly refembles the common arfenical py¬
rites, as not to be diftinguilhed from it by .
fight alone, or without other means.
(7.) With fulphurated antimony.
a. Of a dark grey and fomewhat brownifh co¬
lour ; the laberetz of the Germans,
i. Of a blackifti blue colour.
I. In form of capillary cryftals. Federeriz,
or plumofe filver ore.
(8.) With iron, arfenic, and cobalt, mineralifed
by fulphur.
This ore looks like the weijfgulden deferibed
above; but is diftinguiftied by the rofe co¬
loured particles of cobalt, difperfed through
dark brown, blackifh, or grey, and fometimes
fhining folid mafs. It is to this fpecies of
ores that the filver goofe dung ore belongs.
(9.) With fulphurated copper and autimony.—
The Tidi fah-lertz.
This refembles both in colour and texture the
dark-coloured weiflgulden. When rubbed, it
gives a red powder-
a. Solid.
b. Cryftallifed.
(10.) With fulphurated zinc. The pechbknde of
the Germans.
This is a zinc ore, mock lead, or blende,
which contains filver, and is found among
rich filver and gold ores.
a. Of a metallic changeable colour.
1. Solid, and with fine feales.
2. In form of balls. The kugel-ertz,orbzW ore.
b. Black mock lead, or blende, found in
Saxony. This is alfo found,
1. Solid, and with fine feales;
2. And in form of balls.
(11.) With fulphurated lead ; potters ore. Ga¬
lena ; bleyglanz.
(12.) With fulphurated lead and antimony, call¬
ed Jlriperz.
(13.) With fulphurated iron. Silbcrhalitgier kies ;
marcafite holding filver.
(14.) With fulphurated and arfenical cobalt;
dendrites being fometimes found in the ftone.
Thefe kinds keep well in water ; but general¬
ly wither in the air, and lofe the filver they
contain.
(15.) Mineralized by fulphur, with regulus of
antimony and barytes. The butter-milk ore.
This is found in the form of thin particles, on
granular fpar, (Kirwan, fp. 13.)
(16.) Combuftible filver ore.
This is a black and - brittle fubflance, and
leave about 6 per cent, of filver in its afhes.
It is in faft a coal in which filver is found.
(Kirovan, fp. 14.)
(17.) With the acid of common fait. Minera
argenti cornea. Hornetz, or horn-filver ore.
This is the fcarceft fiiver ore ; it is of a white
or pearl colour, changeable or varying on
the furface, femi-tranfparent, and fomewhat
dudlile both when crude and when melted.
It cannot be decompofed without fome ad¬
mixture of fuch fubftances as attract the acid
of fea-falt.
III. Platina del Pinto ; yuan blanca.
This metal is a recent difeovery of our times ; and
is deferibed with great accuracy by Scheffer, in
the Afts of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm for the year 1752; as alfo by Dr
Lewis, in the Philo fophical Tran factions for the
year 1754, vol. xlviii. and by many other wri¬
ters. By thefe deferiptions we are convinced of
the refemblance this metal bears to gold ; and
therefore we rnuft, allow it to be called white gold.
It has, however, a variety of diftinguifliing qua-
P 2 litres
(r) Walierius mentions the fix following varieties of this notable ore in his Species 388, viz. r. The red
opaque, like cinnabar, from Andreafoerg in the Hartz, and from Salberg in Weftmannia : 2.-The bluifti, from
Freiberg and Annaberg : 3. The grey, from Freiberg and Andreafberg : 4. The red tranfparent amorphous, of
the garnet colour, from Potofi and loachimftal: 5. The red tranfparent, cryftallifed into prifmatic de-
caedres, or dodecaedres, from Hungary, Alface, and the Duchy of Deuxponts: 6. The only fuperficially red
ore, from Salberg and Ehrenfriederichfdorf.
LOGY. Part H.
force ; but, as it only flicks to a few bodies to PeifeA
which it has an attraction, k is faid that it Metai-5»
does not wet. ^ckf,lv^ ^
c. It is volatile in the fire. J
d. It attracts the other femimetals and metals;
and unites with them all except cobalt and nic¬
kel, with which it cannot by any means yet
known be made to mix. This union is called
amalgamation. This amalgamation, or mix¬
tion of metallic bodies, according to the rea-
dinefs with which they unite or mix, is in the
following progreffion, viz. gold, filver, lead,
tin, zink, bifmuth, copper, iron, and the re-
gulus of antimony; the three latter, how¬
ever, do not very readily amalgamate. The
iron requires a folution of the vitriol of iron,
as a medium to promote the union.
e. It diffolves in fpirit of nitre, out of which it
is precipitated by a volatile alkali, and com¬
mon fait, in form of a white powder ; but if
a fixed alkali is ufed, a yellow powder or calx
is obtained (t).
/. But
(s) It were almoft fuperftuous, fays Mr Kirwan, to mention any other charafter of quickfilver than its li¬
quidity, to diftinguifh it from other metals. In regard to this property, Bergman obferves, that mercury
conllitutes one extreme among the metals, and platina the other; fince it requires to be melted only fuch a
degree of heat as is rarely wanting in our atmofphere, and boils at the 6000 degrees nearly after lead melts,
bee the table at p. 111. Note. But when the cold is increafed to the temperature denoted by 40 degrees below o.
both of Fahrenheit’s and of the Swedifh thermometer, which both coincide in that point (fince 212—32, or
180 : {bo :: 324-40, or 72 : 40), this metal concretes like any other metal, and becomes quite folid ; (fee
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1783, p. 303.) Mercury in its common ftate, therefore, according to Berg-,
man (Treatife of Ekfl. slttraff.), is to be confidered as a metal in fufion : and fince in its folid ftate it is near¬
ly as malleable as lead, it by no means ought to be placed among the femimetals, otherwife every other
entire metal fhould be confidered as brittle, for none is malleable when in fufion.
(t) 1. Mercury is difiblved with great rapidity by nitrous acid : the liquor is of a greenifh-blue colour,
brit lofes it afterwards and becomes limpid. This folution, when made without heat, is ufed as a teft for
the analyfis of mineral waters, and has different properties from that made with the help of heat. In the
firfi cafe, fays Bergman, very little phlogifton is loft, and the fait eafily cryftallifes, being white, and fcarcely
acrid. It is not precipitated by diftilled water ; but by cauftic vegetable alkali, it is precipitated of a yel-
lowifh colour; by mild alkali, the precipitation is white; by mineral alkali, it is yellow, but it foon grows
alfo white ; by volatile alkali, it turns to a greyifti-black colour; by Glauber’s fait, or by pure vitriolic acid,
the precipitation is white, granulated, and in a fmall quantity; nor, if this precipitant has been fparingly
«fed, does this colour appear in lefs than an hour: by muriatic ^cid, or common fait, the precipitation ia
alfo white, but in a large quantity, and in curdles.
2. But if the mercurial folution be put over a fand-heat, it may be charged with a quantity of mercury
equal almoft to its weight. According to the chemiftsof Dijon, 10 ounces of nitrous acid may diffolve eight
of mercury. The aftion of the folvent becomes ftronger with the heat; emits great quantity of vapours
and if not taken from the fire, will be too far evaporated. Diftilled water will precipitate from this folution
a white calx, becaufe it is more dephlogifticated, and the folvent is overcharged with it; and the water
changing the denfity of the liquor, diminilhes the adhefion of the calx, as Fourcroy remarks. This white
calx will turn yellow, if boiling water be poured on it. The vegetable alkali precipitates it of a brownifh
yellow, which by degrees affumes a pale-yellow tinge : the mild vegetable, and the mineral alkalies, pro¬
duce nearly the fame colour; though when this laft is employed, the colour turns afterwards to white. The
precipitation by volatile alkali is quite white alfo; that by the vitriolic acid is yellow; and, finally, a copious-
white mucilaginous matter is the precipitate by the marine acid.
3. This folution by nitrous acid is very cauftic ; corrodes and deftroys animal fubftances ; when it falls-
on the Ikin, ftains it it of a deep purple brown colour, which appears black: the ftains do not go off be¬
fore the feparation of the epidermis, which falls away in feales or kind of fears. It is ufed in furgery as a
powerful efcharotic, and is called mercurial water.
4. The fame folution, by cooling, is fufceptible of forming cryftals, which vary from one another ac¬
cording to circumftances: for the moft part they are like needles; are very cauftic ; redden the ficin ; and
detonate when put on burning coals, provided they be dry. They are called mercurial nitre, which fufes when
heated in a crucible ; exhales reddifti fumes; affumes a deep yellow colour, which afterwards turns to orange,
and
MINER
lities befides its colour, which afeertain its pecu¬
liar nature : All which, with its hiilory, ufes,
&c. are particularly deferibed under the detached
article Platina. See alfo Chemistry-/k^,- and
Metallurgy, Part II. fedt. ii.
1. It is of a white colour.
2. It is fo refradlory in the fire, that there is no
degree of heat yet found by which it can be
brought into fufion by itfelf, the burning-
glafs excepted. But, when mixed with
other metals and femimetals, it melts very
eafily', and efpecially with arfenic, both in
its metallic form and inform of a calx or glafs.
IV. Quickfilver, mercury. Hydrargyrum, Argentum vi-
vum, Mercurius. See the article Quicksilver;
Chemistry*Index, it. Mercury, and Metallur¬
gy, Part II. feft. viii.
Mercury diftinguifiies itfelf from all metals by the
following qualities (s.)
a. Its colour is white and finning, a little darker
than that of filver.
b. It is fluid in the cold, and divifible by the leaft
Part If. M I N E R A
PerfetJl f. But it require* a boiling heat to difiblve it in
Mktah, 0;j 0f vitriol (u).
guickjilvcr.' ^ jt jg nQt affe(c^e(j by tjje ac;^ 0f common fait,
unlefs it be previoufly diflblved by other acid*
(v) ; in which cafe only they both unite with
one another, and may be fublimed together :
this fublimate is a ftrong poifon.
h. It unites with fulphur by grinding ; and then
produces a black powder called athiops minera*
Us (w), which fublimes into a red ftriated body
caWz&faBitious cinnabar.
i. The fulphur is again feparated from the quick-
ftlver, by adding iron or lime, to which the ful¬
phur attaches itfelf, leaving the quickfilver to
be diftilled over in a metallic form; but if a
fixed alkali be ufed, fome part of the quick¬
filver will remain diffolved in the refiduum,
which is a liver of fulphur.
Quickfilver is found,
ui. Native, or in a metallic ftate. Mercurius nati-
vus, or virgineous.
This found in the quickfilver mines at Idra in
Friuli, or the Lower AnUria, in cfey, or in a
black flaty lapis ollaris, ©ut of which it runs,
either fpontaneoufly, or by being warmed even
in the hands.
B. United to gold or filver. Hydrargyrum argento
vel aura adunatum.
Mr Kirwan afferts, on the authorities of Monet
L O GY. 117
and Lin. Von Gmelin, that in Sweden and
Germany mercury has been found united to
filver in the form of .a fomewhat hard and
brittle amalgam.
Rome de ITfle had a fpecimen of this natural
amalgam from Germany, wdiich is imbed¬
ded in a quartzofe mafs, and mixed with cin¬
nabar, as Mr Mongez afferts; and he adds,
that in the royal cabinet, at the king’s garden
at Paris, is depofited another fine fpecimen of
this mercurial ore, which was found cryftallifed
in the mine called Carolina at Muchel-laniberg
in the duchy of Deux Fonts. M. de ITfle
fpeaks alfo very pofitively of a fpecimen of na¬
tive gold from Hungary, which feems to be
a natural amalgam of gold and mercury. It
is compofed of quadrangular prifms, of a grey-
ifh yellow colour, and of a brittle texture.
This fpecimen is alfo in the king’s cabinet
at the royal garden at Paris.
Mr Kirwan, fpeaking of the method of ex¬
amining the purity of gold by the moift way,
fuppofes, with SirTorbern Bergman, that there
are natural amalgamations of mercury with
gold and filver: and Neumann obferves, that
fometimes a mineral, containing gold or fil¬
ver, is met with among mercurial ores, al¬
though this is a great rarity.
It is evident, therefore, that there naturally ex-
ill
and at laft to a brilliant red : in this ftate it is called red precipitate, or arcanum corallinum. It muff be made in
a matrafs with a gentle heat if it is defigned to be corrofive for chirurgical purpofes.
(u) 1. The vitriolic acid, concentrated and boiling hot, feizes On mercury, and prefently reduces it if
urged by heat to a kind of white powder, which turns yellow by the affufion of hot water, but does not
diffolve in it; this is called turbith mineral: but if cold water, inftead of hot, was poured in the white mafs,
the powder would not change its white colour into yellow as was faid above about the nitrous folution.
2. If Mercury be rarefied by heat into vapours, and thefe meet with thofe of marine acid in the fame
ftate, a corrofive fublimate will be formed. This metallic fait {hoots into cryftals pointed like daggers, which
are the ftrongeft of all poifons. But there are various other proceffes found in chemical authors to make
this fait with more or lefs trouble. See Chemistry, n^Siq—818.
3. If corrofive fublimate be mixed with tin and diftilled, a very fmoking liquor is produced, called by the
*ame of its inventor the fmoking liquor of Libavius. See Chemistry, n° 810.
The muriatic acid in the fublimate is not faturated, and from hence proceeds its great corrofive power ;
for if a frefli quantity of mercury be added to it, and fublimed a fecond or third time, a fweet, or mixed
fublimate, called mercurius dulcis, is produced, which is not poifonous, and is given internally as a purgative,
or an emetic, according to the dofe. See Chemistry, n°8ig.
(v) Muriatic acid does not aft upon quickfilver unlefs this laft be previoufly deprived of as much phlo-
gifton, as of the quantity contained in the hundred of filver, or of Ts-jT in the hundred of zinc. (See
Bergman’s Sciagraphia, and his treatife De Phlogifii quantitate.)
(w) The academicians of Dijon fay, that the true proportion to make this asthiops, is that of one part
of brimftone with four of mercury. Fourcroy direfts only one of mercury, with three of flowers of fulphur,
to be triturated, till the mercury is extinghilhed. A black powder is then produced, which is the asthiops
mineral. The combination is better effefted when the mercury is mixed with the fufed .fulphur : by agi¬
tating this mixture, it becomes black, and eafily takes fire ; it. ftiould be then taken from the fire, and the
flame ftiould be extinguiftied a little after, ftirring the mafs till it becomes into folid clots. If this fubftance
be expofed to a great degree of heat, it takes fire, the fulphur is confumed, and. a fubftance remains which
is of a violet colour when pulverifed. This powder being put into matraffes, till their bottom become red
by the force of fire, is fublimed after fome hours, and artificial cinnabar is found in the top of the veffels cry¬
ftallifed into brown red needles.
Mercury, divided by means of a rapid and continual motion, as that of a mill-wheel, gradually changes it-
felf into a very fine black powder, which is called athiops per fe, on account of its colour, in order to dL
ftinguifti it from this atbiops mineralis mentioned in the text.
MINER
ift various ores of quickfilver, amalgamated
with filver, gold, and other minerals, although
they be but feldom met with.
Mineralifed,
[i.] With fulphur.
a. Pure cinnabar, Cinnabaris naliva.
a. Loole or friable cinnabar like red ochre.
b. Indurated or folid cinnabar. It is of a
deep red colour ; and, with refpeft to its
texture, is either,
1. Steel-grained;
2. Radiated ;
3. Compofed of fmall cubes, or fcaly; or.
4. Cryitallifed, in a cubical form ; it i»-
tranfparent, and deep red like a ruby.
B. Impure cinnabars.
1.) A mercurial ore is found in Idria,
fays Gellert, where the mercury lies in an
earth or ftone, as if it were in a dead form;
and has the appearance of a red-brown iron-
llone ; but it is much heavier than that. It
contains from three quarters to feven eighths
of the pureft mercury ; leaves, after diftilia-
tion, a very black ftrong earth behind; and
gives fome marks of cinnabar.
.2.) Liver ore, which is moft common in
Idria, and has its name from its colour.—
Outwardly it refembles an indurated iron-
clay; but its weight difcovers that its con¬
tents are metallic. It yields fometimes 80
pounds of quickfilver per hundred weight.
3.) Burning ore; brand-erz, in German.
This ore may be lighted at the candle; and
yields from nine to 50 pounds of quickfilver
per hundred weight. Brunnicb.
[[2.] With iron by fulphur. Pyritous cinnabar.
SirTorbern Bergman inferted this ore in the
177th fe&ion of his Sciagraphia, and feems
doubtful w'hether this be a diftinft fpecies
from the cinnabar ; as the iron is perhaps,
fays he, only mechanically diffufed therein.
Mr Mongez remarks, that there are but a few
.inftances of cinnabar in which iron is not
found in its calcined form; though, in the
aft of the ore being reduced, it paffes to its
iireta-lic Hate, and becomes capable of being
afted on by the loadftone.
Another pyritous ore of cinnabar was found
at Menidot, near St Lo in Lower Normandy.
It confifted in grains of different fixes, of a
red brown colour: they had a vitriolic tafte
and fulphureous fmell. Found alfo at Al-
maden in Spain, and at Stahlberg in the Pa-
A L O G Y. Part II.
latinate ; though at this laft place they are of Imperfedk
a dodecaedral form. Metals.
[3.] With filver by the aerial acid, and ful- <r‘”~ ^
phur. ——v—*
This feems to be a native precipitate per fe,
or calx of mercuiy. It is faid to have been
lately found in Idria, in hard compaft maffes
of a brownilh-red colour ; fee Journal de Phy-
ftque for January 1784, p. 61. If this ac¬
count can be relied upon, it will prove, that
quickfilver, even in a calciform ftate, is natu¬
rally found mincralifed with filver by means
of fulphur.
[4.3 With fulphur and copper.
This ore is blackilh grey, of a glaffy texture ,
and brittle ; crackles and fplits exceflively in
the fire ; and when the quiekfilver and fulphur
are evaporated, the copper is difeovered by its
common opaque red colour in the glafs of bo¬
ras, which, when farther forced in the fire,
or diluted, becomes green and tranfparent. It
is found at Mufchlanlberg in the duchy of
Detix Fonts.
[5.] Mineralifed by the marine and vitriolic
acids.
Mineralogy owes the difeovery of this ore to
Mr Woulfe, who publifhed an account of it
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1776.
It. was found in the duchy of Deux Fonts, at
the mine diftinguilhed by the name of Oberm.of-
chal. It had a fpar-Iike appearance. This ore
is either bright and white, or yellow or black.
It was mixed with cinnabar in a ftony matrix:
and being well mixed with one-third of its
weight of vegetable alkali, afforded cubic and
oftagonal cry Hals; that is, fait of Sylvius and
vkriolated tartar.
The marine fait of this mercury is in the
ftate of fublimate corrofive.
OrderII. Imperfect or base Metals.
I. Tin. Stannum ; Jupiter. (See the detached article
Tin: Alfo CHEMisTRY-Tskbc.; and Metallurgy,
Part II. feft. vi. and Part III. feft. vi.)
This is diftinguifhed from the other metals by
the following charafters and qualities. It is,
a. Of a white colour, which verges more to the
blue than that of filver.
b. It is the moft futible of all metals; and,
c. The leaft duftile ; that is, it cannot be ex¬
tended or hammered out fo much as the
others (x).
d. In
(x) Tin is fufficipntly duftile to be beaten into very thin leaves. But duftility and extenfibility are two
different properties, lefs connefted with one anather than is generally imagined. Iron and fteel are drawn
into exquifite fine wire, but cannot be beat into very thin leaves. Tin, on the other hand, is beat into fine
leaves, and may be exended between rollers to a confiderable furface. The tin-Iheet ufed in various arts, is
commonly about 7Bo-th part of an inch ; but may be extended twice as much in its dimenfions without dif¬
ficulty. Notwlthftanding this extenfibility, tin cannot be drawn into wire, on qccount of the weak cohefioij
of its particles- A tin wire, however, of one-tenth of an inch diameter, is able to fupport a weight of 49J
pounds, according to Fourcroy. Gold and filver poffefs both properties of duftility and extenfibility the moft
eminently of all metallic bodies ; whilft lead, notwithftanding its flexibility and foftnefs, cannot be made either
into leaves or wire of any finenefs.
MINER
d. In breaking or bending, it makes a crack¬
ling noife.
e. It has a fmell particular to kfelf, and which
cannot be defcribed.
f. In the fire it is eafily calcined to white afhes,
which are 25 percent, heavier than the me¬
tal itfelf. During this operation, the phlo-
gifton is feen to burn off in form of fmall
fparkles among the afhes or fcalx.
«■. This calx is very refraftory ; but may, how¬
ever, with a very ftrong degree of heat be
brought to a glafs of the colour of colophony.
But this calx is eafily mixed in glafs com-
pofitions, and makes with them the white
enamel.
b.. It unites with all metals and femimetals ;
but renders mofl of them very brittle, ex¬
cept lead, bifmuth, and zinc.
i. It amalgamates eafily with quickfilver.
b. It diffolves in aqua-regia, the fpirit of fea-
falt, and the vitriolic acid ; but is only cor¬
roded into a white powder by the fpirit of
nitre. The vegetable acid, foaps, and pure al¬
kaline falts, alfo corrode this metal by de-
grees-
/. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 7400 to
1000, or as 7321 to 1000.
m. Diffolved in aqua-regia, which for this pur-
pofe ought to confift of equal parts of the
fpirit of nitre and fea-falt, it heightens th@
colour of the cochineal, and makes it deeper;
for otherwife that dye would be violet.
(I.) Native Tin.
The exiftence of native tin has long been
queftioned : but ifhas undoubtedly been found
fome years ago in Cornwall, as Mr Kirwam
remarks.
j. Malleable tin, in a granular form, and alfo in
a foliaceous fhape, iffuing out of a white hard
matter like quartz : but which, after being
properly affayed, proved to be arfenicai cry-
ftals; a circumfiance that evinces its being na¬
tive tin, fince' the arfenic could not remain
in this form if the tin had been melted. It
appeared like a thick, jagged, or fcolloped
lace or edging; and was found near St Auftle
in Cornwall.
2. In the form of cryftalline metallic laminae, or-
laminated cryftals, rifing fide by fide out of an
edging, which fhone like melted tin: they
were almoft as thin as flakes or fcales of talc,,
interfering each other in various diredlions,
with fome cavities between them, wkhin which
appeared many fpecks^and granules of tin, that:
could be eafily cut with a knife : this was alfo
found in Cornwall.
3. In a mafly form, more than one inch thick
Ljl in fome places, and inclofed in a kind of quart-
zous ftone ;• or rather in-an hard cruft of cry-
ftallifed arfenic;
(2.) Calciform Ores of Tin.
si. In form of a calx. Stannum calciforme.
A. Indurated, or vitrified.
1. Mixed with a fmall portion of the calx
ef arfenic.
A L O G Y. 119
‘ a. Solid tin ore, without any determinate Imperfedt
figure. Tin-ftone.
It refembles a garnet of a blackifh r
brown colour, but is much heavier; and
has been, confidered at the Engliih tin-
mines as a ftone containing no metal,
until fome years ago it began to be
fmelted to great advantage.
b. Cryftallifed.
a. Tin fpar, or white tin ore. This is ge¬
nerally of a whitifti or grey colour; feme-
times it is yellowifh, femi-tranfparent,
and cryftallifed, either of a pyramidical
form, or irregularly.
b. Tin-grains. This ore, like the garnets,
is of a fpherical polygonal figure ; but—
feems more unffcuous on its furface.
1. In large grains.
2. In fmall grains.
B. Mixed with metals.
j. With the calx of iron, as in the garnet;
2. With manganefe. See the Smimetals.
C. Mineralifed.
1. With fulphur and iron.
2. With fulphur. Aurum mujivum.
This was difeovered by Profeffor Berg¬
man, among fome minerals which he recei¬
ved from Siberia, He. obferved two forts
of it, analogous to the two artificial combi¬
nations of tin with fulphur.
1. One nearly of the colour of zinc, and
of a fibrous texture, which contained
about 20 per cent. oi fulphur, and the
remainder tin.
2. The other enveloped the former like
a cruft; refembled aurum mufivum ; and
contained about 40 per cent of fulphur, a
fmall proportion of copper, and the re¬
mainder tin. Mem.Stockh.iov 17 2 i,p.3 28.
At Huel Rock, in St Agnes in.
Cornwall, there has been found a me¬
tallic vein, nine feet wide, at 20 yards
beneath the furface. Mr Rafpe was
the firft who difeovered this to be a
lulphurated tin-ore: it is very com-
paft, of a bluilh white colour, ap¬
proaching to grey fteel, and fimilar to
the colour of grey copper ore : it is
lamellar in its texture, and very brittle.
It confifts of fulphur, tin, copper, and
fome iron. Mr Rafpe propofes to call
it bell-metal ore.
According to Mr Klaproth’s ana-
lyfis of this ore, 119 grains contained
of pure fulphur ; 41 of tin ; 43 of cop¬
per ; two of iron ; and three grains of
the ftony matrix. In another fpeci-
men of the fame fulphurated tin-ore
from Cornwall, there were in the hun¬
dred 25 parts of fulphur,.34 of tin, 36
of copper, three of iron, and two of
the ftony matrix.
II. Lead; Plumbum, Saturnus. (See the article Leadj
and Chemistry -Index .v Alfo Metallurgy,,
Part II. fe<ft. v. and Part Ill. fedl. vii.)
Tk3:
Part IT.
5
M I N E R A
The propei ties of lead are as follows.
a.' It is of a bluifli white colour when freflibroke,
*bjit foon dulls or fullies in the air.
4 It is very heavy ; viz. to water as 11,325 to
1000.
c. It is the fofteft metal next to gold ; but it
has no great tenacity, and is not in the lead
fonorous.
d. It is eafily calcined ; and, by a certain art in
managing the degrees of the fire, its calx be¬
comes white, yellow, and red.
e. This calx melts eafier than any other metallic
calx to a glafs, which becomes of a yellow co¬
lour, and femitranfparent. This glafs brings
other bodies, and the imperfeA metals, into
fufion with it.
/. It diffolves, ill, In the fpirit of nitre; 2dly,
In a diluted oil of vitriol, by way of digeftion ;
3dly, In the vegetable acid ; 4thly, In alkaline
folutions ; and 5thly, In expreffed oils, both
in the form of metaland of calx,
jf. It gives a fweet tafte to all folutions.
h. It amalgamates with quickfilver.
With the fpirit of fea-falt it has the fame ef*
feet as filver, whereby is produced a faturnus
corneus.
k. It does not unite with iron, when it is alone
added to it in the fire.
/. It works on the cupel, which fignifies that its
glafs enters into certain porous bodies, defti-
tute of phlogifton and alkaline falls.
m. It melts in the fire before it is made red-hot,
almoft as eafily as the tin.
«. Its calx or glafs may be reduced to its metallic
ftate by pot-afhes.
ti.] Native Lead.
For proofs of lead being naturally found in
its metallic ftate, fee the article Lead.—It may
be here added, that Henckel likewife affirms its
exiftence, in his Flora Saturnifans ; (fee Kirwan’s
Elements of Mineralogy^ p. 297, 298.) Walle-
rius afferts, that it has been fo found in Poland,
a fpecimen of which was kept in the colleftion of
Richter; and adds, that a fimilar one found at
Schneberg, was feen in the colle&ion of Spener.
{Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 301.)
Dr Lawfon, in his Engliih edition of Cra¬
mer’s Art of EfTaying Metals, fays, that fome
pure native malleable lead had been lately found
in New England; (p. 147.) And laftly, Pro-
feflbr Bergman did not hefitate. to infert, by it-
felf alone, the plumbum nativum, in Sett. 180. of
his Sciagraphia.
£■2.] Calciform Lead.
Lead is found,
A. In the form of a cal*.
A. Pure.
a. Friable lead ochre, native ccrufe. .
b. Indurated lead fpar, or fpatofe lead ore.
i. Radiated, or fibrous.
1. White, from Mendip-hills, in Eng¬
land.
ii. Cryftallifed in a prifmatic figure.
1. White, from Norrgrufva in Weft*
mania nd.
LOGY. Part IT,
2. Yellowifh green, from Zchopau in imperfedt
Saxony. Metals.
B. Mixed, , Lead- f
1. With the calx of arfenic, arfenical lead * ~ '
fpar.
2. Indurated.
a. White. Mr Cronftedt has tried fuch
an ore from an unknown place in Ger¬
many, and found that no metallic lead
could be melted from it by means of
the blow-pipe, as can be done out of
other lead fpars; but it muft be per¬
formed in a crucible. (See the article
Lead. par. iii.)
3. With a calcareous earth.
This ore effervefees with aqua-fortis, and
contains 40 per cent, of lead ; ©n which
account is is placed here rather than
among the calcareous earths.
2$. Mineralifed.
1. With fulphur alone : the bley-fch'weijf, or lley*
glan-z, of the Germans.
a. Steel-grained lead-ore.
Radiated, or antimoniated lead-ore.
c. Teflellated, or potter’s lead-ore.
At Villach in Auftria there is faid to be
found a potter’s lead-ore, which contains not
the leaft portion of filver.
2. Mineralifed by the vitriolic acid.
This ore was difeovered by Mr Monnet.
It occurs fometimes, though rarely, in the
form of a white ponderous calx ; and feems
to originate from the fpontaneous decompofi-
tion of the fulphurated lead-ores above men¬
tioned.
3. By the acid of phofphorus.
This ore was lately difeovered by Gahn j
and is of a greenifh colour, by reafon of a
mixture of itOn. See the article Lead,
par. 6.
4. With fulphurated filvef. Galena ; alfo called
bleyglanve. by the Germans. Potter’s ore.
a. Steel-grained.
b. With fmall feales.
c. Fine-grained.
d. Of a fine cubical texture ; and,
e. Of coarfe cubes. Thefe two varieties are
found in all the Swcdiih filver-mines.
f. Cryftallifed.
The fteel-grained and fcaly ores are of a
dim and dull appearance when they are
broken, and their particles have no deter¬
mined angular figure i they are therefore in
Swedish commonly called blyfchweif; in op-
pofition to the cubical ores, which are call¬
ed blyglanv . The moftpart of the-ores call¬
ed llyglanx contain filver, even to 24 ounces
per cent, of which we have iaftances in the
mines of Salberg, where it has been obfer-
ved, that the coarfe cubical lead ores are ge¬
nerally the richeft in filver, contrary to
what is commonly taught in books ; the
reafon of which may perhaps be, that, in
making the effays on thefe two ores, the
coarfe cubical can be chofen purer or
frear
223.
MINERALOGY.
freer from the r®ck than the fine cubical
ores.
5. With fulphuratcd iron and filver. This is
found,
a. Fine-grained, b. Fine cubical, c. Coarfe-
cubical. When this ore is fcorified, it yields
a black flag; whereas the preceding lead-
ores yield a yellow one, becaufe they do not
contain any iron.
45. With fulphurated antimony and filver; anti-
moniated or radiated lead-ore. This has the
colour of a blyglanz, but is of a radiated tex¬
ture.
It is found,
а. Of fine rays and fibres; and,
б. Of coarfe rays or fibres. The lead in this
ore prevents any ufe being made of the anti¬
mony to advantageand the antimony like-
wife in a great meafure hinders the extrac¬
ting of the filver.
7. Mineralifed by arfenic.
This ore was lately difcovered in Siberia.—
Externally it is of a pale, and internally of
a deep red, colour. See the article Lead,
par. 10.
47. Mixed with earth ; ftony, or fandy lead ores.
Thefe confift either of the calciform or of the
galena kind, intimately mixed and diffufed
through ftones and earth, chiefly of the calca¬
reous or of the barytic genus. See Lead,
par. 11.
t//es, &c. of Lead. See Lead, and the other
articles above referred to.
III. Copper; Cuprum, Venus, JEs. (See the article
Copper : Alfo Chemistry-/«*/«c,* and Me¬
tallurgy, Part II. fed. iv. and Part III.
fed. iv.)
This metal is,
a. Of a red colour.
b. It is pretty foft and tough.
c. The calx of copper being difiblved by acids
becomes green, and by alkalies blue.
d. It is eafily calcined in the fire into a blackiflt
blue fubftance, which, when rubbed to a fine
powder, is red ; when melted together with
glafs, it tinges it firft reddilh brown, and af¬
terwards of a tranfparent green or fea-green
colour.
f. It diflblves in all the acids, and likewife in al¬
kaline folutions. It is eafier diflblved when in
form of a calx than in a metallic ftate, efpeci-
ally by the acids of vitriol and fea-falt, and the
vegetable acid.
f. Vitriol of copper is of a deep blue colour ; but
the vegetable acid produces with the copper a
green fait, which is verdigris.
». It can be precipitated out of the folutions in a
metallic ftate; and this is the origin of the pre¬
cipitated copper of the mines called Ziment
copper.
h. It is not eafily amalgamated with quickfilver;
but requires for this purpofe a very ftrong tri¬
turation, or the admixture of the acid of nitre.
t. Itbecomes yellow when mixed withzinc, which
Vo l. XII. Part I.
has a ftrong attra&ion to it, and makes brafs, fmperfedt
pinchbeck, &c. Metals.
1. When this metal is expofed to the fir^ it. .
gives a green colour to the flame in the mo¬
ment it begins to melt, and continues to do fo
afterwards, without lofing any thing confide-
rable of its weight.
£ 1 ] Native copper.
Copper found naturally in a metallic ftate, is
called virgin or native copper. It is met with,
1. Solid.
2. Friable, in form of fmall, and fomewhat co¬
herent grams. Precipitated or ziment copper.
[2.] Calciform.
Copper, in form of a calx, is found,
1. ) Pure.
A. Loofe or friable ; Ochra veneris.
1. Blue ; Cceruleum montanum. Very fel-
dom found perfectly free from a calcare¬
ous fubftance.
2. Green ; Viride montanum. Both this and
the former colour depend on menftrua,
which often are edulcorated or waftied
away.
3. Red. This is an efflorefcence of the
glafs copper ore.
3. Indurated. Glafs copper-ore.
a. Red. This is fometimes as red as feal-
ing wax, and fometimes of a more liver-
brown colour.
It is always found along with native
copper, and feems to have loft its phlo-
gifton by way of efflorefcence, and to be
changed into this form. It is likewife
found with the fulphurated copper, impro¬
perly called glafs copper-ore.
2. ) Mixed.
A. Loofe or friable ; Ochra veneris friabilis im-
pura.
1. Mixed with a calcareous fubftance; Coe-
ruleum montanum. In this ftate copper-
blue is moftly found. It ferments du¬
ring the folution in aquafortis.
2. Mixed with iron. Black. It is the
decompofition of the Fahlun copper ore.
B. Indurated.
1. Mixed with gypfum, or plafter. Green.
2. Mixed with quartz a. Red, from Sun-
nerflcog in the province of Smoland.
3. Mixed with lime. a. Blue. This is the
Lapis Armenus, according to the accounts
given of it by authors.
3. ) Cupreous ftones.
Analogous to the calciform copper ores, are,
1. The lapis armenus 11 See the detached ar-
2. The turquoife. S tide Copper, n° 7.
[3.] Diflblved and mineralifed; Cuprum minerali-
fatum
a. With fulphur alone. Grey copper-ore ; alfo
called, improperly, glafs copper-ore.
a. Solid, without any certain texture, and very
f®ft, fo that it can be cut with a knife
almoft as eafily as black lead.
Fine cubical. In Smoland this is fome-
times
Part II.
Imperfeft
Metal*.
Lead.
MINERALOGY.
r
Part lU
times found decompofed or weathered, and
changed into a deep mountain blue.
With fulphurated iron. Miners cupri pyrltacea ;
^ yellow copper ore. Marcafitical copper ore ;
Pyrites cupri. This is various both in regard to
colour and in regard to the different proper•
tion of each of the contained metals; for
jnftance,
a. Blackifh grey, inclining a little to yellow ;
Pyrites cupri grifeus. When decayed or
■weathered, it is of a black colour ; is the
richeft of all the varieties of this kind of
copper ore, yielding between 50 and 60
per cent, and is found in Spain and Ger¬
many.
h. Reddifh yellow, or liver brown, with a blue
coat on the furface ; Minera cupri laxurea.
This ore yields between 40 and 50 per cei.K
of copper, and is commonly faid to be blue,
though it is as red, when freih broken, as a
red copper regulus.
C. Yellowifh green ; Pyrites cupri Jlavo viridefeens.
This is the moll common in the north part of
Europe: and is, in regard to its texture,
found,
1. Solid, and of a fliining texture.
2. Steel grained, of a dim texture.
3. Coarfe-grained, of an uneven and ffiining
texture.
4. Cryllallifed marcafitical copper ore.
ci. Of long otloedrical cryitals.
d. Pale yellow. This cannot be deferibed but
as a marcafite, though an experienced eye
will ealily difeover iomc difference between
them. It yields 22 per cent, of copper.
e. Liver-coloured.
c. With fulphurated {liver, arfenic, and fome iron.
Fallow copper-ore ; which contains only a few
ounces of filver. This ore is- found in Hun*
gary and Germany, where it is called black
copper ore. %
B. With fulphurated arfenic and iron. White cop¬
per ore.
r» Pyritous copper, with arfenic and zinc.
According to Mr Monnet, this ore is found
at Catharineberg in Bohemia.. It is of a brown
colour; of a hard, folid, compact, granular
texture j and contains from 18 to 30 per cent.-
of copper.
р. Diffolved by the vitriolic acid ; Vitrialum ’ve¬
neris. See the article copper, n° xiii.
с. With phlogifton. Copper ooal ore, confifting
of the calces of copper, mixed with a bitu¬
minous earth.
H. Mineralifed by the muriatic acid. This ore
was found in. Saxony, and had been generally
miftaken for a micaceous fubftance, which in
fa£t it greatly refembles. It has not yet been
found in large maffes, but only in a fuperficial
form, like a cruft over other ores. It is mo*
derately hard and friable of a fine green co¬
lour, and fometimes of a bluilh green, cry-
flallifed in a cubic form, or with a foliated
texture, or in little feales refembling green
mica or talc. This ore is eafily diffolved by
7
nitrous acid : the folution takes a green colour ; imperfect 1
and thfc metal may be precipitated on a po- M£TAL** I
lilhed plate of iron. If fome drops of a ni- Lol’^r' ,
trous folution of filver be mixed with it, a &
white powder of luna cornea will be precipi¬
tated, which difeovers the prefence of the
muriatic acid in this ore.
The ufes of copper are very numerous, although
not thoroughly known to every one. Several of
thefe have been mentioned under the detached
article, and in Chemistry. Others of great im¬
portance may be here added. Its great ductility,
lightnefs, ftrength,and durability, render it of very
extenfive utility. Blocks, or bars of copper, are
reduced into flat ftieets of any thicknefs, by being
firft heated by the reverberation of the flame, in
a low-vaulted furnace, properly conftruded for
the purpofe ; and then immediately applied be¬
tween large rollers of fteel, or rather of cafe-har¬
dened iron, turned by a water-wheel or by the
ttrength of horfes, fo that the hot metal is there
quickly fqueezed ; and the operation is repeated,,
bringing the rollers every time nearer to one an¬
other, till the metallic Iheet acquires the intended.
thicknefs.
Thefe copper flieets are very advantageoufly em¬
ployed in ftieathing the bottoms of men of war
and other veffels, which by this means are pre¬
vented from being, attacked by the fea worms,
and are kept clean from various marine concre¬
tions, fo as to fail with conliderably greater fwift-
nefs. Copper flieets are alfo employed to cover
the tops of buildings inftead of flates or earthen
tiles, as is ufed in Sweden ; and fome architects
have begun to introduce the ufe of copper cover¬
ing into Great Britain, which is much lighter,
and may be ufed with great advantage, although
it mull be much dearer in the prime coft.
Sundry preparations of copper are employed in
painting, llaining, and for colouring glals and
enamels. See Glass and Enamel.
The folution of copper in aqua-fords ftains marble
and other ftones of a green colour ; when preci¬
pitated with chalk or whiting, it yields the
green and the blue verditer of the painters. Ac¬
cording to Lewis, a foludon of the fame >metal.
in volatile fpirits ftains ivory and bones: when
macerated for fome time in the liquor, they be¬
come of a fine blue colour, which, however, tar-
nifties by expofure to the air, and becomes green
afterwards.
The fame author prepared elegant blue, glaffes, by
melting common glafs, or powdered flint and fix¬
ed alkaline fait, with blue vitriol, and with an
amalgam of copper; fine green ones were made
with green verditer, and with blue verditer, as
well as with the precipitate of copper made by
fixed alkalies, and with a precipitate by zinc ; and
a reddifti glafs was produced by the calx and fco-
ria of copper made by fire alone. Even in this
vitreous ftate, it feems as if a continuance of fire
had the fame effeft in regard to colour, as air has
upon copper in other forms; as fome of the moft
beautiful blue glaffes, by continued fufion, have
changed
PartU, MINER
imperfeil c^RngeJ to a green colour. See farther the article-
Mr r a1.1. Brass in tie Glafs-trade.
y^Q^U' Verdegris is a preparation of copper diiTolved by
the vegetable acids, which aft on this metal,, dif-
folving it very ilowly, but in confiderable quanti¬
ties, It produces a fine green pigment for paint*
ing both in oil and water colours, inclining more
or lefs to the bluiih according to circumftances.
So great is the tenacity of copper, that a wire of
a tenth of an inch in diameter is capable of fup-
porting 299.5 pounds weight before it breaks.—
Copper may be drawn into very fine wire, and
beaten into extremely thin plates. The German
artills, chiefly thofe of Nurenberg and Aulburg,
are faid to pofiefs the bell method for giving to
thefe thin plates of copper a fine yellow colour
like that of gold. See the articles ^Rjiss-Colour
and BRAiS-Leaf.
The parings or flireds of thefe very thin leaves of
yellow copper being well ground on a marble
plate, are reduced to a powder fimilar to gold,
which ferves to cover, by means of fome gum-
water, or other adhefive fluid, the furface of va¬
rious mouldings or other pieces of curious work-
manlhip, giving them the appearance of real
bronze, and even of fine gold, at a very trifling
expence ; becaufe the gold colour of this metallic
powder may be eafily raifed and improved by
llirring it on a wide earthen bafon over a flow
fire.
In fome of its ftates, copper is as difficultly ex¬
tended under the hammer as iron, but proves
fofter to the file, and never can be made hard
enough to f rike a fpark with flint or other If ones ;
from whence proceeds the ufe that is made of this
metal for chifels, hammers, hoops, &c. in the
gun-powder works.
The vitriolic acid does not aft on copper unlefs
concentrated and boiling : during this folution a
great quantity of fulphureous gas flies off; after¬
wards a brown thickifh matter is found, which
contains the calx of the metal partlyj combined
' with the acid. By folution and hltration, a blue
folution is obtained, which being evaporated to a
certain degree, produces after cooling long rhom-
boidal cryllals of a beautiful blue colour, called
vitriol of copper ; but if this folution be merely
cxpofed a long time to the air, it affords cryftals,
and a green calx is precipitated, a colour which
all calces of this metal alfume when dried by the
air. Blue vitriol, however, is feldom formed by
diffolving the metal diredtly in the vitriolic acid.
That fold in the (hops is moftly obtained from
copper pyrites. It may alfo be made by ftratify-
ing copper-plates with fulphur, and cementing
A L O G Y. UJ
them together fpr fome time } becaufe the vitrlo- imperfrdt
lie acid of the fulphur being difengaged, attacks MstaM. -
and corrodes the metal, forming a metallic fait, t
which by affufiou of water yields perfeft Ctf ftals
of blue vitriol.- See Vitriol.
The nitrous acid, on the contrary, diffolves copper
when cold with great rapidity ; and a great quan¬
tity of fmoaking air or gas flies off, which, on
being received in a pneumatic apparatus, and
mixed in a glafs tube with atmofpheric air, fhows
its good or bad quality for the refpiration of li¬
ving animals, according as the common bulk is
more or lefs dimimfhed. This is one of the moil
important of Dr Prieftley's difeoveries ; and va¬
rious inllruments known ' by the name of eudio¬
meters have been fince invented for making thefe
experiments with eafe and fatisfaftion. See Eu¬
diometer.
But the moft common ufe of copper is to make all
forts of large ftills, boilers, pots, funnels, and
other veffels employed by diftillers, dyers, che-
mifts, and various other manufafturers, who make
ufe of large quantities of hot liquors in their va¬
rious operations.
Although copper when pure is extremely valuable,
on account of its duftility, lightnefs, and ftrength,
it is, however, lefs ufeful on many occafions from
the difficulty of forming large mafles of work,
as it is not an eafy matter to caff copper folid, fa
as to retain all its properties entire. For if the
heat be not fufficiently great, the metal proves
deficient in tOUgbnefs when cold ; and if the heat
be raifed too high, or continued for a length of
time, the copper blitters on the furface when call
in the moulds ; fo that the limits of its fulion are
very contrafted. And from thefe circumitance*
pure,copper is rendered lefs applicable to feveral
purpofes.
We find, however, that the addition of a certain
proportion of zinc removes almol all thefe incon¬
veniences, and furnifhes a mixed metal more fu-
fible than copper, very duftile and tenacious When
cold, which does not fo readily fcorify in a mode¬
rate heat, and which is lefs apt to ruft from the
action of air and moiliure.
Copper is the bafis of fundry compound metals
for a great number of mechanical and oeconomi-
cal ufes of life, fuch as brafs (yJ, prince's-metal,
tombac, bell-metal, white copper, &c. See Che¬
mistry, n° 1154, &c.
If the mixture is made of four to fix parts of cop¬
per, with one part of zinc, it is called Prince’s-
metal. If more of the copper is taken, the mix¬
ture will be of a deeper yellow, and then goes by
the name of tombac.
Qjt Bell-
(y) Brafs is frequently made by ^menting plates of copper with calamine, where the copper imbibes one-
fourth or one-fifth its weight of the zinc which rifes from the calamine. The procefs confifts in mixing three
parts of calamine and two of copper with charcoal duft in a crucible, which is expofed to a red heat for fome
hours, and then brought to fufion. The vapours of the calamine penetrate the heated plates of copper, and
add thereby to its fufiblity, It is of great confequence for the fuccefs of this procefs to have the copper cut
into fmall pieces, and intimately blended with the calamine. See Chemistry, n° 1154.
In moft foreign founderies the copper is broken fmall by mechanical means with a great deal of labour; but
at
124 MINER
Imperfedl Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin, forming
^ compound extremely hard and fonorous, and is
> . lefs fubjeft to alterations by expofure to the air
than any other cheap metal. On this account it
is advantageoufly employed in the fabrication of
various utenfils and articles, as cannons, bells, Ha¬
tties, &c. in the compofition of which, however,
other metals are mixed in various proportions, ac¬
cording to the fancy and experience of the artift.
White-copper is prepared with arfenic and nitre, as
mentioned under Chemistry, n° 1157-
But the principal kind of white-copper is that with
which fpeculums of reflecting telefcopes are made.
See the article Speculum.
VII. Iron ; Ferrum, Mars. This metal is,
a. Of a blackifh blue Aiming colour.
1. It becomes dudtile by repeated heating be¬
tween coals and hammering.
c. It is attra&ed by the loadftone, which is an
iron ore ; and the metal itfelf may alfo be ren¬
dered magnetical.
d. Its fpeciflc gravity to water is as 7,645, or
8oco: 1000.
e. It calcines eafily to a black fcaly calx, which,
when pounded, is of a deep red colour.
f. When this calx is melted in great quantity
with glafs compofitions, it gives a blackilh
brown colour to the glafs; but in a fmall
quantity a greenilh colour, which at laft va-
niflies if forced by a llrong degree of heat.
A L O G Y. Part II.
g. It is diffolved by all falls, by water, and like lmperfe<&
wife by their vapours. The calx of iron is dif- Metals.
folved by the fpirit of fea-falt and by aqua. r°'1' .
regia.
h. The calx of the diflblved metal becomes yel¬
low, or yellowifh brov/n : and in a certain de¬
gree of heat it turns red.
i. The fame calx, when precipitated from acids
by means of the fixed alkali, is of a greenifh
colour; but it becomes blue when precipitated
by means, of an alkali united with phlogifton ;
in which laft circumftance the phlogifton unites
with the iron: thefe two precipitates lofe their
colour in the fire, and turn brown.
h. The vitriol of iron is brown.
Iron is found,
[1.3 Native. See the-detached article Iron.
[2 J In form of calx.
A. Pure.
A. Loofe and friable. Martial ochre; Mlnero
ochracea.
I. Powdery ; Ochra ferri. This is commonly
yellow dr red, and is iron which has been
diflblved by the vitriolic acid.
2..Concreted. Bog-ore.
a. In form of round porous balls.
b. More folid bars.
c. In fmall flat pieces, like cakes or piece*
of money.
d. In fmall grains.
e. In
at Briftol the workmen employ an eafier method. A pit is dug in the ground of the m'yiufa&ure about
four feet deep, the fides of which are lined with wood. The bottom is made of copper or brafs, and is move-
able by means of a chain. The top is made alfo of brafs with a fpace near the centre, perforated with fmall
holes, which are luted with clay; through them the melted copper is poured, which runs in a number
of ftreams into the water, and this is perpetually renewed by a frefti ftream that pafles through the pit. As
the copper falls down it forms itfelf into grains, which colledt at the bottom. .-But great precaution is required
to hinder the dangerous explofions which melted copper produces when thrown into cold water ; which end is
obtained by pouring fmall quantities of the metal at once. The granulated copper is completely mixed with
powdered calamine, and fufed afterwards. The procefs lafts eight or ten hours, and even fome days, accord¬
ing to the quality of the calamine.
It is a wonderful thing, fays Cramer, that zinc itfelf, being Amply melted with copper, robs it of all its
malleability 5 but if it be applied in form of vapour from the calamine, the fublimates, or the flowers, it does
not caufe the metal to become brittle.
The method mentioned by Cramer to make brafs from copper, by the volatile emanations of zinc, feems to
be preferable to any other procefs, as the metal is then preferved fiom the heterogeneous parts contained in the
zinc itfelf, or in its ore. It confifts in mixing the calamine and charcoal with moiftened clay, and ramming the
mixture to the bottom of the melting pot, on which the copper, mixed alfo with charcoal, is to be placed
above the rammed matter. When the proper degree of heat is applied, the metallic vapour of the zinc con¬
tained in the calamine will tranfpire through the clay, and attach itfelf to the copper, leaving the iron and the
lead which were in the calamine retained in the clay, without mixing with the upper metal. Dr Watfon fays,
that a very good metallurgift of Briftol, named John Champion, has obtained a$patent for making brafs by
combining zinc in the vapourous form with heated copper plates; and that the brafs from this manufacture is
reported to be of the fineftkind : but he knows not whether the method there employed is the fame with that
mentioned by Cramer.
Brafs is fometimes made in another way, by mixing the two metals direCtly ; but the heat requifite to melt
the copper makes the zinc burn and flame out, by which the copper is defrauded of the due proportion of
zinc. If the copper be melted feparately, and the melted zinc poured^nto it, a confiderable and dangerous
explofion enfues ; but if the zinc is only heated and plunged iuto the copper, it is quickly imbibed and re¬
tained. The union, however, of thefe two metals fucceeds better if the flux compofed of inflammable fub-
itances be firft fufed in the crucible, and the copper and zinc be poured into it. As foon as they appear tho¬
roughly melted, they are to be well ftirred, and expeditioufly poured ©ut, or elfe the zinc will be inflamed*
and leave the red copper behindo 8
Part II.
Imperfeit
Metals.
Iron.
MINER
t. In lumps of an indeterminate figure.
All thefe are of a blackifti brown, or a light
brown colour.
B. Indurated. The blood-ftone j Hamatites.
( I.) Of an iron colour; Hamatites earn 'efeens.
This is of a bluilh grey colour ; it is not
attracted by the loadftone, yields a red
powder when rubbed, and is hard.
a. Solid, and of a dim appearance when
broken.
£. Cubical, and of a Ihining appearance
when broken.
c. Fibrous, is the moll common torrjlen of
Sweden.
d. Scaly : the elfenram of the Germans.
1. Black.
2. Bluilh grey. When this is found
along with marcafite, it is not only
attrafted by the loadftone, but is of
itfelf really a loadftone.
e. Cryftallifed.
1. In o&oedrical cryftals.
2. In polyedrical cryftals.
3. In a cellular form.
Thefe varieties are the moft common in
Sweden, and are very feldom blended
with marcafite or any other heteroge¬
neous fubftance except their diffeeent
beds. It is remarkable, that when thefe
ores are found along with marcafite,
thofe particles which have lain neareft
to the marcafite are attracted by the
loadftone, although they yield a red or
reddilh brown powder, like thofe which
are not attrafted by the loadftone : it
is likewife worth obfervation, that they
generally contain a little fulphur, if they
are imbedded in a limeftone rock.
(2.) Blackilh brown bloodftone ; Hamatites
nigrefeens. Kidney ore. This yields a red
or brown powder when it is rubbed; it
is very hard, and is attra&ed by the load-
ftone.
a. Solid, with a glaffy texture.
b. Radiated.
c. Cryftallifed.
1. In form of cones, from Siberia.
2. In form of concentric balls, with
a facetted furface. Thefe are very
common in Germany, but very
fcarce in Sweden.
(3,) Red bloodftone; Red
kidney ore.
a. Solid, and dim in its texture.
b. Scaly. The eifenran of the Germans.
This is commonly found along with the
iron-coloured iron glimmer, and fmears
the hands.
c. Cryftallifed, in concentric balls, with a
flat or facetted furface.
( 4.) Yellow bloodftone ; Hamatites Jlavus.
a. Solid.
b. Fibrous.
The varieties of the colours in the bloodftone
are the fame with thofe produced in the
A L O G Y. m
calces of iron made by dry or liquid men- Imperfedb
ftrua and afterwards expofed to different MErrAL3,
degrees of heat. r°n' f
B. Mixed with heterogeneous fubftances. J
A. With a calcareous earth. White fpathofe
iron ore. The JlahlJlein of the Germans.
b. With a filiceous earth. The tnartial jafper
of Sinople.
c. With a garnet earth. Garnet and cockle
or fhirl.
o. With an argillaceous earth. The bole.
e. With a micaceous earth. Mica.
f. With manganefe.
g. With an alkali and phlogifton. Blue mar¬
tial earth. Native Pruflian-like blue.
1. Loofe or powdery.
h. With an unknown earth, which hardens iff
water. Tarras; Cementum.
1. Loofe or granulated^ Terra Puzzolana.
This is of a reddifh brown colour, is rich
in iron, and is pretty fufible.
2. Indurated; Cementum induratum. This ir
of a whitiflt yellow colour, contains like¬
wife a great deal of iron, and has the fame
quality with the former to harden foon in
water when mixed with mortar. This
quality cannot be owing to the iron alone,
but rather to fome particular modification
of it occafioned by fome accidental caufes,
becaufe thefe varieties rarely happen at
any other places except where volcanoes
have been, or are yet, in the neighbour¬
hood.
[jj.J Diffolved or mineralifed.
A. With fulphur alone.
A. Perfectly faturated ; Ferrum fulphure fatura*
turn. Marcafite.
b. With very little fulphur. Black iron ore.
Iron ftone.
This is either attrafted by the loadftone,
or is a loadftone itfelf attrafting iron; it re-
fembles iron, and yields a black powder when
rubbed.
1. ) Magnetic iron ore. The loadftone,
Magues.
a. Steel-grained, of a dim texture, from
Hogberget in the parifh of Gagnoef
in Dalarne: it is found at that place
almoft to the day, and is of as great
ftrength as any natural loadftones were
ever commonly found.
b. Fine grained, from Saxony.
c. Coarfe-grained, from Spetalfgrufvan at
Norberg, and Kierrgrufvan, both in the
province ofWeftmanland. This lofes ve¬
ry foon its magnetical virtue.
d. With coarfe feales, found at Sandfwosr
in Norway. This yields a red powder
when rubbed.
2. ) Refraftory iron ore. This in its crude
ftate is attracted by the loadftone.
a. Giving a black powder when rubbed j
Tritura atra. Of this kind are,
1. Steel-grained.
2. Fine grained.
3, Courfe
TVT I N E R
CfSlfe grained.
This kind is found in great quantities
in a'lthe Siyedifh iron mines, and of this
riioft part of the fuflble ores confift, he-
caufe it is commonly found in fuch
kinds of rocks as are very fulible : and
it is as feldom met with in quartz as
the haematites is met with in lime-
hone.
b. Rubbing into a red powder. Thefe are
real haematites, that are fo far modified
by fulphur or lime as to be attradted
by the loadfione.
1. Steel-grained,
2. Fine-grained. Emery. Thjs is im¬
ported from the Levant: it is mixed
with mica, is llrongly attr?dfed by
the loadftone, and fmells of fulphur
when put to the fire.
3. Of large fiiining cubes.
4. Coarfe, fcaly. 'Yhe eifcnglimmcr or
eifenran.
Dd-l Mixed with various fofiile fubftances.
X. With fulphur and clay ; Pyrites.
2. With arfenic 5 called mfpkiel by the Germans,
and plate mundic in Cornwall.
3. With fulphurated arfenic. Atfenical pyrites.
4. With vitriolic acid. Martial vitriol,
c. With phlogifton. Martial coal ore.
6. With other fulphurated and arfenicated metals.
See thefe in their refpedtive arrangements.
Ufes and Properties of Iron. Iron is the moft com-
mon metal in nature, and at the fame time the
moft ufeful in common life 5 notwithftanding
which, its qualities are perhaps very little known.
Iron has a particular and very fenfible fmell when
ftrongly rubbed or heated; and a ftyptic tafte,
which it communicates to the water in which it
is extinguifhed after ignition. Its tenacity, duc¬
tility, and malleability, are very great. It exceeds
every other metal in elafticity and hardnefs, when
properly tempered. An iron wire of one-tenth
of an inch thick is able to fupport 450 pounds
weight without breaking, as Wallerius aflerts.
Iron drawn into wire as {lender as the fineft hairs.
It is more eafily mal’eable when ignited than
when cold; whereas other metals, though duftile
when cold, become quite brittle by heat.
It grows red-hot fooner than other metals : never-
thelefs it melts the moft difficultly of all, platina
and mangalfcfe excepted- It does not tinge the
flame of burning matters into bluifh or greenifti
■Colours, like other imperfedf metals, but brightens
and whitens it; hence the filings of iron are ufed
in compofitions of fire-works, to produce what is
called white-fire.
Iron, or rather fteel, expands the leaft of all hard
metals by the a&ion of heat ; but brafs expands
the moft : and on this account thefe two metals
are employed in the conftru&ion of compound
pendulums for the beft fort of regulating clocks
fpr aftronomical purpofes.
Iron, in the aft of fufion, inftead of continuing to
expand, like the other metals, {brinks, as Dr
Lewis obfeives 5 and thus becomes fo much more.
A T, O G Y. Part U«
denfe as tQ throw up fuch part as is unmelted imptrfc#
‘ to theduriace ; whilft pieces of gold, {liver, cpp-
per, lead, and tin, put in the refpeftive metals in r°"' .
fufion, /ink quickly to the .bottom. But in its
return to a confiftent ftate, inftead of ffirinking,
like other metals, it expands ; fenfibly riling in the '
veflel., and affumirtg a convex furface, whilft the
others fubfide, and appear concave. This pro¬
perty of iron was firft taken notice of by Reamur,
and excellently fits it for receiving imprefiions
from the moulds into which it call, being
forced into their minuteft cavities. Even when
poured thick into the mould, it takes, neverthe-
lefs, a perfeft imprelfion ; and it is obferved, that
call iron is fomewhat larger than the dimenfions
of the mould, whilft caft figures of other metals
are generally fmaller.
The vitriolic acid diflblves iron readily, and forms
green vitriol.
This acid requires to be diluted with 304 times its
quantity of water, to enable it etfeftually to
diflblve iron ; and, during the difiblution, a ftrong
aerial fluid arifes, called inflammable air, which, on
being mixed with atmofpheric air, takes fire at
the approach of the flame of a candle. A glafs
phial, of about twm ounces meafure, with one
third of inflammable air, and the reft of com¬
mon air, produces a very loud report if opened
in the fame circumftance ; and if it be filled with
two-thirds of inflammable air, mixed with one of
dephlogifticated air, the report will be as loud as
the explofion of a piftol with gunpowder.
Dilute nitrous acid diflblves iron ; but this faline
combination is incapable of cryftallifing. Strong
nitrous acid corrodes and dephlogifticates a con-
fiderable quantity of iron, which falls to the bot¬
tom.
Marine acid likewife diflblves iron, and this folu-
tion is alfo incryftallifable.
The Pruffian acid precipitates Iron from its folu-
tions in the form of Pruffian blue.
This metal is likewife fenfibly afted upon by alka¬
line and neutral liquors, and corroded even by
thoft which have no perceptible faline impreg¬
nation ; the oils themfelves, with which iron
ute.nfils are ufually rubbed to prevent their ruft-
ing, often promote this effeft in fome meafure,
unlefs the oils had been previoufly boiled with
litharge or calces of lead.
Galls, and other aftringent vegetables, precipitate
iron from its folutions, of a deep blue or purple
colour, of fo intenfe a {hade as ta appear black.
It is owing to this property of iron that the
common writing ink is made. The infufion of
galls, and alfo the Pruffian alkali, are tefts of
the prefence of iron by the colours they pro¬
duce on any fluid. Acids, however, diffolve the
coloured precipitates by the former ; and hence
it arifes that the marine acid is fuccefsfully ap¬
plied to take off ink fpots and- iron ftains from
white linens. Alkalis, however, convert thefe
iron precipitates into a brown ochre.
Iron has a ftrong affinity with fulphur. If a bar
of iron be ftrongly ignited, and a roll of brim-
ftone be applied to the heated end, it will com¬
bine
M I N E R A
Rine with the iron, and form a fufible mafs,
which will drop down. A vell'el of water ought
to be placed beneath for the purpofe of receiving
and extinguilhing it, as the fumes would other*
wife be very inconvenient to the operator.
A mixture of iron-filings and fulphur in powder,
moiftened with water, and preffed fo as to form
a pafte, will in a few hours fwell, become hot,
fume, and even burft into a flame, if the quan¬
tity is large. The refiduum furnilhes martial
vitriol. This procefs is fimilar to the decom-
pofition of martial pyrites ; from which ,fome
philofophers account for hot fpring-waters and
fubterraneous fires: The mixture of water in
this pafte feems to be necefl'ary to enable the vi¬
triolic acid of the fulphur to a£t on the iron.
For other chemical properties of this, metal, fee
Chemistry-Z/m/wc ; for its eleftrical and mag.
netic properties, fee Electricity and Magne*-
tism. For a more particular account of its nature
and ufes, and the methods of making and mas
nnfafturing it, fee the articles Iron and Steel ;
alfo Metallurgy, Partll. fe&. vii.and Partlll.
fed. v.
Order III. Semimetals-
I. Bifmuth; tin-glafs. Vifmutum, B'lfmutum, Marcajita
officinalis. It is,
a. Of a whitilh yellow colour.
1. Of a laminated texture, foft under the ham¬
mer, and neverthelefs very brittle,
r. It is very fufible; calcines and fcorifies like
lead, if not rather eafier; and therefore it
works on the cuppel. It is pretty volatile in
the fire.
- Its glafs or flag becomes yellowifti brown, and
has the quality of retaining fome part of the
gold, if that metal has been melted, calcined,
and vitrified with it.
e. It may be mixed with the other metals, ex¬
cept cobalt and zinc, making them white and
brittle.
f. It diffolves in aquafortis, without imparting to
it any colour; but to the aqua-regia it-gives
a red colour, and may be precipitated out of
•both thefe folutions with pure water into a
white powder, which is called Spani/h white.
It is alfo precipitated by the acid of fea-falt ;
which laft unites with it, and makes the vl/mu*
turn corneum.
g. It amalgamates eafily with quickfilver. Other
metals are fo far attenuated by the bifmuth,
when mixed with it, as to beftrained or forced
along with the quickfilver. through Ikins or
leather.
Bifmuth is found in the earth.
A. Native. This refembles a regulus of bifmuth, ,
but confifts of fmaller fcales or plates.
i. Superficial, or in crufts.
z. Solid, and compofed of foiall cubes.-,
B. In form of calx..
E O G Y. i2T
i. Powdery or friable; Ochra vifrnuti. This is Semi-
of a whitifh yellow colour; it is found in Mf.TAL3,
form of an efflorefeence. ^
It has been cuftomary to give the name of
Jlofwen of bifmuth to the pale red calx of co¬
balt, but it is wrong ; becaufe neither the
calx of bifmuth, nor its folutions, become
red, this being a quality belonging to the
cobalt.
C- Mineralifed bifmuth. This is, with refpeft to
colour and appearance, like the coarfe teffela-
ted potter’s lead ore ; but it confifts of very
thin fquare plates or flakes, from which it re¬
ceives a. radiated appearance when broken crofs-
wife.
l. With fulphur.
a. With large plates or flakes:
b. With fine or fmall fcales.
■2. With fulphurated iron.
a. Of coarfe wedge-like fcales.
This mineralifed bifmuth ore yields a fine
radiated regulus; for which reafon it has
been ranked among the antimonial ores
by thofe who have not taken proper care
to melt a pure regulus ore deftitutc of ful¬
phur from it; while others, who make no
difference between regulus and pure metals,
have ftill more pofitively aflerted it to be"
only an antimonial ore.
3. With fulphur and arfenic.
a. Of a whitifh yellow or afh colour. It has
a fhining appearance; and is compofed of
fmall fcales or plates, intermixed very fmall
yellow flakes: It is of a hard and folid tex¬
ture : Sometimes ftrikes fire with hard
fteel: Has a difagreeable fmell when rub¬
bed : Does not effervefce with aqua-for-
tii; but is partially diflblved by the fame
acid (z).
b* Grey, of a ftriated form ; found at Helfing-
land in Sweden, and at Amiaberg in Saxony,
c. With variegated colours of red, blue,
and yellow grey; found at Schneeberg in
Saxony.
A. With green fibres like an amianthus; at Mif-
nia in Germany,and at Gillebeck in Norway.
e. . With yellow red fliining particles, called
mines de bifmulh Tigrees in French, at
Georgenftadt in Germany, and at Anna-
berg in Saxony. .
f. The minera lifmuthl arenacea, mentioned
by Wallerius and Bomare, belongs alfo
to the. fame kind of the arfenicated ores.
4. By vitriolic - acid. This ore is called wi/1-
mutb bluth by the Germans. It is faid to
be of a yellowifh, reddifh, or variegated co¬
lour ; and to be found mixed with the calx
of bifmuth,. incrutling other ores. Ktrwan,
P-314'
Ufes, &lc. of Bifmuth. See the-article Bismuth.
Alfo Chemistry-/™/?* ; and Metallurgy,
Partll. fe&. x, and Part IIL fedt.viii.
II.
(z) This folution, being diluted with water, becomes a kind of fympathetic ink; as the words written
with it on white paper, and dried, are not diftinguifhed by the eye 5 but on being heated before the -
fire, they a flume a yellowifh colour.
Part I!.
128
MINER
Semi-
Metals.
Zinc.
II. Zinc ; fpeltre. Zincum.
a. Its colour comes neareft to that of lead, but it
does not fo eafxly tarnilh.
1. It fhows a texture when it is broken, as if it
were compounded of flat pyramids (a).
c. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 6,900 or
7000 to 1000.
(J. It melts in the fire before it has acquired a
glowing heat; but when it has gained that
degree of heat, it burns with a flame of a
changeable colour, between blue and yellow.
If in an open fire, the calx rifes in form of
foft white flowers ; but if in a covered veflel,
with the addition of fame inflammable, it is
diftilled in a metallic form : in which opera¬
tion, however, part of it is fometimes found
vitrified.
<*. It unites with all the metals (b") except bif-
muth and nickel, and makes them volatile.
It is, however, not eafy to unite it with
iron without the addition of fulphur. It has
the ftrongeft attra&ion to gold and copper,
and this laft metal acquires a yellow colour
by it; which has occafioned many experi¬
ments to be made to produce new metallic
compofitions.
/. It is diffolved by all the acids : of thefe the
vitriolic acid has the ftrongeft attraction to it;
yet it does not diflblve it, if it is not previoufly
diluted with much water.
g. Quickfilver amalgamates eafier with zinc thart
with copper; by which means it is feparated
from compofitions made with copper.
h. It feems to become eledtrical by fridtion.
Zinc is found,
Native.
Zinc has been met with native, though rarely,
in the form of thin and flexible filaments,
of a grey colour, which were eafily inflamed
when applied to a fire. And Bomare affirms
that he has feen many fmall pieces of native
zinc among the calamine-mines in the duchy
of Limbourg and in the zinc-mines at Co¬
llar, where this femimetal was always fur-
rounded by a kind of ferrugineous yellow
earth, or ochraceous fubftances. See the de¬
tached article Zinc.
£. In form of calx.
N° 224.
A L O G Y.
Part II.
(1.) Pure.
a. Indurated.
1. Solid
2. Cryftallifed.
This is of a whitilh-grey colour, and
its external appearance is like that of a
lead fpar ; it cannot be defcribed, but
is eafily known by an experienced eye.
—It looks very like an artificial glafs
of zinc ; and is found among other cala¬
mines at Namur and in England.
(2.) Mixed.
A. With a martial ochre.
1. Half indurated. Calamine j Lapis-
calam inaris.
a. Whitifh yellow.
b. Reddilh brown. This feems to be
a mouldered or weathered blende.
1. With a martial clay or bole.
c. With a lead ochre and iron.
d. With quartz : Zeolite of Friburgh.
The real contents of this fubftance were
firft difcovered by M. Pelletier. It was
long taken for a true zeolite, being of
a pearl colour, cryftallifed, and femitran-
foarent. It coniifts of laminae, diverging
from different centres, and becoming ge¬
latinous with acids. Its contents are 48
to. 52 per cent, of quartz, 36 of calx of
zinc, and 8 or 12 of water. {Kirwan^
. P-d/S-)
C. Mineraliftd.
(1.) With fulphurated iron. Blende, mock-
lead, b.ack-jack, mock-ore ; pjeudogaiena and
blende of the Germans
A. Mineralifed zinc in a metallic form. Zinc
ore. This is of a metallic bluilh-grey
colour, neither perfectly clear as a pot¬
ter’s ore, nor fo dark as the Swedilh iron
ores.
1. Of a fine cubical or fcaly texture.
2. Steel-grained.
B. In form of calx. Blende. Mock-lead;
Sterile nigrum. Pfeudo-galena (c). This is
found,
1. With courfe feales.
a. Yellow'; femi-tranfparent.
b. Greenilh.
c. Greenilh-
(a) It cannot be reduced into powder under the hammer like other femimetals. When it is wanted
very much divided, it muft be granulated, by pouring it while fufed into cold water; or filed, which is very
tedious, as it fluffs and fibs the teeth of the file. But if heated the moft pofiible without fufing it, Macquer
afferts, that it becomes fo brittle as to be pulverifed in a mortar.
(b) It brightens the colour of iron almoft into a filver hue ; changes that of copper to a yellow or gold
colour, but greatly debafes the colour of gold and deftroys its malleability. It improves the colour and
luftre of lead and tin, rendering them firmer, and confequently fitter for fundry mechanic ufes. Lead will
bear an equal weight of zinc, without lofing too much of its malleability.—The procefs for giving the yel¬
low colour to copper, by the mixture of zinc, and of its ore called calamine, has been defcribed above under
the Ufes of Copper
(c) The varieties of pfeudo-galena, or black-jack, are in general of a lamellar or fcaly texture, and fre¬
quently of a quadrangular form, refembling galena. They alljofe much of their weight when heated, and
burn with a blue flame ; but their fpecific gravity is confiderably inferior to that of true galena. Almoft
all contain a mixture of lead-ore. Moft of them exhale a fulphureous fmell when fcraped ; or at leaft whea
vitriolic or marine acid is dropped on them.
Fart II.
SEMt-
Zinc*
MINER
c/'Greenif’h-black ) pechllende, or pitch
blende of the Germans.
d, Blackifli-brown.
2. With fine fcales,
a. White.
1. Whitilh-yellow.
c. Reddifh-brown.
3. Fine and fparkling; at Gofiar called braun
blyertz. Its texture is generally fcaly ;
fometimes cryftallifed and femitranfparent.
It gives fire with fteel; but does not de¬
crepitate, norfmoke when heated i yet it
lofes about 13 per cent, of its weight by
torrefaftion.
, a. Dark-brown.
b. Red, which becomes phofphorefcent
when rubbed 5 found at Scharfenberg
in Mifnia. (Brunich).
c. Greenifh, yellowifh-green, or red. It
has different degrees of tranfparency,
and is fometimes quite opaque: When
fcraped with'a knife in the dark, it emits
light, even in water ; and after under¬
going a white heat, if it is diftilled per
fe, a filiceous fublimate rifes, which
{hows it contains the fparry acid, pro¬
bably united to the metal, fince it fub-
limes.
4. Of a metallic appearance 5 glanz blende.
This is of a bluifh-grey, of a fcaly or
fleel grained texture, and its form gene¬
rally cubical or rbomboidal. It lofes
nearly one fixth of its weight by calcina¬
tion ; and after calcination it is more fo-
luble in the mineral acids.
100 parts of this ore afforded to Berg¬
man about 52 of zinc, 8 of iron, 4 of
copper, 26 of fulphur, 6 of filex, and 4
of water.
5. Cryftalline.
a. Dark-red, very fcarce j found in a
mine near Freyberg. Something like
it is found at the Morgenftern and
Himmelsfufte.
b. Brown. In Hungary and Tranfilva-
nia.
c. Black. Hungary.
Thefe varieties may eafily be mifta-
ken for rock cryftals; but by experi¬
ence they may be diftinguimed on ac¬
count of their lamellated texture and
greater foftnefs. Their tranfparency
arifes from a very fmall portion of iron
in them.
{2.) Zinc mineralifed by the vitriolic acid.
This ore has been already defcribcd among
the middle Salts> at Vitriol of zinc.
Ufes, &c. of zinc. See the detached article Zinc :
Alfo Chem i5TRy-/«</«c ; and Metallurgy)
Part II. fedl. xii. and Part III. under fe£t. iii.
HI. Antimony; Antimomum Stibium. This femime*
tal is,
a. Of a white colour almoft like filver.
b. Brittle ; and, in regard to its texture, it confifts
Vol. XII. Part I.
A L O G Y.
of finning planes of greater length than breadth. s
C. In the fire it is volatile, and volatiiifes part of ^
the other metals along with it, except gold and
platina. It may, however, in a moderate fire,
be calcined into alight-grey calx, which is pretty
refra&ory in the fire ; but melts at laft to a glafs
of a reddifii-brown colour.
d. It diffolves in fpirit of fea-falt and aqua regia,
but is only corroded by the fpirit of nitre into
a white calx ; it is precipitated out of the aqua
regia by water.
e. It has an emetic quality when its calx, glafs, or
metal, is diffolved in an acid, except when in the
fpirit of nitre, which has not this effedl.
f. It amalgamates with quickfilver, if the regulus,
when fufed, is put to it; but the quickfilver ought
forthis purpofe to be covered with warm water t
it amalgamates with it likewife, if the reguliis of
antimony be previoufly melted with an addition
of lime.
Antimony is found in the earth.
A. Native. Regulus antimonii nalivus.
This is of a filver colour, and its texture is
compofed of pretty large Alining planes.
This kind was found in Carls Ort, in the
mine of Salberg, about the end of the latl cen¬
tury ; and fpecimens thereof have been ■prefer¬
red in colledlions under the name of an arfenical
pyrites, until the mihe-mafter Mr Von Swab dif-
covered its real nature, in a treatife he communi¬
cated to the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm in the year 1748. Among other re¬
markable obfervations in this treatife, it is fat'd,
firft, That this native antimony eafily amalga¬
mated with quickfilver ; doubtlefs, becaufe it was
imbedded in a limeftone; fince, according to Mr
Pott’s experiments, an artificial, regulus of anti¬
mony may, by means of lime, be difpofed to an
amalgamation 1 Secondly, That when brought
in form of a calx, it fiiot into cryftals during the
cooling.
B. Mineralifed antimony.
(1.) With fulphur.
This is commonly of a radiated texture,
compofed of long wedge-like flakes or plates;
it is nearly of a lead-colour, and rough to the
touch.
a. Of coarfe fibres.
b. Of fmall fibres.
c. Steel-grained, from Saxony and Hungary,
d. Cryftallifed, from Hungary.
1. Of a prifmatical, or of a pointed pyrami¬
dal figure, in which laft circumftance the
points are concentrical.
Cronftedt mentions a fpecimen of this,
in which the cryftals -were covered with
very minute cryftals or quartz, except at
the extremities, where there was always
a little hole : this fpecimen was given for
a jlos ferri fpar.
(2.) With fulphur and arfenic. Red antimony
ore ; Antimonium folare.
This is of a red colour, and has thq fame
texture with the preceding, though its fibres
are not fo courfe.
R
a. With
M I N E R A
at. With fmall fibres.
b. With abrupt broken fibres, from Braunf-
dorff in Saxony, and from Hungary.
All antimonial ores are fomewhat arfe-
nical, but this is more fo than the preceding
kinds.
(3.) With fulphurated filver. Plumofe filver-
ore, or federertz, of the Germans.
(4.) With fulphurated filver, copper, and arfe-
nic ; the dal fahl-ertz, of the Germans.
(5.) With fulphurated lead ; radiated lead-ore.
(6.) By the aerial acid.
This ore was lately difcovered by Mongez,
among thofe of native antimony from the
mine of Chalanges irr Dauphiny. It confifts
of a group of white cryftallifed filaments of a
needle-form appearance, diverging from a com¬
mon centre, like zeolite. They are infoluble
in nitrous acid; and, on being urged by the
flame of a blow-pipe, upon a piece of charcoal,
they are diflipated into white fumes, or anti¬
monial flowers, without any fmell of arfenic ;
from whence it follows, that thefe needle-form¬
ed cryftals are a pure calx of antimony, form¬
ed by its combination with, or mineralifed by,
the aerial acid. See Kirwan, p. 325, and
'Journal de Phyjique for July 1787, p. 67.
Ufes, &c. By the name of antimony is commonly
underftood the crude antimony (which is com¬
pounded of the metallic part and fulphur) as it
melted out of the ore ; and by the name of rega¬
ins, the pure femimetal.
1. Though the regulus of antimony is a metallic
fubftance, of a confiderably bright white colour,
and has the fplendof, opacity, and gravity of a
metal, yet it is quite unmalleable, and falls into
powder inftead of yielding or expanding under
the hammer ; on wdrich account it is clafled
among the femimetals.
2. Regulus of antimony is ufed in various metallic
mixtures, as for printing types, metallic fpecu-
lums, &c. and it enters into the beft fort of pew¬
ter ware.
3. It mixes with, and difiblves various metals; in
particular it affe&s iron the moft powerfully ;
and, what is very remarkable, when mixed toge¬
ther, the iron is prevented from being attradfed
by the loadftone.
4. It affedts copper next, then tin, lead, and filver ;
promoting their fufion, and rendering them all
brittle and unmalleable : but it will neither unite
with gold nor mercury ; though it may be made
to combine with this laft by the interpofition of
fulphur. In this cafe it refembles the common
Aithiops, and is thence called antimonial JEthiops.
5 . Regulus of antimony readily unites with fulphur,
and forms a compound of a very faint metallic
fplendor 1 it affumes the form of long needles ad¬
hering together laterally : it ufually formed na¬
turally alfo in this fhape. This is called crude
antimony.
6. But though antimony has a confiderahle affinity
to fulphur ; yet all the metals, except gold and
mercury, have a greater affinity to that com-
I. O G Y. Part 11.1
pound. If therefore iron, copper, lead, filver. Semi- jf
or tin, be melted with antimony, the fulphur will Ms
unite with the metal, and be feparated from the Ant‘”‘ony\
regulus, which, however, takes up fome part of
the metal, for which reafon it is called martial re¬
gulus, regulus. veneris, &c.
7. When gold is mixed, or debafed by the mixture
of other metals, it may be fufed with antimony;
for the fulphur combines with the bafe metals,
which, being the lighter, rife up into fcoria,
while the regulus remains united at the bottom
with the gold; which being urged by a ftronger
degree of heat, is freed from the femimetal, which
is very volatile. This method of refining gold is
the eafieft of all.
8. But the moft numerous pnrpofes to which this
metal has been applied are thofe of the chemical
and pharmaceutical preparations. Lemery, in
his Treatife on Antimony, defcribes no lefs than
200 procefles and formulae ; among which there
are many good and many ufelefs ones. The
following deferve to be mentioned on account of
their utility.
9. Antimony melts as foon as it is moderately red
hot, but cannot fuftain a violent degree of fire,
as it is thereby diffipated into fmoke and white
vapours, which adhere to fuch cold bodies as
they meet with, and are collefted into a kind of
farina or powder, called flowers of antimony.
10. If it be only moderately heated, in very fmall
pieces, fo as not to melt, it becomes calcined in¬
to a greyilh powder deftitute of all fplendor, called
calx of antimony. This calx is capable of enduring
the moft violent fire ; but at laft it will run into
a glafs of a reddiih-yellow colour, fimilar to that
of the hyacinth. The infufion made of this co¬
loured antimonial glafs, in acidulous wine (fuch
as that of Bourdeaux) for the fpace of 5 or 6
hours, is a very violent emetic.
11. If equal parts of nitre and regulus of antimony
be deflagrated over the fire, the grey calx which
remains is called liver of antimony.
12. If regulus of antimony be melted with two parts
of fixed alkali, a mafs of a reddilh-yellow colour
is produced, which being diflblved in water, and
any acid being afterwards added, a precipitate is
formed of the fame colour, called fulphur of
antimony.
13. Fixed nitre, viz. the alkaline fait that remains
after the deflagration of nitre, being boiled with
fmall pieces of regulus of antimony, the folutian
becomes reddilh; and, on cooling, depofits the
antimony in the form of a red powder, called
mineral kermes.
14. Equal parts of the glafs, and of the liver of an¬
timony, well pulverifed and mixed with an equal
quantity of pulverifed cream of tartar, being put
into as much water as will diflblve the cream of
tartar, and boiled for 12 hours, adding now and
then fome hot water to replace what is evapo¬
rated, the whole is to be filtered while hot; then
being evaporated to drynefs, the faline matter
that remains is the emetic tartar.
15. The regulus of antimony being pulverifed, and
diftilkd
Part IF.
MINER
(Milled with corrofive fublimate of mercury, a
thick white matter is produced, which is ex¬
tremely corrofive, and is called butter of antimony.
This thick fubftance may be rendered limpid and
fluid by repeated diftillations.
16. On mixing the nitrous acid with this butter of
antimony, a kind of aqua regia is diftilled, call¬
ed bezoardic fpirit of nitre.
17. The white matter that remains from this laft
diftillation may be rediftilled with frdh nitrous
acid ; and the remainder being waflied with wa¬
ter, is called bezoar mineral* which is neither fo
volatile nor fo cauftic as the antimonial butter.
This butter being mixed with water, a precipi¬
tate falls to the bottom, which is very improper¬
ly called mercurius vita, for it is in fail a very vi¬
olent emetic.
18. But if, inftead of the regulus, crude antimony
be employed, and the fame operation be per¬
formed, the reguline part feparates from the ful-
phur, unites to the mercury, and produces the
fubftance which is called cintiabar of antimony.
19. Crude antimony being projected in a crucible,
in which an equal quantity of nitre is fufed, deto¬
nates ; is calcined, and forms a compound called
by the French fondant de Retrou, or antimoine di-
aphoretique non lave. This being diflblved in hot
water, falls to the bottom after it is cold ; and
after decantation is known, when dry, by the
name of diaphoretic antimony. This preparation
excites animal perfpiration, and is a good fudori-
fic. The fame preparation may be more expe-
ditioufly made by one part of antimony with two
and a half of nitre, mixed together and deflagra¬
ted : the refidue of which is the mere calx of an¬
timony, void of all emetic power.
20. And if the detonation be performed in a tubu¬
lated retort, having a large receiver, containing
fome water adapted to it, both a clyflus of anti¬
mony and the antimonial flowers may be obtain¬
ed at the fame time, as Neumann afferts.
21. When nitre is deflagrated with antimony over
the fire, the alkaline bafis of the nitre unites with
the calx of the femimetal, which may be fepara-
ted by an acid, and is called materia perlata. See
farther the article Antimony ; alfo Metal¬
lurgy, Part II. fedt. ix.
IV. Arfenic. In its metallic form, is,
a. Nearly of the fame colour as lead, but brittle,
and changes fooner its Ihining colour in the air,
firft to yellow, and afterwards to black.
b. It appears laminated in its fra&ures, or where
broken.
c. Is very volatile in the fire, burns with a fmall
flame, and gives a very difagreeable fmell like
garlic.
d. It is, by reafon of its volatility, very difficult
to be reduced, unlefs it is mixed with other me¬
tals : However, a regulus may be got from the
white arfenic, if it is quickly melted with equal
parts of pot a flies and foap ; but this regulus con¬
tains generally fome cobalt, moft of the white
arfenic being produced from the cobalt ores du¬
ring their calcination. The white arfenic, mix-
A L O G Y. 131
ed with a phlogifton, fublimes likewife into o&o- Semi-
edral cryftals of a metallic appearance, whofe fpe-
cific gravity is 8,308. nrjenic. .
e. The calx of arfenic, which always, on account of
its volatility, muft be got as a fublimation, is
white, and eafily melts to a glafs, whofe fpecific
gravity is 5,000. When fulphur is blended in
this calx, it becomes of a yellow, orange, or red
colour ; and according to the degrees of colour
is called orpiment or yellow arfenic ; fandarach, re¬
algar, or red arfenic ; and alfo rubinus arfenici.
f. This calx and glafs are diflbluble in water, and
in all liquids; though not in all with the fame
facility. In this circumftance arfenic refembles
the falts ; for which reafon it alfo might be rank¬
ed in that clafs.
g. The regulus of arfenic difiolves in fpirit of #
nitre; but as it is very difficult to have it per-
feftly free from other metals, it is yet very little
examined in various menftrua.
h. It is poifonous, efpecially in form of a pure
calx or glafs : But probably it is lefs dangerous
when mixed with fulphur, fince it is proved by
experience, that the men at mineral works are
not fo much affe&ed by the fmoke of this mix¬
ture as by the fmoke of lead, and that fome na¬
tions make ufe of the red arfenic in fmall dofes
as a medicine.
i. It unites with all metals, and is likewife much
ufed by nature itfelf to difiblve, or, as we term
it, to mineralife, the metals, to which its vola¬
tility and diffolubility in water muft greatly Con¬
tribute. It is likewife moft generally mixed with
fulphur.
k. It abforbs or expels the phlogifton, which has
coloured glaffes, if mixed with them in the fire.
Arfenic is found,
[1.] Native; called Scherbencololt and Fliegenjlein
by the Germans.
It is of a lead colour when frelh broken, and
may be cut with a knife, like black lead, but
foon blackens in the air. It burns with a fmall
flame, and goes off in fmolce.
sl. Solid and teftaceous ; Scherbencobolt.
B. Scaly.
C. Friable and porous ; Fliegenjlein.
(l.) With firming fiffures.
This is by fome called Spigel cobolt.
£2.] In form of a calx.
A. Pure, or free from heterogeneous fubftances.
1. Loofe or powdery.
2. Indurated, or hardened. This is found in
form of white femi-tranfparent cryftals.
B. Mixed.
A. With fulphur.
1. Hardened. ^ »
a. Yellow. Orpiment; Auripigmentum.
b. Red. Native realgar, or fandarach.
b. With the calx of tin, in the tin-grains.
c. With fulphur and filver; in the rothgulden
or red filver ore
D. With calx of lead, in the lead-fpar.
e. With calx of cobalt, in the efflorefcencc
of cobalt.
R 2
C:J M-
MINER
[3.] Mineralifed.
A- With fulphur and iron. Arfenical pyrites
or marcafite. Thefe kinds in Cornwall are
called filvery er white mundics and plate rnun-
dics.
This alone produces red arfenic when cal¬
cined. It is of a deeper colour than the fol¬
lowing.
B. With iron only. This differs with regard to
its particles; being,
1. Steel-grained.
2. Coarfe-grained.
3. Cryftallifed.
a. In an oftoedral figure. This is the moft
common kind.
1. Prifmatical. The fulphureous marcafite
is added to this kind when red arfenic is
to be made; but in Sweden it is fcarcer
than the fulphureous arfenical pyrites.
C. With cobalt, almoft in all cobalt ores.
■?' ^ver* 7 See under Silver, Copper,
' ' * C0PPer- > an(j Antimony, fupra.
F. With antimony. ) r
For the Ufes of Arfenic, fee the detached article
Arsenic, and Chemistry■/*</«<:,• alfo Me¬
tallurgy, Part II. feft. xiii. and Part III.
fe6t. viii.
V. Cobalt.
This femimetal is,
a. Of a whitiih grey colour, nearly as fine-tem¬
pered fteel.
£. Is hard and brittle, and of a fine-grained tex¬
ture ; hence it is of a dufky, or not filming ap¬
pearance.
c. Its fpecific gravity to water is 6000 to 1000.
d. It is fixed in the fire, and becomes black by
calcination : it then gives to glaffes a blue co¬
lour, inclining a little to violet, which colour,
of all others, is the moft fixed in fire.
e. The concentrated oil of vitriol, aquafortis,
and aqua-regia, diffolve it; and the folutions
become red. The cobalt calx is likewife dif-
folved by the fame menftrua, and alfo by the
volatile alkali and the fpirit of fea fait.
f. When united with the calx of arfenic in a flow
(not a brifk) calcining heat, it affurnes a red
colour : the fame colour is naturally produced
by way of efflorefcence,' and is then called the
bloom or flowers of cobalt. When cobalt and
aifenic are melted together in an open fire,
they produce a blue flame.
g. It does not amalgamate with quikfilver by
any means hitherto known.
h. Nor does it mix with bifmuth, when melted
with it, without addition of fome . medium to
promote their union.
[i ] Native cobalt. Cobalt with arfenic and iron
in a metallic form.
Pure native cobalt has not yet been found;
that which paffes for fuch, according to Kirwan,
is mineralifed by arfeniq. Bergman, however, in
his Sciagraphia, has entered this prefent ore un¬
der the denomination of native cobalt : and cer¬
tain it is, that among all the cobaltic ores, this
!
A L O G Y. Part II. .
is the neareft to the native ftate of this femime- Semi- !
tal. It always contains a fmall quantity of ‘ '
iron, befides the arfenic, by wdiich it is minera- “ “ . jt
lifed. - ||
This is of a dim colour when broken, and
not unlike fteel. It is found,
a. Steel-grained, from Laos in the parifh of Fa-
rila in the province of Helfingeland, and Schnee-
berg in Saxony.
b. Fine-grained, from Loos.
c. Coarfe-grained.
d. Cryftallifed :
1. In a dendritical or arborefcent form ;
2. Polyhedral, with fhining furfaces ;
3. In radiated nodules.
[2.] Calcifarm cobalt. Cobalt is moft commonly
found in the earth mixed with iron.
A. In form of a calx.
1, ) With iron without arfenic.
a. Loofe or friable ; cobalt ochre. This
is black, and refembles the artificial
zaffre.
b. Indurated : Minera cobalti vitrea. The
fehlacken or flag cobalt. This is like¬
wife of a black colour, but of a glafiy
texture, and feems to have loft that fub-
ftance which mineralifed it, by being de¬
cayed or weathered.
2. ) With arfenical acid; cobalt-blut, Germ.
(Jcbra cobalti rubra ; bloom, flowers, or ef-
florefcence of cobalt.
a. Loofe or friable. This is often found of
a red colour like other earths, fpread
very thin on the cobalt ores ; and is, when
of a pale colour, erroneoufly called flowers
of bifmuth.
b% indurated. This is commonly cryftal¬
lifed in form of deep red femitranfparent
rays or radiations : It is found at Schnee-
berg in Saxony.
B. Mineralifed.
1. ) With fulphurated iron.
This ore is of a light colour, nearly re.
fembling tin or filver. It is found cryftal¬
lifed in a polygonal form.
a. Of a flaggy texture.
b. Coarfe-grained.
This ore is found in Baftnafgrufva at , !
Raddarfhyttan in Weftmanland, and difco-
vers not the leaft mark of arfenic. The
coarfe-grained becomes flimy in the fire, and
tticks to the ftirring hook during the calci¬
nation in the fame manner as many Vegules
do : It is a kind of regule prepared by na¬
ture. Both thefe give a beautiful colour.
2. ) With fulphur, arfenic, and iron. This re¬
fembles the arfenicated cobalt ore, being on¬
ly rather of a whiter or lighter colour. It
is found,
a. Coarfe-grained.
b. Cryftallifed ;
1. In a polygonal figure, with ftiining
furfaces, or glan%kobolt. It is partly
of a white or light colour, and partly
©f a fome what reddilh yellow.
3.) With
MINER
3.) With fulphurated and arfenicated nickel
and iron ; fee Kupfer-nickel, below.
Ufes, &c. See the article Cobalt. SeealfoCnE-
MisTKY-Index; and Metallurgy, Part II.
fedl. xi.
VI. Nickel; Niccohim. This is the lateft difcovered
ferpimetal. It was firft defcribed by its difco-
verer Mr Cronftedt, in the Ads of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for the years
1751 and 1754, where it is faid to have the fol¬
lowing qualities:
1. It is of a white colour, which, however, in¬
clines fomewhat to red.
2. Of a folid texture, and Ihining in its frac¬
tures.
3. Its fpecific gravity to water is as 8,500 to
1000.
4. It is pretty fixed in the fire ; but, together
with the fulphur and arfenic, with which its-
ore abounds, it is fo far volatile as to rife in
form of hairs and branches, if in the calcina¬
tion it is left without being ftirred.
5. It calcines to a green calx.
6- The calx is not very fufible, but, however,
tinges glafs of a tranfparent reddilh-brown or
jacinth colour.
7. It diflblves in aquafortis, aqua-regia, and the
fpirit of fea-falt; but more difficultly in the vi¬
triolic acid, tinging all thefe folutions of a deep
green colour. Its vitriol is of the fame co¬
lour ; but the colcothar of this vitriol, as well
as the precipitates from the folutions, become
by calcination of a light green colour.
8. Thefe precipitates are diflblved by the fpirit
of fal ammoniac, and the folution has a blue
colour; but being evaporated, and the fediment
reduced, there is no copper, but a nickel re-
gulus is produced.
9. It has a ftrong attradion to fulphur ; fo that
when its calx is mixed with it, and put on a
fcorifying teft under the muffel, it forms with
the fijlphur a regule: this regule refemblesthe
yellow fteel grained copper,ores, and is hard
and fhining in its convex furface.
10. It unites with all the metals, except quick-
filver and filvef. When the nickel regulus is
melted with the latter, it only adheres clofe to
it, both the metals lying near one another on
the fame plane; but they are eafily feparated
with a hammer. Cobalt has the ftrongeft at¬
tradion to nickel, after that to irorf, and then
to arfenic. The two former cannot be fepa¬
rated from one another but by their fcorifica-
tion ; which is eafily done, fince,
11. This femimetal retains its phlogifton a long
time in the fire, and its calx is reduced by the
help of a very fmall portion of inflammable
matter : it requires, however, a red heat before
it can be brought into fufion, and melts a little
fooner, or almoft as foon, as copper or gold,
confequently fooner than iron.
Nickel is found,
Native.
This is mentioned by Mr Rinman to have
been lately met with in a mine of cobalt in Hefie.
A L O G Y. 133
It is very heavy, and of a liver colour, that is, Semi-
dar-k red. When pulverifed and roalled under a
muffle, it forms green excrefcences, and fmokes;x anS^n'Je\
but its fmoke has no particular fmell: and no
fiiblimate, whether fulphureous or arfenical, can
be caught. It is folubie in acids, and the folu¬
tion is green ; but a poliflied iron plate difcovers
no copper.
B. In form of a calx. Nickel ochre, aerated nic¬
kel.
i. Mixed with the calx of iron. This is green,
and is found in form of flowers on kupfer-
nickel.
C. Mineralifed.
1. With fulphurated and arfenicated iron and co¬
balt ; Kupfernickel. This is of a reddifh yel¬
low colour; and is found,
a. Of a flaggy texture.
b. Fine-grained ; and
c. Scaly. Thefe two are often from their co¬
lour confounded with the liver-coloured
marcafite.
2. With the acid of vitriol. This is of a beau¬
tiful green colour, and may be extracted out
of the nickel ochre, or efflorefcence of the
Kupfernickel.
For a full account ©f this femimetal, fee the ar¬
ticle Nickel, and Chemistry-/«</i?.v.
VII. Manganefe. Manganejium.
The ores of this kind are in Swediflr called
Irunjlen ; in l^Min fyderea, or magnejite nigra, in
order to diftinguilh them from the magnefm alba
officinalis ; and in French manganefe, &c.
1. Manganefe confifts of a fubftance which give*
a colour both to glafles and to the folutions
of falts, or, which is the fame thing, both
to dry and to liquid menftrua, viz.
a. Borax, which has diflblved manganefe in
the fire, becomes tranfparent, of a reddilh
brown or hyacinth colour.
b. The microcofmic fait becomes tranfparent
with it, of a crimfon colour, and moulders in
the air.
e. With the fixed alkali, in compofitions of
glafs, it becomes violet; but if a great
quantity of manganefe is added, the glafs is
in thick lumps, and looks black.
d. When fcorified with lead, the glafs obtains
a reddifh brown colour.
e. The lixivium of deflagrated manganefe is of
a deep red colour.
2. It deflagrates with nitre, which is a proof
that it contains fome phlogifton.
3. When reckoned to be light, it weighs as
much as an iron ore of the fame texture.
4. When melted together with vitreous compo¬
fitions, it ferments during the folution : but it
ferments in a ftill greater degree when it is
melted with the microcofmic fait.
5. It does not excite any effervefcence with the
nitrous acid: aqua-regia, however, extrabts
the colour out of the black manganefe, and
diflblves likewife a great portion of it, which
by means of an alkali is precipitated to a white
powder.
6. Such
MINERALOGY,
Semi- 6. Such colours as are communicated to glafles
metals. by manganefe, are eafily deftroyed by the calx
Mol)bdena. arfen;c or t;n . tbey aif0 vanifh of them-
felves in the fire.
7. It is commonly of a loofe texture, fo as to
colour the fingete-like foot, though it is of a
metallic appearance when broken.
Manganefe is found,
£i.] Native; of the difcovery and qualities of
which, an account is given under the article
Manganese in its alphabetical order. See alfo
C H E MIS T R
£2.] Calciform.
yt. Loofe and friable.
a. Black ; which feems to be weathered or de¬
cayed particles of the indurated kind.
B. Indurated.
1. ) Pare, in form of balls, whofe texture con-
fifts of concentric fibres. Pura fphterica ra-
diis concentratis.
a. White ; very fcarce.
2. ) Mixed with a fmall quantity of iron.
a. Black manganefe, with a metallic bright-
nefs. This is the moft common kind,
and is employed at the glafs-houfes and
by the potters. It is found,
1. Solid, of a flaggy texture.
2. Steel-grained.
3. Radiated.
4. Cryftallifed, in form of coherent hemi-
fpherea.
VIII. Molybdena.
A. Lamellar and Alining, its colour fimilar to that
of the potter’s lead-ore.
This fubftance refembles plumbago or black-
lead ; and has long been confounded with it,
. even by Cronftedt. But it pofleffes very diffe¬
rent properties ; in particular,
1. Its laminae are larger, brighter: and, when
thin, flightly flexible. They are of an hexa¬
gonal figure.
2. It is of a lead colour, and does not ftrike fire
with hard fteel.
3. Its fpecific gravity is = 4,569, according to
Kirwan ; and 4,7385, according to Briflbn.
4. When rubbed on white papper, it leaves
traces of a dark brown or bluifh colour, as
the plumbago or black lead does ; but they
are rather of an argentine glofs; by which cir-
cumftance the molybdena, according to Dr
d’Arcet, may be eafily diftinguifhed from
black -lead, as the traces made by this lafl are
of lefs brilliant, and of a deeper tinge
5. In an open fire, it is almoft entirely volatile
and infufible. Microcofmic fait or borax
fcarcely affeft it; but it is afted upon with
much effervefcence by mineral alkali, and forms
with it a reddifh mafs, which fmells of fulphur.
6. It confifts of an acid of peculiar nature (fee
Chemistr.y-./W«c.) united to fulphur. A
fmall proportion of iron is commonly found in
it, but this feems merely fortuitous : 100 parts
of molybdena contain about 45 of this acid
and 55 of fulphur.
Part II.
7. It is decompofed either by detonation with Semi-
nitre, or by folution in nitrous acid. LS*
8. This acid is foluble in 570 times its weight
of water in the temperature of 60 ; the folu- -4
tion reddens that of litmus, precipitates ful¬
phur from the folution of liver of fulphur,
&c. The fpecific gravity of the dry acid is
3’4<5°'
9. This acid is precipitable from its folution in
water by the Pruflian alkali, and alfo by tine-,
ture of galls: the precipitate is reddilh brown.
10. If this acid be diftilled with three times its
weight of fulphur, it reproduces molybdena.
11. The folution of this acid in water unites to
fixed alkalies, and forms cryltallifable falls ; as
it alfo does with calcareous earth, magnefia*
and argil: thefe laft combinations are diilicult-
ly foluble. It a&s alfo on the bafe metals, and
with them affumes a bluilh colour.
12. This folution precipitates filver, mercury,
or lead, from the nitrous acid, and lead from
the marine, but not mercury.
13. It alfo precipitates barytes from the nitrous
and marine acids, but no other earth. Mo-
lybdenousbarofelenite is foluble in cold water.
14. This acid is itfelf foluble in' the vitriolic
acid by the affiftance of heat; and the folution
is blue when cold, though colourlefs while
hot; it is alfo foluble in the marine acid, but
not in the nitrous.
15. Molybdena tartar and ammoniac precipitate
all metals from their folutions by a double affi¬
nity. Gold, fublimate corrofive, zinc, and
manganefe, are precipitated white ; iron or tin,
from the marine acid, brown; cobalt, red;
copper, blue; alum and calcareous earth, white.
16. This acid has been lately reduced by Mr
Hielm ; but the properties of the regulus thus
obtained are not yet publifhed.
17. Mr Pelletier obtained alfo the regums or
molybdena, by mixing its powder with oil into
a pafte, and expofing it with powdered char¬
coal in a crucible to a very violent fire for
two hours. See CHEMisTRY-/nr/«c, n° 14,97.
18. This femimetal being urged by a ilrong fire
for an hour, produces a kind of filvery flowers,
like thofe of antimony.
ip. Molybdena is laid to be foluble in melted
fulphur ; which feems highly probable, as ful¬
phur is one of its component parts.
See farther the article Molybdena, and
Chemistry-/«i/«c.
IX. Wolfram. Wolfranum, Spuma Lupiy Lat. See
the detached article Wolfram.
This mineral has the appeai'ance of manganefe,
blended with a fmali quantity of iron and tin.
1. With coarfe fibres.
a. Of an iron-colour, from Altenberg in Sax¬
ony- This gives to the glafs compofitions,
and alfo to borax and the microcofmic fait,
an opaque whitifh yellow colour, which at laft
, varifhes.
X. Siderite. ) See thofe words in the order of the
XI. Satumite.j alphabet.
2 AP-
Fart II. MINER
appendix.
, APPENDIX.
Of Saxa and Petrifactions.
THOUGH the Saxa, and foffils commonly called
Petrifactions, cannot, in ftriftnefs, be ranked in a
mineral fyftem, for the reafons formerly given ; yet
as thefe bodies, efpecially the latter, occupy fo con-
fiderable a place in moft mineral colledions, and the
former muft neceflatily be taken notice of by the miners
in the obfervations they make in fubterranean geo¬
graphy, it appeared proper to fubjoin them in fuch an
order as might anfwer the purpofe for which they are
regarded by miners and mineralogifts.
Order I. Saxa. Petra.
Thefe may be divided into two kinds,
i. Compound faxa, are {tones whofe particles, con-
fifting of different fubftances, are fo exa&ly fitted and
joined together, that no empty fpace, or even cement,
can be perceived between them; which feems to indi¬
cate, that fome, if not all, of thefe fubftances have
been foft at the inftant of their union.
2. Conglutinated ftones, are Hones whofe particles
have been united by fome cementitious fubftance,
which, however, is feldom perceivable, and which of¬
ten has not been fufficient to fill every fpace between
the particles : in this cafe the particles feem to have
been hard, worn off, and in loofe, fingle, unfigured
pieces, before they were united.
I. Compound faxa.
A. Ophites. Scaly limeftone with kernels or
bits of ferpentine ftone in it.
I. Kohnord marble. It is white and green.
2. Serpentina antico, is white, with round pieces
of black fteatites in it. This muft not be
confounded with the ferpentino verde antico.
3. The Haraldfio marble. White, with qua¬
drangular pieces of a black fteatites.
4. The marmor po%zemera di Genova. Dark
green marble, with white veins. This kind
receives its fine polifh and appearance from
the ferpentine ftone.
S. Stelljlen or gejlelflein. Granitello.
ju Of diftinft particles. In fome of thefe the
quartzofe particles predominate, and in others-
the micaceous : in the laft cafe it is com¬
monly flaty, and eafy to fplit.
2. Of particles.which are wrapt up in one ano¬
ther.
a. Whitifh grey.
b. Greenifh.
c. Reddifti.
A L O G Y.
C. Norrka. Murljlen of the Swedes.
compofitum mica, quartzo, et granato.
1. With diftinft garnets orftfirl.
a. Light grey.
b. Dark grey.
c. Dark grey, with prifmatical, radiated, or
fibrous cockle or fhirl.
2. With kernels of garnet-ftone.
a. Of pale red garnet ftone.
The firft of this kind, whofe fiaty ftrata makes
it commonly eafy to be fplit, is employed
for mill-ftones, which may without difficul¬
ty be accompliftied, if fand is firft ground
with them ; becaufe the fand wearing away
the micaceous particles on the furfaces, and
leaving the garnets predominent, renders
the ftone fitter for grinding the corn.
D. The whetftone, Cos. Saxum compofitum mi.
ca, quartzo, et forfan argilla martiaii in non-
nullis fpeciebus.
x. Of coarfe particles.
a. White.
b. Light grey.
2. Of fine particles.
a. Liver-brown colour.
b. Blackifh grey.
c. Light grey.
d. Black. The table-flate, or that kind ufed
for large tables and for fchool Hates.
3. Of very minute and clofely combined par¬
ticles. The Turkey-ftone This is of an # gee y;.
olive colour, and feems to be the fineft mix- (p. 86.
ture of the firft fpecies of this genus. The col* I<) !
beft of this fort come from the Levant, and
are pretty dear. The whetftone kinds,
when they fplit eafily and in thin plates,
are very fit to cover houfes with, though
moft of them are without thofe properties.
F. Porphyry ; Porphyrites. Italorum porfido.
Saxum compofitum jafpide et feltfpato, interdum
mica et bafalte (t>). See the article Porphyry.
a. Its colour is green, with light-green feltfpat,
Serpentina verde antico. It is faid to have
been brought from Egypt to Rome, from
which latter place the fpecimens of it now
come.
b. Deep red, with white feltfpat.
c. Black, with white and red feltfpat.
d. Reddilh brown, with light red and white
feltfpat.
e. Dark grey, with white grains of feltfpat
alfo. The dark red porphyry has been
moft employed for ornaments in btiilding ;;;
yet it is not the only one known by the
name
(d) Great part of the hill of Bineves in Lochaber is compofed of a kind of porphyry. It is remarkably
fine, beautiful, and of an elegant reddifh colour ; “ in which (fays Mr Williams) the pale rofe, the blufh, and’
the yellowiffi white colours, are finely blended and (haded through the body of the ftone ; which is of a jelly-
like texture, and is undoubtedly one of the fineft and moft elegant ftbnes in the world. On this hill alfo
is found a kind of porphyry of a greenilh colour, with a tinge of brownifh red. It is fmooth, compadl,
and heavy ; of a clofc uniform texture, but has no brightnefs when broken. It has angular fpecks in-it of a--
white quartzy fubftance.”
136 MINER
jifptnKx. name of porfido, the Italians applying the
SAxA‘ , fame name alfo to the black kind.
;“'r ^ G. The trapp of the Swedes. Saxum compoftttm
jafpide mart tali molli, feu arg'dla martial! indurata.
See the article Trapp.
This kind of ftone fometimes conftitntes or
forms whole mountains 5 as, for example, the
mountain called Hunneberg in the province of
Wellergotland, and at Drammen in Norway;
but it is oftener found in form ofveins in moun¬
tains of another kind, running commonly in a
ferpentine manner, contrary or acrofs to the
diredlion of the rock itfelf. It is mot homoge¬
neous, as may be plainly feen at thofe places
where it is not preffed clofe together ; but
where it is preffed clofe, it feems to be per-
feftly free from heterogeneous fubftances.—*
When this kind is very coarfe, it is interfper-
,fed with feltfpat ; but it is not known if the
finer forts likewife contain any of it. Befides
this, there are alfo feme fibrous particles in it,
and fomething that refembles a calcareous fpar;
this, however, does not ferment with acids,
but melts as eafy as the ftone itfelf, which be¬
comes a black folid glafs in the fire. By cal¬
cination it becomes red, and yields in aflays 12
or more per cent, of iron. No other fort of
ore is to be found in it, unlefs now and then
fomewhat merely fuperficial lies in its fiflures;
for this ftone is commonly, even to a great
depth in the rock, cracked in acute angles, or
ih form of large rhpmboidal dice. It is em¬
ployed at the glafs houfes, and added to the
compofition of which bottles are made. In
the air it decays a little, leaving a powder of a
brown colour; it cracks commonly in the fire,
and becomes reddiftr brown if made red-hot.
It is found,
1. Of coarfe chaffy particles.
a. Dark grey.
b. Black.
2. Coarfe-grained.
a. Dark grey.
b. Reddifh.
A L O G Y. PaftU.
c. Deep brown. /p.nii*.
3. Of fine imperceptible particles.
a. Black. The touohftone ; Lapis lydlus. ' v
b. Bluifh.
c. Grey.
d. Reddifh.
The black variety (3. a.) is fometimes
found fo compact and hard, as to take a
polifh like the black agate: it melts, how¬
ever, in the fire to a black glafs ; and is,
when calcined, attradfed by the load-ftone.
II. Amygdaloides. The carpolithi or fruit-ftone
rocks of the Germans.
It is a martial jafper, in which elliptical
kernels of calcareous fpar and ferpentine ftone
are included.
a. Red, with kernels of white limeftone, and
of a green fteatites. This is of a particular
appearance, and when calcined is attradted
by the load ftone ; it decays pretty much in
the air, and has fome affinity with the trapp,
and alfo with the porphyry. There are
fometimes found pieces of native copper in
this ftone.
I. The gronfltn of the Swedes.
Its bafis is horneblende, interfperfed with
mica. It is of a dark green colour, and in
Smoland is employed in the iron furnaces as a
flux to the bog-ore.
K. The granite. Saxam compofitum feltfpata, mica
et quartzo, quibus auidentaliter interdum borne*
blende Jleatites, granatus et bafaltes immixti funt.
Its principal conftituent parts are felt-fpat, or
rhombic quartz, mica, and quartz. See the
article Granite. '
It is found,
(1.) Loofe or friable. This is ufed at the
Swedifh brafs-works to call the brafs in, and
comes from France.
' (2.) Hard and compadl.
a. Red.
1. Fine-grained ;
2. Coarfe-grained.
b. Grey, with many and various colours (e).
II Con-'
(e) Mr Wiegleb has analyfed a fpecies ©f green granite found in Saxony. The cryftals are heaped toge¬
ther, and form very compadl layers; the colour fometimes an olive green, fometimes refembling a pear, and
fometimes of a reddiftr brown ; fome of them being perfedtly tranfparent, and others neary fo According
to Mr Warren, they contain 25 per cent, of iron ; whence they have been called green ore of iron. An ounce
of thefe cryftals heated red hot in a crucible loft two grains in weight, and became of the colour of honey.
The remainder was put into a retort, and diftilled with marine acid, with which it evidently effervefeed. The
refiduum was lixiviated with diftilled water, freftr muriatic acid added, and the diftillation and lixiviation re¬
peated. The iron precipitated from this lixivium, and reduced partly to its metallic ftate, weighed two
drachms. M. Wieglcb concludes, that the fpecimen contained two drams 264- grains of lime. From fur¬
ther experiments he concludes, that 100 parts of the fubftance contained 36.5 of filiceous earth ; lime 30.8;
iron 28.7 ; and w'ater and fixed air 4.0.
Scotland is remarkable for a great number of excellent granites, little or nothing inferior to porphyry.
Of thefe the following kinds are mentioned by Mr Williams.
1. The grey granite, or moor-Jlone as it is called in Cornwall, is very common in this country. In fome
places it fhows no marks of ftrata 5 and in others it isdifpofed in thick unwieldy irregular beds, which are com¬
monly broken tranfverfely into huge mafles or blocks of various fizes a nd ftiapes. There is a great variety
in this kind of ftones; fome of them differing but little in appearance from bafaltes; others are compofed of
almoft equal parts of black and white grains, about the fize of fmall peafe, whence it is called peafy nuhin by
N° 224. the
Pan II, MINERAL
Appendix. II. Conglutinated faxa.
Saxa. of larger or broken pieces of ftones of the fame
'"1“" v 1 kinds conglutinated together. Breccia. b.
i. Of limeftone cemented by lime.
a. Calcareous breccia; the marml brccciali of the
Italians.
When thefe kinds have fine colours, they
the common people. In Galloway and other places it frequently has a longitudinal grain, as if the compo*-
nent parts had been all moved one way by a gentle flow of water. When this kind of granite begins to un¬
dergo a fpontaneous decompofition by expofure tq the atmofphere, we obferve that it is conipofed of pretty
large grains of the figures of cubes, rhomboids, &c. fome of them fo large as to deferve the name of frag¬
ments ; and the large ft of thefe are always of quartz or feldfpath, and talc.
2. Reddifti granite, @f a gellied texture, which, Mr Williams fay?, is one of the fineft and moft elegant
ftones in the world. The mountains of Bineves, he fays, are principally compofed of this ftone.; and it is
found in great abundance in many other parts of Scotland, but he never faw it exhibit any marks of ftratifi-
cation.
3. The fine reddifli granites, in which feveral fine ftrades of colours are blended together, not fpread out in
tints as in the former. Neither this nor the former are ftratified ; “ On the contrary (fays our author), both
exhibit fuch a degree of uniform regularity, that in fome places there is no difference between a ftone and a
mountain, excepting only in magnitude ; as many mountains of granite are nothing more than one regularly
uniform mafs throughout, in which not the leaft mark of a bed^ is to be feen, nor hardly a crack or fiflure,
unlefs it be at the edge of fome precipice or declivity. Thefe two varieties of elegant red granite are met with
in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland, in Galloway, and many other places. We often find maffes of
ta’c fo large in this fecond variety, that fome of them may be called fragments, not difpofed in any order, but
higgledy-piggledy through the body of the ftone.
4. Stratified reddifh granite, refembling the third in colour and quality, but not always quite fo pure or free
from admixture of other llony matter of a different quality. This variety frequently contains larger and
fma’ler fragments of fine laminated talc. Mr Williams, however, has feen this kind of granite difpofed in
pretty regular ftrata in the fhires of Moray and Nairn, and other parts of Scotland. e
5. Granite of a white and whitifti colour, generally of a granulated texture, containing a great quantity of
mica, or fmali-leaved talc, and the grains of quartz fometimes large and angular. This variety is fubjedf to
fpontaneous decompofition ; part frequently diffolves and falls into Jakes, in fuch an exceedingly fine and atte¬
nuated ftate, that it does not fink in the water. “ I have found (fays Mr Wil.iams) this fubftance in many
places where water had been accidentally drained off, refembling fine (hell marie, only much lighter. When
thoroughly dry, it is the lighteft foffile fubftance I ever handled ; and, when blanched with rain, it is as white
as fnow. This variety of granite is either not ftratified, or exhibits thick irregular beds. It frequently con¬
tains a confiderable quantity of talc, in maffes and feales too large to be called mica.”
Our author is of opinion, that this fine white fubftance produced from the decompofition of the granite, is
the true kaolin of the Chinefe, one of the compouent parts of porcelain ware. “ The authors of the Hi-
ftory of China (fays he) informs us, that the fine porcelain ware is compofed of two different foffile
fubftances, called by them petuntfe and kaolin. We are further told, that the petuntfe is a line white vitref-
cible ftone, compaft and ponderous, and of confiderable brightnefs in the inlide when broken, which they
grind to a fine powder ; and that the kaolin is not a ftone, but a fine white earthy fubftance, not vitriliabie, at
leaft. not in the heat of a common potter’s furnace : that they mix the kaolin and the flour cf the petuntfe to¬
gether, and form a |>afte of this mixture, which they mou d into all forts of porcelain veffels. Now, from the
beft accounts of this matter which J have been ab e to obtain, after a good deal of fearch and inquiry, it ap¬
pears to me, that the fediment which I have mentioned above is the true kaolin ; and that as the fine white
glaffy quartz, which is found in irregular maffes, and in irregular difeontinuous veins or ribs, in.fome of the rocks
of fchiftus, is the true petuntfe ; and if this obfer vat ion is really true, it deferves to be remarked, that Scot¬
land is as well furnilhed with the beft materials for making fine porcelain as moft countries in the world. The
fpecies of quartz which I fuppofe to be petuntfe is of a pure fine uniform glaffy texture, femitranfparent, and
of a pure fnowy whitenefs. A broken piece of this ftone, and a newly broken piece of fine porcelain, are
very like one another. There is a great quantity of petuntfe, or pure white quartz, in many places of Scot?
land, particularly in the north and Highlands. . There is a confiderable quantity of it upon the ftiore and
wafhed by the tide between Banff and Cullen, generally in pretty large maffes in rocks of,bluifti fchillus ; and
to the beft of my memory it is very fine of the kind. There is alfo a confiderable quantity of it in difeonti¬
nuous ribs and maffes, in rocks of blue fchift, about three or four miles north of Caliendar in Monteith, upon
the fide of the high road which runs parallel to Lochleodunich, which I think alfo very fine. In fome
places this fort of quartz is tinged with a flelh colour from the neighbourhood of iron, which renders it unfit
for porcelain ; but there is plenty to be found of a pure white in almoft all parts of Scotland, without any
mineral tinge whatever. The kaolin is perhaps as plentiful in Scotland as the petuntfe, there being many ex-
tenfive lakes eafily drained, which contain a confiderable depth of it; and moreover, it is to be found ia
many places that have been lakes, which are now laid dry by accident. There is a quantity of kao’in about
Vol. XII. Part I. S loo
O G Y.
are po’ilhed and employed for ornaments in
architedture and other ceconcmical ufes.
The lumachella of the Italians, or fheli mar¬
bles. Thefe are a compound of Ihells and
corals, which are petrified of changed into
lime, and conglutinated with a calcareous
fubftance. When they have many colours,
they
App
S.
M I N E R A
they are, called marbles, and employed for the
fame purpofes as the preceding ( f).
2. Of kernels of jafper cemented by a jafpery fub-
ftance. Breccia jafpidea. Diafpro brecciato of
the Italians.
LOGY. Part If.
Of this kind fpecimens from Italy are feen Appendix.
in collections. A coarfe jafper breccia is faid - Saxa,
to be found not far from Frejus in Provence in * 1 *
France.
3. Of filiceous pebbles, cemented by a jafpery
/ fubltance,.
i co yards below the high road upon the fouth fide of a bridge, about a mi'e and a half or two miles fouth of
the inn of Aviemore in the Highlands. It lies beneath a ftratum of peat bog, in a place which has been a
lake, but is now drained by the riv.er Spey cutting through one fide of the mound which formed the lake.—
There is more than one ftratum of the kaolin in this place, and fome of it is exceeding white, efpecially
when blanched by the rain ; and there is a white granite rock up the rivulet, at fome diftance above the bridge,
the decompofttion and diflolution of which is fuppofed to produce this fine and curious fediment. Several
lakes in the Highlands of Scotland are nearly full of kaolin. One of them is fituated in the country of Strathe-
rig in Invernefs lhire, lefs than a mile north of the public road, and upon the weft fide of the farm of Diimin.
It is a pretty long lake, and there is a confiderable depth of kaolin in it, which may be drained at a moderate
expence ; and, if I remember well, the granite rocks which furround it are pretty white and fine. If the
kaolin originates from coloured granite, it is good for nothing, efpecially if it contains the leaft tinge of iron,
becaufe this will difcolour and fpoil the beauty of the porcelain ; but wherever white granite is found compofed
of quartz, feldfpath, and mica, without any admixture of fhirl, and efpecially iron, the kaolin Ihould be
diligently fought after in that neighbourhood. Lochdoon, in Galloway, is faid to contain a great quantity
of kaolin. It was drained fome years ago on the fuppofition of its containing {hell marie ; but on trying the
fubftance contained in it, it was found not to be marie but kaolin. Thefe fubftances may eafily be miftaken-
for one another at firft ; but they are eafily diftinguifhed by trying them with acids, the marie readily efrervefcing
with the weakeft, and the kaolin not at all with the ftrongeft acid liquors.”
6. Grey compofite granite is a very beautifufftone, and when broken looks as if compofed of fmall frag¬
ments of various fizes and (hapes, not unlike calve’s-head jelly. When polilhed, the fragments appear as if v
fet or inlaid in a fine pellucid or water-coloured matter. There is a fingle ftratum of very curious compofite
granite, a little to the w eft of Loffiemouth, in the county of Moray, in Scotland of about fix or eight feet-
thick. It is compoftd chiefly of grains and fragments of various bright and elegant colours, moft of which
are as large as peafe and beans, all fine, hard, and femipellucid ; there is about an eighth part of good lead ore
in the compofition of this ftone, pf the kind commonly called potter’s ore ; and it is likewife remarkable, that
there is no other granite in that neighbourhood but this fingle ftratum, all the ftrata above tptd below it being
moftly a coarfe, imperfeft, grey fand-ftone.
7. Granite of a loofe friable texture, fubjeft to fpontaneous decompofition, and reduftton to granite gravel.
There is a remarkable rock of this kind near the Queen’s-ferry in Scotland, on the road to Edinburgh, which?
appears in prodigious thick irregular ftrata. This rock feems to be compofed chiefly of quartz, ftrirl, and
feme iron ; and produces excellent materials for the high roads.
8. In many parts of the north of Scotland, in the Highlands, and in Galloway, there is found an excel’
lent fpecies of grey granite, compofed chiefly of red and black coloured grains. This is a fine and very durable
jftone, very fit for all kinds of architedlure.
In fpeaking of thefe ftones, Mr Williams obferves, that the finer and moft elegant red granites, and the
Sneft granite-like porphyries, fo much referable one another, that he does not attempt to diftinguifhthem; and
Scotland is remarkable for a great number and variety of them. “ The elegant reddifh granite o£ Bineves, near
Fort William (fays he), is perhaps the bell and moft beautiful in the .world : and there is enough of it to ferve
all the kingdoms on earth, though they were all as fond of granite as ancient Egypt. There are extenfive
rocks of red granite upon the fea-ftiore to the weft of the ferry of Ballachylifh in Appin, and Kkewife at
Strontian, as well as many other parts of Argyleftiire. I have feen beautiful rtd granite by the road fide,
near Dingwall, and in feveral other parts of the north of Scotland, which had been blown to pieces with gun¬
powder, and turned off the fields. There are extenfive rocks of reddifti granite about Peterhead and Slains,
and both of red and grey granite in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen. The hill of Cruffel in Galloway, and
feveral lower hills and extenfive rocks in that neighbourhood, are of red and grey granite, where there are great
■varieties of that ftone, and many of them excellent. Upon the fea fhore near Kinnedore, weft of Loffiemouth,v
in Moray, there is a bed of ftone about eight feet thick, which I think Ihould be called a compofite granite.
It is corapofed of large grains, or rather ,fmall pieces of bright and beautiful ftones of many different colours
and all the ftony parts are exceedingly hard, and fit to receive the higheft poliftt. About a fixth or eighth
part of it alfoconfifts of lead ore, of that fpecies called potter’s ore. The feparate ftony parts compofing this-
ftratum are all hard, fine, folid, and capable of the moft brilliant polifh ; and if folid blocks can be railed free
from all cracks and blemifties, I imagine, from the beauty and variety of colours of the ftony part, and the
quantity of-bright lead ore which, is trended through the compofition and body of the ftone, that this would
be a very curious and beautiful ftone when polifhed.”
(f) The ftones called Ludi Helmontii or Paracelfi, have fome fimilarity in their form to the breccia, a. b.:
for they are compofed of various lumps of a marly whitiftr-brown matter, feparated into a great number of!
$>o!ygonQus compartments, of various fizes, formed of a whitilh-yellow cruft of a red calcareous fpar, fome-
3 timea.
Part II,
MINER
fubftance, of fomething like it. The plutti-
pudding ilone of the Engllfh ; BrecciaJilicea.
Its bafis, which at the fame time is the ce¬
ment, is yellow; wherein ace contained Angle
flinty or agaty pebbles, of a grey colour or
variegated. 1 his is of a very elegant appear¬
ance when cut and polilhed ; it is found in
England and Scotland (e).
4. Of quartzofe kernels combined with an un¬
known cement. Breccia quart%ofa.
5. Of kernels of feveral different kinds of ftones.
Breccia faxofa.
A L O G Y, J3c
a. Of kernels of porphyry, cemented by a por- /ppcix.
phyry or coarfe jafpery fubftance ; Breccia Saxa.
b. Of kernels of fevetal faxa; Breccia indeter-
minata.
i. Of conglutinated kernels of fandftone ; Brec¬
cia arenacea. This kind confifts of fandflone
kernels, which have been combined a fecond
time together.
The above mentioned breccias of themfelves mull '
demand the diftinftions here made between,
but which perhaps may feem to be carried too
* far,
times pyritous, which often rife a little above the external furface, arid inclofe each of them on the inflde.
According to Bomare, the ludus Jlellalus hclmontii, found in the county of Kent, is covered with a kind of
ftriated felenite refembling the zeolite. They are for the moft part of a globole figure, fel'dom flat, but often
convex on the outfide; and fometimes with a concave furface.
According to Wallerius, the ludus helmontii lofes by calcination about half of its weight; and, on being
urged by fire, is melted into a black glaffy flag. It effervefces ftrongly with aqua-fortis, and this folution is
of a yellow colour. But what feems very extraordinary, by adding to it fome oil of tartar per deiiquium,
bubbles are produced, from which a great number of flender black threads or filaments are produced, flicking
like a cobweb to the fides and bottom of the veflel.
Thefe ftones are found quite feparate by themfelves, as well as various ftalagtnites and cruftaceous bodies,
on the ftrata of argillaceous earth, in various parts of Europe, chiefly in Lorrain, Italy, England (in the
counties of Middlesex and Kent), and elfewhere.
Wallerius ranges the ludus helmontii among the tophi) in the Spec. 425. of his Syflem of Mineralogy. Para-
celfus had attributed to thefe ftonea a lithontriptic power, and Dr Grew fays that they are diuretic; but
there is not the leaft proof of their really poffefling fuch qualities.
(g) The breccia ftratum, or plumpudding-rock, exhibits a finguldr appearance as it lies in the ground;
being compofed of water-rounded ftones of all qualities and of all iizes, from fmall gravel up to large rounded
ftones of feveral hundreds weight each ; the interftices being filled up with lime and fand. It frequently alfo
contains lime and iron. Sometimes it exhibits a gtotefque and formidable appearance.; containing many large
bullets of various flzes and fhapes, without any marks of regular ftratification, but looking like one vaft mafs
of bullets of unequal thicknefs 5 and in this manner frequently fwelled to the fize of a confidefable mountain.
It is frequently cemented very ftrongly together; fo that parts of the hills compofed of it will frequently
overhang in dreadful prepipices, lefs apt to break off than other rocks in the fame fituation ; one reafon for
which, befides the ftrength of the cement, is, that the breccia, when compofed of bullets, is lefs fubjedt td
fiffures and cutters than other rocks; being frequently found in one folid mafs of great extent and thicknefs.
Some of the plumpudding-rocks are made up of fmaller parts, coming near to the fize of coarfe gravel. It
is evident, however, that all the parts of the bieccia, whether courfe or fine, have been rounded by agitation
in water, as the rocks differ nothing in appearance from the coarfer and finer gravel found upon the beach of
the fea, excepting only that the parts are ftrongly cemented together in the rocks, and are loofe upon the
fhores of the ocean.
Some of the breccia is compofed of finely rounded ftones of various and beautiful colours, about the fize of
plums or nuts, all very hard and fine. Were this fpecies fa wed and poliihed, it would appear as beautiful and
elegant as any ftone in Europe ; much refembling mofaic wcrk in fmall patterns.
In general, the breccia is regularly ftratified or not according to the fize of the component parts of the
ftotie. Such rocks as are compofed of round gravel and fmall builets are generally very regular in their ftra¬
tification, while thofe which contain bullets fomewhat larger in fize are commonly difpofed in thick and
coarfe beds, and fuch rocks as are made up of the largeft kind of bullets feldom fhow any marks of ftratifi.
cation at all.
Amopg many other p’aces in Scotland, where breccia or pudding-ftone abounds, there are extenfive rocks
and high c'iffs of it upon the fouth ftiore at the weft end of the Pentiand Frith, to the weftward of Thurfo in
Caithnefs, which ftretch quite actofs the County of Caithnefs into Sutherland; and in Sutherland as well as
Caithnefs, this rock is of a rough contexture, and appears in pretty high hills, deep glens, overhanging rocks,
and frightful precipices, to the weft of Brora, Dunrobin, and Dornoch, which gives it a grotefque and for¬
midable appearance in that country. This range of breccia firetches alfo quite through Sutherland, and
likewife through Rofsftiire, the weft fide of Ferndonald, and Dingwall, where it exhibits the very fame phe¬
nomena as in Sutherland and Caithnefs. It continues the fame longitudinal line of bearing, which is nearly
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, quite through the highland countries of Invernefs and Perthfiiire ; and it forms
confiderable hills, and very high and rugged rocks, upon both fides of that beautiful piece of freflr water Loch-
nefs. Much of the ftone here, as well as in other places in this range, is compofed of large bullets; the rock is
very hard and ftrong, and it hangs is frightful precipices upon both fides of the lake, through which rock Ge-
•S a neral
MINERALOGY.
far,' fince tueir particles are fo big and pi a ip
as to be eafily known from one another. Thefe
Jtones are a proof both of the fubverfions
■which the mountains in many centuries have
undergone, and of fome hidden means which
nature makes ufe of in thus cementing diffe¬
rent kinds of Hones together. Any certain
bi-gnefs for the kernels or lumps in fuch com¬
pounds, before they deferve the name of breccia,
cannot be determined, becaufe that depends
on a comparifon which every one is at liberty
to imagine. In fome places, the kernels of
porphyry have a diameter of fix feet, while in
others they are no bigger than walnuts.^ Some¬
times they have a progrefilve fize down to
that of a fine fandftone. Moft of this kind of
ftone is fit for ornaments, though the work-
maflfhip is very difficult and coftly\
B. Conglutinated Hones of granules or fands of dif¬
ferent kinds. Sandftone ; Lapis arenaceus.
In this divifion are reckoned thofe which confift
of fuch minute particles, that all of them cannot
eafily be difeovered by the nailed eye. ri he great-
efi part, however, confifi of quartz and mica;
which fubftances are the moft fit to be granulated,
without being brought to a powder.
1. Cemented by clay.
a. With an apyrous or refradlory clay. This
is of a loofe texture; but hardens, and is very
refradtory in the fire.
1. With common clay.
2. With lime; refembles mortar made with coarfe
fand.
a. Confiding of tranfparent and greenifh grains
of quartz and white limeftone.
1. Of no vifible particles. This is of a loofe
texture, and hardens in the air.
3. With an unknown cement.
a. Loofe.
1. Harder.
■ c. CompadL
d. Very hard.
4. Cemented by the rnft or ochre of iron. Is
found in form of loofe ftones at feveral places,
and ought perhaps to be reckoned among the
tuinera arenacex or fand ores ; at lead when the
martial ochre make* any confiderable portion
of the whole.
5. Grit-ftone. This is of greater or lefs hardnefs,
moftly of a grey, and fometimes of a yellowifh
colour ; compofed of a filiceous and micaceous
fand, and rarely of a fparry kind, with greater
01 leffer particles clofely compared and united
by an argillaceous cement. It gives fome
fparks with fteel, is indiflbluble for the moft
Part IR
part in acids, and vitrifiable in a ftrong fire. Appendix.
It is ufed for millftones and whetftone^, fome- Saxa.
times for filtering ftones and for building. Fa-  
broni.
N. B. The argillaceous grit has been before
deferibed, p. 89'. col. t.
6. Elaftic. Afingularfpeciesoffandftone,ofwhich
a fpecimen was ftiowu fome years ago to the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris by the
Baron de Dietrich.. It is flexible and elaftic ;
and confifts of fmall grains of hard quartz, that
ftrike fire with tempered fteel, together with
fome micaceous mixture. The elafticity feems
to depend on the micaceous part, and foftnefs
of the natural gluten between Loth. It is
faid, that this elaftic ftone was found in Bra¬
zil, and brought to Germany by his excellency
the .Marquis de Lavradio.
There are alfo two tables of white marble,
kept in the palace Borghefe at Rome, which
have the fame property But. the fparry par¬
ticles of their fubftance, though tranfpare-nt,
are rather foft ; may be eafily feparated with
the nail, and effervefee with aqua fortis ; and
there is alfo in it a. little mixture of fmall par¬
ticles of tale or mica. See 'Joutn. de Fhyf
for Gift. 1784, p.275. See alfo the article
Marble (Eiajltt )
C. Stones and ores cemented together; Minerse ere-
nace*.
1. Of larger fragments.
a. Mountain green, or •viride monlanum cupri,
and pebbles cemented together, from Sibe¬
ria.
b. Potters lead-ore, with limeftone, flate-ker-
nels, and ffitlls.
c. Yellow or marcafitical copper ore, with fmall
pebbles.
2. Of fmaller pieces.
a. Potter’s lead-ore with a quartzofe fand.
b. Mountain green with fand from Siberia.
c. Cobalt ore with fand.
d. Martial ochre with fand.
Order II. Mineral changes, or Petrifactions,
These are mineral bodies in the form of animals or
vegetables, and for this reafon no others belong to
this order than fuch as have been really changed from
the fubjedls of the other two kingdoms of nature.
I. Earthyr changes ; Terra larvata.
A. Extraneous bodies changed,into a lime fubftance,
or calcareous changes ; Larva calcarea.
(i.J Loofe or friable. Chalky changes; Creta
larvata.
a. la
neial Wade cut a fine military road upon the fouth fide of the lake, at a great expence of time, labour, and gun,,
powder. Thefe recks are feen ftretching through the mountains of Strathcrig into Badenoch, where it forms a re¬
markable rock and j recipice called Craigdow or the Black Rock. The fame range is again feen farther to¬
wards the fouth-weft, in ieveral places to the fouth of the Black Mount, and in the country of Glenorchy in
Argyleihire : and Mi Williams fuppofes, that the longitudinal line of this rock, fo far as it has been juft
pointed out, is little lefs than 200 miles, and in fome places it fpreads eight or ten miles in what may be
•ailed the latitudinal line acrofs the beating of the rocks.
Parc II. MINER
Appendix* a In form of vegetables.
Petri- b. In form of animals.
factions. i. Calcined or mouldered fhells; Humus con-
‘"l" v chaceus.
(2.) Indurated; PetrfaBa calcarea.
a. Changed and filled with fplid limeftone.
1. In form of animals.
2. In form pf vegetables.
b. Changed into a calcareous fpar; Petrfafla
calcarea fpetofd.
1. in form of.animals.
2. In form of vegetables.
i?. Extraneous bodies changed into a ftfhty fubftance.
-Siliceous changes; Larva filiceee. Thefe. are,
like the flint,
(1.) Indurated.
a. Changed into flints.
1. Canadians in form of Ihells, from the
river Tomm in Siberia.
2. Agat in form of wood. Such a piece is
faid to be in the colleftion of Count
Teffin.
3. Coralloids of white flint, ( Millepora.)
4. Wood of yellow flint.
C- Extraneous bodies changed into clay. Argilla¬
ceous changes; Larva argillacea.
> a. Loofe and friable.
1. Of porcelain clay.
a. In form of vegetab’es.
A piece of white porcelain clay from Ja¬
pan, with all the marks of the root of a
tree, has been obferved in a certain collec¬
tion.
b. Indurated.
1. In an unknown clay.
a. In form of vegetables. OJleocolla. It is
faid to be changed roots of the poplar
tree, and not to confift of any calcareous
fubftance.
A fort of fofiile ivory is faid to be
found, which has the properties of a
clay; but it is doubtful if it has been right¬
ly examined.
II. Saline extraneous bodies, or fuch as are penetrated
by mineral falts. Corpora peregrlna infalita. Larva
infalit a.
A. With the vitriol of iron.
1. Animals.
a. Human bodies have been twice found in
the mine at Falun in Dalarne; the laft
was kept a good many years in a glafs-cafe,
but began at laft to moulder and fall to
pieces.
2. .Vegetables.
a. Turf, and
b. Roots of trees.
Thefe are found in water ftrongly im¬
pregnated with vitriol. They do not burn
with a flame, but only like coal in. a ftrong
fire; neither do they decay in the air.
HI. Extraneous bpdies penetrated by mineral inflam¬
mable fubftances, or mineral phlogifton.
A* Penetrated by the'fubftance of pit-coals.
1. Vegetables, which commonly have been woods,
or appertaining to them.
A L O G Y.
a. Fully faturated. Gagas, Jet. (See p.104.
col. 2.) The jet is of a folid ftiining texture.
b. Not perfectly faturated; Mutnia vegetalilh.'1
It is loofe; refembles umber, and may be ufed
as fuch.
B. Penetrated by rock-oil or afphaltum.
i. Vegetables.
a. Turf.
The Egyptian mummies cannot have any
place here, fince art alone is the occafion
that thofe human bodies have in length of
time been penetrated by the afphaltum, in
the fame manner as has happened naturally
to the wood in pit-coal ftrata. See Mummv.
C- Penetrated by fulphur which has diflblved iron,
or by marcafite and pyrites. Pyrite impregnata.
Petrifacla pyritaeea.
1. Animals.
a. Human.
b. Bivalves.
c. Univalves.
d. Infedts.
IV. Metals in form of extraneous bodies; Larva me-
talliferre.
A. Silver r Larva argentifene.
(.t- ) Native.
a. On the furfaces of fhells.
(2.) Mineralifed with copper and fujphur.
a. Fahlertz, or grey filver ore in form of ears-
of corn, See. and fuppofed to be vegetables,
are found in argillaceous flate at Frankea-
berg and Tahlitteren in Heffe.
B. Copper ; Larva cuprifera.
(1.) Copper in form of calx.
a. In form of animals, or of parts belonging to
them.
1. Ivory and other'bones of the elephant.
The Turcois or Turquoife ; which is of
a bluifh green colour, and much valued
in the eaft.
At Simore in Languedoc bones of ani¬
mals are dug, which during the calcina¬
tion affume a blue colour; but it is not
probable that the blue colour is owing t®
copper.
(2.) Mineralifed copper, which impregnates ex¬
traneous bodies ; Cuprum mineralifatum corpora,
peregrina ingrejfum.
a. With fulphur and iron. The yellow or
marcafitical copper ore that impregnates,
I. Animals.
a. Shells.
£. In form of fifb.
b. With fulphur and filvet. Grey filver ore
or fablerts, like ears of corn, from the flate-
qi^arries in Heffe.
C. Changes into iron ; Larva ferr if era.
(1.) Iron in form of calx, which has affumed
the place or the fhape of extraneous bodies
Ferrum calciforme corpora peregrina ingrejfum.
a. Loofe ; Larva ochracea.
r. Of vegetables.
Roots of trees, from the lake Langelma-.
. in Finland. See the a&s of the Swedifti;
Academy of Scieaces for the year 1742.
b. Indu*-
141
Appendix,.
Pe.tri-
142
MINERALOGY.
Part it.
1. Indurated ; Larva bamatUica.
i. Of vegetables.
(2.) Iron mineralifed, affuming the fliape of ex¬
traneous bodies.
a. Mineralifed with fulphur. Marcafite. Lar~
w pyritacetc.
'V. Extraneous bodies decompofing, or in a way of
deftruftion ; Corpora peregrina in gradibus dejlruc-
tionis conjiderata. Mould; Humus. Turf; Turba.
A. From animal?. Animal-mould; Humus animalis.
1. Shells. Humus conchaceus.
2. Mould of other animals; Humus diverforum
animalium.
B. Vegetable mould ; Humus vfgelabilis.
1. Turf; Turbo.
a. Solid, and hardening in the air; Turla foltda
acre indurefcens. This is the beft of the kind
to be ufed for fuel, and comes neareft to the
pit-coals. It often contains a little of the
vitriolic acid.
1. Lamellated turf; Turba foliafa. This is in
the firft degree of deftruftion.
2. Mould of lakes ; Humus lacujlris. This is a
black mould which is edulcorated by water.
3. Black mould; Humus ater. This is univerfally
known, and covers the furface of that loofe
earth in which vegetables thrive beft.
Order HI. Volcanic Products(h).
t. Slags ; Scoria vulcanorum.
Slags are found in great abundance in many places
of the world, not only where volcanoes yet exift,
but likewife where no fubterraneous fire is no\y
known : Yet, in Mr Cronftedt’s opinion, they
cannot be produced but by means of fire. Thefe
are not properly to be called natural, fince they
have marks of violence, and of the laft change
that mineral bodies can fuffer without the de-
fti'U&ion of the world ; nor are they artificial, ac¬
cording to the univerfally received meaning of
this word. We cannot, however, avoid giving
lliem a place here, efpecially after having ad¬
mitted the petrifactions ; and fhall therefore ar-
lange the principal of them, according to their
external marks.
A. 1 celand agate ; Achates Jlandicvs niger.
It is black, folid, and of a glafly texture ; but in
thin pieces it is greenifh and femitranfparent
like glafs-bottles, which contain much iron.
The' moft remarkable cireumftance is, that fuch
large folid mafies are found of it, that there is
no poflibility of producing the like in any glafs-
houfe.
It is found in Iceland, and in the ifland of A-
feenfion ; The jewellers employ it as an agate,
though it is too foft to refill wear.
B. Rheniih millftone ; Lapis molaris Rhenanus.
Is blackilh-grey, porous, and perfectly refembles
a fort of flag produced by mount Vefuvius. A 'tpfsndix.
variety of lava, according to Kirwan. Volcanic
C. Pumice-ftone ; Pumex. Product!
It is very porous and bliftered, in confequence of —\ ‘
which it is fpecifically very light. It refembles
that frothy flag which is produced in our iron
furnaces.
I. White.
t. Black.
The colour of the firft is perhaps faded or
bleached, becaufe the fecond kind comes in
that ftate from the laboratory itfelf, vi%. the
volcanoes.
D. Pearl flag; Scoria covjlantes glolulis vitreis con-
glomeratis.
It is compounded of white and greenMh glafa
particks, which feem to have been congluti-
nated while yet foft or in fufion. Found on
the Ifle of Afcenfion.
E. Slag-fand or allies; Scoria pulverulent a, cineret
vulcanorum.
This is thrown out from volcanoes in form of
larger or fmaller grains. It may pei^iaps be
the principle of the Terra Puzzolana; becaufe
fuch an earth is faid at this time to cover the
ruins of Herculaneum near Naples, which hi-
ftory informs us was deftoyed by a vokano du¬
ring an earthquake.
II. Lavas.
Lava has been generally underftood to denote the
aggregate mafs of melted matters which flow
out of the mouths, or burft out from the fides,
of burning mountains. According to Mr Kir¬
wan, however, lavas are the immediate produce
of liquefaftion or vitrification by the volcanic
fires, and “ Ihould carefully be diftinguilhed
from the fubfeqmmt produdtions affected by the
water either in a liquid or fluid ftate, which ge¬
nerally is ejedled at the fame time *” And of
lavas, fo diftinguilhed, he deferibes feveral va¬
rieties. See the article Lava, in the order of
the alphabet; where the nature, origin, kinds,
and phenomena of lavas, are copioufly deferibed
and explained.
III. Bafaltes.
This fort of ftone was by Cronftedt, in the firft
edition of his Mineralogy, ranked among the
garnet earths, and confounded with the Ihoerls;
an impropriety which was pointed out by Berg¬
man in his Sciagrapbia, fedt. 120.—Mr Kirwan
confiders bafaltes as an imperfedt lava, and
aferibes its origin both to fire and water. He
deferibes it as found, either, 1. In opaque tri¬
angular or polyangular columns ; which is the
proper bafaltes: Or, 2. In amorphous malfes
of different magnitudes; forming folid blocks,
from the fmalleft fize to that of whole mountains s
which kind is called trapp. See the detached
article Basaltes (i) ; where its fpecies and va¬
rieties
Appendix.
Volcanic
iPRODUCTS
(h) For the nature, hiftory, theory, &c. of volcanoes, fee the article Volcano.
(r) In that article, p. 46. col. 1.1. 9. dele the words, “ The Englilh miners call it coclde, the German
Jihoerl."—P. 47. col. 2. 1. 28. for “ a kind of marble,” read “ a volcanic produdlion.” The Lapis Lydius,
<ar Touchftone, mentioned in the fame paragraph, Ihould have been fpecificd to be of the fort called Trapp.
Parc II.
Appendix,
Volcanic
Products
MINER
rietles are particularly delcribed, and different
opinions ftated concerning its formation. See
alfo the article Trapp.—Some plaufible argu¬
ments againfl the volcanic origin of bafaltes will
A I* O G Y. 143
be mentioned in the courfe of the fubjoined note Appendix.
(k), extra died from Williams's Natural Hijlory of Volcanic
the Mineral Kingdom. Papoucr*
(k) There is a gieat variety of bafaltes in Scotland, particularly of the grey kinds; fome of which
are capable of the higheft degree of polifh. A good black kind is met with on the fouth fide of Arthur’s
Seat near Edinburgh, where it forms a fmooth perpendicnlar rock, with feveral of the columns broken off,
and the fufpesded pieces threatening to fall down upon the paffengers below. This ilone is capable of re¬
ceiving a fine polifh ; and, in the opinion of Mr Williams, would be fit for all forts of ornaments about fe-
pulchral monuments. It will polifh to a bright and beautiful black, which will be unfading.
There is another kind, heavy and hard, of a black or blackifh-grey colour; of which great quantities
have been carried from the Frith of Forth to pave the flreets of London. This, for the moll part, iscoarfely
granulated'in the infide, though fometimes the grain is pretty fine. Sometimes it is bright in the infide-
when broken. It is compofed of grains of quartz and fliirl of different fizes, and commonly contains
fome iron. It always appears in thick, irregular, beds, fome of which are enormoufly thick; and feldom
or ever equa’ly fo : on the contrary, where it is found uppermoft, it frequently fwells into little hills, of va¬
rious fi/.es. Mod of the fmall iflands in the Frith of Forth are compofed of this kind of done; as well as
fome hills in the neighbourhood of Inverkeithing and of Edinburgh.
The known characlerillic of the bafaltes is to form itfelf into balls, columns, and other regular fi¬
gures. The columnar kind affumes a pentagonal, hexagonal, or heptagonal figure but quadrangular co¬
lumns are not common. They are all fmooth on the outfide, and lie parallel and contiguous to one ano--
ther ; fometimes perpendicular, fometimes inclining, in proportion to the pofition of the ftratum which is
thus divided : If the ftratum lies horizontal, the columns are perpendicular; if inclining^, the pillars alfo in¬
cline in exadl proportion to the declivity of the ftrata, being always broken right acrofs the ftratum. Some
are of one piece from top to bottom ; others divided by one or more joints laid upon one another,’ which
form a column of feveral parts. The rock called the Giant’s Caufeivay in Ireland is a pretty good fpeci-
men of the jointed columnar bafaltes : but there is a more beautiful fpecies above Hiilhoufe lime-quarry, about
a mile foutb of Linlithgow in Scotland; and a coarfer one near the toll-bar north fide of Queen’s Ferry,
and feveral other places in Fife. In fome places the bafaltes are formed into magnificent columns of great
length ; and in others afford an affemblage of fmall and beautiful pillars refembling a range pf balluftrades-
or organ pipes. Some of the columns on the fouth fide of Arthur’s Seat already mentioned are very long j <
and there are like wife magnificent columns of great length in the ifland of Egg, and others of the Hebri¬
des. Thefe columns, when broken, are frequently of a black, or blackifti grey, in the infide; fome of ~
them being compofed of fmall grains, which gives them an uniform and fmooth texture ; but much of this-
fpecies of ffone has larger grains in its compofition, rough, {harp, and unequal, when broken. All
the grains, however, are fine, hard, and bright; and the Hone in general is capable of a fine polifh.
The other fpeeies of bafaltes which forms itfelf into diftimft maffes, affumes fometimes a quadrangular, ,
fbmetimes an oval, globular, or indeterminate figure. They are found of all fizes from the fize of an egg
to that of an houfe : but though they differ in {hape from the columnar bafaltes, they agree in almoil
every other refpeft; whence Mr Williams thinks that they are only to be accounted a variety of the co¬
lumnar kind. It is common to fee one ftratum of the hafaltine rocks exhibiting, in one place, regular pil¬
lars or globes; and near thefe, very irregular ones, differing very little from the common cutters found
in all rocks ; and at no great diftance, the fame rock is found to run into one entire mafs, exhibiting no
tendency to be broken or divided into any columns whatever. Of this the rock of.Arthur’s Seat is an in-
ftance. Some of thefe only produce folid maffes of different figures and fizes; whik others produce quan¬
tities of a fofter, friable, ftony matter, of the fame quality in which the hard maffes-of different figures are
found imbedded. Pretty good fpecimens of the fecond kind or variety of bafaltes are met with on the
road-fide between Cra-mond bridge and the Queen’s Ferry, and in feveral other places in the Lothians and
in Fife.
The cruftatec bafaltes are of two kinds ; r. Such as have the crufts more, dry and friable than, the,inter=
*al parts ; and, 2. Such as are dry and friable throughout the whole mafs.
The firit of thefe has not only a cruft; of the friable matter adhering to it, but is like wife imbedded in a
quantity of the fame. Our author has feen many quarries of this kind of bafaltes dug for the high roads,
in which the quantity of foft friable matter greatly exceeded that of the hard maffes, and in which in-
erufted ftones of various fizes and ftlapes appeared. In fuch quarries, fome of the largeft maffes have only
a few coats of penetrable friable matter, furrounding a nucleus which varies in fize, but is uniformly hard
throughout and we (hall find other yolks in the fame quarry imbedded in the fofter matter, which, when
broken, exhibit a neft of Hones including one another like the feveral . coats of an onion. * Thefe cruftated
bafaltes which envelope one another are a curious fpecies of ftone. The feveral coats of furrounding matter
differ nothing in quality from the ftones contained in them, and feme of the inner crufts are often very
hard ; but the nucleus within, though fmall, is always the hardeft. The decompofition by the weathering
efthe fofter. ^matter found furrounding and enveloping the harder maffes of ftoitc in this and the fecond fpc- -
cies-
*44 M I N *E R A L O G V. Part IT,
JppenJix k:1cs of bafaltine rocks, has produced a phenomenon frequently met with in Great Britain, efpecially in Appendix.
\ olcanic gcotjan^> which greatly puzzles many. It is very common in low grounds, and upon fome moderate emi-VoncANid
RODjjcTsnenceS} t0 fee a prodigious multitude of Hones of all fhapes and fixes, very hard, and pretty fmooth on the Product*
v outfule. Thefe Hones are fometimes fo numerous and large, that it is often found impra&icable to clear a field of v—
them. Where thofe Hones are a fpecies of bafaltes, which they commonly are, and of the fecond fpecies of
bafaltes defcribed above, they alivay originate from a decompofition of-the more foft or friable parts of thofe
rocks, which moulder or fall away, and leave the harder Hones detached and fcattered about, and the de-
compofed matter difiolves by degrees, and becomes good corn mould.
Here Mr Williams takes occafion to conteH the opinion of thofe who thinly that Hones grow or vege¬
tate like plants. He owns indeed that they increafe in bulk : but this, he fays, is only in fuch fituations
as are favourable for an accretion of matter carried down and depofited by the water; iii all other fituations
they grow lefs and lefs. “ Others (fays he) imagine, that thefe Hones (on which this extraneous matter has
been depofited) were rolled about; that the afperities and (harp angles were by that means worn off; and that
they were all at laff depofited as we fee them, by the waters of the univerfal deluge : and, having their ob-
tufe fides and angles, as if they had been rounded by rolling in water, makes thefe gentlemen confident that
■they are right; and if we did not frequently find Hones exaflly of the fame figure, fize, and quality in the
rock, it-vvould.be very difficult to overthrow this hypothefis. I have taken great pains to invelligate this
point, having frequently examined circumHances; and^never failed to difeover the llratum of rock which
thofe detached Hones originally belonged to. “ The Hrata or beds of the feveral fpecies of bafaltes fpread as
wide, and Hretch as far, as the other concomitant Hrata in the neighbourhood where they are found : but they
often lie very flat, or with a moderate degree of declivity; and confequently, when the fofter and more friable
matter found in the interflices of thefe rocks, which inclofes and binds the harder maffes in their native beds,
is decompofed, the harder Hones muH then lie fcattered wide upon the face of the ground.”
The fecond fpecies of the cruflated bafaltes, viz. that which is dry and friable throughout the whole mafs,
is generally of a coarfe and granulated texture, and of all the various lhades of grey colours; from a rufly
black to a light-coloured grey. This kind of cruflated bafaltes is developed when the maffes are either broken
or in a Hate of ckcompofition ; and there are maffes of it of all fizes and fliapes found in the rocks, re-
iembling the fecond and third fpecies of the bafaltes; appearing alike fmooth on the outfide, with obtufe
angles; in fliort, refembling-the bafaltes in every re/peft : but when they are expofed to the external air
and weather for any confiderable time, the feveral incruflations decay, decompofe, and crumble down by
.degrees. When they quarry this fpecies of bafaltes for the roads, they are able to break and pound them
fmall with eafe; but the harder fpecies are fo hard and cohefive, that they are with the greateff difficulty
broken into fufficiently fmall parts.
Compofite bafaltes refembles the three lafl fpecies, in figure, colour, and all other external appearances;
being diflinguiffiable from them only in the internal flru&ure or grain of the Hone. It refembles fome of
the granites, as confifling of much larger grains than the other bai’altes. Many of the larger grains in the
compofite bafaltes are more than an eighth part of an inch over, and fome more than a fourth ; appearing
with fmooth flat futfaces, and of a tabulated texture, exadlly refembliag the quartzy grains fo commonly .
found in the compofition of mofl of the granites. The chief, if not the only, diflinguifhable difference be¬
tween the grains in each of them is the colour. They are evidently large grains of quartz, &c. which exhi¬
bit flat fliining furfaces in both. Thofe grains or fragments are commonly white, yellowiffi, red, or black,
in the compofition of moff of the granites ; whereas they are often feen of a pale blue, or a bluifh grey co¬
lour, in the compofite bafaltes, and fome of them approaching to white. It is only in the internal ffru&ure,
however, that thefe bafaltes have any vefemblance to the granites; in all the external charafters, they differ
nothing from the reff of their own genus.
A fifth fpecies of bafaltes is indurated through the whole Hratum, folid and uniform through all its parts,
and exhibiting only fuch cracks and fiffures or cutters as are commonly met with in other hard beds of
Hones. Many beds of this fpecies are frequently met with in the coal-fields, and the miners are often ob¬
liged to fink through them in their coal-pits. “ The Salifbury craigs at Edinburgh (fays our author)
might be fingled out as a good example of this fpecies of Hone, were it not that part of the fame Hratum
is formed into columns on Arthur’s feat; though, I believe, this is no good exception, as it evidently ap¬
pears that, the beds of bafaltes which are formed into columns, glebes, &c. only affume thefe figures where
they are expofed to the influence of the external air, or hare but little cover of rock above them. When
any of thofe beds Hrike deep under the cover of'feveral other Hrata, they are not found in columns, &o»
Nothing but an uniform mafs then appears, although the fame bed is regularly formed near the furfacc;
which proves that the columnar and other bafaltes are formed by fhrinking and chapping.
“ The flrata of bafaltes fpread as wide, and flretch as far in the longitudinal bearing, as the other different
Hrata which accompany them in the countries where they are found. The rocks of bafaltes alfo are generally
found in very thick Hrata ; and that generally in places where no other rock is found above the bafaltes, the
Hrata of it are often very unequal in thicknefs. But this, in general, is only in fituations where no other
rock is found above it; for when it fairly enters into the furface of the earth, fo as to have other regular
Hrata above it, which is feen in an hundred places in the Lothians, Fife, and other parts of Scotland, it then
appears pretty equal in thicknefs, as equal as moH other beds of fuch great thicknefs are; and yet it is
remarkable, that although mofl of the flrata of bafaltes are of great thieknefs, there are frequently thin
N°424. 4 Hrata
Part 11. ■ MINERALOGY. i4j
jppcnJix. ftrata of various kinds found both above and below It. We have numerous examples of this In all the parts Appendix*
Volcanjc 0p Scotland where bafaltes Is found ; as for inftance, there are thin and regular ftrata feen and quarried both VoLCANi<i
PRoot/cTi a|30ve ancj below the thick bed of that rock in the Salifbury craigs near Edinburgh. In the Bathgate hill?; PKClDt;cT*
fouth of Linlithgow, and in many other parts of Scotland, there are feveral ftrata of bafaltes, and likewife
of coal, limeftone, freeftone, and other concomitants of coal blended promifeuoufly Jiratum Juper Jlratum ;
and the bafalt is frequently found immediately above, and immediately below regular ftrata of coal; of
courfe bafaltes is not the lava of volcanoes. We can prove to ocular demon ftration, from the component
parts, and from the fituation, ftretch, and bearing of the ftrata of bafaltes, that they are real beds of ftone,
coeval with all the other ftrata which accompany them j and are blended with them in the ftrudfure of that
part of the globe where they are found, as they dip and ftretch as far every way as the other ftrata found
above and below them. If bafaltes, therefore, be a volcanic production, the other ftrata muft of neceflity
be fo likewife. But how volcanoes fliould produce coal, and how that coal Ihould come into contaft with,
burning lava, is not a little problematical; or rather it is ftrangely abfurd to imagine that burning lava can
come into contadt with coal without deftroying it.
The regularly ftratified quartzy white-mountain rock is fcarce or rather not to be found in moft parts of
Britain. In the Highlands, however, it is very common ; and in fame places of them Mr Williams has
feen it ftratified as regularly as any of the fand-ftones, with other regular ftrata of different qualities imme¬
diately above and below it; and fometimes compofing large and high mountains entirely of its own ftrata.
This ftone is exceedingly hard, dry, and brittle, full of cracks and fharp angles ; the different ftrata fome¬
times moderately folid, but often naturally broken into fmall irregular maffes, with angles as fharp as broken
glafs, and of an uniformly fine and granulated texture, refembling the fineft fugar-loaf. There are large
and high mountains of this ftone in Rofsfhire and Invernefsfhire, which, in a clear day, appear' at a diftance
. as white as fnow, without any fort of vegetation on them except a little dry heath round the edge of
the hill.
M I N
Minerva. MINERVA, or Pallas, in Pagan worfhip* the
s.. goddefs of fciences and of wifdom, fprung completely
armed from Jupiter’s brain ; and on the day of her
nativity it rained gold at Rhodes. She difputed with
Neptune the honour of giving a name to the city of
Athens; when they agreed that whofoever of them
Ihould produce .what was moft ufeful to mankind,
fhould have that advantage. Neptune, with a ftroke
of his trident, formed a horfe ; and Minerva caufed an
olive to fpring from the ground, which was judged to
be moft- ufeful, from its being the fymbol of peace.
Minerva changed Arachne into a fpider, for pretending
to excel her in making tapeftry. She fought the
giants; favoured Cadmus, Ulyffes, and other heroes;
and refufed to marry Vulcan, choofing rather to live
in a ftate of celibacy. She alfo deprived Tirefias of
fight, turned Medufa’s locks into fnakes, and per¬
formed feveral other exploits.
Minerva is ufually reprefented by the poets, pain¬
ters, and fculptors, completely armed, with a com-
pofed but agreeable countenance, bearing a golden
Breaft-plate, a fpear in her right-hand, and her asgis
or fhield in the left, on which is reprefented Medu-
fa’s head encircled with fnakes, and her helmet was
ufually entwined with olives.
Minerva had Teveral temples both in Greece and
Italy. The ufnal viftim offered her was a white hei¬
fer, never yoked. The animals facred to her were the
«©ck, the owl, and the bafililk.
Minervjb Cajlrum, Arx Minerva, Minervium, or
Templum Minerva, (anc. geogr.), a citadel, temple,
and town on the Ionian fea, beyond Hydrus ; feen a
great way out at fea. Now Cafro, a town of Otranto
in Naples. E. Long. 19. 25. N.Lat. 46. 8.
Minekvje Promonlorium (anc. geogr.), the feat of
the Sirens, a.promontory in the Sinus Paeftanus, the
fouth boundary of Campania on the Tufcan coaft; fo
called from a temple of Minerva on it: fituated to the
VoL XII. Part I.
M I N
fouth of Surrentum, and therefore called Surrentinum. Minervalia
Now Capo della Minerva, on the weft coaft of Naples, Miagreha.
over-againft the ifland Capri. u—y——J
MINERVALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals cele¬
brated in honour of Minerva, in the month of March j
at which time the fcholars had a vacation, and ufually
made a prefent to their mailers, called from this fe-
ftival Minerval.
M1NGRELIA, anciently Colchis, a part of
Weftern Georgia, in Alia ; bounded on the eaft by
Iberia, or Georgia properly fo called ; on the weft, by
the Euxine Sea ; on the fouth, by Armenia, and part
of Pontus; and on the north, by Mount CaUcafus.
Colchis, or Mingrelia, is watered by a great many
rivers ; 'as the Corax, the Hippus, the Cyaneus, the
Charitlus, the Phafis, where the Argonauts landed, the
Abfarus, the Ciffa, and the Ophis, all emptying them-
felves into the Euxine Sea. The Phafis does not
fpring from the mountains in Armenia, near the fources
of the Euphrates, the Araxes, andT the Tigris, as Stra¬
bo, Pliny, Ptolemy, Dionyfius, and after them Arrian,
Reland, Calmet, and Sanfon, have falfely afferted; but
rifes in Mount Caucafus; and flows not from fouth to
north, but from north to fouth, as appears from the
map of Colchis or Mingrelia in Thevenot’s colledlion,
and the account which Sir John Chardin gives of that
country. 'Phis river forms, in its courfe a fmall ifland
called alfo Phafis ; whence the pheafants, if Ifidorus
is to be credited, were firft brought to Europe, and
thence called by the Greeks Phufani. The other ri¬
vers of Colchis are confiderable.
The whole kingdom of Colchis was in ancient times
very pleafent and fruitful, as it is ftill where duly cul¬
tivated ; abounded in all the neceffaries of life ; and
was enriched with iftany mines of gold, which gave
occafion to the fable of the Golden Fleece and the Ar¬
go nautic expedition fo much celebrated by the an¬
cients.
T
Sir
MIN [ 146 1 MIN
Mlngrclia. Sir John Chardin tells us, that this country extends
above 100 miles in length and 60 in breadth ; being
not near fo extenfive as the ancient Colchis, which
reached from the frontiers of Iberia or Georgia Pro¬
per, weftward to the Palus Maeotis: that it is beau¬
tifully diverfified with hills, mountains, valleys, woods,
and plains, but badly cultivated: that there are all
the kinds of fruits which are found in England, grow¬
ing wild, but taftelefs and infipid for want of cul¬
ture : that, if the natives underftood the art of ma¬
king wines, thofe of this country would be th? fineft
in the world : that there are many rivers which have
their fource in Mount Caucafus, particularly the Pha-
fus, now called the Rione ;• that the country abounds
in beeves, hogs, wild bears, flags, and other venifon ;
and in partridges, pheafants, and quails : that fal¬
cons, eagles, pelicans, lions, leopards, tigers, wolves,
and jackals, breed on Mount Caucafus, and fome-
times greatly annoy the country ; that the people
are generally handfome, the men ftrong and well made,
and the women very beautiful; but both fexes very
vicious and debauched : i*»at they marry their nieces,
aunts, or other relations, indifferently ; and take two
or three wives if they pleafe, and as many concubines
as they will: that they not only make a common
pradlice of felling their children, but even murder
them, or bury them alive, when they find it difficult
to bring them up: that the common people ufe a
fort of pafte, made of a plant called gom, inftead of
bread; but that of the better fort confifts of wheat,
barley, or rice : that the gentry have an abfolute
power over their vaffals, which extends to life, liber¬
ty, and eftate : that their arms are the bow and ar¬
row, the lance, the fabre or broad-fword, and the
buckler : that they are very natty ; and eat fitting
crofs-legged upon a carpet, like the Perfians; but the
poorer fort upon a mat or bench, in the fame pofture :
M I N I A T U
A DELICATE kind of painting, confifting of
little points or dots; ufually done on vellum,
ivory, or paper, with very thin, fimple water-colours.
—-The word comes from the Latin minium, “ red-
lead that being a colour much ufed in this kind of
painting. The French frequently call it mignature,
from mignon, “ fine, pretty,” on account of its fmall-
nefs and delicacy : and it may be ultimately derived
from “ fmall.”
Miniature is diftinguifhed from other kinds of paint¬
ing by the fmallnefs and delicacy of its figures and
faintnefs of the colouring j on which account it re¬
quires to be viewed very near.
Sect. I. Of Drawing and Defigning.
To, fucceed in this art, a man fhould be perfe&ly
{killed in the art of defigning or drawing: but as moft
people who affeft the one, know little or nothing of
the other, and would have the pleafure of painting
without giving themfelves the trouble of learning to
defign (which is indeed an art that is not acquired
without a great deal of time, anfi continual applica¬
tion), inventions have been found out to fupply the
that the country is very thin of inhabitants, no lefs Minioj
than 12,000 being fuppofed to be fold yearly to the Miniatutc»
Turks and Perfians : that the principal commodities
exported from it are, honey, wax, hides, caftor,
martin-fkins, fiax-feed, thread, filk, and linen-cloth;
but that there are no gold or filver mines now, and
very little money : that the revenue of the prince or
viceroy amounts to about 20,000 crowns per annum :
that the inhabitants call themfelves Chrijlians; but
that both they and their priefts are- altogether illi¬
terate, and ignorant of the do&rines and precepts of
Chriftianity : that their bifhops are rich, have a great
number of vaffals, and are clothed in fcarlet and
velvet : and that their fervice is according to the rites
of the Greek church, with a mixture of Judaifm and
Paganifm.
The cities of moil note in this countrydn ancient
times were Pityus ; Diofcurias, or Diofcorias, which
was fo called from Caftor and Pollux, two of the Ar¬
gonauts, by whom it is fuppofed to have been found¬
ed, and who in Greek are ftyled Diofcuroi, at prefent
known by the name of Savatapoli; Aea on the Phafis,
fuppofed to be the fame as Hupolis; Phafis, fo called
from the river on which it flood; Cyta, at the mouth
of the river Cyaneus, the birth place of'the famous
Medea, called from thence, by the poets, Cytais ; Sa-
racce, Zadris, Surium, Madia, and Zoliffa. As' for
modern cities, it does not appear that there are any
•here confiderable enough to merit a defcription ; or,
if there are, they feem to be little, if at all, known to
Europeans.
MINHO, a great river in Spain, which taking ita
rife in Galicia, divides that province from Portugal,
and falls into the Atlantic at Caminha.
MINIATURE, in a general fenfe, fignifies repre-
fentation in a fmall compafs, or lefs than the reality.
R E-painting;
place of it; by means of whichja man defigns or draws?,
without knowing how to defign.
The firft is chalking: that is, if you have a mind to
do a print or defign in miniature, the backfide of it,
on another paper, mnft be blackened with fmall-coal,
and then rubbed, very hard with the finger wrapped in
a linen cloth : afterwards the cloth muft be lightly
drawn over the fide fo blackened that no black grains
may remain upon it to foil the vellum you would paint
upon ; and the print or draught muft be faftened upon
the vellum with four pins, to keep it from drifting.
And if it be another paper that is blackened, it muft
be put between the vellum and the print, or draught,
with the blackened fide upon the vellum. Then, with
a blunted pin or needle, you muft pafs over the princi¬
pal lines or ftrokes of the print, 01 draught, the con¬
tours, the plaits of the drapery, and over every thing
elfe that muft be diftinguifhed ; preffing fo hard, that
the ftrokes may be fairly marked upon the vellum un¬
derneath.
Copying by fquares is another convenient method
for fuch as are but little (killed in the art of defigning,
and would copy pi&ures, or other things, that cannot
be chalked. The method is this : The piece muft be
divided,
Se&t.
Drawing divided into many equal parts by little fquares, mark-
^ni1. ed out with charcoal, if the piece be clear and whitiihj
e'gning. ancj tjie yaclt can be fairly feen upon it; or with white
chalk, if it be too brown and duiky. After which, as
many fquares of equal dimenfions mull be made on
white paper, upon which the piece muit be defigned;
becaufe, if this be done immediately upon vellum, (as
One is apt to mifcarry in the firft attempt), the vellum
may be foiled with falfe touches. But when it is neatly
done upon paper, it muft be chalked upon the vellum
in the manner before defcribed. When the original and
the paper are thus ordered, obferve what is in each
fqaare of the piece to be defigned ; as a head, an arm,
a hand, and fo forth ; and place it in the correfpond-
ing part of the paper. And thus finding where to
place all the parts of the piece, you have nothing to
do but to form them well, and to join them together.
By this method you may reduce or enlarge a piece to
what compafs you pleafe, making the fquares of your
paper greater or lefs than thofe of the original; but
they muft always be of an equal number.
To copy a pifture, or other thing, in the fame fize
and proportion, another method is, to make ufe of
varnilhed paper, or of the Ikin of a hog’s bladder, very
tranfparent, fuch as is to be had at the gold-beaters.
Talc or ifinglafs will likewife do as well. Lay any one
of thofe things upon your piece ; through it you will
fee all the ftrokes and touches, which are to be drawn
upon it with a crayon or pencil. Then take it off;
and faftening it under paper or vellum, fet up both
againft the light in the manner of a window; and with
a crayon, or a filver needle, mark out upon the paper
or vellum you have put uppermoft, all the lines and
touches you (hall fee drawn upon the varnifhed paper,
bladder, talc, or ifinglafs, you have made ufe of, and
which will plainly appear through this window.
After this manner, making ufe of the window, or of
glafs expofed to the light, you may copy all forts of
prints, defigns, and other pieces, on paper or vellum;
laying and faftening them under the paper or vellum
upon which you would draw them. And it is a very
good and a very eafy contrivance for doing pieces of
the fame fize and proportion.
If you have a mind to make pieces look another
Way, there is nothing to be done but to turn them ;
laying the printed or drawn fide upon the glafs, and
faftening the paper or vellum upon the back of it; re-
tnembering to let your lights fall on the left fide.
A good method likewife to take a true copy of a
pifture in oil, is to give a touch of the pencil upon all
the principal ftrokes, with lake tempered with oil; hnd
to clap upon the whole a paper of the fame fize: then
palling the hand over it, the touches of the lake will
ftick and leave the defign of your piece expreffed upon
the paper, which may be chalked like other things.
But you muft remember to take off with the crumb of
bread what remains of the lake upon the pi&ure be¬
fore it be dry.
You muft likewife make ufe of pounce, made of
powdered charcoal put in a linen-rag; with which the
piece you would copy muft be rnbbed, after you have
pricked all the principal ftrokes or touches, and faften-
ed white paper or vellum underneath.
But a furer and eafier [help than all thefe, for one
who knows nothing of defigrting, is a mathematical
*47
compafs; it is generally made of ten pieces of wood, Drawing
in form of rulers, half a quarter of an inch thick, half -a1^
an inch broad, and a foot long, or more, according as s '
you have a mind to draw pieces of a greater or lefs
fize. To facilitate the conftruftion of this inftrument,
a figure is given, with an explanation of the manner in
which it is to be ufed.
The little board A is to be of fir, and covered with Plate
linen or any other cloth; becaufe the piece you copy, CCCXlV.
and the vellum or paper you copy upon, muft be fixed
upon it. Upon this board muft the compafs alfo be
fixed with a pin, by the end of the firft foot B, deep
enough to keep it clofe, but not fo deep as to hinder
it from turning eafily. When you have a mind to re¬
duce things, place your original on the fide of the foot
C, and the vellum or paper you would draw upon oa
the fide of the foot B; removing the vellum, or drawing
it nearer, according as you intend to reduce or enlarge.
In order to enlarge a piece, you have nothing to do
but to change the places of your original and your
copy; placing the laft towards C, and the other on the
fide of B.
And in both one and the other method, a crayon or
leaden needle muft be put in the foot under which the
vellum lies; and a pin, a little blunted, in that over
the original, with which all the traces are to be fol¬
lowed ; conducing the pin with one hand, and with
the other preffing gently upon the crayon or needle
that marks the vellum. When the crayon or needle
bears fufficiently upon the vellum, you have no occafion
to touch it.
By this inftrument you may alfo draw in equal di¬
menfions : but in order to this, the compafs muft be
fixed in another manner upon the board ; for if it is
to be fattened upon it by the middle at D, your
original and your copy muft be fixed on each fide of
this middle foot, at the equal diftances, or from corner
to corner that is, from C to E, when the pieces are
large. One may likewife draw feveral copies at once
of equal and different dimenfions.
When your piece is marked out upon the vellum,
you muft pafs with a pencil of very clear carmine over
all the traces, to the end they may not be effaced as
you work: then clean your vellum with the crumb of
bread, that no black may remain upon it.
Your vellum muft be pafted upon a little plate of
brafs or wood, of the fize you would make your piece,
to keep it firm and tight: but this palling muft be
on the edges of.your vellum only, and behind the plate;
for which purpofe your vellum muft exceed your plate
above an inch on every fide: for the part you paint
upon muft never be pafted ; becaufe it would not only
give it an ill look, but you could not take it off if you
would. Cut off the little lhags and locks of the vel¬
lum ; and wetting the fair fide with a linen-cloth dip¬
ped in water, clap the other upon the plate with a
clean paper between them: fo much as hangs over mull
be pafted upon the back of the plate, drawing i.t equal¬
ly on all fides, and hard enough to ftretch it well.
Sect. II. Of Materials.
_ The Chief colours made ufe of for painting in mi¬
niature, are
Carmine.
Venice and Florence lake.
T z Rofe
MINIATUR E~P A I N T I N (j.
£4*
5
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
Se^. II,
i Rofe pinlj:.
Vermilion.
, Red-lead.
Brown red.
Red orpiment.
Ultramarine.
Verditer.
Indigo.
Gad-ftone.
Yellow-ochre.
Dutch pink.
Gamboge.
Naples yellow.
Pale mafticot.
Deep yellow mafticot.
Ivory-black.
Lampblack.
True Indian ink.
Biftre, or wood-foot.
Raw umber.
Burnt umber.
Sap-green.
Verdigrife.
Flake-white.
Crayons of all colours.
Gold and filver fhe Is.
Leaf gold and leaf-filver.
The feven tranfparent colours, which are ufed where
writing i® feen through the colour.
C Lake.
Blue.
Yellow.
Liquid Grafs-green.
Dark-green.
Purple-colour.
Brown.
Moft of thefe colours neceflary for miniature-paint¬
ing may eafily be pre ared by attending to the direc¬
tions given under the article Coiouk-Making.
As colours taken from earth and other heavy mat¬
ter are always too coarfe be they never fo well
ground, efpecially for delicate work, becaufe of a cer¬
tain fand remaining in them; the fineft parts may be
drawn out by diluting them with the finger in a cup
of water. When they are well fteeped, let them fettle
a while : then pour out the cleareft, which will be at
top, into another veflel. This will be the fineft, and
muft be let dry ; and when it is ufed, muft be diluted
with gum water.
If you mix a little of the gall of an ox, a carp, or
an eel, particularly of the laft, in green, black, grey,
yellow, and brown, colours, it will not only take a-
way their greafy nature, but alfo give them a luftre
and brightuefs they have not of themfelves. The gall
of eels muft be taken out when they are Ikinned, and
hung upon a nail to dry; and when you would ufe it,
it muft be diluted with brandy ; add a little of it mix¬
ed with the colour you have diluted already. This
likewife makes the colour flick better to the vellum,
which it hardly does when it is grtafy : moreover, this
gall hinders it from fealing.
Some colours are made clearer by fire ; as yellow
echre, brown red, ultramarine, and umber : all others
are darkened by it. But if you heat the faid colours
with a fharp fire, they change; for the brown-red be¬
comes yellow; yellow ochre becomes red; umber red- Colours,
dens alio. Cerufs by fire takes the colour of citron, &c-
and is often called maflicot. Obferve, that yellow ochre V-”*-
heated, becomes more tender than it was, and fofter
than brown red. Likewife brown red heated becomes
fofter than fine yellow ochre. Both are yery pro¬
per. The fineft and trueft ultramarine, heated upon
a red-hot iron, becomes mare glittering ; but it *
waftes, and is coarfer and harder to work with in mi¬
niature.
All tbefe colours are diluted in little cups of ivory,
made on purpofe, or in fea-fhells, with water in which
gum arabic and fugar-candy are put. For inftancci
in a glafs of water put a piece of gum as big as a wal¬
nut, and half that quantity of fugar-candy. This laft
hinders the colours from fealing when they are laid otn
which they generally do when they want it, or the
vellum is greafy.
This gum-water muft be kept in a neat bottle cork¬
ed ; and you never muft take any out of it with a pen.
cil that has colour upon it, but with a quill or fome
fuch thing.
Some of this water is put in the fhell with the co¬
lour you would temper, and diluted with the finger
till it be very fine. If it be too hard, you muft. let it
foften in the fhell with the faid water before you di¬
lute it. Afterwards let it dry: and do thus with every
colour, except lily-green, fap-green, and gamboge*
which muft be tempered with fair water only. But ul¬
tramarine, lake, and biftre, are to be more gummed
than other colours.
If you make ufe of fea-fhell«, you mufl let them
fteep two or three d.iys beforehand in water t then
cleanfe them in boiling-hot water, mixed with vinegar,
in order to carry off a certain fait, which otherwifs
flicks to them, and fpoils the colours that are put td
them.
To know whether colours are fufficiently gummed,
you have nothing to do but to give a broke of the pen¬
cil upon your hand when they are diluted, which dries
immediately: if they chap and fcale, there is too much
gum; if they rub out by palling the finger over them,
there is too little. It may be feen likewife when the
colours are laid on the vellum, by pafling the finger
over them. If they flick to it like a powder, it is a
fign there is not gum enough, and more muft: be put
to the water with w'hich you temper them : but take
care you do not put too much; for that makes the co,
lour extremely hard and dry. It may be known like¬
wife by their glueinefs and brightnefs: fo the mors
they are gummed, the darker they paint; and when
you have a mind to give a greater flrength to a colour
than it has of itfelf, you have nothing to do but to
give it a great deal of gum.
Provide yourfelf with an ivory pallet, very fmooth*
as big as your hand ; on one fide of which tlie colours
for the carnation, or naked parts of a pidlure, arc to
be ranged in the following manner. In the middle put
a great deal of white, pretty largely fpread; becaufe
it is the colour moft made ufe of: and upon the. edge,
from the left to the right, place the following colours
at a little diftance from the white.
Mafticot.
Dutch-pink.
Orpiment.
Yellow
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
Sea. III.
Colours, Yellow ochre.
Green} compofed of verditer, Dutch pink, and
white, in equal quantities.
Blue; made of ultramarine, indigo, aud white,
to a great degree of palcnefs.
Vermilion.
Carmine.
Biftre, and
Black.
On the other fide of the pallet, fpread fome white
in the fame manner as for the carnation. And when
you have a mind to paint draperies, or other things,
place near the white the colour you would make them
of, in order to work, as fhall be fhown hereafter.
The ufe of good pencils is a great matter In or¬
der to make a good choice, wet them a little ; and if
the hairs keep clofe together as you turn them upon
the finger, and make but one point, they are good:
but if they clofe not together, but make feveral points,
and fome are longer than, others, they are good for
nothing. When they are too fharp-pointed, with only
four or five hairs longer than the reft, yet doling all
together, they are, notwithftaqding, good; but they
muft be blunted with a pair of fciffars, taking care at
the fame time you do not clip away too much It is
proper to have two or three forts of them; the largeft
for laying the grounds and dead colouring, and the
fmalleft for finifhing.
To bring the hairs of your pencil to join clofe to¬
gether and make a good point, you muft often put the
pencil juft between your lips when you are at work ;
moiftening and preffing it clofe with the tongue, even
when there is colour upon it; for if there be too much,
fome of it is taken off by this means, and enough left
for giving fine and equal touches. You need not ap¬
prehend this will do you any harm. None of the co¬
lours for miniature, except orpiment, when they are
prepared, have either ill tafte or ill quality. This ex¬
pedient muft efpecially be ufed for dotting, and for fi-
nilhing, particularly the naked parts of a pi&ure, that
the touches may be neat and fair, and not too much
charged with colour. As for draperies and other
things, as well in dead colouring as in finilhing, it is
fufficient, in order to make the hairs of yotrr pencil
join web, and to unload it when it has too much co¬
lour, to draw it upon the edge of the fhell, or upon
the paper you muft put upon your work to reft your
hand on, giving fome ftrokes upon it before you work
upon your piece.
To work well in miniature, you muft do it in a
room that has but one window, and fix youifdf very
near it, with a table and delk almoft as high as the
window; placing yourfelf in fuch a manner, that the
light may always come in on the left fide, and never
forward or on the right.
When you would lay a colour on all parts equa’ly
ftrong, as for a ground, you muft make your mixtures
in fhells, and put in enough for the thing you defign
to paint ; for if there be not enough, it is a great chance
but the colour you mix afterwards is too dark or too
light.
Sect. III. Of Working,
After having fpokc of vellum, pencils, and colours,
4
let us now fhow how they are to be employed. In the
firft place, then, when you would paint a piece, be it
carnation, drapery, or any thing elfe, you muft begin
by dead-colouring; that is to fay, by laying your Co¬
lours on with liberal ftrokes of the pencil,, in the
fmootheft manner you can, as the painters do in oil;
not giving it all the force it is to have for a finifhing ;
that is, make the lights a little brighter, and the fhades
lefs dark, than they ought to be; becaufe in dotting
upon them, as you muft do after dead colouring, the
colour is always fortified, and would at laft be too-
dark.
There are feveral ways of dotting; and every painter
has his own. Some make their dots perfectly round;
others make them a little longiih ; others hatch by
little ftrokes that crofs each other every way, till the
work appears as if it had been wrought with dots..
This laft method is the heft, the boldeft, and the foon-
eft done : wherefore fuch as would paint in miniature-
ought to life it, and to inure themfelves from the firft
to dot in the plump and the foft way ; that is to fay,
where the dots are loft, in a manner, in the ground
upon which you work, and only fo much appears as is
fufficient to make the work feem dotted. The hard
and the dry way is quite the reverfe, and always to be
avoided. This is done bydotting with a colour much
darker than your ground, and when the pencil is not
'moiftened enough with the colour, which makes the
work feem rough and uneven.
Study likewife carefully to lofe and drown your co¬
lours one in another, fo that it may not appear where
they disjoin ; and to this end, foften or allay your
touches with colours that partake of both, in fuch fort
that it may not appear to be your touches which cut
and disjoin them. By the word cut,, we are to under-
ftand what manifeft'y feparates and divides, and does
not run in and blend itfelf with rhe neighbouring co¬
lours; which is rare y pra&ifed but upon the borders
of drapery.
When your pieces are finifhed, to heighten them a
little, give them a fine air; that is to fay, give, upon
the extremity of 'the lights, fmali touches with a co¬
lour yet lighter, which muft be loft and drowned with
the reft.
When the colours are dry upon your pa let or in
your fhells, in order to ufe them, they muft be diluted
with water. And when you perceive they want gum,
which is feen when they eafi y rub off the hand or the
vei um if you give a touch with them upon either, they
muft be tempered with gum water inftead of pure wa¬
ter, till they are in condition.
There are feveral forts of grounds for piftures and
jportraitures. Some are wholly dark, compofed of
biftre, umbre, and. Cologn earth, with a little black
and white ; others more yellow, in, which is mixed a
great deal of ochre ; others greyer, which partake of
indigo In order to paint a ground, make a wafh of
the colour or mixture you would have it, or according
to that of the picture or portraiture you wou d copy;
that is to fay, a very fight lay, in which there is hardly
any thing but water, in order to" foak the vellum*
Then pafs another ay over that, fomewhat thicker, and
ftrike it on very fmoothly with large ftrokes as quick
as you can, not touching twice in the fame place be¬
fore it be dry; becaufe the fecond itroke carries, off
what
ijo
MINIATURE-
of what has been laid on at the firft, efpecially when you
Working. Jean a uttie too hard upon the pencil.
Other dark grounds are likewife made of a colour a
little greeniih: and thofe are moft in ufe, and the pro-
pereft to lay under all forts of figures and portraitures;
becaufe they make the carnation, or naked parts of a
piaure, appear very fine ; are laid on very eafily, and
there is no occafion to dot them, as one is often obli¬
ged to do the others, which are rarely made fmooth
and even at the firft; whereas in thefe one feldom fails
of fuccefs at the firft bout. To make them, you muft
mix black, Dutch pink, and white, all together; more
or lefs of each colour, according as you would have
them darker or lighter. You are to make one lay very
light, and then a thicker, as of the firft grounds. You
may alfo make them of other colours, if you pleafe ;
but thefe are the moft common.
When you paint a holy perfon upon one of thefe
grounds, and would paint a fmall glory round the
head of your figure, you muft not lay the colour too
thick in that part, or you may even lay none at all,
efpecially where this glory is to be very bright: but
lay for the firft time with white and a little ochre
mixed together, of a fufficient thicknefs ; and in pro¬
portion as you go from the place of the head, put a
little more ccbre ; and to make it lofe itfelf, and die
away with the colour of the ground, hatch with a free
ftroke of the pencil, following the round of the glory,
fometimes with the colour of which it is made, and
fometimes with that of the ground, mixing a little
white or ochre with the laft when it paints too dark
to work with : and do this till one be infenfibly loft
in another, and nothing can be feen to disjoin them.
To fill an entire ground with a glory, the brighteft
part is laid on with a little ochre and white, adding
more of the firft in proportion as you come nearer the
edges of the pi&ure: and when the ochre is not ftrong
enough (for you mult always paint darker and darker),
add gall-ftone, afterwards a little carmine, and laftly
bittre-. This firft laying, or dead-colouring, is to be
made as foft as poffxble ; that is to fay, let thefe fha-
dowings lofe themfclves in one another without gap or
interfeiStion. Then the way is to dot upon them with
the fame colours, in order to drown the whole toge¬
ther ; which is pretty tedious, and a little difficult,
efpecially when there are clouds of glory on the
ground. Their lights muft be fortified in proportion
as you remove from the figure, and finilhed as the
reft, by dotting and rounding the clouds; the bright
and obfcure parts of which muft run infenfibly into
one another.
For a day-lky, take ultramarine and a good deal of
white, and mix them together. With this make a lay,
as fmooth as you can, with a large pencil and liberal
ilrokes, as for grounds; applying it paler and paler
as you defcend towards the horizon ; which muft be
done with vermilion or red lead, and with white of
the fame ftrength with that where the Iky ends, or
fomething lefs ; making this blue lofe itfelf in the red,
which you bring down to the Ikirts of the earth, or
tops of houfes; mixing towards the end gall-ftone and
a good deal of white, in fuch a manner that the mix¬
ture be ftill paler than the former, without any vifiblc
iuterfeftiou or parting between all thefe colours of the
ffiy. 3
■PAINT ING. Sea.IV,
When there are clouds in the you may fpare Of
the places where they are to be ; that is to fay, you Draperies.
need not lay on any blue there, but form them, if they *
are reddifti, with vermilion, gall-ftone, and white,
with a little indigo ; and if they are more upon the
black, put in a good deal of the laft; painting the lights
of one and the other with mafticot, vermilion, and
wiiite, more or lefs of any of thefe colours, according
to the ftfength you would give them, or according to
that of the original you copy; rounding the whole as
you dot; for it is a difficult matter to lay them very
fmooth at the firft painting: and if the dry is not even
enough, you muft dot it alfo.
It is at your pleafure to exempt the places of the
clouds, for you may lay them upon the ground of the
Iky ; heightening the bright parts by putting a good
deal of white, and fortifying the ffiadows by ufing lefs.
This is th« ffiorteft way.
A night or ftormy fky is done with indigo, black,
and white, mixed together ; which is laid as for a
day-lky. To this mixture muft be added ochre, vermi¬
lion, or brown-red, for the clouds; the lights of which
are to be of mafticot, or red-lead, and a little white j
now redder, now yellower, at difcretion. And when
it is a tempeftuous Iky, and lightning appears in
fome places, be it blue or red, it is to be done as in
a day-lky, drowning and lofing the whole together
at the firft forming or dead-colouring, and at the
finifhing.
Sect. IV. Of Draperies.
To paint a blue drapery, put ultramarine near the
white upon your pallet ; and mix a part of the one
with the other, till it makes a fine pale, and has a body*.
With this mixture you muft form the brighteft parts ;
and then adding more ultramarine, form fuch as are
darker; and go on after this manner till you come to
the deepeft plaits and the thickeft lhades, where you
muft lay pure ultramarine : and all this muft be done as
for a firft-forming or dead-colouring ; that is to fay,
laying the colour on with free ftrokes of the pencil,
yet as fmooth as you can ; lofing the lights in the lha
dows with a colour neither fo pale as the light nor
fo dark as the fhades. Then dot with the fame co¬
lour as in the firft-forming, but a fmall matter deeper;
that the dots may be fairly feen. All th<* parts muft
be drowned one in another, and the plaits appear with¬
out interfe&ion. When the ultramarine is not dark
enough to make the deeper ffiadows, how well foever
it be gummed, mix a little indigo with it to finiffi
them. And when the extremities of the lights are not
bright enough, heighten them with white and a very
little ultramarine.
A drapery of carmine is done in the fame manner
as the blue ; except that in the darkeft places there
is to be a lay of pure vermilion, before you dead-
colour with carmine, which muft be applied at top;
and in the ftrongeft ffiades, it muft be gummed very
much. To deepen it the more, mix a little biftre
with it.
There is likewife made another red drapery, which
is firft drawn with vermilion, mixing white with it
to dead-colour the bright places, laying it pure and
unmixed for thofe that are darker, and adding car-
Sea.1V. MINIATURE-PAINTING. iqi
Of. mine for the grand fhades. It is finifhed afterwards,
^Drapencs. |•J!.e ot}ier (Jraperies, with the fame colours. And
h ’ when the carmine with the vermilion do not darken
enough, work with the firft alone, but only in the
deepeft of the fliades.
A drapery of lake is made in the fame manner with
that of carmine ; mixing a good deal of white with it
for the bright places, and very little for thofe that are
dark. It is finifhed likewife with dotting; but you
have nothing to do with vermilion jn it.
Violet-draperies are likewife done after this manner ;
after making a mixture of carmine and ultramarine,
putting always white for the bright parts. If you
would have your violet be columbine or dove-colour,
there muft be more carmine than ultramarine : but
if you would have it bluer and deeper, put more
ultramarine than carmine.
A drapery is made of a flefh-colour, beginning
with a lay made of white, vermilion, and very pale
lake; and making the fhades with the fame colours,
ufing lefs white in them. This drapery muft be very
pale and tender, becaufe the fluff of this colour is
thin and light; and even the fhades of it ought not to
i; . be deep.
To make a yellow drapery, put a lay of mafticot
over all; then one of gamboge upon that, excepting
the brighteft places, where the mafticot muft be left
entire ; the dead-colour with ochre, mixed with a
little gamboge and mafticot, putting more or lefs of
the laft according to the ftrength of the fhades.
And when thefe colours do not darken enough, add
gall-ftone. And gall-ftone pure and unmixed is ufed
for the thickeft fhades; mixing a little biftre with it,
if there be occafion to make them ftill darker. You
finifh by dotting with the fame colours you dead-
coloured with, and lofing the lights and the fhades in
one another.
If you put Naples-yellow, or Dutch-pink, in lieu
of mafticot and gamboge, you will make another fort
®f yellow.
The green drapery is made by a general lay of ver-
diter ; with which, if you find it too blue, mix mafti-
eot for the lights, and gamboge for the fhades.
Afterwards add to this mixture lily-green or fap-
green, to fhadow with ; and as the fhades are thicker,
put more of thefe laft greens, and even work with
them pure and unmixed where they are to be extremely
dark. You finifh with the fame colours, a little
darker.
By putting more yellow, or more blue, in thefe co¬
lours, you may make different forts of greens as you
pleafe.
To make a black drapery, you dead-colour with
black and white, and finifh with the fame colour, put¬
ting more black as the fhades are thicker; and for
the darkeft, mix indigo with it, efpecially when yoa
would have the drapery appear like velvet. You may
always give feme touches with a brighter colour, to
heighten the lights of any drapery whatfoever.
A white woollen drapery is made by a lay of white,
in which there muft be a very fmall matter of ochre,
©rpiment, or gall-ftone, that it may look a little yel-
lowifh. Then dead-colour, and finifh the fhades with
blue, a little black, white, and biftre; putting a great
deal of the laft in the darkeft.
The light-grey is begun with black and white, and of
finifhed with the fame colour deeper. , raPer
For a brown drapery, make a lay of biftre, white,
and a little brown-red ; and fhadow with this mixture,
made a little darker.
There are other draperies, called variable, becaufe
the lights are of a different colour from the fhades.
Thefe are moftly ufed for the veftments of angels, for
young and gay people, for fcarfs and other airy attire,
admitting of a great many folds, and flowing at the
pleafure of the wind. The moft common are the
violets : of which they make two forts; one, where
the lights are blue ; and the other, where they are
yellow.
For the firft, put a lay of ultramarine and very
pale white upon the lights; and fhadow with carmine,
ultramarine, and white, as for a drapery wholly violet;
fo that only the grand lights appear blue. Yet they
muft be dotted with violet, in which there is a great
%eal of white, and loft infenfibly in the fhades.
The other is done by putting upon the lights only,
inftead of blue, a lay of mafticot; working the reft
as in the drapery all violet, excepting that it muft
be dotted, and the light parts blended with the fha-
dowy, that is, the yellow with the violet, with a little
gamboge.
The carmine-red is done like the laft ; that is, let
the lights be done with mafticot, and .the fhades with
carmine ; and ta lofe the one in the other, make ufe
of gamboge.
The lake-red is done like that of carmine.
The green is done as the lake ; always mixing ver-
diter with lily or fap gieen, to make the fhades j
which are not very dark.
Several other forts of draperies may be made at
diferetion, always taking care to preferve the unios of
the colours, not only in one fort of cloth or fo, but
alfo in a group of feveral figures ; avoiding, as much
as the fubjeft will allow, the putting of blue near the
colour of fire, of green againft black ; and fo of other
colours which cut and disjoin, and whofe union is not
kind enough.
Several other draperies are made of foul colours, as
brown-red, biftre, indigo, &c. and all in the fame
manner. Likewife of other coldurs, fimple and com¬
pound; the agreement between which is always to
be minded, that the mixture may produce nothing
harfh and difagreeable to the eye. No certain rule
can be laid down for this. The force and effeft
of your colours are only to be known from ufe and
experience, and you, muft work according to that'
knowledge.
Linen cloths are done thus: After drawing the
plaits or folds, as is done in a drapery, put a lay
of white over all; then dead-colour, and finifh the
fhades with a mixture of ultramarine, black, and
white, ufing more or lefs of the laft, according to
their ftrength or tendernefs; and in the greatelt
deepenings put biftre, mixed with a little white;
giving only fame touches of this mixture, and even
of pure biftre, upon the extremities of the greateft
fhadows, where the folds muft be drawn, and loft with
the reft.
They may be done iit another manner, by makingx
a- general lay of this- mi*tore of ultramarine, black*
*5*
and very pale white ; and dead-colour (aa has been
rapenes. before) with the fame colour, but a little deeper.
And when the fhades are dotted and finiflied, heighten
the lights with pure white, and lofe them with the
deepenings of the linen. But of whatever fort you
make them, when they are iinifhed, you mud give a
yellowifh teint of orpiment and white to certain places ;
laying it lightly on, and as it were in water; fo'that
what is underneath may, notwithftanding, plainly ap¬
pear, as well the lhadows as the dotting*
Yellow linen-cloth is done by putting a lay of
white, mixed with a little ochre. Then form and li-
nilh the (hades with biftre, mixed with white and
ochre ; and in the thickeft (hades ufe pure biftre : and
before you finifli, give fome teints here and there of
ochre and white, and others of white and ultramarine,
as well upon the (hades as the lights ; but let them
be very bright: and drown the whole together in dot¬
ting, and it will look finely. Asyoufinilh, heighten
the extremities of the lights wrth mafticot and white.
You may add to this fort of linen, as well as to the
white, certain bars from fpace to fpace, as in Turkey-
mantuas ; that is, fmall ftripes blue and red with ul¬
tramarine and carmine ; one of red between two of
blue, very bright and clear upon the lights, and deeper
upon the (hades. Virgins are pretty often dreffed
\vith veils of this fort (by Popifh painters), and fcarfs
of this kind aje put about necks that are bare ; be-
caufe they become the teint mighty well.
If you would have both thefe forts of linen tranfpa-
rent, and the (luff or other thing that is beneath ap¬
pear through them, make the firft lay for them very
light and clear, and mix in the colour to (had@w with,
a little of that which is underneath, efpecially towards
the end of the (hades ; and only do the extremities of
the lights, for the yellow, with mafticot and white ;
and for the white, with pure white.
They may be done in another manner, efpecially
when you would have them altogether as clear as muf-
lin, lawn, or gauze. To this end form and finifti what
is to be beneath, as if nothing was to be put over it.
Then mark out the light and clear folds with white
or mafticot; and a (hadowy with biftre and white, or
with black, blue, and white, according to the colour
you would make therp of; making the reft fomewhat
fainter : yet this is not n'eceflary but for the parts that
are not to be fo clear.
Crape is done the fame way ; excepting that the
folds of the (hades and the lights, and the borders too,
are to be marked out with little filaments of black up¬
on what is underneath; which is likewife to be finilh-
ed beforehand.
When you would make a fluff like a watered tab¬
by, make the waves upon it with a colour a little
lighter, or a little darker, in the lights and the (hades.
There is a manner of touching draperies which di-
ftinguifhes the filken from the woollen. The laft are
more terreftrial and fenfible; the others more light
and fading. But it mull be obferved, that this is an
effedl which depends partly upon the duff and partly
upon the colour; and for the employing thefe in a
manner fuitable to the fubjedts and the deepenings of
painting, we (hall here touch upon their different qua¬
lities.
We have no colour which partakes more of light,
N° 224.
Se«. IV.
nor which comes nearer the air, than white} which
fhows it to be fickle and fleeting. It may, neverthelefs, PraPer‘ei>.
be held and brought to by fome neighbouring co- 'l~~y ~ "
lour, more heavy and (enfible, or by mixing them to¬
gether.
Blue is a moft fleeting colour: and fo we fee, that
the fky and the remoteft views of a pidlure are of this
colour; but it will become lighter and fickler in pro¬
portion as it is mixed with white.
Pure black is the heavieft and moft terreftrial of all
colours; and the more of it you mix with others, the
nearer you bring them to the eye.
Neverthelefs, the different difpofitions of black and
white make alfo their effedts different: for white often
makes black difappear, and black brings white more
into view ; as in the refledtion of globes, or other fi¬
gures to be made round, where there are always parts
that fly as it were from the eye, and deceive it by the
craft of art: and under the white are here compre¬
hended all the light colours; as under the black, all
the heavy colours.
Ultramarine is, then, foft and light.
Ochre is not fo much fo*
Mafticot is very light; and fo is verditer.
Vermilion and carmine come near this quality.
Orpiment and gamboge not fo near.
Lake holds a certain mean, rather foft than rough.
Dutch pink is an indifferent colour, eafily taking
the quality, of others. So it is made terreftrial by
mixing it with colours that are fo ; and, on the con¬
trary, the moft light and fleeting by joining it with
white or blue.
Brown red, umber, dark greens, and biftre, are the
heavieft and moft terreftrial, next to black.
Skilful painters, who underfland perfpedtive, and
the harmony of colours, always obferve to place the
dark and fenfible colours on the fore-parts of their
pi&ures; and th^ moft light and fleeting they ufe for
the diftances and remote views. And as for the union
of colours, the different mixtures that may be made of
them will learn you the friendftiip or antipathy they
have to one another. And upon this you muft take
your meafurcs for placing them with fuch agreement
as fhall pleafe the eye.
For the doing of lace, French-points, or other
things of that nature, put over all a lay of blue, black,
and white, as for linen : then heighten the flower-
work with pure white : afterwards make the fhades
above with the firft colour, and finifh them wich the
fame. When they are upon the carnation or naked
parts of a picture, or upon any thing elfe that you
would (how through another, finifh what is beneath, as
if nothing was to be put over it: and at top, make the
points or.lace with pure white, fhadowing and finifh-
ing them with the other mixture.
If you would paint a fur, you muft begin with a
kind of drapery, done, if it be dark, with biftre and
white, making the fhadowings of the fame colour,
with Ids white. If the fur be white, do it with blue,
white, and a little biftre. And when this beginning^
or firft-forming,.is done, inftead of dotting, draw fmall
ftrokes, turning, now in one manner, now in another,
according to the courfe and flatting of the hair.
Heighten the lights of dark furs with ochre and white,
and of the other with white and a little blue.
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
For
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
Sea.V.
Of For doing a building, If It be of ftone, take Indigo,
Carnations,fdfl.re> and white, with which make the beginning or
» firft form of it; and for fhadowlng it, put lefs of this
lall; and more biftre than indigo, according to the co¬
lour of the ftone you would paint.' To thefe you may
likewife add a little ochre, both Tor the forming and
the finiihing But to make it finer, you muft give,
here and there, efpecially for old fabrics, blu# and
yellow teints, fome with ochre, others with ultrama¬
rine, mixing always white with them, whether before
the firft-forming, provided they appear through the
draught, or whether upon it, loling or drowning
them with the reft when you finilh.
When the building is of wood, as there are many
forts, it is done at difcretion ; but the moft ordinary
Way is to begin or firft-form with ochre, biftre, and
white, and finifti without white, or with very little ;
and if the fhades are deep, with pure biftre __ In the
other they add fometimes vermilion, fometimes green
or black ; in a word,-juft according to-the colour they
would give it; and they finifti with dotting, as in dra¬
peries and every thing elfe.
Sect. V. Of Carnations, or the naked parts of
Painting.
There are in carnation fo many different colour¬
ings, that it would be a difficult thing to give general
rules upon fo variable a fubjeft. Nor are they mind¬
ed, when one has got, by cuftom and pra&ice, fome
habit of working eafily : and fuch as are arrived to
this degree, employ thercfelvcs in copying their ori¬
ginals, or elfe they work upon their ideas, without
knowing how : infomuch, that the moft Ikilful, who do
it with lefs refle&ion and pains than others, would
likewife be more put to it to give an account of their
maxims and knowledge in the matter of painting, if
they were to be afked what colours they made ufe of
for fuch and fuch a colouring, a teint here, and ano¬
ther there.
Neverthelefs, as beginners want fome inftrudtion at
the firft, we will ftiow in general after what manner
feveral carnations are to be done.
In the firft place, after having drawn your figure
with carmine, and ordered your piece, apply, for wo¬
men and children, and generally for all tender colour¬
ings, a lay of white, mixed with a very little of the
blue made for faces, of which we have told the com-
pofition ; but let it hardly be feen.
And for men, inftead of blue, they put in this firft
lay a little vermilion ; and when they ate old, a little
ochre is mixed, with it.
Afterwards follow all the traces with vermilion,
carmine, and white, mixed together ; and begin all
the ftiades with this mixture, adding white in propor¬
tion as they are weaker ; and putting but little in the
darkeft, and none, in a manner, in certain places
where ftrong touches are to be given : for inftance, in
the corner of the eye ; under the nofe ; at, the ears;
under the chin ; in the feparations of the fingers ; in
all joints ; at the corners of the nails ; and generally
in every part where you would mark out feparations
in fhades that are obfeure Neither need you fear to
give to thofe places all the force and ftrength they
eught to have as foon as you begin or firlt-form them,
Vou XII. Part I.
becaufe in working at too with green, the red you Of
have put there is always weakened Carnations.
After having begun, or firft-formed, or dead-co- " *
loured, with red, make blue teints with ultramarine
and a great deal of white, upon the parts which fly
from the eye; that is to fay, upon the temples; un¬
der and in the corners of the eyes ; on both fides^ the
mouth, above and below; a lictle upon the middle of
the forehead ; between the nofe and the eyes ; on the
fide of the cheeks; on the neck and other places
where the flefh affumes a bluifti call. Yellowifti
teints are likewife made with ochre or orpinient,
and a little vermilion mixed with white, under the
eye-brows, on the Tides of the nofe towards the bot¬
tom, a little underneath the cheeks, and upon the
other parts which rife and come nearer the eye It
is efpecially from thefe teints that the natural com¬
plexion is to be obferved, in order to catch it ; for
painting being an imitation'of nature, the perfeftion
of the art confifts in the juftnefs and fimplicity of the
reprefentation, efpecially in face-painting.
When; therefore, you have done your fitft lay, your
dead colouring, and your teints, you muft work upon
the fhades, dotting- with green far the carnations or
naked parts, mixing, according to the rule we have
given for the teints, a little blue for the parts which
fly from the eye ; and, on the other hand, making it
a little yellower for thofe that are more fehfible ; that
is to fay, which rife, and come nearer the eye: and
at the end of the fhades, on the fide of the light, you
muft blend and lofe your colour infenfibly in the
ground of the carnation with blue, and then with red,
according to the places where you paint. If this mix¬
ture of green does not work dark enough at firft, pafs
oyer the lhades feveral times, now with red, and now
with green; always dotting : and this do till they are
as they fhould be.
And if you cannot with thefe colours give the
ftiades all the force they ought to have, finifti, in the
darkeft, with biftre mixed with orpiment, ochre, or ver¬
milion, and fometimes with pure biftre, according to
the colouring you would make, but lightly, laying on
your colour very clear.
You muft dot upon the clear and bright places with
a little vermilion or carmine, mixed with much white,
and a very fmall matter of ochre, in order to lofe them
with the fhadowy, and to make the teints die away in¬
fenfibly into one another ; taking care, as you dot, or
hatch, to make your ftrokes follow the turnings and
windings of the flefhy parts. For though the rule be
to crofs always, this dott ng or hatching ought to ap¬
pear a little more here, becaufe it rounds the parts.
And as this mixture fn;ght make a colouring too red,
if it was always to be ufed, they work likewife in
every part, to blend the teints and the fliades, with
blue and a little green, and much white, fo mixed as
to be very pale; excepting, neverthelefs, that this
colour muft not be put upon the oheeks, nor upon the
extiemities of the clear parts, no more than the other
mixture upon thefe laft, which muft be left with all
their light; as certain places of the chin, of the nofe,
and of the forehead, and upon the cheeks; which, and
the cheeks, ought neverthelefs to be redder than the-
reft, as well as the feet, the holiows of the hands, and
the fingers of both.
U
Obferve,
J54
Of Obfcrvc, that thefe two laft mixtures ought to be io
Carnation*. pa]e> the work (liall hardly be vifxble ; for they
w—, ferve only to foften it ; to unite the teints with one
, another, and the (hades with the lights, and to drown
the traces. Care mull likewife be taken that yoft work
not too much with the red mixture upon the blue
teints, nor with the blue upon the others ; but
change the colour from time to time, when you per¬
ceive it works too blue or too red, till the work be fx-
nilhed.
The white of the eyes mud be (hadowed with this
fame blue, and a little flefh-colour ; and the corners,
on the fide of the nofe, with vermilion and white ;
giving them a little touch of carmine. The whole is
foftened .with this mixture of vermilion, carmine,
white, and a very fmall matter of ochre.
The apples or balls of the eyes are done with the
mixture of ultramarine and white ; the laft prevailing
a little ; adding a little biftre, if they are yellowilh ;
or a little black, if they are grey. Make the little
black circle in the midd'e, ca;led the cryjlat of the eye ;
and flxadow the balls with indigo, biftre, or black, ac¬
cording to the colour they are of; giving tq each a
fmall touch of pure vermi ion round the cryftal; which
muft be loft with the reft at the finiftxing. This gives
vivacity to the eye
Therouncf or circumference of the eye is done with
biftre and carmine ; that is to fay, the flits or partings,
and the eye lids, when they are large and bold ; efpe
cially the upper ones ; which muft afterwards be fof¬
tened with the xed or b'ixe mixturesiwe have mention,
ed before, to the end they may be loft in one another,
and nothing feem interfered. When this is done, give
a little touch of pure white upon the cryftal, on the
fxde of the lights. This tnakes the eye (bine, and gives
life to it.
The mouth is dead-coloured with vermilion, mixed
with white; and finiftxed with carmine, which is fof¬
tened as the reft. And when the carmine does not
work dark enough, mix a little biftre with it. This is
to be underftood of the corners in the reparation in the
lips ; and particularly, of certain mouths half open.
The hands, and all the other parts of carnation, are
done in the fame manner as the faces; obferving, that
the ends of the fingers be a little redder than the reft.
When your whole work is formed and dotted, mark
the feparations of all the parts with little touches of
carmine and orpiment mixed together, as well in the
lhadowy as the light places ; but a little deeper and
ftronger in the firft, and loie them in the reft of the
carnation.
The eye-brows and the beard are dead-coloured, as
are the fhades of carnations ; and finifhed with biftre,
ochre, or black, according to the colour they are of,
drawing them by little ftrokes the way they ought to
go ; that is to fay, give them all the nature of hair.
The lights of them muft be heightened with ochre and
biftre, a little vermilion, and much white.
For the hair of the head, make a lay of biftre, ochre,
and white, and a little vermilion. When it is very
dark-coloured, ufe black inftead of ochre. Afterwards
form the (hadowy parts with the fame colours, putting
^lefs white in them ; and finifli with pure biftre, or mix-:
ed with ochre or black, by fmall ftrokes very fine, and-
dofe to each other, waving and buckling them accord-
Se&. V.
ing to the curling of the hair. The light parts muft Of
alfq be heightened by little ftrokes with ochre ®r or- Carnations,
piment, white, and a little vermilion. After which, lofe
the lights and the (hades in each other, by working
fometimes with a dark and fometiraes with a light co¬
lour.
And for the hair about the forehead, through which
the (kin is feen, it muft be firft formed with the co¬
lour thereof, and that of the carnation, working and
(hadowing with one and the other, as if you defigned
to paint none. Then form it, and finifh with biftre.
The lights are to be heightened as the other. Grey
hair is dead-colou*ed with white, black, and biftre,'
and finilhed with the fame colom, but deeper; height¬
ening the bright and clear parts of the hair, as welLjas
thofe of the eye blows and the beard, with white ana"
very pale blue, after having formed them as the others,
with the colour of the flefli or (kin; and finifli with
biftrt*.
But the moft important thing is to foften one’s
work ; to blend the teints in one another, as well as
the beard and the hair about the forehead, with the
other hair and the carnation ; taking efpecial care not
to work rough and dry ; and that the txaces, turnings,
and windings of the ca-nation, or naked parts, be not
interfe&ed. You muft likewife accuftom yourfe'f to
put white in your colours only in proportion as you
work lighter or darker: for the colour y ou ufe the fe-
dond time muft be always a little ftronger and deeper
than the firft, unlefs it be for foftening.
Different colourings are eafily made, by putting
more or lefs of red, or blue, or yellow, or biilre,’whe¬
ther for the dead-colouring, or for the finiftxing.—
That for women ought to be bluifh ; that for chil¬
dren a little red ; and both frefti and florid That
far men ought to be yellower ; efpecially when they
are old.
To make a colouring of death, there muft be a firft
lay of white and orpiment, or a very pale ochre: dead-
colour with vermilion, and lake, inftead of carmine,
and a good deal of white ; and afterwards work over
it with a green mixture, in which there is more blue
than any other coloux-, to the end the fle(h may be li¬
vid and of a purple colour. The teints are done the
fame way as in another Colouring ; but there muft be
a great many more blue than yellow ones, efpecially
upon the parts which fly from the fight, and about the
eyes; and the laft are only to be upon the parts which
rife and come nearer the eye. They are made to. di»
away in one another, according to the ordinary man¬
ner ; fometimes with very pale blue, and fometimes
with ochre and white, and a little vermilion ; fof¬
tening the whole together. The parts and con¬
tours muft be rounded with the fame colours. The
mouth is to be, in a manner, of a quite violet. It is
dead-coloured, however, with a little vermilion, ochre,
and white ; but finiflved with lake and blue : and to
give it the deep ftrokes, they take biftre and lake $
with which they likewife do the fame to the eyes, the
nofe, and the ears. If it is a crucifix, or fome mar¬
tyr, upon whom blood is to be feen, after the finilh-
ing the carnation* form it with vermilion, and finiih
it with carmine, making in the drops of blood a little
bright reflcfting fpark, to round them. For the
crown of thorns* make a lay of fea-green and mafticot;
(hadow
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
ika. VI. M I N I A T U R
Of fliadow it wjtti biflre and green ; and heighten the
Can.^tuir-fc ciear and light parts with mafticot.
Iron is formed, or hrft laid, with indigo, a little
black and white; and flniflied with pure indigo,
heightening it with white.
For painting lire and flames, the lights are done
with mafticot and orpiment; and for the Ihades, they
mix vermilion and carmine.
A fmoke is done with black, indigo, and white, and
fometimes with biftre; one may likewife add ver¬
milion or ochre, according to the colour it is to be of.
Pearls are painted by putting a lay of white, and a
little blue : they are ftiadowed and rounded with the
fame colour, deeper; a fmall white dot is made almoft
in the middle, on the fide of the light ; and on the o-
ther fide, between the ftiadow and the edge of the
pearl, they give a touch with mafticot, to make the
refledtion ; and under the pearls is made a little fhadow
of the colour of the ground they are upon.
Diamonds are made with pure black ; then they
heighten them with little touches of white on the fide
of the light. It is the lame thing for any other jewels
you have a mind to paint: there is nothing to be done
but to change the colour.
For making a figure of gold, put a lay of Iheil-gold,
and fhadow it with gall Itone. Silver is done the
lame way ; excepting that it muft be lhadowed with
indigo.
One great means to acquire a perfeftion in the art, is
to copy excellent originals. We enjoy with pleafure
and tranquillity the labour and pains of others. But
a man muft copy a great number before he is able to
produce as fine effefts: and it is better to be a good
copier than a bad author.
Sect. VI. Of Landfcapes.
In the firft place, after having ordered the econo¬
my of your landfcape as of your othdr pieces, you
muft form the neared grounds or lands, when they are
to appear dark, with fap or lily-green, biftre, and a
little verditer, to give a body to your colour; then dot
with this mixture, but a little darker, adding fome¬
times a little black to it.
For fuch pieces of ground as the light falls upon,
and which are therefore clear and bright, make a lay
of ochre and white: then lhadowand finilh with biftre;
In fome they mix a little green, particularly for fha-
dowing and finifhing.
There are fometimes upon the fore-part certain red-
difh lands; which are dead-coloured with brown-red,
white, and a little green ; and finilhed with the fame,
putting a little more green in them.
For the making of grafs and leaves upon the fore¬
ground, you muft, when that is finilhed, form with
fea-green, or verditer, and a little white; and for thofe
that are yellowifh, mix maftieot. Afterwards fhadow
them with lily-green, or biftre and gall-ftone, if you
would have them appear withered.
The grounds or lands at a little diftance are form¬
ed with verditer, and fhadowed and finifhed with fap-
.green, adding biftre for fome of the touches here and
i there.
Such as are at a greater diftance, ajre done with
E-PAIN TING. • 155
lea-green and a little blue ; and fhadowed with ver-
dim. . I/mdtapes.
In a word, the farther they go, the more bluifh
they are to be made ; and the fartheft diftances ought
to be of ultramarine and white; mixing in fome places
fmall touches of vermilion.
Water is painted with indigo and white, and fha¬
dowed with the fame colour, but deeper; and tofinifh
it, inftead of dotting, they do nothing but make
itrokes and traces without crofiing ; giving them the
fame turn with the waves, when there are any. Some¬
times a little green muft be mixed in certain places,
and the light and clear parts heightened with pure
white, particularly where the water foams.
Rocks are dead-coloured like buildings of ftone ;
excepting that a little green is mixed for forming and
fhadowing them. Blue and yellow teints are made
upon them, and loft with the reft in finifhing. And
when there are fmall branches, with leaves, mofs, or
grafs, when all is finifhed, they are to be railed at
top with green and mafticot. -They may be made
yellow, green, and reddifli, for appearing dry, in the
fame manner as on the ground. Rocks are dotted as ,
the reft; and the farther they are off, the more greyifh
they are made.
Caftles, old houfes, and other buildings of ftone
and wood, are done in the manner abovementioned;
fpeaking of thofe things, when they are upon the firft
lines. But when you would have them appear at a
diftance, you muft mix brown-red and vermilion, with
much white; and fnadow very tenderly with this mix¬
ture ; and the farther they are off, the weaker are the
ftrokes to be for the reparations. If they are covered
with flate, it is to be made bluer than the reft.
Trees are not done, till the Iky be finifhedone
may, neverthelefs, fpare the places of them when they
contain a good number; and however it be, fuch as
come near the eye, are to be dead-coloured with ver-
diter, mixing forrietimes ochre; and ftiadowed with
the fame colours, adding lily green. Afterwards
you muft work leaves upon them by dotting without
crofiing: for this muft be done with fmall longifh dots,
of a darker colour, and pretty full of it, which muft be
conduced on the fide the branches go, by little tufts
of a little darker colour. Then heighten the lights
with verditer or fea-green, and mafticot, making leaves
in the fame manner; and when there are dry branches
or leaves,' they are dead-coloured with brown-red or
gall-ftone, with white; and finifhed with gall-ftone,
without white, or with biftre.
The trunks of trees arc to be dead-coloured with
ochre, white, and a little green, for the light and
clear parts; and for the dark, they mix black, adding
biftre and green for fhadowing one and the other. Blue
and yellow teints are likewile made upon them, and
little touches given here and there with white and
mafticot; fuch as you ordinarily fee upon the bark of
trees.
The branches which appear among the leaves are
' done with ochre, verditer, and white ; or with biftre
and white, according to the light they are placed in.
They muft be fhadowed with biftre and lily-green.
Trees, which are at a little diftance, are dead-co¬
loured with veiditer and fea-green; and are fhadowed
U 2 and
I-55
Of and fimfhed with the fame colours, mixed with lily-.
Landfcapes grcen. When there are fome which appear yel-
jay YvitJx ochre and white, and finifh with
gall-ftone.
For fueh as are in the diftances and remote views,
youmuft dead-colour with fea-green; with which, for
finilhing, you mult mix ultramarine. Heighten the
lights 6f one and the other with malticot, by fmall dif-
joined leaves.
It is the mod difficult part of landfcape, in man¬
ner of miniature, to leaf a tree well. To learn,
and break one’s hand to it a little, the way is to copy
good ones; for the manner of touching them is fingular,
and cannot be acquired but by working upon, trees
themfelves ; about which you muft obferve to make
little boughs, which muft be leafed, efpecially fuch as
are below and toward the Iky.
And generally, let your landfcapes be coloured in-
a handfome manner, and full of nature and truth; for
it is that which gives them all their beauty.
Sect. VII. Of Flowers.
It is an agreeable thing to paint flowers, not only
on account of the fplendour of their different colours,
but alfo by reafon of the little time and pains that are
beftowed in trimming them. There is nothing but de¬
light in it; and, in a manner, no application. You
maim and bungle a face, ‘if you make one eye higher
than another ; a fmall nofe with a large mouth ; and
fo of other parts. But the fears of thefe difproportions
conftrain not the mind at all in flower-painting ; for
unlefs they be very remarkable, they fpoil nothing.
For this reafon moft perfons of quality, who divert
themfelves with painting, keep to flowers. Neverthe-
lefs, you muft apply yourfelf to copy juftly : and for
this part of miniature, as for the reft, we refer you to
nature, for Ihe is your bell model. Work, then, after
natural flowers ; and look for the teints and different
colours of them upon your pallet : a little ufe will
make you find them eafily; and to facilitate this to
you at the firft, we (hall, in the continuance of our
defign, fliow the manner of painting fome ; for na¬
tural flowers are not always to be had ; and one is of¬
ten obliged to work after prints, where nothing is feen
but graving.
It is a general rule, that flowers are defigned and
laid like other figures; but the manner of. forming
and finilhing them is different: for they are firft
formed only by large ftrokes and traces, which you
muft turn at the firft the way the fmall ones are to go,
with which you finiffi ; this turning aiding much
thereto. And for finifhing them, inftead of hatching
or dotting, you draw fmall ftrokes very fine, and very
clofe to one another, without croffing; repaffing fe-
veral times, till your dark and your clear parts have
all the force you would give them.
Of Roses.— After making your firft Iketch, draw
with carmine the red rofe, and apply a very pale lay
of carmine and white. Then form the fliades with the
fame colour, putting lefs white in it: and laftly, with
pure carmine, but very bright and clear at the firft.;
fortifying it more and more as you proceed in your
work, and according to the darkncis of the fhades.
This is done by large ftrokes* Then fiailh 5 working
Sea. vir.
upon it with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which
you muft make go the fame way with thofe of the p1ower3- _
graving, if it be a print you copy; or the way the v
leaves of the rofe turn, if you copy after a painting,
or after nature ; lofing the dark in the clear parts,
and heightening the greateft lights, and the brighteft
or moll lightfome leaves, with white and a little car¬
mine. You muft always make the hearts of rofes, and
the fide of the lhadow darker than the reft; and mix a
little indigo for Ihadowing the firft leaves, particu¬
larly when the rofes are blown, to make them feem
faded. The feed is dead-coloured with gamboge y
with which a little fap-green is mixed for fhadowing.
Rofes ftreaked with feveral colours, ought to be paler
than others, that the mixture of colours may be better
feen; which are done with carmine ; a little darker in
the (hades, and very clear in the lights ; always hatch¬
ing by ftrokes. For white rofes you muft put a lay of
white, and form and finilh them as the red; but with
black, white, and a little biftre ; and make the feed a
little yellower. Yellow rofes are done by putting in
every part a lay of mafticot, and (hadowing them wkh
gamboge, gall-ftone, and biftre; heightening the clear
and light places with mailicot and white.
The (tiles, the leaves, and the buds of all forts of
rofes are formed with verditer, with which is mixed a
little mafticot and gamboge ; and for (hadowing them,
they add fap-green, putting lefs of the other colours
when the fhades are deep. The outfide of the leaves
ought to be bluer than the irvfide ; wherefore it muft
be dead-coloured with fea-green, and fap-green mixed
with that for (hadowing, making the veins or fibres on
this fide clearer than the ground, and thofe on the
other fide darker. The prickles which are upon the
(files and buds of rofes, are done with little touches of
carmine, which are made to go every way ; and for
thofe that are upon the ftalks, they are formed with
verditer and carmine, and (hadowed with carmine and
biftre : making the bottom of the ftalks more reddifh
than the top : i. e. you muft mix with the green, car*
mine and pure biftre.
Of Tulips.—As there is an infinity of tulips, dif¬
ferent from one another, one cannot pretend to men¬
tion the colours with which they are all done. We
will only touch upon the handfomeft, called freaked ;
and thefe ftreaks are dead-coloured with very clear car¬
mine in fome places, and with darker in others; fi-
niftiing with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which
muft be carried the fame way with the ftreaks. And
in others is put firft a lay of vermilion. Then they
form them by mixing carmine, and finiffi them with
pure carmine. In fome they put Florence lake over
the vermilion inftead of carmine. Some are done
with lake and carmine mixed together, and with lake
alone, or with white and lake for the firft forming;
whether it be rofe-pink or Florence-lake. There are
fome of a purple colour, which are formed with ultra-
marine, carmine, or lake, fometimes bluer and fome-
times redder. The manner of doing both one and
the other is the fame : there is no difference but in
the colours. You muft, in certain places, as between
the ftreaks of vermilion, carmine, or lake, fometiffiea
put blue made of ultramarine and white, and fome¬
times a very bright purple, which is finiflied by ftrokes
as the reft, and left with the ftreaks. There are fome
' Ukewifs
MINIATURE-PAINTING.
VII. M r N I A T U F
likewife that have fallow telnts, that are made with
:rs lake, biftre, and ochre according as they are: but
““ this is only in fine and rare tulips, and not in the
common ones. For fhadowing the bottom of them,
they prdinarily take indigo and white for fuch whofe
ftreaks are of carmine. For fuch as are of lake, they
take b ack and white ; with which, in fome, bi :re is
mixed, and in others green. Some are likewife to be
fhadowed with gamboge and umber, and always by
ftrokes and traces, that turn as the leaves turn. Other
tulips are likewife done, called bordered; that is to fay,
the tulip is not ftreaked but on the edges of the leaves,
where there is a border. It is white in the purple ;
red in the yellow ; yellow in the red ; and red in the
white. The purple is laid with ultramarine, carmine,
and white ; fhadowing and finishing it with this mix
ture. The border is fpared 5 that is to fay, le. only a
light lay of white be put there, and let it be fhadowed
with very bright indigo. The yellow is formed with
gamboge, and fhadowed with the fame colour, mixing
ochre and timber or biltre with it. The border is
laid with vermilion, and finifhed with a very fmall
matter of carmine. The red is formed with vermi¬
lion, and finifhed with the' fame colour, mixing car¬
mine or lake with it. The bottom and the border
are done with gamboge; and'for finifhing, they add
gall-ftone and umber, or biftre The white is fha¬
dowed with black, blue, and white. Indian ink is
very proper for this. The fhadowings of it are very
tender. It produces alone the effedl of blue and
white, mixed with the other black. The border of
this white tulip is done with carmine. In all thefe
forts of tulips, they leave a nerve or finew in the
middle of the leaves that are brighter than the reft :
and the borders are drowned at the bottom by fmall
traces, turning croffwife ; for they muft not appear
cut and feparated, as the ftreaked or party-coloured.
They make them likewife of feveral other colours.
When they happen to be fuch whofe bottoms on the
infide are black, as it were, they form and finifh them
with.indigo, as alfo the feed about the nozzle or ftalk.
And if the bottom is yellow, it is formed with gam¬
boge, and finifhed by adding umbre or biftre. The
leaves and the ftaiks of tulips are ordinarily formed
with fea-green, and fhadowed and finifhed with lily-
green, by large traces all along the leaves. Some
may likewife be done with verditer, mixing maftipot
with it; and fhadowed with fap-green, that the green
of the fhades may be yellower.
The Anemony, or IVind-Jlozuer.—There are feveral
forts of them, as well double as Tingle. T he laft are
ordinarily without ftreaks. Some are made of a purple
colour, with purple and white, fhadowing them with
the fame colour; fome redder; others bluer; fome-
times very pale, and fometimes very dark. Others
are formed with lake and white, and finifhed with
the fame, putting lefs white ; fome without any white
at all. Others are formed with vermilion, and fha¬
dowed with the fame colour, adding carmine. We
fee likewife white, ones,, and.fome of a citron colour.
The laft are laid with mafticot; and one, and the.other
fhadowed and finifhed fometimes with vermilion, and
fometimes with very brown lake, efpecially near the
feed, at the bbttom ; w’hich is often likewife of a
blackifh colour, that is done with indigo, or black and
LE-P AINTING.
blue, mixing for fome a little biftre; and always
working by very fine ftrokes and traces, and lofing
the lights in the fhades. There are others that are
brighter and clearer at the bottom than any where
elfe ; and fometimes they are.perfedUy white there,
though the reft of the flower be dark. The feed of
ail thefe anemonies is done with indigo and black, with
a very little white, and fhadowed with indigo; and
in fome it is raifed with mafticot. The double ane¬
monies are of feveral colours. The handfomeft have
their large leaves ftreaked. Some are done, that is,
the ftreaked or party-coloured, with vermilion, to
which carmine is added for the finifhing ; fhadowing
the reft of the leaves with indigo; and for the fmall
leaves within, a lay is put of vermilion and- white,
and they are fhadowed with vermilion mixed with
carmine, mixing here and there fome ftronger touches,
efpecialiy in the heart of the flower, next the great
leaves on the fide of the fliadow-. They finifh with
carmine, by little ftrokes and trates, turning the fame
way with the mixed or party-colours, and the leaves.
They form and finifh the ftreaks or party-colours of
fome others, as well as the fmall leaves, with pure
carmine; leaving, neverthelefs, in the middle of the
laft, a little circle, in which is laid dark purple, which
is loft with the reft. And when all is finifhed, they
give fome touches with this fame colour round about
the fmall leaves, efpecially on the fide of the fhadow ;
drowning them with the large ones, the remainder of
which is fhadowed either with indigo or black. In
fome, the fmall leaves are done with lake or purpleK-
though the party-colours of the large ones be done
with carmine. There are others, whole mixed coloursi
are done with carmine, in the middle of moft of the
large leaves; putting in fome places vermilion under¬
neath, and lofing thefe colours with the fhadows of
the bottom ; which are done with indigo and white*
The fmall leaves are laid with mafticot, and fhadowed
with very dark carmine on the fide of the fhade, and
with very clear on the fide of the light, leaving there
in a manrter pure mafticot, and giving only fome little
touches with orpiment and carmine, to f^parate the
leaves, which may be fhadowed fometimes with a very
little pale-green. There are double anemonies painted
all red, and all purple. The firft are formed with
vermilion and carmine, in a manner without white,
and fhadowed with pure carmine, well gummed, that
they may be very dark. Purple anemonies are laid with
purple and white, and finifhed with white. In a
word, there are double anemonies as there are Angle
ones, of all colours , and they are done in the fame
manner,. The green of one and the other is verditer;
with which mafticot is mixed for forming. It is fha¬
dowed and finifhed with fap green. The ftiles of
them are a little reddifh; wherefore they are fhadowed
with carmine mixed with biftre,. and fometimes with
green, after-having laid them with mafticot.
The Carnation and the Pinx.—It is with pinks
and carnations as with anemonies and tulips; that is,
there are fomq mixt-coloured, and others of one Angle
colour. The firft are ftreaked and diverfified fome¬
times with vermilion and carmine; . fometimes with
pure lake, or with white ; fome ftreaks very dark, and
others very pale ; fometimes by little ftreaks and di-
verfifications, and fometimes by large ones. Their
bottoms^
5}jg
Of
M I N I A T U R E-P A I N T I N G.
Sea, Vi!,
battoma we orilinaHly ftmdowetl with indigo and
white. Thera are pinks of a very pale fleHi colour,
and ftreaked and diverfified with another, a little
deeper, made with vermilion and lake. -Others, which
are of lake and white, are fhadowed and llreaked
without white. Others all red, which are done with
vermilion and carmine as dark as pofiible. Others
all of lake. And, laftly, there are others, wherein
nature or fancy is the rule. The green of one and
the other is fea-green, fhadowed with lily-green or
fap‘green'.
The Red-lily.—dt is laid with red lead, formed
with vermilion, and in the deepeft of the fhades with
carmine ; and finifhed with the fame colour by ftrokes
and traces, turning as the leaves turn. The clear and
light parts are heightened with red lead and white.
U he feed is done with vermilion and carmine. The
green parts are done with verditer, fhadowed with lily
or fap green.
The Day-lily.— There are three forts of them :
i. The gridelin, a little red ;
‘ 2. The gridelin, very pale ; and,
3. rl he white.
For the firft they put a lay of lake and white, and
fhadow and finifh with the fame colour deeper ; mix¬
ing a little black to deaden it, efpecially in the darkeft
places.
The fecond are laid with white, mixed w'ith a very
little lake and vermilion, in fuch a manner that thefe
two lalt colours are hardly feen. Afterwards they
fhadow with black and a little lake, working redder
in the middle of the leaves, next the ftalks ; which
ought to be, as alfo the feed, of the fame colour, parti¬
cularly towards the top ; and at the bottom a little
greener.
The flile of the feed is laid with maflicot, and fha¬
dowed with fap-green.
The other day-lilies are done by putting a lay of
pure white, and fhadowing and finifhing with black
-and white.
The ftalks of thefe laft, and the greens of them
all, are done with fea-green, and fhadowed with fap-
green.
The Hyacinth, or Purple-Jluiver.—There are four
Torts ef them :
The blue, a little dark ;
Others paler;
The gridelin ;
And the white.
The firft are laid with ultramarine and white ; and
ftiadowed and finifhed with lefs white. Others are
laid and fhadowed with pale blue. The gridelines
are formed with lake and white, and a very fmall mat¬
ter of ultramarine ; and finifhed with the fame colour
a little deeper. For the laft they put a lay of white ;
then they fhadow them with black, with a little white;
and fmifh them all by ftrokes and traces, following
the turnings and windings of the leaves. The green
and the ftalks of fuch as are blue, are done with fea
and lily-green very dark: and in the ftalks of the
firft may be mixed a little carmine, to make them red-
difh. The ftalks of the two others, as alfo the green,
are formed with verditer and mafticot, and fhadowed
with fap-green.
The Piony.—>A lay of Venice-Iake and white muft
he put on all parts, pretty ftrong : then shadow with Of
lefs white, and with none at all in the darkeft places : Flowers.
after which finifh with the fame colour by traces, "
turning them as for the rofe ; gumming it very much
in the deepeft of the fhades ; and raifing the lights and
the edges of the moft lightfome leaves with white and
a little lake. Little veins are like wife made, which
go like the ftrokes in hatching, but are more vifible.
The green of this flower is done with fea-green, and
fhadowed with fap-green.
Cowslips.— They are of four or five colours.
There are fome of a %ery pale purple
The'gridelin. The white and the-yellow.
The purple is done with ultramarine, carmine, and
white ; putting lefs white for fhadowing. The gride¬
lin is laid with Venice-lake, and a very fmall matter
of ultramarine, with much white ; and fhadowed with
the fame colour deeper. For the white, a lay . of
white muft be put ; and they muft be fhadowed with
black and white ; and .finiftied, as the others,-by tra¬
ces or ftrokes. The heart of thefe cowflips is done
with mafticot in the fhape of a itar, which is fhadow¬
ed with gamboge, making a little circle in the middle
with fap-green. ! he yellow are laid with maiticot,
and fhadowed with gamboge and umber. The fti es,
the leaves, and the buds, are formed with verditer,
mixed with a little mafticot, and finilhed with fap-
green ; making the fibres or veins, which appear upon
the leaves, with this fame colour; and heightening the
lights of the largett with maiticot.
The Ranunculus, or Crow-foot.—There are fe-
veral forts of them : the fineft are the orange-coloured.
For the fird, they put a lay of vermilion, with a very
fmall matter of gamboge ; and add carmine for fha-
flowing ; finifhing it with this laft colour, and a little
gail-ltone. In the others may be put Venice-lake in¬
head of carmine, efpecialiy in the heart of the flower.
The orange-coloured are laid with gamboge, and fi¬
nilhed with gall-done, vermilion, and a little carmine ;
leaving fome little yellow breaks. The green of the
ftalks is done with verditer and very paie mafticot-;
mixing lily green to fhadow them. That of the leaves
is a little darker.
The Crocus Thefe are of two colours ;
Yellow and purple. The yellow are formed with
mafticot aud gall-ftone, and fhadowed with gamboge
and gall-ftone : after which, upon each leaf, on the
outfide, are made three ftreaks, feparate from one
another, with biftre and pure lake ; which are loft,
by little traces, in the bottom. The outfide of the
leaves is left all yellow.—The purple is laid with car¬
mine, mixed with a little ultramarine, and very pale
white. They are formed and finifhed with lefs white j
making like wife, in fome, purple ftripes or ftreaks,
very dark, as in the yellow ; and in others only fmall
veins. Ihe feed of both is yellow ; and is done with
orpiment and gall-ftone. For the ftiles, they put a
lay of white, and fhadow with black, mixed with a
little green. The green of this flower is formed
with very pale verditer, and fhadowed with fap-
green.
The Iris.—The Perfian iris is done by putting,
for the infide-leaves, a lay of white, and fhadowing
them with indigo and green together, leaving a little
white reparation in the middle of each leaf; and for
thofc
Sea. Vir. MI N I ATUR
Of thofe on the outfide, they put in the fame place a lay
^Flower?. ^ q£ mafticoj-j -which is ihadowed with ^all-ftone and
^ orpiment; making little dark and longiih dots over
all the leaf, at a fmall diftance from one another. And
at the end of each are made large ftrains, with biftre
and lake in fome, and in others with pure indigo,
but very black. The reft, and the outfide of the
kaves, are ftiadowed with black. The green is formed
with fea-green, and very pale mafticot, and fhadowed
with fap-green. The Sufian iris is laid with purple
and white, putting a little more carmine than ultra-
marine ; and for the fliades, efpecially in the middle
leaves, they put lefs white ; and, on the contrary,
more ultramarine than carmine ; making the veins of
this very colour, and leaving in the middle of the in-
fide leaves a little yellow finew. There are others
which have this very finew in the firft leaves ; the end
of which only is bluer than the reft. Others are ftia¬
dowed and finiftied with the fame purple, redder :
They have alfo the middle finew on the outfide leaves;
but white and ftiadowed with indigo. There are like-
wife yellow ones ; which are done by putting a lay of
mafticot and crpiment ; ftiadowing them with gall-
ftone, and making the veins upon the leaves with
biftre. The green of one and the other is done with
fea-green, mixing a little mafticot for the ftiles. They
are ftiadowed with fap-green.
The Jasmin.—It is done with a lay of white, and
fliadowed with black and white ; and for the outfiJe
of the leaves, they mix a little biftre ; making the half
of each, on this fide, a little reddifti with carmine.
The Tuberose.—For the doing of this, they make
a lay of white, and ftiadow with blade, with a little
biftre in fome places ; and for the outfide of the leaves
they mix a little carmine, to give them a reddifti taint,
particularly upon the extremities. The feed is done
with mafticot, and ftiadowed with fap-green. The
green of it is laid with verditer, and ftiadowed with
fap-green.
The Hellebore,—The flower of hellebore is done
almoft in the fame manner ; that is, let it be laid with
white, and ftiadowed with black and biftre, making
the outfide of the leaves a little reddifti here and there.
The feed is laid with dark green, and raifed with
ttiafticot. The green of it is foul and rufty, and is
formed with verditer, mafticot, and biftre ; and finiftied
with fap-green and biftre.
The White lily.—-It is laid with white, and
fhadowed with black and white. The ^ed is clone
with orpiment and gall-ftonei And the green is done,
as in the tuberofe.
The Snow-drop.—It is formed and finiftied as the
white lily. The feed is laid with mafticot, and Iha-
dowed with gall-ftone. And the green is done with
fea and fap-green.
The Jonquil.—It is laid with mafticot and gall-
ftone, and finiftied with gamboge and gall-ftone. The
green is formed with fea-green, and ftiadowed with
Jap-green.
The Daffodil.—All daffodils, the yellow, the
double, and the fingle, are done by putting a lay of
mafticot: they are formed with gamboge, and finiftied
by adding umber and biftre ; excepting the bell in the
middle, which is done with orpiment and gall-ftone, ,
aordered or edged with vermilion and carmine. The
T.
E-PAINTING.
white are laid with white, and ftiadowed with black
and white ; excepting the cup or bell, which is done
with mafticot and gamboge. The green is fea-green,
ftiadowed with fap-green.
The Marigold.—It is done by putting a lay of
mafticot, and then one of gamboge ; ftiadowing it
with this very colour, after vermilion is mixed with
it: and for finilhing, they add gall-ftone and a little
carmine. The green is done with verditer, ftiadowed
with fap-green.
The Austrian Rose.—For making the Auftrian
rofe, they put a lay of mafticot, and another od' gam¬
boge. 1 hen they form it, mixing gall-ftone ; and
finilh it with the laft colour, adding biftre and a very
fmall matter of carmine in the deepeft ftiades.
The Indian Pink, or French Marigold.—is done
by putting a lay of gamboge ; ftiadowing it with this
colour, after you have mixed a good deal of. carmine
and gall-ftone with it ; and leaving about the leaves a
little yellow border of gamboge, very clear in the
lights, and darker in the ftiades. The feed is ftiadow¬
ed with biltre. The green, as well of the rofe as the
pink, is formed with verditer, and .finiftied with fap-
green.
The Sun-flower—It is formed with mafticot and
gamboge, and finiftied with gall-ftone and biftre. The
green is laid with verditer and maftieot, and ftudowed
with fap-green.
The Passion-flower—It is done as the rofe, and
the green of the leaves likewife ; but the veins' ave done
with a darker green.
Poetical pinks and Sweet-william.—-They are
done by putting a lay of lake and whitd ; fliadowing
them with pure lake, with a little carmine for the laft}
which are afterwards dotted on all parts with little
round dots, feparate from one another ; and the threads-
in the middle are raifed with white. The green of
them is fea-green, which is finiftied with fap-green.
The Scabious.—There are two forts of fcabious,..
the red and the purple. The leaves of the firft are
laid with Florentine lake, in which there is a little
white ; and fliadowed without white ; and for the mid¬
dle, which is a great bofs or hulk in which the feed *
lies, it is formed and fini(lied with pure lake, with a
little ultramarine or indigo to make it darker. Then
they make little white longifti dots over it, at a pretty
diftance from one another, clearer in .the light than in
the ftiade, making them go every way. The other is
done by putting a lay of very pale purple, as well
upon the leaves as the bofs in the middle ; lhadowing
both with the fame colour, a little deeper: and in-
llead of little white touches for the feed, they make
them purple ; and about each grain they make out
little circle, and this over the whole bofs or hulk in
the middle. The green is formed with verditer and
mafticot, and ftiadowed with fag green.
The SwoRDi or Day-lily —It is laid with Florence
lake and very pale white; formed and finiftied with
pyre lake, very clear and bright in fame places, and
very dark in others ; mixing even biftre in the thickeft
of the ftiades. The green is verditer, ftiadowed with
fap-green.
Hepatica, ox Liverwort.—There is red and blue.
The laft is done by putting on all parts a lay of ultra,
marine, white, and a little carmine or lake ; fliadow-
iag,<
159
Of
Flowers,
S6o MINIATUR
of ing the infide of tlie leaves with this mixture, but
*flowers, deeper ; excepting thofe of the firft rank ; for which,
and for the outfide of every one of them, they add
Indigo and white, that the colour may be paler, and
not fo fine. The red is laid with lake-columbine
and very pale white ; and finilhed with lefs white.
The green is done with verditer, mafticot, and a little
bill re ; and (hadowed with fap-green, and a little biftre,
efpecially on the outfide of the leaves.
The Pomegranate.—The flower of the pomegra¬
nate is laid with red lead ; ftiadowed with vermilion
and carmine ; and finifhed with this laft colour. The
green is laid with verditer and mafticot, and lhadowed
with fap-green.
The Flower of the Indian Bean.—It is done with
a lay of Levant-lake and white ; fhadowing the middle
leaves with pufe lake ; and adding a little ultramarine
for the others. The green is verditer, fhadowed with
fap-green.
The Columbine.—There are columbines of feveral
colours: the moft common are the purple, the gridelin,
and the red. For the purple, they lay with ultrama¬
rine, carmine, and white ; an l l-ac,ow with this mix¬
ture, deeper. The griddin are cone the fame way,
putting a great deal lefs ultramarine than carmine.
The red are done with lake and wtiite, finMiing with
lefs white. There are feme mixed flowers of this kind,
of feveral colours j which mull be formed and finifhed
as the others, but paler, making the mixtures of a
little darker colour.
The Lark's Heel —Thefe are of different colours,
and of mixed colours : the moft common are the pur¬
ple, the gridelin, and the red ; which are done as the
columbines
Viole- ,nd Pansies.—Violets and panfics are
<lone the fame way ; excepting that in the laft the
two middle leaves are bluer than the others, that is,
the borders or edges ; for thein/ideof them is yellow:
and there little black veins are made, which take their
beginning from the heart of the flower, and die away
towards the middle.
The Muscipula, or Catch-fly.—There are two
forts of it, the white and the red ; the laft is laid with
lake and white, with a little vermilion, and finii ed
with pure lake. As for the knot or nozzle of the
leaves, it is formed with white and a very fmall matter
of vermilion, mixing biftre or gall-ftone to tinifh it.
The leaves of the white are laid with white; adding
biftre and mafticot upon the knots, which are fhadow¬
ed with pure biftre, and the leaves with black and
white. The green of all thefe flowers is done with
*■ verditer and mafticot, and lhadowed with fap green.
The Crown Imperial.— There are of two colours,
the yellow and the red. The firft is done by putting
a lay of orpiment, and lhadowing it with gall-ftone and
orpiment, with a little vermilion. t he other is laid
with orpiment and vermilion, and fhadowed with
gall-ftone and vermilion; making the beginning of
the leaves next the ftile, with lake and biftre, very
dark; and veins with this mixture, both in one and
the other, all along the leaves. T he green is done with
verditer and mafticot, fhadowed with fap-green and
.gamboge
The Cyclamen, or Sowbread. —The red is laid
with carmine, a little ultramarine, and much white j
224.
E-PAINTING. Sea vir.
and finilhed with the fame colour, deeper; putting, in OF
a manner, only carmine in the middle of the leaves, ^'lowers,
next the heart, and in the reft add a little more ultra-
marine. The other is laid with white, and lhadowed
with black, t The ftalks of one and the other ought to
be a little reddifh; and the green, verditer and fap-
green. -
The Gilliflower.—There are feveral forts of gil-
liflowers; the white, the yellow, the purple, the red,
and the mixed, of various colours. The white are laid
with white, and fnadowed with black, and with a little
indigo in the heart of the leaves. The yellow, with
mafticot, gamboge, and gall-ftone The purple are
formed with purple and white ; and fini hed with lefs
white ; making the colour brighter in the heart, and
even a little yellowifh. The red with lake and white;
finifhing them with white. The mixed-coloured are
laid with white, and the mixtures are fometimes made
with purple, in which there is much ultramarine;
others again,]in which there is more carmine. Some¬
times they are of lake, and fometimes of carmine.
Some are done with white, and others without white;
fhadowing the reft of the leaves with indigo. The
feed of all is formed with verditer and mafticot, and
finifhed with fap-green. The leaves and ftiles are laid
with the fame green, mixing fap-green to finilh them.
Fruits, fifties, ferpents, and all forts of reptiles,
are to be touched in the fame manner as the figures of
men are ; that is, hatched or dotted.
Birds and all other animals are done like flowers, by
ftrokes or traces.
Never make ufe, for any of thefe things, of white-
lead. It is only proper in oil. It blackens like ink,
when only tempered with gum ; efpecially if you fet
your work in a moift place, or where perfumes are.
Cerufs of Venice is as fine, and of as pure a white.
Be not fparing in the ufe of this, efpecially in forming
or dead colouring ; and let it enter into all your mix¬
tures, in order to give them a certain body, which will
render your work gluifh, and make it appear foft,
plump, and ftrong.
The tafte of painters is, neverthelefs, different in this
point. Some ufe a little of it, and others none at all.
But the manner of the laft is meagre and dry. Others
ufe a great deal; and doubtlefs it is the belt method,
and molt followed amongftcilfulperfons; for befides that
it is fpeedy, one may by the ufe of it copy all forts of
pictures; which would bealmoft impofinlc otherwile;
notwithftanding the contrary opinion of fome, ho
fay, that in miniature we cannot give the force and all
the different taints we fee in pieces in oil. But this is
not true, at leaft of good painters ; and efFe£ts prove
it pretty plainly: for we fee figures, lanufcapes, pic¬
tures, and every thing elfe in miniature, touched in as
grand, as true, and as noble a manner (though more
tender and delicate), as they are in oil.
However, painting in oil has its advantages; were
they only thefe, that it exhibits more work, and takes
up lefs time. It is better defended likewife againft
the injuries of time ; and the right of birth muft be
granted it, and the glory of antiquity.
But miniature likewife has its advantages; and with¬
out repeating fuch as have been mentioned already, it
is neater and taore commodious. You may eafily carry
all
Sea. vir. MINIATURE-PAINTING. ij
Of pH -yot?r Implements in your pockets, and work when the airs of a face well; others fucceed better xh land. Of
Flowers. anc} wherever you pleafe, without fuch a nuihber of fcapes: fome work in little who cannot do it in large: Floweis'
411" "y " prepai/ations. You may quit and refume it when and fome are fkilled in colours who know little of defign : y ~
as often as you will 5 which is not done in the other; others, laftly, have only a genius for flowers : and even
in which one is rarely to work dry, the Baflans got themfelves a fame for animals; which
To conclude : In the art of painting, excellence they touched in a very fine manner} and better than
does not depend upon the greatnefs of the fubjeft, but any thing elfe.
upon the manner in which it is handled. Some catch
M 1 N
Minim MINIM, in mufic, a note equal to two crotchets,
}| ot half a femibreve. See Music.
Minium. MINIMS, a religious order in the church of Rome,
w“*v—" founded by St Francis de Paula, towards the end of
the 15th century. Their habit is a coarfe black wool¬
len fluff, with a woollen girdle, of the fame colours,
tied in five knots. They are not permitted to quit
their habit and girdle night nor day. Formerly they
went bare-footed, but are now allowed the ufe of
fhoes,
MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the leaft
quantity attainable in a given cafe.
MINISTER, a perfon who preaches, performs re-
ligious worfhip in public, adminifters the facraments,
&c.
Minister of State, a perfon to whom the prince
intrufts the adminiftration of government. See Coun¬
cil.
Foreign Minister, is a perfon fent into a foreign
country, to manage the affairs of his province or of
the ftate to which he belongs. Of thefe there are two
kinds : thofe of the firfi rank are ambaffadors and en¬
voys extraordinary, who reprefent the perfons of their
fovercigns ; the minifters of the fecond rank are the
ordinary refidents.
MINIUM, or Red-lead, is a calx of lead of a
vivid red colour, which colour it acquires by a flow
calcination and reverberation. SeeCHEMisTRY,n°X213.
The minium in commerce is chiefly brought from Hol¬
land, where large quantities of it are manufadfured.
The method in which minium is made in large
quantities with us is this—They firft burn lead in a
furnace into a kind of litharge, by continually ftirring
it while melted with an iron rake ; this they after¬
wards grind with two pair of ftones, which deliver it
from one to another, the firft pair grinding it coarfer,
the fecond finer; thefe are worked by means of a mill
which moves fix pair of them at once. When thus
reduced to a fine powder, it is waflied and then put
into a furnace, and is burnt with a reverberatory fire
for two or three days, all the while they continue ftir¬
ring it with a large iron rake, hung on a fwivel or
iron hook ; and toward the end of the time they watch
its being of the right colour. When this is doing,
the fire mud not be carried beyond a certain degree,
left the matter clod and run together.
The proceffi by which minium is prepared is de-
' • Mm.de fcr‘bed in the following manner by M. Jars *. The
1 F Atad' furnace is of the reverberatory kind, with two fire-
1 ;7Q. places at the ends ; each fire-place being fcparated
from the area, or body of the furnace, by a wall
twelve inches high. Tlie fire-places are fifteen inches
Vol. XII. Part I.
MIN
broad, and their length is equal to the breadth of the Minium,
whole furnace, which is about eight or nine feet. ——
The length of the area from one place to. the other is
nine or ten feet. The quantity of lead ufed in one
operation is about 1500 pounds, of which nine parts
are lead obtained from furnaces where the ore is fmelt-
ed, and one part is lead extrafted from the fcoria
which is formed in fmelting the ore. This latter
kind is faid to be neceffary, as the former could not
alone be reduced into powder. All the lead is at once
put into the area, the bottom of which is level. The
calx, as faft as it is formed, is drawn to one fide, by
means of a rake fufpended by a chain before the
mouth of the furnace. In four or five hours the whole
quantity of the lead is calcined, or, if any pieces re¬
main uncalcined, they are feparated, and kept for the
next operation. The heat employed is that of a cher¬
ry-red, and the fire-places and mouth are kept ppen,
that the air may accelerate the calcination. The pow¬
der or calx is to be frequently ftirred to prevent 'its
concreting ; and when this operation has been conti¬
nued about 24 hours, the matter is taken out of the
furnace, and laid on a flat pavement- Then cold wa¬
ter is thrown on it, to give it weight, as the work¬
men fay; but rather (as M. Jars thinks) to make it
friable. It is then to be ground in a mill, and the
finer part is feparated by waftiing, while the coarfer
part, referved for fome following operation, is to be
placed at the mouth of the furnace in order to retain
the melted lead. The fine pow'der, which is now of
a yellow colour, is again put into the fame or a fimi-
lar furnace, and expofed to a very moderate fire, from
36 to 48 hours; during which time, it is ftirred fre¬
quently to prevent its concreting ; and the powder
gradually acquires its proper red colour. The mi¬
nium is then to be taken out of the furnace, cooled,
and fifted through an iron fieve placed in a calk.
The bright colour of minium might render it valu¬
able in painting, if it could ftand with certainty in ei¬
ther oil or w'ater. But as it is fubjeft to become
black, it cannot be fafely trufted, except in hard var-
nifhes: and is, therefore, feldom ufed in oil, or even
in water, unlefs for very grofs purpofes, or as a ground
for vermilion. The goodnefs . of minium may be di-
ftinguiflied by the brightnefs of its colour : and the a-
dulteration to which it is liable may be detefted by
putting an ounce of it into a crucible with an equal
quantity of charcoal dull, well mixed together, and
placing the crucible in a common fire fufficient to melt
lead, which is to be covered with another fmall cru¬
cible inverted into it. When it has been continued,
for fome time on the fire, take it out and ftrike it
X again ft
MIN [ 162 1 MIN
Minnia againft the ground. The minium will thus he redu¬
ll ced to its metallic ftate; and its diminifhed weighty
Minor:!. w}ien freed from the charcoal dull and cold, will in-
w—y ■ (ijcat;e jjie proportion of adulterated matter. Minium
is alfo ufed as a flux in forming the enamel for grounds,
and in glazing, &c.
In medicine, minium is ufed as an external appli¬
cation. It obtunds the acrimony of the humours, al¬
lays inflammations, and is excellent in the cleanfing
and healing of old ulcers : It is ufed on thefe occafions
in many of the plafters and ointments of the ihops.
It was an ingredient in the officinal compofition called
implaftrum dem'mio, employed as a deficcative and cica-
trizer; but now difufed for that made in the fame
manner with litharge, becaufe it does not flick fo well,
and is more difficult of preparation.
MINNIN, a ftringed inftrument of mufic among
the ancient Hebrews, having three or four chords to
it. See Plate CCCXIV. Though there is reafon
to queftion the antiquity of this inflrument; both be¬
caufe it requires a hair-bow, which was a kind of
pleftrum nor known to the ancients, and bccaufe it
fo much reftmbles the modern viol. Kircher took the
figures of this, the machul, chinnor, and pfaltery,
from an old book in the Vatican library.
MINOR, a Latin term, literally denoting /e/r /
ufed in oppofition to major, greater.
Minor, in law, denotes a perfon under age; or
who, by the lav/s of the country, is not yet arrived
at the power of adminiftering his own affairs, or the
poffeffion of his eftate. Among us, a perfoa is a mi¬
nor till the age of twenty-one : before which time his
afts are invalid. See Age, and Infant.
It is a maxim in the common law, that in the King
there is no minority, and therefore he hath no legal
guardian ; and his royal grants and affents to a&s of
parliament are good, though he has not in his natural
capacity attained the legal age of twenty-one. It is
alfo provided by the cuftom and law of parliament,
that no one fhall fit or vote in either houfe, unlefs he
be twenty-one years of age. This is likewife exprefs-
ly declared by flat. 7 and 8 Will. III. cap. 25. with
regard to the houfe of commons.
Minor, in logic, is the fecond propofition of a
formal or regular fyllogifm, called alfo the ajfumptlon.
Minor, in mufic, is applied to certain concords,
which differ from or are lower than others of the fame
denomination by a leffer femitone or four commas.
Thus we fay, a third minor, or leffer third, or a fixth
major and minor. Concords that admit of major and
minor, i. e. greater and lefs, are faid to be imperfedt
concords.
MINORCA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, fi-
tuated between 39 and 40 degrees of North Latitude,
and near four degrees of Eaft Longitude. It is about
33 miles in length from north-weft to fouth-eaft, in
breadth from eight to twelve, but in general about
ten miles ; fo that in fize it may nearly equal the coun¬
ty of Huntingdon or Bedfordftiire. The form is very
irregular; and the coafts are much indented by the fea,
which forms a great number of little creeks and inlets,
fome of which might be very advantageous.
This ifland is one of thofe called by the ancient Ro¬
mans Bakares, which arofe from the dexterity of the
inhabitants in ufing the fling. It fell under the power
of the Romans, afterwards of the northern barbarians, Minerea.
who deftroyed that empire. From them it was taken '“-'v *
by the Arabs, who were fubdued by the king of. Ma¬
jorca, and he by the king of Spain. The Englifli
fubdued it in 1708, and the French in the late war ;
but it was reftored to Britain by the treaty of Paris in
I76I-
The air of this ifland is much more clear and pure
than in Britain ; being feldom darkened with thick
fogs: yet the low valleys are not free from mifts and
unwholefome vapours ; and in windy weather the fpray
of the fea is driven over the whole ifland. Hence it
happens that utenfils of brafs or iron are extremely
fufceptible of rult, in fpite of all endeavours to pre-
ferve them ; and houfehold-furniture becomes mouldy.
The fummers are dry, clear, calm, and exceffively
hot; the autumns moift, warm, and unequal; at one
time perfectly ferene, at another cloudy and tempeftu-
ous. During the winter there are fometimes violent
ftorms, though neither frequent nor of long conti¬
nuance ; and whenever they ceafe, the weather returns
to its ufual ferenity. The fpring is always variable,
but refembles the winter more than the fummer. The
changes of heat and cold are neither fo great nor fo
fudden in this climate as in many others.' Inthecom-
pafs of a year, the thermometer feldom rifes much a-
bove the 80th, or falls below the 48th degree. In
ftimmer there is fcarcely ever a difference of foui or
five degrees between the heat of the air at noon and at
night; and in winter the variation is ftill lefs confider-
able. But this muft be underftood of a thermometer
(haded from the influence of the folar beams : for if ex-
pofed to them it will often rife 12, 14, or 16 degrees
higher than what we have mentioned; and in other fea-
fons the difference between the heat of the air in the
fun and the (hade is much greater. Yet, even in the
dog-days, the heat of the atmofphere, at leaft in open
places, feldom furpaffes that of human blood. The
winds are very boifterous about the equinoxes, and
fometimes during the winter. At other times they
are generally moderate; and, according to the obfer-
vations of fcamen, they rarely blow in the fame direc¬
tion near the iflands adjacent to the gulph of Lyons
as in the open fea. During thefummer there is com¬
monly a perfect calm in the mornings and evenings 1
but the middle of the day is cooled by refrefliing
breezes which come from the eaft, and, following the
courfe of the fun, increafe gradually till two or three
in the afternoon; after which they infenfibly die
away as night approaches. This renders the heat of
the fun lefs dangerous and inconvenient; and if thefe
breezes intermit for a day or two, the natives grow
languid and inactive from the heat. The northerly
winds in general are clear' and healthy, difpel the mifts,
and make a clear blue Iky ; whilft thofe which blow
from the oppofite quarter, render the air warm, moift,
and unhealthy. The north wind is fuperior in power
to all the reft ; which appears from hence, that the
tops of all the 'trees incline to the fouth, and the
branches on the north fide are bare and blafted. The
next to it in force is the north-weft. Both are fre¬
quent towards the clofe of winter and in the fpring ;,
and, being dry and cold, they (hrivel up the leaves of
the vegetables, deftroy their tender (hoots, and are
often exceffively detrimental to the vineyards and ri-
fing
MIN C ] MIN
Minorca, fing corn. The piercing blafts atthatfeafon from the
L‘ * north-eaft, as they are more moift, and more fre¬
quently attended with rain, are lefs prejudicial. The
fouth and fouth-eall winds are by much the moft un¬
healthy. In whatever feafons they blow, the air is
foggy, and affefts the breathing ; but in the fummer
feafon they are fultry and fuffocating. An exceflive
deje&ion of fpirits is then a univerfal complaint; and
on expofing the thermometer to the rays of the fun,
the mercury has frequently rifen above the 100th de¬
gree. The weft wind is ufually drier than the fouth :
the eaft is cold and bluftering in the fpring, and ful¬
try in the fummer.
The weather in Minorca is generally fair and dry ;
but when it rains, the ftrowers are heavy, though of
fhort continuance, and they fall moft commonly in the
night. The Iky in fummer is clear, and of a beauti¬
ful azure, without clouds or rain ; but moderate dews
defcend regularly after funfet. In autumn the wea¬
ther becomes lefs ferene ; whirlwinds and thunder be¬
come frequent; and in the night-time lightning, and
thofe meteors called falling Jlars, are very common.
Water-fpouts alfo are often feen at that feafon, and
frequently break upon the ftrore. A fudden alteration
in the weather takes place about the autumnal equi¬
nox ; the flues are darkened with clpuds, and the rains
fall in fuch quantities, that the torrents thereby oc-
cafioned, pouring down from the hills, tear up trees
by the root, carry away cattle, break down fences,
and do confiderable mifchief to the gardens and vine¬
yards. But thefe anniverfary rains are much more
violent than lafting ; always falling in fudden and
heavy fhowers, with intervals of fair weather. They
are accompanied with thunder, lightning, and fquals
of wind, moft commonly from the north. Hail and
fnow are often intermixed with the rains which fall in
winter and in fpring ; but the fnow, for the moft
part, diflblves immediately; and ice is here an uncom¬
mon appearance.
The whole eoaft of Minorca lies low ; and there are
only a few hills near the centre, of which the moft
confiderable, named Toro by the inhabitants, may be
feen at thediftance of 12 or 14 leagues from the land.
The furface of the ifland is rough and unequal; and
in many places divided by long narrow vales of a con¬
fiderable depth, called barancoet by the natives. They
begin towasds the middle of the ifland, and after feve-
. ral windings terminate at the fea. The fouth-weft fide
is more plain and regular than towards the north-eaft ;
where the hills are higher, with low marftiy valleys
betwixt them, the foil lefs fruitful, and the whole traft
unhealthy to man and beaft. Near the towns and
villages the fields are well cultivated, and inclofed with
ftone-walls; but the reft for the moft part are rocky,
or covered with woods and thickets. There are fome
pools of Handing water, but very few rivulets, which
is the greateft defedt about the ifland, as the inhabi¬
tants have fcarcely any wholefome water excepting
what is faved from the clouds.
The foil is light, thin, and very ftony, with a good
deal of fea-falt, and, in fome places, of calcareous nitre
intermixed. In moft places there is fo little earth,
that the ifland appears to be but one large irregular
rock covered here and there with mould, and an infi¬
nite variety of ftones. Notwitbftanding this, how¬
ever, it is not only extremely proper for vineyards, but Minore*.
produces more wheat and barley than could at firit
fight be imagined; and, if the peafants may be cre¬
dited, it would always yield a quantity of corn and
wine fufficient for the natives, did not the violence of
the winds, and the excelfive drought of the weather,
frequently fpoil their crops. The fields commonly lie
fallow for two years, and are fown the third. About
the latter end of winter, or the beginning of fpring;
they are firft broke up : and next autumn, as foon as
the rains fall, they ate again ploughed and prepared
for receiving the proper feeds.. The tillage is very ea-
fily performed; for a plough fo light as to be tranfport-
ed from place to place on the ploughman’s fheulder,
and to be drawn by an heifer, or an afs fometimes af-
fifted by an hog, is fufficient for opening fo thin a foil.
The later the harveft happens, the more plentiful it
proves. The barley is ufually cut down about the 20th
of May N. S. and the wheat is reaped in June, fo that
the whole harveft is commonly got in by midfummer-
day. The grain is not threffied with flails as in this
country, but trodden out on a fmooth piece of rock by
oxen and affes, according to the cuftom of the eaftern
nations.
The natives of Minorca are commonly lean, thin,
and well-built, of a middle ftature, and olive com¬
plexion ; but their charafter is by no means agree¬
able. Such is the natural impetuofity of their temper,
that the flighteft caufe provokes them to anger, and
they feem to be incapable of forgiving or forgetting
an injury. Hence quarrels break out daily, even among
neighbours and relations; and family difputes are
tranfmitted from father to fon ; and thus, though
lawyers and pettifoggers are very numerous in this
country, there are ftill too few for the clients. Both
fexes are, by conftitution, extremely amorous: they
are often betrothed to each other while children, and
marry at the age of 14. The women have eafy la¬
bours, and commonly return in a few days to their u.
fual domeftic bufmefs ; but, left the family ftiould be¬
come too numerous for their income, it is a practice
among the poorer fort to keep their children at the
breaft for two or three years, that by this means the
mothers may be hindered from breeding.
Bread of the fineft wheat flour, well fermented and
well baked, is more than half the diet of people of all
ranks. Rice, pulfe, vermicelli, herbs and roots from
the garden, fummer-fruits, pickled olives, and pods
of the Guinea pepper, make up almoft all the other
half, fo that fcarce a fifth of their whole food is fur-
niihedfrom the animal kingdom, and ofthisfiih makes
by much the moft confiderable portion. On Fridays,
and other fall days, they abftain entirely from flefh ;
and during Lent they live altogether on vegetables and
fiflr, excepting Sundays, when they are permitted the
ufe of eggs, cheefe, and milk. Moft of their dirties
are high-feafoned with pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and
other Ipices ; and garlic, onions, or leeks, are almoft;
conftant ingredients. They eat a great deal of oil,
and that none of the fweeteft or beft flavoured ; ufmg
it not only with fallads, but alfo with boiled and fried
firti, greens, pulfe, &c. inftead of butter. A flice of
bread foaked in boiled water, with a little oil and fait,,
is the common breakfaft of the peafants, well known
by the name of olcagua. Their ordinary meals arc
X 2 very
MIN [ i
Minorca, very frugal, and confift of very little variety ; but on
feftivak and other folemn occafions their entertainments
are to the la ft degree profufe and extravagant, info-
much that the bill of fare of a country farmer’s wed¬
ding-dinner would fcarce be credited.
With regard to other matters, the Minorquins are
'accufed of prodigious indolence in the way of buiinefs,
and negledt of the natural advantages they poffefs. In
the bowels of the earth are iron, copper, and lead-ores,
of none of which any ufe hath been made except the
laft. A lead-mine was worked to advantage fome time
ago, and the ore fent into France and Spain for the
ufe of the potteries in thofe countries. The proprie¬
tor difcontinued his work on fome fmall difcourage-
ment; and indeed it is faid, that thefe people are of
all mankind the jpofl eafily put out of conceit with an
undertaking that does not bring them in mountains of
- prefent gain, or that admits of the flighteft probabi¬
lity of difappointing their mod fanguine expectations :
nor will their purfe admit of many difappointments ;
and thus their poverty co-operating with their natural
defpondeuce and love of eafe, is the principal caufe of
their backwardnefs to engage in projects, though ever
fo promifmg, for the improvement of their private for¬
tune, and the advantage of the commerce of their
country. This lead-ore went under the name of vernu
among the natives, as it was wholly ufed by the pot¬
ters in varnilhing and glazing their earthen velfcls.
There are few exports qf any account, and they
are obliged to their neighbours for near one-third of
their corn, all their oil, and fuch a variety of articles
of lefs confideration, that nothing could preferve
them from a total bankruptcy, but the Englifh money
circulated by the troops, which is exchanged for the
daily fupplies of provifions, increafed by the multipli¬
cation of vineyards, the breeding of poultry, and the
production of vegetables, in a proportion of at lead
five to one fince the ifland has been in our pofleffion.
It will not require many words to enun\f rate their ex¬
ports : they make a fort of cheefe, little liked by the
Englifh, which fells in Italy at a very great price ;
this, perhaps, to the amount ©f 800 1. per annum.—
The wool they fend abroad may produce 9001. more.
Some wine is exported ; and, if we add to its value
that of the hqme-confumption, which has every merit
of an export, being nine parts in ten taken off by the
troops for ready money, it may well be edimated at
1600 1. a-year. In honey, wax, and fait, their yearly
exports may be about 4co 1. and this comes pretty
near the fum of their exports, which we edimate to¬
gether at 18,000 1. Sterlingannum.
A vad balance lies againd them, if we confider the
variety and importance of the articles they fetch from
other countries, for which they mud pay ready cafh.'
Here it may be neceffary to withdraw fome things
from the heap, fuch as their cattle, fheep, and fowls,
on which they get a profit; for the country does not
produce them in a fufficient abundance to fupply
them, efpecially when we have a fleet of men. of war
ftationed there.
Their imports are, corn, cattle, flieep, fowls, to¬
bacco, oil, rice, fugar, fpices, hard-ware, and tools
of all kinds ; gold and filver lace j chocolate, or co¬
coa to make it; tobacco, timber, plank, boards, mill-
flones, tobacco-pTe3/ playing cards, turnery ware,
64 ] MIN
feeds, foap, faddles ; all manner of cabinet-makers Minort*.
work, iron fpikes, nails, fine earthen-ware, glafs- v—J
lamps, brafiery, paper, and other dationary wares i
copperas, galls, dye-duffs, painters brufhes, and co¬
lours ; mufical indruments, mufic, and drings; watches,
wine, fruit, all manner of fine and printed linens,
muflins, cambrics, and laces; bottles, corks, darch,
indigo, fans, trinkets, toys, ribbands, tape, needles,
pins, filk, mohair, lanthorns, cordage, tar, pitch, ro-
fin, drugs, gloves, fire-arms, gunpowder, fhot, and
lead; hats, caps, velvet, cotton duffs, woollen cloths,
dockings, capes, medals, vedments, ludres, pictures,
images, agnus Dei’s, books, pardons, bulls, relics, and
indulgencies. , '
The ifland is divided into what they dyle term'mos,
of which there were anciently five, now reduced to
four, and refemble our counties. The termino of
Ciudadella, at the north-wede'rn extremity of the
ifland, is fo dyled from this place, which was once a
city, and the capital of Minorca. It makes a vene¬
rable and majedic figure, even in its prefent date of
decay, having in it a large Gothic cathedral, fome
other churches and convents, the- governor’s palace,
and an exchange, which is no contemptible pile.—
There are in it 600 houfes, which, before the feat of
government and the courts of judice were removed to
Mahon, were fully inhabited; and there are dill more
gentlemens families here than in all the red of the
ifland. It hath a port commodious enough for the'
veffels employed in the trade of this country, which,
though in the poffelfion of a maritime power, is lefs
than it/ormerly was. It is dill, in the flyle of our
officers, the beji quarters (and there are none bad) in
the country ; and if there was a civil government, and
the place made a free port, the bed judges are of opi¬
nion it would very foon become a flourifhing place
again ; and the fortifications, if it fliould be found ne-
ceffary, might then alfo be eafily redored and im¬
proved.
The termino of Fererias is the next, a narrow flip
reaching crofs from fea to fea, and the country little
cultivated ; it is therefore united to Mercandah In this
lad termino dands Mont-toro in the very centre of the
ifle, and the highed ground, fome fay the only moun¬
tain in it; on the fummit of which there is a convent,
where even in the hotted months the monks enjoy a.
cool air, and at all times a mod delightful profpeft*
About fix miles north from Mont-toro Hands the
cadle that covers Port Fornelles, which is a very fpa-
cious harbour on the ead fide of the ifland. There are
in it fhoals and foul ground, which, to thofe who are
unacquainted with them, render it difficult and dan¬
gerous ; yet the packets bound from Mahon to Mar-
feilles frequently take flicker therein ; and while the
Spaniards were in poffeffion of the ifle, large fhips
and men of war frequented it. At a fmall didance
from this lies another harbour called Adaia, which
runs far into the land ; but being reputed unfafe, and
being fo near Fornelles, is at prefent ufelefs. The
country about it is, however, faid to be the pleafantefl;
and wholefomelt fpot in the ifland, and almod the on¬
ly one plentifully fupplied with excellent fpring-water ;
fo that the gardens are well laid out, and the richett
and fined fruits grow here in the highed perfeftion.
AUior is the next termino, in which there is nothing
remarkabk
MIN [ 165 ] MIN
Minorca remarkable but the capital of the fame name, well fitu-
Minos atet^ on an em^nence> *n a pkafant and tolerably culti-
■ vated country.
The termino of Mahon, at the fouth-eaft end of the
ifland, is at prefent the moft confiderable of them all,
containing about 60,000 Englilh acres, and nearly
one-half of the inhabitants in Minorca. The town of
Mahon derives its name from the Carthaginian general
Mago, who,is univerfally allowed to be its founder.—
It ftands on an eminence on the well fide of the har¬
bour, the afcent pretty iteep. There are in it a large
church, three convents, the governor’s palace, and
fome other public edifices. It is large, but the llreets
■re winding, narrow, and ill-paved. The fortrefs of
St Philip ftands near the entrance of the harbour,
which it covers, is very fpacious, of great ftrength,
with fubterranean works to proteA the garrifon from
bombs, large magazines, and whatever eife is neceflary
to render it a complete fortification, and hath a nu¬
merous and/ w'ell-difpofed artillery. Port Mahon is
allowed to be the fineft harbour in the Mediterranean,
about 90 fathoms wide at its entrance, but within very
large and fafe, ftretching a league or more into the
land. Beneath the. town of Mahon there is a very fine
quay, one end of which is referved for the ftiips of
war, and furnilhed with all the accommodations ne-
ceifary for careening and refitting them; the other
ferves for merchantmen. On the other fide the har¬
bour is Cape Mola, where it is generally agreed a
fortrefs might be conllrutted which would be impreg¬
nable, as the caftle of St Philip was efteemed before
we took it, and beftowed fo much money upon it*
that, though fome works were erefted at Cape Mola,
it was not judged proper to proceed in the fortifica¬
tions there at a frelh expence ; at leaft this is the only
reafon that hath been alfigned. Minorca was taken by
the Spaniards during the American war, and is now-
in their poffeffion.
MINORS, or Friers Minor, an appellation
which the Francifcans affume, out of Ihew of humili¬
ty ; calling themfelves fratres minores, i. e. leffer bro¬
thers, and fometimes minorites. There is alfo an order
of regular minors-at Naples, which was eftabliftied in
the year 1588, and confirmed by Sixtus V.
MINOS (fab. hift.), a king of Crete, fon of Ju¬
piter and Europa. He flourilhed about 1432 years
before the Chriftian era. He gave laws to his fub-
jedls, which ftill remained in full, force in the age of
the philofopher Plato, about 1000 years after the
death of the legifiator. His juftice and moderation
procured him the appellation of the favourite of the
gods, the confident of Jupiter,,and the wife legifiator,
in every city of Greece ; and, according to the.poeta,
he was rewarded for his equity after death with the
office of fupreme and abfolute judge in th* infernal
regions. In this capacity he is reprefented fitting in
the middle of the (hades, and holding a fceptre in his
hand. The dead, plead their different caufes before
him ; and the impartial judge Ihakes the fatal urn,
which is filled with the deftinies of mankind. He
~ married Ithona, by whom he had Lycaftes, who was
the father of Mmos II.
Minos II. was a fon of Lycaftes, the fon of Mi¬
nos I. and king of Crete. He married Pafiphae, the
daughter of Sol and Perfeis, and by her he had many
children. He increafed his paternal dominions by the Minotaur,
conqueft of the neighbouring iilands; but Ihowed him'- Minow. .
felf cruel in the war which he carried againft the A- ’
thenians, who had put to death his fon Androgeus.
He took Megara by the treachery of Scylla; and not
fatisfied with vi&ory, he obliged the vanquiftied to
bring him yearly to Crete feven chofen boys and the
fame number of virgins to be devoured by the Mino¬
taur. This bloody tribute was at laft abolilhed when
T heseus had deftroyed the monfter. When Daedalus,
whofe induftry and invention had fabricated the laby¬
rinth, and whofe imprudence in affifting Pafiphae in
the gratification of her unnatural defires, had offended
Minos, fted from the place of his confinement with
wings, and arrived fafe in Sicily ; the incenfed mo¬
narch purfued the offender, refolved to puniffi his in¬
fidelity. Cocalus, king of Sicily, who had hofpitably
received Daedalus, entertained his royal gueit with
diffembled friendlhip ; and, that he might not deliver
to him a man whofe ingenuity and abilities he fo well
knew, he put Minos to death. Minos died about 35
years before the Trojan war. He was father of An :
drogeus, Glaucus, and Deucalion ; and two daugh¬
ters, Phasdra and Ariadne. Many authors have con¬
founded the two Minofes, the grandfather and the
grandfon } but Homer, Plutarch, and Diodorus, prove
plainly that they were two different perfons.
MINOTAUR (fab. hift.), a celebrated monfter,
half a man and half a bull, according to this verfe of.
Ovid,
Semibovemque •virum, femivirumque bovem*
It was the fruit of Pafiphae’s amour with a bull. Mi¬
nos refufed to facrifice a white bull to Neptune, an
animal which he had received from the. god for that.
purpofe. This oft’ended Neptune, and he made Pa¬
fiphae the wife of Minos enamoured of this fine bull,
which had been refufed to his altars. Daedalus profti-
tuted his talents in being fubfervient to the queen’s
unnatural defire§ ; and by.his meavs, Pafiphae’s hor¬
rible paffions were gratified, and the Minotaur came
into the world. Minos confined in the labyrinth this
monfter, which convinced the world of his wife’s laf-
civioufnefs, and reflected difgrace upon his family.
The Minotaur ufually devoured the chofen young men
and maidens which the tyranny of Minos yearly ex-
adted from the Athenians. Thefeus delivered his
country from this tribute, when it had fallen to his
lot to be facrificed to the voracity' of the Minotaur ;
and by means of Ariadne, the king’s daughter, he de¬
ftroyed the monfter, and made his efcape from the
windings of the labyrinth.—The fabulous tradition of
the Minotaur, and of the infamous commerce of Pafi¬
phae with a favourite bull, has been often explained.
Some fuppofe that Pafiphae was enamoured of one of
her hufband’s courtiers called Taurus; and that Dae¬
dalus favoured the paffions of the queen, by fuffering
his houfe to become the retreat of the two lovers.
Pafiphae fome time after brought twins into the world,
one of .whom, greatly refemhled Minos and the other
Taurus ; and in the natural refemblance of their coun¬
tenance with that-of their fuppofed fathers, originated
their name, and confequently the fable of the Mino¬
taur.
, MINOW, a very fmall fpecies of cyprinus, fo weR
known that it needs no defcriptiou.
M1N»-
MIN .1x66] MIN
nfter, MINSTER (Saxon, or Mynjlre), ancient-
n^rt:^ ly fignified the church of a monaftery or convent.
v ~ MINSTREL, an ancient term for a finger and
inftrumental performer.
The word minjlrel is derived from the French mene-
Jlriery and was not in ufe here before the Norman con-
queft. It is remarkable, that our old monkifh hiito-
rians do not ufe the word citharadus, cantator, or the
like, to exprefs a minjlrel in Latin ; but either mimus,
hjlrio, joculator\ or fome other word that implies
Hence it fhould feem that the minftrels fet off their
finging by mimicry or adtion ; or, according to Dr
Brown’s hypothefis, united the powers of melody,
poem, and dance.
/ The Saxons, as well as the ancient Danes, had been
accuftomed to hold men of this profelfion in the high-
ell reverence. Their fkill was confidered as fomething
divine, their perfons were deemed facred, their atten¬
dance was folicited by kings, and they were every¬
where loaded with honours and rewards. In Ihort,
poets and their art were held among them in that rude
admiration which is ever Ihown by an ignorant people
to fuch as excel them in intelle&ual accomplilhments.
When the Saxons were converted to Chriilianity, in
proportion as letters prevailed among them, this rude
admiration began to abate, and poetry was no longer
a peculiar profelfion. The poet and the minftrel be¬
came two perfons. Poetry was cultivated by men of
letters indifciiminately, and many of the moft popular
rhymes were compofed amidft the leifure and retire¬
ment of monafteries. But the minllrels continued a
dillindl order of men, and got their livelihood by fing¬
ing verfes to the harp at the houfes of the great.
There they were Hill hofpitably and refpeftfully re¬
ceived, and retained many of the honours drown to
their predcceffors the Bards and Scalds. And in¬
deed, though fome of them only recited the compofi-
tions of others, many of them ftill compofed fongs
themfelves; and a«! of them could probably invent a
few ftanzas on occafion. There is no doubt but molt
of the old heroic ballads were produced by this order
of men. For although fome of the larger metrical
romances might come from the pen of the monks or
others, yet the fmaller narratives were probably com-
pofed by the minftrels who fung them. From the
amazing variations which occur in different copies of
thefe old pieces, it is evident they made no fcruple to
alter each other’s produdlions, and the reciter added
or omitted whole ftanzas according to his own fancy
or convenience.
In the early ages, as is hinted above, this pro-
ftffion was held in great reverence among the Saxon
tribes, as well as among their Danilli brethren. This
appears from two remarkable fa<fts in hiftory, which
Ihow that the fame arts of roufic and fong were equally
admired among both nations, and that the privileges
and honouis conferred upon the profeffors of them
were common to both ; as it is well known their cu-
ftoms, manners, and even language, were not in thofc
times very diffimilar.
^ When King Alfred the Great was defirous to learn
the true fituation of the Danilh army, which had in¬
vaded his realm, he affumed the drefs andcharadler of
a minftrel; and taking his harp, and only one at¬
tendant (for in the earlieft times it was not unufual
for a minftrel to have a fervant to carry his harp), he
went with the utmoft fecurity into the Danifh camp.
And though he could not but be known to be a Saxon,
the charafter he had affumed procured him a hofpitable
reception; he was admitted to entertain the king at
table, and ftaid among them long enough to contrive
that affault which afterwards deftroyed them. This
was in the year 878.
About 60 years after, a Danilh king made ufe of
the fame difguife to explore the camp of King Athel-
ftan. With his harp in his hand, and dreffed like a
minftrel, Anlaff king of the Danes went among the
Saxon tents, and taking his Hand near the king’s pa¬
vilion, began to play, and was immediately admitted.
There he entertained Athelftan and his lords with his
finging and his mufic ; and was at length difmiffed
with an honourable reward, though his fongs mull
have difeovered him to have been a Dane. Athel-
itan was faved from the confequences of this ftratagem
by a foldier, who had obferved Anlaff bury the money
which had been given him, from fome fcruple of ho¬
nour or motive of fuperftition. This occaiioned a
difeovery.
From the uniform procedure of both thefe kings, it
is plain that the fame mode of entertainment prevailed
among both people, and that the minftrel was a pri¬
vileged chara&er among both. Even as late as the
reign of Edward II. the minftrels were eafily admitted
into the royal prefence, as appears from a paffage in
Stow, which alfo fhows the fplendor of their ap¬
pearance.
“ In the year 1316, Edward II. did folemnife his
feaft of Pentecoft at Weftminfter, in the great hall:
where fitting royally at the table with his peers about
him, there entered a woman adorned like a minftrel,
fitting on a great horfe trapped, as minftrels then ufed,
who rode round about the tables, Ihowing paftime j
and at length came up to the king’s table, and
laid before him a letter, and forthwith turning her
horfe, faluted every one, and departed.”—The fub-
jedl of this letter was-a remonftrance to the king on
the favours heaped by him on his minions, to the ne-
gledt of his knights and faithful fervants.
The meffenger was fent in a minftrel’s habit, as
what would gain an eafy admiffion; and was a woman
concealed under that habit, probably to difarm the
king’s refentment: for we do not find that any of the
real minftrels were of the female fex ; and therefore
conclude this was only an artful contrivance peculiar
to that occafion. ^
In the 4th year of Richard II. John of Gaunt
eredled at Tetbury in Staffordlhire a court of minftrtls,
with a full power to receive fuit and fervice from the
men of his profelfion within five neighbouring counties,
to ena& laws, and determine their controverfies; and
to apprcheml and arreft fuch of them as fhould refufe
to appear at the faid court, annually held on the 16th
of Auguft. For this they had a charter, by which
they were empowered to appoint a king of the min¬
ftrels, with four officers, to prefide over them. Thefe
W'ere every year eledled with great ceremony ; the
whole form of which is deferib^d by Dr Plott: in
whofe time, however, they feem to have become mere
muficians.
Even fo late as the reign of King Henry VIII. the
reciters of verfes or moral fpeeches learnt by heart,
intruded without ceremony into all companies; not
only
MIN I 167 1 MIN
Minflrel. only in taverns, but in the houfes of the nobility
v—“ themfelves. This we learn from Erafmus, whofe ar¬
gument led him only to defcribe a fpecies of thefe men
who did not fign their compofitions ; but the others
that did, enjoyed without doubt the fame privileges.
We find that the minftrels continued down to the
reign of Elizabeth; in whofe time they had loft much
of their dignity, and were linking into contempt and
negledt. Yet ftill they fuftained a character far fu-
perior to any thing we can conceive at prefent of the
fingers of old ballads.
When Queen Elizabeth was entertained at Killing-
worth caftle by the earl of Leicefter in 157 among
the many devices and pageants which were exhibited
for her entertainment, one of the perfonages intro¬
duced was that of an ancient minftrel, whofe appear¬
ance and drefs are fo minutely deferibed by a writer
there prefent, and gives us fo diftimft an idea of the
character, that we (hall quote the palfage at large.
“ A perfon very meet feemed he for the purpofe,
of a xlv. years old, apparelled partly as he would
himfelf. His cap off: his head feemingly rounded
tonftetwife : fair-kembed, that, with a fponge daintly
dipt in a little capon’s greafe, was finely fmoothed, to
make it Ihine like a mallard’s wing. . His beard
fmugly (haven : and yet his (hirt after the new trink,
with ruffs fair ftarched, flecked and gliftering like a
pair of new (hoes, mar(halled in good order with a fet-'
ting (lick, and ftrut, * that’ every ruff ftood up like a
wafer. A fide [d. e. long] gown of Kendale green,
after the freftinefs of the year now, gathered at the
neck with a narrow gorget, faftened afore with a white
clafp and a keeper elofe up to the chin ; but eafily, for
beat, to undo when he lift. Seemingly begirt in a red
caddis girdle: from that a pair of capped Sheffield
knives hanging a’ two (ides. Out of his bofom drawn
from a lappet of his napkin edged with a blue lace,
and marked with a D for I>amian ; for he was but a
batchelor yet.
“ His gown had fide {ji. e. long] fleeves down to
mid-leg, flit from the (houlder to the hand, and lined
with white cotton. His doublet-fleeves of black wor-
Ited: upon them a pair of pointes of tawny chamlet
laced along the wrift with blue threaden pointes. A
weak towards the hands of fuftian-a-napes. A pair
of red neather-ftocks. A pair of pumps on his feet,
with a crofs cut at his toes for corns; not new indeed,
yet cleanly blackt with foot, and fliining as a (hoing
horn.
“ About his neck a red ribband fuitable to his girdle.
His harp in good.grace dependent before him. His
vvreft tyed to a green lace and hanging by: under the
gorget of his gown a fair flaggon chain, (pewter for)
filver, as a fquire Minftrel of Middlefex, that travelled
the country this fummer feafon, unto fair and wor-
fl)ipful mens houfes. From his chain hung afcutcheon,
with metal and colour, refplendent upon his breaft, of
the ancient arms of Iflington.”
^ —This minftrel is deferibed as belonging to that
village. We fuppofe fuch as were retained by noble
families wore their arms hanging down by a filver
chain as a kind of badge. From the expreffion of
Squire Minftrel above, we may conclude there were
other inferior orders, as Yeomen Minftrels, or the
like.
This minftrel, the author tells us a little below, Mint.
“ after three lowly courtefies, cleared his voice with a —v—
hem ... and wiped his lips with the hollow of his
hand for ’filing his napkin ; tempered a firing or two
with his wreft; and, after a little warbling on his harp
for a prelude, came forth with a folemn fong, war¬
ranted for ftoryout of King Arthur’s afls, &c.”
Towards the end of the f 6th century, this clafs of
men had loft all credit, and were funk fo low in the
public opinion, that in the 39th year of Elifabeth a
ftatute was paffed by which “minftrels, wandering
abroad,” were included among “ rogues, vagabonds,
and fturdy beggars,” and were adjudged to be punifli-
ed as fuch. This a& feems to have put an end to the
profeffion, for after this time they arc no longer men¬
tioned.
MINT, the place in which the king’s money is
coined. See Coinage.
There were anciently mints in almoft every county
in England; but the only mint at prefent in the Bri-
tifti dominions is that in the tower of London. The
officers of the mint are, I. The warden of the mint,
who is the chief; he overfees the other officers, and
receives the bullion. 2. The mafter-worker, who re¬
ceives bullion from the warden, caufes it to be melted,
delivers it to the moneyers, and, when it is coined,
receives it again. 3. The comptroller, who is the
overfeer of all the inferior officers, and fees that all
the money is made to the juft affize. 4. The affay-
mafter, who weighs the gold and filver, and fees that
it is according to the ftandaid. 5. The two auditors
who take the accounts. 6. The furveyor of the melt¬
ing ; who, after the affay-mafter has made trial of
the bullion, fees that it is call out, and not altered af¬
ter it is delivered to the melter. 7. The engraver ;
who engraves the ftamps and dyes for the coinage of
the money. 8. The clerk of the irons; who fees
that the irons arc clean and fit to work with. 9. The
melter who melts the bullion before it be coined.
10. The provoft of the mint; who provides for and
overfees all the moneyers. 11. The blanchers, who
anneal and cleanfe. the money. 12. The moneyers;
fome of whom forge the money, fome (hare it, fome
round and mill it, and fome (lamp and coin it. 13. The
porters who keep the gate of the mint.
Mint was alfo a pretended place of privilege, in
Southwark, near the King’s Bench, piit down by
ftatute. If any perfons, within the limits of the mint,
(hall obdruft any officer in the ferving of any writ or
pvocefs, &c. or affault any perfon therein, fo as he
receive any bodily hurt, the offender (hall be guilty
of felony, and be tranfported to the plantations, &c.
Stat. 9. Geo. I.
MiNT-Marh. It hath been ufual, from old time,
to oblige the mafters and workers of the mint, in the
indentures made with them, “ to make a ptivy mark
in all the money that they made, as well of gold as of
filver, fo that another time they might know, if need
were, and witte which moneys of gold and filver
among other of the fame moneys, were of their own
making, and which not.” And whereas, after every
trial of the pix at Weftminfter, the mafters and work¬
ers of the mint, having there proved their moneys- to
be lawful and good, were- immediately entitled to re¬
ceive their quklus under the great feal, and to he dif-
6 charged
MIN P i68 1 MIN
Mint, charged from all fuits or aftions concerning thofe before, thefe marks have either been totally laid afide. Mint
moneys, it was then ufual for the faid mailers and or fuch only have been ufed as are of a more fecret . i!
workers to change the privy mark before ufed for . nature, and only known to the officers and engravers
another, that fo the moneys from which they were concerned in the coinage : and indeed the -conilant
not yet difeharged might be diftinguiihed from thofe praftice that has ever fince prevailed, of dating all the
for which they had already received their quietus; feveral pieces, has rendered all fuch marks of much lefs
which new mark they then continued to ftamp upon confequence than before,
all their moneys, until another trial of the pix gave Mint, in botany. See Mentha.
them alfo their quietus concerning thofe. MINTURN^E, a town of Campania between
The pix is a llrong box with three locks, whofe Sinudfa and Formise. It was in the marfhes in this
keys are refpeftively kept by the warden, mafter, and neighbourhood that Marius concealed himfelf in the
comptroller of the mint; and in which are depohted, mud to avoid the partizans of Sylla. The people
fealed up in feveral parcels, certain pieces taken at condemned him to death; but when his voice alone
random out of every journey as it is called; that is, had terrified the executioner, they fhowed themfelves
oat of every 15 pounds weight of gold, or 60 pounds compaffionate and favoured his efcape.
weight of filver, before the fame is delivered to the MINUET, a very graceful kind of dance, eonfift-
proprietors. And this pix is, from time to time, by ing of a coupee, a high ftep, and a balance : it begins
the king’s command, opened at Welfminfter, in the with a beat, and its motion is triple,
prefence of the lord-chancellor, the lords of the conn- The invention of the minuet feems generally to be
cil, the lords-commiffioners of the treafury, the ju- aferibed to the French, and particularly to the inha-
ftices of the feveral benches, and the barons of the . bitants of the province of Poi&ou. The word is faid
exchequer; before whom a trial is made, by a jury by Menage and Furetiere to be derived from the
of goldfmiths impanelled and fworn for that purpofe, French menue or menu, “ fmall, or little ;” and in
of the colleftive weights of certain parcels of the fe- ftri&nefs fignifies a fmall pace. The melody of this
veral pieces of gold and filver taken at random from dance confilts of two drains, which, as being repeated,
thofe contained in the pix ; after which thofe parcels are callexl reprifes, each having eight or more bars, but
being feverally melted, allays are then made of the never an odd number. The meafure is three crotchets
bullion of gold and filver fo produced, by the melt- in a bar, and is thus marked though it is commonly
ing certain fmall quantities of the fame againd equal performed in the time Walther fpeaks of a minuet
weights taken from the refpe&ive trial-pieces of gold in Lully’s opera of Roland, each drain of which con-
and filver that are depofited and kept in the exchequer tains ten bars, the feftional number being 5 ; which
for that ufe. This is called the trial of the pix ; the renders it very difficult to dance,
report made by the jury upon that trial is called the MINUTE, in geometry, the 60th part of a degree
verdiS of the pix for that time ; and the indented trial- of a circle.
pieces jud abovementioned, are certain plates of dand- Minute of Time, the 60th part of an hour,
ard gold and dandard filver, made with the greated Minute, in architefture, ufually denotes the 60th,
care, and delivered in upon oath, from time to time fometimes the 30th, part of a module. See Archi-
as there is occafion, by a.jury of the molt able and tecture.
experienced goldfmiths, fummoned by virtue of a war- Minute is alfo ufed for a ffiort memoir, or /ketch
rant from the lords of the treafury to the wardens of of a thing taken in writing,
the mydery of goldfmiths of the city of London for MINUTIUS Felix. See Felix.
that purpofe ; and which plates being fo delivered in, MINYiE, a name given to the inhabitants of Or-
are divided each, at this time, into feven parts by in- chomenos in Bosotia, from Minyas king of the coun¬
dentures, one of which parts is kept in his majefty’s try. Orchomenos the fop of Minyas gave his name
court of exchequer at Wedminder, another by the to the capital of the country ; and the inhabitants
faid company of goldfmiths, and two more by the of- dill retained their original appellation, in contradi-
ficers of his majedy’s mint in the tower; the remain- din&ion to the Orchomenians of Arcadia. A colo-
ing three being for the ufe of the mint, &c. in Scot- ny of Orchomenians paffed into Theflaly and fettled
land. The pix has fometimes been tried every year, in lolchos ; from which circumdance the people of
or even oftener, but fometimes not more than once the place, and particularly the Argonauts, were
in feveral years : and from hence is underdood how it called Minyee, This name they received, according
comes to pafs, that, among the pieces that are dated to the opinion of fome, not becaufe a number
as well as marked, three or more different dates are of Orchomenians had fettled among them, but be-
•fometimes found upon pieces impreffed with the fame caufe the chief and nobled of them were defeended
mark; and again, that different marks are found upon from the daughters of Minyas. Part of the Orcho-
pieces bearing the fame date. Thefe marks are fird menians accompanied the fons of Codrus when they
obfervable upon the coins of King Edward III.; the migrated to Ionia. The defeendants of the Argo-
words above quoted concerning thofe marks are from nauts, as well as the Argonauts themfelves, received
the indentures made with the lord Hadings, mader the name of Miny/r.. They fird inhabited Lemnos,
and worker to King Edward IV.; and the marks where they had been born from the Lemnian women
themfelves continued to be damped very confpicuoufly who had murdered their huffiands. They were dri-
upon the moneys, till the coinage by the mill and ven from Lemnos by the Pelafgi, about 1160 before
ferew was introduced and fettled after the R|doration, the Chridian era, and came to fettle in Laconia, from
in the year 1662: fince which time, the moneys being whence they paffed into Callide with a colony of La-
made with far greater regularity and exa&nefs than cedemonians.
N 225. 5 MIQUELETS,
MIR [ x
Mlquelets MIQUELETvS, a name given to the Spaniards who
_ II inhabit the Pyrenean mountains on the frontiers of
.Mirabilis. Airagcm and Catalonia, and live by robbing.
v MIQUELON, a fmall defart ifland to the fouth-
weft of Cape May in Newfoundland, ceded to the
French by the peace of 1763, for drying and curing
their fifh. W. Long. 54. 30. N Lat. 47. 22.
MIRABILIS- Marvel of Peru : A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. The co¬
rolla is funnel-fhaped above ; the calyx inferior ; the
nedtarium globular , containing the germen. The moll
remarkable fpecies are,
1. The jalappa, or common marvel of Peru. It
has a large, thick, flelhy root; an upright, thick,
jointed llalk, dividing and branching numeroufly,
widely, and ere&ly, a yard or more high; garnilhed
with oblong, broad, oppofite leaves; and all the
branches and (hoots terminated by numerous flowers
in clufters, of different colours in the varieties. Of this
there are varieties with white flowers—with yel¬
low flowers—wich purple flowers—with red flowers—
with white and yellow flowers—white and purple flow¬
ers—purple and yellow flowers—red and yellow flow¬
ers. Several other varieties often rife from feed; and
it is remarkable, that although feveral of the above co¬
lours and variegations are fometimes common to the
fame plant, yet it is rare that a plant of this fpecies
produces flowers of one of thofe colours alone ; fome¬
times, however, the fame plant will exhibit,only white
and purple flowers feparate, and fometimes both co¬
lours in the fame flowers, intermixed with the plain
ones: the fame is alfo obfervable in the red and yel¬
low ; others have plain flowers of feveral different co¬
lours, and fometimes variegated flowers alfo on the
fame plants. This fpecies has a large tap root, which,
when cut acrofs, is not unlike that of the true ja¬
lap ; but, when dried, is white, light, and fpungy.
2. The longiflora, or long-flowered mirabilis, hath a
large, thick, flefhy root, a thick ftalk, dividing low
into many declinated fpreading branches, extending
two or three feet every way ; large, heart-formed,
hairy, vifcous leaves, in oppofite pairs ; and all the
branches and fhoots terminated by white flowers in
clufters, having very long tubes, nodding downward.
3 The dichotoma, dichotomous, or forked mirabi¬
lis, has a thic’-flelby root; an upright, thick, fwol-
len, jointed Hem, branching forkedly two or three
feet high ; oblong oppofite leaves; and fmallifli red
flowers at the axillas, fingly and clofe-fitting.
All thefe plants flower in July, continuing in plen¬
tiful fucceflion until October, very confpicuous and
elegant. They have the Angularity of being (hut all
day, and expanding towards the evening when the fun
declines ; hence the inhabitants of the Indies, where
the.y grow naturally, called them four o'clock flowers:
their time of opening here, however, depends on the
weather; for if cloudy, or that the fun is not
very vehement, they often open great part of the day.
T hey are naturally perennial in root ; but in this
country are commonly confldered as annuals: for they
rife from feed in the fpring, and the fame year pro¬
duce flowers and perfeft feed : and if left to nature
in the open air, totally perilh ia winter, at the firft
Vol.XII. Parti.
19 ] MIR
attack of froft or excefflve wet. If in autumn, how- Miracle,
ever, when the ftalks begin to affume a ftate of de-
cay, the roots are taken up, and preferved in fand
in' a dry room all winter, and planted again in fpring,
they (hoot out afrefh (Longer than at firft, and
fometimes obtain four or five feet flature, with very
fpreading heads ; or if plants growing in pots, having
the items cut down in autumn, and the pots placed in
a green-houfe, or garden-frames under glaffes, the
roots may alfo be preferved found, and will (hoot out
again in fpring as above.
The roots of all thefe plants are purgative ; but re¬
quire to be given in a great quantity to operate equal
to the' true jalap, which is a fpecies of convolvulus.
See Convolvulus.
MIRACLE, in its original fenfe, is a word of the
fame import with wonder; but in its ufual and more
appropriate fignification, it denotes “ an effei& con-
trary to the eftabliflied conftitution and courfe of
things, or a fenfible deviation from the known laws
of nature. ”
That the vifible world is governed by dated gene¬
ral rules, or that there is an order of caufes and ef¬
fects eftablilhed in every part of the fyftem of nature
which falls under our obfervation, is a faff which
cannot be controverted. If the Supreme Being, as
fome have fuppofed, be the only real agent in the
univerfe, we have the evidence of experience, that, ia
the particular fyftem to which we belong, he a<ffs by
dated rules. If be employs inferior agents to con-
duff the various motions from which the phenomena
refult, we have the Tame evidence that he has fubjec-
ted thofe agents to certain fixed laws, commonly call¬
ed the laws of nature. On either hypothefis, effeffs
which are produced by the regular operation of thefe
laws, or which are conformable to the eftablirtied
courfe of events, are properly called natural; and eve¬
ry contradiffion to th;s conftitution of the natural fy¬
ftem, and the correfpondent courfe of events in it, is
called a miracle.
If this definition of a miracle be juft, no event can
be deemed miraculous merely becaufe it is ftrange,
or even to us unaccountable ; fince it may be nothing
more than a regular effeff of fome unknown law of
nature. In this country earthquakes are rare ; and
for monllrous births perhaps no particular and (atis-
faffory account can be given : yet an earthquake is
as regular an effeff of the eftablilhed laws of nature
as any of ihofe with which we are mod intimately
acquainted ; and under circumftances in which there
would always be the fame kind of produffion, the
monfter is nature’s genuine iffue. It is therefore ne-
ceffary, before we can pronounce any effeff to be a true
miracle, that the circumftances Under which it is pro¬
duced be known, and that the common courfe of na¬
ture be in fome degree underftood ; for in all thofe
cafes in which we are totally ignorant of nature, it
is impoflible to determine what is, or what is not, a
deviation from its courfe. Miracles, therefore, are
not, as fome have reprefented them, appeals to our ig¬
norance. They fuppofe fome antecedent knowledge
of the courfe of nature, wfithout which no proper
judgment can be formed concerning them ; though
with it their reality may be fo apparent aj to prevent
all poffibility of a difputc.
Y Thus,
MIR
Miracle. Thus, were a phyfician to cure a blind man of a ca>
taraft, by anointing his eyes with a chemical prepa¬
ration which we had never before feen, and to the na¬
ture and effedts of which we are abfolute ftrangers, the
cure would undoubtedly be wonderful; but we could
not pronounce it miraculous, becaufe, for any thing
known to us, it might be the natural effeft of. the
operation of the unguent on the eye. But were he
to recover his patient merely by commanding him to
fee, or by anointing his eyes with fpittle, we fhould
with the utmoft confidence pronounce the cure to be a
miracle ; becaufe we know perfectly that neither the
human voice nor human fpittle have, by the eftablifh-
ed conftitution of things, any fuch power ever the dif-
eafes of the eye. No one is now ignorant, that per-
fons apparently dead are often reftored to their families
and friends, by being treated in the manner recom¬
mended by the Humane Society. To the vulgar, and
fometimes even to men of fcience, thefe effe&s appear
very wonderful; but as they are known to be produ¬
ced by phyfical agency, they can never be confidered
as miraculous deviations from the laws of nature. On
the other hand, no one could doubt of his having wit-
neifed a real miracle who had feen a perfon that had
been four clays dead come alive out of his grave at the
call of another, or who had even beheld a perfon ex¬
hibiting all the fymptoms of death inftantly refufcitated
merely by being defred to live.
Thus eafy is it, in all cafes in which the courfe of
nature is underftood, to determine whether any parti¬
cular event be really a miracle ; whilft in circumftances
where we know nothing of nature and its courfe, even
a true miracle, were it performed, could not be ad¬
mitted as fuch, or carry any conviftion to the mind
of a pbilofopher.
If miracles be effefts contrary to the eftablifhed
conttitution of things, we are certain that they will
never be performed on trivial occafions. The confti¬
tution of things was eftabliihed by the Creator and
Governor of the univerfe, and is undoubtedly the off-
fpring of infinite wifdom purfuing a plan for the beft
of purpofes. From this plan no deviation can be
made but by God himfelf, or by fome powerful being
afting with his permiffion. The plans devifed by
wifdom are fteady in proportion to their perfec-
tipn, and the plans of infinite wifdom muft be abfo-
lutely perfeft. From this confideration, fome men
have ventured to conclude, that no miracle was ever
wrought, or can rationally bee xpe&ed ; but maturer
reflection muft foon fatisfy us that all fuch conclufions
are hafty.
Man is unqueftionably the principal creature in this
world, and apparently the only one in it who is cap¬
able of being made acquainted with the relation in
which he (lands to his Creator. We cannot, therefore,
doubt, but that fuch of the laws of nature as extend
not their operation beyond the limits of this earth were
eftablilhed chiefly, if not folely, for the good of man¬
kind; and if, in any particular circumftances, that good
can be more effectually promoted by an ocoafional
M r r
deviation from thofe laws, fuch a deviation may be Miracle,
reafonably expefted. Were man, in the exercife of —v—>■*
his mental and corporeal powers, fubjefted to the laws
of phyfical necefiity, the circumftances fuppofed would
indeed never occur, and of courfe no miracle could be
admitted. But fuch is not the nature of man.
Without repeating what has been faid elfewhere
(See Metaphysics, Part III. chap, v.) of neceffity
and liberty, we (hall here take it for granted, that the
relation between motives and actions is different from
that between caufe and cffe& in phyfics ; and that,
mankind have fuch command over themfelves, as that
by their voluntary conduft, they can make themfelves
in a great degree either happy or miferable. We know
likewife from hiftory, that, by fome means or other,
almoft all mankind were once funk into the groffelt ig¬
norance of the moft important truths ; that they knew
not the Being by whom they were created and fup-
ported ; that they paid divine adoration to (locks-,
ftones, and the vileft reptiles ; and that they were (laves
to the moft impious, cruel, and degrading fuperllitions.
From this depraved (late it was furely not unworthy
of the common “ Father of all” to refcue his helplefs
creatures, to enlighten their underftandings that they
might perceive what is right, and to prefent to them
motives of fufficient force to engage them in the prac¬
tice of it. But the underftandings of ignorant bar¬
barians cannot be enlightened by arguments ; becaufe
of the force of fuch arguments as regard moral fcience
they are not qualified to judge. The philofophers of
Athens and Roms inculcated, indeed, many excellent
moral precepts, and they fometimes ventured to
expofe the abfurdities of the reigning fuperftition :
but their leftures had no influence upon the multitude;
and they had themfelves imbibed fuch erroneous no¬
tions refpefting the attributes of the Supreme Being,
and the nature of the human foul, and converted thofe
notions into firft principles, of which they would not
permit an examination, that even among them a tho¬
rough reformation was not to be expefted from the
powers of reafoning. It is likewife to be obferved,
that there are many truths of the utmoft importance to
mankind, which unaffilted reafon could never have dif-
covered. Amongft thefe we may confidently reckon
the immortality of the foul, the terms upon which
God will be reconciled to finners, and the manner in
which that all-perfect Being may be acceptably wor-
(hipped; about all of which philofophers were in fuch
uncertainty, that, according to Plato, “ Whatever is
fet right, and as it (hould be, in the prefent evil (late
of the world, can be fo only by the particular inter-
pofition of God (a).”
An immediate revelation from Heaven, therefore,
was the only method by which infinite wifdom and
perfeft goodnefs could reform a bewildered and vici¬
ous race. But this revelation, at whatever time we
fuppofe it given, muft have been made dire&ly either
to fome chofen individuals commiffioned to in ft r net
others, or to every man and woman for whofe benefit
it was ultimately intended. Were every perfon inftrueltd
r 170 i
(A) Eu ya% %gri .iiWf, i Ti *10 «» truH-Ti xcci
Lib. 6 .
tv Toietul’i Kxlxtrlztru «aJo rwva
yivnUi olov fu, 1
ti. De reptib.
M I R [ r
Miracle, the knowledge of his duty by immediate infpiration,
and were the motives to pradtife it brought home to his
mind by God himfelf, human nature would be wholly
changed: men would not be mailers of their own ac¬
tions ; they would not be moral agents, nor by con-
fequence be capable either of reward or of punifhment.
It remains, therefore, that if God has been gracioufly
pleafed to enlighten and reform mankind, without
deftroying that moral nature which is eflential to vir¬
tue, he can have done it only by revealing his truth to
certain chofen inftruments, who were the immediate
inftruftors of their contemporaries, and through them
have been the inftni&ors of fucceeding ages.
Let us fuppofe this to have been adtually the cafe,
and conlider how thofe infpired teachers could commu¬
nicate to others every truth which had been revealed to
themfelves. They might eafily, if it was part of their
duty, deliver a fublime fyftem of natural and moral
fcience, and eftabliih it upon the common bafis of ex¬
periment and demonftration ; but what foundation
could they lay for tffbfe truths which unafiUled reafon
cannot difcover, and which, when they are revealed,
appear to have no neceffery relation to any thing pre-
vioufly known ? To a bare affirmation that they had
been immediately received from God, no rational be¬
ing could be expedited to affent. The teachers might
be men of known veracity, whofe Ample aflertion
would be admitted as fufficient evidence for any faft,
in conformity with the laws of nature; but as every
man has the evidence of his own confcioufnefs and ex¬
perience that revelations from heaven are deviations
* from thefe laws, an affertion fo apparently extravagant
would be rejected as falfe, unlefs fupported by fome
better proof than the mere affirmation of the teacher.
In this ftate of things, we can conceive no evidence
fufficient to make fuch doctrines be received as the
truths of God, but the power of working miracles
committed to him who taught them. This would,
indeed, be fully adequate to the purpofe. For if there
were nothing in the doftrines themfelves impious, im¬
moral, or contrary to truths already known, the only
thing which could render the teacher’s affertion incre¬
dible, would be its implying fuch an intimate commu¬
nion with God as is contrary to the eftablxfhed courfe
of things, by which men are left to acquire all their
knowledge by the exercife of their own faculties.—-
Let us now fuppofe fome of thofe infpired teachers to
tell his countrymen, that he did not defire them, on
his ipfe dixit, to believe that he had any preternatural
communion with the Deity, but that for the truth of
his affertion he would give them the evidence of their
own fenfes; and after this declaration let us fuppofe
him immediately to raife a perfon from the dead in
their prefence, merely by calling upon him to come
cut of his grave. Would not the only poffible objes-
tion to the man’s veracity be removed by this miracle?
and his affertion that he had received fuch and fuch
dodfrines from God be as fully credited, as if it related
to the molt common occurrence ? Undoubtedly it
would ; for when fo much preternatural power was vi-
iibly communicated to this perfon, no one could have
reafon to queftion his having received an equal portion
of preternatural knowledge. A palpable deviation from
the known laws of nature, in one inftance, is a fenfible
proof that fuch a deviation is poffible in another ; and
71 1 MIR
in fuch a cafe as this it is the witnefs of God to the Miracle,
truth of a man. —-y—
Miracles, then, under which we include prophecy,
are the only direft evidence which can be given of di¬
vine infpiration. When a religion, or any religious
truth, is to be revealed from heaven, they appear to
be abfolutely neceffary to enforce its reception among
men ; and this is the only cafe in which we can fup¬
pofe them neceffary, or believe for a moment that they
ever have been or will be performed.
The hiftory of almoft every religion abounds with
relations of prodigies and wonders, and of the inter-
courfe of men with the gods ; but we know of no re¬
ligious fyftem, thofe of the Jews and Chiiftians ex¬
cepted, which appealed to miracles as the foie evidence
of its truth and divinity. The pretended miracles
mentioned by Pagan hiftorians and poets are not faid
to have been publicly wrought to enforce the truth of
a new religion contrary to the reigning idolatry. Many
of them may be clearly fhown to have been mere na¬
tural events; (fee Magic). Others of them are re-
prefented as having been performed in fecret on the
moft trivial occafions, and in obfcure and fabulous
ages long prior to the era of the writers by whoni
they are recorded. And fuch of them as at firft view
appear to be beft attefted, are evidently tricks con¬
trived for interefted purpofes ; to flatter power, or to
promote the prevailing fuperftitions. For thefe rea-
fons, as well as on account of the ipimoral charafter
of the divinities by whom they are faid to have been
wrought, they are altogether unworthy of examina¬
tion, and carry in the very nature of them the com-
pleteft proofs of falfehood and impofture.
But the miracles recorded of Mofes and of Chrift:
bear a very different chara&er. None of them is re-
prefented as wrought on trivial occaiions. The wri¬
ters who mention them were eye-witnefles of the fadts ;
which they affirm to have been performed publicly, in
atteftation of the truth of their refpeftive fyftems.
They are indeed fo incorporated with thefe fyftems,
that the miracles cannot be feparated from the doc¬
trines ; and if the miracles were not really performed,
the dodfrines cannot poffibly be true. Befidea all
this, they were wrought in fupport of revelations
which oppofed all the religious fyftems, fuperftitions,
and prejudices, of the age in which they were given :
a circumftance which of itfelf• fets them, in point of
authority, infinitely above the Pagan prodigies, as
well as the lying wonders of the Romifh church.
It is indeed, we believe, univerfally admitted, that
the miracles mentioned in the book of Exodus and
in the four Gofpels, might, to thofe who faw them
performed, be fufficient evidence of the divine infpi¬
ration of Mofes and of Chrift ; but to us it may be
thought that they are, no evidence whatever, as we
muft believe in the miracles themfelves, if we believe
in them at all, upon the bare authority of human te-
ftimony. Why, it has been fometimes afked, are not
miracles wrought in all ages and countries ? If the re¬
ligion of Chrift was to be of perpetual duration, every
generation of men ought to have complete evidence
of its truth and divinity.
To the performance of miracles in every age and
in every country, perhaps the fame objedlions lie as
to the immediate infpiration of every individual. Were
Y 2 thofe
MIR [ 172 ] MIR
Mirr.cl*. thofe miracles univerfally received as fuch, men would
' v be fo overwhelmed with the nature rather than with
the force of their authority, as hardly to remain ma¬
ilers of their own conduft ; and in that cafe the very
end of all miracles would be defeated by their fre¬
quency. The truth, however, feems to be, that mi¬
racles fo frequently repeated would not be received as
fuch, and of couife would have no authority ; becaufe
it would be difficult, and in many cafes impsffible, to
diftinguifh them from natural events. If they recur¬
red regularly at certain intervals, we could not prove
them to be deviations from the known laws of nature,
becaufe we Ihould have the fame experience for the
one feries of events as for the other ; for the regular
fucceffion of preternatural eflefts, as for the eftablilhed
conflitution and courfe of things. ,
Be this, however, as it may, we fhall take the li¬
berty to affirm, that for the reality of the Gofpel mi¬
racles we have evidence as convincing to the refletling
TOind, though not fo linking to vulgar apprehenfion,
as thofe had who were contemporary with Chrilt and
his apollles, and actually faw the mighty works which
he performed. To the admirers of Mr Hume’s phi-
lofophy this aflertion will appear an extravagant para¬
dox ; but we hope to demonflrate its truth from prin¬
ciples which, confidently with himfelf, that author
could not have denied. He has indeed endeavoured
* Eff.iy on to prove *, that “ no teftimony is fufficient to efta-
Miradcs. b’ifh a miracle and the reafoning employed for this
purpofe is, that “ a miracle being a violation of the
law's of nature, which a firm and unalterable experi¬
ence has eilablilhed, the proof again!! a miracle, from
the very nature of the fadt, is as entire as any argu¬
ment from experience can be ; whereas our experience
of human veracity, which (according to him) is the
foie foundation of the evidence of tellimony, is far
from being uniform, and can therefore never prepon¬
derate againlt that experience which admits of no ex¬
ception.” This boa'ted and plaufible argument has
with equal candour and acutenefs been examined by
\ Dijferia- Hr Campbell f ; who juftly obferves, that fo far is
iJktiraei s exPer’ence from being the foie foundation of the evi-
at lS' dence of teftimony, that, on the contrary, teflimony
is the foie foundation of by far the greater part of
what Mr Hume calls firm and unalterable experience ;
and that if in certain circumftances we did not give
an implicit faith to teftimony, our knowledge of events
would he confined to thofe which had fallen under the
immediate obfer-vation of our own fenfes. For a ffiort
view' of this celebrated controverfy, in which the
Chri'Han fo completely vanquiflres the philofopher, fee
the word Abridgement.
But though Dr Campbell has expofed the fophiftry
of his opponent’s reafoning, and overturned the/r.w-
ciples from which he reafon^, we are perfuaded that
lie might fafely have joined ifiue with him upon thofe
very principles. To us, at leaft, it appears that the
teftimony upon which we receive the llofpel miracles
is precifely of that kind which Mr Hume has acknow¬
ledged fuffieient to eftablifh even a miracle “ No
teftimony (fays he) is fufficient to eftablifh a miracle,
Unlefs the teftimony be of fuch a kind that its falfe-
hood would be more .miraculous than the fa<5t which
it endeavours to eftablifh. When one tells me that he
faw a dead man reftored to life, 1 immediately confi-
derwith myfelf whether it be more probable that this
perfon (hould either deceive or be deceived, or that
the fa£I which he relates ihou’d really have happened.
I weigh the one miracle again!! the other ; and ac¬
cording to the fuperiority which I difcover I pronounce
my decifion, and always rejedl the greater miracle.”
In this paffage every reader may remark what did not
efcape the perfpicacious eye of Dr Campbell, a ftrange
confufion of terms: but as all miracles are equally eafy
to the Almighty ; and as Mr Hume has elfewhere ob-
ferved, that “ the raffing of a feather, when the wind
wants ever fo little of a force requifite for that pur¬
pofe, is as real a miracle as the raifing of a houfe or
a !hip into the air candour obliges us to fuppofe,
that by talking of greater and lefs miracles, and of
always rejefting the greater, he meant nothing more
but that of two deviations from the known laws of
nature he always rejedls that which in itfelf is leaft:
probable.
If, then, we can !how that the teftimony given by
the apoftles and other firft preachers of Chrillianity
to the miracles of their Mafter would, upon the fup-
pofition that thofe miracles were not really performed,
have been as great a deviation from the known laws
of nature as the miracles themfelves, the balance muft
be confidered as evenly poifed by oppofife miracles ;
and whilft it continues fo, the judgment muft remain
in a ftatc of fufpenfe. But if it ffiall appear, that in
this cafe the falfe teftimony would have been a devia¬
tion from the laws of nature lefs probable in itfelf than
the miracles recorded in the Gofpels, the balance will
be inftantly deftroyed ; and by Mr Hume’s maxim
we ffiall be obliged to rejeft the fuppofition of falfe-
hood in the tellimony of the apoftles, and admit the
miracles of Chrift. to have been really performed.
In this argument we need not wafte time in proving
that thofe miracles, as they are reprefented in the
writings of the New Teftament, were of fuch a na¬
ture, and performed before fo many witnefies, that
no impofition could poffibly be praftifed on the fenfes
of thofe who affirm that they were prefent. From
every page of the Gofpels this is fo evident, that the
philofophical adverfaries of the Chriftian faith never
fuppofe the apoftles to have been themfelves deceived,
but boldly accufe them of bearing falfe witnefs. But
if this accufation be well founded, their tellimony it¬
felf is as great a miracle as any which they record of
themfelves or of their Mailer.
It has been ffiown elfewhere (fee Metaphysics,
n° 138.), that by the law of aflbeiation, which-is one
of the laws of nature, mankind, in the very procefs
of learning to fpeak, neceffarily learn to fpeak the
truth ; that ideas and relations are in the mind of every
man fo clofely afibciated with the words by which
they are expreffid in his native tongue, and in every
other language of which he is mailer, that the one
cannot be entirely feparated from the other; that
therefore no man can on any occafion fpeak falfelrood
without feme effort; that by no effort can a man give
confiftency to an unpremeditated detail of falfehood,
if it be of any length, and include a number of pari
ticulars ; and that it is ftill lefs poflible for feveral men
to agree in fuch a detail, when at a diftance from each
other, and crofs-queftioned by their enemies.
This being the cafe, it follows, if the teftimony of
the
M:rack
MIR [ r
tlie apoftles to their own and their Mailer’s miracles
be falfe, either that they muil have concerted a con-
fiftent fcheme of falfehood, and agreed to publifh it at
every hazard ; or that God, or ibme powerful agent
appointed by him, mufl have difiblved all the affocia-
tions fqrmed in their minds between ideas of fenfe
and the words of language, and arbitrarily formed
new aflbeiations, all in exndt conformity to each other,
but all in diredl contradidlion to truth. One or other
of thefe events muft have taken place ; becaufe, upon
tlie fuppofition of falfehood, there is no other alter¬
native. But fuch a diffolution and formation of adb-
ciations as the latter implies, muft, to every man who
fhall attentively confider it, appear to be as real a mi¬
racle, and to require as great an exertion of power,
as the refurre&ion of the dead. Nor is the fuppofed
voluntary agreement of the apoftles in a fcheme of
falfehood an event lefs miraculous. When they fat
down to fabricate their pretended revelation, and to
contrive a feries ©f miracles to which they were una-
nimoufly to appeal for its truth, it is plain, fince
they proved fuccefsful in their daring enterprife, that
they muft have clearly forefeen every poffible circum-
ftance in which they could be placed, and have pre¬
pared confiftent anfwers to every queftion that could
be put to them by their moft inveterate and moft en¬
lightened enemies; by the ftatefman, the lawyer, the
philofopher, and the prieft. That fuch foreknowledge
as this would have been miraculous, will not furely be
denied; fince it forms the very attribute which we
find it moft difficult to allow even to God himftlf. It
is not, however, the only miracle which this fuppofi¬
tion would compel us to fwallow. The very refolution
of the apoftles to propagate the belief of falfe mi¬
racles in fupport of fuch a religion as that which is
taught in the New Teftament, is as great a miracle
as human imagination can eafily conceive.
When they formed this defign, either they muft
have hoped to fucceed, or they muft have forefeen
that they fhould fail in their undertaking; and in ei¬
ther cafe, they chofe evil for its own fake. They could
not, if-they Jorefaw that they fhould fail, look for
any thing but that contempt, difgrace, and perfecu-
tion, which were then the inevitable confequences of
an unfuccefsful endeavour to overthrow the eftablifhed
religion. Nor could their profpeef s be brighter upon
the fuppofition of their fuccefs. As they knew them-
felves to be falfe witneffes and impious deceivers, they
could have no hopes beyond the grave ; and by deter¬
mining to oppofe all the religious fyftems, fuperfti-
tions, and prejudices of the age in which they lived,
they wilfully expofed themftives to inevitable mifery
in the prefent life, to infult and imprii'onment, to
ilripes and death. Nor can it be faidthat they might
look forward to power and affluence when they fhould,
through fufferings, have converted their countrymen ;
for fo defirous were they of obtaining nothing but
mifery as the end of'their miffion, that they made
their own perfecution a teft of the truth of their doc¬
trines. They introduced the Matter from whom they
pretended to have received thefe doftrines as telling
them, that “ they were fent forth as fheep in the midtt
of wolves; that they fhould be delivered up to coun¬
cils, and fcourged in fynagogues; that they fhould be
.hated of all men for his name’s fake ; that the bro-
-3 ] MIR
ther fhould deliver up the brother to death, and the Mb
father the child ; and that he who took not up his  
crofs and followed after him was not worthy of him.”
The very fyftem of religion, therefore, which they
invented and refolved to impofe upon mankind, ivas
fo contrived, that the worldly profperity of its firft
preachers, and even their exemption from perfecution,
was incompatible with its fuccefs. Had thefe clear
prediflions of the Author of that religion, under whom
the apoftles afted only as minifters, not been verified,
all mankind muft have inftantly perceived that their
pretence to infpiration was falfe, and that Chriftianity
was a feandalous and impudent impofture. All this
the apoftles could not but forefee when they formed
their plan for deluding the world. Whence it follows,
that when they refolved to fupport their pretended re¬
velation by an appeal to forged miracles, they wilfully,
and with their eyes open, expofed themfelvcs to ine¬
vitable mifery, whether they fhould fucceed or fail in
their enterprife; and that they concerted their mea-
fures fo as not to admit of a poffibility of recompence
to themfelves, either in this life or in that which is to
come. But if there be a lew of nature, for the reality
of which we have better evidence than we have for
others, it is, that “ no man can choofe mifery for its
own fakef or make the aequifition of it the ultimate
end of his purfuit. The exiftence of other laws of
nature we know by teftimony and our own obferva-
tion of the regularity of their effects. The exiftence
of this law is made known to us not only by thefe
means, but alfo by the ftill clearer and more conclu-
five evidence of our own confcioufnefs.
Thus, then, do miracles force themfelves upon our
affent in every poffible view which we can take of this
interefting fubjedl. If the teftimony of the firft
preachers of Chriftianity was true, the miracles record¬
ed in the Gofpel were certainly performed, and the
doftrines of our religion are derived from heaven. On
the other hand, if that teftimony was falfe, either
God muft have miraculoufiy effaced from the minds of
thofe by whom it was given all the affociations form¬
ed between their fenfible ideas and the werds of lan¬
guage, or he muft have endowed thofe men with the
gift of prefcience, and have impelled them to fabri¬
cate a pretended revelation for the purpofe of deceiving
the world, and involving thcmfelves in certain and
forefeen deftrudtion.
The power ntceffary to perform the one feries of
thefe miracles may, for any thing known to us, be as
great as that which would be requifite for the per¬
formance of the other; and confidered merely as ex¬
ertions of preternatural power, they may feem to ba¬
lance each other, and to hold the mind in a ftate of
1’ufpence. But when we take into confideration the
diherent purpofes for which thefe oppofite and con¬
tending miracles were wrought, the balance is inftant¬
ly deilroyed. The miracles recorded in the Gofpels,
if real, were wrought in fupport of a revelation which,
in the opinion of all by whom it is received, has
brought to light many important truths which could
not otherwife have been made known to men ; and
which, by the confeffion of its adverfaries, contains
the pureft moral precepts by which the conduit of
mankind was ever direited. The oppofite feries of
miracles, if real, was performed to enable, and even
to
MIR [ 174 1 MIR
IVfran&a to compel, a company of Jews, of the lowed rank
II and of the narrowed education, to fabricate, with the
. ir*-vet‘ v;ew 0f inevitable deftru&ion to themfelves, a con¬
fident fcheme of falfehood, and by an appeal to forged
miracles to impofe 'it upon the world as a revelation
from heaven. The objeft of the former miracles is
worthy of a God of infinita wifdom, goodnefs, and
power. The objedf of the latter is abfolutely incon-
fident with wifdom and goodnefs, which are demon-
ftrably attributes of that Being by whom alone mi¬
racles can be performed. Whence it follows, that the
fuppofition of the apodles bearing fafj'e tedimony to
the miracles of their Mader, implies a feries of devia¬
tions from the laws of nature infinitely lefs probable
in themfelves than thofe miracles: and therefore, by
Mr Hume's maxim, we mud neceffarily rejedl the
fuppolition of falfehood in the tedimony, and admit
the reality of the miracles. So true is it, that for
the realty of the Gofpel-miracles we have evidence
as convincing to the refledfing mind, as thofe had who
were contemporary with Chrid and his apodles, and
were adtual witnefles to their mighty works.
MIRANDA-de-Ebro, a town of Spain in Old
■Cadile, with a drong cadle ; feated in a country that
produces excellent wine. The town is divided into
two parts by the river, over which there is a hand-
fome bridge. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 42. 52.
M1RANDE, a town of Gafcony in France, capi¬
tal of the county of Adarac; feated on a mountain
near the river Baufe. E. Long. o. 21. N. Lat. 42.
MIRANDO-de-Douro, or Duerot a drong town
of Portugal, and capital of the province of Tra-los-
Montes, with a bifhop’s fee. It is well fortified, and
feated on a rock near the confluence of the river Douro
and Frefna. W. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 41.30.
MIRANDOLA, a town of Italy, and capital of
a duchy of the fame name, fituated between the duchies
of Mantua and Modena. It is a pretty large place,
well fortified, and has alfo a drong citadel and fort.
It has been feveral times taken and retaken ; the lad
time by the king of Sardinia in 1742. E. Long. 1X. 5.
N. Lat. 44. 52.
MIRANDULA. See Picus.
MIREVELT (Michael Janfen), portrait-painter,
was the fon of a goldfmith, and born at Delft in 1568.
His father, perceiving his early inclination for the
arts, placed him at fird with one of the Wierixes, of
whom he learned to draw in crayons and to engrave.
At the age of twelve he executed a print-of the Sa¬
maritan woman ; and not long after a figure of Judith
holding the head of Holofernes. Thefe juvenile per¬
formances attra&ed the notice of Anthony Blockland,
an hidorical painter of great note ; and under his in-
druftions Mirevelt took up the pencil. He was very
fuccefsful in his attempts at painting hidory ; but
finding portraits to be more profitable, he quitted
the former by degrees, and applied himfelf to portrait
painting only. His reputation, according to De Piles,
was fo great, that he exafted what price for his pic¬
tures he pleafed, never taking lefs than 150 florins
a piece. The portraits drawn and painted by this ar-
tid are exceedingly numerous ; and many of them were
excellently engraved by William James Delft, his near
relation, a very fldlful artid. He died in > 641.
Mirevelt (PeterJ, fon of Michael, was born at
a
Delft in 1596, and died in 1632. In his manner of Miram,
defign, in his dyle of colouring, and in the delicacy Mirror‘
of his pencil, he exa&ly refembled his father ; and by
the bed judges of that time he was accounted to be in
no degree inferior to him.
MIRIAM, fider of Aaron and Mofes, makes two
or three remarkable appearances in fcripture. It was
owing to her that her mother was employed by Pha¬
raoh’s daughter as nurfe to Mofes. She put herfelf
at the head of the women of Ifrael after their paflage
through the Red Sea, in order to fing the fong which
the men had fung before. She joined with her bro¬
ther Aaron in murmuring againd Mofes, and was fe-
verely chadifed for that adtion ; for (he became leprous,
and continued feparate from the red without the camp
for feven days. She died before her brothers, though in
the fame year with them, and was buried at the public
expence.
MIRROR, a name for a looking glafs, or any pa-
liflred body, whofe ufe is to form the images of didant
objcfts, by refledtion of the rays of light. See Re¬
flection.
Mirrors are either plain, convex, or concave, The
fird refledt the rays of light in a diredtion exadfly fimi-
lar to that in which they fall upon them, and there¬
fore reprefent bodies of their natural magnitude. The
convex ones make the rays diverge much more than
before refleftion, and therefore greatly diminifli the
images of thofe objects which they (how : while the
concave ones, by colledting the rays into a focus, not
only magnify the objedts they (how, but will bum
very fiercely when expofed to the rays of the fun ; and
hence they are commonly known by the name of
burning mirrors. See Burning-Mirrors.
In ancient times the mirrors were made of fome
kind of metal; and from a paflage in the Mofaic wri¬
tings we learn that the mirrors' ufed by the Jewifli
women were made of brafs. The Jews certainly had
been taught to ufe that kind of mirrors by the Egyp¬
tians ; from whence it is probable that brazen mirrors
were the fird kind ufed in the world. Any kind of
metal, indeed, when well pblifhed, will refledt very pow¬
erfully ; but of all others filver rcfledts the molt, tho*
it has been in all countries too expenfive a material for
common ufe. Gold alfo is very powerful; and metals,
or even wood, gilded and poliihed, will adt very pow¬
erfully as burning mirrors. Even poli hed ivory, or
draw nicely plaited together, will form mirrors capable
of burning, if on a large fcale.
Since the invention of glafs, and the application of
quickfilver to it, became generally known, it hath
been univerfally employed for thofe plain mirrors ufed
as ornaments to houfes; but in making refledting te-
lefcopes, they have been found much inferior to metal¬
lic ones. It doth not appear that the fame fuperiori-
ty belongs to the metalline burning mirrors, confider-
ed merely as burning glafies; fince the mirror with
which Mr Macquer melted platina, though only 22
inches diameter, and which was made of quickfilvered
glafs, produced much greater effedfs than M. V Alette's
metalline fpeculum, whi.jh confiderably^exceeded it in
fize. It is very probable, however, that this mirror
of M. Vilette’s was by no means fo well polifhed as it
ought to have been ; as the art of preparing the me¬
tal for taking the fined poli 1 has but lately been dif-
covered and publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions
MIS r 175 ] MIS
•» ire-trow tions by Mr Mudge. See Glass-Grinding, and the in the year of Chrift 220. Dr Lardner is of opi- Mi^cmea^
|l_ l| Mechanical Part of Optics. nion, that this work could not have been finiflred be- no#ir
t11 eima' MIRE-CROW, sea-crow, or Pewit. See La- fore the year 190, ,or later. Colleft. of Jewifh and Mifenum.^
'' RUS- Heathen Teftimonies, &c. vol. i. p. 178. Thus the —y—j
MISADVENTURE, in common language, figni- book called the Mifchna was formed ; a book which
fies any unlucky accident which takes place without the Jews have generally received with the greateft ve-
I' being forefeen. . neration. The original has been publilhed with a
, Misadventure, in law, has an efpecial fignification Latin tranflation by Surenhufms, with notes of his
for the killing a man partly by negligence, and partly own, and others from the learned Maimonides, &c.
by chance. See Homicide. in 6 vols. fob Amfterd. A. D. 1698—1703. (See
MISANTHROPY (formed hatred, and Talmud). It is written in a much purer ftyle, and
n; a man) ; a general diflike or averfion to man, is not near fo full of dreams and vifions as the Ge-
and mankind. In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to mara.
If philanthropy, or the love of mankind. MISDEMEANOUR, in law, fignifies a crime.
MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion and Mid- Every crime js a mifdemeanour; yet the law has made
j: , wifery. a dillinftion between crimes of an higher and a lowe^
M1SCHNA, or Misna, (from rro, iteravit), a part nature; the latter being denominated mifdemeanours,
j 1 of the Jewifh Talmud. the {o\mzrfelonies, &c. For the underflanding.of which
The Mifchna contains the text; and the Gemara, diltinaion, we (hall give the following definition from
i j which is the fecond part of the Talmud, contains the Blackftone’s Commentaries, vol. iv. 5.
commentaries : fo that the Gemara is, as it were, a “A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an aa committed
i glofiary on the Mifchna. or omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid-
i The Mifchna confifts of various traditions of the ding or commanding it. This general definition com-
Jews, and of explanations of feveral paflages of fcrip- prehends both crimes and mifdemeanours ; which, pro-
|! tur.e : t^ie^e traditions ferving as an explication of the perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms ; though,
written law, and fupplement to it, are faid to have in common' ufage, the word crime is made to denote
L been delivered to Moles during the time of his abode fuch offences as are of a deeper and more atrocious dye ;
h on the Mount; which he afterwards communicated while fmaller faults, and omiflions of lefs confequence,
II' to Aaron, Eleazar, and his fervant Jofirua. By thefe are comprifed under the gentler name of mi/demeanours
they were tranfmitted to the 70 elders, by them to only.”
the piophets, who communicated them to the men of MISE, in law-books, is ufed in various fenfes :
§ the great fanbedrim, from whom the wife men of Je- thus it fometimes fignifies cofts or expences; in which
f rufalem and Babylon received them. According to fenfe it is commonly ufed in entering of judgments in
Prideaux's account, they pafled from Jeremiah to Ba- aftions perfonal. It is alfo ufed for the iflue to be tried
Ji ruch, from him to Ezra, and from Ezra to the men on the grand afiize; in which cafe, joining of the mife
of the great fynagogue, the laft of whom was Simon upon the mere right, is putting in iflue between the
i the Juft ; who delivered them to Antigonus of Sochq: tenant and demandant, Who has the belt or cleareft
and from him they came down in regular fucceffion right.
to Simeon, who took our Saviour in his arms; to Ga- Mise alfo fignifies a tax or tallage, &c. An ho-
mallei, at whofe feet Paul was educated ; and laft norary gift, or cuftomary prefent from the people of
I ?-H to Rabbi Judah the Holy, who committed Wales to every new king or prince of Wales, ancient-
them to writing in the Mifchna. But Dr Prideaux, ly given in cattle, wine, and corn, but now in money,
|| rejefting this Jewifli fiftion, obferves, that after the being 5C00I. or more, is denominated a mife: fo
death of Simeon the Juft, about 299 years before was the ufual tribute or fine of 3000 merks paid by the
Chrift, the Mifchnical doftors arofe, who, by their inhabitants of the county palatine of Chefter at the
comments and conclufions, added to the number of change of every owner of the faid earldoms, for enjoy-
| thofe traditions which had been received and allowed ing their liberties. And at Chefter they have a mife-
I b7 Ezra and the men of the great fynagogue; fo that book, wherein every town and village in the county
towards the middle of the fecond century after Chrift, is rated what to pay towards the mife. The 27
R under the empire of Antoninus Pius, it was found Hen. VIII. c. 26. ordains that lords flrall have all
t neceffary to commit thefe traditions to writing ; more fuch mifes and profits of their lands as they had in
L efpecially, as their country had confiderably fuffered times paft, &c.
| under Adrian, and many of their fchools had been Mise, is fometimes alfo corruptly ufed for mefl/c, in
diflblved, and their learned men cut off'; and there- law French mees, “ a meffuage as a mfe place, in
I fore the ufual method of preferving their traditions fome manors, is fuch a mefiiiage or tenement as^n-
?, had failed. Rabbi Judah on this oceafion being rec- fwers the lord a heriot at the death of its owner,
p tor of the fchool at Tiberias, and prefident of the 2. 528.
fanhedrim. in that place, undertook the work, and MISENUM,, or Misenus, (anc. geog.); a pro-
compiled it in fix books, each confifting of feveral montory, port, and town in Campania, fituated to
tiadfs, which altogether make up the number of 63. the fouth-weft of Baia;, in the Sinus Puteolanus, on
Prid. Conned, vol. ii. p. 468, &c. ed 9. This the north fide. Here Auguftus had a fleet, called
learned author computes, that the Mifchna was com- C/aJis Mifinenfis,. for guarding the Mare Inferum ; as
P . d about tbe i5otb year of our Lord ; but Dr he had another at Ravenna forthe Superum.
Lightfoot fays, that Rabbi Judah compiled the On this peninfula a villa was built by Caius Marius,-
Mdchna about the year of Chrift 190, in the latter with a degree of elegance that gave great offence to
j,' end of the reign of Cominodus j or, as fome compute, the more auftere among the Romans, who thought
ii;
MIS [ 176 ] MIS
It ill fuited to the charafter of fo rough a foldier.
Upon the fame foundation Lucullus, thj plunderer of
the eaftern world, ereiled an edifice, in comparifon
of which the former houfe was a cottage ; but even
his magnificence was eclipfed by the fplendour of the
palace which the emperors raifed upon the fame fpot.
To thefe proud abodes of heroes and monarchs, which
have long been levelled to the ground, a few filhing
huts, as Mr Stvinburn informs us, and a lonely pub¬
lic houfe, have fucceeded ; hither boatmen reiort to
tipple, perhaps on the identical fite where the volup¬
tuous mailers of the world quaffed Chian and Faler-
nian wines.
MISER, a parfimoniouS perfon who is at the fame
time rich ; or a wretch covetous to extremity, whom a-
varite has divelled of all the charities of human nature,
and made even an enemy to himfelf.
Of this moll unaccountable of all charadlers, many
inftances occur; fome of them fo extraordinary as al-
moll to furpafs belief. The following are here feledl-
ed, as being of recent date, perfedlly authentic, and
tire lall of them in particular exhibiting an affemblage
of qualities the moll lingular perhaps that ever center¬
ed in the fame perfon. Too little dignified to merit
a place in regular biography, yet too curious a variety
of human charadler to pafs unnoticed in this Work,
the prefent feemed the only title under which it could
with propriety be introduced.
1. In December 1790, died at Paris, literally of
want, Mr Ollervald, a well-known banker. This man,
originally of Neufchatel, felt the violence of the dif-
eafe of avarice (for furely it is rather a difeafe than a
paffion of the-mind) fo llrongly, that, within a few
days of his death, no importunities could induce him
to buy a few pounds of meat for the purpofe of ma¬
king a little foup for him. “ ’Tis true (faid he), I
Ihould not dillike the foup, but I have no appetite for
the meat; what then is to become of that ?" At the
time that he refufed this nourilhment, for fear of be¬
ing obliged to give away two or three pounds of meat,
there was tied round his neck a filken bag, Which con¬
tained 800 aflignats of loco livres each. At his outr-
fet in life, he drank a pint of betr, which ferved him
for fupper, every night at a houfe much frequented,
from which he carried home all the bottle corks he
could come at. Of thefe, in the courfe of eight years,
he had colledled as many as fold for 12 louis-d’or, a
fum that laid the foundation of his future fortune, the
fuperltrudture of which was rapidly raifed by his un¬
common fuccefs in Hock jobbing. He died poflefled
of three millions of livres (L. 125,000 Herling).
2. The late John Elwes, Efq; was member for Berk-
fhire in three fucctffive parliaments. His family name
was Meggot; and his father was a brewer of great
eminence, and diftinguifhed by no peculiarity of cha-
rafter : but his mother, though fhe was left nearly
L. ioo,coo by her hufband, itarved herfelf to death !
At an early period of life he was fent to Weftminller
fchool, where he remained for 10 or 12 years. Du¬
ring that time he certainly had not mifapplied his ta¬
lents ; for he was a good claffical fcholar to the lafl:
and it is a circumitance not a little remarkable, though
well authenticated, that he never read afterwards,
nor had he ever any knowledge in accounts ; to which
may in fome meafure be attributed the total ignorance
N° 225.
he was always in as to his affairs. From Weflmrnfter Mifer.
fchool Mr Meggot removed to Geneva, where he loon ——v—
entered upon purfuits more agreeable to him than
ftudy. The riding-mafter of the academy there had
then to boall perhaps of three of the bell riders in Eu¬
rope, Mr Worfley, Mr Elwes, and Sir Sydrtey Mea¬
dows. Of the three, Elwes was reckoned the mod
defperate ; the young horfes were always put into his
hands, and he was the rough-rider to the other two.
On his return to England, after an abfence of two
or three years, he was to be introduced to his uncle
the late Sir Harvey Elwes, who was then living at
Stoke in Suffolk, perhaps the moft perfedl pidlure of
human penury that ever exifted. The attempts at
faving money were in him fo extraordinary, that Mr
Elwes perhaps never quite reached them, even at the
-lafl period of his life.—Of what temperance can do.
Sir Harvey was an inflance. At an early period of
life he was given over for a confumption, and he lived
till betwixt 80 and 90 years of age On his death,
his fortune, which was at leaft L. 250,000, fell to his
nephew Mr Meggot, who by will was ordered to af-
fume the name and arms of Elwes. To this uncle,
and this property, Mr Elwes fucceeded when he had
advanced beyond the 40th year of his age. And for
15 years previous to this period, it was that he was
known in the more fafiiionable circles of London.
He had always a turn for play ; and it was only late
in life, and from paying always and not always
being paid, that he conceived difguft at it. I he
theory which he profeffed, “ that it was impoffible to
aik a gentleman for money,” he perfe6lly confirmed by
the practice ; and he never violated this feeling to the
latefl hour of his life.
'i he manners of Mr Elwes were fuch — fo gentle, fo
attentive, fo gentlemanly, and fo engaging—that rude-
nefs could not ruffle them, nor flrong ingratitude break
their obfervance. He retained this peculiar feature of
the old court to the lafl: but he had a praife beyond
this; he had the mofl gallant difregard of his own
perfon, and all care about himfelf, that can be ima¬
gined. ’i he inflancesin younger life, in the mofl im¬
minent perfonal hazard, are innumerable ; but when
age had defpoihd him of his adlivity, and might have
rendered care and attention about himfelf natural, he
knew not what they were : He wifhed no one to afiifl
him : “ He was as young as ever; he could walk ;
he could ride, and he could dance; and he hoped he
fhould not give trouble even when h,e was old:” He
was at that time 75.
It is curious to remark how he contrived to mingle
fmall attempts at faving with objefls of the moil un¬
bounded diflipation. After fitting up a whole night
at play for thoufands with the molt fafhionable and
profligate men of the time, amidft fplendid rooms,
gilt fofas, wax lights, and waiters attendant on his call,
he would walk out about four in the morning, not
towards home, but into Smithfield, to meet his own
cattle, which were coming to market from Thaydon-
hall, a farm of his in Eflex ! There would this fame
man, forgetful of the feenes he had juft left, ftand in
the cold or rain bartering with a carcafs butcher for a
Hulling! Sometimes, when the cattle did not arrive at
the hour he expefted, he would walk on in the mire to
meet them ; and more than once has gone on foot the
whole
•M IS I 177 ] MIS
•Mife", whole way to his farm without flopping, which was
’'■"■’"'V—''' jy miles from London, after fitting up the whole
night. Had every man been of the mind of Mr Elwes,
the race of innkeepers mull have perilhed, and poft-
chaifes have been returned back to thofe who made
them 5 for it was the bufmefs of his life to avoid both.
He always travelled on horfeback. To fee him fetting
out on a journey, was a matter truly curious; his
fir ft care was to put two or three eggs, boiled hard,
into his great-coat pocket, or any fcraps of bread
which he found; baggage he never took: then mount¬
ing one of his hunters, his next attention was to get
out of London into that road where turnpikes were
the feweft: then, Hopping under any hedge where
grafs prefented itfelf for his horfe, and a little water
for himfelf, he would lit down and refrelh hinjfelf and
his horfe together.
The chief refidence of Mr Elwes at this period of
his life was in Berldhire, at his own feat at Marcham.
Here it was he had two natural fons born, who inherit
the greateft part of his property by a will made about
the year 1785. The keeping fox-hounds was the on¬
ly inftance in the whole life of Mr Elwes of his ever
facrificing money to pleafure ; and may be fele&ed as
the only period when he forgot the cares, the per¬
plexities, and the regret, which his wealth occafioned.
But even here every thing was done in the moft frugal
manner. Scrub, in the Beaux Stratagem, when com¬
pared with Mr Elwes’s huntfman, had an idle life of
it. This famous huntfman might have fixed an epoch
in the hiftory of fervants : for in a morning, getting
up at four o’clock, he milked the cows ; he then pre¬
pared breakfaft for Mr Elwes or any friends he might
have with him; then flipping on a green coat, he hur¬
ried into the liable, faddled the horfes, got the hounds
out of the kennel, and away they went into the field.
After the fatigues of hunting, he refrefbed himfelf
by rubbing down two or three horfes as quickly as
he could; then running into the houfe to lay the
cloth, and wait at dinner; then hurrying again into the
liable to feed the horfes—diverfified with an interlude
of the cows again to milk, the dogs to feed, and eight
hunters to litter down for the night.
In the penury of Mr Elwes there was fomething
that feemed like a judgment from heaven. All earth¬
ly comforts he voluntarily denied himfelf: he would
walk home in the rain in London rather than pay a
(hilling for a coach; he would fit in wet cloaths
fooner than have a fire to dry them; he would eat his
provifions in the laft llage of putrefaftion fooner than
have a frelh joint from the butchers; and he wore a
wig for above a fortnight, which his biographer* faw
* Mr Top-j^ pjck Up out Gf a rut jn a jane where tbey were
from'whofe riding. This was the laft extremity of laudable ceco-
j.i/e of nomy ; for to all appearance it was the call-off wig of
John El- fome beggar!
ws, Efqi Mr Elwes had now refided about 13 years in Suf-
eulars*^ folk, when the conteft for Berkftnre prefented itfelf
this article on the diAblution of the parliament; and when, to pre¬
pare cxtracl-ferve the peace of that county, he was nominated by
Lord Craven. Mr Elwes, though he had retired from
public bufinefs for fome years, had Hill left about him
fome of the feeds of more adlive life, and he agreed to
the propofal. It came farther enhanced to him, by
the agreement, that he was to be brought in by the
« V-ot. XII. Parti.
freeholders for nothing. All he did on the occafion
was dining at the ordinary at Reading ; and he got
into parliament for 18 pence !
Though a new man, Mr Elwes could not be called
a young member ; for he was at this time nearly 60
years old when he thus entered on public life. But
he was in poflefiion of all his activity ; and, prepara¬
tory to his appearance on the boards of St Stephen’s
Chapel, he ufed to attend conftantly during the race?
and other public meetings all the great towns where
his voters refided. At the different aflemblies, he
would dance amongft the youngeft to the lall, after
riding over on horfeback, and frequently in the rain*
to the place of meeting. A gentleman who was one
night (landing by, obferved on the extraordinary agi¬
lity of fo old a man.—“ O! that is nothing (replied
another); for Mr Elwes, to do this, rode 20 miles in
the rain, with his fhoes lluck into his boots and his
bag-wig in his pocket.”
The honour of parliament made no alteration in
the drefs of Mr Elwes: on the contrary, it feemed
at this time to have attained additional meannefs;
and nearly to have reached that happy climax of po¬
verty, which has more than once drawn on him the
compaflion of thofe who palled by him in the ftrcet.
For the fpeaker’s dinners, however, he had one fuit,
with which the fpeaker in the courfe of the feffions
became very familiar. The minifter likewife was well
acquainted with it; and at any dinner of oppofition
Hill was. his apparel the fame. The wits of the mino¬
rity ufed to fay, “ that they had full as much reafon
as the minifter to be fatisfied with Mr Elwes, as he
had the fame habit with every body.” At this period
of his life Mr Elwes wore a wig. Much about the time
when his parliamentary life ceafed, that wig was worn
but; fo then, being older and wifer as to expence, he
wore his own hair, which like his expences was very
fmall.
All this time the income of Mr Elwes was increa-
fing hourly, and his prefent expenditure was next to
nothing ; for the little pleafures he had once engaged
in he had now given up. He kept no houfe, and on¬
ly one old fervant and a couple of horfes: he refided
with his nephew : his two fons he had ftationed in
Suffolk and Berklhire, to look after his refpe&ive
eftates: and his drefs certainly was no expcnce to him;
for had not other people been more careful than him¬
felf, he would not have had it«ven mended.
When he left London, he went on horfebaek to hia
country-feats with his couple of hard eggs, and with¬
out once Hopping upon the road at any houfe. He
always took the moft unfrequented road, and ufed
every Ihift to avoid turnpikes. Marcham was the
feat he now chiefly vifited; which had fome reafon to
be flattered with the preference, as his journey into
Suffolk coft him only two-pence halfpenny, while that
into Berklhire amounted to four-pence!
As Mr Elwes came into parliament without ex¬
pence, he performed his duty as a member would have
done in the pure days of our conflitution. What
he had not bought, he never attempted to fell; and
he went forward in that llraight and direbl path,
which can alone fatisfy a reflebling mind. Amongft
the {mailer memorials of the parliamentary life of Mr
Elwes may be noted, that he did not follow the cu«
Z Horn
Mifer
M I S
[ *7$ 1
M I S
ftom of member* In general, by fitting on any parti-
'' cular fide of the houfe. but fat as occafion prefented
Itfelf on either indifcriminately; and he voted much
in the fame manner, but never rofe to fpeak. In his
attendance at the houfe, he was always early and late;
and he never left it for dinner, as he had accuftomed
himfelf to falling, fometimes for 24 hours in conti¬
nuance.
When he quitted parliament, he was, in the com¬
mon phrafe, “ a fifh out of water!” The ftyle of Mr
Elwes’s life had left him no dometlic fcenes to which
he could retire—his home was dreary and poor—his
rooms received no cheerfulnefs from fire ; and while
the outfide had all the appearance of a “ Houfe to be
Let,” the infide was a defert; but he had his penury
alime to thank for this, and for the want of all the
little confolations which Ihould attend old age, and
infatiable defire of faving was now become uniform Mifer.
and fyftematic. He ufed Hill to ride about the coun- - ■ » ' "
try on one of thefe marcs—but then he rode her very
economically, on the foft turf, adjoining the road,
without putting hinafelf to the expence of Ihoes, as be
obferved, “ The turf was fo pleafant to a horfe’s foot!”
And when any gentleman called to pay him a vifit,
and the lx>y who attended in the ftables was profufe
enough to put a little hay before his horfe, old Elwes
would flily Heal back into the liable, and take the
hay very carefully away. That very llrong appetite
which Mr Elwes had in fome meafure rellrained du¬
ring the long fitting of parliament, he now indulged
moll voracioully, and on every thing he could find.
To fave, as h<; thought, the expence of going to a
butcher, he would have a whole Iheep killed, and fo
eat mutton to the—end of the chapter. When he oc-
fmooth the palfage of declining life. At the clofe of cafionally had his river drawn, though fometimes horfe-
the fpring of 1785, he wilhed again to vifit, which
he had not done for.fome years, his feat at Stake.
But then the journey was a moll ferious objeft to him.
The famous old fervant was dead , all the horfes that
remained with him were a couple of worn-out brood¬
loads of fmall fifh were taken, not one would he fuf-
fer to be thrown in again; for he obferved, “ He
Ihould never fee them again 1” Game in the lall ftate
of putrefaction, and meat that ivaiked about his platey
would he continue to eat, rather than have new things
mares ; and he himfelf was not in that vigour of body killed before the old provifion was finifhed. With
in which he could ride 60 or 70 miles on the fufte-
nance of two boiled eggs. The mention of a poll-chaife
would have been a crime—“ He afford a poll-chaife,
indeed! where was he to get the money would
have been his exclamation. At length he was carried
into the country as he was carried into parliament,
free of expence, by a gentleman who was certainly
not quite fo rich as Mr Elwes. When he reached
Stoke—the feat of more aCtive feenes, of fomewhat
refembling hofpitality, and where his fox hounds had
fpread fomewhat like vivacity around—he remarked,
“ he had expended a great deal of money once very
foolilhly ; but that a man grew wifer by time.”
The rooms at this feat, which were now much out of
repair, and would have all fallen in but forhisfon John
Elwes, Efq; who had refided there, he thought too
expenfively furnilhed, as worfe things might have
ferved. If a window was broken, there was to be no
this diet—the charnel-houfe of fujlenance—his drefs kept
pace—-equally in the lall ilage of abfolute dijfolution.
Sometimes he would walk about in a tattered brown-
coloured hat, and fometimes in a red and white wool¬
len cap, like a prifoner confined for debt. His
Ihoes he never would fuffer to be cleaned, left they
Ihould be worn out the fooner. But Hill, with all
this felf-denial—that penury of life to which the in¬
habitant of an alvu-houfe is not doomed—Hill did
he think he was profufe, and frequently (fay, “ He
mull be a little more careful of his property.” His-
difquietude on the fubjeCl of money was now conti¬
nual. When he went to bed, he would put five or
ten guineas into a bureau; and then, full of his mo¬
ney, after he had retired to reft, and fometimes in the
middle of the night, he would come down to fee if
it was there.
The fcene of mortification at which Mr Elwes was
repair but that of a little brown paper, or that of now arrived was all but a denial of the common ne-
piecing in a bit of broken glafs ; which had at length ceffaries of life : and indeed it might have admitted a
been done fo frequently, and in fo many lhapes, that doubt, whether or not, if his manors, his filh-ponds,
it would have puzzled a mathematician to fay “ what
figure they defcribed.” To fave fire, he would walk
about the remains of an old greenhoufe, or fit with a
fervant in the kitchen. During the harveft he would
’ amufe himfelf with going into the fields to glean the
corn on the grounds of his own tenants ; and they
ufed to leave a little more than common to pleafe the
©Id gentleman, who was as eager after it as any pau¬
per in the parilh. In the advance of the feafon, his
and fome grounds in his own hands, had not furnilhed
a fubfiltence, where he had not any thing adualiy to.
buy, he would not, rather than have bought any things
have ftarved. Strange as this may appear, it is not
exaggerated.—He one day, during this period, dined
upon the remaining part of a moor-hen, which had
been brought out of the river by a rat J and at ano¬
ther eat an undigefted part of a pike which a larger
one had fwallowed, but had not finilhed, and which
morning employment was to pick up any ftray chips, were taken in this ftate in a net. At the time this-
bones, or other things, to carry to the fire, in his
pocket—and he was one day furprifed by a neighbour¬
ing gentleman in the aft of pulling down, with fome
difficulty, a crow’s nell for this purpofe. On the
gentleman wondering why he gave himfelf this trou-
laft circumftance happened, he difcovered a llrange
kind of fatisfaftion ; for he faid to a friend, “ Aye !
this was ’killing two birds with one Hone!” In the
room of all comment—of all moral—let it be remark¬
ed, that at this time Mr Elwes was perhaps worth
ble—“ Oh, Sir, (replied old Elwes), it is really a lhame nearly eight hundred thoufand pounds ! and, at this pe-
that thefe creatures Ihould do fo. Do but fee what riod, he had not made his will, of courfe was not
wafte they make ! They don’t care how extravagant faving from any fentiment of affeftion for any perfon.
they are !” ' The fummer of 1788 Mr Elwes paffed at his houfe
As no gleam of favourite paffion, or any ray of in Welbeck-ftreet, London ; and he paffed that fum-
amufement, broke through this gloom of penury, his mer without any other fociety than that of two maid-
6 fervants s
Mis [ 179 J MIS
fervant*? for he had now given up the expence of
keeping any male domeftic. His chief employment ufed
to be that of getting up early in a morning to vifit fome
of his houfes in Mary-le Bone, which during the fum-
mer were repairing. As he was thete generally at
four o’clock in a morning, he was of courfe on the
fpot before the workmen ; and he ufed contentedly
to fit down on the fteps before the door, to fcold
them when they did come. The neighbours who ufed
to fee him appear thus regular every morning, and
who concluded, from his apparel, he was one of the
workmen, obferved, “ there never was fo pun&ual a
tnan as the ©Id carpenter.” During the whole morn¬
ing he would continue to run up and down flairs to
fee the men were not idle for an inftant, with the
fame anxiety as if his whole happinefs in life had been
centered in the finifhing this houfe, regardlefs of the
greater property he had at flake in various places, and
for ever employed in the minutia only of affairs. In¬
deed fuch was his anxiety about this houfe, the rent
of which was not above L. 50 a-year, that it brought
on a fever which nearly coft him his life : but the fate
which; dragged him on thus ftrangely to bury him un¬
der the load of his own wealth, feemed as refiftlefs as
it was unaccountable.
In the mufcular and unencumbered frame of Mr
ElVves there was every thing that promifed extreme
length of life ; and he lived to above 70 years of age
without any natural diforder attacking him : but, as
Lord Bacon has well obferved, “ the minds of fome
men are a lamp that is continually burning and fuch
was the mind of Mr Elwes. Removed from thofe
©ccafional public avocations which had once engaged
his attention, money was nowhis only thought. He rofe
upon money—upon money he lay down to reft ; and
as his capacity funk away from him by degrees, he
dwindled from the real cares of his property into the
puerile concealment of a few guineas This little ftore
he would carefully wrap up in various papers, and de-
pofiting them in different corners, would amufe him-
felf with running from one to the other, to fee whe¬
ther they were all fafe. Then forgetting, perhaps,
where he had concealed fome of them, he would be¬
come as ferioufly affli&ed as a man might be who had
loft all his property. Nor was the day alone thus
fpent—he would frequently rife in the middle of the
night, and be heard walking about different parts of
the houfe, looking after what he had thus hidden and
forgotten.
During the winter of 17^9, the laft winter Mr El¬
wes was fated to fee, his memory vifibly weakened every
day; and from the unct afing wifti to fave money he
now began to fear he fliou d die in want of it. Mr
Gil fon had been appointed his builder in the room of
Mr Adams ; and one day, when this gentleman wait¬
ed Upon him, he faid with apparent concern, “ Sir,
pray confider in what a wretched ftate I am ; you fee
in what a good houfe 1 am living ; and here are five
guineas, which is all I have at prefent; and how I
fhall go on with fuch a fum of money puzzles me to
death. I dare fay you thought I was rich ; now you
fee how it is !”
Mr George EJwes having now fettled at his feat at
Marchan in Beiklhire, he was natural y defirous that,
in the afliduities of his wife, his father might at length
find a comfortable home. In London he was certain* Mifer
ly moft uncomfortable: but ftill, with thefe tempta-., R
tions before and behind him, a journey with any ex- ^ un?
pence annexed to it was infurmountable. This, how¬
ever, was luckily obviated by an offer from Mr Partis,
a gentleman of the law, to take him to his ancient
feat in Berkftiire with his purfe perfectly whole. But
there was one circumftance ftill very diftreffing—the
old gentleman had now nearly worn out his laft coat,
and he would not buy a new one ; his fon, therefore,
with a pious fraud, contrived to get Mr Partis to buy
him a coat and make him a prefent of it. Thus, for¬
merly having had a good coat, then a bad one, and
at laft no coat at all, he was kind enough to accept
one from a neighbour.
Mr Elwes carried with him into Berkfhire five gui¬
neas and a half, and half a crown. Left the mention
of this fum may appear Angular, it (hould be faid,
that previous to his journey he had carefully wrapped
it up in various folds of paper, that no part of it
might be loft. On the arrival of the old gentleman,
Mr George Elwes and his wife did every thing they
could to make the country a feene of quiet to him.
But “ he had that within” which baffled every effort
of this kind. Of his heart it might be faid, “ there
was no peace in Ifrael.” His mind, caft away upon
the vaft and troubled ocean of his property extending
beyond the bounds of his calculation, returned to a-
mufe itfelf with fetching and carrying about a few
guineas, which in that ocean was indeed a drop. But
nature had now carried on life nearly as far as fhc was
able, and the fand was almoft run out. The firft
fymptoms of more immediate decay was his inability
to enjoy his reft at night. Frequently would he be
heard at midnight as if ftruggling with fome one in
his chamber, and crying out, “ I will keep my mo¬
ney, I will; nobody ftiall rob me of my property.” On
any one of the family going into his room, he would
ftart from this fever of anxiety, and, as if waking
from a troubled dream, again hurry into bed, and
feem unqonfdous of what had happened. At length,
on the 26th November 17X9, expired this miferably
rich man, whofe property, nearly reaching to a mil¬
lion, extended itfelf almoft through every county in
England.
MISERICORDIA, in law, is an arbitrary fine
impofed on any perfon for an offence: this is called
mlfericordia, becaufe the amercement ought to be but
fmall, and lefs than that required by magna charts.
If a perfon be outrageoufly amerced in a court that
3 not of record, the writ called moderata mifericordia
lies for moderating the amercement according to the
nature of the fault.
MISFORTUNE. An unlucky accident.
Misfortune, or chance, in law, a deficiency of
the will: or committing of an unlawful aA by misfor¬
tune or chance, and not by defign. in fuch cafe, the
will ohferves a total neutrality, and does not co.operate
with the deed; which therefore wants one main ingre¬
dient of a crime. See Crime.
Of this, when it affe&s the life of another, we have
fpoken under the article Homicide ; and in this place
have only occaiion to obferve, that if any accidental
mifehief happens to follow from the performance of a
lawful ad, the party ftands excufed from all guilt:
Z2 but
MIS [ 180 ] MIS
but if a man be doing any thing unlawful, and a con-
fequence enfues which he did not forefee or intend, as
sthe death of a man or the like, his want of forefight
, fliall be no excufe; for, being guilty of one offence,
in doing antecedently what is in itfelf unlawful, he is
criminally guilty of whatever confequence may follow
the firfl: mifbehaviour.
MISFEASANCE, in law-books, fignifies a tref-
pafs.
MISLETOE, in botany. SeeViscuM.
MISNOMER, in law, a mifnaming or miftaking
a perfon's name. The Chriftian name of a perfon
Ihould always be perfect; but the law is not fo ftridt in
regard to furnames, a fmall miftake in which will be
difpenfed with to make good a contrail, and fupport
the ail of the party. Sec Plea to Indiament.
MISPRISIONS, (a term derived from the old
French, mefpris, a negleil or contempt), are, in the
acceptation of our law, generally underllood to be all
fuch high offences as are under the degree of capital,
but nearly bordering thereon : and it is faid, that a
niifprifion is contained in every treafon ami felony
whatfoever ; and that, if the king fo pleafe, the of¬
fender may be proceeded againft for the mifprifion on¬
ly. And upon the fame principle, while the jurifdic-
tion of the ftar-chamber fubfifted, it was held ^at the
king might remit a profecution for treafon, and caufe
the delinquent to be cenfured in that court, merely for
a high mifdemeanour: as happened in the cafe of Roger
earl of Rutland, in 43 Eliz. who w?s concerned in
the earl of E{Tex's rebellion. Mifprifions are generally
divided into two forts ; negative, which confift in the
concealment of fomething which ought to be reveal¬
ed ; and pofitive, which confift in the commiflion of
fomething which ought not to be done.
1. Of the firft, or negative kind, is what is called
mifprifion of treafon ; confifting in the bare knowledge
and concealment of treafon, without any degree of af-
fent thereto : for any aflent makes the party a princi¬
pal traitor; as indeed the concealment, which was
conftrued aiding and abetting, did at the common
law ; in like manner as the knowledge of a plot againft
the ftace, and not revealing it, was a capital crime at
Florence, and other ftates of Italy. But it is now en-
afted by the ftatute 1 & 2 Ph. & Mar. c. 10. that a
bare concealment of treafon fhall be only held a mif¬
prifion. This concealment becomes criminal, if the
party apprifed of the treafon does not, as foon as con¬
veniently may be, reveal it to fome judge of afiize or
juftice of the peace. But if there be any probable cir-
cumftances of aflent, as if one goes to a treafonable
meeting, knowing beforehand that a confpiracy is in¬
tended againft the king; or, being in fuch company
once by accident, and having heard fuch treafonable
confpiracy, meets the fame company again, and hears
more of it, but conceals it ; this is an implied aflent
in law, and makes the concealer guilty of adlual high-
treafon.
Mifprifion of felony is alfo the concealment of a fe¬
lony which a man knows, but never aflented to ; for,
if be aflented, this makes him either principal or ac-
ceffofy. And the punilhment of this, in a public
officer, by the ftatute Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 9. is
imprifonment for a year and a day ; in a common per¬
fon, imprifonment for a lefs diferetionary time j and,
in both, fine and ranfom at the king’s pleafiire: whichMlfprilions-
pleafure of the king muff be obferved, once for all, not jj:
to fignify any extrajudicial will of the fovereign, but 1 on‘ .
fuch as is declared by his reprefentatives, the judges
in his courts of juftice ; voluntas regis in curia, non in.
camera.
2. Mifprifions, which aie merely pofitive, are ge¬
nerally denominated contempt or high mifdemeanours ; of
which the principal is the mal-adminijlration of fuch
high' officers as are in public truft^nd employment.
This is ufually punifhed by the method of parliamen¬
tary impeachment ; wherein fuch penalties, fhort of
death, are inflicted, as to the wifdom of the houfe of
peers fhall feem proper ; confifting ufually of banifh-
ment,. imprifonment, fines, or perpetual difability.
Hither alfo may be referred the offence of embez.-z.hng
the public money, called among the Romans peculatus ;
which the Julian law punifhed with death in a magi-
ftrate, and with deportation, or banifhment, in a pri¬
vate perfon. With us it is not a capital crime, but
fubjeits the committer of it to a diferetionary fine and
imprifonment—Other mifprifions are, in general, fuch
contempts of the executive magiftrate as demonftrate
themfelves by fome arrogant and undutiful behaviour
towards the king and government: for a detail of
which, vide Black ftone’s Comment, iv. 22.
MISSAL, the Romifh mafs-book, containing the
feveral maffes to be faid on particular days. It is de¬
rived from the Latin word miffd, which, in the ancient
Chriftian church, fignified every part of divine fer-
vice.
MISSEL-bird, a fpecies of Turdus.
MISSIO, among the Romans, was a full difeharge
given to a foldier after 20 years fervice, and differed
from the exauBorctio, which was a difeharge from
duty after 17 years fervice. Every foldier had a right
to claim his miffo at the end of 20 years.
MISSION, in theology, denotes a power or com¬
miflion to preach the gofpel. Jefus Chrift gave his
difciples their million in thefe words, Go and teach all
nations, 8cc.
The Romanifts reproach the Proteftants, that their
minifters have no million, as not being authorifed in
the exercife of their miniftry, either by. an uninter¬
rupted fucceflion from the apoftles, or by miracles,
or by any extraordinary proof of a vocation.
Many among us deny any other miflion neceffary
for the miniftry than the talents neceffary to dif¬
eharge it.
Mission is alfo ufed for an eftablifliment of people
zealous for the glory of God and the falvation of
fouls ; who go and preach the gofpel in remote coun¬
tries and among infidels.
There are miflions in the Eaft as well as in the
Weft Indies. Among the Romanifts, the religious
orders of Sc Dominic, St Francis, St Auguftine, and
the Jefuits, have miflions in the Levant, America,
See. The Jefuits have alfo millions in China, and all
other parts of the globe where they have been able
to penetrate. There have been alfo feveral Prote-
ftaut miflions for diffufing the light of Chriftianity
through the benighted regions of Afia and America.
Of this kind has been the Daniih miflion planned by
Frederic IV. in 1706. And the liberality of private
benefaftors in our own country has been alfo extended
mit r i
Miffionary to the'fupport of mifiionarles among the Indians in A-
U   merica, Cxc.
^owi^8" MISSIONTARY, an ecclefiaftic who devotes him-
■ felf and his labours to fome miffion, either for the in-
llrudtion of the orthodox, the convi&ion of heretics,
or the converfion of infidels. See Jesuits.
MISSIS1PPI, alfo called the river of St Louts, in
North America, is one of the largeft in the world. Its
fource is unknown. It paffes fouth through Louifia-
na, and runs above 2000 miles, till it falls into the
gulph of Florida. Like the Nile, it has periodical
inundations, by the melting of fnow in the north, fo
that in May it overflows the country on each fide, from
60 to 90 miles, and the inundation continues till near-
the end of July. In the loweft parts of the country
there are moraffes, lakes, and canals, along the banks,
which are generally covered with trees, and in fome
places the courfe of the river is confined between high
precipices. Its inundations always leave a great quan¬
tity of mud upon the land, and fometimes carry down
trees to the river’s mouth, where they form new iflands,
and render the entrance difficult.
MISSON (Francis Maximilian), whofe pleadings
before the parliament of Paris in favour of the re¬
formers bear genuine marks of eloquence and ability,
retired into England after the revocation of the edidt
of Nantz, and became a ftrenuous aflertor of the Pro-
teftant religion. In the years 1687 and 1688 he tra¬
velled to Italy as governor to an Englilh nobleman: in
confequehce of which he publiffied at the Hague, “ A
new voyage to Italy,” 3 vols i2mo; which has been
tranfiated into Englilh with many additions. He pub-
lilhed alfo the “ Sacred Theatre at Cevennes, or an
account of Prophecies and Miracles performed in that
part of Languedoc,” London 1707. “ Obfervations
and Remarks of a Traveller,” izmo, Hague. He died
at London in 1721.
MISSUS, in the Circenfian games, were the match¬
es in horfe or chariot races. The ufual number of
miffus or matches in one day was 24; though the
emperor Domitian prefented -the people with 100.
The lall match was generally made at the expence of
the people, who made a collection for the purpofe ;
hence it was called miff us ararius, a fubfeription plate.
MIST, or Fog. See Fog.
MISTAKE,any wrong aftion committed,not thro’
an evil defign, but through an error of judgement.
Mistake, in Law. See Ignorance.
MISUSER, in law, is an abufe of any liberty or
benefit; as “He ffiall make fine for his misuser..”
Old. Nat. Br. 149. By mifufer a charter of a corr
poration may be forfeited; fo alfo an office, &c.
MISY, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of the chalcan-
tha, a foffile very common in the Turkifli dominions,
and fometimes found in the mines of Cremnitz in Hun¬
gary. It is a confiderably firm fubftance, of an irre¬
gular texture, not compact; much refembling fome
of our more gaudy marcafites, but wanting in their
hardnefs and weight. It is of no determinate ftiape
or fize ; but is often found in fmall detached mafl’es,
which are ufually broad, flat, and very rugged at the
edges. A s -to its medical virtues, they are no other
than thofe of the green vitriol.
MITCHELSI OWN, a poft-town of Ireland, in
the county of Cork and province of Munfter in Ire-
5.
81 ] MIT
land, 102 miles from Dublin. Here is a college for Mife
the fupport of 12 decayed gentlemen and 1 2 decayed II
gentlewomen, who have L. 40 yearly, and handfome M thndate
apartments, and a chaplain at L. 100 a-year? with a "~v ^
houfe: divine fervice is daily performed in a neat chapel
belonging to the college : the whole was founded by
the late earl of Kinglton. Here is alfo a matt mag¬
nificent feat of Lord Kingfborough.—Fairs are held at
this town 30th July and 12th November.
MITE, a fmall piece of money mentioned Luke xii.
59. and xxi. 2. In the Greek it is j. e. qua¬
drant, or a quarter of the Roman denarius ; fo that the
mite was worth about feven farthings, or two-pence
of our money.
Mite, in zoology'. See Acarus.
MITELLA, bastard American sanicle: A
genus of the digynia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 13 th ax&zr, Succulents. The calyx is
quinquefid ; the corolla pentapetalous, and inferted
into the calyx ; the petals pinnatifid ; the capfule uni¬
locular and bivalved, with the valves equal. There
are two fpecies, both natives of North America, ri-
fing with annual herbaceous {talks from five or fix to
eight or nine inches in height, and producing fpikea
of fmall whitiffi flowers, whofe petals are fringed on
their edges. They are eafily propagated by parting
their roots; and ffiould be planted in a fhady fitua- -
tion, and in a foft loamy foil.
MITHRA, feafts of, in antiquity, were feafts ce¬
lebrated among the Romans in honour of Mithras or
the fun. The molt ancient inltance of this Mithras
among the Romans occurs in an infeription dated in
the third confulate of Trajan, or about the year of
Chrift 101. This is the dedication of an altar to
the fun under the above name, thus inferibed, Deo
Soli Mithne. But the worfhip of Mithras was not
known in Egypt and Syria in the time of Origen„
who died about the year of Chrift 263 ; though it
was common at Rome for more than a century be¬
fore this time. The worfliip of Mithras was pro-
feribed at Rome in the year 378, by order of Grac¬
chus, prefect of the prastorium. According to M. Fre-
ret, the feafts of Mithras were derived from Chaldasa,
where they had been inftituted for celebrating the en¬
trance of the fun into the fign Taurus.
MITHRAS, or Mithra, a god of Perfia and
Chaldasa, fuppofed to be the fun. His worftiip was
introduced at Rome.' He is generally reprefen ted as
a young man, whofe head is covered w ith a turban
after the manner of the Perfians. He fupports his
knee upon a bull that lies on the ground, and one of
whofe horns he holds in one hand, while with the
other he plunges a dagger in his neck.
M1THRIDATE, in pharmacy; an antidote, or
compofition, in form of an eledtuary, fuppofed to ferve
either as a remedy or a prefervative againft poifons.
(See Pharmacy). Ittakesits name from the inven¬
tor, Mithridates king of Pontus ; who is faid to have
fo fortified his body againft poifons with antidotes
and prefervatives, that when he had a mind to dif.
patch himfelf, he could not find any poifon that
would take effeft.. The receipt of it was found in
his cabinet, written with his own hand, and was car¬
ried. to Rome by Pompey. It was tranflated into
• vcvfu.
M I T
Mithri- verfe by Damocrates> a famous pbyfician; and was
^ates* afterwards tranflated by Galen, from whom we have
it: though there is room to imagine it has undergone
confiderable alterations fince the time of its royal pre-
fci iber.
MITHRIDATES, the name of feveral kings of
Pootus. See Pontus.
Mithridates VII. furnamed Eupator and tht Great,
fucceeded to the throne at the age of 11 years, about
i 23 years before the Chriflian era. The beginning
of his reign was marked by ambition, cruelty, and ar¬
tifice. He murdered his own mother, who had been
left by his father coheirefs of the kingdom ; and he
fortified Hs conftitution by drinking antidotes againft
the poifon with which his eneftries at court attempted
to deftroy him. He early inured his body to hard-
fhip, and employed himfelf in the mod manly exer-
cifes, often remaining whole months in the country,
and making frozen fnow and the earth the place of
Iris repofe. Naturally ambitious and cruel, he fpared
no pains t® acquire himfelf power and dominion. He
murdered the two fons whom his filler Laodice had
had by Ariarathes king of Cappadocia, and placed
one of his own children, only eight years old, on the
vacant throne. Thefe violent proceedings alarmed
Nicomedes king of Bithynia, who had married Laor
dice the widow of Ariarathes. He fuborned a youth
to be king of Cappadocia, as the third fon of Aria-
rathes •, and Laodice was fent to Rome to impofc up¬
on the fenate, and affure them that her third fon was
now alive, and that his pretenfions to the kingdom
of Cappadocia were juft and well grounded. Mithri¬
dates, on his part, fent to Rome Gordius the go-
•ternor of his fon ; who folemnly declared before the
Roman people, that the youth who fat on the throne
of Cappadocia was the third foa and lawful heir of
Ariarathes, and that he was fupported as fuch by
Mithridates. This intricate affair difpleafed the Ro¬
man fenate ; and finally to fettle the difpute they
took'away the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithri¬
dates, and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. Thefe two
kingdoms being thus feparated from their original
poffeflbrs, were prefented with their freedom and in¬
dependence : but the Cappadocians refafed it, and
received Ariobarzanes for king. Such were the firft
feeds of enmity between Rome and the king of Pon¬
tus. Mithridates never loft an opportunity by which
he might leffen the influence of his adverfaries; and
the more effeclually to deftroy their power in Afia,
he ordered all the Romans that were in his dominions
to be maffacred. This was done in one night, and
no lefs than *150,000, according to Plutarch, or
- , 80,coo Romans, as Appian mentions, were made
the vi&ims of his cruelty. This palled aloud for ven¬
geance. Aquilius, and foon after Sylla, marched
againft Mithridates with a large army. The former
was made prifoner ; but Sylla obtained a vidlory over
the king’s generals ; and another decifive engagement
rendered him mafter of all Greece, Macedonia, Ionia,
and Afia Minor. This ill fortune was aggravated by
the lofs of about 200,coo men, who were killed in
the feyeral engagements that had been fought ; and
Mithridates, weakened by repeated ill fuccefs by fea
and land, fued for peace from the conqueror, which
he obtained on condition of defraying *he expences
which the Romans had incurred by the war, and of
M I T
remaining fatisfied with the pofTeflions which he had Mithrf*
received from his anceftors. While thefe negocia-
tions of peace were carried on, Mithridates was not ” ’
unmindful of his real intereft. His poverty, and not
his inclinations, obliged him to wilh for peace. He
immediately took the field with an army of 140,000
infantry and 16,coo horfes, which confifted of his
own forces and thofe of his fon-in law Tigranes king
of Armenia. With fuch a numerous army, he foon
made himfelf mafter of the Roman provinces in Afia ;
none dared to oppofe his conquefts; and the Romans,
relying on his fidelity, had withdrawn the greateft
part of their armies from the country. The news
of his warlike preparations was no fooner heard,
than Lucullus the conful marched into Afia ; and
without delay he blocked up the camp of Mithridates,
who was then befieging Cyzicus. The Afiatic mo¬
narch efcaped from him, and fled into the heart of
his kingdom. Lucullus purfued him with the ut-
moft celerity ; and would have taken him prifoner
after a battle, had not the avidity of his foldiers pre¬
ferred the plundering of a mule loaded with gold to
the taking of a monarch who had exercifed fuch cruel¬
ties againft their countrymen, and ftrown himfelf fo
faithlefs to the moll folemn engagements. After this
efcape Mithridates was more careful about the fafety
of his perfon ; and he even ordered his wives and
fillers to deftroy themfelves, fearful of their falling
into the enemy’s hands. The appointment of Gla-
brio to the command of the Roman forces, inftead of
Lucullus, was favourable to Mithridates, who recover¬
ed the greateft part of his dominions. The hidden
arrival of Pompey, however, foon put an end to his
vidlories. A battle in the night was fought near the
Euphrates, in which the troops of Pontus laboured
under every difadvantage. The engagement was by
moon-light, and as the moon then (hone in the face
of the' enemy, the lengthened lhadows of the arms of
the Romans having induced Mithridates to believe that
the two armies were clofe together, the arrows of hia
foldiers were darted from a great diftance, and their
efforts rendered ineffectual. An uni»erfal overthrow
enfued, and Mithridates, bold in his misfortunes, rulh-
ed through the thick ranks of the enemy at the head
of 800 horfemen, s-oo of whom periihed in the at¬
tempt to follow him. He fled to Tigranes; but
that monarch refufed an afylum to his father-in-law,
whom he had before fupported with all the collected
forces of his kingdom. Mithridates found a fafe re¬
treat among the Scythians; and though dellitute of
power, friends, and refources, yet he meditated the
overthrow of the Roman empire, by penetrating into
the heart of Italy by land. Thefe wild projeds were
rejeCled by his followers, and he fued for peace. It
was denied to his ambaffadors ; and the victorious
Pompey declared, that, to obtain it, Mithridates mull
afle it in perfon. He fcorned to trull himfelf in
the hands of his enemy, and refolved to conquer or
to die. His fubjeCts refufed to follow him any longer;
and revolting from him, made his fon Pharnaces king.
The fon fhowed himfelf ungrateful to his father; and
even, according to feme writers, he ordered him to
be put to death. This unnatural treatment broke
the heart of Mithridates ; he obliged his wife to poi¬
fon herfelf, and attempted to do the fame himfelf: It
was in vain: the frequent antidotes he had taken in
the
C 182 ]
MIT [ 1
JMithri- the early part of hia life? ftrengthened Ibis conftitution
, ^*'es againft the poifon ; and when this was unavailing, he
Mitre attempted to ftab himfelf. The blow was not mor-
i re' tal} and a Gaul who was then prefent, at his own
requeft gave him the fatal ftroke, about 64 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. Such were the misfortunes,
abilities, and miferable end, of a man, who fupport-
ed himfelf fo long again ft the power of Rome, and
who, according to the declarations of the Roman au¬
thors, proved a more powerful and indefatigable ad-
verfary to the capital of Italy than the great Anni-
bal, Pyrrhus, Perfeus, or Antiochus. Mithridates
has been commended for his eminent virtues, and cen-
fured for his vices. As a commander, he deferves
the moft unbounded applaufe ; and it may create ad¬
miration to fee him waging war, with fuch fuccefs,
during fo many years, againft the moft powerful
people on earth, led to the field by a Sylla, a Lueul-
lus, and a Pompey. He was the greateft monarch
that ever fat on a throne, according to the opinion
jof Cicero ; and indeed no greater proof of his mi¬
litary charadk-r can be brought, than the mention of
the great rejoicings which happened in the Roman ar¬
mies and in the capital at the news of his death. No
lefs than 12 weeks were appointed for public thankf-
givings to the immortal gods ; and Pompey, who had
fent the firft intelligence of his death to Rome, and
who had partly haftened his fall, was rewarded with
the moft uncommon honours. It is faid that Mithri¬
dates conquered 24 nations, whofe different languages
he knew, and fpoke with the fame eafe and fluency
as his own. As a man of leters he alfo deftrves at¬
tention. He was acquainted with the Greek lan¬
guage, and even wrote in that dialedl.a treatife on bo¬
tany. His fkill in phyfic is well known; and even
now there is a celebrated antidote which bears his
name, and is called mithridate. Superftition as well
as nature had united to render him great; and if we
rely upon the authority of Juftin, his birth was ac¬
companied by the appearance of two large comets,
which were feen for 70 days fucceflively, and whofe
fplendor eclipfed the mid-day fun, and covered the
fourth part of the heavens.
MITHRIDATICUM bellum, the Mithridatic
War, one of the longeft and moft celebrated wars ever
carried on by the Romans againft ,a foreign power.
See Pontus.
MITRA, was a cap or covering for the head, worn
by the Roman ladies, and fometimes by the men ;
but it was looked upon as a mark of effeminacy in
the laft, efpecially when it Was tied upon their heads.
MITRE, a facerdotal ornament worn on the head,
by bifhops and certain abbots on folemn occafions;
being a fort of cap, pointed and cleft at top. The
high-prieft among the Jews wore a mitre or bonnet on
his head. The inferior priefts of the fame nation had
likewife their mitres; but in what refpeit they differ¬
ed from that of the high-prieft, is uncertain. Some
contend that the ancient bifhops wore mitres; but this
is by no means certain.
Mitre, in architedlure, is the workmens term for
an angle that is juft 45 degrees, or half a right one.
If the angle be a quarter of a right angle, they call it
a half-mitre.
To deferibe fuch angles, they have an inftrument
called the mitre-fquam with this they ftrike mitre-
83 ] MIT
lines on their quarters or battens 1 and for difpatch, Mt re
they have a mkre-box, as they call it, which is made
of two pieces of wood, each about an inch thick, one . ~
nailed upright on the edge of the other; the upper
piece hath the mitre-lines ftruck upon it on both fid.es,
and a kerf to diredt the faw in cutting the mitre-joints
readily, by only applying the piece into this box.
Mitre is ufed by the writers of the Irifh hiftory
for a fort of bafe money, which was very common
there about the year 1270, and for 30 years before
and as many after.
There were befide the mitre feveral other pieces
called according to the figures impreffed upon them,
rofaries, lionades, eagles, and by the like names. They
were imported from France and other countries, and
were fo much below the proper currency of the king¬
dom, that they were not worth fo much as a halfpenny
each. They were at length decryed in the year 1300,
and good coins ftruck in their place. Thefe were the
firft Irilh coins in which the feeptre was left out. They
were ftruck in the reign of Edward, the Ton of our
Henry III. and are ftill found among the other anti¬
quities of that country. They have the king’s head
in a triangle full-faced. The penny, when well pre¬
ferred, weighs 22 grains; the halfpenny 10J- grains.
MITTAU, the capital of the duchy of Courland.
It is ftrongly fortified ; but was taken by the Swedes
in 1701, and by the Mufcovites in. 1706. E. Long.
23. 51. N. Lat. 56.44.
MITTIMUS, as generally ufed, hath two fignifi-
cations. 1. It fignifies a writ for removing or tranf-
ferring of records from one court to another. 2. It
fignifies a precept, or command in writing, under the
hand and feal of a juftice of the peace, direfted to the
gaoler or keeper of fome prifon, foe the receiving and
fafe keeping of an offender charged with any crime,
until he be delivered by due courfe of law.
MITYLENE, or Mytelene (anc. geog.), a cele¬
brated, powerful, and affluent.city, capital of the ifland
of Lelbos. It receives its name from Mitylene, the
daughter of Macareus, a king of the country. It is
greatly commended by the ancients for the ftatelinefs
of its buildings and the -fruitfulnefs of its foil, but
more particularly for the great men it produced : Pit-
tacus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Terpander, Theophanes, Hel-
lanicus, &c. were all natives of Mitylene. It was long
a feat of learning; and with Rhodes and Athens, it
had the honour of having educated many of the great
men of Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnefian war,
the Mityleneans fuffered greatly for their revolt from
the power of Athens ; and in the Mithridatie wars,
they had the boldnefs to refift the Romans, and dif-
dain the treaties which had been made between Mi¬
thridates and Sylla.. See Metelin.
MIXT, or mixt body, in chemiftry, that which J$
compounded of different elements or principles.
MIXTURE, a compound or affemblage of feveral
different bodies in the fame mafs. Simple mixture,
confifts only in the Ample appofition of parts of diffe¬
rent bodies to each other. Thus, when powders of
different kinds are rubbed together, the mixture is on-
ly Ample, and each of the powders retains its particu¬
lar chara&ers. In like manner, when oil and water
are mixed together, though the parts of both are con¬
founded, fo that the liquor may appear to be homoge¬
neous, we cannot fay that there is any more than a
Ample
M N I [ i £
Ample appofitlon of the parts, as the oil and water may
very eafily be again feparated from each, other. But
the cafe is very different when bodies are chemically
mixed ; for then one or both bodies affume new pro¬
perties, and can by no means be difcovered in their
proper form without a particular chemical procefs ad¬
apted* to this purpofe. Hence chemical mixture is
attended with many phenomena which are never obfer-
ved in Ample mixtures; fuch as heat, effervefcence,
■&c. To chemical mixture belongs the union of acids
and alkalies, the amalgamation of metals, folution of
gums, &c. and upon it depend many of the principal
operations of Chemistry. See that article pajftm.
Mixture, in pharmacy, a medicine which differs
from a julep in this i dpe<ft, that it receives into its
compofition not only falls, extracts, and other fub-
Itances diffoluble in water; but alfo earths, powders,
and fuch fubftances as cannot be diffolved.
MIZEN, in the fea-language, is a particular maff
or fail. The mizen-maft Itands in the fternmoft part
of the flrip. In fome great (hips there are two of
thefe ; when that next the main-maft is called the
main-rnizen, and that next the poop the bonavcnture
mitten.
MIZRAIM, or Misraim, the dual name of Egypt,
ufed in fcripture to denote the Higher and Lower E-
gypt, which fee. It fometimes occurs Angular, Mazor:
2 Kings xix. Ifaiah xix. Micah vii.
MNEMOSYNE (fab. hift.), a daughter of Coelus
and Terra. She married Jupiter, by whom {he had
the nine mufes. The word mnemofyne AgniAes “ me¬
mory and therefore the poets have rightly called
Memory the mother of the mufes, becaufe it is to that
mental endowment that mankind are indebted for their
progrefs in fcience.
MNIUM, marshmoss; a genus of the natural or¬
der of mufci, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The anthera is operculated; the calyptra
fmooth ; the female capitulum naked and powdery, re¬
mote. There are x 8 fpecies, of which feven are natives
of Britain ; but none have any remarkable property ex¬
cept the two following, x. The fontanum is an ele¬
gant mofs, frequent ia bogs, and on the borders of
cold fprings. It is from two to four inches high : the
{talks are Ample at the bafe, and covered with a rufty
down ; but higher up are red, and divided into fe-
veral round, Angle, taper branches, which proceed
nearly from the fame point. The leaves are not more
than -^th of an inch long, lanceolate and acute, of a
whitilh green colour; and fo thinly fet, that the red
{talk appears between them. This mofs, as it may be
feen at a conAderable diffance, is a good mark to lead
to the difcovery of clear and cold fprings. Linnaeus in¬
forms us, that the Laplanders are well acquainted with
this Agn. Mr Withering informs us, that wherever
this mofs grows, a fpring of freffx water may be found
without much digging. 2. The hygrometricum grows
in woods, heaths, garden-walks, walls, old trees, de¬
cayed wood, and where coals or cinders have been laid.
It is ftemlefs, hath tips inverfely egg-{haped, nodding,
and bright yellow. If the fruit-ftalk is moiftened at
the bafe with a little water or fteam, the head makes
three or four revolutions: if the head is moiltened, it
turns back again.
N° 225.
!4 ] MOB
MOAB (anc. geog.), a country of Arabia Pe- Moa!»
traea; fo called from Moab the fon of Lot, to whofe !l.
pofterity this country was allotted by divine appoint-
ment, Deut. xi. 9. It was originally occupied by the v~?"
Emim, a race of giants extirpated by the Moabites,
ibid. Moab anciently lay to the fouth of Ammon, be¬
fore Sihon the Amorite ftripped both nations of a
part of their territory, afterwards occupied by the
Ifraelites, Numb. xxi.; and then Moab was bounded
by the river Arnon to the north, the Lacus Afphal.
tites to the weft, the brook Zared to the fouth, and
the mountains Abarim to the eaft.
MOAT, or Ditch, in fortiftcation, a deep trench
dug round the rampart of a fortiAed place, to prevent
furprifes.
The brink of the moat, next the rampart, is called
the fcarpe ; and the oppoAte one, the counterfcarpe.
A dry moat round a large place, with a ftrong gar-
rifon, is preferable to one full of water ; becaufe the
paffage may be difputed inch by inch, and the be-
Aegers, when lodged in it, are continually expofed to
the bombs, granades, and other Are-works, which are
thrown inceffantly from the rampart into their works.
In the middle of dry moats, there is fometimes another
fmall one, called cunette; which is generally dug fo
deep till they And water to AH it.
The deepeft and broadeft moats are accounted the
beft ; but a deep one is preferable to a broad one: the
ordinary breadth is about 20 fathoms, and the depth
about 16.
To drain a moat that is full of water, they dig a
trench deeper than the level of the water, to let it run
off; and then throw hurdles upon the mud and flime,
covering them with earth or bundles of rulhes, to make
a fure and Arm pafl'age.
MOATAZALITES, or Separatists, a religious
fe£t among the Turks, who deny all forms and quali¬
ties in the Divine Being 5 or who diveft God of his
attributes.
There are two opinions among the Turkifti divines
concerning God. The ftrft admits metaphyAcal forma
or attributes ; as, that God has wifdom, by which he
is wife ; power, by which he is powerful; eternity,
by which he is eternal, &c. The fecond allows God
to be wife, powerful, eternal; but will not allow
any form or quality in God, for fear of admitting a
multiplicity. Thofe who follow this latter opinion
are called Moatazalites; they who follow the former,
Sephalites.
The Moatazalitesalfo believed that the word of God
was created in fubjeBo, as the fchoolmen term it, and
to confift of letters and found; copies thereof being
written in books to exprefs or imitate the original;
they denied abfolute predeftination, and affirmed that
man is a free agent. This fe6l is faid to have Arft
invented the fcholaftic divinity, and is fubdivided into
no lefs than 20 inferior fe&s, which mutually brand
one another with inftdelity.
MOBILE, moveable, any thing fufceptible of
motion, or that is difpofed to be moved either by it-
felf or by forae other prior mobile or mover.
Primum Mobile, in the ancient aftronomy, was a
ninth heaven or fphere, imagined above thofe of the
planets and Axed ftars. This was fuppofed to be the
firft
M O C [ i
Mobne, firft mover, and to carry all the lower fpheres round
^ochn- along with it; by its rapidity communicating to them
l"' ¥ " a motion whereby they revolved in 24 hours. But
the diurnal revolution of the planets is now accounted
for without the affiftance of any fuch primum mobile.
Perpetuum Mobile. See Perpetual Motion.
MOCHO, Moco, or Mokha; by fome fuppofed to
be the Mufa or Musa of Ptolemy, is a port and town
on the Red Sea, of confiderable trade ; contains about
lo,coo inhabitants, Jews, Armenians, and Moham.
medans is furrounded with walls after the arn ient man¬
ner ; and has four gates and four towers, the laft mount¬
ed with cannon ; but there is no ditch. It gives name
to a kingdom extending along the moft fouthern coaft
of Arabia ; of which that part which lies next the fea
is a dry barren defart, in fome places 10 or x 2 leagues
over ; but bounded by mountains, which being well
Tvatered, enjoy an almoft perpetual fpring ; and be-
fides coffee, the peculiar produce of this country,
yields corn, grapes, myrrh, frankincenfe, caffia, balm,
gums of feveral forts, mangos, dates, pomegranates,
&c. The-weather here is fo hot and fultry in fum-
mer, efpecially when the fouth wind blows, that it
would be infupportable, if it was not mitigated by
the cool breezes that generally blow from the moun¬
tains on the north, or the Red and Arabic Seas on the
weft and eaft. The heat in winter is equal to that of
our warmeft fummers; and it is very feldom that either
clouds or rain are feen. The city of Mocho is now the
emporium for the trade of all India to the Red Sea.
The trade was removed hither from Aden, in confe-
cjuence of the prophecy of a ftieik, much revered by
the people,, who foretold that it would foon become
a place of extenfive commerce notwithftanding its dif-
advantageous fituation. It ftands clofe to the fea, in
a large, dry, and fandy plain, that affords no good
water within 20 miles of the city ; what they drink
comes from Mofa, and cofts as dear as fmall-beer in
• England. The water near the town, as it is thought,
produces a worm, which the naturalifts call the dra-
cunculus, which is about two feet and a half long,
very flender, and breeds in the fleftiy parts of the bo¬
dy : in extra&ing it great care muft be ufed, the con-
fequence being dangerous if any part of it remains in
the body. The buildings here are lofty, and tole¬
rably regular, having a pleafant afpeft from Mecca.
The fteeples of feveral mofques are very high, pre-
fenting themfelves to view at a great diftance. Their
markets are well ftored with beef, mutton, lamb, kid,
camels, and antelopes flefh, common fowls, Guinea
hens, partridges, and pigeons. The fea affords plenty
•of fifh, but not favoury ; which fome think proceeds
-from the extreme faltnefs of the water and the nature
-of their aliment. The markets are alfo flocked with
fruit, fuch as grapes, peaches, apricots, quinces, and
•neftarines; although neither fhrub nor tree is to be
‘feen near the town, except a few date-trees. Frequent¬
ly no rain falls here in two or three years, and feldom
more than a Ihower or two in a year; but in the
mountains, at the diftance of about 20 miles from
Mokha, the earth is watered with a gentle fhower
every morning, which makes the valleys [fertile in corn
and the fruits natural to the climate. The Ayah inha¬
bitants, though remarkably grave and fuperftitious,
are faid to be extremely covetous and hypocritical
Vox.. XII. Part I.
85 ] MO C
robbing, thieving, and committing piracy, without Mock
the leaft fcruple or remorfe. The Englifh and Dutch -
companies have handfome houfes here, and carry on a ot
great trade in coffee, olibanum, myrrh, aloes, liquid
Itorax, white, and yellow arfenic, gum-arabic, mum¬
my, balm of Gilead, and other drugs. One inconve¬
nience, however, they fuftain from the violence and.
exactions of the Arabian princes; but the king’s cu-
ftoms are eafy, being fixed at three per cent, to Euro-
peans. Of the coins at Mocha, the moft current is
the camaflic, which rifes and falls in value at the ban¬
ker’s difcretion; they are from 50 to 80 for a current
dollar, which is but an imaginary fpecies being al¬
ways reckoned one and a half per cent, lower "than
Spanilh dollars. As to their weights, they are almoft
infinite, according to the nature of the thing to be
weighed : they have the banian weight, the magnet,
the ambergris, the agala, the gold and filver weights,
&c.
MOCK-ore, or MoCK-Lead. See Blinde.
MOCKING-bird, in ornithology. See Turdus.
MOCOCO. See Lemur.
MODE, which is a word of the fame general im¬
port with manner, is ufed as a technical term in
grammar, metaphyfics, and mufic. For its import in
Grammar, fee that article, n° 80.
Mode, in metaphyfics, feems properly to denote
the manner of a thing’s exiftence : but Locke, whofe
language in that fcienee is generally adopted, ufes the
Word in a fenfe fomewhat different from its ordinary
and proper fignification. “ Such complex ideas,
which, however compounded, contain not in them the
fuppofition of fubfifting by themfelves, but are conlk
dered as dependencies on, or affections of, fubftances,”
he calls moeles. Of thefe modes, there are, according to
him, two forts, which deferve diftinft confideration.
Firft, there are fome “ which are only variations, or
different combinations of the fame fimple idea, with¬
out the mixture of any other, as a doxen or a /core;
which are nothing but the ideas of fo many diftinft
units added together and thefe he czWs Jimple modes.
Secondly, “ there are others compounded of fimple
ideas of feveral kinds put together to make one com¬
plex one ; v. g. beauty, confifting of a certain compo-
lition of colour and figure, caufing delight in the be¬
holder ; theft, which being the concealed change of
the poffefiion of any thing without the confent of the
proprietor, contains, as is vifible, a combination of fe¬
veral ideas of feveral kindsand thefe he calls mixed
modes. For the juft diftinction between ideas and «o- '~
tions, as well as between ideas and the qualities of ex¬
ternal objects, which in this account of modes are all
confounded together, fee Metaphysics.
Mode, in mufic ; a regular difpofition of the air
and accompaniments relative to certain principal founds
upon which a piece of mufic is formed, and which are
called the ejfential founds of the mode.
There is this difference between the mode and the
tone, that the latter only determines the principal
found, and indicates the place which is moft proper to
be occupied by that fyftem which ought to conftitute
the bafs of the air ; whereas the former regulates the
thirds, and modifies the whole fcale agreeably to its
fundamental founds.1
Guy modes are not, like thofe of the ancients, cha-
A a rafterifed
MOD r 186 1 MOD
ra&enfc,! by any fentiment which they tend to excite,
hut refult from our fyiltm of harmony alone. The
founds eflertial to tlie mode are in number three, and
form together one perfect chord. 1. The tonic or key,
which is the fundamental note both of the tone and of
the mode: (See Tonk and Tonic). 2. 'i he domi¬
nant, which is a fifth from the tonic: (See Dominant).
y. The mediant, which properly conftitutes the ww/?,
and which is a third from the fame tonic. As this
third may be of two kinds, there are of confeguence
two different modes. - When the mediant tdrms a
greater third with the tonic, the mode is major; when
the third is leffer, it is minor.
The major mode is immediately generated by the
refonance of founding bodies, which exhibit the third
major of the fundamental found : but the minor mode
is not the produdf of nature; it is only found by
analogy and tnverfion. This is equally true upon the
fyftem of Sig. Tartini as upon that of M. Rameau.
This laft author, in his various and fucceffive publi¬
cations, has explained the origin of this minor mode
in different ways, of which his interpreter M. d’A¬
lembert was fatisfied with none. It is for this rea-
fon that he has founded this origin on a different prin¬
ciple, which cannot be better explained than in the
words of that eminent geometrician. See Music,
Art. 28, 29, 30, and 31.
When the mode is once determined, every note
in the fcale affumes a name exprejliye of its.relation to
the fundamental found, and peculiar to the place
which it occupies in that particular mode. We fubjoin
the names of all the notes fignificant of their relative
values and places in each particular mode, taking the
edlave of ut as an example of the major mode, and of
la as an example of the minor.
Major, ut re mi fa fol la ft ut,
Minor, la ft ut re mi fa fol la.
It is neeeffary to remark, that when the feventh
note is only a feinitone diilant from the higheft in the
odlave, that is to fay, when it forms a third major
with the dominant, as ft natural in the major mode, or
fol {harp in the minor, that feventh found is then
called a fenftbh notey becaufe it difcovers the tonic and
renders the tone apreciable.
Nor docs each gradation only affume that {name
which is fuitable to it; but the nature of each interval
is determined according to its relation to the mode.
The rules dlablifhed for this are as follow :
T. The fecond note muff form a fecond major above
the tonic, the fourth note and the dominant firould
form a fourth and fifth exa&ly true ; and this'equally
in both modes.
2. In the major mode, the mediant or third, the
fixth and the feventh from the tonic, fliould a'waysbe
major; for by this the mode is charafterized. For
the fame reafon thefe three intervals ought always to
be minor in the minor mode : nevei thelefs, as it is
neceffary that the fenfible note fliuuid Ifikewife there
be perceived, which cannot be effectuated without a
falfe relation whilft the fixth note ftill remains minor ;
this occafi'ons exceptions, of which in the courfe of the
air or harmony care muft be taken. But it is always
neceffary that'the cleff, with its tranfpofitions, fhould
preferve a 1 the intervals, as determined with relation
to the tonic, according to the fpecies of the mode- For
this a general rule will he found at the word CLjj, in
Roufleau’s Mufical Dictionary.
As all the natural chords in the oftave of ut give,
with relation to that tonic, all the intervals preferibed
for the major mode, and as the. cafe is the fame with
the oClave of la for the minor mode, the preceding
example, which was only given that we might have an
opportunity of naming the notes, may like wife ferve
as a formula for the rule of the intervals in each mode.
This rule is not, as one might imagine, eftab’ilhed
upon principles that are merely arbitrary : it has its
fource in the generation of harmony, at leaft. in a
certain degree. If you give a perfect major chord
to the tonic, to the dominant, and the fub-dominant,
you will have all the founds of the diatonic fcale for
the major mode : to obtain that of the minor, leaving
fiill its third major to the dominant, give a third
minor to the two other chords. Such is the analogy
of the mode.
As this mixture of major and minor chords intro¬
duces into the minor mode a falfe relation between the
fixth and the fenfible note, to avoid this falfe relation,
they fometimes give the third major to the fourth
note in afeent, or the third minor to the dominant in
defeending, chiefly by inverting the chords; but thefe
in this cafe are licences.
There are properly no more than two modes, as we
have feen : but there are twelve different founds in
the oftave which may be made fundamental founds,,
and of confequence form as many keys or tones ; and
as each of thefe tones are fufceptible of the major or
minor mode, mufic may be compofed in twenty-four
modes or manners. Nay, in the manner of writing
mufic, there are even thirty-four paffabie modes: but
in practice ten are excluded ; which when thoroughly
examined are nothing elfe but a repetition, of the other
ten, under relations much more difficult, in which all
the chords muft change their names, and where it
muft coft any one fome trouble to know what he is
about. Such is the major mode upon a note raifed
above its natural pitch by a femitone, and the minor
mode upon a note depreffed by a femitone. Thus,
inftead of compofing upon fol ftiarp with a third major,
it is much more eligible to operate upon la flat, which
will give you an opportunity to employ the fame
tones; and inftead of compofing upon re flat with a
third minor, you will find it more convenient to choofe
ut {harp for the fame reafon ; viz. on one hand to
avoid a fa with a double {harp, which would be
equivalent to a fol natural; and on the other hand a ft
with a double flat, which would become a la natural.
The compofer does not always continue in the fame
mode, nor in the fame key, in which he. has begun aa
air ; but, whether to alter the expreffion or introduce
variety, modes and keys aie frequently changed, ac¬
cording t© the analogy of harmony ; yet always re¬
turning to thofe which have been firft heard: this is
called modulation^
From.,
MOD [ 187 1 MO D
Prom thence arifes a new division of modes into fuch
as are principal and fuch as are relative : the principal
is that in which the piece begins and ends; the re¬
lative modes are fuch as the compofer interweaves
with the principal in the flow of the harmony. (See
Modulation).
Others have propofed a third fpecies, which they
call a mixed mode., becaufe it participates the modula¬
tion of both the others, or rather becaufe it is com-
pofed of them ; a mixture which they did not reckon
an incenveniency, but rather an advantage, as it in-
creafes the variety, and gives the compofer a greater
latitude both in air and harmony.
This new mode, not being found by the analyfis of
the three chords like the two former, is not deter¬
mined, like them, by harmonics elFential to the mode,
but by an entire fcale which is peculiar to itfelf, as
well in rifing -as defccnding ; fo that in the two
modes above-mentioned the fcale is inveftigated by
the chords, and in this mixed mode the chords are in¬
veftigated by the fcale. The following notes exhibit
the form of this fcale in fucceffion, as well rifing as
defcending :
mi fa fo! la fi ut re mi.
Of which the effential difference is, as to the melody,
in the polltion of the two femitones; of which the
firft is found between the firft and the fecond note,
and the laft between the fifth and fixth ; and, with
refpeft to the harmony, the difference confifts in this,
that upon its tonic it carries a third minor in the be¬
ginning, and major in ending, in the accompaniment
of this fcale, as well in rifing as defcending, fuch as it
has been given by thofe who propofed it, and executed
at a fpiritual concert, May 30, lyji.
They objedt to its inventor. That his mode has
neither chords nor harmony effential to itfelf, nor ca¬
dences which are peculiar to it, and which fufficiently
diftinguifti it from the major or minor mode. He an-
fwers to this, That the diftinsftion of his mode is lefs
in harmony than in melody, and lefs even in the mode
itfelf than in the modulation ; that in its beginning it
is diftinguilhed from the major mode by its third mi¬
nor, and in its end from the minor mode by its plagal
cadence. To which his opponents reply, That a mo¬
dulation which is not exclufive cannot be fufficient to
cftablifti a mode; and that his muft inevitably occur
in the two other modes, and above all in the minor:
and, as to his plagal cadence, that it neceffarily takes
place in the minor mode as often as tranfition is made
from the chord of the tonic to that of the dominant,
as has long been the cafe in pra&ice, even upon final
notes, in plagal modes, and in^the tone proper to the
fourth. From whence it is concluded, that his mixed
mode is not fo much a particular fpecies, as a new de¬
nomination for the manner of interweaving and com¬
bining the major and minor modes, as ancient as har¬
mony, praftifed at all periods; and this appears to be
fo true, that, even when he begins his fcale, its author
will neither venture to give the fifth nor the fixth to
his tonic, for fear left by the firft the tonic ftiould be
determined in the minor mode, or the mediant in the
major mode by the fecond. He leaves the harmony
equivocal by not filling up his chord.
Jiut whatever objections may, be made againft the
mixed mode, whofe name is rather rejected than its Mode,
practice, this will not prevent the author from ap-
pearing as a man of genius, and a mufician profound- ¥ "*
ly learned in the principles of his art, by the manner
in which he treats it, and the arguments which he
ufes to eftablifh it.
Mode Major. ) a ,
Mode Minor. $ See InTERVAU
MODEL, in a general fenfe, an original pattern,
propufed for any one to copy or imitate. j
Tttf's word is particularly ufedr in building, for an Different
artificial pattern made in wood, ftone, plafter, or other kinds of
matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order for
the better conducing and executing fome great work,
and to give an idea of the effedt it will have in large.
In all great buildings, it is much the fureft way to
make a model in relievo, and not to truft to a bare
defign or draught. There are alfo models for the
building of Ihips, See. and for extraordinary ftair-
cafes, See.
They alfo ufe models in painting and fculpture ;
whence, in the academies, they give the term model to
a naked man or woman, difpofed in feveral poftures,
to afford an opportunity to the fcholars to defign him
in various views and attitudes.
Models in imitation of any natural or artificial fub- General
ftance, are moft ufually made by means of moulds me thod of
compofed of plafter of Paris. For the purpofe ofma^“?£
making thefe moulds, this kind of plafter is muchraoGe s“
more fit than any other fubftance, on account of the
power it has of abforbing water, and foon condenfing
into.an hard fubftance, even after jt has been rendered
fo thin as to be of the confiftence of cream. This
happens in a flrorter or longer time as the plafter is
of a better or worfe quality ; and its good or bad pro¬
perties depend very much upon its age, to which,
therefore, particular regard ought to be had. It is
fold in the (hops at very different prices ; the fineft be¬
ing made ufe of for calls, and the middling fort for
moulds. It may be very eafily coloured by means of
almoft any kind of powder excepting what contains an
alkaline fait; for this would chemically decompofe the
fubftance of it, and render it unfit for ufe. A very
confiderable quantity of chalk would alfo render it
foft and ufelefs, but lime hardens it to a great degree.
The addition of common fize will likewife render it
much harder than if mere water is made ufe of. In
making either moulds or models, however, we muft
be careful not to make the mixture too thick at firft ;
for if this is done, and more water added to thin it,
the compofition muft always prove brittle and of a
bad quality.
The particular manner of making models (or ca/ts,
as they are alfo called) depends on the form of -the
fubjeft to be taken. The procefs is eafy, where the
parts are elevated only in a flight degree, or where
they form only a right or obtule angle with the prin¬
cipal furface from which they projeA ; but where the
parts projedl in fmaller angles, or form curves inclined
towards the principal furface, the work is more diffi¬
cult. This obfervation, however, holds good only
with regard to hard and inflexible bodies ; for fuch as
are foft may often be freed from the mould, even
though they have the fhape laft mentioned. But
A a -2 though
MOD L igf ] M O D
VfofJel though this be the cafe with the foft original fulv
ftance, it is not fo with the inflexible nriodel when
once it is caft. •
The moulds are to be made of various degrees of
thicknefs, according to the lize of the model to be
caft; and may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if
veiy large, an inch and an half. Where a number
of models are to he taken from one mould, it will
hkewife be neceflary to have it of a ftronger contex¬
ture than where only a few are required, for very ob¬
vious reafons.
Aratomicrtl ft is mhch more eafy to make a mould for any foft
models. fubftance than a rigid one, as in any of the vifcera of
the animal body : for the fluidity of the mixture makes
it eafily accommodate itfelf to the projefting parts of
the fubftance; and as it is neceflary to inflate thefe
fubftances, they may be very readily extradled again
by letting out the air which'diftended them.
When a model is to be taken, the furface of the
original is firft to be greafed, in order to prevent the
platter from flicking to it; but if the fubftance itfelf
is flippery, as is the cafe with the internal parts of the
„ human body, this need not be done : when neceflary,
it may be laid over with linfeed oil by means of a
VoU's Ana- painter’s bruth. The original is then to be laid on a
tomcat In- fm0oth table, previoufly greafed or covered with a
J ruftor. t0 prevent the platter flicking to it; then fur-
round the original with a frame or ridge of glazier’s
putty, at fuch a diftance from it as will admit the
plafter to reft upon the table on all Tides of the fubjedl
tor.about an inch, or as much as is fufficient to give
the proper degree of ftrength to the mould. A fufft>
cient quantity of plafter is then to be poured as uni¬
formly as poffible over the whole fubftance, until it be
every where covered to fuch a thicknefs as to give a
proper fubftance to the mould, which may vary in
proportion to the fize. The whole muft then be fuf-
fered to remain in this condition till the plafter has
attained its hardnefs ; when the frame is taken away,
the mould may be inverted, and the fubjeift removed
fromit; and when the plafter is thoroughly dry let it be
well feafoned.
Having formed and feafoned the moulds, they muft
next be prepared for the cafts by gieafing the in-
lide of them with a mixture of olive oil and lard
in equal parts, and then filled with fine fluid pla¬
fter, and the plain of the mould formed by its refting
on the furface of the table covered to a fufficient
thicknefs with coarfe plafter, to form a ftrong bafis or
fupport for the caft where this fupport is requifite, as
is particularly the cafe where the thin and membranous
parts of the body are to be reprefented. After the
plafter is poured into the mould, it muft be fuffered to
iland until^ it has acquired the greateft degree of hard¬
nefs it will receive; after which the mould muft be re¬
moved : but this will be attended with fome difficulty
when the Ihape of the fubjeft is unfavourable ; and in
fome cafes the mould muft be feparated by means of a
fmall mallet and chiflel. If by thefe inftruments any
parts of the model ftiould be broken off, they may be
cemented by making the two furfaces to be applied ta
each other quite wet; then interpofing betwixt them
a little liquid plafter ; and laftly, the joint fmoothed
after being thoroughly dry. Any fmall holes that may
be made in the mould can be filled up with liquid pla¬
tter, after the fides qf them have bee>l thoroughly Made!,
wetted, and fmoothed over with the edge of a knife.  v—
In many cafes it is altogether impracticable to pre¬
pare a mould of one piece for a whole fubjeCt ; and
therefore it muft be coniidered how this can be done
in fuch a manner as to divide the mould into.the feweft
pieces. This may be effected by making every piece
cover as much of the pattern, as poffible, without fur-
rounding fuch projeiting parts, or running into fuch
hollows as would not admit a feparation of the mould.
It is impoflible, however, to give any particular direc¬
tions in this matter which can hold good in every in- »
itance, the number of pieces of which the mould is to.
confiit being always determined from the fliape of the
pattern. Thus the mould of the human calculus will
require no more than three pieces, but that of an os
femoris could fcarcc have fewer than ten or twelve.—.
Where any internal pieces are required, they are fir.t
to be made, and then the outer pieces after the for¬
mer have become hard.
To make a mould upoa.an hard and dry fubftance,
we muft, in the firft place, rub the furface of it
fmoothly over with the mixture of oil and lard above-
mentioned. Such hollows as require internal pieces
are then to be filled up with fluid plafter; and while
it continues in this ftate, a wire loop muft be intro¬
duced into it, by which, when hardened, it can be
pulled off. The plafter fhould be fomewhat raifed
in a pyramidal form around this wire, and afterwards
cut fmooth with a knife while yet in its foft ftate;
preferving two or three angular ridges from the loqp
to the outer edge, that it may fix the more fteadily
in the outer piece of the mould to be afterwards made
upon it. Let the outer piece then be well greafed,
to prevent the fecond piece from adhering ; the loop
being inclofed with fome glazier’s putty, both to pre¬
vent the fecond piece from adhering and to preferve
an hollow place for the cord.
To form the fecond or outiide piece, mix a quan¬
tity of plafter proportioned to the extent of furface
it is to cover and the intended thicknefs of the
mould : when it is juft beginning to thicken, or ai-
fumes fuch a confiftence as not to run off very eafily,
fpread it over the internal piece or pieces as well as
the pattern, taking care at the fame time not to
go too far left it ffiould not deliver fafely ; and as
the plafter becomes more tenacious, add more upon
the pattern until it has become fufficiently thick,
keeping the edges fquare and fmooth like the edge
of a board-. The plafter ftiould be fpread equally
upon all parts, which is belt done by a painter’s pal¬
let-knife or apothecary’s bolus-knife : but for this the
inftrument fliould be fomewhat lefs pliable than it is
commonly made.
When the outfide piece is hardened, the edges are
to be pared fmooth, and nearly made fquare with ft
fmall pointed knife. Little holes of a conical fhape
are to be made with the point of a knife about an inch
dittant from one another, according to the fize of the
piece. Thefe are defigned to receive the fluid pla¬
fter in forming the adjacent parts of the mould, and
occafion points correfponding to the hollows; and are
intended to preferve the edges of the different pieces
fteadily in their proper relative fituations. The third
piece is then to be formed in a manner fimilar to the
fecond j
MOD [ iBg ] MOD
MedeV feemid ; greafmg the edges of the foimer plentifully
'■“'■’■v——' with hog’s lard and oil, to prevent the pieces from ad¬
hering to each other. Thus the pattern is to be
wholly inclofed, only leaving a proper orifice for
pouring in the plafter to form the model; fmall holes
being alfo bored in the mould oppofite to the wire-
loops fixed in the infide pieces, through which a cord
is to be conveyed from the loop to confine fuch pieces
during the time of calling. In fome cafes, however,
it is not neceffary that the mould Ihould totally in-
clofe the pattern ; for inllance, where a model is to
be made of a pedeftal, or a bull of any part of the hu¬
man body. The bottom of fuch moulds being left
open, there is accordingly ample room for pouring in
■the plafter.
After the mould is completely formed, it is next
to be dried either naturally or by a.gentle artificial
heat, and then feafoned in the following manner: —
Having been made thoroughly dry, which, if the
mould is large, will require two or three weeks, it is
to be brulhed over plentifully with linfeed oil boiled
with fugar of lead, finely levigated litharge, or oil of
■vitriol. The infide and joints of the mould fhould be
particularly well fupplied with it. 1 If the mould be
large, it isneedlefsto attend to the outfide : but when
the moulds are fmall, it will not be improper to boil
them in the oil; by which means their pores are more
exactly filled than could other wife be done. After
the moulds have undergone this operation, they are
again fet by to dry, when, being greafed with olive-
oil and hog’s lard, they are fit for ufe. If linfeed oil
be ufed for greafing the moulds, it wdll in a ihort
time impart a difagreeable yellow colour to the calls.
The mould being properly prepared and feafoned,
nothing more is requilite to form the model than to
pour the fineft liquid plafter of Paris into it. After a
layer of this, about half an inch in thicknefs, has been
formed all round the mould, we may ufe the coarfer
kind to fill it up entirely, or to give to the model
what thicknefs we pleafe.
Models Befides the models which are taken from inanimate
from living bodies, it has been frequently attempted to take the
iubje&s. exa£t refemblance of people while living, by ufing
their face as the original of a model, from whence to
take a mould ; and the operation, however difagree¬
able, has been fubmitted to by perfons of the highelt
ranks in,life.. A confiderable difficulty occurs in this,
however, by reafon of the perfon’s being apt to ihrink
and diftort his features when the liquid is poured
upon him ; neither is he altogether without danger
of fuffocation, unlefs the operator well underftanda his
bufinefs.
To avoid the former inconvenience, it will be pro¬
per to mix the plafter with warm inftead of cold wa¬
ter, by which means the perfon will be under no temp¬
tation to ftirink ; and to prevent any danger of a fa¬
tal accident, the following method is to be pradtiled:
Having laid the perfon horizontally on his back, the
head mull ftrft be raifed by means of a pillow to the
exaft pofition in which it is qaturally carried when,
the body is ere£t; then the parts to be reprefented
muft be very thinly covered over with fine oil of al¬
monds by means of a painter’s brufh : the face is
v then to be firll covered with fine fluid plafter, begin¬
ning at the upper part of the fore-head, and fpreading M"'bl¬
it over the eyes, wrhich are to be kept clofe, that the —v—"
plafter may not come in contail with the globe ; yet ,
not clofed fo ftrongly as to caufe any unnatural
wrinkles. Cover then the nofe and ears, plugging
firft up the meatus auditorii with cotton, and the no-
ftrils with a fmall quantity of tow rolled up, of a pro¬
per fize, to exclude the plafter. During the time
that the nofe is thus flopped, the perfon is to breathe
through the mouth : in this ftate the fluid plailer is
to be brought down low enough to cover the upper
lip, obferving to leave the rolls of tow prOjedting out
of the plafter. When the operation is thus far car¬
ried on, the plafter muft be fuffered to harden ; after
which the tow may be withdrawn, and the noltrils left
free and open for breathing. The mouth is then to-
be clofed in its natural pofition, and the plafter
brought down to the extremity of the chin. Begin '
then to cover that part of the breaft which is to be
reprefented, and fpread the plafter to the outlides of
- the arms and upwards, in fuch a manner as to meet
and join that which is previoufly laid on the face
when the whole of the mafs has acquired its due hard-
nefs, it is to be cautioully lifted, without breaking
or giving pain to the perfon. After the mould is
conttrudled, it muft be feafoned in the manner already
diredted and when the mould is call, it is to be fe-
parated from the model by means of a fmall mallet
and chifiel. The eyes, which are neceflarily fhown
clofed, are to be. carved, fo that the eye-lids may be
reprefented in an elevated pofture pthe noftrils hollow¬
ed out, and the back part of the head, from which,.
on account of the hair, no mould can be taken, muft
be finiihed according to the ikill of the artill. The
edges of the model are then to be neatly fmoothed off,
and the bull fixed on its pedeflal.
The method of making models in the plafter of Topo<ra-
Paris is undoubtedly the.moft eafy way of obtaining ph'cai ins>-
them. When models, however, are made of fuch^s*
large objedts that the model itfelf muft be of confi-
derablc fize, it is vain to attempt making it in the
way above defcribed. Such models muft; be conllruc-
ted by the hand with fome foft fubilance, as wax,
clay, putty, &c. and it being neceffary to, keep all the
proportions with mathematical exadlnefs, the con-
ftrudion of a Angle model of this kind muft be a
work of great labour and expence as well as of time.
Of all thofe which have b,een undertaken by human
induftry, however, perhaps the moft remarkable is that
conftrudled by General Pfiffer, to reprefent the moun¬
tainous parts of Switzerland. It is compofed of 142
compartments, of different fizes and forms, refpec-
tively numbered, and fo artfully put together, that
they can be feparated and replaced with the greateft
eafe. The modeiitfelf is zoj-feet long and 12 broad,
and formed on a fcale which reprefents two Englilh
miles and a quarter by an Englifh foot; compre¬
hending part of the cantons ofZ’ug, Zurich, Schweitz,
Underwalden, Lucerne, Berne, and a fmall part of
the mountains of Glarus ; in all, an extent of country of
184- leagues in length and 12 in breadth. The higheft
point of the model, from the level of the centre (which
is the lake of Lucerne), is about ten inches; and as the
tnoft elevated mountain reprefented therein rifes 1475
7 toilet
MOD [ ioo J MOD
• tolfcs or 9440 feet above the lake of Lucerne, at a
. ^’,l‘"era• grofs calculation, the height of an inch in the model
is about 900 feet. The whole is painted of different
colours, in fuch a manner as to reprefent objects as
they exift in nature ; and fo exactly is this done, that
not only the woods of oak, beech, pine, and other
trees, are diftinguiflred, but even the ftrata of the
Teveral rocks are marked, each being (haped upon the
fpot, and formed of granite, gravel, or fuch other fub-
itances as compofe the natural mountain. So minute
alfo is the accuracy of the plan, that it comprifes not
.■only all the mountains, lakes, rivers, towns, villages,
and forefts, but every cottage, bridge, torrent, road,
and even every path is diftinftly marked.
The principal material employed in the conftruc-
tion of this extraordinary model, is a mixture of char¬
coal, lime, clay, a little pitch, with a thin coat of
wax ; and is fo hard that it may be trod upon without
any damage. It was begun in the year 1766, at
which time the general was about 50 years of age,
and it employed him till the month of Auguft 1785 ;
during all which long fpace of time he was employ¬
ed in the mod laborious and even dangerous talks.—
He raifed the plans with his own hands on the foot,
took the elevation of mountains, and laid them down
in their fevcral proportions. In the profecution of
this laborious employment he was twice arrefted for
afpy; and in the popular cantons was frequently
forced to work by moon-light, in order to avoid the
jealoufy of the peafants, who imagined that their li¬
berty would be endangered Ihould a plan of their
country be taken with fuch minute exailnefs. Be¬
ing obliged frequently to remain on the tops of fome
of the Alps, where no provifions could be procured,
he took along with him a few milk-goats, who fup-
plied him with nourilhment. When any part was
iinilhed, he fent for the people redding near the fpot,
and defired them to examine each mountain with ac¬
curacy, whether it correfponded, as far as the fmallnefs
of the fcale would admit, with its natural appearance;
and then, by frequently retouching, correfted the de¬
ficiencies. Even after the model was finilhed, he
continued his Alpine expeditions with the fame ar¬
dour as ever, and with a degree of vigour that would
fatigue a much younger perfon. All his elevations
were taken from the level of the lake of Lucerne ;
which, according to M. Sauffure, is 1408 feet above
■the level of the Mediterranean.
MODENA, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the
fouth by Tufcany and the republic of Lucca, on the
.north by the duchy of Mantua, on the eaft by the
Bolognefe and the territories of the church, and
on the weft by the duchy of Parma ; extending in
length from fouth to north about 56 Englilh miles,
and in breadth between 24 and 36, and yielding
plenty of corn, wine, and fruits, with mineral waters.
I» fome places alfo petroleum is fkimmed off the fur-
face of the water of deep wells made on purpofe ; and
In others is found a kind of earth or tophus, which,
when pulverifed, is faid to be an excellent remedy
againft poifon, fevers, dyfentcries, and hypochondriac
diforders. The country of La Salfa affords fcveral
kinds of petrifadions. The principal rivers are the
Croftolo, Secchia, and Panaro. The family of Efte,
(dakes of Modena, is very ancient. They had their
name from Efte, a fmaU city in 'the diftrici of Pa- Modena
dua. In 1753, the duke was appointed imperial II
vicar-general, field-marlhal, and governor, of the Mi- MVxkfly
lanefe during the minority of the archduke Peter ""
Leopold, who was declared governor-general of the
Auftrian Lombardy. The duke, though a vaffal of
the empire, hath an unlimited power within his own
dominions.
Modena, an ancient city, in Latin Mutma, which
gives name to a duchy of Italy, and is its capital. It
ftands 28 miles eaft of Parma, 44 almoft fouth of
Mantua, and 20 weft of Bologna; and is a pretty
large and populous, but not a handfome city. It is
much celebrated by Roman authors for its grandeur
and opulence 5 but was a great fufferer by the' fiege
it underwent during the troubles of the triumvirate.
It hath long been the ufual refidence of the dukes
and is alfo the fee of a biihop, who is fuffragan to the
archbilhop of Bologna. Mr Keyffer fays, that when
Decius Brutus was befieged here by Mark Antony,
Hirtius the conful made ufe of carrier-pigeons; and
that, even at this day, pigeons are trained up at Mo¬
dena to carry letters and bring back anfwers. This
city hath given birth to feveral celebrated perfons,
particularly Taflb the poet, Correggio the great
painter, Sigonius the civilian and hiitorian, da Vig¬
nola the architect, and Montecuculi the imperial ge¬
neral. The tutelary faint of it is named Gemlnianm.
The ducal palace is a very noble edifice, in which,
among the other fine pictures, the birth of Chrift by
Correggio, called la Notte Felice, is much celebrated.
The only manufa&ure for which this city is noted, is
that of mafks, of which great numbers are exported.
The ehurehes of the Jefuits, of the Theatines, and of
St Dominic, are well worth viewing. In the college
of St Carlo Boromeo between 70 and 80 young noble¬
men are continually maintained, and inftrufted both
in the feiences and genteel exercifes. St Beatrix, who
was of the family of Efte, is faid to knock always at
the gate of the palace three days before any of the
family dies Before moft of the houfes are covered
walks or porticos, as at Bologna. The city is forti¬
fied, and on its fouth fide ftands the citadel.
MODERATION, in ethics, is a virtue confift-
ing in the proper government of our appetites, paf-
fions, and purfuits, with refpeft to honours, riches,
and pleafures; and in this fenfe it is fynonymous
with temperance: it is alfo often ufed to denote can¬
dour.
MODERATOR, in the fchools, the perfon who
preiides at a difpute, or in a public affembly : thus the
prefident of the annual affembly of the church of Scot¬
land is ftyled moderator.
MODERN, fomething new, or of our time ; in
oppofition to what is antique or ancient.
Modrrn Authors, according to Naude, are all thofe
who have wrote fince Boethius. The modern philo-
fophy commences with Galileo; the modern aftronomy
with Copernicus.
MODESTY, -in ethics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note humility ; and fometimes to exprefs chaftity, or
purity of fentiments and manners.—Modefty, in this
laft fenfe, and as particularly applied to women, is de¬
fined by the authors of the Encyclopedic Methodique, as
a natural, chary, and honeft Ihame j a fecret fear; a
feeling
MOD [ i
lefty, feeling on account of what may be accompanied with
v"—' difgrace. Women who poffefs only the remains of a
fnfpicious modefty, make but feeble efforts to refift:
thofe who have obliterated every trace of modefly from
their countenance, foon extinguifh it completely in
their fold, and throw afide for ever the veil of dfecency.
She, on the contrary, who tru’y paffeffes modefty,
paffes over in filence attempts againft her honour, and
forbears fpeaking of tkofe from whom fhe has recei¬
ved an outrage, when in doing fo fhe muft reveal ac¬
tions and expreffions that might give alarm to virtue.
The idea of modefty is not a chimera, a popular
prejudice, or an illuflon arifing from laws and educa¬
tion. Nature, which fpeaks the fame language to all
men, has, with the amanlmous confent of nations, an¬
nexed contempt to female incontinence. Torefiftand
to attack are laws of her appointment: and while file
bellows defires on both parties, they are in the one
accompanied with boldnefs, in the other with fhame.
To individuals fhe has allotted long fpaces of time for
the purpofesof felf-prefervation, and but moments for
the propagation of their fpecies. What aims mote
gentle than Moclejly could fhe have put into the
hands of that fex which fhe defigned to make refift-
ance !
If it were the cuftom for both fexes to make and
receive advances indifcriminately, vain importunity
would not be prevented : the fire of paffion would ne¬
ver be ftirred np, but languifh in tedious liberty ; the
' moft amiable of all feelings would fcarcely warm the
human breaft ; its objedl would with difficulty' be at¬
tained. That obftacle which feems to remove this ob-
to a diftance, in fad brings it nearer. The veil
of fhame only makes the defires more attractive. Mo¬
defty kindles that flame which it endeavours tafup-
prefs: its fears, its evafions, its caution, its timid
avowals, its pleafing and affeCting fineffes, fpeak more
plainly what it wifhes to conceal, than paffion can do
without it: it is Modesty,, in fhort, which enhances
. the value of a favour, and mitigates the pain of a re-
fufal.
Since modefty is the fecret fear of ignominy ; and
fince all nations, ancient or modern, have confeffed
the obligation of its laws ; it muft be abfurd to violate,
them in the punifhment of crimes,which fhould al?
ways have for its objeCt the re-eftablifhment of order.
Was it the intention of thofe oriental nations, who
expofed women to elephants, trained for an abominable
fpecies of punifhment, to violate one law by the ob-
ftrvance of another ? By an ancient practice, among,
the Romans, a girl could not be put to death before
fhe was marriageable. Tiberius found means to evade
this law by ordering them to be violated by the
executioner previous to the infliction of punifhment;.
the refinement of a cruel tyrant, who facrificed the
morals to the cuftoms of his people ! When the
legiflature of Japan caufed women be expofed na¬
ked in the market-places, and obliged them to walk on
all fours like brutes, modefty was Ihocked :. but when
it wanted to force a mother—when it wanted to com¬
pel aTon—nature received an outrage.
Such is the influence of climate in other countries^
that the phyfical part of love poffdTes an almoft irre-
fiftible force. The refiftanee is feeble ; the attack is
accompanied with a certainty of fuccefs. This is the.
qi ] MOD
cafe at Patana, at Bantam, and in the fmall kingdoms Modifies*
on the coaft of Guinea. When the women in thefe tl‘,u
countries (fays, Mr Smith) meet with a man, they lay M y .
hold of him, and threaten to inform their hufbands if tion/
he defpifes their favours. But here the fexes feem to —y——^
have abolifhed the laws peculiar to each. It is fortu¬
nate to live in a temperate climate like ours, where
that fex which pofieiTes the moft powerful charms
exerts them to embdiifti fociety; and where modeft
women, while they referve themfelves for the plea-
fures of one, contribute to the amufement of all.
MODIFICATION, in philofophy, that which
modifies a thing, or gives it this or that manner of
being. Quantity and quality are accidents which
modify all bodies.
Decree of Modification, in Scots law, a decree
afeertaining the extent of a minifter’s ftipend, with¬
out proportioning it among the perfons liable in pay¬
ment.
MOD1LLIONS, in architedlure, ornaments in
the corniche of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compofite
columns.
MODIUS, a Roman dry meafure for all forts of
grain, containing 32 heminae, or 16 fextarii, or one-
third of the amphora, amounting to an Englifh peck.
See Measure.
MODREVIUS (Andreas Frichius), fecretary to
Sigifmund Auguftus king of Poland, acquired confi-
derable reputation by his learning and works. He
broke off from the Romifti church, favoured the Lu¬
therans and Anti-trinitarians, and took great pains in-
order, to unite all Chriftian focieties under the fame
communion. Grotius has placed him in the clafs of
the reconcilers of the different fchemes of religion.-
His principal, work is intitled, De repullica emen-
dan'la
MODULATION, the art of forming any thing
to certain proportion.
Modulation,-in reading, or fpeaking. See
Reading.
Modulation, in mufic, derived from the Latin •
modular!. This word in our language is fufceptible
of feveral different fignifications. It frequently means
no more than an air, or a number of mufical founds,
properly conneited and arranged. Thus it anfwers
to what Mr Malcolm underftands by the word tune,
when he does not exprefsly treat concerning the tu¬
ning of inftruments. Thus likewife it expreffes the
French word chant; for which reafon, in the article
Music, we have frequently expreffed the one word
by the other. But the precife and technical accep¬
tation to which it ought to be confined, is the art of
compofing. melody or harmony agreeably to the laws
preferibed by any particular key, that of changing the
key, or of regularly and legitimately paffing from one
key to another. In what remains to be faid upon the
fubjeft we follow Rouffeau.
Modulation (fays he) is properly the manner of
afeertaining and managing.lhe modes ; but at this time
the word moft frequently fignifies the art of conduc¬
ting. the harmony and the air fucceffive’y through fe¬
veral modes, in a manner agreeable to the ear and con¬
formed to rules.
If the different modes be produced by harmony,
from thence likewife muft fpring the laws of modula¬
tion.'
M O D
tion. Tliefe laws are Ample in conception, but dif*
ficult in praftice. We proceed therefore to fhow in
what they confift.
To modulate properly in the fame tone, it is ne-
ceffaty, i. To run through all the founds of it in an
agreeable air, frequently repeating the founds which
are moil eifential to it, and dwelling upon thefe founds
with the moil remarkable emphalis; that is to fay,
that the chord containing the fenfible notes, and that
of the tonic, Ihould frequently be heard in it, but un¬
der different appearances, and obtained by different
procedures to prevent monotony. 2. That repofes or
cadences fhomld only be eftabiifhed upon thefe two
chords : the greateft liberty, however, which ought
to be taken with the rule is, that a cadence or repofe
may he eftabiifhed on the chord of the fubdominant.
3. In fhort, that none of the founds of the mode ought
ever to be altered-} for without quitting it we can¬
not introduce a fharp or a flat which does not belong
to it, nor abftradt any one which in reality does be¬
long to it.
But pafling from one mode to another, we muff
confult analogy, we mull confider the relations which
a key bears to the other notes in the feries, and to the
number of founds common to both the modes, that
from whence we pafs, and that into which we enter.
If we pafs from a mode major, whether we confi¬
der the fifth from the key as having the moft Ample
relation with it except that of the oftave, or whether
we confider it as the firft found which enters into the
harmonics of the fame key, we fhall always find, that
this fifth, which is the dominant of the mode, is the
chord upon which we may ellablifh the modulation
in oft analogous to that of the principal key.
This dominant, which conftituted one of the har¬
monics of the firft key, makes alfo one of its own pe¬
culiar key, of which it is the fundamental found.
There is then a conneftion between thefe two chords.
Befides, that fame dominant carrying, as well as the
tonic, a perfect chord major upon the principle of re-
fonance, thefe two chords are only different one from
the other by the difibnance, which paffing from the
key to the dominant is the fixth fuperadded, and
when reafcending from the dominant to the key is the
feventh. Now thefe two chords, thus diftinguifhed by
the difibnance which is fuitable to each, by the founds
which compofe them when ranged in order, form pre-
cifely the oftave, or the diatonic fcale, which we call
a gammut, which determines the mode.
This fame feries of the key, altered only by a fharp,
forms the fcale belonging to the mode of the domi¬
nant; which ‘hows how ftriking the analogy is between
thefe two tones, and gives the eafieft opportunity of
paffing from one to the other by means of one fingle
alteration alone. The mode then of the dominant is
the firft which prefents itfelf after that of the key in
the order of modulations.
The fame fimplicity of relations which we find be¬
tween a tonic and its dominant, is likewife found be¬
tween the fame tonic and its fub-dominant: for that
fifth, in afeending, which is formed by the dominant
with the tonic, is likewife formed by the fub-dominant
in defeending: but that fub-dominant does not form a
fifth with the tonic, except by inverfion ; it is -dire&ly
N0 225.
MOD
a fourth, if wc take that tonic below, as it ought to be j
and which fixes the degree of their relations; for in
this fenfe the fourth, whofe ratio is as 3 to 4, imme¬
diately follows the fifth, whofe ratio is as 2 to 3. So
that, if that fob-dominant does not enter into the
chord of the tonic, in return the tonic enters into its
perfea chord. For let ut mi fol be the chord of the
tonic, that of the fub-dominant fhall be fa la ut: thus
it is the ut which here forms the conne&ion, and the
two other founds of this new chord, are exadtly the
two difibnances of the preceding. Befides, we need
not alter more founds for this ne w mode than for that
of the dominant; they are both in the one and the
other quite the fame chords of the principal mode, ex¬
cept one. Add a flat to the fenfible note fi or B, and
all the notes in the mode of ut or C will ferve for that
of fa or F. 1 he mode of the fub-dominant then is
fcarcely lefs analogous to the principal mode than that
of the dominant.
It ought likewife to b«* remarked, that after having
/nade ufe of the firft modulation in order to pafs from
a principal mode ut or C, to that of the dominant/o/
or G, v/e are obliged to make ufe of the fecond to re¬
turn to the principal mode: for if fol or G be the do¬
minant in the mode of ut or C, ut is the fub-domi¬
nant in the mode of fol: thus one of thefe modulations
is no lefs neceffary than the other.
The third found which enters into the chord of the
tonic is that of third formed by its mediant; and, after
the preceding, it is likewife the moft Ample of relations
Here then is a new modulation which prefents
itfelf, and which is fo much the more analogous, be-
caufe two of the founds of the principal tonic enter
likewife into the minor chord of its mediant: for the
former chord being ut mi fol, the latter muft be mi fol
fi, where it may be perceived that mi and fol are com¬
mon. But what renders this modulation a little more
remote, is the number of founds which are neceflhry to
be altered, even for the minor mode, which is moft fuit¬
able to this mi. In the article Music (234.) will
be found a table for all the modes ;"and Roufieau,
in his Mulical Di&ionary, has given the formula of a
fcale both for the -major and> minor: now, by applying
this formula to the minor mode, we find nothing in
reality, but the fourth found fa heightened by a iharp
in afeeuding ; but in riling, we find two others whicii
are altered, viz. the principal tonic ut, and its fecond
re, which here becomes a fenfible note : it is certain
that the alteration of fo many founds, and particularly
of the tonic, muft remove the mode and weaken the
analogy.
if we ftiould invert the third as we have inverted the
fifth, and take that third below the tonic on the fixth
note la, which ought here to be called a fub-mediant,
or the mediant below, we lhall form upon this note la
a modulation more analogous to the principal tone than
that of mi} for as the perfeA' chord of this fub-medi-
ant is la ut mi, there once more we find, as in that of
the mediant, two of the founds which enter into the
chord of the tonic, viz. ut and mi: and moreover,
fince the fcale of- this new key is compofed, at leaft in
defeending, of the fame founds with that of the prin¬
cipal key ; and fince it has only two founds altered in
afeending, that is to fay, one fewer than the feries of
the
[ 193 1
Mol ala-
MOD L 193 ] MOD
Modula- the mediant; It follows that the modulation of this
t’on- fixth note is preferable to that of the mediant; and by
"UJ v fo much the more, that there the principal tonic forms
one of the founds effential to the mode; which is more
proper for approximating the idea of the modulation.
The mi may afterwards follow.
Here then are four founds, mi fa folia, upon each
of which we may modulate in palling from the major
mode of nt. Re and fi remain, which are the two har¬
monics of the dominant. This laft, as being a fen-
fible note, cannot become a tonic by any proper mo¬
dulation, at leaft it cannot immediately become one :
this would be an abrupt application of ideas too much
■oppofed to the fame founds, and would likewife be to
give it a harmony too remote from the principal found.
As to the fecond note re, we may likewife, by favour
of a confonant procedure in the fundamental bafe; mo¬
dulate upon it in a third minor ; but this muft be only
continued for an inftant, that the audience may not
have time to forget the modulation of ut, which is it-
felf altered in that place ; otherwife, inftead of return¬
ing immediately to ut, we muft pafs through interme¬
diate modes, where we muft run great hazard of de¬
viation.
By following the fame analogies, we may modulate
in the following order, to make our exit from a minor
mode; firft upon the mediant, afterwards the domi¬
nant, next the fub-dominant, then the fub-mediant, or
fixth note. The mode of each of thefe acceflbry keys
is determined by its mediant taken from the principal
found. For inftance, iffning from the major mode of
til, to modulate upon its mediant, we render the mode
of that mediant minor ; becaufe fol, the dominant of
the principal found, forms a third minor with that me¬
diant, which is mi. On the contrary, in our egrefs
from the minor mode of la, we modulate upon its me¬
diant ut in the major mode ; becaufe mi, the dominant
of the tone from whence we iffue, forms a third major
with the key of that into which we enter, &c.
Thefe rules, comprehended in one general formula,
import, that the modes of the dominant and of the
fub-dominant are like that of the tonic, and that the
mediant and the fixth note require a mode oppofed.
We muft, however, remark, that, by the right which
vie have of palling from the major to the minor, and
vice verfa, upon the fame key, we may likewife change
the order of modes from one key to another; but
whilft we thus remove ourfeives from the natural mo¬
dulation, we muft prefently think of our return : for
it is a general rule, that every piece ,of mufic ought to
terminate in that key with which it began.
In his Mufical Dictionary, plate B, fig. 6. and 7.
Roufleau has collected in two examples, which are very
fhort, all the modes to which we may immediately pafs;
the firft, in palling from the major mode ; and the fe¬
cond, from the minor. Each note indicates a parti¬
cular modulation ; and the value of the notes in each
example likewife Ihows the relative duration fuitable
to each of thefe modes, according to its relation with
the principal mode.
Thefe immediate tranfitions from one mode to ano¬
ther, furnilh us with the means of palling by the fame
rhles to modes ftill more remote, and from thence to
return to the principal mode, of which we never Ihould
Vol. XII. Part I.
lofe fight. But it is not fuflieient to know what courfe Mi lut*-
we ought to purfue ; we muft likewife be acquainted tio!‘
with the method of entering into it. A fummary there- Moebiu*
fore of the precepts which are given in this depart- - —^—A
mtnt lhall immediately follow.
In melody, in order to difcover and introduce the
modulation which we have chofen, nothing is neceflary
but to render perceptible the alterations which it caufes
in the founds of that mode from whence we ilfue, to
make them proper for the mode into which we enter.
Are we now in the major mode of ut ? there needs no
more than to found the note fa lharp, that we may
difcover the mode of the dominant; or ay? flat, that .
we may Ihow the mode of the fub-dominant- After¬
wards you may run over the founds eflential to the
mode in which you enter ; if it is well chofen, your
modulation will always be juft and regular.
In harmony, the difficulty is a little increafed : for
as it is neceffary that the change of modes Ihould be
made at the fame time through all the parts, care muft
be taken of the harmony, and of the air, that we may
avoid purfuing different modulations at the fame time.
Huygens has happily remarked, that the prohibition
of two fifths in immediate fucceffion proceeds upon this
rule as its principle : in reality, between two parts it
is fcarcely poffible to form a number of juft fifths in
uninterrupted fucceffion without operatiag in two dif-
ferentmodes.
To introduce a mode, a great many pretend that it
is fufficient to form the perfeft chord of its principal
found, and this is indifpenfable in order to produce the
mode. But it is certain, that the mode cannot be ex¬
actly determined but by the chord containing the fen-
fible note, or the dominant; we muft then caufe this
chord to be heard when we enter into, a new modula¬
tion. The molt eligible rule would be, That in it the
feventh, or minor diffonance, ftiould always be prepa¬
red, at leaft the firft time in which it is heard : but this
method is not pradticable in every admiffible modula¬
tion ; and provided that the fundamental bafis proceeds
by confonant intervals, that the connexion of harmony
be obferved, the analogy of the mode purfued, and
falfe relations avoided, the modulation will always be
approved. Compofers prefcribe as another rule, That
a mode ffiould not be changed except after a perfe6l
cadence : but this interdidft is ufelefs, and no perfon
obferves it.
All the poffible methods of palling from one mode
to another, are reducible to five with refpedl to the
major mode, and to four with refpeft to the minors
which, in the Mufical Di&ionary, plate B, fig. 8. will
be found implied in a fundamental bafis intended for
each modulation. If there be any other modulation
which cannot be refolved into fome one of thefe nine,
unlefs that modulation be enharmonic, it muft infalli¬
bly be illegitimate. See Enharmonic.
MODULE, in archite&ure, a certain meafure, or
bignefs, taken at pleafure, for regulating the propor¬
tions of columns, and the fymmetry or difpofition of
the whole building. Archite&s generally choofe the
femidiameter of the bottom of the column for their
module, and this they fubdivide into parts or mi¬
nutes.
MOEBIUS (Godfrey), profeffor ofphyftc at lena,
B b" was
the place where the tribunes harangued the people;
from whence it was called the rojlra.
MCEONIA, or M-eonia. "
MCE SI A, Or Mysia, (anc. geog.) a country of
Europe, extending from the confluence of the Savus
and the Danube to the fliores of the Euxine. It was
divided into Upper and Lower Mcefia. Lower Moefia
was on the borders of the Euxine, and comprehended
that tradl of country which received the name of Ponlus
from its vicinity to the fea. Upper Moelia lay beyond
the other, in the inland country.
M 0 G [ 194 ] M o G
Moenins wag born at Lauch in Thuringia in i6tl. Hebe- fea and land, confifts of elegant ftone arch-ways, with Mogul*.
M®?odor cam^ Phyfidan t0 Frederic William eleftor of double gates. The market-place is handfomely built, "' y-—*
* Brandenburg, to Augullus duke of Saxony, and to with piazzas of the fame materials; and at the wa-
William duke of Saxe-Weimar. He wrote feveral me- ter-port there is a cuftomhoufe and powder maga-
dical works, which are efteemed; and died at Halle, zine, both of which are neat ftone buildings. Be-
in Saxony, in 1664. Tides thefe public edifices, the emperor has a fmallbut
MOENIUS (Caius), a ce’ebrated Roman conful, handfome palace for his occafional refidence. The
conqueror of the ancient Latins, 338 B. C. He was ftreets of the town, though very narrow, are all in
the fiift who hung up the prows, &c. of the galleys he ftraight lines; and the houfes,contrary to what we meet
had taken at the naval engagement of A&ium, upon with in the other towns of the empire, are lofty and
-u-. u-- ——1-. regular. The bay, which is little better than a road,
and js very much expofed when the wind is at north-
See M^eonia and Ly- weft, is formed by a curve in the land, and a fmall
ifland about a quarter of a mile from the Ihore.—
Its entrance is defended by a fort well furniflied with
guns.
MOGULS, a celebrated nation of Alia, whole
conquefts formerly were the moft rapid and extenfive
of any people recorded in hiftory. They them-
felves deduce their origin from Japhet, or, as ihey t
call him, Japhis, the fon of Noah. His fon Turk, Moguls <Je-
_ , they fay, was the firft king, or khan, of thofc na-fcended
MOFFAT, a village of Scotland, in the {hire of tions who are now known by the feparate names Jl*
Annandale, 50 miles fouth-weft of Edinburgh ; fa- of Turks, Tartars, and Moguls ; and the Tartars efpe-P 6 *
mous for its fulphureous well, which has been in juft cially, aflert that their proper defignation is Turks.
eftimation for near 150 years as a remedy in all cu- To this prince is attributed many of thofe inventions
taneous and fcrophulous complaints; and for its cha- which barbarous nations commonly aferibe to their
lybeate fpring, perhaps the ftrongeft in Britain, which firft fovereigns. He was fucceeded by Taunak ; in
was difeovered about 45 years ago, and is of a very whofe reign the whole pofterity of Turk were divi-
bracifig quality.—The place is chiefly fupported by ded into four large tribes, denominated the orda’s of
the company who refort thither for the benefit of Erlat, Gialair, Kaugin, Berlas or Perlas; of which
its waters and air; but it has alfo a manufacture of laft came the famous Timur Beg, or Tamerlane.—
coarfe woollen fluffs. It is a well-built clean village ; From this time to that of Alanza Khan, we meet
and contains many good and even elegant lodgings, with nothing remarkable. In his reign the Turks
being immerfed in all kinds of luxury, univerfally
apoftatized into idolatry. Having two fans, Tartar
and Mogul, he divided his dominions among them,
and thus gave rife to the two empires of the Tartars
and Moguls.
The two nations had not long exifted before they
began to make war upon each other : and after long
contention, the event at laft was, that II Khan, empe¬
ror of the Moguls, was totally overthrown by Siuntz ex
Khan, emperor of the Tartars ; ar i fo great was thelermi.,ate^
defeat, that the Mogul nation feems to have been al-
moft exterminated. Only two of 11 Khan’s family fur-
vived this difafter. Thefe were Kajan his youngeft
fon, and Nagos his nephew, who were both of an age,
and had both been married the fame year. Thefe two
princes, with their wives, had been taken prifoners by
Siuntz Khan, but found means to make their efcape to
their own country. Here theyfeized upon all the cattle
which had not been carried off by the Tartars; which
was eafily done, as having none to difpute the property
with them ; then ftripping fome of the flain, they took ;
their clothes, and retired into the mountains. They
paffed feveral mountains without much difficulty ; but
at laft advanced to the foot of - one exceedingly-
high, which had no way over it but a very fmall
path made by certain animals, called in the Tartar
language ure^aru. This path ■ they found themfelves
obliged to make ufe of, though it was fo ftrait,that only
one could pafs at a time, and he was in the moft immi¬
nent danger of breaking his neck at the leaft falfe ftepw
Having
1 tolerable affembly-room, a bowling-green and walks,
and one of the beft inns between London and Edin¬
burgh.
MOFFETTA. See Amfsancti.
MOGODORE, or Mogadore, a large, uniform,
and well-built town in the kingdom of Morocco, fi-
tuated about 3 50 miles from Tangier on the Atlan¬
tic ocean, and furrounded on the land-fide by deep
and heavy fands. The European fadtory here con¬
fifts of about a dozen mercantile houfes of .different
nations, whofe owners, from the proteftion granted
them by the emperor, live in full fecufity from the
Moors, whom indeed they keep at a rigid diftance.
They export, to America, mules; to Europe, Mo¬
rocco leather, hides, gum arabic, gum fandaric, oftrich
feathers, copper, wax, wool, elephant’s teeth, fine
mats, beautiful carpeting, dates, figs, raifins, olives, al¬
monds, oil, &c. In return, they import timber, ar-
tillery of all kinds, gunpowder, woollen cloths, linens,
lead, iron in bars, all kinds of hardware and trinkets,
fuch as looking-glaffes, fnuff-boxes, watches, fmall
knives, &c. tea, fugar, fpices, and moft of the ufeful
articles which are not otherwife to be procured in
this empire. The town is regularly fortified on the
fea-fide ; and. on the land, batteries are fo placed as to
prevent any incurfion from the fouthern Arabs, who
are of a turbulent difpofition, and who, from the great
wealth which is known to be always in Mogodore,
would gladly avail themfelves of any opportunity that
offered to pillage the town. The entrance, both by
M O G [ 195 J M O G
Moguls Having afcended the mountain on one fide by this
« path, they defcended by the fame on the other fide ;
They^ar- an<^ were agreea^y furprifed to find themfelves in a
rive in a dc- molt delightful track, interfpeifed with rivulets and
li^htful charming meadows, abounding with a vaft variety of
valley. delicious fruits, and inclofed on all fides by inaccelfible
mountains, in fuch a manner as to fhelter them from all
future purfuits of the Tartars. Here they lived fome
time, and gave this beautiful country the name of /r-
gana-kpn, in allufion to its fituation; Irgana fignify-
ing, in the old language of the Moguls, a “ valley,”
and Kon a fteep height.”
In procefs of time thefe two families very much in-
creafed. Kajan, whofe pofterity was the moft nume¬
rous, called his defcendants Kajath ; but the people
fpringing from Nagos were divided into two tribes;
one of which received the appellation of Nagojler, and
the other that of Durlagan.
Thefe two Mogul princes and their defcendants li¬
ved in this place for more than 400 years; but the lat¬
ter then finding it too narrow for them, meditated a re¬
turn to the country from which their forefathers had
been driven. For fome time, however, they found this
imprafticable, as the path that conduced their ancef-
tors had been long fince deftroyed. At laft they dif-
coyered, that one part of the high mountain above-
mentioned was not very thick in a certain place ; and
alfo, that it confifted entirely of iron-ore. To this,
having before fet fire to a layer of wood, and another
of charcoal, laid along the foot of the mountain, they
applied 70 large bellows, and at laft melted the moun¬
tain in fuch a manner, that an opening was made large
enough for a loaded camel to pafs ; and through this
paflage they all marched out with great joy.
4 The Moguls having thus iffued as it were from a
From new world, overthrew the Tartars in their turn ; and
•whence continued to be a very confiderable nation till, the time
iffue^nd* t^r great hero Temujin, afterwards called Jenghi^
defeat the ^}ani whom they extol in the moft extravagant man-
Tartars. her. It is difficult, however, to fay, at the time Te¬
mujin made his appearance, how far the dominions of
the Moguls extended, or in what eftimation they were
held by their neighbours. It feems to be pretty cer¬
tain, that great part of the vaft region now known by
the name of Tartary, was then in a ftate of confider¬
able civilization, and likewife extremely populous, as
we find mention made of many cities which the Mo¬
guls deftroyed ; and the incredible multitudes whom
they flaughtered, abundantly (how the populoufnefs of
the country. On the eaft, the-country of the Moguls
5 and Tartars had the great defart which divides Tartary
State of A- from China ; on the weft, it had the empire of Karazm,
ila at the founded by Mahmud Gazni; and on the fouth were
time of tjie countries now known by the name of Inclqftan,
Khan.' Siam, Pegu, Tonquin, and Cochin-China. Thus it
comprehended the eaftern part of modern Tartary,
and all Siberia. This whole region was divided among
a great number of Ay macks, or trikes ; who had each
one or more khans, according as it was more or lefs
numerous, or divided into branches. Among thefe,
that of the Kara-its was the moft powerful: their
prince affurned the title of Grand Khan, and among
the reft the Moguls were tributary to him ; but, ac¬
cording to the Chinefe hiftorians, both the one and
the other were tributary to the empeior of Kitay or
Katay. China was divided into two parts s the nine | _
fouthern provinces were in the hands of the Chinefe
emperors of the Song dynafty, who kept their court
at Hang-chew, the capital of the province of Chek-
yang ; the five northern provinces, excepting part of
Shenfi, were poHefled by the Kin, a people of Eaftern
Tartary, from whom are defcended the Manchew
Tartars, at prefent mafters of China. This vaft domi¬
nion was named Kit ay or Katay, and was divided
into two parts: that which belonged to China, was
properly called Kitay ; and the part which belonged
to Tartary was called Karakitay, in which fome even
include the territories of the Moguls, Karaits, and
other tribes, which are the fubjeft of the prefent hif-
tory. The weftern part of the empire of Kitay was
poffeffed by a Turkhh prince, who had lately founded
a new kingdom there, called Hya ; whofe capital city
was Hya-chew, now Ninghya in Shenfi, from whence
the kingdom took its name. To the weft of Hya lay
Tangut; a country of great extent, and formerly very
powerful; but at that time reduced to a low ftace, and
divided among many' princes; fome of whom were
fubjeft to the emperor of Hya, and others to the em¬
peror of China. All Tartary to the weftward, as far
as the Cafpian fea, with the greater part of Little
Buckharia, which then paffed under the general name
of Turkejlon, was fubjeift to Ghurkhan, Khurkhan, or
Kavar Khan ; to whom even the Gazni monarchs are
faid to have been tributary. This Ghurkhan had-
been prince of the Weftern Kitan or Lyau; who,
driven out of Kitay by the king, fettled in Little
Buckharia, and the country to the north, where they
founded a powerful ftate about the year 1124. g
Thus the Moguls, properly fo called, had but a very Defcent
fmall extent of empire which could be called theirand birth of
own, if indeed they had any, when Temujin made Tetnuj‘a,
his appearapce. This hero is faid by the Tartars to
have been of divine origin, fince his family could be
traced no farther back than ten generations, the mo¬
ther of whom was got with child by a fpirit. The
names and tranfa&ions of his predeceffors are equally
uncertain and unimportant: he himfelf, however, was
born in the year 1163, and is faid to have come intt#
the world with congealed blood in his hands; from
whence it was prognoilicated that he would be a great
warrior, and obtain the vidlory over all his enemies.
This predidtion, if any fuch there was, Temujin
moft literally fulfilled. At the time of his father’s de-
ceafe, his fubjefts amounted to between 30,000 and
40,000 families; but of thefe two thirds quickly de¬
fected, and Temujin was left almoil without fubje&s.
When only 13 years of age, he fought a bloody battle
againft thefe revolters ; but either was defeated, or
gained an indecifive viftory ; fo that he remained in
obfcurity for 27 years longer. His good fortune at . , / . -
laft he owed to the friendlhip of Vang Khan, who .vv'^ed
ruled over a great number of Tartar tribes to the north f jedts by
of Kitay, and has been heard of under the name of ‘ aus of
Prejler John among the Europeans. This prince took
Temujin under his protection ; and a rebellion being
afterwards raifed againft himfelf, Temujin was made
his general, and the khan was kept in pofieffion of his
throne ; foon after which, Temujin fubdued the tribes
which had revolted from himfelf, treating them at the
fame time with the utmoft barbarity.
£ b z
This
ni O G f .96 1 M O G
Mogul?. This happened in the year not ; but Vang Khan,
' inftead of contiiiuing the friend of Temujin, now be-
\V! o be- 031116 jealous, and refolved to deftroy him by treachery,
tome? jea- With this view he propofed a marriage between Te-
ious, and mujin’s fon Juji and his own daughter, and another be-
hTteh'8 tween * ernuj'n,s daughter and his own fon. Temujin
1 on6 rUC* was invited to the camp of Vang Khan, in order to ce¬
lebrate this double mavriage; but, receiving intelli¬
gence of feme evil intention againft him, he excufed
himfelf to Vang Khan's meffengers, and defined that
the ceremony might be put off to fome other time.
A few*days after the departure of thefe meffengers,
Badu and Kifhlik, two brothers, who kept the horfes
of one of Vang Khan’s chief domedics, came and in¬
formed Temujin, that the grand Khan finding he had
miffed his aim, was refolved to fet out indantly, and
furprife him next morning, before he could fufpett any
danger. Temujin, alarmed at this intelligence, quit¬
ted his camp m the night-time, and retired with all his
people to fome diftance. He was fcarce gone when
Vang Khan’s troops arrived, and difeharged an incre¬
dible number of arrows among the empty tents; but
finding nobody there, they purfued Temujin in fuch
hafte that they fell into great diforder. In this con¬
dition they were fuddenly attacked and routed by Te¬
mujin ; after which an open war with Vang Khan
took place.
By this quarrel almoft all the princes of Tartary.
Temujin v'’ere Put ’n moti°n> fome fiding with Temujin, and
overcomes others with Vang Khan. But at laft fortune declared
all his ene- in favour of the former : Vang Khan was overthrown
nues, fn a battle, where he loft 40,000 men ; and obliged to
fly for refuge to a prince named Tayyan Khan, who
was Temujin’s father-in-law, and his own enemy, and
by whom he was ungeneroufly put to death. Temu¬
jin immediately began to feize on his dominions, great
part, of which voluntarily fubmitted : but a confedera¬
cy was formed againft him by a number of Vang.Khan’s
tributaries, at the head of whom was Jamuka, a prince
who had already diftinguifhed himfelf by his enmity to
Temujin ; and even Tayyan Khan himfelf was drawn
into the plot, through jealoufy of his fon-in law’s good
fortune. But Temujin was well prepared ; and in the
year 1204 attacked Tayyan Khan, entirely routed
his army, killed himfelf, and took Jemuka prifoner,
whofe head he caufed inftantly to be ftruck off; after
which he marched againft the other tribes who had
confpired againft him. Them he quickly reduced ;
took a city called Kajhtn, where he put all to the
fword who had borne arms againft him; and reduced
*11 the Mogul tribes in 1205.
Temujin now, having none to oppofe him, called a
general diet, which he appointed to be held on the firft
day of the fpring 1206 ; that is, on the day in which
the fun entered Aries. To this diet were fummoned
all the great lords both Moguls and Tartars; and in
the mean time, to eftabli/h good order in the army,
he divided his foldiers into bodies of 10,000, jooo,
too, and 10 men, with their refpeftive officers, all
fubordinate to the generals, or thofe who commanded
the bodies of 10,coo and thefe were to aft under his
own fons. On the day of holding the diet, the prin¬
ces of the blood and great lords appeared dreffed in
white. Temujin, dreffed in the fame manner, with
his crown on his head, fat down on his throne, and
was complimented by the whole affembly, who wi/hed Moguls,
him the continuance of his health and profperity. Af- * J
ter this they confirmed the Mogul empire to him and
his fucceffors, adding all thofe kingdoms which he had
fubdued, the defeendanta of whole vanqnilhed khans
were deprived of all right or title to them ; and after
this he was proclaimed emperor with much ceremofiy.
During this inauguration, a pretended prophet decla¬
red that he came from God to tell the affembly, that
from thenceforth Temujin Ihould affume the name of J0
‘Jengh'rx, Khan, ©r the Mojl Great Khan of khans } pro- a flumes
phecying alfo, that all his pofterity fliould be khans the title of
from generation to generation. This prophecy, which Jenghiz
was no doubt owing to Temujin himfelf, had a furpri- an*
ling effeft on his fubjefts, who from that time con¬
cluded that all the world belonged of right to them,
and even thought it a crime againft heaven for any
body to pretend to refill them.
Jenghiz Khan having now reduced under his fub-
jeftion all the wandering tribes of Moguls and Tar¬
tars, began to think of reducing thofe countries to the
fouth and fouth weft of his own, where the inhabitants
were much more civilized than his own fubjefts; and
the countries being full of fortified cities, he mull of
courfe expeft to meet with more refiftance. He began, **
with the emperor of Hya, whole dominions he inva-
ded in 1205, who at laft fubmitted to become his tri-na, &c.
hutary. But in the mean time Jenghiz Khan himfelf
was fuppofed to be tributary to the emperor of Kitay;
who, in 1210, fent him an officer, demanding the cu-
ftomary tribute. This was refufed with the utmoft
indignation, and a war commenced, which ended not
but with the diffolution of the empire of Kitay, as
mentioned under the article China.
In the year 1216, Jenghiz Khan refolved to cany
his arms weft ward, and therefore left his general
Muchuli to purfue his conquefts in Kitay. In his
journey weftward he overthrew an army of 300,000
Tartars who had revolted againft him ; and, in I2i8r
fent ambaffadors defiring an alliance with Mohammed
Karazm Shah, emperor of Gazna. His ambaffador
was haughtily treated : however, the alliance was con¬
cluded ; hut foon after broken, through the treachery,
as it is laid, of the Karazmian monarch’s fubjefts.
This brought on a war attended with the moft dread¬
ful devaftations, and which ended with the entire
deftruftion of the empire of Karazm or Gazna, as re¬
lated under the article Gazna.
After the reduftion of Karazm, part of the Moguls,
broke into Iran or Perfia, where alfo they made large
conquefts, while others of their armies invaded Geor¬
gia and the countries to the weft ; all this time com¬
mitting fuch enormities, that the Chinefe hiftorians
fay both men and fpirits burft with indignation. In
1225, Jenghiz Khan returned to Hya, where he made
war on the emperor for having flickered fome of his
enemies. The event was, that the emperor was flain,
and his kingdom conquered, or rather deftroyed ;
which, however, was the laft exploit of this moft cruel
conqueror, who died in 1227, as he marched to com¬
plete the deftruftion of the Chinefe.
The Mogul empire, at the death of Jenghiz Khan, Va^*xtfjJt
expended over a prodigious traft of countiy ; beingQf his em-
more than 1800 leagues in length from eaft to weft, pire.
and upwards of 1000 in breadth from north to fouth.
1 It®
M O G
[ T97 3
M O G
(Moguls. Its princes, however, were ftill infatiable, and puflied
y~—» on their conquefts on all fides. Oktay was acknow¬
ledged emperor after Jenghiz Khan ; and had under
his immediate government Moguleftan (the country of
the Moguls properly fo called), Kitay, and the coun¬
tries eaftward to the Tartarian fea. Jagaty his bro¬
ther governed under him a great part of the weftern
conquefts. The country of the Kipjacks, and others
to the ea'l and north-eaft, north and north-weft, were
governed by Batu or Patu the fon of Juji, who had
been killed in the wars; while Tuli or Toley, another
fon of Jenghiz Khan, had Khoraflan, Perfia, and what
part of India was conquered. On the ea t fide the
Mogul arms were ftill attended with fuccefs ; not only
the empire of Kitay, but the fouthern part of China,
was conquered, as already related under that article,
n0 24— 42. On the weft fide matters continued
much in the fame way till the year 1254, when Ma-
gu, or Menkho, the fourth khan of the Moguls, (the
* See Ctoa, fame who was afterwards killed at a fiege in China*),
n°38. raifed a great army, which he gave to his brother Hu-
laku, or Hulagu, to extend his dominions w^eftward.
In 1255 he entered Iran, where he fuppreffed the If-
maelians or Affaffins, of whom an account is given
under the article Assassins ; and two years after-
13 wards he advanced to Bagdad, which he took, and
B gdadre- cruelly put the khalif to death, treating the city with
iueed. n-0 more lenity than the Moguls ufually treated thofe
which fell into their hands. Every thing was put to
fire and fword ; and in the city and its neighbourhood
the number of flain, it is faid, amounted to 1,600,000.
The next year he invaded Syria; the city of Damaf-
cus was delivered up, and, as it made no refiftance,
the inhabitants were fpared ; but Aleppo being taken
into confufion for want of a prince of the race of Moguls.
Jenghiz Khan to fucceed to the throne. The empire, ' v ""f
therefore, was divided among a great number of petty
princes, who fought againft each other almoft without
intermifiion, till, in the year 1369, Timur Bek, or ^
Tamerlane, one of thefe princes, having conquered a Tamerlane
number of others, was crowned at Balkh, with thee owned
pompous title of Saheb Karan 3 that is, “ the empe-cmP®ror
ror of the age, and conqueror of the world.” As131 '
he had juft before taken that city, and deftroyed one
of his moft formidable rivals who had fhut himfelf up
in it, the new emperor began his reign with beheading
fome of the inhabitants, imprifoning others, burning
their houfes, and felling the women and children for
fiaves. In 1370 he crofted the Sihun, made war on i(J
the Getes, and attacked Karazm Next year heBecomesa
granted a peace to his enemies ; but two years after, great con-
he again invaded the country of the Getes, and byllu*ror-
the year 1379 had fully conquered that country as
well as Korazan 5 and from that time he continued to
extend his conquefts in much the fame manner as
Jenghiz Khan had done, though with lefs cruelty  
In 1387 he had reduced Armenia, Georgia, and all
Perfia ; the conqneft of which laft was completed by
the redudtion of Ifpahan, 70,000 of the inhabitants
of which were fiaughtered on account of a fedition-
raifed by fome rath or evil difpofed perfons-
After the reduction of Perfia, Timur turned his
arms northward and weftward, fubduing all the coun¬
tries to the Euphrates. He took the city of Bagdad ;
fubdued Syria; and having ravaged great part of Ruf-
fia, returned to Perfia in 1396, where he fplendidly v-
feafted his whole army. In 1398 he invaded Indo-Invadesan<J
flan, crofted tfie Indus on the 17th of September, re-con<luer*
by ftorm, a greater flaughter enfued there than had duced feveral fortreffes, and made a vaft number of In^o!*an‘
taken place at Bagdat, not even the children in their
cradles being fpared. Some cities of this country re¬
volted the next year, ®r the year after 5 but falling
again into the hands of the Moguls, they were plun¬
dered, and the inhabitants butchered without mercy,
or carried into flavery.
Hulaku died in 1264, and at his death we may fix
the greateft extent of the Mogul empire. It now
comprehended the whole of the continent of Afia,
excepting part of Indoftan, Siam, Pegu, Cochinchina,
and a few of the countries of Leffer Afia, which had
not been attacked by them ; and during all thefe vaft
conquefts no Mogul army had ever been conquered,
captives.. However, as he was afraid that, in cafe of
any emergency, thefe prifoners might take part with
the enemy, he gave orders to his foldiers to put all
their Indian flaves to death ; and, in confequence of
this inhuman order, more than 100,000 of thefe poor
wretches were flaughtered i» lefs than an hour.
In the beginning of the year 1 3.99,. Timur was met
by the Indian army ; whom, after a defperate battle,
he defeated with great flaughter, and foon after took
the city of Dehli, the capital of the country. Here
he feated himfelf on the throne of the Indian empe¬
rors, and here the (harifs, kadis, and principal inhabi¬
tants of the-city, came to make their fubmiflion, and
I* begins to t'c^e Gazna From this period, hov/ever, the
decline. pire began to decline. The ambition of the khans
having prompted them to invade 'the kingdoms of
Japan and Cochinchina, they were miferably difap-
pointed in their attempts, and loft a great number of
men. The fame bad fuccefs attended them in Indo¬
ftan ; and in a ftiort time this mighty empire broke
into feveral fmaller ones. The governors of Perfia
being of the family of Jenghiz Khan, owned no alle¬
giance to any fuperior; thofe of Tartary did the fame.
The Chinefe threw oft' the yoke ; and thus the conti¬
nent of Afia wore much the fame face that it had done
before Jenghiz Khan began his conquefts.
The fucceffors of Hulaku reigned in Perfia till the
year 1335 ; but that year Abufaid Khan, the eighth
except one by Jaloloddin, as mentioned under the ar- begged for mercy. The tame elephants and rhinoce-
rofes likewife were brought to kneel before him ;
they had been accuftomed to do to the Indian empe¬
rors, and made a great cry as if they implored his
clemency. Thefe war-elephants, 120 in number, were,
at his return, fent to Samarcand, and to the province
where his fons refided. After this, at the requeft of
the lords of the court,. Timur made a great feaft ; at
which he diftributed prefents to the princes and prin¬
cipal officers.
Dehli at this time confifted of three cities, called The city cf
Seyri, Old Dehli, and Jehan Penah. Seyri was fur- Dehli de-
rounded with a walk in form of a circle. Old Dehli ^royed>
was the fame, but much larger, lying fouth-weft of the?n(’ the in“
other. Thefe two parts were joined on each fide by flaughter-
a wall; and the third, lying between them, was calleded.
from Hulaku, dying, the affairs of that country fell Jehan Penah> which was larger than Old Dehli. Pe¬
nah
M O G l 198 ] M O G
nah had ten gates; Scyri had feven, three of which
looked towards Jehan Penah j this laft had thirteen
gates, fix to the north-weft, and feven to the fouth-
eaft- Every thing feemed to- be in a quiet pofture ;
when, on the 12th of January 1399, the foldiers of
Timur being affembled at one of the gates of Dehli,
infulted the inhabitants of the fuburbs. The great
emirs were ordered to put a flop to thefe diforders ;
but their endeavours were not effediual. The folta-
nas having a curiofity to fee the rarities of Dehli, and
particularly a famous palace adorned with 1000 pil¬
lars, built by an ancient king of India, went in with
all the court 5 and the gate being on that occafion left
open for every body, above 15,000 foldiers got in un-
perceived. But there was a far greater number of
troops in a large place between Dehli, Seyri, and Je¬
han Penah, who committed great diforders in the two
laft cities. This made the inhabitants in defpair fall
on them ; and many, fetting fire to their houfes, burnt
their wives and children.' The faldiers feeing this
confufion, did nothing but pillage the houfes ; while
the diforder was increafed by the admiflion of more
troops, who feized the inhabitants ef the neighbouring
places who had fled thither for flicker. The emirs,
to put a flop to this mifehief, caufed the gates to be
fhut: but they were quickly opened by the foldiers
within, who rofe in arms againft their ofiiceis; fo that
•by the morning of the 13th the whole army wras en¬
tered, and thif great city was totally deftroyed. Some
foldiers carried out 150 Haves, men, women, and chil¬
dren ; nay, fome of their boys had 20 flaves a piece
to their fliare. The other fpoils, in jewels, plate, and
manufa&ures, were immenfe ; for the Indian women
and girls were adorned with precious ftones, and had
bracelets and rings on their hands, feet, and even
toes, fo that the foldiers were loaded with them. On
the 15 th, in Old Dehli, the Indians retired into the
great mofque to defend themfelves; but being at¬
tacked by the Tartars, they were all flaughtered, and
towers eredted with their heads. A dreadful carnage
now enfued throughout the whole city, and feveral
days were employed before the inhabitants could be
made to quit it entirely; and as they went, the emirs
took a number of them for their fervice. The artifans
were alfo diftributed among the princes and'com¬
manders ; all but the mafons, who were referved for
the emperor, in order to build him a fpacious ftone-
mofque at Samarcand.
After this terrible devaftation, Timur marched into
the different provinces of Indoftan, every where defeat¬
ing the Indians who. oppofed him, and flaughtering
the Ghebrs or worfhippers of fire. On the 25th of
March he fet out on his return, and on the 9th of
May arrived at Samarcand. In a few months after
his arrival, he was obliged to undertake an expedition
into Perfia, where affairs were in the utmoll diforder
on account of the mifcondudl of his fon, whom he
had appointed fovereign of that empire. Here Timur
foon fettled matters ; after which he again fet out on
19 an expedition w'eftward, reduced many places in Geor-
f iniuP gia which had not fubmitted before, and invaded and
with B ja- concluere<* Syria. At the fame time he quarrelled
wet the with Bajazet the Turkiflt fultan, then bufied in an
Tmkifltful-enterprife againft Conftantinople, in which he would
Mu. probably have fucceeded had not Timur interpofed.
The caufe of this quarrel at firft was, that Bajazet had Mognk.
demanded tribute from a prince who was under Ti- —-v—"^
mur’s prote&ion, anckis faid to have returned an in-
fulting anfwer to the Tartar ambaffadors who were
fent to him on that account. Timur, however, who
•was an enthufiaft in the caufe of Mahometanifm, and
confidered Bajazet as engaged in the caufe of heaven
when befieging a Chriftian city, was very unwulling to
difturb him in fo pious a work; and therefore under¬
took feveral expeditions againft the princes of Syria
and Georgia, in order to give the Turkiih monarch
time to cool and return to reafon. Among other
places, he again invefted the city of Bagdad, which
had caft off its allegiance to him; and having taken it
by ftorm, made fuch a dreadful maffacre of the inha¬
bitants, that 120 towers were eredled with the heads
of the flain. In the mean time Bajazet continued to
give frefli provocation, by protedling one Kara Yufef
a robber, who had even iniulted the caravan of Mec¬
ca ; fo that Timur at length refolved to make war up¬
on him. The fultan, however, forefeeing the danger
of bringing fuch a formidable enemy againft himfelf,
thought proper to afk pardon, by a letter, for what
was paft, and promife obedience to Timur’s will for
the future. This embaffy was gracioufly received; and
Timur returned for anfwer, that he Would forbear ho-
ftilities, provided Bajazet would either put Kara Yu¬
fef to death, fend him to the Tartar camp, or expel
him out of his dominions. Along with the Turkiftt
ambaffadors he fent one of his own ; telling Bajazet
that he would march into the confines of Anatolia,
and there wait his final anfwer.
Though Bajazet had feemed at firft; willing to come
to an agreement with Timur, and to dread his fupe-
rior power; yet he now behaved in fuch an unfatis-
fattory manner, that the Tartar monarch defired him
to prepare for war ; upon which he raifed the liege of
Conftantinople, and having met Timur with an army 20
greatly inferior to the Tartars, was utterly defeated Bajazctde-
and taken prifoner. According to fome accounts, he an.^
was treated with great humanity and honour; while fone,i.
others inform us, that he was ftiut up in an iron cage,
againft which he dafhed out his brains the following
year. At any rate, it is certain that he was not re-
ftored to liberty, but died in confinement.
Thisvidlory was followed by thefubmiflion of many
places of the Lefler Afia to Timur; the Greek empe¬
ror owned himfelf his tributary, as did alfo the fultan
of Egypt. After this, Timur once more returned to
Georgia, which he cruelly ravaged; after which he
marched to Samarcand, where he arrived in the year
1405. Here, being now an old man, this mighty
conqueror began to look forward to that ftate which
at one time or other is the dread of all living crea¬
tures ; and Timur, in order to quiet the remorfes of
his own confcience, came to the following curious re-
folution, which he communicated to his intimate
friends ; namely, that “ as the vaft conquefts he had
made were not obtained without fome violence, which
l^d occafioned the deftruftion of a great number of
God’s creatures, he was refolved, by way of atone- ar
merit for his paft crimes, to perform fome good ac-Death of
tion ; namely, to make war on the infidels, and exter-Tamerlane,
minate the idolaters of China.” This atonctnent, how-^^-1^*
ever, he did not live to accomplifti; for he died the fame empire.18
year
M O G [ >99 1 M O G
Moguk. year of a burning fever, in the 71 ft year of his age and would advance the neceffary fupply of cafh, and that
  36th of his reign, f all his majefty had to do was to head the army. “This ^
On the death of Timur, his empire fell immediate- (faid he) will animate them and give them confidence;
ly into great diforder, arid the civil wars continued for the prefence of a monarch is above half the battle.”
five or fix years ; but at laft peace was reftored, by The king agreed in appearance, and requefted Gholam
the fettlement of Shah Rukh, Timur’s fon, on the Khadur to aflemble the army, pay their arrears, and
throne. He did not, however, enjoy the empire in inform them of his intentions. Gholam Khadur re •
its full extent, or indeed much above one half of it; tired contented : but great was his aftonilhment, when
having only Karazm, Khorafian, Kandahar, Perfia, he intercepted the next day a letter from the king to
and part of Indoftan. Neither was he able, though Scijidia, defiri»g him to make as much hafte as pol-
a brave and warlike prince, to extend his dominions, fible, and deftroy Gholam Khadur; for, fays he, Kha-
though he tranfmitted them to his fon Ulug Beg. He dur wifhes me to a£l contrary to my wiihes, and op-
proved a wife and learned monarch; and is famous for pofe you. On this difcovery, Gholam Khadur march-
the aftronomical tables which he caufed to be compo- ed out with his Moguls, croffed the Jumna, and en-
fed, and which are well known at this day. He was camped on the other fide opposite the fort of Delhi,
killed in 1448 by his-fon Abdollatif, who fix months He fent to the king the intercepted letter, and alked
after was put to death by his own foldiers. After the him if his conduit did not deferve to be punilhed by-
death of Abdollatif, Abdollah, a grandfon of Shah the lofs of his throne r1—He began to befiege the fort,
Rukh, feized the throne; but, after reigning one year, and carried it in a few days. He entered the palace
wasexpelled by A bufaid Mirza, the grandfon of Miran inarms; flew to the king’s chamber; infulted the
Shah the fon of Timur. His reign was one conti- old man in the molt barbarous manner; knocked him
nued fcene of wars and tumults; till at laft he was de- down ; and, kneeling on hisbreaft, with his knife took -
feated and taken prifoner by one Haflan Beg, who out one of his eyes, and he ordered a fervant of the
put him to death in 1468. From this time we may king’s to take out the other.
look upon the empire of Timur as entirely diflblved. After this he gave up the palace to pillage, and
though his defcendants ftill reigned in Perfia and In- went to the king’s zazana (the refidence of his wo-
doftan, the latter of which is ftill known by the name men); where he infulted the ladies, and tore their jewels -
of the Mogul’s empire. from their nofes and ears and off their arms and legs.
111*% of t^ie ab°ve mentioned monarch, his As he had lived with the king, he was well acquainted
Indoftan. ^on Baln‘ or Babor fucceeded him, but was foon dri- with the different places where the king’s treafurea -
ven out by the Ufbeck Tartars; after which he re- were hid; he dug up the floor of the king’s own
fided fame time in Gazna, whence he made incurfions bed-room, and found there two chefts, containing in -
into Hindoftan, and at length became mafter of the fpecie 120,000 gold mohurs, or L. 192,000 fterling;
whole empire, excepting the kingdoms of Dekan, Gu- this he took, and vaft fums more. To get at the hid-
zerat, and Bengril.—For the tranfa&ions fubfequent to den jewels of the women, he pra&ifed one of the moll
this period, fee the articles Hindostan and India, -villainous fchemes that ever was thought of. The
What remains to be fupplied here is an account of the third day after thefe horrid cruelties, he ordered that
revolution that has lately happened at Delhi the capi- all the king’s ladies and daughters ftiould come and'
, tal of the Mogul empire. pay their refpefts to him, and promifed to fet thofe
Gholam Kahdur, author of the revolution, was the free who could pleafe him by their appearance and
fon of Zabda Khan. His father difinherited him, and drefs. The innocest, unthinking women, brought
drove him from his prefence on account of his vices out their jewels, and adorned themfelves in their richeft
and his crimes. Shah Allum, the king of Delhi, took attires to pleafe this favage. Gholam Khadur coiji-
, him under his protection, treated him as his own fon, manded them to be conveyed into a hall, where he had
and conferred on him the firft title in the kingdom, p/epared common dreffes for them ; thefe dreffes he
Amere ul Omraow. He lived with the king, and made them put on by the afliftance of eunuchs ; and
raifed a body of about 8oco troops of his own coun- taking poffefiion of their rich dreffes and jewels, fent
trymen the Moguls, which he commanded. Gholam the women home to the palace to lament their lofs
Khadur was of a paffionate temper, haughty, cruel, and curfe his treachery. Gholam Khadur did not even
ungrateful, and debauched. In the latter end of the flop here ; but infulted the princes, by making them
year 1788, the king Had formed fufpicions that fome dance and ling. The moft beautiful of the king’s
of the neighbouring rajahs (princes) would make an daughters, Mobaruck ul Moulk, was brought to this
attempt to plunder and deftroy his territories. Thefe tyrant to gratify his lull: but fhe refilled, and is faid
fufpicions were verified by the approach of a confider- to have ftabbed herfelf in order to avoid force,
able army towards his capital, commanded by Ifmael Scindia foon after this came to the affiftance of the
Beg Khan, and affifted by Scindia. Gholam Khadur king, rather to make him-his prey. Gholam Khadur
told the king on this, that he had nothing to fear ; fled and took refuge in the fort of Agra, a large city
for that he had an army fufficiently ffrong to oppofe about 150 miles from Delhi. Scindia’s troops be-
the enemy : that all the king had to do was to march fieged him there. Perceiving at laft that he mull be
•out with his troops, give them a fupply of caflr, and he taken if he continued in the fort,’ he took the ad van-
would lay his head on the enemy’s being overcome, tage of a dark night, fluffed his laddie with a large
The king on this replied, that he had no money to flock of precious ftones, took a few followers, and fled
carryjon a conteft. Gholam Khadur faid, that this objec- from the fort towards Perfia. Unluckily for him, he
tion would foon be obviated, as he (Gholam Khadur) fell off his horde tlxe fecond night after his flight ; by
z . this -
m o i r 200 i m o r
Mohair tills means a party of horfe which had been fent in
MoLe Purfu,t l1'111 came up with him, and took him pri-
foner. He was brought to Scindia; who, after ex-
pofing him for fome time in irons, and fome time in a
cage, ordered his ears, his nofe, his hands, and his feet,
to be cut off, and his eyes taken out; in which ftate
he was allowed to expire.
Scindia has rewarded himfelf by feizing upon the
kingdom which he came to guard : And all that now
belongs to Shah Alhim, the nominal emperor, is the
city of Delhi, with a fmall diftrict around it, where,
even deprived of fight, he remains an empty fhadow
of royalty; an initance of the inftability of human
greatnefs, and of the precarious ftate of defpotic go¬
vernments.
MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat
frequent about Angria in Turkey; the inhabitantir of
which city are all employed in the manufacture of
eamblets made of this hair.
Some give the name mohair to the camblets or fluffs
made of this hair : of thefe there are two kinds ; the
one fmooth and plain, the other watered like tabbies .
the difference between the two only confifts in this,
that the latter is calendered, the other not. There
are alfo mohairs both plain and watered, whofe woof
is of wool, cotton, or thread.
MoHAiK-Shelly in conchyliology, a name given to a
peculiar fpecies of voluta, which feems ©f a clofely and
finely reticulated texture, and refembles on the furface
X piece of mohair or a very clofe filk-worm’s web.
MOHAWKS. See Muck.
Mohawk Country, a part of North America, inha¬
bited by one of the five nations of the Iroquois, fitua-
ted between the province of New York and the lake
Ontario or Frontignac.
MOHILA, or Moelia, one of the Comorra iflands
in the Indian fea, between the north end of the ifland
of Madagafcar and the continent of Africa. The in¬
land parts are mountainous and woody; but the lands
adjoining to the fea are watered by feveral fine ftreams
which defcend from the mountains; and the grafs is
green all the year, fo that it affords a moft delightful
habitation. There are plenty of provifions of all
kinds ; and the Eaft India fhips of different nations
fometimes touch here for refrefhment.
MOHILOF, a large and ftrong city of Poland, in
the province of Lithuania, and palatinate of Mfciflau.
It is well built, populous, and has a coniiderable trade.
Near this place the Swedes obtained a great victory
over the Ruffians in 1707.
MOIDORE, a POrtuguefe gold coin, value il. 7s.
Sterling.
MOIETY (Medietas), the half of any thing.
MOINE (Peter le), was born at Chaumont in
Baffigni, A. D. 1602, and died at Paris Auguft 22.
1672, aged 70. He joined the fociety of Jefuits,
and enjoyed feveral offices among them. He is chiefly
known by his verfes, which were collected into one
volume folio in 1671. Father le Moine is the full of
the French poets belonging to, that famous fociety,
who acquired reputation by this fpecies of writing.
It cannot be denied that this poet poffeffed genius
and fancy); but his imagination was ungoverned, which
h particularly th« cafe in his poem.of Saint Louis. De-
N°225.
fpreaux, when afked his opinion of this poet, replied, Moine
That “ he was too extravagant for praife, and too I!
much a poet for cenfure.” To give his character in MoiUllfg,<
one word, he was a pedant who had a lively imagina- '
tion without tafte, and who, far from reftraining his ..»
impetuous genius, abandoned himfelf without referve
to its direction. Hence his gigantic figures, his crowd
of metaphors, his ridiculous antithefes, his hyperboli¬
cal expreflions, &c. This Jefuit fomewhere fays,
“ that the water of the river on the banks of which
he had compofed his verfes, was fo admirably quali¬
fied to make poets, that though it were converted
into holy water, it would not proteCt a man againft
the daemon of poetry.” The profe of father le Moine
is in the fame brilliant and bombait ftyle. Senault, a
father of the oratory, ufed to fay of him, that he was
Balzac in a theatrical drefs ” Among his profe works
are, 1. La Devotion aife'e, Paris, 1652, Bvo; an extra¬
ordinary book which produced more mirth than devo¬
tion. 2. Penfees Morales. On thefe two books the
reader may confult Pafchal’s ninth and tenth provin¬
cial letters. 3. A fhort Treatife on Hiftwy, in 1 21005
in which we find many pleafant and curious thoughts
mixed with a good deal of common-place.
Moine (Stephen le), a very learned French mi-
nifter of the Proteftant religion, was born at Caen in
1624. He became extremely Ikilled in the Greek,
Latin, and Oriental tongues, and profeffed divinity
with high reputation at Leyden, in which city he
died in 1689. Several differtations of his are printed
together, and intituled Varia Sacra, in 2 vols 4to 5
befides which, he wrote other works.
Moine (Francis le), an excellent French painter,
was born at Paris in 1688, and trained up under Gal-
loche profeffor of the academy of painting; which
office he himfelf afterwards filled. Le Moine painted
the grand faloon which is at the entrance into the
apartments of Verfailles, and which reprefents the apo-
theofis of Hercules. He was four years about it; and
the king, to ftiow how well pleafed he was with it,
made him his firft painter in 1736, and gave him a
penfion of 4000 Jivres. A fit of lunacy feized this
painter the year after; during which he run himfelf
through with his fword, and died, June 4. 1737,
aged 49.
MOIRA (fometimes written Moyra), a town of
Ireland, fituated in the county of Down and pro¬
vince of Ulfter, 69 miles from Dublin ; noted for its
linen manufa&ure, and a monthly market for vend¬
ing the fame. It gives title of earl to the family ef
Rawdon. Lord Moira has here a very beautiful feat;
and here is a handfome church, a charity fchool, and
two diffenting meeting-houfes.
MOISTURE. See Humidity.
The moiflure of the air has confiderable effefts on
the human body. For the quantity and quality of
the food, and the proportion of the meat to the drink,
being given, ihe weight of a human body is lefs, and
confequently its difeharges greater in dry weather
than in wet weather; which may be thus accounted
for : the moifture of the air moiftens the fibres of the
fkin and leffens perfpiration by leffening their vibra¬
tory motion. When perfpiration is thus leffened by
the moitture of the air, urine indeed is by degrees
increafed.
MO! [ 201 ] MOL
increafedj but not equally. Hence, according to Dr and folidity than ornament and animation; but he
Bryan Robinron, we learn, that to keep a body of was always correct, and he beftowed as much pains
-the fame weight in wet weather as in dry, either the on his fentences as on his calculations. He could never
quantity of food mu ft be leffened, or the proportion endure any bold aflertions or indecent witticifms againft
of the meat to the drink increafed ; and both thefe religion. “ I fhow you that I am. a Chriitian (faid
may be done by leffening the drink without making he one day to a perfon who thought to pay him a
any change in the meat. compliment by obferving that mathematicians were
The inftrument ufed for determining the degree of attached to no religion), by forgiving the fpeech ycni
tnoiftirre in the air, is called an hygrometer. See Hy- have now made.” The praftice of giving vails to
grometer. < fervants was not laid afide in his time; and, on this
MOIVRE (Abraham), was born at Vitri in Cham* account, when a nobleman alked him why he did not
pagne, A.. D. 1667. His father was a furgeon. At dine oftener with him ? “ You muft eYcufe me, my
the revocation of the edi& of Nantes, he determined lord (replied he), I cannot afford it.’'
to fly into England rather than abandon the religion MOLA (Pietfo Francefeo), an eminent painter,
of his fathers Before he left France, he. had begun was born, according to moft authors, at Lugano, a
the ftudy of Mathematics; and having perfeded him- city belonging to the Switzers, in the year 1609.
felf in that fcience in London,-he was obliged, by the Others affirm, that the place of his birth was Coldra,
meannefs of his circumftances, to teach it. Newton’s in the diftrift of Como. He was at firft the difciple
Principfa, which accidentally fell into his kands, ffiow- of Giufeppe d’Arpino, and afterwards of Albano.
ed him how little progrefs he had made in a fcience When he quitted the fchool of the latter, he went
of which he thought himfelf mafter. From this work to Venice, and ftudied affiduoufly the pi&ures of Ti-
he acquired a knowledge of the geometry of infi- tian, Tintoretto, Bafan, and Paolo Veronefe. He
nites with as great facility as he had learned the ele- painted hiftorical fubje&s and landfcapes with great
mentary geometry; and in a fliort time he was fuccefs; but his genius feemed more particularly
fit to be ranked with the moft celebrated mathema- adapted to the latter. His pi&ures, in both ftyles,
ticians. His fuccefs in thefe ftudies procured him a are fpoken of with the warmeft commendations. He
feat in the Royal Society of London and in the A- died in 1665.—He had a brother, Giovanni Batifta,
pademy of Sciences at Paris. His merit was fo well who was alfo a painter, and of fome merit, but very
underftood in the former, that he was thought ca- inferior to that of the ^older.
pableof deciding in the famous difpute between Leib- Mola, an ancient town of Italy, in the kingdom
nitz and Newton concerning the differential calculus, of Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, where they
>—He pnbliftied a Treatife on Chances in 17)58, pretend to Ihow the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. It is feat-
and another on annuities in 1752} both extreme- ed on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 17.50. N.Lat. *
ly accurate. The Philofophical Tranfaftions con- 41. 5.
tain many interefting memoirs of his compofttion.-— in antiquity,Was barleyparch-
Some of them treat of the method of fluxions; others ed, and afterwards ground to meal or flour, then mixed
are on the lunula of Hippocrates; others on phyflcal with fait and frankincenfe, with the addition of a little
aftronomy, in which he refolved many important pro- w’ater. Thus prepared, it wasfprinkledbetweenthe horns
blems ; and others, in fliort, on the analyfis of the of the vi&im before it was killed in facrifice. This aft
games of chance, in which he followed a different was called immolatio, and was common to the Greeks
courfe from that of Montmort. Towards the clofe of as well as Romans; with this difference, that the mola
his life he loft his fight and hearing; and the demand of the Romans was of wheat. The Greeks called it
for fleep became fo great that he required 20 hours or
of it in a day. He died at London, 1754, aged 87. MOLARES, or DenTes Molares, in anatomy.
His knowledge was not confined to mathematics ; the large teeth, called in Englilh the grinders. See
but he retained to the laft a tafte for polite literature. Anatomy, n° 27.
He was intimately acquainted with the beft authors MOLASSES, of Molosses. See Molosses.
of antiquity ; and he was frequently confuited about MOLDAVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe,
difficult paffages in their works. Rabelais and Mo- bounded on the north-eaft by the river Niefter, which
liere were his favourite French authors; he had them divides it from Poland; on the eaft, by Beffarabia; on
by heart; and he one day obferved to one of Ins ac- the fouth by the Danube, which parts it from Bulga-
quaintance, “ that he would rather have been Moliere ria ; and on the weft, by Walachia and Tranfilvania ;
than Newton.” He recited whole feenee of the Mi- it being 240 miles in length and 150 in breadth. It
fanthrope with that delicacy and force with which he lies in a good air and fruitful foil, producing corn,
remembered to have heard them recited at Paris 70 wine, rich paftures, a good breed of horfes, oxen,
years before, by Moliere’s own company. The cha- ftieep, plenty of game, fifli, fowl, honey, wax, and all
rafter indeed was fomewhat fimilar to his own. He European fruits. Its principal rivers are the Danube,
judged feverely of mankind ; and could never conceal Niefter, Pruth, Bardalach, and Ceret. The inhabi-
his difguft at the converfation of a fool, nor his aver- tants are Chriftians of the Greek church, and Jaffy is
fion to cunning and diffimulation. He was free from the principal town. It has been tributary to the Turks
the affeftation of fcience; and no one could know ever fince the year 1574; who appoint a prince who
him to be a mathematician but from the accuracy is a native of the country, but have no regard to his
of his thoughts. His converfation was general and being of the principal families. They pay a large yearly
inftruftive. Whatever he faid was well digefted and tribute; befides which, they are obliged to raife a great
clearly expreffed. His ftyle pofleffed more ftrength body of horfe at their own expence.
Vol. XII. Part I. C c
MOLE,
MOL [ 202 ] MOL
MOLE, a river in Surry, which has taken its name hindering the feythe in mowing. In the weft of Eng-
from running under ground. It firft difappears at Box- land they ufe a peculiar inftrument for the breaking
hill,near Dark:ng, in the county of Surry, and emerges up of thefe ; it is a flat board, very thick, and of
again near Leatherhead. about eight inches in diameter, into which there is
MOLE, in zoology. See Talpa. faftened a perpendicular handle of three or four feet
Moles in the fields may be deftroyed by taking a long. It has four broad and (harp iron teeth at the
head or two of garlic, onion, or leek, and putting it front, which readily cut through the hill, and fpreai
into their boles ; on which they will run out as if the earth it confifts of; and behind there is a large
frighted, and you may kill them with a fpear or dog. knob proper for breaking the clods with, if there are
Or pounded hellebore, white or black, with wheat- any Some ufe a fpade, or other common inftrnment,
flour, the white of an egg, milk, and fweet-wine, or in the place of this, but not fo well. There is, hovv-
metheglin. may be made into a pafte, and pellets as ever, a much better inftrument even than this, for de¬
big as a fmall nut may be put into their holes : the ftroying thefe hills, where they are in very great num-
moles will eat this with pleafure, and will be killed by bers. This is a kind of horfe-machine ; it has a (harp
it. In places where you would not dig nor break iron about three feet over, and with a ftrong back.—
much, the fuming their holes with brimftone, garlic, It is about four or five inches broad, and has two long
or other Unfavoury things, drives them away; and if handles for a horfe to be ha. neffed to, and a crofs bar
you put a dead mole into a common haunt, it will make of iron to ftrengthen it at the bottom of the handles,
them abfolutely forfiske it. reaching from the one handle to the other. The mid-
Or take a mole fpear or ftaff, and where you fee die of this crofs-bar is furniftied with one, two, or more
them caft, go lightly ; but not on the fide betwixt (harp pieces of iron like fmall plough-lhares, to cut the
them and the wind, left they perceive you; and at the mole-hills into two, three or more parts. The iron
firft or fecond putting up of the earth, ftrike them with behind is of a femicircular figure A fingle horfe is
your mole-ftaff downright, and mark which way the harnelfed to this machine, and a boy muft be employ-
earth falls moft: if (he calls towards the left hand, ed to drive it, and a man to hold and guide it; the
ftrike fomewhat on the right hand; and fo on the con- (harp irons or (hares are the firft things that meet the
trary, to the calling up of the plain ground, ftrike hill, they run thraugh it, break its texture, and cut
down, and there let it remain ; then take out the tongue it into feveral parts ; and the circular iron following
in the ftaff, and with the fpattle, or flat edge, dig immediately behind them, cuts up the whole by the
round about your grain to the end thereof, to fee if roots, and leaves the land level. This in.'.rument will
you have killed her; and if you have miffed her, leave deftroy as many mole-hills in one day as a common la-
open the hole and ftep afide a little, and* perhaps (he bourer can in eight, and would be of very great ad-
will come to ftop the hole again, for they love but vantage to the kingdom if brought into general ufe.
very little air ; and then ftrike her again ; but if you It is to be obferved, that this leaving a naked fpace in
mifs her, pour into the hole two gallons of water, and the place of every hill, it will be neceffary to go over
that will make her to come out for fear of drown- the land and fow them with hay feed, otherwife thefe
ing: mind them going out of a morning to feed, or fpots will want the produce of grafs the firft years,
coming home when fed, and you may take a great The farmers in fome parts of England are not willing
many. to deftroy the mole-hills, but let them Hand from year
Mole, in midwifery, a mafs of fleftiy matter, of a to year, fuppofing that they get fome ground by
fpherical figure, generated in the uterus, and fometimes them, but the advantage by this means is fo little, that
miltaken for a child. See Midwifery. it does not balance the unfightlinefs and damage to
Mole, or Mark. See N^vus. the mowing.
Mole, in architcfture, a maflive work formed of MOLES WORTH (Robert), Vifcount Molefvvorth,
large (tones laid in the fea by means of coffer dams, an eminent ftatefman and polite writer, born at Dub-
extended either in a right line or an arch of a circle, lin in 1656, where his father was a merchifht. He
before a port, which it ferves to clofe ; to defend the was attainted by King James for bis activity on the
veffels in it from the impetuofity of the waves, and to prince of Orange’s invafion; but the latter, when he w^s
prevent the paffage of (hips without leave. Thus we fettled on the throne, called up Mr Molefworth into
fay the mole of .the harbour of Medina, &c. the privy-council, and fent him envoy-extraordinary
Mole is fometimes alfo ufed to fignify the harbour to the court of Denmark. Here he refided above
itfelf. three years, and then returned upon fome difguft, with-
Molf, (moles,) among the Romans, was alfo ufed out an audience of leave. Upon his return, he drew
for a kind of maufoleum, built in manner of a round up his Account of Denmark, a work well known, in
tower on a fquare bafe, infulate, encompaffed with which he reprefented that government as arbitrary ;
column , and covered with a dome.—The mole of the and hence gave great offence to George prince of Den-
emperor Adrian, now the caftle of St Angelo, was mark. The Danifti envoy prefented a memorial to
the greateft and moft (lately of all the moles. It was King William concerning it; and then furniftied ma-
crowned with a brazen pine apple, wherein was a terials for an anfwer, which was executed by Dr Wil-
golden urn containing the afhes of the emperor. liam King. Mr Molefworth was member of the houfes
Mole Cricket, in zoology. See Gryllotalpa. of commons in both kingdoms: King George I. made
Mole-HUIs. Thefe little hillock* of earth are a him a commiflioner of trade and plantations, and ad-
very great prejudice to the pafture land*, not only in vanced him to the peerage of Ireland, by the title
wafting fo much of the land as they cover, but in of Baron Philifcflo'wn, and Vijcount Molefworth of
Swords,
MOL [ 203 ] MOL
Mollerc Swords. He died in 1725. Befides his Account of
II Denmark, he wrote an addrefs to the houfe of com-
^ohnifts. mons, for the encouragement of agriculture; and trank
I tted Franco Gallia, a Latin treatife of the civilian
Hottoman, giving an account of the free date of
France, and other parts of Europe, befove the en¬
croachments made on their liberties.
MOL1ERE (John Baptift), a famous French co*
median, whofe true name was Pocque!int which for
fome reafon or other he funk for that of Moliere He
was the fon of a valet de chambre, and was born at
Paris about the year 1620. He went through the
ftudy of the clafllcs under the Jefuits in the college of
Clermont, and was defigned for the bar 5 but at his
quitting the law-fchools, he made choice of the aftor’s
profeflion. From the prodigious fondnefs he had for
the drama, his whole ftudy and application being di-
fefted to the ftage* he continued till his death to ex¬
hibit plays, which were greatly applauded. It is faid
the firft motiye of his going upon the ftage was to en¬
joy the company of an aftrefs for whom he had con¬
tracted a violent fondnefs. His comedies are highly
clteemed. And it is no wonder he fo juftly reprefent-
ed domeftic feuds, and the torrhents of jealous huf-
bands, or of thofe who have reafon to be fo, it being
afferted that no man ever experienced all this more
than Moliere, who was very unhappy in his wife. His
laft comedy was La Malade irnaginaire^ which was
brought on the ftage in 16,73 1 an^ Moliere died on
the fourth night of its reprefentation ; fortle fay in ac¬
ting the very part of the pretended dead man, which
gave fome exercife for the wits of the time ; but ac¬
cording to others he died in his bed that night, from
the burfting of a vein in his lungs by coughing. The
king, as a laft mark of his favour, prevailed with the
archbifhop of Paris to fuffer him to be buried in con-
fecrated ground ; though he had irritated the clergy
by his Tartuff. The mo(l efteemed editions of his
works are that of Amfterdam, 5 vols 1 2mo, 16995
and that of Paris, 6 vols 4to, 1734.
MOLINA (Lewis), a Spaniih lawyer, who was
employed by Philip II. king of Spain in the councils
of the Indies and of Caftile. He is the author of a
learned treatife Concerning the entails of the ancient
tftates of the Spanifh nobility, entitled, De Hifpano-
rum Primogeniiornm Origins et Natura, publifhed in 1603,
in folio. This book is likew ife applicable to feveral
provinces in France. Lewis Molina muft not be con¬
founded with John Molina, a Spanifh hiltorian, author
of Cronica antiqua d’ Aragon^ publifhed in 13 24, in
folio ; and alfo of De las Cafas memorables d’Ejpagnn,
in folio. The firft work appeared at Valencia, and
the fecond atlAlcala.
MOLIVjEUS. See Moulin,
MOLINISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feft in
the Romifh church, who follow the doftrine and fen-
timents of the Jefuit Molina, relating to fufficient and
efficacious grace. He taught that the operations of
divine grace were entirely^ eonfiftent with the freedom of
human will; and he introduced a new kind of hypo-
thefis to remove the difficulties attending the do&rines
of predeftination and liberty, and to reconcile the jar¬
ring opini®ns of Auguftines, 1 homifts, Semi-Pela¬
gians, and other contentious divines. He affirmed,
that the decree of predeftination to eternal glory was
S
founded upon a previous knowledge and confideratiotl Mol!no*
of the merits of the eledl 5 that the grace, from whofe
operation thefe merits are derived, is not efficacious by 01 'y<
its own intrinfic power only, but alfo by the confent
of our own will, and becaufe it is adminiftered in thofe
circumftances, in which the Deity, by that branch of
his knowledge which is ca led fcientia media, forefees
that it will be efficacious. The kind of prefcience,
denominated in the fchoels fcientia media, is that fore¬
knowledge of future contingents that arifc-s from art
acquaintance with the hature and faculties of rational
beings, of the circumftances in which they lhall be*
placed, of the objedls that (hall be prefented to them,
and of the influence which their circumftances and>ob-
jefts muft have on their actions.
MOLINOS (Michael), a Spanifh prieft, who en¬
deavoured to fpread new dodtrines in Italy. He was
born in thediocefeof Saragofla in 1627 5 and entered
into prieft’s orders, though he never held any ecclefia¬
ftical benefice. He was a man of good fenfe an! learn¬
ing, and his life was examplary ; though, iaftead of*
pra&ifing aufterities, he gave himfelf up to contempla¬
tion and myfticai devotion. He wrote a book intitled,
II Guida Spirituals, containing his peculiar notions*
which was greedily read both in Italy and Spain Hisi
followers are called fhiietijls } becaufe his chief prin¬
ciple was, that men ought to annihilate themfelves in
order to be united to God, and afterwards remain in
quietnefs of mind, without being troubled for what
fhall happen to the body. He was taken up in 16875
and his 68 propofitions were examined by the pope
and inquifitors, who decreed that his doctrine was falfe
and pernicious, and that his books fliould be burned.
He was forced to recant his errors publicly in the Do¬
minicans church, and was condemned to perpetual
imprifonment. He was 60 years old when he was ta¬
ken, and had been fpreading his dodtrine 22 years be¬
fore He died in prifon in 1692.
MOLINOSISTS, a fe£t among the Romanifts,
who adhere to the doctrine of Molinos. Thefe are
the fame with what are otherwife called £>nielijls.
MOLLOY (Charles, Efq ;), defcended from a
good family in the kingdom of Ireland, was born in
the city of Dublin, and received part of his education
at Trinity college there, of which he afterwards be¬
came a fellow. At 'his firft coming to England he
entered himfelf of the Middle Temple, and was fup-
pofed to have had a very confiderable hand in the writ¬
ing of a periodical paper called “ Fog's Journal;” as
alfo fince that time to have been almolt the foie author
of another well-known paper, intitled “ Common
Senfe.” All thefe papers give teftimony of ftrong
abilities, great depth of underftanding, and clearnefs
of reafoning. Dr King was a confiderable writer in
the latter, as were lords Chefterfield and Lyttleton.
Our author had large offers made him to write in de¬
fence of Sir Richard Walpole, but thefe he rejected &
notwithftanding which, at the great change in the
miniftry in 1742, he was entirely negle&ed, as well
as his fellow labourer Amherft, who condudtcd “The
Craftfman.” Mr Molloy, however, having married
a lady of fortune, was in circumftances which enabled
him to treat the ingratitude of his patriotic friends
with the contempt it deferved. He lived many years
after this period, dying fo lately as July 16. 1767.
C c a H<*
MOL
r 204 i
M O L
Molhigo He alfo wrote three dramatic pieces, viz. The per- well known that human facrifices were offered. Others Mstofles.
tl plexed Couple; The Coquet; and, The Half-pay fuppofe him to be Mercury; others. Mars ; others, Mi-
, Moloch. Of(iCers. none 0f which met with much fuccefs. thras ; and others, Venus. Laftly, others take Moloch
‘ ' * MOLLUGO, African chickweeo: A genus to be the fun, or the king of heaven. Moloch was
of the ti igynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs likewife called Milkom ; as appears from what is faid
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under of Solomon, that he went after Alhtaroth the abomi-
the 22d order, Caryopbyllei. The calyx is pentaphyl- nation of the Zidonians, and Milkom the abomination.
Ions-; there is no corolla ; the capfule is trilocular, of the Ammonites.
and tiivalved. Its characters are thefe : The empale- MOLOSSES, Molasses, or that grofs
ment of the flower is compofed of five oblong fmall fluid matter remaining of fugar after refining, and
leaves, coloured on their infides, and permanent; the which no boiling will bring to a conflitence more-
flower has five oval petals ftiorter than the empalement; folid than that of fyrup ; hence alfo called fyrup of
and three briftly (lamina, which (land near the ftyle, fugar.
terminated by fingle fummits; it has an oval germen, Properly, mo’offes are .only the fediment of one
having three furrows, fupporting three very (hort ftyles:
the germen becomes an oval capfule with three cells,
filled with fmall kidney-lhaped feeds. There are feve-
ral fpecies, few of which are admitted into gardens.
Miller reckons two and Linnaeus five fpecies. This
plant is faid to have an aperitive virtue.
MOLUSCA, in the Linnaean fyftem, is the deno¬
mination of the fecond genus of vermes or worms.
Thefe are Ample naked animals, not included in a (hell,
but furniflied with limbs, and comprehend eighteen
fubordinate genera, and one hundred and ten fpecies.
MOLO, a philofopher of Rhodes, called alfo Apol¬
lonius. Some are of opinion that Apollonius and
Molo are two different perfona, who were both natives
of Alabanda, and difciples of Menecles of the fame
place. They both vifited Rhodes, and there opened
a fchool; but Molo came fome time after Apollonius.
Molo had Cicero and J. Csefar among his pupils.
MOLOCH, a'falfe god of the Ammonites, who
dedicated their children to him, by making them “ pafs
through the fire,” as the feriptures exprefs it. There
are various opinions concerning this method of confe-
kind of fugar called chypre, or brown fugar, which is
the refufe of other fugars not to be whitened or redu¬
ced into loaves.
Moloffes are much ufed in Holland for the pre
paration of tobacco, and alfo among* poor people in-
Head of fugar. There is a kind of brandy or fpirit
made of moloffes; but by fome held exceedingly un-
wholefome. See below.
ylrtificial Molosses. There has been found a
thod of making moloffes from apples without the ad-
dition of fugar. The apple that fucceeds beft in this
operation is a fummer fweeting of a middle fize, plea-
fant to the tafte, and fo full of juice that feven bulhels
will yield a barrel of cyder.
The manner of making it is this: the apple# are to
be ground and preffed, then the juice is to be boiled
in a large copper, till three quarters of it be evapora¬
ted : this will be done with a moderate fire in about fix.
hours, with the quantity of juice above mentioned j
by this time it will be of the confiftence and talte as
well as of the colour of moloffes.
This new moloffes ferves to all the purpofes of the
eration. Some think, the children leaped over a fire common kind, and is of great ufe in preferving cyder.
facred to Moloch ; others, that they patted between
two fires ; and others, that they were really burnt in
the fire, by way of facrifice to this god There is foun¬
dation for each of thefe opinions. For, firft, it was
ufual among the pagans to luftrate or purify with fire;
and, in the next place, it is exprefsly faid, that the in¬
habitants of Sepharvaim burnt their children in the fire
to Anameleeh and Adramelech ; much fuch deities as
Moloch of the Ammonites.
Mofes, in feveral places, forbids the Ifraelites to de¬
dicate their children to this god as the Ammonites
did, and threatens death and utter extirpation to fuch
perfons as were guilty of this abominable idolatry.
And there is great probability that the Hebrews were
much addi&ed to the worfhip of this deity ; fince A-
mos, and after him St Stephen, reproaches them with
having parried along with them into the wildernefs the
tabernacle of their god Moloch.
Solomon built a temple to Moloch upon the mount
of Olives ; and Manaffeh, a long time after, imitated
his impiety, by making his fon pafs through the fire
in honour of Moloch. It was chiefly in the valley of
Tophet and Hinnom., to the call of Jerufalem, that the
Ifraelites paid their idolatrous worihip to this falfe god
of the Ammonites.
There are various fentimerits concerning the relation
which Moloch had to the other pagan divinities. Some
believe he was the fame with Saturn, to whom it is
Two quarts of it, put into a barrel of racked cyder,
will preferve it, and give it an agreeable colour.
The invention of this kind of moloffes was owing
to Mr Chandler of Woodftock in New England, who
living at a diftance from the fea, and where the com¬
mon molaffes was very dear and fcarce, provided this
for the fupply of his own family, and foon made the
praftice among people of the neighbourhood; It is
to be obferved, that this fort of apple, the fweeting, is
of great ufe in making cyder, one of the very heft
kinds we know being made of it. The people in New
England alfo feed their hogs with the fallings of their
orchards of thefe apples; and the confequence of this
is, that their pork is the finett in the world.
Molosses Spirit; a very clean and pure fpirit, much
ufed in England, and made from molofles or common
treacle difiblved in water, and fermented in the fame
manner as malt or the common malt fpirit. See Di¬
stillation, n° 10.
Molofles fpirit coming dearer than that of malt, it
is frequently met with bafely adulterated with a mix¬
ture of that fpirit, and indeed feldom is to be bought
without fome daflr of it. Many have a way of mixing
malt in the fermenting liquor ; by this the yield of
the whole is greatly increafed, and the maker may
affure the buyer that the fpirit is pure as it ran from
the worm.
In moft of the nice cafes in our compound diftil-
J Mi
MOL [ 205 ] MOL
Molofii lery, the moloflea fpirit fupplies the place of a pure
and clean fpirit. Our cinnamon, citron, and other
‘ fine cordial waters, are made with it; for the malt
fpirit would impart to thefe a very difagreeable fla¬
vour.
Molofles fpirit gives a yellow ftain to the hands or
other fubftanees dipped into it; and may therefore
be of ufe in dyeing. It is poffible alfo that the vine- •
gar-makers may find ufe for it in their way ; but the
moft advantageous of all its ufes is to thediftiller him-
felf; a quantity of it added to new treacle intended for
fermentation will be of great ufe in *he procefs, and
increafe very confiderably the quantity of fpirit; but
the proportion in regard to the new matter muft not
be too great.
MOLOSSI, a people of Epirus, who inhabited
that part of the country which was cdMcA MoloJJia or
Molcffus, from king Moloffus, a fon of Pyrrhus and
Andromache. This country had the bay of Am-
bracia on the fouth, and the country of the Perrhae-
beans on the eafl. The dogs of the place were fa¬
mous, and received the name of MoloJJi among the
Romans. Dodona was the capital of the country, ac¬
cording to fome writers. Others, however, reckon it
as the chief city of Thefprotia.
MOLOSSUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
foot confifting of three long fyllables. As audiri,
cantabant, virtutem.
It takes its name either from a dance in ufe among
the people called MoloJJi or Epirota; or from the
temple of Jupiter Moloffus, where odes were fung, in
which this foot had a great ftiare ; or elfe becaufe the
march of the Moloffi, when they went to the combat,
was compofed of thefe feet, or had the cadence there¬
of. The fame foot was alfo called among the an¬
cients, Vertumnus, extenfipes, hippius, isf canius.
MOLSA (Francis Maria), an eminent poet of the
16th century, was born at Modena. He gained fo
prodigious a reputation by his Latin and Italian poe¬
try, that, as Paul Jovius tells us, rt for 30 years to¬
gether the patrons of wit at Rome ftrove to promote
him.” If he had behaved with the leaft prudence,
he might eafily have raifed himfelf to confiderable
preferments and fortunes in the world ; but he ma¬
naged fo ill that it was not poffible to ferve him.—
He was entirely debauched, and at the fame time de¬
void of all prudence and decency in the management
of his pleafures. Hence he deftroyed his reputation,
and put an abfolute Hop to the progrefs of his for¬
tunes. He died, in 1544, °f the French difeafe.
Molfa was a great orator as well as a great poet.
He met once with a favourable opportunity of dif-
playing his talent this way; for having feen the people
of Rome highly incenfed -again!! Lorenzo de Medi-
cis, who had ftruck off the heads of a great number
of ancient ftatues, he accufed him of that aftion, and
(according to Paul Jovius) made fo lively an oration
upon it, that he perfeclly overwhelmed him with con-
fufion and defpair : and it was generally believed that
Lorenzo de Medici's was fo confounded at the infa¬
my with which he was branded in that oration, that,,
in order to efface it, he refolved to reftore the city
of Florence to its liberty, by affafiinating Alexander
de Medici's his near relation, which he didin 1537.
Molsa (Tarquinia), daughter of Camillo Molfa,
knight of the order of St James of Spain, and grand- Moiucilla
daughter of Francis Maria Molfa, was one of the
moft accomplifhed ladies that ever appeared in the 0^cca*f
world ; wit, learning, beauty, and virtue, ali uniting
in her in a moft extraordinary degree. Her father
obferving, while !he was yet very young, the good-
nefs and excellence of her genius, procured her the
beft mafters in every branch of literature and fcience.
Lazaro Labadini, a celebrated grammarian of thofe
times, taught her polite literature ; and her Latin
compofitions in profe and verfe flrow that !he attained
the art of writing well, and compofing correctly. She
became learned in Ariftotle under Camillo Corcapani;
Anthony Guarini the mathematician taught her the
doftrine of the fphere; fhe learned poetry under
Francis Patricius the famous philofopher ; and logic
and philofophy under P. Latoni, who alfo inftrutted
her thoroughly in the Greek tongue. The rabbi
Abraham taught her the principles of the Hebrew
language ; and John Marier Barbier formed her in the
politenefs of the Tufcan tongue ; in which !he has not
only written a great number of eafy and elegant
verfes, but likewife feveral letters and other pieces
which are in high efteem With the polite and learned
in Italy. Befides her original works, fhe has tranf-
lated feveral things from Greek and Latin in a man¬
ner which fliows her to have underftood thofe
lauguages as well as her own. Afterwards !he learn¬
ed mufic, as a relaxation and diverfion from her more
ferious ftudies ; and in'this art !he attained the high-
eft degree of perfe&ion. She ufed to play upon the
violin as well as upon the lute, and fing to it at the
fame time in fo exquifite a tafte as charmed every
hearer; and Ihe inftituted at length a choir of ladies,
over which fhe herfelf ufed to prefide. This lady
was in high reputation at the court of Alphonfus II.
duke of Ferraia, a prince of great judgment, and a
paffionate lover of every thing that was elegant; and
we are told, that he flood raviftied with admiration
upon finding fo many more accompliftiments than he
had been taught to expe<St in her. But the moft au- -
thentic teftimony and declaration of her high merit
and chara&er, was that which !he received from the
city of Rome ; which, by a decree of the fenate, in
which all her excellences and qualifications are fet
forth, honoured her with the title of Singular, and
beftowed the rights of a Roman citizen upon her
and the whole family of Molfa. Molfa was married
but lofing her hufband without having any children,
would never confent to be married again, although
!he was very young. She gave fuch lively tokens of .
her grief, that Patrieius compares her to another Ar-
temifia.
MOLUCILLA, in botany : A genus of the gym-
nofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia dafs oT
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
426 order, Verticillat*. The calyx is campanulated,..
gradually widening larger than the corolla, and fpi-
nous.
MOLTEN-grease, in farriery. See there $ xxii.
MOLUCCA islands, lie in the Eaft Indian fea
under the line; of which there are five principal, name¬
ly, Ternate, Tydor, Machian, Motyr, and Bachian.
The large!! of them is hardly 30 miles in circumfe¬
rence. They produce neither com, rice, nor cattle,
except.
MOL [ 206 ] MOL
•Molivit* except goats : but they have oranges, lemons, and Molybdena Is found fometimes alongft with tIn-ore3 Mol)kli*
MI{ , other fruits; and are moll remarkable for fpices, efpe- and Iron-ores, that are attrafted by the magnet, a- h
den». ciaily cloves. They have large fnakes, which are not mong copperifh pyrites ; and alfo with wolfram, in Molynemo
v—-y—) venomous, and very dangerous land crocodiles. At Saxony, Iceland, Sweden, France, Spain, &c.
prefent they have three kings; and the Dutch, who MOLYBDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
* are very ftrong there, keep out all other European na- genus of cryftals of a cubic form, or compofed of fix
tions, being jealous of their fpice-trade. The religion frdes, at right angles, like a dye.
is idolatry ; but there are many Mahometans They MOLYN (Peter), called ‘Tempejla and Pietro Mu-
were difcovered by the Portuguefe in 1511, who fet- Her, an eminent painter, was bom at Haerlem
tied upon the coalt; but the Dutch drove them away, in 1637. According to fome authors, he was the
and are now mafters of all thefe iflands. difciple of Snyders, whofe manner of painting he
MOLWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the province of
Grotlka, remarkable for a battle gained by the Pruf-
fians over the Auftrians in 1-741. E. Long. 16. 45.
N. Lat. <co. 26.
MOLY. The name of this plant is rendered fa¬
mous by Homer ; and hence has been much inquired
firft imitated. But his genius led him to the
lludy of difmal fubje&s; and he fo far excelled in
painting tempefts, itorms at fea, and Ihipwrecks, that
he was called by way of diilinftion Tempejla. His
pi&ures are very rare, and held in the greateft efti-
mation. The name of Pietro Mulier, or de Mulieri-
into, as to its true fenfe, by tfie botanifts of almolt all bus, was given him on account of having caufed his
times. The old interpreters of Homer explain this wife to be affaffinated, in order to marry a young lady
word by the “ wild rue ;” and the only reafon for of Genoa with whom he was in love. But this vil-
this is, that at fome time, probably long after the lanous tranfa&ion being difcovered, he was feized, im-
days of Homer, the people of Cappadocia called the prifoned, and capitally condemned. However, the
wild rue moly. But this plant is wholly different from greatnefs of his merit as an artill occafioned a miti-
the moly of Homer, which Theophfaftus affirms gation of the fentence; but he was ftill detained in
grew in his time in Arcadia in great plenty, and had prifon, where he diligently followed his profeffion,
a round bulbous root like an onion, and long and and would have continued there in all probability for
graffy leaves like the fquill. On the whole, the moly life, had he not met with an opportunity of efcaping
of Homer feems to have been a fpecies of allium or to Placentia, at the time Louis XIV. bombarded*the
garlic. city of Genoa, after he had been in confinement 16
MOLYBDENA, in chemiflry, a mineral often
confounded with plumbago or black lead, but pof-
feffed of different properties. It is compofed of fcaly
years. To this artift are attributed feveral very neat
prints, executed with the graver only, in a flyle great¬
ly refembling that of John Vander Velde. They
laminae of various magnitudes, fcarcely adhering to confift chiefly of candle-light pieces and dark fub-
each other; fomewhat greafy to the touch, foiling the je&s. fyl. Heinekin mentions Peter Molyn the elder,
fingers, and leaving traces on paper of a blackifh grey who was a native of Holland, and a painter ; but not
colour. In powder it is of a bluifh colour. fo eminent as Tempefta. Some fuppofe the prints
“ Perfect molybdena (fays Mr Fourcroy) flightly above mentioned ought to be afcribed to the latter ;
detonates with nitre ; the refidue contains molybdena, as, though very neatly executed, they are laboured
tartar, and calx of iron. From the experiments of heavy performances, and not equal in any degree to
Mr Scheele, molybdena appears to confift of a pecu- what one might expedl from the hand of an artilt of
liar combuftible matter and iron. The nature of the fo much repute as Tempefta.
combuftible matter is not yet perfe&ly known. Mr MOLYNEUX (William), an excellent mathema-
Hielm, a difciple of the celebrated Bergman, appears tician and aftronomer, was born at Dublin in 1656,
to have fucceeded in converting it into a regulus. Mr and admitted into the univerfity ef that city ; which
Pelletier affirms, that he has had the fame fuccefs ;
but the properties of this new metal have not yet been
examined. The molybdenic acid appears to be a me¬
tallic one. Its weight, its ftyptic and auftere tafte,
its dry and pulverulent form, its fufibility, infolubi-
when he left, he carried with him a teftimonial drawn
up in an uncommon form, and in the ftrongeft terms,
fignifying the high opinion conceived of his genius,
the probity of his manners, and the remarkable pro-
grefs he had made in letters. In 1675, he entered in
lity, the colour it affumesby action ef flame and com- the middle-temple, where he fpent three years in the
buftible matters, its precipitation by nut-galls and ftudy of the laws of his country ; but the bent of his
the acid of Pruffian blue, Ihow that it is fomewhat genius lay ftrongly toward mathematics and philofo-
fimilar to the arfenical acid. This fubftance is fo phical ftudies; and even at the univerfity he conceived
rare in France, that no chemift except M- Pelletier a diflike to fcholaftic learning, and fell into the me-
has had an opportunity of making a regular feries of thods of Lord Bacon. Returning to Ireland in June
experiments upon it. It is greatly to be wiffied that 1678, he fhortly after married Lucy the daughter of
they fhould be continued, efpecially with a view of Sir William Domvile the king's attorney-general.
deciding whether the molybdenic acid be truly diffe¬
rent from all others ; for I cannot avoid thinking,
notwithftanding its peculiar characters, that a fub-
ilancc which does not become acjd but by the affift-
ance of 30 parts of weak nitrous acid, and .is with fo
much difficulty brought to aflume the faline ftate,
ought not to be confidered as an acid truly peculiar.,>
Sec Chemistk.¥-/«*&*,• and Mimejulogy, p. 134.
Being mafter of an eafy fortune, he continued to in¬
dulge himfelf in profecuting fuch branches of natural
and experimental philofophy as were moft agreeable
to his fancy ; wherein aftronomy having the greateft
fliare, he began, about 1681, a literary correfpondence
with Flamftead the king’s aftronomer, which he kept
up for feveral years. In 1683, he formed a defign of
erefting a philofophical fociety at Dublin, in imita-
tioa
MOL [ 207 ] MOM
Molyneux. tion of the Royal Society at London ; and, by the
w~v—... countenance and encouragement of Sir William Pet-
ty, who accepted the office of prefident, they began
a weekly meeting that year, when our author was
appointed their firft fecretary.
Mr Molyneux’s reputation for learning recom¬
mended him, in 1684, to the notice and favour of the
firft and great duke of Ormond, then loVd-lieutenant
of Ireland ; and chiefly by his grace’s influence he was
appointed, that year, with Sir William Robinfon, fur-
veyor general j)f his majefty’s buildings and works,
and chief engineer. In 1686, he was fent abroad by
the government to view the moft confiderable fortrefles
in Flanders. He travelled, in company with Lord
Mountjoy, through that country, Holland, part of
Germany, and. France. Upon his return from Paris
to London, in April 1680, he publifhed his Sciothrri-
cum Telefcopium, containing a defcription of the ftruc-
ture and ufe of a telefcopial dial invented by him. The
feverities of Tyrconnel’s government forced him, with
many others, into England, where he fpent two years
with his family, his place of refidence being at Che-
fter. In this retirement he wrote his Dioptrics, de¬
dicated to the Royal Society. Here he loft his lady,
who died foon after fhe had brought him a fon. lll-
nefs had deprived her of her eye-fight 12 years before,
that is, foon after fire was married ; from which time
fhe had been very fickly, and afflicted with extreme
pains of the head. As foon as the public tranquillity
was fettled in his native country, he returned home ;
and, upon the convening of a new parliament in 1692,
was chofen one of the reprefentatives f<ir the city of
Dublin. In the next parliament, in 1695, he was chofen
to reprefent the univerfity there, and continued to
do fo to the end of his life ; that learned body ha¬
ving, before the end of the firft feffion of the former,
conferred on him the degree of dodtor of laws. He
was likewife nominated by the lord-lieutenant one of
the commiffioners for the forfeited eftates, to which
employment was annexed a falary of 500I. a-year ;
but looking upon it as an invidious office, he declined
it. In 1698, he publiflred “ The Cafe of Ireland
ftated, in relation to its being bound by Ads of Par¬
liament made in England in which he is fnppofed
to have delivered all, or mod, that can be faid upon
this fubjeft, with great clearnefs and ftrength of rea-
foning. Among many perfons with whom he main¬
tained correfpondence and friendlhip, Mr Locke was
in a particular manner dear to him, as appears from
their letters. In the above year, which was the laft
of his life, he made a journey to England, on pur-
pofe to pay a vifit to that great man; and not long
after his return to Ireland was feized with a fit of the
flene, of which died. Befides the works already men¬
tioned, he publiffied feveral pieces in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions.
Molyneux (Samuel), fon of the former, was born
at Chefter in Jffly J689 ; and educated with great
care by his father, according to the plan laid down
by Locke upon that fubjed When his father died,
he fell under the management of his uncle, Dr Tho¬
mas Molyneux, an excellent fcho.ar and phyfician at
Dublin, and alfo an intimate friend of Mr Locke ;
who executed his trull fo well, that , r Molyneux
became afterwards a moft polite and accomplilhed
gentleman, and was made fecretary to lps late majefty Momb
when he was prince of Wales. Aftvonomy being his M ^1(
favourite (indy, as it had been his father’s, he projec- jjLa_
ted many fchemes for the advancement of it, and was -—r~
particularly employed in the years 1723, 1724, and
1725, in perfecting the method of malting telefcopes;
one of which, of his own making, he had prefented
to John V. king of Portugal. In the midll of thefe
thoughts, being appointed a commiffioner of the ad¬
miralty, he became fo engaged in public affairs, that
he had not leifure to purfue thefe enquiries any far¬
ther ; and gave his papers to Dr Robert Smith, pro-
fefl'or of aitronomy at Cambridge, whom he invited
to make ufe of his houfe and apparatus of iniiruments,
in order to finifh what he had left imperfect. Mr
Molyneux dying foon after, Dr Smith loft the op¬
portunity ; yet, fupplying what was wanting from Mr
Huygens and others, he publilhed the whole in his
“ Complete Treatife of Optics.”
MOMBAZA, or Monbaza, a town of Africa, in
an ifland of the fame name, with a caftle and a fort:
feated on the eaftern coaft, oppofite to the country of
Mombaza in Zanguebar, 70 miles fouth of Melinda,
and fubjeCt to Portugal. E. Long. 48. o. N. Lau
44. o.
Mombaza, a country of Africa in Zanguebar, fub-
jedl to the Portuguefe, from whence they export flaves,.
gqld, ivory, rice, flelh, and other provifions, with,
which they fupply the fettlements in Brafil. The king*
of this country being a Chriftian, had a quarrel with
the Portuguefe governor, took the caftle by affaidt,
turned Mahometan, and murdered all the Chriftians,
in 163 1 ; but in 1729 they became mailers of the ter¬
ritory again.
MOMENT, in the do&rine of time, an inftant, or
the moft minute and indivifible part of duration.
MOMENTUM, in* mechanics, fignifies the fame
with impetus, or the quantity of motion in a moving
body ; which is always equal to the quantity of matter
multiplied into the velocity; or, which is the fame
thing, it may be confidered as a re&angle under
the quantity of matter and velocity See Mechanics.
MOMORDICA, male balsam apple: A gen us
of the fyngenefia order, belonging to the monoecia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 34th order, Cueurbhacete. The male calyx is
quinquefid ; the corolla fexpartite ; the filaments are
three in number. The female calyx is trifid; the co¬
rolla quinquepartite ; tbe ftyle trifid ; the fruit is an
apple parting afunder with a fpring. The moft re¬
markable fpecies are, 1. The balfamina, or male bal-
fam apple. This is a native of Afia; and has a
trailing ftalk like thofe of the cucumber or melon,
with fmooth leaves, cut into feveral fegments, and
fpread open like a hand. The fruit is oval, end¬
ing in acute points, having feveral deep angles, with
fharp tubercles placed on their edges. It changes
to a red or purplilh colour when ripe, opening with
an elallicity, and throwing out its feeds., 2. The.
elaterium, wild or fpurting cucumber, has a large
fleffiy root, fomewhat like briony, from whence come
forth every fpring feveral thick, rough, trailing
ftalks, dividing into many branches, and extending
every way two or three feet; thefe are garuifhed with
thick, rough, almoft heart-fliaped leaves, of a grey
colour*.
€
MON l 208 ] MON
Moohw, colour, Handing upon long foot-ftalks. The flowers
M:,ria- come out from the wings of the (talks : thefe are male
and female, growing at different places on the fame
plant like thofe of the common cucumber: but they
are much lefs, of a pale yellow colour, with a greenifh
bottom ; the male flowers (land upon thick, fliort,
foot-ftalkc, but the female flowers fit upon the young
fruit; which, after the flower is faded, grows of an
oval form, an inch and a half long, fwelling like a cu¬
cumber, of a grey colour like the leaves, and covered
over with fliort prickles. This fpecies has one of its
names from the property of calling out its feeds, to-
gether with the vifcid juice in which the feeds are lod¬
ged, with a violent force, if touched while ripe.
Ufes. The firfl fpecies is famouspn Syria for cu¬
ring wounds. The natives cut open the unripe fruit,
and infufe it in fweet oil, which they expofe to the fun
for fome days, until it becomes red; and then prefent
it for ufe. Cropped on cotton, and applied to a frefh
wound, the Syrians reckon this oil the heft vulnerary
next to balfam of Mecca, having found by expe¬
rience that it often cures large wounds in three days.
The leaves and (terns of this plant are ufed for arbours
or bowers. The elaterium of the (hops is the fruit,
-or rather the infpiffated fsecula, of the juice of the un¬
ripe fruit of the wild cucumber. It is ufually fent us
from Spain and the fouthern parts of France, where
the plant is common. We receive it in fmall, flat,
wljitilh lumps, or cakes, that are dry, and break eafily
between the fingers. It is of an acrid, naufeous, bit¬
ter tafte, and has a ftrong offenfive fmell when newly
made; but thefe, as well as its other properties, it
lofes after being kept for fome time. It is a very
violent purge and vomit, and is now but feldom
ufed. Frogs the property which the plant has of
-throwing out its feeds, it has fometimes been called
Noli me tangere.
MOMUS, in fabulous hiftory, the god of raillery,
®r the jefter of the celeltial aflembly, and who ridicu¬
led both gods and men. Being chofen by Vulcan,
Neptune, and Minerva, to give his judgment concern¬
ing their works, he blamed them all: Neptune for not
maki»g his bull with horns before his eyes, in order
that he might give a furer blow ; Minerva for building
an houfe that could not be removed in cafe of bad
neighbours; and Vulcan, for making a man without
a window in his bread, that his treacheries might be
feen. For his free reflections upon the gods, Momus
was driven from heaven. He is generally reprefented
railing a malk from his face, and holding a fmall figure
in his hand.
MONA, two iflands of this name in the fea lying
between Britain and Ireland. The one defcribed by
Csefar, as fituated in the mid-paffage between both
i/hnds, and dretching out in length from fouth to
north. Called Monateda (Ptolemy) ; Monapia, or Mo-
nabia (Pliny). Suppofed to be the Me of Man.—
Another Mona, (Tacitus) ; an ifland more to the
fouth, and of greater breadth ; fituated on the coad of
the Ordovices, from which it is feparated by a narrow
drait. The ancient feat of the Druids. Now called
jinglefey> the ifland of the Angles or Englifh.
Mona, an ifland of the Baltic Sea, fouth-wed of the
ifland of Zealand, fubjeft to Denmark. E. Long.
12. 30. N. Lat. 55. 20.
N°226.
Mona. See Inchcolm.
MONACO, a fmall but handfomeand ftrong town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa, with a cable, cita¬
del, and a good harbour. It is feated on a craggy
rock, and has its own prince, under the prote&ion of
France. E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat. 43. 48.
MONAD, fee Lf.ibnitztan Pbilofophy.
MONADELPHIA, (from ,«<>>©• alone, and
a brotherhood,-) a “ Angle brotherhood:” The name
of the xfith clafs in Linnaeus's fexual fydem, con¬
fiding of plants with hermaphrodite flowers ; in which
all the damina, or male organs of generation, are
united below into one body or cylinder, through
which pafles the pointal or female organ. See Bo¬
tany, p. 437.
MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland, fituated in
the province of Ulder, is bounded by .Tyrone on the
north, Armagh on the ead, Cavan and Louth on the
fouth, and Fermanagh on the web. It is a boggy and
mountainous trad, but in fome places is well im¬
proved. It contains 170,090 Irilh plantation acres, 24
pariflies, five baronies, and one borough, and fends
four members to parliament. It is about 30 miles
long and 22 broad. The linen trade of this county is
averaged at L. 104,000 yearly.
Monaghan, a pod, fair, and market town, and
chief of the county of that name, is didant 62 miles
from Dublin ; it is a borough, and returns two mem¬
bers to parliament; patron Lord Clermont. It gives
title of baron to the family of Blayney, and has fix
fairs. It was anciently called Muinechan. An abbey
was founded here in a very early age, of which Moe-
lodius the fon of Aodh was abbot. In 1462, a mo-
nafleiy for conventual Francifcans was eredled on the
fite of this abbey, which was granted on the general
fupprefiion of monaderies to Edward Withe, and a
cable has been fince erected on the fite by Edward
Lord Blayney.
MONAMY (P.), a good painter of fea-pieces, was
born in Jerfey ; and certainly (fays Mr Walpole), from
his circumdances or the views of his family he had
little reafon to expedl the fame he afterwards acquired,
having received his firb rudiments of drawing from a
fign and houfe painter on London-bridge. But when
nature gives real talents they break forth in the home-
lied fchool. The (hallow waves that rolled under his
window taught young Monamy what his mader could
not teach him, and fitted him to imitate the turbulence
of the ocean. In painter’s hall is a large piece by him,
painted in 1726. He died at his houfe in Wedmin-
der the beginning of 1749.
MONANDRIA, (from alone, and “*»*> a
man or hufband:) The name of the firb clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual fydem ; confiding of plants with
hermaphrodite flowers, which have only one damen or
male organ.
MONARCHY, a large date governed by one ; or
a date where the fupreme power is lodged in the hands
of a Angle perfon. The word comes from the Greek
noia.px»f, “ one who governs alone formed of .«9»or,
joins, and *?xn imperium, “ government.” Of the three
forms of government, viz. democracy, aridocracy,
and monarchy, the lad is the mod powerful, all
the finews of government being knit together, and
united in the hand of the prince ; but then there is
imminent
Mouses
11
Mona'-chyw
M O N [ Sep 1 MON
"lylonarehy, imminent danger of his employing tiiat ftrength to
Improvident or oppreflive purpofes. As a democracy
’is the beft calculated to direct the end of a law, and
an ariftocracy to invent the means by which that end
•fhnll be obtained, a monarchy is moil fit for carrying
*hofe means into execution.
The moft ancient monarchy was that of the AfTy-
rians, which Vas founded foon after the deluge. We
•ufually reckon four grand or univerfal monarchies ; the
Aflyrian, Perfian, Grecian, and Roman; though St
Auguftine makes them but two, viz. thofe of Baby¬
lon and Rome* Belus is placed at the head of the
feries of Afiyrian kings who reigned at Babylon, and
is by profane authors efteemed the founder of it, and
by fome the fame whom the fcriptures call Nimrod.
The principal Aflyrian kings after Belus were Niiius,
who built Nineveh, and removed the feat of empire to
it; Semiramis, who, difguifing her fex, took ■poflef-
fion of the kingdom inftead of her fon, and was kill¬
ed and fucceeded by her fon Ninyas ; and Sardanapa-
, lus, the laij: of the Affyrian monarchs, and more ef¬
feminate than a woman. After his death the Affyrian
empire was fplit into three feparate kingdoms, viz. the
Median, Affyrian, and Babylonian. The firft king of
the Median kingdom was Arbaces ; and this kingdom
-Jailed till the time of Aftyages, who was fubdued and
divefted of his kingdom by Cyrus.
In the time of Cyrus there arofe a new and fecond
monarchy called the Perfian, which Hood upwards of
200 years from Cyrus, whofe reign began A. M. 3468,
to Darius Codomanpjps, who was conquered by Alex¬
ander, and the empire tranflated to the Greeks A. M.
3674.—The firft monarch was Cyrus, founder of
the empire. 2. Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus. 3. Smer-
dis. 4. Darius, the fon of Hyftafpis, who reigned
521 years before Chrift. 5. Xerxes, who reigned 485
years before Chrift. 6. Artaxerxes Longimanus, who
reigned 464 years before Chrift. 7. Xerxes the fe¬
cond. 8. Ochus, or Darius, called Nothus, 424
years before Chrift. 9. Artaxerxes Mnemon, 405
years before Chrift. 10. Artaxerxes Ochus, 359 years
before Chrift. 11. Arfes, 338 years before Chrift.
12. Darius Codomannus, 33d years before Chrift,
who was defeated by Alexander the Great, and de¬
prived of his kingdom and life about 331 years before
Chrift: the dominion of Perfia after his death was
tranflated to the Greeks.
The third monarchy was the Grecian. As Alex¬
ander, when he died, did not declare who Ihould
fucceed him, there ftartcd up as many kings as
there were commanders. At firft they governed
the provinces that were divided among them un¬
der the title of viceroys ; but > when the family of
Alexander the Great was extindl, they took upon
them the name of kings. Hence, in procefs of time,
the whole empire of Alexander produced four diftinft
kingdoms, viz. 1. The Macedonian ; the kings of
which, after Alexander, were Antipater, Caflander,
Demetrius Poliorcetes, Seleucus Nicanor, Meleager,
Antigonus Dofon, Philip, and Perfeus, under whom
the Macedonian kingdom was reduced to the form of
a Roman province. 2. The Afiatic kingdom, which
upon the death of Alexander fell to Antigonus, com¬
prehending that country now called Natolia, together
with fome other regions beyond Mount Taurus. From
this kingdom proceeded two Idler ones, viz. that of
Vol. XII. Part I.
Pergamus, whofe laft king, Attains, appointed the Ro- Monarchy,
man people to be his heir ; and Pontus, reduced by the Manar(fo.
Romans into the form of a province, when they had v ~ " ^
fubdued the laft king, Mithridates. 3. The Syrian,
of whofe twenty-two kings the moft celebrated were,
Seleucus Nicanor, founder of the kingdom; Antiochus
Deus; Antiochus the Great; Antiochus Epiphanes;
and Tigranes, who was conquered by the Romans
under Pompey and Syria reduced into the form of
a Roman province. 4. The Egyptian, which was
formed by the Greeks in Egypt, and flouriflied near
240 years under 12 kings, the principal of whom were,
Ptolemy Lagus, its founder; Ptolemy Philadelphus,
founder of the Alexandrian library ; and queen Cleo¬
patra, who was overcome by Auguflus, in confe-
queuce of which Egypt was added to the dominion of
the Romans.
The fourth monarchy was the Roman, which
lafted 244 years, from the building of the city until
the time when the royal power was abrogated. The
kings of Rome were,. Romulus, its founder; Numa
Fompilius ; Tullus Hoftilius; Ancus Martius ; Tarqui-
nius Prifcus; Servius Tullius ; and Tarquin the Proud,
who was baniftied, and with whom terminated the
regal power.
There feems in reality no neceffity to make the
Medes, Perfians, and Greeks, fuceeed to the whole
power of the Aflyrians, to multiply the number of
the monarchies. It was the fame empire ftill; and
the feveral changes that happened in it did not confti-
tute different monarchies. Thus the Roman empire
was fucceflively governed by princes of different na¬
tions, yet without any new monarchy being formed
thereby. Rome, therefore, may be faid to have im¬
mediately fucceeded Babylon in the empire of the
world. See Empire.
Of monarchies fome are abfolute and defpotic, where
the will of the monarch is uncontroulable ; others are
limited, where the prince’s authority is reftrained by
laws, and part of the fupreme power lodged in other"
hands, as in Britain. See Government.
Some monarchies again are hereditary, where the
fucceffion devolves immediately from father to fon ;
and others are elective, where, on the death of the
monarch, his fucceffor is appointed by eleftion, as in
Poland.
Fifth-Monarchy Men, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory
of England, were a fet of wrong-headed and turbu¬
lent enthufiafts who arofe in the time of Cromwell, and
who expe&ed Chrift’s fudden appearance upon earth
to eftablifli a new kingdom ; and, afting in confequence
of this illufion, aimed at the fubverfion of all human
government.
MONARDA, Indian horehound, in botany: A
genus of the mo&ogynia order, belonging to the diam-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 4 2d order, VertuihaU. The corolla is
unequal, with the upper lip linear, involving the fila¬
ments ; there are four feeds. The moft remarkable
fpecies is the zeylanica, a native of the Eaft Indies.
It rifes with an herbaceous, four-cornered, hoary ftalk,
and bears leaves that are entire, nearly heart-fhaped,
woolly, deep notched on the edges, and having foot-
ftalks. The flowers, which are purplifh and fragrant,
furround the ftalk in whorls, each whorl containing
about 14 flowers; and are fucceeded by four finall
D d kidney-
MON [ 210 1 MON
Monar&e* kidney-fliaped fhining feeds, lodged in the bottom of
U the permanent flower-cup. The Indians fuperftitioufly
Mnnaftery teljeve that a fumigation of this plant is cffedlual for
dfiving away the devil; and from this imaginary pro-
perty its name in the Ceylonefe language is derived.
Grimmius relates, in his Lqboratorium Ceylorficum, that
for tafte and fmell tins fpecies of horehound hands re¬
markably diftiaguifijed. A water and fubtiie oil are
obtained from it, both of which are greatly commend¬
ed in ohftruftions of the matrix. A fyrup is likewife
prepared from this plant, which is ufeful in the above-
mentioned diforders as well as in difeafes of the fio-
mach.
MONARDES (Nicholas), an excellent Spanirti
phytician of Seville, who lived in the 16th century :
and defervedly acquired great reputation by his prac¬
tical fkill and the books which he wrote. His Spa^
rilh works have been tranHated into Latin by Chw
fius, into Italian by Annibal Brigantus, and thofe
upon American drugs have appeared in Englilh, He
died about the year tjyS-
MONASTEREVAN, a poll town of Ireland, in
the county of Kildare and province of Leinfter, 36
miles from Dublin. This town takes its name from a
magnificent abb.-y wdiich was founded here, in which
St'Evan in the beginning of the 7 th century placed
a number of monks from fouth Munfter, and which
had the privilege of being a fandtuary. St Evan’s fe-
Rival is held on the 22d of December. The confe-
rrated bell, which belonged to this faint, was on fo-
1'emn trials fwQrn upon by the whole tribe of the Eo-
ganachts, and was always committed to the care of
the Mac Evans, hereditary chief juftices of Munfter ;
the abbot of this houfe fat as a baron in pailiament.—
At the general fuppreffion of monafteries, this abbey
was granted to George Lord Audley, who aifigned it
to Adam Loftus, vifeount Ely. It afterwards came
into the family of Moor, earls of Drogheda, and has
been beautifully repaired by the prefent Lord Drog¬
heda, {till wearing the.venerable appearance of an ab¬
bey. There is a nurfery at Monafterevan for the
charter fchools of the province of Leinfter; and the
grand canal has been carried up to this town from
Dublin, fince which it has been much improved and
enlarged with feveral new buildings. It is a market-
town, and alfo holds four fairs in the year.
MONASTERY, a convent or houfe built for the
reception of religious; whether it be abbey, priory,
nunnery, or the like.
Monastery is only properly applied to the houfes
of monks, mendicant friars, and nuns. The reft arc
more properly called religious houfes. For the origin
of monafteries, fee Monastic and Monk.
The houfes belonging to the feveral religious orders
which obtained in England and Wafes were, cathe¬
drals, colleges, abbeys, priories, preceptories, com-
mandries, hofpitals, friaries, hermitages, chantries,
and free chapels. Thefe were under the direftion and
management of various officers. The difiblution of
Houfes of this, kind began fo early as the 1312, when
the Templars were fupprefied ;.and in 1323.their lands,,
churches, advowfous, apd liberties, here in England,
were givenby 17 Ed. II. ft. 3. to the prior and brethren
of, the hofpital, of. S.t lohn at Jerufalem. In the ycaic
I390» '437* 144L M59» *497> 1508, and Monaftery.
1515, feveral other houfes were diflblved, and their ' ",~v  
revenues fettled on different colleges in Oxford and
Cambridge. Soon after the laft period. Cardinal Wol-
fey, by licence of the king and pope, obtained a dif-
folution of above 30 religious houfes for the Founding
and endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipfwich.
About the fame time a bull was granted by the fame
pope to Cardinal Wolfey to fupprefs monafteries, where
there were not above fix monks, to the value of 8c6.>
ducats a-year, for endowing Windfor and King’s Col¬
lege in Cambridge; and two other bulls were granted
to Cardinals Woliey and Campeius, where there werf
kf$ than twelve monks, and to annex them to the
greater monafteries ; arrd another bull to the fame car¬
dinals to inquire about abbeys to be fupprefled in or¬
der to be made cathedrals. Although nothing ap¬
pears to have been done in confequence of thefe bulls,
the motive which induced Wolfey and many others
to fupprefs thefe houfes was the defire of promoting
learning ; and Archbiftiop Cranmer engaged in it with
a view of carrying on the Reformation. There were
other caufes that concurred to bring on their ruin :
many of the religious were loofe and vicious; the
monks were generally thought to be in their hearts
attached to the pope’s fupremaey; their revenues-
were not employed according to the intent of the do-
noss; many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and
counterfeit relics, had been difeovered, which brought
the monks into difgrace ; the Obfervant friars had op-
pofed the king’s divorce from Queen Catherine ; and
thefe circumftances operated, in concurrence with the
king’s want of a fupply and the people’s defire tofave
their money, to forward a motion in parliament, that
in order to fupport the king’s ftate and fupply his
wants, all the religious houfes might be conferred up¬
on the crown which were not able to {pend above
L. 200 a-year ; and an a<ft was pafied for that purpofe
27 Hen. VIII. c. 28. By this aft about 380 houfes
were difiblved, and a revenue of L.30,000 or L.3 2,000
a-year came to the crown ; belides about L.100,000
dn plate and jewels. The fupprefiion of thefe houfes
occafioned difeontent, and at length an open rebel¬
lion :: when this was appealed, the king refolved to
fupprefs the reft of the rnonafterics, and appointed a
new vifitation ; which caufed the greater abbeys to
be furrendered apace; and it was enafted by 31
Hen. VIII. c. 13. that all monafteries, &c. which
Iikyc been furrendered fince the 4th of February, in
the 27th year of his majefty’s reign,, and which here¬
after {hall be furrendered, firall be veiled in the king.
The knights of St John of Jerufalem were alfo fup-
preffed by the 32 Hair. VIII. c. 24. The fuppref¬
iion of thefe greater h*ufes by thefe two afts produ¬
ced a revenue to the king of above L. 100,000 a-year,
befides a large fum in plate and jewels. The laft aft
of diffplution in this king’s reign was the aft of 37
Hen. VIII. c. 4. for diffolving colleges, free chapels,
chantries, See. which aft was farther enforced by
1 Edw. VL c. 14. By this aft were ftipprefl'ed 90
colleges, 1 iq hofpitals,, and 2374 chantries and free
chapels. The number of houfes and places fuppreffed?
from firft to laft, fo far as any calculations aj^ear to
have been made, feems to be as follow ;
MON [2
Of Idler monafteries, of which we have the va-
fuation, - - . 374
Of greater monafteries, - - 186
Belonging to the hofpitallers, - 48
Colleges, . - - 90
Hofpita!*, - * - * 10
Chantries and free chapels, <* 2374
Total 3182
Befides the friars houfes and thole fupprefled by Wol-
fey, and many fmall houfes of which we have no par¬
ticular account.
The fum total of the clear yearly revenue of the
feveral houfes at the time of their diflblution, of which
we have any account, feems tp be as follows :
Of the greater monafteries, L 104,919 13 3!
Of all thofe of the leffer monafteries
of which we have the valuation, 29,702 I lOr
Knights hofpitallers head houfe in
Bondon, - - 2385 12 8
We have the valuation of only 28 of
their houfes in the country, 3026 9 5
Friars houfes of which we have the
valuation, - - 751 2
Total L. 140,7 84 19 3!
If proper allowances are made for the Idler monafte¬
ries and houfes not included in this eftimate, and for
the plate, See. which came into the hands of the king
by the diflblution, and for the value of money at that
time, which was at lead fix times as much as at pre-
lent, and alfo confider that the eftimate of the lands
was generally fuppofed to be much under the real worth,
we muft conclude their whole revenues to have been
immenfe
It does not appear that any computation hath been
made of the number of perfons contained in the re¬
ligious houfes.
Thofe of the leffer monafteries diflblved by
27 Hen.VIli. were reckoned at about 10,000
If we fuppofe the colleges andTofpitals to have
contained a proportionable number, thefe
will make about - - 5347
If we reckon the number in the greater mona¬
fteries, according to the proportion of their
revenues, they will be about 35,000 but
as probably they had larger allowances in
proportion to their* number than thofe of
the lefler monafteries, if we abate upon
that account 5000, they will then be 30,000
One for each chantry and free chapel* 2374
Total 47,721
But as there were probably more than one perfon to
officiate in feveral of the free chapels, and there were
other houfes which are not included within this calcu¬
lation, perhaps they may be computed in one general
eftimate at about 50,000. As there were penlions
paid to almoft all thofe of the greater monaiierics, the
king did not immediately come into the full enjoy¬
ment of their whole revenues : however, by means of
what he did receive, he founded fix new' biftioprics,
viz. thofe of Weftminfter (which was changed by
T^ueen Elifabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends
it ] MON
and a fehool), Peterborough, Chefter, Gloucefter, Monaftk,
Briftol, and Oxford. And in eight other fees he t
founded deaneries and chapters, by converting the Mo»crif-j
priors and monks info deans and prebendaries, viz.
Canterbury, Wincheftef, Durham, Worcefter, Roche¬
lle r, Norwich, Ely, and Carlifle. He founded alfo the
colleges of Chrift-church in Oxford and TrinityinCam-
bridge, and finiflied King’s college there. He like-
wife founded profeflbrfhips of divinity, law, phyfic,
and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues, in both the
faid univeffities. He gave- the houfe of Grey-friars
and St Bartholomew’s hofpital to the city of London,-
and a perpetual penfion to the poof knights ©f Wirid-
for, and laid out great fums in building and fortifying
many ports in the channel It is obfervable, upon
the whole, that the diflblution of thefe houfes was an
adl, not of the church, but of the ftate ; in the pe¬
riod preceding the Reformation, by a king and par¬
liament of the Roman catholic communion in all points
except the king’s fupremacy ; to which the pope hirri-
felf, by his bulls and licences, had led the way.
MONASTIC, fomething belonging to monks, or
the monkifli life. The monadic profefiion is a kind
of civil death, which in all worldly matters has the
fame effedt with the natural death. The council of
Trent, &c. fix fixteen years for the age at which a
perfun may be admitted into the monaftical date.
St Antony is the perfon who, in the fourth cen¬
tury, fifft infti'tuted the monaftic life; as St Pacho-
rhius, in the fame century, is faid to have firft fet on
foot the ccenobitic life, i. e. regular communities of
religious. In a ftiort time the defarts of Egypt be¬
came inhabited with a fet of folitaries, who took up¬
on them the monaftic profeffion. St Bafil carried the
monkifli humour into the eaft, where he compofed a
ruie which afterwards obtained through a great part
of the weft.
In the nth century the monaftic difeipline was
grown very remifs. St Odo firft began to retrieve it
in the rhonaftery of Cluny : that monaftery, by the
conditions of its eredfion, was put under the imme¬
diate protedfion of the holy fee ; with a prohibition
to all powers, both fecular and eCclefiaftical, to difturb
the monks in the poffeflion of their effedfs or the
eledtiori of their abbot In virtue hereof they plead¬
ed an exemption from the jurifdidlion of the bifttop, *
and extended this privilege to all the houfes dependent
on Cluny. This made the firft congregation of fe¬
veral houfes under one chief immediately fubj«fdt to
the pope, fo as <0 conftitute one body, or, as they
now call it, one re/igfoas order. Till then, each mo¬
naftery was independent and fubjedt to the biftiop.
See Moxk. «
MONCAON, or Monzon, a town of Portugal,
in the province of Entre-Douro-de Minho, with a
ftrong caftle. The Spaniards have feveral times at¬
tempted to take it, but in vain. W. Long. 8. 2. N.
Lat 41. 52.
MONCON, or Monzon* a ftrong town of Spain,
in the kingdom of Arragon. It was taken by the
French in 1642, but the Spaniards retook it the
following year. It is feated at the confluence of the
rivers Sofa and Cinca. E. Long. o. 19. N. Lat. 41.43.
MONCRIF (Francois Auguftin Paradis de), ie-
D d 2 cretafy
MON [2]
JVtoncrl, cretary to M. le comte de Clermont, reader to the
^ 1°nd:1, queen, one of the 40 of the French academy, and a
^ member of the academies of Nanci and Berlin, was
born at Paris of refpe&able parents A.D. 1687, and
died there Nov. 12. 1770, aged 83.
j4vec des maurs dignes de Vage (For,
11 fut un am} fur, un auteur agreable ;
11 mourut ineux comme Neftor,
Mah il fut moms lavard et beaucoup plus aimable.
Such was Moncrif. He poffefled an elegant mind, an
engaging perfon, an unceafing defire to pleafe, and a
gentle, equable, and obliging temper. The advantage
of reading in a very fuperior and interefting manner,
of fmging t?nder airs, and of compofing agreeable
couplets, foon procured him a great number of
friends, and many of thefe of the firft rank. He
alked permiffion to accompany a celebrated minifter
who was banilhed in 1757 ; but though fuch diiin-
terefted attachment was highly admired, he .was
only allowed to go every year to exprefs his gra¬
titude to him in his retreat. He was never alhamed
of the poverty of his relations, but afiifted them and
brought them forward by his influence at court. He
had been at firft a fencing-mafter ^ and it is faid that
he forefaw he would be obliged to employ his fword
ia defence of his works. Moft of them needed not
this precaution. The principal are, 1. EJfat fur la
necejftte et furies moyens de plaire, in 12 mo. This produc¬
tion is written in a lively ingenious manner, is full of
excellent maxims, and has gone through many editions.
In the prefent age, a greater lhare of argument would
be expe&ed > but the chief merit of the work is, that,
unlike the produ&ions of many moralifts, it contains
nothing which the author himfelf did not reduce to
practice. He had made it his ftudy to contribute to
the delight and amufement of thofe refpe&able focie-
ties into which he was admitted. 2. Les Ames rivalcs,
an agreeable little romance, in which there occur fe-
veral ingenious obfervations on French manners; the
Abderitesy a comedy of but ordinary merit; Poefes di-
verfesy full of delicacy (his Romances and his Rajeu*
ntjfemcnt inutile are particularly diftinguiftied for fmooth
verfification, elegant reflexions, and pleafing narra¬
tion) ; and feme diflertations which difplay confider-
able wit and information. Thefe pieces are to be found
in the mifcellaneous works of the author, publiihed at
Paris 1743, i21110"- 3- Some little pieces of one
acl; which make part of different operas, called the
Frogmens. Zehndot, Ifmene Almajls, the Genies tutdairesy
and the Sibylle. He was devoted to lyric poetry, and
cultivated it with fuccefs. In this fpecies of writing
we have from his pen the Empire de l’Amour, a ballet;
the Trophee; the Ames reunis, a ballet which was tie-
ver aXed ; and Erojine, a heroic paftoral. ^4. L’Hi-
Jloire des Chats, a trifling performance, too feverely
cenfured at the time, and now almoft wholly fallen in¬
to oblivion. This work gave the Comte d’Argenfon
an opportunity of being witty at the author’s expence.
When Voltaire retired into Prufiia, Moncrif applied
to the minifter for the vacant place of hiftoriographer:
“ Hijloriographel (faid the Comte d’Argenfon), vous
voulez fans doute dire hiftoriogriphe.” His works
-were colleXed, in 1761, into 4 yols, 12 mo.
MONDA, or Munda (anc.^geog.), a river of Lu-
v ] MON
fitania,. running midway from eaft to weft into the Monday
Atlantic, between the Durius and Tagus, and waih- II
ing Conimbrioa. Now- the Mondego, a river of Por- Moneta--
tugal, which running by Coimbra, falls into the At. n^s' ^
lantic, 30 miles below it. ^
MONDAY, the fecond day of the week, fo called
as being anciently facred to die moon ; q. d. moon-day.
MONDOVI, a^confiderable town of Italy, in
Piedmont; with a citadel, univerfity, and bifhop’s
fee. It is the largeft and moft populous town off
Piedmont, and is feated in E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat.
44. 23.
MONEMUGI, an empire in the fouth of Africa,
has Zanguebar on the eaft, Monomotapa on the fouth,
Motamba and Makoko on the weft, and Abyffinia on
the north and partly to the eaft, though its boun¬
daries that way cannot be afeertained. It is divided’
into the kingdoms of Mujaco, Makoko or Anfiko,
Gingiro, Cambate, Alaba, and Monemugi Proper. -
This laft lies in the middle of the torrid zone, and a-
bout the equinoXral line fouth of Makoko, weft oir
Zanguebar, north of Monomotopa, and eaft of Con¬
go and of the northern parts of Monomotopa. To;.
afeertain its extent, is too difficult a tafk, being a
country fo little frequented. The country known, a-
bounds with gold, filver, copper mines, and elephants.
The natives clothe themfelves in filks and c&ttons,-
which they buy of ftrangers, and wear collars of tranf-
parent amber-beads, brought them from Cambaya:
which beads ferve alfo initead of money; gold and
filver being too common, and of little value among
them.
Their monarch always endeavours to be at peace
with the princes round about him, and to keep an
open trade with Quitoa, Melinda, and Mombaza, on
the eaft, and with Congo on the weft; from all which v
places the black merchants refort thither for gold.
The Portuguefe merchants report, that on the eaft
fide of Monemugi there is a great lake full of fmall
iflands, ^bounding with all forts of fowl and cattle, and
inhabited by negroes. They relate alfo, that on the .
main land eaftward they heard fometimes the ringing
of bells, and that one could obferve buildings very
much like churches ; and that from thefe parts came -
men of a brown and tawny complexion, who traded
with thofe iflanders, and with the people of Mone¬
mugi.
This country of Monemugi affords alfo abundance
of palm-wine and oil, and fuch great plenty of honey,
that above half of it is loft, the blacks not being able
to confume it. The air is generally very unwholefome, -
and exceffively hot, which is the reafon why no Chri-
ftians undertake to travel in this empire. De Lifle
gives the divifion of this country as follows: The Ma-
racates, the Meffeguaries, the kingdom of the Buen-
gas, the kingdom of-Mafti, and that of Maravi. But
we are not acquainted with any particulars relating to
thefe nations or kingdoms.
MONETARIUS, or Monever, a name which an¬
tiquaries and medalifts give to thofe who ftruck the
ancient coins or monies.
Many of the old Roman, &c. coins have the name
of the monetarius, either written at length or at lealt
the initial letters of it. See Medal.
MONEY,
MON [2
>r<y MONEY, a piece of matter, commonly metal, to
v-”' which public authority has affixed a certain value and
weight to ferve as a medium in commerce. See Coiui
Commerce, and Medals ; alfo the article Bank.
Money is ufually divided into real or effective, and
imaginary or money of account.
I. Real Money.
i. HIJiory of real Money. Real money includes all
coins, or fpecies of gold, filver, copper, and the like ;
which have courfe in common, and do really exift.
Such are guineas, piftoles, pieces of eighth ducats, &c.
Real money, civilians obferve, has three effential
qualities, viz. matter, form, and weight or value.
For the matter, copper is that thought to have been
firft coined; afterwards filver ; and lailly gold, as be¬
ing the moft beautiful, fcarce, cleanly, divifible, and
pure of all metals.
The degrees of goodnefs are expreffed in gold by
carats; and in filver by pennyweights, &c. For there
are feveral reafons for not coining them pure and with¬
out alloy, viz. the great lofs and expence in refining
them, the neceffity of hardening them to make them
more durable, and the fcarcity of gold and filver in
mod countries. See Alloy.
Among the ancient Britons, iron rings, or, as feme
Ihy, iron plates, were ufed for money ; among the
Lacedemonians, iron bars quenched with vinegar, that
they might not ferve for any other ufe. Seneca ob-
ferves, that there was anciently damped money of
leather, corium forma pullica imprejfum. And the fame
thing was put in praftice by Frederic II- at the fiege
of Milan ; to fay nothing of an old tradition among
ourfelves, that in the confufed times of the barons
dais the like was done in England : but1 the Hollan¬
ders, we know, coined great quantities of padeboard
in the year ii;74.
As to the form of money, it has been more various
- than the matter. Under this are comprehended the
weight, figure, impreffion, and value.
For the impreffion, the Jews, though they deteded
images, yet damped on the one fide of their ihekel the
golden pot which had the manna, and on the other
Aaron’s rod. The Dardans damped two cocks fight¬
ing. The Athenians damped their Coins with an owl,,
or an ox ; whence the proverb on bribed lawyers, Bos
in lingua. They of iEgina, with a tortoife ; whence
that other faying, Firtutem et fqpientiam vincunt tfudines,.
Among the Romans, the monetanifometimes imprefied
the images of men that had been eminent in their fa¬
milies on the coins: but no living man’s head was even
damped on a Roman coin till after the fall of the com¬
monwealth. From that time they bore the emperor’s
head on one fide. From this time the praftice of
damping the prince’s image on coins has obtained
»mong all civilized nations; the Turks and other Ma¬
hometans alone excepted, who, in detedation of images,
inferibe only the-prince’s name, with the year of the
t^nfmigration of their prophet.
As to the figure, it is either round, as in Britain ;.
multangular or irregular, as in Spain ; fquare, as in -
fome parts of the Indies ; or nearly globular, as in
mod of the red.
After the arrival of the Remans in this ifland, the
12] MON
Britons imitated them, coining both gold and filver Money,
with the images of their kings damped on them. ' » *
When the Romans had fubdued the kings of the Bri¬
tons, they alfo fuppreffed their coins, and brought in
their own ; which were current here from the time of
Claudius to that of Valentinian the younger, about
the fpace of 500 years.
Mr Camden oblerves, that the mod ancient Englidv
coin he had known was that of Ethelbert king of Kent,
the fird Chridian king in the idand; in whofe timealf
money-accounts begin to pafs by the names of pounds,
Jhillings, fence, and mancujes. Pence feems borrowed
from the Latin pecunia. or rather from pendoi on ac¬
count of its jud weight, which was about threepence
of our money. Thefe were coarfely damped with the
king’s image on the one fide, and either the mint-
mader’s, or the city’s where it was coined, on the
other. Five of thefe pence made their fchilling, pro¬
bably fo called from feilingus, which the Romans ufed
for the fourth part of an ounce. Forty of thefe fal¬
lings made their pound; and 400 of thefe pounds were
a legacy, or a portion for a king’s daughter, as ap¬
pears by the lad will of king Alfred. By thefe names
they trandated all fums of money in their old Englidr
tedament; talents byy Judas’s, thirty pieces of
filver by thirtig fei linga ; tribute-money, by penining i
the mite by fearthling.
But it mud be obferved, they, had no other real
money, but pence only; the red being imaginary
moneys, e. names of numbers or weights. Thirty
of thefe pence made a mancus. which fome take to be
the fame with a mark.; manca, as appears by an old
MS. was quinta pars unci a. Thefe mancas or man-
cufes were reckoned both in gold and filver. For in •
the year 680 we read that'Ina king of the Wed Sax-'
ons obliged the Kentidimen to buy their peace at the
price of 30,000 mancas of gold. In the notes on
King Canute’s laws, we find this diftin&ion, that
mancufa was as much as a mark of filver; and manca -
a fquare piece of gold, valued at 30 pence.
The Danes introduced a way of reckoning money
by ores, per oras, mentioned in Domefday-book ; but
whether they were a feveral coin, or a certain fum, ,
does not plainly appear. This, however, may be ga¬
thered from the Abbey-book of Burton, that 20 ores-
were equivalent to two marks. They had alfo a gold
coin called byzantine, or bezant, as being coined at’
Condantinople, then called Byzantium. The value of:
which coin is not only now lod, but was fo entirely
forgot even in the time of King.Edward III. that -
whereas the bilhop of Norwich was fined a bizantine
of gold to be paid the abbot of St Edmund’s Bury
for infringing his libeities (as it had been enafted by •
parliament in the time of the conqueror!, no man then
living could tell how much it was: fo it was referred *
to the king to rate how much he ffiould pay. Which :
is the more unaccountable,, becaufe but 100 years be¬
fore, 2c 0,000-bezants were exacted by the foldan for
the ranfom of St Louis of France; which were then
valued at 100,coo livres.
Though the. coining of money he a fpecial prero¬
gative of the king, yet the ancient Saxon princes com- -
rnunicated it to their fubjefts; infomuch that in every
good town there was at leaft one mint; but at Lon-. -
3 don-
MON [2
Itfoney. d0n eight; at Canterbury four for the king, two for
L*~*v “ the archbifhop» one for the abbot at Winchefter, fix
at Rocheftei^ at Haftings two, &c.
The Norman kings continued the fame cuftom of
coining only pence, with the prince’s image on one
fide, and on the other the name of the city where it
was coined, with a crofs fo deeply imprefied, that it
might be eafily parted and broke into two halves, which,
fo broken, they called halfpence; or into four parts,
which they called fourthings or farthingt.
In the time of King Richard I. money coined in
the taft parts of Germany came in fpecial requefl in
England on account of its purity, and was called «a/?er-
fjng money, as all the inhabitants of thofe parts were
called EaJlerUngs. And fhortly after, fome of thofe
people /killed in coining were fent for hither, to bring
the coin to perfection ; which fince has been called
JlcrTmg for Eajlerling. See Sterling.
King Edward I. who firfl: adjufted the meafure of
an ell by the length of his arm, herein imitating Charles
the Great, was the firlt alfo who eftabli/hed a certain
flandard for the coin, which is exprefled to this effeft
by Greg. Rockley, mayor of London, and mint-ma¬
iler.—“ A pound of money containeth twelve ounces:
in a pound there ought to be eleven ounces, two eall-
erlings, and one farthing; the reft alloy. The faid
pound ought to weigh twenty {hillings and three pence
in account and weight. The ounce ought to weigh
twentypence, and a penny twenty-four grains and a half.
Note, that eleven ounces two pence Sterling ought to
be of pure filver, called leaf-fiver; and the mintermuft
add of other weight feventeen-pence half-penny far¬
thing, if the filver be fo pure.”
About the year 1320, the ftates of Europe fir ft Ipje-
gan to coin gold; and among the reft, our King Ed¬
ward III. The firft pieces he coined were called ^0-
rences, as being coined by Florentines; afterwards he
coined nobles; then rofe-nobles, cm rent at 6s. and8d.
half-nobles called halfpennies, at 5 s. and 4d. of gold ;
and quarters at 20 d. called farthings of gold. The
fucceeding kings coined rofe-nobles, and double rofe-
nobles, great fovereigns, and half Henry nobles, an¬
gels, and {hillings.
King James 1. coined units, double crowns, Britain
crowns ; then crowns, half-crowns, &c.
2. Comparative value of Money and Commodities at
different periods. -The Englifh money, though the fame
names do by no means correfpond with the fame quan¬
tity of precious metal as formerly, has not changed fo
much as the money- of moft other countries. From
the time of William the Conqueror, the proportion
between the pound, the {hilling, and the penny, feems
to have been uniformly the fame as at prefent.
Edward III. aa already mentioned, was the firft of
pur. Kings that coined any gold ; and no copper was
coined by authority before James L Thefe pieces
were not called farthings, but farthing tokens, and all
people were at liberty to take or refufe them. Before
the time of Edward III. gold was exchanged, like
any other commodity, by its weight; and before the
time of James I. copper was ftamped by any one per-
fan who chafe to do it.
In the year 712 and 727, an ewe arid lamb were
rated at 1 s. Saxon money till a fortnight after Eafter
13 ] MON
Betv/een the years 900 and 1000, two hydes of land, M»»ey-
each containing about 120 acres, were fold for 100
{hillings. In 1000, by King Ethelred’s laws, ahorfe
was rated at 30s. a mare, or a colt of a year old, at
20s. a mule, or young afs, at 12 s. an ox at 30 s. a
cow at 24s. a fwine at 8d. a fheep at is. In 1043,
a quarter of wheat was fold for 60d. Hence it is
computed, that in the Saxon times there was ten times
lefs money, in proportion to commodities, than at pre¬
fent. Their nominal fpecie, therefore, being about
three times higher than ours, the price of every thing,,
according to our prefent language, muft be reckoned
thirty times cheaper than it is now.
In the reign of William the Conqueror, commodi¬
ties were ten times cheaper than they are at prefent;
from which we cannot help forming a very high idea
of the wealth and power of that king: for his revenue
was L. 400,000 per annum, every pound being equal
to that weight of filver, confequently the whole may
be eftimated at L. 1,200,000 of the prefent computa¬
tion ; a fum which, confidering the different value of
money between that period and the prefent, was equi¬
valent to L. 12,000,000 of modern eftimation.
The moft neceffary commodities do not feem to
have advanced their price from William the Conque¬
ror to Richard I.
The price of corn in the reign of Henry III. was
near half the mean price in our times. Bifhop Fleet-
wood has ftiown, that in the year 124c, which was in
this reign L. 4 : 13 : 9, was worth about L. 50 of our
prefent money. About the latter end of this reign,
Robert de Hay, reftor of Souldern, agreed to receive
100 s. to purchafe to himfelf and fucceffor the annual
rent of 5, s. in full compenfation of an acre of com.
butchers meat, in the time of the great fcarcity iiy
the reign of Edward II. was, by a parliamentary or¬
dinance, fold three times cheaper than our mean price
at prefent; poultry fomewhat lower, becaufe being
now confidered as a delicacy, it has rifen beyond its
proportion. The mean price of corn at this period
was half the prefent value, and the mean price of cattle
one-eighth.
In the next reign, which was that of Edward III.
the moft neceffary commodities were in general about
three or four times cheaper than they are at prefent.
In thefe times, knights, who ferved on horfeback
in the army, had 2 s. a-day, and a foot archer 6 d.
which laft would now be equal to a crown a day.
This pay has continued nearly the fame nominally
(only that in the time of the commonwealth the pay
of the horfe was, advanced to 2 s. 6d. and that of the
foot 1 a. though it was reduced again at the Reftora-
tion), but foldiers were proportionably of a better
rank formerly.
In the time of Henry VI. corn was about half its
prefent value, other commodities much cheaper. Bi-
(hop Fleetwood has determined, from a moft accurate
confideration of every circumitance, that L. 3 in this
reign was equivalent to L.28 or L. 30 now.
In the time of Henry VII. many commodities^
were three times as cheap here, and in all Europe,
as they are at prefent, there having been a great in-
creafe of gold and filver in Europe fince his time, oc-
cafioned by the -difeovery of America.
The
V
MON
[ 214 ]
MON
Money. The commodities whofe price has rifen the moil
  fmce before the time of Henry VII. are butchers
meat, fowls, and fiih, efpecially the latter. And the
reafon why corn was always much dearer in propor¬
tion to other eatables, according to their prices at
prefent, is, that in early times agriculture was little
underftood. It required more labour and expence,
I and was more precarious, than it is at preftnt. In¬
deed, notwithftanding the high price of corn in the
times we are fpeaking of, the railing of it fo little an-
fwered the expence, that agriculture was almoft uni-
verfally quitted for grafing ; which was more profit¬
able, notwithftanding the low price of butchers meat.
£>o that there was coniiant occafion for ftatutes to re-
ftrain grafing, and to promote agriculture ; and no e£-
fe&ual remedy was found till the bounty upon the ex¬
portation of corn ; fince which, above ten times more
corn has been railed in this country than before.
The price of corn in the time of James I. and con-
fequently that of other neeeffiaries of life, was not
lower, but rather higher, than at prefent : wool is not
two thirds of the value it was then ; the finer manu-
factures having funk in price by the progrefs of art
and induftry, notwithftanding. the increafe of money.
Butchers meat was higher than at prefent. Prince
Henry made an allowance of near 4d. per pound for
all the beef and mutton ufed in his family. This may
be true with refpedt to London ; but the price of
butchers meat in the country, which does not even
now much exceed this price at a medium, has certain¬
ly greatly increafed of late years, and particularly in
the northern counties.
The prices of commodities are higher in England
than in France; befides that the poor people of France
!, live upon much lefs than the poor in England, and
thetr armies are maintained at lefs expence. It is
computed by Mr Hume, that a Britifh army of 20,000
men is maintained at near as great an expence as
60,000 in France, and that the Englifh fleet, in the
war of 1741, required as much money to fupport it
as all the Roman legions in the time of the emperors.
However, all that we can conclude from this is, that
money is much more plentiful in Europe at prefent
than it was in the Roman empire.
In the 13th century the common intereft which the
Jews had for their money, Voltaire fays, was 20 per
cent. But with regard to this, we muft confider the
great contempt that nation was always held in, the
large contributions they were frequently obliged to
pay, the rifle they run for never receiving the princi¬
pal, the frequent eonfxfcjvtions of all their effefts, and
the violent perfecutions to which they were expofed ;
in which circumftanees it was impoffible for them to
lend money at all unlcfs for moft, extravagant intereft,,
and much difproportioned to its real value. Before
the difeovery of America and the plantation of our
colonies, the intereft of money was generally 12 per
cent, all over Europe; and it has been growing gra¬
dually left fince that time, till it is now generally about
four or five.
\jfhen fums of money are faid to be raifed by a
whole people, in order to form a juft eftimate of it,.
V'e muft take into confideration not only the quantity
#£ the precious metal according to the ftandard of the
coin, and the proportion of the quantity of coin to
the commodities, but alfo the number and riches of
the people who raife it: for populous and rich coun¬
tries will much more eafily raife any certain fum of
money than one that is thinly inhabited, and chiefly
by poor people. This circumftance greatly adds to
our furprife at the vaft fums'of money ^raifed by 'Wil¬
liam the Conqneror, who had a revenue nearly in value
equal to L. 12,000,000 of our'*money (allowance be¬
ing made for the ftandard of coin and the proportion
it bore to commodities), from a country not near fo
populous or rich as. England is at prefent. Indeed,
the accounts hiftorians give us of the revenues of this
prince, and the treafure he left behind him, are barely
credible.
II. Imaginary Money,, or Money of Account^ is that
which has never exifted, or at leaft which does not
exiil in real fpecie, but is a denomination invented or
retained to facilitate the ftating of accounts, by keep¬
ing them ftill on a fixed footing, not to be changed,,
like current coins, which the authority of the fovereiga
raifes or lowers according to the exigencies of the ftate.
Of which kind are pounds, livres, marks, mar aveches,
&c. See the annexed Table, where the fictitious mo¬
ney is diftinguiflied by a dagger (f).
Moneys of Account among the Ancients.— 1. The Gre¬
cians reckoned their fums of money by drachma, mina,
Zend, talenta. The drachma was equal to y jd. Sterling;
100 drachmas made the mina, equal to 3/. 4r. "id. Sttf-
ling ; 60 minae made the talent, equal to X93 /. 15 s.
Sterling : hence 100 talents amounted to 19,375/. Ster¬
ling. The mina and talentum, indeed, were different in,
different provinces: their proportions in Attic drachms
are as follow. The Syrian mina contained 25 Attic
drachms ; the Ptolemaic 33J ; the Antiochic and Eu-
brean too; the Babylonic 116 ; the greater Attic and
Tyrian 133J ; the iEginean and Rhodian 166J. The
Syrian talent contained 15 Attic minx ; the Ptolemaic
20 ; the Antiochic 6o ; the Eubasan 60'; the Babylo¬
nic 70 ; the greater Attic and Tyrian 80; the iFgi-
nean and Rhodian too.
2. Roman moneys of account were the fejlertius and"
fejlertium. The fefiertius was equal to id. ^\q. Ster¬
ling., One tho. ,nd of thefe made the leftertiurn,
equal to 8/. u. $d. 2q. Sterling. One thoufand of.
thefe feflertia made the decies feftertium (the adverb-
crtities being always underftoodj equal to 8072/. i8r. qr/.
Sterling. The decies feilertium they alfo called decies
centena miliia nummum. Centies feftertium, or centies-
HS, were equal to 80,729/. 3J. 4^ Millies HS to-
807,291/. 131. 4J. Millies centies HS to 888,020/.
\6s. &/.
Theort of Money.
I . Of Artificial or Material Money .
I. As far back as our accounts of the tranfefrionS'
of mankind reach, we find they had adopted the pre« -
cious metals, that is, filver and gold, as* the common
meafure of value, and as the adequate, equivalent foif
every* thing alienable.
The metals are admirably adapted for this purpofe 1'
they are perfe&ly. homogeneous;, when pure, their
6 im&efy.
Motley.
M O N
mafTes, or bulks, are exaftly in proportion to their
weights : no phyiical difference can be found between
two pounds of gold, or filver, let them be the produc¬
tion of the mines of Europe, Alia, Africa, or Ame¬
rica : they are perfeftly malleable, fufible, and fuffer
the moft exa£f diviiion which human art is capable to
give them : they are capable of being mixed with one
another, as well as with metals of a bafer, that is, of
a lefs homogeneous nature, fuch as copper | by this
mixture they fpread themfelves uniformly through
the whole mafs of the compofed lump, fo that every
atom of it becomes proportionally pofTeffed of a fhare
of this noble mixture ; by which means the fub-
divifion of the precious metals is rendered very ex-
ten five.
Their phyfical qualities are invariable : they lofe no¬
thing by keeping ; they are folid and durable ; and
though their parts are feparated by fri&ion, like every
other thing, yet ftill they are of the number of thofe
which fuffer lead by it.
If money, therefore, can be made of any thing, that
is, if the proportional value of things vendible can be
meafured by any thing material, it may be meafured
by the metals.
II. The two metals being pitched upon as the moil
proper fubftances for realifing the ideal fcale of money,
thofe who undertake the operation of adjufting a ftan-
dard, muft conflantly keep in their eye the nature and
qualities of a fcale, as well as the principles upon which
it is formed.
The unit of the fcale muft conftantly be the fame,
although realifed in the metals, or the whole operation
fails in the moft effential part. This realifing the unit
is like adjufting a pair of compaffes to a geometrical
fcale, where the fmalleft deviation from the exaft open¬
ing once given muft occafion an incorreA meafure.
The metals, therefore, are to money what a pair of
compaffes is to a geometrical fcale.
This operation of adjufting the metals to the money
of account implies an exa& and determinate propor-
toin. of both metals to the money-unit, realifed in all
thefpecies and denominations of coin, adjufted to that
Itandard.
The fmalleft particle of either metal added to, or
taken away from, any coins, which reprefent certain
determinate parts of the fcale, overturns the whole
fyftem of material money. And if, notwithftanding
fuch variation, thefe coins continue to bear the fame
denominations as before, this will as effe&ually de-
ftroy their ufefulnefs in meafuring the value of things,
as it.would overturn the ufefulnefs of a pair of com¬
paffes, to fuffer the opening to vary, after it is adjuft¬
ed to the fcale reprefenting feet, toifes, miles or leagues,
by which the diftances upon the plan are to be mea¬
fured.
HI. Debafing the ftandard is a good term; be-
caufe it conveys a clear and diftinA idea. It is dimi-
nilhing the weight of the pure metal contained in
that denomination by which a nation reckons, and
which we have called the money-unit. Raifing the ftan¬
dard requires no farther definition, being the direA
contrary.
,IV. Altering the ftandard (that is, raifing or deba¬
fing the value of the money-unit) is like altering the
national meafures or weights. This is belt difeovered
*N° 2 26.
MON
by comparing the thing altered with things of the
fame nature which have fuffered no alteration. Thus, '*
if the foot of meafure was altered at once over all Eng¬
land, by adding to it, or taking from it, any propor¬
tional part of its ftandard length, the alteration would
be belt difeovered by comparing the new foot with
that of Paris, or of any other country, which had fuf¬
fered no alteration. Juft fo, if the pound Sterling,
which is the Englifti unit, ihall be found any how
changed, and if the variation it has met with be diffi¬
cult to afeertain becaufe of a complication of circum-
ftances, the beft way to difeover it, will be to com¬
pare the former and the prefent value of it with the
money of other nations which has fuffered no variation.
This the courfe of exchange will perform with the
greateft exaAnefs.
V. Artifts pretend, that the precious metals, when
abfolutely pure from any mixture, are not of fufficient
hardnefs to conftitute a folid and lafting coin. They
are found alfo in the mines mixed with other metals of
a bafer nature ; and the bringing them to a ftate of
perfed purity occafions an unneceffary expence. To
avoid, therefore, the inconvenience of employing them
in all their purity, people have adoped the expedient
of mixing them with a determinate proportion of other
metals, which hurts neither their fulibility, malleabi¬
lity, beauty, or luftre. This metal is called alloy ;
and, being confidered only as a fupport to the princi¬
pal metal, is accounted of no value in itfelf. So that
eleven ounces of gold, when mixed with ^ne ounce of
filver, acquires by that addition no augmentation of
value whatever.
This being the cafe, we ffial!, as much as pof-
fible, overlook the exiftence of alloy, in fpeaking of
money, in order to render language lefs fubjeA to am¬
biguity.
2. Incapacities of the Metals to perform the Office of an
invariable Meafure of Value.
I. Were there but one fpecies of fuch a fubftance
as we have reprefented gold and filver to be; were
there but one metal poffeffing the qualities of purity,
divifibility, and durability ; the inconveniences in the
ufe of it for money would be fewer by far than they
are found to be as matters ftand.
Such a metal might then, by an unlimited diyifion
into parts exaAly equal, be made to ferve as a tole¬
rably fteady and univerfal meafure. But the rivallhip
between the metals, and the perfeA equality which is
found between all their phyfical qualities, fo far as
regards purity and divifibility, render them fo equally
well adapted to ferve as the common meafure of value,
that they are univerfally admitted to pafs current as
money.
What is the confequence of this? that the one mea¬
fures the value of the other, as well as that of every
other thing. Now the moment any meafure begins to
be meafured by another, whofe proportion to it is not
phyfically, perpetually, and invariably the fame, all
the ufefulnefs of fuch a meafure is loft. An example
will make this plain.
A foot of meafure is a determinate length. An
Englilh foot may be compared with the Paris foot, or
with that of the Rhine ; that is to fay, it may be mea*
fured by them : and the proportion between their
lengths -
[ 2l6 ]
MON [21
lengths may be exprefled in numbers; which pro¬
portion will be the fame perpetually. The meafur-
ing the one by the other will occafion no uncertain¬
ty ; and we may fpeak of length by Paris feet, and
be peifeftly well underftoed by others who are ufed
to meafure by the Englilh foot, or by the foot of the
Rhine.
But fuppofe that a youth of 12 years old takes it
into his head to meafure from time to time, as he ad¬
vances in age, by the length of his own foot, and that
he divides this growing foot into inches and decimals:
what can be learned from his account of meafures ? As
he increafes in years, his foot, inches, and fubdivi-
fions, will be gradually lengthening ; and were every
man to follow his example, and meafure by his own
foot, then the foot of a meafure now eftablifhed would
totally ceafe to be of any utility.
This is juft the cafe with the two metals. There is
no determinate invariable proportion between their va¬
lue ; and the confequence of this is, that when they
are both taken for meafuring the value of other things,
the things to be meafured, like lengths to be meafured
by the young man’s foot, without changing their re¬
lative proportion between themfelves, change, how¬
ever, with refpeft to the denominations of both their
meafures. An example will make this plain.
Let us fuppofe an ox to Jbe worth 3000 pounds
weight of wheat, and the one and the other to be
worth an ounce of gold, and an ounce of gold' to be
worth exa&ly 15 ounces of filver: if the cafe fhould
happen, that the proportional value between gold and
filver fhould come to be as 14 is to 1, would not the ox,
and confequently the wheat, be eftimated at lefs in fil¬
ver, and more in gold, than formerly ? Farther, would
it be in the power of any ftate to prevent this varia¬
tion in the meafure of the value of oxen and wheat,
w ithout putting into the unit of their money lefs fiiver
and more gold than formerly ?
If therefore any particular ftate fhould fix the ftan-
dard of the unit of their money to one fpecies of the
metals, while in faft both the one and the other are
actually employed in meafuring value ; does not fuch
a ftate referable the young man who meafures all by
his growing foot ? For if jilver, for example, be re¬
tained as the ftandard, while it is gaining upon gold
one fifteenth additional value ; and if gold continue
all the while to determine the value of things as well
as filver; it is plain, that, to all intents and purpofes,
this filver-meafure is lengthening daily like the young
man’s foot, fince the fame weight of it muft become
every day equivalent to more and more of the fame
commodity; notwithftanding that we fuppofe the
fame proportion to fubfift, without the leaft variation,
between that commodity and every other fpecies of
things alienable.
Buying and felling are purely conventional, and no
man is obliged to give his merchandife at what may
be fuppofed to be the proportion of its worth. The
ufe, therefore, of an univerfal meafure, is to mark, not
only the relative value of the things to which it is ap¬
plied as a meafure, but to difcover in an inftant the
proportion between the value of thofe, and of every o-
ther commodity valued by a determinate meafure in all
the countries of the world.
Vou XII. Part L
7 ] MON
Were pounds Sterling, livres, florins, piaftres, &c.
which are all money of account, invariable in their
values, what a facility would it produce in all con-
verfions, what an afiiftance to trade ! But as they
are all limited or fixed to coins, and confequent¬
ly vary from time to time, this example ftiows the u-
tility of the invariable meafure which we have de-
fcribed.
There is another circumftance which incapacitates
the metals from performing the office of money ; thd
fubftance of which the coin is made, is a commodity
which rifes and finks in its value with refpeft to other
commodities, according to the wants, competition,
and caprices of mankind. The advantage, therefore,
found in putting an intrinfic value into that fubftance
which performs the fundion of money of account, is
compenfated by the inftability of that intrinfic value ;
and the advantage obtained by the liability of paper,
or fymbolical money, is compenfated by the defed it
commonly has of not being at all times fufceptible of
realization into folid property or intrinfic value.
In order, therefore, to render material money more
perfed, this quality of metal, that is, of a commo¬
dity, Ihould be taken from it; and in order to render
paper-money more perfed, it ought to be made to
circulate upon metallic or land-fecurity.
II. There are feveral fmaller inconveniences accom¬
panying the ufe of the metals, which we lhall here
Ihortly enumerate.
imo, No money made of gold or filver can circulate
long, without lofing its weight, although it all along
preferves the fame denomination. This reprefents the
contracting a pair of compafles which had been right¬
ly adjufted to the feale.
ido. Another inconvenience proceeds from the fa¬
brication of money. Suppofirig the faith of princes
who coin money to be inviolable, and the probity as
well as capacity of thofe to whom they commit the in-
fpedion of the bufinefs of the metals to be fufficient, it
is hardly poffible for workmen to render every piece
exadly of a proper weight, or to preferve the due
proportion between pieces of different denomina¬
tions ; that is to fay, to make every ten fixpences ex¬
adly of the fame weight with every crown-piece and
every five fhillings ftruck in a coinage. In propor¬
tion to fuch inaccuracies, the parts of the fcale become
unequal.
3*0, Another inconvenience, and far from being
inconfiderable, flows from the expence requifite for
the coining of money. This expence adds to its va¬
lue as a manufadure, without adding any thing to its
weight.
.4/0, The laft inconvenience is, that by fixing the
money of account entirely to the coin, without having
any independent common meafure, (to mark and con¬
trol thefe deviations from mathematical exadnefs,
which are either infeparable from the metals them-
felves, or from the fabrication of them), the whole
meafure of value, and all the relative interefts of deb¬
tors and creditors, became at the difpofal not only of
workmen in the mint, of Jews who deal in money, of
clippers and wafhers in coin; but they are alfo entire¬
ly at the mercy of princes, who have the right off
coinage, and who have frequently alfo the right of
E e railing
Money.
MON [21
railing or debafing the Itaodard of the coin, according .
as they find it moll for their prefent and temporary
interell.
3. Methods which may be propofed for kjfening the fe¬
deral Inconveniences to which Material Money is
liable.
The inconveniences from the variation in the rela¬
tive value of the metals to one another, may in fome
meafure be obviated by the following expedients.
1 mo, By confidering one only as the Itandard, and
leaving the other to feek its own value like any other
commodity.
2do, By confidering one only as the ftandard, and
fixing the value of the other from time to time by au¬
thority, according as the market-price of the metals
lhall vary.
3*0, By fixing the ftandard of the unit according
to the mean proportion of the metals, attaching it to
neither; regulating the coin ‘accordingly; and upon
every confiderable variation in the proportion between
them, either to make a new coinage, or to raife the
denomination of one of the fpecies, and lower it in the
other, in order to preferve the unit exaftly in the mean
proportion between the gold and filver.
qto, To have two units and two ftandards, one of
gold and one of filver, and to allow every body to
Itipulate in either.
5/0, Or laft of all, to oblige all debtors to pay one
half in gold, and one half in the filver ftandard.
4. Variations to which the Value of the Money-unit is
expofedfrom every Diforder in the Coin.
Let us fuppofe, at prefent, the only diforder to con-
fid in a want of the due proportion between the gold
and filver in the coin.
This proportion can only be eftablifhed by the mar¬
ket price of the metals; becaufe an augmentation and
rife in the demand for gold or filver has the effeft of
augmenting the value of the metal demanded. Let us
fuppofe, that to-day one pound of gold may buy fif¬
teen pounds of filver : If to-morrow there be a high
demand for filver, a competition among merchants to
have filver for gold will enfue : they will contend who
flrajl get the filver at the rate of 15 pounds for one of
gold : this will raife the price of it; and in propor¬
tion to their views of profit, fome will accept of lefs
than the 13 pounds. This is plainly a rife in the
filver, more properly than a fall in the gold; becaufe
it is the competition for the filver which has occafion-
ed the variation in the former proportion between the
metals.
Let us now fuppofe, that a ftate, having with great
exaftnefs examined the proportion of the metals in the
market, and having determined the precife quantity of
each for realifing or reprefenting the money-unit,
fhall execute a moft exaift coinage of gold and filver
coin. As long as that proportion continues unvaried
in the market, no inconvenience can refult from that
quarter in making ufe of metals for money of ac¬
count.
But let us fuppofe the proportion to change : that
the filver, for example, fhall rife in its value with re¬
gard to gold ; will it not follow, from, that moment^
8 1 MON
that the unit realized in the filver, will become of more Money,
value than the unit realized in the gold coin ?  
But as the law has ordered them to pafs as equiva¬
lents for one another, and as debtors have always the
option of paying in what legal coin they think fit,
will they not all choofe to pay in gold ? and will not
then the filver coin be melted down or exported,
in order to be fold as bullion, above the value it
bears when it circulates in coin ? Will not this pay-
ing in gold alfo really diminilh the value of the money-
unit, fince upon this variation every thing mull fell
for more gold than before, as we have already ob-
ferved.
Confequently, merchandife, which have not varied
in their relative value to any other thing but to gold
and filver, muft be rneafured by the mean propor¬
tion of the metals ; and the application of any other
meafure to them is altering the ftandard. If they are
meafured by the gold, the ftandard is debafed ; if by
filver, it is raifed.
If, to prevent the inconvenience of mfclting down
the filver, the ftate fhall give up affixing the value of
their unit to both fpecies at once, and fhall fix it to
one, leaving' the other to feek its price as any other
commodity ; in that cafe, no doubt, the melting down
of the coin will be prevented; but will this ever re-
ftore the value of the money-unit to its former ftan¬
dard ? Would it, for example, in the foregoing fup-
pofition, raife the debafed value of the money-unit in
the gold coin, if that fpecies were declared to be the
ftandard ? It would indeed render filver coin purely a
merchandife, and, by allowing it to feek its value,
would certainly prevent it from being melted down as
before ; becaufe the pieces would rife conventionally in
their denomination ; or an agio, as it is called, would
be taken in payments made in filver: but the gold
would not, on that account, rife in its value, or be¬
gin to purchafe any more merchandife than before.
Were therefore the ftandard fixed to the gold, would
not this be an arbitrary and a violent revolution in the
value of the money-unit, and a debafement of the ftan¬
dard ?
If, on the other hand, the ftate fhould fix the ftan¬
dard to the filver, which we fuppofe to have rifen in
its value, would that ever fink the advanced value
which the filver coin had gained above the worth of
the former ftandard unit ? and would not this be a
violent and an arbitrary revolution in the value of the
money-unit, and a railing of the ftandard ?
The only expedient, therefore, is, in fuch a cafe,
to fix the numerary unit to neither of the metals, but .
to contrive a way to make it fluftuate in a mean pro¬
portion between them ; which is in effedt the intro-
dudlion of a pure ideal money of account.
The regulation of fixing the unit by the mean pro¬
portion, ought to take place at the inftant the ftan¬
dard unit is fixed with exadlnefs both to the gold and
filver. If it be introduced long after the market-pro-,
portion between the metals has deviated from the pro¬
portion eftabliffied in the coin ; and if the new regula¬
tion is made to have a retrofpedf, with regard to the
acquitting of permanent contradls entered into while
the value of the money-unit had attached itfelf to the
loweft currency in confequence of the principle above
MON [2
M«n«y. laid down j then th? reftorlng tlie money-unit to that
— ftandard where it ought to have remained (to wit, to
-the mean proportion.) is an injury to all debtois who
have contra<3:ed finee the time that the proportion of
the metals began to vary.
This is clear from the former reafoning. The mo¬
ment the market price of the metals differs from that
in the coin, every one who has payments to make,
pays in that fpecies which is the highefl rated in the
coin ; confequently, he who lends, lends in that fpe¬
cies. If after the contrail, therefore} the unit is car¬
ried up to the mean proportion, this mull be a lofs to
him who had borrowed.
From this we may perceive, why there is lefs incon-
venience from the varying @f the proportion of the
metals, where the ftandard is fixed to one of them,
than when it is fixed to both. In the firft cafe, it is
at leaft uncertain whether the ftandard or the it.erchan-
dife fpecies is to rife ; confequently it is uncertain
whether the debtors or the creditors are to gain by a
variation. If the ftandard fpecies fhould rife, the
creditors will gain ; if the merchandife fpecies rifes,
the debtors will gain ; but when the unit is attached
to both fpecies, then the creditors never can gain, let
the metals vary as they will ; if filver rifes, then
debtors will pay in gold ; if gold rifes, the debtors
will pay in filver. But whether the unit be attached
to one or to both fpecies, the infallible confequence
of a variation is, that one half of the difference is either
gained or loft by debtors and creditors. The invari¬
able unit is conftantly the mean proportional between
the two meafures.
5. How the Variations of the intrinjic Value of the
Unit of Money mufl affeB all the domejlic Interejl of a
Nation.
If the changing the content of the buflrel by which
grain is meafured, would affeft the intereft of thofe
who are obliged to pay, or who are entitled to receive,
a certain number of bulhels of grain for the rent of
lands ; in the fame manner muft every variation in the
value of the unit of account affedl all perfons who, in
permanent contrails, are obliged to make payments,
or who are obliged to receive fums of money fti-
pulated in multiples or in frailions of that money-
unit.
Every variation, therefore, upon the intrinfic value
of the money-unit, has the effeil of benefiting the
clafs of creditors at the expence of debtors, or vice
•verfa.
This confequence is deduced from an obvious prin¬
ciple. Money is more or lefs valuable in proportion
as it can purchafe more or lefs of every kind of
merchandife. Now, without entering anew into the
caufes of the rife and fall of prices, it is agreed upon
all hands, that whether an augmentation of the
general mafs of money in circulation has the effedl
of raifing prices in general, or not, any augmen¬
tation of the quantity of the metals appointed to
be put into the money-unit, muft at leaft affedl the
value of that money-unit, and make it purchafe more
of any commodity than before: that is to fay, 113
grains of fine gold, the prefent weight of a pound
Sterling in gold, can buy 113 pounds of flour,; were
19 ] MON
the pound Sterling raifed to 114 grains of the fame
metal, it .wou'd buy 114 pounds of ilour ; confequent¬
ly, were the pound Sterling augmented by one grain
of gold, every miller who paid a rent of ten pounds
ayear, would be obliged to fell 1140 pounds of his
flour, in order to procure ten pounds to pay his rent,
in place of 1130 pounds of flour, which he fold for¬
merly to procure the fame fum ; confequently, by this
innovation, the miller muft lofe yearly ten pounds of
flour, which his matter confequently muft gain. From
this example, it is plain, that every augmentation of
metals put into the pound Sterling, either of filver or
gold, muft imply an advantage to the whole clafs of
creditors who are paid in pounds Sterling, and confe¬
quently muft be a proportional lofs to all debtors who
muft pay by the fame denomination.
6. Of the Diforder in the Britifb Coin, fo far as
it occajions the melting down or the exporting of the
Specie.
The defedls in the Britifh coin are three.
imo. The proportion between the gold and filver in
it is found to be as x to xy-rg-j whereas the market
price may be fuppofed to be nearly as 1 to
2do, Great part of the current money is worn and
light.
^tio. From the fecond defedl proceeds the third, to
wit, that there are feveral currencies in circulation
which pafs for the fame value, without being of the
fame weight.
4/0, From all thefe defedls refults the laft and
greateft inconvenience, to wit, that feme innovation
muft be made, in order to fet matters on a right foot¬
ing.
The Englifli, befides the unit of their money which
they call the pound Sterling, have alfo the unit of their
weight for weighing the precious metals.
This is called the pound troy, and confifts of 12
ounces, every ounce of 20 penny-weights, and every
penny-weight of 24 grains. The pound troy, there¬
fore, confifts of 240 penny-weights and 5760 grains.
The finenefs of the filver is reckoned by the number
of ounces and penny-weights of the pure metal in the
pound troy of the compofed mafs ; or, in other words,
the pound troy, which contains 5760 grains of ftan¬
dard filver, contains 5328 grins of fine filver, and
43 2 grains of copper, called alloy.
Thus ftandard filver is it ounces 2 penny-weights
of fine filver in the pound troy to 18 penny-weights
copper, or 111 parts fine filver to 9 parts alloy.
Standard gold is 11 ounces fine to" 1 ounce filver or
copper employed for alloy, which together make the
pound troy ; confequently, the pound troy of ftan¬
dard gold contains 5280 grains fine, and 480 grains
alloy, which alloy is reckoned of no value.
This pound of ftandard filver is ordered, by ftatute
of the 43d of Elizabeth, to be coined into 62 Ihillings,
20 of which make the pound fterling; confequently
the 20 (hillings contain 1718.7 grains of fine filver,
and 1858.06 ftandard filver.
The pound troy of ftandard gold, f4 fine, is order¬
ed, by an adl of king Charles II. to be cut into 44'-
guineas ; that is to fay, every guinea contains 129.43
grains of ftandard gold, and 118.644 ^ne gold;
E e 2 and
MON [ 2 2c
Money, and the pound Sterling, which is |4 of the guinea,
"“v—■ contains 112.994, which we may date at 113 grains
of fine gold.
The coinage in England is entirely defrayed at the
expence of the date. The mint price for the metals
is the very fame with the price of the coin. Who¬
ever carries to the mint an ounce of dandard filver,
receives for it in filver coin 5 r. 2 J. or (m d. \ whoever
carries an ounce of dandard gold receives in gold
coin 3/. 17s. 1 o\d. the one and the other making
exa&ly an ounce of the fame finenefs with the bullion.
Coin, therefore, can have no value in the market
above bullion ; confequently, no lofs can be incurred
by thofe who melt it down.
When the guinea was fird druck, the government
(not inclining to fix the pound Sterling to the gold
coin of the nation) fixed the guinea at 20 (hillings,
(which was then below its proportion to the filver),
leaving it to feek its own price above that value, ac¬
cording to the courfe of the market.
By this regulation no harm wasdone totheEnglifh
filver dandard ; becaufe the guinea, or x 18.644 grains
fine gold being worth more, at that time, than 20 (hil¬
lings, or 1718.7. grains fine filver, no debtor would
pay with gold at its dandard value ; and whatever it
was received for above that price was purely conven -
tional.
Accordingly guineas fought their own price until
the year 1728, that they were fixed a-new, not below
their value as at fird, but as what was then reckoned
their exaft value, according to the proportion of the
metals, viz. at 21 (hillings ; and at this they were or¬
dered to pafs current in all payments.
This operation had the effeft of making the gold a
dandard as well as the filver. Debtors then paid in¬
differently in gold as well as in filver, becaufe both
were fuppofed to be of the fame intrinfic as well as
current value ; in which cafe ns inconvenience could
follow upon this regulation. But in time filver came
to be more demanded; the making of plate began to
prevail more than formerly, and-the exportation of fil¬
ver to the Ead Indies increafing yearly, made the de¬
mand for it greater, or perhaps brought its quantity
to be proportionally lefs than before. This changed
the proportion of the metals ; and by (low degrees
they have come from that of 1 to 15.2 (the proportion
they were fuppofed to have when the guineas were fix¬
ed and made a lawful money at 21 (hillings) to that of
14.5, fhe prefent fuppofed proportion.
The confequence of this has been, that the fame
guinea which was worth 1804.6 grains fine filver, at
the time it was fixed at 21s. is now worth more
than 1719.9 grains of fine filver according to the
proportion of 144 to 1.
Confequently debtors, who have always the option
»f the legal fpecies in paying their debts, will pay
pounds derling no more in filver but in gold ; and as
the gald pounds they pay in are not intrinfically worth,
the filver pounds they paid in formerly according to
the datute of Elifabeth, it follows that the pound
Sterling in filver is really bo more the dandard, fince
nobody will pay at that rate, and fince nobody can be
' compelled to do it.
Befides this, want of proportion between the metals,
the filver coined before the reign of George I. is now
5 ] MON
become light by circulation ; and the guineas coined Money,
by all the princes fince Charles II. pafs by tale, though *
many of them are confiderably diminilhed in their
weight.
Let us now examine what profit the want of pro¬
portion and the want of weight in the coin can afford to
the money-jobbers in melting it down or exporting it.
Did every body confider coin only as the meafure
for reckoning value, w-ithout attending to its value as
a metal, the deviations of gold and iilver coin from
perfeft exa&nefs, either as to proportion or weight,
would occafion little inconvenience.
Great numbers, indeed, in every modern fociety,
confider coin in no other light than that of money of
account; and have great difficulty to comprehend
what difference any ope can find between a light (hil¬
ling and a heavy one, or what in onvenience there can
poffibly refult from a guinea’s being fbme -grains of
fine gold too light to be worth 2 x (hillings (landard
weight. And did every one think in the feme way,
there would be no occafion for coin of the precious
metals at all; leather, copper, iron, or paper, would
keep the reckoning as well as gold and filver.
But although there be many who look no farther
than at the (lamp on the coin, thete are others whofe
foie bufinefs it is to examine its intrinfic worth as a
commodity, and to profit of every irregularity in the
weight and proportion of metals.
By the very inftitution of coinage, it is implied, that
every piece of the fame metal, and fome denomination
with regard to the money-unit, (hall pafs current for
the fame v?Jue.
It is, therefore, the employment of money-jobbers,
to examine, with a fcrupulous exaftnefs, the precife
weight of every piece of coin which comes into their
hands.
The firft objeft of their attention is, the price of
the metals in the market: a jobber finds, at prefent,
that with 14.5 pounds of fine filver bullion, he can buy
one pound of fine gold bullion.
He therefore buys up with gold coin all the new
filver as faff as it is coined, of which he can get at
the rate of 15.2 pounds for one in gold; thefe 15.2
pounds filver coin he melts down into bullion, and
converts that back into gold bullion, giving at the
rate of only 14.5 pounds for one.
By this operation he remains with the value of fy
of one pound weight of filver bullion clear profit upon
the 154- pounds he bought; which is really loitby
the man who inadvertently coined filver at the mint,,
and gave it to the money-jobber for his gold. Thus
the (late lofes the expence of the coinage, and the ■
public the convenience of change for their guineas.
But here it may be alked, Why (hould the money-
jobber melt down the filver coin ? can he not buy gold
with it as well without melting it down ? He cannot;
becaufe when it is in coin he cannot avail himfelf of its
being new and weighty. Coin goes by tale, not by
weight; therefore, were he to come to market with
his new filver coin, gold bullion being fold at the
mint price, we (hall fuppofe, viz. at 3/. ijs. iold.
Sterling money per ounce, he would be obliged to pay
the price of what he bought with heavy money, which
he can equally do with light.
He therefore melts down the new filver coin, and
&, fella-
MON r 221 ] MON
Money. f“ells Jt for bullion, at fo many pence an ounce ; the
prjce 0f bullion is, in the Englifh market, al¬
ways above the price of filver at the mint, for the rea-
fons now to be given.
When you fell ftandard-filver bullion at the mint,
you are to be paid in weighty money ; that is, you re¬
ceive for your bullion the very fame weight in ftand-
ard coin; the coinage coft nothing : but when you
fell bullion in the market, you are paid in worn out
filver, in gold, in bank-notes, in ihort, in every fpe-
cies of lawful current money. Now all thefe pay¬
ments have fome defedt: the filver you are paid with
is worn and light; the gold you are paid with is over¬
rated,'and perhaps alfo light; and the bank-notes
muft have the fame value with the fpecie with which
the bank pays them ; that is, with light filver or over¬
rated gold.
It is for thefe reafons, that filver bullion, which is
bought by the mint at 5^. 2cL per ounce of heavy fil¬
ver money, may be bought at market at 6 5 pence the
ounce in light filver, over-rated gold, or bank-notes,
which is the fame thing.
Further, we have feen how the impofition of coin¬
age has the effedl of raifing coin above the value of
bullion, by adding a value to it which it had not as a
metal.
Juft fo, when the unit is once affixed to certain de¬
termined quantities of both metals, if one of the metals
ftiould afterwards rife in value in the market, the coin
made of that metal muft lofe a part of its value as coin,
although it retains it as a metal. Confequently, as in
the firft cafe it acquired an additional value by being
coined, it muft now acquire an additional value by
being melted down. From this we may conclude,
that when the ftandard is affixed to both the metals in
the coin, and when the proportion of that value is not
made to follow the price of the market, that fpecies
which tifes in the market is melted do^ ' and the
bullion is fold for a price as much exceeding the mint
price as the metal has rifen in its value.
If, therefore, in England, the price of filver bullion
is found to be at 65 pence the ounce, while at the
mint it is rated at 62 ; this proves that filver has rifen
above the proportion obferved in the coin, and
that all coin of ftandard weight may confequently be
melted down with a profit of 7\-. But as there are
feveral other circumftances to be attended to which
regulcfte and influence the price of bullion, we ftiall
here pafs them in review, the better to difcover the
mature of this diforderin the Englifti coin, and the ad¬
vantages which money-jobbers may draw from it.
The price of bullion, like that of every other mer-
chandife, is regulated by the value of the money it is
paid with.
If bullion, therefore, fells in England for 65 pence
an ounce, paid in filver coin, it muft fell for 65 ftiillings
the pound troy ; that is to fay, the Ihillings it is com¬
monly paid with do not exceed the weight of ^ of a
pound troy : for if the 65 ftiillings with which the
pound of bullion is paid weighed more than a pound
troy, it would be a ffiorter and better way for him who
wants bullion to melt down the ftiillings and make ufe
of the metal, than to go to market with them in order
to get lefs.
We may, therefore, be. very certain, that no man
will buy filver bullion at 65 pence an ounce, with any
{hilling which weighs above of a pound troy.
We have gone upon the luppofition that the ordi¬
nary price of bullion in the Englifti market is 6$ pence
per ounce. This has been done upon the authority of
fome late writers on this fubjeft: it is now proper to
point out the caufes which may make it deviate from
that value.
I. It may vary, and certainly will vary, in the
price, according as the currency is better or worfe.
When the expences of a war, or a wrong balance of
trade, have carried off a great many heavy guineas, it
is natural that bullion ftiould rife ; becaufe then it will
be paid for more commonly in light gold and filver ;
that is to fay, with pounds Sterling, below the value
of 113 grains fine gold, the worth of the pound Ster¬
ling in new guineas.
II. This wrong balance of trade, or a demand for
^bullion abroad, becoming very great,, may cccafion a
fcarcity of the metals in the market, as well as a
fcarcity of the coin ; confequently, an advanced price
muft; be given for it in proportion to the greatnefs and
height of the demand. In this cafe, both the fpecie
and the bullion muft he bought with paper. But the
rife in the price of bullion proceeds from the demand
for the metals and the competition between merchants
to procure them, and not becaufe the paper given aa
the price is at all of inferior value to the fpecie. The
leaft difcredit of this kind would not tend to diminifti
the value of the paper; it would annihilate it at once.
Therefore, fin'ce the metals muft be had, and that the
paper cannot fupply the want of them when they are
to be exported, the price prifes in proportion to the
difficulties in finding metals elfewhere than in the
Englifti market.
III. A fudden call for bullion, for the making of
plate. A goldfmith can well afford to give 67 pence for
an ounce of filver, that is to fay, he can afford to give
one pound of gold for 14 pounds of filver, and perhaps
for lefs, notwithftanding that what he gives be more
than the ordinary proportion between the metals, be¬
caufe he indemnifies himfelf amply by the price of his ■
workmanfliip ; juft as a tavern-keeper will pay any
price for a fine fifti, becaufe, like the goldfmith, he
buys for other people.
IV. The mint price has as great an effeft in bring¬
ing down the price of bullion, as exchange has in raf¬
fing it. In countries where the metals in the coin are
juftly proportioned, where all the currencies are of le¬
gal weight, and where coinage is impofed, the opera¬
tions of trade make the price of bullion conftantly to
fluctuate between the value of the coin, and the mint-
price of the metals.
Now let us fuppofe that the current price of filver
bullion in the market is 65 pence the ounce, paid in
lawful money, no matter of what weight or of what
metal. Upon this the money-jobber falls to work. All
{hillings which are above of a pound troy, he throws
into his melting pot, and fells them as bullion for 65d.
per ounce ; all thofe which are below that weight he
carries to market, and buys bullion with them at 6jd.
per ounce.
What is the confequence of this ?
That thofe who fell the bullion, finding the {hillings
which the money-j obber-pays with perhaps not above
MON t 222 1 MON
'ftT. ney, .;.,r of a pmuul troy, they on their fute vaife the price
of the’r bullion to 66d. the ounce.
This makes new work for the money-jobber ; for
he muP„ always gain. He now weighs all (hillings as
they come to hand; and as formerly he threw into his
melting-pot thofe only which were worth more th^n ^T
of a pound troy, he now throws in all that are fn va¬
lue above He then fells the melted drillings at
66d. the ounce, and buys bullion with the light ones
at the fame price.
This is the confequence of ever permitting any fpe-
ties of coin to pafs by the authority of the (lamp, with¬
out controlling it at the fame time by the weight: and
this is the manner in which money-jobbers gain by
the currency of light money.
It is no argument again!! this expofition of the mat¬
ter to fay, that filver bullion is feldom bought with fd-
ver coin ; becaufe the pence in new guineas are worth
no more than the'pence of drillings of 65 in the pound
troy : that is to fay, that 240 pence contained in j-f
of a new guinea, and 240 pence contained in 28 dril¬
lings of 6y to the pound troy, differ no more in the
intrinfic value than 0.83 of a grain of fine filver upon
the whole, which is a mere trifle.
Whenever, therefore, (hillings come below the
weight of -gV of a pound troy, then there is an ad¬
vantage in changing them for new guineas; and
when that is the cafe, the new guineas will be melted
down, and profit will be found in felling them for bul¬
lion, upon the principles we have juft been explaining.
We have already given a fpecimen of the domeftic
operations of the money-jobbers; but thefe are not
the moft prejudicial to national concerns. The job¬
bers may be fuppofed to be Englifhmen ; and in
that cafe the profit they make remains at home : but
whenever there is a call for bullion to pay the ba¬
lance of trade, it is evident that this will be paid in
iilver coin; never in gold, if heavy filver can be got;
and this again carries away the filver coin, and renders
it at home fo rare, that great inconveniences are found
for want of the lefler denominations of it. The lofs,
however, here is confined to an inconvenience; be-
caqfe the balance of trade being a debt which muft be
paid, we do not confider the exportation of the filver
for that purpofe as any confequence of the diforder
of the coin. But befides this exportation which is ne-
ceflary, there are others which are arbitrary, and
•which are made only with a view to profit of the wrong
proportion.
When the money-jobbers find difficulty in carrying
on the traffic we have deferibed, in the Engliflr mar¬
ket, becaufe of the competition among themfelves,
they carry the filver coin of the country, and fell
it abroad for gold, upon the fame principles that the
Eaft India company fend filver to China in order to
purchafe gold.
It may be demanded. What hurt this trade can do
to Britain, fince thofe who export filver bring back
the fame value in gold ? Were this trade carried on
by natives, there would be no lofs ; becaufe they
would bring home gold for the whole intrinfic value
of the filver. But if we fuppofe foreigners fending
over gold to be coined at the Engliflr mint, and
changing the gold into Engliffi filver coin, and then
carrying off this, coin, it is plain that they muff
gain the difference, as well as the money-jobbers. But
it may he unfwered, That having given gold for 01-
ver at the rate of the mint, they have given value for —v—~
what they have received. Very right; but fo did
Sir Elans Sloane, when he, paid five guineas for an
overgrowrj toad : he got value for his money ; but it
was value only to himfelf. Juft fo, whenever the
Englifh government (hall be obliged to reftore the
proportion of the metals (as they muft do), this ope¬
ration will annihilate that imaginary value which they
have hitherto fet upon gold ; which imagination is
the only thing which renders the exchange of their
lilver again ft the foreign gold equal.
But it is farther objehled, that foreigners cannot
carry off the heavy filver; becaufe there is none to
carry off. Very true ; but then they have carried oft
a great quantity already : or if the Engliffi Jews have
been too (harp to allow fuch a profit to fall to ftrangers,
(which may or may not have been the cafe), then this
difqrder is^n effectual ftop to any more coinage of fil¬
ver for circulation.
7. 0/~ the Di forder in the Briti/Jj Coin, fo far at it affeds
the Value of the Pound Sterling Currency.
From what has been faid, it is evident, that there
muft be found in England- two legal pounds Sterling,
of different values; the one worth 113 grains of fine
gold, the other worth 1718.7 grains of fine filver.
We call them different; becaufe thefe two portions of
the precious metals are of different values all over Eu¬
rope.
But befides thefe two different pounds Sterling,
which the change in the proportion of the metals have
created, the other defedls of the circulating^coin pro¬
duce fimilar effefts. The guineas coined by all the
princes fince King Charles II. have been of the fame
(landard weight and finenefs, 444- in a pound troy of
ftandard gold 44 fi»e : thefe have been conftantly
wearing ever fince they have been coined; and in pro¬
portion to their wearing they are of lels value.
If, therefore, the new guineas are below the value
of a pound Sterling in filver, ftandard weight, the old
muft be of lefs value Hill. Here then is another cur¬
rency, that is, another pound Sterling ; or indeed,
more properly fpeaking, there are as many difterent
pounds Sterling as there are guineas of different
weights. This is not all; the money-jobbers having
carried off all the weighty filver, that which is worn
with ufe, and reduced ’even below the ftandard erf
gold, forms one currency more, and totally deftroys
all determinate proportion between the money-unit
and the currencies which are fuppofed to reprefent it.
It may be afked, how, at this rate, any filver has
remained in England ? It is anfwered, that the few
weighty (hillings which dill remain in circulation, have
marvelloufly efcaped the hands of the money-jobbers:
and as to the reft, the rubbing and wearing of thefe
pieces has done what the (late might have done ; that
is to fay, it has reduced them to their due proportion
with the lighted gold.
The diforder, therefore, of the Engliflr coin has
rendered the ftandard of a pound Sterling quite uncer¬
tain. To fay that it is 1 718.7 grains of fine filver,
is quite ideal. Who are paid in fuch pounds? To fay
that it is 113 grains of pure gold, may alfo not be
true; becaufe there are many currencies worfe than
the new guineas.
What
)
Money.
MON f 223 ] MO N
What then is the confequence of all this diforder ?
What effeft has it upon the current value of a pound
Sterling? And which way can the value of that be de¬
termined ?
The operations of trade bring value to an equation,
notwi'chftanding the greateft irregularities poffible; and
fo in faft a pound Sterling has acquired a determinate
value over all the world by the means of foreign ex¬
change. This is a kind of ideal fcale for meafuring
.the Britifh coin, although it has not all the properties
of that defcribed above.
Exchange confiders the pound Sterling as a value
determined according to the combination of the va¬
lues of all the different currencies, in proportion as
payments are made in the one or the ether ; and as
debtors generally take care to pay in the worft fpecies
they can, it confequently follows, that the value of
the pound Sterling fhould fall to that of the lowed:
currency.
Were there a fufficient quantity of worn gold and
frlver to acquit all bills of exchange, the pound Ster¬
ling would come down to the value of them; but if the
new gold be alfo neceffary for that purpOfe, the value
of it muft be proportionally greater.
All thefe combinations are liquidated and compen-
fated with one another, by the operations of trade and
exchange : and the pound Sterling, which is fo diffe¬
rent in itfelf, becomes thereby, in the eyes of com¬
merce, a determinate unit; fubjedt, however, to varia¬
tions, from which it never can be exempted.
Exchange, therefore, is one of the beft meafuresfor
valuing a pound Sterling, prefent currency. Here oc¬
curs a queftioo:
Does the great quantity of paper-money in Eng¬
land tend to diminifh the value of the.pound Sterling ?
We anfwer in the negative. Paper money is juft as
good as gold or filver money, and no better. The va¬
riation of the ftandard, as we have already faid, muft
influence the interefts of debtors and creditors propor¬
tionally every where. From this it follows, that all
augmention of the value of the money-unit in the fpe-
cie muft hurt the debtors in the paper money; and ail
diminutions, on the other hand, muft hurt the creditors
in the paper money as well as every where elfe. The
payments, therefore, made in paper money, never can
contribute to the regulation of the ftandard of the
pound Sterling; it is the fpecie received in liquidation
of that paper money which alone can contribute to
mark the value of the Britilh Unit;, becaufe it is affix¬
ed to nothing elfe.
Ftom this we may draw a principle, “ That in
countries where the money-unit is entirely affixed to
tire coin, the actual value of it is not according to
the legal ftandard of that coin, but according to the
mean proportion of the actual worth of thofe. curren¬
cies in which debts are paid.
From this we fee the reafon why tire exchange be¬
tween England and all other trading towns in Europe
has long appeared fo unfavourable. People calculate ,
the real par, upon the fuppofition that a pound Ster¬
ling is worth 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver, when in
fa£t the currency is not perhaps worth 1638, the va¬
lue of a new guinea in filver, at the market proportion
of 1 to 14.5; that is to fay, the currency is but 95.3
cent, of the filver fiand^rd of the 43d of Elizabeth.
No wonder then if the exchange be thought unfavour- Money,
able. 1—"v—-
From the principle we have juft laid down, we may
gather a confirmation of what we advanced concerning
the caufe of the advanced price of bullion in the Eng-
liftr market.
When people buy bullion with current money at a
determinate price, that operation, in conjunftion with
the courfe of exchange, ought naturally to mark the
adfual value of the pound Sterling with great exatt-
nefs.
If therefore the price of ftandard bullion in the Eng-
lifh market, when no demand is found for the expor¬
tation of the metals, that is to fay, when paper is
found for paper upon exchange, and when merchants
verfed in thefe matters judge exchange (that is, re.
mittances) to be at par, if then filver bullion can¬
not be bought at a lower price than 65 pence the
ounce, it is evident that this bullion might be bought
with 65 pence in fliillings, of which 65 might be coin¬
ed out of the pound troy Engliftr ftandard filver; fince
65 per ounce implies 65 {hillings for the 12 ounces or
pound troy.
This plainly fhows how ftandard filver bullion (hould
fell for 65 pence the- ounce, in a country where the
ounce of ftandard filver in the coin is worth no more
than 62 ; and were the market-price of bullion to
ftand uniformly at 65 pence per ounce, that would
{how the value of the pound Sterling to be tolerably
fixed. All the heavy filver coin is now carried off; be¬
caufe it was intrinfically worth more than the gold it
paffed for in currency. The filver therefore which re¬
mains is worn down to the market proportion of the
metals, as has been faid; that is to fay, 20 {hillings
in filver currency are worth 113 grains of fine gold,
at the proportion of I to 14.5 between gold and filver. -
Now,
as 1 is to 14.5, fo is 113 to 1G38 :
fo the 2Q {hillings current weigh but 1638 grains fine
filver, inftead of 1718.7, which :they ought to do ac¬
cording to the ftandard.
Now let us fpeak of ftandard filver, fince we are
examining how far the Engliih coin muft be worn by
ufe.
The pound troy contains 5760 grains- 'i’his, ac¬
cording to the ftandard, is coined into 62 {hillings;
confequently, every {hilling ought to weigh 92.9
grains. Of fuch {hillings it is impoffible that ever
ftandard bullion ftioukl fell at above 62 pence per
ounce. If therefore fuch bullion fells for 65 pence,
the {hillings with which it is bought muft weigh no
more, than 88.64 gra'ns ftandard filver; that is, they
muft lofe 4.29 grains, and are reduced to ^ of a
pound troyi
But it is not neceffary that bullion be bought with
{hillings ; no ftipulation of price is ever made farther,
than at fo many pence Sterling per ounce. Does not
this: virtually determine the value of fuch currency
with regard to all the currencies in Europe ? Did a
Spaniard, a Frenchman, or a Dutchman, know the
exadl quantity of filver bullion which can be bought
in the London market for a pound Sterling, would he
inform himfelf any farther as to the intrinfiq value of
that money-unit; would he not underhand the value
of it far better from that circumftance than by the
7. courfe.
MON [ 224 1 MON
Money, eourfe of any exchange, fmce exchange does not
mark the intrinfic value of money, but only the va¬
lue of that money tranfported from ojie place to ano¬
ther i
The price of bullion, therefore, when it is not in¬
fluenced by extraordinary demand, (fuch as for the
payment of a balance of trade, or for making an ex¬
traordinary provifion of plate), but when it ftands at
what every body knows to be meant by the common
market price, is a very tolerable meafure of the value
of the adlual money-ftandard in any country.
If it be therefore true, that a pound Sterling cannot
purchafe nbove 1638 grains of fine filver bullion, it
will require not a little logic to prove that it is really,
or has been for thefe many years, worth any more ;
nothwithftanding that the ftandard weight of it in Eng¬
land is regulated by the laws of the kingdom at 1718.7
grains of fine filver.
If to this valuation of the pound Sterling drawn
from the price of bullion, we add the other drawn
from the courfe of exchange ; and by this we find,
that when paper is found for paper upon exchange, a
pound Sterling cannot purchafe above 1638 grains of
fine filver in any country in Europe : upon thefe two
authorities we may very fafely conclude (as to the mat¬
ter of faft at lead) that the pound Sterling is not
worth more, either in London or in any other trading
city ; and if this be the cafe, it is juft worth 20 (hil¬
lings of 65 to the pound troy.
If therefore the mint were to coin drillings at that
rate, and pay for filver bullion at the market price,
that is; at the rate of 65 pence per ounce in thofe new
coined drillings, they would be in proportion to the
gold ; filver would be carried to the mint equally with
gold, and would be as little fubjeft to be exported or
melted down.
It may be inquired in this place, how far the coin¬
ing the pound troy into 65 drillings is contrary to the
laws of England ?
The moment a ftate pronounces a certain quantity
of gold to be worth a certain quantity of filver, and
orders thefe refpe&ive quantities of each metal to be
received as equivalents of each other, and as lawful
money in payments, that moment gold is made a ftan¬
dard as much as filver. If therefore too fmall a quan¬
tity of gold be ordered or permitted to be confidered
as an equivalent for the unit, the filver ftandard is from
that moment debafed; or indeed, more properly fpeak-
ing, all filver money is from that moment profcribed;
for who, from that time, will ever pay in filver, when
he can pay cheaper in gold? Gold, therefore, by fuch
a law, is made the flandard, and all declarations to the
contrary are againft the matter of fact.
Were the king, therefore, to coin filver at 65 (hil¬
lings in the pound, it is demonftration, that by fuch an
aft he would commit no adulteration upon the ftan¬
dard : the adulteration is already committed. The
ftandard has defcended to where it is by flow de¬
grees, and by the operation of political caufes only ;
and nothing prevents it from falling lower but the
ftandard of the gold coin. Let guineas be now left
to feek their value as they did formerly, and let light
filver continue to go by tale, we (hall fee the guineas
up at 30 (hillings in 20 years time, as was the cafe in
169?*
It is as abfurd to fay that the ftandard of Queen
Elizabeth has not been debafed by enafting that the
Engliftr unit (hall be acquitted with 113 grains of fine
gold, as it would be to affirm that it would not be de¬
bafed from what it i., at prefent by enafting that a
pound of butter (hould every where be received in pay¬
ment for a pound Sterling; although the pound Ster¬
ling {hould continue to confift of 3 ounces, 17 penny¬
weights, and 1 o grains of ftandard filver, according to
the ftatute of the 43d of Elizabeth. In that cafe, moft
debtors would pay in butter; and filver would, as at
prefent, acquire a conventional value as a metal, but
would be looked upon no longer as a ftandard, or as
money.
If thereforp, by the law of England, a pound Ster¬
ling muft confift of 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver;.
by the law of England alfo, 113 grains of gold mull
be of the fame value: but no law can eftablifh that
proportion ; confequently, in which ever way a refor¬
mation be brought about, fome law muft be reverfed;
confequently, expediency, and not compliance with law,
muft be the motive in reforming the abufe
From what has been faid, it is not at all furprifing
that the pound Sterling (hould in faft be reduced near¬
ly to the value of the gold. Whether it ought to be
kept at that value is another queftion. All that we
here decide is, that coining the pound troy into 65
(hillings would reftore the proportion of the metals,
and render both fpecies common in circulation. But
reftoring the weight and proportion of the coin is not
the difficulty which prevents a reformation^ the Eng-
li(h coinage.
8. Circumjlances to be attended to in a new Regulation of
the Britijh Coin.
To people who do not underftand the nature of fuch
operations, it may have an air of juftice to fupport
the unit at what is commonly believed to be the ftan¬
dard of Queen Elizabeth, -viz. at 1718.7 grains of fine
filver.
The regulating the ftandard of both filver and gold
to 44 fine> and the pound Sterling to four ounces
flandard filver, as it flood during the reign of Queen
Mary I. has alfo its advantages, as Mr Harris has oh-
ferved. It makes the crown-piece to weigh juft one
ounce, the (hilling four genny-weight, and the penny
eight grains; confequently , were the new ftatute to
bear, that the weight of the coin (hould regulate its
currency upon certain occafions, the having the pieces
adjufted to certain aliquot parts of weight would make
weighing eafy, and would aceuftom the common people
to judge of the value of money by its weight, and not
by the (lamp.
In that cafe, there might be a conveniency in lin¬
king the gold coins of the fame weight with the filver;
becaufe the proportion of their values would then con-
ftantly be the fame with the proportion of the me¬
tals. The gold crowns would be worth at prefent,
3I. 12 s. 6d. the half crowns 11. ids 3d. the gold
(hillings 14s. and 6d. and'the half 7s. and 3d. This
was anciently the praftice in the Spaniftr mints.
The interefts within the ftate can be nowiL per¬
fectly protefted but by permitting converfions of value
from the old to the new ftandard, whatever it be, and
by
MON
by regulating the footing of fuch converfations by aft
of parliament, according to circumftances.
For this purpofe, we (hall examine thofe interefts
which will chiefly merit the attention of government,
when they form a regulation for the future of acquit¬
ting’permanent contrafts already entered into. Such
as may be contrafted afterwards will naturally follow
the new ftandard.
The landed intereft is no doubt the rnoft confider-
able in the nation. Let us therefore examine, in the
firft place, what regulations it may be proper to make,
in order to do juftice to this great clafs, with refpett
to the land tax on one hand, and with refpedt to their
leffees on the other.
The valuation of the lands of England was made
many years ago, and reafonably ought to be fupported
at the real value of the pound Sterling at that time,
according to the principles already laid down. The
general valuation, therefore, of the whole kingdom
will rife "according to. this fcheme. This will be con-
fidered as an injullice; and no doubt it would be fo,
if, for Vhe future, the land-tax be impofed as here¬
tofore, 'Vithout attending to this circumftance ; but
as that impofition is annual, as it is laid on by the
landed intereft itfelf, who cqmpofe the parliament, it
is to be foppofed that this great clafs will at leaft take
care of their own intereft.
Were the valuation of the lands tp be ftated accord-
fng to the valuation of the pound Sterling ot 1718.7
grains of lilver, which is commonly fuppofed to be the
ftandard of Elizabeth, there would be no great injury
done : this would raife the Valuation only 5 per cent,
and the land-tax in proportion.
There is no clafs of inhabitants in all England fo
much at their eafe, and fo free from taxes, as the clafs
of farmers. By living in the country, and by confir¬
ming the fruits of the earth withouttheir fuffering any
alienation, they avoid the effeft of many exciles,
which, by thofe who live in corporations, are felt
Upon many articles of their confumption, as well as
on thofe which are immediately loaded with thefe im-
pofitions. For this reafon it will not, perhaps, ap¬
pear unreafonable, if the additional 5 per cent, on the
land-tax were thrown upon this clafs, and not upon
the landlords.
With refpeft to leafes, it may be obferved, that we
have gone upon the fuppofition that the pound Ster¬
ling in the year r 728 was-worth 1718,7 grains of fine
filver, and 11 grains of fine gold.
There would be no injuftice done the leffees of all
the lands in the kingdom, were their rents to be fixed
at the mean proportion of thefe values. We have ob-
ferv^d how the pound Sterling has been gradually di-
minilhing in its worth from that time by the gradual
rife of the filver. This mean proportion, therefore,
will nearly anfwer to what the value of the pound
Sterling was in 1743 ; fuppofirig the rife of the filver
to have been uniform.
It maybe farther alleged in favour of the landlords,
that the gradual debafement of the'ftandard has been
more prejudicial to their intereft in letting their lands,
than to the farmers in difpofing of the fruits of them.
Proprietors cannot fo eafily raife their rents upon new
leafes, as farmers can raife the prices of thei^grain
Vol. XII. Part I.
MON
according to the debafement of the vaLte of the enr-
rency.
The pound Sterling, thus regulated at th£ mean pro¬
portion of its worth, as it ftands at prefent, and as it
ftood in 1728, may be realifed in 1678.6 grains offine
filver, and 115.76 grains fine gold ; which is 2.4 per
cent, above the value of the pipfent currency. No
injury, therefore, would be done to leffees, and ho nn-
reafonable gain would accrue to the landed intereft, in
appointing converfions of all land-rents at per cent.
above the value of the prefent currency.
Without a thorough knowledge of every circum.
ftance relating to Great Britain, it is impoffible to lay
down any plan. It is fufficient here briefly to point
but the principles upon which it muft be regulated.
The next intereft to be confidered is that of the na¬
tion’s creditors. The right regulation of their con¬
cerns will have a confiderable influence in eilabliihing
public credit upon a folid balls, by making it appear
to all the world, that no political operation upon the
money of Great Britain can in any refpedl either be¬
nefit or prejudice the intereft of thofe who lend their
money upon the faith of the nation. The regulating
alfo the intereft of fo great a body, will ferve as a rule
for all creditors who are in the fame circumftances, and
will upon other accounts be produftive of greater ad¬
vantages to the nation in time coming.
In 1740, anew regulation was made with the pub¬
lic creditors, when the intereft; of the whole redeemable
national debt was reduced to 3 per cent. This cir¬
cumftance infinitely facilitates the matter with refpe ft
to this clafs, fince, by this innovation of all former cori-
tradtsj the whole national debt may be confidered as
contradled at, or pofterior to, the 25th of December
1749.
Were the ftate, by any arbitrary operation upon
money (which every veformatibn muft be), to diminilh
the value of the pound Sterling in which the parlia*
ment at that time bound the nation to acquit thofe
capitals and the intereft upon them, would not all Eu¬
rope fay, That the Britifh parliament had defrauded
their creditors ? If therefore the operation propofed to
be performed ftiould have a contrary tendency, viz. to
augmment the value of the pound Sterling with which
the parliament at that time bound the nation to ac¬
quit thofe capitals and interefts, muft hot all Europe
alfo agree, That the Britifh parliament had defrauded
the nation ?
This convention with the ancient creditors of the
ftate, who, in confequence of the debafement of the
ftandard, might have juftly claimed an Indemnification
for the lofs upon their capitals, lent at a time when
the.pound Sterling was at the value of the, heavy fil¬
ver, removes all caufes of complaint from that quarter.
There was in the year 1749 an innovation in all
their contra&s; and they are now to be confidered
as creditors only from the 2.5th of December of that
year.
Let the value of the pound Sterling be inquired in¬
to during one year preceding and one pofterior to the
tranfaftion of the month of December 1749. The
great fums borrowed and paid back by the nation du¬
ring that period, will furnifh data fufficient for that
calculation. Let this value of the pound be fpecified
[ 225 1
MON [ 226 ] MON
in troy grains of fine filver and fine gold bullion, with- tors, whofe contrafts are of a frefh date, may be regu- Money*,
out mentioning any denomination of money according lated upon the fame principles. But where debts are
to the exaft proportion of the metals-at that time, of an old ftanding, juftice demands, that attention be
And let this pound be called the pound of national had to the value of money at the time of contrafting.
credit. Nothing but the ftability of the Englifh coin, when
This firft operation being determined, let it be enac- compared with that of other nations, can make fucha
ted, that the pound Sterling, by which the ftate is to propofal appear extraordinary. Nothing is better
borrow for the future, and that in which the creditors known in France than this ftipulation added to obli-
are to be paid, (hall be the exaft mean proportion be- gations, Argent au tours de cejour; that is to fay. That
tween the quantities of gold and filver above fpecified, the fum fhall be repaid in coin of the fame intrinfic *
according to the actual proportion of the metals at the value with what has been lent. Why fliould fuch a
time fuch payments fhall be made : or that the fums claufe be thought reafonable for guarding people
lhall be borrowed or acquitted, one half in gold and againlt arbitrary operations upon the numerary value
one half in filver, at the refpedtive requifitions of the of the coin, and not be found juft upon every occafioa
creditors or of the ftate, when borrowing. All debts where the numerary talue of it is found to be changed,
contra&ed pofterior to 1749 may be made liable to let the caufe be what it will?.
converfions. The next intereft we ftiall examine is that of trade-
The confequence of this regulation will be the in- When men have attained the age of 21, they have na
fenfible eftablifhment of a bank-money. Nothing would more occafion for guardians, iliis maybe applied to
be more difficult to eftablifti, by a pofitive revolution, traders; they can parry with their pen every inconve-
than fuch an invariable meafure ; and nothing will be nience which may relult to other people from the
found fo eafy as to let it eftablifti itfelf by its own ad- changes upon money, provided only the laws permit
vantages. This bank-money will be liable to much them to do themfelves juftice with refpecft to theiren-
fewer inconveniences than that of Amfterdam. There gagements. 1 his clafs demands no more than a right
the perfons tranfadling muft be upon the fpot; here, to convert all reciprocal obligations into denominations
the Sterling currency may, every quarter of a year, of coin of the fame intrinfic value with thofe they have,
be adjufted by the exchequer to this invariable ftan- contra&ed in.
dard, for the benefit of all debtors and creditors who The next intereft is that of buyers and fellers; that
incline to profit of the ftability of this meafure of is, of manufa&urers with regard to confumers, and of
value. fervants with refpedt to thole who hire their perfonal
This fcheme is liable to no inconvenience from fervice.
the variation of the metals, let them be ever fo fre- The intereft of this clafs requires a moft particular
quent or hard to be determined ; becaufe upon every attention. They muft, literally fpeaking, be put to
occafion where there is the fmalleft doubt as to the fchool, and taught the firft principles of their trade,
a&ual proportion, the option competent to credi- which is buying and felling. They muft learn to judge-
tors to be paid half in filver and half in gold will re- of price by the grains of filver and.gold they receive :
move. they are children of a mercantile mother, however war-
Such a regulation will alfo have this good efteft, like the father’s difpofition. If it be the intereft of the
that it will give the nation more juft ideas of the na- ftate that their bodies be .rendered robuft and active,
ture of money, and cOnfequently of the influence it it is no lefs the intereft of the ftate that their minds be
ought to have upon prices. inftru&ed in the firft principles of the trade they exer-
If the value of the pound Sterling fliall be found cife.
to have been by accident lefs in December 1749 t^an For this purpofe, tables of coqverfion from the old
•t is at prefent; or if at prefent the currency be found ftandard to the new muft be made, and ordered to be
below what has commonly been fince 1749; in jl>ft<ce put up in every market, in every ftrop. All duties, all.
to the creditors, and to prevent all complaints, the excifes, muft be converted in the fame manner. Uni-
nation may grant them the mean proportion of the formity muft be made to appear every where. The
value of the pound Sterling from 1749 to 1760, or fmalleft deviation from, this will be a .ftumbling-block
any other which, may to parliament appear reafon- to the multitude.
able. Not only the intereft of the individuals of the clafs
This regulation muft appear equitable, in the eyes we are at prefent confidering, demands the nation’s-
of all Europe ; and the ftrongeft proof of it will-be, care and attention in this particular; but the profpe-
that it will not produce the fmalleft effeft prejudicial, rity of trade, and the well-being of the nation, arealfov
to the interefl of the foreign creditors. The courfe deeply interefted in the execution,
of exchange with regard to them will Hand precifely The whole delicacy of the intricate combinations of
as before. commerce depends upon a juft and equable vibration.-
A Dutch, French, or German creditor, will receive of prices, according as circumftances demand it. The
the fame value for his intereft in the Englifh ftocks as more, therefore, the induftrious clafles are inftru&ed in.
heretofore. This muft -filence 3II clamours at home, the principles which influence prices, the more eafily
bemg the moft convincing proof, that the.new regu- will the machine move. A workman then learns to,
lation of the coin will have made. no alteration upon- fink his price without regret, and can raife it without
the real value of any man’s property,, let him be debtor avidity. When principles are not underftood, prices
01 creditor. cannot gently fall, they muft be pulled down ; and mer-
The. intereft of every other denomination of .credi- chants dare not fuffer them to rife, for fear of abufe,,
even
2..
MON [ 227 ] MON
even although the perfe&ion of an infant manufacture we may call the public debtor), would be an operation Money.
fliould require it. upon public credit like that of a perfon who is at  v~“
The lait intereft is that of the bank of England, great pains to fupport his houfe by props upon all Tides,
which naturally muft regulate that of every other. and who at the fame time blows up the foundation
Had this great company followed the example of of it with gunpowder,
other banks, and eftablifhed a bank-money of an in- We may therefore conclude, that with regard to
variable Itandard as the meafure of all their debts and the bank of England, as well as every' other private
credits, they would not have been liable to any incon- banker, the notes which are conftantly payable upon
venience upon U variation of the ftandard. demand mull be made liable to a converfion at the
The bank of England was projected about the year aClual value of the pound Sterling at the time of the
1694, at a time when the current money of the nation new regulation.
was in the greateft diforder, and government in the That the bank will gain by this, is very certain ;
greateft diftrefs both for money and for credit. Com- but the circulation of their notes is fo fwift, that it
merce was then at a very low ebb ; and the only, or would be abfurd to allow to the then polfefl'ors of
at leaft the moft profitable, trade of any, was jobbing them that indemnification which naturally Ihould be
in coin, and carrying backwards and forwards the pre- ftiared by all thofe through whofe hands they have
clous metals from Holland to England. Merchants pafled, in proportion to the debafement of the ftan-
profited alfq greatly from the effeCts which the utter dard during the time of their refpeCtive polfeffion.
diforder of the coin produced upon the price of mer- Befides thefe confiderations, which are in common
chandife. to all ftates, the government of Great Britain has one
At fuch a jundure the refolution was taken to make peculiar to itfelf. The interell of the bank, and that
a new coinage ; and upon the profpeCt of this, a com- of the creditors, are diametrically oppofite : every
pany was found, who, for an exclufiye charter to hold thing which raifes the ftandard hurts the bank; every
a bank for 13 years, willingly lent the government thing which can fink it hurts the creditors: and upon
upwards of a million Sterling at 8 per cent, (in light the right management of the one and the other, de¬
money we fuppofe), with a profpeCt of being repaid pends the folidity of public credit. For thefe reafons,
both intereft and capital in heavy. This was not all: without the moft certain profpeCt of conducting a re¬
part of the money lent was to be applied for the efta- ftitution of the ftandard to the general advantage as
blifhment of the bank ; and no lefs than 4000I. a-year well as approbation of the nation, no minifter will
was allowed to the company, above the full intereft, probably ever undertake fo dangerous an operation,
for defraying the charge of the management. We ftiall now propofe an expedient which may re-
Under fuch circumftances the introduction of bank- move at leaft fome of the inconveniences which would
money was very fuperfluous, and would have been very refult from fo extenfive an undertaking as that of re-
impolitic. That invention is calculated againft the gulating the refpeCtive interefts in Great Britain by a
raifing of the ftasidard : but here the bank profited of pofitive law, upon a change in the value of their money
that rife in its quality of creditor for money lent; and ot account.
took care not to commence debtor by circulating their Suppofe then, that, before any change is made in
paper until the effeCi of the new regulation took place the coin, government ihould enter into a tranfaftion
in 1695 ; that is, after the general re-coinage of all the with the public creditors, and afcertain a permanent
clipped filver. value for the pound fterling for the future, fpecified in
From that time till now, the bank of England has a determined proportion of the fine metals in common
been the bafis of the nation’s credit, and with great bullion, without any regard to money of account, or
reafon has been conftantly under the moft intimate pro- to any coin whatever.
teftion of every minifter. This preliminary ftep being taken, let the intended
The value of the pound Sterling, as we have feen, alteration of the ftandard be proclaimed a certain
has been declining ever fince the year 1601, the ftan- time before it is to commence. Let the nature of
dard being fixed to filver during all that century, while the change be clearly explained, and let all fuch as are
the gold was conftantly rifing. No fooner- had the engaged in contrafts which are diffolvable at will upon
proportion taken another turn, and filver begun to the preftations ftipulated, be acquitted between the
rife, than the government of England threw the ftan- parties, or innovated as they fhall think proper ; with
dard virtually upon the gold, by regulating the value certification, that, pofterior to a certain day, the fti-
of the guineas at the exaft proportion of the market, pulations formerly entered into ftiall be binding ac-
By thefe operations, however, the bank has conftantly cording to-the denominations of the money of account
been a gainer (in its quality of debtor) upon all the in the new ftandard.
paper in circulation ; and therefore has loft nothing by As to permanent contradls, which cannot at once
not having eftabliftied a bank-money. be fulfilled and diflblved, fuch as leafes, the parliament
The intereft of this great company being eftabliftied may either prefcribe the methods and terms ofbonver-
uppn the principles we have endeavoured to explain, fion ; or a liberty may be given to the parties to annul
it is very evident, that the government of England the contraft, upon the debtor’s refufing to perform
never will take any ftep in the reformation of the coin his agreement according to the new ftandard. Con-
which in its confequences can prove hurtful to the trails, on the other hand, might remain iiable, with
bank. Such a ftep would be contrary both to juftice refpeil to creditors who would be fatisfied with pay-
and to common fenfe. To make a regulation which, ments made on the footing of the old ftandard. If the
by raifing the ftandard, will prove beneficial to the rife intended ftiould not be very confiderable, no great
public creditors, to the prejudice of the bank (which injuftice can follow fuch a regulation.
F f 2
Annuities
MON [ 228 ] MON
Morey. Annuities are now thoroughly underftood, and the legal weight, from whatever caufc it may proceed, may Money.
' v value of them is brought to fo nice a calculation, be rejected in every payment whatfoever; or If offered ^
that nothing will be eafier than to regulate thefe in payment of a debt above a certain fum, may be taken
upon the footing of the value paid for them, or of according to its weight, at the then mint price, in the
the fubjedt affeited by them. If by the regulation, option^of the creditor.
land-rents are made to rife in denomination, the an¬
nuities charged upon them ought to rife in propor¬
tion ; if in intrinfic value, the annuity fhould remain
as it was.
- 9. Regulations which the Principles of this Inquiry point
out as expedient to be made by a new Statute for regu¬
lating the Britifh Coin.
Let us now examine what regulations it may he
proper to make by a new ftatirte concerning the coin
of Great Britain, in order to preferve always the fame
exa& value of the pound Sterling realized in gold and
in filver, in fpite of all the incapacities inherent in the
metals to perform the fun&ions of an invariable fcale
Of meafure of value.
1. The firft point is to determine the exaft number
of grains of fine gold and fine filver which are tocom-
pofe it, according to the then proportion of the metals
in the London market.
2. To determine the proportion of thefe metals
with the pound troy p-and in regard that the ftandard
of gold and filver is different, let the mint price of
both metals be regulated according to the pound troy
3’. To fix the mint price within certain limits ; that of the metals conftantly at par with the price of the
is to fay, to leave to the king and council, by pro- market; and coinage may be impofed, as has been
clamation, to carry the mint price of bullion up to deferibed, by fixing the mint price of them^ at a
the value of the coin, as is the prefent regulation, or certain fate below the value of the fine metals in the
to fink it to per cent, below that price, according'
:. That no penalty ftiall be'incurred by thofe who
melt down or export the nation’s coin ; but that waft¬
ing, clipping, or diminifting the weight of any part
of it fhall be deemed felony, as much as any othef
theft, if the perfon fo degrading the coin ftall after¬
wards make it circulate for lawful money.
To prevent the inconveniences proceeding from the
variation in the proportion between the metals, it may
be provided,
12. That upon every variation of proportion in the
market-price of the metals, the price of both ftall be
changed, according to the following rule :
Let the price of the pound troy fine gold in the coin
be called G.
Let the price of ditto in the filver be called S.
Let the new proportion between the market-price
of the metals be called P.
Then ftate this formula :
G S
— to a pound troy fine filver,in S terlingcur rency.
.§ b P 4- —=to a pound troy fine gold, in Sterl.currency.
2 2
This will be a rule for the mint to keep the price
as government ftall incline to impofe a duty upon
coinage.
4. To order, that filver and gold coin ftall be
ftruck of fuch denominations as the king ftall think
fit to appoint; in which the proportion of the metals t*011 of either fpecies.
13. As long as the variation of the market-price of
the metals ftall not carry the price of the rifing metal
fo high as the advanced price of the coin above the
bullion, no alteration need be made on the denomina-
above determined ftall be conftantly obferved through
every denomination of the coin, until neceffity ftall
make a new general coinage unavoidable.
5. To have the number of grains of the fine metal
in every piece marked upon the exergue, or upon the
legend of the coin," in place of fome initial letters of
titles, which not one perfon in a thoufand can decy¬
pher ; and to make the coin of as compaft a form as
poffible, diminifting the furface of it as much as is
confident with beauty.
6. That it ftall be lawful for all contradling parties
to ftipulate their payments either in gold or filver
coin, or to leave the option of the fptcies to one of
the parties.
7. That where no particular ftipulation is made,
creditors ftall have power to demand payment, half in
one fpecies, half in the other ; and when the fum can¬
not fall equally into gold and filver coins, the fractions
to be paid in iilver.
8. That in buying and felling, when, no particular
fpecies has been ftipulated, and when no a£f in writing
has intervened, the option of the fpecies ftall be com¬
petent to the buyer.
9. '1 hat all fums paid or received by the king’s re¬
ceivers, or by bankers, ftall be delivered by weight, if
demanded.
10. That all money which ftall be found under the
14. So foon as the variation of the market price of
the metals ftall give a value to the rifing fpecies, above
the difference between the coin and the bullion ; then
the king ftall alter the denominations of all the coin,
filver and gold, adding to the coins of the rifing metal
exaflly what is taken from thofe of the other. Are
example will make this plain :
Let us fuppofe that the coinage has been made ac¬
cording to the proportion of 14.5 to 1 ; that 20 ftil-
lings, or 4 crown-pieces, ftall contain, in fine filver,
14.5 times as many grains as the guinea, or the gold
pound, ftall contain grains of fine gold. Let the new
proportion of the metals be fuppofed to be 14 to 1.
In that cafe, the 20 ftillings, or the 4 crowns, will
contain more value than the guinea. Now lince
there is no queftion of making a new general coinage
upon every variation, in order to adjuft the propor¬
tion of the metals in the weight of the coins, that pro¬
portion might be adjufted by changing their refpy&ive
denominations according to this formula :
Let the 20 ftillings, or 4 crowns, in coin, be called
5. Let the guinea be called G. Let the difference
between the old proportion and the new, which is r’p-,
be called P. Then fay,
P P
S —= a pound fterling,and G+—=apoundfterl.
2 2
By this it appears that all th« filver coin muft be
raifed
MON [229] MON
Money, raifed in its denomination y1^ and all the gold coin
mull be lowered in its denomination y-g-; yet ftill Sd-G
will be equal to two pounds Sterling, as before, whe¬
ther they be confidered according to the old or ac¬
cording to the new denominations.
But it may be obferved, that the impolition of coin¬
age rendering the value of the coin greater than the
value of the bullion, that circumftance gives a certain
latitude in fixing the new denominations of the coin,
fo as to avoid minute fra&ions. For, providing the
deviation from the exadt proportion lhall fall within
the advanced price of the coin, no advantage can be
taken by melting down one fpecies preferably to ano¬
ther ; fince, in either cafe, the lofs incurred by melting
the coin mull be greater than the profit made upon
felling the bullion. The mint price of the metals,
however, may be fixed exactly, that is, within the value
of a farthing upon a pound of fine filver or gold. This
is eafily reckoned at the mint; although upon every
piece in cornmon circulation the fraftions of farthings
would be inconvenient.
15. That notwithftanding of the temporary varia¬
tions made upon the denomination of the gold and
filver coins, all contradls formerly entered into, and all
ftipulations in pounds /hillings and pence, may con¬
tinue to be acquitted according to the old denomina¬
tions of the coins, paying one-half in gold and one-
half in filver: unlefs in the cafe where a particular
fpecies has been ftipulated ; in which cafe, the fums
mull be paid according to the new regulation made
upon the denomination of that fpecies, to the end
that neither profit or lofs may refult to any of the
parties.
16. That notwithftanding the alterations on the
mint price of the metals, and in the denomination of
the coins, no change lhall be made upon the weight
of the particular^ pieces of the latter, except in the
cafe of a general re-coinage of one denomination at
leaft : that is to fay, the mint muft not coin new gui¬
neas, crowns, &c. of a different weight from thofe al¬
ready in currency, although by fo doing the fra&ions
might be avoided. This would occafion confufion,
and the remedy would ceafe to be of any ufe upon a
Sew change in the proportion of the metals. But it
maybe found convenient, for removing the fmall frac¬
tions in /hillings and fixpences, to recoin fuch deno¬
minations altogether, and to put them to their in¬
teger numbers, of twelve and of fix pence, without
changing in any refpedl their proportion of value to
all other denominations of the coin ; this will be no
great expence, when the bulk of the filver coin is put Money,
into 5 /hilling pieces. -y—■
By this method of changing the denominations of
the coin, there never can refult any alteration in the
value of the pound Sterling; and although fraftions
of value may now and then be introduced, in order to
prevent the abufes to which the coin would otherwife
be expofed by the artifice of thofe who melt it down,
yet /till the inconvenience of fuch fra&ions may be
avoided in paying, according to the old denomina¬
tions, in both fpecies, by equal parts. This will alfo
prove demonftratively, that no change is thereby
made in the true value of the national unit of mo¬
ney.
17. That it be ordered, that /hillings and fixpences
/hall only be current for 20 years; and all other coins,
both gold and filver, for 40 years, or more. For as¬
certaining which term, there may be marked, upon
the exergue of the coin, the laft year of their cur¬
rency, in place of the date of their fabrication. This
term elapfed, or the dare effaced, that they /hall have
no more currency whatfoever; and, when offered in
payment, may be received as bullion at the a&ual
price of the mint, or refufed, at the option of the cre¬
ditor.
18. That no foreign coin /hall have any legal cur¬
rency, except as bullion at the mint price.
By thefe and the like regulations may be pre¬
vented, itnoy The melting or exporting of the coin in
general, ido^ The melting or exporting one fpecies,
in order to fell it as bullion at an advanced price.
3*0, The profit in acquitting obligations preferably
in one fpecies to another. 4/0, The degradation of the
ftandard, by the wearing of the coin, or by a change
in the proportion between the metals. 5/0, The circu¬
lation of the coin below the legal weight. 6/0, The
profit that other nations reap by paying their debts
more cheaply to Great Britain than Great Britain can
pay her’s to them.
And the great advantage of it is, that it is an uni¬
form plan, and may ferve as a perpetual regulation,
compatible with all kinds of denominations of coins,
variations in the proportion of the metals, and with
the impofition of a duty upon coinage, or with the
preferving it free; and further, that it may in time be
adopted by other nations, who will find the advantage
of having their money of account preferved perpetually
at the fame value, with refpefl to the denominations of
all foreign money of account eftabli/hed on the fame
principles.
A TABLE
MON [ 230 ] MON
UN1VER-
EUROPE, Northern Part*.
MON
[ 231 1
MON
UNIVERSAL TABLE
Of the prefent State of the Real and Imaginary Monies of the World,
f This mark is prefixed to the Imaginary Money, or Money of Account.
All Fractions in the Value Englifh are Parts of a Penny.
= This mark fignifies is, make, or equal to.
ENGLAND and SCOTLAND.
London, Brijlol, Liverpool, &c.
Edinburgh, Glafgo'W, Aberdeen,
:'A Farthing
2 Farthings
2 Halfpence
4 Pence
6 Pence
12 Pence
5 Shillings
20 Shillings
21 Shillings
£. s. d.
— a Halfpenny
a Penny
a Groat
a Half Shilling
a Shilling
a Crown
•fa Pound Sterling
a Guinea
A Farthing
2 Farthings
2 Halfpence
64- Pence
12 Pence
13 Pence
65 Pence
20 Shillings
22^ Shillings
IRELAND.
Dublin, Cork, Londonderryc.
~ a Halfpenny
fa Penny
a Half Shilling
fa Shilling Irifh
. a Shilling
a Crown
fa Pound Trifh
a Guinea
Ott
6
FLANDERS and BRABANT.
Ghent, OJlend, idc. Antwerp, Erujfeh, id
f A Pening - - - o
4 Peningens = an Urche - . o
8 Peningens f a Grote - o.
2 Grotes a Petard - - o
6 Petards fa Scalin - o
- .7 Petards a Scalin - o
40 Grotes fa Florin o
174- Scalihs a Ducat - o
240 Grotes fa Pound FTem. - o
°t£o-
C29c3-
O-rV
5r
6-nj
6
3
HOLLAND and ZEALAND.
Amjlerdam, Rotterdam, Middlelurg, Flujhing, idc.
, f Pening - - - o o (
8 Peningens rrfa Grote - - o o i
2 Grotes a Stiver ~ - 00:
6 Stivers a.Scalin
20 Stivers a Guilder
59. Stivers - a.Rix-dolIar
o 6tV
1 9
4 4-4'
HOLLAN3D, Sec.
* 60 Stivers a Diy Guilder
105 Stivers a Ducat
6 Guilders fa Pound Flem.
£. s. L
053
0 9 3
o 10 6
HAMBURG. Altena, Lubec, Bremen, idc.
f A Tryling
2 Trylings
2 Sexlings
12 Fenings
16 Shillings
2 Marcs
3 Marcs
6f Marcs
[ 2o Shillings
fa Sexling
a Fening
a Shilling Lub.
fa Marc
a Slet dollar
a Rix-dollar
a Ducat
fa Pound Flem.
oA-g
°5'4
°TTC
f A Fening
3 Fenings
8 Fenings
l 2 Eenings
8 Groflijjg
16 Grofhert ;
24 Grofhen
32 Grofhen
4-Guldens
HANOVER. Lunenburgh, Zell, idc.
a Dreyer
a Marien
a Grofh
a Half Gulden
a Gulden
fa Rix-dollar
a Double Gulden
a Ducat
SAXONY and;HOLSTEIN.
Drefden, Leipftc, idc. Wifmar, Kell, idc.
f An Heller
2 Hellers
6 Hellers
16 Hellers
12 Fenings
16 Grofhen
24 Grofhen
32 Grofhen
4 Goulds
a Fening
a Dreyer
a Marien
a Grefh
a Gould
fa Rix-dollar
a Specie-dollar
a Ducat
BRANDENBURGH and POMERANIA.
Berlin, Potfdam, idc. Stetin, idc.
f A Denier = - . o o c
9 Deniers a.Polchen - o o c
18 Deniers a Grofh - . o o <
3 Polchens an Abrafs - 00c
20 Grofhen fa Marc ■
> o 9f
30 Grofhen
MON [232
BRANDENBURGH, &c.
£. u d.
$0 Grofhen a Florin o 1 2
90 Grofhen fa Rix-dollar - 036
108 Oroflien an Albtrtus - 042
8 Florins a Ducat - 094
C OLOG N, Mentz, Triers’, Liege, Munich, Munjler,
Paderhourn, &c.
A Dute
3 Dutes =; a Cruitzer
2 Cruitzers
8 Dutes
3 Stivers
4 Plaperts
40 Stivers
2 Guilders
4 Guilders
1 Albus
a Stiver
a Plapert
a Copftuck
a Guilder
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
O-rV
BOHEMIA, SILESIA, and HUNGARY.
Prague, Breflow, Prejhurg, &c.
A Fening - - o
2 Fenings = a Dreyer - o
3 Fenings a Grofh - o
4 Fenings a Cruitzer - o
2 Cruitzers a White Gtofh
60 Cruitzers a Gould
90 Cruitzer# fa Rix-dollar
2 Goulds a Hard Dollar
4 Goulds a Ducat
°tV
Ots-
OtV
- O O oj.'
036
048
094
AUSTRIA and SWABIA.
Vienna, Tiejl, i$c. Aufhurg, Blenheim, isfc.
A Fening - - - 00 Og-7^
2 Fenings = a Dreyer - 00 0TV
4 Fenings a Cruitzer £ 00 of^
[4 Fenings a Grofh * 0 0 i-f§-
4 Cruitzers a Batzen . 001^
15 Batzen a Gould - 024
90 Cruitzers fa Rix-dollar - 036
30 Batzen a Specie-dollar 048
60 Batzen a Ducat - 094
FRANCONIA, Francfort, Nuremhurg, Dettingen, &c.
A Fening - - -00 c*-V
4 Fenings == a Cruitzer
3 Cruitzers
4 Cruitzers
15 Cruitzers
60 Cruitzers
90 Cruitzers
2 Goulds
(_240 Cruitzers
a Keyfer Grofh
a Batzen
an Ort Gould
a Gould
fa Rix-dollar
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
POLAND and PRUSSIA.
Cracow, IVarfaw, &c. Dantzic, Koningfherg, &c.
A Shelon
3 Shelons = a Grolh
5 Grofhen a Couitic
3 Couflics a Tinfe
N° 226.
1 MON
POLAND, See.
18 Grofhen — an Ort
30 Grofhen a Florin
90 Grofhen fa Rix dollar
8 Florins a Ducat
5 Rix-dollars a Frederic d’Or
o 3
o 9
o 17
A Blacken
6 Blackens =
9 Blackens
2 Grofhen
6 Grofhen
30 Grofhen
90 Grofhen
108 Grofhen
64 Whitens
LIVONIA.
Riga, Revel, Narva, IRc.
a Grofh
a Vording
a Whiten
a Marc
a Florin •
f a Rix dollar
an Albertus
a Copper-plate Dollar
6
2/r
DENMARK, ZEALAND, and NORWAY.
Copenhagen, Sound, &c. Bergen, Drontheim, Sic.
A Skilling
6 Skillings :
16 Skillings
20 Skillings
24 Skillings
4 Marcs
6 Marcs
11 Marcs
14 Marcs
& Duggen
f a Marc
a Rix marc
a Rix ort
a Crown
a Rix dollar
a Ducat
a Hatt Ducat
o O o/|-
° ° 3 i
009
O O II ^
O I I -s
0 2 0
O46
O83
0 10 6
SWEDEN and LAPLAND.
Stockholm, Upjal, IsV. Thorn, &c.
a Stiver
a Copper Marc
a Silver Marc
a Copper Dollar
a Caroline
a Silver Dollar
a Rix dollar
a Ducat
f A Runftick
2 Runfticks 2=
8 Runflicks
3 Copper Marts
4 Copper Marcs
9 Copper Marcs
3 Copper Dollars
3 Silver Dollars
2 Rix dollars
RUSSIA and MUSCOVY.
Peterfburg, Archangel, c. Mufcow,
A Polufca
2 Polufcas = a Denufca
2 Denufcas fa Copec
3 Copecs . an Altin
to Copecs a Grievener
25 Copec# a Polpotin
50 Copecs a Poltin
100 Copecs a Ruble
2 Rubles a Xervonitz
f BASIL. Zurich, Zug, &c.
A Rap * -
3 Rapen = a Fening
4 Fenings a Cruitzer
12 Fenings fa Sol
°tV<5-
I
5 T
13 Fe-
. ^^ £ tf R O P E, Southern Partg,     
I1 range and Navarre. Switzerland.
15 Fenings
18 Fenings
20 Sols
60 Cruitzers
108 CruitZers
MON
BASIL, &c.'
= a Coarfe Batzen
z Good Batzen
•j-a Livre
a Gulden
a Rix dollar
t 233 J
M O N
An Heller
2 Hellers =
4 Feiiings
12 Fenings
4 Cruitzers
5 Cruitzers
20 Sols
60 Cruitzers
102 Cruitzers
St GALL, /ipenfal, &c.
a Fening
a Cruiser
f a Sol
a Coarfe Batzen
a Good Batzen
fa Livre
a Gould
a Rix-dollar
A Denier
4 Deniers :
3 Cruitzers
4 Cruitzers
5 Cruitzers
6 Cruitzers
20 Sols
75 Cruitzers
[35 Cruitzers
BERN. Lucern, Neufchatd, &c.
a Cruitzer
fa Sol
a Plapert
a Gros
a Batzen
fa Livre
a Gulden
a Crown
°tV
1 f
I i
2 £
GENEVA. PeZ-aj, &c.
A Denier
2 Deniers t=
12 Deniers
12 Deniers current
12 Small Sols
20 Sols current
i of Florins
15^ Florins
24 Florins
a Denier current
a Small Sol
a Sol current
fa Florin
fa Livre current
a Patacon
a Croifade
a Ducat
lyl/Is, Cambray, Valenciennes', See.
A Denier - - - o
12 Deniers = a Sol - o
15 Deniers fa Patard - o
13 Patards fa Piette - o
20 Sols a Livre Tournois o
20 Patards fa Florin - o
60 Sols an Ecu of Ex. o
1 of Livres a Ducat - o
24 Livres a Louis d’Or 1
Dunkirk, St Omers, St Quintin, Sec.
. Denier
)eniers
Deniers
a Sol
fa Patard
fa Piette ,
fa Livre Tournois
an Ecu of Ex.
a Louis d’Gt
a Guinea
a Moeda
Vot. XII. Part i.
f A Re
to Rez
20 Rez
5 Vintins
4 Teftoons
24 Vintins
t o Teftoons
48 TeftooRS
64 Teftoons
°rr
°tV
O 4 T
1 3
3 11 I
5 10 T
9 °
0 9 i
o to
2 f)
9 3
o ,7 f
o 10
2 6
Paris, Lyons, Marfeilles, &c. Baurdeaux, Bayonne, &c\
£-
A Denier
3 Deniers
2 Liards
12 Deniers
20 Sols
60 Sols
6 Livres
to Livres
24 Livres
a Liard
a Dardene
a Sol
fa Livre Tournois
an Ecu of Ex.
an Ecu
fa Piftole
a Louis d’Or
O O OfTf
o 10
2 6
S o
8 4
PORTUGAL. Li/bon, Oporto, &c.
a Half Vintin
a Vintin
a Teftoon
a Crufade of Ex.
a New Crufade -
fa Milre
a Moeda
a Joanefe
UToA-
0 a-J
1 T®
6 i
3
0 5
1 7
1 16
Madrid, Cadiz, Seville, &c. New Plate.
A Maravedie
2 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
2 Rials
8 Rials
10 Rials
375 Maravedies
32 Rials
36 Rials
: a Quattil
a Rial
a Piftarine
fa Piaftre of Ex.
a Dollar
fa Ducat of Ex.
fa Piftole of Ex.
a Piftole
° 3
o 4
o 4
o 14
o 16
oAV
"I
10 l
7
6
Gibraltar, Malaga, Dcrtia, &c. Velon.
f A Maravedie
2 Mat%vedies
4 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
15 Rials
512 Maravedies
60 Rials
2048 Maravedies
78 Rials
o o
: a Ochavo o o
a Quartil o o
fa Rial Velon o o
fa Piaftre of Ex. o 3
a Piaftre o 3
fa Piftole of Ex. o 14
a Piftole of Ex. 016
a Piftole • o 16
0TT<r
0 If
2 *
7
7
4
9
9
Barcelona, Saragojfa, Valencia, &c. Old Plate.
A Marayedie
16 Maravedics
2 Sold os
20 Soldos
24 Soldos
6 Soldos
22 Soldos
21 Soldos
60 Soldos
2= a Soldo - o
a Rial Old Plate o
fa Libra - o
fa Ducat - o
fa Dollar « o
fa Ducat - o
fa Ducat . o
a Piftole
WtV*
3 i
6 £
7 x
9
6
o 5 10
0169
GENOA. Novi, See. CORSICA. BaJlia,Scc.
A Denari
12 Denari
4 Soldi
20 Soldi
30 Soldi
= a Soldi
a Chevalet
f a Lire
a Teftoon
Gg
1 OrrTuTj-
1 O AW
» I -rf
* 8 f
5 Lyres
EUROPE, Southern Parts.
Italy.
M O N
GENOA, &c.
5 Lircs == a Croifadc
15 Soldi fa Pezzo of Ex.
6 Teftoons a Genouine
20 Lines a Piftole
[ 234 ]
£. <1.
0 3 7
0 4 2
0 6 2
0 14 4
PIEDMONT, SAVOY, and SARDINIA.
‘Turin, Chamberry, Cagliari, &c.
A Denari - - - - o 0 o
a Quatrini - o o o
a Soldi - 000
fa Florin - 009
fa Lire
3 Denari
12 Denari
12 Soldi
20 Soldi
6 Florins
7 Florins
13 Lires
16 Lires
1 Send!
a Ducatoon
a Pi Hole
a Louis d’Or
Milan, Modena, Parma, Pavia, See.
A Denari - - - o o O
3 Denari . = a Quatrini - o o o -/T
12 Denari a Soldi - o o o
20 Soldi fa Lire * o o 8
115 Soldi a Scudi current o 4 2 f
17 Soldi fa Scudi of Ex. 043
6 Liies a Philip - 044^
22 Lires a Piftole - 0160
23 Lires a Spanilh Piftole 016 9
A Denari
4 Denari
12 Denari
5 Quatrini
8 Cracas
20 Soldi
6 Lires
74 Lires
22 Lires
Leghorn, Florence, Sec.
2= a Qnatrini
a Soldi
a Craca
* a Quilo
fa. Lire
a Piaftre of Ex.
a Ducat
a Piftole
°ttt
MON
SICILY and MALTA. Palermo, Mejfma, ''Seed
£. s. d.
A Pichila
6 Pichili
8 Pichili
10 Grains
20 Grains
6 Tarins
13 Tarins
60 Carlins
2 Ounces
a Grain
a Ponti
a Carlin
a Tarin -
fa Florin of Ex.
a Dacat of Ex.
fan Ounce
a Piftole
0 3
o 7
o 15
A Quatrini
6 Quatrhu
10 Bayocs
20 Bayocs
3 Julios
80 Bayocs
toy Bayocs
joo Bayocs
31 Julios
Bologna, Ravenna, Sec.
= a Bayoc
fa Julio
a i.ire
a Teftoon
a Schudi of Ex.
a Ducatoon
a Crown
a Pi dole
o 4
° 5
° 5
o 15
6
o
6
3
3
A Picoli
I 2 Picoli
6f Soldi
18 Soldi
20 Soldi
3 Jules
124 Soldi
24 Gros
17 Lirea
VENICjE. Bergham, Sec.
c
= a Soldi - c
fa Gros - c
a J ule - - c
fa Lire - c
a Teftoon - c
a Ducat current c
fa Ducat of Ex. c
a Che quin - c
° °tV
O O y
o 2 £
o 6
o 6 4:
1 6
3 5 r
4 4
9 2
° 5
0 lS
ROME, Civita Vecchia, Ancona.
A Quatrini
5 Quatrini
8 Bayocs
10 Bayocs
24 Bayocs
10 Julios
12 Julios
18 Julios
31 Julios
TURKEY. Morea, Candid, Cyprus, Sec.
A Mangar - - -00 oTgs 1
4 Mangars = fan Afper - o o o f-
3 Afpers a Parac • - o o 1 y
5 Afpers a Beltic - -003
10 Afpers an Oftic - 006
20 Afpers a Solota - -010
80 Afpers fa Piaftre - 040
100 Afpers a Caragrouch -050
10 Solotas a Xeriff - o 10 o
a Bayoc
a Julio
a Starppt Julio
a Teftoon
a Crown current
fa Crown ftampt
a Chequin
a Piftole
o 9
o 15
NAPLES. Gaieta, Capua, Sec.
A Quatrini
3 Quatrini
10 Grains
40 Quatrini
' 20 Grains
40 Grains
joo Grains
23 Tarins
25 Tarins
a Grain
a Carlin
a Paulo
a Tarin
a Teftoon
a Ducat of Ex.
a Piftole
a Spanilh Piftole 1 j6
o }
4
5 T
8
4
4
4
9
ARABIA. Medina, Mecca, Mocha, Sec.
A Garret - - - o 0 o
Garrets = a Caveer - 00 of-J*
7 Garrets a Comalhee - 000
80 Garrets a Larin - o o 10 -|'
18 Comafhees an Abyfs - o 1 4 y
60 Comalhees fa Piaftre . 046
80 Caveers a Dollar - .046
100 Comalhees a Sequin - -076
80 Larins fa Tomond - 3 7 6
A Coz
4 Coz
10 Coz
20 Coz
2J Coz
4 Shaheos
PERSIA. Ifpahan, Ormus, Gombroon, Sec.
a Bifti
a Shahee
a Mamooda
a Larin
an Abalhee
o o of
o o if
0 0 4
008
o o 10
o 1 4
5 Abalhees
5 Aba/hees
12 Abafliees
50 Abafhees
MON
an Or
a Bovel!o
fa Toiftond
[ 235
£■>■ J-
0 8 6
016 6
3 6 8
GUZZURAT. Surat, Cnmlay, &c.
A Pecka
2 Peckas :
4 Pices
5 Pices
to Pices
4 Anas
2 Rupees
14 Anas
4 Pagodas
a Pice
a Fanam ‘
a Viz
an Ana
a Rupee
an Englifh Crown
a Pagoda
a Gold Rupee
0z4
°TT
1 -S-
2-j4
7 T
6
° 5
o 8
1 *5
8 9
Bombay, Dalul, &c.
f A Budgrook - - 0 o
2 Budgrooks = f a Re -j 00
5 Rez a Pice o o
16 Pices a Laree o o
20 Pices a Quarter o o
240 Rez a Xeraphim o 1
4 Quarters a Rupee o 2
14 Quarters a Pagoda o 8
60 Quarters a Gold Rupee 1 15
°W7o
Goa, Vifapour, &c.
fA Re
2 Rez
2 Bazaracos
20 Rez
4 Vintins
3 Larees
42 Vintins
4 Tangus
L 8 Tangus
a Bazaraco
a Pecka -
a Vintin
a Laree 005
a Xeraphim 014
a Tangu 046
a Pam 018 o
a Gold Rupee 1 15 o
0^O-V
0ToW
O-nso
CORC.MANDEL. Madrajs, Pondicherry, &c.
A calh - - -000
5 Calh = a Viz - . 000
a Pice - -000
a Pical - O02
a Fanam - - 0 o 3
a Rupee - 026
an Englifh Crown
a Pagoda
a Gold Rupee
2 Viz
6 Pices
8 Pices
10 Panama
2 Rupees
36 Fanams
4 Pagodas
0 5
o 8
1 *5
BENGAL. Callicut, Calcutta, &c.
A Pice - - o
4 Pices — a Fanam - o
6 Pices a Viz - . o
12 Pices an Ana - 0
xo Anas a Fiano - o
i6Anas a Rupee - - o
2 Rupees a French Ecu o
2 Rupees an Engliih Crown
.56 Anas a Pagoda
0 5
^ 5
] MON
SIAM. Pegu, Malacca, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, Bor¬
neo, &c.
A Cori
800 Cori
125 Fettees
250 Fettees
500 Fettees
900 Fettees
2 Ticals
4 Soocos
8 Sateleers
a Fettee
a Sataleer
a Sooco
a Tutal
a Dollar
a Rial
an Ecu
a Crown
d.
0 T$
7 i
3
6
6
A Caxa
10 Caxa
10 Candereens
35 Candereens
2 Rupees
70 Candereens
7 Maces
2 Rupees
10 Maces
CHlNiV Pekin, Canton, &c.
a Candereen
a Mace
a Rupee
a Dollar
a Rix-dollar
an Ecu
a Crown
fa Tale
O Oj-f
O O I*
o 8
2 6
4 6
4 4^
5 °
5 ©
6 8
A Piti
20 Pitis =
15 Maces
20 Maces
30 Maces
13 Ounces Silver
2 Ounces Gold
2 Japanefes
21 Ounces Gold
JAPAN. Jedda, Meaco, &c.
a Mace
an Ounce Silver
a Tale
an Ingot
an Ounce Gold
a Japanefe
a Double
fa Cattee
o of-
o 4
4
6 8
o 9
!S 3
6 6
12 12
66 3
°tF
° T
Orlr
EGYPT. Old and New Cairo, Alexandria, Sayde, &c.
An Afper - . . o o <
3 Afpers = a Medin - 00
24 Medins an Italian Ducat
80 Afpers fa Piaftre
30 Medins a Dollar
96 Afpers an Ecu
32 Medins a Crown
200 Afpers a Sultanin *•
70 Medins a Pargo Dollar
3 4
040
6
4
0 5
0 5
o 10
o 10
BARB ARY. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Una, &C.
An Afper - - . . 0 Q
3 Afpers 3= a Medin - 0 0
10 Afpers a Rial old Plate o o
2 Rials a Double - 01
4 Doubles a Dollar
24 Medins a Silver Chequin
30 Medins a Dollar
180 Afpers a Zequin
15 Doubles a Piftole
046
0 3 4
0 4 6
0810
0169
MOROCCO. Santa Cruz, Mequinez, Fez, Tangiers,
Sallee, &c.
A Fluce
24 Fluces =
a Blanquil
G g 2
O O O-jJ
0 0 2
AMERICA. f AFRICA.
4 Bianquils
7 Bianquils
14 Bianquils
2 Quartos
28 Bianquils
54 Bianquils
too Bianquils
MON
MOROCCO, &c.
an Ounce
an Octavo
a Quatto
a Medio
a Dollar
a Xequin
a Pi Ho le
£•
[ 236 ] MON
ENGLISH. Nova Scotia, Virginia, New Eng¬
land, &c.
I
o 4
o 4
o 9
o 16
ENGLISH. Jamaica, fiarhadoes, Zsfc.
fHalfpenny
2 Halfpence
74 Pence
l2 Pence
?5 Pence
7 Shillings
20 Shillings
24 Shillings
30 Shillings
fa Penny
a Bit
fa Shilling
a Dollar
a Crown
fa pound
a Piftole
a Guinea
o o
o 0
o 4
o J
o 14
o 16
l 1
FRENCH. St Domingo, Martinico, &c.
f A Half Sol
2 Half Sols
7-j- Sols
15 Sols
20 Sols
7 Livres
8 Livres
26 Livres
.32 Livrea
fa Sol -00
a Half Scalin o o
a Scalin o o
fa livre o o
a Dollar o 4
an Ecu o 4
a Piftole 016
a Louis d’Or 1 o
f A Penny
12 Pence
20 Shillings
2 Pounds
3 Pounds
, 4 Pounds
5 Pounds
6 Pounds
7 Pounds
8 Pounds
9 Pounds
10 Pounds
£■
fa ShiDing
fa Pound
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity uf Gold and Silver Coin*
that are imported.
Canada, Florida, Cayena, ilfc.
f A Denier
12 Deniers
20 Sols
2 Livres
3 Livres
4 Livres
5 Livres
6 Livres
7 Livres
8 Livres
9 Livres
10 Livres
fa Sol.
fa Livre.
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins
that are imported.
Note. For all the Spanijh, Portuguese, Dutch, and Dan'Jk
Dominions, either on the Continent or in the Weft Indies, fee
the Moneys of the refpe&ive nations.
Ancient Monet. See Coins and Medals..
Paper Monet. See the article Bank.
MON
Siongault. MONGAULT (Nicholas Hubert), an ingenious
and learned Frenchman, and one of the belt writers
of his time, was born at Paris in 1674. At 16 he
entered into the congregation of the fathers of the
oratory, and was afterwards fent to Mans to learn
philofophy. That of Ariftotle then obtained in the
fchools, and was the only one which was permitted
to be taught: neverthelefs Mongault, with fome of
that original fpirit which ufually diftinguilhes men of
uncommon abilites from the vulgar, ventured in a
public thefts which he read at the end of the courfe
of lectures, to oppofe the opinions of Ariftotle, and
to maintain thofe of Des Cartes. Having ftudied
theology with the fame fuccefs, he quitted the oratory
in 1699 ; and foon after went to Thouloufc, and
lived with Colbert archbiftrop of that place, who had
procured him a priory in 1698. In 1710 the duke
of Orleans, regent of the kingdom, committed to him
the education of his fon the duke of Chartres; which
important office he difcharged fo well, that he ac¬
quired an univerfal tfteem. In 1714, he had the
abbey of Chartreuve given him, and that of Ville-
neuve in 1719. The duke of Chartres, becoming
colonel-general of the French infantry, chofe the
Abbe Mongault to fill the place of fecretary-generalj,
MON
made him alfo fecretary of the province of Dauphiny; Mongooyj
and, after the death of the regent his father, raifed Monk,
him to other conftderable employments. AH this "m1
while he was as affiduous as his engagements would
permit in cultivating polite literature ; and, in 1714,,
publilhed at Paris, in. 6 vols. i2mo, an edition of
Tully’s Letters to Atticus, with an excellent French
tranflation, and judicious comment upon them. This
work has been often reprinted, and is juftly reckoned
admirable ; for, as Middleton has obferved, in the pre¬
face to his Life of Cicero, the Abbe Mongault “did not
content himfelf with retailing the remarks of other com¬
mentators, or out of the rubbifh of their volumes witffc
fele&ing the beft, but entered upon his ta!k with the
fpirit of a true critic, and by the force of his own
genius has happily illuftrated man^ paffages which all
the interpreters before him had given up as inexpli¬
cable.” He publilhed alfo a very good tranllation of
Herodian from the Greek ; the beft edition of which
is that of 1745, in izme. He died at Paris in 1746,
He was a member of the French academy, and of
the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres; and
was fitted to do honour to any fociety.
MONGOOZ, in zoology. See Lemur.
MONK, anciently denoted, “ a pafon who retired
from.
MON [ 237 ] MON
Monk.
from the world to give himfelf up wholly to God, and
to live in folitude and abftinence.” The word is de¬
rived from the Latin monachvs> and that from the
Greek “ folitaryof folus, “ alone.”
The original of monks feenjs to have been this :
The perfeeutior.s which attended the firft ages of the
Gofpel forced fome Chriftians to retire from the world,
and live in defarts and places moll private and unfre¬
quented, in hopes of finding that peace and comfort
among beafts which were denied them among men.
And this being the cafe of fome very extraordinary
perfons, their example gave fo much reputation to re¬
tirement, that the praftice was continued when the
reafon of its commencement ceafed. After the empire
became Chriltian, inftances of this kind were nume¬
rous ; and thofe whofe fecurity had obliged them to
live feparately and apart, b.ecame afterwards united in¬
to focieties. We may alfo add, that the myftic theo¬
logy, which gained ground towards the clofe of the
third century, contributed to produce the fame effeft,
and to drive men into folitude for the purpofes of en-
thufiaftic devotion.
The monks, at leafi: the ancient ones, were diflin-
guifhed into folitairesy c&nobites, and farabaites.
The folitary are thofe who live alone, in places re¬
mote from all towns and habitations of men, as do ftill
fome of the hermits.—The ccenobites are thofe who live
in community with feveral others in the fame houfe,
and under the fame fuperiors.—The farabaites were
ftrolling monks, having no fixed rule or refidence.
The houfes of monks again were of two kinds, viz.
mona/leries and laurx. See Monastery and Laura.
Thofe we call monks now-a-days are ccenobites,
who live together in a convent or monaftery, who
make vows of - living according to a certain rule efta-
blilhed by the founder, and wear a habit which di-
ftinguifhes their order.
Thofe that are endowed, or have a fixed revenue,
are moft properly called monks, monachi; as the Char-
trcux, Benedictines, Bernardines, &c. The Mendi¬
cants, or thofe that beg, as the Capuchins and Fran*
eifcans, are more properly called religious and friars ;
though the names are frequently confounded.
The firft monks were thofe of St Antony; who, to¬
wards the clofe of the fourth century, farmed them
into a regular body, engaged them to live in fociety
with each other, and prefcribed to them fixed rules
for the direction of their conduft. Thefe regulations,
which Antony had made in Egypt, were foon intro¬
duced into Paleftineand Syria by his difciple Hilarion.
Almoil about the fame time, Aones or Eugenius,
with their companions Gaddanas and Azyzas, inlti-
tuted the monaftic order in Mefopotamia and the ad¬
jacent countries; and their example was followed with
fiich rapid fuccefs, that in a fhort time the whole eaft
Was filled with a lazy fet of mortals, who, abandon¬
ing all human conneftions, advantages, pleafures, and
concerns, wore out a languiftung and miferable life
amidft the hardfhips of want, and various kinds of fuf-
fering, in order to arrive at a more clofe and rapturous-
communication with God and angels.
From the eaft this gloomy inftitution palled into the
well, and firft into Italy and its neighbouring iflands;
though it is uncertain who tranfpianted it thither..
St Martin, the celebrated bifhop of Tours, erefted the
firft monafteries in Gaul, and recommended this reli¬
gious folitude with fuch power and efficacy, both by
his inftrudtions and his example,^hat his funeral is {aid
to have been attended by no lefs than 2000 monks.
From hence the monaftic difcipline extended gradually
its progrefs through the other provinces and countries
of Europe. There were befides the monks of St Ba-
fil (called in the eaft Calogeri, from yi^y “good
old man”) and thofe of St Jerom, the hermits of St
Auguftine, and afterwards thofe of St Benedift and
St Bernard ; at length came thofe of St Francis and
St Dominic, with a legion of others; all which fee
under their proper heads, Benedictines, &c.
Towards the clofe of the 5th century, the mo«ks,-
who had formerly lived only for themfelves in folitary
retreats, and had never thought of affuming any rank
among the facerdotal order, were now gradually di-
ftinguilhed from the populace, and endowed with fuch
opulence and honourable privileges, that they found
themfelves in a condition to claim an eminent ftdtion
among the fupports and pillars of the Chriftian com¬
munity. The fame of their piety and fandlity was fo
great, that biihops and prelbyters were often chofea
out of their Order; and the paffion of erefting edi¬
fices and convents, in which the monks and holy vir¬
gins might ferve God in the moft commodious man¬
ner, was at this time carried beyond all bounds. How¬
ever, their lieentioufnefs, even in this century, was be¬
come a proverb; and they are faid to have excited
the moft dreadful tumults and feditions in various
places. The monadic orders were at firft under the
immediate jurifdi&ion of the biffiops, from which they
were exempted by the Roman pontiff about the end
of the 7th century ; and the monks, in return, devo¬
ted themfelves wholly to advance the interefts and to
maintain the dignity of the bilhop of Rome. This
immunity which they obtained was a fruitful fource of
licentioufnefs and diforder, and occafioned the great-
eft part of the vices with which they were afterwards
fo juftly charged. In the 8th century the monaftic
difcipline was extremely relaxed both in the eaftern.
and weftern provinces, and all efforts to reftore it were
ineffectual. Neverthelefs, this kind of inftitution was
in the higheft efteem, and nothing could equal the ve¬
neration that was paid about the clofe of the 9th cen¬
tury to fuch as devoted themfelves to the facred gloom
and indolence of a convent. This veneration induced
feveral kings and emperors to call them to their courts,
and to employ them in civil affairs of the greateft mo¬
ment. Their reformation was attempted by Louis
the Meek, but the effeft was of ffiort duration. In
the nth century they were exempted by the popes
from the authority of their fovereigns, and new orders
of monks were continually eftabliihed ; infomivh that
in the council of Lateran that was held in the year
1215, a decree was paffed, by the advice of Inno-
cent III. to prevent any new monaftic inftitutions ;
and feveral were entirely fuppreffed. In the 15th
and 16th centuries, it appears, from the teftimonies of-
the beft writers, that the monks were generally lazy,
illiterate, profligate, and licentious Epicureans, whofe
views in life were confined to opulence, idlenefs, an^
pleafure, However, the Reformation had a manifeft-
influence.
MON [ 238 1 MON
influence in reftraining their exceffes, and rendering
them more circumfpeft and cautious in their external
condudt.
Monks are diftinguiflied by the colour of their ha¬
bits into black, white, grey, &c. Among the monks,
fome are called monks of the choir, others profeffed monks,
and others lay monks ; which laft are deftined for the
fervice of the convent, and have neither clericate nor
literature.
Cloijlered Monks, are thofe who a finally refide in
the houfe; in oppofitibn to ex/ra-monks, who have
benefices depending on the monaftery.
Monks are alfo diftinguifhed into reformed, whom
the civil and eccleiiaftical authority have made mafters
of ancient convents, and put in their power to retrieve
the ancient difcipline, which had been relaxed; and
ancient, who remain in the convent, to live in it ac¬
cording to its eftablifhment at the time when they
made their vows, without obliging themfelves to any
new reform.
Anciently the monks were all laymen, and were
only diftinguifhed from the reft of the people by a
particular habit and an extraordinary devotion Not
only the monks were prohibited the priefthood, but
even priefts were txprefsly prohibited from becoming
monks, as appears from the letters of St Gregory.
Pope Syricius was the firft who called them to the
clericate, on occafion of fome great fcarcity of priefts,
that the church was then fuppofed to labour under:
and fince that time, the priefthood has been ufually
united to the monaftical profeffion.
Monk (George), a perfonage memorable for having
been the principal agent in reftoring Charles II. to
his crown, was defcended from a very ancient family,
and born in Devonfhire ih 1608. Being an unpro¬
vided younger fon, he dedicated himfeif to arms from
his youth, and obtained a pair of colours in the expe¬
dition to the Me of Rhee: he ferved afterwards in
the Low Countries with reputation in both King
Charles’s northern expeditions; and did fuch fervice in
quelling the Irifh rebellion, that he was appointed go-
vernor of Dublin, but was fuperfeded by parliamentary
authority. Being made major-general of the Irifh
brigade employed in the fiege of Nantwich in Chefhire,
he was taken prifoner by Sir Thomas Fairfax, and re¬
mained confined in the Tower of London until the
year 1646 ; when, as the means of liberty, he took
the covenant, and accepted a command in the Irifh
fervice under the parliament. He obtained the com¬
mand in chief of all the parliamentary forces in the
jiorth of Ireland, where he did fignal fervices, until
he was called to account for a treaty made with the
Irifh rebels; a circumftance which was only oblite¬
rated by his future good fortune. He ferved in Scot¬
land under Oliver Cromwell with fuch fuccefs, that
be was left there as commander in chief; and he was
one of the commiffioners for uniting that kingdom
with the new ereded commonwealth. He ferved at
fea alfo againft the Dutch ; and was treated fo kindly
on his return, that Oliver is faid to have grown jea¬
lous of him. He was, however, again fent to Scot¬
land as commaitder in chief, and continued there five
years: when he diflembled fo well, and improved cir-
cumftances fo dextroufly, that he aided the defires of
a wearied people, and reftored the king without any
difturbance ; for which he was immediately rewarded Monkey,
both with honours and profit: (See Britain, n° iQ4,Monmet,>^
&c.)—He was created duke of Albemarle, with a ■ ' '~rW
grant of 70001. per annum eftate, befide other emo¬
luments ; and enjoyed the confidence of his matter
without forfeiting that of the people. After his death
in 1670, there was publifhed a treatife compofed by
him while he remained prifoner in the Tower, in-
titled, “ Obfervations on Military and Political Af¬
fairs,” a fmall folio.
MoNK-Fi/h. See Squalus.
MoNKS-Head, or Wolf's bane. See Aconitum.
MONKEY, in zoology. See Ape and Simia.
MONMOUTH (James, duke of), fon toCharlesII.
by Mrs Lucy Walters, was born at Rotterdam in
1649. Upon the Reftoration, he was called over t»
England, where the king received him with all ima¬
ginable joy, created him earl of Orkney (which was
changed into that of Monmouth), and he took his
feat in the houfe of peers in the enfuing fefiion of
parliament. He married Anne, the heirefs of Francis
earl of Buccleugh; and hence it came to pafa
that he had alfo the title of Buccleugh, and took the
furname of Scot, according to the cuftom of Scotland.
In 1668 his father made him captain of his life-guard
ofhorfe; and in 1672 he attended the French king
in the Netherlands, and gave proofs of bravery and
conduft. In 1675 the king of France made him
lieutenant-general of his army, with which he came
before Maeftricht, and behaved himfeif with incredible
gallantry, being the firft who entered it himfeif. He
returned to England, was received with all pofiible
refpeft, and was received chancellor of the univerfity of
Cambridge. After this he went to aflift the prince
of Orange to raife the fiege of Mons, and did not a
little contribute towards it. He returned to England;
and was fent, in quality of his father’s general, toi
quell an infurreftion in Scotland, which he effected:
but foon after he fell into difgrace; for, being a Pro*
teftant, he was deluded into ambitious fchemes, upon
the hopes of the exclufion of the duke of York : he
confpired againft his father and the duke : and when
the latter came to the throne by the title of James II.
he openly appeared in arms, encouraged by the Pro-
teftant army ; but coming to a decifive battle before
he had fufficient forces to oppofe the royal army, he
was defeated, taken foon after concealed in a ditch,
tried for high treafon, condemned, and beheaded in
1685, aged 36. See Britain, n° 242.249—265.
Monmouth, the capital of the county of Mon-
mouthlhire in England, 129 miles from London.—
It has its name from its fituation at the conflux A>f
the Monow or Mynwy, and the Wye, over each of
which it has a bridge, and a third over the Frothy.—
Here was a caftle in William the Conqueror’s time,
which Henry III. took from John Baron of Mon¬
mouth. It afterwards came to the houfe of Lan-
cafter, who beftowed many privileges upon the town.
Here Henry V. furnamed of Monmouth^ was born.
The famous hiftorian Geoffrey was alfo born at this
place. Formerly it gave the title of earl to the fa¬
mily of Carey, and of duke to king Charles the Se¬
cond’s eldeft natural fon ; i>ut now of earl to the
Mordaunts, who are alfo earls of Peterborough. It
is a populous and well built place, and carries on a
con-
MON [ 239 ] MON
Ma'ino’.ith cflnfiderable trade with Brxftol by means of the Wye.
Monnoye. jt jjas a weekly market, and three fairs.
u-""v ' Monmouthshire, a county of England; anciently
reckoned a part of Wales, but in Charles; the Second’s
time taken into the Oxford circuit, and made an Eng-
lifh county. It is bounded on the north by Here-
fordfliire, on the eaft by Glocefterfhire, on the fouth
by the river Severn, and on the weft by the Welch
counties of Brecknock and Glamorgan. Its extent
from north to fouth is about 30 miles, from eaft to
weft 26, and in circumference 110: It is fubdivided
into fix hundreds ; and contains feven market-towns,
127 parifhes, about 6494 houfes, 38,900 inhabitants;
but fends only three members to parliament, that is,
one for Monmouth, and two for the county. The
air is temperate and healthy ; and the foil fruitful,
though mountainous and woody. The hills feed ftieep,
goats,' and horned cattle ; and the valleys produce
plenty of grafs and corn. This county is extremely
well watered by feveral fine rivers ; for, befides the
Wye, which parts it from Glocefterlhire, the Mynow,
which runs between it and Herefordftiire, and the
Rumney, which divides it from Glamorganfhire, it
has, peculiar to itfelf, the Ulk, which enters this
county a little above Abergavenny, runs moftly fouth-
ward, and falls into the Severn by the mouth of the
Ebwith ; which laft river runs from north to fouth,
in the weftern fide of the county. All thefe rivers,
cfpecially the Wye and Ufk, abound with fifti, parti¬
cularly falmon and trout.
MONNOYE (Bernard de la), born at Dijon in
1641, was a man of fine parts and great learning. He
was admirably formed for poetry ; and ufed to win
the firft prizes inftituted by the members of the French
academy, till he difeontinued to write for them (it
is faid) at the folicitation of the academy ; a circum-
ftance which, if true, would reflect higher honour on
him than a thoufand prizes. All his pieces are in a
moft exquifite tafte ; and he was no lefs Ikilful in La¬
tin poetry than in the French. Menage and Bayle
have both beftowed the higheil encomiums on his La¬
tin poetry. His Greek poems are likewife looked
upon as very good ; and fo are his Italian, which are
written with great fpirit. But poetry was not La
Monnoye’s only province : to a perfeA Ikill in poetry,
he joined a very accurate and extenfive knowledge
of the languages. He had great fkill in criticifm ;
and no man applied himfelf with greater afiiduity to
the ftudy of hiftory, ancient and modern. He was
perfe&ly acquainted with all the fcarce books that
had any thing curious in them ; very well verfed in
the hiftory of the learned ; and what completes all,
is the wonderful clearnefs with which he poffefled thefe
various kinds of knowledge. He wrote Remarks on
the Menagiana ; in the laft edition of which, in 4 vols
j 2mo,-printed in 1715, are included feveral pieces
of his poetry, and a curious differtation on the fa¬
mous book De tribus Impojloribus. His Differtation
on Pomponius L net us, at leatt an extract of it, is infert-
ed in the new edition of Baillet’s Jugemens tiesJga-
vans, puhliftied in 1722, with a great number of re¬
marks and corrections by La Monnoye. He alfq em*
bellilhed the Anti-Baillet of Menage with a multi¬
tude of corre&ions and notes. It would employ fe-
veral pages to enumerate the various ferviccs this in-
4
genious and learned man did to the republic of let- Monnoyer*
ters ; as well by enriching it with productions of his Myno
own, as by the affiftance which he communicated very chor<j,
freely upon all occafions to the learned of his times. y—
Thus, among others, he favoured Bayle with a great
number of curious particulars for his Diftionary, and
was highly applauded by him on that account. He
died at Paris, October 15th 1728, in his 88t'h year.
—Mr de Sallinger publiftied at the Hague A Collec¬
tion of Poems by La Monnoye, with his elogium,
from whence many of the above particulars are taken.
He alfo left behind him a Colleftion of Letters, moft¬
ly critical; feveral curious gDiffertations ; 300 Seleft
Epigrams from Martial, and other poets ancient and
modern, in French verfe ; feveral other works in profe
and verfe, in French, Latin, and Greek, all ready
for the prefs.
MONNOYE R (John Baptift), “one of the great-
eft mafters (according to Mr Walpole) that has ap¬
peared for painting flowers. . They are not fo ex-
quifitely finiftied as Van Huyfum’s, but his colouring
and compofition are in a bolder ftyle.” He was born>
at Lifle in 163 and educated at Antwerp as a paint¬
er of hiftory, which he foon changed for flowers. Go¬
ing* to Paris in 1^63, he was received into the academy
with applaufe; and employed at Verfailles, Tria¬
non, Marly, and Meudon ; and painted in the hotel
de Bretonvilliers at Paris, and other houfes. The
duke of Montague brought him to England; where-
much of his hand is to be feen, at Montague-houfe,.
Hampton-court, the duke of St Alban’s at Windfor,
Kenfington, Lord Carlifle’s, Burlington-houfe, &c..
But his moft curious work is faid to be a looking-glafs-
at Kenfington palace, which he adorned with flowers
for Queen Mary, who held him in fuch high efteem,
that (he honoured him with her prefence nearly the
whole time he was bufied in the performance. —Bap-
till paffed and repaffed feveral times between France
and England ; but having married his daughter to a
French painter who* was fuffered to alter and touch
upon his pidlures, Baptift was offended and returned
to France no more. He died in Pall-mall in 1699..
—His fon Antony, calledywrair Baptijl, painted in his
father’s manner, and had merit.
MONOCEROS, unicorn, in aftronomy, a fouthern v
conftellation formed by Hevelius, containing in his
catalogue 19 liars, and in the Britannic Catalogue 31.
MONOCEROS, in zoology. See Monodon.
MONOCKORD ; an inftrument by which we are
enabled to try the feveral proportions of muficax
founds and intervals, as well in the natural, as in tem¬
pered feales. Originally it had, as its name implies,,
only one ftring; but it is better conftru&eu with two, as
we have by means of this additional ftring an oppor¬
tunity of judging of the harmony of two tempered;
notes in every pofiible variety of temperament (fee
Temperament and Tuning). It confifts of a brafs-
rule placed upon a found-board, and accurately di¬
vided into diflerent feales. according to the purpofes-
for which it is chiefly intended. Above this rule
the ftrings are to be ftretched over two fixed bridges,
between which there is a moveable fret, fo contrived1
as to divide at pleafure one of the ftrings into the fame
proportional parts as are engraved upon the feales be¬
neath, The figure of the inftruiaent, the manner of.
ill iking-
MON [ 240 1 MON
Mono- ftriking the firings fo as to produce the found, as
chord- likewife the conftruftion of the moveable bridge, may
“"”'v be varied at pleafure according to the wiflr and inge¬
nuity of the artift: But with the affiftance of fuch an
inftrument accurately Conftru&ed, any perfon with a
_good ear may be enabled to tune a keyed inftrument
with fufficient precifion to anfwer every practical pur-
pofe.
The following table contains the chief feales that
have hitherto been computed. In column ill is given
the natural Jfcale, or fcalc of perfedl intervals. J’he
fecond column contains a new tempered fcale, which
feems better adapted than any other to keyed initru-
ments, when chiefly defigned for leflbn-playing, or
playing without accompanyments. The third is a
fcale propofed by Mr Emcrfon in his Mechanics, and
fince recommended by Mr Jones in his Phyfiological
T)ifquifitions, and by Mr Cavallo in the Philofophical
Tranfac'.ions for 1788 The fourth and fifth exhibit
the fyItems of mean tones, and of equal harmony,
calculatedhy Dr Smith for inftruments of a moreper-
fedt conftrudlion than thofe now in ufe.
N. B. Mr Jones propofes to have the two num¬
bers which are denoted by liars refpedtively altered
to the numbers 796 and 531.
The method of tuning any inftrument by means of
the monochord is as follows: Firft, you mult tune the
C of the monochord to the concert pitch by means of
a tuning-fork; next, you are to put the middle C of
your intlrument in perfedl unifon with the C of the
monoehord: Then move the Hiding fret to the next
divifion on the fcale, and proceed in the fame manner
with all the feveral notes and half notes within the
compafs of an odtave. When this is done with ac¬
curacy, the other keys are all to be tuned, by cora-
. N° 226.
paring them with the o&ave which is already temper- Mous¬
ed. £The monochord is here fuppofed to be made chord,
to the pitch of C } but this may be varied at the will v **
of the conftruftor.J
The curious reader who may wilh for further in¬
formation refpedting the conftrudlion and ufe of mo-
nochords, will be highly gratified in perufing the ap¬
pendix of Mr Atwood’s Treatife on Redtilinear Motion*
and Mr Joaes’s ingenious and entertaining obfeira¬
tions on the female of mufic, monochord, &c. in hi*
Phyfiological Difquifitions.
Monochord is alfo ufed for any mufical in¬
ftrument that confifts of only one firing or chord ; in
this fenfe the trumpet marine may properly be called
a tnonochord.
MONOCULUS, in zoology; the name of a ge¬
nus of infefts of the order of aptera^ in the Linnaeafi
fyftem. Its body is Ihort, of a roundifh figure, and
covered with a firm cruftaceous fkin ; the fore-legs
are ramofe, and ferve for leaping and fwimming; it
has but one eye, which is large, and conapofed of
three fmaller ones.
Of this genus, many of which have been reckoned
among the microfcopic animals, authors enumerate a
great number of fpecies. The figure in Plate CCCXV.
reprefents the quadricornis, at four-horned monocu-
lus, a very fmall fpecies about half a line in length,
and of an afhen grey colour. From the head arife
four antennae, two forwards and two backwards; all
four fumilhed with a few hairs, which give them the
figure of a branch. Between the antennae, ort the
fore part of the head, is fituated a Angle eye. From
the head to the tail the body goes down, decrea-
fing in fhape like a pear; and is compofed of feven
or eight rings, which grow continually more ftraiten-
ed. The tail is long, divided into two; each divi-
fion giving rife outwardly to three or four briftly
hairs. The animal carries its eggs on the two fides
of its tail in the form of two yellowiih parcels filled
with fmall grains, and which taken together, n#arly
equal the infeft in bignefs. This minute infe£t is
found in Handing pools. A number of them being
kept in a bottle of water, feme will be fecn loaded
with their eggs, and after a while departing the two
parcels, either jointly or feparately.
The name monoculus has been given to this genus,
as confilting of individuals which apparently have but
one eye : and from the manner in which they pro¬
ceed forward in the water by leaping, they have alfo
been called water-f eus. The branching antenna: ferve
them inftead of oars, the legs being feldom ufed for Bariut,t ^
fwimming. “ The tail, forked in fome fpecies, in
others Ample, ferves them for a rudder. Their
lour varies from white to green, and to red, more orp.3fio*
lefs deep, doubtlefs in a ratio to the fragments of the
vegetables on which they feed. The red tinfture
they fometimes give to the water, has made fome ig¬
norant men think that the water had turned to blood.
Too weak to be carnivorous, they on the contrary
fall a prey to other aquatic infefts, even to polypi.
Their body, compadl and hard, is fo tranfparent
that in fome the eggs with which the abdomen is
filled are difcernible. The water-parrot and the ftiell-
monoculus, are remarkable. This latter is provided
with a bivalvular fhell, within which he Units
3 himfeif
MON [ 24r ] MON
TUtmndon. liimftlf up, if drawn out of the water. The fhell
' * * opens underneath, the infe& puts forth its antennse,
by means of which it fwims very expeditioufly in va¬
rious direftions, feeking a folid body to adhere to,
and then it is it ufes its feet in walking, bylfretching
them out through the aperture of its fhell.
“ I preferved a pair ef thefe infedts (fays our author),
daft year, in a fmall glafs tumbler, the one male the
other female, having a bag filled with eggs affixed on
each fide the abdomen. In the fpace of 14 days the
increafe was aftoniffiing : it would have been impof-
fible to have taken a fingle drop of water out of the
glafs without taking with it either the larva or a
young monoculus. I again repeated the experiment
by feledtihg another pair; and at the expiration of
the laft 14 days my furprife was increafed beyond mea-
fure. The contents of the glafs appeared a mafs of
quick-moving, animated matter; and being diverfified
by colours of red, green, affi-colour, white, &c. af¬
forded, with the affiftance of the magnifier, confide-
rable entertainment.”
MONODON, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties
Plate belonging to the order of cete; the characters of which
CCCXV. are . 'x1}iere are too very long, ftraight, and fpirally
twifted teeth, which flick out from the upper jaw;
and the fpiracle, or breathing-hole, is fituated on the
anterior part of the Ikull. There is but one fpecies,
the monoceros, or horned narwhal, which fometimes
grows to 25 feet in length, exclufive of the horn ; but
the ufual fize is from 16 to 20. It is particularly
noted fbr its horn or horns, as they are called ; but
which are real teeth. Of thefe there are always two
in young animals; though the old ones have generally
but one, fometimes none. From the circumftance of
only one tooth being ufually found, the animal has
acquired the name of Unicorn Fi/b, or Sea Unicorn.
They inhabit the northern feas, from Norway to,within
the ardtic circle: they are plentiful in Davis’s ftraits and
the north of Greenland ; where the natives, for want
of wood, make rafters of the teeth. From the tooth
or horn may be diftilled a very ftrong fal volatile: the
fcrapings are efteemed akxipharmic, and were ufed of
old in malignant fevers and againft the bites of fer-
pents. The ufe of it to the animal feems to be chief¬
ly as a weapon of offence, and a very powerful ©ne it
appears to be : there are many inilances of its having
been found in the bottoms of fhips which returned
from the northern feas, probably owing.to the animal’s
having miftaken the Ihip for a whale, and attacked it
with fuch fury as not to be able to get out the wea¬
pon from the wood. It may alffi ferve as an inftru-
ment to loofen and difengage from the rocks or bot¬
tom of the fea the fea plants on which it feeds. Thefe
filhes fwiih fwiftly, and can only be ftruck when num¬
bers happen to be found together, and obftrudf their
own courfe with their teeth. Their fltin is white,
with black fpots on the back, and has a great quantity
of blubber underneath.
The tooth of this animal was in old times impofed
upon the world as the horn of an unicorn, and fold
at a very high price. The heirs of the chancellor to
Orriftian Frifius of Denmark, valued one at 8000
imperials. There is a magnificent throne made of
this fpecies of ivory for the Danifh .monarchs, which
Vol. XII. Part I.
is ftill preferved in the caftle at Rofenberg. The Msinorfy
price of this material was fuperior to gold. „ M .
MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of "fites. ^
fong, fung by a perfon all alone,, to give vent to his ——yr-«w
grief. The word is derived from m01'©' “ alone,” and
“ I fing.”
MONOECIA, from alone, and '’<*'« a houfe;
the name of the 21ft clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method.
See Botany.*
MONOGAMY, compounded of folus, and
ya.^oi- « marriage,” the llate or condition of thofe
who have only married once, or are reftrained to a
fingle wife. See Polygamy.
MONOGLOSSUM (anc. geog.), a mart-town of
the Hither India, fituated on the Sinus Canthi, into
which the Indus empties itfelf. Said to be Mangajor
on the coaft of Malabar. E. Long. 74°, N. Lat. 13^.
MONOGRAM, a character or cypher, compofed
of one, two, or more letters interwoven ; being a
kind of abbreviation of a name, anciently ufed as a
feal, badge, arms, &c.
MONOGYNIA, from alone, and a wo¬
man ; the name of the firft order or fubdivifion in
the firft 13 clafles of Linnsus’s fexual method ; con¬
fiding of plants which, befides their agreement in
their claffic charadter, generally derived from the num¬
ber of their ftamina, have only one ftyle, or female
organ.
MONOMOTAPA, a country of Africa, has the
maritime kingdom of Sofala on the caft, the river
Del Spiritu Santo on the fouth, the mountains of
Caffraria on the weft, and the river Cauma on the
north, which parts it from Monoemugi. The air
of this country is very temperate ; the land fertile in
paftures and all the neceffaries of life, being watered
by feveral rivers. The inhabitants are rich in black
cattle, which they value more than gold. They have
a vaft number of elephants, as appears from the great
quantity of ivory that is exported from hence. There
are many gold-mines, and the rivers that run through
their veins carry a great deal of gold-duft along with
them. The inhabitants are lovers of war, which is
the employment followed by all thofe who do not apply
themfelves to commerce. This country is divided into
feven provinces or petty kingdoms, vaffals to the king;
viz. Monomotapa Proper, Quiteve, Manica, Inham-
bana, Inhemior, Sabia, and Sofala.
MONOPETALOUS, in botany, a term applied
to flowers that have only one petal or flower-leaf.
MONOPHYSITES, (from folus, and na-
tura),z general name given to all thofe fedfaries in the
Levant who only own one nature in Jefus Chrift ;
and who maintain, that the divine and human nature of
Chrift were fo united as to form only one nature, yet
without any change, confufion, or mixture of the
two natures. *
The monophyfites, however, properly fo called, are
the followers of Severus, a learned monk of Paleftine,
who was created patriarch of Antioch 10513, and
Petrus Fullenfis.
The monophyfites were encouraged by the empe¬
ror Anaftafius, but depreffed by Juftin and fucceed-
ing emperors. However, this fed! was reftored by
Jacob Baradseus an obfcure monk, infomuqh that
H h when
MON [ 242
Mono;by- when he died bifhop of Edefta, A. D. 588, he left
f,'e\ it in a mod floarifhing Hate in Syria, Mefopotamia,
■ >'l^° Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, A by ffi.nia, and other coun-
*“ txies. The laborious efforts of Jacob were fcconded
in Egypt and the adjacent countiies, by Tbeodofuis
bifhop of Alexandria 5 and he became fo famous that
all the monophyfites of the call confnlered him as
their fecond parent and founder, and are to this day
called jacobites, in honour of their new chief. The
monophyfues are divided into two fedts or parties,
]
MON
of provifjons, or any commodities, or the rate of la- M'fioiyj,
hour, are in many cafes feverely punifhed by particu 'aj?te
lar ftatute ; and, in general, by ftatute 2 & 3 Ed- Monro.
ward VI. c. 15. with the forfeiture of L. jo or 20  y——4
days imprifonment, with an allowance of only bread
and water for the firft offence ; L. 20 or the pillory
for the fecond j and L. 40 for the third, or elfe the
pillory, lofs of one year, and perpetual infamy. In
the fame manner, by a confHtution of the emperor
Zeno, all monopolies and combinations to keep up
the one African, the other Afiatic ; at the head of the price of merchandife, provifions, or workmanfhip.
the latter is the patriarch of Antioch, who refides
for the moft part in the monaftery of St Ananias,
near the city of Merdin : the former are under the
jurifdidfion of the patriarch of Alexandria, who ge¬
nerally'refides at Grand Cairo, and are fubdivided in¬
to Cophts and Abyffinians.. From the 15th cen¬
tury downwards, all the patriarchs of the monophy-
iites have taken the name of Ignatius, in order to
fhow that they are the lineal fucceflbrs of Ignatius,
who was bifhop of Antioch in the firfl century,
and coufequently the lawful patriarchs of Antioch.
In the 17th century, a fmall body of the monophy¬
fites in Afia abandoned for fome time the dodtrine
and inftitution of their anceftors, and embraced the
communion of Rome: but the African monophylites,
notwithftanding that poverty and ignorance which
expofed them to the fedu&ions of fophiftry and gain,
Hood firm in their principles, and made an obftinate
refiftance to the promifes, prefents, and attempts em¬
ployed by the papal mifnonaries to bring them under
were prohibited, upon pain of forfeiture of goods and
perpetual banifhment.
MONOSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word that
confifls only of one fyllable, and is compofed either of
one or more letters pronounced at the fame time.
The too frequent ufe of monofyllables has a very bad
effeft in Englifh poetry, as Mr Pope both intimates
and exemplifies in the fame verfe, viz.
“ And ten flow words oft creep in one dull ine.”
MONOTHELITES, (compounded of Angle,
and “ will,” of volo “ 1 will”), an ancient
fe£, which fprung out of the Eutychians ; thus call¬
ed, as only allowing of one will in Jefus Chrift.
The opinion of the Monothelites had its rife in 630,
and had the emperor Heraclius for an adherent: it was
the fame with that of the Acephalous Severians. They
allowed of two wills in Chrift, confidered with regard
to the two natures ; but reduced them to one, by
reafon of the union of the two natures ; thinking it
abfurd there ftiould be two free wills in one and the
the Roman yoke : and in the 18th century, thofe of fame perfon. They were condemned by the fixth
Afia and Africa have perfifted in their refufal to enter general council in 68a, as being fuppofed to deftroy
into the communion of the Romifh church, notwith- the perfedlion of the humanity of Jefus Chrift, de-
llanding the earneft intreaties and alluring offers that priving it of will and operation. Their fentiment*
have been made from time to time by the pope’s le- were afterwards embraced by the Maronites.
gates, to conquer their inflexible conftancy. The MONOTONY, an uniformity of foundv or a fault
monophyfites propagate their doftrine in Afia with in pronunciation, when a long feries of words are
zeal and afiiduity, and have not long ago gained over delivered in one unvaried tone. See Reading.
to their communion a part of the Neftorians, who in- MONOTROPA, Bird’s-nest : A genus of the.
habit the maritime coails of India. monogynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of
MONOPOLY, one or more perfons making them- plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
felves the fofe mafters of the whole of a commodity, of which the order is doubtful. There is no calyx,
manufa&ure, and the like, in order to make private but 10 petals; and of thefe the five exterior have a
advantage of it, by felling it again at a very advanced melliferous hollow at the bafe. The capfule isquinque-
price. Or it is a licence or privilege allowed by the valved. In fome of the flowers a fifth part of the
king for the foie buying and felling, making, working, number is excluded as in thz M. hippopitbys. There
or ufing anything whatfoever.—Monopolies had been are two fpecies ; of which the only remarkable one is
carried to an enormous height during the reign of the hippopithys, a native of Britain and fome of the
Queen Elifabeth ; and were heavily complained of by more northerly kingdoms of Europe. It is about
Sir Edward Coke, in ’ the beginning of the reign of five inches high, having no other leaves than oval
King James I.: but were in great meafure remedied feales, and terminated with a nodding fpike of flowers,,
by ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 3. which declares fuch mono- which in the feeding ftate becomes ere&: the whole
polies to be contrary to law, and void ; (except as to plant is of a pale yellow colour, fmelling like the
patents, not exceeding the grant of 14 years, to the
authors of new inventions; and except al-fo patents
concerning printing, faltpetre, gunpowder, great ord¬
nance, and (hot) ; and monopolifts are punifhed
with the forfeiture of treble damages and double
primrofe, or like beans in bloffom. The country
people in Sweden give the dried plant to cattle that,
have a cough.
MONREAL. See Montreal.
MONRO (Dr Alexander, fenior), a moft eminent
coils, to thofe whom they attempt to difturb ; and if phyfleian and anatomitt, was defeended by his father
.1      .  i .  • n. .  r r J .1 r •, r   _r tut.-i. ...U.' U v.,.1 1 -
they procure any adlion, brought againft them for
thefe damages, to be flayed by any extrajudicial or¬
der, other than of the court wherein it is brought,
they incur the penalties of prtetnunire. Combinations
a&a among viduailers or artificers, to raife the price
from the family of Monro of Milton, which had large
poffeffions in the county of. Rofsand by his mothety.
from that of Forbes of Culloden.
His father John, youngeft fon of Sir Alexander
Monro of Bearcrofts, was bred to phyfic and furgery*..
aswl:
MON [ 243 ] MON
Mimn. and fcrved for fome years as a fUrgeon in the army gular courfes of ledures on the different branches of Mow#.
“—v—- under King William in Flanders : but, for feveral fuc- medicine, and they and their fucceffors have uniform- ‘■'••■'Y—-»
ceffive years, obtaining leave ofabfence from the army ly continued fo to do every winter,
in the winter, he during that feafon refided with his The plan for a medical education at Edinburgh was
wife in London, where his fon Alexander was born ftill incomplete without an hofpital, where Undents
in the 1697 About three years thereafter, he quitted could fee the practice of phyfic and furgery, as well
the army, and went to fettle as a furgeon at Edin- as hear the lectures of the profeffors. A fcheme was
burgh; where his knowledge in his profeffion, and therefore propofed by Dr Monro’s father, and others,
engaging manners, foon introduced him into an exten- particularly the members of the royal college of phy-
five practice. ficians and board of furgeons, for railing by fubferip-
The fon fhowed an early inclination to the ftudy of tion a fund for building and fupporting an hofpital for
phyfre ; and the father, after giving him the beft edu- the reception of difeafed poor ; and our author pub-
cation that Edinburgh then afforded, fent him fuc- lifhed a pamphlet fetting forth the advantages that
ceffively to London, Paris, and Leyden, to improve would attend fuch an inilitution. In a fhort time a
himfelf further in his profeffion. At London, he at- confiderable fum of money was raifed, a fmall houfe
tended the le&ures of Meffrs Hawkfbee and Whifton was fitted up, and patients were admitted into it, and
on experimental philofophy, and the anatomical de- regularly attended by many of the phyGcifins and firr-
monftrations of Mr Chefelden. At Paris, he attended geons in town. The fund for this charity increafing
the hofpitals, and the lectures which were read on the very confiderably, in a great meafure from the a£ti-
different branches of phyfic and furgery at that time, vity and influence of that very worthy citizen and
Towards the end of autumn 1718, he went to Ley magiftrate George Drummond, Efq; the foundation
den, and fludied under the great Boerhaave; by was laid of the prefent large, commodious, and ufeful
whom he was particularly efteemed. hofpital, the R.-yal Infirmary; in the planning of
On his return to Edinburgh in autumn 1719, which Dr Monro fuggefted many ufeful hints, and in
Meffrs Drummond and Maegill, who were then con- particular the elegant room for chirurgical operations
junft nominal profeffors and demonftrators of anatomy was defigned and executed under his direction. Pro¬
to the furgeons company, having refigned in his voft Drummond and he were nominated the building
favour, his father prevailed on him to read fome pub- committee ; and the fabric was entirely completed in a
lie le&ures on anatomy, and to illuftrate them by fhort fpace of time. It has fince been fo largely en¬
dowing the curious anatomical preparations which he dowed, as to be capable of receiving a great number
had made and fent home when abroad. He at the of difeafed poor, whofe cafes the fludents of phyfic
fame time perfuaded Dr Alfton, then a young man, and furgery have an opportunity of feeing daily
to give fome public ledures on botany. Accordingly, treated with the greateft attention and care by phy-
in the beginning of the winter 1720, thefe two ficians and furgeons eminent in their profeffion; and
young profeffors began to give regular courfes of a regiller of the particulars of all the cafes which have
le&ures, the one on the materia medica and botany, been received into the houfe fince its firft opening has
the other on anatomy and furgery ; which were the been kept, in books appropriated for that purpofe,
firft regular courfes of ledures on any of the branches for the ufe of the ftudents.
of medicine that had ever been read at Edinburgh, In order (;o make the hofpital of ftill further ufe to
and may be looked upon as the opening of that me- the ftudents, Dr Monro frequently, while he con-
dical fchool which has fince acquired fuch great repu- tinued profeffor of anatomy, gave ledures on the
tation all over Europe. chirurgical cafes; and the late judicious phyfician, Dr
In fummer 1721 and 1722, Dr Monro, by the Rutherford profeffor of the pradice of phyfic, began,
perfuafion of his father, read fome ledures on chi- in the year 1748, to deliver clinical ledures, to be con-
rugical fubjeds ; particularly on wounds and tumors, tinued every winter, on the moft remarkable cafes in
which he never would publifh, having wrote them in the hofpital.
a hurry and before he had much experience ; but in- Dodor Monro, though he was eleded profeffor pf
fertedfrom time to time the improvements bethought anatomy in the year 1721, was not received into the
might be made in furgery, in the volumes of Medical univerfity till the year 17 25, when he was induded
Eflays and Obfervations to be hereafter mentioned. along with that great mathematician the late Mr Co-
About the year 1720, his father communicated to lin Maclaurin, with whom he ever lived in the ftrid-
the phyficians and furgeons at-Edinburgh, a plan, eft friendfhip. From this time he regularly every
which he had long formed in his own mind, of having winter gave a courfe of ledures on anatomy and fur-
the different branches of phyfic and furgery regularly gery, from Odober to May, upon a moft judicious
taught at Edinburgh; which was highly approved of and comprehenfive plan : A talk in which he perfe-
by them, and by their intereft regular profefforfhips vered with the greateft affiduity, and without the
of anatomy and medicine were inftituted in the uni- leaft interruption, for near 40 years; and fo great
verfity. His fon, Dr Monro, was firft made univer- was the reputation he had acquired, that ftudents
tity-profeffor of anatomy ; and two or three years flocked to him from the moft diftant corners of his
afterwards, Drs Sinclair, Rutherford, Innes, and majefty’s dominions. .
Plummer, were made profeffors of medicine; the pro- In 1759, our profeffor entirely relinquifhed the bu-
fefforihip of materia medica and botany, which Dr finefs of the anatomical theatre to his fon Dr Alex-
Aiftou then hela, having been a ided to the univerfity ander, who had returned from abroad, and had affifted
many years before. Immediately alter thefe gentle- him in the courfe of ledlures the preceding year. But
men were elected profeffors, they began to deliver re- after this refignation, he ftill endeavoured to render his
« H h 2 labours
MON [ 244 ] MON
Monro, labours ufeful to mankind, by reading clinical lectures
. » "' at the hofpital for the improvement of the ftudents ;
of which Dr Duncan, who was one of his pupils, has
given the followirg account. “ There I had myfelf
the happinefs of being a pupil, who profited by the
judicious conduct of his praftice, and was improved
by the wifdom and acutenefs of his remarks. I have
indeed to regret that I attended only the laft courfe
of lectures in which he had ever a (hare, and at a
time when he was fubje£ted to a difeafe which proved
at length fatal. Still, however, from what I faw and
from what I heard, I can venture to affert, that it is
hardly pofiibly to conceive a phyfieian more attentive
topradtice, or a preceptor more anxious to communi-
cate inftrudtions. His humanity, in the former of thefe
characters, led him to bellow the moll anxious care on
his patients*while they were alive ; and his zeal in the
latter induced him to make them the fubjedt of ufe¬
ful lelfons when they happened to die—In the dif¬
ferent ftations of phyfician, of ledturer, and of ma¬
nager in the hofpital, he took every meafure for in¬
quiring into the eaufes of difeafes by diffedtion —
He perfonally attended the opening of every body;
and he not only dictated to the Undents an accurate
report of the difledtion, but with nice difcrimination
contrafted the difeafed and found Hate of every organ.
Thus, in his own perfon, he afforded to the ftudents a
confpicuous example of the advantages of early anato¬
mical purfuits, as the happieft foundation for a medi¬
cal fuperltrudlure. His being at once engaged in two
departments, the anatomical theatre and clinical chair,
furnilhed him with opportunities both on the dead and
living body, and placed him in the moft favourable fi-
tuation for the improvement of medicine; and from
thefe opportunities he derived every poffible advantage
which they could afford.'’
His father, old Mr Monro, lived to an advanced age;
and enjoyed the unfpeakable pleafure of beholding a
fon, efteemed and regarded by mankind, the principal
adlor in the execution of his favourite plan, the great
objedl of his life, the founding a feminary of medical
education in his native country: The fon, who furvi-
ved him near 30 years, had the fatisfadlion to behold
this feminary of medical education frequented yearly
by 300 or 400 ftqdents, many of whom came from the
moft diftant corners of his majefty’s dominions, and
to fee it arrive to a degree of reputation far beyond
his moft fanguine hopes, being equalled by few, and
inferior to none, in Europe.
Few men were members of more focieties than Dr
Monro; ftill fewer equally afliduous in their attendance
of thofe which in any way tended to promote public
utility. He was a manager of many public charities;
and not only a member of different medical focieties,
but likewife of feveral others inftituted for promoting
literature,-arts, fciences, and manufa&ures, in Scot¬
land, and was one of their moft ufeful members.—-
While he was held in high eftimation at home, he
■was equally efteemed and refpedied abroad, and was
elefted member of the Royal Society of London,
and an honorary member of the Royal Academy of
Surgery at Paris.
He was not only very( aftive in the line of his own
profeffion, but as a citizen and general member of the
community ; for, after he had refigned the anatomical
chair to his fon, he executed with the ftricleft punc¬
tuality the duties of feveral engagements both of a civil
and political nature : He was a director of the Bank
of Scotland, a Juftice of the Peace, a Commifiioner of
High Roads, &c. . At length, after a life fpent in
the moft adtive induftry, he became affliCied with a
tedious and painful'difeafe, which he bore with equal
courage and refignation till his death, which happen¬
ed on July toth 1767, in the 70th year of his agei
Of his works, the firft in order is his Ofteology,
which was written for the ufe of ftudents, but is capable
alfo of affording inftruCtion to the oldell and moft expe¬
rienced pradtitioner; as, befidesa minute defcription of
the parts copied from nature, it every where abounds
with new and important obfervations immediately ap¬
plicable to praftice. It has been tranfiated into many
different languages ; has paffed through numerous edi¬
tions ; and has been reprinted in foreign countries in
the moftfuperb manner, accompanied with elegant and
mafterly engravings. His defeription of the Lacleal
Sac and Thoracic Dudl contains the moft accurate ac¬
count of that important part of the body which has
been yet publilhed ; and his Anatomy of the Nerves
will tranfmit to pofterity an excellent example of accu¬
rate diffeition, faithful defcription, and ingenious rea-
foning. The fix volumes of Medical Effays and Ob¬
fervations, publiihed by a fociety in Edinburgh, are
univerfally known and efteemed. To that fociety
he was appointed fecretary ; but, after the publi¬
cation of the firft volume, to w'hich he had largely
contributed, the members growing remifs in their at¬
tendance, he became the foie colle&or and publiiher
of the work : To him we are therefore in a great
meafure indebted for thofe numerous and important
difeoveries with which this publication has enriched
every department of medical knowledge. - In the two
firft volumes of the Phyfical and Literary Effays, pub-
lilhed by the phyfical fociety of Edinburgh, in whicb
he had the rank of one of the prefidents, we find Se¬
veral papers written by him, which are not the leaib
ornaments of that colledlion. His account of the Suc-
cefs of Inoculation in Scotland may be confidered as
his laft publication: It demonftrates his extenfive cor-
refpondence and indefatigable induftry, and has had
great influence in promoting that falutary pradlice.
Befides thefe, he was alfo the author of feveral other
elegant and mafterly produdtions, which were either
never publiflied, or were publiihed without his know¬
ledge and from incorrect copies. A collection of all
his works, properly arranged, corre&ed, and illuftra-
ted with copperplates, has been publiihed by Dr A-
lexander Monro, his fon and fucceifor in the anatomi¬
cal chair, in a fplendid quarto volume, printed for
Elliot, Edinburgh, 1781 ; to-which is prefixed a life
of the author, by another of his fons, Dr Donald,
phyfician in London. The obfervation of an excellent
judge, the illuftrious Haller, concerning our author’s
Medical Effays and Obfervations, which now form a
part of this colledlion, may with no lefs juftice be
applied to the whole: It is a “ book which ought to
be in the poffeffion of every medical pradlitioner.”
MONS, an ancient, large, handfome, rich, and
very ftrong city of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Hai-
nault.
MON [ 245 1 MON
M'onfefg- nault. There is a chapter, confifting of 30 ladies of dl- MONSONIA, in botany : A genus of the dode* Monfonfe
neur ftindfion, who have the liberty of leaving the comma- candria order, belonging to the polyadelphia clafs of ^ II
Monfon n‘tJr w^en t^iey jnten(l to marry. They have feveral plants. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the corolla pen- er~,
■ manufadlures, and a good trade. It was taken by the tapetalous and irregular; the Itamina are 15 in num-
allies in 1709, and by the French in July 174.6 ; but ber, and coalited into five filaments ; the ftyle bifid ;
rendered back by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, after the capfule pentacoccoiis. ■
the fortifications were demoliihed. It Hands partly on MONSOON, a regular or periodical wind, in the
a hill, and partly on a plain in a marfhy foil, on the Eaft Indies, blowing conftantly the fame way, during
rivers Haine and Trouilli, by which the country a- fix months of the year, and the contrary way the re¬
bout it may be overflowed at pleafure. It has been maining fix.
lately taken by the armies of the French Republic. In the Indian ocean, the winds are partly general,
E. Long. 3. 39. N. Lat. 50. 25. and blow all the year round the fame way, as in the
Mons Sacer, (anc. geog.), a mountain of the Sa- Ethiopic ocean ; and partly periodical, i. e. half the
bines beyond the Anio, to the eaft of Rome; whither year blow one way, and the other half near on the
the common people retired once and again to avoid oppofite points: and thofe points and times of ihift-
the tyranny of the patricians. From this feceflion, ing differ in different parts of this ocean. Thefe latter
and the altar of Jupiter TerrlbilU eredled there, the are what we call monfoons*
mountain took its name. The Ihifting of thefe monfoons is not all at once ;
MONSEIGNEUR, in the plural Mejfeigneun, a and in fome places the time of the change is attended
title of honour and refpedf ufed by the French in wri- with calms, in others with variable winds, and parti-
ting to perfons of fuperiorrank or quality, before the cularly thofe of China, at ceaftng to be wefterly, are
late abolition of all ranks. very»fubje£f to be tempeftuous ; and fuch is their vio*
Dukes, peers, archbifhops, bifhops, and prefidents lence, that they feem to be of the nature of the Weft .
«/<? were complimented with the title of fl7o/z- India hurricanes, and render die navigation of thofe
Jelgneur. In the petitions prefented to the fovereign feas very unfafe at that time of the year. Thefe
courts, they ufed the term Mejfeigneurs. tempefts the feamen call the breaking up of the mon-
Monseigneur, abfolutely ufed, was a title reftrain- foons.
ed to the dauphin of France. This cuftom was un- Monfoons, then, are a fpecies of what we otherwife-
known till the time of Louis XIV. before which the call trade-winds. They take the denomination mon-
dauphin was flyled Monfieur le Dauphin. foon from an ancient pilot, who firft crofted the In-
MONSIEU R, in the plural Mejfteurs, a term or title dian fea by means hereof. Though others derive the:
of civility, ufed by the French in fpeaking to their name from a Portuguefe word, fignifying motion or
equals, or thofe a little below them, anfwering to Mr change of wind, and fea.
or Sir among the Englifti. Lucretius and Apollonius make mention of annual
Monsieur, abfo'utely ufed, was a title or quality winds which arife every year, ete/ia fabria^-which feem
appropriated to the fecond fon of France, or the king’s to be the fame with what in the Eaft Indies we now
brother. The king was 'alfo called Monfieur, but call monfoons. For the phyfical caufe of thefe winds,,
that only by the children of France. fee Wind.
MONSON (Sir William), a brave Engliftv admi- MONSTER; a birth or produdtion of a living
ral, third fon of Sir John Monfon of South Carlton in being, degenerating from the proper and ufual diL
Lincolnfhire, was born in 1569. He was employed pofition of parts in the fpecies to which it belongs :
in many expeditions agairift the Spaniards in Queen As, when there are too many members, or too few ; or
Elizabeth’s time, and was highly honoured ; the queen fome of them are extravagantly out of proportion, ei-
knighted him for his fervices in the earl of Effex’s ex- ther on the fide of defedf or excefs. The word comes
pedition to Cadiz, where he affifted much by his wife from the Latin monfrum, of monfrando, “ fhowing.”
and moderate counfel to the earl. Military men were Whence alfo the box wherein relics were anciently
no favourites with James I. therefore, on the death of kept to be ftiown, was culled monfrum. Dugdale men-
the queen, he received no recompence or pay beyond tions an inventory of the church of'York with this ar-
the ordinary fervice in which he was engaged: never- tide, Item unum monfrum cum off bus fancli' Petri in
thelefs, as admiral of the narrow feas, ha.fuppoi?ted Beryl, crucfxo in fummitate.
the honour of the Britiih flag againft the infant info- Ariftotle defines a monfter to be a defied; of nature* .
lence of the Dutch ftates, of which he frequently c
plains in his Navy Tra&s; and proteded our trade a-
gainft the encroachments of France. He had the mis¬
fortune to fall into difgraee by his vigilance, and 1
when, a&ing towards fome endr it cannot attend to it,
from fome of its principles being corrupted.
Monfters do not propagate their kind ; for which .
reafon fome rank -mules among the number of monfters,
imprifoned in the Tower through the refentment of as alfo hermaphrodites.
fome powerful courtiers; yet he was difcharged, and Females which bring forth twins, are found moft:
wrote a vindication of his own condud, intituled; liable to produce monfters. The reafon, probably, is
‘‘Concerning the infolencies of the- Dutch, and a o-wing ta this; that though the twins are covered with
Juftification of Sir William Monfon.” He fpent his one common chorion, yet they have each their feparata
latter days in peace and privacy, which he employed amnios, which by fheir contiguity may chance to grow
in digefting his Navy Trads, and died in 1643.— together, and fo occafion a confufion or blending of
Part of thefe trads were printed in 1682; and they the parts. Hence fo many double creatures,
were afterwards all included in Churchill’s Colledion F. Malebranche accounts for the produdion of
«f Voyages, monllers in the. animal world in the following man*
5 ner ,s;
MON L 246 ] MON
MoritVer, ner : “ The Creator has eftabliftied fuch a communi-
cation between the feveral parts of his creation, that
we are not only naturally led to imitate one ano¬
ther, i. e. have a difpofttion to do the fame things
and affume the fame manners with thofe with whom
we converfe ; but alfo have certain natural difpofi-
tions which incline us to compaflion as well as imi¬
tation. Thefe things moll men feel, and are fen-
hble of; and therefore need not be proved. The
animal fpirits, then, are not only naturally carried into
the refpedive parts of the body to perform the fame
adions and the fame motions which we fee others do,
“but alfo to receive in feme manner their wounds, and
take part in their fufferings.
* “ Experience tells us, that when we look attentive¬
ly on any perfon feverely beaten, or that hath a large
wound, ulcer, or the like, the fpirits immediately flow
into thofe parts of our body which anfwer to thofe we
fee fuffer in the other ; unlefs their courfe be flopped
from fome other principle. This flux of fpirits is very
fenfible in perfons of a delicate conftitution, who fre¬
quently fhudder, and find a kind of trembling in the
body on thefe occafions; and this fympathy in bodies
produces compaflion in the mind.
“ Now it mult be obferved, that the view of a wound,
&c. wounds the perfon who views it the more ftrong-
ly and fenfibly, as the" perfon is more weak and deli¬
cate ; the fpirits making a ftionger imprefliort on the
fibres of a delicate body than in thofe of a robuft one.
Thus ftrong, vigorous men, &c. fee an execution with¬
out much concern, while women, &c. are ftruck with
pity and horror. As to children ftill in their mo¬
ther’s womb, the fibres of their flcfli being incompa-
rably finer than thofe in women, the courfe of the ani-
final fpirits muft neceffarily produce much greater al¬
terations.
“ Thefe thingfr-being laid down, monfters are eafily
accounted for. Suppofe, a child born a fool, and
■with all its legs and arms broke in the fame manner as
thofe of criminals in fome countries are; which cafe we
choofe to inftance in, becaufe we are told from Paris
that fuch a monfter was actually born there, and lived
in one of their hofpitals 20 years : the caufe of this
accident, according to the principles laid down, was,
that the mother feeing a criminal executed, every
flroke given to the poor man, ftruck forcibly the ima¬
gination of the woman ; and, by a kind of counter-
llroke, the tender and delicate brain of the child.—
Now, though the fibres of the woman’s brain were
ilrangely fliaken by the violent flux of animal-fpirits
on this occafion, yet they had ftrength and confift-
ence enough to prevent an entire diforder ; whereas
the fibres of the child’s brain being unable to bear the
fliock of thofe fpirits, were quite ruined, and the ra¬
vage was great enough to deprive him of reafon all his
lifetime.
“ Again, the view of the execution frighting the
woman, the violent courfe of the animal fpirits was
direfted forcibly from the brain to all thofe parts of
the body correfponding to the fuffering parts of the
criminal; and the fame thing muft happen in the child.
But in regard the bones of the mother were ftrong
enough to refift the impulfe of thofe fpirits, they were
not damaged: and yet the rapid courfe of thefe fpi¬
rits could eafily overpower and break the tender and
delicate fibres of the bones of the child; the borses’be-
ing the laft parts of the body that are formed, and ha¬
ving a very flender conliftence while the child is yet in
the womb.”
To which it may be here added, that had the mo¬
ther determined the courfe of thefe fpirits towards
fome other part of her body, by tickling or fcratch-
ing herfelf vehemently, the child would not in all pro¬
bability have had its bones broken ; but the part an-
fwering that to which the motion of the fpirits was
determined, would have been the fufferer. Plence ap¬
pears the reafon why women in the time of geftation,
feeing perfons, &c. marked in fuch a manner in the
face, imprefs the fame mark on the fame parts of the
child: and why, upon rubbing fome hidden part of
the body when ftartled at the fight of any thing or
agitated with any extraordinary pafiion, the mark or
impreflion is fixed on that hidden part rather than on
the face of the child. Isom the principles here laid
down, may moft, if not all, the phenomena of monfters
be eafily accounted for.
Various other theories have been formed by diffe¬
rent philofophers and phyfiologifts. But after all, it
muft be confeffed, that we feem as yet to be very little
acquainted with Nature in her fports and errors. For
each organifed being there appears to exift a primitive
germ or model of the different fpecies drawn by the
Creator, determined by forms and fexes, and realifed
in the individuals of both fexes, which muft .unite in
order to their reproduction. From this model nature
never departs, unlefs' when compelled by circumftances
which derange the primitive organization common to
the fpecies, and produce what we call monjlers.
With refpeCt to ftru&ure, we have already remark¬
ed, that monfters are of various kinds. Some have an
excefs or defeft in certain parts; fuch as thofe which
are called acephalous^ or who want the head ; thofe
which have two heads, two arms, two legs, and one
body, or which have two bodies and one head, or
which have three legs; and thofe which want the arms
or the legs. Others err through an extraordinary and
deformed conformation, through an unnatural union of
certain parts or vifeera, through a great derangement in
one or more of their members, and through the extraor¬
dinary place which thefe often occupy in coufequence
of this derangement or tranfpofition. The monfter
deferibed by Dr Eller of the academy of Berlin was
of this kind. It was a foetus of nine months, 28 inches
long, with an enormous head and frightful counte¬
nance ; and in the middle of a broad and vaft fore¬
head it had a reddilh eye, without either eyebrows or
eyelids, and funk deep into a fquare hole. Imme¬
diately below this eye was an excrefcence which ftrong-
ly refembled a penis with a glans, a prepuce, and an
urethra: the part covered with hair was likewife be¬
low the nape of the neck. In other monfters we meet
with the unnatural union of fome parts, which, from
their deftination and fun&ions, ought always to be fe-
parate ; and the feparation of other parts, which, for
the fame reafons, ought conftantly to be united. The
reader may fee the different ways in which the forma¬
tion of monfters takes place in four memoirs by
M. Lemery, inferted in L’HiJloire de l’Academic des
Sciences 1738 and 1739. M. du Verney has likewife
publiihed a Memoir on the fame fubjeft.
6 In
Monfter.
MON [ 247 ] MON
In the volume publifiied by the Academy of Sciences which has only one eye in the middle of the fotehead. Monfter.
In .1724, mention is made by M. Geoffroy of a monlier 7. Some leverets with fix and eight legs. 8. A puppy, —v~«^
the lips of which are divided fourfold. 9. Some tce-
tufes of a hog which have a kind of tube upon their
born in Barrois 1722. This monfirous produ&ion
confifted of two children without the inferior extre¬
mities, joined together by a common navel; each of forehead one or two inches long ; and another, the
^ j r_ j —■ 1 —j .o__ hinder part of which is double in every thing,
xo. Two double human foetufes joined by the belly,
with four arms and three legs. 11. A young chicken
with two bodies and one head. 12. A pigeon and a
duck, each with two bills 13. A duck with two
heads. 14. A pigeon with four feet. 15. A capon
with three feet; the third being fixe^ to the anus.
16. Two heads of a calf joined together, each of them
with two ears : thefe two heads were both fixed to
one neck. 17. In the Menagerie at Chantilly there
was formerly to be feen a cow with five feet, the fifth
of which was connected with the dug. iK. A rabbit
without ears. 19. Twd cats, each having two heads.
20. Two leverets newly brought forth, well fhaped in
the body and legs, but conne£ted together by means
of only one head. 21. Several eggs, in the figure of
which there occur fome monftrous appearances and
them had a nurfe, fucked, and eat pap; and the
fucked while the other flept. The reader may like-
wife confult the fecond part of Winflow’s Memoirs on
Monfters, inferted in the volume publifhedby the Aca¬
demy of Sciences in 1734, where he will find the hiftory
of two very extraordinary twin monfters, who eviden¬
ced during their life a great difference in their moral
and phyfical qualities. We are obliged fimply to re¬
fer to thofe Memoirs, as they are too long for abridge¬
ment.
It is obferved by Haller, that in fome monfters the
natural ftrufture is changed by fome fhock or pafiion:
in others the ftru&ute, independent of any accident, is
originally monftrous ; fuch as when all the members
are reverfed from left to right, when the perfon has
fix fingers, and in many other instances. M. de Mau-
pertuis mentions, that there is at Berlin a family who
have had fix fingers on each hand for feveral genera- extraordinary deformities, fufficient to ihow that they
—- '■* J~  : -a c‘u;- are contrary to the eftablifned form of nature.
Everhard Hume, Efq; F. R. S. fome time ago pre-
fented to John Hunter, Efq; F. R. S. the double Jlull
of a child, born at Calcutta in May 1783 of poor pa¬
rents aged 30 and 35, and which lived to be nearly*
two years old. The body of this child was naturally
formed: but the head had the phenomenon of appear¬
ing double ; another head of the fame fize, and almoft
equally perfect, being attached to its upper part. In
this extraneous and preternatural head no puliation
could be felt in the arteries of the temples, but the
fuperficial veins were very evident; one of the eyea-
had been hurt by the fire, upon which the midwife,
in her firft alarm, threw the child : the other moved
readily 5 but the iris was not afFedted by the approach
of any thing to it. The external ears of this head
were very imperfedf; the tongue adhered to the lower
tions. M. de Riville faw an inftance of this at Malta,
of which he has given a defeription. M. Renou, fur-
geon at Pommeraye in Anjou, has published an -ac¬
count of fome families with fix fingers, which are to
be found in feveral parifhes of the Lower Anjou, and
which have exifted there from time immemorial. This
deformity is perpetuated in thefe fathilies even when
they intermarry with perfons who are free from it.
Whether the propagation of thefe fupernumerary or¬
gans, which are not only ufelefs but inconvenient and
even difagreeable, be owing to the father or mother,
their children of both fexes are fubjedl to it indiferi-
minately. A father or mother with fix fingers fre¬
quently have a part, and fometimes the whole, of their
children, free from this deformity ; but it again makes
its appearance, and in a very great degree, in the third
generation. From this it appears, that this fault in
the conformaticm is hereditary. M. Reaumur has like-
wife publifhed the hiftory of a family in the ifland of
Malta, the children of which are born wjth fix fingers
and fix toes. But it deferves to be inquired, Whether
jaw, except for about half an inch at the lip, which
was loofe ; the jaw was capable of motion, but there
were no teeth. The child was fhown about the ftreets-
of Calcutta for a curiofity ; but wav Tendered unheal-
thefe fuperhumerary fingers are real fingers? The rea- thy by confinement, aad died at la ft of a bite of the
der may here confult the Journal de Phyfique for No¬
vember 1774, p. 372. This variety of fex digit ary hands-
and feet is not comprehended in the Rtcherchts fur
quelques conformations monjlrueufes des doigts dans I'homme,
which is inferted in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences for 1771. In the Journal de Phyfique for
Auguft 1776, we find a defeription of a double uterus
and vagina obferved in a woman who died in childbed,
by Dr Purcell of Dublin: and in that for June 1788,.
we have an account of a man with feven fingers on
each hand, by Baron Dietrich.
Several monftrous productions are to be feen in the
cabinet at Chantilly. 1. Two calves joined together
cobra de capello. It was dug up by the Eaft India.
Company’s agent for fait at Tumlock, and the fkull ia
now in the mufeum of Mr Hunter.
_ Among the monftrous productions of the animal
kingdom, we may rank, thole individuals which ought
only to pofiefs one fex, but in which we obferve the
union or the appearance of two. See the articles
Androgynes and Hermaphrodite.
M. Fabri arranges mutilations of the members, dif-
tortionSj gibbefities, tumors, divifions of the lips or
of the palate, comprefiions of the cranium, and many
other deformities of this kind, in the clafs of morbific
monftruofities. In that which he calls connatural
m the body, with each a feparate head and neck, and. (connaturelle) monftruofities, are placed the plurality,
four legs in whole. 2-Two calves united only by the *—•r--"*■-*— —J - r - r ’
pelvis, with only one anus and one tail: the whole is
fupported by fix legs, four before and two behind..
3. ; A lamb with fix legs, four of which are behind.
4. The fkeleton of a ram, which has likewife fix legs.,
5. A hermaphrodite deer.- 6. The head of. a foal,,
tranfpofition, and infertion of the parts. To explain :
thefe fads, a great many writers have had reco'urfe to ■
the efferit of the. imagination of pregnant women.—
The caufes of the firft clafs of monftruofities are dif-
cufied by M. Fabri, who obferves, that fome of them,
are-internal with regard to the motherland others ex-
ttrncdj.
MON [ 248 ] MON
Monfter. ternal. By an internal caufe, he here means all thofe
depravations or morbific principles which can affeft
the fluids, and which vitiate the form and ftru&ure of
the folids ; in particular the uterus, in which fuch de¬
pravations have often been found to occur. To thefe
- he adds violent afle&ions of the mind, fpafmodic con-
traftions, hyfteric convulfions, and the many inconve¬
niences of this kind to which women are extremely
fubjedt. External caufes comprehend every thing
which can aft- externally upon the foetus contained in
the uterus, fuch as the preffure of the clothes; and in
ihort every thipg which prevents the free dilatation of
the belly in women who are pregnant, violent mo¬
tions, falls, blows, and all accidents of this kind.
Thefe external caufes, and efpecially the firft, comprefs
the foetus in the womb, and oblige it to remain in a
very confined fituation. This, according to the ob-
fervation of Hippocrates, produces ‘ thofe embryos
which are bortr with fome entire part wounded. M.
Fabri maintains, that all deformities of the foetus pro¬
ceed from mechanical and accidental caufes.
The name of monjlers is likewife given to animals
enormous for bulk 5 fuch as the elephant among ter-
reftrial quadrupeds, and the ihark and the whale
among fea animals; to other animals remarkable for
fiercenefs and cruelty; and to animals of an extraordi¬
nary fpecies, which, we are told, arifes from the co¬
pulation of one animal with another of a different
genus. According to the report of travellers, Africa
abounds with moniters of this kind; and accounts of
the Eaft are full of defcriptions of fea monfters, which,
however, are feldom to be feen, fuch as fea men, mer¬
maids, &c.
Monfters are more common and more extraordinary
in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom, becaufe
the different juices are more eafily deranged and con¬
founded together. Leaves are often feen, from the in¬
ternal part of which other leaves fpring forth ; and it
is not uncommon to fee flowers of the ranunculus, from
the middle of which iffues a ftalk bearing another
flower. M. Bonnet informs us, that in certain warm
and rainy years he has frequently met with monfters
of this kind in rofe-trees. This obferver faw a rofe,
from the centre of which iffued a fquare ftalk of a
whitifh colour, tender, and without prickles, which at
its top bore two flower-buds oppofite to each other,
and totally deftitute of a calyx ; a little above the
buds iffued a petal of a very irregular ftiape. Upon
the prickly ftalk which fupported the rofe, a leaf was
obferved which had the fi«ape of trefoil, together with
a broad flat pedicle. In the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for 1707, p. 448, mention is made of a
rofe, from the centre of the leaves of which iffued a
rofe-branch two or three inches long, and furnifhed
with leaves. See the fame Memoirs for 1749, p. 44,
and for 1724, p. 29. In the Memoirs for 1775, a
very Angular inftance is mentioned of a monftruolity
obferved by M. Duhamel, in an apple-tree ingrafted
with clay. At the place of the infertion, there ap¬
peared a bud which produced a ftalk and fome leaves;
the ftalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy
fubftance, and had the mod pcrfeft refemblance both
in tafte and fmell to the pulp of a green apple. An
extraordinary chamamelum is mentioned in the /Ida
N0 227.
Helvetica. M. Bonnet, hi his Recherches fur I’ufage
des feuilles, mentions likewife fome monftrous produc- '
tions which have been found in fruits with kernels,
analogous in their nature to thofe which occur in the
flowers of the ranunculus and of the rofe-tree. He has
feen a pear, from the eye of which iffued a tuft of
13 or 14 leaves, very well (haped, and many of them
of the natural fize. He has feen another pear which
gave rife to a ligneous and knotty ftalk, on which
grew another pear fomewhat larger than the firft.—
The ftalk had probably flouriftied, and the fruit had
formed. The lilium album polyanthos, obferved fome
years ago at Breflaw, which here on its top a bundle
of flowers, confifting of 102 lilies, all of the common
fhape, is well known. M. Reynier has mentioned
fome individuals monftrous with refpeft to the flower,
in the Journal de Phyftque et d'HiJloire Naturel/e, for
November 178 5. He has likewife mentioned a mon¬
ftrous tulip which is feen in the gardens of fome ama¬
teurs ; juniper berries with horns; a balfamine with
three fpurs, See.
Thefe vegetable produftions, which are fo extra¬
ordinary, and fo contrary to the common courfe of
things, d» neverthelefs prefent deviations fubjeft to
particular laws, and reducible to certain principles, by
diftinguifhing fuch as are perpetuated either by feed
or by tranfplanting, from thofe which are only acci¬
dental and pafiing. Monftruofities which are perpe¬
tuated exift in the original organization of the feed of
the plant, fuch as marked or curled leaves, &c. The
word monjier is more pr operly applied to thofe irregu¬
larities in plants which arife from frequent tranfplanta*
tion, and from a particular culture, fuch as double
flowers, &c. : but thofe monftruofities which are not
perpetuated, and which arife from accidental and tran-
fient caufes deranging the primitive organization of
the plant, when it comes to be unfolded, as is the
efteft of difeafes, of heat or cold, of a fuperfluity or
fcarcity of juices, of a depravation of the veffels con¬
tributing to nutrition, of the fting of infefts, of con-
tuiions and natural graffs, retain alfo the name of mon¬
jlers. Of this kind are knobs or fwellings, Hunting,
gall-nuts, certain ftreaks, and other limilar defefts.
All the parts of plants are fubjeft to fome of thefe
monftruofities, which vary with refpedf to their fitu¬
ation, figure, proportion, and number. Some trees
are naturally of fo great a fize, that they may be
confidered as a kind of whale fpecies in the vegetable
kingdom : of this kind are the baobab and the ceiba.
Others, as the oak, the yew, the willow, the lime, and
many others, fometimes, though rarely, attain fo ex¬
traordinary a bulk that they are likewife monfters
among the vegetables. It is conjedtured, in fhort, that
monfters are more common in the vegetable than in ■
the animal kingdom, becaufe in the latter the methods
of propagation are not fo numerous. Plants are fel¬
dom monftrous in all their parts : fome are monftrous
only through exeefs in the calyx and corolla; others
are fo through defedf only in the leaves, ftamina, and
fruit. Now, a monftruofity, fays M. Adanfon, has
never changed the name or affedted the immutability
of a fpecies. Every ikilful fucceeding botanift has
arranged thefe monftruofities in plants among acci¬
dental circumftances, which, in whatever manner they
are
MON C 249 ] MON
Mont- are propagated, have always a tendency to revert to
alban the order and regularity of their original fpecies when
they are multiplied by means of feed ; which method
■%'° ^ag e of reproduftion is the mod natural and the moft cer¬
tain for determining the fpecies. One fpecies may be
compared with another; but a monfter can only be
put in comparifon with an individual of the fpecies
from which it comes. The reader may confult the
Obfervations Botaniques of M- Schlotterbec, of the So¬
ciety of Balil, concerning monfters in plants, wherein
he pretends to demonftrate, that in their production
nature follows the fame courfe in the vegetable as in
the animal kingdom.
MONT-alban, a ftrong town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Arragon, with a ftrong citadel; feated
on the river Riomanin, 44 miles fouth of Saragofta,
and 92 north by weft of Valencia. W. Long. o. 30.
N. Lat. 41.9.
MoNT-Didier, an ancient town of France in Pi¬
cardy, where the kings of France formerly had a pa¬
lace and kept their court. It is feated on a mountain,
17 miles from Amiens and Compeighe, and 58 north
of Paris. W. Long. 2. 34. N. Lat. 49. 39.
MoNT-Lberi. a town of the ifle of France, 15 miles
from Paris. Here are the remains of a tower, which
may be feen at a great diftance. E. Long. 2. o. N.
. Lat. 48. 38.
Mont-Louis, a fmall but ftrong town of France,
in the Pyrenees, with a ftrong citadel; feated on an
^eminence, 430 miles fouth of Paris. E. Long. 2.5.
N. Lat. 42. 30.
MoNT-Luel, a town of France in Breffe, and capi¬
tal of the territory of Valbonne; feated in a fertile
pleafant country on the river Seraine, eight miles
from Lyons, and 205 fouth-eaft of Paris. E. Long.
5. 8. N. Lat. 47. 49.
MoNT-Luzon, a town of France in Bourbonnois;
feated on the river Cher, 35 miles fouth-weft of Mou-
lins, and 15c fouth of Paris. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat.
46.22.
MoNT-Blanc. See Mont-BiiNc.
MONTABOUR, a fmall fortified town of Ger¬
many, in the electorate of Treves, between Coblentz
and Limpurg. E. Lon. 7. 50. N. Lat. 50. 30.
MONTAGNIAC, a confiderable town of Afia,
in Natolia, and in the province of Bec-Sangel, on the
fea of Marmora. It carries on a great trade, efpe-
cially in fruits, and is feated on a bay of the fame
name, 12 miles from Burfa, and 60 fouth-eaft of Con-
ftantinople. E. Long. 29. 40. N. Lat. 40. 20.
MONTAGUE (Edward), earl of Sandwich, an il-
luftrious Engliftiman, who thone from the age of 19,
and united the qualifications of general, admiral, and
ftatefman ; yet there were ftrange inconfiftencies in
his character. He aCted early againft Charles I; he
perfuaded Cromwell, whom it is faid he admired, to
take the crown ; and he was zealous' for the reftora-
tion of Charles II. All this is imputed to a fond and
unaccountable paffion which he had for royalty. Up¬
on general Monk’s coming into England, he failed
with the fleet to Holland, and foon after he had the
honour to convoy his majefty to England. For
this he was created knight of the garter ; and on the
12 th of July 1660 he was created baron Montague
of St Neot’s in the county of Huntingdon, Vifcount
You XII. Part I.
Hinchinbrooke in the fame county, and earl of Sand-M°nfJ
wich in Kent, fworn one of his majefty’s moft honour- '“—‘v
able privy-council, made mafter of the king’s ward¬
robe, admiral of the Narrow Seas, and lieutenant-
admiral to the duke of York, as lord high admiral of
England.
When the Dutch war broke out in 1694, and the
duke of York took upon himfelf the command of a
fleet as high-admiral, his lordlhip commanded the blue
fquadron, and by his jnduftry and care abundance of
the enemies fhips were taken ; and in the great battle
fought on the third of June 1665, in which the Dutch
loft admiral Opdam, and had 18 men of war taken
and 14 deftroyed, a large lhare of the honour of the
victory was juftly given to the conduCt of the earl of
Sandwich. On the return of the Englifh navy, the
command of the whole fleet was given to the earl of
Sandwich, which he was ordered to put as fpeedily as
poffible in a condition to return to the coaft of FIol-
land. Accordingly the earl failed on the 5th of ‘July
with 60 men of war to the Dutch coaft; when finding
that their Eaft India and Smyrna fleets were to return
home north about, he fleered for the coaft of Norway,
and found they had taken flicker in the port of Ber¬
gen, where the fleet were attacked : but leaving them
there, and failing back towards the coaft of Holland,
he met with four Dutch Eaft Indiamen, with feveral
other merchant ftiips, under a good convoy, and took
eight men of war, two of their Eaft India (hips, and
20 fail of merchant men; and a few days after, a part
of the fleet falling in with 18 of the Hollanders, the
greateft part of them were alfo taken, with four Dutch
men of war, and above 1000 prifoners. On his return
he was received by the king with diftinguiftied marks
of favour; and foon after, he was fent ambaflador ex¬
traordinary to the court of Madrid, to mediate a peace
between the crowns of Spain and Portugal; when he
had the happinefs to conclude a peace between the two
nations to their mutual fatisfaftion.
On the breaking out of the laft Dutch war, his lord-
fliip went to fea with the duke of York, and com¬
manded the blue fquadron; the French admiral, count
d’Eftrees, commanding the white. The fleet was at
fea in the beginning of the month of May ; and co¬
ming to an anchor in Southwold-bay in order to take
in water, we are told, that on the 27th many officers
and feamen were permitted to go on fliore, and were
at Southwold, Dunwich, and Aldborough; when, the
weather being hazy, the earl gave it as his opinion,
that, the wind Handing as it did, the fleet rode in dan¬
ger of being furprifed by the Dutch; and indeed, be¬
tween two and three the next morning, they were in¬
formed of their approach, upon which his royal high-
nefs made the fignal for weighing anchor. The blue
fquadron was out firft, the red next, and the white was
much aftern. The earl of Sandwich in the Royal
James, which carried 100 guns, began the fight, and
fell furioufly on the fquadron of Van Ghent in order
to give the reft of his fleet time to form; when cap¬
tain Brakel, in the Great Holland, attacked the Royal
James ; but was foon difabled, as were feveral other
men of war, and three fire-lhips funk. By this time moft
of his men were killed; and the hull of the Royal
James was fo pierced with (hot, that it was impof-
fible to carry her ®ff. In this diftrefs he might have
1 i been
MON [ 2 co ] MON
?vfontague. Vieen relieved by his vice-admiral Sir Jofepl) Jordan,
w^v^O had not tlat gentleman been more folicitous about
aflifting the duke. When therefore he faw him fail
by, heedlefs of the condition in which he lay, he faid
to thofq who were about him, “ There is nothing
left for us now, but to defend the fhip to the laft
man.” Being at length grappled by a fourth fire-
fhip, he begged his captain Sir Richard Haddock,
and all his fervants, to get into the boat and fave them-
felves, which they did : yet fome of the failors re¬
fused to quit the admiral, and flaying endeavoured to
extinguifh the fire, but in vain ; the fhip blew up
about noon His lordfhip’s body was found about a
fortnight after, and was interred with great flate in
Henry VII.'s chapel.—We have of his lordfhip’s
writing, i. The Art of Metals, in which is declared
the manner of their generation, tranflated from the
Spanifh of Albaro Alonzo Barba, 8vo. 2. Severa
letters during his embafly to Spain, publifhed with
Arlington’s letters. 3. A letter to fecretary Thurloe.
4. Original letters and negociations of Sir Richard
Fanfhaw, the earl of Sandwich, the earl of Sunder¬
land, and Sir William Godolphin, wherein divers
matters between the three crowns of England, Spain,
and Portugal, from the year 1663 to 1678, are fet in a
clear light, 2 vols 8vo.
Montague (Charles), earl of Halifax, fourth fon
cf George Montague of Harton in Northamptonfhire,
Efq; fon of Henry the firfl earl of Manchefter, was
born in 1661. He was educated at Weftminfter-fchool
and Cambridge, fhowed very early a moft pregnant
genius, and quickly made great progrefs.dn learning.
In 1684, he wrote a poem on the death of King
Charles II. in which he difplayed his genius to fuch
advantage, that he was invited to London by the earl
of Dorfet: and upon his coming thither he foon in-
creafed his fame, particularly by a piece which he
wrote in conjunflion with Prior, publifhed at London
in 1687, under the title of, “The Hind and the Pan¬
ther tranfverfed to the Story of the Country-meufe
and the City-moufe.” Upon the abdication of King
James II. he was chofen one of the members of the
Convention, and recommended by the earl of Dorfet
to King William, who immediately allowed him a pen-
fion of 500I. fler annum. Having given proofs of his
great abilities in the houfe of commons, he was made
one of the commiffioners of the treafury, and foon af¬
ter chancellor of the exchequer: in which pofl he
brought about that great work of recoining all the
current money of the nation. In 1698, he was ap¬
pointed firft commifiioner of the treafury ; and in
1699 was created a peer of England, by the title of
Baron Halifax in the county of York. In 1701, the
houfe of commons impeaced him of fix articles, which
were difmifled by the houfe of Lords. He was at¬
tacked again by the houfe of commons in 1702, but
without fuccefs. In *705, he wrote. An Anfwer to
Mr Bromley’s Speech in relation to the occafional
Conformity-bill. In 1706, he was one of the com-
miffioners for the Union with Scotland ; and upon
paffing the bill for the naturalization of the illuflrious
houfe of Hanover, and for the better fecurity of the
fucceffion of the crown in the Proteftant line, he was
made choice of to carry that aft to Hanover. Upon the
death of Queen Anne, when the king had taken pof*
fefllon of his throne, his tordfhip was appointed firfl: Montagiie.
commiffioner of the treafury, and created earl of Ha- ——v——-f
lifax and knight of the garter. He died in 1715. His
lordfhip wrote feveral other pieces befides thofe above-
mentioned; all which, with fome of his fpeeches, were
publifhed together in 1716 in an oilavo volume.
Montague (Lady Mary Wortley) accompanied
her hufband who was fent on an embafly to Conftan-
tinople in the beginning of this century. On her re¬
turn fhe introduced the praftice of inoculation into
England, and thence acquired great celebrity. She
cultivated the belles lettres; and at one period of her
life (lie was the friend of Pope, and at another his
enemy. While they were at enmity with each other,
Lady Mary Montague embraced every opportunity of
defaming the poet, who well knew how to take re¬
venge. Both of them carried their animofity to fo
great a height, that they became the fubjeft of public
conveifation. After a long life, full of Angular and
romantic adventures, fhe died about the year 1760.
From her we have L;tters, written during her travels
from the year 1716 to the year 1718. They have
been tranflated into French, and publifhed at Rotter¬
dam 1764, and at Paris i7^3» one v0^ I2mo- They
are compofed in a lively, intprefling, and agreeable
flyle, and contain many curious fails relating to the
manners and government of the Turks, which are no
where elfe to be found. The Baron de Tott, who
lived many years at Conllantinople, attacked them
with great feverity ; but they have been defended
with equal zeal by M. Guis of Marfeiiles, who has
publifhed a valuable work on Turkey. It need not
appear extraordinary, that perfons who have vifitei
the fame country fhould not fee things in the fame
light. How few travellers agree in their accounts of
the fame objeils, which they neverthelefs pretend to
have feen and to have examined with attention.
Montague (Edward Wortley), fon of the former,
pafied through fuch variegated feenes, that a bare re¬
cital of them would favour of the marvellous. From
Weftminfler-fchool, where he was placed for education,
he ran away three feveral times. He exchanged
clothes with a chimney-fweeper, and he followed for
fome time that footy occupation. He next joined
himfelf to a fifherman, and cried flounders in Rother-
hithe. He then failed as a cabin-boy to Spain; where
he had no fooner arrived, than he ran away from the
veffel, and hired himfelf to a driver of mules. After
thus vagabondiflng it for fome time, he was difeovered
by the eonful, who returned him to his friends in Eng¬
land. They received him with a joy equal to that of
the father of the predigal fon in thegofpel. A private
tutor was employed to recover thofe rudiments of learn¬
ing which a life of diflipation, of blackguardifm, and
of vulgarity, might have obliterated. Wortley was
fent to the Weft Indies, where he remained fome time;
then returned to England, aCled according to the dig¬
nity of his birth, was chofen a member, and ferved in
two fucceffive parliaments. His expences exceeding his
income, he became involved in debt, quitted his native,
country, and commenced that wandering traveller he.
continued to the time of his death. Having vifited
moft of the eaftern countries, he contrafted a partiali¬
ty for their manners. He drank little wine ; a great;
deal of coffee; wore a long beard; fmoked much;.
M O N [ 251 j MON
Mor-Wgue and, evsn whilft at Venice, he wai habited In the ea-
.. II, ftern ftyle. He fat crofs legged in the Turkilh faiiioa
through choice. With the Hebrew, the Arabic, the
Chaldaic, and the Petfian languages, he was as well[ac-
quainted as with his native tongue. He publifhed fe-
veral pieces. One on the “ Rife and Fall of the Ro¬
man Empire.” Another an exploration of “ The
Caufes of Earthquakes.” As this gentleman was
remarkable for the uncommon incidents which at¬
tended his life, the clofe of that life was no lefs
marked with Angularity. He had been early mar¬
ried to a woman wrho afpired to no higher a cha-
rafter than that of an induftrious walherwoman. As
the marriage was folemnized in a-frolic, Wortley ne¬
ver deemed her fufficiently the wife of his feofom to
cohabit with her. She was allowed a maintenance.
She lived contented, and was too fubmiffive to be
troublefome on account of the conjugal rites. Mr Mon¬
tague, on the other hand, was a perfedl patriarch in his
manners. He had wives of almoft every nation. When
he was with Ali Bey in Egypt, he had his houfehold
of Egyptian females, each driving who Ihould be the
happy (he who could gain the greatell afcendency
over this Anglo-Eaftern bafhaw. At Conftantinople,
the Grecian women had charms to captivate this un¬
fettled wanderer. In Spain a Spanifh brunette, in
Italy the olive-complexioned female were folicited to
jjartake the honours of the bridal-bed. It may be
afked what became of this group of wives? Mr Mon¬
tague was continually drifting the place, and confe-
quently varying the fcene. Did he travel with his
wives as the patriarchs did with their flocks and herds ?
No fuch thing. Wortley, confidering his wives as
bad travelling companions, generally left them behind
him. It happened, however, that news reached his
ears of the death of the original Mrs Montague the
waflrerwoman. Wortley had no iflue by her ; and
without iflue male, a very large eftate would revert to
the fecond fon of lord Bute. Wortley, owing the fa¬
mily no obligations, was determined, if poffible, to
defeat their expe&ations. He refolved to return to
England and marry. He acquainted a friend with his
intentions ; and he commiffioned that friend to adver-
tife for any young decent woman who might be in a
pregnant ftate. Several ladies anfwered it'. One out
of the number was fele&ed, as being the moft eligible
obje£V. She waited with eagernefs for the arrival of
her expefted bridegroom ; but, behold, whilft he was
on his journey, death very impertinently arrefted him
in his career.
MoNTAGi/E-IJland, one of the Hebrides, in the South
Sea, near Sandwich Ifland. E. Long. 168. 37. S.
Lat. 17. 26.
MONTAIGNE (Michel de), a French gentleman,
was born in Perigord in 1533. His father educated
him with great care, and made him learn Latin as
other children learn their mother-tongue, His tutors
were Nicholas Gronchi, who wrote De Comitiis Roma-
norum ; William Guerenti, who wrote on Ariftptle ;
George Buchanan ; and M. Anthony Muret. He was
alfo taught Greek by way of recreation ; and becaufe
feme think that ftarting children out of their fleep
fpoils their underftanding, he was awakened every
morning with the found of mufic. He was counfellor
for a while in the parliament of Bourdeaux ; after¬
wards made mayor of Bourdeaux. He publiftred his Monr*hh)Q
E/Jays, fo much known in the world, in 1580. Mon- ll
taigne had a great deal of wit and fubtlety, but no fmall
{hare of conceit and vanity. The learned and ingenious
are much divided in their opinion about his works.
. He died in 1592.
MONTALCINO, a fmall populous town of Italy,
in Tufcany, and in the territory of Sienna, with a bi-
fhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, 17 miles fouth-
eaftof Sienna, and 44 fouth-eaft of Florence. E. Long.
11. 30. N. Lat. 43. 7.
MONTALTO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
Marca of Ancona; feated on the river Monacio, 10
miles north of Afcolii, and 45 fouth of Ancona. E.
Long. 13. 30. N. Lat. 42. 54.
MONTANINI (Pietroj, called Petruccio Pe-
rugino, an eminent landfcape painter, was born at
Perugia in 1619. At firft he was inftru&ed by his
uncle Pietro Barfotti; but was afterwards placed as a
difciple with Giro Ferri. Yet he did not long adhere
to the manner of either of thofe mafteis, choofing
preferably to ftudy under Salvator Rofa; and he imi¬
tated the ftyle of that celebrated painter with exceed-
ing great fuccefs. The tafte of his landfcapes was
generally admired ; the rocks, fituations, torrents, and
abrupt precipices, were defigned with fpirit, and in a
grand ftyle ; and his figures recommended themfelves to
the eye by a very uncommon corre&nefs, propriety,
and elegance. He died in 1689.
MONTANISTS, Chriftian heretics, who fprung
up about the year 171, in the reign of the emperor
Marcus Aurelius They were fo called from their
leader, the herefiarch Montauus, a Phrygian by birth;
whence they are fometimes ftyled Phrygians and Cata-
phrygians.
Montanus, it is faid, embraced Chriftianity in hopes
of rifing to the dignities of the church. He prete nded
to infpiration; and gave out, that the Holy Ghoft had
inftrufted him in feveral points, which had not been
revealed to the apoftles. Prifcilla and Maximilla, two
enthuliaftic women of Phrygia, prefently became his
difciples ; and in a fhort time he had a great number
of followers. The biftiops of Afia, being aflembled
together, condemned his prophecies, and excommuni¬
cated thofe who difperfed them. Afterwards they
wrote an account of what had pafied to the weftern
churches, where the pretended prophecies of Montanus
and his followers were likewife condemned.
The Montanifts, finding themfelves expofed to the
cenfure of the whole church, formed a fchifm, and fet
up a diftinft fociety under the dire&ion of thofe who
called themfelves prophets. Montanus, in conjunction
with Prifcilla and Maximilla, was at the head of the fe£t.
Thefe feCtaries made no alteration in the creed.
They only held, that the Holy Spirit made Montanus
his organ for delivering a more perfedt form of difei-
pline than what was delivered by the apoftles. They
refufed communion for ever to thofe who were guilty of
notorious crimes, and believed that the biftiops had no
authority to reconcile them. They held it unlawful
to fly in time of perfecution- They condemned fecond
marriages, allowed the difiblution of marriage, and
obferved three lents.
The Montanifts became feparated into two branches;
one of which were the difciples of Proclus, and the
I i 2 other
• i3-°-
MON r 252 ] MON
Montanus other of ^Efchines. The latter are charged with fol- leia, and 12 north weft of Triefte. E. Long,
Monte fal ^owinS t^ie heterodoxy of Praxeas and Sabellius con- N. Lat. 46. 4.
Tone.3" cetning the Trinity. MoNTE-Faifcone, a fmall but populous town of
> 1—.. MONTANUS (Benedict Arias), a moft learned Italy, in the territory of the Church, with a bi- ^
Spanifh theologian, born in the diocefe of Badajox, (hop’s fee ; feated on a mountain, near the lake Bol-
about the year 1528. Pie aflifted at the council of fena, in a country abounding with excellent wine, 12-
» Trent with great reputation; and his merit and wri- miles fouth-weft of Orvieto, and 49 north-weft of
tings recommended him to Philip II. of Spain, who Rome. E. Long. 12.4 N. Lat 42. 26.
employed him in publifliing a new polyglot bible after Monte-Alarano, a populous, towm of Italy, in
the Complutenfian edition, which W4S printed by the the kingdom, of Naples, and in the Farther Prinei-
care of Cardinal Ximene*. This bible was printed at pato ; feated on the river Galore, 18 miles fouth of
Antwerp, whither Montanus went in 1571 ; and on Benevento. E. Long. 1 £. o. N. Lat, 40. 48.
his return to Spain he refufed the biihopric which Phi- MoNTE-Mor-o-novo, or Monte-major- elnovo, aeon,
lip offered him for his reward, but fpent the reft of his fiderable town of Portugal, on the road from Lif-
days at Sevilla, where he died about the year 1598. bon to Badajoz. Long. 9 35. W. N. Lat. 38. 42.
Montanus had not only vaft erudition, but great good Mom:E-Mor-o-velho, or Monte major-el velho, a town,
fenfe ; he loved folitude, was very laborious, never of Portugal in the province of Beira, with a very,
drank wine, and feldom ate flefh. large caftle, feated in a fertile country, 10 miles
MONTARGIS, a confiderable town of France, in fouth-weft of Coimbra, and 83 north of Lilbon. W.
the Orleannois, and capital of the Gatinois ; feated on Long. 8. 9. N. Lat. 40. 5.
the river Loir, near a handfome foreft, 15 miles fouth Monte-PcIo/o, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
of Nemours, and 62 fouth of Paris. E. Long. 2. 36. kingdom of Naples, and in the Bafilicata ; feated
N. Lat. 48. 1. on a mountain near the river Bafiento, 14 miles-
MONTAUBAN, a coaftderable town of France, eaft of Cirenza. E. Long. 16.28. N. Lat. 40. 46.
in Guienne, and territory of Quercy, with a bifhop’s MoNTR-PulJiano, a town of Italy, in Tufcany, with
fee, and an academy. The fortifications were de- a bfthop’s fee ; feated on a high mountain, near
molifhed in 1629, becaufe it took the part of the the river Chiana, in a country noted for excellent
Huguenots. It is feated on the river Tarne, 20 miles wine, 25 miles fouth-eaft of, Sienna, and 50 fouth by
north of Touloufe, and 30 fouth of Cahors. E. Long, eaft of Florence. E. Long. 11.49. N. Lat. 43. 10.
1. 27. N. Lat. 43. 56. MoNTArSanUo, formerly called Mount-Athos, a
MONTBAZON, a town of France, in Touraine* mountain of Turky in Europe, on the gulph of
with the title of a duchy ; agreeably feated at the foot Conteffa. It is called Monte-San&o, or the Holy,
of a hill, on which there is an ancient, caftle, 137 Mount, becaufe there are 22-monafteries thereon, in
miles fouth-weft of Paris. E. Long, o. 45. N. Lat. which are 4000 monks, who never fuffer a woman to
47. 17. come near them. It is 17 miles fouth of Saionichi.
MONTBELLIARD, a handfome and ftrong E. Long. 24. 39. N. Lat. 40. 27.
town of France, capital of a province of the fame, MoNTK-Verde, a town of Italy,, in the kingdom
name, between Alface and the Franche Compte. It ~ ’ " . . . - . ~
is feated at the foot of a rock, on which there is a
large, ftrong caftle, in. the form of a citadel. The
prince of Montbelliard has a voice and feat in the.
college of the princes of the empire. It was taken by of the emperor’s army, and one of the greateft com-
the French in 1.674, who demoliftied the fortifications, manders of his time, was born in the duchy of Mode-
but it was reftored to the prince. It is feated near - na, of a diftingui/hed family, in 1608. Erneft Monte-
the rivers Alaihe and Doux, 33 miles weft of Bade, cuculi his uncle, who was general of the artillery in.
and 45 northreaft of Bezanzon., E. Long. 6. 30- the Imperial army, refolved that he (hould ferve firft as
N. Lat. 47. 31. a,common foldier, and that he (hould pafs through all
MONTBLANC, a town of Spain, in the province the military degrees before he was raifed to command.,
of Catalonia, 13 miles north of Tarragon. E. Long. This the young Montecuculi did with applaufe. In.
I. 5. N, Lat. 41. 20. t^44> when he was at the head of 2000 horfe, hefur-
MONTRRISION, a confiderable town of France,, prifed by a precipitate march 10,000 Swedes, who laid
and capital of Forez, feated on the river Veziza, 40 liege to Nemeffau in.Silefia, and obliged them to a-
miles weft of Vienne, and 250 fouth by eaft of Paris, bandon their artillery and baggage ; but a (hort time
E. Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 45. 32. after, he was defeated and taken prifoner by thegene-
MONTECCHIO, a confiderable town of Italy, in ral Banier. Having obtained his liberty at the end of
the duchy, of Reggio, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Parma, two years, he joined, his troops to thofe of John de.
and eight north-weft of Reggio. E. Long. 15. 54. Wert; and defeated general Wrangel in Bohemia, who
N. Lat. 38. 8. was killed in the battle. In 1657 the emperor made
MONTE-falco, a, town of Italy, in the terri- him general marfhal de camp ; and fent him to the af-
tory of the church and duchy of Spalatto ; feated on fiftance. of John Cafimir, king of Poland. Montecti-
a mountain near the river Clitunno, 12. miles weft of. culi vanquilhed Ragotzi prince of franfilvania, drove
Spalatto E Long. 12. 4P. N. Lat. 42. 58. out the Swedes, and dillinguilhed himfelf in an extra-
MoNTE-Fakone, a town of Italy, in Friuli, with ordinary manner againft the Turks in Tranfilvania and,
a caftle. It belongs to the Venetians, and is near Hungary. In 1673 he commanded the Imperial ar-
the river Ponzano, xo miles north-weft of Aqui- my againft the French,, and took Bonne ; he then pro-.
. ceeded:
of Naples, and in the farther Principato, with a bi-
(hop’s fee; 60 miles eaft of Naples. E. Long. 15. 42.
N. Lat. 40. 51.
MONTECUCULI (Raymond de), generaliffimo
MON [ 253 ] MON
ftWego eeecTed with feint marches in order to deceive Turenne,
t*ay in which he obtained great honour. However, the
Montef cornmanc^ t^iat army was taken from him the next
quieu." year; but it was reftored to him in 1675, in order
W-y-w that he might make head againft the great Turenne.
AH Europe had their eyes fixed on thefe two able war¬
riors, who then made ufe of all the ftratagems which
genius and military knowledge were capable of fug-
gefting. The tnarfhal de Turenne was obtaining the
fuperiority when he was taken off by a cannon ball.
Montecuculi wept at the death of fo formidable an
enemy, and beftowed upon him the greatefi. praifes.
The great prince de Conde was the only French gene¬
ral that could deprive Montecuculi of the fuperiority
he had obtained by Turenne’s death. ThaFprince was
therefore fent to the Rhine, and flopped the Imperial
general; who confidered this laft'eampaign as'fhe moft
glorious of his life, not from his being conqueror, but
for his not being conquered, when he was oppofed by
a Turenne and a Conde. tie fpent the reft of his life
at the Imperial court; and died at Lint^; in 1680.
He wrote Memoirs ; the beft edition of which is that
of Strafburg, in 1735,
MONTEGO-bay, a town of Jamaica, and, next
to Kingfton, the moft flourifhing in the ifland, con¬
tains above 350 houfes ; and carries on a very conix-
derable commerce with Great Britain and our remain,
ing colonies in North America. The harbour is ca*
pacious y but rather expofed to the north winds,
which at certain times in the year blow with great
violence. It is the capital of the parifh of St James ;
In which are 70 fugar-plantations, 70 other fettle-
ments, and 27,000 Haves.
MON.TESA, a very ftrong town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Valentia. It is the feat of an. order of
kniglithood of the fame name ; and is five miles from
Xativa. W. Long o. ro. N. Lat. 39.*o.
MONTESQUIEU (Charles de Secondat) baron,
a moft illuftrious Frenchman defeended from an ancient
and noble family of Guienne, was born at the caftle
of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, in 1789. The greateft
care was taken of his education and at the age of 20
he had actually prepared materials for his Spirit of
Laws, by well digefted extracts from thofe immenfe
volumes of civil law which he had ftudied, not barely
as a civilian, but as a philofopher. He became a coun-
fellor of the parliament of Bourdeaux in 1714, and was
received prefident a mortier two years after. In 1721
he publilhed his Perftan'Letters ; in which, under the
fereen of Oriental manners, he fatirized thofe of
France, and treated of feveral important fubjefts by
delicate tranfient glances : he did not avow this publi¬
cation ; but was no fooner pointed cut as the author,
than zeal without knowledge, and envy under the ma/k
of it, united at once againft the Perfian Letters. He
was received into the French academy in 1728 ;
and having previoufly quitted his civil employments,
he entirely devoted himfelf to his genius, and was
no longer a magiftrate, but a man. of letters. Ha¬
ving thus fet himfelf at liberty, he travelled through
Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland,.and England,
in which laft country he refided three years, and con-
tra&ed intimacies with thegreateft men then alive; for
Locke and Newton were dead. The refult of his ob-
fervations was, “ that . Germany was Jit to travel in,.
Italy to fojourn in, England to think in, and France 1
to live in.” On his return he retired for two years to
his eftate at La Brede, where he finifhed his work
On the Caufes of the Grandeur and Declenfton of the Ra¬
mons ; which appeared in 1734. The reputation ac¬
quired by this laft work only cleared the way for his
greater undertaking, the Spirit of Laws, which was
printed at Geneva in 2 vols qto. 1750. This was
immediately attacked by the adverfaries of his Pei-fian-
Letters, in a multitude of anonymous pamphlets ; con¬
taining all the reproaches to which a liberal mind is
expofed from craft and ignorance. M, Montefquieu
drew up a defence of this work ; which for truth, mo¬
deration, and delicacy of ridicule, may be regarded as
a model in its way. This great man was peaceably
enjoying that fulnefs of efteem which his great merits
had procured him, when he fell fick at Paris, and
died on the 10th of February 1755.—The following
character of this great man is drawn by Lord Cheiler-
field. His virtues did honour to human nature, his.
writings juftice. A friend to mankind, he aflerted their
undoubted and unalienable rights with freedom, even
in his own country ; whofe prejudices in matters of
religion and government he had long lamented, and
endeavoured, not without fame fuccefs, to remove. He
well knew, and juftly admired, the happy conftitutioxi
of this country, where fixed and known laws equally
reftrain monarchy from tyranny, and liberty from li-
centioufnefs. His works will illuftrate his name, and
furvive him, as long as right reafon, moral obligation,.,
and the true fpirit of laws, fhall be underftood, re-
fpefted, and maintained.” As to his perfonal qualities,
we are told by his elogift, M. d’Alembert, that “ he
was of a fweet, gay, and even temper. His converfation -
wasfpirited, agreeable, and inftrudtive. Nobody told a
ftor-y in a more lively manner, or with more grace and
lefs affe&ation. He had frequent abfence of mind j
but always awaked from it by fome unexpended ftroke
that re-animated the languiftxing converfation. Though
he lived with the great, he retired whenever he could
to his eftate in the country, and there met his books,
his philofophy, and his repofe. Surrounded at his
leifure-hours with peafants, after , having fludied man
in the commerce of the world, he ftudied him in thofe
fimple people folely inftru&ed by nature. With them
he cheerfully converfed ; .he endeavoured, like Socrates,,
to find out their genius, and appeared as happy with
them as in the moft brilliant aflemblies ; efpecially
when he reconciled their differences,- and by his bene^
ficence relieved them from their diftreffes.”
Befides the works already mentioned, M. Montef- •
quieu wrote feveral fmall pieces, as the Temple of Gni-
dus, Lyfimachus, and Effay upon Tafte, which is left
unfiniftied. His works have been colle&ed fince his
death, and printed at Paris in a fplendid edition, in
quarto. They have likewife all of them been tranflated
into Englifh.
MONTEZUMA, or Montezuma, was emperor
or king of Mexico when Cortez invaded that coun¬
try in 1518, invited thither, as he pretended, by the
inhabitants, whofe children Montezuma, in the blind-
nefs of his fuperftition, had facrificed to his idols. The.
warlike animals on which the Spaniftj officers were
mounted, the artificial thunder with which they were,
armed, the wooden caftles on which they had croffed
8 " the.
MON [ 254 ] MON
-Mcnte. t]ie oceanj the armour with which they were coveredj
f11"1? the vidtories which they gained wherever they went;
Montferratthefe circumftances, added to that foolifh difpoiitien
w—y—»- to wonder which always charadterifes a fimple people,
fo operated upon the minds of the Mexicans, that when
Cortez arrived at the city of Mexico, he was received
by Montezuma as his mailer, and by the inhabitants
as a god. At firit they fell down in the ftreets when
a by nilh valet palled by ; but by degrees the court of
Montezuma grew familiar with the llrangers, and ven¬
tured to treat them as men. Montezuma, unable to
expel them by force, endeavoured to infpire them with
confidence at Mexico by expreffions of friendlhip,
w hile he employed fccret means to weaken their power
in other quarters. With this view, one of his generals,
who had private orders to that purpofe, attacked a
party of the Spaniards who were ftationed at Vera-
Cruz ; and, although his troops were unfuccefsfui, yet
three or four of the Spaniards were killed. The head of
one of them was carried to Montezuma. In confequence
of this, Cortez did what has been reckoned one of the
boldell political ftrokes that ever was performed. He
ran to the palace, followed by fifty of his troops; and,
by perfuafion and threats, carried the emperor prifoner
into the Spanifli quarter. He afterwards obliged him
to deliver up thofe who had attacked his troops at
Vera-Cruz ; and, like a general who punilhes a com-
■mon foldier, he loaded Montezuma with chains. He
next obliged him to acknowledge himfelf in public the
vaffal of Charles V. ; and, in name of tribute for this
homage, Cortez received 600,000 merks of pure gold.
Montezuma foon afterwards fell a facrifice to his fub-
mifiion to the Spaniards. He and Alvaro, the lieu¬
tenant of Cortez, were befieged in the palace by
200,000 Mexicans. The emperor propofed to Ihow
himfelf to his fubje&s, that he might perfuade them
to defift from the attack: but the Mexicans no longer
confidered him in any other light but as the Have of
foreign conquerors. In the midft of his fpeech, he
received a blow with a ftone which wounded him
mortally; and he expired foon after, A D 1520.—
See Cortez. This unfortunate prince left two fons
and three daughters, who embraced the Chriftian
faith. The eldelt received baptifm, and obtained
from Charles Vv lands, revenues, and the title ■ of
Count de Montezuma. He died in 1608 ; and his
family is one of the moll powerful in Spain.
MONTFAUCON (Bernard de), a very learned
Benedi6line of the congregation^of St Maur, Angular¬
ly famous for his knowledge in Pagan and ecclefiaftical
antiquities, was born of an ancient and noble fami¬
ly in Languedoc, in 1655. He ferved for fome time
in the army ; but the death of his parents mortified
him fo with regard to the world, that he commenced
Benedidline monk in 1675, and applied himfelf in-
tenfely to ftudy. Though Montfaucon’s life was long,
healthy, retired, and laborious, his volumiribus publi¬
cations feem fufficiently to have employed the whole ;
exclufive of his greateft undertaking, for which he will
be always memorable. This was his Antiquite ex-
plique, written in Latin and French, illuftrated with
elegant plates, in 10 vols folio ; to which he added a
fupplement of 5 vols more. He died at the abbey of
St Germain in 1741.
MONTFE,RRAT, a province of Italy, with the
title of a duchy ; bounded on the call by the duchy of MosuLft.
Milan, and part of the territory of Genoa; on the
north, by the Vercellefe and Canavefe ; on the weft, by
Piedmont properly fo called; and on the fouth by the
territory of Genoa, from whence it is feparated by the
Apennine mountains. It contains 200 towns and
caftles ; and is very fertile and well cultivated, abound¬
ing in corn, wine, oil, and filk. It belongs to the
king of Sardinia, and Cafal is the capital town.
MONTFORT, a town of France, in Upper Bre¬
tagne, hated on the river Men, 12 miles from Rennes.
W. Long. 1. 58. N. Lat. 48. 8.
Montfort, an handfome and ftrong town of the
Netherlands, in the United Provinces, with an an¬
cient caftle ; feated on the river Yflel, feven miles from
Utrecht. E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 52. 4.
Montfort, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, on the confines of Tirol, 16 miles fouth of
Lindow, and the lake Conftance. It is capital of a
country of the fame, which has been almoft all pur-
chafed by the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 9. jj,
N. Lat. 47. 22.
Montfort-de-lemos, an ancient town of Spain,
in the kingdom of Galicia, with a magnificent caftle,
where the Comarca of Lemos refides. It is feated in
a fertile country, 25 miles north-eaft of Orenfa, and
55 fouth-eall of Compoftella. W. Long. 7, 9. N.
Lat. 42. 28.
Montfort-l’amuly, a town in the Ille of France,
with the title of a duchy, 25 miles from Paris. E.
Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 48.45.
MONTFORT (Simon Count de), defeended from
an illuftrious and fiourilhing family, was lord of a fmall
town of the fame name ten leagues from Paris. He
was one of the greateft generals of the age in which
he lived ; and he difplayed his bravery in a voyage
beyond feas, and in the wars with the Englifh and
Germans. The ftrength of his conftitution enabled
him to fupport without inconvenience the feverell la¬
bours of the field : his majeftic ftature diftinguifhed
him in the midtt of the battle ; and the motion of his
fword was fufficient to ftrike terror into his boldelt
enemies. In the greateft dangers he pofl'efted the ut-
molt coolnefs and prefence of mind r he obferved every
emergency ; and was ready to bring afiiftance, while
he himfelf was employed in attacking the braved who
made head againll him. He was appointed to conduft
the crufade againft the Albigenfes in 1209 ; and the
name of Simon de Montfort is highly celebrated in
this war. He took Beziers and Carcaflbnne, raifed
the fiege of Cattelnau, and gained a great vi&ory in
1213 over Peter king of Arragon, Raimond VI.
count of Touloufe, and the counts de Foix and de
Cominge. Simon de Montfort was killed at the fiege
of Touloufe on the 25th of June 12x8, by a.blow
with a ftone difekarged by the hands of a woman.—
Such was the fate of one who had fullied the glory
of his vidlories by the cruelty of his executions.—.
Some hiftorians have given him the name of Macca
beus and of Defender sf the Faith ; but men, ani¬
mated with the true fpirit of Chriftianity, have re¬
volted againft fuch titles. “ We cannot (fays the
Abbe Nonotte) read the accounts of his feverity, or
rather cruelty, towards the Albigenfes without horror.
He was not guided by the fpirit of the religion of Je-
M O N f :
Monfgjtz, ftls ;fl maflacre|of Beziers, the pillao’e of Car*
Mionge caff°une» the taking of Lavaur. But°our horror
< ^ . is fomewhat ditniniihed by the confideration of the
dreadful revolt, and maffacres committed by thefAlbi-
genfes themfelves.” Simon de Montfort treated them
at the bell with as great cruelty as they had done the
Catholics. His younger fon afterwards made a great
figure in England, and is known by the title of Earl
of Leiceher. #
MONTGATZ, a town of Lower Hungary, in the
county of Pereczas, with a fortrefs compofed of thiee
caftles, feated on a craggy rock. It is encompaffed
with a great morafs, and art and nature have render¬
ed it almoft impregnable. It was defended by the
Princefs Ragotfky, wife of Count Tekeli, when be-
fieged by an army of the Imperialifts, who were obli¬
ged to raife the fiege in 16^8.
MONTGERON(Louis-BafiIe-Carre de), was born
at Paris, A. D. 1686 ; his father was matter of re-
quefts. He was fcarcely 25 years of age when he
purchafed the place of counfellor in parliament, where
by his wit and external qualifications he gained con-
fiderable reputation. Deeply engaged in all the vices
which flow from irreligion, he was converted by an
tmexpedled circumflance. He went on the 7th of
September 1731 to the tomb of Deacon Paris, with
an intention to examine, with the rigour of the fe-
vereftcritic, the miracles which were reported-to be per-
fo’-med there. But, according to his own account, he
felt himfelf fuddenly beat to the earth by inr umerable
flatties of light with which he was furrounded. His
incredulity was converted into flaming zeal, and he
became the apoftle of the faint whom he formerly ri¬
diculed. From that moment he devoted himfelf to
the fanaticifm of convuljions, with the fame impetuo-
fity of charatter with which he had run into the moft
Ihameful exceffes. He had not long been the difciple
of Janfenifm when he fuffered perfecution. When
the chamber of inquefts was banifhed in 1732, he
was fent into the mountains of Auvergne*; which, in*
Head of cooling, tended rather to inflame his zeal.
During his exile, he formed the plan of collecting the
proofs of the miracles wrought at the tomb of the
Abbe Paris, and of compofing what he called a Dc-
monjl ration of them. On his return to Paris, he pre¬
pared to execute this plan; and on the 29th of July
1737, he actually prefented to the king at Verfailles
a volume in quarto fuperbly bound. This work he
accompanied with a fpeech, which is a mixture of
zeal and argument in a tolerable ftyle. In confe-
quence of this work, which fome confider as a matter-
piece of eloquence, and others as a mafs of abfurdi-
ties, he was committed to the Baftile. After a few
months confinement, he was fent to an abbey of Be-
Bedifhne monks in the diocefe of Avignon ; whence
he was, in a fliort time, carried to Viviers. He was
afterwards confined in the citadel of Valence, where
he died, A. D. 1754, aged 68. The work which he
prefented to the king was entitled La verite des Mi¬
racles operees par Vinterceffon de M. Paris, &c. &c.—
The critics, even to this day, feem to be guided in
their opinion concerning this book either by hatred
or by enthufiafm. “ It would be extremely rafh (fays
the Abbe de St Pierre, in the fecond volume of his
Annales, p. 593.) to maintain with the Molenifts, that
ho miraculous cure was ever performed at the tomb
7.
•55 1 MON
of the Abbe Paris; and to fay with the Janfenffts, Mantsp*
that thefe cures were performed by a fupernatural mei7-
power, would be the height of fanaticifm 'The truth
is (adds the fame author), that no miracle appears ever
to have been performed at this tomb except in the
cure of the human body ; in all other cafes, there
would have been the want of that imagination on
which the whole miracle depended.” Thus, although
Montgeron ventured to compare thefe prodigies with
the miracles of Jefus Chrift and his apottles, yet we
find no perfon raifed from the dead, no multiplication
of loaves, no command obeyed by the elements, and
no blind or deaf reftored to their fight or hearing. It
belongs to the Author of nature alone, or to thofe
who have derived power from him, to work fuch mi¬
racles as are recorded by the evangelils, or in the
hiftory of the apoftles. Montgeron added a fecond
and third volume on the fame fubjedl: he left alfo in
manufeript a work which he compofed in prifon
contre les heredities. Religion, it mutt be confeffed,
has had much more powerful advocates. Fortunately
Pafcal and Boffuet are among the number: and it
could well have wanted both Paris and Montgeron,
whatever virtues they might poffefs in other refpedts.
MONTGOMERY, the capital of a county of the
fame name in North Wales, 158 miles from London,,
took its name from Roger de Montgomery earl of
Shrewlbury, who built the cattle : but it is called by
the Welfh Tre Valdwin, that is, Baldwin’s town ; ha¬
ving been built by Baldwin, lieutenant of the marches
of Wales, in the reign of William I. The Wellh,
after having put the garrifon to the fword, demolifhed
it in 1093 I but Henry III. rebuilt it, and granted it
the privileges of a free borough, with other liberties.
It is a large and tolerably well built town, in a health¬
ful fituation and fertile foil. It fends a member to
parliament, and has the title of an earldom. It had
formerly a tower and cattle ; but they were demolilhed
in the civil wars. It has a weekly market, and four fairs.
MONTGOMERY (Gabriel de), count de Mont¬
gomery in Normandy, was remarkable for Ids valour
and noble atchievements, but ttill more fo for being
fo unfortunate as to put out the. eye of Henry II. orr.
the 29th of June 1539. That prince having engaged
feveral knights in a tournament, given by him on oc-
calion of the marriage of his daughter the princefs
Elizabeth with Philip king of Spain, at laft wiftied to ■
break a lance with the young Montgomery, at that
time lieutenant of the Scotch guard. Montgomery,
as if he had forefeen the fatal conl’equences, again and
again declined the combat, and it was with great re¬
luctance he at length yielded, when he faw the kin<r
about to take offence at his refufal. In the courfet
his lance broke in the king’s vifor, and wounded him
in the eye. Henry died on the 1 tth day after recei¬
ving the wound, and gave orders on his death-bed that
Montgomery fliould not be profecuted, or haraffed in
any refpeit, on account of what had happened. After
this unlucky accident, Montgomery retired for fome
time to his eftate in Normandy.. He next vifited Ita¬
ly and other foreign countries ; and did not return to
France till the commencement of the civil wars, when
he joined the party of the Proteftants, and became
one of their principal leaders. In 1562, he defended
Rouen againft the royal army with great valour and
obttinacy. The city being at length taken by ftorm,
he
MON [256] MON
Montgo- he threw himfelfinto a galley; and having, with equal
meT- temerity and good fortune, furmounted by dint of
v rowing a chain v/hich had been thrown acrofs the
Seine at Candebec for the purpofe of preventing fuc-
cours from England, he efcaped to Havre. In 1569
Montgomery was fent to the affiftance of Bearn, which
the Catholics, under the command of Terrides, had
almoft entirely wrefted from the hands of Jane d'Albret,
queen of Navarre. He executed this commiflion with
fo great difpatch, that Terrides was obliged to raife
the fiege of Navarreins, and to retire with great preci¬
pitation to Orthez. Montgomery purfued him to this
city, which he took by affault; and before Terrides
had time to recover bimfelf, he and his principal of-
ficere were taken prifoners in the caftle. After this
defeat, the reft of Bearn fubmitted to the conqueror
wherever he made his appearance. This expedition
acquired him the greateft glory, and has been celebra¬
ted by the Catholic no lefs than by the Proteftant
hiftorians. He was at Paris at the time of the maf-
facre on St Bartholomew’s day 1572, and lodged in
the Faubourg St Germain. Some accident having re¬
tarded the execution in that quarter, he was informed
of it at the very moment when it was about to begin ;
and he had juft fufficient time to mount hishorfe, and,
in company with fome Proteftant gentlemen who lodg¬
ed near him, to make his efcape at full gallop They
were purfued as far as Montfort-l’Amaury; and Mont¬
gomery, whofe efcape alone is particularly attended
to, owed his fafety on this occafion to the fwiftnefs of
his horfe, which, according -to a manufcript of that
time, carried him 30 leagues without halting. Having
efcaped this danger, he took refuge with his family,
iirft in the ifland of Jerfey and afterwards in England.
The following year, Montgomery carried a confider*
able fleet, which he had armed and fitted out in Eng¬
land, partly on his own credit and partly on that of
the inhabitants of Rochelle, to the relief of that city,
which was at that time befieged by the Catholics :
But, whether diftrufting his forces, or for other rea
fons about which hiftorians do not agree, he left the
road without fighting the Catholic fleet, and went to
pillage Belleifle on the coaft of Brittany. Having
difbanded his fleet, he returned to England to Henry
de Champernon his fon-in law, coaft-admiral of Corn¬
wall. On the renewal of the war in France in 1573,
Montgomery, who was then in Jerfey, pafled over into
.Normandy, and joined the Proteftant nobility of that
province. Matignon, lieutenant-general in Lower
Normandy, to whom Catharine de Medicis had given
a particular charge to ufe his utmoft endeavours to feize
theperfon of the Count, came unexpe&edly upon him
in Saint-Lo, and laid fiege to that city. On the
evening of the fifth day of the fiege, Montgomery
left Saint-Lo with between 60 and 8c horfe, forced
the guard in the fuburbs, and efcaped amid a fliower
of mufket bullets, without lofing a Angle man, leaving
the command of the place to Coulombieres, Francois
de Briqueville. Montgomery arrived at Domfront
May 7. 17 54, with only twenty followers, intending to
jnake no longer a ftay in that place than was neceffary
to recruit them after the fatigues of fo rapid a march.
The fame day he was joined by feveral gentlemen, who
brought to his affiftance a company of forty horfe.—
Meanwhile Matignon, informed of his efcape, and en-
N°227.
raged at having loft his prey, flew at the head of a Montgo.
party of horfe, with fome companies of foot mounted ir ei>
on horfeback, and arrived on the morning of the 9th
before Domfront. He blocked up the place on all
fides till the infantry and cannon which followed him
ftiould arrive. On their arrival, he attacked the city
with great violence ; and, as it was impoffible to de¬
fend it, Montgomery was foon obliged to retire into
the caftle witl^ the garrifon, amounting to no more
than 150 men, including 80 foot foldiers who guard¬
ed the city when he entered it. He fuftained a furious
aflault, fought with the greateft boldnefs and obfti-
nacy, and expofed himfelf in the breach like one who
wiffied for death. Perceiving, however, that his fol¬
diers, partly by the fire of the enemy, and partly by
conftant defertion, were reduced almoft to nothing, he .
capitulated on the 27th of May. Many Proteftant
hiftorians affirm, that the articles of capitulation were
violated with* regard to Montgomery ; but, not to
mention the tellimony of others, it appears evident,
from the authority of D'Aubigny himfelf, who of all
the Proteftant writers is moft worthy of credit, that
the Count had .no promife from Matignon, except
perfonal fafety and good treatment while he conti¬
nued his prifoner. This general gave him no aflurance
of pardon from the king or the queen-mother. After
the capture of Domfront, Matignon conduced his
prifoner to Saint-Lo, the fiege of which was ftill go¬
ing on, in hopes that he might have fome influence
with his farmer friend and fellow-foldier to perfuade
him to furrender. For this purpofe, Montgomery
was brought to the fide of the ditch; and he exhorted
Coulombieres, who appeared on the wall, to follow
his example. But Coulombieres, full of indignation,
reproached him in the fevereft and moft upbraiding
terms for his cowardice in entering into a lhameful ca¬
pitulation, inftead of dying in the breach like a fol-
dier, with his fword in his hand. This intrepid go¬
vernor fpoke the true fentiments of his heart; for
when the aflault was made fome days after, he was
killed defending the breach In the mean time, Ma¬
tignon received orders from Catharine de Medicis, now
regent of the kingdom by the death of Charles IX.
to fend Montgomery to Paris under a ftrong guard.
When he arrived there, he was conduced to the gaol
belonging to the parliament, and confined in the tower
which ftill bears his name. Commiffioners were ap¬
pointed by the queen to conduct his trial. He was
interrogated concerning the confpiracy imputed to the
admiral Coligny ; but the principal charge on which
his condemnation was founded, was his.hoifting the
Engliffi flag on board thofe fhips which he intended
for the relief of Rochelle. The fentence by which he
was condemned alfo deprived his children of the title
of nobles. When Montgomery heard this part of the
fentence read, If they have not the virtue of nobles to re¬
trieve this lofs (faid he), / confent to their degradation 
After undergoing a very fevere torture, he was carried
to the place de Greve, d refled in mourning, and there
beheaded on the 26th of June 1574. D’Aubigny,
who was prefent at his execution, and who flood im¬
mediately behind Fervaques, fays that he appeared on
the fcaffold with a firm and undaunted countenance ;
and gives us a pretty long fpeech which he delivered
on that occafion, addreffing himfdf fiift to the fpec-
tatorg
MON
Mrnitgo- tators on one fide of the river, and then to thofe on
mery, tjje 0^er< When he had finifiied his fpeech, he fell
meryfhfre. on his knees befide the block; bade adieu to
-y—— Fervaques, whom he perceived in the crowd ; requeft-
ed the executioner not to cover his eyes ; and fubmit-
ted to his fate with a conftancy truly admirable.
Montgomery has always been confidered as a viftim
to the onjuft revenge of Catherine de Medicis. It is
r 257 3
MON
MONTH, the twelfth part of a year. See Chro* Month,
nology, n° 17. —y——J
Month, in its proper acceptation, is that fpace of
time which the moon takes up in palling from any
certain point to the fame again, which is called a pe¬
riodical month ; or it is the fpace of time between
two conjundtions of the moon with the fun, which is
called a fynodical month. That fpace of time which
evident that he could npt be profecuted or punilhed the fun takes up in palfing through one fign or 12 th
for the death of Henry II. ; but it has been faid, part of the zodiac, is alfo called (but improperly) a
that, after a misfortune of this kind, which was pro- month. So that there are two forts of months ; lunart
duftive of fo many calamities to the Hate, Montgo- which are meafured by the moon; and folar, which are
mery was much lefs excufable than the other Prote- meafured by the fun. The lunar periodical month
Hants, in carrying arms againft his fovereign, the fon confifts of 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5 feconds :
of that very king of whom he had deprived France. The lunar fynodical month is 29 days, 12 hours, 44
This confideration is mentioned by the Catholics as minutes, 3 feconds, and 11 thirds. A folar month
one reafon for diminifliing our concern at the tragical contains, upon a mean calculation, 30 days, 10 hour*,
death of this illuftrious hero. Montgomery married 29 minutes, 5 feconds.
in 1 549 Elifabeth de la Fouche of a noble family in The Jews, Greeks, and Romans, made ufe of lu-
Brittany : he left feveral children, but their number nar fynodical months ; but, to avoid fractions, they
is not exactly known. confided alternately of 29 and 30 days. The former.
He was the eldeft fon of James de Montgomery, the Romans called cavi, and the Greeks ; the
Seigneur de Lorges in the Orleannois, one of the latter were termedand TxrjE.s.
braved men of his age, and famous under the name 1. The Hebrew months were ranged differently in
of Lorges in the wars of Francis I. In 1545 he fuc- their facred and in their civil year.
ceeded John Stuart count d’Aubigny in the com¬
mand of the hundred archers ifi the Scotch guard ;
and his fon was lieutenant, or perhaps captain, in
furvivancy when he killed Henry II. It is Angular
that the fame Lorges, father of Montgomery, had
wounded Francis I. in the chin with a firebrand, in
fome frolic with that prince. This accident occa-
fioned the wearing of long beards in France for 50
years. Lorges died aged above 80, a (hort time af¬
ter Henry II. He obtained the title of count de
Montgomery in 1453, pretending that it belonged
to his ancedors, and that he was defcendedj by the
earls of Eglinton in Scotland, from a younger fon of
the ancient houfe of Montgomery edabliftied in Eng¬
land. According to a memoir given by the family
Order of the ficred Year.
1 Nifan
2 Jlar
3 S'rvan
4 Tham muz
5 Ab
6 Elul
7 Tifri
8 Marfchevan
9 Cajleu
10 Thebet
1 1 Sebat
12 Adar
’Mar.
Apr.
June
May
July
Aug.
Sep.
oa.
Nov.
Dec.
Tan.
[Feb. |
Order of the civ
1 Tifri
2 Marfchevan
3 Cajleu
4 Thebet
5 Sebat
€ Adar
7 Nifan
S Jfr
9 Sivan
10 Thammuz
11 Ab
12 Elul
il Year.
Sep.
oa.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
! Feb.
' Mar.
Aprv
May
June
July
Aug.
Thefe months being lunar cannot exa&ty anfwer
to the author of the Genealogical Didtionary, James to our folar months ; but every Jewifh month mud be
was the fon of Robert Montgomery, who left Scot- conceived to anfwer to two of ours, and partake of
land and entered into the fervice of the French king both. As thefe 12 lunar months confiiied only of
about the beginning of the reign of Francis I. and 354 days, the Jews, in order to bring it nearer to the
this Robert was grandfon to Alexander Montgomery, true year, took care every three years to intercalate
coufin by the mother’s fide to James I. king of Scot- a 13th month into the number, which they called
land. ve-adar, or the fecond adar. The new moon was al-
Montgomeryshire, a county of North Wales, 40 ways the beginning of the month ; and k is faid the
miles in length and 37 in breadth ; bounded on the Jews had people polled on elevated places, to give no-
north by Merionethlhire and Denbighlhire, on the tice to the Sanhedrim as foon as die made her appear-
north-eaft and eaft by Shroplhire, on the fouth by ance : After this, proclamation was made by found of
Radnorlhire and Cardiganlhire, and on the well by trumpet, and “ the fead of the new moon, the fead
the lad mentioned county and part of Merionethlhire. of the new moon,” refounded amongd the people.
It is divided into fix hundreds ; and contains fix The ancient Hebrew months were of 30 days each,
market-towns, 47 parilhes, about 5660 houfes, and excepting the lad, which confided of 35 ; fo that the
33,960 inhabitants. It lies in the three feveral dio- year contained 365 days, with an intercalary month
cefes of St Afaph, Bangor, and Hereford ; but fends at the end of 120 years, which, by abforbing the odd
only two members to parliament, one for the county, hours which remained at the conclufion of each year,
and one for the town of Montgomery. The air is brought it back nearly to its proper place. This regu-
pleafant and falubrious ; but this county, being ex- lation of the year was borrowed from the Egyptians,
tremely mountainous, is not very fertile, except in the 2. The months of the Athenian year, as we have
valleys, which afford fome corn and plenty of padure; before obferved, confided alternately of 29 and 30
however, the fouth, fouth-ead, and north-ead parts, days. The fird month, according to Melon’s re¬
being much more level, are extremely fruitful, efpeci- formation of the kalendar, began with the fird new
ally a pleafant vale, through which the Severn glides moon after, the dimmer foldice, “and was called heca-
in beautiful meanders. tombaon, anfwering to the latter half of June, and the
Vol. XII. Parti. Kk former
M
Mbnth. former half of July,
ON [ *58 1
The order of the months, with days: thefe he
the number of days in each, are as follows :
1 Hecatomlceon,
2 ITetagHnion,
3 lUedromlon,
4 Mtfmactenon,
5 Panepfon,
6 Anthtjlerion,
30 j 7 Pofideon,
8 Game lion,
9 Elaphcbolion,
29 f IO Munichion,
1 Tharge/ion,
l Scirrophorion,
3°
29 1
Each month was divided into three decades of days
called The firft was called M»vof a^o^eir* or
vx, or the decade of the beginning of the month;
MON
intercalated betwixt November and Month.
December 5 fo that the year confided, for this one **~v ■*'“w
time, of 15 months or 44; days. This reformation
was called the Julian correcfion, and this year the year
of confufion. At the end of \2 years, by the igno¬
rance of priells, who did not underiland intercalation,
12 days had been intercalated for nine. This was
obferved by Auguftus Ca:far, and reftified, by order¬
ing 12 years to pafs without any intercalary days.
The order and fucceflion of months was the fame as
that of Numa : But January, March, May, 'Quintilu,
the fecond was Mntotr or the decade of the Oftober, and December, had each 31 days;
April, June, September 30, and February, in com¬
mon years, 28 ; but every fourth year or bififextile 29.
This, with a verylittle difference, is the account obferved
at prefent. $>uintiiis, in compliment to Julius Caefar,
was called yu/y.becaufe in this month he was born; and
Sextilis, in honour of Auguftus, was called Augujl;
both which names are ftill continued.—See Year.
Each month by the Romans was divided into ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, all of which were reckoned back¬
wards. The kalends were the firft day of the month.
The nones fell on the feventh, and the ides on the 15 th,
of March, May, July, October—but in all other
months the nones were on the fifth, and the ides on
the 13th. For the more eafy comprehenfion of the
Roman manner of dating, according to this divifion
of the months, here follows a table.
.vlarch
May
July
0<Stober
Kalendte
6
5
4
3
Prid. Non.
Nona
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idas
Idus
»7
16
*5
14
•3
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Kal.
January
Auguft
December
April
June
September
November
February
middle; and the third was M»v«f ?$ivo>1oc,
ywlof, the decade of the expiring month.
The firft day of the firft decade was termed Nt^nvia,
becaufe the nrft month began with the new moon ;
the fecond day was i(aytv«: the third rgih ictty^v,
&c. The firft day of the fecond decade was *gal» yi-
evyloc, the fecond Stultga (t'twloc, &c.—the days of this
decade were alfo called *goh cri Ss*u, fovltg* art Stxx, Sic.
The firft day of the third decade was xgalv or’ tuafi; the
fecond was Sevligcc or' ur.crfi, &c. i. e. the firft, fecond,
&c. after 20, becaufe the laft decade began on the
20th day. This decade was alfo counted by inverfion
thus; TStawloi Stx.aU the 21ft,ataU the 22d,
fothe oySon the 23 d, and fo of the reft to the laft day
of the month, which was called fv» *«« »•*, the old and
the new, becaufe one part of that day belonged to
the old and the other to the new moon; but after the
time of Demetrius, the laft day of the month was called
from him £a>y.»Tgtoi<; ■, it fometimes was named rgiaxae.
The Grecian months* thus confifting of 29 and 30
days alternately, fell fhort of the folar year 11 days
6 hours. To remedy this defeft the cycle of four
years, called riTgathgtc, was invented.—In this cycle,
after the firft two years, they added an intercalated
month called tySoxiycf, confifting of 22 days; and
again, after the expiration of two years more, they
inferted another month of 23 days, the fourth part of
a day having in the fpace of four years amounted to a
whole year. See Year.
3. The Roman year under Romulus confided
of 10 months only, and began with March, which
contained 31 days, then followed April which had
30, May 31, June 30, QuintiHs 31, Sextilis 30, Sep¬
tember 30, Oftober 31, November 30, December 30.
Thefe 10 months containing no more than 304 days,
this account was in a ftiort time found to be deficient.
Numa Pompilius, therefore, took away one day from
each of thefe fix months, April, June, Sextilis} Sep¬
tember, November, December; and to the fix days thus
obtained be added 51, which was the number that
Romulus's year, in his opinion, wanted to make it
perfect. Numa had now 57 days to difpofe of; he
therefore divided them, and conftituted two other
months, January and February; the former confifting
of 29 and the latter of 28 days. The month of Ja¬
nuary, which he placed at the winter folftice, he made
inftead of March to begin the year. Thus Numa’s
year confifted of 355 days : but this being found 11
days 6 hours fhort of the folar year, he made ufe of
the intercalation of 90 days at the expiration of eight
years perpetually ; which number, being made up of
the 11 days and a quarter, kept the year pretty well
to its place. The beginning of the year in Julius days, the 24th and 25th of that month are writtes
Caefar’s time had anticipated its true place 67 whole fexto Kal. Mart.; hence leap year is called Bi/fextilis.
MON-
Kalenda
4
3
Prid. Non.
Nona
8
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Idus
Idus
19
18
17
16
«4
13
Kalenda
4
3
Prid. Non.
Nona
8
5
4
3
Prid. Idus
Idus
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Kal.\
18
7
6
5
4
3
Prid. Kal.
Kalenda
4
3
Prid. Non.
Nona
5
4
3
Prid. Idus
Idus
16
H
»3
4
3
Pnd. Kal.
N. B. tvery leap year, February confifting of 29
MON [ 259 1 MON
Monti* MONTIA, in botany : A genus of the trigynia
II order, belonging to the triartdria clafs of plants; and
R*nerPe1' ’n t^le natura^ method ranking with thofe with which
1 ‘^r the order is doubtful. The calyx is diphyllous ; the
corolla ihonopetalous and irregular ; the capfule uni¬
locular and trivalved;
MON TINIA, in botany: A genus of the tetran-
dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.
The perianthium of the male is quadridented fupe-
rior; and there are four petals. The female calyx
and corolla are as in the male ; the filaments barren ;
the ftyle bifid ; the capfule oblong and bilocular.
MONTMEDI, a fmall but ftrong town of France,
in Luxemburg, feated on the river Chire, which di¬
vides it into the upper and lower towns. It is 22 miles
fouth-eaft of Sedan, 27 fouth weft of Luxemburg,
and 135 north-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 5. 23. N.
Lat. 49- 32*
MONTMORENCI (Francois Henry de.) See
Luxemburg.
MONTMORENCY, a town of France, with the
title of a duchy, remarkable for the tombs of the dukes
of this name. * It is fcated on a hill, near a large val¬
ley, fertile in fruits, efpecially excellent cherries. E.
Long. 2. 24. N. Lat 48. 59.
Montmorency (Anne de), a peer, marftial, an!
conitable, of France, and one of the greateft generals
of the 16th century, defended, in (512, the city of
Menziers againft the emperor Charles V. and obliged
the count of Naffau to raife the fiege. The following
year he was made marfhal of France; and in 1525, fol¬
lowing king Francis I. into Italy, he was taken with
that prince at the battle of Pavia, which was fought
contrary to his advice. The important fervices he af¬
terwards rendered the ftate were rewarded by the fword
of conftable of France, with which he was prefented
by the king on the 10th of February 1538. He af¬
terwards underwent various revolutions of fortune both
at court and in the field. At laft, being wound¬
ed at the battle of St Denis, which he gained on
the 10th of November 1567, he died of his wounds
two days after, at 74 years of age. It is faid, that a
cordelier attempting to prepare him for death, when
he was covered with blood and wounds, after the battle
of St Denis, he replied in a firm and fteady voice:
“ Do you think that a man who has lived near 80
years with honour, has not learnt to die for a quarter
of an hour ?”
MONTPELIER, one of the handfomeft towns of
France, and the moft confiderable in Languedoc ex¬
cepting Tholoufe, is fituated in E. Long. 4. 20. N.
Lat. 45. 58. It hath a citadel, a bilhop’s fee, an
univerfity, a royal academy of fciences, and a mint.
This town has been long famous for a falubrious air
and fltilful phyficians. In reality the air may be falu-
tary in catarrhous confumptions from its drynefs and
elatticity ; but it is too ftiarp in cafes of pulmonary im-
pofthumes. The climate, according to fome late tra¬
vellers, is fo much altered for the worfe, that the in¬
habitants themfelves fcarce know it to be the fame : it
has been changing many years, and every year becomes
worfe and worfe. It has been known to rain almoft
three months without intermiffion ; and at intervals
fuch thick ftinking fogs, as nothing but the banks of
Newfoundland could equal j and feveral times, for two
or three days on a ftretch, the Iky is fo heavily loaded,
that neither fun, moon, nor ftar, can be feen. In fum-
mer it is fo infufferably hot, that till the cool of the
evening there is no tlirring out. Its fituation, though
on an eminence, never could be healthy ; as between
it and the Mediterranean (which is about three leagues
diftant) it is one continued mark and fwamp, ever co¬
covered with noxious vapours, which, when the fea-
breeze fets in, blows dfte&ly on the town and the
country adjacent ; of the fad effefts of which, its un¬
healthy inhabitants, with their yellow meagre looks,
are the moft convincing proofs.
The town has nothing curious to induce a ftranger
to flay- Iqnger in it than three or four days, ex¬
cept he arrives there about Chriftmas; at which time
it is very gay, as all the nobility of Languedoc meet
there at that time to fettle the affairs of the province,
though it is not the capital, but efteemed nearly the
centre. There is during that time a play, which, with
an indifferent concert, are all the public amufements.
The people in trade are reputed by the French them¬
felves to be the gfeateft extortioners, and fure not to
let a penny efcape them, be the means to come at it
ever fo unjuft : as an inftance, they had the confcience
to charge an Englifli fea officer that died there, 300
livres (twelve guineas and a half) for eight days lod-
g'ng- _
This city A and3 upon a rifing ground fronting the
Mediterranean, which is about three leagues to the
fouthward : on the other fide is an agreeable plain, ex¬
tending about the fame diitance towards the moun:ains
of the Cevennes. It is reckoned well built, and what
the French call bien percee; yet the ftreets are in general
narrow and the houfes dark. The inhabitants are
fuppofed to amount to 40,000 : they are fociable, gay,
and good tempered, and they trade very largely in wine,
cordials, oil, verdigreafe, and fait petre. They have
feveral manufactures in filk and woollen goods. There
are many Proteftants here and at Nifmes. The mar¬
kets are well fupplied with fifli, poultry, butcher's
meat, and game, at reafonable rates. The wine of the
country is ftrong and harfli: Burgundy is dear, and fo
is the fweet wine of Frontignan, though made in the
neighbourhood of Cette. Liquors of various forts are
compounded and did filed at Montpelier. The environs
are extremely pleafant, having on one fide La Place de
Peyrou, which forms a fine terrace. From thence, on
a clear day, may be feen to the ea tward the Alps,
which form the frontiers of Italy ; to the fouth-weft,
the Pyrenean mountains, which form thofe of Spain,
each efteemed fifty leagues diftant; and to the fouth¬
ward a moft extenlive view of the Mediterranean. Not
far from thence is a noble aqueduct, built like two
bridges one above the other; by this water is brought
from a mountain at three leagues diftance, into two
bafons in a fmall elegant temple at the weft end of the
place; and the king’s garden, where on certain days pub¬
lic leftures are held on botany. On the other fide of the
town is the efplanade, a beautiful walk, bordered on
each fide by olive trees, from whence there is a pleaiing
profpeft of the fea and the country adjacent to the
town ; near which is the citadel, a place of no ftrength,
though well walled in, as it is commanded by feveral
rifing grounds, and has only a dry ditch. There are
commonly kept there four battalions of infantry.—•
K k 2 Should
M
MON r 260 ] MON
^Montreal. Should an EnglKhman choofe to refide here any time, ligious houfes are plain, and contain no paintings, nor Montreal,
the Grande Rue, that is the great ftreet, is the gen- any thing remarkably curious, but carry the appear- Mjntrofe-
teeleft quarter to refide in, where 12 or 18 livres a ance of the utmoft neatnefs and fimplicity. The city
month is the price for a genteel chamber, which in the has fix or feven gates, large'and fmall; but its fortifi-
time of the hates would let for 60 ; and if he does not cations are mean and incbnfiderable, being encompaffed
choofe to mefs with the officers, there is a genteel by a flight wall of mafonry, fijfficient only to overawe
ordinary, where the Engliffi commonly eat, in the or prevent a furprife from the numerous tribes of In-
Rue d’Argenterie, which is contiguous to your lod- dians with whom they are furrounded, and who ufed
gings. Families who refide *'.ere find their account in to refort in vaft bodies to the annual fair held here,
keeping houfe ; and every traveller who defigns to hay which continued from the beginning of June till the
longer than a day or two in any of thefe towns, will latter end of Auguh, when many folemnities were ob-
do well to write beforehand to his correfpondent to ferved, at which the governor affihed, and guards were
procure furniffied lodgings, to which he may be driven placed to preferve good order among fuch a concourfe
immediately, without being under the neceffity of lying of different favage nations, all of whom are extremely
in an execrable inn, where he muff pay four livres a head fond of fpirituous liquors, and when drunk commit
for every meal, and fix livres a day for an apartment. great exceffes. The fortifications were by no means
MONTREAL, an ihand of North America, in capable of fuhaining a regular attack ; and though the
the river St Laurence, about fix leagues and a half in garrifon in 1760 confifted of eight battalions of regu-
length, and three leagues over in the broadeft parts, lar troops, a numerous militia, and a great body of
It belonged to the French ; but was taken by the ge- favages, M Vaudreuil and Chevalier de Levis fubmit-
nerals Amherft and Murray on the 8th of September ted without firing a gun. There are no guns mounted
1760, without firing a gun. According to the terms on the wall; only a dry ditch furrounds it, about feven
of capitulation, all the French forces were to be fent feet deep, encompaffed with a regular glacis. On the
to Old France ; and confequently all Canada became inlide of the town is a cavalier on an artificial emi-
fubjedf to the crown of Great Britain ; which ceffion nence, with a parapet of logs or fquared timbers and
was confirmed by the peace of 1763. The foil of the fix or eight guns, called the citadel. Such is the
ifland is exceedingly rich and good, producing all ftrength of Montreal, the number of whole inhabitants
kinds of Eutopean fruits and vegetables.in great abun- may be between 5000 and 6000, extremely gay and
dance, with variety of garden fruits. The fouth fide well dreffed. By the fituation of the place, the in¬
is the moft inhabited, of courfe beft cultivated; and habitants are well fupplied with all kinds of ri-
befides the fettlements, which are numerous, the ifland ver filh, fome of which are unknown to Europeans,
is adorned with villas, for the retirement of the more being peculiar to the lakes and rivers of this country,
wealthy merchants during the fummer feafpn. No They have likewife plenty of black cattle, horfes,
Indians are fettled here; nor are they fond of fettling hogs, and poultry. The neighbouring ffiores fupply
on iflands, from an hereditary diilruff left they ffiould them with a great variety of game in the different fca-
be cut off . by the Europeans. Since this place has fons; and the ifland abounds with well tafted foft fprings,
been in the poffeffion of Britain, it has fuffered much which form a multitude of pleafant rivulets. The
by fires, the houfes being modly built of wood. " city now drives a confiderable trade in furs, &c. and
The town of Montreal, fituated on this ifland, veffels of 200 tons can come up to it. It Hands 60
and formerly called ViUe Marie, is the fecond place in leagues above Quebec.
Canada for extent, buildings, and ftrength; and befides Montreal, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
poffeffing the advantage of a lefs rigorous climate, for Arragon, witli a caftle, feated on the river Xiloca, 25
delightfulnefs of fituation is infinitely preferable to miles N. W. of Tervil, and 40 S. E. of Calataud.—
Quebec. It Hands on the fide of a hill, doping down w. Lon. 1.2. N. Lat. 4>* 9*
tojthe fouth, with many agreeable villas upon it, which, Montreal, a town of Italy, in Sicily, and in the
with the ifland of St Helen, and the river (which is valley of Mazara, with an archbiffiop’s fee; feated on
here about two miles broad), form a moft charming a rivulet, five miles W. of Palermo, and 50 N. E. of
landfcape. Though the city is not very broad from Mazara. E. Lon. 13. 31. N. Lat. 38. 14.
north to fouth, it covers a great length of ground from Montreal, or Mount Royal, a fortrefs. of Ger-
eaft to weft, and is nearly as large and populous as many, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eledto-
Quebec. The ftreets are regular, forming an oblong rate of Triers; feated on the river Mofelle, 22 miles
fquare ; the houfes well built, and in particular the N. E. of Triers. E. Lon. 7. 6. N. Lat. 49. 59.
public edifices, which far exceed thofe of the capital MONTROSE, a handfome town of North Britain,
in beauty and commodioufnefs ; the -refidence of the in the ffiire of Angus, fituated at the mouth of the
knights hofpitallers being extremely magnificent.— river Elk, on the German Ocean, 46 miles north-eaft
There are feveral gardens within the walls, in which, of Edinburgh, but 70 miles diftance by road. The
however, the proprietors have confulted ufe more than houfes are neat, and many of them in. the modern
elegance, particularly thofe of the Sifters of the Con- tafte. The moft remarkable public buildings are, the
gregation, the Nunnery Hofpital, the Recollets, Je- town-houfe, the church, and an elegant epifcopal
iuits Seminary, and Governor. Befides thefe, there chapel.—Montrofe is a parliament town, and a duke-
are many other gardens and beautiful plantations with- dom in the family of Graham. It Hands between two.
out the gate^, as the garden of the General .Hofpital,. rivers, the fouth and north Efks, over which there-
anil the improvements of Mr Liniere, which exceed have been lately built two very handfome bridges, at a.
all the reft, and are at an agreeable diftance on the great expence. The falmon fiftieries on thefe riversi
north, fide of. the town. The three churches and re- are very valuable, and form a good branch of com-.
a. merce.
MON [2
.Montrore, merce. The harbour is a fine femicircular bafon de-
Momfei-- fende(i by a handfome ftone pier. A great number of
. -v- ■ trading veffels belong.to this port.
Montrose (Marquis of). Sec Graham; and Bri¬
tain, n° 137, 138, 143, 265
MONTSERRAT, a mountain of Spain, in Ca¬
talonia, one of the moll lingular in the world for
fituation, lhape, and comp®fition. It Hands Angle,
towering over a hilly cpuntry like a pile of grotto
work or Gothic fpires ; and its height fo great, that
to a beholder on the top the neighbouring mountains
appear to be funk to a level with the plain. It is com-
pofed of lleep rocks, which at a dillance feem in¬
dented; whence it is faid to have received the name
Montferrat from the Latin word ferra a “ faw.” It
is impoffible to defcribe the beauty, richnefs, and va¬
riety, of the landfcapes difcovered from the moll ele¬
vated point : but the extenfivenefs of the profpedl
may be conceived by the reader, . upon being told
that the illands of Minorca and Majorca, which are
at the dillance of 60 leagues, are difcovered from
this elevation.
Montferrat is particularly famous for the adoration
that is paid to an image of the Virgin, which, ac¬
cording to tradition, was found in a cave in this
mountain by fome Ihepherds in the year §So. Over
this image, Guthred earl of Barcelona caufed a mona-
fiery and chapel to be ereaed ; but, after remaining
in this receptacle upwards of 700 years, Philip II.
and Philip III. built a magnificent church for its re¬
ception. Innumerable and aftonilhing miracles are
afcribed to this holy image. The convent or mona-
ftery is fituated in a nook of the mountain ; it feems
as if vaft torrents of water, or fome violent convulfion
of nature, had fplit the eaftern face of Montferrat,
and formed in the cleft a fufficient platform to build
the monafiery upon. The river Llobregat roars at
-the bottom, and perpendicular walls of rock, of pro-
digiousi height, rife from the water edge near half
way up the mountain., Upon thefe mafles of white
ilone reds the fmall piece of level ground which the
monks inhabit. Clofe behind the abbey, and in fome
parts impending over it, huge cliffs Ihout up in a femi-
circle to a ftupendous elevation : their fummits are fplit
into lharp cones, pillars, pipes, and other odd ihapes,
blanched and bare ; but the interdices are filled up
with forefts of evergreen- and deciduous trees and
plants. Fifteen hermitages are placed among the
woods ; nay, fome of them on the very pinnacles of
the rocks, and in cavities hewn out of the loftieft of
thefe pyramids.
The monaftery is one of the 45 religious houfes of
the Spanifli congregation of the order of St Benedift;
their general chapter is held every fourth year at Val¬
ladolid, where the deputies choofe abbots and other
dignitaries for the enfuing quadrennium. In this mo¬
nafiery, they eltdl for abbot a Catalan and a Caffilian
alternately. Their poffeffions are great, confifting of
nine villages lying to the fouth of the mountain ; but
the king has lately curtailed their income about 6000
livres a year, by appropriating to his own ufe the beft
houfe in each village, fome of which, with their
tythes, are worth 200 dollars per annum. Their ori¬
ginal foundation, in 866, gave them nothing but the
mountain ; and to.donations and economy they owe.
>1 ] MON
the great increafe of their landed property. They are Momfer--
bound to feed and harbour for three days all poor pil- rat-
grims that come up to pay their homage to the Vir- * !
gin ; and the allowance is a luncheon of bread in the
morning, as much more, with broth, at noon, and
bread again at night. Sometimes, on particular fefti-
vals, 7000 perfons arrive in one day ; but people of
condition pay a reafonable price for what they eat.—
The number of profeffed monks, according to Mr
Swinburne, is 76 (according to M. Bourgoanne 60);
of lay-brothers, 28 ; and of finging boys, 25 ; befides
phyfician, furgeon, and fervants. The church is a
gloomy edifice ; and the gilding is much fullied with
the fmoke of 85 lamps of filver, of various forms and
fizes, that hang round the cornice of the fanfluary.
Funds have been bequeathed by different devotees for
furnilhing them with oil. The choir above flairs is de¬
corated with the life of Chrift, in good wooden car¬
ving. A gallery runs on each fide of the chancel, for
the convenience of the monks. A large iron grate di¬
vides the church from the chapel of the Virgin, where
the image Hands in a nich over the altar, before which
burn four tapers in large'filver candledicks, the prefent
of the duke of Medina Celi. In the facrifty, and
paffages leading to it, are preffes and cupboards full of
relics and ornaments of gold, filver, and precious
ftones; they point out, as the moft remarkable, two
crowns for the Virgin and her fon, of ineilimable va¬
lue ; fome large diamond rings; an excellent cameo of
Medufa’s head; the Roman emperors in alabafter;
and the fword of St Ignatius. But as no offerings to
this miraculous ftatue can be reje&ed or otherwife dif-
pofed of, the (helves are crowded with moft whimfical
tx votos, viz. filver legs, fingers,,breafts, ear rings,
watches, two-wheeled chaifes, boats, carts, and fuch
like trumpery.
On different parts of the mountain, as already no¬
ticed, are a number of hermitages. Each of theie fo-
litary retreats, which at a diftance, feem deditute of
every thing, has a chapel, a cell, a well in the rock,,
and a little garden. The inhabitant of one of them,
which is dedicated to St Beneto, has the privilege of
making an annual entertainment on a certain day; on
which-day all the other hermits are invited, when they
receive the fa cram ent from the hands of the mountain
vicar, and after divine fervice dine together. They
meet alfo at this hermitage, on'the days of the faints
to which, their feverai hermitages are dedicated, to fay
mafs, and commune with each other. But at other
times they live in a very folitary and reclufe manner,
perform various penances, and adhere to very rigid
rules of abflinence ; nor do they ever eat fiefh ; nor
are they allowed to keep within their walls either dog,
cat, bird, or any living thing, lefi their attention
(hould be withdrawn from heavenly to earthly affec¬
tions. Moil of thefe hermits are faid to be perfons
of fortune and family, difgufted with the world, who
have retired thither to devote themfelves to medita-
ti.on, felf-denial, and contrition.
Montserrat, one of the Caribbee Ides belonging
to Great Britain, It is a very fmall, but very plea-
fantifland, fo called by Columbus from its refemblance
to the famous mountain near Barcelona in Catalonia.
It lies in W. Long. 61.0. N. Lat- 16.- 56. having
Antigua to the north-eaft, St Chriftopher’s and Nevis
MOO 1 262 1 MOO
llontferrat to tlie nortli-weft, and Gaudaloupe lying foutK fouth-
II eaft at the dtftance of about nine leagues. In its figure
Moon. jt Js nearly round, about nine miles in extent every
' v way, 27 in circumference, and is fuppofed to con¬
tain about 40,000 or 50,000 acres. The climate is
warm, but lefs fo than in Antigua, and is efteemed
very healthy. The foil is mountainous, but with plea-
fant valleys, rich and fertile, between them ; the hills
are covered with cedars and other fine trees. Here
are all the animals as well as vegetables and fruits that
are to be found in the other iflands, and not at all infe¬
rior to them in quality. The inhabitants raifed for¬
merly a confiderable quantity of indigo, which was
none of the beft, but which they cut four times a-year.
The prefent produft is cotton, rum, and fugar. There
. is no good harbour, but three tolerable roads, at Ply¬
mouth, Old Harbour, and Ker’s bay, where they (hip
the produce of the ifland. Public affairs are admini-
ftered here as in the other ifies, by a lieutenant-gover¬
nor, council, and affembly, compofed of no more than
eight members, two from each of the four diftri&s in¬
to which it is divided. The wonderful effefts of in-
duftry and experience in meliorating the gifts of na¬
ture have been no where more cdnfpicuous than in
thefe iflands, and particularly in this, by gradually
improving their produce, more erpccially of late years,
fince the art of planting hath been reduced to a regu¬
lar fyftem, and almoft all the defe&s of foil fo tho¬
roughly removed by proper management and manure,
that, except from the failure of feafons, or the want of
hands, there is feldom -any fear of a crop. In 1770
there were exported from this ifland to Great Britain
167 bags of cotton, 1670 1. ; 740 hoglheads of rum,
7400I To Ireland 133 ditto, 1330!.; 4338 hog-
fheads 232 tierces 202 barrels of fugar, 79,507 1.; in
the whole 89,907!. To North America 12,633!.
There are a few (hips employed in trading to this
ifland from London and from Briftol. As to the
number of inhabitants, according to the moft probable
accounts, they confift of between 1200 and 1500
whites, and from 10,000 to 12,000 negroes, tho’ fume
fay pot fo many.
MONUMENT, in archite&ure, a building deftined
to preferve the memory, &c. of the perfon who raifed
it, or the perfon for whom it was raifed ; fuch are a
maufoleum, a triumphal arch, a pyramid, &c.
MOOD, or Mode. See Mode.
Moods of Syllogifm. See Logic n° 85.
Mood, or Mode, in grammar, the different manner
of conjugating verbs. See Grammar.
MOON, (Luna, J)), in aftronomy, one of the hea¬
venly bodies, ufually racked among the planets ; but
with more propriety accounted a fatellite, or fecondary
j planet.
Among the ancients, the mobn was an objedt of
prime regard. - By the Hebrews flie was more regarded
than the fun, and they were more inclined to worfhip
Iter as a deity. The ney moons, or firft days of every
month, were kept as feftivals among them, which were
celebrated with found of trumpets, entertainments, and
facrifice. (See Numb, xxviii. 11. x. 16. 1 Sam. xx.
5—18.) People w-ere not obliged on thefe days to
reft. '1 he feafts of new moons were a miniature re-
prefentation of the feaft of trumpets, which was held on
the firft of the month Tifri, which was the beginning
oS the civil year. The Jews not being acquainted with Mom.
the phyfical caufe of'eclip'es, looked upon them, whe- ——v—
ther of fun or moon, as figns of the divine difpleafure.
The Grecians looked upon the moon as favourable to
marriage ; and the full moons or the times of conjunc¬
tion of fun and moon, were held the moft lucky fea¬
fons for celebrating marriages ; becaufe they imagined
the moon to have great influence over generation.
The full moon was held favourable for any underta¬
kings by the Spartans : And no motive could induce
them to enter upon an expedition, march an army,
or attack an enemy, till the full of the moon The
moon was fuppofed both by Greeks and Romans
to prefide over child-birth.— The patricians at Rome
wore a crefcent on their Ihoes, to diftinguifti them from
the other orders of men. This crefcent was called
Lunula, home fay it was of ivory, others that it was
worked upon the (hoe, and others that it was only a
particular kind of fibula or buckle.
As all the other planets move primarily round the
fun, fo does the moon round the earth : her orbit is an
ellipfis, in which Ihe is retained by the force of gravi¬
ty ; performing her revolution round the earth, from
change to change, in 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 mi¬
nutes, and round the fun with it every year : Ihe goes
round her orbit in 2 7 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, mo¬
ving about 2290 miles every hour; and turns round
her axis exaftly in the time that Ihe goes round
the earth, which is the reafon of her keeping always
the fame fide towards us; and that her day and night
taken together are as long as our lunar month.
The mean ditlance of the moon from the earth is
60-J femi-diameters of the earth ; which is equivalent
to 240,000 miles. The mean eccentricity of her orbit
is of her mean dillance, or in miles 13,000, which
makes a confiderable variation in that mean diftance.
— Her diameter is to that of the earth as 100 to 365,
as 1 1 to 40.15, or 2180 miles: its mean apparent
diameter is 31 minutes 16J, and that of the lun 32
minutes 12 feconds. Its mean diameter, as feen from
the fun, is 6 feconds.
The moon's furface contains 14,898,750 fquare
miles, and its folidity 5,408,246,000 cubical ones.
The denfity of the moon’s body is to that of the earth
as 48,911 to 39,2x4; to that of the fun, 3848,911
to 10,000; its quantity of matter to that of the earth,
nearly as 1 to 39.15; the force of gravity on its fur-
face is to that on the furface of the earth as 139.2 to
407.8; and the moon’s bulk to that of the earth as
TV to 1. The moorf has fearee any difference of fea¬
fons ; becaufe her axis is almoft perpendicular to the
ecliptic.
The different appearances of the moon are very nu¬
merous; fometimes fhe is increafing, then waning;
fometimes horned, then femicircular; fometimes gib¬
bous, then full and round. Sometimes, again, Ihe
illumines us the whole night; fometimes only a part
of it; fpmetimes Ihe is found in'the fouthern heini-
fphere, fometimes in the northern : all which varia¬
tions having been firft obferved by Endymion, an an¬
cient Grecian who watched her motions, ihe was fabled
to have fallen in love with him. The fource of moft
of thefe appearances is, that the moon is a dark,
opaque, and fpherical body, and only Ihines with the
light Ihe receives from the fun ; whence only that half
i turned
See A-
9TR0N0-
UY-lndtx,
St Moon.
MOO [ 263 1 MOO
turned towards him, at any inftant, can be illuminated,
the oppofite half remaining1 in its native darknefs.
The face of the moon vifible on our earth, is that part
of her body turned towards the earth ; whence, ac¬
cording to the various pofitions of the moon, with
regard to the fun and earth, we obferve different de¬
grees of illumination ; fometimes a large and fome-
times a lefs portion of the enlightened furface being
vifible.—But for a particular account of the nature,
phenomena, &c. of this fecondary but interefting pla¬
net, fee Astronomv-/k^, at Moon.
New Obfervations on the jltmofphere, Twilight> &c.
of the Moon. M. Schroeter of the Royal Society of
Gottingen has lately publifhed a very curious and
elaborate work in German, intitled Selenotopographifche
Fragmented &c. or Selenotopographical Fragments, in¬
tended to promote a more accurate knowledge of the
Moon’s furface. The feveral maps of the moon *,
which have been delineated by Hevelius, Ricciolus,
Caffini, and Mayer, are well known to every perfon
converfant with aflronomical fubjefts. It is evident
that thefe delineations can give only a very generalidea
of the fpots, together with their relative pofition on
the lunar difk ; and as, with refpeft to us, the appear¬
ance of thefe muft vary according to the dire&ion in
which the rays of the fun fall on them, the moon’s
furface will not exactly correfpond with the reprefentar
tion of it laid down in the map, except when it hap¬
pens to be illuminated under the fame angle as when
this map was drawn. This confideration induced the
author to apply himfelf to the invention of a more ac¬
curate mode of deferibing thefe phenomena than had
hitherto been attempted. For this purpofe, having
provided himfelf with a telefcope feven feet in length,
conftrufted by Dr Herfchel, he refolved, repeatedly,
and under various angles of illumination, to obferve
and delineate very fmall portions of the lunar dilk ; in
order that, by comparing his different drawings of the
fame objefts, he might compile an accurate topogra¬
phical defeription of the moon’s furface: but, in this
manner, to form a complete lunar atlas, was an under¬
taking too extenfive for a Angle perfon. He therefore
found himfelf obliged to preferibe more narrow limits
to his defign, and confined his plan to the delineation
of the feveral portions of the moon’s furface under one
angle only of illumination, and this a very fmall one,
that he might obtain more diftindt and accurate obfer¬
vations and drawings of the fhadows; intending at the
fame time to examine fuch parts as appeared either
more remarkable or lefs diftindt than the reft, by re¬
peated obfervations under various angles of illumina¬
tion: And the prefent volume contains the refult of
his pbfervations, with refpedt to the northern parts of
the’lunar diik.
The author obferves, that, through a telefcope
which magnifies a thoufand times, a lunar objedt of
190 feet in furface appears like a very fmall point; and
that, to be diftinguilhable with refpedt to ihape, it muft
not be lefs than 800 feet in extent. He tells us, that
for his obfervations he preferred thofe times when the
fun’s rays fell on the moon under the leaft angle; that
he carefully and repeatedly examined every objedt that
could be diftinguifhed, and either adtually meafured
its apparent diameter and the length of its fhadow, or
compared thefe dimenfions with others which he had
already meafured ; and that he never nfed magnifiers
of greater power than what was abfolutely neceftary to
render the objedt diftindt. In order to facilitate the
delineation, he applied to his telefcope a projedting
micrometer, divided into fmall fquares, which, by means
of a brafs rod, could be placed at any diftance from
the eye, and always be kept parallel to the line of the
moon’s horns. His maps or drawings are orthogra¬
phical projedtions; and his fcale is fo conftrudied, that
20 feconds of the tnoon’s diik correfpond with half an
Engliih inch on the map ; thus the fpace of 4 feconds
is reprefented in the compafs of a decimal line, and,
according to M. Schroeter’s computation, anfwers to
a German mile or 3807 toifes. The inconveniences
and inaccuracy of the common method of meafuring
the lunar mountains, induced him to contrive others
capable of greater exadlnefs and more general applica¬
tion : thefe he varied as the circumftances of the cafe
required ; but they are all trigonomical calculations of
the height of the mountain, or the depth of the cavity
from the angle of illumination and from the length of
the fhadow.
If, as fome have fuppofed, a great part of the moon’s
furface be volcanic, it is natural to expect that the
marks of eruptions fhould from time to time be dif-
cernible. A fingle inftance of this kind occurred to
our author; ever fince the 27th of Auguft 1788, he
had conftantly feen a cavity, or, as he terms it, a vol¬
canic crater, in the fpot Hevelius, which he had never
before perceived, though he had often examined this
part of the moon with the utmoft attention, and in the
moft favourable circumftances. According tohis con-
jedures, this phenomenon muft have commenced be¬
tween the 24th of October 1787 and the 27th of
Auguft 1788.
He obferved fome alterations in the appearance of
lunar objects, which, though too confiderable to be at¬
tributed to the variation of light, were not fufficiently
permanent to be confidered as the effeft of volcanoes.
Thefe he aferibes to meteors; for though he does not
fuppofe the moon to be furrounded with air, exaftly
like that which invefts our globe, he thinks it probable
'that it may have an atmofphere'of fome kind, in which
fome of the elements of bodies, decompounded on its
furface, may be fufpended; and that fome of the lunar
mountains may emit nebulous vapours, not unlike the
fmoke of our volcanoes, which obfeure and difguife the
obje&s feen through them.
In regard to thofe bright points, which have been
feen on the moon’s furface during eelipfes, and at other
times on her unenlightened part, and which fome have
fuppofed to be burning volcanoes; Schroeter, after the
moft attentive examination of them, imagines that moft
of them muft be aferibed to the light reflected from
the earth to the dark part of the moon’s difk, which
returns it from the tops of its mountains, under various
angles, and with different degrees of brightnefs. Some
of thefe phenomena he fufpe&s to be no more than
optical illufions, arifing from igneous meteors floating
in our atmofphere, which happen to fall within the
field of the tdefcope.
But the moft interefting part of this work confifts
of the author’s “ Remarks on the Formation and phy-
fical Conftitution of the Moon’s Surface and Atmo¬
fphere,”
Th*
MOO I 264 ] MOO
The furface of the moon appears to be much more
unequal than that of our earth ; and thefe inequalities
have great variety both in form and magnitude. There
are large irregular plains, og which are obferved long
and narrow ftrata of hills running in a ferpentine di-
reQion: fome of the mountains form extenfive chains ;
others, which are in general the higheft, Hand alone,
and are of a conical fhape : tome have craters ; others
form a circular ring incloting a plain ; and in the
centre of many of thefe plains, as well as in the middle
of fome of the craters, other mountains are found,
which have likewife their craters. Thefe mountains
are various with refpeft to colour, fome being much
darker than others.
The moft lofty mountain on the furface of our
globe is fuppofed to be Chimboraco, which is not
20,000 feet in height: but there are many in the moon
which are much higher ; that which is diilinguiihed
by the name of Leibnitz, is not lefs than 2.5,000 feet.
This elevation will appear more extraordinary', if com¬
pared with the moon’s diameter, of which it is T^-grth;
whereas Chimboiaco is not above of that of
the earth : thus confidered, the lunar mountains are
near -five times as high as any on our globe.
The craters of the moon are circular, and furround-
ed with an annidar bank of hills: they are remarkable
for their width, many of them being from 4 to 15
geographical miles in diameter: fome are not deeperthan
thelevelofthe moon’s furface; others are 9000, 12,000,
and 15,000 feet in depth: that of one, which our
author calls Bernouilli, is above 18,000 feet. The
height of the annular bank is feldom equal to the depth
of the crater which it furrounds ; but the quantity of
matter in the one appears to be in general nearly equal
to the capacity of the other. The principal moun¬
tains and cavities feem to be connected by a feries of
others of lefs magnitude; and fometimes by hilly ftra¬
ta, which, like the radii of a circle, may be traced to
a common centre; this is generally either a mountain
or crater, though not of the greateft height or depth.
Thefe hilly ftrata, which, through fmaller telefcopes,
appear like veins on the moon’s furface, have often
been miftaken for torrents of lava; none of which, M.
Schroeter fays, he could ever difeover.
From all the preceding circumftances, the author
concludes, that whatever may have been the caufe of
the inequalities of the moon’s furface, itmuft not only
have operated with great violence, but alfo have met
with great refiftance; which inclines him to think,
that the fubftance of this planet muft originally have
been very hard and refraftory. He is of opinion that
thefe mountains and cavities muft have been produced
in confequence of fome great revolution occaiioned by
the aflion of a force dire&ed from the centre towards
the furface, and in this refpeft fimilar to that which
gave birth to our volcanoes : but he obferves, that we
have no reafon to fuppofe it abfolutely volcanic, uor
that it originated from fire. In fome places, this
force has only elevated the furface, and thus formed
hills and mountains; in others, the ground has yield¬
ed to its violence, and has either been rovvn up as a
bank round the crater thus formed, or elfe falling into
other cavities, has in part filled them up; after having
exerted its greateft violence in thefe mountainous ac¬
cumulations, it has diffufed itfelf in various direftions,
N° 227.
and produced the hilly ftrata which are obferved to
diverge .from them, like the radii of a circle from the
centre. In fupport of this hypothefis, it is alleged,
that the largeft craters have the leaft depth, and that
in the deepeft there is the moft equal proportion be¬
tween the capacity of the "crater and the volume of the
annular bank .around it: but befide the grand revolu¬
tion here fuppofed, M. Schroetcr is of opinion that
there have been others of later date and lefs extent;
to thefe he aferibes the formation of fecondary moun¬
tains, which arife either from the middle of the craters
of the primary, or from the centre of a plain furrbund-
ed by a circle of hills ; many of thefe have alfo cra¬
ters, and, like the primary mountains, are conne&ed
by a feries of cavities and hilly ftrata, that mark the
progrefs of the caufe by which they were produced.
The new crater difeovered by our author in the fpot
Hevelius, together with other circumftances here enu¬
merated, feem to indicate that the furface of the
moon is far from being permanently fettled and qui-
efeent.
The author’s obfervations confirm the opinion that
the cavities vifible on the lunar furface do not con¬
tain water ; hence he concludes, that there can be no
extenfive feas and oceans, like thofe which cover 'a
great part ot the earth ; but he allows that there may
be fprings and fmall rivers. The queftion, whether
the moon be inhabited ? is not omitted by M. Schroe-
ter, who obferves, that though it be not adapted to
beings organifed as we are, this is no proof that it may
not be peopled with intelligent agents, endued with
bodily conftitutions fuitable to the nature and econo¬
my of the planet for which they are deftined.
With regard to a lunar atmofphere, the exiftence of
which has been a fubjedl of much difpute *, our au¬
thor adduces a variety of proofs in fupport of the af¬
firmative fide of the queftion. He alfo makes a nnm-;
ber of obfervations on feveral of its relative properties,
compared with the fame in our atmofphere ; fuch as
its greater drynefs, rarity, and clearnefs, which, how¬
ever, do not prevent its refra&ing the folar rays, ha¬
ving pointed out the circumftance, that the mountains
in the dark hemifphere of the moon, near its luminous
border, which are of fufficient height to receive the
light of the fun, are the more feebly illuminated the
more diftant they are from that border: from which
proofs of a refradting atmofphere, he alfo deduced the
probability of the exiftence of a faint twilight, though
his long feries of obfervations had not yet fully evin¬
ced it —He had, however, afeertained the exiftence of
a twilight on Venus ; and as one fortunate difeovery
often leads to another, he had no fooner fucceeded in
his obfervations on that planet, than he was induced
to diredt his attention, for a fimilar purpofe, to the
moon In doing this, he applied the calculations and
inferences he there made to fome appearances he had
already noticed on this fateliite. It occurred to him,
that if in fadl there were a twilight on the moon, as
there is on Venus and our earth, it could not, confi-
dering the greater rarity of its atmofphere, be fo con-
fiderable: that the veftiges of it, allowing for the
brightnefs of the luminous part of the moon, the
ftrong light that is thence thrown upon the field of
the telcfcope, and in fome meafure the refledled light
of our earth, could only be traced on the limb, parti¬
cularly
* See A-
MY-Index,
at Motn,
MOO [ 265 ] MOO
Cularly at the cnfps; and even this only at the time
when our own twilight is not ftrong, but the air very-
dear, and when the moon, in one of its leaft phafes,
is in a high altitude, either in the fpring, following
the fun two days after a new moon; or in the autumn,
preceding the fun in the morning, with the fame
afpeft : in a word, that the proje&ion of this twilight
will be the greater and more perceptible the more fal¬
cated the phafe, and the higher the moon above the
horizon, and out of oUr own twilight.
All the requifite circumftances do not often coin¬
cide. M. Schroeter, however, was fo fortunate as to
be favoured with a combination of them on the 24th
of February 1792: And the obf rvation proved in
every refped fo complete, and the inferences deducible
from it appeared to him fo new and interefling, that
he could not with-hold the immediate communication
of it from the public. His obfervations concerning
both the Mo,on and Venus have been accordingly de¬
tailed in a paper fent to the Royal Society of Lon¬
don, and inferted in their Tranfaftions for 1792; from
Which the following refpe&ing the Moon are ex¬
tracted.
ix On the above mentioned evening, at yh 40', two
days and 12 hours after the new moon, when in con-
fequence of the libration the weftern border of the
grey furface of the Mare Crifium was 1' 20" diftant
from the weftern limb off he moon, the air being per-
feCtly clear, I prepared my feven-feet refleftor, mag¬
nifying 74 times, in order to obferve the firft clearing
Up of the dark hemifphere, which was illuminated on¬
ly by the light of our earth, and more efpecially to
afcertain whether in faft this hemifphere, which, as is
well known, is always fomewhat more luminous at the
limb than in the middle, would emerge out of our
twilight at many parts at once, or firft only at the
two cufps. Both thefe points appeared now, moft
diftindtly and decidedly, tapering in a very fharp, faint,
fcarce any where interrupted, prolongation; each of
them exhibiting, with the greateft precifion, its far-
theft extremity faintly illuminated by the folar rays,
before any part of the dark hemifphere could be di-
ftinguiftied. But this dark hemifphere began foon
tifter to clear up at once at its border, though imme¬
diately otdy at the cufps, where, but more particu¬
larly at their points, this border difplayed, on both at
the fame time, a luminous margin, above a minute in
breadth, of a very pale grey light, which, compared
with that of the fartheft extremities of the cufps them-
fefves, was of a very different colour, and relatively as
faintas the twilight I difcovered on the dark,hemifphere
of Venus, and that of our own earth, when compared
with the light immediately derived from the fun. This
light, however, faded away fo gradually towards the
caft, as to render the border on that fide perfectly un¬
defined, the termination lofing itfelf imperceptibly in
the colour of the fky.
“ I examined this light with all poffible care, and
found it of the fame extent at both points, and fading
away at both in the fame gradual proportion. But 1
alfo, with the fame caution, explored whether I could
diftinguifh any part of the limb of the moon farther
towards the eaft ; fince, if this crepufcular light had
been the effeCt of the light reflected from our globe,
ft would undoubtedly have appeared more fenfibly at
Vol. XII. Part I.
the parts moft remote from the glare of the illumina- Meom
ted hemifphere. But, with the greateft exertion of
my vifual powers, I could not difcover any part of the,
as yet, wholly darkened hemifphere, except one fingle
fpeck, being the fummit of the mountainous ridge
Leibnitz, which was then ftrongly illuminated by the
folar light 2 and indeed eight minutes elapfed before
the remainder of the limb became vifible ; when not
only feparate parts of it, but the whole, difplayed itfelf
at once.
“ This alone gave me certain hopes of an ample i‘e-
compence, and fatisfieeV me that the principles I had
laid down in my Selenotop. Fragm. § 525. et Jiq. con¬
cerning the atmofpheres of the planets, and efpecially
of the moop, are founded on truth. But a fimilar ob-
fervation made on the 6th, after feven o’clock, af¬
forded me feveral collateral circumftances, which
ftrongly corroborate what I have there advanced on
this fubjeft. The whole limb of the dark hemifphere,.
illuminated only by the reflected light of our globe,
appeared now fo clear and diftinft, that I could very
readily difeern not only the large but alfo the fmaller
fpots, and among thefe Plato, Ariftarchus, Menelaus,
Manilius, Copernicus, &c. and even the fmall fpeck to
the north-weft of Ariftarchus, marked £, Tab. XXVII.
fig. 1. of the Fragments. I could apply the ufual
power, magnifying 161 times; and had full leifure,
and the means, to examine* every thing carefully and
repeatedly, and to take very accurate meafurements.
“ Although a juft idea of fo delicate a phenomenon
as this crepufcular light cannot pofiibly be conveyed
by a drawing, but muft be gathered from aftual in-
fpeCtion, I have, neverthelefs, attempted a delineation
eft'it, and of the fouthern and eaftem cufps, fig. 1, and pja(e
2. as deduced from my meafurements, efpecially at CCCXlV.?
the fouthern cufp, in hopes thereby to render what
I have farther to fay concerning this obfervation the
more intelligible.
“ The fouthern cufp (fig. 1.) extended from a to
c, with a gradually fading but ftill refplendent folar
light, of its ufual pale yellow colour, and terminated
at c with a mountain. That this was really the point
of the cufp, appears not only from the general con*
ftmClion of the falcated fegment, which was fufficient-
ly narrow even at its beginning a, near which it was
fomewhat disfigured at i by a high mountain, but
alfo from the narrownefs of its luminous curve at de
and ft the breadth of which feldom exceeded 1", and
had a fenfible interruption fo near as d. This curve was
throughout, from a to c, except where the glare of
the folar rays fpread fome degree of light, bordered
with the pale afh-colour of the dark hemifphere,
glimmering with the faint light refle&ed from our
earth ; out of which, however, rofe the higher moun¬
tains g, hy i, c, which were now already illuminated by
the fun ; and farther on, not lefs than 30 lines, or, ac¬
cording to my ufual projection, two minutes diftant
from the point c, was feen another mountain /, which
belonged to the high ridge Leibnitz, and alfo received
its light Immediately from the fun.
“ There can hence be no doubt of the termination
of the cufp being at c ; and this being well afeertain-
ed, I now diftinguiftied with the greateft certainty the
twilight extending from c to L The moft remark¬
able circumftances attending this light were, that it
1>< I was
MOO [ 266 ] MOO
was broadeft and bright;ft at c, and that it dwindled
away and contracted towards where it loft itfelf in
the faint glimmering of our terreftrkl light; and that
at the northern cufp (fig. 2.), at which there do not
appear to be fo many mountains and inequalities as at
the fouthern, this light exhibited the fame pyramidal
form, and was of equal length, and alike fading in in-
tenfity and colour,' as that at the fouthern.
“ t'his light, compared with that of the thinneft
and leaft bright part of the cufp dc, was as faint as
the pale alii coloured ipots in the luminous hemifphere,
when ’ oppofed to the bright (/mes. But this is Hill
better illuftrated by a companion between the high
mountain / (fig. 1.) which now already appeared il¬
luminated by the folar light and the fpot Ariftarchus,
which ftione moderately merely with the light reflec¬
ted from our globe. The faid mountain had, com¬
paratively with the thin luminous arc def of the bright
hemifphere, and the mountains’ g, h, i, c, a very pale,
fading, but yet brighter light than Ariftarchus, as in¬
deed might have been expefted from what T faid in
my Selenotop. Fragm.; but this refle&ed light upon
Ariftarchus was, however, fenfibly brighter than the
glimmering light from c to k. And, refpefting the
Hill fainter terreftrial light which bordered the lumi¬
nous curve from c to i (fig. 1. and 2.), I cannot give
a better idea of it than by obferving, that the light
at the extremities of both the cufps appeared of a py¬
ramidal form, fimilar to, but though gradually fading,
and very undefined', yet brighter than that of our zo¬
diacal light, when, in the months of March and April,
it blends itfelf, comparatively with the remaining co¬
lour of the Iky, with the terreftrial light, terminating
in a very fharp point.
“ The undefined and gradually fading appearance
of this light was the caufe that, though I had recourfe
to a dark projection table, I could not, however, take
any accurate meafurements of it. I found neverthelefs,
by repeated comparifons, that the length of this pyra¬
midal glimmering light, in which I could perceive no
fenfible inequality at the limb of the moon, amounted
to about y of the diftance between the two mountains
r,/, (fig. 1.) which Ihone with the folar light. Com¬
paring alfo this fouthern twilight with .the northern,
it appeared of the fame length ; and, on meafuring the
diftance c/, I found it repeatedly = 30 lines nr 2'; fo
that the length of the twilight muft have amounted to
20 lines ~ i' 20'. Itsgreateft breadth at c could, on
the other hand, becaufe of the extent and greater den-
fity of its light, be eafily afcertained by means of the
immediate application of the proje&ion table. This
meafurement gave at moft y of a line, or full 27.
“ Although I be pofitively certain of this very re¬
markable appearance at both cufps, and of its perfedl
fimilarity, in all my obfervations, I could not, how¬
ever, trace any veftige of a like crepufcular light at
any other part of the terminating border: nor could I
on the very next evening, being the 25th, and alfo on
the 26th of February, perceive, even at the cufps,
any of the twilight 1 expedfed to fee there ; the very
thin, faint, luminous line, which did indeed appear on
the 26th, at the fouthern cufp between a and by
(%• 3 )> being undoubtedly the effeA of the imme¬
diate folar light, probably illumiaating feme pro¬
minent, flat area, as yet fituated in the dark hemi Moon,
fphere. v—*
“ Thus far the obfervations : and now for the ap¬
plication of them.
“ I need hardly infill upon the proofs, that the
very faint pyramidal glimmering light, obferved on
the 24th of February at the extremities of both cufps,
could by no means be the immediate effeA of the fo¬
lar light, all the circumftances of the obfervations mi¬
litating uniformly and decidedly againft this fuppoli-
tion, which, were it true, would oblige us to admit a
moft unaccountable diminution of light, and thence
alfo a denfity of the lunar atmofphere, that ought to
exceed even the denfity of ours ; a faA abfolutely con-
tradiAed by all the lunar obfervations hitherto made.
This light, indeed, was fo very faint, that it difap-
peared at yh 2o', when the moon approached the ho¬
rizon ; whilft, on the other hand, Ariftarchus, which
had no light but what it received from the earth, was
Hill very diftinguilhable ; and the fummit of Leibnitz
/, fig. 1. (which, though far within the dark hemi¬
fphere, was, however, illuminated by the immediate fo¬
lar rays) difplayed a degree of hrightnefs, whieh, al¬
though when compared with that of the cufp d e f%
it appeared very faint and dwindling, equalled, how¬
ever, that of our Peak of Teneriffe. Nor can it be con¬
ceived why this glimmering light broke off fo fudden-
ly at both the cufps, without a progreffiye diminu¬
tion. It can hardly be fuppofed, that fimilar, grey,,
prominent, flat areas, of the fame form and dimenfions,
and comparatively of a faint light, which, whilft in
the dark hemifphere, they derive immediately from
the fun, exift on all parts of the moon ; more efpeci-
ally as, at the places obferved, the limb happened to.
exhibit throughout an exaA fpherical form, without
the leaft fenfible inequality; and as in both the bor¬
dering regions of the northern and fouthern hemi-
fpheres, efpecially in the latter, no fuch grey promi¬
nent planes are any where difcernmle. It may then
be allied, why did this faint glimmering light appear
at both cufps, along equal arcs of the limb, of equal
length and breadth, and of the fame pyramidal form ?
and why did its farther extremity blend itfelf with;
the terreftrial light of the dark hemifphere, which,
acccording to a great number of my felenctopogra-
phic obfervations, is by no means the cafe, even with;
thofe grey prominent areas, which, being at fome di¬
ftance on the dark fide of the terminating border,
are neverthelefs illuminated immediately by the fun ?'
“ Thefe, therefore, could certainly not derive their
light immediately from the fun ; whence this appear¬
ance, like the fimihr ones on the planet Venus, can.
only be aferibed to the folar rays refleAed by the at¬
mofphere of the moon upon thofe planes, producing
on them a very faint, gradually diminilhing, glimmer¬
ing light, which at laft lofes itfelf in the refleAed terre¬
ftrial light, in the fame manner as our twilight blende
itfelf with the light of the moon. Every circum-
ftance of the above obfervation feems to me to con¬
firm this fuppofition ; and hence the obfervation it¬
felf, which, though fingle, was however a moft fortu¬
nate and complete one, muft appear of no fmall de¬
gree of importance, fince it not only confirms the ob-
fervations and inferences on. the long contefted lunae
atjno*
MOO [ 267 ] MOO
Moon, atmofphere contained In my Selenotop. Fragm. but new moon. But fliould we even admit an equal de-,
—* ' alfo Furnllbes us with many more lights concerning gree of intenfity, it will, however, appear from com-
the atmofphere of planets in general than had been putation, that our inferior atmofphere, which refle&s
afforded us by all thofe obfervations colle&ivelyas flrong a light over 40 as that of the moon does over
This, and the mathematical certainty that the phe- 2° 34/ of their refpeaive circumferences, mult be at
nomenon is in faft nothing but a real twilight in the leal! eight times higher than that of the moon,
lunar atmofphere, he farther evinces by a feries of “ 3. The ftriking diminution of light I noticed
theoretical deduaions and calculations, which do not in my twelve years obfervations on Venus, hkewife
admit of being here dated. Among other refults, it indicates, that the atmofphere of that planet, which
appears, that the lower and more denfe part of the is in many refpeas fimilar to ours, is much denfer
lunar atmofphere, that part, namely, which has the than that of the moon ; and this will be ftiil farther
power of refleaing this bright crepufcular light, is corroborated, if we compare together the feveral mea-
only 1356 Paris feet in height; and hence it will eafi- furements and computations made concerning the twr-
ly be explained how, according to the different libra- lights of different planets. There is no doubt but
tions of the moon, ridges of mountains, even of a mb- that the fainteft twilight of Venus, as feen either be-
derate height, fituated at or near the terminating fore or after the rifmg and fetting of the fun acrofs
border, may partially interrupt, or at times wholly pre- our twilight, is much brighter than that of the moon ;
vent, this crepufcular light, either at one or the other and it appears, moreover, from computation, that the
cufp, and fometimes at both. “ I cannot hence (fays denfer part of the atmofphere of Venus meafures at
our author) but confider the difcovery 1 here announce leaft 1 yoco Paris feet in height, and fpreads its twi-
as a very fortunate one, both as it appears to me de- light 67 geographical miles, into the dark hemifphere,
cifive, and as it may induce future obfervers to direft whilft the denfer part of the lunar atmofphere, whofe
their attention to this phenomenon. Admitting the height does not exceed 1356 feet, produces a faint
validity of this new obfervation, which I think can- twilight not above so-f geographical miles in breadth,
not well be called in queftion, I proceed now to de- Thus, as my fuceefsful obfervations on the twilight of '
duce from it the following inferences. Venus led me to the difcovery of that of the moon,
“ 1. It confirms, to a degree bf evidence, all the fo did thefe latter reciprocally confirm the former:
felenotopogiaphic obfervations I have been fo fuccefsj- and thus, whichever way we contemplate the fubjedl,
ful as to make on the various and alternate changes mult we be llruck with the coincidence that prevails
of particular parts of the lunar atmofphere. If the throughout.
inferior and more denfe part of this atmofphere be in “ 4- But if the lunar atmofphere be comparatively
fatt of fufficient denfity to refleft a twilight over a forare, it follows, that the infiedion of light produced
zone of the dark hemifphere 20 34', or 10^ geogra- by it cannot be very coniiderable; and hence does
phical miles in breadth, which fhall in intenfity exceed the computation of M. du Stjour, according to which
the Idht refleded upon its dark hemifphere by the the infledion of the folar rays which touch the moon
almoftbwholly illuminated dilk of our earth; and if, amounts to no more than 4!", receive an additional
bv an incidental computation, this denfe part be found degree of authenticity *. Befides which, * Dt h
to meafure 1356 feet in perpendicular height, it may, “ 5. As the true extent of the brighteft lunar twi-z^V
according to the ftrideft analogy, be aflerted, that light amounts to 2° 34', the obliquity of the ecliptic
the upper, and gradually more rarified ftrata, muft, in the moon only to i° 29'; the inclination of the or- § i99*—
at leall, reach above the higheft mountains in the bit of the moon, on the contrary, to 50 15', and its,9y4’
moon. And this will appear the more evident, if fynodic period, during which it performs a revolution
we refled, thd notwithftanding the inferior degree of round its axis is = 2qd 12h ; it follows, that its
giavitation on the furface of the moon, which New- brighteft twilight, to where it lofes itfelf in the light
ton has eftimated at fomewhat lefs than one-fixth of refleded by the almoft fully illuminated dilk of our
that on our earth, the lower part of its atmofphere earth, muft, at leaft at its nodes, laft 3h 3', and that it
is neverthelefs of fo confiderable a denfity. This will be ftill longer at other parts of the orbit, accord-
confiderable denfity will, therefore, fully 'account for ing to the fituation of the nodes.
the diminution of light obferved at the cufps, and on “ 6. And laftly, it being a well known fad f that 4 Seknof.
the high ridges Leibnitz and Doerfel, when illumi- the fixed ftars, as they approach the moon, diminilh fragm.
nated in the dark hemifphere; as alfo for the feveral in fplendor at the moft only a very few feconds be- §531*
obfeurations and returning ferenity, the eruptions, and fore their occultations, it was natural for me, after
other changes, I have frequently obferved in the lunar the fuccefsful obfervations I had made on the twilight
atmofphere. This obfervation alfo implies: ^ the moon, to pay particular attention to this cir-
“ 2. That the atmofphere of the moon is, notwith- . cumftance. On the 25th of February, at 6h P. M.
Handing this confiderable denfity, much rater than the Iky being very clear, the limb of the dark part of
that of our earth. And this indeed is fufficiently the moon appeared uncommonly diftind ; and only a
confirmed by all our other lunar obfervations. I think few feconds of a degree from its edge was feen a te-
I may aflert, with the greateft confidence, that the lefeopic ftar of about the 10th or 12th magnitude,
clearer part of our twilight, when the fun is 4‘:’ below I counted full 20'' before its occultation, and 184- of
our horizon, and when we can conveniently read and thefe, without the leaft perceptible diminution of light,
write by the light we receive from it, furpafles confi- The ftar, however, began now gradually to fade, and
dcrably in intenfity the light which the almoft wholly after the remaining iV, during which I obferved it
illuminated dilk of our earth refleds upon the dark with all poffible attention, it vanilhed in an inftant.
hemifphere of the moon 2-1 days before and after the This obfervation agrees perfedly with the above com-
L 1 2 putations.
MOO F 268 ] MOO
Moon, putations. Although it be proved that the inferior
denfe part of the lunar atmofphere refleds a ftronger
light than that which the dark hemifphere receives
Jroman almoft fully illuminated diilt of our earth ; and
although, confidering the inferiority of gravitation on
the furface of the moon, there be no doubt that this
denfe part, together with the fuperior gradually more
rarificd regions of its atmofphere, mull extend far
Above its higheft mountains ; it is yet a faft, that the
brearlth of this obferved twilight, to where it lofes it-
fclf in our refk&ed terreftrial light, does not meafure
more than 2° 34' : it is therefore highly probable,
that its greateft extent, in the moil favourable phafes
near our new moon, can never exceed the double of
the above arc, or 50 8'; and hence we can only infer
a perpendicular height of an atmofphere, capable of
inflecting the folar rays, which at molt meafures 5376
feet: nor is it very likely that, unlefs accidental and
hitherto unknown circumftances ihould occalionally
condenfe different parts of this atmofphere, thefe up¬
per ftrata fhouid materially affeft the diitinctnefs of a
liar feen through it.
“ But admitting the height of the atmofphere, which
may afl'eft the brightnefs of a fixed ftar, not to be
lefs than 5376 feet, this w ill amount to an arc of only
0,94'', or not quite one fecond ; and as the moon de-
i’eribes an arc of 1'' in 2" of time, it follows, that in
general the fading of a ftar, which approaches to an
occultation, cannot laft quite 2" in time ; that if the
appulfe be at a part of a limb of the moon where
a ridge of mountains interferes, the gradual obfeura-
tion will laft a ihorter time ; and that it may, under
fome circumftances of this nature, be even inltanta-
neous.”
To the foregoing obfervations, M. Schroeter fub-
joins the following account of an occultation of Jupiter
by the moon when near its full, which occurred to him
by mere accident on the 7th of April 1792.
“ The fky being very ferene, and Jupiter uncom¬
monly bright, I prepared my feven-feet refleftor, mag¬
nifying 74 times, in hopes that the ftrong light and
diftinftnefs it afforded would enable me to compare the
appearances of this phenomenon with the refults which
I had deduced from my late obfervations on the height
and denfity of the atmofphere of the moon.
Plate “ F'S1 4* reprefents the fituation of Jupiter’s four
CCCXIV. fatellites, as they appeared, moft ditlin&ly, two
of them to the weftward, the fecond about one,
and the firft near twa of Jupiter’s diameters diftant
from its limb ; and the two others to the eaftward,
the third about feven and the fourth near eight of the
lame diameters, dillant from the laid limb.
“ Fig. 5. ihows Jupiter with its belts, and of a fome-
what fpheroidical form, as it now appeared to me, and
as diftimftly as I had ever feen it. The equatorial
belt, from a to d, was very apparent. It conlilted
properly of two zones, a b and of a brownilh grey
Colour, with a more luminous interval be between
them. At e and f were two comparatively well defined
ftripes, which I had noticed for many years back, but
which now croffed the whole dilk j and the polar re¬
gions appeared again, from g and />, more dim and
grey than the bright part of the planet. But what
particularly ftruck me, were two nebulous undefined
(pots, i and kx which were fenfibly darker than the
principal zone dd; and at / a'ftiil more remarkable, cir- Moon.
cular, tho’imperfedlly defined fpot, fomewhat bright-  v"~—^
er than the luminous interval between the zones, and
perfectly fimilar to the remarkable luminous fpot which
I had obferved in 1786 and 1787 on the fame part
of Jupiter, and which then led me to fome very unex¬
pected inferences concerning the atmofphere of that
planet*. * Beytr-zu
“ J'hefe favourable circumftances led me to the^""^"
following accurate obfervation, which I was certain 7^
would prove inftruftive to me. At ioh 40' 50" I faw andTab.l.*
the fpot * at about the middle of its parallel; and im- fig- im¬
mediately after began the occultation ; than which a
mote diftinCl and beautiful one was perhaps never
feen.
“ Immerf.ons. The weftern, preceding, firft fatellite,
difappeared behind the ftiarp bright limb of the moon,
at ioh 43 12".
The fecond fatellite difappeared, without becoming
at all indiitinCl, exadlly at to11 45" 19"’.
The weftern limb of Jupiter came m contaft, moft
diftindfly, with the eaitern limb of the moon, at ioil
46' 32.v’54 . .
Jupiter’s eaftern limb difappeared, as diftfmftly, at
ioh 48' 20'',5. This immerlion took place, as repre-
fented in fig. 6. to the eaftward of Ariftarchus, at about
the 25 th degree of north latitude.
“ The third fatellite difappeared, after having been
for about one or two feconds faint and indiftimft, at
«°h 58'
“ The fourth fatellite, which appeared the leaft of
them all, became undifcernible near the limb, and va-
niflicd at about nh 2' 16''.
“ Emerjions. The two preceding firft and fecond
fatellites were here likewife of ufe in determining pre-
cifely the emerfion of both the limbs of Jupiter from
the dark hemifphere of the moon.
“ The firft appearance of Jupiter’s weftern limb
was very diftintt at iih 43' 54''.
“ Emerfion of the eaftern limb, as diftinft, at nh
45' 39' ,5. This emerfion took place, as reprefented
in fig.7. to the north-eaftward of Seneca(B,Tab. VIII.
of the Frag.), at about the 23d degree of north lati¬
tude.
“ The emerfion of the next, or third fatellite, was
not obferved.
“ That of the fourth was diftimft at nh 59' i''.
“ This obfervation gave me the more fatisfadfion.,
as it Angularly contributed to confirm the difeovery I
had been fo fortunate as to make of the twilight in
the moon, and the height and denfity of the lower
ftratum of its atmofphere.
“ Experience has fufficiently proved, that a ftronger
will ever obfeure a fainter light; and it follows hence,
that the light of a bright ftar approaching the moon,
when full or nearly fo, willlofe fomething of its luftre:
but little can be infeired in favour of an atmofphere
either of the Moon or of Mars, from the obfervation
of Caflini; in which, as Dr Herfchel has illuftrated
by fome obfervations of his own*, a ftar in Aquarius,» mu
of the fixth magnitude, and as yet fix minutes diftant Brunf^
from Mars, diminiihed in light when both were feen1?8^
in the fame field of the telefcope. A mere apparent
diminution of light, occafioned by the glare of a lar ;er
luminous object, when feen at the fame time with a
fmaller
MOO [ 260 ] MOO
Moon, fmalltr one in the field of the telefcope, is one thing ;
■■“■'V  and another thing is a real indiftinftnefs of the Fmall
luminous body, which increafes in proportion as they
approach nearer to each other.
“ It was very natural for Jupiter to diminifii in
brightnefs when it approached fo near to the moon,
then almoft at its full, as to be feen at the fame time
in the •field of the telefcope, which was in fa it the cir-
cumftance of this obfervation; but l could not obferve
any progreffive variation of light in the eafteru and
weftern, equally luminous, diiks, proportional to their
diftances from the limb of the moon, much lefs a real
indiftin&nefs; and this neither when the limbs of the
two planets were nearly in contaft, nor when Jupiter
was partly, or about one half, covered by the moon.
** It was a fight truly gratifying to an eye accuf-
tomed to the light of the moon, or in general to iimi-
lar obfervations, to behold how Jupiter, at its immer-
fion as well as emerfion, being half or more than half
covered by the moon, exhibited its belts and other
parts as diftinftly clofe to the limb of the moon as it
does* at fome diilance from it; and had I not already
fucceeded in my numerous obfervations on the atmo-
fphere of the moon, and very recently in thofe which
enabled me to determine its twilight, I (hould perhaps
have adopted the doubts the ancient aitronomers enter¬
tained concerning the exiftence of a lunar atmofphere ;
and this the rather, as when Jupiter in its immerlxon
was fo far covered, that the luminous fpot /, fig. 5.
was clofe to the moon, I could plainly difiinguii'h this
fpot, although it be in itfelf by no means very per¬
ceptible.
“ Such, however, mud have been the appearances,
according to my new obfervations and meafurements
of the twilight of the moon : for if it be proved, that
the extent of this twilight, to where it lafes itfelf in
the light re fie died from the almolt wholly illuminated
diflc of our earth, amounts to no more than an arc of
2° 3 4' of the circumference of the moon, and if it be
hence demonilrable, that its greatefl: dilatation does
barely amount to 50 8', and the perpendicular height
of that part of the lower more condenfed ftratum of
its atmofphere, which is capable of refle&ing the folar
rays, and of producing fome other, perhaps more re¬
markable, obfeurities in the liars feen through it, does
not exceed 5000 Paris feet, and hence cannot reach
above one fecond of a degree above the limb of the
moon; we need not wonder that fo fmall a magnitude,
which lofes itfelf in the inequalities of the limb, many
parts of which are known to be confiderably moun¬
tainous, {hould not become fenfible, efpecially at the
approach of a body of fo large a diameter as Jupiter,
and when fo fmall a magnifying power is applied. And
thus may I with confidence afferta perfedt coincidence
between this and my many other obfervations.
“ The appearance, fig. 8. when Jupiter, at the
emerfion, the objedts being particularly (harp and di-
ftindl, came forth from behind the moon, which now
covered no more than one quarter of ets diameter, was
truly fplendid and fatisfadlory : and 1 muft here par¬
ticularly mention the circumftance, that the part of
the moon’s dark hemifphere, between its bright ter¬
minating edge mn and its outward limb, bordering
Upon the emerging planet oJ>, was particularly opaque,
and hence produced a very linking effect.
“ I omit entering here upon any farther cohfidera- Moon,
lions; and fiiall conclude with obferving, that, after
the Qccnltation was completely ended, the luminous
fpot / had at I2!> 1' fo far advanced in its parallel det
as to have reached to within or at moll -i-, of its
whole length of the wellern limbr and that on the
2 'th of March, five days after a new moon, I obfervei
an occultation of a very diilindl, though telefcoptc,
liar, by the dark hemifphere of the mooa; in which,
agreeably to the above obfervation, not the lead gra¬
dual diminution of light or indiilinctnefs could be per¬
ceived, the liar being feen to vanifh on a fudden.”
Influence of the Moon on the Humin Body, the Wea¬
ther, See. The vulgar doitrine concerning the in¬
fluence of the moon on the changes of weather is very
ancient, and has gained credit among the learned
without fufficient examination ; but it feems now to
be pretty generally exploded by philofophers, as
equally deditute of ail foundation in phylical theory,
and unfupported by any plaufible analogy. The com¬
mon opinion is, that the lunar influence is exerted at
the fyzygies and quadratures, and for three days be¬
fore and after each of thofe epochs. There are 24
days, therefore, in each fynodic month, over which
the moon at thi$ rate is fuppofed to prefrde ; and as
the whole confilts but of 29 days 2J- hours, only
5k days are exempt from her pretended dominion.
Hence, though the changes of the weather (hould
happen to have no connexion whatever with the
moon’s afpedls, and they Ihould be didributed in an
equal proportion through the whole fynodic month,
yet any one who lhall predidl that a change Anil
happen on fome one of the 24 days affigned, rather
than in any of the remaining 5 ', will always have the
chances 24 to 54 in his favour. Men may, therefore,
eaiily deceive themfelves, efpecially in fo unfettled a
climate as ours. Moreover, the writers who treat of the
fignsof the weather, derive their prognodiesfrom circum-
ilances which neither argue any real influence of the
moon as a caufe, nor any belief or fuch an influence, bait
are merely indications of the date of the air at the
time of obfervation : fuch are, the lhape of the horns,
the degree and colour of the light, and the number
and quality of the luminous circles which fometimes
furround the moon, and the circumdances attending
their difappearance. (See the A.oo-n^sia of Aratus, and
the Scholia of Theon.) The vulgar foon began to con-
fider thefe things as caufes, which had been propofed
to them only as figns: and the notion of the moon’s
influence on all terredrial things was confirmed by her
manifed effedl upon the ocean. See, on this fubjecl,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part 2 p. 178, &c.
The famous Dr Mead was a believer in tire influence
of the fun and moon on the human body, and publifhed
a book to this purpofe, intitled De Imperio Solis ac Lu-
nx in Corpore humano : but this opinion has been ex¬
ploded by mod philofophers as equally' unreafonable
in itfelf, and contrary to fadl. As the mod accurate
and fenfible barometer is not affedled by the various
pofitions of the moon, it. is not thought likely that
the human body flibuld be affedled by them. Se¬
veral learned and ingenious men, however, dill con-
fider Dr Mead’s do&rine as far from being unfounded.
Harvejl- Moon. It is remarkable, that the moon,
during the week in which Ihe is full in harved, rifes,
4 foonejs
MOO C 270 ] MOO
Mnf n, Tooner after fun-fetting than {he does in any other
week in the year. By doing fo, {he af-
'””v fords an immediate fupply of light after fun-fet, which
is very beneficial to the farmers for reaping and ga¬
thering in the fruits of the earth : and therefore they
difiinguifii this full moon from all the others in the
year, by calling it the harvejl-moen. For an account of
which, fee Astronomy, n0 370, 371.
MooN-Eyes, in the manege. A horfe is faid to have
moon-eyes when the weakntfs of his eyes increafes or
decreafes according to the courfe of the moon; fo
that in the wane of the moon his eyes are muddy and
troubled, and at new moon they clear up but {till he
is in danger'of lofing his eye-fight quite.
MooN-Stone, a genus of filiceous earths, of a clear
white colour approaching to that of milk. When
looked at in a certain pofition, it reflects a ftrong light
like mother-of-pearl; in others, it {hows fpots of a
carnation colour. It is found in pieces with obtufe
angles, fometimes of a quadrangular figure. When
broken, it appears evidently foliated. According to
Werner it agrees in hardnefs and moft other refpe&s
with felt-fpar. He tells us, likewife, that it is pro¬
bably the androdamas of Pliny, the common girafofe of
the Italians, and the water opal of Ceylon. Some¬
times, he tells us, it is clafled with the opal, and
fometimes with the caps eye. According to M. Ma¬
gellan, this ftone is of the chalcedony or pfeudo-opal
kind : it refledls a whitiih light, with fome various
{hades of few intermixed colours on a bluilh bottom,
like the face of the moon when high enough not to
appear reddifh by the interpofition of earthy vapours.
The iris, or rainbow-ftone, feems to be no other than
a moon-ftone in which the yellow, purple, and blue
rays are raoft confpicuoufly reflected. When looked
at, it appears of a reddifli brown ; but on holding it in
the light of the fun, we difcOver the figure of a rain¬
bow. There are, however, feveral other Hones which
have the fame appearance in the fun’s light.
Moon-Wort in botany. See Lunaria.
MOOR (Sir Karel de), a capital painter of por¬
traits, hiftory, and converfations, was born at Leyden,
in 1656 : and at firft was a difciple of Gerard Douw,
with whom he continued for a confiderable time. He
afterwards Hudied fucceffively under Abraham Vanden
Tempel, Francis Mieris, and Godfrey Schalcken. As
foon as he began to follow his profeffion, the public
in a Ihort time did juftice to his extraordinary merit;
and he took the moll efFeflual method to eftablifh his
reputation, by working with a much {Longer defire
to acquire fame than to inoreafe his fortune. Ac¬
cording to Mr Pilkington, he painted portraits in a
beautiful ftyle, in fome of them imitating the tafte,
the dignity, the force, and the delicacy of Vandyck ;
and in others, he {bowed the ftriking effect and fpirit
of Rembrandt. His piftures Were always neatly and
highly finilhed ; he defigned them excellently, and
grouped the figures of his fubjedls with great {kill.
His works were univerfally admired ; and fome of the
moft illuftrious princes of Europe feemed folicitous
to employ his pencil. The grand duke of Tuf-
cany defired to have the portrait of De Moor,
painted by himfelf, to be placed in the Florentine
gallery ; and on the receipt of it, that prince fent him
in return a chain of gold and a large medal of the Maor,
fame metal. The Imperial ambaflador count Sinzen- ^M”ore-
dorf, by order of his mafter, engaged him to paint '' ^
the portraits of Prince Eugene and the duke of
Marlborough on horfeback ; and in that performance,
the dignity and expreflion of the figures, and alfo the
attitudes of the horfes, appeared fo maftetly, that it
was beheld with admiration, and occafiqned many
commendatory poems in elegant Latin verfe to be
publifhed to the honour of the artift ; and the empe¬
ror, on feeing that pidlure, created.De Moor a knight
of the holy Roman empire. He likewife had the ho¬
nour to paint the portrait of Peter the great czar
of Mufcovy ; and an extraordinary number of other
portraits, for which he received very large prices.—His
hi'.torical paintings were admirable ; although he mo!l
frequently was employed to paint in a large fize, yet
he often painted fmall eafel pidlures, with fubjeCts of
hiftory or converfations ; and thofe are exceedingly
valued, having all the merit of neat penciling and
fweet colouring added to an elegant tafte of defign.
He died in 1738.
Moor, in country affairs, denotes an unlimited
tradl of land, ufually over-run with heath.
MooR-Cotk, or Gor-Cock- See Tetrao.
Moor Land, or moo^y foil, in agriculture, is a black,
light, and foft earth, very loofe, and without any ad¬
mixture of ftones; and with very little clay or fand.
The uppermoft ftratum of the fen-lands is ufually
of this earth, and it commonly conftitutes a moderate¬
ly thick or deep bed. Intermixed with water it can¬
not eafily be worked up into a pafte ; and when with
labour worked up into fomewhat of a firm mafs, its
furface appears fpongy and porous; and as foon as
dry, it eafily moulders away to powder.
It is ufually foft to the touch, unlefs it be worked
very clofely between the fingers; then it ftiows a mix¬
ture of a fmall quantity of fand, both to the touch
and to the fye. It feems indeed to confift almoft en¬
tirely of pure vegetable matter; and this lying in fuch
plenty on the furface of the fen-lands is the caufe of
their being fo very fertile.
The great difadvantage of the places which have
this foil, is their being-liable to be glutted with wet;-
and to remedy the inconveniences arifing from thence,
the farmers who rent thefe lands have a cuftom of
burning'-the foil at proper feafons. It burns very freely
and eafily, the furface readily catching flame ; and a
fubftance fomewhat bituminous, ufually contained
among the foil, helps the burning.
MOORE, or More, (Edward), a late ingenious
writer, was bred a linen-draper, but quitted bufinefs
to join the retinue of the mufes ; and he certainly had
a very happy and plealing talent for poetry. In his Trial
of Selim the Perfan, he complimented lord Lyttelton
in an elegant kind of panygeric, couched under the
appearance of accufation : and his Fables for the female
fex, for eafy verfification, poignant fative, and ftri¬
king morals, approach nearer to the manner of Gay
than any other of the numerous imitations of that
author. He wrote alfo three dramatic pieces ; The
Gamefter, a tragedy.; The Foundling, and Gil Bias,
comedies. The fuccefs of thefe was not fuch as they
merited : the firft of them having met with a cold re¬
ception.
MOO [ 271 1 MOP
Moore, ception, for no other apparent reafon but becaufe it
Mooring. t00 nearly touched a favourite and faftiionable vice :
and the fecond having been condemned for its fuppofed
refemblance to Sir Richard Steele’s Confcious Lovers,
but to which good judges have been inclined to give
it greatly the preference. Mr Moore married a lady
of the name of Hamilton, daughter to Mr Hamilton
table-decker to the princefles; who had herfelf a very
poetical turn, and has been faid to have affifted him
in the writing of his tragedy. One fpecimen of her
poetry, however, was handed about before their mar¬
riage, and has fince appeared in print in different col¬
lections of fongs, particularly in one called the Gold¬
finch. It was add re fled to a daughter of the famous
Stephen Duck; and begins with the following ftanza:
Would you think it, my Duck? (for the fault I muftown).
Your Jenny at laft is quite covetous grown :
Tho’ Bullions if Fortune iliould hviflily pour,
I ftill fhou’d be wretched if 1 had not More.
And after half a dozen ftanzas more, in which, with
great ingenuity and delicacy, and yet in a manner
that expreffes a fincere affeftion, fhe has quibbled on
our author’s name, fhe concludes with the following
lines:
You may Wonder, my girl, who this dear one can be,
Whofc merit can boaft fuch a conquefl as me :
But you lhan’t know his name, tho' I told you before.
It begins with an M, but I dare not fay More.
In the year 1753, Mr Moore commenced a weekly
mifcellaneous paper, intitled Lhe World, by Adam Fit<z-
Adam ; in which undertaking he was affifted by Lord
Chefterfield with fome effays. This paper was collec¬
ted into volumes, and Mr Moore died foon after.
MOORING, the aft of confining and fecuring a
fhip in a particular ftation, by chains or cables, which
are either faftened to the adjacent fhore, or to anchors
in the bottom.
A fhip may be either moored by the head, or by
the head and ftern : that is to fay, file may be fecured
by anchors before her, without any behind ; or fhe
may have anchors out, both before and behind her ;
or her cables may be attached to polls, rings, or moor¬
ings, which anfwer the fame purpofe.
When a fhip is moored by the head with her own
anchors, they are difpofed according to the circum-
ftances of the place where fhe lies, and the time fhe
is to continue therein. Thus wherever a tide ebbs
and flows, it is ufual to carry one anchor out towards
the flood, and another towards the ebb, particularly
where there is little room to range about; and the an¬
chors are laid in the fame manner, if the veffel is
moored head and ftern in the fame place. The fitua-
tion of the anchors, in a road or bay, is ufually op-
pofed to the reigning winds, or thofe which are moft
dangerous; fo that the fhip rides therein with the
effort of both her cables. Thus if fhe rides in a bay,
or road, which is expofed to a northerly wind and
heavy lea from the fame quarter, the anchors palling
from the oppofitc bows ought to lie ea : and weft from
each other : hence both the cables will retain the fhip
in her ftation with equal effort againft the aftion of
the wind and fea.
Moorings, in fea-language, are ufualiy an aflem-
blage of anchors, chains, and bridles, laid athwart the
bottom of a river or haven, to ride the fhipping con¬
tained therein. The anchors employed on this occa- Moorlands
fion have rarely more than one fluke, which is funk M
in the v/ater near low-water mark. Two anchors ^
being fixed in this manner in the oppofite fide of the
river, are furnifhed with a chain extending acrofs
from one to the other. In the middle of the chain is
a large fquare link, whofe lower end terminates, in a
fwivel, which turns round in the chain as about an
axis, whenever the fhip veers about with the change
of the tide. To this fwivel-link are attached the
bridles, which are fliort pieces of cable, well ftrved,
whofe upper ends are drawn into the fhip at the
mooring-ports, and afterwards faftened to the malts
or cable-bolts. A great number of moorings of this
fort are fixed in the harbours adjacent to the king’s
dock-yards, as Deptford, Chatham, Portfmouth,
Plymouth, &c.
MOORLANDS, a traft fo called, in the north
part of Staffordfhire,- where the land rifes gradually
into fmall hills, which run through the midft of Eng¬
land in one continued ridge, riling higher and higher
to Scotland, and fending forth many rivers. The foil
here is fo foul and cold, that the fnows lie almoft all
the year on the tops of the hills; and it is withal very
rugged and barren : it, however, yields plenty of coal,
lead, copper, rance-marble, and mill-ftones; and fome
of the limeftone hills bear fuch a fweet though fhort
grafs, as is very grateful to the oxen, of which here
is a very good breed. It is obferved here, that the
weft wind always brings rain, and the eaft and fouth
fair weather; that though this traft is full of bogs,
it is as healthy as any other part of the county ; and
that it produces the fame plants as the Peak of Derby.
MOORS. See Morocco.
Moors, in the Ifie of Man, thofe who fummon the
courts for the feveral fheadings; fuch as the lord’s
bailiffs. Every moor has the like office with our bai¬
liff of the hundred.
MOOSE, or Elk. See Cervus.
MOOT, a difficult cafe, argued by the young bar-
rifters and ftudents at the inns of court, by way of
exercife, the better to qualify them for praftice, and
to defend the caufes of their clients. This, which is
called mooting, is the chief exercife of the inns of
court. Particular times are appointed for the arguing
moot-cafes : the place where this exercife is performed
was anciently called moot-hall; and there is a bailiff,
or furveyor of the moots, annually chofen by the
bench, to appoint the moot-men for the inns of chan-
.cery, and to keep an account of the performance of
exercifes. The word is formed either from the Saxon
melon, gemetan, “ meetingor from the French mot9
“ word.”
MOPSUS (fab., hift.), a celebrated prophet, fon of
Manto and Apollo during the Trojan war. He was
confulted by Amphimachus, king of Colophon, wha
wiftied to know what fuccefs would attend his arms
in a war which he was going to undertake. He pre¬
dicted the greateft calamities; but Calchas, who had
been a foothfayer of the Greeks during the Trojan
war, promifed the greateft fucceffes. Amphimachus
followed the opinion of Calchas; but the prediction.-
of Mopi'us was fully verified. This had fuch an effeft
upon Calchas, that he died foon after. His death
3 at
TKlooflu
II .
M O R t 272 1 M O R
is altributed by fome to another mortification of the
fame nature. The two foothfayers, jealous of each
other's fame, came to a trial of their flcill in divination.
Calchas firft alked his antagonill, how many figs a
neighbouring tree bore ? 10,000 except one, replied
Mopfus, and one fingle veffel can contain them all.
The figs were gathered, and his conjeftures were true.
Mopfus now, to try his adverfary, a (Iced him how many
young ones a certain pregnant fow would bring forth?
Calehas confefled his ignorance; and Mopfus imme¬
diately faid that the fow would bring forth on the
morrow ten young ones, of which only one (hould be
a male, all black, and that the females (hould all be
known by their white ftreaks. The morrow proved
the veracity of his prediction; and Calchas died by ex-
cefs of the grief which his defeat produced. Mopfus
after death was ranked among the gods, and had an
oracle at Malia, celebrated for the true and decifive an-
fwers which it gave—Another Mopfus, fori of Ampyx
and Chloris, born at Titare(fa in Theflaly He was the
prophet and foothfayer of the Argonauts, and died at
his return from Colchis by the bite of a ferpent in Li¬
bya Jafon ereCted him a monument on the fea-fhore,
where afterwards the Africans built him a temple where
he gave oracles. He has often been confounded with
the fon of Manto, as their profefiions and their names
were alike.
MORJEA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 6th Order,
Enfaht. The cosolh is hexapetalous ; the three inte¬
rior petals patent, the reft like thofe of the iris.
MORAI, is the name given at Otaheite in the
South Sea to their burying-grounds, which are' alfo
places of worfhip. This is a pile of ftone raifed pira-
midically upon an oblong bafe or fquare 267 feet long
and 87 wide. On each fide is a flight of fteps; thofe
at the fides being broader than thofe at the ends -t fo
that it terminated not in a fquare of the fame figure
with the bafe, but in a ridge like the roof of a houfe.
There were 11 of thefe fteps to one of thefe morais,
each of which was 4 feet high, fo that the height of
the pile was 44. feet; each ftep was formed of one
courfe of white coral ftone. which was neatly fquared
and polilhed ; the reft of the mafs (for there was no
hollow within) confided of round pebbles, which
from the regularity of their figure feemed to have
been wrought. The foundation was of rock-ftones,
which were alfo fquared. In the middle of the top
flood an image of a bird carved in wood, and near it
lay the broken one of a fi(h carved in ftone. The
whole of this pyramid made part of one fide of a fpa-
cious area or fquare 360feet ]py 354, which was wall¬
ed in with ftone, and paved with flat ftdnes in its whole
extent. About ioq yards to the weft of this build¬
ing was another paved area or court, in which were
feveral fmall ftages raifed on wooden pillars about 7
feet high, which are called by the Indians ewattas, and
feem to be a kind of altars, as upon thefe are placed
provifions of all kinds, as offerings to their gods. Ore
fome of them are feen whole hogs, and on others the
fkulls of above 50, befides the (kulls of many dogs. The
principal object of ambition among the natives is to
have a magnificent morai. The male deities (for they
have them of both fexes) are worlhipped by the men,
and the female by the women ; and each have morais,
to which the other fex is not admitted, though they
have alfo morais common to both.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, or MORALS.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY is, « The feience of
manners or dutv j which it traces from man’s
nature and condition, and (hows to terminate in his
happinefs.” In other words, it is “ The knowledge
of our duty and felicity or, “ The art of being
virtuous and happy.”
It is denominated an art, as it contains a fyftem of
riles for becoming virtuous and happy. Whoever
praftifesthefe rules, attains an habitual power or fa¬
cility ofoecoming virtuous and happy. It is likewife
called a fcience, as it deduces thofe rules from the
principles and connexions of our nature, and proves
that the obfervance of them is produftive of our hap¬
pinefs.
It is an art, and a fcience, of the higheft dignity,
importance, and ufe. Its objeX is man’s duty, or his
conduX in the feveral moral capacities and connexions
which he fuftains. Its office is to direX that conduX ;
to (how whence our obligatlbns arife, and where they
terminate. Its ufe, or end, is the attainment of hap¬
pinefs ; and the means it employs are rules for the
right conduX of our moral powers.
Moral Philofophy has this in common with Natural
Philofophy, that it appeals to nature or faX ; depends
on obfervation; and builds its reafonings on plain un-
N° 227.
controverted experiments, or upon the fulleft induc¬
tion of particulars of which the fubjeX will admit. We
muft obferve, in both thefe fciences, how nature is-
affeXed, and what her conduX is in fueh and fuch cir-
cumftances : Or, in other words, we muft colleX the
appearances of nature in any given inftance; trace
thefe to fome general principles or laws of operation ;
and then apply thefe principles or laws to the explain¬
ing of other phenomena.
Therefore Moral Philofophy inquires, not how man
might have been, but how he is, conftituted: not into
what principles or difpofitions fiis aXions may be art¬
fully refolved ; but from what principles and difpofi¬
tions they aXually flow : not what he may, by educa¬
tion, habit, or foreign influence, come to be or do;
but what, by his nature, or original conftituent prin¬
ciples, he is formed to be and do. We difcover the
office, ufe, or deftination of any work, whether natural
or artificial, by obferving its ftruXure, the parts of
which it confifts, their connexion or joint aXion. It
is thus we underftand the office and ufe of a watch, a
plant, an eye, or hand. It is the fame with a living
creature of the rational or brute kind. Therefore, to
determine the office, duty, or deftination of man ; or,
in other words, what his bufmefs is, or what conduX
273
History. M O R A L P H
he is obliged to we muft infped his conftitution,
tnke every part to pieces, examine their mutual rela¬
tions one to the other, and the common effort or ten¬
dency of the whole.
It has not been thus, however, that the fciencc has
always been taught. The earlieil motalifts did not
ereft fyftems upon a juft analyfis of the powers of the
human mind ; nor have all thofe Who thought fuch a
foundation neceffary to be laid, deduced their theories
from the very fame principles. As moral truths are
not capable of rigid demonftration, it appears to us,
that we cannot more properly introduce the fy ftem which
we have adopted, than by giving our readers a (hort
view of the mod celebrated fyftems that have been
maintained by others. They will thus have an opportu¬
nity of judging for themfelves of the refpeftive merits of
£jie different theories, and of adopting that which fhall
appear to them to place practical virtue on the firmeft bafis.
History of the Science of Morals.,
'Various o- Whilst there has been a remarkable agreement
pinions among' the writers on morality, as to the particular
theMxkerf a<^'ons are virtuous and thofe which are vi-
©n of vir-" c‘ous > and whilft they have uniformly taught, that it
tue, &c. is our duty and our intereft to perform the one and
to avoid the other; they have yet differed exceedingly
concerning the teft^ or criterion of virtue, as wdl as con¬
cerning the principle or motive by which men are in¬
duced to purfue it. One caufe of this difference in
opinion refpeding, matters of fuch univerfal import¬
ance, may perhaps be traced to the miftakes into
which philofophers are apt to fall concerning the ori-
t ginal ftate of man.
Pr©liable ft is very generally taken for granted, that the firft
eaufeof thismen were lavages of the loweft rank, and that the race
'variety. gradually civilized itfelf during the courfe of many
fucceeding ages. Without mutual intercourfe, the
progrefs of civilization could never have commenced ;
and as the practice of juftice is abfolutely neeeffary to
every fpecies of friendly intercourfe, thofe original fa-
vages, it is fuppofed, muft have been'juft in their deal¬
ings, and juft upon fome principle which has its foun¬
dation in human nature. But to develope the prin¬
ciple by which favages are influenced in their condmft,
no tedious or intricate procefs of reafoning can be ne-
ceflary. It muft have a place in every mind, and be
inftantaneous in all its decifions. Hence it has been
fuppofed, that the principle to which modern philo¬
fophers have given the name of the moral fenfe, is in-
ftindtive ; that it is the foie judge of virtue and vice ;
and that its admonitions have fuch authority, as to
enforce obedience without regard to the confequenees
of any aftion.
Other philofophers, who deny that the moral fenfe
is inftin&ive, and who yet fuppofe that the original
ftate of man was favage, are forced to pile hypothefis
upon hypothefis, each unnatural in itfelf, and all con-
tradiftory to one another, in order to account for the
commencement of civilization and the formation of fo-
ciety. It has been fuppofed, that the defire of felf-
prefervation and the love of power are the governing
principles in human nature ; that in the favage ftate
every man had a right to every thing which he
could feize by fraud or force 5 that all had an innate
Vot-XII. Part L
I L O S O P H Y.
propenfity to invade each other’s property; and that
hence war, rapine, and bloodfhed, prevailed univerfally,
till the favages difcovered the expediency of uniting
under fome form of government for their mutual pro-
teftion.
But before the original ftate of man had been made
the bafis of fuch oppofite theories as thefe, it would
furely have been proper to inquire upon what grounds
that ftate has been fuppofed to be favage. To us thefe
grounds appear to be nothing better than mere ima¬
ginations ; the dreams of poets, and of fuch philofo-
phers as bend fafts to their own fyftems. In the au¬
thentic hijlory of our fpecies, there is no evidence,
indeed there can be no evidence, that the firft men
were favages ; and every thing which we know of
human nature leads us to believe, that had they been
fo, the race could never have been civilized but by the
miraculous interpofition of fome fuperior being. The
only record of the earlieft ages of the world to which
the fmalleft credit is due, reprefents all the nations of
the earth as having fprung from one pair, and that
pair as having been inftrufted in their duty by their
beneficent Creator. If this be the fa&, and no con¬
fident theift can controvert it, the precepts of morality
would be originally conveyed from one generation to
another; not in a fyftematical or fckntific form, but as
the laws of the Univerfal Sovereign, whofe authority
demanded implicit obedience. Accordingly we find, Modes o£
that the firft teachers of morals were men of ftipcnGf
rank as well as of eminent talents, who formed collec-
tions of maxims derived from their anceftors, “ with by the ear¬
th e view of perfe&ing fubordinationlj:, polilhing man- mora-
ners, and educating youth. Such were the proverbs
of Solomon, the words of Agur, and the wifdom 01 Elements of
the fon of Siraeh.” Thefe inftru&ors did not analyfe the Science
the human mind into its various faculties, and build a °/ Ethics.
fyftem of morals either upon a particular inftinft point¬
ing to the fupreme good, or upon the fitnefs of things
difcovered by reafon. Short ifplated fentences were the
mode in which they conveyed their precepts ; which
they prefaced by obferving, that “ the fear of the
Lord is the beginning of knowledge ;” and enforced
by the affurance, that “ length of days, and long life,
and peace, fhould they add to thofe who obeyed them.’*
The fayings of the celebrated wife men of Greece were
collections of apophthegms, made in the fame manner,
and delivered with fimilar views. Thales and Pytha¬
goras-)-, who founded the one the Ionic and the other f Brute»
the Italic fchool, made collections of precepts for the Elements,
conduCl as well of a ftate as of private life. “ Neither
the crimes nor the thoughts of bad men (ford Thales)^^
are concealed from the gods. The only method otufiphy.
being juft, is to avoid doing that which we blame in
others.” Of Pythagoras it is related by Porphyry
and Laertius, that from Samos he repaired to Delos,
and after prefenting an offering of cakes to Apollo,
there received, or pretended to receive, moral dogmas
from the prieftefs ; which he afterwards delivered to
his difeiples under the character of divine precepts.
Amongft thefe were the following ; That, “ next to
gods and demons, the higheft reverence is due to
parents and legiflators ; and that the laws andcuftoms
of our country are to be religioufly obferved.”
To, thefe maxims or apophthegms, which, for the
fake of delighting the ear and aiding the memory,
M m To
274
i Mr
£ruce.
The moral
principles
of Socra-
§ Bruce's
Elements,
and En-
f eld's Hi-
Jlory, &C.
Origin of
the Greek
le£h.
» E*JM
MORALPHILOSOPHY. Hiftory.
were fometimes delivered in verfe, fucceeded, as has that being a divine attainment, it cannot be taught, 6
bees fuppofed, the mode of inttruftion by fable or air but is the gift of God." This feems to differ in no-
legory But the truth feems to be, that this method thing but the name from the doftrine of thofe mo-
of communicating moral and political wifdom was as derns who place the foie foundation of virtue in the
ancient Is the other ; for we have a beautiful fpecimen approbation of the moral fenfe. The founder of the
of it in' the ninth chapter of the book which relates academy indeed has no fuch phrafe as moral fenfe in
the tranfaftions of the Judges of Ifrael. The fables any of his writings with which we are acquainted ;
of Efop, too, which were written at a very early pe- but if virtue cannot be taught, and if it is to be pur-
nod, remain lading models of thisfpecies of art among fued for its own fake, it mud in itfelf be good, and
the Greeks. the objedt of fome feeling, whether called fenfe, in.
When the indru&ors of mankind had proceeded Jlin8, ar pajfion. His folution of the fecond quedion
thus far as to give an artificial form to their precepts, agitated among the feels is not indeed very confident
they foon advanced a dep farther, and reduced their with this neceffaiy inference from his anfwer to the
cbdrvations into claffes or predicaments. Pythago- fird ; but for his inconfidencies we are not accountable^
ras, who vifited Egypt, has been fuppofed to have “ Our highed good (he fays) conlids in the contem-
learned from its prieds the method of arranging the plation and knowledge of the fird good, whick is mind
virtues into didinft claffes. But it is the opinion of or God ; and all thofe things which are called good
pn excellent writer f, founded on the previous afpe&s by men, are in reality fuch only fo far as they are de-
of ethics, and on the comprehenlive talents of the Sa- rived from the fird and highed good. The only
inian philofopher, that the honour of the invention power in human nature which can acquire a refem-
ough't to be aferibed to himfelf. Be this as it may, blance to the fupreme good, is reafon ; and this re-
it was obferved by the inventor, that “ all the maxims femblance eonfills in prudence, judicev fanekity, and
of morality might be referred to the duties which men temperance." 7
owe to themfe’ves, and the duties which they owe to Arillotle, the founder of the Peripatetic fchool, was^f
each other." Hence the four cardinal virtues of the the pupil of Plato ; but of the two great moral que-6,
ancients, prudence, temperance, fortitude, and ttions he gives folutions fomewhat different from thofe
justice ; of which the fird three refer to the indivi- of his mader. “ Virtue (according to him J) is el- 1 Enftli.
dual, and the fourth to fociety. ther theoretical or practical. Theoretical virtue con-
Hitherto leffons in morality had not taken a fyde- fills in the due exercife of the underdanding ; pradti-
matic fornl; but they were gradually approaching to cal, in the purfuit of what is right and good. Prac-
it. Socrates was perhaps the fird Pagan philofopher tical virtue is acquired by habit and exercife." Thi»
who edablifhed all his precepts on one fare and deady theory feems to differ little from that adopted by Cud-
bafis. In his lectures and difeourfes, he feems to have worth, Clarke, and Price, which diallbe confidered af-
had one great objeft in view to connect the moral terwards. With refpeftto happinefsor good, the doc-
maxims which were fittfcd to regulate the conduct of trine of Arillotle is very rational. “ Pleafures (he
mankind, with fublime conceptions refpeCling the fays) are effentially different in kind. Difgrace'fui
character and government of a fupreme Being. The pleafures are wholly unworthy of the name. The pu-
fird principles of virtuous conduft which are common red and nobled pleafure is that which a goad man de-
to all mankind, are, according to this excellent mora- rives from virtuous adrions. Happineis, which coo-
lid, laws of God : and the conclufive argument by fids in a conduit conformable to virtue, is either con-
which he fupports this opinion is, that no man departs templative or a&ive. Contemplative happinefs, which
from thefe principles with impunity. “ It is fre- condds in the purfuit of knowledge and wifdom, is
quently poffible (fays he) for men to fereen themfelves fuperior to aftive happinefs, becaufe the underdand-
from the penalty of human laws, but no man can be ing is the higher part of human nature, and the ob-
unjud or ungrateful without differing for his crime ; jeits on which it is employed are of the nobled kind,
hence I conclude, that thefe laws mud have proceed- The happinefs which arifes from external poffeffions
ed from a more excellent legiflator than man." From is inferior to that which arifes from virtuous actions j
this it would appear, that in the opinion of Socrates, hut both are neceffary to produce perfect felicity." 8
confcience, or the moral fenfe, approyfng of any ac- The Stoics, another celebrated fedk of Greek phi- Of lhe Sta¬
tion, is the criterion by which it is known to be vir- lofophers, maintained f, that “nature impels every
tuous, and the will of God.that which obliges men to man to purfue whatever appears to him to be good."
perform it. s According to them, “felf-prefcrvation and defence is
Socrateshimfelf left no writings behind him, nor, as the fird law of animated nature. All animals necef-
far as we know, offered any regular and complete theory farily derive pleafure from thofe things which are fuit-
of ethics. His difeipfes, however, who were nume- ed to them ; but the fird objeft of purfuit is, not plea-
rous and didinguifhed, became the founders of the ce- fure, but conformity to nature. Every one, there-
lebrated Greek ft<ds. Among them the firft great fere, who has a right difeernment of what is good,
quedion was, “ what are the foundations of virtue ?" will be chiefly cqncerned to conform to nature in all
and the fecond, “what are the didin£tions betwixt his aftions and purfuits. This is-the origin of moral
good and evil, happinefs and mifery ?" The anfwers obligation." With refpeft to happinefs or good, the
given to thefe important quedions divided the philo- ftoicat doitrine was altogether extravagant : They
lophers and their difciples into didinft orders. taught, that “ all external things are indifferent, and
In anfwer to the former quedion, Plato taught canno;. affeft the happinefs of man ; that pain, which
that “ virtue is to be purfued for its own fake ; and does not belong to the mind, is no evil j and that »
6 wife
Hiftorjr. MORAL PH
wife man will be happy in the midft of torture, be-
caufe virtue itfelf is happinefs (b ).”
As the Stoics held that there is but one fubftance,
partly a&ive and partly paffive, in the univerfe (fee
Metaphysics, n° 261, 262.), and as they called the
aftive principle GW, their do&rine, which makes vir¬
tue confift in a conformity to nature, bears no fmall
refemblance to that of thofe moderns who reft mo¬
ral obligation on the Divine will. It was therefore
on better grounds than has been fometimes fuppofed,
that Warburton, when chara&erizing the founders of
t^e t^ree principal fe&s in Greece, reprefented J Plato
W as the patron of the moral fenfe; Arijlolle, of the ef-
fential differences ; and Zeno, of arbitrary will. Thefe
principles, when feparated from each other, and treat¬
ed in the manner of the ancients, may not each be
able to bear the fuperftrudlure which was raifed upon
it; but the principles of moft of the other fe<fts were
much lefs pure, and infinitely more dangerous.
§ Eternal Cudworth §, whofe teftimony when relating the doc-
tafte'jMora-tr*nes antiquity is entitled to the fulleft credit, af-
Hty, firms, that Ariltippus the founder of the Cyrcnaic
9 fchool, Democritus, and Protagoras, with their follow-
Aoftip- er3 among the atomifts, taught, that ii the diitinftion
cnt’us Cand between virtue and vice is merely arbitrary ; that no-
Protagora*. thing is juft or unjuft, facred or profane, but as it is
agreeable or contrary to eftablifhed laws and cuftoms;
that what is juft to-day, human authority may make
unjuft to-morrow ; and that prefent pleafure is the fo-
*0 vereign good of man.,,
And oFE- with thefe impieties, the moral doftrines of Epi-
jncurus. curus have very unjuftly been confounded. The phy-
fical and metaphyfical fyftems of that philofopher are
indeed itrange compofitions of ingenuity and abfur-
dity, truth and falfshood ; and the moral precepts of
many of his followers were in the higheft degree li¬
centious and impure. But his own life was exem¬
plary ; and his ethical fyftem, if candidly interpreted,
is much more rational than that of the Stoics; though
it muft be eonfeffed, that no fe£t produced men of
mote determined virtue than the fchool of Zeno.—
• Enjeld's According to Epicurus *, “ the end of living, or the
ultimate good which is to be fought for its own fake,
is happinefs. The happinefs which belongs to man,
is that ftate in which he enjoys as many of the good
things, and fuffers as feW of the evils incident to hu¬
man nature as poflible ; palling his days in a fmooth
courfe of tranquillity. Pleafure is in its- own nature
good, as pain is in its nature evil. The one is there¬
fore to be purfued, and the other to be avoided, for
its own fake. Pleafure and pain are not only good
and evil in themfelves, but they are the meafure of
what is good or evil in every object of defire and aver-
fion ; for the ultimate reafon why we purfue one
thing and avoid another is, becaufe we expeft plea¬
fure from the former, and apprehend pain from the
latter. That pleafure, however, which prevents the
-enjoyment of a greater pleafure, or produces a greater
pain, is to be (hunned ; and that pain, which either
removes a greater pain, of procures a greater pleafure,
is to be endured.”
I L O S O P H Y.
275
Upon thefe felf-evident maxims, Epicurus builds his
fyftem of ethics ; and proves, with great force of ar¬
gument, “ that a fteady courfe of virtue produces the
greateft quantity of happinefs of which human nature
is capable.” Without a prudent care of the body, and a
fteady government of the mind to guard the one from
difeafes and the other from the clouds of prejudice,
happinefs is unattainable. By temperance we enjoy
pleafure, without fuffering any confequent inconveni¬
ence. Sobriety enables us to content ourfelves with
Ample and frugal fare. Gentlenefs, as oppofed to an ir-
afcible temper^, greatly contributes to the tranquillity
and happinefs of life, by preferring the mind from
perturbation, and arming it againft the affaults of ca¬
lumny and malice. Fortitude enables us to bear thofe
pains which prudence cannot ihun, and banifties fear
from the mind ; and the pra&ice of juftice is abfolutely
necefiary to the exiftence of fociety, and by confe-
quenceto the happinefs of every individual.” Theft
reafonings come home to every man’s bofom ; and had
not this philofopher, by denying the providence, if
not the being, of God, moft unhappily excluded from
his fyftem the very poffibility of a future ftate of re¬
tribution, his moral philofophy Would have been the
moft rational, and of courfe the moft ufeful, of any
that was taught in the fchools of Greece. This enor¬
mous defedt, however, laid it open to the groffeft cor¬
ruptions; and by his followers it was in fa<ft corrupted
fo as to countenance the moft impure and criminal plea-
fures of fenfe. If
Thefe feveral fyftems of ethics continued to be cul- The eclee-
tivated with more or lefs purity through all the revo- dc philofo.
lutions of the Grecian ilates, and they were adopted l^ets 0^
by the Romans after Greece itfelf became a province
of the empire. They had been introduced into Egypt
during the reigns of the Ptolemies, and were taught
with much celebrity in the fchools of Alexandria.—
The philofophy which was moft cultivated in thofe
fchools was that of Plato; but from a defire of uni¬
formity which took pofleffion of the Alexandrian Pla-
tonifts, many of the dogmas of Ariftotle and Zeno,
as. well as the extravagant fiftions of the eaft, were in¬
corporated with the principles of the old academy.—
The patrons of this heterogeneous mafs have been call¬
ed eclefiic philofophers, becaufe they profefled to feledt
from each fyftem thofe do&rines which were rational
and important, and to rejeft every thing which was
falfe or futile ; but they added nothing to the purity
of Plato’s ethics, and they increafed the obfeurity and
myfticifm of his phyfics and metaphyfics.
After the fubverfion of the Roman empire, every Ertin&ion
fpecies of philofophy, if fyllogiftic wrangling deferve ani revival
not that name, was banifhed for ages from the fchools moral
pf Europe ; and ethics, properly fo called, gave place to
ecclefiafticalcafuiftry, and to the ftudy of the civil and ^ ’
canon law. When the Greeks, whom the fury and
fanaticifm of Mahomet II. had driven from Con-
ftantinople, introduced into Italy the knowledge of
their own language, the cabinets of ancient philofophy
were again unlocked ; the fyftems of the different fects
were adopted with the utmoft avidity; and, without
Mm2 accurate
(b) Since this fhort hiftory was written, a very pleafing view of Stoicifm has been given to the public in
Fergufon’s Principles of moral and political Science ; a work which the liudent of ethics will do well to confult.
Perhaps the amiable author may unintentionally have foftened the anftere dogmas of the Porch, by transfufing
into them fomething of the mild fpirit of the gofpel; but if fo, he has much improved the fyftem of Zenq.
376 M O R A L P H
accurate inveftigation of their refpe&ive merits, men
became Platonius, Peripatetics, or Stoics, as fancy or
caprice prompted them to choofe their leaders. The
i<p» of Ariftotle, in particular, had not lefs autho¬
rity over his modern admirers than it had of old in the
Lyceum at Athens. At length the fpirit of .Luther
and the genius of Bacon broke thefe fetters, and taught
men to think for themfelves as well in fcience as in
religion. In phyfics, the effects produced by the wri¬
tings of Bacon were great and rapid; for in phyfics the
ancient theories were totally and radically wrong.—
With refpeft to morals, however, the cafe was diffe¬
rent. Each of the celebrated fchools of antiquity w^
in poffefiion of much moral truth, blended indeed with
error and long after the Stagyrite and his rivals had
loft all influence in phyfical fcience, philofophers of
eminence followed them implicitly in the fcience of
I3 ethics.
Theories At this day, indeed, there is hardly a theory of mo-
of iiobbef, rals at all diftinguifhed, to which fomething very fimilar
may not be found in the writings of the ancients.—
Hobbes adopted the principles of Democritus and
Protagoras, and taught exprefsly that “ there is no
criterion of juftice or injuftice, good' or evil, befides
the laws of each ttate ; and that it is abfurd to inquire
at any perfon except the eftablifhed interpreters of the
law, whether an aftion be right or wrong, good or
evil (a).” Thefe impious abfurdities have been often
confuted. Cudworth, who compofed his True Intel-
JeBual Syjlem of the Univerfe in order^to trace the meta-
phyfical atheifm of Hobbes to its fource, and to ex-
pofe it to the public in all its weaknefs, undertook
likewife to overthrow his ethical fyftem, in a treatife,
intitled Of Eternal and Immutable Morality. That work
was left unfinifhed ; but the theory of its great author
was adopted, illuftrated, and very ably fupported, by
*4 the Doftors Clarke and Price,
worthAccording - to thefe three admirable fcholars, “ we
Clarke feel ourfelves irrefiftibly determined to approve fome
and Price. 3&ions, and to difapprove others. Some adions we
cannot but conceive of as right, and others as wrong ;
and of all a&ions we are led to form fome idea, as ei¬
ther ft to be performed or unfit, or as neither fit nor
unfit to be performed, i. e. as Indifferent. The power
within us which thus-perceives and determines, they
declare to be the underfunding ; and they add, that it
perceives or determines immediately or by intuition,
becaufe right and wrong denote fimple ideas. As there
are fome propofitions, which when attended to necef-,
farily determine all minds to believe them, fo are there
fome actions whofe natures are fuch, that when obfer-
ved all rational beings immediately and neceffarily ap¬
prove them. He that can impartially attend, it is faid,
to the nature of his own perceptions, and determine that
when he conceives gratitude or beneficence to be right,
he perceives.nothing trueof them, or underfiands nothing,
but only fiffers from a fenfe, has a turn of mind which
appears unaccountable : for the more we examine, the
more indifputable it will appear to us, that we exprefs
neceffary truth, when we fay of fome aftions that they
are right, and of others that they are wrong.” It is
I L O S Q P H Y. Hiftoryi.
added, that “we cannot perceive an a&ion to be r'ght
without approving it, or approve it without being con*
fcious of fome degree of fatisfatlion and complacency;
that we cannot perceive an aftion to be wrong without
difapproving it, or difapprove it without being difpleafed
with it; and that the firfi muft be liked, the lafi diE
liked ; the firfi loved, the lafi hated.” By the patrons
of this fyftem, obligation to aftion, and rightnefs of ac¬
tion, are held to be coincident or identical. “ Virtue,
they affirm, has a real, full, obligatory power, antece¬
dently to all laws, and independently of all will; for
obligation is involved in the very nature of it. To af¬
firm that the performance of that which to omit would
be wrong is not obligatory, unlefs conducive to pri¬
vate good, or enjoined by a fuperior power, is a ina-
nifeft contradi&ion * Prut's
Few men have deferved better of letters and philo- Rcfrf,'
fophy than Cudworth, Clarke, and Price; and yetAttri-
their theory of morals appears to us to be contradic-
tory and unintelligible. It is certainly romantic, and
founded upon principles which, if they be denied, no
man by argument can be compelled to grant. There
is, fay they, an abfolute right and wrong, fitnefs and
unfitnefs, in actions; but if fo, the adtions which are.
right and fit muft be right and fit for fomething, be¬
caufe fitnefs, which refpe&s no end, is wholly incon¬
ceivable. To fay that any particular a&ion is fit, and
yet fit for no particular purpofe, is juft as abfurd as to-
fay that the angles at the bafe of an ifofceles triangle
are equal, but neither to one another, nor to any olh r
angles ; and we may with no lefs propriety talk of the
relation of equality attaching to a particular angle,
and to nothing elfe with which the angle is equal, than
of the. abfolute fitnefs or rightnefs of any a&ion or
courfe of aftions. If it be faid that fuch actions are
fit and right, becaufe they tend to promote the har*
mony of the world and the happinefs of men, this may,
be granted; but it overturns the intellectual theory
from its very foundation. Adtions which are fit and.
right only for their confequences, are approved and
liked for the fake of thofe confequences ; and the
happinefs of men, among whom the virtuous perfon
himfelf is certainly to be included, is the motive or
ultimate obligation to their performance.
Similar to this theory, and liable to the fame objec¬
tions, is that which refolves moral approbation into a
fenfe of propriety ;. for if adtions be approved becaufe
they are proper, it muft be becaufe they are proper for
fome end or purpofe, propriety, in the abftradit being a
word without meaning.
Many philofophcrs, feeling the force of thefe and Of Lor<?
of fimilar objedtions to the inteile&u^l theory of Cud- Shaftefbury
worth, Clarke, and Price, as well as to a fenfe of
priety in the abilradt, have I id recourfe to another hy-
pothefis apparently better founded. Obferving that all
mankind decide on. the morality of characters and ac¬
tions inftantaneoufly, without weighing their confe-
quencts in the balance of reafon, they fuppofe that
fuch decifions are made by an irfiinll of our common
nature, implanted in the human bread by the hand
that formed it. To this inftindt fome of them give
the
. (c) Dodlrinas de jufto et injufto, bono et malo, praeter leges in unaquaque civitate conftitutas, authenticas-
effe nullas: et utrum aliqua adtio jufta vel injufta, bona vel mala futura fit, a nemine inquirendum effe, prae-
terquam ab illis, quibus legum fuarum interpretationem civitas demaadaverit. De dve, p. 343,.
I-Mory. MORAL PH
tbe name- of confcience, and others that of moral fenfe,
in contradiction to external fen/e, the other great and
univerfal inlet of human knowledge. By this moralfenfe
we intuitively difcover an effential difference in the
quality of all thoughts and actions, and a general dif-
timStion of them into good and evil, juft as by the
tongue and palate we difcover an effential difference in
the fajle of all objefts, and a general diftin&ion of
them into pleafant and unpleafant. The ableft advocates
for this inftiniuye fyftem agree, that the moral fenfe
is the immediate and involuntary criterion of only a
few general truths, which, in their joint operation up¬
on the mind, lay the balls of moral obligation. Others
have carried it to what we think a very dangerous ex¬
treme ; as, by affirming that we cannot prove, in regard
to our moral feelings, that they are conformable to any
extrinfic and eternal relations of things, they feem towifh
that reafon were banilhed from the fcience of ethics. <
Were this true, it would in many cafes be impoffible
to diftinguilh the prejudices of early education from
the pure di&ates of original inftined, and the molt
pernicious condinft might be fan&ified with the appro¬
bation of what would be deemed the ultimate left of
virtue and vice.
To remedy the defedls of the intelleftual and in-
ftinftive theories of morality, Mr Hume blended them
together ; and, upon the broader bafts of reafon and
internal fenfe co-operating with each other, he reared
a fyftem which, though different from thofe of all his
predeceffors, he rendered plaufible, and fupported with
*6 his ufual ingenuity.
©f:Mr According to him, feniiment and reafon concur in al-
Hume. moft all moral determinations; and he proves, that for
this purpofe “ there is implanted in the human breaft
a diftnterefted principle of benevolence or fympathy,
which makes men take pleafure in each other’s happi-
nefs. The merit or demerit of aftions conftfts wholly
in their utility or natural tendency to add to the fum
of human happinefs ; and the fame he holds to be true
of qualities whether bodily or mental. This utility
or natural tendency it is the office of reafon to difco¬
ver ; for that faculty alone can trace relations and con-
fequences. Such qualities or adtions as reafon difeo-
vers to be ufeful, either to the individual or to fociety,
the inftindlive principle of benevolence makes us in-
ftantly approve, and this approbation conftitutes their
morality. Thus, temperance, fortitude, courage, and
induftry, &c. reafon difeovers to be ufeful to him who-,
ppffeffes them ; and upon this difeovery they are apc
proved of by the fentiment of fympathy. They are:
therefore noral qualities, and the fources of the private
virtues. In like manner, generofity, cheerfulnefs of.
temper, mercy, and juftice, aredifeovered to be ufeful.
to fociety ; and are accompanied with the approbation
of that fentiment of fympathy which makes every man ,
feel a fatisfaftion in the felicity of all other men. They
therefore conftitute the facial virtues. Of every qua¬
lity and every aftion, the merit or demerit, and of con-
fequence the degree of approbation or difapprobation
which is beftowed upon it, is in exadt proportion to
its utility and the. cireumftances of the cafe in which
it occurs. The focial virtues, are therefore greater than
thofe which are private, and one.focial virtueis greater
than another; but every quality and every adlion which
is ufeful, either to fociety or to the individual, is more
i L o s o p H Y.
or lefs virtuous, provided the good of the individual be
cjnfidered as fubordinate to the good of the public.”
This theory js ingenious ; and in placing the merit
of afiions in their utility, it furniffies a criterion of
virtue which can be employed by reafon : but it feems
not to be wholly free from error, and it is obvioufly
defective. By pretending that the fame fentiment of
approbation is given to ufeful actions voluntarily per¬
formed, and to ufeful qualities which are merely con-
ftitutional, Mr Hume confounds the merit of virtuous-
habits with the value of natural talents. Yet every
man’s confcioufnefs will furely tell him, that the feel¬
ing or fentiment which attaches to deeds of juftice,
clemency, and beneficence, is very different from that,
which attaches to beauty of form, ftrength of body,
vigour of mind, and mere extent of capacity. AIL
thefe aftions and qualities are ufeful; but when we
approve of the former, befides attending to their utility,
we confider them as in the man’s power, and attribute
the merit of them immediately to himfelf. When we
approve, or rather admire, the latter on account of
their utility, we know them to be not in the man’s
power, and we attribute the merit of them immediate¬
ly to the Author of nature.
But the defefts of this theory are in praftice more
pernicious than its errors. The author well obferves,
that the end of all moral fpeculations is to teach ue
our duty ; and, by proper reprefentations of the defor¬
mity of vice and beauty of virtue,'to beget correfpon-
dent habits, and engage us to avoid the one .and em¬
brace the other: but the theory under review holds
out no motive fufficient in all cafes for. this purpofe.
It is indeed true, as Mr Hume affirms, that the v?r-.
tues which are immediately ufeful or agreeable to the -
perfon poffeffed of them, are defirable. in a view to.
felf-intereft, and that a regard to felf-intereft ought to- -
engage us in their purfuit. It is iikewife true, that
the virtues which are. ufeful and agreeable to others, are
generally more defirabje. than the contraiy qualities:.'
for as by the conftit'ution of our nature no enjoyment,
is fincere without fome reference to company and fo¬
ciety ; fo no fociety can be agreeable, or even tolerable,,
where a man feels, his prefence unwelcome, and difeo¬
vers all- around him fymptoms^of difguft and averfion.
Thefe confiderations he deems fufficient to enforce the,
duties of humanity, clemency, and beneficence; but
he ftates a cafe himfelf,.,in which they would certainly ,
fail to make a man abftain from his neighbour’s proper¬
ty. The greater part of property he confiders, and
rightly confiders, as having its foundation inhuman-,
laws, which are lb calculated as to preferve the peace
and promote the general good of the fociety, at the un¬
avoidable expence fometimes of the individual. Now, in
particular incidents,a fenfible knave, by fecretly purloin-.
ing from the hoards of a worthlefs mifer, might make,
himfelf comfortable, and independent for life, without^
c.aufing any breach in the focial Union, and even with-.
out hurting a Angle individuaL What then ffiould hin-. -
der him. from afting thus ? His felhintereft would be •
promoted; and if he poffeffed a generous fpirit, he,
might gratify his. fentiment of benevolence or fympa¬
thy by doing good with his money tp the poor, which.. .
the mifer never did. For enforcing the uniform prac-.-
tice of juftice fn fuch cafes as this, Mr Hume’s theory .
of. morals contains no adequate motive ; but a very
£ fufficieat; -
278
MORAL PHI
fufficient one is held out by the fyftem which we are
17 now to confider.
A fyftem of That fyftem, which feems to have been unknown to
ethics built the ancients, is built upon religion, of which indeed
•ion!rCli* ^ conftit-utes a very eflential part; and thofe by whom
it has been taught, maintain that no other foundation
is fufficient to bear a regular fuperftrufture of practical
ethics. The philofophers of this fchool (d) define vir¬
tue to be “ the doing good to mankind, in obedience
to the will of God, and for the fake of everlafting hap-
pinefsSo that with them “ the good of mankind”
is the fuljeEt, “ the will of God” the criterion or rule,
and “ everlafting happinefs” the motive, of human vir¬
tue. The moral fenfe, fuppofing it real, they confi-
cer as a very inadequate rule of condufl;, as being in
many cafes difficult to be diftinguiftied from prejudice;
an 1 many of them confidently deny its exiftence. The
other rules, fuch as the Jitne/s of things, ah draft right,
the truth of things, the law of reafon, &c. they confider
either as unintelligible, or as relative to fome end by
which the rules muft themfelves be tried. The two
great queftions, which in the fyftem of thefe religious
philofophers demand folution, are : ifl. By what means
fhall a man in every cafe difcover precifely what is the
will of God ? and, 2(Hy, What evidence have we that
there will be a future ftate of retribution and of ever¬
lafting happinefs ?
Of thefe two queftions, the latter belongs wholly to
religion ; and to folve it they call in tire aid of revela¬
tion, as well as of that which is called the religion of
nature. The former queftion is in the province of mo¬
rality ; and to find anfwers to it which will apply to
every cafe, is the whole bufinefoof their fyltem.
The will of God refpefting human conduft may be
difcovered by reafoning a priori from hisexillence and
attributes, or a pofteriori from the tendency of his
works. Being himfelf independent and all-perfeft, it
Is inconceivable that his view in creating the world
could be any thing elfe than to communicate fome por¬
tion of his own felicity- (See Metaphysics, n°3i2.)
This conclufion is agreeable to what we perceive of
his works, in which there are a thoufand contrivances,
a!l tending to give happinefs to man, and to all ani¬
mated nature ; and not one of which the natural ten-
•dency is to inflift pain, or prove ultimately injurious.
Mankind are linked together by various ties, and made
to depend in a gfeat meafure upon each other’s con¬
duft. That conduft, therefore, which is naturally
produftive of the greateft fum of human happinefs,
muft be agreeable to the will of God ; or, in other
words, virtuous conduft. That, of which the natural
tendency is the reverfe, muft be vicious; and that
conduft, if there be any fuch, which tends to produce
neither happinefs nor mifery, muft be indifferent, i. e.
neither morally good nor morally evil. It is to be ob-
ferved, however, that as, previous to their own obedi¬
ence or difobedience, all men Hand in the fame relation
to their Creator, it mult be his will that an equal por¬
tion of the happinefs of which human nature is ca¬
pable be communicated to all by whom that nature
is (hared. Whence it follows, that only fuch conduft
us', if umverfaDy purfued by all men in the fame flation
and circumftances, would be produftive of the greateft
L O S O P H Y. Hiftory.
fum of human happinefs on the whole, can be agree¬
able to the will of the Creator ; and that, in judging
of the morality of aftions, we are not to regard their
immediate confequertces in any particular cafe,but their
natural and ultimate tendency if performed in all cafes.
This is a criterion of virtue which differs widely
from the local or oceafional utility fet up by Mr
Hume ; for the particular confequences of an aftion
and its general tendency may often be at variance, fo
that what might in certain circumftances be imme¬
diately ufeful, would yet be highly criminal and ul¬
timately pernicious. The general tendency of ac¬
tions, too, may be always known, and known with the
utmoft certainty : the whole of their particular con¬
fequences can never be difcovered. One thing, how¬
ever, is evident, that if all men in their refpeftive fta-
tions would regulate their conduft by the natural ten¬
dency of every aftion, the particular and general confe¬
quences of their conduft would be the fame, and the
greateft happinefs would refult from it of which hu¬
man nature is in this world capable. And therefore,
fince it is only through the perverfenefs of fome per-
fon or perfons concerned, that the particular confe~
quences of any aftion, of which the natural tendency is to
produce .mifery, can ever bring happinefs to a fingle in¬
dividual ; it can no more be the will of God that we
make thefe occafional and diflorted confequences the rule
of our conduft, than it can be his will that the vices
of other men (hould be the bafis of qur virtues. Ac¬
cording to this fcheme of morals, which refts all ob¬
ligation on private happinefs, the whole difference be¬
tween an aft of prudence and an aft of duty, is this;
That in the former cafe we confider only what we (hall
gain or lofe in this world; in the latter, what we (hall
gain or lofe in the world to come.
Although the patrons of this theory quefiion the
reality of the moral fenfe as an inftinft, they allow that
a fentiment of approbation or difapprohation of ac¬
tions, according as they are virtuous or vicious, is ge¬
nerated by the affociating principle (fee Instinct, and
Metaphysics, n^qy.); and that this fentiment, though
faftitious, operates inftantaneoufly as if it were in-
ftinftive. They infift that our earlieft aftions are the
refult of imitation ; that when we firft begin to trace
coirfequences, education and the defire of immediate en¬
joyment are our only guides ; that as our mind ex¬
pands and our knowledge increafes, the hopes and-
fears of futurity become the motives, and the will of
God the rule of our conduft ; and that long practice
in virtue, upon thefe principles, produces habits by
which we go on with fatisfaftion in the fame courfe,
without looking forward, on every particular occafion,
to the ultimate confequences and firft motives of our ac¬
tions. Thus do habits of juftice, benevolence, clemency,
and moral approbation, fpring, through a proper courfe
of difcipline, out of the felfiffi principle ; and when
thefe habits are completely formed and deeply rooted^
man has attained the utmoft perfection of which he is
capable in this ftate of probation, and is fitted for ano¬
ther of retribution and happinefs.
That thefe philofophers have not a juft view of hu- Dt,f^
man nature, when they c^eny that there is any innate anj excej_
principle of benevolence in man, we (hall endeavour lency of the
to fyftem.
(b) Gastrell, Cumberland, Puffendqrf, Norris, Berxelex, Gay, Low, Rutherforth, SoAtos
Jsnyns, Dr Johnson, Mr Palsy, and Mr Gisborne, &c.
Hiftory* MORAL PH]
to (how when we lay the foundation of that theory
which we think deferves to be preferred to all o-
thevs; but we fully agree with a candid and able
^Siuart’t writer f, who feems to confider them as under the
Elements of fame niiftake, “ that their theory of morals has no
0/tendency to weaken the foundations of virtue ; and
^fiuman ‘ that by the account which it gives of the rife of the
Mind- facial affections, it obviates many of the arguments
which had formerly been urged againh the felfifh fy-
ftem.’’ Nay, we fcruple not to confefs, that the
mode of inveftigation which it employs in all cafes to
difcover the will of God, may in feme cafes be necef-
fary in any fyftem which does not banifh the ufe of
reafon from the fcience of ethics. On this account,
| Jobnfon. as well as out of refpect to the firft moralift J of the
age, who affirms, that “ it muft be embraced by all
who are willing to know why they ad, or why they
L 0 S O P H Y. 279
forbear, to give any reafon of their conduft to them-
felves or to others," we fhall apply it to one of thofe
cafes of focial duty which Mr Hume’s principle of
utility could not refolve. Such an example will enable
the meaneft of our readers to decide between the me¬
rits of it and of the theory which we fhall adopt; or,
as we rather hope, it will fhow them that the two
theories lead to the fame practical conclufions.
Having thus given our readers a fhert view of the
moft celebrated fyltems of ethics which have prevail¬
ed from the earlie(Images of the world to the prefent
day, we now proceed, agreeably to our definition of
the fcience, to trace man’s duty from his nature and
conne&ions, and to fhow that the fteady pradice of
virtue muft terminate in his ultimate happinefa.
P A
Chap. I. C^Man and bis Connections.
V5. *T\ /jT AN is born a weak, helplefs, delicate creature,
fantfiVte* -lVI- unprovided with food, clothing, and whatever
elfe is neceffary for fubfiftence or defence. And yet,
expofed as the infant is to numberlefs wants and dan¬
gers, he is utterly incapable ox fupplying the former,
or fecuring himfelf againft the latter. But, though
thus feeble and expofed, he finds immediate and fure
refources in the affeBion and care of his parents, who
refufe no labours, and forego no dangers, to nurfe and
rear up the tender babe. By thefe powerful inftinds,
as by fome mighty chain, does nature link the parent
to the child, and form the ftrongeft moral connexion
on his part, before the child has the leaft apprehenfion
of it. Hunger and thirjl, with all the fenfations that
accompany or are conneded with them, explain them-
felves by a language ftrongly expreffive, and irrefifti-
bly moving. As the feveral fenfes bring in notices
and informations of furrounding objeds, we may .per¬
ceive in the young fpedator early figns of a growing
wonder and admiration. Bright objeds and ftriking
founds are beheld and heard with a foit of commotion
and furprife. But, without refting on any, he eager¬
ly paffes on from objed to objed, ft ill pleafed with
whatever is moft new. Thus the love of novelty is
formed, and the paffion of ‘wonder kept awake. By
degrees he comes acquainted with the molt familiar
ebjeds, his parents, his brethren, and thofe of the
family who are moft converfant with him. He con-
4rads a fondnefs for them, is uneafy when they are
gone, and charmed to fee them again. Thefe feel¬
ings become the foundation of a moral attachment on
his fide ; and by this reciprocal fympathy he forms the
domeftic alliance with his parents, brethren, and other
members of the family. Hence he becomes interefteef
in their concerns; and feelsyoy or grief, hope or fear,
©n their account, as well as his own. As his affec¬
tions now point heyond himfelf to others, he is deno¬
minated a good or ill creature, as he Hands ’well or ill
ftJ’eBed to them. Thefe, then, are the firft links of the
moral thain ; the early rudiments, or outlines, of his
charader; his firft rufte effays towards agency, free¬
dom, manhood.
When he begins to make excurfions from the nur-
R T L
fery, and extends his acquaintance abroad, he forms His chil'd*
a little circle of companions; engages with them in ho°d»
play, or in queft of adventures; and leads, or is led
by them, as hisgenius is more or lefs afpiring. Though
this is properly the feafon in which appetite and paf¬
fion have the afeendant, yet his imagination and intel-
leBual powers open apace; and as the various ima¬
ges of things pafs before the mental eye, he forms va¬
riety of taftes; relifhesfome things, and diflikes others,
as his parents, companions, and a thoufand other cir-
cumftances, lead him to combine agreeable or difa-
greeable fets of ideas, or reprefent to him obje&s in
alluring or odious lights..
As his views are enlarged, his aBive and facial
powers expand themfelves in proportion ; the love of
adion, of imitation, and of praife, emulation, curiofity,
docility, a pafion for command, and fondnefs of change. —
His paffions are quick, variable, and pliant to every
imprefiion ; his attachments and difgulls quickly fuc-
ceed each other. He compares things, diftinguifhes.
asftions, judges of charafters, and loves or hates;
them, as^they appear well or ill affe&ed to himfelf,,
or to thofe he holds dear. Mean while he foon
grows fenfible of the confequences of his own actions,,
as they attraft applaufe, or bring contempt: he tri¬
umphs in the former ; and is alhamed of the latter,;
wants to hide them, and bluihes when they are difeo-
vered. By means of thefe powers he becomes a fit;
fubjedl of culture, the moral tie is drawn clofer, he
feels that he is accountable for his conduct to others as
well as to himfelf, and thus is gradually ripening for
fociety and a&ion.
As man advances from childhood to youth, his paf- His youth*
fions as well as perceptions take a more extenfive
range. New fenfes of pleafure invite him to new
purfuits; he grows fenfible to the attradfions of beauty,
feels a peculiar fympathy with the fex, and forms a
more tender kind of attachment than he has yet expe¬
rienced. This becomes the cement of a new moral
relation, and gives a- fofter turn to his pafiions and be¬
haviour. In this turbulent period he enters more
deeply into a rehfh of friendship, company,, exerefes,
and diverftons; the love of truth, of imitation, and
of deftgn, grows upon him; and as his connections
fpread among his neighbeurs, fellow-citizens,and coum-
fcrymen*.
280 moralphilosophy.
Of IVlan trymen, his thirjl of praife, emulation, and facial af-
his fcQ'ions grew more intenfe and aftive. Mean while,
Connec- — . , . . .   ... ’
it is impoffible for him to have lived thus long without
^^ having become fenfible of thofe more auguft fignatures
of order, wifdom, and goodnefs, which are damped
on the vifible creation ; and of thofe ftrong fuggeftions
within himfelf of a parent mind, the fource of all in¬
telligence and beauty ; an obje& as well as fource of
that aftivity, and thofe afpirations which fometimes
roufe his inmoft frame, and carry him out of himfelf
to an almighty and all-governing power : Hence arife
thofe fentiments of reverence, and thofe affetlions of
gratitude, refignation, and love, which link the foul with
the Author of Nature, and form that mod fublime
*3 and god-like of all connexions.
'hood"1*3* Man having now reached his prime, either new
paflions fucceed, or the old fet are wound up to an
higher pitch. For, growing more fcnfible of his con¬
nexions with the public, and that particular commu¬
nity to which he more immediately belongs ; and ta¬
king withal a larger profpeX of human life, and its
various wants arid, enjoyments; he forms more inti¬
mate friendfhips, grafps at power, courts honour, lays
down cooler plans of intered, and becomes more at¬
tentive to the concerns of fociety : he enters into fa¬
mily connexions, arid indulges thofe charities which
arife from thence. The reigning paffions of this pe¬
riod powerfully prompt him to provide for the decays
of life ; and in it compafion and gratitude exert their
induence in urging the man, now in full vigour, to re¬
quite the affeXion and care of his parents, .by fupply-
44 ing their wants, and alleviating their infirmities.
Old age. At length human life verges downwards ; and old
age creeps on apace, with its anxiety, love of eafe,
interejlednefs, fearfulnefs, forejight, and love of offspring.
, —The experience of the aged is formea to direX,
and their coolnefs to temper, the heat of youth : the
former teaches them to look back on paft follies ; and
the latter to look forward into the confequences of
things, and provide againft the word. Thus every age
has its peculiar genius and fet of paffions correfpon-
ding to thatperiod, and mo!l conducive to the pro-
fperity of the reft. And thus are the wants of one pe¬
riod fupplied by the capacities of another, and the weak-
45 neffes of one age tally to the pafftons of another.
Paflions of Befides thefe, there are other paffions and affeXions
every age. Gp a ]efg aml,ulatory nature, not peculiar to one period,
but belonging to every age, and aXing more or lefs in
every breaft throughout life. Such are felf-love, bene¬
volence, love of life, htnour, Jhame, hope, fear, defre,
averfton, joy, forrow, anger, and the like. The two
firft are affeXions of a cooler ftrain ; one pointing to
the good of the individual, the other to that of the
fpecies : joy and forrow, hope and fear, feem to be
only modifications, or different exertions, of the fame
original affeXions of love and hatred, defre and aver-
fon, arifing from the different circumftances or pofi-
tion of the objeX defired or abhorred, as it is prefent
or abfent. Ftom thefe likewife arife other fecondary
or occafonal paffions, which depend, as to fheir exift-
ence and feveral degrees, upon the original affeXions
being gratified or difappointed ; as anger, complacence,
confidence, jealoufy, love, hatred, dejeftion, exultation, con¬
tentment, difgufi, which do not form leadingbut
rather hold of them.
'N° 227.
Part T»
By thefe fimple but powerful fprings, whether pe- Of Mtn
riodical or fixed, the life of man, weak and indigent *n<1 ^
as he is, is preferved and fecured, and the creature is
prompted to a conftant round of aXion, even to fup- t
ply his own numerous and ever-returning wants, and afi
to guard againft the various dangers and evils to which ^?€'r i0*®*
he is obnoxious. By thefe links men are conneXed6”8®8'
with each other, formed into families, drawn into par¬
ticular communities, and all united as by a common
league into one fyltem or body, whofe members feet
and fympathife one with another. By this admirable
adjuftment of the conftitution of man to his fate, and
the gradual evolution of his powers, order is main¬
tained, fociety upheld, and human life filled with that
variety of paffion and aXion which at once enliven and
diverfify it.
This is a (hort Iketch of the principal movements ofT*16 diree"
the human mind. Yet thefe movements are not th.tmgpows*
whole of man ; they impel to aXion, but do not direX
it: they need a regulator to guide their motions, to
meafure and apply their forces ; and accordingly
they have one that naturally fuperintends and directs
their aXion. We are confcious of a principle within
us, which examines, compares, and weighs things 4
notes the differences, obferves the forces, and fore¬
fees the confequences, of affeXJons and aXions. By
this power we look back on paft times, and forward
into futurity, gather experiences, ellimate the real
and comparative value of objeXs, lay out fchemes^
contrive means to execute them, and fettle the whole
order and oeconomy of life. This power we com¬
monly diftinguifh by the name of reafon or reflection,
the bufinefs of which is not to fuggeft any original no¬
tices or fenfations, but to canvafs, range, and make
deduXions from them. a®
We are intimately confcious of another principle^ ejrua®*
within us, which approves of certain fentiments, paf- paving
fions, and aSions, and difapproves of their contraries, powers.
In confequence of the decifions of this inward judge,
we denominate fome aXions and principles of conduX
right, honefi, good; and others wrong, dijhonefi, ill.
The former excite our efieem, moral complacence, and
affection, immediately and originally of themfelves,
without regard to their confequences, and whether
they affeX our interell or not. The latter do as natu¬
rally and neceffarily call forth our contempt, fcorn, and
averfion. That power by which we perceive this dif¬
ference in affeXions and aXions, and feel a confe-
quent reliffi or diflike, is commonly called confidence or
the moral fenfe.
That there is fuch a power as this in the mind of
every man of found uuderftanding, is a faX which
cannot be controverted ; but whether it be an inftinc-
tive power, 6r the refult of early and deep-rooted
affociations, has been long and ably debated. The
queftion is of importance in the fcience of human na¬
ture, as well as in afeertaining the ftandard of praXi-
cal virtue ; but to us it appears that the contending
parties have carried their refpeXive opinions to danger¬
ous extremes.
When it is affirmed, as it fometimes has been, that
reafon has nothing to do in ethical fcience, but that in
every poffible fituation our duty is pointed out and
the performance of it enforced by mere fAtiment, the
confequence feems to be, that virtue and vice are no¬
thing
Part I.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 281
Of Man tiling permanent in themfelves, but change their na-
and his ture according to local circumftances. Certain it is,
tions.C' fentiment has in fimilar fitnations approved of very
v—— different praftices in different ages and different na-
*9 tions. At prefent this fentiment in Europe approves of
An attempt ^ un;verfai praftice of juftice, and of parents proteft-
tha't'we* their children, whether well or ill formed, whether
have from ftrong or weak : but in Sparta we know that theft,
nature no if dexteroufly pra&ifed, was approved, and not unfre-
'fucl1 quently rewarded; and that the expofition of lame and
powers, Reformed children was not only permitted, but abfo-
lutely enjoined. There is nothing which our confcience
or moral fenfe condemns with greater feverity, or views
as a crime of a deeper dye, than childrens unkind
treatment of their aged parents ; yet there are favages,
among whom inftindts of all kinds ought to prevail in
greater purity than in civilized nations, whbfe moral
unfe permits them to put their aged and decrepid pa¬
rents to death. If this fenfe be inftin&ive, and the
foie judge of right and wrong, how comes it to decide
fo differently on the fame line of conduft in different
ages and diftant countries? The inftin&s of brutes, in
fimilar circumflances, prompt uniformly to fimilar ac¬
tions in every age and in every region where the fpe-
cies is found; and the external fenfes of man afford
in all nations the fame unvaried evidence concerning
their refpeftive objects. To thefe obfervations we may
add, that inftin&s mull be calculated for the Hate of
nature, whatever that Hate may be, and therefore can-
oot be fuppofed capable of directing our Heps through
all the labyrinths of polilhed fociety, in which duties
are to be performed that in a Hate of nature would
never have been thought of.
But though for thefe reafons it is apparent that
mere fentiment, whether called confcience or the mo¬
ral fenfe, would alone be a very unfafe guide to virtue
in every individual cafe that may occur, we think that
thofe who refolve all fuch fentiment into habit and
the effe£l of education, without giving any part of it
to nature, advance an opinion which is equally ill-
founded and not lefs dangerous. There are, indeed,
men who affirm that all benevolence is hypocrify,
friendlbip a cheat, public fpirit a farce, fidelity a fnare
to procure trull and confidence ; and that while all of
us at bottom purfue only our private intereft, we wear
thofe fair difguifes, in order to put thofe off their
guard with whom we have to deal, and to expofe
them the more to our wiles and machinations. Others
again, too virtuous to accufe themfelves and all man¬
kind of direft knavery, yet infill, that whatever affec¬
tion one may feel, or imagine he feels, for others, no
palfion is or can be difinterelled ; that the moll gene¬
rous friendlhip, however fincere, is only a modification
of felf-love; and that even unknown to ourfelves we
feek only our own gratification, while we appear the
moll deeply engaged in fchemes for the liberty and
happinefs of mankind.
Surely the mildetl of thefe reprefentations is an
exaggerated pitture of the felfilhnefs of man. Self-
love is indeed a very powerful as well as an effential
principle in human nature ; but that we have likewife
an ini'indlive principle of benevolence, which, without
any particular regard to our own intere.'i, makes us feel
pleafure in the happinefs of other men, is a fa£t which
we think admits of very complete proof. For, as Mr
Vot. XII. Part I, '
Hume well argues, “ when a man grieves for a friend Of Man
who could be of no fervice to him, but on the con-
trary Hood in need of his conllant patronage and pro- t;ong>
tection, how is it polfible to fuppofe that fuch palfio- ^ »
nate tendernefs arifes from felf-interell, which has no 30
foundation in nature? What interell (alks the fame Examined
deep thinker) can a fond mother have in view, who and Ihov- n
lofes her health by her alfiduous attendance on her fick
child, and afterwards languilhes and dies of grief when
freed by its death from the flavery of attendance ?—.
Have we no fatisfaftion (continues he) in one man’s
company above another's, and no defire of the welfare
of our friend, even though abfence or death fhould
prevent us from all participation in it ? Or what is
it commonly that gives us any participation in it, even
while alive and prefent, but our affection and regard to
him ?” Nor is it to contemporaries and individuals
alone, that, independent of all interell, we feel 9 bene¬
volent attachment. We conllantly bellow praife on
a&ions calculated to promote the good of mankind,
though performed in ages very dillant and in countries
molt remote ; and he who was the author of fuch ac¬
tions is the object of our elteem and affedtion. There
is not perhaps a man alive, however felfilh in his dif-
pofition, who does not applaud the fentiment of that
emperor, who, recolledling at fupper that he had done
nothing in that day for any one, exclaimed with re¬
gret, that the day had been loll! yet the utmoll fub-
tility of imagination can difcover no appearance of
interell that can have in the generofity of Titus., or
find any conne&ion of our prefent happinefs with a
chara&er removed fo far from us both in time and in
place. But, as Mr Hume juftly obferves, if we even
feign a charadler coniilting of all the moll generous and
beneficent qpalities, and give inllances in which thefe
difplay themfelves, after an eminent and moll extraor¬
dinary manner, for the good of mankind, we lhall in-
llantly engage the elteem and approbation of all our
audience, who will never fo much as inquire in what
age or country the accomplilhed perfon lived.
Thefe are facts which cannot be controverted ; and
they are wholly unaccountable, if there be not in hu¬
man nature an inltin&ive fentiment of benevolence or
fympathy which feels a dilinterelted pleafure in the
happinefs of mankind. But an end in which we feel
pleafure we are naturally prompted to purlue; and
therefore the fame fentiment impels every man, with
greater or lefs force, to promote the happinefs of other
men, which by means of it becomes in reality his own
good, and is afterwards purfued from the combined
motives of benevolence and felf-enjoyment. For in
obeying this fentiment we all feel an inward complacency,
felf-approbation, or confcioufnefs of worth or merit;
and in difobeying it, which cannot be done but with
reluctance, we feel remorfe, or a confcioufnefs of un-
worthinefs ox demerit. It appears, however, from hif-
tory, that the fentiment, as it is inllindlive, points only
to the good of mankind, without informing us how
that good is to be promoted. The means proper for
this purpofe mull be dilcovered by reafon ; and when
they are brought into view, this fentiment, confcience, or
moral fenfe, inllantly Ihows us that it is our duty to
purfue them.
Hence we fee how different lines of conduft may in
fimilar circumftances be approved of as virtuous in dif-
N n ferent
a82
kind from
the pafiion
and affee-
M O R A I, PHI
ferent nation*. When the Spartan expofed his fickly
and deformed child, and when the favage put his aged
parents to death, neither of them erred from want of
fentiment, or from having fentiments originally diffe¬
rent from ours. Their errors refulted from a defedt in
reafoning. They both imagined that they were obey¬
ing the law of benevolence by preventing mifery : for
a weak and deformed perfon was very ill qualified to
exiil with any degree of comfort under the military
cohllitution of Sparta, where all were foldiers, and
under the neceility of undergoing the greatelf hard-
fhips; and in a date where the people have no fixed
habitations, and where the chace fupplies even the ne-
ceffaries of life, an aged and infirm perfon is in danger
of perifhing through hunger, by one of the cruellelt
and moil lingering of deaths. The theft allowed in
Sparta, if theft it may be called, was a ftill lefs devia¬
tion from the inftin&ive law of benevolence. Boys were
tanghttoflip as cunningly as theycould into the gardens
and public halls, in order to fteal away herbs or meat;
and if they were caught in the fact, they were punifh-
ed for their want of dexterity. This kind of theft,
fince it was authorifed by the law and the confent of
the citizens, was no robbery 5 and the intention of
the legiflator in allowing it, was to infpire the Spartan
youth, who were all defigned for war, with the greater
boldnefs, fubtlety, and addrefs; to enure them be¬
times to the life of a foldier ; and to teach them to
ihift for themfelves, and to live upon little. That the
Spartan legiflator did wrong in giving his countrymen
a conftitution, of which fuccefsful war was the ulti¬
mate objedf ; and that favages, rather than kill their
aged parents, or fuffer them to die of hunger, ought
to cultivate the ground; and abandon the chace,- is
readily granted : but the faults of the one as well as
of the other arofe not from any improper decifion of
the moral fenfe, but from a defeft in their reafoning
powers, which were not able to eftimate the advantages
and difadvantages of different modes of life. In moral
decifions, therefore, confcience and reafon are aiding
to each Other. The former principle, when feparated
from the latter, is defeftive, enjoining only the good
of mankind, but unable to point out the means by
which it can be mod effe&ually promoted ; and the
latter principle, when feparated from the former, only
direfts a man to do what is mod prudent, but cannot
give him a conception of duty.
Thefe two powers of reafon and confcience are evi-
, dently principles different in nature and kind from the
paifions and affeftions. For the paffions are mere force
or power, blind impulfes, adding violently and without
8 choice, and tiltimately tending each to their refpeftive
objedts, without regard to the intered of the others,
or of the whole fyffem. Whereas the directing and
judging powers didinguifh and afcertain the different
forces, mutual proportions and relations, which the
paffions bear to each other and to the whole ; recog-
nife their feveral degrees of merit, and judge of the
whole temper and condmd, as they refpedt either the
individual or the fpecies ; and are capable of direfting
or redraining the blind impulfes of paffion in a due
confidency one with the other, and a regular fubordi-
^ation to the whole fyflem.
This is fome account of the conjlituent principles of
L O S O P H Y. Part T.
our nature, which, according to their different mix- Of Moral
tures, degrees, and proportions, mould our character Obb£atio«i.
and fway our conduit in life. In reviewing that large ' “*
train of affe&ions which fill up the different ilages ofDivi|^n of
human life, we perceive this obvious didinftion among the paf-
them ; that fome of them refpeit the good the m-fioas.
dividual, and others carry us beyond ourfelves to the
good of the fpecies or kind. The former have therefore
been called private, and the Izttzipublic affe&ions. Of
the firlt fort are love of life, of pleafure, of power, and
the like. Of the lad are compajfion, gratitude, friendjhip,
natural afeSion, and the like. Of the private paf-
fions(B), fome refpeit merely the feuirity and defence
of the creature, fuch as refentment and fear; whereas
others aim at fome pofitive advantage or good, as wealth,
cafe, fame. The former fort, therefore, beenufe of this0eft,^ive
difference of objedts, may be termed thfenjive paffions.paflrona.
Thefe anfwer to our dangers, and prompt u- to avoid
them if we can, or boldly to encounter them when we
cannot.
The other clafs of private paf4-jns, which purfue Private
private pofitive good, may be called appetitive. How-or aPPetb
ever, we fhall dill retain the name of private in con'fjWnaPaf'
tradidinftion to the defenfive pafii'ons Man has a 10
great variety of wants to fup^iy, and is capable of
many enjoyments, according to the ieveral periods of
his life, and the different Situations in which he is
placed. To thefe therefore a i’uitaiile train of private
paffions correfpond, which engage him in the purfuit
of whatever is nect ffary for his fubnftence or welfare. ^
Our public or foetal affections are adapted to the fe- Public paf-
veral facial connections and relations which we bear to funs,
others, by making us fenfible of their dangers, and in-
terelting us in their wants, and fo prompting us to fe-
cure them againft one and fupply the other.
This is the firft flep then to difeover the duty and
dejlination of man, the having analyfed the principles
of which he is compofed. It is neceffary, in the next
place, to confider in what order,proportion, and meafure
of thofe inward principles, virtue, or a found mor d
temper and right conduit, confids; that we may dif¬
eover whence moral obligation arifes.
Chap. II. 0/Duty, or Mo-ral Obligation.
It is by the end or defign of any power or move- fhe^ea-
ment that we mud direit its motions, and eftimate thefure ()f
degree of force neceffary to its jud aition. lf-it want powers,
the force requifite for the obtaining its end, we reckon
it defective ; if it has too much, fo as to be carried
beyond it, we fay it is overcharged ; and in either
cafe it is imperfedt and ill-contrived. If it has jult
enough to reach the fcope, we edeem it right and
as it fhould be. Let us apply this reafoning to the
paffions. _ 38
The defence and fecurity of the individual being theMcalure of
aim of the defenfive pajfions, that fecurity and defence the. defen-
mud be the meafure of their Jlrength or indulgence. If
they are fo %veak as to prove infufficient for that end,
or if they carry us beyond it, i. e. raife unneceffary com¬
motions, or continue longer than is needful, they are
unfit to anfwer their original defign, and therefore are
ia an unfound and unnatural date. The exercife of
fear or of refentment has nothing defirable in it, nor
(b) Here we ufe paffions and affections without diltinclion. Their difference will be marked afterwards.
Parti, MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 283
Of Moral can v/e give W'ay to either without painful fenfations. gratitude or frtendjhipy which belongs ta a particular Of Mora
Obligation. Without a certain degree of them, we are naked and facial connexiony viz. that of a lenefaBor or of a friend, ''grtion*
*" T y"" expofed. With too high a proportion of them, we is too feeble to make us aft the grateful ov friendly part,
are miferable, and often injurious to others. Thus that affeftion, being infufficient to anfwer its end, is
cowardice or timidity, which is the excefs of fear, in- defeBive and unfound. If, on the other hand, a parti-
ftead of faving us in danger, gives it too formidable an cular pafiion of this clafs counteraft or defeat the inte-
appearance, makes us incapable of attending to the reft it is defigned to promote, by its violence or dif-
beft means of prefexvation, and difarms us of courage, proportion, then is that paffion excejjive and irregular.
■our natural armour. Fool-hardinefs, which is the want Thus natural aJfeBion, if it degenerates into a pafianate
of a due meafure offear, leads us heedlefsly into dan- fondnefs, not only hinders the parents from judging
ger, and lulls us into a pernicious fecurity. Revenge, coolly ©f the interett of their offspring, but often
j. e. exeffive refentment, by the violence of its commo- leads them into a moft partial and pernicious indul-
tion, robs us of the prefence of mind which is often the gence. 41
heft guard againft injury, and inclines us to purfue the As every kind affeftion points at the good of itsCollifion of
aggreffor with more feverity than felf-defence requires, particular objeft, it is pofiible there may be fometimes‘oc,a; a“ec*
Pufllanimity, or the want of a juft indignation againft a collifion of interefts or goods. Thus the regard due 1Cm,"
wrong, leaves us quite unguarded, and tends to fink to a friend may interfere with that which we owe to
the mind into a paffive enervated tamenefa. There- a community. In fuch a competition of interefts, it is
fore, “ to keep the defenfive paffions duly proper- evident that the greatefl is to be chofen ; and that is
tioned to our dangers, is their natural pitch and te- the greateft intereft which contains the greatell fum or
nor.” aggregate of public good, greateft in quantity as well as
Me.fure of The private paffions lead us to purfue fome prftive duration. This then is the common Jlandard by which
the private fpecies of private good : that good therefore which is the refpeftive forces and fubordinations of the focial
pal 10ns. ^ 0kje(ct an^ encj 0f each jnuft be the meafure of their affeftions muft be adjufted. Therefore we conclude,
refpeftive force, and direft their operation. If they that ‘‘ this clafs of affections are found and regular
are too weak or fuggijh to engage us in the purfuit of when they prompt us to purfue the interef of indivi-
their feveral objects, they are evidently defeient; but duals in an entire confiftency with the public good;'” or,
if they defeat their end by their impetuofiy, then are in other words, “ when they are duly proportioned
they ftrained beyond the juft tone of nature. Thus to the dangers and wants of others and to the various
vanity, or an excefive pajfion for applaufe, betrays into relations in which we ftand to individuals or X.o focictyP
fuch meanneffes and little arts of popularity, as makes Thus we have found, by an induction of particulars,
us forfeit the honour we fo anxioufly court. On the the natural pitch or tenor of the different orders of ajfec-
other hand, a total indifference about the efeem of mankind, tion, conftdered apart by themfelves. Now, as the vir-
removesa ftrong guard and fpur to virtue, and lays the tue or perfeBwn of every creature lies in following its
mind open to the moft abandoned profecutions. There- nature, or aCting fuitably to the juft proportion and
fore, “ to keep our private paffions and deftres pro- harmony of its feveral powers; therefore, “the vir-
portioned to our wants, is the juft meafure and pitch tue of a creature endowed with fuch affe&ions as man
of this clafs of affe&ions.” o muft conftft in obferving or aCting agreeably to their
Compar-a- The defenfive and private paffions do all agree in natural pitch and tenor." 43
tive force, general, in their tendency or conducivenefs to the in- But as there are no independent affeChons in the Balance of
tereft or good of the individual. Therefore, when fabric of the mind, no paffion that ftands by itfelf, a“tf,^lon*
there is a collifion of intereft, as may fometimes hap- without fame relation to the reft, we cannot pronounce
pen, that aggregate of good or happinefs, which is com- of anyone, confidered apart, that it \% Pi'Ctxo.x toof rang
pofed of the particular goods to which they refpec- or too weak. Its ftrength and juft proportion muft be
tively tend, muft be the common ftandard by wffiich meafured not only by its fubferviency to its own im-
their comparative degrees of ftrength are to be meafured: mediate end, but by the refpedt it bears to the whole
that is to fay, if any of them, in the degree in which fyftetn of affeCtion. Therefore, we fay a paffion is too
they prevail, are incompatible with the greateft aggre- frong, not only when it-defeats its own end, but when
gate of good or moft extenfive intereft of the indivi- it impairs the force of other paffions, which are equally
dual, then are they unequal and difproportionate. For neceffary to form a temper of mind fuited to a certain
in judging of a particular f/Jlem or confitution of powers, (economy or fate ; and too weak, not merely on account
we call that the fupreme or principal end in which the of its infufficiency to anfwer its end, but becaufe it
aims of the feveral parts or powers coincide, and to cannot fiiftain its part or office in the balance of the
which they are fubordinate ; and reckon them in due whole fyftem. Thus the love of life may be too frong
proportion to each other, and right with regard to the when it takes from the regard due to one’s country,
whole, when they maintain that fubordination of fub- and will not allow one bravely to encounter dangers,
ferviency. Therefore, “ to proportion our defenfive or even death, on its account Again, the love of fame
and private paffions in fuch meafure to our dangers may be/co wwi when it throws down the fences which
and wants as belt to fecure the individual, and obtain render virtue more fecure, or weakens the incentives
the greateft aggregate of private good or happinefs, is which make it more adtive and public fpirited.
their juft balance or comparative llaudard in cafe of ' If it be alked, “ How far may the afftftions towards Umits of
competition.” private good or happinefs be indulged?” One limitPriv,ate a^’
Meafue or manner as ^ public or focial affedtions point was before fixed for the particular, indulgence of each, fe<a‘!>n5‘
the public at the good of others, that good muft be the meafure viz. their fubordination to the common aggregate of
alTchhons. of their force. When a particular focial affedtion, as good to the private fyftem. In thefe therefore a due x
N n 2 regard
2S4 M O R A L P H
Of Moral regard is always fuppofed to be had to health, reputa-
Ol>lii;qtiot fortune, the freedom of action, the unimpaired exercife
of re ifon, the calm enjoyment of one's felf, which are all
private goods. Another limit now refults from the
balance of affettion juft named, vi%. “ The fecurity
and happinefs of othersor, to exprefs it more ge¬
nerally, “ a private affedlion may be fafely indulged,
when, by that indulgence, we do not violate the obli¬
gations which refult from our higher relations or pub¬
lic connexions,” A juft refpeX therefore being had
to thefe boundaries which nature has fixed in the breaft
of every man, what fhould limit our purfuits of private
happintfs ? Is nature fallen and penurious ? or, does
the God of nature envy the happinefs of his off-
45 fpring?
Colliiion of Whether there is ever a real collifion of interefts
inurelts. between the public and private fyftem of affeXions, or
the ends which each clafs has in view, will be after¬
wards confidered; but where there is no collifion,
there is little or no danger of carrying either, but
efpecially the public affeXions, to excefs, provided both
kinds are kept fubordinate to a difcreet and cool
felf-love, and to a calm and univerfal benevolence, which
principles ftand as guards at the head of each fyftem.
Reiult. This then is the conduX of the paflions, confidered
as particular and feparate forces, carrying us out to their
refpeXive ends; and this is their balance or ceconomy,
confidered as compound powers, or powers mutually re¬
lated, aXing in conjunction towards a common end, and
confequently as forming a fyjlem or whole.
SuLortli- Now, whatever adjufts or maintains this balance,
nation of whatever in the human conftitution is formed for di-
fowers. reding .the paffions fo as to keep them from defeating
their own end or interfering with each other, mull be
a principle of a fuperior nature to them, and ought to
direX their meafures and govern their proportions.
But it was found that reafon or refleXion is fuch a
principle, which points out the tendency of our paf¬
fions, weighs their influence upon private and public
happinefs, and fhows the beft means of attaining either.
It having been likewife found that there is another
direXing or controling principle, which we call con-
science or the moral sense, which, by a native kind
of authority, judges of affeXions and aXions, pronoun¬
cing fome juft and good, and others unjujl and ill; it
follows, that the pafiions, which are mere impulfe or
blind forces, are principles inferior and fubordinate to
this judging faculty. Therefore, if we would follow
the order of nature, i. e. obferve the mutual refpeXs
and the fubordination which the different parts of the
human conftitution bear one to another, the paffions
ought to be fubjeXed to the direXion and authority
of the leading or comroting principles.
In what it conclude, therefore, from this induBion, that
conlifts. “ the conjlitution or juflceconomy of human nature confifts
in a regular fubordination of the paffions and ajfeBions to
the authority of confcience and the diredion of reafon."
Oecoromy That fubordinalion is regular, when the proportion
of nature, fcrmerly mentioned is maintained; that is to fay,
or rijrht “ when the defenfive paffions are kept proportioned
temper., to our dangers ; when the private paffions are propor¬
tioned to our wants; and when the public affeXions
are adapted to our public conneSions, and proportioned
to the wants and dangers of others.”
But the. naturalJlate, or ^the found and vigorous con-
I L O S O P H Y. Part I.
Jlitution of any creature, or the jujl ceccnomy of its Of Moral
powers, we call its health z-aAperfedion ; and the aXing Ohhgation.
agreeably to thefe, its virtue or goodnefs. Therefore, ^
“ the health and perfection of man muft lie in the afore- Human
faid fupremacy of confcience and reafon, and in the fubordi- virtue and
nation of the paffions to their authority and diredion.
And his virtue or goodnefs muft confift in aXing agree¬
ably to that order or ceconomy."
That fuch an ornament of the mind, and fuch a How con-
conduX of its powers and paffions, will ftand the teft fomiubie
of reafon, cannot admit of any difpute. For, upon at0 realon’
fair examination into the confequences of things, or
the relations and aptitudes of means to ends, reafon evi¬
dently demonftrates, and experience confirms it, that,
to have our defenfive pajjions duly proportioned to
our dangers, is the fureft way to avoid or get clear of
them, and obtain the fecurity we feek after.—To pro¬
portion our private pajjions to our wants, is the beft
means to fupply them ;—and, to adapt our public af-
fedions to our foetal relations, and the good of others,
is the molt effeXual method of fulfilling one, and pro¬
curing the other." In this fenfe, therefore, virtue may
be faid to be a “ condud conformable to reafon," as
reafon difeovers an apparent aptitude, in fuch an order
and economy of powers and paffions, to anfwer the end
for which they are naturally formed. ^
If the idea of moral obligation is to be deduced mere- Connexion
ly from this aptitude or connedion between certain paf- between af-
fions, or a certain order and balance of paffions, and fe&ionsand
certain ends obtained or to be obtained by them, then A,ea c£
is reafon or rejledion, which perceives that aptitude ormorai 0bli.
connexion, the proper judge of moral obligation ; andgation.
on this fuppofition it may be defined, as hath been
done by fome, the connexion between the ajfedion and
the end, or, which is the fame thing, between the ac¬
tion and the motive; for the end is the motive or the
fnal caufe, and the ajfedion is the adion, or its imme¬
diate natural caufe. A man, from mere felf-love,
may be induced to fulfil that obligation which is
founded on the connexion between the defenfive paf¬
fions and their ends, or the private paffions and their
ends ; becaufe in that cafe his own intereft will prompt
him to indulge them in the due proportion required.
But if he has no affeXions which point beyond him-
felf, no principle but felf-love, or fome fubtle modifi¬
cation of it, what ffiall intereft him in the happinefs
of others, where there is no connexion between it and
his own ? or what fenfe can he have of moral obliga¬
tion to promote it ? Upon this fcheme, therefore, with¬
out public or focial affeXion there could be no motive,
and confequently no moral obligation, to a beneficent
difinterefted conduX.
But if the mere connexion between certain paffions,
or a certain order of paffions and certain ends, are
what conftitutes or gives us the idea of moral obliga¬
tion, then why may not the appofitenefs of any tem¬
per or conduX, nay, of any piece of machinery, to ob¬
tain its end, form an equally ftriX moral obligation ?
for the connexion and aptitude are as ftrong and in¬
variable in the latter inftances as in the former. But
as this is confounding the moft obvious differences of
things, we muft trace the idea of moral obligation to
another and a more natural fource. S3
Let us appeal, therefore, to our inmoft fenfe and Idea of it
experience, “ how we ftand affeXed to thofe different from expe-
Parti. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
285
Of Moral fets of paffions, in the juft meafure and balance of
Obligation. wh;ch we found a right temper to confift.” For this
" ' is entirely a matter of experience, in which we muft
examine, as in any other natural inquiry, “ what are
the genuine feelings and operations of nature, and
what affections or fymptoms of them appear in the
54 given inftance.”
Why the The defenfive paffions, as anger and fear, give us
.e en ive rather pain than pleafure, yet we cannot help feeling
proved. P them when provoked by injury, or expofed to harm.
We account the creature imperfect that wants them*
becaufe they are neceffary to his defence. Nay, we
fhould in fome meafure condemn ourfelves, did we
want the neceffary degree of refentment and caution.
But if our refentment exceeds the wrong received, or
our caution, the evil dreaded, we then blame ourfelves
for having over-adted our part. Therefore, while
we are in danger, to be totally deftitute of them we
reckon a llameable defeS, and to feel them in a juft,
i. e. neceffary meafure, we approve, as fuited to the
nature and condition of fuch a creature as man. But
our fecurity obtained, to continue to indulge them, we
not only difapprove as hurtful, but condemn as unman¬
ly, unbecoming, and mean-fpiriled; Nor will fuch a con¬
duct afford any felf-approving joy when we coolly re-
j,. fleCt upon it.
Why "the With regard to the private paffions, fuch as love of
private. pleafure, cafe, and the like, as thefe aim at pri¬
vate good, and are neceffary to the perfection and
happinefs of the individual, we ftiould reckon any
creature defective, and even blame able, that was deftitute.
of them. Thus, we condemn the man who impru¬
dently ruins his .fortune, impairs his health, or ex-
pofes his life ; we not only pity him as an unfortunate
creature, but feel a kind of moral indignation and con¬
tempt' of him, for having made himfelf fuch. On the
other hand, though a difcreet felf-regard does 'notat-
traCt our efteem and veneration, yet we approve of
it in fome degree, in an higher and different degree
from what we would regard a well-contrived machine,
as neceffary to conftitute a finilhed creature, nay, to
complete the virtuous chara&er, as exadtly fuited to
our prefent indigent ftate. There are fome paffions
refpe&ing private good, towards which we feel high¬
er degrees of' approbation, as the love of knowledge,
of aStion, of honour, and the like. We efteem them
as marks of an ingenious mind; and cannot help
thinking the character in which they are wanting re-
markably ftupid, and in fome degree immoral.
Why the With regard to the facial affections, as companion,
public. natural ajfettionyfriendJhip, benevolence, arid the like, we
approve, admire, and love them in ourfelves, and,
in all in whom we difcover them, with an efteem and
approbation, if not different in kind, yet furely far fu-
perior in degree, to what we feel towards the other
paffions. Thefe we reckon neceffary; juft, and ex¬
cellently fitted to our ftru&ure and ftate; and the crea¬
ture which wants them we call defective, ill-conftitu-
ted, a kind of abortion. But the public affections we
gy efteem as felf-worthy, originally and eternally amiable,
biftindtion But among the facial affections we makeamobvjbus
between ve-and conftant diftindtion, viz. between-thoffe particu-
&eaffcc?lar Paffions which urSe us witb a ffiddtn violence, and
|ions. uneafy kind of frnfaticj),. purfue the good of their
refpe&ive objects, as pity, natural affeBion, and the Of Moral
like ; and thofe calm difpaffionate affeftions and dc- obllgatton;
fires which prompt us more fteadily and uniformly to
promote the happinefs of others. The former we ge¬
nerally call paffions, to diftinguifh them from the
other fort, which go more commonly by the name of
ajfettions, or calm defres. The firft kind we approve
indeed, and delight in ; but we feel ftill higher de¬
grees of approbation and moral complacence towards
the lajl, and towards all limitatiop of the particu¬
lar inftin£ts, by the principle of univerfal benevolence.
The more obje&s the calm affe£tion» take in, and the
worthier thefe are, their dignity rifes in proportion*
and with this our approbation keeps in exaft pace;
A charafter, on the other hand, which is quite di-
vefted of thefe public affections, which feels no love for
the fpecies, but inftead of it entertains malice, rancour,
and ill-will, we reckon totally immoral and unnatural.
Such then are the fentiments and difpofitions wc
feel when thefe feveral orders of affedtion pafs before
the mental eye.
Therefore, “ that ftate in which we feel ourfelves
moved, in the manner above defcribed, towards thofe
affedtions and paffions, as they come under the mind’s
review, and in which we are, inftantaneoufly and in¬
dependently of our choice or volition, prompted to a
correfpotident condndt, we call a ftate of moral obliga¬
tion.” Let us fuppofe, for inftance, a parent, a friend,
a benefadfor, reduced to a condition of the utmoft
indigence and diftrefs, and that it is in our power to
give them immediate relief. To what condudt are
we obliged? what duty does nature dictate and require
in fuch a cafe? Attend to nature, and nature will
tell, with a voice irrefiftibly audible and command¬
ing to the human heart, with an authority which no
man can filence without being felf-condemned, and
which no man can elude but at his peril, “ that im¬
mediate relief ought to be given.” Again, let a friend,
a neighbour, or even a ftranger, have lodged a depoft
in our hands, and after fome time reclaim it; no foon-
er do thefe ideas of the confidence repofed in us, and
of property not transferred, but depofted, occur, than
we immediately and unavoidably feel and recognize the
obligation to reftore it. In both thefe cafes we fhould con¬
demn and even loathe ourfelves if we afted otherwife,
as having done, or omitted doing, what we ought not,
as having afted beneath the dignity of our nature;—.
contrary to our moll intimate fenfe of right and wrong*
—we ftiould accufe ourfelves as guilty of ingratitude,
injuftice, and inhumanity,—and be confcious of de¬
fending the cenfure, and therefore dread the refent¬
ment, of all rational beings.—But in complying with
the obligation, we feel joy and felf-approbation,—are
confcious of an inviolable harmony between our .na¬
ture and duty, and think ourfdves intitled to the ap- •
plaufe of every impartial fpeftator of ourconduft. 8
To deferibe therefore what we cannot perhaps de- Moral oblh
fne. a ftate of moral obligation is “ that ftate in which gatien.
a.creafare, endued with fuch fenfes, powers, and af¬
fections as man, would condemn himfelf, and think
he deferved the condemnation of all others, fhould.
he refufe to fulfil it; but would approve himfelf, and
expeft the.approbation of all others, upon complying
with it.”
And
286'
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Part I.
Of Moral And we call him a moral agent, who is in fuch a
Obligation,cr js fubje£l to moral obligation. Therefore, as
man’sJlrutlure and connexions often fubjeft him to fuch
a llate of moral obligation^ we conclude that he is a mo¬
ral agent. But as man may fometimes aft without
knowing what he does, as in cafes of frenzy or difeafe^
or in many natural junctions ; or, knowing what he
does, he may aft without choice or ajfeXion, as in cafes
(Q of necjfty or compulfion; therefore to denominate an
Moral ac- aftion moral, i. e. approveable, ox blamcable, it mud be
tion good done knowingly and willingly, or from offeQion and choice.
srd bad. « A morally good.aXion, then, is to fulfil a moral obliga¬
tion knowingly and willingly.” And a tnorally bad
aXion, or an immoral aXion, is, “ to violate a moral ob-
6r ligation knowingly and willingly.”
Moral cha- As not an aXion, but a fries of aXions, conflitute
rafter and a character ; as not an affeXion, but o. fries of ajfeXious,
'temper eonftitute a temper; and as we denominate things by
bad*1 3,1 ?ro^sr ^ fortiori, or by the qualities which chiefly
prevail in them ; therefore we call that a “ morally good
charaXer, in which a (cries of morally good aXions prevail;”
and that a “ morally good temper, in which a fries of mo-
rally good ajfeXions have the afeendant.” A bad cha-
rafter and bad temper are the reverfe. But where the
* above mentioned order ox proportion of pafiions is main¬
tained, there a fries of morally good ajfeXions and ac¬
tions will prevail. Therefore, “ to maintain that order
‘ and proportion, is to have a morally good temper and cha-
raXer.” But a “ morally good temper and charafter
is moral reXitude,integrity, virtue, orthe completion of duty.”
<How*we ^ it he aiked, after all, “ how we come by the idea
come by of moral obligation or duty ?” we may anfwer, That
the idea of we come by it in the fame way as by our other original
moral obli- an(i primary perceptions. We receive them all from
igstion, nature, or the great Author of nature. For this idea ef
moral obligation is not a creature of the mind, or de¬
pendent on any previous aft of volition ; but arifes on
certain occafions, or when certain other ideas are pre-
fented to the mind, as neceffarily, inilantaneoufly,
and unavoidably, as pain does upon too near an ap¬
proach to the fire, or pkafure from the fruition of
any good. It does not, for inftance, depend on our
choice, whether we (hall feel the obligation to fuccour
a difjrefied parent, or to reftore a depofit intruded to
us when it is recalled. We cannot call this a com¬
pound idea made up of one or more fimple ideas.
We may indeed, nay we mull, have fome ideas an¬
tecedent to it, e. g. that of a parent—in dilirefs—of
;!* child—able to relieve—of the relation of one to the
■other—of a trull—of right, &c. But none of thefe
ideas conftitute the perception of obligation. This is
an idea quite diftinft from, and fomething fuperadded
to, the ideas of the correlatives, or the relation fub-
fifting between them. Thefe indeed, by a law of
our nature, are the occafionof fuggefting it; but they
are as totally different from it as colours arc from
founds. By fenfe of refleftion we perceive the cor¬
relatives ; our memory recals the favours or depofit
we received ; the various circumltances of the cafe
are matters of faft or experience; but fome delicate
inward organ or power, or call it what we pleafe,
does, by a certain inftantaneous fympathy, antece¬
dent to the cool deduftions-of reafon, and indepen-
♦ dent of previous inflruftion, art, or volition, perceive
the moral harmony, the living, irreffihle chttvms of mo- Of Pereep-
ral obligation, which immediately interefts the cor-
refpondent paffions, and prompts us to fulfil its lawful u>
diftates.
We need nert apprehend any danger from the quick- <j3
nefs of its decifions, nor be frightened becaufe it looks The ufe of
like irtftinX, and has been called fo. Would we ap-reafon m
prove one for deliberating long, or reafoning themora*ca‘€'*
matter much at leifure, whether he Ihould relieve a
diltrefied parent, feed a ftarving neighbour, or re¬
ftore the truft committed to him ? fhould we not fu-
fpeft the reafoner of knavery, or of very weak affec¬
tions to virtue ? We employ reafon, and worthily
employ it, in examining the condition, relations, and
other circumftances of the agent or patient, or of
thofe with whom either of them are connected, or,
in other words, the fate of the cafe: and in compli¬
cated cafes, where the circumftances are many, it may
require no fmall attention to find the true ftate of the
cafe ; but when the relations of the agent or patient,
and the circumftances of the aftion are obvious, or
come out fuch after a fair trial, we fhould fcarce ap¬
prove him who demurs on the obligation to that con-
duft which the cafe fuggefts.
From what has been faid, it is evident, that it is not
the pleafure or agreeable fenfations which accompany pieatJre>
the exercife of the feveral affeftions, nor thofe con-notthe ideaf
fequent to the aftions, that conftitute tnoral obliga-of ubhga-,
tion, or excite in us the idea of it. That pleafure isci0n*
pofterior to the idea of obligation ; and frequently we
are obliged, and acknowledge ourfelves under an ob¬
ligation, to fuch affeftions and aftions as are attended
with pain ; as in the trials of virtue, where we are
obliged to facrifice private to public good, or a pre-
fent pleafure to a future intereft. We have pleafure
in ferving an aged parent, but it is neither the per¬
ception nor profpeft of that pleafure which gives us
the idea of obligation to that conduft.
Chap. III. The Final Cavfes of our moral Fa¬
culties ^Perception and Affection.
We have now taken * general profpeft of man and 6s
of his moral powers and connexions, and on thefe The Purvey
erefted a fcheme of duty, or moral obligation, which propofed.
feems to be confirmed by experience, confonant to
reafon, and approved by his moft inward and moft
facred fenfes. It may be proper in the next place to
take a more particular view of the final caufes of thofe
delicate fprings by which he is impelled to aftion, and
of thofe clogs by which he is reftrained from it. By
this detail we {hall be able to Judge of their aptitude
to anfwer their end, in a creature endued with his
capacities, fubjeft to his wants, expofed to his dan¬
gers, and fufceptible of his enjoyments; and from
thence we fhall be in a condition to pronounce con¬
cerning the end of his whole fruXure, its harmony with
its fate, and confequently its fubferviency to anfwer
the great and benevolent intentions of its author.
The Supreme Being has feen fit to blend in the
whole of things a prodigious variety of difeordant an^ i^war<i3B.
contrary principles, light and darknefs,pleafure mi pain, atomy 0f
good and evil. There are multifarious natures, higherche f'y'.tem
and lower, and many intermediate ones between the ef the
wide-
7
Part X. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 2R7
Of Percep-wlde-dlrtaBt extremes. Thefe are differently fitua- cloaths, fhelter, and the like, mud; be provided; con*Of Perceg«
Affeft‘nd te^’ var‘ou^f adjufted, and fubjefted to each other, veniencies muft be acquired to render life ftill more *?ffe£tion
. lon' and all of them fubordinate to the order and perfec- eafy and comfortable. In order to obtain thefe, arts, A ^ ‘ *f
c ' tion of the whole. We may fuppofe man placed as induftry, manufactures, and trade, are neceffary. And
in a centre amidft thofe innumerable orders of be- to fecure to us the peaceable enjoyment of t:,eir fruits,
ings, by his outward frame drawing to the material civil government, policy, and laws, muft be contrived,
fyftem, and by his inward connected with the intel- and the variousbufmefs of public life carried on : thus,
lectual or moral, and of courfe affeCted by the laws while man is concerned and bulled in making provi-
which govern both, or affedted by that good and that fion, or obtaining fecurity for himfelf, he is by degrees,
ill which refult from thofe laws. In this infinite va- engaged in connections with a family, friends, neigh-
riety of relations with which he is furrounded, and of hours, a community, or a commonwealth. Hence
contingencies to which he is liable, he iieels llrong at- arife new wants, new intereifs, new cares, and new
employments. The pafiions of one man interfere
with thofe of another. Interefts are oppofed. Com¬
petitions arife, cdntrary courfes are taken. Difap-
pointments happen, diftinCtions are made, and parties
formed. This opens a vaft fcene of diftraCtkm and
embarraffment, and introduces a mighty train of good
and ill, both public and private. Yet amidft all this
confequence of hidden relations and general laws, of confufion and hurry, plans of aCtion mult be laid, con-
the energy of which he is an incompetent judge ; it is fequences forefeen or guarded againft, inconvenien-
eafy for him to miftake for evil, and 'evil for ces provided for; and frequently particular refolutions
good, and copfequently he may be frequently attrac- mult be taken, and fchemes executed, without reafon-
ted by filch things as are deltruCtive, or repel fuch as ing or delay.
are falutary. Thus, by the tender and complicated Now what provifion has the Author of our nature prov,^on3.
frame of his body, he is fubjeCted to a great variety made for this neceffitous condition ? how has he fitted f0r it.
of ills, to /.chiefs, cold, heat, fatigue, and innumerable the adtor, man, for playing his part in this perplexed
and bufy fcene ? yo
Our fupreme Parent, watchful for the whole, has By public
not left himfelf without a witnefs here neither, and
hath made nothing imperfeCf, but all things are doublelum*
one againft the other. He has not left man to be in-
formed, only by the cool notices of reafon, of the good
or ill, the happinefs or mifery of his fellow-creatures —
He has made him fenfible of their good and happi¬
nefs, but efpecially of their ill and mifery, by an imme¬
diate fympathy, or quick feeling of pleafure and oi pain. 7*
The latter we call pity or compassion. For the P>ty,
former, though every one, who is not quite divefted of
humanity, feels it in fome degree, we have got not a .
fire he receives from certain kinds of food, he is ad- name, unlefs we call it congratulation or
monifiied which agree with his conftitution; and by an sympathy, or that good humour which arifes on feeing
oppofite fenfe of pain he is informed which fort dif- others pleafed or happy. Both thefe feelings have
agree, or are deftruftive of it; but is not by means of been called in general the public or common sense,.
traftions to the good, and violent repulfions or aver-
fions to the ill. But as good and ill are often blended,
and wonderfully complicated one with the other; as
they fometimes immediately produce and run up into
each other, and at other times lie at great diftances,
yet by means of intervening links introduce one ano¬
ther ; and as thefe efftfts are often brought about in
wants. Yet his knowledge is fo narrow withal, and
his realbn fo weak, that in many cafes he cannot judge,
in the way of inveftigation or reafoning, of the con¬
nexions of thofe effeXs with their refpeXive caufes,
or of the various latent energies of natural things.—
He is therefore informed of this connexion by the
experience of certain fenfes or organs of perception,
which, by a mechanical inftantaneous motion, feel the
good and the ill, receiving pleafure from one, and pain
from the other. By thefe, without any reafoning,
he is taught to attraX or choofe what tends to his
welfare, and to repel and avoid what tends to his ruin.
Thus, by his fenfes bf tafe and fnell, or by the plea
a the inward natures and conftrtutions
by which we feel for others, and i
interefted in their concerns as really, though perhaps
lefs fenfibly than in our own.
When we fee our fellow-creatures unhappy through Refent*
the fault or injury of others, we feel rejmtmcnt or menu
indignation againft the unjuf caufers of that mifery.
If we are confcious that it has happened through our
fault or injurious conduX, we feel Jhame; and both
thefe clafies of fenfes and pajfons, regarding mifery and
wrong, are armed with fuch (harp fenfations of pain.
this inftruXed
of things.
Some of thofe fenfes are armed with ftrong degrees-
of uneafnefs or pain, in order to urge him to feek after
fuch objeXs as are fuited to them. And thefe jre-
£peX his more immediate and preffing wants ; as the
fenfe of hunger, thirf, cold, and the like; which, by
their painful importunities, compel him to provide.
food, drink, raiment, fhelter. Thofe inftinXs by which
we are thus prompted with fome kind of commotion
©r violence to attraX and purfue or to repel and as not only prove a powerful guard and fecurity to
avoid ill, we call appetites and pafions. By our fenfes the fpecies, or public fyfem, againft thofe ills it may,
then we are informed of what is good or ill to the pri- but ferve alfo to leffen or remove thofe ills it does,
vote fyjlem, or the individual; and by our pr ivate appe- fuffer. Compafiion draws us out of ourfelves to bear
tites and pafjions we are impelled to one, and reftrained a part of the misfortunes of others, powerfully folicits
from the other. us in their favour, melts us at the fight of their diftrefs,
Man's out- In confequence of this machinery, and the great and makes us in fome degree unhappy till they are re-
ardftate. train of wants to which our nature fubjeXs us, we .are lieved from it. It is peculiarly well adapted to the
engaged in a continued feries of occupations, which, condition of human life, becaufe it is much more and
©ften require much application of thought, or great oftener in our power to do mifchief than good, and
bodily labour, or both. The neceffaries of life, food, {q prevent.or leffen. mifery than to communicate pofi-
tive
288
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Part I.
Of Percep-tive happtnefs; and therefore it is an admirable re-
AffedHon ^■rai'nt uPon the more felfifh pafiions, or thofe violent
» ^ impulfes that carry us to the hurt of others.
74 There are other particular tnJlmBs or pajfions
Public af- which intereft us in the concerns of others, even while
fedlions. we are moft bufy about our own, and which are
ftrongly attractive of goodt and repulfive of ill to them.
Such are natural affedion, friendjhip, love, gratitude,
defire of fame, love of fociety, of one's country, and
others that might be named. Now as the private ap¬
petites and paffions were found to be armed with
ftrong fenfations of defire and uneafinefs, to prompt
man the more effe&ually to fuflain labours, and to en¬
counter dangers in purfuit of thofe goods that are ne-
ceffary to the prefervation and welfare of the indivi¬
dual, and to avoid thofe ills which tend to his deftruc-
tion ; in like manner it was neceflary, that this other
clafs of defires and affe&ions fhould be prompted with
as quick fenfations of pain, not only to counteraft the
ftrength of their antagonifts, but to engage us in a
virtuous uftivity for our relations, families, friends,
neighbours, country. Indeed our fenfe of right and
wrong will admonifh us that it is our duty, and reafon
and experience farther affure us that it is both our in¬
tereft and beft fecurity, to promote the happinefs of
others; but that fenfe, that reafon, and that experi¬
ence, would frequently prove but weak and ineffec¬
tual prompters to fueh aconduft, efpecially in cafes of
danger and hardfhfp, and amidfl all the importunities
of nature, and that conftant hurry in which the private
paffions involve us, without the aid of thofe particular
hind affections which mark out to us particular fpheres
of duty, and with an agreeable violence engage and
fix us down to them
Contraft or It is evident, therefore, that thofe two claffes of
balance of affedtion, the private and public, are fet one again(t the
*a ons* other, and defigned to controul and limit each
other’s influence, and thereby to produce a juft balance
*Vid. iftrf-in whole *. In general, the violent fenfations of
ConJutf of Pain and uneafinefs which accompany hunger, thirft,
the Pajfans, and the other private appetites, or too great fatigue
,treat, i. § 2. of mind as well as of body, prevent the individual
from running to great exceffes in the exercife of the
higher fun&ions of the mind, as too intenfe thought
in the fearch of truth, violent application to bufinefs
of any kind, and different degrees of romantic heroifm.
On the other hand, the finer fenfes oi perception, and
thofe generous defires and affcdions which are connected
with them, the love of atlion, of imitation, of truth,
honour, public virtue, and the like, are wifely placed
in the oppofite fcale, in order to prevent us from
finking into the dregs of the animal life, and debafing
the dignity of man below the condition of brutes So
that, by the mutual re-aftion of thofe oppofite powers,
the bad effefts are prevented that would naturally re-
fult from their afting fingly and apart, and the good
effeCts are produced which each are feverally formed
76 to produce. «.
Contraft or. The fame wholefome oppofition appears likewife
iiublic'and 'U t^ie particular counter-workings of the private and
private paf-/>“^f affe&ions one againft the other. Thus compaf-
fions. fon is adapted to counterpoife the love of eafe, of plea-
fure, and of life, and to difarm or to fet bounds to re-
fentment; and refentment of injury done to ourfelves,
or to our friends who are dearer than ourfelves, pre-
N°228.
vents an effeminate companion or conf emotion, and Of Percep-
gives us a noble contempt of labour, pain, and death.
Natural affeEtion, friendjhip, love of one’s country, nay, *f
■zeal for any particular virtue, are frequently more
than a match for the whole train of felffi pafiions.
—On the other hand, without that intimate over¬
ruling pafiion of felf-love, and thofe private defires
which are connefted with it, the facial and tender in-
finds of the human heart would degenerate into the
wildeft dottage, the moft torturing anxiety, and down¬
right frenzy.
But not only are the different orders or claffes of Contrafts
affeftion checks one upon another, but paflions of the among
fame claffes are mutual clogs. Thus, how many are diofe of
with-held from the violent outrages of refentment by ^ae^nie
fear ? and how eafily is fear controlled in its turn,
while mighty wrongs awaken a mighty refentment !
The private pafiions often interfere, and therefore
moderate the violence of each other; and a calm felf
love is placed at their head, to direCt, influence, and
controul their particular attractions and repulfions.
The public affeCtions likewife reftrain one the other:
and all of them are put under the controul of a calm
difpaflionate benevolence, which ought in like manner
to direCt and limit their particular motions. Thus
moft part, if not all the paflions, have a twofold afpeCt,
and ferve a twofold end. In one view they may be
confidered as powers, impelling mankind to a certain
courfe, with a force proportioned to the apprehended
moment of the good they aim at. In another view
they appear as weights, balancing the aCtion of the
powers, and controuling the violence of their impulfes.
By means of thefe powers and weights a natural poife
is fettled in the human breaft by its all-wife Author,
by which the creature is kept tolerably fteady and
regular in his courfe, amidft that variety of ftages
through which he mutt pafs.
But this is not all the provifion which God has made part^cujar
for the hurry and perplexity of the feene in which perception*
man is deftined to ait. Amidft thofe infinite attrac- or inftindis
tions and repulfions towards private and public good "f aPPr°ha'
and ill, mankind either cannot often forefee the confe-txm'
quences or tendencies of all their aCtions towards one
or other of thefe, efpecially where thofe tendencies
are intricate and point different ways, or thofe confe-
quences remote and complicated ; or though, by care¬
ful and cool enquiry, and a due improvement of their
rational powers, they might find them out, yet, di-
ftraded as they are with bufinefs, amufed with trifles,
diflipated by pleafure, and difturbed by pafiion, they
either have or can find no leifure to attend to thofe
confequences, or to examine how far this or that con-
duft is productive of private or public good on the
whole. Therefore, were it left entirely to the flow
and fober deductions of reafon to trace thofe tenden¬
cies, and make out thofe confequences, it is evident,
that in many particular inftances the bufinefs of life
muft Hand ftill, and many important occafions of ac¬
tion be loft, or perhaps the grofieft blunders be com¬
mitted. On this account, the Deity, befides that ge¬
neral approbation which we beftow on every degree
of kind affeCtion, has moreover implanted in
many particular perceptions or determinations to ap¬
prove of certain qualities or adions, which, in effeCt,
tend to the advantage of fociety, and are connected
8 " with
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
Part I.
Of Percep* with private good, though he does not always fee that
tion aml tendency, nor mind that connexion. And thefe ptr-
^ Region. cep^om Qv determinations do without reafoning point
out, and, antecedent to views of intereft, prompt to a
conduct beneficial to the public, and ufeful to the pri¬
vate fyftem. Such is that fenfe of candour and vera¬
city, that abhorrence of fraud and falfehood, that ferfe
of fidelity, jufiice, gratitude, greatnefs of mind, forti¬
tude, clemency, decorum; and that difapprobation of
knavery, injujlice, ingratitude, meannefs of fpirit, cow¬
ardice, cruelty, and indecorum, which are natural to
the human mind. The former of thofe difpofitions,
and the actions flowing from them, are approved, and
thofe of the latter kind difapproved by us, even ab-
ftj-a&ed from the view of their tendency or condu-
civenefs to the happinefs or mifery of others, or of
ourfelves. In one we difcern a beauty, a fuperior
excellency, a congruity to the dignity of man ; in the
other a deformity, a littlenefs, a delafement, of human
nature. ,
Others of There are other principles alfo conne&ed with the
an inferior good of fociety, or the happinefs and perfection of the
order. individual, though that connection is not immediately
apparent, which we behold with real complacency and
approbation, though perhaps inferior in degree, if not
in kind, fuch as gravity, modefly, fimplicity of deport¬
ment, temperance, prudent ceconomy ; and we feel fome
degree of contempt and diflike where they are want¬
ing, or where the oppofite qualities prevail. Thefe
and the like perceptions or feelings are either different
modifications of the moral fenfe, or fubordinate to it, and
plainly ferve the fame important purpofe, being ex¬
peditious monitors, in the feveral emergencies of a va¬
rious and diftraCted life, of what is right, what is
•wrong, what is to be purfued, and what avoided; and,
by the pleafant or painful coafcioufnefs which attends
them, exerting their influence as powerful prompters to
a fuitable conduCt.
TVieirgene- From a flight infpe&ion of the above-named prin-
ral tenden ciples, it is evident they all carry a friendly afpeCt to
fociety and the individual, and have a more immediate
or a more remote tendency to promote the perfeblion
or good ©f both. This tendency cannot be always
forefeen, and would be often miftaken or feldom at¬
tended to by a weak, bufy, fhort-fighted creature like
man, both rafh and variable in his opinions, a dupe to
his own paffions, or to the defigns of others, liable to
ficknefs, to want, and to error. Principles, there¬
fore, which are fo nearly linked with private fecurity
and public good, by directing him, without operofe
reafoning, where to find one, and how to promote the
other ; and, by prompting him to a conduCt conducive
to both, are admirably adapted to the exigencies of
his prefent ftate, and wifely calculated to obtain the
ends of univerfal benevolence.
Paffions fit- It were eafy, by confidering the fubjeCt in another
' “ " light, to fhow, in a curious detail of particulars, how
wonderfully the infide ©f man, or that aftonifhing train
of moral powers and ajfe&ions with which he is en¬
dued, is fitted to the feveral ftages of that progrejfive
and probationary flate through which he is deliined
to pafs. As our faculties are narrow and limited, and
rife from very fmall and imperfeCt beginnings, they
muff be improved by exercife, by attention, and re-
Vou XII. Part I.
iflate of
trial;
289
peated trials. And this holds true not only of our in- Of Percep-
telledual, but of our moral and adive powers. The
former are liable to errors in fpeculation, the latter to ]
blunders in pra&iee, and both often terminate in mif- '
fortunes and pains. And thofe errors and blunders
are generally owing to our paflions, or to our too for¬
ward and warm admiration of thofe partial goods they
naturally purfue, or to our fear of thofe partial ills
they naturally repel, Thofe misfortunes, therefore,
lead us^ back to confider where our mifconduCt lay,
and whence our errors flowed ; and confequently are
falutary pieces of trial, which tend to enlarge oar
views, to correEt and refine our paflions, and confe¬
quently improve both our intelletiual and moral pow¬
ers. Our paflions then are the rude materials of
our virtue, which Heaven has given us to work up,
t© refine and polifh into an harmonious and divine
piece of workmanflvip. They furnilh out the whole
machinery, the calms and ftorms, the lights and fliades
of human life. They fhow mankind in every attitude
and variety of character, and give virtue both its
Struggles and its triumphs. To conduCt them well in
every ftate, is merit; to abufe or mifapply them, is
demerit. 8*
The different fets of fenfes, powers, and pajfions,To a Pr0’
which unfold themfelves in thofe fucceflive ftages, are
both neceffary and adapted to that rifing and progref-
five ftate. Enlarging views and growing connec¬
tions require new paffions and new habits; and
thus the mind, by thefe continually expanding and
finding a progreffive exercife, rifes to higher im¬
provements, and pufties forward to maturity and per¬
fection. ~ g3
In this beautiful oeconomy and harmony of our Harmony
ftruCture, both outward and inward, with that ftateof °ur
we may at once difcern the great lines of our duty ftrut^ure
traced out in the faireft and brighteft characters, andan atC’
contemplate with admiration a more auguft and mar¬
vellous fcene of divine wifdom and goodnefs laid in the
human breaft, than we fliall perhaps find in the whole
compafs of nature.
From this detail it appears, that man, by his ori- in what
ginal frame, is made for a temperate, compaffionate, economy
benevolent, active, and progreffive ftate. He is ftrongly j''^ue coni*
attraBive of the good, and repulfive of the ills which be- 1
fal others as well as himfelf. He feels the higheft
approbation and moral complacence in thofe affeCtions,
and in thofe aCtions, which immediately and direCt-
ly refpeCt the good of others, and the higheft difap¬
probation and abhorrence of the contrary. . Befides
thefe, he has many particular perceptions or inJlinBs
of approbation, which, though perhaps not of the fame
kind with the others, yet are accompanied with cor-
refpondent degrees of affection, proportioned to their
refpeCtive tendencies to the public good. Therefore,
by a Cling agreeably to thefe principles, man aCts
agreeably to his ftruCture, and fulfils the benevolent
intentions of its author. But we call a thing good
when it anfwers its end, and a creature good, when
he aCts in a conformity to his conflitution. Confe¬
quently, man muff be denominated good or virtuous
when he aCts fuitably to the principles and dejh'nation of
his nature.
O o
PART
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
290
Of Duty or
Virtue.
PAR
Chap. I. The principal DifiinBions of
or Virtue.
TyE have now confidered the conflitution and con¬
nexions of man, and on thofe ere&ed a gene¬
ral fyilem of duty or moral obligation, confonant to
reafon, approved by his moll facred and intimate fenfe,
fuitable to his mixed condition, and confirmed by the
experience of mankind. We have alfo traced the fi¬
nal caufes of his moral faculties and affections to thofe
noble purpofes they anfwer, with regard both to the
private and the public fyfem.
General di- From this indu&ion it is evident, that there is one
vifion of order or clafs of duties which man owes to himfelf:
duty' another to fociety : and a third to God.
The duties he owes to himfelf are founded chiefly
86 on the defenfve and private paffions, which prompt
Duty to him to purfue whatever tends to private good or hap-
cne’sfelf. pinef^ and to avoid or ward off whatever tends to
private ill or mifery. Among the various goods which
allure and folicit him, and the various ills which attack
or threaten him, “ to be intelligent and accurate in
felefting one, and rejecting the other, or in preferring
the moll excellent goods, and avoiding the moll ter¬
rible ills, when there is a competition among either,
and to be difcreet in ufing the bell means to attain
the goods and avoid the ids, is what we call prudence.”
This, in our inward frame, correfponds to fagacity,
or quicknefs of fenfe, in our outward.—“ To proportion
our defenjive paffons to our dangers, we call fortitude
which always implies “ a juft mixture of calm re-
fentment or animofity, and well-governed caution.”
And this firmnefs of mind anfwers to the frength and
mufcling of the body. And “ duly to adjuft our private
paffions to our wants, or to the refpe&ive moment of
the good we affeft or purfue, we call temperance
which does therefore always imply, in this large fenfe
of the word, “ a juft balance or command of the
paffions.”
facieryt0 The fecond clafs of duties arifes from the public or
facial af'eftions, “ the juft harmony or proportion of
which to the dangers and wants of others, and to the
feveral relations we bear, commonly goes by the name
of jufice.” This includes the whole of our duty to
fociety, to our parents, and the general polity of nature ;
particularly gratitude, friendjhip, fmcerity, natural affec¬
tion, benevolence, and the other focial virtues : This, be¬
ing the noblef temper, and fairef complexion of the foul,
correfponds to the beauty and fne proportion of the per-
fon. The virtues comprehended under the former
clafs, efpCcially prudence and fortitude, may likewife be
transferred to this ; and according to the various cir-
cumftances in which they are placed, apd the more
confined or more extenfive fphere in which they ope¬
rate, may be denominated private, (economical, or civil
prudence, fortitude, &c. Thefe direft our condudl with
regard to the wants and dangers of thofe Idler or
greater circles with which they are conne&ed.
The third clafs of duties refpetis the deity, and
T
Part II,
Of Duty or
Virtue.
arifes from the public ajfeXions, and the feveral glorious Duties to
relations which he fuftains to us as our creator, benefactor, God-
lawgiver, judge, &c. 89
We chofe to confider this fet of duties in the laft Method,
place; becaufe, though prior in dignity and excellency,
they feem to be lafi in order of time, as thinking it
the moft fimple and eafy method to follow the gradual
progrefs of nature, as it takes its rife from individuals,
and fpreads through the focial fyftem, and ftill afcends
upwards, till at length it ftretches to its almighty Pa¬
rent and Head, and fo terminates in thofe duties which
are highefi and bef. ga
The duties refulting from thefe relations are, reve- Piety.
rence, gratitude, love, re Agnation, dependence, obedience,
worfhip, praife : which, according to the model of our
finite capacities, muft maintain fome fort of proportion
to the grandeur and perfection of the objeft whom
we venerate, love, and obey. “ This proportion or
harmony is exprefled by the general name of piety or
devotion,” which is always ftronger or weaker according
to the greater or lefs apprehended excellency of its
objed. This fublime principle of virtue is the en¬
livening foul which animates the moral fyfem, and
that cement which binds and fuftains the other duties
which man owes to himfelf or to fociety.
This then is the general temper and conftitution of
virtue, and thefe are the principal lines or divifions of
duty. To thofe good difpofitions which reipeCt the Conltiencc*
feveral objedls of our duty, and to all aftisns which
flow from fuch difpofitions, the mind gives its func¬
tion or teftimony. And this fan&ion or judgment
concerning the moral quality, or the goodnefs of ac¬
tions or difpofitions, moralifts call confcience. When
it judges of an adlion that is to be performed, it is cal¬
led an antecedent confcience ; and when it pafles fentence
on an aftion which is performed, it is called a fubfe-
quent confcience. The tendency of an action to produce
happinefs, or its external conformity to a law, is
termed its material goodnefs. But the good difpofi¬
tions from which an adtion proceeds, or its confor¬
mity to law in every refpedl, conftitutes its formal
goodnefs. ... . 9*
When the mind is ignorant or uncertain about the its divifions
moment of an adtion or its tendency to private or
public good ; or when there are feveral circumilances
in the cafe, fome of which, being doubtful, render the
mind dubious concerning the morality of the adlion ;
this is called a doubtful or fcrupulous confcience ; if it
miftakes concerning thefe, it is called an erroneous
confcience. If the error or ignorance is involuntary or
invincible, the adlion proceeding from that error, or
from that ignorance, is reckoned innocent, or not im¬
putable. If the error or ignorance is. fupine or affeft-
ed, i. e. the effedt of negligence, or of affedlation and
wilful inadvertence, the condudl flowing from fuch
error, or fuch ignorance, is criminal and imputable.—
Not to follow one s confcience, though erroneous and
ill-informed, is criminal, as it is the guide of life; and
to counteradl it, ftiows a depraved and incorrigible
fpirit. Yet to follow an erroneoas confcience is like-
1 wife
Part II. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. j9i
Of Man’s wife criminal, if that error which mifled the confcience The perception of this is, as has been already obfer- Of Man’s
Suty to was the efjfe£ Gf inattention, or of any criminal paf- ved, quite diilinft in kind from the perception of other dufy t0
, Him e‘; lion*. fpecies ; and though it may be connedled with plea-
* Hutcher. ^ it be afked, “ How an erroneous confcience Hiall fare or advantage by the benevolent conftitution of "
Mor.'lnji'. be rectified, fince it is fuppofed to be the only guide nature, yet it conftitutes a goad independent of that
Lb. a. c 3. of life, and judge of morals l” we anfwer, in the pleafure and that advantage, and far fuperior not in
very fame way that we would rectify reafon if at any degree only but in dignity to both. The other, viz.
93 time it Ihould judge wrong, as it often does, ■w'z. by the natural good, confifts in obtaining thofe pkafures
How con- giving it proper and fufficient materials for judging which are adapted to the peculiar fenfes and paffions
fcicnceisrorighti i. e. by inquiring into the. whole ftate of the fufceptible of them, and is as various as are thofe
eree i ed-pg ie relations, connexions, and feveral obligations fenfes and paffions. This, ‘wz. the mora/good, lies
aXor, the confequences and other circumllances in the right conduX of the feveral fenfes and paffions,
01 ti.e aXion, or the furplufage of private or public or their jufl proportion and accommodation to their
good which refults, or is likely to refult, from the refpeXive objeXs and relations ; and this is of a more
aXion or from the omiffion of it. If thofe circumftan- fimple and invariable kind. 96
ces are fairly ancffully ftated, the confcience will be By our feveral fenfes we are capable of a great va- Human
juft and impartial in its decifion : for, by a neceffary riety of pleafing fenfations. Thefe con iitute diitinX happincfs.
law of our nature, it approves and is well affeXed to ends or objeXs ultimately purfuable for their own
the moral form ; and if it feems to approve of vice or fake. To thefe ends, or ultimate objeXs, correfpond
immorality, it is always under the notion or mafic of peculiar appetites or affeXions, which prompt the
fome virtue. So that, ftriXly fpeaking, it is not con- mind to purfue them. When thefe ends are attained,
there it reiis, and looks no farther. Whatever there¬
fore is purfuable, not on its own account, but as fub-
fervient or neceffary to the attainment of fomething
elfe that is intrinfically valuable for its own fake, be
that value ever fo great or ever fo fmall, we call a
mean, and not an end. So that ends and means con-
ftitute the materials or the very ejfence of our happi-
nefs. Confequently happinefs, i. e. human happinefs.
Chap. II. Of Maris duty to Himself. Of the cannot be one fimple uniform thing in creatures con-
Nature of Good, and the Chief Good. ftituted, as we are, with fuch various fenfes of p] *-
fure, or fuch difterent capacities of enjoyment. Now
the fame principle, or law of our nature, which de¬
termines us to purfue any one end or fpecies of good,
prompts us to purfue every other end or fpecies of
•ivifions
good.
fcience which errs ; for its fentence is always conform¬
able to the view of the cafe which lies before it; and
is jujl, upon the fuppofition that the cafe is truly fuch
as it is reprefented to it. All the fault is to be im¬
puted to the agent, who negleXs to be better inform¬
ed, or who, through weaknefs or wickednefs, haftens
to pafs fentence from an imperfeX evidence.
Every creature, by the conftitution of his nature, is
determined to love himfelf; to purfue whatever tends
to his prefervation and happinefs, and to avoid what-
Mcral
good.
ever tends to his hurt andmifery. Being endued with good of which we are fufceptible, or to which our
fenfe and perception, he muft neceffarily receive plea- Maker has adapted an original propenfion. But,
Jure from fome objeXs, and pain from others. Thofe amidft the great multiplicity of ends or goods which
objeXs which give pleafure are called good; and form the various ingredients of our happinefs, we
thofe which give pain, evil. To the former he feels perceive an evident gradation or fubordination fuit-
that attraXion or motion we call defire, or love j to ed to that gradation of fenfes, powers, and paffions,
the latter, that impulfe we call averfon, or hatred.— which prevails in our mixed and various conftitution,
To objeXs which fuggeft neither pleafure nor pain, and to that afeending feries of connexions which
and are apprehended of no ufe to procure one or ward open upon us in the difterent ftages of our progreffive
off the other, we feel neither defre nor averfon ; and ftate. 97
fuch objeXs are called indifferent. Thofe objeXs which Thus the goods of the body, or of the external fenfes, Gradatiori
do not of themfelves produce pleafure or pain, but are feem to hold the loweft rank in this gradation or fcale of Soud®'
the means of procuring either, we call ufeful or noxious, of goods. Thefe we have in common with the brutes j
Towards them we are affeXed in a fubordinate manner, and though many men are brutilh enough to purfue
or with an indirect and refechv* rather than a direB and the goods of the body with a more than brutal fury,
immediate affeXion. All the original and particular af- yet, when at any time they come in competition with
feXions of our nature lead us out to and ultimately reft goods of an higher order, the unanimous verdiX: of
in the firft kind of objeXs, viz. thofe which give im- mankind, by giving the laft the preference, condemns
mediate pleafure, and which we therefore call good, the firft to the meaneft place. Goods confifting in
dire Sly fo. The calm affeXion of felf-love alone is exterior focial connexions, as fame, fortune, power,
converfant about fuch objeXs as are only confequentially civil authority, feem to fucceed next, and are chiefly
good, or merely ufeful to ourfelves. valuable as the means of procuring natural -or moral
But, belides thofe forts of objeXs which we call good, but principally the latter. Goods of the intel-
good, merely and folely as they give pleafure, or are led are ftill fuperior, as tafe, knowledge, memory,
means of procuring it, there is an higher and nobler judgment, &c. The higheft are moral goods of the
fpecies of good, towards which we feel that peculiar mind, direXly and ultimately regarding ourfelves, as
movement we call approbation or moral complacency ; command of the appetites and pajfwns, prudence, forti-
and which we therefore denominate moral good. Such tude, benevolence. See. Thefe are the great objeXs of
are our affeXions, and the confequent aXions to them, our purfuit, and the principal ingredients of our hap-
O 0 2 pinefs.
292 MORALPHILOSOPHY. Partll.
Of man’s pinef3. Let us confider each of them as they rife one the dull fcene of ordinary life and bufinefs, and agree- Of Man’
above the other in this natural feries or fcale, and ably ftir the paffions, which ftagnate or breed ill-hu- _^uty
. tm £ • touch briefty on our obligations to purfue them. mour in the calms of life. Himfclf. ^
pg Thofe of the body arc health,'flrengtb, agility, har- Neatnefs, cleanlinefs, and decency, to which we may io^
Goods of dinefs, and patience of change, neatnefs, and decency. add dignity of countenance, and demeanour, feem. to have Neatnefs,
the body. Good health, and a regular eafy flow of fpirits, are fomething refined and moral in them : at lealt we ge-^cceacj,
in themfelves fweet natural enjoyments, a great fund nerally efteem them indications of an orderly, gen-&c'
99 of pleafure, and indeed the proper feafoning which teel, and well-governed mind, confcious of an inward
Good gives a flavour and poignancy to every other pleafure. worth, or the refpe& due to one’s nature. Whereas
health; The want of health unfits us for moft duties of life, najlinefs, Jlovenlinefs, aulnvardnefs, and indecency, are
and is efpecially an enemy to the focial and human at- ftirewd fymptoms of fomething mean, carelefs, and
fe&ions, as it generally renders the unhappy fufferer deficient, and betray a mind untaught, illiberal, un-
peevilh and fullen, difgufted at the allotments of Pro- confcious of what is due to one’s felf or to others,
vidence, and confequently apt to entertain fufpicious How much cleanlinefs conduces to health, needs hard-
and gloomy fentiments of its Author. It obltruCis the ly to be mentioned ; and how neceffary it is to main-
free exercife and full improvement of our reafon, tain one’s character and rank in life, and to render us
makes us a burden to our friends, and ufelefs to fo-
ciety. Whereas the uninterrupted enjoyment of good
health is a conftant fource of good humour, and good
humour is a great friend to opennefs and benignity of
heart, enables us to encounter the various ills and dif-
appointments of life with more courage, or to fuftain
them with more patience ; and, in fhort, conduces
much, if we are otherwife duly qualified, to our afting
our part in every exigency of life with more firmnefs,
coniiftency, and dignity. Therefore it imports us
much to preferve and improve an habit or enjoyment,
■without which every other external entertainment is
100 taftelefs, and moil other advantages of little avail.—
■How pre- And this is beit done by a itri6t temperance in diet
fcrved. a»id regimen, by regular exercife, and by keeping
the mind ferene and unruffled by violent paffions, and
unfubdued by intenfe and conftant labours, which
greatly impair and gradually deftroy the ftrongeft con-
101 ftitutions.
Strength, Strength, agility, hardinefs, and patience of change,
agility, &c. fuppofe health,, and are unattainable without it; but
they imply fomething more, and are neceffary to guard
it, to give us the perfect ufe of life and limbs, and to
fecqre us againft many otherwife unavoidable ills.—
The exercife of the neceffary manual, and of moft of
the elegant arts of life, depends on ftrength 'and agi¬
lity of body ; peifbnal dangers, private and public
dangers, the demands of our friends, our families,
and country, require them; they are neceffary in war,
and ornamental in peace ; fit for the employment of a
country and a town life, and they exalt the enter-
tgi tainments and diverfions of both. They are chiefly
Hnw at- obtained by moderate and regular exercife.
tamed. pew are f0 much raifed above want and dependence,
103 or fb exempted from bufinefs and care, as not to be
Patience of often expofed to inequalities and changes of diet, ex¬
change; ercife, air, climate, and.-other irregularities. Now, what
can be fo effectual to fecure one againft the mifehiefs.
arifing from fitch unavoidable alterations, as hardinefs,
and a certain veifatility of conftitution which can bear
extraordinary labours, and fubmit to great changes,
104 without any fenfible uncafinefs or bad confequences.
How at- This is beft attained, not by an over-great delicacy.
U*ned. an<t minute attention to forms, or by an invariable re¬
gularity in diet, hours, and way of living, but rather
by a bold and difereet latitude ef regimen. Befides,
deviations from eitablifhed rules and forms of living,
if kept within the bounds 6f fobriety and reafon, are
friendly to thought and original fentiments, animate
agreeable to others as well as to ourfelves, is as evi¬
dent.—There are certain motions, airs, and geftures,
which become the human countenance and form, in
which we perceive a comelinefs, opennefs, fimphcity,
gracefulnefs; and there are others, which to our fenfe
of decorum appear uncomely, affeded, difmgenuous, and
aukward, quite unfuitable to the native dignity of our
face and form. The frjl are in themfelves the moft
eafy, natural, and commodious, give one boldnefs
and prefence of mind, a modeft affurance, an addrefs
both awful and alluring ; they befpeak candour and
greatnefs of mind, raife the moft agreeable prejudices
in one’s favour, render fociety engaging, command
refpebt, and often love, and give weight and autho¬
rity both in converfation and bufinefs; in fine, they
are the colouring of virtue, which ftiow it to the
greateft advantage in whomfoever it is; and not only
imitate, but in i'ome meafure fupply it where it is
wanting. Whereas the laft, viz. rudenefs, affedalion,
indecorum, and the like, have all the contrary effects;
they are burdenfome to one’s felf, a difhonour to our IC^
nature, and a nuifance in fociety. The former qua- How at-
lities or goods are beft attained by a liberal education, tamed,
by preferving a juft fenfe of the dignity of our nature,
by keeping the beft and politeft company, but, above
all, by acquiring thofe virtuous and ennobling habits
of mind which are decency in perfection, which will
give an air of unaffected grandeur, and Ipread a luftre
truly engaging over the whole form and deportment.. *07
We are next to confider thofe goods which confift
in exterior focial connections, as fame, fortune, Cial connec-
authority, power. tions.
The firft has a two-fold afpeCt, as a good pleafant
in itfelf, or gratifying to an original paffion, and then Io2
as expedient or ufeful towards a farther end. Honour Fame,
from the wife and good, on the account of a virtuous
conduCt, is regaling to a good man ; for then his heart
re-echoes to the grateful found. There are few quite
indifferent even to the commendation of the vulgar.
Though we cannot approve that conduCt which pro¬
ceeds entirely from this principle, and net from good
affeCtion or love of the conduct itfelf, yet, as it is often ,
a guard and additional motive to virtue in creatures...
imperfeCt as we are, and often diltraCted by interfer-.
ing palfions, it might be dangerous to fupprefs it alto- -
gether, however wife it may be to reftrain it within .
due bounds, and however laudable to ufe it only as a
fcaffolding to our virtue, which may be taken down
when, that glorious.ItruCture is finilhed, bat hardly till
thea..
lop
Fortune,
power, Sic.
Part II. M O R A L P H I
then. To purfue fame for itfelf, is innocent; to re¬
gard it only as an auxiliary to virtue, is noble ; to feek
it chiefly as an engine of public ufefulnefs, is ftill more
noble, and highly praife-worthy. For though the opi¬
nion and breath of men are trapfient and fading things,
often obtained without merit, and loll without caufe ;
yet as our bulinefsis with men, and as our capacity of
ierving them is generally increafed in proportion to
their efteem of us, therefore found and well-eftablilh-
ed moral applaufe may and will be modeftiy, not o-
flentatioufly, fought after by the^W; not indeed as
a folitary refined fort of luxury, but as a public and
proper inftrument to ferve and blefs mankind. At the
fame time they will learn to defpife that reputation
which is founded on rank, fortune, and any other cir-
cumftances or accomplilhments that are foreign to real
merit, or to ufeful fervices done to olhers, and think
that praife of little avail which is purchafed without
defert, and bellowed without judgment.
Fortune, power, and civil authority, or whatever is
called influence and weight among mankind, wz goods
of the fecond divifion, that is, valuable and purfuable ,
only as they are ufeful, or as means to a farther end,
•viz* procuring or preferving the immediate obje&s of
enjoyment or happinefs to ourfelves or others. There¬
fore to love fuch goods on their own account, and to
purfue them as ends, not the means of enjoyment,
mull be highly prepollerous and abfurd. There can
be no meafure, no limit, to fuch purfuit j all mull be
whim, caprice, extravagance. Accordingly fuch ap¬
petites, unlike all the natural ones, are increafed by
pofleffion, and whetted by enjoyment. They are al¬
ways precarious, and never without fears, becaufe the
objects lie without one’s fell’; they are feldom without
xio forrow and vexation, becaufe no accefiion of wealth or
How far power can fatisfy them. But if thofe goods are confi-
purfuable. dered only as the materials or means of private or pu¬
blic happinefs, then the fame obligations which bind
us to purfue the latter, bind us likewife to purfue the
former. We may, and no doubt we ought, to feek
fuch a meafure of wealth as is necelfary to fupply all
our real wants, to raife us above fervile dependence,
, and provide us with fuch conveniences as are fuited to
our rank and condition in life. To be regardlefs of
this meafure of wealth, is to eXpofe ourfelves to all
the temptations of poverty and corruption ; 10 forfeit
our natural independency and freedom ; to degrade,
and confequently to render the rank we hold, and the
character we fullain in fociety, ufelefs, if not con¬
temptible. When, thefe important ends are fecured,
we ought not to murmur or repine that we poflefs no
more; yet we are not fecluded by any obligation,
moral or divine, from feeking more, in order to give
us that happieft and moil god-like of all powers, the.
power of doing good. A lupine indolence in this re-
fpedl is both abfurd and criminal; abfurd, as it robs'
us of an inexhaulled fund of the moll- retined and
in durable enjoyments; and criminal, as it lenders us fo
Avarice, far ufelefs to the fociety to which we belong. “ That •
purfuit of wealth which goes beyond the former end,
viz. the obtaining the neceffaries, or fuch convenien-
cies of life, as, in the eftimation of reafon, pot of va¬
nity or paffion, are fuited to our rank and condition,.
. and yet is not directed to the latter, viz. the doing
good, what we call avariceJ* And “ that, purfuit
L O S O P H Y.
293
of power, which, after fecuring one’s felf, i.e. having Of Man’
attained the proper independence and liberty of a ra- to
tional foetal creature, is not diredled to the good of Hltnfelf* f
others, is what we call ambition, or the lujl of power F IJ2
To what extent the Itridl meafures of virtue will allow Ambition*
us to purfue either wealth or power, and civil authority,
is not perhaps poffible precifely to determine. That
mult be left to prudence, and the peculiar charafter,
condition, and other circumllances of each man. Only
thus far a limit may be fet, that the purfuit of either
mull encroach upon no other duty or obligation which
we owe to ourfeives, to fociety, or to its parent and
head. The fame reafoning is to be applied to power
as to wealth. It is only valuable as an inftrument ©f
our own fecuuty, and of the free enjoyment of thofe
original goods it may, and often does, adminifter to
us, and as an engine of more extenfive happinefs to
our friends, our country, and mankind. ^
Now the bell, and indeed the only way to obtain a How flm«
folid and lading fame, is an uniform inflexible courfeand power
of virtue, the employing one’s ability and wealth in ^ a“ain*'
fupplying the wants, and ufing one’s power in pro¬
moting ©r fecuring the happinefs, the rights and liber¬
ties of mankind, joined to an univerfal affability and
politenefs of manners. And furely one will not miftake
the matter much, who thinks the fame courfe condu¬
cive to the acquiring greater acceffions both of wealth
and power ; efpecially if he.adds to thofe qualifications
a vigorous induftry, a ©onftant attention to the cha¬
racters and wants of men, to the conjunctures of times,
and continually-varying genius of affairs ; and a fteady
intrepid honefty, that will neither yield to the allure¬
ments, nor be over-awed with the terrors, of that cor¬
rupt and corrupting feene in which we live. We have
fometimes heard indeed of other ways and means, as
fraud, difiimulation, fervility, andproftitution, and the
like ignoble arts, by which the men of the world (as
they are called, Ihrewd politicians, and men of addrefs!)
amafs wealth, and procure power; but as we want
rather to form a man of virtue, an honeft, contented,
happy man, we leave to the men of the world their
own ways, and permit them, unenvied and-unimitated
by us, to reap the fruit of their doings. 114
The next fpecies of cbjeds in the fcale of good, aref^oodsofthd <•
the goods of the intellect, as knowledge, memory, judge-
mein, tafe, fagacity, docility, and whatever elfe we call
intellectual virtues. Let u»-confider them a little, and
the means as well as obligations to improve them. xi5
As man is a rational creature, capable of knowing Their mu*
the differences of things and aCtions ;~as he not onlyIiunt'
fees and feels what is prefent, but remembers what is
paft, and often forefees what is future ; — as he advances
from fmall beginnings by flow degrees, and with much
labour and difficulty, to knowledge and experience ;—
as his opinions fway his paffions, —as his paffions in¬
fluence his conduft,—and as his conduft draws confe-
quences after it, which extend not only to the prefent
but to the future time, and therefore is the princi¬
pal fource of his. happinefs or mifery; it is evident, ,
that he is formed for intelleflual improvements, and
that it mull be of the utmoil confequence for him to -
improve and cultivate his intellectual powers, on
which thofe opinions, thofe.paffions, and that conduct*
depend*.
But befides the future casfequences and moment ©f§ 3,4
improving.
*94 MORAL PHI
6f Man’s improving our inttileflual powers, their immediate ex-
duty to grcife on their proper objedts yields the moft rational
. Himfelf-, ai)d refined pleafures. Knowledge, and a right tafte in
116 the arts of imitation and defign, as poetry, painting, fculp-
The plea- ture, mufic, architeaure, afford not only an innocent,
fares they j,ut a ino^ fenfible and fublime entertainment. By
g‘vc’ thefe the underftanding is inftruaed in ancient and
Knowledge rtiodern life, the hiftory of men and things, the ener-
and tafle; gies and effects of the paflions, the confequences of
virtue and vice ; by thefe the imagination is at once
entertained and nourifhed with the beauties of nature
and art, lighted up and fpread out with the novelty,
grandeur, and harmony of the univerfe ; and, in fine,
the paffions are agreeably roufed, and fuitably enga¬
ged, by the greateft and moft interefting objects that
can fill the human mind. He who has a tafte formed
to thefe ingenious delights, and plenty of materials to
gratify it, can never want the moft agreeable exercife
and entertainment, nor once have reafon to make that
fafhionable complaint of the tedioufnefs of time. Nor
can he want a proper fubjeft for the difcipline and im¬
provement of his heart. For, being daily convcrfant
with beauty, order, and dejign, in inferior fubjedts, he
bids fair for growing in due time an admirer of what
is fair and well-proportioned in the conduct of life and
the order of fociety, which is only order and defign
exerted in their higheft fubjett. He will learn to
transfer the numbers of poetry to the harmony of the
mind and of well-governed palfions; and, from ad¬
miring the virtues of others in moral paintings, come
to approve and imitate them himfelf. Therefore, to
•cultivate a true and correB tajle muft be both our inte-
reft and our duty, when the circumftances of our fta-
tion give leifure and opportunity for it, and when the
doing it is not inconfiftent with our higher obligations
ix8 or engagements to fociety and mankind.
How at- It is beft attained by reading the belt books, where
tained. fenfe has more the afcendant than learning, and
which pertain more to praBice than to /peculation; by
ftudying the beft models, i. e. thofe which profefs to
imitate nature moft, and approach the neareft to it,
and by convetfing with men of the moft refined tafte,
119 and the greateft experience in life.
Other As to the other intelle&ual goods, what a fund of
Intelledtual entert;a;nment muft it be to inveftigate the truth and
8°° 5 * various relations of things, to trace the operations of
nature to general laws, to explain by thefe its mani¬
fold phenomena, to underftand that order by which
the univerfe is upheld, and that oeconomy by which it
is governed ! to be acquainted with the human mind,
the connexions, fubordinations, andufes of its powers,
and to mark their energy in life ! how agreeable to
the ingenious inquirer, to obferve the manifold rela¬
tions and combinations of individual minds in fociety,
to difcern the caufes why they flourilh or decay, and
from thence to afcend, through the vaft fcale of be¬
ings, to that general mind which prefides over all,
-and operates unfeen in every fyftem and in every age,
through the whole compafs and progreffion of nature!
Devoted to fuch entertainments as thefe, the contem¬
plative have abandoned every other pleafure, retired
from the.body, fo to fpeak, and fequeitered themfelves
from focial intercourfe ; for thefe, the bujy have often
preferred to the hurry and din of life the calm retreats
;o£ contemplation j for thefc, when once they came to
L O S O P H Y. Parr It
tafte them, even the gay and voluptuous have thrown Of Man’s
up the lawlefs purfuits of fenfe and appetite, and ac- fluty t£l,
knowledged thefe mentual enjoyments to be the moft ir“ e ’.
re/ned, and indeed the only luxury. Befides, by a juft
and large knowledge of nature, we recognife the per-
feXions of its author; and thus piety, and all thofe
pious affeXiOns which depend on juft fentiments of
his charaXer, are awakened and confirmed; and a
thoufand fuperftitious fears, that arife from partial
views of his nature and works, will of courfe be ex¬
cluded. An extenfive profpeX of human life, and of
the periods and revolutions of^human things, will con¬
duce much to the giving a certain greatnefs of mind,
and a noble contempt to thofe little competitions about
power, honour, and wealth, which difturb and divide
the bulk of mankind ; and promote a calm endurance
of thofe inconveniences and ills that are the common
appendages of humanity. Add to all, that a juft know¬
ledge of human nature, and of thofe hinges upon which
the bufinefs and fortunes of men turn, will prevent our
thinking either too highly or too meanly of our fel¬
low-creatures, give no fmall fcope to the exercife of
friendftiip, confidence, and good-will, and at the fame
time brace the mind with a proper caution and diftruft
(thofe nerves of prudence), and give a greater maftery
in the conduX of private as well as public life. There¬
fore, by cultivating our intelleXual abilities, we fhall
beft promote and fecure our intereft, and be qualified
for aXing our part in fociety with more honour to
ourfelves, as well as advantage to mankind. Confe-
quently, to improve them to the utmoft of our power
is our duty ; they are talents committed to us by the
Almighty Head of fociety, and we are accountable to
him for the ufe of them. ns
The intelleXual virtues are beft improved by accu- How ae¬
rate and impartial obfervation, extenfive reading, andtained*
unconfined converfe with men of all charaXers, efpe-
cially with thofe who, to private ftudy, have joined
the wideft acquaintance with the world, and greateft
praXice in affairs ; but, above all, by being much in
the world, and having large dealings with mankind.
Such opportunities contribute much to diveft one of
prejudices and a fervile attachment to crude fyftems,
to open one’s views, and to give that experience on
which the moft ufeful becaufe the moft praXical
knowledge is built, and from which the fureft maxims
for the conduX of life are deduced. _ r2I
The higheft goods which enter into the compofition Meal
of human happinefs are moral goods of the mind, di-good*»
reXly and ultimately regarding ourfelves ; as command
of the appetites andpaffiom, prudence and caution, magna¬
nimity, fortitude, humility, love of virtue, love of God, re-
fignation, and the like. Thefe fublime goods are goods
by way of eminence, goods recommended and enforced
by the moft intimate and awful fenfe and confcioufnefs
of our nature ; goods that conftitute the quinteflence,
the very temper of happinefs, that form and com¬
plexion of foul which renders us anproveable and lovely
in the fight of God ; goods, in fine, which are the ele¬
ments of all our future perfeXion and felicity.
Moft of the other goods we have confidered depend Their m«-
partly on ourfelves, and partly on accidents which we menu
can neither forefee nor prevent, and refult from caufes
which we cannot influence or alter. They are fuch
goods as we may poflefs to-day and lofe to-morrow,
and
Part II. MORAL PHI
Of Man’s and which require a felicity of conftitution, and talents
duty to to atta;n them in full vigour and perfection, and a feli-
1 Him 6 ‘, city of conjunctures to fecure the pofieffion of them.
Therefore, did our happinefs depend altogether or
chiefly on fuch tranfitory and precarious pofieflions, it
were itfelf moil precarious, and the higheft folly to be
anxious about it.——But though creatures, conftitu-
ted as we are, cannot be indifferent about fuch goods,
and muft fuffer in fome degree, and confequently have
our happinefs incomplete without them, yet they weigh
but little in the fcale when compared with moral goods.
By the benevolent conifitution of our nature, thefe
are placed within the fphere of our aftivity, fo that no
man can be deftitute of them unlefs he is firft. want¬
ing to himfelf. Some of the wifeft and beft of man¬
kind have wanted moil of the former goods, and all
the external kind, and felt moft of the oppofite ills,
fuch at leaft as arife from without; yet by poffeffing
the latter, viz. the moral goods, have declared they
were happy ; and to the conviftion of the moft im¬
partial obfervers have appeared happy. The worft of
men have been furrounded with every outward good
and advantage of fortune, and have poflefled great
parts ; yet, for want of moral rectitude, have been,
and have confeffed themfelves, notorioufly and exqui-
fitely miferable. The exercife of virtue has fupported
its votaries, and made them exult in the midft of tor¬
tures almoft intolerable; nay, how often has fome
falfe form or fhadow of it fuftained even the great-
eft (d) villains and bigots under the fame preflures!
But no external goods, no goods of fortune, have been
able to alleviate the agonies or expel the fears of a
guilty mind, confcious of the deferved hatred and re¬
proach of mankind, and the juft difpleafure of Al-
l2 mighty God.
The mixed As the prefent condition of human life is wonder-
condition fully chequered with good and ill, and as no height of
of human fl^on no affluence of fortune, can abfolutely infure
SSr ^ good, or fecure againft the ill, it is evident that a
virtues. great part of the comfort and ferenity of life muft lie
in having our minds duly affefted with regard to both,
i. e. rightly attempered to the lofs of one and the fuf-
ferance of the other. For it is certain that outward
calamities derive their chief malignity and preffure
from the inward difpofitions with which we receive
them. By managing thefe right, we may greatly abate
that malignity and preifure, and confequently diminifti
the number, and weaken the moment, of the ills of
life, if we ihould not have it in our power to obtain a
large ihare of its goods. There are particularly three
virtues which go to the forming this right temper to¬
wards ill, and which are of Angular efficacy, if not to¬
tally to remove, yet wonderfully to alleviate, the cala¬
mities of life. Thefe are fortitude or patience^ humility
124 anil refignation.
Fortitude. Fortitude is that calm and fteady habit of mind
which either moderates our fears, and enables us
bravely to encounter the profpeft of ill, or renders the
mind ferene and invincible under its immediate pref¬
fure. It lies equally diftant from ralhnefs and cowar-
L 0 S O P H Y. 295
dice : and though it does not hinder us from feeling, Of Man’s
yet prevents our complaining or fflrinking under the ^t5rft®
ftroke. It always includes a generous contempt of, ™ e -.
or at leaft a noble fuperiority to, thofe precarious
goods of which we can infure neither the pofieffion
nor continuance. The man therefore who poffefles
this virtue in this ample fenfe of it, Hands upon an
eminence, and fees human things below him ; the
tempeft indeed may reach him, but he Hands fecure
and colledted againft it upon the bafts of confcious vir¬
tue, which the fevereft ftorms can feldom ffiake, and
never overthrow. ug
Humility is another virtue of high rank and dignity. Humility,
though often miftaken by proud mortals for meannefs
and pufillanimity. It is oppofed to pride, which com¬
monly includes in it a falfe or over-rated eftimation of
our own merit, an afeription of it to ourfelves as its
only and original caufe, an undue comparifon of our¬
felves with others, and in confequence of that fuppofed
fuperiority, an arrogant preference of ourfelves, and a
fupercilious contempt of them. Humility, on the other
hand, feems to denote that modeft and ingenuous
temper of mind, which arifes from a juft and equal
eftimate of our own advantages compared with thofe
of others, and from a fenfe of our deriving all origi¬
nally from the Author of our being. Its ordinary at¬
tendants are mildnefs, a gentle forbearance, and an eafy
unaffuming humanity with regard to the imperfe&ions
and faults of others ; virtues rare indeed, but of the
faireft complexion, the proper offspring of fo lovely a
parent, the bell ornaments of fuch imperfeft creatures
as we are, precious in the fight of God, and which
fweetly allure the hearts of men. I3(J
Refignation is that mild and heroic temper of mindRefigna*
which arifes from a fenfe of an infinitely wife and tion.
good providence, and enables one to acquiefce with a
cordial affedfion in its juft appointments. This virtue
has fomething very particular in its nature, and fublime
in its efficacy. For it teaches us to bear ill, not only
with patience, and as being unavoidable, but it trans¬
forms, as it were, ill into good, by leading us to con-
fider it, and every event that has the leaft appearance
of ill, as a divine difpenfation, a wife and benevolent
temperament of things, fubfervient to univerfal good,
and of courfe including that of every individual, efpe-
cially of fuch as calmly ftoop to it. In this light, the
adminiftration itfelf, nay every aft of it, becomes aa
objeft of affeftion, the evil difappears, or is converted
into a balm which both heals and nouriffieth the mind.
For though the firft unexpefted accefs of ill may
furprife the foul into grief, yet that grief, when the
mind calmly reviews its objeft, changes into content¬
ment, and is by degrees exalted into veneration and a-
divine compofure. Our private will is loft in that of
the Almighty, and our fecurity againft; every real ill
refts on the fame bottom as the throne of him who
lives and reigns for ever.
Before we finiffl this feftion, it may be fit to obferve, Chief gooci,
that as the Deity is the fupreme and inexhauftedo^'^w
fource of good, on whom the happinefs of the whole and/0,7,M^
creation
(d) As Ravilliac, who affaffinated Henry IV. of France ; and Balthafar Geraerd, who murdered Williana I.
prince of Orange.
296 MORAL PHI
Of Man’s creation depends ; as he is the higheft objeft in na-
ture, and the only objeit who is fully proportioned to
. the intelle&ual and moral powers of the mind, in whom
they ultimately reft, and find their tnoft perfeft exer-
cife and completion ; he is therefore termed the Chief
good of man, objectively confidered. And virtue, or
the proportioned and vigorous exercife of the feveral
powers and affe&ions on their refpeftive objects, as
above defcribed, is, in the fchools, termed the chief good,
formally confidered, or its formal idea, being the inward
temper and native conftitution of human happinefs.
From the detail we have gone through, the follow-
n8 *ng corollaries may be deduced.
■Corollarief. Firjty It is evident, that the happinefs of fuch zpro-
grejfve creature as man can never be at a ttand, or
continue a fixed invariable thing. His finite nature,
let it rife ever fo high, admits ftill higher degrees of
improvement and perfection. And his progrelfion in
improvement or virtue always makes way for a pro-
greffion in happinefs. So that no poffible point can
be afiigned in any period of his exiftence in which he
is perfectly happy, that is, fo happy as to exclude high¬
er degrees of happinefs. All his perfection is only
comparative. 2. It appears that many things muft
confpire to complete the happinefs of fo various a
creature as man, fubjeCt to fo many wants, and fuf-
ceptible of fuch different pleafures. 3. As his capaci¬
ties of pleafure cannot be all gratified at the fame
time, and muft often interfere with each other in fuch
a precarious and fleeting ftate as human life, or be
frequently difappointed, perfeCt happinefs, i. e. the
undifturbed enjoyment of the feveral pteafures of
which we are capable, is unattainable in our prefent
ftate. 4. That ftate is moft to be fought after, in
which the feweft competitions and difappointments
can happen, which leaft of all impairs a?ly fenfe of
pleafure, and opens an inexhaufted fource of the moft
refined and lading enjoyments. 5. That ftate which
is attended with all thofe advantages, is a ftate or
courfe of virtue. 6. Therefore, a ftate of virtue, in
which the moral goods of the mind are attained, is
the happiejlJiate.
Chap. III. Duties of Society.
Sect. I. filial and Fraternal Duty.
As we have followed the order of nature in tracing
the hiftory of man, and thofe duties which he Owes to
himfelf, it feems reafonable to take the fame method
with thofe he owes to fociety, which conftitute the
149 fecond clafs of his obligations.
Connexion His parents are among the earlieft objefts of his at-
of parents, tention ; he becomes fooneft acquainted with them,
repofes a peculiar confidence in them, and feems to
regard them with a fond affeftion, the early progno-
ftics of his future piety and gratitude. Thus does nature
dictate the firft lines of filial duty, even before a juft
fenfe of the conneftion is formed. But when the child
is grown up, and has attained to fuch a degree of un-
tlerftanding, as to comprehend the moral tie, and be
fenfible of the obligations he is undergo his parents ;
when he looks back on their tender and difinterefted
affection, their inceffant cares and labours in nurfing,
educating, and providing for him, during that ftate in
which he had neither prudence nor ftrength to care
N32i8.
L O S O P H Y. Parc IL
and provide for himfelf, he muft be confoiou* that he Duties of
owes to them thefe peculiar duties. Society.
u F® reverence and honour them, as the inftruments j'-
of nature in introducing him to life, and to that ftate Duties to
of comfort and happinefs which he enjoys; and there-parent*,
fore to efteem and imitate their good qualities, to al¬
leviate and bear with, and fpread, as much as poffible,
a decent veil over their faults aad weakneffes.
2. To be highly grateful to them, for thofe favours
which it can hardly ever be in his power fully to re¬
pay to (how this gratitude by a drift attention to
their wants, and a folicitous care to fupply them; by
a fubmiffive deference to their authority and advice,
efpecially by paying great regard to it in the choice
of a wife, and of an occupation ; by yielding to, ra¬
ther than peeviflily contending with, their humours,
as remembering how oft they have been perfecuted
by his ; and, in fine, by foothing their cares, light¬
ening their forrows, fupporting the infirmities of age,
and making the remainder of their life as comfortable
and joyful as poffible. 131
As his brethren and fifters are the next with whomDut'este
the creature forms z. facial and moral conneftion, to fiftM-a,
them he owes a fraternal regard; and with them
ought he to enter into a drift league of friendfhip,
mutual fympathy, advice, affiftance, and a generous
intercourfe of kind offices, remembering their relation
to common parents, and that brotherhood of nature
which unites them into a clofer community of intereft
and affeftion.
Sect. II. Concerning Marriage.
When man arrives to a certain age, he becomes Conne&ioa
fenfible of a peculiar fympathy and tendernefs towardsw th the
the other fex*; the charms of beauty engage his atten-other fex'
tion, and call forth new and fofter difpofitions than
he has yet felt. The many amiable qualities exhibi¬
ted by a fair outfide, or by the mild allurement of fe¬
male manners, or which the prejudiced fpeftator with¬
out much reafoning fuppofes thofe to include, with
feveral other circumftances both natural and acciden¬
tal, point his view and affeftion to a particular ob-
jeft, and of courfe contraft that general rambling re¬
gard, which was loft and ufelefs among the undiftin-
guifhed crowd, into a peculiar and permanent attach¬
ment to ®ne woman, which ordinarily terminates in
the moft important, venerable, and delightful connec¬
tion in life. ,33
The ftate of the brute creation is very different from The
that ef human creatures. The former are clothed grounds of
and generally armed by their ftrufture, eafily find'™5£jj-
what is neceffary to their fubfiftence, and foon attain
their vigour and maturity ; fo that they need the
care and aid of their parents but for a (hort while ;
and therefore we fee that nature has affigned to them
vagrant and tranfient amours. The conneftion being
purely natural, and merely for propagating and rear¬
ing their offspring, no fooner is that end anfwered,’
than the conneftion diffolves of courfe. But the hu¬
man race are of a more tender and defencelefs corifti-
tution ; their infancy and non-age continue longer;
they advance (lowly to ftrength of body and maturi¬
ty of reafon; they need conftant attention, and a long
feries of cares and labours, to train them up to de¬
cency, virtue, and the various arts of life. Nature has,
z there-
PartIT. MORAL PH
Dutie* of therefore, provided them with the moft affe£Honate
. ^ocif-tX« and anxious tutors, to aid their weaknefs, to fupply
. tjie;r want3) anc} to accomplifh them in thofe neceffa-
ry arts, even their own parents, on whom fhe has
devolved this mighty charge, rendered agreeable by
the moll alluring and powerful of all ties, parental af-
fe&ion. But unlefs both concur in this grateful talk,
and continue their joint labours, till they have reared
up and planted out their young colony, it muft become
a prey to every rude invader, and the purpofe of na¬
ture in the original union of the human pair be de*
feated. Therefore pur ftrufture as well as condition
is an evident indication, that the human fexes are de-
ftined for a more intimate, for a moral and lafting
union. It appears likewife, that the principal end of
marriage is not to propagate and nurfe up an offspring,
but to educate and form minds for the great duties
and extenfive deftinations of life. Society muft be
fupplied from this original nurfery with ufeful mem-
bers, and its faireft ornaments and fupports.
taorai ends The mind is apt to be difiipated in its views and
■©f mai- a&s of friendfhip and humanity ; unlefs the former be
mge* dire&ed to a particular objedt, and the latter employ*
ed in a particular province. When men once indulge
xh this diflipation, there is no Hopping their career;
they grow infenfible to moral attraiftions ; and, by ob-
ftru&ing or impairing the decent and regular exer-
cife of the tender and generous feelings of the human
heart, they in time become unqualified for, or averfe
to, the formin^a moral union of fouls, which is the
Cement of fociety, and the fou'rce of the pureft do-
meftic joys. Whereas a rational, undepraved love,
and its fair companion, marriage, celledla man’s views,
guide his heart to its proper objedt, and, by confining
his affedlion to that objedf, do really enlarge its in¬
fluence and ufe, Befides, it is but too evident from
the conduft of mankind, that the common ties of hu¬
manity are too feeble to engage and intereft the paf-
fions of the generality in the affairs of fociety. The
connedtions of neighbourhood, acquaintance, and gene¬
ral intercourfe, are too wide a field of action for many,
and thofe of a public or community are fo for more 5
and in which they either care not or know not how to
exert themfelves. Therefore nature, ever wife and
benevolent, by implanting that ftrong fympathy which
reigns between the individuals of each fex, and by
urging them to form a particular moral connedtion,
the fpring of many domeftic endearments has mea-
fured out to each pair a particular fphere of alt ion,
proportioned to their views, and adapted to their re-
fpedlive capacities. Befides, by interefting them deep¬
ly in the concerns of their own little circle, fhe haS
connedled them more clofely with fociety, which is
compofed of particular families, and bound them down
to their good behaviour in that particular community
to which they belong. This moral connexion is mar-
*35 riage, andthis fphere of affion is a family.
Duties of Of the conjugal alliance the following are the natu-
Saamage. ml lawFirft, mutual fidelity to the marriage-bed.
Difloyalty defeats the very end of marriage; diffolves
the natural cement of the relation ; weakens the mo¬
ral tie, the chief ftrength of which lies in the reci¬
procation of affection ; and, by making the offspring
uncertain, diminifhes the care and attachment necef-
fary to their education.
Vo.!. XII. Part L
I L o S o P H Y. 29;
2. A confpiration of counfels and endeavours to pro- Duties of
mote the common intereft of the family, and to edu- $ tciety- ^
cate their common offspring. In order to obferve >
thefe laws, it is neceffary to cultivate, both before
and during the married Hate, the ftrifteft decency
and chaftity of manners, and, a juft fenfe of what be¬
comes their terpeftive charafters.
3. The union muft be inviolable, and for life. The
nature of friendfhip, and particularly of this fpecies of
it, the education of their offspring, and the order of
fociety and of fuccefiions, which would otherwife be
extremely perplexed, do all feem to require it. To
preferve this union, and render the matrimonial ftate
more harmonious and comfortable, a mutual efteem
and tendernefs, a mutual deference and forbearance,
a communication of advice, and affiftance and autho¬
rity, are abfolutely neceffdry. If either party keep
within their proper departments, there need be no
difputes about power or fuperiority, and there will he
none. They have no oppofite, no feparate interefts, and
therefore there can be no juft ground for oppofition
of conduft. g
From this detail, and the prefent ftate of things, in Polygamy*
which there is pretty near a parity of numbers of both
fexes, it is evident that polygamy is an unnatural ftate ;
and though it fhould be granted to be more fruitful
of children, which however it is not found to be, yet
it is by no means fo fit for rearing minds, which feems
to be as much, if not more, the intention of nature
than the propagation of bodies.
Sect. III. Of Parental Duty.
The connexion of parents with their children is a Cormedion
natural confcquence of the matrimonial connedtion ; of parents
and the duties which they owe them refult as natural-and chil¬
ly from that connedtion. The feeble ftate of children,dren*
fubjedt to fo many wants and dangers, requires their
inceffant care and attention; their ignorant and uncul¬
tivated minds demand their continual inltrudion and
culture. Had human creatures come into the world
with the full ftrength of men, and the weaknefs of rea-
fon and vehemence of pafiions which prevail in chil¬
dren, they would have been too ftrong or too ftubborn
to have fubmitted to the government and inftrudtion
of their parents. But as they were defigned for a
progreffion in knowledge and virtue, it was proper
that the growth of their bodies fhould keep pace
with that of their minds, left the purpofes of that pro-
greffion fhould have been defeated. Among other
admirable purpofes which this gradual expanfion of
their outward as well as inward ftriifture ferves, this
is one, that it affords ample fcope to the exercife of
many tendfer and generous affedions, which .fill up
the domeftic life with a beautiful variety of duties
and enjoyments; and are of courfe a noble difeipline
for the heart, and an hardy kind of education for the
more honourable and important duties of public life. j-g
The above mentioned weak and ignorant ftate ofThe authtt=
children feems plainly to invell their parents with fuch^ty found-
authority and power as is neceffary to their fupport,ed onIhat
protedion, and education ; but that authority andC°nne m’
power can be conftrued to extend no farther than is
neceffary to anfwer thofe ends, and to laft no longer
than that weaknefs and. ignorance continue ; where¬
fore, the foundation or reafon of the authority and
P p power
298 M O R A L P H 1
Duties of power ceafmg, they ceafe of courfe. Whatever
, Socicty- power or authority then it may be neceffary or law*
£u] for parents t0 exercife during the non-age of their
children, to affume or ufurp the fame when they have
attained the maturity or full exercife of their ftrength
and reafon would be tyrannical and unjuft. From
hence it is evident, that parents have no right to pu¬
ndit the perfons .of their children more feverely than
the nature of their wardfliip requires, much lefs to invade
their lives, to encroach upon their liberty, or trans-
I39 fer them as their property to any mafter whatfoever.
Duties of The firft clafs of duties which parents owe their
parents. children refpedt their natural life ; and thefe compre¬
hend protection, nurture, provifion, introducing them
into the world in a manner fuitable to their rank and
,40 fortune, and the like.
Education. The fecond order of duties regards the intelleElual
and moral life of their children, or their education in
fuch art« and accomplilhments as are necefl'aryto qua¬
lify them for performing the duties they owe to them-
felves and to others. As this was found to be the prin ¬
cipal defign of the matrimonial alliance, fo the fulfil¬
ling that defign is the moft important and dignified of
all the parental duties. In order therefore to fit the
child Tor afting his part wifely and worthily as a
man, as a citizen, and a creature of God, both parents
ought to combine their joint wifdom, authority, and
power, and each apart to employ thofe talents which
are the peculiar excellency and ornament of their re-
fpeftive fex. The father ought to lay out and Super¬
intend their education, the mother to execute and ma¬
nage the detail of which fhe is capable. The former
Ihould direft the manly exertion of the intellectual and
moral powers of his child. His imagination, and the
manner of thofe exertions, are the peculiar province
of the latter. The former fhould advife, proteCt, com¬
mand, and, by his experience, mafculine vigour, and
that fuperior authority which is commonly afcribed
to his fex, brace and ftrengthen his pupil for aflive
life, for gravity, integrity, and firmnefs in fuffering.
The bufinefs of the latter is to bend and foften her
male pupil, by the charms of her converfation, and
the foftnefs and decency of her manners, for facial life,
for politenefs of tafte, and the elegant decorums and
enjoyments of humanity ; and to improve and refine
the tendernefs and modefty of her female pupil, and
form her to all thofe mild domeftic virtues which are
the peculiar charaCteriftics and ornaments of her fex.
To conduCt the opening minds of their fweet charge
through the feveral periods of their progrefs, to af-
fift them in each period, in throwing out the latent
feeds of reafon and ingenuity, and in gaining frefh
acceffions of light and virtue ; and at length, with
all thefe advantages, to produce the young adventu¬
rers upon the great theatre of human life, to play
their feveral parts in the fight of their friends, of fo-
cicty, and mankind!
: L O S O P H Y. Part II.
the former. This mutual necefSty is the founda- Duties of
tion of that connexion, whether we call it moral or Society-
civil, which fubfifts between mailers and fervants. ^ r
He who feeds another has a right to fome equivalent,
the labour of him whom he maintains, and the fruits t;on3 0f fcr«
of it. And he who labours for another has a right to vice,
expeft that he Ihould fupport him. But as the labours
of a man of ordinary ftrength are certainly of greater
value than mere food and cloathing ; becaufe they
would aCtually produce more, even the maintenance
of a family, were the labourer to employ them in hi*
own behalf; therefore he has an undoubted right to-
rate and difpofe of his fervice for certain wages above
mere maintenance ; and if he has incautioufly difpo-
fed of it for the latter only, yet the contraCt being of
the onerous kind, he may equitably claim a fupply of
that deficiency. If the fervice be fpecified, the fer*
vant is bound to that only; if not, then he is to be
conftrued as bound only to fuch fervices as are confift-
ent with the laws of juftice and humanity. By the
voluntary fervitude to which he fubjeCts himfelf, he
forfeits no rights but fuch as are neceffarily included in
that fervitude, and is obnoxious to no punifliment but
fuch as a voluntary failure in the fervice may be fup-
pofed reafonably to require. The offspring offuch fer¬
vants have a right to that liberty which neither they
nor their parents have forfeited. J43
As to thofe who, becaufe of fome heinous offence, The caft«f
or for fome notorious damage, for which they can-^®*1 6 en*
not otherwife compenfate, are condemned to perpe¬
tual fervice, they do not, on that account, forfeit
all the rights of men; but thofe, the lofs of which
is neceffary to fee ore fociety againft the like offences
for the future, or to repair the damage they have
done.
With regard to captives taken in war, it is barba- The of
rous and inhuman to make perpetual flaves of them, captives,
unlefs fome peculiar and aggravated circumftances of
guilt have attended their hoftility. The bulk of the
fubjefts of any government engaged in war may be
fairly efteemed innocent enemies; and therefore they
have a right to that clemency which is confiftent with
the common fafety of mankind, and the particular fe-
curity of that fociety againft which they are engaged.
Though ordinary captives have a grant of their lives,
yet to pay their liberty as an equivalent is much too
high a pi ice. There are other ways of acknowledg¬
ing or returning the favour, than by furrendering what
is far dearer than life itfelf *. To thofe who, under ^or^ni
pretext of the neceffities of commerce, drive the un- p^f ^.
natural trade of bargaining for human flefh, and con-, 3. *
figning their innocent but unfortunate fellow creatures
to eternal fervitude and mifery, we may addrefs the
words of a fine writer ; “ Let avarice defend it as it
will, there is an honeft reludtance in humanity againft
buying and felling, and regarding thofe of our own
fpecies as our wealth and pofTeffions.”
Sect. IV. Herileand Servile Duty.
141
The ground In the natural courfe of human affairs, it muft necef-
of this con- farJly happen that fome of mankind will live in plenty
neohon. ^ 0pUlence> anci others be reduced to a ftate of in¬
digence and poverty. The former need the labours
cf the latter and the latter provifion and fupport o£
Sect. V. Social Duties of the private Kind.
Hitherto we have confidered only the domefic
(economical duties, becaufe thefe are firft in the pro¬
grefs of nature. But as man paffes beyond the little
circle of a family, he forms connexions with relation*,
friends, neighbours, and others; from whence refults
4 a nevv
parc ir. M O R A L P H
Duties of a new train of duties of the more private focial kind,
Society. as « friendfhip, chaftity, courtefy, good-ndghbour-
U—v—~ j100^} charity, forgivenefs, hofpitality.”
Man’s* ti Man is admirably formed for particular focial at-
tudeVor^fo- tachmcnts and duties. There is a peculiar and ftrong
ticty. propenfity in his nature to be affected with the fenti-
ments and difpofitions of others. Men, like certain
muiical inftruments, are fet to each other, fo that the
vibrations or notes excited in one raife correfpondent
notes and vibrations in the others. The impulfes ofp!ea-
fure or pain, joy or for row, made on one mind, are by
an inftantaneous fympathy of nature communicated in
fome degree to all; efpecially when hearts are (as an
humane writer expreffes it) in unifon of kindnefs ;
the joy that-vibrates in one communicates to the other
alfo. We may add, that though joy thus imparted
fwells the harmony, yet grief vibrated to the heart of
a friend, and rebounding from thence in fympathetic
notes, melts as it were, and almoft dies away. All
the paffions, but efpecially thofe of the focial kind,
are contagious ; and when the pafiions of one man
mingle with thofe of another, they increafe and mul¬
tiply prodigioufly. There is a moft moving eloquence
in the human countenance, air, voice, and gefture,
wonderfully expreflive of the moft latent feelings and
paffions of the foul, which darts them like a fubtle
flame into the hearts of others, and raifes correfpon¬
dent feelings there : friendlhip, love, good-humour,
joy, fpread through every feature, and particularly
fhoot from the eyes their fofter and fiercer fires with
an irrefiftible energy. And in like manner the oppo-
fite paffions of hatred, enmity, ill-humour, melancho¬
ly, diffufe a fullen and faddening air over the face,
and, flaftiing from eye to eye, kindle a train of fimilar
paffions. By thefe, and other admirable pieces of
machinery, men are formed for fociety and the de¬
lightful interchange of friendly fentiments and duties,
to increafe the happinefs of others by participation, and
their own by rebound ; and to diminiih, by dividing,
the common flock of their mifery.
. The firft emanations of the focial principle beyond
fi^frorn" bounds of a family lead us to form a nearer con-
private re- junction of friendffiip or good-will with thofe who are
iation. any wife connefled with us by blood or domejlic al¬
liance. To them our affeftion does commonly exert
•itfelf in a greater or lefs degree, according to the
nearnefs or diftance of the relation. And this pro¬
portion is admirably fuited to the extent of our powers
and the indigence of our ftate ; for it is only within
thofe leffer circles of confanguirfity or alliance that
the generality of mankind are able to difplay their a-
bilities or benevolence, and confequently to uphold
their connedtion with fociety and fubferviency, to a
public intereft. Therefore it is our duty to regard
thefe clofer connexions as the next department to
that of a familyK in which nature has marked out for
us a fphere of adivity and ufefulnefs; and to cultivate
the kind affeXions which are the cement of thofe en¬
dearing alliances.
En mUents Frequently the view of diftinguifhing moral quali-
S af fnend- ries in fome of our acquaintance may give birth to
? ffeip. that more noble connexion we call friendship,
which is far fuperior to the alliances of confanguinity.
For thefe are of a fuperficial, and often of a tranfito-
ry nature, of which, as they hold more of injlincl
i x. o s o p H Y. 29<
than of reafon, we cannot give fuch a rational ac- Ttufie?. of
count. But friendfhip derives all its ftrength and Societ>'- ^
beauty, and the only exiftence which is durable, from
the qualities of the heart, or from virtuous and lovely
difpofitions. Or, fhould thefe be wanting, they or
fome ftiadow of them muft be fuppofed prefent.- ...
Therefore friendfhip may be deferibed to be, “ The
union of two fouls by means of virtue, the common
objeX and cement of their mutual affeXion.” With¬
out virtue, or the fuppolkion of it, friendlhip is only
a mercenary league, an alliance of intereft, which
muft diffolve of courfe when that intereft decays or
fublifts no longer. It is not fo much any particular
paffion, as a compofition of fome of the nobleft feel¬
ings and paffions of the mind. Good fsnfe, a jujl
tajle and love of virtue, a thorough candour and benig¬
nity of heart, or what we ufually call a good temper,
and a generous fympathy of fentiments and affeXions,
are the ncceffary ingredients of this virtuous connec¬
tion. When it is grafted on efteem ftrengthened by
habit, and mellowed by time, it yields infinite plea-
fure, ever new and ever growing'; is a noble fupport
amidft the various trials and viciffitudes of life, and aa
high feafoning to moft of our other enjoyments.—
To form and cultivate virtuous friendfhip, muft be
very improving to the temper, as its principal objett
is virtue, fet off with all the allurement of countenance,
air, and manners, {Inning forth in the native graces
of manly honeft fentiments and affeXions, and ren¬
dered vifible as it were to the friendly fpeXator in
a conduX unaff&tedly great and good ; and as its
principal exercifes are the very energies of virtue, or
its effeX and emanations. So that wherever this
amiable attachment prevails, it will exalt our admira¬
tion and attachment to virtue, and, unlefs impeded in
its courfe by unnatural prejudices, run out into a
friendffiip to the human race. For as no one can me¬
rit, and none ought to ufurp, the facred name of
friend, who hates mankind; fo whoever truly loves
them, poffeffes the moft effential quality of a true
friend. , i4g
" The duties of friendffiip are a mutual efteem of each1**dutl£!’
other, unbribed by intereft, and independent of it, a
generous confidence as far diftant from fufpicion as"
from referve, an inviolable harmony of fentiments and
difpofitions of defigns and interefts, a fidelity unffiaken
by the changes of fortune, a conrtancy unalteiable by
diftance of time or place, a refignation of one’s per-
fonal intereft to thofe of one’s friend, and a recipro¬
cal, unenvious, unreferved exchange of kind offices 
But, amidft all the exertions of this moral connexion,
humane and generous as it is, we muft remember that
it operates within a narrow fphere, and its immediate
operations refpeX only the individual; and therefore
its particular impulfes muft ftill be fubordinate to a
more public intereft, or be always direXed and con¬
trolled by the more exteniive connexions of our na¬
ture.
When our friendffiip terminates on any of the other Love4and
fex, in whom beauty or agreeablenefs of perfon and chaftity.
external gracefulnefs of manners confpire to exprefs
and heighten the moral charm of a tender honeft heart,
and fweet, ingenuous, modeft temper, lighted up by
good fenfe; it generally grows into a more foft and
endearing attachment. When this attachment is im-
P P 2 proved
3go M O R A. L PH
Puties of proved by a growing acquaintance with the worth of
Society. ;s conduced by difcretion, and iflues at
^ ’ length, as it ought to do, in the moral connedioa for-
iS ; scSi merly mentioned J, it becomes the fource of many
ii of this aniiable duties, of a communication of paffions and in¬
chapter. terefts, of the moft refined decencies, and of a thou-
fand namelefi deep-felt joys of reciprocal tendernefs
and love, flowing from every look, word, and adion.
Here friendfhip a&s with double energy, and the na¬
tural confpires with the moral charms to ftrengthen
and fecure the love of virtue. As the delicate nature
of female honour and decorum, and the inexpreflible
grace of a chafte and modeft behaviour, are the fureft
and indeed the only means of kindling at firft, and ever
after of keeping alive, this tender and elegant flame,
and of accompliihing the excellent ends defigned by
it; to attempt by fraud to violate one, or, under pre¬
tence of paffion, to fully and corrupt the other, and,
by fo doing, to expofe the too often credulous and un¬
guarded objedl, with a wanton cruelty, to the hatred
of her own fex and the fcorn of outs, and to the
loweft infamy of both, is a conduft not only bafe and
criminal, but inconfiftent with that truly rational and
refined enjoyment, the fpirit and quinteffence of which
is derived from the balhful and facred charms of virtue
kept untainted, and therefore ever alluring to the lo¬
ver’s heart.
Cou* tef' Courtefy, good-neighbourhood, affability, and the like
good-6 duties, which are founded on our private focial
neighbour- connexions, are no lefs neceflary and obligatory to
hood, tfc. creatures united in fociety, and fupporting and fup-
ported by each other in a chain of mutual want
and dependence. They do not confift in a fmooth
addrefs, an artificial or obfequious air, fawning adu¬
lations, or a polite fervility of manners; but in a juft
and modeft fenfe of our own dignity and that of
others, and of the reverence due to mankind, efpe-
cially to thofe who hold the higher links of the focial
chain ; in a difcreet and manly accommodation of our-
felves to the foibles and humours of others; in a ftrict
obfervance of the rules of decorum and civility ; but,
above all, in a frank obliging carriage, and generous
interchange.of good deeds rather than words. Such a
condutl is of great ufe and advantage, as it is an ex¬
cellent fecurity againft injuty, and the beft claim and
recommendation to the efteem, civility, and univerfal
refpeft of mankind. This inferior order of virtues
unite the particular members of fociety more clofely,
and forms the leffer pillars of the civil fabric ; which,
in many inftances, fupply the unavoidable defefts of
laws, and maintain the harmony and decorum of focial
intercourfe, where the more important and effential
lines of virtue are wanting.
r !^r Charity and foreg'rvenefs are truly amiable and ufe-
forgivcn’tf ^ duties of the focial kind. There is a twofold di-
e '' ftinftion of rights commonly taken notice of by moral
writers, viz. perfeEl and imperfeS. To fulfil the for¬
mer, is neceffary to the being and fupport of fociety ;
to fulfil the latter, is a duty equally facred and obliga¬
tory, and tends to the improvement and profperity of
fociety but as the violation of them is not equally pre¬
judicial to the public good, the fulfilling them is not
fubjeded to the cognizance of law, but left to the can¬
dour, humanity, and gratitude of individuals. A,nd by
I L O S O P H Y. Part II.
this means ample fcope is given to exercife all the ge- Duties of
nerofity, and difplay the genuine merit and luftre, of Society,
virtue. Thus the wants and misfortunes of others call
for our charitable afiiftance and feafonable fupplies.
And the good man, unconftrained by law, and uncon-
trouled by human authority, will cheerfully acknow¬
ledge and generoufly fatlsfy this mournful and moving
claim ; a claim fupported by the fandtion of heaven,
of whofe bounties he is honoured to be the grateful
truftee. If his own rights are invaded by the.
injuftice of others, he will not therefore rejeX their
imperfeS. right to pity and forgivenefs, unlefs his grant,
of thefe Ihould be inconfiftent with the more exten-
five rights of fociety, or the public good. In that cafe
he will have recourfe to public juftice and the laws,
and even then he will profecute the injury with no un-
necefiary feverity, but rather with mildnefs and hu¬
manity. When the injury is merely perfonal, and of
fuch a nature as to admit of alleviations, and the for¬
givenefs of which would be attended with no worfe
confequences, efpecially of a public kind, the good
man will generoufly forgive his offending brother.
And it is his duty to do fo, and not to take private re¬
venge, or retaliate evil for evil. For though reient-
ment of injury is a natural paffion, and implanted, as
was obferved * above, for wife and good ends; yet, *c’eeParti?-
confidering the manifold partialities which moft men and iv''
have for themfelves, was every one to aX as judge
in his own caufe, and to execute the fentence dicta¬
ted by his own refentment, it is but too evident that
mankind would pafs all bounds in their fury, and the
laft fufferer be provoked in his turn to make full re-
prifals. So that evil, thus encountering with evil,
would produce one continued feries of violence and
mifery, and render fociety intolerable, if not imprac¬
ticable. Therefore, where the fecurity of the indivi¬
dual, or the good of the public, does not require a
proportionable retaliation, it is agreeable to the general
Jaw of benevolence, and to the particular end of the
paffion (which is to prevent injury and the mifery oc«
cafioned by it), to forgive perfonal injuries, or not to
return evil for evil. This duty is one of the noble re¬
finements which Chrifiianity has made upon the gene¬
ral maxims and praXice of mankind, and enforced,
with a peculiar ftrength and beauty, by fauXions no
lefs alluring than awful. And indeed the praXice of
it is generally its own reward ; by expelling from the
mind the moil dreadful intruders upon its repofe, thofe.
rancorous paffions which are begot and nurled by re¬
fentment, and by difarming and even fubduing eve¬
ry enemy one has, except fuch as have nothing left of
men but the outward form.
The moft enlarged and humane conneXion of thfryj^*^
private kind feems to be the hofpitable ailiance, fromty.
which flow the amiable and dilinterefted duties we
owe to ftrangers. If the exercife of paffions of the
moft private and inftinXive kind is beheld with moral
approbation and delight, how lovely and venerable:
muft thofe appear which refult from a calm philan¬
thropy, are founded in the common rights and con¬
nexions of fociety, and embrace men, not of a parti¬
cular feX, party, or nation, but all in general without.
diftinXion, and without any of the little partialities of
felf-love.
Sect,
Part H. M O R A L P H
^Soc'etyf Sect. VI. Social duties of the Commercial kind.
I" v The next order of coryieftions are thofe which
arife from the wants and wraknefs of mankind, and
from the various circumftances in which their diffe-
Comiver- rent iituations place them. Thefe we may call com-
cial dines mercial ccnnedtions, and the duties which refult from
them commercial duties, as jujlice, fair-dealing, fmcerity,
154 ' fidelity to compatls, and the like.
Their fotin- . Though nature is perfect in all her works, yet fhe
Ration. jiag obferved a manifelt and eminent diftindtion among
them. To all fuch as lie beyond the reach of human
Ikill and power, and are properly of her own depart¬
ment, (he has given the finifhing hand. Thefe man
may defign-after and imitate, but he can never rival
them, nor add to their beauty or perfedtion. Such are
the forms and ftrudhire of- vegetables, animals, and
many of their produdtions, as the honey-comb, the
fpidet’s web, and the like. There are others of her
works which fhe has of defign left unfinifhed, as it
were, in brder to exercife the ingenuity and power
of man. She has prefented to him a rich profufion of
materials of every kind for his conveniency and ufe ;
but they are rude and unpolifhed, or not to be come
at without art and labour. Thefe therefore he mull,
apply, in order to adapt them to his ufe, and to enjoy
them in perfedtion. Thus nature has given him an
infinite variety of herbs, grain, foffils, minerals, wood,
water, earth, air, and a thoufand other crude mate¬
rials, to fupply his numerous wants. But he muftfow,
plant, dig, refine, polifh, build, and, in fhort, mahu-
fadture the various produce of nature, in order to
obtain even the neceffaries, and much more the
conveniencies and elegancies of life. Thefe then
are the price of his labour and induftry, and, without
that, nature will fell him nothing. But as the wants
of mankind are many, and the fingle ftrength of indi¬
viduals fmall, they could hardly find the necefl'aries,
and much lefs- the conveniencies of life, without unit¬
ing their ingenuity and flrength in acquiring thefe, and
without a mutual intercourle of good offices. Some
men are better formed for fome kinds of ingenuity
and labour, and others for other kinds ; and diffe¬
rent foils and climates are enriched with different pro-
duftions ; fo that men, by exchanging the produce of
their refpective labours, and fupply ing the wants of
one country with the fuperfluities of another, do in
effect diminilh the labours of each, and increafe the
abundance of all. This is the foundation of all com¬
merce, or exchange of commodities and goods, one
with another ; in order to facilitate which, men
have contrived different fpecies of coin, or money,
as a common ftandard by which, fa effiknate the
comparative values of their refpeftive goods. But
to render commerce fure and effectual, jujlice, fair-
deating, fineerity, and fidelity to compaiU, are abfolutely
neceffary.
155 'Jufiice or fair dealing, or, in other words, a dif-
Juflitc; pofition to treat others as we would be treated by
them, is a virtue of the firft importance, and infepa-
rable from the virtuous charaiier It is the cement of
fociety, or that pervading fpirit which conne&s its
members, infpires its various relations, and maintains
the order and fubordination of each part to the whole.
Without, it, fociety would become a den of thieves and
I L O S O P H Y. 2>oi
banditti, hating and hated, devouring and devoured, Duties ®f
by one another. , Soc‘ety-.
And here it may be proper to take a view of Mr v
Hume’s fuppofed cafe of the fenfiblc knave and the
worthlefs mifer (n- 16.), and conlider what would
be the duty of the former acc mding to the theory of!,
thofe moralirts who h Id the witlof God to be the
criterion or rule, and tverlafiing happinefs the motive, of
human virtue. .
It has been already obferved, and the truth of the UmverMy
obfervation cannot be controverted, that, by fecretly 1 duty on
purloining from the coffers of a mifer part of that F1^1*
gold which there lies ufelefs, a man might, in Parti-^0°hold &
cular circumftances, promote the good of fociety, ,:e *;!; of
without doing any injury to a fingle individual: and tiod ji<> he
it was hence inferred, that, in luch circumftances, it t!lrc!'fteno,*i
would be no duty to abftain from theft, were local uti-° viriHe* -
Uty arifing from particular confequettces the real crite¬
rion or flandard of juftice. Very different, however,,
is the conclufion which muft be drawn by thofe who
confider the natural tendency of actions, if univerfally
performed, as the criterion of their merit or demerit
in the fight of God. Such philofophers attend, not
to the particular confequences of a fingle adtion in
any given cafe, but to the general confequences of the
principle from which it flows, if that principle were
univerfally adopted. You cannot (fay they) permit
one adtion and forbid another, without fhowing a dif¬
ference between them. The fame fort of adtions,
therefore, muft be generally permitted or generally
forbidden. But were every man allowed to afeertain
for hjmfelf the circumftances in which the good of fo¬
ciety would be promoted, by fecretly abftradting the
fuperfluous wealth of a worthlefs mifer, it is plain that
no property could be fecure ; that all incitements to
induftry would be at once removed ; and that, what¬
ever might be the fm/nei/ifl/e confequences of my par¬
ticular theft, the general and necejjary confequences of
the principle by which it was authorized muft foon
prove fatal. Were one man to purloin part of the
riches of a real mifer, and to confider his condudt as
vindicated by his intention to employ thofe riches in
adts of generofity, another might by the fame fort of
cafuiftry think himfelf authorized to appropriate to
himfelf part of his wealth ; and thus theft would
fpread through all orders of men, till fociety were dif-
folved into feparate, hoftile, and favage families, mu¬
tually dreading and ftrunning each other. The general
confequences, therefore, of encroaching upon private -
property tend evidently and violently to univerfal mi¬
le ry.
On the other hand, indeed, the particular and im¬
mediate confequences of that principle which conii-
ders every manVproperty as facred, may in fome cafes,.
fuch as that fuppofed, be in a fmall degree injurious
to a few families, in the neighbourhood of the mifer
and the knave. But that injury can never be of long
duration ; and.it is infinitely more than counterbalan¬
ced by the general good confequences of the principle
from which it accidentally refults ; for thefe confe¬
quences extend to all nations- and to all ages, With¬
out a facred regard to property, there could neither be
arts nor induftry nor confidence among men, and
happinefs would be for ever banifhed from this world. -
But the communication of happinefs being the end.
which.:.
Sincerity.
158
Fidelity t(
jjromifes,
compadb,
fS’c.
MORAL PH
winch God had in view when he created the world,
^nd all men Handing in the fame relation to him, it is
impoffible to fuppofe that he does not approve, and will
not ultimately reward, thofe voluntary actions of
which the natural tendency is to increafe the fum of
human happinefs ; or that he does not difapprove, and
will not ultimately punifli, thofe which naturally tend
to aggravate human mifery. The conclufion is, that
a ftridt adherence to the principle of juftice is univer-
lally, and in all poflible circumftances, a duty from
which we cannot deviate without offending our Crea¬
tor, and ultimately bringing mifery upon ourfelves.
Sincerity., or veracity, in our words and attions,
is another virtue or duty of great importance to fo-
ciety, being one of the great bands of •mutual inter-
courfe, and the foundation of mutual truft. Without
it, fociety would be the dominion of miftruft, jealoufy,
and fraud, and converfation a traffic of lies and diffi-
•mulation. It includes in it a conformity of our words
with our fentiments, a correfpondence between our
a&ions and difpofitions, a ftritt regard to truth, and an
irreconcileable abhorrence of falsehood. It does not
indeed require, that we expofe our fentiments indif-
creetly, or tell all the truth in every cafe ; but cer¬
tainly it does not and cannot admit the leaft violation
of truth or contradiftion to our fentiments. For if
thefe bounds are once paffed, no poflible limit can be
afligned where the violation fhall flop, and no pretence
of private or public good can poffibly counterbalance
the ill confequences of fuch a violation.
Fidelity to promifes, csmpaEls, and engagements, is
' likewife a duty of fuch importance to the fecurity of
commerce and interchange of benevolence among
mankind, that fociety would foon grow intolerable
without the ftricb obfervance of it. Hobbes, and o-
thers who follow the fame track, have taken a wonder¬
ful deal of pains to puzzle this fubjedd, and to make all
the virtues of this fort merely artificial, and not at all
obligatory, antecedent to human conventions. No
doubt compa&s fuppofe people who make them ; and
promifes perfons to whom they are made ; and there¬
fore both fuppofe fome fociety, more or lefs, between
thofe who enter into thefe mutual engagements. But
is not a compaft or promife binding, till men have
agreed that they fhall be binding ? or are they only
binding, becaufe it is our intereft to be bound by them,
or to fulfil them ? Dojiot we highly approve the man
who fulfils them, even though they fhould prove to be
againft his intereft ? and do not we condemn him as
alcnave who violates them on that account? A promife
is a voluntary declaration by words, or by an aftion
equally fignificant, of our refolution to do fomething
in behalf of another, or for his fervice. When, it is
made, the perfon who makes it is by all fuppofed un¬
der an obligation to perform it. And he to whom it
is made may demand the performance as his right.
That perception of obligation is a fimple idea, and is
on the fame footing as our other moral perceptions,
which may be defcribed by inftances, but cannot be
defined. Whether we have a perception of fuch ob¬
ligation quite diftindl from the intereft;, either public
or private, that may accompany the fulfilment of it,
muft be referred to the confcience of every indivi¬
dual. And whether the mere fenfe of that obligation,
apart from its concomitants, is not a fuflicient induce-
aient or motive to keep one’s promife, without ha-
t L O S O P H Y. Part II.
ving recourfe to any felfifh principle of our nature, Duties of
muft be likewife appealed to the confcience of every Society,
honeft man. ——v——J
It may, however, be rvot improper to remark, that-
in this, as in all other inftances, our chief good j*^ed^tie»°
combined with our duty. “ Men aft from expefta-independc^
tion 1. Expeftation is in moft cafes determined by the of the au-
affurances and engagements which we receive fromt!lor‘ty °f
others. If no dependence could be placed upon thefe^f"10ral
affurances, it would be impofiible to know what judge¬
ment to form of many future events, or how to regu¬
late our conduft with: refpeft to them. Confidence,
therefore, in promifes, is effential to the intercourfe of
human life, becaufe without it the greateft part of our
conduft would proceed upon chance. But there could
be no confidence in promifes, if men were not obliged
to perform them.” Thofe, therefore, who allow not
to the perceptions of the moral fenfe all that autho¬
rity which we attribute to them, muft ftill admit the
obligation to perform promifes; becaufe fuch per¬
formance may be flrown to be agreeable to the will of
God, in the very fame manner in which upon their
principles we have ihown the uniform praftice of juftice
to be fo.
Fair-dealing and fidelity to Compafts require that we\v'hat<thof
take no adv.ntage of the ignorance, paflion, or inca-,jut;eS re”
pacity 01 others, from whatever caufe that incapacity quir*.
arifes ;—that we be explicit and candid in making
bargains^ juft and faithful in fulfilling our part of them.
And if the other party violates his engagements,redrefs
is to be fought from the laws, or from thofe who are in-
trufted with the execution of them. In fine, the eo/n-
mercial virtues and duties require that we not only do
not invade, but maintain the rights of others;—that
we be fair and impartial in transferring, bartering, or
exchanging property, whether in goods or fervice;
and be inviolably faithful to our word and our en¬
gagements, where the matter of them is not crimi¬
nal, and where they are not extorted^ by foice. See
Promise.
Sect. VII. Social Duties of the Political Kind.
W e are now arrived at the laft and higheft order of
duties refpefting fociety, which refult from the exercife
of the moft generous and heroic affeftions, and are
founded on our moft enlarged conneftions.
The facial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive 1<yf
nature, that it cannot be confined within the circuit
of a family, of friends, or a neighbourhood ; it fpreadstion5,
into wider fyftems, and draws |men into larger confe¬
deracies, communities, and commonwealths. It is in
thefe only that the higher powers of our nature attain
the higheft improvement and perfeftion of which they
are capable. Thefe principles hardly find objefts in
the folitary ftate of nature. Then the principle of
aftion rifes no higher at fartheft than natural affection
towards one’s offspring. There perfonal or family-
wants entirely engrofs the creature's attention and la¬
bour, and allow no leifure, or, if they did, no exer¬
cife for views and affeftions of a more enlarged kind.
In folitude all are employed in the fame way, in pro¬
viding for the animal life. And even after their ut-
moft labolir and care, Angle and unaided by the in-
duftry of others, they find but a forry fupply of their
wants, and a feeble precarious fecurity againft dan¬
gers from wild beafts; from inclement Ikies and fea-.
fonsj
Part IT.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
163
1.0VC of
one’s coun-
try.
may be well formed for -manual exercifes and bodily
labour. The former of thefe principles have no fcope
in folitude, where a man’s thoughts and concerns do
all either centre in himfelf or extend no farther than
a family; into which little circle all the duty and
T fons ; from the miflakes or petulant pafliorrs of their parents, friends, neighbours, fellow-citizens, countrv- duties of
fellow-creatures; from their preference of themfelves men. It ought to direft and limit their more confined Society*
to their neighbours; and from all the little exorbi- and partial actions within their proper and natn.al
tances of felf-love. But in foclety, the mutual aids bounds, and never let them incroach on thofe facred
which men give and receive fhorten the labours of and firft regards we owe to the great public to which
each, and the combined ftrength and reafon of indivi- we belong. Were we foiitary creatures, detached
duals give fecurity and protection to the whole body, from the reft of mankind, and without any capacity*
There is both a variety and fubordination of genius of comprehending a public interejl, or without affec-
among mankind. Some are formed to lead and direct tions leading us to defire and purfue it, it would not
others, to contrive plans of happinefs for individuals, be our duty to mind it, nor criminal to negledt it. But
and of government for communities, to take in a pu- as we are parts of the public fy/lcm, and are not only
blic intereft, invent laws and arts, and fuperintend capable of taking in large views of its interefts, but by
their execution, and, in fhort, to refine and civilize the ftrongeft affe&ions connedted with it, and prompt-
human life. Others, who have not fuch good heads, ed to take a fhare of its concerns, we are under the
may have as honeft hearts, a truly public fpirit, love moft facred ties to profecute its fecurity and welfare
of liberty, hatred of corruption and tyranny, a gene- with the utmoft ardour, efpecially in times of public
rous fubmiffion to laws, order, and public inftitutions, trial. This love of our country does not import an al¬
and an extenfive philanthropy. And others, who tachment to any particular foil, climate, or fpot of
have none of thofe capacities either of heart or head, earth, where perhaps we firft drew our breath, though
mav kp wf-ll fm-mpH fn,-pvprptTpc thofe zw/tf/vz/ideas are often affociated with the. moral
ones,_ and, like external figns or fymbols, help to af-
certain and bind them; but it imports an affe&ion to
that moral fyftemt or community, which is governed
. _ by the fame laws and magiftrates, and whofe feveral
tue of the foiitary mortal is crowded. But fociety parts are varioufly connected one with tin other and
finds proper objects and exercifes for every genius, all united upon the bottom of a common intereft. Per-
and the nobleft obje&s and exercifes for the nobleft haps indeed every member of the community cannot
geniufes, and for the higheft principles in the human comprehend fo large an object, efpecially if it extends
conftitution ; particularly for that warmeft and moft through large provinces, and over vaft tradts of land -
divine pafiion which God hath kindled in our bofoms, and ftill lefs can he form fuch an idea if there is no
the inclination of doing good, and reverencing our public, i. e. if all are fubject to the caprice and unli-
rature ; which may find here both employment and mited will of one man ; but the preference the gene-
the moft exquifite fatisfaftion. In fociety, a man has rality ftiow to their native country, the concern and
not only more leifure, but better opportunities, of ap- longing after it which they exprefs when they have
plying his talents with much greater perfection and been long abfent from it; the labours they undertake
fuccefs,? efpecially as he is furniflied with thejoint ad- and fufferings they endure to fave or ferve it and
vice and affiftance of his fellow creatures, who are the peculiar attachment they have to their country-
now more clofely united one. with the other, and fu- men, evidently demonftrate that the paflion is natu-
ftain a common relation to the fame moral fyftem or ral, and never fails to exert itfelf when it is fairly dif-
coromunity. This then is an objeft proportioned to engaged from foreign clogs, and is direfled to its pro-
his moft enlarged focial affedlions; and in ferving it per objeft. Wherever it prevails in itt\genuine vigour
he finds fcope for the exercife and refinement of his and extent, it fwallows up all fordid ancTfelfifh regards;
higheft intellectual and moral powers. Therefore fo- it conquers the love of eafe, power, pleafure, and
titty, or a fate of civil government, refts on thefe two wealth ; nay, when the amiable partialities of friend-
principal pillars, “ That in it we find fecurity Jhip, gratitude, private affection, ox regards to a family,
again ft thofe evils which are unavoidable in folitude come in competition with it, it will teach us bravely
—and obtain thofe goods, feme of which cannot be to facrifice all, in order to maintain the rights, and
obtained at all, and others not fo well, in that ftate promote or defend the honour and happinefs, of our.
where men depend folely on their individual fagacity country.
and induftry.” _ _ _ Refignation and obedience to the laws and orders of 164
From this fhort detail it appears, that man is a fo- the fociety to which we belong, are political duties Refi£nat'oft'
dal creature, and formed for a focial ftate ; and that neceffary to its very being and fecurity, without whichaad °bedi"
fociety, being adapted to the higher principles^ and it mult foon degenerate into a ftate of licentioufnefs andfaws
deftinations of his nature, muft of neceffity be his na- anarchy. The welfare, nay, the nature of civil fo- ’ **
tUr?l, fta!e-. , . ciety> squires, that there fhould be a fubordination of
The duties hated to that ftate, and refulting from orders, or diverfity of ranks and conditions in ft
thofe principles and deftinations, or, in other words, that certain men, or orders of men, be appointed5 to
from our focial paffions and focial conne&ions, or re- fuperintend and manage fuch affairs as concern the
lation to a public fyftem, are, love of our country, public fafety and happinefs;—that all have their par-
refignation,' and obedience to the laws, public fpirit, love ticular provinces afiigned them ;—that fuch a fubordi-
of liberty, facrifice of life and all to the public, and nation be fettled among them as none of them may
Me- _ interfere with another; and finally, that certain rules
Love of our country, is one of the noblell paffions or common meafures of adion Jbc agreed on, by which
that can warm and animate thg human breaft. It in- each is to difeharge his refpeftive duty to govern or
eludes all the limited and particular affeftions to our be governed, and all may coibur in fecuring the or*
dfi3
3°4
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Parc If,
Outles of £er> anJ promoting the felicity, of the whole political ment, which ought neither to be feduced by bribes, of
body- Thofe rules of aclion are the laws of the com- nor awed by tenors; an objedt, in fine, of all thofe Soci®^,
v '" irvv’ty ; and thofe different orders are the feveral of- extenfive and important duties which arife from foglo-
ficevs or magiftrates appointed by the public to explain rlous a confederacy. To watch over fuch a fyftem ;
them, and fuperintend or afiift in their execution. In to contribute all he can to promote its good by his
confequeace of this fettlement of things, it is the duty reafon, his ingenuity, his ftrength, and every other
of each individual to obey the laws enadted ; to fubmit ability, whether natural or acquired; to refill;, and,
to the executors of them with all due deference and to the utmoft of his power, defeat every incroachment
■homafe, according to their refpedtive ranks and dig- upon it, whether carried on by a fecret corruption or
nity, "as to the keepers of the public peace, and the open violence ; and to facrifice his eafe, his wealth,
guardians of public liberty ; to maintain his own rank, his power, nay life itfelf, and, what is dearer ffill, his
and perform the fundtions of his own ftation, with di- family and friends, to defend or fave it, is the duty,
lio-ence, fidelity, and incorruption. The fuperiority the honour, the intereft, and the happinefs of every
of the higher orders, or the authority with which the citizen ; it will make him venerable and beloved while
itate has invefted them, intitle them, efpecially if they he lives, be lamented and honoured if he falls in fo
employ their authority well, to the obedience and fub- glorious a caufe, and tranfmit his name with immortal
raiflion of the lower, and to a proportionable honour renown to the lateft poflerity. ,
and refpedt from all. The fubordination of the lower As the people are the fountain of power and au-Qf the peo*
ranks claims protedlion, defence, and fecurity from thority, the original feat of majefty, the authors of pie.
the higher. And the laws, being fuperior to all, re- laws, and the creators of officers to execute them ; if
quire the obedience and fubmiffion of all, being the they fhall find the power they have conferred abufed
la ft refort, beyond which there is no decifion or ap- by their truftees, their majefty violated by tyranny or
peal. by ufurpation, their authority proftituted to fupport
Public fplrit, heroic zeal, love of liberty, and the violence or fereen corruption, the laws grown perni-
f’ounda ion other polii'c.d duties, do, above all others, recommend clous through accidents unforefeen or unavoidable, or
of public^ tj10pc wj10 pra(£tife them to the admiration and ho- rendered ineffeftual through the infidelity and corrup-
'ofViberty! mage of mankind ; becaufe, as they are the offspring tion of the executors of them ; then it is their right,
EA. ’ of the nobleft minds, fo are they the parents of the and what is their right is their duty, to refume that
greateft bkffing to fociety. Yet, exalted as they are, delegated power, and call their truftees to an account;
it is only in equal and free governments where they to refill the ufurpation, and extirpate the tyranny ;
can be exercifed and have their due effeft. For there to reftore their fullied majefty and proftituted autho-
only does a true public fpirlt prevail, and there only rity ; to fufpend, alter, or abrogate thofe laws, and
is the public good made the ftandard of the civil con- punilh their unfaithful and corrupt officers. Nor is it
ftitution. As the end of fociety is the common inte- the duty only of the united body; but every member
rejl and welfare of the people affociated, this end mull of it ought, according to his refpe£live rank, power,
of neceffity be the fupreme law or common Jlandard, by and weight in the community, to concur in advancing
which the particular rules of aftion df the feveral and fupporting thefe glorious defigns.
members of the fociety towards each other are to be Refiftance, therefore, being undoubtedly lawful in
regulated. But a common intercjl cxn be no other than extraordinary emergencies, the queftion, among good
that which is the refult of the common reafon or com- reafoners, can only be with regard to the degree of
mon feelings of all. Private men, or a particular or- neceffity which can juftify refiftance, and render it ex-
der of men, have interefts and feelings peculiar to pedient or commendable. And here we muft acknow-
■themfelves, and of which they may be good judges ; ledge, that, with Mr Hume *, “ we lhall always in-
but thefe may be feparate from, and often contrary to, cline to their fide that draw the bond of allegiance
the interefts and feelings of the reft of the fociety; very clofe, and who confider an infringement of it as
and therefore they can have no right to make, and the laft refuge in defperate cafes, when the public is
much lefs to impofe, laws on their fellow-citizens, in- in the higheil danger from violence and tyranny. For
confiftent with, and of^ofite to, thofe interefts and befides the mifehiefs of a civil war, which commonly
attends infurreftion, it is certain, that where a difpo*
fition to rebellion appears among any people, it is one
'thofe feelings. Therefore, a fociety, a government,
real public, truly worthy the name, and not a confe- „ _ ^_
deracy of banditti, a clan of lawlefs favages, or a band chief caufe of tyranny in the rulers, and forces them
of flaves un der the whip of a mafter, muft be fuch a
one as confifts of freemen, chufing or confenting to
laws themfelve^ ; or, fince it often happens that they
cannot affemble and act in a colleblive body, delega¬
ting a fufficient number of reprefentatives, i. e. fuch
a number as {hall moil fully comprehend, and moil
equally reprefent, their common feelings and common in -
terejls, to digeft and vote laws for the conduct and
controul of the whole body, the moft agreeable to
thofe common feelings and common interefts.
A fociety thus conftituted by common reafon, and
formed on the plan of a common interejl, becomes im-
-every citi- mej;ately an obje6l of public attention, public venera¬
tion, public obedience, a public and inviolable attach-
N° 228. 3
*66
Political
duties of
into many violent mcafures, which, had every one been
inclined to fubmiffion and obedience, they would never
have embraced. Thus the tyrannicide, or affaffination
approved of by ancient maxims, inftead of keeping
tyrants and ufurpers in awe, made them ten times more
fierce and unrelenting ; and is now juftly aboliffied on
that account by the laws of mftions, and univerfally
condemned, as a bafe and tre^herous method of bring¬
ing to juftice thofe difturbere of fociety
Chap. IV. Duty to God.
*68
Of all the relations which the human mind fuftain*, Divine ^
that which fubfifts between the Creator and his crea-
iuret,
Fart IT.
MORAL PH
ifig
^xiftense
God. ’
Duty *o turn, Che fupreme Lawgiver and his fubjefts, is the
G'ud’ higheft and the beft. This relation arifes from the
nature of a creature in general, and the conJUtution of
the human mind in particular j the nobleft powers and
affections or which point to an univerfal mind, and
would be imperfect and abortive without fuch a di¬
rection. How lame then muff that fyitem of morals
be, which leaves a Deity out of the queltion ! How
difconfolate, and how deftitute of its firmeft fupport!
It does not appear, from any true hiftory ot expe¬
rience of the mind’s ptogrefs, that any man, by any
1 formal deduction of his difcurfive power, ever reafon-
1 ed himfelf into the belief of a God, Whether fuch a
■belief is only fome natural anticipation of foul, or is
•derived from father to fon, and from one man to ano¬
ther, in the way of tradition, or is fuggefted to us in
confequence of an immutable law of our nature, on be¬
holding the auguft afpeCt and beautiful order of the
univerfe, we will not pretend to determine. What
feems moft agreeable to experience is, that a fenfe of
its beauty and grandeur, and the admirable Jitnefs of one
•thing to another in its vaft apparatus, leads the mind
necejfarily and unavoidably to a perception of a dejign,
or of a dejigning Caufe, the origin of all, by a progrefs
as fimple and natural as that by which a beautiful pic¬
ture or a fine building fuggefts to us the idea of an ex*
cel lent artijl. For it feems to hold univerfally true, that
wherever we difcern a tendency or co-operation of things
towards a certain end, or producing a common effeCi,
there, by a neceffary law of affociation, we apprehend
defign, a defigning energy or catifi. No matter whether
the objeCts are natural or artificial, ftill that fuggeftion
is unavoidable, and the connexion between the 7ffe8 and
its adequate caufe obtrudes itfelf on the mind, and it re¬
quires no nice fearch or elaborate deduction of reafon
to trace or prove that connection. We are particu¬
larly fatisfied of its truth in the fubjeCt before us by a
kind of direCt intuition; and we do not feem to attend
to the maxim we learn in fchools, “ That there can¬
not be an infinite feries of caufes and ejj'ecls producing
and produced by one another.” That maxim is fami¬
liar only to metaphyficians; but all men of found un-
derftanding are led to believe the exiitence of a God.
We are confcious of our exijlence, of thought, fentiment,
and pajfion, and fenfible withal that thefe came not of
©urfelves; therefore we immediately recognife a parent-
mind, an original intelligence, from whom we borrowed
thofe little portions of thought and aClivity. And
while we not only feel kind affeCtions in ourfelves, and
difcover them in others, but like wife behold ronnd us
fuch a number and variety of creatures, endued with
natures nicely adjufted to their feveral ftations and
oeconomies, fupporting and fupported by each other,
and all fuftained by a common order of things, and Gla¬
ring different degrees of happinefs according to their
refpe dive capacities, we are naturally and neceffarily
led up to the Father of fuch a numerous offspring, the
fountain of fuch widespread happhiefs. As we con¬
ceive this Being before all, above ali, and greater than
all, we naturally, and without reafoning, afcribe to
him every kind of perfection, wifdom, power, and
Hi/reSati- S0O<^ne^s without bounds, exifting through all time,
on to the anc* pervading all fpace. We apply to him thofe glo-
human rious epithets of our Creator, Preferver, BenefaSor, the
mind. fupreme Lord and Lawgiver of the whole fociety of ra-
Vol. XII. Part 1.
I L O S O P H Y. 305
tional and intelligent creatures. Not only the imper- Duty to
feCtions and wants of our beihg and condition, but
fome of the nobleft inftinCts and affeCtions of our ~—v——*
minds, conneCt us with this great and univerfal nature.
The mind, in its progrefs from objeCt to objeCt, from
one charaCi«rand profpeCt of beauty to another, finds
fome blemifh or deficiency in each, and foon exhaufts
or grows weary and diffatisfied with its fubjeCt; it
fees no character of excellency among men equal to
that pitch of efteem which it is capable of exerting ;
no objeCt v/ithin the compafs of human things ade¬
quate to the ftrength of its affeCtion : nor can it ftay
any where in this felf-expanfive progrefs, or find repofe
after its higheft flights, till it arrives at a Being of
unbounded greatnefs and worth, on whom it may em¬
ploy its fublimeft powers without exhaufting the fub¬
jeCt, and give fcope to the utmoft force and fulnefs of
its love without fatrety or difguft. So that the nature
Of this Being correfponds to the nature of man ; nor
can his intelligent and moral powers obtain their entire
end, but on the fuppofition of fuch a Being, and with¬
out a real fympathy and communication with him.
The native propenfity of the mind to reverence what¬
ever is great and wonderful in nature, finds a proper
objeCt of homage in him who fpread out the heavens
and the earth, and who fuftains and governs the whole
of things. The admiration of beauty, the love of or¬
der, and the complacency we feel in goodnefs, muft rife
to the higheft pitch, and attain the full vigour and joy
of their operations, when they Unite in him who is the
fum and fource of all perfedioti.
It is evident from the flighteft furvey of morals,
that how punctual foever one maybe in performing of impiety,
the duties which refult from our relations to mankind,
yet to be quite deficient in performing thofe which
ariie from our relation to the Almighty, mult argue a
Itrange perverfion of reafon of depravity of heart. If
imperfect degrees of worth attraCt our veneration, and
if the want of it would imply an infenfibility, or,
which is worfe, an averfion to merit, what lamenefs
of affeCtion or immorality of character muft it be to
be unaffeCted with, and much more to be ill-affeCted
to, a Being of fuperlative worth ! To love fociety, or
particular members of it, and yet to have no fenfe of
our connection with its Head, no affeCtion to our com¬
mon Parent and BenefaCtor; to be concerned about
the approbation or cenfure of our fellow-creatures, and
yet to feel nothing of this kind towards him who fees
and weighs our aCtions with unerring wifdom and
juftice, and can fully reward or punilh them, betrays
equal madnefs and partialityeof mind. It is plain,
therefore, beyond all doubt, tnat fome regards are due
to the great Father of all, in whom every lovely and
adorable quality combines to infpire veneration and
homage.
As it has been obferved already, that our affieSionsi or:-
depend on our opinions of their obje&s, and generally0f
keep pace with them, it muft be of the higheft im-God.
portance, and feems to be among the firft duties we.
owe to the Author of our being, “ to form the leaft
imperfeCt, fince we cannot form perfeCi, conceptions
of his character and adminifiration.” For fuch concep¬
tions, thoroughly imbibed, will reader our religion ra¬
tional, and our difpqfitions refined. If our opinions are
diminutive and diftorted, our religion will be fuper-
Q__q ftitious.
3c6 M O R A L P H
Duty to ftitlous, and our temper abjeft. Thus, if we afcribe
. G^1' to the Deity that falfe majefty which confifts in the
unbenevolent and fallen exercife of mere luillor power,
or fuppofe him to delight in the proftrations of fervile
fear, or as fervile praife, he will be worfliipped with
mean adulation and a profufion of compli'ients. Far¬
ther, if he be looked upon as a liern and implacable
Being, delighting in vengeance, he will be adored with
pompous offerings, facrifices, or whatever elfe may be
thought proper to foothe and mollify him. But if
we believe perfect goodnefs to be the character of the
fupreme Being, and that he loves thofe moft who re-
femble him moft, the worfhip paid him wall be rational
and fublime, and his worftiippers will feek to pleafe
him by imitating that goodnefs which they adore.
Rational foundation then of all true religion is a rational
faith. faith. And of a rational faith thefe feem to be the
chief articles, to believe, “ that an infinite all perfeft
Mind exifts, who has no oppofite nor any feparate in-
tereft from that of his creatures;—that he fuperintends
and governs all creatures and things;—-that his good¬
nefs extends to all his creatures, in different degrees
indeed, according to their refpe&ive natures, but with¬
out any partiality or envy ;—that he does every thing
for the beft, or in a fubferviency t« the perfeftion and
happinefs of the whole ; particularly that he dire&s
and governs the affairs of men, infpedls their adlions,
diftinguilhes the good from the bad, loves and befriends
the former, is difpleafed with and pities the latter in
this world, and will according to their refpe&ive de-
ferts reward one and punifti the other in the next;—
that, in fine, he is always carrying on a fcheme of vir¬
tue and happinefs through an unlimited duration; and
is ever guiding the univerfe, through its fucceflive
ftages and periods, to higher degrees of perfedlion and
felicity.” This is true Theifm, the glorious fcheme
of divine faith ; a fcheme exhibited in all the works
of God, and executed through his whole adminiffra-
tion.
Morality T*1*3 f3^* well-founded and deeply felt, is nearly
tf theifm. connefted with a true moral tafle, and hath a powerful
efficacy on the temper and manners of the theift. He
who admires goodnefs in others, and delights in the
pra&icc of it, muff be confcious of a reigning order
within, a retftitude and candour of heart, which dif-
pofes him to entertain favourable apprehenfions of men,
and, from an impartial furvey of things, to prefume
that good order and good meaning prevail in the univerfe;
and if good meaning and good order, then an order¬
ing, an intending mind, who is no enemy, no tyrant to
his creatures, but & friend, a lenefaSor, an indulgent fo-
vereign. On the other hand, a bad man, having no-
thing goodly or generous to contemplate within, no right
•f atheifm. intentions, nor honefty of heart, fufpefls every perfon
and every thing ; and, beholding nature through the
gloom of a felfifh and guilty mind, is either averfe to
the belief of a reigning order, or, if he cannot fupprefs
the unconquerable anticipations of a governing mind,
he is prone to tarnifh the beauty of nature, and to im¬
pute malevolence, or blindnefs and impotence at leaft,
to the Sovereign Ruler. He turns the univerfe into
a forlorn and horrid wafte, and transfers his own cha-
rafter to the Deity, by aferibing to him that uncom¬
municative grandeur, that arbitrary or revengeful fpi-
rit, which he affefts or admires in. himfelf. As fuch
I L O S O P H Y. PartU.
a temper of mind naturally leads to atheifm, or to ifu- Duty to
perfition full as bad; therefore, as far as that temper Go(l-
depends on the unhappy creature on whom it prevails,
the propenfity to atheifm or fnperftition confequent
thereto muft be immoral Farther, if it be true that
the belief or fenfe of a Deity is natural to the mind,
and the evidence of his exiftence reflefled from his
works fo full as to ftrike even the moft fuperfictal ob-
ferver with con vision, then the fupplanting or cor-
rupting that fenfe, or the want of due attention to
that evidence, and, in confequence of both, a fupine
ignorance or affefted unbelief of a Deity, muft argue
a bad temper or an immoral turn of mind. In the cafe
of invincible ignorance, or a very bad education, tho*
nothing can be concluded directly againft the charac¬
ter ; yet whenever ill paffions and habits pervert the
judgment, and by perverting the judgment terminate
in atheilm, then the cafe becomes plainly criminal.
But let cafuifts determine this as they will, a true I^<5
faith in the divine character and adminiftration is ge*
nerally the confequence of a virtuous ftate of mind, theifm anot
The man who is truly and habitually good, feels the virtue.
love of order, of beauty, and goodnefs, in the ftrongeft
degree ; and therefore cannot be infenfible to thofe
emanations of them which appear in all the works of
God, nor help loving their fupreme fource and model.
He cannot but think, that he who has poured fuch
beauty and goodoefs over all his works, muft himfelf
delight in beauty and goodnefs, and what he delights
in muft be both amiable and happy. Some indeed
there are, and it is pity there ftiould be any fuch, who,
through the unhappy influence of a wrong education,
have entertained dark and unfriendly thoughts of a
Deity and his adminiftration, though otherwife of a
virtuous temper themfelves. However, it muft be ac¬
knowledged, that fuch fentiments have, for the moft
part, a bad effedd on the temper ; and when they have
not, it is becaufe the undepraved affedtions of an ho-
neft heart are more powerful in their operation than
the fpeculative opinions of an ill informed head.
But wdierever right conceptions of the Deity and his Duties ol
providence prevail, when h« is considered as the inex- gratitude,,
haufted fource of light, and love, and joy, as adling luvei
in the joint chara&er of a- Father and Governor, impart¬
ing an endlefs variety of capacities to his creatures,
and fupplying them with every thing neceffary to
their full completion and happinefs ; what veneration
and gratitude muft fuch conceptions, thoroughly be¬
lieved, excite in the mind ? How natural and delight¬
ful muft it be to one whofe heart is open to the per¬
ception of truth, and of every thing fair, great, and
wonderful in nature, to contemplate and adore him
who is the firft fair, the firft great, and firft wonderful;
in whom wifdom, power, and goodnefs, dwell vitally, ef-
fentially, originally, and aft in perfeft concert ? What
grandeur is here to fill the moft enlarged capacity,
what beauty to e ngage the moft ardent love, what a mafs
of wonders in fuch exuberance of perfeftion to aftonilh
and delight the human mind through an unfailing du-
ration! _
If the Deity is confidered as our fupreme Guardian ot}ier aflec*
and BenefaEtor, as the Father of Mercies, who loves tious,"
his creatures with infinite tendernefs, and in a particu¬
lar manner all good men, nay all who delight in good¬
nefs, even in its moft imperfeft degrees; what refig-
nation
Part II, MORAL PH
Duty to nation, what dependence, what generous confidence,
Gofci’ what hope in God and his all wife providence, mutt
^ ’ arife in the foul that is pofleifed of fuch amiable views
of him ? All thofe exercifes of piety, and above all a
fuperlative efteem and love, are directed to God as to
their natural, their ultimate, and indeed their only ade¬
quate object; and though the immenfe obligations we
have received from him may excite in us more lively
feelings of divine goodnefs than a general and abftradt-
«d contemplation of it, yet the affe&ions of gratitude
and love are of themfelves of the generous difintereited
kind, not the refult of felf-intereft, or views of reward.
A perfeft charafter, in which we always fuppofe infi¬
nite goodnefs, guided by unerring wifdom, and fup-
ported by almighty power, is the proper objedt of
perfect love; which, as fuch, we are forcibly drawn to
purfue and to afpire after. In the contemplation of
the divine nature and attributes, we find at laft what
the ancient philofophers fought in vain, the supreme
and sovereign gooo; from which all other goods
arife, and in which they are all contained. The Deity
therefore challenges our fupreme and fovereign love, a
fentiment which, whofoever indulges, muit be con¬
firmed in the love of virtue, in a defire to imitate its
all-perfedt pattern, and in a cheerful fecurity that all
his great concerns, thefe of his friends and of the uni-
Verfe, ihall be abfolutely fafe under the condudt of
unerring wifdom and unbounded goodnefs. It is in
his care and providence alone that the good man, who
is anxious for the happinefs of all, finds perfedt fere-
nity ; a ferenity neither ruffled by partial ill nor foured
by private difappointment.
179 When we confider the unftained purity and abfo-
fcepentance lute perfedtion of the divine nature, and refledt withal
^c* on the imperfection and various blemifflesof our own,
we mull fink, or be convinced we ought to fink, into
the deepeft humility and proftration of foul before
him who is fo wonderfully great and holy. When,
further, we call to mind what low and languid feelings
we have of the divine prefence and majefty, what in-
fenfibility of his fatherly and univerfal goodnefs, nay,
what ungrateful returns we have made to it, how far
we come fhort of the perfedtion of his law and the
dignity of our own nature, how much we have indul¬
ged to the felfiffl paffions, and how little to the bene¬
volent ones ; we muft be confcious that it is our duty
to repent of a temper and condudt fo unworthy our
nature and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and to refolve and endeavour to aCt a wifer and better
part for the future.
s8o Neverthelefs, from the charadler which his works
opes o exhibit of him, from thofe delays or alleviations of
? * punilhrnent which offenders often experience, and from
the merciful tenor of his adminiftration in many other
inftances, the fincere penitent may entertain good
hopes that his Parent and Judge will not be ftribt to
mark iniquity, but will be propitious and favourable to
him, if he honeftly endeavours to avoid his former
pradticcs, and fubdue his former habits, and to live in
a greater conformity to the divine will for the future.
If any doubts or fears fflould ilill remain, how far it
may be confiftent with the reClitude and equity of the
divine government to let his iniquities pafs unpuniffled,
yet he cannot think it unfuitable to his paternal cle¬
mency and wifdom to contrive a method of retrieving
I L O S O P H Y. 307
the penitent offender, that (hall unite and reconcile the Duty to
majefty and mercy of his government. If reafon can- G<lt1' .
not of itfelf fuggeft fuch a fcheme, it gives at leaft ' ''" ’ '
fome ground to expeft it. But though natural reli¬
gion cannot let in moral light and affurance on fo inte-
refting a fubjett, yet it will teach the humble theift t®
wait with great fubmiflion for any farther intimations
it may pleafe the fupreme Governor to give of his
will; to examine with candour and impartiality what¬
ever evidence Ihall be propofed to him of a divine re¬
velation, whether that evidence is natural or fuperna-
tural; to embrace it with veneration and checrfulnefs,
if the evidence is clear and convincing; and finally,
if it bring to light any new relations or connexions, na¬
tural religion will perfuade its fincere votary faithfully
to comply with the obligations, and perform the duties
which refult fiom thofe relations and connexions.
This is theifm piety, the completion of morality ! jgr
We muft farther obferve, that all thofe affeXions Wmthip,
which we fuppofed to regard the Deity as their imme- praife,
diate and primary objeX, are vital energies of the (lia! 1:f‘
foul, and confequently exert themfelves into aX, and,^lVU1^*
like all other energies, gain ftrength or greater aXi-
vity by that exertion. It is therefore our duty as well
as higheft inlerejl, often at ftated times, and by de¬
cent and folemn aXs, to contemplate and adore the
great Original of our exiftence, the Parent of all
beauty and of all good; to exprefs our veneration
and love by an awful and devout recognition of his
perfeXions; and to evidence our gratitude by cele¬
brating his goodnefs, and thankfully acknowledging all
his benefits. It is likewife our duty, by proper exer¬
cifes of forrow and humiliation, to confefs our ingra¬
titude and folly ; to fignify our dependence on God,
and our confidence in his goodnefs, by imploring his
bleffing and gracious concurrence'in aflifting the weak-
nefs and curing the corruptions of our nature; and
finally, to teftify our fenfe of his authority, and our
faith in his government, by devoting ourfelves to do
his will, and refigning ourfelves to his difpofal. Thefe
duties are not therefore obligatory, becaufe the Dei¬
ty needs or can be profited by them ; but as they
are apparently decent and moral, fuitable to the rela¬
tions he fuftains of our Creator, BenefaXor, Lawgiver,
and Judge; expreffive of our ftate and obligations;
and improving to our tempers, by making us more
rational, focial, god like, and confequently more
happy.
We have now confidered Internal piety, or the E *r j
worjhip of the mind, that which is in fpirit and in worfhip.
truth ; we fhall conclude the feXion with a fflort ac¬
count of that which is External. isxtoW worihip
is founded on the fame principles as internal, and of
as ftriX moral obligation. It is either private or pu¬
blic. Devotion that is inward, or purely intelleXual, is
too fpiritual and abftraXed an operation for the bulk
of mankind. The operations of their minds, fuch efpe-
cially as are employed on the moil fublime, immate¬
rial objeXs, muft be affifted by their outward organs,
or by fome help from the imagination ; otherwife they
will foon be difflpated by fenfibk impreffions, or grow
tirefome if too long continued. Ideas are fuch fleet¬
ing things, that they muft^ be fixed ; and fo fubtle,
that they muft be expreffed and delineated, as it were,
by fenfible marks and images ; otherwife we cannot
Qjl 2 attend
3ob*
>83
Public w
fjiip.
MORAL PH
> attend to them, nor be much affedled by them. There¬
fore •verbal adoration, prayer, praife, thanlfgiving, and
confejfion, are admirable aids to inward devotion, fix
our attention, compofe and enliven our thoughts, im-
prefs us more deeply with a fenfe of the awful pre¬
fence in which we are, and, by a natural and mecha¬
nical fort of influence, tend to heighten thofe devout
feelings and aft’eftions which we ought to entertain,
and after this manner reduce into formal and explicit
aa. -
This holds true in an higher degree in the cafe of
',x'public worfhip, where the prefence of our fellow-
creatures, and the powerful contagion of the facial af¬
fections, confpire to kindle and fpread the devout
I L O S O P H Y. Part Ilf.
flame with greater warmth and energy. To conclude : Duty c®
As God is the parent and head of the facial fyjlem, as Goc1,
he has formed us for a facial fate, as by one we find
the beft fecurity againft the ills of life, and in the other
enjoy its greatett comforts, tmd as, by means of bothx
our nature attains its highett improvement and perfec¬
tion ; and moreover, as there are public blejjings and
crimes in which we ail (hare in fome degree, and pu¬
blic wants and dangers to which all are expofed—it is
therefore evident, that the various and folemn offices
of public religion are duties of indifpenfable moral ob¬
ligation, among the bell cements of fociety, the
firmed prop of government, and the faired ornament
of both.
R T
III.
Chap. I. O/Practical Eth tcs, or Cul¬
ture of the Mind.
WE have now gone through a particular detail of
the feveral duties we owe to Ourselves, to
and'i'mpor- Society, and to God. In confidering the frf order
tance of the of duties, we jud touched on the methods of acquiring
fubje<5t. the different kinds of goods which we are led by na¬
ture to purfue ; only we left the confideration of the
method of acquiring the moral goods of the mind to a
chapter by itfelf, becaufe of its fingular importance.
This chapter then will contain a brief enumeration of
the arts of acquiring virtuous habits, and of eradica¬
ting vicious ones, as far as is confident with the bre¬
vity of fuch a work : a fubjeft pf the utmod difficulty
»s well as importance in morals ; to which, neverthe-
lefs, the lead attention has been generally given by
moral writers. This will properly follow a detail of
duty, as it will direct us to fuch means or helps as are
jgy mod.neceffary and conducive to the pra&iceof it.
Senfible In the fird part of this inquiry we traced the order
m w'1'c^ t^ie Pafii°ns fhoot up in the different periods
tafte. 6 human life. That order is not accidental, or de¬
pendent on the caprice of men, or the influence of
cuflom and education, but arifes from the original
conditution and laws of our nature ; of which this is
one, viz. “ That fenfible obje&s make the fird and
dronged impreffions on the mind.” Thefe, by means
of our outward organs, being conveyed to the mind,
become objefls of its attention, on which it rcfle&s
when the outward obje&s are no longer prefent, or,
in other words, when the impreffions upon the out¬
ward organs ceafe. Thefe objects of the mind’s re-
fiedtion are called ideas or notions. Towards thefe, by
another law of our nature, we are not altogether in¬
different ; but correfpondent movements of defire or
averfion, love or hatred, arife, according as the objedts
which they denote made an agreeable or difagreeable
impreffion pn our organs. Thofe ideas and affeSions
which we experience in the frf period of life, we re¬
fer to the body, or to fenfe; and the tafe which is
formed towards them, we call a fenfible, or a merely
natural tafe; and the objedts correfponding to them
we iu general call good or pleafant.
But as the mind movesTorward in its courfe, it ex¬
tends its views, and receives a new and mart complex
5
fet of ideAs, in which it obferves uniformity, variety, 1S6
fimilitude, fymmetry of parts, reference to an end, novelty °f
grandeur. Thefe compofe a vaft train and diverfityj^"^3^
of imagery, which the mind compounds, divides, and
moulds into a thoufand forms, in the abfence of thofe
objedts which firft introduced it. And this more
complicated imagery fuggelis a new train of defires and
ajfetlions, full asTprightly and engaging as any which
have yet appeared. This whole clafs of perceptions or
imprejfions is referred to the imagination, and forms an
higher tafte than the fenfible, and which has an im¬
mediate and mighty influence on the finer paffions of
our nature, and is commonly termed a fine tafe.
The objedts which correfpond to this talte we ufe
to call beautiful, great, harmonious, or wonderful, or in
general by the name of beauty. „
The mind, ftill pufhing onwards and increafing itSjyxora];dea#
flock of ideas, afeends from thofe to an higher fpeciesand a m®.
of objedts, viz. the order and mutual relations of minds ral tafte.
to each other, their reciprocal ajfetlions, charatlers, ac¬
tions, and various afpeSs. In thefe it difeovers a beauty,
a grandeur, a decorum, more interefling and alluring
than in any of the former kinds. Thefe objedts, or
the notions of them, palling in review before the mind,
do, by a neceffary law of our nature, call forth ano¬
ther and nobler fet of affedtions, as admiration, efieem,
love, honour, gratitude, benevolence, and others of the
like tribe. This clafs of perfedions, and their corre¬
fpondent affedions, we refer, becaufe of their objedts
(mannersJ, to a moral fenfe, and call the tqfie or tem¬
per they excite, moral. And the objedts which are
agreeable to this tafe or temper we denominate by the
general name of moral beauty, in order to diftinguilh
it from the other, which is termed natural.
Thefe different fets of ideas or notions are the ma- 188
terials about which the mind employs itfelf, which it
blends, ranges, and diverfifies ten thoufand different
ways. It feels a ftrong propenfion to connedt and af-
fociate thofe ideas among which it obferves any/mr-
Utude or any aptitude, whether original and natural, or
cufiomary and artificial, to fuggelt each other. See
Metaphysics. jg9
But whatever the reafons are, whether fimilitude, Laws ()f
co-exifence, caufality, or any other aptitude or relation, afLctation-
why any two or more ideas are connedted by the
mind at firft, it is an eftabliflied law of our nature,
« that when two or more ideas have often ftarted in
company,
Partin. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 309
Culture of company, they form fo ftrong an union, that it is images, as fine tajlt, generofity, fodal affedlnns, friendjlip\ Culture of
the Mind. very. difficult ever after to feparate them.” Thus the goodfcllowjhip, and the like ; and, by dreffing out the tht: min*\
' ^ /owr cannot feparate the idea of merit from \i\%mijlrefs; old purfuits with thefe new ornaments, gives them 1
the courtier that of dignity from his tit/e or ribbon ; the an additional dignity and luftre. By thefe ways the
mifer that of happimfs from his bags. It is thefe a fib- defire of a table, love of fnery, intrigue, and pleafure,
ciations of worth or happincfs with any of the different are vaflly increafed beyond their natural pitch, ha-
fets of objects or images before fpecified, that form our ving an impulfe combined of the force of the natu-
iafle or complex idea of good. By another law of our ral appetites, and of the fuperadded ffrength of tbofe
nature, “ our afftBions follow and are governed by this pajfions which tend to the moral fpecies. When the
tafle. And to thefe affetlions our character and conduit mind becomes more fenfible to thofe objedts or ap- In
are fimilar and proportioned; on the general tenor of pearances in which it perceives beauty, uniformity, gran- enin^ thV
which our happinefs principally depends.” deur, and harmony, as line cloaths, elegant furniture, pleafures
As all our leading paffions then depend on the di- plate, piftures, gardens, houfesrequipage, the beauty of beauty,..
I e d!n rection which our lajle takes, and as it is always of of animals, and particularly the attractions of the^rmonlr»
jf0p the fame ftrain with ouraffociations, it is worth fex ; to thefe objects the mind is led by nature or 6tc’
taught by cujlom, the opinion and example of others,
to annex certain ideas of moral character, dignity, de¬
corum, honour, liberality, tendernefs, and active or facial
enjoyment. The confeqence of this affociation is, that
the objefts to which thefe are annexed muft rife in
their value, and be purfued with proportionable ar¬
dour. The enjoyment of them is often attended with
tance and
life of the
inugina-
low fafte. while to inquire a little more particularly how thefe
are formed, in order to deteit the fecret fources from
whence our paffions derive their principal llrength,
their various rifes and falls. For this will give us the
true key to their management, and let us into the
right method of corredting the bad and improving
the good.
i9I No kind of objefts make fo powerful an impreffion pleafure ; and the mere poffejjion of them, where that
Theimpor-on us as thofe which are immediately impreffed on is wanting, frequently draws refpedl from one’s fel-
our fetifes, or ftrongly painted on our imaginations, low-creatures: This refpecl is, by many, thought
Whatever is purely intelleBual, as abftrafted or fcien- equivalent to the pleafure of enjoyment. Hence it hap-
tific truths, the fubtle relations and differences of pens that the idea of is connedfed with the
things, has a fainter fort of exiftence in the mind ; merewhich is therefore eagerly fought after,
and though it may exercife and whet the memory, the without any regard to the generous ufe ox honourable
judgment, or the reaforufig power,, gives hardly any enjoyment. Thus the paffion, refting on th» means, not
impulfe at all to the ailive powers, the paffions, which the end, i. e. loiing fight of its natural objedt, becomes
are the main fprings of motion. On the other hand, wild and extravagent.
were the mind entirely under the dire&ion of fenfe. In fine, any objett, or external denomination, a Jlaff, In railing-
and impreffible only by fuch objefts as are prefent, a garter, a cup, a crown, a title, may become a moral t!ie value
and ftrike fpme of the outward organs, we ffiould then badge or emblem of merit, magnificence, or honour, ac- ?^ cjuerllA
be precifely in the ftate of the brute creation, and be cording as thefe have been found or thought, by the ^ 0511
governed folely by infind or appetite, and have no poffeffors or admirers of them, to accompany them;
power to controul whatever impreffions are made yet, by the deception formerly mentioned, the merit
upon us: Nature has therefore endued us with a middle or the conduit which iutitled, or ffiould intitle, to thofe
faculty, wonderfully adapted to our mixed ftate, which marks of diftin&ion, {hall be forgot or negledled, and
holds partly offenfe and partly of reafon, being ftrong- the badges themfelves be paffionately affedled or pur-
ly allied to the former, and the common receptacle in fued, as including every excellency. If thefe are at-
which all the notices that come from that quarter are tamed by any means, all the concomitants which na-
treafured up; and yet greatly fubfervient and mini lie- ture, cujtom, or accidents have joined to them, will
rial to the latter, by giving a body, a coherence, and be fuppofed to follow of courfe. Thus, moral ends,
beauty to its conceptions. This middle faculty is cal- with which the unhappy admirer is apt to colour over
led the imagination, one of the moft bufy and fruitful his paffion and views, will, in his opinion, juftify the
powers of the mind. Into this common ftorehoufe are molt immoral means, as profitution, adulation, fraud, trea-
likewife carried all thofe moralforms which are derived chery, and every fpecies of knavery, whether more open s
from our moralfaculties of perception ; and there they or more difgiiifed.
often undergo new changes and appearances, by be- When men are once engaged in ailive life,and find.
ing mixed and wrought up with the ideas and forms that wealth and power, generally called interest,.are
of fenfible or na/artf/things. By this coalition of ima- the great avenues to every kind of enjoyment^ they value, of
gery, natoW is dignified and heightened by wo- are apt to throw in many engaging moral forms to wealth.
the objeft of their purfuit, in order to juftify their paf-P^wer,
lion, and varnilh over the meafures they take to gra¬
tify it, as independency on the vices ox pqj/ions of others,
ral qualities and perfeitions, and moral qualities are at
once exhibited and fet off by natural beauty. The/iw-
fble beauty, or good, is refined from its drofs by par¬
taking of the moral; and the moral receives a ftamp, provifwn and Jecurity to themfelves and friends, prudent
a vifible chara&er and currency, from the fenfble. aconomy, or well placed charity, facial communication, fu-
Its energy J^-3 we are of all aCcuftomed to fenfible impref- periority to their enemies, who are all villains, honour-
in various fions -.m&fenfible enjoyments, we contract early a jen- able fervice, and many other ingredients oi merit. .
inttancti, in fual relfih ox love of pleafure, in the lower fenfe of the To attain fuch capacities of ufefulnefs or enjoyment,
heighten- worc|. in order, however, to juftify this relifir, the what arts, nay what meanneffes, can be .thought .
Pvafurefc6 mind, as it becomes open to higher perceptions of blameahle by thofe cool purfuers of intereft ?—Nov
leuuty and good, borrows from thence a noble let of have they whom the gay world is pleafed to indulge
witk.-»
310 M O R A L P H I
Culture of with the title of men of pleafure, their imaginations
the Mind. jefs pregnant with moral images, with which they ne-
v ver fail to ennoble, or, if they cannot do that, to pal¬
liate their grofs purfuits. Thus admiration of wit,
of fentiments and merit, friendjhip, love, generous fym-
pathy, mutual confidence, giving and receiving pleafure,
are the ordinary ingredients with which they feafon
their gallantry and pleafurable entertainments; and
by which they impofe on themfelves, and endeavour
to impofe on others, that their amours are the joint ilfue
of good fenfe and virtue.
796 Thefe ajfociations, varioufly combined and propor-
ejice'on'all ^'onec^ W the imagination, form the chief private paf-
thejiaffions fions, which govern the lives of the generality, as the
love of aSion, of pleafure, power, wealth, and fame ;
they influence the defenfive, and affeft the public paf-
fions, and raife joy or forrow as they are gratified or
difappointed. So that in effedl thefe aflbciations of
good and evil, beauty and deformity, and the pafiions
they raife, are the main hinges of life and manners,
and the great fources of our happinefs or mfery. It
is evident, therefore, that the whole of moral culture
mult depend on giving a right direction to the leading
pajfions, and duly proportioning them to the value of
the objeQs or goods purfued, under what name foever
197 they may appear.
Moral cul- Now, in order to give them this right direBion and
eorredhn? ^ ProPort,on’ ^ appears, from the foregoing detail,
our tafte or t^lat thofe afibciations of ideas, upon which the paffions
iniagina- depend, mult be duly regulated; that is to fay, as an
txon. exorbitant pafiion for wealth, pleafure, or power, flows
from an ajfociation or opinion that more beauty and
good, whether natural or moral, enters into the enjoy¬
ment or poffeffion of them, than really belongs to ei¬
ther ; therefore, in reltoring thofe pafiions to their
juft proportion, we muft begin with correcting the
opinion, or breaking the falfe ajfociation, or, in other
words, we muft decompound the complex phantom of
happinefs or good, which we fondly admire ; difunite
thofe ideaf that have no natural alliance ; and fepa-
rate the original idea of wealth, power, or pleafure, from
the foreign mixtures incorporated with it, which en¬
hance its value, or give it its chief power to enchant
and feduce the mind. For inftance, let it be con-
fidered how poor and inconfiderable a thing wealth is,
if it be disjoined from real uj'e, or from ideas of ca<-
pacity in the pofl’efibr to do good, from independency, ge~
nerojity, provifion for a family or friends, and foetal com¬
munication with others. By this fiandard let its true
value be fixed; let its mifapplication, or unbenevo-
lent enjoyment, be account .‘d fordid and infamous ;
and nothing worthy or eftimable be aferibed to the
mere pojfejfion of it, which is not borrowed from its ge-
198 Tlerous ufe' . \
By felf de- ^ that complex form of good which is called pleafure
rial, and a engage us, let it be analyfed into its conftituent prin-
counter. ciples, or thofe allurements it draws from the heart
procefs. and imagination, in order to heighten the low part of
the indulgence; let the fiparate and comparative mo¬
ment of each be diftindtly afeertained and deduced
from that grofs part, and this remainder of the accu¬
mulated enjoyment will dwindle down into a poor,
inlipid, tranfitory thing. In proportion as the opinion
of the good purfued abates, the admiration muft decay,
and the pajions lofe ftrength of courfe. One effectual
L O S O P H Y. Part III.
way to lower the opinion, and confequently to weaken Culture of
the habit founded upon it, is to praftife leffer pieces of the Min(^
felf-denial, or to abftain, to a certain pitch, from the '
purfuit or enjoyment of the favourite objeCt; and, that
this may be the more eafily accompliihed, one muft
avoid thofe occafions, that company, thofe places, and
the other circumftances, that enflamed one and endear¬
ed the other. And, as a counter-procefs, let higher or
even different enjoyments be brought in view, other
pafiions played upon the former, different places fre¬
quented, other exercifes tried, company kept with per-
fons of a different or more correct way of thinking,
both in natural and moral fubje&s.
As much depends on our fetting out well in life, letgy ,
the youthful fancy, which is apt to be very florid and and natural
luxuriant, be early accuftomed by injlrudion, example, education,
and lignificant moral exercifes, nay, by looks, geftures,
and every other teftimony of juft; approbation or blame,
to annex ideas of merit, honour, and happinefs, not to
birth, drefs, rank beauty, fortune, power, popularity, and
the like outward things, but to moral and truly vir¬
tuous qualities, and to thofe enjoyments which fpring
from a well-informed judgment and a regular condusft
of the affeCtions, efpecially thofe of the foc'utl and d'f-
interefied kind. Such dignified forms of beauty and
good, often fuggefted, and, by moving pictures and
examples, warmly, recommended to the imagination,
enforced by the authority of confeience, and demon-
ftrated by reafon to be the fureft means of enjoyment,
and the only independent, undeprivable, and durable
goods, will be the belt counterbalance to meaner paf¬
fions, and the firmeft foundation andfecurity to virtue. 10Q
It is of great importance to the forming a jufi tafie. By rightly
or pure and large conceptions of happinefs, to ftudyftadyiug
and underltand human nature well, to remember what^®an ua*
a complicated fyitem it is, particularly to have deeply
imprinted on our mind that gradation of fenjes, fa¬
culties, and powers of enjoyment formerly mentioned,
and the fubordinaiion of goods refulting from thence,
which nature points out, and the experience of man¬
kind confirms. Who, when they think ferioufly, and
are not under the immediate influence of fome vio¬
lent prejudice or paffion, prefer not the pleafures of
adion, contemplation, fociety, and moft exercifes and
joys of the moral kind, as friendjhip, natural ajfedion,
and the like, to all fenfual gratifications whatfoever ?
Where the different fpecies of pleafure are blended
into one complex form, let them be accurately diftin-
gui/hed, and be referred each to its proper faculty and
fenfe, and examined apart what they have peculiar,
what common with others, and what foreign and ad- 101
ventitious. Let wealth, grandeur, luxury, love, fame. By compa*
and the like, be tried by this tell, and their true
will be found out. Let it be farther confidered, whe-^abate.
ther the mind may not be eafy and enjoy itfelf great- meats of
ly, though it want many of thofe elegancies and fu-different
perfluities of life which fome poffefs, or that load oft500(*s*
wealth and power which others eagerly purfue, and
under which they groan. Let the difficulty of at¬
taining, the precarioufnefs of poffeffing, and the many
abatements in enjoying overgrown wealth and en¬
vied greatnefs, of which the weary poffeffors fo fre¬
quently complain, as the hurry of bufinefs, the burden
of company, of paying attendance to the few, and
giving it to the many, the cares of keeping, the fears
Part HI.
Culture of of lofing, and the defires of increafmg what they have,
the Miiid. and the other troubles which accompany this pitiful
^ “ drudgery and pompous fervitude; let thefe and the
like circumftances be often confideredv that are con¬
ducive to the removing or leffening the opinion of fuch
goods, and the attendant pajfwn or fet of paflions will
to* decay of courfe
By obferv- Let the peculiar bent of our nature and charafter
ingourownbe obferved, whether we are molt inclined to form
a radar afi'oc‘at'ons and relifh objefts of the fenfible, mtelleBual,
c^ara or, mora[ kind. Let that which has the afcendant be
particularly watched ; let it be direded to right ob-
je&s, be improved by proportioned exercifes, and
guarded by proper checks from an oppofite quarter.
Thus the fenfible turn may be exalted by the intellectual
and a tafte for the beauty of the fine artsy and both
may be made fubfervient to convey and rivet fenti-
ments highly moral and public-fpirited. This inward
furvey muft extend to the Jlrengtb and iveahiejfes of
one’s nature^ one’s conditions, connections, habitudes, for¬
tune, Jludies, acquaintance, and the other circumftances
of one’s life, from which every man will form the
jufteft eflimate of his own difpofitions and charader,
and the beft rules for corredting and improving them.
And in order to do this with more advantage, let
thofe times or critical feafons be watched when the mind
is beft difpofed towards a change ; and let them be
improved by rigorous refolutions, promifes, or whatever
elfe will engage the mind to perfevere in virtue. Let
the conduct, in fine, be often reviewed, and the caufes
503 of its corruption or improvement be carefully obferved.
By frequent It will greatly conduce to refine the moral tajle,
moral exer-and (Lengthen the virtuous temper, to aeCuftom the
i cifes. mind to the frequent exercife of moral fentiments and
determinations, by reading hijlory, poetry, particularly
of the piClurefque and dramatic kind, the ftudy of the
fine arts; by converfing with the molt eminent for
good fenfe and virtue ; but, above all, by frequent and
repeated acts of humanity, compajfwn, friendjlsip, polite-
nefs, and hofpitality. It is exercife that gives health
and (Length. He that reafons moft frequently be¬
comes the wifeft, and moft enjoys the pleafures of
wifdom. He who is moft often affe&ed by objects
of compaffion in poetry, hiftory, or real life, will have
his foul moft ppen to pity, and its delightful pains and
duties. So he alfo who praftifes moft diligently the
offices of kindnefs and charity, will by it cultivate
that difpofition from whence all his pretenfions to per-
fonal merit muft arife, his prefent and his future hap-
pinefs.
By an ho- ufeful and honourable employment _ in life will
V inert eav adminifter a thoufand opportunities of this kind, and
I payment, greatly (Lengthen a fenfe of virtue and good affec¬
tions, which muft be nourifhed by right training, as
well as our underftandings. For fuch an employment,
by enlarging one’s experience, giving an habit of at¬
tention and caution, or obliging one, from neceffity
or intereft, to keep a guard over the paffions, and ftu¬
dy the outward decencies and appearances of virtue,
will by degrees produce good habit, and at length in-
finuate the love of virtue and honefty for. its own fake,
sos It is a great inducement to the exercife of benevo-
®y viewing ]ence t0 v;ew human nature in a favourable light, to
1 pinners in °hfervc the characters and circumftances of mankind
* fair light, on the fairejl fides, to put the bed. conftru&ions on
3”
their aCtions they will bear, and to confider them as Culture of
the refult of partial and mijlaken, rather than ill affec- tilc
tions, or, at word, as the exceffes of a pardonable
felf-love, feldom or never the effedt of pure malice. ao6
Above all, the nature and confequences of virtue and By confide-
vice, their confequences being the law of our nature rat’ c an<t
and will of heaven ; the light in which they appear toft1^5 exer'’
our fupreme Parent and Lawgiver, and the reception
they w'll meet with from him, muft be often attend¬
ed to. The exercifes of piety, as adoration, and praife
of the divine excellency, invocation of and dependence
on his aid, confejfion, thankfgiving, and rejignation,
are habitually to be indulged, and frequently perform¬
ed, not only as medicinal, but highly improving to the
temper.
To conclude : it will be of admirable efficacy to- Bv
wards eradicating bad habits, and implanting good 0f
ones, frequently to contemplate human life as the human life,,
great nurfery of our future and immortal exiflence, asus conr-
that Jlate of probation in which we are to be educated
for a divine life ; to remember, that our virtues orture.
vices will be immortal as ourfelves, and influence our
future as well as our prefent happinefs,—and therefore,
that every difpofition and aftion is to be regarded as
pointing beyond the prefent to an immortal duration.—■
An habitual attention to this wide and important
connection will give a vaft compafs and dignity to our
fentiments and a&ions, a noble fuperiority to the
pleafures and pains of life, and a generous ambition to
make our virtue as immortal as. our being..
Chap. II. Motives to Virtue from Perfonal
Happiness.
W e have already confidefed our obligations to the..
practice of virtue, arifing from the cosflitution of
nature, by which we are led to approve a certain or- fonal hap-
der and (economy of affections, and a certain pinefs.
action correfpondent to it f. But, befides this, there |
are feveral motives which (Lengthen and fecure virtue, Part I.
though not themfelves of a worn/kind. Thefe arej chap. i. ii«
its tendency to perfonal happinefs, and the contrary ten-3cc'
dency of vice. “ Perfonal happinefs arifes either from
the date of a man’s own. mind, or from the date and
difpofition of external caufes towards him.”
We (hall firft examine the “ tendency of virtue to 509 f
happinefs with refpeft to the (late of a man’s own of^rtue *
mind.” This is a point of the utmoft confequence infromwith»-
morals, becaufe, unlefs we can convince ourfelves, orin*
(how to others, that, by doing our duty, or fulfilling
our moral obligations, we confult the greateft fatisfac-
tion of our own mind, or our higheft intereft on the
whole, it will raife (Long and often unfurmountable
prejudices againft the pra&ice of virtue, efpecially
whenever there arifes any appearances of oppofition be¬
tween our duty and our fatisfaction or interejl. To crea¬
tures fo defirous of happinefs,; and averfe to mifery,
as we are, and often (b oddly fituated amidft contend¬
ing paffions and interefts, it is neceffary that virtue
appear not only an honourable but e^pleafing and benefi¬
cent form. And in order to juftify our choice to our¬
felves as well as before others, we muft ourfelves feel
and be able to avow in the face of the whole world,
that her ways are ways of pleafantnefs, and her paths
the paths of peace. This, will (how, beyond all cor*--
6 tradi&ion*
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
312 MORAL PHI
Motives to tradition, that we not only approve, but can give a
. Vl^tl]e fufficient reafon for what we do.
aIO Let any man in a cool hour, when he is difengaged
Influence of from bufinefs, and undillurbed by pafiion (asfuchcool
vice on the hours will fometimes happen), fit down, and ferioufiy
thTmlcd* rs^e<^ Wlt^ himfelf what ftate. or temper of mind he
would choofe to feel and indulge, in order to be eafy
and to enjoy himfelf. Would he choofe, for that pur-
pofe, to be in a conftant dilfipation and hurry of
thought ; to be difturbed in the exercife of his rea¬
fon ; to have various and often interfering phantoms
of good playfng before his imagination, foliciting and
diftra&ing him by turns, now fooothing him with amu
fing hopes, then torturing him with anxious fears; and
to approve this minute what he fhall condemn the
next ? Would he choofe to have a ftrong and painful
fenfe of every petty injury ; quick apprehenlions of
every impending evil; inceflant and infatiable defires
of power, wealth, honour, pleafure ; an irreconcileable
antipathy againft all competitors and rivals ; infolent
and tyrannical difpofitions to all below him ; fawning,
and at the fame time envious, difpofitions to all above
him ; with dark fufpicions and jealoufies of every
mortal ? Would he choofe neither to love nor be belo¬
ved of any ; to have no friend in whom to confide, or
with whom to interchange his fentiments or defigns ;
no favourite, on whom to beftow his kindnefs, or vent
hia paflions ; in fine, to be confcious of no merit with
mankind, no effeem from any creature, no good affec¬
tion to his Maker, no concern for, nor hopes of, his
approbation ; but, inftead of all thefe, to hate, and
know that he is hated, to condemn, and know that he
is condemned by all; by the good, bccaufe he is fo un¬
like ; and by the bad, becaufe he is fo like themfelves;
, to hate or to dread the very Being that made him ;
and, in flrort, to have his breaft the feat of pride and
pafiion, petulance and revenge, deep melancholy, cool
malignity, and all the other furies that ever poffeffed
and tortured mankind ?—Would our calm inquirer after
happinefs pitch on fueh a Hate, and fuch a temper of
mind, as the moll likely means to put him in poffef-
fion of his defired eafe and felf-enjoyment ?
411 Or would he rather choofe a ferene and eafy flow of
v"rt“®n^of thought; a reafon clear and compofed ; a judgment
the temper, unbiaffed by prejudice, and undiftrafted by pafiion ; a
fober and well-governed fancy, which prefents the i-
mages of things true, and unmixed with delufive and
unnatural charms, and thetefore adhiinifters no impro¬
per or dangerous fuel to the pafiions, but leaves the
mind free to choofe or rejefl, as becomes a reafonable
creature ; a fweet and fedate temper, not eafily ruf¬
fled by hopes or fe-'rs, prone neither to fufpicion nor
revenge, apt to view men and things in the -fairell
lights, and to bend gently to the humours of others
rather than obftinately to contend with them ? Would
he choofe fuch moderation and continence of mind, as
ireither to be ambitious of power, fond of honours, co¬
vetous of wealth, nor a flave to pleafure; a mind of
courfe neither elated with fuccefs, nor dejefted with
difappointment ; Tuch a modeft and noble fpirit as
fupports power without infolence, wears honour with¬
out pride, ufes wealth without profuiion or parfimony;
and rejoices more in giving than in receiving pleafure ;
fuch fortitude and equanimity as rifes above misfor¬
tunes, or turns them into blefiings; fuch integrity
L O S O P H Y. Part lit,
and greatnefs of mind, as neither flatters the vices, From H^p*
nor triumphs over the follies of men ; as equally fpurns P‘nef>
fervitude and tyranny, and will neither engage in low
defigns, nor abet them in others-f Would he choofe,
in fine, fuch mildnefs and benignity of heart as takes
part in all the joys, and refufes none of the forrows, of
others ; (lands well affeded to all mankind ; is confci¬
ous of meriting the elieem of all, and of being beloved
by the bell; a mind which delights in doing good
without any (hew, and yet arrogates nothing on that
account ; rejoices in loving and being beloved by it*
Maker, ads ever under his eye, refigns itfelf to hi*
providence, and triumphs in his approbation ?—Which
of thefe difpofitions would be his choice, in order to
be contented, ferene, and happy ?—The former tem¬
per is vice, the/Wr viktue. Where owe prevails,
there misery prevails, and by the generality is ac-
knoledged to prevail. Where the other reigns, there
happiness reigns, and by the confefiion of mankind
is acknowledged to reign. The perfeBion of either
temper is mifery or happinefs in perfeQion.— Y h ere fore,
every approach to either extreme is an approach to m fery
or to happinefs ; i. e. every degree of vice or virtue is ac¬
companied with a proportionable degree of mfery or bap-
pine/s.
The principal alleviations of a virtuous man’s cala-pf^1^^
mities are thefe :—‘That though fome of them may at ions J hi*
have been the effed of his imprudence or weaknefs^lh.
yet few of them are (harpened by a fenfe of guilt, and
none of them by a confcioufnefs of wickednefs, which
finely is their keened (ling ;—that they are common
to him with the bed of menthat they feldom or
never attack him quite unprepared, but rather guarded
with a confcioufnefs of his own fincerity and virtue,
with a faith and trud in providence, and a firm refig-
nation to its peifed orders that they may be im¬
proved as means of corredion, or materials to give
fcope and (lability to his virtues and, to name no
more, they are confiderably leffened, and often fwcet-
ened to him, by the general fympathy of the wife and
good.
His enjoyments are more numerous, or, if lefs nu-Hb erjoy-v
merous, yet more intenfe than thofe of the bad man: ments.
for he (hares in the joys of others by rebound ; and
every increafe of general or particular happinefs is a real
addition to his own. It. is true, his friendly fympathy
with others fubjeds him to fome pains which the hard¬
hearted wretch does not feel; yet to give a loofe to
it, is a kind of agreeable difeharge. It is fuch a for-
row as he loves, to indulge; a fort of pleafing anguifii
that fweetly melts the mind, and terminates in a felf-
approving joy. Though^ the good man may want
means to execute, or be difappointed in the fupcefs of,
his benevolent purpofes; yet, as was formerly* ob-* VPartFL
ferved, he is dill confcious of good affedion, and thatch3P,i^
confcioufnefs is an enjoyment of a more delightful
favour than the greatell triumphs of fuccefsful vice.
If the ambitious, covetous, or voluptuous, are difappoint¬
ed, their pafiions recoil, upon them with a fury propor¬
tioned to their opinion of the value of what they pur-
fue, and their hope of fuccefs; while they have no-
-thing within to balance the difappointment, unlefs it
is an ufelefs fund of pride, which, however, frequently
turns mere accidents into mortifying affronts, and ex¬
alts grief into rage and frenzy. Whereas the meek,
humble.
§ Vide
Shaftlb.
Jnq. into
Virtue,
UookH.
Part III. . MORALPHILOSOPHY. 313
Motives to humble, and benevolent temper, is its own reward, is is but too apparent in thofe cafes where a falfe fpecies ^aP-
Virtue fatisfied from within ; and, as it magnifies greatly the of religion, honour, zeal, or party-rage, has feized on the P .
^ pleafure of fuccefs, fo it wonderfully alleviates, and in natural enthufiafm of the mind, and worked it up to
ai4 a manner annihilates, all pain for the want of it. madnefs. It breaks through all ties natural and civil.
From me- As the good man is confcious of loving and wifh- difregards the moft facred and folemn obligations, fi-
rited ef- ;ng wen (-q a}] mankind, he muit be fenfible of his de- lences every other affe&ion whether public or private,
teem an peJ.vjng cfteem an(j good-will of all; and this fup- and transforms the moft gentle natures into the moft
' e * pofed reciprocation of focial feelings is, by the very favage and inhuman. jjg
frame of our nature, made a fource of very intenfe and Whereas, the man who keeps the lalance of ajfettion Happmefs
enlivening joys. By this fympathy of affedions and even, is eafy and ferene in his motions ; mild, and yet of well ore*
interefts, he feels himfelf intimately united with the affedionate; uniform and confident with himfelf; is P^^d
human race; and, being fenfibly a/fw over the whole not liable to difagreeable collifions of interefts and1
fyftem, his heart receives and becomes refponfive to paflions ; gives always place to the moft friendly and
every touch given to any part. So that, as an eminent humane affe&ions, and never to difpofitions or ads of
philofopher § finely exprefles it, he gathers contentment refentment, but on high occafions, when the fecurity
and delight from the pleafed and happy (fates of thofe of the private, or welfare of the public fyftem, or the
around him, from accounts and relations of fuch hap- great interejls of mankind, neceffarily require a noble
pinefs, from the very countenances, geftures, voices, indignation; and even then he obferves a juft meafure
and founds, even of creatures foreign to our kind, in wrath : and laft of all, he proportions every paflxon
whofe figns of joy and contentment he can any way to the value of the objed he affeds, or to the impor-
aij difcern. tance of the end he purfues.
Denotin- Nor do thofe generous affedions flop any other na- To fum up this part of the argument, the honejl fium 0t the
larfere with tural fource of joy whatever, or deaden his fenfe of and good man has eminently- the advantage of the kna- argument,
other joys. any Jnnocent gratification. They rather keep the vjjh and felfijh wretch in every refped. The pleafures
feveral fenfes and powers of enjoyment open and difen- which the lajl enjoys flow chiefly from external ad-
gaged, intenfe and uncorrupted by riot or abufe; as vantages and gratifications; are fuperficial and tranfi-
is evident to any one who confiders the diflipated, un- tory ; dalhed with long intervals of fatiety, and fre-
feeling ftate of men dlpleafure, ambition, or interejl, and quent returns of remorfe and fear ; dependent on fa-
cbmpares it with the ferene and gentle ftate of a mind voarable accidents and conjun&ures ; and fubje&ed to
at peace with itfelf, and friendly to all mankind, un- the humours of men. But the good man is fatisfied
ruffled by any violent emotion, and fenfible to every from himfelf; his principal pofleflions lie within, and
*16 good-natured and alluring joy. therefore beyond the reach of the caprice of men or
The mifery It were eafy, by going through the different fets of fortune ; his enjoyments are exquifite and permanent;
cf cxcefs in affeftions mentioned formerly*, to (how, that it is only accompanied with no inward checks to damp them,
the private {jy maintaining the proportion fettled there, that the and always with ideas of dignity and felf-approbation;
*A’«°PartI “urn* arrives at true repofe and fatisfadion. If fear may be tafted at any time, and in any place The
exceeds that proportion, it finks into melancholy and gratifications of vice are turbulent and unnatural, ge-
dtjedion. If anger paffes juft bounds, it ferments into nerally arifing from the relief of paflions in themfelves
rage and revenge, or fubfides into a fullen corroding intolerable, and iffuing in tormentingrefledion; often*
gloom, which embitters every good, and renders one irritated by difappointment, always inflamed by en-
exquifitely fenfible to every ill. The private pafiions, joyment, and yet ever cloyed with repetition. The
the love of honour efpecially, whofe impulfes are more pleafures of virtue are calm and natural; flowing from
generous, as its effeds are more diffufive, are inftru- the exercife of kind affedions,'or delightful refledions
ments of private pleafure; but if they arc difpropor- in confequence of them ; not only agreeable in the
tioned to our wants, or to the value of their feveral profped, but in the prefent feeling; they never fa-
cbjeds, or to the balance of other paflions equally, ne- tiate nor lofe their reliftr; nay, rather the admiration
cefiary and more amiable, they become inftruments of of virtue grows ftronger every day ; and not only is
intenfe pain and mifery. For, being now deftitute of the defire but the enjoyment heightened by every new
that counterpoife which held them at a due pitch, gratification; and, unlike to moft others, it is in-
they grow turbulent, peeviflr, and revengeful, the caufe creafed, not diminifhed, by fympathy and communi-
of conftant reftleflhefs and torment, fometimes flying cation.—In fine, the fatisfad ions of virtue maybe
out into a wild delirious joy, at other times fettling purchafed without a bribe, and poffelfed in the hum-
in a deep fplenetic grief. The concert between rea- bleft as well as the moft triumphant fortune; they can
fon and pafiion is then broke : all is diffonance and bear the ftrideft review, do not change with circum-
diftradi&n within. The mind is out of frame, and (lances, nor grow old with tune Force cannot rob,
feels an agony proportioned to the violence of the nor fraud cheat us of them; and, to crown all, inftead
reigning pafiion. of abating, they enhance every other pleafure.
The cafe is much the fame, or rather worfe, when But the happy confequences of virtue are feen not Externa!
any of the particular kind affeftions are out of their only in the internal enjoyments it affords a man, but effedls of
natural order and proportion ; as happens in the cafe “ in the favourable difpofition of external caufes to-Virtue-
of effeminate pity, exorbitant love, parental dottage, or any wards him, to which it contnbutes.,>
parly-pafion, where the juft regards to fociety are fup- As virtue gives the fober poffeffion of one’s felf, o„
planted The more focial and difnterefed the pafiion and the command of one’s paflions, the confequence body,
is, it breaks out into the wilder exceffes, and makes muft be heart’s eafe, and a fine natural flow of fpirits,
the more dreadful havoc both within and abroad ; as which conduce more than any thing elfe to health and
Vot. XII. Part I. Rr long
chap- i. it.
In the
rpublic af-
iicCtions.
forrune, in-
tereft, &c.
fecurity.
MORAL PH
olong life. Violent paflrons, and the exceffes they oc-
cafion, gradually impair and wear down the machine.
But the calm placid (late of a temperate mind, and
the healthful exercifes in which 'virtue engages her
faithful votaries, preferve the natural functions in full
vigour and harmony, and exhilarate the fpirits, which -
are the chief inilruments of a&ion.
It may by fome be thought odd to aflert, that vir¬
tue is no enemy to a man’s fortune in the prefent ftate
of things.—But if by fortune be meant a moderate or
competent fhare of nvealth, power, or credit, not over¬
grown degrees of them; what fhould hinder the vir¬
tuous man from obtaining that ? He cannot cringe or
fawn, it is true, but he can be civil and obliging as
well as the knave; and furely his civility is more allu¬
ring, becaufe it has more manlinefs and grace in it than
the mean adulation of the other: he cannot cheat or
undermine; but he may be cautious, provident, watch¬
ful of occafions, and equally prompt with the rogue
in improving them : he fcorns to proftitute himfelf as
a pander to the paffions, or as a tool to the vices, of
mankind 5 but he may have as found an underftanding
and as good capacities for promoting their real inte-
refts as the verieft court-flave : and then he is more
faithful and true to thofe who employ him. In the
common courfe of bufinefs, he has the fame chances
with the knave of acquiring a fortune, and rifing in
the wotld. He may have equal abilities, equal in-
duftry, equal attention to bufinefs ; and in. other re-
fpe&s he has greatly the advantage of him. People
love better to deal with him; they can trull him more;
they khow he will not impofe on them, nor take ad¬
vantage of them, and can depend more on his word
than on the oath or ftrongeft fecurities of others.
Whereas what is commonly called cunning, which is
the offspring of ignorance, and conftant companion of
knavery, is not only a mean-fpirited, but a very fhort-
fighted talent, and a fundamental obftacle in the road
of bufinefs. It may procure indeed immediate and
petty gains; but it is attended with dreadful abate¬
ments, which do more than overbalance them, both
as it finks a man’s credit when difcovered, and cramps
that largenefs of mind which extends to the remotell
as well as the neareft interell, and takes in the moll
durable equally with the moll tranfient gains. It is
therefore eafy to fee how much, a man’s credit and re¬
putation, and confequently his fuccefs, depend on his
honefty and virtue.
• With regard to fecurity and peace with his neigh-
11 hours, it may be thought, perhaps, that the man of a
quiet forgiving temper, and a flowing benevolence and
courtefy, is much expofed to injury and affronts from
every proud or peevilh mortal, who has the power or
will to do mifehief. If we fuppofe, indeed, this quiet-
nefs and. gent/enefs of nature accompanied with cowar¬
dice and pujillanimity, this may often be the cafe ; but
in reality the good man is bold as a lion, and fo much
the bolder for being the calmer. Such a perfon will
hardly be a btftt to mankind. The ill-natured will be
afraid to provoke him, and the good-natured will not
incline to do it. Befides, true virtue, which is con¬
duced by reafon, and exerted gracefully and without
parade, is a moll infinuating and commanding thing ;
if it cannot difarm malice and refentment at once, it
will wear them out by degrees, and fubdue them at
I L O S O P H Y. Part Ilf,
length. How many have, by favours and prudently F,om the
yielding, triumphed over an enemy, who would have
been inflamed into tenfold rage by the fierceft oppofi- oTeiod.66
tion ! In fine, goodnefs is the moll univerfally popular  v— j
thing that can be. •' 23
To conclude; the good man may have fome ene- On one’s
mies, but he will have more fiitnds; and, having given familj.
fo many marks of private friendlhip or public virtue,
he can hardly be dellitute of a patron to proteC, or a
fan&uary to entertain him, or to protect or entertain
his children when he is gone. Though he Ihould have
little elfe to leave them, he bequeaths them the faireil, #
and generally the moll unenvied, inheritance of a good
name, which, like good feed fown in the field of futu¬
rity, will often raife up unfolicited friends, and yield
a benevolent harveft of unexpe&ed charities. But
fliould the fragrance of the parent’s virtue prove offen-
five to a perverfe or envious age, or even draw per-
fecution on the friendlefs orphans, there is one in
heaven who will be more tha/r a father to them, and
recompenfe their parent’s virtues by fliowering down
blefiings on them.
Chap. III. TWifnw ft? Virtue from Being
iWProvidence ofGon.
Besides the interefting motive mentioned in thetwoofer,
laft Chapter, there are two great motives to virtue, na! mo-n-ci
llriCly connetled with human life, and refnlting from 10 virtue,
the very conjlitution of the human mind The firft is
the Being and Providence of God; the fecond is the
Immortality of the Soul, with future rewards and
punffhments. ^
It appears from Chap. iv. of Part II. that man, by Their im»
the conjlitution of his nature, is defigned to be a Re- pertance.
ligious Creature. He is intimately connected with
the fdeity, and neceffarily dependent oh him. From
that connection and neceffary dependence refult various
obligations and duties, without fulfilling which, fome of
his fublimeft powers and affeClions would be incom¬
plete and abortive. If he be likewife an Immortal,
creature, and if ins prefenl condud lhall affeCt his future
happinefs in another ftate as well as in the prefent, it is
evident that we take only a partial view of the crea¬
ture if we leave out this important property of his
nature, and make a partial ejiimate of human life; if we
ftrike' out of the account, or overlook, that part of his
duration which runs out into eternity. ^
It is evident from the above-mentioned Chapter, p;cly.
that “ to have a refpefl to the Deity in our temper
and conduit, to venerate and love his char alter, to a-
dore his goodnefs, to depend upon and rejign ourfelves to
his providence, to feck his approbation, and ad under a
fenfe of his authority, is a fundamental part of moral vir¬
tue, and the completion of the highejl dejlination of our
nature.'" aiS
But as piety is an effential part of virtue, fo likewife A rUpport
it is a great fupport and enforcement to the practice of to virtue,
it. To contemplate and admire a Being of fuch tran-
feendent dignity and perfeilion as God, mull naturally
and neceffarily open and enlarge the mind, give a
freedop and amplenefs to its powers, and a grandeur
and elevation to its aims. For, as an excellent divine
obferves, “ the greatnefs of an objeil, and the excel¬
lency of the ail of any agent about a tranfeendent
objeftj
Part Ilf. MORAL PH
Motives to ohje&, doth mightily tend to the enlargement and im-
y“tlle provement of his faculties.” Little objects, mean
v company, mean cares, and mean bufinefs, cramp the
mind, contraft its views, and give it a creeping air
and deportment. But when it fours above mortal cares
and mortal purfuits into the regions of divinity, and
converfes with the greateft and heft of Beings, it
fpreads itfelf into a.wider compafs, takes higher flights
in reafon and goodnefs, becomes godlike in its air and
manners. ' Virtue is, if one may fay fo, both the ejfeSl
and caufe of largenefs of mind. It requires that one
think freely, and act nobly. Now what can conduce
more to freedom of thought and dignity of action,
than to conceive worthily of Goo, to reverence and
adore his unrivalled excellency, to imitate and Iran-
feribe that excellency intotnir own nature, to remember
our relation to him, and that we are the images and
reprefentatives of his glory to the reft of the creation?
Such feelings and txercifes muft and will make us
fcorn all actions that are bafe, unhandfome, or un¬
worthy our ftate ; and the relation we ftand in to
God will irradiate the mind with the light of wif-
dom, and ennoble it with the liberty and dominion of
249 virtue.
A guard The influence and efficacy of religion may be con-
and en- fldered in another light. We all know that the pre-
to^irtue1 ^ence a frienL a neighbour, or any number of
fpe&ators,, but efpecially an auguft affembly of them,
ufes to be a confiderable check upon the conduA of
one who is not loft to all fenfe of honour and ftiame,
and contributes to reftrain many irregular failles of
paffion. In the fame manner we may imagine, that
the awe of feme fuperior mind, who is fuppofed privy
to our fecret conduft, and armed with full power to
reward or punifh it, will impofe a reftraint on us in
fuch a&ions as fail not under the controul or animad-
verfion of others. If we go ftill higher, and fuppofe
our inmoft thoughts and darkeft defigns, as well as
our molt fecret actions, to lie open to the notice of the
fupreme and univerfal mind, who is both the fpeSator
judge of human actions, it is evident that the belief
of fo auguft a prefence, and fuch awful infpe&ion,
muft carry a reftraint and weight with it proportioned
to the ftrength of that belief, and be an additional mo¬
tive to the practice of many duties which would not
430 kavc been performed without it.
Exercifes ft may he obferved farther, that “ to live under an
of piety habitual fenfe of the Deity and his great adminiftrationt
improving js t0 be converfant with ivifdom, order, and beauty, in
to vutue. tjie higbeft fubjetfts, and to receive the delightful re¬
flections and benign feelings which th'efe excite while
they irradiate upon him from every feene of nature
and providence.” How improving muft fuch views
be to the mind, in dilating and exalting it above thofe
puny interefts and competitions which agitate and in¬
flame the bulk of mankind againft each other!
Chap. IV. Motive to Virtue from the Im¬
mortality of ^Ae Soui., &c.
531 The other motive mentioned was the immortality of
Coal argu- the foul, with future rewards and punijhments. The
mem? for metaphyjical proofs of the foul’s immortality are com-
its immor- rnonly drawn from—its fimple, uncompounded, and indP
tallty’ vif.ble nature ; from whence it is concluded, that it can-
LOSOPHY. 315
not be corrupted or extinguilhed by a diffolution or From the
deftruftion of its parts :—from its having a beginning 0f
motion within itfelf; whence it is inferred, that it can- 50Ui.
not difeontinue and lofe its motion :—from the diffe- _—<
rent properties of matter and mind, the Jluggifhnefs and
inadivity of one, and the immenfe adivity of the other ;
its prodigious flight of thought and imagination ; its pe¬
netration, memory, foreftght, and anticipations of futu¬
rity : from whence it is concluded, that a being of fo
divine a nature cannot be extinguifhed. But as thefe
metaphyfical proofs depend on intricate reafonings
concerning the nature, properties, and di/lindions of
body and mind, with which we are not very well ac¬
quainted,' they are not obvious to ordinary under-
ftandings, and arc feldom fo convincing even to thofe
of higher reach, “as not to leave fome doubts behind
them. Therefore perhaps it is not fo fafe to reft the
proof of fueh an important article on what many may
call the fubtilties ef fchool-learning. Thofe proofs
which are brought from analogy, from the moral con¬
futation and phenomena of the human mind, the moral
attributes of God, and the prefent courfe of things, and
which therefore are called the moral arguments, are
the plaineft, and generally th« mod fatisfying. We
ffiall fele& only one or two from the reft. ^
In tracing the nature and dejiination of any being, Moral
we form the fureft judgment from his powers of action, proof from]
and the fcope and limits of thefe, compared with hisaiial0gy*
Jlate, or with that field in which they are exercifed. If
this being paffes through different ftates, or fields of
action, and. we find afiucceffion of powers adapted to
the different periods of his progrefs, we conclude that
he was defiined for thofe fucceffive ftates, and reckon
his nature progreffive. If, befides the immediate fet of
powers which fit him for ait ion in his prefent ftate,
we obferve another fet which appear fuperfluous if he
were to be confined to it, and which point to another
or higher one, we naturally conclude, that he is not
defigned to remain in his prefent/ftate, but to advance
to that for which thofe fupernumerary powers are ad¬
apted. Thus we argue, that the infed, which has
wings forming or formed, and all the apparatus pro¬
per for flight, is not deftined always to creep on the
ground, or to continue in the torpid ftate of adhering
to a wall, but is defigned in its feafon to take its flight
in air. Without this farther deftination, the admi¬
rable mechanifm of wings and the other apparatus
would be ufelefs and abfurd. The fame kind of rea-
foning may be applied to man, while he lives only a
fort of vegetative life in the womb. He is furniftied
eves there with a beautiful apparatus of organs, eyes,
ears, and other delicate fenfes, which receive nourish¬
ment indeed, but are in a manner'folded up, and have
no proper exercife or ufe in their prefent confine¬
ment *. Let us fuppofe fome intelligent fpe&ator, ^
who never had any connexion with man, nor the leaft^^y^"
acquaintance with human affairs, to fee this odd phe-* Ritig.
nomenon, a creature formed after fuch a manner, and Cbri/l.
placed in a fituation apparently unfuitable to fuch va- *
rious machinery: muft he not be ftrangely puzzled
about the ufe of his complicated ftrufture, and rec¬
kon fuch a profufion of art and admirable workman-
fhip loft on the fubjeift ; or reafon by way of anticipa¬
tion, that a creature endued with fuch various yet un¬
exerted capacities, was deftined for a more enlarged
R r 2 fphere
316 M O R A L P H I
Motives to fphere of a£l!on, In which thofe latent capacities ftall
, Virtuc have full play? The vail variety and yet beautiful fym-
v r metry and proportions of the feveraf parts and organs
with which the creature Is endued, and their apt cohe-
iion with and dependence oh the curious receptacle of
their life and nourifhment, would forbid his concluding
the whole to be the birth of chance, or the bungling
effort of an unfkilful artift ; at lead would make him
•. . demur a while at fo harfh a fentence. But if, while
he is in this date of uncertainty, we fuppofe him to
fee the babe, after a few fuccefsful druggies, throw¬
ing off his fetters, breaking loofe from his little dark
prifon, and emerging into open day, then unfolding
his rcclufe and dormant powers, breathing in air, ga¬
zing at light, admiring colours, founds, and all the
fair variety of nature ; immediately his doubts clear
up, the propriety and excellency of the workmandiip
dawn upon him with fullludre, and the whole my dery
of the fird period is unravelled by the opening of this
new feene. Though in this fecond period the creature
lives chiefly a kind of animal-\\te, i. e. offenfe and ap¬
petite, yet by various trials and obfervations he gains
experience, and by the gradual evolution of the pow¬
ers of imagination he ripens apace for an higher life,
for exerciflng the arts of de/ign and imitation, and of
thofe in which drength or dexterity are more requifite
than acutenefs or reach of judgment.. In the fucceed-
ing rational or intcllcEtual period, his underjlanding,
which formerly crept in a lower, mounts into an higher
fphere, canvaffes the natures, judges of the relations
of things, forms fchemes, deduces confequences from
what is pad, and from prtfent as well as pad collefls
fature events. By this fucceffion of dates, and of
correfpondent culture, he grows up at length into a
moral, a facial, and a political creature. This is the
lad period at which we perceive him to arrive in this
his mortal career. Each period is introdmdory to the
next fucceeding one1'; each life is a field of exercife and
improvement for the next higher one ; the life of the
fmtus for that of the infant, the life of the infant for
that of the child, and all the lower for the highed and
* Sic bed §. — But is this the lad period of nature’s pro-
3“tier’s greffion ? Is this the utmod extent of her plot, where
FutY/’ w*nt^s UP t^ie drama, and difmiffes the a£lor into
eternal oblivion ? Or does he appear to be inveded with
fupernumerary powers, which have not full exercife
and fcope even in the lad feene, and reach not that
maturity or perfe&ien of which they are capable ; and
therefore point to fome higher feene where he is to
fudain another and more important charafter than he
has yet fudained ? If any fuch there are, may we not
conclude by analogy, or in the fame way of anticipa¬
tion as before, that he is dedined for that after-part,
and is to be produced upon a more augud and folemn
ftage, where his fublimer powers diaH have propor¬
tioned aftion, and his nature attain its completion ?
Powers in If we attend to that curiojity, or prodigious thirjl of
man which knowledge, which is natural to the mind in every pe-
pvinttoah Qf {ts progrefsj and confider withal the endlefs
a ter-1C. roun(j 0f bufinefs and care, and the various hardfhips to.
^ *34 which the bulk of mankind are chained down ; it is
tiiaj. eC" evident, that in this prefent date it is impofiible to ex-
pedl the gratification of an appetite at once fo infa-
tiableand fo noble. Ourfenfes, the ordinary organs by
L O S O P H Y. Part III.
which knowledge is let into the mind, are always im- From the
perfefl, and often fallacious; the advantages of aflid-immorta,i”
ing or corre&ing them are poffeffed by few ; the diffi- ^ of the
culties of finding out truth amidd the various and con- ^ .
tradidlory opinions, intereds, and padiona of man¬
kind, are many; and. the wants of the creature, and
of thofe with whom he is conneeied, numerous and ur¬
gent : fo that it may be faid of mod men, that their
intelledual organs are as much Ihut up and fecluded
from proper nourithmeut and exercile in that little
circle to which they are confined, as the bodily organs
are in the womb. Nay, thofe who to an afpiring ge¬
nius have added all the affidances of art, leifure, and
the mod liberal education, what narrow profpe&s can
even they take of this unbounded feene of things from,
that little eminence on which they band ? and how ea¬
gerly do they dill grafp at new difeoveries, without
any fatisfa&ion or limit to their ambition ?
But fhould it be faid, that man is made for afiion. Moral
and not for fpeculation, or fruitlefs fearches after know-Power**
ledge, we alk, For what kind of aCiion ? Is it only for
bodily exercifes, or for moral, political, and religious
ones ? Of all thefe he is capable ; yet, by the unavoid¬
able circumdances of his lot, he is tied down to the
former, and has hardly any leifure to think qf the lat¬
ter, or, if he has, wants the proper indruments of ex-
erti*g them. The love of virtue, oj one's, friends and
country, the generous fympathy with mankind, and heroic
zeal of doing good, which are all fo natural to great and
good minds, and fome traces of which are found in
the lowed, are feldom united with proportioned means
or opportunities of exercifing them : fo that the mo¬
ral fpring, the noble energies and impulfes of the
mind, can hardly find proper fcope even in the Aioil
fortunate condition ; but are much depreffed in fome,
and almod entirely redrained in the generality, by
the numerous clogs of an indigent, fickly, or embaraf-
fed life. Were fuch mighty powers, fuch god-like
affe&ions, planted in the human bread to be folded
up in the narrow womb of our prefent exidence, never
to be produced into a more perfett life, nor to expatiate
in the ample career of immortality ? 6
Let it be confidered, at the fame time, that no pof-Unfatisfied
feffion, no enjoyment, within the round of mortal defires of
things, is commenfurate to the defires, or adequate to ei’^nce.
the capacities, of the mind. The mod exalted condi-“",s aPP*"
tion has its abatements ; the happied conjuncture of
fortune leaves many wilhes behind ; and, after the
highed gratifications, the mind is carried forward in
purfuit of new ones without end. Add to all, the
fond defre of immortafity, the fecret dread of non-exifl-
ence, and the high unremitting pulfe of the foul beat¬
ing for perfection, joined to the improbability or the
impoflibility of attaining it here ; and then judge whe¬
ther this elaborate druCture, this magnificent appara¬
tus of inward powers and organs, does not plainly
point out an hereafter, and intimate eternity to man ?
Does nature give the finilhing touches to the leffer and
ignobler indances of her Ikill, and raife every other
creature to the maturity and perfection of his being ;
and fliall (he leave her principal workmanfhip unfi-
niflied ? Does die carry the vegetative and animal life in
man to their full vigour and highed dedination ; and
Ihall die fuffer his intelledual, his moral, his divine life,
8,
Part HI.
:o to fade away, and be for ever extinguifhed ? Would
fuch abortions in the moral world be congruous to that
perfeSion of <wifdom and goodnefi which upholds and a-
dorns the natural ?
We muft therefore conclude from this detail, that
the prefent Jlate, even at its beft, is only the womb of
man’s being, in which the nobleft principles of his
nature are in a manner fettered, or fecluded from a
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
3*7
light and virtue, without which life, nay, immortality it- From the
felf, were not worth a iingle wifh ? _ _
Many writers draw their proofs of the immortality ys°ui,
'of the foul, and of a future date of rewards and pu- ^
nifhments, from the unequal ditlribution of thefe here. *39
It cannot be diflembled that wicked men often efcaPe
the ou/warr/puhifhment due to their crimes, and do jityhf prel
not feel the inward in that meafure their demerit feemsfent diftrU
correfpondent fphere of action ; and therefore deftined to require, partly from the calloufnefs induced uponbutions.
for a future and unbounded ftate, where they {hall their nature by the habits of vice, and partly from
emancipate themfelves, and exert the fulnefs of their the diffipation of their minds abroad by pleafure or
ftrength. The mod accomplifhed mortal, in this low bulinefs—and fometimes good men do not reap all the
and dark apartment of nature, is only the rudiments
of what he {hall be when he takes his ethereal flight,
natural and genuine fruits of their virtue, through the
many unforefeen or unavoidable calamities in which
and puts on immortality. Without a reference to they are involved. To the fmalleft refle&ion, how-
that date, man were a mere abortion, a rude unfinifli-
ed embryo, a monfter in nature. But this being once
fuppofed, he ftill maintains his rank of the mafter-
piece of the creation ; his latent powers are all fuitable
to the harmony and progrejfwn of nature ; his noble a-
fpirations, and the pains of his diflblution, are his ef¬
forts towards a fecond birth, the pangs of his delivery
'into light, liberty, and perfeftion ; and death, his dif-
charge from gaol, his feparation from his fellow-pri-
ever, it is obvious, that the natural tendency of virtue
is to produce happinefs ; that if it were univerfally
praftifed, it would, in fact, produce the greateft fum
of happinefs of which human nature is capable ; and
that this tendency is defeated only by numerous indi¬
viduals, who, forfaking the laws of virtue, injure and
opprefs thofe who fteadily adhere to them. But the '
natural tendency of virtue is the refult of that confti-
tution of things which was eftabliflied by God at the
foners, and introduftion into the affembly of thofe he- creation of the world. This being the cafe, we mull
roic fpirits who are gone before him, and ©f their either conclude, that there will be a future ftate, in
great eternal Parent. The fetters of his ntortal coil which all the moral obliquities of the prefent Iha'l be
being loofened, and his prifon walls broke down, he made flraight; or elfe admit, that the defigns of infi-
will be bare and open on every fide to the admiflion of nite wifdom, goodnefs, and power, can be finally de-
truth and virtue, and their fair attendant happinefs i feated by the perverfe conduct of human weaknefs -
every vital and intelkSual fpring will evolve itfelf with But this laft fuppofition is fo extravagantly abfurd,
a divine elafticity in the free air of heaven. He will that the reality of a future ftate, the only other pof*
not then peep at the univerfe and its glorious Author fible alternative, may be pronounced to have the evi-
through a dark grate or a grofs medium, nor receive dence of perfeft demonftration.
the refleftions of his glory through the ftrait openings Virtue has prefent rewards, and
of fenfible organs ; but will be all eye, all ear, all ethe-
-. . Prefent punifli- Beiief of
ments annexed to it; fuch rewards and punifhments as immortals '
VUe'S.eM-real and divine feeling *. Let one part, however, of make virtue, in moft cafes that happen, far more eli-17> &c-
gk>n of Na-tfjg anal0gy be attended to : That as in the womb we
, ture, §9. recejve our original conftitution, form, and the effen-
tial Jlamina of our being, which we carry along with
us into the light, and which greatly affeft the fuc-
ceeding periods of our life ; fo our temper and condi¬
tion in the future life will depend on the conduft we
have obferved, and the charafter we have' formed, in
the pi'efent life. We are here in miniature what we
{hall be at full length hereafter. The firft rude Jhetch or
out-lines of reafon and virtue muft be drawn.at prefent,
to be afterwards enlarged to the fiature and beauty of
138 angels.
Xtnmorta- This, if duly attended to, muft prove not only a
Hey a guard, but an admirable incentive to virtue. For he
and mcen- faithfully and ardently follows the light of know-
tue! t0Vir ledge, and pants after higher improvements in virtue,
will be wonderfully animated and inflamed in that pur-
fuit by a full conviftion that the feene does not clofe
with life-—that his ftruggles, arifmg from the weaknefs
of nature and the ftrength of habit, will be turned into
triumphs—that his career in the traft of wifdom and
goodnefs will be both fwifter and fmoother—and thofe
generous ardours with which he glows towards heaven,
i. e. the perfection and immortality of virtue, will find
their adequate objeft and exercife in a fphere propor-
" tionably enlarged, incorruptible, immortal. On the
other hand, what an inexpreffible damp muft it be to
. the good man,-to dread the total extinftion of that
gible than vice : but, in the infinite variety of human ^fairiiPa
contingencies, it may fometimes fall out, that the in- trials!1 * *
flexible praftice of virtue {hall deprive a man of con-
fiderable advantages to himfelf, his family, or friends,
which he might gain by a well-timed piece of roguery;
fuppofe by betraying,his truft, voting agaiaft his con-
fcience, felling his country^ or any other crime where
the fecurity againft difeovery {hall heighten the temp¬
tation. Or, it may happen, that a ftrift adherence to
his honour, to his religion, to the caufe of liberty
and virtue, ftiall expofe him, or his family, to the lofs
of every thing, nay, to poverty, flavery, death itfelf,
or to torments far more intolerable. Now what {hall
fecure a man’s virtue in circumftances of fuch trial ?
What {hall enforce the obligations of confcience
againft the allurements of fo many interefts, the dread
of fo many and fo terrible evils, and the almoft unfur-
mountable averfion of human nature to exceffive pain!
The conflift is the greater, when the circumftances of
the crime are fuch as eafily admit a variety of allevia¬
tions from necejjity, natural affeCtion, love to one's family
or friends, perhaps in indigence : thefe will give it
even the air of virtuCi Add to all, that the crime
may be thought to have few bad confequeuces,—may
be eafily concealed, — or imagined poflihle to be re¬
trieved in a good meafure by future good conduft.
It is obvious to which fide moft men will lean in fuch
a cafe ; and how much need there is of a balance in
the
3>S ' MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Parc III.
Motives to the oppnfite fcale, from the confideration of a God, of
, '^'rtue a Providence, and of an immortal Jlate of retribution, to
keep the mind firm and uhcorrupt in thofe or like in-
a4l fiances of Angular trial or diftrefa.
In the ge- But without fuppofing fuch peculiar inftances, a
nerat ccutfe fenfe of a governing Mind, and a perfuafion that vir*
® 1 e’ tue is not only befriended by him here, but will be
crowned by him hereafter with rewards fuitable to its
nature, vaft in themfelveS, and immortal in their du¬
ration, muft be not only a mighty fupport and incen¬
tive to the pra&ice of virtue, but a ftrong barrier
againft vice. The thoughts of an Almighty Judge,
and of an impartial future reckoning, are often alarm¬
ing, inexpreffibly fo, even to the ftouteft offenders.
On the other hand, how fupporting mufi it be to the
good man, to think that he afts under the eye of his
feiend, as well as judge! How improving, to confider
tht prefentJlate as connected with a future one, and
every relation in which he ftands as a fcbool of difcipline
for his 'affeSions ; every trial as the exercfc of feme vir¬
tue; and the virtuous deeds which refult from both,
as introductory to higher fcenes of aSion anA enjoyment!
Finally, how tranfporting is it to view death as his
difcharge from the ivarfare of mortality, and a trium¬
phant entry into a ftate of freedom, fecurity, and
perfection, in which knowledge and wifdom (hall break
upon him from every quarter; where each faculty
fhall have its proper objeft; and his virtue, which was
often damped or defeated here, fhall be enthroned in
undifturbed and eternal empire !
On reviewing this fhort fyflcm of morals, and the
motives which fupport and enforce it, and comparing
both with the Christianfcheme, what light and vigour
do they borrow from thence ! How clearly and fully From the
floes Christianity lay open \\\t connexions of our .na-[mnwrtah-
ture, both material and immaterial, and future as well tys”fu|thc
prefent ! .What an ample and beautiful detail does it. ^ ' <
prefent of the duties we owe to God, to focicty, and 241
ourfeIves, promulgated in the moft Ample, intelligible, Advanta-
and popular manner ; divefted of every partiality of^^!*1®
fedt or nation ; and adapted to the general Hate of Cchem^*1
mankind! With what bright and alluring examples does and itscon-
it illuftrate and recommend the pra&ice of thofe du-nedU n
ties ; and with what mighty fandions does it enforce W1,th ,na.tu*
that pradtice ! How ffrongly does it defcribe the cor- ™
ruptions of our nature ; the deviations of dur life from
the rule of duty, and the caufes of both ! How marvel¬
lous and benevolent a plan of redemption does it un¬
fold, by which thofe corruptions may be remedied,
and our nature reftored from its deviations to tianfcen-
dent heights of virtue and piety! Finally, what a fair
and comprehenfive profpedl does it give us of the ad-
minifration of God, of which it reprefents the prefent
Jlate only as a fmallperiod, and a period of warfare and
trial! How folemn and unbounded are the fcenes
which it opens beyond it! the refurreXion of the dead,
the general judgment, the equal diflribution ©f rewards
and punifhments to the good and the bad; and the full
completion of divine wifdom and goodncfs in the final
ejlablifhment of order, perfcXion, and happinefs ! How
glorious then is that Scheme of Religion, and how
worthy of aJfeXion as well as of admiration, which, by
making fuch difcoveries, and affording fuch affiances,
has difclofed the unfading fruits and triumphs of vir¬
tue, and fecured its intereffs beyond the power of
time and chance.
M O R
Moral Moral Senfe, that whereby we perceive what is
II good, virtuous, and beautiful, in a&ions, manners,
, orant’ , and chara&ers. See Moral Philofophy.
V MORALITY. See Moral Philofophy.
MORANX fPhilip), a learned and indefatigable
antiquary and biographer, fon of Stephen Morant,
was born at St Saviour’s in the ifle of Jerfey, Octo¬
ber 6 1700; and, after finifhing-his education at
• Abingdon fchool, was entered December 16th, 1717
at Pembroke college Oxford, where he took the de¬
gree of B. A. June 10th, 1721, and continued till
midfummer 1722 ; when he was preferred to the of¬
fice of preacher of the Englifh church at Amfterdam,
but never went to take poffefiion. He took the de¬
gree of M. A. in 1724, and was prefented to the rec¬
tory of Shellow Bowells, April 20th 1753 ; to the
vicarage of Bromfield, January 17th 1733-4; to
the re<9ory of Chicknal Smeley, September 19th,
1735 ; to that of St Mary’s, Colchefter, March 9th,
1737; to that of Wickham Bifhop’s, January 21ft,
1742-3; and to that of^Aldham, September 14th,
1745. All thefe benefices are in the county of Ef-
fex In 1748 he publiftied his Hiftory of Colchefter,
of which only 200 copies were printed. In 1751 he
was elefted F. S. A. ; and in February 1768 he was
appointed by the lords fub-committees of the houfe
of peers to fucceed Mr Blyke in preparing for the
prefs a copy of the rolls of parliament; a fervice to
2
M O R
which he diligently attended till his death, which Morant
happened November 25th, 1770. Befides the above ^ II
work, and many ufeful tranfiations, abridgements, and < rat'
compilations, &c. he wrote, all the Lives in the Bio-
graphia Britannica marked C ; alfo the life of Stilling-
fleet, which has no mark at the end : The Hiftory
of Effex, 1760, 1768{ 2 vols folio : The life of King
Edward the Confeffor, and about 150 fermons. He
prepared the rolls of parliament as far as the 16th of
Henry IV. The continuation of the talk devolved
upon Thomas Aftle, Efq; who had married his only-
daughter.
MoRANT-Point, the moft eafterly point or promon¬
tory of the ifland of Jamaica, in America. W. Lon.
75. 56. N. Lat. 17. 56.
MORASS, a marfli, fen, or low moift ground,
which receives the waters from above without having
any defeent to carry them off again. Sonmer derives
the word from the Saxon merj'e, “ lake ;” Salmaiius
from mare, “ a colle&ion of waters;” others from
the Geman marafl, “ a muddy place;” and others
from marefc, of maricetum, d marijeis, i. e. rufhes. See
Bog, Fen, and Draining.
In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England,
they have a peculiar kind of moraffes called mjfes or
peat-moffes, whence the country people dig their peat
or turf for firing. See Moss.
MORAT, or Murten, a rich trading, and con¬
fide-
M O R C 3
fidcrable town of Swiflerland, capital of a bailiwick
Morata. of the fame name, belonging to the cantons of Bern
t——v—and Friherg, with a caftle, where the bailiff refides.
It is feated on the lake Morat, on the road from A-
venche to Bern, xo miles weft of Bern and 10 miles
north-eaft of Friburg. The lake is about fix miles
long and'two broad, the country about it being plea-
fant and well cultivated. The lakes of Morat and
Neufchatel are parallel to each other, but the latter
is more elevated, difcharging itfelf by means of the
river Broye into the lake of Neufchatel. According
to M-. de Luc, the former is 15 French feet above the
level of Neufchatel lake ; and both thefe lakes, as well
as that of Bienne, feem formerly to have extended con-
fiderably beyond their prefent limits, and from the
pofition of the country appear to have been once united.
Formerly the large fifh named ftlurus glams, or the
faluth, frequented thefe lakes, but has not been caught
in them for a long time part. The environs of this
town and lake were carefully examined by Mr Coxe
during his refidence in Switzerland, who made feveral
excursions acrofs the lake to a ridge of hills fituated
betwixt it and Neufchatel. Here are many delight¬
ful profpects ; particularly one from the top of mount
Vuilly, which, he fays, is perhaps the only central
fpot from which the eye can at once comprehend the
vaft ampitheatre formed on one fide by the Jura ftretch-
ing from the environs of Geneva as far as Bafle, and,
on the other, by that ftupendous chain oi fnowy Alps
■which extend from the frontiers of Italy to the con¬
fines of Germany, and'is loft at each extremity in the
horizon. Morat is celebrated for the obftinate de¬
fence it made againft Charles the Bold, duke of Bur¬
gundy, and for the battle which afterwards followed
on the zzd of June 1476, where the duke was de-
* See Hi. feated, and his army almoft entirely deftrOyed*. Not far
Jfory of from the town,and adjoining to thehigh-road, there ftill
franct. remains a monument of this victory. It is a fquare
building, filled with the bones of Burgundian foldiers,
■who were flain at the fiege and in the battle ; the
number of which appears to have been very confide-
rable. There are feveral inferiptions in the Latin and
German languages commemorating the victory.
MORATA (Olympia Fulvia), an Italian lady, di-
ftinguifhed for her learning, was born at Ferrara, in
1526. Her’father, after teaching the belles lettres in
feveral cities of Italy, was made preceptor to the two
young princes of Ferrara, the fons of Alphonfus I,
The uncommon abilities he difeovered in his daughter
determined him to give her a very extraordinary edu¬
cation. Meanwhile the princefs of Ferrara ftudying
polite literature, it was judged expedient that fhe
ftiould have a companion in the fame purfuit; and Mo-
rata being called, ihe was heard by the aftonifhed,
courtiers to declaim in Latin, to fpeak Greek, and
to explain the paradoxes of Cicero. Her father dying,
fhe was obliged to return home to take upon her the
management of family-affairs, and the education of her
brother and three fillers; both which Ihe executed
with the greateft diligence and fuccefs. In the mean
time Andrew Grunthler, a young German, who had
ftudied phyfic, and taken his doctor’s degree at Fer¬
rara, fell in love with her, and married her. She now
went with her hulband to Gexraany, taking her little
19 1 M O R
brother with her, whom fhe inftrufted in the Latin Moravia,
and Greek tongues : and after Haying a fhort time at ——v—^
Augfburg, went to Schweinfort in Franconia, where
her hufband was borp : but they had not been there
long before that town was unhappily befieged and
burnt ? however, efcaping the flames, they fled in the
utmoll diftrefs to Hammelburg. This place they were
alfo obliged to quit, and were reduced to the laft ex¬
tremities, when the eleClor palatine invited Grunthler
to be profelfor of phyfic at Heidelberg, and he en-
tered on his new office in 1554 ; but they no fooner
began to talle the fweets of repofe, than a difeafe, oc-
caiioned by the diftreffes and hardlhips they had fuf-
fered, feized upon Morata, who died in x?5y, in the
zpth.year of her age ; and her hulband and brother
did not long furvive her. She compofed feveral works,
great part of which were burnt with the town of
Schweinfort; the remainder, which confift of orations,
dialogues, letters, and tranflations, were collected and
publilhed under the title of Olympia Fufaia Morata,
feenrina: dottijftma, et plane divina, opera omnia qua hac-
tenus inveniri potuerint ; quibus Cadii fecundi curionis epi-
Jlola ac orationes occejferunt; which has had feveral edi¬
tions in oCtavo.
MORAVIA, a river of Turky in Europe, which
rifes in Bulgaria, runs north through Servia by Niffa,.
and falls into the Danube at Semendria, to the call-
ward of Belgrade.
Moravia, a marquifate of Germany, derives the
name of Mahern, as it is called by the Germans, and
of Morawa, as it is called by the natives, from the ri¬
ver qf that name which rifes in the mountains of the
county of Giatz, and paffes through the middle of it.
It is bounded to the fouth by Aullria, to the north
by Giatz and Silefia, to the weft by Bohemia, and to
the call by Silefia and Hungary; being about 120
miles in length and 100 in breadth.
A great part of this country is over-run with woods
an4 mountains, where the air is very cold, but much
wholefomer than in the low grounds, which are full
of bogs arid lakes. The mountains, in general, are
barren ; but the more champaign parts tolerably fer¬
tile, yielding corn, with plenty of hemp and flax, good
faffron, and pafture. Nor is it altogether deftitute of
wine, red and white, fruits, and garden-ftuff; Moravia
alfo abounds in horfes, black cattle, fheep, and goats.
In the woods and about the lakes there is plenty of
wild fowl, game, venifon, bees, honey, hares, foxes,
wolves, beavers, &c. In this country are likewife
quarries of marble, baftard diamonds, amethyfts, alum,
iron, fulphur, falt-petre, and vitriol, with wholefome
mineral-waters, and warm fprings ; but fait is import¬
ed. Its rivers, of which the March, Morawa, or Mo-
rau, are the chief,, abound with trout, crayfiih, bar¬
bels, eels, perch, and many other forts of fiffi.
The language of the inhabitants is a dialed; of the
Sclavonic, differing little from the Bohemian; but the
nobility and citizens fpeak German and French.
Moravia was anciently inhabited by the Quadi, who
were driven out by the Sclav!. Its kings, who were
once powerful and independent, afterwards became de¬
pendent on, and tributary to, the German emperors
and kings. At laft, in the year 908, the Moravian
kingdom was parcelled out among the Germans, Poles,
7
M 0 n [ 320 ] M o R
and Hungarians, in 1086, that part of it properly
sailed Moravia was declared a marquifate by the Ger¬
man king Henry IV. and united with Bohemia, to
whofe dukes and kings it hath ever fince been fubjeft.
Though it is not very populous, it contains about 42
greater or walled towns, 17 fmaller or open towns,
and 198 market towns, befides villages, &c. The
ftates of the country confift of the clergy, lords,
knights, and burgeffes; and the diets, when fummon-
ed by the regency, are held at Brunn. The marqui-
fate is ftill governed by its own peculiar conftitutions,
under the direBorium in publicis id cameralibus, and the
fupreme judicatory at Vienna. It is divided into fix
circles, each of which has its captain, and contributes
to its fovereign about one-third of what is exafted of
Bohemia. Towards the expences of the military efta-
blifhment of the whole Auflrian hereditary countries,
its yearly quota is r,8 $6,490 florins. Seven regiments
of foot, one of cuiraffiers, and one of dragoons, are
ufually quartered in it.
Chriftianity was planted in this country in the 5th
century ; and the inhabitants continued attached to
the church of Rome till the 15th, when they efpoufed
the doftrine of John Hufs, and threw off Popery: but
after the defeat ef the ele&or Palatine, whom they had
chofen king, as well as the Bohemians, the emperor
Ferdinand II. re-eflablifhed popery ; though there are
Rill fome Proteftants in Moravia. The bifhop of 01-
mutz, who Hands immediately under the pope, is at
the head of the eccltfiaftics in this country. The fu¬
preme ecclefiaftical jurifdidion, under the bifhop, is
•veiled in a confiflory.
The commerce of this country is inconfiderable. Of
what they have, Brunn enjoys the principal part. At
Iglau and Trebitx are manufadurea of cloth, paper,
gun-powder, &c. There are alfo fome iron-works and
glafs-houfes in the country.
The inhabitants of Moravia in general are open-
hearted, not eafy to be provoked or pacified, obedient
to their mailers, and true to their promifes ; but credu¬
lous of old prophecies, and much addided to drinking,
though neither fuch fots or bigots as they are repre-
fented by fome geographers. The boors, indeed, upon
the river Hank, are faid to be a thievifh, unpolifhed,
brutal race. The fciences now begin to lift up their
heads a little among the Moravians, the univerfity of
Olmutz having been put on a better footing; and a
riding academy, with a learned fociety, have been lately
eftablifhed there.
MORAVIAN brethren. See Hernhutters,
and Unit as Fratrum.
MORAW, or Morava, a large river of Germany,
which has its fource on the confines of Bohemia and
.Silefia. It crofies all Moravia, where it waters Ol¬
mutz and Hradifch, and receiving the Taya from the
confines of Lower Hungary and Upper Auflria, fe-
.parates thefe two countries as far as the Danube, into
which it falls
MORBID, among phyficians, fignifies “ difeafed
or corrupt;” a term applied either to an unfound con-
flitntion, or to thofe parts or humours that are affeded
by a difeafe.
MORBUS comitialis, a name given to the epi-
jepfy ; becaufe if on any day when the people were
^ 228. .
affembled in eomitia upon public bufinefs, any perfon Marbai
fuddenly feized with this diforder fhould fall down, II
the affembly was diffolved, and the bufinefs of the Mor^aurif'
comitiat however important, was fufpended. See Co- v"" 1
M IT1 A.
Morbus Regius, the fame with the Jaundice. See
Medicine Index.
Morbus, or Difea/e, in botany. See Varietas.
MORDAUNT (Charles), earl of Peterborough, a
celebrated commander both by fea and land, was the
fon of John Lord Mordaunt vifcount Avalon, and was
born about the year 1658. In 167$ he fucceeded his
father in his honours and eftate While young he fer-
ved under the admirals Torrington and Narborough in
the Mediterranean againft the , Igerines; and in 1680
embarked for Africa with the earl of Plymouth, and
dillinguifhed himfelf at Tangier when it was befieged
.by the Moors. In the reign of James II. he voted
againtl the repeal of the tell ad.; and difliking the
meafures of the court, obtained leave to go to Hol¬
land to accept the command of a Dutch fquadron in
the Weft Indies. He afterwards accompanied the
prince of Orange into this kingdom ; and upon his
advancement to the throne, was fworn of the privy-
council, made one of the lords of the bedchamber to
his majefty, alfo firft commiffioner of the treafury, and
advanced to the dignity of earl of Monmouth. But
in November 1690 he was difmiifed from his poft in
the treafury. On the death of his uncle Henry earl
of Peterborough in 1697, he fucceeded to that title ;
and, upon the acceffion of Queen Anne, was invefted
with the commiffion of captain-general and governor
of Jamaica, in x 705 he was fworn of the privy-
council ; and the fame year declared general and com¬
mander in chief of the forces fent to Spain, and joint
admiral of the fleet with Sir Cloudfley Shovel, of
which the year following he had the foie command.
His taking Barcelona with a handful of men, and af¬
terwards relieving it when greatly diftreffed by the
enemy ; his driving out of Spain the duke.of Anjou,
and the French army, which confifted of 25,000 men,
though his own troops never amounted to 10,000 ;
his gaining pofleflion of Catalonia, of the kingdoms of
Valencia, Arragon, and the ifle of Majorca, with part
of Murcia and Caftile, and thereby giving the earl of
Galway an opportunity of advancing to Madrid with¬
out a blow ; are ailonifhing in fiances of his bravery
and conduc'd:. For thefe important fervices his Lord-
fhip was declared general in Spain by Charles III.
afterwards emperor of Germany ; and on his return
to England he received the thanks of the Houfe of
Lords. His Lordfhip was afterwards employed in
feveral embaffies to foreign courts, inftalled knight of
the garter, and made governor of Minorca. In tire
reign of George I he was general of all the marine
forces in Great Britain, m which poft he was conti¬
nued by King George II. He died in his paffage to
Lifbon, where he was going for the recovery of his
health, in *73$.—His Lovdfhip was diftinguifhed by
his pofiefling various fhining qualities: for, to the
greateft perfonal courage and refolution, he added all
the arts and addrefs of a general; a lively and pene¬
trating genius; and a great extent of knowledge upon
almoft every fubjeft pf importance within the compafs
8 of
M O R L 321 ] M O R
Mordella, of ancient and modern literature; hence his familiar In the 14th year of Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More
More, letters, inferted among thofe of his friend Mr Pope, was made fpeaker of the houfe of commons: in which1-
^ are an ornament to that excellent colleftion. capacity he had the refolution to oppofe the then
Plate MORDELLA, in zoology, a genus of infefts of powerful minifter, Wolfey, in his demand of an op-
CCCXV. ^e coleoptera order. The antennae are thread-lhaped preffive fubfidy ; notwithftanding which, it was not
and ferrated; the head is deflected under the neck ; long before he was made chancellor of the duchy of
the pappi are clavated, compreffed, and obliquely blunt- Lancafter, and was treated by the king with lingular
ed; and the elytra are bent backwards near the apex, fatniliarity. The king having once dined with Sir
There are fix fpecies, all natives of different parts of Thomas at Chelfea, walked with him near an hour in
Europe. the garden, with his arm round his neck. After he
MORE (Sir Thomas), lord high chancellor of was gone, Mr Roper, Sir Thomas’s fon-in-law, ob-
England, the fon of Sir John More, knight, one of the ferved how happy he was to be fo familiarly treated
Judges of the King’s-bench, was born in the year 1480, k~ c:- 'T', —,:-J " r ’
in Milk-flreet, London. He was iirit fent to a fchool
at St Anthony’s in Threadneedle ftreet ; and after¬
wards introduced into the family of cardinal Moreton,
who in 1497 fent him to Canterbury college in Ox¬
ford. During his refidence at the univerfity he con-
ftantly attended the le&ures of Linacre and Grocinus,
on the Greek and Latin languages. Having in the
fpace of about two years made conflderable proficiency
in academical learning, he came to New-inn in Lon¬
don, in order to ftudy the law; whence, after fome
time, he removed to Lincoln’s-inn, of which his father
was a member. Notwithftanding his application to
the law, however, being now about 20 years old, he
was fo bigotted to monkifli difcipline, that he wore a
hair-ftiirt next his fitin, frequently failed, and often
flept on a bare plank. In the year 1503, being then
a burgefs in parliament, he diftinguifhed himfelf in the
houfe, in oppofition to the motion for granting a fub¬
fidy and three fifteenths for the marriage of Hen-
by the king : to which Sir Thomas replied, “ I thank
our lord, fon Roper, I find his grace my very good
lord indeed, and believe he doth as fingularly favour
me as any fubjedt within this realm : howbeit, I muft
tell thee, I have no caufe to be proud thereof; for if
my head would win him a caftle in France, it would
not fail to go off.” From this anecdote it appears,
that Sir Thomas knew his grace to be a villain.
In 1526 he was fent, with Cardinal Wolfey and
others, on a joint embaffy to France, and in 1529
with Bifhop Tonftal to Cambray. The king, it feems,
was fo well fatisfied with his fervices on thefe occa-
fions, that in the following year, Wolfey being dif-
graced, he made him chancellor; which feems the
more extraordinary, when we are told that Sir Tho¬
mas had repeatedly declared his difapprobation of the
king’s divorce, on which the great defenfor Jidei was fo
pofitively bent. Having executed the office of chan¬
cellor about three y^ars, with equal wifdom and inte¬
grity, he refigned the feals in 1533, probably to avoid
ry VII.’s eldeft daughter, Margaret, to the king of the danger of his refufing to confirm the "king’s di
Scotland. The motion was reje&ed; and the king
was fo highly offended at this oppofition from a beard-
lefs boy, that he revenged himfelf on Mr More’s father,
by fending him on a frivolous pretence to the Tower,
and obliging him to pay 1001. for his liberty. Being
now called to the bar, he was appointed law-reader at
Furnival’s inn, which place he held about three years;
but about this time he alfo read a public le&ure in
the church of St Lawrence, Old Jewry, upon St Au-
vorce. He now retired to his houfe at Chelfea”; dif-
miffed many of his fervants ; fent his children with
their refpeCtive families to their own houfes (for hi¬
therto he had, it feems, maintained all his children,
with their families, in his own houfe, in the true ftvle
of an ancient patriarch); and fpent his time in ftudy
and devotion: but the capricious tyrant w-ould not fuf-
fer him to enjoy this tranquillity. Though now re¬
duced to a private ftation, and even to indigence, his
  1 1:. c —1 1 • , ■ . .
ftin’s treatife Dc civitate Del, with great applaufe. He opinion of the legality of the king’s marriage with
had indeed formed a defign becoming a Francifcan Anne Boleyn was deemed of fo much importance, that
e~'— """ c - —j 1— -1 various means were tried to procure his approbation;
but all perfuafian proving ineffeftual, he was, with
fome others, attainted in the houfe of lords of mifpri-
fion of treafon, for encouraging Elizabeth Barton,
the nun of Kent, in her treafonable pradtices. His
innocence in this affair appeared fo clearly, that they
were obliged to ftrike his name out of the bill. He
then accufed of other crimes, but with the fame
friar, but was diffuaded from it; and, by the advice
of Dr Colet, married Jane, the eldeft daughter of John
Colt, Efq; of Newhall in Effex. In 1508 he was ap¬
pointed judge of the fireriff’s court in the city of Lon¬
don, wasmadea juftice of the peace, and became very
eminent at the bar. dn 1516 he went to Flanders in
the retinue of Bilhop Tonftal and Dr Knight, who
were fent by King Henry' VIII. to renew the alliance
with the archduke of Auftria, afterwards Charles V. effedl; till, refufing to take the oath enjoined by the
    c* j*  1 1 1  j C.   1,„    • . 1 . .1
On his return, Cardinal Wolfey would have engaged
Mr More in the fervice of the crown, and offered him
a6l of fupremacy, he was committed to the Tower,
and, after 15 months imprifonment, was tried at the
a penfion, which he refufed. Neverthelefs, it was bar of the King’s-bench, for high treafon, in denying
not long before he accepted the place of mailer of th#king’s fupremacy. The proof relied on the foie
the requefts, was created a knight, admitted of the
privy-touncil, and in 1520 made treafurer of the ex¬
chequer. About this time he built a houfe on the
evidence of Rich the folicitor-general, whom Sit Tho¬
mas, in his defence, fufficiently difcredited ; neverthe¬
lefs the jury brought him in guilty, and he
bank of the Thames, at Chelfea, and married a fecond demned to fuffer as a traitor. The merciful Harry,
wife. This wife, whofe name was Middleton^ and a
widow, was old, ill tempered, and covetous; neverthe¬
lefs Erafmus fays he was as fond of her as if fhe were
a young maid.
Vox.. XII. Parti.
however, indulged him with fimple decollation; and he
was accordingly beheaded on Tower-hill, on the 5th
of July 153J. His body, which was firft interred in
the Tower, was begged by his daughter Margaret,
& s and
M O R
and depofited in the chancel of the church at Chelfea,
where a monument, with an infcription written by
himfelf, had been fome time before erefted. This mo¬
nument with the infcription is ftill to be feen in that
church. The fame daughter, Margaret, alfo procured
his head after it had remained 14 days upon L.ondon-
bridge, and placed it in a vault belonging to the Ro¬
per’s family, under a chapel adjoining to St Dunftan’s
church in Canterbury. Sir Thomas More was a man
of fome learning, and an upright judge; a very pried
in religion, yet cheerful, and even afTeftedly witty (a).
He wanted not fagacity, where religion was out of the
queftion ; but in that his faculties were f» enveloped,
as to render him a weak and credulous enthufiaft. He
left one fon and three daughters; of whom Marga¬
ret, the eldeft, was very remarkable for her know¬
ledge of the Greek and Latin languages. She mar¬
ried a Mr Roper of Well-hall in Kent, whofe Life of
Sir Thomas More was publilhed by Mr Hearne at Ox¬
ford in 1716. Mrs Roper died in 1544; and was
buried in the vault of St Dunftan’s in Canterbury,
with her father’s head in her arms.
Sir Thomas was the author of various works, though
his Utopia is the only performance that has furvived in
the eileem of the woild; owing to the reft being chief¬
ly of a polemic nature: his anfwer to Luther has only
gained him the credit of having the beft knack of any
man in Europe, at calling bad names in good Latin.
His Englilh works were colledled and publifhed by
order of Queen Mary, in 1557; his Latin, at Bafil, in
1563, and at Louvain in 1566.
More (Sir Antonio), an eminent painter, was born
at Utrecht in 1719. Fie became a fcholar of John
Schorel, but feems to have ftudied the manner of
Holbein, to which he approached nearer than to the
freedom of defign in the works of the great mafters
that he faw at Rome. Like Holbein he was a clofe
imitator of nature, but did not arrive at his extreme
delicacy of finifliing ; on the contrary, Antonio fome-
times ftruck into a bold and mafeuline ftyle, with a
good knowledge of the chiaro feuro. In 1522, he
drew Philip II. and was recommended by cardinal
Granvelle to Charles V. who fent him to Portugal,
where he painted John III. the king, Catherine of
Auftria his queen, and the infanta Mary firft wife of
Philip. For thefe three pictures he received 600 du¬
cats, befides a gold chain of 1000 florins, and other
prefents. He had 100 ducats for his common por¬
traits. But ftill ampler rewards were beftowed on
him when fent into England, to draw the pifture of
queen Mary, the intended bride of Philip. They gave
him icol. a gold chain, and a penfion of icol. a
quarter as painter to their majefties. He made vari¬
ous portraits of the queen ; one was fent by cardinal
Granvclle to the emperor, who ordered 200 florins to
M O R
Antonio. He remained in England during the reign
of Mary, and was much employed; but having ne-
glefted, as is frequent, to write the names on the por¬
traits he drew, moft of them have loft part of their
value, by our ignorance of the perfons reprefented.
On the death of the queen, More followed Philip in¬
to Spain, where he was indulged in fo much familia¬
rity, that one day the king flapping him pretty
roughly on the flioulder, More returned the fport with
his hand-flick; a ftrange liberty (Mr Walpole ob-
ferves), to be taken with a Spanifli monarch, and with
fuch a monarch ! A grandee interpofed for his par¬
don, and he was ordered to retire to the Netherlands;
hut a meflenger was difpatched to recni him before he
had finilhed his journey. The painter, however, fen-
fible of the danger he had efcaped, modeftly excufed
himfelf, and proceeded. At Utrecht, he found the
duke of Alva, and was employed by him to draw fe-
veral of his miftrefles, and was made receiver of the
revenues of Weft Flanders; a preferment with which
they fay he was fo elated, that he burned his eafel, and
gave away his painting tools. More was a man of a
ftately and handfome prefesce ; and often went to
Bruflels, where he lived magnificently. At what time
or where he was knighted, is uncertain. He died at
Antwerp in 1575, in the i;6th year of his age. His
portrait, painted by himfelf, is in the chamber of
painters at Florence, with which the great duke, who
bought it, was fo pleafed, that he ordered a cartel
with fome Greek verfes, written by Antonio Maria
Salvini his Greek profefibr, to be affixed to the
frame. Another pifture of himfelf, and one of his
wife, were in the colle&ion of Sir Peter Lely. King
Charles had five pictures painted by this mafter. Mr
Walpole mentions a number of others that are in
England. But More did not always confine himfelf
to portraits. He painted feveral hiftoric pieces, par¬
ticularly one much efteemed of the refurreftion of
Chrift with two angels, and another of Peter and
Paul. A painter, who afterwards fold it to the prince
of Conde, got a great deal of money by fhowing it
at the foire St Germain. He made a fine copy of
Titian’s D^inae for the king ; and left unfinifhed the
Circumcifion, defigned for the altar in the church of
our Lady at Antwerp.
More (Henry), an eminent Englifh divine and phi-
lofopher, in the 17th century, was educated at Eton
fchool, and in Chrift-college in Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow, and fpent his life in a retired way,
publifhing a great number of excellent works. He re-
fufefl bifhoprics both in Ireland and England. He
was an open-hearted fincere Chriftian philofopher,
who ftudied to eftablifh men in the belief of provi¬
dence againft atheifm. Mr Hobbes was ufed to fay,
that if his own philofophy was not true, there was
none
[ 322
(a) This laft difpofition, we are told, he could not reftrain even at his execution. The day being come,
he afeended the fcaffbld, which feemed fo weak that it was ready to fall ; whereupon, “ I pray (laid he)
fee me fafe up, and for my coming down let me Ihift for myfelf.” His prayers being ended, he turned to
the executioner, and with a cheerful countenance faid, “ Pluck up thy fpirits, man, and be not afraid to do
thy office ; my neck is very fhort, take heed therefore thou ftrike not awry for faving thy honefty.” Then
laying his head upon the block, he bid him flay until he had put afide his beard, faying, “ That had never
committed anydreafon.”
M O R [ 323 1 M O R
Wore none that he fhould fooner like than our philofopher’s.
It His writings have been publifhed together in Latin
and Englifh, folio.
More (Alexander), was born at Caftros in i_6i6.
His father was a Scotfman, and principal of the col¬
lege which the Calvinifts had in that city. Alexander
Was fent to Geneva, where he was made profeffor of
Greek and of Theology, and at the fame time dif-
charged the office of a pallor. His violent love of
women, and the irregularity of his conduct, excited
a great number enemies againft him. Saumaife,
informed of, his difagreeable fituation, invited him to
Holland, where he was firft appointed profeffor of
Theology at Middleburgh, and afterwards profeflbr
of hillory at Amfterdam. The duties of thefe fta"
tions he difcharged with great ability ; and in 1655 he
went to !taly, where he remained a confiderable time.
It was during his travels in Italy that he publilhed his
beautiful poem on the defeat of the Turkifh fleet by
the Venetians ; and this work procured him the pre-
fent of a golden chain from the republic. Having ta¬
ken a diflike to Holland, he was tranflated to Charen-
ton. There his fermons attra&ed a numerous audi¬
ence, not fo much for their eloquence as for the fati-
rical allufions and wittieifms with which they abound¬
ed. This kind of llyle fucceeded with him, becaufe
it was natural; but in his imitators it appeared altoge¬
ther ridiculous. The impetuofity of hi# charafter
brought him into new quarrels, efpecially with Daille,
who had greatly the better of him in the difpute.—
This lingular man died at Paris September 20th, 1670,
aged 54, in the houfe of the duchefs de Rohan. He
was never married. His works are, 1, A Colleftion
of Controverfial Tradls. 2. Beautiful Orations and
Poems, in Latin. 3. An anfwer to Milton, intitled,
Alexandri Mori Jides publica. Milton has attacked
him with great feverity in his writings. Thofe fer¬
mons of his which are publilhed, by no means juftify
the reputation which he had acquired for that kind
of compofition.
MOREA, formerly called the Peloponnefus, is a pe-
.ninfula to the fouth of Greece, to which it is joined
by the ifthmus of Corinth. Its form refembles a mul¬
berry-leaf, and its name is derived from the great num¬
ber of mulberry-trees which grow theie. It is about
180 miles in length,.and 130 in breadth. The air is
temperate, and the land fertile, except in the middle,
where it is full of mountains, and is watered by a great
number of rivers. It is divided into three provinces;
Scania, Belvedera, and Brazzo-di-Maina. It was taken
from the Turks by the Venetians in 1687 ; but they
loll it again in 1715. The fangiac of the Morea re-
lides at Moaon. See Greece and Peloponnesus.
MOREAU (James), an eminent French phyfician,
born at Chalons-fur-Saone, was the difciple and friend
of the famous Guy Patin. He drew upon himfelf the
jcaloufy and hatred of the old phyficians by the pub¬
lic thefes he maintained, and afterwards vindicated in
his writings. He died in a very advanced age in 1729.
He wrote in French, 1. Confultations on the Rheu-
matifm. 2. A chemical treatife on Fevers. 5. A
phylical dilfertation on the Dropfy ; and other works
which are efteemed.
MOREELSE (Paul), an eminent painter, was
bora at Utrecht in 1575* and ftudied painting under
Michael Mirevelt. He Was very fuccefsful, not only MoreL
in portraits, but hiftorical fubjefts and architecture, —v——•
particularly after he had improved his talle by his
lludies in Italy. We have fome excellent wood-cuts
in chiaro-fcuro by this artilt, who died in 1638.
MOREL, the name of feveral celebrated printers to
the kings of France, who, like the Stephenfes, were
alfo men of great learning.
Frederic Morel, who was interpreter in the Greek
and Latin tongues, as well as printer to the king, was
heir to Vafcofan, whofe daughter he had married.—
He was born in Champagne, and he died in an ad¬
vanced age at Paris 1583. His fons and grandfons
trode in his Heps ; they didinguilhed themfelves in li¬
terature, and maintained alfo the reputation which he
had acquired by printing. The edition of St Gregory
of Nyfja, by his fon Claude Morel, is held in great
eltimation by the learned..
Morel (Frederic), fon of the preceding, and Hill
more celebrated than his father, was profeflor and in¬
terpreter to the king, and printer in ordinary for the
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French languages. He
was fo devoted to ftudy, that when he was told his
wife was at the point of death, he would no: ftir till
he had finiihed the fentence which he had begun. Be¬
fore it was liniihed, he was informed that flie waS ac¬
tually dead ; 1 nm forty for it (replied he coldly) Jhe
'was an excellent woman. This printer acquired great
reputation from the works which he publifhed, which
were very numerous and beautifully executed. From
the manuferipts in the king’s library, he publifhed fe¬
veral treatifes of St Bafd, Theodoret, St Cyrille ; and
he accompanied them with a tranflation. His edition
of the works of CEcumenius and Aretas, in 2 vols fo¬
lio, is much efleemed. In fliort, after diftinguifiiiirg
himfelf by his knowledge in the languages, he died
June 27, 1630, at the age of 78. His Tons and
grandfons followed the fame profeffion.
Morel (William), regius profeflbr of Greek, and
director of the king’s printing houfe at Paris, died
1564. He compofed a DiSionnaire Grec-Latin-Fran-
gohy which w'as publifhed in quarto in 1622, and
fome other works which indicate very extenfive learn¬
ing. His editions of the Greek authors are exceeding¬
ly beautiful. This great fcholar, who was of a diffe¬
rent family from the preceding, had a brother named
John, who died in prifon (w'here he had been con¬
fined for herefy) at the age of 20, and whofe body
was dug out of the grave, and burnt Feb. 27, 1559.
T hey were of the parifh of Tilleul, in the county of
Mortein, in Normandy.
Morel (Dom Robert), a benedidline monk of
the fociety of Saint-Maur, was born at Chaife-Dieu
in Auvergne, A. D. 1653. was appointed keeper
of the library of Saint-Germain desPresin 1680. He
was afterwards fuperior of different religious houfes.
In 1699 difengaged himfelf from every care, and
retired to Saint Denys, where he fpent his time in
compofing works of pradical religion. This learned
monk, who enjoyed from nature a lively and fruitful
imagination, excelled chiefly in fubjeds of piety, in a
knowledge of the Chriftian character, and of the
rules which regard the condud of the Chriftian life.
His converfation was fprightly and refined, his anfwers
were prompt and ingenious, his temper was gentle,
S s 2 equable.
M O R r 324 j M O R
Morel, equable, and full of gaiety mingled with difcretion.
J ’ His flovenly appearance did not debafe the beauty of
his mind. All his words breathed charity, piety, up-
rightnefs, fincerity, and innocence of manners. Great
hmplicity and modefty, the limits of which he never
tranfgreffed, concealed his excellencies from the vul¬
gar, but made him rank higher in the eftimation of
the wife and fenfible part of mankind Dorn Morel
died A. D. 1731, aged 79. His principal works are,
J. Ejfujions de cceur fur chaque verfe des Pfeaumes et da
Cantiques de V Eg life; Paris, 1716, in 5 vols. xzmo.
P. de Toumemine, a Jefuit, efteemed this book
(which abounds in pious and affeding thoughts and
expreflions) fo much, that he perufed it conftantly;
and when he was obliged to go to the country, he al¬
ways carried a volume of it along with him. He ear-
neftly fought to be introduced to the author, and in-
treated on his knees that he would grant him his be;
nedidtion (Hifloire Utteraire de la congregation de Saint
Maur, p. 504.^ 2. Entretiens fpiritueh fur les Evan-
giles des Dimanchcs et des Myfleres de toute I’annee, difh ilues
pour tons les jours de V Avent, 1720, 4 vols. 12 mo.
3. Entretiens fpirituels, pour fervir de preparation d la
Mort, izmo, 1721. 4. Imitation de N. S. /. C. a new
translation, with a pathetic prayer, or an effufion of
the heart, at the conclufion of every chapter, in 1 zmo,
1723. 5. Meditations Chretiennes fur les EoSangiles de
toute I’annee, 2 vols. izmo, 1726. 6. De VEfperance
Chretienne et de la Confance en la mifericorde de Dieu,
izmo, 1728. The greater part of Morel’s works
are devotional; and his obfervations are drawn chiefly
from the fcriptures, and from the pradlical writings
of the fathers. This circumftance greatly raffed the
reputation of his works, and at the fame time excited
the envy and ill-will of his enemies. By them he was
confidered as a Janfenift; and in this light he is repre-
fented in the Ditlionnaire des livres 'Janfenifles.
Morel (Andreas), a very eminent antiquary, born
at Berne in Switzerland. Having a ftrong paflion for
the ttudy of medals, he travelled through feveral coun¬
tries, and made large colle&ions : in 1683 he publifli-
ed at Paris, in 8vo, Specimen univerfc rei nummaria;
antique : and the great work of which this was the
fpecimen was to be a complete collection of all ancient
medals, of which he had at that time 20,000 exadkly
defigned. Soon after this eflay appeared, Louis XIV.
gave him a place in his cabinet of antiques, in which
capacity he brought himfelf into great danger by
fpeaking too freely of M. Louvois on account of the
negledt in paying his falary, or ori’fome other private
account, as he was committed to the Baftile, where
he lay fo* three years ; nor was he releafed until the
death of Louvois, nor till the canjon of Berne had in¬
terceded in his favour. He afterward accepted an in¬
vitation from the count of Schwartzburg at Arnftadt,
in Germany, with whom he lived in the capacity of an¬
tiquary, and was furnifhed with every thing neceffary
for carrying on his grand work. In 1703 he died ;
and in 1734 came out at Amfterdam part of this col-
le&ion, in 2 vola. folio, under the title of Thefaurus
Morellianus,Jive famiiiurum Romanorum numifmata omnia,
diligentiffime undique conquifita, &c. Nunc primum edidit
ipf commentario perpetuo illujlravit Sigibertus Havercampus.
Thefe volumes contain an explication of 3539 medals,
engraved, with their reverfes.
MOREh<A, (anc. geog.), a diftrift or divifion of Morena
Myfia, in the Hither Afia. A part of which was oc- II
cupied by Cleon, formerly at the head of a band of Morgagn':»
robbers, but afterwards prieft of Jupiter Abrettenus, ir~"^
and enriched with pofleffions, firft by Antony, and
then by Csefar.
MORESBY, a harbour a litttle above Whitehaven,
in Cumberland ; in and about which many remains of
antiquity have been dug up, fuch as altars and ftones,
with infcriptions on them ; and feveral caverns have
been found called Pi&’s Holes. H«e is fuppofed to
have been a Roman fortification.
MORESQUE, Moresk, or Morifko, a kind of
painting, carving, &c. done after the manner of the
Moors ; confifting of feveral grotefque pieces and com-
partiments promifcuoufly intermingled, not containing
any perfeft figure of a man, or other animal, but a wild
refemblance of birds, beafts, trees, &c. Thefe are alfo
called arabefques, and are particularly ufed in embroi¬
deries, damafk-work, &c.
MQRESQVE-Dances> vulgarly called Morrice-dances%
are thofe altogether in imitation of the Moors, as fa-
rabands, chacons, &c. and are ufually performed with
caftanets, tapibours, &c.
There are few country places in England where the
morrice-dance is not known. It was probably intro¬
duced about, or a little before, the reign of Henry VIII.
and is a dance of young men in their ftiirts, with bells at
their feet, and ribbands of various colours tied round
their arms and flung acrofs their fhoulders.
MORETON, a town of Devonlhire, with a mar¬
ket on Saturdays, feated on a hill, near Dartmore, and
is a pretty large place, with a noted market for yarn.
It is 14 miles fouth-weft of Exeter, and 185 welt by
fouth of London. W. Long. 3.46. N. Lat. 50. 39.
Moreton, a town in Gloucefterlhire, whofe mar¬
ket is difufed. It is a good thoroughfare, and feated
on the Fofleway, 29 miles eaft-fouth-eall of Worce-
fter, and 83 well-north-weft of London. W. Long.
1. 36. N. Lat. 52. o.
MORGAGNA. See Fata.
MORGAGNI (John Baptift), dodtor of medicine,
firft profeflbr of anatomy in the univerfity of Padua,
and member of feveral-of the moil eminent focieties of
learned men in Europe, was born in the year 1682, at
Forli, a town in the diftrift of I,a Romagna in Italy.
His parents, who were in eafy circumftances, allowed
him to follow that courfe in life his genius diftated.
Fie began his ftudies-at the place of his nativity ; but
foon after removed to Bologna, where he obtained the
degree of Doftor of Medicine, when he had but juft
reached the 16th year of his age. Here his peculiar
tafte for anatomy found an able preceptor in Valfalva,
who bellowed on him the utmoft attention ; and fuch
was the progrefs he made under this excellent mailer,
that at the age of 20 he himfelf taught anatomy with
high reputation. Soon, however, the fame of his pre-
le&ions, and the number of his pupils, excited the
jealoufy of the public profeflbrs, and gave rife to in¬
vidious perfecutions. But his abilities and prudence
gained him a complete triumph over his enemies ; and
all oppofition to him was finally terminated from his
being appointed by the fenate of Bologna to fill a me¬
dical chair, which foon became vacant. But the du¬
ties of this office, although important, neither occu-
M O R [ 325 ] M O R
Morgagni pled the whole of his time, nor fatisfied his anxious
H defire to afford inftru&ion. He ftill continued to la-
, JtTer^es' hour in fecret on his favourite fubjeft, and foon after
" communicated the fruits of thefe labours to the public in
his Adver/arm Anatomic a, the firft of which was pub-
liftied in the year 1706, the fecond and third in 1717,
and the three others in 1719. The publication of this
excellent work fpread the fame of Morgagni far be¬
yond the limits of the ftate of Bologna. Such was his
reputation, that the wife republic of Venice had no
hefitation in making^him an offer of the fecond chair
of the theory of medicine in the unLverfity of Padua,
then vacant by the death of M. Molinetti ; and, to
enfure his acceptance, they doubled the emoluments
of that appointment. While he was in this department,
he publiffed his treatife, entitled Nova injtitutionum
medkarum idea, which firft appeared at Padua in the
year 1712. From this work his former reputation fuf-
fered no diminution. And foon after he rofe, by dif¬
ferent fteps, to be firft profeflbr of anatomy in that
celebrated univerfity. Although Morgagni was thus
finally fettled at Padua, yet he gave evident proofs of
his gratitude and attachment to Bologna, which .he
confidered as his native country with refpeft to the
fciences. He exerted his utmoft efforts in eftabliffing
the academy of Bologna, of which he was one of the
firft affociates; and he enriched their publications with
feveral valuable and curious papers. Soon after this,
the royal focieties of London and Paris received him
among their number. Not long after the publication
of his Adverfaria Anatomica, he began, much upon
the fame plan, his Eptjlola Anatomica, the firft of
which is dated at Padua in the beginning of April
1726. The works of Morgagni which have already
been mentioned, are to be confidered, in a great mea-
fure, as ftri&ly anatomical: but he was not more emi¬
nent as an anatomift, than as a learned and fuccefsful
phyfician. In the year 1760, when he was not far di-
ftant from the 80th year of his age, he publifhed his
large and valuable work De caufis et fedibus morborum
per anatomen inda^atis. This laft and moft important
of all his productions will afford convincing evidence
of his induftry and abilities to lateft pofterity. Befides
thefe works, he publiftied, at different periods of his
life, feveral mifcellaneous pieces, which were after¬
wards collected into one volume, and printed under his
own eye at Padua, in the year 1765. It does not ap¬
pear that he had in view any future publications ; but
he intended to have favoured the world with a com¬
plete edition of all his works, which would probably
have been augmented with many new obfervations. In
this he was engaged when, on the 5th of December
1771, after he had nearly arrived at the 90th year
of his age, death put a period to his long and glori¬
ous career in the learned world.
MORGANA, or Morgagna, Fata. See Fata.
MO RGBS, a handfome and rich town of Swiffer-
land, in the canton of Bern, and capital of a bailiwick,
with a caftle where the bailiff refides. It is a place of
fame trade on account of a canal, from which they
tranfport merchandizes from the lake of Geneva to
other parts. There is a fine profped from it, and it
is feated on the lake of Geneva, five miles from.Lau-
fanne.. E, Long. 6. 42- N. Lat. 46. 29.
MORGO, anciently an ifland in the Ar- Morgo
chipelago, fertile in wine, oil, and corn. It is well H .
cultivated, and the inhabitants are affable, and gene- ^r,n‘
rally of the Greek-church The beft parts belong to v"””'
a monaftery. The greafeft inconvenience in this ifland
is the want of wood. It is 30 miles in circumference.
E. Long. 26. 17. N. Lat. 36. 30.
MORFIj^NGE, a town.of Germany, in Lorrain,
whofe lord has the title <jf Rhinegrave, and depends
on the empire. It is 24 miles north-eaft of Nanci,
and 200 eaft of Paris. E. Long. 6. 42. N. Lat.
48. 51.
MORHOFF (Daniel George), a very learned Ger¬
man, born at Wifinar in the duchy of Mecklenburgh,
in 1639. The duke of Holftein, when he founded an
univerfity at Kiel, made him profeflbr of eloquence
and poetry there in 1665 ; to which wTas afterwards
added the profefforlhip of hiftory, and in 1680 the
office of librarian to the univerfity. He was the author
of many works of a fmall kind ; as orations, differta-
tions, thefes, and poems : but his chief work was his -
Polyhijlor, five de notitia auctorum et rerum commentarii;
firft publiftied at Lubec in 1688 ; which has been
greatly enlarged fince his death in 1691, and gone
thrk*ugh feveral fucceflive editions.
MORIAH, one of the eminences of Jerufalem ; on
which Abraham went to offer his fon, and David
wanted to build the temple, which was afterwards ex¬
ecuted by Solomon : The threfhing-floor of Araunah;
originally narrow, fo as fcarce to contain the temple,
but enlarged by means of ramparts ; and furrounded
with a triple wall, fo as to add great Hrength to the
temple, (Jofephus). It may be confidered as a part
of Mount Sion, to which it was jpined by a bridge and
gallery, (Id.)
MOR1LLES, a kind of mulhroom, about the big-
nefs of a walnut, pierced with holes like a honey¬
comb, and faid to be good for creating an appetite.
They are alfo accounted reftorative, and frequently
ufed in fauces and ragouts.
-MORILLOS (Bartholomew), of Seville in Spain,
was born A. D. 1613. After having cultivated
painting with fuccefs in his own country, he travelled
into Italy, where he was greatly admired for a man¬
ner peculiar to himfelf, and capable of producing a
wonderful effedt. The Italians, aftonilhed at the ex¬
cellence of his genius and the freflinefs of his colour¬
ing, did not hefitate to compare him to the celebrated
Paul Veronefe. On his return to Spain, Charles 1L
brought him to court, with the intention of making
him his firft painter; but Morilios declined the offer,
pretending, as an excufe, that his age would not per¬
mit him to accept of an employment of fuch impor¬
tance. His extreme modefty, however, was the foie
caufe of his refufal. He died in 1685, aged 72 years.
MORIN (John Baptift), phyfician and regius pro-
feffor of mathematics at Paris, was born at Vilkfranche
in Beaufolois, ih 1383. After commencing dodtor at
Avignon, he went to Paris, and lived with Claude Dor-
mi biftiop of Boulogne, -who fent him to examine the
mines of Hungary ; and thereby gave occafion to his
Mundus fublunaris anatomia, which was his firft pro-
du&ion, and publilhed in 1619. Upon his-return to
his patron the bifhop, he contraded an attachment to
judicial -
M O R r 326 ] M O R
judicial aftrology, concerning which he furnifhed the
world with many ridiculous ilories, and wrote a great
fiunsber of books not worth enumerating. He died in
1656, before he had finifhed the favourite labour of
his life, which was his AJlrologia Gallica. Louifa Maria
de Gonzaga ijueen of Poland gave 2000 crowns to
cany on the edition, at the recommendation of one of
her fecretaries, who was a lover of aftrology; and it
appeared at the Hague in 1661, in one vol. folio, with
two dedications, one to JefuS Chrilt, and another to
the queen of Poland. *
Morin (John), a very learned Frenchman, born at
Blois, of Proteftant parents, in 1591 ; but converted
by cardinal du Perron to the catholic religion. He
publifhed, in 1626, fome Exercitations upon the ori¬
ginal of Patriarchs and Primates, and the ancient ufage
of eccleliaftical cenfures ; dedicated to pope Urban
VIII. In 1628 he undertook the edition of the
jSeptuagint Bible, with Nobilus’s verfion ; and placed
a preface before it, in which he treats of the authority
of the Septuagint, and prefers the verfion in the edi¬
tion made at Rome by order of Sixtus V. to the pre-
fent Hebrew text, which he affirms has been corrupt-
ed by the Jews. About the fame time he gave a
French Hiftory of the deliverance of the church by the
emperor Conftantine, and of the temporal greatnefs
conferred on the Roman church by the kings of France.
He afterwards publifhed Exercitations upon the Sa¬
maritan Pentateuch; and took the care of the Sama¬
ritan Pentateuch, for-the Polyglot then preparing at
Paris. He was greatly careffed at Rome ; where, af¬
ter living nine years at the invitation of cardinal Bar-
barini, he was recalled by Cardinal Richelieu, and died
at Paris in 1659. His works are very numerous; and
fome of them as much valued by Proteftants as Papifts
for the oriental learning they contain.
Morin (Simon), a celebrated fanatic of the 17th
century, was born at Richemont, near Aumale, and
had been clerk to Mr Charron, general paymalter of,
the army. He was very ignorant and illiterate ; and
therefore it is no wonder if, meddling in fpiritual
matters, he fell into great errors. He was not con¬
tent with broaching his whimfies in converfation, but
Avrote them down in a book, which he caufed to be
•privately printed in 1647, under the title of Penfees
de.Morin dediees an Pot. This.bock is a medley of
conceit and ignorance, and contains the mod remark¬
able errors which were afterwards condemned in the
Quierifts : only that Morin carries them to a greater
length than any one tlfe had done ; for he affirms,
“ that the mod enormous fins do not remove a finner
from the date of grace, but ferve on the contrary to
humble the pride of man.” He fays, “ that in all
fefts and nations God has a number of the deft, true
members of the church ; that there would foon be a
general reformation, all nations being jud about to be
converted to the true faith ; and that this great refor¬
mation was to be effefted by the feebnd coming of
Jefus Chrid, and Morin incorporated with him.”—
He was in prifon at Paris, at the time when Gaffendi’s
friends were writing againd the adrologer John
Baptid Morin, whom they upbraided (but, as be re¬
plied, falfely) with being the brother of this fanatic.
This was about 1650 5 after which Simon Morin was
fet at liberty as a vifionary ; and fuffered to continue Ma;
fo till 1661, when Des Marets de St Sorlin, who, >
though a fanatic and vifionary himfelf, had conceived
a violent averfion to him, difeovered his whole febeme,
and had him taken up. The means Des Marets made
ufe of for this difeovery was by pretending to be one
of his difciplcs ; and.he carried his treachery and dif-
fimulation fo far, as to acknowledge him for “ the
Son of man rifen again.” This acknowledgement fo
pleafed Morin, that he conferred upon him, as a par¬
ticular grace, the office of being his harbinger, calling
him a real John the Bapt'ijl revived. Then Des Ma¬
rets impeached him, and became his accufer ; upon
which Morin was brought to a trial, and condemned
to be burnt alive. This fentence was executed on
him at Paris, March 14th, 1663, t^ie f°rm and man¬
ner following: After having made the amende honorable
in his ffiirt, with a cord about his neck and a torch
in his hand, before the principal gate of the church
of Notre Dame, he was carried to the place of exe¬
cution, and there tied to a flake to be burnt alive, to¬
gether with hisj book intituled Penfees de Morin, as
alfo all his papers and his trial. Afterwards his aihes
were thrown into the 'air, as a punifirment for his ha¬
ving affirmed the title of the Son of God. His ac¬
complices, too, were condemned to affifl at his execu¬
tion, and then to ferve in the galleys for life, after ha¬
ving been whipped by the hangman, and marked with
a burning iron with jleurs de Us upon the right and
left fhoulders. Morin gave out that he would rife
again the third day ; which made many of the mob
gather together at the place where he was burnt.—
It is faid, that when the prefident de Lamoignon aik-^
ed him, whether it was written in any part of Scrip¬
ture, that the great prophet or new Meffiah Ihould
pafs through the tire ? he cited this text by way of
anfwer : Igne me examina/li, et non ejl inventa in me ini-
quitas ; that is, “ Thou haft tried me with fire, and
no wickedneis hath been found in me.” Morin died
with remarkable refolution j and it was then thought
the judges had been too rigorous in their fentence, and
that fending him to a mad-houfe would have been fuf-
ficient. They replied in defence of themielves, that
Morin had owned many' impious tenets ; and that not
in fudden ftarts and fits of heat, but in cool blood,
and with deliberate obftinacy. But then a queftion
will arife, whether a fool, any more than a madman,
ought to be capitally puniftied for any opinion or de¬
gree of ftubbornnefs l
Morin (Peter), was born at Paris, A. D. 1531 :
he went into Italy, and was employed by the learned
Paulus Manucius in his pcinting-houfe at Venice—
He afterwards taught Greek and cofmography at Vi-
cencia, whence he was called to Ferrara by the duke
of that name. St Gharles Borronu-us, informed of
his profound knowledge in eccleliaftical antiquities, of
his difintereftednefs, of his zeal and piety, oflered him
his friendlhip, and engaged him to go to Rome in
1575. lire popes Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V.
employed him in an edition of the Septuagint, 1587,
and in one of the Vulgate, 1590, in folio. He alio
fpent much of his time on an edition of the Bible
tranflated from the Septuagint, and publiftied at Rome,
1588, in folio; on an edition of the Decretals to the
time
M O R [ ;
Morin, the time of Gregory VII, publiihed at* Rome, 1591 ;
“■’■'V”" and on a Colleftion of General Councils, likewife pub-
lifhed at Rome, 't6o8, 4 vols., This learned critic
died at Rome, 1608, aged 77. His character was
open, Ample, fincere, gentle, and honeft : his temper
■was equal and agreeable. He was an enemy to arti¬
fice and cunning ; he defpifed riches and honours ; and
he feemed to have a paffion for nothing but ftudy.—
He fpcke Italian with as much eafe and propriety as
the moft intelligent native. He left behind him Un
Traite du bon ufage des Sciences, and fome other wri¬
tings, publifhed by Father Quetif, a Dominican friar,
in 167 <•. FI is works difplay great refearch and ex¬
cellent principles; and the author appears to have
been well acquainted with the belles lettres and the
languages. His edition of the Septuagint, printed
at Rome, 1687, in folio, is now very fcarce.
Morin (Stephen), minifter of the Proteftant re¬
formed religion at Caen, the place of his birth, was
admitted a member of the Academy of Belles Lettres
in that city, notwithftanding an exprefs law which
excluded Proteftants. His great learning gained him
this mark of diftinftion. After the revocation of the
edift of Nantes, he retired to Leyden in 168 5, and
from that to Amfterdam, where he was appointed pro-
feflbr of Oriental languages. He died in 1700,31
the age of 7 after being long fubjeA to infirmities
both of body and mind. He publifhed eight differ-
tations in Latin relating to fubjecls of antiquity, which
are extremely curious. The Dordrecht edition of
1700, 8vo, is the beft, and preferable to that publifh¬
ed at Geneva in 1683, 410. Fie wrote likewife the
life of Samuel Bochart.
Morin (Henry), fon to the preceding, was born
at Saint-Pierre-Sur-Dive, in Normandy, and became
a Roman Catholic after he had been a Proteftant mi¬
nifter. Fie is the author of feveral diflertations which
are to be found in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Infcriptions, of which he was a member. He died at
Caen, on the 16th of July 1728, aged 60, as much
efteemed as his father.
Morin (Lewis,), was born at Mans in 1635. He
went on foot to Paris to ftudy philofophy, and collec¬
ted herbs during the whole journey. He afterwards
ftudied phyfic, and lived in the manner of an ancho¬
rite, bread and water, or at rnoft but a few fruits, be-
iug his whole fubfiftence. Paris was to him a hermi¬
tage ; with this exception, that it furnifhed him with
books, and with the converfation and acquaintance of
the learned. He received the degree of doiftor of
medicine in 1662 ; and, after feveral years pra&ice, he
was expeftant at the Hotel-Dieu. His reputation
made Mademoifelle de Guife choofe him for her firft
phyfician, and the Academy of Sciences for one of its
members. He died A. D. 1715, aged 80. A long
and vigorous life, with a gentle and eafy death, were
the rewards of his temperance. The exercifes of re¬
ligion and the duties of his ftation occupied his whole
time. No part of it was fpent in paying or receiving
vifits. “ Thofe who come to fee me (faidhe) do me
honour; thofe who do not come, lay me under an
obligation.” “ It was only an Anthony (faid Fonte-
nelle) who could vifit this Paul.” He left a library
valued at 20,000 crowns, an herbal, together with a
cabinet of medals; and this feems to have been his
27 1 M O R
whole fortune. His mental enjoyments had been Morin
much more expenfive than thofe of the body. An H
index to Hippocrates, in Greek and Latin, much Mor'fon-
more copious and better finiihed than that of Pinus,
was found among his papers.
MoRiN'(John), was born at Meung near Orleans
in 1705, and in (732 he was appointed profeflbr of
philofophy at Chartres. In 1750 the biihop of Char¬
tres rewarded his long and affiduous attention to claf-
fical learning by a canomy in the cathedral, At the
age of 38, Morin publilhed his Mecanifme Univerfet,
one volume 1 amo, which contains a great deal of in¬
formation, but much more conje£ture. His next
work was a Treatife on Eleftricity, publifhed in 1748.
His third and laft performance was an anfwer to the
Abbe Nollet, who had attacked his opinions concern¬
ing elearicity. His reputation was not limited to
the province in which he lived : he was well known to
the academies of fciences at Paris and Rouen, with
whom he frequently correfponded. He continued his
application to the fciences, and difplayed the virtues
of the prieft and the philofopher to the laft hour of
his life. This valuable man died at Chartres, on the
28th of March 1764, at the age of 59.
MORINA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 48th order,
Aggregate. The corolla is unequal ; the calyx of the
fruit is monophyllous and dented ; the calyx of the
flower bifid ; there is one feed under the calyx of the
flower.
MORINORUM Castellum (anc. geog.), fimply
Caftellum (Antonine) ; fituated on an eminence, with
a fpring of water on its top, in the territory of the
Morini. Now Mont Cajfel, in Flanders.
MORINDA, in botany : A genus of the mono¬
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
48th order, Aggregate. The flowers are aggregate
and monopetalous; the ftigmata bifid ; the fruit plums
aggregate, or in clufters.
MORISON (Robert), phyfician and profeflbr of
botany at Oxford, was born at Aberdeen in 1620,
bred at the univerfity there, and taught philofophy for
fome time in it; but having a itrong inclination to bo¬
tany, made great progrefs in it. The civil wars obliged
him to leave his country; which, however, he did not
do till he had firft fignalized his zeal for the intereftof
the king, and his courage, in a battle fought between,
the inhabitants of Aberdeen and the Prefbyterian
troops on the bridge of Aberdeen, in which he recei¬
ved a dangerous wound on the head. As foon as he
was cured of it, he went into France; and fixing at
Paris, he applied affiduoufly to botany and anatomy.
He was introduced to the duke of Orleans, who gave
him the dire&ion of the royal gardens at Blois. He
exercifed the office till the death of that prince, and
afterwards went over to England in 1660. Charles II.
to whom the duke of Orleans had prefented him at
Blois, fent for him to London, and gave him the title
of his phyftciari, and that of profejfor royal of botany y
with a penfion of 2001. per annum. The Preeludium
Botanicum, which he publifhed in 1669, procured him
fo much reputation, that the univerfity of Oxford in¬
vited him to the profeflbrffiip of botany in 1669;
which
M o R 1 328 ] M o R
Morifonia, which he accepted, and acquitted himfelf in it with
,Moriachia.great ability. He died at London in 1683, a^ed 63.
, He publiflied a fecond and third part of his Hiftory
of Plants, in 2 vols, folio ; with this title. Plant arum
Hiftoria Oxoiiienjis Univerfalis. The firft part of this
excellent work has not been printed ; and it is not
known what has become of it.
MORISONIA, in botany : A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the monadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
25th order, Putaminea. The calyx is Angle and bifid ;
the corolla tetrapetalous ; there is one piftil; the berry
has a hard bark, is unilocular, polyfpermous, and pede-
cellated.
MORLACHIA, a mountainous country of Dal¬
matia. The inhabitants are called Morlacks or Mor-
lacchi; they inhabit the pleafant valleys of Koter, along
the rivers Kerha, Cettina, Narenta, and among the
inland mountains of Dalmatia. The inhabitants are
by fome faid to be of Walachian extraction, as (ac¬
cording to thefe authors) is indicated even by their
name ; Morlachia being a contraction of Mauro-Wa-
lachia, that is. Black Walachia: and the Walachians
are faid to be defcendants of the ancient Roman co¬
lonies planted in thefe countries. This, however, is
denied by the AbbC Fortis, who hath publifhed a vo¬
lume of travels into that country. He informs us,
that the origin of the Morlacchi is involved in the
darkpefs of barbarous ages, together with that of
many other nations, refembling them fo much in cu-
ftoms and language, that they may be taken for one
people, difperfed in the vaft tracks from the Adriatic
fea to the frozen ocean. The emigrations of the va¬
rious tribes of the Slavi, who, under the names of
Scythians, Geti, Goths, Hunns, Slavini, Croats, Avari,
and Vandahi invaded the Roman empire, and parti¬
cularly the Illyrian provinces during the decline of the
empire, muft have ftrangely perplexed the genealo¬
gies of the nations which inhabited it, and which per¬
haps removed thither in the fame manner as at more
remote periods of time. The remainder of the Ar-
disei, Autariati, and other Illyrian people anciently
fettled in Dalmatia, who probably cou]d not reconcile
themfelves to a dependence on the Romans, might ne-
verthelefs naturally enough form an union with fo¬
reign invaders not unlike themfelves in dialed and cu-
ftoms ; and, according to our author, it feems no ill-
founded conjefture, that many families, driven out
of Hungary by the irruption of the Moguls under
Jenghiz Khan and his fucceffors, might people the
deferted valleys between the mountains of Dalmatia.
This conjefture is alfo fomewhat confirmed by the
traces of the Calmuck Tartars, which are ftill to be
found in a part of that country called Zara.
With regard to the etymology of the name, the
Abbe obferves, that the Morlacchi generally call them¬
felves, in their own language, Vhjfi; a nationaTterm,
of which no veftige is found in the records of Dal¬
matia till the 13th century. It figniiies powerful
■men, or men of authority ; and the denomination of Mo-
ro Vlafft, corruptly Morlacchi, as they are now called,
may perhaps point out the original of the nation. This
word may pofiibly fignify the conquerors that came from
the fea; Moor, in all the dialed., of the Sclavonian
language, fignifying the fea.
N° 2^9.
The Morladchi are fo different from the inhabitants Morlachia.
of the fea-coafts in dialed, drefs, difpofitions, and ’ * ^
cuftoms, that they feem clearly to be of a different
original, or at leaft the colonies muff have fettled at
fuch diftant periods from each other, that they have
had time to alter in a great meafure their national cha-
rader. There is alfo a remarkable diverfity among
the Morlacchi themfelves in feveral diftrids, pro¬
bably on account of the different countries from whence
they came.
With regard to the charader of thefe people, we
are informed that they are much injured by their ma¬
ritime neighbours. The inhabitants of the fea coaft
of Dalmatia tell many frightful ffories of their avarice
and cruelty: but thefe, in our author’s opinion, are all
either of an ancient date, or if any have happened in
latter times, they ought rather to be afcribed to the
corruption of a few individuals, than to the bad dif-
pofition of the nation in general; and though thievifh
tricks are frequent among them, he informs us, that
a tlranger may travel fecurely through their country,
where he is faithfully efcorted, and hofpitably treated.
The gredteft danger is from the Haiduks or Banditti,
of whom there are great numbers among the woods
and caves of thefe dreadful mountains on the confines.
There, fays our author, a man ought to get himfelf
efcorted by a couple of thefe “ honeft fellowsfor
they are not capable of betraying him although a
banditti; and their fituation is commonly more apt to
raife compaffion than diffidence. They lead their life
among the wolves, wandering from one precipice to
another, expofed to the feverity of the feafons, and
frequently languilh in want of the neceffaries of life,
in the moft hideous and folitary caverns. Yet they
very feldom difturb the tranquillity of others, and
prove always faithful guides to travellers; the chief
objefts of their rapine being fheep and oxen, to fup-
ply themfelves with food and (hoeS. Sometimes it
happens, that, in their extreme neceffity, the Haiduks
go in parties to the ffiepherds cottages, and rudely
demand fomething to eat; which they do not fail to
take immediately by force if the leaft hefitation is
made. It is feldom indeed that they meet with a re-
fufal, or with refiftance, as their refolution and fury
are well known to be equal to the favage life they
lead. Four Haiduks are not afraid to affault a cara¬
van of 15 or 20 Turks, and generally'plunder and
put them to flight. The greateft part of the Haiduks
look upon it as a meritorious aftion to filed the blood
of the Turks ; to which cruelty they are eafily
led by their natural ferocity, inflamed by a miftaken
zeal for religion, and the difcourfes of their fanatic
priefts.
As to the Morlacchi themfelves, they are repre-
fented as open and fincere to fuch a degree, that they
would be taken for fimpletons in any other country;
and by means of this quality they have been fo often
duped by the Italians, that the faith of an Italian and
the faith oj a dog. are fynonymous among the Morlacchi.
They are-very hofpitable to ftrangers ; and their ho-
fpitality is equally confpieuous among the rich and
poor. The rich prepares a roafted lamb or fiieep,
and the poor with equal cordiality offers whatever
he has; nor is this generolity confined to ftrangers,
but generally extends itfelf to all who are in want.
* When
M O R r 3
Morlachia. When a Morlack Is on a journey, and comes to lodge
at a friend’s houfe, the eldeft daughter of the family,
or the new-married bride if there happens to be one,
receives and kiffes him when he alights from his
horfe or at the door of the houfe : but a foreigner is
rarely favoured with thefe female civilities; on the
contrary, the women, if they are young, hide them-
felves, and keep out of his way.
The Morlacchi in general have little notion of
domeftic ceconomy, and readily confume in a week;
as much as would be fufficient for feveral months,
whenever any occafion of merriment prefents itfelf.
A marriage, the holiday of the faint, protc&or of the
family, the arrival of relations or friends, or any other
joyful incident, confumes of courfe all that there is
to eat and to drink in the houfe. Yet the Morlack is
a great oeconomift in the ufe of his wearing-apparel;
for rather than fpoil his new cap, he takes it olf, let
it rain ever fo hard, and goes bareheaded in the ftorm.
In the fame manner he treats his fhoes, if the road is
dirty and they are are not very old. Nothing but an
abfolute impoflibility hinders a Morlack from being
pun&ual; and if he cannot repay the money he bor¬
rowed at the appointed time, he carries a fmall pre-
fent to his creditor, and requells a longer term. Thus
it happens fometimes, that, from term to term, and
prefent to prefent, he pays double what he owed,
without refle&ing on it.
Friendlhip, that among us is fo fubjeft to change
on the flighted: motives, is lading among the Mor¬
lacchi. They have even made it a kind of religious
point, and tie the facred bond at the foot of the altar.
The Sclavonian ritual contains a particular benedic¬
tion for the fokmn union of two male or two female
friends in the prefence of the congregation. The
male friends thus united are called Pobratimi, and the
female Pofejlreme, which mean half-brothers and half-
fiders. Friendlhips between thofe ^of different fexes
are not at this day bound with fo much folemnity,
though perhaps in more ancient and innocent ages it
was alfo the cudom.
From thefe confecrated friendlhips among the Mor¬
lacchi and other nations of the fame origin, it Ihould
feem that the /worn brothers arofe ; a denomination
frequent enough among the common people of Italy
and in many parts of Europe. The difference be-
^ tween thefe and the Pobratimi of Morlacchia confifts
not only in the want of the ritual ceremony, but in
the defign of the union itfelf. For, among the Mor¬
lacchi, the foie view is reciprocal fervice and advan¬
tage ; but fuch a brotherhood among the Italians is
generally commenced by bad men, to enable them the
more to hurt and didurb fociety. The duties of the
Pobratimi are, to affid each other in every cafe of
need or danger, to revenge mutual wrongs, and fuch
like. The enlhufiafm is often carried f© far as to rifle
and even to lofe their life for the Pobratimi, although
thefe favage friends are not celebrated like a Pylades.
If difeord happens to arife between two friends, it is
talked of ov<. all the country as a fcandalous novelty ;
and there uas been fome examples of it of late years,
to the great affli&ion of the old Morlacchi, who at¬
tribute the depravation of their countrymen to their
iiitercourfe with the Italians. Wine and drong li¬
quors, of which the nation is beginning to make dailr
Von. XII. Part I. * 7
9 ] M O R
abufe, will of courfe produce the fame bad effecls as Mot-lac’;]
among others. ——y—*
But as the friendlhips of the Morlacchi are drong
and facred, fo their quarrels are commonly nnextin-
guifhable. They pafs from father to fon ; and the
mothers fail not to put their children in mind of their
duty to revenge their father if he has had the mis¬
fortune to be killed, and to fhow them often the
bloody fkirt and arms of the dead. And fo deeply
is revenge rooted in the minds of this nation, that
all the midionaries in the world would not be able
to eradicate it. A Morlack is naturally inclined to
do good to his fellow-creatures, and is full of gra¬
titude for the fmalled benedt; but implacable if in¬
jured or in fulled.
A Morlack who has killed another of a powerful
family, is commonly obliged to fave himfelf by flight,
and to keep out of the way for feveral years. If
during that time he has been fortunate enough to
efcape the fearch of his purfuers, and has got a fmall
fum of money, he endeavours to obtain pardon and
peace ; and, that he may treat about the conditions
in perfon, he alks and obtains a fafe conduct, which
is faithfully maintained, though only verbally granted.
Then he finds mediators; and, on the appointed day,
the relations of the tws hollile families are affembk-d,
and the criminal is introduced, dragging himfelf along
on his hands and feet, the mufket, pilloJ, or cutlafs,
with which he committed the murder, hung about bis
neck ; and while he continues in that humble poftuie,
one or more of the . relations recites a panegyric on
the dead, which fometimes rekindles the flames of re¬
venge, and puts the poor prollrate in no fmall danger.
It is the cuftom in fome places for the offended party
to threaten the criminal, holding all kind of arms to
his throat, and, after much intreaty, to confent at
laft to accept of his ranfom. Thefe pacifications coll;
dear in Albania ; but the Morlacchi make up matters
fometimes at a fmall expence; and every-where the
bufinefs is concluded with a fealt at the offender’s
charge.
The Morlacks, whether they happen to be of the
Roman or of the Greek church, have veiy fingular
ideas about religion; and the ignorance of their teach¬
ers daily augments this monflrous evil. They are as
firmly perfuaded of the reality of witches, fairies, en¬
chantments, no&urnal apparitions, and fortileges, as
if they had feen a thoufand examples of them. Nor
do they make the leaft doubt about the exiftence of
vampires ; and attribute to them, as in Tranfylvania,
the fucking the blood of infants. Therefore, when
a man dies fufpefted of becoming a vampire, or vu-
iodluk, as they call it, they cut his hams, and prick
his whole body with pins; pretending, that after this
operation he cannot walk about. There are even in-
ftances of Morlacchi, who, imagining that they may
poffibly thirft for childrens blood after death, intreat
their heirs, and fometimes oblige them to promife, to
treat them as vampires when they die.
The boldeft Haiduk would fly trembling from the
apparition of a fpe&re, ghoft, phantom, or fuch like
goblins as the heated imaginations of credulous and
prepoffeffed people never fail to fee. Nor are they
afhamed, when ridienkd for this terror ; but anfwer,
much in the words of Pindar; “ Fear that proceeds
T t from
M O R
r 330 1
Morlaclua. from fpirits, caufes even the fons of the gods to fly.”
u"—The women, as may be naturally fuppofed, are a hun¬
dred times more timorous and vifionary than the men;
and fome of them, by frequently hearing theml'elves
called witches, actually believe they are fo.
A mod perfett difeord reigns in Morlachia, as it
generally does in other parts, between the Latin and
Greek communion, which their refpe&ive prietls fail
not to foment, and tell a thoufand little fcandalous fto-
jies of each ether. The churches of the Latins are
poor, but not very dirty : thofe of the Greeks are
equally poor, and lhamefully ill kept. Our author
has feen the curate of a Morlack village fitting on the
ground in the church-yard, to hear the confeflion of
women on their knees by his fide-; a llrange pofture
indeed ! but a proof of the innocent manners of thofe
good people, who have the mail profound veneration
for their fpiritual pallors, and a total dependence upon
them ; who, on their part, frequently make ufe of a
difeipline rather military, and corretl the bodies of
their offending flock with the cudgel. Perhaps this
particular is carried to an abufe as well as that of pub¬
lic penance, which they pretend to infliil after the
manner of the ancient church. They moreover, thro*
the filly credulity of thofe poor mountaineers, draw il¬
licit profits, by felling certain fuperilitious fcrolls and
other fcandalous merchandife of that kind. They
write in a capricious manner on the fcrolls called zn-
piz, facred names which ought not to be trifled with,
and fometimes adding others very improperly joined.
The virtues attributed to thefe zapiz are much of the
fame nature as thofe which the Bafilians attributed to
their monftroufly cut flones. The Morlacchi ufe to
carry them fewed to their caps, to cure or to prevent
difeafes ; and they alfo tie them for the fame purpofe
to the horns of their oxen. 1 he compofers of this
trumpery take every method to maintain the credit of
their profitable trade, in fpite of its abfurdity, and the
frequent proofs of its inutility. And fo great has
their fuccefs been, that not only the Morlacchi, but
even the Turks near the borders provide themfelves
plentifully with zapiz from the Chriilian priefts, which
not a little increafes their income, as well as the repu¬
tation of the commodity. The Morlacchi have alfo
much devotion, and many of the ignorant people in
Italy have little lels, to certain copper and filver coins
of the low empire; or to Venetian cotemporary pieces,
which pafs among them for medals of St Helen ; and
. they think they cure the epilepfy and fuch like. They
are equally fond of an Hungarian coin called petizza,
which has the virgin and child on the reverfe ; and
one of thefe is a moil acceptable prefent to a Mor¬
lack.
The bordering Turks not only keep with devotion
the fuperftitious zapiz, but frequently bring prefents
and caufe mafles to be celebrated to the images o! the
Virgin; which is doubtlefs in contradiction to the
alcoran; yet when faluted, in the ufual manner in
that country, by the name of Jefvs, they do not an-
fwer. Henee, when the Morlacchi, or other travellers,
meet them on the confines, they do not fay, Hung linn
JJfus, “ Jefus be praifed;” but, Huaglian Bog,. “ God
be praifed.”
Innocence, and the natural liberty of paftoral ages,
are ftill preferved among the Morlacchi, or at kail
M CJ R
many traces of them remain in the places fartbeft di-Morlachia.
llant from our fettlements. Pure cordiality of fenti •  v—4
ment is not there reftrained by other regards, and dif-
playsitfelf without any diffindlion of circumilances. A
young handfome Morlack girl, who meets a man of her
diftridt on the road, kiffes him affectionately, without
the leaft malice or immodcil thought; and our author
has feen all the women and girls, all the young men
and old, killing one another as they came into the
church-yard on a holiday ; fo that they looked as if
they had been all belonging to one family. He hath
often obferved the fame thing on the road, and at the
fairs in the maritime towns, where the Morlacehi
came to fell their commodities. In times of feafting
and merriment, befides the kiffes, fome other little li¬
berties are taken with the hands, which we would not
reckon decent, but are not minded among them ; and
when they are told of it, they anfwer, It is only toy¬
ing, and means nothing. From this toying, however,
their amours often take their beginning, and frequent¬
ly end ferioufly when the two lovers are once agreed.
For it very rarely happens, in places far diftant from
the coaft, that a Morlack carries off a girl againft her
will, or dilhonours her : and were fuch attempts made,
the young woman would, no doubt, be able to defend
herfelf; the women in that country being generally
very little lefs robuft than the men. But the cuflom is
for the woman herfelf to appoint the time and place
of being carried off; and Ihe does fo in order to ex¬
tricate herfelf from other fuitors, from whom fhe may
have received fome love-token, fuch as a brafs ring, a
little knife, or fuch like trifles. The Morlack women
keep themfelves fomevvhat neat till they get a huf-
band; but after marriage they abandon themfelves to¬
tally to a loathfome dirtinefs, as if they intended to
jultify the contempt with which they are treated. In-
deed it cannot be faid that even the young women.
have a grateful odour, as they are ufed to anoint their
hair with butter, which foon becoming rancid exhales
no agreeable effluvia.
The drefs of the unmarried women is the moft com¬
plex and whimfical, in refped to the ornaments of the
head ; for when married they are not allowed to wear
any thing elfe but a handkerchief, either white or co¬
loured tied about it. The girls ufe a fcarlet Cap, to
which they commonly hang a veil falling down on the
{boulders, as a mark of their virginity. The better
fort adorn their caps with firings of filver coins, a-
mong which a- e frequently feen very ancient and va¬
luable ones ; they have moreover ear-rings of very cu¬
rious work, and fmall filver chains with the figures o£
half moons faftened to the ends of them. But the poor
are forced to content themfdves with plain caps; or if
they have any ornaments, they confift only of fmall
exotic {hells, round glafs beads, or bits of tin. The-
principal merit of thefe caps, which conftitute the
good tafte as well as vanity of the Morlack young
ladies, is to attract and fix the eyes of all who are
near them by the multitude of ornaments, and the
noife they rtfake on the leafi motion of their heads.
Hence half-moons of filver, or of tin, little chains and
hearts, falfe {tones and {hells, together with all kind
of fplendid trumpery, are readily admitted into-their
head-drefs. In fome difirifts, they fix tufts of various-
coloured feathers refembling two horns on their caps ;
3 *
M X> R [ 33i 3 MO R
Mnrlachia. in otlievs, tremulous plumes of glafs ; arul in others,
•—-V— artificial flowers, which they purchafe in the fea port
towns; and in the variety of thofe capricious and bar¬
barous ornaments, fometimes a fancy not inelegant is
difplayed. Their holiday-flufts are embroidered with
red filk, and fometimes with gold, which they work
themfeives while they attend their flocks; and it is
furprifing to fee how nicely this work is executed.—
Both old and young women wear about their necks
large ftrings of round glafs-beads, of various fize and
colour; and many rings of brafs, tin, or iilver, on
their fingers. Their bracelets are of leather covered
with wrought tin or filver ; and they embroider their
ftomachers, or adorn them with beads or fhells. But
the ufe of flays is unknown, nor do they put whale¬
bone or iron in the ftomacher. A broad woollen
girdle furrounds their petticoat, which is commonly
decked with thells, and of blue colour, and therefore
called modrina. Their gown, as well as petticoat, is
of a kind of ferge ; and both reach near to the ankle :
the gown is bordered with fcarlet, and called jadak.
They ufe no modrina in fummer, and only wear the
fadak without fleeves over a linen petticoat or fliift.—
0 The girls always wear red ftockings; and their (hoes
are like thofe of the men, called opanke. The foie is
of undrefled ox-hide, and the upper'part of flieeps-fkin
thongs knotted, which they call apute; and thefe they
faften above the ankles, fomething like the ancient co¬
thurnus.
The unmarried women, even of the richeft females,
are not permitted to wear any other fort of Ihoes 5
though after marriage they may, if they will, lay afibe
the opanke, and ufe the Turkifli flippers. t he girls
keep their hair treffed under their caps, but when mar¬
ried they let it fall difhevelled on the breaft ; fometimes
they tie it under the chin 5 and always have medals*
beads, or bored coins, in the Tartar or American
paode, twifted amongft it. An unmarried woman,
who falls under the imputation of want of chaftity,
runs the rifle of having her red cap torn off her head
publicly in church by the curate, and her hair cut by
fome relation, in token of infamy Hence, if any
of them happen to have fallen into an illicit amour,
they commonly of their own accord lay afide the
badge of virginity, and remove into another part of
the country.
Nothing is more common among the Morlacchi than
marriages concluded between the old people of the re-
fpeftive families, efpecially when the parties live at a
great diflance, and neither fee nor know each other;
and the ordinary motive of thefe alliances is the am¬
bition of being related to a numerous and powerful fa
mily, famous for having produced valiant men. The
father of the future bridegroom, or fomeother near re¬
lation of mature age, goes to a(k the young woman,
or rather a young woman of fuch a family, not ha¬
ving commonly any determinate choice. Upon this
@11 the girls of the houfe are fliown to him, and he
choofes which pleafes him beft, though generally re*
fpe&ing the right of feniority. A denial in fuch cafes
is very rare ; nor does the father of the maid inquire
much into the circumflances of the family that afles her.
Sometimes a daughter of the mafter is given in mar¬
riage to the fervant or tenant, as was ufual in pa-
jtriafchal times; fo little are the women regarded in
this country. On thefe oceafions, however, the Mof- Morkchii.
lacchi girls enjoy a privilege which ours would alfo'~'^r*°w
wifh to have, as in juliice they certainly ought. For he
who a<ffs by proxy, having obtained his fuit, is obliged
to go and bring the bridegroom; and if, on feeing
each other, the young people are reciprocally content,
the marriage is concluded, but not otherwife. In
fome parts it is the cuftotn for the bride to go to fee
theTioufe and family of the propofed hufband, before
ftie gives a definitive anfvvet ; and if thejplace or per¬
rons are difagreeable to her, (he is at liberty to annul
the contraft. But if (he is contented, (lie returns to
her father’s houfe, efcorted by the bridegroom- and
neareft relations. There the marriage day is appoint¬
ed ; on which the bridegtoem comes to the bride’s
houfe, attended by all his friends of greatefl note,
who on this occafion are called fvati, and are all
armed, and on horfeback, in their holiday-deaths,
with a peacock’s feather in their cap, which is the di-
ftindive ornament ufed by thofe who are invited to
weddings. The company goes armed, to repulfe any
attack or ambufli that might be intended to difturb
the feafl ; for in old times thefe encounters were not
unfrequent, according to the records of many national
heroic fongs.
The bride is condu&ed to a church veiled, and fur-
rounded by the fvati on horfeback ; and the faered -
ceremony is performed amidfl the noife of mujkets, pi-
ftols, barbaric (bouts and acclamations, which conti¬
nue till fire returns to her father’s houfe, or to that of
her hufband, if not far off. Each of the fvati has his
particular infpedion, as well during the cavalcade as
at the maniage-feaft, which begins immediately on
their return from church. The parvinaz precedes all
the reft, finging fuch fongs as he thinks fuitable to
the occafion. ( he bariadar brandiflies a lance with a
fuken banner faflened to it, and an apple ftuck on the
point; there are two bariadars, and fometimes four,
at the more noble marriages. The ftari-fvat is the
principal perfonage of the brigade ; and the moft re-
ipectabie relation is commonly invefted with this dig¬
nity. The flacheo’s duty is to receive and obey the
orders of the fiari-fvat- The two diveri, who ought
to be the bridegroom’s brothers when he has any, are
appointed to ferve the bride. The knum correfponds
to our fponfors ; and the komorgia, or fekfana, is
deputed to receive and guard the dowery. A ciaous
carries the mace, and attends to the order of the march,
as matter of the ceremonies : he goes finging aloud,
Brcberi, Davori, Dobrafnchia, Jar a, Pico; names of
ancient propitious deities. Buklia is the cup-bearer of
the company, as well on the march as at table ; and
all thefe oflices are doubled, and fometimes tripled, in
.proportion to the number of the company.
i he firft day s entertainment is fometimes made at
the bride’s houfe, but generally at the bridegroom’s,
whither the fvati haflen immediately after the nuptial
benedict ion ; and a t the fame tifne three or four men
run on foot to tell the good news ; the firft who gets
to the houfe has a kind of towel, embroidered at the
ends, as a premium. The domachin, or head of the
houfe, comes out to meet his daughter-in-law ; and a
child is handed to her, before fhe alights, to carefs it 5
and if there happens to be none in the houfe, the child
is borrowed from one of the neighbours. "When (he
T t 2 alights,
M O R [ 332 ] MO R
alights, ihe kneeli down, and ki.Tes the th re (hold.— whence our Italian word jlra’vizxo is undoubtedly de- Morlachia.
Then the mother-in-law, or in her place fome other rjved. They continue three, fix, eight, or more days,  v~-'-
female relation, prefents a corn-fieve, full of different according to the ability or prodigal difpolition of the
kinds of grain, nuts, almonds, and other fmall fruit, family where they are held. Tne new-married wife
which the bride fcatters upon the fvati, by handfuls, gets no inconfiderable profit in thefe days of joy ; and
behind her back. The bride does not fit at the great it ufually amounts to much more than all the portion
table the firft day, but has one apart for herfelf, the fhe brings with her, which often confifts of nothing
two diveri, and the ftacheo. The bridegroom fits at but her oven cloaths and perhaps a cow ; nay, it hap-
table with the fvati; but in all that day, confecrated to pens fometimes that the parents, initead of giving
the matrimonial union, he mult neither unloofen or cut money with their daughter, get fomething from the
any thing whatever. The knum carves his meat, and bridegroom by way of price. The bride carries wa-
cuts his bread. It is the domachin’s bufinefs to give ter every morning, to walh the hands of her guefts as
-the toads ; and the ftari fvat is the firft who pledges long as the feafting lafts; and each of them throws a
him. Generally the bukkara, a very large wooden fmall piece of money into the bafon after performing
cup, goes round, firfl to the faint protestor of the fa- that fun&ion, which is a very rare one among them,
>nily ; next to the profperity of the holy faith; and excepting on fuch occafions. The brides are alfo per-
fometimes to a name the moft fublime and venerable, mitted to raife other little contributions among the
Txte moft; extravagant abundance reigns at thefe feafts; fvali, by hiding their fhoes, caps, knives, or fome
and each of the fvati contributes, by fending a ftiare other necefl'ary part of their equipage, which they are
of provifiens. The dinner begins with fruit and obliged to rarifom by a piece of money, according as
cheefe ; and the foup comes laft, juft contrary to our the company rates it. And, belides all thefe volun-
cuftom. All forts of domeftic fowls, kid, lamb, and tary or extorted contributions already mentioned,
fometimes venifon, arc heaped ia prodigal quantities each guell muft give fome prefent to the new married
upon their tables ; but very rarely a Mor’acco eats wife at taking leave the laft day of the fdraviie ; and *
veal, and perhaps never, unlef; he has been perfuaded then ihe alfo diilributes fome trifles in return, which
to do it out of his own country. This abhorrence to commonly conlift in ihirts, caps, handkerchiefs, and
calves -fleflr is very ancient among the Morlacchi. St fuch like.
Jerom, againft jovinian, takes notice of it ; and To- The nuptial-rites are almoft precifcly the fame thro’
meo Marnavich, a Bofnian writer, who lived in the all the vaft country inhabited by the Morlacchi; and
beginning of the laft age, fays, that the Dalmatians, thofe in ufe among the peafants and common people
uncorrupted by the vices of ilrangers, abftained from of the fea-coaft of Dalmatia, Iftria, and the illands,
eating calves flefti, as an unclean food, even to his differ but little from them. Yet among thefe particu-
days. The women relations, if they are invited, ne- lar varieties, there is one of the ifland Zlarine, near
ver dine at table with the men, it being an eftabliftted Sebenico, remarkable enough ; for there the ftarif-
cuftom for them to dine by themfelves. After dinner, vat (who may naturally be fuppofed drunk at that
they pafs the reft of the day in dancing, finging an- hour) muft, at one blow with his naked broad fword,
cient fongs, and in games of dexterity, or of wit and ftrike the bride’s crown of flowers off her head, when
fancy ; and in the evening, at a convenient hour after (he is ready to go to bed. And in the ifland of Pago,
fnpper, the three ritual healths having firft gone round, in the village of Novoglia (probably the Giffa of an-
the knum accompanies the bridegroom to the matri- cient geographers), there is a cuftom more comical,
monied apartment, which commonly is the cellar or and lefs dangerous, but equally favage and brutal. Af-
the liable, whither the bride is alfo conduced by the ter the marriage contract is fettled, and the bride-
diveri and the ftacheo; but the three laft are obliged groom comes to condudt his bride to church, her fa-
to retire, and the knum remains alone with the new- ther ot mother, in delivering her over to him, makes
married couple. If there happens to be any bed pre- an exaggerated enumeration of her ill qualities :
gared better than draw, he leads them to it: and ha- “ Know, fince thou wilt have her, that Ihe is good
ving untied the bride’s girdle, he caufes them both to for nothing, ill-natured, obftinate, &c.” On which
undrefs each other reciprocally. It is not long fince the the bridegroom, affe<fting an angry look, turns to the
knum was obliged to undrefs the bride entirely ; but young woman, with an “ Ah! fince it is fo, I will
that cuftom is now out of ufe ; and, inftea J of it, he teach you to behave better ;” and at the fame time
has the privilege of killing her as often as he pleafes, regales her with a blow or a kick, or fome piece of
wherever he meets her ; .which privilege may polfibly fimilar gallantry, which is by no means figurative,
be agreeable for the firft months, but muft foon be- And it feems in general, that the Morlack women,
come very difguftful. When they are both undreffed, and perhaps the greateft part of the Dalmatians, the
the knum retires, and Hands liftening at the door, if inhabitants of the cities excepted, do not diflike a
there be a door. It is his bufinefs to announce the beating either from their hulbands or lovers,
confummai ion of the marriage, which he does by dif- In the neighbourhood of Dernilh, the women are
charging a piftol, and is anfwered by many of the obliged, during the firft year after marriage, to kifs
company. The next day the bride, without her veil all their national acquaintances who come to the houfe;
and virginal cap, dines at table with the fvati, and is but after the firft year they arc difpenfed from that
forced to hear the coarfe equivocal jells of her indcli- compliment; and indeed they become fo intolerably
cate and fometimes intoxicated company. nally, that they are no longer fit to praftife it. Per1-
Thefe nuptial-feafts, called /drove by the ancient haps the mortifying manner in which they are treated
liuns, are by our Morlacchi called /Jravize, from by their hulbands and relations is, a; the fame time,
botX.
M O R [3
MorUehia, both the caufe and effect of their flumeful neglect of
Aiorlej, tjiejr perfons. When a Morlack hulband mentions
w * " his wife, he always premifes, by your leave, or beg¬
ging your pardon. And when the hufband ha; a bed-
ftead, the wife muft deep on the floor near it. Our
author often lodged in Morlack houfes, and obferved
that the female fex is univerfally treated with contempt:
it is true, that the women are by no means amiable in
that country ; they even deform and fpoil the gifts of
nature.
The pregnancy and births of thofe women would
be thought very extraordinary among us, where the
ladies fuffer fo much, notwithflanding all the care and
circumfpedion ufed before and after labour. On the
contrary, a Morlack woman neither changes her food
nor interrupts her daily fatigue on account of her
pregnancy ; and is frequently delivered in the fields,
dr an the road, by herfelf; and takes the infant,
walhes it in the fit It water Ihe finds, carries it home,
and returns the day after to her ufual labour, or to
feed her flock.
The little creatures, thus carelefsly treated in their
tendered; moments, are afterwards wrapt in miferable
rags, where they remain three or four months, under
the fame ungentle management; and when that term
is elapfed, they are fet at liberty, and left to crawl
about the cottage and before the door, till they learn
to walk upright by .themfelves ; and at the fame time
acquire that frngular degree of flrength and health
with which the Morlacchi are endowed, and are able,
without the lead inconvenience, to expofe their naked
breads to the fevered frods and fnow. The infants are
allowed to fuck their mother’s milk while fhe has any,
or till die is wich child again ; and if that Ihould not
happen for three, four, or fix years, they continue all
that time to receive nourilhment from the bread. The
prodigious length of the breads of the Morlacchian
women is fomewhat extraordinary ; for it is very cer-
"■ tain, that they can give the teat to their children over
their Ihoulders, or under their arms. They let the boys
run about, without breeches, in a -Hurt that reaches
only to the knee, till the age of 13 or 14, following
the cudom of Boffina, fubjedd to the Porte, where no
haraz or capitation-tax is paid for the boys till they
wear breeches, they being confidered before that time
as children, not capable of labouring, or of earning
their bread. On the occafion of births, and efpecial-
ly of the fird, all the relations and friends ftndprefenis
of eatabies to the woman in childbed, or rather to the
1 woman delivered ; and the family makes a. fupper of
all thofe prefents together. The women, do not enter
the church till 40 days after child-birth.
' The Morlacchi pafs their youth in the woods, at¬
tending their flocks and herds; and in that life of quiet
and leifure they often become dexterous in carving
with a Ample knife:.they make woodencups,andwhidles
adorned with fanciful baffe-reliefs, which are not void
of merit, and at lead (how the genius of the people.
MORLEY (George), bilhop of Wincheder, was
the fon of Francis Morley, Efq; and was born at
London in 1597. He was educated at, Chrid-church,
Oxford, of which he had the canonry in 1641, and
the next year was made doftor of divinity. He had
alfo feveral church-preferments, of which he was de-
1 , « O R
prived by the parliament vifitors in the beginning of Mofnaf.
the year 1648. After this, king Charles I. fent for t—"
him to affid at the treaty of the Ifle of Wight. After
the king’s death he attended the lord Capel at his
execution, and then retired to. Charles II. at the
Hague, on whom he condantly waited till his majedy
went to Scotland, when he retired to Atwerp, where
he read the fervice of the church of England, as he
afterwards did at Breda. At the Redoration he was
fird made dean of Chrid church, and in 1660 was
confecrated biflrop of Worceder, and foon. after was
made dean of the royal chapel In 1662 he was
tranflated to the bifhopric of Wincheder, when he
bedowed conhderable fums on that fee, in repairing
Farnham-caille and his palace at Wedminder, and in.
purchafing Wincheder houfe at Chelfea. He died at
Farnham-cadle in 1684. He was a Calvinid, and
before the wars was thought a friend to the Puritans4
but after his promotion he took care to free hinuelf
from all fufpicions of that kind. He was a pious and
charitable man, of a very exemplary life, but extremely
paffionate. He publidled, 1. Epijlola apolagetica et pa-
ranetka ad tbeologum quendam Belgam fcnptay in 4to.
2. The fum. of a Ihort conference between Father
Darcey a Jefuit and Dr Morley at Bruffels. 3. An
argument drawn from the evidence and certainty of
fenfe againd the doftrine of Traijfubdantiation. 4. A
letter to Anne duchefs of York. 5. Several fermohs,.
and other pieces.
MORNAY (Philippe de), feigneur du Pleffis-
Marly, was born at Buhy or Bifliuy in Upper Nor¬
mandy, November 5th, 1549, and educated at Paris.
What was then thought a prodigy in a gentleman, he.
made a rapid progrefs in the belles lettres, in the
learned languages, and in theology. He was at firft
dedined for the church ; but the principles of Calvi-
nifm, which he had imbibed from his mother, effec¬
tually excluded him from the ecclefiadical preferments
to which he was entitled by his intered, abilities,
and birth. After the horrible maflacre of St Bartho¬
lomew, Philippe de Mornay made the tour of Italy,
Germany, England, and the Low Countries ; and he
was equally improved and delighted by his travels.
Mornay afterwards joined the king of Navarre, at that
time leader of the Protedant party, and fo well known
fince by the name of Henry IV. This prince fent
Mornay, who employed his whole abilities, both as
a foldier and a writer, in defence of the Protedant
caufe, to conduct a negociation with Eiifabeth queen
of England ; and left him wholly to his own diferetion
in the management of that bufinefs. He was fuccefs-
ful in almod every negociation, becaufe he conducted
them like an able politician, and not with a fpirit of
intrigue. He tenderly, loved. Henry IV. and fpoke
to him on all occafions as to a friend. When he was
wounded at Aumale, he wrote to him in theft; words:
“ Sire, you have long enough adted the part of
Alexander, it is now time you Ihould aft that of
Casfar. It is our duty tQ die for your majedy, &c.
It is glorious for you. Sire, and. I dare venture to tell
you it is your duty, to live for. us.” This faithful
fubjeft did every thing in his power <0 vaift Henryj
to the throne. But when he deftrted the Protedant
faith, he reproached him in the biuered manner, and.
retired.
M O R
Morrs^. retired fvorn court. 'Henry ftill loved him ; and was
extremely afFefted with an infult which he received in
1597 from one Saint-Phal, who beat him with a
cudgel, and left him for dead. Mornay demanded
juitice from the king ; who gave him the following
anfwer, a proof as well of his fpirit as of his goodnefs
of heart. “ Monfieur Dupleffis, I am exceedingly of¬
fended at the infult you have received ; and I fympa-
thize with you both as your fovereign and your friend.
In the former capacity, I fhall do juftice to you and
to myfelf; and had 1 fuflained only the chara&er of
yonr friend, there are few perhaps who would have
drawn their fword or facrificed their life more cheer¬
fully in your caufe. Be fatisfied, then, that I will adt
the part of a king, a mafter, and a friend, See.” Mor-
nay’s knowledge, probity, and valour, made him the
foul of the Protellant party, and procured him the
contemptuous appellation of the PoJ>e of the Huguenots.
He defended their doftrines both by fpeech and wri-
tirig. One of his books on the Iniquity of the Mafs,
having ftirred up all the Catholic divines, he refufed
to make any reply to their cenfures and criticifms
except in a public conference. This was accordingly
appointed to be held A. D. 1600, at Fountainbleau,
where the-court'then was. The two champions were,
du Perron bHhop of Evreux, and Mornay. After a
great many arguments and replies on both fides, the
viftory was adjuged to du Perron. He had boafted
that he would point out to the fatisla&ion of every
one five hundred errors in his adverfary’s hook, and
he partly kept his word. The Calvinilts did not fail
to claim the victory on tins occafion, and they ftill
r 33+ i
M O It
ftant caufe never had an abler fupporter or one who Morns-
did it more credit by his virtues and abilities.- garou.
Cenfeur des court Jans, mats « /a cour atme ;
Fier ennemi de Rome, ct de Rome ejl'ime. Hentu ade.
The following is a lift of his works: t. Un Traitt
de PEuchartfle, 1604, in folio. 2. Un Trade de lit
verite de la Religion Chretieme, 8vo. 3. A book en¬
titled La Myjlere d’iniquitS, 410. 4. Un difeours fur le
droit pretendu par ceux de la maifon de Guife, 8vo. 5. Cu¬
rious and interefting Memoirs from the year 1572 to
1629, 4 vols 4to, valuable. 6. Letters; which are
written with great fpirit and good fenfe. David des
Liques has given us his life in qudrto ; a book more
interefting for the matter than the manner.
MORNE-o arou, a very remarkable volcanic moun¬
tain on the ifland of St Vincent’s in the Weft Indies.
It was vifited by Mr James Anderfou furgeon in the
year 1784, who is the only perfon that ever afeended
to the top of it, and from whofe account, in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfasftions, VqJ. LXXV. the following is
taken.
The mountain in queftion is fituated on the north-
weft part of the ifland, and is the higheft in it. It is
conftantly reported to have emitted volcanic eruptions;
and the ravins at the bottom feem to corroborate the
traditions of the inhabitants in this refpeeft. The
ftrufture of it, when viewed at a diftance, appears dif¬
ferent from that of any other mountain in the ifland,
or that Mr Anderfon had feen in the Weft Indies:
He could perceive it divided into many different ridges,
feparated by deep chafms, and its fummit appeared
continue to do fo. This conference, inftead of quite deftitute of every vegetable production. Several
gutting an end to the differences, was productive
of new quarrels among the controverfialifts, and of
lunch profane wit among the libertines. A Hu¬
guenot minifttr, who was prefent at the conference,
obferved with great concern to a captain of the
fame party,—“ The bifliop of Evreux has already
driven Mornay from feveral ftrong holds.,, “ No
matter (replied the foldier), provided he does not
drive him from Saumur.” This was an important
place on the river Loire, of which Duplefiis was go¬
vernor. Hither he retired, his attention being con¬
ftantly occupied in defending the Huguenots, and in
making himfelf formidable to the Catholics. When
Louis XIII. was making preparations againft the Pro-
teftants, Dupleffis wrote him a letter, diffuading him
againft fuch a meafurc. After employing the moft
plaulible atguments, he concludes in the following
manner: “ To make war on the fubjeCt, is an indi¬
cation of weaknefs in the government. Authority
conlifts in the quiet fubmiffion of the people, and is
eftablifhed hy the prudence and juftice of the gover¬
nor. - Force of arms ought never to be employed ex¬
cept in repelling a foreign enemy. The late king
would have fent the new minifters of ftate to learn the
iirft elements of politics, who like unlkilful furgeons
■would apply violent remedies to every difeafe, and
ndvife a man to cut bff an arm when his finger aches.”
Thefe remonftrances produced no other effeCt than
the lofs of the government of Saumur, of which he
was deprived by Louis XIII. in 1621. He died two
years after, November nth, 1623, aged 74, in his
barony de la Foretfur-Scure in Poitou. 1 he Prote-
ravins, that run from the bottom a great way up the
mountain, were found quite deftitute of water, and
pieces of pumice-ftone, charcoal, and feveral earths
and minerals of a particular quality, fc-.nd in them,
plainly indicated fome very great Angularity in this
mountain. Some very old men alfo informed our au¬
thor, that they had heard it related by the captain of
a Ihip, that between this ifland and St Lucia he faw
flames and fmoke riling from the top of the mountain,
and next morning his decks were covered with allies
and fmall ftones.
Mr Anderfon’s curiofity was fo much excited by
thefe circumftances, that he formed a refolution of
going up to the top ; but was informed that this was
impofiible, nor could he find either white man, Carib-
bee, or negro, who would undertake to fliow him the
way. Having obferved the bafis as well as he could,
with a view to difeover the moft proper place for at¬
tempting an afeent, he found feveral dry ravins that
feemingly ran a great way up, though he could not
be certain that they were not interfered by rocks or
precipices lying acrofs. Having examined the moun¬
tain with a good glafs, he thought he perceived two
ridges by which there was a poffibility of getting up ;
and though they appeared to be covered for 2 great
way with wood, he hoped by a little cutting to open
a way through it.
On the 26th of February 1784 our author began
his journey, having been furnilhed by a Mr Maloune,
w ho lives within a mile of the foot of the mountain,-*
with two ftout negroes, and having another boy who
waited on himfelf. They arrived at the bottom of
the
M O R [ 335 ] M O R
Marne- the mountain a little before feven in the morning, ha-
gaiou. v|ng each a good cutlafs to cat through the woods, or
1 ^ to defend themfelves in cafe of an attack from the Ca-
ribbee? or runaway negroes. Before they could get
at either of the ridges, however, they haa a rock to
climb upwards of 40 feet high Having fcrambled
up this with great difficulty, they found themfelves in
the bottom of a deep and narrow ravin, which having
afcended a little way, they arrived at the habitation of
Mr Gafco a Frenchman. Mr Anderfon exprelfes his
furprife, that a young and healthy man, and a good
mechanic, fhould fequeitrate himfelf from the world
among woods and precipices, where he was befides in
continual danger 6f being fwept away with his whole
habitation by the torrents occalioned by the rains. He
found him, however, an intelligent man, and was ho*
fpitably entertained by him.
“ The difficulty (fays Mr Anderfon) in going thro’
woods in the We t Indies, where there are no roads
or paths, is far beyond any thing an European can
conceive. Befides tall trees and thick underwood,
there are hundreds of different climbing plants twifted
together like ropes, and running together in all direc¬
tions to a great extent, and even to the tops of the
higheft trees. They cannot be broken by pufhing
on ; and many of them are not to be cut without diffi¬
culty. Befides thefe, a fpecies of grafs, the /charms
lithofpermos, with ferrated leaves, cuts and tears the
hands and face terribly.”
By reafon of thefe obftruftions, it was upwards of
two hours before they got upon the ridge ; but here
they found their paffage more difficult than before.
They were now futrounded by a thick foreft, render¬
ed more tmprafticable by the large piles of trees blown
down by the hurricanes; which obliged them in many
places to creep on their hands and feet to get below
them, while in others it was neceflary to climb to a
confiderable height to get over them; at the fame time
that by the trunks being frequently rotten, they often
tumbled headlong from a great height, and could not
extricate themfelves without great difficulty.
The fatigue of cutting their way through the woods
foon became intolerable to the negroes; fo that about
four in the afternoon he could not prevail on them to
go any farther. Mr Anderfon therefore perceiving it
was impoffible to get to the fummit that night, and
his water being totally expended, returned to Mr
Gafco’s, where he fpent the night, determining to try
another route next morning. The hofpitable French¬
man entertained him in the heft manner he could; but
though he parted with his own hammock to him,
and flept on a board himfelf, Mr Anderfon found it
impoffible to (hut his eyes the whole night by reafon
of the eddi “ His hut (fays he) was built of.ro/caux
qr large reeds, between, each two. of which a dog
might creep through, and the top was covered with
dry grafs. It is fituated in the bottom of a deep
gully, where the fun does not fhine till nine in the
morning norafter four in the afternoon. It is fur-
rounded by thick wood ; and during the night the
whole of the mountain is covered with thick clouds;
from which it frequently rains, and which makes the
might-air exceedingly cold ”
Early next morning Mr Anderfoa fet out in com¬
pany with the negro boy, who continued very faithful
to him during the whole of the journey. He now Memo
determined to take his courfe up the ravin, and pro- '^arou‘
ceeced for about a mile and an half without any con- ' ”-'v
fiderable obfhu&ion. It now, however, began to
narrow' fail : there were numbers of rock ; and pre¬
cipices to climb over, with many buffies and vines
which could fcarcely be got through At laft: the
ravin terminated at the bottom of a very high preci¬
pice. It was impoffible to know the extent of this, as
the top was covered with thick wood; but from the
bottom upward, as far as he could fee, was loofe fand
with ferns and tufts of grafs, which as foon as he took
hold of them came up by the roots. Though the
afeent was plainly at the riik of his hTe, Mr Anderfon
refolved to attempt it; and therefore telling the. boy
to keep at fome diitance behind, left he flrould tumble
and drive him down, he began to afeend, digging
holes with his cutlafs to put Ins feet in, an J taking
hold of the tufts of grafs as lightly as poffible. Not-
withftanding all his care, however, he frequently flip¬
ped down a confiderable way; but at. it was only loofe
fand, he could eafily pufh his cutlafs into it up to the
handle, and thus by taking hold of it recover himfelf
again. At laft he got up to fome wild plantains,
which continued all the way to the place where the
trees began to grow. Here he relied for fome time,
waiting for the boy, vyhd got up with much lefs diffi¬
culty than he had done On getting up to the top of
the precipice, he found himfelf on a very narrow ridge,
covered with wood, and bounded by two ravins, the
bottoms of which he could not fee, the defeent to them
appearing to be nearly perpendicular, though all the
way covered with thick wood Proceeding onwards*
they found the ridge exceedingly narrow, in many
places not fix feet broad ; with a tremendous gulf on
each fide, into which they were every moment in dan-
ger of falling; fo that Mr Anderfon was obliged to
lie down on his belly with great caution, in order to
fee through the bufltes how the ridge tended. ’
Here a fulphureous fmell, or rather one like gun¬
powder, began to be perceived; which, Mr Anderfon
knew, muft proceed from the top of the mountain, ae
the wind then blew that way ; and as it plainly grew
ftronger as he advanced, he was in hopes that the top
could not be very far diftant. Perceiving a rifing be¬
fore him, he imagined, that, by getting upon it, he •
might have a view ©f the top of the mountain ; but
when this was done, he could only fee a peak on the
north-weft fide of the mountain, to which, by ap¬
pearance, he judged himfelf- very little nearer than
when at the bottom.
The woods now became very difficult, great quan¬
tities of fallen trees lying buried among the grafs; and
being rotten, he was frequently buried very deep
among them when he thought himfelf walking upon
firm ground. About noon, he was alarmed with a
ruftling among the bufhes, and fomething like a hu¬
man voice behind him ; but as he was preparing to de¬
fend himfelf againft Garribbpes or run-away negroes,
he was agreeably.furpriled with the fight-of thofe who
had formerly left birn, with three others, fent by Mr
Maloune with plenty of ppovifions. Encouraged; by
this affiftance, after refrefhing themfelves, theymenew-
ed their labours with freflr vigour, and Mr Anderfon
thought .himfelf fure of reaching the top before night.
M O R [ 336 ] M O R
In a little time he had a fair view of the ravin on the
left, which was of prodigious depth, and ran from
near the top of the mountain to'lhe fea. Its bottom
feemed to be a rock nearly refemblirjg lava in colour,
and it feemed as if there had been vaft torrents of ful-
phureous matter running upon it for fome time. —He
now regretted much that he knew not of this ravin
before he commenced his excurfion, as, by palling a
headland in a canoe, and getting into it, he might
have gained the fummit without all thofe delays and
difficulties he had encountered.
About four in the afternoon he had no profpedt of
the top of the mountain, but imagined that if he could
get into the ravfne before night, he might eafdy reach
-it next morning. After cutting through wild plan¬
tains for a great way, however, he found himfelf at
funfet on the brink of a precipice, over which he prc-
-vented himfelf from falling by catching holi of fome
fhrubs. They were now about half way down, but
all the reft of the way feemed a perpendicular pre¬
cipice, which it was impofiible to pals ; the top of
the mountain was yet a great way off, and there was
no other refource than to attempt the ridge they had
left. The evening was now fo far advanced, that they
■were obliged to take up their relidence where they
were ; and there was only time to place two or three
fticks againft the ftump of a tree, and flightly to co¬
ver them with plantain leaves for a night’s habitation.
—Their fituation, however, was extremely uncomfor¬
table : it began to rain and blow violently, which
prevented them from getting a lire made, fo that
they were almoft chilled with cold. As foon as
they could fee, they renewed their work with great
alacrity, and in a lliort time had the fatisfaftion to
perceive that the woods became thin. About eleven
o’clock they obtained a full view of the top, about a
mile diftant. It feemed to be compofed of fix or fe-
veri ridges, very much broken in the fides, as if they
had fuffered great convulfions ; and they were divided
by exceflively deep ravins without any water in them.
Mr Anderfon diredled his courfe towards a high peak
that overlooked a large excavation where the ridges
met, and which he fuppofed to be the crater of the
volcano. In his way, he found the laft; wood com¬
pofed of a moft beautiful fpecies of trees. After that
he entered into a thick long grafs intermixed with
fern, which branched and ran in every direftion. Thro’
this they were obliged to cut their way with al-
moft as much difficulty as they had done through the
■woods, and it feemed to continue very near to the
top of the mountain. The fatigue of this work foon
reduced them to fuch a fituation, that they were fcarce
able to ftand; and they were obliged to quench their
third, which was exceffive, by chewing the leaves of
the begonia obliqua, there being no water to be
had in the place. Two of the negroes returned,
and the reft refufed to proceed any farther; fothat Mr
Anderfon himfelf was obliged to abandon the enter-
prife, and they all began to defcend about half an hour
after twelve; and as there was now a clear path all
the way down, they arrived at Mr Gafco’s by funfet;
and notwithftanding his extreme wearinefs, Mr An¬
derfon continued his journey to Mr Mnloune’s, where
he arrived between fix and feven at night.
Our traveller having reftelhed himfelf to the 4th of
N°229.
March, in order to fuftain the fatigues of his journey Mome-
the better, fet out about four that morning in com- garou-
pany with a Mr Frafer, who had refolved to accom- ’ ""
pany him. They met with little difficulty till they
came to the place whence they had formerly returned.
Here, however, they were obliged for a quarter of a
mile to cut their way through the grafs and ferns al¬
ready mentioned ; which being done, they met with
no further obftruftion. When they came within a
quarter of a mile of the top, they found the climate
fyddenly altered, the air very cold, and the vegetable
produ&ions changed, the whole fummit of the moun¬
tain being barren. On the confines of the graffy and
bairen regions, however, he found fome beautiful
plants; and he obferves, that this is the only place in
the Weft Indies where he ever found mofs: but here-
it grows in fuch plenty, that he frequently funk in it
up to the knees. About noon they reached the fum¬
mit, and were inftantly furprifed with the fight of a
moft extraordinary cavity. It is fituated in the very
centre of the mountain, at the place where all the
ridges meet. Its diameter is fomething more than a
mile, and its circumference to appearance a perfeft
circle. Its depth from the furrounding margin is
above a quarter of a mile, and it narrows a little, but
very regularly, to the bottom. Its fides are very
fmooth, and for the moft part covered with fhort
mofs, except towards the fouth, where there are a
number of fmall holes and rents. This is the only
place where it is pofiible to go down to the bottom ;
and the defcent is very dangerous on account of the
numberlefs fmall chafms. On the weft fide is a fec-
tion of a red rock like granite, cut very fmooth, and
having the fame declivity with the other parts. All
the reft of the furrounding fides feem to be compo¬
fed of fand, which has undergone the a&ion of an in-
ten fe fire. It has a cruft quite fmooth, and about an
inch thick, almoft as hard as rock ; on breaking thro*
which we meet with nothing but loofe fand. In the
'centre Hands a burning mountain about a mile in cir¬
cumference, of a conic form, “ but quite level.” Out
of the middle of the fummit rifes a fmall eminence
eight or ten feet high, and perfeftly conical; from
the apex of which a column of fmoke conftantly iffues.
It is compofed of large maffes of red granite-like rock,
of various (hapes and fixes, which appear to have been
fplit into their prefent form by fome terrible convul-
fion of nature ; and are piled up very regular. Great
quantities of fmoke iffue from moft parts of the moun¬
tain, efpecially on the north fide, which appears to be
burning from top to bottom; and the heat is fo in-
tenfe, that it is impofiible to afeend it. It is even
very dangerous to go round the bafe, as large maffes
of rock are conftantly fplitting with -the heat and
tumbling down. At the bottom, on the north fide,
is a very large rock fplit in two. Each of thefe halves,
which are rent in all dire&ions, are feparated to a con-
fiderable diftance from each other, and the crevices
have glofly efforefcences tailing like vitriol. There
are alfo beautiful cryftallizations of fulphur; and on all
parts of the mountain are great quantities of fulphur,
alfo alum, vitriol, &c.
From the external appearance of this mountain,
Mr Anderfon conjeaures that it had but lately begun
to burn ; as on fcveral parts of it he faw fmali ihrubs
j and
anS grafs, which looked as if they had been but lately
• icorched and burnt. There werealfo feveral holes on
the fou'th from which fmoke ifilled, that'appeared to
have broken out but lately, the adjacent bullies be¬
ing but lately burnt. On two oppofite fides, the
eaft and welt, of the burning mountain, are two lakes
of water, about a ftone’s throw in breadth. They
appear to be deep in the middle, and have a bottom of
a kind of clay. The water is a chalybeate, and, has
« pleafant tafte. Thefe lakes, probably derive their
exiftence in a great meafure, if not totally, from the
rain-water running down the fides of the crater. On
the north fide Mr Anderfon obferved the traces of
great torrents, that to appearance had conveyed vaft
■quantities of water to thefe lakes ; and by the ftories
at the bottom he could perceive that abforption or
evaporation, or both, went on very'fall. The greater
part of the bottom of the crater is very level; and on
the fouth fide are fome fhrubs and fmall trees. Some
pieces of pumice-ftone were met with, and many
ftones about the fize of a man’s fift, rough, and blue
upon one fide, are fcattered all over the mountain.
The motion of the clouds on the top of this moun¬
tain was very fingular. Though there were feveral
parts higher than the crater, yet the clouds feemed al¬
ways to be attradled by the latter. After entering on
its eaft or windward fide, they funk a coniiderable
way into it; then mounting the oppofite fide, and
whirling round the north-weft fide, they ran along a
ridge which tended nearly nprth-eaft, and afterwards
funk into a deep ravin dividing this ridge from ano¬
ther on the north-weft corner of the mountain, and
the higheft on it, lying in a dire&ion nearly north
and fouth. They keep in this ridge to the fouth end,
and then whirl off in their natural dire&iom
From the fituation of thefe iflands to one another,
and to the continent of South America, Mr Ander¬
fon conjeftures, that there are fubmarine communica¬
tions between the volcanoes in each of them, and from
them to thofe in the high mountains of South Ame¬
rica. He obferv^s, that the crater, in this ifland lies
nearly in a line with Soilfriere in St Lucia and Morne
Pelee in Martinico; and probably from thence to a
jplace of the fame kind in Dominique, and from thence
to the other iflands ; there being fomething of the kind
in each, Barbadoes and Tobago excepted.
MOROC, or Maroc, a beautiful bird of Abyffi-
nia deferibed by Mr Bruce, who thinks its name is
derived from mar “ honey,” though he fays that he
never heard it was further concerned in the honey
than deftroying bees. It feems to purfue thofe in¬
fects out of enmity or diverfion as well as for food,
leaving great numbers dead -on the ground, befides
thofe which it devours for food. In confequence of
this property, the maroc is never found any where but
in thofe parts where the honey is very plentiful, tho’
the Ab-yffinians never take any notice of the ravages
tlrey commit among their ftocks of bees.
Thq. moroc refembles the cuckoo in fize and fliape,
but differs in other refpefts. Its mouth is very wide,
the opening reaching almoft to his eyes; the infide of
the mouth and throat yellow, the tongue fharp-point-
ed, and capable of being drawn almoft half its length
out of the mouth beyond the point of its beak, and
is very flexible. The head and neck are brown, with*
Vol. XII. Part I.
out any mixture oPother colours: there are likewife
a number of very fmall and fcUrcely vifible hairs at Morni
the root of the beak. The eyebrows are black ; the
beak pointed, and very little crooked; the pupil of
the eye black, and furrounded with an iris of a dull
and duffey red : The fore-part of the neck is light yel¬
low, darker on each fide than in the middle, where it
is partly white : the yellow on each fide reaches near
the flroulder. or round part of the wing; and from
this the whole breaft and belly is of a dirty white to
the under part of the tail; and from this the feathers
begin to be tipt with white, as are all thofe that co- -
ver the outfide of the wing. The wing has eight fea¬
thers of the largeft fize and fix of the fecond : the
tail confifts of twelve feathers, thelongeft three being
in the middle .‘ they are placed clofely together; and
the tail is of an equal breadth from top to bottom,
the feathers being alfo tipt with white. The thighs
are covered with'feathers of the fame colour as thofe
of the belly, reaching more than half way down the
legs, which are black, as well as the feet, and marked
diftindtly with fcales. There are two toes before and
behind, each of which has a ftiarp and crooked claw.
It makes a Iharp fnapping noife when it catches the
bees, evidently from clofing its beak ; but Mr Bruce
never could difeover that it had any'fong.
This feems to be the creature mentioned by Dr
Sparman under the name of cuculus indicator, which
(he fays) has the fingular property of difeovering the
nefts of wild bees, and leading travellers by a certain
cry to the place where'the treafure is depofited. Ac¬
cording to Sparman’s account, it makes known thefe
difeoveries.by the fame cry to foxes as well as to the
human fpecies ; but Jerome Lobd, who mentions the
Abyfllnian bird, does not take notice of the foxes,
though he mentions its finging melodioufly when it
arrives at the place where the honey is depofited.
Both thefe accounts are feverely criticifed by Mr
Bruce. “ 1 cannot (fays he), for my own part, con¬
ceive, in a country where there are fo many thoufand
hives, that there was any ufe fqr giving to a bird a
peculiar inftinft or faculty of difcovering honey, when,
at the fame time, nature had deprived him of the
power of availing himfelf of any advantage from the
difeovery ; for. man feems in this cafe to be made for
the fervice of the moroc, which is very different from
the common and ordinary courfe of things ; man cer¬
tainly needsi him not, for on every tree, and on every*
hillock, he may fee plenty of honey at his own deli¬
berate difpofal. I cannot then but think, with all
fubmiflion to thefe natural philofophers, that the whole
of this is an improbable fi&ion ; nor did I ever hear
a Angle perfon in Abyffinia fuggeft, that either this
or any other bird had fuch a property. Sparman
fays it was not known to any inhabitant of the Cape,
any more than that of the moroc was in Abyfiinia ; it
was a fecret of nature, hid from all but thefe two
great men ; and I moft willingly leave it among the
catalogue of their particular difeovtries.”
MORNING, the beginning of the day, or the
time of the fumrifing. The aftronomers reckon morn¬
ing, mane, from the time of midnight to that of mid¬
day. Thus an eclipfe is faid to begin at it o’clock
in the morning, &c.
M O R i 338 j M O R
Morocco, to the weftward of the fun ; that !s, when (he rifes a
w little before. In this fituation (he is called by the
1 Greeks Phofphorus; by the Latins Lucifer, See.
Situation MOROCCO, an empire of Africa, comprehending
ard boun- a coniiderable part of the ancient Mauritania, is
ines' bounded on the weft by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the
eaft by the river Mulvya, which feparates it from Al¬
giers ; on the north by the Mediterranean ; and on the
fouth by mount Atlas, or rather by the river Sus,
which divides it from the kingdom of Tafilet. Its
greateft length is from the north eaft to the fouth-
weft, amounting to above 590 miles ; its breadth is
not above 260 where broadeft, and in the moft narrow
* places is not above half that breadth.
Hiftory. 'phe ancient hiftory of Morocco has been already
given under the article Mauritania. It continued
under the dominion of the Romans upwards of 400
. yea*. On the decline of that empire it fell under
the Goths, who held it till about the year 600, when
the Goths were driven out by the Vandals, the Van¬
dals by the Greeks, and they in their turn by tTie
Saracens, who conquered not only this empire, but
we may fay the whole continent of Africa ; at leaft
their religion, one way or other, is to be found in all
parts of it. The Saracen empire did not continue
long united under one head, and many princes fet up
for themftlves in Africa as well as elfewhere, through
whofe diffenfions the Almoravides were at length
railed to the fovereignty, as related under the article
Algiers, n° 2. Yufef, or Jofeph, the fecond mo¬
narch of that line, built the city of Morocco, con¬
quered the kingdom of Fez, and the Moorilh domi¬
nions in Spain ; all which were loft by his grandfon
Abbu Hnli, who was defeated and killed by the Spa¬
niards. On this prince’s death the crown paffed to
the Mohedians, or Almohedes, with whom it had not
continued above three generations, when Mohammed
the fon of A1 Manfur loft the famous battle of Sierra
Morena, in which 200,000 Moors were flain, and in
confequence. of which Alphonfo X. retook a great
many of the Moorifh conquefts immediately after.
Mohammed died foon after this difgrace, and left
feveral fons, between whom a civil war enfued, during
•which the viceroys of Fez, Tunis, and Tremefen, found
means to eftablilh themfelvea as independent princes.
At length one of the princes of the royal blood of
Tremefen having defeated the Almohedes, made him-
felf mafter of the kingdoms of Morocco and Fez, and
entailed them on his own family. In a fhort time,
however, this family was expelled by the Merini, the
Merini by the Gatazes, and thefe by the Sharifs of
Hafcen, who have kept the government ever fince.
This happened about the year 1516 ; and fince that
time, what we have under the name of hiftory is little
clfe than a catalogue of the enormous vices and ex.-
eeffes of the emperors. They have been in general
a fet of bloody tyrants p though they have bad among
them fome able princes, particularly Muley Moluc,
who defeated and killed Don Sebaftian king of Por¬
tugal. See the article Portugal, n^ 26. They
have lived in almoft a continual ftate of warfare with
the kings of Spain and other Chriftian princes ever
fince 4 nor does the crown of Great Britain fometimes
difdain, as in the year 1769, to purchafe their friend-
fiiip with prefents.
Nothing can be conceived more unjuft and defpotic Moracta,
than the govern ment of Morocco, and nothing more de-  v-—
generate than the charafter of the people. The em- 3
peror is allowed to have not only an uncontrolableGivern*
power over the lives and fortunes of his fubje&s, but mcnt*
in a great meafure over their confciences, fuch as they
are; in as much as he is the only perfon who, as the
fucceffbr of the prophet, has a right to interpret the
Koran; and appoints all the j udges under him, of whom
thofe of Morocco and Fez are the chief, whofe bulinefs
it is to explain and difpenfe all matters relating to their
religion ; and who, being his creatures and dependents,
dare not fteer otherwife than as he diredts. Whenever
therefore the laws are enadtedby him, and proclaime«l
by his governors in all the provinces, as is commonly
done, that none may plead ignorance, they are every¬
where received with an implicit and religious fubmif-
fion. On the other hand, the fubjedts are bred up
with a notion, that thofe who die in the execution of
his command are entitled to an immediate admittance
into patadife, and thofe who have the honour to di?
by his hand to a ftill greater degree of happinefs is
it. After this we need not wonder at finding fo
much cruelty, oppreflion, and tyranny on the one fide,
and fo much fubmiffion, pafiivenefs, and mifery on the
other.
This latter, however, extends no farther than the
Moors : for as to the mountaineers, the fubje&ion and
tribute they pay to thofe tyrants was always involun¬
tary, and altogether forced ; and as for the negroes, Acco^nt
their zeal and attachment is owing merely to the great thc black *
fway and power which they have gained in the govern-troops,
ment, on various accounts. They were firft introduced,
or rather their importation increafed, by the policy of
Muley Iftimael, a late emperor, at a period when there
was a great decreafe of population in the empire, oc-
cafioned in fome degree by the enormous cruelties ex*
ercifed by its former fovereigns, who have been known
not unfrequently, through a flight difguft, to aban¬
don a whole town or province to the fword. In the
character of Muley Ifhmael were found the moft fin*
gular inconfiftencies; for it is certain, that although
a tyrant of the fame elafs, yet in other refpefts, as if
to repair the mifehief which he committed, he left no¬
thing undone for the encouragement of population.—
Fie introduced, as above-mentioned, large colonies of
negroes from Guinea ; built towns for them, many of
which are Hill remaining ; affigned them portions of
land, and encouraged their increafe by every poffible
means. He foon initiated them in the Mahometan,
faith; and had his plan been followed, the country by
this time would have been populous, and probably
fkmrifhing. As the negroes are of a. more lively, ac¬
tive, and enterpeifing difpofition than the Moors, they
might foon have been taught the arts of agriculture 4
and their fingular ingenuity might have been dire&ed
to other ufeful purpofes. It is true, Muley IfhmaeV
when he adopted this plan, had more objects in view
than that of merely peopling his. dominions. He faw
plainly that his own fubjetis were of too capricious a>
difpofition to form foldiers calculated for his tyranni¬
cal purpofes. They had uniformly manifefted an in¬
clination to change their fiavereigns, though,more from;
the love of variety than to reform the government,
ox reftrain the abufes of tyranny. In fhort, whatever
revolutions
M O It f 339 ] M O It
Maroezo. revolutions took place in the country, confided mere-
'““'"v-’—' ly in a change of one tyrant for another. Muley lili-
mael had difcernment enough to fee, therefore, that
by forming an army of flaves, whofe foie dependence
fliould reft upon their mafter, he could eafily train them
■in fuch a manner as to a<ft in the ftriifteft conformity
to his wifhes. He foon learnt that the great object
with the negroes was plenty of money and liberty of
plunder; in thefe he liberally indulged them, and the
plan fully anfwered his expedations. Though, how¬
ever, Muley Ifhmael had no great merit in introducing
fubjedts for the purpofes of tyranny, yet the good ef.
fefts of this new colonization were very generally ex¬
perienced. By intermarrying among themfelves, and
intermixing among the Moors (for the Moors will
keep negro women as concubines, though they feldom
marry them), a new race of people ftarted up, who
became as ufeful fubjedts as the native inhabitants, and
brought the empire into a much more flouriihing ftate
than it had ever been in fince their great revolution.
Sidi Mahomet, his grandfon and fucceffor, had dif¬
ferent views, and was adluated by different motives.
From his inordinate avarice, he ceafed to adt towards
his black troops in the generous manner which had di¬
ll inguifhed his predeceffor Muley Ifhmael; and they
Toon fhowed themfelves difcontented with his condudt.
ri hey frequently threatened to revolt, and fupport
thofe of his fons who were in oppofition, and who
promifed them the moft liberal rewards. They offer¬
ed to place his eldeft fon Muley Ali, who is fince
dead, on the throne; but this prince, not unmindful
of the duty which he owed his father and fovereign,
declined their offer. They next applied to Muley
Yazid, the late emperor, who at firft accepted of the
afliftance they tendered, but in a fhort time relin-
quifhed the plan. Sidi Mahomet, difgufted with this
condudt of the negroes, determined to curb their
growing power, by difbanding a confiderable part of
thefe troops, and banifhing them to diftant parts of
the empire. This important mode of population has
therefore been of late years negledted, while no bet-
* ter fyftem has been fubftituted in its room; for
though the late emperor indulged in cruelty much lefs
frequently than his predeceffors, yet population has,
perhaps, been more completely impeded by the gene¬
ral poverty which he has introduced into the country
by his fevere exadtions, than if he had made a liberal
- ufe of the fword or of the bow-ftring.
Defpotffm A moft flagrant Jpecies of defpotifm, which renders
of the em- the emperors ftill more formidable to their fubjedts, is
perors. their making themfelves their foie heirs, and, in virtue
of that, feizing upon all their effedts, and making
only fuch provilion for their families as they think
proper; and often, on fome frivolous pretence, leaving
them deftitute of any, according to the liking or dif-
like they bear to the deceafed; fo that, upon the
whole, they are the only makers, judges, and inter¬
preters, and in many inftances likewife the executioners,
of their own laws, which have no other limits than
their own arbitrary wilL To preferve, however, fome
fhow or ftiadow of juftice, they allow their mufti a
kind of fuperiority in fpirituals, and a fort of liberty
to the meaneft fubjedt to fummon them before his
tribunal. But the danger which fuch an attempt
would bring upon a plaintiff, perhaps no lefs than
death and deflrudlion, is of rtfelf fufficient to deter Morocco,
any man from it; efpecially confidering the little pro- —-'v**—**
bability there is that the judges of it would run the
rifle of declaring themfelves againft a monarch whofe
creatures they are, and on whom their lives and for¬
tunes fo abfolutely depend. The titles which the em¬
perors of Morocco affume, are thofe of Mo/l g/orious%
mighty, and noble emperor of Afric, king of Fe% and Mo¬
rocco, Taphilet, Suz, Darha, and all the Algarbe, and its
territories in Afric; grand Sharif (or, as others write k,
Xarif that is, “ fucceffor, or vicegerent,”) of the great
prophet Mohammed, &c. g
The judges or magiftrates that adt immediately under Admini-
the emperor are either fpiritual or temporal, or rather .ftra.tlon oi
ecclefiaftical and military. The mufti and the kadis are{uftlCe'
judges of all religious and civil affairs; and the bafhaws,
governors, alcaides, and other military officers, of.
thofe that concern the ttate or the army : all of
tfcem the moft obfequious creatures and flaves of their
prince, and no - lefs the rapacious tyrants of his fub-
jedts, and from whom neither juftice nor favour can
be obtained but by mere dint of money and extor¬
tionate bribery, from the higheft to the loweft. Nei¬
ther can it indeed be otherwife in fuch an arbitrary
government, where the higheft polls muft not only be
bought of the prince at a moft extravagant price, and
kept only by as exorbitant a tribute, which is yearly
paid to him, but where no one is fure to continue
longer than he can bribe fome of the courtiers to inli-
nuate to the monarch that he pays to the utmoft of his
power, and much beyond what was expedted from
him. Add to this, that thofe bafhaws, governors, &c.
are obliged to keep their agents and fpies in conflant
pay at court, to prevent their being fupplanted by-
higher bidders, flanderers, or other underminers. In
fhort, power and weaknefs, rank and meannefs, opu¬
lence and indigence, are here equally dependent, equal¬
ly uncertain. There are inftances of the fultan ele¬
vating at once a common foldier to the rank of a
bafhaw, or making him a confidential friend ; the
following day he would perhaps imprifon him, or re¬
duce him again to the ftation of a private foldier. It
is furprifing that men under thefe circumfiances fhould
be ambitious of rank, or defirous of riches'and power.
Yet fuch is the difpofition of. thefe people, that they
have an unbounded third for rank and power with all
their uncertainties; and what is more extraordinary,
when they have obtained a high flation, they feldom
fail to afford their fovereign a plea for ill treating
them, by abufing in fome way or other their truft.
From what has been faid, it may be reafonably Royal rerc-
concluded that the revenue arifing to the emperor nueii.
from the laft mentioned fource, that of bribery, ex¬
tortion, and confifcation, muft be very confiderable,
though there is no poffibility to make any other con-
jeefture of its real amount than that it muft be an
immenfe one. Another confiderable branch is the
piratical trade, which brings the greater income into
his treafury, as he is not at any expence either for
fitting of corfair vellels out, or maintaining their men ;
and yet has the tenth of all the cargo and of all the
captives ; befides which, he appropriates to himfelf all
the reft of them, by paying the captors 50 crowns per
head, by which means he engroffes all the flaves to hia
own fervicp and advantage. This article is indeed a
U u 2 very
M O R
C 340 ]
M O R
Morocco, very confiderable addition to his revenue, not ouly as frefhes the land with regular breezes, that feldom vary Morocco
he fells their ranfom at a very high rate, but likewife
as he has the profit of all their labour, without al¬
lowing them any other maintenance than a little bread
and oil, or any other aiMance when fick than what
medicines a Spaniih convent, which he tolerates there,
gives them gratis ; and which, neverthelefs, is forced
to pay him an annual prefent for that toleration, be-
fides furnifhing the court with medicines, and the
ilaves with lodging and diet when they are not able
to work. Another branch of his revenue confifts in
the tenth part of ?.ll cattle, corn, fruits, honey, wax,
hides, rice, and other products of the earth, which is
exacted of the Arabs and Brebes, as well as of the
natives ; and thefe are levied, or rather farmed, by the
bafhaws, governors, alcaides, &c. with all poffible feve-
rity. The Jews and Chriftians likewife pay an in-
. come or capitation, the former of fix crowns per head
on all males reom 15 years and upwards, befides other
arbitrary impofts, fines, See. That on the Chriftians,
for the liberty of trading in his dominions, rifes and
falls according, to their number, and the commerce
they drive ; but which, whatever it may bring yearly
into his coffers, is yet detrimental to trade in general,
feeing it difeourages great numbers from fettling
there, notwithftanding the artful invitations which the
emperors and their minifters make ufe of to invite
them to it ; for, befides thofe arbitrary exaftions,
there is flill another great hardftiip attending them,
viz. that they cannot leave the country without for¬
feiting all their debts and effefts to the crown. The
according to their frafons. At a diftance from the "
fea, within land, the heat is fo great, that the rivu¬
lets become dry in fummer ; but as in hot countries
dews are plentiful, the nights are there alvvtys cool.
The rains are tolerably regular in winter ; and are even
abundant, though the atmofphere is not loaded with
clouds as in northern latitudes. Thofe rains which
fall by intervals are favourable to the earth, and in-
creafe its fecundity. In January the country is co¬
vered with verdure, and enamelled with flowers Bar¬
ley is cut in March, but the wheat harveft is in June.
All fruits are early in this climate; and in forward years
the vintage is over in the beginning of September.
Though in general there is more uniformity and lefs va¬
riation in hot than in northern climates, the firft are ne¬
verthelefs expofed to the intemperance of weather: too
heavy rains often impede the harveft ; and drought has
ftill greater inconveniences, for it enfures the propaga¬
tion oflocufts. Thefe fatal infefts, which have fo often
laid defolate hot countries, fometimes commit the moll
dreadful ravages in the empire of Morocco. They come
from the fouth, fpread themfeives over the lands, a.*d
increafe to infinity when the rains of Tpring are not
fufficiently heavy to deftroy the eggs they depofit on
the earth. The large locufts, which are near three
inches long, are not the moft deftruftive,: as they fly,
they yield to the current of wind, which hurries them
into the fea, or into fandy deferts, where they periik
with hunger or fatigue. The young locufts, that
cannot fly, are the moft ruinous; they creep over the
duties on all imports and exports is another branch of country in fuch multitudes, that they leave not a blade
his income, the amount of which, communibus annis,
no author has yet given us any account of ; only
conful Hatfield has computed the whole yearly re¬
venue, including ordinaries and extraordinaries, to
amount to 500 quintals of iilver, each quintal, or
100 lb. weight, valued at fornevvhat above 3301.
Sterling : fo that the whole amounts to no more, ac¬
cording to him, than 165,000!. ; a fmall revenue in¬
deed fer fo large an empire, if the calculation may be
depended upon. But St Olan, though he does not
of grafs behind; and the noife of their feeding an¬
nounces their approach at fome diftance. The devafta-
tions of locufts increafe the price of provifions, and
often bccafion famines: but the Moors find a kind of
compenfation in making food of thefe infedfs ; prodi¬
gious quantities of which are brought to market faked
and dried like red herrings. They have an oily and ran¬
cid tafte, which habit only can render agreeable : they
are eat here, however, with pleafure. The winters in
Morocco are not fevere, nor is there an abfolute need of
pretend fo much as to guefs at the yearly amo.unt of fire. In the coldeft weather the thermometer feldom
it, in general reprefents it as fo confiderable, that
Muley Khmael was reckoned to have amaffed out of it •
a treafure in gold and filver of about 50 effective mil¬
lions ; but whether of crowns or livres he does not
tell us, nor how he came by his knowledge of it; be-
finks to more than five degrees above the freezing
point. The longeft days in Morocco are not more
than 14 hours, and the Ihorteft confequently not lefs
than ten. ^
The foil of Morocco is exceedingly fertile. It iss0il, and
caufe that politic prince, even by his own confeffion, moft fo in the inland provinces. On the weftern coaft
not only caufed all his riches to be buried in fundry it is in general light and ftony, and is better adapted
places under-ground, his gold and filver to be melted to the vine and olive than the culture of wheat. They
into great lumps, and laid in the fame privacy under- annually burn, before the September rains, theftubble,
ground, but likewife all thofe whom he entrufted with which is left rather long ; and this and the dung of
the fecret to be as privately murdered. cattle, every day turned to pafture, form the foie rna-
Climate of The climate of the empire of Morocco is in general nure the land receives. The foil requires but little
Morocco, fufficiently temperate, healthy,and not fo hot as its fitu- labour, and the ploughing is fo light that the furrows
ation might lead us to fuppofe. The chain of moun- are fcarcely fix inches deep ; for which reafon, in fome
tains which form Atlas, on the eaftern fide, defends provinces, wooden ploughfharesare ufed for cheapnefs.
it from the eaft winds, that would fcorch up the earth The empire of Morocco might fupply itfelf with all
were they frequent. The fummit of thefe mountains eceffaries, as well from the abundance an J nature of
is always covered with fnow ; and their abundant de- its produdls, as from the few'natural or artificial wants
Icending ftreams fpread verdure through the neigh- of the Moors occafioned by climate or education. Its
bourhood, make the winter more cold, and temper wealth confifts in the fruitfulnefs of its foil: its corn,
the hea^s of fummer., 1 he fea on the weft fide, which fruits, flocks, flax, fait, gums, and wax, would not only
extends along the coaft from north to fouth, alfo re. fupply its neceffities, but yield a fuperflux, which might
become
M OR [ 3,
Morocco, become an obje& of immenfe trade- and barter with
ether nations. Such numerous exports might return
Produc- an inexhauftible treafure, were its government fixed
uons. and fecure, and did-fubjefts enjoy the fruits of their
labour and their property in fafety. The increafe of
corn in Morocco is often as iixty to one, and thirty is
held to be but an indifferent harveff. The exportation
ef this corn is burdened by the laws, and by the pre¬
judices of an intolerant religion, which permits them
not to fell their fuperabundance to infidels. The pro¬
perty of land is befides entirely precarious; fo that each
individual grows little more than fufficient for his own
wants. Hence it happens, when the harveft fails
from the ravages of locufts or the intemperance of
feafons, thefe people are expofed to mifery, fuch as
Europeans have no conception of, who enjoy a liable
adminiftration, which obviates and provides for all
their wan'«.
The Moors, naturally indolent, take little care of
the culture of their fruits. Oranges, lemons, and
thick-lkinned fruits, the trees of which require little
nurture, grow in the open fields ; and there are very
large plantations of them found, which they take the
trouble to water in order to increafe their prod u£l. Their
vines, which yield excellent grapes, are planted as far ass
the 33d degree, as in the fouthern provinces of France,
and are equally vigorous. But at Morocco, where they
yield a large and delicious grape, they are fupported.
by vine-poles five and fix feet above ground ; and as
they are obliged to be watered, the little wine made
there is feldom preferved. Figs are very good in
fome parts of the empire, but toward the fouth they
are fcarcely ripe before they are full of worms; the
heats arid night dews may, perhaps, contribute to this
fpeedy decay., felons, for the fame reaibn, are rare¬
ly eatable ; they have but a moment of maturity ;
which paffes fo rapidly that it is with difficulty feized.
' WaWr-melons are every where reared, and in fome
provinces are excellent. Apricots, apples, and pears,
are in tolerable plenty in the neighbourhood of Fez
and» Mequinez, where water is lefs fcarce and the
climate more temperate. But in the plain, which ex¬
tends along the weftern coaft, thefe delicate fruits are
very indifferent, have lefs juice or tafte, and the peaches
there do. not ripen. The tree called the prickly pear,
or the Barbary fig, is plentifully found in the empire,
of Morocco ; and is planted round vineyards and
gardens, becaufe its thick and thorny leaves, which
are wonderfully prolific, form impenetrable hedges.
From thefe leaves a fruit is produced,, covered with
a thorny Ann, that muff be taken off with care. This
fruit is mild, and full of very hard, finall, kernels.
The olive is every where found along the coaft, but.
particularly to the fouth. The trees are planted in
rows, which form alleys the more agreeable becaufe
the trees are large, round, and high in proportion-
They take care to water them,, the better to preferve.
the fruit. Oil of olives might here be plentifully ex-
trafted, were taxation fixed and moderate ; but fuch
has been the vasiation it has undergone, that the cul-
t;ire of olives is fo negledled as Icarcely to produce
*,il fufficient for internal'confumption. In 1768
and 1769 there were near 40,000' quintals of oil ex¬
ported from Mogodore and Santa-Cruz to Marfeilfes,
and ten years after it colt 15 d. per pound- Thus'do
\i ] M O R
the vices of government expofe nations to dearth and M to
famine who live in the very bofonj of abundance- ' y~
From the province of Duquella to the fouth of the
empire, there are fort ils of the arga tree, which is
thorny, irregular in its form, and produces a fpecies of
almond exceedingly hard, with a ficin as corroJive as
that of walnuts. Its fruit coniifts of two almonds,
rough and bitter, from which an oil is produced very
excellent for trying. In order to ufe this oil, it mult
be purified by fire, and fet in a flame, which mull be
fuffered to die away of itfelf; the moft greafy and
corrolive particles are confumed, and its acrid quali¬
ties are thus wholly deftroyed. When the Moors ga¬
ther thefe fruits, they bring their goats under the
trees ; and as the fruit falls, the animals carefully
nibble off the ikins. In the fame province alfo is found
the tree which produces gum fandarac ; alfo that
which yields the tranfparent gum ; bu^the latter is-
moft productive, and affords the bell gum the faxther
we proceed fouthward, where the heat and night-dews
rpay perhaps render the vegetable fecretion more pure
and copious.
In the province of Suz, between the 25th and 30th
degrees, the inhabitants have an almond harveft, which
varies little becaufe of the mildnefs of the climate ;
but the fruit is fmall, for which reafon they take little
care of the trees, and they degenerate with time. The
palm tree is common in the fouthern provinces of Mo¬
rocco ; but dates ripen there with difficulty, and few
are good except in the province cf.Suz and to¬
ward Tafilet. On the coaft of Sallee and Mamora
there are forefts of oak, which produce acorns near .
two inches long. They tafte like chefnuts, and
are eat raw and roafted. This fruit is called Bel/ote,
and is fent to Cadiz, where the Spanilh ladies hold it
in’ great eilimation.. The empire of Morocco alfo pro¬
duces much wax: but.fince it has been fubjedfedby the
emperor to.the payment of additional duties, the coun¬
try people have very much negledted the care of their
hives. Salt abounds in the empire, and in fome places
on the coaft requires only the trouble of gathering.
Independent of the falt-pits formed by the evapora¬
tion of the foft water, there are pits and lakes in the.
country whence great quantities are obtained. It is
carried even as far as Tombut, whence it paffes to the
interior parts of Africa.
The Moors Cultivate their lands only in proportion
to theiy wants; hence two-thirds of the empire at
leaft lie wafte. Here the down, that is, the fan or
wild palm tree, grows in abundance ; and from which
thofe people, when neceffity renders them induftrious,
find great advantage. The ffiepherds, mule-drivers,
camel-drivers, and travellers, gather the leaves, of
which they make mats, fringes, balkets, \xa\.&,Jhoarh or
large wallets to carty corn, twine,' ropes, girths, and
covers for their pack-faddles. This plant, with which
alfo they heat their ovens, produces a mild and refinous
fruit that ripens in September and Oftober. It is in
form like the raiisn, contains a kernel, and is aftringent
and very proper to temper and counteract the effeCts
of the watery and laxative fruits, of which thefe people
in fummer ma,ke an immoderate ufe.
Unacquainted with the fources of wealth of which
their aheeftors were poffeffed, the Moors pretend there
are gold and filver mines in the empire, which the em-
*perora *
M O R [ 34^ 1 M O R
Morocco, perors will not permit to be worked, left their fubjefta
(hould thus find means to ftiake off their yoke. It is
not improbable but that the mouotains of Atlas may
contain unexplored riches; but there is no good pro@f
that they have ever yielded gold and filver. There
are known iroti mines in the fouth ; but the working of
them has been found fo expenfive, that the natives
■wbuld rather ufe imported iron, notwithftanding the
heavy duty it pays, by which its price is doubled.
There are copper mines in the neighbourhood of Santa
Cruz, which are not only fufficient for the fmall con-
fumption of the empire, where copper is little ufed,
but are alfo an objeft of exportation, and would be*
come much more fo were the duties lefs immoderate.
Animal?. Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros is to be
found either in this or the other ftateS of Barbary ;
but their deferts abound with lions, tigers, leopards,
hytenas, and monftrous ferpents. The Barbary horfes
were formerly very valuable, and thought equal to the
Arabian. Though their breed is now faid to be de¬
cayed, yet |bme very fine ones are occafionally im¬
ported into England. Camels and dromedaries, affes,
mules, and kumrahs (a moft ferviceable creature* be¬
got by an afs upon a cow), are their beafts of burden.
Their cows are but fmall, and barren of milk. Their
fheep yield but indifferent fleeces, but are very large,
as are their goats. Bears, porcupines, foxes, apes,
hares, rabbits, ferrets, weafels, moles, cameleons, and
all kinds of reptiles, are found here. Partridges and
quails, eagles, hawks, and all kinds of wild-fowl, are
,3 frequent on the <joaft.
Mountains, As to mountains, the chief are that chain which
&t. gpes under the name of Mount Atlas, and runs the
whole length of Barbary from eaft to weft, pafling
through Morocco, and abutting upon that ocean
which feparates the eaftern from the weftern continent,
and is from this mountain called the Atlantic Ocean.
See Atlas. The principal rivers, befides the Mal¬
ta or Mulvia above-mentioned, which rifes in the de¬
farts, and running from fouth to north divides Mo¬
rocco from the kingdom of Algiers, are the Suz,
Ommiiabih, Rabbata, Earache, Darodt, Sebon, Gu-
tron, and Tenfift, which rife in Mount Atlas, and
fall into the Atlantic Ocean. The chief capes are
Cape Threeforks on the Mediterranean, Cape Spar-
tel at the entrance of the ftraits, Cape Cantin, Cape
None, ahd Cape Rajador, on the Atlantic Ocean.
Of the bays the moft confiderable are, the bay of Te-
tuan in the Mediterranean, and the bay of Tangier
in the ftraits of Gibraltar.
Inland traf- The traffic of the empire by land is either with Ara-
fic- bia or Negroland : to Mecca they fend caravans, con*
filling of feveral thoufand camels, horfes, and mules,
twice every year, partly for traffic, and partly on a
religious account; for numbers of pilgrims take that
opportunity of paying their devotions to their great
prophet. The goods they carry to the eaft are woollen
manufasSfures, leather, indigo, cochineal, and oftrich
feathers 5 and they bring back from thence, filk,
muffins, and drugs. By.their caravans to Negroland,
they fend fait, filk, and woollen manufactures, and
bring back gold and ivory in return, but chiefly ne¬
groes.
Traffic. The caravans alvvaysgoftrong enough to defend them*
felves againft the wild Arabs in the defarts of Africa and
Afia; though, notwithftanding all their vigilance, fome Morocco,
of the ftragglers and baggage often fall into their hands: 1
they are alfo forced to load one half of their camels
with water, to prevent their perifhing with drought
and third in thofe inhofpitahle defarts. And there
is ftill a more dangerous enemy, and that is the fand
itfelf: when the winds rife, the caravan is perfectly
blinded with duft; and there have been inftances
both in Africa and Afia, where whole caravans, and
even armies, have been buried alive in the fands.
There is no doubt alfo, but both men and cattle are
fometimes furprifed by wild beafts, as well as rob¬
bers, in thofe vail defarts ; the hot winds alfo, blow¬
ing over a long tra& of burning fand, are equal al~
moft to the heat of an oven, and deftroy abundance
of merchants and pilgrims. If it was not for devotion,
and in expeiftation-of very greafgaifig, no man would
undertake a journey in thefe defarts; great are the
hazards and fatigues they muft of neceffity undergo ;
but thofe that go to Mecca affure themfelves of para-
dife if they die, and have uncommon honours paid
them at home if they furvive. People crowd to be
taken into the eaftern caravans ; and the gold that is
found in the fouth make them no lefs eager to under¬
take that journey. I(j
The natives have hardly any trading veffels, but Foreign
are feldom without fome corfairs. Thefe, and Eu- commerce,
ropean merchant-fhips, bring them whatever they
want from abroad ; as linen and woollen cloth, ftuffs,
iron wrought and unwrought, arms, gunpowder,
lead, and the like : for which they take in return,
copper, wax, hides, Morocco leather, wool (which
is very fine), gums, foap, dates, almonds, and other
fruits. The duties paid by the Englifh in the ports
of Morocco are but half thofe paid by other Euro¬
peans. It is a general obfervation, that no nation "fa
fond of trading with thefe ftates, not only on account
of their capricious defpotifm, but the villany of their
individuals, both natives and Jews, many of whom
take all opportunities of cheatings and when detefted
are feldom pnniffied.
The land-forces of the emperor of Morocco confift
principally of the black troops already mentioned,
and fome few white; amounting altogether to an army
of about 36,000 men upon the eftabliffiment, two thirds
of which are cavalry. This eftabliftiment, however,
Uppn occafion admits of a confiderable increafe, as
every man is fuppofed to be a foldier, and when called -
upon is obliged to aft in that capacity. About 6000 Land-
of the Handing forces form the emperor’s body guard, forces,
and are always kept near his perfon ; the remainder
are quartered in the different towns of the empire, and
are under the charge of the baffiaws of the provinces.
They are all clothed by the emperor, and receive a
trifling pay; but their chief dependence is on plunder,
which they have frequent opportunities of acquiring.
The foldiers have no diftinftion in drefsirom the other
Moors ; and are only marked by their accoutrements,
which confift of a fabrc, a very long mulket, a fmall
red leathern box to hold their balls, which is fixed in
front by means of a belt, and a powder-horn flung
over their flioulders. The army is under the direc¬
tion of a commander in chief, four principal bafhawi,
and alcaides who command diftinft divifions.
The black troops are naturally of a very fiery dif-
6 pofition,
M O R [ ;
Morocco, pofition, capable of enduring great fatigue, hunger,
thirft, and every difficulty to which a military life ie
expofed. They appear well calculated for fkirmifhing
parties, or for the purpofe of haraffing an enemy ; but
were they obliged to undergo a regular attack, - from
their total want of difcipline they would foon be rout
18
Navy.
Religion
and
] m o R
thofe who by their tricks have got the reputation of Morocco,
wizzards: all whom they look upon as infpired per- ——
fons, and not only honour as faints while they live,
bnt build tombs and chapels over them when dead ;
which places are not only religioufly viiited by their de.
votees far and near, but are edeemed inviolable fanc-
ed. In all their manoeuvres they have no notion what- tuaries for all forts of criminals except in cafes of trea-
ever of order and regularity, but have altogether more fon.
the appearance of a rabble than of an army. Though
thefe troops are fuppofed to be the ftrongeft fup-
port of defpotxfm, yet from their avarice and love
of variety they frequently prove the moft dange-
in the poffeffion of the throne,
principle of rational liberty, whatever contefts this de¬
voted people may engage in with their tyrants, are
merely contefts for the fucceffion; and the foie ob¬
ject for which they fpend their lives and their pro¬
perty, is to exchange one mercilefs defpot for another.
Notwithftanding the natives are zealous Mohamme- •
dans, they allow foreigners the free and open proft-f-
fion of their religon, and their very Haves have their
priefts and chapels in the capital city; though it muft
  enemies to their monarchs ; they are often be owned that the Chriftian flaves are here treated
known to excite fedition and rebellion, and their in- with the utmoft cruelty. Here, as in all other Mo-p,^*1
folence has fometimes proceeded to fuch excefles as hammedan countries, the alcoran and their comments
nearly to overturn the government. Their conduft is upon it are their only written laws ; and though in
governed only by the paffions. Thofe who pay them fome inftances their cadis and other civil magiftrates
beft, and treat them with the greateft attention, they are controlled by the arbitrary determinatiens of their
will always be moft ready to fupport. This circum- princes, bafhaws, generals, and military officers, yet
ftance, independent of every other, makes it the-in- the latter have generally a very great deference and
tereft of the monarch to keep his fubjeds in as com- regard for their laws. Murder, theft, and adultery,
plete a ftate of poverty as poffible. The Moors are are commonly puniihed with death : and their punilh-
indeed remarkable for infincerity in their attachments, ments for other crimes, particularly thofe againft the
and for their love of variety; a military force, in this ftate, are very cruel; as impaling, dragging the pri-
kingdom efpecially, is therefore the only means which, foner through the ftreets at a mule’s heels till all his
a defpotic monarch can employ for fecuring himfelf fleih is torn off; throwing him from a high tower up-
Ignorant of every on iron hooks; hanging him upon hooks till he die j
crucifying him againft a wall; aqd, indeed, the pu-
nilhment and condemnation of criminals is in a man¬
ner arbitrary. The emperor, or his bafhaws, frequent¬
ly turn executioners ; fhoot the offender, or cut him.
_ _ to pieces with their own hands, or command others to
The emperor’s navy confifts of about 15 fmaff do it in their prefence,
frigates, a few zebecks, and between 20 and 30 row- The inhabitants of the empire of Morocco, known inhalant*
galleys. The whole is commanded by one admiral; by the name of Moors, art a. mixture of Arabian andofthe'em-
but as thefe veffels are principally ufed for the pur- African nations formed into tribes; with the. origin pire of Mo*-
pofes of piracy, they feldom unite in a fleet. The of whom we are but imperfedUy acquainted. Thefe r°cco.
number of the feamen in fervice are computed at 6000. tribes, each ftrangers to the other, and ever divided
The coins of this empire are a fiuce, a blanquil, by traditional hatred or prejudice,.feldom mingle. It
and ducat. The fluce is a fmall copper coin, twenty feems probable that moft of the cafts who occupy the
whereof make a blanquil, of the value of two-pence provinces of Morocco have been repulfed from the
Sterling. The blanqurl is of filver, and the ducat of eaftern to the weftern. Africa, during thofe different
gold, not unlike that of Hungary, and work about revolutions by which this part of the world has been
nine Ihillings. Both thefe pieces are fo liable to be agitated ; that they have followed the ftandard of their
clipped and filed by the Jews, that the Moors always chiefs, whofe names they have, preferved yand that by
carry fcales in their pockets to weigh them ; and thefe they, as well as the countries they inhabit, are.,
when they are found to be much diminifhed in their oiftiHguiftied. At prefent thefe tribes are called ca~
weight, they are recoined by the Jews, who are ma- jiles or cabiles, from the Arabic word kobeila ; and
fters of the mint, by which they gain a co^fiderable they are fo numerous, that, it is impoffible to have a-
profit; as they do alfo by exchanging the light pieces knowledge of them all. In the northern provinces
for thofe that are full weight. Merchants accounts are are enumerated Beni-Garir, Beni-Guernid, Beni-Man-
kept in ounces, ten of which make a ducat; but in for, Beni-Oriegan, Beni-Chelid, Beni.Jqfeph, Beni--
payments to the government, it is faid they will rec- Zaruol, Beni-Razin, Beni-Gebara, Beni.Bufeibet, Be-
ken feventeen one-half for a ducat. ni-Gualid, Beni-Yeder, Bem-Gueiaghel,.Beni-Guale-
With refpedl to religion, the inhabitants .of Mo- val, Beni-Guamud, &c. Toward the eaft are, Beni-
rocce are Mohammedans, of the feft of Ali; and have Sayd, Beni-Teufin, Beni-Iefl'etinr Beni-Buhalel, Beni-
a mufti or high-prieft, who is alfo the fupreme civil Telid, Beni-Soffian, Beni-Becil, Beni-Zequer, &c. 
magiftrate, and the laft refort in all caufes. ecclefiafti- and to the fouth, thofe of Beni.Fonfecara, Beni-
cal and civil. They have a great veneration for their Arcs, Beni-Haffen, Beni Mager, Beni-Balil, Beni-.
hermits, and for idiots and madmen; as well as for Seba, with an infinite number of others (<1). The
people.
(a) The word Bert, that is to fay “ Son,” is ufually employed to fignify “ family defendantsthus,,
Beni-Haffert, and Beni-Jufeph, fignify, the children «r defendants of Haffen and of Jofeph.” The Moor*.,
as a more extenfive generic term, call men Ben-Adamthat is, “the defendants or fon* »f Adam.”
M OR l 34
' Mormro.-people \yho depend on Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli,
' v ‘ are in like manner divided into an infinite number of
thefe tribes, who are all fo ancient that they them-
' felves have not the leall idea of their origin.
The native fubjecds of the empire of Morocco may
be divided into two principal claffes 5 the Brebes and
the Moors.
The Brebes, The etymology of the name, and the origin of
or Moun■ ’ the people, of the firfi clafs, are equally unknown
taiueers. Jhke the Moors, at the time of the invafion by th.
A rabs, they may have adopted the Mahometan reli¬
gion, which is confonant to their manners and prin¬
cipal ufages; but they are an ignorant people, and ob-
ferve none of the precepts of that religion, but the
averfion it enjoins againll other modes of worfhip,—
Mahometanifm has not obliterated the cuftoms and
ancient prejudices of thefe people, for they eat the
wild boar ; and in places where there are vineyards,
they drink wine, provided (fay they ) that it is of our
own making. In order to preferve it in the fouthern
parts of Mount Atlas, they put it in earthen veffels,
and in barrels made of the hollowed trunk of a tree,
the upper end of which is done over with pitch ; and
thefe are depofited in cellars, or even in water. In
the northern province of Rif they boil it a little,
which renders it lefs apt to inebriate, and perhaps
they think that in this ftate they may reconcile the
ufe of it with the fpirit of their law.
Confined to the mountains, the Brebes preferve
great animofity againft the Moors, whom they con¬
found with the Arabs, and confider as ufurpers.—
They thus contraft in their retreats a ferocity of mind,
and a firength of body, which makes them more fit
for war and every kind of labour than the Moors of
the plain in general are. The independence they
boail of gives even a greater degree of exprefiion to
their countenance. The prejudices of their religion
make them fubmit to the authority of the emperors
of Morocco; but they throw off the yoke at their plea-
fure, and retire into the mountains, where it is diffi¬
cult to attack or overcome them. The Brebes have
a language of their own, and never marry but among
each other. They have tribes or cafiles among them
who are exceedingly powerful both by their number
and courage. Such are thofe of Gomera on the bor¬
ders of Rif, of Gayroan toward Fez, of Timoor ex¬
tending along mount Atlas from Mequinez to Tedla,
of Shavoya from Tedla to Duquella, and of Mifh-
boya, from Morocco to the fouth. The emperor of
Morocco keeps the children of the chiefs of thefe
tribes at court as hoftages for their fidelity. The
Brebes have no diftinftion of drefs ; they are always
clothed in woollen like the Moors; and, though they
inhabit the mountains, they rarely wear any thing on
their heads. Thefe mountaineers, as well as their
wives, have exceedingly fine teeth ; and pofiefs a de-
. gree of vigour and intrepidity which didinguiffies
them from the inhabitants of the plains. It is com¬
mon for them to hunt lions and tigers ; and the mo¬
thers have a cuftom of decorating their children with
a tiger’s claw or the remnant of a lion’s hide on the
head, thinking that by this means they will acquire
firength and courage ; and from a fimilar fuperftition,
young wives are in ufc to give their hufbands the fame
as a fo;rt of amulets.
N° 229. 5
4 1 M O R
ThcBrebesand theShellu havinga language common Morocco,
to themfelves. and unknown to the Moors, both mull v-—<<
have had the fame origin, notwithfianding the diffe*
rence there is in their mode of life. The Shellu live on
the frontiers of the empire toward the fouth ; their
population is by no means fo great as that of the
Brebes, nor are they fo ferocious : they do not marry
with other tribes ; and though they pradtife many fu-
perftitious rites, they are faithful obfervers of their re¬
ligion.
The Moors of the plains may be diftinguifhed into
thofe who lead a paftoral life, and thofe who inhabit
the cities. 24
The former live in tents; and that they may allow jvronf,
their ground a year’s refi, they annually change the of the court*
place of their encampmeftts, and go in fearch of freih'1-?-
pafturage ; but they cannot take this ftep without ac¬
quainting their governor. Like the ancient Arabs,
they are entirely devoted to a paftoral life: their en¬
campments, which they call douharsi are compoied of
feveral tents, and form a crefcent ; or they are ranged
in two parallel lines, and their flocks, when they return
from pafture, occupy the centre. The entrance of the
douhar is fometimes fhut with faggots of thorns ; and
the only guard is a number of dogs, that bark incef-
fantly at the approach of a ftranger. Each douhar
has a chief, fubordinate to an officer of the higheft
rank, who has under his adminifiration a number of
camps ; and feveral of thefe fubordinate diviilons are
united under the government of a bacha, who has often
1000 douhars in his department.
The tents of the Moors, viewed in front, are of a
conical figure; they are from 8 to 10 feet high, and
from 20 to 25 feet long ; like thofe of high antiquity,
they refemble a boat reverfed. They are made of
cloth compofed of goats and camels hair, and the leaves
of the wild palm, by which they are rendered imper¬
vious to water; but at a diftance their black colour
gives them a very difagreeable look.
The Moors, when encamped, live in the greateftThcir
fimplicity, and exhibit a faithful picture of the inhabi--^1^® waT
tants of the earth in the firft ages of the world. The
nature of their education, the temperature of the cli¬
mate, and the rigour of the government, diminifh the
wants of the people, who find in their plains, in the
milk and wool of their flocks, everything neceflaryfor
food and cloathing. Polygamy is allowed among them;
a luxury fo far from being injurious to a people who
have few wants, that it is a great convenience in the
economy of thofe focieties, becaufe the women are in¬
truded with the whole care of the domeftic manage- ^
ment. In their half-clofed tents, they are employed in Qccupa-
milking the cows for daily ufe; and when the milktionsof the
abounds, in making butter, in picking their corn, their women,&s*
barley, and pulfe, and grinding their meal, which they
do daily in a mill compofed-of two itones about 18
inches in diameter, the uppermoft having a handle, and
turning on an axis fixed in the under one : they make
bread likewife every day, which they bake between
two earthen plates, and often upon the ground after it
has been heated by fire. Their ordinary food is the
■Coofcoofoo ; which is a pafte made with their meal in
the form of fmall grains like Italian pafle. This coof¬
coofoo is drett in the vapour of boiling foup, in a hol¬
low dilh perforated with many fmall holes in the bot¬
tom,
5
M O R [ 345 ] M O R
"Morocco, tom, and the di/h is inclofed in a kettle where meat is
-"Y”— boiled ; the coofcoofoo, which is in the hollow di/h,
grows gradually foft by the vapour of the broth, with
which it is from time to time moi/lened. This fimple
food is very nonri/hing, and even agreeable when one
has got the better of the prejudices which every na¬
tion entertains for its own cuftoms. The common
people eat it with milk or butter indifferently ; but
thofe of higher rank, fuch as the governors of provinces
and lieutenants, who live in the centre of the encamp¬
ments, add to it fome fucculent broth, made with a
mixture of mutton, poultry, pigeons, or hedgehogs,
and then pour on it a fufficient quantity of fre/h but¬
ter. Thefe officers receive ftrangers in their tents
with the fame cordiality that Jacob and Laban fhowed
to their guefts. Upon their arrival a fheep is killed
and immediately dreffed; if they are not provided with
a fpit, they inftantly make one of wood; and this mut¬
ton roafted at a bri/k fire, and ferved up in a wooden
di/h, has a very delicate colour and ta/le.
The women in their tents likewife prepare the wool,
fpin it, and weave it into cloth on looms fufpended
the whole length of the tent. Each piece is about five
ells long and one and an half bread; it is neither dreffed
nor dyed, and it has no feam; they wa/h it when it is
dirty ; and as it is the only habit of the Moors, they
wear it night and day. It is called Haique, and is the
true model of the ancient draperies,
ay The Moors of the plain wear nothing but their
• ©refs, &c. woollen fluff; they have neither fliirts nor drawers.
Linen among thefe people is a luxury known only to
thofe of the court or the city. The whole wardrobe
of a country Moor in eafy circumftances confifts in a
haique for winter, another for fummer, a red cape, a
hood, and a pair of flippers. The common people
both in the country and in towns wear a kind of tunick
of woollen cloth, white, grey, or ftriped, which reaches
to the middle of the leg, with great fleeves and a hood;
it refembles the habit of the Carthufians.
The vvomens dre/s in the country is likewife con¬
fined to a haique, which covers the neck and the /boul¬
ders, and is faflened with a filver clafp. The orna¬
ments they are fondeft of are ear-rings, which are
either in the form of rings or crefcents, made of filver,
bracelets, and rings for the fmall of the leg ; they
wear thefe trinkets at their moft ordinary occupations;
lefs out of vanity than becaufe they are unacquainted
with the ufe of cafleets or cabinets for keeping them.
They alfo wear necklaces made of coloured glafs-bcads
or cloves ftrung on a cord of filk.
Befides thefe ornaments, the women, to add to their
beauty, imprint on their face, their neck, their breaft,
and on .almoft every part of their body, reprefentations
of flowers and other figures. The impreflions are made
with a piece of wood ftuck full of needles ; with the
points of which they gently pun&ure the /kin, and
then lay it over with a blue-coloured fubftance or gun¬
powder pulverifed, and the marks never wear out.
This cuftom, which is very ancient, and which has
j) been praftifed by a variety of nations, in Turkey, over
all Afia, in the fouthern parts of Europe, and perhaps
©ver the whole globe, is, however, not general among
the Moorifh tribes.
The Moors confider their wives lefs in the light of
Voi. XII. Part I.
companions than in that of flaVes deftined to labour. Morocco.
Except in the bufinefs of tillage, they are employed y—“j
in every fervile operation; nay, to the /hame of hu¬
manity, it mull te owned, that in fome of the poorer
quarters a woman is often feen yoked In a plough along
with a mule, an afs, or fome other animal. When the
Moors remove their douhars, all the men feat them-
felves in a circle on the ground; and with their elbows
reftxng on their knees, pafs the time in converfation,
while the women ftrike the tents, fold them up into
bundles, and place them on the backs of their camels
or oxen. The old women are then each loaded with
a parcel, and the young carry the children on their
flioulders fufpended in a cloth girt round their bodies.
In the more fouthern. parts, the women are likewife
employed in the care of the horfes, in faddling and
bridling them ; the hu/band, who in thefe climates is -
always a defpot, iffues his orders, and feems only made
to be obeyed.
The women travel without being veiled ; they are
accordingly fun-burnt, and have nopretenfions to beau¬
ty. There are, however, fome quarters where they
put on a little rouge : they every where /lain their
hair, their feet, and the ends of their fingers, with an
herb called henna, which gives them a deep faffron co¬
lour ; a cuftom that muft be very ancient among the
people of Afia. Abu Becre dyed his eye-brows and
beard with the fame colour, andmany of his fucceffors
imitated him. The cuftom may have originally been
a religious ceremony, which the women have turned
into an ornament; but it is more probable that the
cuftom of painting the beard and hair, and that of
/having the head and ufing depilatories in other parts
of the body, has been at firft employed from motives
of cleanlinefs in warm countries. ^
The marriage ceremonies of the Moors that live in Marriages,
tents pretty much refembJe thofe of the fame people &c. *
that live in the cities. In the douhars they are gene¬
rally moft brilliant and gay; the ftrangers that pafs
along are invited, and made to contribute to the feaft;
but this is done more from politenefs than from any
mercenary motive.
The tribes of the plain generally avoid mixing by
marriage with one another: the prejudices that divide
thefe people are commonly perpetuated ; or, if they
are partially healed, they never fail to revive upon
trifling occafions, fuch as a ftrayed camel, or the pre¬
ference of a pafture or a well. Marriages have fome-
times taken place among them, that, fo far from ce¬
menting their differences, have occafioned the moll
tragical feenes. Hu/bands have been known to mur¬
der their wives, and women their hu/bands, to revenge
national quarrels.
Parents are not encumbered with their children,
however numerous they may be, for they are very early
employed in domeftic affairs; they tend the flocks,
they gather wood, and they afiift in ploughing and
reaping. In the evening, when they return from the
field, all the children of the douhar affemble in a com¬
mon tent, where the Iman, who himfelf can hardly
fpell, makes them read a few fentences from the Ko¬
ran written on boards, and inftru&s them in their re¬
ligion by the light of a fire made of ftraw, of bu/hes,
and cow-dung dried in the fun. As the heat is very
X x great
M O R [ 346
Morocco. gre»t in the inland parts of the country, children of
*“ both fexes go quite naked till the age of nine or ten.
Entertain- douhars difperfed over the plains are always in
ment < f the neighbourhood of fome rivulet or fpring, and they
traveller*, are a kind of inns for the reception of travellers.
There is generally a tent ere&ed for their ufe, if they
have not brought one along with them. They are
accommodated with poultry, milk, and eggs, and with
1
M O R
a mean appearance. The rooms are generally on the Morocco.
ground-floor, and whitened on the outfide- ' As the  
roofs are quite flat, they ferve as verandos, where the
Moorifh women commonly fit for the benefit of the
air; and in fome places it is poffible to pafs nearly over
the whole town without having occafion to defeend
into the ftreet.
As the heft apartments, are all backwards, a ftable.
hatever is necefary for their horfes- Initead of wood or perhaps fomething worfe, is the place to which vifi.
for fuel, they have the cow-dung, which, when mixed tors arc fii'ft introduced. Upon entering the houfe,
with charcoal, makes a very briik fire. The falts that
abound in the vegetables of warm countries give this
dung a confi Hence which it has not perhaps in
the ftranger is either detained in this place or in the
ftreet till all the women are difpatchedoutof the way;
he is then allowed to enter a fquare court, into which
them regions. A guard is always fet on the tents of four narrow and long rooms open by means of lame
travellers, efpecinlly if they are Europeans, becaufe the folding doors, which, as they have no windows, ferve
opinion of their wealth might tempt the avidity of likewife to introduce light into the apartments. The
the Moors, who are naturally inclined to thieving. court has generally in its centre a fountain ; and if it
With refpeft to the roads, a very judicious policy is the houfe of a Moor of property, it is floored with
is eftablilhed, which is adapted to the character of the
Moors, and-to their manner of life. The douhars are
refponfible for robberies committed in their neighbour¬
hood and in fight of their tents : they are not only
obliged to make reftitution, but it gives the fovereign
a pretence for exafting a contributjon proportioned to
the abilities of the douhar. In order to temper the
rigour of this law, they are made refponfible only for
fuch robberies as are committed during the day; thofe
that happen after fun-fet are not imputed to them, as
they could neither fee nor prevent them : on this ac¬
count, people here travel -only from fun-rifing to fun-
fetting.
To facilitate the exchange of necefiaries, there is in
blue and white chequered tiling. The doors are ufu-
ally painted of various colours in a chequered form,
and the upper parts of them are frequently ornament¬
ed with very curious carved work. None of the cham¬
bers have fire-places; and their vi&uals are always
drefled in the court-yard in an earthen ftove heated
with charcoal. When the vifitor enters the room
where he is received by the mailer of the houfe, he
finds him fitting crofs-legged and barefooted on a mat-
trefs, covered with fine white linen, and placed on the
floor or elfe on a common mat. This, with a narrow
piece of carpeting, is in general the only furniture he
will meet with in Moorifti houfes, though they are
not deftitute of other ornaments. In fume, for fn-
the fields every day except Friday, which is a day of fiance, he will find the walls decorated with looking-
prayer, a public market in the diflerent quarters of glafies of different fixes ; in others, watches and clocks
each province. The Moors of the neighbourhood af-
femble to fell and buy cattle, corn, pulfe, dried fruits,
in glafs-cafes; and in fame the apartments are hung
with the fl<ins,of lions or tigers, or adorned with a dif-
carpets, haiques, and in fhort all the produ&ions of play of mulkets and fabres. In the houfes of thofe
the country. This market, which is called Soc, re- who live in the very firft ttyle, an European mahogany
iembles our fairs. The buflle of the people who go bedllead, with one or two mattrefles, covered with fine
and come, gives a better idea of the manner of life of white linen, is fometimes placed at each end of the
the Moors than can be had in the cities. The Al- room. Thefe, however, are only confidered as c
caides, who command in the neighbourhood, always
attend thefe markets with foldiers to keep the peace ;
ments, as the Moors always lleep on a mattrefs or a
mat placed upon the floor, and covered only with their
as it frequently happens that the grudges which thefe hatch or perhaps a quilt.
tribes harbour againft one another break out upon As the law of Mahomet ftriftly proferibes the ufe
fuch oceafions into open violence. The difiblution of of pi&ures of every defeription, this delightful fpe-
the foe is always the prefage of fome feditious fquab- cies of ornament finds no place in the houfes of the
ble. The Ikirts of thefe markets are commonly occu- Moors.
pied by merry Andrews, fingers, dancers, and other The wardrobe of the inhabitants of cities is but
buffoons, who make apes dance to amufe the idle. On little different from that of thofe wh© live in tents.—
one fide are barbers and furgeons, to whom the fick are -tike the latter, they have a haick, and a hood more £ m*a*
brought to be cured. or lefs fine, and have alfo a hood of eoarfe European
The Moors who inhabit the cities differ from the cloth of dark blue for the winter. What farther di>
% Moors who others only in having a little more urbanity and a flinguifhes them from the country Moors is, that they
^well in c.-.jfloj-e ea{y deportment. Though they have the fame wear a fhirt and linen drawers, and an upper garment
origin with thofe of the plains, they affeft to decline of cotton in fummer, and of cloth in winter, which,
all intercourfe with them. Some writers, without any they call a caftan. The white or blue hood, the pur-
foundation, have given the name of uirahs to the in- pofe of which feems to be to guard againft bad wea*
habitants of the towns, and that of Moors to thofe ther, and which is called bemus, is likewife a ceremo-
of the plains. But the greater part of the cities of nial part of drefs; without which, together with,
this empire are more ancient than the invafion of the fabre and canjer (or dagger) worn in a bandelier, per-
Arabs, who themfelves lived in tents. fons of condition never appear before the emperor.—
Their The houfes in moft of the towns in this empire ap^ Obliged as they are to conceal their riches, the Moors
houfes and pear at a little diftance like vaulted tombs in a church- wear no jewels; very few have fo much as a ring, a
furniture. yar(j; and the. entrance into the heft, of them has but watch, or a filver fnuff-box. They frequently carry a
rofary
M O R [ 347 ^ M O R
M.wcfl- rofury in their hand, but without annexing any ideas
0f devotion to the practice, although they ufe it to re¬
cite the name of God a certain number of times in the
day. After thefe momentary prayers they play with
their rofary much the fame as the European ladies do
with their fans. The Moorifh women feldom leave
the houfe, and when they do are always veiled. The
old very carefully hide their faces, but the young and
handfome are fomewhat more indulgent, that is to fay
toward foreigners, for they are exceedingly cautious
with the Moprs. Being veiled, their huibands do not
know them in the ftreet, and it is even impolite to en¬
deavour to fee the faces of the women who pafs ; fo
different are the manners and cuftoms of nations. There
are very fine women found among the Moors, efpecial-
ly up the country ; thofe of the northern parts by no
means poffefs the fame degree of grace and beauty.
As females ?n warm countries fooner arrive at puber¬
ty, they are alfo fooner old ; and this perhaps may be
the reafon why polygamy has been generally adopted
in fuch climates. Women there fooner lofe the
charms of youth, while men ftill preferve their paf-
fions and the powers of nature- The Moorijh women
are not in general very referved. Climate has a vaft
iufitience on the temperament of the body ; and licen;
tioufnefs is there mere general and lefs reftrained, tho’
as in other places its diforderly pleafurcs incur its atten¬
dant pains ; not but that the difeafe attending illicit
amours is lefs poifonous, and flower in its operations,
among the Moors than in Eurbpe, becaufe of the heat
of the climate, and the great temperance of their mode
of living. The women of the fouth are in general the
handfomeft, and are laid to be f > referved, or fo guard¬
ed, that their very relations do not enter their houfes
nor their tents. Yet fuch is the contradi6lory cuftom
of nations, that there are tribes in thefe fame pro¬
vinces among whom it is held to be an aft of hofpita-
lity to prefent a woman to a ttaveller. It may be
there are women who dedicate themfelves to this fpe-
cies of devotion as to an aft of benevolence; for it is
impoflible to defcribe all the varieties of opinion among
men, or the whims to which the human fancy is fub-
Drefs of the ^'^e Moorifh women who live in cities are, as in
ladies. other nations, more addifted to (hew and finery in drefs
than thofe of the country ; but as they generally leave
the houfe only one day in the week, they feldom drefs
themfelves. Not allowed to receive male vifitors, they
remain in their houfes employed in their families, and
fo totally in defliabille that they often wear only a
fhift, and another coarfer fhift over the firft. tied
round their waift, with their hair plaited, and fome-
times with, though often without, a cap. When
dreffed, they wear an ample and fine linen fhift, the
Bofom embroidered in gold; a rich caftan of cloth,
ftujf, or velvet, worked in gold; and one or two folds
of gauze, ftreaked with gold and filk, round the head,
and tied behind fo as that the fringes, intermingled
with their treffes, defcend as low as the waift; to which
fome add a ribband of about two inches broad, work¬
ed in gold or pearls, that encircles the forehead in
form of a diadem. Their caftan is hound round their
waift by a crimfon velvet girdle, embroidered in gold
with a buckle of gold or filver, or elfe a girdle of
tamboured fluff, mauufaftured at Fez.
The women have yellow flippers, and a cuftom ef Moraec*.
wearing a kind of flocking of fine cloth fomewhat ^
large, which is tied below the knae and at the ankle,
over which it falls in folds. This flocking is lefs cal¬
culated to (how what we call a handfom'e leg, than to
make it appear thick ; for to be fat is one of the rules
of beauty among the Moorifh women. To obtain this
quality, they take infinite pains, feed when they be¬
come thin on a diet fomewhat like forced-meat balls, a
certain quantity of which is given them daily ; and,
in fine,'the fame care is taken among the Moors to
fatten young women as is in Europe to fatten fowls.
The reafon of a cuftom like this may be found in the
nature of the climate and the quality of the aliments,
which make the people naturally meagre. Our {len¬
der waiils and fine turned ankles would be imperfec¬
tions in this part of Africa, and perhaps over all that
quarter of the globe ; fo great is the contrail of tafte,
and fo various the prejudices of nations.
The Moors prefent their wives with jewels of gold,
filver, or pearl, but very few wear precious flones ;
this is a luxury of which they have little'knowledge.
They have rings in filver or gold; alfo ear-rings in the
form of a crefcent, five inches in circumference, and as
thick as the end of the little finger. They firft pierce
their ears, and introduce a fmall roll of paper, which
they daily increafe in thicknefs, till at length they in-
fert the kernel of the date, which is equal in fize to
the ear-ring. They wear bracelets in gold and folid
filver, and filver rings at the bottom of their legs, fome
of them confiderably heavy. The ufe of white paint
is unknown among the Mooriih women, and that of
red but little. It is mqch more common to fee them
dye their eyebrows and eye-lafhes, which dye does not
add to the beauty of the countenance, but confider¬
ably to the fire of the eyes. They trace regular fea¬
tures with henna, of a faffron colour, on their feet,
the palm of the hand, and the tip of 'th?ir fingers.—
On their vifiting day they wrap themfelves in a clean
fine haick, which comes over the head, and furrounds
the face fo as to let them fee without being feen.—■
When they travel, they wear flraw hats to keep off
the fun ; and in fome parts of the empire the women
wear hats on their vifits; which is a fafhion peculiar to
the tribes coming from the fouth, who have preferved
. their cultoms; for the Moors do not change modes
they have once adopted.
The Negroes, who cenflitute a large proportion of Negroes
the emperor’s fubjefts,, and the occafion of whofe in¬
troduction to this empire hat been already mentioned,
are better formed than the Moors; and as they are
more lively, daring, and aftive, they are entrufled with
an important {hare in the executive part of government.
They conftitute in faft the mo.fl confiderable part of,
the emperor’s army, and are generally appointed t®
the command of provinces and towns. This circum-
flance naturally creates a jealoufy between them and
the Moors, the latter confidering the negroes as
ufurpers of a power which they have no right to af-
fume. Befides thofe negroes which form the emperor’s
army, there are a great many others in the country,
who either are or have been flaves to private Moors:
every Moor of confequence, indeed, has his propor¬
tion of them in his fervice. To the difgrace of Eu¬
rope, the MoorS treat their flaves with humanity, em-
X x 2 ploying
M O R i 348 j M O R
Morocco, ploying them in looking after tlieir gardens, and in
V”"*" the domeftic duties of their houfes. They allow them
to marry among themfelves; and after a certain num¬
ber of years, fpontaneoully pvefent them with the in¬
valuable boon of liberty. '1 hey foon are initiated in
the Mahometan perfuafion, though they fometimes in -
termix with it a few of their original fuperllitious cuf-
toms. In every other refpedt they copy the drefs and
manners of the Moors.
Rencia Among the inhabitants of Morocco there is ano-
does. ther clafs, of whom we mull not omit to make men¬
tion. Thefe are the Renegadoes, or foreigners who
have renounced their religion for the faith of Maho¬
met. Of thefe there are a great number who have
been originally Jews : they are held in little eftima-
tion by the Moors; and would be held in abhorrence
by the Jews, if they durft freely exprefs their aver-
fion. The families of thefe apoftates are called Toor-
r.adis: not having at any time married with the
Moors, they ftill preferve their ancient charafteriftics,
and are known almoft at fight to be the progeny
of thofe who formerly embraced the Mahometan reli¬
gion. The Chriftian renegadoes are but few ; and ge¬
nerally are fugitive peculators of Spain, or men fallen
from power, who becaufe of their mifcondudf, or in
defpair, quit one unfortunate fituation for another
much more deplorable.
Jews. The^fwj were formerly very numerous in thisempire.
Afterbeingprofctibedin Spain and Portugal,multitudes
of them palTed over to Morocco, and fpread themfelves
through the towns and over the country. By the re¬
lations they themftlves give, and by the extent of the
places alfigned them to dwell in, it would appear there
were more than 30,000 families, of whom at prefent
there is fcarcely a refidue of one-twelfth ; the remain¬
der either having changed their religion, funk under
their fufferings, or fled from the vexations they endu¬
red, and the arbitrary taxes and tolls impofed upon them.
The Jews poflefs neither lands nor gardens, nor can
they enjoy their fruits in tranquillity : they mull wear
only black; and are obliged, when they pafs near
mofques, or through ftreets in which there are fanc-
tuaries, to walk barefoot. The lowed among the
Moors imagines he has a right to ill-treat a Jew; nor
dares the latter defend himfelf, becaufe the koran and
the judge are always in favour of the Mahometan.—
Notwithftanding this Hate of oppreffion, the Jews have
many advantages over the Moors : they better under-
ftand the fpirit of trade ; they a& as agents and
brokers, and profit by their own cunning and the ig¬
norance of the Moors. In their commercial bargains
many of them buy up the commodities of the country
to fell again. Some have European correfpondents ;
and others are mechanics, fuch as goldfmiths, tailors,
gunfmiths, millers, and mafons. More induftrieus,
artful,, and better informed than the Moors, the Jews
are employed by the emperor in receiving the cuftoms,.
coining the money, and in all affairs and intercourfe
which the monarch has with the European merchants,
as well as in all his negociations with the various Eu¬
ropean governments.
Stat/of ^ ^00r8> w^° derive their language and religion
knowledge ^°.m ^ie Arabs, feem not in any manner to have par-
among the ticipated of their knowledge. United and confound-
Mi>ors.. ed as thofe of Morocco have bcea with the Moors of
Spain, the latter of whom cultivated the arts and Moro-
gave birth to Averroes, and many other great men, —y
the Moors of this empire have preferved no traces of
the genius of their anccftors. They have no concep¬
tion of the fpeculativc faiences. Education conlifts
merely in learning to read and write ; and as the re¬
venues of the learned are derived from thefe talents,’
the priefts and talbes among them are the foie depofi-
tories of this much knowledge : the children of the
Moors are taught in their fchools to read and repeat
feme fixty leffons, feleifled from the Koran, which for
the fake of ceconomy are written upon fmall boards.
Thefe leflbns being once learned, the fcholar is fuppo-
fed to have obtained fufficient knowledge to leave
fchool: on this occafion he rides on horfeback through
the city, followed by his comrades, who fing his
praifes: this to him is a day of triumph ; to the fcho-
lars an incitement to emulation, a feftival for the maf-
ter, and a day of expence for the parents; for in all
countries, wherever there are feftivals and proceflions,
there alfo are eating and drinking. At Fez there is
fome fmall degree more of inllru&ion to be obtained
in the fchools; and the Moors who are a little wealthy
fend their chiidren thither to have them inftru&ed in
the Arabic language, and in the religion and laws of
their country. Here fome of them alfo acquire a
little tafte for poetry.
The Moors who formerly inhabited Spain gave great
application to phyfic and aftronomy ;, and they have
left manufcripts behind them which Hill remain monu¬
ments of their genius. The modern Moors are infi¬
nitely degenerate : they have not the leaf! inclination
to the ftudy of fcience ; they know the properties of
fome fimples; but as they do not proceed upon prin¬
ciple,'and are ignorant of the caufes and effedts of
difeafes, they generally make a wrong application of
their remedies. Their moft ufual phyficians are their
talbes, their fakirs, and their faints, in whom they
place a fuperftitious confidence. Aflronomy is em-
tirely or almoft. unknown to the Moors; for though
they likewife wander from place to place, there are few
if any among them who have a knowledge of the mo¬
tion of the heavens, or who are capable from principle
to direft their own courfe by obferving the courfe of
the ftars. They are therefore neceflarily wholly unable
to calculate eclipfes, which they always interpret to
portend evil.
Superftitious people, indeed, have every where fup-
pofed eclipfes were fent to prefage fome calamity.—
The Moors being unable to reafon on the caufes of
fuch an appearance, imagine the fun or the moon are
in the power of a dragon that fwallows them; and they
offer up prayers that thefe luminaries may be delivered
from an enemy fo cruel and voracious.
Notwithftanding the Moors have occupied them
felves little in the ftudy of aftronomy, they have been
eager after aftrology. This imaginary fcience, which
made fo rapid a progrefs at Rome in defpite of the edifla
©f the emperors, may be conceived to'inake ftill greater
advances among a people wholly ftupid and ignorant,
and ever agitated by the dread of-prefent evils, or the.
hope of a more happy futurity. Magic, the compa¬
nion of aftrology, has here alfo found its followers,
and is particularly ftudied by the talbes in the fouth-
ern parts; who fuccefsfully ufc it in impofing upon-
Moori&.
M O R f M9 1 M O R
Morocco* Mboriffi credulity with ft range dreams and ambigu-
i—-y—— ous forebodings and prophefies.
In fhort, arts and fciences feem to be almoft un¬
known in Morocco; or if at all cultivate^, it is only
by the Jews, who indeed are the only induftrious and
ingenious people in the country. The Moors in ge¬
neral may be confidered as exifting in the paftoral
ftate, following only a few mechanical trades, and
leaving every thing that requires invention to the Jews,
who have likewife the principal management of their
commercial and pecuniary matters; and even thofe few
of the Moors who are merchants, are obliged to have
Jew agents, for the purpofe of tranfa&ing their bufi-
nefs.
39 The Moorifh manufactures are—The haick, which,
tureTand" 35 WaS ^e^ore °bferved, is a long garment compofed of
trades. white wool and cotton, or cotton and filk woven to¬
gether, and is ufed by the Moors for the purpofe of
covering their under drefs when they go abroad, which
they do by totally wrapping themfelves in it in a care-
lefs but eafy manner; filk handkerchiefs of a particu¬
lar kind, prepared only at Fez ; filk,s chequered with
cotton ; carpeting, little inferior to that of Turkey ;
beautiful matting, made of the palmetto or wild palm
tree; paper of a coarfe kind ; cordovan, commonly
called Morocco leather; gunpowder of an inferior na¬
ture ; and long-barrelled mulkets, made of Bifcay
iron. The Moors are unacquainted with the mode
of cafting caanon ; and therefore thofe few which are
now in the country are obtained from Europeans.—
The manufacture of glafs is likewife unknown to
them ; as indeed they make great ufe of earthen ware,
arid have few or no windows to their houfes, this com¬
modity may be of lefs importance to them than many
-others. They make butter, by putting the milk into
a goat-fkin, with its outward coat turned inwards, and
Shaking it till the butter collefts on the fides, when it
is taken out for ufe. From this operation it proves
always full of hairs, and has an infipid flavour. Their
cheefe confifts merely of curds hardened and dried, and
has uniformly a difagreeable tafte. The bread in fome
of the principal towns, particularly at Tangier and
Sake, is remarkably good, but in many other places
it is coarfe, black, and heavy.
The Moors, agreeably to the Jewifh cullom, cut
the throats of all the animals they eat, at the fame
time turning their heads towards Mecca, in ado¬
ration of their prophet. After fuffering them to
bleed freely, they carefully wafh all the remaining
blood away, and divide the meat into fmall pieces, of
about one or two pounds in weight. As they are
unacquainted with the invention of pumps, and have
but few fpiings, it affords employment to a number
of indigent people, who would probably be idle other-
wife, to carry water in fkins from the neareft river or
refervoir, and fell it to the inhabitants. From their
being obliged to tar the fkins to prevent them from
leaking, the water is frequently rendered very unpka-
fant.
Their looms, forges, ploughs, carpenters tdols, &c.
are much upon the fame conftrudtion with the unim¬
proved inftruments of the fame kind which are ufed
at this time in fome parts of Europe, only ftill more
clumfily finifhed. In their work, they attend more
to firength than neatnefs or convenience; andjlike all
other ignorant people, they have no idea that what Mororrrf;
they do is capable of improvement. It is probable, ''■—"'v
indeed, that the Moors have undergone no very ma¬
terial change fince the revolution in their arts and
fciences, which took place foon after their expuliion
from Spain. Previous to that period, it is well known
they were an enlightened people, at a time when the
greater part of Europe was involved in ignorance and
barbarifm ; but owing to the weaknefs and tyranny
of their princes, they gradually funk into the very op-
pofite extreme, and may now be confidered as but a
few degrees removed from a favage ftate.
They ufe no kind of wheel-carriage ; and therefore
all their articles of burden are tranfported from one
place to another on camels, mules, or afles. Their
buildings, though by no means conftrudled on any
fixed principle of archite&ure, have at leaft the merit
of being very ftrong and durable. The manner of
preparing tabby, of which all their beft edifices are
formed, is the only remain of their ancient knowledge
at prefent exifting. It confifts of a mixture of mor¬
tar and very fmall ftones, beaten tight in a woodern
cafe, and {offered to dry, when it forms a cement equal;
to the folid rock. There are always unaccountable;
difcrepancies and inconfiftencies in the arts of uncivi¬
lized nations. The apartments are, if poffible, even-
more inconvenient than thofe of their neighbours the
Spaniards ; but the carved wood-work with which
many of them are ornamented, is equal to any in Eu¬
rope.
Their mofques or places of public * worfhip are
ufually large fquare buildings, compofed of the fame
materials as the houfes. The building confifts of
broad and lofty piazzas, opening into a fquare court,
in a manner in fome degree fimilar to the Royal Ex¬
change of London. In the centre of the court is a
large fountain, and a fmall jlream furrounds the piazzas,
where the Moors perform the ceremony of ablution.
The court and piazzas are floored with, blue and white 4o '
checquered tiling, and the latter are covered with mat- Religious
ting, upon which the Moors kneel while repeatingceremoni®®*
their prayers. In the moll confpicuous part of the
mofque, fronting the call, Hands a kind of pulpit,
where the talbe or prieft occafionally preaches. The
Moors always enter this place of worfhip bare-footed,
leaving their flippers at the door. On the top of the
mofque is a fquare fteeple with a flag-ftaff, whither at
Hated hours the talbe afeends, hoifts a white flag, and
calls the people to prayers, for they have no bells.
From this high fituation the voice is heard at a con-
fiderable diftance; and the talbes have a monotonous
mode of enunciation, the voice finking at the end of
every fhort fentence, which in fome meafure refembks
the found of a bell. The moment the flag is difplay-
ed, every perfon forfakes his employment, and goe#
to prayers. If they are near a mofque, they perform
their devotions within it, otherwife immediately on
the fpot where they happen to be, and always with
their faces towards the eaft, in honour of their pro¬
phet Mahomet, who it is well known was buried at
Medina. The prayer which is generally repeated on
thefe occafions, is a chapter from the Koran, acknow¬
ledging the goodnefs of God and Mahomet; and it is
accompanied with various geftures, fuch as lifting the
hands above the head, bowing twice, performing two ge.
aufksiaus*.
M on [ no ] M O r
Morocco, nuflexions, bowing-again twice, and kifllngtbe ground.
T1' whole of this ceremony they repeat three times.
Their fabbath is on our Friday, and commences
from fix o’clock the preceding evening. On this day
they ufe a blue flag fnftead of the white one. As it
has been prophefied that they are to be conquered by
the Chriltians on the fabbath-day,4he gates of all the
towns and of the emperor’s palaces are fhut when at
divine fervice on that day, in order to avoid being fur-
prifed during that period Their talbes are not di-
ilinguifhed by any particular drefs.
The Moors ,have three folemn devotional periods in
the courfe of the year. The firft, which is named slicl
Je Cabier, is held in commemoration of the birth of
Mahom&t. It continues feven days; during which pe¬
riod, every perfon who can afford the expence kills a
fheep as a facri^ce, and divides it among his friends.
The fecond ft the b am ad am. This is held at the fea-
fon when Mahomet difappeared in his flight from Mec¬
ca to Medina. Every man is obliged at that period
-to fail (that is, to abftain from animal-food from fun-
tife to fUn-fet each day) for 30 days ; at the expira¬
tion of which time a featt takes place, and continues
a week. The third is named Llajhore., and is a day
fet apart by Mahomet for every perfon to compute the
value of his property, in order far the payment of
zaknt. that is, one-tenth of their income to the
poor, and other pious ufes. Although this feaft only
lafls a Angle day, yet it re celebrated with far greater
magnificence than either of the others.
The Moots compute time by lunar months, and
count the days of the week by the firll, fecond, third,
&c. beginning from our Sunday. They ufe a com-
jnon reed for writing, and begin their manuferipts
4t from right to left.
Language The Moors of the empire of Morocco, as well as
«>f the thofe to the northern limits of Africa, fpeak Arabic;
Meters. but this language is corrupted in proportion as we re¬
tire farther from Afia, where it firft took birth ; the
intermixture which has happened among the African
nations, and the frequent tranfmigrations of the Moors,
during a fuccelfion of ages, have occafioned them to
lofe the purity of the Arabic language ; its pronun¬
ciation has.been vitiated, the ufe of many words loft,
and other foreign words have been introduced without
thereby rendering it more copious ; the pronouncia-
tion of the Africans, however, is fofter to the ear and
lefs guttural than that of the Egyptians. The lan¬
guage, when written, is in effeft much the fame at
Morocco as at Cairo, except that there are letters
-and expreflions among the Moors which differ from
thofe of the Oriental Arabs, who, however, under-
lland the Moors in converfation, notwithftanding their
vitiated manner of pronouncing. They mutually read
each others writings with fome difficulty.
There is a very fenfible difference among the Moors
between the Arabic of the learned and the courtiers,
and that fpoken by the people in general; and this
difference is felt ftill more in the provinces of the
fouth or of the eaft, and among the Moors who live
in the defarts, where the Arabic is yet farther dif-
figured by a mixture of foreign tribes.
The Brebes and the Shellu, who appear to have had
the fame origin, for they have preferved the fame dia-
le£t, fpeak a language which the Moors do not under' Mafew*,
Hand, and which feems to have no analogy with that ^
of the latter. It has been .conjectured to be the Pu¬
nic, or the Numidian ; but Thefe people write it in
Arabic qharaCters. The Brebes count the days of
the week like the Moors, and both of them employ
Arabic words. The Shellu enumerate the days after
the fame method, but in their own language. Both
the Brebes and the Shellu denote the months of. the
year in the fame manner as do the Moors and Arabs-,
and date from the fame aera; that is to fay, from the
year of the Hegira.
The Koran and books of prayer of the Brebea
and Shellu are in Arabic; as likewife are their ads
and title-deeds, which are w;itten by their talbes or
learned men. ^
The Moors are naturally of a grave and penflve dif-Their tem-
pofition, fervid in profeffions of friendfhip, but very Pfr a d,
infincere in their attachments. They have no curio-difi>o£itioa-
fity, no: ambition of knowledge ; an indolent habit,
united to the want of mental cultivation, renders them
perhaps even more callous than other unenlightened
people to every delicate fenfatioii; and they require
more than ordinary excitement to render them fentible
of pleafure or of pain. This languor of fentiment is,
however, unaccompanied with the fmalleft fpark of
courage or fortitude. When in adverfity, they mani-
feft the moft abjeCt fubmiffion to their fuperiors ; and
in profperity their tyranny and pride is infupportable.
They frequently fmile, but feldom are heard to laugh
loud. The moft infallible mark of internal tranquil¬
lity and enjoyment is when they amufe themfelves
with (treking or playing with their beard. When
roufed by refentment, their difputes rarely proceed
further than violently to abufe each other in the moft
opprobrious language. They never fight or box with
■their fills like our peafantry ; but when a quarrel
proceeds to great extremities, they collar each other,
and fometimes terminate a-difpute by affaffination.
Perfonal cleanlinefs has been confidered as one of Mode of li-
thofe circumftances which ferve to mark and deter-vfng, man.
mine the civilization of a people. It was in vain thatners> &c*
Mahomet enjoined the frequency of ablution as a re¬
ligious duty to the Moors, Their drefs, which ffiould
be white, is but feldom waflied ; and their whole ap¬
pearance evinces that they perform this branch of
their religious ceremonies in but a flovenly manner.
With this degree of negligence as to their perfons, we
may be juftly furprifed to find united a moft ferupu-
lous nicety in their habitations and apartments. They
enter their chambers barefooted, and cannot bear the
flighted degree of contamination near the place where
they are feated. This delicacy again is much con¬
fined to the infides of their houfes. The ft reels re¬
ceive the whole of their rubbifh and filth ; and by
thefe means the ground is fo raifed in moft parts of
the city of Morocco, that the hew buildings always
Hand confiderably higher than the old.
When a Moor receives his guefts, he never rifes
from his feat, but (hakes hands, inquires after their
health, and defires them to fit down, either on a car¬
pet or a cufhion placed on the floor for that purpofe.
Whatever be the time of day, tea is then brought in
on a tea-board with Ihort feet. This k the higheft
7 com-
M
OR [ 35* 1 M
be offered by a Moor ; for tea gers commit a violent affault
Morocco, compliment that
is a very expenfive and fcarce article in Barbary, and
is only drank by the rich and luxurious. Their mam
ncr of preparing it is by putting fome green tea, a
fmall quantity of tanfey, the fame portion of mint,
and a large proportion of fugar (for the Moors drink
their tea very fweet) into the tea-pot *ut the fame time,
and filling it up with boiling water. When thefe ar¬
ticles are infufed a proper timer the fluid is then
poured into remarkably fmall cups of the beft India
china, the fmaller the more genteel, without any
milk ; and accompanied with fome cakes or fweet-
meats, it is handed round to the company. From
the great efteem in which this beverage is held by the
Moors, it is generally drank by very fmall and flow
fips, that its ‘flavour may be the longer enjoyed ; and
as they ufually drink a confiderable quantity when¬
ever it is introduced, this entertainment is feldom
finifhed in lefs time than two hours.
The other luxuries of the Moors are (miff, of which
they are uncommonly fond, and fmoking tobacco,
for which the greater part ufe wooden pipes about four
feet in length, with an earthen bowl; but the princes
cr emperor generally have the bowls made of folid
gold. Inftead of the indulgence of opium, which,
from the heavy duty impofed upon that article by the
emperor, is too expenfive to be ufed by the Moors,
O R
its contents: they are Morocco,
at the fame time, -however, attended by a Have or do- —
meftic, who prefents them with water and a towel occa-
fionally to wafh their hands. From the want of the
Ample and convenient invention of knives and forks,
it is not uncommon in this country to fee three or
four people pulling to pieces the fame piece of meat,
and afterwards with their fingers ftirring up the pade
or coofcoofoo, of which they often take a whole handful
at once into their mouth. At fun-fet they fup up¬
on the fame dhh j and indeed flipper is their principal
meal.
Such is the general mode of living among the prin¬
cipal people in towns. There are confiderable mul¬
titudes, however, who do not fare fo well, but are
obliged to content themfelves with a little bread and
fruit inftead of animal food, and to fleep in the open
ftreets, This kind of exiftence feems ill calculated to
endure even in an ina&ive ftatc ; far more fevere mull
it therefore be to thofe who exercife the laborious
employment of couriers in this country, who travel
on foot a journey of 300 or 400 miles at the rate
of between 30 or 40 miles a-day, without taking any
other nourifliment than a little bread, a few figs, and
fome water, and who have no better ftielter at night
than a tree. It is wonderful with what alacrity and
perfeverance thefe,, people perform the moil fatiguing
they fubftitute the achicha, a fpecies of flax. This journeys at all feafons of the year. There is a regular
they powder and infufe in water in fmall quantities.
The Moors affert, that it produces agreeable ideas y
but own, that when it is taken to excefs it moft power¬
fully intoxicates. In order to produce this effecl, they
likewife mix with their tobacco an herb named in this
country khaf, which by fmoking occafions all the in¬
ebriating effedfs of the achicha. The ufe of fpirits as
well as wine is ftriftly forbidden by the Koran ; 'there
are,, however, very few among the Moors who do
not joyfully embrace every private opportunity of
drinking both to excefs.
With refpedl to the hours for eating, the people of
this country are remarkably regular. Very foon after
day-break they take their breakfaft, which is generally
a compofition of flour and water boiled- thin, together
with an herb which gives it a yellow tinge. The male
part of the family eat in one apartment and the fe¬
male in another. The children aie not permitted to
eat with their parents, but take their meals afterwards
with the fervants; indeed in moft other refpefts they
are treated exadfly as fervants or flaves by their pa¬
rents. The' mefs is put into an earthen bowl, and
brought in upon a round wooden tray. It is placed
ih the centre of the guefts, who fit crofs-legged either
on a mat or on the floor, and who form a circle for:
the purpofe. Having previoufly waftied themfelves, a
ceremony always peiformed before and after meals.
company oi them in every town, who are ready to be
difpatched at a moment’s warning to any part of the
country their employers may have occafion to fend
them. They conftitute in this empire the only mode
of conveyance for all public and private difpatches ;
and as they are well known in the place to which
they belong, they are very pun&ual in delivering
every thing that is put into their hands. From their -
fteady pace in travelling, at the rate of about four
miles an hour, and from their being able to pafs over
parts which from the mountainous ilate of the conn*
try, and from the want of good roads, perfons oir
horfeback would find inacceflible, they are indeed by
far the moft expeditious meffengers that could be em¬
ploy ed-
As jione but the very vulgar go on. foot in this
country, for the purpofe of viftting mules are confi-
dered as more genteel than horfes; and the greateft
pride, of a Moor is to have fuch as walk remarkably
fall, and to keep his footmen,, of which the number
is proportionable to the rank and confequence, of the
matter, on a continued run.
As the Moors are not fond of admitting men into-
their houfes except upon particular occalions, if the
weather* is fine they place a mat, and fometimes a
carpet, on the ground before their door, feat them¬
felves upon it crofs-legged, and receive their friends,.
each perfon with his fpoon attacks vigoroufly. the who form a circle, fitting in the fame tnanr-er, with
bowl, while they diverfify the entertainment by eat¬
ing with it fruit or bread. At 12 o’clock they dine,
performing the fame ceremonies as at breakfaft. For
dinner, from the emperor down to the, peafant, their
difti is.univerfally coofcoofvo, the mode of preparing,
which has been already deferibed. The difh is brought
in upon a round tray and placed on the floor, round
which the family fit as at bteakfaft, and with their fin-
their attendants on the outfide of the group' , Upon
thefe occafions they either drink tea or fmoke and
converfe. The ftreets are fometim.es crowded with .
parties of this kind ; fome engaged in playing at an ,
inferior kind of chefs or drafts, at which they ate very
expert; but the majority in converfation. The people
of this country, indeed, are fo decidedly averfe to
Handing up, or walking about, that if only two or
three.;
M O R [35
Mnroeco. three people meet, they fquat themfelves down in the
firil clean place they can find, if the converfation is
to hold but for a few minutes.
The manner of falutation among the Moors is,
when too equals meet, by a quick motion they (hake
hands, and afterwardsjcifs each other’s hand. When
an inferior meets a fuperior, fuch as an officer of rank,
a judge, or governor, he kiffes that part of his haick
w hich covers the arm; and fometimes, as a higher
mark of refpeft, he will kifs his feet. But the com¬
pliment due to the emperor, or any of the princes of
the blood, is to take off the cap or turban, and to pro-
flrate the head to the ground. When two particular
friends or relations meet, they anxioufly embrace and
kifs each other’s faces and beards for a few minutes,
make a number of enquiries about the health of each
party, as well as that of their families, but feldom allow
time for a reply.
Their a- The Moors have in general but few amufements;
flvtifement?. the fedentary life they lead in cities is little variegated
except by the care they take of their gardens, which
are rather kept for profit than pleafure. Moll of
thefe gardens are planted with the orange, the lemon
tree, and the cedar, in rows, and in fuch great quanti¬
ties, that the appearance is.rather that of a forelt than
that of a garden. The Moors fometimes,though rarely,
have mufic in thefe retreats: a ftate of flavery but ill
agrees with the love of pleafure: the people of Fez
alone, either from a difference in education, or be-
caufe their organs and fenfibility are more delicate,
make mufic a part of their amufements. There are
not in Morocco, as in Turkey, public coffee-houfes,
where people meet to enquire the news of the day ;
but initead of thefe, the Moors go to the barbers
fhops, which in all countries feem to be the rendez¬
vous of newfmongers. Thefe ffiops are furrounded by
benches; on which the cuftomer, the inquifitive, and
the idle, feat themfelves; and when there are no more
places vacant, they crouch on the ground like mon¬
keys.
Showmen and dancers come often into the towns;
round whom the people affemble and partake of the
amufement for a very trifle. There are alfo a kind of
wandering hiftorians: the vulgar, who cannot read,
and who every where are eager to hear extraordinary
relations, are the more affiduous in attending thefe
narrators, as want of more extenfive information pre¬
vents the tale-teller remaining above a week in a
place.
A common diverfion in the towns where there are
foldiers, as well as in the country, is what the Moors
call the game of gun-powder ; a kind of military ex-
ercife that is the mpre pleafing to thefe people, in-
afinuch as, by the nature of their government, they
all are, or are liable to become, foldiers, therefore all
have arms and horfes. By explofions of powder, too,
they manifeft their feftivity on their holidays. Their
game of gun-powder confifts in two bodies of horfe,
«ach at a diftance from the other, galloping in fucceffive
parties of four and four, and firing their pieces charged
with powder. Their chief art is in galloping up to
the oppofite detachment, fuddenly Hopping, firing
their mufkets, facing about, charging, and returning
to the attack ; all which manoeuvres are imitated by
their opponents. The Moors take great pleafure in
N° 229.
2 1 MGR
this amufement, which is only an imitation of their M rti-.ect,
military evolutions.  v—^
The common topics for converfation among the M31J^5eii
Moors, are the occurrences of the place, religion, mem of
their women, but above all their horfes. Thislaft topic, horfes.
indeed, appears to occupy by far the greatell portion
of their attention. Thefe animals are feldom kept in
ftables in Morocco. They are watered and fed only
once a-day, the former at one o’clock at noon, and the
latter at fun-fet; and the only one mode which they ufe
to clgan them is by walhing them all over in a river „
two^ or three times a week, and fuffering them to dry
themfelves.
Notwithftanding the attachment which the Moors
manifeft to their horfes, they moft certainly ufe them
with great cruelty. Their higheft pleafure, and one
of their firft accompliffiments, is, by means of long and
ffiarp fpurs, to make the horfe go full fpeed, and then
to ftop him inftantaneoufly ; and in this they certainly
manifeft uncommon dexterity. The iron-work of their
bridles is fo conftru&ed, that by its preffure on the
horfe’s tongue and lower jaw, with the leaft exertion
of the rider, it fills his mouth full of blood ; and if
not ufed with the utmoft caution, throws him inevi¬
tably on his back. The bridle has only a fingle rein,
which is fo very long, that it ferves the purpofe of
both whip and bridle. The Moorifh faddle is in fome
degree fimilar to the Spanilh, but the pummel is ftill
higher and more peaked. Their ftirrups, in which
they ride very ftiort, are fo formed as to cover the
whole of the foot. They either plate or gild them,
according to the dignity, opulence, or fancy of the
poffeffor. Their faddles, which are covered with red
woollen cloth, or if belonging to a perfon of confe-
quence with red fattin or damalk, are faftened with a
ttrong girth round the body in the European ftyle, and
another round the ffioulders. - The Moors frequently
amufe themfelves by riding with the utmoft apparent
violence againft a wall; and a ttranger would conceive
it impoffible for them to avoid being dallied to pieces,
when juft as the horfe’s head touches the wall, they
ftop him with the utmoft accuracy.
Like all barbarous nations, the Moors are paffion- Love4e|
ately fond of mufic, and fome few have a tafte formufu>
poetry. Their flow airs, for want of that variety
which is introduced when the- fcience has attained a
degree of perfeftion, have a very melancholy fame-
nefs ; but fome of their quick tunes are beautiful and
Ample, and partake in fome degree of the charafteriftic
melody of the Scotch airs. The poetry of their fongs,
the conftant fubje£l of which is love, though there
are few nations perhaps who are kfs fenfible of that
paffiori, has certainly lefs merit than the mufic.
Their inftruments are ti kind of hautboy, which
differs from ours only in having no keys ; the mando¬
line, which they have learnt to play upon from their
neighbours the Spaniards; another inftrument, bear¬
ing fome refemblance to a violin, and played upon in
a fimilar manner, but with only two firings ; the large
drum, the common pipe, and the tabor. Thefe unit¬
ed, and accompanied with a certain number of voices,
upon many occafions form a band, though folo mufic
is more common in this unfocial country. Upon all
days of rejoicing, this kind of mufic, repeated volleys
of mulketry, either by men on horfeback or on foot,
asd
M O R [ 353 ] ' M O R
Morocco, and in the evening a grand attack upon the coofcoofo,
’V””” conftitute the principal part of the public entertain¬
ments.
The Moors marry very young, many of their fe¬
males not being more than 12 years of age at their
nuptials. As Mahometans, it is well known that their
religion admits of polygamy to the extent of four
wives, and as many concubines as they pleafe ; but if
we except the very opulent, the people feldom avail
themfelves of this indulgence, fince it entails on them
a vaft additional expence in houfe-keeping, and in
providing for a large family. In contradting mar¬
riage, the parents of both parties are the only agents ;
and the intended bride and bridegroom never fee each
Marriage other till the ceremony is performed. The marriage-
ceremonies. fettlements are made before the cadi, and then the
friends of the bride produce her portion, or if not,
the hufband agrees to fettle a certain fum upon her
in cafe he fhould die, or divorce her on account of
barrennefs, or any other caufe. The children of the
wives have all aq equal claim to the effeSs of the fa*
ther and mother, but thofe of the concubines can each
only claim half a fhare.
When the marriage is finally agreed upon, the
bride is kept at home eight days, to receive her female
friends, who pay congratulatory vifits every day. At
the fame time a talbe attends upon her, to converfe with
her relative to the folemn engagement on which (he
is about to enter : on thefe occafions he commonly ac¬
companies his admonitions with finging a pious hymm
which is adapted to the folemnity. The bridegroom,
on‘the other hand, i-eceives vifits from his male friends
in the morning, and in the evening rides through the
town accompanied by them, fame playing on hautboys
and drums, while others are employed in firing volleys
of mufketry. In all their feftivals, the difcharge of
muiketry indeed forms a principal part of the enter¬
tainment. Contrary to the European mode, which
particularly aims at firing with exa&nefs, the Moors
difcharge their pieces as irregularly as poffible, fo as
to have a continual fucceffion of reports for a few mi¬
nutes.
On the day of the marriage, the bride in the even¬
ing is put into a fquare or odtagonal cage about ) 2
feet in circumference, which is covered with fine white
linen, and fometimes with gauzes and filks of various
colours. In this vehicle, which is placed on a mule,
fire is paraded round the ftreets, accompanied by her
relations and friends, fome carrying lighted torches,
others playing on the hautboy's, and a third party
again firing volleys of muiketry. In this manner Ihe
is carried to the houfe of her intended hufoand, who
returns about the fame time from performing fimilar
ceremonies. On her arrival, (he is placed in an apart¬
ment by herfelf, and her hulband is introduced to her
alone for the firft time, who finds her fitting qn a filk
®r velvet cufliion, fuppofing her to be aperfon of con-
fequence, with a fmall table before her, upon which
are two wax candles lighted. Her Ihift, or more pro-
peily fhirt, hangs down like a train hehiild her, and
over it is a filk or velvet robe with clofe fleeves, which
at the brealt and wrifts is embroidered with gold ;
this drefs reaches fomething lower than the calf of
the leg. Round her head is tied a black filk fcarf,
which hangs behind as low as the ground. Thus at-
Vm.. XII. Part I.
tired, the bride fits with her hands over her eyes, when Morocco,
her hulband appears and receives her as his wife with- v—^
out any further ceremony : for the agreement made by
the friends before the cadi is the only fpecific contradi:
which is thought necelfaty.
If the hulband Ihould have any reafon to fufpedl
that his wife has not been ftridtly virtuous, he is at
liberty to divorce her and take another. For fome
time after marriage, the family and the friends are en¬
gaged in much feafting, and a variety of amufements,
which lall a longer or Ihorter time, according to the
circumftances of the parties. It is ufually cultomary
for the man to remain at home eight days and the wo¬
man eight months after they are firft married ; and
the woman is at liberty to divorce herfelf from her
hulband, if Ihe can prove that he does not provide her
with a proper fubfiftence. If he curfes her, the law
obliges him to pay her, for the firlt offence eight du¬
cats ; for the fecond, a rich drefs of ftill greater value;
and the third time Ihe may leave him entirely. He
is then at liberty to marry again in two months.
Women fuffcr but little inconvenience in this coun¬
try from child-bearing; they are frequently up. the
next day, and go through all the duties of the houfe
with the infant upon their backs. In celebrating the Circumci-
rite of circumcifion, the-ehild is dreffed very fumptu-lion.
oully, and carried on a mule, or, if the parents are in
poor circumftances, on an afs, accompanied with flags
flying and muficians playing on hautboys and beat¬
ing drums. In this manner they proceed to the 4p
mofque, where the ceremony is performed. Children) Education
as foon as they can be made in the lead degree ufeful, children,
are put to the various kinds of labour adapted to their
age and ftrength. Others, whofe parents are in bet¬
ter circumftances, are fometimes fent to fchool ; and
thofe who are intended for the church, ufually con¬
tinue their ftudies till they have nearly learnt the Ko-
lan by rote. In that cafe they are enrolled among
the talbes, or learned men of the law ; and upon lea¬
ving fchool are paraded round the ftreets on a horfe,
accompanied by mulic and a large concourfe of people.
When any perfon dies, a certain number of women pun^r°[
are hired for thev purpofe of lamentation; in the rites,
performance of which, nothing can be more gra¬
ting to the ear, or more unpleafant, than their fright¬
ful moans, or rather bowlings : at the fame time, thefe
mercenary mourners beat their heads and breafts, and
tear their cheeks with their nails. The bodies , are
ufually buried a few hours after death. Previous to
interment, the corpfe is wafhed very clean, and fewed
up in a ftirowd.. with the right hand under the head)
which is pointed towards Mecca : it is carried on a
bier^flpported upon mens Ihoulders, to the burying
place, which is always, with great propriety, on the
outiide of the town, for they never bury their dead in
the mofques, or within the bounds of an inhabited
place. The bier is accompanied by numbers of people,
two a-breaft, who walk very fall, calling upon God
and Mahomet, and finging hymns adapted to the oc1-
cafion. The grave is made very wide at the bottom
and narrow at*the top, and the body is depofited with¬
out any other ceremony than finging and praying in
the lame manner as on their way to the grave. They
have no tombs in this country, but long and plain
Hones ; and it is frequently cuftomary for the feniaLe
Y y friends
M O R [ 354 1 M O R
Morocco, friends of the departed to weep over their graves for
, £everaj jay8 after their funeral.
Abfurd ^as often been thought furprifing, that the Chri-
con(iudl ftian powers fhotijd fuffer their marine to be infulted
of the Eu- by thofe barbarians, who take the fhips of all nations
powers to- whom>they are not at peace, or rather who do
wards Mo- not Pay them a fubfidy either in money or commodi-
xocco. ties. !'his forbearance has been accounted for no other-
w fe than by fuppofing, firft, that a breach with tb m
might provoke the Porte, >vho pretends to be their
lord paramount ; fecendly, that no Chriftian power
would be fond of feeing Algiers, and the reft of that
coaft, in pofTefiion of another ; and, thirdly, that no¬
thing could be got by a bombardment of any of their
towns, as the inhabitants would inftantly carry their
effects t® their deferts and mountains, fo that the be¬
nefit refulting from the conqueft mull be tedious and
uncertain
The firft reafon is fo obvioufly abfurd as to require
no anfvver. In regard to the fecond and third fuppo-
fitions, it may be obferved, that there is no neceffity
for taking pofleffion of thofe coafts by any European
power whatever. The objedl ought to be, not to con¬
quer, but to render impotent, thofe piratical ftates;
not to profit by plundering them, but to qualh their
piracies, and prevent them from being longer the nui-
fances and pefts of the Mediterranean. Than which,
according to the bell informed travellers, there can be
nothing more eafy. Hardly any force of armament
would be neceffary for the purpofe, would the Euro¬
peans merely leave them to their own refources, and
with-hold thofe fupplies with which they have been
in ufe to furnilh them, contrary as well to good po-
| 7W, licy as to the interefts of humanity. M. Lemprieref,
P-233« fpeaking of the emperor of Morocco (1790) obferves,
that “ nothing but grofs negleft or inexcufable igno¬
rance could induce the European princes in general
to remain in a kind of tributary ftate to a prince who
had neither an army nor a fleet which deferved the
name, and a people whofe difpofition is lefs fuited to
enterprife than perhaps any other. What had they
to fear from him ? His whole fleet confifted only of a
few fmall frigates and row-boats, ill managed and
worfe manned, the whole of which might have been
deftroyed in one day by two or three well appointed
European frigates. The' entrances of- thofe ports
where he laid up his (hipping, if we except Tangier
and Earache, are fo continually choaking up with
fand, that in a flrort time they will only admit filh-
ing-boats, or the very fmalleft craft. The towns are
none of them regularly fortified except Mogodore,
and that hardly produces half a dozen of men who un¬
derhand the leaft of working the guns. And yet this
contemptible power gives laws to ail the coafts of
Portugal and Spain, and may be faid in fome meafure
to command the entrance of the Mediterranean.
“ It may be faid, he was too trifling a power to
notice ; if fo, why lavi h immenfe prefents for the pur¬
pofe of keeping him in temper ? Thofe who imagined
they fecured his friendfhip by thefe means, were much
miftaken; on the contrary, they only added fuel to
that flame of avarice which was not to be extinguifh-
ed. If he was one day prefented with n frigate, he
alked for two the next; and the more his requells
were indulged, the more his inordinate defires were
increafed. It is well known to thofe who have been Moroeenn
converfant with the Moors, that to fecure their friend-  v~—^
Ihip, you mull fir'l aflert your own fuperiority; and
then if you make them a trifling prefent, its value is
trebled in their eftimation. The fame difpofition
would have been found in the late emperor as in the
common Moor. So far from courting an alliance, it
would rather have been good policy at once to quar¬
rel with him ; the lofs ol a few towns, and particu¬
larly Mogodore, to which he was much attached,
from its being raifed under his own aufpices, would
foon have reduced him to good humour and fubmif-
fion ”
Another intelligent traveller, M. Briflbn*, obferves * IhipiurKt
how extraordinary it is, that a prince f® little to be 4/ Br‘f‘
dreaded as the emperor of Morocco Ihould oblige the^*
different powers of Europe to fend ambaffadors to him,
and that he fhould even di&ate laws to them. There
is not a Angle fovereign who dares to fend a reprefen-
tative to his court without making him at the fame
time confiderable prefents; and what envoy would pre¬
fent himfelf without having his hands full i How hap'-
pens it that the confuls have not, by common confent,
reprefented to their refpeftive fovereigns, that the em¬
peror of Morocco becomes every day more and more
powerful by the fupplies which they themfelves furniflv
him? Twenty years ago this prince was abfolutely
deftitute of refources. He had neither materials nor
any place for calling cannons 5 and he was equally in
want of wood for building (hips, of ropes, of nails, and
even of workmen. It is France and other European
powers that affift him, elfe the emperor of Morocco
would be of little confideration. Hisfuperb batteries
of brafs cannons, 24, 36, and 48 pounders, were fur-
nilhed by Holland, Spain, England, and France. Eng¬
land has done more than other nations, by felling him
thofe beautiful cannons which were taken on the float¬
ing batteries. Mogodore is built in an advantageous Ac¬
tuation, its batteries are well dlfpofed, and there are
cannon at each embrafure ; but they are there only in
a manner for (how, as they have na carriages, and are
fupported only by brick-work. There are no work>
men in the country capable of mounting them on car¬
riages, nor is there wood proper for making them.
Did a few velfels only wait for the failing of thofe fmall
frigates, which are almott all unfit for fea except only
two, nothing would be eafier than to prevent them
from returning, and to block up the ports of Mogoi-
dore, Rabat, and Sake. What would become of his
commerce, and above all his marine, did the Chriltias
princes ceafe to aflift him, contrary to the infercils of
humanity ? Would England and Spain unite only for
a moment, Tangiers, his moll beautiful port, would
foon be fo far ruined, that it could not afford fhelter
to his fubjefts, who, deftitute of (hips, would foon be
obliged to give over their piracies. If the confuls of Avarice
different nations have never made thefe obfervations-, anct in.
and if they have never pointed out the means of curb- triguesof
ing the infolence of the emperor of Morocco, it is con‘'
cauft they are at the head of the commerce which u
thefe different powers carry on in that part of the
world. I can pofitively affert, that thefe reprefetita-
tives, inftead of furnilhing their courts with the means
of diminilhing the power of the emperor, never ceafe
to atld to his ftrength, and to incite him to make
I new'
M O R
Morocco, new pretesfisns. How much we affift thefe pirates,
v——V”"' to hurt the advantageous trade which we might carry
on i Their fituation renders them very dangerous;
but if we leave them only their fituation, it would be
impoffible for them to profit much by it. Let impar¬
tial people pay a vifit to that country, let them fpeak
with the fame fincerity as I do; and they will no doubt
be convinced, that the emperor of Morocco, of all the
princes in the world, would be the lealt able to do mif-
chief, did the fovereigns of Europe ceafe to furniih him
with fuccours.”
Defcription Morocco, a city of the kingdom of Morocco in
vi6 City ®arbary,lying about x zomiles to the north of Tarudant,
*0 uroc' 90 to the eait of Mogodore, and 350 to the fouth of
Tangier. It is fituated in a beautiful valley, formed by
a chain of mountains.on the northern fide, audthofe of
the Atlas, from which it is diftant about 20 miles on
the fouth and eaft. The country which immediately
iurrounds it is a fertile plain, beautifully ,diverlified
with clumps of palm trees and fhrubs, and watered by
fmall and numerous dreams which defcend from Mount
Atlas. The emperor’s out-gardens, which are fituated
at the dillance of about five miles to the fouth of the
city, and are large plantations of olives walled in, add
confiderably to the beauty of th6 fcenc.
Morocco, though one of the capitals of the empire
(fer there are three, Morocco, Mcquinez, and Fez),
has nothing to recommend it but its great extent and
the royal palace. It is enclofed by remarkably ftrong
walls built of tabby, the circumference of which is
about eight miles. On thefe walls there are no guns-
mounted ; but they are flanked with fquare towers,
and furrounded by a wide and deep ditch. The c:ty
has a number of entrances, confiding of large double
porches of tabby in the Gothic ilyle, the gates of
which are regularly Ihut every night at certain hours.
As polygamy is allowed by the Mahometan religion,
and is fuppofed in fome degree to affetf population, it
would be difficult to form any computation near the
truth with refpedl t© the number of inhabitants which
this city may contain. The mofques, which are the
©nly public buildings except the palace worth noticing
at Morocco, are more numerous than magnificent;
one of them is ornamented with a very high and fquare
tower, built of cut Hone, which is vifible at a confider-
able diftance from the city. The ft reels are very nar¬
row, dirty, and irregular, and many of the houfes are
uninhabited and falling to ruin. Thofe which are de¬
cent and refpe&able in their appearance are built of
tabby, and enclofed in gardens. That of the effendi
or prime minifter (according to Mr Lempriere, from
*Publifhedwhofe Tuur * this account is tranferibed), was among
in 1791. the bell in Morocco. This houfe, which confided of
two ftories, had elegant apartments both above and be¬
low, furnilhed in a Ilyle far fuperior to any thing our
author ever faw in that country. The court, into
which the lower aparments opened, was very neatly
paved with glazed blue and white tiling, and had in
its centre abeautilful fountain. The upper apartments
were connected together by a broad gallery, the bal-
lufters of which were painted of different colours.
The hot and cold baths were very large, and had every
convenience which art could afford. Into the garden,
which was laid out in a tolerably neat llyle, opened a
room adjoining to the houfe, which had a broad arched
M O R
entrance but no door, beautifully ornamented with Morocca.
chequered tiling ; and at both ends of the apartment ——-y—
the walls were entirely covered with looking-glafs.
The flooring of ah the rooms was covered with beau¬
tiful carpeting, the walls ornamented with large and
valuable looking-giaffes, intermixed with watches and
clocks in glafs-cafes. T he ceiling was carved wood¬
work, painted of different colours ; and the vvirole w a*
in a fuperior ilyle of Moorilh grandeur. This and a
few others are the only decent habitations in Mo¬
rocco. The generality of them ferve only to irnprefii
the traveller with the idea of a miferable and deierted
city.
The Elcaifferia is a particular fart of the town
where fluffs and other valuable articles are expoied t®
fale. It confifls of a number of fmall ihops, formed in
the walls or the houfes, about a yard from the ground,
of iuch an height within as jutt to admit a man to fit
in one of them crofs legged. The goods and drawers
are fo arranged round him, that when he ierves his cu-
llomers, who are flanding all the time out in the : reet,
he can reach down any article he wants without be¬
ing under the neceffity of moving. Thele ffiops, which-
are found in all the other towns of the empire, are fuffi-
cient to afford a linking example of the indolence of
the Moors. There are three daily markets in different
parts of the town of Morocco where provilions are
fold, and two weekly fairs or markets for the dilpolal
of cattle. The city is fupplied witn water by means
of wooden pipes connected with the neighbouring
ft reams, which empty themlelves into refervoirs placed
for the purpofe in the fuburbs, and fome few 111 the
centre of the town.
The caftle is a large and ruinous,building, the.outet
walls of which enclofe a fpace of ground, about three
miles in circumference. It has a molque, on the’ top of
which are three large balls, foi ned, as the Moors allege,
of folid gold. The cattle is almotl a town of itleif;
it contains a number of inhabitants, who in fome de¬
partment or ®ther are in the fervice of the emperor,
and all under the direction of a particular alcaide, who
is quite independent of the governor of the town. On
the outfide of the caftle, between the Moorilh town
and the Jewdry, are leveral imall diftinht pavilions, in-
clofed in gardens of orange-trees, which are intended
as ©ccafional places of relidence'for fuch of the empe¬
ror’s fons or brothers as happen to be at Moi-occo.
As they arc covered with coloured tiling, they have
at a fmall diltance rather a neat appearance; but upon
approaching or entering them, that effedl in a great
mtafure ceafes.
The Jews, who are at this place pretty numerous,
have a feparate town to themfelves, wailed in, and un¬
der the charge of an alcaide, appointed by the empe¬
ror. It has two large gates, which are regularly lirut
every evening about nine o’clock; after which time no
perfon whatever rs permitted to enter or go out of the
Jewdry till they are opened again the following morn¬
ing. The Jews have a market of their own ; and
when they enter the Moorilh town, caftle, or palace,
they are always compelled to be barefooted.
The palace is an ancient building, furrounded by a
fquare waH, the height of which nearly excludes from
the view of the fpeftator the other buildings. Its
principal gatos are conltruhted with Gothic arches,
Y y 2 sompofed
r 3ss i
M O R
Morocco compofed of cut (tone, which condutt to fevcral open
Moron anc^ ^Pac*ous courts ; through thefe it is neceffary to
t, * . pafs before we reach any of the buildings. Thefe
open courts were ufed by the late emperor for the
purpofes of tranfafting public bufinefs and exercliing
his troops. The habitable part confifts of feveral irre¬
gular fquare pavilions, built of tabby, and whitened
over ; fome of which communicate with each other,
others are diftinft, and mofl of them receive their
names from the different towns of the empire. The
principal pavilion is named by the Moors the douhar,
and is more properly the palace or feraglio than any of
the others. It conlifts of the emperor’s place of refi-
dence and the Harem, forming altogether a building
of confiderable extent. The other pavilions are mere¬
ly for the purpofes of pleafure or bufinefs, and are
quite diftinft from the douhar. The Mogodore pavi¬
lion, fo named from the late emperor’s partiality to
that town, has by far the faired claim to grandeur and
magnificence. This apartment was the work of Sidi
Mahomet, and is lofty and fquare. It is built of cut
Hone, handfomely ornamented with windows, and co¬
vered with varnifhed tiles of various colours ; and its
elegance and neatnefs, contrafted altogether with the
fimplicity and irregularity of the other buildings, pro¬
duce a moft ftriking effedt. In the infide, befides fe¬
veral other apartments, we find in the pavilion a fpa-
eious room floored with blue and white chequered
tiling, its ceilin^ covered with curioufly carved and
painted wood, and its ftuccoed walls varioufly orna¬
mented with looking-glaffes and wTatches, regularly
difpofed in glafs-cafes. To this pavilion the late em¬
peror manifelted an exclufive preference, frequently re-
iring to it both for the purpofes of bufinefs and of
recreation. The apartments of the emperor have in
general a much fmaller complement of furniture than
fchofe of the Moors in thv inferior walks of life. Hand-
fome carpeting, a mattrafs on the ground covered with
tine linen, a couch, and a couple of European bed-
fteads, are the principal articles they contain. The
gardens within the walls of the palace, of which he
has feveral, are very neat; they contain orange and
olive trees, varioufly difpofed and arranged, and in¬
terfered with llreams of water, fountains, and refer-
voirs. Thofe on the outfide are nothing more than
large tra&s of ground, irregularly planted with olives;
having four fquare walks, and furrounded by w-alls.
Morocco, or Marroquin, the ikin of a goat, or
fome other animal refembling it, dreffed in fumac or
galls, and coloured of any colour at pleafure ; much
ufed in bookbinding, &c. The name is ordinarily
derived from the kingdom of Morocco, whence it '
356 1 M o R
a mine of precious ftones. It is 30 miles fouth-eaft Morpeth
of Seville. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37. o. ^ II .
MORPETH, a handfome town of Northumber- Morrhina*
land, 14 miles from Newcaftle, 286 miles from Lon- *
don, is an ancient borough by prefeription, with a
bridge over the Wanlbeck. It had once an abbey
and a caltle, now in ruins, fituated about a quarter of
a mile fouth of the town and river Wanlbeck, on an
eminence which overlooks them both. The market¬
place is conveniently fituated near the centre of the
town ; and an elegant town-houfe was built by the
Carlifle family in 1714, in which the quarter-ieffions
is held for the county. It is built of hewn-itone, with
a piazza. The church being a quarter of a mile di-
ftant from the town, a tower containing a good ring
of bells Hands near the market-place. Near the bridge
is the county gaol, a modern itru&ure; Here are a
free grammar-fehool, a chapel near the river, on the
feite of a chantry that was granted for the fup-
port of the foundation of the fchool, which was
part of the old Itrudture, and an holpital for in¬
firm people. In 121 y, the townfmen themfeives burnt
their town, out of pure hatred to king John, that he
might find no flicker there. Here is a good market
on Saturday for corn, catcle, and all necefiary provi-
fions ; and there is another on Wednefday, the greatelt
in England except Smithfield, for live cattle. This
a polt town and a thoroughfare, with many good
ns, and plenty of filh ; and here are feveral mills —
The earl of Carlifle’s iteward holds a court here twice
a-year, one of them the Monday after Michaelmas, '
when four peifons are chofen by the free burgeiies,
who are about 107, and prefented'to the Iteward, who
names two of them to the bailiffs, who, with feven
aldermen, are its governors for the year enfuing. Its
fairs are on Wednefday, Thurfday, and Friday before
Whitfunday, and the Wednefday before July 22. ic
fends two members to parliameiif.
MORPHEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the god oi
lleep, or, according to others, one of the minilters of
Somnus. He cauied fleepinefs, and repreiented the
forms of dreams. Ovid Ityles him the kindett of tne-
deities ; and he is ufually deferibed in a recumbent po-
fture, and crowned with poppies.
MORRERI (Lewis), author oft^he Hii'orical Dic¬
tionary, was born at Barge-mout in Provence,
He learned rhetoric and philofophy at Aix, and ci-
vinity at Lyons. At 18 years of age he wrote a fmall
piece, intitlcd Le Pays d’Amour, and a collection of
the finett French poems intitlcd Doux ptaijtrs de la
Poefie. He learned Spanifh and Italian ; and tranflated
out of Spanilh into French the book intitled La Per-
fuppofed the manner of preparing thefe Ikins was firft fettion Chreticnne de Rodriguez. He then refined the-
borrowed. We have Morocco Ikins brought from the
Levant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders, and France ; red,
black, yellow, blue, &c. For the manner of preparing
them, fee Leather.
MOROdHTHUS, in natural hillory, . an indura¬
ted clay called by us French chalk ; ferving taylors and
Others to mark with. The ancients elleemed it as an
aftringent, preferibing it in the colic, hsemorrhagies,
and other fluxes.
MORON, a town of Spain, in Andalulia, feated
tu a pleafant fertile plain, and in the neighbourhood is
Saints Lives to the purity of the French tongue. Be¬
ing ordained prieff, he preached at Lyons, and under¬
took, when he was but 30 years of age, a new Hifto-
rical Di&ionary, printed at Lyons in one vol. folio,
1673. ®ut h*3 continual labour impaired his health ;
fo that he died in 1680, aged 37. His fecond volume
was publilhed after his death ; and four more volumes
have fince been added. He left fome other works be¬
hind him.
MORRHINA vasa, were^a fort of cups or vafes
made ufe of by the ancients for drinking out of, and
other
M O R [ 357 ] M O R
Morrife other purpofes. Authors are not agreed as to the fub- effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments. Mortality
H {lance of which they were made. Some fay it was RegifterS of mortality thus improved, when compared y-—'
Mortality. a fton£ . pome affen tj)at it was a gyjj COndenfed by with records of the feafons, and with the circumftances
y buried under ground. All that we know con- that difcriminate diiferent fituations, might contribute
ceining it is, that it was known by the name of murrha* greatly to the increafe of medical knowledge ; and
and that Heliogabalus’s chamber pot was made of it. they would afford the neceffary data for determining
'I he word is fometimes written myrrhftm. the dilference between the duration of human life among
MORRISE-dances. See Moressue-Dances. males and females ; for fuch a difference there certain.
MORS, Death, one of the infernal deities, born ly is much in favour of females, as will appear from
of Night without a father. She was worfliippcd by the following fafts.
the ancients with great folemnity. She was not repre- At Northampton, though more males are born than
fented as an a&ually exifting power, but as an imagi- , females, and nearly the fame number die; yet the
nary being. Euripides introduces her in one of his number of living females appeared, by an account ta-
tragedies on the ftage. The moderns reprefent her as ken in 1746* to be greater than the number of males,
a fkeleton armed with a fcythe and a fcymetar. in the proportion of 2301 to 1770, or-39 to 30.
MORSE, ia zoology. See Trichecus. At Berlin it appeared, from an accurate account
MORTALITY, a term frequently ufed to fignify which was taken of the inhabitants in 1747, tliat the
a contagious difeafe, which deftroys great numbers of number of female citizens exceeded the number of male
either men or beads. citizens in the proportion of 459 to 391. And yet
Bills of Mortality) are accounts or regifters fpeci- out of this fmaller number of males," more had died for
fying the numbers born, married, and buried in any 20 years preceding 1751, in the proportion of 19
parifh, town, or diftri&. In general they contain to 17.
only thefe numbers ; and, even when thus limited, are At Edinburgh, in 1743, the number of females
of great ufe, by fhowing the degrees of healthinefs and was to the number of males as 4103. (See Mait
prolificknefs, and the progrefs of population in the land’s Hillory of Edinburgh, p.220.) But thefe
places where they are kept. It is therefore much to males that died annually from 1749 to 1758, were to
be wilhed, that fuch accounts bad been always cor- the males in no higher proportion than 3^ to 3.
redfly kept in every kingdom, and regularly publilhed He that will take the pains to examine the accounts
at the end of every year. We fhould then have had in Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vii. part iv. p. 46, &c. will
under our infpedtion the comparative (Length of every find, that though in the towns there enumerated, the
kingdom, as far as it depends on the number of inha- proportion of males and females born is no higher than
bitants, and its increafe or decreafe at different periods. 19 to 18, yet the proportion of boys and girls that
But fuch accounts are rendered more ufeful, when they die is 8 to 7; and thatj in particular, the ftill-born
include the ages of the dead, and the dittempers of and chryfom males are to the {till-born and ehryfoin
which they have died. In this cafe they convey fome females as 3 to 2.
of the mod important initru&ions, by furniflring us In 39 pari files of the.diftrict of Vaud in Switzer-
with the means of afcertaining the law which governs land, the number of males that died during ten years
the wafte of human life, the values of annuities depen- before 1766 was 8170 of females 8167 ; of whom
dent on the continuance of any lives, or any furvivor- the numbers that died under one year of age were 1817
fliips between them, and the favourablenefs or unfa- males and 1305 females ; and under ten years of age,
vourablenefs of different fituations to the duration*of 3099 males and 2598 females. In the beginning of
human life. There are but few' regifters of this kind; life, therefore, and before any emigratioijs can take
nor has this fubjetd, though fo interefting to mankind, place, the rate of mortality among males appears to
ever engaged much attention till lately. The firft bills be greater than among females. And this is rendered
containing the ages of the dead were thofe for the yet more certain by the following accounts. At Ve-
town of Breflaw in Silefia. It is well known what vey, in the diftrift of Vaud juft mentioned, there died
ufe has been made of thefe by Dr Halley, and after in the courfe of 2c years, ended at 1764, in the firft
him by De Moivre. A table, of the probabilities of month after birth, ot males 135 to 89 females ; and in
the duration of human life at every age, deduced the firft year 225 to 162. To the fame effeft it ap-
from them by Dr Halley, has been publiftied in the pears from a table given by Sufmilch, in his Gottliche
Philofophical Tranfa&ions, (fee the Abridgement, Ordnung, vol. ii. p. 317, that in Berlin 203 males die
vol. iii. p. 669.) and is the firft table of this fort that in the tirft month, and but 168 females ; and in the
has been ever publifired. Since the publication of this firft year, 489 to 395; and alfo, from a table of
table, fimilar bills have been eftablifhed in a few towns Struycks, that in Holland 396 males die in the firft
of this kingdom ; and particularly in London, in the year to 306 females.
year 1728, and at Northampton in 1735- The authorities for the fadls here"mentioned, and
Two improvements of thefe regifters have been pro. much more on this fubjeil, may be found in the 4th
pofed : the firft is, that the fexes of all that die in effay in Dr Price s ireutife on Reverfionary Pay-
every period of life (hould be fpeci fied in them, under ments, and in the fupplement at the end of that,
the denomination of boys, married men, widowers, and treatife.
bachelors ,; and of girls, married women, widows, and We fhall here only add the following table, taken
virgins. The fecond is, that they ftiould fpecify the from a memoir of Mr Wargentin’s, publifhed in the
numbers of both fexesdying of every diftemper in eve- colleftion of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
yy month, and at every age. See the end of the ath Sciences at Stockhohn, printed at Paris, in 1772.
M O R r 358 ] M O R
Mortality, In all Sweden for nine years, ended in 1763, the
proportion of females to males that died out of a given
number living, was
Under the age of one year
From 1 to 3 years of age
3 S  
5
10
•5
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
70
So
15
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
80
90
toco to 1099
IOOO 1022
IO42
I074
IO80
IO97
1283
1161
993
i*59
1115
1340
1339
1292
tii5
1080
1022
1046
1044
Regifters of mortality on the improved plan before
mentioned, were eftablifhed in 1772 at Cheiter, and
alfo in 1773 at Warrington in Lancafure ; and they
are fo comprehenfive and correft, that there is reafon
to expert they will afford much inffruftion on thefub-
je£f of human mortality, and the values of lives.
But the country moft diftinguiffied in this refpedt
is Sweden : for in that kingdom exaft accounts are
taken of the births, marriages, and burials, and of the
numbers of both fexes that die at all ages in every
town and diffri.£t, and alfo at the end of every period
of five years, of the numbers living at every age:
and at Stockholm a fociety is eftablifhed, whofe bufi-
nefsitis to fuperintend and regulate the enumerations,
and to collect from the different parts of the king¬
dom the regilters, in order to digelt them into tables
of obfervation. Thefe regulations were begun in
Sweden in 1755 ; and tables, containing the refult of
them from J755 to 1763, have been publilhed in Mr
Wargentin’s memoir jult referred to ; and the molt
material parts of them may be found in an eflay by
Dr Price on the Difference between the Duration of
Human Life in Towns and in Country Parilhes,
printed in the 65th volume of the Philofoph. i'ranf.
part ii.
In the fourth effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Re-
veifionary Payments and Life-Annuities, the follow¬
ing account is given of the principles on which tables
of obi'ervation are formed from regilters of mortality;
and of the proper method of forming thenvJb as to
renckr them jult reprefentations of the number of in¬
habitants, and the probabilities of the duration of hu¬
man life in a toWn or country.
In every place which jult lupports itfelf in the num¬
ber of its inhabitants, without any recruits from other
places; or where, for a courfe of years, there has
been no increafe or decreafe ; the number of perfons
dying every year at any particular age, and above it,
muff be equal to the number of the living at that
age. The number, for example, dying every year at
all ages from the beginning to the utmoll extremity
of life, mull, in fuch a lituation, be j ult equal to the
whole number born every year. And for the fame MoreaLf.
reafon, the number dying every year at one year of  
age and upwards, at two years of age and upwards,
at three and upwards, and fo on, muff be equal to
th: numbers that attain to thofe ages every year ; or,
which is the fame, to the numbers of the living at
thofe ages. It is obvious, that unlefs this happens,
the number of inhabitants cannot remain the fame. If
the former number is greater than the latter, the in-
habitants muff decreale ; if lefs, they muff increafe.
From this obfervation it follows, that in a town or
country where there is no increafe or decreafe, bills
of mortality which give the ages at which all die,
will Ihow the exaft number of inhabitants, and alfo
the exadl law according to which human life waffeS'
in that town or country.
In order to find the number of inhabitants, the
mean numbers dying annually at every particular age
and upwards mult be taken as given by the bills, and
placed under one another in the order of the fecond
column of the following tables. Thefe numbers will,
it has appeared, be the numbers of the living at 1, j,
3, &c. years of age ; and confequently the fum di-
minifhed by half the number born annually will be
the whole number of inhabitants.
This fubtraction is neceflary for the following rea¬
fon. In a table formed in the manner here dire&ed,
it is fuppofed that the numbers in the fecend column
are all living-together at the beginning of every year.
Thus the number in the fecond column oppofite to
o in the iirft column, the table fuppofes to be all juft
born together on the firft day of the year. The num¬
ber, likewife, oppofite to 1, it fuppofes to attain to
one year of age juft at the fame time that the former
number is born. And the like is true of every num¬
ber in the fecond column. During the courfe of the
year, as many will die at all ages as were born at the
beginning of the year ; and confequently, there will
be an excefs of the number alive at the beginning of
the year above the number alive at the end of the
year, equal to the whole number of the annual biiths;
and the true number conftantly alive together, is th«
arithmetical mean between thefe two numbers; or
agreeably to the rule here given, the fum of the-num¬
bers in the fecond column of the table leffened by half
the number of annual births.
In fuch a feries of numbers, the excels of each
number above that which immediately follows it will
be the number dying every year out of the parti¬
cular number alive at the beginning of the year ; and
thefe exceffes let doym regularly as in the third co¬
lumn of the table to which we have referred, w-ill Ihow
the different rates at which human life waftes through
all its different periods, and the different probabilities
of life at all particular ages.
It mull be remembered, that what has been now
faid goes on the fuppofition, that the place w’hofe
bills of mortality are given, fupports itielf, by pro¬
creation only, in the number of its inhabitants. Irt
towns this very feldom happens on account of the lu¬
xury and debauchery which generally prevail in them.
They are, therefore, commonly kept up by a eonftant
accefiion of ftrangers, who remove to them from coun¬
try parifhes and villages. In thefe circumilances, in
order to find the true number of inhabitants, and pro¬
babilities
M O R I 359 ] M O R
Mortality. baHHties of life, from bills of mortality containing an
k——y-— account of the ages at which all die, it is neceffary
that the proportion of the annual births to the annual
fettlers (hould he known, and alfo the period of life
at which the latter remove Both thefe particulars
may be difcovered in the following method.
If for a courfc of years there has been n® fenfible
increafe or decreafe in a place, the number of annual
fettlers will be equal to the excefs of the annual bu¬
rials above the annual births. If there is an increafe,
it will be greater than this excefs. If there is a de¬
creafe, it will be lefs
The period of life at which thefe fettlers remove,
' will appear in the bills by an increafe in the number
of deaths at that period and beyond it. Thus in the
London bills the number of deaths between 20 and
30 is generally above double ; and between 30 and
40 near triple the number of deaths between 10 and
20 ; and the true account of this is, that from the
age of 18 or 20 to 35 or 50, there is an afiffax of
people every year to London from the country, which
occafions a great increafe in the number of inhabi¬
tants at thefe ages ; and confequently raifes the deaths
for all ages above 20 conliderably above their due
proportion, when compared with the number of deaths
before 20. This is obfervable in all the bills of
mortality for towns with which we are acquainted,
not excepting even the Breflaw bills. Dr Halley
takes notice, that thefe bills gave the number of
deaths between 10 20 too fmall. This he con-
fidered as an irregularity in them owing to chance;
and, therefore, in forming his table of obfervations,
he took the liberty fo far to correff it, as to render the
proportion of thofe who die to the living in this divifion
of life nearly the fame with the proportion which, he
7 fays, he had been informed die annually of the young
lads in Chrift-Church Hofpital. But the truth is,
that this irregularity in the bills was derived from
the caufe we have juft afligned. During the five
years for which the Breflaw bills are given by Dr
Halley, the births did indeed a little exceed the bu¬
rials ; but it appears that this was the effedt of fome
peculiar caufes that happened to operate juft at that
time ; for during a complete century from 1633 to
1754, the annual medium of births was 1089, and of
burials 12.56. This town, therefore, muft have been
all along kept up by a number of yearly recruits from
other places, equal to about a feventh part of the
yearly births.
It appears from the account in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions (Abridgment, vol. vii. nr 380, p. 46,
See.), that from 1717 to 1725, the annual medium of
births at Breflaw was 1252, of burials 1507; and alfo
that much the greateft part of the births died under
1 o years of age. From a table in Sufmilch’s works,
vol. i. p. 38. it appears that in reality the greater
part of all that die in this town are children under five
years of age.
What has been now obferved concerning the pe¬
riod of life at which people remove from the country
to fettle in towns, would appear fufficiently probable
were there no fuch evidence for it as has been men¬
tioned ; for it might be well reckoned that thefe
people in general muft be Angle perfons in the be¬
ginning of mature life, who, not having yet obtained
fettlemen>ts in the places where they were born, mi- Mortality,
grate to towfis in queft of employments. ■■■ ■
Having premifed thefe obfervations, it will be pro¬
per next to endeavour to explain diltindly the effedl
which thefe acceflions to towns muft have on table*
of obfervation formed from their bills of mortality.
This is a fubjfeft proper to be infifted on, becaufe
miftakes have been committed about it; and becaufe
alfo the difeuffion of it is neceflary to fhow how near
to truth the values of lives come as deduced fromfueh
tables.
The following general rule may be given on this
fubjeft. If a place has for a courfe of years been
maintained in a ftate nearly ftationary, as to number
of inhabitants, by recruits coming in every year, to
prevent the decreafe that would arife from the ex¬
cefs of burials above the births, a table formed oh the
principle, “ that the number dyiag annually after
every particular age, is equal to the number living
at that age,” will give the number of inhabitants,
and the probabilities of life, too great, for all ages
preceding that at which the recruits ceafe ; and af¬
ter this it will give them right. If the acceflions are
fo great as to caufe an increafe in the place, fuch a
table will give the number of inhabitants and the
probabilities of life too little after the age at which
the acceffions ceafe; and too great if there is a decreafe.
Before that age it will in both cafes give them too
great; but moft confiderably fo in the former cafe,
or when there is an increafe.
Agreeably to thefe obfervations, if a place increafes
not in confequence of acceffions from other places,
but of a conftant excefs of the births above the deaths,
a table conftru&ed on the principle that has been
mentioned will give the probabilities of life too low
through the whole extent of life ; becaufe in fuch
circumitances the number of deaths in the firft ftages
of life muft be too great, in comparifon of the number
of deaths in the latter ftages ; and more or lefs fo as
the increafe is more or lefs rapid. The contrary in all
refpedfs takes place where there is a decreafe ariling
from the excefs of the deaths above the births.
Fot example : Let us fuppofe that 244 of thofe
born in a town attain annually to 20 years of age,
and that 250 more, all likewife 20 years of age, come
into it annually from other places, in confequence of
which it has fora courfe of years been juft maintained
in the number of its inhabitants, without any fenfible
increafe or decreafe : in thefe circumftances, the num¬
ber of the living in the town of the age of 20 will
be always 244 natives and 25c fettlers, or 494 in. all;
and fince thefe are fuppofed all to die in the town,
and no more recruits are fuppofed to come in, 494
will be likewife the number dying annually at 20 and
upwards. In the fame manner it will appear, on thefe
fuppofitions, that the number of the living, at everf
age fubfequent to 20, will be equal to the number-
dying annually at that age and above it; and confe¬
quently, that the aumber of inhabitants and the de¬
crements of life, for every fuch age. will be given ex-
a&ly by the table. But for all ages before 20, they
will be given* much too great. For let 280 of all born
in the town reach 10; in this cafe, 280 will be the
true number of the living in the town at the age of loy
and the recruits not coming in till 20, the number
given-
M O R [ 360 ] M O R
^Mortality given by the bills as dying between xoand 20 will
- he the true number dying annually of the living in this
divifion of life. Let this number be 36 ; and it will
follow that the table ought to make the numbers of
the living at the ages between 10 and 20, a feries of
decrealing means between 280 and (280 diminilhedby
36, or) 244. But in forming the table on the prin¬
ciple juft mentioned, 250 (the number above 20 dying
annually in the town who were not born in it) will be
added to each number in this feries ; and therefore the
table will give the numbers of the living, and the pro¬
babilities of life in this divifion of life, almoft twice as
great as they really are. This obfervation, it is mani-
feft, may be applied to all the ages under 20.
It is neceffary to add, that fuch a table will give the
number of inhabitants and the probabilities of life
equally wrong before 20, whether the recruits all come
in at 20, agreeably to the fuppofition juft made, or only
begin then to come in. In this laft cafe, the table will
give the number of inhabitants and probabilities of
life too great throughout the whole extent of life,
if the recruits come in at all ages above 20. But if
they ceafe at any particular age, it will give them
right only from that age ; and before, it will err all
along on the fide of excels ; but lefs confiderably be¬
tween 20 and that age than before 20. For example:
if, of the 250 fuppofed to come in at 20, only 150
then come in, and the reft at 30; the number of the
living will be given i©o too high at every age between
20 and 30 ; but, as juft fhown, they will be given 250
too high at every age before 20. In general, there¬
fore, the number of the living at any particular age
mull be given by the fuppofed table as many too
great as there are annftal fettlers after that age ; and
if thefe fettlers come in at all ages indifcriminately,
during any certain interval of life, the number of in¬
habitants and the probabilities of life will be conti¬
nually growing lefs and lefs wrong the nearer any age
is to the end of that interval. Thefe obfervations
prove, that tables of obfervation formed in the com¬
mon way, from bills of mortality for places where
there is an excefs of the burials above the births, muft
be erroneous for a great part of the duration of life,
in proportion to the degree of that excefs. They
fhow likewife at what parts of life the errors in fuch
tables are moft confiderable, and how they may be in
a great meafure corre&ed.
All this Ihall be exemplified in the particular cafe
of London.
The number of deaths between the ages of 10 and
20 is always fo fmall in the London bills, that it feems
certain few recruits come to London under 20, or
at lea ft not fo many as before this age are fent out for
education to fchools and univerfities. After 20 great
numbers come in till 30, and fome perhaps till 40 or
50 : but at every age after 50, it is probable that
more retire from London than come to it. The Lon-
don tables of obfervation, therefore, being formed on
the principle already mentioned, cannot give the pro¬
babilities of life right till 40. Between 30 and 40
they muft be a little too high ; but more fo between
20 and 30, and moft of all fo before 10. It follows
alfo, that thefe tables muft give the number of inha¬
bitants in London much too great.
N° 2 2 y.
The firft of the following tables is formed in the
manner here explained, from the London bills for 10
years, from 1759 to *768, and adapted to jooo born
as a radix. The fum of the numbers in the fecond
column, diminilhed by half the number born, is 25,757.
According to this table then, for every 1000 deaths
in London there are 25^ as many inhabitants; or, in
other words, the expedition of a child juft born is
25^ ; and the inhabitants are to the annual burials as
25! to 1. But it has appeared, that the numbers in
the fecond column, being given on the fuppofition
that all thofe who die in London were born there,
muft be too great; and we have from hence a demon-
ftration, that the probabilities of life are given in the
common tables of London obfervations too high for
at leaft the firft 30 years of life ; and alfo, that the
number of inhabitants in London muft be lefs than
25^ multiplied by the annual burials. The common
tables, therefore, of London obfervationg undoubtedly
need corredlion, as Mr Simpfon fuggefted, and in
fome meafure performed; though too imperfedtly,
and without going upon any fixed principles, or Ihovv-
ing particularly how tables of obfervation ought to be
formed, and how far in different circumftanees, and
at different ages, they are to be depended on. The
way of doing this, and in general the right method
of forming genuine tables of obfervation for towns,
may be learned from the following rule:
“ From the fum of all that die annually, after any
given age, fubtradt the number of annual fettlers after
that age ; and the remainder will be the number of
the living at the given time.”
This rule can want no explication or proof after
what has been already faid.
If, therefore, the number of annual fettlers in a
town at every age could be afcertained, a perfedt table
of obfervations might be formed for that town from
bills of mortality, containing an account of the ages
at which all die in it. But no more can be learned
in this inftance, from any bills, than the whole num¬
ber of annual fettlers, and the general divifion of life
in which they enter. This, however, may be fuffi-
cient to enable us to form tables that (liallbe tolerably
exadf. For inftance : Suppofe the annual deaths in
a town which has not increafed or decreafed, to have
been for many years in the proportion of 4 to 3 to
the annual births. It will hence follow, that ^ of
the perfons who die in fuch a town are fettlers, or
emigrants from other places, and not natives ; and the
fudden increafe in the deaths after 20 will alfo fhow,
agreeably to what was before obferved, that they enter
after this age. In forming, therefore, a table for
fuch a town, a quarter of all that die at all ages
throughout the whole extent of life muft be deduct¬
ed from the fum of all that die after every given age
before 20 ; and the remainder will be the true num-
number living at that given age. And if at 20, and
every age above it, this dedudlion is omitted, or the
number of the living at every fuch age is taken the
fame with the fum of all that die after it, the refult
will be (fuppofing moft of the fettlers to come in be¬
fore 30, and all before 40) a table exa '.t till 20 ; too
high between 20 and 30; but nearly right for fome
years before 40 ; and after 40 exadf again. Such a
2 table,
M O R l 361 1 M O R
Mortality, table, it is evident, will be the fame with the table
laft defcribed at all ages above -so, and different from it
only under 20. It is evident alfo, that on account of
its giving the probabilities .pf life too great for fome
years after 20, the number pf inhabitants deduced
front it may he .depended on as fpmewhat greater than
the truth ; and more or lefs ib, as the annual recruits
enter in general later or fooner after 20.
Let us now confider what the refult of thefe re-
rparks will be, when applied particularly to the Lon¬
don bills.
It inuft be here firft obferved, that atleaft one quar¬
ter of all that die in London are fupplies or fettlers from
the country, and not natives. The medium of annual
burials for 10 years, from 175,9 f0 1768, was 22,95,6;
of births 15710. The excefs is 7246, or near a third
cf che burials. The fame excefs during 1 o'years before
*750 was 10,500, or near half the burials. London
was then decreafing. For the laft 12 or 15 years it
i|ias been increafmg. This excefs, therefore, agree¬
ably to the foregoing obfervations, was then greater
than the number of annual fettlers, and it is now lefs.
ft is however here fuppofed, that the number of an-
tuial fettlers is pow no more than a quarter of the an¬
nual bqrials, in order to allow for more omiffions in
the births than the burials; and alfo, in prd.er to .be
more fure pf obtaining refults that fliall not exceed the
t£Uth.
Of eyery 1000 then who die in London only 750
are natives, and 250 are recruits who come to it after
18 or 30 years of age ; and, cpnfequently, in order to
obtain from the bills a more correct table than the firft
©f the following tables, 5150 mull; be fubtra&ed from
every ojie pf the numbers in the fecond column till 20;
and the numbers in the third column mull be kept the
fame, the bills always giving thefe right. After 20,
the table is to be continued unaltered ; and the refult
will be, a table which will give the numbers of the li¬
ving at all ages in London much nearer the truth,
.but iliil Xamewhat too high. ■Such is the fecond of
the following tables. The fum of all the numbers in
the fecond column of this table, diminilhed by 500,
is 20,750. For every 1000 deaths, therefore, in Lon¬
don, there are, according to this table, 20,750 living
perfons in it; or for every fingfe death 2o|- inhabi¬
tants, It was before ihown, that the number of in¬
habitants in London could not be fo breat as 25
times d- the deaths. It now appears (fince the num¬
bers in the fecond column of this table ax-e too high)
that the number of inhabitants in London cannot be
fo .great as even 20 times the deaths. And this is a
conclufion which every one who will bellow due atten¬
tion on what has been faid, will find himfelf forced
to receive. It will not be amifs, however, to con¬
firm it by the following fact, the knowledge of which
is derived from the particular enquiry and informa- Mcrtaii-y.
tion of Mr Harris, the late ingenious mailer of the 1 ~v
royal mathematical fchool in Chriil-Church hofpital,
Th? average of lads in this fchool has, for 30 years
pail, been 831. They are admitted at all ages be¬
tween 7 aud 11 ; and few ilay beyond 16 : they are
therefore in general, ;lads between the ages of 8 and
J 6. They have better accommodations than it can
be fixppofed children commonly have ; and about 300
of tjiem have the particular advantage pf being edu¬
cated in the country. In fuch circumilauces, it may
be well reckoned, that the proportion of children dy¬
ing annually muft be lefs than the general proportion
of children dying annually at the fame ages in Lon¬
don. The fadl is, that for the laft 30 years 111 have
d^ed annually, or one in yof.
According to Table II. one in 73 dies between 10
and 20, and one in 70 between 8 and That table,
therefore, probably gives the decrements of life in Lon -
don, at tliefe ages, too little, and the numbers of the
living too great: and if this is true of thefe ages, it
muft be true of all pther ages under 20 ; and it fol¬
lows demonftrably, in cpnformity to what was before
fhown, that more people fettle in Lkmdon after 20
than the fourth abpve fuppofed ; and .that from 20 to
at leaft 30 or 35, the numbers of the living are give»
tqo great, in proportion to the decrements of life.
In this table the numbers in the fecond column are
doubled at 20, agreeably to what really happens i'n-
London ; and the fum of the numbers in this column*
diminiffied by half the whole number of deaths, gives
the expectation of life, not of a child juft born, as in
other tables, but of all the inhabitants of London .at
the time they enter it, whether that be at birth or
at 20 years of age. The expectations, .therefore, and
the values of London lives under 20, cannot be calcu¬
lated from this table. But it may be -very eafily fitted
for this purpofe, by -finding the nu,ruber of births which,
according to the given decrements of life, will leave
494 alive at 20 ; and then adapting the intermediate
numbers in fuch a manner to .this radix, as to preferve
all along the number of the living in the fame pro¬
portion to the numbers of the dead. This is done in
the third of the following tables ; and this table may
be recommended as better adapted to theprefent ftate
of London than any other table. The values of lives,,
however, deduced from it, are in general nearly the
fame with thofe deduced by Mr Simpfon from the
London bills as they flood forty years agq ; the main
difference is, that after 52, and in old" age, this table
gives them fomewhat lower than Mr Simpfon’s table,
ft he fourth and fifth of the following tables, compared
with the two laft, will give a diftinff and full view of
the difference between the rate of human mortality in
great towns and in country parifnes and villages.
-
Z 2
Vol.XII. Fail I.
TABLE
M O R
t 3^ ]
M O R
table III.
TABLE I.
•Showing the probabilities of life in London, on the fuppofition .
that all who die in London were born there. Formed Showing the true probabilities of life in London for all ag«.
from the bills for 10 years, from 1759 to 1768. Formed from the bills for 10 years, from 1759 to 176a.
TABLE H.
Showing the true probabilities of life in London till the
age of 19.
' Perfons Deer of f],
Ages.
living.
75°
510
4M
369
340
3*9
3c8
298
291
28.5
280
276
Ages.
Perfons Deer of
living. Life.
The numbers in the fecond column to be continued a
in the laft table.
All the bills, from which the following tables are
formed, give the numbers dying under 1 as well as
under 2 years; and in the numbers dying under 1 are
included, in the country parifh in Brandenburg and at
Berlin, all the ftill-boms. All the bills alfo give the
numbers dying in every period of five years.
TABLE
[ 3^3 3
M O R
M O R
TABLE IV.
TABLE V.
Showing the Probabilities of Life in the Diflrifl of Vaud,
Switzerland, formed from the Regifters of 43 Parifhes,
given by Mr Muret, in the Firft Part of the Bern Me¬
moirs for the Year 1766.
Showing the Probabilities of Life in a Country Parifhia
Brandenburg, formed from the Bills for 50 Years, from
171 o to 1 759, as given by Mr Sufmilch, in his Gott-
liche Ordnung.
m o a
TABLE VI.
E 364 1
M O R
Sliowing the Probabilities of Life at Vienna, formed from
the Bills for Eight years, as given by Mr Stifmilch,
in his Gcttliche Ordnung, page 32, Tables.
TABLE VII.
Showing the Probabilities of Life at Berlin, formed from
the Bills for Four Years, from 1752 to 1755, given by
Mr Sufmilch in his Gottliche Ordnung, vdl. ii. page
37, Tables.
BriefofMORTANCESTRY, in Scots law; an¬
ciently the ground of an aftion at the inftance of an
heir, in the Tpjjcial cafe where he had been excluded
from the pofieffion of his anceflor’s eftate by the fupe-
~»1br, or other perfon pretending right.
MORTAR, a preparation of lime and fand mix¬
ed with water, which ferves as a cement, and is ufed
by mafons and bricklayers in building walls of flone
and brick.
Under the article Cement, we have already given
the theory of mortar, as delivered by Mr Anderfon ;
which has now received a farther confirmation by a
recent difcovery, that if the lime is flaked, and the
mortar made up, with lime-water inftead of common
water, the mortar will be much better. The reafon
of this is, that in common water, efpecially fuch as is
drawn from wells, there is always a confiderable quan¬
tity of fixed air, which, mingling with the mortar pre¬
vious to its being ufed, fpoils it by reducing the quick¬
lime in part to an inert calcareous earth like chalk j
but when it is built up In a perfe6tly cauftic Hate, it
attrafts the air fo flowly, that it hardens into a kind
of ftony matter as hard as was the rock from whence
the limeftone was taken.
Mortar, a chemical utenfil very tffeful for the divi-
fion of bodies, partly by percnffion and parUy by
grinding. Mortars have the form of an inverted bell.
The matter intended to be pounded » to be put into
them,
M O R
Mortar, them, and there it is to be {truck and bruifed by a
w~v  long inilrument called a prJUe. _ The motion given to
t 3% 1
M O R
the peftle paffes ; or by moiftening the matter with a ?i*erfin
little water when this addition does not injure it; or,
the peRle ought to vary according to the nature of the laftly, by covering the mouth and nofe of the opera-
' fubftances to be pounded. Thofe which are eafdy bro¬
ken, or which are apt to fly out of the mortar, or
which are hardened by the ftrokeof the peftle, require
that this inftrument fliould be moved circularly, rather
by grinding or bruifing than by ftriking. Thofe
fubftances which are foftened by the heat occafioned
by rubbing and peveuflion, require to be pounded very
{lowly. Laftly, thofe which are very hard, and which
are not capable of being foftened, are eafily pounded
by repeated ftrekes of the peftle. They require no
bruifing but when they are brought to a certain de¬
gree of finenefs. But thefe things are better learned
by habit and praftice than by any direiftions.
As mot tats are inftruments which are conftantly
ufed in chemiftry, they ought to be kept of all fizes and
materials 5 as of marble, copper, glafs, iron, gritilone,
and agate. The nature of the fubftance to be pounded
determines the choice of the kind of mortar. The
hardn'efs and diflblving power of that fubftance are par¬
ticularly to be attended to. As copper is a foft me¬
tal, foluble by almoil all menftruums, and hurtful to
health, good artifts have fomc time ago proferibed the
Hfe of this metal.
One of the principal inconveniences of pulverifa-
tion in a mortar proceeds from the fine powder which
rifes abundantly from fome fubftarices during the ope¬
ration. If thefe fubftances be precious, the lofs will
be confiderable ; and if they be injurious to health,
tor with a fine cloth, to exclude this powder. Some
fubftances, as corrofive fublimate, arfenic, calxes of
lead, cantharides, euphorbium, &c. are fo noxious,
that all thefe precautions ought to be ufed, particalarly
when a large quantity of them is pounded-
Large mortars ought to be fixed upon a block of
wood, fo high, that the mortar {hall be level with the
middle of the operator. When the peftle is large'and
heavy, it ought to be fufpended by a cord or chain
fixed to a moveable pole, placed horizontally above the
mortar i this pole confiderably relieves the operator,
becaufe its elafticity aflifts the raifing of the peftle.
MORTAR-piece, in the military art, aftiortpiece
of ordnance, thick and wide, proper for throwing
bombs, carcafes, {hells, ftones, bags filled with grape-
ftiot, &c. See Gunnery, n°5o.
Land Mortars, are thofe ufed in fieges, and of late,
in battles, mounted on beds made of folid timber, con-
fifting generally of four pieces, thofe of the royal and
cohorn excepted, which are but one Angle block ;
and both mortar and bed are tranfported on block-
carriages. There is likewife a kind of land-mortars,
mounted on travelling carriages, invented by count
Buckeburg, which may be elevated to any degree;
whereas ours are fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and
firmly lafhed with ropes. The following table (hows
the weight of land-mortars and {hells; together with
the quantity of powder the chambers hold when full $
they may hurt the operator. Thefe inconveniences the weight of the {hells, and powder for loading
may be remedied, either by covering the mortar with them,
a {kin, in the middle of which is a hole, thrfftigh which
Diameter ©f mortars.
Mortar’s weight.
Shell’s weight.
SheH’sf cont. of powder.
Chamber’s cont. of powder.
C. qr. lb.
25 O O
13 -inch.
918
C. qr. Ib-Jc. qr. 1
10 2 l8 4 0 2
lb. oz. gr.
4 14 12
lb. bi. gr.
238
0 2 O IOI 1
5.8-inch
royal.
C. qr. (lb.
11). oz. gr
4.6-inch
cohorn.
lb. oz. gr.
Sta Mortars, are thofe which are fixed in the fomewhat longer and much heavier than the laftd-
bomb-veffels for bombarding places by fea i and as mortars. The following table exhibits the weight
thef are generally fired at a much greater diftance of the fea-mortars and {hells, and alfo of their full
than that which is required by land, they are made charges.
Nature of the mortar.
ftowdir con¬
tained in the
chamber
when full.
xo-ineb howitzer.
13-inch mortar,
xo-inch mortar.
Weight of
the Ihell
when fixed.
C. qr. lb.
3X 2 215
8l 2 I
34 2 11
X98
93
Weight of
powder con¬
tained in
the {hell.
n
M OR C 366 ] M O R
To Charge- or Load a Moutar, the proper quantity
of gunpowder is put into the chamber, and if there
be any vacant fpace they fill it up with hay ; fome
choofe a wooden plug ; over this they lay a turf, fome
a wooden tampion filled to the bore of the piece; and
laftly the bomb ; taking care that the fufe be in the
axis thereof, and the orifice be turned from the muzzle
of the piece what fpace remains is to be filled, up
■with hay, ftraw, turf, &c. fo as the load may not be
exploded without the utmoh violence.
The quantity of gunpowder to be ufed is found by
dividing the weight of the bomb by 30; though this
rule is not always to be ft rift ly obferved.
When the proper quantity of powder neceffary to
charge a fea mortar is put into the chamber, it is co¬
vered with a wad well beat down with the rammer.
After this the fixed lliell is placed upon the wad, as
near the middle of the mortar as pofiibie, with the
fufe-hole uppermoft, and another wad prefled down
clofe upon it, fo as to keep the (hell firm in its peti¬
tion. The officer then points, the mortar according to
the propofed inclination.—When the mortar is thus
fixed, the fufe is opened ; the priming-iron is alfo
thruft into the touch-hole of the mortar to clear it,
after which it is primed with the fineft powder. This
done, two of the matrofies or failors, taking each one
of the matches, the firft lights the fufe, and the other
fires the mortar. The bomb, thrown out by the ex-
plofion of the powder, is carried to the place intended:
and the fufe, which ought to be exhaufted at the in-
ftant of the (hell’s falling, inflames the powder con¬
tained in it, and burfts the (hell in fplinters; which,
flying off circularly, occafion incredible mifehief where-
foever they reach.
If the fervice of mortars (hould render it neceffary
to ufe pound-ftiots, 200 of them with a wooden bot¬
tom are to be put into the 13 inch mortar, and a
quantity of powder not exceeding 5 pounds ; and 100
of the above (hot with 2 ’ pounds of powder, for the
10 inch mortar, or three pounds at moft.
To Elevate the Mortar fo as its axis may make any
given angle with the horizon, they apply the artillery-
level or gunner’s quadrant. An elevation of 70 or 80
degrees is what is commonly chofen for rendering mor¬
tars moft; ferviceable in calling (hells into towns, forts,
&c. though the greateft range be at 45 degrees.
All the Engliffi mortars are fixed to an angle of 45
degrees, and laftied ftrongly with ropes at that eleva¬
tion. Although in a liege there is only one cafe in
which (hells (hould be thrown with an angle of 45 de¬
grees ; that is, when the battery is fo far off that they
cannot otherwife reach the works : for when (hells
are thrown out of the trenches into the works of a
fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they
fhould have as little elevation as poffible, in order to
rcll along, and not bury themfelves j whereby the da¬
mage they do, and the terror they occafion, are much
greater than if they fink into the ground. On the
contrary, when (hells are thrown upon magazines or
any other buildings with an intention to deftroy them,
the mortars (hould be elevated as high as poffit ie, that
the (hells may acquire a greater force in their fall, and'
confequently do greater execution.
If all mortar pieces were, as they ought to be, ex-
aftly (imilar, and their requifites of powder as the
cubes of the diameters of their feveral bores, and if
their (hells, bombs, carcafes, &c. were alfo fimilar ;
then, comparing like with like, their ranges on the
plane of the horizon, under the fame degree of eleva¬
tion, would be equal ; and confequently one piece be¬
ing well proved, i. e. the range of the grenado, bomb,
carcafe, &c. being found to any degree of elevation,,,
the whole work ot the mortar piece would become ve¬
ry eafy and exaft.
But fince mortars are not thus fimilar, it is required,
that the range of the piece, at fome known degree of
elevation, be accurately found by meafuring; and from
hence all the other ranges may be determined.
Thus, to find the range of the piece at any other
elevation required; fay, As the fine of double the angle-
under which the experiment was made, is to the fine
of double the angle propofed, fo is the range known,
to the range required.
Suppofe for inftance, it be found, that the range of
a piece, elevated to 30°, is 2000 yards: to find the
range of the fame piece with the fame charge when
elevated to 450; take the fine of 6o°, the double of 30°,
and make it the firft term of the rule of three; the
fecond term muft be the fine of 90°, the double of 45%
and the third the given range 2000; the fourth term-
will be 2310, the range of the piece at 450. If the
elevation be greater than 45“, inftead of doubling it,
take the fine of double its complement to po9. As
fuppofe the elevation of a piece be 50°, take the fine of
8o°, the double of 40°. Again, if a determinate di-
ftance to which a (hot is to be caft, be given, and the
angle of elevation to produce that effeft be required ;
the range known muft be the firft term in the rule of
three, which fuppofe 2000 yards; the range propofed,
which we fuppofe 1600 yards, the fecond term; and
the fine of 60 double of the elevation for the range of
2000 yards, the third term. The fourth term will
be found the fine of 430 52', whofe half 210 56' is the
angle of elevation the pieee mult have to produce the
defired effeft. And if 2i° 56' be taken from 90°, you
will have 68° 4' for the other elevation of the piece,
with which the fame effeft will.likewiie be produced,,.
Note, to avoid the trouble of finding fines of double
the angles of propofed elevations, Galileo and Torri¬
celli give us the following table, wherein the figns o£
the angles fought are had by infpeftion.
Degrefe.
M O
87
86
«5
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
7i
70
6 9
68
67
Degrees.
23
Ranges.
O
349
698
1045
1392
1736
2709
2419
2556
3090
342°
3746
4067
4384
4695
5000
5299
5592
587°
6157
6428
6691
6947
7193
II
Degrees.
0
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
5*
57
56
55
54
53
52
5*
5o
49
48
47
46
45
Ranges.
O
7431
7660
7880
8090
8290
8480
8660
8829
8988
9'35
9272
9397
9511
9613
9703
9781
9841
99°3
9945
997*5
999+
10000
The ufe of the taBle is obvious. Suppofe, for in-
ftance, it be known by experiment, that a mortar ele¬
vated is0, charged with three pounds of powder, will
throw a bomb to the diftance of 3s'o fathoms; and it be
required, with the fame charge, to throw a bomb 100
367 ] M o R
to receive the money lent, of whatever nature the mort- Mortgage-
gage may happen to be. -y—^
As foon as the eftate is created, the mortgagee may
immediately enter on the lands; but is liable to be dif-
poflelfed, upon performance of the condition by pay¬
ment of the mortgage-money at the day limited. And
therefore the ufual way is to agree that the mortgagor
fhall hold the land till the day affigned for payment;
when, in cafe of failure, whereby the eftate becomes
abfolute, the mortgagee may enter upon it and take
pofTeffion, without any poffibility at law of being af¬
terwards evicted by the mortgagor, to whom the land
is now for ever dead. But here again the courts of
equity interpofe; and though a mortgage be thus for¬
feited, and the eftate abfolutely vefted in the mortga¬
gee at the common law, yet they will confider the
real value of the tenements compared with the fum
borrowed. And if the eftate be of greater value than
the fum lent thereon, they will allow the mortgagor at
any reafonable time to re-call or redeem his eftate ;
paying to the mortgagee his principal, intereft, and
expences : for otherwife, in ftriftnefs of law, an eftate
worth 1000I. might be forfeited for non-payment of
tool, or a lefs fum. This reafonable advantage, al¬
lowed to mortgagors, is called the equity of redemp¬
tion ; and this enables a mortgagor to call on the mort¬
gagee, who has pofleffion of his eftate, to deliver it
back, and account for the rents and profits received
on payment of his whole debt and intereft, thereby
turning the mortiium into a kind of -vivum •vmdium ;
(fee Vadium). But, on the other hand, the mort-
fathoms farther; feek in the table the number anfwer- gagee may either compel the fale of the eftate, in or-
ing to 15 degrees, and you will find it 5000. Then der to get the whole of his money immediately; or
as 3<;o is 10 450, fo is 500010 a fourth number, which elfe call upon the mortgagor to redeem his eftate pre-
is 6428. Find this number, or the neareft to it, in fently, or, in default thereof, to be for ever foreclofed
the table, and againft it you will find 20° or 70°; from redeeming the fame ; that is, to Me his equity
the proper angles of elevation. of redemption without poffibility of recall. And al-
MORTGAGE, in law, {mortuum vadium, or dead- fo, in fome cafes of fraudulent mortgages, the frau-
pledge), is where a man borrows of another a fpeci- dulent mortgagor forfeits all equity of redemption
fic fum (<?. g. 200I.), and grants him an eftate in fee,
on condition that if he, the mortgagor, (hall pay the
mortgagee the faid fum of 200I. on a certain day
mentioned in the deed, that then the mortgagor may
re-enter on the eftate fo granted in pledge ; or, as is
now the more ufual way, that the mortgagee fhall re¬
convey the eftate to the mortgagor : in this cafe the
whatfoever. It is not, however, ufual for mortgagees
to take pofleffion of the mortgaged eftate, unlefs
where the fecurity is precarious, of fmall; or where
the mortgagor neglects even the payment of intereft :
when the mortgagee is frequently obliged to bring an
ejeftment, and take the land into his own hands, in
the nature of a pledge, or the pignut of the Roman
land which is fo put in pledge, is by law, in cafe of law : whereas, while it remains in the hands of the
nonpayment at the time limited, for ever dead and mortgagor, it more refembles their hypotheca, which
gone from the mortgagor; and the mortgagee’s eftate was where the poffeffion of the thing pledged remain-
in the lands is then no longer conditional, but abfo- ed with the debtor. But by ftatute 7 Geo. II. c. 20.
lute. But fo long as it continues conditional, that after payment or tender by the mortgagor of princi-
is, between the time of lending the money and the pal, intereft, and cofts, the mortgagee can maintain
time allotted for payment, the mortgagee is called tp- no eje&ment; but may be compelled to re-affign his
r.ant in mortgage.^ But as it was formerly a doubt, fecurities. In Glanvil’s time, when the univerfal me-
whether, by taking fuch eftate in fee, it did not be- thod of conveyance was by livery of feifin or corporal
come liable to the wife’s dower, and other incum- tradition of the lands, no gage or pledge of lands
brances of the mortgage (though that doubt has been was good unlefs pofleffion was alfo delivered to the cre-
ag° over-ruled by our courts of equity), it there* ditor •; Ji non fequatur ipjius vadii traditio, curia domini
fore became ufual to grant only a long term of years, regis hujufmodi privatas cotiventiones tueri non fold: for
by way of mortgage; with condition to be void on re- which the rcafon given is, to prevent fubfequent and
payment of .the mortgage-money: which courfe has fraudulent pledges of the fame land; cum in tali cafu
been fince continued, principally becaufe on the death pofit eadem res p/uribus aliis creditoribus turn print turn
of the mortgagee fuch term becomes vefted in his per- pojlerius invadiari. And the frauds which have
lonal reprefentatives, who alone are entitled in equity arifen, fince the exchange of thefe public and noto-
3 vioos
M O R
C 368 1
M O R
See Cor
ferahm.
rlous conveyances for more private and fecret bar¬
gains, have well evinced the wifdora of our ancient
1 lawn
MORTIER, an enfign of dignity, borne by the
chancellor and grand prelidents of the parliament of
Fiance. That borne by the chancellor is a piece of
cloth of gold, edged and turned up with ermine; and
that of the firft prelident is a piece of black velvet
edged w-ith a double row of gold-lace, while that of
the other pflbfidents is only edged with a fingle row.
This they formerly carried on their heads, as they ftill
do in grand ceremonies, fuel) as the entry of the king 5
but ordinarily they carry them in the hand.
MORTIFICATION, in medicine and furgery, a
total extin&ion of the natural heat of the body, or a
part thereof. Some define mortification a difeafe,
wherein the natural juices of any part quite lofe their
proper motion ; and by that means fall into a fermen¬
tative one, and corrupt and dellroy the texture of the
part. See Surgery.
Mortification, in religion, any fevere penance
©bferved on a religious account. How ancient and
how univerfal the paaftice of k has been, and for what
reafons obferved, fee Fast.
MORTIMER (John), a late Engliih artift, born
in 1743. According to Mr Strutt, u he was endowed
with every requifite to make a great painter ; his ge¬
nius fertile, and his imagination lively. There is an
originality in his works which add greatly to their
value. No man perhaps touched in the heads and
other extremities of his figures with more fpirit ; and
E w could draw them more corredtly. When he fail¬
ed, it was from his haile to exprefs his thoughts ; fo
that at times he did not attend wfith that pre.cifion
which hiilorical painting requires to the proportion
of his figures ; and they ar,e fometiroes heavy. This
(jefeft is, however, well repaid by the lightnefs of
his pencil, and the freedom which appears in his
works.” He died at his houfe in Norfolk-ftreet in
i779» aSed King John granting the Magna
Charta to the barons,” and the “ Battle of Agin-
court,” two of his capital pidures, have been engra¬
ved. The firil was nearly finifhed by Mr Ryland,
and completed by Mr Bartolozzi. The laft, intend¬
ed as a companion to the former, was publifhed by
Mrs Mortimer.
MORTISE, or Mortoise, in carpentry, &c. a
kind of joint wherein a hole of a certain depth is made
in a piece of timber, which is to receive another piece
called a tenon.
MORTMAIN, or Alienation in Mortmain, (in
vibrtua manv), is an alijenaticD of lands or tenements
to any corporation, foie or aggregate, ecciefiaftical or
temporal* : but thefe purchafes having been chiefly
made by religious houfcs, in confequence whereof the
lands became perpetually inherent in one dead hank,
this hath occafioned the general appellation of mort¬
main to be applied to fucb alienations, and the religi¬
ous houfes themfdves to be principally confidered in
forming the flatutes of mortmain : in deducing thehi-
fiory of which flatutes, it will be matter of curiofity
to obferve the great addrefs and fubtle contrivan.ee of
the ecclefiaftics in eluding from time to time the law-s
in being, and the zeal with which fucceffive parha-
jaents have purfued them through all their fineffes:
how new remedies were {fill the parents of new eya- Mortmain,
lions; till the legiflature at laft, though with 'difficulty, —
hath obtained a decifive vidtory.
By the common Jaw any man might difpofe of his
lands to a.ny other private man at his own diferetion,
efpecially when the feodal reft rain ts of alienation were
worn away. Yet in eonfcquence of thefe it was al-
ways? and is ftill neceffary, for corporations to have a
licence of mortmain from the crown, to enable them comment
to pu.rchafe lands: for as the king is the ultimate lord
of every fee, he ought not, unlefs by his own confentr
to lofe his privilege of efeheats and other feodal pro¬
fits, by the veiling of lands in tenants that can never
he attainted or die. And fiich licences of mortmaii*
feem ,to have been neceffary among the Saxons above
60 years before the Norman conqueft. But, befidtA
tins'general licence from the king as lord paramount
of the kingdom, it was alfo requifite, whenever there
was a mefne or intermediate lord between the king and
the ahenor, to obtain his licence alfo (upon the fame
feodal principles) for the alienation of the fpecific land.
And if no fuch licence was obtained, the kjng or other
lord might refpeftively enter on the lands fo alienated
in mortmain, as a forfeiture. The necefiity of this li*
cence from the crown was acknowledged by the con-
ftitutions of Clarendon, in refpeA of advowfons, which
the monks always greatly coveted, as being the
groundwork of fubfequent appropriations. Yet fuch
were the influence aud ingenuity of the clergy, that
(notwithftanding this fundamental principle) we find
that the largeft and moll confiderable donations of re¬
ligious honfes happened within lefs than two centuries
after the conqueft. And (when a licence could not
be obtained) their contrivance feems to have been
this: That as the forfeiture for fuch alienations ac¬
crued in the firft place to the immediate lord of th®-.'
fee, the tenant who meant to alienate firft conveyed
his lands to the religious houfe, and inftanily took
them back again to hold as tenant to the monaftery ;
which kind of inftantaneous feifin was probably held
not to occafion any forfeiture : and then, by pretext
of fome other forfeiture, furrender, or efeheat, the
fociety entered into thofe lands in right of fuch their
newly acquired figniory, as immediate lords of the
fee. But when theCe donations began to grow nu¬
merous, it was obferved that the feodal fervices, or¬
dained for the defence of the kingdom, were every
day vifibly withdrawn ; that the circulation of landed
property from man to man began to ftagnate; and that
the lords were curtailed of the fruits of their figniories,
their efeheats, wardlhips, reliefs, and the like : and
therefore, in order to prevent this, it was ordained
by the fccond of Kings Henry IIl.Js great charters,
and afterwards by that printed in our common ftatute-
books, that aH fuch attempts (hould be void, and the
land forfeited to the lordjof the fee.
But as this prohibition extended only to religious
houfes, biihops and other foie corporations were not in¬
cluded therein ; and the aggregate ecciefiaftical bodies.
(who, Sir Edward Coke obferves, in this were to be
commended, that they ever had of their counfel the beft
learned men that they could get) found many means
to creep out of this ftatute, by buying in lands that
were Iona fide holden of themfelves as lords of the fee,
and thereby evading the feifeiture ; or by taking long
4 leafed
m o u r
Mortmain icafc# frtr years, which firft introduced thofc extenfive
v   terms, for a thoufand or more years, which are now fo
frequent in conveyances. This produced the ftatate
de religiofts, 7 Edward I. ; which provided, that no
perfon, religious or other whatfoever, Ihould buy, or
fell, or receive, under pretence of a gift, or term of
years, or any other title whatfoever, nor Ihould by any
art or ingenuity appropriate to himfelf, any lands or
tenements in mortmain ; upon pain that the immediate
l@rd of the fee, or, on his default for one year, the
lords paramount, and, in default of all of them, the
king, might enter thereon as a forfeiture.
This feemed to be a fufficient fecurity againft all
alienations in mortmain : but as thefe ftatutes extend¬
ed only to gifts and conveyances between the parties,
the religious houfes now began to fet up a fi&itious
title to the land, which it was intended they Ihould
have, and to bring an a&ion to recover it againft the
tenant; who, by fraud and collufion, made no defence,
and thereby judgment was given for the religious houfe,
which then recovered the land by a fentence of law
upon a fuppofed prior title. And thus they had the
honour of inventing thofe fictitious adjudications of
right, which are fince become the great affurance of
the kingdom, under the name of common recoveries.
But upon this the ftatute of Weftminfter the fecond,
13 Edw. I. c. 32. enafted, that in fuch cafes a jury
{hall try the true right of the demandants or plaintiffs
to the land ; and if the religious houfe or corporation
be found to have it, they fhall ftill recover feifin ;
otherwife it fhall be forfeited to the immediate lord of
the fee, or elfe to the next lord, and finally to the king,
upon the immediate or other lords default. And the
like provifion was made by the fucceeding chapter, in
cafe the tenants fet up croffes upon their lands (the
badges of knights templars and hofpitallers) in order
to proteft them from the feudal demands of their lords,
by virtue of the privileges of thofe religious and mili¬
tary orders. And fo careful was this provident prince
to prevent any future evafions, that when the ftatute
of quia emptorest 18 Edward I. abolilhed all fub-in-
feudations, and gave liberty for all men to alienate
their lands to be holden of their next immediate lord,
a provifo was inferted that this fhould not extend to
authorife any kind of alienation in mortmain. And
when afterwards the method of obtaining the king’s
licence by writ of ad quod damnum was marked out
by the ftatute 27 Edward 1. ft. 2. it was farther pro-,
vided by ftatute 34 Edward 1. ft. 3. that no fuch li¬
cence (hould be effe&ual without the confent of the
mefne or intermediate lords.
Yet ftill it was found difficult to fet bounds to ec-
clefiaftical ingenuity : for when they were driven out
©f all their former holds, they devifed a new method
of conveyance, by which the lands were granted, not
to themfelves dire&ly, but to nominal feoffees to the
ufe ©f the religious houfes; thus diftinguifhing be¬
tween the poffeffion and the ufe, and receiving the ac¬
tual profits, while the feifin of the land remained in
the nominal feoffee ; who was held by the courts
of equity (then under the dire&ion of the clergy) to
be bound in confcience to account to his cejiuy que
ufe for the rents and emoluments of the eftate. And
it is to thefe inventions that our pradifers are in-
Vol. XII. Part I.
369 ] MOB.
debted for the introdu&ion of ufes and trufts, the Mortmain,
foundation of modern conveyancing. But, unfortu-
nately for the inventors themfelves, they did not long
enjoy the advantage of their new device ; for the fta¬
tute 15 Richard II. c. 5. enafks, that the lands which
had been fo purchafed to ufes {hould be admortifed by
licence from the crown, or elfe be fold to private per-
fons ; and that for the future ufes {hall be fubjeft to
the ftatutes of mortmain, and forfeitable like the lands
themfelves. And whereas the ftatutes had been elu¬
ded by purchaiing large tracts of land adjoining to
churches, and confecrating them by the name of
church-yards, fuch fubtile imagination is alfo declared
to be within the compafs of the statutes of mortmain.
And civil or lay corporations, as well as ecclefiaftical,
are alfo declared to be within the mifehief, and of
courfe within the remedy provided by thofe falutary
laws. And laftly, as during the times of popery land?
were frequently given to fuperftitious ufes, though not
to any corporate bodies ; or were made liable in the
hands of heirs and devifees to the charge of obits,
chauntries, and the like, which' were equally perni¬
cious in a well-governed ftate as a&ual alienations in
mortmain ; therefore at the dawn of the Reformation,
the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10. declares, that all fu¬
ture grants of lands for any of thepurpofes aforefaid, if
granted for any longer term than 20 years, fhall be void.
But, during all this time, it was in the power of the
crown, by granting a licence of mortmain, to remit
the forfeiture, fo far as related to its own rights; and
to enable any fpiritual or other corporation to purchafe
and hold any lands or tenements in perpetuity : which
prerogative is declared and confirmed by the ftatute
18 Edw. III. ft. 3. c. 3. But as doubts were con¬
ceived at the time of the Revolution how far fuch li¬
cence was valid, fince the king had no power to dif-
penfe with the ftatutes of mortmain by a claufe of non
objlante, which was the ufual courfe, though it feems
to have been unneceffary ; and as, by the gradual de-
clenfion of mefne figniories through the long opera¬
tion of the ftatute of quia emptores, the rights of inter¬
mediate lords were reduced to a very fmall compafs;
it was therefore provided by the ftatute 7 & 8 W. III.
c. 37. that the crown for the future at its own difere -
tion may grant licences to alienate or take in mortmain,
of whomfoever the tenements may be hoiden
After the diffolution of monafteries under H. VIII.
though the policy of the next popifh fucceffor affe&ed
to grant a fecurity to the poffeffors of abbey-lands,
yet, in order to regain fo much of them as either the
zeal or timidity of their owners might induce them to
part with, the ftatutes of mortmain were fufpended for
20 years by the ftatute 1 & 2 P. & M. c. 8. and du¬
ring that time any lands or tenements were allowed
to be granted to any fpiritual corporation without any
licence whatfoever. And long afterwards, fora much
better purpofe, the augmentation of poor livings, it
was enaded by the ftatute 17 Car. II. c. 3. that ap-
propriators may annex the great tithes to the vicarages;
and that all benefices under 100 1. per annum may be
augmented by the purchafe of lands, without licence
of mortmain in either cafe ; and the like provifion hath
been fince made in favour of the governors of queen
Anne’s bounty. It hath alfo been held, that the fta-
3 A tute
M O R [ 370 ] M O R
Morton, tute 23 Hen. VriT. before-mentioned, did not extend
Mtr.uary.^ to any but fuperftitious ufes; and that therefore
a man may give lands for the maintenance of a fchool,
an hofpital, or any other charitable ufes. But as it
was apprehended from recent experience, that perfons
on their deathbeds might make large and improvident
difoofitions even for thefe good purpofes, and defeat
the political ends of the ftatutes of mortmain; it is
therefore enafted by the ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 36. that
no lands or tenements, or money to be laid out thereon,
Ihall be given for or charged with any charitab e ufes
whatfoever, unlefs by deed indented, executed in the
prefence of two witneffes 1 2 kalendar months before the
death of the donor, • id enrolled in the court of chan¬
cery within fix months after, its execution (except
flocks in the public funds, which may be transferred
within fix months previous to the donor’s death), and
unlefs fuch gift be made to take effett immediately,
and be without power of revocation ; and that all other
gifts {hall be void. The two univerfities, their colleges,
and their fcholars upon the foundation of the colleges
of Eton, Winchelter, and Wellminfter, are excepted
out of this aft : but fuch exemption was granted with
this provifo, that no college fliall be at liberty to pur-
chafe more advowfons than are equal in number to
one moiety of the fellows or iludents upon the refpec-
tive foundations.
MORTON (Thomas), a learned Englifti biftiopin
the 17th century, was bred at St John’s college, Cam¬
bridge, and was logic-lefturer of the univerfity. After
feveral preferments he was advanced to the fee of Chef*
t£r in 1615, and tranflated to that of Litchfield and
Coventry in 1618 ; at which time he became acquaint¬
ed with Antonio de Dominis archbifttop of Spalatro,
whom he endeavoured to diffuade from returning to
Rome. While he was bifhop of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, in which fee he fat 14 years, he educated, or¬
dained, and prefented to a living, a youth of excellent
parts and memory, who was born blind ; and detefted
the impofture of the famous boy of Bilfon in Stafford-
(hire, who pretended to be poffelTed with a devil. .In
163 2 he was tranflated to the fee of Durham, in which
he fat with great reputation till the opening of the
long parliament, which met in 1640 ; when he recei¬
ved great infults from the common people, and was
committed twice to cuftody. The parliament, upon
the diflblution of biftroprics, voted him 800 1. per an¬
num, of which he received but a fmall part. He died
in 1659, in the 95th year of his age and 44th of his
epifcopal confecration. He publiftied Apologia Galho-
iicd) and feveral other works; and was a man of exten-
five learning, great piety, and temperance.
MORTUARY, in law, is a fort of ecclefiafticalhe-
• See riot *’ a cuftomary gift claimed by and due to
Jitriet. the minifter in very many parifties on the death of his
parifliioners. They feem originally to have been only
a voluntary bequeft to the church ; being intended, as
Lyndewode informs us from a conftitution of archbi-
Ihop Langham, as a kind of expiation and amends to
the clergy for the perfonal tithes, and othes ecclefia¬
ftical duties, which the laity in their life-time might
have neglefted or forgotten to pay. For this purpofe,
after the lord’s heriot or be ft good was taken out, the
fecond belt chattel was referved to the church as a
mortuary. And therefore in the laws of king Canute,
this mortuary is called foul-fcot, or fymlo/um nn'mne. Mortuary,
And, in purfuance of the fame1 principle, by the laws
of Venice, where no perfonal tithes have been paid du¬
ring the life of the party, they are paid at his death
out of his merchandife, jewels, and other moveables,.
So alfo, by a fimilar policy in France, every man that
died without bequeathing a part of his eftate to the
church, which was called dying without corfe/fion, was-
formerly deprived of Chriftian burial; or, if he died
inteftate, the relations of the deceafed, jointly with tlje
biihop, named proper arbitrators to determine what he
ought to have given to the church, in cafe he had
made a will. But the parliament, in 1409, redrefled
this grievance.
It was anciently ufual in England to bring the mor¬
tuary to church along with the corpfe when it came
to be buried ; and thence it is fometimes called a cor/e-
prefent: a term which befpeaks it to have been once
a voluntary donation. However, in Bradbon’s time, fo
early as Henry III. we find it rivetted into an efta-
bliftied cuftom : infomuch that the bequefts of heriots
and mortuaries were held to be necelfary ingredients in
every teftament of chattels. Imprimis autem debet qui-
libet, qui tejlamentum fecerit, dominum fuum de meliori re
quam habuerit recognofcere ; et pqftea ecclejiam de alia me¬
liori : the lord muft have the beft good left him as-
an heriot; and the church the fecond beft as a mor¬
tuary. But yet this cuftom was different in different
places : in quibufdam locis habet eedejia melius animal de
confuetudine ; in quibufdam fecundum, vel terttum melius ;
et in quibufdam nihil: et idea conjideranda ejl confuetudo
loci. This cuftom ftill varies in different places, not
only as to the mortuary to be paid, but the perfon
to whom it is payable. In Wales a mortuary or corfe-
prefent was due upon the death of every clergyman
to the bifhop of the diocefe; till abolifhed, upon a.
recompence given to the biftiop, by the ftatute 12
Ann. ft. 2. c. 6. And in the archdeaconry of Che-
fter a cuftom alfo prevailed, that the bifliop, who is
alfo archdeacon, fhould have, at the death of every
clergyman dying therein, his beft horfe or mare, bridle,
faddle, and fpurs; his beft gown or cloak, hat, upper
garment under his gown, and tippet, and alfo his beft
fignet or ring. But by ftatute 28 Geo. II. c. 6. this
mortuary is direfted to ceafe, and the aft has fettled
upon the bifliop an equivalent in its room. The king’s
claim to many goods, on the death of all prelates in
England, feems to be of the fame nature ; though Sir
Edward Coke apprehends, that this is a duty upon
death, and not a mortuary : a diftinftion which feems
to be without a difference. For not only the king’s
ecclefiaftical charafter, as fupreme ordinary, but alfo
the fpecies of the goods claimed, which bear fo near a
refemblance to thofe in the archdeaconary of Chefter,
which was an acknowledged mortuary, puts the mat¬
ter out of difpute. The king, according to the record
vouched by Sir Edward Coke, is entitled to fix things;
the biftiop’s beft horfe or palfrey, with his furniture;
his cloak or gown, and tippet; his cup and cover; his
bafon and ewer ; his gold ring ; and laftly, his muta
canum, his mew or kennel of hounds.
This variety of cuftoms with regard to mortuaries,
giving frequently a handle to exaftions on the one fide,
and frauds or expenfive litigations on the other, it
was thought proper by ftatute 21 Henry VIII. c. 6.
M O R r 37* 1 M O R
to reduce them to'fome kind of certainty. For this
purpofe it is enafted, that aU mortuaries, pr corfe-
prefents to parfons of any parifh, (hall be taken in the
following manner, unlefs where by cultom lefs or none
at all is due : viz. for every perfon who does not leave
goods to the value of ten marks, nothing-: for every
perfon who leaves goods to the value of ten marks and
under 30 pound, jj. 4^, if above 30 pounds, and
-under 40 pounds, 6s. #d. if above 40 pounds, of what
value foever they may be, lor. and no more. And no
mortuary (hall throughout the kingdom be paid for
the death of any feme-covert; nor for any child ; nor
for any one of full age, that is not a houfekeeper; nor
for any wayfaring man ; but fuch wayfaring man’s
mortuary (hail be paid in the parilh to which he be¬
longs. And upon this ftatute Hands the law of mor¬
tuaries to this day.
MORUS, the mulberry-tree: A genus of the
tetrandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants j and in the natural method ranking under the
53d order, Scabrida. The male calyx is quadripar¬
tite ; and there is no corolla : the female calyx is te-
traphyilous ; there is no corolla ; two ftyles.; the ca¬
lyx like a berry, with one feed. 1 here are feven fpe-
cies,.viz.
Species, i. The nigra, or common black-fruited mul¬
berry-tree, rifes with an upright, large, rough trunk,
dividing into a branchy and very fpreading head, riling
■20 feet high, or more. It has large, heart-fhaped,
rough leaves ; and monoecious flowers, fucceeded in
the females by large fucculent black-berries. There
is a variety with jagged leaves and fmaller fruit.—
2. The alba, or white mulberry tree, rifes with an up¬
right trunk, branching 20 or 30 feet high : garniflied
with large, oblique, heart-ftiaped, fmooth, light-green,
(hining leaves, and moncecious flowers fucceeded by
pale-whiti(h fruit. There is a variety with purplilh
fruit. 3. The papyrifera, or paper mulberry-tree of
Japan, grows 20 or 30 feet high; having large palma-
ted leaves, fome trilobate, others quinquelobed ; and
monoidous flowers, fucceeded by (mail black fruit.—
4. The rubra, or red Virginia mulberry-tree, grows 30
feet high ; is garniflied with very large, heart-fliaped,
rough leaves, hairy underneath; and has moncecious
flowers, fucceeded by large reddifli berries. 5. The tinc-
toria, dyer’s mulberry, or fuiric, has oblong leaves more
extended on one fide at the bafe, with axillary thorns. It
is a native of Brafil and Jamaica. 6. The tatarica, or
Tartarian mulberry, has ovate oblong leaves equal on
both fides and equally ferrated. It abounds on the
banks of the Wolga and the Tanais. 7. The indica,
or Indian mulberry, has ovate oblong leaves, equal
on both fides, but unequally ferrated.
The laft three fpecies are tender plants in this
country ; but the four firit are very hardy, and fuc-
ceed in any common foil and fituation. The leaves
are generally late before they come out, the buds
feldom beginning to open till the middle or towards
the latter end of May, according to the tempe¬
rature of the feafon; and when thefe trees in par¬
ticular begin to expand their foliage, it is a good
fign of the near approach of fine warm fettled wea¬
ther ; the white mulberry, however, is generally for¬
warder in leafing than the black. The flowers and
fruit come out foen after the leaves; the males in arnen-
tuma, and the females in fmall roundiflt heads ; net- Momi*.
ther of which are very confpicuous, nor poflefs any t “
beauty, but for obfervation. The female or fruitful
flowers always rife on the extremity of the young
(hoots, on Ihort fpurs ; and with this Angularity, that
the calyxes f«f the flowers become the fruit, which
is of the berry kind, and compofed of many tube-
rances, each of them furnifhing one feed. The fruit
matures here gradually from about the middle of Au~
gutt until the middle of September. In dry warm
feafons, they ripen in great perfection ; but when it
proves very wet weather, they ripen but indifferently,
and prove devoid of flavour.
Uj'es, &c. Confidered as fruit-trees, the nigra is
the only proper fort to cultivate here ; the trees be¬
ing not only the mod plentiful bearers, but the fruit is
larger and much finer-flavoured than that of the
white kind, which is the only other fort that bears in
this country. The three next fpecies are chiefly em¬
ployed to form variety in our ornamental plantations ;
tho’ abroad they are adapted to more ufeful purpofes. *
J he fruit of the black mulberry is exceedingly
grateful to the tafte, and is coniidered at the fame
time as laxative and cooling. Like the other acid-
fweet fruits, it allays thirtt (as Dr Cullen obferves).,
partly by refrigerating, and partly by exciting an ex¬
cretion of mucus from the mouth and fauces ; a fimi-
lar effedl is alfo produce4-in the (tomach, where, by
correcting putrefcency, a powerful caufe of third is
removed. A fyrup is made from the berries ga¬
thered before they are ripe, which, taken as a gargle,
is excellent for allaying indammations of the throat,
and for cleanfing ulcers in the mouth. The bark df
the root, which has an acrid bitter tafte, poffefies a
cathartic power ; and has been fuccefsfully ufed as a
vermifuge, particularly in cafes of taenia : the dofe is
half a dram of the powder, or a dram of the infu-
fion. The juice of the black mulberry is alfo em¬
ployed to give a colour to certain liquors and con¬
fections. Some make from it a wine which is not
difagreeable; others employ it for giving a high co¬
lour to red wine ; which it likewife contributes to
make fweet.—Although this juice is of no ufe in
dyeing, it gives a red colour to the fingers and to
linen, which it is very difficult to remove. Ver¬
juice, forrel, lemon, and green mulberries, remove fpots
of this kind from the hands : but with refpeCt to li¬
nen, the bed way is to wet the part which has been
ftained, and to dry it with the vapour of fulphur;
the vitriolic acid which efcapes from this fubdance
during combudion, iadantly takes off the dam. — The
•wood of the mulberry tree is yellow, tolerably hard,
and may be applied to various yfes in turnery and
carving j But in order to feparate the bark, which is
rough, thick thready, and fit for being made into
ropes, it is proper to deep the wood in water.
Mulberry trees are noted for their leaves affording
the principal food of that valuable infeCt the iilk-
worm. The leaves of the alba, or white fpecies, are
preferred for this purpofe in Europe ; but in China,
where the bed filk is made, the worms are faid to be
fed with thofe of the morus tatarica. The advantages of
•white mulberry trees are not confined to the nourifh-
ment of worms: they may be cut every three or four
years like fallows and poplar trees, to make faggots;
3 A a and
M OR [ v
and the Jheep eat their leaves in winter, before they
are burnt. This kind of food, of which they are ex¬
tremely fond, is very nourilhing; it gives a delicacy
to the flefh, and a finenefs and beauty to the wool.
In Ihort, in every climate and in moil fields, it might
be proper, as is the cafe in Spain, to wait for the
fait hoar-froit {baking oft’ the leaves, which are gather¬
ed and placed to dry in fheds or cart-houfes, taking care
always to ftir them from time to time. In Spain, the
llietp are fed on thefe leaves during the cold and
frofts. By this method no injury is done to the mul¬
berries, which produce leaves every year; and it is
thought that the beauty and finenefs of the Spanilh
wool is in a great meafure owing to the ufe of this
kind of food. From thefe conliderations M. Bour¬
geois infers, that even in countries where, from the
nature of the climate, the fcarcity of workmen and
the high price of labour, or any other particular
caufes, filk-worms could not be raifed to any ad¬
vantage, the cultivation of mulberry trees ought not be
negleifted. — The fruit of the white mulberry has a
fweetilh and very infipid tafte. Birds, however, are
very fond of it; and it is remarked that thofe which
have been fed with fuch fruit are excellent eating.
'The pspyrifera, or paper-mulberry, is fo called from
the paper chiefly ufed by the Japanefe being made of
the bark of its branches; (fee the article Pap£r.) The
leaves of this fpecies alfo ferve far food to the filk
worm, and is now cultivated with fuccefs in France.
It thrives bell in: Tandy foils,, grows fader than the
common, mulberry, and at the fame time is not injured
by the cold. M. de la Bouviere affirms that he pro¬
cured a beautiful vegetable filk from the bark of
the young branches of this fpecies of mulberry, which
he cut while the tree was in fap, and afterwards beat
and fteeped. The women of Louifiana procure the
fame kind of prodiuftion from the (hoots which iffue
from the dock of the mulberry ; and which are four
or five feet high. After taking off the bark, they
dry it in the fun, and then beat it that the external
part may fall off; and the internal part, which is fine
bark, remains entire. This is again beaten, to make
it dill finer; after which; they bleach it with dew. It
is then fpun, and various fabrics are made from it,
fuch as nets and fringes they even fometimes weave
it and make it into cloth.—The fined fort of cloth
among the inhabitants of Otaheite and others of the
South Sea Iflands, is- made of the bark of this tree, in
the manner particularly defcribed under the. article
Bark.
The tinftoria is a fine timber-tree, and a principal in,
gredient in mod of our yellow dyes, for which it is
chiefly imported inJ,o Europe. The berries are fweet
and wholefomebut. not much ufed, except by the
winged tribe, by whofe care it is chiefly planted.
Culture of the Mulberry. From the nourifliment
which it: affords to the iilk-worm, that valuable infedt
to which we are indebted for the materials of our fined
fluffs, , the method of cultivating the mulberry, tree
mud he peculiarly intereding wherever its culture can
be undertaken with fuccefs. In France and Italy, vad
plantations of the trees are made folely for their leaves
tp feed the little animals we have mentioned, which
amply reward the poffeffors with the fupply of filk
which they fgin. from their bowels. Plantations of
1 ] m o R
the mulberry have at different times been recommend¬
ed in this country for the fame purpofe ; though no¬
thing has yet been done in that way to any extent,
and even the expediency of any fuch attempt has been
doubted by others, upon the ground of its interfering
with other branches of ruial economics more produc¬
tive and more congenial ta our climate.
In the European filk-countries, a great many varie¬
ties of mulberry trees are didinguifhed, arifing from
difference of climate, foij, method of culture, and
other accidental caufes. Among the wild mulberries,
we meet with fome whofe leaves are roundifh, and re-
fembling thofe of a rofe t hence they have been called
the rofe-leaved mulberry.
Mulberry trees were fird cultivated in France in the
reign of Charles IX. It has beeu found by experience
that this tree is not fo peculiar to warm countries,
fuch as Spain, Italy, Provence, Languedoc, and
Piedmont; but it may alfo thrive very well in colder
countries, fuch as Touraine, Poitou, Maine, Anjou,
Angoumois near Rochefoucault, and even in Germany,
where it affords very good nourifliment for filk-worms,
They grow in all kinds of foil: they thrive bed in
drong and wet lands j but it is alleged that their
leaves conditute too coarfe food, prejudicial to rhs
worms, and unfavourable to the quality of the filk.—
A good light land is the bed kind of foil for raifing
them. White mulberry trees have been found to grow
in fandy foils where heath would fcarcely vegetate ;
but their leaves are too dry, and afford not fufficienfc.
nouriftiment for the filk-worms.
Mulberry trees may be propagated either front
{hoots which have taken root, or by feed, by layers,
and by flips. To raife black mulberry trees, the feed
mud be taken from the larged and mod beautiful mul¬
berries in raifing white ones, the feed is taken from
the fined mulberries growing on trees with large
whitilh foft and tender leaves, and as little cut as pof?
Able. The bed feed is. commonly got from Piedmont,
Languedoc, &c. According to M. Luhamel, that,
feed Ihould be preferred which is gathered in countries
where the cold is fometimes pretty fevere ; becaufe in
that cafe the trees are better able to refid the attacks
of the frod. It frequently happens in fevere winters,
as M. Bourgeois obferves,,that the. dalks of the young
mulberry trees, efpecially during the fird winter, are.
dedroyed by the frod ;.but. when they are cut clofe to
the earth, they fend forth as beautiful and vigorous
dalks as the former. Good feed ought to be large,
heavy, light coloured, to produce a great deal of oil
when it is preffed, and to crackle when thrown on a
red hot. (hovel. This feed mull be fawn in good land.
In the autumn of the fecond year, all thofe trees
mud be pulled up which have fmall leaves of a very
deep green, rough, and deeply indented, for they
would produce no leaves proper for the filk-worms.—
In the third year, when the mulberry tree is about the
thickaefs of the finger, it mud be taken up and put
in the nurfery, According to M. Bourgeois, mul¬
berries ought to be tranfplanted in the fpring of the
fecond year, which, makes them, thrive better, and
fooner attain their growth. Without this trarifplan-
tation, they would put forth only one root like a pivot,
and molt of them would be in danger of perilhing
when they are taken up to be put where they are in¬
tended
*
M O R r 373 J M O S
tended to remain. Some cultivators of this tree tell of this event; for no leaves can be depended upon
W-v—— USj that all the young trees, whether large or fmall, till the beginning of May, thofe which are prior
ftraight or crooked, ought to be cut clofe to the to this period being in danger of being deltroyed by
ground in the third year, that they may put forth 3 the frofts.
greater number of roots. Others never employ this In Tufcany, efpecially in the neighbourhood of
method but with regard to thofe which are crooked, Florence, M. Nollet tells us, that though the inhabi-
or in a languifhing Hate. tants do not cultivate half fo many mulberries as the
White mulberries may be raifed for the food of filk- Piedmontefe, they rear and feed double the quantity,
worms, either in the form of a copfe, or planted in a in proportion, of filk-worms. For this purpofe they
regular order, by letting them grow to their natural caufe the worms hatch only at two different feafons;
fize. Ingrafting is one of the ffirell methods of pro- The firft worms which are hatched are fed on the firlt
curing fine leaves from mulberries. Mulberries ingrafted produce of the mulberry-trees; and when thefe have .
on wild ftocks chofen from a good kind, fuch as thofe produced their filk, other worms are hatched, which
which are produced from the feed of the Italian mulber- are nourilhed on the fecond crop of the fame trees,
ry, commonly called the rofe-mulberry, or of the Spanifh We are told by M. Bourgeois, that feveral kinds
mulberry, produce, as M. Bourgeois obferves, much of white mulberries are now cultivated near Bienne
Encyclop. more beautiful leaves, and of a much better quality for in Switzerland. According to this author, the prickly
Metlo- filk-worms, than thofe which are ingrafted on the mulberry is the leaft efteemed of all the white wild
common or prickly fmali-leafed wikbftock. The fame mulberries. Its branches are rough with prickles ; its
obfervation has been made by a great many cultivators leaves are of a fprall fize and few in number ; and the
of mulberries, and in particular by M. Thome of reaping of them is difficult and expenfive. The com-
I,yons, whofe authority has the greateft weight in mon wild mulberry produces indented leaves, oblong,
whatever regards the cultivation of mulberries and the and very {lender but it is worth being attended to,
rearing of {ilk-worms. becaufe it thrives very well when planted in a hedge;
Ingrafted mulberries, it muff be confeffed, produce and in a favourable expofure : it is alfo earlier in the
a greater number of leaves, and thefe more nourifiiing fpring than the other fpecies. The wild mulberry,
for filk-worms, than wild mulberries. The latter, which is produced from the rofe or Italian ingrafted
however, it has been found by experience, may exiif mulberry, bears a great many leaves, of a roundifti
for two centuries ; whereas the extenfion of leaves {hape and middling fize, inclining to a light yellow,,
produced by ingrafting', occafions a premature difiipa- and of an excellent quality!
tion of the fap of the tree, and thereby accelerates its Of the white ingrafted mulberry-trees, the rofe, or
decay. In a memoir inferred in a treatife on the cul- Italian ingrafted mulberry, which is now the fpecies
ture of white mulberries by M. Pomier, it is recom- moll cultivated in France, Italy, and Piedmont, pro-
mended to ingraft white mulberries upon black ones ; duces great abundance of large thick and fmooth leaves,
and there is reafon to think that by following this plan It has now come into great repute, in confequence of
the trees would exift much longer: for it is well known the recommendation of M. Thome, who prefers it to
that the white mulberry commonly decays firll in the all other fpecies of mulberry-trees for railing filk-
root, whereas the black mulberry is not fubjedl to any worms. It is extremely delicate, however, and fuf-
malady. In almoft all the books on agriculture we fered greatly in Switzerland from the fevere winters
find it afferted, that mulberries may be .ingrafted on qf 1766 and 1767. The mulberry called'leaf
elms. “ I will not affirm (fays M. Duhamel), that is diftinguiflied* from every other fpecies by its very
this method of ingrafting has never been luccefsful ; large leaves, fome of which are frequently found equal •
but I have frequently tried it in vain, and I have many in fize to thofe of a gourd. The Spanilh mulberry'
reafons for thinking that it cannot be attended with greatly refembles the wild rofe-mulberry, except that
any advantage.” In works of the fame kind, we are its leaves are larger and more pointed. It is by no
Mkewife told, “ that mulberries may be ingrafted on fig means delicate, and can refift the ftrongeib frofts and
and lime trees 5-but in general fuch ingrafting will not the fevereft winters in cold- climates. The leaves of
fucceed, unlefs there is a great analogy betwixt the the mulberry called the fmall queen are oblong, mode-
trees, and particularly unlefs the fap is fet in motion rately large, and exceedingly fmooth : This fpecies is
at the fame time.” of an excellent quality and much efteemedy
The greater care we take of mulberries, by drefiing MOSA, (anc. geog.) a river of Belgica, rifihg is
them, and lopping off the overgrown branches, they mount Vogefus on the borders of the Lingones, and
produce the greater plenty of good leaves. It is which, after receiving a part of the Rhine called Fa-
very prejudicial to the mulberries to ftrip them when kalis, forms the ifland of the Batavi, and paffes off
too young of their leaves for the purpofe of" feed- im;o the fea, at no greater diftance than 80 miles : its
ing the worms, becaufe the leaves are the organs' mouth, which is large and broad, is that which Pliny
of perfpiration in trees, and likewife contribute calls Helms, denoting Lower, according to fome Ger-
greatly to nutrition by means of their abforbing vef- man writers. Now called the Maefe, - or Meufe ; ri¬
fe! s which imbibe the moifture of the atmofphere.- ling in-Champaign, on the borders of the county of
Mulberry trees are fo plentifully ftored with fap, that Burgundy, or the Franche Gompfe, at a-village called
they renew their leaves fometimes twice* or thrice. Meufe, whence the appellation; and* running north
When the winter is mild, mulberry trees put forth through Lorrain and Champaign into the Nether-
tiieir leaves very early : but it is always dangerous to lands : it afterwards directs its courfe north-eall, and
accelerate the hatching of the worms in expectation then weft ; and joining the Waal, runs to Dort, and:
6 fall’s-.
M O S t
- M -fe, fal]g iijta tbe German' fea, a little below the iPrieb-^-
Mofaic According to Baudrand, it twice receives the Waal ;
. '^w' by the fid| junftion forming the ifland Bommel; and
again receives it at Wnrcism, from which place pro?
eecding to Dort, it divides into two branches, which
again uniting together form one large mouth difchar-
ging itfelf into the German fea.
MOS./E Pons (anc. geog.), fuppofed to be Mae-
ftricht, fituated on the Mafe. E. Long. 5. 40. N.
Lat. 30. 55.
MOSAIC caw, or the Law of Moses, is the moll
ancient that we know of in the world, and is of three
Wilfnn’s kinds ; the moral law, the ceremonial law, and the
yirebaof, judicial law. The different manner in which each of
thefe was delivered, may perhaps fuggeft to us a right
idea of their different natures, The moral law, or
ten commandments, for inftance, was delivered on the
574 1 M O S
top of the mountain, in the face of the whole world.
as being of uoiverfal influence, and obligatory on all
mankind. The ceremonial was received by Mqfes in 'r~m
private in the tabernacle, as being of peculiar con¬
cern, belonging to the Jews only, and deftined toceafe
when the tabernacle was down, and the vail of the
temple rent. As to the judicial law, it was neither
fo publicly nor fo audibly given as the moral law,
nor yet fo privately as the ceremonial; this kind of
law being of an indifferent nature, to be obferved or
not obferved, as its rites fuit with the place and go¬
vernment under which we live. The five books of
Mofes called the Pentateuch, are frequently ftyled, by
way of emphafis, the Law. This was held by the
Jews in fuch veneration, that they would not allow it
to be laid upon the bed of any fick perfon, lelt it
fhould be polluted by touching the dead.
A TABLE or HARMONY of the MOSAIC LAW, digeftecl into proper Heads,
with References to the feveral Parts of the Pentateuch where the fefpe&ive
Laws occur.
Class I. The Moral Law written on the two Tables, containing
the Ten Commandments.
The firjl table, which include*
The firft commandment,
The fecond commandment.
The third commandment.
The fourth commandment, - -
The fecond table, including
The fifth commandment,
The fixth commandment,
The feventh commandment,
The eighth commandment,
The ninth commandment, »
The tenth commandment,
The fum of both tables.
Class II. The Ceremonial Law may be fitly reduced to the fol¬
lowing heads, viz.
Of the holy place, . _ .
Of the matter and ftrufture of the tabernacle, -
Of the inftruments of the fame, viz.
The laver of brafs.
The altar of burnt offering,
The altar of incenfe,
The candleftick of pure gold,
The table of fhew-bread,
Of the priefts and their vellments for glory and beauty,
Of the choofing of the Levites,
Of the prieft’s office in general.
Of their office in teaching,
Of their office in bleffing, - - -
Of their office in offering ; which fun&ion largely fpreading itfelf,
is divided into thefe heads, viz.
What the facrifice ought to be, - -
Of the continual fire,
Of the manner of the burnt offerings,
.*-*——*—■ the peace offerings.
Exod.
chap.
20. 23.
20.23.34.
20.23.
20.23.31.
34-35-
20. 23.
20. 23.
*5. 26.
27-35-
3°-
27.
3°-
25' *
25. 20.
28.
Levitic. Numb,
chap. chap.
19.20.26.
19. 23.26.
19.
19.
gi8. 19.
19.
19.
i9.
6.
6.7.
3-7-
Deut.
chap.
5. 6. 13
4.5.6.7.8.
10.11.12.
•3-
5-
S'
S'
5' 33*
S'
S'
S'.
6.
18.3.8.
‘•-f
t8.12.
7- 3l*
M O S
[ 375 ]
Of the manner of the facrlfices, according to their feveral kinds, viz,
For {in committed through ignorance of the law,
For fin committed through ignorance of the fa£t.
For fin committed wittingly, yet not through impiety,
The fpecial law of facrifices for fin,
Of things belonging to the facrifices.
Of the fhew-bread, -
Of the lamps, -
Of the fweet incenfe, - - -
Of the ufe of ordinary oblations, whereof there were fereral
kinds obferved by the priefts,
Of the confecration of the high priefts and other priefts.
Of the confecration and office of the Levites,
Of the dwelling of the Levites,
Of the anointing the altar, and all the inftruments of the ta-1
bernacle, ‘ * 3
Of the continual daily facrifices,
Of the continual fabbath-day’s facrifice.
Of the folemn facrifice for feaft-days, which were diverfe, and
had peculiar rites, diftinguifhed into thefe, viz.
Of trumpets, -
Of beginning of months,
Of the three moft folemn feafts in general.
Of the feaft of paflover,
Of the feaft of pentecoft,
Of the feaft of tabernacles, - -
Of the feaft of blowing the trumpets.
Of the feaft of expiation,
Of the firft fruits, - - -
Of tythes, -
Of fruits growing and not eaten of,
Of the firft born, - -
Of the fabbatical year, »
Of the year of jubilee, - -
Of vows in general, ...
What perfons ought not to make vows,
What things cannot be vowed,
Of redemption of vows, - .
Of the vows of the Nazarites,
Of the laws proper for the priefts, viz.
Of pollutions, - -
Of the high-prieft’s mourning,
Of his marriage, - -
Of the mourning of the ordinary priefts,
Of their marriage, - - ' *
Of their being forbid the ufe of wine, &c.
Of fan&ified meats,. - - *
Of the office of the Levites, viz.
Teaching,
Offering, - .
Other promifcuous ceremonial laws, viz.
Of uncleannefs in general, •>
Of uncleannefs in meats, toz.
Of blood, ... Gen. ix.
Of fat,
Of dead carcafes, -
Other meats, and diverfe living creatures.
Of uncleannefs in the ifllt a of feed and blood,
In the dead bodies of men,
In the leprofy,
M O S
Exod. Levitic, Nwftb.
chap. chap. chap. chap.
27.
3°*
29.30.
29.30.
29.
23-34"
12.13.25.
'34-
23.24.
3- 34*
3°*
22.23.34.
13.22.34.
23-
4*
5-7*
6.
6. 7.
2.6.7.
24.
24.
6.8.
23*
23*
23*
16., 13.
2 S'
*5'
2 7*
27:-
27.
6.17.19.
7.17.19.
3-7*
17.
11. 20.
15.12.
13. 14.
28.
9. 28.
28.
29.
29.
29.
I5*
18.
}s- >s.
3.4.18.
5'
Deut. Mofuk -*£5
26.
12.14.2&
lSr
23*
2.15.18.
7.27.31,?
Off
I
M O S
[ 37« 1
Of circumcifion, - Gen. xvxi.
-Of the water of expiation, - . .
Of the mourning of the Ifraelites,
Of mixtures, -
Of their garments, and writing the law privately,
Of young birds not to be taken with the dam,
-Of their paddle ftaves,
Class III. The Political Law.
iV. B. The Magiftrate is the Keeper of the Precepts of both
Tables, and to have refpeft to human Society;—therefore
the Political Laws of the Ifraelites are referred to both the
Tables, and are to be reduced to the feveral Precepts of
the Moral Law.
Laws referred to the fir ft table namely,
1 ft, To the firft and fecond commandments, viz.
Of idolaters and apoftates,
Of abolifliing idolatry.
Of diviners and falfe prophets,
Of covenants with other gods,
2d. To the third commandment, viz.
Of blafphemies, -
3d. To the fourth commandment, viz.
Of breaking the fabbath,
Political laws referred to the fecond table,
ift. To the fifth commandment, viz.
Of magrftrates and their authority, - j
Of the power of fathers,
2d. To the fixth commandment, viz.
Of capital puniftiments.
Of wilful murder, -
Of manflaughter unwittingly committed, and ®f the cities of 1
refuge, - - - j
Of heinous injury, . - -
Of puniftiments not capital, - *
Of the law of war, -
3d. To the feventh commandment, viz.
Of unlawful marriages,
Of fornication, - - .
Of whoredom, -
Of adultery and jealoufy,
Of copulation agatnft nature,
Of divorcements, ...
Other matrimonial laws, - - . j
4th. To the eighth commandment, viz.
Of the puniftiment of thefts,
Of facrilege,
Of not injuring ftrangers,
Of not defrauding hirelings,
Of juft weights, - «
Of removing the land-mark,
Of loft goods,
Of ftray cattle,
Of corrupted judgments,
Of fire breaking out by chance,
Of man-ftealing,
Of ihe fugitive fervant,
N°230.
Joftiua vii.
Exod.
chap.
23.24.
22.
23-34-
18. 30.
22. 23.
23-
M O s
Levitic. Numb. Deut.
chap. chap.
chap.
20.
19. zo.
24.
18. 20.
19.
19. 20.
18. 20.
14.
,4*
6.11.22,
13-17-
7.12.
18.
7*
1.13.17.
[23-
21..24.
19.
25.
25-
2 J*
7.21.
23-
24.
21.22.24.
[25-
26.25.
25.
19.
16.24.
Of
M O S
t 377 ]
Mcrfrc*
Of gathering fruits, « •
Of contrafts, viz.
Borrowing, « •
Of the pledge, » -
Of ufury, • - .
Of felling,
Of-the thing lent,
Of a thing committed to be kept,
Of heirs,
5th. To the ninth commartdment, viz.
Of witnefles, - - -
The eftablifhing the political law.
The eftablilhing the divine law in general,
From the dignity of the lawgiver,
From the excellency of the laws.
From the promifes,
From the threattnings,
Exod.
chap.
.5.19.23.
24.
23‘
M O S
Levitie. Numb. Deut,
chap. chap. chap.
[9.23.
19.20.22.
18. 26.
26.
-!
33.24.
'5*
24.
23-
15’
iy. 19.
4-
6.11.29.
3°' 31 •
4.5.6.7.8.
10.26.27.
4. 26.
4. 5.6.7.
10. n. 12.
28.
4.7. 11.
27.28.29.
3°*
iWofait*
haw.
MOSA.IC, or Mosaic-work, an affemblage of
little pieces of glafs, marble, precious Hones, &c. of
various colours, cut fquare, and cemented on a ground
of ftucco, in fuch a manner as to imitate the colours
and gradations of painting. The critics are divided
as to the origin and reafon of the name. Some derive
it from mofaicum, a corruption of mufaicum, as that is
of mufivum, as it was called among the Romans,
ficaliger derives it from the Greek and imagines
the name was given to this fort of works as being very
fine and ingenious. Nebrlcenfis is of opinion it was
fo called, becaufe ex tilts piduris ornabantur mttfea.
1. Method of performing Mofaic work of glafs is
this: They provide little pieces of glafs, of as many
different colours and fizes as poflible.
Now, in order to apply thefe feveral pieces, and out
of them to form a picture, they in the firft place pro-
cure a cartoon or defign to be drawn ; this is tranf-
ferrcd to the ground or plafter by calking, as in paint¬
ing in frefco. See Fresco.
As this plafter is to be laid thick on the wall, and
therefore will continue frefh and foft a confiderable
time, fo there may be enough prepared at once to
ferve for as much work as will take up three or four
days.
This plafter is compofed of lime made of hard
Hone, with brick-duft very fine, gum tragacanth, and
whites of eggs : when this plafter has been thus pre¬
pared and laid on the wall, and made the defign of
what is to be reprefen ted, they take out the little
pieces of glafs with a pair of plyers, and range them
one after another, ftill keeping ftrictly to the light,
fhadow, different teints, and colours, reprefented in the
defign before; preffing or flatting them down with a
ruler, which ferves both to fink them within the
ground and to render the furface even.
Thus, in a long time, and with a great deal of la¬
bour, they finifh the work, which is ftill the more
Vol. XII. Part I.
beautiful, as the pieces of glafs are more uniform', and
ranged at an even height.
Some of thefe pieces of mofaic-work are performed
with that exa&nefs, that they appear as fmooth as a
table of marble, and as finiffted and mafterly as a paint¬
ing in frefco ; with this advantage, that they have &
fine luftre, and will laft ages.
The fineft works of this kind that have remained
till our time, and thofe by whom the moderns have
retrieved the art, which was in a manner loft, are thofe
in the church of St Agnes, formerly the temple of
Bacchus, at Rome; and fpme at rifa, Florence, and
other cities of Italy. The moft efteemed among the
. works of the moderns are thofe of Jofeph Pine and
the..Chevalier Lanfranc, in the church of St Peter at
Rome : there are alfo very good ones at Venice.
2. The method of performing Mofaic-work of marble
is this : The ground of Mofaic works, wholly marble,
is ufiially a maflive marble, either white or black. On
this ground the defign is cut with a chifel, after it has
been firft calked. After it has been cut of a confider¬
able depth, i. e. an inch or more, the cavities are filled
up with marble of a proper colour, firft faihioned ac¬
cording to the defign, and reduced to the thicknefs.of
the indentures with various inttruments. To make the
piece thus inferted into the indentures cleave faft, whofe
feveral colours are to imitate thofe of the defign, they
life a ftucco, compofed of lime and marble-dull; or a
kind of maftic, which is prepared by each workman,
after a different manner peculiar to himfelf. The fi-
. gures being marked out, the painter or fculptor him¬
felf draws with a pencil the gelpurs of the figures not
determined by the ground, ancTdn the fame manner
makes ftrokesor hatchings in the place where lhadows
are to be: and after he has engraven with the chifel
all the ftrokes thus drawn, he fills them up with a black
maftic, compofed partly of Burgundy-pitch poured on
hot; taking off afterwards what is fuperfluous with a
3 B piece
M O S [ 378 ] M O S
piece of foft ftone or brick, which, together with wa¬
ter and beaten cement, takes away the maftic, polifhes
the marble, and renders the whole fo even that one
would imagine it only confided of one piece. This
is the kind of Mofaic-w nk that is feen in the pom¬
pous church of the invalids at Taris, and the fine cha¬
pel at Verfailles, with which fome entire apartments of
that palace are incrullated.
3. As for Mofaic-work of precious Hones, Other and
finer inftruments are required than thofe ufed in marble;
as drills, wheels, &c. ufed by lapidaries and engravera
on ftone. As none but the richeft marbles and Hones
enter this work, to make them go the farther, they
are fawn into the thinneft leaves imaginable, fcarce ex¬
ceeding half a line in thicknefs; the block to be fawn
is faftened firmly with cords on the bench, and only
raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or two inches
high. Two iron pins, which are on one fide the block,
and which ferve to faften it, are put into a vice con¬
trived for the purpofe ; and with a kind of faw or bow,
made of fine brafs-wire, bent on a piece of fpongy
wood, together with emery fteeped in water, the leaf
is gradually falhioned by following the ftroke of the
defign, made on paper, and glued on the piece. When
there are pieces enough faftened to form an entireflower,
or fome other part of the defign, they are applied to
the ground.
The ground which fupports this Mofaic-wotk is
ufually of free-ftone. The matter with which the
ftones are joined together is a maftic, or kind of
flucco, laid very this on the leaves as they are fafhion-
ed ; and this being done, the leaves are applied with
plyers.
If any contour, or fide of a leaf, be not either fqua-
red or rounded fufficiently, fo as to fit the place ex-
adtly into which it is to be inferted, when it is too
large, it is to be brought down with a brafs file or rafp;
and if it be too little, it is managed with a drill and
other inftruments iifed by lapidaries.
Mofaic-work of marble is ufed in large works, as in
pavements of churches, bafilics, and palaces; and in
the incruftation and vaneering of the walls of the fame
edifices.
As for that of precious ftones, it is only ufed in
fmall works, as ornaments for altar-pieces, tables for
rich cabinets, precious ftones being fo very dear.
4. Manner of performing Mofaic-work of gypfum.
Of this ftone calcined in a kiln, beaten in a mortar,
and fifted, the French workmen make a fort of arti¬
ficial marbles, imitating precious ftones ; and of thefe
they compofe a kind of Mofaic-work, which does not
come far fhort either of the durablenefs or the vivacity
of the natural ftones; and which befides has this ad¬
vantage, that it. admits of continued pieces or paintings
of entire compartiments without any vifible joining.
Some make the ground of plafter of Paris, others of
free-ftone. If it be of plafter of Paris, they fpread it
in a wooden frame, of the length and breadth of the
work intended, and in thicknefs about an inch and a
half. This frame is fo contrived, that the tenons be¬
ing only joined to the mortifes by fingle pins, they
may be taken afunder, and the frame be difmounted
when the plafter is dry. The frame is covered on one
fide with a ftrong linen-cloth, nailed all round ; which
being placed horizontally with the linen at the bottom,
is filled with plafter palled through a wide fieve. When
the plafter is half dry, the frame is fet up perpendicu¬
larly, and left till it is quite dry ; then it is taken out,
*by taking the frame to pieces.
In this Mofaic, the ground is the moft important
part. Now in order to the preparation of this fifted
gypfum, which is to be applied on this ground, it is
diflblved and boiled in the heft Englifh glue, and mix¬
ed with the colour that it is to be of; then the whole
is worked up together into the ufual confiftence of
plafter, and then is taken and fpread on the ground
five or fix inches thick. If the work be fuch, as that
mouldings are required, they are formed with gouges
and other inftruments.
It is on this plafter, thus coloured like marble or
precious ftone, and which is to ferve as a ground to a
work, either of lapis, agate, alabafter, or the like,
that the defign to be reprefented is drawn; having
been firft pounced or calqued. To hollow or imprefs
the defign, they ufe the fame inftruments that fculptors
do ; the ground whereon they are to work not being
much lefs hard than the marble itfelf. The cavities
being thus made in the ground, are filled with the
fame gypfum boiled in glue, only differently colour¬
ed, and thus are the different colours of the original
reprefented. In order that the neceffary colours and
teints may be ready at hand, the quantities of the
gypfum are tempered with the feveral colours in pots.
After the defign has been thus filled and rendered vi¬
fible, by half-polifhing it with brick and foft ftone,
they go over it again," cutting fuch plates as are either
to be weaker or more (hadowed, and filling them with
gypfum ; which work- they repeat till all the colours
being added one after the other, reprefent the original
to the life. When the work is finiftied, they fcour it
with foft ftone, fand, and water; after that, with a pu-
mice-ftone ; and in the laft place polifli it with a wooden
mullet and emery. Laftly, they gave it a luflre, by
fmearing it over with oil, and rubbing it a long time
with the palm of the hand, which gives it a luftre no
ways inferior to that of natural marble.
5. In Clavigero’s hiftory of Mexico is deferibed a cu¬
rious kind of Mofaic-work made by the ancient Mexi¬
cans of the moft delicate and beautiful feathers of birds.
They raifed for this purpofe various fpecies of birds
of fine plumage with which that country abounds, not
only in the palaces of the king, where there were
all forts of animals, but likewife in private houfes ;
and at certain feafons they carried off their feathers
to make ufe of them on this kind of work, or to
fell them at market. They fet a high value on the
feathers of thofe wonderful little birds which they
call Huit%it%Uiny and the Spaniards Picqflorest on ac¬
count of the fmallnefs, the finenefs, and the various
colours of them. In thefe and other beautiful birds,
nature fupplied them with all the colours which art
can produce, and alfo fome which art cannot imitate.
At the undertaking of every Mofaic-work feveral ar-
tifts affembled : After having agreed upon a defign,
and taken their meafures and proportions, each artift
charged himfelf with the execution of a certain part
of the image, and exerted himfclf fo diligently in it
with fuch patience and application, that he frequently
fpent a whole day in adjlifting a feather ; firft trying
one, thea another, viewing it fomstimes one way, then
another.
Mafllc.
Plate cerxv.
OyffoTyb//**
y/l/JiAls
rerttJ.
/r/t/r.
fM/<tT7?a
\t.. c V 'S"
(<?//<
Cf/u//y/<r
M O S [35
TV'cfa’c, another, until he found one which gave his pSfrt that
Wofam- perfection propofed to be attained. When the
ltiae' , part which each artift undertook was done, they af-
fembled again to form the entire image from them.
If any part was accidentally the lead; deranged, it was
wrought again - until it was perfectly finiihed. They
kid hold of the feathers with fmall pincers, that they
might not do them the lealt injury, and pafted them
on the cloth with t%nuhtli, or fome other glutinous
matter; then they united all the parts upon.a little
table, or a plate of copper, and flattened them foftly
until they left the furface of the image fo equal and
fmooth that it appeared to be the work of a pencil..
Thefe were the images 'fo much celebrated by the
Spaniards and other European nations. Whoever be¬
held them was at a lofs whether he ought to have
praifed moft the life and beauty of the natural colours,
or the dexterity of the artifl: and the ingenious difpo-
fition of art. “ Thefe images (fays Acofla) are de-
fervedly admired; for it is wonderful how it was pof-
fible, with the feathers of birds, to execute works fo
fine and fo equal, that they appear the performance
of- the pencil; and what neither the pencil nor the
colours in painting can effeft, they have, when view¬
ed from a fide, an appearance fo beautiful, fo lively,
and animated, they give delight to the fight. Some
Indians, who are able artifts, copy whatever is paint¬
ed with a pencil fo perfectly with plumage, that they
rival the belt painters of Spain.” Thefe works of
feathers were even fo highly elleemed by the Mexicans
as to be valued more than gold. Cortes, Bernal Diaz,
Gomara, Torquemada, and all the other hiftorians
who faw them, were at a lofs for exprelfions fufficient
t-o praife their perfection. Several works of this kind,
our author fays, are ftill preferved in the mufeums of
Europe, and many in Mexico ; but few, he appre¬
hends, belong to the fixteenth century, and ftill few¬
er, if any, are of thofe made before the conquetl.
The Mofaic-works alfo which the Mexicans made of
broken fhells was extremely curious : this art is ftill
pra&ifed in Guatimala.
MOSAMBIQUE, a kingdom of Africa, lying
fouth of Quiloa, and taking its name from the chief
town, which is fituated on an illand, at the mouth ot
a river of the fame name, in 15 deg. S. Eat. The
ifland is 30 miles in circumference, and very populous,
though the air is faid to be very hot, and the foil in
general dry, fandy, and barren ; yet they have moil
of the tropical fruits, with black cattle, hogs, and
fheep. There is a kind of fowl here, both the feathers
and fleih of which are black, infomuch that, when they
are boiled, the broth looks like ink; and yet their
fieih is very delicate and good food. The town of
Mofambique is regularly fortified, and has a good har¬
bour, defended by a citadel, with fevcral churches and
monafteries. The Portuguefe (hipping to and from
India touch here for refreihments. As the ifland a-
boimds in cattle, the Portuguefe flaughter and fait up
a great deal of beef, which they afterwards fend to
the Brazils, or fell to the European {hipping. They
alfo barter European goods with the natives for gold,
elephants teeth, and Haves. There is another town,
called Mon gale, fituated alfo on an ifland, and garri¬
soned by the Portuguefe, being their chief magazine
for European goods. The gold they receive from
9 ] M O S
the natives is found near the furface of the earth, or in MScM n,
the fands of rivers; no gold mines, or at ieaft very M-ddrus.^
few, being at prefent wrought in Africa. ^
MOSCHION, a name common to four different
writers, whofe compofitions, charafter, and native
place, are unknown. Some fragments of their writings
reftiain, fome few verfes, and a treatife De mulierum aj-
feSibus.
MOSCHUS, a Grecian poet of antiquity, ufually
coupled with Bion ; and they were both of them co.
temporaries with Theocritus. In the time of the latter
Grecians, all the ancient Idylliums were colle<£Ied
and attributed to Theocritus; but the claims of Mof-
chus and Bion have been admitied to fome few little
pieces; and this is fufficient to make us inquifitive
about their charadfers and ftory : jet all that can be
known about them muft be colle&ed from their own
remains. Mofchus, by compofing his delicate elegy
on Bion, has given the bed memorials of Bion’s life.
See Bion. Mofchus and Theocritus have by fome
critics been fuppofed the fame perfon ; but there are
irrefragable evidences againft it: others will have him
as well as Bion to have lived later than Theocritus,
upon the authority of Suidas: while others again fup-
pofe him to have been the fcholar of Bion, and pro¬
bably his fucceffor in governing the poetic fchool ;
which, from the elegy of Mofchus, does not feeih un¬
likely. Their remains are to be found in all the edi¬
tions of the Paste Minores.
MOSCHUS, in zoology; a genus of quadrupeds Plate
of the order of pecora, having no horns. There are CCCXVo
eight fmall cutting teeth in the lower jaw ; in the up¬
per, no cutting or fore teeth ; but two long talks, one
on each fide, projettingout of the mouth.
1. The mofehiferus, or Thibet mufk, has a bag or
tumour on the belly near the navel, and a very fhort
rail almoft hid in the fur. The length of the male is
about three feet three inches from the nofe to the ori¬
gin of the tail, and about two feet three inches high
at the fhoulder; the female is lefs than the male, has
a fharper nofe, has no tuflcs nor mufk-bag, and i pro¬
vided with two teats. The head refembles that or the
roe : the fur is coarfe like that of the animals of the
deer kind ; but fofter, very fmooth, eredi, plentiful,
thick, and long: the colour varies according to the
age of the animal and time of the year ; but is chiefly
black! fh brown on the upper, and hoary, feldom white,
on the under parts of the body; the hoofs are long,
black, and much divided, and the fpurious hoofs of
the fore feet are very long : the ferotum is of a bright
red colour, and the penis very fmall, It inhabits the
Afiatic Alps, efpecially the liigheft rocky mountains
from the Altaic chain to that which divides Thibet
from India; likewife in China and Tonquin, and in
eaftern Siberia about lake Baikal and the rivers Jenifea
and Argun. It avoids mankind, dwelling folitarily in
the molt precipitous places of the mountains, among .
rocks in the fmall narrow valleys furrounded by thefe
fnowy hills, and the pine foveits which grow in their
interftices. It is a very gentle and timid animal, ex¬
cept in rutting time, when the males fight violently
with their tuiks for the females ; it -is exceedingly ac¬
tive in leaping, running, climbing, and fwimming,
and is very difficultly tamed; the fleflr is eatable, and
that of the younger-animals is reckoned delicate. The
3 ® 3 chace
M O S r 380 ] M o s
chace of them is a trade equally difficult and hazard-
1 ous; if purfued, they feek the higheft tops of the
fnowy pea}cs, inacceffible to men or dogs. They take
amazing leaps over the tremendous chafms of their alps,
or from rock to rock ; treading fo light on the fnow
with their true and ialfe hoofs extended, as fcarcely
to leave a mark; while therlogs which purfue them fink
in, and are forced to defift from the chafe. They are
fo fond of liberty as never to be kept alive in captivi¬
ty. They are moilly taken in fnares, or Ihot by crofs-
bows placed in their tracks, with a tiring from the
trigger for them to tread on, and difcharge. The Tun-
gufi (hoot them with bows and arrows. The ikins are
ufed for bonnets and winter drdfes. The Ruffians of¬
ten fcrape off the hair, and have a way of preparing
them .for fummer ( loathing, to as to become as foft
and Ihining as iilk. The noted drug the mulk is pro¬
duced from the male. The bag or follicle that con¬
tains it is fituated near the prepuce ; and is of a fome -
what oval figure, flat on one fide and rounded on the
other, having a fmall open orifice. In young animals
this bag is empty ; but in adults it is filled with a clot¬
ted, oily, friable matter, of a dark brown colour : this
is the true mulk, of which each bag contains from a
dram and a half to two drams. The belt comes from
Thibet; that which is produced in Siberia having
fomewbat of the flavour of caftor.
2. The Americanus, or Brafilian mufk, of a reddilh
brown colour, with a black muzzle and white throat,
is fcarcely fo large as a roc-buck. The fur is foft and
ffiort; the colour of the head and upper part of tlie
neck is dark brown ; the lower part of the neck and
throat are white; the body and limbs are reddilh
brown ; the hind legs are longer than the fore. This
animal, which inhabits Guiana and Braiil, is exceed¬
ingly timid, adtive, and fwilt. Numbers are frequent¬
ly feen fwimming the rivers, and at that time are ea-
fily taken. The Indians hunt them, and their flelh is
eiteemed very delicate. The French of Guiana call
them b'iches or does, became, notwithftanding their
likenefs to deer, both fexes are without horns. Gme-
iin fufpects this animal may only be a lawn of the
American roe.
3. The Indicus, or Indian mulk, has Ihort hair of a
tawney colour on the upper and whitilh on the under
parts of the body ; the tail is ffiort, and the feet have
fpurious hoofs. It inhabits India, and is much of the
fame fize with the mofchiferus, but the tail is longer
and more perceptible ; the legs are very flender ; and
the head refembles that of a horfe, with eredl oblong
ears.
4. The pigmaeus, or pigmy mulk, is marked as to
colour like the former, but has no fpurious hoofs 
The body and head meafure only nine inches and a
half in length ; the tail is about an inch long ; and the
legs are fmaller than a man’s finger. It inhabits the
Tall Indies and feveral of the Indian illands. It is
called kant-chel by the Malayes, and pod-jang by the
inhabitants of Java. Thu natives catch them in great
numbers, carry them in cages to market, and fell
them for 2^ d. a piece.
5. The meminna, or Ceylon chevrotin, is in length
17 inches from the nofe to the rump, and of a cinere¬
ous olive colour; the throat, brealt, and belly, are
white j the fides and haunches fpotted, and barred,
tranfverfely with white ; and the ears are large and Mofeo
open : the tail is very Ihort; and the feet have no — "V
fpurious hoofs. It inhabits Ceylon and Java.
6. The javaniciu, or Javan mulk, is of a ferruginous
colour on the upper parts of the body, and white all
along the under; the tail is long and hairy, white be¬
low and at the tip ; its legs are fimilar to thofe of the
pigmy muik, and furniffied with very fmall fpurious
hoofs. This and the meminna feem only varieties of
the pigmaeus.
MOSCOW, the chief province of the empire of
Ruffia, deriving its name from the river Mufcova, or
Molkva, on which the capital is fituated. It was from
this duchy-that the czars of old took the title of r/wtex
of Mufcovy. The province is bounded on the north
by the duchies of Twere, Roftow, Sufdal, and Wo-
lodimer ; on the fouth by Rezan, from which it isTe-
parated by the river Occa ; on the call by the princi¬
pality of Cachine, and the fame river Occa parting it
from Nifi novogorod ; and on the welt by the duchies
of Rzeva, Biela, and Su.olenlko. It extends about 2co
miles in length, and about 100 in breadth ; and is
watered by the Molka, Occa, and Clefrna, which fall
into the Wolga : nevertheiefs, the foil is not very fer¬
tile. The air, however, though (harp, is falubnous
and this confideration, with the advantage of its be¬
ing fituated in the midft of the belt provinces in the
empire, induced the czars to make it their chief reii-
dence. In the weflern part of Mofcow is a large fo-
reil, from whence flows the celebrated, river Nieper, or
Boryflhenes, which, traverfing the duchy of Smolen-
11(0, winds in a ferpentine courle to Ukraine, Lithua¬
nia, and Poland.
Moscow, the capital of the above province, and.
till the beginning of the prefent century the metropo¬
lis of all Ruffia, is lituated in a fpacious plain on the
banks of the river Mulkova. The Ruffian antiquaries
differ confiderably in their opinions ooncerning the
firil foundation of Mofcow f the following relation,
Mr Coxe fays, is generally efteemed by the bell authors
the mofl^ probable account.
Kiof was the metropolis, when George fon of Vla¬
dimir Monomaka afeended in 1154 the Ruffian throne..
That monarch, being infulted in a progrefs through
his dominions by a rich and powerful nobleman named
Stephen Kutchko, put him to death, and confifcated.
his domains, which confifted of the lands now occu¬
pied by the city of Mofcow and the adjacent terri¬
tory. Pleafed with the fit nation of the ground lying
at the conflux of the Motkva and Neglina, he laid the
foundation of a new town, which he called Motkva.
from the river of that name. Upon the demife of
George, the new town was not neglefted by his fon
Andrew, who transferred the feat of empire from
Kiof to Vladimir; but it fell into fuch decay under,
his immediate fucceffors, that when Daniel, fon of
Alexander Nevlki, received, in the diviiion of the em¬
pire, the duchy of Mufcovy as his portion, and fixed
his refidence upon the conflux of the Molkva and Ne¬
glina, he may be faid to have new founded the town.
The fpot now occupied by the Kremlin was at that
time overfpread with a thick wood and a morals, in
the midlt whereof was a fmall itlan<Lcentaining a Angle
wooden hut. Upon this part Daniel contlrudled
churches and raonaiteries, and various buildings, and
cuclofed
M OS C 381 ] MO S
^ofeow. endofed It witfi wooden fortifications: be firfl: affumed
t——v— the title of duke of Mofcow ; and was fo attached to
this fituation, that when in 1304 he fuccceded his
brother Andrew Alexandrovich in the gr£at duchy of
Vladimir, he did not remove his court to Vladimir,
but continued his refidence at Mofcow, which then be¬
came the capitarof the Ruffian dominions. His fuc-
cefibrs followed his example; among whom his fon
Ivan confiderably enlarged the new metropolis, and in
1367 his grandfon Demetrius Ivanovitch Donlki fur-
rounded the Kremlin with a brick wall. Thefe new
fortifications, however, were not ftrong enough to
prevent Tamerlans in 1382 from taking the town, af¬
ter a fhort fifge. Being foon evacuated by that de-
fultory conqueror, it again came into the poffeffion of
the Ruffians; b*t was frequently invaded and occu¬
pied by the Tartars, who in the 14th and 15th cen¬
turies over-ran the greateft part of Ruffia, and who
even maintained a garrifon in Mofcow until they were
finally expelled by Ivan Vaffilievitch I. Do him Mof¬
cow is indebted for its principal fplendor, and under
him it, became the principal and moft coniiderable city
of the Ruffian empire.
Mofcow continued the metropolis of Ruffia until
the beginning of the prefent century, when, to the
great dififatisfadlion of the nobility, but with great
advantage probably to the ftate, the feat of empire
was transferred to Peterfburgh.
Notwithftanding the predile&ion wdiich Peter con¬
ceived for Peterfburgh, in which all the fucceeding
fovereigns excepting Peter H. have fixed their refi¬
dence, Mofcow, according to Mr Coxe, is flill the
moll populous city of the Ruffian empire. Here the
chief nobles who do not belong to the court of the
emprefs refide : they here fupport a larger number of
retainers ; they love to gratify their tafte for a ruder
and more expenfive magnificence in the ancient flyle
of feudal grandeur ; and are not, as at Peterfburgh,
eclipfed by the fuperior fplendor cf the coutt.
Mofcow is reprefented as the largeft town in Eu¬
rope ; its circumference within the rampart, which
enclofes the fuburbs, being exadfly 39 verfts or 26
miles; but it is built in fo draggling and disjointed a
manner, that its population in no degree correfponds
to its extent. Some Ruffian authors ftate its inhabi¬
tants at 500,000 fouls, a number evidently exagge¬
rated. According to a late computation, which Mr
Goxe fays may be depended upon, Mofcow contains
within the ramparts 250,090 fouls, and in the adjacent,
villages 50,00a. The ftreets of Mofcow are in gene¬
ral exceedingly long and broad : fome of them are
paved ; others, particularly thofe in the fuburbs, arc
formed with trunks of trees, or are boarded with
planks like the floor ,of a room ; wretched hovels are
blended with large palaces; cottages of one ftory
Rand next to the rooft fuperb and ftately manfions.
Many brick ftru&ures are covered with wooden tops ;
fome of the wooden houfes are painted ; others have
iron doors and roofs. Numerous churches prefent
themfelves in every quarter, built in a peculiar ityle of
archite&ure ; fome with domes of copper, others of
tin, gilt or painted green, and many roofed with wood.
In a word, fome parts of this vaft city have the look
of a fequeftered defart, other quarters of a populous
town; fome of a contemptible vdlage, others of a great Mofcow,
capital. ——y—*
Mofcow may be confidered as a town built upon the
Afiatic model, but gradually becoming more and more
European, and exhibiting in its prefent ftate a motley
mixture of difcordant architecture. It is diftributed
into the following divifions. i. The Kremlin. This
Hands in the central and higheft part of the city ; is of
a triangular form, and about two miles in circumfe¬
rence ; and is furrounded by high walls of Hone and
brick, which were conftruAed in the year 1491, un¬
der the reign of Ivan Vaffilievitch I. It contains the
ancient palace- of the czars, feveral churches, two
convents, the patriarchal palace, the arfenal now in
ruins, and one private houle, which belonged to Boris
Godunof before he was raifed to the throne. 2 Khi-
taigorod, or the Chinefe town, is inclofed on one fide
by that wall of the Kremlin which runs from the
Molkva to the Neglina ; and on the other fide by a
brick wall of inferior height. It is much larger than
the Kremlin, and contains the univerfity, the printing-
houfe, and many other public buildings, and all the
tradefmens (hops. The edifices are moftly ftuccoed or
white-wafhed, and it has the only ftreet in Mol'cow in
which the houfes ftand clofe to one another without
any intervals between them. 3. The Bielgorod, or
White Town, which runs quite round the two pre¬
ceding divifions, is fuppofed to derive its name fiotn,
a white wall with which it was formerly enclofed, and
of which fome remains are ftill to be feen. 4. Sem-
lainogorod, which environs all the three other quar¬
ters, takes its denomination from a circular rampart of
earth with which it is encompafled. Thefe two laft
mentioned divifions exhibit a grotefque groups of
churches, convents, palaces, brick and wooden
houfes, and mean hovels, in no degree fuperior to
peafants cottages. 5. The Sloboda, or fuburbs, form
a vaft exterior circle round'all the parts already de-
fcribed, and are invefted with a low rampart and ditch.
Thefe fuburbs contain, befide buildings of all kinds
and denominations, corn-fields, much open pafture,
-and fome fmall lakes, which give rife to the Neglina.
The river Mrjkva^ from which the city takes its name,
flows through it in a winding channelbut, excepting
in fpring, is only navigable for rafts. It receives the
Yaufa in the Semlainogorod, and the Neglina at the
weftern extremity of the Kremlin ; the beds of both
thefe laft-mentioned rivulets-are in fummer little better
than dry channels.
The places of divine worfhip at Mofcow are ex¬
ceedingly numerous : including chapels* they amount
to above 1000: there are 484 public churches, of
which 199 are of brick, and the others of wood ; the
former are commonly ftuccoed or white-wafhed, the
latter painted of a red colour. The moft ancient
churches of Mofcow are generally fquare buildings,
with a cupola and four fmall domes, fome whereof are
of copper or iron gilt; others of tin, either plain or
painted green. Thefe cupqlas.and domes are for the
moft part ornamented with croffes entwined with thin
chains or wires. The church of the Holy Trinity,
fometimes called the church of Jerufalem, which ftanda
in the Khitaigorod, clofe to the gate leading into the
Kremlin, has a kind of high fteeple and nine or ten
7 domes i :
M O S r 3^ ] M O S
Tvl 'fcow. Hornes : it was built in the reign of Ivan Vaflilie-
viteh II. The infide of the churches is moaly com-
pofed of three parts: that called by the Greeks
by the Ruflians trapeza'; the body ; and the fan&uary
or flirine. Over the door of each church is the por¬
trait of the faint to whom it is dedicated, to which
the common people pay their homage as they pafs
along by taking off their hats, croffing themfeives,
and occafionally touching the ground with their heads.
The bells, which form no inconfiderable part of pub¬
lic worfhip in this country, as the length or fhortnefs
of their peals afcertains the greater or leffer fanftity of
the day, are hung in belfreys detached from the
church : they do not fwing like our bells; but are fix¬
ed immoveably to the beams, and are* rung by a rope
tied to the clapper and pulled fideways. Some of thefe
bells are of a ftupendous fize; one in the tower of St
Ivan's church weighs 3551 Ruffian poods, or 127,836
Englifh pounds. It has always been efteemed a meri¬
torious aft of religion to prefent a church with bells;
and the piety of the donor has been meafured by their
magnitude. According to this mode of dlimation,
Boris Godunof,* who gave a bell of 288,000 pounds
to the cathedral of Mofcow,_was the moft pious fo-
vereign of Ruffia, until he was furpafled by the emprefs
Anne, at whofe expence a bell was caft weighing
43 2,000 pounds, and which exceeded in bignefs every
bell in the known world. The height of this enormous
bell is 19 feet, its circumference at the bottom 21
yards 11 inches; itsgreatefl: thicknefs 23 inches. The
beam to which this vail machine was faftened being
accidentally burnt, the bell fell down, and a fragment
-was broken off towards the bottom, which left an
aperture large enough to admit two perfons a-breaft
without Hooping.
The palace, inhabited by the ancient czars, Hands at
the extremity of the Kremlin. Part of this palace is
old, and remains in the fame Hate in which it was
built under Ivan Vaflilievitch I. The remainder has
been fuccelfively added at difierent intervals without
any plan, and in various llyles of architefture, which
has produced a motley pile of building, remarkable
for nothing but the incongruity of the feveral firuc-
tures. The top is thickly fet, with numerous little
gilded fpires and globes; and a large portion of the
front is decorated with the arms of all the provinces
which compofe the Ruffian empire. The apartments
are in general exceedingly fmall, excepting one fingle
room called the council-chamber, in which the ancient
czars ufed to give audience to foreign ambaffadors, and
which has been repeatedly defcribed by feveral Englilh
travellers who vifited Mofcow before the Imperial refi-
dence was transferred to Peterlburgh. The room is
large and vaulted, and has in the centre an enormous
pillar of Hone which fupports the deling. In this pa¬
lace Peter the Great came into the world, in the year
1672. In that part called the treafury are repofited
the crown, jewels, and royal robes, ufed at the coro¬
nation of the fovereign, befides feveral curiofities rela¬
tive to the hifiory of the country. Of the great num¬
ber of churches contained in this city, two in parti¬
cular, namely, that of St Michael and that of the
Afiumption of the Virgin Mary, are remarkable; the
&ne for being the place where the fovereigns of Ruffia
«’cre formerly interred, and the other where they are
crowned. Thefa edifices, which are fituated in'the Mofcow.
Kremlin, are both in the fame fiyle of afehitefture ; •—y—
and their exterior form, though modelled according to
the ancient ftyle of the country, is not abfolutely me*
legant. In thevcathedral of St Michael, which con¬
tains the tombs of the Ruffian fovereigns, the bo¬
dies are not, as with us, depofited in vaults, or be¬
neath the pavement, but are entombed in raifed fe-
pufehres, moflly of brick, in the ihape of a coffin,
and about two feet in height. When Mr Coxe vifited
the cathedral, thenroft ancient were covered with palls
of red cloth, others of red velvet, and that of Pe¬
ter II. with gold tiffue, bordere l with filver fringe
and ermine, Each tomb has at its lower extremity a
fmall filver plate, upon which is engraved the name-of
the deceafed fovereign, and the asra'fof his death.
The cathedral of theaffumption of the Virgin Mary,
which has long been appropriated to the coronation
of the Ruffian fovet’eigns, is the moH fplendid and
magnificent in Mofcow. The fereen is in many parts
covered with plates of folid filver and gold richly
worked. From the centre of the roof hangs an
enormous chandelier of maffy filver, weighing 2943
pounds: it was made inEngland,and was a prefent fremn
Morofof, prime minilter and favourite of Alexey
Michaelovitch. The facred utenfils and epifcopal velt-
ments are extraordinarily rich, but the tafte of the
workmanfhip is in general rude, and by ntf'means equal
to the materials. Many of the paintings which cover
the infide walls are of a Colofial fize: fome are very
ancient, and were executed fo early as in the latter
end of the 15th century. It contains, amongif the
reft, a head of the virgin, fuppofed to have been de¬
lineated by St Luke, and greatly celebrated in this
country for its fanftity and the power of working mi¬
racles. Its face is almoll black; its head is ornament¬
ed with a glory of precious Hones, and its hands
and body are gilded, which gives it a moil gro-
tefque appearance. It is placed in the fkreen, and
enclofed within a large filver covering, which is only
taken off on great fefiivals, or for the curiolity of
Hrangers. In this cathedral are depofited the remains
of the Ruffian patriarchs.
The place in the Khitaigorod, where the public
archives are depofited, is a ilrong brick building, con¬
taining feveral vaulted apartments with iron floors.
Thefe archives, confifting of a numerous colleftion of
Hate-papers, were crowded into boxes, and thrown
afide like common lumber, until the prefent emprefs
ordered them to be reviled and arranged. In con¬
formity to this mandate, Mr Muller has difpofed them
in chronological order with fuch perfeft regularity,
that any fingle document may be infpefted with little
trouble. They are enclofed in feparate cabinets with
gl^fs doors : thofe relative to Ruffia are all claffed ac¬
cording to the feveral provinces which they concern ;
and over each cabinet is inferibed the name of the
province to which it is appropriated. In the fame
manner the manuferipts relative to foreign kingdoms
are placed in feparate divifions under the refpeftive
titles of Poland, Sweden, England, France, Germany,
&c.
The univerfity of Mofcow, alfo fituated in the Khitai¬
gorod, was founded, at the inflance of Count Shuvalof,
by the emprefs Elizabeth, for 600 iludents; who are
clothed.
M O S r 38? 1 M O s
Mofcaw. clothed, boarded, aud inftrutled, at the expence of jefty propofed to rcfide in the raanfion of prince Ga-
  the crown. Befides this inftitutton^ there are two litxin, which is efteemed the completed edifice in this
gytnnafia or feminaries for the education of youth, dity; but as it was not fufficiently fpacious for her
endowed alfo by Elizabeth; in which ate taught, by reception, a temporary addition of wood, larger than
twenty-three philofophers, divinity, dallies, philofo- the original houfe, and containing a magnificent fuite
phy, the Greek, Latin, Ruffian, German, French, of apartments, was begun and finilhed within the fpace
Italian, and Tartar languages ; hiftory, geography, of fix weeks. This meteor-like fabric was fo hand-
mathematics, archite&ure, fortification, artillery, al- fome and commodious, that the materials which were
gebra, drawing and painting, mufic, fencing, dancing, taken down at her majefty’s departure, were to be re¬
reading and writing. . conllruded as a kind of imperial villa upon an emi-
Mofcow is' the centre of the inland commerce of nence near the city. Mr Coxe mentions an admirable
Ruffia, and particularly connefts the trade between police in this city for preventing riots, or for Hopping
Europe and Siberia. The only navigation to this the concourfe of people in cafe of fires, which are
city is formed by the Moflcva, which falling into very frequent and violent in thofe parts, where the
the Occa near Columna, communicates by means ef houfes are moftly of wood, and the ftreets are laid with
that river with the Volga. But as the Molkva is timber. At the entrance of each ftreet there is a
only navigable in fpring upon the melting of the chevaux de frize gate, one end thereof turns upon a
fnows, the principal merchandrfe is conveyed to and pivot, .and the other rolls upon a wheel; near it is a
from Mofcow upon fledges in winter. As to the re- centry-box in which a man is occafionally ftationed.-
j ail commerce here, the whole of it is carried on in the In times of riot or fire the centinal flints the gate, and-
Khitaigorod ; where, according to a cultom common all paffage is immediately Hopped,
in Ruffia, as well as in moH kingdoms of the Ealt, Among the public inflitutions of Mofcow, the moll
all the (hops are collefted together in one fpot. The remarkable is the Foundling Hofpital, endowed in
place is like a kind of fair, confiding of many rows 1764 by the prefent emprels, and fupported by vo-
of low brick buildings ; the interval between them luntary contributions and legacies, and other chari-
refembling alleys. Thefe {hops or booths occupy a table gifts. In order to encourage donations, her
confiderable' fpace; they d# not, as with us, make majefly grants to all benefadois fome valuable privi-
part of the houfes inhabited by the tradefmen, but leges, and a certain degree of rank in proportion to
are quite detached from their dwellings, which for the the extent of their liberality. Among the principal
moH part are at fome diHance in another quarter of contributors muH be mentioned a private merchant
the town. The tradefman comes to his (hop in the named Dimidof, a perfon of great wealth, who has
morning, remains there all day, and returns home to expended in favour of this charity above L. ioo,oco„
his family in the afternoon. Every trade has its fe- The hofpital, which is fituated in a very airy part of
pafate department; and they who fell the fame goods the town upon a gentle afeent near the river Molkva,
have booths adjoining to each other. Furs and ikins is an immenfe pile of building of a quadrangular fltape,
form the moH confiderable article of commerce in Mof- part of which was only finiffied when Mr Coxe (whofe
cow; and the fhops which vend thofe commodities oc- account we are tranferibing) was at Mofcow. It con-
cupy feveral Hreets. tained, at that time, 3000 foundlings ; and, when the
Among the curiofities of Mofcow, the market for whole is completed, will receive 8000. The children
the fale of houfes is not the leafi remark-able. It is are brought to the porter’s lodge, and admitted with¬
held in a large open fpace in one of the fuburbs; and out any recommendation^ The rooms are lofty and
exhibits a great variety of ready-made hbufes, thickly large; the dormitories, which are feparate from the
ftrewed upon the ground. The purchafer who wants work rooms, are very airy, and the beds are not
a dwelling, repairs to this fpot, mentions the number crowded : each foundling, even each infant, has a fe-
of rooms he*"requires, examines the different timbers, parate bed; the bedfieads are of iron ; the ffieets are
which are regularly numbered, and bargains for that changed every week, and the linen three times a-week,
which fuits him. The houfe is fometimes paid for Through the whole rooms the greateH neatnefs pre-
on the fpot, and taken away by the purchafer; or vails; even the nurferics being uncommonly clean, and:
fometimes the vender contrafts to tranfport and ereft without any unwholefome' fmells. No cradles are
it upon the place where it is defigned to Hand. It allowed, and rocking is particularly forbidden. The
may appear incredible to affert, that a dwelling may infants are not fwaddled according to the cuftom of
be thus bought, removed, raifed, and inhabited, with- the country, but loofely dreffed.—The foundlings are-
in the fpace of a week ; but we Hiall conceive it prac- divided into feparate claffes* according to their re- -
ticable by confidering that thefe ready-made houfes fpeftive ages. The-children remain two years in the-
are in general merely collediions of trunks of trees nurfery, when they are admitted into the lowefl clafs;
tenanted and mortoifed at each, extremity into one the boys and girls continue together until they are
another, fo that nothing more is required than the feven years, of age, at which time they are feparated.
labour of tranfporting and adjulting them. But this They all learn to read, write, and caH accounts. The
fummary mode of building is not always peculiar to boys are taught to knit; they occafionally card hemp,
the meaner hovels; as wooden ftru&ures of very large flax, and wool, and work in the different manufac-
dimenfions and handfome appearance are occafionally tures. The girls learn to knit, net, and all kinds of-
formed in Ruffia-with an expedition almoH incon- needle-work; theyfpinandweave.lace;.theyareem-
ceivable to the inhabitants of other countries. Are- ployed in cookery, baking, and houfe-work of alb
markable inHance of this difpatch was difplayed the forts. At the age of 14 the foundlings enter into the
laft fame the _emprefs came to Mofcow. Her ma» firft clafs; when, they have the liberty of chooficg-
Mofe
any
M O S
F 3^4 1
M O S
'guy'particular branch of trade 5 and for tin's ptirpofe mences at the fortieth year of Mofes’s life. He then
, ’~c'' there are different fpecies of manufadtiires eftahliflied left the court of Pharaoh, and went to vifit his coun- ’
in the hofpital, of which the principal are embroidery, trymen the Hebrews, who groaned under the ill-uiage
filk dockings, ribbands, lace, gloves, buttons, and and oppreffion of their unfeeling mailers. Having
cabinet work. A feparate room is appropriated to perceived an Egyptian fiiiiting an Hebrew, he flew
each trade. Some boys and girls are inftru&ed in the Egyptian, and buried him in the fand. But he
the French and German languages, and a few boys was obliged, in confequence of this murder, to fly into
in the Latin tongue; others learn mufic, drawing, the land of Midian, where he married Zipporah, dangh-
and dancing. About the age of 20, the foundlings ter of the prieft Jethro, by whom he had two fons,.
receive a fum of money, and feveral-other advantages, Gerfhom and Eliezar. Here he lived 40 years ; du-
which enable them to follow their trade in any part ring which time his employment was to tend the
of the empire ; a very confiderable privilege in Ruf- flocks of his father-in-law. _ Having one day led his
fia, where the peafants are flaves, and cannot leave flock towards-Mount Horeb, God appeared £6'him
their village without the permiflion of their mafter in the midlt of a bulb which burned with fire but was
The girls and boys eat feparately. The dining rooms, not con-fumed, and commanded him to go and deliver
^ which are upon the ground-floor, are large and vault- his brethren from their bondagei Mofes at firft re¬
ed, and diftimft from their work-rooms The firlt fufed to go; but was at length prevailed on by two mi-
clafs fit at table ; the reft ftand : the little children racles which the Almighty wrought for his convic--
are attended by fervants ; but thofe of the firft or fe- lion. Upon his return to Egypt, he, together with
cond clafs alternately wait upon each other. Their his brother Aaron, went to the court of Pharaoh, and
vidtuals are of the moft wholefome and nouri<hing kinds, told him that God commanded him to let theHe-
Each foundling hasa napkin,pewter plate,a knife,fork, brews go to offer facrifices in the defert of Arabia,
and fpoon: the napkin and table-cloth are clean three But the impious monarch difregarded this command,
times in the week. They rife at fix, dine at eleven, and caufed the labour of the Ifraelites to be doubled*
and fup at fix. The little children have bread at feven The meffengers of the Almighty again returned to
and at four. When they are not employed in their the king, and wrought a miracle in his fight, that they
neceflary occupations, the utmoft freedom is allowed, might move his heart, and induce him to let the people
and they are encouraged to be as much in the air as depart. Aaron having caft down his miraculous rod,
poflible. it was immediately converted into a ferpent: but the
MOSELLE, a river of Germany, which rifes in fame thing being performed by the magicians, the
the mountains of Vauge in Lorrain, and, running thro’ king’s heart was hardened more and more; and his
that duchy and the eleftorate pf Triers, falls into the obltinacy at laft drew down the judgments of the Al-
Rhine at Coblentz. mighty on his kingdom, which was affli&ed with ten
MOSES, the fon of Amram and Jochebed, was dreadful plagues. The firft was the changing of the
bora in the year 1571 before Chrift. Pharaoh king waters of the Nile and of all the rivers into blood, fo
of Egypt, perceiving that the Hebrews were become that the Egyptians.diei of thirft. In confequence of
a formidable nation, iffued forth an edift commanding the fecond plague, the land was covered with innume-
all the male children to be put to death. Jochebed rable fwarms of frogs, which entered even into Pha-
the mother of Mofes, having, to avoid this cruel edict, raoh’s palace. By the third plague, the dull was con-
concealed her fon for three months, at length made an verted into lice, which cruelly tormented both man and
ark or bafleet ofbulrufhes, daubed it with pitch, laid beaft. The fourth plague was a multitude of dellruCtive
the child in it, and expofed him on the banks of the flies which fpread throughout Egypt, and infefted the
Nile. Thermuthis the king’s daughter, who hap¬
pened to be walking by the river’s fide, perceived the
floating cradle, commanded it to be brought to her,
and, ftruck with the beauty of the child, determined
to preferve his life. In three years afterwards the
princefs adopted him for her own fon, called his name
Mofes, and caufed him be diligently inftru&ed in all
the learning of the Egyptians. But his father and
mother, to whom he was reftored by a fortunate acci-
’dent, were at ftill greater pains to teach him the hi-
ftory and religion of his fathers. Many things are
related byhiftorians concerning the firft period of Mo-
fes’s life, which are not to be found in the Old Te-
ftament. According to Jofephus and Eufebius, he
made war on the Ethiopians, and completely defeated
them. They add, that the city Saba, in which the
enemy had been forced to take refuge, was betrayed
into his hands by the king’s daughter, who became
whole country. The fifth was a hidden peftilence,
which deftroyed all the cattle of the Egyptians, with¬
out injuring thofe of the Ifraelites. The fixth pro¬
duced numberlefs ulcers and fiery biles upon man and
upon beaft. The feventh was a dreadful itorm of hail,
accompanied with'thunder and tightning, which de¬
ftroyed every tiding that was in the field, whether
man or beaft, and fpared only the land of Gofhen,
where the children of Ifrael dwelt. By the eighth
plague fwarms of locufts were brought into the coun¬
try, which devoured every green herb, the fruit of the
trees and the produce of the harveft. By the ninth
plague thick darknefs covered all the land of Egypt,
except the dwellings of the children of Ifrael. The
tenth and laft plague was the death of the firft-born
in Eijypt, who were all in one night cut off by the
deftroying angel, from the firft-born of the king to
the firft-bom of the flaves and of the cattle. This
deeply enamoured of him, when flte beheld from the dreadful calamity moved the heart of the hardened
top of the walls his valorous exploits at the head of Pharaoh, and he at leni>th confenfed to allow the people
the Egyptian army. But as the truth of this expedi- of Ifrael to depart from his kingdom,
tion is more than doubtful, we fliall therefore confine Profane authors who have fpoken of Mofes, feem
•ourfelves to the narrative of facred writ, which com- to have been in part acquainted with thefe mighty
N° 230. - wonders.
M O S [ 385 I M .0 S
"wonders. That he performed miracles, muff: have been
allowed by many, by whom he was confidered as a
famous magician ; and he could fcarcdy appear in any
other light to men who did not acknowledge him for
the meflenger of the Almighty. Both Diodorus and
Herodotus mention the diftreffed ftate to which Egypt
was reduced by thefe terrible calamities. The He¬
brews, amounting to the number of 600,000 men,
without reckoning women and children, left Egypt on
the 15th day of the month Nifan, which, in memory
of this deliverance, was thenceforth reckoned the firff
month of their year. Scarcely had they reached the
Ihore of the Red Sea when Pharaoh with a powerful
army fet out in purfuit of them. On this occafion
Moles ftretched forth his rod upon the fea ; and the
waters thereof being divided, remained fufpended on
both fides till the Hebrews palled through dry-footed.
—The Egyptians determined to follow the fame
courfe ; but God caufed a violent wind to blow, which
brought back the waters to their bed, and the whole
army of Pharaoh perilhed in the waves.
After the miraculous palfage of the Red Sea, the
army proceeded towards Mount Sinai, and arrived
at Marah, where the waters were bitter ; but Mofes,
by cafting a tree into them, rendered them fit for
drinking- Their tenth encampment was at Rephi-
dim ; where Mofes drew water from the rock in Ho-
reb, by fmiting it with his rod. Here likewife A-
malek attacked Ifrael. While Jolhua fought againft
the Amalekites, Mofes ftood on the top of a hill, and
lifted up his hands ; in confequence of which the If-
raelites prevailed, and cut their enemies in pieces.
They at length arrived at the foot of Mount Sinai
6n the third day of the ninth month after their depar¬
ture from Egypt. Mofes having afcended feveral
times into the Mount, received the law from the hand
of God himfelf in the midft of thunders and light¬
nings, and concluded the famous covenant betwixt the
Lord and the children of Ifrael. When be defcended
from Sinai, he found that the people had fallen into
the idolatrous worlhip of the golden calf. The mef-
fenger of God, Ihocked at fuch ingratitude, broke in
pieces the tables of the law which he carried in his
hands, and put 23,000 of the tranfgreffors to the
fword. He afterwards reafcended into the mountain,
and there obtained new tables of ftone on which the
law was infcribed. When Mofes defcended, his face
fhone fo that the Ifraelites dared not to come nigh unto
him, and h^ was obliged to cover it with a veil. The
Ifraelites were here employed in conftructing the taber¬
nacle according to a pattern jlhown them by God. It
was erefted and confecrated at the foot of the Mount
Sinai on the firft day of the firft month of the fecond
year after their departure from Egypt; and it ferved
the Ifraelites inftead of a temple till the time of Solo¬
mon, who built a houfe for the God of his fathers after
a model fhown him by David.
Mefes having dedicated the tabernacle, he confecra¬
ted Aaron and his fons'to be its minifters, and appoint¬
ed the Levites to its fervice. He likewife gave various
commandments concerning the worlhip of God and
the political government of the Jews. This was a
theocracy in the full extent of the word. God him¬
felf governed them immediately by means of his fer-
Vol. XII. Part I.
vant Mofes, whom he had chofen to be the interpre¬
ter of his will to the people ; and he required all the
honours belonging to their king-to be paid unto himfelf.
He dwelt in his tabernacle, which was fituated in the
middle of the camp, like c»monarch in his palace. He
gave anfwers to thofe who confulted him, and himfelf
denounced punilhments againft the tranfgteflbrs of his
laws. This properly was the time of the theocracy,taken
in its full extent; for God was not only confidered as
the divinity who was the ohjedl of their religious
worlhip, but as the fovereign to whom the honours of
fupreme majefty were paid. The cafe was nearly the
fame under Jolhua; who, being filled with the fpirit
of Mofes, undertook nothing without confulting God.
Every meafure, both of the leader and of the people,
was regulated by the diredion of the Almighty, who
rewarded their fidelity and obedience by a feries of
miracles, vidories, and fucceffes. After Mofes had
regulated every thing regarding the civil adminiftra-
tion, and the marching of the troops, he led the Ifra-
elites to the confines of Canaan, to the foot of Mount
Nebo. Here the Lord commanded him to afcend
into the mountain ; whence he ftiowed him the pro-
mifed land, whereinto he was not permitted to enter.
He immediately after yielded up the ghoft, without
ficknefs or pain, in the 120th year of his age, and
145 x years before Jefus Chrift.
Mofes is inconteffably the author of the firft five
books of the Old Teftament, which go by the name
of the Pentateuch ; and which are acknowleged to be
infpired, by the Jews and by Chriftians of every per-
fuafion. Some, however, have denied that Mofes was
the author of thefe books ; and have founded their opi¬
nion on this, that he always fpeaks of himfelf in the
third perfon. But this manner of writing is by no
means peculiar to Mofes: it occurs alfo in feveral ancient
hiitorians; fuch as Xenophon,Ca2far,Jofephus, &c. who,
poffelfed of more modefty or good fenfe than fome mo-
dern hifforians, whofe egotifm is altogether difgufting,
have not like them left to pofterity a fpedtacle of ridicu¬
lous vanity and felf-conceit. After all, it is proper to ob-
ferve, that profane authors have related many falfehoods
and abfurdities concerning Mofes, and concerning the
origin and the religion of thejews,with which they were
but little acquainted. Plutarch, in his book concerning
Ifis and Ofiris, fays, that Judaeus and Hierofolymus
were brothers, and defcended from Typhon ; and that
the former gave his name to the country and its inha¬
bitants, and the latter to the capital city. Others fay
that they came from Mount Ida in Phrygia. Strabo
is the only author who fpeaks any thing like reafon and
truth concerning them; tho’ he too fays that they were
defcended from the Egyptians, and confiders Mofes
their legiflator as an Egyptian prieft. He acknow¬
ledges, however, that they were a people ihidtly juft
and fincerely religious. Other authors by whom they
are mentioned, feem not to have had the fmalleft ac¬
quaintance either with their laws or their worfhip.
They frequently confound them with the Chriftians*
as is the cafe with Juvenal, Tacitus, and Quintilian.
-MOSHEIM (John Laurence), an illuftrious Ger¬
man divine, was born in 1695, of a noble family,
which might feem to open to his ambition a fair path
to civil promotion j but his zeal for the interefts of
3> C religion,
Mole*,
Moiheiia.
M O S [3
Mofkito. religion, his thirft after knowledge, and particularly
his tafte for facred literature, induced him to confe-
crate his tr.lents to the fervice of the church. The
German univerfities loaded him with literary honours ;
the king of Denmark invited him to fettle at Copen¬
hagen ; the duke of Brunfwick called him thence to
Helmftadt, where he filled the academical chair of di¬
vinity ; was honoured with the charafter of ecclefia-
flical counfellor to the court; and prefided over the
feminaries of learning in the duchy of Wolfenbuttle
and the principality of Blackenburgh. When a de-
fign was formed of giving an uncommon degree of
luftre to the univerfity of Gottingen, by filling it with
men of the firft rank in letters, Dr Molheim was deem¬
ed worthy to appear at the head of it, in quality of
chancellor ; and here he died, univerfally lamented, in
1755. In depth of judgment, in extent of learning,
in purity of talle, in the powers of eloquence, and in
a laborious application to all the various branches of
erudition and philofophy, he had certainly very few
fuperiors. His Latin tranflation of Cudworth’s In¬
tellectual Syltem, enriched with large annotations,
difcovered a profound acquaintance with ancient learn¬
ing and philofophy. His illuftrations of the Scrip¬
tures, his labours in defence of Chrillianity, and the
light he call upon religion and philofophy, appear in
many volumes of facred and profane literature ; and
his Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, from the birth of Chrill to
the beginning of the prefent century, is unqueftion-
ably the bell that is extant. This work, written in
Latin, has been tranflated into Englilh, and accompa¬
nied with notes and chronological tables by Archi¬
bald Maclaine, D. D. and from this tranllator’s preface
to the fecond edition, 175 8, in 5 yols 8vo, this Ihort
account is taken.
MOSKITO-country, is fituated in North Ame¬
rica, between 85 and 88 degrees of well longitude,
and between 13 and 15 degrees of north latitude; ha¬
ving the north fea on the north and call, Nicaragua
on the fouth, and Honduras on the weft; and indeed
the Spaniards efteem it a part of the principality of
Honduras, though they have no colonies in the Mof¬
kito country. When the Spaniards firft invaded this
part of Mexico, they maftacred the greateft part of the
natives, which gave thofe that efeaped into the inac-
ceflible part of the country an infuperable averfion to
them ; and they have always appeared ready to join
any Europeans that come upon their coafts againft the
Spaniards, and particularly the Englilh, who fre¬
quently come hither; and the Molkito men being ex¬
cellent markfmen, the Englilh employ them in ftriking
the maratee filh, &c. and many of the Molkito In¬
dians come to Jamaica, and fail with the Englhh in
their voyages..
Thefe people are fo fituated between morafles and
inaccefiible mountains, and a coaft full of rocks and
Ihoals, that no attempts againft them by the Spa¬
niards, whom they mortally hate, could ever fucceed.
Neverthelefs, they are a mild inoffenfive people, of
great morality and virtue, and will never trull a man
who has qnce deceived them. They have fo great a
veneration towards the Englilh, that they have fpon-
taneoully put themfelves and their lands under the
proteftion and dominion of the crown of England.
86 1 M O S
This was firft. done when the duke of Albemarle was Mofque,
governor of Jamaica, and the king of the Molkitos re- Mofs.
ceived a commiffion from his grace, under the feal of —
that illand; fince which time they have not only been
Heady in their alliance with the Englilh, but warm in
their affeftions, and very ufeful to them on many oc-
cafions.
When their king dies, the male heir goes to Ja¬
maica, to certify that he is next in blood, and re¬
ceives a commiffion in form from the governor of Ja¬
maica to be king of the Molkitos, till which he is not
acknowledged as fuch by his countrymen.. So fond
are thefe people of every thing that is Englilh, that
the common people are proud of every Chriftian or
furname given them by our feamen, who honour their
chief men with the titles of fome of our nobility.
MOSQUE, a temple or place of religious worlhip
among the Mahometans.
All mofques are fquare buildings, generally con-
ftrudled of Hone. Before the chief gate there is a
fquare court paved with white marble ; and low gal¬
leries round it, whofe roof is fupported by marble pil¬
lars. In thefe galleries the Turks walh themfelves be¬
fore they go into the mofque. In each mofque there
is a great number of lamps ; and between thefe hang
many cryftal rings, oftriches eggs, and other curio-
fities, which, when the lamps are lighted, make a fine
Ihow. As it is not lawful to enter the mofque with
ftockings or fhoes on, the pavements are covered with
pieces of ftuff fewed together, each being wide enough
to hold a row of men kneeling, fitting, or proftrate.
The women are not allowed to enter the mofque, but
flay in the porches without. About every mofque
there are fix high towers, called minarets, each of
which has three little open galleries one above another:
thefe towers, as well as the mofques, are covered with
lead, and adorned with gilding and other ornaments;
and from thence, in Head of a bell, the people are call¬
ed to prayers by certain officers appointed for that
pnrpofe. Moft of the mofques have a kind of hofpital
belonging to them, in which travellers of what reli¬
gion foever are entertained three days. Each mofque
has alfo a place ^called tar be, which is the burytng-
place of its- founders ; within which is a tomb fix or
feven feet long, covered with green velvet or fattin ;
at the ends of which are two tapers, and round it fe-
veral feats for thofe who read the koran and pray for
the fouls of the deceafed.
MOSS (Dr Robert), dean of Ely, was eldeft fon
of Mr Robert Mofs, a gentleman in good circumftan-
ces ; and was born at Gillingham in Norfolk in 1666.
He was bred at Benet-college, Cambridge ; and acqui¬
red great reputation both as a difputant and a preach¬
er. He became preacher to the fociety of Gray’s-inn,
London, in 1698; and affiftant preacher to Dr Wake
at St James’s, Weftminfter, 1699. He was fworn
chaplain in three fucceeding reigns, to King William,.
Queen Anne, and George I. and being one of the
chaplains in waiting when Queen Anne vifited the uni¬
verfity of Cambridge, April 5. 1705, he was then
created D. D. In 1708 he was invited by the pa-
riihioners of St Lawrence Jewry, on the refignation
of dean Stanhope, to accept of their Tuefday ledlure,
which he held till 1727, and then refigned it on ac¬
count
M O S [ 387 ] M O S
count of his growing infirmities. In 1712, on the
death of Dr Roderick, he was nominated by the queen
to the deanry of Ely, which was the highelt, but not
the laft, promotion he obtained in the church ; for in
1714 he yras collated, by Robinfon bifhop of London,
to Glifton, a fmall reftory on the eaftern fide of Hert-
fordfiiire. The gout deprived him of the ufe of his
limbs for fome of the laft years of his life; and he died
March 26. 1729, in his 63d year; and was buried in
the prelbytery of his own cathedral, under a plain
ftone with a fimple infcription. His charadter may
be feen in the preface to the eight volumes of his
Sermons, which has ufually been attributed to Dr
Snape, the editor of the fermons; but the credit of it
has lately been tranferred to Dr Zachary Grey. Dean
Mofs is alfo fuppofed to have been the author of a
pamphlet printed in 1717, intitled, “ The report vin¬
dicated from mifreports: being a defence of my lords
the bilhops, as well as the clergy of the lower houfe of
convocation ; in a letter from a member of that houfe
to the prolocutor concerning their late confultations
about the biftiop of Bangor’s writings.” He wrote
alfo fome poems, both Latin and Englifh.
MOSS, or Mosses, in botany. See Mosci.
Moss on Trees, in gardening. The growth of
large quantities of mofs on any kind of tree is a di-
ftemper of very bad confequence to its increafe, 'and
much damages the fruit of the trees of our orchards.
The prefent remedy is the fcraping it off from the
body and large branches by means of a kind of wood¬
en knife that will not hurt the bark, or with a piece
of rough hair cloth, which does very well after a foak-
ing rain. But the moft effedtual cure is the taking
away the caufe. This is to be done by draining off
all the fuperfluous moifture from about the roots of
the trees, and may greatly be guarded againft in the
firft planting of the trees, by not fetting them too
deep.
If trees ftand too thick in a cold ground, they will
always be covered with mofs 5 and the beft way to
remedy the fault is to thin them. When the young
branches of trees are covered with a long and lhaggy
mofs, it will utterly ruin them ; and there is no way
to prevent it but to cut off the branches near the
trunk, and even to take off the head of the tree if ne-
ceffary ; for it will fprout again : and if the caufe be
in the mean time removed by thinning the plantation,
or draining the land and ftirring the ground well, the
young fhoots will continue clear after this.
If the trees are covered with mofs in confeq'uence
of the ground’s being too dry, as this will happen from
either extreme in the foil, then the proper remedy is
the laying mud from the bottom of a pond or river
pretty thick about the root, opening the ground to
fome diftance and depth to let it in; this will not only
cool it, and prevent its giving growth to any great
quantity of mofs, but it will alfo prevent the other
great .mifchief which fruit-trees are liable to in' dry
grounds, which is the falling off of the fruit too
early.
The moffes which cover the trunks of trees, as they
always are frdheft and moft vigorous on the fide which
points to the north, if only produced on that, ferve to
preferve the trunk of the tree from the feverity of the
north-winds, and direct the traveller in his way, by al¬
ways plainly pointing out that part of the compafs.
MOSS is alfo a name given by fome to the boggy
ground in many parts of England, otheuwife called a
fen and log.
In many of thefe grounds, as well in England and
Ireland as .in other parts of the world, there are found
vaft numbers of trees Handing with their flumps erecft,
and their roots piercing th£ ground in a natural po-
fture as when growing. Many of thofe trees are bro¬
ken or cut off near the roots, and lie along, and this
ufually In a north-eaft direftion. People who have
been willing to account for this, have ufually refolved
it into the effeft of the deluge in the days of Noah ;
but this is a v^ry wild conje&ure, and is proved falfe
by many unanfwerable argumentsr The waters of this
deluge might indeed have wafiied together a great
number of trees, and buried them under > loads of
earth ; but then they would have lain irregularly and
at random; whereas they all lie lengthwife from foutli-
weft to north-eaft, and the roots all ftand in their na¬
tural perpendicular pofture, as clofe as the roots of
trees in a foreft.
Befide, thefe trees are not all in their natural ftate,
but many of them have the evident marks of human
workmanftiip upon them, fome being cut down with
an ax, fome fplit, and the wedges ftill remaining in
them 5 fome burnt in different parts, and fome bored
through with holes. Thefe things are alfo proved to
be of a later date than the deluge, by other matters
found among them, fuch as utenfils of ancient people,
and coins of the Roman emperors.
It appears from the whole, that all the trees which
we find in this foflile ftate, originally grew in the very
places where we now find them, and have only been
thrown down and buried there, not brought from elfe-
where. Tt may appear indeed an objection to this opi¬
nion, that moft of thefe foffile trees are of the fir-kind ;
and that Csefar fays exprefsly, that no firs grew in Bri¬
tain in his time : but this is eafily anfwered by obfer-
ving, that thefe trees, though of the fir-kind, yet are
not the fpecies ufually called the fr, but pitch-tree ;
and Casfar has no where faid that pitch-trees did not
grow in England. Norway and Sweden yet abound
with thefe trees; and there are at this time whole fo-
refts of them in many parts of Scotland, and a large
number of them wild upon a hill at Wafeton in Staf-
fordlhire to this day.
In Hatfield rnarlh, where fuch vaft numbers of the
foflile trees are now found, there has evidently once
been a whole foreft of them growing. The laft of
thefe was found alive, and growing in that place
within 70 years laft paft, and cut down for fome com¬
mon ufe.
It is alfo objedled by fome to the fyftem of the firs
growing where they are found foffile, that thefe coun¬
tries are all bogs and moors, whereas thefe forts of
trees grow only in mountainous places. But this is
founded on an error; for though in Norway and Swe¬
den, and fome other cold countries, the fir kinds all
grow upon barren and dry rocky mountains, yet in
warmer places they are found to thrive as well on wet
plains. Such-are found plentifully in Pomerania, Li¬
vonia, and Courland, &c. and in the weft parts of New
3 C 2 England
M O S [ 388 ] M O S
England there are vaft numbers of fipe {lately trees of
them in low grounds. The whole truth feems to be,
that thefe trees love a fandy foil 5 and fuch as is found
at the bottoms of all the moffes where thefe trees are
found foffile. The roots of the fir-kind are always
found fixed in thefe ; and thofe of oaks, where they
are found fofiile in this manner, are ufually found fixed
in clayfo that each kind of tree is always found root¬
ed in the places where they Hand in their proper foil;
and there is no doubt to be made but that they ori¬
ginally grew there. When we have thus found that
all the fofiile trees we meet with once grew in the places
where they are now buried, it is plain that in thefe-
places there were once noble forefts, which have been
deftroyed at fome time; and the queftion only remains
how and by whom they were deftroyed. This we have
reafon to believe, by the Roman coins found among
them, was done by the people of that empire, and that
at the time when they were eftablithed or eftablifhing
.themfelves here.
Their own hillorian tells-us, that when their armies
purfued the wild Britons, thefe people always fhelter-
ed therqfelves in the miry woods and low watery fo¬
refts. Caefar exprefsly fays this; and obferves, that
Caflibelan and his Britons, after their defeat, pafled
the Thames, and fled into fuch low moraffes and
woods, that there was no purfuing them: and we find
that the Silures fecured themfelves in the fame man¬
ner when attacked by Oftorius and Agricola. The
fame thing is recorded of Venutius king of the Bri-
gantes, who fled to fecu-re himfelf into the boggy fo¬
refts of the midland part of this kingdom : and Hero-
dian exprefsly fays, that in the time of the Romans
pufhing their conquefts in thefe iflands, it was the cu-
ftom of the Britons to fecure themfelves in the thick
forefts which grew in their boggy and wet places, and
when opportunity offered, to iflue out thence and fall
upon the' Romans. The confequence of all this was
the deftroying all thefe forefts ; the Romans finding
themfelyes fo plagued with parties of the natives iffuing
out upon them at times from thefe forefts, that they
gave orders for the cutting down and deftroying all
the forefts in Britain which grew on boggy and wet
grounds. Thefe orders were punctually executed ;
and to this it is owing that at this day we can hardly
be brought to believe that fuch forefts ever grew with
us as are now found buried.
The Roman hiftories ail join in telling us, that when
Suetonius Paulinas conquered Anglefea, he ordered
all the woods to be cut down there, in the manner of
the Roman generals in England : and Galen tells us,
that the Romans, after their conqueft in Britain, kept
their foldiers eonftantly employed in cutting down fo-
re!ts, draining of marlhes, and paving of bogs. Not
only the Roman foldiers were employed in this man¬
ner, but all the native Britons made captives in the
wars were obliged to afiift in itand Dion. Cafiius
tells us, that the emperor Severus loft no. lefs than
50,000 men in a few years time in. cutting down the
woods and draining the bogs of this illand. It is not
to be wondered at, that fuch numbers executed the
immenfe deftruftion which we find in thefe buried fo¬
refts. One of the greateft fuhterranean treafures of
wood is that near Hatfield; and it is eafjr to prove,
that thefe people, to whom this havuck is thus attri¬
buted, were upon the fpot where thefe trees now lie
buried. The common road of the Romans out of the
fouth into the north, was formerly from Lindum
(Lincoln),to Segelochum (Little Burrow upon Trent),
and from thence to Danum (Doncafter), where they
kept a Handing garrifon of Crifpinian horfe. A little
off on the eaft, and north-eaft of their road, between
the two laft named towns, lay the borders of the great-
eft foreft, which fwarmed with wild Briton's, who were
continually making their fallies out, and their retreats
into it again, intercepting their provifions, taking and
deftroy'ing their carriages, killing their allies and paf-
fengers, and difturbing their garrifons. This at length
fo exafperated the Romans, that they were determined
to deftroy it ; and to do this fafely and effedlually,
they marched againft it with a great army, and en¬
camped on a great moor not far from Finningly : this
is evident from their fortifications yet remaining.
There is a fmall town in the neighbourhood called
OJlerjield; and as the termination field feems to have
been given only in remembrance of battles fought near
the towns whofe names ended with it, it is not impro¬
bable that a battle was fought here between all the
Britons who inhabited this foreft and the Roman
troops under Oftorius. The Romans flew many of
the Britons, and drove the reft back into this foreft,
which at that time overfpread all this low country.
On this the conquerors taking advantage of a ftrong
fouth-weft wind, fet fire to the pitch-trees, of which
this foreft was principally compofed ; and when the
greater part of the trees were thus deftroyed, the Ro¬
man foldiers and captive Britons cut down the re¬
mainder, except a few large ones which they left
Handing as remembrances of the deftruftion of the
reft. Thefe Angle trees, however, could not Hand
long againft the winds, and thefe falling into the ri*
vers which ran through the country, interrupted their
currents ; and the water then overfpreading the level
country, made one great lake, and gave origin to the
moffes or moory bogs, which were afterwards formed
there, by the workings of the waters, the precipita¬
tion of earthy matter from them, and the pntrefiidlion
of rotten boughs and branches of trees, and the vaft
increafe of water-mofs and other fuch plants which
grow in prodigious abundance in all thefe forts of
places. Thus were thefe burnt and felled trees buried
under a new-formed fpongy and watery earth, and af¬
terwards found on the draining and digging through
this earth again.
Hence it is not ftrange that Roman weapons and
Roman coins are found among thefe buried trees; and
hence it is that among the buried trees fome are found
burnt, fome chopped and hewn; and hence it is that
the bodies of the trees all lie by their proper roots, and
with their tops lying north-eaft, that is, in that di-
reftion in which a fouth-weft wind would have blown
them down : hecce alfo it is, that fome of the trees
are found with their roots lying flat, thefe befng not
cut or burned down, but blown up by the roots after¬
wards when left Angle ; and it is- not wonderful, that
fuch trees as thefe {hould have continued to grow even
after their fall, and fhoot up branches from their fides
which might eafily grow into high trees. PhiLTranf.
N° 275.
By this fyftem it is alfo eafily explained why the
M O S [ 389 ] M O S
Mofs. moor foil in the country is in fome places two or three
■' v yards thicker than in others, or hisrher than it was for¬
merly, fince the growing up of peat-earth or bog-
ground is weILknown, and the foil added by overflow¬
ing of waters is not a little.
As the Romans were the deftroyers of this great
and noble foreft, fo they were probably alfo of the fe-
veral other ancient forefts; the ruins of which fur-
nifhes us with the bog-wood of Staffordflrire, Lanca-
fliire, Yorkfhire, and other counties. But as the Ro¬
mans were not much in Wales, in the Ifle of Man, or
in Ireland, it is not to be fuppofed that forefts cut down
by thefe people gave origin to the foffile wood found
there ; but though they did not cut down thefe fo¬
refts, others did ; and the orgin of the bog-wood is
the fame with them and with. us. Holingihead in*
forms us, that Edward I. being not able to get at the
Welch becaufe of their hiding themfelves in boggy
woods, gave orders at length that they (hould all be
deftroyed by fire and by the axe ; and doubtlefs the
roots and bodies of trees found in Pembrokeftiire un¬
der ground, are the remains of the execution of this
order. The foflile wood in the bogs of the ifland of
Man is doubtlefs of the fame origin, though we have
not any accounts extant of the time or occafion of the
forefts there being deftroyed; but as to the foffile trees
of the bogs of Ireland,- we are exprefsly told, that
Henry II. when he conquered that country, ordered
all the woods to be cut down that grew in the low
parts of it, to fecure his conquefts, by cutting away
the places of refort of rebels.
Moving-MOSS. We have an account in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadtions of a moving mofs near Church-
town in Lancaihire, which greatly alarmed the neigh¬
bourhood as miraculous. The mofs was obferved to
rife to a furprifing height, and foon after funk as
much below the level, and moved flowly towards the
fouth.
A very furprifing inftance of a moving mofs is that
of Solway in Scotland, which happened in the year
1771, alter fevere rains which had produced terrible
inundations of the rivers in many places. For the
better underftanding of this event, we Ihall give the
following defcription of the fpot of ground where it
happened. Along the fide of the river Elk there is a
vale, about a mile broad, lefs or more in different
places. It is bounded on the fouth-eaft by the river
Elk, and on the north-weft by a fteep bank 30 feet
in height above the level of the vale. From the top
of the bank the ground rifes in an eafy afcent for
about a quarter of a mile, where it is terminated by the
mofs ; which extends about two miles north and fouth,
and about a mile pnd an half eaft and weft, and-is
bounded ou the north-weft by the river Sark; It is
probable that the folid ground from the top of the
b«mk above the vale was continued in the fame direc¬
tion under the mefs, before its eruption, for a confide-
rable fpace ; for the mofs at the place where the erup¬
tion happened, was inclined towards the hoping
ground. . From the edge of the mofs-there was a
gully or hollow, called by the country people the
gap, and faid to be 30 yards deep where it entered
the vale^ down which ran a finall rill of water, which
was often dry in fummer, having no fupply but what
filtered from the mofs. The eruption happened at
the head of this gap, on Saturday November 16th
1771, about ten or eleven at night, when all the
neighbouring rivers and brooks were prodigioufly
fwelled by the rains. A large body of the mofs
was forced, partly by the great fall of rain, and part¬
ly by feme fprings below it, into a fmall beck or
burn, which runs within a few yards of its border to
the fouth-eaft. By the united preffure of the water
behind it, and of this beck, which was then very high,
it was carried down a narrow glen between two bank*
about 3£G feet high, into a wide and fpacious plain,
over part of which it fpread with great rapidity. The
mofs continued for fome time to fend off eonfiderable
quantities ; which, being borne along by the torrent
on the back of the firft great body, kept it for many
hours in perpetual motion, and drove it ftill farther on.
This night at leaft 400 acres of fine arable land were
covered with mofs from 3 to 12 or 15 feet deep. Se¬
veral houfes were deftroyed, a good deal of corn loft,
&c. but all the inhabitants efcaped. When the wa*
ters fubfided, the mofs alfo ceafed to flow ; but two
pretty confiderable ftreams continued to run from the
heart of it, and carried off fome pieces of moffy mat¬
ter to the place where it burft. There they joined the
beck already mentioned; which, with this addition,
refumed its former channel; and, with a little affift-
ance from the people of the neighbourhood, made its
way to the Elk, through the midft of that great bo¬
dy of mofs which obftrufted its courfe. Thus, in a
great meafnre drained, the new mofs fell feveral feet,
when the fair weather came in the end of November,
and fettled in a firmer and more folid body on the
lands it had over-run. By this inundation about 800
acres of arable ground were overflowed before the mofs
flopped, and the habitations of 27 families deftroyed.
Tradition has preferved the memory of a limilar in¬
undation in Monteith in Scotland. A mofs there al¬
tered its courfe in one night, and covered a great
extent of .ground.
MOSSc/,Kjncardine: A remarkable traft of ground
in the (hire of Perth in Scotland, which deferves par¬
ticular notice, not merely as a topographical curiofity,
or as a fiibjeft of natural hiftory ; but for the informa¬
tion, equally uncommon and important, which it af¬
fords, refpe&ing agricultural improvement, and the
promotion of induftry and population.
The mofs of Kincardine is fuuated in the’parifn of
the fame name, comprehended between the rivers Forth
and Teith, and in that diftridt of Perthlhire called
Monteith. . The mofs begins about a mile above the
confluence of thefe rivers; from thence it extends in
length about four miles, and from one fo two in breadth;
and before the commencement of the operations (ar.
account of which-is to be given), comprehended near
2000 Scotch acres, of which about 1500 belong to
the eftate of Blair Drummond, the property of Lord
Karnes by his marriage vfith Mrs Drummond of Blair
Drummond. .
As moffes are extremely'-various, in their nature';
before entering upon the improvements made in .Kir-
cardine mofs, it will be proper to give a Ihort defcrip¬
tion of that mofs, and of the fubjacent foil which is the
objedl of thofi-improvements.
The mofs lies upon a •fieldof qlay, which is a con¬
tinuation of thofe rich, exteniive flats in the neigh¬
bourhood.
M O S f 390 ] M O S
bourhood of Falkirk and Stirling, diftinguiftred by the
name of carfes. This clay, which is one uniform ho¬
mogeneous mafs finking to a great depth, is found
near the futface, confifts of different colours, and is
difpofed in layers. The uppermoft is grey ; the next
is reddifh ; and the lowed, which is the moll fertile, is
blue. Through the whole mafs not a pebble is to be
found. The only extraneous bodies it contains are
fea-fhells, which occur in all the varieties peculiar to
the eartetn coafl of Scotland. They are difpofed fome-
times in beds, fometimes fcattered irregularly at dif¬
ferent depths. By attending to thefe circumftances,
it cannot be doubted that the fea has been the means
of the whole accumulation, and that it was carried on
in a gradual manner by the ordinary ebb and flow of
the tide. Upon any other fuppofition-, why fhould
there not have been a congeries of all the different
materials that compofe the furface of the furrounding
heights f But to whatever caufe the origin of this
accumulation maybe afcribed, certain it is that no foil
whatever is more favourable to vegetation, or carries
more abundant crops of every kind.
The fnrface of the clay, which, upon the retreat of
the fea, had been left in an almoft levrl plane, is every
where thickly covered with trees, chiefly oak and
birch, many of them of a great fize. Thtfe trees feem
to have been the firft remarkable produce of the carfe ;
and it is probable they were; propagated by diffemina-
tion from the furrounding eminences. They are
found lying in all dire&ions befide. their roots, which
ftill continue firm in the ground in their natural po-
fition ; and from impreflions ftill vifible, it is evident
they have been cut with an axe or fome fimilar inftru-
ment. For the cutting of wood, the two common pur-
pofes are, either to apply it to its proper ufe, or that
the ground it occupies may be cultivated. In the pre-
fent cafe, however, neither of thefe ends had been pro-
pofed, fince the trees, by being left juft as they were
cut, were not only entirely loft, but the ground was
rendered totally unfit for cultivation. Hence it is evi¬
dent, that the downfal of this wood muft be afcribed to
fome more extraordinary caufe ; and to none more
probably than to that expedient, which, as we learn
from Dion Caflius and other hiftorians, the Romans
put fo extenfively in pradfice to diflodge from their
forefts the ancient inhabitants of the Britifh iflands.
This hypothefis acquires no fmall degree of force
from a circumftance that occurred in May 1768, when
a large round vtffcl of thin brafs-and curious workman-
fhip, 25 inches in diameter and 16 inches in height,
was difeovered upon the furface of the clay buried un¬
der the mofs. This veflel, found upon the eflatc of
John Ramfay, Efq; of Ochtertyre, was by that gentle¬
man prefented to the Antiquarian Society of Edin¬
burgh ; in whofe mufeum it remains depofited for pre-
fervation. And in a lift of the various donations pre-
iented to that fociety, publifhed by them in 1782, it is
there denominated a Roman camp-kettle.
Between the clay and the mofs is found a ftratum
nine inches thick, partly dark brown and partly of a
colour approaching to black. This is a vegetable mould,
accumulated probably by the plants that covered the
ground previous to the growth of the wood, and by
leaves from the trees thereafter. The difference of co¬
lour mull be owing- to a difference in the vegetable
fubftances that compofe it. The brown mould is Mofs.
highly fertile; the other, efpecially in a dry feafon, is ^ 'r“
very unproductive. The crop that had occupied this
mould-when the trees were felled-is found ftill entire.
It confifts chiefly of heath ; but feveral other fmaller
plants are alfo very diftinguifhable.
Immediately above this ftratum lies the mofs, to the
height, upon an average, of feven feet. It is com-
pofed of different vegetables arranged in three diftinft
flrata. Of thefe the firft is three feet thick. It is
black and heavy, and preferable to the others for the
purpofe of fuel. It confifts of bent-grafs (agrojlis),
which feems to have grown up luxuriantly among
the trees after they were felled- The fecond ftratum
alfo is three feet thick. It is compofed of various kinds
of moffes, but principally of bog-mo{y(fphagnum). It
is of a fallow or iron colour, and remarkably elaftic. It is
commonly called white-peat ; and for fuel is confidered
as much inferior to that above mentioned. The third
ftratum is compofed of heath and a little bent-grafs,
but chiefly of the deciduous parts of the former. It
is about a foot thick, arjd black.
Three ftrata of different vegetables lying above each
other, the limits of each dittin&ly marked, and each
diftinguifhed by a different colour, is certainly a curious
natural phenomenon.
An inquiry will here occur, What has occafioned
this fucceffion in the vegetables of which the mofs is
compofed ?
Every vegetable has a particular foil, more or lefs
moift, peculiarly adapted to its nature. Let a piece of
ground be in a moift ftate, rufhes will introduce them-
felves; drain the ground fufficiently, the ruftves will
difappear, and finer vegetables will fucceed. It feems
reafonable to account for the fucceffion of the different
plants that compofe the mofs on fimilar principles.
Let us imagine an extenfive. plain covered with trees
lying in all diredtions, full of branches, and poffibly
loaded with leaves. This it is evident would produce
a great ftagnation of water, which, as the crops of
bent-grafs accumulated, would ftill increafe : and the
probability is, that at length it had fo increafed, as to
be the caufe why the bent-grafs and other congenial
plants of the fiift flratum ceafed to grow. But it is
evident that a plant was to be found that could live in
fuch a fituation. Accordingly we fee that bog-mofs
had eftabliftied itfelf; a plant that loves even to fwim
in water.
When the accumulations of bent-grafs and the moffes
had, in procefs of time, arifen to the height of fix feet
above the furrounding carfe ground, the water that fell
upon the furface had by that means an opportunity to
difeharge itfelf. It has accordingly formed many
channels, which are often three feet deep ; and the in¬
termediate furface being wholly turned into little hil¬
locks has become dry and firm. By this means it be¬
came unfit for moffes, and heath fucceeded.
Such feems to have been the procefs in the forma¬
tion of what is now called a mofs.
By far the greateft part of the mofs in queftion is, upon
an average, full (even feet deep, and.has in all probabi¬
lity lain undifturbed fince its formation: this is called the
High Mofs. The remainder, called the Low Mofs, lies
to a confiderable breadth around the extremities of the
high; and is, upon an average, not above three feet in
l depth.
M O S [ 39
depth, to which it has been reduced by the digging
of peats. Thefe are formed of that ftramm of the
mofs only that lies four feet below the furface and
downwards ; the reft is improper for the purpofe, and
is thrown afide.
Before the introdu&ion of the plan which is now
purfued, two methods chiefly were employed to gain
land from the mofs. I ft, The furrounding farmers
marked off yearly a portion of the Low Mofs next to
their arable land, about 15 feet broad. This they re¬
moved with carts and fpread upon their fields, feme
acres of which they for that end left unfown. Here
it lay till May or June ; when, being thoroughly dry, it
was burnt to aihes to ferve as a manure. By this
means they added to their farms about half a rood of
land yearly. But this plan proved unfuccefsful; for by
the repeated application of thefe allies, the foil was
rendered fo loofe that the crops generally failed, zdly,
Many farmers were wont to trench down the low mofs,
and to cover it furrow deep with clay taken out of the
trench. This, though commendable as an attempt to
improve, proved likewife an unavailing method ; be-
caufe in a dry feafon the fuperficial covering of clay
retains fo little moifture that the crop commonly fails.
It has been attempted to cover the mofs with clay
brought from the adjacent grounds. But what from
the neceflary impoverifhment of the ground from which
the clay was carried, and the foftnefs of the mofs, this
was foon found to be impra&icable.
Draining, has alfo been propofed as another mode of
improvement ; and it muft be acknowledged, that, by
means of draining, many mofles have been converted
both into arable and meadow grounds, which in the
end became interefting improvements. Butin a mofs,
fuch as that of Kincardine, this method would be in-
effeftual 5 as for feveral feet deep it is of fuch a na¬
ture, that upon being dry and divided into parts, it
would blow with the wind like chaff; and when thrown
afide in the operation of digging peats, it lies for years
without producing a Angle vegetable, except only a
few plants of forrel.
Hence it is evident, that all attempts to improve this
mofs muft ever prove abortive ; and that the objedf to
be had in view is the acquifition of the valuable foil
lying underneath ; to which end nothing lefs is requi-
fite than the total abolition of the mofs.
By the methods above deferibed from 100 to 200
acres of mofs had been removed. When the pre-
fent plan was introduced, there ftill remained covered
with mofs from 1300 to 1400 acres of carfe clay—a
treafure for which it muft be ever interefting to dig.
In the year 1766 Lord Kames entered into poffef-
fion of the eftate of Blair Drummond. Long before
that period he was well acquainted with the mofs, and
often lamented that no attempt had ever been made to
turn it to advantage. Many different plans were now
propofed; at length it was refolved to attempt, by means
of water as the moft powerful agent, entirely to fweep
off the whole body of mofs.
That mofs might be floated in water, was abundant¬
ly obvious ; but to find water in fufficient quantity
was difficult, the only ftream at hand being employed
to turn a corn-mill. Convinced of the fuperior con-
fequence of dedicating this ftream to the purpofe of
floating off the mofs, Lord Kames having made an
i 7 M O S
agreement with the tenant who farmed the mill, and
the tenants thirled confenting to pay the rent, he im-
mediately threw down the mill, and applied the water
to the above purp'ofe.
In order to determine the beft manner of conduc¬
ting the operation, workmen were now employed for
a confiderable time upon the Low Mofs both by the
day and by the piece, to afeertain the expence for
which a given quantity of mofs could be removed.
It was then agreed to operate at a certain rate per
acre j and in this manner feveral acres were removed.
But this was to be a very expenfive procefs. The
ground gained might, indeed, be afterwards let to te¬
nants ; but every acre would require an expenditure
from 1 2 1. to 15I. before it could be ready for flowing ;
fo that the acquifition of the whole, computing it at a
medium to be 1350 acres, would fink a capital of near¬
ly 20,0001. Sterling.
One other method ftill remained ; namely, to at¬
tempt letting portions of the mofs, as it lay, for a
term of years fufficient to indemnify tenants for the
expences incurred in removing it. For feme time both
thefe plans were adopted ; but feveral reaforis made
the latter preferable. 1. The quantity of water to be
had was fmall; and being alfo uncertain, it was very
inconvenient for an undertaker ; neither were there
any houfes near the fpot, which occafioned a great
lofs of time in going and coming: but when a man
fhould live upon the fpot, then he could be ready to
feize every opportunity. 2. The mofs was an ufelefa
wafte. To let it to tenants would increafe the popu¬
lation of the eflate, and afford to a number of indu-
ftrious people the means of making to themfelves a
comfortable livelihood.
In the mean time it was determined, till as'many
tenants Ihould be got as could occupy the whole wai¬
ter, to carry on the work by means of undertakers.
But before proceeding farther, it will be neceffary to
deferibe the manner of applying water to the purpofe
of floating the mofs.
A ftream of water fufficient to turn a common eorn*.
mill will carry off as much mofs as 20 men can throw
into it, provided they be ftationed at the diftance of
100 yards from each other. The fir ft ftep is to make
in the clay, along-fide of the mofs, a drain to convey
the water : and for this operation the carfe-clay below
the mofs is peculiarly favourable, being perfeftly free
from ftones and all other extraneous fubftances, and at
the fame time, when moift, flippery as foap ; fo that not
only is it eafily dug, but its lubricity greatly facilitates
the progrefs of the water when loaded with mofs.
The dimenfions proper for the drain are found to be
two feet for the breadth and the fame for the depth.
If fmafter, it could not conveniently receive the fpade-
fuls of mofs; if larger, the water would efcape, lea¬
ving the mofs behind. The drain has an inclination
of one foot in 100 yards: the more regularly thisfin-
clination is obferved throughout, the lefs will the mofs
be liable to obftrudions in its progrefs with the water.
The drain being formed, the operator marks off to a
convenient extent along-fide of it a feftion of mofs
10 feet broad ; the greateft diftance from which he
can heave his fpadeful into the drain. This he re*
pestedly does till the entire mafs be removed down to
the clay. He then digs a new drain at the foot of
the
M O S [ 392 1 M O S
’ Mofi. the raofs-bank, turns the water into it, and proceeds
as before, leaving the mofs to purfue its courfe into
the river Forth, a receptacle equally convenient and
capacious; upon the fortunate fituation of which, hap¬
pily forming for feveral miles the fouthern boundary
of the eftate, without the interpofition of any neigh¬
bouring proprietor, depended the very exiftence of
•the whole operations.
When the mofs is entirely removed, the clay is
found to be encumbered with the roots of different
kinds of trees Handing in it as they grew, often very
large : their trunks alfo are frequently found lying
befide them. All thefe the tenants remove often with
great labour. In the courfe of their operations they
purpofely leave upon the clay a ftratum of mofa fix
inches thick. This, in fpring, when the feafon offers,
they reduce to allies, which in a great meafure enfures
the firft crop. The ground thus cleared is turned
over, where the drynefs admits, with a plough, and,
where too foft, with a fpade. A month’s expofure
to the fun, wind, and froft, reduces the clay to a
powder fitting it for the feed in March and April. A
crop of oats is the firft, which feldom fails of being
plentiful, yielding from eight to ten bolls after one.
In the year 1767 an agreement was made with one
tenant for a portion of the Low Mofs. This, as being
the firft ftep towards the intended plan, was then view¬
ed as a confiderable acquifition. The fame terms a-
greed upon with this tenant have ever fince been ob-
ferved with all the reft. They are as follow:
The tenant holds eight acres of mofs by a tack of
38 years ; he is allowed a proper quantity of timber,
and two bolls of oatmeal to fupport him while em¬
ployed in rearing a houfe ; the firft feven years he pays
no rent; the eighth year he pays one merk Scots ; the
ninth year two merks ; and fo on with the addition
of one merk yearly till the end of the firft 19 years;
during the laft five years of which he alfo pays a hen
yearly. Upon the commencement of the fecond 19
years, he begins to pay a yearly rent of 12 s. for each
acre of land cleared from mofs, and 2 s. 6d. for each
acre not cleared, alfo two hens yearly: A low rent
indeed for fo fine a foil; but no more than a proper
reward for his laborious exertions in acquiring it.
In the year 1768 another tenant was fettled. Thefe
two were tradefmen ; to whom the preference was al¬
ways given, as having this great advantage to recom¬
mend them, that even when deprived of water they
need never want employment. The motives that in¬
duced thefe people to become fettlers were, ly?, The
profpeft of an independent eftabliflunent for a number
of years, zdly. The mofs afforded them great abun¬
dance of excellent fuel; to which was added the
comfortable confideration, that, while bufied in pro¬
viding that neceffary article, they had the double ad¬
vantage of promoting, at the fame time, the princi-
jpal objett of their fettlement.
Notwithttanding thefe inducements, ftill fettlers of¬
fered flowly ; to which two circumftances chiefly con¬
tributed : 1/2, The whole farmers furrounding the mofs
threw every poffible obftrudtion in their way. zdly, By
people of all denominations the fcheme was viewed as
a chimerical projedl, and became a common topic of
ridicule. The plan, however, fupported itfelf; and
in the year 1769 five more tenants agreed for eight
N8 230.
acres each ; and thus 56 acres of Low Mofs were dif-* Mofs.
pofed of. From the progrefs made by the firft fettlers, •'-'-y-—
and the addition of thefe, the obloquy of becoming
a mofs-tenant gradually became lefs regarded ; fo that
in the year 1772 two more were added 5 in 1773, three ;
and in 1774, one ; in all 13 : which difpofed of 104
acres; all the Low Mofs to which water could then be
conveyed. As water is the main fpring of the opera¬
tion, every tenant, befide the attention neceffary to
his ihare of the principal ftream, collefted water by
every poffible means, making ditches round his por¬
tion of the mofs, and a refervoir therein to retain it
till wanted.
The tenants in the Low Mofs having now begun to
raife good crops, in the year 1774 feveral perfons of¬
fered to take poffeffions in the High Mofs, upon con¬
dition that accefs to it fhould be rendered pra&icable.
The High Mofs wanted many advantages that the Low
poffeffed. To the Low Mols, lying contiguous to the
furrounding arable lands, the accefs was tolerably
good ; but from the arable lands the High Mofs was
feparated by 300 or 400 yar4s of the Low, which, even
to a man, affords but indifferent footing, and to horfes
is altogether imprafticablc. The Low Mofs is in gene¬
ral only three feet deep ; the High Mofs is from fix to
twelve feet in depth.
It will appear at firft fight, that without a road of
communication the High Mofs muft for ever have pro¬
ved unconquerable. Without delay, therefore, a road
was opened to the breadth of twelve feet, for feveral
hundred yards in length, by floating off the mofs down
to the clay.
This being effefted, and at the fame time an open¬
ing given to admit water, in the year 1775 twelve te¬
nants agreed for eight acres of high mofs each. In
confideration of the greater depth of this part of the
mofs, it was agreed, that during the firft ig years
they ftiould pay no rent ; but for the fecond 19 years
the terms of agreement were the fame as thole made
with the tenants in the Low Mofs. To the above men¬
tioned tenants every degree of encouragement was
given ; as upon their fuccefs depended, in a great
meafure, the difpofal of the great quantity of mofs
ftill remaining. But their fuccefs, however problema¬
tical, was fuch, that next year,
1776, 6 more took 8 acres each,
1777> 1
1778, 4
1779, 3
1780, 1
1781, 1
1782, x
In all, including thofe upon the Low Mofs, 42 te¬
nants, occupying 336 acresv
Though for fome time the difpofal of the Hgh Mofs
went but flowly on, it was not for want ot tenants ;
but the number of operators was already fufficient for
the quantity of water; to have added more would
evidently have been imprudent.
In the year .1783 Mr Drummond entered into pof-
feffion of the eftate of Blair-DrUmmond, and went
fully into the plan adopted by his predeceffor for fub-
duing the mofs. At this time there ftill remained
undifpofed of about 1000 acres of High Mofs. As
water was the great defideratum, it was determined,
2 that
M O S C 393 1 M O S
that to obtain that neceffaty article neither pains nor
v——' expence (hould be wanting. Steps were accordingly-
taken to afcertain in what manner it might be procu¬
red to moft advantage.
Meanwhile, to prepare for new tenants a fecond
„‘Xpad parallel to the former, at the diftance of half a
’ mile, was immediately begun and cut, with what wa¬
ter could be got, down to the clay, x 2 feet broad and
2670 yards long, quite acrofs the mofs. This open¬
ing was previoufly neceffary, that operators might get
a drain formed in the clay to direft the water; and it
was to remain as a road that was abfolutely neceflary,
and which relieved fettlers from an expence they were
unable to fupport. Thefe preparations, the progrefs
of the former tenants, and the profpe& of a farther
fupply of water, induced 10 more to take pofleffions
in the year 1783 ; in the year 1784, 18 more took
poffeffions; and in 1785 no fewer than 27;—in all,
55 tenants in three years, which difpofed of 440 acres
more of the High Mofs.
As the introdu&ion of an additional ftream to the
mofs was to be a work both of nicety and expence,
it was neceffary to proceed with caution. For this
reafon feveral engineers were employed to make fur-
veys and plans of the different modes by which it
might be procured. In one point they all agreed,
that the proper fource for furnifhing that fupply was
the river Teith ; a large and copious ftream that pafles
within a mile of the mofs: but various modes Were
propofed for effe&ing that purpofe.
To carry a ftream from the river by a cut or canal
into the mofs was found to be imprafticable; and Mr
Whitworth (a) gave in a plan of a pumping machine,
which he was of opinion would anfwer the purpofe ex¬
tremely well.
Soon after this Mr George Meikle of Alloa, a very
Ikilful and ingenious mill wright, gave in a model of
a wheel for railing v/ater entirely of a new conftruc-
tion, of his own and bis father’s invention jointly.
This machine is fo exceedingly fimple, and afts in a
manner fo eafy, natural, and uniform, that a common
©bferver is apt to undervalue the invention : But per-
fons Ikilled in mechanics view machinery with a very
different eye ; for to them fimplicity is the firft re¬
commendation a machine can poffefs. Accordingly,
upon feeing the model fet to work, Mr Whitworth,
w;ith that candour and liberality of mind that gene-
tally accompany genius and knowledge, not only gave
it the greateft praife, but declared that, for the pur¬
pofe required, it was fuperior to the machine recom¬
mended by himftlf, and advifed it to be adopted with¬
out hefitation,
The better to explain this machine, two Iketches
are annexed, to the iirft of which the following let¬
ters refer. The explanation of the fecond will be found
upon the Iketch.
Plate a’ Sluice through which is admitted the water that
HCCCXVI. moves the wheel.
b, b. Two fluices through which is admitted the
water raifed by the wheel.
Vol. XII. Part I.
e, c. A part of one of two wooden troughs and Mofs.
an aperture in the wall, through wjiich the above water
is conveyed into the buckets. [The other troiigh is
hid by two ftone walls that fupport the wheel.]
d, dj d. Buckets, of which 80 are arranged on each
fide of the arms of the wheel = 160.
e, e, e. A ciftern, into which the water raifed by the
buckets is difeharged.
/, f, f. Wooden barrel-pipes, through which the wa¬
ter defeends from the ciftern underground, to avoid
the high road from’ Stirling and the private approach
to the houfe.
Sketch fecond contains a plan of the ciftern, and ex¬
hibits the manner in which the water is hlied into the
buckets.
The diameter of the wheel to the extremities of the
float-boards is 28 feet; the length of the float-boards,
10 feet. The wheel makes nearly four revolutions/er
minute ; in which time it difeharges into the ciftern
40 hogfheads of water. But this is not all the wheel
is capable of performing ; for by feveral accurate trials
by Meflrs Whitwqrth and Meikle, in the refult of
which, though made feparately, they perfedlly agreed,
it was found that the wheel w'as able to lift no lefs than
60 hogfheads/rr minute ; but that the diameter of the
pipes through which the water defeends from the ci¬
ftern would not admit a greater quantity than what
they already receive.
To a perfon at all converfant in hydraulics, the re-
femblance of this to the Perftan wheel muft be obvious:
and indeed it is probable, that from the Perfian wheel
the firft idea of this machine was derived. But admit¬
ting this, ftill the fuperiority of the prefent wheel is,
in moft refpefts, fo confpicuous, as to entitle it to little
lefs praife than the firft invention. For, iff, In the
Perflan wheel, the buckets being all moveable, muft be
conftantly going out of order : In this wheel they are
all immoveable, confequently never can be out of order.
2dly, Inftead of lifting the water from the bottom
of the fall as in the Perfian wheel, this wheel lifts it
from the top of the fall, being from four to five feet
higher; by which means fome additional power is gain¬
ed. 3dly, By means of the three fluices (a, and b, b,
fig. 1.) in whatever fituation the river may be,
the quantity of the water to be raifed is fo nicely ad-
jufted to that of the moving power, as conftantly to
preferve the wheel in afteadyand equable motion. In
fhort, as a regulator is to a watch, fo are thefe fluices
to this wheel, whofe movements would otherwife be fo
various, as fometimes to carry the water clear over the
ciftern, fometimes to drop it entirely behind, but fel-
dom fo as fully to difeharge the whole contents of
the buckets into the ciftern.
It is however but candid to remark, that this machine
labours under a fmall defeA, which did not efcape the
obfervation of Mr Whitworth ; namely, that by raifing
the water about 34- feet higher than the ciftern where
it is ultimately delivered, a fmall degree of power is
loft. To this indeed he propofed a remedy ; but can¬
didly confefled, that, as it would render the machine
3 D fome-
(a) This gentleman is fuperintendant of the London water-works, and an engineer of great reputation in
England. He was feveral years employed in Scotland in completing the great canal.
M 0 S [ 394 ] M O S
Mofs. fomewhat more complex, and would alfo increafe the
friclion, he thought it more advifable to keep it in its
prefent ftate. At the fame time he juftly obferved,
that as the ftream by which the wheel is moved is at
all times copious and powerful, the fmall lofs of power
occafioned by the above circumltances was of little or
bo avail.
This ilream is detached from the Ttith at the place
wheie that river approaches nearell to the mofs. The
furface of the latter is about 15 feet higher than that
of the former; the ciftern is therefore placed 17 feet
above the furface of the fiream, fo as to leave a decli¬
vity fufficient to deliver the water upon the furface of
the mofs.
The pipes through which the water defcends from
the ciftern are compofedof wooden barrels hooped with
iron 4 feet long and 18 inches in diameter within.
In thefe pipes, having been conveyed under ground
for 354 yards from the ciftern, the water at once emer¬
ges into an open aqueduft. This aqueduft, which was
formed according to a plan by Mr Whitworth, is con-
ftrutted wholly of earth or clay ; and in order to keep
the water on a level with the furface of the mofs, it is
for nearly two-thirds of its courfe elevated from 8 to
10 feet above the level of the adjacent grounds ; the
bafe being 40 feet broad, the fummit 18 feet, and the
water courfe 10 feet broad. It commences at the ter¬
mination of the pipes j from whence extending above
1400 yards, it difcharges the water into a canal form¬
ed for its reception on the furface of the mofs.
For raifing the water to this height there were two
reafons. tft, That not only where it was delivered on
the mofs, but even after being conveyed to the moft
diftant corners, it might Hill retain fufficient power to
iranfport the mofs to the river Forth. 2dly, That
refervoirsof a fufficient height might be formed in the
mofs to retain the water delivered during night.
In confequence of Mr Whitworth’s advice, a cotr-
traft was entered into with Mr Meikle in fpring 1787;
and by the end of October in that year, the wheel,
pipes, and aquedudt, were all completely finifhed : and
what, in fo complex and extenfive an undertaking,
is by no means common, the different branches of the
work were fo completely executed, and fo happily ad-
j ifted to each other, that upon trial the effeft anfwer-
< d the moft fanguine expectations. The total expence
exceeded L. 1000 Sterling.
To induce the proprietor to embark in this under¬
taking, the mofs tenants had of their own accord pre-
viotfly come under a formal engagement to pay the
intereft of any fum that might be expended in procu¬
ring a fupply of water. But he was determined they
fhould not enjoy ,by halves the fweets of this long-
wifhed-for acquifition. With a view, therefore, not
only to reward their paft induftry, but to roufe them
to future exertions, he at once fet them free from
their engagement; nor has any intereft ever been de¬
manded.
This new fupply was a moft acceptable boon to the
mofs tenants. — In order to make an equitable diftribu-
tion, ti e water raifed through the day was allotted
to one divifion of operators; that raifed during the
night to another. To retain the latter, a canal was
foaned, extending almoft three miles through the
centre of the mefs. From place to place along the Tides
4
are inferted fluices to admit water to the refervoirs of .j
the poffeffors; each fluice having an aperture propor- ' 1.1
tinned to the number of operators to be fuppliecL
from the refervoir which it fills. For the water rai ed*
through the day no refeivoirs are neceffary ; as it is im-
immediately ufedby the divifion to which it is allotted^
This additional ftream, though highly beneficial, yet
is not more than fufficient to keep 40 men at conltant
work. But fuch a quantity as would give conltant
work is not nectffary; the operators muft be often
employed in making and repairing their drains, grub¬
bing up roots of trees, &c.; fo that a quantity luffi-
cient to give five or fix hours work per day to the
whole inhabitants is as much as would-be wanted.
But as the quantity procured was ftill infufficient for
this purpofe, a fmall ftream that defeended from the
higher grounds was diverted from its courfe and brought {
into the mofs. From want of level this ftream could
not be delivered to the greateft advantage; namely,upon
the furface of the mofs. Yet by making, at a confi-
derable expence, a drain half a mile long, and a re¬
fervoir for the night-water, it was rendered of mud*
importance. And during the whole winter months,
as well as in fummer, after every fall of rain, it keeps
ij.perfons fully employed.
In the year 1787 two more tenants agreed for eight
acres each ; in 1788, four ; in 17.89, eight; in 1790,
four tenants, all agreed for the fame number of acres.
The whole mols was now difpofed of, except that
part called Flow-mofs, which comprehended about 400
acres. Here it is twice the ufual breadth, fo fluid
that a pole may be thruft with one hand to the bottom;
and the interior part, for near a mile broad, is three
feet above tha level of all the reft of the mofs. Hither¬
to the many and various difficulties that prefented
themfelves had been overcome by perfeverance and
expence. But here the extraordinary elevation of the
morafs, joined to its great fluidity, teemed to exclude
all poffibility of admitting a ftream of water; and it
was the general opinion that the mofs-operations had
now arrived at their ne plus ultra, and that this morafs
was doomed to remain a nuifance for ages to come.
But the proprietor had now advanced fo far that he
could not fubmit to retreat; and he confidered himfelf
as, in fome meafure, pledged to the country for the
completion of this undertaking. To detail the various
methods pra&ifed to introduce a ftream of water into
that morafs, would prove tedious. It is fufficient to
fay, that after a thoufand unfuccefsful efforts, attended
with much trouble and confiderable expence, the point
at laft was gained, and a ftream of water was brought
in, and carried fairly acrofs the centre of the morafs.
The greateft obflacle was now indeed overcome;
but ftill another remained of no fmall moment, namely,
the difeouragement given to fettlers from the total
impoffiblity of erefting habitations upon the furface of
this morafs. To find a remedy for this evil was dif¬
ficult. Happily a refource at laft occurred. This
was to bargain with a certain number of the old tenants
whofe habitations were neareft, to take lcaj[rs of por¬
tions of the morafs. But as fome additional aid Was
here neceffary, it was agreed that L. 12 Sterling,
fhould be gradually advanced to each tenant till he
fhould accomplifh the clearing of an acre, for which he
or his fucceffor is bound to pay 12 s. of yearly rent*
eqTtal
M O S T 395 ] M O S
Jyfofst equal to five fer cent, upon the fum advanced. When
 this point (hall be gained, they are bound to difpofe,
*as mod. agreeable to themfelves, either of their old or
of their new pofieffion ; for which, when once an acre
is cleared, purchafers will not be wanting.
In confequence of the above arrangement, during
the year 1791 no fewer than 35 of the old tenants
agreed, upon the forefaid conditions, for eight acres
each of the Flovv-mofs. Thus 1200 acres are now
difpofed of to 115 tenants. But whenthefe35 tenants
(hall each have cleared their acre, then, according to
agreement, 35 additional tenants will fpeedily be ac¬
quired ; and the mofs will then contain in all 150
families.
To the leafes already granted to the tenants in the
High Mofs, it is now determined to. add a further
period of 19 years (making in all 57 years), during
which they are to pay one guinea per acre; a rent not
greater than the land is worth even at prefent, but
greatly below its probable value at that diflant period.
This, it is hoped, will prove to the tenants a fufficient
incitement to continue their operations till their pof-
feffions are completely cleared from mofs.
Having now gone through, in detail, the whole pro-
grefe of the colony fince its firft fettlement in the
year 1767, it ftill remains to take a general view of
the effects produced by that eftablifliment.
For feveral years, at firft, the water was ufed chiefly
to carry off mofs, in the forming of new roads, and
preparing refervoirs ; which confiderably retarded the
principal objeft of gaining land. Nevertl.elefs there
have been cleared full 300 acres of excellent land, pro¬
ducing wheat, barley, oats, and clover, yielding from
fix to twelve bolls after one.
From the nature of the undertaking, there is good
rcafon to fuppofe that the operations will yearly ad¬
vance with greater rapidity ; efpecially as the greater
number of the fettlers have only of late begun to
operate. Many, befides maintaining their families
otherwife by occafional employments, have in the
High Mofs cleared in a year one rood of land ; fome
have cleared two, fome three roods, and in the Low
Mofs an acre.
It was a remark often made, even by perfons of fome
obfervation, that by collefting together fuch a num¬
ber of people, Kincardine would be over-ftoeked ; and
the confequence would be their becoming a burthen on
the parifli: for as the bulk of them were labourers
not bred to any trade, and pofiefled of little flock, it
was forefeen that, for fome time, they could not affojd
to confine themfelves folely to the mofs, from which
the return muft be flow; but behoved, for immediate
fubfiftence, to work for daily hire. Happily thefe pre-
didlions have proved entirely groundlefs ; for fuch is
the growing demand for hands in this country, that
not only do the whole of thefe people find employment
•whenever they choofe to look for it, but their wages
have been yearly increafing from the time of their
firft eftabliftunent. In (hort, they have proved to the
corner where they are fet down a moft ufeful nurfery
ef -labourers; and thofe very farmers who, at fir A, fo
ftrongly oppofed their fettlement, now fly to them as
a fure refource for every purpofe of agriculture. Still
they confider the mofs-operations as their principal
bufinefs; none pay them fo well; and when they do
leave it to earn a little money, they return with cheer-
fulnefs to their proper employment. Many of them
already raife from 10 to 60 bolls of grain, and have no
occafion to go off to other work ; which will foon be
the cafe with the whole. Their original flock, indeed,
did not often exceed L.25, and fome had not even
L. 10 ; but what was wanting in flock is compenfated
by induftry.
Of the whole inhabitants full nine-tenths are High¬
landers, from the neighbouring pariflies of Callander,
Balquhidder, &c.; a fober, frugal, and induftrious
people, who, inured to hardftiips in their own country,
are peculiarly qualified to encounter fo arduous an un¬
dertaking. From this circumftance, too, arifes a very
happy confequence ; that wearing a different garb and
fpeaking a different language from the people amongft
whom they are fettled, they confider themfelves in a
manner as one family tranfported to a foreign land.
And hence upon all occafions of difficulty, they fly
wuth alacrity to each others relief. Neither ought it
to be forgotten, that, from their firft fectlement to the
prefent day, not a Angle inftacce has occurred amongft;
them of theft,'bad neighbourhood, or of any other mif-
demeanour, that required the interpofition of the civil
magiftrate. Nor, however poor in circumftances, has
any one of them ever Hooped to folicit affiftance from
the funds of the parifli appropriated to that purpofe.
Though few of the tenants entered with a large
(lock, one only has been obliged to leave the mofs
from incapacity to proceed. Many indeed have fpent
their fmall flocks, and even run a little in debt: but
in this cafe they have been permitted to fell their tacks
upon the following conditions: iy?, That the purchafer
(hall be a good man ; zd. That the feller (hall take
another pofieffion. By this manoeuvre a new inhabi¬
tant is gained ; while the old one, relieved from debt,
and aided by paft experience, recommences his opera¬
tions with double fpirit upon a new poffeffion. The
monied man, again, has at once a houfe and a piece of
ground ; the want of which, chiefly, ilartled new be¬
ginners.
Some have even made a kind of trade of felling; in-
fomuch, that, from the year 1774 to the prefent year
1792, no fewer than fifty fales have taken place, pro¬
ducing in all the fum of L. 849 Sterling. This proved
from time to time a mod feafonable recruit to the co¬
lony, and gave new vigour and fpirits to the whole.
The number of the fettlers is produ&ive of an ex¬
cellent effedl ; that although fome are generally abfent,
enough dill remain to occupy the water eonftantly.
In a favourable day there may be feen hundreds, men,
women, and children, labouring with the utmoft affi-
duity. The women declare they can make more by
working at the mofs than at their wheel; and fuch
is the general attachment to that employment, that
they have frequently been difeovered working by
moon-light.
Another happy confequence arifing from their num¬
bers is the great quantity of mofs they confume for
fuel. There are in all 115 families. Each family
requires at an average 10 dargues(B) of peats yearly.
3 D 2 Each
(b) A dargue (or darg) of peats, is the quantity that one man can call and two can wheel in a day to the
field where they are Ipread out to dry, -
M O S
[ 396 ]
M O S
Mofs. Each darg uncovers a fpace equal to lofquare yards they have been ftruck), carfe oats are valued at 14s. Mofs.
' of clay: fo that by calling peats, the roofs tenants
gain yearly about 6 roods of land.
The advantage, too, of providing their fuel with fo
little trouble, is very great. They require yearly 1150
dargs of peats; which, as each darg when dried and
Hacked is valued at five {hillings, are worth 2871. 10s.
Sterling ; a fum which otherwife mull have been ex¬
pended on the prime coft and carriage of coals. Many
of them cat! peats for fale ; and L. 100 worth are
yearly difppfed of in the town of Stirling, the village
of Down, &c.
Though mofs-woik be laborious, it is at the fame
time amufing. The operator moves the mofs five feet
only at a medium ; and the water, like carts in other
cafes, carrying it off as fall as it is thrown in, excites
him to ?.£livity. Still he mult fubmit to be wet from
morning to night. But habit reconciles him to this
inconvenience; while his houfe and arable land fill his
eye and cheer his mind. Nor is it found that the
health of the inhabitants is in the fmalleft degree in¬
jured either by the nature of the work or the vicinity
of the mofs.
The quantity of mofs that one man can move in a
day is furprifing ; when he meets with no interrup¬
tion, feldom lefs than 48 cubic yards, each weighing
90 Hones. The weight, then, of mofs moved per day
is no lefs than 4320 Hones. A cubic yard is moved
into the water, and of courfe carried into the river
Forth for one farthing. It follows, that the expence
per boll. Inde 2400 bolls at 14s. is L. 1680.
A track of ground fo confiderable, formerly a
nuifance to the country, thus converted into a fertile
field, filled with inhabitants, comfortable and happy,
cannot furely be furveyed with an eye of indifference
by any perfon whofe mind is at all fufceptible of feeling
or of public fpirit.
An excellent gravelled road 20 feet wide and a
mile and a half long, is now carried quite acrofs the
mofs. By this means, in the firft place, a Ihort and
eafy intercourfe is effablilhed between two confidera¬
ble parts of the ellate, formerly as little connected as if
feparated by a lake or an arm of the fea. Secondly,,
the inhabitants of the Mofs, to whom, hitherto, all
paffage with carts or horfes was impradticable for at
lealt one half of the year, have now obtained the
effential advantage of being able, with eafe, to tranf-
port all their different commodities at every feafon o£
the year. This road was entirely formed by the hands,
of the mofs-tenants, and gravelled by their own carts
and horfes : a work which, it wiiLnot be doubted,,
they performed with much alacrity ; when it i's cop*
fidered that, to the prolpe& of procuring a lading and
material benefit to theinfelvcs, there was joined the.
additional inducement of receiving an immediate fup-
ply of money, the whole being done at the proprietor’s-
expence.
The poffelfions are laid off in the manner beff.fitted
for the operations ; and are divided by lanes running.
of moving 48 cubic yards is one Hulling. But the in Hraigbt lines parallel to each other. Parallel to
fame quantity moved to the fame difiance by carts
would coll 24 {hillings. Hence the advantage derived
from the poffibility of floating mofs in water, and the
great importance of having water for that purpofe.
The mofs, when contrafted with the rich lands fur-
rounding* appeared, efpecially before the improve¬
ments, a very dreary fpot; one wide unvaried wild,
totally unproductive, unfit even to furnilh fuftenance
to any animal, except here and there a few wretched
flraggling Iheep. Befides,it entirely cut off all connec¬
tion betwixt the farms on either fide ; amonglt which
no intercourfe was practicable but by a circuit of fe-
veral miles.
The feene is already greatly changed. The fol¬
lowing are the numbers of the inhabitants now refiding
in the mofs ; alfo of their cows and horfes, and of the
acres gaine^ by them from the mofs, together with
their produce.
Men ... 115
Women - - 113
Boys - - - 199
Girls - 193
Total 620
Number of cows, at leaft, - j 15
Ditto of horfes and carts, - 34
Ditto of acres cleared from mofs, - 300
The produce in bolls cannot be exaCtly alcertained:
but, confidering the goodnefs of the foil, may be fairly
Hated at 8 bolls per acre, inde 2400 bolls. ^
e the Haple commodity, the calculation
As oats £
thefe again the drains are carried ; and this firaight-
direCtion greatly lacilkates the progreis of the water
with its load of mois. Upon the bank of mofs front¬
ing the lanes, the operation of floating, is begun ; and
twenty or thirty people are fometiraes fe&n heaving-
mofs into the fame drain. That the water may be
the more conveniently applied, the lanes include be¬
tween them the breadth of two poffeffions only. The
new houfes are ereCted upon each fide of thefe lanes-
at the diitance of too yards from each other.
Before the formation of lanes and roads, and while
yet no ground was cleared, the firft fettlers were obli¬
ged to ereCt their houfes upon the lurface of the mofs.
Its foftnefs denied all accefs to ftenes ; which, at any
rate, are at fuch a diftance as would render them too-
expen five. Settlers, therefore, were obliged to con-
ftruCt their houfes of other materials. Upon the Low
Mofs there is found for this- purpofe great plenty of
fod or turf, which accordingly the tenants ufe for the
walls of their houfes. For the rudenefs of the fabric
nature in fome meafure compenfates,.by overfpreading
the outfide with a luxuriant coating of heath and
other raoorilh plants, which has a very pi&urefque ap¬
pearance.
But upon the High Mofs there is no fod to be found.
There the tenant mull go differently to work.
Having chofen a proper fituation for his houfe, he firft
digs four trenches down to the clay, fo as to feparate
from the reft of the mofs a folid mafs, containing an
oblong, redtangular area, fufficiently large for his in¬
tended houfe. This being done, he then fcoops out
fhall be confined to that grain. According to the liars the middle of the mafs, leaving on all fides the thick*
»i Stirlinglhire, crop 1790 (the laft crop for which nds of three feet for walls;, over which he throws a
roo£>
M O S 1 397 3 MOT
Mofs. roof, fuch as that by which other cottages are com-
—r~— monly covered.
Upon the fofteft parts of the mofs, even thefe walls
cannot be obtained. In fuch places the houfes are
built with peat dug out of the mofs, and clofely com-
preHed together while in a humid Hate (c). It is ne-
ceflary even to lay upon the furface a platform of
boards to prevent the walls from finking ; which they
have frequently done when that precaution was ne-
gledfed. After all, to ilamp with the foot will fhake
the whole fabric as well as the m*sfs for fifty yards
around. Tin’s, at firft, ftartled the people a good deal;
but cuilom foon rendered it familiar.
The colonifts have now made confiderable advance¬
ment in rearing better habitations for their comfort
and convenience. Their huts of turf are but tem¬
porary lodgings. As foon as they have cleared a little
ground, they build houfes of brick ; when the proprie¬
tor a fecond time furnilhes them with timber gratis.
It has alfo been found neceflary to relieve them en¬
tirely from the payment of the butdenfome tax upon
bricks ; a tax which finely was never intended to
fall on luch poor induftrious adventurers; and which,
without this afiiitance, w'ould have proved a moft effec¬
tual bar to the employment of thefe materials.
There are now eredlcd in the mofs 69 brick-houfis,
fubftantially built with lime. The total expence amount¬
ed to 1033 1. Sterling. And it is a very comfortable
cjrcumtlance, that the money expended upon thefe
houfes is moltly kept in circulation among the inhabi¬
tants themfdves: for as a number of them have
learned not only to manufafture but alfo to build
bricks, and as others who have horfes and carts fur-
niih the carriage of lime and coals, they thus inter¬
change fervices with each other.
With a view to excite the exertion of the eolonifts,
the following vpremiums have lately been offered :
1. To the perfon who lhall in the fpace of one year
remove the greateft quantity of mofs down to the
clay, a plough of the bed. conftruftion. 2. To the
petfon who fiiall remove the next greateft quantity,
a pair of harrows of the bell kind. 3. For the next
greateft quantity, a fpade of the beft kind, and iolb.
of red clover-feed. But as thefe premiums, if conteft-
cd for by the whole inhabitants, could reach but a
very few of the number, they have therefore been di¬
vided into fix diftridls according to their fituatios, and
the above premiums have been offered to each diftrid.
The eftabliftiment of this colony has no cfoubt been
attended with a very confiderable fliare of expence and
difficulty ; for the undertaking was altogether new,
and there were many prejudices againll it, which it
was neceffary to overcome. At the fame time it was
noble and interefting 1 it was to make a valuable ad¬
dition to private property : it was to increafe the po¬
pulation of the country, and to give bread to a num¬
ber of people ; many of whom having been turned out
of their farms and cottaries in the Highlands, might
©therwife, by emigration, have been loft to their coun¬
try ; and that too at a time when, owing to the Moft
great enlargement of farms, depopulation prevails but H
tod much even in the low countries. And it was to MotaaMa
add to the arable lands of the kingdom, making many
thoufand bolls of grain to grow where none ever grew
before.
Thefe confiderations have hitherto preponderated
with the proprietors again!! the various obftacles that
prefent themfelves to the execution of fo extenfive an
undertaking. Should their example tend in any de¬
gree to ftimulate others, who both in Scotland and in
England poffefs much ground equally ufelefs to the
country, to commence fimilar improvements, it would
be a moft grateful confideration fuperadded to the
pleafure already arifing from the progrels of the in
fant colony.
Moss-Troopers^ a rebellious fort of people in the
north of England, that lived by robbery and rapine,
not unlike the tories in Ireland, the bucaneers in Ja¬
maica, or banditti of Italy. The counties of Nor¬
thumberland and Cumberland were charged with an
yearly fum, and a command of men, to be appointed^
by juftices of the peace, to apprehend and fupprefs
them.
MOSTRA, in the Italian mufic, a mark at the end
of a line or fpace, to ffiow that the firft note of the
next line is in that place : and if this note be accom¬
panied with a {harp or flat, it is proper to place thefe-
eharadhrs along with the moftra
MOSUL, or Mousul. See Mocsul.
MOTAC1LLA, in ornithology, the Wagtail and plate
Warbler : A genus of birds of the order of pafferes ; CCCXW
diftinguifhed by a ftraight weak bill of a Tubulated
figure, a tongue lacerated at the end, and very fien-
der legs,
1. The alba, or white wagtail, frequents the fides
of ponds and fmall fireams, and feeds on infeds and'
worms. The head, back, and upper and lower fide op
the neck, as far as the breaft, are black ; in fome the
chin is white, and the throat marked with a black
crefcent: the breaft and belly are white ; the quill-
feathers are dufky ; the coverts black, tipt and edged>
with white. -The tail is very long, and always in mo¬
tion. Mr Willoughby dbferves, that this fpecies ftiifts
its quarters in the winter ; moving from the north to
the fouth of England during that feafon. In fpring.
and autumn it is a conftant attendant on the plough^
for the fake of the worms thrown up by that inftru-
ment, Thefe-birds make their neft on the ground,
compofed of dry grafs, fine fibres of roots, and mofs.
lined within with hair or feathers. The eggs are
five in number, white, fpotted with brown ; and for
the moft part there is only one brood in a year.
2, The flava, or yellow wagtail, migrates in the.
north of England, but in Hampffiire continues the
whole, year. The male is a bird of great beauty : the-'
breaft, belly, thighs, and" vent-feathers, being of a
moft vivid and lovely yellow: the throat is marked.'
with fbme large black fpots; above the eye is a bright,
yellovv
(e) This does not apply to the merafs, upon the furface of which, it has already been okfemd, it is
impoffible to erect houfes in any lhape.
3
MOT r 398 ] MOT
Motacllla. yellow line : beneath that, from the bill, crofj the
eye, is another of a dulky hue ; and beneath the eye
is a third of the fame colour: the head and upper
part of the body is of an olive-green, which brightens
in the coverts of the tail; the quill-feathers are duiky;
the coverts of the wings olive-coloured; but the lower
rows duiky, tipt with yellowilh white ; the two out-
moft feathers of the tail half white ; the others black,
as in the former. The colours of the female are far
more obfcure than thofe of the male : it wants alfo
tliofe black fpots on the throat. It makes its neft on
the ground, in corn-fields: the outfide is compofed of
decayed Hems of plants, and fmall fibrous roots ; the
iniide is lined with hair : it lays five eggs.
3. The regulus, or gold-crefted wren, is a native of
Europe, and of the correfpondent latitudes of Afia
and America. It is the leaft of all the European
birds, weighing only a Angle drachm. Its length is
about four inches and an half; and the wings, when
fpread out, meafure little more than fix inches. On
the top of its head is a beautiful orange-coloured fpot
called its crrjl, which it can hide at pleafure; the
margins of the crefl; are yellow, and it ends in a pret¬
ty broad black line ; the fides of the neck- are of a
beautiful yellowilh green ; the eyes furrounded with a
white circle ; the neck and back of a dark green mix¬
ed with yellow ; the breaft of a dirty white ; the tail
compofed of 12 feathers of a brown colour, an inch
and an half long, but not forked. In America it
afibciatcs with the titmice, running up and down
the bark of lofty oaks with them, and collecting
its food in their company, as if they were all of
one brood. It feeds on infe&s lodged in their win¬
ter dormitories in a torpid ftate. It is faid to fing
very melodioufly.
4. The fialis, or blue-bird, is a native of moll parts
of North America ; and is about the bignefs of a fpar-
row. The eyes are large ; the head and upper part
of the body, tail, and wings, are of a bright blue,
excepting that the ends of the feathers are brown. The
throat and breaft are of a dirty red. The belly is white.
It flies fwiftly, having very long wings; fo that the
hawk generally purfues it in vain. It make its neft
in holes of trees ; refembles our robin-red breaft in its
difpofition, and feeds only on infeCls.
5. The futoria, or taylor-bird, is a native of the
Eaft-Indies. It is remarkable for the art with which
it makes its neft, feemingly in order to fecure itfelf and
its young in the moft perfeCt manner poflible againft
all danger from voracious animals. It picks up a dead
leaf, and fews it to the fide of a living one : its (lender
bill is the needle, and its thread is formed of forne fine
fibres ; the lining is compofed of feathers, goflamer,
and down. The colour of the bird is light-yellow ;
its length three inches ; and its weight only three-
fixteenths of an ounce : fo that the materials of the
neft and its own fize are not likely to draw down a ha¬
bitation depending on fo flight a tenure.
6. The lucinia, or nightingale, exceeds in flze the
hedge-fparrow. The bill is brown : the irides are
hazel: the head and back pale tawny, dafhed with
olive : the tail is of a deep tawny red; the under parts
pale alb-colour, growing white towards the vent: the
quills are cinereous brown, with the outer margins
reddilh brown : the legs cinereous brown. The male
and female are very fimilar. This bird, the moft famed
of the feathered tribe for the variety, length, and Mo
fweetnefs of its notes, is migratory, and fuppqfed to
be an inhabitant of the Afiatic regions during fuch
times as it is not to be found in Europe. It is met
with in Siberia, Sweden, Germany, France, Italy, and
Greece ; but in all thofe places it is migratory, as in
England. Hafielquift fpeaks of it as being in Pale-
ftine; and Fryer afeertains its being found about
Chulminor in Perfia : it is alfo fpoken of as a bird of
China, Kamtfchatka, and Japan ; at which laft place
they are much efteemed, and fell dear; as they are
alfo at Aleppo, where they are “ in great abundance
kept tame in houfes, and let out at a fmall rate to fuch
as choofe it in the city, fo that no entertainment i»
made in the fpring without a concert of theft birds.”
They are not found in America, though ftveral of
their birds improperly bear that name ; and it is un¬
certain whether they are found in Africa. This bird
vifits Britain in the beginning of April, and leaves
us in Auguil; and during its continuance with us its
range is confined to but a part of the ifland : it is not
found in Scotland, Ireland, or North Wales, nor in
any of the northern counties except Yorkfture ; and it
does not migrate fo far to the weft as Devsnfhire and
Cornwall. They are folitary birds, never uniting in¬
to even fmall flocks ; and in refpeft to the nefts, it is
very ftldom that two are found near each other. The
female builds in fome low bufh or quickftt hedge
well covered with foliage, for fuch only this bird fre¬
quents; and lays four or five eggs of a greenilh brown.
The neft is compoftd of dry leaves on the outfide,
mixed with grafs and fibres, lined with hair or down
within, though not always alike. The female alone
fits on and hatches the eggs, while the male not far
off regales her with his delightful fong ; but as foon
as the young are hatched, he commonly leaves off
finging, and joins with the female in the talk of pro¬
viding for and feeding them. After the young can
provide for themftlves, the old female provides for a
ftcond brood, and the fong of the male recommences.
They have been known to have three broods in a year,
and in the hot countries even four. Theft birds are
often brought up from the n.eft for the fake of their
fong. They are likewift caught at their firft coming-
over ; and though old birds, yet by management
can be made to biar confinement, and to fiug equally
with thoft brought up from the nelt. None but the
vileft epicure, as Mr Latham remarks, would think
of eating theft charming fongfters ; yet we are told
that their flelh is equal to that of the ortolan, and
they are fatted in Gaftony for the table. Every
fthool-boy muft have read of Heliogabalus eating of
nightingales tongues ; and that famed dilh of the Ro¬
man tragedian JEfop, which was compoftd of thoft
of every finging or talking bird, and is faid to have
coft about L. 0843 of our money.
7. The hippolais, or pettychaps, is femewhat lefs
than a linnet. The bill is Ihort; the upper mandible
black, the under kluilh: above and ,below the eye
there is a yellowifh line : the head, neck, and upper
parts are of a greenilh alb-colour ; the quills and tail of a
mouft-colour, with greenilh edges and black lhafts ; and
the under wing-coverts are yellow : the belly is of a fil-
very white ; the breaft darker, and tinged with yellow :
the legs are bluifli or lead-colourecf. This fpecies is fre¬
quent in ftveral parts of England, and makes a neft
M*0 T C 399 1 M O t
Motsciila of an arched form, compofed of dry bents, mixed
with a little mofs, and thickly lined with feathers:
it is placed on the ground under a tuft of grafs or at
. the bottom of a buft. The eggs are five in number,
white, fprinkled all over with fmall red fpots, moft
fo at the largeft end. In Dorfetfhire it is known by
the name of hay-bird. In Yorkfhire is is called the
beam-bird, from its neftling under beams in outbuild-
ings.
8. The atricapilla, or blackcap, is fmaller than the
pettichaps. The bill is brown : the top of the head
is black ; and the upper parts of the body are of a
greenifh afh-colour: the fades of the head and under
parts are grey, changing to very light grey, ©r al-
moft white, towards the vent: the quills and tail are
cinereous brown, margined with the fame colour as
the upper parts: legs are lead-coloured, and the claws
black. This bird is pretty common in England, and
elfewhere in Europe, as far as Italy ; in all which
places it is known to breed ; coming in fpring, and
retiring in September. ' In Italy it builds twice in
the year; with us only once. The nefl, which is
generally placed in fome low bufh not far from the
ground, is compofed of dried ftalks, mixed with a
little wool and green mofs round the verge ; the in-
fide line^' with the fibres of roots, thinly covered with
black horfe-hair. The eggs are five in number ; of
a pale reddifh brown, mottled with a deeper colour,
and fprinkled with a few dark fpots. The male and
female fit by turns during incubation ; and the young
very early leap out of the neft, especially if any o’ne
approaches it, and forfake it for ever. The food is
chiefly infecfts ; but in defeft of thefe they will eat
the fruits of fpurge laurel, fervice, and ivy ; and fe.ems
to be even fond of the laft, as they much frequent fuch
trees as are overgrown with it. The fong is much
efteemed, and in many things almoft equalling the
nightingale itfelf; fcarcely deficient, except in the de¬
lightful variety of note of the lull named bird. Hence
by many it has been named the mock nightingale.
9. The modular!?, or hedge-fparrow, a well-known
bird, has the back and wing coverts of a dufky hue
edged with reddifh brown ; rump of a greenifh brown ;
throat and breaft of a dull afh-colour ; the belly a dirty
white ; and the legs of a dull flefh-colour. This bird
frequents hedges in England ; where it makes its nefl:
of mofs and wool, lining it with hair ; and lays four or
five eggs of a fine pale blue. With us and the more
northern regions it is feen at all feafpns ; but in France
it is migratory, coming in October and departing
northward in fpring. The note of this bird would be
thought pleafant, did it not remind us of the approach
of winter; beginning with the firft frofts, and conti¬
nuing till a little time in fpring. Its often repeating
the words tit, tit, tit, has occafioned its being called
titling ; a name it is known by in many places.
i o. The phcenicurus, or red ftart, is fomewhat lefs
than the red-breaft : the forehead is white ; the crown
f of the head, hind part of the neck, and back, are
deep blue grey ; the cheeks and throat black ; the
breaft, rump, and Tides, red; and the belly is white:
the two middle tail-feathers are brown ; the reft red ;
and the legs are black. The female has the top of
the head and back cinereous grey ; -chin white. The
fame parts are red in this fex as in the male, but not
fo bright. The wings are brown in both fexes. This Motacilli,
bird is migratory ; coming hither in fprmg, and depart- —-v-—'
ing in autumn about October. It is not fo fhy as
many birds in refpedt to itfelf ; for it approaches ha-
bitati. ns, and frequently makes its neft in fome hole
of a wall where numbers of people pafs by fr equently :
yet it is content, if no one meddles with the neft ; for
the leaft derangement of the eggs, cr almoft looking
at them, efpecially if the female is diftnrbed thereby,
caufes her to forfake the neft altogether. It frequent¬
ly builds alfo in fome hole of a tree. • The neft is
eompofed chiefly of mofs, lined with hair and feathers.
The eggs are blue, and four dr five in number. This
bird frequently wags its tail; but does it fideways like
a dog when he is pleafed, and not up and down like
the wagtail. It is with difficulty that thefe birds are
kept in a cage; nor will they fubmit to it by any
means if caught old. Their fong has no great ftrength :
yet it is agreeable enough; and they will, if taught
young, imitate the note of other birds, and fing by
night frequently as well as in the day-time.
11. The falicaria, or fedge-bird, is about the fize of
the blackcap, but more flender. The head is brown,
marked with dufky ftreaks : the cheeks are brown ;
with a white line over each eye, and above that a
black one : the .upper parts of the neck and back are of
a reddifh brown; and the wing-coverts and quills dufky:
the under parts are-white ; but the breaft and belly
have a yellow tinge : the tail is brown, and much round¬
ed ; and the legs are dufky. This bird is common in-
England, and frequents places where reeds and fedges
grow, among which it is faid to make the neft, though
it has been known to do this on the loweft branches
of trees. The neft is compofed of ftraw and tflaed
fibres of plants, lined with hair; and the eggs five in
number, of a dirty white, marbled with brown. It
Is cbferved to .imitate the note of the fwallow, fky-lark,
houfe-fparrow, and other birds, in a pleafing but hur¬
rying manner, and fings all night.
12. The ficedula, or epicurean warbler, is in length
five inches: the upper parts are grey brown.; the un-
der parts greyifli white, with a tinge of brown on the
breaft ; and the legs are blackifh. This is a bird much
efteemed on the continent for the delicate flavour of
its flefh. Their chief food is infefts; except in au¬
tumn, when they make great feavock among the figs
aift grapes ; whence it is fuppofed their great delicacy-
in fome meafure arifts. It is not found in England,,
but met with in moft of the intermediate parts be¬
tween Sweden and Greece ; where, however, it is on¬
ly a fummer-inhabitant, probably retiring A ill more
fouth at the approach of winter. In the ifle of Cy-
prus and Candy they abound greatly, infomuch as to
be an article of commerce. They tranfport them in
veffels filled with vinegar and fweet herbs: the ifle of
Cyprus alone colkfts 1000 or 1200 of thefe pots every
year.
j 3. The rubecula, or red-breaft, is univerfally known
the upper parts are of a green-iih afh-colour ; the fore- '
head, throat, neck, and breaft, a rufous orange ; the
belly and vent whitiih ; the bill, legs, and fides of the
body, dufky. It is a con flint inhabitant of thefe:
kingdoms, as well as the whole European continent
from Sweden to Italy. It abounds in Burgundy and
Lorraine, where numbers are taken For the table, and.
thought
MOT [ 400 ] M O® T
Mntac ills, thought excellent. It builds not far from the ground
t*"-v if in a bu(h ; though fometimes it fixes on an out-
houfe, or retired part of fome old building. The neft
is compofed of dried leaves, mixed with hair and niofs,
and lined with feathers. The eggs are of a dufky
white, marked with irregular reddilh fpots ; and are
from five to feven in number. The young, when full
feathered, may be -taken for a different bird, being
fpotted all over. The firft rudiments of the red break
■forth on the breaft about the end of Auguft ; but it
is quite the end of September befor,* they come to
the full colour. -Infers are their general food ; but
in dcfeft of thefe they will eat many other things.
No bird is fo tame and familiar as this; clofely at¬
tending the heels of the gardener when he is ufing
his fpade, for the fake of wTorms; and Frequently in
winter entering houfes where windows are open, when
they will pick up the crumbs from the table while the
family is at dinner. Its familiarity has caufed a petty
name to be given it in feveral countries. The people
about Bornholm call it Tommuliden ; in Norway, Peter
Ronfmad; the Germans, Thomas Gicrdet; and we, the
Robin Red-breaft.
14. The rubicola, or (Icne-chatter, is in length
about four inches and three quarters. The male has
■the upper parts of the body mixed^blackifh and pale
rufous : on each fide the neck there is a tranfverfe ftreak
of white.: the breaft is of a reddifh yellow ; the belly
paler : and the legs are black. The female has the co¬
lours much lefs vivid. This bird inhabits dry places,
fuch as heaths and commons ; living on infedis of all
kinds. It makes its neft early, at the foot of fome
low bufti, or under a ftone ; and lays five or fix eggs
of a bluifh green, fparingly marked with faint rufous
ipots. It is fo very crafty as not to betray the place
of the neft, never alighting but at fome dillance, and
creeping on the ground to it by the greateft Health.
It is a reftlefs bird, inceffantly flying from bufh to bufti;
and feems to have reteived its Englifh name from its
note, refembling the clicking of two ftones together.
15. The rubctra, or whin-chat; is fomewhat bieger
than the ttone-chatter. The upper parts are blackifh,
edged with rufous: from the bill arifes a ftreak of
white, which paftes over the eye on each fide, almoft
to the hind head : beneath this ths checks are black-
i!h ; the chin is white ; the reft of the under parts
rufous white: on the wing, near the flioulder, is a
tranfverfe white mark, and another fmaller near the
baftard wing, on the outer edge : the legs are black.
The female differs in being pai r, and the fpots on the
wings and the white trace over the eye being far lefs
confpicuous. This is not uncommon in Britain, and
is feen along with the ftone-chatter on the heaths du¬
ring the fummer months ; where it breeds, making
the neft much after the manner of that bird. It lays
five dirty white eggs, dotted with black. This fpecies is
common hlfo on the continent of Europe, in France,
Italy, Germany, and the more temperate parts of
Ruffia ; but it is faid to be lefs common than the
ftone-chatter there, as it is alfo in England. Its food
is ghiefly infefts ; and is faid to be as good as the or¬
tolan, when fat and in good condition.
16. The oenanthe, or wheat-ear, is in length five
inches and a half. The top of the head, hind part
of the neck, and back, are of a bluifti grey ; and over
N° 230.
the eye a ftreak of white : the under parts of the bo- Motseill*.
dy yellowiftr white, changing to pure white at the " y—
vent: the breaft is tinged with red ; and the legs are
black. This bird is met with in moft parts of Eu¬
rope, even as far as Greenland ; and fpecimens have
alfo been received from the Eaft Indies. It vifits Eng¬
land annually in the middle of March, and leaves us
in September. It chiefly frequents heaths. The
neft is ufually placed under (belter of fome turf,
clod, ftone, or the like, always on the ground, and
not unfrequently in fome deferted rabbit-burrow. It
is compofed of dry grafs or mofs, mixed with wool,
fur of the rabbit, &c. or lined with hair and feathers.
The eggs are from five to eight in number, of a light
blue, with a deeper blue circle at the large end. The
young are hatched the middle of May. In fome parts
of England thefe birds are in vaft plenty. About Eaft-
bourn in Suffex they are taken in fnares made of horfe-
hair placed beneath a long turf: Being very timid
birds, the motion of a cloud or the appearance of an
hawk will drive them for (helter into thefe traps, and
fo they are taken. The numbers annually enfnared in
that diftridt alone amount to about 1840 dozen, which
ufually fell at fixpence per dozen. Quantities of thefe are
eaten on thefpot bythe neighbouring inhabitants; others
are picked, and fent up to the London poulterers;
and many are potted, being as much efteemed in Eng¬
land as the ortolan on the continent. Their food is
infefts only ; though in rainy fummers they feed much
on earth-worms, whence they are fatteft in fuch fea-
fisms.
17. The cyanea, or fuperb warbler, a moft Beau¬
tiful fpecies, is five inches and a half long. The bill
is blade: the feathers of the head are long, and (land
ereft like a full creft; from the forehead to the crown
they are of a bright blue ; from thence to the nape,
black like velvet: through the eyes from the bill there
runs a line of black ; and beneath the eye fprings a
tuft of the fame blue feathers ; beneath which, and
on the chin, it is of a deep blue almoft black, and
feeling like velvet: on the ears is another patch of
blue, and acrofs the back part of the head a band of
the fame; the whole giving the head a greater appear¬
ance of bulk than is natural: the hind part of the
neck, and upper parts of the body and tail, are of a
deep blue black ; the under, pure white: the wings
are dufley ;.the (hafts of the quills chefnut : the legs
are dufky brown ; the claws black. It inhabits Van
Diemen’s Land, the moft fouthern part of New Hol¬
land. The female of this fpecies, of which a figure is
. given in Phiilip’s Voyage to Botany. Bay, is difeover-
ed to be entirely deftitute of all the fine blue colours,
both pale and dark, by which the male is adorned,
except that there is a very narrow circle of azure
round each eye, apparently on the (kin only : all the
upper feathers confift of (hades of brown, an! the
whole throat and belly is pure white. Except from
the (hape and fize, this bird would not be fufpeifted
at firft fight to- belong to the fame fpecies as the male :
the epithet of fuperb applies very ill to the female.
• 18. The troglodytes, of wren, is a very fmall fpe¬
cies, in length only three inches three quarters, though
fome have meafured four inches. The bill is very (len¬
der, and of a dufley brown colour : the head, neck,
and back, are of a reddfth brown ; and over each eye
a
MOT E 40! ] MO T
a pale rccMi'fll white ftrgak ; the under parts, as far a?
II- the bread, are of this laft colour; the reft more in-
M-othe' , dined to brown, crofted with brown lines : the leg*
are pale brown. It generally carries the tail ere<St.
The neft is of a curious cenftru&ion, in fhape almoft
oval, and has only one fmall entrance : it is chiefly
compcfed of mofs, well lined wiih feathers. In thjs
the female lays from to to 16 or even 18 eggs, which
are alrooft white, with reddilh markings at the large
end. She builds twice in a year, in April and June.
The neft is frequently found in fome corner of an out-
lioufe, Hack of wood, hole in a wall, or fuch like, if
near habitations; but in the woods pften in a bu(h
near the ground, in a ftump of a tree, or on the ground
itfelf. This minute bird is found throughout Europe ;
and in England it defies our fevereft winters. Its fong
is much efteemed, being, though fhoit, a plealing
warble, and much louder than could be expe&ed from
the fize of the bird : it continues throughout the year.
Above 150 other fpecies, befides varieties, are enu¬
merated by ornithqlogifts.
MOTE, in law-books, fignifies court or conven¬
tion ; as a ward mote, burgh-mote, fwain-mote, See.
Mote, was alfo ufed for a fortrefs or caftle ; as
tnota de Windfor^SiC.
Mote alfo denoted a ftanding water to keep fi(h in ;
and fometimes a large ditch encompafling a caftle or
dwelling-houfe.
MotBell, or Mot-Bell, the bell fo called, which
was ufed by the Englifti Saxons to call people toge¬
ther to the court. See Folkmote.
MOTH, in zoology. See Phal^na.
MO,THE L£ VAYER (Francis de la), counfel-
lor of ftate, and preceptor to the duke of Anjou only
brother to Louis XIV. was borti at Paris in the year
1588. He was well educated by a learned father,
whofe merits and employment rendered him of confe-
quence ; and he became fo eminently learned himfelf,
and diftinguiftied by his writings, that he was confi-
dered as one of the beft members of the .French aca¬
demy, into which .he was admitted in the year 1639.
He was loved and confidered by the two cardinals
Richelieu and Mazarine, who governed France fuc-
ceflively. Splendid titles and honourable polls were
beftowed upon him. He was appointed preceptor to
the duke of Anjou, as we have faid, and would have
been preceptor alfo to the king his brother, if the
queen had not taken a particular fancy not to have
that place beftowed on a married man : though Mo-
mi in his Di&ionary, and Peliflbn in his Hiftory of
the French Academy, both affirm that he was pre¬
ceptor to his majefty for the fpace of one year. He
was a man of a very regular conduct, and a true phi-
lofopher in his manners ; yet was fufpedled of having
no religion. As great a philofopher as he was, how¬
ever, he was extremely affiufted at the lofs of his only
fon, who died when about 35 years of age ; and his
grief difordered him fo much that in three months
after he married again, although he was above 75 years
old. Le Vayer lived a long time after his fecond mar¬
riage, and died in the year 1672. His works, col¬
lected into a body by his fon, were dedicated to car¬
dinal Mazarine in 1653 : but the beft and completeft
collection of them was that of Paris 1669, dedicated
to Louis XIV. and confiding of j5 volumes in ismo.
Vol. XII. Part II.
“ There is no final! advantage (fays Bayle) to be made M diet-,
of reading this writer: ami we have no French author , Motlon-i
that approaches nearer to Plutarch than be. We find J'"v
beautiful thoughts and folid arguments interwoven and
difperfed through all he wrote ; wit and learning gp
hand in hand. His treatife concerning the education
of the dauphin, and that of pagan philofophy, are
the beft which he hath written ”.
MOTHER, a term of relation, denoting a woman
who hath born a child.
Mother oj Pearl. See Mytilus. t
MOTION is now generally confidered as incapable Motion,
of definition, being a Ample idea or notion received
by the fenfes. The ancients, however, thought dif¬
ferently. Some of them defined it to be a paflage
out of one fate into another ; which conveys no idea
to him who is ignorant of the nature of motion.—
The peripatetic definition has been mentioned elfe-
where, and (hown to be wholly unintelligible, as well
as their celebrated divilion of motion into four claffes,
belonging to the three categories, quality, quantity, and 1
•where ; (fee Metaphysics, n& 188, 189, 190.) The Severa’de,
Cartefians, too, among the moderns,, pretend to finmons of.
fine motion, by calling it a paflage or removal of one ~
part of matter, out of the neighbourhood of thofe
parts to which it is immediately contiguous, into the
neighbourhood of others. Borelli defines motion to
be the fucceffive paflage of a body from place to place.
Others fay that it is the application of a body to dif¬
ferent parts of infinite and immoveable fpace ; and a
late writer * of uncommon acutenefs has given as a de- * See
finition of motion—change of place.
We have elfewhere offered our opinion of every M^c'baJ/L
poffible attempt to define motion ; but as the author Nature,
of the laft quoted definition has endeavoured to obvi-^y Robert
ate fuch objedions as ours, candour requires that he You“£*
be heard for himfelf. “ It is faid (he obferves) by
fome, that change implies motion, and therefore can¬
not be a part of its definition, being the very thing
defined. To this I anfwer, We are fpeaking of the
fenfible idea of motion, as it appears to our fight;
now changes do appear to our view, and to all our
fenfes, which give us no idea of motion. Changes in
heat or cold ; in colour, flavour, fmeli, found, hardnefs,
foftnefs, pain, pleafure ; in thefe, and many other
ideas, changes do not produce ideas like that produ¬
ced by a ball rolling or a ftone falling. We may, per¬
haps, ultimately trace them to motion, but to infen-
fible motions'; to motions which arife only in reflec¬
tion, and conftitute no part of the adual idea of
change. We can, therefore, conceive of change,
without conceiving at the fame time of motion 
Change is a generic idea, including many fpecies ;
motion, as a fenfible idea, is a fpecies of that genus.
Change is therefore a neceffary part of the definition
of motion ; it marks the genus of the thing Refined-
Motion is a change ; but as there are many fpecies of
change, which of thofe fpecies is motion ? The an¬
fwer is, It is a change of place. This marks the fpe¬
cies ; and diftinguiihis it from change of colour, oft s?e
temperament, and figure.” Reid’sae£
This is the ableft defence of an attempt to de- Anfto"e’t
fine motion that we have ever feen ; and at firft view logic, ta
the definition itfelf appears to be perfedl. Ariftotle,Ii0r,i
the prince of Refiners, “ confiders a definition r as
IT- I > olttecsi or
3 ^ ipeech Man.
MOT f 402 ] MOT
Motion, fpeech declaring what a thing is- Every thing eflen-
^ » “ tial to the thing defined, and nothing more, muft be
contained in the definition. Now the effence of a
thing confifts of thefe two parts: ftrft, what is com¬
mon to it with other things of the fame kind ; and fe*
condly, what dijlingnijhes it fr@m other things- of the
fame kind. The firft is called the genus of the thing ;
the fecond, \t% Jpecific difference. The definition, there¬
fore, confrfts of thofe two parts ”
Shown not obedience to this rule, the definition under con-
te declare fideration feems to confift of the genus, fignified by the
what the worc} thange; and of the fpecific difference, denoted by the
thli there- words ff place. But does the fpeech change of place
foreVfbe really declare what motion is ? We cannot admit that
no defini- it does ; as, in our apprehenfion, a change of place is the
tion. effect of motion, and not motion itfelf. Suppofe a lover
of dialeftic undertaking to define the ftroke by which
he faw his neighbour wounded with a bludgeon ; what
fhould we think of his art were he to call it a contu-
fion on the head ? He might fay that contufion is a ge¬
neral term, as contuftbns may be produced on the
arms, on the legs, and on various parts of the body ;
and as there are many fpeeies of contufion, if he were
afked which of thofe fpecies was the ftroke to be de¬
fined, he might aafwer, “ a contufion on the head.”
Here would be apparently the genus and fpecific diffe¬
rence ; the former denoted by contufion, and the latter by
the words on the head. Blit would this be a definition
•f a ftroke ? No, furely : a contufion on the head may
be the effeS of a ftroke; but it can no more be the
Jiroke itfelf, than a blow can be a bludgeon, or a flefh-
wound the point of a fword. Equally evident it is,
that a change of place cannot be motion ; becaufe
every body muft have been actually moved before we
can difcern* or-even conceive, a change of its place.
The act of changing place would perhaps come nearer
to a definition of motion ; but fo far would’it be from
u a fpeech declaring what motion is,” that we are
confident.a man who had never by any of- his fenfes
perceived a body in aftual motion, would acquire no
ideas whatever from the words “ a£V of changing
place.” He might have experienced changes in heat,
cold, fmelli and found; but he could not poffibly
combine the ideas of fuch changes with the figntfica-
tion of the word place, were he even capable of under-
ftanding that word, which to us appears to be more
than doubtful. (See MfeTAPHYSics, n0 40, 41.)
Ttie difllnc- The. diftin&ions of motion into different kinds have
tioiis of mo-been no lefs various, and no Ms infignificant, than the
tion into- feveral definitions of it. The moderns who rejedt
WndsTrifi t^ic Per‘Patet‘c divifion of motion into four claffes, yet
iiifkant.'g* confider it themfelves as either abfolute or relative. Thus
we are told, that “ abfolute motion is. the change of ab¬
folute place, and that its celerity muft be meafured by
the quantity- of abfolute fpace which the moving body
runs through in a-given time;” “ Relative motion, on
the other hand, is a mutation of the- relative or>vulgar
place ot the moving body, and has its celerity elti-
mated by the quantity of relative fpace rxm through.”
Now it is obvious, that this diftindtion conveys no
ideas without a farther explanation of the terms by
which it is expreffcd ; but that explanation is impof-
fible to be givenv Thus, before we can underftand what
abfolute motion is, we muft underftand what is meant by
nbfskte place,. But abfolute place is a contradiction } for
all place is Relative, and confifts in the pofitions of dif- Motion,
ferent bodies with regard to one another. Were a
globe in the regions of empty fpace to be put in mo¬
tion by Almighty Power, and all the reft of the cor¬
poreal world to be foon afterwards annihilated, the
motion would undoubtedly continue unchanged ; and
yet, according to-this diftindtiou', it would be at firftrt-
lative, and afterwards abfolute. That the beginning of
fiich a motion would be perceptible, and the remainder
of it imperceptible, is readily granted ; but on this ac¬
count to confider it as of two kinds, is as abfurd as to
fuppofe the motion of the minute-hand of a clock to
be affefted by our looking at it.
Leaving therefore thefe unintelligible diftin&ions* The ,>pi-
we now come to confider a queftion ftill of a very ab- nions of
ftrufe nature, but much agitated among philofophers,the t-arrc*.
viz. What is the original fource of motion in the cre- jq”^'1^ ot'
ation ? Is it natural to matter ? or are we toafcribe itr-^e&mg
to the immediate, and continual agency of Tome imma- the fourca:
teria! feeing ? The former hasbeen ftrenuoufty argued mocw>lv
by the Gartefians, and the latter by the Newtonians'.
The arguments of the former, founded upon the chi¬
merical hypothefis of vortices and the original conftruc-
tion of matter, were evidently inponclufive ; and the
hypothefis of Sir Ifaac Newton, who afferted that it
was naturally incapable of motion, appeared more pro¬
bable. To account for the quantity of motion in the
univerfe, therefore, it became neceffary to have recourit
either to the Deity, or to fome fubordinate fpirituai
agent; and this became the more neceffary, as the doc¬
trine of an abfolute vacuum in the celeftial fpaces, that
is, throughout the incomparably greateft part of the
creation, was one of the fundamental maxims of the
fyftem. As it was abfolutely denied that matter exit¬
ed in thefe fpaces, and it was plain that the celeftial
bodies affe&ed one another at immenfe diftances, the
powers of attraftion and repulfion were naturally called
in as the-iburces of motion by their impulfe upon inert
and fluggiih matter. Thefe being admitted, a ipecu-
lation enfued concerning their nature. Spiritual, it
was confeffed, they were ; but whether they were to
be accounted the immediate aftron of the divine Spirit
himfelf, or that of fome fubordinate and inferior fpirit,
was a matter of no little difpute. Sir Ifaac Newton*
towards the latter part of his life, began to relax fome-
what of the rigidity of his former doftrine; and allowed 6
that a very fubtile medium, which he called ather, a fubt'e
might be the caufe of attra&ion and repulfion, and aether the
thus of the whole phenomena of nature. Since hisPro^ah!e
time the multitude of difeoveries in ele&ricity, the ft-*'™ *£ion
milarity of that fluid to fire and light, with the vaftand repul-
influence it has on every part of the creation with fioi;,
which we are acquainted, have rendered it very pro¬
bable that the tether mentioned by Sir Ifaac is no other
than the element of fire, “ the moft fubtile f and ela-f Shis,
ftic of all bodies, which feems to pervade and expand n° jjj,
itfelf throughout the whole univerfe. Ele&rical ex¬
periments fliow that this mighty agent is everywhere
prefent, ready to break forth into aftion if not re-
ftrained and governed with the greateft wifdom. Be¬
ing always reftlefs and in motion, it- aftuates and en¬
livens the whole vifible mafs ; is equally .fitted to pro-
dnee and to deftroy; diftrnguilhes the various ftages
of nature, and keeps up the perpetual round of genes
rations and corruptions, pregnant with forma which
M O T
Motinn, jt conftarvtly fends forth and reforbs.
TOotions, fo fubtile and penetrating in its nature, fo
extenfive in its effefts, it feemeth no other than the
7 vegetative foul or vital fpirit of the world.
The opi- “ The animal fpirit in man is the inftrument both
oions of the 0f fenfe and motion. To fuppofe fenfe in the corpo-
ariuenteon reaj wor|(j woul(J be grofs and unwarranted; but loco-
16 'motive faculties are evident in all its parts. The Py¬
thagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics, held the world to
[ 403 ] MOT
So quick in its and fo fixed In its pores* or combined with its folid Motisn.
parts, as to gravitate together with it. Yet it is cer-V—^
tain, from the phenomenon of light darting from the
fun, that this elementary fire does not gravitate till it
is fixed in metal, or fome other folid fubftance.—
Here then we have a fluid which gravitates, if it
gravitate at all, in fome cafes and not in others. So
that which way foever the experiment be interpreted,
we are forced to conclude that elementary or folar fire
be an animal; though fome of them have chofen to .may be the caufe of the law of gravitation.1
confider it as a vegetable. However, the phenomena
do plainly (how, that there is a fpirit that moves, and
a mind or providence that prefides. This providence,
Plutarch faith, was thought to be in regard to the
world what the foul is in regard to man. The order
and courfe «f things, and the experiments we daily
make, Ihow that there is a mind which governs and
a&uates this mundane fyftem as the proper and rear
agent and caufe ; and that the inferior inftrumental
caufe is pure tether, fire, or the fubftance of light,
which is applied and determined by an infinite mind
in the macrocofm or univerfe, with unlimited power,
and according to ftated rules, as it is in the microcofm
with limited power and {kill by the human mind. We
have no proof either from Experiment or reafon of any
other agent or efficient caufe than the mind or fpirit.
When, therefore, we fpeak of corporeal agents, or cor¬
poreal caufes, this is to be underftood in a different,
That it is likewife in many cafes the caufe of repul-
fion, is known to every one who has feen it fufe metals,
and convert water and mercury into elaftic vapour.
But there is a fa<ft recorded by Mr Jones, which feems
to evince that the fame fluid, which as it iffues from
the fun exhibits itfelf in the form of light and heat,
is in other circumftances converted into a very fine air,
or cold aether, which ruffes very forcibly towards the
body of that luminary. “ As a fequel to what ha*
been obferved (fays he) concerning the impregnation
of folid fubftances with the particles of fire, give me
leave to fubjoin an experiment of M. de Stair. He tells
us, that upon heating red lead in a glafs, whence the
air was exhaufted by the rays of the fun colle&ed in
a burning-glafs, the veffel in which the faid red lead
was contained burft in pieces with a great noife. Now,
as all explofions in general mutt be afcribed either to
an admiffion of the air into a rarefied fpace, or to what
fubordinate, and improper fenfe ; and fuch an agent is called the generation of it; and as air was not admit-
g we know light or elementary fire to be.” ed upon this occafion, it muft have been generated
Experi- That this elementary fire, abforbed and fixed in all from the calx within the veffel ; and certainly was fo,
ments pro- bodies, may be the caufe of the univerfal principle of becaufe Dr Hales has made it appear that this fub-
ving that a gravity, is made fuflficiently evident by numberlefs ex- — — " • •«
ther'ma" periments. Homberg having calcined in the focus of
b/theun- a burning-glafs fome regulus of antimony, found that
mediate it had gained one-tenth in weight, though the regu-
catife of the}us during the whole time of the operation, fent up
nlanpf-arv 1 tn 11
ftance, like crude tartar and many others, will yield
periments. Homberg having calcined in the focus of a confiderable quantity of air in diftillation. What
went into the metal therefore fire, came out of it
again as air; which in a manner forces upon us con-
clufions of ineftimable value in natural philofophy.
&c.
thick fmoke, and thereby loft a confiderable part of and fuch as may carry us very far into the moil fub-
its own fubftance. It is vain to allege that any he- lime part of it.”
terogeneous matter floating in the air, or that the
itfelf, may have been hurried into the mafs by the ac¬
tion of the fire, and that by this additional matter the
weight was increafed : for it i| known experimentally,
that if a quantity of metal be even hermetically fecu-
red within a veffel of glafs to keep off the air and all
foreign matter, and the veffel be placed for fome time
in a ftrong fire, it will exhibit the fame effetft. “ I have
f EJfay an feen the operation performed (fays Mr Jonesf) on two
the Firji OUnces of pewter-filings, hermetically fealed up in a
S'*Florence flafk, which in two hours gained 55 grains,
Ailofofby. that is nearly one 17th. Had it remained longer in
One of the conclufions which the ingenious author
thinks thus forced upon us, is, that the motion of the
planets round the fun, as well as round their own axis, is
to be attributed to the continual agency of this fluid,
under its two forms of elementary fire and pure air. A*
fire and light, we know that it ruffes with inconcei¬
vable rapidity from the body of the fun, and penetrates
every corporeal fubftance, exerting itfelf fometimes with
fuch force as nothing with which we are acquainted 19
able to refift. If it be indeed a faft, that this ele¬
mentary fire, or principle of light and heat, afterwards
cools, and becomes pure air, there cannot be a doubt
the fire, it might probably have gained fomething but that under fuch a form it will return with great
qo of MrFtnvlp'fi f-vneriments. fti^l.filmors force, though furely in a fomewhat different direc¬
tion, towards the fun, forming, a vortex, in which the
planets are included, and by which they muft of
more; as, in one of Mr Boyle's experiments, fteel-filings
were foundfto have gained a fourth.
“ Of accounting for thefe effe&s there are but two
poflible ways: i.If the quantity of matter be the ceurfc be carried round the centre. Mr Jones does
fame, or, in the cafe of calcination, be fomewhat lefs,
after being expofed to the aftion of the fire, while
the gravity of the whole is become greater ; then
not fuppofe that the air into which the principle of
light and heat is converted, is of fo grofs a nature as
our atmofphere. He rather confiders it as cool sether.
the gravuy or me wnuic is uceuiac greater; men our amroipuere. rae ramer conuaers it as cool jether
does it follow, that gravity is not according to the juft as he reprefents light to be jether heated : but he
quantity of matter, and of courfe is not one of its
properties. 2. If there be an increafe of the mafs,
k can be imputed to nothing but the matter of light
©r fire entangled in its paffage through the fubftance.
maintains, that this sether, in its aerial form, though
not fit for human refpiration, is a better pabulum of
fire than the air which we breathe.
This theory is exceedingly plaufible ; and the au-
3 F 2 thor
MOT [ 404 ] MOT
Motion. thor fupports it by many experimcntg. He has not, one frame, and directed or governed in all Its parts byi Motion, ^
indeed, convinced us that the folar light is converted one fupreme and diftinft intelligence, this fyftem can- u—
or convertible into pure air ; but he has, by juft rea- not be accufed of atheifm, though perhaps it may of
fomng from undoubted fafts, proved that the whole miftake or impropriety.It
cxpanfe of heaven, as far as comets wander, is filled A theory of motion fomewhat fimilar to that of A new the*
not only with light, which is indeed obvious to the Berkeley, though in feveral refpe&s different from it,‘‘'V mo*
fenfes, but alfo with a fluid, which, whatever it may was not many years ago ftated with great clearnefs,
be called, fupplies the place of air in feeding the fire and fupported with much ingenuity, in An EJfay on
of thefe ignited bodies. the Powers and Mechanifm of Nature, intended to im->
The exift- That the motion of the heavenly bodies fhould re- prove, and more firmly eftablifti, the grand fupcrftruc-
enceuffuchfiflt from the perpetual agency of fuch a medium, ap- ture of the Newtonian fyftem. Mr Young, the au-
an aether, pears to us a much more ratsmal hypothecs, than that thor of the effay, admits, with moft other philofophers
doeTnot’ w hich makes them a& upon eabh other at immenfe dif- of the prefeht age, that body is compofed of atoms
iplerely tatces through empty fpaee. But the hypothefis is which are impenetrable to each other, and may be de-
folve the by .no means fo complete a folution of the phxnomena
phenome- as fome of its fond admirers pretend to think it. This
Ba’ fluid, whether called aether, heat, light, or air, is'ftill
material; and the queftion returns upon him who
imagines that it is fufficient to account for gravitation,
repulfton, magnetifm, and cohefion, &c. “ What
moves the fluid itfelf, or makes the parts of which it
is compofed cohere together ?” However widely it
may be extended, it is incapable of pofitive infinity ;
nominated folid. Thefe atoms, however, he docs not
eonfider as primary and fimple elements, incapable of
refolution into principles ; but thinks that they are
formed by certain motions of the parts of a fubftance
immaterial and effentially a&ive. r*.
As this notion is uncommon, and the offspring ofBv fupp®*
* vigorous mind, we (hall confider it more attentively
under the article Plastic Nature. It is mentioned atefpent|a!|v
prefent as a neceffary introduction, to the author’s theory ailive per-
and therefore may be divided into parts feparated from of motion,of which he attributesboth the origin and the
continuance to the agency of this elementary fubftance univer^:‘>
pervading the moft folid atoms of the denfeft bodies.
10
ft i* there¬
fore by
fame f.ip-
jofed to be
animated.
$ Sin's,
a° 477.-
each other ; fo that it muft be held together by a fo¬
reign force, as well as a ball of lead, ora piece of wax.
As matter is not effentially aftive, the motion of this Of every body and eveiy atom he holds the conftituent
xther, under both its forms, muft likewife he confidered principles te be effentially active : but thofe principles
as an effeCl, for whiclrwe do not think that any pro- aft in fuch a manner as to counterbalance each other;
pelling power in the body of the fun can. be admitted fo that the atom or body confidered as a whole is inert,
as a fufficient caufe. For how comes the fun to pof- unlefs in fo far as it refills the compreffion or fepara-
fefs that power, and what makes the fluid return to tion of its parts. No body or atom can of itfelf be-
the fun ? We have no notion of power, in the proper grn to move, or continue in motion for a Angle inftant;
fenfe of the word, but as intelligence and volition; but being pervious to the aftive fubftance, and coalef-
and, by the pious and excellent author of the PJ/ay on cing with it, that fubftance, when it enters any body,
the Fir)} Principles of Natural Philofophy, we are certain eanies it along with it, till, meeting fome other body
that the fun was never fuppofed to be intelligent. in the way, either the whole of the aftive fubftance
Bilhop Berkeley, who admits of light or aether as lodged in the'former-body paffes into the obftacle, in
the inftrumental caufe of all corporeal motion, gets rid which cale the impelling body inflaotly ceafes to-
of this difficulty, by fuppofing, with the ancients, that move ; or elfe part of that fubftance pafies into the ob-
this powerful agent is animated. “ According to ftacle, and part remains in the impelling body ; and in
the Pythagoreans and Platonics (fays his LordlhipJ), this cafe both bodies are moved with a velocity in
there is a life infufed throughout all things; the rup proportion to the quantity.of matter which each con-
n^vixtiv, an intelleftual and artificial fire, an tains, combined with the quantity ©£ aftive fubftance
by which they are refpeftively penetrated. t
In order to pave the way for his proof of the exift-pr00fs.of
ence of one uniform aftive fubftance, he obferves, the exift-
r    .......... ... that “ change being an effentially conftituent part of ence el fucfc
tue of this life, the great maffes are held together in motion, and change implying aftion, it follows that4 lu““anW:','
their oidinary courfes, as well as the minuteft particles all motion implies a8iont and- depends on an attrve caufe. -
governed in their natural motions, according to the Every motion (he continues) has a beginning, a mid-
feveral laws of attraftion, gravity, eleftricity, mag- die, and an end. The beginning is a change from reii
netifm, and the reft. It is this gives in ftinfts, teaches to motion ; the middle is a continuance in motion;,
the fpider her web, and the bee her honey. This it the end is a change from motion to reft.” He then
is that direfts the roots of plants to draw forth juices proceeds to (how, that the beginning of motion is by
from the earth, and the leaves and cortical veffels to an aftion begun; the continuance of motion by an:
feparate and attraft fuch particles of air and elemen- aftion continued ; and the end of motion by a cefla>
tary fire asfoit their refpeftive natures.’*1 tion of aftion.
This life or animal fpirit feems to be the fame thing “ The firft of thefe pofitions is-admitted by every-
which Cudworth calls plaftie nature, and which has body. That the continuance of motion is by an aftion.
been conlidered elfewhere. (SeeMETAPH Ysics,nP200, continued, vf'\W be proved, if it Ihall be ffiown that the
and Plastic Naturef We ffiall therefore difmifs.it continuance o£ a motion is nothing different from ita
at prefent, with juft admitting the truth of the Bi- beginning, in regard to any point of time affumed its
Ihop’s pofition, “ that if nature be fuppofed the^life the continued motion. Now the beginning of mo*
«£ the world,: animated by one foui^ comgafted into tion (he fays) confifts.in. the beginning of change of
inward principle, animal fpirit, or natuial life, produ¬
cing and forming within, as art doth without ; regula¬
ting, moderating, and reconciling the various motions,
qualities, and parts of this mundane fyftem. By 1'
MOT [ 405 ] MO T
Motion, place. But if any given portions of time and of fpace
^ are aflumed, a body beginning to move in the com¬
mencement of that time, and in the firft portion of
the fpace aflumed, then and there begins that parti¬
cular motion : and whether before the body began to
movfe in that fpace it was moving in other fpaces
and times, has no relation to the motion in queftion }
for this being in a fpace and time altogether diftinft,
is a diftinft motion from any which- might have pre¬
ceded it immediately, as much as from a motion which
preceded it a thoufand years before. It is therefore
a new motion begun ; and fo it may be faid of every
aflumable point in the continued motion. The term
continued ferves only to conneft any two diftinft mor
tions, the end of one with the beginning of the other ;
but does not deftroy their diftinftnefs.”
He then proceeds to combat, which he does very
fuccefsfully, the arguments by which the more rigid
Newtonians endeavour to prove that a body in mo¬
tion will continue to be moved by its own inertia, till
ftopt by fome opjlolite force. Having done this,
he eftablifhes the contrary conclufion by the following
fyllogifms:
“ I. Whatever requires an a£ive force to ftop
its motion, is difpofed'to move.
Every body in motion requires an aftive force to
ftop its motion:
Therefore every body in motion is difpofed to
move.
“ II. Whatever is difpofed to motion is pofleffed
of aftion.
But a body in motion is difpefed to continue in
motion.
'■i Therefore a body in motion is poffeffed of ac-
5 tion.
Thus it appears, that the middle part of any motion
is a&ion equally with the beginning.
“ The laft part of motion is its termination. It is
admitted that all motion is terminated by an action
contrary to the direction of the motion. It is ad¬
mitted, too, that the moving body a8s at the time its
motion is deftroyed. Thus the beginning and the end of
any uniform motion are confeftVd to be aftions ; but
all the intermediate continuation which connefts the be¬
ginning &ith the end is denied to be a&ion. What can
be more unaccountable than this denial ? Is it not
more confonant to reafon and analogy, to aferibe to
the whole continued motion one uninterrupted a&ion ?
Such a conclufion true philofophy, we think, requires
us to make.
“ To move or act, is an attribute which cannot be
conceived t® exift without a fubftance.; The aBion of
a body in motion is indeed the attribute of the body,,
and the body relatively to its own motion is truly a
fubftance, having the attribute or quality of motion..
But the body being a name fignifying a combination
of certain ideas, which ideas are found to arife from
L a&ion (fee Pljstic Nature), that ahtion which is
produ&ive of thofe ideas whole combination we de¬
nominate body, is of the nature of an attribute. In
other'terms, body is to be eonfidered as an attribute
fo long as it is coofidered as conftituted of aftion.—
To this attribute we muft necefiarily afiign its fub¬
ftance. The aftiona which conftitute body muft be"
adlions of Ihmetbing, or there muft be fomething-
which afts. What then is this active somethin® Motion,
from whofe agency we get the idea of body, or'~^r"~J
whofe a&ions conftitute body ? Is it not fufficient that
it is fomething a&ive ? A name might be furely giveit
it, but a name would not render the idea more clear.
Its defeription may be found in every fenfation it is.
colour to the eye, flavour to the palate, odour to the
nofe, found to the ear, and feeling to the touch ; for
all our fenfations are but fo many ways in which this
active something is manifelted to us. A fubftra-
tum of folidity philofophers have imagined to exift,
and have in vain fought to find. Our active sub¬
stance is the fubftratum fo long fought for, and with
fo little fuccefs. We give it a quality by which it
may be perceived ; it acts. One modification of ac¬
tion produces matter, another generates motion.
Thefe modifications of a&ion are modes of the ac¬
tive fubftance, whofe prefence is adtion : matter and
motion conftitute the whole of nature. There is
THEREFORE THROUGHOUT NATURE AN ACTIVE SUBSTANCE,
THE CONSTITUENT ESSENCE OF MATTER, AND IMMEDIATE
NATURAL AGENT IN ALL EFFECTS.” ^
By an argument which we do not think very con-which ia
clufive, our author determines this adfcive fubftance unintelM-*
to be unintelligent. “In our fenfations individual-8ent>'
ly, not difeovering (fays he) the traces, not feeing
the charadlers of intelligence, but finding only a&ion
prefent and neceftary, our inferences go no farther
'than our obfervations warrant us to do ; and we con¬
clude in -all thefe things an action only, and that ac¬
tion unintelligent.” Having given our opinion of
real agency elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, n° x 18.),
we Ihall not here ftop to examine this reafoning 
We may however afk, Whether all our fenfations indi¬
vidually be not excited for a certain end? If they be,
according to our author’s mode of arguing in another
place, the exciting agent fhould be an intelligent be¬
ing. By this we are far from meaning to deny the
reality of a fecondary or inftrumental caufe of fenfa¬
tion which is.deftitute of intelligence. Weareftrong-
ly inclined to think that there is fuch a caufe, though
our perfuafion refults not from this argument of our
author’s. In our opinion, he reafons better when he -
fays, “ that a fubordinate agent conftiufted as the mat¬
ter of creation, invefted with perpetual laws, and pro¬
ducing agreeably to thofe laws all the forms of being.,
through the varieties of which inferior intelligences
can, by progrefilve fteps, arrive ultimately at the fu~
. preme contriver, is more agreeable to our ideas of
dignity* and tends to imprefs us with more exalted
fentiments, than viewing the Deity directly in all the
individual impreffions we receive, divided in the infi¬
nity of particular events, and unawful, by his conti¬
nual prefence .in operations to our view infignificant
and mean.”
This aftive fubftance, or fecondary caufe* our an-
thor concludes to be neither matter n©r mind. “ Mat- ther
ter (fays he) is a being, as a whole quiefeent and in- nor rnkwC
active, but conftituted of aftive parts, which refill fe-
p a ration, or cohere:, giving what is ufually denomi¬
nated folidity to the mafs. Mind is a fubftance which,
thinks. A being which Ihould anfvver to neither of
thefe definitions, would be neither matter nor mind ;
but an immaterial, and, if I may fo fay, in immental tub-
ft a nee.” Such is the aftive fubftance of Mr Youngs ,
wi-iih* .
Motion,
The man-
which it is
Jupj oicd ti
ojpeiate,
MOT I 406 ] MOT
confulered as the caufc of raotfon, feems not there is no other receptacle than the impelled body to
to differ greatly from the plcjlic nature, hylarchicalpr'tn- which the fubftance parted from can be traced, nor » 1J
aple, or vis genitrix, of others. The manner in which any other fource than the adlive body whence that
it operates is indeed much more minutely detailed by which is found can be derived. Therefore, in impulfe,
our author than by any other philofopher, ancient the aftive fubftance ought to be concluded to pafs
•or modern, with whofe writings we have any acquaint- from the impelling body to the body impelled. The
auce. flowing of fuch a fubftance is a fufficient caufe of the
“ Every thing (he fays) muft be in its own nature communication of a&ivity, and no other rational caufe
Cither difpofed to reft or motion ; confequently the can be afligned.
active substance muft be confidered as a being natu- “ The continued motion of a body depends not
rally cither quiefcent or motive. But it cannot be upon its inertia, but upon the continuance of the ac-
naturally quiefcent; for then it could not be aftive, live fubftance within the body. The motion of a
becaufe adtivity, which is a tendency to motion, can- body is produced by the motion of the adtive fub-
not originate in a tendency to reft. Therefore the ftance in union with the body. It being evident, that
active substance is by nature motive, that is, tend- fince the adlive fubftance itfelf does always move, what-
ing to motion. The active substance is not folid, ever it is united to will be moved along with it, if no
_ and does not refill penetration. It is therefore inca- obftacle pnevent. In mere motion, the body moved
’, pable ofimpelling or of fuftaining impulfe. Whence it is the patient, and the adlive fubftance the agent. In
follows, that as it tends to move, and is incapable impulfe, the body in motion may be confidered as an
of having its motion impeded by impulfe, it muft ac- agent, as it is made adlive by its adlive fubftance.—
■tually and continually move: in other words, motion While the adlive fubftance is flowing out of the ac-
is essential to the active substance. tive body into the obftacle or impelled body, the ac-
“ In order that this fubftance may aff, fome other tive body will prefs or impel the obftacle. For while
thing upon which it may produce a change is necef- the adlive fubftance is yet within the body, although
fary ; for whatever fuffers an adtion, receives fome flowing through it, it does not ceafe to impart to the
change. The adlive fubftance, in adling on fome other body its own nature, nor can the body ceafe to be ac-
thing, muft impart and unite itfelf thereto ; for its tive, becaufe not yet deprived of the adlive fubftance. t
affion is communicating its aaivity. But it cannot Therefore, during its palling out of the body, fuch
-communicate its aftivity without imparting its fub- portion of the adlive fubftance as is yet within, is ur-
.ftance ; becaufe it is the fubftance alone which pof- ging and difpofmg the body to move, in like manner
feffes adlivity, and the quality cannot be feparated as if the adlive fubftaTice were continuing in the body;
from the fubftance. Therebore the active sub- and the body being thus urged to move, but impeded
stance acts by uniting itself with the substance from moving, prefles or impels the obftacle.
on which it acts. The union of this fubftance with “ We fee here (fays our author) an obvious ex-produ.e
bodies, is not to be conceived of as a jundlion of fmall planation of impulfe ; it confifts in the flowing of the‘mPulle»
■parts intimately blended together, and attached at motive fubftance from a fource into a receptacleand
.their furfaces ; but as an entire diffufion and incorpo- he thinks, that although the exiftence of fuch a fub-
ration of one fubftance with another in perfedl coalef- ftance had not been eftablifhed on any previous grounds,
cence. As bodies are not naturally adlive, whenever the communication of motion by impulfe does alone
they become fo, as they always do in motion, it muft afford a fufficient proof of its reality,
he by the acceffion of fome part of the adlive fubftance. He employs the agency of the fame fubftance to
The adlive fubftance being imparted to a body, pe- account for many other apparent adlivities in bodies,
-netrates the moft folid or refilling parts, and does not fuch as thofe of fire, ekaricity, attraaion, repulfton, elaf-
refide in the pores without, and at the furfaces of the ticity, &c. All the apparent origins of corporeal ac-
folid parts. For the adlivity is imparted to the body tivity, ferve (he fay's) to impart the adlive fubftance
itfelf; and not to its pores, which are no parts of the to bodies ; “ and where adlivity is without any mani-
body : therefore, if the adlive fubftance remained with- fejl origin, the adlive fubftance is derived from an in-
in the pores, the caufe would not be prefent with its vifible fource.”
effedl; but the caufe would be in one place and the Our limits will not permit us to attend him in his
xffedt in another, which is impoffible. folution of all the apparent adlivities in bodies ; but
Bodies by their impulfe on others lofe their adli- the orbicular motions of the planets have been ac-
vity in proportion to the impulfe. This is matter of counted for in fo many different ways by philofophers
obfervation. Bodies v/hich fuffer impulfe acquire ac- ancient and modern, and each account has been fo
-tivity in proportion to the impulfe. This alfo is mat- little fatisfadlory to him who can think, and wilhes to
ter of obfervation. In impulfe, therefore, the adlive trace effedls from adequate caufes, that we confider it
fubftance paffes out of the impelling body into the as our duty to furnilh our readers with the account
body impelled. For fince bodies in motion are adlive, of this phenomenon which is given by Mr Young. 18
and adlivity confills in the prefence of the adlive fub- The queftion which has been fo long agitated, anft caufe
ftance, and by impulfe bodies lofe their adlivity, there- “ Whence is the origin of motion ?” our authpr con-^®^0^^
fore they lofe their adlive fubftance, and the lofs is fiders as implying an abfurdity. “ It fuppofes (faysVt;n|y bo-
proportional to the impulfe. Bodies impelled acquire he) that reft was the primitive ftate of matter, and dies,
adlivity; therefore acquire adlive fubftance, and the that motion was produced by a fubfequent adt. But
acquifition is proportioned to the impulfe. But the this fuppofition muft ever be rejedled, as it is giving
adlive fubftance loft by the impelling body ought to precedency to the inferior, and inverting the order of
be concluded to be that found in the other; becaufe nature.” The fubftance which he holds to be the
bafts
MOT [ 407 1 M O T
Mntian. hafig of mstter is efTentially aftive ; and its aftion is
1 motion. This motion, however, in the original ele¬
ment, was fswer without direftion, agency without
order, aftivity to no end. To this power it was ne¬
eelfary that a law fliould be faperadded; that its
agency Ihould be guided to fome regular purpofe, and
its motion confpire to the produ&ion o! fome uniform
cffedts.” Gur author fhows, or endeavours to Ihow,
by a procefs of reafoning which fhall be examined elfe-
where, that the priitiary atoms of matter are produced
by the circular motion of the parts of this fubftance
round a centre ; and that a fimilar motion of a num¬
ber of thefe atoms round another centre common to
them all, produces wjiat in common language is call¬
ed a folid body ; a cannon-ball, for inftance, the terre-
ilrial globe, and the body of the fun, &c. In a word,
he labours to prove, and with no fmall fuccefs, that a
principle of union is implied in the revolving or circu¬
lating movements of the aftive fubftance.
“ But we may alfo aflame (he fays) d priori, tl^at a
principle of union is a general law of nature ; becaufe
we fee in faff all the component parts of the univerfe
are united fyftems, which fucceffively combine into
larger unions, and ultimately form one whole.” . Let
us then fuppofe the fun with all his planets, primary
and fecondary, to be already formed for the purpofe of
making one fyftem, and the orbits of all of them, as
well as thefe great bodies themfelves, to be pervaded
by the a&ive fubftance, which neceflarily exifts in a ,
Bate of motion, and is the caufe of the motion of every
thing corporeal. “ If to this motion a principle of
union be added, the effe& of fuch a principle would be
a determination of all the parts of the aftive fubftance,
and of courfe all the bodies to which it is united, to¬
wards a common centre, which would be at reft, and
void of any tendency in any dire&ion. But this de¬
termination of all the parts of the fyftem towards a
common centre, tends to the; deftruftion both of the
motion of the a&ive fubftance and of the fyftem ; for
ftiould all the parts continually approximate from a
circumference towards a centre,- the fun and planets
would at laft meet, and form one folid and quiefcent
mafs. But to preferve exiftence, and eonfequently
motion, is the fifft law of the active fubftance, as of
all being; and it cannot be doubted, that to preferve
diftinft the feveral parts of the folar fyftem, is-the firll
law given to the fubftance actuating that fyftem. The-
union of the fyftem is a fubfequent law.
« When the dircbl tendency of any inferior law is
obviated by a higher law, the inferior law will operate
indirea/y in the manner the neareft to its-direft ten¬
dency that the fuperior law will permit. If a body i.'»
motion be obliquely obftrufted, it will move on in a
direftkm oblique to its firft motion.- Now the law of
union, which pervades the fcrlar fyftera, being conti¬
nually obftru&ed by the law of felf-prefervation, the
motion of the aftive fubftance • and of the bodies to
which it is united can be no other than a revolving
motion about the common centre of approach, towards
which all the parts have a determination. But when ,
this revolution has actually taken place, it gives birth'
to a new tendency', which fuperfedes the operation of
the law of-felf-prefervation. It has been fttown, that-
the motion effential to the aftive fubftance, required to
be governed by fome law to give being to au orderly
date of things. Now, there are motions funpje and M t',vi
motions complex; the more fimple is in all things firft
in order, and out of the more fimple the more complex
arifes in order pofterior. The moft fimple motion is
reftilineal; therefore a reftilineal motion is to be con-
fidered as that which is the original and natural ftate
of things, and confequently that to which all things
tend. It will follow from hence, that when any por¬
tion of adtive fubftance in which the. law of union ope¬
rates, has in the manner above explained been com¬
pelled to aflume a revolving motion, that is, a motion'
in fome curve ; a tendency to a reftilineal motion will
continually exift in every part of the revolving por¬
tion, and in every point of the curve which it defcribes
during its revolution. And this redtilineal tendency
will be a tendency to recede from the centre in every
point of the revolving orbit, and to proceed in a tan--
gent to the orbit at each point. Thefe two tenden¬
cies, if not originally equal, muft neceflarily in all cafes-
arrive at an equality. For the tendency towards the
centre, called the centripetal tendency, that is, the law
of union, operating firft, if we fuppofe the motion ap¬
proaches the centre, the tendency to recede from it,.
called the centrifugal tendency, will have its propor¬
tion to the centripetal continually increafed as the or¬
bit of revolution grows lefs, fo as ultimately to equal ,
the centripetal tendency, and reftrain the motion from
its central cqurfe, at which point it will no longer
feek the centre but revolve round it.”
As our author holds that every atom of matter is'
formed by the motion of parts of the active fubftance,'
and every body formed by the motion of atoms; fo he-
maintains, not only that the fun, moon, earth, planets,
and ftars, are penetrated by the fame fiabftance, but
that each is the centre of a vortex of that fubftance,
and that of thefe vortices fome are included within'
others. “ The fubtle revolving fluid, the centre of
whofe vortex the earth occupies, not-only furrounds
but pervades the earth, and other vortices their earths,
to their centres ; and the earth and planets are by itsr
revolutions carried around on their own axes. The earth
is an inadive mafs, and all its component mafiesarefeve-
rally as well as colletftively inadlrve; but the earth and
all its parts have various colleftive and feparate move¬
ments, imparted from the fluid which furrounds, per¬
vades, and conftitutes it; Being immerfed together
with its proper- furroundfng fphere or vortex in the
larger-fphere or vortex of the fun, it is carried thereby
in a larger orbit about the fun, at the fame time that
by the revolution of its proper fphere it- rotates on its
own axis.” 1;) :
Such is the moft complete view which our limits Obje&io***-
will permit us to give of Mr Young’s theory of
lion. To the philofopher-whb confiders experimenttheorj*
as the only teft of truth, and who in all his inquiries
employs his hands- more than his head, we are fully
aware that it willappear in no better light than as
“ the-bafelefs fabric of a vifiom” Even to the inteh
le&ual philofopher who is not frightened at the word
metaphyf.es, we are afraid that fuch an aftive fubftance
as the author contends for,..will appear -as inadequats
to the produ&ion of the phenomena of gravitation and
repulfion as the material aether of Mr Jones and his
followers. A being void of intelligence, whether it -
be material or immaterial, quiefcent or motive, caimo*
& Vo-
M O T r 40S 1 MOT
},e t}ie ful,^a of law, in the proper fenfe of the word, much of the matter aa any founder of the mQ?t cele* w ,liia»‘
The laws of which Mr Young fpeaks as necefTary to bratcd fchool. w-y—
regulate the motions of the active fubftance, muft be To object to either of thefe hypothefes, as has been
mere forces, applied by feme extrinfic and fuperior fometimes done, that it reprefents the government of
power. And fince “ motion, as it is ejfential to the the world as a perpetual miracle, betrays the groffelt
active fubtance, is power without direction, agency ignorance; for we might as well call the movements
without order, aftivity to no end ; fihce it is of fuch a of the bodies of men and brutes, which are certainly
nature, that from its nnguided agitations there could produced by minds, miraculous. We.do not affirm
refult neither connexion, order, nor harmony it that either hypothdis is certainly true ; but they are
follows that thofe extrinfic forces muft be perpetually both as probable and as fatisfadory as the hypothdis
applied, becaufe what is ejfential to any fubftance can which attributes agency to attra&ion and repuliion, to
never be deftroyed or changed fo long as the fubftance a fubtle aether, or to a fubftance which is neither mind
itfelf remains. nor matter. Were the immediate agency of intelledt
Forces producing order out of confufion, can heap- to be admitted, there would be no room for many of
plied only by a being pofleffed of intelligence ; and if thofe difputes which have been agitated among philo-’
the immediate and perpetual agency of an intelligent fophers, about the increafe of- diminution of motion
being be neceflary to regulate the motions of the ac* in the univerfe ; beeaufe an intelligent agent, which
tive fubftance, that fubftance itfelf may be thought could begin motion as well as carry it on, might in'
fuperfluous, and its very exiftence be denied. Entia creafe or diminiffi it as he ffiould judge proper, If in-
non funt multiplicamla abfqut necejfttate, is a rule of phi- ftindive agency, or fomething fimilar to it, be adopt-
lofophifmg which every man of fcience acknowledges ed, there is the fame room for inveftigation as upon
to be juft. And it will hardly be denied, that the the principles'of mechanifm ; becaufe inftindt works
immediate and perpetual agency of an intelligent being, blindly according to fteady laws impofed by a fuperior
upon Mr Jones’s setherial fluid, or even upon the mat- mind, which may be difeovered-by obfervation of their
ter of folid bodies themfelves, would be capable of effects. As we confider this as by much the moft pro-
producing every kind of motion without the inftru- fcable hypothefis of the two, we find ourfelves involved n
mentality of a fubftance which is neither mind nor in the following queftion : “ If a certain quantity ofTheqne-
matter. motion was originally communicated to the matter of ^'on^lie*
Such, we conceive, are the objections which our the univerfe, how comes it to pafs that the original
metaphyfical readers may make to this theory. Part quantity ftill remains ?” Confidering the many op-quantity of
of their force, however, will perhaps be removed by polite and contradictory motions which fince the tf-ea-motion >n
the ingenious manner in which our author analyfes tion have taken place in the univerfe, and which have t*ie v'iorlcl
matter into an immaterial principle. But fo much of it undoubtedly deftroyed a great part of the original jnipajre(j >
remains, that the writer of this article is inclined to quantity, by what means has that quantity been re-anfwered
believe that no mechanical account can be given of the flored ? * by
motions of the heavenly bodies, the growth of plants. If this queftion can be folved by natural means, it
and various other phenomena which are ufually folved muft be upon the principles of Newton ; for “ in every
w the- by attraction and repulfion. In the prefent age, phi- cafe $ where quantities and relations of quantities are § Voting's
9, lesmore l0fophers in general are ftrangely averfe from admitting required, it is the province of mathematics to fupply
ancient andon any occafjon the agency of mind; yet as every ef- the information foughtand all philofophers agree
raaunai. have a Caufe, it is furely not irrational to at- that Sir Ifaac’s doCIrine of the compofition and refo- &c. *
tribute fuch effe&s as mechanifm cannot produce to lotion of motion, though'in what refpeds the heaven-
the operation either of intelligence or inftind. To ly bodies it may have no pbyfical reality, is fa mathe-
fuppofe the Deity the immediate agent in the great matically-juft, as to be the only principle from which
motions of the univerfe, has been deemed impious; the quantity of motion, or the force of powers, can
and it muft be conSrffed that very impious concluiions in any cafe be computed. If we choofe to anfwer the
have been deduced from that principle. But there is queftion, by faying that the motion left is reftored by
furely no impiety in fuppofmg, with the excellent bi- the interpolition of the Deity, then we might as well
{hop of Cloyne, that the fluid which is known to have had recourfe to him at firft, and fay that he alone
pervade the folar fyftem, and to operate with reilftlefs is the true principle of motionthroughout the creation.
force, may be animated by a powerful mind, which Before we are reduced to this dilemma, however, The Car-
ads inftin&ively for ends of which itfelf knows no- it is neceflary, in the firft place, to inquire whether tefims, and
thing. For the exiftence of fuch a mind, no other there is or cau be any real diminution of the quantity
evidence, indeed, can be brought than what is afford- of motion throughout the univerfe > In this queftion
ed by a very ancient and very general tradition, and the Cartelians take the negative fide ; and maintain,
by the impoffibility of accounting for the phenomena that the Creator at the beginning impreffed a certain
upon principles of mere mechanifm. Perhaps fome of quantity of motion on bodies, and that under fuch
our more pious readers may be inclined to think that laws as that no part of it ffiould be loft, but the fame
the Supreme Being has committed the immediate go- portion of motioa ffiould be conftantly preferved in
vernment of the various planetary fyftems to powerful matter: and hence they conclude, that if any moving
intelligences, or angels, who, as his minifters, direct body firike on any other body, the former lofes no
their motions with wifdom and forefight. Such an more of its motion than it communicates to the latter.-
opinion is certainly not abfurd in itfelf; and it feems Sir Ifaac Newton takes the contrary fide, and argues
* 104. to be countenanced by an ancient writer*, who, though in the following manner: “ From the various com-gy jqcW[o«
not known by the name of a philofopher, knew as pofitions of two motions, it Is mauifeil there is not al-
N°23i. 5 ways
:>-deftroye(J.
MOT [ 409 j MOT
■ TS'ays the fame quantity of motion in the world ; for if ever happen. When two pendulums rufh againit each Mitlon,
^ two balls, joined together by a /lender wire, revolve other, the motion is the mere effedt of the a&ion of1 
with an uniform motion about their common centre gravity; and chat action, which in this cafe is the
of gravity, and at'the fame time that centre be carried power, continues to be the very fame whether the
uniformly in a right line drawn in the plane of their pendulum moves or moves not. Conld motion, there-
enrcular motion, the fum of the motions of the two fore, be exhauffed in this cafe, we mult fuppofe, .that
balls, as often as they are in a right line, drawn from by feparating two pendulums to the fame diltance
their common centre of gravity, will be greater than from each other, and then letting them come together
the fum of their motions w.. n they are in a line per- for a great number of times, they would at laft meet
pendicular to that other. Whence it appears, that with lefs force than before. But there is certainly
motion maybe both generated and loft. But, by rea- not the leaft foundation for this fuppofition ; and no
fon of the tenacity of fluid bodies, and the fri&ion of rational perfon will take it into his head, ,that fuppo-
their parts, with the weaknefs of the elaftic power in fing the whole human race had employed themfelves
folk! bodies, nature feems to incline much rather to in nothing elfe from the creation to the prefent day,
the deftnrftion than the produ&ion of motion; and but feparating pendulums and letting them flop each
in reality, motion becomes continually lefs and lefs.— other’s motion, they would now come together with
Fou bodies which are either fo perfectly hard or fo lefs force than they did at firft. Power, therefore,
foft as to have no elaftic power, will not rebound from which is the caufe of motion, is abfolutely indeftruc-
* each other; their impenetrability will only Hop their tible. Powers may indeed counteract one another,
motion-. And if two fuch bodies equal to one ano- or they may be made to counteract themfelves ; but
ther be carried with equal but oppolite motions, fo the moment that the obftacle is removed, they Ihow
as to meet in a void fpace,J)y the laws of motion they themfelves in their priftine vigour, without the leaft
mult ftop in the very place of concourfe, lofe all their fymptom of abatement or decay.' ^
’motion, and be at reft for ever, milefs they have an Under the article Mechanics, it has been fliown, proveii by
elaftic- power to give them a new motion. If they that when motion is compounded of two powers ac Sir Ifaac
have elafticity enough to make them rebound with ting obliquely upon one another, more motion is ]oftNewt.’n 3f
one-fourth, one-half, or three-fourths, of the force they than the two powers taken together could fpare. C(j_
meet with, they will lofe three-fourths, one-half, or Thus, if the two powers AB and AC move a 'bo.-iition and
owe-fourth, of their motion. And this is confirmed dy through the diagonal of the fquare AD; fup-relblution
by experiments: for if two equal pendulums be let fall poling each of thefe powers to be =75, the diagonal motion,
from equal heights, fo as to ftnke full upon each through which they pals will be 7 (a); but from an in- cQCXiV
other ; if thofe pendulums be of lead or foft clay, they fpeClion of the figure, it is manifeft, that by the fepa-
will lofe all, or almoft all, their motion ; and if they be ration of the two powers, a quantity of motion BC,
of any elaftic matter, they will only retain fo much equal to the length of the other diagonal,* is loft ; for
motion as they receive from their elaftic power.” in as far as the two a£t oppofite to each other, they
Motion, therefore, being thus, in the opinion of ouf mull deftroy motion. The quantity of motion pro-
celebrated author, loft, ©r abfohitely dejhroyed, it is ne- duced therefore being 7, and the quantity loft the
ceffary to find fome eaufe by which it may be renewed, fame, the whole quantity originally exifting in the two
Such renovation Sir Ifaac attributes to aElive prin- powers AB and BC ought to have been 14, when it
ciples; for inftance, “ the caufe ofgi-avity, whereby the is only 10. To make up for the deficiency, there-
planets and comets preferve their morions in their or- fore, we muft fearch for the origin of the two powers
bits, and all bodies acquire a/great degree of motion AB and BC, and this we lhall find in thelines As,
in falling ; and the caufe of fermentation, whereby the Kc, and AJ ; each of which is 34? altogether making
heart and blood of animals preferve a perpetual warmth 14 ; whence dedu cing 7 the motion loft, we have 7
and motion, the inner parts of the earth are kept per- remaining for the motion produced. Let us now
petually warmed ; many bodies burn and Ihine, and find out the origins of thefe powers, and we lhall find
the fun hhnfelf burns and Ihines, and with his light thofe of A« in the lines A> and A/*; the origins of
warms and cl.eers all things.” Ar in A/7 and h-g. The fources of Kd we find in
Elaft-ieity is another caufe of the renovation of mo- the lines A^ and AL Thus we have now eight
tion mentioned by Sir Ifaac. “■ We find but little fources of the four powers which generated the two
motion'in the world (fays he), except what plainly firft ones ; and thus we find that the power ADzr 7,
flows either from thefe adive principles, or from the requires two of 5 each —10 for its generation; thefe
command of the'wilier.” two require four of 34 each for their production ; and
,r With regard to the deJtmBwn or pofitive lofs of thefe again require eight of 2*45 each for their .pro-
11 motion, however, we muft obferve, that notwithftand- du&ion. Hence, in order to generate the two ori-
' ing the authority of Sir Ifaac Newton, it is altogether girral powers AB and AC, we fee that there is re-
impolTibk that any ftich thing can happen. All mo- quired at a very few fteps no lefs than 20 ; and in like
wing bodies which- come under the cognizanee of our manner, to gerierate thefe eight powers, we muft have
fenfes are merely pa Hive, and a&ed upon by fome'- recourfe to 16 others ; fo that the ultimate fource of
thing which we call powers or jluidi, and which are morion-{ncreafe.s beyond all'calculation,
to us totally invifible. Motion, therefore, cannot be Whether, therefore, we reckon the ultimate fource
loft without, a deftruftion or diminution of one of of morion to be fpiritual or material, it is plain that it
thefe powers, which we have no reafon to think can muft be to our conceptions infinite ;■ neither will the
Vol. XII. Part IT. 3 F phe-
(a) It will be fomething more than 7; but the fradional part is emitted, as being of no importance in the
illuftration of the faCt before us.
M O T [41
Motion- plicnomena of nature allow us to give any oilier ex-
U-—p|anatjon t]ian we have done: for no power whatever
can lofe more than its own quantity ; and it fcems ab-
furd to think that the Deity would create the world
in fuch a manner that it would ultimately become im¬
moveable, and then have recourfe to unknown prin¬
ciples to remedy the fuppofed defeft On the prin¬
ciple we have juft now laid down, however, the mat¬
ter becomes exceedingly plain and obvious. The Crea¬
tor at fir ft formed two oppofite powers, the a&ion of
which is varied according to the circumftances of the
bodies upon which they a£t ; and thefe circumftances
arc again varied by the aftion of the powers themfelves
in innumerable ways upon one another, and the ap¬
proach of one body to another, or their receding to
a greater diftance. Where thele powers happen to
oppofe each other dire&ly, the body on which they
acf is at reft ; when they a& obliquely, it moves in
the diagonal; or if the force acting upon one fide is
by any means leffened, the body certainly muft move
towards that fide, as is evident from the cafe of the
atmofphere, the preffure of which, when removed from
one fide of a body, will make it move very violently
towards that fide ; and if we could continually keep
off the preffure in this manner, the motion would af-
fnredly be perpetual. We muft not imagine that mo¬
tion is dejlroyecl becaufe it is counteraBed; for it is im-
pofiible to deftroy motion by any means but removing
the caufe ; counterafting the effeft is only a tempo¬
rary obftacle, and muft ceafe whenever the obftacle is
removed. Nature, therefore, having in itfelf an infi-
71'tte quantity of motion, produces greater or leffer mo¬
tions, according to the various adtion of the moving
powers upon different bodies or upon one another,
without a poflibility of the general flock being either
augmented or diminifhed, unlefs one of the moving
powers was to be withdrawn by the Creator; in which
cafe, the other would deftroy the whole fyftem in an
a6 inftant. As to the nature of thefe great original
The na- powers, we muft confefs ourfelves totally ignorant;
tine of the nor Jq we perceive any data from which the nature
powcrfun- them can be inveftigated. The elements of light,
known. air, &c. ate the agents ; but in what manner they aft,
or in what manner they received their aftion, can be
known only to the Creator.
Perpetual Motion* in mechanics, a motion which is
fupplied and renewed from itfelf, without the interven¬
tion of any external caufe; or it is an uninterrupted
communication of the fame degree of motion from one
part of matter to another, in a circle or other curve
retnrning into itfelf, fo that the fame momentum ftill
returns undiminifhed upon the firft mover.
The celebrated problem of a perpetual motion con-
fifts in the inventing a machine, which has the prin¬
ciple of its motion within itfelf. M. de la Hire has de-
monllrated the impoffibility of any fuch machine, and
finds that it amounts to this; viz. to find a body which
is both heavier and lighter at the fame time, or to find
a body which is heavier than itfelf.
To find a perpetual motion, or to conftruft an en¬
gine, &c. which fhallhave fuch a motion, is a famous
problem that has employed the mathematicians of 2000
years ; though none perhaps have profecuted it with
attention and earneftnefs etjual to thofe of the prefent
aga.
o ] MOT
Infinite are the fchemes, defigns, plans, engines, Motion.
wheels, &c. to which this longed-for perpetual motion ' 
has given birth : it were as endlefs as impertinent to
give a detail of them all.
In effeft, there feems but little in nature to coun¬
tenance all this afliduity and expeftation ; among all
the laws of matter and motion, we know of none yet
which feems to furnilh any principle or foundation for
fuch an effeft.
Animal Motion, that which is performed by animals
at the command of the mind or will.
Though all the motions of animals, whether volun*
tary or involuntary, are performed by means of the
mufcles and nerves, yet neither thefe nor the fubtile
fluid which refides in them are to be accounted the
ultimate fources of animal motion. They depend en¬
tirely upon the mind for thofe motions which are pro¬
perly to be accounted animal. All the involuntary mo¬
tions, fuch as thofe of the blood, the heart, mufcles,
organs fubfervient to refpiration and digeftion, &c. are
to be claffed with thofe of vegetables : for though no
vegetables have them in fuch perfection as animals,
there are yet traces of them to be found evidently
among vegetables, and that fo remarkably, that fome*
have imagined the animal and vegetable kingdoms to
approach each other fo nearly that they could fcarce
be diftinguilhed by a philofophic eye. See Muscle.
Though the 'motions of animals, however, -depend
on the aftion of the mind or of the will, external ob»
jefts feem originally to have the command of the mind
itfelf; for unlefs aft animal perceive fomething, it
will not be inclined to aft. By means of the ideas
once received, indeed, and retained in the memory, it
acquires a felf-moving power, independent of any objeft;
prefent at the time, which is not the cafe with vege»
tables; for however they may aft from a prefent im-
pulfe, their motions never appear to be derived from
any fource which may not be accounted ftriftly me¬
chanical.
According to feme, motion is the caufe of fenfation
itfelf; and indeed it feems very probable that the
motions of that fubtle fluid, called light or eleBricity,
in our bodies always accompany our fenfations ; but
whether thefe be ’the caufe, or only the medium, of
fenfe, cannot be difcovered.
Though all animals are endowed with a power of vo¬
luntary motion, yet there is a very great variety in the
degrees of that power ; to determine which no cei tain
rule? can be affigned; neither can we, from the fitu-
ation and manner of life of animals, derive any probable
reafon why the motion of one (hould differ fo very much
from that of another. This difference does not arife
from their fize, their ferocity, their timidity, nor any
other property that we can imagine. The elephant,
though the ftrongeft land animal, is by no means the
floweft in its motions; the horfe is much fwifter than
the bull, though there is not much difference in their
fize ; a gre-hound is much fwifter than a cat, though
the former be much larger, and though both live in the
fame manner, viz. by hunting. Among infefts the
fame unaccountable diverfity is obfervable. The loufe
and flea are both vermin, are both nearly of the fame
fize, and both feed on the bodies of animals'; yet there
isnoepmparifon between the fwiftnefs of their motions:
while the bug, which is much larger than either, feems
ko •
' MOT [ 41
Motion, to have a kind of medium fwiftfiefs between both.—
This very remarkable circumftance feems not even to
depend on the range which animals are obliged to take
in order to procure food for themfelves: the motion
of a fnail is flower than that of an earth-worm ; while
that of many caterpillars is much quicker than either ;
though we can fcarce determine which of the three has
the greateft or the leaft extenlive range for its food.
Of all animals the ftidl-fifli mcfre the flowed, info-
much that feme have fuppofed them to be entirely de-
ftitute of loco-motive powers ; and mufcles particular¬
ly are denied to have any faculty of this kind. . Every
one knows that thefe animals can open and flmt their
fhells at pleafure ; and it cannot efcape obfervation, that
in every mufcle there is a flefhy protuberance of a much
redder colour than the reft.. This has been thought
to be a tongue or probofeis, by which the animal takes
in its food; but is in reality the inftrument of its motion
from place to place. This protuberance is divided in¬
to two lobes, which perform the office of feet. When
the river mufcle is inclined to remove from its ftation,
it opens its fhell, thrufts out this protuberance, anddit>s
a furrow in the fand ; and into this furrow, by the
a&ion of the fame protuberance, the {hell is made to
fall in a vertical pofttion. It is recovered out of this
into the former horizontal one, by pufhing back the
fand with the fame tentacula, lengthens the furrow,
and thus the animal continues its journey by a conti¬
nual turning topfy-turvy.—Marine mufclcs perform
their motions in the fame manner, and by fimilar in-
ftruments. In general they are firmly attached to rocks
-or fmall ftones by threads about two inches long, which
are fpun from a glutinous fubftance in the protube¬
rances already mentioned; thefe are called, in Scot¬
land, the beards of mufcles, and are thought to be the
caufe of the fatal diforders which fometimes attend the
eating of mufcles. See Mytulus.
Other animals which dwell in bivalved {hells, per¬
form their motions by a kind of leg or foot; which,
however, they can alter into almoft any figure they
pleafe. By means of this leg they can not only fink
into the mud, or rife out of it at pleafure, but can
even leap from the place where they are; and this can
be done by the limpit, which people are apt to ima¬
gine one of the moft fluggifh animals in nature.—When
this creature is about to make a fpring, it fets its ftiell
on edge, as if to diminifh fridtion ; then, ftretching
out the leg as far as poffible, it makes it embrace a
portion of the fliell, and by a fudden movement, fimi¬
lar to that of'a fpring let loofe, it ftrikes the earth
with its leg, and adtually leaps to a confiderable di-
ftince.
The fpout, or razor-fifh, is faid to be incapable of
moving forward horizontally, on the furface ; but it
digs a hole fometimes two feet deep in the fand, in
which it can afeend or deftend at pleafure. The leg,
by which it performs all its movements, is flefhy, cy¬
lindrical, and pretty long ; and the animal can at plea¬
fure make it affiime the form of a ball. When lying
on the furface of the fand, and about to fink into it,
the leg is extended from the inferior end of the {hell,
nnd makes the extremity of it take on the form of a
{hovel, {harp on each fide, and terminating in a point.
With this inflrument the animal makes a hole in the
land ; after which it advances the leg ftill farther into
1 ] m o T
it, makes it aflume the form of a hook, and with this, Mot
as a fulcrum, it obliges the {hell to defeend into the
hole. This operation is continued until the whole
{hell be covered 5 and when -the animal wiflies to re¬
gain the furface, it makes the extremity of the leg to
affume the form of a ball, and makes an effort to ex¬
tend it. The ball, however, prevents any- farther de-
feent, and the reaftion of the mufcular effort raifes up
the whole {hell, which operation is continued until
it reaches the furface; and it is furprifing with what
facility thefe motions are accompliflied by an animal
feemingly fo little qualified to move at all. Another
particularity in this fifh is, that though it lives among
fait water, it abhors fait fo much that when a little
is thrown into its hole it inftantly leaves it. But it
is ftill more remarkable, that if you once take hold of
the fpout fiftr, and then allow it to retire into its hole,
it cannot then be driven out by fait; though unlefs it
be taken hold of by the hand, the application of fait
will make it come to the furface as often as you
pleafe. See Solen.
All other ftieli-fiffi, even thofe apparently the moft
fluggilh and deftitute of any apparatus for motion, are
found to be furniihed with ftich inftruments as enable
them to perform all thofe movements for which they
have any occalion. Thus the fcallop, a well-known
animal inhabiting a bivalved ftiell, Can both fwim up¬
on the furface of water and move upon land. When
it happens to be deferted by the tide, it opens its (hell
to the full extent, and (hutting it again with a fuddert
jerk, the rea&ion of the ground gives fuch an impulfe
to the whole, that it fometimes fprings five or fix
inches from the ground; and by a continued repeti¬
tion of this adtion, it gradually tumbles forward until
it regains the water. Its method of failing is ftill
more curious. Having attained the furface of the
water by means unknown to us, it opens the (hell,
and puts one half above water, the other with the body
of the animal in it remaining below. Great numbers
of them are thus frequently feen failing in company
with their {hells (licking up above water when the
weather i§ fine, and the wind adting upon them as fails ;
but On the leaft alarm they inftantly ftiut their (hells,
and all fink to the bottom together. See Pecten.
The oyfter has generally been fuppofed one of the
moft fluggifh animals in nature, and totally incapable
of voluntary motion ; but from the refearches of the
Abbe Dicquemarre, this opinion feems to be errone¬
ous. The oyfter, like many other bivalved ftiell-filh,
has a power of fquirting water out from its body;
and this property may eafily be obferved by putting
feme of them into a plate with as much fea-water as
will cover them. The water is ejedted with fo much
force, as not only to repel the approach of ordinary
enemies, but to move the whole animal backwards or
fideways, in a diredtion contrary to that ia which the
water was ejedted. It has been alfo fuppofed, that
oytiers are deftitute of fenfation; but M. Dicquemarre
has fliown, that they not-only poflefs fenfation, but
that they are capable of deriving knowledge from ex¬
perience. When removed from inch places as are en¬
tirely covered with the fea, when deftitute of expe¬
rience, they open their (hells and die in a few days^
but if they happen to efeape this danger, and the wa¬
ter-covers them again, they will not open their (hells
3 F 2 again.
Motion.
M O T [ 412 j MOT
• again, but keep them fhut, as if warned by experience Some animals are capable of moving backward:, ap- Mot
to avoid a danger fimiiar to what they formerly under* patently with the fame facility that they do forwards, v
went. See Ostrea. and that by means of the fame indruments which move
The motions of the fea-urchin are perhaps more cu* them forward. The common houfe-fly exhibits an
rious and complicated than thofe of any other animal, inllanceof this, and frequently employs this retrograde
It inhabits a beautiful multivalved fhell, divided into motion in its ordinary courfes; though we cannot
triangular compartments, and covered with great num- 'know the reafon of its employing fuch an extraordi-
bers of prickles; from which laft. circumftance it re- nary method. Another remarkable inltance is given
ceives the name of fea-urchin or fea hedge-hog. The by Mr Smellie in the mafon-bee. This is one of the
triangles are feparated from one another by regular folitary fpecies, and has its name from the mode of
belts, and perforated by a great number of holes, from conftru&ing its neit with mud or mortar. Externally
every one of which iflues a flelhy horn fitnilar to that this ne .i has no regular appearance, but at firii light
of a fnail, and capable of moving in a fimiiar manner, is taken for a quantity of dirt adhering to the wall ;
The principal life of thefe horns feems to be to fix the though the internal part be furnilhed with cells in the
animal to rocks or Hones, though it like wife makes fame regular manner with the nefts of other infers of
life of them in its progreflive motion. By means of the bee-kind. When this bee leaves its nel), another
thefe horns and prickles, it is enabled to walk either frequently takes poffdfion of it; in which cafe a battle
on its back or its belly; but it molt commonly makes never fails to enfue on the return of the real proprie-
nfe of thofe which are near the mouth. Occaiionally tor. The difpute is decided in the air ; and each
it has a progrelfive motion by luring round like a party endeavours to get above the other, as birds of
\ Phil. 5/ wheel. Thus, fays Mr Smellie t, the fea-urchin fur- prey are wont to do in order to give a downward
.Ast. 11‘Ji. nilhes an example of an animal employing many thou- blow. The undermol one, to avoid the ftroke, in-
fand limbs in its various movements. The reader may Head of flying forward or laterally, always flies back-
try to conceive the number of mufcles, fibres, and ward. The encounter is fo violent, that when they
other apparatus which are requilite to the progreffive ftrike, both parties fall to the ground,
motion of this little animal. Vegetable Motion. Though vegetables have not
Thofe animals called fea-nettles or medufa, though the power of moving from one place to another like
extremely flow in their motions, are neverthelefs evi- animals, they are nevertlielefs capable of moving their
dently capable of moving at pleafure from place to different parts in fuch a manner as would lead us to
plac.e. The variety of their figure is fuch, that it is- fufpect that they are aftuated by a fort of inftipifl.
difficult to affign them any determinate figure what- Hence many have been induced to fuppofe, that the
ever. In general, however, they refembleua truncated animal and vegetable kingdoms are in a manner indi¬
cone, the bafe of which is applied to the rock to which ftinguilhable from one another ; and that the higheft
they adhere. Their colours are various, whitifh, brown, degree of vegetable life can hardly be known from the
red, or gfeenilh ; the mouth is very large ; and when loweft degree of animal life. The effential and infu-
opened appears furrounded with filaments refembling perable diftindtion, however, between the two, is the
the horns of fnails, which being difpofed in three rows faculty of fenfation, and locomotion in confequence of
* See AM- around it, give the animal the appearance of a flower*; it. Were it not, indeed, for the manifellation of fenfe
miu. and through every one of thefe the animal has the by moving from one place to another, we fhould not
power of fquirting the fea-water. The ftrufture of be able to tell whether vegetables were pofleffed of
thefe animals is extremely Angular; they confifting all fenfation or not ; but whatever motions they may he
of one organ, viz. a ftomach. When fearching for poffeffed of, it is certain that no vegetable has the
food, they extend their filaments, and quickly entangle faculty of moving from one place to another. Some
any fmall animals that come within their reach. The have endeavoured to diffinguiffi the two king oms
prey is inilantly fwallowed, and the mouth (hut clofe by the digettion of food; alleging that plants have
upon it like a purfe ; in which ftate it remains for no proper organs, fuch as a ftomach, &c.. for taking
many days before the nutritive parts are extrafted. in and digefling their aliment. But to this it has
The animal, though fcarcely an inch or an inch and been replied, that the whole body of a vegetable is a
a half in diameter, is neverthefs fo dilatable, that it flomach, and abforbs its food at every pore. This,
can fwallow large whelks and mufcles, the (hells of however, feems not to be a fufficient aufwer. All ani-
whicb are thrown out by the mouth after the nutritive trials take in their food at intervals, and there is not a
parts have been exhaufted. Sometimes the (hell is too Angle inftance of one which eats perpetually The
large to be voided this way ; in which cafe the body food is alfo taken into the body of the animal, and
of the animal fplits, and the (hell is voided through application of the parts made by means of the internal
the opening, which in a ffiort time heals up again, organization of the vifeus ; but in vegetables, their
The progreffive motion of this creature is follow, that whole bodies are immerfed in their food, and abforb
it refemblcs that of the hour-hand of a clock, and is it by the furface, as animal bodies will fometimes ab-
performed by means of innumerable mufcles placed on forb liquids when put into them. The roots of a tree
the dutfide of the body. All thefe are tubular, and indeed will change their direction when they meet with
filler! with a fluid, which makes them projeft like a ftone, and will turn from barren into fertile ground;
prickles. On occafion it can likewife loofen the hafe but this is evidently mere mechanilm, without any
pf the cone from the rock, and inverting its body, proof of will or fenfation ; for the nourifhmeut of the
move by means of the filaments already mentioned, root comes not from the ftone, but from the earth
which furround the mouth ; but even the motion per- around it i and the increafe in fixe is not owing
fonaed in this manner is almoft as flow as the other. to any expanfion of the matter which the root already
contains^
MOT C 413 ] MOT
Motien. contains, but to the oppofition1 of new matter; whence
——v—the increafe of fize muft always take place in the di-
reftion from whence the nourilhment proceeds. On
this principle alfo may we explain the reafon why the
foots of a tree, after having arrived at the edge of a
ditch, inftead of {hooting out into the air, will creep
down the one fide, along the bottom, and up the
other.
In their other movements the vegetables difcover no¬
thing like fenfation or defign., They will, indeed, uni¬
formly bend towards light, or towards water; but in
the one cafe we muft attribute the phenomenon to the
acti;,it of the elements of light and air upon them ;
and . in the latter the property feems to be the fame
with what in other cafes we call attraction. Thus, if
a root be uncovered, and a wet fpunge placed near it
in a direction different from that in which the root
was proceeding, it will foon alter its pofition, and
turn towards the fpunge ; and thus we may vary the
direction of the root as often as we pleafe. The ef¬
forts of a plant to turn from darknefs or {hade into
funfhineiare very remarkable; as, in order to accomplifh
this not only the leaves will be inclined, but even the
items and branches twifted When a wet fpunge is.
held under the leaves of a tree, they bend down in
order to touch it. If a veflel of water be put within
fix inches of a growing cucumber, in lefs than 24
hours the latter will alter its direction ; the brandies
will bend towards the water, and never alter their
courfe until they come in contaCt with it. The moft
remarkable inltance of this kind of motion, however,
is, that when a pole is brought near a vine, the latter
will turn towards it, and never ceafe extending its
branches till it lays hold of the fupport.
The motions of the fenfitive plant, and others of
the fame kind, have been confidered as very wonder¬
ful ; but it ts doubtful if any of them be really more
fo than that of the vine juft mentioned. None of
thefe {how any kind of propenfityto move without an
aCiual touch. A very flight one, indeed, makes the
fenfitive plant con trad, and the whole branch, toge¬
ther with the leaves, bend down towards the earth.—
This ?s fo fimilav to fome phenomena of. cleClricify,
that very few will hefitate at afcribing both to the
fame caufe. Even the motions of the hedyfarum
gytans,. which at firft fight feem fo much more fur-
prifing than thofe of the fenfitive plant, may be ex¬
plained upon the fame principle. 1 here is a fpecimen
of this plant in the botanic garden of Edinburgh. It
is a native of the Eaft Indies, and its motions, are oc-
cafioned by the fun-beams. The leaves are the only
moveable parts. They are fupported by long foot-
ftalks ; and when the fun ftiines upon them they move
briflily in every direction. Their moft ufual motion
is upward and downward ; but not unfrequently they
turn almoft quite round, and then the foot-ftalks are
evidently twifted. Thefe motions continue only while
the light and heat of the fun continues, ceafing when
at night, or when the weather becomes cloudy and
cold. The American plant called Diurum mufotpula, or
Venus’s jly trap, is another example, of very wonderful
mechanifm in vegetables, though even this does not
argije any degree of fenfation in this plant more than
in others. The, leaves of the dionasa are jointed, and
furnilhed with two rows of prickles. A number of
fmall glands upon the furface fecrete a fweet juice, Motion,
which entices Hies to come and fettle upon it; but the l~—v—^
moment thefe infeCb touch the fatal fpot, the leaves
fold up, and fqueeze them to death between the
prickles. The leaves fold up in the fame manner when
the plant is touched with a ftraw or pin.
The folding up of the leaves of certain plants in the
abfence of the fun’s light, called their Jleep, affords
another very curious inftance of vegetable motion.
Almoft all vegetables, indeed, undergo fuch a remark¬
able change in the night, that it is difficult to know
exaClly how many kinds do really fleep. They fold up
their leaves in many different ways ; but all agree in
difpofing of them in fuch a manner as to afford the belt
protection to the young Items, flower-buds, or fruit.
The leaves of the tamarind-tree contraCt round the
young fruit,in order to proteCt it from nqCturhal cold;
and thofe of fenna, glycina, and many other papiliona¬
ceous plants, difpofe of their leaves in the fame manner.
The leaves of the chickweed, afclepias,. atriplex, &c.
are difpofed in oppofite pairs. In the night-time they
rife perpendicularly, and join fo clofe at the top that
the flowers are concealed by them. In like manner do
the leaves proteCt the flowers of the fida, or althaea theo-
phrafti^the aycnia, and oenothira, the folauum, and the
Egyptian vetch. All thefe are erected during the
night; but thofe of the white lupine, in time of fleep,
lung down.
The flowers of plants alfo have motions peculiar to;
themfelves. Many of them during the night are in-
clofed in their calyxes. Some,.^particularly thofe of’
the German fpurge, geranium ftriatum, and common
Whiilow-grafs, when afleep bend towards the earth ;
by which means the noxious effeCts of rain or dew are
prevented. All thefe motions have been commonly
aferibed to the fun’s rays; and Mr Smellie informs us,
that in fome of the examples above-mentioned the ef-
feCta were evidently to be aferibed to, heat :.but plants
kept in an hot-houfe, where the temperature of the
day and night are alike, contraCt their leaves, and fleep
in the fame manner as ifithey were expofed to the open
air ; “ whence it appears (fays he), that the fleep of
plants is owing rather to a peculiar, law, than to a
quicker, or flower motion of the juices.” He fufpeCts,-
therefore, that as the lleep of plants is not owing to
the mere abfence of heat, it may be occafioned by the
want of light; and to afeertain this he propofes au
experiment of throwing upon them a ftrong artificial
light. “ If, notwithftanding,this light (fays he), the
plants are not roufed, but continue to fleep as uftul,
then it may be prefumed that their organs, like thofe
of animals, are not only irritable, but require the re¬
paration of fome invigorating influence which they
have loft while awake, by the agitations of the air and
of the fun’s rays, by the aCt of growing, or by fome
other latent caufe.” On this, however, we muft re¬
mark, that the throwing of artificial light upon plants
cannot be attended with the fame confcquences as that
of the light of the fun, unlefs the former were as
ftrong as the latter, which is impoffible;, and even
granting that we could procure an artificial light as
ftrong as that of the fun> a difference might be occa¬
fioned by the different directions of the rays, thofe of
the fun being very nearly parallel, while the rays of
all artificial light diverge .very greatly. If, therefore,
we-
MOT . [ 414 ] MOT
Motion. w are R> make an experiment of this kind, the rays
’"v fhould be rendered parallel by means of a burning
mirror. Here again we would be involved in a diffi¬
culty : for the rays of the fun proceed all in one di-
reftion ; but as of neceffity we muft employ different
mirrors in our experiment, the light mnft fall upon the
-plant in different diredtions, fo that we could not rea¬
sonably expefl the fame refult as when the plants are
diredtly expofed to the rays of the fun.
The motion of plants, not being deducible from
fenfation, as in animals, muft be afcribed to that pro¬
perty called irritability ; and this property is poiTefled
infenfibly by the parts of animals in a greater degree
than even by the moft irritable vegetable. The muf-
cular fibres will contradt on the application of any fti*
mulating fubftance, even after they are detached from
the body to which they belonged. The heart of a frog
will continue to beat when pricked with a pin for
feveral hours after it is taken out of the body. The
heart of a viper, or of a turtle, beats diftinftly from
..20 to 30 hours after the death of thefe animals. When
the inteftines of a dog, or any other quadruped, are
fuddenly cut into different portions, all of them crawl
about like worms,and contradt upon the flighteft touch.
The heart, inteftines, and diaphraghm, are the moft
irritable parts of animal bodies ; and to difcover whe¬
ther this quality tefides in all plants, experiments fhould
be made chiefly on leaves, flowers, buds, and the ten¬
der fibres of the roots.
The motions of plants are univerfally afcribed by
- our author to irritability, to which alfo we have afcri¬
bed them under the article Animal. The term,
however, requires an explanation ; and to give this
in an intelligible manner requires fome attention. The
moft obvious comparifon is that of an eledtrilied thread;
which, on the approach of any uneledtrified fubftance,
fhows a variety of motions, equally furprifing with thofe
of the parts of plants or the mufcular fibres cut out
of the body. Could we fuppofe that the eledfricity
of a thread might be preferved after it was cut off from
the eledtrifying fubftance, it would fhow as much irri¬
tability as even the mufcular fibres, or portions of the
inteftines of animals. We know, from the hiftory of
the torpedo, eledfrical eel, &c. that there are animals
in which the electric fluid adts in fuch a manner as to
produce a much more powerful effedt than that of gi¬
ving motion to the leaves of plants. The readinefs,
therefore, with which this fluid is thrown into agita¬
tions when any fubftance in which it adts is touched, is
without doubt the irritability in queftion ; but we have
from thence no more reafon to aferibe fenfation to
thefe irritable bodies, than to an eledtrified bottle when
it difeharges itfelf, or makes a cork-ball play around it.
In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, by M. Brouffonet, the author inclines to con¬
found irritability and fenfibility together. “ The dif¬
ferent parts of plants (fays he) enjoy the faculty of
motion ; but the motions of a vegetable are very diffe¬
rent in their nature from thofe of an animal: the moft
fenfible, thofe that are produced with moft rapidity in
plants, are always influenced by fome ftimulating caufe.
Irritability, which is nothing but fenfibility made ma-
nifeft by motion, is a general law to which nature has
diibjedted all living beings; and it is this that conti¬
nually watches over their prefervation. Being more M .tic
powerful in animals than in plants, it may be often'—"V
confounded in thefe laft with phenomena that depend
on a quite different caufe. In the vegetable it is only
the organ which is expofed to the adlion of the ftimu¬
lating power that moves. Irritation in particular pla¬
ces never produces that prompt combination of fenfa-
tions which we obferve in animals ; in confequence of
which certain parts are put in motion without being
diredtly affected, and which otherwife might have been
paffive.
“ The more perfedt the organization in the diffe¬
rent parts of animals is, the more apparent are the
figns of irritability. The parts that come neareft to
thofe of vegetables, and in which of confequence the
organization is moft imperfect, are the leaft irritable.
The fame law holds with regard to plants ; but the
refult is oppofite : the figns of irritability are meft fen¬
fible in proportion to the analogy of the parts with
thofe of animals ; and they are imperceptible in thofe
that are diffimilar. This affertion is proved by what
we obferve in the organs deftined in vegetables to pre-
petuate the fpecies. Thofe parts alone feem fenfible
to ftimuli; the bark, leaves, ftalks, and roots fhowing
no figns of irritability.
“ The vital motions in plants are flow, and entirely
determined by circumftances, which are always re¬
peated and equally diffufed over all the parts. In ani¬
mals, on the contrary, almoft all the vital motions arc
very fenfible ; fuch as the pulfations of the heart and
arteries, the dilatation of the thorax, &c.: thefe be¬
ing abfolutely neceffary to the prefervation of the in¬
dividual, are always reproduced in a fimilar manner in
thofe of the fam¥r fpecics, and in the fame diredfion ;
and this takes place in like manner in plants. The
twining plants, for inilance, fuch as the hop, follow
conftantly, as they twill themfelves round a pole, the
diredlion of the fouth towards the w’eft. If vegetables
are obftru&ed in exercifing thefe motions, they foon
perilh : if, for example, we untwift a twining plant
which had taken its direflion round a branch from the
right to the left, and place it in a contrary dir^lion,
it withers in a fhort time; efpecially if it has not vi¬
gour enough to regain its natural fituation. We bring
death in the fame manner on an animal, if we inter¬
rupt any of its vital motions. The law by which
plants are forced to move in a particular manner is
very powerful: When tw-o twining plants, one of which
is weaker than the other, for example two plants of
woodbine, happen to encounter, they tw ill round each
other, the one dire&ing itfelf to the right and the
other to the left: this lail is always the weakeft ; it
is forced to take a direction contrary to that w hich it
yould have done if it had not met with the other:
but if, by any accident, thefe two twigs of woodbine
Ihould come afterwards to be feparated, they both re¬
fume their natural dire&ion, that is, from right to left.
“ The motions cffentially vital, which have in plants
the greateft affinity with thofe of animals, are the courfe
of the fap, the paffage of the air in the trachea, the
different pofitions which the flowers of certain plants
take at certain hours of the day, &c. But if we attend
to the manner in which all thefe motions in plants are
performed, we will find that they prefent a greater
fl number
MOT [ 415 j MOT
Motion, number of modifications than the analogous motions
that take place in animals. The temperature of the
atmofphere, its agitation, light, &c. have great influ-
ence on the motions of plants, by accelerating or re¬
tarding the courfe of their fluids; and, as they can¬
not change their place, thefe variations produce in
them changes more obvious and more uniform than
in animals.”
Our author now proceeds to inform us, that fome
of the motions of plants are occafioned by the rarity
of the juices in phnits, and others by their abundance.
Of the former kind are thofe by which the capfules
of fome plants fuddenly burft with a fpring, and throw
their feeds to fome diflance. Of the other kind are
the a&ion of the ftamina in the pa net aria, the inflec¬
tion of the peduncles of flowers, and of the piftilla.
« Thofe motions (fays he) which are particularly ob-
ferved in the organs deftined- to the reprodudtion of
the individual, not appearing except in circumftances
that render them abfolutely neceflary, feem in fome
meafure to be the efleft of a particular combination :
they are, however, merely mechanical; for they are
al vays produced in the fame way and in the fame cir-
cum fiances. Thus the rofe of Jericho, and the dry fruit
©f feveral fpecies of mefembryanthemum, do not open
but when their veffels are full of water. _
“ The fudden difengagement of fluids produces a
kind of motion. To this caufe we mull attribute a
great number of phenomena obfervable in the leaves
of feveral>plants, and which do not depend on irrita¬
bility. The fmall glands in each leaf of the diontea
are no fooner pun&ured by an infed than it inftantly
folds up and feizes the animal: the pun&ure feems to
operate a difengagement of the fluid which kept the
leaf expanded by filling its veflels. This explanation
is the more probable, that in the early ftate of the
vegetation of this plant, when the fmall glands are
hardly evolved, and when probably the juices do not
run in fufficient abundance, the leaves are folded up
exadly as they appear when pundured by an infed
at a more advanced period. We obferve a phenome¬
non fimilar to this in both fpecies.of the drofera (fun-
dew). The mechanifm here is very eafily obfervable :
the leaves are at firft folded up ; the juices are not yet
propelled into the fine hairs with which they are co¬
vered ; but after they are expanded, the prefence of
the fluid is manifeft by a drop feep at the extremity
of each hair : it is by abforbing this fluid that an in-
fed empties the veflels of the leaf, which then folds
up, and refumes .its firft ftate : the promptitude of the
adion is proportioned to the number of hairs touched
by the infed. This motion in fome degree refembles
that which takes place in the limb of an animal kept
in a ftate of flexion by a tumor in the joint; when the
matter which obftruded the motion is difcharged, the
limb inftantly refumes its former pofition. The phe¬
nomena that depend on the abundance, of fluids are
particularly evident in plants which grow in wet foils;
the drofera and dionaa are of this kind : and it is known
by the experiments of. Me ft. Du Fay and Du Hamel,
that fenfitive plants are particularly fenfible when the
fun is obfcured by clouds and the air warm and moift.
The influence of external caufes fom.etimes fo modifies
the vital motions in plants, that we would be tempted to
afcribe them to volition, like thofe that depend entirely Motion
on thatfaculty in animals. If we fet a pole in the ground II
near a twining plant, it always lays hold of the pole . M<>tte-
for fupport, in whatever place we put it. The fame
thing occurs in the tendrils of the vine ; which always ,
attach themfelves to the fupport prefented them, on
whatever fide it may be placed, provided they can
reach it: but thefe motions are entirely vital: the
twining plants and the tendrils' direft themfelves to
every quarter, and confequently cannot fail of meet¬
ing with the bodies within their reach. Thefe mo¬
tions are performed as long as the parts continue to
grow ; but when they ceaie to elongate if they have
not been able to reach any body on which they can
fix, they bend back upon themfelves. This and other
obfervataons fhow how far the vital motions in plants -
may be modified by external caufes, and how effen-
tially they differ from thofe that are the effeft of vo¬
lition in animals.
“ Some plants appear endowed with no fort of mo¬
tion : fome have leaves that can move in different di-
re&ions : their motions are generally modified by dif¬
ferent caufes; but none appear fo eminently poffeffed
of this quality as the bedyfarum gyrans of. Linnaeus.—
No part of this plant (hows any figns of irritability upon
application of ftimuli: and the motion of its foliola
ceafes when the leafets are agitated by the wind.—
When the fun is warm, the little leaves of the hedy-
farum are alfo immoveable; but when the weather is
warm and moift, or when it rains, they move very
freely. This motion feems indifpenfably neceffary to
the plant: for it begins as foon as the firft leaves un¬
fold, and continues even during the night; but in
time it grows weaker. In our ftoves it is mod con-
fiderable during the firft year ; in the fecond, it is not
very fenfible : in its native place all the leaves have a
motion never obferved here. The moving leafets are
moft agitated while the plants are in full flower, and
the procefs of fru&ification goes on. The ofcillatory
motion is fo natural to it, that it not only remains for
three or four days in the leafets of a branch that has
been cut off and put in water, but is even continued
though the branch be expofed to the air. The leaves
feem to perform the office of the heart in vegetables.
When a plant is ftripped of its leaves, the progrefs of
vegetation is arrefted ; and fuch vegetables referable
thofe animals which have a periodical fleep, induced
by a diminution of the a&ion of the heart. Many
plants hardly ffiow any figns of motion ; many feem
alfo wholly cataleptic; which is rarely if ever found in
animals. The footftalks of the flowers of dracoce-
phalum, a Virginian plant, preferve themfdves in what¬
ever pofition they are placed.
Mufcular Motion. See Muscle.
MOTIVE, is fometimes applied to that faculty of
the human mind, by which we purfue good and avoid :!
evil. Thus Hobbes diftinguiffies the faculties of the
mind into two forts, the cognitive and motive.
MOTTE (Anthony Houdart de la), an ingenious
Frenchman, greatly diftinguiflied by his writings in
profe and.verfe, and by his literary contefts with many
eminent perfons, was horn at Paris in 1672. He wrote
with very different fuccefs, no man having been mcr»?
praifed or more criticifed than he was: his literary pa-
radoxeSif-
MOT
MntmiaH?, radoxes, lais fingular fyftems, in all brandies of polite
l,“l-' learning, and above all his judgment upon the an¬
cients, which, like thofe of Pei rank, were though t dif-
refpedful and detra&ing, raifed him up formidable
adverfaries. Racine, Boileau, Rouffeau, and Madam
Dacier, were among the number of thofe who made it
l 416 ]
MOT
think themfelves defiled by the touch of ft rangers 5 Motovalis.
and, contrary to the general praftice of the Eaft, nei-
ther eat nor drink out of a veffel which has been ufed
by a perfon not of their fedt, nor will they even fit
with fuch at the fame table.
Thefe doctrines and cuftoms, by feparating the Mo-
their bnfinefs to avenge antiquity on a man who, with toualis from their neighbours, have rendered them a
more wit than genius or learning, afiumed a kind of diftind: fociety. It is faid they have long exifted
didatorial authority in the province of belles lettres.
He became blind in the latter years of his life, and
died in 1731. He wrote a great deal in epic poetry,
tragedy, comedy, lyric, paftoral, and fables ; befides a
vail variety of difcourfes, critical and academical, in
profe. A complete edition of all his works was pub-
lilhed in 11 vols 8vo, in 1754; though, as has been
faid of our Swift, his reputation had been better con-
fulted by reducing them to three or four.
MO lOUALIS, a .fmall nation of Syria, inhabit-
a nation in this country, though their name has never
been, mentioned by any European writer before the
prefent century ; it is not 6ven to be found in the
maps of Donville : La Roque,- who left their country
not a hundred years ago, gives them the name of /f-
mediens. Be this as it may, in later times their wars,
robberies, fucceffes, and various changes of fortune,
have rendered them of confequence in Syria. Till about
the middle of this century, they only polfelfed Bal-
beks their capital, and a few places in the valley, and
ing to the call of the country of the Druses, in the Anti-LebanOn, which feems to have been their ori-
valley which feparates their mountains from thofe of ginal country. At that period we find them under a
Damafcus; of which the following account is given
by Mr Volney in his Travels, vol. ii. p. 84.
The charafteriftic diitin&ion between them and the
other inhabitants of Syria (fays our author) is, that
like government with the Druzes, that is to fay, un¬
der a number of Shaiks, with one principal .chief of
the family of Harfoulh. After the year 1750 they
eliablifhed themfelves among the heights of Bekaa,
they, like the Perfians, are of the fedt of Ali, while and got footing in Lebanon, where they obtained
all the Turks follow that of Omar or Moaouia. This
diltindlion, occafioned by the fchifm which in the
36th year of the Hejira arofe among the Arabs, re-
fpe&ing the fucceflbrs of Mahomet, is the caufe of an
irreconcileable hatred, between the two parties. The
lands belonging to the Maronites, almolt as far as Be-
Iharrai. They even incommoded them fo much by
their ravages, as to oblige the Emir Youfef to attack
them with open force and expel them; but on the other
fide, they advanced along the river even to the neigh-
feCtaries of Omar, who confider themfelves as the only bourhood of Sour, (Tyre). In this fituation, Shaik
orthodox, affume the title of Sown/ter, which has that Daher had the addrefs, in 1760, to attach them
iignification, and term their adverfaries Shiites, that is to his party. The pachas of Saide and Damafcus
“ fedtaries of All.” The word Motoua/i has the fame claimed tributes, which they had negledled paying,
meaning in the dialedl of Syria. The followers of and complained of feveral robberies committed on
Ali, diflatisfied with this name, fubftitute that of their fubjedts by the Motoualis; they were defirous of
Adtia, which means “ affertors of juftice,” literally chaftifing them ; but this vengeance was neither cer-
“ Jufticiariansa denomination which they have tain nor eafy. Daher interpofed; and by becoming
affumed in confequence of a dodlrinal point they fecurity for the tribute ; and promifing to prevent any
advance in op.pofition to the Sonnite faith. A fmall depredations, acquired allies who were able, as it is
Arabic treatile, entitled Theological Fragments con- faid, to arm 10,000 horfemen, all refolute andjbrmi-
cerning the Sedls and Religions of the World, has the
•following pafiage :
<l Thofe fedtaries who pretend that God adls only
on principles of jultice, conformable to human reafon,
dable troops. Shortly after they took poffefiion of
Sour, and made this village their principal fea-port.
In 1771 they were of great ferviee to Ali Bey and
Daher againft the Ottomans. But Emir Youfef ha-
-e called Adlla or JuJliciarians. God cannot (fay ving in their abfence armed the Druzes, ravaged their
they) command an. impracticable worflfip, nor ordain country. He was befieging the caftle of Djezin,
impofiible aditions, nor enjoin men to perform what is when the Motoualis, returning from Damafcus, re-
beyend their ability ; but wherever he requires obedi- ceived intelligence of this invafion. At the relation
ence, will bellow the power to. obey. He removes the of the barbarities committed by the Druzes, an ad-
caufe of evil, he allows us to reafon, and impofes only vanced corps, of only 500 men, were fo enraged, that
what is eafy, not what is difficult; he makes no man they immediately rufhed forward againil the enemy,
refponfible for the aciipns of another, nor puniihes determined, to perilh' in taking vengeance. But the
him for that in which he has no part; he imputes not furprife and confufion they occafipned, and the dif-
as a crime what himfelf'has created in man ; nor does cord which reigned between the two fadljbns. of Man-
he require him to avoid what deftiny has decreed, four and Youfef fo much favoured this defperate at-
This would be injuilice and tyranny, of which God tack, that the whole army, qonlilting pf 25,000 rren,
is incapable from the perfettion of his being.” To was completely overthrown.
this doiStiine, which diametrically oppofes the fyftem In the following, year, the affairs of Daher taking
of the Sonnites, the Motoualis add certain ceremonies a favourable turn, the zeal of the Motoualis cooled to-
which increafe their mutual aveffioh. They curie
Omar and Moapuia as rebels and ufurpers ; and cele-
wards him,, and they finally abandoned’ him in the ca-
taftrophe in which he loft his life. But they have
brate Ali and Hofain as faints .and martyrs. They fuffered for their imprudence under the admipiftration
■begin their ablations at the elbow, inftead of the end • of the pacha who fucceeded him. Since the year
of the finger, as is cuftomary with the Turks ; th*y 1777, Djezzar, mafter of Acre and Saide, has incef-
Nv> *31. f faiHly
MOV L 4T7 J MOV
Mottcux fantly laboured to deftroy them. His persecution for-
Movjmcnt Ce<^ t^iem *n I7^4 t0 a reconciliation with the Drufes,
‘ \ i and to enter into an alliance with the Emir Youfef.
Though reduced to lefs than 700 armed men, they
did more in that campaign than 15,000 or 20,000
Druzes and Maronites affembled at Dair-el-Kamar.
They alone took the ftrong fortrefs of Mar-Djebaa,
and put to the fword 50 or 60 Epirots who defend¬
ed it. But the mifunderftanding which prevailed
among the chiefs of the Druzes having rendered
abortive all their operations, the pacha has obtained
poffefiion of the whole valley, and the city of Balbek
itfelf. At this period not more than 500 families of
the Motoualis remained, who took refuge in Anti-
Lebanon, and the Lebanon of the Maronites; and,
driven as they now are from their native foil, it is pro¬
bable they will be totally annihilated, and even their
very name become extinA.
MOTTEUX (Peter), a French gentleman, born
and educated at Rouen in Normandy. Coming over
to England on account of the perfecution of the Pro-
teilants, he became a confiderable trader in London,
kept an Eaft-India warehoufe in Leadenhall-ftreet,
and had a genteel place in the general poll-office, re¬
lating to foreign letters, being mailer of feveral lan¬
guages. He was a man of wit and humour; and ac¬
quired fo perfehl a mattery of the Englilh language,
that he not only was qualified to oblige the world with
a very good tranfiation of Don Quixote, but alfo
wrote feveral fongs, prologues, epilogues, &c. and
what was ftill more extraordinary, became a very emi¬
nent dramatic writer in a language to which he was
not a native. He was at laft, in the year 1718, found
dead in a diforderly houfe, on his birth-day, when he
completed his 58th year.
MOTTO, in armoury, a ffiort fentence or phrafe,
carried in a fcroll, generally under, but fometimes over,
the arms; fometimes alluding to the bearing, fome¬
times to the name of the bearer, and fometimes con¬
taining whatever pleafes the fancy of the devifer.
MOUCHO more. See Agaricus.
MOVEABLE, in general, denotes any thing ca¬
pable of being moved.
MovE/tBLE-FeaJls, are fuch as are not always held
on the fame day of the year or month ; though they
be on the fame day of the week. See Feasts.
Thus, Eafter is a moveable feaft, being always held
on the Sunday which falls upon or next after the firft
full moon following the 21 tt of March.
All the other moveable feafts follow Eafter, i. e. they
keep their diftance from it; fo that they are fixed with
refpeft thereto.
Such are Septuagefima, Sexagefima, Affi-Wednef-
day, Afcenfion-day, Pentecoft, Trinity-Sunday, &c.
which fee under their proper articles, Septuagesi-
ma, &c.
Moi'EABi.E-SubjeS, in law, any thing that moves it¬
felf, or can be moved ; in contradiftindtion to immove-
" able or heritable fubjefts, as lands, houfes, &c.
MOVEMENT, motion, a term frequently ufed
in the fame fenfe with automaton.
The moft ufual movements for keeping time are
watches and clocks : the firft are fuch as fhow the parts
of time, and are portable in the pocket; the fecond,
Vol. XII. Part II.
fuch as publifh it by founds, and are fixed as furniture. Movement,
See Horology. ,
Movement, in its popular ufe among us, fignifies '
all the inner work of a watch, clock, or other engine,
which move, and by that motion carry on the defign
of the inftrument.
The movement of a clock or watch is the infide, or
that part which meafures the time, ftrikes, &c. ex-
clufive of the frame, cafe, dial-plate, &c.
The parts common to both of thefe movements are,
the main-fpring, with its appurtenances; lying" in.the
fpring box, and in the 'middle thereof lapping about
the fpring-arbor, to which one end of it is fattened.
A-top of the fpring arbor is the endlefs-fcrew and its
w’heel; but in fpring-clocks, this is a ratchet-wheel with
its click, that Hops it. That which the main-fpring
draws, and round which the chain or firing is wrapped,
is called the fufy ; this is ordinarily taper ; in large
works, going with weights, it is cylindrical, and called
the barrel. The fmall teeth at the bottom of the fufy
or barrel, which flop it in winding up, is called the
ratchet; and that which flops it when wound up, and
is for that end driven up by the fpring, the garde-gut.
The wheels are various : the parts of a wheel are, the
hoop or rim; the teeth, the crofs, and the collet or
piece of brafs foldered on the arbor or fpindle whereon
the wheel is rivetted. The little wheels playing in the
teeth of the larger are called pinions; and their teeth,
which are 4, 5, 6, 8, &c. are called leves ; the ends of
the.fpindle are called pivots ; and the guttered wheel,
with iron fpikes at bottom, wherein the line of ordi¬
nary clocks runs, the/>«%>. We need not fay any thing
of the hand, ferews, wedges, flops, See. See Wheel,
Fusy, &c.
Perpetual Movement. Many have attempted to
find a perpetual movement, but without fuccefs; and
there is reafon to think, from the principles of mecha¬
nics, that fuch a mevement is impoffible: for though,
in many cafes of bodies adting upon one another,
there is a gain of abfolute motion, yet the gain is al¬
ways equal in oppofite diredlions; fo that the quantity
of direct motion is never increafed.
To make a perpetual movement, it appears necef-
fary that a certain fyftem of bodies, of a determined
number and quantity, fhould move in a certain fpace
for ever, and in a certain way and manner; and for
this there muft be a feries of adlions returning in a
circle, otherwife the movement will not be perpetual;
fo that any adlion by which the abfolute quantity of
force is increafed, of which there are feveral forts,
mutt have its correfponding counter-adlion, by which
the gain is deftroyed, and the quantity of force rellored
to its firll ftate.
Thus by thefe a&ions there will never be any gain
of diredl force to overcome the fridtion and refiftance
of .the medium ; fo that every motion being diminiffied
by thefe refiftances, they mull at length languilh and
ceafe.
MOUFET (Thomas), a celebrated Engliffi phyfi-
cian, was born at London, and pradlifed medicine
with great reputation. Towards the latter end of his
life he retired to the country, and died about the year
1600. This phyfician is known by a work which was
begun by Edward Wotton, and printed at London in
3 G 1634,
M O U [4
Mouj>; den 1634, folio, with the title of Theatrum InfeBorum. A
..II., tranflation of it into Englifh was publiihed at London
, ° ' ' , in 16^8, folio. Martin Lifter gives a very unfavour¬
able opinion ©f this book : “ As Moufet fays he)
made ufe of Wotton, Gefner, &c. an excellent work
might have been expeftei from him ; and yet his
’Theatrum is full of confufion, and he has made a very
bad ufe of the materials with which thefe authors have
~furnifhcd»him. He is ignorant of the fubjeft of which
he treats, and his manner of exprcffion is altogether
barbarous. Befides this, he is extremely arrogant, to
fay no worfe ; for though he has copied Aldrovandus
in innumerable places, he never once mentions his
name.” But Ray thinks that Lifter, by expreffing
himfelf in this manner, has not done juftice to Mou¬
fet ; and he mantains that the latter has rendered an
efiential fervice to the republic of letters.
MOUG-DEN, or Chen yang; a city of Chinefe
Tartary, and capital of the country of the Mantcbews
or eaftern Vartars. Thefe people have been at great
pains to ornament it with feveral public edifices, and
to provide it with magazines of arms and ftorehoufes.
They confider it as the principal place of their nation;
and fince China has been under their dominion, they
have eftablifhed the fame tribunals here as at Piking,
excepting that called l.ii-pou: thefe tribunals are com-
pofed ot Tartars only ; their determination is final;
and in all their adds they ufe the Tartir chara&ers and
language. The city is built oh an eminence : a num¬
ber of rivers add much to the fertility of the furround¬
ing country. It may be confidered as a double city,
•f which one is enclbfed within the other : the interior
contains the emperor’s palace, hotels of the principal
mandarins, fovercign courts, and the different tribu¬
nals; the exterior is inhabited'by the common people,
tradefmen, and all thofe who by their employments
or profeflions are not obliged to lodge in the interior.
The latter is almoft a league in circumference ; and the
walls which enclofe both are more than three leagues
round : thefe walls were entirely rebuilt in 1631, and
repaired feveral times under the reign of K ing hi. --
Near the gates are two magnificent tombs of the firft
emperors of the reigning family, built in the Chineie
manner, and furrounded by a thick wall furnilhed with
battlements; the care of them is entrufted to fever.il
Mantchew mandarins, who at ftated times are obliged
to perform certain ufual-ceremonies; a duty which
they acquit themfelves of with the fame marks of re-
fpeft and veneration as if their mafters were ft ill li¬
ving
MOVING PLANTS. SeeHEDYSARUMjTttEMELLA,
and Mimosa.
MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanic arts, &c. a
cavity artfully cut, with defign to give its form or im-
preffion to fome fofter matter applied therein. Moulds
are implements of great ufe in fculpture, foundery, &e.
The workmen employed in melting the mineral or me¬
tallic glebe dug out of minep, have each their feveral
moulds to receive the melted metal as it comes out of
the furnace ; but thefe are different according to the
diverfity of metals and works. In gold mines, thry
have moulds for ingots ; in filver mines, for bars ; in
-copper and lead mines, for pigs or falmons ; in tin
laiaes, for pigs and ingots 5 and in iron mines, for
18 ] M O U
fows, chimney-backs, anvils, caldrons, pots, and other MonJJ.
large utenfils and merchandizes of iron; which are —v——
here caft, as it were, at firft hand.
Moulds of founders of large works, as ftatues,
bells, guns, and other brazen works, are of wax, fup-
ported within fide by what we call a core, and covered
without-fide with a cap or cafe. It is in the fpace
which the wax took-up, which is afterwards melted
away to leave it free, that the liquid metal runs, and
the work is formed ; being carried thither through a
great number of little canals, which cover the whole
mould. See Foundert.
Moulds of moneyets are frames full of fand,
wherein the plates of metal are caft that are to ferve
for the ftriking of fpecies of gold and filver. See
Coining
A fort of concave moulds made of clay, having
within them the figures and inferiptions of ancient
Raman coins, are found in many parts of England, and
fiippofed to have been ufed for the calling of money'.
Mr Baker having been favoured with a fight of fome
of thefe moulds found in Shroplhire, bearing tht fame
types and inferiptions with fome of the Roman coins,
gave an account of them to the Royal Society. They
were found in digging of fand, at a place called Rycon
in Shropfhire, about a mile from the great Watling-
ftreet road. They are all of the fize of the Roman de-
naiius, and of little more than the thicknefs of our
halfpenny. They are made of a fmooth pot or brick
clay, which feems to have been firft well cleanfed from
dirt and fand, and well beat or kneaded, to render it
fit for taking a fair imprefiion There were a great
many of them found together, and there are of them
not unfrequently found in Yorkfhire ; but they do not
feem to have been met with in any other kingdom, ex¬
cept that fome have been faid to be once found at
Lyons They have been fometimes found in great
numbers joined together fide by fide, on one flat piece
of clay, as if intended for the cafting of a great num¬
ber of coins at once ; and both thefe, and all the others
that have been found, feem to have been of the empe¬
ror Seyerus. They are fometimes found impreffed on
both fides, and fome have the head of Severus on one
fide and fome well known reverfe of his on the other.
They fee m-plainly to have been inten ed for the coin¬
age of money, though it is not eafy to fay in what
manner they can have been employed to that purpofe,
efpecially thofe which have impreflions on both fides,
unlefs it may be fuppofed that they c ined two pieces
at the fame time by t '.e help of t ree moulds, of which
this \\ as to be the middle one. If by difpoling thefe
into fome fort of iron frame or cafe, as our letter-
founders do the brafs moulds for calling t ,eir types,
the melted metal could be eafily poured into them, it
would certainly be a very eafy method of coining, as _
fuch moulds require little time or expence to make,
and therefore might be fupplied with new ones as often
as they happen to break.
Thefe moulds feem to have been burnt or baked
fufficiently to make them hard; hut not fo as to ren¬
der them porous like our bricks, whereby they would
have loft their fmooth and even ftxrface, which in thefe
is plainly fo clofe, that whatever metal (hould be form¬
ed in them would have no appearance like the fand-
1 holes
M O U r 4
holes by which counterfeit coins and medals are ufual-
ly detected.
Moulds of founders of fmall works are like the
frames of coiners : it is in thefe frames, which are
likewife filled with fand, that their feveral works are
fafliioned; into which, when the two frames, whereof the
mould is compofed, are rejoined, the melted brafs is run.
Moulds of letter-founders are partly of fteel and
partly wood. The wood, properly fpeaking, ferves
only to cover the real mould which is within, and to
prevent the workman, who holds it in his hand, from
being incommoded by the heat of the melted metal.
Only one letter or type can be formed at once in each
mould. See Letter-Foundery.
Moulds, in the manufadfure of paper, are little
frames compofed of feveral brafs or iron wires, fafien-
ed together by another wire ftill finer. Each mould
is of the bignefs of the fheet of paper to be made, and
has a rim or ledge of wood to which the wires are
faftened. Thefe moulds are more ufually called frames
or forms. See Paper-making.
Moulds,withfurnaceand crucible makers, are made
of wood, of the fame form with the crucibles; that is, in
form of a truncated cone : they have handles of wood
to hold and turn them with, when, being covered
with the earth, the workman has a mind to round or
flatten his veffel.
Moulds for leaden bullets are little iron pincers,
each of whofe branches terminates in a hemifpherical
concave, which when fhut foim an entire fphere. In
the lips or tides where the branches meet, is a little jet
or hole, through which the melted lead is conveyed.
Laboratory Moulds are made of wood, for filling
and driving all forts of rockets and cartridges, &c.
Glaziers Moulds. The glaziers have two kinds
of moulds, both ferving to call their lead : in the one
they call the lead into long rods or canes fit to be
drawn through the vice, and the grooves formed there¬
in ; this they fometimes call ingot-mould. In the
other,, they mould thole little pieces of lead a line thick
and two lines broad, faftened to the iron bars. Thefe
may be alfo caft in the vice.
Goldfmitbs Moulds. The goldfmiths ufe the bones
of the cuttle-filh to make moulds for their fmall works;
which they do by prefling the pattern between two
bones, and leaving a jet or hole to convey the filver
through, after the pattern has been taken out.
Mould, among mafons, is a piece of hard wood or
iron, hollowed within fide, aniwerable to the contours
of the mouldings or cornices, &c. to be formed. This
is other wife called caliber.
Moulds, among plumbers, are the tables whereon
they caft. their fheets of lead. Thefe they fometimes
call limply tables. Befides which they have other real
moulds, wherewith they caft pipes without foldering.
bee each defcrihed under Plumbery.
Moulds, among the glafs grinders, are wooden
frames, whereon they make the tubes wherewith they
fit their perfpedtives, telefcopes, and ether optic ma¬
chines. Thefe moulds are cylinders, ©f a length and
diameter according to the ufe they are to be applied
to, but always thicker at one end than the other, to
facilitate the Hiding. The tubes made on thefe moulds
are of two kinds; the one limply of pafteboard and
paper ; the other of thin leaves of wood joined to the
pafteboard. To make thefe tubes to draw out, only
19 ] M O U
the laft or innermoft is formed on the mould; each Mould,
tube made afterwards ferving as d mould td that which Mouldi-
is to go over it, but without taking out the mould, nel‘' ,,
from the firft. See Grinding. ~y
Moulds uftd in balket-making are very Ample, con¬
fiding ordinarily of a willow or ofier turned or bent in¬
to an oval, circle, fquare, or other figure, according
to the bafkets, panniers, hampers, and other utenfils
intended. On thefe moulds they make, or more pro¬
perly meafure, all their work; and accordingly they
have them of all fizes, fhapes, &c.
Mould, in Ihip-building, a thin flexible piece of
timber, ufed by Ihipwrights as a pattern whereby to
form the different curves of the timbers, and other
compaffing pieces in a fhip’s frame, t here are two
forts of thefe, viz. the bend-mould and hollow-mould ;
the former of thefe determines the convexity of the
timbers, and the latter their concavity on the outfu'e,
where they approach the heel, particularly towaidi
the extremities of the veffel. The figure given to the
timbers by this pattern is called their bevelling.
Moulds, among tallow-chandleis, are of two kinds:
the firft for the common dipped caddies, being the vef¬
fel wherein the melted tallow is difpofed, and the
wick dipped. This is of wood, of a triangular form,
and fupported on one of its angles; fo that it has an
opening of near a foot a-top : the other, ufed in the
fabric of mould candles, is of brafs, pewter, or tin.—
Here each candle has its feveral mould. See Candle.
Mould, among gold-beaters, a certain number of
leaves of vellum or pieces of guts cut fquare, of a cer¬
tain lize, and laid over one another, 4between which
they put the leaves of gold and filver which they beat-
on the marble with the hammer. See Gold-leaf.
They have four kinds of moulds ; two whereof are
of vellum and two of gut: the fmalleft of thofe of
vellum coniifts of 40 or 50 leaves ; the largeft contains
100: for the others, each contain 500 leaves. The
moulds have all their feveral cafes, confifting of two
pieces of parchment, ferving to keep the leaves of
the mould in their place, and prevent their being dif-
ordered in beating.
Mould, in agriculture, a general name for the fdft
earthy fubftance with which the dry land is generally
covered, and in which all kinds of vegetables take root
and grow. It is, however, far from being an homogene¬
ous fubftance ; being compounded of decayed animal
and vegetable matters, calcareous, argillaceous, and
filiceous earths, all mixed together in various pro¬
portions, and with the different degrees of moifture,
conftituting all the varieties of soil throughout the
world. All kinds of mould contain fomt inflammable
fubftance, which remains in them from the decayed
animals and vegetables; and they are more or lefs
black'tn proportion to the quantity of phiogifton they
contain. The black mould-y ields by diftillation a vo¬
latile alkali and oil.
MOULDINESS, a term applied to bodies which
corrupt in the' air, from feme hidden principle of hu¬
midity therein ; and whole corruption flrows itlclf by
a certain white down or lanugo on their furface, which
viewed through a microfeope appears like a kind of
meadow, out of which anfe herbs and flowers, fome
only in the bud, others full-blown, and others decayed;
each having its root, ftalk, and other parts. See Mu-
COR.
3 g i Mould.
M O U I 420 ] M o u
Moulding MOULDING, any thing caft in a mould, or that
M'ninn ^eems t0 ^iave ^een ^0, t^oug^ in reality it were cut
~Ut °n'/ with a chilel or the ax.
Mouldings, in architefture, proje&ures beyond
the naked wall, column, wainfcot, &c. the affemblage
of which forms corniches, door-cafes, and other deco¬
rations of Architecture. See that article.
MOULIN (Charles du), a celebrated civilian, and
one of the molt learned men of the 16th century, was
born of a confiderable family at Paris in 1500, and
acquired great reputation by .his fkill in the law. He
publilhed many works, which have been colletted to¬
gether, and printed in five volumes folio; and are jultly
confidered as the molt excellent works that France has
produced on the fubjedt of civil law. He died at Paris
in 1566.
Moulin (Peter du), a Proteftant divine, believed
to be of the fame family with the former, was born in
1568. He taught philofophy at Leyden; and after¬
wards became chaplain to the princefs of Navarre.
At the king of England’s defire he came hither in
1615, and prepared a plan for the union of the Pro¬
teftant churches. The univerfity of Leyden offered
him a profelforlhip of divipity in 1619: but he refufed
it, and prefided at the fynod held by the Calvinilts at
Alais in 1620. Some time after, being informed by
Mr Drelincourt that the French king refolved to have
him thrown into prifon, he retired to Sedan, where
the duke de Bouillon made him profeflbr of divinity,
and minifier in ordinary. He was employed by the
Galvinifts in the moll important affairs; and died at
Sedan in 1658^. His principal works are, 1. The
anatomy of Arminianifm. 2. A treatife on repent¬
ance, and the keys of the church. 3. The Capuchine,
or the hiftory of thofe monks. 4. The buckler of
faith, or a defence of the reformed churches. j.’T’he
judge of controverfies and traditions. 6. The anatomy
of the mafs. 7. The novelty of Popery.
Peter du Mnulm, his eldelt fan, was chaplain to
Charles II. of England, and prebendary of Canter¬
bury, where he died in 1684, aged 84. He wrote,
1. The peace of the foul, in French. ‘ 2. Clamor regii
fanguinh; which Milton, by millake, attributed to
Alexander Moru?. 3. A defence of the Proteiiant
religion, in Englilh.
MOULINET, is ufed, in mechanics, to fignify a
roller, which, being croffed with two levers, is ufually
applied to cranes, capftans, and ether forts of engines
of the like nature, to draw ropes, and heave up Hones,
&c.
Moulinet is alfo a kind of turnftile, or wooden
crofs, which turns horizontally upon a Hake fixed in
the ground; ufually placed in paffages to keep out
horfes, and to oblige paffengers to go and come one
by one. Thefe moulinets are often fet near the out¬
works of fortified places at the fides of the barriers,
through which people pafs on foot.
MOULINS, a town of France, and capital of
Bourbonnois. The houfes of the Chartreux, and that
of the Vifitation, are magnificent. It carries on a
confiderable trade in cutlery ware, and is feated on the
river Allier, in a pleafant fertile plain, almoil in the
middle of France, 30 miles fouth of Nevers, and 55
north of Clermont. E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 46. 34.
MOULTON (North), a town of Devonlhire on
the river Moul, and the north fide of South Moulton, Moulting
of whofe hundred it is a member, and anciently gave li
name to it, as the latter does now. It has two fairs, iMomitain-
on Tuefday after May 11. and on Nov. 12.
Moulton (South), on the fame ftream, 182 miles
from London. This, as well as the former, was an¬
ciently royal demefne This corporation, which once
fent members to parliament in the reign of Edward I.
confifts of a mayor, 18 capital burgeffes, a recorder,
town-clerk, and 2 ferjeants at mace. Here is a mar¬
ket on Saturdays; and fairs are held the firll Tuefday
after May 11. and Nov. 12. Their chief manufahlures
are ferges, fhalloons, and felts ; and great quantities of
wool brought from the country are bought up here
every Saturday. In the year 1684, a merchant of
London, a native of this town, built and endowed a
free fchool here; befides which, here is a charity-
fchool
MOULTING, or Molting, the falling off of
change of hair, feathers, Ikins, horns, or other parts of
animals, happening in fome annually, in others only at
certain ftages of their life.
The generality ol animals moult in the fpring. The
moulting of a hawk is called mewing. The moulting
of a deer is the quitting of his horns in February or
March. The moulting of a ferpent is the putting off
his Ikin. See Exuviae.
MOUND, a term ufed for a bank or rampart, or
other fence, particularly that of earth.
Mound, in heraldry, a ball or globe with a crofs
upon it, fuch as our kings are ufually drawn with,
holding it in their left hand, as they do the feeptre in
the right.
MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alfo moun¬
tain. See Mountain.
Mount-Edgecumbe, a prodigious high peak, at the
entrance of Cook’s (trait, in New Zealand, on the
weft fide. Its height is fuppofed not to be much in¬
ferior to that of the peak of Tenetiffe.
MouNT-Sorrel, a town in Leicefterlhire, fo named
from a high mount or folid rock adjoining to the town*
of a dufky red or forrrl-coloured Hone, extremely hard.
Of rough Hones hewn out of this rock the town is
built. It has a market on Mondays. It was noted
formerly for its eaitle, and is feated on the river Stour*
over which there is a bridge. It is 20 miles fouth-
eaft by fouth of Derby, and 105 north-weft by north
of London. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 52. 45.
Mounts of Piety, certain funds or ellabliftiments in
Italy, where money is lent out on fome fmall fecurity.
There were alfo mounts of piety in England, railed by
contribution for the benefit of people ruined by the
extortions of the Jews.
MOUNTAIN (Mans), a confiderable eminence
of land, elevated above every thing adjoining to it,
and commanding all the furrounding places : It is
commonly full of inequalities, cavities more or lefs
expofed, and ftrata halt laid open.
This name is likewife given to a chain of moun¬
tains ; as when we fpeak of Mount Atlas in Africa ;
Mount Caucafus, which begins above Colchis and ends
at the Cafpian fea ; the Pyrenean mountains, which
feparate France from Italy; and the Apennine moun¬
tains, which run through the whole of Italy.
Thole who have furveyed the earth in general, and
ftudied
M O IT [ 421 ] M O U
Mountain., ftudiec! nature on a grand fcale, have conftantly been
v“—■v-””'' ftruck with admiration and aftonifliment at the fight
of fuch maje'lic eminences, which extending in diffe»
rent ways, feem to rule over the reft of the globe, and
which prefent to the beholder a fipeftacle equally mag¬
nificent and interefting. In them it has been fuppo-
fed we muft fearch for a folution of the important
problem regarding the creation of the world.
Naturalills reckon feveral kinds of mountains : we
fhall find that thefe elevations of the earth have not
all the fame origin, nor date their commencement from
the fame era.
1. Thofe mountains which form a chain, and which
are covered with fnow, may be confidered as primitive
or antediluvian. They are like majeftic bulwarks fcat-
tered on the furface of the globe, and greatly exceed
the other mountains in height. In general, their ele¬
vation is very hidden, and their afcent very fteep and
difficult. Their ffiape is that of a pyramid crowned
with fharp and prominent rocks, on which no verdure
is to be feen, but which are dry, naked, and as it were
ftripped of their foil, which has been wafhed away by
the rains, and which prefent an awful and horrible
afpeft, fufficient to imprefs the coldeft imagination
with terror. Thefe primitive mountains, which afto-
niih the eye, and where wind only reigns, are con¬
demned by nature to perpetual fterility. At the foot
of them we frequently find paths lefs fteep and wind¬
ing than when we afcend to a greater height. They
every where prefent thundering cafcades, frightful
precipices, and deep valleys. The depreffions and ex¬
cavations correfpond with the quantity of water, the
motion of which is accelerated in its fall, and which
fometimes produces a total finking or an inclination of
the mountain. The wrecks to be found at the foot of
moft peaks, ffiow how much they have fuffered from
the hand of time. Nothing meets the eye but enor¬
mous rocks, heaped in confufion on one another, which
prevent the approach of the human race. On the
fummits of thefe mountains or high eminences, which
are only a feries of peaks frequently detached from
one another, the prominent rocks are covered with
eternal fnow and ice, and furrounded with floating
clouds which are difperfed into dew. In a word, the
rugged cliffs oppofe an inacceffible rampart to the in¬
trepidity of man; and nature exhibits a pi&ure of
diforder and decay (a). No fhells or other organized
marine bodies are to be found in the internal part of
thefe primitive mountains; and though fearch has Mountain,
been made, by digging, on the tops of the Alps andv——'
the Pyrenees, no fubltances of this nature have yet
been difcovered except on the fides near the bafe. No¬
thing is to be met with but continued rocks, caverns
dug by the hand of nature, and abounding in cryftal-
lizations of great beauty, with various minerals The
ftone of which they confiit is an immenfe mafs of
quanz, fomewhat varied, which penetrates into the
bowels of the earth in a diredfion almoft perpendicular
to the horizon. We find no calcareous fpar but in
the fiffures or rents which have fome extent and an
evident direction ; and at great depths we find new
parts as it were, or, in other words, the primitive Itate
of things. All primitive mountains furniffi proofs of
thefe affertions. Of this kind in Europe are the Py¬
renees, the Alps, the Apennines, the mountains of
Tirol, the mountain of the giants in Silefia, the Car¬
pathian mountains, the mountains of Saxony, thofe of
Norway, &c. In Afia we find the Riphean moun¬
tains, Mount Caucafus, Mount Taurus, and Mount
Libanus ; in Africa, the mountains of the moon ; and
in America the Apalachian mountains, and the An¬
des or Cordilleras. Many of the latter have been the
feats of volcanoes.
2. Another kind of mountains are thofe which are
either detached, or furrounded with groups of little
hills, the foil of which is heaped up in diforder, and
the cruft gravelly and confufedly arranged together.
Thefe are truncated or have a wide mouth in the
ffiape of a funnel towards the fummit, and which are
compofed of, or furrounded with, heaps of calcined
and half vitrified bodies, lava, &e. This clafs of
mountains appear to have been formed by different
ftrata raifed up and difcharged into the air, upon oc-
cafion of the eruption of fome fubterraneous fire. The
ifles of Santorin, Monte-Nuovo, Mount Etna, Adam’s
Peak in the ifland of Ceylon, the peak of Teneriffe
in the Canary Ifiands, and many others, have been
formed in this manner. When very high mountains
of this kind are covered with fea-ffiells, we may con-
fider their fummits as having once conftituted a part
of the bottom of the ocean. A number of thefe
mountains have been formed in the memory of man
and prefent nothing to the view but difordered ruins,,
confufed maffes, parts heaped together in the greateft
irregularity, and produ&ions formed by eruptions or
by the falling in of the earth. When a mountain of
* this
(a) It is obferved, fays the Abbe Palaffou, that at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, the foil of feveral
countries confifts wholly of the mud and rubbiffi depofited by the rivers which defcend from them. Accord¬
ing to Herodotus, a great part of Egypt was in like manner formed by the different fubftances brought thither
by the Nile : Ariftotle calls it the work of the Nile ; and on this account the Ethiopians boafted that Egypt
was indebted to them for its orign. The inhabitants of the Pyrenees might fay the fame thing of almoft the
whole traft ©f country fituated along the northern chain from the ocean to the Mediterranean, forming that
kind of ifthmus which feparates the two feas. The furface of our globe is thus in a itate of perpetual change ;
the plains are elevated, the mountains are levelled, and water is the principal agent employed by nature in
thefe great revolutions. Time alone is wanting to verify the faying of Louis XIV. to his grandfon : Pa-
fterity will one day be able to fay, “ The Pyrenees are no more.” The period, however, muft neceffarily
be very diftant. M. Genfanne, from obfervations which he thinks well-founded, concludes, that thefe moun¬
tains are lowered about ten inches every century. Suppofing them therefore to be r 500 toifes above the level
of the fea, and always fufceptible of being lowered in the fame degree, a million of years would elapfe before
their total deftru&ion.
M O U f 422 ] M O U
Mountain, this kind is conne&ed with the land, and advances
1 v 1 farther into the fea than the adjoining country, it is
then termed a Cape, Head, or Promontory ; fuch as the
Cape of Good Hope at the fouthern extremity of
Africa. Mountains of the fecond rank are commonly
more eafy of accefs. Dr Haller obferves, that the
angle formed-between their bafe and their declivity
is larger; that they have fewer fprings; and that their
plants are different from thofe of the Alps. The
peafants in Swifftrland, he tells us, are acquainted
with the difference betwixt thefe two kinds of moun¬
tains.
3. Thofe mountains, whether arranged in a group
or not, the earth or ftone of which is difpofed in lira-
ta more or lefs regular, and confining of one or more
colours and fubftances, are produced by the fubftances
depofited flowly and gradually by the waters, or by
foil gained at the time of great floods. We daily fee
little hills formed in this manner, which are always
of a fmall height compared with thofe of the firlt
order, and round in the top, or covered with foil
frequently forming a pretty flat and extenfive- furface.
We there find like wife fand and heaps of round pebbles
like fuch as have been worn by the waters. The internal
part of thefe mountains confifts of a heap of ftrata al-
molt horizontal, and containing a prodigious quantity
of fhells, marine bodies, and filh-bones. Although
thefe mountains formed by llrata fometimes degenerate
into little hills, and even become almoft flat, they al¬
ways confiit of an immenfe collection of foffils of dif¬
ferent kinds, in great prefervation, and which are
pretty eafily detached from their earthy bed whether
harder or fofter. Thefe foflils, confifting of marine Ihells
intermixed and confounded with heaps of otganifed
bodies of another fpecies, prefent a picture of altonifh-
ing diforder, and give indubitable indications that
fome extraordinary and violent current has confound¬
ed and accumulated in the greateft diforder and pre¬
cipitation foreign fubftances and fhells of various kinds.
Thefe, removed from their natural and original place,
by their union form an elevation and a mountain,
which are in fad nothing but a compofition of the
wrecks of bodies formerly organifed. All thefe phe¬
nomena feem to prove, that moft of thefe mountains
chiefly owe their origin to the fea, which once cover¬
ed fome parts of our continent, now left dry by its
retreat. (According to the principles of this fyltem,
Anaxarchus explained the formation of the moun¬
tains of Lampfacus). In thefe mountains we like-
wife find wood, prints of plants, ftrata of clay, marl,
and chalk, different beds of ftone fucceeding one ano¬
ther, fuch as flate, marble which is often full of fea
fliells, lime-ftone which appears to be who ly formed
from the wreck of fhells, plafter-ftone, entire ftra¬
ta of ochre, and beds of bitumen, mineral fait, and
alum. •
The ftrata of mountains which are lower and of a
recent date, or formed by recent accidents, fometimes
appear to reft upon, or to take their rife from, the
fides of primitive mountains which they f.11 round, arid
of which they in fome meafure form the firft fteps in
the afcent ; and they end by being ii.fenfibly loft in
the plains. With refped to the irregularity of fome
ftrata in recent mountains, it is owing to violent and
fudden inundations, to torrents, and to local reyolu-
8
tions which have produced angles, leaps, and fink* M
ings down of the ftrata. It is generally obferved,
however, that the ftrata in mountains are exaiftly pa¬
rallel to each other throughout all their different wind¬
ings. M. Defmareft remarks, that in two mountains
which by their brows form the hollow of a valley^
we find ftrata of earth or ftone of the fame kind, and
difpofed and arranged in the fame manner. We have
already fhown, under the article Earth,' why the
ftrata of recent mountains are not every where the
fame in number and thicknefs. Some ftrata are only
a quarter of an inch thick, others are more than ten
feet: in fome places we find 30 or 40 beds fucceeding
each other, in others only three or four; In recent
mountains compofed of ftrata, M. Lehmann obferves,
the loweft ftratum is always pit-coal; and this refts
on a coarfe and ferruginous gravel or fand. Above
the pit-coal we find ftrata of flate, fchiftus, &c. and
the upper part of the ftrata is conftantly occupied by
limeftone and falt-fprings. It is eafy to perceive the
utility of thefe obfervations, when we intend to work
for thefe minerals ; and by attending to the diftinc-
tion which has been made of the different mountains
of the fame kind, we may know the nature of thofe
fubftances which upon feareh we may expedl to find
in them. The fpecimens which appear without, in¬
dicate what fubftances are concealed within.
In general, it has been obferved, that yvhen two or
more mountains run parallel to each other, the fa-
lient angles correfpond with the receding ones; and
thefe angles are fharper and more ftriking in deep and
narrow valleys. Dr Haller obferves, that there are
many places in the Alps and in mountains, where
two chains are prolonged contrary to the axis of the
valley, and join fo as only to leave as much fpace as
is neceflary for the difeharge of the water. In other
places the mountain is continued, for inftance, to the
north, and difeontinued to the fouth, where it opens
into a valley. In others, the two chains retire and
form a bend on each fide, the concavity of which
fronts the axis: hence arife valleys almoit round and
completely united.
It is likewife worthy of obfervation, that primitive
mountains which form vaft chains are commonly con-
ne&ed together; that they fucceed one another for
a fpace of feveral hundred leagues; and cover with
their principal branches, and their various collateral
ramifications, the furface of continents. Father Kir-
chcr and many others have obferved, that the princi¬
pal chain generally runs from fouth to north, and from
eaft to weft. The Cordilleras in the New world, Dr
Haller obferves, extend from north to fouth ; the Py¬
renees have nearly the fame dire&ion ; the Alps run
from eaft to weft ; and there muft be a chain of this
kind in Africa, for the great rivers in that quarter of
the world run to the eaft on the one fide and to the
weft on the other. The chain of Thibet appears to be
parallel to the Alps ; and, from the great length of
the road through the fnows, it may be inferred that
the mountains of Thibet have a very great elevation.
Thofe mountains which, ftriiftly fpeaking, are the prin¬
cipal roots, and the capital point of elevation and divi-
lion, prefent very confiderable maffes, both w-ith regard
to their height and their fize or extent- they com¬
monly occupy and traverfe the centre of continents.
Thofe
M O R r 423 ] M O R
Mtnmtai". THofe which have a fmaller elevation arife from thefe
principal chains ; they gra lunlly diminhh in propor¬
tion to their diftance from their rqot, and at length
wholly difappear either on the fea-coaft or in the plains.
Others are continued along the ihore of the fea ; their
chain is interrupted only to make room for the waters
of the ocean, under the bed of which the bafe of thefe
mountains extends ; and it again occurs in iflands,
which perpetuate their continuation till the whole
chain re-appears. The higheft mountains and the
greateft number of iflands are generally found between
or near the tropics, and in the middle of the tempe¬
rate zones; while theloweft are adjacent to the poles ;
though thr does not always hold good without excep¬
tion. M Buiche, a member of the Academy of Sci¬
ences at Paris, has laid down a fyftem of phyfical
geography concerning the Urmflure of the terraqueous
globe, confidered with refpeft to the great chains of
mountains which crofs the continents and feas from
po'e to pole, and from eafl: to weft. According to
this fyftem, there is an uninterrupted feries of moun¬
tains and high grounds which divide the earth into
four declivities, from which the rivers defeend Thefe
chains of mountains are continued from one continent
to another under the ocean ; and the iflands which
■are obferved in it, are as it were the fummits of the
mountains. M. Buache’s work is entitled Tables
et Cartes de la Geographic phyfique. But that this fy-
ftem, with regard to the iflands, muft be erroneous,
will appear evident from our article Earth.
In the 'Journal dr Phyfique for May 17 79 we are in¬
formed, that Dr Pallas, who has travelled through
Siberia, and altnoft all the Ruffian empire in the north
1 of Alia, thinks he has difeovered the infufficiency of
the principal fyftems hitherto propofed to account for
the formation of mountains This accurate obferver
has profccuted the ftudy of mountains by traverfing
immenfe regions, and viftting as it were the fecret
work (hops of nature in almoft the fourth part of our
hemifphere. He has not trufted to the vague reports
of others, but from obfervations which he himfelf had
occafion tq make for the fpace of ten years. He has,
in a work entitled Obfervations on Mountains, explained
both the direfh’on of (die northern chains, and the par¬
ticular compofition of each. He is thence led to make
an ingenious conjecture concerning the formation of
the principal groups of mountains, and concerning the
irregular diftribution and the figure of the old conti¬
nent. Under the article Earth an account is given
of the different fyftems which have been formed con¬
cerning the formation and configuration of ©ur globe.
To eftahlifti a general fyftem, it would perhaps be ne-
ceffary to have travelled over the whole earth ; and to
have ftudied all the chains of mountains, their direc¬
tion, and particular compofition, for a long feries
of years. Thus very b’ttle attention is required to
perceive, in the different fyftems mentione • qnder the
article Earth, the influenee of c limate and local fitu-
j) ation Burnet, Whifton, and Woodward, who were
acquainted only with England, where very few great
chains of mountains are to he feen, . where they are
almoft all infulated or detached, and where the foil of
extenlive plains is formed by horizontal and pretty re¬
gular rata, naturally thought that thefe general and
soncentric ihrata were to be found all around the globe.
and confidered mountains as nothing but the wrecks Mountain,
of thefe ftrata, either raifed or fwallowed up by thev—J
violence of the waters. Scheuchzer, who ftudied a-
mong the fteep mountains of Switzerland, amid rocks
of granite, petrofilex, jafper, and hard ftones, and who
found nothing on the moft elevated plains of the Alps
but ftrata of fimilar fubftances, had recourfe to the
power of the Almighty, who broke in pieces thefe
ftrata, and elevated their fplinters into the form of
mountains. Ray, Morro, and Stenon, who faw no¬
thing all around them but burning mountains and traces
of volcanic productions—deceived by the conftitution
of the hills of I taly, which are almoft all formed of
lava, pozzolana, and bafaltic fubftances, and by the
origin of the Monte Nuovo, which rofe up almoft be¬
fore their eyes, have confidered great mountains as
formed by a caufe which undoubtedly has a fecondary,
but to which they have aferfbed a primary and prin¬
cipal, influence. M. de Buffon, who delineated na¬
ture at the foot of the utmoft extremity of the French-
Alps, and who perceived them gradually attain a great¬
er elevation as they advanced towards the fouthern
parts of France and towards Savoy, concluded from
his theory, and in fupport of the fame theory, that
the higheft mountains were near the equator; that they
became lower towards the poles ; an i that, being
pro need by the flux and reflux of the fea, they were
formed of the fubftances which it depofited.
We (hall now lay before our readers the geographi¬
cal defeription of the dire&ions of the principal moun¬
tains, and of that kind of connexion which flibfifts be¬
twixt them. This defeription differs from that of
M. Buache, and may be read with a map of the world
before us.
M. Buaehe places the moft elevated points of the
great chains of mountains under the equatorial line ;
but, according to the author whom we follow in this
place, the fulleft and moft continuous lands, and per¬
haps likewife the moft elevated, are to be found at a
diftance from the equator, and towards the temperate
zones. If, in fait, we furvey the globe's furfaee, we
will not be abR to perceive that chain of mountains,
which running from eaft to weft, and dividing the
earth into two portions, ought again to meet. On the
contrary, extenfive plains feem to accompany the line
through almoft its whole’ extent. In Africa, the de-
ferts of Nigritia and thofe of Upper Ethiopia, are on
the one fide of the line ; and on the other are the fandy
plains of Nicoco, Caffraria, Monoemugi, and Zangue-
bar. From the eailern ftiores of Africa to the Sunda
iflands, is a fpace of 1 ,o leagues of fea with almoft'
no iflands, except the, Laccadive and Maidive ifl inds;
mod part of which have little elevation, and which run
from north to fouth. From, the Molucca iflands and ;
New Guinea, to-the weftern borders of America, the
fea occupies a fpace of 3000 leagues. Though Chim¬
borazo and Pichiheha in America the two higheft .
mountains which have been meafured, are nerr and
even under the line, yet from this no conclufion can
be drawn ; becaufe on one fide thefe mountains run in
a dire ion not parallel to the equator; the Andes or
Cordilleras attain a greater elevation as they remove
from the equator towards the poles; an i a waft plain
is found cxaddly under the line, betweerl the Oroonoko
and the river of the Amazons- Befides,xthe latter river*
which..
M O IT [ 424- ] M O U
Mountain, which takes its rife in the province of Lima about
the 1 ith degree of fouth latitude, after crofling the
whole of South America from welt to eatt, falls into
the ocean exaftly under the equator. This fhows that
there is a defcent for the fpace of 12 degrees or 300
leagues. From the mouth of the river of the Ama¬
zons, to the weftern ihores of Africa, the fea forms
another plain of more than 50 degrees.
From the few certain fa&s and accurate obfervations
which we have received from well informed travellers,
we might almoft affirm that the moft elevated land on
our globe is fituated without the tropics in the northern
and fouthern hemifpheres. By examining the courfe
of the great rivers, we in fad find that they are in ge¬
neral difeharged into three great refervoirs, the one
under the line, and the other two towards the poles.
This, however, we do not mean to lay down as a
thing unlverfally true; for it is allowed, that, befides
the two elevated belts, the whole furface of the earth
is covered with innumerable mountains, either detach¬
ed from one another or in a continued chain. In A-
merica, the Oronooko and the river of the Amazons
run towards the line, while the river St Lawrence
runs towards the 50th degree of north latitude, and
the river de la Plata towards the 40th degree of fouth
latitude. We are ftill too little acquainted with A-
frica, which is almoft all contained within the tropics,
to form any accurate conclufions concerning this fub-
jedt. Europe and Alia, which form only one great
mafs, appear to be divided by a more elevated belt,
which extends from the moft wellerly ffiores of France
to the moft eafterly of China, and to the Hland of
Sagaleen or Anga-hnta, following pretty nearly the
50th degree of north latitude. In the new continent,
therefore, we may confider that chain where the Mif-
iiffippi, the river St Lawrence, the Ohio, and the river
de los Eftrechos, take their rife, as the moft elevated fi-
tuation in North America; whence the Miffiffippi flows
towards the equator, the river St Lawrence towards
the north-eaft, and the reft towards the north weft.
In the old continent, the belt formerly mentioned,
and to which we may affign about xo degrees in
breadth, may be reckoned from the 45th to the 55th
degree of north latitude : for in Europe the Tagus,
the Danube, the Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga,
and in Alia the Indus, the Ganges, the Meran, the
Mecon, the Hoang-ho, and the Yantg-tfe-Kiang, de¬
fending as it were from this elevation, fall into the
great refervoir between the tropics; wbilft towards the
north the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, the Viftula,
the Obi, the Jenifei, the Lena, .the Indigirka, and
the Kowyma, are difeharged into the northern refer-
Judging from thofe mountains the height of which
has been calculated, and from the immenfe chains with
which we are acquainted, we may infer that the
higheft mountains arc to be found in this elevated belt.
The Alps of Swiflerland and Savoy extend through
the 45th, the 46th, and the 47th degrees. Among
them we find St Gothard, Furca, Bruning, Rufs,
Whiggis, Scheidek, Gunggels, Galanda, and laftly
that branch of the Swifs Alps which reaches Tirol by
the name of Arlenberg and Arula. In Savoy, we
meet with Mount Blanc, the Peak of Argentiere,
Cornero, Great and Link St Bernard, GreatandLittle
N° 231.
Cenis, Coupeline, Servih, and that branch of the Mountain.
Savoyard Alps which proceeds towards Italy through 
the duchy of Aoft and Montferrat. In this vaft
heap of elevated peaks, Mont Blanc and St Go¬
thard are particularly diftinguiffied. The Alps, lea¬
ving Swifl'erland and Savoy, and palling through
Tirol and Carniola, traverfe Saltzbourg, Stiria, and
Auftria, and extend their branches through Mo¬
ravia and Bohemia, as far as Poland and Pruffia.—
Between the 47th and 48th degrees, we meet with -
Grimming the higheft mountain of Stiria, and Priel
which is the higheft in Auftria. Between the 46th
and 47th degrees, the der Bacher and the der Reinfch-
nicken, form two remarkable chains. The upper one,
which traverfes the counties of Trencfin, Arrava,
Scepus, and the Kreyna, feparates Upper Flungary
from Silefia, Little Poland, and Red Ruffia ; the in¬
ferior one traverfes Upper Croatia, Bofnia, Servia,
and Tranfilvania, feparates Lower Hungary from
Turkey in Europe, and meets the upper chain behind
Moldavia, on the confines of Little Tartary. In thefe
mountains are fituated the rich mines of Schemnitz.
To form a general idea of the great height of this
Alpine belt, it is neceflary only to remark, that the
greateft depth of the wells at Schemnitz is 200 toifes;
and yet it appears, from the barometrical calculations
of the learned M. Noda, that the greateft depth of
thefe mines is 286 toifes higher than the city of Vien¬
na. The granito-argillous mountains of Schemnitz,
and of the whole of this metallic diftritl, are inferior,
however, to the Carpathian mountains. Mount Kri-
vany in the county of Arrava, and the Carpathian
mountains between Red Ruffia and the Kreyna, ap¬
pear by their great elevation to rule over the whole of
the upper Alpine chain. In the inferior chain we like-
wife meet with mountains of an extraordinary height;
among others, Mount Mediednik, which gives its name
to a chain extending far into Bofnia; and Mount He-
mus, celebrated even among the ancients. In ffiort,
this extenfive chain reaches into Afia, and is there con¬
founded with another chain no lefs famous, which,
following exactly the 50th degree of latitude, runs
through the whole of Afia. This chain of mountains
is deferibed by Dr Pallas in the work above-mention¬
ed ; and we ffiall now trace its courfe in company with
this intelligent obferver.
This author places the head of the mountains of
Oural, between the fources of the Taik and the Bie-
la'ia, about the 53d degree oflatitude, and the 47th of
longitude. Here the European Alps, after having tra-
verfed Europe, and fent off various branches which
we fliall afterwards examine, lofe their name, which
is changed into that of the Ouralic or Uralian moun¬
tains, and begin their courfe in Afia. This lofty
chain, which feparates Great Bulgaria from the de¬
farts of Ifchimlka, p oceeds through the country of
the Eleuths, follows the courfe of the river Irtis, ap¬
proaches the lake Telelkaia, and afterwards forms a
part of the fame fyftem of mountains with the Al¬
taic chain. There they give rife to the Oby, the Ir¬
tis, and the jenifei, which begin their courfe about
the jeth degree of north latitude, and fall into the
Frozen Ocean.
The Altaic chain, after having embraced and united
all the rivers which fupply the Jenifei, is continued
1 under
M O U t 4
Crider the flame of Saianes, without the Tmatleft inter-
^ ruption, as far as the Baikal lake. The extenfion
of this chain to the fouth forms that immenfe and ele¬
vated plain which is loft in Chinefe Tartary, which
may be compared with the only plain in Qjaito, and.
which is called Gobi or Chamo. The Altai afterwards
interpofing between the foUrce of the Tchikoi and of
the rivers which fupply the Amur or Sagaleen, rifes
towards the Lena, approaches the city Jakuck beyond
the (?oth degree of latitude, runs from that to the fea
■of Kamtfchatka, turns round the Ochockoi and Pen-
link gulphs, joins the great marine chain of the Ku-
file ifles near Japan, and forms the fteep fliores of
Kamtfehatka, between the 55th and 60th degrees of
latitude. Such is the diredl courfe of the high moun¬
tains conftitutiflg the belt which, we imagine, is to be
found in the northern hemifphere, and which, after
becoming lower, paffing under the fea, and forming
by means of their elevated peaks that archipelago of
iflands which derives its name from the unfortunate
Bhering, again rife and enter North America, on
the weftern fide, about the Straits of Anian. Af¬
ter running in th&fame parallel, and giving rife to the
Ohio, the Riviere-Longue, the river St Lawrence,
and the Miffiffippi, they are loft in Canada. From the
eaftern (bores of America to the weftern ftrores of Eu¬
rope, we find a vaft interruption. Perhaps the chain
was at firft continued completely round the globe ; but
extraordinary revolutions,by feparating the old andnew
continents, may have occafioned this divifion, and left
nothing but the Azores and fome detached points as a
monument of what formerly exifted, till we come to
the Britilh ifles.
Before we proceed to inquire whether a belt of a
fimilar elevation exifts in the fouthern hemifphere, we
may remark thofe branches and ramifications which
the great northern Alpine belt fends forth both to¬
wards the equator and the antardfic pole. Thefe new
chains, which gradually become lower as they ap¬
proach the boundary towards which they tend, appear
a fufficient proof that the equator is not the moft ele¬
vated part of the earth.
The European Alps produce three principal chains,
which run towards the equator, and fome fmaller
ones running towards the pole. The firft fouthern
chain is fent out through Dauphine; traverfic* Viva-
rais, Lyonnois, Auvergne, Cevennes, and Languedoc;
and, after joining the Pyrenees, enters Spain. There
it divides intotwo or three ramifications, one of which
runs through Navarre, Bifcay, Arragon, Caftile,
Marche, and Sierra Morena, and extends into Portu¬
gal. The other, after traverfing Andalulia and the
Icingdom of Granada, and there forming a number
of fierras, again makes its appearance, beyond the
Straits of Gibraltar, in Africa, and coafts along its
northern ftiores under, the name of Mount Atlas.—
The fecond principal chain of the Alps piaffes out
■through Savoy and Piedmont; fpreads its roughneffes
©ver the ftates of Genoa and Parma ; forms the belt
of the Apennines ; and after frequently changing its
name, and dividing Italy into two parts, terminates
in the kingdom of Naples and in Sicily, producing
volcanoes in every part of its courfe. The third chain
is fent off from Hungary, and fcatters innumerable
mountains over all Turkey in Europe^ as far as the
Morea and the Archipelago at the bottom of the Me-
Vol. XlL Part XL
25 1 MO U
diterranean fea. The northern branches, though fmaller Mountain v
at firft:, are no lefs clearly defined ; and fpme of them
even extend their ramifications as far as the Frozen
Ocean. An Alpine branch, iffuirig from Savoy thro’
the country of Gex, proceeds through Franche Comte,
Suntgaw, Alface, the Palatinate, and Veterabia.—
Another iffues from the territory of Saltzbourg, paffes
along Bohemia, enters Poland, fends off a ramification
into Pruflia towards the deferts of Waldow, and after
having paffed through Rufila is loft in the govern¬
ment of Archangel.
The Afiatic Alps fend forth in like manner feveral
branches both to the fouth and north. The Ouralie
mountains, between the fources of the Bielafa and the
Jaik, produce three principal branches ; the firft: of
which, including the Cafpian Sea in one of its ftivi-
fions, enters Gircaffia through the governraent-of A-
ftraean, paffes through Georgia under the name of
Caucafus, fends a vaft number of ramifications to the
weft into • Afiatic Turkey, and there produces the
mountains Tfchilder, Ararat, Taurus, Argce, and
many others in the three Arabias; while the other
divifion, palling between the Cafpian Sea and the lake
Aral, penetrates through Chorafan into Perfia. The
fecond branch, taking a more ealterly direftion, leaves
the country of the Eleuths ; reaches Little Bucharia ;
and forms the ramparts of Gog and Magog, and the ce¬
lebrated mountains formerly known by the name of Caft
which M. Bailly has made the feat ©f the war between
the Dives and the Peris*. It traverfes the kingdoms of * Lettres /«,■
Cafgar and Turkeftan, enters through that of Labor ^ dtlan-
into the Mogul territory, and, after givingrife to the^f*
elevated defert of Chamo forms the weftern peninfula
of India. While thefe two branches run towards the
fouth, the third branch of the Ouralic chain rifes to¬
wards the north, following almoft the 79th degree of
longitude, and forms a natural boundary between Eu¬
rope and Afia; without, however, bounding the im¬
menfe empire of Ruflja. This chain, after coming
oppolite to Nova Zembla, divides into two confider-
able branches. The one, running to the north-eaft,
paffes along the Ardtic Ihores ; the other, proceeding
towards the north-weft, meets the northern European
chain, traverfes Scandinavia in the lhape of a horfe-
Ihoe, covers the low-lands of Finland with rocks; and,
as is obferved by Dr Pallas, appears to be continued
from the North Cape of Norway through the marine
chain of Spitzbergen, Mattering iflands and Ihelves
perhaps throughout the northern ocean, that, paf¬
fing through the pole, it may join the northern and
eaftern points of Aha and North America.
The Guralic, which in the country of the Mongols
becomes the Altaic chain, proceeds towards the equa¬
tor. After forming the mountains and caverns
wherein, as we are told, the afhes of the Mongol em¬
perors of the race of Ghengis-Kan are depofited, to¬
gether with the vaft plain of Chamo, confifting of
arid fand, and the frightful rocks and precipices of
Thibet, which form the myfterious and defert retreats
of the Grand Lama, it croffes the rivers Ava and He¬
nan ; contains in its fubdivifions the kingdoms of
Ava, Pegu, Laos, Tonquin, Cochinchina, and Siam;
fupports the peninfula of Malacca; and overfpreads
the Indian ocean with the ifles of Sonda, the
Moluccas, and the Philippines. From the borders
of the Baikal lake and of the province of Selin-
3 H ginfkoy*
M O U T 426
• glnlkoy, a branch is detached, which fpreads over.Chi-
nefe Tartary and China, is continued into Corea, and
gives rife to the iflands of Japan.
The great chain having extended to the north, near
the city of Jakuck, upon the banks of the Lena, fend*
off one of its branches to the north-weft, which paf-
fmg betv. .>.« the two Tungufta, is loft in manfhy
grounds lying in the northern parts of the province of
JennifTeifkoy. The fame chain, after it has reached
1 MOV
which rifes from the mountains of the Arapes, and Mmanfairt.
falls into the Plata at Corriente ; the great number  1
of rivers which flow into that of the Amazons, fuch
as the Paraba, which receives in its courfe the tribute
of more than 30 other rivers ; the Madera, the Cuchi-
rara, the Ucayal, &c. &c. all defcend from thefe
fouthern Alps. From thefe Alps likewife three con-
fiderable branches of mountains are detached, which
go by the common name of strides or Cordilleras.—
the eaftern part of Afia, is loft ki the icy regions of The firft branch, which extends towards the fouth.
the north about Nos-Tfchalatfltoy or the icy Pro-
mtr’tory, and Cap Czuczenfleoy.
It will be more difficult, perhaps, to trace the ele¬
vated belt in the fouthern hemifphere beyond the tro¬
pic of Capricorn, than it has been to diitinguiffi that
towards the north. An immenfe extent of ocean feems
to occupy the whole Antar&ic part of the globe.
T he greateft ft ‘h latitude of the old continent is not
more than 34 1 'rees, and South America fcarcely
extends to the 53 degree. In vain has the enter-
priiing Cook attempted to difcover regions towards
the pole : his progrefs was conftantly interrupted by
tremendous mountains and fields of ice. Beyond the
30th degree no land and no habitation is to be found.
The iflands of New Zealand are the fartheft land in
thefe defert feas; and yet the fouth cape of Taral-
Poenamoo extends only to the 48th degree : We do
and pafies out from Paraguay through Tucuman, fc-
parates Chili from thefe provinces and from Chimito,
and is continued through the Terra Magellanicaas far
as Terra del Fuego. The fecond branch, directing
its courfe towards the equator, traverTes Peru, in vain
endeavouring to conceal trealures which the avarice
of men has taught them to difcover in its bowels >
bounds the Spanifh Miffions; enters Terra Firma thro'
Popayan ; and unites South and North America by
the ifthmus of Panama The third divifion, ifiuing
from Paraguay through Guayra and the territory of
Saint-Vincent, traverfes Brazil, diftributes ramifica¬
tions into Portuguefe, French, and Dutch Guiana,
crolfes the Oroonoko, forms the mountains of Vene¬
zuela, and near Carthagena meets the fecond branch
coming froth Popayan.
We have already fuppofed, that the elevated belt
not mention Sandwich-land, which is fituated in the of North America was fituated about the 45th degree
58th degree, becaufe it is too fmall and too low. It
rouft be recollefted, however, that according to the
declarations of travellers, the Cordilleras become high¬
er as~they advance fouthward to the Straits of Magel¬
lan ; and that the Terra del Fuego, which lies in the
latitude of 55, is nothing but a mafs of rocks of pro¬
digious elevation. America, however, exhibits to our
view elevated points, whence chains of mountains are
diftributed in different diredlions over the whole fur-
face of the new continent. There muft likewife be
great refervoirs, where the moft remarkable rivers
take their rife, and from which they neceffarily de¬
fcend towards their mouth. In the fouthern hemi¬
fphere, this elevated belt is nearer the equator ; and
though it does not extend to the 50th degree, it is
evidently to be met with and may be accurately traced
between the 20th and 30th degrees. The high moun¬
tains of Tucuman and of Paraguay, which interfeft
of north latitude; and there we imagined we recog¬
nized the continuation of the northern Alps of the
old continent. This chain likewife fends forth confide-
rable branches on both fides. One of. them is detach¬
ed acrofs the fources of the Miffiffippi, the Belle-Ri¬
viere, and the Miffouri, and at the entrance of New
Mexico divides, in order to form California to the
weft, and the Apalachtan mountains to the eaft.—
Thence proceeding through New Bifcay, the audi¬
ence of Guadalaxara, Old Mexico, and Guatimala, it
meets at Panama the fouthern branch, which is part
of the Alps of Paraguay. The fecond branch, fol¬
lowing the courfe of the Miffiffippi, feparates Louifi-
ana from Virginia; ferves as a bulwark to the United
States of America ; forms the Apalachian mountains-
in Carolina; and at laft, traverfing Eaft Florida, in-
clofes the Gulph of Mexico with the Great and Little
Antilles- In the north, we can trace the branches of
South America about the 25th degree of latitude, the elevated belt; on one fide obferve them proceed-
may be confidered as the American Alps. If
look into the map of the world, we will be able to di-
itinguifh an elevated belt all along this parallel. In
Africa, Monomotapa and Caffraria are covered with
very high mountains, from which pretty large rivers
defcend. In the. Pacific Ocean, we find New Hol¬
land, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and the
Friendly and the Society iflands, under the fame pa¬
rallel. We may, therefore, with fufficient propriety,
diftinguiffi this parallel by the name of the Southern
slips, as we have already diftinguiflied the elevated
belt of the 50th degree of north latitude by that of
the Northern Alps. In America, the Rio de la Plata,
which after a cor#rfe of 500 leagues falls into the ocean
at the 35th degree of fouth latitude; the Pavana,
ing towards Canada, directing their courfe through-
Labrador to Hudfon’s Straits, and at length con¬
founded with the rocks of Greenland, which are co¬
vered with eternal fnow and ice. On the other fide,,
we fee them rifing through the country of the Afli-
nipoels and the Kriftinos, as far as Michinipis aftd the.
northern Archipelago.
We have thus traced the dire&ions of the great,
chains of mountains. There are certain projecting,
and pretty fenfible points on the globe, which appear
to fupply every region with great rivers and high
mountains. The Alps of Switzerland and Savoy in
Europe, the union of the Ouralic mountains in Afia,
(b) the Andes of Tucuman and Paraguay in South
America,, and the high countries, whence the Mift,
ffippi,.
{ %) Tbsfe M. BaiHy confiders as the moft elevated art of the globe. LtUrtt fur Us Atlantidis, p. 236-
M O U
RfoSBtaln. flippy the river Saint Lawrence, and the Belie Riviere
W- v—(Jefcendjmay be confidered as fome of thefe; though M.
Buache places them much nearer the equator, and even
tinder the line. But his obje& was to form a fyftem
to fup£>ort his own, and to confirm another ; purs is
merely to ftate what we have obferved, and what in¬
deed mull occur to every one who furveys the furface
of the globe as it is delineated by our belt geographers.
So many obfervations fully fhow that the primitive
mountains may be confidered as the foundation of
f 427 1
MOW
fliapelefs blocks ; its origin is prior to that of all anf- Motmtahn
mated beings; it exhibits not the fmalleft traces of
petrifa&ion, and feems not to have received the lead
impreffion from any organifed fubftance. High emi¬
nences, whether in continued chains or in ithe form
of fteep peaks, are never covered with clayey or cal¬
careous ftrata, deriving their origin from the fea ; but
appear to have been from their very firfi: formation
elevated above the level of the ocean. The fides of
thefe great chains are far the moil part covered with
globe. By their (hape,elevation, direction, andcontinu- fchiilous belts, and furrounded with mountains cf^he
Jty, they give rife to the greatefl part of winds, of pro- fecond and third orders. This is proved by the Ou-
‘duce that variety which prevails among them. Pri- ralic and Altaic chains, which have been traced by
tnitive mountains, as we have already faid, are diftin- Dr Pallas. Such is the fyftetn propofed by tiiis au^-
guifhed ILkewife by their internal ftrufture, by the na- thor. The high or primitive and ancient mountains,
ture of the fieftes of which they are compofed, and by which have- exiited from the beginning of fime, are.
the minerals which they contain. The higheli moun- granitous; the fchiftous mountains, : /'vvhich he givefc
tains are, properly fpeaking, nothing but peaks or cones
confiding of folid rock. This pyramidal form has been
fuppofed to be at firft owing to a kind oferydaffization?
and the late M. Rouelle was of opinion, that the fub-
ftances of which our globe is compofed originally fwam
»n a fluid. The fimilar parts of which the great moun¬
tains confift, according to this philofopher, approach¬
ed one another and formed a crydallization, fome-
times in a group, and at other times detached at the
bottom of the waters. Upon this fnppofition, we
might analyfe different portions or blocks of rock ta¬
ken from primitive mountainsand by making them
crydallife, we would then have in miniature a part of
the fame economy or connexion of mountains, a frgu-
yative portion, in (hort, of the Ikeleton of the earth 
We may farther prefume, that thofe deep rocks which
?t now feCms a'lmoft impoffible to furmount even in im¬
agination, are co eval with the exidence of the world.
Mountains with flat fammits fometimes red on the
bafe of primitive mountains; and contain marble, fof-
ffls, and limedone When mountains of the fame
kind poffefs a round and more regular fhape, they con-
fid of chalk and other calcareous and friable fub-
ftances arranged in drata. Granite-argillous moun¬
tains, like thofe of Shemnitz, .generally form metallic
•didridls. Hills compofed of brown free-done every
where prefent irregular points^ indicating broken drata
:and heaps of rubbifh.
Dr Pallas (ift the fydematic part of the Memoir
above mentioned, concerning the fubdances of which
the higheft mountains are compofed) lays it down as
an axiom, that the higheft mountains of the globe
forming continued chains, are compofed of that rock
Which is called granite, the bafe of which is always a
quartz, with a greater or fmaller mixture of felt- fpar,
mica, and fmall fchoerls, fcattered without order, and
in irregular fragments of different fizes. This old
tock, and the land arifing from its decompofition,
form the bafe of all continents. Granite is found be¬
low mountains compofed of ftrata (this obfervation
is not applicable to the courfes of mountains formed
by ftrata) ; it conftitutes the large protuberances, and
as it were the heart, of the greaceft Alps in the known
world : hence we may with the greateft probability
the name of fecondary, have arifen b* 1 the fides of
the primitive by the decompofltiJii or the granite ;
and thofe which he calls tertiary mountains, or moun¬
tains of the third order, are nothing but fubftances
depofited by the fea, and raifed up by volcanoes, or
fwept away by a violent irruption, a powerful inun¬
dation, or an univerfal deluge. This hypothefis con¬
cerning the formation of mountains is borrowed from
nature itfelf, and appears to be confirmed by many
fadts in natural hiftory.
We fball now proceed to ftate the height of moft
of the primitive mountains ; an object no lefs worthy
of attention than their ftru&ure and variety.
According to M. Pontoppidan, the higheft moun¬
tains in Norway are 3000 toifes in height. Accord¬
ing to M. Brovallius, the higheft mountains in Swe¬
den are 2333 toifes. It is fuppofed, however, that
both thefe calculations are erroneous.
From the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, it appears, that the mountains in France moft
elevated above the furface of the Mediterranean are
the Puy-de-Dome, which is 817 toifes, and the Mont
d'Or, which is 1048 toifes. Thefe two mountains
are in Auvergne, and are fuppofed to be extinguifhed
volcanoes. Mount Gantal is 993 toifes high : Mount
Ventoux is 1036 : the foGth peak of Canigou in the
Pyrenees, according to M. de Rocheblave, is 1442 5
and according to M. de Plantade, 1453 : and Saint
Barthelemi is 1184.
M. Needham ©bferves, that the higheft Alps in
Savoy are the convent of the great Saint Bernard^
at the point of the rock to the fouth-weft of that
mountain, which is 1 274 toifes ; Mount Serene, which
is 1283; and Mount Tourne, which is 1683. Ac¬
cording to the meafurement of the Englifh obferver,
the peak or needle of Argentiere is 2094 toifes high.
M. Facio de Duiller and M Duluc make the ridge
of Mont Blanc 2213 toifes ; but according to the ob¬
fervation of M. Shuckburgh, its elevation is 2447
toifes one foot (by M. de SaufFure’s meafurement
2426 toifes) above the level of the Mediterranean.
The principal mountains of the Alps are among the
moft elevated in the world; and particularly Mont-
Blanc, that enormous mafs of granite, which is fitua-
infer, that this rock forms the principal ingredient ted in the centre of the Alps, and the accefs to which
in the internal compofition of pur globe. It is never is rendered fo difficult by the (harp peaks, walls of ice,
found ih regular ftrata, but in huge mafles and in and everlafting fnovvs wherewith it is covered, is the
4 3 H 2 higheft
M O U I 428 ] M O U
Mountain, higheft mountain which has been meafufed either in
Europe, Afia, or Africa. The altitude of the Alps
of Switzerland has been afcertained by different phi-
lofophers : We fliall content ourfelves with mention¬
ing the nsoft remarkable of thofc mountains covered
with fnow, which in Switzerland are called GUtfchers
or Glaciers St Gothard, according to Scheuchzer,
is 1650 toifcs ; and Lignon, near the lake of Como,
r.orth-eaft, is, according to Pini, i486toifes in hei jht.
M. Pafumot, engineer to the king of the French,
juftly obferves, that the heights afligned by Mikheli
to the mountains of Switzerland appear rather to be
ideal computations than founded on obfervations. An
opinion of them may be formed from the following r
According to this author, Mount Pilate or Frakmont,
in the diltrict of .Lucerne, is 1403 toifes in height;
Mount Cenis, 1445.; Raukhftok, 1760; the Nolle
ridge of Titlifberg, 2001 ; Ghemi, 2421 ; Grimfel-
berg, in the canton of Berne, 2539 ; the Cornera,
part of Loukmanier, 2654 ; Fourke, 2669; Schrek-
horn, 2724; and St Gothard, at its molt elevated
point, 2750. Mikheli likewife reckons 20 other moun¬
tains, the height of which exceeds 2000 toifes. The
reader may confult the Table comparative des hauteurs
des principales montagnes, by M. Pafumot (Journal de
Phyfique, September 1783.)
Throughout the globe we will not perhaps meet
with higher mountains than thofe of Peru, which go
by the name of Cordilleras de los Andos. According
to the obfervations of the academicians fent to South
America in 1735 by the Spanifh and French courts
to meafure a degree of the meridian and to afeertain
the true figure of the earth, the principal fummits of
thefe extraordinary mountains, which are fituated near
Quito, and which are conftantly covered with fnow
though they lie under the equator, have the following
geometrical elevations above the level of the fea: Quito-
Capilate, 1707 toifes ; El-Corafon, 2470(c); Cota-
catche, 2570; Ek-Atlas, 2730; and Noyamble-orcu,
under the line, 3030. All the other mountains have
been, or ftill are, volcanoes. The following is an enu¬
meration of them, together with their feveral heights:
Pichincha, 243c; Cargavi-rafo, 2450; Sinchonalagon
or Sinchoulagoa, 2570; Sangai, 2680; lllinika 2717,
Kotopaxi, 2950; Antifana, 3020; Cagambeorcon,
fituated under the line, 3030; Cimborafo or Chim¬
borazo, 3220. The laft mentioned mountain, which-Mountalm.
forms part of the Cordilleras in Peru, is one of the
largeft and probably the highell in the world. It is
feen at fea from the gulph of Guayaquil, which is more
than 60 leagues diftant.
Other very elevated mountains are Mount Sinai in.
Japan ; Mount Caucafus in Afia ; the fouthern peak,
of the Pyrenees ; the peak of Teneriffe in one of the.
Canary illands,. which according to M. Bouguer is
2.00 toifes (according ta later obfervations, made by
M. M. de Verdun, de Borda, and Pingre, French aca¬
demicians, in 1754, the peak of i’eyde, more common¬
ly known by the name of the peak of Teneriffe, is only
1904 toifes perpendicular height above the level of the
fea<) ; Mount Gibel or Etna in Sicily is 1673 toifes 4
St George’s peak in the Azores; Adam’s peak in
Ceylon; the mountains of the Moon ; Mounts Athos,
Olympus, Taurus, and Emaus ; Mount Cenis in the.
Alps on the road from France to Italy, is 1460 toifes;
the Great and Little Atlas; and many others, on the top
of which we feel, even in the middle of fummer, a more
piercing cold than that of the fevereft frofts of our
climates. After this, it cannot appear wonderful that
the vapours which reach fo great heights are there
congealed ; and that the fummits of thefe mountains,
even in the warmeft climates, are conftantly covered
with fnow, while the inhabitants of the plain enjoy a
temperate atmofphere, or are fubje& to extreme heat.
The height of thefe mountains, added to their being
placed on the molt elevated parts of the globe, is the
chief caufe of the phenomena peculiar to them. In
that part of Afia which Is feparated by the chain of
mountains called the Ghauts, there are two very diffe¬
rent feafons at one and the fame time. While it is
winter on the Malabar coaft, for inftance, the Coro¬
mandel coaft, which has the fame degree of elevation,
and in fome places, is only 20 leagues diftant, enjoy*
an agreeable fpring or the temperature of autumn.
The traveller in the Alps generally experiences, even
in fummer, the four feafons of the year. In the Andes
we meet with a change of temperature no lefs curious;
for as we defeend from their fummit to their bafe,
we experience all the varieties of heat ami cold which
are felt in every climate of the earth, at whatever fea.-
fon (d). There are many other mountainous coun¬
tries in which we pafs at once from a ferene fky to
dreadful.
(c) This is the greateft height to which any perfon is known to have afeended in America : the greateS:
elevation which has been reached in the Alps is the top of Mont-Blanc, which is 2426 toifes, and:
which Dr Paccard afeended on the 8th of Auguft 1786. M. de Sauflure arrived there likewife oa
the 3d of Auguft 1787, accompanied by 17 perfons.
(d) The more we are elevated above the furface of the earth, it becomes the colder ; and accordingly the
tops of the higheft mountains are a'ways covered with fnow. At the height of about 2300 toifes above the
level of the fea no plaat whatever is found to grow: and it appears from the obfervations of MM. de la
Condamine, Bouguer, Godin, Dom George Juan, and Dorn Antonio de Ulloa, the academcians fent to Quito
in 1735, that at the height of 2434 the fnow is perpetual, and never melts at any time of the year even under
the equator. The congelation begins and continues in all the mountains of the Cordilleras at the fame height
above the level of the fea, which is determined by an equal elevation of the mercury in the barometer. But
from experiments.which have been made, Sir Ifaac Newton concludes, that the denfity of the atmofphere at
any height is as the weight .of the incumbent air, that is, as the height of the mercury in the barometer 4
.and confequently the denfity of the air is the fame in the whole region of the atmofphere, where the conge¬
lation is continual, and where that perpetual cold commences which is felt on all mountains. Above thia
conftant height the denfity of the air continues to diminilh, and the cold becomes greater and greater tili.
we
M o u L 429 3 M O U
Mountain, dreadful dorms and tempefts. It cannot therefore be commonly repelled from the mountains; and are then Mountain,
doubted, that, mountains have a great influence on the" obferved to ipread over whole countries, to diflblve V“"'v—
temperature of the countries to which they belong)
by flopping the courfe of certain winds, by forming
barriers to the clouds, by reflecting the funVrays, and
'with peals of thunder, and to fall down in deftru&ive
hail-fhowers fatal to the harvefl and to the whole pro¬
duce of the fields. This fcourge is peculiarly dread-1
by ferving as elevated conductors to the eleCtricity of ful during the feafons of fpring and fummer, when a
the atmol’phere. It was formerly faid by travellers, fufficient quantity of fnow remains on the mountains
that on the peak of Teneriffe they found that brandy to cool the atmofphere.
lofl its ftrength ; that fpivit of wine became almoft in- Some chains of mountains have openings ; in others
fipid ; that pepper, ginger, and fait, had little or no they are wanting: of the former kind are the ftraits
taile when applied to the tongue ; but, it was-alleged, of Thermopylce, the Cafpian ftraits, the pafs of the
that Canary wines ftill retained their tafte on that
mountain. Thefe ftories appeared too marvellous not
to require new experiments; and MM. de Lamanon
and Mongez, who vilited this peak in 1785, tell us,
that the flavour and tafte of liquors appeared to have
fuftah.ed no lofs at that height: (See the experiments
made on the Pic 3u Midi in the Pyrenees by M. Dar-
cU, in the Journal de Pbyjique for November 1776;
and a journey to the peak of Tenerifte, in the lame
for'Auguft 1785). At the foot, and fome-
Cordilleras, &c.
Thofe fpaces which feparate the tops of mountains
are fo many bafons deftined for the reception of the
condenfed milts, and of the clouds precipitated into
rain. The bowels of mountains appeaf to be great
and inexhu-itible relervoirs, and to contain fubter-
raneous canals and lateral openings formed by the
hand of nature, that the feveral Ipecies of animals,
may be fupplied with drink, that the earth may be
fertiiifed, and that nourilhment may be afforded for
times at the middle, of thofe lofty mountains, the to.ps the growth of vegetables, i he ftreams and rivers de-
of which are always covered with fnovv, we frequently
find fprings which begiato run in May and dry up in
September. When the iun approaches near enough
to the tropic to warm the fummits of thefe mountains,
fcend from the ridges of mountains, the declivities oft
which form fo many inclined plains; Thus we find the
Alps give rife to the Rhine, the Danube, the Rhone,
and the Po. With regard to the wonderful ftruCfure,
the fnow with which they are covered melts, filtrates by means of which fo many advantages are obtained.
through their interior part, and iffues forth at their
bafe. The only trees which grow on mountains of
this kind are firs, pines, and other refinous trees; and
the giafs becomes fhoxter towards their fummit.
Mountains were not formed to be an uielefs load
upon the earth, but evidently anfwer very important
fee the articles Earth, Springs, &c.
Mountains of the firft order form vaft folitudes and
horrid deferts, where the habitations^ of men are not
to be feen, and their footfteps are feldom to be traced..
By their grandeur, their elevation, the variety of their,
pofitions, the fublime and awful exhibition of won-
purpofes; and we cannot enough admire their form ders which they contain, they elevate the mind and
and that kind ©f harmony which is difcernible in their fire the imagination of the obferver. But thefe ma-
arrangement. Some of them, vomiting out fire or jeftic eminences have other advantages which deferva
fmoke, lava, and fulphur, indicate that they, in fome pur attention. They form the common retreat of a.
meafure anfwer the purpofe of a chimney to feme- multitude of wild beafts, which are fubfervient to our
thing within the earth, which, if confined, would ufe : there the bear, the lynx, the ermine, the mar-
burit it in pieces: (See Volcano.)-Of this kind are tin, the fox, and many other animals, the fkin o£«
Mount Hecla in Iceland, Mount Etna in Sicily, Mount which we employ for furs, take up their abode ; and
Vefavius in the kingdom of Naples, Pichincha and thither the eagle and the vulture refort in fafety.
Cotopaxi in America, &c. Others, the fummits of Mountains likewife afford nourifhment to rein-deer,,
which reach into the clouds, attract and abforb the buffaloes, fallow-deer, roe-deer, and chamois ; and they,
vapours of the fea, &c. which float in the air. It is are vilited by birds of paffage which, under the gui-
obferved by M. 1’Abbe Palaffon, that florins are moft dance of inttindt, follow the fhorteft road to the place
frequent at the foot of thofe high mountains which of their deftination. They produce medicinal plants*
form extenfive chains. Their enormous maffes, which which almoft never grow elfewhere. In SwilTerland
feem to fupport the heavens on their fhoulders, arreft they are aifo covered with deep forefts, which, by the
and fix the diffetent meteors as they are formed. The
clouds, in like manner, driven by the winds from dif¬
ferent points of the horizon, .there meet with impe¬
netrable ban iers, are there accumulated in great quan¬
tity, and remain fufpended on thefe bulwarks of the
globe’s furface, till the agitation of the atmofphere
great height of the trees, announce their antiquity*
'I hey afford both timber and fuel,- and fupply the in¬
habitants with abundance of excellent paflure for their
beftial during the whole fummer. The moft precious,
ftones, both for brilliancy and hardnefs, acquire their
forms and colours in the fiffures of the rocks : the in-
fucceeding the calm, produces ftorms, which are fo temal rents of mountains are filled and in a manner
much the more terrible that they cannot expand and cemented, by. different metallic fubftances ; while the
be difperfed but with great difficulty.
They are grottos are furnifhed with numerous congelations*
fhining;
/
we reach the fummits of the mountains, which prefent to cur view all the horrors of winter as they are felt ia
the polar regions. But below this height, as the denfity of the air becomes greater in confequence of beinp?-
conftantly preffed upon by a great fuperincumbent weight,, the fun’s heat increafes, fo that thofe who iu»
habit the plains at the foot of the mountain are expofed to all the inconveniences of the torrid zone,.
M O U [ 430 ] M 0 U
^■oantain., cryftals, and fubftances of an extraordinary of which fo exactly correfpond with the oppofite, that Mountwn.
* nature and figure. In fhort, every thing concurs to no doubt can be entertained of theif having been once L
(how, that the exiftenee of mountains is abfolutely ne- joined together. At Cajeta in Italy, a mountain was
ceffary; and that in order to acquire a proper know¬
ledge of them, they muft be confidered in many dif¬
ferent points of view. Their pofition, their direc¬
tion, their elevation, the extent of their bafe, theit
fplit in this manner by an earthquake ; and there is
a paffage opened through it, that appears as if elabo¬
rately done by the induftry of man. In the Andes
thefe breaches are frequently feen. That at Thermo¬
figure, their various external windings, their internal pylx in Greece has been long famous. The moun-
ftru&ure; in a word, everything relating to the theory tain of the Troglodytes in Arabia has thus a pafTagtf
of the globe, and to the different temperatures of the through it; and that in Savoy, which nature began
atmofphere, muft engage the obferver’s attention; and and which Vi&or Amadeus completed, is an inftance
by ftudying artd carefully examining the general con- of the fame kind.
ftitution of mountains, the particular fails which they We have accounts of fortte of thefe difruptions im-
prefent to our view, their influence, their aflion on mediately after their happening. “ In the month of
the atmofphere, the different fubftances Of which they June, in the year 17x4, a part of the mountain of
are compofed, together with the arrangement and Diableret, in the diftrift of Valais in France, fud-*
mixture of thefe fubftances, we may at length difeover denly fell down, between two and three o’clock in the
the true mechanifm of the earth. The reader may
confult the Effais Sur l’etude dn'Montagues ; 'Journal de
M. I’Abbe Rosier, November 1773.
The difficulty and danger of afeending to the tops
afternoon, the weather being very calm and ferene.
It was of a conical figure, and dertroyed 55 cottage*
in the fall. Fifteen perfons, together with about 10®
beads, were alfo crufhed beneath its ruins, which co*
of mountains proceeds not from the thinnefs of the vci’ed an extent of a good league fquare. The duft it
s has been commonly reported ; but the reafon
is, that they rife with fuch a rugged and precipitate
afeent, that they are utterly iriacceffible. Irt fome
occafioned inftantly covered all the neighbourhood in
darknefs. The heaps of rubbilh were more than 500
feet high. They flopped the current of a river that
places they appear like a great wall of 600 or 700 feet ran along the plain, which now is formed into feveraj
high ; in others, there flick out enormous rocks, that new and deep lakes. There appeared, through th«
hang upon the brow of the fleep, and every moment whole of this rubbifh, none of thofe fubftances that
threaten deftruftion to the traveller below. feemed to indicate that this difruption had been made
In this manner almoft all the tops of the higheft by means of fubterraiieous fires, Moft probably, the
mountains are bare arid pointed t and this naturally bafe of this rocky mountain wa* rotted and decayed }
proceeds from their being fo continually affaulted by and thus fell, without any extraneous violence.” In
thunders and tehipefts. All the earthy fubftances with the fame manner, in the year 1618, the town of Pleura
which they might have been once covered, have for in France was buried beneath a rocky mountain, at
ages been wafhed away from their fummits; and no- the foot of which it was fituated-
thing is left remaining but immenfe rocks, which no Thefc accidents, and many more that might be
tempeft has hitherto been able to deftroy. enumerated of the fame kind, have been produced by
NeVerthelyfs, time is every day and every hour itia- various enufes ; by earthquakes, as in the mountain at
king depredations ; and huge fragments afe feen Uuh- Cajeta ; or by being decayed at the bottom, as at
bling down the precipice, either loofened from the Diableret. But the moft general way is, by the
fummit by the froft or rains, or ftruck down by light- foundation of one part of the mountain being hol-
ning. Nothing can exhibit a more terrible piflure lowed by waters, and, thus wanting a fupport, break-
than one of thefe enormous rocks, commonly larger ing from the other. Thus it generally *has been found
than an houfe, falling from its height with a noife in the great chafms in the Alps; and thus it almoft
louder than thunder, and rolling down the fide of the always is known in thofe difruptions of hills which
mountain. Dr Plot tells us of one in articular, which are known by the name of land-Jlips. Thefe are no¬
being loofened from its bed, tumbled down the preci- thing more than the Aiding down of an higher piece
pice, and was partly (battered into a thoufand pieces, of ground, difrooted from its fituation by fubterra-
Notwithftanding, one of the largeft fragments of the neous inundations, and fettling itfelf upon the plain
fame, ftill preferving its motion, travelled over the below.
plain below, croffed a rivulet in the midft, and at laft There is not an appearance in all nature that fo
flopped on the other fide of the bank ! Thefe frag- much aftonifhed our anceftors as thefe land-flips. In
ments, as was faid, are often ftruck off by lightning faft, to behold a large upland, with its houfes, its corn,
and fometimes undermined by rains; but the moft and cattle, at once loofened from its place, and float-
ritual manner in which they are difunited from the ing as it were upon the fubjacent water ; to behold it
mountain is by froft : the rains infinuating between quitting its ancient fituation, and travelling forward
the interftices of the mountain, continue there until like a (hip, in queft of new adventures ; this is cer-
there comes a froft ; and then, when converted into ice, tainly one of the moft extraordinary appearances that
the water fwells with an irrefiftible force, and produces can be imagined ; and, to a people ignorant of the
the fame effett as gun powder, fplitting the moft folid powers of nature, might well be confidered as a pro¬
rocks, and thus (battering the fummits of the moun- digy. Accordingly, we find all our old hilionen*
tain. mentionbig it as an omen of approaching calamitie*.
But net rocks alone, but whole mountains, are, by In this more enlightened age, however, its caufe it
various caufeS, difunited from each other. We fee, very well known ; and, inftead of exciting ominou*
*a many parts of the A)ps, amazing clefts, the fldes apprehenfiojis in the populace, it only gives rife to
Akmc
M O U [ 43t T MOV
Mountain. f0me very ridiculous -law-fuits among them, about all comparatively fmaller bodies, and even between the hlountaiiv
whofe the property fhall be; whether the land which fmajleft particles of which they are compofed. A-
has thus flipt fhall belong to the original poffeflbr or gretably to this hypothecs, a heavy body, which *
to him upon whofe grounds it has encroached and ought to gravitate or tend toward the centte of the
fettled. What has been the determination of the earth, in a dire&ion perpendicular to its furface, fup-
jndges is not fo well known; but the eircumftancesof poling the faid furface to be perfe&ly even and fphe-
the flips themfelves have been minutely enough and rical, ought likewife, though in a lei's degree, to be
exaftiy deferibed. attra&ed and tend towards a mountain placed on the
In the lands of Slatberg, in the kingdom of Ireland, earth’s furface ; fo that a plumb-line, forinftince, of
there Hood a declivity gradually afeending for near half a quadrant, hanging in the neighbourhood of fuch a
a mile. In the year 171?, and on the icthof March, mountain, ought to be drawn from a perpendicular
. the inhabitants perceived a crack on its fide, foraewhat fituation, in confequence of the attraftive power of
like a furrow made with a plough, which they im- the quantity of matter of which it is compofed ailing
puted to the effeils of lightning, as there had been in a direction different from that exerted by the whole
thunder the night before. However, on the evening mafs of matter in the earth, and with a proportionably
of the fame day, they were furprifed to hear an hide- inferior degree of force.
ous confufed nqife iffuing all round from the fide of Though Sir Ifaac Newton had long ago hinted at
the hill; and their curiofity being raifed, they reforted an experiment of this kind, and had remarked, that
to the place. There, to their amazement, they found “ a mountain of an hemifpherical fighre, three miles,
the earth for near five acres all in gentle motion,-and high and fix broad, would not, by its attraftion,
Aiding down the hill upon the fubjacent plain. This draw the plumb-line two minutes out of the perpendi-
motion continued the remaining part of the day and cular (e):” yet no attempt to afeertain this matter by
the whole night: nor did the noife ceafe during the aftual experiment was made till about the year 1738
whole l!ime ; proceeding, probably, from the attrition when the French academicians, particularly Meffrs
of the ground beneath. The day following, however, Bouguer and Condamine, who were fent to Peru to
this ftrange journey down the hill ceafed entirely ; and meafure a degree under the equator, attempted to
above an acre of the meadow below was found covered difeover the attractive power of Cft:mbora§o, a moun-
with what before compofed a part of the declivity. tain in the province of Quito. According to their
* However, thefe flips, when a whole mountain’s fide obfervations, which were however made undercircum-
feems t@ defeend, happen but very rarely. There are fiances by no means favourable to an accurate folutiotv
fbme of another kind, however, much more common ; of fo nice and difficult a problem, the mountain Chim-
and, as they are always fudden, much more danger- borago exerted an attraction equal to eight fecojids.
ous. Thefe are fnow-flips, well-known, and gready Though this experiment was not perhaps fufficient to
dreaded by travellers. It often happens, that when fnow prove fatisfaCtorily even the reality of an attraction,
has long been accumulated on the tops and on the fidea much lefs the precife quantity of it; yet it does not
of mountains, it is borne down the precipice either by appear that any Heps had been fince taken to re-
means of tempefls or its own melting. At firil, when peat it.
loofened, the volume in motion is but fmall: but it Through the munificence of his Britannic ir.ajefly,,
gathers as it continues to roll ; and by the time it has the royal i'oeiety were enabled to undertake the ex-
reached the habitable parts of the mountain, it is ge- ecution of this delicate and important experiment;
nerally grown of enormous bulk. Wherever it rolls, the aftronomer-royal was chofen to conduCt it. Af-
it levels all things in its way, or buries them in un- ter various inquiries, the mountain Schehallien, fitua-
avoidable deftiu&ion. Inftead of rolling, it fome- t«d nearly in the centre of Scotland, was pitched upon
times is found to Aide along from the top ; yet even as the mod proper for the purpofe that could be found
thus it is generally as fatal as before. Neverthelefs, in this ifland. The obfervations were made by taking
we have had an inftance, a few years ago, of a fmall the meridian zenith diftances of different fixed liars,,
family in Germany that lived for above a fortnight near the zenith, by means of a zenith feCtor of ten
beneath one of thefe fnow-flips. Although they were feet radius; firit on the fouth, and afterwards on the
buried during that whole time in utter darknefs, and north fide of the hill, the greatell length of which ex-
under a bed of fome hundred feet deep, yet thfcy were tended in an eaft and welt direction,
luckily taken out alive, the weight of the fnow being It is evident, that if the mafs of matter in the hill,
fupported by a beam that kept up the roof, and nour exerted any fenfible attraction, it would caufe the
rilhment fupplied them by the milk of a Ihe-goat plumb-line of the feCtor, through which an obferver
that was buried under the fame ruin* viewed a liar in the meridian, to deviate from its
AttraElion of Mountains. This is a late difeovery, perpendicular fituation,. and would attraCt it contrary-
and a very confiderable confirmation of Sir Ifaac New- wife at the two llations, thereby doubling the effect.,
ton’s theory of univerfal gravity. According to the On the fouth fide the plummet would be drawn to the
Newtonian fyftem, an attractive power is not only northward, by the attractive power of the hill placed
exerted between thofe large maffes of matter which to the northward of it; and on the north fide, a con-
eonftitute the fun and planets, but likewife between trary and equal defleCtion of the plumb-line would;
take.
(b) By a very eafy calculation it is found that fuch a mountain would attr&Ci the-plumb-line 1' 18" front!
the perpendicular..
M O U [ 432 ] M O U
Mountain, take place, in confequence of the attra&ion of the hill,
now to the fouthward of it. The apparent zenith
diftances of the liars would be affefted contrarywife ;
thofe being increafed at the one ftation which were
diminilhed at the other : and the correfpondent quan¬
tities of the defle&ion of the plumb-lime would give
the obferver the fum of the contrary attra&ions of the
hill, afting on the plummet at the two ftations; the
half of which will of courfe indicate the attra&ive
power of the hill.
The various operations requifite for this experi¬
ment lafted about four months ; and from them it ap¬
pears, that the fum of the two contrary attractions of
the mountain Schehallien, in the two temporary ob-
fervations which were fucceffively fixed half-way up
the hill (where the efFeft of its attraction would be
greateft), was equal to 11". 6.-—From a rough com¬
putation, founded on the known law of gravitation,
and on an affumption that the denfity of the hill is
equal to the mean denfity of the earth, it appears
that the attraction of the hill Ihould amount to about
the double of this, quantity. From thence it was in¬
ferred, that the denfity of the hill is only about half
the mean denfity of the earth. It does not appear,
however, that the mountain Schehallien has ever been
a volcano, or is hollow ; as it is extremely folid and
denfe, and feemingly compofed of an’eritire rock.
The inference drawn from thefe experiments may
'be reduced to the following :
“ 1. It appears, that the mountain Schehallien ex¬
erts a fenfible attraction ; therefore, from the rules of
philofophifing, we are to conclude, that every moun¬
tain, and indeed every particle of the earth, is endued
with the fame property, in proportion to its quantity
of matter.
“ 2. The law of the variation of this force, in the
xnverfe ratio of the fquares of the diftances, as laid
down by Sir Ifaac Newton, is alfo confirmed by this
experiment. For if the force of attraction of the
hill had been only to that of the earth as the matter
in the hill to that of the earth, and had not been
greatly increafed by the near approach to its centre,
the attraction thereof mult have been, wholly infenfible.
But now, by only fuppofing the mean denfity of the
earth to be double to that of the hill, which feems
very probable from other confiderations, the attrac¬
tion of the hill will be reconciled to the general law of
the variation of attraction in the inverfe duplicate ra¬
tio of the diltances, as deduced by Sir Ifaac Newton
from the comparifon of the motion of the heavenly
bodies with the force of gravity at the turface of the
earth; and the analogy of nature will be preferved.
“ 3. We may now, therefore, be allowed to admit
this law, and to acknowledge, that the mean denfity
of the earth is at leait double of that at the furface ;
and confequently that the denfity of the internal parts
of the earth is much greater than near the furface.
Hence alfo, the whole quantity of matter in the earth
will be at lead as great again as if it had been all com¬
pofed of matter of the fame denfity with that at the
fur face; or will be about four or five times as great as
if it were all compofed of water.—This conclufion, Mr
Maflcelyne adds, is rotally contrary to the hypothefis
effome naturalifts, who- ‘ fuppofe the earth to be only
N° 231. 3
a great hollow (hell of matter; fupporting itfelf front Mountain,
the property of an arch, with an immenfe vacuity in
the midft of it.’ But, were that the. cafe, the at¬
traction of mountains, and even fmaller inequalities in
the earth’s furface, would be very great, contrary to
experiment, and would affeCt the meafures of the de¬
grees of the meridian much more than we find they
do ; and the variation of gravity, in different latitudes,
in going From the equator to the poles, as found by
pendulums, would not 5e near fo regular as it has been
found by experiment to be.
“ 4. As mountains are by thefe experiments found
capable of producing fenfible defleCtions of the plumb-
lines of aftronomical inflruments ; it becomes a mat¬
ter of great importance, in the menfuration of degrees
in the meridian, either to choofe places where the ir¬
regular attractions of the elevated parts may be fmall j
or where, by their fituation, they may compenfate or
counteract the effeCts of each other.”
For meafuring the heights of mountains, fee the ar¬
ticle Barometer.
Burning Mountains. See FEtna, Hecla, Vesu¬
vius, and Volcano.
Marble Mountains. Of thefe there are great num¬
bers in Egypt, from which, though immenfe quan¬
tities have been carried off for the multitude of great
works ereCted by the ancient Egyptians ; yet, in the
opinion of Mr Bruce who paffed by them in his jour¬
ney to Abyffinia, there is flill fuch a a abundant fupply,
that it would be fufficient to build Rome, Athens,
Corinth, Syracufe, Memphis, Alexandria, and half a
dozen more of fuch cities.
The firft mountain of this kind mentioned by Mr
Bruce is one oppofite to Terfowey, confifting partly
of green marble, partly of granite, with a red blulh up¬
on a grey ground, and fquare oblong fpots. Here ha
faw a monftrous obelifk of marble, very nearly fquare,
broken at the end, and nearly 30 feet long and 19 feet
in the face. Throughout the plain there were feat*
tered fmall pieces of jafper, with green, white, and
red fpots, called in Italy diafpro fanguineo ; and all the
mountains upon that fide feemed to confift of the fame
materials. Here alfo were quantities of fmall pieces
of granite of various kinds, as well as porphyry, which
had been carried down by a torrent, probably from
the ancient quarries. Thefe pieces were white mixed
with black fpots, and red with green veins and black
fpots. All the other mountains on the right hand
were of red marble, but no great beauty ; thofe on
the oppofite fide being green marble, probably of the
ferpentine kind. This, he fays, was one of the moll
extraordinary fights he ever faw. The former moun¬
tains were of a confiderable height, without a tree,
Ihruh, or b!ade of giafs upon them f and this looked
exaCtly as if it had been covered over with Havannah
and Brazil fnuff. Proceeding farther on, he entered
another defile with mountains of green marble on every
lide. -The highelt he faw appeared to be compofed of
ferpentine marble ; having a large vein of green jafper
fpotted with red running through about one-third
of its thicknefs. It was extremely hard ; fo that it
did not yield to the blows of a hammer, though it
was evident that it had formerly been quanied ; and
there were channels for bringing water, which termi-
tiated
M O tr r 431 3 M O U
Mountain, nated in this quany of jafper ; w a proof (fays Mr
"v — Bruce) that water was one of the means ufed in cut¬
ting thofe hard ftones.”
On thefe mountains, our author obferves, that “ the
/ porphyry (hows itfelf by a fine purple land without
any glofs upon it, though the colour is very agreeable
to the eye-. It is mixed with the white fand and
fixed marble of the plains. Green and unvariegated
marble is alfo found in the fame mountain with the
porphyry. The marble is brittle for fome inches where
the two veins meet; but the porphyry is as hard as in
other places. The granite appears like a dirty brown
ftone covered with fand ; but this is only the change
made upon it by the fun and weather; for on break¬
ing it, the colbur appears to be grey with black fpots,
and a reddilh call on the furface. The reddilh colour
appears to be impaired by expofure to the atmofphere ;
but is recovered upon poliihing it anew. It is in great¬
er quantity than the porphyry, and nearer to the Red
Sea. The granite is next to the porphyry, but never
joined with it in the fame mountain. Being covered
with a reddifli fand, it looks if the whole mountain
were covered with brick-duft.” There is likewife a
kind of red marble with white veins, which our au¬
thor has feen at Rome and likewife in Britain. The
common green, called jerpentifie, looks as if it were
covered with Brazil fnuff. Along with this green he
faw two famples of the beautiful kind called Jfabella }
one of them with the yellowilh call of Quaker-colour,
the other of that bluifh call called dove-colour; and
thefe two feemed to divide the mountains with the fer-
pentine. Here alfo he faw the vein of jafper; but
had not time to determine whether it was the fame
with that called bloody-jafper or blood-ftone or not.
The marble of greateft value, however, is that cal¬
led Verde Antlco, which is of a dark-green colour with
white fpots. It is found, like the jafper, in the moun¬
tains of the plain green ferpentine, and is not difco-
verable by the dull or any particular colour upon it.
“ Firft (fays Mr Bruce) there is a blue flaky ftone
| exceedingly even and fmooth in the grain, folid, and
without fparks and colour. When broken it is fome-
thing lighter than a Hate, and more beautiful than
moll kinds of marble ; it is like the lava of volcanoes
when polilhed. After lifting this we come to the
beds of verde antico ; and here the quarrying is very
obvious ; for it has been uncovered in patches not
above 20 feet fquare. Then, in another part, the
green ftone has been removed and another pit wrought.”
In other places of the plain he faw pieces of African
marble, but no rocks or mountains of it^ He fuppo-
fes it to be found in the heart of fome other coloured
marble, and in ftrata like the jafper and verde antico;
Sand, as he fufpefts, in the mountains of Ifabella
marble, efpecially of the yelloweft fort. This vaft
ft ore of marble is placed on a ridge, whence there is
a defcent to the call and weft, fo that it could be con-
veyed-either to the Nile or the Red Sea. The level
ground and hard fixed gravel are proper for the heavi¬
n' eft carriages; fo that any weight whatever might eafi-
ly be conveyed to the place of embarkation. In the
more diftant mountains alfo be obferved the fame care
taken to facilitate the carriage: for the defiles between
tbofe mountains he fuppofes not to be natural but ar-
Vol. XII. Part II.
tificiai cpemngs; and he obferved the roads from thcla Mountain,
to the Nile to be cut with a defcent of about one foot ——V"-^
in 50 at moft ; fo that, all the way down, the- car¬
riages muft have moved with as little draught as pof-
fible, at the fame time that the vaft friftion would
prevent any undue acceleration ; to which alfo fome
other means muft have contributed : But thus, he
thinks, it may be explained how fuch immenfe blocks
might have been removed as were employed in the an¬
cient Egyptian works.
Mountains of marble and porphyry are not peculiar
to Egypt, for they are likewife to be met with in the
north of Scotland ; and in the Weftern Ifles there are
likewife fuch quantities of thefe materials to be met
with, as, in the opinion of Mr Williams, would be
fufficient to ferve all Europe.
Written Mountain, Mountain of Infcriptions, or
Jibel-al-Mokatteb, a fuppofed mountain, or chain of
mountains, in the wildernefs of Sinai; on which, for
a great extent of fpace, the marble of which the
mountain confifts is infcribed with innumerable charac¬
ters, reaching from the ground fometimes to the he'ight
of 12 or 14 feet. Thefe were mentioned by a Greek
author in the third century, and fome of them have
been copied by Pococke and other late travellers ; not-
withftanding which, there is ftill a very great uncertain¬
ty even of the exijlence of fuch mountain or mountains.
The vaft number of thefe infcriptions, the defart place
in which they are found, and the length of time »e-
quifite for executing the talk, has induced a notion
by no means unnatural, that they are the work of the
Ifraelites during their forty years wandering in the
wildernefs. Others are of opinion that they contain
nothing of any importance, but confift merely of the
names of travellers and the dates of their journeys.
M. Niebuhr, wh® vifited this country about 30
years ago, made every attempt in his power, though
without fuccefs, to obtain a fight of this celebrated
mountain. On applying to fome Greeks at Suez,
they all declared that they knew nothing of the written
mountain : they, however, dire&ed him to an Arabian
fheik, who had paffed all his lifetime in travelling be¬
tween Suez and Mount Sinai; but he knew no more
of it than the former. Underftanding, however, that
a confiderable reward would be given to any perfoti
who would conduct them thither, this Arab directed
them to another ; who pretended not pnly to know
that mountain, but all others upon which there were
any infcriptions throughout the defart. On inquiring
particularly, however, our travellers found that he*
was not to be depended upon ; fo that they were oblh
ged to have recourfe to a fourth fheik, who by his
converfation convinced them that he had feen moun¬
tains With infcriptions in unknown charafters upon
them. It does not appear, however, that this perfoa
was very capable, more than the reft, of leading them
to the place they fo much wifhed for ; though he con¬
duced them to fome rocks upon which there were in¬
fcriptions in unknown charadfers. They are moft nu¬
merous in a narrow pafs between two mountains na¬
med Om-er-ridjbtin ; and, fays M. Niebuhr. “ the pre¬
tended Jebel-el-Mokatteb may poffibly be in its neigh¬
bourhood.” Some of thefe infcriptions were copied
by our author ; but he does not look upon them to be
M O U [ 434 1 M 0 U
Mountain, of any ccnfeqnence. “ They feem (fay# he) to have
v" been- executed at idle hours by travellers, who were
fatisfied with cutting the unpolilhed rock with any
pointed inftrument, adding to their. names and the
date of their journeys feme rude figures, which befpeak
the hand of a people but little /killed in the arts. When
fuch inferiptions are executed with the defign of tranf-
mitting to pofterity the memory of fuch events as
might a/Ford inftru&ive lefibns, greater care is gene¬
rally taken in the preparation of the Hones, and the
iaferiptions are engraven with more regularity.”
When M. Niebuhr arrived at laft at the mountain
to which the /heik had promifed to conduft him, he
did not find there any inferiptions ; but on climbing
up to the top, he found nothing theje but an Egyp¬
tian cemetery, the ftones of which were covered with
hieroglyphics. The tomb-ftones are from five to fe-
ven feet in length, fome Handing on end and others ly¬
ing flat; and “ the more carefully they are examined
(fays he), the more certainly do they appear to be fe-
piilchral Hones, having epitaphs inferibed on them. In
the middle of thefe Hones is a building, of which on¬
ly the walls now remain ; and within it are likewife a
great many of the fepulchral Hones. At one end of the
building feems to have been a fmall chamber, of which
the roof Hill remains. It is fupported upon fquare
pillars ; and thefe, as well as the walls of the cham¬
ber, are covered with hieroglyphic inferiptions. Thro’
the whole building are various bufls executed in the
manner of the ancient Egyptians. The fepulchral Hones
and the buHs are of hard and fine-grained fand-Hone.”
M. Niebuhr is of opinion that this cemetery was not
the work of the Egyptians themfelves, but of fome
colony which came from Egypt, and had adopted the
manners and cuHoms of the people. He fuppofes
that it might have been built by the Arabs who had
conquered Egypt under the fhepherd kings and adopt¬
ed the Egyptian manners during their refidence there.
As it mull have belonged to an opulent city, however,
he owns that there is a great difficulty in accounting
for the exiflence of fuch a city in the midfi of a defart.
The tranflator of Volney’s travels aferibes thefe in¬
feriptions to the pilgrims which vifit Mount Sinai. But
to this, as well as to every other conje£ture, there is
this obje&ion, that whether the inferiptions be well
executed or not, whether they contain matters of im¬
portance or not, they ought to have been written in
a language which fomebody could underfland ; but from
the copies that have been taken of them by Dr Po-
cocke and others, it does not appear that they could
be explained either by him or any other perfon.
When Dr Clayton, bi/hop of Clogher, vifited this
part of the world about the year 1723, he exprefled
the greatefl defire to have the matter concerning this
written mountain or mountains afeertained, and even
made an offer of L. t;0O Sterling to any literary perfon
who would undertake the journey and endeavour to
decypher the inferiptions ; but no fuch perfon has. ap¬
peared, and the exiiience of the mountains is teffified
only by the fuperior of a convent at Cairo, who gave
that mentioned in the beginning of this article. Un¬
til that part of the world, therefore, become more
acceliible to travellers, there is but little hope that
we can come to any certainty iu the matter. M. Nie¬
buhr plainly, from his own accounts, had not mffu.Monrtam-
ence enough with the Arabs to /how him almoH any "**'» —*
thing, as they refufed to conduit him even to the
fummit of Mount Sinai.
White Mountains. See New Hampshire.
Mountains of the Moon, a chain of mountains in
Africa, extending them/elves between Abyffinia and
Monomotapa, and receiving the above denomination
from their great height.
Mountains of the Lions, alfo in Africa, divide Ni-
gritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia.
They were Hyled by the ancients the mountains of God,
on account of their being greatly fubjeit to thunder
and lightning.
Mountain of Forty-days ; a mountain of Judea, fi-
tuated in the plain of Jericho to the north of that
city. According to the Abbe Mariti’s defeription,
the fummit of it is covered neither with /hrubs, turf,
nor earth ; it confiffs of a folid mafs of white marble,
the furface of which is become yellow by the injuries
of the air. “ The path by which you afeend to it
(fays our author) fills one with terror, Sas it rifes with a
winding courfe between two abyffes, which the eye
dares fcarcely behold. This path is at fir/l pretty
broad, but it at length becomes fo confined, that one
can with difficulty place both feet upon it at the fame
time. When we had afeended a little higher, we
found an Arab ffretched out on the path, who made
us pay a certain toll for our paffage. Here the tra¬
veller requires courage. One of the parapets of the
path being broke, we clung to the part which remain¬
ed until we had reached a fmall grotto, fituated very
commodiou/ly, as it gave us an opportunity of reco¬
vering our breath. When we had reffed ourfelves a
little, we purfued our courfe, which became Hill more
dangerous. Sufpended almoH from the rock, and ha¬
ving before our eyes all the hoiror of the precipice,
we could advance only by dragging one foot after the
other; fo that had the fmalleH fragment given way
under us, we fliould have been hurried to the bottom
of this frightful abyfs.
“ Proceeding a little farther, we found a fecond
grotto, the entrance of which was about nine feet
in breadth. It would be of confiderable iize, were
not about two-thirds of it filled up by part of the
roof, which had tumbled down. This grotto con-
dudts to another, which we had the curiofity to enter,
but we were almoH Hilled by the great number of bats-
which were flattering up and down in it. Being de-
firous of retreating almoH as foon as we had entered,
they flew in fuch numbers around us, that they in a
manner covered our whole bodies; but they luckily
made a paffage for themfelves, and fuffered us to.
breathe with freedom. By the glimmering light which
reached this grotto, we perceived that the bottom of
it was covered to the height of a hand-breadth wich
the excrements of thefe animals; and we remarked
fome niches in the fides of it, which gave us reafon to
conclude, that it had once ferved as a fepulchre to the
ancient anchorets. This is the more probable, as the
other grotto appears by the remains of an altar and
of fome Greek paintings to have been formerly a
church. In the right corner there is a large cifiern,
the platter of which retains its original folidity, though
s broken
M O U [ 435 1 M O U
Mountain, broken in a few places. In the left corner there is
Moumn.,;- a fman fta;r which condufts to a third grotto. This
is much longer and. broader than any of the former,
and its walls are ornamented alfo with Greek paint¬
ings, which reprefent the twelve apoftles in their na¬
tural flze. Their figures, however, are fo much chan¬
ged, that one could fcarcely diftinguiih who they are,
were it not that their names are written in Greek cha-
racters upon the glory which furrounds their heads.—
At the farther end of this grotto Hands a fquare altar
n little damaged ; above which is an oval painting of
the Annunciation, in perfeA prefervation. The chifel
has been employed to render thefe grottos regular and
fmooth; and it appears that they were inhabited by
■a certain number of hermits, who devoted themfelves
to a life of contemplation. No writer has been able
to tell us who the founder of this hermitage was.—
Nicephorus and Eufebius, who have defcribed all the
churches and religious places of Paleftine and Judea,
do not fpeak of thefe chapels.
“ This mountain is one of the higheft in the province,
and one of its moll facred places. It takes its name
from the rigorous fall which Chrift obferved here after
having triumphed over the vanities of the world and
the power of hell. In remembrance of this miracle,'
a chapel was formerly conitrutted on the fummit of
the mountain. It may be feen from the plain, but
we could not approach it, as the path was almofl en¬
tirely dellroyed. It, however, may be acceffible on
the other fide of the mountain, which we did not vi-
fit. A great many fcattered grottos are feen here ; in
one of which, according to Quarefmius, were depo
fited the bodies of ieveral anchorets, which are ftill
entire. I have heard the fame thing afferted in the
country, but I could never meet with any perfon who
had feen them. Here we enjoyed the moil beautiful
profpedt imaginable. This part of the Mountain of
Forty Days overlooks the mountains of Arabia, the
country of Gilead, the country of the Ammonites,
the plains'of Moab, the plain of Jericho, the river
Jordan, and the whole extent of the Dead Sea. It
was here that the devil faid to the Son of God, ‘ All
thefe kingdoms will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down
and worfhip me.”
MOURNING, a particular drefs or habit worn to
fignify grief on fome melancholy occafion, particularly
the death of friends or of great public characters —
The modes of triburning are various in various coun¬
tries ; as alfo are the colours that obtain for that end.
In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourning is black;
in China, it is white ; in Turkey, blue pr yiolet; in
■EgyPb yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. White obtain¬
ed formerly in Caftile on the death of their princes.
Herrera obferves, that the laft time it was uled was
in 1498, at the death of prince John. Jiach people
pretend to have their reafons for the particular colour
of their mourning: white is fuppofed to denote pu¬
rity ; yellow, that death is the end of human hopes,
in regard that leaves when they fall, and flowers when
they fade, become yellow : brown denotes the earth,
whither the dead return ; black, the privation of life,
as being the privation of light: blue expreffes the hap-
pinefs which it is hoped the deceafed does enjoy; and
purple or violet, forrow on the one fide, and hope on
the other, as being a mixture of black and blue.
Mourning, among the ancients, was exprefled va*Mourning,
rious ways. “
Amongft the Jews, on the death of their relations
or intimate friends, grief or mourning was fignified
by weeping, tearing their clothes, fmiting their breafts.
Or tearing them with their nails, pulling or cutting off
their hair and beards, walking foftly, 2. e. hare-foot,
lying upon the- ground, fading, or eating upon the
ground. They kept themfelves clofe (hut up in their
houfes, covered their faces, and abdained from all
work, even reading the law, and faying their ufual
prayers. They neither drefled themfelves, nor made
their beds, nor fliaved themfelves, nor cut their nails,
nor went into the bath, nor faluted any body : fo that
fulkinefs feems to have been an indication of forrow ;
and dirtinefs, of ditfrefs. The time of mourning among
the Jews was generally feven days: tho’ this was length¬
ened or Ihortened according to circumdances; but 30
days were thought fufficient upon the fevered occa-
fions. The different periods of the time of mourning
required different degrees of grief, and different tokens
of it.
The Greeks, on the death of friends, Ihowed
their forrow by fecluding themfelves from all gaiety,
entertainments, games, public folemnities, the enjoy¬
ment of wine, and the delights of mufic. They fat
in gloomy and folitary places, dripped themfelves of
all external ornaments, put on a coarfe black duff by
way of mourning, tore their hair, lhaved their heads,
rolled themfelves in the dud and mire, fprinkled alhes
on their heads, fmote their breads with their palms,
tore their faces, and frequently cried out with a la¬
mentable voice and drawling tone, reiterating the in¬
terjection «,f> J; hence funeral lamentations were call¬
ed Extyo/. If they appeared in public duriag the time
of mourning, they had a veil thrown over their faces
and heads. During the funeral proceflion, certain per-
fons called marched beforehand fung me¬
lancholy drains calledlax^ox, A:v« and aoivx.
Thefe vocal mourners fung thrice during the procef-
fion round the pile and round the grave. Flutes
were alfo ufed to heighten the folemnity. At the fu¬
nerals of foldiers, their feilow-foldiers who attended,
as a tdfimony of their affliction held their Ihields,
their fpears, and the red of their armour, inverted.
As to the tokens of private grief among the Ro¬
mans, they were the fame as thofe already obferved
as cudomary amongd the Greeks. Black or dark-
brown were the colours of the mourning habits worn by
the men ; they were alfo common to the women. The
mourning of the emperors at fird was black. In the
time of Augudus, the women wore white veils, and
the red of their drefs black. From the time of Do-
mitian they wore nothing but white habits, without
any ornaments of gold, jewels, or pearls. The men
let their hair and beards grow, and wore no wreaths
of flowers on their heads while the days of mourning
continued. The longed time of mourning was ten
months : this was Numa’s edabliihment, and took in
his whole year. For a widow to marry during this
time was infamous. Mourning was not ufed for chil¬
dren who died under three years of age. From this
age to ten they mourned as many months as the child
was years old. A remarkable vi&ory, or other happy
event, occafioned the fhortening of the time of mourn-
3 I 2 ing :
M O U [ 436 ] M O U
Moufc Jng : The birth of a child, or the attainment of any
Mouful remarkable honour in the family, certain feafts in ho-
^ nour of the gods, or the confecration of a temple, had
the fame effeft. After the battle at Cannse, the com¬
monwealth decreed that mourning fhould not be worn
for more than 30 days, that the lofs might be forgot
as foon aa poflible. When public magiftrates died, or
perfons of great note, alfo when any remarkable ca¬
lamity happened, all public meetings were intermitted,
the fchools of exercife, baths, (hops, temples, and all
places of concourfe, were (hut up, and the whole city
put on a face of forrow ; the fenators laid afide the la-
Uclave, and the confuls fat in a lower feat than ordi¬
nary. This was the cuftom of Athens alfo, and was
obferved upon the death of Socrates not long after he
had been fentenced to death by their judges.
Prajicte, or mourning women, (by the Greeks call¬
ed 3-fviir went about the llreets : this was cu-
ftomary among the Jews as well as the Greeks and
Romans, (Jerem. ix. 17.)
MOUSE, in zoology. See Mus.
MovsR-Ear, in botany. See Hierachium.
MouiE-Tail. See Myosurus.
Dor-Mouse. See Myoxus.
Shrew-Mouse. See S0S.ex.
MOUSEELE, the name of an Eaft Indian tree,
with white tubular flowers, which fall off every day in
great plenty. They are of a fweet agreeable fmell,
and the Gentoos are very fond of wearing them,
ftringing and hanging them about their necks and
arms. The fruit is a pale-red cherry, of the (hape
and fize of our white heart-cherry, but the foot-(talk
is not quite fo long. This fruit has a (tone in it,
containing a bitter oily kernel. The Indians rub with
this oil any part flung by a fcorpion or bitten by a
centipede, which it foon cures. The crows are very
fond of the fruit.
* MOUSUL, or Mosul, a large city of Turkey in
Afia} and capital of a Beglerbegate, Hands on the weft
bank of the Tigris, in the latitude, according to Mr
Ives’s obfervation, of 36° 30:. It is furrounded with
ftone-walls, but has many of ics ftreets lying wafte.
Tavernier fpeaks of it as a ruined place, with only
two blind markets and a forry caftle; yet, he fays,
that it is much frequented by merchants, and that its
baflia commands 30:0 men. There is a bridge of boats
over the Tigris ; and the city is a thoroughfare from
Perfia to Syria, which makes it a place of trade, and
which is more augmented by a conflant traffic from
this place to Bagdad. The country on this fide the
river is fandy and barren ; but over againft it is ex¬
ceedingly fruitful, and yields very good crops of corn
and fruit in abundance. Mr Ives fays, it was the beft
built city he had feen in Turkey; but had nothing in
it to attract the notice of an European. It was be-
fieged for sear fix months by Nadir Shah without fuc-
cefs. Breaches were frequently made in the walls,
and aflaults continued for three days fucceflively ; but
the aflailants were confiantly repuifed, and the breaches
made in the day-time repaired during the night. The
befieged had unanimoufly refolved to die rather than
to fubmit. The Turks declared, that ftiould the place
be forced to furrender, they were determined to put
to death all their wives and daughters firft, that they
aught not fall into the vile hands of the abhorred Per-
fians. The place was therefore defended with uncom- Moufuf,
moir bravery ; even the women and children exerted
themfelves with the greateft alacrity. The Chriftians '
behaved in fuch a manner as to gain the efteem and
admiration of the other inhabitants; and fome of their
churches being demoliftied, they were afterwards re-
paired at the expence of government.
In this city there are a great many mofques, the
larged and moft (lately of which is ornamented on the
top with green tiles. At the doors of thefe houfes
th;.re are ufually inferiptions in gilt letters, declaring
the awfulnefs of the building, as being the houfe of
God. One of them has a minaret which bends like
. thofe of Bagdad. Some of the moft bigotted Turks
fay, that Mahomet faluted this minaret as he pafled ;
on which it bent its head in reverence to the prophet,
and ever after continued in that fituation. The ma¬
nufacture of this city is mujfolen (muflin), which is made
very ftrong and pretty fine. In the year 1757 this
city and the country adjacent was vifited by a dread¬
ful famine, owing to the preceding hard winter, and
innumerable multitudes of locufts, by which the fruits
of the earth were deltroyed. When Mr Ives was
there in 1758, the country was comparatively depopu¬
lated. Almoft all the brute creation had been de-
ftroyed for the fubfiftence of man. During the famine,
the people had eaten dogs, and every kind of animal
which is held in abhorrence at any other time, not
fparing even their own children ; and the dead bodies
lay in the ftreets for want of people to bury them.
Their fruit-trees were alfo deftroyed by the froft ; fo
that when our author was there fcarce any fruit could
be had. The neighbouring mountains afford filver
mines; and they would yield much quickfilver if the
Turks had either the flrillor inclination to work them
to advantage. Lanza fays, that fome time ago a»
Engliftiman who- travelled through thefe parts got
two or three bottles of it, which he prefented to the
bafha as a fpecimen of what might be done in that
way : but no farther attempt was made. Here alfo
are fome lead mines, which fupply as much of that
metal as furniftres them with bullets and fome neceffary
ntenfils.
MOU-TAN, or peony-shrub of China: alfo call¬
ed hoa-ouang, or “ the king of flowers;” and ptlaing-
kin, “ an hundred ounces of gold,” in allufion to the
exceffive price given formerly by fome of the virtuofi
for certain fpecies of this plant. The mou-tan feems
to claim pre-eminence, not only on account of the
fplendor and number of its flowers, and of the fweet
odour which they dilfufe around, but alfo on account
of the multitude of leaves which cotnpofe them, and
of the beautiful golden'fpots with which they are in-
terfperfed. This plant, which is of a (hrubby nature,
(hoots forth a number of branches, which form a top
almoft as large as thofe of the fineft orange-trees that
are planted in boxes. Some of the mou-tan have been
feen eight or ten feet in height. The reafon why few
are railed at prefent to this fize is, became their flowers
are lefs beautiful, and their branches being too weak,
cannot fuftain their weight. The root of the mob-tan
is long and fibrous, of a pale yellow colour, and co¬
vered with a greyifh or reddifh rind. Its leaves are
deeply indented, and of a much darker green above
.than below. Its flowers, which are compofed of num-
berlefs
Mmi-tan, berlefs petals, blow like a rofe, and are fupported by a
Mouth, calyx compofed of four leaves. From the bottoms of
v ' the petals arife feveral ftamina without any order,
which bear oh their tops fmall antheras, of a beautiful
golden colour. The fruit bend downwards like thofe
of common peony, burfl when they become dry, and
Ihed their feeds.
Crofter's There are three kinds of mou-tan ; common mou-
tan> dwarf mou-tan, and the mou-tan tree. The laft
China. fpecies feems at prefent to be loft; fome of them were
formerly feen which were 25 feet in height. Dwarf
mou-tan is little efteemed : a few plants of this kind
are only cultivated to preferve the fpecies. Common
mou-tan, which has always been highly prized by flo-
rifts, is more generally difperfed. It is raifed like an
efpalier in form of a fan, bulh, or orange-tree. Some
of them flower in fpring, others in fummer, and fome
in autumn. Thefe different fpecies muft each be cul¬
tivated in a different manner.
The vernal and fummer mou-tan are thofe that are
cultivated in greateft number; thofe of autumn require
too flavifh an attention during the great heat of the
dog-days. The mou-tan of each feafon are divided in¬
to Angle and double ; the former are fubdivided into
thofe of too leaves and icoo leaves; the fecond have
a large calyx Ailed with ftamina, that bear on their
tops gold-coloured antherae. Thefe are the only kind
that produce feed. The flowers of both appear under
the different forms of a bafon, pomegranate, marigold,
&c. Some of the mou-tan are red, others violet, purple,
yellow, white, black, and blue; and thefe colours, va¬
ried by as many (hades, produce a prodigious number
of different kinds. We are affured, that the Chinefe
florifts have the fecret of changing the colour of their
mou-tan, and of giving t|iem whatever tints they
pleafe ; but they cannot effedt this change but upon
thofe plants which have never produced flowers.
A mou-tan, to pleafe the eye of a Chinefe florift,
muft have a rough crooked ftalk, full of knots, and of
a blackifti green colour ; its branches muft crofs one
. another, and be twifted in a thoufand fantaftical Agures;
the ftioots that proceed from them muft be of a deli¬
cate green (haded with red; the leaves muft be large,
of a beautiful green, very thick, and fupported by red-
diih (talks ; its flowers muft blow at different times, in
form of a tuft, be all of the fame colour, and (land
eredt upon their ftems; they muft alfo be feven or
eight inches in diameter, and exhale a fweet and
agreeable odour.
MOUTH, in anatomy, a part of the face, confid¬
ing of the lips, the gums, the infldes of the cheeks,
the palate, the falival glands, the os hyoides, the uvula,'
and the tonftls, which fee under the article Ana¬
tomy.
Mr Derham obferves, that the mouth in the feveral
fpecies of animals is nicely adapted to the ufes of fuch
a part, and well flzed and (haped for the formation of
fpeech, the gathering and receiving of food, the catch¬
ing of prey, &c. In fome creatures it is wide and
large, in others little and narrow; in fome it is form¬
ed with a deep incifure into the head, for tlie better
catching and holding of prey, and more eafy commi¬
nution of hard, large, and troublefome food ; and in
others with a (horter incifure, for the gathering and
bolding of herbaceous food. In birds it is neatly
(haped for piercing the air j hard and horny, to fup- Mmivaas.
ply the want of teeth; hooked, in the rapacious kind,—\r-—J
to catch and hold their prey; long and (lender in thofe
that have their food to grope for in moorHh places ;
and broad and long in thofe that fearch for it in the
mud. Nor is the mouth lefs remarkable in infedts ;
in fome it is forcipated, to catch, hold, and tear the
prey ; in others aculeated, to pierce and wound ani¬
mals, and fuck their blood; in others, ftrongly rigid,
with jaws and teeth, to gnaw and fcrape out their
food, carry burdens, perforate the earth, nay the hard-
eft wood, and even (tones themfelves, for houfes'and
nefts for their young.
MOUVANS (Paul Richard), furnamed the Brave,
a Proteftant officer, was born at Caftellane in Provence
of a refpedtable family, and made a eonflderable Agure
in the civil wars of France during the 16th century.
His brother, who was likewife a Proteftant, having
been killed -in a popular tumult excited by the Romifh
priefts at Draguignan, he took up arms to avenge his
death ; and, having affembled 2000 men, committed-
great devaftations in Provence. Being purfued by the
Count de Tende at the head of 6000 men, and And-
ing himfelf too weak to keep the Aeld, he took poll
in a convent ftrongly fortiAed by nature, and there
refolved to defend himfelf to the laft extremity. That
the war might be terminated amicably, the Count de
Tende propofed an interview:; to which Mouvans a-
greed, on condition that his brother’s murderers (hould
be puniftied, and that thofe who had taken up arms-
with him (hould not be molefted. Thefe terms being
accepted, he difmiffed his troops, referring only a
guard of 50 men for the fecurity of his perfon. This
precaution was not unneceffary; for^the parliament of
Aix had received orders from court to punifti him ca¬
pitally for being concerned in the confpiracy of Am-
boife. The baron de la Garde made an attempt to
apprehend him ; but he was worded and repulfed
with conftderable lofs. Mouvans at length refolved
to retire to Geneva, where his life would not be in
danger; and there he lived for fome time in-tranquil¬
lity, nobly reje&ing the fplendid offers made him by
the duke of Guife if he would join the Catholic par¬
ty. He returned to France at the recommencement
of the troubles, in confequence of the maffacre of Vaffy
in- 1562, and continued to diftinguifli himfelf in the
Proteftant armies. His conduit at Sifterou, where he
commanded together with Captain Senas when that
city was beAeged by the Count de Sommerive, is par¬
ticularly deferving of admiration. After fuftaining an
affault of feven hours, in which the beAegers were re-
pulfed with confiderable lofs, Mouvans, perceiving that
he was too weak to wait a fecond, determined to aban¬
don the city, and left it during the night with hii
troops and thofe. of the inhabitants who chofe to ac¬
company him, by a pafs which the enemy had ne¬
glected to guard. The number of the inhabitants
amounted to 4000 of every age and fex, men, women,
children, and mothers with their infants at their breaft.
This body, in which there, was not ioco men At to-
bear arms, directed their courfetowards Grenoble. Muf-
keteers were placed in the front and rear, while the-
defencelefs and unarmed occupied the centre. ■ To add
to the difficulty of the march, they were frequently
obliged to go out of the way, and to crofs fteep and.
rugged-
Moyle.
M O Y [ 438 1 M
Mo wee rugged mountains, in order to avoid the ambufcades He afterwards retired to his feat at Bake in Cornwall,
,11, which the enemy had laid for them on the road, where he applied himfelf with vigour to his Rudies,
__ 'If&f flopped fome days Ja^efreih themfelves in the and died in 1721. In 1726, his works were printed
Wileys of Angrone and Pragelas, where they were cor- at London, in 2 vols 8vo.
dially received and fupplied with proviftons by the
Vaudois. After a march of 21 or 22 days, and being
•expofed to the greateft fatigue and famine, the wretch¬
ed fugitives at length arrived at Grenoble. The baron
des Adrets fent them under an efcort to Lypns, where
u c
MOYR A See Moira-
MUCILAGE, in pharmacy, is in general any vif-
cid or glutinous liquor.
Mucilage, alfo imports the liquor which princi¬
pally ferves to moiften the ligaments and cartilages of
they remained till the treaty of pacification. In 1568 the articulations, and is fupplied by the mucilaginous
Mouvans was defeated at Mefignae in Perigord, and glands.
loft his life in the engagement. Upon this occafion
he commanded, together with Peter Goun.e, the ad¬
vanced guard of the Proteftant army. It is alleged,
that in defpair he daihedout his brains againft a tree.
MUCOR, in botany: A genus of the order of fungi,
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants. The
fungus has veficular heads fupported by foot-ftalks.—
There are 12 fpecies; the moft remarkAble of which
MOWEE, one of the Sandwich ifiands difeovered are, 1. The fpasrocephalus, or grey round-headed mu-
by Captain Cook, is 162 miles in circumference. A
low illhmus divides it into two circular peninfulas,
of which the eaftern is double the fize of the wellern.
The mountains in both rife to an exceeding great
height, and may be feen at the diftance of more than
30 leagues. The northern ftiores, like thofe of Owy¬
hee, afford no foundings, and the country-prefents the
fame appearance of verdure and fertility. Near the
weft point of the fmaller peninfula is a fpacious bay,
with a fandy beach (haded with cocoa-nut trees. The
cor, growing upon rotten wood, and fometimes upon
decayed plrnts and moffes. The ftalks of this are ge¬
nerally black,‘about a line in height; bearing each at
the top a fpherical ball about the fize of a pin’s head ;
its coat or rind is covered with a grey powder, and con¬
taining within a black or fufeous fpongy down. The
coat burfts with a ragged, irregular margin 2. The
lichenoides, or little, black, pin-headed mucor. This
fpecies grows in groups near to each other, in chafms
of the barks of old trees, and upon old park-pales.
country behind has a moft romantic appearance, the The ftalks are black, about two lines in height;
hills rifing almoft perpendicularly in a great variety of bearing each a fingle head, fometimes a double
peaked forms; and their fteep fides and deep chafms
between them are covered with trees. The tops of
thefe hills are entirely bare, and of a reddifii brown
colour. The number of inhabitants are computed at
about 65,000. E. Long. 204. 4. N. Lat. 20. 50.
MOXA, or mugwort of China ; is a foft lanugi-
nous fubftance, prepared in Japan from the young leaves
of a fpecies of artemisia, by beating them together
treble one, of the fize of muftard or poppy feeds, of
a roundfth figure at firft, but when burft often flattifti
or truncated, and of a black colour. The internal
powdered down is black, with a tinge of green. 3. The
mucedo, or common grey mould, grows on bread,
fruits, plants, and other fubftances in a putrid ftate.
It grows in clufters; the ftalks a quarter of an inch
high, pellucid, hollow, and cylindrical ; fupporting
when thoroughly dried, and rubbing them betwixt the each a fingle globular head, at firft tranfparent, after¬
hands till only the fine fibres are left. The down on wards dark grey ; which burfts with elaftic force, and
the leaves of mullein, cotton, hemp, &c. do as well as ejetts fmall round feeds difcoverable by the micro-
moxa. fcope. 4. The glaucus, or grey clufter-headed mould.
In the Eaftern countries it is ufed by burning it on is found on rotten apples, melons, and other fruits ; as
the fkin: a little cone of the moxa is laid upon the alfo upon decayed wood, and the ftalks of wheat,
part, previoufiy moiftened, and fet on fire at the top ; Thefe are of a pellucid grey colour; the ftalks gene-
it burns down with a temperate glowing heat, and rally fingle, fupporting a fpherical ball, which, when
produces a dark-coloured fpot, the exulceration of magnified, appears to be compounded of numerous,
which is promoted by applying a little garlic; the fine, moniliform, necklace-like radii. 5. The crufta-
ulcer is left to difeharge, or is foon healed, according ecus, or fingered mould, is frequent upon corrupted
to the intention in ufing the moxa. See Artemisia. food of various kinds. It is of a white aqueous co-
1 ' * * ^ " ■*- ‘ - lour ; the ftalks fingle, each fupporting at the top four
or five necklace-like radii, diverging from the fame
point or centre. 6. The fepticus, or yellow frothy
mucor, is found on the leaves of plants, fuch as ivy
MOYLE (Walter), a learned Englifti writer in the
j8th century, defeended of a good family in Cornwall,
where he was horn in 1672. He was fent to Oxford,
and thence removed to the temple; where he applied
himfelf chiefly to the general and more noble parts of and beech, &c. fometimes upon dry fticks, and fre-
the law, fuch as led him to the knowledge of the con- quently upon the tan or bark in hot-houfes. It is
ftitution of the Englifli government. In 1697 he had
a (hare with Mr Trenchard in writing a pamphlet, in-
titled, “ An Argument (bowing that a Standing Army
is inconfiftent with a Free Government, and abfolutely
deftru&ive to the Conftitution of the Englifli Mo¬
narchy.” He tranflated Xenophon’s Difcoutfe upon
Improving the State of Athens. He was for fome
time member of parliament, in which he always afted
an honourable part; applying himfelf to the improve-
of no certain fize or figure, but of a fine yellow colour,
and a fubftance refembling at firll cream beat up into
froth. In the fpace of 24 hours it acquires a thin
filmy coat, becomes dry, and full of a footy powder
adhering to downy threads. The feeds under the mi-
erofeope appear to be globular. Haller ranks it un¬
der a new genus, which he terms fuligo ; the charac¬
ters of which are, that the plants contained under it
foft, and like butter at firft, but foon change into
tnent and regulation of trade, and the employment of a black footy powder,
the poor, which has fo near a connexion with trade. MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor fecreted by certain
glands,
M U C [ 439 3 MUG
gland*, and fetving to lubricate many of the internal
cavities of the body. In its natural ftate it is gene¬
rally limpid and colourlefs 5 but, from certain caufes,
will often aflume a thick confidence and whitifh co¬
lour like pus. As it is fometimes of very great im¬
portance in medicine to diftinguifh thefe two fluids
from each other, this was lately propofed as the fub-
jeft of a prize deputation by the iEfculapian Society
of Edinburgh, 'i he prize was gained by Mr Charles
Darwin fludent of medicine from Litchfield. The con-
cluflons drawn from his experiments were,
r. Pus and mucus are both foluble in the vitriolic
acid, though in very different proportions, pus being
by far leaft foluble.
2. The addition of water to either of thefe compounds
decompofes it. The mucus thus feparated either fwims
in the mixture or forms large flocculi ia it; whereas
the pus falls to the bottom, and forms, on agitation,
an uniform turbid mixture.
3. Pus is diffufible through a diluted vitriolic acid,
though mucus is not. The fame alfo occurs with wa¬
ter, or with a folution of fea-falt.
4. Nitrous acid diffolves both pus and mucus. Wa¬
ter, added to the folution of pus produces a precipi¬
tate, and the fluid above becomes clear and green,
while water and the folution of mucus form a turbid
dirty-coloured fluid.
5. Alkaline lixivium diffolves, though fometimes
with difficulty, mucus, and generally pus.
6. Water precipitates pus from fuch a mixture, but
does not mucus.
7. Where alkaline lixivium does not diffolve pus, it
Hill diftinguifhes it from mucus, as it then prevents its
diffufion through water.
8. Coagulable lymph is neither foluble in concen¬
trated nor diluted vitriolic acid.
9. Water produces no change on a folution of fe-
rum in alkaline lixivium, until after long {landing, and
then only a very flight fediment appears.
10. Corrofive fublimate coagulates mucus, but does
not pus.
From the above experiments it appears, that flrong
vitriolic acid and water, diluted vittiolic acid, and cau-
ftic alkaline lixivium and water, will ferve to diftin¬
guifh pus from mucus ; that the vitriolic acid can fe-
parate it from coagulable lymph, and alkaline lixivium
from ferum.
Hence, when a perfon has any expe&orated mat¬
ter, the decompoiitfon of which .he wifhesto afeertain,
let him diffolve it in vitriolic acid, and in cauftic alka¬
line lixivium ; and let him add pure water to both fo-
lutions. If there be a fair precipitation in each, he
may be affured that fome pus is prefent. But if there
be a precipitation in neither, it is a certain left that
the mixture is entirely mucus. If the matter cannot be
made to diffolve in alkaline lixivium by time and tritu¬
ration, we have alfo reafon to believe that it is pus.
MUCK, ot running a muck, is a practice that
has prevailed time immemorial in Batavia. To run
a muck, in the original fenfe of the word, isj to get
intoxicated with opium, and then rufh into the ftreet
w ith a drawn weapon, and kill any one that comes in
the way, till the party is himielf either killed or taken
prifoner. If the officer takes one of thefe amocks or
mohawks (as they have been called by an eafy corrup¬
tion ) alive, he has a confiderable reward; and the un¬
happy wretches are always broken alive on the wheel:
but fuch is the fury of their defperation, that three
out of four are neceffarily deftroyed in attempting to
fecure them.
MUD-iguana. See Murjena.
MUFFLE, in chemiftry, a veffel much ufed in fome
metallurgic operations. In figure it reprefents an ob¬
long arch or vault, the hinder part of which is clofed
by a femicircular plane, and the lower part or floor
of which is a rectangular plane. It is a little oven-
that is placed horizontally in affay and enamelling fur¬
naces, fo that its open fide correfponds with the door
of the fire-place of the furnace. Under this arched
oven fmall cupels or crucibles are placed; and the fub-
ftances contained are thus expofed to heat without con-
tadt of fuel, fmoke, or afhes.
MUFTI, the chief of the ecclefiaftical order, or
primate of the muffulman religion. The authority of
the mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire; for
even the fultan himfelf, if he would preferve any ap¬
pearance of religion, cannot, without hearing his opi¬
nion, put any perfon to death, or fo much as iaflidt;
any corporal punifhment. In all a&ions, efpecially
criminal ones, his opinion is required, by giving him
a writing in which the cafe is Hated under feigned
names ; which he fubferibes with the words, He Jhall,.
or Shall not be, puntjhed. Such outward honour is paid
to the mufti, that the grand fignior himfelf rifes up to
him, and advances feven fteps to meet him when he
comes into his prefence. He alone has the honour of
kiffing the fultan's left (boulder,' whilft the prime vizier
kiffes only the hem of his garment. When the grand
fignior addrefles any writing to the mufti, he gives him
the following titles : To the efad, the wifejl of the wife,
injlrucled in all knowledge, the mofl excellent of excellents,
abflaining from things unlawful, the fpring of virtue and
of true feience, heir of the prophetic doctrines, refolver of
the problems of faith, revealer of the orthodox articles, key
of the treafures of truth, the light to the doubtful allegories,
flrengthened with the grace of the fupreme Legiflator of
mankinds may the Aloft High God perpetuate thy virtues !
The eleftion of the mufti is folely in the grand fignior,.
who prefents him with a veil of rich fables, &c. If
he is conviCted of treafon, or any great crime, he is
put into a mortar kept for that purpofe in the Seven
Towers at Conftantinople, and pounded to death.
MUGGLETON IANS,p religious feCl which arofe
in England about the year 1657; fo denominated from
their leader Lodowick Muggleton, a journeyman taylor,
who, with his affociate Reeves, fet up for great pro •
phets, pretending, as it is faid, to have an abfolute
power of faving and damning whom they pleafed ; anci
giving out that they were the two laft witneffes of God
that fhould appear before the end of the world.
MUG1L, the mullet ; in ichthyology, a genus of
fifties belonging to the order of abdominales. The
lips are membranaceous, the inferior one being cari-
nated inwards j they have no teeth ; the branchioftege
membrane has feven crooked rays; the opercula are
fmooth and round; and the body is of a whitifh co¬
lour. There are two fpecies, diftinguiftied by the num¬
ber of rays in the back-fin.
The mullet is juflly ranked by^Ariftotle among the
pifees littorales, or thofe that prefer the fhores to the
full
Mud
a
Mugil.
M U L
Mugil full fea ; they are found in great plenty on feveraj of
!l the fandy coafts of our iflaftcT, and haunt in particular
Mulberry. tj10fe fman tj,at have influxes of frelh water.
They come in great fhoals, and keep rooting like hogs
in the fand or mud, leaving their traces in form of
large round holes. They are very cunning ; and when
furrounded with a net, the whole flioal frequently
efcapes by leaping over it ; for when one takes the
lead, the others are fure to follow. This circumftance
is obferved by Oppian ; who alfo informs us, that if
thefe fifhes fail to get over at the firft leap, they never
attempt a fecond, but lie without motion as if they re->
figned themfelves to their fate. Mr Pennant fays ho
is uncertain whether this laft obfervation holds good or
no' : however, Oppian had good opportunity of exa¬
mining thofe filh, as they fometimes fwarm on the
coafts of the Mediterranean. Near Martegues, in the
fouth of France, abundance of mullets are taken in
weres made of reeds placed in the (hallows. Of the
milts of the males, which are there called alletants,
and of the roes of females, which are called botar, is
made botargo. The materials are taken out entire,
covered with fait for four or five hours, then preffed a
little between two boards or ftones, wafhed, and at laft
dried in the fun for 13 or 14 days.
This fifli was fometimes made the inftrument of a
horrible punilhment for unfortunate gallants. It was
ufed both at Athens and Rome ; but it is very doubt¬
ful whether it was a legal punifhment or not. By Ho¬
race it is mentioned in the following lines :
Difcinlia tunica fugiendum eft, ac pcde nudo;
Ne nummipereunt, avt Pyga, nut deniqucfanta.
• Sat. It. lib. i. 131.
The mullet is an excellent filh for the table, but at
-s* p]ate prefent not a faftiionable one. The albula * is caught
t CCCXV. in great quantities about the Bahama iflands at the
times they go in fhoals to fpawn; and is there efteem-
ed very good eating.
MUGWORT, in botany 5 a fpecies of Artemisia.
An infufion of this plant in white wine, or a bath
made of it, has been always efteemed an emmenagogue,
and ufeful in difficult parturition. The leaves, when
young and tender, are frequently made ufe of by the
Highlanders of Scotland as a pot herb. The country-
people in Sweden drinkadeco&ionof them for the ague.
MUID, a large meafure in ufe among the French,
for things dry. The muid is no real veflel ufed as a
meafure, but an eftimation of feveral other meafures;
as the feptier, mine, minot, bufhel, &c.
Mmo, is alfo one of the nine cades, or regular vef-
Pels ufed i* France, to put wine and other liquors in.
The muid of wine is divided into two demi-muids,
four quarter-muids, and eight half-quarter muids, con¬
taining 36 feptiers.
MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thofe
who are begotten by a negro man on an Indian wo¬
man, or by an Indian man on a negro woman.
MULBERRY, in botany. See Mqrus.
Mulb ERar-Cyder, a name given by the people of
Devonfture, and fome other parts of England, to a
fort of cyder rendered very palatable by an admixture
of mulberry juice in the making: they choofe for this
purpofe the ripeft and blacked: mulberries, and pref-
fing out their juice and mixing it with a full-bodied
cyder at the time of the grinding and preffing, give juft
fo much of it as fidds a perceptible flavour. It is
1 N* 231.
M U L
very worthy the attention of people who live in other Mulcft,
countries, where ftrong and good cyder is made, that Mu|e-
this renders it a fort of wine much more agreeable
than any other Englifli liquor, and might be brought
into general ufe, to the great advantage of the dealer.
The colour of this liquor refembles that olf the bright-
eft red wine, and the flavour of the mulberry never
goes off. Phil. Tranf. N*3133.
MULCT, a fine of money laid upon a man who
has committed fome fault or mifdemeanour.
MULE, in zoology, a mongrel kind of quadruped,
ufually generated between an afs and a mare, and
fometimes between a horfe and a (he-afs ; but the fig-
nification of the word .is commonly extended to every
kind of animal produced by a mixture of two different
fpecies. There are two kinds of thefe animals; one
from the he afs and mare, the other from the horfe
and the (he-afs. We call them indifferently mules, but
the Romans diftinguifhed them by proper appellations.
The firft kind are the beft and moft efteemed; as be¬
ing larger, (Longer, and having lead of the afs in their
difpofition. The largeft and ftouteft affes, and the
faired and fined mares, are chofen in thofe countries
where thefe creatures are moft in ufe ; as in Spain?
Italy, and Flanders. In the laft efpecially, they fuc-
ceeded in having very (lately mules from the fi/.e of
their mares, fome of them 16 and fome 17 hands
high, which are very ferviceable as fumpter-mules in
the army. But fince the Low Countries are no
longer under the dominion of Spain, they breed fewer
mules. Thefe creatures are very much commended
for their being (Longer, furer footed, going eafier,
being more cheaply maintained, and lading longer than
horfes. They are commonly of a black-brown, or
quite black, with that (hining lift along the back
and crofs the (houlders which diftinguifhes affes. In
former times they were much more common in this
country than at prefent; being often brought over in
the days of Popary by the Italian prelates. They
continued longed in the fervice of millers; and are
yet in ufe among them in fome places, on account of
the great loads they carry on their back. As they
aie capable of being trained for riding, bearing bur¬
dens, and for draught, there is no doubt that they
might be ufefully employed in many different fervices.
But they are commonly found to he vicious, ftubborn,
and obftinate to a proverb ; which whether k occa-
fions or Is produced by the ill ufage they meet with,
is a point not eafily fettled. Whatever may be the
cafe of affes, it is allowed that mules are larger^ fair¬
er, and more ferviceable in mild than in warm cli¬
mates. In the Britifh American colonies, both on
the continent and in the iflands, but efpecially in
the latter, they are much ufed and efteemed; (o that
they are frequently fent to them from hence, fuffei*
lefs in the paffage, and die much feldomer than horfes,
and commonly yield, when they arrive, no inconfider-
able profit.
It has commonly been afferted, that animals pro¬
duced by the mixture of two heterogeneous fpecies
are incapable of generating, and thus perpetuating
the monftrous breed ; but this, we are informed by
M. Buffon, is now difeovered to be a miftake. Ari»
ftotle, fays he, tells ns, that the mule engenders with
the mare, and that the junftion produces an animal
which the Greeks call hinnus, or ginnus. He like-
2 wife
L 44° 1
M U L [ 44i 1 M U L
wife remarks, that the fhe-mule eafily conceives, but
feldom brings the foetus to perfe&ion. But the moft
remarkable and well attefted inftance of this faft, is
mentioned in a letter read by M. d’Alembert before
the academy of fciences, which informed him that a
fhe-mule in the ifland of St Domingo had brotight
forth ,a foal. The fait was attefted by perfons of
the moft unqueftionable veracity; and other inftances,
though not fo well authenticated, are adduced by our
author. We may therefore, continues M. Buffon,
confider it as an eftabliflted fa£t, that the he-mule can
generate and the (he-mule produce. Like other ani¬
mals, they have a feminal liquor, and all the organs
neceffary to generation. But mongrel animals are al¬
ways lefs fertile and more tardy than thofe of a pure
fpecies. Beftdes, mules have never produced in cold
climates, feldom in warm regions, and ftill more fel¬
dom in temperate countries. Hence their barennefs*
without being abfolute, may be regarded as pofitive ;
fince their productions are fo rare, that a few examples
can be only collected.
The tranflator of Buffon’s works, in a note on the
paffage above-quoted, has given a remarkable and
well authenticated inftance of the prolific powers of a
(he-mule in the north of Scotland. Having heard that
a mule, belonging to Mr David Tullo farmer in Auch-
tertyve, in the county of Forfar, had fome years ago
brought forth a foal, he tranfmitted a few queries to
be put to Mr Tullo; and requefted that his anfwers
might be legally attefted before a magiftrate. This
requeft was cheerfully complied with ; and the follow¬
ing is an exaeft copy of the queries, anfwers, and at-
teftations.
Interrogatories to be put to Mr Tullo tenant in
Auchtertyre, parifh of Newtyle, and county of For¬
far, with his anfwers thereto.
1 mo, Had you ever a (he-mule? At what period?
Is it true that the mule had a foal? At what time was
(he covered; and when did (he foal?—Anfwered by
Mr Tullo : That he bought a (he-mule about 20 years
ago : That (he was conftantly in feafon for a horfe :
That, about fome years thereafter, he gave her a
horfe ; and that (he thereafter gave him a foal, about
the 10th of June. The mule’s price was L. 4, 5 s.
Sterling. <
2 Jo, What was the colour of the foal ? Was there
any thing particular in its figure ?—Anfwer: The
foal was exactly the colour of its mother, inclined to
black, with a very large head, big ears, and fmall
tail; and the declarant thinks, had its head been weigh¬
ed when foaled, it would have weighed nearly as much
as its body.
jtio, How long was the animal allowed to live ?—~
Anfwer: The next day after the mule foaled, it was
fent, with its mother, to the Loch of Lundie, in order
to det the foal die, as the declarant could not want the
mule’s work, and the mother feemed not fond of the
foal: That it was accordingly left, and next day came
to Auchtertyre, about two miles diftance, over a hill,
with the cattle of Auchtertyre, that had been grazing
"near to that place, and was drowned in a ditch the
day following.
4(0, Was its (kin preferved, or the head, or any
©ther bones of the (keleton ? Could any part thereof
Vol.XH. Part II.
be ftill found ?—Anfwered : Neither the (kin nor
any part of the (keleton was preferved, nor can be
now had; though the declarant has often regretted
the not preferving-the foal, as its mother always per¬
formed any work that a horfe of 141. value could do.
5/0, Is the mother ftill alive ? What is her age ?—.
Anfwer : The mother died about eight years ago, of
an epidemic cold that was raging among the liorfes in
this country: The mule had little or no milk after
foaling, and the foal got fome cow’s milk : And this is
all that he remembers of the matter. David Tullo.
Auchiertyre, 4th Feb. 1780. We James Small te¬
nant in Burmouth, anfi .Robert Ramfay tenant in
Newtyle, hereby certify, That we have often feen the
mule above-deferibed ; and we know that (he had a
foal, as is narrated by David Tullo.
James Small. Rob. Ramsay-.
Ballantyne houfe, 4th Feb. 1780. The within in¬
terrogatories were put to David Tullo tenant in
Auchtertyre, anent the mule he had, and the foal (he
produced ; to which he gave the anfwers fubjoined to
each query, and figned them ; as did James Small and
Robert Ramfay, attefting the truth thereof, in pre-
fence of George Watson, J. P.
The original atteftation is in the poffdfion of the
tranflator; and he lately tranfmitted notorial or au¬
thenticated copies of it to the count de Buffon, and
to Thomas Pennant, Efq; of Downing, in Flintfliire.
Mules, among gardeners, denote a fort of vege¬
table monfters produced by putting the farina foecun-
dans of one fpecies of plant into the piftil or utricle
of anotheiv
The carnation and fweet,william being fomewhat ~
alike in their parts, particularly their flowers, the fa¬
rina of the one will impregnate the other, and the.
feed fo enlivened will produce a plant differing from
either. An inftanee of this we firft had in Mr-Fair¬
child’s garden at Hoxton ; where a plant is feen nei¬
ther fweet-william nor carnation, but refembling both
equally : this was raifed from the feed of a carnation
that had been impregnated by the farina of the fweet-
william. Thefe couplings being not unlike thofe of
the mare with the afs, which produce the mule, the
fame name is given them ; and they are, like the
others, incapable of multiplying their fpecies.
This furnifhes a hint for altering the property and
tafte of any fruit, by impregnating one tree' with the
farina of another of the fame clafs; e. gr. a codlin with,
a pear-main, which will occafion the codlin fo impreg¬
nated to laft a longer time than ufaal, and to be of
a (harper tafte. Or if the winter-fruits be fecundated
with the duft of the fummer kinds, they will ripen
before their ufual time. And from this accidental
coupling of the farina of one with another, it mav
poflibly be, that an orchard where there is varietv of
apples, even the fruit gathered from the fame tree
differ in their flavour, "and in the feafon of maturitr.
It is alfo from the fame accidental coupling that the
numberlefs varieties of fruits and flowers raifed every¬
day from feed proceed.
IVildor Fecund Mule. See Equus, p. 712.
MULHAUSEN, an imperial and Hanfeatic town
of Germany, in Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia,
under th« protedtion of the eledtor of Saxony; feateJ.
M U L [ 442 3 M U L
Mu’haufcn a fertile country, on the riverT-hjilfutht, 15 miles
II north eaft of Eifenach, and 45 eaft by fouth of CaiTei.
MuUar, ,F r ^ io ^ N Lat- ?I I3.
; Mulhausen, a confider^ible town of Germany,
in Alface, and capital of a republic in alliance with
the Swifs. It is populous, well built, and adorned
with handfonie phblic ftru&ures 5 feated in a pleafant
fertile country, on an ifland [formed by the river 111,
j 5 miles north-weft of Bade, and 20 call of Befort.
E Long. 7. N. Eat. 47. 48-
MULIER, in law, lignilies the lawful ifftie born
in wedlock, though begotten before. The mulier is
preferred to an elder brother born out of matrimony;
as for inftance, if a man has a fon by a woman before
marriage, which iffue is abaftard, and afterwards mar¬
ries the mother of the baftard, and they have another
fon, this fecond fon is mulier and lawful, and fhall be
heir of the father ; but the.other can be heir to no
* See the perfon*. By the civil law, where a man has iffue by
article . a woman, if after that he marries her, the iffue is mu-
iajlard., ' ];er_
MULL, one of the Weftern Elands of Scotland,
about 2j miles long, and as much in breadth. It is
in general rocky and barren, not producing a fuffi-
cient quantity of corn for the inhabitants; but a great
number of cattle are annually exported, which with
the fiftn'ngs and a confiderable quantity of kelp are the
only articles of commerce. It is deeply indented with
bays and creeks, forming in feveral parts good natu¬
ral harbours. There are no villages except Tober-
morey, near the northern point of the illand, where
a fithing ftation has been lately ere&ed. The ifland
was originally part of the dominions of the Lords of
the Ifles; but in after-times it became part of the
poffelfions of the ancient and valiant family of. Mac¬
leans, who ftill retain one-half. The other is the
litigated property of the duke of Argyle, whofe an-
cellor polfeffed himfelf of it in 1674, on account of
a debt; but after the courts of law had made an adju¬
dication in his favour, he was obliged to fupport their
decree by force of arms. The ruins of feveral ancient
cattles are feen on this ifland.
Mull of Cantyre- See Cantyre.
Mull of Galloway. See Galloway.
MULLEIN. See Verbascum.
MULLER or Regiomontanus (John), a cele¬
brated aftronomer of the 15th century, was born at
.Koningthoven in Franconia in 1436, and acquired
great reputation by publithing an abridgment of Pto¬
lemy’s Almageft, which had been begun by Purback.
He went to Rome to perfed himfelf in the Greek
tongue, and to fee the Cardinal Baflarion ; but find¬
ing fome faults in the Latin tranflations of George
de Trebizond, that tranflator’s fon afl'aflinated him
in a fecond journey he made to Rome in 1476, where
Pope Sextus IV. had provided for him the arch-
bifliopiic of Ratifbon, and had fent for him to re¬
form the calendar. Others fay that he died of the
plague.
Muller (John), a noted engraver, who flouriftied
about the year 1600, and had been bred under Hen¬
ry Goltzius, whofe flyle he clofely imitated. The
facility with which he handled the graver (for he
worked with that inflrument only) cannot be fuffi-
ciently expreffed} his works mud, be fe^^j to con¬
vey a proper idea of it to the mind. His engravings Muller
are valuable, as productions of a very extraordinary II
nature; exclufive of which they have a prodigious, Mullus-
fhare of merit. Among his moll eftimable perform-
ances, may be mentioned, 1. The hand writing on
the wall, a middling-fized plate lengthwife, from his
own compofition. 2. The adoration of the wife
men, the fame, frpm the fame. Fine impreflions of
both thefe prints are very rare. 3. The refurreition
of Lazarus, a large plate lengthwife, from Abraham
Bloemart. He engraved alfo feveral much cfteemej
portraits. ^
Muller, or Mullar, denotes a ftone flat and even ,
at bottom, but round' atop ; ufed for grinding of mat-
ters on a marble.—The apothecaries ofe mullers to
prepare many of their teftaceous powders ; and pain¬
ters for their colours, either dry or in oil.
Muller is an inftrument ufed by the glafs-grinders;
being a piece of wood, to one end whereof is cement¬
ed the glafs to be ground, whether convex in a ba-
fon, or concave in a fphere or bowl.—The muller
is ordinarily about fix inches long, turned round : the
cement they ufe is compofed of allies and pitch. See
Grinding.
MULLERAS, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg,
feated 38 miles fouth of Berlin, upon a canal which
joins the Oder and the Spree. This canal is 15 miles
in length, 10 yards in breadth, and feven feet in depth.
It was eight years in making ; and fince that time
the cities of Hamburg and Breflaw have carried on
great trade by water. E. Long. 14. 50. N. Lat.
52. 21.
MULLET, in ichthyology. See Mugil.
Mullet, or Mollet, in heraldry, a bearing in form
of the rowel of a fpur, which it originally reprefent-
ed.
MULLINGAR, a borough or manor in the
county of Weftmeath, and province of Leinfter, in
Ireland, 38 miles from Dublin. It is the fliire town
of that county, and has a barrack for two troops of
horfe. It returns two members to parliament; patron-
the earl of Granard. This is a poll town. N. Lat.
53. 30. W. Long. 7. 50. Within a few miles of it are
the ruins of a church, and alfo thofe of a caftle. It
is fituated on the river Feyle. It holds a great wool
fair, and is a place of good trade. In 1227, the
priory of St Mary, formerly known by the name of
The Houfe of God of Mullingar, was founded here by
Ralph de Petyt bilhop of Meath, for regular canons
of the order of St Auguftin. A Dominican friary
was alfo founded here in 1237 by the family of Nu¬
gent; fome ruins of which ftill remain. In 1622, the
friars of Multifarnham began to eredt a houfe here
for friars.of the order of St Francis, but it was never
completed. Fairs are held here 6th April, 4th and
5th July, 29th Aug*'-% and nth November.
MULLUS, the Surmullet, in ichthyology, a ge¬
nus of fifties belonging to the order of thoracici. See
Plate CCCXV. This fifti yras highly efteemed by the
Romans, and bore an exceeding high price. The ca¬
pricious epicures of Horace’s days valued it in pro¬
portion to its fize ; not that the lajjger were more de¬
licious, but that they were more difficult to be got...
The price that was "given for one in the time of Ju¬
venal
M U L _ [ 443 1 MUM
JVTu'lus venal and Pliny la a finking evidence of the luxury
IWu’I'jl’ ant^ extravagance of the age :
in?. J Mi r‘m fix miHibus emit
Jfiquantsm fane paribus fe/iet tia Hit is *. Juv., Saf. IV.
* JU 48, The lavilli flave
6. 9 J. Six thonfand pieces for a nnillet gave,
A feiierce for each pound. « Db yden.
Pennant, But Afinius Celer, a ma?i of confular dignity, gave a
fiill more unconfcionable fum ; for he did not fcruple
he (lowing %ooo nvmrtn, or 641. II s. 8 d. for a fifii of
fo fmall a fize as the mullet: for, according to Horace,
a mullus tri/ilris, or one of three lb. was a great rarity;
fo that Juvenal’s fpark muft have had a great bargain
in comparifon of what Celer had. But Seneca fays,
that it was not worth a farthing except it died in the
very hand of your gueft ; that fach was the luxury of
the times, that there were ftews even in the eating-
rooms, fo that the fifh could at once be brought front
under the table, and placed on it; and that they put the
mullets in tranfparent vales, that they might be enter¬
tained with the various changes of its rich colour while
it lay expiring. Apicius, a wonderful genius for luxu¬
rious inventions, firft hit upon the method of fuflbca*
ting them in the exquiiite Carthaginian pickle, and
afterwards procured a rich fauce from their livers. —
This is the fame gentleman whom Pliny, in another
place, honours .rith the title of -Nepotum omnium altiffi-
mui gurges ; an expreffion too forcible to be rendered
in our‘language. The body of this fifh is very thick,
tind covered with large feales; beneath them the co¬
lour is a mod beautiful rofy fed, the changes of-which
under the thin feales gave that entertainment to tlie
Roman epicures as above-mentioned : the feales on
the back and fides are of a dirty orange ; thofe on the
nofe a bright yellow ; the taiPa reddiih yellow.
MULTIPLE, in arithmetic, a number which
comprehends fome other feveral times : thus 6 is a
multiple of 2, and 12 is a multiple of 6, 4, and 3 ;
comprehending the firfl: twice, the fecond thrice, &c.
Action of MULTIPLEPOINDING, in Scots
law. See Law, n° clxxxiii. 24.
MULTIPLICAND, in arithmetic, the number to
be muhiplied by another. See Arithmetic. ;
MULTIPLICATION, in general, the adt of in-
creafing the number of any thing.
Multiplication, in arithmetic, is a rule by which
any given number may be fpeedily increafed, accord¬
ing to any propofed number of times. See Arith¬
metic.
Multi pl icATiON,in algebra. See Algebra, p.401.
MULTIPLICATOR, or Multiplier, in arith¬
metic, the number by which any other is, multiplied,
or the number of times it is fuppofed to be taken.
MULTI-PL1CATUS flos, a luxuriant flower,
whofe petals are multiplied fo as to exclude a part of
the (lamina.
A multiplied luxuriant flower differs from a full one,
the higheft degree of luxuriance; in that the petals of
the latter are fo multiplied as to exclude all the (lami-
ua whereas thofe of the former are only repeated or
multiplied, two, three, or four times, as to the ex-
'dufron of only a fmall part of the effential Organs.
MULTIPLYING-glass, in optics, aglafs where¬
with objefts appear increafed in number. See (the
Index fubjoinetbto) Optics.
MULTURE, in Scots law, a certain fiipulated MuWe
quantity of meal given as payment to the proprietor II
or tack Aiian of a mill for "grinding the corn ; arid all g ^
corn ground on farms thirled to the mill is obliged to
pay multure whether the corn be ground at that mill
or elfewhere.
MULV1A, a river of Barbary in Africa, which
rifes in the mountains of Atlas, and divides the em¬
pire of Morocco from that of Algiers, and then falls
into the Mediterranean, to the weftward of Marfal- J
quiver.
MUM, a kind of malt-liquor much drank in Ger-
many, and chiefly brou'ght from Brunfwick, which is
the place of molt note for making it. The procefs of
brewing mum, as recorded in the town-houfe of that
city, is as follows . Take 63 gallons of water that has
been boiled till one-third part is confumed, and brew
it with feven bufiiels of wheaten malt, one bufluTof
oat-meal, and one bufhel of ground beans. When it
is tunned, the hogfliead muft not be filled too full at
firft : as foon as it begins to work, put into it three
pounds of the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops
of fir and beech, three'handfuls of carduus benedictus,
a handful or two of the flower of rofa.folis : add bur-
net, betony, marjoram, avens, pennyroyal, and wjild
thyme, of each an handful and an half ; of elder flow¬
ers, two handfuls or more ; feeds of cardamum brui-
fed, 30 ounces; barberries bruifed, one ounce: when
the liquor has worked a while, put the herbs and feeds
into the veflel ; and, after they are added, let it work
over as little as poffible ; then fill it up : laftly, when
it is (lopped, put into the hogfliead ten new-laid eggs
unbroken ; Hop it up clofe, and ufe it at two years
end. The Englifli brewers, inflead of the inner rind
of fir, ufe cardamum, ginger, and fnfafras ; and alfo
add elicatnpane, madder, and red fanders.
MUMIA. See Pissaphaltum.
MUMMIUS (L.), a Roman conful fent againft the
Achseans, whom he conquered B. C. 147. He de-
flroyed Corinth, Thebes, and Chalcis, by order of
the fenate, and obtained the furname of Achaicm from
his victories. He did not enrich himfelf with the
fpoils of the enemy, but returned home without any
increafe of fortune. He was fo unacquainted with
the. value of the paintings and works of the mod
celebrated artifts of Greece which were found in
the plunder of Corinth, that he faid to thofe who
conveyed them to Rome, that if they loft them
or injured them, they (hould make others in their
Head.
MUMMY, a body embalmed or dried, in the man¬
ner ufed by the ancient Egyptians ; or the ccmpofitiofi
with which it is embalmed. There are two kinds of
bodies denominated mummies. The firft are only car-
cafes dried by the heat of the fun, and by that means
kept from putrefadtion : thefe are frequently found in
the fands of Libya/ Some imagine, that thefe are
the bodies of deceafed people buried there on piirpofe
to keep them entire without embalming 5 others think
they' are the carcafes of travellers ho have been over¬
whelmed by the clouds of fand raifed by the hurri¬
canes frequent in thdfe defarts. The fecond kind of
mummies are bodies taken opt of the cat;* ombs near
Cairo, in which the Egyptians depolited their dead
after embalming. See Embalming.
M U M [ 444 ] M U N
Mummy. We have two different fubftances preferved for me-
dicinal ufe under the name oi mummy, though both in
fome degree of the fame origin. The one is the dried
and preferved fleflr of human bodies, embalmed with
myrrh and fpices ; the other is the liquor running
from fuch mummies, when newly prepared, or when
affedled by great heat or damps. The latter is fome-
times in a liquid, fometimes of a folid form, as it is
preferved in vials w ell Hopped, or fuffered to dry and
harden in the air. The firlt kind of mummy is brought
to us in large pieces, of a lax and friable texture,
light and fpungy, of a blackifh, brown colour, and of¬
ten damp and clammy on the furface.: it is of a ftrong
but difagreeable fmell. The fecond kind of mummy',
in its liquid ftate, is a thick, opaque, and vifcous
fluid, of a blackifh colour, but not difagreeable fmell.
In its indurated ftate, it is a dry folid fubftance, of
a fine ftiining black colour, and clofe texture, eafily
broken, and of a good fmell; very inflammable, and
yielding a fcent of myrrh and aromatic ingredients
while burning. This, if we cannot be content with¬
out medicines from our own bodies, ought to be the
mummy ufed in the Ihops ; but it is very fcarce and
dear; while the other is fo cheap, that it will always
be moft in ufe.
All thefe kinds of mummies are brought from E-
gypt. But we are not to imagine, that any body
breaks up the real Egyptian mummies, to fell them in
pieces to the druggifts, as they make a much better
market of them in Europe whole, when they can con¬
trive to get thqm- What our druggifts are fupplied
with, is the flefh of executed criminals,' or of any
other bodies the Jew's can get, who fill them with the
common bitumen, fo plentiful in that part of the
world; and adding a little aloes, and two or three
other cheap ingredients, fend them to be baked in an
oven, till the juices are exhaled, and the embalming
matter has penetrated fo thoroughly that the flefh will
keep and bear tranfporting into Europe. Mummy has
been efteemed refolvent and balfamic : but whatever
virtues have been attributed to it, feem to be fuch as
depend more upon the ingredients ufed in preparing
the flefh than in the flefh itfelf; and it would furely
be better to give thofe ingredients without fo fhocking
an addition.
There are found in Poland a kind of natural mum¬
mies, or human bodies preferved without the afliftance
of art. Thefe lie in confiderable numbers in fome of
the vaft caverns in that country. They are dried with
the flefh and fkin fhrunk up almoft clofe to the bones,
and are of a blackifh colour. In the wars which fe-
veral ages ago laid wafte that country, it w'as com¬
mon for parties of the weaker fide to retire into thefe
caves, where their enemies, if they found them out, fuf-
focated them by burning ftfaw, &c. at the mouth of
the caverax^and then left the bodies ; w'hich, being
out of the way- of injuries from common accidents,
have lain there ever fince.
Mineral Mvmmx. See Pissaphaltum.
Mummy, among gardeners, a kind of wax ufed in
grafting and planting the roots of trees, made in the
tolio wing manner : Take one pound of black pitch,
and a quarter of a pound of turpentine; put them toge¬
ther into an earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the
open air, holding fomething in your hand to cover
and quench the mixture in time, which is to he alter¬
nately lighted and quenched till all the nitrous and vo- Mumps,
latile parts be evaporated. To this a little common M“nda.
wax is to be added; and the compofition is then to *
be fet by for ufe.
MUMPS. Bee Medic in E-ZWf.v.
MUNDA, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Granada,, feated on the declivity of a hill, at
the bottom of w'hich runs a river. W. Long. 4. 1 3.
N.Lat. 48. 15.
This city was anciently famous for a victory gained
by Caefar over the two fons of Pompey, who had col¬
lected an army in Spain after the defeat of their father
at Pharfalia. See (Hi/lory of) Rome.
The Pompeys polled their army advantageoully 6n
a riling ground, whereof one fide was defended by the
city of Munda, and the other by a fmall river which
watered the plain, and by a marlh ; fo that the enemy
could not attack them but in front. Caefar likewife
drew up his troops with great art, and having advan¬
ced a little way from his camp, ordered them to
halt, expecting the enemy would abandon their advan¬
tageous poll, and come to meet him. But as they did
not ftir, Csefar made as if he intended to fortify him-
felf in that poll; which induced the young general, who
looked upon this as a fign of fear, to advance into the
plain, and attack the enemy before they could fecure
themfelves with any works. Pompey’s army was by
far the moft numerous ; for it confifted of 13 legions,
6000 horfe, and an incredible number of auxiliaries,
among whom wer£ all the forces of Bocchus king of
Mauritania, commanded by his two fons, both youths
of great valour and bravery. Casfar had 80 cohorts,
three legions, to wit, the third, the fifth, and the
tenth, and a body of 8000 horfe. As the enemy
drew near, Caefar betrayed a great deal of uneafinefs
and concern, as if he were doubtful of the fuccefs,
knowing he was to engage men no way inferior in va¬
lour and experience to his own, and commanded by
oflicers who had on many occafions given fignal proofs
of their bravery and conduft. Cneius, the elder of
the two brothers, was generally looked upon as an
able commander; and Labienus, who had revolted,
efteemed fcarce inferior to himfelf.
However, the didtator, defirous to put an end to
the civil war, either by his own death or that of hia
rivals, gave the fignal for the battle, and fell upon the
enemy with his ufual vigour and refolution. At the
firft onfet, which was dreadful, the auxiliaries on both
fides betook themfelves to flight, leaving the Romans
to decide their quarrel by themfelves. Then the le¬
gionaries engaged with a fury hardly to be expreffed;
Caefar’s men being encouraged by the hopes of putting
aa end to all their labours by this battle, and thofe of
Pompey everting themfelves out of neceflity and de-
fpair, finer moft of them expedted no quarter, as ha-,
ving been formerly pardoned. Never was vidtory more
obftinately difputed. Coefar’s men, who had been al¬
ways ufed to conquer, found themfelves fo vigoroufly.
charged by the enemy’s legionaries, that they began,
to give ground ; and though they did not turn their.
backs, yet it was manifelt that fhame alone kept them,
in their pofts. All authors agree, that Caefar had ne¬
ver been in fo great danger ; and he himfelf, when he
came back to his camp, told his friends, that he had.
often fought for vidtory, but this was the firft time he
had ever fought for life. Thinking himfelf abandon-
M U N
Munda. ed by fortune, which had hitherto favoui-ed him, he
—Y—had fome thoughts of ftabbing himfelf with his own
fword, and by a voluntary death preventing the dif-
grace of a defeat: but returning foon to himfelf, and
concluding it would be more to his reputation to fall
by the enemy’s hand at the head of his troops, than,
in a fit of defpair, by his own, he difmounted from his
horfe, and fnatching a buckler from one of his legio¬
naries, he threw himfelf like a man in defpair into the
midft of the enemy ; crying out td his men, Are you
net afhamed to deliver your general into the hands of hoys?
At thefe words, the foldiers of the tenth legion, ani¬
mated by the example of their general, fell upon,the
enemy with frelh vigour, and made a dreadful havock
of them. But in fpite of their utmoft efforts, Pom-
pey’s men ftill kept their ground, and, though greatly
fatigued, returned to the charge with equal vigour.
Then the Caefarians began to defpair of vidfory ; and
the dictator, running through the ranks of his dif-
heartened legionaries, had much ado to keep them to¬
gether. The battle had already lafted from the rifing
to the fetting of the fun, without any confiderable ad¬
vantage on either fide.
At length a mere accident decided the difpute- in
favour of the diftator. Bogud, a petty king of Mau¬
ritania, had joined Casfar foon after his arrival in Spain,
[ 445 1
M U N
rus, and 3000 Roman knights. Seventeen officers of Mundie-
diftinftion were taken, and all the enemy’s eagles and vlu^ich
enfigns,' together with Pompey’s fafees, which he had, ’ 11 ^ .
affumed as governor of Spain. On Cffifar’s fide only
1000 men were killed and 500 wounded.
MUNDIC, or Marcasite. See Marcasite.
MUNDINGOES, the name of a people who live
on the fides of the river Gambia in Africa, and who
are of a jet black colour, ftrong, and well-made. They
have a prieft fent over every year from one of the
Cape de Verde iflands to chrilten and marry.
MUNDUS patens, the open world, in Roman
antiquity, a folemnity performed in a fmall temple, of
a round form like the world, dedicated to Dts and the
relt of the infernal gods. This temple was opened
but three times in the year, viz. the 24th of Auguft,
the 4th of Odfober, and the 7th of November. Du¬
ring thefe days, the Romans believed hell was open ;.
on thefe days therefore they never offered battle, lifted
foldiers, put out to fea, or married.
MUNICH, a town of Germany, capital of the
whole duchy of Bavaria, and the refidence of the elec¬
tor. It ftands on the Ifer, yo miles fouth of Ratif-
bon and 214 weft of Vienna, being one of the moft
pleafant and populous cities of Germany for its big-
nefs. The number of the inhabitants is faid to be
with fome fquadrons of Numidian horfe ; but, in the about 40,000. Having been built at firft on a fpot
very beginning of the battle, being terrified at the
Ihouting of the foldiers, intermingled with groans, and
the clalhing of their arms, he had abandoned his poll,
and retired with the auxiliaries under his command to
a rifing ground at a fmall diftance from the enemy’s
camp. There he continued the whole day an idle
fpedator of the battle that was fought in the plain.
But towards the evening, partly out of ftiame and
of ground belonging to a convent, it had from thence
in German the name of Munchen, i. e. Monk’s-totvn*
and a monk for its arms. The eledfor’s palace here is
a very grand ftrudure, confifting of feveral courts,
furniftied and adorned in the moft magnificent manner,
with tapeftry, gilding, fculpture, ftatues, and paint¬
ings. It contains an amazing colle&ion of jewels, an¬
tiquities, and curiofities. The great-hall is 118 feet
partly out of compaffion for his friend Caefar, he re- "long and 52 broad; and the ftair-cafe leading to it,
folved to fall upon Pompey’s camp ; and accordingly from top to bottom, of marble and gold. In the hall
fiew thither with all the forces he had with him. La- of antiquities are 354 bufts and ftatues of jafper and
bienus, apprifed of his defign, haftened after him to porphyry, brafs and marble. In this palace alfo is a
the defence of the camp; which Csefar obferving, cried
to his Jegionaries, Courage, fel/otv foldiers ! the victory
at length is ours ; Lalienus flies. This artifice had the
defired effedt: Gsefar’s men, believing that Labienus
was truly fled, made a la ft effort, and charged the
wing he commanded fo brifltly, that after a moft ob-
ilinate difpute they put them to flight.
Though the enemy’s left wing was thus entirely
defeated, the right wing, where the elder Pompey
commanded, ftill kept their ground for fome time.
Pompey difmountjng from his horfe, fought on foot
like a private man in the firft line, till moft of his le-
library, containing a vaft colle&ion of books, and
many valuable manuferipts, in moft languages, ancient
and modern ; and a chamber of rarities, among which
is the pifture of a bravo or., affaffin, who is faid to*
have committed 345 murders with his own hand, and
to have been accomplice in or privy to 400 more.
The treafury in the chapel contains alfo a vaft number
of pictures, precious ftones, medals,, veffels of gold
and filver, &c. Among other curiofities, here is a
cherij-ftone with 140 heads diftinftly engraven upon
it. _ ‘The gardens of the palace are alfo very fine, and
it is faid a fecret paffage leads from it to all the
gionaries being killed, he was forced to fave himfelf churches and convents in the town. There is a great
by flight from falling into the enemy’s hands. Part number of other fi : buildings in this city, public
of his troops fled back to their camp, and part took and private, particularly the riding-houfe, town-houfe.
flicker in the city of Munda. The camp was imme¬
diately attacked, and taken fword in hand ; and as
for the city,. Coefar, without lofs of time, drew a line
of circumvallation round it. This viclory was gained
on the 16th of the kalends of April, i. e. according to
our way of counting, .on the 17th day of March, when
the Dionylian feftival, or the Liberalia, were celebrated
at Rome; the very day, as Plutarch obferves, in which
opera-room, the Jefuits college, the large edifice for
tournaments, the churches, convents, fountains, &c.
Its manufactures are thofe of filk, particularly velvet,
woollen cloths, and tapeftry; and it has two annual
fairs, at which great quantities of fait, wine, &c. are
fold. The ftreets are broad and regular; and moft of
the houfes well built, and painted on the outfide. The
market-place is extremely beautiful. Not far from
Pompey the Great, four years before, \hd fet out for Munich are four other palaces, with fine gardens, be-
the war. In this adtion Pompey loft 30,000 men ; longing to the elector, viz. thofe of Sleilheim, Nym-
araong whom were the famous Labienus, Attius Va- phenburg, Dauthau,. and Starenberg. The fvft and
8 ‘ hti.
M V N I 446 ] M U N
■Munich lafl arc about three leagues from the' capital 5 the fe»
1st 'L _ o°n4 about half a league ; and the third about two, at
, e''. a market town of the fame name.
Munich (Count de), was the favourite of the Cza¬
rina Ann and was concerned in all the events of her
reign. Being appointed general of her annies., he
gained great advantages over the Crim Tartars, beat
the Turks, A. D. 17 .'9, in an engagement near Choc-
vim, and took that city together with Jaffi the capital
of Moldavia. He was alterwards prime minifter 'to
'the Czar Iwan VI. but in a Ihort time after he was
accufed of employing the power which his office con¬
ferred on him to gratify his own ambition and private
refentment- The Emprefs Elifabeth brought him to
trial, and he was condemned to Jofe his life A/D.
.1742. This fentence was mitigated to baniffiment
f into Siberia, whither many of the vi&ims of his power
had been exiled. He was recalled by Peter III. A. D.
1762, and declared field-mnrffial. Upon the death of
this prince, the Emprefs Catharine II. appointed him
diiectOT-general of the ports of the Baltic. He died
on the 8th of Odtober 17^7, at the age of 84.
MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil law, an epi¬
thet which fignifies inverted with the rights and pri¬
vileges of Roman citizens. See Municipiu-m.
Municipal, among us, is applied to the laws.that
obtain in any particular city or province. And thofe
are called municipal officers who are elected to defend
the intereft of cities, to maintain their right and pri¬
vileges, and to preferve order and harmony among the
citizeps; fuch as mayors, Iheriffs, confuls, &c.
MUNIC1PES, an appellation given by the Romans
to the inhabitants of the municipia or municipal cities.
Bee Municipium.
MUNICPIUM, in Roman antiquity, a corporation,
borough, or enfranchifed city or town, where the inha¬
bitants enjoyed their own laws and culloms, and at the
fame time were honoured with the privileges of Roman
citizens ; but then this privilege generally reached no
.further than the bare title. Some indeed, by parti¬
cular merit, obtained the liberty of votes, which occa-
fioned that diltindtion of municipium fine fufragio, and
municipium cum fujfragio.—The inhabitants of the muni¬
cipium fnefujfragio were called barely Romani, but thofe
of the municipium cum fujfragio were called civet Romani.
The difference between proper citizens of Rome
and the inhabitants of the municipium may be thus ex-
preffed. The proper citizens of Rome were, 1. Re-
giitered in the cenfus; 2. Had the right of fuffrage
-and of bearing honours ; 3. Were affefled in the poll-
tax ; 4. Served in the legions ; 5. Ufed the Roman
hws and religion ; 6. Were called ^uiriles and popnlus
Romanus : Whereas the municipes enjoyed the three
fir!!: of thefe privileges, but were denied the three laft.
MUNITION, the provifions with which a place is
furnifhed in order for defence ; or that which follows
■a camp for its fubfiftence.
Munition Ships, are thofe that bave ftores on board
in order to fupply a fleet of men of war at fea. In an
engagement, all the munition-ffiips and victuallers at¬
tending t -. fleet take their flation in the rear of all
the reft ; they are not to engage in the fight, but to
attend to fuch directions as are fent them by the ad-
aniral.
MUNSTER (Sebaftion), a learned writer, was
born at Ingleheim, and became a Cordelier ; but ha. Menflrr,
ving ‘embraced Luther’s fentiments, he quitted that
order in 1529, and retired to Heidelberg, and after¬
wards to Baiil, where he taught with reputation. He
was a man of great candour, and void of ambition ;
and was fo well {killed in geography, the mathema¬
tics, and the Hebrew tongue, that he was furriamed
the Efdras and the Stralo of Germany. His Latin
tranflation of the bible is efteemed. He was the firlt
who wrote a Chaldee grammar and lexicon : he. alfo
publrfhed a treatife on cofmography, and feveral other
works. He died of the plague at Baiil in 1552,
aged 63.
Munster, in Latin Monomia, and in Irifh Moan,
the molt foutherly province of Ireland ; bounded on
the north by Leintfer and Connaught, and on the call,
we!!, and fouth, by the ocean. It contains the coun¬
ties Cork, Clare, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, ami
Waterford ; and 3,289,932 Irifh plantation acres,
740 parifhes, 63 baronies, and 26 boroughs, it is
about 1 2 3 miles long anf 120 broad; and its prin¬
cipal town is Cork. Its ancient -name was Mumhan ;
and in latter .ages it was divided into Dejmond- or fouth
Munfter, Ormond or eart MunHer, and Thomand or
north Munfter. It lies between 51. 15. and 53.0.
N. Eat. and 7. so. to 10. 40. W. Long.
MuiIster, a territory of Germany, in the circle of
WeHphalia ; bounded on the north by Embden and
Oldenburg, on the fouth by the county of Mark and
duchy of Wertphalia, on the weft by the county of
Bentheim and the United Provinces, and on the eaft
by the bilKoprics of Ofnaburg and Paderborn together
with the county of Ravenlberg. It is the largeft of
all the Weftphaban bifhoprics, being in length about
80 miles, and in breadth from 20 to 60. It is divided
into 13 bailiwicks; and though in general but a bar¬
ren country, has fome fruitful plains, with woode,
and quarries of ftone. The inhabitants, excepting a
few of the nobility and gentry, are all Roman Catho¬
lics ; though Lutheranifm had once a confiderable
footing here. The biffiop, who is generally alfo elec¬
tor of Cologne, has a revenue from hence of about
70,COO pounds, and can maintain 8co0 men. In con-
fequence of an unjuft cuftom, unknown in the reft of
the empire, he is heir to all ftrangers who die in the
country without children. In the matricula he is ra¬
ted at 30 foot and 118 horfe ; or 832 florins monthly
in lieu of them. His chapter confifts of 40 canons,
who are all noble.
Munster, a city of Germany, capital of a biffiop-
ric of the fame name and of all Weftphalia, ftands at
the conflux of the river A a with the Ems, in E. Long.
7. 49. N. Lat. 52. o. It is of a circular form, large,
and well fortified both by nature and art. It has a
fine citadel called the Brille, ere&ed by a biffiop na¬
med Bernard van Galen in order to awe the burghers.
The dean and chapter now cleft the bilhop; but till
the beginning of the 1 3th century he was nominated
by the emperor. This city has been rendered famous
by three remarkable tranfaftions.' 1. By the peace con¬
cluded here in 1648, which put an end to a war of
30 years; occalioned by the perfecuting fpiric of bi-
gotted papifts, who chofe rather to plunge their coun¬
try into all the calamities of war than allow liberty of
confcience to the Proteflants. By this peace, how-
7 ever.
MUR r 447 ] M U R
Mawychia ever, they coofented, much againfl their inclinations,
^ II to grant them a toleration. 2. By the diforders and
, u^aina-| dillurbances occafioned here in 1553, by a parcel'of en-
thufiafts, headed by a taylor called John of Leyden from
the place of his birth, who turned out the magillrates,
and took pofleffion of the city, where they perpetrated,
the molt horrid villanies and cruelties. 3. For the
noble, though unfuccefsful, efforts it made in defence
of its liberties againft the tyranny and ufurpation of
the above-mentioned, turbulent and bloody-minded
bilhop, Bernard van Galen. In this city are a great
number of convents and other religious houfes, many of
them ftately piles, and furrounded with beautiful gardens.
MUNYCHIA, or Munychius Portus, (anc. geog.),
a village and port of Athens, nearer to the city,
lefs than, and fortified in the fame manner with the
Piraeus, to the eaft of which it lay, or between it
and the promontory Sunium, at the mouth of the
lliffus. Strabo fays it was an eminence in form of a
peniufula, at the foot of which flood three harbours,
anciently eneompafied with a wall, taking within its
extent the Piraeus and other harbours, full of docks,
with the temple of Diana Munychia; taking its name
from Mynkhus, the founder of the temple. •
Munychia, an anniverfary jfolemnity obferved at
Athens, in honour of Diana, on the 16th of the month
Munychion. Cakes were offered on the occafion called
MUNYCHION, the tenth month of the Athenian
year, containing 29 days, and anfwering to the latter
part of our March and the beginning of April. It
was fo called from the feftival Munychia, which was
obferved in this month. See Month and Munychia.
' MUPHT1. See Mufti.
MURiENA, or Ef.l, in ichthyology ; a genus of
fiflies, belonging to the order of apodes. The head
is fmooth ; there are ten rays in the membrane of the
gills; the eyes are covered with a common fkin ; and
the body is cylindrical and (limy. There are feven
fpecies^ diftinguifliei by their fins, tails, &c. The
mod remarkable are,
1. The anguil/a, or common eel, is very fremient in
all our frefh waters, ponds, ditches, and rivers : ac¬
cording to Mr Pennant, it is the moft uuiverfal of fifli;
yet is fcarce ever found in the Danube, though very
Ip common in the lakes and rivers of Upper Auftria.
The eel is very Angular in many things relating to
its natural hiftory, and in fome refpefits borders on
the nature of the reptile tribe. It is known to quit
its element, and during night to wander along the
meadows, not only in' order to change its habitation,
but alfo for the fake of prey, feeding on fnails as it
paffes along. During winter it beds itfelf deep in
the mud,-and continues in a date like the ferpent-
kind. It is very impatient of cold, and will eagerly
take flicker in a wifp of draw flung into a pond in
fevere weather, which has fometimes been praftifed as
a method of taking them. Albertus affirms, that he
has known eels to take flicker in a hay-rick ; yet all
JW perifhed through excefs of cold. It has been obferved
in a river of England called the Nyne, th^re is a variety
of fmall eel, with a leffer head and narrower mouth than
0' the common kind, that is found in clafters in the bot¬
tom of the river, and is called the bed-eel: thefe are
fometimes roufed up by the violent floods, and are ne¬
ver found at that, time with meat in their flomach.
Eels are extremely voracious, and deftru&ive to
the fry of others. No fifli lives fo long out of wa¬
ter as *the eel; and it is fo extremely tenacious of
life, that its parts will move a confiderable time after
they are flayed and cut in pieces. They vary much
in their colours, from a footy hue to a light olive
green ; and thofe which are Called ftlver eels have their
bellies white, and-a remarkable clearnefs throughout.
Befides thefe, there is a variety of this fifh known
in the river Thames by the name of grigs, and about
Oxford by that of grigs or gluts. Thefe are fcarce
ever feen near Oxf°rdi in the winter; but appear in,
fpring, and bite readily at thq hook, which common
eels in that neighbourhood will not. They have a
larger head, a blunter nofe, thicker (kin, and lefs fat,
than the common fort; neither are they fo much
efteemed, nor do they often exceed three or four
pounds in weight.—Common eels grow.to a large fize,
fometimes weighing 15 or 20 pounds; but that is ex¬
tremely rare. Mr Dale indeed, in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, and fome others, bring inftances of elis
much exceeding that fize; but Mr Pennant fufpedts
them to have been congers, lince the enormous fifli
they deferibe have all been taken at the mouths of the
Thames or Medway. The Romans held eels very
cheap, probably on account of their likenefs to fnakes.
On the contrary, the luxurious Sybarites were fo fond
of thefe fifli, as to exempt from tribute of every kind
thofe perfons who fold them.
There is fcarce any animal the generation of which
has puzzled the learned more than this. Ariflotle
firft broached an opinion that eels were of nq fex, nor
did propagate their fpecies like other animals, but
were equivocally gendered of the mud ; and as wild
and abfurd a fy ftem as this is,, there have not bear
wanting many, even in thefe latter and more en¬
lightened times, who have given into it. But there
is now no room to doubt that all animals are produced
by tlte copulation of parents like themfelves ; and the
finding of eels in new ponds is eafily accounted for .
from the above mentioned circumftance of their mi¬
gration. Dr Plot, and many others, havegiven accounts
of whole droves of them leaving one ditch or pond to go •
to another.
Though the learned world at this time generally
allows that eels are produced like other animals, by
parents of their own kind, yet there remain many
doubts about the manner in which the generation is-
performed. Some allow the eels to be, like the ge¬
nerality of other animals, of different fexes in the dif ¬
ferent- individuals; and others , affirm that’ they are
all hermaphrodites, each having, the parts of genera¬
tion of both fexes. Rondeletius affirms that they are
of both fexes ; and Mr Allan, who has given a very
curious paper concerning them in the Philofophicai
Tranfaftions, is of the fame opinion; and both fayT
that the parts of the fexes may be difeovered on a
careful infpedlion ; and fome are found to be males,
and others females; but thefe parts are, in both fexes,
they fay,, buried in a large quantity of fat; and they
are of opinion, that hence proceeded the miffake of
Atiftotle and his followers, who, not being able to
find thofe parts, concluded that they did not exift at
all. Amo^g thofe who allow the eel to be produced,
like other animals, from animal-parents which have
the . fexes, fome are of opinion that they are viviparous,
MUR [ 448 ] MUR
Murati?. and others that they are oviparous: but Mr Chart- by butlers, which are firing lines 500 feet long, with Muram,
* wynd feems to have determined thissjcontroverfy by 60 hooks, each eight feet afunder, baited with pil-
obferving, that if the aperture under the belly of the chards or mackarel; the • bolters are funk to the
eel, which looks red in the month of May, be Out ground by a Hone faftened to them : fometimes fuch
open at that time, the young eels will be feen to a number of thefe are tied together as to reach a
come forth alive after the operatiom Mr Lewen-
hoeck fays, that he found an uterus in every eel he
examined; and therefore concludes, that they are
hermaphrodites: and he fuppofes that they have no
male parts of generation like thofe of other animals j
mile. The ihhermen are very fearful of a large t
ger, left it fliould endanger their legs by clinging
round them ; they therefore kill them as foon as pof*
fible by ftriking them on the-naveh They are after¬
wards cured in this manner: They are (lit, and hung
but that the office of thefe is performed by a liquor on a frame till they dry, having a confiderable quan-
analogous to the male feed of animals, which is con- tity of fat; which it is neceflary ffiould exfude before
tained in certain glands, fituated in the infide of the they are fit for ufe. It is remarkable that a conger
uterus itfelf. of too weight will wafte by drying to 24.1b.; the
Eels have fometimes been met with in recent ponds,' people therefore prefer the fmalleft, poffibly becaufe
made at fuch a diftance from any other water that we they are fooneft cured. During the procefs there is
cannot rcafonably fuppofe them to have migrated a coufiderable flench ; and it is faid, that in the fiffi-
thither over land. But in thefe cafes there is reafon ing villages the poultry are fed with the maggots
to believe, that the ponds have been fupplied with that drop from the fiffi. The Portuguefe and Spa-
them by the aquatic fowl of prey, in the fame man- niards ufe thofe dried congers after they have been
■ner as vegetation is fpread by many of the land-birds> groui>d into a powder, to thicken and give a re-
-either by being dropped, as they carry them to feed liffi to their foups. They are fold for about 40 fhil-
their young, or by paffing quick through their bodies, lings the quintal, which weighs 126 lb. A fiffiery
as is the cafe with herons. of congers, fays Mr Pennant, would be of great ad-
2. The conger, or conger-eel, grows to a vaft vantage to the inhabitants ofithe Hebrides. Perhaps
fize. Dr Borlafe informs us, that they are fome- they would at firft undertake it with repugnancy, from
times taken near Mount’s-bay of 100 li>. weight; and their abftird averfion to the eel kind.
Mr Pennant afliires us, that he has heard of fome f Thefiren, or mud-iguana, a fingular animal, firft
taken near Scarborough that were 10 feet and a half obferved by Dr Garden of Charleftown, and after-
long, and 18 inches in circumference in the thickeft wards deferibed by Mr Ellis in the, Philofophical
part. They differ from the common eel in the follow- Tranfa&ions for 1766. It has gills, fins, and two
ing particulars : 1. Their colour in general is more feet ; and is in length from 31 to 40 inches. It is
dark. 2. Their eyes much larger in proportion.— an inhabitant of South Carolina, where it is found in
3. The irides of a bright filvery colour. 4. The fwampy and muddy places, by the fides of pools, and
lower jaw is rather ffiorter than the upper. 5. The under the trunks of old trees that hang over the wa-
infide-line is broad, whitifh, and marked with a row ter, and feeds on ferpents. The feet appear like little
of fmall fpots. 6. The edges of, the dorfal and anal arms and hands, each furnifhed with four fingers, and
fins are black. 7. They have more bones than the each finger with a claw. “ The head is fomething
common eel, efpecially along the back quite to the like an eel, but more compreffed ; the eyes are fmall,
head. 8. They grow to a much jarger fize. and placed as thofe of the eel are. This fmallnefs of
•Congers are extremely voracious, "preying on other the eye beft fuits an animal that lives fo much in
fiffi, and on crabs at the time they have loft their mud. The noftrils are very plainly to be diftinguiffi-
fiiell and are in a foft ftate. They and eels^in general ed ; thefe, with the gills, and remarkable length of
are alfo particularly fond of carcafes of any kind, be- the lungs, ffiow it to be a true amphibious animal.—
ing frequently found lodged in fuch as are accidentally- The mouth is fmall in proportion to the length of the
taken up. body ; but its palate and infide pf the lower jaw are
The conger eels probably generate like the frefh-water well provided with many rows of pointed teeth : with
fpecies. Innumerable quantities of what are fuppofed this provifion of nature, added to the ffiarp exterior
to be their fry come up the Severn about the month bony edges of both the upper and under jaw, the ani*
of April, preceding the ffiads, which it is conjeftured mal feems capable of biting and grinding the hardeft
migrate into that river to feed on them : they are kind of food. The flein, which is black and full of
called elvers. They fwarm during their feafon, and fmall feales, refembles ffiagreen. Thefe feales are of
are taken in a kind of fieve made of hair-cloth fixed different fixes and ffiapes, according to their fituation;
to a long pole ; the filherman Handing on the edge of but all appear funk into its gelatinous furftce : thofe
the water during the tide, puts in his net as far as he along the back and belly are of an oblong oval form,
can reach, and drawing it out again, takes multitudes and cldfe fet together ; in the other parts they arc
at every fweep, and will take as many during one tide round, and more diftinft. Both the parts are mottled
as will fill a bufhel. They are dreffed, and reckoned with fmall white fpots, and have two diftind lines corn-
very delicate. pofed of fmall white ftreaks continued along from the
Thefe fiffi are an article of commerce in Cornwall; feet to the tail. The fin of the tail has no rays, and
numbers are taken on that coaft, and exported to is no more than an adipofe membrane like that of the
Spain and Portugal, particularly to Barcelona.— eel.”
Some are taken by a Angle hook and line, but (be- Dr Garden, in a letter to Mr Ellis, mentions a re-
caufe that way is tedious, anigloes not anfwer the markable property of this animal, which is, that hij
expence of time and labour) they are chiefly caught fervant endeavouring to kill one of them by duffiing
jN02J2. h
MUR r 449 ] MUR
fifural it agamft the ftones, it broke into three or four pieces.
H Linnaeus, from the defcriptions fent him, made it a
Tvturaimm.^gw genus named Syren, of a new order Meantes, of
VutT" the clafs amphibia. But from this dafs both the or-
CCCXV. der Meantes and that of Nantes have been lately ex¬
punged ; and Gmelin has reduced the fyren to a fpe-
eies of the prefent genus. Its place here, however,
feems Hill of doubtful propriety ; as Gmelin himfelf
acknowledges in the Preface to his edition of the Sy-
* Kerr's ftema Naturae. For Campfer, having lately * had an
frati/lathn. opportunity to diffeft the fyren, has difcovered, that
on each fide of the head it is furnifhed with three true
gills, feparated from each other by membranes having
t-ooth-litce appendages ; that the mouth is armed with
ftrong and firmly planted teeth ; that the heart has
Only one ventricle} and that the abdomen is filled with
Very long and capacious inteftines : From all thefe cir-
cumftances, he concludes, that this animal ought to
be confidered as a filh of the order Branchiojlegi ,■—*
While in other refpefls it is more nearly allied to the
genus Mur/p.na, of the order Abodes ; although it dif¬
fers materially from the other fpecies of that genus,
by having only three notched bones in the gills, and
from the peftoral fins being each divided into four
finger-like appendages.
MURAL, fomething belonging to a wall} which
the Latins call murus.
MvRAL-Cro<wn, among the ancient Romans. See
Grown.
MuvJti-Arch, is a wall,.or walled arch, placed ex-
aft ly in the plane of the meridian, i. e. upon the meri¬
dian line, for the fixing of a large quadrant, fextant,
Or other inftrument, to obferve the meridian altitudes,
&'c. of the heavenly bodies.
Tycho Brahe was the firft who ufed a mural arch
in his obfervations ; after him Hevelius, Mr Flam-
ftead, De la Hire, &c. ufed the fame means. See A-
STRONOMY.
MURALT (N-— de), a native of Switzerland,
travelled through a great part of Europe with the
views of a philofopher. He publifhed a colleftion of
Letlres fur les Frangois et fur let Anghts, i2mo, 2 vols.
1726, which met with great fuccefs, though they are
written in a vague and fuperficial manner. Some other
works which he publifhed are below mediocrity. He
died about the year «750.
MURANT (Emanuel), a much-admiredlandfcape
painter, was born at Amfterdam in 1622. He had
the happinefs to be a difciple of Philip Wouwermans,
from whom he acquired that warmth aiid brilliancy of
colouring, and that exquifite pencil, which have ren¬
dered him defervedly eminent. His fubjefts were views
in Holland, villages, towns, cities, ruins of houfes, and
decayed caltles ; all of them exaftly fketched after na¬
ture, and fo exquifitely finifhed, that every minute
part of a building was perfeftly difcernible, and even
every particular flone or brick might be counted by
the afliftance of a convex glafs. But this demanded
fo much patience and time, that it was impofiible fori
him to paint many piftures ; and on that account they
are exceedingly fcarce, and fold for fuch prices as
muft place them out of the reach of all ordinary pur-
chafers. He died in 1700.
MURANUM, (anc. geog.% a town on the con¬
fines of Lucania. Now Morano ; a citadel in the Ca-
Voi. XII. Part H.
labria Citra, at the fprings of the Sybaris, midway be- Muratofi,
tween the Sinus Tarentinus to the eafl, and the Tuf- Murcu*,
can fea to the weft. Suppofed to have arifen from
the ruins of Syphaeum, a town of the Bruttii mention¬
ed by Livy.
MURATORI (Lewis Anthony), a learned and
celebrated Italian writer, born at Vignoles, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, in 1672 He early difcovered an
extreme fondnefs for the learned languages and fei-
ences; and this was feconded by an excellent educa¬
tion. After having completed his firft ftudies, he
embraced the ftate of an ecclefiafttc; and applied him¬
felf to polite literature, philpfophy, theology, civil
law, antiquities, and other feiences ; by which means
he became in a manner univerfally learned. He was
fcarce 22 years of age when he was made librarian of
the Ambrofian library at Milan. In 1700 the duke
of Modena, his fovereign, recalled him, and made him
his librarian, and keeper of the archives of his duchy.
Muratofi difeharged this double employment durinn-
the reft of his life, and had no other benefice than the
provoftfhip of Santa Maria del Pompofa. He ac¬
quired the efteem of the learned throughout Europe,
who had recourfe to him for the lights they wanted.
He became an aflbeiate to the Academies of the Ar¬
cades of Rome, Della Crufca, and Colomberia of Flo¬
rence, the Academy of Etrufca at Cortona, the Royal
Society of London, and of the Imperial Academy of
Olmutz ; and died in 1750. He wrote a great num-
her of learned works ; the’principal of which are,—.
1. Anecdota, or a colleftion of pieces taken from the
Ambrofian library, 2 vols 410, with learned notes and
differtations. 2. A treatife on the perfection of the Ita¬
lian poetry, 2 vols 4to. 3. Anecdola Greece, 3 vols 410.
4. A genealogical hiftory of the houfe of Modena, 2 vol*
folio. 5. An excellent colleftion of the writers of
the Italian hiftory, 27 vols folio, with learned notes.
6. Another colleftion, under the title of Antiquitates
Italics. 7. A colleftion of ancient inferiptions, under
the title of Novus Thefaurus, 6 vols folio. 8. The
annals of Italy, 12 vols 410, in Italian, &c. 9. Let¬
ters, differtations, Italian poems, &c.
MURCIA, the Pagan goddefs of idlenefs.—The
name is taken from murcus or murcidus, an obfolete
word, fignifying a dull, flothful, or lazy perfon 
The ftatues of this goddefs were always covered with
dull and mofs, to exprefs her idlenefs and negligence.
She had a temple in Rome, at the foot of the Aven-
tine mount.
Murcia, a kingdom in Spain, bounded on the
north by New Caftile, on the eaft by the kingdom of
Valencia, on the weft by Andalufia and Granada, and
on the fouth by the Mediterranean Sea. It is about
62 miles in length, and 58 in breadth; and its prin¬
cipal river is Segura. The foil is dry, becaufe it fel-
dom rains, and therefore it produces little corn or
wine ; but there is plenty of oranges, citrons, lemons,
olives, almonds, mulberries, rice, pnlfc, and fugar. It
has alfo a great deal of filk. It was taken from the
Moors in 12C5. The air is very healthful.
Murcia, a large, handfome, and populous town of
Spain, capital -of a kingdom of the fame name. It is
a biihop’s fee, and contains fix parifhes. The cathe¬
dral is a moft fuperb edifice, with the ftairs of the
fteeple fo contrived that a man may ride up to the
31* topj,
Murder.
. BUlJt.
•Comment.
MUR T 450 1 MUR
top, either on horfeback or in a coach. It is fituated
in apleafant plain, ■which abounds in fine gardens about
the city, in which arc the beft. fruits in Spain. It is
feated on the river Segura, in W. Long. o. 36. N.
Lat. 37. 48.
MURDER, or Murther, the aft of kiHing ano¬
ther with violence and injufiice. The word conies
from the Saxon worth “ death which fume will have
to fignify a violent death ; whence the barbarous La¬
tin murdrum and mordrum.
Among the number of popular errors, is the notion
which has obtained, that the dead body would bleed
in the prefence or upon the touch of the murderer.
The crime of murder is punifhed with death in al-
mofl all nations.
Murder, or Murthsr, in law, is thus defined, or
rather deferibed, by Sir Edward Coke: “ When a
perfon, of found memory and diferetion, unlawfully
killeth any reafonable creature in being, and under the
king*s peace, with malice aforethought, either exp.fts
or implied.” The belt way of examining the nature
of this crime will be by confidering the feveral branches
pf this definition.
1. It mult be committed by a perfon of found me¬
mory and diferetion : for lunatics or infants are inca¬
pable of committing any crime ; unlefs in fuch cafes
where they (how a confcioufnefs of doing wrong, and
of courfe a diferetion or difeernment between good
and evil.
2. Next, it happens when a perfon of fuch found
diferetion unla<wfully killeth.. The unlawfulnefs arifes
from the killing without warrant or excufe : and there
mult alfo be an aftual killing to conltitute murther ;
for a bare affault, with intent to. kill, is only a great
mifdemefnor, thoughformerly it was held to be murder.
The killing may be by poifoning, Itriking, ftarving,
drowning, and a thoufand other forms of death, by
which human nature may be overcome. Of thefe the
molt deteftable of all is poifon ; becaufe it can of all
others be the leaft prevented, either by manhood or
forethought. And therefore, by the flat,2 2Hen. VIII.
c. 9. it was made treafon, and a more grievous and
lingering kind of death was inflifted on it than the
common law allowed ; namely, boiling to death : but
this aft did ijot live long, being repealed by 1 Edw VI.
c. 12. There was alfo, by the ancient common law,
one fpecies of killing held to be murder, which may
be dubious at this day, as there hath not been an in-
Itance wherein it has been held to be murder for many
ages pad, viz. bearing falfe witnefs againll another,
with an exprefs premeditated defign to take away his
life, fo as the innocent perfon be condemned'and exe¬
cuted. The Gothic laws punifhed in this cafe both
the judge, the witnefles, and the profecutor ; and,
ampng the Romans, the lex Cornelia de Jiccariisy, pu¬
nifhed the falfe witnefs with death, as being guilty of
a fpecies of affaffination. And there is no doubt but
tthis is equally murder in fort? confcientia as killing'
with a fword ; though the modern law (to avoid the
danger of deterring witneffes from giving evidence
upon capital profecutions, if it muft be at the peril ®f
their own lives) has not yet punifhed it as fuch. If
a man, however, does fuch an aft, of which the pro¬
bable confequence may be, and eventually is, death;
fbcJi. killing, may be murder,, although no ftroke be
flruck by himfelf, and no killing may be primarily in¬
tended : as was the cafe of the unnatural fon w!k> ex-
pofed his fick father to the air againlt his will, by
reafon whereof he died ; and of the harlot, who laid
her child under leaves in an orchard, where a kite
ftruck it, and killed it. So too, if a man hath a beafl
that is ufed to do mifehief; and he, knowing ^-it,
fujfers it to go abroad, and it kills a man ; even this
is manflaughter in the owner : but if he had purpofely-
turned it loofe, though barely to frighten people, and
make what is called fport, it is with us (as in the
Jewifh law) as much murder as if he had incited a
bear or a dog to worry them. If a phyfician or fur-
geon gives his patient a potion or plalter to cure him,
which, contrary to expeftation, kills him, this is nei¬
ther murder nor manflaughter, but mifadventure ; and
he fhall not be punilhed criminally, however liable he
might formerly have been to a civil aftton for negleft:
or ignorance: but X hath been holden, that if it be
not a regular phyfician or furgeon who adminiflers the
medicine, or performs the operation, it is manflaughter
at the leail. Yet Sir Matthew Hale very juftly
queftions the law of this determination ; fince phylie
and falves were in ufe before licenfed phyficians and
furgeons : wherefore he treats this doftrine as apo¬
cryphal, and fitted only to gratify and flatter licen¬
tiates and doftors in phyfic ; though it may be of ufe
to make people cautious and wary how they meddle too
much in fo dangerous an employment In order alfo
to make the killing murder, it is requifite that-the
party die within a year and a day after the ftroke re¬
ceived, or caufe of death adminiftered ; in the compu¬
tation of which the whole day upon which the hurt
was done (hall be reckoned the finl.
3. Farther : The perfon killed muft be “ a reafon¬
able creature in being, and under the king's peace," at jhe
time of the killing. Therefore to kill an alien, a
Jew, or an outlaw, who are all under the king’s peace
or protection, is as much murder as to kill the mo!t
regular-born Englifhman ; except he be an alien-
enemy, in time of war. To kill a child in its mother’*
womb, is now no murder, hut a great mifprifion : but
if the child be born alive, and dieth by reafon of the
potion or bruifes it received in the womb, it feems,
by the better opinion, to be murder in fuch as admt-
niitered or gave them. As to the murder of baftard-
children, fee Bastard.
4. Laftly, the killing mud be committed “ auitb
malice aforethought." to make it the crime of murder.
This is the grand criterion which now diflingiufhe*
murderifrom other killing : and this malice prepenfe,
mahtia praccgitata, is not fo properly fpite or malevo¬
lence to the deceafed in particular, as any evil defign
in general; thediftate of a wicked, depraved, and ma¬
lignant heart j un difpofition a faire un male chofe : and
it may be either exprefs, or implied, in law. Exprefs
malice is when one, with a fedate deliberate mind and
formed defign, doth kill another: which formed de¬
fign is evidenced by external circumftances difeovering
that inward intention ; as lying in wait, antecedent
menaces, former grudges, and concerted fchemes to
do him fome bodily harm. This takes in the cafe of
deliberate duelling, where both parties meet avowedly
with an intent to murder : thinking it their duty, as
gentlemen, and claiming it as their right, to wanton
with
Murder.
MUR t 4ii 1 MUR
Murder, vritli their own lives and thofe of their fellow-creatures; fon endeavouring to fupprefs an affray or apprehend a
“‘"""v ” without any warrant or authority from any power ei- felon, knowing his authority or the intention with
ther divine or human* but in direft contradiftion to which he interpofes, the law will imply malice, and
the laws both of God and man : and therefore the law the killer fhall be guilty of murder. And if one in-
hasjullly fixed the crime and punilhment of murder on tends to do another felony, and undefignedly kills a
them, and on their feconds alfo. Yet it requires fuch man, this is alfo murder. Thus if one (hoots at A
a degree of paffive valour to combat the dread of even and mi/Fes him, but kills B, this is murder ; becaufe
undeferved contempt, arifing from the falfe notions of of the previous felonious intent, which the law tranf*
honour too generally received- in Europe, that the fers from one to the other. The fame is the cafe,
flrongeft prohibitions and penalties of the law will ne- where one lays poifon for A, and B, againft whom
% ver be entirely effe&ual to eradicate this unhappy cu- the prifoner had no malicious intent, takes it, and it
Horn, till a method be found'out of compelling the kills him, this is likewife murder. So alfo, if one
©riginal aggreffor, to make fome other fatisfaftion to gives a womjn with child a medicine to procure abor-
the affronted party, which the world {hall efteem, tion, and it operates fo Violently as to kill the woman^
equally reputable as that which is now given at the this is murder in the petfon who gave it. It were
hazard of the life and fortune, as well of the perfon endlefs to go through all the cafes of homicide, which
infulted, as of him who hath given the infult. Alfo, have been adjudged, either exprefsly or impliedly,
if even upon a hidden piovocation one beats another, malicious: thefe therefore may fuffice as a fpecimen ;
in a cruel and unufual manner, fo tha^ he dies, though and we may take it for a general rule, that alt homicide
he did not intend his death, yet he is guilty of murder is malicious, and of courfe amounts to murder, unlefs
by expreCs malice ; i. e. by an exprefs evil defign, the where juftified by the command or permilfion of the
genuine fenfe of malitia. As when a park-keeper tied law ; excufed on a principle of accident or felf-prefer-
a boy that was healing wood to a horfe’s tail, and vation ; or alleviated into manflaughter, by being ei-
dragged him along the park ; when a mailer correfted ther the involuntary confequence of fome a£t, not lirift-
his fervant with an iron bar, and afchpolmafter damp- ly lawful, or (if voluntary) occafioned by fome hidden
cd on his fcholar’s belly, fo that each of the fufferers and fufficiently violent provocation. And all thefe
died ; thefe were juilly held to be murders, becaufe circumftances of juftification, exetife, or alleviation it
the correftion being exceffive, and fuch as could not is incumbent upon the prifoner to make out, to the
proceed but from a bad heart, it was equivalent to a fatisfadtion of the court and jury ; the latter of whom
. deliberate aft of (laughter. Neither (hall he be guilty are to decide whether the circumflances alleged are
of a lefs crime who kills another in confequence of proved to have aftually exifted ; the former, how far
fuch a wilful aft as (hows him to be an ejiemy to all they extend to take away or mitigate the guilt. For
mankind in general; as going deliberately, and with all homicide is prefumed to be malicious, until the con-
an intent to do mifehief, upon a horfe ufed to ftrike, tr-ary appeareth upon evidenced
or coolly difeharging a gun among a multitude of The puni(hment of murder, and that of man-(Iaugh-
people. So if a man refolves to kill the next man he ter, were formerly one and the fame; both having the
meets,, and does _kill him, it is murder, although he benefit of clergy : fo that none but unlearned perfons
knew him not; for this is univerfal malice. And if who lead knew the guilt of it, were put to death for
two or more come together to do.an unlawful aft this enormous crime. But now, by feveral (latutes,
agaihft the king’s peace, of which the probable con- the benefit of clergy is taken away from murderers
fequence might be bloodfhed ; as to beat a man, to through malice prepenfe, their abettors, procurers
commit a riot, or to rob a park, and one of them kills and counfellors. In atrocious cafes it was frequently
a man ; it is murder in them all, becaufe of the ud- ufual for the court to direft the murderer, after exe-
lawful aft, the malitia pracogitata, or evil intended be- cution, to be hung upon a gibbet in chains near the
forehand. ‘ place where the faft was committed; but this was no
Alfo in many cafes where no malice is exprefled, part of the legal judgement; and the like is (lill fome-
the law will imply it: as, where a man wilfully poi- times praftifed in the cafe of notorious thieves. This
fens another, in fuch a deliberate aft the law prefumes being quite contrary to the exprefs command of the
malice, though no particular enmity can be proved. Mofaical law, feems to have been borrowed from the
And if a man kills another fuddenly, without any, civil law; which, befides the terror of the example
or without a confiderable provocation, the law implies gives alfo another reafon for this praftice, viz. that it
malice; for no perfon, unlefs of an abandoned heart, is a comfortable fight to the relations and friends of
would be guilty of fuch an aft upon a (light or no the deceafed. But now, in England, it is enafted'
apparent caufe. No affront, by words or geftures by (latute 25 Geo. II. c. 37. that the judge, before
only, is a fufficient provocatipn, fo as to excufe or whom any perfon is found guilty of wilful murder
extenuate fuch afts of violence as manifeilly endanger (hall pronounce fentence immediately after conviftior/
the life of another. But if the perfon fo proyoked had unlefs he fees caufe to poftpone it; and (hall in paf-
unfortunately killed the other, by beating him in fuch fing fentence direft l>lm to be executed on the next
a manner as (bowed only an intent to chaftife and not day but one (unlefs the fame (hall be Sunday and'
to kill him, the law fo far confiders the provocation then on the Monday following), and that his body
of contumelious behaviour, as to adjudge it only man- be delivered to the furgeons to be diffefted and anato-
flaughter, and not murder. In like manner, if one mized ; and that the judge may direft his body to be
kills an officer of juftice, either civil or criminal, in afterwards hung in chains, hut in nowife to be buried
the execution of his duty, or any of his affiftants en- without difleftion. And, during the (hort but awful
favouring to conferve the jjeace. or any private per- interval between fcntence and execution, the prifoner
3^2 fhy,u
Murdcfv
MUR L 452 ] MUR
■Murdorers fliall be kept alone, and fuftained with only bread and
Mu-ex water’ ®ut a Power is »Uowed to the judge, upon
y good and fufficient caufe, to refpite the execution, and
relax the other reftraints of this a£t. See farther,
Parricide, and Petit Treafun.
Murderers, or Murdering Pieces, in a (hip, are
fmall pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, which
have chambers put in at their breeches. They are
ufed at the bulk-heads of the fore-caftle, half-deck, or
fleerage, in order to clear the deck, on the Chip’s be¬
ing boarded by an enemy.
MURENA See Mvriema.
MURENGERS, two officers of great antiquity in
the city of Chefter, annually chofen out of the aider-
men, to fee that the walls are kept in repair, and to
receive a certain toll and cuftom for the maintenance
thereof.
MURET (Mark Anthony Francis), in Latin Mu~
retus, was born at Muret, near Limoges, in 1526.
He acquired a perfect knowledge of the Greek and
Latin tongues without any intlruCtor, and became one
of the mod learned men of his time. After having
taught fome time in Provence, he was made a pro-
feffor at Paris in the fame college with Turnebus and
Buchanan. In 1554 wcut into Italy ; and in
1563 was profelfor of law, philofophy, and hiftory,
at Rome, where he died in 1585. His principal
works are, t. Excellent notes on Terence, Horace,
Catullus, Tacitus, Cicero, Salluft, Ariftotle, Xeno¬
phon, &c. 2. Orationes. 3. Var'ut LeSiones, Poemata,
Uymni Sacri. . 4. Difputationes in Lib. /. Pandetlorum,
de Origins Juris. &c. 5. Epijlohc, Juvenilia Carmina,
&c. Molt of Muret’s works have been printed in the
Venice edition of 1737, in 5 vols 8vo.
MUREX, in zoology, a genus of infers belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacea This animal is
of the fnail-kind : the fhell con fills of one fpiral valve,
rough, with membranaceous furrows; and the aper¬
ture- terminates in an entire canal, either ftraight, or
fomewhat afeending. There are 60 fpecies, particu¬
larly dillinguilhed by peculiarities in their Ihells, &c.
From a fpecies of murex was obtained the famous
Tyrian dye fo much valued by the ancients. This,
however, has long been fuperfeded by the ufe of the
cochineal. One of the Ihells producing the dye was
a kind of buccinum ; but the fined, or Tyrian purple,
■was got from the murex. Thefe fpecies of Ihells are
found in various parts of the Mediterranean. Im-
menfe heaps of them are to be feen about Tarentum to
this day, evincing one place where this precious liquor
was extracted. See Plate CCCXXII.
In the accounts of a Spanilh philofopher it is men¬
tioned, that on thecoads of Guayaquil and Guatimala
in Peru the murex is al.fo found. The Ihell which
contains it adheres to the rocks that are walked by
the fea: it is of the fize of a large walnut. The
liquor may be extrafted two ways: fome kill the ani¬
mal after they have drawn il out of the Ihell; then
prefs it with a knife from head to tail; feparate front
the body the part where the liquor is collected, and
throw away the reft. When this operation, after be¬
ing repeated on feveral fnails, has afforded a certain
quantity of fluid, the thread intended to be dyed is
dipped in it, and the procefs is finilhed. The colour,
which is at firft of the whitenef* of milk, becomes af¬
terwards green, and is not purple till the thread is dry. Murex
Thofe who difapprove of this method, draw the filh
partly out of the (hell, and, fqueezing it, make it. ul~rain*.
yield a fluid which ferves for dyeing : they repeat this
operation four times at different interval!), but always
with lefs fuccefs. If they continue it, the filh dies.
No colour at prefent known, fays the Abbe Raynal,
Ca-i be compared to this, either as to lullre, livelinefs,
or duration. It fucceeds better on cotton than wool,
linen, or filk.
Murex, a caltrap or iron inftrument, with lharp
points proje&ing in every diredlion, ufed by the Ro¬
mans as a defence againlt the enemy’s horfe. It was
fo called, probably, becaufe the points bore fome re-
femblance to the fpines and tubercles with which the.
fhell of the fifli murex is furrounded. .
MURGI, or Murgis (anc. geog.), the laft town
of Baetica, next the Tarraconenfis: the Urce of
Ptolemy." Now Jrluxara, a port-town of Granada,
on the Mediterranean. W. Long. i° 50'. N. Lat. 370 6'.
MUR.IA, alimentary fait. See Salt.
MUR1NA, or Murines, a delicious fweet wine,
medicated with fpices, and the ufual drink of the la¬
dies of antiquity.
MURILLO (Bartholomew-Stephen),a celebrated
painter, was born at Pilas near Seville, in 1613. Ha¬
ving fhown a very early inclination to painting, he
was inilrudled by his uncle John del Caltillo, an ar-
tift of fome note, whofe fubjeds were fairs and mar¬
kets ; in which ftyle Murillo painted feveral pidtures
while he continued with that mafter : but his principal,
knowledge in the art was derived from Velafquez, who-
dire&ed his ftudies,and frequently retouckedhis delrgns^
Many writers affert, that he itudied at Rome, and im¬
proved himfelf exceffivelyin that city. ButVelafco, a
Spanifh author, affirms that he never was in Italy; but
arrived at the excellence he pofleffed by copying the
works of Titian, Rubens, and Vandyck, which were
at Madrid, and the Efcurial; and alfo by ftudying
after the antique ftatues, which are in the Royal col-
ledions. However, he became an excellent painter, and
was employed by the king of Spain to execute feveral
hiftorical pictures, which railed his reputatioathrough.
every province of his own country. Thofe paintings
being afterwards fent to Rome as a prefent to the
pope, the Italians \%ere fo much pleafed with his per¬
formances, that they called him a fecond Paul Vero-.*
nefe. In Spain he defigned and finilhed feveral grand
altar pieces, for the churches and convents at Madrid,
Seville, Cordova, Cadiz, and Granada; and fome of
his compofitions are in the churches.of Flanders. But
notwithftanding his genius, tafte, and abilities, qua¬
lified him to execute fubjedls of hiftory with general,
applaufe ; yet his favourite fubjedt* were beggar-boys,
as large as life, in different adions and amufements ;
which he ufually defigned after nature, and gave them,
a ftrong and g od expreffion. His original pidures
of thofe fubjeds have true merit, and are much
efteemed, many of them being admitted into the mod
capital colledions of the Englilh nobility ; but of
thofe, there are abundance of copies, which, to the
dilhonour of the artift,. are fold as originals to injudi¬
cious purchafers. He died in 1685.
MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious difeafe
among cattle. The fymptoms are, a hanging down.
and
MUR r 453 3 MUR
Murray, and fwelling of the head, abundance of gum in the
-y ' eyes, rattling in the throat, a Ihort breath, palpita¬
tion at the heart, ftaggering, a. hot breath, and a
fhining tongue. In order to prevent this difeafe, the
cattle Ihpuld Hand cool in fummer, and have plenty of
good water : all carrion fhould be fpeedily buried; and
as the feeding of cattle in wet places, on rotten-grafs
and hay, often occafions this difeafe, dry and fvveet
fodder fhould be given them.
MURRAY, a county of Scotland, extending by
the coaft from the river Spey on the eaft to Beauly
on the weft, which is the boundary of the province
of Rofs. It fends two members to parliament, and is
an earldom in a branch of the Stuart family.
According to the account of the reverend Mr Shaw
miniiter pf Elgin, in anfwer to fome queries of Mr
Pennant, the country produces wheat, barely, oats,
rye, peafe, and beans. Of thefe, in plentiful years,
upwards of 20,000 bolls are exported, befrdes ferving
the county itfelf and fome of the Highland counties.
Some hemp is alfo cultivated, and a great deal of flax;
of which linen is made, not only for home-cosfump-
tion, but a coniiderable quantity of linen-y;.rn is ex¬
ported. Great quantities of potatoes are alfo culti¬
vated. Several hundreds of black cattle are alfo ex¬
ported from the Highlands of Murray, *but few or
none from the Lowlands. - Peculiar to this province
is a kind of wood, called red faugh, or fallow; which
is no lefs beautiful than mahogany. It is much more
firm and tough than mahogany, and refembles the
lighter-coloured kind of that wood. It receives a
fine polifti, but is very fcarce, growing on rocks.
But there are great fcrefts of firs and birches, which
our author thinks are the remains of the Syfva Cale¬
donia. Plere alfo is found a remarkable root, called
by the natives carme’c : it grows in heaths and birch-
woods to the bignefs of a large nut; and fometimes
there are four or five roots joined together by fibres.
It has a green ftalk and fmall red flowers. Dido,
fpeaking of the Caledonians, fays, Certurn cihi genus
par ant ad omnia, quern Jt ceperint quantum ejl unius fab#
tnagnitudo, minime efurire aut fxtire folent. C as far alfo
tells us of a root called char a, which his foldiers mix¬
ed with milk and made into bread when in want of
rovifion, which greatly relieved them. This root,
Ir Shaw thinks, is the fame with the carmele orfweei
root of Murray. He informs us, that he hath often
feen it dried, and keptfor journeys through hills where
no provifion was to be had : he has likewife feen it
pounded and infufed ; the liquor makes a more
agreeable and wholefome liquor than mead. It grows in
fuch plenty, that acart-load of it can eafily be gathered.
Murray is interfered by the rivers Spey, Loffey,
Findern, Nairn, Nefs, and Beauly. The river of Spey,
rifing on the borders of Lochaber, is more than 6o
Scots, or loo Englifh miles long, but too rapid to be
navigable. Upon this river great floats of fir and
birch-wood are carried down to the Frith ; the float
in guided by a man fitting on a courach. This veil'd
is of an oval fhape, about four feet long and three
broad; a fmall keel from head to ftern; a few ribs
profs the keel, and a ring of pliable wood round
the lip of it; the whole covered with the rough hide
qf an ox or horfe. The rower fits on a tranfverfe
feat is the middle, and holds in his hand a rope, the
end of which ia tied to the float, and with the other Murray,
band he manages a paddle, keeps the float in deep ,Murrhine;
water, and brings it to ihore when he pleafes. In v
this province, alfo, is Loch Nefs, remarkable for its-
never freezing. There are many other lakes in this
country, of which one called Dundelchack is remark¬
able in that it is never covered with ice before the
month of January; but after that time one night’s-
ftrong froft covers it all over. On the eaft fide of
Loch Nefs, a large mile above the loch, is the water¬
fall of Foher, where the river Feach-Len falls over
a fteep rock about 8o feet high; and a thick
fog rifes from the place where it falls, cccafioned
by the violent dafliing of the water. There is a
confiderable falmon-fiftiery on the rivers Spey, Fin-
dern, Nefs, and Beauly, which ferves the towns and;
country, befides exporting to the value of l2,oool.
annually.
There are many natural caves in the' hills of this
country, which formerly were the receptacles of thieves-
and robbers, and now afford ftielter to hunters and
fhepherds in Itormy weather. The moft remarkable
mountain is Carngern in Strathfpey. In it are found
a particular'kind of (tones well known to the lapi¬
daries. They are of blue, green, yellow, and am»
ber colours; fome fo large as to make fnuff-boxes,
or fmall cups; fome of hexagonal or pentagonal figures,..
and tapering to a point at each end. The mountain
of Benalar, in Badenoch. is by Mr Shaw reckoned to
be the higheft land in Scotland, as waters flowing
from it fall into the fea at Dundee* Inverlochy, and
Garmoch in Murray.
MURRHINE, Murrhinu?, in antiqui¬
ty, an appellation given to a delicate fort of ware,
brought from the eaft,: whereof cups and vafes were,
made, which added not a little to the fplendor of the
Roman banquets.
Critics are divided concerning the matter of the po-
cula, or vafa murrhina, murrina, or murrea. Some
will have them to have been the fame with our porce¬
lain or china-ware.
The generality hold them to have been made of
fome precious kind of (tone, which was found chief¬
ly, as Pliny tells us, in Parthia, but more efpecial-
ly in Carmania. Arrian tells us, that there was a great
quantity of them made at Diofpolis in Egypt. This'
he calls another fort of murrhina work ; and it is evi¬
dent, from all accounts, that the murrhina of Diofpo¬
lis was a fort of glafs-ware, made in imitation of the.
porcelain or murrha of India. There is fome difference
in the accounts given by Pliny and Martial of the--
murrhina. vafa. The firft author fays, that they would
not bear hot liquors, but that only cold ones were
drank out of them. The latter, on the other hand,,
tells us, that tliey bore hot liquors very well. If we
credit Pliny’s account, their porcelain was much inferior
to our’sin this particular. Some conjecture them to
have been of agate, others of onyx, others of coral. Ba-
ronius, doubtlefs, wasfartheft out of the way, when he
took them to be. made of myrrh, congealed and hardened.
Some have fuppofed thefe veffds to be made of cryftal;
but this is contrary to the account of all the anci¬
ents. The Greeks had the words *pv(a\\i>s for cry.
ftal,, and owv/m fDr myrrh, very common among them t
and therefore^ if thefe veffels had been made of either-
of
M U S f 454 7 M U S
of tliefe fubflances, Ihey would in fome places have
called them fmyrna or cryftallina. On the contrary,
the moft correii among them call them murrhina or
morrina. The cups made of cryftal, which were alfo
in ufe at thofe times, were called cryftaliina, and thefe
murrhina or murrhtea, by way of keeping up- the di-
ftindtion ; and Martial tells us, that the ftone they
were made of was fpotted or variegated, calling them
pocula macnlofae murrae. And Statius mentions the
cryftalline and murrhine cups in the fame fentence,
but as different things, not the fame. Arrian men¬
tions alfo the /toppia • which his interpreters cen-
fure as an error of the copies, and would alter into
myrrha, the name of the gum myrrh.
Pompey is recorded as the firft who brought thefe
murrhine veffels out of the eaft, which he exhibited:
in his triumph, and dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
But private perfons were not long without them. So
fond, in cffedt, did the Roman gentry grow of them,
that a cup which held three fextarks was fold for 70
talents. T. Petronius, before his death, to fpite Nero
(or as Pliny expreffes it, ut men/am ejus exhteredarel, to
difinherit his table), broke a bafon, trulla hvrrhina, va¬
lued at 300 talents, on which that emperor had fet his
heart.
MUS, in zoology: A genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order of Gfires ; the characters of which
are thefe: The upper foreteeth are wedge fhaped ;
there are three grinders, fometimes (though rarely )-
only two, on each fide of the jaws ; and the clavicles
or collar-bones are complete. In the new edition of
the Syjlema Natura, by Dr Gmelin, the numerous
fpecies of this genus have been diftributed into diffe¬
rent groupes or divifions, diftinguifhed by fome parti¬
cular character common to the individuals of each.—
The firft divifion confifts of,
I. Myocastores, 0r BrArER-rats, the individuals
of which have the taillaterally at the end.
1. The coypus, or webbed beaver-rat, has a thick
hairy tail of a moderate length, and the hind-feet web¬
bed. It is an inhabitant of Chili, where it frequents
the water. It has a ftrong refemblance, both in co¬
lour and fliape, to the otter ; but is allied to the mu¬
rine tribe by the number and arrangement of its teeth.
2. The zibethicus, or mufquafh, with a long (harp-
pointed tail, and the feet not webbed. This ha; been
already defcribed under the article Castor, of which
it was ranked as a fpecies in the former editions of
Linnaeus. In fa<ft, it does refemble the beaver in
the form of the body and flat fcaly tail, as well as in
its manners and economy. In fize, however, and
length of tail, it comes nearer to the brown rat; but
in its general appearance, and in the (hcrt hairy ears,
it refembles the water-rat.
II. Mures, ar Rats Mice; having raWtails,
fome naked and fome hairy.
1. The piloris, or mufk cavy, with a naked tail
blunt at the end, and covered with fcales. There are
two varieties : one with the body of an uniform whitilh
colour; the other with the upper parts tawny, and '
the under parts white. The former inhabits Ceylon,
and the latter the Weft Indies. They are nearly of
the fize of a rabbit: they both burrow in the ground;
fometimes infeft houfes like the rat; and have a ftrong
flavour of muik.
2. The caraco has a naked tail, long, fcaly, and Mu*.*
fome what blunt; the body is of a brown grey colour,
and the hind feet ara very (lightly webbed. It inha'Qj(jXjjj,
bits the eaftern parts of Siberia, and probably Chinefeag. 20.
Tartary and the northern provinces of China; bur¬
rowing like the rabbit, near the banks of rivers.-—
It fwims remarkably well, and even infefts houfes.—
The body and head are fix inches in length, and the
tail four and a half.
3. The americanus, or American rat, has a long,
naked, and fcaly tail; the head is long-(haped, with
a narrow.pointed nofe, the upper jaw being much
longer than the lower; the ears are large and naked.
It is larger than the black, and fmaller than the browa
rat; its colour is of a deep brown, inclining to afh on
the belly, and the fur is coarfe and harfh. It is pro¬
bably this fpecies which is faid (Kalm’s Trav. ii. 48.)
to live among the (tones and clefts of rocks, in the
blue mountains of Virginia, at a diftance from the
peopled part of the country, which comes out only at
night, and makes a terrible noife.
4. The decumanus, or brown rat, has a long, naked, Plate
fcaly tail; the upper parts of the body are of a light CCCXVI1J
brown, mixed with tawny and a(h colour, the lower 5*
parts dirty white. The head and body meafure about
nine inches ; and the length of the tail, which confifts
of 200 rings, is feven and a half. The whiflcers are
larger than the head ; and the eyes are large, black,
and prominent. The fore-feet have four toes, with a
fmall claw in place of the fifth or thumb. It inha¬
bits India and Perfia, and has only been known in
Europe in the prefent century. They dwell in burrows
which they dig in the banks of rivers; and frequent
towns, aqueducts, drains, neceflaries, (tables, barns,
gardens, fields, and houfes. They fwim and dive
with great dexterity ; feed on vegetables, grain, fruits,
and even deftroy poultry ; and are hunted eagerly by
cats, dogs, and ferrets. They lay up (lores of acorns,
beech-maft, and other provifions, in their holes; in
which the males remain during winter, except in fine
weather, without hybernating ; but the females and
their young live moftly in barns and out-houfes in that
feafon. They often emigrate from one place to ano¬
ther in great companies. The female produces three
times in the year, having 12 or 15, even 18 or 19, at
a litter. The bite of this creature is- not only fevere
but dangerous, the wound being immediately attended
with great fwelling, and is a long time in healing.
Thefe animals are fo bold as to turn upon thofe who
purfue them, and faften on the (lick or hand of fuch
as offer to ftrike them. This fpecies is fuppofed to be
the mus cafpicus of ./Elian f, which he fays was near-f Hlfl.
ly as large as the ichneumon, and made periodical vi-e- 17-
fits in vaft multitudes to the countries which border on
the Gafpian, fwimming boldly over the rivers, holding
by each others tails.
5. The rattus, black or common rat, has an almoftpig. IX,
naked fcaly tail, which is very (mail, has 250 diftinft
rings, and is eight inches long. The head and body
meafure feven inches in length ; the upper parts are
deep black grey, and the under parts a(h coloured.
There are four toes, and a fmall claw in place of the
fifth, on each fore foot, and five on the hind feet. This
fpecies inhabits India, Perfia, and Europe except its
moft northern parts; from hence it has been carried
4 ta
TV1 U S [ 455 1 M U S
Mu#, to Africa and America ; and Is Frequent In Otahelte,
though lefs common In tke other i flu fids of the fouthern
ocean. Of late years It has greatly diminifhed in Eu¬
rope, and Is even in many places extirpated, in confe-
qtience of -the introdddtion of the brown fpeeies,
W'hich deftroy the black rats 5 though little is gained
by the Exchange, the brown having the fame difpoii-
tlons, with greater ftrength and rbilitres for doing
mifehief. I* is the mpft pernicious of any of'our fil ial-
ler quadrupeds. Meat,.cOrn, paper, cloachs, furni¬
ture, in fhort every convenience of life, is a prey Uv
this deftruftive creature. Nor are its devaftations con¬
fined ta thefe : for it will make equal havock among
poultry, rabbits, or young game ; nay, it has been
known to gnaw the extremities of infants when afleep.
It is a domeftic animal, reliding very frequently in
houfes, barns, or granaries; and it is furnilhed wkh
fore teeth of Inch itrength as enable it to force its way
through the hardefl wood or the oldeft mortar. It
makes a lodge either, for its days refidence, or a neft
for its. young, near a chimney ; and improves the
warmth of it, by forming there a magazine of wool,,
bits of cloth, hay, or lit aw. It lodges alfo in ciel-
ings, and in the void fpaces between the wall and the
’ wainfeotting From thefe lurking-places the rats if-
fue in quell of food, and tranfport thither every fub-
ftance they can drag, forming confiderable magazines,
efpecin'ly when they have young to provide for. The
female ha- ten teats, and brings forth feveral times in
a year, but always in the fummer feafon. i he lit¬
ter generally coniifts of five-err fix ; and in fpite of
poifon, traps, and cats, they thus multiply to fuch a
degree as fometimes to do a great deal of damage. In
old country-houfes w,here grain is kept and where the'1
vicinity of barns and magazines facilitates their retreats,
they often increafe fo prodigioufly, that the poffeffors
are obliged to remove and defert their habitations, un-
lefs the rat- happen to deltroy each other ; an event
which frequently takes place, for thefe creatures when
pinched for food devour each other. When a famine
happens by reafon of too many being crowded into
one place, the ftrong kill the weak, open their heads,
and firlt eat the brain and then the reft of the body.
Next day the war is renewed, and continues in the
fame manner till moft ®f them are deftioyed ; which is
the reafon why thefe animals, after being extremely
troublefome for fome time, difappear all of a fudden,
and do not return for a long time. Rats are extreme¬
ly lafeivious; they fqueak during their amours, and
cry when they fight. They foon learn their young to
cat; and when they begin to iffue from the hole, their
mother watches, defends, and even fights with the
cats, in order to fave them. A laige rat is more mif-
chievous than a young cat, and nearly as ftrong the
rat ufes her fore-teeth; and the cat makes moft ufe ©f
her claws ; fo that the latter requires both to be vigo¬
rous, and accuftomed to fight, iii. order to deftroy her.
adverfary. The weafcl, though fmaller, is a much
more dangerous and formidable enemy to the rat, be
caufe he can follow it into its retreat. Their ftrength
being nearly equal, the combat /often continues for a
Long time, but the method of uiing their arms is very
diff rent The rat wounds only by reiterated ftrokes
with his fore teeth, which are better formed for gnaw¬
ing than biting; and being fituated at the extremity
of the lever or jaw, they have not much force. But Mul.
the weafel bites cruelly with the whole jaw ; and in- u“"~y
ftead. of letting go its hold,-fucks the blood from the
wounded part, fo that the rat is always killed.—•
The rat was firft introduced into America by the Eu¬
ropeans in 1544, and is now the peft of all that conti¬
nent. In the neighbourhood of'the lower parts ®f
the ”iver Volga, there is a froall variety of this fpectes
faiud in the deferts, which does not weigh above fix
or feven drams.
6. The mufculus, or common moufe, has a very Plate
long, fcaly, and almoft naked tail: the fore feet have CdCXVlIS*
each four toes ; the hind feet five, the fifth or thumb-s’
having no claw : the head and body meafure three
inches and a half in length ; the upper parts are
tawny, and the lov^er parts whitilh or afti-coloured.
This little animal, which inhabits all parts of the
world, lives almoft entirely in houfes, and follows
mankind for the lake of their provifions. It feeds on
almoft every thing, fuch as grain, bread,-cheefe, but¬
ter, oil, and every kind of food ufed-by mankind, and
drinks little : it is of mild and gwitle manners, exceed¬
ingly timid, and very quick in ail its motions. The
mouie never fifties from his hole but in qneft of food,
and runs in again upon the leaft alarm. It goes not,
like the rat from hoafe to ho ufe, ynlefs forced, and
is not near fo deltrudlive. It is alfo Capable of being
tamed to a certain degree, though not fo pctdelfily as
other animals. It has man, enemies,: from whom it
can efcape only by its agility and mfimtenefs Owls,
birds of prey, cats, vveaicis, hedge-hogr, and even rats,
make war upon the mice, fo that they are deftroyed
by millions'; yet the Ipecies ftill fubliits by its amazing,
fecundity. 1 hey bring forth at all leafions, and feve¬
ral times in the year: the litter generally coniifts of
five or fix; and in lefs than 1 days the young dif-
perfe, and are aide to provide lor themfidves Ari-
ftotle tells'us, that having (hut up a pregnant moufe in
a veffel, along with plenty of grain, he found in a
Ihort time after 120 mice, all iprung from th. fame
mother.
Several varieties of mice as to colour are found, fome
being altogether black, fome yellowfih, lome fpotted
with white, fome of a white colour with afh-coloured
fpots, and the moft beautiful o! all, and the leaft com¬
mon, are entirely white, with red eyes but as thefe
agree in every other circumltance, it is unnecellary to
deferibe them more at large.
7. The fylvaticus, or long-tailed field-m ufe, isEig.G*,
larger than the common mouie, meaiuring from the
end of the nofe to the fetting on of the tail four
inches and an half, the tail four inche, ; the upper
pares of the body are of a yellowfih broWn j the breaft
is yellow, and the belly white ; the tail is cove ed
with fttort hair. The fore feet have four toes each ;
the hind feet five. Thefe animals are found in fields,
gardens, and lluubberies. In fome places they are
called bean mice, from the havock they make among
beans when firft fown. They deed alfo on nuts, acorns,,
and grain, of which they amafs quantities, not pro¬
portioned to their wants, but to the capacity of the
place where it is depolited, infomuch that a Angle,
animal will called! more than a bufhel. Thus they
provide for other animals as well as themfelves: the
hog comes in fora (hare ; and the great damage done
to
M U S r 456 ] M U S
Mu». t0 the fields by thefe creatures, in rooting up the
ground, is chiefly owing to their fearch after the con¬
cealed hoards of the field mice. M. Buffon informs
us, that he has often feen great damage done to the
plantations by the field-mice. They carry off the new
Town acorns ; by following the furrow of the plough,
they dig up one after another, not leaving a Angle
feed. This happens chiefly in thofe feafons when t^c
acorns are fcarce: not finding a fufficient quantity 'n
the woods, they come in quefl of them in the culti¬
vated fields, and often carry off fuch quantities that
•they corrupt in their magazines. Thefe creatures, ac¬
cording to the fame author, do more mifehief in a nur-
fery of trees than all the birds and other animals put
together. The only way to prevent this damage is to
lay traps at ten paces afunder, through the extent of
the fown field. No other apparatus is neceflary than
a roalled walnut placed under a flat flone, fupported
by a flick. The animals come to eat the walnut, which
they prefer to acorns.; and as it is fixed to the Hick,
whenever they touch it, the flone falls down and
crufhes them to death. The fame expedient M. Buf¬
fon alfo made ufe of with fuccefs againfl the fhort-tail-
ed field-moufe, which alfo deftroys acorns. In this
way he found that upwards-of 100 were taken each
day, from a piece of ground confiding only of about
40 French arpents. From the 15th of November to
the 8th of December, above 2000 were caught in this
manner. Their numbers gradually diminifhed till the
froft became fevere, which is the time they retire into
their holes to feed on their magazines. In autumn
•they are mod numerous; for if provilions fail during
the winter they devour one another. The long-tailed
mice eat alfo the fhort tailed fpecie!!, and even thrufhes,
blackbirds, See. which they find entangled in fnares.
They firil eat the brain, and then the red of the body.
INI. Buffon once kept a dozen of thefe mice in a cage,
and furnifhed them with food every morning at eight
o’clock. One day they were negleiled for about a
quarter of an hour, when one of their number was
eaten up by the reft ; next day another fuffered the
feme fate; and in a few days only one remained : all
the others'had been killed, and partly devoured; and
even the furvivor himfelf had his feet and tail muti¬
lated. Thefe animals are very prolific, producing
more than once a-year, and bringing nine or ten at
a birth. They generally make the neft for their young
very near the furface, and often in a thick tuft of
grafs. During winter they frequent barns, [tables,
and out-houfes.
8. The mefforius, harveft monfe, or lefs long-tail¬
ed field moufe, is a very fmall fpecies, or perhaps ra¬
ther a variety of the former ; and inhabits Hampfhire,
where it is \ery numerous, particularly during harveft.
They form their neft above the ground, between the
lliaws of the Handing corn, and fometimes in thillk-s:
it is of a round fhape, and compofed of the blades
of cor . They bring about eight young ones at a
time. Thefe never enter houfes ; but are often car¬
ried, in the fheaves of corn, into ricks: and loo of
them have frequently been found in a firtgle rick on
pulling it down to be houfed. Thofe that are not thus
carried away in the (heaves, (belter themfelves during
winter under ground, and burrow deep, forming a
warm bed far themfelvea f dead grafs. They are
N° 232.
the fmalleft of the Britilh quadrupeds: the length Min.
from nofe to tail is only two inches and a half; their
tail two inches, and the weight one-fixth of an ounce.
They are more (lender than the other long-tailed field-
moufe ; and their back of a fuller red, inclining to
the colour of a dormoufe.
9. The agrarius, or ruftic moufe, is about three Plate
inches long, and feat cely weighs half an ounce ; the CCCXIX.
tail is only about half the length of the body and^-J*
bead ; the upper part of the body is of a yellowift
colour, with a dark line along the back ; the belly
and the kgs are white; the head is oblong, with a
(harp nofe, and fmall ears lined with fur; the hind
legs have each a du(ky circle juft above the foot. It
inhabits Rufiia, and is found in Silefia, rarely in Ger¬
many. This fpecies is migratory ; and wanders about
often in vaft multitudes, doing immenfe injury to the
corn : It burrows in the ground, forming a long gal¬
lery juft below the furface, and a little elevated, lead¬
ing to a larger chamber, in which confiderable quan¬
tities of grain and feeds are ftored up for winter pro-
vifion.
10. The minutus, or minute moufe, has the upper Fig. *.
parts of the body of a deep tawny or ferruginous co¬
lour, and the under parts whitfth. It is about half
the fize of the common rtioufe, the tail being
fcarcely two inches long ; the female is fmaller than the
male, and lefs elegant in her colours ; the nofe is
fomewhat (harp ; the face is du(ky, with feme white-
nefs at the corners of the mouth ; the ears are fmall,
and almoft hid in the fur; the feet are grey. This
fpecies inhabits Rufiia; where it is found in the
corn-fields and in barns, and is plentiful in birch
woods: it feems to wander about without any fixed
places for its neft; and much greater numbers of males
are found than of females.
11. The vagus, or wandering moufe, is between two Fig. f,
and three inches long : the colour of the upper parts
of the body is a pale a(h, waved with black, and
having a black line along the middle of the back ;
the ears are large, oval, naked, and plaited. The
legs are very (lender, and the feet whitifli, having four
toes and a conical excrefcence before, and five behind,
all armed with long claws ; the tail is longer than the
body, very (lender, prehenfile at the end, of an afh
colour above and whitifli below; the head is oblong,
with a blunt nofe reddifli at the tip, having yellow
fore-teeth, and only two grinders on each fide in the
upper jaw. The fen.Je has eight teats.—This fpe¬
cies inhabits the deferts of Tartary and Siberia, as
high as the Ural, Irtifh, Oby, and Jenifei. Is fre¬
quent in the bitch woods, and lives in fiftures of rocks,
under ftones, and in hollows of trees; feeding chiefly
on feeds, and likewife on fmall animals of the fame
genus. It wanders about in great flocks, migrating
from one place to another in the night ; hybernatea
during winter, and is of a very chilly nature, fo as
even to become torpid and fallafleep, in a round form,
in the cold nights of the month of June. It has car¬
nivorous inclinations.
12. The betulinus, or beech-moufe, has a confi-pjg.
derable refemblance to the wandering moufe, but is
femewhat fmaller. The upper parts of the body are
tawny, with a black line along the back, the under
parts whitifli or pale alh-colour; the nofe is (harp,
3 with
M U S [ 457 ] M U S
Mu's, with a red tip ; the ears are (mail, oval, plaited,
b-own, and brillly at the ends; the limbs are very
(lender, with long and very feparable toes; the tail
is (lender and much longer than the body. This fpe-
cies inhabits the birch woods in the defert plains of
Ifchim atid Baraba, and between the Oby and Je-
nifei. It lives folitary, frequenting the hollows of de¬
cayed trees. It runs up trees readily, and faftens on
their branches with its tail; and by mgans of its (len¬
der fingers or toes, it can fallen even to a very fmooth
furface. It is a very tender animal, foon growing
torpid in cold weather ; and its voice is very weak.
npr'Ye I3- The pumilio, or dwarf moufe, is of a brownilh
£ ^ afh colour, with the fore-head and nape of the neck
black, and having four black lines along the back
meeting at the tail. It is. fcarcely two inches long,
the tail is about two-thirds of the length of the body,
and the whole animal, even when deeped many
months in fpirits, hardly weighs four fcruples. The
body js fomewhat flattened ; the regions of the eyes,
the ears, and the nofe, are of a paler colour than the
red of the body; all the feet have five toes, the thumb
or inner toe of the fore feet being very fmall, but di-
ftindtly furnilhed with a claw; the legs and feet are
ftrongly made ; the tail is ahnoft naked, and of a pale
afh-colour. This fpecies, which was fird defcribed
by Dr Sparrman, inhabits the forelts of Sitficamma
near Ilangen river, 200 hours journey from the Cape
of Good Hope.
Plate 14. The iaxatilis, or'rock moufe, is about four
CCCXIX. inches long, and weighs nearly nine drams; the tail
fig-js hairy^ an inch and a half in length, of a brown co¬
lour above, and white beneath ; the head is oblong,
with a longifli nofe, and oval downy ears, brown at
the edges ; the limbs arc drong; and the tail is thinly
covered with hair ; the upper parts of the body are
of a brown colour, (lightly mixed with yellowifir or
grey; the fides are rather inclined to the latter co¬
lour ; the belly is of a light a(h or whitifh ; the feet
and legs are blackiflt; the fnout is duflcy, and fur-
rounded with a (lender white ring. This fpecies is
an inhabitant of the eadern parts of Siberia beyond
lake Baikal, and of the deferts of Mongul Tartary.~-
It burrows in the fiffures of rocks, forming a winding
oblique paffage, which afterwards branches out into
feveral others pointing downwards, and ending in a
chamber, in which is a bed or ned of foft herbs. It
feeds chiefly on the feeds of the adragalus.
Plate 15. The amphibious, or water-rat, wdth a long tail;
CCCXVIII^hc upper parts of the body being covered with black
I3’ hair mixed with yellowifli, and the under parts a(h-
coloured ; the ears fcarcely appear above the fur; the
feet have three toes on each, and the rudiments of a
fourth. This fpecies, of which there are feveral va¬
rieties, differing in the toes and in the colour, inha¬
bits the whole of Europe, the northern parts of Afia
as far as the icy fea, and North America.—They
dwell chiefly near waters, forming burrows in their
deep banks ; about ponds and wet ditches ; likewise
in marfliy places, meadows, and gardens ; feeding on
roots, herbs, and (hrubs ; and on frogs, craw-fi(h, in-
feds, fmall fi(h, and the fry of larger ones. They
fwim and dive with great facility, and live much in
the water. They are very fierce,. and bite bitterly.
The flelh of thefe animals is reckoned very delicate by
Vol.XII. Part II.
fome of the more favage inhabitants of the Rufixan M’1*-
empire ; and is eaten by the French along vvith that v—*“*
of the otter during lent. The female is (mailer than
the male, and has a greater yellownefs of colour ; (lie
has eight teats, four of which are placed on the bread
and four on the belly. They procreate about the end
of winter, at which time they fmell ftrongly of mu(k,
and produce as far as eight young ones in the month
of April.
16. The alliarius, or garlic moufe, has a (hort tail; Plate
the ears rather large, and fomewhat hairy ; the SiWy 9CX,X*
afti coloured on its upper parts, and whitifti under- a'
neath. The head and body meafure fomewhat more
than four inches, the tail fcarcely an inch and a half.
This fpecies inhabits Siberia, about the rivers Jenifei,
Kan, Lena, and Angara; and feeds on the roots of
garlic, of which it lays up large dores in fubterraneous
burrows. '
17. The rutilus, or red moufe, has a (hort tail; the Pig-
ears are longer than the fur, which is tawny red on
the back, light grey and yellow on the fides, and whi¬
tifti on the belly. The head and body meafure about
four inches, and the tail one.—This fpecies inhabits
Siberia, from the Oby as far as Kamtfchatka, and
within the Ar&ic circle. It lives in holes and in hol¬
lows of trees; feeding on grain, and fometimes on
animals of the fame genus. It comes often into houfes
and barns, eating almod of every thing which comes
in its way, but is particularly fond of flefli- It is
very lively, and runs about even on the fnow the whole
winter.
18. The arvalis, or meadow-moufe, is from three to Plate
fix inches long, the female being much longer than CCCXVII1
the male, and the tail isiittle more than an inch : the *•' ’
head is large, with a blunt nofe, (hort ears almod hid
in the fur, and prominent eyes; the upper parts of
the body are of a mixed ferruginous and black colour;
the belly is deep a(h, and the legs and feet dulky ; —
the tail is terminated by a fmall tuft of hair. There
is a variety which is almod black.— 1 his fpecies inha¬
bits all Europe, Siberia, Hircania, and Newfound¬
land ; dwelling in buftiy places, corn-fields, meadows,
and gardens, chiefly near, waters ; living on grain,
nuts, acorns, and walnuts, which it colledb into fub¬
terraneous burrows : but it appears to prefer corn to
every other food. When the grain is ripe, they af-
femble from all quarters, and often do great damage by
cutting the Aalks of corn in order to come at the ears.
They follow the reapers, and eat up all the fallen and
negledted grain. When the gleanings are devoured,they
flock to the new-fown fields, and dedroy the crop of
the enfuing year. In winter mod of them retire into
the woods, where they feed upon filberts, acorns, and
the feeds of trees. In particular years they appear in
numbers fo immenfe, that they would dedroy every
thing if they continued long: but they always kill
and eat one another during a fcarcity of provifions.
They befides are devoured by the long-tailed field-
mice, by foxes, wild-cats, and weafels. Thefe crea¬
tures are often carried home in the (heaves of corn,
and too of them have been found in houfing a rick.
In fuch cafes it has been obferved, that the dogs de¬
voured all the mice of this fort they could find, rejec¬
ting the common kind ; and, on the contrary, the cats
would touch none but the lad. The female produces
3 M feveral
M U S
[ 458 ]
M U S
feveral times a year, and brings from eight to twelve
J young at a birth : it has a ftrong affeftion for them ;
one that was feduced into a wire-trap by placing its five inches long and the male four. It inhabits the
brood in it, was fo intent on foftering them, that it eaflern parts of Siberia, where it dwells is arid places,
whitifh below. This fpecies is lefs than the economic
moufe, and longer than the focial; the female being'’"'’v—""
Plate
CCCXIX,
H' 13-
appeared quite regardlefs of its captivity. In New¬
foundland, thefe mice are very deftruftive to gar¬
dens; but feldom do much damage in this way in
Britain.
19. The focialis, or focial moufe, with a very fliort
{lender tail, and naked, rounded, and very fhort ears;
forming burrows with numerous openings direflly un¬
der the fod; thefe lead to chambers in which it lays
up large ftores of roots, efpecially thofe of the-lilium
pomponii and garlic : It eats fitting up.
22. The laniger, or woolly moufe, with woolly fur
of an aih-colour, inhabits Peru and the north ■'parts
tig- ra¬
the fore feet have each three toes and the rudiments of of Chili. It burrows in the earth, is very docile and
a fourth ; the upper parts of the body are light-grey ;
the fides, Ihoulders, and belly, are white. The head
and body are fomewhat more than three inches long,
the tail half an inch. This fpecies inhabits the fandy
deferts between the Volga and Ural, near the Cafpian
ea, and in the mountains of Hircania.—They live in
pairs, or in families, coafifting of a male and a female
with their young ones ; and of thefe families vaft num¬
bers Jive together, the whole country being covered
with little hills of earth thrown out of their burrows.
They feed moftly on tulip roots; and are preyed on
by weafels, polecats, crows, and otters. They fw
cleanly, and is eafily tamed ; it lives on bulbous roots,
efpecially onions ; the female breeds twice a-year, and
brings five or fix young ones at each litter. It is
about fix inches long, with a (hort nofe, and fmall
fiiarp-pointed ears ; the fur is very long and exceed¬
ingly fine, almoft like the threads of a fpider’s web,
and was formerly employed as the very fineft fpecies
of wool by the Peruvians.
23. The lagurus or rambling moufe, has hardly any F S-1
tail; the ears are (horter than the fur; the fore feet
have each three toes, and the rudiments of a fourth;
the upper parts of the body are afh-coloured mixed
chiefly in fpring, and rarely appear in autumn, at with duflcy, and having a black line along the back,
which feafon it is fuppofcd they migrate, or take fliel- 1>™> •
ter among the bufhes.
20. The ceconomous, or economic moufe, in its
general form, refembles the meadow-moufe ; but the
fcody is rather longer and the belly larger. The ears
are naked and hid in the fur; the colour is tawny ;
and the fore-feet have each three toes with the rudi¬
ments of a fourth. The head and body meafure four eat all kinds of grain, and devour other fpecies of this
inches and a quarter, the tail fomewhat more ti.an an genus, as well as one another. They fleep very much, in
inch. This fpecies inhabits Siberia, from the river a rolled-up form, and are very flow in their motions,
The head is long, with rough and fwelling lips ; the
limbs are fliort and flender ; and the length of the body
and head is between three and four inches. This fpe¬
cies inhabits the defarts near the rivers Ural, Irtith, and
Jenifei.—Each individual forms a round neft of dried
grafs in a burrow, having an oblique and a perpendicu¬
lar entrance. They feed chiefly on the dwarf iris ; but
Jrtifh eaftwards, in Kamtfchatka, and under the
Arftic circle. They are called by Dr Pallas mures
tetonomi, from their curious way of living. They
dwell moftly in damp foils, forming burrows, with
like the mannot; but do not become torpid in winter.
This fpecies is very falacious; the males fight together
for the females, and the conqueror generally devours
the vanquifhed. The female fmelis of muflt when in
many chambers and numerous entrances, immediately feafon, produces fevcral times in the year, and brings
under the turf. In thefe they lay up magazines of five or fix young ones at a birth. They migrate in
various vegetable food, chiefly bulbous roots; which
they fpread out in funny days to dry, and never touch
them but in winter, living all fummer on berries and
other vegetables. The Kamtfchatkans hold thefe ani¬
mals in great regard, and never dettroy their hoards ;
they take away only part, and leave fome caviare or
other fubftance to fupport them in its ftead. This
great troops; whence the name of rambling mice,
which is given them by the Tartars.
24. The torquatus, collared or ringed moufe, ha& 4.
a very ftiort tail, with a tuft of hard briilles at the
end, which is blunt: the ears are (horter than the fur ;
the feet have each five toes ; the fur is ferruginous,
aried with grey, yellow, and duiky, having a whitiflv
fpecies fometimes emigrates in vaft. multitudes, keep- collar round the neck, and a dark line along the back.
ing a ftraight courfe, like the lemmus, even over ri¬
vers ; and are much infefted on their march by birds,
fiflt, wild hogs, foxes, and other wild beafts. They
begin their march from about the river Pengin in
fpring, and about the middle of July reach Ochot-
ika and Judoma, at a vaft diftance; and return in Oc¬
tober The Kamtfchatkans are much alarmed at
their migrations which portend rainy weather and a
bad chaee ; and when they find them lying weak and
fpent with fatigue after eroding a river, give them
every afliftance in their power. The Tfchutlki are
not fo much attached to this animal, and make ufe
both of their winter ftoiesand of their carcafes aa food.
21 The gregalis, or gregarious moufe, has a Ihort
tad ; the ears are longer than the fur ; the fore-feet
have each three toes and the rudiments of a fourth ;
the fur is dark a(h-coloured on the upper parts, and
The head and body are fomewhat more than three
inches long, the tail fcarcely one inch. It inhabits
the northern parts of the Uralian mountains, and the
mar hes near the frozen ocean ; feeding chiefly on the
lichen rangiferinus, lichen nivalis, and polygonus vi-
viparus ; thefe articles of food are ftored up in bur¬
rows having numerous paflages, which it digs under
the turfy foil. This fpecies is migratory, and refem¬
bles the lernmus in its manners.
25. The lemmus, or lemming, has-a very flrorttail: piate
The head is pointed, having very long whlfkers. fixCCCXVII
of the hairs on each fide being longer and ftrongec
than the reft; the mouth is fmall, having two- very
long fore teeth in each jaw, and the upper lip is di¬
vided ; the eyes are fmall and black ; the ears arc
fhorter than the fur, rounded, and reclined backwards ;
the fore-legs arc very Ihort, having four. Header hairy
5 toes •
M U S [ 4J9 J M U S
toes on eaph, and a long (harp claw like a cock’s fpur The males are about ten inckes long, and the tail
J in place of the fifth or thumb ; the hind-feet have five about three, but the females are fcarcely more than u
toes ; the flcin is very thin, and the upper parts of half fo large : the former weigh frorti 12 to 16 ounces.
the body are black and tawny, difpofed in irregular
blotches; the belly is white tinged with yellow. The
length from nofe to tail is about five inches ; of the
tail, half an inch. This fingular animal inhabits the
mountains of Norway and Lapland. They feed on
grafs, the catkins of the dwarf birch, the lichen ran-
giferinus, or rein-deer liverwort, and other fuch vege¬
table productions : in fummer they form (hallow bur¬
rows under the turf, and in winter they make fimilar
long pafiages under the fnow in queft of food ; for
as they do not lay up magazines, and do not hyber-
nate, they are obliged to fearch for provifions in the
rigorous winter of thefe northern climes. When they
forefce, by fome wonderful inftinft of nature, the ap¬
proach of a very fevere winter, they leave their north¬
ern haunts in autumn, and emigrate in immenfe mul¬
titudes into the lower parts of Norway and Sweden,
keeping a ftraight line in fpite of every obftacle, mo¬
ving moftly in the night-time, and making prodigious
havock of every vegetable they are able to reach. In
this journey, which takes place at uncertain intervals,
though generally about every ten years, they arc de¬
while the latter feldora exceed from four to fix ounces :
The head is thick, with a blunt nofe, and numerous
whificers, large full black eyes, and large rounded
open ears ; ufually the head and back are of a reddilh
brown colour, with red cheeks; the fides are paler,
with three white fpots ; the bread, upper part of the
fore-legs, and belly, are black ; the feet are large and
white, having four toes, and a claw infiead of a fifth
toe on the fore-feet, and five toes on each hind foot:
The colour varies; fometimes, though rarely, they
are found entirely white or yellowifh, or white with
black fpots on the back ; fometimes the fnout is white,
and the forehead a(h-coloured, or the lower jaw of
white colour.—There is a variety (the black Germ^
hamder) which is entirely black, excepting the tip of
the nofe, ddges of the ears, and the feet, which are
white. This fpecies inhabits Siberia, the fduth of
Rufila, Poland, Sclavonia, Hungary, Silefia, Bohe¬
mia, and Germany beyond the Rhine, efpecially in
Thuringia.—Each individual forms a fubterraneous
burrow, confiding of feveral chambers, with two holes
or entrances leading from the furface ; one of thefe is
droyed by eagles, hawks, foxes, and other animals of perpendicular, and the other, in which the excrements
prey, and numbers are drowned in paffing rivers or are lodged, is oblique ; the holes of the females have
lakes, which never interrupt their courfe, even pro- feveral perpendicular openings, and each young one
ceeding on into the fea : from all thefe concurring of her family is lodged in a feparate chamber: The
caufes very few live to return to their native moun¬
tains, and thus a check is put to their ravages, as it
takes years to repair their numbers fufficiently for ano¬
ther invafion. They are bold and fierce, fo as even
to attack men and animals, if they meet them in
their courfe ; and bite fo hard as to allow themfelves
to be carried a confiderable way, hanging by their
chamb’ers which are fet apart for the lodging of them¬
felves and young are lined with draw or grafs; the reft
are larger, and are appropriated for containing maga¬
zines of grain, beans, peafe, lintfeed, vetches, and
other fuch feeds, each in a feparate cell. The cham¬
bers of the older animals are dug feveral feet deep,
while thofe of the younger ones feldom exceed a foot
teeth to a dick, before they will quit their hold. The under the furfacc. The hamder deeps during the win-
female breeds feveral times in the year, producing five
or fix young at a birth: fometimes they bring forth
during their migration, when they carry their young
in their mouth or oh their back.
There is a variety, the Sibiricus, or Siberian lem¬
ming, of a fmaller fize, and more uniform tawny co¬
lour, than the above. It inhabits the northern parts
of the Uralian chain of mountains, and on the river
Oby. It differs greatly in manners from the former :
i'or it lays up in its burrows large dores of provifions
to ferve during winter ; whence it is probable that it
does not migrate like the Norwegian kind.
There are nine or ten other fpecies belonging to
this divifion.
ter like the marmots ; when in a torpid date, neither
refpiration nor any kind of feeling can be perceived.
The heart, however, beats 15 times in a minute, which
has been difcovered by opening the ched. The blood
continues to be fluid, but the intedines are not irri¬
table ; even an electrical (hock does not awake him ;
but in the open air he never becomes torpid. When
dug up in his date of torpidity, the hamder is found
with his head bent under bis belly between the two
fore-legs, and thofe behind red upon his muzzle. The
eyes are (hut; and when the eye-lids are forced open,
they inftantly clofe again. The members are diff,
like thofe of a dead animal, and the whole body feels
as cold as ice. When difle&ed during this date, he
iUlCCXlX. long oval furrowed ears : the upper parts of the body lethargy hath been afcribed folely to a certain decree
firf- are of a yellowifli and brown a(h-colour, the under of cold ; which indeed may be true with regard to
parts hoary. The head and body meafure four inches, dormice, bats, &e. But experience fliows*. That, in
and the tail near one. This fpecies inhabits the di- order to render the hamder torpid, he mud aifo be
k drift of Orenburgh in Siberia, near the Yaik or Ural, excluded from all communication with the external air :
It lives in burrows, which it quits only in the night for when he is (hut up in a cage filled with earth and
to feek for food: T he Coffacks fay that it migrates draw, and expofed in Printer to a degree of cold i’uf-
out of the defarts iri vaft multitudes ; but Dr Pallas ficient to freeze the water, he never becomes torpid •
fufpefts this to be a miftake. but when the cage is funk four or five feet under
« 2’ ?he M* cncctus Germanicus, or German ham- ground, and well fecured againft the accefs of the air,
■ fig 1. fter# 18 the moft ddlrudlve of thc wbole rat-tribe, at the end of eight or ten days he is equally torpid as
3 M 2 if
M U S [ 460 ] M U S
Mus. Jf he had been in his own burrow. If the cage is
—Y—~J brought up to the furface, the hamfter will awake in
a few hours, and refume his torpid ftate when put be¬
low the earth. The experiment may be repeated with
the fame fuccefs as long as the froft continues. We
have a farther proof that the abfence of the air is one of
the caufes of torpidity in thehatniler; for when brought
up from his hole in the coldelt weather, and expofed
to the air, he infallibly awakes in a few hours. This
experiment fucceeds as well in the night as in the day ;
which (hows that light has no lhare in producing the
effedt. It is curious to obferve the hamfter palling
from a .torpid to an adfive Hate. He firlt lofes the
rigidity of his members, and then makes a profound
refpiration, but at long intervals. His legs begin to
move, he opens his mouth, and utters difagreeable and
rattling founds. After continuing thefe operations
for fome time, he opens his eyes, and endeavours to
raife himfelf on his legs. But all thefe movements
are ftill reeling and unfteady, like thofe of a man in¬
toxicated with liquor. He, however, reiterates his
efforts till he is enabled to Hand on his legs. In this
attitude he remains fixed, as if he meant to recon¬
noitre and repofe himfelf after his fatigue ; but he gra¬
dually begins to walk, eat, and adf in his ufual man¬
ner. This palfage from a torpid to an adfive ftate re¬
quires more or lefs time, according to the temperature
of the air. When expofed to a cold air, he fome-
times requires more than two hours to awake ; and in
a more temperate air he accomplilhes his purpofe in
lefs than one hour. It is probable that, when the
hamfter is in his hole, this change is performed im¬
perceptibly, and that he feels none of the inconvenien¬
ces which arife from a fudden and forced revivifcence.
The hamfter is a very mifchievous animal; and fo
exceedingly fierce, that he feems to have no other paf-
fion but rage. In confequence of this, he attacks
every other animal that comes in his way, without re¬
garding the fuperior fize or ftrength of his antagonift;
nay, as if he was ignorant of th? method of faving
himfelf by flight, he allows himfelf to be beat to pieces
with a flick rather than yield. If he feizes a man’s
hand, he mult be killed before he quits his hold.
When the hamfter perceives a dog at a diftance, he
begins with emptying his cheek-pouches if they hap¬
pen to be filled with grain, and which are fo capacious
as to hold a quarter of a pint Englilh. He then
blows them up fo prodigioufly, that the fize of the
head and neck greatly exceeds that of the body.
Taftly, he raifes himfelf on his hind-legs, and in this
attitude dafts on his enemy. If he catches hold, he
never quits it but with the lofs of life. But the dog
generally feizes him behind, and ftrangles him. This
ferocious temper prevents the hamfter from being at
peace with "any other animal. He even makes war
againft his own fpecies, not excepting the females.
When two hamfters encounter, they never fail to at¬
tack each other, and the ftronger always devours the
weaker. A combat between a male and a female
lafts longer than between two males. They begin by
purfuing and biting each other; then each of them re¬
tires to a fide as if to take breath; a little after, they
renew the combat, and continue to fly and fight till
one of them falls. The vanquifhed uniformly ferves
for a repaft to the conqueror.
The hamfters copulate about the end of April; Mire,
when the males enter the apartments of the females,'—
where they remain only a few days. If two males
happen to meet in the fame hole, a furious combat
enfues, which generally terminates in the death of the
weakeft. The conqueror takes poffeffion of the fe¬
male ; and both, though at every other period they
perfecute and kill each other, lay afide their natural
ferocity during the few days their amours continue.
They even mutually defend each other againft agref-
fors ; and if a hole is opened about this time, the fe¬
male defends her hufband with the utmoft fury. The
females bring forth twice or thrice every year. Their
litter is never fewer than fix, and more frequently
from 16 to 18. Their growth is very rapid. At the
age of 15 days they begin to dig the earth ; and
foon after, the mother banilhes them from her habita¬
tion ; fo that at the age of about three weeks they
are abandoned to their own management. The mo¬
ther in general difeovers little affe&ion for-her oft-
fpring; and when her hole is opened, flies in the moil
daftardly manner, leaving her young ones to perilh.
Her only folicitude at that time is to provide for her
own defence. With this view Are digs deeper into
the earth, which ihe performs with amazing quick-
nefs. The young would willingly follow her; but fhe
is deaf to their cries, and even (huts the hole which (he
has made.
The hamfters feed upon all kinds of herbs, roots,
and grains, which the different feafons produce, and*
even eat the flefh of fuch animals as they can conquer.
They are particularly fond of places where liquorice
grows, and. feed much on its feeds. Their pace is
very flow, and they do not climb ; but they dig with
vaft quicknefs, and will gnaw through a piece of wood
an inch and a half thick in a very ftiort time. As
they are not adapted for long journeys, their maga¬
zines are firft flocked with the provifions which are
neareft their abode- This is the reafon why fome of
the chambers are frequently filled with one kind of
grain only. When the harveft is reaped, they go to
a greater diftance in queft of provifions, and carry every
article they can find, without diftin&ion, to their gra¬
nary. To facilitate the tr^nfportation of their food,
nature has furnifhed them with two pouches in the
infide of each cheek. On the outfide, thefe pouches
are membranous, fmooth, and (hining ; and in the in¬
fide there are a great many glands, which fecrete a
certain fluid, to preferve the flexibility of the parts,
and to enable them to refill any accidents which may
be occafioned by the roughnefs or (harpnefs of patti-
cular grains. Each of thefe receptacles is capable of
containing an ounce and an half of grain, which, on
his return to his lodgings, the animal empties, by
prefling his two fore-feet againft his cheeks. Where
we meet a hamfter having his cheeks filled with pro¬
vifions, it is eafy to feize him with the hand, without
the rifle of being bitten ; becaufe in this condition he
has not the free motion of his jaws. But if he is al¬
lowed a little time, he foon empties his pouches, and
Hands upon his defence. The quantity of proviiions
found in the holes depends on the age and fex of the
inhabitant. The old hamfters frequently amafs 100
pounds of grain ; but the young and the females con¬
tent themfelves with a quantity much {mailer. Their
object
M U S [46
Mus. objeft in laying up provifions, is not to nouriih them
v ' during winter, which they pafs in fleep, and without
eating ; but to fupport them after they awake in the
fpring, and previous to their falling into a torpid date,
which refembles a profound fleep. At the approach
of winter, the hamfters retire into their fubterraneous
abodes; the entrance to which they (hut up with great
addrefs. Here the animal repofes, in the fituation
already defcribed, upop a bed of draw, and in this
date he is commonly dug up. They are preyed on
by polecats, weafels, cats, dogs, foxes, and birds of
prey; and are profcribed by man, on account of their
devaftations. In winter the peafants generally go a
hamjler-nejling as they call it; the retreat is known by
a fmall eminence of earth raifed near the oblique paf-
fage formerly defcribed. The peafants dig down till
they difcover the hoard, and are generally wyll paid
for their trouble; as they often "find two bufliels of
corn, befides the Ikins of the animals, which are va¬
luable furs: and it is remarkable, that the hair flicks
fo fail to the fkin, that it cannot be plucked off with¬
out the utmoll difficulty. In fome feafons the ham¬
fters are fo numerous, that they occafion a dearth of
corn. In ojid year about 11,000 flcins, in a fecond
54,000, and in a third year 8o,oco, were brought to
the town-houfe of Gotha, to receive a reward for their
deftru&ion. They are likewife deftroyed by means
of a pafle formed of honey and flour boiled up with
arfenic or powdered hellebore.
Plate 3. The arenarius, or fand-hamfter, has the upper
CCCX1X. parts of the body hoary ; the fides, belly, limbs, and
“S'11, tail, pure white. It inhabits the fandy defarts of Ba-
raba, on the river Irtifh, in Siberia. The head is
large, with a longifh fnout and a fharp nofe, having
very long whifkers, very large pouches, and great oval
brownifh ears; the body is fhort and thick, being
about four inches long, and the tail rather more than
one ; the fur is very foft; the fore feet have only four
toes each, the hind feet five, all the claws being white.
This animal is very fierce and untameable : it forms
burrows, like the preceding fpecies ; is chiefly atfive
at night, and feeds moftly upon leguminous plants.
yig. 7, 4. The fongarus, or fongar hamiter, has the upper
parts of the body of a grey afh-colour, marked with a
black line along the back ; the fides of the head- and
body are varied with large white and dark brown
fpots; the feet and belly are white. It is about three
inches long, with a very fhort, thick, blunt, and hairy
tail, little more than one-third of an inch in length.
It inhabits the defert of Baraba, near the Irtifh, in
Siberia; where, like its congeners, it digs chambers
for the reception of provifions. It is not, however, fo
fierce as fome other fpecies of the handlers ; but may
be tamed when caught young, and grows very fa¬
miliar.
There are two or three other fpecies belonging to
this divifidii.
Fig. 18. 5. The phteus, or rice-hamfler, has the upper parts
of the body of a hoary afh-colour, with long dufky
hairs along the back ; the fides whitifh ; the circum¬
ference of the mouth, breaft, belly, and extremities of
the limbs, pure, white. It is about three inches and
a half long, and the tail fcarcely one inch.—This fpe¬
cies inhabits about Zarizyn in the defarts of Siberia,
and in the mountains of the north of Perfia; where
i 1 MUS
it does vaft mifchief in the rice fields. It is often i Ml:?- t
caught in traps during winter, near ftables and other " v
out-houfes, and never becomes torpid.
6. The furunculus, or Baraba hamfter, has the up-
per parts of the body of a cinereous yellow, with a black
ftreak on the back ; the under parts dirty white. It
is about three inches long, and the tail near one. This
fpecies inhabits JJauria, Siberia in the defart of Ba¬
raba, towards the Ob, between the Onon and Argum,
and in the Chinefe empire near lake Dalai; living
chiefly on the feeds of the aflragulus and atriplex ;
but its manners are unknown.
IV. MYOTALP-ffif, ox Mole-rats. Thefe have no^Kerr_
external ears, very fmall eyes, and a very fhort Mures fub^
tail or none. They live entirely under gxomviterranei>
like the moles. Gmelin‘
1. The talpina, or Ruffian mole-rat, is of a dufky pjate
colour ; has a very fhort tail, fcarce appearing beyond CCCXIXi
the fur; and no external ears: the fore-teeth are long, fig- 3*
extended from the mouth, and wedge-fhaped: the eyes
are very fmall, and hid in the fur: the feet have five
toes; the fore feet are very flrong, flat, and formed
for digging. It is about four inches long, and in the
general form refembles the water-rat. As to colour,,
the head, back, and fides are dufky, and the belly and
limbs white. There is a variety (the nigraJ, which
is entirely black.—This fpecies inhabits the .plains of
Ruffia and Weftern Siberia, fcarcely extending beyond
the Irtifh, and never beyond the Oby. It is fond of
a turfy foil, avoiding fandy or muddy places; and digs
holes like thofe of the hamfter, which it lines with
foft grafs, and fills with bulbous roots, throwing up
hillocks of earth all along the tracks ; each individual
has its feparate burrow : It works only in the night,
and feldom coides out except in the feafon of love.
Its fight is very weak in the day-time. It feeds chiefly
on the roots of tulips, tuberofe lathyrus, and tuberofe
phlomis. It procreates about the beginning of April,
at which time it fmells ftrongly of mufk ; and the fe¬
males produce three or four young at a litter.
2. The capenfis, or Cape mole-rat, is of a dark p]ate
brown colour tinged yellowifli, with the fore-part of CCCXVIE
the face, orbits, and regions of the ears, white : it fig- 9-
has a very fliorttail, and no external ears; and is about
five inches and a half long. It inhabits the Cape of
Good Hope, where it infefts the gardens.
3. The maritima, or African mole-rat, is of a pale
brownifh afh-colour mixed withyellowifh on the upper
parts, the fides and under parts paler: the tail is very
fhort ; and there, are no exteimal ears. It inhabits the
fand hills adjacent to the fea at tire Cape of Good
Hope ; and refembles the former fpecies, but is much
larger, meafuring 12 or 13 inches long, and the herd
is more lengthened. It forms burrows in the fand
like thofe of rabbits ; and digs with furprifing cele¬
brity. It runs flowly ; but is very fierce, and-bites. fe-
verely. It feeds chiefly on the roots of ixias, antholy-
zx, gladioli, and irides; and is reckoned good .eating.
4. The afpalax, or Daurian mole-rat,, is of a dirty Fl2- IOi
■ yeUow afh-colour on the upper parts, and whitifh afh
on the lower: haa a very fhort tail, and no external
ears ; the eyes are very fmall, and deep feated ; the
feet have each five toes, the claws of the fore feet be¬
ing very long.—This fpecies inhabits Dauria, and Sibe¬
ria beyond the Irtifh, between the Alei and Tfcharyfch
M U S [ 4S2 1 M U S
Mas. rirm. It digs very long burrows ill tbe black turfy
foil or firm fand, throv/ing up numerous hillocks,
which extend over a confiderable furface; it works
both with its feet and uofe, and fometimes with its
teeth. It feeds- chiefly on the roots of bulbous plants.
This fpecies varies in fize, thofe of Dauria being near
nine inches long, while thofe farther call are fcarcely
fix.
CCCXVIJi 5' r^^ie 0r blind mole rat, is of a reddilh
fig. 7. aih colour; and has no tail, external ears, or apparent
eyes; the feet have each five toes; and the fore¬
teeth are broad. The body and head meafure between
feven and eight inches: the mouth is continually ga¬
ping, with ihort wrinkled fore-teeth above, and very
long ones below, likewife.furrowed or wrinkled, none
of them being hid by the lips; the body is covered
with fhort, foft, and clofe fet fur, which is of a dufky
colour at the bottom, with the ends of a rufty brown
mixed with afh-colour; the legs are very fliort, having
five toes on each foot armed with fhort claws, and
llightly conne&ed by a fhort membrane at their bafes.
This fpecies inhabits the fouthern parts of Rufiia,
from Poland to the Volga. Each individual forms
burrows under the turfy foil of very confiderable ex¬
tent, with many lateral paffages, and throws out the
earth at different diflances, in large hillocks fometimes
two yards iu circumference, and proportionally high.
r It works with its fnoirt, feet, rump, and even with its
teeth ; and digs w-ith great celerity, efpecially when
frightened, in which cafe it digs direftly downwards.
When irritated, it fnorts, gnaflies its teeth, raifes its
\ head in a menacing pofture, and bites with great fe-
verity. It feeds on roots, efpecially thofe of the bul¬
bous chaerophyllum. It is entirely blind, though it
has the rudiments of very fmall eyes, which are co¬
vered over with a continuation of the fkin ; but it
pofleffes the fenfes of touch and hearing in a very emi¬
nent degree, to make up for the lofs of fight. It
breeds in fpring and fummer ; and the female, which
has two teats, brings from two to four young ones at
a birth.
The Marmot, Agouti, Guinea-pig, Cavy, Jerboa,
Dormoufe, &c. which were formerly comprehended
under the prefent genus in the Linnaean arrangement,
have, in confequence of more accurate invefligation,
been lately disjoined, and diftributed under four new
•* See Gme-genera> Myoxus, ArBomys, Dipus, and Cavia*. But
lin’s edition as we are pall the alphabetical order in which the
®f Sy three laft of thofe genera fhould have been introduced,
we muft ft'lldefcribe the above animals (excepting the
the very e- brit) in this place ; obferving, however, to diftinguifh
laborate them according to their new generic arrangement,
and more I. Myoxus, qx Dormoufe. See Myoxus, the Mar-
anipkedi- ,mU
En^lifh, II. Arctomys, the Marmot} the charaders of
publdhirg which genus are: There are two wedge-like cut-
by Kerr. ting teeth in each jaw ; the grinders are five
above, and four below, on each fide ; and there
are per fed clavicles or collar-bones.
Plate 1. The marmotta, or common marmot, has ihort
eCCXVtl. round ears; gibbous cheeks ; a fligrt hairy tail; the
7* upper parts of the body of a duflty brown colour, and
the lower parts reddifli. The body and head meafme
16 inches, the tail fix. This fpecies inhabits the fum*
mits of the Alps and Pyrenean mountains, in dry Mus.
places where there are no trees. It is more fubjed—v—
to be rendered torpid by cold than any other. In the
end of September, or beginning of Odober, he retires
into his hole, from which he comes not out till the
beginning of April. His retreat is capacious, broader
than long, and very deep, fo that it can contain feveral
marmots without any danger of corrupting the air.
With their feet and claws, which are admirably adapt¬
ed for the purpofe, they dig the earth with furprifing
quicknefs, and throw it behind them. It is not a hole,
or a ftraight or winding tube, but a fpecies of gallery
made in the form of a Y, each branch of which has an
aperture, and both terminate in one where the animal
lodges. As the whole is made on the declivity of a
mountain, the innermoft part alone is on a level. Both
branches of the Y are inclined, and the one is ufed for
depofiting the excrements of the animals, and the
other for their going out and coming in. The place
of their abode is well lined with mofs and hay, of
which they make ample provifion during the fummer.
It is even affirmed, that this labour is carried on joint¬
ly; that fome cut the fineft herbage, which is collefted
by others, and that they alternately ferve as vehicles
for tranfporting it to their den*. One, it is faid, lies
down on his back, allows himfelf to be loaded with
hay, extends his limbs, and others trail him in this man¬
ner by the tail, taking care not to overfet him. Thefe
repeated fri&ions are affigned as the reafon why the
hair is generally rubbed off their backs. But it is more
probable, that this effeft is produced by their frequent
digging of the earth. But, whatever may be in this,
it is certain that they dwell together, and work in com¬
mon at their habitations, where they pafs three-fourths
of their lives. Thither they retire during rain or up¬
on the approach of danger; and never go out but in
fine weather, and even then to no great diflance. One
Hands centinel upon a rock, while the others fport on
the grafs, or are employed in cutting it to make hay.
When the centinel perceives a man, an eagle, a dog,
&c. he alarms the reft with a loud whittle, and is him¬
felf the laft to enter the hole. They make no provi-
fions for winter ; nor have they in that feafon any oc-
caiion for them, as lying afleep all that time. As foon
as they perceive the firft approaches of the lleeping
feafon, they fet to work in (hutting up the two en¬
trances of their habitation; and this they perform.with
fuch labour and folidity, that it is eafier to dig the
earth any where elfe than in the parts they have forti¬
fied. They are at this time very fat, weighing fome¬
times 20 pounds ; and they continue to be plump for
three months; but afterwards they gradually decay,
and are extremely emaciated at the end of winter.
When difeovered in their retreats, they are found rolled
up in the form of a ball, covered with hay; and they
are carried off in fo torpid a ftate, that they may be
killed without Teeming to fed pain. When taken young,
they may be rendered nearly as tame as our other do-
meltic animals. They are able to walk on their hind-
feet, fit up often on their haunches, and carry food to
their mouths with their fore-feet. They learn to
feize a flick, to dance, to perform various gefticula-
tions, and to obey the voice of their matter. Like the
cat, the marmot has an antipathy againft dogs. When
he begins to be familikr in the houfe, and perceives
M U S [ 40t ] M U S
Mm. that he is protected by his mafter, he attacks and
u—v ' bites dogs of the moft formidable kind. Though not
fo large as a hare, he is ftouter, and his llrength is
aided by a peculiar fupplenefs and dexterity. With
his fore-teeth, which are pretty long, he bites moft
cruelly ; he attacks not, however, either dogs or men
■unlefs previoufly irritate^. If not prevented, he gnaws
furniture and ftuffs; and when confined, pierces even
through wood. His voice refembles the murmuring
of a young dog when careffed or in a fporting hu¬
mour ; but when irritated or frighted, he makes a
whiffling noife, fo loud and piercing, that it hurts the
ear. The marmots eat every thing prefented to them;
as flelh, bread, fruit, roots, pot-herbs, may-bugs, grafs-
hoppers, &c. but milk and butter they prefer to every
other aliment. Though lefs inclined to theft than the
cat, they endeavour to flip into the dairy, where
they drink great quantities of milk, making, like the
cat, a murmuring noife expreffive of pleafure. Milk
is alfo the only liquor that is agreeable to them ; for
they rarely drink water, and they refufe wine. They
procreate but once a-year ; and the female, after three
or four weeks, produces two, three, or four young.
The growth of their young is very quick.; they live
only nine or ten years; and the fpecies is neither nu¬
merous nor much diffnfed. They are eafily caught
when on plain ground, but with difficulty in their
holes, as they dig deeper when in danger of being
taken, except in winter when torpid ; at which time
they are caught in great numbers. They are learched
for partly on account of their flefh, which is tender
and delicate; partly for their fleins; and partly for
their fat, which is efteemed medicinal by the inhabi¬
tants of the Alps : but they are chiefly taken by the
Savoyards for the purpofe of being expoied as fliows
through various parts of Europe. The.marmot would
make very good eating, if it had not always a difa-
greeable flavour, which cannot be concealed but by
ftrong feafonings.
Plate 2. The monax, or American marmot, is about the
fi051/11' ^l7,e a rabhib ^ has ftiort rounded ears ; the- nofe
and cheeks are bluifh ; the body is of a deep brown
colour; the tail is longifli, and very hairy. This fpe¬
cies inhabits the warmer ftates of North America and
the Bahamas. 1 It forms holes in the clefts of rocks
and under the roots of trees, in which it pafles the win¬
ter in a torpid Hate; though it is uncertain if thofe of
the Bahamas hybernate, as the climate of thefe iflands
Is very mild. It feeds on vegetables; and its flefli is
very good, refembling that of a pig.
- 3* The bobac, or Polifh marmot, is of a greyifli co-
^CCCXIX. jourj mJxecl with long dufky hairs on the upper parts
>£• 23- tj^e kody-j the under parts yellowifn : It has fmall
oval ears, fmall eyes, a hairy ftraight tail, and the
fore-feet have each a claw in place of the thumb or
fifth toe. The head and body meafure fixteen inches,
the tail four and a half. This fpecies inhabits the dry
and funny places of the mountains, from the Borif-
thenes through the temperate climes of Afia as far as
China and Kamtfchatka. It forms very deep bur¬
rows, in which focieties of 20 or more live together,
each individual having a particular neft at the bottom
of the common gallery, which is often three or four
yards deep, and from which numerous galleries or paf*
fages branch off to the feveral apartments. They go
about in fearck of food in the. morning and middle .of
the day, placing a centinel to give warning of ap- Mus.
preaching danger. The bobak ifc a timid animal, and—\r~;
feeds only ©n vegetables, chiefly oleraceous plants. It
fits up on the hams, and carries its food with the fore
paws to its mouth, and defends itfelf in the fame po-
fture. It may be eafily tamed even when old: it then
eats cabbages or bread, and laps milk ; but refufes to
drink water. In fummer it feeds voracioufly ; but
remains torpid all winter, except when kept in very
warm places: and even then it eats very little ; and
efcapes if poffible, that it may get to fome place pro.
per for hybernating; but returns to its mafter in
fpring. The flefh refembles that of a hare, though
rank; the fat is ufed for dreffing leather and furs; and
the fkins are employed for clothing by the Ruffians.
The female has eight teats; and probably brings forth
early, as by the month of June the young ones are
half grown.
4. The citillus, or earlefs marmot, is of a variable Plate
colour, has a convex head, no external ears, and a^CCXVIf,
fhort hairy taiL This fpecies inhabits the fouthern^5* ^
parts of Ruffia as far as Kamtfchatka, and the iflands
between Afia and America; is found in Perfia and
China; but is now rarely met with in the reft of Eu¬
rope. They dwell in open, high, dry, and unculti¬
vated places, preferring turfy and loamy foils, near the
high roads, and never frequent bogs or woods. Each
individual has its feparate burrow, in which, for pro-
vifion in the beginning and end of winter, it lays up
magazines of grain, tender vegetables,. and berries ;
fometimes. though rarely, the carcafes of mice and
fmall birds are added. In the middle of winter thefe
animals lie torpid during the greateft feverity of the
froft. From the very beginning of-fpring, as foon as
the weather becomes mild, they go out in the day time
in queft of food', which they eat fitting on their
haunches, carrying it in their fore, paws to the mouth.
The male is very eafily tamed; but the female is
fiercer, more given to bite, and is lefs eafily made
tame ; ihe goes between three and four weeks with
young, and brings forth from three to eight young
ones about the beginning of May. The fur is very-
good in the fpring, and the flefti is reckoned tolerable.
They are preyed on by polecats, weafels, hawks, car¬
rion crows, and cranes.
This animal varies confiderably both in fize and co¬
lour, being fometimes as large as the common mar¬
mot, ahd fometimes not larger than the water-rat. In
general the colour is of a yeilowifh afh on the upper
parts, and dirty white on the belly, (the xize/ of Buf-
fon) ; fometimes it is variegated either with waves or
fmall fpots of white, (the fouflik of the fame author. J
Some are white-on the upper parts, and waved with
tawny or yellow, being pale yellow on the lower parts
of the body, and having a longifli tail, with fhed hair
like that of a fquirrel: others are of a grey colour on
the upper parts of the body, fpotted with white ; the .
under parts being of a yeilowifh white, with white or¬
bits,. and the face, between the eyes and the nofe, of
a brownifli yellow, with a fliort tail.
5. The empetra, or Canadian marmot^ is of a mixed Fig. t,
grey colour on the uppdirparts of the body; the lower
parts orange ; having fliort rounded ears, and a hairy
tail. It is rather larger than a rabbit,' and the tail is
about two inches and a half long; the head is round,»
with, a blunt nofej .and ihort rounded ears; the cheeks
arec
M IT S r 464 ] M U S
Mas. gj-e full, and of a grey colour; the face is dufky, with always to dig unde)* the roots of fomc bufhy plant or
a black nofe ; the hair on the back is grey at the roots, fhrub. It particularly delights in thofe places which
black in the middle, and whitifh at the tips ; the belly are frequented by the cereites or horned viper, though
and legs are of an orange colour ; the feet are black it would appear that the ferpent fometimes preyed up-
and naked, having four long, flender, divided toes, on it ; for Mr Bruce tells us that he once faw a jer-
and the rudiments of a thumb on each fore foot, and boa taken out of the belly of a female viper big with
five fimilar on each behind, all armed with pretty young, and almoft confumed by the digeftive powers
ftrong claws. This animal was deferibed by Mr Pen- of the animal. It is a very cleanly creature, and keeps
nant from a living fpecimen in pofiefiion of Mr its hair always in excellent order. It jumps about with
Brooks, which was very tame, and made a hilling great agility, in which it is afiifted by its long tail,
noife. It inhabits Canada, Hudfon’s Bay, and the which we Ihould fuppofe would rather be a hinderance
other northern parts of America. • to it. The Arabs of the kingdom of Tripoli in Af-
Five or fix other fpecies of ar&omys, fome of them rica teach their grehounds to hunt the Antelope, by
fufpefted to be only varieties, are deferibed by Kerr. learning them firlt to catch jerboas; and fo agile are
III. Dip us, or Jerboa. There are two fore-teeth the latter, that Mr Bruce has often feen, in a large
in each jaw : the tail is long, and tufted at the court-yard or inclofure, the grehound employed a quar-
end : but the moft finking charafterittic of this ter of an hour before he could kill his diminutive ad-
genus is the enormous length of the hind feet verfary 5 and had he not been well trained, fo that he
and extreme (hortnefs of the fore-paws. From made ufeof his feet as well as his teeth, he might have
this conformation, infiead of walking or running killed two antelopes in the time he could have killed
on all fours, they leap or hop on the hind feet one jerboa. This animal is very fat, and the flelh
like birds, makingprodigious bounds, and only ufe well coloured; the buttocks, thighs, and part of the
the fore paws for burrowing, or for carrying their back, are roafted and eaten by the Arabs, as already
food to the mouth like fquirrels. From this pe- mentioned, and tafte almoft exactlyJike a young rab-
culiarity of conformation, the kanguru, G. xix. bit, but without the ftrong fmell of the latter. It is
fp. 15. and Philip’s opoffum, fp. 16. of the fame faid, that the flefti dried in the air is very nouriftiing,
genus (Mr Kerr obferves), ought to have been ar- and prevents coftivenefs; fo that it feems to be endow-
ranged with this genus of the jerboa ; but from ed alfo with medicinal qualities. The animal is found
a rigid adherence to artificial fyftem, they are by in moft parts of Arabia and Syria, and in all parts of
Dr Gmelin ranked with the genus opoffum, on the fouthern defarts of Africa; but nowhere in fuch
account of the number and arrangement of their plenty as in the Cyrenaicum or Pentapolis. In his
teeth. See the article Didelphis. journey thither, Mr Bruce employed feveral Arabs,
x. The jaculus, or common jarboa, has four toes on together with his own fervants, to kill thefe animals
all the feet, and a claw in place of a thumb or fifth with fticks, that their Ikins might not be hurt with
toe on each fore-foot. The body is fomewhat more fliot. Having got them dreffed in Syria and Greece, and
than feven inches long, and the hind legs and thighs fewed together, making ufe of the tail, as in ermine,
are longer than the body. The upper parts are of a for the lining of a cloak, he found they had a very
pale tawny colour, and the under parts white : the good effedt, making a finer and glolfier appearance the
ears and feet are flelh coloured. The female has eight longer they were worn.
diftantly placed teats. Thefe animals inhabit Egypt, Bochart thinks this animal is the Sapbon of holy
Arabia, Calmuck Tartafy, and fouthern Siberia, writ, and difplays a vaft deal of learning on the fub-
They frequent firm hard ground, and fields covered jedt. But this opinion is refuted by Mr Bruce, who
with grafs and herbs, where they form burrows of fe- obferves, that the faphon is gregarious, and builds in
veral yards long in a winding diredtion, leading to a rocks; being likewife diftinguilhed for its feeblenefs,
large chamber about half a yard below the furface ; which it fupplies by its wifdom ; and none of thefe
and from this a fecond paffage is dug to within a very charadters apply to the jerboa : “ therefore (fays Mr
little of the furface, by which they can efcape when Bruce) though he chews the cud in common with fome
threatened with danger. When at reft, they lit with others, and was in great plenty in Judea, fo as to be
their hind legs bent under their belly, and keep the known to Solomon, yet he cannot be the faphon of
fore legs fo near the throat as hardly to be perceptible. Scripture.” He fuppofes with great probability, that
They eat grain and herbage like the hare. Their dif- it is the creature termed the moufe, Ifa. Ixvi. 17. ; and
pofitions are mild, and yet they can never be perfedl- fays that in the Arabic verfion the word is exprefsly
ly tamed. Two that were kept in a houfe in London trandated Jerboa. See the article Saphon.
burrowed almoft through the brick-wall of the room 2. The fagitta, or Arabian jerboa, has three toes on
where they were ; they came out of their hole at night the hind feet, and no thumb or fifth toe on the fbre-
for food ; and when caught were much fatter and paws. It is only about fix inches long, and the tail
flecker than when confined to their box. rather (horter than the body ; the foies of the hind-feet
This animal is eaten by the Arabs, who call it the and bottom of the toes are covered with a very thick
lamb of the children of Ifrael. It has been particularly coat of hair ; the head is more rounded than that of
^ , noticed and deferibed by Mr Bruce in his Abyfiinian the preceding animal, and the ears are much longer
p lax' ‘ Travels*. He fays it inhabits the fmootheft places than the head. It inhabits Arabia, and near the Irtilh
of the defart, efpecially thofe where the foil is fixed in Siberia, where it frequents the fandy plains,
gravel. In this it burrows, and has its hole divided The two following are diftinguilhed as different
into many apartments. It feems, however, to be fpecies by Mr Pennant, though Dr Gmelin feems not
afraid of the ground falling in upon it, as it choofes to have confidered them as diftinft from the preceding.
Np 232. , A. The
M U S [ 465 3 M U S
Mu*. A. The sqgyptius, or Egyptian Jerhoa, has three
^ v " ' toes only on the hind feet ; and four toes, with a
CrcxVllI fcartely apparent thumb or fifth toe, furniihed with
x6. a claw, on the fore-paws.
This animal Mr Pennant fuppofes to be the mus hi-
pes of the ancients, mus fagitta of Pallas, jerbo of Buf-
fbn, and daman Ifrael of the Arabs. He fays, that
it inhabits Egypt, Barbary, Paleftine, the deferts be-
t-ween Bafora and Aleppo, the fandy" tracks be¬
tween the Don and Volga, and the hills fouth of the
Irtilh.
Fig. 17. B. The fibiricus, or Siberian jerboa, with three
toes on the hind feet, and two fpurious toes fame way
up the legs ; five toes on the fore feet, the thumb or
fifth toe having no nail. Of this fpecies Mr Pennant
diftinguilhes four varieties, the major, medius, minor,
and pumilio ; differing in fize, colour, &c. But they
ail (he fays) agree in manners. They burrow in hard
ground, clay, or indurated mud ; not only in high
and dry fpots, but even in low and fait places. They
idig their holes with, great celerity, not only with
their fore-paws but with their teeth, and flinging the
earth back w ith their hind feet fo as to form a heap
at the entrance. The burrows are mgny yards long,,
but not above half a yard deep. Thefe run obliquely;
and end in a large fpace or neft, the receptacle of the
fineft,herbs.- They hav« ufuaily but one entrance ;
yet by a wonderful fagacity they work from their
neft another pafiage to within a .very fmall fjJace of
the furface, which in cafe of neceflity they can burft
through, and fo efcape.
They fleep rolled up withsrtheir head between them
thighs-: At fun-fef they come out of their holes,
clear them of the filth, and keep abroad till the fun
has drawn up the dews frorrt the earth. On approach
of any danger, they immediately take to flight, with
leaps of a fathom in height, and fo fwiftly that a
man well mounted can hardly overtake them. They
fpring fo nimbly, that it is impoflible to fee their feet
touch the ground. They do not go flraight forward,
but turn here and there till they gain a burrow,
whether it is their own or that 'of another. When
furprifed, they will fometimes go on all fours, but
foon recover their attitude of Handing on their hind
legs like a bird : eyen when undifturbed, they ufe the
former attitude ; then rife eredf, liften, and hop about
like a crow. In digging or eating they drop on their
foie legs ; but in the laft a&ion will often fit up and
eat like a fquirrel. They are eafily tamed ; and feek
always a warm corner. They foretel cold or bad
weather by wrapping themfelves clofe up in hay; and
thofe which are at liberty flop up the mouths of their
burrows. In a wild ftate they live much on olera-
ceous plants : the fmall ftature of the pumilio is attri¬
buted to its feeding on faline plants. Thofe of the
middle fize, which live beyond the lake Baikal, feed
on the bulbs of the /ilium pompon/nm, and they gnaw
the twigs of the robinia caragana. When confined,-
they will not refufe raw meat or the entrails of fowls.
■—They are the prey of all lefler rapacious beafts; and
the Arabs, who are forbidden all other kinds of mice,
efteem thefe the greateft delicacies. The Mongols
have a notion that they fuck the ftieep : certain it is
they are during night very frequent among the flocks,
which they difturb by their leaps. Thefe animals
breed often in the fummer; in the fouthern parts in
Vot. XII. Part .11.
the beginning of May ; beyond Baikal not till June. Mu*.
They bring perhaps eight at a time, as they have fo ~v
many teats. They fleep the whole winter without
nutriment. About Aftracan, they will fometimes
appear in a warm day in February ; but return to
their holes on the return of cold.
3. The cafer, or Cape jerboa, has four toes on the
hind-feet and five on the paws; the tail is very hairy,
and tipt with black.-—This fpecies, wdiich inhabits
the Cape of Good Hope, is larger than any of the
foregoing, being 14 inches long, the tail 15, the ears
three. It is called aerdmannetie, or little earth man,
and fpringen haas, or leaping hare, by the Dutch at
the Cape. It has a granting voice ; is very ftrong,
and leaps 20 or 30 feet at one bound. It burrow's
with its fore feet; hnd fleeps fitting on its hind legs,
with the knees feparated, the head between, and hold¬
ing its ears with the fore-paws over its eyes. It is
eaten by the natives; and is caught by pouring wa¬
ter into its hole, which forces it to come out.
4. The meridianus, Cafpian jerboa, or long-legged Plate
moufe, has five toes behind and three before, withC g 6 *
the rudiments of a thumb -or inner toe. It is five
inches long, and the tail three.—This fpecies inhabits
the fandy deferts between the Ural and Volga, near
the Cafpian.—It forms burrows, with three entrances,
about a yard in depth ; and feeds chiefly on the feeds
of the pterococci and aftragaii.
f. The lamaiicinus, or marfh jerboa, has five toes Fig. rj»
behind and three before, with the rudiments of a
fourth ; the tail is obfeurely annulated. The body
and head meafure about five inches and a half in
length ; the tail is about the fame length.—This fpe¬
cies inhabits the fait marfhes near the Cafpian fea;
and is fuppofed to feed on the fruit of the tamarix
and nitrarium, which grow in thefe marflies. Under
the roots of thefe trees it forms very deep burrows,
which have twm entrances. It is a very elegant little
animal. There are two or three other fpecies of this
genus.
IV. The Cavia, or Cavy; a genus which feems to
hold a midle place between the murine and the le¬
porine quadrupeds. The charafters are : there are
two wedge-like cutting teeth in each jaw, and
eight grinders in both jaws: the fore-feet are fur-
nifhed with four or five toes: the hind-feet with
three, four, or five each: the tail is either very
Ihort or entirely wanting : there are no clavicles
or collar-bones.
1. The paca, or fpotted cavy, has fire toes on all Flat*
the feet; and the fides are marked with rows of grey
or pale yellow fpots. T’he body and head meafure I3"‘
about two feet in length; the tail is like a fmall but¬
ton, and fo extremely fliort as to be hardly apparent;
the mouth is very fmall, and the upper lip^is divided;
the noftrils are very large, and the muzzle is gatnilh-
ed with long whifkers ; the ears are fliort and round-
ifii ; the eyes are large, prominent, gnd brownifh ; the
tw-o cutting teeth in each jaw are very long and of
great ftrength; the hind legs are longer than the
fore.—This fpecies inhabits Brafil, Guiana, and pro¬
bably all the warmer parts of America'. It lives in
fenny places near rivers, burrowing in the ground,
and keeping its hole exceedingly clean, to which it
has always three diftindl outlets: It grows very fat,
and is efteemed a great delicacy. The female has
3 N two
M U S [
Mu’- two teats fjtuated between tbe hind-thighs, and has
only a tingle young one at a litter- — It is difficult to
take this animal alive. When furprifed in it's hole,
which the hunters lay open both before and behind,
it defends itfelf, and even bites fiercely.—It is, how¬
ever, eafily accuflomed to a domeftic life. Unlefs in-
dullrioully irritated, it is gentle and tra&able, fond of
adulation, and licks the hands of the perfon who ca-
reffes it. It knows thofe who take care of it, and
readily diftinguiffies their voices. When gently ftroak-
ed on the back, it ilretches itfelf out, lies down on
its belly, by a fmall cry expreffes its acknowledge¬
ment, and feems to alk a continuance of the favour :
but if fei/.ed in a rough manner, it makes very violent
efforts to'efcape. When kept in a wooden cage or
box, this animal remains perfectly tranquil during the
day, efpecially when plentifully fupplied with food.
It feems even to have an affe&ion for its retreat as
long as the day lalts; for, after feeding, it retires
fpontaneouny into it. But when night approaches,
by perpetual reltleffnefs and agitation, and by tearing
the bars of its prifon with its teeth, it difcovers a
violent defire of getting out. Nothing of this kind
happens during,the day, unlefs it has oceafion for
fome natural evacuation ; for it cannot endure the
finalleft degree. of dirtinefs in its little apartment ;
and when about to void its excrements, always retires
to tbe molt diilant corner it can find. When its ftraw
begins to fmell, it often throws it out, as if it meant
to demand freffi litter. This old draw it puffies out
with its muz/.le, and goes in quell of rags or paper
to replace it. In a female cavy, the following ex¬
traordinary inllance of cleanlinefs was obferved. A
large male rabbit being ffiut up with her when ffie was
in feafbn, ffie took an averfion to him the moment he
voided his excrement in their common apartment.
Before this fhe was very fond of him ; licked his nofe,
ears, and body ; and allowed him to take almofl the
whole food that was given her. But as foon as the
rabbit had infe&ed the cage with his ordure, -ffie re¬
tired into the bottom of an old prefs, where ffie made
a bed with paper and rags, and returned not to her
old lodging till ffie faw it neat, and freed from the
unclean gueil which had been prefented to her.
2. The agouti, which is about the fize of a rab¬
bit, has a very Ihort tail; four toes on the fore feet,
and three on the hind ones ; the upper parts of the
body of a browniffi colour mixed with red and black,
blate the rump orange, and the belly yellowilh. Of this
OCCXVfl. fpgcies there are three varieties mentioned by authors,
ljo' I0*11-viz. the leffer cunicularis or long-nofed cavy, which
is about the fize of a rabbit ; the leporina or larger
rabbit, called the java hare, or javan cavy, which
is as large as a hare; and the americana, which feems
to be but little known. They all inhabit South Ame¬
rica.and the Weft India iflands ; dwelling in hollow
trees, or burrowing in the ground. They fearch for
their food, which is entirely vegetable, during the
day, and carry it home with them to their dwellings:
when feeding they fit on their hind legs, and carry
their food with the fore-paws to the mouth. They
grow very fat, and are very good eating, their fleffi
being white and favoury like that of a rabbit. They
breed frequently in the fame year, the female bring¬
ing three, four, or five young ones at a birth. They
6 ] M U S
grunt like pigs, are very- voracious, pnd when fat, M»«.
their fleffi is white like that of a. rabbit, but dry. ~
What food.theycannot immediatelyconfume they-hoard.
in their retreats, and eat at their leifure. Their pace
is hopping like that of a hare or rabbit ; they beat
the ground like them with their feet, when angry ;
they Hop and liften to the found of mufic; and they
take Ihelter, when purfued, in their holes, or in hal¬
low trees.—They are hunted with dogs. When one
of them is forced among the cut fugnr canes, he-is
foon taken ; becaufe thefe grounds being generally
covered a foot thick with ftraw and^leaves, at each leap . . i
he finks in this litter, fo that a man may overtake and
flay him with a baton. He commonly runs very nim¬
bly before the dogs ; and when he gains his retreat,,
he lies fquat, and remains obllinately in his conceal¬
ment. The hunters are obliged to chace him due by
filling his hole with fmoke. The animal, half fufib-
cated, utters, mournful cries; but pever iflfuvs forth
unlefs when pulhed to the la.ft extremity. His cry,
which he often repeats when dilturbed or irritated, rc-
fembles that of a fmall hog. If taken young, he is
eamy tamed, and goes out and returns of his own ac¬
cord.
3. The cobaya, or reftlefs cavy, has four toes on the Fig. 5, t I
fore and three on the hind-feet, with no tail ; it is ° .
about feven inches in length p and the whole body, is
white, ufually variegate,d with irregular orange and
black blotches. 'this fpecies inhabits Brafil ; but
its manners in a wild ftate are not mentioned by au¬
thors. In a domeftic ftate, as they appear in Europe,
they are very reftkfsi and make a continual noife.—
They feed on all kinds of herbs ; but efpecially on par-
fley, which they prefer to grain or bread ; and they
are likewife fond.of apples and other fruits. They
eat precipitately like the rabbit, little at a time, but
very often. Buffon fays they never drink; but Gme-
lin, that they drink water. Their voice is commonly
a kind of grunt like a young pig; when engaged in
their amours, it refembles the chirp of a bird ; and
when hurt, they emit a (harp cry. They are of a
tame and gentle, but ftupid difpofition. The female
breeds at two months old, bringing from four or five
to ten or twelve young ones at a birth, though ffie
has only two teats; and breeds very often dming the
year, as ffie, goes but three weeks with young, and
takes the male 12 or 15 days'after littering. As
they breed fo fall, their multitudes would be innu¬
merable, if there were not fo many enemies which
deftroy'them. They cannot refill either cold or moi-
fture : when cold, they affemble and crowd clofe toge¬
ther; in which cafe they often all periffi together. They
are alfo devoured in great numbers by cats, and many
are killed by the males. Rats are faid to avoid their
haunts. They are called in England Guinea-pigs, from
their being fuppofed to come from that country.
4. The magellanica, or Patagonian cpvy, has hardly pjg. ;
any tail; the lides -of the nofe are garniffied with tufts °
of curly hair and long numerous whifleers. This fpe¬
cies inhabits the country about Port Deiire in Pata¬
gonia, and is of confiderable fizp, fometimes weigh¬
ing 26-pounds. It has the fame manners with the
reft of the genus ; it fits on its hind legs, burrows in
the ground, and feeds on vegetables. The fleffi is
very white, and has an excellent flavour.
6 5. The
Plate COOXVll .
MU S .
3
Plate cccjaii;.
<3
MBS r 467 1. MBS
5. The capybara, or thick-'nofed tapir, has no tail; both being concealed beneath the Hein ; the hind legs
J the hind feet have each three webbed toes. The are rather longer than the fore; the feet are large, (
length of the animal, when full grown, is above two black, and naked : the body is fliort, thick, and con-
feet and a half i the head and nofe are very large and trailed, with a prominent belly, and is covered with
thick ; having fmall, eredl, rounded, naked ears, ahd a foft woolly fur of a yellowifh brown or greyifli co¬
large black eyes : and the nofe is garnifhed with nu- lour, hoary at the roots; the fides are of a dirty whi-
merous black whifkers; in each jaw are two large tith grey ; ahd along the back is a^brownifh ftripe c this
ftrong fore-teeth, and eight grinders; the legs are
fhort, having the toes conne&ed by a web, and their
extremities are guarded with a kind of hoofs inftead
of claws; the neck is fhort and thick ; the ha
fur is interperfed with longer and coarfer, black hairs,
and a few very coarfe long bridles. The fore-feet
have four fhort, fcarce divided, thick toes, furnifhed
ith flat nails; the two outer toes of the hind-feet are
Plate
ccexvn.
3.
Fig. 9.
fhort, rough,'and harfli, like bridles, being longed on fimilar, but the inner toe is longer, and has a fharp
the back, and mod of them are yellowifh in the middle claw. 'I his animal has a fharp voice, and acute fenfe
and black at both ends.—-Tliis fpecies inhabits the of hearing ; its gait is very wavering and undeady,
ealtem fide of South America, from the idhmus of owing to the fhortnefs of its thighs and unequal
Darien to Bradl and Paraguay 5 living in fenny woods length of the bsind and fore legs; notwithdanding of
near the large rivers, fuch as the Ama/ons, Oroonoko, which it is very adlive, and moves by leapsit is very
and Plata. They fwjm and dive remarkably well, and cleanly, lives entirely on vegetable food, drinks little,
keep for a long time under, water. They catch fifh is fond of heat, and burrows in the ground. In man-
at night with great dexterity, and bring them on fhore ners and general appearance, this animal refembles the
to eat them; which they do fitting on the hind marmot and cavy ; in the conformation of its toes it
legs, and holding the food in the fore-paws like the has fome analogy with the maucauco ; but from the
apes. They likewife live on fruits and vegetables, circumdances of the teeth it cannot be ranked with
efpeclally the fugar cane, and feed only in the night, the lad; and the peculiarity of the feet has caufed
They keep together in large herds, making a great Dr Gmelin to feparate it from both of the former.”
noife like the braying of affes, and do vad mifehief 2. The fyriacus, or Syrian afhkoko, (Bruce, Schre- T
in gardens. They grow very fat; and the dedi is her), “ has foft tender nails on all the toes. It inlia-^^
eaten, being tender-, but has an oily and fiflry flavour, bits Syria and Ethiopfa.—1 he body of this is more
In the breeding fdafon, one male and one female live lengthened than that of the former, and the fuout
together, and the female only produces a dngle one more oblong. The fur is of a reddifh grey colour
at a birth. Thefe animals are eaiily rendered tame, like that of the wild rabbit, the throat, bread, and
and become very familiar. belly, being white ; all over the body a number of long,
6. The acufchy, or olive cavy, has a fhort tail; the drong, and polifhed hairs are Mattered among the
upper parts of the body are of an olive colour, the fur. The body and head of the individual deferibed
under parts whitifh. This fpecies inhabits Guiana, by Mr Bruce meafured 17 inches The ears are broad,
- Cayenne, and Brafih —It is about the fize of an half- open, and rounded ; each fide of the month is garnifh-
grown rabbit, is eafily tamed, and is reckoned very ed with long whiflcers. In walking, winch is perforin¬
delicate food. The female brings one, fometimes two, ed creeping low with the belly almofl touching the
at a litter. This animal refembles the agouti, but is ground, the hind feet are ufed as far as the heel. All
uniformly fmaller, has a tail of fome length, and is of the toes have flrort, broad, weak, flat nails, except the
different colour. It inhabits the woods, living on inner toe of the hind foot, which is provided with a
fruits; abhors water ; and fometimes, though rarely, flat crooked nail fomewhat longer than the reft ; the
makes a cry like that of the reftlefs cavy. foies of the feet are formed of flefhy naked protube-
There are five or fix other fpecies deferibed by au- ranees, divided by furrow's. It lives moftly about the
thors as belonging to the cavy genus. Two of them, mouths of caves or clefts in rocks; is gregarious; feeds
how'ever, have been lately marked by Dr Gmelin un- entirely on vegetables; is mild, feeble, timid, and eafily/
der a new genus, Hyrax ; which, as there was not an tamed, and has no voice or cry. Mr Bruce is of opi-
opportunity of introducing it in the order of the al- nion, that this animaf is the gannim or Daman Ifrad
phabet, we fhall here fubjoin, together with the de- of the Arabs, and the faphan of, facred fcriptures,
feriptions of the fpecies as given by Mr Kerr. which has er-roneoufiy been tranflated the rabbit.-—
V. Hyrax, or ajhkoko. There are two broad and Its flefh is very whites but is not eaten by the Abyf-
diftant fore-teeth above; four contiguous, broad, finians or Mahometans. The fame celebrated travel-
flat, notched fore-teeth below; and four large grind- ler is of opinion, that it ruminates or chews the cud.”
ers on each fide in both jaws. The fore feet have MUSA, the pi.antain-tree : A genus of the
four toes, the hind feet only three. There is no monoecia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
tail; and the clavicles are wanting. plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
1. The capeniis, or cape afhkoko, “ has flat nails eighth order, Scitamine<r. The calyx of the male her¬
on all the toes, except one toe of each hind foot maphrodite is a fpatha or fheath ; the corolla is dipe-
which is armed with a fharp pointed claw. It inha- talous ; the one petal ered and quinquedentate ; the
bits the Cape of Good Hope.—This animal is about other nectariferous, concave, and fhorter ; there are fix
the fize of a rabbit, being about 15 inches long ; the filaments; five of which are perfect; one ftyle ; the
head is fhort, with the back part very thick, and the germen inferior and abortive. The female hermaphro-
fnout very fhort and blunt; the eyes are fmall ; the dite has the calyx, corolla, filaments, and piftii of the
ears are oval and open, brown, woolly, and half hid in male hermaphrodite, with only one filament perfeCt ;
the fur; the legs are very fhort, the upper joints of the berry is oblong, and three-angled below. The
3 N 2 moft
M U S r 468 ] M U S
Mufi. mofl: remarkable fpecies are, T. The paradfaica, or
■—r 1 plantain j 2. The mufa fapkntum, or banana tree. See
Plate CCCXX.
The firft fort is cultivated in all the iflands of
the Weft Indies, where the fruit ferves the Indians
for bread; and fome of the white people alfo prefer
it to moft other things, efpecially to the yams and
caffada bread. The plant rifes with a foft ftalk 15
or 20 feet high ; the lower part of the ftalk is often
as large as a man’s thigh, diminifhing gradually to
the top, where the leaves come out on every fide ;—
thefe are often eight feet long, and from two to three
feet broad, with a ftrong fleftiy midrib, and a great
number of tranfverfe veins running from the midjib
to the borders. The leaves are thin and tender, fo
that where they are expofed to the open air, they
are generally torn by the wind ; for as they are large,
the wind has.great power againft them : thefe leaves
come out from the centre of the ftalk, and are rolled
up at their firft appearance ; but when they are ad¬
vanced above the ftalk, they expand and turn back¬
ward. As thefe leaves come up rolled in the manner
before-mentioned, their advance upward is fo quick
that their growth may almoft be difcerned by the na¬
ked eye ; and if a fine line is drawn.acrofs level with
the top of the leaf, in an hour’s time the leaf will be
near an inch above it. When the plant is grown to
its full height, the fpikes of flowers will appear in the
centre, which is often near four feet in length, and
nods on one fide? The flowers come out in bunches ;
thofe in the lower part of the fpike being the largeft ;
the others diminifh in their fize upward. Each of thefe
bunches is covered with a fpath or (heath of a fine
purple colour, which drops off when the flowers open.
The upper part of the fpike is made up of male or
barren flowers, which are not fucceeded by fruit, but
fall off with their covers. The fruit or plantains are
about a foot long, and an inch and a half or two inches
diameter : it is at firft green, but when ripe of a pale-
yellow colour. The Ikin is tough; and within is a
foft pulp of a lufcious fweet flavour. The pikes, of
fruit are often fo large as to weigh upwards of 40 lb.
The fruit of this fort is generally cut before it is ripe.
The green fxin is pulled off, and the heart is roafted
in a clear f.re for a few minutes, and frequently turn¬
ed : it is then feraped, and ferved up as bread. Boil¬
ed plantains are not fo palatable. This tree is culti¬
vated on a very extenfive fcale in Jamaica ; without
the fruit of which, Dr Wright fays, the ifland would
fcarce be habitable, as no fpecies of provifion could
fupply their place. Even flour or bread itfelf would
be lefs agreeable, and lefs able to.fupport the laborious
negro, fo as to enable him to do his bufinefs or to
keep in health. Plantains alfo fatten horfes, cattle,
fvvine, dogs, fowls, and other domeftic animals.
r The leaves being fmooth and foft are employed as
drefiings after blifters. The water from the foft trunk
is aftringent, and employed by fome to check diar-
r ioeas. ' Every other part of the tree is ufeful in diffe¬
rent parts of rural economy. The leaves are ufed for
napkins and table-cloths, and are food for hogs.
The fecond fort differs from the firft, in having its
ftalks marked with dark purple ftripes and fpots.—
The fruit is fhorter, ftraighter, and rounder? the pulp
is fofterj and of a more lufcious tafte. It is never
eaten green ; but when ripe, it is very agreeable, ei¬
ther eaten raw or.fried in flices as fritters 5 and is re-
lifhed by all ranks of people in the We'ft Indies.
Both the above plants were carried to the Weft In¬
dies from the Canary Iflands; whither, it is believed,
they had been brought from Guinea, where they
grow naturally. They are alfo cultivated in Egypt,
and in moft other hot countries, where they grow to
perfection in about 10 months from their firft planting
to the ripening of their fruit. When their ftalks are cut
down, thefe will feveral fuckers come up from the
root, which in fix or eight months will produce fruit;
fo that by cutting down the ftalks at different times,
there is a conftant fucceffion of fruit all the year.
In Europe there are fome of thefe plants p re ferved
in the gardens of curious perfons, who have hot-houfes
capacious enough for their reception, in many of
whom they have ripened their fruit very well; but as
they grow very tall, and their leaves are large, they
require more room in the ftove than moft people care
to allow them. They are propagated by fuckers, which
come from the roots of thofe plants which have fruited j
and many times the younger plants, when they are
Hinted in growth, will alfo put out fuckers.
The fruit of the banana-tree is four or five inches
long, of the fize and fhape of a middling cucumber,
and of a high, grateful flavour: the leaves are two
yards long, and a foot broad in the middle ; they join
to the top of the body of the tree, and frequently
contain in their cavities a great quantity water,
which runs out, upon a fmall incifion being made
into the tree, at the jun&ion of the leaves. Bananas,
grow in great bunches, that weigh a dozen pounds
and upwards. The body of the tree is fo porous as
not to merit the name of wood ; the tree is only per¬
ennial by its roots, and dies down to the ground
every autumn.
When the natives of the Weft Indies (fays Labat)
undertake a voyage, they make provifion of a pafte of
banana ; which, in cafe of need, ferves them for nou-
rifhment and drink : for this purpofe they lake ripe
bananas ; and having fqueezed them through a fine
fieve, form the folid fruit into fmall loaves, which are
dried in the fun or in hot afhes, after being previoufly
wrapped up in the leaves of Indian flowering-reed.—
When they would make ufe of this pafte they dif-
folve it in water, which is very eafily done ; and the
liquor, thereby rendered thick, has an agreeable acid,
talte imparted to it, which makes it both refrefhing
and nourifhing.—The banana is greatly efteemed, and
even venerated, by the natives of Madeira, who term,
it the forbidden fruit, and reckon it a crime almoft
inexpiable to cut it with a knife ; becaufe, after dif-
feftion, it exhibits, as they pretend, a fimilitude of
our Saviour’s crucifixion ; and to cut tire fruit opeir
with a knife, is, in their apprehenfion, to wound his-
facred image.
Some authors have imagined, that the banana-tree
was that of the leaves of . which our firlt parents made
themfelves aprons iir Paradife The facred text, in¬
deed, calls the leaves employed for that purpofefg-
le ives ; and Milton, in a moft beautiful but erroneous
defeription, affirms the bearded or Bengal fig to have
been the tree alluded to. But befides that the fruit
of the banana is often by the molt ancient authors
called
M U S [469 ] M U S
called a Jig., its leaves, by reafon of their great fize and
folidity, were much more proper for a veil or cover-
incr than thofe of the Bengal fig, which are feldom
above fix or eight inches long and three broad. On
the other hand, the banana leaves being three, four,
and five feet long, and proportionably broad, could not
fail to be pitched upon in preference to all others ;
efpecially as they might be eatily joined, or fewed to¬
gether, with the numerous thread-like filaments that
may, with the utmoft facility, be peeled from the body
of this tree.
Some have fuppofed the Abyffinian plant enfete to
be a fpecies of mufa. It is faid to be a native of the
province of Narea, where it grows in the great marfhes
and fwamps for which that province is remarkable,
owing to the many rivers which originate in that
country,, and have but a fmall declivity to the ocean.
This plant, as well as the coffee-tree, is faid to have
been unknown in Abyfiinia before the arrival of the
Gaila, who imported them both along with them. It
comes to great perfection about Gondar; but the
principal plantations of it are in that part of Maitfha
and Gouth, to the weft of the Nile, where it is al¬
most the foie food of the Galla who inhabit that conn-
try. Maitftia is almoft entirely on a dead level; fo that
the rains ftagnate and prevent the fowing of grain.
Were it not for the enfete, therefore, the Galla would
have fcarce any vegetable food. Mr Bruce * thinks
that the enfete may have been cultivated in fome of
the gardens of Egypt about Rofetto, but that it was
not a native of the country. He ftrongly controverts
the opinion that this plant is a fpeci^s of mufa. “ It
is true (fays he), the leaf of the banana refembles that
of the enfete: it bears figs, and has an excrefcence
from its trunk, which is terminated by a conical figure,
chiefly differing from the enfete in fize and quantity
of paits ; but the figs of the banana are of the fize and
figure of a cucumber, and this is the part which is
eaten. This fig is fweet, though mealy, and of a tafte
highly agreeable. It is fuppofed to have no feeds,
though in fadt there are four fmall black feeds belong¬
ing to every fig. But the figs of the enfete are not
eatable : they are of a foft tender fubflance ; watery,,
taftelefs, and in colour and confiftence refembling a
rotten apricot: they are of a conical form, crooked
a little at the lower end ; about an inch and an
half in length, and an inch in breadth where thick-
eft. In the infide of thefe is a large ftone half an
inch long, of the fhape of a bean or cafhew-nut, of
a dark-brown colour; and this contains a fmall feed,
which is feldom hardened into fruit, but confills only
of Ikin. The long ftalk that bears the figs of the en¬
fete fprings from the centre of the plant, or rather is
the body or folid part of the plant itfelf. Upon this,
where it begins to bend, are a parcel of loofe leaves
then grows the fig upon the body of the plant with¬
out any ftalk ; after'which the top of the fiaik is.thick-
fet with finall leaves, in the midlt of which it termi¬
nates the flower in the form of an artichoke ; whereas
in the banana, the flower in form of the artichoke
grows at the end of that (hoot or ftalk, which pro-
ceedsdirom the middle of the plant, the upper part of
which bears the row of figs. The leaves of the enfete
are of a web of longitudinal fibres clofely fet. together;
the leaves grow from the bottom without Hulks: where¬
as the banana is in form like a tree, and has been m’f-
taken for fuch. One half of it is divided into a ftem,
the other is a head formed with leaves and in place
of the ftem that grows out of the 'enfete, a number of
leaves, rolled round together like a truncheon, {hoots
out of the heart of the banana, and renews the upper
as the under leaves fall off: but all the leaves of the
banana have a long ftalk ; this fixes them to the trunk,
which they do not embrace by a broad bafe or involu-
crum as the enfete does.
“ But the greateft differences are ftill remaining.—
The banana has by fome been miftaken for a tree of
the palmaceous kind, for no other reafon but a kind
of fimilarity in producing the fruit on an excrefcence
or ftalk growing from the heart of the ftem : but ftill
the mufa is neither woody nor perennial; it bears the
fruit but once; and in all thefe refpefts it differs from
trees of the palmaceous kind, and indeed from all
fort of trees whatever. The enfete, on the contrary,
has no naked ftem ; no part of it is woody : the body
of it, for feveral feet high, is efculent; but no part
of the banana plant can be eaten. As foon as the
ftalk of the enfete appears perfect and full of leaves,
the body of the plant turns hard and fibrous, and is
no longer fit to be eaten : before, it is the beft of all
vegetables. When boiled, it has the tafte of the beft new
wheat-bread not perfectly baked, . When you make ufe
of the enfete for eating, you cut it immediately above
the fmall detached roots, and perhaps a foot or two
higher, as the plant is of age. The green muft be
ftripped from the upper part till it becomes white ;
when foft, like a turnip well boiled, if eat with milk
or butter, it is the beft of all food, vvholefome,. nou-
rifhing, and.eafily.digefted.T ‘
Our author now proceeds to confidefi an hierogly¬
phic fometimes met with in Egypt, viz. “the figure
of Ifis fitting between fome branches of the banana,
tree, as is fuppofed, and fome handfuls of ears of wheat.
You fee likewife the hippopotamus.ravaging a quantity
of the banana tree. Yet the banana is merely adven¬
titious in Egypt: it is a native of Syria : it does not
even exift in the low hat country of Arabia Felix ;
but choofes fome elevation in the mountains where
the air is temperate; and is not found in Syria far¬
ther to the fouthward than Lat, 340.
For thefe reafons Mr Bruce thinks, .that the banana
not being a plant of the country, “ could never have
entered into the lift of their hieroglyphics ;, for this
reafon it could not figure any thing regular or perma¬
nent in the hiftory of Egypt or its climate. I there¬
fore imagine (adds he), that this hieroglyphic was
.wholly Ethiopian; and that the fuppofed banana, which,
as an adventitious plant,, fignified nothing in Egypt,
was only a reprefentation of the enfete ; and that the
record in the hieroglyphic of Ifis and the enfete-tree
was fomething that happened between-harveft, which
was about Auguft, and the time that the enfetc-tree
came in ufe, which wasjn October.—The hippopo¬
tamus is generally thought to reprefent a Nile that has
been fo abundant as to be deftruftive. When, therefore,
we fee upon the obelifles the hippopotamus deftroying
the banana, we may fuppofe it meant, that the ex-
traordinary inundation had gone fo far as not only to
deftroy the wheat, but alfo to retard or hurt the growth
ol the enfete, which, was to fupply its place.”
MUSJLUV
M U S [ 470 1 M U S
MUSiEUS, an ancient Greek poet, U'as, accord-;
ing to Plato and Diodorus'Siculus, an Athenian, the
fon of Orpheus, and chief of the Eleufinian myfteries
ir.ilituted at Athens in honour of Ceres : or, accord¬
ing to others^ he was only the difciple of Orpheus s
but from the great refemblance which there was be¬
tween his character and talents and thofe of his ma¬
iler, by giving a ftrooger outline to the figure he was
called his fan,' as thofe were ityled the children of /Ipollo
who cultivated the arts of which he was the tutelar god.
Mufteus is allowed to have been one of the firfi poets
who verfified the oracles. He is placed in the Arun-
delian marbles, epoch 15. 1426 B. C. at which time
his hymns are there faid to have been received in the
celebration of the Eleufinian myfteries. Laertius tells
us, that Mufasus not only compofed a theogony, but
formed a fphere for the ufe of his companions ; yet
as this honour is generally given to Chiron-, it is more
natural to fuppofe, with Sir Ifaac Newton, that he en-
e/. larged it with the addition of feveral confiellations af¬
ter the conqueft of the golden fleece. The fphere it-
felf (hows that it was delineated after the Argonautic
expedition, which is deferibed in the aflerifms, toge¬
ther with feveral other more ancient hiilories of the
Greeks, and without any thing later; for the (hip Argo
was the firfl long vefl'cl which they had built: hitherto
they had ufed round fhips of burthen, and kept within
fight of the fliore 5 but now, by the dictates of the
oracle, and confent of the princes of Greece, the flower
of that country fail rapidly through the deep, and
guide their fliip by the (tars.
Mufseus is celebrated by Virgil in the charadter of
hierophant, or prielt of Ceres, at the head of the molt
illuttrious mortals who have merited a place in Ely-
fium. Here he is made the condudtor of ./Eneas to the
recefs where he meets the fhade of his father A nchifes.
A hill near the citadel of Athens was called Mu~
feiwt, according 10 Paufanias, from Mufieus, who ufed
to retire thither to meditate and compofe his religi¬
ous hymns; at which place he was afterwards buried.
The works which went under his name, like thofe of ■
Orpheus, were by many attributed to Onomacritus.
Nothing remains of this poet now, nor were any of his
writings extant in the time of Paufanias, except a
hymn to Ceres, which he made for the' Lycomides.
And as thefe hymns were likewife fet to mufic, and
fung in the myfteries by MufseUs himfelf in the cha-
radter of prieft, he thence perhaps acquired from
future times the title of muficlan as well as of poet;
the performance of facred mufic being probably tt
fir ft confined to the priefthood in thefe celebrations, as
it had been before in Egypt, whence they ©riginated.
However, he is not enumerated among ancient mufi-
cians by Plutarch ; nor does it appear that he merited
the title of fon and fuccejfor to Orpheus for his mufical
abilities, fo much as for his poetry, piety, and pro¬
found knowledge in religious myfteries.
MUSCA, the Fly, in zoology; a genus of in-
fedts belonging to tire order of diptera. The mouth
is furnifhed with a flefhy probofeis, and two lateral
lips; but it has no palpi. This genus is divided into
two different fedtions : 1. Thofe with fimple antennae.
2. Thofe which are furnifhed with a lateral hair or fea¬
ther. Thofe have downy bodies, though fcarce per¬
ceptibly fo ; and have either a lateral plume or feather
«u the antennae, or a fimple hair on the fide of the
antenme. The pilofae have a few hairs fcattered up- M
on their bodies, principally upon the thorax ; they
have either a lateral feather or a lateral hair. Under M
thefe divifions are comprehended about 400 different
fpecies, as enumerated in Dr Gmelin’s edition of the
Syflema Natura. “ Variety (as Mr Barbut obferves)
runs through their forms, their ftructure, their orga¬
nization, their metamorphofes, their manner of living,
propagating their fpecies, and providing for their poite-
rity. Every fpecies isfui nilhed with implements adapted
to its exigencies. What exquiiitenefs! what proportion
in the feveral parts that compofe the body of a fly i What
precifion, what mechanifm in the fprings and motion !
borne are oviparous, others viviparous ; which latter
have but two young ones at a time, whereas the pro¬
pagation of the former is by hundreds. Flies are laf-
civious troublefome infedts, that put up with every,
kind of food. When ftorms impend, they have molt
adtivity, and fling with greateft force. They multi¬
ply moll in hot moilt climates ; and fo great was for¬
merly their numbers in Spain, that there were flv-
hunters commifiioned to give them chace. The va¬
pour of fulphur or arfenic deftroys them ; and their
numbers may be reduced by taking them in phials of
honeyed water, or between boards done over with
honey.” There are 129 fpecies, principally diffin-
guifhed by the peculiarities in their ieelers.
Musca, a name given to fuch perfons among the
Romans as officioufly thiufl themfelves into the com¬
pany of their fuperiors and thofe who defpifed them,
by finding means of getting admittance to entertain¬
ments without inv^ation, and without a welcome : So
that mufee \fceie the fame as parafites, who were, fre¬
quently by the Greeks termed See Parasite.
MUSCADINE, a rich wine, of the growth of
Provence, Languedoc, Cividad, &c.—-The word, as
well as the liquor, is French ; Some fetch- its original
from mufk ; the wine being fuppofed to have a little of
the fmell of that perfume,; others from mufea, a “ fly*”
becauie the flies are extremely fond of its grapes ; as
the Latins had their vinum apianum, fo called ab apt*
bus, from the bees which fed on It.
The way of making mufeadine at Frontignac is as
follows : 't hey let the mufeadine grapes grow half dry
on the vine ; as foon as they are gathered, they tread
and prefs them immediately, and tun up the liquor,
without letting it Hand and work in the fat; the lee
occafioning its goodnefs.
MUSCHENBROECK (Peter de), a very diftin-
guiihed natural philofopher and mathematician, was
born at Utrecht a little before 17CO. He was fiifll
profeffor of thefe in his own univerlity, and afterwards
invited to the chair at Leyden, where he died full of
reputation and honours in 1761. He was a member of
feveral academies ; particularly the Academy of Sci¬
ences at Paris. He was the author of feveral works
in Latin, all of which fliow the groateft penetration
and exaAnefs in this way. He was alfo veryconlum-
mate in the knowledge of law. ,
MUSCI, Mosses; one of the feven families or
cluffes into which all vegetables are divided by Lin-
nsEtis in the Philofophia Botamca. The ancients took
the mofs of trees to be the effedl of a diforder or dif-
compofure of the texture of the bark ; or at moll a
kind of little filaments arifing from the bark : but the
moderns find, by feveral obfervations, that moffes are
all
M U S [ 471 ] M U S
all real diitmft plants, wlufe feeJ, being extremely
* fmall, is inclofevl in little capfuls ; which b\unb'ng of
tbemfelves, the feed is carried off by the windstill,
falling into- the inequalities of the bark of trees, it is
there ftopped, takes root, and feeds at the expence of
the tree, as mouidinefs does on bread, &c.
What the botanical writers ilridfly underftand by
the word ntofi, is a claffi of plants appearing of an in¬
ferior rank to the common vegetables the lefs perfeft
genera of which have been fuppofed to be wholly delti-
tute of flower or feed, or any thing analogous to ei¬
ther, and to ..confill of dimple, fimilar, and uniform
'parts ; the'genera a little above thefe have fome diver-
hty of parts, and carry fometbing that looks analo¬
gous to vegetation in the common way, having a re-
femblance of thofe parts which ferve other'plants for
their frudifleation. The more perfeft genera of the
mofles not only confill of different parts-, but have alfo
their appropriated organs containing a pulpy matter,
which finally becomes dry, and affiimes the form of a
fine and fubtile powder, compofed of granules, each
of which is either a feed or a granule of farina, ferving
for the propagation of the fpecies.
The more imperfedt moffes are diffinguilhed from
the others by their appearance to the naked eye ; they
are either in form of a fine lanugo' or down covering
the furface of different bodies; or elfe they appear as
flender filaments, or foliaceous bodies, floating about
in the water j or as filaments of a tougher texture,
hanging down from the branches of old trees ; or as
little fhruhs, or fingle horns, growing erect'on the
parched earth of mountains and heathy places ; or fi¬
nally, as broad and foliaceous bodies fpreading them-
felves over the dry barks of trees or rocks, without
any pedicle, or other fupport.
The more perfedi kinds, of moffes are found in the
fhape of fmall but regular plants, divided into feveral
branches, and clothed with leaves: thefe are of vari¬
ous forms and ftrudlures ; fqme being broad and thin,
others flender as hairs ; fome pellucid, others opake ;
fome fmooth, others hairy. From the al:e of thefe
leaves in fome kinds, and froin the fummit of the
ftalks in others, there arife heads or capfules of va¬
rious figure and ftrudhure, but all unicapfular ; fome
of thefe are naked, and others covered wdth a calyp-
tra or hood ; fome ftand on long pedicles, and others
are placed clofe to the flalks. Thefe heads are ufual-
iy called capfula, which contain their feeds or farina,
and their pedicles fete, in the mnia, hypna, brya, and
poly&icha, &c.
Thefe capfules in fome are covered with a calyptra
or hood ; in others they are naked. Of the firft kind
are the fpLchnum, polytricum, mnium, hr yum, hypnum,
fontinalis, and buxbaumia ; and of the latter fort, the
lycopodium, porella, fphagnum, and phafeum.
The fubftance with which the heads or capfules of
all the mofles are filled, refembles either feeds, or the
fmall globules of the farina of flowers, which all re-
femble feeds of particular figures in miniature. >The
fruftifications of thefe minute plants feem to be either
from thefe, as feeds falling to the earth ; or, according
to the opinion of fome, they feem to contain only fa¬
rina in the capfules, which impregnating certain bulbs
er nodules jn the alas of the leaves, caufe them to grow
and vegetate, as is feen in fome of the larger plants;
as in the bulbs produced in the alas of the leaves of the
dentaria, and of the lilies,, and fome, others. The for¬
mer opinion, of the powder in the heads or capfules
being adhfally perfect feeds, is the more probable, as
the bulbs in the* alas of the leaves are found only in
fome of the hypna, and others of a few other genera ;
whereas the propagation is as quick and certain in
thofe which have none of them, as in thofe which
have ; and the want of female parts of fructification,
which makes fo many deliderata in the Linnaean fyfteirt
of botany, is eafily made up, and the whole explain¬
ed according to the ufual courfe of nature in other
vegetables, by allowing the powder in the capfules to
be real feeds, and the fmall globules on the pointals
furrounding the aperture of the capfule, the farina.
The opinion of the moffes growung from thefe no¬
dules in the alre of the leaves, or from the impregna¬
ted ends of the branches which had received the pow¬
der from the capfules, was originally founded on the
obferving that the trailing or branched hypna an¬
nually grew out in length, from the extremities of fill
their branches, and annually loft as much of the old
ftalk at the root as they gained of the new at the fum¬
mit ; but it appears from farther obfervations, that
they are real feeds which are contained in form of
powder in the capfoles; fince the brya, and many
others, are found growing from fmall points or fpots,
which are affemblages of their minute leaves, propa¬
gated on the ground, under the old ones juft where
the powder of the capfules has fallen ; and though it
be allowed that the hypna and other trailing moffes,
do grow from the ends of thq branches, yet they may
alfo be produced in form of new plants, from regular
and perfect feeds ftied from the. capfules. It is cer¬
tain that the brya are by this means propagated and
fpread into large tufts, and the other genera may alfo
be fo propagated, though they have befide a property
of incrcafing by growth of the ftalk ; which feems no
other than the property of many of the large plants
to creep at the root, and Ihoot out in length greatly
from the extremities of their horizontal branches, ly¬
ing on or under the ground, as thofe fpreading parts
may more properly be fo -called than roots, the fibres
puihed out from them perpendicularly into the earth
being properly the roots; and it is well known that
thefe plants, though they propagate themfelves thus
by the root, produce feeds alfo like the others, by
which they may be equally propagated : and this ana¬
logy is to be carried yet farther ; for as thofe plants
which creep by the roots produce fewer feeds than
thofe which are propagated only by feeds ; fo the hyp¬
na, which are the genus of mofles. ih, which this
grbwth by the ftalk is principally obferved, are very
thinly befet with capfules gf feed,, and many of them,
produce but very few in a feafon ; whereas the brya,
and other moffes which have not this advantage of
growing from the ends of the flalks, are found every
year profufely covered with capfules from every tuft ;
nay, there is fcarce any branch which does not pro¬
duce its capfule. Now,, if thefe capfules contained only
a farina capable of impregnating the nodules or the
ends of the branches, it is obvious there would be as
much of it required for the hypna as for any other
kinds of moffes; but if they are real and perfect feeds,
it is no wonder that nature has. given them profufely
to
M U S
*• Murcr< to Fucli kinds as are to be propagated only by feeds,
v“—v  and more fparingly to thofe which arc propagated alfo
by the increafe of the branches.
To this it may finally be added, that the ferns and
other epiphyllofpermous plants approach moft of all
others to the nature of the mofles; and though it has
been fufpedted by many that the fine powder at the
back of their leaves was not feeds, but only a farina,
yet it is now well known that it is true and perfett
. feed ; fince, under many fpecies of them, there are
conftantly found new and felf-fown plants arifing in
- their firft rudiments of leaves and figure, which have
plainly grown from the dull or powder fallen from the
old plants ; and as this is now found to be the cafe in
regard to the ferns, probably it will alfo appear the
fame in regard to mofles, when they have been yet
farther examined than at prefent. But whether thefe
grains of powder have the lobes and radicles by which
the feeds of larger plants propagate themfelves, or
whether they grow into plants like the parent ones,-
in the manner of the lichens, by mere expanfion, is a
thing that requires farther obfervation to determine.
Some of the mofles, it is evident, approach to the
nature of the plants which have their male and fe¬
male parts in the fame flower, and others to thofe
which have them in different ones.
After all, this tribe of plants^ as well as the mufli-
rooms, ferns, and fea-weed, is ftill imperfe&ly known.
Dillenius, profeffbr of botany at Oxford, was the firft
who attempted an arrangement of them. In his Ca¬
talogs Plantarum circa Gijfam, publiflied at Francfort
in 1719, and afterwards in his Hijloria Mufcorum, pub¬
liflied at Oxford in 1741, he divides the moffesinto 16
genera. This arrangement, however, includes the li¬
chens, fome of the fuci, and other plants which belong
to very different families. The work in qucftion is,
notwithftanding, valuable, in having introduced the
knowledge of upwards of 200 plants, which were un¬
known before Dillenius: it is, befides, of all his works
of this kind, the beft executed, both for the defcrip-
tions and figures, and fliould ferve as a model to fuck
authors as intend to publilh in detail the hiftory of any
particular family of plants.
Micheli, in a work intitled Nova Pnmtnrum Genera,
publilhed at Florence in folio in 1629, divides the
moffes into two fe&ipns, from the figure and fituation
.of their flowers. Thefe fedtions comprehend together
16 genera, amongft which are improperly arranged,
like thofe of Dillcnius, feveral of the lichens and other
fea-weed.
The difcovery of the feeds of the moffes, though
made by Dillenius in 1719, is arrogated by Linnaeus
to himfelf, who did not begin to write till 1735.
In Ray’s method, the rcoffesform the third clafs: in
Tournefort’s, they conftitute a Angle genus, by the
name of mufcm, in the firft fedtion of the 17th clafs,
which comprehends the moffes, mufhrooms, and fome
of the algae or fea-weed, and is diftinguiftied by the
name of afpenrue, or plants without feed ; the feeds of
the modes not having been detedted by Tournefort.
The charadteriftics of thefe plants, according to the
fexuv.1 fyflem, are, i.Tops without filaments or threads.
2. The male dower, conftituted by the prefenee of the
anther a; or tops, placed apart from the female, either
on the fame or diftindt roots, a. The female flowers
N° 232-
M U S
deprived of the pijlillum or pointal. 4 The feeds de¬
void of both lobes (cotyledones) and proper coverings;
fo that they exhibit the naked embryo
In the fame fyftem, thefe plants conftitute the fe-
.cond order of the clafs cryptogamia, which contains all
the plants in which the parts of the flower and fruit
are wantingrx»r not confpicuous. This order is fubdi-
vided into 13 genera, from the prefence or abfence of
the calyx, which in thefe plants is a veil or cover like
a monk’s cawl, that is placed over the male organs or
tops of the ftamina, and is denominated calyptra, from
the fexes of the plants, which bear male and female
flowers, fometimes oh the fame, fometimes on diftindt
roots ; and from the manner of growth of the female
flowers, which are fometimes produced fingly, fome¬
times in bunches or cones. Thefe diftin&ions are
moftly borrowed from Dillenius, whofe excellence in
developing this part of the vegetable kingdom Linnaeus
very readily acknowledges.
The manner of feeding of moffes in general may be
more clearly underftood from the defeription of that
genus of them which has been traced through all its
ftages, and to which moil of the others, though every
genus has its diftindl frudlification in fome refpedls,
yet bear a very great general analogy.
The genus already obferved, is that called by Dr
Dillenius the hypnum. The fpecies of this are very nu¬
merous and common; but that particular one which
was the fubjedt of thefe obfervations, is the fliort-
branched filky kind, common on old walls ; and called
by that author in his hiftory hypnum, vulgare, fericum,
recurvum, capfulis ere Sis cufpidatis.
The head of this mofs appears to the naked eye a
fmall, fmooth, browniih-yellow, oblong body, of about
a ninth of an inch long ; this is covered at its upper
end w ith a membranaceous calyptra or hood, in fhape
refembling an extinguifher or a funnel inverted. When
this calyptra is taken off, and the head viewed with a
-microfcope, the furface of it is feen to be ridged with
longitudinal ftriss. The bafis of the head is of a deep
orange colour, and more opaque than the reft j and
the top is bounded by an orange-coloured ring, fwell-
ing out fomething beyond the furface of the contigu¬
ous parts of the head. Good glaffes (how that in this
head there are not wanting the parts effential to the
frudlification of what are ufually called the more per-
fedl plants. This ring is truly a monophyllous undu¬
lated calyx, within which arife (ixteen pyramidal fim¬
briated ftamina ; thefe are of a pale greenifh colour,
and are loaded with a whitifli oval farina. The fta¬
mina all bend toward each other from their bafes, and
almoft meet in a point at the tops. This is their ap¬
pearance when'the head is nearly ripe; and imme¬
diately under the arch formed by thefe ftamina, is a
cylindric hollow piftillum, through which the farina
makes its way, and is difperfed among the feeds in the
head ; the fruit is a large capfule, filling every part of
the membrane which (hows itfelf on the outfide of the
head, and in moil places is contigu ms to it; this ca»-
fule is filled with perfect and very beautiful feeds; they
are round, tranfparent when unripe, but afterwards
opaque, and of a w ry beautiful green, which colour
they retain even when dried.
When this head is" firft produced from the plant,
the (lamina are very (lender, and (land eieft; the head
[ 472 1
M U S F 473 1 M U S
Mura, is faarce any thicker than’ the ftatk, and the calyptra i. The grifola, Or fpotted fly-catcher, is about five Mufcicana.
MnfcieAjva caverg it all over, to fhleld the tender fubftance of the inches and three quarters long. The head is large, of*-v—
farina from external injuries. As the farina afterwards a brownifli hue fpotted obfcurely with black: the back
fwells in the ftamina. the feeds in the head increafe is of a moufe-colour: the wings and tail are duflcy:
alfo in bulk, and by their increafe the head is more ex- the breaft and belly white: the throat and fides under
tended in thieknefs; and the ftamina are by this means_ the wings dafhed with red: the legs and feet are fnort
feparated farther and farther from each other at their and black. It is a bird of paffage ; appears here in
bafes, but bend inwards toward their points, fo as to the fpring, breeds with us, and departs in September,
form a kind of arched covering over the ftigma of It builds its neft againft any part of a tree that will
the piftiiium, which is Angle.; and from hence the fa- fupport it; often in the hollow caufed by the decay
rina falls as it ripens into the head, and impregnates of fome large limb, hole in a wall, &c. alfo on old
the feeds. pofts and beams of barns; and is found to return to
The ii principal genera are as follow: Lycopodium, the fame place feafon after feafon. It lays four or
polytricum, bryum. Jelagines, ufnex, mnium, byjfi, fphag- five pale eggs marked with reddfh. It feeds on in-
nt<m, hypna, conferv/r, 2LVi$. fontinalis. Thefe are found fefts, and colledts them on the wing. When the young
growing on the barks of trees as well as on the can fly, the old ones withdraw with them into thick
ground. See Plates CCCXXI and CCCXXII.
Mofles, by the inconfi 'erate mind, are generally
deemed an ufelefs or infignificartt part of the creation.
That they are not, is evident from hence; that He Who
'made them has made nothing in vain, but on the con-
trary has pronounced all his works to be very good.
Many of their ufe& we know; that they have many
more which we know not, is unqueitionable, fince
there is probably no one thing in the univerfe of which
we dare to afleft that we know all their ufes. Thus
much we are certain of with refpedl to mofles, that as
woods, where they frolic among the top branches;
dropping from the boughs frequently quite perpendi¬
cular on the flies that fport beneath, and rifing again
in the fame direction. It will alfo take its ftand on
the top of fome flake or poft, from whence it fprings
forth on its prey, returning ftill to the fame ftand, for
many times together. They feed alfo on cherries, of
which they feem very fond.
2. The pondiceriana, Pondicherry or Coromandel
fly-catcher, is rather bigger than a fparrow. The ge¬
neral colour of the upper parts is a cinereous grey; the
they flourifti moft in winter, and at that time cover throat, bread, and belly, white ; the legs black It
the ground with a beautiful green carpet, in many inhabits the coaft of Coromandel; where, from th£
places which would be otherwife naked, and when agreeablenefs of its fong, it is called the Indian night-
little verdure is elfewhere to be feen ; fo at the fame ingale-
time they flicker and preferve the feeds, roots, gems, 3 The flabellifera, or fan-tailed fly catcher, is in
and embryo plants of many vegetables, which would length fix inches and a half: the head is black, which
otherwife perifti; they furmfli materials for birds to colour defcends on the back part lower than the nape,
build their nefts with; they afford a warm winter’s whence it paffes forward in a narrow collar to the
retreat for fome quadrupeds, fuch as bears, dormice, throat; the chin, throat, and fides of the neck, except
and the like, and for numberlefs infers, which are the where this collar pafles, are white ; and over the eye
food of birds and fifties, and thefe again the food or is a white ftreak like an eye-brow: the upper parts of
delight of men. Many of them grow on rocks and the body are olive-brown ; the under parts yellowifh
barren places, and rotting away, afford the firft prin- ruft, growing whitifh towards the vent: the tail is
cipies of vegetation to other plants, which could never longer than the body J the two middle feathers black,
elfe have taken root there. Others grow in bogs and
marfties, and by continual increafe and decay fill up
and convert them either into fertile paftures, or into
peat-bogs, the fource of inexhauftible fuel to the polar
regions..—They are applicable alfo to many domeftic
purpofes : the lycopodiums are fome of them ufed in
dyeing of yarn, and in medicine ; the fphagnum and
pelytrichum furnifh convenient beds for the Laplan¬
ders; the hypnums are ufed in tiling of houfes, flop¬
ping crevices in walls, packing up of brittle wares and
the roots of plants for diftant conveyance.—-To which
may be added, that all in general contribute entertain¬
ment and agreeable inftrudlion to the Contemplative
mind of the naturalift, at a feafon when few other
plants offer themfelves to his view.
Musci, is likewife the name of the t6th order in
Linnaeus’s Fragments of a natural Method. See Bo¬
tany, p 470.
MUSCICAPA, or Fly-catcher, a genus of birds
belonging to the order of pafferes. The bill is flatted
the others white: the legs are dufky This fpecies
inhabits the fouthern ifle of New Zealand ; where it
is feen conftantly hunting after infects, and flies always
with its tail in (hape of a fan. It is eafily tamed; and
will then fit on any perfon's fiioulder, and pick off the •
flies. It has a chirping kind of note; and is called
by the natives Diggo-wagh-wagh. There is a beauti¬
ful figure of this bird in Mr Latham’s Synopfis,
plate xlix.
4. The caribdnenfis, or cat-bird, is fomewhat biggef
than a lark : length eight inches. Bill black : the
upper parts'of the body and wings are of a deep
brown ; the under afh-cnloured : the crown of the
head is black ; the tail is blackifli; an^ the legs are
brown. This fpecles is found in Virginia in the fum-
mer-feafon ; where it frequents fhrubs rather than tall
trees, and feeds on infects : its cry refembles that of a
cat, whence the Englifh name given it by Gateihy.
See Plate CCCXX. fig. 1.
5. The crinita, or crefted fly-catcher, is about thep- ^
ixe of a lark : the head is crefted. and of a dull ureen: °S
at the bale, almoft triangular, notched at the upper fixe of a lark: the head is crefted, and of a dull green:
mandible, and befet with briftles; the toes (generally) the hind part of the neck and back are of the fame
divided as far as their origin. colour j the under parts from the chin to the-breaft
Voi. XII. Part II. 3 O of
M U S
[ 474 ]
M U S
of an afft-colour, and from thence to the vent yellow
the legs are black. This inhabits Carolina and Vir¬
ginia in fummer; builds there, and departs in autumn.
moillure, tenacity, and elafticity, entirely peculiar to Mufde.
themfelves. w—y—^
The fibres of the mufcles vifible to the naked eye
6. The rubricollus, purple-throated fly-catcher, is are compofed of others difcoverable by glaffes, and
about the fize of a blackbird : the whole plumage is
black ; except the chin, throat, and fore part of the
neck, on which is a large bed of beautiful crimfon, in¬
clining to purple: the legs are black.—Thefe birds
inhabit Cayenne and other parts of South America ;
- where they are found in flocks, and precede in general
the toucans in their movements. They feed on fruits
and infers ; and are lively birds, always in aftien.
The/ for the moll part frequent the woods, like the
thefe others of fibres ftill fmaller ; neither hath any
perfon been able to difeover the ultimately fine fibres
of a mufcle, which are not compofed of others. Some
have indeed imagined that they have been able to do
this, but theirobfervations have been found fallacious;
and it is now univerfally allowed that the fibres are di-
vifible beyond what the heft affiiled fight can trace,
and that they are to all appearance uniform. In this
regular and fibrous organization they refemble the
toucans; and where the firft are found the others arc ' cryftals of falts, many of which are found compofed
ieldom far off.
7. The rubra, or fummer red-bird of Catdby, is a
moft beautiful fpedies, fomewhat bigger than a fpar-
of fibres more and more fine, and which, like thofe of
the mufcles, can never be ultimately traced.
The do&or next touches a little upon the vis me
row: the bill is yellowifli; the eyes are black; the tta of matter; and, contrary to the generally received
kgs dulky : the male is wholly of a fcarlet colour, ex¬
cept the tips of the quill-feathers, which are of a dufky
red : the colour of the female is brown tinged with
yellow. It inhabits Carolina and Virginia in the fum-
mcr.
This is a very numerous genus; there being about,
rjo other fpecies deferibed by authors. In the Syjl.
Nat. (Gmelin), the whole number is 92; in Mr La¬
tham’s Index Ornithologicus, 97 are enumerated.
MUSCLE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part II.
left. ii.
The motion of the mufcles of animals has been
thought a matter of fuch curiofity and importance,
that an annual le&ure upon it was founded by Dr
Croone, one of the original members of the Royal
Society at London. In confequence of this, the in-
veftigation of the fubjedd hath exercifed the pens of a
great number of very learned and ingenious men ; not-
withflanding which it ftill remains involved in almoft
as much obicurity as ever. Many curious obfervations.
opinion of modern philofophers, confiders matter as
an adtive fubftance. What is called the vis inertia, he
thinks, “ is not a refiftance of change from reft to
motion, or from motion to reft, but. a refiftance to ac¬
celeration or retardation, or to change of diredion.”
The adivity of matter is further proved by the attrac¬
tions and repulfiens which take place univerfally among
its parts; and every inftahee of motion within the cog¬
nizance of our fenfes, may be referred, either in itfelf
or its caufe, to fome mode of attradion or repultian.
Thefe may both be confidered as one principle, being
both expreffive of that ftate of adivity originally in¬
herent in matter ; and becaufe any two particles, ha¬
ving affinity with each other, muft either attrad or
repel, according to their diftance, their common tem¬
perature, and other circumftances ; and it is fo uni-
verfal an agent in nature, that fome modern philofo¬
phers have made it abforb, as it were, every other
power and property in matter. It is evident, how¬
ever, whether this hypothefis be juft or not, that the
however, fyave been made ; and as far as the laws of caufe of mufcular motion cannot be referred to me-
dead mechanifm can be applied to a living machine, the
inveftigators have been fuccefsful: but ftill there has
chanifm, which is itfelf only a fecondary principle.
Some have had recourfe to a fluid conveyed into the
been a m plus ultra, a certain barrier by which their fibres of mufcles, by which they were fwelled, and
inveftigations have been limited, which no perfon.has
hitherto been able to pafs, and which it is very im-
thereby fhortened. One of the moft plaufible of thefe
hypothefes fuppofes.this fluid to be the blood : but this
probable ever will be pafied. To give an adcount of is plainly a pelitio principii; for in order to fet the blood
-all the different theories which have appeared on this : ^
fubjeft is impoffible; but in the year 1788 a lefture
in motion, mufcular motion is neceffary. Other fluids
have been fuppofed to have this effedt; but even the
on the fubjedt was delivered by Dr Blane, F. R. S. of exiftence of thefe has not been proved, and indeed the
wfiich, as itTeems to contain the fubftance of all that
can be faid upon the fubjeft, we fliall here give the
following abridgement.
The Doftor confiders as mufeks not only thofe
moft folid obje&ions might be brought againft all the
theories that have hitherto been invented.
Our author having now eftabliftkd it as a maxim,
that the primary properties of matter are attra&ion
large maffes of flefli which compofe fo great a part of and repulfion, and that mechanifm is only a fecondary
the bulk of the body, but likewife all the minuter ijr- property, he next confiders mufcular motion as refer-
gans fubfervient to circulation, nutrition, and fecre- able to an original law of animated matter,, whereby
don ; fince not-only the heart itfelf, but the whole
vafcular fyftem and the inteftines, owe their a&ion to
its particles are endowed with an attradtive power, for
which no caufe can be affigned any more than for gra-
certain powers of irritability and contradlility peculiar vitation, cohefion, or chemical affinity. If the Ihort-
lo .mufcular, fibres.
The firft and moft obvious confiderations with re-
fpeft to the mufcles is the regular organization of their
fibres in a parallel direction. In this they are diftin-
ening of a mufcular fibre depends on this increafed
power of attradtion between its particles, the effedt
will be to add to the power of cohefion in -the fibre ;
and to determine this the Dodtor made the following
guiffied from every other matter of a fibrous ftrudture, experiment.: Having taken the flexor mufcle of the
whether vegetable or mineral, by a certain- degree of thumb of a man newly dead while yet warm and flex-
ibk.
Plato eccxx.
Plate CCCXW
M U S L 475 3 M U S
Mttfcle. ible, he appended a weight to it, continually augment-
ing it until the mufcle broke ; and this he found was
done when 26 pounds had been added : yet a living
man of the fame apparent ftrength and age could with
eafe lift a weight of 38 pounds by the exertions of
the feme mufcle. “ It is farther in proof of this faft
(adds he), that in the cafe of a violent ftrain from
mufcular contra&ion in the living body, it is the ten¬
don that gives way ; #hereas we have feen that in the
dead body the mufcle is the weaker of the two. It
is alfo well known, that in cafes of our exertion the
mufcular fibres themfelves do not give way, though the
ftrongeft tendons, fuch as the tendo Achillis, and even
bones, fuch as the knee-pan, are broke by their living
force, which in fuch inftances muft be many times
greater than the ftrength of the dead fibres. There is
a cafe related in the Philofophical Tranfaftions by Mr
Amyand, wherein the os humeri was broken by an ex¬
ertion of the mufcles. Every one has heard of frac¬
tures happening from very flight accidents. Thefe oc¬
cur moft probably from a jerk of the mufcles concur¬
ring with the external violence. The fenfible increafe
of hardnefs in a mufcle, when in a ftate of contradtion,
may alfo be confidered as a proof of an increafed at¬
traction of its particles to each other at that time.”
The Dodior next confiders whether or not a
mufcle, when in a ftate of contraftion, undergoes any
change of denfity. “ Every homogeneous body (fays
he) poflefles a certain degree of denfity, determined
by the diftance of its integrant particles. The
moft common means in nature by which the den¬
fity of fuch bodies is altered are heat and cold; the one
univerfally producing expahfion, the other condenfa-
tion. Whether mechanical force has the feme effedts,
is a point in natural philofophy not fo well afeertain-
ed ; for though tenfion and collifion produce in folid
elaftic bodies a change of figure, which they immedi¬
ately refume when the force is withdrawn, it has not
been inquired whether in fuch cafes a change of
denfity takes place while the body is in a ftate of
elongation or compreffion. Two elaftic balls in the
adf of collifion undergo a momentary change of fi¬
gure, fo that there muft be an approximation of par¬
ticles in the diredtion in which they are flattened ; and
in the elongation of an elaftic cord by tenfion there
muft be an increafed diftance of the particles in one
diredtion: but while thefe changes take place in one
dimenfion of the refpedtive bodies, they may be com-
penfated by contrary changes in the other dimenfions,
fo that the feveral bodies may preferve, upon the
whole, the feme folid contents. In order to afeertain
this in the cafe of tenfion, which is the only cafe
bearing analogy to mufcular motioa, I made the fol¬
lowing experiment; I took a piece of the elaftic gum
or caoutchouik, three inches fquare, and about the eighth
of an inch in thicknefs; I procured a piece of fheet
tin three inches broad and about fix inches long, cut
into fharp teeth at each end. The gum wasfirft weigh¬
ed in air, and found to be 380.25 grains. It was then
weighed in water along with the tin, to which it was
loofely attached, and the weight of both was then
7158.75 grains. The gum was then ftretched upon
the tin by means of the teeth at each end to a furface
of about five inches fquare, the tin being bent fo as to
leave a free fpace between it and the gutn, in order that
when immerfed in water no air-bubbles might be en¬
tangled. In this fituation, the weight of both in wa- Muftle,
ter was found to be 746.75 grains. Here was a diffe- -y””*
rence of 12 grains, which could be owing only to a
diminution of fpecific gravity ; and in order to be
fure that there was no fallacy nor inaccuracy in the
experiment, the gum was immediately difengaged from
one end of the tin fo as to allow it to Ihrink ; and be-
ing again weighed in this ftate in the water, it was
found to have recovered exadfly its former weight.”
From this very remarkable experiment, the Dodior
argues to what may probably happen in the contradlion
of the mufcles. “ This point (he fays) cannot be
decided but by an experimental examination. It might
be determined whether a mufcle occupies moft fpace
„ when relaxed or when contracted, by finding its fpeci¬
fic gravity in each of thofe ftates by means of the hy-
droftatical balance. But this would be found extreme¬
ly difficult; for the ftate of contradtion is very tranti-
tory, and the motion itfelf would produce fuch a dif-
turbance as would render the refult unfatisfadtory. As
there is this obftacle to an experiment on a living
mufcle, it occurred to me.that it might be performed
on the mufcles of a fi(h which had undergone the ope¬
ration of crimping, as it is called ; for in confequence
of dividing the mufcles, by cutting them when alive,
they undergo a contradtion which continues after
Meath ; and upon comparing, by the hydroftatical ba¬
lance, portions of Riufcle which had been crimped with
thofe of the oppofite fide of the fame fiffi which had
on purpofe been faved from this operation, it did not
appear that there was any difference in the fpecific gra¬
vity. Two trials were made ; one with the maffeter
mufcles of a fkate, the other with the fides of a large
trout.”
To determine whether the contradtion or re¬
laxation of a living mufcle made any alteration in
its degfity, our author took one half of a living eel,
and put it into a glafs ftalk, of which the mouth was
afterwards fufed by a blow pipe, and drawn out like
the ftem of a thetmometer. The flalk and tube being
then filled with water, our author obferved, with great
attention, whether the convulfive agonies of the crea¬
ture would make the fluid rife or fall; but it did nei¬
ther. The tail part of the eel was made ufe of in this
experiment, that there might be no deception from
the other, which contained the organs of refpiration
and the air-bladder. In one of his trials, the tail por¬
tions of two eels were introduced into the flafk ; but
though they were frequently both in convulfions at
once, not the leaft motion of the fluid in the tube
could be perceived. On this occafion alfo the Doc¬
tor made fome experiments to decide the queftion.
Whether the mere circumftance of life made any alte¬
ration in the gravity of bodies ? His firft trials were
with animals of warm blood inclofed in -oil-lkin and
elofe tin-veffels; but not being fetisfied with the ac¬
curacy of thefe, from the difficulty of cutting off all
communication with the external air, lie inclofed live
eels in flalks ; and having fealed them hermetically, he
found that the weight of them when alive and dead
was the very feme.
The refult of all our author’s experiments is, that
“ the contraction of a mufcle produces no change in
its denfity, and that animal life differs from inanimate
matter in this refpeCt, as. well as in moft of its other
.properties and laws. One purpofe in nature for mufcks
3 O 2 always
M U S [ 476 ] M U S
Mufcle, aKvays prefervin^ the fame denfity may he, that as
w'*v-—~ fome of them act in confined cavities, inconveniences
might arife from their occupying more fpace at one
time than at another. In the extremities of cruftace-
ous animals, for inftance, which are filled with mufclts,
•a change of denfity would be apt to burft them.
“ Another circumftance in which the contra&ions
of mufcles differ from Ample elafticity is, that the
former, however frequent and violent, does not pro.
duce any heat, as collifion and tenfion are known
to do. This may admit of fome cavil with regard to
animals of warm blood ; for one of the theories with
regard to animal heat is, that it arifes from the perpe¬
tual vibration of mufcular fibres, particularly thofe of
the vafcular fyftem.; but this will not hold with re.
fpeft to animals of cold blood, in which the aftiqps
•of life are equally vigorous. The principal phenome¬
na, therefore, of mufcular motion are, the fhortenihg
of the fibres, the lateral fvvell, the increafe of cohe-
fion and hardnefs, and the unchanged denfity and tem¬
perature It would appear from the two lail circum-
ftances, that the intimate motions of the particles in
relation to one another mull be different from what
take place in the feveral inltances of contra&ion and ex-
panfion of dead bodies. In the expanfion ariiingfrom
the aflion of heat and the cor,traction from cold, the
change of denfity fhows, that in the one cafe the ul¬
timate particles mufl recede from each other, and in
the other they muft approach. The fame may be faid
of dafticity. But as there is no alteration in the den¬
fity of a mufcle in paffing from relaxation to contrac¬
tion, this change cannot confift in the approximation
-of the integrant parts of the fibres, but mufl depend
on fome other circumflances in the intimate difpofitions
of the particles. In attempting to conceive in what
this confifts, the following explanation may be offered.
It is probable that the regular ftrudlure of folid bodies
depends on the polarity and fhape of their integrant
parts. Now all bodies, except fuch as are fpherical,
mnfl have a long and a fhort axis ; and let us imagine
the fibres of mq/eles to be compofed of fp^heroidal
particles, we may then conceive relaxation to ccnfift
in their being difpofed with their long axis in the line
of their fibres, and contraftion to confifl in their
fhort axis being difpofed more or lefs in that direc¬
tion. This will not only account for the decurtation
and uniform denfity, but for the lateral fwell, and alfo
for the increafed hardnefs and cohefion ; for though
the particles do not approach or recede, as in bodies
Amply elaftic, yet their power of attra&ion will be
increafed by their centres being brought nearer, and
by being applied to each other by more oblate furfaces.
This hypothefis accords with what has been before
proved concerning the unchangeable denfity, for what
is loft in one dimenfion is gained in another ; and the
caufe for there being no increafe in temperature depends
probably on the fame circumftance by which the den¬
fity is preferved unaltered.”
Thus far the Do&or has proceeded upon a plan,
which may become plaufible by means of an hypothe¬
fis at leaft ; but in the profecution of his fubjeft he is
involved in the fame difficulty which has proved too
hard for every other perfon, and which he, indeed,
does not attempt to folve. This is the adiion of fti-
jnuli, by which the mufcles are exerted to contradion,
and upon which all the phenomena of life depends,
and which indeed-is the thing that particularly ought Mafcfih,
to be explained ; but of this our author' is forced to
confefs his entire ignorance, and to content himfelf
with enumerating the ftimuli of which he cannot ex¬
plain the adion. Stimuli then, according to him, are
divided into internal and external. An example of the
former kind is the circulation of the blood, which is
kept up by an exciting influence of the blood upon the
heart and veflels which contain and impel it. The ear-
lieft perceivable inftance of mufcular motion i.s the
beating of the heart, as it is feen in the firft rudiments
of the embryo in an egg, and called the punaum[aliens.
There feems to be eftablilhed by nature a certain habi¬
tude of adion between the velfels and their fluids; for
if a fluid even more mild than the blood, fuch as milk,
be injeded into the circulation, it will produce great
difturbance; and if the blood, by being deprived of
the influence of refpirable air, becomes deftitute of a
certain property which it would naturally acquire in
the ad of refpiration, it does not prove a ftimulus to
the heart.
In like manner, all the containing parts are accom¬
modated to the nature of their refpe^tive contents.—
The inteftines are- fo calculated as to have proper mo¬
tions excited in them by the aliment and the fecre-
tions which are mixed with it; and there are bodies
which, though perfedly mild, fuch as alimeirtary fub-
ftances of difficult digeftion, yet excite more violent
commotions in the ftomach than other fubftances which
are very acrimonious. The various effeds of poifons
id different parts of the body may alfo be mentioned
as an illuftration of the peculiar fufceptibility of the
feveral organs of the body. The poifon of a viper,
for inftance, is perfedly innocent, not only in the re¬
ceptacles of the-animal which produces it, but may be
taken into the ftomach of any animal without the leaft
bad effed, and only exerts its deleterious power when
brought in contad with a wounded part. Some ve¬
getable poifons, on the contrary, fuch as tljat-of lau¬
rel water, prove deadly when taken into the mouth, or
applied to any part of the alimentary canal, but are
innocent when injeded into the veins. It may be re¬
marked alfo, that the receptacles of the feveral fecreted
fluids, fuch as the gall-bladder and bladder of urine,
arc fo adapted to their natural contents, by a due mea-
fure of irritability, as to bear their accumulation to a
certain degree, and then to expel them. We have
here alfo a proof that irritability is not in proportion
to fenfibility; for both thefe receptacles are extremely
Tenfible to pain and irritation from extraneous acri¬
mony, though fo moderately fenfible to the acrimony
of their natural contents. This difpofttion in the fe¬
veral organs to perform their natural fundions, in con-
fequence of the ftimulus of the refpedive fluids they
contain, has aptly enough been called the natural per¬
ception of thefe organs.
Our author now confidering that the internal organs,
are calculated to perform their fundions in confequence
of certain ftimuli, concludes the application of che¬
mical and mechanical ftimuli is not a mode of experi¬
ment likely to produce ufeful knowledge ; and hence,
he thinks, we may fuggeft the moft likely means of
reftoring loft irritability and adion to the vital func¬
tions, when fufpended by fuffocation, ftrangulation,
or immerfion. In thefe cafes, he fays, that all other
means are far inferior to that of inflating the lungs
7 with
M U S T 477 ] MU S
MuWe with atmofpheric air, and ftroking and preffing-the
— ribs in fuch a manner as to imitate natural reipiration.
The only other thing which hefuppofes to be any way
ufeful, is the application of heat to fuch as have been
immeried in cold water ; but of cool air to thofe who
have fuffered from mephitic vapours.
The Do&or having then conlidered feme other parts
of the animal economy, enters into an inveftigation of
the analogy between motion and fenfation. “ This
analogy (fays he) is the. more exadi, that the nerves
feem to be the inllruments of both ; for not only the
. organs of fenfation. and voluntary motion, but thefe
of involuntary motion, are fupplied with nerves, and
dependant upon themj.for if the influence of the nerves
leading to the heart or inteftines is interrupted by
cutting, ligature, or paify, thejfundlion of thefe parts
is thereby deflroyed. Thus, as there is a peculiar
• fenflbility belonging to the feveral fenfes, fo is there
a peculiar irritability belonging to the feveral organs
of motion. The intention of nature, therefore, in
diflinguifliing nerves to every mufcular organ, was
probably in order to conftirute thofe peculiar percep¬
tions on which the various vital and natural fundtions
! depend. But 1 give this only as a conjedlure ; and
though the nervous influence may thus modify irrita-
hility, there is reafon to think that it does not be-
* flow ft.”
Our author controverts the principle which ha«
been held by feme very able phyfiologifts, that all
mufcular irritability depends upon a fentient prin¬
ciple. “ There have been feveral inftances (fays he)
of the produdlion of foetufes without the brain ; and a
principal fadf in fupport of this opinion is, the ex-
iltence of animals without brain ornerves. That there
are fuch, was, I believe, fxrft obferved by Haller, and
has been confirmed by Mr Hunter; who maintains
farther, that the ftomach is a centre or feat of life
more eflential to it than the brain. That the fto¬
mach flrould be an organ of fo.much confequenee,
feems natural enough from the importance of its func¬
tion, which is that of affimilation ; and life can be
more immediately and completely extinguilhed by an
injury to it, fuch as a blow, than by the fame violence
to any other part of the body. It is alfo. well known,
that the mufcular fibres of animals endowed with a ner¬
vous fyftem, will retain their irritability for feme time
after their feparation from the brain and nerves.—It
is evident likewife, from the phenomena of vegetation,
that irritability may exift in nature without fenfation,
confeioufnefs, or any fufpicion of the exifteoce of a
nervous fyftem. In favour of this opinion, it is far¬
ther obfervable, that thofe animals which are deftitute
of brain and nerves are of the clafs of vermes, the molt
Ample in nature, having only one fundfion, viz. that
of afiimilation ; and therefore not requiring that va¬
riety of adlion, and thofe perceptions which are
peculiar to more complex animals. Laftly, the ftate
of an egg before incubation, and the condition of
thofe animals which become torpid from cold, and af¬
terwards revive, afford fafts which favour this opinion;
as they fhow that there is a certain principle of felf-
prefervation, independent not only of the operation of
the nervous fyftem, but even of the circulation ; for in
this quiefeent ftate, thofe portions of animal matter
are preferved for a great length of time from that cor¬
ruption to which they would otherwife be liable, and Mnfeto,
their fluids are prevented from freezing in a degree of v''""*
cold which would congeal them, were they deftitute
of every principle of life.”
In the courfe of his reafoning, our author confiders
the nervous fyftem not only as a mere appendage to
life, but as tending to impede its operation, and ihor-
ten its exiftence. “ Simple life (adds he) will not only
furvive fenfation, but will furvive it longer, if the ani¬
mal is killed'by deftroying the nervous fyftem, than
if it had been deftroyed by haeiporrhagy, fuffocation,
or other violence. If a fifti, immediately upon being
taken out. of the water, be ftunned by a violent blow
on the head, or by having the head cruftied, the irri¬
tability and fweetnefs of the mufcles will be preferved
much longer than if it had been allowed to die wit!i
the organs of fenfe entire. This is fo. well known to
fifhermen, that they put it in pra&ice in order to
make them longer fufceptible of the operation called
crimping. A falmon is one of the fifties leaft tenacious
of life, infomuch that it will lofe.all figns of life in
lefs than half an hour after it is taken out of the wa¬
ter, if fuffered to die without any farther injury ; but
if, immediately after being caught, it receives a violent
■blow on the head, the mufcles willdhow vifible irri¬
tability for more than 12 hours afterwards.”
To the fame purpofe, our author obferves, that in
warm-blooded animals amexceflive exertion of volun¬
tary motion immediately before death, prevents the
mufcles from being rigid when cold, and renders them
mere prone to putrefaction,. Thus, if an ox is killed
immediately after being overdrove, the carcafe.will not.
become ftiff when it grows cold, nor is it capable of
being preferved by means of fait. In confirmation of
the fame hypothefis alfo, our author ob/erves, that in
fome diforders of the brain, fuch as hydrocephalus,
and apoplectic paify, in which the functions of the
brain are fufpended, the office of digeftion is fometimes
better performed than in health.
From all this our author concludes, along with Mr
Hunter, that the exercife of fenfation is inimical to.
life, and that a fort of fatigue is induced by this as
well as by voluntary motion ; “ fo that all that inter-
courfe carried on through the nerves, whether towards
. the brain in the cafe of fenfation, or from the brain
in acts of volition, tends to wear out the animal
powers. And, as intenfe and long-continued thought,
though not terminating in any outward action, tends
alfo to produce an inability for farther exertions, it
would appear that, the brain or fenforium is more par¬
ticularly the organ which is fubjett to that fpecies of
fufferance called fatigue. From thefe fa£ts we per¬
ceive the necefiity of fleep, which confifts in a tempo,
rary fufpenfion of fenfation, volition, and thought,
and is a refource of nature, whereby the powers of
life recover.themfelves after fatiety and fatigue, which'
are. provided as guards to warn us when nature is in
danger of being ftrained, either by repletion or over¬
exertion t and it is evident that fuch barriers were ab-
folutely neceflary, in order, to fet bounds to operations
which are only occafionally requifite, and which would
otherwife depend on the caprice of the will. The ex¬
ercife of fenfation and voluntary motion in a moderate
degree is conformable to the intention of nature, and
therefore falutary ; and it is only when they are ex-
ceflive
M U S
ceffive that they tend to wear out the powers of life,
and more pfpecially if thefe are not duly recruited by
fleep. It follows, from the fame principle, that when
life is threatened by certain difeafes, of which the
•chief fymptom is irritation, any means by which fen-
fation, whether natural or morbid, and mufcular mo¬
tion, whether voluntary or involuntary, convulfive or
fpafmodic, can be foothed or fufpended, will prove fa-
lutary, by allowing the powers of life to rally as it
•were, and to recover themfelves. In this ^onfifts the
operation of narcotic medicines, fuch as opium ; —
which, in complaints both of a general and local na¬
ture, proves ufeful, not merely as a palliative by the re¬
moval of temporary pain or fpafm, or by procuring
fleep, but as a principal inftrument of recovery, by
allowing the powers of life to exert their natural ac¬
tion, in confequence of the removal of irritation.”
In treating this fubjeft, the Do&or confiders the
effefts of opium as affefting Ample or fenfitive life ;
and to determine this, he made the following experi¬
ments : Having made a folution of opium in water, he
put into one portion of it feme found living eels, and
others with their heads bruifed; and in a number of
trials it was found that the found eels generally died
much fooner than the bruifed ones. This, however
was the cafe only when the folution was of a certain
•degree of ftrength, fuch as half a grain of opium at
leall to an ounce of water; for when only about half
this ftrength, the found eels lived much longer, the
time being then protra&ed to that in which the brui¬
fed eels would have died merely in confequence of their
injury ; but it muft be obferved, that even the wound¬
ed eels died conliderably fooner than when put into
plain Vater.
From all this, our author concludes, that “ the great
tnaffes of mufcle in the trunk and extremities of the
body are the inftruments of the mind in adting upon
external bodies ; and we may therefore rank in the
lift of ftimuli the nervous power by which the will
and the paffions excite external motions. This is a
fundtion fufficiently important for the nerves, without
admitting them as the principle on which irritability
depends.”
Having difclaimed all inquiry into the conne&ion
between mufcular motion and volition, the Dodtor
proceeds to confider the effedts of the different paf-
ftons upon the mufcles. Though thefe are diftindl
from the motions diredlly produced by the will, yet
he confiders them among thofe arifing from confciouf-
nefs ; “ for there are emotions ©f the heart Which
have vifible and powerful effedts upon the mind and
vafcular fyftem, which are organs entirely out of the
reach of the will. Not to mention the well-known
effedts of grief, fear, and joy, which affedt the whole
circulation, there are certain paflions and fentiments
which produce partial and local effedts. Thefe are
eftabliftied by nature, either to anfwer fome important
purpofe in nature, as in the cafe of the congeftion of
the fluids in the parts of generation in confequence of
the venereal appetite, or to ferve as natural expreflions,
as in the cafe of bluftiing or weeping. One of the
moft ftriking effedts of the paflions upon mufcular ac¬
tion, is the influence they have upon the ftrength or
•mechanical force of the voluntary mufcles. Fear pro¬
duces debility almoft amounting to palfy. Courage
M U S
and order of mind, on the contrary, add to the natu* Mufcfc.
ral ftrength. When the mind is agitated by fome in-
terefting objedt, and calls upon the body for an extra¬
ordinary exertion to effedl its end, the mufcles are
thereby enabled, as it were by magic, to perform adts
of ftrength of which they would be entirely incapable
in cold-blood. In circumrtances of danger, for in-
ftance, where life or honour are at ftake, exertions are
made for overcoming mechanical refiftance which feem
incredible, and would be impoflible, were not the mind
in a fort of phrenzy ; and it is truly admirable in the
economy of nature, that an idea in the mind fhould
thus in a moment augment the powers of motion, and
infpire additional refources of ftrength adequate to the
occafional calls of life. Tshe great inereafe of ftrength
in maniacs is alfo referable to the paflions of the-mind.
Thefe confiderations would almoft lead us to doubt
whether or not the accounts we have of the great feats
of ftrength aferibed to individuals in the heroic ages
be fabulous or not. It is alfo worthy of remark, that,
in great and lafting exertions of ftrength to which men
are impelled by adive and generous affedions, fatigue
is not induced in the fame proportion by many de¬
grees as by the fame quantity of mufcular adion in
the cool and deliberate adions of common life.”
Having thus difeuffed the fubjed of internal ftimuli,
our author next proceeds to take notice of the fecond
clafs, viz. fuch as are external. Thefe are either im¬
mediate or remote, viz. fuch as are excited by mecha¬
nical means, or by acrimony diredly and artificially
applied to a mufcular fibre ; or fuch as occur in the
inftances of fympathy, and in the cafe of thofe inftinds
which nature has inftituted for the purpol'e of fclf-
prefervation in brutes, and in the early part of human
life. “ There are certain habitudes (fays he) between
outward ftimuli and the moving powers whereby na¬
tural propenfities are cojiftituted, equally neceffary to
the fupport of life as the internal fundions. Thus,
in a new born animal, the firft contad of the exter¬
nal air excites the ad df refpiration, and the contad
of the nipple excites the ad of fucking ; both of which
adions are abfolutely neceffary to the maintenance of
life, and require the nice co-operation of a great num¬
ber of mufcles prior to all experience. Adions of
this kind are called injlinBive; but though different
from thofe of voluntary motion, they neverthelefs run
into one another; fo that what was at firft merely in-
ftindive, may afterwards become a matter of delibe¬
rate choice. The fame mufcles are the inftruments
of both ; and they differ from the mufcles obeying
the internal ftimuli. fuch as the heart, in being liable
to fatigue, and thereby concurring with the exercife
of fenfation and of thought, in rendering fleep necef¬
fary. There are no mufcles except thofe of refpira¬
tion, of which the conftant adion is neceffary to life,
and which are void of confcioufnefs in their ordinary
exercife, but which are yet in fome meafure under the
controul of the will. The principal end anfwercd by
this power of the will over the mufcles of refpiration
in man, is to form and regulate the voice. But,
though inftindive motions are in fome cafes con¬
vertible into thofe which are voluntary, they ought by
no means to be confounded together ; for even thoie
animals which are deftitute of brain and nerves,, are
capable of adions evidently of the inftindive kind.-—
A leech
r 4?s i
M U S [ 479 J » M U S
Mufcle. A leech, for in fiance, being brought into con t aft with
V—”' a living animal, is impelled by an inflinft of its nature
to faften upon it, and fuck its blood. There is fome-
thing very fimilar to this even in vegetables, as in the
cafe of tendrils and creeping plants being flimulated
by the contaft of other bodies to cling round them in
1 See Vege- a particular direftion f-
taiie Mo- Befides thefe obfervations on the inferior animals,
our author brings fome experiments to fhow, that in-
ftinftive aftions, even in animals furnifhed with a brain
and nerves, do not depend on fenfatfon. Having di¬
vided the fpinal marrow of a live kitten a few days
old, he irritated the hind-paws by touching them with
a hot wire. By this the mufcles of the pofterior ex¬
tremities were thrown into contraftions, fo as to pro¬
duce the motion of fhrinking from ,the injury ; and
the fame effefts were obferved in another kitten of
which the head was entirely feparated from the body.
In repeating this experiment he found, that when the
fpinal marrow was cut through between the lumbar
vertebne and os facrum, the pofterior extremities loft
their irritability, but the tail refumed it. Even the
head retained its irritability after it was cut off; as
appeared by touching the ears with a hot wire* or by
pricking them : “ and (fays our author) as the extre¬
mities are alfo irritable, it will not be faid that con-
• fcioufnefs and fenfation exift in two feparated portions
of the body.”
The effefts of habit are then conftdered; and the
conclufion from the doftor’s reafoning upon this fub-
jeft is, that “ there is a co-ordinance, or pre-eftablidi-
ed harmony, as it were, between the faculties of ani¬
mals and the laws of external matter, which is the
foundation of all the inftinftive habits of animals, as
well as the rational conduft of man.”
To the law of habit have been referred the effefts
©f certain contagions, fuch as that of the fmall-pox,
which do not produce their effeft more than once in
life. With refpeft to this he obferves, “that upon what¬
ever principle this property of the animal economy
depends, it is an undoubted faft, that, thefe morbid
poifons, after exciting a certain degree of difturbance,
and a certain feries of dHeafed aftions, no longer
make any impreffion on the powers of life, other-
wife there could be no fuch thing as recovery: for
at the time in which a perfon begins to recover from
the fmall-pox, the poifon aftually prefent in the cir¬
culating fyftem is multiplied infinitely beyond what it
was when it excited the difeafe. The conftitution has
therefore at that time, with refpeft to this acrimony,
acquired an infenfibility, or rather want of irritability;
and this it preferves ever afterwards. This, however,
Holds only with regard to thofe morbid poifons which
excite febrile affeftions, and feems to be a neceffary
provifion of nature to guard againft fuch noxious prin¬
ciples as are generated within the body itfelf.”
Having laftly confidered the effefts off irritation up¬
on the human body, the Doftor goes on to confider a
very remarkable property of living mufcles, viz; that of
their being in a conftant- ftate of teirfion, more or lefs,
independent ©f any temporary ftimulus. This is evi¬
dent from what happens when any-mufcle is cut; for
then there is an immediate retraftion of the feparated
parts ; and that this is their natural ftate Js farther
proved by the fpoat&neous motion- which takes place
in confequence of the relaxation of an antagonift mufcle, MufcTe.
as when the mouth is drawn to one fide in confequence
of hemiplegia. Some degree of tenfion indeed is ne¬
ceffary for the performance of the natural motions of
the mufcles, whether voluntary or involuntary ; and
the vigour with which the feveral afttons are perform¬
ed depends on the due degree of this tone.
This tone of the mufcles is every where maintained
by a certain counterafting mechanical power: the great
mufcles are kept on the ftretch by the bones, the heart
and veffels by the mafs of fluids, and the jnteftines by
the aliments taken in, and their other contents. Dif-
eafetf of various kkids may arife from the different de¬
grees of this tenfion, and the vafcular fyftem is more
apt to be affefted by different degrees of tenfion than
any other part of the body ; and our author confiders
what is called a nervous habit as one of the effefts off:
want of tenfion. He likewife attributes to the diffe¬
rent degrees of tenfion, more than to any thing elfe,
the great difference of conftitutions obfervable among
mankind. He obferves alfo, that the tenfion of the
mnfcles is greatly affefted by fympathy. “ This (fays
he) is particularly obferved in the blood-veffels and in-
teftines ; for a relaxation in thefe will produce a like -
affeftion in every other part of the animal fyftem.
With regard to the iateilines, it may be mentioned
among other'proofs, that it is common for perfons in
a ftate of great weaknefs to be affefted by fyncope,
and even inftantaneous death, in the aft of evacuating
the bowels. It feems to be from a like caufe that a
temporary lownefs is produced by an - abfeefs being
opened.
The Doftor concludes his fubjeft with confidering •
the mufcles as mechanical powers. “ As they confti-
tute the ftrength of animals, it may be proper to con¬
fider the relation of their ftrength- to their bulk, and
the relation of the bulk and ftrength of the body to
the denfity and cohefion of its own materials; and to
the bulk, denfity, and cohefion of the external ina¬
nimate bodies with which it is converfant.
“ It has been demonftrated by Galilee, that in fi-
milar unequal bodies, of a cylindrical or prifmatic Ihape,
ffuch as the limbs of animals nearly are, the ratio of
their efforts to break by their own weight is in the
quadruplicate ratio of their lengths ; but that the re¬
finance they make to the fame-force is only in the tri¬
plicate ratio of their lengths. It follows from this,
that in order to endow the limbs of animals with the
fame relative force, it is not only neceffary that the
bones ftiould pqffefs an increafed proportion of thick-
nefs, in order to give an adequate increafe of what may
be called the dead itrength ; but a fimilar increafe of
living ftrength is neceffary, by a fuitable addition of'
mufcular power, in order to keep pace with the in¬
creafed fize of the bones. Now we obferve, in faft,
that in the large-fized animals, fuch as the bull and
the elephant, the thicknefs both of their bones and
mufcles becomes greater in proportion to the length
of their limbs than in, the fmalier animals, and they-
are therefore of a lefs elegant form. But nature has
not carried this fo far as to compenfate for the difad*1
vantage arifing from the increafe of fize ; for the-
. greater animals have not the fame proportional ftrength,
in relation to their bulk, that the fmaller animals have.
It has. been computed that a flea can draw from
X9-
M U S
MufcTe, ^0 ge times its own weight, whereas a hotfe cannot
»' Ll"' with eaie draw more than three times his own weight.
This difproportion between fxze and ftrength is very
obfervable in different individuals of the human fpecies;
for tall men are not mufcular, even in the limple pro¬
portion of their ftature.”
Our author now proceeds to affign fome reafons why
the ftature of mankind in general is not larger than we
fee it. Some obfervations upon this fubjedt are made
under the article Giant, where it is attempted to
(how, that by increaiing the proportional ftrength of
the materials,, the fize of the human body might have
been augmented in any proportion. To this, how¬
ever, the Doftor replies, that “ had the hones been
harder, they would not have been calculated for the
common duration of life, the effect of which being to
increafe their hardnefs and drynefs, they mull be en¬
dowed originally with a certain degree of foftnefs and
fucculence ■: and, with regard to mufcks, a degree of
hardnefs much greater than they poffefs would have been
incompatible with their contradility.” But this rea-
foning does not feem to be conclufive. The bones of
a lion are faid to be much harder than thofe of any
other animal; yet we do not.find that thefe creatures
are liable to any kind of difeafe in confequertce of this
fnperior hardnefs. Neither is any inconvenient degree
of hardnefs in the mufcles a neceffary confequence of
. their increafed ftrength ; for filk, though equally foft
and flexible, flay much more fo than hemp or flax, is
neverthelefs much ftronger ; and we cannot by any
means doubt, that if men had formerly been of a lar¬
ger ftature than they are at prefent, the materials of
their bones and mufcles might have been proportion-
ably ftronger, without the leaft injury or impediment to
any of the operations of life.
When we confider the manner in which the mufcles
ad upon the bones into which they are inferted, we
may be apt to think that nature has been very prodi¬
gal of mechanical power; for. confidering the bones
as levers, the mufcles ad upon them at a very great
difadvantage, being always inferted much nearer the
fulcrum than the weight to be raifed. Thus the two
mufcles of the arm, named biceps and brachitcus intermix,
in order to fupport in the hand a weight of one pound
with the fore-arm at right angles to the humerus, muft
exert a power equal to ten pounds. Another circum-
ftance alfo which tends to wafte the power, is the ob¬
liquity with which they are inferted into their bones ;
fo that the greater part of the force is expended in
prefiing one bone againft another at the articulation,
and only a fmall part of it in making the flexures
and extenfions. Thefe difadvantages, however, are
-compenfated by a number of conveniences which could
not have been obtained on any other plan. We muft
diftinguifh between thofe adions which confift in pref-
fure and thofe which depend on perculfion ; for as
the momentum of this laft depends on velocity, it is
evident that there muft be a great advantage from the
iufertion of the tendon being near the centre of mo¬
tion, as greater velocity with lefs expence of contrac¬
tion will thus be communicated to the extremity. The
mufcles, for inftance, which are attached to the olecra¬
non, in performing thofe adions with the hand which
require rubbing, ad with a difadvantage exadly pro¬
portional to the inequality of the diftance from their
v N° 232.
M U S
infertion to the joint of the elbow, and that from the
fame joint to the hand This is an ad of preffure.
But in the cafe of percuffion, as in the adion of ufing
a hammer, there is an evident advantage refulting from
the velocity communicated to the extremity ; for, in
order to have produced the fame velocity, with the in¬
fertion at a greater diftance from the centre of motion,
a much greater degree of eontradion would have been
neceffary; and our author fnows that fatigue principally
depends on a contradion -of the mufcles. “ If any
one (fays he) will take the trouble of comparing the
fatigue of the biceps mufcle, in bearing a weight in
the hand with the elbow joint bent to a right angle,
with that of bearing the fame ^ eight for the fame
length of time with the joint at an acute angle, he
will be fenfible how much the degree of fatigue de¬
pends on the extent of contradion; and, by attend¬
ing to the relative fituation of mufcular fibres, it will
appear, that Nature, in diftributing the-fibres of
mufeles obliquely, has had it in view not only to in¬
creafe their number, but to fave contradion.”
In confidering the adions of the various mufcles in
producing the different adions of the body, we find
fcarce one produced that can be called dired. In
fome inftances we find two mufcles, or two fets of
mufcles, co operating, fo that the motion effeded by
them (hall be in the diagonal of their diredion. This
is the cafe of the oblique mufcles of the abdomen in
fome of their adions, and of the intercoftal mufcles in
all theirs. Sometimes different portions of the fame
mufcle combine in like manner to produce a fimilar
effed ; and in all the long mufcles, however Ample
their origin and infertion may be, there is an internal
obliquity of their fibres with regard to one another;
for thefe do not run from end to end, but there are
parts of the tendon running into the belly of the
mufcle, fo as to ‘divide it into penniform and rhomboi*
dal portions. This diftribution of the fibres takes off
from the length ; but as it takes place in chofe cafes
where the origin and infertion are at a confiderable di ¬
ftance, this can be afforded; and this, as well as the
wafte of power, in confequence of oblique adion, is
more than compenfated by the increafed ftrength from
the fibres being multiplied 5 for, in confequence of
this ftrudure, there is an extent of tendon afforded
fufficient for the infertion of a greater number of fleftiy
fibres.
The Dodor illuftrates this principle in the mecha-
nifm of mufcular adion from the example of fifti ;
a fpecies of animals which exert greater mufcular
powers than any others. “ The mufcles of moft fifli
(fays he) confift of regular feries of oblique fhort
fibres, forming thofe ftrata which everyone muft have
obferved in their mufcu'ar fubftance Their motions
are more Ample and limited than thofe of land-animals,
but much more vigorous ; for a fifh in the fea has to
make its way through a medium about ioco tifnes
more denfe than air, and with more rapidity than
thofe which inhabit the land. Nature, therefore, in-
ftead of giving them mnfcles whofe fibres would run
ftraight from one end of their body to the other, has
multiplied their numbers, by diftributing them into
ftiort and oblique portions. I have feen the fword of
a fword-fifh flicking in a plank, which it had pene¬
trated from fide to fide; and when it is confideved
that
r 4S0 i
M U S [ 4S1 ] M U S
that the animal was then moving through fo denfe upon every occafion have palled like bow-firings from Muf le
J a medium, and in the fame direftion with the Ihip, one bow to the other, and the limbs mull have been M|]fe4
we mull form a high conception of its mufcular exceedingly clumfy and unwieldy j all the motions
Dower.” mull alfo have been extremely flow: and notwithftand-
^ Lafily, our author gives a mathematical demonftra- ing the fuperior ftrength which people would then
tion, that by the obliquity of the mufdes a very con- have enjoyed, it is very plain that they would fcarce
fiderable quantity of contraftion is faved, and confe- have been fit for any of the offices of life which they
queitly a proportional degree of fatigue prevented.— now perform.
*4 Ld the line AB (fays he) in the annexed diagram, Muscle, in zoology. See Mytulus.
reprefent a moveable bone, and the line CD a fixed MUSCOVY. See Russia.
bone parallel to it. Let FE, perpendicular to thefe ilfr/sco^r-G/a/r, or Glimmer. See Mica.
lines, reprefept a mufcle a&ing in its own dire&ion, MUSCULUS, a military machine, made ufc of by
and the lines GE, HE, reprefent two mufcles a&ing the Romans to cover and protedt the foldiers while
obliquely, and producing by a diagonal a&ion the they approached and undermined the walls of befieged
fame effedt as the other'. If the bone AB be brought places, or filled the ditches. It feems to have refem-
to the fituation alky the adtion of the mufcle FE, bled the teftudo in form, but was fmaller in fize. See
the mufcle will then be in the fituation FK. If the Testudo.
bone is brought into the fame fituation by the adlion MUSEIA, were Grecian feftivals in honour of the
- 0f the mufcles GE, HE, thefe mufcles will then be in Mufes, celebrated with games every fifth year, parti-
the fituation GK, HK. cularly by the Thefpians. The Macedonians alfo ob-
ferved a feftival of the fame name in honour of Jupi.
ter and the Mufes, which lafted for nine days, and
was celebrated with ftage plays, .fongs, and poetical
compofitions.
MUSES, certain fabulous deities among the Pa¬
gans, fuppofed to prefide over the arts and fciencesi
for this reafon it is ufual for the poets, at the be¬
ginning of a poem, to invoke thefe goddeffes to their
aid.
The mufes were originally only fingers and mufi-
cians in the fervice of Ofiris, or the great Egyptian
Bacchus, under the inftrudiion and guidance of his
fon Orus ; but in fucceeding times they were called
_  ^ the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemofyne ox Memory.
c G F H Thefe are the only pagan divinities whofe worffiip
“ The propofition to be demonftrated is, that the line has been continued through all fucceeding changes in
GK bears a greater proportion to the line GE, than the religion and fentiments of mankind. Profeffors
the line FK does to line FE ; forFK is to FE as GL of every literal art in all the countries of Europe
is to GE (Eue. Elem. B. vi Prop. 2.); and the ftill revere them; particularly the poets, who feldom
angle ELK being lefs than a right angle, the angle undertake the flighteft work without invoking theiraid.
GLK, which is adjacent to it, muft be greater than Sir Ifaac Newton tells us, that the finging women-
a right angle ; and the angle OKL being in the fame of Ofiris were celebrated in Thrace by the name of
triangle with GLK, muft be lefs than a right angle, the Mufes ; and that the daughters of Pierius, a Thra-
The line GK, therefore, which fubtends the greater cian, imitating them, were celebrated by the fame
angle, is greater than the line GL, fubtending the name.
Idler, and therefore bears a greater proportion to Diodorus Siculus informs us, that Aleman of Mef-
GE. But the line GL is. to GE as FK is to FE ; fene, a lyric poet who flourifhed in the 27th Olympiad,
and therefore GK bears a greater proportion to GE 676 years B. C. makes them the daughters of Uranus
than FK does to FE ; that is, the fibres of the mufcles and Terra. It has been aderted by fome ancient wri¬
nging obliquely, fuffer a lefs proportional decuitation ters, that at firft they were only three in number ; but
than thofe of the mufcle adting diredlly. . Homer, Hefiod, and other profound.mythologifts, ad-
It is farther obvious, that the more oblique the ac- mit of nine (a).
tion becomes, the greater having there will be of con-
tradion ; for in moving the lineal towards CD, the
line FK diminifhes in a fwifter ratio than the line
Iiyhis hymn to Apollo, Homer fays,
 By turns the nine delight to ting.
    And Hefiod, in his theogony, names them all.-r—
GK ; and when the former has vaniffied, the latter is They are faid feverally to prefide over fome art or
in the fituation GF.” fcience, as mufic, poetry, dancing, aftronomy. By
Befides thefe advantages in point of diminifhing fome they are called virgins, becaufe the virtues of
fatigue, there are others relating to the ffiape of the education appear unalteraUe : they are called mufes, fiurne 'y
members. Thus, if the infertipns of the mufcles had from a Greek word which fignifies to explain myfte- Hijl. If
been at a great diftance from the joints, they muft nes, becaufe they have taught things the moft curious Wk/Jo.
Vol. Xll. Part II. ^ 3 P and
( a) It has been faid, that when the citizens of Sicyon directed three fldlful ftatuaries, to make each of them
ftatues of the three Mufes, they were all fo well executed, that they did not know which choofe, but erec¬
ted all the nine, aqd that Hefiod and Homer only gave them names.
* Travel,
i/Anacba,
/"> vol. iii
f. 261.
M U S [ 48
and important to know, and which arc above the com-
prehenfion of vulgar minds. Each of their names is
(aid to include fome particular allegory ; Clio, for in-
ftance, has been thus called, becaufe thofe who are
praifed in verfe acquire immortal fame; Euterpe, on
account of the pleafure accruing to thofe who hear
learned poetry; Thalia implies for ever flourifhing j
Melpomene, that her melody infinnates itfelf into the
inmofl receffes of the foul; Terpfichore marks the
pleafure which thofe receive who are verfed in the li¬
beral arts: Erato feems to indicate, that the learned
command the efteem and Friendfhip of all mankind ;
Polyphymnia, that many poets are become immortal by
the number of hymns which they have addreffed to the
gods; Urania, that thofe whom Hie inftrudts elevate
their contemplations and celebrity to the heavens and
the ftars; and laftly, the exquifite voice of Calliope has
acquired her that appellation, as the inventrefs and
guardian of eloquence and rhetoric.
An epigram of Callimachus gives the attributes of
the mufes in as many lines.
Calliope the deeds of heroes fings ;
Great Clio fweeps to hiftory the firings;
Euterpe teaches mimes their fdent fliow ;
Melpomene prefides o’er fcenes of wo ;
Terpfichore the flute’s foft pow’r difplays;
And Erato gives hymns the gods to praife ;
Polymnia’s fie ill infpires melodious flrains ;
Urania wife, the Harry courfje explains ; V
Andgay TWia’sglafs pointsoutwherefollyreigns, j
This epigram does not, however, exactly corre-
fpond with the ideas of other poets, or of the ancient
painters, in charadterifmg the attributes of the mufes.
The ancients had numberlefs ingenious and fanciful
ideas concerning the mufes, which we have not room
to recite.—“ It feems (fays the Abbe Barthelemi *)
"as if the firft poets, enchanted with the beauties of na¬
ture, occafionally were led to invoke the nymphs of
the woods, hills, and fountains; and that yielding to
the prevailing tafte for allegory, they gave them names
relative to the influence they might be fuppofed to
have over the productions of the mind. At firlt three
mufes only were admitted, Melete, Mneme, and Aoede:
that is to fay, the meditation or reflection neceflary to
ftudy ; memory which records illuftrious deeds; and
fong which accompanies their recital. In propor¬
tion as improvement was made in the art of verfifica-
tion, its characters and effeCts were perfonified, the
number pf the mufes increafed, and the names they
now received referred to the charms of poetry, its ce-
letyial origin, the beauty of its language, the pleafure
and gaiety it infpires, the fong and dance which add
to it new charms, and the glory with which it is
crowned. Afterwards were affociated with them the
Graces, whofe employment it is to embellifh poetry,
and Love who is fo frequently its objeCl. Thefe ideas
took birth in a barbarous country, in Thrace, where
Orpheus, Linus, and their difciples, fuddenly appear¬
ed in the midft of ignorance. The mufes were ho¬
noured there on the Pierian mount, and extending
their dominion, fucceflively took their ftations on Pin-
dus, Pamaffus, Helicon, and all thofe folitary places
where the painters of nature, furrounded by the moft
pleafing images, experience the divine glow of infpira-
2 ] M u s
Pythagoras, and afterwards Plato, make the mufes Mufenm
the foul of the planets in our fyltem ; from whence the II
imaginary mufic of the fpheres. Mufhroom.
MUSEUM, a name which originally fignified a ''
part of the palate of Alexandria, which took up at
leaft one-fourth of the city. This quarter was called
the mufeum, on account of its being fet apart for the
mufes and the ftudy of the fciences. Here were
lodged and entertained the men of learning ; who were
divided into many companies or colleges, according to
the fciences of which they were the profeflbrs; and to
each of thefe houfes or colleges was allotted a hand-
fome revenue. The foundation of this eftabliftiment
is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed
his library. Hence the word mufeum is now applied to
any place fet apart as a repofitory for things that have
an immediate relation to the arts.
The mufeum at Oxford, called the AJhmolean mu¬
feum, is a noble pile of building, ere&ed at the ex¬
pence of the univerfity, at the weft end of the theatre,
at which fide it has a magnificent portal, fuftained bjr
pillars of the Corinthian order. The front, which is
to the ftreet, extends about 60 feet, where there is this
infeription over the entrance in gilt chara&ers, Mu¬
feum Afhmoleanum, fchola naturalis hiforiee, ojficina chy-
micha. It was begun in 1679, anc* Anilhed in 1683,
when a valuable colle&ion of curiofities was prefented
to the univerlity by Elias Aftimole, Efq; which were
the fame day repofited there : feveral acceffions have
been fince made to the mufeum; among which are
hieroglyphics, and other JEgyptian antiquities, an en¬
tire mummy, Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps,
&c. and a variety of natural curioiities.
The Britifti mufeum in London is a large, beauti¬
ful, and magnificent building, the nobleft cabinet of
curiofities in the world. See the article London,
n° HI-
MUSGRAVE (Dr William), a learned phyfician
and antiquary, was born at Charlton-Mufgrave in
Somerfetlhire, about the year 1657 ; and ftudied at
New-college, Oxford. Having diftinguiftied himfelf
by his knowledge in his profeffion, and his (kill in
natural philofophy, he was ele&ed fellow of the Royal
Society ; and- being made fecretary in 1684, he con¬
tinued the Philofophical Tranfaftions from n° 167 to
n° 178 inclufive. After having taken his degrees in
phyfic, and being admitted a fellow of the college of
phyficians, he went and fettled at Exeter, where he
praflifed phyfic with great reputation and fuccefs.
Being a man of extenfive learning, he compofed, at
his leifure-hours, feveral curious and valuable works;
as, 1. De arthritide anomala five interna differtatw. 2. De
arthritide fymptomatica dijfertatio. 3. fulii Vitalis epi-
taphium, cum commentario. 4. De legionibus epflola,
5. De aquilis Romanis epifola. 6. Infcriptio Terraca-
nenfis, cum commentario. 7. Geta Britannicus, &c.—
8. ^Belgium Britannicum. This learned phyfician died
in 1721.
MUSHROOM, in botany. See Agaricus and
Lyncurius.
To try the quality of mulhrooms :—Take an onion,
and ftripe the outer Ikin, and boil it with your mufh-
rooms: if the onion become blue or black, there are
certainly dangerous ones amongft them ; if it remain
white, they are good.
MUSIC ;
[ 483 ]
definition.
MUSIC;
THE art of combining founds in a manner agree¬
able to the ear. This combination may be either
fimultaneous or fucceffive : in the firft cafe, it corrfti-
tutes harmony; in the laft, melody. But though the
fame founds, or intervals of found, which give plea-
fure when heard in fucceffion, will not always produce
the fame effect in harmony; yet the principles which
conftitute the Ampler and more perfect kinds of har¬
mony, are almoft, if not entirely, the fame with thofe
©f melody. By perfeS harmony, we do not here mean
that plenitude, thofe complex modifications of harmo¬
nic found, which are admired in pradtice; but that har¬
mony which is called perfefi by theoricians and artifts;
that harmony which refults from the coalefcence of fi¬
multaneous founds produced by vibrations in the pro¬
portions of thirds, fifths, and odtaves, or their dupli¬
cates.
The principles upon which thefe various combina¬
tions of found arc founded, and by which they are re¬
gulated, conftitute a fcience, which is not only exten-
five but profound, when we would inveftigate the prin-
eiples from whence thefe happy modifications of found
refult, and by which they are determined; or when we
would explore the ferifations, whether mental or cor¬
poreal, with which they affeft us. The ancient defi¬
nitions of mufic are not proportioned in their extent
to our prefent ideas of that art; but M. Roufleau be¬
trays a temerity highly incotlfiftent with the philofo-
phical character, when from thence he infers, that their
ideas were vague and undetermined. Every foul fuf-
•ceptible of refinement and delicacy in tafte or fenti-
ment, muft be confcious that there is a mufic in aftion
*s well as in found; and that the ideas of beauty and
decorum, of harmony and fymmetry, are, if we may
life the expreffion, equally conftituent of vifible as of
audible mufic. Thofe illuftrious minds, whofe com-
prehenfive profpefts in every fcience where tafte and
propriety prevail took in nature at a fingle glance,
would behold with contempt and ridicule thofe narrow
and microfcopic views of which alone their fucceffors
in philofophy have difeovered themfelves capacious.
With thefe definitions, however, we are lefs concerned,
as they bear no proportion to the ideas which are now
entertained of mufic. Nor can we follow M. Rouffeau,
from whatever venerable fources his authority may be
derived, in adopting his Egyptian etymology for the
word muftc. The eftablifhed derivation' from Mufa
could only be queftioned by a paradoxical genius. That
mufic had been praftifed in Egypt before it was
known as an art in Greece, is indeed a fail which
cannot be queftioned ; but it does not thence follow
that the Greeks had borrowed the name as well as the
art from Egypt. If the art of mufic be fo natural to
man that vocal melody is praftifed wherever articulate
founds are ufed, there can be little reafon for dedu¬
cing the idea of mufic from the whittling of winds
through the reeds that grew on the river Nile. And
«deed, when we reflect with how cafy a tranfition we
may pafs from the accents of fpeaking to diatonic
founds; when we obferve how early children adapt the
language of their amufements to meafure and melody,
however rude ; when we confider how early and uni-
verfally thefe practices take place—there is no avoiding
the conclufion, that the idea of mufic is connatural to
man, and implied in the original principles of his con-
ftitution. We have already laid, that the principles on
which it is founded, and the rules by which it is con-
dufted, conftitute a fcience. The fame maxims when
applied to praftice form an art: hence its firft and moll
capital divifion is into fpeculative and practical mufic.
Speculative mufic is, if we may be permitted to ufe
the expreffion, the knowledge of the nature and ufe of
thofe materials which compofe it; or", in other words,
of all the different relations between the high and
low, between the harfii and the fweet, between the
fwift and the flow, between the ftrong and the weak,
of which founds are fufceptible: relations which, com.
prehending all the poffible combinations of mufic and
founds, feem likewife to comprehend all the caufes of
the impreffions which their fucceffion can make upon
the ear and upon the foul. X
Pradical mufic is the art of applying and reducing
to praftice thofe principles which refult from the theory
of agreeable founds, whether fimultaneous-or fuccef¬
five; or, in other words, to conduct and arrange found*
according to the proportions refulting from confonance,
from duration and fucceffion, in fuch a manner as to
produce upon the ear the effe& which the compofer
intends. This is the art which we call compojition *. * Sec^Ct*:*
With refpeft to the aftual pro3uftion of founds byP°fiti,,n-
voices or inftruments, which is called execution, this
department is merely mechanical and operative: which,
only prefuppofing the powers of founding the intervals
true, of exadtly proportioning their degrees of dura¬
tion, of elevating or depreffing founds according to
thofe gradations which are preferibed by the tone, and
to the value required by the time, demands no other
knowledge but a familiar acquaintance with the cha-
•ra&ers ufed in mufic, and a habit of expreffing thein
with promptitude and facility.
Speculative mufic is likewife divided into two de¬
partments ; vix. the knowledge of the proportions of
founds or their intervals, and that of their relative du¬
rations; that is to fay, of meafure and of time.
The firft is w’hat among the ancients feems to have
been called harmonical mufic. It fhows in what the
nature of air or melody confifts; and difeovers what
is confonant or difeordant, agreeable or difagreeable,
in the modulation. It difeovers, in a word, the effe&s
which founds produce on the ear by their nature, by
their force, and by their intervals ; which is equally
applicable to their confonance and their fucceffion.
The fecond has been called rhythmical, becaufe it
treats of founds with regard to their time and quan¬
tity. It contains the explication of their continuance,
«f their proportions, of their meafures whether long or
3 P 2 fhort*
4*4
MUSIC.
fhort, quick or flow, of the different modes of time and proper to affedf them in the moft fenflble manner,
the parts into which they are divided, that to thefe This, continues he, which is the genuine lyric and
the fucceflion of founds may be conformed.
PraBkal mufic is likewife divided into two depart¬
ments, which correfpond to the two preceding.
That which anfwers to harmonical mufic, and which
the ancients called melopee, teaches the rules for com¬
bining and varying the intervals, whether confonant or
diflbnant, in an agreeable and harmonious manner.
The fecond, which anfwers to the rhythmical mufic,
and which they called rhythmopee, contains the rules
for applying the different modes of time, for under-
flanding the feet by which verfes were fcanned, and the
diverfities of meafure ; in a word, for the pradtice of
the rhythmus.
Mufic is at prefent divided piore Amply into melody
and harmony; for fince the introdudlion oi harmony the
proportion bet ween the length and fhortnefs of founds,
or even that between the diflance of returning ca¬
dences, are of lefs confequence amongft ua. For it of¬
ten happens in modern languages, that the verfes af-
fume their meafures from the mufical air, and almoft
entirely lofe the fmall fhare of proportion and quantity
which in themfelves they pofiefs.
By melody the fucceffions of found are regulated in
fuch a manner as to produce pleafing airs. See Me-
uody.
Hat/'‘ony con fills in uniting to each of the founds,
in a regular fuccefiion, two or more different founds,
which fimultaneoufly ftriking the ear foothe it by their
concurrence. See Harmony.
Mufic, according to Rouffeau, may be, and perhaps
likewife ought to be, divided into the phyfical and the
imitative. The firfl is limited to the mere mechanifm of
founds, and reaches no farther than the external fenfes,
without carrying its imprefiions to the heart, and can
produce nothing but corporeal fenfations more or lefs
theatrical mufic, was what gave double charms and
energy to ancient poetry; this is what, in our days,
we exert ourfelves in applying to the drama, and what
our fingers execute on the ftage. It is in this mufic
alone, and not in harmonics or the refonance of na¬
ture, that we muft expeft to find accounts of thofe
prodigious effefts which it formerly produced.
But, with M. Rouffeau’s permiflion, all mufic which
is not in fome degree charafiterifed by thefe pathetic
and imitative powers, deferves no better name than that
of a mufical jargon, and can only be effeftuated by fuch
a complication and intricacy of harmony, as may con¬
found, but cannot entertain the audience. This cha¬
racter, therefore, ought to be added as eflential to the
definition of mufic; and it muft be attributed to our
negleCt of this alone, whilft our whole attention is be¬
llowed on harmony and execution, that the bell per¬
formances of our artifts and compofers are heard with
liftlefs indifference and ofcitation, nor ever can conci¬
liate any admirers, but fuch as are induced, by pedan¬
try and affeftation, to pretend what they do not feel.
Still may the curfe of indifference and inattention pur-
fue and harrow up the fouls of every compofer or per¬
former, who pretends to regale our ears with this mu¬
fical legerdemain, till the grin of fcorn, or the hifs of
infamy, teach them to correCt this depravity of tafte,
and entertain us with the voice of nature!
Whilll moral effeCls are fought in the natural effeCls
of found alone, the fcrutiny will be vain, and difputes
will be maintained without being underftood : but
founds, as reprefentatives of objeCis, whether by nature
or affociation, introduce new fcenes to the fancy and
new feelings to the heart; not from their mechanical
powers', but from the conneftion ellahlilhed by the Au«
thor of our frame between founds and the obieCls
agreeable. Such is the mufic of fongs, of hymns, of which either by natural refemblance or unavoidable
all the airs which only confift in combinations of me- affociation they are made to reprefent.
lodious founds, and in general all mufic which is
merely harmonious.
It would feem that mufic was one of thofe arts
which were firft difcovered : and that vocal was prior
Itmay,however, be quefiioned, whether every found, to inftrumental mufic, if in the earlieft ages there
even to the moft Ample, is not either by nature or by was any mufic which could be faid to be purely inftru-
early and confirmed affociation, imitative. If we may mental. For it is more than probable, that mufic was
trull our own feelings, there is no fuch thing in nature originally formed to be the vehicle of poetry ; and of
as mufic which gives mechanical pkafure alone. For confequence, though the voice might be fupported and
if fo, it muft give fuch pleafure as we receive from
taftes, from odours, or from other grateful titillations;
but we abfolutely deny that there are any mufical fen¬
fations or pleafures in the fmalleft degree analogous to
'thefe. Let any piece of mufic be refolved into its ele¬
mentary parts and their proportions, it will then eafily
appear from this analyfis, that fenfe is no more than
the vehicle of fuch perceptions, and that mind alone
can be fufceptible of them. It may indeed happen,
from the number of the performers and the complica¬
tion of the. harmony, that meaning and fentiment may
be loft in the multiplicity of founds; but this, though
it may be harmony, lofes the name of mufti
accompanied by inllruments, yet mufic was never in¬
tended for inftruments alone.
We are told by aftcient authors, that all the la vs,
whether human or divine, exhortations to virtue, the
knowledge of the chara&ers and aftions of gods and
heroes, the lives and atchievements of illuftrious men,
were written in verfe, and fung publicly by a quire to
the found of inllruments; and it appears from the
Scriptures,, that fuch from the earlieft times was the
euftom among the Ifraelites. Nor was it poffible to
find means more efficacious for impreffing on the mind
of man the principles of morals, and infpiring the
love of virtue. Perhaps, however, this was not the
The fecond department of thia divifion, by lively and refult of a premeditated plan ; but infpired by fublime
accentuated inflecftions, and by founds which, may be
faid to fpeak, expreffes all the paffions, paints every
poffible pi&ure, refle&s every objedl, fubje&s the
whole of nature to its Ikilful imitations, and im-
jateffes even on the heart and foul of man fentiments
fentiments and elevation of thought, which in accents
that were fuited and proportioned to their celeftial
nature endeavoured to find a language worthy of
themfelves and expreffive of their grandeur.
It merits attention, that the ancients were duly fen-
fible
MUSIC.
fible of the value and importance of this divine art, martial, the pajloral, and the fejlive. The firjl confids
not only as a fymbel of that univerfal order and fym- either in marches, which were played before the chief-
metry which prevails through the whole frame of ma- tains, in imitation of the battles which they fought,
terial and intelligent nature, but as produftive of the or in lamentations for the cataftrophes of war and the
moll momentous efFefts both in moral and political extin&ion of families. Thefe wild elfufions of natural
life. Plato and Ariftotle, who difagreed almofl in melody preferve feveral of the rules prefcribed for com-
every other maxim of politics, are unanimous in their pofition. The drains, though rude and untutored, are
approbation of m'ufic, as an efficacious inftrument in frequently terrible or mournful in a very high degree,
the formation of the -public character and in conduit- The port or march is fometimes in common, fometimes
ing the Hate ; and it was the general opinion, that in treble time; regular in its meafures, and exail in
v hiltl the gymnaftic exercifes rendered the eonftitution the diftance between its returning cadences; mod fre-
robud.and hardy, mufic humanifed the character, and quently, though not always, loud and brilh. The pi-
foftened thofe habits of roughnefs and ferocity by £rar/£, or imitation of battles, is wild, and abrupt in
which men might otherwife have degenerated into fa- its tranfitions from interval to interval and from key to
vages. The gradations by which voices were exerted key; various and defultory in its movements; fre-
and tuned, by which the invention of one indrument quently irregular in the return of its cadences; and
fucceeded to another, or by which the principles of
mufic were collefted and methodifed in fuch a manner
as to give it the. form of an art and the dignity of a
fcience, are topics fo fruitful of conjedlure and fo void
of certainty, that we mud leave them to employ minds
more fpeculative and inventions more prolific than
ours, or transfer them to the Hi/lory of Mufic as a
more proper place for fuch difquifitions. Por the
amufement of the curious, Roudeau in his Mufical Dic¬
tionary, Plates C and N, has tranfcribed fome frag¬
ments of Grecian, Perfian, American, Chinefe, and
Swifs mufic, with which performers may entertain them-
felves at leifure. When they have tried the pieces, it
is imagined they will be lefs fanguinely fond than that
author of afcribing the power of mufic to its affinity
with the national accents wkere it is cofnpofed. This
may doubtlefs have its influence ; but there are other
caufes more permanent and lefs arbitrary tt) which it
owes its mod powerful and univerfal charms.
The mufic now mod generally celebrated and prac-
tifed is that of the Italians, or their fuccefsful imita-
tators. The Englifh, from the invafion of the Saxons,
to that more late though lucid era in which they im¬
bibed the art and copied the manner of the Italians,
had a mufic which neither pleafed the foul nor charm¬
ed the ear. The primitive- mufic of the Frenchfc.de-
ferves no higher panegyric. Of all the barbarous na¬
tions, the Scots and Irifh feem to have poffeffed the
mod affedling original mufic. The fird confids of a
melody charafilerifed by tenderuefs : It melts the foul
to a pleafing penfive languor. The other is the na¬
tive expreffion of grief and melancholy. Taflbni in¬
forms us, that in his time a prince from Scotland had
imported into Italy a lamentable kind of mufic from
his own country ; and that he himfelf had compofed
pieces in the. fame fpirit. From this expreffive though
laconic defeription, we learn, that the charafter of our
national mufic was even then edablifhed ; yet fo grofs
is Our ignorance and credulity, that we aferibe the
bed and mod impaffioned airs which are extant among
ns to^David Rizzio; as if an Italian Lutanid, w ho
had lived fo drort a time in Scotland, could at once, as
it were by infpiration, have imbibed a fpirit and com-
ppfed in a manner fo different from his own. It is
yet more furprifing that Geminiani diould have en¬
tertained and publiffied the fame prejudice, upon the
miferable authority of popular tradition alone ; for
the faft authenticated by no better credentials. The
primitive mufic of the. Scots miy be divided into the
in drort, through the whole, feems iufpired with fuch
fury and enthufiafm, that the hearer is irrefiilibly in-
feiled with all the rage of precipitate courage, not-
withdanding the rulenefs of the accents by which it is
kindled. To this the pajloral forms a driking contrad.
Its accents are plaintive, yet foothing pits harmony
generally dat; its modulatiqns natural and agreeable ;
its rhythmus fimple and regular ; its returning caden¬
ces at equal didance ; its tranfitions from one concin-
nous interval to another, at lead for the mod part;
its movements flow, and may be eithef in common or
treble tinje. It fcarcely admits of any other harmony
than that of a fimple bafs. A greater number of parts
would cover the air and dedroy the melody. To this
we (hall add what has been faid upon the fame fub-
je6l by Dr Franklin. Writing to Lord K ,
he proceeds thus:
“ Give me leave, on this occafion, to extend a little
the fenfe of your pofition, ‘ That melody and harmony
are feparately agreeable, and in union delightful
and to give* it as my opinion, that the reqfon why the
Scotch tunes have lived fo long, and will probably live
for ever (if they efcape being difled in modern affect¬
ed ornament), is merely this, that they are really com-
pofitions^of melody and harmony united, or rather
that their melody is harmony. I mean, the fimple
tunes fung by a fingle voice. As this will appear pa¬
radoxical, I mud explain my meaning. In common
acceptation, indeed, only an agreeable fuccejjion of
founds is called melody; and only the coexiftence of
agreeable founds, harmony. But fince the memory i0
capable of retaining for fome moments a perfect idea
of the pitch of a pad found; fo as to compare.it with .\
the pitch of a fucceeding found, and judge truly ef
their agreement or difagreement, there may and does -
arife from thence a fjenfe of harmony between the pre-
fent and pad founds, equally pleafing with that be¬
tween two prefent founds. Npw the condruftion of *
the old Scotch tunes is this, that almod every fuc-
ceeding emphatical note.is a third, a -fifth, an odtave,
pr in diort fome note that is in concord with the pre¬
ceding note. „. Thirds are chiefly ufed, which are very
pleafing concords. I ufe the word emphatical, to di-
itinguiffi thofe notes which have a drefs laid on them
in finging .the tune, from the lighter connecting notes -
that ferve merely, like grammar-articles in- common
fpeech, to tack the whole together.
“ That we have a mod perfeCt icfea of a found jud
pad, I might appeal to all acquainted with mufic, '
a.: wko<
485
4$ 5
M U
who know how eafy it is to repeat a found in the
fame pitch with one juft heard. In tuning an inftru-
ment, a good ear can as eafily determine that two
filings are in unifon by founding them feparately, as
by founding them together; theirdifagreement is alfo
as eafily, I believe I may fay more eafily and better
diftinguiflied when founded feparately; for when
founded together, though you know by the beating
that one is higher than the other, you cannot tell
which it is. I have afcribed to memory the ability of
comparing the pitch of a prefent tone with that of one
paft- But if there (hould be, as poffibly there may be,
fomething in the ear fimilar to what we find in the eye,
that ability would not be entirely owing to memory.
Poffibly the vibrations given to the auditory nerves by
a particular found may actually continue for fome time
after the caufe of thefe vibrations is pad, and the
agreement or difagreement of a fubfequent found be¬
come by comparifon with them more difcernible. For
the impreffion made on the vifual nerves by a luminous
«bje<£t will continue for 20 or 30 feconds.”
After fome experiments to prove the permanency of
viiible impreffions, he continues thus :
“ Farther, when we confider by whom thefe ancient
tunes were corapofed, and how they were firft per¬
formed, we fhall fee that fuch harmonica! fucceffions
of founds was natural and even neceffary in their con-
ftruftion. They were compofed by the minftrels of
thofe days, to be played on the harp accompanied by
the voice. The harp was ftrung with wire, which
gives a found of long continuance ; and had no con¬
trivance like that of the modern harpfichord, by
which the found of the preceding note can be ftopt
the moment a fucceeding note begins. To avoid
aftual difeord, it was therefore neceftary that the fuc-
•eedlng emphatic note ffiould be a cord with the pre¬
ceding, as their founds mull exift at the fame time.
Hence arofe that beauty in thofe tunes that has fo
long pleafed, and will pleafe for ever, though men
fcarce know why. That they were originally com¬
pofed for the harp, and of the moft fimple kind, I
mean a harp without any half-notes but thofe in the
natural fcale, and with no more than two o&av’es of
firings, from C to C, I conjefture from another cir-
cumftance', which is, that not one of thefe tunes,
really ancient, has a fingle artificial half-note in it;
and that in tunes where it is moft convenient for the
voice to ufe the middle notes of the harp, and place
the key in F, there the B, which if ufed ffiould be a
B flat, is always omitted, by paffing over it with a
third. The connoiffeurs in modern mufic will fay I
HISTORY
No accurate TV/T^IC *s caPa^e °f a variety fo infinite, fo
accounta of JLVJL greatly does the mo.ft fimple differ from the
the ftateof moft complex, and fo multiplied are the degrees be-
the^carliell tween t^cfe two extremes, that in no age could the
ageaofthe incidents refpe^ting that fafeinating art have been
World. few or uninterefting. But, that accounts of thefe in¬
cidents ffiould have been handed down to us, fcanty
and imperfeft, is no matter of furprife, when we re-
eolle£t that the hiftory of mufic is the hiftory only
©f founds, of which writing is a very inadequate"
SIC. Hiftory.
have no tafte : but I cannot help adding, that I he*
lieve our anceftors, in having a good fong, diftin&ly
articulated, fung to one of thofe tunes, and accom*
panied by the harp, felt more real pleafure than is
communicated by the generality of modern operas,
exclufive of tkat arifing from the feenery and dancing.
Moft tunes of late compofition, not having this na¬
tural harmony united with their melody, have re-
courfe to the artificial harmony of a bafs, and other
accompanying parts. This fupport, in my opinion,
the old tunes do not need, and are rather confufed
than aided by it. Whoever has heard James Ofivald
play them on his violincello, will be lefs inclined to
difpute this with me. I have more than once feea
tears of pleafure in the eyes of Jus auditors : and yet
I think, even hh playing thofe tunes would pleafe
more if he gave them lefs modern ornament.,,
As thefe obfervations are for the moft part true and
always ingenious, we need no other apology for quot¬
ing them at length. It is only proper to remark, that
the tranfition in Scots mufic by confonant intervals,
does net feem, as Dr Franklin imagines, to an'fe from
the nature of the inftruments upon which they played.
It is more than probable, that the ancient Britilh harp
was not ftrung with wire, but with the fame materials
as the Welffi harps at prefent. Thefe ftrings have not
the fame permanency of tone as metal; fo that the
found of a preceding emphatic note muft have expired
before the fubfequent accented note could be introdu¬
ced. Befides, they who are acquainted with the ma¬
noeuvre of the Iriffi harp, know well that there is a
method of difeontinuing founds no lefs eafy and effec¬
tual than upon the harpfichord. When the perform¬
er finds it proper to interrupt a note, he has no more
to_do but return his finger gently upon the firing im¬
mediately ftruck, which effedually flops its vibration.
That fpecies of Scots mufic which we have diitin-
guifiled by the name of fejlivc feems nowlimited to reels
and country-dances. Thefe may be either in common
or treble time. They moft frequently eonfifl of two
ftrains: each of thefe contains eight or twelve bars.
They are truly rhythmical; but the mirth which they
excite feems rather to be infpired by the vivacity of the
movement, than either by the force or variety of the
melody. They have a manoeuvre and expreffion pecu¬
liar to themfelves, which it is impoffible to deferibe, and
which can only ^e exhibited by good performers.
Thus far we have purfued the general idea of mufie.
We fhall, after the hiftory, give a more particular de¬
tail of the fcience from Monfieur D’Alembert.
of MUSIC.
medium ; and that men would long employ themfelves
in the pleafing exercife of cultivating mufic before
they poffeffed either the ability or the inclination to
record their exertions.
No accurate traces, therefore, of the aftual ftate
of mufic, in the earlier ages of the world, can be dif-
cerned. Our ideas on the fubjedt have no founda¬
tion firmer than conjecture and analogy.
It is probable, that among all barbarous nations
fome degree of funilarity is difcernible in the ftyle of
their
Hiftory. M U
their muf5e. Neither will much difference appear du¬
ring the firft dawnings of civilization. But in the
more advanced periods of fociety, when the powers
of the human mind are permitted without obflacle
t© exert their native a&ivity and tendency to inven¬
tion, -and are at the fame time affefted by the infinite
variety of circumftances and fituations which before
had no exiftence, and which in one cafe accelerate,
and in another retard ; then that limilarity, once fo
diftinguifhable, gives place to the endlefs diverfity of
- ^ which the fubjeft is capable.
Mufic not The pradtice of mufic v being univerfal in all ages
the inven- and all nations, it would be abfurd to attribute the
tion of any invent;on Df the art to any one man. It muft have
•ne man. fufferec} a regular progreflion, through infancy, child¬
hood, and youth, before it could arrive at maturity.
The firfl attempts muft have been rude and artlefs;
perhaps the firft flute was a reed of the lake.
No nation has been able to produce proofs of an¬
tiquity fo indifputable as the Egyptians ; it would be
vain, therefore, to attempt tracing mufic higher than
the hiftory of Egypt.
_ 4. By comparing the accounts of Diodorus Siculus
Jr" and of Plato, there is reafon to fuppofe, that in very
ancient times the ftudy of mufic in Egypt was con¬
fined to the priefthood, who ufed it only on religious
and folemn occafions; that, as well as fculpture, it
was circumfcribed by law ; that it was efteemed fa-
cred, and forbidden to be employed on light or com¬
mon occafions; and that innovation in it was prohi¬
bited : but what the ftyle or relative excellence of
this very ancient mufic was, there are no traces by
which we can form an accurate judgment. After the
reigns of the Pharaohs, the Egyptians fell by turns
under the dominion of the Ethiopians, the Perfians,
the Greeks, and the Romans. By fuch revolutions,
the manners and amufements of the people, as well as
their form of government, muft have been changed.
In the age of the Ptolemies, the mufical games and
contefts inftituted by thofe monarchs were of Greek
origin, and the muficians who performed were chiefly
Greek.
The moft ancient monuments of human art and in-
duftry, at prefent extant at Rome, are the obeliflts
brought thither from Egypt, two of which are faid to
have been erefted by Sefeftris at Heliopolis, about 406
years before the fiege of Troy. Thefe were by the or¬
der of Auguftus brought to Rome after the eonqueft
of Egypt. One of them called gug/ia rotta, or the
broken pillar, which during the lacking of the city
in 1527 was thrown down and broken, ftill lies
in the Campus Martius. On it is feen the figure of
S a muficat inftrument of two firings, and with a neck,
tian nmlical ^ refem'^es much the calafcione ftill ufed in the king-
snftrumtnt. dom of Naples.
This curious relidl of antiquity is mentioned, be-
caufe it affords better evidence than, on the fubjedl
of ancient mufic, is ufually to be met with, that the
Egyptians, at fo very early a period of their hiftory,
had advanced to a confiderable degree of excellence
in the cultivation of the arts. By means of its neck,
this inftrument was capable, with only two firings,
of producing a great number of notes. Thefe two
firings, if tuned fourths to each other, would furnifti
that feries of founds called by the ancients heptachord,
S I C. 487
which confifts of a conjundl tetrachord as B, C, D,
E ; E, F, G, A; if tuned fifths, they would pro¬
duce an odlave, or two disjunft tetrachords. The
calafcione is tuned in this laft manner. The annals
of no nation other than Egypt, for many ages after
the period of the obelilk at Heliopolis, exhibit the
veftige of any contrivance to ftiorteo firings during
performance by a neck or finger-board. Father
Montfaucon obferves, that after examining 500 an¬
cient lyres, harps, and citharas, he could difcover no
fuch thing.
Egypt indeed feems to have been the fource of hu¬
man intelligence, and the favourite refidenee of ge¬
nius and invention. From that celebrated country
did the Greeks derive their knowledge of the firft
elements of thofe arts and fciences in which they af¬
terwards fo eminently excelled. From Greece again
did the Romans borrow their attainments in the fame
purfuits. And from the records of thofe different
nations have the moderns been enabled to accomplilh
an improvement fo wonderful in literature. g
The Hermes or Mercury of the Egyptians,, fir-The Egyp-
named cTrifmegiJlus\ or thrice illujlrhus, who was, ac- dan Her-
cording to Sir Ifaac Newton, the fecretary of Ofiris,mestiie ‘51*-
is celebrated as the inventor of mufic. It has already ^ j’rr^
been obferved, that no one perfon ought ftridlly to
be called the inventor of an art which feems to be
natural to, and coeval with, the human fpecies; but
the Egyptian Mercury is without doubt intitled to
the praife of having made ftriking improvements in
mufic, as well as of having advanced in various re-
fpe£ls the civilization of the people, whofe govern¬
ment was'chiefly committed to his- charge. The ac¬
count given by Apollodorus of the manner in which
he accidentally invented the lyre, is at once entertain¬
ing and probable. The Nile (fay's Apollodorus),.
after having overflowed the whole country of Egypt,
when it returned within its natural bounds, left on,
the fliore a great number of dead animals of various
kinds, and among the reft a tortoife ; the flefti cf
which being dried and wafted by the fun, nothing-
remained within the ftiell but nerves and cartilages,
and thefe being braced and contracted by the drying,
heat became fonorous* Mercury, walking along, the
banks of the Nile, happened to ftrik.e his. foot again#. '
this ftiell; and was fo pleafed with the found produced,
that the idea of a lyre ftarted into his imagination.
He conftruCled the inftrument in the form of a tcr-
toife, and ftrung it with the dried finews cf dead
animals.’,
How beautiful to conceive .the energetic powers of
the human mind in the early ages of the world, ex¬
ploring the yet undifcovered capabilities of nature,
and direfted to the inexhauftible fto-e by the finger
of God, in the form of accident!
The monaulos, or Angle flute,- called by the Egyp- ’
tians photinx, was probably one of the moft ancient
inftruments ufed either by them or any other nation. Egyptian*,.
From various remains 01 ancient fculpture, it appears
to have been fliaped like a bull’s horn, and was at firft,
it may be fuppofed, no other than the horn itfelf.—
Before the invention-of flutes,, as no other inftrument
except thofe of percuffion were known, mufic muft
have been little more than metrical; When the art of
refining and lengthening founds was fijft difcovered,
i the
488 M IT S
the power of mufic over mankind, from the agreeable
furprife occafioned by foft and extended notes, was
probably irrefiftible. At a time when all the reft of
the world was involved in favage ignorance, the Egyp¬
tians were poflefl'ed of mufical rnftruments capable of
much variety and expreffion *—Of this the aftonilhing
remains of the city Thebes ftili fubfifting afford ample
evidence. In a letter from Mr Bruce, ingroffed in
8 Dr Burney’s Hiftory of Mufic, there is given a parti-
The The- cular defcription of the Theban harp, an inftrument
ban harp cf of extenfive colnpafs, and exquifite elegance of form.
EgJT'- ’ It is accompanied with a drawing taken from the ruins
of an ancient fepulchre at Thebes, fuppofed by Mr
Bruce to be that of the father of Sefoftris.
On the fubjeft of this harp, Mr Bruce makes the
following ftriking obfervation. “ It overtun^ all the
accounts of the earlieft ftate of ancient mufic and in-
itruments in Egypt, arid is altogether, in its form, or¬
naments, and compafs, an inconteftable proof, ftronger
than a thoufand Greek quotations, that geometry,
drawing, mechanics, and mufic, were at the greateft
perfe&ioh when this harp was made; and that what
we think in'Egypt was the invention of arts was only
the beginning of the tera of their reftoracion.”
Indeed, when the beauty and powers of this harp,
along w’ith the very great antiquity of the painting
which reprefents it, are confidered, fuch an opinion as
that which Mr Bruce hints at, does not feem to be de¬
void of probability.
It cannot be doubted that during the reigns of the
Ptolemies, who were voluptuous princes, mufic muft
have been much cultivated and encouraged. The fa¬
ther of Cleopatra, who was the laft of that race of
kiqgs, derived his title of auletes, or fiute-player,
from his exceffive attachment to the flute. Like Nero,
he ufed to array himfelf in the drefs of a tibicen, and
exhibit his peiformance in the public mufical eorttefts.
Some authors, particularly Am. Marcellinus and M.
Pan, refufe td the Egyptians, at any period of their
hiftory, any mufical genius, or any cxcellerice in the
art; but the arguments ufed to fupport this opinion
feem to 1 e inconclufive, and the evidences of the op-
pofite decifion appear to be incouteftahle.
Hebrew ^acrec^ Scriptures afford almoft the only mate-
•tnuiic rials from which any knowledge-of Hebrew mufic can
be drawn. In the rapid flcetch, therefore, of ancient
mufic which we mean to exhibit, a very few’ obferva-
• tions are all which can properly be given to that de¬
partment of our fubjeft.
Mofes, who led the Ifraelites out of Egypt, was
educated by Pharaoh’s daughter in all the literature
and elegant arts cultivated in that country. It is pro¬
bable, therefore, that the tafte and ftyle of Egyptian
mufic w’ould be infuftd in fome degree into that of the
Hebrew's. Mufic appears to have been interwoven
through the whole tiffue of religious ceremony in Pa-
leftine. The priefthood feem to have been muficians
hereditarily and by office. The prophets appear to
have accompanied their infpired effufions with mufic;
and every prophet, like the prefent improvifatori of
Italy, feems to have been accompanied by a mufieal
inftrument. ‘ .
Mufic, vocid and inftrumental, conftituted a great
part of the funeral ceremonies of the Jew's. The
•piomp and exfience ufed on thdfe'occafione advanced by
Nh 233.
I C. Hi (lory,
degrees to an exceffive extent. The number of flute-
players in the proceffious amounted fometimes to feve-
ral hundreds, and the attendance of the guefts conti¬
nued frequently for days f. t
The Hebrew language abounds wfith confonants, ‘3,c,9*
and has fo few vowels, that in the original alphabet
they had no charaders. It muft, therefore, have been
harlh and unfavourable to mufic. Their inftruments
of mufic were chiefly thofe of percuflion ; fo that, to
both on account of the language and the inftruments, CQ^fe aE!*
the mufic muft have been coarfe and noify. The vaft1101
numbers of performers too, whom it was the tafte of
the Hebrews to colled together, could with fuch lan¬
guage and fuch inftruments produce nothing but cla¬
mour and jargon. Axcording to Jofephus, there were
200,000 muficians at the dedication of Solomon’s
temple. Such are the circumftances from which only
an idea of Hebrew mufic can be formed ; for the Jews
neither ancient nor modern have ever had any charac¬
ters peculiar to mufic ; and the melodies ufed in their
religious ceremonies have at all times been entirely
traditional.1 IE
Cadmus, wish the Phoenician colony wdiich he led Grecian
into Greece, imported at the fame time various artsmu^c*
into that country. By the affiftance of his Phoenician
artificers, that chief difeovered gold in Thrace and
copper at Thebes. At Thebes that metal is ftili term¬
ed cadmia. Of thefe materials, and of iron, they
formed to themfelves armour and inftruments of war.
Thefe they ftruck againft each other during their
dances at facrifices, by which they firft obtained the
idea of mufic. Such is the account given of the ori¬
gin of that fpecies of mufic in Greece produced by
inftruments of percuffion. The invention of wind
inftruments in Greece is attributed to Minerva; and
to the Grecian Mercury is affigned, by the poets and
hiftorians of that courttry, the honour of many difeo-
veries probably due to the Egyptian Hermes, particu¬
larly the invention of ftringed inftruments. The lyre
of the Egyptian Mercury had only three firings ; that
of the Grecian feven ; the laft was perhaps no more
than an improvement on the other. When the Greeks
deified a prince or hero of their own country, they
ufually affigned him an Egyptian name, and with the
name beftowed on their new divinity all the actions,
attributes, and rites of the original.
The Grecian lyre, although faid to have been in¬
vented by Mercury, was cultivated principally by
Apollo, who firft played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with the voice. The celebrated con-
teft between him and Marfyas is mentioned by various
authors; in which, by conjoining the voioe with his
lyre (a combination never before attempted), his mufic
was declared fuperior to the flute of Marfyas. The
progrefs of the lyre, according to Diodorus Siculus,
is the following. “ The mufes added to the Grecian
lyre the firing called mefe ; LinUs that of lichanos; Pr^grefs of
and Orpheus and Thamyras thofe firings which are the Grecian
named hypate and parhypate.” It has been already b're*
mentioned, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian
Mercury had but three firings ; by putting thefe cir¬
cumftances together, we may perhaps acquire fome
knowledge of the progrefs of mufic, or at leaft of the
extenfion of its fcale in the higheft antiquity. Mefe,
in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond
tetrachord
Hlftory. MUSIC. 489
tetrachord of the great fyftem and firft tetrachord in- Plato, Ariftotle, Arlfloxenus, Euclid, Theocmu#,*
vented by the ancients,’, anfwering to our A,xon the Callimachus, Polybius, and many other*, produced ad
fifth line In the bafe. If this found then was added to within a fpace lefs than 300 years, diftinguifh this il-
the former three, it proves that the moft ancient te- luftrious and uncommon period as that in which the
trachord was that from E in the bafe to A ; and that whole powers of genius feem to have been exerted to
the three original firings in the Mercurian and Apol- illuminate and inftrudt mankind in future ages. Then
Ionian lyre were tuned E, F, G,' which the Greeks call it was that eloquence, poetry, mufic, architecture, hi-
hypate tnefon, parhypate mefon, and tnefon diatoms; the ftoiy, painting, fculpture, like the fpontaneous blof-
addition, therefore, of to thefe completed the firft foms of nature, fiourifned without the appearance of
and moft ancient tetrachord E, F, G, A. The firing labour or of art.
' lichanos again being added to thefe, and anfwering to The poets, as well epic as lyric and elegiac, were all
our D on the third line in the bafe, extended the com- Hkewife muficians; fo ftti£tly connected were muficand
pafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular poetry for many ages. It would afford amufement
feries of five founds. The two firings hypate and par- to collect the biographical anecdotes of thefe favourites
hypate, correfpondingwith-our B and C in the bafe, of genius, and to affign to each the refpedtive im-
completed the heptachord or fever, founds b, c, d> e, f, provements made by him in rhufic and poetry ; but our
g, a ; a com oafs which received no addition till after the limits do not admit of fo extenfive a difquiiition ; for
days of Pindar. which, therefore, reference muft be made to the edi-
It might perhaps be expedted, that in a hiftory of tors and commentators of thefe authors, and to the
Greek ipufic fomething ought to be faid concerning voluminous hiftories of mufic lately publifhed. 14
the mufes Apollo, Bacchus, and the other gods and The invention of notation ’and mufical charadters^he invefT’
demi gods, who in the mythology of that country ap- marked a diftinguifhed aera ip the progrefs of m 11 fic,
pear to have promoted and improved the art. But There are a diverfity of accounts refpefting the perfon ters,Ciaraie*
fuch a difcuffion would be too diffufive, and involve too to whom the honour of that invention is due; but the
much foreign matter for the plan we have chofen to evidences feem to preponderate in favour of Terpan-
adopt. We cannot avoid, however, making a few der, a celebrated poet and mufician, to whofe genius
obfervations on the poems of Homer, in fo far as con- mufic is much indebted. He flouriflied about the 27th
nedied with our fubjedt. It has been imagined, with Olympiad, or 671 years before Chrift.
much appearance of probability, that the occupation Before that valuable difcovery, mufic being entire-
tkcspation of the firft poets and muficians of Greece refembled ly traditional, muft have depended much on the me-
bf the firft 0£ tfte Celtic and German bards and the fcalds mory and tafte of the performer,
muficians Ic<-^and an^ Scandinavia. They fung their poems There is an incident mentioned in the accounts
Greece, in the ftreets df cities and in the palaces of princes, handed down to us of the Olympic games, which may
They were treated with high refpedt, and regarded as ferve in fome degree to mark the charadter of mufic
infpired perfons. Such was the employment of Ho* at the time in which it happened. Lucian relates
mer. His .poems, fo juftly celebrated, exhibit the that a young flute-player named Harmonides, at his
moft authentic pidture that can be found in the annals firft public appearance in thefe games; began a folo
of antiquity, although perhaps fomewhat highly co- with fo violent a blaft, on purpofe to furprife and ek-
leured, of the times of which he wrote and in which vate the audience, that he breathed his lajl breath into
he lived. Mufic is always named throughout the Iliad his Jlate, and died on the fpot. When to this anec- Vociferous
and Odyffey with rapture ; but as in thefe poems no dote, wonderful to us, and alrftoft incredible, is added mufic of
mention is made of inftrumental mufic unaccompanied the cirenmftance, that the trumpet-players at thefe the Greeks*
with poetry and finging, a confiderable fhare no doubt public exhibitions expreffed an excefs of joy when they
of the poet’s praifes is to be attributed to the poetry, found their exertions had neither rent their cheeks nor
The -inftruments moft frequently named are the lyre, burft their blpod-veffels, fotne idea may be formed
the flute, and the fyrinx. The trumpet "appears not of the noify and vociferous ftyle of mufic which then
to have been known at the fiege of Trey, although pleafed 5 and from fuch fads only" can any opinion be
it had come to be irt ufe in the days of Homer him- obtained of the adual ftate of ancient mufic.
felf From the tirqe of Homer till that of Sappho, In whatever manner the flute was played on, there
there is almoft a total blank in literature. Only a few is no doubt that it was long in Greece an inftrument
fragments remain of the works of thofe poets and mu- of high favour, and that the flute-players were held
ficians whofe names are preferred as having floun’flied in much eftimation.' The flute ufed by Ifmenias, a
between thofe periods (f). During the century which celebrated Theban mufician, coft at Corinth three ta-
elapfed between the days of Sappho and thofe of Ana- lents, or L. 581, 5 s. If, fays Xenophon, a bad flute-
creon, no literary produdions are preferved entire.—- player would pafs for a good one, he muft, like the
From Anacreon to Pindar there is another chafm of great flute-players, expend large fums on rich furniture,
hear a century. Subfequent to this time, the works and appear in public with a great retinue of fervants. rg
ftill extant of the three great tragic poets, yEfchylus, The ancients, it appears, wefe not lefs extravagant ava-
Sophocles, and Euripides, together with thofe of in gratifying the minifters of their pleafures than our-?ance of
Vol. XII. Part II. 3 . felves
. -      f; cel to
" “ ' rr.ufic.
(f) Hefiod lived fo near to Homer, that it has been difputed which of them is the moft ancient. It is
how, we believe, univerfafty admitted, that the palm of antiquity is due to Homer ; but we confider them as
having both flouriftied in the fame asra.
490
Rnmaji
mwCc,
M U
felvea. Amosba2u«s a harper, Was paid an Attic talent,
or L. 193, 13s. f>er day for his -performance (J).
It is proper to add, that the celebrated muficians
of Greece who performed in public were of iotb fexes;
and that the beautiful Lamia, who was taken captive
by Demetrius, in thefea engagement in which he van-
quilhed Ptolemy Soter, and who hcrfelf captivated her
conqueror, as well as many other elevated female fpi-
rits, are recorded by ancient authors iri terms of ad¬
miration, and of whom, did our limits here admit of
biography, we would treat with pleafare. The philofo-
phers of Greece, whofe capacious minds grafped every
other object of human intelligence, were not inatten¬
tive to the theory of mufic, or the philofophy of
found. This department of fcience became the fource
of various fefts, and of much diverfity of opinion.—
The founders of the mod didinguilhed feds were Py¬
thagoras and Ariftoxenus. Of their theories, mention
is made in the Appendix to this article.
Like every dther people, the Romans, from their
firft origin as a nation, were poflefled of a fpecies of
mufic which might be diflinguifhed as their own. It
appears to have been rude and coarfe, and probably
was a variation of the mufic in ufe among the Etruf-
cans and other tribes around them in Italy : but as
foon as they began to.open a communication with
Greece, from that country, with their arts and philo¬
fophy, they boi-rowed alfo their mufic and mufical inftru-
ments. No account, therefore, of Roman mufic is to
be expeded that would not be a repetition of what has
been faid on the Cutjed of the ftiufic of Greece.
The exceffive vanity of Nero with refped to mufic,
^,ith difplayed in his public contentions for fuperiority with
refpeft to the mo ft celebrated profeffors of the art in Greece
and Rome, is known to every one converfant in the
hiftory of Rome. The folicitude with which that
deteftable tyrant attended to his voice is curious, and
will throw fome light on the pradices of fingers in
ancient times. He was in ufe to lie on his back, with
a thin plate of lead on his ftomach. Pie took frequent
emetics and cathartics, abftained from all kinds of
fruit and fuch meats as were held to be prejudicial to
finging. Apprehenfive of injuring his voice, he at
length defifttd from haranguing the foldiery and the
fenate ; and after his return from Greece eftablifhedan
officer (Phonafcus) to regulate his tones in fpeaking.
Moft nations have confented in introducing mufic
into their religious ceremonies. That art was early
admitted into the rites of the Egyptians and Hebrews;
and that it conftituted a confiderable part of the Gre¬
cian and Roman religious fervice, appears from the
writings of many ancient authors. The fame pleafing
art foon obtained an introdudion into the Chriftian
church, as the Ads of the Apoftles difeover in many
paffages. There remain no fpecimens of the mufic
employed in the worfhip of the primitive Chriftians;
but probably it was at firft the fame with that ufed in
the Pagan rites of the Greeks and Romans. The
pradice of chanting the pfalms was introduced into
the weftern churches by St, Ambrofe, about 350 years
after Chrift,. Ii) the year 600, the method of chant-
18
Vanity
muiic.
SIC.- Hiftory,
ing was improved by St Gregory the Great. The
Ambrofian chant contained four modes. In the Gre¬
gorian the number was doubled. So early as the age
of Conftantine the Great, prior to either of the pe¬
riods laft mentioned, when the Chrillian religion firft
obtained the countenance of power, inftrumental mu¬
fic came to be introduced into the fervice of the church.
In England, according to bifhop Stillingfleet, nuificintroquce(j
was employed in the church-fervice, firtt by St Auguf-intd the
tine, and afterwards much improved by St DuHftan,EnSlifll
who was himfelf an eminent mufician, and who is faidchuic^'
to have firft furnifhed the Englifii churches and con¬
vents with the organ. The organ, the moft majettic
of all inftruments, feems to have been an improvement.-
of the hydraulican or water or^an of the Greeks —
The firft organ feen in France was fent from Conftan-
tinople in yjy, as a prefect to king'Pepin from the
emperor Conftantine Copromymus VI. In Italy, Ger¬
many, and England, that initrument became frequent"
during the 10th century.
During the dark ages no work of genius or tafte in
any department of fcience feems to have been produ¬
ced in any part of Europe ; and except in Italy,
where the cultivation of mufic was rather more the-
objeeft of attention, that art was neglected equally with-
all others. There has always been obferved a corre-
fpondence in every country between the progrefs of
mufic and the cultivation of other arts and fciences.
In the middle ages, therefore, when the moft fertile
provinces of Europe were occupied' by the Goths;,
Huns, Vandals, and other barbarous tribes, whofe
language was as harfh as their manner's were favage,
little perfection and no improvement of mufic is to
be looked for. Literature, arts,, and refinements,
were encouraged more early at the courts of the Ro¬
man pontiffs than in any other country ; and owing to
that circumftance it is, that the fcale, the counter-The great
point, the heft melodies, the dramas religious and fe- improve-
cular, the chief graces and elegancies of modern mu- mebt3^^
fic, have derived their origin from Italy. In modern^.j^ovLia
times, Italy has been to the reft of Europe what an-jn
crent Greece was to Rome. The Italians have aided
the civilization of their conquerors, and enlightened
the minds, of thofe whofe fuperior prowefs Had enflaved
them.
Having mentioned counterpoint, rt would be im¬
proper not to make one or two obfervations on an in¬
vention which is fuppofed to have been the fource of
great innovation in the practice of mufic. Counter¬
point, or mufic in parts, feems to be an invention
purely modern. The term harmony meant in the
language of antiquity what is now underllood by me- 91
lody. Guido, a monk of Arezzo in Tufcany, is, in Counter-
the general opinion, fuppofed to have entertained thepoint.
firft idea of counterpoint about the year 1022 : an art
which, fince his time, has experienced gradual and im¬
perceptible improvements, far exceeding the powers
or comprehenfion of any one individual. The term
counterpoint, or contra punBum, denotes its own ety¬
mology and import. Mufieal notation was at one tirr.a
performed by fmall points; and the prefent mode is
(!) Rofcius gained 500 feftertia, or L. 4036 : 9 : 2 d. Sterling per annum.
Hiftory. M U
only an Improvement of that praftice. Counterpoint,
therefore, denotes the notation of harmony or mufic
in parts, by points oppofite to each other. The im¬
provements of this important acquifition to the art of
mufic kept pace at firft with thofe of the organ ; an in-
ftrument admirably adapted to harmony : And both
the one and the other were till the 13th century em¬
ployed chiefly in facred mufic. It was at this period
that fecular 'mufic began to be cultivated-
Before the invention of charadfers for time, mufic
in parts mull have confifted entirely of ftmple counter¬
point, or note againft note, as is {fill pra&ifed in pfal-
mody. But the happy difcovery of a time-table ex¬
tended infinitely the powers of combined founds. The
ancients had no other tefource to denote time and
movement in mufic except two charadters (— w),
equivalent to a long and a fhort fyllabld. But time
is of fuch importance in mufic, that it can impart
meaning and energy to the repetition of the fame
found : without it variety of tones has no effeft with
Thelnven- re^Pei^ to gravity and acutenefs. The invention of
^infi of the t^ie time-table is attributed by almoft all the writers
tittie-table. on mufic of the laft and prefent century to John de
Muris, who flourifhed about the year I330i But in
a manufcript of John de Muris himfelf, bequeathed
to the Vatican library by the Queen of Sweden, that
honour feems to be yielded to Magifter Franco, who
appears to have been alive as late at leaft as 1083.
John de Muris, however, who there is fome caufe to
believe was an Englifhman, though not the inventor
of the cantus menfurabilis, did certainly by his nume¬
rous writings greatly improve it. His traft on the
Art of Counterpoint is the moil clear and ufeful effay
on the fubjedf of which thofe times can boaft.
In the nth century, during the firft crufade, Eu¬
rope began to emerge from the barbarous ftupidity
and ignorance^which had long overwhelmed it. While
its inhabitants were exercifing in Afia every fpecies of
rapine and pious cruelty, ait, ingenuity, and reafon,
infenfibly civilised and foftened their minds Then it
was that the poets and fongfters, known by the name
’Trouba- °P ‘Troubadours, who firft appeared in Provence, inftitu-
4ours. ted a new profefiion ; which obtained the patronage
of the count of Poictou, and many other princes and
barons, who had themfelves cultivated mufic and po¬
etry with fuccefs. At the courts of their munificent
patrons the troubadours were treated with refpedft.
The ladies, whofe charms they celebrated, gave them
the molt generous and flattering reception. The fuc¬
cefs of fome infpired others with Jhopes, and excited
exertions in the exercife of their art; impelling them
towards perfe&ion with a rapidity which the united
force alone of emulation and emolumeHt could occa-
fion. Thefe founders of modern verfification, con-
ftrufling their fongs on plans of their own Clafiical au¬
thority, either through ignorance or defign, was en¬
tirely difregarded. It does not appear, however, du¬
ring the cultivation and favour of Provencal literature,
that any one troubadour fo far outftripppd the reft as
to become a model of imitation. The progrefs of tafte
muft ever be impeded by the ignorance and caprice of
thofe who cultivate an art without fcience or prin¬
ciples.
^ During almoft two centuries after the arrangement
of the fcale attributed to Guido, and the invention of
S I C. ' 491
the time-table aferibed to Franco, no remains of fecu¬
lar mufic can fee difeovered, except thofe of the trou¬
badours or Provengal poets. In the fimple tunes of
thefe fcards no time indeed is marked, and but little
variety of notation appears : it is not difficult, how¬
ever, to difeover in them the germs of the future me¬
lodies, as well as the poetry of France and Italy. Had
the poetry and mufic of the troubadours been treated
of in an agreeable manner by the writers who have cho-
fen that fubjeift, it would have been difeovered to be
worthy of attention : the poetry, as interefting to li¬
terature ; the melody to which it was fung, as curious
to the mufical hiftorian.—Almoft every fpecies of Ita¬
lian poetry is derived from the Provengals. Air, the
moft captivating part of fecular vocal mufic, feeras to
have had the fame origin. The moft ancient ftrains
that have been fpared by time, are fuch as were fit to
the fongs of the troubadours. The Provengal lan¬
guage began to be in favour with poets about the end
of the 1 oth century. In the 12th it became the ge¬
neral vehicle, not only of poetry, but of profe, to all
who were ignorant of Latin. And thefe were not the
laity only. At this period violars. or performers on
the vieile or viol, juglars or flute-players, mufars or
^ players on other inftruments, and comics or comedians,
abounded all over Europe. This fvvarm of poet-mu-
ficians, who were formerly comprehended in France
under the general title of jongleurs, travelled from pro¬
vince to province, finging their verfes at the courts of
princes. They were rewarded with cloaths, horfes,
arms, and money. Jongleurs or muficians were em¬
ployed often *to fing the verfes of troubadours, who
themfelves happened to be deficient in voice or igno¬
rant of mufic. The term troubadour, therefore, implies
poetry as well as mufic. The jongleurs, menetriers,
ftrollerf, or minftrels, were frequently muficians, with¬
out any pretenfions to poetry. Thefe laft have been
common at all times ; but the troubadour or bard has
diftinguifhed a particular profefiion, either in ancient
or modern times, only during the early dawnings of li¬
terature.
In the 13th century the fongs were on various fub-
je&s ; moral, merry, amorous: and at that time me¬
lody feems to have been little more than plain fong or
chanting. The notes were fquare, and written on
four lines only like thofe of the Romifli church in the
cliff C, and without any marks for time. The move¬
ment and embellifhments of the air depended on the
abilities of the finger. Since that time, by the culti¬
vation of the voice modern mufic has been much ex¬
tended, for it was not till towards the end of St Lewis’s
reign that the fifth line began to be added to the
llave. The finger always accompanied himfelf with an
inflrument in unifon.
As the lyre is the favourite inflrument in Grecian The^harn
poetry, fo the harp held the fame place in the eftimation the favouv
of the poets who flourifhed in the period of which we ite inib u-
at prefent fpeak. A poet of the 14th century, Mac-IyeiljLof
hau, wrote a poem on the fubjeft of the harp alone ; badou«B'
in which he affigns to each of its 25 firings an allego¬
rical name ; calling one liberality, another ’wealth, &c.
The inftrument which frequently accompanied, and Th/vioi
indeed difputed the pre-eminence with the harp, was or violin.
the viol. Till the 16th century this inftrument was
furnilhed with fretsafter that period it was reduced
3 0,2 to
492 M U S
t« four ftr'ngs : an3 ftill under tne denomination of
violin holds the firft place among treble inftruments.
The viol was played with a bow, and differed entirely
from the vielie, the tones or which were produced by
the friftion of a wheel; the wheel performed the part
of a bow.
Ifritifii harpers were famous long before the con-
queft. The bounty of William of Normandy to his
joculator or bard is recorded in the Doomfday book.
The harp fcems to have been the favourite inllrument
in Britain for many ages, under the Britifh, Saxon,
Danifh, and Norman kings. The fiddle, however, is
mentioned fo e^rly as 1200 in the legendary life of
St Chrillopher. The ancient privileges of the min-
flrels at the fairs of Cheftef are well known in the hi-
flory of England.
The extirpation of the bards of Wales by Edward I.
is likewife too familiar an incident to be mentioned
here. His perfecuting fpirit, however, feemstohave
been limited to that principality; for we learn, that at
the ceremony of kni6hting bis fon, a multitude of min-
Jlrels attended.
In 1315, during the reign of Edward II. fuch ex-
teniive privileges were claimed by the minflrels, and
Id many diffolute perfons affumed that chara&er, that
it became neccffary to reltrain them by exprefs laws.
The father of our genuine poetry, who in the 14th
century enlarged our vocabulary, polifhed our num¬
bers, and with acquifitions from France and Italy aug-
*6 merited our Itore of knowledge^Chaucer), entitles one
St Cecil.'?, of his poems The Hiftory of St Cecilia ; and the ce¬
lebrated patron efs of muirc mult no doubt be men¬
tioned in a hiftory of the art. Neither in Chau¬
cer, however, nor in any of the hiftovics or legendary
accounts of this Saint, does any thing appear to au-
thorife the religious veneration paid to her by the vo¬
taries of mufic ; nor is it eafy to difeover whence it has
arifen. As an incident relative to the period of which
we fpeak, it may be mentioned, that, according to
Origin of Spelmann, the appellation of DoStor was not among the
the degree degrees granted to graduates in England fooner than
ofMys.D. the reign of King John, about 1207 ; although, in
Wood’s hiftory of Oxford, that degree is faid to have
been conferred, even in mufic, in the reign of Hen¬
ry II. It is known that the title was created on the
continent in the 12th century; and as, dur>ng. the
middle ages, mufic was always ranked among the fe-
ven liberal arts, it is likely that the degree was ex¬
tended/to it.
After the invention of printing, an art wdiich has
tended to diffeminate knowledge with wonderful ra¬
pidity among mankind, mufic, and particularly coun¬
terpoint, became an objedl of high importance. The
names of the moft eminent compofers who flourilhed
in England, from that time to the Reformation, were,
Fairfax, William of Newark, Sheryngham, Turges,
Banifter, Tudor, Taverner, Tye, Johnfon, Parfons;
to w'hom may be added John Marbeck, who fet the
5g whole Englilh cathedral fervice to mufic.
Scottish Before this peiiod Scottilh mulic had advanced to
anufic. a high degree of perfeftion. James I. was a great
compofer of airs to his own verfes; and may be confi-
dered as the father of that plaintive melody which in
Scotch tunes is fo pleafing to a tafte not vitiated by
modern affectation. Befides the teftimony of Fordun
I C. Hi dory*
and Major, who may be fufpe&ed of being Under the
influence of national prejudice, vve have that of Alef-
fandro Teffani, to the nlufica.l fkillof that accomplifh*
ed prince. “Among us moderns (fays this foreigner)
we may reckon fames king of Scotland, who net only
compofed many iacred pieces of vocal mufic, but alfo
of himfelf invented a ruw kind of mufic, plaintive and me¬
lancholy, dijfcrent from all others ; in which he has been
imitated by Cailo Gefueldo prince of Venc'fa, who in
our age has improved mufic with new and admirable
inventions.” .
Under fuch a genius in poetry and mufic as king
James I. it cannot be doubted that the national mulic
mutt have been greatly improved. We have feen that
he compofed feveral anthems, or vocal pieces of fa-
cred mufic, which fhows that his knowledge of the fei-
ence mull have been very confiderable. it is likewife
known, that organs were by him introduced into the
cathedrals and abbeys of Scotland, and choir-fervice
brought to fuch a degree of perfection, as to fall little
fhort of that eilatlifhed in any country of Europe.—
By an able antiquary J of the prefent age, the great (■ See 5V-
era of mutlc, as of poetry, in Scotland, is fuppofed Vfyr-
have been from the beginning of the reign ol James
down to the end of the teign of James V. Duringjk^^ j ^
that period flourilhed Gavin Douglas bifhop of Dun-the Tran-
keld, Ballenden archdeacon of Murray, Dunbar, Hen- fatfHons of
ryfon, Scott, Montgomery, Sir David Lindfey, and many1
others, whofe fine poems have been preftrved in Ba-rieg';n
natyne’s Colle&ion, and of which feveral have been land,
publifhed by Allan Ramfay in his Evergeen.
Before the Reformation, as there was but one reli¬
gion, there was but one kind of facred mufre in Eu¬
rope, plain chant, and the defcant built upon it.—•
That mufic likewife was applied to one language only,
the Latin. On that account, the compofitions of Itaiy,-
France, Spain, Germany, Flanders, and England,
kept pace in .a greit degree with each other in ftyle
and excellence. All the arts feem to have been the
companions, if not the produce, of fuccefsful commerce,
and to have purfued the fame courfe. Like commerce,
they appeared firft in Italy, then in the Hanfeatic
towns, next in the Netherlands ; and daring the 16th
century, when commerce became general, in every
part of Europe.
In the ibth century mufic was an indifpenfablern the 16th
part of polite education ; all the princes of Europe century
were inftru&ed in that art. There is a collection pre-in“fj.c an
ferved in manufeript called Shteen Elizabeth's Virginal
Book. If her majefty was able to execute any of the of educa.*
pieces in that book, fire muft have been a greattion.
player ; a month’s pra&ice would net be fufficient for
any mafter now in Europe to enable him to play one
of them to the end. Tallis, lingularly profound in
mufical compofition, and Bird his admirable fcholar,
were two of the authors of this famous colledtion.
During the reign of Elizabeth, the genius and learn¬
ing of the Britifti muficians were not inferior to any
on the continent; an obfervation fcarcely applicable at
any other period of the hiflory of this country. Sa¬
cred mufic was the principal object of ftudy all over
Europe.
The moft eminent mufical theorifts of Italy,who
flouriftied in the 16th century, were, Franchinus Ga-
fierius, or Gafforio of Lode, Pietro Aaron of Flo*
recce,.
Hiftory." M U S
30 renc?, Lodovico Fogliano, GIov. Spatiro, GIov. Ma-
Eminent rja Ja Tercntio Lanfranco, Steffano Uannco, Anton,
in Ua'y Francifco Done, Luigi Dentice, Nicolo Vicentino,
during tile and Giofeffo Zarlino, the moft general, vokuninou?,
16th cen- and celebrated theorift of that period,
tury. Vincentio Galilei* a Florentine nobleman, and fa¬
ther of the great Galileo Galilei.
Maria Artufe of Bologna, Orafeo Tegrini, Pietro
Pontio, and Lodovico Zacconi.
The principal Roman authors were, Giovanni An-
muccia, Giovanni Pierluigi da Paleftrina', jnftly cele¬
brated ; Ruggiero Giovanclli, Luca Marenzio,'who
brought to perfe&ion madrigals, the moll cheerful
fpecies of fecular mufic.
Of the Venetians, Adrian Willaeri is allowed to be
at the head.
At the head of the Neapolitans is deservedly placed
Rocco Rodio.
At Naples, too, the illuOrious dilettante, Don
Carlo Gefualdo prince of Venofa, is highly celebrated.
He feems, however, to have owed much of his fame
to his high rank.
Lombardy would alfo furnilh an ample lift of emi¬
nent mulicians during the 16th century, of whom our
limits will not admit of a particular enumeration : —
The chief of them were, Conftanzo Porta, Gaftoldi,
Biffi, Cirna, Vocchi, and Monteverde.
At Bologna, befides Artuix already mentioned,
Andrea Rota of the fame city appears to have been
an admirable contrapunctift.
Francifco Corteceia, a celebrated organift and com-
pofer, and Aleffandro Strigglio, a lutaneft and volu-
minous compofer, were the moft eminent Florentines.
In Germa- The inhabitans of the extenfive empire of Germany
nJr* have long made mulic a part of general education.—
They hold the place, nextjltaly, among the moft fuc-
cefsful cultivators of the art. During c'ne 16th cen¬
tury, their moft eminent compofers of mufic and wri¬
ters on the fubject were, Geo. Reifchius, Michael Ro-
fwick, Andreas Ornithorparchus, Paul Hofhaimer,
Lufpeinius,. Henry Loris or Lorit, Faber, Fink, Hof-
man, and many others whom it would be tedious to
mention ; and for a particular account of whofe trea-
tifes and compofitions we muft refer to more volumi¬
nous hiftories of mufic.
Ik France. France, during the 16th century, no art except
the art of war mad.e much'progrefs in improvement.—
Ronfayd, Baif, Goudimel, Claud le Jeune, Caurroy,
and Maudit, are the chief French muficians of that
period.
33 In Spain, mufic was early received into, the circle
pain. 0p fcjences jn univerfities. The mufical profefibr-
ftu’p at Salamanca was founded and endowed by Al-
forzo the Wife, king of Caftile.
One of the moft celebrated of the Spanifti muficians
was Francis Salinas, who had been blind from his in¬
fancy. Pie was a native of Burgos.
D. Criftofero Morales, and Tomafo Lodovico da
1 C- 493
Vittorio, deferve likewife to be mentioned; pnd to
mention them is ail we can attempt; the purpofe of
which is, to excite-more minute inquiry by thofe who
may choofe to invertigate the fubjedt particularly. ^
1 he Netherlands, likewife, during the period ofxhe Ne-
which we have been fpeaking, produced many emi-therlands*-
nent compofers; of whom we may mention Verletot,
Gombert, Arkadelt, Berchem, Richefort or Riccia-
fort, Crequifon Le (jock ot> Le Coqr Canis, Jacob
Clemens Non Papa, Pierre Manchicourt, Bailon,
Kerb Rpre, Orlando di Laft'o, and his fons Ferdi¬
nand and Rodolph.
In the 17th century, the mufical writers and com-Mufica!
pofers who acquired lame in England, were. Dr Na-compofers
tbanael Giles, Thomas Tomkins, and his fon of the Eng^nd’
fame name; Elway Btvin, Orlando Gibbons, Dr Wil-
liam Child, Adrian Batten, Martin Pierfon, Williamlury.
Lawes, Henry Lawes, Dr Joim Wilfon, John Hil¬
ton, John Playford, Captain Henry Cook, Pelham .
Humphrey, John Blow, William Turner, Dr Chri-
llopher Gibbons, Benjamin Rogers, and Henry Pur¬
cell. Of thefe, Orlando Gibbons, Pelham Humphrey,
and Henry Purcell, far excelled the reft.
About the end of the reign of James I. a mufic-led-
ture or profefi’orihip was founded in the univernty of
Oxford by Dr William Hychin.
In 'the reign of Charles I. a charter was granted to
the muficians of Weflminfter, incorporat.* jg them, as
the king’s muficians, into a body politic, with powers
to profecute and, fine til who, except themi’elyes,
Ihould “ attempt to make any benefit or advantage of
niufic in England-or Walespowers which in the •
fnbfequent reign were put, in execution.
About the end of the reign of Charles II. a paf- •
fion feems to have been excited in England for the
violin, and for pieces exprefsly compofed for it, in
the Italian manner (*). Prior to 1600, there was
•little other mufic except mafies and madrigals, the two
principal divilions of facred and fecular mufic; but from
that time to the prefent, dramatic mufic becomes the
chief obje£t of attention. The mufic of the church
and of the chamber continued indeed to be culti¬
vated in Italy with diligence, and in a learned and
elaborate ftyle, till near the middle of the century;
yet a revolution in favour of melody and exprefiion
was preparing, even in facred mufic, by the fuccefs
of dramatic compofition, confiding of recitation and
melodies for a fingle voice. Such melodies began
now to be preferred to mufic of many parts; in which
canons, fugues, and full harmony, had been the pro¬
ductions which chiefly employed the mailer’s ftudy
and the hearer’s attention. jg.
So late as the beginning of the prefent century, ac-Mean Pats
cording to Riccoboni, the performers in the operas "fthe nI’era;
of Germany, particularly at Hamburg, “were all'"^®^
tradefmen or handicrafts; your fhoeriiaker (fays he) fhe prffent
was often the firil performer on the ft age; and you century,
might have bought fruit and fweetmeats of the fame '
girls,
_ (*) The moft celebrated violin players of Italy, from the 16th century to the prefent time, have been Fa¬
rina, M. Angelo Rofli, Baftani the violin-mailer of Corelli, the admirable Angelico Corelli himfelf, Torelli,,
Alberti, Albenoni, Teflarini, Vivaldi, Geminiani one of the moft diftinguifhed of Corelli’s fcholars, Tartil
si* Veracini, Barbella, Locatelli, Ferrari, Martini, Boccherini, and Giardini.
M U
girls, vvliom'thc niglit before you bad feen in the cha*
rafters of Armida or Serniratnis. Soon, however,
the German opera arofe to a more refpeftable fitua-
tion ; and even during the 17th century many emi¬
nent compofers flouriihed in that country.
The lift of great muficians which France produced
during the early part of the fame century is not nu¬
merous. Mufic feems to have been but little culti¬
vated in that country, till.the operas of -Lulli, under
the powerful patronage of Louis XIV. excited public
attention.
The favourite finging-mafter and compofer of
France, about the middle of the 17th century, was
Michael Lambert. John Baptift Lulli, foon after
this time, rofe from the rank of a menial fervant to
fame, opulence, and nobility, by his ftcill in mufical
compofitions. The celebrated finger La Rochois was
37 taught finging and afting by Lulli.
^Curious La Maupin the fucceffor of La Rochois, on ac-
ofaCFrench COunt ^er extraordinary charafter and romantic ad-
Tmger. ventures,, deferves to be mentioned. She was equally
fond of both fexes, fought and loved like a man, re-
. filled and fell like a woman. She eloped from her
hufband with a fencing-mafter, of whom Ihe learnt
the fmall- fword ; Ihe became an excellent fencer. At
Marfeilles fhe became enamoured of a young lady,
whom Ihe feduced : on account of this whimfical af-
fcftion the lady was by her friends confined in a con¬
vent. La Maupin obtained admiffion into the fame
convent ns a novice: fhe fet fire to the convent,
and in the confufion carried off her favourite. At
Paris, when Ihe appeared on the ftage in 1695, Du-
meni a linger having affronted her, Ihe put on mens
clothes, and infilled on his drawing his fword and
lighting her: when he refufed, Ihe caned him, and
took from him his watch and fnuff’-box as trophies of
her viftory. At a ball given by Monfieur brother of
Louis XIV. flie again put on mens clothes ; and ha¬
ving behaved impertinently to a lady, three of the
'lady’s friends, fuppofing the Maupin to be a man,
called her out: fhe killed them all; and returning coolly
to the ball, told the ftory to Monfieur, who obtained
her pardon. She became afterwards miftrefs to the
eleftor of Bavaria. This.prince quitting her for the
countefs of Areos, fent her by the count, hulband of
that lady, a purfe of L. 40,000 livres: Ihe threw it at
the count’s head, telling him, it was a recompence
worthy of fuch a fcoundrel and cuckold as himfelf.
At lr.lt, feized with a fit of devotion, (he recalled her
hulband, and fpent the remainder of her life in piety.
,3 She died in 1.707 at the age only of 34.
"Chiefcom- The Englilh mufician whom we Lit mentioned was
peters for the celebrated Purcell: after his time the chief com-
pofers for the church were Clarke, Dr Holden, Dr
‘Creyghton, Tucker, Aldrich, Golwin, Weldon, Dr
Crofts, Dr Green, Boyce, and Nares; to whom may
be added John Stanley , who attained high proficiency
in mufic, although from two years old totally deprived
of fight.
The annals of modern mufic have hitherto furnilh-
ed no event fo important to the progrefs of the art
as the invention of recitative or dramatic melody ; a
ftyle of mufic which refemblec the manner of the an¬
cient rhapfodifts.
The Orfeo of Politian was the firll attempt at mu-
S I C. Hiflory.
fical drarha. It was afterwards perfefted by Metalla- 39
fro. No mufical dramas fimilar to thofe afterwards Fir^ muG-
known by the names of opera and oratorio, had exiff- cal ^rama*
ence in Italy before the beginning of the 17th cen¬
tury. It was above the 1600, or a little before that
time, that eunuchs were firft employed for finging in
Italy.
There feem to have been no ftnging eunuchs in an- Firf^fino-.
cient times, unlefs the galli or archigalli, priefts of ing tu- °
Cybele, were fuch. Caftration has, however, at all nuchs.j
times been praftifed in eaftern countries, for the pur-
pofe of furrtifhing to tyrannic jealoufy guards of fe¬
male chaftity ; but never, fo far as modern writers on
the fubjeft Irave difeovered, merely to preferve the
voice, till about the end of the 16th century.
At Rome, the firft public theatre opened for the ex¬
hibition of mufical dramas, in modern times, was il
Torre de Nona, where in 1671 Giafone was perform¬
ed. In 1679, the opera of Dou e Atnore, fet by the
famous organift Bernardo Pafquini, was reprefented
at Nilla Sola de Signori Capranica ; a theatre which Hill
fubfifts. In the year 1680, L’OneJia negi’/Imore was
exhibited; the hrft dramatic eompofition of the ele¬
gant, profound, and original Aleffandro Scarlatti.
The inhabitants of Venice have cultivated and en-'
couraged the mufical drama with more zeal and di¬
ligence than the reft of Italy, during the end of the
la'i and beginning of the prefent century; yet the
opera was not eftablilhed in Venice before the year
1637; in that year the firft regular drama was per¬
formed : it was Andromeda.
In 1680 the opera of Berenice was exhibited ^O eraof
Padua with fuch aftonilhing fplendour as to merit Berenice*
notice. There were chorales of too virgins, 100
foldiers, 100 horfemen in iron armour, 40 cornets of
horfe, 6 trumpeters on horfeback, 6 drummers, 6 en-
figns, 6 fackbuts, 6 great flutes, 6 minttrels playing
on Turkilh inftruments, 6 others on oftave flutes, 6
Pages* 3 fergeants, 6 cymbalills. There were 12
huntfmen, 12 grooms, 6 coachmen for the triumph,
6 others for the proceffion, 2 lions led fey two Turks, 2
elephants by two others; Berenice’s triumphal car drawn
by 4 horfes, 6 other cars with priionjers and fpoils
drawn by 12 horfes, 6 coaches. Among the i’cenes
and reprefentations in the lirlt aft were, a vait plain
with two triumphal arches, another plain with pavilions
and'tents, and a foreft for the chace : in aft third,
the royal dreffing-reom completely furnilhed, itables
with 100 live horfes, portico adorned with tapeftry,
and a ftupendous palace in perfpeftive. At the end
of the firll aft were reprefentations of every kind of
chace, wild boar, Hag, deer, bears. At the end of
the third aft, an enormous globe, defeended as from
the Iky, divided itfelf into other globes fufpended in
the air, and ornamented with emblematical figures of
time, fame, honour, &c.
Early in the lail century, machinery and decora¬
tion ufurped the importance due to poetry and mufic
in fuch exhibitions.
Few inllances occur of mufical dramas at Naples
till the beginning of the prefent century. Before the
time of the elder Scarlatti, it feems as if Naples had
been lefs fertile in great contrapuntifts, and lefs di¬
ligent in the cultivation of dramatic mufic, than any
other ftate of Italy. Since that time all the reft of
Europe
Hiftory. M U
Europe has been furnifhed with compofers and per-
4j formers from that city.
French The word opera feems to have been familiar to
and Ena:- EngUft poets from the beginning of the laft century.
% 11 0Pe,:a' Sti/o reatativo, a recent innovation even in Italy, is
mentioned by Ben Johnfon fo early as 1617. From
this time it was ufed in mafques, occafionally in plays,
and in cantatas, before a regular drama wholely fet to
mufic was attempted. By the. united abilities of Qui-
nault and Lulli, the opera ii^ France had arifen to
high favour. This circumitahce afforded encourage¬
ment to feveral attempts at dramatic mufic in Eng¬
land by Sir William D’Avenant and others, before
the mufic, language, or performers of Italy were em¬
ployed on our ftage. Pieces, 11) led dramatic operas,
preceded the Italian opera on the ftage of England.
Thefe were written in Englifti, and exhibited with a
profufe decoration of fceoery and habits, and %*ith
the beft fingers and dancers that bould be procured :
Pfyche and Ciice, are entertainments of this kind :
the Temped and Macbeth were added with the fame
accompaniments.
During the 17th century, whatever attempts were
made in mufical drama, the language fung was al¬
ways Englifti. About the end of that century, how¬
ever, Italian fiaging began to be encouraged, and vo¬
cal as well as inftrumental muficians from that coun¬
try began to appear in London.
The firft mufical drama, performed wholly after
the Italian manner in recitative for the dialogue or
narrative parts, and meafured melody for the airs, was
Arfinbe queen of Cyprus, tranflated from an Italian
opera of the fame name, written by Stanzani of Bo¬
logna. The Englifh verfion of this opera was fet
So mufic by Thomas Clayton, one of the royal band,
in the reign of William and Mary. The fingers were
all Englifh, MeftVs Hughes, Leveredge, and Cook ;
Mrs Tofts, Mrs Crofs, and Mrs Lyndfey. The tranf-
lation of Arfinoe, and the mufic to which it is fet, are
execrable ; yet fuch is the charm of novelty, that this
miferable performance, deferving neither the name of
a drama by its poetry, nor of an opera by its mufic,
fuftained 24 reprefentations, and the fecond year 11.
Operas, notwithftanding their deficiences in poetry,
mufic, and performance (no foreign compofer or emi¬
nent finger having yet arrived), became fo formidable
to our aftors at the theatres, that it appears from the
Daily Courant, 14th January 1707, a fubfeription was
opened “ for the encouragement of the comedians a6L
ing in the Haymarket, and to enable them to keep
the diverfion of plays under a feparate interefl from
operas.”
Mr Addifon’s opera of Rofamond appeared about
this time ; but the mufic fet by Clayton is fo contemp¬
tible, that the merit of the poetry, however great,
could not of itfelf long fupport the piece. The choice
of fo mean a compofer as Clayton, and Mr Addifon’s
partiality to his abilities, betray a want of mufical
tafte in that elegant author.
The firft truly great finger who appeared on the
ftage of Britain was Cavalier N'tcolino Grimaldi, com¬
monly known by the name of Nicolini. He was. a
Neapolitan ; and though a beautiful finger indeed,
was ftill more eminent asr an after. In the Tatler,
8° i;i5. the eleg ince and propriety of his aftion are
SIC. 495'
particularly deferibed f. Recently before his appear- fSee alfo
ance, Valentini Urlani, Tmd a female finger called
The Baronefs, arrived. Margarita de 1’Epini, who *‘U ^
afterwards married Dr Pepufeh, had been in this coun¬
try fome time before.
The firft: opera performed <who!!y in Italian, and by
Italian fingers, was Blmahlde. As at prefent, fo at
that time, operas were generally performed twice
a-week.   42
The year .1710 is diftinguifhed in the annals of mu-Arrival or
fic by the arrival in Britain of George Frederick Han- Handel iu-
del. Handel had been in the fervice of the eleftor of E,1^anci>
Hanover, and came firft to England on a vifit of cu-
riofity. The fame of this great mufician had pene¬
trated into this country before he himfelf arrived in it;
and Aaron Hill, then in the direftion of the Haymar¬
ket theatre, inftantly applied to him to eompofe an
opera. It was Rinaldo; the admirable mufig of which
he produced entirely in a fortnight. Soon after this
period appeared, for the firft time as an opera finger,
the celebrated Mrs Anaftafia Robinfon. Mrs Robin-
fon, who was the daughter of a portrait painter, made
her firft public exhibitions in the concerts at York-
buildings; and acquhed fo much the public favour,
that her father was encouraged to take ahoufe in Gol¬
den Square, for the-purpofe of eftablilhing weekly
concerts and affemblies, in the manner of Converfa-
scioniy which became the refort of the moft polite au¬
diences.
Soon after Mrs Robinfoh accepted of an engage¬
ment at the Opera, where her falary is fa id to have f
been L. iooo,.and her other emoluments equal to that
fum. She quitted the ftage in confequence of hec
marriage with the gallant earl of Peterborough, the
friend of Pope and Swift. The eminent virtues and
accomplifhments. of this lady, who died a few years ■
ago at the age of 88, entided her to be mentioned
even fowf conapend too fhort for biography. The con-
dufting of the opera having been found to be more -
expenfive than profitable, it was entirely fufpended :
from 1717 till 1720, when a fund of L. 50,000 for
fupporting and carrying it on was fubferibed by the
firft perfonages of the kingdom. The fubferibers, of pro 4r^5 ^
whom king George I. was one for L. 1000, were the opera
formed into a fociety, and named The Royal /!cademy-'ioAtts his
of Mifc. Handel was commiffioned to engage the mana'te-
performers: for that purpofe he went to Diefden,nicnt'
where Italian operas were at that time performed in
the moft fplendid manner at the court of Auguilus
eleftorof Saxony, then king of Poland. Here Han¬
del engaged Seneftno-Berenftadt, Bofchi, and the
Duranftanti.
In the 172.3, the celebrated Francefca Cuzzoni ap¬
peared as a frit-rate finger; and two years afterwards
arrived her diftinguifhed rival. Signora Fautlina Bor-
doni.
In a cantabile air, though the notes Cuzzoni added
were few, fhe never loft an apportunity of enriching,
the cantilena with the moft beautiful embellifhments.
Her fhake was perfeft- She poffeiTed a creative fancy;
and fhe enjoyed the power of occafionally accelerating
and retarding the meafure in the moft artificial and.
able manner, by what is in Italy called tempo rubato.
Her high notes were unrivalled in clearnefs and fweet-
nefs. Her intonations were fo juft and fo fixed, that
3 £
49$
tmremion
6f the ora¬
torio, and
dudtion in¬
to England.
MUSIC. Hiflory.
it feemed as if'flie had not the pawer to fing out of hia,manner was articulate and admirable. It was the
tune. opinion of Hafle, as well as other eminent profeflbrs,
Fa u ft in a Bordoni, wife of the celebrated SaXon that whoever had not heard Careftini, was unacquaint-
• compofer Haffe* invented a new kind of Tinging, by ed with the moft p<yfe£t ftyle of finging. The opera
running divifions, with a neatnefs and velocity which under the direction of Porpora was removed to the
aftoniftied all who heard her. By taking her breath Haymarket, which Handel had left. Handel oecu-
imperceptihly, (he had the art of fuftaining a note ap- pied the theatre of Lincoln’s-inn Fields $ but his rivals
parently longer than any other finger. Her beats and now acquired a vaft advantage of attradtion, by the
trills were ftrong and rapid; her intonation perfeft. accefiion of Carlo Brofchi detto Farinelli to their
Her profelfional perfections were enhanced by a beau- party, who at this time arrived. This renowned
tiful face, fine fymmetry of figure, and a countenance linger feems to have trahfeended the limits of all ante*
and gefture on the ftnge which indicated an entire intel- rior vocal excellence. No vocal performer of the pre*
ligence and poffeffion of the feveral parts allotted to fent century has been fo unanimoufly allowed to poffefs
her. an uncommon power, fweetnefs, extent, and agility
Thefe two angelic performers excited fo fignally the of voice, as Farinelli. Nicolini, Senefino, and Ca*
attention of the public, that a party fpirit between reftini, gratified the eye as much by the dignity, grace,
the abettors of the one and of £he other was formed, and propriety of their aftion and deportment, as the
as violent and as inveterate almoft as any of thofe that car, by the judicious ufe of a few notes within the ii-
had ever occurred relative to matters either theological mits of a fmall compnfs of voice ; but Farinelli, with¬
er political; yet fo diftinft were their ftyles of fingiog, out the afliftance of fignificant geitures or graceful at&
fo different their talents, that the praife of the one was titudes, enchanted and aftonifhed his hearers, by the
no reproach to the other. force, extent, and mellifluous tones of the mere organ.
In lefs than feven years, the whole L. <;o,ooo fub- when he had nothing to execute, articulate, or exprefs.
feribed by the Royal Academy, befldes the produce Though during the time of finging he was as motion-
of admiffion to non-fubfcribe,rs, was expended, and lefs as a 1131116, his voice was fo active that no inter-
the governor and direftors of the fociety relinquifli- vals were too clofe, too wide, or too rapid, for his
ed the idea of continuing their engagements; con- execution.
fequently, at the clofe of the fcafon 1727, the whole Handel having loft a great part of his fortune by the
band of fingers difperfed. The next year vie find Se- opera, was under the neceffity of trying the public
nefino, Fauftina,' Balde, Cuzzoni, Nicolini, Farinelli, gratitude in a benefit, which was not difgraced by the
and Bofche, at Venice. event: the theatre, for the honour of the nation, was
Handel, however, at his own rifle, after a fufpen- fo crowded, that he is faid to have cleared L. 800. r
fion of about a twelvemonth, determined to recom- After a fruitlefs attempt by Heidegger, the coad-Opeia in
mence the Opera ; and accordingly engaged a band jutor of Handel in the'conduCft of the opera, and pa- England
of performers entirely new. Thefe were Signor Ber- tentee of the King’s Theatre in Haymarket, to pro-Siveu UP*
nacchi, Signora Mertghi, Signora Strada, Signor A- cure a fubfeription for continuing it, it was found ne-
nibale Pio Fabri, his wife, Signora Bertoldi, and ceffary to give up the undertaking.
John'Gadfrid Reimfchneider. It was about this time that the ftatue of Handel
The facred mufical drama, or oratorio, was invent- was ere&ed in Vauxhall, at the expence of Mr Tycrs,
ed early in the 14th century. Every nation in Europe proprietor of thofe gardens.
feems firft to have had fecourfe to religious fubjedls for The next year (1739) Handel carried on oratorios
dramatic exhibitions. The oratorios had been common at the Haymarket, as the opera there was fufpended.
in Italy during the laft century ; they had never been The earl of Middlefex now undertook the troublefome
publicly introduced in England till Handel, (Hmulated by office of imprefario of the Italian opera. He .engaged ^
the rivalfhip of other adventurers, exhibited in 1732 his the King’s theatre, with a band of fingers from the Revived,
oratorios of Efther, and of Acis, and Galatea, the laft Continent almoft entirely new. Caluppi was hiscom-
of which he had compofed twelve years before for the pofer. ■ Handel, almoil ruined, retired at this time to
duke of Chandos’s chapel at Cannons. The mod for- Ireland, where he remained a conliderable time. In
midable oppofition which Handel met with in his con- 1744 he again attempted oratorios at the King’s
du£l of the Italian opera was a new theatre for exhi- theatre, which was then, and till 1746, unoccupied
biting thefe operas, opaned by fubfeription in Lincoln’s- by the opera, on account of the rebellion.,
inn Fields, under the conduA of Nicola Porpora, a The arrival of Giardini in London this year forms
refpe&able compofer. A difference having occurred a memorable sera in the inftrumental mufic of England*
between Handel and Senefino, Senefino had fbr fome His powers on the violin were unequalled. The fame
time deferted the Haymarket, where Handel managed, year Dr Croza, tflien manager of the opera, eh»ped,
and was now engaged at the rival theatre of Lincoln’s- leaving the performers, and innumerable trades-people,
inn Fields. To fupply the place of Senefino, Handel his creditors. This incident put an end ro operas of
brought over Giovanni Carcjlini, a finger of the moft all kinds for fome time.
extenfive powers. His voice was at firft a powerful This year a comic opera, called II lilofofo di Cfc.m-
and clear foprano ; afterwards it changed into the pagna, compofed by Caluppi, was exhibited, which
fulleft, fineft, deepeft, counter-tenor that has perhaps furpaffed in mufical merit all the comic operas per-
ever been heard. Carellini’s perfon was tall, beautiful, formed in England till the Bicona Figliula. Signora
and majeftic. He rendered every thing he fung inte- Paganini acquired fuch fame by the airs allotted to
refting by energy, tafte, and judicious embellifhment. her in that piece, that the crowds at her benefit were
In the execution' of difficult divifions from the chelt, beyond example. Caps were loft, gowas torn i«
N0 4, pieces,
Hiftory. M tf S
pieces, and ladies’ in Full drefs, without fervants of caf-
riages, were obliged to walk home, amidft the merri*
3 ment of the fpeftators on the ftreets.
^764 and At this period the arrival of Giovanni Manzoli
1765, . marked a fplendid aera in the annals of muflcal drama,
Manzoli. j^y conferrJng on ferious opera a degree of importance
to which it had feldom yet arifen fince its eftablifhment
in England. Manzoli’s voice was the moft powerful
and voluminous foprano that had been heard fince the
time of Farinelli t his manner of fmging was grand,
49 and full of talle and dignity.
Tenducci. At this time Tenducci, who had been in England
fome time before, and was now returned much im¬
proved, performed in the ftation of fecond man to
50 Manzoli.
1769. Gaetano Quadagni made a great figure at this time.
CJuadagni. JJe had been in this country early in life .(1748), as
ferious-man in a burletta troop of lingers. His voice'
was then a full and w'dl-toned counter-tenor ; but he
fung wildly and carelefsly. The excellence of his voice,
however, attrafted the notice of Handel, who affign-
ed him the parts in his oratorios the Meffiah and Sam-
fon, w'hich had been originally compofed for Mrs Cib¬
ber. He quitted London for the firft time about 1753.
Thehigheft expeftations of his abilities were raifed by
fame before his fecond arrival, at the time of which
we treat. As an aftor he fecms to have had no equal
on any ftage in Europe. His figure was uncommonly
elegant and noble ; his countenance replete with beau¬
ty, intelligence, and dignity; his attitudes were full
of grace and propriety. Thofe who remembered his
voice when formerly in England were now difappoint-
ed : it was comparatively thin and feeble ; he had now
changed it to a foprano, and extended its compafs from
fix or feven notes to fourteen or fifteen. The mufic
he fung was the moft fimple imaginable ; a few notes
with frequent paufes, and opportunities of being libe¬
rated from the compofer and the band, were all he re-
. quired. In thefe effufions, feemingly extemporaneous,
he difplayed the native power of melody unaided by
harmony or even by unifonous accompaniment: the
pleafure he communicated proceeded principally from
his artful manner of diminishing the tones of his voice,
like the dying notes of the iEolian harp. Moft other
fingers affect a fwell, or mejfa de voce ; but Guadagni,
after beginning a note with force, attenuated it fo de¬
licately that it poffeffed all the effeft of extreme dif-
tance. During the feafon 1770 and 1771, Tenducci
was the immediate fucceffor of Guadagni. This per¬
former, who appeared in England firft only as acfinger
of the fecond or third olafs, was during his refidence
in Scotland and Ireland fo much improved as to be
well received as firft man, not only on the ftage of
London but in all the great theatres of Italy.
It was during this period that dancing feemed firft
to gain the afcendant over mufic by the fuperior ta¬
lents of Mademoifdle Heinel, whofe grace and exe¬
cution were fo pcrfedl as to eclipfe all other excellence,
jyl.j In the firil opera performed this feafon [Luccv Veto)
lytits Da- appeared Mifs Cecilia Davies, known in Italy by the
vies. name of L’lnglefina. Mifs Davies had the honour of
being the firft Englifii woman who had ever been
thought worthy of finging on any ftage in Italy. She
even performed with eclat the principal female charae-
Vol. XlL Part II.
I C. 497
ters on many, of the great theatres of that country.
Gabrielli only on the Continent was faid to furpafs
her. Her* voice, though not of great volume, was
clear and perfe&ly in tune ; her lhake was open and
diftindi, without the fluggiftrnefs of the French ca¬
dence. . The flexibility of her throat rendered her ex¬
ecution equal to the moft rapid diviflons.
Next feafon introduced Venanzio Ravygini, a beau¬
tiful and animated young man ; a compofer as well as
a finger. — His voice was fweet, deaf, flexible ; in com¬
pafs more than two odtaves. 5,
The feafon 1775 and 1776 was rendered memorable Catering
by the arrival of the celebrated Caterina Gabrielli, ftyled GabtielU.
early in life La Cuochetinai being the daughter of a
cardinal’s cook at Rome. She had, however, in her
Countenance and deportment no indications of low
birth. Her manner and appearance depi&ed dignity
and grace. So great was her reputation before her
arrival in England for fingirig and for caprice, that
the public expecting perhaps in berth too much, were
unwilling to allow her due praife for her performance,
and were apt to aferibe every thing (he did to pride
and infolence. Her voice, though exquifite, was not
very powerful. Her chief excellence having been the
neatnefs and rapidity of her execution, the furprife
of the public muft have been much diminiflied on hear¬
ing her after Mifs Davies, who fung many of the fame
fongs in the fame ftyle, and with a neatnefs fo nearly
equal, that common hearers could diftinguifh no dif¬
ference. The diferiminating critic, however, might
have difeovered a fuperior fweetnefs in the natural
tone of the Gabrielli’s voice, an elegance in thefiniih-
ing of her mufical periods or paffages, an accent and
precifion in her divifions, fuperior notsonly to Mifs
Davies, but to every other finger of her time. Itt
flow movements her pathetic powers, like thofe in ge¬
neral of performers moft renowned for agility, were
not exquifitely touching. She now refides at Bo-
logna* . . 53
About the time of \Vhich we have been treating, the Agujari at
proprietors of the Pantheon ventured to engage the the Pari-
Agujari at the enormous falary of L. t oo per night, t^ton-
for finging two fongs only ! LucreAa Agujari was a
truly wonderful performer. The lower part of her
voice was full, round, and of excellent quality ; its
compafs Amazing, She had two oCtaves of fair natu¬
ral voice, from A on the fifth line in the bafs to A
on the fixth line in the treble, and beyond that in alt
fhe had in early youth more than another oCtave. She
has been heard to afeend to B-b in altijjimo. Her flrake
was open and perfeCt ; her intonation true ; her exe¬
cution marked and rapid ; the ftyle of her finging, in
the natural compafs of her voiced grand and majeftic. , *
In 1776 arrived Anna Pozzi, as fucceffor to the AnnaPozzi
Gabrielli. She poffeffed a voice clear, fweet, and pow¬
erful ; but her inexperience, both as an aftreis and as
a finger, produced a eontraft very unfavourable to her
when compared with fo celebrated a performer as Ga¬
brielli. Since thr.t time, however, Pozzi, with more
ftudy and knowledge, has become one of the bell and
moft admired female fingeti in Italy.
After the departure of Agujari for the fecond and
laft time, the managers of the Pantheon engaged the
Georgi as her fucceffor. Her voice was exquisitely fine, Geortfi,
3 R but
493
M U
hut totally uncultivated. She is now employed as the
firft woman in the operas of the principal cities of
^6 Italy.
Roncaglia During the feafons 1777 and 1778, the principal
andDanze.pinger8 af tjie 0pera {n London were Frandefco Ron¬
caglia and Francefca Danze, afterwards Madame Le
Brun.
Roncaglia pofieffed a fweet-toned voice ; but of the
three great requifites of a complete ftage-finger, pathos,
grace, and execution, which the Italians call cantabile,
graxiafa, and bravura, he could lay claim only to the
fecond. His voice, a voce de camera, when confined to
the graxiofa in a room, leaves nothing to wifh for.
Danze had a voice well in tune, a good lhake, great
execution, prodigious compafs, with great knowledge
of jnufic ; yet the pleafure her performance imparted
was not equal to thefe accomplilhments: but her
objeft was not fo much pathos and grace, as to fur-
prife by the imitation of the tone and difficulties of
<7 inftruments.
This year Gafparo Pacchierotti appeared in London,
whither his high reputation had penetrated long be¬
fore. The natural tone of his voice is intereiling,
fweet, and pathetic. His compafs downwards is
great, with an afcent up to B b, and fometimes to C
in alt. He poffelfes an unbounded fancy, and the
power not only of executing the moll difficult and re¬
fined paffages, but of inventing embelliffiment entire¬
ly new. Ferdinando Bertoni, a well-known compofer,
came along with Pacchierotti to Britain.
During the lad ten years, dancing has become an
Pacchie-
5*
Dancing
pahis the important branch of the amufements of the opera-
" over mufic h°ufe- Mademoifelle Hernel, M. Veftris le Jeune,
ar the ope- Mademoifelle Baccelli, had, during fome years, de-
ra-houfe. lighted the audience at the opera ; but on the ar¬
rival of M. Veftris I’Aine, pleafure was exchanged
for ecftafy. In the year 1781, Pacchierotti had by
this time been fo frequently heard that his finging was
no impediment to converfation j but while the elder
Veftris was on the ftage, not a breathing was to be
heard. Thofe lovers of mufic who talked the loudeft
while Pacchierotti fung, were in agonies of terror left
the graceful movements of Veftris, le dieu de la dance,
fhould be difturbed by audible approbation. Since
that time, the moft mute and refpeftful attention has
been paid to the manly grace of Le Picq, and the
light fantaftic toe of the younger Veftris ; to the
Roffis, the Theodores, the Coulons, the Hillinglburgs;
while the flighted fingers have been difturbed, not by the
violence of applaufe, but the clamour of inattention.
1'he year 1784 was rendered a memorable era in
59 the annals of mufic ,by the fplendid and magnifi-
Comme- Cent manner in which the birth and genius of Handel
Handel in°fwere 'celebrated in Weftminfter Abbey and the Pan-
Weflmin- theon,_by five performances of pieces fele&ed from
iter Abbey, his own works, and executed by a band of more t^ian
$00 voices and inftruments, in the prefence and under
the immediate aufpices of their msyefties and the firft
perfonages of the kingdom. The commemoration of
Handel has been fince eftabliffied as an annual mufical
feftival for charitable purpofes ; in which the number
of performers and the perfe&ion of the performances
have continued to increafe. In 1785 the band, vocal
and inftrumental, amounted to 616 ; in 1786 to 741 ;
in 1787 to 806.
I C. Hiftory,
Dr Barney publiftied An Account of the Mufical
Performances in Commemoration of Handel, for the
benefit of the Mufical Fund. The members and guar¬
dians of that fund are now incorporated under the title
of Royal Society of Muftcians. See HAndel.
This year Pacchierotti and his friend Bertoni left
England. About the fame time our country was de¬
prived of the eminent compofer Sacchini, and Giar-
dini the greateft performer on the violin then in Eu-
roPe- . 60
As a compenfation for thefe Ioffes, this memorable ExceUence
year is diftinguiffied by the arrival of Madam Mara, Madam
whofe performance in the commemoration of HandelMarai
in Weftminfter Abbey infpired an audience of 3000
of the firft people of the kingdom, not only with plea¬
fure but with ecftafy and rapture. fa
In 1786 arrived Giovanni Rubinelli. His voice is a Rubinelli,
true and full contralto from C in the middle of the
fcale to the oftave above. His ftyle is grand ; his exe¬
cution neat and diftindt; his.tafte and embelliffiments
new, feledt, and mafterly.
In 1788 a new dance, compofed by the celebrated A new
M. Noverre, called Cupid and Pfycbe, was exhibited c*ance
along with the opera La Locandiera, which produced ^rr^0*
an effedf fo uncommon as to deferve notice. So great
was the pleafure it afforded to the fpectators, that
Noverre was unanimoufly brought on the ftage and
crowned with laurel by the principal performers. This,
though common in France, was a new mark of ap¬
probation in England. ^
This year arrived Signor Luige Marchefi, a finger Marchefi.
whofe talents have been the fubjedt of praife and ad¬
miration on every great theatre of Europe. Marchefi’s
ftyle of finging is not only elegant and refined in an
uncommon degree, but often grand and full of dig¬
nity, particularly in his recitative and occafional low
notes. His variety of embellifhment and facility of
running extempore divifions are wonderful. Many of
his graces are elegant and of his own invention. ^
The three greateft Italian fingers of the prefent Difcrimi-
times are certainly Pacchierotti, Rubinelli, and Mar-nated cha-
chefi. In diferiminating the feveral excellencies of
thefe great performers, a very refpedtable judge, Dr^;
Burney, has particularly praifed the fweet and touch-nelli’ and
ing voice of Pacchierotti; his fine fhake, his exquifite Marchefi.
tafte, his great fancy, and his divine expreffion in
pathetic fongs : Of Rubinelli’s voice, the fulnefs,
fteadinefs, and majefty, the accuracy of his intona¬
tions, his judicious graces : Of Marchefi's voice, the
elegance and flexibility, his grandeur in recitative, and
his boundlefs fancy and embellifhments.—Having men¬
tioned Dr Burney, we are in juftice bound to acknow¬
ledge the aid we have derived from his hiftory ; a work
which we greatly prefer to every other modern produc¬
tion on the fubjed. During the latter part of the
prefent century many eminent compofers have flou-
rilhed on the continent; fuch as Jomelli, the family
of the Bachs, Gluck, Haydn, and many others, whofe
different ftyles and excellencies would well deferve to ^
be particularifed, would our limits permit. With the Sovereign
fame regard to brevity, we can do no more than juft princes di*
mention the late king of Pruffia, the late eledlor of*etUnti*
Bavaria, and prince Lobkowitz, as eminent dilettanti
of modern times.
Befides the opera-fingers whom we have mentioned,
our
Hiftory* M U
66 our theatre* and public gardens have exhibited fingers
Singers on 0f COnfiderable merit. In 1730 Mifs Rafter, after-
in^uMic war^s celebrated Mrs Clive, firft appeared on the
gardens. ftage at Drmy-lane as a finger. The fame year in¬
troduced Mifs Cecilia Young, afterward the wife of
Dr Arne. Her ftyle of finging was infinitely fnperior
to that of any other Englifii woman of her time.
Favourite Our favourite muficians at this time were, Dubourg,
niufician-1. Clegg, Clarke, and Felling, on the violin ; Kytch
on the hautboy ; Jack Felling on the German flute;
Ballon on the common flute ; Karba on the baboon ;
Valentine Snow on the trumpet: and on the organ,
Rofeingrave, Green, Robinfon, Magnus, Jack James,
and the blind Stanley, who feems to have been pre¬
ferred. The favourite playhoufe finger was Salway ;
and at concerts Mountier of Chichelter.
As compofers for our national theatre, Pepufch and
Galliard feem to have been unrivalled till 1732; when
two competitors appeared, who were long in poflefiion
of the public-favour: We allude to John Frederick
JLampe and Thomas Augultus Arne.
In 1736 Mrs Cibber, who had captivated every
hearer of fenfibility by her native fweetnefs of voice
and powers of expreffion as a finger, made her firft
attempt as a tragic a&refs. The fame year Beard be¬
came a favourite finger at Cdvent-garden. At this'
time Mifs Young, afterwards Mrs Arne, and her two
fillers Ifabella and Either, were the favourite Englilh
68 female fingers.
Fund for In 1738 was inllituted the fund for the fupport of
decayed decayed muficians and their families,
muliaans. ^ wag jn tjlat ]y[r Tyers, proprietor of Vaux-
hall gardens, firft added vocal mufic to the other en¬
tertainments of that place. A Ihort time before Rane-
6p lagh had become a place of public amufement.
Arrival of In 1749 arrived Giardini, whofe great talle, hand,
Oiardim. ancj flyle jn playing on the violin, procured him uni-
verfal admiration. A few years alter his arrival he
formed a morning academia or concert at his -houfe,
compofed chiefly of his fcholars.
About this time San Martini and Charles Avifon
were eminent compofers.
Of near 150 mulical pieces brought on our national
theatres within thefe 40 years, 30 of them at leatl
Style of were fet by Arne. The llyle of this . compofer, if
Arne. analyfed, would perhaps appear to be neither Italian
nor Englilh ; but an agreeable mixture of both and
yj of Scotch.
The earl of The late earl of Kelly, who died but a few years
Kelly. ago, deferves particular notice, as poflefled of a very
eminent degree of mufical fcience, far fuperior to other
dilettanti, and perhaps not inferior to any profeflbr of
his time. There was no part of theoretical or pra&i-
cal mufic in which he was not thoroughly verfed: He
pofiefled a llrength of hand on the violin, and a ge#'
nius for compofition, with which few profeflbrs are
. 72 gifted.
Abel. Charles Frederic Abel was an admirable mufician :
his performance on the viol da gamba was in every
particular complete and perfedl. He had a hand which
no difficulties could embarrafs; a talle the moll re¬
fined and delicate ; a judgment fo correft and certain
as never to permit a Angle note to efcape him with*
SIC. 4Q<)
out meaning. His eompofitions were eafy and ele¬
gantly fimple. In writing and playing an adagio he
was fuperior to all praife ; the moll pleafing yet learn-
ed modulation, the richeft harmony, the moll elegant
and polilhed melody, were all expreffed with the moll
exquifite feeling, tafte, and fcience. His manner at
playing an adagio foon became the model of imitation
for all our young performers on bowed inllruments.
Bartholemon, Cervetto, Cramer, and Crofdil, may in
this refpeft be ranked as of his fchool. All lovers of
mufic mull have lamented that Abel in youth had not
attached himfelf to an inllrument more worthy of his
genius, talle, and learning, than the viol da gamba,
that remnant of the old chelt of viols which during
the laft century was a necelfary appendage of a noble¬
man’s or gentleman’s family throughout Europe, pre¬
vious to the admiffion of violins, tenors, and bales, in
private houfes or public concerts. Since the death
of the late eleftor of Bavaria, who was next to Abel
(the bell performer ®n the viol da gamba in Europe),
the inllrument feems quite laid afide. It was ufed
longer in Germany than elfewhere ; but the place of
gaiiibill feems now as much fupprefled in the chapels
of German princes as that of lutanills. The cele¬
brated performer on the violin, Lolle, came to Eng¬
land in 1785. Such was his caprice, that he was fd-
dom heard; and f® eccentric was his ftyle and com-
polition, that by many he was regarded as a madman.
He was, however, during his lucid intervals a very
great and expreffive performer in the ferious llyle.
Mrs Billington, after dillinguilhing herfelf in child- Mrs Bil-
hood as a neat and expreffive performer on the pi-lingtou. ,
ano-forte, appeared all at once in 1786 as a fweet and
captivating finger. In emulation of the Mara and
other great bravura fingers, (he at firft too frequently
attempted palfages of difficulty ; now, however, fo
greatly has Ihe improved, that no fong feems too high
or too rapid for her execution. The natural tone of
her voice is fo exquifitely fweet, her knowledge of
mufic fo confiderable, her fliake fo true, her clofes
and embellilhments fo various, her expreffions fo
grateful, that envy only or apathy could hear her
without delight. The prefent compofers, and per¬
formers of the firft clafs, are fo well known to the lo¬
vers of the art, that it would be needlefs and impro¬
per to mention them particularly : and to deferibe
the diftin&ive powers of Bartholemon, Cramer, Pitl-
tain, Raimonde, and Salamon, would be too delicate
a talk for us to undertake.
The Catch-club at the Thatched Houfe, inftituted in tJ2L
1^62 bythe late earl of Eghnton, the prefent duke ofcleband me
Queenlberry, and others; and the concert of ancientconcerc ot'
mufic, fuggeiled by the earl of Sandwich in i 776, ant:je[,t
have "had a beneficial efte& in improving the art. nm K‘
We have been fomewhat particular in our account
of mufical affairs in our own country during the pre¬
fent century, as what would be moll interefting to
general readers, and of which a well-informed gentle¬
man would not wifh to be ignorant. The profefl'or
and connoifleur is not to be expe&ed to content him¬
felf with difquilitions much more minute than thole
of which our limits can be fuppqfed to admit.
3 R 2 ELEMENTS
5oa MUSIC. Elements.
ELEMENTS of MUSIC.
Theoretical and Practical (f).
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
74
Mufic /TUSIC may be confidered, either as an art, which
confulered J_VX has for its objeft one of the greateft pleafures of
in a double our fenfes are fufceptible ; or as a fcience,
by which that art is reduced to principles. This is
the double view in which we mean to treat of muiic in
this work.
Progrefs of It has been the cafe with mufic as with all the other
mulic like arts invented by men : fome fafts were at firft difco-
ther arts vere^ by accident; foon afterwards refleilion and ob-
and idea- fervation inveftigated others ; and from thefe fails, pro-
ces. perly difpofed and united, philofophers were not flow
in forming a body of fcience, which afterwards increa-
fed by degrees.
The firlt theories of mufic were perhaps as ancient
as the earlieft age which we know to have been diftin-
guilhed by philofophy, even as the age of Pythagoras;
nor does hiftory leave us any room to doubt, that from
the period when that philofopher taught, the ancients
cultivated mufic, both as an ait and as a fcience, with
great afliduity. But there remains to us much uncer¬
tainty concerning the degree of perfe&ion to which
they brought it. Almoft every queftion which has been
propefed with refpeft to the mufic of the ancients has
divided the learned ; and may probably ftill continue
to divide them, for want of monuments fufficient in
their number, and inconteftable in their nature, from
whence we might be enabled to exhibit teftimonies and
difcoveries inftead of fuppofitions and conje&ures. In
the preceding hiftory we have ftated a few fads re-
fpeding the nature of ancient mufic, and the inven-
tors of the fevcral mufical inftruments; but it were
to be wilhed, that, in order to elucidate, as much
as polfible, a point fo momentous in the hiftory of
the fciences, fome perfon of learning, equally /killed in ^
the Greek language and in mufic, fliould exert himfelfThe hi-
to unite and difcufs in the fame work the molt pro-ftory of
bable opinions eftablilhed or propofed by the learned ™ulic a de-
upon a fubjeit fo difficult and curious. This philofo-^
phical hiftory of ancient mufic is a work which might lUre.
highly embellifh the literature of our times.
In the mean time, till an author can be found fuf.
ficiently inftrufted in the arts and in hiftory to under¬
take fuch a labour with fuccefs, we fhall content our-
felves with confidering the prefcnt ftate of mufic, and
limit our endeavours to the explication of thofe accef-
fions which have accrued to the theory of mufic in
thefe latter times.
There are two departments in mufic, melody * and * 566 Me-
harmony f. Melody is the art of arranging feveral
founds in fucceffion one to another in a manner agree- many,
able to the ear; harmony is the art of pleafing that
organ by the union of feveral founds which are heard
at one and the fame time. Melody has been known
and felt through all ages : perhaps the fame cannot be
affirmed of harmony ($) ; we know not whether the
ancients made any ufe of it or not, nor at what period
it began to be pra&ifed.
Not but that the ancients certainly employed in their
mufic
(f) To deliver the elementary principles of mufic, theoretical and pra&ical, in a manner which may prove
at once entertaining and inftruilve, without protradling this article much beyond the limits prefcribed in our
plan, appears to us no eafy talk. We therefore hefitated for fome time, whether to try our own ftrength,
or to follow fome eminent author on the fame fubje&. Of thefe the laft feemed preferable. Amongil thefe
authors, none appeared to us to have written any thing fo fit for our purpofe as M. D’Alembert, whofe
treatife on mufic is the moft methodical, perfpicuous, concife, and elegant difiertation on that fubjeft with
which we are acquainted. As it was unknown to moft Englifh readers before the former edition of this
work, it ought to have all the merit of an original. We have given a faithful tranfhtion of it ;
but in the notes, fevcral remarks are added, and many authors quoted, which will not be found in the origi¬
nal. It is a work fo fyftematically compofed, that all attempts to abridge it, without rendering it obfcure-
and imperfeft, would be imprafticable. It is perhaps impoffible to render the fyftem of mufic intelligible
in a work of lefs compafs than that with which our readers are now prefented ; and, in our judgment, a per¬
formance of this kind, which is written in fuch a manner as not to be generally underftood, were much better
fupprefled.
(J) In this pafiage, and in the definitions of melody and harmony, our author feems to have adopted the:
vulgar error, that the pleafures of mufic terminates in corporeal fenfe. He would have pronounced it abfurd
to aflert the fame thing of painting. Yet if the former be no more than a mere pleafure of corporeal fenfe,
the latter muft likewife be ranked in the fame predicament. We acknowledge that corporeal fenfe is the ve¬
hicle of found ; but it is plain from our immediate feelings, that the refults of found arranged according to the
principles of melody, or combined and difpofed according to the laws of harmony, are the objetls of a reflex
or internal fenfe.
For a'more fatisfa&ory difcuffion of this matter, the reader may confult that elegant and judicious treatife
on Mufical Exprefiion by Mr Avifon. In the mean time it may'be neceffary to add, that, in order to fliun.
the appearance of affeftation, we /hall ufe the ordinary terms by which mufical fenfatkms, or the mediums by
which they are conveyed, are generally denominated.
($) Though no certainty can be obtained whac the ancients underftpod of harmony, nor in what manner
■end in what period they piaftifed it j yet it is not without probability, that, both in fpeculation and prailice,
5 they
Elements. M U
Prelim, mufic thofe chords which were mod perfeil and fimple;
Difcourfc. fuch as the odave, the fifth, and the third; but it
feems doubtful whether they knew any of the other
confonances or not, or even whether in pra&ice they
could deduce the fame advantages fromthefimple chords
which were known to them, that have afterwards ac¬
crued from experience and combinations.
If that harmony which we now pradice owes its ori¬
gin to the experience and refledion of the moderns,
there is the higheft probability that the firft effays of
this art, as of all the others, were feeble, and the pro-
grefs of its efforts almoft imperceptible ; and that, in
the courfe of time, improving by fmall gradations,
the fuccefilve labours of feveral geniufes have elevated
it to that degree of perfedion in which at prefent we.
77 find It-
The origin inventor of harmony efcapes our inveftiga*-
of arts of- tion, from the fame, caufes which leave us ignorant of
ten acci- thofe who firft invented each particular fcience ; be-
their^'ro^ caufe the original inventors could only advance one ftep^
grel's gra- a fucceeding difeoverer afterwards made a more fen-
dual. fibie improvement, and the firft imperfed effays in
every kind were loft in the more extenfive and linking
views to which they led. Thus the arts which we now
enjoy, are for the moft part far from being due to any
particular man, or to any nation exclufively : they are
produced by the united and fucceffive endeavours of
mankind; they are the refults of fuch continued and
united refledions, as have been formed by all men at
all periods and in all nations.
It might, however, be wifhed, that after having af-
xertained, with as much accuracy as poffible, the Hate
of ancient mufic by the fmall number of Greek authors
which remain to us, the fame application were imme¬
diately direded to inveftigate the firft inconteiiable
traces of harmony which appear in the fucceeding ages,
and to purfue thofe traces from period to period. The
produds of thefe refearches would doubtlefs be very
iinperfed, becaufe the books and monuments of the
middle ages are by far too few to enlighten that gloomy
and barbarous era ; yet thefe difeoveries would ftill be
precious to a philofopher, who delights to obferve the
human mind in the gradual evolutions of its powers,
aaid the progrefs of its attainments.
Delinea- The firft compofitions upon the laws of harmony
tionsof the \yhich we know, are of no higher antiquity than two
Jaws °f hai' ages prior to our own; and they were followed by many
Sn" and others. But none of thefc effays was capable of fatif-
iinperfcd. fying the mind concerning the principles of harmony:
they confined themfelvcs almoft entirely to the fmgle
occupation of colleding rules, without endeavouring;
to account for them ; neither had their analogies, one
with another, nor their common fource, been perceived;
a blind and unenlightened experience was the only
SIC. * 50T
compafs by which the artift could dired and regulate Prelim,
his courfe.
M. Rameau was the firft who began to transfufe ' ^ r
light and order through this chaos. In the different Its precepts
tones produced by the fame fonorous body, he found not dedu-
the moft probable origin of harmony, and the caufe,ofcei' ^rom
that pleafure which we receive from it. His principieby
he unfolded, and fhowed how the different phenomena m. Ra-
of mufic were produced by it: he reduced all the con-meau.
fonances to a fmall number of fimple and fundamental
chords, of which the others are only combinations or
various arrangements. He has, in fhort, been able to
difeover,.and render fenfible to others, the mutual de¬
pendence between melody and harmony.
Though thefe different topics may be contained in phg au.
the writings of this celebrated artift, and in thefe wri-thor’s mo-
tings may be underftood by philofophers who are like-tives. f°r
wife adepts in the art of mufic ; ftill, however, fuch ^efe'e^e*.
muficians as were not philofophet s, and fuch philofo-mems. .
phers as were not muficians, have long defired to fee
thefe obje&s brought more within the reach of their
capacity : fueh is the intention of the treatife I now
prefent to the public. I had formerly compofed it for
the ufe of fome friends. As the work appeared to
them clear and methodical, they have engaged me to
publilh it, perfuaded (though perhaps with too much
credulity) that it might be ufeful to facilitate the pro¬
grefs of initiates in the ftudy of harmony.
This was the only motive which could have deter¬
mined me to publilh a book of which I might with¬
out hefitation affume the honour, if its materials had
been the fruits of my own invention, but in which B
can now boaft no other merit than that of having de¬
veloped, elucidated, and perhaps in fome refpe£ts im¬
proved, the ideas of another (c,). ,
The firft edition of this effay, publifiied 1732, ha- fmprovc-
ving been favourably received by the world, and copies m"nts of
no longer to be found in the hands of bookfellers, j;
have endeavoured to render this more perfeft. The Account of
detail which I mean to give of my labour, will prefent the work ioa
the reader, with a general.id6a of the principle of M.gcnera1,
Rameau, of the confequences deduced from it, of the
manner in which ! have difpofed this principle and its
confequences ; in fhort, of what is ftill a-wanting, and
might be advantageous to the theory of this amiable
art; of what ftill remains for the learned to contribute
towards the perfedlion of this theory; of the rocks and
quickfands which they ought to avoid in this refearch, ,
and which could ferve no oilier purpofe than to retard
their progrefs. 33
Every foaorous body, befides its principal found,Rameau 3
likewife exhibits to the ear the 12th and 17th major°.f
©f that found. This multiplicity of different yet con-11”0”^
cordant founds, known for a confiderable.time, coniti-
tutea ,
they were in pofllffion of what we denominate- counterpoints Without fappofing this, there are fome paffages
in the Greek authors which can admit of no fatisfadlory interpretation. See the Origin and Progrefs of Lan¬
guage, Vol. 11. Befides,, we can; difeover fome vdliges of harmony, however rude and imperfedt, in the hi-.
ftory of the Gothic ages,, and .amongft the moft barbarous people. This they could, not have derived from .
more cultivated countries,, becaufe it appears to be incorporated with their national mufic. The moft rational ,
account, therefore, which can be given, feems to be, that it was conveyed in a mechanical or traditionary
ner through the. Roman provinces from a more remote period of antiquity.
(c) See M. Rameau’s letter upon this fubjedt, Men. de Mai 1752..
M U
tutes the tafia of the whole theory of M. Rameau,
and the foundation upon which he builds the whole
fuperftru&urc of a mufical fyltem *. In thefe our ele¬
ments may be feen, how from this experiment one
may deduce, by an eafy operation of reaion, the chief
points of melody and harmony; the perfeAf chord, as
well major as minor ; the two £ tetrachords employed
in ancient mufic ; the formation of our diatonic ||
fcale ; the different values $ which the fame found may
lunic. have in that fcale, according to the turn which is gi-
f. See Fa- ven to the bafs * the alterations which we obferve
l^e\ _ . in that fcale, and the reafon why they are totally im-
% See Alts'- perceptible to the ear; the rules peculiar to the modef
ration. major ; the difficulty in j; intonation of forming three
f see Mode, tones || in fucceffion; the reafon why two perfect chords
$.See inn- are profcrjbed in immediate fucceffion in the diatonic
y Vee TW. order ; the origin of the minor mode, its fubordina-
tion to the mode major, and its variations ; the ufe of
$ See Dif- difcord §.} the <raufes of fuch effedls as are produced
cord. by different kinds of mafic, whether diatonic, chroma-
* See Giro- tic or enharmonic f 5 the principles and laws of
+ S>e £«• ternPeramentt' In this difeourfe we can only point out
harmonic, thofe different objedts, the fubfequent effay being de-
| See Tem- figned to explain them with the minutenefs and pre-
jx. ament. cifion which they require.
One end which we have propofed in this treatife,
was not only to place the difeoveries of M. Rameau
in their moft conspicuous and advantageous light, but
even in particular refpedfsto render them more fimple.
—For inftance, befides the fundamental experiment
which we have mentioned above, that celebrated mu-
fician, to render the explication of fome particular
phenomena in mufic more acceffible, had recourfe to
another experiment; I mean that which fhows that a
fonorous body ftruek and put in vibration, forces its
X2th-and 17 th major in defeending to divide themfelves
and produce a tremulous found. The chief ufe which
M. Rameau made of this fecond experiment was to
inveftigate the origin of the minor mode, and to give
a fatisfaSory account of fome other rules eftablifhed
in harmony; and with refpeft to this in our firft edi¬
tion we have implicitly followed him : in this we
have found means to deduce from the firft experiment
alone the formation of the minor mode, and befides to
difengage that formation from all the queftions which
were foreign to it.
It is the fame cafe with fome other points (as the
3 See Sul. origin of the chord of the fub-dominant $, and the
dominant, explication of the feventh in fome peculiar refpetls),
upon which it is imagined that we have fimplified, and
perhaps in fome meafure extended, the principles of the
celebrated artift.
We have likewife banifhed from this edition, as
from the former, every confideration of geometrical,
arithmetical, and harmonical proportions and progref-
fions, which authors have endeavoured to find in the
mixture and protra&ion of tones produced by a fono¬
rous body; perfuaded as we are, that M. Rameau was
under no neceffity of paying the leaft regard to thefe
proportions, which we believe to be not only ufelefs,
but even, if we may venture to fay fo, fallacious when
applied to the theory of mufic. In fiiort, though the
relations produced by the odtave.the fifth,and the third,
&c. were quite different from what they are; though in
thefe chords we fiiould neither remark any progreflion
SIC. Elementi.
nor any law ; though they fhould be incommenfurable Prelim,
one with another ; the protrafted tone of a fono- Dl(coi'rfc,
rous body, and the multiplied founds which refult ' v '
from it, are a fufficient foundation for the whole har¬
monic fyftem.
But though this work is intended to explain the Theoretical
theory of mafic, and to reduce it to a fyftem more muficians
complete and more luminous than has hitherto been cannoned
done, we ought to caution thofe who fhall read this^1^^1^
treatife, that they may be careful not to deceive million of
themfelves, either by mifapprehending the nature ofmathenuti-
our objeif, or the end which our endeavours purfue. or me*
We mullnot here lookfor that ftn'king evidence which
is peculiar to geometrical difeoveries alone, and whichfnmuad*
can be fo rarely obtained in thefe mixed difquifitions,
where natural philofophy is likewife concerned ; into
the theory of mufical phenomena there muft always en¬
ter a particular kind of metaphylics, which thefe phe¬
nomena implicitly take for granted, and which brings
along with it its natural obfeurity. In this fubjett,
therefore, it would be abfurd to expedl what is called
demonjlration: it is an atchievement of no fmall im¬
portance. to have reduced the principal fails to a fy¬
ftem confiftent with itfelf, and firmly conneiled in its
parts; to have deduced them from one fimple experi¬
ment ; and to have eftabliffied upon this foundation the
moft common and effential rules of the mufical art. But
in another view, if here it be improper to require that
intimate and unalterable conviction which can only
be produced by the ftrongeft evidence, we remain in
the mean time doubtful whether it is poffible to elu¬
cidate this fubjeit more flrongly.
After this declaration, one ihould not be aftoniffi-
ed, that, amongft the fadts which are deduced from our
fundamental experiment, there ffiould be fome which
appear immediately to depend npon that experiment,
,and others which are deduced from it in a way more
remote and lefs diredb. In difquifitions of natural phi¬
lofophy, where we arc fcarcely aUowed to ufe any
other arguments, except fuch as anfe from analogy or
congruity, it is natural that the analogy ffiould be
fometimes more fometimes, lefs fenfible : and we will
venture to affert, that fuch a mind muft be very impro¬
per for philofophy, which cannot recognife and di-
ftinguiflr this gradation and the different circumftances
on which it proceeds. It is not even furprifing, that in a
fubjedl where analogy alone can take place, this conduc-'
trefs ffiould defert us all at once in our attempts to ac¬
count for certain phenomena. This likewife happens
in the fubjedl which we now treat; nor do we conceal
the fadl, however mortifying, that there are certain
points (though their number be but fmall) which ap¬
pear ftill in fome degree unaccountable from our prin¬
ciple. Such, for inftance, is the procedure of the
diatonic fcale in defeending; the formation of the chord
commonly termed the Jixth redundant * or Juperjluous, * See Ar¬
an d fome other fadts of lefs importance, for which ^dundanto
yet we can fcarcely offer any fatisfadlory account ex¬
cept from experirtice alone.
Thus, though the greateft number of the pheno-
mena in the art of malic appear to be deducible in a
fimple and eafy manner from the protradled tone of
fonorous bodies, one ought not perhaps with too much
temerity to affirm as yet, that this mixed and protrac¬
ted tone is demonjlratively the only original principle
6 of
Elements. M U
Prelim, of harmony (d). But in the mean time it would not
Pifcourfe. be iefs unjufi to rejeft this principle, becaufe certain
' ^ ' phenomena appear to be deduced from it with lefs fuc-
Rameau’s cefs than others. It is only neceffary to conclude from
primary this, either that by future fcrutinieS means may be
experi- faund for reducing thefe phenomena to this principle;
noTas^et or that harmony has perhaps feme other unknown prin-
accounted ciple, more general than that which refuits from the
for ail the protracted and compounded tone of fonorous bodies,
phenome- an(j 0f which this is only a branch; or, laftly, that we
fie ^Per- ought not perhaps to attempt the reduction of the
haps fome whole fcience of mufic to one and the fame principle ;
other may which, however, is the natural effeft of an impatience
he necef- f0 frequent even among philofophers themfelves, which
fary‘ induces them to take a part for the whole, and to
judge of objefts in their full extent by the greateft
number of their appearances.
In thofe fciences which are called phyf.co^mathemati-
cal (and amongft this number perhaps the fcience of
founds may be placed), there are fome phenomena
which depend only upon one Angle principle and one
Angle experiment: there are others which neceflarily
fuppofe a greater number both of experiments and
principles, whofe combination is indifpenfable in form¬
ing an exaCt and complete fyftem; and muAc perhaps
* is in this laft cafe. It is for this reafon, that, whilft
SIC. 503
we beftow on M. Rameau all due praife, we fhould Prelim,
not at the fame time negleCt to ftimulate the learned ,Dlfc°urfe-.
in their endeavours to carry them ftill to higher de- " ~v
grees of perfection, by adding, if it is poflxble, fuch
improvements as may be wanting to confummate the
fcience.
Whatever the refult of their efforts may be, the re¬
putation of this intelligent artift has nothing to fear;
he will ftill have the advantage of being the ftrft who
rendered muAc a fcience worthy of philofophical atten¬
tion ; to have made its praftice more Ample and eafy;
and to have taught muAcians to employ in this fubjeCt
the light of reafon and analogy.
We would the more willingly perfuade thofe who
are (killed in theory and eminent in pra&ice to extend
and improve the views of him who before them pur-
fued and pointed out the career, becaufe many amongft
them have already made laudable attempts, and have
even been in fome meafure fuccefsful in diffufing new
light through the theory of this enchanting art. ItTaruniV
was with this view that the celebrated Tartini has pre-exPeri-
fented us in 1754 with a treatife of harmony, founded ment*
on a principle different from that of M. Rameau. This
principle is the refult of a moft beautiful experi¬
ment (f). If at once two different founds are produ¬
ced from two inftruments of the fame kind, thefe two-
founds
(d) The demonjlration of the principles of harmony by M. Rameau was not thus intitled in the expoAtion
which he prefented in the year 1749 to the Academy of Sciences, and which that Society beAdes approved
with all the eulogiums which the author deferved; the title, as inferted in the ■regifter of the academy, was,
“ A memorial, in which are explained the foundations of a fyftem of muAc theoretical and practical.” It is
likewife under this title that it was announced and approved of by the Commiflioners, who in their printed
report, whiejh the public may read along with M. Rameau’s memorial, have never dignifted his theory with
any other name than that of &fyjlem, the only name in reality which is expreflive of its nature. M. Rameau,,
who, after the approbation of the Academy, has thought himfelf at liberty to adorn his fyftem with the name
of a demonjlration) did not certainly recolleCt what the Academy has frequently declared ; that, in approving
any work, it was by no means implied, that the principles of that work appeared to them demonftrated. In
fhort, M. Rameau himfelf, in fome writings pofterior to what he calls his demonjlration, acknowledges, that
upon particular points in the theory of the muAcal art, he is under a.neceffity of having recourfe to analogy
and aptitude; this excludes every idea of demonftration, and reftores the theory of the muftcal art exhi¬
bited by M. Rameau to the clafs in which it can only be ranked with propriety, I mean the clafs of proba¬
bilities.
(f) Had the utility of the preliminary difeourfe in which we are now engaged been lefs important and ob¬
vious than it really is, we fhould not-have given ouyfelves the trouble of tranflating, nor our readers that of
peruftng it. But it muft; be evident to every one, that the cautions here given, and the advices offered, are no>
lefs applicable to ftudents than to authors. The-ftrft queft'ion here decided is, Whether pure mathematics;
can be fuccefsfully applied to the theory of muAc ? The author is juftly of a contrary opinion. It may cer¬
tainly be doubted with great juftice, whether the folid contents pf fonorous bodies, and their degrees of cohe-
Gon or elafticity, can be afeertained with fufftcient accuracy to render them the fuhje£ts of muftcal fpeculation,.
and to determine their effe&s with fuch precifton as may render the concluftons deduced from them geometri¬
cally true. It is admitted, that found is a fecondary quality of matter, and that fecondary qualities have no
obvious connexion which we can trace with the fenfations produced by them. Experience, therefore, and not
fpeculation, is the grand criterion of muAcal phenomena. For the effefts of geometry in illuftrating the
theory of muAc (if any will ftill be fo credulous as to pay them much attention), the Englifh reader may con-
fult Smith’s Harmonics, Malcom’s Djffertation on MuAc, and Pleydel’s Treatife on the'fame fubjetft inferted
in a former edition of this work. Our author next treats of the famous difeovery made by Sig. Tartini, of
which the reader may accept the following compendious account.
If two founds be produced at the fame time properly tuned and with due force, from their conjun&ion a
third found is generated, fo much more diftinftly to be perceived by delicate ears as the relation between the
generating founds is more Ample ; yet from this rule we muft except the unifon and oftave. From the ftfth
is produced a found unifon with its loweft generator; from the fourth, one which is an o&ave lower than the
higheft of its generators; from the third major, one which is an octave lower than its knveft ; and from the
fixth.
;5C4 ' M V
Pre’im. fotinis generate* a third different from both the
P fcourfe. others. They haveinferted in the Encyclopedic, under
* s7e Gene t^le srt*c^e Fundamental, a detail of this experiment ao
mte. cording to M. Tartini ; and we owe to the public an
g7 information of which in compofing this article we were
I’sdifco- ignorant: M. Rameau, a member of the Royal Socie-
very origi- ty at Montpellier, had prefented to that fociety in the
nally due year before the work of M. Tartini had appear-
to Rimeau. ^ a meniorjai prJnted the fame year, and where may
be found the fame experiment displayed at full length.
In relating this fafk, which it was neceffary for us to
do, it is by no means our intention to detract in any
•degree from the reputation of M. Tartini; we are
perfuaded that he owes this difeovery to his own re-
fearches alone : but we think ourfelves obliged in ho¬
nour to give public teflimony in favour of him who
was the tirft in exhibiting this difeovery.
But whatever be the cafe, it is in this experiment
that M. Tartini attempts to find the origin of har¬
mony : his book, however, is written in a manner fo
obfeure, that it is imppfiible for us to form any judge¬
ment of it; and we are told that others diflinguifhed
for their knowledge of the feience are of the fame opi¬
nion. It were to be wilhed that the author would
engage fome man of letters, equally pra&ifed in mufic
and fkilled in the art of writing, to unfold thefe ideas
which he has not difeovered with fufficient perfpicuity,
and from whence the art might perhaps derive conli-
derable advantage if they were rplaced in a proper
light. Of this I am fo much the more perfuaded, that
even though this experiment (hould not be regarded by
others in the fame view with M. Tartini as the foun¬
dation of the mufical art, it is neverthelefs extremely
probable that one might ufe it with the greateil ad¬
vantage to enlighten and facilitate the practice of har¬
mony. '
In exhorting philofophers and art ills to make new
attempts for the advancement of the theory of mufic,
we ought at the fame time to let them know the dan¬
ger of miflaking what is the real end of their re-
fearches. Experience is the only foundation upon
which they can proceed ; it is alone by the obferva-
tion of fadls, by bringing them together in one view,
by ihowing their dependency upon one, if pofiible, or
at leaft upon a very fmall number of primary fadls,
N° 233.
S I C. Elements.
that they can reach the end to which they fo ardently Prelim-
afpire, the important end of eftablifhing an exatt D'f<:ourfc^
theory of mufic, where nothing is wanting, nothing ^
obfeure, but every thing difeovered in its full extent,
and in its proper light. The philofopher who is pro¬
perly enlightened, will not give himfelf the trouble
explain fuch fadls as are lefs eflential to his art, be-
caufe he can difeern thofe on which he ought to ex- 88
patiate for its proper illuftration. If one would efti- Mechan;c*l
mate them, according to their proper value, he will j^equats
only find it neceffary to call hig eyes upon the at-to thefitua-
tempts of natural philofophers who have difeovered don of mu-
the greateft flail in their feienee 5 to explain, for in-f,caI rhe*
fiance, the multiplicity of tones produced by fonorous n0inena*
bodies. Thefe fages, after having remarked (what is
by no means difficult to conclude) that the univerfal
vibration of a mufical firing is a mixture of feveral
partial vibrations, from thence iijfer, that a fonorous
body ought to produce a multiplicity of tones, as it
really does. But why fhould this multiplied found only
appear to contain three, and why thefe three prefer¬
able to others ? Some pretend that there are particles
in the air, which, by their different degrees of mag¬
nitude and texture, being naturally fufceptible of dif¬
ferent ofcillations, produce the multiplicity of found
in queftion. But what do we know of all this hypo¬
thetical dodlrine ? And though it fhould even be grant¬
ed, that there is fuch a diverfity of tenfion in thefe
aerial particles, how fhould this diverfity prevent them
from being all of them confounded in their vibrations
by the motions of a fonorous body? What then fhould
be the refult, when the vibrations arrive at our ears, f- See /*-
but a confufed and inappretiablep noife, where one appreiiabUi
could not difiinguifh any particular found? 89
If philofophical muficians ought not to lofe their MetaPtl.y®'*
time in fearching for mechanical explications of the
phenomena in mufic, explications which will always be adequate,
found vague and unfatisfaftory; much lefs is it their
province to exhauft their powers in vain attempts to
rife above their fpkere into a region ftill more remote
from the profpedi of their faculties, and to lofe them-
felves in a labyrinth of metaphyfical fpeciilations upon
the caufes of that pleafure which we feel from harmo¬
ny. In vain would they accumulate hypothefis on hy.
pothefis, to find a reafon why fome chords fhould pleafe
us
fixth minor (whofe higheft note forms an o&ave with the loweft in the third formerly mentioned) will be pro¬
duced a found lower by a double o&ave than the higheft of the leffer fixth ; from the third minor, one which
is double the diftance of a greater third from its loweft'; but from the fixth major (whofe higheft note makes
an oftave to the loweft in the third minor) will be produced a found only lower by double the quantity of a
greater third than the higheft ; from the fecond major, a found lower by a double odave than the loweft }
from a fecond minor, a found lower by triple the quantity ©f a third major than the higheft ; from the interval
of a diatonic or greater femitone, a found lower by a triple o&ave than the higheft ; from that of a minor or
chromatic femitone, a found lower by the quantity of a fifth four times multiplied than the loweft, &c. &c.
But that thefe mu fieri! phenomena may be tried by experiments proper to afeertain them, two hautboys tuned
with fcrupulous exadnefs muft be procured, whilft the muficians are placed at the diftance of fome paces one
from the other, and the hearers in the middle. The violin will likewife give the fame chords, but they will be
lefs diftin&ly perceived, and the experiment more fallacious, becaufe the vibrations of other ftrings may be flip-
poled to enter into it.
If our Englifh reader fliouldbe curious to examine thefe experimerfts and the dedudions made from them m
the theory of mufic, he w ill find them clearly explained and illuftrated in a treadle called Principles and Power
of Harmony, printed at London in the year 1771.
Elements,
MUSIC.
Prelim. ils morc than others. The futility of thefe fuppofiti-
^Difcourfo t;ous accounts muft be obvious to every one who has
* the leaft penetration. , Let us judge of the reft by the
moft probable which has till now been invented for
that purpofe. Some afcribe the different degrees of
pleafure which we feel from chords, to the more or
lefs frequent coincidence of vibrations; others to the
relations which thefe vibrations have among themfelves
as they ate more or lefs fimple. But why fhould this
coincidence of vibrations, that is to fay, their fimul-
taneous impulfe on the fame organs of fenfation, and
the accident of beginning frequently at the fame time,
prove fo great a fource of pleafure ? Upon what is
this gratuitous fuppofition founded ? And though one
fhould grant it, would it not follow from thence, that
the fame chord fhould fucceffively and rapidly affect
us with contrary fenfations, fince the vibrations are
alternately coincident and difcrepant ? On the other
hand, how fhould the ear be fo fenfible to the fimpli-
city of relations, whilft for the moft part thefe rela¬
tions are entirely unknown to him whofe organs are
notwithftanding fenfibly affetted with the charms of
agreeable mufic ? We may conceive without difficulty
Low the eye judges of relations; but how does the ear
form fimilar judgments? Befides, why fhould certain
chords which are extremely pleafmg in themfelves,
fuch as the fifth, lofe almoft nothing of the pleafure
which they give us, when they are altered, and of
confequence when the fimplicity of their relations are
deftroyed; whilft other chords, which are likewife ex¬
tremely agreeable, fuch as the third, become harfh al-
moft by the fmalleft alteration ; nay, whilft the moft
perfect and the moft agreeable of all chords, I mean
theodtave,cannot fuffer the moft inconfiderable change?
Vol. XII. Part II.
Let us in fincerity confefs our ignorance concerning
the genuine caufes of thefe effe<fts(f). The meta-
phyfical conjectures concerning the accouftic organs
are probably in the fame predicament with thofe
which are formed concerning the organs of vifion,
if one may fpeak fo, in which philofophers have
even till now made fuch inconfiderable progrefs, and
in all likelihood will not be furpaffed by their fuc-
ceffors.
Since the theory of mufic, even to thofe who con¬
fine themfelves within its limits, implies queftions from
which every wife mufician will abftain, with much
greater reafon fhould they avoid idle excurfions be¬
yond the boundaries of that theory, and endeavours to
inveftigate between mufic and the other fciences chi¬
merical relations which have no foundation in nature,
i he fingular opinions advanced upon this fubjeft by
fome even of the moft celebrated muficians, deferve
not to be refcued from oblivion, nor refuted; and
ought only.to be regarded as a new proof hoW far
men of genius may deviate from truth and tafte,
when they engage in fubjefts of which they are ig¬
norant.
The rules which we have attempted to eftablifh
concerning the track which every one ought to pur-
fue in the theory of the mufical art, may fuffice to
fhow our readers the end which we have propofed, and
which we have endeavoured to attain in this Work.
We have nothing to do here (for it is proper that we
repeat it), we have nothing to do with the mechanical
principles of protra&ed and harmonic tones produced
by fonorous bodies; principles which till now have
been explored in vain, and which perhaps may be
long explored with the fame fuccefs; we have ftill
3 S left
(f) We have as great an averfion as our author to the explication of mufical phenomerta from mechanical
principles ; yet we fear the following obfervations, deduced from irrefiftible and univerfal experience, evidently
fhow that the latter neceffarily depend on the former. It is, for inftance, univerfally allowed, that diffonances
grate and concords pleafe a mufical ear: It is likewife no lefs unanimoufly agreed, that in proportion as a
chord is perfeft, the pleafure is increafed; now the perfeftion of a chord confifts in the regularity and fre-
■quency of coincident ofcillations between two fonorous bodies impelled to vibrate : thus the third is a chord
lefs perfect than the fifth, and the fifth than the o&ave. Of all thefe confonances, therefore, the oftave is moft
pleafing to the ear ; the fifth next, and the third laft. In abfolute difcords, the vibrations are never coin¬
cident, and of confequence a perpetual pulfation or jarring is recognifed between the protraded founds, which
, exceedingly hurts the ear; but in proportion as the vibrations coincide, thofe pulfations are fuperfeded, and
a kindred formed betwixt the two continued founds, which delights even the corporeal fenfe : that relation
therefore, without recognifing the aptitude* which produce it, muft be the obvious caufe of the pleafure which
chords give to the ear. What we mean by coincident vibrations is, that while one fonorous body performs
a given number of vibrations, another performs a different number in the fame time; fo that the vibrations
of the quickeft muft fometimes be fimultaneous with thofe of the flbweft, as will plainly appear from the
following dedu&ion: Between the extremes of a third, the vibrations of the higheft are as 5 to 4 of the
loweff ; thofe of the fifth as 3 to 2 ; thofe of the odave as 2 to 1. Thus it is obvious, that in proportion to
the frequent coincidence of periodical vibrations, the compound fenfation is more agreeable to the ear. Now,
to inquire why that organ ftiould be rather pleafed with thefe than with the pulfation and tremulous motion
of encountering vibrations which can never coalefce, would be to alk why the touch is rather pleafed with
poliihed than rough furfaces ? or, why the eye is rather pleafed with the waving line of Hogarth than with
fturp angles and abrupt or irregular prominences ? No alteration of which any chord is fufceptible will hurt
'the ear unlefs it fliould violate or deftroy the regular and periodical coincidence of vibrations. When altera¬
tions can be made without this difagreeable effed, they form a pleafing diverfity; but ftill this fad corro¬
borates our argument, that in proportion as any chord is perfed, it is impatient of the fmalleft alteration,;
for this reafon, even in temperament, the odave endures no alteration at all, and the fifth as little-a;
poffibk, 'g
5©5 'MU
Prelim. lefs to do with the metaphyfudl canfes of thofe plea-
l>:fcourfe. ping fenfations which are impr^ffed on the mind by
v ' harmony ; caufes which are ftill lefs difcovered, and
which, according to all appearances, will remain latent
in perpetual obfcurity. We are alone concerned to
fhow how the chief and moll efltutial laws of harmony
may be deduced from one Angle experiment; and for
which, if we may fpeak fo, preceding artifts have been
under a neceffity of groping in the dark.
With an intention to render this work as generally
ufeful as poffible, I have endeavoured to adapt it to
the capacity even of thofe who are abfolutely unin-
11 rutted in mufic. To accomplilh this defign, it ap¬
peared necelfary to purfue the following plan.
Planofthe r^'° a fhort • introduftion, in which are
Jreatife. defined the technical terms molt frequently ufed in this
art; fuch as chord, harmony, key, third, fifth, oilavc, See.
Afterwards to enter into the theory of harmony,
which is explained according to M. Rameau, with all
poffible perfpicuity. This is the fubje£t of the Firfi
Part; which, as well as the introduction, prefuppofes
no other knowledge of mufic than that of the names
and powers of the fyllables, ut, re, mi,fa,fol, la,fi, or
C, I), E, F, G, A, B, which all the world knows (f).
The theory of harmony requires fome arithmetical
calculations, which are neceffary for comparing founds
one with another. Thefe calculations are very ffiort,
extremely fimple, and conducted in fuch a manner as
to be fenfibly comprehended by every one ; they de¬
mand no operation but what is clearly explained,
and which every fchool boy with the flighteft at¬
tention may perform. Yet, that even the trouble of
this may be fpared to fuch as are notdifpofed to take
it, I have not inferted thefe calculations in the body
of the treatife, but transferred them to the notes, which
the reader may omit, if he can fatisfy himfelf by
taking for granted the propofitions contained in the
work, which will be found proved in the notes.
Thefe calculations I have not endeavoured to mul¬
tiply ; I could even have wifhed to fupprefs them, if it
had been poffible : fo much did it appear to me to be
apprehended that my readers might be milled upon
this fubjeCt, and might either believe themfelvcs, or
at lead fufpeCt me of believing, all this arithmetic ne-
ceffary to. form an artift^ Calculations may in3eed
facilitate the underftanding of certain points in the
theory, as of the relations between the different notes
in the gammut and of the temperament ; but the cal¬
culations neceffary for treating of thefe points are fo
fimple, and, to fpeak more properly, of fo little im¬
portance, that nothing can require a kfs minute or
SIC.    Elements.
odentatious difplay. Do not let us imitate thofe mu- Prelim.'’
ficians who, believing themfelves geometers, or thofe Difcourt'e.
geometers who, believing themfelves muficians, fill' v
their writings with figures upon figures; imagining,
perhaps, that this apparatus is neceffary to the art.
The propenfity of adorning their works with a falfe
air of fcience, can only impofe upon credulity and ig¬
norance, and ferve no other purpofe but to render
their treatifes more obfeure and lefs indru&ive. In the
chara&er of a geometer, I think I have fome right to
proted here (if I may be permitted, to exprefs myfelf
in this manner) againd fuch ridiculous abufe of geo¬
metry in mufic.
This I may do with fo much more reafon, that in VTathema.
this fubjecd the foundations of thofe calculations arecon'
in fome manner hypothetical, and can never arife to at'-apllerable
degree-of certainty above hypothefis. The relationt, (enfible
of the odtave as i to 2, that of the fifth as 2 to 3,obje&s
that of the third major as 4 to 5, &c- are not perhaps w‘th.out
the genuine relations edablifhed in nature ; but onlycautl0n*
relations which approach them, and fuch as experience
can difeover. For are the refults of experience any
thing more but mere approaches to truth ?
But happily thefe approximated relations are fuffi*
cient, though they ffiould not be exa£Uy agreeable to
truth, for giving a fatisfa&ory account of thofe phe¬
nomena which depend on the relations of found; as
in the difference between the notes in the gammut, of
the alterations neceffary in the fifth and third, of
the different manner in which indruments are tuned,
and other fails of the fame kind. If the relations of
the oilave, of the fifth, and of the third, are not
exa&ly fuch as we have fuppofed them, at lead no
experiments can prove that they are not fo ; and fince
thefe relations are fignified by a fimple expreffion,
fince they are befides fufficient for all the purpofes of
theory, it would not only be ufelefs, but even con¬
trary to found philofophy, fhould any one incline to
invent other relations, to form the bafis of any fydem
of mufic lefs eafy and fimple than that which we
have delineated in this treatife.
The fecond part contains the mod effential rules
of compofition *, or in other words the prailice of* See Cm
harmony. Thefe rules are founded on the principles*'^'0”*
laid down in the firfi part; yet thofe who with to
underhand no more than is neceffary for pra&ice,
without exploring the reafons why fuch practical
rules are neceffary, may limit the obje&s of their
dudy to the introdu8\on and the fecond part. They
who have read the firfi part, will find at every rule
contained in the fecond, a reference to that paffage in-
the
(f) The names of the feven notes ufed by the French are here retained, and will indeed be continued
through the whole enfuing work; as we imagine, that, if properly affociated with the founds which they de¬
nominate, they will tend to imprefs thefe founds more didimSily on the memory of the fcholar than the letters.
C, D, E, F, G, A, B, from which characters, except in fol-fa’ing, the notes in the diatonic feries are gene¬
rally named in Britain. Amongd hs, in the progrefs of intonation, the fyllables ut, re, and fi, have been
omitted; by which means the teachers of church-mufie have rendered it dill more difficult to exprefs by the
four remaining denominations the various changes of the femitones in the.oftave.- As thefe artificially change
their places, the feven fyllables above mentioned alfo diverfify their powers, and are varipufly arranged accord¬
ing to the intervals in which the notes they are intended to fignify may be placed.
For an. account of thefe variations, fee Rouffeau’s Mufical Di&ionary, article Gamme. See alfo the.Eflay*.
towards a Rational Sydem of Mufic, by John Holden, part i. chap. 1.
2
Elements* t M U
Prelim. \h.eji>jl where the reafon§ for eftabiHiring that rule are
iriicourfe. g|ven>
'' That we may not prefent at once too great a num-
Sori.e rules, ber of objetfts and precepts, I have transferred to the
un account notes in the fecond part feveral rules and obfervations
cf their which are lefs frequently put in praftice, which per-
ti'ansferred ^aPs lt ma)r be proper to omit till the treatife is read
to the nptes. a fecond time, when the reader is well acquainted
with the - effential and fundamental rules explained
in it.
This fecond part, ftriftly fpeaking, prefuppofes, no
more than the firft, any habit of fittging, nor even
any knowledge of mufic ; it only requires that one
(hould know, not even the rules and manner of in¬
tonation, but merely the pohtion of the notes in the
cleft fa or F on the fourth line, and that oifolor Q upon
the fecond : and even this knowledge maybe acquired
from the work itfelf; for in the beginning of the fe¬
cond part I explain the politions of the cleffs and
pf the notes. Nothing elfe is-neceflaty but to render
it a little familiar to our memory, and we (hall have no
more difficulty in it.
It would be wrong to expeft here all the rules of
All fhe compolition, and cfpecially thofe which direft the
rules of compolition of mufic in feveral parts, and which, being
tion noVto ^ fevere and indifpenfable, may be chiefly acquired
be expected by pra&ice, by ftudying the moft approved models,
in an ek-, by the affiftance of a proper mailer, but above all by
tnentary the cultivation of the ear and of the taile. This t-rea-
* life is properly nothing elfe, if T may be allowed the
expreflion, but the rudiments of mufic, intended for
explaining to beginners the fundamental principles,
not the pradlical detail of compofition. Thofe who
wiih to enter more deeply into this detail, will either
find it in Mr Rameau’s treatife of harmony, or in the
code of mufic which he publifhed more lately (i), or
daftly in the explication of the theory and practice qf
mufic by M. Bethizi (k) : this laft book appears to
me clear and methodical.
One may look upon it (with refpeft to a pra&ical
detail) as a fupplement to my own performance. I
do this juftice to the author with.^o much more cheer-
fulnefs, as he is entirely unknown to me, and as his
animadveifions upon my work appear to me lefs fevere
than it defeived (n).
94 Is it neceflary to add, that, in order to compofe
effential1*16 mu^ic ’n a ProPer tafte, it is by no means enough to
miftrefs of ^ave farn'barized with much application the principles
mufical explained in this treatife i Here can only be learned
the mechanifm of the art; it is the province of nature
alone to accomplifh the reft. Without her affiftance, it
is no more poffible to compofe agreeable mufic by
having read thefe elements, than to write verfes in a
proper manner with the Dictionary of Richelet In
one word, it is the elements of mufic alone, and not
the principles of genius, that the reader may expeCt to
find in this treatife.
mufical
compofi-
tiou.
S 1 C. 507
Such was the aim ! purfuCd in its edftjpofition, and definitions,
fuck fliould be the ideas of the reader in its perufal.
Once more let me add, that to the difeovery of its
fundamental principles 1 have not the remoteft claim.
The foie end which I propofed was to be ufeful; to
reach that end/*! have omitted nothing which appear¬
ed necefiary, and I fhouitl be forty to* find my endea¬
vours unfuccefsful.
DEFINITIONS OF SEVERAL TECHNICAL
TERMS.
T. What is meant by Melody, by Chord, by Harmony,
bit Interval,
. .9*
1. Melody is nothing elfe hut a feries of founds Melody,
which fucceed one to another in a manner agreeable w!m-
to the ear. 96
2. That is called a chord which arifes from the Chord and
mixture of feveral founds heard at the fame time'; andlia^
harmony is properly a feries of chords which in their
fucceffion one to another delights the ear. A fingle
chord is likewife fometimes called harmony, to fignify
the coalefcence of founds which that chord creates,
and the fenfatian produced in the ear by that coale-
fcence. We (hall ocCafionaliy ufe the word harmony
in this laft fenfe, but in fuch a manner as never to leave
our meaning ambiguous.
3. In melody and harmony, the diftance between
one found and another is called an interval; and this is yni,yA
increafed or diminifhed as the founds between which vi/.
it intervenes are higher or lower one than the other.
4. That we may learn to diftinguifh the intervals,
and the manner of perceiving them, let us take the
,. r , lit, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT, . . ,
ordinary lealc q j? F G A C which
every perfon whofe ear or voice is not extremely falfe
naturally modulates. Thefe are the obfervations which
will occur to us in finging this gammut. ^
The found re is higher or (harper than the found Amount of
ut, the found mi higher than the found:/r, the found'he Ample
fa higher than the found mi, &c. and fo through theinterva^“
whole oNave; fo that the interval or the diftanee
from the found ut to the found re, is lefs than the
interval or diftance between the found ut and the
found mi, the interval from ut to mi is lefs than that
between ut and fa, &c. and in fhont that the interval
from the firft to the fecond ut is the greateft of all.—
To -diftinguilh the firft from the fecond ut, I have
marked the laft with capital letters. g
5. In general, the interval between two founds isThcdi-
proportionably greater, as one of thefe founds isTiktion
higher or lower with relation to the other : but it is|(,-tween
neeefiary to obferve, that two founds may be equally f3
high or low, though unequal in their force. The acute and
firing of a violin touched with a bow produces always grave,
a found equally high, whether ftrongly or faintly
ftruck ; the found will only have a greater or left'er
degree of ftrength. It is the fame with vocal modu-
3 S 2 lation 5
(1) From my geneial recommendation of this code, I except the reflections on the principles of found
which are at the end, and which I Ihould not advife any one to read.
( k ) Printed at Paris by Lambert in the year i 754.
(4.) That criticifm and my anfwers may be feen in the Joumeaux Economiques of 1752,
* See the f ■
sure mark¬
ed A.
f- See Inter¬
val.
M U
lation ; let any one form a found by gradually impell¬
ing or fwelling the voice, the found may be perceived
to increafe in its energy, whilit it continues always
equally low or equally high.
6. We muft like wife obferve concerning the fcale,
that the intervals between ut and re, between re and
mi, between fa and fol, between fol and la, between la
and ft, are equal, or at leaft nearly equal; and that
the intervals between mi and fa, and between ft and ut,
are likewife equal among themfelves, but confift almoft
only of half the former. This fadl is known and re-
cognifed by every one : the reafon for it fhall be gi¬
ven in the fequel; in the mean time every one may af-
certain its reality by the afiiftance of an experiment (a).
7. It is for this reafon that they have called the in¬
terval from mi to fa, and from ft to ut, a femitone ;
■whereas thofe between ut and re, re and mi, fa and fol,
fol and la, la and f, are tones.
The lone is likewife called afccond major*, and the
'femitone a fecond minor f.
8. To defcend or rife diatonically, is to defcend or
rife from one found lo another by the interval of a
tone or of a femitone, or in general by feconds, whe¬
ther major or minor; as from re to ut, or from ut to re,
from fa to mi, or from mi to fa.
SIC. Elements.
II. The Terms by which the different Intervals of the Pe^ntt*onsi*
Gammut are denominated.
9. An interval compofed of a tone and a femitone,
as from mi to fol, from la to ut, or from re to fa, is nor what,
called a third minor. ’ie[
An interval compofed of two full tones, as from Third ma-
to mi, from fa to la, or from fol to f, is called a thirds*> what.
major.
An interval compofed of two tones and a femitone, Fourth
as from ut to fa, or from fol to ut, is called a fourth. what.
An interval confiding of three full tones, as from .303
fa to ft, is called a triton or fourth redundant. what”’
An interval confiding of three'tones and a femitone," ^04
as from ut to fol, from /a to ut, from re to/a, or from Fifth, what.
mi toft, &c. is called a fifth. j
An interval compofed of three tones and two femi-Sixth mi.
tones, as from mi to ut, is called a fixth minor. nor, what.
An interval compofed of four tones and a femitone, . Ic6
as from ut to la, is called a fixth major. "or ^hat"
An interval confiding of four tones and two femi- ’jo?
tones, as from re to ut, is called a feventh minor. Seventh mi.
An interval compofed of five tones and a femitone, nor» what,
as from ut to fit, is called a feventh major. Seveatb
major.
And what.
(a) This experiment may be eafily tried. Let any one fing the fcale of *£ "q’ it
will be immediately obferved without difficulty, that the lad four notes of the odtave are quite
fimilar to the fird ut, re, mi, fa ; infomuch, that if, after having fung this fcale, one would choofe to repeat
it, beginning with ut in the fame tone which was occupied by fol in the former fcale, the note re of the lad;
fcale would nave the fame found with the note la in the fird, the mi with the fi, and the fa with the ut.
From whence it follows, that the interval between ut and re, is the fame as betweeny©/ and la } between re
and mi, as between la and fi; and mi and fa, as between fi and ut.
It will likewife be found, that from re to mi, from fa to fol, there is the fame interval as from ut to re. To
be convinced of this, we need only fing the fcale once more; then fing it again, beginning with ut, in this-
lad fcale, in the fame tone which was given tore in the fird ; and it will be perceived, that the rein the fecond
fcale will have the fame found, at lead as far as the ear can difcover, with the mi in the former fcale ; from
whence it follows, that the difference between re and mi is, at lead as far as the ear can perceive, equal to that
between ut and re. It will alfo be found, that the interval between fa and fol is, fo far as our fenfe can deter¬
mine, the fame with that between ut and re.
This experiment may perhaps be tried with fome difficulty by thofe who are not inured to form the notes-
and change the key ; but fuch may very eafily perform it by the affidance of a harpfiehord, by means of which
the performer will be faved the trouble of retaining the founds in one intonation whild he performs another.
In touching upon this harpfichord the keys fol, la, fi, ut, and in performing with the voice at the fame time
ut, re, mi, fa, in fuch a manner that the fame found may be given to ut in the voice with that of the key fol
in the harpfichord, it will be found that re in the vocal intonation lhall be the fame with la upon the harpfi¬
chord, &c.
It will be found likewife by the fame harpfichord, that if one fliould fing the fcale beginning with ut in the
fame tone with mi on the indrument, the re which ought to have followed ut, will be higher by an extremely
perceptible degree than the fa which follows mi: thus it may be concluded, that the interval between mi and
fa.is lefs than between ut and re ; and if one would rife from fa to another found which is at the fame dif-
tance from fa zs fa from mi, he would find in the fame manner, that, the interval from mi to this new found
is almod the fame as that between ut and re. The interval then from mi to fa is nearly half of that betweea^
ut and re.
Since then, in the fcale thus divided, ■/?»
fol la, fi, Ut,
the fiid divifion is perfectly like the lad; and fince the intervals between ut and re, between re and ml, and
betweenjfa and_/o/, are equal; it follows, that the intervals between fol and la, and between la and fi, are likewife?
equal to every one of the three intervals between ut and re, between re mi, and between fa and fol; and
that the intervals between mi and fa and between fi and ut are alfo equal, but that they only conftitute mis
half of the others.
Elements. M U
Definitions. And in fhort, an interval confifting of five tones and
—   two femitones, as from ut to UT, is called an oSlave.
O(Stave ^ ?reat raany °f tl16 intervals which have now been
what. ' mentioned, are ftill fignified by other names, as may¬
be feen in the beginning of the fecond part; but thofe
which we have now given are the moft common, and
the only terms which our prefent purpofe demands.
to. Two founds equally high, or equally low, how-
ttnifon ever uriecluai in their force, are fald to be in unifon one
what. ' with the other.
11. If two founds form between them any interval,
whatever it be, we fay, that the higheft when afeend-
ing is in that interval with relation to the loweft ; and
when defeending, we pronounce the loweft in the fame
- interval with, relation to the higheft. Thus in the third
minor m\> fol, where mi is the loweft and fol the higheft
found, fol is a third minor from mi afeetiding, and mi
is third minor from fol in defeending.
12. In the fame manner, if, fpeaking of two fbno-
rous bodies, we ftiould fay, that the one is a fifth above
the other in afeending ; this infers that the found given
by the one is at the diftance of a fifth afeending from
the found given.by the othef.
III. Of Intervals greater than the 0Slave.
Su fe B. r3‘ a^er hav'ng fung the fcale ut, re, mi, fa, foh
la, p, UT, one would carry this fcale ftill farther in
afeent, it would be difeovered without difficulty that
a new fcale would be formed, UT, RE, MI, FA, &c.
entirely fimilar to the former, and of which the founds
will be an o&ave afeending, each to its correfpondcnt
note in the former fcale: thus REj the fecond note of
the fecohd fcale, will be an oftave in afeent to the re
of the firft fcale ; in the fame manner MI ffiall be the
o&ave to mi, &c. and fo of the reft.
S I C. 509
14. As there are nine notes from the firft ut to the Definitions
fecond RE, the interval between thefe two founds is ' ''
called a ninth, and this ninth is compofed of fix fullNinth
tones and two femitones. For the fame reafon the in-what,
terval from ut to FA is called an eleventh, and the in¬
terval between ut and SOL, a twelfth, &c. ri*
It is plain that the ninth is the oftave of the fecond, and^g[ft^
the eleventh of the fourth, and the twelfth of thewha(:
fifth, &c.
The oftave above the oftave of any found is called ^ See jnUra
a double oSlave $ ; the oftave of the double oftave is Xal and
called a tnp/e oSlave, and fo of the reft. Double 0.-«~
The double o&ave is likewife called & fifteenth ; and tavc‘
for the fame reafon the double oftave of the third is
called a feventeenth, the double o&ave of the fifth a
nineteenth, See. (b).
IV. What is meant ly Sharps and Flats.
15. It is plain that one may imagine the five tones tI3
which enter into the feale, as divided each into two fla^rf^af
femitohes ; thus one may advance from ut to re, form. §ee ’interr¬
ing in his progrefs an intermediate found, which lhallW.
be higher by a femitone than ut, and lower in the fame
degree than re. A found in the fcale is called Jharp,
when it is railed by a femitone ; .and it is marked with
this chara£ter$ : thus ut % fignifies ut Jharp, that is to
fay, ut raifed by a femitone above ita pitch in the natu¬
ral fcale. A found in the fcale depreffed by a femitone
is called flat, and is marked thus, j?: thus la b fignifies
la flat, or la deprefted by a femitone.
V. What is meant by Confonances and Dijfonances.
16. A chord compofed of founds whofe union orconfo^
coalefcence pleafes the ear is called a confonance ; and nance,
the founds which form this chord are faid to be confo- what-
nantSce CW-
(b) Let us fuppofe two vocal ftrrngs formed of the fame matter, of the fame thicknefs, and equal in their,
tenfion, but unequal in their length, it will be found by experience.
1/, That if the fhorteft is equal to half the longeft, the found which it will produce muft be an oftave above
the found produced by the longeft.
2dly, That if the ffiarteft conftitutes a third part of the longeft,. the found which it produces muft be a
twelfth above the found produced by the longeft.
■idly. That if it conftitutes the fifth part, its found will be a feventeenth above.
Befides, it is a truth demonftrated and generally admitted, that in proportion as one mufical firing is lefs
than another, the vibrations of the leaft will be more frequent (that is to fay, its departures and returns through,,
the fame fpace) in the fame time ; for inftance, in an hour, a minute, a fecond, &e. in fuch a manner that;
one ftring which conftitutes a third part of another, forms three vibrations, whilft the largeft has only accom-
pliffied one. In the fame manner, a ftring which is one half lefs than another, performs two vibrations, whilft.
the other only completes one ; and a ftring which is only the fifth part of another, will perform five vibrations
in the fame time which is occupied by the other in one.
From thence it follows, that the found of a ftring is proportionally higher or lower, as the number of its
vibrations is greater or fmaller in a given time ; for inftance, in a fecond.
It is for that reafon, that if we reprefent any found whatever by 1, one may reprefent the odftave above by
2, that is to fay, by the number of vibrations formed by the ftring which produces the oiftave, whilft the
longeft ftring only vibrates once ; in the fame manner we may reprefent the twelfth above the found 1 by 3,
the feventeenth major above 5, &c. But it is very neceffary to remark, that by thefe numerical expreffions,
we do not pretend to compare founds as fuch ; for founds in themfelves are nothing but mere fenfations, and
it cannot be faid of any fenfation that it is double or triple to another: thus the expreffions I, 2, 3, &c. em*
ployed to denominate a found, its o&ave above, its twelfth above, &c. fignify only, that if a ftring performs
a certain number of vibrations, for jnftance, in a fecond, the ftring which is in the o&ave above ffiall double
the number in the fame time, the ftring which is in the twelfth above ffiall triple it, &c.
Thus to compare founds among themfelves is nothing elfe than to compare among themfelves the numbers
of vibrations which are formed in a given time by the firings that produce thefe founds*
5'IQ M V
Peftnit:flr». pant one with rt-htion to the other. The reafon of
ttiis denomination is, that a chord is found more pev-
fen, as the founds which form it coalefoe more clofely
amopg themfelves.
17. The ©Save of a found is the moft perfeifl of
confonances of which that found is fufceptible ; then
the fifth, afterwards the third, &c. This is a faff
founded on experiment.
JVfl’oiiincs, A number of founds fimultaoeoufly produced
what. ’whofe union is difpleafmg to the ear is ''called a diflb-
PartI. TPIEORY
Chap I. Preliminary and Fundamental Expe¬
riments.
Experiment I.
19.TT7 HEN a fonorous body is ft ruck till it gives
* ^ a found, the ear, befidcs the principal found
and its oftave, perceives two other founds very high,
of which one is the twelfth above the principal found,
that is to fay, the oftave to the fifth of that found;
* ^ Elements*
nance, and the found® which form it ar« fir'd to be dif- v-ftniKn^.
fonant one with relation to the other. The fecond, ^ v—^
the triton, and the fevt nth of a found, are diffonants Te Di/.
with relation to it- Thus the founds tit rc, ut ft, orw«
fa ft, &c. fimultaneoufly heard, form a diffonance.
ri he reafon which rendeis diffonance difagreeahle, is,
that the founds which compofc it, feem by no meana
coalefcent to the tar, and are heard each of them by
itfelf as dilliridl founds, though produced at the fame
time. ^
of HARMONY.
and the other is the feventeenth major above the fame
found, that is to fay, the double o&ave of its third
major.
20. This experiment is peculiarly fenfible upon the
thick firings of the violoncello, of which the found
being extremely low, gives to an ear, though not very
much praitifed, an opportunity of diftinguifhing with
fufficient eafe andclearnefs the twelfth and feventeenth
now in quellion (c).
21. The principal found is called the generator * ;* See Gt- '
and ner4t<>r.
(c) Since the odlave above the found 1 is 2, the o&ave below that fame found fhajl be that is to fav,
■that the firing which produces this ofiave fhall have performed half its vibration, whilft the firing which pro¬
duces the found 1 (hall have completed one. To obtain therefore the oftave above any found, the*operator
muft multiply the quantity which exprefles the found by 2 ; and to obtain the oftave below, he mult* on the
contrary divide the fame quantity by 2.
It is for that reafon thf if any found whatever, for inftance ut, is denominated - t
Its odfave above will be ...... 2
Its double oftave above * - " - 4,
Jts triple o&ave above - - - . g
In the fame manner its oftave below will be - - -
Its double o£tave below - -.
Its triple odlave below - - - ^
And fo of the reft. A
Its twelfth above - - - - 3
Its twelfth below - » -
Jts 17th major above - " ~ 5
Its 17th major below - - . - -j-
The fifth then above the found’x being the oftave beneath the twelfth, (hall be, as we have immediately
obferved, 4-; which fignifies that this firing performs vibrations; that is to fay, one ^bration and a half
during a fingle vibration of the firing which gives the found 1.
To obtain the fourth above the found 1, we mufi take the twelfth below that found, and the double oftave
above that twelfth. In effeft, the twelfth below ut, for infiance, is fa, of which the double oftave fa is the
fourth above ut. Since then t}ie twelfth below 1 is -f, it follows that the double oftave above this twelfth, that
is to fay, the fourth from the found 1 in afeending, will be -f multiplied by 4, or y.
In (hort, the third major being nothing tlfe but the double oifiave beneath the feventeenth, it follows, that
the third major above the found 1 will be 5 divided by 4, or in other words y.
The third major of a found, ^for infiance the third major mi, from the found ut, and its fifth fol, form be¬
tween them a third minor mi, fol; now mi is and fol 4, by what has been immediately demonfirated : from
whence it follows, that the third minor, or the interval between mi and fal, fhall be exprefled by the relation
•of the fraftion £ to the fraftionT-
To determine this relation, it is neceflary to remark, that £ are the fame thing with ’■/, and that 4- are the
fame thing with : fo that £ fhall be to 4 in the fame relation as to y ; that is to fay, in the fame rela¬
tion as 10 to 12, or as 5 to 6. If, then, two founds form between themfelves a third minor, and that the
firft is reprefented by 5, the fecond fhall be exprdfed by 6 ; or, what is the fame thing, if the firft is repre-
fented by 1, the fecund fhall be exprefled by f.
Thus
S 1 G. 53t
low for our voice 5 if we wi(h to join in finging this Theory of
air, we naturally take the oftave below or above, and *rmo/i},
frequently, in taking this odtave, we imagine it to be
the unifon (d).
Chap. II. The Origin of the Modes Major and ,
Minor ; 'of the moft natural Modulation, and the
mojl perfect Harmony.
To render our ideas ftill more precife and Per* *
maneqt, we {hall call the tone produced by the fono- mental and
rous body ut: it is evident, by the firft experiment, harmonics,,
that this found is always attended by its 12th and 17th w!lat,
major ; that is to fay, with the oftjive offol, and the
double odtave of mi.
24. This odtave of fol then, and this double odtave
of mi, produce the moft perfedt chord which can be
joined with ut, fince that chord is the work and choice
of nature (e). ng
25. For the fame reafon, the modulation formed by Ha-muny
ut with the odtave of fol and the double odtave of mi, tc*
fung one after the other, would likewife be the moft fifths, and
fimple and natural of all modulations which do not de-0£taVes.
fcend or afcend diredtly in the diatonic order, if our
voices had fufficient compafs to form intervals fo great
without difficulty: but the eafe and freedom with
which
Thus the third minor, an harmonic found which is even found in the protradted and coalefcent tones of a
• fbnorous body between the found mi and/c/, an harmonic of the principal found, may be expreffed by the
fradlion -®..
N. B. One may fee by this example, that in order to compare two founds one with another which are ex¬
preffed by fradtions, it is neceffary firft to multiply the numerator of the fradlion which expreffes the firft by
the denominator of the fradtion which expreffes the fecond, which will give a primary number ; as here the
numerator 5 of the fradlion multiplied by 2 of the fradlion. 4, has given 10. Afterwards may be-multiplied
the numerator of the fecond fradlion by the denominator of the firft, which will give a fecondary number, as
here 12 is the produdt of 4 multiplied by 3 ; and the relation between thefe two numbers (which in the pre¬
ceding example are 10 and 12), will exprefs the relation between thefe founds, or, what is the fame thing,
the interval which there is between the one and the Other ; in fuch a manner, that the farther the relation be¬
tween thefe founds departs from unity, the greater the interval will be.
Such is the manner in which we may compare two founds one with another whofe numerical value is known.
^ We ftiall now (how the manner how the numerical expreffion of a found may be obtained, when the relation
which it ought to have with another found is known whofe numerical expreffion is given.
Let us fuppofe, for example, that the third major of the fifth ± is fought. That third major ought to be,
by what has been ftiown above, the of the fifth ; for the third major of any found whatever is the f of that
found. We muft then look for a frad&ion which expreffes the £ of ■£ ; which is done by multiplying the nume¬
rators and denominators of both fradlions one by the other, from whence refults the new fradlron IJ. It will
likewife be found that the fifth of the fifth is f,. becaufe the fifth of the fifth is the 4- of 4.
Thus far we have only treated of fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor, in afeending; now it is extremely
eafy to find by the fame rules the fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor in defeending. For fuppofe ut equa!
to 1, we have feen that its fifth, its fourth, its third, its major and minor in afeending, are 4, 4, f. To
find its fifth, its fourth, its third, its major and minor in defeending, nothing more is neceffary than to reverfe
thefe fradlions, which will give y, ,-4,
(d) It is not then imagined that we change the value of a found in multiplying or dividing it by 2, by 4,
or by 8, &c, the number which expreffes thefe founds, fince by thefe operations we do nothing but take the
fimple, double, or triple odlave, &c. of the found in queftion, and that a found coalefces with its o&ave.
(e) The chord formed with the twelfth and feventeenth major united with the principal found, being
exactly conformed to that which is produced by nature, is likewife for that reafon the moft agreeable of all;
efpecially when the compofer can proportion the voices and inftruments together in a proper manner to give
this chord its full effea. M. Rameau has executed this with the greateft fuceefs m the opera of Pygmalion,
page 34. where Pygmalion fings with the chorus, V amour triomphe, &c.: in this paffage of the chorus, the
two parts of the vocal and inftrumental baffes give the principal found and its oftave ; the firft part above, or
tieble, and that of the counter-tenor, produce the feventeenth major, and its o&ave, in defeending ; and ia
ffiort, the fecond part, or. tenor above, gives the twelfth.,
Part I. M U
Theory of and the two other founds which it produces, and with
Harmony. w},ich it is accompanied, are, inclufive of its o&ate,
' called its harmonics js.
Geu,,erator’ Experiment II.
what.
§ See Har- 22- There is no perfon infenfible of the refemblance
w<Wf' which fubfifts between any found and its o&ave, whe¬
ther above or below. Thefe two founds* when heard
together, almoft entirely coalefce in the organ of fen-
fation. We may befides be convinced (by two fa&s
which are extremely fimple) of the facility with which
one of thefe founds may be taken for the other.
Let it be fuppofed that any perfon has an inclina¬
tion to fing a tune, and having at firil begun this air
upon a pitch too high or too low for his voice, fothat
he is obliged, left he fhould ftrain himfelf too much,
to fing the tune in queftion on a key higher or lower
than the firft ; I affirm, that, without being initiated
in the art of mufic, he will naturally take his new key
in the-o&ave below or the o&ave above the firft; and
that in order to take this key in any other interval ex¬
cept the o&ave, he will find it peceffary to exert a fen-
fible degree of attention. This is.a fa& of which we
may eallly be perfuaded by experience.
Another fa&. Let any perfon fing a tune in our
prefence, and let it be fung in a tone too high or too
512 M U S
Theory of which we can fubilltute its oftave to any found, when
Harmony,^ jt jg more convenient for the voice, afford us the means
of reprefenting this modulation.
Mode^na- ^ *s on account that, after having fung
jor, what, the tone ut, we naturally modulate the third mi, and
the fifth fol, inftead of the double oftave of mi, and
the oftave of fol; from whence we form, by joining
the oftave of the found ut, this modulation, ut, mi, fol,
ut, which in effeft is the fimpleft and eafieft of them all;
and which likewife has its origin even in the protrafted
and compounded tones produced by a fonorous body.
Set 27. The modulation ut, mi, fol, ut, in which the
See chord ut, mi, is a third major, conftitutes that kind
Interval harmony or melody which we call the mode major ;
from whence it follows, that this mode refults from
I>0 the immediate operation of nature.
■Tvtode mi- the modulation ut, mi, fol, of which we
nor, what, have now been treating, the founds mi and fol are fo
proportioned one to the other, that the principal
found ut (art. 19.). caufes both of them to refound ;
but the fecond tone mi does not caufe fol to refound,
which only forms the interval of a third;minor.
29. Let us then imagine, that, inftead of this
found mi, one fhould fubftitute between the founds ut
andyi/another note which (as well as the found ut) has
the power of caufmg fol to refound, and which is,
however, different from the found ut ; the found which
we explore ought to be fuch, by art. 19. that it may
have for its .17th major fol, or one of the o&aves of
J'ol; of confequence the found which we feek ought
to be a 17 th major below fol, or, what is the fame
thing, a third major below the fame /o/. Now the
found mi being a third minor beneath fol, and the
third major being (art. 9.) greater by a femitane than
the third minor, it follows, that the found of which we
are in fearch fliall be a femitone beneath the natural
mi, and of confequence mi |?.
30. This new arrangement, ut, mi)},fol, in which
the founds ut and m/j? have both the power of caufing
fol to refound, though ut does not caufe mi b to re¬
found, is not indeed equally perfett with the firft ar¬
rangement ut, mi, fol; becaufe in this the two founds
mi and fol are both the one and tlje other generated
by the principal found ut; whereas, in the other, the
found mi b is not generated by the found ut; but this
arrangement ut, mi [?, fol, is likewife diftated by na¬
ture (art. 19.), though lefs immediately than the for-
N° 233.
I C. Parc I.
mer; and accordingly experience evinces that the ear Theory of
accommodates itfelf almoft as well to the latter as to Harn>ony.1
the former. " ^J
31. In this modulation or chord ut, mi]), fol, ut, Orunn of
it is evident that the third from ut to mi b is minor ;mode mi-
and fuch is the origin of that mode which we call11 r*
minor (v).
32. The mod perfect chords then are, 1. All chords alfo inter-
related one to another, as ut, mi, fol, ut, confifting W.
of any found of its third major, of its fifth, and of its irr
oftave. 2. All chords related one to another, as ut Perfeft
mi b, fol, ut, confiding of any found, of its third c,1°rd*»
minor, of its fifth, and of its oftave. In effeft, thefe W 4C'
two kinds of chords are exhibited by nature; but the
firft more immediately than the fecond. ^he firft are
called perfefi chordi major, the fecond perfeR chords
minor.
Chap. III. Of the Series •which the Fifth re¬
quires, and of the Laws which it ohferves.
33. Since the found ut caufes the found fol to beFunj*3
heard, and is itfelf heard in the found fa, which
foundsyo/ and/a are its two-twelfths, we may ima-what.
gine a modulation compofed of that found ut and its
two-twelfths, or, which is the fame thing (art.22.),
of its two-fifths, fa and fol, the one below, the other
above ; which gives the modulation or feries of fifths
fa, ut, fol, which I call the fundamental bafs of ut by
fifths.
We fliall find in the fequel (Chap. XVIII.), that
there may be fome fundamental bafes by thirds, de¬
duced from the two feventeenths, of which the nne is
an attendant of the principal found, and of which the
other includes that found. But we muft advance ftep
by ftep, and fatisfy ourfelves at pr&fent to confider im¬
mediately the fundamental bafe- by fifths.
34. Thus, from the found ut, one may make a
tranfition indifferently to the found fol, or to the
found fa.
35. One may, for the fame reafon, continue this
kind of fifths in afeending, and in defeending, from ut,
in this manner:
mi]).ft)),fa, ut,fol,'re, la, See.
And from this feries of fifths one may pafs to any
found which immediately precedes or follows it.
36. But it is not allowed in the fame manner to
pafs
(f) The origin which we have here given of the mode minor, is the moft fimple and natural that can
poflibly be given. In the firft edition of this treatife, I had followed M: Rameau in deducing it from the fol-
lowing experiment.—If you put in vibration a mufieal ftring AB, and if there are at the fame time contiguom 5
-*o this two other firings CF, LM, of which the firft ftiall be a twelfth below the ftring AB, and the fecond
LM a feventeenth major below the fame AB, the firings CF, LM, will vibrate without being ftruck as foon
as the ftring AB fhall give a found, and divide themfelves by a kind of undulation, the firft into three, the laft
into five equal parts; in fuch a manner, that, in the vibration of the ftring CF, you may eafily diftinguifti two
points at reft D, E, and in the tremulous motion of the ftring LM four acquiefcent points N, O, P, all
placed at equal diftances from each other, and dividing the firings into three or five equal parts. In this
experiment, fays M. Rameau, if we reprefent by ut the tone of the ftring AB, the two other firings will
•reprefent the founds fa and la b ; and from thence M. Rameau deduces the modulation yi?, la b, ut, and of
confequence the mode minor. The origin which we have affigned to the minor mode in this new edition,
appears to me more dire£l and more fimple, becaufe it prefuppofes no other experiment than that of art. 19.
and becaufe alfo the fundamental found ut is ftill retained in both the modes, without being obliged, as
JVL Rameau found himfclf, to change it into/a.
Part I. M U
Theory of pafs from one found to another which is not immedt-
Harmony. ately contiguous to it ; for inftance, from ut to re, or
v "" from re to ut: for this very fimple reafon, that the
found re is not contained in the found ut, nor the
to*the rule. found ut in that of re; and thus thefe founds have not
any alliance the one with the other, which may an*
115 thorife the tranfition from one to the other.
Two per- jy, And as thefe founds ut and re, by the firft ex-
infuccef- * Per‘ment> naturally bring along with them the perfeA
fion profcti- chords confiding of greater intervals ut, mi, fol, ut, re,
feed. faifc, la, re; hence may be deduced this rule, That
two perfeft chords, efpecially if they are major (g),
cannot fucceed one another diatonically in a funda¬
mental bafs; we mean, that in a fundamental bafs two
founds cannot be diatonically placed in fucceffion, each
of which, with its harmonics, forms a perfe& chord,
efpecially if this perfect chord be major in both.
Chap. IV. Of -Modes in general.
\l6
Mode in 38. A mode, in mufic, is nothing elfe but the order
general, 0f founds prefcrifeed, as well in harmony as melody,
w,1at. ^ tjie fer;es Gf fifths. Thus the three founds fa, ut,
fol, and the harmonics of each of thefe three founds,
that is to fay, their thirds major and their fifths, com-
uy pofe all the major modes which are proper to ut.
Modes, 39. The feries of fifths then, or the fundamental
fenT d'b ^ u1' which ut holds the middle fpace,
the'feries of may be regarded as reprefenting the mode of ut. One
fifths. may likewife take the feries of fifths, or fundamental
bafs, ut, fol, re, as reprefenting the mode of fol; in
the fame manner ft [j, ja, ut, will reprefent the mode
of/a. #
By this we may fee, that the mode of fol, or rather
the fundamental bafs of that mode, has two founds in
common with the fundamental bafs of the mode of ut.
It is the fame with the fundamental bafs of the mode
ia8 fa'
principal 40. The mode of ut (fa, ut, fol) is called the pr'm-
tnode, and cipul mode with refpeft to the modes of thefe two fifths,
adjuncts, which are called its two adjunEs.
41. It is then, .in fome meafure, indifferent to the
ear whether a tranfition be made to the one or to the
19 other of thefe adjundls, fince each of them has equally
Modes rc- two founds in common with the principal mode. Yet
* nTo-tiou t^ie mo^e °f f°l hems a little more eligible : for fol is
as their heard amongft the harmonics of ut, and of confequence
founds are is implied and fignified by ut; whereas ut does not
common. Caufe fa to be heard, though ut is included in the fame
found fa. It is hence that the ear, affefted by the
You XII. Part II.
S I c. 5,3
mode of ut, is a little more prepoOfefied for the mode Theory of
of fol than for that of fa. Nothing likewife is more rtarmory-
frequent, nor more natural, than to pafs from the mode v
of ut to that of fol. 130
42. It is for this reafon, as well as to diftinguilh l:>otr*lllaBt
the two fifths one from the other, that we callyo/'the^^j.5'^0”
fifth above the generator the dominant found, and the what. ’
fifth fa beneath the generator the fubdominant. See Da-
43. It remains to add, as we have feen in the pre-“",a'!<*
ceding chapter, that, in the feries of fifths, we ma)r
indifferently pafs from one found to that which iscon-to cont;gU.
tiguous : In the fame manner, and for the fame reafon, 0us founds,
one may pafs from the mode offol to the mode of re, how to be
after having made a tranfition from the mode of ut to managed,
the mode offol, as from the mode of fa to the mode of
f\). But it is neceflary, however, to obferve, that the
ear which has been immediately affe&ed with the prin¬
cipal mode feels always a ftrong propenfity to return
to it. Thus the further the mode to which we make
a tranfition is removed from the principal mode, the
lefs time we ought to dwell upon it; or rather, to
fpeak in the terms of the art, the lefs ought the
phrafe (Jaa) of that mode to be protra&ed.
Chap. V. Of the Formation of the Diatonic Scale
as vfed by the Greeks.
44. From this rule, that two founds which are con¬
tiguous may be placed in immediate fucceffion in the
feries of fifths, fa, ut, fol,. it follows, that one may
form this modulation, or this fundamental bafs, by
fifths, fol, ut, fol, ut fa, ut,fa.
45. Each of the founds which forms this modula- Seefg. D.
tion brings neceffarily along with itfelf its third major,
its fifth, and its odtave ; infomucTi that he who, for
inftance, fings the note fol, may be reckoned to fing at Greek dia-
the fame time the notes fol, ft, re, fol: in the fame tonic fcale
manner the found ut in the fundamental bafs brings the fun-
along with it this modulation, ut, mi, fol, ut; and, in ^^enta^
ffiort, the fame found fa brings along with it fa, la,
ut,fa. This modulation then, or this fundamental bafs,
fol, ut, fol, ut,fa, ut,fa,
gives the following diatonic feries,
ft, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la ;
which is precifely the diatonic fcale of the Greeks. We see
are ignorant upon what principles they had formed this
fcale; but it may be fenfibly perceived, that that feries
arifes from the bafs fol, ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, fa ; and
that of confequence this bafs is juftly called fundamen¬
tal, as being the real primitive modulation, that which
3 T condu&a
(g) I fay efpecially if they are major ; for in the major chord re,fa%, la, re, befides that the founds »rand re
have no common harmonical relation, and are even diflbnant between themfelves ( Art. 18.), it will likewife be
found, that fa% forms a diffbnance with ut. The minor chord re, fa, la, re, would be more tolerable, becaufe
the natural fa which occurs in this chord carries along with it its fifth ut, or rather the oAave of that fifth :
It has Ijkewife been fometimes the pra&ice of compofers, though rather by a licence indulged them than
ftriftly agreeable to their art, to place a minor in diatonic fucceffion to a major chord.
(t aa) As the mere Englifh reader, unacquainted with the technical phrafeology of mufic, may be furprifed
at the ufe of the word phrafe when transferred from language to that art, we have thought proper to infert the
definition of Roufleau.
A phrafe, according to him, is in melody a feries of modulations, or in harmony a fuccefllon of chords, which
form without interruption a fenfe more or lefs complete, and which terminate in a repofe by a cadence mors
or lefs perfeft.
Altered in
tervals, no
tibjeCUon.
134
Reafons
why this
fcale in.
eludes only
i'even
found*.
M u ;
conducts the ear, and which it feels to be implied in
the diatonic modulation, yi, ut, re, mi,fa,fol, la, (h).
46. We fhall be Hill more convinced of this truth
by the following remarks.
In the modulation Jt, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, the
founds re andyh form between themfelves a third mi¬
nor, which is not fo perfectly true as that between mi
and fol (1). Neverthelcfs, this alteration in the third
minor between re m&fa gives the ear no pain, be-
caufe that re and that fa, which do not form between
themfelves a true third minor, form, each in particu¬
lar, confonances perfe&ly juft with the founds in the
fundamental bafs which correfpond with them : for re
in the fcale is the true fifth of fol, which anfwers to it
in the fundamental bafs ; and fa in the fcale is the
true oftave of fa, which anfwers to it in the fame
bafs.
47. If, therefore, thefe founds in the fcale form con¬
fonances perfectly true with the notes which correfpond
to them in the fundamental bafs, the ear gives itfelf
little trouble to inveftigate the alterations which there
may be in the intervals which thefe founds in the fcale
form between themfelves. This is a new proof that
the fundamental bafs is the genuine guide of the ear,
and the true origin of the diatonic fcale.
48. Moreover, this diatonic fcale includes only fe-
ven founds, and goes no higher than ft, which would
be the ©Aave of the firft : a new fingularity, for which
5 I C. Part r
a reafon may be given by the principles above eftablilh- Theory of
ed. In reality, in order that the found Ji may fucceed Harmony.^
immediately in the fcale to the found la, it is neceffary
that the note fol, which is the only one from wdience
ft a. harmonic may be deduced, fhould immediately
fucceed to the found fa, in the fundamental bafs,
which is the only one from whence la can be harmoni¬
cally deduced. Now, the diatonic fucceffion from fa
to fol cannot be admitted in the fundamental bafs, ac¬
cording to what we have remarked (art. 36.). The
founds la and Ji, then, cannot immediately fucceed one
another in the fcale : we (hall fee in the fequel why
this is not the cafe in the feries ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la,
Ji, UT, which begins upon ut; whereas the fcale in
queftion here begins upon ft.
49. The Greeks likewife, to form an entire odlave, Comple-
added below the firft ft the note la, which they di- ^
ftinguifiied and feparated from the reft of the fcale, ta^e oc”
and which for that reafon they called pr'Jlambano-See Pro.
mene, that is to fay, a firing or note fubadded to \)\tft<tmbano-\
fcale, and put before ft to form the entire odftave. mene'
50. The diatonic fcale ft, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, is The fcale
compofed of two tetrachords, that is to fay, of two compofed
diatonic feales, each confifting of four founds, Ji, ut, of two fimi-
re, mi, and mi, fa, fol, la. Thefe two tetrachords lar conjunc-
are exactly fimilar ; for from mi to fa there is the ^’^r^ra'
fame interval as from ft to ut, from fa to fol the fame
as from ut to re, from fol to la the fame as from re to
(h) Nothing is eafier than to find in this fcale the value or proportions of each found with relation to the
found ut, which we call 1 ; for the two founds fol and fa in the bafs are 4- and y ; from whence it follows,
1. That ut in the fcale is the odtave of ut in the bafs ; that is to fay, 2.
2. That ft is the third major of fol; that is to fay £ of 4- (note c), and of confequence 'f.
3. That re is the fifth of fol; that is to fay 4- «f it and of confequence ■§.
4. That mi is the third major of the oftave of ut, and of confequence the double of that is to fay,
5. That fa is the double o clave of fa of the bafs, and confequently y.
6. That fol of the fcale is the odtave offol of the bafs, and confequently 3.
7. In ftiort, that la in the fcale is the third major oifa of the fcale ; that is to fay, £ of 4, or y?.
Hence then will refult the following table, in which each found has its numerical value above or below it.
Diatonic f V 2 4r y- St*
Scale. \ f, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la.
Fundamental f fol, ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, fa.
Bafs. t i 1, I- 1 y- 1 y-
And if, for the conveniency of calculation, we choefe to call the found ut, of the fcale 1 ; in this cafe there
is nothing to do but to divide each of the numbers by 2, which reprefent the diatonic fcale, and we ftiall
have
Ji, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la.
(1) In order to compare re with fa, we need only compare f with 4 } the relation between thefe fractions
will be (Note c) that of 9 times 3 to 8 times 4; that is to fay, of 27 to 32: the third minor, then, from re to
fa, is not true ; becaufe the proportion of 27 to 32 is not the fame with that of 5 to 6, thefe two proportions
being between themfelves as 27 times 6 is to 32 times 5, that is to fay, as 162 to 160, or as the halves of thefe
two numbers, that is to fay, as 81 to 80.
M. Rameau, when he publifhed, in 1726, his New theoretical and practical Syflem of Muftc, had not as yet
found the true reafon of the alteration in the confonance which is between re and fa, and of the little attention
which the ear pays to it. For he pretends, in the work now quoted, that there are two thirds minor, one in
the proportion of 5 to 6, the other in the proportion of 27 to 32. But the opinion which he has afterwards
adopted, feems much preferable. In reality, the genuine third minor, is that which is produced by nature
between mi and fol, in the continued tone of thofe fonorous bodies of which rni and fol are the two harmonics;
and that third minor, which is in the proportion of 5 to 6, is likewife that which takes place in the minor
mode, and not that third minor which is fulfe and different, being in the proportion of 27 to 32.
s
Part I. MU
Theory of ml (l) : tli13 is the reafon why the Greeks diftin-
Harmony. gUjfhed thefe two tetrachords ; yet they joined them
L' ~'t by the note mi, which is common to both, and which
>37 gave them the name of conjuntlme tetrachords.
Intervals in 51. Moreover, the intervals between any two founds,
hothtetra- jn each tetrachord in particular, are precifely
equal.8 true : t^Lls> in the firft tetrachord, the intervals of ut
mi, and ft re, are thirds, the one major and the
other minor, exa&ly true, as well as the fourth ft
mi (m) ; it is the fame thing with the tetrachord mi,
fa, fol, la, fince this tetrachord is exactly like the
‘S8. former.
betweenthe 52, ®ut ca^e not the fame when we compare
notes of two founds taken each from a different tetrachord ; for
different we have already feen, that the note re in the firft tetra-
t^achords chord forms with the note fa in the fecond a third mi-
11 ar' nor, which is not true. In like manner it will be
found, that the fifth from re to la is not exadtly true,
which is evident ; for the third major from fa to la
is true, and the third minor from re to fa is not fo :
now, in order to form a true fifth, a third major and
a third minor, which are both exactly true, are necef-
i39 W-
Another 53. From thence it follows, that every confonance
reafon for ;s abfolutely perfeft in each tetrachord taken by it-
ing the" " > ^ut ^at *s f°me alteration in palling from
fcale into one tetrachord to the other. This is a new rea-
two tetra- fon for diftinguifhing the fcale into thefe two tetra-
chorde. chords.
The'fource may afcertained by calculation, that in
t f tones the tetrachord ft, ut, re, mi, the interval, or the tone
major and from re to mi, is a little lefs than the interval or tone
minor inve from ut re in the fame manner, in the fecond
“ ‘ tetrachord mi, fa, fol, la, which is, as we have pro¬
ved, perfe&ly fimilar to the firft, the note from fol to
s I c. 5*5
la is a little lefs than the note from fa to fol. It is for Theory of
this reafon that they diftinguifh two kinds of tones ; ,rfarmony-,
the greater tone*, as from at to re, from /« to 70/, * Greater
&c. ; and the Idler f, as from re to mi, from fol to tone. See
la, &c. Interval.
f Leffer
Chap. VI. The formation of the Diatonic Scale)0„^,'va^C
among the Moderns, or the ordinary Gammut.
55. We have juft fhown in the preceding chapter,The mo-
how the fcale of the Greeks is formed, ft, ut, re, mi,
fa, fol, la, by means of a fundamental bafs compofede(1>
of three founds only,/a, ut,fol: but to form the fcale
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT, which we ufe at pre-
fent, we muft necefiarily add to the fundamental bafs
the note re, and form, with thefe four founds fa, ut,
fol, re, the following fundamental bafs:
ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, fol, re, fol, ut; Sf!fs- &•
from whence we deduce the ihodulation or fcale ee ca
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT.
In effeft (o), ut in the fcale belongs to the har¬
mony of ‘ut which correfponds with it in the bafs ; re,
which is the fecond note in the gammut, is included in
the harmony of fol, the fecond note of the bafs; mi,
the third note of the gammut, is a natural harmonic
of ut, which is the third found in the bafs, &c. r4t
56. From thence it follows, that the diatonic fcale The Greek
of the Greeks is, at leaft in fome refpeds, more fimple diatonic
than ours ; fince the fcale of the Greeks (chap, v.) may fCjg'ret^”"
be formed alone from the mode proper to ut; whereas ^urs and
ours is originally and primitively formed, not only from why.
the mode of ut {fa, ut, fol), but likewife from the
mode of fol, {ut,fol, ref
It will likewife appear, that this laft fcale confifts of
two parts ; of which the one, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, is in
3 T 2 the
( l ) The proportion of ft to ut is as to 1, that is to fay as 15 to 16; that between mi and fa is as £ to
4, that is to fay (note c), as 5 times 3 to 4 times 4, or as 13 to 16: thefe two proportions then are equal. In
the fame manner, the proportion of ut to re is as 1 to |, or as 8 to 9 ; that between fa and fdl is as 4 to 4 ;
that is to fay (note c), as 8 to 9. The proportion of mi to ut is as { to 1, or as 5 to 4 ; that between fa
and la is as 4 to £-, or as 5 to 4 : the proportions here then are likewife equal.
(m) The proportion of mi to ut is as 4 to 1, or as 5 to 4, which is a true third major 5 that from re tof
is as ■§• to 44; that is to fay, as 9 times 16 to 15 times 8, or as 9 times 2 to 15, or as 6 to 5. In like man¬
ner, we (hall find, that the proportion of mi to ft is as £ to j that is to fay, as 5 times 16 to 15 times 4, or as
4 to 3, which is a true fourth.
(wj The proportion of re to ut is as | to l, or as 9 to 8 5 that of mi to re is as { to |, that is to fay, as
40 to 36, or as 10 to 9 : now is lefs removed from unity than |; the interval then from re to mi is a little
lefs than that from ut to re.
If any one would wifti to know the proportion which bear to |, he will find (note c) that it is as 8 times
10 to 9 times 9, that is to fay, as 80 to 81. Thus the proportion of a leffer to a greater tone is as 80 to
81 ; this difference between the greater and leffer tone is what the Greeks called a comma.
We may remark, that this difference of a comma is found between the third minor when true and harmoni-
cal, and the fame chord when it fuffers alteration re fa, of which we have taken notice in the fcale
(note 1) ; for we have feen, that this third minor thus altered is in the proportion of 80 to 81 with the true
third minor.
(o) The values or eftimates of the notes (hall be the fame in this as in the former fcale, excepting only the
tone la ; for re being reprefented by f, its fifth will be expreffed by 44 j fo that the fcale will be numerically
fignified thus : 1
T T T ^ „
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT.
Where you may fee, that the note la of this fcale is different from that in the fcale of the Greeks; and that the
la in the modern feries (lands in proportion to that of the Greeks as to -f-, that is to fay, as 81 to 80 ; thefe
two la's then likewife differ by a comma.
5i6 M U
Theory of the mode of ut; and the other, fol, la, ft, ut, in that
,Ha ":0Dy; of fol.
57, It is for this reafon that the note fol is found to
The note be twice repeated in immediate fucceflion in this fcale ;
/»/twice once as the fifth of a/, which correfponds with it in
r‘Pe®.ted the fundamental bafs ; and again, as the oftave offol,
fcale from'0 wbich immediately fellows ut in the fame bafs. As
itsharmo- to what remains, thefe two confecutive ful’s are other-
nic rela- wife in perfedt unifon. It is for this reafon that we
tions to theare fatisfieci with tinging only one of them when one
tal*bafsen" nic'dulaies the fcale ut, re, mi, fa, fol, lay ft, UT t
but this does not prevent us from employing a paufe
or repofe, expreffed or underftood, after the found fa.
There is no perfon who does not perceive this whiltt
,44 he himfelf fings the fcale.
The mo- 58. The fcale of the moderns, then, may he confi-
dem fcale dered as con filling of two tetrachords, disjundtive in-
of'twoulff- deed> but perfedtly fimilar one to the other, ut, re,
Sun&ive te- m‘> fa> anid ^n' f> ut> one in tbe mode of ut, the
itrachords other in that of fjl. For what remains, we lhall fee
<il different Jn fequel by what artifice one may caufe the fcale
jsiodes. re^ ja<) yi/, J'iy UT, to be" regarded as be¬
longing to the mode of ut alone. For this purpofe
it is iieceflary. to make fome changes in the fundamen¬
tal bafs, which we have already affigned : but this
145 fhall be explained at large in chap. xiii.
cf/vTn'k 59' ^intro^u<^‘on t^ie mode proper to /ol in
traduced in fundamental bals has this happy effed, that the
the fund a- notes fa, fol, la, ft, may immediately fucceed each
mental bafs other in afeending the fcale, which cannot take place
conve'Ve (art* 4^’) *n t^ie d'atol”c fer’es tbe Greeks, becaufe
iiiences.' that feries is formed from the mode of a/alone. From
whence it follows :
1. That we change the mode at every time when
we modulate three notes in fuccefiion.
2. That if thefe three notes are lung in fucceflion in
the fcale ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT, this cannot
be done hut by the afliitance of a paufe exprefled or
underllood after the note fa ; infomuch, that the three
tones/a,/&/, la, ft, (three only becaufe the nott fol
which is repeated is not enumerated) are fuppofed to
belong to two different tetrachords.
SIC. Part T.
60. It ought not then any longer to furprife us, Theory of
that we feel fome difficulty whilft. we afeend the fcale Harmony.
in finging three tones in fucceflion, becaufe this is ff"*
impracticable without changing the mode ; and if one change of
paufes in the fame mode, the fourth fotmd above the mode the
fir ft note will never be higher than a femitone. above c®ure of the
that which immediately precedes it; as may be feen byg1®^^5,
ut, re, mi, fa, and by fol, la, f, ut, where there is rhree^on-
no more than a femitone between mi and fa, and be-ffeutive
tween ft and ut. tones af-
61. We may likewife obferve in the fcale ut, re, mi, ccndlr!g-
fa, that the third minor from re to/a is not true, for [nt/rtal,
the reafons which have been already given (art. 49.). though al-
It is the fame cafe with the third minor from la to watered in
and with the third major from fa to la; but each of thefe ^e™^erlve#»
founds form otheiwife confonances perfectly true, with r°'n™
their correfpondent founds in the fundamental bafs. with the
62. The thirds la ut, fa la, which were true in the fundamen-
former fcale, are falfe in this; becaufe in the formertal bafs-
fcale la was the third of fa, and here it is the fifth of
re, which correfponds with it in the fundamental bafs. 14g
63. Thus it appears, that the fcale of the Greeks Fewer al-
contains’ fewer confonances that are altered than red con-
ours(p); and this likewife happens from the intro-
duCtion of the mode of fol into the fundamental/..|e t)iaa
bafs (cl)- in curs.
We fee likewife that the value of la in the diatonic
fcale, a value which authors have been divided in af-
certaining, folely depends upon the fundamental bafs,
and that it mull be different according as the note ia.
has fa or re lor its bafs. See the note (o). .
Chap. VII. Of Temperament.
64. The alterations which we have obferved in the
intervals between particular founds of the diatonic fcale,.rn,.nt)
naturally lead us to fpeak of temperament. To give why Deed*
a clear idea of this, and to render the necefiity of itfal)-
palpable, let us fuppofe that we have before us aa in-
ftrument with keys, a harpfichord, for inftance, con¬
fiding of feveral oClaves or feales, of which each in¬
cludes its twelve femitonea.
Let
(p) In the fcale of the Greeks, the note la being a third from fa, there is an altered fifth between la and
re : but in ours, la being a fifth to re, produce* two altered thirds, fa la, and la ut; and likewife a fifth alter¬
ed, la mi, as we fhall fee in the following chapter. Thus there are in our fcale two intervals more than in the
fcale of the Greeks which fuffer alteration.
(cl) But here it may be with fome colour objected : The fcale of the Greeks, it may be faid, has a fun¬
damental bafs more fimple than ours ; and befides, in it there are fewer chords which will not be found exaftly
true : why then, notwithftanding this, does ours appear more eafy to be fung than that ot the Greeks I he
Grecian fcale begins with a femitone, whereas the intonation prompted by nature feems to impel us to rife by
a.full tone at once. This objedlion may be thus anfwered. The icale ot the Greeks is indeed better difpofed
than ours for the fimplicity of the bafs, but the arrangement of ours is more fuitable to natural intonation-
Our fcale commences by the fundamental found ut, and it is in reality from that found that we ought to begin ;
it is from this that all the others naturally arife, and upon this that they depend; nay, if I may fpeak fo, in
this they are included : on the contrary, neither the fcale of the Greeks, nor its fundamental bafs, commences
with ut ; but it is.from this that we mull depart, in order to regulate our intonation, whether in riling or
defeending-: now, in afeendu g from ut, the intonation, even of the Greek fcale, gives the feries ut, re, mi,fa^
J'ol, la : and fo true is it that the fundamental found ut is here the genuine guide of the ear, that if, before we
modulate the found ut, we fhould attempt to. rife to it by that note in the fcale which is moft immediacely con¬
tiguous, we cannot reach it but by the note/, and by the femitene from ft to ut. Now to make a tranfition
from/' to ut, by this femitone, the ear muft of neceflity be predifpofed for that modulation, and confequently
preoccupied with the mode of ut; if this were not the cafe, we fhould naturally rile from/to ut%, and by
^ys,operation pafsiinto.another mode.
Part t. M U
Theory of Let us choofe in that harpfichord one of the firings
Harmony. which will found the note UT, and let us tune the
fee p firing SOL to a perfedl fifth with UT in afcending ;
let us afterwards tune to a perfeft fifth with this SOL
the RE which is'above it ; we fhall evidently perceive
that this RE will be in the fcale above that from
which we fet out: but it is alfo evident that this RE
. mu ft have in the fcale a re which correfponds with it,
and which muft be tuned a true odiave below RE ;
and between this and SOL there fhould be the inter¬
val of a fifth ; fo that the re in the firft fcale will be a
true fourth below the SOL of the fame fcale. We
, may afterwards tune the note LA of the firft fcale to
a juft fifth with this laft re; then the note MI in the
higheft fcale to a true fifth with this new LA,'and of
confequence the mi in the firft fcale to a true fourth
beneath this fame LA : H iving finifhed this opera¬
tion, it will be found that the laft m';, thus tuned, will
by no means form a juft third major from the found
UT (r.) : that is to fay, that it is irr.pofiible for mi to
conftitute at the fame time the third major of UT
and the true fifth of LA ; or, what is the fame thing,
the true fourth of LA in defcending.
S I C. 517
65. What is ftill more, if, after having fucceffively Theory cf
and alternately tuned the firings UT, SOL, re, LA, Harmony.,
mi, in perfect fifths and fourths one from the other,
we continue to tune fuccefiively by true fifths and
fourths the fixings mi, ft, fa%, ut%, fo/%, re%, wi'%,
ft'% ; we fhall find, that, though fi%, being a femitone
higher than the natural note, fhould be equivalent to
UT natural, it will by no means form a juft odtave fo
the firft ut in the fcale, but be coniiderably higher (s) ;
yet thisupon the harpfichord ought not to be dif¬
ferent from the odlave above UT; for everyand
every UT is the fame found, fince the octave or the
fcale only cdnfifts of twelve femitones. ryo
66. From thence it neceffarily follows, 1. That itReafons
is impoffible that all the odlaves and all the fifth
fhould be juft at the fame time, particularly in inftru- '
ments which have keys, where no intervals lefs than (
a femitone are admitted. 2. That, of confequence,
if the fifths are juftly tuned, fame alteration muft be
made in the odlaves; now the fympathy or found
which fublifts between any note and its odlave, does
not permit us to make fuch an alteration : this perfect
coalefcence of found is the caufe why the ocfavc
fhould
(r) Ihe LA coirfidered as the fifth of re is 4y, and the fourth beneath this LA will conftitute | of
that is to fay, |4 ; |A then fhall be the value ofW, confidered as a true fourth from LA in defcending-: now
»zzVconfidered as the third major of the found ITT, is y, or f j : thefe two wz’s'then are between themfelves in
the proportion of 81 to 80 ; thus it is impoffible that mi fhould be at the fame time a perfedl third major,
from UT, and a true fourth beneathVLA.
(s) In effedl, if you thus alternately tune the fifth above, and tHe fourth below, in the fame oftave, you
may here fee what will be the procefs of your operation.
UT, SOL, a-fitth ; re a fourth ; LA a fifth ; mi a fourth ; fi a fifth ; fa% a fourth ; ui% a fifth ; fal% a
fourth ; RE$ a fi.th ; /«$; a fourth ; or FA a fifth ; Ji'% a fourth : now it will be found, by a very eafy
Computation, that the firft UT being reprefented by I, SOL fhall bes4-» re f, LA mi |4> &c- anc^
the reft till you arrive at which will be found ^-g-LrU.. This fra&ion is evidently greater than the
number 2, which expreffes the perfect oftave ui to ir.s correfpondent UT ; and the oflave belowwould be
one hail of the fame fraction, that is to fay which is evidently greater than UT reprefented by unity.
This laft fra&ion compofed of two numbers; the numerator of the fraction is nothing elfe but the
number 3 multiplied ti times in fucceffion by itfelf, and the denominator is the number 2 multiplied t8 times
in fucceffion by itfelf. Now it is evident, that this fra&ion, which expreffes the value ofis not equal to -
the unity which expreffes the value of the found UT ; though, upon the harpfichord, and UT are iden¬
tical. This fraflion rifes above unity by that is to fay, by about ; and this difference was called
the cotpma of Pythagoras. It is palpable that this comma is much more confiderable than that which we have
already mentioned (note n), and which is only -j1-.
We have already proved that the feries of fifths produces an ut different from Ji%, the feries of thirds major gives ;
another ftill more different- For, let us fuppofe this feries of thirds, ut, mi, fol%, fi%, we fhall have mi equal
to. f, fcl% to £|-, to VV> whofe oflave below is Lr-g-; from whence it appears, that this laft ft is lefs than ■
unity (that is to fay, than ut), by or by 3*T» or near it: A new comma, much greater than the preceding, ,
and which the Greeks have called apotome major.
It may be obferved, that this fj), deduced from the feries of thirds, is to the deduced from the feries of
fifths, as -44-g- is to f-Laxrg ; that isto fay, in multiplying by 524288, as 125 multiplied by 4096 is 10531441, .
or as 51200 to 551441, that is to fay, nearly as 26 is to 27 : from whence it may be feen, that thefe. two^/Ps:^
are very confiderably different one from the other, and even fufficiently different to make the .ear fenfible: of it; ;
becaufe the difference confifts alraoft of a minor femitone, whofe value, as will afterwards befeen.(art. 139.),is 4.4.
Moreover, if, after having found the_/»/:& equal to \ j-, we then tune by fifths and by fourths,rif, la%, .
w as we have done with refpedt to the firft feries of fifths, we find that, the 7?$ muft be ; its
difference, then, from unity, or, in other words, from UT, is T id-g-, that is to fay, about ; a comma ftill ;.
lefs than any of the preceding, and which the Greeks have called apotome mino
In a word, if, after having found mi equal to 4 imthe progreffion of thiras, we then tune • by fifths and
fourths ».*, J, fa% ut% &c. we fliaH arrive at a new Ji%, which ft all -be and which will not differ .
Lorn unity but by about which is the laft and fmalleft of all the commas ; but it muft be obferved; that,
in this cafe, the thirds major from mi to foI%, fiom /e/$, to or ut, &c. are extremely falfc, and gteallyL
altered. .
JiS M U S
Theory of fliould ferve as limits to the otfher intervals, and that
. arl"ony- all the notes which rife above or fall belo>v the ordi¬
nary fcale, are no more than replications, i. e. repeti¬
tions, of all that have gone before them. For this
reafon, if the o&ave were altered, there could be no
longer any fixed point either in harmony ot melody.
It is then abfolutely neceffary to tune the ut or
in a juft oftave with the firft ; from whence it follows,
that, in the progreflion of fifths, or what is the fame
thing, in the alternate feries of fifths and fourths, UT,
SOL, re, LA, uW,foW, re%, /a% mi%
Ji%., it is neceflary that all the fifths ftiould be altered,
oral leaft fome of them. Now, fince there is no rea¬
fon why pne ftiould rather be altered than another, it
follows; that we ought to alter them all equally. By
thefe means, as the alteration is made to influence all
the fifths, it will be in each of them almoft impercep¬
tible ; and thus the fifth, which, after the odtave, is
the moft perfeft of all confonances, and which we are
under the necefiity of altering, mu ft only be altered in
the leaft degree poftlbie.
67. It is true, that the thirds will be a little harfti:
but as the interval of founds which conftitutes the
third, produces a lefs perfeft coalefcence than that of
the fifth, it is necelTary, fays M. Rameau, to facrifice
the juftice of that chord to the perfe&ion of the fifth;
for the more perfect a chord is in its own nature, the
more difpleafing to the ear is any alteration which
151 can be made in it. In the o&ave the leaft alteration
Its defuii- is infupportable.
tion. <58. This change in the intervals of inftrumefits
I C. Part I.
which have, or even which have not, keys, is that which Theory of
we call temperament. Harmony.^
69. It refults then from all that we have now faid,
that the theory of temperament may be reduced to Principle
this queftion The alternate fucceffion of fifths and whence its
fourths having been given, UT, SOL, re, LA, may
ft, fa%, ut%,fol%t re% /a%, mi%,, fi%, in whichbe de uced*
or ut is not the true o&ave of the firft UT, it is pro-
pofed to alter all the fifths equally, in fuch a manner
that the two ut’s may be in a perfedt odtave the one
to the other.
70. For a folution of this queftion, we muft begin Pracaical
with tuning the two ut’s in a perfeft o&ave the one to ^e^^>ns
the other ; in confequence of which, we will render all rament^*"
the femitones which compofe the oftave as equal as
poflible. By this means (t) the alteration made in
each fifth will be very confiderable, but equal in all
of them. IS4
7 <. In this, then, the theory of temperament con- Rameau’s
fifts: but as it would be difficult in practice to tune a method of
harpfichord or organ by thus rendering all the femi-tempera-
tones equal, M. Rameau, in his Generation Harmo-
nique, has furniihed us with the following method, tor
alter all the'fifths as equally as poffible.
72. Take any key of the harpfichqrd which you
pleafe; but let it be towards the middle of the inllru-
ment; for inftance, UT: then tune the note SOL a
fifth above it, at firft with as much accuracy as poffible;
this you may imperceptibly diminilh : tune afterwards
the fifth to this with equal accuracy, and driminilh it in
the fame manner; and thus proceed from one fifth to
anothe-r
(t) All the femitones being equal in the temperament propofed by M. Rameau, it follows, that the twelve
femitones tv/, re, re%, mi, mi%, &c..ffiall form a continued geometrical progreffion ; that is to fay, a
feries in which ut fhall be' to n/$ in the fame proportion m ut% to re, as re to reft, &c. and fo of the reft.
Thefe twelve femitones are formed by a feries of thirteen founds, of which U'T and its o&ave ut are the firft
and laft. Thus to find by computation the value of each found in the temperament, which is the prefent ob*
jedl of our fpeculations, our fcrutiny is limited to the inveftigation of eleven other numbers between 1 and 2
which may form with the 1 and the 2 a continued geometrical progreffion.
However little any one is pradtifed in calculation, he will eafily find each of thefe numbers, or at leaft a
number approaching to its value. Thefe are the charadlers by which they may be expreffed, which mathema¬
ticians will eafily underftand, and which others may negledt.
UT ut% re re% mi fa
I jfz a/2j V'23 V’1'
la la% ft ut
\/29 x/2'0 f'*
It is obvious, that in this temperament all the fifths are equally altered. One may likewife prove, that the
alteration of each in particular is very inconfiderable ; for it will be found, for inftance, that the fifth from ut
to fol, which Ihould be ought to be diminiftied by about of ^; that is to fay, by a quantity al¬
moft inconceivably fmall.
It is true, that the thirds major will be a little more altered ; for the third major from ut to mi, for inftance,
fhall be increafed in its interval by about : but it is better, according to M. Rameau, that the alteration
fhould fall upon the third than upon the fifth, which after the odtave is the moft perfeft chord, and from the
perfedlion of which we ought never to degenerate but as little as poffible.
Befides, it has appeared from the feries of thirds major ut, mi, fo/%,ft%, that this laftT^ >s vei7 different
from ut (note s) ; from whence it follows, that if we would tune this^?^ in unifon with the odtave of ut, and
alter at the fame time each of the thirds major by a degree as fmall as poffible, they muft all be equally al¬
tered. This is what occurred in the temperament which we propofe ; and if in it the third be more altered
than the fifth, it is a confequence of the difference which we find between the degrees ofperfe&ion in thefe in¬
tervals ; a difference with which, if we may fpeak fo, the' temperament propofed conforms itfelf. Thu*
this diverfity of alt eration is ratheradvantageous thanjnconvenient.
ft fd m
yV i/27 i/28
SIC M9
perfeftly juft : it will be neceflary then to try if this Theory of
U F, or its oSave, forms a juft fifth with the lad found iHarmony-i
mi% or fa which has been already tuned. If this be ~v
the cafe, we may be certain that the harpfichord is
properly tuned. But if this laft fifth be not true, in
this cafe it will be too fharp, and it is an indication
that the other fifths have been too much diminifhed,
or at leaft fome of them ; or it will be too flat, and
confequently difcover that they have not been fuffici-
ently diminifhed. We muft then begin and proceed
as formerly, till we find the laft fifth in tune of itfelf,
and without our immediate interpofition (u).
By
(u) All that remains, is to acknowledge, with M. Rameau, that this temperament is far remote from that
which is now in pra&ice: you may here fee in what this laft temperament confifts as applied to the organ or
harpfichord. They begin with UT in the middle of the keys, and they flatten the four firft fifths fol, re,,
la, mi, till they form a true third major from mi to ut; afterwards, fetting out from this mi, they tune the
fifthsutfyffolfy, but flattening them ftill lefs than the former, fo that fo/% may almoft form a true
third major with mi. When they have arrived at folifc, they flop; they refume the firft ut, and tune to it the
fifth fa in defcending, then the fifth fi\), &c. and they heighten a little all the fifths till they have arrived at
la]), which ought to be the fame with the fol'^ already tuned.
If, in the temperament commonly praftifed, fome thirds are found to be lefs altered than in that prefcribed
by M. Rameau, in return, the fifths in the firft temperament are much more falfe, and many thirds are like-
wife fo; infomuch, that upon a harpfichord tuned according to the temperament in common ufe, there are five
or fix modes which the ear cannot endure, and in which it is impoffible to execute any thing. On the con¬
trary, in the temperament fuggefted by M. Rameau, all the modes are equally perfeft; which is a new argu¬
ment in its favour, fince the temperament is peculiarly neceflary in palling from one mode to another, without
Ihocking the ear ^ for inftance, from the mode of ut to that of fol, from the mode of fol to that of re. See. It
is true, that this uniformity of modulation will to the greateft number of muficians appear a defeft : for they
imagine, that, by tuning the femitones of the fcale unequal, they give each of the modes a peculiar charafter j
fo that, according to them, the fcale of ut,
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, fi, UT,
is not perfe&ly fimilar to the gammut or diatonic fcale of the mode of mi
mi,fa%,fol%, la%,ft, ut%, re%, mi,
which, in their judgment, renders the modes of ul and mi proper for different manners of exprelfion. But af¬
ter all that we have faid in this treatife on the formation of diatonic intervals, every one Ihould be convinced,
that, according to the intention of nature, the diatonic fcale ought to be perfectly the fame in aH its modes
The contrary opinion, fays M. Rameau, is a mere prejudice of muficians. The charaSer ef an air arifes chiefly
from the intermixture of the modes } from the greater or leffer degrees of vivacity in the movement; from the
tones, more or lefs grave, or more or lefs acute, which are afllgned to the generator of the mode; and from the
chords more or lefs beautiful, as they are more or lefs deep, more or lefs flat, more or lefs fharp, which are
found in it.
In fhort, the laft advantage of this temperament is, that it will be found conformed, or at leaft very little
different from that which they pradtife upon inftriiments without keys; as the bafs-viol, the violin, in which
true fifths and fourths are preferred to thirds and fixths tuned with equal accuracy ; a temperament which ap¬
pears incompatible with that commonly ufed in tuning the harpfichord.
Yet we muft not fuffer our readers to be ignorant, that M. Rameau, in his New Syjlem of Mitfc, printed in
1726, had adopted the ordinary temperament. In that work, (as may be feen Chap. XXIV'.),, he pretends
that the alteration of the fifths is much more fupportable than that of the thirds major; and that this laft in¬
terval can hardly fuffer a greater alteration than the oftave, which, as we know, cannot fuffer the flighteft al¬
teration, He fays, that if three firings are tuned, one by an o&ave, the other by a fifth, and the next by a
third major to a fourth firing, and if a found be produced from the laft, the firings tuned by a fifth will vibrate,
though a little lefs true than it ought to have been ; but that the oftave and the third major, if altered in the
leaft degree, will not vibrate : and he adds, that the temperament which is now pra&ifed, is founded upon that
principle. M. Rameau goes ftill farther; and as, in the ordinary temperament, there is a neceffity for altering
the laft thirds major, and to make them a little more fharp, that they may naturally return to the o&ave of
the principal found, he pretends that this alteration is tolerable, not only becaufe it is almoft infenfible, but be-
caufe it is found in modulations not much in ufe, unlefs the compofer fhould choofe it on purpofe to render
the expreflion ftronger. “ For it is proper to remark (fays he), that we receive different impreffiens from the
intervals in proportion to their different alterations: for inftance, the third major, which naturally elevates us to
joy, in proportion as we feel it, heightens our feelings even to a kind of fury, when it is tuned too fharp; and.
the third minor, which naturally infpires us with tendernefs and ferenity, depreffes us to melancholy when it is
too flat.” AU this ftrain, as you may fee, is immenfely different from that which this celebrated mufician af¬
terwards.-
Part I. MU
Theory of another in afeent: and as the ear does not appretiate
Harmony. p0 exaftly founds that are extremely fharp, it is necef-
fary) when by fifths you have rifen to notes extremely
high, that you fhould tune in the moft perfedl manner
the o&ave, below the laft fifth which you had imme¬
diately formed ; then you may continue always in the
fame manner; till in this procefs you arrive at the laft
fifth from mi% to Ji%, which fhould of themfelves be
in tune ; that is to fay, they ought to be in fuch a ftate,
that f%, the higheft note of the two which compofe
the fifth, may be identical with the found UT, with
which you began, or at leaft the o&ave of that found
S2V M U
Theory of I$y this method all the twelve founds which compofe
Harmony. one 0f tjje fcales (hall be tuned : nothing is neceffary
‘ but to tune with the greateft poflible exadlnefs their
oftavea in the other feales, and the harpfichord fhall
j,, be well tuned.
Alurations We have given-this rule for temperament from M.
by either Rartieau ; and it belongs only to difinterefted artifts to
judge of it. However this queftion be determined,
agreeable, and whatever kind of temperament may be received,
the alterations which it produces in harmony will be
but very fmall, or not perceptible to the ear, whofe at¬
tention is entirely engroffed in attuning itfelf with the
fundamental bafs, and which fuffers, without uneafi-
nefs, thefe alterations, or rather takes no notice of
them, becaufe it fupplies from itfelf what may be
wanting to the truth and perfeftion of the intervals.
Simple and daily experiments confirm what we now '
advance. Liften to a voice which is accompanied, in
Tinging, by different inftruments ; though the tempe¬
rament of the voice, and the temperament of each of
the inftruments, are all different one from another, yet
you will not be in the leaft affe&ed with the kind of
cacophony which ought to refult from thefe diverlities,
becaufe the ear fuppofes thefe intervals true of which
it does not appreciate differences.
We may give another experiment. Strike upon an
organ the three keys mi, you will hear nothing
but the minor perfect chord; though mi, by the con-
ilruclion of that inftrument, muft caufe /o/^ likewife
to be heard ; though fol fhould have the fame effect
upon re, and fi upon faty ; infomuch, that the ear is
at once affedted with all thefe founds, re, mi, fa%, fol^
foI%,Ji: how many diffonances perceived at the fame
time, and what a jarring multitude of difcordant fen-
fations, would refult from thence to the ear, if the
perfedf chord with which it is preoccupied had not
power entirely to abftraft its attention from fuch
founds as might offend !
Chap. VIII. Of Repofes or Cadences (f).
Cadences Jn a fundamental bafs whofe procedure is by
Fm^crfedt fifths t^iere always is> or always may be, a repofe, or
what and' crifis, in which the mind acquiefces in its tranfition
■why. N° .233
S * C*- Part I.
from one fouhd to another: but a repofe maybe more Theory of
or lefs diftin&ly fignified, and of confequence more or Harmony,
lefs perfea. If one fhould rife by fifths; if, for in- J—
ftance, we pafsfrom ut to fol; it is the generator which
paffes to one of thefe fifths, and this fifth was already
pre-exiftent in its generator : but the generator exifts
no longer in this fifth ; and the ear, as this generator
is the principle of all harmony and of all melody, feels
a defire to return to it. Thus the. tranfition from a
found to its fifth in afcent, is termed an imperfa re¬
pofe, or imperfea cadence ; but the tranfition from any
found to its fifth in defcent, is denominated a perfea
cadence, or an abfolute repofe : it is the offspring which
returns to its generator, and as it were recovers its ex-
iHence once more in that generator itftlf, with which
when founding it refounds (chap, i.)
74. Amongfl abfolute repofes, there are fome, ifPerfedt c#-
we may be allowed the expreflion, more abfolute, that denc«
is to fay, more perfect, than others. Thus in the fun- !"r’re 0Tr „
(lament.! bali SSO*?'
ttl, fol, ut, fa, ut, fol, re, fol, ut,
which forms, as we have feen, the diatonic fcale of the
modems, there is an abfqlute repofe front re to fol, as
from fol to ut: yet this laft abfolute repofe is more
perfect than the preceding, becaufe the ear, prepoflef-
fed with the mode of ut by the multiplied impreffion
of the found ut which it has already heard thrice be¬
fore, feels a defire to return to the generator ut; and
it accordingly does fo by the abfolute repofe fol, ut. 158
75. We may itill add, that what is commonly call-Cadence >/*
ed cadence in melody, ought not to be confounded with
what we name mdlewe in harmony. whatitisia
In the iirft cafe, this word only fignifies an agree- harmony,
able and rapid alteration between two contiguous
founds, called likewife a trill orJbake ; in the fecond,
it fignifies a repoft or clofe. It is however true, that
this fhake implies, or at lead frequently enough pre-
fages, a repofe, either prefentor impending, in the fun¬
damental bafs (x).
76. Since there is a repofe in pafling from one found Cadences ia
to another in the fundamental bafs, there is alfo athe fimda-
repofe in pafling from one note to another in the dia- ba.ft
tonic fcale, which is formed from it, and which thisthediatonk
bafs reprefents : and as the abfolute repofe fol ut, is i'cale, and
of which the
: moft per-
 — —  —     fe<5t.
terwards exhibited in his Generation Harmonique, and in the performances which followed it. From this we
can only conclude, that the reafons which, after him, we have urged for the new temperament, mufl without
doubt have appeared to him very ftrong, becaufe in his mind they had fuperfeded thofe which he had formerly
adduced in favour of the ordinary temperament.
We do not pretend to give any decifion for either the one or the other of thefe methods of temperament,
each of which appears to us to have its particular advantages. We fhall only remark, that the choice of the
one or the other mufl; be left abfolutely to the tafte and inclination of the reader ; without, however, admitting
this choice to have any influence upon the principles of the fyitem of mufic, which we have followed even till
this period, and which muft; always fubfift, whatever temperament we adopt.
(f ) That the reader may have a clear idea of the term before he enters upon the fubje£l; of this chapter, it
may be neceffary to caution him againft a miftake into which he may be too eafily led by the ordinary figni-
fication of the word repofe. In mufic, therefore, it is far from being fynonymous with the word ref. It is,
on the contrary, the termination of a muficafpbrafe which ends in a cadence more or lefs emphatic, as the fen-
timent implied in the phrafe is more or lefs complete. Thus a repofe in mafic anfvvers the fame purpofe as
pun&uation in language. See Repos in Roufleau’s Mufical Di&ionary.
(x) M. Rouffcau, in his letter on French mufic, has called this alternate undulation of different founds a
trill, from the Italian word trillo, which fignifies the fame thing ; and fome French muficians already appear
to have adopted this expreffion.
Patti. M U
Theory of of all others the mofl perfe A hi the fuadamental bafs,
Harmony, rep0fe from to a/} which anfwers to it in the
* ' fcale, and which is likewife terminated by the gene¬
rator, is for that reafon the moil perfedl of all others
160 in the diatonic fcale afcendin'g.
Definition 77. It is then a law dictated by nature itfelf, that
ftnfible you wou^ 3fee 11 d diatonically to the generator of a
cote. mode, you can only do this .by means of the third
major from the fifth of that very generator. This
third major, which with the generator forms a femitone,
See Senf.hU has for that reafon been called the fenjible note, as in-
MoU. , traducing the generator, and preparing us for the moil
perfedl repofe.
We have already proved, that the fundamental bafs
is the principle of melody. We lhall befides make it
appear in the feqiiel, that the effedt of a repofe in
melody arifes folely from the fundamental bafs.
Chap. IX. Of the Minor Mode and its Diatonic
Series.
The ifiato- 78. In the fecond chapter, we have explained fart,
etc feriesof 29. 30. 31. and 32.) by what means, and upon what
the minor .principle, the minor chord ut, mi])y fol, ut, may be
erode afeer-fbra^^ which is the charafteriftical chord of the
Afferent* m'nor mode. Now what we have there faid, ta-
«iamp!es. km? ut for the principal and fundamental found, we
might likewife have faid of any other note in the fcale,
alfumed in the fame manner* as the principal and
fundamental found : but as in the minor chord ut, mi]),
fol, ut, there occurs a mi]) which is not found in the
ordinary diatonic fcale, we fhall immediately fubfti-
tute, for greater eafe and conveniency, another chord,
which is likewife minor and exaftly fimilar to the
former, of which all the notes are found in tire fcale.
79. The fcale affords us three chords of this kind,
viz. re, fa, la, re ; la, ut. mi, la ; and mi, fol, fi, mi.
Among!! thefe three we fhall choofe la, ul, mi, la ; be-
caufe this chord, without including any lharp or flat,
has two founds in common with the major chord ut,
mi, fol, ut; and befides, one of thefe two founds is the
very fame ut : fo that this chord appears to have the
jnoll immediate, and at the fame time the moft fimple,
relation with the chord ut, mi, fol, ut. Concerning
this we need only add, that this preference of the
chord la, ut, mi, la, to every other minor chord, is
by no means in itfeif neceflary for what we have to
fay in this chapter upon the diatonic fcale of the
minor mode. We might in the fame manner have
chofen any. other minor chord ; and it is only, as we
have faid, for greater eafe and conveniency that we
fix upon this.
Tonic or 8p. Let us now remark, that in every mode, whe-
key in bar-tjrer major or minor, the principal found which im-
what*’ plies the perfect chord, whether major or minor, may
See iV/W- be called the tonic note or hey; thus at is the key in
fat. - its proper mode, la in the mode of la, &c. Having
£ee laid down this principle.
The*forma- ^I* ^ave fhown how the three founds fa, ut,
tion of the f°h which conftitute (art.38.) the mode of ut, of which
fcale purfu-the firft fa and the fol are the two-fifths of ut, one
defcending the other rifiog, produce the fcale ft, ut, re,
See fg. D. mi, fa, fol, la, of the major mode, by means of the fun¬
damental bafs fol, ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, fa ; let us in the
Vol. XII. Part II.
S I C. S2l
fame manner take the three founds re,- la, mi, which- Theory of
conllitute the made of/a, for the fame reafon that the Hirmony‘f
founds fa, ut, fol, conilitute the mode of ut ; and of v
them let us form this fundamental bafs, perfe£lly like
the preceding, mi, la, mi, la, re, la, re: let us after- s« fg G,
wards place below each of thefe founds one of their
harmonics, as we have done (chap, v.) for the firfl; -
fcale of the major mode ; with this difference, that we
muft fuppofe re and la as implying their thirds minor
in the fundamental bafs to chara&erife the minor mode;
and we ihall have the diatonic fcale of that mode,
fol%, la, ft, ut, re, mi, fa.
82. The fol%, which correfponds with mi in the-
fundamental bafs, forms a third major with that mi,
.though the mode be minor ; for the lame reafon that
a third from the fifth of the fundamental found ought
to be .major (art. 77.) when that third rifes to the
fundamental found la.
83. It is true, that, in caufing mi to imply its third Sfe
major fol, one might alfo rife to la by a diatonic pro-01 <xrr!l'
grefs. But that manner of rifing to la would be lefs
perfedl than the preceding ; for this reafon (art. 76.),
that the abfolute repofe or perfedl cadence, mi, la,
which is found in the fundamental bafs, ought to be
reprefented in the moft perfedl manner in the two
notes of the diatonic fcale which anfwer to it, efpe-
cially when one of thefe two notes is la, the key itfelf
upon which the repofe is made. From whence it fol¬
lows, that the preceding note fol ought rather to be
ftiarp than natural; becaufe folifc, being included in
mi (art. 19.), much more perfedlly reprefents the note
mi in the bafs, than the natural fol could do, which
is not included in mi.
84. We may remark this firft difference between Diverfitfe*
the fcale in the feale*
fol%, la, ft, ut, re, mi, fa, of the ma-
and the fcale which correfponds with it in the major uo/modcl*'
mode
ft, ut, re, mi, fa, fot, la,
that from mi to fa, which are the two laft notes of the
former fcale, there is only a femitone; whereas from fol
to la, which are the two laft founds of the latter feries,
there is the interval of a complete tone : but this is
not the only diferimination which may be found be¬
tween the feales of the two modes.
85. To inveftigate thefe differences, and to difeover Invefliga-
the reafon for which they happen, we (hall begin by^I'^f*
forming a new diatonic fcale o! the minor mode, fimi-ij^their *
lar to the fecond fcale of the major mode, reafons,^
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, fol, la,Ji, ut. See fg. Es
That laft feries, as we have feen, was formed by
means of the fundamental bafs fa, ut, fol, re, difpofed
in this manner,
ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, fol, re, fol, ut.
Let us take in the fame manner the fundamental
bafs re la mi ft, and arrange it in the following order,
la, mi, la, re, la, mi,Ji, mi, la, See fg. I J.
and it will produce the fcale immediately fubjoined,
la, ft, ut, re, mi, mi, fa%, fol%, la,
in which ut forms a third minor with la, which in the
fundamental bafs correfponds with it, which denomi¬
nates the minor mode; and, on the contrary, foI%
forms a third major with mi in the fundamental bafs,
becaufeJol% rifes towards la, (art. 82. and 83 )
86.
S22 M U
Theory of gg. -\tfe (ec bef1(Jes a fa'%, which does not occur
in the former,
folfi, la, ft, .ut, re, ml, fa,
where fa is natural. It is becaufe, in the firft fcale,
fa is a third minor from re in the bafs ; and in the
^6(, fecond, fa% is the fifth from ft in the bafs.
Difference ^7- Thus the two fcales of the minor mode are flill
between the in this refpedt more different one from the other than
two fcale!. the two fcales of the major mode ; for we do not re-
norrn de mark this difference of a femitone between the two
greater than kales of the major mode We have only obferved
between (art. 63.) fome difference in the value of 'a as it (lands
th fe of the ;n eac^ 0f t}jefe fcale8> but this amounts to much lefs
than a femitone.
jpa „nd/ol 88. From thence it may be feen why fa and fol att
fbarp in the fharp when afcending in the minor mode; nay, be-
mmor fides, the fa is only natural in the firft fcale fol% la,
and ut> ret mi’ fa> becaufe this fa cannot rife to fol%,
168 (art. 48.)^
The cafe 8g. It is not the fame cafe ia defcend’^ r. For ml,
diffeiem in the fifth of the generator, ought not to imply the third
Md why0^’majorbut in the cafe when that ml defcends to
the generator la to form a perfedl repofe (art. 77. and
83.); and in this cafe the third major /?/$; rifes to the
. generator la : but the fundamental bafs la mi may, in
descending, give the fcale la fot natural, provided fol
169 does not rife towards la.
90. It is much more difficult to explain how the fa,
fcendhig6 which ought to follow this /o/ in defcending, is natu-
fcale in the rd and not fharp ; for the fundamental bafs
minor la, mi, ft, mi, la, re, la, mi, la,
mode from produces in defcending,
a funda- r 1 r 1 r hT • • . r 1
' mental bafs , . . ^fohfa^ m,, mt, re, ut fi, la.
difficult. And it is plain that the fa cannot be otherwife than
fharp, fince fafy is the fifth of the note ft of the fun¬
damental bafs. In the mean time, experience evinces
that the fa is natural in defcending in the diatonic
fcale of the major mode of la, efpecially when the
preceding^n/ is natural: and it muft be acknowledged,
that here the fundamental bafs appears in fome meafure
1?o defective.
Rameau’s M. Rameau has invented the following means for
folution, obtaining a folutkm of this difficulty. According to
though the him, in the diatonic fcale of the minor mode in de-
ye^uufatis fcCnd;n2r’ la' fa' w/» rf»- u/’ f*' Ia> fol> may be re-
fadiory. garded fimply as a note of paffage, merely added to
give fweetnefs to. the modulation, and as a diatonic
gradation, by which we may defcend Xa fa natural.
S I C. Part E
It is eafily perceived, according to M. Rameau, by Theory of
this fandametal bafs, Harmony.
la, re, la, re, la, mi, la, " * 1
which produces
la, fa, ml, re, ut, ft, la ;
which may be regarded, as he fays, as the real fcale
of the minor mode in defcending ; to which is added
fol natural between la and fa, to preferve the diatonic
order.
This anfwer appears the only one which can be given,
to the difficulty above propofed; but I know not whe¬
ther it will fully fatisfy the reader ; whether he will
not fee with regret, that the fundamental bafs does not
produce, to fpeak properly, the diatonic fcale of the
minor mode in defcent, when at the fame time this,
fame bafs fo happily produces the diatonic fcale o£?
that identical mode in afcending, and the diatonic,
fcale of the major mode whether in rifiug or defcendr-
fcg .v>
Chap. X. Of Relative Modest..
91. Two modes which are of fuch a nature that we I7r -
can pafs from the one to the other, are called relative rC"
modes. Thus we have already feen, that- the major what.’
mode of ut is relative to the major mode of fa and to See Mode.
that of fol. It may likewife appear from what goes
before, how many intimate connexions there are be¬
tween the fpecies ( + ) or major mode of ut, aal the /£><?-
cies or minor mode of/a. For, 1. The perfeX chords,
one major ut mi fol ut, the other minor la ut mi la,
which charaXerife each of thofe two kinds of modula¬
tion* or harmony, have two founds in.common, ut or * See Me-
mi. 2. The diatonic fcale of the minor mode of la mfulaiia*’
defcent, abfolutdy contains the fame founds with the.
gammut or diatonic fcale at the major rtiode of ut.
It is for this reafon that the tranfition is fo natural
and eafy from, the major mode of ut to the minor mode
of la, or from the minor-mode of la to the major mode
of ut, as experience proves.
92. In the minor mode of mi, the minor perfeX
chord mi fol ft mi, which charaXerifes it, has likewife.
two founds, mi, fol, in common with the perfeX chord
major ut mi fol ut, which charaXerifes the major mode,
of ut. Rut the minor mode of mi is .not fo clofely re-,
lated nor allied to the major mode of ut as to the mi¬
nor mode of la; becaufe the diatonic fcale of the mi¬
nor mode of mi in'defcent, has not, like the ferjes of
the.
(y) Foj what remains, whenyb/ is.faid to be natural in defcending the diatonic fcale of the minor mode of
la, this only fignifies, that this fol is not neceffarily (harp .in defcending as it is.in.rifing ; for this yo/, btfides,
may be fharp in defcending to the minor mode of la, as may be proved by nutnberlefs examples, of which all
nuifical compofitions are full. It i&.true, that whemthe found fol is found fharp in defcending to the minor mode
of la, ftill we are not fiire that the mpde is. minor till the fa or ut natural is found,; both of which imprefs
a peculiar chqraX.er on the minor mode, viz. ut natural, in rifing and in defcending, and the fa natural in de?
fc ending.
(t) Species was the only word which occurred to the tranflator in Englifh by which he could render the
French wprd genre. Ifc is, according to Rouffeau, intended to exprefs the different divifions and difpofitions
of *he intervals which formed the two tetrachords in the ancient diatonic fcale; and as the gammut of the mo¬
derns confifls likewife of two tetrachords, though diverfified from the former, as our author has fhown at.
large, the genre or fpecies, as the tranflator has been obliged to exprefs it, mull confift in the various dilpofi,
tions and divifion* pf the different intervals between the notes or femitones which compofe the modern fcale*..
"Part I. MU
Theory of the minor mode of /<*, all tKefe founds in common with
Harmony. ^ j'ca;c 0f ut_ jn rea’Jty, this fcale is mi re ut ft la
v fol fafy mi, where there occurs a fa (harp which is not
in the fcale of ut. We may add, that though the mi¬
nor mode of mi is lefs relative to the major mode of ut
than that of la ; yet the artift does not hefitate fome-
times to pafs immediately from the one to the other.
Of this may be feen one inftance (among many
others) in the prologue des Amours des Dieux, at this
padage, Ovide ejl I’objet de la fete, which is in the mi¬
nor mode of mi, though what immediately precedes it
is in the-major mode of ut.
We may fee belides, that when we pafs from one
mode to another by the interval of a third, whether
in defcending or rifing, as from ut to la, or from la to
ut, from ut to mi, or from mi to ut, the major mode
becomes minor, or the minor mode becomes major.
93. There is (fill another minor mode, into which
an immediate tranfition may be made in iduing from
the major mode of ut. It is the minor mode of ut
itfelf in which the perfect minor chord ut mty fol ut
lias two founds, ut and fol, in common with the per-
fect major chord ut mi fol ut. Nor is there any thing
more common than a tranfition from the major mode
of ut to the minor mode, or from the minor to the
major(z).
Chap. XI. Of Diffonance.
94. We have already obferved, that the mode of ut
(fa, ut, fol), has two founds in common with the
’mode olfol (ut,fol, re) ; and two founds in common
with the mode offa (f\),fa, ut); of confequence, this
procedure of the bafs ut fol may belong to the mode
of ut, or to the mode of fol, as the procedure of the
bafs fa ut, or ut fa, may belong to the mode of ut or
the mode offa. When any one therefore pades from
vt to fa or to fol in a fundamental bafs, he is Hill igno¬
rant even to that crifis what mode he is in. It would
be, however, advantageous to know it, and to be able
by fome means to diftinguilh the generator from its
fifths.
95. This advantage may be obtained by uniting at
the fame time the founds}^/ and fa in the fame har¬
mony, that is to fay, by joining to the harmony folft
re of the fifth fol, the other fifth fa in this manner,
i'ol, ft, re, fa ; this fa which is added, forms a dido-
nance with fol (art. 18.) It is for that reafon that the
chord fol ft re fa, is called a dijfonant chord, ora chord
of the feventh. It ferves to diftinguifti the fifth fol
Cafes in
which the
mode is un¬
certain.
173
How we
may inve-
ftigate the
generator
and its
fifths, and
by that
means de¬
termine the
mode.
s I a 523
from the generator ut, which always implies, without Theory of
mixture or alteration, the perfeft chord ut, mi, fol, ut, riarnj0!,y-,
refulting from nature itfelf (art. 32.) By this v/e may
fee, that when we pafs from ut to fol, one pades at the .
fame time from ut to fa, becaufe fa is found to be com¬
prehended in the chord of fol; and the mode of ut by
thefe means plainly appears to be determined, becaufe
there is none but that mode to which the founds fa
and_/o/at once belong. 174
96. Let us now fee wdiat may be added to the bar- Manner of
mony fa, la, ut, of the fifth fa below the generator, 1 '
diltinguifh this harmony from that of the generator, continued..
It feems probable at fir it, that we (hould add to it the
other fifth Jol, fo that the generator ut, in pading to
fa, may at the fame time pafs to fol, and that by this
the mode (hould be determined: but this introduction
of fol, in the chord fa, la, ut, would produce two fe-
conds in fuccefiion fa, fol, fol, la, that is to fay, two
diflbnances whofe union would prove extremely harfh
to the ear; an inconvenience which ought carefully to
be avoided. For if, to diftinguilh the mode, we (hould
alter the harmony of the fifth fa in the fundamental
bafs, it mud only be altered in the lead degree pof-
fible. _ ITS
97. For this reafon, indead of fol, we (hall take its Chord of
fifth re, which is the found that approaches it the near- the great
ed; and we (hall have, indead of the fifth fa, the chord11*1 *
fa, la, ut, re, which is called a chord of the great fxth.
One may here remark the analogy there is obferved
between the harmony of the fifth fol and that of the
fifth fa. 17 S
98. The fifth fol, in rifing above the generator, gives T*1®
a chord entirely confiding of thirds afeending from Jol, ces Conti-
fol,fi, re, fa; now the fifth fa being below the gene-nued.
rator ut in defcending, we (hall find, as we go lower by
thirds from ut towards fa, the fame founds ut, la, fa,
re, which form the chord fa, la, ut, re, given to the
fifth fa.
99. It appears befides, that the alteration of the
harmony in the two fifths confids only in the third mi¬
nor re, fa, which was reciprocally added to the har¬
mony of thefe two fifths.
Chap. XII. Of the Double Ufe or Employment of
Diffonance.
177
1 op. It is evident by the refemblance of founds to Account of
their oftaves, that the chord fa, la, ut, re, is in effeft^ d'uhlc
the fame as the chord re, fa, la, ut, taken inverfely *, n°eat^"
that the inverfe of the chord ut, la, fa, re, has been * See /«.
3 U 2 found vr Hr A
( z) There are likewife other minor modes, into which we may pafs in our egrefe from the mode major of
ut; as that of fa minor, in which the perfect minor chord fa, la\}, ut, includes the found ut, and whofe fcale
in afeent fa, fol, ut, re, mi, fa, only includes the two founds la\), fi\), which do not occur in the fcale
of ut. We find an example of this tranfition from the mode major of ut to that of fa minor, in the opera of
Pygmalion by M. Rameau, where the farabando is in the minor mode offa, and the rigadoon in the mode major
of ut. This kind of tranfition, however, is not frequent.
The minor mode of re has only in its fcale afeending re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, ut%, re, one ut (harp which is
not found in the fcale of ut. For this reafon a tranfition may likewife be made, without grating the ear, from
the mode of ut major to the mode of re minor; but this paffage is lefs immediate than the former, becaufe the
chords ut. mi, fol, ut, re,fa, la, re, not having a fingle found m common, one cannot (art. 37.) pafs immedi«
ately from the one to the other.
SH MUSIC. Parti-
Theory of found fart. g8.) In defcendiner by thirds from the ge-
Harmony. nerator
’ 101. The chord re, fa, la, ut, is a chord of the fe-
Difference ventb hke tke chord/o/,7?, re fa: with this only dif-
hetween ference, that in this the third fol,fi, is major: whereas
dfiminant in the fecond, the third re, fa, is minor. If the fa
and tonic were fharp, the chord re, fa%, la, ut, would be a ge-
onimant. nujne ch0rd of the dominant, like the chordi/o/,^ re,
fa ; and as the dominant fol may defcend to ut in the
fundamental bafs, the dominant re implying or carry¬
ing with it the third majorfa'% might in the fame man¬
ner defcend to fol.
102. Now I fay, that if the fa% fhould be changed
into fa natural, re, the fundamental tone of this chord
re, fa, la, ut, might ftill defcend to fol; for the change
from fa% to fa natural, will have no other effedt, than
to preferve the imprelfion of the mode of ut, inftead
of that of the mode of fol, which the fa% would have
here introduced. For what remains, the note re w>ill al¬
ways preferve its charafter as the dominant, on ac¬
count of the mode of ut, which forms a feventh. Thus
in the chord of which we treat, re, fa, la, ut, re, may
be conlidered as an imperfeQ diminant; I call it im-
perfett, becaufe it carries with it the third minor fa,
inftead of the third major fa%. It is for this reafon
that in the fequel I ftiall call it fimply the dominant,
to dittinguifti it from the dominant fol, which lhall be
named the tonic dominant
See Ttomi- 103. Thus the founds fa and fol, which cannot fuc-
cee(j other (art. 36.) in a diatonic bafs, w hen
they only carry with them the perfedt chords fa, la,
ttt, fol, ft, re, may fucceed one another if you join re
to the harmony of the firft, and fa to the harmony of
the fecond ; and if you invert the firft chord, that is
to fay, if you give to the two chords this form, re, fa,
la, ut, fol, f, re, fa.
contradfc- io4* Befides, the chord fa, la, ut, re, being al-
tions recon- lowed to fucceed the perfect chord ut,- mi, fol, ut, it
ciled. follows for the fame reafons, that the chord ut, mi, fol,
nt, may be fucceeded by re, fa, la, ut; which is not
contradictory to what we have above faid (art. 37-),
that the founds ut and re cannot fucceed one another
in the fundamental bafs: for in the paffage quoted, we
had fuppofed that both ut and re carried with them a
perfect chord mojor; whereas, in the prefent cafe, re Theory of
carries the third minor fa, and likewife the found ut, Hamiony.^
by which the chord re fa la ut is connected with that v
w hich precedes it ut mi fol ut ; and in which the found
ut is found. Befides, this chord, re fa la ut, is proper¬
ly nothing elfe but the chord fa la ut re inverted, and,
if we may fpeak fo, difguifed.
105. This manner of prefenting the chord of the Double etn«
fub-dorcinant under two different forms, and of em-Plo)'nicnt. 1
ploying it under thefe two different forms, has been
called by M. Rameau its double office or employment^. called.
This is the fource of one of the fined: varieties in har- f See DouM*
mony; and we ftiall fee in the following chapter the ‘mphymest.
advantages which refult from it.
We may^dd, that as this double employment is a
kind of licence, it om-ht not to be pradtifed without
fome precaution. We have lately feen that the chord
re fa la ut, confidered as the inverfe of fa la ut re, may
fucceed to ut mi fol ut, but this liberty is not recipro¬
cal : and though the chord fa la ut re may be follow¬
ed by the chord ut mi fol ut, we have no right to con¬
clude from thence that the .chord re fa la ut, confider¬
ed as the inverfe of fa la ut re, may be followed by the
chord ut mi fol ut. For this the reafon (hall be given
Chap. XVI.
Chap. XIII. Concerning the Ufe of this Double
Employment, and its Rules.
181
ic6. We have (hown (chap, vi.) how the diatonic By the
fcale, or ordinary gammut, may be formed from the t'ouble ufe
fundamental bafs fa, ut,fol, re, by twice repeating the
word fol in that feries; fo that this gammut is primi-tionetj
lively and originally cpmpofed of two fimilar tetra-cho;d, the
chords, one in the mode of ut, the other in that offol. 'mpreflion
Now it is poflible, by means of this double employ-®“lode
ment, to preferve the imprefiion of the mode of t^prefeived,
through the whole extent of the fcale, wuthout twice
repeating the note fol, or even without fuppofing this
repetition. For this effeft we have nothing to do but
form the following fundamental bafs,
ut, fol, ut, fa, ut, re, fol, ut :
in which ut is underftood to carry with it the perfedl
chord ut mi fol ut; fol, the chord fol ft re fa ; fa, the
chord
(aa) “ M. Rameau, in feveral paffages of his works (for inftance, in p. 1 TO, 111, n 2, and 113, of the Ge¬
neration Harmonique), appears to eonfider the chord re, fa, la, ut, as the primary chord and generator of the
chord fa, la, ut, re, which is nothing but that chord itfelf reverfed ; in other .paffages (par ticularly in p. 1 16.
of fhe fame performance), he feems to confiderthe firft: of thefe chords as nothing elfe but the reverfe of the
fecond. It would feem that this great artift has neither expreffed himfelf upon this fubjeft with fo much uni¬
formity nor with fo much precifion as is required. For my own part, 1 think there is fome foundation for
confidering the chord fa, Is, ut, re, as primitive : 1. Becaufe in this chord, the fundamental and principal note
is the fub-dominant fa, which ought in effeft to be the fundamental and principal found in the chord of the
fub-dominant. 2. Becaufe that without having recourfe, with M. Rameau, to harmonical and arithmetical
progreffions, of which the co'nfideration appears to us quite foreign to the queftion, we have found a probable
and even a fatisfa&ory reafon for adding the noie re to the harmony of the fifth fa (art. 96. and 97.) The
origin thus afligned for the chord of the fub-dominant appears to us the moft natural, though M. Rameau does
not appear to have felt its full value; for fcarcely has it been flightly infinuated by him.”
Thus far our anther. We do not enter with him into the controverfy concerning the origin of the chord
in queftion ; but only propofe to add to his definition of the fub-dominant Rouffeau’s idea of the fame note.
It is a name, fays he, given by M. Rameau to the fourth note In any modulation relative to a given key, which
of confequence is in the fame interval from the key in defeending as the dominant in rifing; from which cir-
cumftance it takes its name.
Parti. M U S I C. 525
Theory of chord fa la ut re; and re, the chord re fa la ut. It du£t of nature alone; whereas the minor is, in fome Theory of
Harmony. js plain from what has been faid in the preceding chap- meafure, the produdl of art. But in return, the ma- Harmony-i
' ter, that in this cafe ut may afeend to re in the funda- jor mode has received from nature, to "which it owes '' _v "
mental bafs, and re defeend to fol, and that the im- its immediate fonnation, a force and energy which the
preffion of the mode of ut is preferved by the fa natu- minor cannot boaft.
ral, which forms the third minor re fa, inftead of the
third major which re ought naturally to imply. Chap.XIV. Of the Different Kinds of Chords of
107. This fundamental bafs will give, as it is evi- the Seventh.
dent, the ordinary diatonic fcale, 183
ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT, 112: The difibnance added to the chord of the do-fnveftiga- .
which of confequence will he in the mode of ut alone ; minant and of the fub-dominant, though in fome rnea'[J,Je"
and if one flrbuld choofeto have the fecond tetrachord fure infinuated by nature (chap xi.j, is neverthelefs m
in the mode offol,\t will be neceflary tofubftitute fafy a work of art; but.as it produces great beauties inquence of
inftead of fa natural in the harmony of re (bb). harmony by the variety which it introduces into it, let fome fuc-
108. Thus the generator ut may be followed ac- us difeover whether, in eonfequence of this firft ad-ce^ulac*'
cording to pleafure in afeending diatonically either by vance, art may not ftill be.carried farther. nioy n^t j)C
atonic dominant (re fa% la ut), or by a iimple do- *13. We have already three different kinds of earned iar»
Biinant (re fa la ut). chords of the feventh, viz.. ther.
109. In the minor mode of la, the tonic dominant 1. The chord foi fi re fa, compofed of a third ma"Dl^e
mi ought always to imply its third major mi fol %, jor followed by two thirds minor. ch'ordTof-
when this dominant mi defeends to the generator la 2. The chord re fa la ut, or fi re fa% la, compo-t e fe-
(art. 83.) ; and the chord of this dominant ilrali be mi ' fed of a third major between two minors. venth* ,
Jol}% ft re, entirely fimilar to folfi re fa. With refpedf 3. The chord Ji re fa la, compofed of two thirds
to the fub-dominant re, it will immediately imply the minor followed by a major.
third minor fa, to denominate the minor mode ; and 114. There are ftill two other kinds of chords of the
we may add fi above its chord re fa la, in this manner feventh which are employed in harmony ; one is com-
re fala fi, a chord fimilar to that of fa la ut re ; and pofed of a third minor between two thirds major, ut
as we have deduced from the chord fa la ut re that of mi fol ft, or fa la ut mi; the other is wholly compo¬
rt fa la ut, we may in the fame manner deduce from fed of thirds minor fol%fi re fa. Thefe two chords,
the chord re fa la ft a new chord of the feventh ft re which at lirft appear as if they ought not to enter into
fa la, which will exhibit the double employment of dijfo- harmony if we rigoroufly keep to the preceding rules,
nances in the minor mode. are neverthelefs frequently praftifed with fuccels in the
110. One may employ this chord ft re fa la, to pre- fundamental bafs. The reafon is this : xSj
ferve the impreffion of the mode of la in the diatonic 115. According to what has been faid above, if Hie chords'
fcale of the minor mode, and to prevent the necelfity we would add a feventh to the chord ut mi fol, to
of twice repeating the found mi; but in this cafe, the make a dominant of ut, one can add nothing butfible4 and.*
fa muft be rendered ftrarp, and change this chord to fi _ and in this cafe ut mi fol f\) would be the chord of why’.
re fa%. la, the fifth ofyf is fa%, as we have feen above; the tonic dominant in the mode of fa, as fol fi re fa
this chord is then the inverfe of re fa%la ft, where is the chord of the tonic dominant in the mode of ut\
the fubdominant implies the third major, which ought but if you would preferve the impreffion of the mode
not to furprife us. For in tire minor mode of la, the of ut in the harmony, you then change this fib into Jl
fecond tetrachord mi fa% fol% la is exacily the fame natural, and the chord ut mi folfil) becomes ut mi folji.
as it would be in the major mode of la ; now, in the It is the fame cafe with the chord fa la ut mi, which
major mode of la, the fub-dominant re ought to imply is nothing elfe but the chord fa la ut mi\); in which
the third major fa%. one may fubftitute for mi\), mi natural, to preferve the
"Diverfities 111* From thence we may fee that the minor mode impreffion of the mode of ut, or of that of fa.
in the mi- is fufceptible of a much greater number of varieties Befides, in fuch chords as ut mi fol ft, fa la ut mi,,
no- mode tjian ^ major ; likewife the major mode is the pro- the founds ft and mi, though they form a difibnance
meroua -with
than in the
.major.
(bb) We need only add, that it is eafy to fee, that this fundamental bafs ut fol, ut fa, ut re, fol ut, which
formed the afeending fcale ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft, UT, cannot by inverting it,, and taking it inverfely in this
manner ft, ut,foi, re, ut,fa, ut, fol, UT, form the diatonic fcale UT, ft, la, fol, fa, mi, re, ut, in defeent. In
reality, from the chord fol, ft, re, fa, we cannot pafs to the ehord re, fa, la, ut, nor from thence to ut, mi,
fol, ut. It is for this reafon that in order to have th£ fundamental bafs of the fcale, UT, fi, la, fol, fa, mi, re,
ut, in defeent, we rnuu either determine to invert the fundamental bafs mentioned in art. 55. in this manner,.
ut, fol, re, fol, ut, fa ut, fol, ut, in which the fecond fol and the fecond ut anfwer to the fol alone in the fcale ;
or other wife we muft form the fundamental bafs ut, fol, re, fol, ut, fol, ut, in which all the notes imply per-
fecl chords major, except the kcond fcl, which implies the chord of the feventh fol, ft, re, fa, and which an-
fwera to the two notes of the fcale fol, fa, both comprehended in the chord fl, ft, re, fa.
Whichever of thefe two baffes we ft all choofe, it is obvious that neither the one nor the other ffiall be wholly
in the mode of ut, but in the mode of ut and in that of fol. From whence it follows, that the double em¬
ployment which gives to the b ale a fundamental bafs all in the fame mode when afeending, cannot do the fame:
in ddeending ; and that the fundamental bafs of the fcale in defeending will be neceffarily in two different
saodes* . 4
526 M U
^I'henry of in'the firfl cafe, and with fa in the fecond,
Harmony. are neverthelefs iupportable to the ear, becaufe thefe
v founds fi and mi fart. 19.) are already contained and
runderftood, the firft in the note mi of the chord ut
mi folJi, as likewife in the note fol of the fame chord ;
the fecond in the note la of the chord fa la ut mi, as
likewife in the note ut of the fame chord. All toge¬
ther then feem to allow the artill to introduce the
fgg note fi and mi into thefe two chords (cc ).
'Chords of 116. With refpeft to the chord of the feventh folfy
the feventhJ[ re fa, wholely compofed of thirds minor, it may
anTex*^ regarded -ns formed from the union of the two
jlained. chords of the dominant and of the fub-dominant in
the minor mode. In effeft, in the minor mode of la,
lor inftance, thefe two chords are mi foYfe. ft re, and
re fa la Ji, whofe union produces mi, fol%, Ji, re, fa,
la. Now, if we fhould -fuffer this chord to remain
•thus, it would be difagreeable to the ear, by its mul¬
tiplicity of dilfonances, re mi, mi la, la fol%,laft, re
fol%, (art. 18.) ; fo that, to avoid this inconveniency,
, the generator la is immediately expunged, which (art.
19.) is as it were uncj^rftood in re, and the fifth or do¬
minant mi vvhofe plaice the fenfible note fol% is fuppo-
fed to holds thus there remains no more than the
chord folfyft re fa, wholly compofed of thirds minor,
and in which the dominant is confidered as undcr-
Itood ; in fuch a manner that the chord fol% fi re fa
reprefents the chord-of the tonic dominant mi fol%fire,
to which we have joined the chord of the fub-domi¬
nant re fa la ft, but in which the dominant mi is al¬
ways reckoned the principal note (dd).
11 7. Since, then, from the chord mi fol%f re, we
may pafs to the perfeft la ut mi la, and vice verfa, we
may in like manycr pafs from the chord fol% f re fa
to the chord la ut mi la, and from this laft to the
chord fol% f re fa\ this remark will be very ufeful to
ns in the fequei.
Chap. XV. 'Of the Preparation of Difccrds.
118. In every chord of the feventh, the higheft
Diffona-.ec, note^ that is to fay, the feventh above the fundamen-
V' a * tal, is called a dijfonance Or difcord ; thus fa is the diffo-
nancc of the chord fol ft re fa, ut in the chord re fa
iSS ia ut> &c*
Manner of 1x9. When the chord fol ft re fa follows the chord
preparing ut mi fol ut, as this may happen, and in reality often
cJiflbnances happens, it is obvious that we do not find the diflb-
£ed 1”a" nance fa in t^le preceding chord ut mi fol ut. Nor
ought it indeed to be found in that chord; for this
S IC. Patti.
dilfonance is nothing elfe but the fub-dominant added Theory of
to the harmony of the dominant to determine the Harmony.
mode : now, the fub-dominant is not found in the ' » f
harmony of the generator.
120. For the fame reafon, when the chord of the
fub-dominant fa la ut re follows the chord ut mi fol ut,
the note re, which forms a diflbnance with ut, is not
found in the preceding chord.
It is not fo when the chord re fa la ut follows the
chord ut mi fol ut; for ut, which forms a diffonance
in the fecond chord, ftands as a confonance in the pre¬
ceding. _
121. In general, diflbnance being the produftioni):ff .^nce
®f art (chap, xu), el'pecially in fuch chords as are not is only ro¬
of the tonic dominant nor fub-dominant; the only lemblc to
means to prevent its difpkafing the ear by appearing ^he^afoun4
too heterogeneous to the chord, is, that it may be, it m prece.
we may fpeak fo, announced to the ear by being din?
found in the preceding chord, and by that means ferve chords.
to conned, the two chords. From whence follows this
rulc* . . 190
122. In every chord of the feventh, which is not preparat;an
the chord of the tonic dominant, that is to fay, (art. of diffonan-
102.) which is not compofed of a third major followedces how
by two thirds minor, the diflbnance which this chord1>cr orme *
forms ought to flaud as a confonance in the chord
which precedes it.
This is what we call a prepared diffonance. See Prefg*
123. From thence it follows, that in order to pre-™''6"*
pare a diflbnance, it is abfolutely neceflary that the
fundamental bafs flrould afeend by the interval of a
fecond, as
UT mi fol ut, RE fa la ut;
or defee nd by a third, as
UT mi fol ut, LA ut mi fol;
or defeend by a fifth, as
UT mi fol ut, FA la ut mi:
in every other cafe the diflbnance cannot be prepared.
This is what may be eafily afeertained. If, for in¬
ftance, the fundamental bafs rifes by a third, as ut mi
fol ut, mi fol ft re, the diflbnance re is not found in
the chord ut mi fol ut. The fame might be faid of
ut mi fol ut, fol ft re fa, and ut mi fol ut, f re fa la, in
which the fundamental bafs rifes by a fifth or defeends
by a fecond.
124. It may only be added, that when a tonic,
that is to fay, a note which carries with it a perfeft
chord, is followed by a dominant in the interval of a
fifth or third, this procedure may be regarded as a
procefs from that fame tonic to another, which has
been
(cc) On the contrary, a chord fuch as ut mity folf, in which mi would be flat,, could not be admitted in har¬
mony, becaufe in this chord the /? is not included and underftood in mi\). It is the fame cafe with feveral
other chords, fuch is f re fa la%, fi re% fa la, &c. It is true, that in the laft of thefe chords, la is in¬
cluded in fa, but it is not contained in refk ; and this re% likewife forms with fa and with la a double diflb¬
nance, which, joined with the diflbnance fi fa, would neceffarily render this chord not very pleafing to the ear;
we fhall yet, however, fee in the fecond part, that this chord is fometimes ufed.
(dd) We have feen (art. 109.) that the chord fi re fa la, in the minor mode of la, may be regarded as
the inverfe of the chord re fa la fiit would likewife feem, that, in certain cafes, this chord fi re fa la may
be confidered as compofed of the two chords fol fi re fa, fa la ut re, of the dominant and of the fub-domi¬
nant of the major mode of ut; which chords may be joined together, after having excluded from them,
t‘ 7^e. dominant fol, reprefented by its third major fi, which is prefumed to retain its place. 2. The note ut
which is underftood in fa, which will form this chord fi re fa la. The chord fi re fa la, confidered in this
point of view, may be underfteod as belonging to the major mode of ut upon certain occafions.
Fart I. MU
Theory of been rendered a dominant by the addition of the diflb-
Harmony. nance
"L'1 * Moreover, we have feen (art. 119 and 120.) that
a diflbnance does not ftand in need of preparation in
the chords of the tonic dominant and of the fab-do¬
minant : from whence it follows, that every tonic car¬
rying with it a perfedt chord may be changed into a
tonic dominant (if the perfedl chord be major), or in¬
to a fubdominant (whether the chord be major or mi¬
nor) by adding the diffonance all at once.
Chap. XVI. Of the Rules for refolving Diffo-
nances.
125. We have feen /chap. v. and vi.) how the di-
atonic fcale, fo natural to the voice, is formed by the
harmonies of fundamental founds; from whence it fol¬
lows, that the moll natural fucceffion of harmonical
founds is to be diatonic. To give a diflbnance then,
in fome meafure, as much the charadter of an harmo¬
nic found as may be pofiible, it is neceflary that this
diflbnance, in that part of the modulation where it is
found, fhould defcend or rife diatonically upon another
note, which may be one of the confonances of the
fubfequent chord.
1 26. Now in the chord of the tonic dominant it
ought rather to defcend than to rife ; for this reafon.
Let us take, for inftance, the chord folft re fa follow¬
ed by the chord ut mi fol ut; the part which formed
the diflbnance fa ought to defcend to mi rather than
rife to fol, though both the founds mi and fol are found
in the fubfequent chord ut m fol ut; becaufe it is
more natural and more conformed to the connediion
which ought to be found in every part of the mufic,
that fol fliould be found in the fame part where fol has
already been founded, whilft the other part was found¬
ing fa, as may be here feen (parts firft and fourth.)
tgx
Biflbr.an-
ees to be r<
Jwlveil,
xnuft be'
dif^uifed
and made
to appear
in the cha-
rafter of
harmonics.
fci the
chord of
the tonic
dominant,
the diifo-
naqce
fhould ra¬
ther rife
than de¬
fcend, and
why.
193
3 Confequen-
>a ces of the
3 former
ijjtuie.
Another
( ieonfonance.
_ *93
1 But is de-
t iduced from
fthe font
)j|*rypoli«
( i tioiis.
196
] liffonance
refolvcd,
Ste Refalu-
Firft part, - - fa n
Second, - - - f ut*
Third, - .. re ut.
Fourth, - - -■ fol fol.
Fundamental bafs, - - fol ut.
127. For the fame reafon, in the chord of the
fimple dominant re fa la ut,. followed by. fol ft re. fa,
diflbnance ut might rather to defcend toft than rife to re.
128. In fhort, for the fame reafon, ;we fliall find,
that in the chord of the fub-dominant/a la ut re, the
diflbnance. re ought to rife to mi of the following chord.
ut mi fol ut, rather than defcend to ut j whence may
be deduced the following rules.
129. i°. In every chord of the dominant, whether
tonic or fimple, the note whioh conftitutes the feventh,.
that is to fay the diflbnance, ought diatonically to
defcend upon one of the notes which form a confonance
in the fubfequent chord.
2°. In. every chord of the fubdominant, the diflb-
nance ought to rife diatonically upon the third of the
fiabfequent chord.
130. A diflbnance which defcends or rifcs diatonic
cally according to thefe two rules, is called a diffonance
refolved.
From thefe rules it is a neceflary refult, that the
chord of the feventh re fa la. ut, though one fhould
even confider it as the inverfe of fa la ut re, cannot,
be fuceeeded by the chord ut mi fol ut, fince . there, is
s I C. 527
not in this laft chord of ^ any note upon which the Theory of
diflbnance ut of the chord re fa la ut can defcend. Harmony.^
One may befides find another reafon for this rule, v
in examining the nature of the double employment of
diflbnances. In effed, in order to pafs from re fa la
ut, to ut mi fol ut, it is neceflary that re fa la ut
fhould in this cafe be underftood as the inverfe of fa la
ut re. Now the chord re fa la ut can only be con¬
ceived as the inverfe of fa la ut re, when this chord
re fa la ut precedes or immediately follows the ut mi
fol' ut ; in every other cafe the chord re fa la ut is a
primitive chord, formed from the perfed minor chord
re fa la, to which the diflbnance ut was added, to
take from re the charader of a tonic. Thus the chord
re fa la ut, could not be followed by the chord ut mi
Jol ut, but after having been preceded by the fame
chord. Now, in this cafe, the double employment would
be entirely a futile expedient, without producing any
agreeable effed; becaufe, inftead of this fucceflion of
chords, ut mi fol ut, re fa la ut, ut mi fol ut, it woulcf
be much more eafy and natural to fubftitute this other,
which furnilhes this natural procefs, ut mi fol ut,fa la
ut re, ut mi fol ut. The proper ufe of the double em¬
ployment is, that, by means of inverting the chord
of the fub-dominant, it may be able to pafs from that
chord thus inverted to any other chord except that of
the tonic, to which it naturally leads.
Chap. XVII. Of the Broken or Interrupted
Cadence.
J31. In a fundamental bafs which moves by fifths,'The teft off
there is always, as we have formerly obferved (chap, perfection
viii.), a repofe more or lefs perfed from one found to"1 cadences-
another; and of confequence there muft likewife be10^
a repofe more or lefs perfed from one found to ano-"
ther in the diatonic fcale, which refults from that bafs. bafs.
It may be demonftrated by a very fimple experiment,
that the caufe of a repofe in melody is folely in the
fundamental bafs exprefled or underftood. Let any
perfon fing thefe three notes ut re ut, performing on the
re a fliake, which is commonly called a-radbzef ; the mo¬
dulation will appear to him to be finifhed after the fe-
cond ut, ia fuch a manner that the ear will neither -ex~
ped nor wifh any thing to follow. The.cafe will be
the fame if we accompany this modulation with its na¬
tural fundamental'bafs ut fol ut: but if, inftead of this
bafs, we fliould give it the following, ut fol la ; in this
cafe the modulation ut re ut would not appear to be
finilhed, and the ear would, ftill exped and delire fome-
thing more. This experiment may eaiily be made.
. I3‘2- This paflage fol la, when the dominant yo/Broken ca,
diatonically afeends upon the note la, inftead of de-fences
feending by a fifth upon the generator.«/, as.it oughtw,lat* and
naturally to do, is called a broken cadence ; becaufe the.g ^/x
perfed cadence^o/ ut, which, the ear. expeded after the- ee “
dominant fol, is, if we may fpeak fo, broken and;
fufpended by the tranfition from fol to la.
133. From .thence it follows, that if the modula¬
tion ut re ut. appeared finiflied when we fuppofed no
bafs to it at all, it is becaufe its natural fundamental
bafs ut fol ut is fuppofed tp be implied; becaufe tho
ear defires fomething to follow this modulation, as
foon as it is. reduced to the neceflity of hearing ano*
ther bafs.
134. The
3
jj8 MUSI C.
T.'ieuy <;f 134. Tlie interrupted cndence may, as It feems 'to duces tlie diatonic fpecie*
Harmony.^ m€^ be confidered as haring its origin in the double
19? employment of cLJfonivtces ; fmce this cadence, like the
Origin double employment, only conlifts in a diatonic proee-
interrupted dure of the bafs afcending (chap, xii.) In effedt, no-
tthe double hinders us to defcead from the chord fol fi re fa
employ- t0 the chord nt mi fol la, by converting the tonic ut in-
ment of to a fub-dominant, that is to fay, by palling all at
diflbuati- once from the mode ol ut to the mode of foh. now to
Part T.
common ufe (chap, fi.): Theory of
now the third major being one of the harmonies of.-a '^armony.^
fundamental found as well as the fifth, it follows,
that we may form fundamental baffes by thirds ma¬
jor, as we have already formed fundamental baffes by
fifths. 204
139. If then we Ihould form this bafs a/, mi, fol%, A chroma-
the two firft founds carrying each along with it theirt!C in!erval
thirds major and fifths, it is evident that ut will °
defcend horn fedft re fa to ut mi fol la is the fame thing fol, and that mi will give f>l : now the femitone which how found,
as to rife from the chord folft re fa to the chord la ut is between this fol and this fol% is an interval much See fg. K.
lefs than the femitone which is found in the diatonic
fcale between mi and fa, or between ji and ut. This
may be afccrtained by calculation (ee) : it is for this
reafon that the femitone from mi to fa is called major>
and the other minor (ff).
140. If the fundamental bafs Ihould proceed by
thirds minor in this manner, ut, mi\), a fucceffion
which is allowed when we have invelligated the origin
of the minor mode (chap. ix.), we lhall find this mo¬
dulation fol, fol\), which would likewife give a minor
femitone (go). " 20$
141. The minor femitone is hit by young pra&i-An mtona-
ni fol, in changing the chord of the fubdominant ut
mi fol la for the imperfeft chord of the dominant, ac-
cording to the laws of the double employment.
-JvTinntr cf 135. In this kind of cadence, the diffonance of the
4>eiforming chord is refolved by defeending diatonically upon
dence! t^ie fi'bfequent chord. For inftance, in
the broken cadence folft re fa, la ut mi fol, the diffo¬
nance fa is refolved by defeending diatonically upon
the fifth mi.
I interrupted 136. There is ftill another kind of cadence called
cadence, an interrupted cadence, where the dominant defeends
what. by a third to another dominant, inftead of defeending
See Cadence, a Up0n tonic, as in this procefs of the bafs,
folft re fa, mi fol ft re; in the cafe of an interrupted
cadence, the diffonance of the former chord is refolved
by defeending diatonically upon the oftave of the fun-
tioners in intonation with more difficulty than the fe-jK,n. mmoc
mitone major. For which this reafon may be affign-
ed : The femitone major which is found in the diato-j,e h,t
nic fcalc, as from mi to fa, refults from a fundamen- why.
damental note of the fubfequent chord, as may be here tal bafs by fifths ut fa, that is to fay, by a fucceffion
r — r - —   ., 0 r • which is moft natural,' and for this reafon the eafiell
to the ear. On the contrary, the minor femitone arifes
from a fucceflion by thirds, which is ftill lefs natural
than the former. Hence, that fcholars; may truly hit
the minor femitone, the following artifice is employ¬
ed. Let us fuppofe, for inftance, that they intend to
rife from fol to fol% •, they rife at firft from fol to la,
then defcend from la to fol% by the interval of a fe¬
mitone major ; for this fol fharp, which is a femitene
major below la, proves a femitone minor above fol. [See
feen, where fa is refolved upon the odtave of
Origin of , 137.' This kind of interrupted cadence, as it feems
this kind ofto mej has likewife its origin in the double employ-
Ukewife in ment diffonances. For let us fuppofe thefe two
the double chords in fucceffion, fol Ji re fa, fol ft re mi, where the
employ- note fol is fucceffively a tonic dominant and fub-domi-
aicnt. nant . that is to fay, in which we pafs from the mode
of ut to the mode of re; if we ftiould change the fe-
cond of thefe chords into the chord of the dominant,
according to the laws of the double employment, we
ftiall have the interrupted cadence fol fire fa, mi fol the notes (EE)and (ff).]
203
Fundamen¬
tal bafs
may be
formed by
thirds ma¬
jor.
Chap. XVIII. Of the Chromatic Species.
138. The feries 01 fundamental bafs by fifths pro-
N° 234.
142. Every procedure of the fundamental bafs by M;nor fe.
thirds, whether major or minor, riling or defeending, mitone to
gives the minor femftone. This we have already feen1,6 foi>nd in
from the fucceffion of thirds in afcending.. The kr-esc^ure^f"
of thirds minor in defeending, ut, la, gives ut, fr^thefunda-
(hh) ; mental
baf by
    ,.. ,       thirds.
(ee) In reality, ut being fuppofed 1, as we have always fuppofed it, mi is and fo/)& now fol being
4, fol%. then lhall be to fol as to -!•; that is to fay, as 25 times 2 to 3 times 16 : the proportion then of
fol'%. to fol is as 25 to 24, an interval much lefs than that of 16 to 15, which conftitutes the femitone from
ut to Ji, or from fa to mi (note li)
(ff) It may be obferved, that a minor joined to a major femitone will form a minor tone ; that
is to fay, if one rifes, for inftance, from mi to fa, by the interval of a femitone major, and afterwards
from fa-to fa%by the interval of a minor femitone, the interval from mi to fa % will be a minor tone.
For let us fuppofe mi to be 1, fa will be and fa% will be ^4 of xf i that is to 25 t!mes. 1(5
divided by 24 times 15, or ™ ; mi then is to faas 1 is to y°, the interval which conftitutes the minor
tone (note n.)
With refpeft to the tone major, it cannot be exa&ly formed by two femitones; for, 1. Two major femitones
in immediate fucceffion would produce more than a tone major. In effeft, -ff multiplied by 44 gives whic|l
is greater than |, the interval which conftitutes .note n) the major tone. 2. A femitone minor and a femi¬
tone major would give lefs than a major tone, fince they amount only to a true minor. 3. And, a fortiori, two
minor femitones would give ftill lefs.
^(gg) In effedl, mi\) being f-, fol\) will be f- of £ ; that is to fay, (note c) : now the proportion of i to
if (note c) is that of 3 times 25 to 2 times 36 ; that is to fay, as 2 j to 24.
Pan I, MUSI C. 529
'-Theory of (hh) ; am! the feries of thirds major in defcending, ut, different dates, it will ftill remain compofed of thirds Theory ot'
Harmony. gives ut, ut\), (n). minor ; or at lead there will only he wanting the en-Harm01]y\
145- The minor femitone conftitutes ^the fpeciea harmonic fourth of atone to render the third minor *"
The^mnor cahed chromatic ;. and v/ith the fpecies which moves by between fa and fol% entirely juft ; for a. true third mi-
femitone diatonic intervals, refulting from the fucceffion of nor, as that from mi to fol in the diatonic fcale, is
when pre- fifths (chap. v. and vi.), it comprehends the whole of compofed of a femitone and a tone both major. Now
valent, melody. {ram fa to fol there is atone major, and from yo/to
chromatic* f0^ t*iere '3 OBty a minor femitone. There is then a-
nmfic. Chap. XIX. Of the Enharmonic Species, wanting (art. 144.) the enharmonic fourth of a tone,
; io8 to render the third fa folifc exa&ly true.
Diefn or 144. JThe two extremes, or higheft and lowed 2. But as this divifion of a tone cannot be found in
enha mo- notes, utfo/'#., of the fundamental bafs by thirds ma- the gradations of any fcale practicable upon mod of
val'what )orjutmtf°%i give this modulation utjify ; and thefe our indruments, nor be appretiated by the ear, the
and how ’ two f°unds ut, f%, differ between themfelves by a ear takes the different chords,
frmed. fmall interval which is called the die/is, or enharmonic Ji re fa /ol%
* Sc? Fourthfauf-th* 0f a tone (ll), wftrichis the difference between re fa foi% Ji,
-tj <* Tone. a femitone major and a femitone minor ( mm ). This fa fol/fa. fi, re,
quartjer tone is inappretiable by the ear, and imprac- which are abfolutely the fame, for chords compofed
ticable upon feveral of our indruments. Yet have every one of thirds minor exa&lyjuft.
means been found to put it in praftice in the follow- Now the chord foi%Ji re fa, belonging to the minor
ing manner, or rather to perform what will have the mode of /a, where foli// is the fenfible note; the chord
fame effett upon the ear. fi re fa fol%, or Ji re fa la\), will, for the fame reafon,
Marn^r of 145‘ ^ave explained (art. 116.) in what man- belong to the minor mode of ut, where Ji is the fen-
feemmgly ner t^e c^or^ f°^fi re fa may introduced into the fible note. In like manner, the chord re fa fol%. Ji, or
introducing minor mode, entirely confiding of thirds minor per- fi re fa la\) ufy, will belong to tfie minor mode of mi}),
this inter- fe£tly true, or at lead fuppofed fuch. This chord and the chord fa fol% Ji re, or fa la\) ut\j mi\)\), to the
inftrdments t^e P^ace t^lc cot^ t^ie ^on’inant (art- minor mode of fol\).
ff flxe'd61118116*) fr°m thence we may pafs to that of the tonic or After having paffed then by the mode of la t® the
kales. generators/^ (art. 117.). But we mud remark, chord fol%fi re fa (art. 117./, one may by means of
1. That this chordrv/a, entirely confiding this lad chord, and by merely fatisfying ourfelves to
of thirds minor, may be inverted or modified according invert it, afterwards pafs all at once to the modes of
to the three following arrangements, Ji re ja fol%, re ut minor, of mi\) minor, or of folfy minor ; that is to
fa fol/JJi, fa folj/ji re; and that in all thefe three fay, into the modes which have nothing, or almoft
Vol. XII. Part II. ^ 3 X nothing,
(hh) La being!-, $ is !• of ; that is to fay and ut is 1 : the proportion then between ut and ut'%
is that of 1 to 4-4, or of 24 to 25.
(u) La]) being the third major below ut, will be £ (note c) ; ut\), then, is f of |; that is to fay The
proportion, then, between ut and ut\), is as 27 to 24.
( lu) Solifc being if and/'^ being $ of we lhall have Ji-%, equal (note c) to VY, and its oftave below
(hall be flf ; an interval lefs than unity by about vIt or Jr. It is plain then from this fraction, that the fi%
in quedion mud be confiderably lower than ut.
r\ his interval has been called the fourth of a tone, and this denomination is founded on reafon. In effeft,
we may didinguifh in mude four kinds of quarter tones.
1. The fourth of a tone major: now, a tone major being and its difference from unity being f, the dif¬
ference of this quarter tone from unity will be almod the fourth of \; that is to fay, TV-
2. The fourth of a tone minor ; and as a tone minor, which is ~°> differs from unity by f, the fourth of a
minor tone will differ from unity about -fy
3. One half of a tone major ; and as this femitone differs from unity by Jf, one half of it will differ from
unity about T*^.
4. Finally, one half of a femitone minor, which differs from unity by : its half then will be 4,T.
■The interval, then, which forms the enharmonic fourth of a tone, as it does not differ from unity but by
may judly be called the fourth of a tone, fince it is lefs different from unity than the largeft interval of a quar¬
ter tone, and more than the lead.
We (hall add, that fince the enharmonic fourth of a tone is the difference between a femitone major and a
femitone minor; and fince the tone minor is formed (note Ff) of two femitones, one major and the other mi ¬
nor ; it follows, that two femitones major in fucceffion form an interval larger than that of a tone by the en¬
harmonic fourth of a tone; and that two minor femitones in fucceffion form an interval lefs than a tone by
the fame fourth of a tone.
(mm) That is to fay, that if you rife from mi to fa, for indance, by the interval of a femitone major, and
afterwards, returning to mi, you ffiould rife by the interval of a femitone minor to another found which is not
in the fcale, and which I fhall mark thus, /« + , the two founds/'i-f and fa will form the enharmonic fourth
of a tone ; for mi being 1, fa will be -hf 5 and/a-f- H : the proportion then between /ij-f- and a is that of
•la torf -note c); that is to fay, as 25 .times 15 to 16 times .4; or otherwife, as 25.times p to 16 times 8,
or as 12p to 1 ?8. No ■ this proportion is the fame which is found, in the beginning of the pre .eding note,
to exprefs the enharmonic fourth of a tone. '
J3° MU !
Theory of nothing, in common with the minor mode of la, and
. xair”oriy- which are entirely foreign to it (-f).
2I0 146. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that a
The altera-tranfition fo abrupt, and fo little expe&ed, cannot de^
tion, how ceive nor elude the ear; it is ftruck with a fenfation
whfc’h it is unl00^e^-f°r without being able to account for the
cfte£luated, Pafl"age to itfelf. And this account has its foundation
abrupt a id in the enharmonic fourth of a tone; which is overlooked
fecfible. as nothing, becaufe it is inappretiable by the ear;
but of which, though its value is not afcertained, the
whole harfhnefs is fenfibly perceived. The inftant of
furprife, however, immediately vanifhes; and that
aftonifhment is turned into admiration, when one feels
himfelf tranfported as it were all at once, and almoft
imperceptibly, from one mode to another, which is by
no means relative to it, and to which he never could
have immediately palled by the ordinary feries of fun¬
damental notes.
Chap. XX. Of tha Diatonic Enharmonic
Species.
147. If we form a fundamental bafs, which rifes
alternately by fifths and thirds, as fa, ut, mi, Jt, this
Seefg.M. bafs will give the following modulation,^, mi, mi,
re% ; in which the femitones from fa to mi, and from
mi to are equal and major (nn).
This fpecies of modulation or of harmony, in which
See Enlar- all the femitones are major, is called the enharmonic
vimic. diatonical fpecies. The major femitones peculiar to
this fpecies give it the name of diatonic, becaufe ma¬
jor femitones belong to the diatonic fpecies; and the
tones which are greater than major by the excefs of a
fourth, refulting from a fucceffion of major- femitones,
give it the name of enharmonic (note ll).
Chap. XXI. Of the Chromatic Enharmonic
Species*
enhanno1* T4^- we Pai*s alternately from a third minor in
nic inter*" d^fwmding to a third major in rifing, as ut, ut, la,
va!»,how ut'%, we lhall form this modulation mi\), mi, mi,
formed. mi. mM, in which all the femitones are minor (00).
See Jig. N. v
> I C. Part F.
This fpecies is called the chromatic enharmonical fpe- Theory
cies : the minor femitones peculiar to this kind give Harni<>nj'.
it the name of chromatic, becaufe minor femitones be-
long to the chromatic fpecies; and the femitones From this
which are Idler by the diminution of a fourth refult-fpecies, the
ing from a fuccefiion of minor femitones, give it the£fre<Jls <)f
name of enharmonic (note ll). an^melo-
149. Thefe new fpecies confirm what we have all dy appear
along faid, that the whole effects of harmony and me- to be in the
lody rdide in the fundamental bafs. fundameu-
1 jo. The diatonic fpecies is the moft agreeable, be-tal
caufe the fundamental bafs which produces it is form- Diatonic
ed from a fuccefiion of fifths alone, which is the moft fpecies mod
natural of all others. agreeable,
151. The chromatic being formed from a fucceflionan
of thirds, is the moft natural after the preceding. The chro-
IJ2. Finally, the enharmonic is the leaft agreeable tnatic nexti
of all, becaufe the fundamental bafs which gives it is .
not immediately indicated by nature. The fourth of^J^^®'
a tone which conftitutes this fpecies, and which is it- nic.
felf inappretiable to the ear, neither produces nor can
produce its effeft, but in proportion as imagination
fuggeft* the fundamental baft from whence it refults;
a baft whofe procedure is not agreeable to nature, fince
it is formed of two founds which are not contiguous
one to the other in the feries of thirds (art. 144.)
Chap. XXII. Showing that Melody is the Off-
Spring of Harmony.
ir6
153. All that we have hitherto faid, as it feems to The effedi*
me, is more than fufficient to convince us, that melody ofmejody
has its original principle in harmony; and that it is in
harmony, exprefied or underftood, that we ought to harmony: '
look for the effefts of melody. expreffed
154. If this (hould ftill appear doubtful, nothingor under-
more is neceffary than to pay due attention to the firfttto°
experiment (art. 19.), where it may he feen that the
principal found is always the loweft, and that the lharper
founds which it generates are with relation to it what
the treble of an air is to its baft.
155. Yet more, we have proved, in treating of bro¬
ken cadence, (chap, xvii.), that the diverfification of
bajTes
(f) As this method for obtaining or fupplying enharmonic gradations cannot be pra&ifed on every occa-
fion when the compofer or pra&itioner would wilh to find them, elpecially upon inftruments where the fcale is
fixed and invariable, except by a total alteration of their ceconomy, and re-tuning the ftrings, Dr Smith m
his Harmonies has propofed an expedient for redrefling or qualifying this defedl; by the addition of a greater
number of keys or firings, which may divide the tone or femitone into as many appretiable or fenfible intervals
as may be necefiary. For this, as well as for the other advantageous improvements which he propofes in the
ftru&ure of inftruments, we cannot with too much warmth recommend the perufal of his learned and ingenious
book to fuch of our readers as afpire to the charafter of genuine adepts in the theory of mufic.
(nn) It is obvious, that if fa in the baft be fuppofed I, fa of the fcale will be 2, ut of the baft and mi
of the fcale of that is, y ; the proportion of fa to mi is as 2 to y, or as 1 to 4-f- Now mi of the baft
being likewife ^ of 4» or y y Ji of the baft is !- of y, and its third major re% ^ of 4- of y, or y of y ; this
third major, approximated as much as poffible to mi in the fcale by means of oftaves, will be 4^ of y r mi then
of the fcale will be to re% which follows it, as y is to 4^ of y, that is to fay, as 1 to lT{. The femitones
then frqm fa to m, and from mi to re%, are. both major.
(00) It. is evident that mi[).is f- (note c),.and that mi is £ : thefe two mi’s, then, are between themfelves as
-f- to that is to fay, as 6 times 4 to 5 times 5, or as 24 to 25, the interval which conftitutes the minor femi¬
tone. Moreover, the la of the baft is f, and ut%. of £, or : mi% then is of the mi in the fcale is
likewife to the /«/$ which follows it, as 24 to 2 All the femitones therefore in this.lcale are minor.
Part T. M U S
T heory of baffes produces cffefts totally different in a modulation
Harmony. which, in other refpefts, remains the fame.
156. Can it be ftill neceflary to adduce more con¬
vincing proofs ? We have nothing to do but examine
the different bafles which may be given to this very
fimple modulation fol, ut; of which it will be found
fufceptible of a great many, and each of thefe baffes
will give a different charader to the modulationfol ut,
though in itfelf it remains always the fame ; in fuck a
manner that we may change the whole nature and ef-
fe&s of a modulation, without any other alteration
except that of changing its fundamental bafs.
M. Rameau has fhown, in his New Syjlem of Mufc,
printed at Paris 1726, p. 44. that tin’s modulation fol
vt, is fufceptible of 20 different fundamental baffes.
Now the fame fundamental bafs, as may be feen in our
fecond part, will afford feveral continued or thorough
baffes. How many means, of confequence, may be
pradifed to vary the expreffion of the fame modula-
tion ?
Confequen- 157. From thefe different obfervations it may be
ces deduci- concluded, 1. That an agreeable melody, naturally im-
thi/prin. P*‘es a extremely fweet and adapted for finging;
ciple. and th3* reciprocally, as muficians exprefs it, a bafs of
this kind generally prognofticates an agreeable me¬
lody (pp).
2. That the charader of a juft harmony is only to
form in fome meafure one fyftem with the modulation,
fo that from the whole taken together the ear may only
Part II. . Principles and
Ccm'cfi- 158- /composition,which islikewifecalledcoan-
tion in har- terpoint, is not only the art of compoling
inony, an agreeable air, but alfo that of compofing a great
jwtiaf. many airs in fuch a manner that when heard at the fame
ec Lom- they may unite in producing an effed agreeable
‘ ' and delightful to the ear 5 this is what we call compo-
fing mufic in feveral parts.
The higheft of thefe parts is called the trelle, the
loweft is termed the bafs ; the other parts, when there
are any, are termed middle parts; and each in particu¬
lar is figttified by a different name.
Chap. I. Of the Different Names given to the
fame Internal.
Particular t^ie intr°dudion (art. 9.), which is at the
intervals front of this treatife, we have feen a detail of the moft
Tignified by common names which are given to the different inter-
diffcrent vais> But there are particular intervals which have
why?5*8nd 0^ta‘ne<l different names, according to particular cir-
220 Cumftances; which it is proper to explain.
Second re- 160. An interval compofed of a tone and a femi-
liundant, tone, which is commonly called a third minor, is like-
what. wife fometimes called a fecond redundant; fuch is the
I .c- 53>
receive, if we may fpeak fo, one fimple and indivifible Theory of
impreffion. Harmony. ^
3. That the charader of the fame modulation may ' ~*
be diverfified, according to the charader of the bafs
which is joined with it.
But notwithftanding the dependency of melody up¬
on harmony,’and the fenfible influence which the lat¬
ter may exert upon the former; we muft not however
from thence conclude, with fome celebrated muficians,
that the effeds of harmony are preferable to thofe of
melody. Experience proves the contrary. £See, on this
account, what is written on the licence of mufic, print¬
ed in tom. iv. of D’Alembert’s Melanges de Literature,
p. 448.]
General Remark.
The diatonic fcale or gammut being compofed of
twelve femitones, it is clear that each of thefe femi-
tones taken by itfelf may be the generator of a mode;
and that thus there muft be twenty-four modes in all,
twelve major and twelve minor. We have affumed the
major mode of ut, to reprefent all the major modes in
general, and the minor mode of la to reprefent the
modes minor, to avoid the difficulties arifing from
fharps and flats, of which we muft have encountered
either a greater or leffer number in the other modes.
But the rules we have given for each mode are gene¬
ral, whatever note of the gammut be taken for the
generator of a mode.
Rules of COMPOSITION.
interval from ut to re% in afeending, or that of la to
fol]) defeending.
This interval is fo termed, becaufe one of the founds wh™fa
which form it is always either ftiarp or flat, and that,caiied.°
if you deduce that ftiarp or that flat, the interval will
be that of a fecond.
161. An interval compofed of two tones and two
femitones, as that from fi to fa, is called z.fal[e ffth. what.
This interval is the fame with the triton (art. 9.), fince
two tones and two femitones are equivalent to three
tones. There are, however, fome reafons for diftin-
guiftiing them, as will appear below.
162. As the interval from itf to in afeending?23
has been called a fecond redundant, they likewife canfundanr
the interval from ut to folfy in afeending a fifth redun- what. *
dant, or from fi to wijj in defeending, each of which
intervals are compofed of four tones.
This interval is, in the main, the fame with that of
the fixth minor (art. 6.): but in the fifth redundantguifhed
there is always a fliarp Or a flat; infomuch, that if this ^om the j
ftiarp or flat were deduced, the interval would becornefixthmi'>
a true fifth. n0112$
163. For the fame reafon, an interval compofed of Seventh di-
' three tones and three femitones, as from fol% to fa in numlhed,,
3X2 afeending,
( pp) There are likewife feveral eminent muficians, who in their compofitions, if we can depend on what has
: f|een affirmed, begin with determining and writing the bafs. This method, however, appears in general
more proper to produce a learned and harmonious mufic, than a ftrain'prompted by genius and animated br
enthufiafm.
532 M U
Principle* afcending, is called a fiventh dlmimjhei; becaufe, if
«f Cornpo-yOU deduce the fliarp from fol, the interval from fol to
^0li‘ fa will become that of an ordinaij feventh. The in¬
terval of a feventh diminifhed is in other refpe&s the
a 6 fame with that of the fixth major (art. 9.)
Seventh I^4- The major feventh is likewife fometimes called
major and a feventh redundant (Q&.)
redundant
Chap. II. Comparifon of the Different Intervals.
Notesin 16^ IF we fmg ut f in defcending by a fecond,
f&avesor an<^ aftef‘vtrards ut fi in afcending by a feventh, thefe
fcales repli-two fi* ^e oftaves one to the other ; or, as we
cations each commonly exprefs it, they will be replications one of
of the the other.
®th^g 166. On account then of the refemblance between
Hence to every found and its oftave (art. 22.), it follows, that
defcend to to rife by a feventh, or defend by a fecond, amount to
one replica one and the fame thing.
rife’to"no X^' mannei‘> ^ 18 hxth is
tiler! has° nothing but a replication of the third, nor the fourth
the fame but a replication of the fifth.
effect. x68. The following expreffions either are of ought
to be regarded as fynonymous.
To rife To defcend
llon<!' by a fecond. by a feventh.
Examples To defeend To rife
Detail of
replica-
mI this.
To rife
by a third.
To defcend
by a fixth.
SIC. Part Ifa
ferently the one for the other ; fo that when we lay, Principle,
for inftance, to rift by a third, it may be faid with81 Comp0.
equal propriety to defcend by a fixth, &c. fit’on- f
Chap. III. Of the different Cleffs; of the Value
or Quantity; of the Kithmus; and of Syncopation.
170. There are three cleffs* in mufic ; the cleff of * Sec Ctetf.
fa Q:, or ^ ^ » t^e ut ^ > anci the deff of
fol But, in Britain, the following chara&ers a
ufed: The F, or bafs-cleff
- ; the C, or tenor
Cleffs,
what,
- ; and the G, or treble cleff  
To rife To defcend
by a fourth. by a fifth.
To defcend To rife
169. Thus, therefore, we Ihall employ them indif-
The cleff of fa is placed on the fourth line, or on 13*
the third; and the line upon which this cleff is placed And hm*
gives the name .offa or F, to all the notes which are ?,lac!:d'
upon that line. _ °*
The cleff of ut is placed upon the fourth, the third,
the fecond, or the firll line ; and in thefe different po- l>*
fitions all the notes upon that line where the cleff is
placed take the name of ut, or C. Seefg.
Latlly, the cleff of fol is placed upon the fecond or
firft line ; and all the notes upon that line where the
cleff is placed take the name offol, or G. 233
171. As the notes are placed on the lines, and in Namcs of
the fpaces between the lines, any one, when he fees
the cleff, may eafily find the name of any note what-fr0m the
ever. Thus he may fee,'that, in the firft cleff ofyb^pofition of
the note which is placed on the loweft line ought to be 'he
fol; that the note which occupies the fpace between ^
the two firft lines fhould be la ; and that the note
which is on the fecond line is a ft, &c. (rr).
5 172. X
(qSl) The chief ufe of thefe different denominations is to diftinguilh chords : for inftance, the chord of the
redundant fifth and that of the diminiftied feventh are different from the chord of the fixth; the chord of the
feventh redundant, from that of the feventh major. This will be explained in the following chapters.
(rr) It is on account of the different compaffes of voices and inftruments that thefe cleffs have been
invented. ' _
The mafculme voice, which is the loweft, may at its greateft depth, without ftraining, defcend tafol, which
k in the laft line of the firft cleff of fa; and the female voice, which is the fliarpeft, may at its higheft pitch
rife to a fol, which is a triple o<ftave above the former. ...
The loweft of mafeuline voices is adapted to a part which may be called a mean bafs, and its cleff is that of
fa on the fourth line ; this cleff is likewife that of the violoncello and of the deepeft inftruments. A mean
bafs extremely deep is called a baritonui or counter-bafs.
The mafeuline voice which is next in depth to what we have called the mean bafs may be termed the con~
cordant bafs. Its cleff is that of fa on the third line.
The mafculine voice which follows the concordant bafs may be denominated a tenor; a voice of this pitch is
the moft common, yet feldom extremely agreeable. Its eleff is that of ut on the fourth line. This cleff i*
alfo that of the baffoon or bafs-hautboy.
The higheft mafeuline voice of all may be called counter tenor. Its cleff is that of ut on the third line. It
is likewife the cleff of tenor violins, &c.
The deepeft female voice immediately follows the counter tenor, and may be called bafs in alt. Its cleff is
that of ut upon the firft line. The cleff of ut upon the fecond line is not in frequent ufe.
The ftiarpeft female voice is called treble ; its cleff is that of fol on the fecond line.
This laft cleff, as well as that of fol on the firft line, is likewife the cleff of the ftiarpeft inftruments, fuch a*
the violin, the flute, the trumpet, the hautboy, the flagelet, &c.
The ut which may be feen in the cleffs of fa and in the cleffs of ut is a fifth above the/a which is on the
line of the cleff of fa ; and the fol which, is on the two cleffs of fol is a fifth above ut; infomuch that/o/ which:
Part IT
See Jig. R.
Stt Jig. S.
Bars and
times,
what.
M U
172. A note before which there is a (harp (marked
thus $) ought to be raifed by a femitone; and if, on
the contrary, there is a b before it, it ought to be de-
preffed by a femitone, (j? being the mark of a flat).
The natural (marked thus reftores to its natural
value a note which had been raifed or deprefied by a
ftmitone.
173. When you place at the cleff a (harp or a flat,
all the notes upon the line on which this (harp or flat is
marked are (harp or flat. Thus let us take, for in-
ftance, the cleff of ut upon the firft line, and let us
place a (harp in the fpace between the fecond and third
line, which is the place of fa ; all the notes which
(hall be marked in that fpace will be fa% ; and if you
would reftore them to their original value of fa natu¬
ral, you mufl: place a t) or a |j before them.
In the fame manner, if a flat. be marked at the
cleff, and if you would reffore the note to its natural
ftate, you muff place a 1} or a $ before it.
1 74. Every piece of muflc is divided into different
equal times, which they call meafures or bars ; and
each bar is likewife divided into different times.
There are properly two kinds of meafures or modes
of time (5eeT): the meafure of two times, or of
common time, which is marked by the figure 2 placed
at the beginning of the tune; and the meafure of
s 1 c- 533
three times, or of triple time, which is marked by the Principles
figure 3 placed in the fame manner. (See V.)
The different bars are diftihguiihed by perpendicu. ^
lar lines.
In a bar we diftinguilh between the perfeB and im-
perfeSl time ; the perfect time is that which we heat,
the imperfeB that in which we lift up the hand or foot.
A bar confiding of four times ought to be if^arded
as compounded of two bars, each confiding of two
times : thus there ar<" in this bar two perfedl and two
imperfeft times. In general, by the words per fed and
imperfeft, even the parts of the fame time are diflin-
guKhed : thus the fird note of each time is reckoned yj
as belonging to the perfeB part, and the others as be¬
longing to the imperfeB. 236
175. The longed of all notes is a femibreve. A '
minim is half its value ; that is to fay, in finging, weju°a°t;^n
only employ the fame duration in performing two mi¬
nims which was occupied in one femibreve. A minim
in the fame manner is equivalent to two crotchets, the
crotchet to two quavers, &c.
176. A note which is divided into two parts by a Syncopa-
time, that is to fay, which, begins at the end of ation, what,
time, and terminates in the time following, is called
(ss) a fyncopated note. (See Z ; where the notes See Synco* ■
Ji, and la, are each of them fyncopated.) (-}*). potion.
177. A
is on the lowed line of the fird cleff of fa, is lower by two whole oftaves than the fol which is on the lowed
line of the fecond cleff of fol.
£Thus far the tranflator has followed his original as accurately as poffible ; but this was by no means an eafy
talk. Among all the'writers on mufic which he has found in Englifh, there is no fuch thing as different names
for each particular part which is employed to conditute full or complete harmony. He wa$ therefore under a
neceffity of fubdituting by analogy fuch names as appeared mod exprellive of his author’s meaning. To faci¬
litate this attempt, he examined in Rouffeau’s mufical diftionary the terms by which the different parts were
denominated in D’Alembertbut even Rouffeau, with all his depth of thought and extent of erudition, indead
of expreffing himfelf with that precifion which the fubjedt required, frequently applies the fame names indif-
criminately to different parts, without afligning any reafon for this promifcuous and licentious ufe of words.
he Engliffi reader therefore will be bed able to form an accurate idea of the different parts, by the nature and
fituation of the cleffs with which they are marked ; and if he ffould find any impropriety in the names which
are given them, he may adopt and affociate others more agreeable to his ideas.^ .
(ss) Syncopation confids in a note which is protradted in two different times belonging partly to the one
and partly to the other, or in two different bars; yet not fo as entirely to occupy or fill up the two times, or
the two barsi A note, for indance, which begins in the imperfedt time of a bar, and which’ends in the per¬
fect time of the following, or which in the fame bar begins in the imperfeft part of one time and ends in the
perfect of the following, is fyncopated. A note which of itfelf occupies one or two bars, whether the mea¬
fure confids of two or three times, is not confidered as fyncopated : this is a confequence .of the preceding
definition. This note is faid to be continued or protraBed. , In the end of the example Z, the ut of the
fird bar confiding of three tidies is not fyncopated,' becaufe it occupies two whole times. It is the fame
cafe with mi of the fecond bar, and with the ut of the fourth and fifth. Thefe therefore are continued or pro¬
tradted notes.
(f ) Times and bars in mufic anfwer the very fame end as punctuation in language. They determine the
different periods of the movement, or the various degree of completion, which the fentiment, expreffed by
that movement, has attained. Let us fuppofe,.for indance, a compofer in mufie intending to exprefs grifef or
joy, in all its various gradations, from its drd and fainted fenfation, to its acme or highed poffible degree. ytVe -
do not fay that fuch a progrefs pf any paffion either has been or can be delineated in pra&ice, yet it may farve
to illudrate what we mean to explain. Upon this hypothefis, therefore, the degrees-of the fentiment will fflifs
from lefs to more fenfible, as it rifes to its mod intenfe deg-.ee. The fird of thefe gradations may be called! a
time, which is likewife the mod convenient divifion of a bar or meafure into its elementary or aliquot parts,
and may be deemed equivalent to-a comma in a fentence; a bar denotes a degree dill more fenfible, and may
be confidered as having the.force of a femicolon ; a drain brings the fentiment to a tolerable degree of per
fedtion, and may be reckoned equal to a colon : the full' period is the end of the imitative piece. It mud
have been remarked by obfervers of meafure in melody or harmony, that the notes of which a bar or meafure- .
confids, are not diverfified by their different durations alone, but likewife by greater or lefier degrees of ern - .
phafis*'
:$$4 ^ U
Principles 177. A note followed by a point or dot is incrcafed
gt?^P0‘hal^ its value. The Ji, for' inftance, in the fifth bar
f of the example Y, followed by a point, has the va-
a^g lue (*) or duration of a minim and of a crotchet at the
Value of a fame time,
pointed
note. Chap. IV. Containing a Definition of the princi¬
pal Chords.
Perfect 178. The chord compefed of a third, a fifth, and
ch"r U, an oftave, as ut mi fol ut, is called a perfeft chord
Vhlt* (art. 32.)
If the third be major, as in ut mi fol ut, the per-
fedt chord is denominated major t if the third be
minor, as in la ut mi la, the perfedt chord is minor.
The perfedt chord major Conftitutes what we call the
major mode; and the perfedt chord minor, what we
term the minor mode (art. 31).
Chord°of ^ c^ort^ compofed of a third, a fifth, and a
‘the feventh Seventh, as fol fi re fa, or re fa la ut, &c. is called
wh.u, and a chord of the feventh. It is obvious that fuch a chord
l;ow to be is wholly compofed of thirds in afeending.
prachfed. chor(]s ef the feventh are pradtifed in harmony,
fave that which might carry the third minor and the
fsventh major, as ut mi[> folJi; and that which might
carry a falfe fifth and a feventh major, as fi re fa la%,
(chap. xiv. Part I )
Thohfof 1 ^°‘ t^rcis are either major or minor, and as
afferent t^ie7 differently arranged, it is clear that
kinds. there are different kinds of chords of the feventh ;
there is even one, ft re Ja la, which is compofed of a
third, a falfe fifth, and a feventh.
■‘Of the' 1^1* ^ c^or^ compofed of a third, a fifth, and
greater a fixth, as fa la ut re, re fa Ja ft, is called a chord of the
fixth, greater fixth.
what. 182. Every note which carries a perfedl chord is
6
S I C. Part II.
called a tonic, and a perfeA chord is marked by an Principles
8, by a 3, or by a 5, which is written above the note; of Compo»
but frequently thefe numbers are fuppreffed. Thus . lt‘on' .
in the example 1. the two af’s equally carry a perfect a43
chord. Tonic,
183. Every note which carries a chord of the whab^
feventh is called a dominant (art. 102) ; and this chord
is marked by a 7 written above the note. Thus inre(i, ^
the example II. re carries the chord re fa la ut, and 444
fol the chord folfi re fa. Dominant,
It is neceffary to remark, that among the chords
the feventh we do not reckon the chord of the figged,
feventh diminifhed, which is only improperly called
a chord of the feventh ; and of which we fhall fay more
below. [244]
184. Every note which carries the chord of theSub-domi-
great fixth, is called a fubdominant, (art. 97, and 42.) '^d'hovv1
and is marked with a <5. Thus in the example III'figured.
fa caries the chord of fa la ut re. You ought to re¬
mark that the fixth fhould always be major, (art. 97,
and 109)1 *45
185. In every chord, whether perfeft, or a chord ^“n^a“en*
of the feventh, or of the great fixth, the note whiche>
carries this chord, and which is the flatted or lowed,
is called the fundamental note. Thus ut in the ex- See Funda-
ample I. re and fol in the example II. and fa in the®*"1^-
example III. are fundamental notes. ,
186. In every chord of the feventh, and of the D;fl-0han(.4
great fixth, the note which forms the feventh or fixth of a chord,
above the fundamental, that is to fay, the higheft "hat.
note of the chord, is called a dijfonance. Thus in the
chords of the feventh fol fi re fa, re fa la ut, fa and
ut are the diifonances, viz. fa with relation to fol in
the fiift chord, and ut with relation to re in the
fecond. In the chord of the great fixth fa la ut re,
re is the diflbnance (art. I2G.) } but that re is only,
properly
phafis. The mod emphatic parts of a bar are called the accented parts ; thofe which require lefs energy in
exprdfion are called the unaccented. The fame obfervation holds with regard to times as bars. The droke,
therefore, of the hand or foot in beating marks the accented part of the bar, the elevation or preparation for
the droke marks the unaccented part. Let us once more refume our compofition intended to exprefs the dif¬
ferent periods in the progrefs of grief or joy. There are fome revolutions in each of thefe fo rapid as not t®
be marked by any fenfible tfanfition whether diatonic or confonant. In this cafe, the mod expreffive tone
may be continued from one part of a time or meafure to another, and end before the period of that time or
meafure in which it begins. Here therefore is a natural principle upon which the pra&ice of fyncopation may
be founded even in melody : but when mufic is compofed in different parts to be fimultaneoufly heard, the con¬
tinuance of one note not divided by regular times and meafures, nor beginning and ending with either of them*
whild the other parts either afeend or defeend according to the regular divifions of the movement, has not on¬
ly a fenfible effeft in rendering the imitation more perfedl, but even gives the happieft opportunities of diverfi-
fying the harmony, which of itfelf is a mod delightful perception.
For the various difpofitions of accent in times and meafures, according to the movement of any piece, fee a
Tieatife on Mufic by Alexander Malcolm.
For the opportunity of diverfifying harmony afforded by fyncopation, fee Rameau’s Principles of Compo¬
fition.'
(*) To prevent ambiguity or confufion ef ideas, it is neceffary to inform our readers, that we have follow¬
ed M. D’Alembert in his double fenfe of the w>ord value, though we could have wilhed he had didinguifhed
the different meanings by different words. A found may be either edimated by its different degrees of intenfe-
nefs', or by its different quantities of duration.
To fignify both thofe ideas the word value is employed by D’Alembert. The reader, therefore, will find it
of importance to diilinguifh the value of a note in height from its value in duration'. This he may eafily do,
by confidering whether the notes are treated as.partsofthe diatonic fcale, or as continued for a greater or ieflef
•duration.
Part II. . M . U
Principles property fpeaking, a diflbnance with relation to ut
cf Compn- from whichJt is a fecond, and not with refpeft to fa
, from which it is aJixth major (art. 17, and 18).
147 i87* When a chord of the feventh is compofed of
Tonicand a third major followed by two thirds minor, the fun-
fimple do- damental note of this chord is called the tonic domi-
what”1' nant- fn every other chord of the feventh the funda¬
mental is called thejimple dominant (art. 102.). Thus
in the chord Jbl Ji re fa, the fundamental fol is the tonic
dominant; but in the other chords of the feventh, as
ut mi foi ji, re fa la ut, &c. the fundamentals ut and re
248 are Jimple dominants.
diords every chord, whether perfeft, or of the
howren- feventh, or of the fixtb, if you have a mind that the
tiered mi- third above the fundamental note Ihould be major,
nor, and though it is naturally minor, you muft place a fnarp
•vieevtrfa. a^ove fundamental note. For example, if I would
mark the perfeft major chord re fa% la re, as the third
fa above re is naturally minor, I place above re alharp,
as you may fee in example IV. In the fame manner
the chord of the feventh re fa% la ut, and the chord of
the great fixth re fa% la Ji, is marked with a % above
re, and above the $ a 7 or a 6 (fee V. and VI.).
On the contrary, when the third ia naturally major,
and if you (hould incline to render it minor, you muft
place above the fundamental note a [?. Thus the ex¬
amples VII. VIII. IX. fhow the chords yo/ Ji\), re fol,
folfi\) re fa, folfi\) re mi (tt).
Chap.V. Of the Fundamental Bafs.
Fundamen- 1^9* Invent a modulation at your pleafure; and
tal bafs, under this modulation let there be fet a bafs compofed
how form- of different notes, of which fome may carry a perfeft
chord, others that of the feventh, and others that of
the great fixth, in fuch a manner that each note of
the modulation which anfwers to each of the bafs, may
be one of thofe which enters into the chord of that
note in the bafs; this bafs being compofed according
Sic. 535
to the rules which fhall be immediately given, will be Principle's
the fundamental bafs 0/ the modulation propofed. See0
Part I. where th$ nature and principles of the funda- t
mental bafs are explained. See Fumtj-
Thus (Exam. XVIII.) you will find that this mo-mental bafs,
dulatiori, ut re mi fa fot la Ji ut, has or may admit for
its fundamental bafs, ut fol ut fa ut re fol ut.
In reality, the firft note ut in the upper part is
found in the chord of the firft note ut in the bafs,
which chord is ut mi fol ut; the fecond note re in the
treble is found in the chord folJi re fa, which is the
chord of the fecond note in the bafs, &c. and the bafs
is compofed only of notes which carry a perfeft chord,
or that of the feventh, or that of the great fixth'.
Moreover, it is formed according to the rules which',
we are now about to give.
Chap. VI. Rules for the Fundamental Bafs.
190. All the notes of the fundamental bafs being Rules5forr
only capable of carrying a perfefl chord, or the chord die forma-
of the feventh, or that of the great fixth, are either^100
tonics, or dominants, or fub-dominants ; and the do¬
minants may be either fimple. or tonic.
The fundamental bafs ought always to begin with
a tonic, as much as it is praAieable. And now follow
the rules for all the fucceeding chords rules which
are evidently derived from the principles eftabliftied in
the Firjl Part of this treatife. To be convinced of
this, we ftiall find it only neeeffary to review the articles
34, 91,122, 124., 126,. 127.
Rule I.
19 t . In every chord of the tonic, or of the tonic
dominant, it is neceffary that at leaft one of the notes
which form that chord fhould be found in the chord
that precedes it.
Rule II.
192. In every chord of the fimple dominant, it is;
necefiary
(tt) We may only add, that there is no occafion formarking thefe ftiarps or flats when they are originally
p’aced at the eleff. For inftance, if the fharp be upon the clef? of fa (fee Exam.X.), one may fatisfy himfelf
with Amply writing re, without a fharp to mark the perfedt chord major of re, re fa% la re. In the fame
manner, in the Example XI. where the flat is at the cleff upon Ji, one may fatisfy himfelf with Amply writing
fcl, to mark the perfedl chord minor of folJi\) re fol.
But if a cafe occurs where there is a fharp or a flat at the cleff, if any one fhould wifh to render the chord:
minor which is major, or vice verfa, he muft place above the fundamental note a t) or natural. Thus the
Example XII. marks the minor chord re fa la re, and Example XIII. the major chord fol Ji. re fol. 
Frequently, in lieu of a natural, a flat is ufed to fignify the minor chord, and a fharp to fignify the
major. Thus Example XIV. marks the minor-chord re fa la re, and Example XV. the major chord fol Ji
re fol.
When in a chord of the great fixth, the diffonance, that is to fay, the fixth, ought to be fharp, and '
when the fharp is not found at the cleff, they write before or after the 6 a $ ; and if this fixth fhould be flat
according to the cleff, they write a i|.
In the fame manner, if in a chord of the feventh of the tonic dominant, the diffonance, that is to fay, the
feventh, ought to be flat or natural, they write by the fide of the feventh a or a Ij. Many muficians, when
a feventh from the fimple dominant ought to be altered by a fharp or a natural, have likewife written by the
fide of the feventh a ^ or a t|; but M. Rameau fuppreffes thefe charafters. The reafon fhall be given below"
When we fpeak of chords by fuppofirion.
If there be a fharp on the cleff of fa, and if I fhould incline to mark the chord folJi re fa, or the chord la
ut mi fa, I would place before the feventh or the fixth a t| or a fr.
In the fame manner, if there be a flat on the cleff at/, and if I fhould incline to mark the chord ut mi fol f,
I would place before tire feventh a $ or a ij j and fo of the reft, ”
.■5^6- M U
Principles necciTary that the note which conftitutes the feventh,
of Compo-Or difionance, fhould likewife be found in the preceding
i 1-^f>-n', chord.
Rule III.
193. In every chord of the fub-dominant, at leaft
one of its confonances mufl: be found in the preceding
chord. Thus, in the chord of the fub-dominant fa la
ut re, it is neceffary that fa, la, or ut, which are the
confonances of the chord, (hould be found in the
chord preceding. The diifonance re may either be
found in it or not.
Rule IV.
1941 Every fimple or tonic dominant ought to de-
feend by a fifth. In the firft cafe, that is to fay,
when the dominant is fimple, the note which follows
can only be a dominant ; in the fecond it may be any
one you choofe; or, in other words, it may either
be a tonic, a tonic dominant, aiimple dominant, or a
fub-dominant. It is neceffary, however, that the
conditions preferibed in the fecond rule Ihould be ob-
ferved, if it be a fimple dominant.
This laft refleftion is neceffary as you will pre-
fently fee. For let us affume the fuccdfion of the
two chords a vt% mi fol, re fa -la ut (fee Exam. XIX.),
this fucceffion is by no means legitimate, though in it
the firft dominant defeends by a fifth ; becaufe the ut
which forms the diffottance in the fecond chord, and
which belongs to a fimple dominant, is notin the pre¬
ceding chord. But the fucceffion will be admifiible,
if, without meddling with the fecond chord, one
fhould take away the (harp carried by the ut in the
hrft ; or if, without meddling with the firft chord, one
Ihould render ut or fa (harp in the fecond (uu) ; or
in ftiort, if one Ihould fimply render the re of the fe-
corid chord a tonic dominant, in caufing it to carry
fa% inftead of fa natural (119. & 1 22.).
It is likewife by the fame rule that we ought to
rejedf the fucceffion of the two following chords,
re fa la ut, fol ft re fa% ;
(fee Exam. XX.).
Rule V.
19 if. Every fub-dominant ought to rife by a fifth ;
and the note which follows it may, at yourpleafure, be
either a tonic, a tonic dominant, or a fub-dominant.
REMARK.
,51 Of the five fundamental rules which have now been
Other rules given, inftead of the three firft, one may fubftitute
fuMhtuted. is[° 234.
s I C. Part I r.
the three following, which are nothing but confc- Principle*
quences from them, aud which you may pafs unnoticed nf 0omP°'
if you chink it proper. fit'ou- .
Rule I
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
rife by a fifth or a third to another note, that fecond
note may.be either a tonic (34. St ,91.), fee Exam¬
ples XXI. and XXII. (xx) ; a tonic dominant ( 124.),
fee XXIII. and XXIV.; or a fub-dominant (124.),
fee XXV. and XXVI.; or, to exprefs the rule more
limply, that fecond note may be any one you pleafe,
except a fmple dominant.
Rule II.
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
defeend by a fifth or a third upon another note, this
fecond note may be either a tonic (34. & 91.), fee
Exam. XXVII and XXVIII.; or a tonic dominant,
or a fimple dominant, yet in fuch a manner that the
rule of art. 192. maybe obferved ( 124.), fee XXIX.
XXX. XXXI. XXXII.; ora fub-dominant (124.),
fee XXXI 11. and XXXIV.
The procedure of the bafs ut mi\) fol ut, fa la ut mi,
from the tonic ut to the dominant fa (Ex. XXXV.),
is excluded by art. 192.
Rule HE
If a note in the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
rife by a fecond to another note, that note ought to be
a tonic dominant, or a fimple dominant (101. & 102. ).
See XXXVI. and XXXVII. (yy).
We muft here advertife our readers, that the exam¬
ples XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. belong to the
fourth rule above, art. 194.; and the examples XLIL
XL1II. XLIV. to the fifth rule above, art. 195. See
the articles 34, 35, 121, 123, 124.
* REMARK I. 3S2
196. The tranfition from a tonic dominant to a PerftA and
tonic is called an abfblute repofe, or a perfect cadence imperfeA
(73.); and the tranfition from a fub-dominant to a
tonic is called an imperfed or Irregular cadence (73.) ;how em-
the cadences are formed at the diftance of four bars ployed,
one from another, whilft the tonic then falls within
the firft time of the bar. See XLV. and XLVI.
REMARK II.
197. We muft avoid, as much as we can, fyncopa-S)1R^a_
tions in the fundamental bafs ; that, within the firft non only
time of which a bar is conftituted, the ear may be en-admiffible
tertained with a harmony different from that which it
had bafs by u- [
(uu) In this chord it is neceffary that the ut and fa ftiould be lharp-at the fame time; for the chord re fa
la ut%, in which ut would be ftxarp without the fa, is excluded by art. 179.
(xx) When the bafs rifes or defeends from one tonic to another by the interval of a third, the mode is
commonly changed; that is to fay, from a major it becomes a minor. For inftance, if I afeend from the
tonic ut to the tonic mi, the major mode of ut, ut mi fol ut, will be changed into the minor mode of mt, mi
fol ft mi. For what remains, we muft never afeend from one tonic to another, when .there is no found com¬
mon to both their modes: for example, you cannot rife to the mode of ut, ut mi fol ut, from the minor mode
of mi\), mi\) fol\) ft\) mi\) (9*.)
(yy) By this we may fee, that all the intervals, viz. the third, the fifth, and fecond, may be admitted
in the fundamental bafs, except that of a fecond in defeending. For what remains, it is very proper to
remark, that the rules immediately given for the fundamental bafs are not without exception, as approved
compofitions in mufic will certainly difeover ; but thefe-exceptions being in reality licences, and for the moft
part in oppofition to the great principle of connedbion, which preferibes that there ftiould be at leaft one note
in common between a preceding and a fubfequentidhord, it does not feem neceffary to entertain initiates with
a minute detail of thefe licences in an elementary work, where the firft and moft effential rules ol the art
alone ought to be expe&ed.
Part II. M U
Principles had before perceived in the laft time of the preceding
^ar' Neverthelefs, fyncopation may be fometimes
k \ ' ■ admitted in the fundamental bafs, but it is by a li¬
cence (zz).
Chap. VII. Of the Rules -which ought to he ob-
ferved in the Treble -with relation to the Funda¬
mental Rafs.
*54 4
Definition ipg. The treble is nothing elfe but a rtodulatiort
of treble. above the fundamental bafs, and whofe notes are folind
in the chords of that bafs which correfponds with it
(189.). Thus in Ek. XVIII. the fcale ut re mi fa folia
Ji ut, is a treble with refpedt to the fundamental bafs
^55 ut fol ut fa ut re fol ut.
One note 199. We are juft about tb give the rules for the
or'baf^m1'6 tre^c • but firll we think it neceflary to make the two
anfwer toiy^°^ow:fa$ remarks.
Several of I. It is obvious, that many notes of the treble may
Its corre- anfwer to one and the fame note in the fundamental
^and bafs> when thcfe notes belong to the chord of the
’ fame note in the fundamental bafs. For example, this
modulation ut mi fol mi ut, may have for its funda¬
mental bafs the note ut alone, becaufe the chord of
that note comprehends the founds ut, mi, fol, V/hich are
Found in the treble.
2. In like manner, a fihgle note in the treble may*
Vol. XII. Part II.
s I ct 537
for the fame reafon, anfwer to feveral notes in the bafs. Principles
For inftance, fol alone may anfwer to thefe three notes of ^onipo-
m the bafs> ut fol ut (aaaJ. . 1‘'-—-p
Role I./or the Treble.
200. If the note which forms the feventh in a chord
of xkz jimple dominant is found in the treble, the note
which precedes it muft be the very fame. This is
what we call a difeordprepared {122). For inftance,
let us fuppofe that the note of the fundamental bafa
fliall be re, bearing the chord of the limple dominant
re fa la tit; and that this ut, which (art. 18. and 118.)
is the diffonance, fhould be found in the treble ; it is
heceffary that the note which goes before it in the
treble ihould likewife be an ut.
201. And it is requifite to obferve, that, according
to the rules which we have given for the fundamental
bafs, ut will always be found in the chord of that note
in the fundamental bafs which precedes the Ample
dominant re. See XLVIII. XLIX. L. In the firft ^
example the difibnance is ut, in the fecond fol, and in
the third mi; and thefe notes are already in the pre¬
ceding chord (ebb).
Rule II.
2b2. If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic
dominant, or a Ample dominant, and if the diffonanct
be found ih the treble, this diifonance in the fame
treble Ought to defeend diatonically. But if the note
3 Y oF
(zz) There are notes which may be found feveral times in the fundamental bafs in fucceflioU with a diffe¬
rent harmony. For inftance, the tonic ut, after having carried the chord ut mi fol ut, may be followed by
another ut Which carries the chord of the feventh, provided that this chord be the chord of the tonic dominant
ut mi fol fi\). See LXXII. In the fame manner, the tonic ut maybe followed by the fame tonic which
may be rendered a fub-dominant, by caufing it to carry the chord ut mi fol la. See LXXIII.
A dominant, whether tonic or fimplej fometimes defeends or rifes upon one another by the interval of a
tritone or falfe fifth, For example, the dominant fa, carrying the chord fa la ut mi, may be followed by ano¬
ther dominantcarrying the chord Ji refa la. This is a licence in which the mufician indulges himfelf, that
he may not be obliged to depart from the fcale in which he is; for inftance, from the fcale of ut to which fa
and belong. If one fhould defeend from Ja to Ji'q by the interval of a jolt fifth, he would then depart from
that fcale, becaufe Jity is no part of it.
(aaa) There are often in the treble feveral notes which may, if we choofe, carry no chord,- and be regarded
merely as notes of paffage-, ferving only to connedt between themfelves the notes that do carry chords, and to
form a more agreeable modulation. Thefe notes of paffage are commonly quavers. See Exam. XLVII. in
which this modulation ut re mi fa fol, may be regarded as equivalent to this other, ut mi fol, as re and/a are
no more than notes of paflage. So that the bafs of this modulation may be limply ut fol.
When the notes are of equal duration, and arranged in a diatonic order, the notes which Occupy the per-
fedt part of each time, or thofe which are accented, ought each of them to carry chords. Thofe which oc¬
cupy the imperfedt part, or which are unaccented, are ho more than mere notes of paffage. Sometimes,
however, the note whibh occupies the imperfedl part may be made to'carry harmony ; but the value of this
note is then commonly increSfed by a point which is placed after it, which proportionably diminifhes the con¬
tinuance of the note that occupies the pCrfedl time, and makes it pafs more fwiftiy.
When the notes do not move diatonically, they ought generally ail of them to enter into the chord which ia
placed in the lower part eprrefpondCnt with thefe notes.
(bbb) There is, however, one cafe in which the feventh of a Ample dominant maybe found in a modulation
without being prepared. It is when, having already employed that dominant in the fundamental bafs, its fe¬
venth is afterwards heard in the modulation, as long as this dominant may be retained. For inftance, let u-S
imagine this modulation,
ut I rb ut Ji ut \ re;
and this fundamental bafs, ut j re fol ut J fol
(fee Example LI.) ; the re of the fundamental bafs anfwers to the two notes re ut of the treble. The dif¬
fonance ut has no need of preparation, becaufe the note re of the fundamental bafs having already oeen em¬
ployed for the re which precedes w, the diffonance ut is afterwards presented, below which the chord re may¬
be preferred, or re faja ut.
538
fM U S I C.
Part n.
P' iTi'ipk? of the bafs be a fab dfominant, it ought torifedia-
oftomeally. This diffonance, which rifes or defcends
, *' " diatonically, is what we have called a di[fonance faved
V or refokel (129, . ^o.)- See LH. LIII. LIV.
201- One may likewife obferve here, that, accord¬
ing to the rules for the fundamental bafs .which we
have given, the note upon which the diffonance ought
to defcend or rife will always be found in the fubfe-
quent chord (ccc).
Chap. Vlll. Of the Continued Bafs, and its Rules.
* See Coh- 204. A continued * or thorough bafs, is nothing
tinued bitfs. e1fe but a fundamental bafs whofe chords are inverted.
Thorough ,'n,ert a c^otc^ when we change the order of the
bafs wlfat. notes which compofe it. For example, if in dead of
the chord fol fl re fa, I Ihould fay Ji re fa fol. or re
257 fa fol f. See. the chord is inverted. Let us fee then,
n" in P^ac£> t^ie poffible ways in which a chord
’ may be inverted.
The ways in which a Perfect Chord may be lit-
I'&RTED.
205. The perfeft chord tit mi fol ut may be invert¬
ed in two different ways.
t. Mi fol ut mi, which we call a chord of the fixth,
compofed of a third, a fixth, and an oftave, and in this
cafe the note mi is marked with a 6. (See LVI.)
2. Sol ut mi fol, which we call a chord of the fxth and
fourth, compofed of a fourth, a fixth, and an o&ave;
and it is marked with a 4. (See LVII.)
The perfeift minor chord is inverted in the fame
manner.
The ways in winch the Chord of the Seventh may be
Inverted.
206 In the-chord of the tonic dominant, as folJi
re fa, the third major f above the fundamental note
fol is called a fenfble note (77.) } and the inverted
chord f rt fa fol, compofed of a third, a falfe fifth, Principle*
and fixth, is called the chord of the falfe fifth, and is °f Compo-
marked with an 8 or a t?5 (fee LVIII. and LIX.)
The chord re fa folf, compofed of a third, a fourth,
and a frxth, is called the chord of the fenfible fxth, and
marked with a 6 or a $6. In this chord thus figured,
the third is minor, and the fixth major, as it is eafy to
be perceived. (See LX.)
The chord fa fol f re, compofed of a fecor-d, a tri¬
tone, and a fixth, is called the chord of the tritone,
and is marked thus 4+, thus X4, or thus ^4. (See
LXL)
207. In the chord of the fimple dominant re fa la
ut, we find,
Fa la «t re, a chord of the great fixth, which is
compofed of a third, a fifth, and a fixth, and which
is figured with a f. See LXIII. (ddd).
2. La ut re fa, a chord of the leffer fixth, which is
figured with a 6. See LXIV. (eee).
3. Ut re fa la, a chord of the fecond, compofed of
a fecqnd, a fourth, and a fixth, and which is marked
with a 2. See LXII. (fff).
The ways in which the Chord of the fub-DOMiNAHT may
be inverted.
208. The chord of the fub-dominant, as fa la ut
re, may be inverted in three different manners ; but
the method of inverting it which is moft in pra&ice
is the chord of the leffer fixth la ut re fa, which is
marked with a 6, and the chord of the feventh re fa la
ut. See LXIV.
Rules for the Continued Bass.
209. The continued bafs is a fundamental bafs,
whofe chords are only inverted in order to render it
more in the tafte of finging, and fuitable to the voice.
See LXV. in which the fundamental bafs which in it-
felf is monotopic and little fuited for finging, ut fol ut
fol ut fol ut, produces, by inverting its chords, this con¬
tinued
(ccc) When the treble fyncopates in defeending diatonically, it is common enough to make the fecond part
of the fyncope carry a difeord, and the firft a concord. See Example LV. where the firft p&rt of the fynco-
pated note fol is in concord with the notes ut mi fol ut, which anfwer to it in the fundamental bafs, and where
the fecond part is a diffonance in the fubfequent chord la ut m fol. In the fame manner, the firft part of the
fyncopated note fa is in concord with the notes re fa la ut, which anfwer to it; and the fecond part is a dif—
fonance in the fubfequent chord fol f re fa, which anfwer to it, &c.
(ddd) We are obliged to mark lik* wife, in the continued bafs, the chord of the fub-dominant with a -f,
■which in the fundamental bafs is figured with a 6 alone ; and this to diftinguilh it from the chords of the fixth
and of the leffer fixth. (See Examples LVI. and LXIV.) For what remains, the chord of the great fixth in the
fundamental bafs carries always the fixth major, whereas in the continued bafs it may carry the fixth minor..
For inftance, the chord of the feventh ut mi folf, gives the chord of the great fixth mi folf ut, thus impro*
perly called, fince the fixth from mi to ut is minor.
(eee) M. Rameau has juftly obferved, that we ought rather to figure this leffer fixth with a |, to diftin-
guilh it from the fenfible fixth which arifes from the chord of the tonic dominant, and from the fixth which
arifesfrom the perfect chord, in the mean time he figures in his works with a 6 alone, the leffer fixths which ,
do not arife from the tonic dominant; that is to fay, he figures them as thofe which arife from the perfeft
chord ; and we have followed him in that, though we thought with him, that it would be better to mark this
chord by a particular figure.
(fff) The chord of the feventh f re fala gives, when inverted, the chord fa la f re, compofed of a third,
a tritone, and a fixth. This chord is commonly marked with a 6, as if the tritone were a juft fourth. It is
his bufinefs who performs the accompaniment, to know whether the fourth above fa be a tritone or a fourth
redundant. One may, as to what remains, figure this chord thus a*.
Fart II.
Principles
*>{ l
M U
tniued hafs liiglily proper to be fung, ul Ji ut re mi fa
mi* &c. (ggg.)
The continued bafs then is properly nothing elfe
but a treble with reipett to the fundamental bafs. Its
rules immediately follow, which are properly no other
than thofe already given for the treble.
Rule I.
210. Every note which carries the chord of the falfe
fifth, and wjrich of confequence muft be what we have
called a jmfible note, ought (77) to rife diatonic-ally
upon, the note which follows it. Thus in example
I,XV. the note./?, carrying the chord of the falfe fifth
marked with an 8, rifes diatonically upon ut (hhh).
SIC. 539
Rule II. Prinei; les
211. Every note carrying the choM of the tritone vi
fir011 id defcend diatonically upon the fu'ofequent note. . 1 ^°n' .
Thus in the farfie example LXV.yiz, which carries-the
chord of the tritone figured with a 4+, defcends diato-
tonically upon wi. (Art. 202.)
Rule III.
21 2. The chord of the fecond is commonly put in
pradlice upon notes which are fyricopatcd in defeend-
ing, becaufe thefe notes are diifonances which ought
to be prepared and refolved (200, 202.) See the ex*
ample LXVI. where the fecond ut, which is lyncopa-
ted, and which defcends afterwards upon /?, carries the
chord of the fecond (in).
3 Y 2 Ghap.
(ggg) The continued bafs is proportionably better adapted to tinging, as the founds which form it more
fcrupuloufly obferve the diatonic order, becaufe this order is the moll agreeable of all. We muft therefore en¬
deavour to preferve it as much as pofilble- It is for this reafon that the continued bafs in Example LXV. is
much more in the tafte of finging, and more agreeable, than the fundamental bafs which anfwers to it.
(hhh) The continued bafs being a kind of treble with relation to the fundamental bafs, it ought to obferve
the fame rules with refpeft to that bafs as the treble. Thus a note, for inftance re, carrying a chord of the
feventh re fa la ut, to which the chord of the fub-dominant fa la ut re correfponds in the fundamental bafs,
ought to rife diatonically upon mi, (art. 129, n° 2. and art. 202.),
(in) When there is a repofe in the treble, the note of the continued bals ought to be the fame with that ofthe
fundamental bafs, (fee example LXVII.) In the clofes which are found in the treble tyx. fi and ut (bars third
and fourth), the notes in the fundamental and continued bafs kre the fame, vyz.falfor the firft cadence, and ut
for the feeond. This rule ought above all to be obferved in final cadences which terminate a piece or a modu¬
lation.
It is neceffary, as much as pofilble, to prevent coincidences of the fame notes in the treble and continued
bafs, unlefs the motion of the continued bafs fiiould be contrary to that of the treble. For exampld, in the fe¬
cund note of the fecond bar in example LXVII. mi is found at the fame time in the continued bafs and in the
treble ; but the treble defcends from fa to mi, whilft the bafs vifes from re to mi.
Two o&a-ves, or two fifths, in fuccefiion, muft likewife be Ihunned For inftance, in the treble founds fol mi,
the br\fs muft-be prevented from foundingyk/ mi, ut la, or re f, becaufe in the firft cafe there are two o&aves in
luccefiion, fol againft fal, and mi againft mi; and becaufe in the fecond cafe there are two fifths in fuccefiion, vt
againft fol, and la againft mi, or re againft /c/, and fi againft mi. This rule, as well as the preceding, is found¬
ed upon this principle, that the continued bafs ought not to be a copy of the treble, but to form a different
melody.
Every time that feveral notes of the continued bafs anfwer to one note alone of the fundamental, the com-
-pofer fatisfies himfelf with figuring the firft of them. Nay he does not even figure it if it be a tonic ; and he
draws above the others a liue, continued from the note upon which the chord is formed. See .example LXVIII.
where the fundamental bafs ztf gives the continued bafs ut mi fol mi •, the two wiVought in this bafs to carry
the chord 6, and fol the chord % : but as thefe chords are comprehended in the perfeT chord ut mi fol ut,
which is the firft of the continued bafs, we place nothing above ut, only we draw a line over ut mi fol mi.
In like manner, in the fecond bar of the fame example, the notes fa and re of the continued bafs, ri-fing
from the note fol alone of the fundamental bafs which carries the chord fol f re fa, we think it fufficient to
figure fa with the number of the tritone 4X, and to draw a line above fa and re.
It fhould be remarked, that this fa ought naturally to defcend to ml; but this note is eOnfidered as.fubfift-
ing fo long as the chord fubfifts ; and when the chord changes, we ought neceffarily to find the mi, as may be
i’een by that example.
In general, whilft the fame chord fabfifts in palling through different notes, the chord is reckoned the fame
as if the firft note of the chord had fublifted ; in fuch a manner, that, if the firft note of the chord is, for in¬
ftance, the fenfible note, we ought to find the tonic when the chord changes. See example LXIX. or this con¬
tinued bafs, it Ji fol Ji re ut, is reckoned the fame with this ar f ut. (Example LXX.)
If a Tingle note of the continued bafs anfwers to feveral notes of the fundamental bafs, it is figured vvith the
different chords which agree to it. For example, the note foi in a continued bafs may anfwer to this funda¬
mental bafs a/yo/z/2, (fee example LXXI.) ; in this cafe, we may regard the note Joins divided into three
parts, of which the firft carries the chord ^, the fecond the chord 7, and the third the chord 4.
We (hall repeat here, with refpeti to the rules of the continued bafs, what we have formerly faid concern¬
ing the rules of the fundamental bafs in the note upon the third rule, art. 193. The rules of the continued
bafs have exceptions, which practice and the perufal of good authors will teach. There are likewife feveral
other rules which might require a confiderable detail, and which will he found in the Treatife of Harmony by M.
Rameau, and elfewhere. Thefe rules, which are proper for a complete differtation, did not appear to me
indifpenfably neceflary in an elementary ejfay upon mujic, fuch as the prefent. The books which we have quoted
-at the end of out preliminary difeourfe will more particularly inftruft the reader concerning this praftical detail.
540
M U S
iples Chap. IX. Of fame Licences'affirmed in the Funda¬
mental Bafs.
$ i. Of Broken and Interrupted Cadences.
213. The broken cadence is executed by means of
a dominant which vifes diatonically upon another, or
executed. Upon a tonic by a licence. SeCjin the example LXXIV.
folia, (132, and 134).
Intcrru ted 214’ The interrupted cadence is formed by a do-
cxdcnc^ minant which defcends by a third upon another (136).
bow term- See, in the example LXXV. yo/ mi (lll).
«d. Thefe cadences ought to be permitted but rarely
and with precaution.
$2. ^Supposition.
Chord by 2x5. When a dominant is preceded by. a tonic in
fuppofition, the fundamental bafs, we add fofnetimes, in the con-
what. tinned bafs to the chord of that dominant, a new note
which is a third or a fifth below ; and the chord which
refults from it in this continued bafs is called a chord
by fuppqfition.
For example, let usfuppofe, that in the fundamental
bafs we have a dominant fol carrying the chord of the
feventh fol ft re fa ; let us add to this chord the note
Tit, which is a fifth below this dominant, and we fhall
have the total chord ut fol ft re fa, or ut re fa folf,
which is called a chord lyfuppoftion (mmm.)
Of the different kinds of chords by fuppoftion.
216. It is eafy to perceive, that chords by fuppofi-
See Suppo-
fitm.
I C. Part II.
tion are of different kinds. For inflance, the chord of Principles
the tonic folfire fa gives, of Compo-
1. By adding the fifth ut, the chord ut folft re fa,, t‘on’ .
called a chord of the feventh redundant, and compofed
of a fifth, feventh, ninth, and eleventh. ItisfigurcdThefediffe-
with a $ 7 ; fee jlXXVI. (nnn). This chord is not
pradlifed but upon the tonic. They fometimes have
out the fenfible note, for reafons which we fhall give red.
in the note (i&CL, upon the art. 2x9 ; it is then redu¬
ced to ut fa fol re, and marked with 4 or
2. By adding the third mi, we fhall have the chord
mi fol fi re fa, called a chord of the ninth, and compo¬
fed of a third, fifth, feventh, and ninth. It is figured
with a 9. This third may be added to every third of
the dominant. See LXXV1I. (000^).
3. If to a chord of the fimple dominant, as re fa
la ut, we fhould add the fifth fol, we would have the
chord fol re fa la ut, called a chord of the eleventh, and
which is figured with a or £. (See LXXVIII.)
Observe.
217. When the dominant is not a tonic dominant, Occafion*
they often take away fome notes from the chord. For when re¬
example, let us fuppofe that there is in the fundamen-trench-
tal bafs this fimple dominant mi, carrying the chord ™
mi fol ft re : if there fhould be added the third ut be- prop,T.
neath, we fhall have this chord of the continued bafs
ut mi fol ft re, but they fupprefs the feventh ft, for rea¬
fons which fhall be explained in the note upon
( li.l) One may fometimes, but very rarely, caufe feveral tonics in fucceffion to follow one another in afeend-
ing or defeending diatonically, as ut mi fol ut, re fa la re, f\> re fa ; but, befides that this fucceffion is harfh,
it is neceffary, in order to render it pra&icable, that the fifth below the firft tonic fhould be found in the chord
of the tonic following,, as here fa, a fifth below the firft. tonic ut, is found in the chord re fa la re, and in the
chord ft^ re fa f]) (37 and note g.)
(mmm) 1 hough fuppofition be a kind of licence, yet it is in fome meafure founded on the experiment rela¬
ted in the note (V), where you may fee that every principal or fundamental found caufes its twelfth and fe-
venteenth major in defeending to vibrate, whilft the twelfth and the feventeenth major afeending refound : which
feems to autliorize us in certain cafes to join with the fundamental harmony this twelfth and feventeenth in de¬
feending ; or, which is the fame thing, the fifth or the third beneath the fundamental found.
Even without having recourfe to this experiment, we may remark, that the note added beneath the funda¬
mental found, caufes that very fundamental found to be heard. For inftance, ut added beneath fol, caufes fol
to refound. Thus fol is found in fome meafure to be implied in ut.
If the third added beneath the fundamental found be minor, for example, if to the chord,/©/ft re fa, we add
the third mi, the fuppofition is then no longer founded on the experiment, which only gives the feventeenth
major, or, what is the fame thing, the third major beneath the fundamental found, in this cafe the addition
of the third minor muft be confidered as an extenfion of the rule, which in reality has no foundation in the
chords emitted by a fonorous body, but is authorized by the fandlion of the ear and by practical experiment.
(nnn) Many muficians figure this chord with a ; M. Rameau fupprefles this 2, and merely marks it to
be the fevtnth redundant by a 7$ or $7. But it may befaid, how ffiall we diftinguifti this chord from the fe¬
venth major, which, as it would feem, ought to be marked with a 7$ l M. Rameau anfwers, that there is n®
danger of miftake, becaufe in the feventh major, as the feventh ought to be prepared, it is found in the prece¬
ding chord; and thus the {harp fubfifting already in the preceding choid, it would be ufelefs to repeat it-
k
Thus re fol, according to M. Rameau, would indicate re fa% la ut, folft re fa% If we would change fa%
of the fecond chord into./ir, it would then be neceftary to write re fol. In notes fuch as ut, whofe natural fe-
veuth is major, the figure 7 preceded or followed by a (harp will uifficiently ferve to diftinguilh. the chord of
the feventh redundant ut fol ft re fa, from the fimple chord of the feventh Mt mi folft, which is marked with a
7 alone. All this appears juft and well founded.
(000) Suppofition introduces into a chord diflbnanccs which were not in it before. For inftance, if to the
chord mi fol ft re, we ffiould add the note of fuppofition ut defeending by a third,. it is plain that, befides the
8 diffonance
Part IT. MUSIC. 541
art. 219. In this ftate the chord is limply compofed of that other(116), all compofed of niinor Principles
a third, fifth, and ninth, and is marked with a 9. See thirds ; and which has for its fundamental found the Compo.
LXXIX. (ppp) fenfible note fol% This chord is called a chord of, ^Q"' j
218. What is more, in the chord of the Ample do- the Jlat, or diminjjhed/eventh, and is figured with a 7}
minant, as re fa la ut, when the fifthTo/is added, they in the fundamental bafs, (fee LXXXII.) : but it is
frequently obliterate the founds fa and la, that too always confidered as reprefenting the chord of the to-
great a number of diflbnances may be avoided, which nic dominant. _ 265
reduces the chord tbfolut re. This laft is compofed 222. This chord in the fundamental bafs producesChordsPro'
only of the fourth and Ae fifth. It is called a chord of in the continued bafs the following chords :
263
Chord of
the fifth re¬
dundant
what, and
how figu¬
red.
Chord of
the flat fe-
venth what,
and how fi¬
gured.
the fourth, and it is figured with a 4. (See LXXX.)
219. Sometimes they only remove'the note la, and
then the chord ought to be figured with 4 or ^
220. Finally, in .the minor mode, for example, in
.that of/a, where the chord of the tonic dominant (109,)
is mi fol% fi re; if we add to this chord the third ut
below, we lhall have ut mi fol% Ji re, called the chord
of the fifth redundant, and compofed of a third, a fifth
redundant, a feventh, and a ninth. It is figured with
a ^5, or a +5. See LXXXI. (rrr.)
§ $• Of the Chord of the Diminished Seventh.
221 < In the minor mode, for inftance, in that of la,
mi a fifth from la is the tonic dominant (109), and
carries the chord mifol%fi re, in which fol is the fen¬
fible note. For this chord they fometimes fubftitute
. The chord fire fa fol%, compofed of a third, falfe bafs j,y this
fifth, and fixth major. They call it the chord of thewhz*, and
fixlh fenfible and falfe fifth ; and it is figured thus-$£,how fig*'
or.-ff. (SeeLXXXIII). tecL
2. The chord re fa fol%fi, compofed of a third, a
tritone, and a lixth, they call it the chord of the tritone
and third minor; and they mark it thus (See
LXXXIV).
3. The chord fa fol%fi re, compofed of a fecond
redundant, a tritone, and a fixth. They call it the
chord of the fecond redundant, and they figure it thus
$2, or +2. See LXXXV. (sss). 266
223. Befides, fince the chord foli^Ji re fa rep re- Alteration*-
prefents the chord mi fol% fi re, it follows, that if we ^7 fuppofi-
operate by fuppofition upon the tirft of thefe chords,
it muft. be performed as one would perform it uponproduce
. mi what, and
how fijju-
diffonance between mi and re which was in the original chord, we have two new diflbnances, ut fi, and ut re ;
that is to fay, the feventh and the ninth. Thefe diffonances, like the others^ ought to be prepared and refol-
ved. They are prepared by being fyncopated, and refolved by defeending diatonically upon one of the confo-
nances of the.fubfequent chord. The fenfible note alone can be refolved in afeending j but it .is even neceflary
that this fenfible note Ihould be in the chord of the tonic dominant. As to the difibnances which are found in
the primitive chord, they fltould always.follow the common rules. (See art. 202.)
(ppp) Several muficians call this laft chord the chord of the ninth ; and that which, with M. Rameau, we
have limply called a chord of the ninth, they term a chord of the ninth and feventh. This lait chord they mark
with a f ; but the denomination and figure ufed by M. Rameau are more fimple, and can lead to no error ;
becaufe the chord of the ninth always includes the feventh, except in the cafes of which we have already
fpokeir.
(o&sJ They often remove fome difibnances from chords of fuppofition, either to foften the harlhnefs of the
chord, or to remove difeords which can neither be prepared nor refolved. For fnftance, let usfuppofe, that in
the continued bafs the note ut is preceded by the fenfible note Ji, carrying the chord of the falfe fifth, and that
we Ihould choofe to form upon this note ut the chord ut mijolfi re, we muft obliterate the feventh fi, becaufe
in retaining it we Ihould deftroy the effebt of the fenfible note.fi, which ought to rife to ut.
In the fame manner, if to the harmony of a tonic dominant-To/ fi re fa, one fhould add the note by fuppofi--
tion ut, it is ufual to retrench from this chord the fenfible note Ji ; becaufe, as the re ought to defeend diato¬
nically to ut, and the7? to rife to it, the effebt of the one would deftroy that of the other. This above all takes
place in the fufpence, concerning which we lhall prefently treat.
(rrr) Suppo/ition produces what we callfufpence ; and which is almoft the fame thing. Sufpenfion confifts
in retaining as many as poffible of the founds in a preceding chord, that they may be heard in the chord which
7 $7
fucceeds. For inftance, if this fundamental bafs be given ut fol ut, and this continued bafs above it ut ut ut,
- 7 7 , , $7
it is a Ihppofition ; but if we have this fundamental bafs ut fol fol ut, and this continued bafs above it ut fol ut ut,
k is a fufpenfe becaufe the perfebt chord of ut, which we naturally expebl after/o/ in the continued bafs, is
$7
fufpended and retarded by the chord ut, which is formed by retaining the founds To/ fi re fa of the preceding
chord to join them to the note ut in this manner, utfol fi re fa ; but this chord ut does nothing in this cafe but?
fufpend for a moment the perfebl chprd ut mi fol ut, which ought to follow it.
(sss) The chord of the diminilhed feventh, fuch as fol%fi re fa, and the three derived from it, are termed
chords offubjlitution. They are in general harlh, and proper for imitating melancholy objefts.
543 M U
Principle# m; Jul% fi re } that is to f:iy, that it will be neceffary
<f Compo^ to add to the chord re fa, the notes ut or la,
. ^ ' , which are the third or fifth below mi, and which will
produce,
1. By adding ut, the chord vt fol% Ji re fa, co-n-
pofed of a fifth redundant, a feventh, a ninth, and ele¬
venth, v/hich is the odtave of the fourth. It is called
a chord of the fifth redundant and fourth, and thus mark¬
ed^, or.:*’. (See LXXXVI.)
2. By adding la, we (hall have the chord la foI%Ji
re fa, compofed of a feventh redundant, a ninth, an
eleventh, and a thirteenth minor, which is the odtave
of the fixth rrtinor. It is called the chord of the fe-
<venth redundant and fixth minor, and marked \)6, or ^ p.
(See LXXXVI I.) It is of all chords the moft harfii,
and the moft rarely practifed (ttt).
In the Treat if of Harmony by M. Rameau, and
-elfewhere, may be feen a much longer detail of the
chords by fuppofition: But here we delineate the ele¬
ments alone.
Chap. X. Of fome Licences nfed in the Treble and
Continued Bafs.
i(rj
Licence ift. 224. Sometimes in a treble, the diftbnance vvhiA
ought to have been refolved by defeending diatonically
upon the fucceeding note, in Head of defeending, on the
contrary rifes diatonically : but in that cafe, the note
upon wdtich it ought to have defeended muft be found
in fome of the other parts. This licence ought to be
rarely praff ife'd.
In like manner, in a continued bafs, the diflbnance
in a chord of the fub-idominant inverted, as la in the
chord la ut mi fol, inverted from ut- mi fol la, may
fometimes defeend diatonically inftead of rifing as it
ought to do, art. 129. n° 2.; but in that cafe the note
ought to be Repeated in another part, that the diffo-
nance may be there refolved ir» afeending.
Licence 2d. 225. Sometimes likevvife, to render a continued bafs
more agreeable by caufing it to proceed diatonicaliy,
they place between two founds of that bafs a note
SIC. Part If.
which belongs to the chord of neither. See example P i ciples
XCIV, in which the fundamental bafs fol ut produces ol Compo*
the continued bafs fol IdJTfiol ut, where la is added on , 111'ini' ,
account of the diatonic modulation. This la has a line
drawn above it to fitow its refolution by paffing under
the chord fol fi re fa.
•In the fame manner, (fee XCV), this fundamental
bafs ut fa may produce the continued bafs z// re mi
ui fa, where the note re which is added paifes under
the chord ut mi fol nt.
Chap. XI. Containing the Method'of finding the
fundamental Bafs when the Continued Bafis is
figured.
226. To exercife yourfelf with greater cafe in find- How to find
ing the fundamental bafs, and to render it more fami-the fui-da-
liar to you, it is necefiary to obferve how eminent ma- mental baf*
fters, and above all how M. Rameau has put the rules
in pra&ice.. Now, as they never place any thing but i3 ngured.
the continued bafs in their works, it becomes then
neceffary to know how to find the fundamental bafs
when the continued bafs is figured. This problem may¬
be eafily folved by the following rules.
227. 1. Every note which has no figure in the con¬
tinued bafs, ought to be the fame, and without a figure
in the fundamental bafs; it either is a tonic, or reckoned
fiich, (uuu).
2. Every note which in the continued bafs carries a
6, ought in the fundamental bafs to give its third be¬
low not figured *, or its fifth below marked with a 7. * gee jr^ra.
We fhall diltinguifh thefe two cafes below. (See LV1.red.
and LXIV, and the note 2,2-2).
3. Every note carrying 4 gives in the fundamental
bafs its fifth below not figured. (See EVIL)
4. Every note figured with a 7 or a ;/, is the fame
in both baffes, and with the fame figure (xxx).
5. Every note figured with a 2 gives in the funda¬
mental bafs the diatonic note above figured with a 7.
See LXII. (yyy).
6. Every note marked with a 4 gives in the funda¬
mental
(ttt) As the chord of the dimtniftred feventhre fa, and the chord of the tonic dominant mifol%fi
re, only differ one from the other by the notes mi and /« ; one may form a diatonic modulation of thefe two
•notes, and then the fundamental bafs does nothing but pafs from the tonic dominant to the fenfible note, and
Irom that note to the tonic dominant, till it arrives at the tonic. (See XCII )
For the fame reafon, as the chord of the diminilhed feventh fol%fi re fa, and the chord fi re fa la, which
carries the fifth fi of the tonic dominant mi, only differs by the fenfible note fol%, and the tonic la ; one
may fometimes, while the treble modulatesyS/>* !a fo/%. la fol% la, afeend in the fundamental bafs, from the bafs
note to the third above, provided one defeend at laft from thence to the tonic dominant, and from thence to
the tonic ; (fee XCIII.) As to what remains, this and the preceding examples are licences.
(uuu) I fay a tonic, ojr reckonedfiuch, becaufe it may perhaps be a dominant from which the diffonance has
been removed. But in that cafe one may know that it is a real dominant by the note which precedes it. For
inftance, if the note fol, carrying a perfect chord, is preceded by re a frmple dominant, carrying the chord rt
fa la ut, that note fol is not a real tonic ; becaufe, in order to this, it would have been neceffary that re fhould
have been a tonic dominant, and fhould have carried the chord re faff la ut 1 and that a fimple dominant, as
re, carrying the chord re fa lei ut, fhould only naturally defeend to a dominant, l.art, 194.;
(xxx Sometimes a note which carries a 7 in the continued bafs, gives in the fundamental bafs its third
above, figured with a 6. For example, this continued bafs la ft ut gives this fundamental bafs ut fol ut ; but
in this cafe it is neceffary that the note figured wirh a 6 fhould rife by a fifth, as we fee here ut rife to fol.
(yyy) A .note figured with a 2, gives likewife fometimes in the fundamental bafs its fourth above, figured
with
Part IT. M U
Principle’ mental bafs the diatonic note above, figured with a 7.
of Comp°- ^See LXI )
. 7. Every note figured with an 8 gives its third be¬
low figured with a 7. (See LV11I )
8. Every note marked with a (i gives the fifth be¬
low marked with a 7; (fee LX.) and it is plain by
art. 187, that in the chord of the feventh, of which we
treat in thefe three laft articles, the third ought to be
major, and the feventh minor, this chord of the feventh
being the chord of the tonic dominant. (See art. 102.)
9. Every note marked with a 9 gives its third above
figured with a 7. (SeeLXXVll and LXX1X.)
10. Every note marked with a l gives the fifth above
figured with a 7. (See LXXVIIL)
11. Every note marked with a $5, or with a +5,
gives the third above figured with a (SeeLXXXI.)
12. Every note marked with a $7 gives a fifth above
figured with a 7, or with a $. (See LXXVI.) It is
the fame cafe with the notes marked 4’ or j: which
fhows a retrenchment, either in the complete chord, of
the eleventh, or in that of the feventh redundant.
13. Every note marked with a 4 gives a fifth above
of Comj O'
S I C. 543
14. Every note marked with a $3 gives the third Principle!
minor below, figured with a (See LXXXIII.) " ‘
15. Every note marked wuth a gives the tritone u
above figured with a (See LXXXIV.)
16. Every note marked with a -j-z gives the fecond
redundant above, figured with a (See LXXXV.)
17. Every note marked with a ^4 gives the fifth
redundant above, figured wuth a (See LXXXVI.)
18. Every note marked with a gives the feventh
redundant above* figuredwith a See LXXXVI1.
(zzz./.
Remark.
228. We have omitted two cafes, which may caufe A difficulty
fome uncertainty. finding
The frft is that where the note of the- cont,'nuedn1gntajJ **
bsfs is figured with a 6. We now prefent the reafynbafs.
of the difficulty.
Suppftfe we fhould have the dominant re in the funda^
mental bafs, the note wdu'ch arifwers*to it in the con¬
tinued bafs may be /« carrying the figure 6 (fee
LXIV.j; that is to fay, the chord ia ut re fa: now
figured with a 7, or a (See LXXX.)
if we ffiould have the fub-dominant fa in the funda-
7 mental
with a 6 but it is neceffary in that-cafe that the note figured with a 6, may even here rife to a fifth. (See
Bote xxx). '
Thefe variations in the fundamental bafs, as well in the chord concerning which we now treat, as in the
chord figured with a 7, and in tvo others which fhall afterwards be mentioned (art. 228 and 229), are caufed
by a deficiency in the figns proper for the chord of the fub-dominant, and for the different arrangements by
which it is inverted. 5
M. 1’Abbe Rouffier, to redrefs this deficiency, had invented a new manner of figuring the continued bafs.
His method is moft fimple for thofe who know the fundamental bafs. It confifts in expreffing each chord by
only fignifying the fundamental found with that letter of the fcale by which it is denominated, to which is join¬
ed a 7 or or a 6, in. order to mark'all the difeords. Thus,the fundamental chord of the feventh re fa la ut is-
expreffed by a D ; and the fame chord, when it is inverted from that of the fob-dominant fa la ut re, is charac
terized by F ; the chord of the fecond ut re fa la, inverted from the dominant re fa la ut, is Ifkewife rep re-
fented by D 5 and the fame chord re fa la inverted from that of the fub-dominant fa la ut re is fijrnified bv F
the cafe is the fame when the chords are differently inverted. By this means it would be impoffible to miftake
either with refpea to the fundamental bafs of a chord, or with refpeft to the note which forms its diffonance
or with refpeift to the nature and fpecies of that difeord.
{zzz) We may only add, that here and in the preceding articles, we fuppofe, that the continued bafs is
figured in the manner of M Rameau. Font is proper to obferve, that there are not, perhaps, two muficians
who charaftenfe their chords with the fame figures ; which produces a great inconveniency to the perfon who
plays the accompaniments : but here we do not treat of accompaniments. For every reafon, then, we fliould
advye rnmates to prefer the continued baffes of M. Rameau to alLthe others, as by them they will moft fuel
cefsfully ftudy the fundamental bafs. J
Lis even neceffary to advertife the reader, and I have already done it (note eee), that M. Rameau only
maiks the leffer fixth by a 6 without a line, when this leffer fixth does not refult from the chord of the tonic
dominant; in fuch a manner that the 6 renders it uncertain whether ■ - - - G
flommant; in inch a manner that the 6 renders it uncertain whether in the fundamental bafs we ought to
'h°ofs th''I"1 T ' •£’7 bul “ S® b.e “fr to fte whether “ •!>' fifth is ligmfied by th«
figure. This may be ddlmguilbed, I. J„ obfervmg which of the two notes is exclnded by the rule, Jf ,hi
bafs. 2. If the two notes may with equal propriety be placed in the fundamental Lr ’
fundamental bafs.
ference muft be determined by the tone or mode of theTreble 'in that^particuIaE paiiage!en]hi theVofiowing
chapter we lhall give rules for determining the mode. t> iC- 10110wing
There is a chord of which we have not fpoken in this enumeration, and which is called the chord oMe fixth
redundant This chord is compofed of a note, of its third major, of its redundant fourth or tritone, and its
f h’ -aS/a l?A re\ .II ,sfmarked ^lth a ^ appears difficnlt to find a fundamental baL f<L
tins chord., nor is it indeed much in ufe amongft us. (See the note upon the art. 115.)
544 ( ( MU
Principles mental bafs, tbia rub-dortiuiant might produce in the
continued bafs the fame note la figured with a 6.
. t - ~ ' When therefore one finds in the continued bafs a note
marked with a 6, it appears at firft uncertain whether
we fliould place in the fundamental bafs the fifth be¬
low marked with a 7, or the third below marked with
971 a 6. . t
Another. 229. The fecond cafe is that in which the conti¬
nued bafs is figured with a ®. FV ihttance, if there
fhould be found fa in the continued bafs, one may be
ignorant whether he ought to infert irt the funda¬
mental bafs fa marked with a 6, or re figured with
27® a 7.
"Solution. 230. You may eafily extricate yourfelf from this
little difficulty, in leaving for an inflant this uncertain
note in fufpence, and in examining what is the fuc-
ceeding note of the fundamental bafs; for if that note
be in the prefent cafe a fifth above fa, that is to fay,
if it is ut, in this cafe, and in this alone, he may place
fa in the fundamental bafs. It is a confequence of this
rule, that in the fundamental bafs every fub-dominant
ought to rife by a fifth (195).
Chap. XII. What is meant by being in a Mode or
Tone.
TvTtthod
determi-
'-iling the
of 231. In the firft part of this treatife (chap, vi), w£
have explained, how by the means of the note-t//, and
of its two fifths fol and fa, one in afcending, which is
called a tonic dominant, the other id defcending, which
is called a ful-dominant, the fcal.e ut re mi fa fol la ft ut
may be found : the different founds which form this
fcale compofe what we call the major mode of ut, be-
caufe the third mi above ut is major. If therefore we
would have a modulation in the major mode of ut, no
other founds muft enter into it than thofe which com¬
pofe this fcale ; in fuch a manner that if, for inftance,
I fhould find fa% in this modulation, this fa% difcovers
to me that I am not in the mode of ut, or at leaft that,
if I have been in it, I am no longer fo.
232. In the fame manner, if I form this fcale in
afcending la ji- ut% re mi fa% fol% la, which is exaftly
fimilar to the fcale ut re mi fa fol la Ji ut of the major
N° 234.
SIC. PartIL
mode of ut, this fcale, in which the third from Id to Principles
ul% is major, fhall be in the major mode of la ; and if Compo-
I incline to be in the minor mode of la, I have nothing , ^t 'on' ,
to do but to fubftit ite for ut fharp ut natural; fo that '
the major third la ut'%. may become minor la ut} I
fhall have then
la ft ut re mi fa% fol% la,
which is (85) the fcale of the minor mode of la in af*
cending; and the fcale of the minor mode of la in de¬
fcending fhall be (90)
. . la fol fa mi ut re Ji la,
in which the fol and fa are no longer {harp. For it is
a Angularity peculiar to the minor mode, that its fcale
is not the fame in rifing as in defcending (89).
233. This is the reafon why, when we wifit to be- Hcifcetf ap
gin a piece in the major mode of la, we place three pears what
fharps at the cleff upon fa, ut, and fol; and on the A’arps and
contrary, in the minor mode of la, we place none, be-?ats.ftl0ul^
caufe the minor mode of la, in defcending, has neither A6.?,
ffiarps nor flats. _ InZZ
234. As the fcale contains twelve founds, each di-j°rmodeof
ftant from the other by the interval of a femitone, it/f>aildwhy
is obvious that each of thefe founds can produce both
a major and a minor mode, which conftitute 24 modes the minor
upon the whole. Of thefe we fhall immediately give1110(16 in de-
a table, which mAy be very ufeful to difcover the mode
in which we are. Mode?,*
A TABLE of the Different Modes* whole.
Major Modes.
ui re mi fa 'fol la Ji ut.
fol la Ji ut re mi fa% fol.
re mi fa % fol la fi ut % re.
la ft ut'J re mi fa % fol% la.
mi fa% fol% la ft ut % re% mi.
Ji ut'% re% mi fa fa fol% la%Ji.
fa% fol%fi ut% re% mi% Ja% (aaaa jj
rtty mi\) fa fol]) la\) fj ut re\).
la]) Ji\) ut re]) mi\) fa fol la\j.
mi]) fa fol la\) Ji\) ut re mi]).
(aaaa) The major mode of fa%, of ut]) or re%j and offol%. dr la\), are not much praftifed. In the opera
of Pyramtii and Thijbe, p. 267, there is a paffage in the fcene, of wnich one part is in the major mode oL
end the other in the major mode of ut%, and there are fix fharps ac the cleff.
When a piece begins upon ut%, there ought to be feven fharps placed at the cleff: but it is more convenient
only to place five flats, and to fuppofe the key re]), which is almoit the fame thing with ut%. It is for this
reafon that we fubftitute' here the mode of re) for that of ut^.
It is ft ill much more necefiary to fubftitute the mode of la) for that of fol%; for the fcale of the major mode
offol is fol% la%M, re% mi% fol. Jolt,
in which you may fee that there are at the fame time both a fol natural and a fait, j it Would then be necef-
fary, even at the fame time, that upon/s/ there fhould and fhould not be a fharp at the cleff; which is fhock-
ing and inconfiftent. It is true that this inconvenience may be avoided by placing a fharp: upon fol at the cleff,
and by marking the note fol with a natural through the courfe of the mufic wherever it ought to be natural;
but this would become troublefome, above all if there fhould be occafion to tranfpofe. In the article 236, wd
-fhall give an account of tranfpofition. One might likewife in this feries, inftead 0$ fol natural, which is the
•note immediately before the lart, fubftitute that is to fay, /a twice fharp : which, however, is not abfcr-
iutely the fame found with fol natural, especially upon inftruments whofe fcales are fixed, or whofe intervals
are invariable. But in that cafe two fharps may be placed at the cleft’ upon fa, which would jfrcduce another
inconvenience. But by fubftituting la) for Jolt, the trouble is eluded.
I c,
Parc IT.
M U
“t re mi\)fafol lajt.
or/rff \faf°l la^ Ut re mifa-
aifi%
ut re mi fa fol la Ji ut.
Minor Modes.
In defcending,
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
I«i rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
In defcending.
In rifing.
vox.: xii.
Of la.
■. la fol fa mi re ut fi la.
lafi ut re mi fa% fol'f let.
Of mi.
mi re ut Ji la folfa% mi.
mi fa% fol la ft ut%. re%. mi.
Off.
f la foljaft. mi re ut% ft.
ft ut% re mifa%fol% la^fu
Of/a*.
/a* mi re utftft lafo/%. fa.
Ja%fol% la ft ut% re% mi% fa%
Ofar*
ut fi lafol%fa% mi re% ut%.
«r* re* rnifa%fol% /a*/* ut
Of>/* or /a[j.
/a/*/a* mi ut% fi la%^Z*.'
lab f\) ut\) reb mi\) fa fol la\).
Of re* or mi\).
mi\) reij ufy fib la\) fol\) fa mi\).
mi\) fa fol\) lab fib ut re mlb.
Of /a* or jib.
fib lab.folb fa mib reb utftb.
fib ut reb tnib fa fol la fib-
Of mi* or/ab.
fa mib reb ut fib l°b f°l
fa fol lab fib M re mifa.
Part II.
S I c.
Of a/.
In defcending. ut fib lab fol fa mib re ut.
In rifing. ut re mib fa fol la fi ut.
Of/a/.
In defcending. fol fa mib re ut fib la fol.
In rifing. fol la fib ut re mi fa% fol.
Of re.
In defcending. re ut fib la fol fa mi re.
In rifing. re mifa fol la fi ut% re ( bbbb.)
235. Thefe then are all the modes, as well major Modes
as minor. Thofe which are crowded with (harps and
flats are little pra&ifed, as being extremely difficult in an‘d flaj5rpS
execution. little prac-
236. From thence it follows, tiled.
1. That when there are neither (harps nor flats at
the cleff, it is a token that the piece begins in the ^ uUs"
major mode of ut, or in the minor mode of la.
2. That when there is one (ingle (harp, it will al¬
ways be placed upon fa, and that the piece begins in
the major mode of fol, or the minor of mi, in fuch a
manner that it may be fung as if there were no (harp,
by finging/'inftead of/o*, and in finging the tune
as if it had been in another cleff. For inftance, let
there be a (harp upon// in the cleff of fol upon the
firft linej one may then fing the tune as if there were
no (harp : And inftead of the cleff offol upon the firft
line, let there be the cleff of ut; for the //*, when
changed into fi, will require that the cleff of fd (hould
be changed to the cleff of ut, as may be eafily feen. 0 ■
This is what we call tran/pofitionlfi.). poftion. J
’237. It is evident, that when /a* is changed into 27S
fi. fol miift be changed into ut, and mi into la. Thus the
by tranfpofition, the air has the fame melody as if it^”^*^^
were in the major mode of ut, or in the minor mode ti)e maior
3 Z of of ut and
the minor
 of la.
(bbbb) We have already feen, that in each mode, the principal note is called a tonic ; that the fifth above
that note is called a tonic dominant, or the dominant ot the mode, or (imply a dominant; that the fifth beneath the
tonic, or, what is the fame thing, the fourth above that tonic, is called a fub-dominant; and in (hort, that
the note which forms a femitone beneath the tonic, and which is a third major from the dominant, is called
a fenfille note. The other notes have likewife in every mode particular names which it is advantageous to
know. Thus a note which is a tone immediately above the tonic, as re in the mode of ut, and/-in that of la,
is termed a fub-tonic; the following note, which is a third major or minor from the tonic, according as the
chord is major or minor, fuch as mi in the major mode of ut, and ut in the minor mode of la, is called a me¬
diant ; in (hort, the note which is a tone above the dominant, fuch as la in the mode of ut, and /r* in that of
la, is called a fab-dominant.
£ Though our author’s account of this delicate operation in mufic will be found extremely juft and com¬
pendious ; though it proceeds upon fimple principles, and comprehends every poffible contingency; yet as
the manner of thinking upon which it depends may be lefs familiar to Englilh readers, if not profoundly
(killed in mufic, it has been thought proper to give a more familiar, though lefs comprehenfive, explanation of
the manner in which tranfpofition may be executed.
It will eafily occur to every reader, that if each of the intervals through the whole diatonic feries were
equal, in a mathematical fenfe, it would be abfolutely indifferent upon what note any air were begun, if within
the compafs of the gammut; becaufe the fame equal intervals muft always have the fame effe&s. But fince,
befides the natural fern it ones, there is another diftin&ion of diatonic intervals into greater and lejfer tones ; and
fince thefe vary their poiitions in the feries of an oftave, according as the note from whence you begin is
placed, that note is confequently the heft key for any tune whole natural feries is moft exa<ftly correfpondent
with the intervals which that melody or harmony requires. But in inftruments whofe fcales are fixed, not-
withftanding the temperament and other expedients of the fame kind, fuch a feries is far from being eafily
found, and is indeed in common pra&ice almoft totally negle&ed. All that can frequently be done is, to
take care that the ear may not be fenfibly (hocked. This, however, would be the cafe, if, in tranfpofing any
tune, the fituation of tire femitones, whether natural or artificial, were not exa&ly correfpondent in the feries
to which your air muft be tranfpofed, with their poiitions in the fcale from which you tranfpofe it. Suppofe
fo,.
MUSIC. Part If,
the rules of the fundamental bafs, and thofe which in Principles
the treble ought to be obferved with relation to this
bafs, it Ihould no longer be difficult to find the funda-, ' i
mentai bafs of a given modulation, nay, frequently to -179
find feveral; for every fundamental bafs will be legi- Method of
timate, when it is formed according to the rules which find*ng a
we have given (Chap. VL); and that, befides this, to*a
the diffonances which the modulation may form with given air
this n°t diffi¬
cult, and
  wlyr.
for inflance, your air fhould begin upon ut or C, requiring the natural diatonic feries through the whole
gammut, in which the diftance between mi andyiz, or E and F, as alfo that between /? and ut, or B and C, is
only a femitone. Again, fuppofe it neceffary for your voice, or the inftrument on which you play, that the
fame air (hould be tranfpofed to fol or G, a fifth above its former key ; theja becaufe in the firft feries the in¬
tervals between the third and the fourth, feventh and eighth-notes, are no more than femitones, the fame in¬
tervals, muft take the fame place in the odtave to which you tranfpofe. Now, from fol or G, the note with
which you propofe to begin, the three tones immediately fucceeding are full; but the fourth, ut or C, is only
a femitone ; it may therefore be kept in its place. But from./rz or F, the feventh note above, to fol or G, the
eighth, the interval is a full tone, which muff confequently be redreffed by raifing your fa a femitone higher.
Thus the fituations of the femitonic intervals in both oflaves will be correfpondent; and thus, by conforming
the pofitions of the femitones in the o&ave to which you tranfpofe, with thofe in the o&ave in which the
original key of the tune is contained, you will perform your operation with as much fuccefs as the nature of
fixed fcales can admit: But the order in which you muft proceed, and the intervals required in every mode,
are minutely and ingenioufly delineated by our author.
(cccc) Two (harps, and ut%, indicate the major mode of re, or the minor offi; and then, by tranfpo-
fition, the ut% is changed into /?, and of corifequence, re into ut and f into la.
Three (harps, ut% fotfy indicate the major mode of la, or the minor of fa%; and it is then folfy, which
mud be changed into f, and of confequence la into ut, and /«$ into la.
Four (harps,/r?^: ut% folfcre'fc, indicate the major mode of mi, or the minor of then the is changed
into /?, and of confequence mi into ut, and ut% into la.
Five (harps, fafy ut% fQl'% re% la%, indicate the major mode of f, or the minor of/o/$:; la then is changed
into f, and of confequence f into ut, ^nd fol% into la. ,
Six (harps, fafy ut%.fol% re% /a% mi%, indicate the major mode ofyir^; mi%. then is changed intof, and
of confequence fa% into ut.
Six flats,mi\) la]) re') foI\) ut\), indicate the minor mode of mi]); ut is changed \n\.o fa, and of confequence
m;\) into la.
Five flats, f)j mi]) la') re\) foP), indicate the major mode of re*), or the minor mode of Jf)’, then the fi\) is
changed into fa, and of confequenee the re\) into ut, and the f\) into la.
Four flats,yfy mi') la]) re]), indicate the major mode of la]), or the minor mode of fa; re') then is changed
into fa, and of confequence la\) into ut, and fa into la.
Three flats, /?[/ mi\) la]), indicate the major mode of mi]), or the minor qf ut; the la\> then is changed into
fa, and of confequence tni]) into ut, and the fol into la.
Two flats,./?!} indicate the major mode off]), or the minor of fol; mV) then is changed into fa, and of
confequence ^[} into ut, and the fa into la.
One fi2iL,fi\), indicates the major mode of fa, or the minor mode of re, and f\) is changed into^a; of con¬
fequence the fa is changed into ut, and the re into la.
All the major modes then may be reduced to that of ut, and the modes minor to that of la minor;
It only remains to remark, that many muficians, and amongft others the ancient muficians of France, as
Lulli, Campra, &c, place one flat lefs in the minor mode: fo that in the minor mode of re, they place neither
(harp nor flat at the cleff; in the minor mode of fol, one flat only ; in the minor mode of «/, two flats, &c.
This praftice in itfelf is fufficiently indifferent, and fcarcely merits the trouble of a difpute. Yet the
method which we have here deferibed, according to M. Rameau, has the advantage of reducing all the modes
to two; and befides it is founded upon this Ample and very general rule, That in the major mode, we mud -
place as many (harps or flats at the cleff, as are contained in the diatonic fcale of that mode in afeending; and
in the minor mode, as many as are contained in that fame fcale in defeending.
However this be, I here prefent you with a rule for tranfpofition, which appears to me more Ample than
the rule in common ufe.
For the Sharps.
Suppofe fol,re, la, mi, f, fa, and change fol into ut if there is one (harp at the cleff, re into ut if there are
two (harps, la into ut if there are three, &c.
For the Flats.
Suppofe fa, f, mi, la, re, fol, ,and change fa into ut if there is only one flat at the cleff, into ut if there;
are two flats, mi into ut if there are three, &c.
Principles 0f la. The major mode then offol, and the minor of
SST m’' are ky tranfpofition reduced to thofe of ut major,
, and of la minor. It is the fame cafe with all the other
^ modes, as anyone mayeafilybe convinced(cccc).
Chap. XIII. To find the Fundamental Bafs of a
given Modulation.'
238. As we have reduced to a very fmall number
Part II.
M U
Principles this bafs, will both be prepared, if it is neceflary that
° fitioif0* t^e^r ^0l,W be fo, and always refolved(DDDD).
i * 239. It is of the greateft utility in fearching for the
280 fundamental bafs, to know what is the tone or mode
Difficulty of 0f the melody to which that bafs fhould correfpond.
wiarai'8’ —But it is difficult in this matter to aflign general
rule* for rules, and fuch as are abfolutely without exception,
afcertaining in which nothing may be left that appears indifferent
the mode ofor difcretionary ; becaufe fometimes we feem to have
whole fun- t^le ^'ee ch°ice of referring a particular melody either
damental to one mode or another. For example, this melody
bafs is fol ut may belong to all the modes, as well major as
fought. minor, in which fol and ut are found together ; and
each of thefe two founds may even be confidered as
a8i belonging to a different mode.
Reafons 240. For what remains, one may fometimes, as it
may pro- feem, operate without the knowledge of the
ceed with- mode, for two reafons : 1. Becaufe, fince the fame
out the founds belong to feveral different modes, the mode is
knowledge fometimes confiderably undetermined ; above all, in
mode6 and t^ie a piece, and during the time of one or
how he two bars. 2. Without giving ourfelves much trouble
may be about the mode, it is often fufficient to preferve us
preferved from deviating in cempofition, if we obferve in the
ating in™" manner the rules above prescribed (ch. VI.)
comj ofi- for the procedure of the fundamental bafs.
tion. 241. In the mean time, it is above all things ne-
28* ceffary to know in what mode we operate at the be-
^"j^odeginning of the piece, becaufe it is indifpenfable that
n begin¬
ning a piece
iudifpen-   ——— ■
fable, and
why.
, . . 547
the fundamental bafs fhould begin in the fame mode, Principle*
and that the treble and bafs fliould likewife end in it $Compo-
nay, that they fhould even terminate in its fundamental, <'t‘on' .
note, which in the mode of ut is ut, and la in that of v
la, &c. Befides, in thofe paffages of the modulation
where there is a cadence, it is generally neceffary that
the mode of the fundamental bafs fliould be the fame
with that of the part to which it correfponds. lS
_ 242. To know upon what mode or in what key alnvefliga-
piece commences, our inquiry may be entirely re- tion of the
duced-to diftinguifli the major mode of ut from themocIe conv
minor of la. For we have already feen (art. 236. and1 nue<i‘
237.), that all the modes may be reduced to thefe
two, at leaft in the beginning of the piece. We fhall!
now therefore give a detail of the different means by
which thefe two modes may be diftinguiflied. 2g4
1. From the principal and charadteriftical founds Means by
of the mode, which are ut mi fol in the one, and /era/which the
mi in the other; fo that if a piece flieuld, for inflance, nia7
begin thus, la ut mi la, it may be almoft conftantly tlijwjer'
concluded, that the tone or mode is in la minor, al¬
though the notes la ut mi belong to the mode of ut.
2. From the fenfible note, which is Ji in the one,
and foI% in the other ; fo that if fol% appears in the
firft bars of a piece, one may be certain that he is in
the fhode of la.
3. From the adjuncts of the mode, that is to fay,
the modes of its two fifths, which for ut are fa and fol,
and re and mi for la. For example, if after having be-
3Z 2 gUIl
(dddd) We often fay, that we are upon a particular key, inftead of faying that we are in a particular mode.
The following expreffions therefore are fynonymous; fuch a piece is in ut major, or in the mode of ut major, or in
the key of ut major.
We have feen that the diatonic fcale or gammut of the Greeks was la Ji ut re mi fa fol la (art. 49.) A
method has likewife been invented of reprefenting each of the founds in this fcale by a letter of the alphabet;
la by A,y? by B, ut by C, &c. It is from hence that thefe form* of fpeaking proceed : Such a piece is upon
A, with mi, la, and its third minor ; or, Amply, it is upon A, with mi, la, and its minor; fuch another piece
upon C, with fol, ut, and its third major; or, Amply, upon C, with fol, ut, and its major; to fignify that the
one is the mode of la minor, or that the other is in that of ut major ; this laft manner of fpeaking is more con-
cife, and on this account it begins to become general.
They likewife call the cleff of ut fa¥, the cleff of re folG, &c. to denominate the cleff of fa, the cleff
of fol, 8cc.
They fay likewife to take the A mi la, to give the A mi la ; that is to fay, to take the unifon of a certain
note called la in the harpfichord, which la is the fame that occupies the fifth line, Or the higheft line in the
firft cleff of fa. This la divides in the middle the two oftaves which fubfiil (note rr ) between the foi which
occupies the firft line in the cleff of fol upon that lame line, and that fol which occupies the firfl: line in the
cleff of fa upon the fourth ; and as it poffeffes (if we may fpeak fo) the middle ffation between the fnarpeft
and loweft founds, it has been chofen to be the found with relation to which all the voices and infiruments
ought to be tuned in a concert ($).
()) Thus far our author : and though the note is no more than an illuftration of the technical phrafeology
in his native language, we did not think it confiftent with the fidelity of a tranflation to. omit it. We have
little reafon to envy, and ftill lefs to follow, the French in their abbreviations of fpeech ; the native energy
of our tongue fuperfedes this neceffity in a manner fo effe&ual, that, in proportion as we endeavour to be¬
come fuccindt, our ftyle, without the fmalleft facrifice of perfpicuity, becomes more agreeable to the genius
of our language ; whereas, in French, laconic didtion is equally ambiguous and difagreeable. Of this, we can¬
not give a more flagrant inftance than the note upon which thefe obfervations are made, in its original. We
muff, however, follow the author’s example, in reciting a few technical phrafes upon the fame fubject, which
occur in our language, and which, if we are not miftaken, will be found equally concile,.at the fame time that
they are more natural and intelligible. When we mean to exprefs the fundamental note of that feries within
the diatonic odtave which any piece of mufic demands, wc call that note the key. When we intend to fignify
its mode, whether major or minor, we denominate the harmony Jharp or fat. When in a concert we mean to
try how inftruments are in tune by that note upon which, according to the genius of each particular inftra-
ment, they may belt agree in unifon, we defire the muficians who join us to found A.
548 M U
Principles gUn a melody by fome of the notes which are common
Ompo- tQ tjle modes of ut and of la (as mi re mi fa mire ut Ji
, fo'00, ut f I fhould afterwards find the mode offol, which I
afcertain by the fa%, or that of Ja which I afcertain
by the f\) or K/tj, I may conclude that I have begun in
the mode of ut; but if I find the mode of re, or that
of mi, which I afcertain by fi\), ut%, or re%, &c. I
conclude from thence that I have begun in the mode
of la.
4. A mode is not for ordinary deferted, efpecially
in the beginning of a piece, but that we may pafs
into one or other of thefe modes which are mod rela¬
tive to it, which are the mode of its fifth above, and
that of its third below, if the original mode be major,
or of its third above if it be minor. Thus, for in-
llance, the modes which are mod intimately relative
to the major mode oi ut, are the major mode of fol,
and that of la minor. From the mode of ut we com¬
monly pafs either into the one or the other of thefe
modes; fo that we may fometimes judge of the prin¬
cipal mode in which we are, by the relative mode
which follows it, or which goes before.it, when thefe
relative modes are decifively marked. For what re¬
mains, befides thefe two relative modes, there are like-
wife two others into which the principal mode may
pafs, but lefs frequently, viz. the mode of its fifth be¬
low, and that of its third above, as fa and mi for the
mode of ut (eeee).
5. TJje modes may dill be likewife diftinguilhed by
the cadences of the melody. Thefe cadences ought
to occur at the end of every two, or at mod of every
four bars, as in the fundamental bafs: now the note
of the fundamental bafs which is mod fuitable to thefe
* See Ca- clofes*, is always eafy to be found. For the founds
4ence‘ which occur in the treble may be confulted M. Ra¬
meau, p- 54. of his Nouveau Sjfeme tie Mujique theo-
rique tt pratique (ffff).
certained When a peifon is once able to afcertain the mode,
the mode and can render himfelf fure of it by the different
the fmida- means which we have pointed out, the fundamental
mental bafs ijafs willco'l little pains. For in each mode there are
cuft'3 t^iree fundamental founds.
c ' i. The tonic of the mode, or its principal found,
SIC. P;
which carries always the perfedt chord major or minor, P
according as the mode itfelf is major or minor. of
Major mode of UT. ut mi fol ut.
Minor mode of LA. la ut mi la.
2. The tonic dominant, which fs a fifth above the
tonic, and which, whether in the major or minor
mode, always carries a chord of the feventh, compofed
of a third major followed by two thirds minor.
Tonic dominant.
Major mode of U f. fol Ji re fa.
Tonic dominant.
Minor mode of L A. mi fol'%. f re.
3. The fub-dominant, which is a fifth below the
tonic, and which carries a chord compofed of a third,
fitth, and fixth major, the third being either greater
or leffer,'according as the mode is major or minor.
Sub-dominant.
Major mode of UT. fa la ut re.
Minor mode of LA. re fa la Ji
Thefe three founds, the tonic, the tonic dominant,
and the fub-dominant, contain in their chords all the
notes which enter into the fcale of the mode ; fo that
when a melody is given, it may almoft always be
found which of thefe three founds Ihould be placed in
the fundamental bafs, under any particular note of the
upper part. Yet it fometimes happens that not one
of thefe notes can be ufed. For example, let it be
fuppofed that we are in the mode of ut, and that we
find in the melody thefe two notes la f in fucceffion ;
if we confine ourfelves to place in the fundamental
bafs one of the three founds ut fol fa, we (hall find
nothing for the founds la and fi but this fundamental
bafs fa fol; now fuch a fucceffion as Ja to fol is pro¬
hibited by the fifth rule for the fundamental bafs, ac¬
cording to which every fub-dominant, as fa, (hould rife
by a fifth; fo that Ja can only be followed by ut in
the fundamental bafs, and not by fol.
To remedy this, the chord of the fnb-dominant
fa la ut re muft be inverted into a fundamental chord
of the feventh, in this manner, re jd la ut, which has
been called the double employment (art. 105.) becaufe it
is a feeondary manner of employing the chord of the
fub-
(eeee) It is certain that the minor mode of mi has an extremely natural conneftion with the mode of ut, as
has been proven (art. 92.) both by arguments and by examples. It has likewife appeared in the note upon
the art. 93. that the minor mode of re may be joined to the major mode oi ut: and thus in a particular
fenfe, this mode may be confidered as relative to the mode of ut, but it is (fill lefs fo than the major modes of
fol and fa, or than thofe of la and mi minor ; becaufe we cannot immediately, and without licence, pafs in a
fundamental bafs from the perfect minor chord of ut to the perfect minor chord of re; and if you pais imme¬
diately from the major mode of ut to the minor mode of re in a fundamental bafs, it is by palling, for in-
ftance, from the tonic ut, or from mi fol ut, to the tonic dominant of re, carrying the chord la ui% mi fat,
in which there are two founds, mi fol, wh'ch are found in the preceding chord; or otherwife from ut mi fol ut
tofolf\) re mi, a chord of the fub-dominant in the minor mode of re, which chord has likewife two founds,
fol and mi, in common with that which went immediately before it.
(ffff) All thefe different manners of diftinguifhing the modes ought, if we may fpeak fo, to give mutual
light and affiftance one to the other. But it often happens, that one of thefe figns alone is not fufficient to
determine the mode, and may even lead to error. For example, if a piece of muiic begins with thefe three
notes, mi ut fol, we muft not with too much precipitation conclude from thence that we are in the major mode
of ut, although thefe three founds, mi ut fol, be the principal and chara&erittical founds in the major mode
of ut; we may be in the minor mode of mi, efpecially if the note mi fhould be long. You may fee au example
in the fourth aft of Zoroafter, where the firft air fung by the priefts of Arimanes begins thus with two times
Jol mi\) f\), each of thefe notes being a crotchet. The air is in the minor mode of Jbl, and not in the major
mode of mi\), as one would at firft be tempted to believe it. Now we may be fenfible that it is in fol minor,
by the relative modes which follow, and by the notes where the cadences fall.
Part II.
M U S
e give to the mo-
I c.
i Principles fub-dominant. By thefe means
of Compo- t '
fition. dulation la Jt, this fundamental bafs re fol, which pro-
l-—v  cedure is agreeable to rules.
Here then are four chords, ut mi fol ut, fol Ji re fa,
fa la ut re, re fa la ut, which may be employed in the
major mode of ut. We fhall find in like manner, for
the minor mode of la, four chords,
la ut mi la, mi fol% Ji re,
re fa la Ji, Ji re fa la.
And in this mode we fometimes change the laft of
thefe chords into Ji re fa% la, fubftituting the fa%. for
ja\. For inftance, if we have this melody in the minor
mode of la mi fa% fol% la, we would caufe the firft
note mi to carry the perfect chord la ut mi la, the fe-
cond note fa'%, to carry the chord of the feventh Ji re
fa% la, the third nott fol% the chord of the tonic do¬
minant mi fol% Ji re, and in Ihort, the lalt the perfect
chord la ut mi la.
On the contrary, if this melody is given always
in the minor mode la la fol% la, the fecond la be¬
ing fyncopated, it might have the fame bafs as the
modulation mi Ja% fol% la, with this difference alone,
that might be fubftituted for./«$ in the chord Ji re
a% la, the better to mark out the minor mode.
Befides thefe chords which we have juft mentioned,
and which may be regarded as the principal chords of
the mode, there are ftill a great many others; for ex¬
ample, the feries of dominants, »
ut la re fol ut ja Ji mi la re fol ut,
which are terminated equally in the tonic ut, either
entirely belong, or at leaft may be reckoned as be¬
longing (gggg) to the mode of ut ; becaufe none of
. thefe dominants are tonic dominants, except fol, which
is the tonic dominant of the mode of ut; and befides,
becaufe the chord of each of thefe dominants forms no
other founds than fuch as belong to the fcale oi^ut.
But if I were to form this fundamental bafs,
7 7 7* 7t>
ut la re fol ut,
confidering the laft ut as a tonic dominant in this man¬
ner, ut mi folji]) ; the mode would then be changed at
the fecond ut, and we fhould enter into the mode of
fa, becaufe the chord ut mi fol Ji\) indicates the tonic
dominant of the mode oija ; befides, it is evident that
the mode is changed, becaufe Ji\) does not belong to
the fcale of ut.
In the fame manner, were 1 to form this fundamen¬
tal bafs 7 7 7 6
ut la re fol ut,
549
confidering the laft ut as a tonic dominant, in this man- Principles
ner, ut mi fol la ; this laft ut would indicate the mode C'lmpo-
of fol, of which ut is the fub-dominant. U1°“~ ,
In like manner, Hill, if in the firft feries of domi¬
nants, I caufed the firft re to carry the third major, in
this manner, re Ja% la ut ; this re having become a to¬
nic dominant, would fignify to me the major mode of
fol, and the fol which fliould follow it, carrying the
chord f re fa, would relapfe into the mode of ut, from
whence we had departed.
Finally, in the fame manaer, if in this feries of do¬
minants, one ihould caufe7?to carry/«$: in this m'an-
ner,_y? re fa% la, this fa would fhow that we had de¬
parted from the mode ui, to enter into that offol.
From hence it is eafy to form this rule for difcover-
ing the changes of mode in the fundamental bafs.
1. When we find a tonic in the fundamental bafs, A ^ faf
we are in the mode of that tonic; and the mode isma-difcover-
jor or minor, according as the perfedt chord is major ing the
or minor. changes o£
2. When we find a fub-dominant, we are in thenif> e‘
mode of the fifth above that fub-dominant; and the
mode is major or minor, according as the third in the
chord of the fub-dominant is major or minor.
3. When we find a tonic dominant, we are in the
mode of the fifth below that-tonic dominant. As the
tonic dominant carries always the third major, one can¬
not be fecure by the affiftance of this dominant alone,
whether the mode be major or minor: butAt is only
neceffary for the compofer to caft his eye upon the fol¬
lowing note, which muft be the tonic of the mode in
which he is ; by the third of this tonic he will difcover
whether the mode be major or minor.
243. Every change of the mode fuppofes a cadence;
and when the mode changes in the fundamental bafs,
it is almoft always either after the tonic of the mode
in which we have been, or,after the tonic dominant of
that mode, confidered then as a tonic by favour of a
clofe which ought neceffarily to be found in that place:
Whence it happens that cadences in a melody for the
rnoft part prefage a change of mode which ought to
follow them.
244. All thefe rules, joined with the table of modes
which we have given (art. 234.)> willferve to difcover
in what mode we are in the middle of a piece, efpeci-
ally in the molt effential paffages, as cadences (hhhh),
I here fubjoin the foliloquy of Armida, with the
continued and fundamental baffes. The changes of the
mode will be eafily diftinguilhed in the fundamental
bafs,
(gggg) I have faid, that they may be reckoned as belonging to this mode, for two reafons : 1. Becaufe, properly
fpeaking, there are only three chords which effentially and primitively belong to the mode of ut, viz. ut car¬
rying the perfect chord, fa carrying that of the fub-dominant, and fol that of the tonic dominant, to which we
may join the chord of the feventh, re fa la ut (art 105.) : but we here regard as extended the feries of dominants
in quell ion, as belonging to the mode of ut, becaufe it preferves in the ear the impreffion of that mode. 2. In
a feries of dominants, there are a great many of them which likewife belong to other modes ; for inftance, the
Ample dominant la belongs naturally to the mode of fol, the fimple dominant f to that of la, &c. Thus it is
only improperly, and by way of extenfion, as I have already faid, that we regard here thefe dominants as be¬
longing to the mode of ut.
(hhhh) Two modes are fo much more intimately relative as they contain a greater number of founds com¬
mon to both ; for example, the minor mode of ut and the major offol, or the major mode of ut and the minor
* of
550
Principle?
of Compo
fition.
Chromatic
288
To an air
defcending
by chro-
fundamen-
tal bate,
what.
289
Afcending
what.
Enharmo¬
nic little
■ pradtiled.
M U
bafs, by tbe rules which we have juft given at the end
of the article 242. This foliloquy will ferve for alef-
fon to beginners. M. Rameau quotes it in his New
Syftem of Mufic, as an example of modulation high¬
ly juft and extremely limplc. (See Plate VI. and the
following (nil)-
Chap. XIV. Of the Chromatic and Enharmonic.
, 245. We call that melody chromatic which is com-
pofed of feveral notes in fucceffion, whether riling or
defcending by femitones. (See LXXXVIII. and
LXXXIX.)
246. When an air isxhromatic in defcending, the
moft natural and ordinary fundamental bafs is a con¬
catenated feries of tonic dominants; all of which fol¬
low one another in defcending by a fifth, or which
is the fame thing, in riling by a fourth. See
LXXXVIII (llll).
247. When the air is chromatic in afcending, one
, may form a fundamental bafs by a feries of tonics and
of tonic dominants, which fucceed one another alter¬
nately by the interval of a third in defcending, and of
a fourth in afcending, (fee LXXXIX). There are
many other ways of forming a chromatic air, whether
in rifing or defcending; but thefe details in an elemen¬
tary effay are by no means neceffary.
248. With refped to the enharmonic, it is very
rarely put in praftice ; and we have explained its for¬
mation in the firft book, to which we refer our rea¬
ders. We lhall content ourfelves with faying, that,
SIC. Part II.
in the beautiful foliloquy of the fourth aft of Darda- Principle*
nus, at the words lieux funejies, See. “ fatal places, o{ Compo-
&c.” we find an example of the enharmonic; an ex. .
ample of the diatonic enharmonic in the trio of the
Fatal Sifters, in Hippolitus and Aricia, at the words,
Ou coun-tu malheureux, “ Whither, unhappy, doll
thou run;” and that there are no examples of the chro¬
matic enharmonic, at leaft in our French operas. M.
Rameau had imitated an earthquake by this fpecies of
mufic, in the fecond aft of the Gallant Indians ; but
he informs us, that in 1735 could not caufe it to
be executed by the band. The trio of the Fatal
Sifters in Hippo’itus has never been fung in the opera
as it is compofed. But M. Rameau aflerts, (and we
have heard it elfewhere by people of tafte, before
whom the piece was performed), that the trial had
fucceeded when made by able hands that were not
mercenary, and that its effeft was aftonilhing.
Chap. XV. Of Defign, Imitation, and Fugue, see
249. In mufic, the name of dejign, or fubjeHlj is ge-Defign,
nerally given to a particular air or melody, which thewhilt.
compofer intends Ihould prevail through the piece ;
whether it is intended to exprefs the meaning of words
to which it may be fet, or merely infpired by the im-
pulfe of tafte and fancy. In this lalt cafe, defign is
diftinguilhed into imliation fugue.
250. Imitation confifts in caufing to be repeated the gee Tmi
melody of one or of feveral bars in one Angle part, ortationT'
in the whole harmony, and in any of the various modes 29a
thatImitatioD*
what.
of la: on the contrary, two modes are lefs intimately relative as the number of founds which they contain as
common to both is fmaller ; for inftance, the major mode of ut and the minor of Ji, See.
When you find yourfelf led away by the current of the modulation, that is to fay, by the manner in which
the fundamental bafs is conftituted, into a mode remote from that in which the-piece was begun, you muft
continue in it but for a fhort time, becaufe the ear is always impatient to return to the former mode.
(mi) It is extremely proper to remark, that we have given the fundamental, the continued bafs, and in ge¬
neral the modulation of this foliloquy, merely as a leffon in compofition extremely fuitable to beginners ; not
that we. recommend the foliloquy in itfelf as a model of exprefiion. Upon this laft objeft what we have faid
may be feen in what we have written concerning the liberties to be taken in mufic, Vol. IV. p. 435, of our
Literary Mifcellany. It is preoifely becaufe this foliloquy is a proper leffon for initiates, that it would be
a bad one for the mature and ingenious artift. The novice fliould learn tenacioufly to obferve his rules ; the
man of art and genius ought to know on what occafions and in what manner they may be violated when this
expedient becomes neceffary.
(lllc) We may likewife give to a chromatic melody in defcending, a fundamental bafs, into which may
enter chords of the feventh and of the diminiftied feventh, which may lucceed one another by the intervals of
a falfe fifth and a fifth redundant: thus in the Example XC. where the continued bafs defeends chro matically,
it may eafily be feen that the fundamental bafs carries fuccelfively the chords of the feventh and of the feventh
diminiftied, and that in this bafs there is a falfe fifth from re to fo!%, and a fifth redundant from fol%. to ut.
The reafon of this licence is, as it appears to me, becaufe the chord of the diminiftied feventh may be con-
fidered as reprefenting (art. 221.) the chord of the tonic dominant; in fuch a manner that this fundamen¬
tal bafs
7 if 7 7 7 &
la refold ut fajfc Ji mi la
(fee Example XCI.) may be confidered as reprefenting (art. 116.) that which is written below,
7^ 7 7 7 ^
la re mi ut fa% ji mi la
Now this laft fundamental bafs is formed according to the common rules, unlefs that there is a broken ca«
*
dence from re to mi,
and an interrupted cadence from mi to ut, which are licenfes (art. 213 and 214.)
Part U. M U
Principles that may be chofen. When all the parts abfolutely
cf Compo repeat the fame airf or melody, and beginning oneaf-
1 fu‘° ' , ter the other, this is called a canon. Fugue confifts
* See Air, in alternately repeating that air m the treble, and in
Oinon, the bafs, or even in all the parts, if there are more than
fW- two.
251. Imitation and fugue are fometimes conduced
'rules for by rules merely deducible from tafte, which maybe
compofmg feen in the 33 zd and following pages of M. Rameau’s
in feveral Treatfe on Harmony ; where will likewife be found a
Fart3- detail of the rules for compofition in feveral parts.
The chief rules for compofition in feveral parts are,
that the difcords (hould be found, as much as poffible,
prepared and refolved in the fame part; that a dif-
cord {hould not be heard at the fame time in feveral
parts, becaufe its harfhnefs would difguft the ear;
and that in no particular part there {hould be found
two octaves or two fifths in fucceffion (mmmm) with
refpect to the bafs. Muficians, however, do not he-
fitate fometimes to violate this precept, when tafte or
occafion require. In mufic, as in all the other fine
arts, it is the bufinefs of the artift to alfign and to ob-
ferve rules j the province of men who are adorned
with tafte and genius is to find the exceptions.
Chap. XVI. Definitions of the Different Airs.
232. We {hall finifii this treatife by giving in a few
words the chara&eriftic diftinCtions of the different
airs to which names have been given, as chacoon, mi¬
nuet, rigadoon, 8cc.
The chacoon is-a long piece of mufic, containing
three times in each bar, of which the movement is re¬
gular, and the bars fenfibly diftinguifhed. It confifts
of feveral couplets, whiclr'are varied as much as poffible.
Formerly the bafs of the chacoon was a comf rained bafs,
or regulated by a rhythmus terminating in 4 bars, and
proceeding again by the fame number; at prefent
compofers of this fpecies no longer confine themfelves
to that pra&ice. The chacoon begins, for the moll
part, not with the perfect time, which is ftruck by
. the hand or foot, but with the imperfedt, which paffes
whild the hand or foot is elevated.
The vi/lanelle is a chacoon a little more lively, with
‘ its movement fomewhat more brilk than the ordinary
chacoon.
The paffacailk only differs from a chacoon as it is
more flow, more tender, and beginning for ordinary
with a perfedl time.
The minuet is an air in triple time, whofe movement
is regular, and neither extremely brifle nor flow, con-
fifting of two parts or ftrains, which are each of them
repeated ; and for which reafon they are called by the
French reprifes t each ftrain of the minuet begins with
a time which is ftruck, and ought to confift of 4, of 8,
or of 12 bars ; fo that the cadences may be eaftly di-
fUnguifhed, and recur at the end of each 4 bars.
The farabando is properly a flow minuet; and the
SIC. 551
cowant a very flow farabando : this laft is no longer Principles
in ufe. The paffepied is properly a very brilk minuet,
which does not begin like the common minuet, with a fi ' ■
ftroke of the foot or hand; but in which each ftrain
begins in the laft of the three times of which the bar
confifts..
The hure is an air whofe movement is flow, whofe
time is marked with and where two of the times in
which the bar confifts are beaten ; it generally begins
with that in which the foot is raifed. For ordinary
the note in the middle of each time is ftiortened, and
the firft note of the fame time pointed.
The jig is properly nothing elfe but a loure very
brifk, and whofe movement is extremely quick.
The forlana is a moderate movement, and in a me¬
diocrity between the loure and the jig.
The rigadoon has two times in a bar, is compofed
of two ftrains, each to be repeated, and each confift-
ing of 4, of 8, or of 12' bars : its movement is lively;
each ftrain begins, not with a ftroke of the foot, but
at the laft note of the fecond time.
The bourse is almoft the fame thing with the riga¬
doon.
Tht gabotte has two times in each bar, is compofed
of two ftrains, each to be repeated, and each confiding
of 4, of 8, or of 12 bars : the movement is fometimes
flow, fometimes brifk ; but never extremely quick, nor
very flow.
The tambourin has two ftrains, each to be repeated,
and each confifting of 4, of 8, or of 12 bars, &c. Two-
of the times that make up each bar are beaten, and
are very lively ; and each ftrain generally begins in the
fecond time.
The mufette confifts of two or three times in each
bar; its movement is neither very quick nor very flow;
and for its bafs it has often no more than a Angle note,
which may be continued through the whole piece.
A P P END I X.
rTHE treatife of D’Alembert, of which we have
A given a tranflation, is well entitled to the merit-
of accuracy; but perhaps a perfon who has not parti¬
cularly ftudied the fubjeft, may find difficulty in fol¬
lowing the fcientific deductions of that author. We
fubjoin, therefore, a few general obfervations on the
philofophy of mnfical found, commonly called harmo¬
nics, which may perhaps convey the full portion of -
knowledge of the theory of mufic, with which one in
fearch only of general information, and not a profeffed
Undent of this particular fcience, would choofe to reft
fatisfied.
The theory of mufical- found, which only in the be¬
ginning of the prefent century- was ultimately efta-
bliffied by mathematical demonftration, is no'other
than that which diftinguiftied the ancient mufical feci
who
(mmmm) Yet there may be two fifths in fucceffion, provided the parts move in contrary direftions or in
other words, if the progrefs of one part be afeending, and the other defeending ; but in this cafe they*are--
not properly two fifths, they are a fifth and a twelfth ; for example, if one of the parts in defeending fiLuioL
found/re, and the other.la m nfing, ut is the fifth of fa, and./# the twelfth of re.
55i M U S
General wlio followed tlie opinions of Pythagoras on that
o’ferva- fubjeft.
tons on _ ^j0 part natural philofophy has been more fruit-
Harmomcs. of bypothefis than that of which mulical found is
the objeft. The mufical fpeculators of Greece arranged
themfelves into a great number of different fe£ls, the
chief of whom were the Pythagoreans and the Ariflo-
xenians.
Pythagoras fuppofed the air to be the vehicle of
found ; and the agitation of that element, occafioned
by a fimilar agitation in the parts of the founding
body, to be the ccwfe of it- The vibrations of a firing
or other fonorous body, being communicated to the
air, affe&ed the auditory nerves with the fenfation of
found ; and this found, he argued, was acute or grave
in proportion as the vibrations were quick or flow.—
He difcovered by experiment, that of two firings
equal in every thing but length, the Thorter made the
quicker vibrations, and emitted the acuter found :—
in other words, that the number of vibrations made in
the fame time, by two firings of different lengths, was
inverfely as thofe lengths ; that is, the greater the
leno-th the fmaller the number of vibrations in any
given time. Thus found, confidered in the vibrations
that caufe it, and the dimenlions of the vibrating body,
came to be reduced to quantity, and as fuch was the
fubjecl of calculation, and expreffible by numbers.—
For inflance, the two founds that form an odtave
could be expreffed by the numbers i and 2, which
would reprefent either the number of vibrations in a
given time, or the length of the firings; and would
mean, that the acuter found vibrates twice, while the
graver vibrates once ; or that the firing producing the
lower found is twice the length of that which gives
the higher. If the vibrations were confidered, the
higher found was as 2, the lower as i ; the reverfe,
if the length was alluded to. In the fame manner, in
the -fame fenfe, the 5th would be expreffed by the
ratio of 2 to 3, and the 4th by that of 3 to 4.
Arifloxenus, in oppofition to the calculations of
Pythagoras, held the ear to be the foie flandard of
mufical proportions. That fenfe he accounted fuffi-
ciently accurate for mufical, though not for mathe¬
matical, purpofes ; and it was in his opinion abfurd to
aim at an artificial accuracy in gratifying the ear be¬
yond its own power of dillimflion. He, therefore,
rejeiled the velocities, vibrations, and proportions of
Pythagoras as foreign to the fubjedt, in fo far as they
fubllituted aljlraQ caufes in the room of experience, and
made mufic the objedl of IntelleQ rather than offenfe.
I C. Appendix.
Of late, however, as has been already mentioned, General
the opinions of Pythagoras have been confirmed by "bfeeva.
abfolute demonflration; and the following proportions, Harmonic*,
in relation to mufical found, have paffed from conjee* ‘ *
ture to certainty.
Sound is generated by the vibrations of elaflic bo¬
dies, which communicate the like vibrations to the
air, and thefe again the like to our organs of hearing.
This is evident, becaufe founding bodies communicate
tremors to other bodies at a diflance from them. The
vibrating motion, for inflance, of a mufical firing, ex¬
cites motion in others, whofe tenfion and quantity of
matter difpofe their vibrations to keep time with the
undulations of air propagated from it (the firing.firft
fet in motion.)
If the vibrations be ifochronous, and the found
mufical, continuing at the fame pitch, it is faid to be
acuter, fharper, or higher, than* any other found
whofe vibrations are flower; and graver, flatter, or
lower, than any other whofe vibrations are quicker. —
For while a mufical firing vibrates, its vibrations be¬
come quicker by increafing its teniion or diminifhing
its length ; its found at the fame time will be more
acute : and, on the contrary, by diminifhing its ten¬
fion or increafing its length, the vibrations will be¬
come flower and the found graver. t he like altera¬
tion of the pitch of the found will follow, by applying,
by means of a weight, an equal degree of tenfion to
a thicker or' heavier and to a fmaller or lighter
firing, both of the fame length, as in the fmaller
firing the mafs of matter to be moved by the fame
force is lefs.
If feveral firings, however, different in length, den-
fity, and teniion, vibrate altogether in equal times,
their founds will have all one and the fame pitch, how¬
ever they may differ in loudnefs or other qualities.—
They are called unifons. i he vibrations of unifons
are ifochronous.
The vibrations of a mufical firing, whether wdder
or narrower, are nearly ifochronous. Otherwife, while
the vibrations decreafe in breadth till they ceafe, the
pitch of the found could not continue the fame (which
we perceive by experience it does), unlefs where the
fir ft vibrations are made very violently ; in which cafe,
the found is a little acuter at the beginning than af¬
terwards.
Lallly, the word vibration is underftood to mean
the time which paffes between the departure of the
vibrating body from any afiigned place and its return
to the fame.
M U S
Glafs-Music. See Harmonica.
MUSIMON, in natural hillory, the name of an
animal efleemed a fpecies of fheep, deferibed by the
ancients as common in Corlica, Sardinia, Barbary,
and the north-call parts of Afia. It has been doubted
whether the animal deferibed under this name is now
any where to be found in the world ; and whether it
was not, probably, a fpurious breed between two ani-
.mals ©f different fpecies, perhaps the fheep and goat,
234-
M U S
which, like the mule, not being able to propagate it*
fpecies, the produdlion of them may have been difeon-
tinued.
Buffon fuppofes it to be the fheep in a wild flate ;
and it is deferibed as fuch by Mr Pennant. Thefc
animals live in the mountains, and run with great
fwiftnefs among the rocks. Thofe of Kamtfchatka
are fo ftrong, that 10 men can fcarce hold one; and
the horns are fo large as fometirnes to weigh 30 pounds.
Plate cet'xxw.
^ ■ anisic.
/// /r * /rt ',(7^ ^ J'
at sr m/ fci ^d /a- Jr vu^rr^ SOL
Q^a/yind/. • '' O^xZ^Q&^ul.
r y(/r‘ dta&nd O^rs/d ^r^^e/r/.
ZTt, _Re Mr jFa I-O'
\Sr/' £r(s >SV/ W &%? J^Os
y/r 7,/?/.// ('/rrwr'yrr/rz^ /y i r/^r
7
rt-r
<7%?^ (Zr-rpmatir ofiterm*.
i •Cl/ca/e'.
) Sol Sol He
\m M7 . SrlyK
1 ^,.
/ l/Ae S7r??olo//to///<7< ^ Irr^r.
Qfcal’.
tfcjts m r* .\w-s«r z«. & rr \w sy
\m .':■/ oc /.v n m Oe su oa j a •,// 'y<^*
rr, rr*.M ■ m *. mi mtxjb x.Saz. soTxjut./a*.sr.MM.u£*al^™*y~*r*‘ ^
Olra/c o/ecoyrol.
/i'/vl i
’"mode.
/ oJesr/c.
\ Mft M7 Mr J/r Jl 'o
: iv rrr . Z,r • 7 7 77
( fl^Ao Xl/rrrrlro/rorrSz/'ldr.
nV Z,? SI 77 So Jit JM
,0J ' ■ (^ I "Z ^
\J// La Ml Ltr So La Sc
y/rc t /a?rrlrMt ’?rJa//Y7f7;.
yZc ^ooronrlt&il o/dro mrrzor morl .
\ SS Jie- JO- l/a* Oct. Oa.
XM JO- LqCc z«. JO or Mi- o.*c
( <_jJc tlaectamicntiz/,/’.'L*-
oia/i. ■ . rasec '■"
\» SU JO -Ou. Jet ree J* Ot ' SeSm/ame*l M
)rt- Set /V Fa. /v Jta Set trt
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Sc
dtea/e-.
La ML ALL So
m
ALL . SL
MUSIC.
PI. 3 «M
MUSIC.
PI. 3
M U SIC.
PI. 3^6
■
H. 32/.
MUSIC.
Fund.B.
M MS I C,
PL 331
+
F. B.
MUSIC.
PI. 33S2
Tranflation. Intended to give fnch Readers as do not nnderftand Frencb, an idea of the Song.
At length the victim in my power 1 fee,
This fatal year refigns him to my rage;
Subdued by fleep he lies, and leaves me free.
With chaftning hand my fury to afswage.
That mighty heart invincible and fierce.
Which all my captives free’d from fervile chains;
That mighty heart, my vengeful hand fhall pierce;
My rage inventive wanton in his pains.
Hal in my foul what perturbation reigns i
What would compafsion in his favour plead?
Strike, hand. O heaven! what charm thy force reft rains!
Obey my wrath. I figh; yet let it bleed.
And is it thus my juft revenge improves
The fair occafion to chafti/e my foe?
As I approach, a fofter pafsion moves.
And all my boafting fury melts in wo.
Trembling, relax’d, and faithlefs to my hate.
The dreadful tafk this coward arm 'declines.
How cruel thus to urge his inftant fate,
Depriv’d of life amid his great defigns!
In youth how blooming! what a heavenly grace.
Thro’ all his form, reliftlefs power difplaysi
How fweet the fmile that dwells upon his face,
Relentlefs rage difarming whilft I gaze!
Tho’ to the prowefs of his conquering arms
Earth ftood with all her hofts oppos’d in vain;
Yet is he form’d to fpread more mild alarms.
And. bind all nature in a fofter chain.
Can then his blood, his precious blood, alone
Extinguilh all the vengeance in my heart?
Tho’ ftill furviving, might he not atone
For all the wrongs I feel, by gentler fmart?
Since all my charms, unfeeling, he defies.
Let Magic force his ftubborn foul fubdue;
Whilft I, inflexible to tears and fighs.
With hate (if I can hate) his peace purfue.
M U S [ 553 1 M U S
Mufis and fo capacious, that young foxes often flicker the Fu¬
ll felves in the hollow of fuch as by accident fall off in
Muf>c' , the deferts. See Ovis.
'”~v MUSIS (AgoftinO de), a noted engraver, better
known by the name of Agojlino Vmexiano, or in Eng¬
land by that of “ Auguftin the Venetian but Mu-
fa was his proper family name. He was a native of
Venice, and fcholar of Marc Antonio Raimondi. It
is not certain at what period he begun his ftudies un¬
der that celebrated mafter; but the firft dated print
by Agoftino appeared A. D. 1509, at which time,
it is probable, his tutor {till refided at Venice. After
the death of Raphael, which happened in 1520, A-
goftino de Mufis, and Marc de Ravenna, his feilow-
difciple, who had conjointly aflifted each other, fepa-
rated, and worked entirely upon their own account.
It is uncertain at what time Agoftino died ; but his
rints are not dated later than 1536. So that it may
e reafonably fuppofed that he did not Jong furvive
that period. Agoftino de Mufis imitated the ftyle of
his mafter with great attention, and was, upon the
whole, the moft fuccefsful of all his feholars. In neat-
nefs and mechanical execution with the graver) he has
often equalled if not fometimes exceeded him ; but in
point of tafte, and in the purity and correctnefs of
outline, he certainly fell greatly ftiort of him. Ago-
ftino’s drawing had more of manner and ftffthefs ; the
heads of his figures are not fo accurately marked ;
nor the other extremities exprefled with equal truth,
MUSIVUM aurum. See Chemistry, n° 1224.
MUSK, a very ftrong-fcented fubftance found un¬
der the belly of hn Eaft Indian animal. See MoschOs.
According to Tavernier, the beft and greateft quan¬
tities of mufli come from the kingdom of Boutan,
from whence it is carried for Tale to Patna, the chief
town of Bengal. After killing the animal, the pea-
fants cut off the hag, which is about the fize of an
egg, and is fituated nearer the organs of generation
than the navel. They next take out the muflc, which
has then the appearance of clotted blood. When they
want to adulterate it, they put a mafti of the animal’s
blood and liver into the place of the mufli they had
extracted. In two or three years this mixture pro¬
duces certain fmall animals which eat the good mufk;
fo that, when opened, a great confumption is per¬
ceived. Others, after extrafting a portion of the
mufli, put in fmall pieces of lead to augment the
weight. The merchants who tranfport the mufli to
foreign countries are lefs averfe to this trick than the
former; becaufe in this cafe none of the animals above-
mentioned are produced. But the deceit is ftill worfe
to difcover, when, of the fliin taken from the belly of
a young animal, they make little bags, which they
few fo dexterpufly with threads of the fame fltin, that
they refemble genuine bags. Thofe they fill with
what they take out of the genuine bags, and fome
fraudulent mixture, which it is extremely difficultforthe
merchants to deteft. When the bags are fewed im¬
mediately on their being cut, without allowing any
part of the odour to diffipate in the air, after they’
have abftra&ed as much of the muflc as they think
proper, if a perfon applies one of thefe bags to his
nofe, blood will be drawn by the mere force of the
odour, which muft neceffarily be weakened or diluted
order to render it agreeable without injuring the
Vol.XII. Part II,
brain. Our author brought one of the animals' with
him to Paris, the odour of which was fo ftrong, that
it was impoflible for him to keep it in his chamber.
It made every head in the houfe giddy ; and he was
obliged to put it in a barn, where the fervants at laft
cut away the bag: the Ikin, notwithftanding, always
retained a portion of the odour. The largeft muflc-
bag feldom exceeds the fize of a hen’s egg, and can¬
not furnifh above half an ounce of muflc: three or four
of them are fometimes neceffary to afford a Angle ounce.-
In one of his voyages to Patna, Tavernier purchafed
1663 bags, which weighed 1557 ounces and a half j
and the muflc, when taken out of the bags, weighed
452 ounces.
Muflc affords the ftrongeft of all known odours. A
fmall bit of it perfumes a large quantity of matter:
The odour of a filial! garticle extends through a confi-
derable fpacc. It is likewife fo fixed and permanent)
that at the end of feveral years it feerns to have loft
no part of its aftivity. When it comes to us, it is dry,
with a kind of undluofity, of a dark reddifh-browrt
or rufty ’blackifti colour, in fmall round grains, with
very few hard black clots, and perfe&ly free from any
fandy or other vifible foreign matter. If chewed, and
rubbed with a knife on paper, it looks fmooth,
bright, yellowifti, and free from bitternefs. Laid on
a red hot iron, it catches flame, and burns almoft en¬
tirely away, leaving only an exceeding fmall quantity
of light, greyilh aihes : if any earthy fubftances have
been mixed wjth the muflc, the quantity of the re«
fiduum will readily difcover them.
Muflc has a bitterifh fubacrid tafte; a fragrant fmtll)
agreeable at a diftance, but when fmelt near to, fo
ftrong as to be difagreeable unlefs weakened by the
admixture of other fubftances. If a fmall quantity be
infufed in fpirit of wine in the cold for a few days,
it imparts a deep, but not red tin&ure : this, though
it difcovers no great fmell of the muflc, is neverthelefs
ftrongly impregnated with its virtues; a fingle drop
of it communicates to a whole quart of wine a rich
muflcy flavour. The degree of flavour which a tinc¬
ture drawn from a known quantity of muflc commu¬
nicates to vinous liquors, is perhaps one of the beft
criteria for judging of the goodnefs of this commodity,
Neumann informs us, that fpirit of wine diffolves 10
parts out of 30 of muflc, and that water takes up 12;
that water elevates its fmell in diftillation, whilft pure
fpirit brings over nothing.
Muflc is a medicine of great efteem in the eaftern
countries ; among us, it has been for fome time pretty
much out of ufe, even as a perfume, on a fuppofition
of its occafioning Vapours, &c. in weak females and
perfons of a fedentary life. It appears, however,
from late experience, to be, when properly managed,
a remedy of good fervice even againft thofe diforders
which it has been fuppofed to produce. Dr Wall has
communicated (in the Philofoph. Tranfac. nB 474.)
an account of fome extraordinary effe&s of muflc in
convulfive and other difeafes, which have too often
baffled the force of medicine. The docftor obferves,
that the fmell of perfumes is often of differvice, where
the fubftance, taken inwardly and in confiderable
quantity produces the happieft effe&s; that two per¬
fons, labouring under a fubfultus tmdinum, extreme
anxiety, and want of fleep, from the bite of a mai
M U S [ 554 3 M U S
Mufk dog, by taking two dofes of raufk, each of which was
16 grains, were perfectly relieved from their com-
plaints. He likewife obferv'es, that convullive hic¬
cups, attended with the worft fymptoms, were re¬
moved by a dofe or two of io grains ; and that in
fome cafes, where this medicine could net, on account
of ftrong convulfions, be adminiftered to the patient by
the mouth, it proved of fervice when injefted as a
glyfter. He likewife adds, that under the quantity
of fix grains, he never found much effeft from it; but
that, taken to io grains and upwards, it never fails to
produce a mild diaphorefis, without at all heating or
giving any uneafmefs : that, on the contrary, it eafes
pain, raifes the fpirits; and that, after the fweat breaks
out, the patient ufually falls into a refrefhing deep :
that he never met with any hyfterical perfon, how
averfe foever to perfumes, but could take it, in the
form of a bolus, without inconvenience. To this
paper is annexed an account of fome farther extraor¬
dinary effefts of mulk, obferved by another gentleman.
Repeated experience has fince confirmed its efficacy in
thefe diforders. The dofe has fometimes been increa-
fed, particularly in convulfive diforders, to the quan¬
tity of a fcruple or half a dram every three or four
hours, with two or three fpoonfuls of the mufk julep
between. The julep is the only officinal preparation
of it. It is combined with opium in tetanus, and
with mercury in rabies canina.
Musn-Ariimal. See Moschus.
Musk-Ox. See Bos. ^
MusK-Rat, in zoology. See Castor.
MUSKET, or Musquet, properly a fire-arm borne
on the fhoulder, and ufed in war ; to be fired by the
application of a lighted match.
The length of the barrel is fixed to three feet eight
inches from the muzzle to the touch-pan, and its bore
is to be fuch as may receive a bullet of 14 in a pound,
and its diameter differs not above one 50th part from
that of the bullet.
Mulkets were anciently borne in the field by the
infantry, and were ufed in England fo lately as the
beginning of the civil wars. At prefen t they are
little ufed, except in the defence of places; fufees or
firelocks having taken their place and name.
MUSKETOON, a kind of fhort thick mufket,
whofe bore is the 38th part of its length : it carries
five ounces of iron, or feven and an half of lead, with
an equal quantity of powder. This is the fhorteft kind
of blunderbuffes.
MUSLIN, a fine fort of cotton cloth, which bears
a downy knot on its furface. There are feveral forts
of muflins brought from the Eaft Indies, and more
particularly from Bengal; fuch as doreas, betelles,
mulmuls, tanjecbs, &c. Muflin is now manufactured
in Britain, and brought to very great perfection.
MUSONIUS, (Cains Rufus), a Stoic philofopher
of the fecond century, was baniffied into the ifland of
Gyare, under the reign of Nero, for criticifing the
manners of that prince; but was recalled by the em¬
peror Vefpafian. He was the friend of Apollonius
Tyanseus: and the letters that pafled between them
are ftill extant.
MUSQUETOE. See Culex.
MUSSULMAN, or Musylman, a title by which
the Mahometans diftinguilh themfelves j fignifying, in
the Turkifh language, “ true believer, or orthodox.'’ Mufftitman
See Mahometanism. Muft. ^
In Arabic, the word is written Mojlem, MJleman, ~'t
or Mofolman. The appellation was firft given to the
Saracens, as is obferved by Leunclavius.—There are
two kinds of Muffulmans, very averfe to each ether ;
the one called SonnHes, and the other Shiites.—The
Sonnites follow the interpretation of the Alcoran gi¬
ven by Omar; the Shiites are the followers of Ali.
The fubjedts of the king of Perfia are Shiites ; and
thofe of the grand fignior, Sonnites. See Sojjn a, and
Alcoran.
Some authors will have it, that the word Muffulman
fignifies favedy that is, predeftinated ; and that the
Mahometans give themfelves the appellation, as belie¬
ving they are all predeftinated to falvation.—Marti-
ninius is more particular as to the origin of the name j:
which he derives from the Arabic mufalem^
“ faved, fnatched out of dangerthe Mahometans,
he obferves, eftablifhing their religion by fire and
fword, maffacred all thofe who would not embrace it,,
and granted life to all that did, calling them Mujful-
jnans, q. d. erepti e periculo; whence the word, in-,
courfe of time, became the diftinguilhing title of alb
thofe of that fed, who have affixed to it the fignifica--
tion of true believers.
MUST, Mustum, fweet wine newly preffed from-
the grape; or the new liquor prefled from the fruit be¬
fore it has worked or fermented. See Wine.
Must o f Rhenijh wine. This is a liquor that, tho*'
drank by fome, is found extremely to affeft the brain;
for not having pafled the natural effervefcence whicK
it would have been fubjeft to, in; the making ©f wine,
its falts are locked up till the heat of the ftoma-ch fet-
ting them to work, they raife their effervefcence there,,
and fend up abundance of fubtile vapours to the brain.
The Rhenilh muft is of two kinds, being made either
with or without boiling. That made without boiling
is only put up fo clofe in the veffel that it cannot work;
this is called Jlumm-wine. That by boiling is thus
prepared : they take ftrong veffels not quite filled, and
putting them into a cellar, they make a fire mild at
firft, but increafed by degrees,, and afterwards they
gradually leffen it again, that the bailing may ceafe of,
itfelf. This operation is finifhed in 36 or 40 hours*
according to the fize of the veffel; and the wine-boil¬
ers, inftead of common candles, which would melt by
the heat, ufe thin pieces of fplit beech-wood. Thefe
alfo ferve for a double purpofe, n >t only lighting
them, but giving them notice of the boiling being
enough ; before that time, the quantity of vapours
thrown up make them burn dim; but as foon as it is
finirtied, the vapours afeend in lefs quantity, and the
lights burn brilk and clear. About feven or eight
days after this boiling, the muft begins to work, and
after this working it is called wine. They haye alfo
another kind of Rhenilh muft which is thus prepared:
they boil the liquor to half the quantity, and put into
it the medicinal ingredients they are moft fond of j
fuch as orange-peel,, elecampane-root, and juniper-
berries, or the like ; being thus medicated, the whole
works much more llowly than it otherwife would. —
If the boiled muft by too violent as effervefcence call
out its lees, it will on this become vapid and dead,
unlcfa this reparation is flopped by fome fatty fub-.
ftance3
M U S [ 555 1 M U S
?,Iufbr^, (la'llce, fach as frefli butter or the like : they put this
Mufteila. jn Up0n a vine leaf5 or elfe apply hard to the mouth of
the veflel.
A mud for artificial wine may be thus made;
Take 20 pounds of fine fugar,*five gallons of water,
four ounces of white tartar finely pulverized, or cream
of tartar, and boil them in a large veffel- over a gentle
fire.
MUSTARD. See St n ap 1.
MusTARD-Seed, is one of the ftrongeft of the pun¬
gent, ftimulating, diuretic medicines, that operate
without exciting much heat. It is fometimes ta¬
ken unbruifed, to the quantity ofafpoonful at a time,
in paralytic, cache&ic, and ferous diforders. It is
applied alfo as an external ftirnulant, to benumbed
nnd paralytic limbs ; to parts affe&ed with fixed rheu¬
matic pains ; and to the foies of the feet, in the low
ftage of acute difeafes, for railing the pulfe ; in this
intention, a mixture* of equal parts of the powdered
feeds and crumbs of bread, with the addition fome¬
times of a little bruifed garlic, are made into a cata-
plafm with a fufficient quantity of vinegar. See Si¬
napism.
Muftard-feed yields upon exprefiion, a confiderable
quantity of oil, which is by fome recommended exter¬
nally againft rheumatifms and palfies, though it has
nothing of that quality by which the feeds themfelves
prove ufeful in thofe diforders ; the oil being mild and
infipid as that of olives, and the pungency of the feed
remaining entire in the cake left after expreffion ; nor
is any confiderable part of the pungent matter ex-
trafted by redlified fpirit. The bruifed feeds give
out readily to water nearly the whole of their adive
matter : added to boiling milk they curdle it, and com¬
municate their pungency to the whey. The powder
of muftard-feed maybe made into the confiftence of a
loch with warm water, in which a little fea-falt has
been difiblved. Of this a common fpoonful, fometimes
two, diluted with tepid water, are given on an empty
ftomach ; it operates as well as an emetic, and proves
an excellent remedy in moft nervous diforders, accord¬
ing to Dr Monro, in Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. ii. art. 19.
p. 303. note.
MUSTELA, the Otter and Weasel; a genus
«f quadrupeds of the order of ferae. There are fix
cutting teeth in each jaw ; thofe of the upper jaw,
ered, (harp-pointed, and diftind; of the lower jaw,
blunter, huddled together, and two placed within the
line of the reft : The tongue is fmooth.
Plafe 1. The lutris, or fea-otter, having hairy feet and a
cccxxxiii jlajry. tajj length from nofe ta ta;i i8 about three
feet long, and the tail is about 13 inches ; the body
and the limbs are black, except the fore-part of the
head, which is white or grey ; the largelt individual
weighs from 70 to 80 pounds ; the fur is very thick,
long, black, and gloffy, fometimes varying to filvery,
with a foft down beneath. The fea-otter inhabits the
coafts of North-weft America and Eaftern Afia, and
the intermediate iflands. It lives moftly in the fea,
and fwims with great facility ; frequenting (hallows
which abound in fea-weeds, and feeding on lobfters,
fi(h, fepice or cuttle-fifli, and (hell-fi(h. It is a harm-
lefs animal; very affedionate to its young, infomuch
that it will pine to death at the lofs of them, and die
on the very" fpot where they have been taken from it.
Before the young can fwim, the dams carry them in Muftella.
their paws, lying in the water on their backs: they 
fwim often on their back, their fides, and even in a
perpendicular pofture; are very fportive ; embrace,
and kifs each other : they breed but once a-year, and
have but one young at a time/fuckle it for a year,
and bring it on fhore. They are dull-fighted, but
quick-fcented ; and run very fwiftly on land. They
are hunted for their (kins, which are of great value ;
being fold to the Chinefe for 70 or 80 rubles a-piece:
each fir in weighs 3! lib. The young are reckoned
very delicate meat, fcarce to be diftinguiftied from a
fucking lamb. The cry of this creature is nearly fi-
milar to a young dog ; and it is fometimes interrupted
by another cry fimilar to that of the faki or fox-tailed
monkey. It may be nourifhed with the flour of ma¬
nioc diluted in water.
2. The lutra, or common otter, has naked feet, and
the tail is about half the length of the body. It is
in general about two feet long, from the tip of the
nofe to the bafe of the tail. The fur is of a deep
brown colour, with two fmall white fpots on each fide
of the nofe, and one beneath the chin. This animal
inhabits Europe, North America, and Afia as far
fouth as Perfia. It frequents frefh-water rivers, lakes,
and fifh-ponds ; and preys on fi(h, frogs, and frefti-
water cruftaceous animals, being exceedingly deftruc-
tive to fifh-ponds. The otter procreates in February,
and the female brings forth three or four young ones
in May ; the male calls the female by a foft murmur¬
ing noife. The otter (hows great fagacity in forming
its habitation : it burrows under ground on the banks
of fome river or lake: it always makes the entrance
of its hole under water; working upwards to the fur-
face of the earth, and forming, before it reaches the
top, feveral holes or lodges, that, in cafe of high
floods, it may have a retreat: for no animal affefts
lying drier at top : it makes a minute orifice for the
admiflion of air. It is further obferved, that this ani¬
mal, the more effeftually to conceal its retreat, con¬
trives to make even this little air-hole in the middle of
fome thick bulb. Our author alfo informs us, that
the otter is capable of being tamed ; that he will fol¬
low his mafter like a dog, and even fi(h for him, and
return with his prey. Though the otter does not call
his hair, his (kin is browner, and fells dearer in win¬
ter than in fummer ; and makes a very fine fur. His
fle(h has a difagreeable fifliy tafte. His retreats ex¬
hale a noxious odour from the remains of putrid filhes;
and his own body has a bad fmell. The dogs chace
the otter fpontaneoufly, and eafily apprehend him when
at a diftance from water or from his hole. But, when
feized, he defends himfelf, bites the dogs moft cruelly,
and fometimes with fuch force as to break their leg-
bones, anjj never quits his hold but with life. The
beaver, however, who is not a very ftrong animal,
purfues the otters, and will not allow them to live on
the fame banks with himfelf.
3. The lutreok, or fmall otter, has very broad
hairy feet, and a white mouth ; and feldom exceeds
a foot in length. The body is of a tawny and dulky
colour mixed together ; the fur having two feries of
hairs, the (horter of which are yellowilh and the long
black. This animal inhabits Poland, Finland, Ruffia,
and Siberia; frequenting marfhy places, and preying
4 A 2 oa
M U S [ 556 j M U S
Mu{le''a. on fift and Progs. It is caught with dogs and traps,
* v 1 and is cxceffivcly fetid ; but its fur is very valuable,
being efteemed next in beauty to that of the fable.
Plate 4. The canadenfis, 'or Canadian otter, is of a black
cccixxm. cojourj ancj t(ie fur ;8 fmooth. It has a long taper
tail ; and inhabits Canada and other parts of North
America.
5. The guianenfis, or fmall Guiana otter, with the
hind-feet webbed, the toes, of the fore-feet unconneft-
ed, and a long taper naked tail, inhabits Cayenne,
and probably other parts of South America. It is
only about feven inches long from the nofe to the
rump ; the tail is near feven ; the upper parts of the
head and body are marked with large browniftt black
fpots, exaftly correfponding on both ftdcs, and the
intervals are of a yellowilh grey colour ; all the under
parts of the body and head, and the fore-parts ®f the
fore-legs, are white, and there is a white fpot over
each eye ; the ears are large and round ; and the mouth
is garnilhed with long whilkers. Buffon informs us
that there are three fpecies of otters in Ca> enne :
1 ft, Black, which weighs from 40 to 50 French pounds.
2d> Yellowilh, weighing 20 or 25 pounds. 3d, The
fmall greyilh kind above defcribed, which only weighs
three or four pounds^ The other two are not defcri¬
bed ; but they are faid to appear in numerous troops,
to be very fierce and dangerous, and to defend them-
felves againft dogs, biting very cruel'y : they litter in
holes which they dig on the banks of rivers; are often
tamed and brought up in houfes.
The otters, of which there are feveral more fpecies
defcribed by authors, are diftinguilhed from the fol¬
lowing tribe, the ‘wea/els, by having their feet pal-
mated or webbed ; whereas the latter have their toes
feparate, or unconne&ed by any web or membrane.
1. The galera, tayra, or Guinea weafel, is of an
uniform dulky colour, the fur very rough. It is about
the fize of a rabbit, and is fliaped like a rat. It inha¬
bits Guinea ; where it burrows in the ground by means
of its fore-feet, which are ftrong and formed for dig¬
ging. It is very common about the negro villages,
and is exceedingly fierce and deftru&ive to poultry.
2. The foina, or common martin, is of a blackifh
chefnut colour, with the throat and breaft white : the
head and body meafure 18 inches in length, the tail
to. The martin inhabits Britain, Germany, France,
and molt parts of the fouth of Europe, and even the
warmer parts of Ruflia. He lives in woods, and goes
about during the night in quell of prey. He is a moil
elegant lively animal. His movements are all exceed¬
ingly nimble ; he rather bounds and leaps than walks.
He climbs rough walls with eafe and alacrity ; enters
the pigeon or hen houfes, eats the eggs, pigeons,
fowls, &c. and the female often kills great numbers,
and tranfports them to her young. He likewife feizes
mice, rats, moles, and birds in their nefts. M. Buf-
foti kept one of thefe animals for a confiderable time.
He tamed to a certain degree, but never formed any
attachment, end continued always fo wild, that it was
neceflary to chain him. He made war againft the
rats, and attacked the poultry whenever they came
in his way. He often got loofe, though chained by
the middle of the body. At firll he went to no great
diftarrce, and returned in a few hours; but without
difcovering any fymptoms of joy or affedlion to any
particular perfon. He, however, called for viftuals
like a cat or a dog. Afterwards he made longer ex- MufleIJa,
curlions ; and at laft he thought proper never to re- t—"“
turn. He was then about a year and a half old, feem-
ingly the age at which nature affumes her full afcen-
dency. He eat every thing prefented to him, except
fallad and herbs; was fond of honey, and preferred
hemp-feed to every other grain. It was 'remarked thfct
he drank very often ; that he fometimes fiept two day»
fucceflurely, and at other timgs would fleep none for
two or three days ; that, before fleeping, he folded
himfelf in a round form, and covered his head with
his tail; and that, while awake, his motions were fo
violent, fo perpetual, and fo incommodious, that, though
he had not difturbed the fowls, it was neceflary to
chain him, to prevent him from breaking every thing.
The fame author informs us, that he has had in his
poflcffion feveral martins of a more advanced age,
which had been taken in nets ; but they continued to
be totally favage, bit all who attempted to touch them,
and would eat nothing but raw fielh. The charafter
of this animal is fomewhat differently given by Mr
Pennant; who fays “ it is very good-uatured, fportive,
and capable of being tamed.” The younger female*
bring three or four at a birth ; when older, they pro¬
duce fix or feven. They breed in hollows of trees ;
and are often, in winter, found in magpies nefts. The
Ikin and excrements have a muiky fmeli.
3. The martes, or pine-martin, has the body of a
dark or blackifh chefnut colour, the breall and throat
yellow. It inhabits the north of Europe, Afia, and
America ; and is more rarely found in Britain, France,
Germany, and Hungary ; and as far as Tonquin and
China. They live in large woods or forefts, keeping
in the day-time in the hollows of trees, occupying
fquirrels nefts, efpecially for their young, and go about
only by night. They prey on fquirrels, mice, rats,
and fmall birds ; eat likewife berries, ripe fruit, and
honey ; and, in winter, go in quell of pigeons and
poultry. They procreate in February ; and the female
is faid, after nine months, to bring forth feven or eight
young ones. The head of this fpecies is fhorter, and
the legs are fomewhat longer, than in the common mar¬
tin. The fur is far fuperior in finenefs to that of the
common kind, and is a prodigious article in commerce :
Thofe about Mount Caucafus, with an orange throat,
are more efteemed by furriers than the reft.
4. The Guiana or South American martin, is of a
dark brown cojour, with a white forehead, and a long
narrow liripe along the fide of the neck. The body
and head are near two feet long, and the tail is only
about five inches. It inhabits Guiana.
5. '1 he laniger, v oolly weafel, or fmall Guiana
martin, is covered with white woolly hair, and has a
long taper tail: the body and head are near 16 inches
long, and the tail near 9. It inhabits Cayenne.
6. '1 he zibellina, or fable, has a great refemblance
to the martin : from which it differs in having a longer
head; longer ears, furrounded by a yellow margin ;
longer and more elegant fuj:; the feet more thickly
clothed with hair; and the tail fliorter than the hind¬
legs when extended, while that of the martin is much
longer. The colour of the hair is cinereous at the
bottom, and black at the tips ; the chin is cinereous,
lometimes white, yellowifh, orfpotted; the mouth is
garniftied with long whi/kers ; and the feet are large,
with white claws. It inhabits the northern parts of
Afia
M U S [ 557 ] M U S
Mufle’a. Afia and America, Siberia, Kamtfchatka, and the
  Kurile iflands, and formerly in Lapland; being found
in Afia as low as 58°, and in America even to 40°
of latitude. The fables frequent the banks of rivers
and the thickeft parts of the woods; avoiding the
rays of the fun, which are faid in a fhort time to
change the colour of their hairr They live in holes
of the earth, or beneath the roots of trees: fome-
times they will form nefts in the trees, and Ikip with
great agility from one to the other : they are very
lively, and much in motion during the night. Gme-
lin tells us, that after eating, they generally deep half
an hour or an hour, when they may be puihed, fha-
ken, and even pricked, without awaking. During
the night they are exceffively a&ive and reftlefs. A
tame one kept by Gmelm was accuftomed to rife up¬
on its hind-legs on fight of a cat, in order to prepare
for the combat : In the woods they are much infefted
by wild cats. During fummer the fables prey on er¬
mines, weafels, and fquirrels, but efpecially on hares ;
in winter, on birds ; in autumn, on whortleberries,
cranberries, and the berries of the fervice-tree: but
during this laft feafon their Heins are at the worft ;
that diet caufing their flcins to itch, and to rub off
their fur againft the trees. They bring forth at the
end of March, or beginning of April; and have from
three to five at a tifne, which they fuckle for four or
five weeks. In fpring, after fhedding the coat, the
fur is fometimes of a tawny caft, and fometimes va¬
ries to fnowy whitenefs. 1 he blackeft are reputed
the belt; and fometimes fell, even in Siberia, from
one to ten pounds Sterling each. See the article
Sable.
Plate 7. The putorius, or pole cat, is of a dirty yellow
cccxxxm. colour> with wh;te muzzle and ears. He inhabits
moft parts of Europe, and in the temperate climates
of Afiatic Rufila ; and has a great refemblance te the
martin in -temperament, manners, difpofition, and fi¬
gure. Like the latter, he approaches our habitations,
mounts on the roofs, takes up his abode in hay-loft?,
barns, and unfrequented places, from which he iffues
during the night only in queft of prey. He burrows
under ground, forming a ftiallow retreat about two
yards in length, generally terminating under the roots
of fome large tree. He makes greater havock among
the poultry than the martin, cutting off the heads of
all the fowls, and then carrying them off one by one
to his magazine. If, as frequently happens, he can¬
not carry them off entire, on account of the fmallnefs
of the entry to his hole, he eats the brains, and takes
only the heads along with him. I'fe is likewife very
fond of honey, attacks the hives in winter, and forces
the bees to abandon them. The females come in fea¬
fon in the fpring; and bring forth three, four, or five
at a time. In the defarts of Afiatic Ruflia, polecats
are fornetimes found, efpecially in winter, of a white
cojour ; they are likewiie found beyond lake Baikal
with white or yellowifh rumps, bounded with black.
It is exceedingly fetid, like leveral other fpecies of
this genus, efpecially the martin and fable, giving out
from the anus a moft offenfive vapour when frightened.
The male is moftly of a yellowifh tinge, having a
whitifh muzzle, while the muzzle of the female is
commonly of a yellowifh dirty white.
8. The furo, or ferret, has red and fiery eyes; the
colour of the whole body is of a very pale yellow;
the length from nofe to tail is about 14 inches, the Mufelf*.
tail five. In its wild ftate it inhabits Africa : from
thence it was brought into Spain, in order to free that
country from multitudes of rabbits with which it was
over run ; and from Spain the reft of Europe has been
fupplied. This creature is incapable of bearing the
cold, and cannot fubfilt even in France unlefs in a do-
meftic ftate. The ferret is not in our climates endowf-
ed with the fame capacity of finding hi6 fubfiftence
as other wild animals, but muft be carefully nourifhed
within doors, and cannot exitt in the fields; for thofe
who are loft in the burrows of rabbits never multiply,
but probably perifh during the winter. Like other
domeftic animals, he varies in colour. The female
ferret is lefs than the male ; and when in feafon, we
are affured, fhe is fo extremely ardent, that fhe dies
if her defires are not gratified. Ferrets are brought
up in calks or boxes, where they are furnilhed with,
beds of hemp or flax. They fleep almoft continually.
Whenever they awake, they fearch eagerly for food ;
and brawn, bread, milk, &c. are comnfonly given
them. They produce twice every year ; and the fe¬
male goes fix weeks with young. Some of them de¬
vour their young as foon as they are brought forth,
inftantly come again in feafon, and have three litters,
which generally confift of five or fix, and fometimes
of feven, eight, or nine. They are employed for
hunting rabbits; and as>-in this country they are apt
to degenerate, waireners are in ufe to crofsthe breed,
procuring an intercourfe between a female ferret and
a male polecat, by leaving the former, when in feafon,
near the haunts of the latter: The produce is of a
much darker colour than the ferret, having a great
refemblance to the polecat. This animal is by natufe. *
a mortal enemy to the rabbit. Whenever a dead rab¬
bit is for the firft time prefented to a young ferret,
he flies upon it, and bites it with fury ; but if it be
alive, he feizes it by the throat or the nofe, and fucks-
its blood. When let into the burrows of rabbits, he
is muzzled, that he may not kill them in their holes,
but only oblige them to come out, in order to be
caught in the nets, if the ferret is let in without a
muzzle, he is in danger of being loft: for, after fuck¬
ing the blood of the rabbit, he falls afleep ; and even
fmoking the hole is not a certain method of recalling
him ; becaufe the holes have often feveral entries which
communicate with each other, arid the ferret retires;
into one of thofe when incommoded with the fmoke.
Boys likewife ufe the ferret for catdhing birds in the
holes of walls, or of old trees. The ferret, tho’ eafily
tamed, and rendered docile, is extremely irafcible t
his odour is always difagreeable; but when he is irri¬
tated, it becomes much more offenfive. His eyes are
lively, and his afpedt is inflammatory; all his move¬
ments are nimble ; and he is at the fame time fo vigo¬
rous, that Ire can eafily mailer a rabbit, tho’ at leaft
four times larger than liimfdf.
9. The farmatica/ or Sarmatian weafel, is of a
browniih black colour, fpotted and ftriped irregularly
with obfeure yellow, and is about 14 inches in length,,
exclufive of the tail, which is fix inches in length. It
refembles the polecat, but has a narrower head, a more
lengthened body, a longer tail, andlhorter hair, except
on the feet and tail; ifthabits Poland, efpecially Vol-
hynia, in the deferts of Ruffia between the Volga and,
Tanais, the mountains of Caucafus, Georgia, and Bu-
Giaruw
M U S [ 5s*8 J M U S
MuMla* clratla. This is a mod voracious animal, which feeds
*-"-v on marmots, rats, mice, jerboas, birds, and other fmall
animals. It procreates in fpring, and after eight weeks
the female, which has eight teats, brings forth from
four to eight young ones. It lives in holes, fometimes
of its own burrowing, but moftly in thofe which have
p]afe been made by other animals, and is exceedingly fetid,
•cccxxxm. io. The vulgaris, or common weafel, foumart, or
whitret, has the upper parts of the body of a pale
reddifh brown ; the lower parts white. It inhabits
the temperate and northern parts of Europe, Alia,
and America, and as far to the fouthward as the
northern provinces of Perfia, and is laid to be found
even in Barbary. In the more northern parts of Ruf¬
fle and Sweden, particularly in Weltbothnia, it be¬
comes white in winter like the ermine j but even in
this date it is eafily diftinguilhable from the latter, be¬
ing a great dealfmaller ; the body and head not ex¬
ceeding feven inches long, and the tail two inches and
a half. It is very deftruttive to young birds, poultry,
and young rabbits ; and is befides a great devourer of
eggs. It does not eat its prey on the place ; but, af¬
ter killing it by one bite near the head, carries it olf to
its young, or to its retreat. It preys alfo on moles, as
appears by its being fometimes caught in the mole-
traps. It is a remarkably adiive animal; and will run
up the fides of walls with fuch eafe, that fcarce any
place is fecure from it; and the body is fo fmall, that
there is fcarce any hole but what is pervious to it.—
This fpecies is much more domeftic than any of the
left, and frequents out-houfes, barns, and granaries.
It clears its haunt in a Ihort time from mice and rats,
being a much greater enemy to them than the cat it-
felf. In fummer, however, they retire farther from
houfes, efpecially into low grounds, about mills, along
, rivulets, concealing themfelves among brufti-wood, in
i order to furprife birds ; and often take up their abode
in old willows, where the female brings forth her
young. She prepares for them a bed of ftraw, leaves,
and other herbage, and litters in the fpring, bringing
from fix to eight or more at a time. The young are
born blind ; but foon acquire fight and ftrength fuffi-
eient to follow their mothers. Their motion confifts
of unequal and precipitant leaps ; and when they want
to mount a tree, they make a fudden bound, by which
they are at once elevated feveral feet high. They leap
in the fame manner when they attempt to feize a bird.
Thefe creatures, as well as the pole-cat and ferret,
have a difagreeable odour, which is ftronger in fummer
than in winter; and when purfued or irritated, their
fmell is felt at a confiderable diftance. They move al¬
ways with caution and filence, and never cry but when
they are hurt. Their cry is fharp, rough, and very
expreffive of refentment. As their own odour is of-
fenfive, they feem not to be fenfible of a bad fmell in
other bodies. M. Buffon informs us, that a peafant
in his neighbourhood took three new-littered weafels
out of the carcafe of a wolf that had been hung up on
a tree by the hind-feet. The wolf was almoft entire¬
ly putrefied, and the female weafel had made a neft of
leaves and herbage for her young in the thorax of this
putrid carcafe. The weafel may be perfedtly tamed,
and rendered as carefling and frolickfome as a dog or
fquirrel. The method of taming them is to ftroke
them often and gently over the back ; and to threaten,
and even to beat them when they bite. In the do- Muftellt.
meftic Hate their odour is never offenfive but when ir- —-v—J
ritated. They are fed with milk, boiled flefh, and
water.
n. The erminea, or ermine, has the tail tipt with
black, and has been diftinguiflied by authors into two
-varieties, the jloat and the white ermine, though the
difference feems chiefly to depehd on climate and the
feafon of the year j the ftoat of a pale tawny brown
or rcddifli yellow colour in fummer, becoming the
white ermine of winter in cold countries. They inha¬
bit the north of Europe, Afia, and America, and as
far as the northern parts of Perfia and China ; living
in heaps of ftones on the banks of rivers, in the hol¬
lows of trees, and particularly in forefts, efpecially
thofe of beech, preying on fquirrels and lemmings. In
manners and food this animal refembles the common
weafel, but does not frequent houfes, haunting chiefly
in Woods and hedges, efpecially fuch as border on
brooks or rivulets, in general appearance it comes
very near to the martin, but is Ihorter in the body, be¬
ing fcarcely ten inches long from nofe to rump, and
the tail about five and a half; the hair is likewife
fliorter and lefs Ihining. than in that animal. In the
northern-regions, the fur of the ermine becomes en¬
tirely white during winter, except the outer half of
the tail, which remains black. The flein is reckoned
valuable, and fells in Siberia from two to three pounds
Sterling a-hundred ; but in ancient times it was ia
much greater requert than now. In fummer, the up¬
per part of the body is of a pale tawny brown colour ;
the edges of the ears, and ends of the toes, are yel-
lowifti white ; the throat, breaft, and belly are white ;
in winter, in the more temperate regions, it is fome¬
times mottled with brown and white ; but in more fe-
verc winters becomes entirely white ; the farther north
and the more rigorous the climate, the white is the
purer; thofe of Britain generally retain ayellowiflitinge.
In Perfia and other more fouthern parts, it is brown
the whole year In Siberia they burrow in the fields,
and are taken in traps baited with flelh. In Norway
they are either Ihot with blunt arrows, or taken in
traps made of two flat ftones, one being propped up
with a ftiek, to which is faftened a baited firing,
which when the animals nibble, the Hone falls down
and crufhes them to death. The Laplanders take
them in the fame manner, only inllead ;of Hones make
ule of two logs of wood.
There are about 12 other fpecies of the weafel
tribe deferibed by authors.—A beautiful fpecies of
weafel, as it is called by fome authors and univerfally
confidered by the Arabians, is deferibed by Mr Bruce
in his Appendix under the name of El Fennec. It is
about ten inches long from the fnout to the tail; the
tail near five inches and a quarter, and about half an
inch of it black at the tip. From the point of the
fore-lhoulder to the point of the fore-toe it is two
inches and feven eighths; from the occiput to the
point of the nofe, two inches and a half; and the
ears are three inches and three eighths in length ; and
about an inch and a half in breadth, with the cavi¬
ties very large. They are doubled, and have a plait
on the outfide ; the border of the infide is thick and
covered with white foft hair, the middle part being
bare and of a rofe or pink colour. The pupil of the
eye
   r-
M U S L 559 ] M U T
Muftelh. eye is large and black, furrounded with a deep blue
iris ; the muftachoes are thick and ftrong; the tip
of the nofe is very (harp, black, and polilhed. There
are four grinders on each fide of the mouth, fix fore
teeth in each jaw, and the upper jaw prqje&ed be¬
yond the lower one. The canine teeth are large,
Ibng, and very (harp pointed ; the legs fmall, and the
feet broad, with four toes armed with (hort, black,
fharp retraftile claws ; thofe on the fore-feet being
fharper than thofe behind. The whole body of the
animal is of a dirty white, approaching to cream co¬
lour ; the hair of the belly rather whiter, longer, and
fofter than the reft, with a number of paps upon it.
Mr Bruce obtained one of thefe animals for two
fequins, by means of a janifary, who had it from a
Turkiih foot-foldier juft returned from Bifcara, a
fouthern diftrift of Mauritania Caefarienfis, now call¬
ed the Province of Conjlantina. According to his ac¬
count, they are not uncommon in this diftritt, though
more frequently to be met with in the neighbouring
date-territories of Beni Mezab and Werglab, the re-
fidence pf the ancient Melano-Gsetuli. In the Werg¬
lab the animals are hunted for their (kins, which are
fold at Mecca, and afterwards exported to India. Mr
Bruce kept this one for feveral months at hiscountry-
houfe near Algiers, that he might learn its manners.
Its favourite food he tells us was dates or other fweet
fruit, yet it is alfo very fond of eg^s. It devoured
thofe of pigeons and fmall birds with- great avidity
when firft brought to him ; but did not feem to know
how to manage hen’s eggs, though when they were
broken to him he ate the contents with as great avi¬
dity as the others. When hungry, he would eat
bread, efpecially with honey or fugar. His attention
was greatly engrofled by the fight of any bird flying
acrofs the room where he was, or confined in a cage
near him, and could not be diverted from viewing it
by placing bifcuit before him ; fo that it ft ams pro¬
bable, that he preys upon them in his wild (late. He
was extremely impatient of having his ears touched;
fo that it was with much difficulty that they could
be meafured ; and, on account of this impat'ence, it
was found impoffible to count the protuberances or
paps op his belly. He feemed very much frightened
at the fight of a cat; and endeavoured to hide himfelf,
though he did not appear to meditate any defence. On
this oecafion alfo he lowered his ears, which at other
times he kept eredf. Notwithftanding his impatience,
he would fuffer himfelf, though with difficulty, to bei
handled in the day-time ; but in the night he was ex¬
tremely reftlefs, always endeavouring to m.,ke his
efcape ; and though he did not attempt the wi t, yet
with his (harp teeth he would foon have made hiswayr
through a wooden one, as two others which they at¬
tempted to bring along with him actually did. Thefe:
animals are very fwift of foot. They build their nefts
in trees, particularly the palms, of which they eat-
the fruit; feeding alfo on locufts and other infefts,
and perhaps fometimes preying upon fmall birds. Mr
Bruce has a long criticifm on Dr Sparmann for pre¬
tending that one Mr Brander was the difcoverer of
this animal, whereas he fays that he himfelf gave it
to Mr Brander, This is the fame animal with that
| f See formerly defcribed as a fpecies of CbiNisf under the
j n° d.v. name oi.z.erda} and of which a figure, is given fo
Plate CXX. Its exa& place in the zoological fy- Mufter
ftem has not yet been afcertained. K .
MUSTER, in a military fenfe, a review of troops ^ut‘|£t*on;
under arms, to fee if they be complete and in good
order; to take an account of their numbers, the con¬
dition they are in, viewing their arms and accoutre¬
ments, &c.
Mustek-Ma/ler-general, or Comtnijfary-general of the
Musters ; one who takes account of every regiment,
their number, horfes, arms, &c. reviews them, fees-
the horfes be well mounted, and all the men well arm¬
ed and accoutred, &c.
Muster-Rolls, lifts of foldiers in each company,,
troop, or regiment, by which they are paid, and the
ftrength of the army is known.
MUTABILITY is oppofed to immutability. See.
Immutability.
MUTATION, the aft of changing, or fometimes
the change itfelf.
Mutation, in the ancient mufic, is applied to the
changes or alterations that happen in the order of the
founds which compofe the melody.
MUTATIONES, among the Romans, poft ftages,.
or places where the public couriers were fupplied with
freih horfes.—The mutationes were wholly defigned for-
the ufe of thefe couriers, or meffengers of ftate; in
which refpeft they differ from manjiones.
MUTCHKIN, a liquid meafure ufed in Scotland 5.
it contains four gills, and is the fourth part of a Scotch
pint.
MUTE, in a general fenfe, fignifies a perfon that
cannot fpeak, or has not the ufe of fpeech.
Mute, in law, a perfon that Hands dumb or»
fpeechlefs, when he ought to anfwer, or to plead. See
Arraignment.
Mute, in grammar, a letter which yields no found
without the addition of a vowel. The Ample confo-
nants are ordinarily diftinguiffied into mutes and li¬
quids, or femi-vowels. See the articles Consonant,
Liquid, &c.
The mutes in the Greek alphabet are nine, three of
which, viz. 5r, *, ->•, are termed tenues ; three y, <f,
termed media; and three f>. x> 8> termed afplrates. See
the article As pirate, &c.
The mutes of the Latin alphabet are alfo nine, viz» -
B, C, D, G, I, K, P, Q, T.
MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away .
any member of the body.
This word is alfo extended to ftatues and buildings,
where any part is wanting, or the projefture of anp
member, as. a cornice or an impoft, is broken off. It
is fometimes-alfo ufed in a more immediate manner
for caftration: (See Castration and Eunuch). The
praftice of this fort of mutilation is of various kinds :
The .Hottentots are faid to cut away one tefticle from
their children,, upon fuppofition that they are thereby
made lighter and more adive for running. In other
countries, ppor people completely mutilate their boys,
to prevent the mifery and want which would attend
their offspring Thofe who have nothing in view but
the improvement of a vain talent, or the formation of
a voice which disfigures nature, as was the cafe for¬
merly in Italy, are contented with cutting away the
teftieles. But in fome countries of Afia, efpecially
among the Turks and in a part of Africa, thofe whom
3 jealoufy,
M U T [560] M U T
Matilatiof!. jealoufy infplres with diftruft, would not think their
  wives"fafe in the cuftody of fuch eunuchs: They em¬
ploy no ilaves in their feraglios who have not been
deprived of all the exte-rnal parts of generation.
Amputation is not the only means of accomplifhing
this end. Formerly, the growth of the tellicles was
prevented, and their organization dellroyed, by fimple
rubbing, while the child was put into a warm bath
made of a deco&ion of plants. Some pretend that by
this fpecies of caflration the life is in no danger. Am¬
putation of the tefticles is not attended with much
danger; but complete amputation of the external parts
of generation is often fatal. This operation can only
be performed on children from feven to ten years of
age. Eunuchs of this kind, owing to the danger at¬
tending the operation, coft in Turkey live or fix times
more than others.. Chardin relates, that this operation
is fo painful and dangerous after 15 years of age, that
hardly a fourth part of thofe by whom it is undergone
efcape with life. Pietro della Valle, on the contrary,
informs us, that in Perfia thofe who fuffer this cruel
an^ dangerous operation as a punilhment for rapes and
other crimes of this kind, are eafily cured though far
advanced in life ; and that nothing but aihes is ap¬
plied to the wound.
There are eunuchs at Conftantinople, throughout
all Turkey, and in Perfia, of a grey complexion: they
come for the moft part from the kingdom of Gol-
conda, the penihfula on this fide the Ganges, the king¬
doms of Afiau, Aracan, Pegu, and Malabar. Thofe
from the gulph of Bengal are of an olive Colour. There
are feme white eunuchs who come from Georgia and
Circafiia, but their number is fmall. The black eu¬
nuchs come from Africa, and efpecially from Ethiopia.
Thefe, in proportion to their horrible appearance, are
the more efteemed and coft dearer. It appears that
a very confiderable trade is carried on in this fpecies
of men ; for Tavernier informs us, that when he was
in the kingdom of Golconda in the year 16 57, 22,000
eunuchs were made m it. In that country they are
fold at the fairs.
Eunuchs who have been deprived only of their te-
ftides, continue to feel a titillation in what remains,
and to have the external fign even more frequently
than other men. But the part which remains is very
fmall, and continues almoft in the fame ftate in which
it was when the operation was performed during child¬
hood.
If the different kinds ef eunuchs are examined with
attention, it will be found almoft univerfally, that ca-
ftration and its confequences have produced greater or
lefs changes on their fliape and appearance, indepen¬
dent of its phyfical effe&s.
Eunuchs, fays M. Withof, are timid, irrefolute,
fearful, fufpicious, and unfteady: And this feems to
hold generally, though not univerfally, or without ex¬
ceptions; (fee the article Eunuch). The reafon is,
that their blood has pot received all the neceffary pre¬
paration in palling through the fpermatic veffels. Thus
being deprived of the properties of males, they parti¬
cipate of the difpofitions of females, and their very
foul is of an intermediate fex. They are not, how¬
ever, without advantages: They become larger and
fatter than other men ; but they fometime* grow to a
difgufting fize. Though oily fubftances are more abun-
N°234.
dant in eunuchs, they are likewife lefs fubjeS to gout MntiHl
and to madnefs than men who have a greater quantity II
of blood and of fplenetic humours. The abundant Mut,nJr*
circulation of oily liquor prevents roughnefs or inequa-
lities in the trachea and palate. This, joined to the
flexibility of the epiglottis and of the other organs of
the voice, makes it fo fonorous and extenfive, and at
the fame time fo fweet, that it is almoft impoffible for
eunuchs to pronounce diftin&ly the letter R. Is this
fa&itious advantage a fufficient confolation to thefe
unhappy men for the barbarity of thofe who have
dared to facrificc nature at the Ihrine of avarice ? It is
impoffible to refledt on all the motives for making eu¬
nuchs without a figh of pity and regret ; and yet it
muft not be fuppofed that this abominable cruelty is
always infallibly attended with that advantage which
is fometimes expected from it. Of 2000 victims
to the luxury and extravagant caprices of the art,
hardly three are found«ivho unite good talents with
good organs. The other languifliing and inactive
wretches, are outcafts from both fexes, paralytic mem¬
bers in the community, an ufelefs burden upon the
earth, by which they are fupported and nourifhed.
But let us pay the tribute which is due to that vir¬
tuous pontiff Pope Clement VIII. who, liftening to
the voice of modeily and humanity, proferibed and
abolifhed this ce Hi table and infamous praftice. Mu¬
tilation he deck red was the moft abominable and dif-
graceful of crimes.
MUTlELA, in zoologyj 3 genus of animals be¬
longing to the order of ihfe&a hymenoptera. There
are 10 fpecies; the moft remarkable of which is the
occidentalis, or velvet ant, an inhabitant of North
America. It has fix legs, with fhort crooked an-
tepnx ; the abdomen large, with a black lift croffing
the lower part of it, and ano.ther black fpot at tl\e
joining of the thorax ; excepting which, the whole
body and head refembles Crirnfon-velvet* The trunk
or mell of the body is of fuch a ftrong and hard con¬
texture, that though trod upon by men and cattle they
receive no harm. They have a long fling in their tails,
which caufes inflammation and great pain for half an
hour to thofe who are flung by them ; which ufually
happens to negroes and others that go barefooted.
They are moftly feen running very nimbly on fandy
roads in the hotteft fummer-weather; and always
Angle. What they feed on, in what manner they
breed, and where they fecure themfelves in winter, is
Unknown.
MUTINA (anc. geog.), a noble city of the Cifpa-
dana, made a Roman colony in the fame year with
Parma, fituated between the rivers Gabellus and Scul-
tenna, on the Via ./Emilia. Here D. Brntus, being
befieged by Antony, was relieved by the confuls Hir-
tius and Panfa. The Greeks called it Mutine; except
Polybius, in whom it is Motine} and in Ptolemy Mu-
tina, after the Roman manner.—Now Modena, a city
of Lombardy, and capital of a cognominal duchy. E.
Long. 1 x. 20. N. Lat. 44.45.
MUTINY, in a military fenfe, to rife agarnft au¬
thority.—“ Any officer or foldier who fhall prefume
to ufe traiterous or difrefpeftful words againft the fa-
crcd perfon of his majefty, or any of the royal family,
is guilty of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who fhall behave himfelf
with
4
M U T [ 561 J M Y A
Mutiny with contempt or drfrefpeft towards the general or
II other commander in chief of our forces, or {hall fpeak
utton- words tending to their hurt or difhonour, is guilty of
mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who ffiall begin, excite,
caufe, or join in, any mutiny or fedition, in the troop,
company, or regiment, to which he belongs, or in any
other troop or company in our fervice, or on any par¬
ity, poll, detachment, or guard, on any pretence what¬
soever, is guilty of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who, being prefent at any
. mutiny or fedition, does hotufe hisutmoft endeavours
to fupprefs the fame, or coming to the knowledge of
any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not without
delay give information to his commanding officer, is
giiilty of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who {hall ftrike his fupe-
rior officer, or draw, or offer to drawr, or {hall lift up
any weapon, or offer any violence againft. him, being
in the execution of his office, on any pretence what-
Ibever, or {hall difobey any lawful command of his fu-
perior officer, is guilty of mutiny.”
MuTiNr-Aa. See Mi lit art-State.
MUTIUS (Caiua), furnamed Codrus, and after¬
wards Scavola, wras one of the illuftrious Roman fa¬
mily of the Mutiahs, and rendered his name famous
in the war between Porfenna king ofTufcany and the
Romans. That prince refolving to reftore the family
of Tarquin the Proud, went to befiege Rome 507 B. C.
Mutius refolved to facrifice himfelf for the fafety of
bis country ; and boldly entering the enemy’s camp,
killed Porfenna’s fecretary, w'hom he took for Porfenna
himfelf. Being feized and brought before Porfenna,
he told him boldly, that 300 young men like himfelf
had- fworn to murder him; but Jince this hand has miffed
thee, continued he, it muji be punijhed; then putting
his right hand on the burning coals, he let it burn
with fuch a conftancy as aftoniihed the beholders. The
king, amazed at the intrepidity of this young Roman,
ordered that he ffiould have his freedom and return to
Rome, and foon after concluded a peace with the Ro¬
mans. From this adtion Mutius obtained the futname
of Sc&vo/a, “ or left-handed,” which was enjoyed by
his family.
Menus Scavola (Q), furnamed the Augur, was an
excellent civilian, and inftru&ed Cicero in the laws.
He was made praetor in Afia; was afterwards conful,
and performed very important fervices for the re¬
public.
He ought not to be confounded with Quintus Mu¬
tius Scecvola, another excellent civilian, who was prae¬
tor in Afia, tribune of the people, and at; length con¬
ful, 95 B. C. He governed Afia with fuch prudence
and equity, that his example was propofed to the go¬
vernors who were fent into the provinces. Cicero fays,
,l that he was the moft eloquent orator of all the ci¬
vilians, and the moft able civilian of all the orators.”
He was affaffinated in the temple of Vefta, during the
wars of Marius and Sylla, 82 B. C.
MUTTON, the common name of the fteflr of a
ffieep after the animal has been killed. Mutton has
been commonly preferred to all the fleffies of quadru¬
peds. And indeed, befides its being more perfeft, it
has the advantage over them of being more generally
fuited to different climateswhereas beef, e. g. re-
Vol.XII. Part II.
quires a very nice intermediate ftate, which it feem<t MuruaJ
to enjoy chiefly in England; for although ScotlaUd H
fupplies what are reckoned the beft cattle, it is in the J3* .
rich Englifh paftures that they are brought to per-
feftion. Now the ftieep can be brought almoft to
the fame perfe&ion in this bleak northern region as in
the fouthern countries.
MUTUAL, a relative term, denoting fomething
that is reciprocal between two or moreperfons.
Thus we fay, mutual ajjijlance, mutual averjion, 8cc.
There are mutual or reciprocal duties, offices, St '?1 be¬
tween fuperiors and inferiors; as the king and his fub-
jecls, the mailer and his fervants, &c.
Vaugelas makes a diftin&ion between mutual and re¬
ciprocal : mutual, according to him, is underftood of
what is between two only ; and reciprocal, of what is
between more than two: but this diftindtion is little
regarded in common ufe.
MUTULE, in architedlure, a kind of fquare mo-
dillion fet under the cornice of the Doric order.
MUTUNUS, or Mutinus (fab. hift.), a deity a-
mong the Romans, much the fame as the Priapus of
the Greeks. The Roman matrons, and particularly
newly married women, difgraced themfelves by the
obfeene ceremonies which cuftom obliged them to ob-
ferve before the ftatue of this impure deity.
MUZZLE of a Gun or Mortar, the extremity at
which the powder and ball is put in ; and hence the
muzzle-ring is the metalline circle or moulding that
furr'ounds the'mouth of the piece.
MYA, the gaper, in zoology ; a genus belonging
to the order of vermes teftacea, the charadlers of which
are thefe. It has a bivalve ffiell gaping at one end ;
the hinge, for the moft part, furniftied with a thick,
ftrong, and broad tooth, not inferted into the oppofite
valve. Its animal is an Ascidia. The moft remark¬
able fpecies are.
1. The declivis, or {loping mya, has a brittle
half-tranfparent {hell, with a hinge {lightly prominent
near the open, and Hoping downwards. It inhabits
the rivers of Europe. It is frequent about the He¬
brides ,- the fifti eaten there by the gentry.
2. The mya pidtorum has an oval brittle {hell, with Fig. a.
a fingle longitudinal tooth like a lamina in one {hell,
and two in the other ; the breadth is a little above
two inches, the length one. It inhabits rivers. The
{hells are ufed to put water colours in, whence the
name. Otters feed on this and the other freHi-water
{hells. .
3 The margaritifera, or pearl mya, has a very thick, Fig. 3. &4,
coarfe, opaque ftiell; often much decorticated ; ob¬
long, bending inward on one fide, or arcuated ; black
on the outfide ; ufual breadth from five to fix inches,
length two and a quarter. It inhabits great rivers,
efpecially thofe which water the mountainous parts of
Great Britain.—This {hell is noted for producing quan¬
tities of pearl. There have been regular fifheries for
the fake of this precious article in feveral of our rivers.
Sixteen have been found within one ftiell. They are
the difeafe of the fiffi, analogous to the Hone in the
human body. On being fqueezed, they will ejedl the
pearl, and often call it fpontaneoufiy in the fand of
the ftream. The river Conway was noted for them in
the days of Cambden. A notion alfo prevails, that
Sir Richard Wynne of Gwydir, chamberlain to Catha- .
4 Ik rine
M Y A [ 562 1 M Y C
Mya. riae queen to Charles II. prefented her majefty with a
-"Y"—pearl (taken in this river) which is to this day ho¬
noured with a place in the regal crown. They are
called by the Well'll cregln dilu’iv, or “ deluge (hens,”
as if left there by the flood. The Irt in Cumberland
was alfo produftive of them. The famous circumna¬
vigator, Sir John Hawkins, had' a patent for tifliing in
that river. He had obferved pearls plentiful in the
Straits of Magellan, and flattered hrtnfelf with being
enriched by procuring them within his own ifland.
In t *• laft century, feveral of great flze were got
in the rivers of the counties of Tyrone and Donegal
in Ireland. One that weighed 36 carats was valued
at 401. but being foul, loft much of its worth.
Other Angle pearls were fold for 4 1. 10 s. and even
for 10I. The laft was fold a fecond time to Lady
Glenlealy, who put it into a necklace, and refilled
Ho 1. for it from the duchefs. of Ormond. Sue¬
tonius reports, that Caefar was induced to under¬
take his Britifti expedition for the fake of our pearls ;.
and that they were fo large that it was necefl’a-
jy to ufe the hand to try the weight of a Angle
one. Mr Pennant fuppofes that Caefar only heard
this by report; and that the cryftalline balls called
mineral pearl, were miftaken for them. We believe
that Caefar was difappointed of his hope : yet we are
told that he brought home a buckler made with Bri-
tifh pearl, which he dedicated to, and hung up in, the
temple of Venus Gfcnetrix : a proper offering to the
goddefs of beauty, who fprung from the fea. It may
not be improper to mention, that notwithftanding the
claflics honour our pearl with their notice, yet they
report them to have been fmall and ill-coloured,. an
imputation that in general they are ftill liable to. Pli¬
ny fays, that a red fmall kind was found about the
Thracian Bofphorus, in a (hell called mya; but does
not give it any mark to afeertain the fpecies.
Linnaeus made a remarkable difeovery relating to
the generation of pearls in this Afh.—It is a A(h that
will bear removal remarkably well; and it is faid, that
in fome places they form refervoirs for the purpofe of
keeping it, and taking out the pearl, which, in a cer¬
tain period of time, will be again renewed. From ob-
fervations on the growth of their (hells, and the num-
ber of their annular laminae or feales, it is fuppofed the
iiih will attain a very great age ; 50 or 60 years are
imagined to be a moderate computation. The difeo¬
very turned on a method which Linnaeus found, of
putting thefe (hell-Afti into a ftate of producing pearls
at his pleafure ; though the Anal effeA did not take
place for feveral years: He fays, that in Ave or. Ax
years after the operation, the pearl would have ac-.
quired the Az.e of a vetch. We are unacquainted with
the means by which he accompliihed this extraordinary
operation ; but it was probably -publiflied at the time,
and cpnAdered as important, Ance.it is certain that ,the
author was rewarded with a muniAcent .premium from
the ftates of .the kingdom on this account. We regret
that we cannot fpeak more fully on this head; but
may obferve, that it is probable, from a paper publifti-
ed many years afterwards in the Berlin Ads, that the
method conAfted in injuring the (hell externally, per¬
haps by a perforation ; as it has been obferved, that
thefe concretions in (hell-Alh are found on the inAde,
exaftly oppoAte to perforations and injuries made from
without by ferpulae and ether animals.
MY AG RUM, Gold of PLeasuxe, in botany : Myag-utn-
A genus of the Aliculofa order, belonging to the te- II.
trady namia clafs of plants; andTn the natural method Myc^t’tg,>.,
ranking under the 39th order, Siliquofee. The AlicuL v
is terminated by an oblong ftyle ; the cell generally
monofpermous. There are Ave fpecies; but the only
remarkable one is the fativum, which grows naturally
in corn-Aelde in the fouth of France and Italy, and
alfo in fome parts of Britain. It is an annual plant,
with an upright ftalk a foot and an half high, fending
out two or four Ade-branches, whieh grow ered; the
flowers grow in loofe fpikes at the end of the branches,
(landing upon (hort footftalks an inch long ; they are
compofed of four fmall yellowifti petals, placed in form
of a crofs ; thefe are fucceeded by oval capfules, which
are. bordered and crowned at the top with the ftyle of '
the flower, having two cells filled with red feeds —-
This is cultivated in Germany for the fake of the ex-
preffed oil of the feeds, which the inhabitants ufe for- -
medicinal, culinary, and oeconomical purpofes. The
feeds are a favourite food with geefe. Horfes, goats,.
(beep, and cows, eat the plant.
MYCALE, a city and mountain of Caria ; alfo a
promontory of Afia oppoAte Samos, celebrated for a
battle which was fougbt there between the Greeks and
Periians about the year of Rome 275. The Perfians
were about too,000 men, who had juft returned from
the unfuccefsful expedition of Xerxes in Greece.—
They had drawn their (hips to the (bore, and fortified
themfelves ftrongly, as if determined to fupport a fiege.
They fuffered the Greeks to dilimbark from their
fleet without the lead moleftation, and were foon obli¬
ged to give way before the cool and refolate intrepidi¬
ty of an inferior number of men. The Greeks ob¬
tained a complete viftory, llaughtered fome thoufands
of the enemy, burned their camp, and failed back to
Samos with an immenfe booty, in which were 70 chefts
of money.
MYCENiE (anc. geog.) a town of Argolus, in
Peloponnefus. The kingdom of the Argives was di¬
vided into two portions by. Acrifms and his brother
Prostus. Argos and Mycenae were their capitals.—
Thefe, as belonging to the fame family, and diftant
only about 50 ftadia or fix miles and a- quarter fronv.
each other, had one tutelary deity, Juno, and were
jointly proprietors of her temple, the Heraeum, which
was near Mycenae. It was here that Agamemnon
reigned. He enlarged his dominions by his valour and
good fortune, and poffeffed, befides Mycenae, the re¬
gion about Corinth and Sicyon, and that called after¬
wards Achaea. On his return from Troy, he was flain
with his companions at a banquet. Mycenae then de¬
clined ; and under the Heraclidae was made fubjeft to
Argos. (See Argos and Argeia.) The Mycenaeans,
fending 80 men, partook with the Lacedaemonians in
the glory acquired at Thermopylae. The jealoufy of
the Argives produced the deftru&ion of their city,
which was abandoned after a fiege, and laid wade in
the firft year of the 78th Olympiad, or 466 years be¬
fore Chrift. Some part of the wall remained in the
fecond century, with a gate, on which were lions, a
fountain, the fuhterraneous edifices where Atreus and
his fons had depofited their treafures and, among other
fepulchral monuments, one of Agamemnon, and one
of his fellow-foldiers and fufferers.
MYCET1TES discoides, ia natural-hiftory, a
name
M Y C [ 563 ] M Y I
ijfcfycone name given by Dr Woodward to thofe kinds of fof-
II . file coralloide bodies which the generality of writers
, ^ ^ena' had called, after Dr V\ott, porphtt. Thefe are ufaally
fmall, and of a roundirtr, but flatted figure ; they are
hollowed on one fide with a fort of umbilicus, and
ilriated on the other; they are found on the plough¬
ed lands in Oxfordfhire, and fome other of our mid¬
land counties, and in other places, buried in the folid
ftrata of ftone ; they are fometimes yellowifh, fome-
times brownifh, and are from the breadth of an inch
to a fourth part or lefs of that fize ; when broken,
they are ufually found to confift of a kind of fpar, not
unlike that of which the flielly coats of the echinitas,.
or the lapides indici, and other fpines of echini con lift
in their foffile ftate; and in fome of them the ridges
and ftrias are thick fet with little knobs and tubercles.
The bafis in fome of thefe is. flat, as it is in others ri-
-fing in form of a circular elevation from the umbilicus,
and others have a circular cavity in the fame place.
MYCONE, an ifland of the Archipelago, iituated
in E. Long. 25. 51. N. Lat. 37. 28. It is about
36 miles in circuit, and has a town of the fame name,
containing about 3000 inhabitants. The people of
this ifland are laid to be the bell failors in the Archi¬
pelago, and have about 150 veffels of different fizes.
The ifland yields afufficient quantity of barley for the
inhabitants,-and produces abundance of figs, and fome
olives; but there is a fcarcity of water, efpecially in
fummer, there being btft one well on the ifland.—
There are a great number of churches and chapels,
with fome monafteries. The drefs of the women in
this ifland ,is very remarkable, and as different from
that of the other iflands as that of thofe iflandets is
'different from the drefs of the other European ladies.
Their heads are adorned with lively-coloured turbans ;
'their garments are a fhort white fhift plaited before
and behind, which reaches to their knees ; they have
white linen-drawers, and red, green, yellow, or blue
dockings, with various coloured flippers. An ordinary
ffuit for the better fort will coft 200 crowns.
MYCONUS (anc. gebg.) one of the iflands called
Cyclades, near Delos, under which the luff of the
Centaurs flain by Hercules are feigned to lie buried.
Hence the proverb, Omnia fub unam Myconum congerere,
applied to an injudicious or unnatural farrago. Myco-
nii, the people, noted for baldnefs. Hence Myconius,
a bald perfon. 'According to Strabo, the inhabitants
became bald at the age of 20 or 25 ; and Pliny fays,
that the children were always born without hair. The
ifland was poor, and the inhabitants very avaricious 5
whence Archilochus reproached a certain Pericles,
that he came to a feaff like a Myconian ; that is, with¬
out previous invitation. Now called Mycune, an ifland
in the Archipelago. E. Long. 250 6'. Lat. .3.7°.
Ph1-' . MYCTERIA, the Jabiru, in ornithology ; a ge-
ccxxxv. nU8 Qf begging to the order of grallas. 1 he
bill is long, bending upwards, and acute; the noffrils
are fmall and linear ; there is no tongue ; and the feet
have four toes. There are two fpeciesi i. The Ame¬
ricana, or American jabiru, is about the fize of a tui‘-
ky. The bill is long, flout-, and of a black colour;
the whole plumage is white, except the head, -and
about two-thirds of the neck, which are bare of fea¬
thers and of a blackifh colour ; the remainder is alfo
bare, and of a fine red ; on tire hind-head are a few
greyifh feathers ; the legs are ftrong, of a great length) Mygdoni*
and covered with black feales ; wings and tail even at H.
the end. This bird is found in all the favannas of, ya£lU,#
Cayenne, Guiana, and other parts of South America.
It is migratory and gregarious. It makes its neft in
great trees, which grow on the borders ; lays two eggs,
and brings up the young in the neff till they can d£-
feend to the ground. The colour of the young birds
is grey-; the fecond year it changes to rofe-colour, and
the third to pure white. They are very wild and vo¬
racious, and their food is fifh, which they devour in
great quantities. The flefh of the young birds is faid
to be good eating, but that of the old is hard and
oily.
2. The Afiatica, or Indian jabiru, is of a large fize»
The bill is dufky, almoft flraight above, and gibbous
near the fore-head; the under mandiblefwelled beneath 5
and from the bafe of the bill there paffes through and
beyond the eye a black llreak. The general colour
of the plumage is white ; the lotver half of the back,
the prime quills, and the tail, are black ; the legs a
pale red, This fpecies inhabits the Eafl Indies, and
feeds on fnails.
MYGDON1A (anc. geog ), a diftrift of Macedo¬
nia, to the north of the Sinus Thermaicus, and eaft of
the river Axius, which feparates it from Bottiasis, and
weft of the river Strymon, (Pliny.) Alfo a aiftrid
of Mefopotamia, which took its name- from that of
Macedonia, running along the Euphrates, from Zeug¬
ma down to Thapfacus, extending a great way eatt,
becaufe Nifibis was reckoned to it.
MYGINDA, in botany: A genus of the tetragynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful. The calyx is quadripartite; the
petals four ; the fruit a globofe plum.
MYIAGRUS deus, in the heathen mythology,
a name given forcetimes to Jupiter, and fometimes to
Hercules,, on occalion of their being facriticed to for
the driving away the vaft numbers of flies winch iu-
felted the facrifices on certain public occafions. The
word is ufually fpejt Myagrus ; but this mull be an
error, as this word does not exprefs the jly-dejlroyer,
but the moufe-drjhoyer; and we have it fufficiently te-
fliiied by the ancients, that flies were the only crea¬
tures againft whom this deity was invoked. Pliny
calls this deity alfo Myiodes, and tells us, that the flies
which ufed to pefter the Olympic rites went away in
whole clouds on the facrificing n bull to this god. We
find in Athenasus alfo, that this facrificing to the god
of flies at the Olympic games was a conllant cuftom.
Some diflinguifh thefe two deities, and tell us that the
latter, or Myiodes, ufed to vifit the nations in ven¬
geance, with a vail multitude of flies; and that, on
paying him the due honours of it faerifice, they all
.went away again ; and this feems to agree with' what
Pliny tells us in fome places.
At the time of the Olympic games, Jupiter was
worfhipped under the name of the dpomyos or Myiagrus
Deus, to fupplicate the deltruflion of thofe troublefome
-creatures. This happened only once in many years,
when the faciifices were performed there ; hut the
Elians worfhipped him continually under this mune, to
deprecate the vengeance of heaven; which ufudlly fent, ■
as they expreffed it, an army of flies and other infeds;
4 B 2 tow ard
M Y L [ 564 ] M Y O
M) iodes toward the latter end of the fummer, that infefted the
II whole country with ficknefs and peftilence.
, M^afa' , MYIODES deus, in the heathen mythology, a
name fometimes given to Hercules, but more frequent¬
ly to Jupiter, to whom a bull was facrificed, in order
to make him propitious in driving away the flies that
infefted the Olympic games.
MYLAE (anc. geog.) a Greek city fituated on an
ifthmus of a cognominal peninfula, on the north-eaft
fide of the. ifland. Mylaei, or Mylenfes, the people.
A town built by thofe of Zancle (Strabo.) Mylaeus,
the epithet, as Mylseus Campus, mentioned by Poly¬
bius. Now called Milano-, a port town of Sicily, in
the Val di Demona. E. Long. 150 5'. lat. 38. 36'.
MYLASA, or Mylassa, (anc. geog.), a noble
city of Caria in Afia Minor, fituated at the diftance
of about three leagues from the Sinus Ceramicus. It
was the capital of Hecatomnus king of Caria, and
father of Maufolus. Pliny fpeaks of Menander king
of Caria, and fays that the Rhodians preferved with
the greateft care his portrait painted by Apelles ; but
it was not in honour of this Menander that a Corin¬
thian pillar was erefted at Mylafa, which ftill exifts,
and on which is to be feen the following infcription :
“ The people ere&ed this pillar in honour of Menan¬
der, the fon of Uliades, and grandfon of Euthydemus.,
the benefa&or of his country, and whofe anceftors
rendered it great fervices alfo.” Euchydemus, the
grandfather of this Menander, lived in the time of Ju¬
lius Caefar and Auguftus Caria was taken by Mith-
ridates, and afterwards by Labienus, whofe father had
been one of Ctefar’s generals. Hybrias, whofe elo¬
quence and valour defervedly intitled him to a diftin-
guifhed rank among his countrymen, in vain encou¬
raged them to make a moft: obftinate defence while it
was befieged by the latter. He himfelf was obliged
to yield to neceflity, and to take refuge at Rhodes:
but fcarcely had the conqueror quitted the city, when
Hybrias returned, and reftored liberty to his country.
— Not content with rendering it this fervice, he alfo
deftroyed the power of a dangerous citizen, whofe
riches and talents rendered him a necellary evil. Eu¬
thydemus, often baniflred, and as often recalled, always
too powerful in a Hate the independence of which he
threatened, faw his ambition checked by the zeal and
activity of Hybrias. The Romans left to Mylafa that
liberty of which it rendered itfelf fo worthy, by the
great efforts it made to preferve it. Pliny calls it
Mylafa libera. Strabo informs us, that it was one of
the moft magnificent cities of antiquity, and one of
thofe the temples, porticoes, and other public monu¬
ments of which were highly admired. A quarry of
white marble in the neighbourhood fiunifhed it with
abundance of materials for ere&ing thefe edifices.—
The Mylafians had two temples dedicated to Jupiter,
one fituated in the city, which was named Ofo^o, and
another built on a mountain, at the diftance of 60
leagues. Tl^e latter was dedicated to Jupiter Stratius>
Jupiter the Warrior. His ftatue, which was very an¬
cient, infpired great veneration ; people came from all
quarters to implore his proteftion ; and for the greater
accommodation of his votaries a paved way was con-
ftru&ed, whiqh reached from Mylafa to this venerable
fabric. This city is now called Melajfo, and, ac¬
cording to Dr Chandler, is ftill a large place.—
ihe houfes are numerous, but chiefly of plafter, "MyTogl&C
and mean, with trees, interfperfed. The air is ac- flltn.J
coanted bad; and fcorpions abound as anciently, M li . ’
entering often at the deors and windows, and lurking. h
in the rooms. The plain is furrounded by lofty moun¬
tains, and cultivated. Round the town are ranges of
broken columns, the remnants of porticoes, now with
rubbifli bounding the vineyards. A large portion of
the plain is covered with fcattered fragments, and with
piers of ordinary aquedudts ; befides inferiptions,
moftly ruined and illegible. Some altars dedi¬
cated to Hecatomnus have been difeovered. Of
all the ancient temples which formerly ornament¬
ed this city, one only efcaped the power of time,
the blind zeal of the early Chriftians, and the barba¬
rous fuperftition of the Mahometans. This monu¬
ment was dedicated to Auguftus and the divinity .of
Rome. When Pococke vifited Melaflb, it was perfect
and entire ; but at prefent no traces of it rematu, ex¬
cept a few fragments, which have been employed to
conftrudt a Turkifh mofque.
MYLOGLOSSUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
MYLOHYOlDiEUS. Ibid.
MYNSICHT (Hadrian), phyftcian to the duke
of Mecklenburgh and feveral other Geiman princes,
was diftinguiihed for his knowledge of chemiftry, at
the beginning of the 17th century. He publilhed a
work entitled Armentarium Medifo-Chymicum, which
has undergone various editions. In this work he gives
a defeription of feveral medicines, about the virtues
of which he is not always to be depended upon. To
him we are indebted for a knowledge of the fait de du-
obus or the Arcanum, which is ftill in ufe.
MYOLOGY, (formed of ^c, ^oc, “ a mufcle,” and
xoyof, “ difeourfe”), in anatomy, a defeription of the
mufcles; or the knowledge of what relates to the
mufcles of the human body. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
MYOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of
foretelling future events by 'means of mice.
Some authors hold myomancy to be one of the moft
ancient kinds of divination ; and think it is on this
account that Ifaiah, Ixvi. 17. reckons mice among the
abominable things of the idolaters. But, befide that
it is not cereain that the Hebrew word ufed by
the prophet fignifies a moufe, it is evident it is not the
divination by that animal, be it what it will, that is
fpoken of, but the eating it.
MYOPIA, Short-sightedness^ a fpecies of vi-
fion wherein obje&s are feen only at fmall diftances.
See Medicine, n1' 361.
MYOSOTIS, Scorpion-grass : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pemandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under tha
41 ft order, Afperijoluc. The corolla is falver-ihaped,
quinquefid, and emarginated the throat ftiut up by
fmall arches. There are four fpecies ^ of which the
moft remaikable is the fcorpioides,. or moufe-ear. This,
is a native of Britain, growing naturally in dry fields,
and on the margins of fprings and rills. It hath na¬
ked feeds, and the points of the leaves callous. It
varies confiderably in different fituations. In dry
places the plant and flowers are fmaller ; in moill ones
both are larger, and fometimes hairy. The bloffoms,
5
M Y O [ 565 1 M Y R
Myofurus,jvary from a full blue to -a very pale one, and fome- pearance ; the nofe is more blunt; the head, fxdes, Myrepfa*
Myoxus. tJmes a yellow ; and appear in a long fpirally twilled belly, and tail, are of a tawny red colour, the throat H
fpIJie, When it grows in the water, and its tafle and white. Dormice inhabit woods, or very thick hedges;. y^rica' a
fmell is thereby rendered lefs obfervable, Iheep will forming their u ;fts in the hollow of fome low tree, or
fometimes eat it; but it is generally fatal to them, near the bottom of ^ clofe (hrub : they form little ma-
Cows, hprfes, fwine, and goats refufe it. gazines of nuts, and eat in an upright pofture like the
MYOSURUS, in botany: A genus of the poly- fquirrel. The confumption of their hoard, however,
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; during the rigour of the feafon is but fmall; for they
and in the natural method ranking under the 26th or- deep moll pf the time, retiring into their holes; at the
der Multifiliqutg. The calyx is pent aphyllous, the leaves approach of winter they roll themfelves up, and become
cohering at the bafe ; there are five fubulated ne&aria torpid. Sometimes they experience a (hort revival in
refembling petals : the feeds are numerous. a warm funny day, when they take a little food, and
Plafe MYOXUS, the Dormouse, in zoology ; a genus relapfe into their former Hate. Thefe animals feldom
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of glires. There appear far from their retreats, or in any open place ;
k' ‘ are two fore-teeth in each jaw ; the upper ones cunc- for which reafon they feem lefs common in Britain
ated, the under comprefied : the whiikers are long ; than they ready are. They make their nefts of mofs,
the tail is hairy and round, growing thicker towards the grafs, and dead leaves ; and bring ufually three or four
extremity ; the fore and hind legs are of equal length, young at a time.
and the* fore-feet have four toes. MYREPSUS (Nicolas), was a phyfician of Alex-
». The glis, or hoary dormoufe, is of a pale afli- andria, to whom we are under great obligations for
colour on the upper parts of the body, and whitilh the pains he took to colleft,. into a kind of pharmaco-
on the under; and is about the fi'ze of the common pceia, all the compound medicines which lie fcattered
fquirrel, but thicker in the body. It inhabits France in the works of the Greeks and Arabian writers,
and the fouth of Europe, and the fouth-wed of Ruf- his wTork was accorqplifhed before the beginning of
fia about the Volga of Samara. This animal, which the 14th century; and though written in barbarous
is the of Ariftotle, ,«vt>So; of Oppian, and gits of Greek, continued for a long time to be the rule of
Pliny, was held in great efteem among the Romans, pharmaceutical preparations in Europe. A tranflation
as a luxurious delicacy; they were fed in places called of it into Latin by Leonard Fufch is entitled Opus
gliriaria, conitructed for the purpofe, and they are ftill Medicamentorum, in Se£tiones quadraginta 080 digejlum.
eaten by the modern Italians. It forms a neft in the There are a great many editions of this work : the
hollow of fome tree, in which it fleeps all day; feeds beft is that of Hartman Beverus, Nuremberg, 1658,
in the night on nuts, walnuts, the feeds of apples, &c. 8vo.
and grows very fat in autumn. About the month of MYRIAD, a term fometimes ufed to denote tea
October they gather in troops ; and, retiring into fob- thoufand.
terranean burrows, remain torpid till near the end of MYRICA, Galje, or Sweet-willow, in botany s
May. The female has ten teats, fix of which are fitu- Agenusof the tetrandria order, belonging to the dioecia-
ated on the bread, and four on the belly ; and fhe clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
brings from nine trvtwelve young ones at a litter. under the 5th order, Amentacea. The fcale of the
F’g- I4- 2. The nitella, or garden dormoufe,, is of a tawny male catkin is in the form of a crefcent, without any
colour on the upper parts of the body, and whitiih corolla. The fcale of the female catkin the fame :
alb-tinged with yellow on the under ; has a black there is no corollabut two llyles, and a monofper-
circle round each eye, and a, black fpot behind each mous berry.
ear; and is five inches long, befxdes the tail which 1. The gale, Dutch myrtle, or fweet-willow, grows
meafures four. It inhabits the fouth parts of Europe naturally upon bogs in many places both of Scotland
and Ruffia, where it lives clriefly in gardens, though and England. It rifes about fou? feet high, with
it fometimes is found in houfes. They are very de- many fhrubby llalks, which divide into feveral flender
llru£tive to fruit, particularly peaches, which they branches, garnilhed with ftiff fpear-lhaped leaves of a
feem to prefer ta every other kind. They alfo eat light yellowilh green, fmoplh, and a little fawed at
peafe, apricots, and plums; and when.foft fruits are their points. The female flowers or catkins are pro-
not to be had, they will eat almonds, filberts, nuts, duced from the fides of the branches, growing upon
and even leguminous plants. Of thefe they carry off feparate plants from the female, which are fucceeded
great quantities into their retreats, which they dig in by clufters of fmall berries, each having a Angle feed,
the earth, and particularly in well cultivated gardens; It flowers in July, and ripens in autumn. When,
for in old orchards they are, often found iti hollow traniplanted into fhrubberies,. the moifieft parts muft
trees, where they make beds of herbs, mofs, and leaves, be alfigned to it.
Eight or. ten of them are frequently found in the fame • The leaves, flowers, and feeds, of this plant, have a
place, all benumbed, and rolled up in the midft of ftrong fragrant fmell, and a bitter tafte. They are
their provifion of fruits and nuts. They copulate in faid to be ufed among the common people for deitroy-
fpring, and bring ferth infummer. The litter confifts ing moths and cutaneous infedts, being accounted an
of five or fix young, who grow very quickly, but are
not fertile till the next year. Their flefh is not eatable,
but has the fame difagreeable odour with the domeftic
enemy to infe£ts of every kind internally, in infu<>
fions,.as a Jtomachic and vermifuge; and as. a fubfiL-
tute to hops for preferving malt liquors, which they
rat. • render more inebriating, and of confequence lefs fa? ■
3. The mufeardinus, or common dormoufe, is about lubrious : it is faid that this quality is dellroyed by-
the fize of the domeftic moufe, but of a plumper ap- boiling.
The,
M Y R [ j66 ] M Y R
■Myrtca. 2. The cerifera, wax-bearing myrica, or candleberry
^ ' myrtle, is a native of North America. It is a fmall
tree about ten or twelve feet high, with crooked Items
branching forth near the ground inegularly. The
leaves grow irregularly on them all round; fometimes by
pairs, fometimes alternately, but generally at unequal
diltances. They are of a lanceolated figure ; and fome
are ferrated at the top, vvhillt others have their edges
wholly entire. They Hand on very fhort .footflalks ;
having their upper iurface fmooth, and of a (hining •
green colour, whilft their under is of a more duiky ■
hue.. The branches of the old plants Ihed their
Jeaves in the autumn ; but the young plants railed
Irom feeds retain them the greatelt part of the winter,
fo as during that feafon to have the appearance of an
evergreen. But this beauty will not be lalting, for
they flied their leaves proportionally earlier as the
plants get older. There are both male and female
trees of this fort : The ilowers are fmall, of a whitiih
colour, and make no figure ; neither does the fruit
that fucceeds the female, which is a fmall, dry, blue
berry, though produced in clullers, make any (how :
So that -it is from the leaves this trees receives its
beauty and value ; for thefe being bruifed, as well as
the bark of the young Ihoots, emit the molt refrelh-
ing and delightful fragrance, that is exceeded by no
myrtle, or any other aromatic Ihrub.
There is a variety of this fpecies of lower growth,
with Ihorter but broader leaves, and of equal fra¬
grance. This grows commonly in Carolina ; where
the inhabitants colleft from its berries a wax of which
they make candles, and which occafions its being call-
' <d the candkbtrry.tree. It delights in a moiltilh foil.
—The wrax is procured in the following manner : In
November and December, when the berries arc ripe,
a man with his family will remove from home to fome
ifland or fanchbank near the fea, where thefe trees
.moll abound, taking with them kettles to boil the
berries in. He builds a hut with palmetto leaves for
the ihelter of himfelf and family during his refidence
there, which is commonly four or five weeks. The
man cuts down the trees, while the children ftrip off
the berries into a porridge-pot; and having put water
to them, They boil them till the oil floats, which is
then Ikimmed off into another vefieL This is repeat¬
ed till no more oil appears. When cold, this hardens
to the confiftence of wax, and is of a dirty green co¬
lour. Then they boil it again, and clarify it in brafs
kettles ; which gives it a tranfparent greennefs. Thefe
candles burn a long time, and yield a grateful fmcll.
They ufually add a fourth part of tallow, which makes
them burn clearer. Both the above forts may be propa¬
gated by feeds or layers. i. The feeds of the candle-
berry myrtle we receive from abroad ; thofe of the
fweet-gale from the bogs, where they grow in Eng¬
land or Scotland. The belt way is to fow them in
boxes of earth from a rich palture, well broken and
fine. They. Ihould be fown about half an inch deep ;
and when the hot weather comes on, (hould be'let in
the (hade. They will often remain until the fecond
year before they come up, efpecially thofe feeds that
come from abroad. If the boxes are fet in the (hade,
and the plants come up, they will require no other
.trouble the firft fummer than keeping clean from
weeds j in winter they Ihould be removed to a warm
hedge or wall, where they may enjoy the benefit of Myric«
the fun. In the following fpring they will come up Mvr]|j;(.t
in plenty. In the beginning of May they (hould re- . '
fume their lhady iituation ; and this fummer they will
require no other trouble than weeding and watering
in dry weather. In the winter they (hould be remo¬
ved into a well-lheltered place ; and this may be re¬
peated two years ; when in the fpring they (hould be
taken out of the boxes, and planted in the nurfery at
about a foot afunder. 2. Thefe forts may be alfo
ealily propagated by layers ; for this operation being
performed on the young wood in the autumn, will
occa-lion them to (hoot good roots by the autumn fol¬
lowing 5 many of which will be good plants, fit for
any place. 3. Thefe plants may likewife be increafed
by fuckers, for many of them often throw them out in
vaft plenty ; fo that thefe being taken out, the (trongeft
and heft-rooted may be finally fet out-; wjiilfl the
weaker, and thofe with lefs root, may be planted in
the nurfery.
There are five other fpecies, viz. the nagi, or Japan
myrica, with lanceolate entire veinlefs leaves, and ber¬
ries about the fize of a cherry : the ethiopica, or wil¬
low-leaved myrica, with the leaves flightly ferrated ;
a native of Ethiopia: the quercifolia, with oblong
leaves, finuated or notched on the (ides, like the leaves
of the oak ; of which there are two varieties, the
fmooth and the hairy, natives of the Cape of Good
Hope : the trifoliata, or trifoliate myrica, with ter-
nate leaves toothed on the edges ; and the cordifolia,
or heart-leaved myrica, with fubcordated, fawed, fef-
file leaves ; both alfo natives of the Cape. Thefe are
all tender plants, kept as curiofities in the green-
houfe, and difficult of propagation.
MYRIOPHYLLUM, in botany : A genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
15th order, Iflundatee. The male calyx is tetraphyl-
lous ; there is no corolla ; the ftamina are eight in
number. The female calyx is tetraphyllous ; the pi-
llils four ; there is no ftyle ; and four naked feeds.
MYRIBTICA, the Nutmeg-tree, in botany:
A genus of plants belonging to the clafs dioscia, and
order fyngenefia, in the New Genera Plantarum of
Linnaeus by Sbreber ; and of the natural order Laurit
in his fourth clafs Monocotylldones.—The male calyx is
monophyllous, ftrong, and parted into three /ac/w« of
an oval (hape, and ending in a point: it has no co¬
rolla. In the middle of the receptacle rifes a column
of the height of the calyx ; to the upper part of which
the antherse are attached. They vary in number from
three to twelve or thirteen.—The female calyx and
corolla as in the male, on a dillindt tree. The ger-
mtn of an oval (hape; the (tyle fhort, with a bifid
ftigma ; the lacinii of which are oval and fpreading.—•
The fruit is of that fort called drupa. It is flefhy,
roundifh, fometimes unilocular, fometimes bivalved,
and burfts when ripe at the fide.. The feed is enve¬
loped with a flefliy find fatty membraneous fubitance,
whicli divides into filaments (this, in one of the fpecies,
is the mace of the (hops). The feed or nutmeg is
round or oval fhaped, unilocular, and contains a (mail
kernel, variegated on the furface by the fibres running
in the form of a ferew.
Species. There are five fpecies of this genus ac¬
cording
M Y R [ 567 ] M Y R
v cording to feme authors ; but feveral of thefc being
only varieties, .may be reduced to three, viz.
r, Myriilica fatua, or wild nutmeg : this gtowt {n
Tobago, and rifes to the height of an apple-tree; has
oblong, lanceolated, downy leaves, and hairy fruit: —
the nutmeg of which is aromatic, but when given in¬
wardly is narcotic, and occafions drunkennefs, deli¬
rium, and madnefs, for a time. See a figure in 'Caer-
ner de S\ m and 1'rutl. T. 4 r. f. 3. 4,
2. The myriilica febifera, [Virola Slbifera Aub/et,
page 904. Tab. 345.) A tree frequent in Guiana,
rifing to 40 or even to 60 feet high ; on wounding
the trunk of which, a thick, acrid, red juice runs out.
Aublet fays nothing of the nutmegs being aromatic; he
only obferves, that a yellow fat is obtained from them,
which ferves many oecohomical and medical purpofes,
and that the natives make candles of it.
3. The myriftica mofehata, or nutmeg, attains the
height of 30 feet', producing numerous branches which
rife together in llories, and covered with bark, which
of the trunk is a reddilh brown, but that of the young
branches is of a bright green colour : the leaves are
nearly elliptical, pointed, undulated, obliquely nerved,
on *lhe upper fide of a bright green, on the under
whitilh, and Hand alternately upon footllalksthe
flowers are fmall, and hang upon flender peduncles,
proceeding from the axillae of the leaves: they are
both male and female upon feparate trees.
M. Schwaitz, who has carefully examined this as-
well as the two firft fpecies, preferred in fpirits, places
them amongft the monodelphia.
The nutmeg has been fuppofed to be the Comacum
of Theophraftus, but there feems little foundation for
this opinion ; nor can it with more probability be
thought to be ihe Ckryfobalanos of Galen. Our firft
knowledge of it was evidently derived from the Ara¬
bians ; by Avicenna it was called jiaujiban, or jaitfi*
band, which fignifies nut of banda. Rumphius both
figured and deferibed this tree ; but the figure given
by him is fo imperfedl, and the defeription fo con-
fufed, that Linnaeus, who gave it the generic name
wyr'ijlica, was unable to aflign its pvrper charadters. 
Sonnerat’s account of the mufeadier is ftill more erro¬
neous ; and the younger Linnaeus was unfortunately,
milled by this author, placing the myriftica in theclafs -
Polyandrta, and deferibing the corolla as confifting of
five petals, Thunberg, who examined the flower of
the nutmeg, .places it in the clafs Monoecia ; and ac¬
cording to his defeription, the male flower has but one
filament, furrounded at the upper part by the antherse;
and as the filaments are Ihort and {lender,,and the an-
therse united, this miftake might eafily. arife. M.
I>e La Marck informs us, that he received feveral
branches of the myriftica, both in flower and fruit,
from the Ifle of France, where-a nutmeg-tree, .which
was introduced by Monfieur Poivre in 1770, is now
very large, and continually- producing flowers and
fruit. From thefe branches,,which were fent from
Monf. Cere, diredlor of the king’s garden in that
ifland, Monf. De La Marck has been enabled to de-
feribe and figure this and other fpecies of the myri¬
ftica with tolerable accuracy-; and that we have pro¬
fited by his labours, will appear from the annexed
plate, of which the following is an explanation :
Fig. a. A fprig with frudification. The drupa of
6
the natural fire, and burfting open. Fig. 1. The full- Myr irtlea,
grown fruit cut lengthways. Fig. c. Another fedion “v*--*
of the fame. Fig. d. The nutmeg enveloped with its
covering the mace. Fig. e. The fatty membrane or
mace fpread out. Fig. y. The nutmeg of its natural
fize. Fig. g. The fame with its external tegument re¬
moved at one end. Fig. h. The fame with its outer
tegument entirely removed. Fig. i. A tranfverfe fec-
tion of the nutmeg. Fig. 1. and 2. Sprigs of
MyrijUca mofehata in flower, with a leaf of the natu- '
ral fize, and a reprefentation of the calyx and column
in the flower.
The feeds or kernels called nutmegs are well known,
as they have been long ufed both for culinary and me¬
dical purpofes. Diftilled with water, they yield a
large quantity of efiential oil, rcfembling in flavour'
the fpice itfelf; after the diftillation, an infipid feba-
cious matter is found fwimming on the water ; the
decodion infpifiated, gives an extrad of an unudous^,
very lightly bitterilh tafte, and with litPe or noaftrin-
gency. Redified fpirit extracts the whole virtue of
nutmegs^ by infufion, and elevates very little of it in
diftillation-; hence the fpirituous extrad ppffefles the
flavour of the fpice in an eminent degree.
Nutmegs, when heated, yield to the prefs a confide-
rable quantity of limpid yellow oil, which on cooling
concretes into a febaceous confiftence. In the Ihops
we meet with three forts of unduous fubftances, call¬
ed oil of wfliTf,.though really exprefled from the nut¬
meg.. The belt is brought from the Eaft Indies in
ftone jars ; this is of a thick confiftence;-of the colour
of mace, and has an agreeable-fragrant fmell; the fe~
cond fort, which .is paler coloured, and much inferior
in quality, comes from Holland in folid mafles, gene¬
rally flat, and of a fquare figure :; the third, which is '
the word of all, and ufaally called common oil of mace,
is an artificial compofition of fevunr, palm oil, and
the like, flavoured with a little genuine oil of nutmeg.
Method of gathering and preparing Nutmeg. When ■
the fruit is ripe, the natives afeend the trees, and
gather it by pulling the branches to them with long
hooks. Some are employed in opening them im¬
mediately, and in taking off the green ihell or firft.*
rhind, which is laid together dn a heap in the woods,
where in time it putrefies. As foon as the-putrefac¬
tion has taken place, there fpring up a kind of mulh-
rooms, called boleti mofehatyni, of a blackilh colour, and
much valued by the natives, who confider them as
delicate eating. When the nuts are ftripped of their
firft rhind they are carried home, and the mace is care-
ftilly taken off with a fmall knife. The mace, which
is of a beautiful red, bur afterwards affumes a darkilh
or- reddilh colour, is laid to dry in the fun for- the fpace
of a day; and is then removed to a place lefs expofed
to his rays, where it5 remains for eight days, that it
may foften a little. Theyafterwards moiften it with
fea-water, to prevent it from drying, too much, or
from lofing its oil. They are careful, however; not.
to employ too much water, left it fltould become pu¬
trid, and be devoured by the worms. It is laft of all
put into fmall bags, and fqueezed very clofe.- Mace,
mull not be confounded with maeer. See the word
Macer.
The nuts, which are ftill covered with their ligne¬
ous Ihdl, are for three days expofed to the fun, and .
afterwards
M Y R [ 568 ] M Y R
Mynftica afterwards dried before a fire till they emit a found
w'”-ry when they are (hakcn ; tliey then beat them with
fmall fticks in order to remove their (hell, which flies
off in pieces. Thefe nuts are diftributed into three
-parcels; the firft of which contains the largeft and moll
beautiful, which are deitined to be brought to Eu¬
rope ; the fecond contains fuch as are referved for the
, life of the inhabitants; and the third contains the fmall-
eft, which are irregular or unripe. Thefe are burnt;
and part of the reft is employed for procuring oil by
preflure. A pound of them commonly gives three
ounces of oil, which has the confiftence of tallow, and
has entiVely the tafte of nutmeg. Both the nut and
mace, when diililled. afford an effential, tranfparent,
and volatile oil, of an excellent flavour1.
The nutmegs which have been thus fele&ed would
foon corrupt if they were not watered, or rather
pickled, with lime-water made from calcined (hell-fifti,
which they dilute with falt-water till it attain the .
confiftence of fluid pap. Into this mixture they,
plunge the nutmegs, contained in fmall bafkets, two
or three times, till they are completely covered over
with the liquob. They are afterwards laid in a heap,
•where they heat, and lofe their fuperfluous moifture
by evaporation. When they have fweated fufficient-
ly, they are then properly prepared, and fit for a fea-
voyage.
In the ifland of Banda, the fruit of the nutmeg-tree
is preferved entire in the following manner : When it
is almoft ripe, but previous to its opening, it is boiled
in water and-pierced with a needle. They next lay
it in water to foak for ten days, till it has loft its four
and (harp tafte. They then boil it gently in a,.fyrup
of fugar, to which, if they wifh it to be hard, a little
lime is added. This operation is repeated for eight
days, and each time the fyrup is renewed. The fruit
when thus preferved is put for the laft time into a
pretty thick fyrup, and is kept in earthen pots clofely
fhut.
Thefe nuts are likewife pickled with brine or with
vinegar; and when they intend to eat them, they
firft deep them in frefti water, and afterwards boil them
in fyrup of fugar, &c.
Ufes. Nutmegs preferved entire are prefented as de-
ferts, and the inhabitants of India-fometimes eat them
when they drink tea. Some of them ufe nothing but the
pulp ; others likewife chew the mace ; but they gene¬
rally throw away the kernel, which is really the nut¬
meg. Many who perform fea-voyages to the north
chew this fruit every morning.
The medicinal qualities of nutmeg are fuppofed to
be aromatic, anodyne, ftomachic, and reftringent; and
with a view to the laft mentioned effe<fts, it has been
much ufed in diarrhoeas and dyfenteries. To many
people the aromatic flavour of nutmeg is very agree-
able ; they however (hould be cautious not to ufe it in
large quantities, as it is apt to affeft the head, and
even to manife l an hypnotic power in fuch a degree
as to prove extremely dangerous. Bontius (peaks of
this as a frequent occurrence in India ; and Dr Cullen
relates a remarkable inftance of this foporific effeft
of the nutmeg, which fell under his own obfervation,
and hence concludes, that in apopledlic and paralytic
cafes this fpice may be very improper. He obferves,
that a perfon by miftake .took two drams or a little
N°2^. v
more of powered nutmeg r he felt it warm in his do- Myriftica.
mach, without any uneafinefs; but in.about an hour v*—'
after he h(id taken it he was feized with a Arowfinefs,
which gradually increafed.to a complete ftupor and
infenfibility ; and not long after he was found fallen
from his chair, lying on the floor of his chamber in
the ftate mentioned. Being laid a-bed he fell afleep;
but waking a little from time to time, he was quite
delirious ; and he thus continued alternately fleeping
and delirious for feverai hours. By degrees, however,
both thefe fymptoms diminiftied; fo that in about fix
hours from the time of taking the nutmeg he was
pretty well recovered from both. Although he dill
complained of head-ach, and fome drowfinefs, he flept
naturally and quietly the following night, arid next
day was quite in his ordinary health.
The officinal preparations of nutmeg are a fpirit
and effential oil, and the nutmeg ii) fubftance roafted,
to render it more aftringent. Both the fpice itfelf
and its effential oil enter feverai eompofitions, as the
confe&io aromatica. fpiritus amonias com. &c. Mace
poffeffes qualities fimilar to thofe of the nutmeg, but
is lefs aftringent, and its oil is fuppofed to be more
volatile and acrid.
Remarks on the Trade of Nutmegs. Nutmeg-trees grow
in feverai iflands in the eaftern ocean. The wood-pigeon
of the Moluccas is unintentionally a great planter of
thefe trees, and diffeminates them in places where a na¬
tion, powerful by its commerce, thinks it for its intereft
that they fhould be rooted out and deftroyed. The
Dutch, whofe unwearied patience can furmount the
greateft obftacles, have appropriated to themfelves-the
crop, of nutmeg, as well as that of cloves and cinnamon,
growing in the iflands of Ternate, Ceylon, &c. either
by right' of conqueft ,or by paying fubfidies to the
iflanders, who find thefe much more profitable than
the former produce of their trees. It is neverthelefs
true, that they have prevailed upon or compelled the
inhabitants of the Moluccas to cut down and root out
all the clove-trees, which they have preferved only in
the iflands of Amboina and Ternate, which are in a
great meafure fubj'i'St to them. We know for certain,
that the Dutch pay 18,000 rixdollars yearly to the
king of Ternate, by way of tribute or gift, in order
to recompence him. for the lofs of his clove-trees in
the other Molucca iflands ; and that they are more¬
over bound by treaty to take at 3|d. a pound, all
the cloves brought by the natives of Amboyna to
their magazines. They have likevvife fucceeded to
deftroy the cinnamon every where except in the
ifland of Ceylon, which is in their poffelfion. The
fame is the cafe with white pepper, &c. fo that the
trade of the whole of Europe, and of great part of
Afia in this fpecies of commodity, paffes through their
hands.
The Dutch have immenfe and very rich magazines
of thefe precious aromatics, both in India and Eu¬
rope. They have a&ually by them the produce of
i6 years, and never fupply their neighbours with the
laft, but always with the oldeft crop: in 1760 they
fold what was laid up in 1744. It is commonly faid,
that when the Dutch have too great a quantity of
cloves, nutmeg, &c. in their magazines, they tiirow
them into the fea ; but the fadl is, that they get rid
of their fuperfluous aromatics by burning them. On
iiate c c cxmr.
YJ?/csvrati a
//3,/i'rA,
\
M Y R i 569 ] M Y R
Myrnieco • the 10th of June 1760, M. Beaumnre faw at Amfter-
phaga. near the Admiralty, a fire, the fuel of which was
valued at 8,000,000 of livres ; and as much was to be
but on the day following. The feet of the fpedla-
tors were bathed in the efientjal oil of thefe fubftances;
but ho perfon was allowed to gather any of it, much
lefs to take any of the fpices which were in the fire.
Some years before, upon a fimilar occafion, and at the
fame place, a poor maa who had taken up fome nut¬
megs which had rolled out of the fire, was, as M. Beau-
mare was informed, feized and condemned to imme¬
diate execution. We will only add, that notwith-
ftanding the jealoufy of the Dutch, and the pains
they take to preferve the fale of cloves wholly to them-
felves, they have never been able to prevent their own
officers in feveral parts of India from embezzling and
felling confiderable quantities of them. M. de Jau-
court informs us, that in order to defraud the com¬
pany, they fell them to the veffels of other nations
which they meet at fea, and moiften the remainder
with water, that they may ft ill have the number of
quintals of which their cargo confifted. The quan¬
tity fold may amount to 10 quintals in 100 before it
can be perceived by the clerks of the magazines at Ba¬
tavia, where they are received.
We are’Snformed by M. Rome de Lille, who has
lately arrived from India, that the Engliffi draw a
great deal of cinnamon, pepper, and clones, from the
ifland of Sumatra. The ftaple for this commodity,
which gives great offence to the Dutch, is at the fac¬
tory of Bencoolen. We have likewife feen a fpeci-
men of pretty good cinnamon raifed at Martinico —
The French, to prevent the exportation of fpeeie for
thefe aromatic and exotic produftions, have attempt¬
ed to introduce the culture of them into fome of their
colonies. A great many plants of the clove and nut-
meg-tree have been procured, and planted in the Ifle
of France, the ifland of Bourbon, and alfo at Ca¬
yenne, where they have a very promifing appearance.
Plate MYRMECOPHAGA, or Ant-bear, in zoology;
cccxxxvi. a genus of quadrupeds, belonging to the order of
bruta : There are no teeth in the mouth ; the tongue
is long and cylindrical; the head terminates in a long,
fnout or muzzle; and the body is covered with pretty
long hair. There are five fpecies, viz.
T. The didaftyla, or little ant-bear, hath a conic
nofe bending a little down ; ears fmall, and hid in the
fur; two hooked claws on the fore-feet, the ex¬
terior being much the large!!;; four on the hind-fee*;
the head, body, limbs, and upper part and fides of
the tail, covered with long foft filky hair, or rather
wool, of a yellowifh brown colour: from the nofe to
the tail it meafures feven inches and an half; the tail
eight and an half, the laft four inches of which on
the under fide are naked. It is thick at the bafe,
and tapers to a point. It inhabits Guinea, climbs
trees in quell of a fpecies of ants which build their
nefts among the branches : has a prehenfibk power
with its tail.
2. The tridaftyla, tamandua-guaca, or tamanoir,
has three toes on the fore-feet, five on the hind-feet,
and long hair on the tail. This animal is about four
feet long, and the head and fnout about 15 inches: it
is a native of the Eaft Indies, and feeds on ants, &c.
In the fame manner as the former.
Voi.. Xll. Part II.
3. Thejubata, or great ant-bear, has a long flen-^Tyrmeco-
der nofe, fmall black eyes; Ihort round ears ; a flen- pha r1'
der tongue two feet and an half long, which lies
double in the mouth ; the legs flender; four toes on : ” ■ 1
the fore-feet, five on the hind-feet; the two middle
claws on the fore-feet very large, ftrong, and hooked;
the hair on the upper part of the body is half a foot
long, black mixed with grey; the fore-legs are whitifli,
marked above the feet, with a black fpot; the tail is
clothed with very coarfe’ black hair a foot long : the
length from the nofe to the tail about four feqt; the
tail two feet and an half. This animal inhabits South.
America, and the kingdom of Congo in Africa. It
covers itfelf with its tail when afleep and to guard
again!! rain. Its fleih is eaten by the natives of Ame¬
rica.
4. The tetrada&yla, or middle ant-bear, has four
toes on the fore-feet, and five on the hind, with a tail
naked at the extremity ; the length from the nofe to
the tail is one foot feven inches,.and the tail tea
inches. It inhabits South America.
5. The capenfis, or Cape ant-bear, has four claws
on the fore-paws ; a long fnout; large pendent ears ;
and a tail, which is fhorter than the body, and taper
at the poini. It inhabits the country at the Cape of
Good Hope.—This animal is much larger than the
other fpecies of the genus, fo that Kolben compares
it to the fize of a hog, and afferts that it weighs t 00
pounds. It burrows in the ground, fleeps during the
day, arid only goes abroad at night.
Thefe animals have many properties in common
with each other, both in their flrudture and manners.
They all feed upon ants, and plunge their tongues in¬
to honey and other liquid or vifcid fubftances. They
readily pick up crumbs of bread, or fmall morfels of
flefh. They are eafily tamed, and can fubfift for a
long time without food. They never fwallow all the
liquor which they take for drink ; for a part of it falls
back through their noftrils. They run fo flowly, that
a man may eafily overtake them in an open field.-—
Their flefli, though its tafte be very difagreeable, is
eaten by the favages. At a diftance the great ant-
eater has the appearance of a fox; and for this rea-
fon fome travellers have given him the name of the
American fox. He has ftrength fufficient to defend
himfelf from a large dog, or even from the jaquar or
Brafilian cat. When attacked, he at firft fights on end,
and, like the bear, annoys his enemy with the claws
of his fore-feet, which are very terrible weapons.—
He then lies down on his back, and ufes all the four
feet, in which fituation he is almoft invincible; and
continues the combat to the laft extremity. Even
when he kills his enemy, he quits him not for a long
time after. He is enabled to refift better than moil
other animals, becaufe he is covered with long buihy
hair ; his Ikin is remarkably thick ; his flefli has little
fenfation ; and his principle of life is very tenacious.
MYRMELION, or Art-lion, in zoology ; a
genus of mfedls of the nemopteca order. There are 1J
fpecieSjof which the moftremarkable is the formicarius,
or ant-eater. The perfed infed is oblong, and of a
brown colour. Its head is broad, with two large eyes
on the fides, and two antennse beneath. The neck is
rather long, cylindrical, and narrower than the head.
The thorax feems compofed of two parts; one ante-
M Y R C 57° I M Y R
iAynat- yJor, vhence arifc the upper wings ; and the other po-
,.Lmi\ fterior, which gives birth to the under ones. The
^ abdomen is of an oblong form, and confifts eight
u—v— fegments; the wings are diaphanous, adorned with a
net-work of black fibres, charged with feveral blackifh
brown fpots. The larva of this infedt is very fond of
ants, which it hunts after, whence its name. The
Barbut's larvae proceed from the egg which the perfeft infedt
^ depofited in very fine dry fand, in a place fheltered
p ^rom rain» ehher within a cleft of a wall or of the
ground, or at the foot of a wall generally expofed to
the fouth fun. There they are hatched, and make
their ufual abode. Their colour is grey, and their
body, which is covered with fraall protuberances, is of
an oval form. Its pofterior extremity terminates in a
point, and is of ufe to fink itfelf down into the fand ;
for it only walks retrogrefiively, though furnifhed with
fix feet. Before the head is placed a dentated for¬
ceps, fharp and hollow wit]>n, with which the crea¬
ture catches and fucks flies and other infedfs, but efpe-
cially ants. This forceps ferves as a mouth or roftrurn,
as wdl as for an offenfive weapon. The animal's re¬
trograde march not allowing it to run after the infedts
©n which it is to feed, it ufes a ftratagem. It dives
down into the fand, and turning about in a circle, hol¬
lows out concentric furrows, gradually deeper and
deeper, calling at a diltance with its horns the fand it
takes from that place. At length it manages to dig
a hole in fhape like a funnel, at the bottom of which
ft takes its ftation, concealed in the fand, nothing but
the open extended forceps appearing above it. Mif-
chief overtakes every infedl that happens to fall into
that hole. The myrmelio, who is apprized of it by
the grains of /and rolling down to the bottom, over¬
whelms him with a fhower of dull, which it ejedls
with its horns, then drags the infedl to the bottom of
the hole, where it feizes him with its forceps, and
fucks its vitals. It does not even fpare other myr-
melions who in their motions to and fro chance to fall
into it. When the larva is come to its full growth, it
digs no more holes ; it moves backwards and forwards,
tracing irregular furrows on the fand, and at length
fpins itfelf a cod, fhaped like a ball, the outward part
of which is formed of the fand in which it lived, and
the inward is lined with fine white filk. Within this
cod it turns to a chryfalis, which is curved into a fe-
micircle, and wherein may be diftinguiflied all the
parts of the peifedl infedl.that is to iffue from it. It
is more oblong than the larva, but much fliorter than
the perfedl infedl. After a certain period, the chryfa¬
lis calls off its Hough, turns to a winged infedl, and
breaks through the cod in order to take its flight.
The perfedl infedl is very fcarce, but is fometimes met
with in fandy places, and near rivulets.
MYRMIDONS (Myrmidones), in antiquity; a
people on the fouthern borders of Theffaly, who ac¬
companied Achilles to the Trojan war. They re¬
ceived their name from Myrmidon, a fon of Jupiter
and Eurymedufa, who married one of the daughters
of iEolus, fon of Helen. His fon Adlor married
JEgina the daughter of Afopus. He gave his name
to his fubjedls, who dwelt near the river Peneus in
Theffaly. According to fome, the Myrmidons re¬
ceived their name from their having arifen from ants
er pifaaires, upon a prayer put up for that purpofe by
king iEacus to Jupiter, after his kingdom had been Myrmil-
difpeopled by a fevere pellilence. According to Stra- lores
bo,- they received it from their induftry, becaufe they II
imitated the diligence of the ants, and like them were, Myroiy-
indefatigable, and were continually employed in culti-, lon' .
vating the earth. . "":_v "
MYRMILLONES were gladiators of a certain
kind at Rome.,, who fought againft the Retiarii. Their
arms were a fword, head-piece, and Ihield. Qn che
top of the head-piece they wore a filh ©mboffed, called
whence their name is by fome fuppofed to be
derived. The Retiarii. in their engagements, made ufe
of a net, in which they endeavoured to entangle their
adverfaries, and fung during the. fight, “ Non te petoy
pifeempeto ; quid mefu{isy Gal/e?” “ I aim not at thee,
but I aim at thy filh; why doll thou ihun me, O Gaul?”
The Myrmiilones were called Galli, becaufe they wore
Gallic armour. They were $\\o mmed Secutores. This
kind of gladiators was fuppreffed by Caligula. See
Gladiators, Retiari, &c.
MYROBALANS, a kind of medicinal fruit
brought from the Indies, of which there are five kinds,
i. The citrine, of a yellowiih red colour, hard, oblong,
and the fize of an olive. 2. The black, or Indian my-
robalan, of the bignefs of an acorn, wrinkled, .and
without a Hone. 3. Chebulic myrobalans, which are
of the fize of a date, pointed at the end, and of a yel-
lowilh brown. 4.. Emblic, which are round, rough,
the fize of a gall, and of a dark brown. 5. Balleric,
which are hard, round, of the fize of an ordinary
prune, lefs angular than the reft, and yellow. They
are alb llightly purgative and aftriugent. The word
comes from the Greek “ ointment,” and
“ acorn,” as being in the form of acorns, and ufed in
medicine.
MYRON, an excellent Grecian llatuary, flourilhed
442 B. C. The cow he reprefented in brafs was an
admirable piece of workmanlhip, and was the occa-
fion of many fine epigrams in Greek.
MYROXYEON, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the decandna clafs of
plants. The calyx is campanulated ; the fuperior pe¬
tal larger than the reft ; the germ is longer than the
corolla; the legumen monofpermous. There is but
one fpecies, the peruiferum, a native of Peru and the
warmer parts of America. It is this ihrub that yields
the balfam of Peru, which is faid to be extra&ed from
it by codlion in water. This balfam, as brought to
us, is nearly of the confiftence of thin honey, of a.
reddiih brown colour, inclining to black, an agreeable
aromatic fmell, and a very hot biting tafte. Diftilled
with water, it yields a fmall quantity of a fragrant ef-
fential oil of a reddifti colour, and in a ftrong fire,
without addition, a yellowilh red oil. Balfam of Peru
is a very warm aromatic medicine, confiderably hotter
and more acrid than copaiva. Its principal effeds are
to warm the habit, to ftrengthen the nervous fyllem,
and attenuate vifeid humours. Hence its ufe in fome
kinds of afthmas, gonorrhoeas, dyfenteries, fuppreffions
of the uterine difeharges, and other diforders proceed¬
ing from a debility of the folids or a fluggilhnefs and
inadivity of the juices. It is alfo employed exter¬
nally, for cleanfing and healing wounds and ulcers,
and fometimes againft palfies and rheumatic pains.—
There is another fort of balfam of Peru of a white
colour.
M Y R [ 571 ] M Y R
Myn-h. colour, and confiderably more fragrant than the for*
rner. This is very rarely brought to us. It is faid to
be the produce of the fame plant which yields the
common or black balfam, and to exfude from incifions
made in the trunk, while the former is obtained by
boiling. There is alfo a third kind, commonly caked
the red or dry. This is fuppofed to obtain a different
flate from the white, merely in confequence of the
treatment to which it is fubje&ed after it is got from
the tree. It is almoft as fragrant as the balfam of Gi¬
lead, held in fo high efteem among the eaftern na¬
tions. It is very* rarelydn ufe in Britain,, and almoft
never to be met with in our fhops.
MYRRH, a gummy-refinous concrete juice, ob¬
tained from an oriental tree of which we have as yet
no certain account. It comes over to us in globes or
drops, of various colours and magnitudes. The beft
fort is femetvhat tranfparent, friable, in fome degree
unefuous to the touch, of an uniform brownifh or
reddi(B-yellow colour, often ftreaked internally with
whitifh femicircular or irregular veins ; of a moderate¬
ly ftrong, not difagreeable fmell; and a lightly pun¬
gent, very bitter talle, accompanied with aromatic
flavour, but not fufficient to prevent its being naufeous
to the palate. There are fometimes found among it
bard fhining pieces, of a pale yellowifh colour, refem-
bling gum-arahic, of no tafte or fmell: fometimes
mafles of bdellium, darker coloured, more opaque, in¬
ternally fofter than the myrrh, and differing from it
both in fmell and talle : fometimes.an tm&uoug gum¬
my refin, of a moderately ftrong fomewhat ungrateful
fmeil, and a bitterilh very durable ta ' e, obvioufly dif¬
ferent both from thofe of bdellium and myrrh : fome¬
times likewife, as Cartheufer obferves, hard compaft
dark-coloured tears, Id's unduous than myrrh, of an
often five-fmell, and a moil ungrateful bitternefs, fo as,
when kept for fome time in the mouth, to provoke
reaching, though fo refineus, that little of them is dif-
folved by the faliva. Great care is therefore requifite
in the choice of this drug.
We have, as already obferved, no certain informa¬
tion concerning the tree from which this fubftance
flows ; we are only told that the myrrh tree, or plant,
is a native of Abexim in Ethiopia, and is,named bedo-
ins by .the Arabs. It is affirmed by fomt1, tjjat the
myrrh we have at prefent is not equal in quality to
that of the ancients, and has not that exquifite Imeli
which all authors afcribe to the latter. Ihey aroma¬
tized their moft delicious wines with it ; and it was
prefented as a very valuable perfume to our Lord while
he lay in the manger (a). But to this it may be ea-
fily anfwered, that there is no difputing about perfumes
any more than about taftes and colours. Men are
equally changeable with regard to fmells,.of which*we
have linking examples in mufk and civet (b). The
ancients reckoned two kinds of myrrh: the one li-
4 C 2 quid.
Myrrh.
(a) It was this gum alfo which was mingled with the wine given him to drink at his paffion/ to deadea
bis pains, and product a ftupor (See Mark xv. 23.) The gall mentioned on the fame occaiion by St Mat¬
thew is probably the fame with myrrh ; for any thing bitter was ufually diftinguilhed by the name of gall.
The Hebrews were accuftomed to give thofe that were executed fome ftupefying draught. The difficulty
which arifes from the feeming difference betwixt the two evangelifts, by fome is folved by faying, that St
Matthew, writing in Syriac, made ufe of the word marra, which lignifies “ myrrh, bitternefs, or gallbut
the Greek tranflator has taken it for gall, and St Mark for myrrh. Others will have it, that our Saviour’s
drink was mingled with myrrh, as a llupefying drug; but fuppofe that the foldfers, out of w*anton cruelty
and inhumanity, infufed gall; which was the nafcn, fay they, why, when he had tailed, he refufed to drink.
(fe) In the 'Journalde Pbyjique, &c Suppl. top), xiii. 1778, we find fome remarks on myrrh, made by Mr
Bruce while in Abyffinia, of which the following is a ftatement: The fame remarks have been fince publilhed
in the Appendix to his Travels. The ancients, and particularly Diofcorides, who fpe^k of myrrh, feem ne¬
ver to have feen it; or at leaft that which they have feen and defcribed is altogether unknown to modem
phyficians and naturalifts. The Arabians, however, who form the intermediate link in the chain between
the Greek phyficians and thofe of our days, among whom this fubflance grew, and from whom it received its
name, afford an inconteftable proof that the myrrh with which we are acquainted is in no refpedt aiflerent
Trom that of the ancients, being produced in the fame countries from which the Greeks formerly procured
theirs; that is, on the eaftern ffiores of Arabia Felix ; on the coafts of the Indian ocean ; and on that part of
Lower Abyffinia which lies to the fouth-eaft of the Red-fea, nearly between the 12th and 13th degrees of
north latitude, bounded on the weft by a meridian running through the illand of Maffovia, and on the call by
one which paffes through Cape Guardfey in the ftraits of Babel-mandel. This region the Greeks called
Troglodytrias and mull be diftinguilhed from the country of the ft roglodites, a nation different in every re-
fpeft, and inhabiting the forefts between Abyffinia and Nubia. The Abyffinian myrrh was always more va¬
lued than that of Arabia ; and this preference it Hill retains to the prefent day. That part of Abyffinia being
partly overflowed with water, and partly defert and over-run by a barbarous nation from the foiith, the Ara¬
bians have very little intercourfe with it except by means of fome Mahometan merchants, whofe delperate ad¬
ventures, undertaken on chance, fometimes curli out well, but oftener prove very unfortunate. The illand of
Malfova is the common medium of expor tation for the Troglodite myrrh ; but fo little is brought from it in
comparifon with what is fent from Arabia to Grand Cairo, that this is certainly the only reafon which can be
affigned for the inferiority of our myrrh to that of the ancients, who received it from Abyffinia. Although
thefe barbarians employ the gum, leaves, and bark of this tree in many difeafes to which they are fubjedt, as
it is the moft common tree in the country, they neverthelefs cut it down and burn it fordomeftic purpofes;
■and as they never ^lant new trees t® replace thofe which they have cut down, it is probable that in a few years
M Y R [ 572 ] M Y R
Myrrh, quid, which they called JlaSe or Jlarli; the other
> was folid, and went by the name of troglodite myrrh.
The ftafte was procured by incifion, and was recei¬
ved in vefiels very clofely (hut. Large pieces fometimes
prefent externally, or contain a kind of oily juice to
which likewife the moderns give the name of Stade.
the true Troglodite myrrh will be entirely loft; and the erroneous defcriptions of the ancient Greeks will
lead pofterity, as it has done us, to form many miftaken conjedures concerning the nature of the myrrh of the
ancients.
Though the Troglodite myrrh was fuperior to every fpecies of Arabian myrrh, the Greeks plainly per¬
ceived that it was not all of the fame quality. Pliny and Theophraftus affirm, that this difference was owing
to the trees, fome of which were wild, and others meliorated by culture: but this is a mere conje&ure ; for the
truth is that none of them are cultivated. The°quality of the drug formerly depended, and muft ftill depend,
on the age and foundnefs of the tree, on the way of making the incifion, and on the feafon of the year, and
the temperature of the air when the myrrh is gathered. To have the firft and moft perfed kind of myrrh,
the natives feled a young vigorous tree, free from mofs or any other plant adhering to the bark, and make
a deep incifion with a hatchet above the firft large branches. What runs from this wound the firft year, ia
myrrh of the firft growth, and is never plentiful. This operation is performed fome time after the rains have
ceafed* that is from April to June; and the myrrh is produced in July and Auguft. At each return of the
feafon, the ftp continues to run in the courfe to which it has been accuftomed ; but the tropical rains, which
are very violent, and which laft for fix months, convey fo much filth and water into the incifion, that by the
fecond year the tree begins to rot at that place ; fo that the myrrh is of a fecondary quality, and at Cairo does
not bring fo great a price by a third as the myrrh of the firft year. That which iffues from incifions near the
roots and in the trunks of old trees is of the fecond growth and quality, and fometimes worfe ; but it is rec¬
koned good myrrh in the ihops of Italy everywhere except Venice. It is of a redblackiffi colour, dirty, folid,
and heavy. It lofes very little of its weight by being long kept, and can fcarcely be diftinguifhed from that of
Arabia Felix. The third and worft kind is that which flows from old incifions formerly made in old treesj, .
or which not having been at firft obferved, has remained a whole year upon the tree. It is black, heavy, and
of an earthy colour : it has little fmell and bitternefs, and is probably the caucalis of the ancients.
Myrrh .newly gathered has always a ftrong fmtll of rancid oil; and when put into water, globules of an
oily fubftance are detached from it, which rife and fwim on the furface. This oilinefs does not arife from the
myrrh, but from being put by the natives into goats fkins, which they anointed with butter to make them
pliant. It is kept in thefe fkins, and thus carried to market: fo that inftead of being a fault, as fome fuppofe,
it is a proof that the myrrh is newly gathered ; which is the beft property that myrrh of the firft kind can have.
Befides, this oily covering muft have retained the volatile particles of the frelh myrrh, which efcape in fuch.
abundance as frequently to'occafion a confiderable diminution in the weight.
(c) Pliny fpeaks of the ftarti as a recent or liquid myrrh : and Diofcorides, chap. 67. fays nearly the fame
thing. Mr Bruce is of opinion (but w^e think he is miftaken), that the ancient Greeks and Romans, who
lay at fo great a diftance, could never have it in that ftate ; becaufe he wras affured by the natives, that it hard¬
ened on the tree as foon as it was expofed to the air; and becaufe, though he was near the place where it
grows, he never faw it fofter than it is commonly found. Diofcorides mentions likewife a fpecies of myrrh,
which, he fays, is green, and has the confiftence of pafte. Serapio and the Arabians affirm, that ftarti was
a preparation of myrrh diffolved in water : hence Mr Bruce conjectures, that this green unknown fpecies was
likewife a compofition of myrrh and fome other ingredient; and by no means a'kmd of Abyffinian myrrh which
they could never fee either green or foft. The fame author luppofes, that apocalbafum, or gum of Saffa and
myrrh, are one and the fame fubftance ; and he alleges, that Arabic myrrh may be, diftinguifhed from myrrh of
Abyflinia in the following manner: A handful of the very fmall pieces which are found at the bottom of the
packet containing the myrrh, is thrown into a bafon wuth a fufficient quantity of warm water to cover them..
Here the myrrh remains for fome time without any perceptible change, becaufe it diffolves flowly; whereas
the gum fwells to five times its original fize, and appears like fo many white particles ^mong the myrrh. But
nothing can be inferred from this diftin&ion. Does the Arabian myrrh diffolve, and that of Abyffinia fwelli
Ip that cafe the Arabian myrrh would aft like pure gum Arabic, or acacia gum, and that of Abyffinia like
gum tragacanth. To us it appears, that Mr Bruce, of whole zeal and labours in other refpefts we entertain
a high opinion, has not performed his experiments with fufficient care ; or [if there was no miftake in them,
we muft be allowed to think, that the fuppofed myrrhs which he employed were nothing but a mixture oft
Arabian gum acacia, and gum of Baffora, or Egyptian tragacanth. We are more inclined to be of this opi¬
nion, when he fays that the branches, leaves, and bark of the myrrh tree were brought to him by naked
favages from the country of the Troglodites ; and i'll at he found that the leaves and bark bore a great refem-
blance to the acacia vera. Among thefe leaves he obferved fome ftraight prickles, about two inches in length.
He likewife mentions, that he faw a faffa tree which was a native of the myrrh country, and covered with,
beautiful crimfon-coloured flowers. We know that the Ihxub which produces the gum tragacanth is prickly*
and has flowers fomewhnt of a purple colouj\
To prevent this juice from hardening, or at leaft in a Myrrh.
very fmall degree, it is fufficient to exclude it from ' v—“
the contaft of the air immediately aft* its iffuin^from
the tree ; and by thefe means its aromatic nature will
be much better preferved (c).
The medical effefts of this aromatic bitter are to
warm
M Y R [ 573 J M Y R
warm and flrengthen the vifcera: it frequently occa-
fions a mild diaphorefis, and promotes the fluid fecre-
tions in general. Hence it proves ferviceable in lan¬
guid cafes, difeafes arifing from a Ample inaflthlty,
thofe female diforders which proceed from a cold, mu¬
cous, fluggifti indifpofltion of tfre humours, fuppref-
, fions of the uterine difcharges, cache&ic diforders, and
where the lungs and thorax are oppreffed by vifcid
phlegm. Myrrh is likewife fuppjfed in a peculiar
manner to reflft putrefadlion in all parts of the body;
and in this light ftands recommended in malignant,
putrid, and peftilential fevers, and in the fmall-pox ;
in which laft it is faid to accelerate the eruption.
The prefent practice does not feem to expeft any
peculiar virtue from myrrh ; and it is now perhaps lefs
employed than formerly. Some late writers, however,
and particularly Dr Simmons, in his treatife on Con-
fumptions, have beftowed very high encomiums on it,
even in cafes of tuberculous phthifls; and although it
can by no means be reprefented as a remedy much to
be depended on, yet there is reafon to believe that it
has been ferviceable in feme cafes.
Rectified fpirit extrafts the Ane aromatic flavour and
bitternefs of this drug, and does not elevate any thing
of either in evaporation : the gummy fubftance left by
this menftruum has a difagreeable tafte, with fcarcely
any of the peculiar flavour of the myrrh : this part
diflblves in water, except fome impurities which re¬
main. In diftillation with water, a confiderable quan¬
tity of a ponderous effential oil arifes, refembling in
flavour the original drug. Myrrh is the bafls of an
officinal tinfture. It enters the pilulse ex aloe et myr-
rha7 the pilulae e gummi, and pilulse ftomachicse, and
fome other formulae. But for obtaining its full effefts,
it muff be given in dofes of half a dram or upwards: and
it is thought to be advantageoufly united with a pro¬
portion of nitre, cream of tartar, or fome other refri¬
gerant fait.
MYRRHINE, or Murrine. See Murrine.
MYRSINE, in botany: A genus of the monogy*
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 18th
order, Bicornes. The corolla is femiquinquefld and
connivent; the germen Ailing the corolla.; the berry
quinqutlocular and pentafpermous.
MYRTIFORM, in anatomy, an appellation given
to feveral parts, from their refembling myrtle-berries.
MYRTIS, a Greek woman who diftinguiflied her-
felf by her poetical talents. She flouriflied about.500
years before the Chriftian era, and inftru&ed the cele¬
brated Corinna in the, feveral rules of verflfleation.
Pindar himfelf, as fome report, was alfo one of her
pupils.
MYRTLE, in botany. See Myrtus.
MYRTOUM mare, a part of the iEgean fea, ly¬
ing between Eubcea, Peloponnefus,. and Attica. It
receives this name from Myrto a woman, or from
Myrtos a fmall tfland in the neighbourhood, or from
Myrtilus the fon of Mercury who was drowned there,
&c.
MYRTUS (anc. geog.), a'fmall ifland near Cary-
ftus in Eubcea, which gave name to the Mare Myi>
lounn Others, according to Paufanias, derive the ap¬
pellation from. Myrto, the name of a woman. Strabo
extends this fea between Crete, Argia, and, Attica.
Paufanias beginning it at Euboea, joins it at Helena,
a defart ifland, with the iEgean fea. Ptolemy carries
it to the coaft of Caria. Pliny fays, that the Cyclades
and Sporades are bounded on the weft by the Myrtoan
coaft of Attica.
Myrtus, in botany, the Myrtle: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
19th order, Hefperidex. The calyx is quinquefld, fu-
perior ; there are five petals ; the berry is difpermous
or trifpermous. There are 14, fpecies, of which the
moft remarkable are,
1. The communis, or common myrtle-tree, rifes with
a fhrubby, upright, firm Item, branching numeroufly
all around into a clofe full head, rifing eight or tea
feet high ; very clofely garnifhed with oval-lanceolate,
entire, moftly oppofite leaves, from half an inch to an
inch and a half long; and one broad, on fiiort foot-
ftalks ; and numerous, i tall, pale flowers from the ax-
illas, fingly on each footftalk, having diphyllbus invo-
lucrumg ; each flower fucceeded by a fmall, oval, dark-
purple berry. The moft material vai ieties are, broad¬
leaved Roman myrtle, with oval, flrining, green leaves,
an inch and an half long, and one broad; and which
is remarkably floriferous. Gold-ftriped broad leaved
Roman myrtle. Broad leaved Dutch myrtle, wit/r
fpear-ftraped, flrarp-pointed, dark-green leaves, an inch
long, and about three quarters of one broad. Double-
flowered Dutch myrtle. Broad-leaved Jews myrtle,
having the leaves placed by threes at each joint; by
which particular circumftance this fpecies is in univer-
fal eftimation among the Jews in their religious cerop
monies, particularly in decorating their tabernacles ;
and for which purpofe many gardeners about London
cultivate this variety with particular cafe, to fell to the
above people, who are often obliged to purchafe it at
the rate of fixpence.or a ftrilling. for a Imall branch :
for the true fort, having the leaves exactly by threes,
is very fcarce, and is a curiofity; but [by care in its
propagation, taking only the perfectly ternate-leaved
{hoots for cuttings, it may be increafed fait enough ;
and is worth the attention of the curious, and parti¬
cularly thofe who raife myrtles for the London mar¬
kets. Orange-leaved Spaniflr myrtle, with oval fpear-
Ihaped leaves, an inch and a half'long or more, and
one broad, in clutters round the branches, and refemble-
the ftiape and colour of orange-tree leaves. Qoid-
ftriped leaved orange myrtle. Common upright Ita¬
lian myrtle, vrith its branches and leaves growing more
eredt, the leaves oval, lanceolate-ftiaped, acute-pointed,
and near an inch long and a half one broad. Silver-
ftiiped upright Italian myrtle. White-berried upright
Italian myrtle. Portugal acute-leaved myrtle, with
fpear-fhaped, oval, acute-pointed leaves, about an inch,
long. Box-leaved myrtle, with weak branches, fmall,,
oval, obtufe, lucid-green, clofely-placed leaves. Stri¬
ped box-leaved myrtle. Rofemary-leaved myrtle, hath,
ereft branches, fmall, narrow, lanceolate, acute point-,
ed, Alining, green, very fragrant leaves. Silyer-itriped
rofemary-leaved myrtle. Thyme-leaved myrtle, with,
very fmall clofely-placed leaves. Nutmeg-myrtle, with,'
ereft branches and leaves ; the leaves .oval, acute-point¬
ed, and finely Rented like a nutmeg. Broad-leaved
nutmeg-myrtle. Silver-ftriped leaved ditto. Criftated.
or cock’s-comb- myrtle, frequently called lird's-nejl
myrtle^,.
M Y R r 574 ] MY 11
Myrtn*. myrtle, hath narrow, fharp-pointed leaves, crlHated at
intervals. Thefe are all beautiful ever-green fhrubs of
exceeding fragrance; exotics originally of thefouthern
parts of Europe, and of Alla and Africa, and confe-
quently in this country require (belter of a green houfe
in winter : all of which, though rather of the fmall-
leaved kind, have their foliage cloftly placed, and re-
Tnain all the year, and are very floriferous in fummer j
and when there is a collefl'on of the diffaent forts,
they afford an agreeable fource of variety with each
other. They therefore claim univerfal efleem as prin¬
cipal green houfe plants, efpeeially as they are all fo
eafily raifed from cuttings, and of .fuch eafy culture,
as to be attainable in every garden where there is any
fort of green-houfe, or garden-frames furnifhed with
gltiles for protefting them in winter from froft : but
•fome of the, broad-leaved forts are fo hardy as to fuc-
eeed in the full ground, agauift a fouth wall and other
warm expofures, all the year, by only allowing thena
•(belter of mats occafionally in fevere frofty weather:
fo that a few of thefe forts may alfo be exhibited in a
warm fituation in the fhnibbery : obferving, however,
all the forts are principally to be confidered as green-
houfe plants, and a due portion of them muft always
remain in pots to move td that department in winter.
j>]ate 2. The pimenta, pimento, Jamaica pepper, or all
cccxxxvi. fpice tree, grows above 30 feet in height and two in
circumference; the branches near the top are much
divided and thickly befet with leaves, which by their
continual verdure always gives the tree a beautiful ap¬
pearance ; the bark is very fmooth externally, and of
a grey colour ; the leaves vary in drape and in fize,
but are commonly about four inches long, veined,
pointed, elliptical, and of a deep drining green colour;
the flowers are produced in bunches or panicles, and
(land upon fubdividing or trichotomous ftalks, which
mfually terminate the branches; the calyx is cut into
four roundifh fegments; the petals are alfo four, white,
fmall, reflex, oval, and placed oppofite to each other
between the fegments of the calyx ; the filaments are
numerous, longer than the petals, fpreading, of a
gretniflr white colour, and rife from the calyx and up¬
per part of the germen; the antheras are roundifh,
iind of a pale yellow colour; the ftyle is fmooth,
fimple, and ere£; the ftigma is obtufe ; the germen
• becomes a round fucculent berry, containing two kid-
ney-fhaped flattiih feeds. This tree is a native of New
Spain and the Weft; India iflands. In Jamaica it
grows very plentifully ; and in June, July, and Au-
guft, puts forth its flowers, which, with every part of
the tree, breathes an aromatic fragrance. The berries
■when ripe are of a dark purple colour, and full of a
fweet pulp, which the birds devour greedily, and mu¬
ting the feeds, afterwards propagate thefe trees in all
parts of the woods. It is thought that the feeds'paf-
fing through them, in this manner, undergo fqme fer¬
mentation, which fits them better for vegetating than
thofe gathered immediately from the tree.
1 he pimento is a mod beautiful odoriferous ever¬
green, and exhibits a fine variety in the (love at all
(eafons. It was firlt introduced and cultivated in tin’s
country by Mr Philip Miller in 1739. With refpeft
to flowering, all the varieties of the myrtus cmnniunis
flower here in July and Auguft, moft of which are
very floriferous ; the broad-leaved Roman kind in par¬
ticular is often covered with flowers, which in fome of
the forts are fucceeded here by benies ripening in
winter. The pimento alfo flowers in the ftove with
great beauty and luxuriance. The flowers of moft of
the forts are fmall, but numerous ; and are all formed
each of five oval petals and many (lamina. As all
thefe plants require protection in this country, they
muft be kept always in pots, for moving, to the pro¬
per places of (belter, according to their nature ; the
myrtus communis and varieties to the green-houfe in
winter, the pimento and other delicate kinds to the
ftove. to remain all the year; therefore let all the forts
be potted in light rich earth ; and as they advance in
-growth, (hilt them into larger pots, managing the
mvrtles as other green-houfe (hrubs, and the ttove-
kin^s as other woody exotics of the ftove.
Properties, &c. The leaves and flowers of common
upright myrtle have an aftringent quality, and are ufed
for cleaufing the (kin, fixing the teeth when loofened
by the feuryy, and ftrengthening the fibres. From
the flowers and young tops is drawn a diftilled water
that is deterfive, afiringent, cofmetic, and ufed in
gargles. A decc&ion of the flowers and leaves is ap¬
plied in fomentations. The berries have a binding de-
terfive quality ; and the chemical oil obtained from
them is excellent for {he hair, and tiled in pomatums
and moil other external heautifiers of the face and (kin.
As an internal medicine, thefe berries have little or
merit.
In the Biftionnaire portatf d’Hi/toire Naturelle, a fad
is related, which, if true, tends to (how the flrongly
aftringent quality of myrtle “ Myrtle (fays hej is
likewife the bafe of a pommade called pommade de la
Qomtejfe, and well known on account of an extraordi¬
nary hiftoricat faft. One of thofe gay youths who
flutter about the toilets of the fair, happened one day
to be left alone in the ftorehoufe of the graces. With
eager curiofity he examined the perfumes, the fmel-
ling bottles, the perfumed powder, the eflences, and
the cofmetics. To give more of the vermilion and
greater pliancy to his lips, and to remove fome difa-
greeable eruptions, he lightly fpreads with his indif-
creet finger the fatal pommade, locks at himfelf in
the glafs, and contemplates his beauty with admira¬
tion. The lady enters; he wifhes to (peak, hut his
lips contra&ed, and he could only Hammer. The lady
looked at him with aftoniflrment; at length cafting
her eyes on the toilet, (he difeovered by the open pot
the caufe of the miftake, and enjoyed a hearty laugh
at the ex'pence of her admirer, whofe confufion announ¬
ced his indiferetion.”
Pimento berries are chiefly imported into Britain from
Jamaica ; whence the name 'Jamaica pepper. It is alfo
called all-fpice, from its tafte and flavour being fuppo-
fed to refemble thofe of many different fpices mixed
together. It is one of the ftaple articles of Jamaica ;
where the pimenta walks are upon a large fcale, fome
of them covering feveral acres of ground. When the
berries arrive at their full growth, but before they be¬
gin to ripen, they are picked from the branches, and
expofed to the fun for feveral days, till they are (uffi-
ciently dried ; this operation is to be condufted with
great care, obferving that on the firft and fecond day’s
expofure
MTS [ J75 ] M Y S
Myfia cxpofure they require to be .turned very often, and al¬
ii ways to be preferved from rain and the evening dews.
,y 1,re , After this procefs is completed, which is known by
the colour and rattling of the feeds in.the berries, they
are put ur in bags or hogfheads for the market. This
fpice, which was at firft brought over for dietetic ufes,
l| has been long employed in the drops as a fuccedaneum
to the more coftly oriental aromatics: it is moderately
warm, of an agreeable flavour, fomewhat refembling
that of a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs.
Diftilled with water it. yields an elegant eflential oil,
I fo ponderous as to fink in the water, in tafte mode¬
rately pungent, in fmell and flavour approaching to
oil of cloves, or rather a mixture of cloves and nut¬
megs. To redfifiefl fpirit it imparts, by maceration
or digeftion, the whole of its virtue : in dillillation it
j' gives over very little to this menflruum, nearly all its
afrive matter remaining concentrated in the infpiflated
extraft. Pimento can fcarcely be confidered as a me¬
dicine : it is, however, an agreeable aromatic, and on
this account is not unfrequently employed with diffe¬
rent drugs, requiring fuch a grateful adjundt. Both
the pharmacopoeias diredl an aqueous and fpirituous
diftillation to be made from thefe berries, and the
I Edinburgh college order alfo the oleum ejfentiale piperls
I jfama'icenfis.
M\SIA, a country of Alia Minor, generally di-
| vided into Major and Minor. Mylia Minor was bound-
IS ed on the north and weft by the Propontis and Bithy-
1 nia, and Phrygia on the fouthern and eaftern borders.
Myfia Major had iEolia on the fouth, jEgean on the
weft, and Phrygia on the north and eaft. Its chief
cities were-Cyzicum, Lampfacus, &c. The inhabi¬
tants were once very warlike ; but they greatly dege-
j nerated, and the words Myforum ultimus was emphati-
| cally ufed to fignify a perfon of no merit. The an-
’ cients generally hired them to attend their funerals as
mourners, becaufe they were naturally melancholy and
inclined to fhed tears. They were once governed by
I monarchs. They are fuppofed to be defcended from
the Myfians of Europe, a nation who inhabited that
part of Thrace which was fituated between Mount
Hasmus and the Danube.
MYSON, a native of Sparta, one of the feven wife
men of Greece. When Anacharfis confulted the ora-
!, de of Apollo, to know which was the wifeft man in
Greece, he received for anfwer, he who is now plough¬
ing his fields. This was Myfon.
MYSORE, or Mysorean dominions, a kingdom
of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, confifting of the follow¬
ing territories ufurped or fubdued by the late Hyder
j AH, and tranfmitted to his fon Tippoo Saib the pre-
fent fultan.
I. Myfore Proper, or Seringapatam (from its ca¬
pital), forming the independent ftate of a Hindoo-
rajah for near 200 years from its difmembermerit, as
a province of the Bejenagur empire, fell into the hands
ef Hyder All Khan about the year 1763, by cutting
p off the Dalaway, or regent ufurper of the govern-
■ . ment, and feizing the reins.of adminiftration.himfelf;
1 but without leaving even the lhadow of any authority
to a nominal rajah of his own creation, excepting in
the formularies of juftice or finance, and preferving
on one fide of the pagoda coin the impreffion of two
1 fwamies or. divinities of the Hindoos, while the other
was made to bear the initial letter of his proper name Myf >r<\
Hyder. The whole country, now again reduced in- *-—v—-
to the form of a province dependent on the new My-
forean dominion of a muffuiman in the perfon of Tip¬
poo, is bounded on the weft by the Balagaut hills of
Koork, and thofe called Anemally, bordering the whole
coaft of Malabar; on the eaft it frontiers with the
Carnatic Payengaut and its dependencies along the Co¬
romandel coaft;; and, on the north, with the pergun-
nahs of Serah, Bangalore, and Colar, belonging to
the Carnatic-Balagaut-Bejapoury. in a longitudinal
line little ftiort of 200 Englifh miles. From this lat¬
ter boundary, in a form nearly triangular, it ftretches
240 miles towards the fouth, where it terminates in a
point at the extremity of Dindigul, near the pafs of
Goodalore, through the Anemally hills, on the con¬
fines of Travancore, and within 100 miles of Cape
Comorin. It partakes of the two great divifions of
country known in the Decan by the terms Balagaut
and Payengaut, or upper and lower region. The for¬
mer, comprehending the diftri&s immediately depen¬
dent on the capital, and^4 3 fubordinate forts, chiefly
on eminences, is but indifferently watered by the fe-
veral branches of the Caveri, at no great diftance from
its fource ; and mull therefore, as well as in confequence
of an elevated fituation, precluded from foreign com¬
merce, with fcarcely any internal induftry, be compa¬
ratively poor, as it is produdfive only of the fmaller
grains of joary and bajary, or a fpecies of Indian corn,
with the different kinds of vetches common to India ;.
from all which, however, a nett revenue, in money
or kind, of feven lacks of boons or pagodas, being
about 27 lacks of rupees, is computed to he forth¬
coming to the ftate, after1 defraying the ordinary
charges of colledrion, which here, as in the reft, of
Hindoftan,' confift chiefly of an eftablifhment of vil¬
lage peons or militia, reckoned 49,000 in number,
for the whoW province of Myfore, fuppofed to con¬
tain 15,400 fquare geographic miles. The latter, or
Payengaut divifion, making fearcely a third part of
this extenfive area, is better known to us under the
name of Coimbatore, including the diilridts of Caroor,
Darampour, and Namcul, on both fides of the Ca¬
ver!, with the valley of Dindigul on the fouth, and
the great pafs of Palligauteherry towards Malabar on
the weft : it is extremely fertile and well cultivated ;
therefore, in proportion to its extent, more produttive
of revenue than the Balagaut territory, being efti-
mated nett at 19 lacks of rupees. The rajahs of
Koork, and other Pallygars among the Gauts, from
Bidenore fouth to Dindigul, occupy independently a
confiderable traft of country within the general de-
feription of Tippoo’s dominions : but which being
inacceflible to regular troops by hills or impervious -
woods, the Myforean power hath never been able to
conquer, further than to facilitate the catching of a •
few elephants yearly, by means of the natives.
2. Bedenere, or Ikeri, now Ijlydernagur, on the
diflblution of the Canarine empirey of which it was
a part, became an independent flate under its Naicks
of the race of Yencataputty, after which it fell under
the divided female government of different rannies or
queens, and fo continued until conquered wholly by
Hyder between the years 1763-5. This country is
alfo divided into alagaut and Payengaut; the latter1
7; ftretching
M Y S [ 576 ] MY S
My fore, fl retching 140 miles along the fea-coa!l from Declah, half of rupees, allowing an eftabliihmenf of 117,000 Myf
",r—v or the river Cahgrecora, being the northern frontier village peons to enforce the colleftions, and maintain' 
of Malabar, north to Honawar or Onore, on the con- internal peace
fines of Soonda, in different breadths of plain terri- 6. Petty ftates of Hindoo rajahs, fituated on the
tory, from 40 to $0 miles, but which may in all form weft and north of the Hendery and Tumbhudra ri-
an area of 3200 fquare miles, ftill retaining the an- vers, to the confines of Goa, and the Merhatta terri-
cient name of Canar1, and including the ports of tories of Toorgul, Raibaug, and Meritch, forming
Mangalore, Barcelore, Onore, &c. The former or ele- the jageer of Perferam Bow beyond the fouthern
vated divifion beyond the Supramanny Gauts, and im- branch of the Kiftnah. Some of thefe rajahfhips had
mediately dependent on the capital Bedenore, Hanam- been entirely conquered by the Mogul; but the moft
pour, &c. is of great indefinite extent inland, on both confiderahle of them never were fubdued by any Muf-
fides of the Tumbhudra ; perhaps twice more confi- fulman power until Hyder’s conqueft of them between
derable in fize, though not proportionably fo in value, the years 1774-7, though different diftritls from each
to the maritime border. Both divifions, however, al- may have been difmembered for a while by the Mogul
lowing for a revenue eftablifhment of about 22,000 deputies of the Carnatic-Balagaut Bejapoory, and
village peons, are affeffed for feven lacks of Ikeri pa- therefore annexed in the accounts of the revenue of
godas, which, at four rupees each, make a clear in- that circar. The frontier forts, and dependencies, of
come to the exchequer of 28 lacks of rupees. Gooiunder-gur, Darwar, Badamy, &c. near the fouth-
3. Soonda, in circumftances of hiftory or final con- ern branch of the Kiftnah towards the Merhattah do*
queft, might be placed under the preceding head ; as minion, compofed at one time the jageer of Ragenaut
alfo from a fimilarity in its geographical defeription, Row, and have frequently changed their mafters. They
■with only the difference of b^ing on a much fmaller fell ultimately to Tippoo at the peace of 1784, but
fcale. The Payengaut, from the diftridf of Onore he was forced to pay chout for them to the Pefhwa.
to the frontiers of Goa, along a fea-coaft of 60 miles, On the whole, all thefe ftates, of great indefinite ex-
cannot comprehend above 1100 fquare miles of terri- tent and extremely poor, yield only a precarious re*
tory, in which the port of Carwar may be confidered venue of 16 lacks of rupees to the Myforean.
the capital ; while a much larger extent muft be al- 7. Carnatic Balagaut Bejapoory, confifting, under
lowed for that portion of the diftrift beyond the Gauts the Mogul, of one circar of the fame name, and of
to the eaftward. The whole revenue, however, of which the capital was Serah. It comprehended 51
both divifions, does not exceed two lacks of pagodas, pergunnahs, of which Bangalore, Colar, &c. on the
or eight lacks of rupees. fouth, were feized by Hyder, immediately when he
4. Malabar. The country under this defeription, poffeffed himfedf of Myfore; but Anantpour, Pene-
and conquered by Hyder in 1765-6, exclufive of Koork, konda, &c. on the north, with the reft of the Met¬
is altogether Payengaut; ftretching along the ftiore hattah ftate of Goaty, did not fall into his hands un-
from Declah fouth to Cochin about 2co miles, and til the year 1776, when he overcame and made pri-
compreh.ending, in an area of perhaps 6000 fquare foner the proprietor Morarow, who had rendered fig-
miles, the Samery’s territory of Calicut, with the nal fervice to the Englifli in the preceding Myforean
petty ftates of Cartinad, Cotiotie, Cherica, or Ca- war. The whole circar was rated at a jumma kaumil,
nanore, on the north, and the tributary kingdom of or total grofsrevenue on the king’sbooks, of 43916,396
Cochin on the fouth the whole rated at a revenue rupees : but the accuracy of this valuation is much to
of five lacks of pagodas, or about 19 lacks of rupees, be doubted ; becaufe it does not appear from the re-
after allowing for the maintenance of 18,000 village gifters of the foubah of Bejapour that the Mogul go-
peons. vernment ever afeertained the dehatee or village collec-
5. Barah Mhal, or twelve pergunnahs, was one of tions of either of the Carnatics, or went into greater
the earlieft conquered annexations of Hyder to the detail than to fix the ftandard affeffment of the diffe-
Myforean dominion, though in the war of 1768 it was rent pergunnahs ; and becaufe the amount thus ftated
over-run and for awhile in poffeffion of the company’s feems too large a receipt from a country naturally fo
troops. The whole circar or diftrift of Jugdeo, com- poor and deftitute ef commerce, probably in all its di-
pofed of heights and valleys on the confines of the menfions not exceeding 10,000 fquare miles, and which
Balagaut and Payengaut Carnatics, being one of the was fo liable to internal difturbances or foreign inva-
feven dependencies of Ginjee fubjetfed to the Mogul fion, that notwithftanding the number of ftrong holds
in 1698, was then fubdivided into 17 pergunnahs, to be found in it, every town required and has its own
and affeffed for a grofs revenue of 1,757,717 rupees, particular fortification. However this may be, the
Of thefe fubdivifions, Amboor, Sautgur, &c. remain revenue a&ually forthcoming to Hyder in 1778, after
to the Payengaut: the reft in the hands of Tippoo, defraying charges of colle&ion and an eftabliftiment of
may comprehend, exclufivc of the poligarry of Bhili about 30,000 village peons, was only 3,205,206 ru-
Naick, about 1800 fquare miles; but the nett reve- pees.
nue of the fame territory, after defraying the ordi- 8. Carnatic-Balagant-Hydrabady, comprehending
nary expences of colleftion, does not exceed five lacks the five circars of Sidhout, Kahmam, Ganjecottah,
of rupees at prefent. Gooty, and Gorrumkonda, which were fubdivided
Thefe five provinces of the Myforean empire, with into 66 pergunnahs, rated by the Moguls kaumils
the. diftrifts of Bangalore, Colar, &c. of the Car- 41707,306 rupees: but from this amount is to be de-
natic-Balagaut Bejapoory, formed the whole of Hy dufted the aggregate valuation of the pergunnahs ot
der’s dominion in the war 1768 ; and were calculated Chittoor, &c. now anneJced to the Payengaut, toge-
;lhen to yield in all a nett income of 119 lacks and an ther with the affeffment of the diamond-mines of Gan-
8 jecottah,
M Y S r 577 ] M Y S
My fore, jecottali, which are no longer produ&ive, linking in wards the frontiers of Goa, of Bari, and the Merhat- My fore.
' * ' all an objeft of two lacks of rupees. The v/hole tabs ; then,- one of its Tides, along the Balagaut or y“—■"*
country thus defcribed, bounded by the circars of A- mountainous ridge of the Malabar coaft, will be found
doni and Nundial on the north towards the Kiftnah, to dretch in a horizontal diftance 500 miles foutherly,
the Guntour circar and Carnatic Payengaut on the to the extreme point and pafs of Goodalore in that quar-
eaft, with that of the Balagaut Bejapoury on the fouth ter ; and its other fide from thence northerly, touch-
and weft, may in fquare dimenfions be nearly equal to lag the frontiers of the Carnatic Payengaut, 470 miles
this laft mentioned divifion of territory of about 10,000 in a parallel direftion to the Coromandel coaft, until
fquare miles It formed the inheritance for four ge- it reaches the further corner of the circar of Kahmam
nerations of the Patan nabobs of Cuddapah, defcend- near the firft mentioned point at the pagoda of Tri¬
ed from a collateral branch of the Sanore family, until panti. Beyond thefe three lines, the plains bordering
Gooty and Gorrumkonda were taken by the Merhat- the fhores of Canara and Malabar are the only ex-
tahs in 1758, and then ultimately, with the remainder clufive territory of confiderable extent belonging to
of Helim Khan’s poffeffion, by Hyder in 1776-9. Tippoo; and to balance it in fome degree, within the
After deducting the amount of a few jageers and fome area of the triangle defcribed, it is to be remembered
charitable lands ftill left to the Mahomedans of this are fituated the independent or environed ftates of Sa-
diftridt, with the expence of an eftabliftiment at leaft nore, Koork, &c. if not alfo a part of Karnoo) and
of 23,000 village peons, the nett revenue yof the Raichore. As the whole face of the country is known
whole province may be eftimated at 29 lacks of ru- to be rugged, in many parts defolatc, badly watered,
pees. . and generally rifing abruptly near half a mile of per-
9. Adoni, or circar of Imtiazghur on both Tides of pendicular height above the level of the fea, it cannot
the Hendery river, fouth of the Tumbhudra or Tun- be fuppofed that the foil is equally fertile with the
gabudra river, as far as and inclufive of Bellary, toge- lower lands of Hindoftsn. In faft, though every ad-
ther with a fmall portion of the circar of Ghazipour vantage of induftry and population be allowed to a
or Nundial, difmembered from the nabobftiip of Kar- defpotic government, which cherifties a numerous pea-
nool, all fituated in the foubah of Bejapour, compre- fantry in exclufion of great intermediate landholders,
hend the whole of Tippoo’s conquefts and annexation yet the produce of the Balagaut altogether confifts
to the Myforean empire, acquired fince the death of merely of the neceflaries of life, and thefe of the
Hyder, and fubfequently to the treaty of Mangalore coarfeft kind; juft enough to fubfift the inhabitants,
in 1784. In extent and revenue, this acquifition may after making fufficient provifion in pafture for the ex-
be confidered of little account. The former cannot traordinary number of horfes and other cattle main-
exceed 5000 fquare miles, and the latter fcarcely fe- tained there for the military eftablifhment: while, in
ven lacks of rupees, reckoning the petty zemindary the Payengaut on the Malabar coaft, fome pepper,
of Bellary. But the fort of Adoni is of confiderable cardarnums, fandal wood, and furplos grain beyond
importance, as being of the kind (on an infulated internal confumption, conftitute the only commercial
rock) thought the ftrongeft in Hindoftan, without funds of natural growth within the whole circle of
excepting Dowlatabad or Gualior. It was e»er the the Myforean dominion. As to manufa&ures, except
favourite ambitious objedt of conqueft to Hyder, the thofe of Salem and Bellary; if any exift in the coun-
Merhattas and Nizam ; and preferved only through try, they are not confiderable enough to be known
the cautious policy of its proprietor, Bafialut Jung., abroad.
When it came by inheritance into the weak inexpe- From the foregoing view of the nature, produce,
rienced hands of his fon Mohabet Jung, it fell by and revenues of the Myforean empire, it may be con-
treachery under the dominion of Tippoo ; together eluded that we could have no lucrative profpedfs in
with all itsierritorial dependencies, except the circar of. our late contefts with Tippoo Sultan ; but were com-
Raichore, between the Kiftnah and Tumbhudra. pelled, for the prefervation of our own poffellions in
The extent of Tippoo’s dominion, according to that quarter, to undertake his redudrion as a reftlefs,
the lateft maps, has been computed at 80,000 fquare cruel, ambitious, and depredatory neighbour. This
geographic miles, or 92,666 Englifh. Thus confider- has accordingly been effected by the good condudt of
ing it a triangle, of wdiich the bafe runs nearly paral- Lord Cornwallis; who, in the iflue of the war, has
lei to and not far fouth of the Kiftnah, in a longitu- obliged him to cede half his dominions to the Com-
dinallineof 340 Englifti miles, about the 16th degree pany and its allies, adjacent to their refpedfive boun-
of north latitude, or from the pagoda of Tripanti in daries, and-fubjedl to their feledtion.'
the north-eaft angle to Kittoor in the north-weft, to-
MYSTERIES.
The gra-
idual intr
MudHon
RELIGION, in its original form, wasfimple and
intelligible. It was intended for the inftrudtion
and edification of all ranks of men ; and of confe-
i quence its doctrines were on a level with vulgar capa¬
cities. The Jewifii difpenfation was openly pra&ifed :
nothing was performed in fecret; every article was
plain, open, and acceffible. The divine Author of
Vol.XII. Part II.
the Chriftian ceconomy commanded his difciples t#
preaclr his fioftrine in themoft public manner: “What
ye have heard in fecret (fays he) preach openly ; and
what I have taught you in private teach ye publicly,
and proclaim it on the houfe-tops.” Such are the
charms of truth, and fuch the ebarafter of that reli¬
gion which came down from heaven, that they, as it
4 D were,
578 M Y S T I
Tfere, “ delight in the light, and lift up their voice
in the ftreets, and cry in the chief places of con-
courfe.”
But fuch is the depravity of the nature of man,
that the nobleft inftitutions degenerate in his hands.
Religion itfelf, originally pure, fimple, and amiable,
under his management has often been transformed in¬
to pollution, perplexity, and deformity. The mini-
fters of religion, whofe province it was to guard the
facred depofit, and to fecure it from foreign and fpu-
rious intermixtures, have generally been the firft in¬
novators, and the firft and moft induftrious agents in
corrupting its integrity and tarnifhing its beauty. A-
varice and ambition prompted that clafs of men to
deviate from the original plainnefs and fimplicity of
religious inftitutions, and to introduce articles, ritesj
and ufages, which might furnifti them with opportu¬
nities of gratifying thefe unhallowed and infatiable
paflions. Hence diftin&ions unknown to pure and
undefiled religion were fabricated, and that heavenly
inllitution, heretofore one, fimple, indivifible, was di¬
vided into two partitions : the one popular and public ;
the other dark, fecret, and myfierious. The latter
a of thefe we intend as the fubjeA of this article.
Etymology The Englifh word myjlery is derived from the Greek
and import ; and in its modern acceptation imports Come-
“f'*16 term’thing above human intelligence, fomtthinj awfully ob-
feure and enigmatical; anything artfully made difficult;
the fecret of any bufinefs or profeffion. The word is
often ufed by the founder of the Chriftian religion,
and more frequently by his apoftles, efpecially St Paul.
In thefe cafes, it generally fignifies thofe doftrines of
Chriftianity which the Jews, prior to the advent of the
Meffiah, either did not or could not underitand. The
Trinity in Unity, and the Unity in Trinity ; the in¬
carnation ©f the Son of God ; the union of two na¬
tures in one and the fame perfon, &c: we generally
call myjier'ies, becaufe they are infinitely above human
comprehenfion All thefe fignifications are out of the
©b'ecft of ftue^‘on at prefent Our intention in this art'cle is
this article. to ^ay before our readers the fulleft and faireft ac¬
count we have been able to colleift, of thofe
or fecret rites, of the pagan fuperftition, which were
carefully concealed from the knowledge of the vulgar,
and which are univerfally known under the denomina¬
tion of myjleries.
The word Muoifisv ;s evidently deduced from Mu.-wj;
but the origin of this laft term is not altogether fo ob¬
vious. The etymologies of it exhibited by the learned
are various; fome of them abfurd and inconfiftent,
others foolifh and futile. Inftead of fatiguing our
readers with a detail of thefe, which would be equally
pnintertaining and uninterefting, we (hall only pro¬
duce one, which to us appears to come neareft the
truth. The myfteries under confideration at prefentwere
certainly imported into Greece from the Eaft. In thofe
regians, then, we ought of courfe to look for the etymo-
logy of the word. Mi/lor, or mi/lur,in Hebrew, fignifies
“ any place or thing hidden or concealed.” As this
word implies a kind of definition of the nature of the
thing Intended, and as it is one of the excellencies of
original languages to apply vocables with this pro¬
priety, we find ourfelves ftrongly inclined to affign the
yvord mjjlur as the root of the term myjler.
: R I E s.
We have already obferved, that the avarice and am- 4
bition of the pagan priefthood probably gave birth t0 Motlves t*
the inftitution of the myfteries. To this obfervation ducaioi)” of
vve may now add, that the minifters of that fuperfti-the myftc-
tion might poffibly imagine, that fome articles of their ries.
ritual were too profound to be comprehended by the
vulgar : others, too facred to be be communicated to
a defeription of men whom the inftitutrons of civil fo-
ciety had placed in a fituation not only fubordinate
but even contemptible. It was imagined, that things
facred and venerable would have contrafted a taint
and pollution by an intercourfe with fordid and untu¬
tored fouls. Thefe appear to us the moft probable
motives for making that odious and pernicious diftinc-
tion between the popular religion and that contained
in the facred and myfterious ritual.
The learned Bifhop Warburton is pofitive, that the
myflcries of the Pagan religion were the invention of
legiflators f and other great perfonages, whom for-1 Divine
tune or their own merit had placed at the head oiL?S-
thofe civil focieties which were formed in the earlieftThe •> *
ages in different parts of the world. It is with re-thefisof
- lu&ance, and indeed with diffidence, that we prefume Waiburton,
to differ in our fentiments from fuch refpe&able au-’11 founded,
thority. Whatever hypothefis this prelate had once
adopted, fo extenfive was his reading, and fo exube¬
rant his intellectual refources, that he found little dif¬
ficulty in defending it by an appearance of plaufibi-
lity, if not of rational argumentation. The large
quotations he has adduced from Plato and Cicero, do
indeed prove that the fages and legiflators of antiqui¬
ty fometimes availed themfelves of the influence de¬
rived from the do&rines of the myfteries, and from the
authority they acquired by the opinion of their having
been initiated in them ; but that thofe men were the
inventors and fabricators of them, is a pofition for
which his quotation do not furniffi the moft flender
prefumption. At the fame time, we think it not alto¬
gether certain, that the do&rine of a divine Providence,
and a future ftate of rewards and punifhments, were
revealed in the myfteries with all the clearnefs and co¬
gency which is pretended by his Lordftiip.
But granting that the fabric was raifed by the hands
of fages and legiflators, we imagine it would be rather
difficult to difeover what emolument that defcription
of men could propofe to derive from the enterprife.—
The inftitution was evidently, and indeed confeffedly,
devifed to conceal from the million thofe very doc¬
trines and maxims, which, had they known and em¬
braced them, would have contributed moft effeftually
to difpofe them to fubmit to thofe wife regulations
which their governors and legiftators wiftied molt ar¬
dently to eftabliffi. Experience has taught, that no¬
thing has a more commanding influence on the minds
of the vulgar, than thofe very dogmas, which, accord¬
ing to the Bifhop, were communicated to the initi¬
ated. A convi&ion of the Unity of the Deity, of
his wifdom, power, goodnefs, omoiprefence, &c. the
fteady belief of the immortality of the human foul,
and of a future ftate of rewards and punifhments, have
in all ages, and in all countries, proved the firmeft
fupports of legal authority. The very fame do&rines,
in the dawn of Chriftianity, contributed of«all other
methods the moft effedually to tame and civilize the
i favage
579
6
My ft tries
t>f fclcufis
revealed
publicly in
Crete.
* Lib. 5.
Myfteries
the off.
fprinc!' of
Egy|tian
prieftcraft;
MYSTERIES.
favage (a) inhabitants of the northern regions of Eu- prehended by vulgar capacities. It is, we confefs,
rope. Suppofing thofe principles to have been incul- exceedingly probable, that after the myfteries were
cated by the myfteries, the moft prudent plan legifla- inftituted, and had acquired an exalted reputation
tors could have adopted, would have been to publifh in the world, legiflators, magiftrates, judges, and po-
them to all mankind. They ought to have fent forth tentates, joined in the impofture, with the fame views
apoftles to preach them to the favages whom they had and from the fame principles. Princes and legif- 8
undertaken to civilize. According to the learned lators, who found their advantage in overawing and adapted hf
prelate, they purfued the oppofite courfe, and deprived humbling the multitude, readily adopted a plan which ^ ators»
themfelves of thofe very arms by which they might they found fo artfully fabricated to'anfwer thefe very
have encountered and overthrown all the armies of purpofes. They had intereft enough with the facer-
fa vagifm. dotal (b) myftagogues, to induce them to allow them
Of all the legiflators of antiquity, the Cretan alone to participate in thofe venerable rites which had al-
was prudent enough to fee and adopt this rational ready eftablilhed the authority of that defcription of
plan. Diodorus fhe Sicilian informs us*, that the my- men in whofe hands they were depofited. The views
fteries of Eleufis, Samothracia, &c. which were elfe- of both parties were exactly congenial. The refpedf,
where buried in profound darknefs, were among the the admiration, and dependence of the million, were
Cretans taught publicly, and communicated to all the ultimate objects of their ambition refpe&ively.—
the world. iVlinos, however, was a fuccefsful legifla- Priefts and princes were a&uated by the very fame
tor; and his intercourfe with Jupiter Idneus extended fpirit. The combination was advantageous, and of
his influence and eftablilhed his authority. He was confequence harmonious. For thefe reafons we have
not under the neceffity of calling in the myfteries to taken the liberty of differing from his lordlhip of
his affiftance: on the contrary, it is highly probable Gloucefter with refpect to the perfons who firft in-
that the univerfal knowledge of the do&rines of the ftituted the fecret myfteries of the Pagan religion. 9
myfteries among his countrymen contributed in a Another writer, of confiderable reputation in the Hypothefn
conliderable degree to facilitate his labour, and enfure republic of letters, is of opinion, that the myfteries ^°*
his fuccefs. were entirely commemorative; that they were inftitu- 1
The divine Author of the Chriftian oeconomy? view- ted with a view to preferve the remembrance of he¬
ed in the light of a human legiflator, faw the proprie- roes and great men, who had been deified in confide-
ty of this procedure. Nothing was concealed in his ration of their martial exploits, ufeful inventions, pub-
inftitutions ; nothing was veiled with myftery, or bu- lie virtues, and efpecialfy in confequence of the bene-
ried in darknefs. The fuccefs was anfwerable to the fits by them conferred on their contemporaries.—
wifdom of the plan. The million flocked to the evan- According to him, the (c) myfteries of Mithras were
gelical ftandard : the gofpel was preached to the poor, eftablilhed for this very purpofe. It would be no dif-
to the illiterate and the vulgar ; and the meaneft of ficult matter to prove that the Perfian deity of that
mankind eagerly embraced its maxims. Wherever it name was the fun, and that his name and infignia jointly
prevailed, it produced civilization, morality, fobriety, afeertain the truth of this affertion. The fame writer
loyalty, and every other private and focial virtue.— extends this obfervation to the myfteries of the Egyp-
U/' n the fuppofition that the myfteries had contained tians, Phoenicians, Greeks. Hetrufcans; and in a word,
and inculcated the principles and praft.ices which the to all the inftitutions of that fpeejes throughout the
palate fuppofes they did, the civilizers of mankind, world. In oppofition to this fingularopinion, it maybe 10
legiflators, magiftrates, and princes, ought to have argued, we think with fome ftiow of reafon, that the
combined to make them public for the fake of their methodof preferving the memory of great and illuftrious
own tranquillity, and the more effedfual fupport of men generally adopted, was the eftablifhing feltivals,
their authority and influence. celebrating games, offering facrifices, finging hymns,
Upon the whole, we are inclined to believe that the' dances, &c. We can recoiled! no fecret myfteries infti-
myfteries were the offspring of Egyptian prieftcraft. tuted for that purpofe at leaft in their original intention.
They were inftituted with a view to aggrandife that If any ufage of the commemorative kind was admitted,
order of men, to extend their influence, and enlarge it was fuperinduced at fome period pofterior to the pri-
their revenues. To accomplilh thofe felfifh projects, mary inftitution At the fame time, upon the fuppofition
they applied every engine towards befotting the mul- that the orgia of Bacchus were the fame with thofe of
titude with fuperftition and enthufiafm. They taught the Egyptian Ofiris, artd that the myfteries of Ceres
them to believe, that themfelves were the diftinguifhed exhibited at Eleufis were copied from thofe of the
favourites of heaven ; and that celeftial doctrines had Egyptian Ills, and allowing that the former was.the
been revealed to them, too holy to be communicated fun, and the latter the moon ; it will be difficult to
to the profane rabble, and too fublime to be com- find out the human perfons whofe exploits, adventures,
4 D z inventions,
(a) The Germans, Ruffians, and Scandinavians, who were never thoroughly civilized till the gofpel was
preached among them.
(b) The myitagogues were the minifters who adted the chief part in celebrating the myfteries.
(c) Principio hoc ego quidem controverfia vacare, arbitror, myfteiia quae vocantur, ritus fuiffe idcirco infti-
tutos ne memoria petiret veterum Leneficiorum, inventorum, fatorum rerum geftarum quibus primi pepul ;rum
conditores, aut alii praeclari homines, decus nomen, et faimam, inter fuos fibi comparaverant. Neque haec cub
quam fententia mirabilis videri poterit. Cud. Syji. Intelletl. ed Mojhtmii, p. 329.
580 M Y S T E
invention*, See. were intended to be immortalized by
thofe inftitutions. Upon the whole, the myfteries
were performed in fecret; they were intended to be
pommunicated only to a few : of courfe, had they been
inflituted with a view to immortalize the memory of
' heroes and great men, the authors would have aided
the moft foolifh and ineonfiftent part imaginable.—
Inftead of tranfmitting the fame of their heroes with
eclat to pofterity, they would by this procedure have
configned it to eternal oblivion.
TI We mud then recur to our fird pofition. The my-
Our firft fteries were the offspring of bigotry and priedcraft;
pofition they originated in Egypt, the native land of idola-
fupported^ try. In that country the priedhood ruled predomi-
radcr of nant. The kings were ingrafted into their body be-
the priefts fore they could afeend the throne. They were pof-
r>£ Egypt feifed of a third part * of all the land of Egypt. The
i ^acer^ota^ fundfion was confined to one tribe, and was
’ ' ' tranfmitted unalienably from father to fon. All the
orientals, but more efpecially the Egyptians, delight¬
ed in myderious and allegorical do&rines. Every
maxim of morality, every tenet of theology, every
dogma of philofophy, was wrapt up in a veil of alle¬
gory and mydicifm. This propenfity, no doubt, con-
fpired with avarice and ambition to difpofe them to a
dark and myderibus fyllem of religion. Befides, the
^JPlutarct. Egyptians were a gloomy f race of men; they de¬
lighted in darknefs and folitude. Their facred rites
were generally celebrated with melancholy airs, weep¬
ing, and lamentation. This gloomy and unfocial bias
of mind mud have ftimulated them to a congenial
mode of worfhip. In Egypt then we are to fearch
for the origin of the myderies. Both the nature of
the inditution and the genius of the people confirm
this pofition ; and hidorians, both ancient and mo¬
dern, are agreed in admitting the certainty of the
faa.
>4 The Ofiris of Egypt, every body knows, was the
Z1’6 original Bacchus; *s the Ills of the fame country was
Egypt Ac t^le Ceres t^e Greeks. The rites of Ofiris were
Bacchus performed with loud fiirieks and lamentations when
ami Ceres he was put into the coffin ; and with the mod extra-
of Greece. vagant mirth, when he was in a manner raifed from
the dead, or fuppofed to be found again. Their hymns
were upon the whole always compofed in melancholy
affe&ing drains ; and confided of lamentations for the
lofs of Ofiris, the mydic flight of Bacchus, the wan-
t Plut. If. dering of Ifis, and the fufferings f of the gods. ’ The
ttOfir. Canaanites, who were a kindred tribe of the Miz-
raim or Egyptians, imitated them in their facred rites.
At Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, and afterwards at Tyre,
they ufed particularly mournful dirges for the death
+ Ezei. of Adonis or Tammuz f, who was the fame with
Cbap.%. aarfthe Egyptian Ofiris, i. e. the fun.
Bio- The Egyptians, then, naturally inclined to gloom
nyJ' I3 and fecrecy, inflitnted a mode of worihip congenial
Death of with their natural difpofitipn of mind. The recefs of
Ofiris and the fun towards the fouthern hemifphere, was the
-£'iCgS*ath f of Ofiris; the wanderings of Ifis in fearch of
+ Macrob. her hufhand and brother, allegorically imported the
Saturn.
, R I E S.
longings of the earth * for the return of the fru&ify- * Elut. TjT\
ing influences of the folar heat. et ^,r'
When that luminary returned towards the fummer
foldice, and grain, trees, fruits, herbs, and flowers
adorned the face of nature, another fellival was ce¬
lebrated of a very different complexion from that of
the former. In this feafon all Egypt was diffolved in
the moll extravagant mirth and jollity. During the
celebration of thofe feftivals, the priefts formed alle¬
gorical reprefentations of the fun and the earth (d).
They perfonified the one and the other, and allego¬
rized their motions, afpedls, relations, fympathies, ac-
ceffes, receffes, &c. into real adventures, peregrina¬
tions, fufferings, contefts, battles, victories, defeats,
and fo forth. Thefe, in procefs of time, were held
up to the vulgar as real occurrences; and thefe in a
few ages became the moft effential articles of the po¬
pular creed. From this fource were derived the con-
quefts of Dionyfus or Bacchus, fo beautifully exhi¬
bited by Nonnus in his Dionyfiacs ; the wanderings
of lo, wonderfully adorned by fEfchylus ; and the
labours of Hercules, afterwards ufurped by the Greeks. I+
Whether the Egyptians deified mortal men in the The Egyp*
earlieft ages has been much controverted. Jablon-nans dei-
Iki * has taken much pains to prove the negative, “ed depart-
, ... r, ,• l ed heroes.
DiodqrusJ allures us that they paid their monai»ens a * panti,
kind of divine adoration, even in their lifetime. Plu- Egypt.
tarch tells us plainly $ that fome were of opinion that \ Lib. i.
Ifis, Ofiris, Horns, Anubis, Typhon, were once mor-§ # <<Vr*
tal perfons, who were exalted into daemons after their
death. The Sicilian, in his hiftory of Ifis and Ofiris,
Pan, Hermes, &c. plainly reprefents them as human
perfonages; and informs us, that the Egyptians ima¬
gined, that after their deceafe they tranfmigrated into
particular ftars. From thefe authorities, we are in¬
clined to believe that the Egyptians, as well as the
other pagans, did adually deify perfons who had di'lin-
guilhed themfelves in their days of nature f y prowefs,
wifdom, ufeful arts, and inventions. This was a con- .
ftant pra&ice among the Greeks, who probably learn¬
ed it from the people in queftion. jj
The exploits of thofe heroes had been difguifed by Secrets re-
allegorical traditionsand hieroglyphical reprefentations. fpedhng
They had been magnified beyond all dimeulions, in or-1 jYn^.rrr
der to aftonilh and intimidate the vulgar. They had reva|e(j
been interlarded with the moft extravagant fables, in the mylte-
order to gratify their propenfity towards the mar- n«.
vellous. All thefe fecrets were developed in the my-
flcries. The catechumens (e) were informed of every
particular relating to the birth, the life, the exploits,
the adventures, the misfortunes, and deceafe of thofe
heroic perfonages, and when, and by what means,
they had attained to the high rank of divinities. At the
fame time we think it highly probable,that thofe demi¬
gods were reprefented in their ftate of exaltation and
heavenly fplendour. The magiciansof Egypt were abun¬
dantly qualified for exhibiting angels in machines. The
fouls of virtuous men, who had not been eminent
enough to merit the honour of deification, were (hown
in all the perfe&ion of Elyfian felicity ; and perhaps
(d) Ifis, among the Egyptians, fometimes fignified the moon, and fometimes the earth.
U) Catechumens were pupils who were learning the elements of any fcience.
j8i
MYSTERIES.
the fouls of tyrants, and of the children of (f) Ty-
phon, were fhown in Tartarus, fuffering all the ex¬
tremes of infernal punifhment From thefe exhibitions
the myftagogues might naturally enough take occalion
to read their pupils fuitable le&ures on the happy ten¬
dency ©f a virtuous conduit, and the dilhonour and
mifery confequent upon a contrary courfe. They
might fet before them immortal renown, deification,
*6 and elylium, on the one hand, and eternal infamy and
l i Chief ad-^ mifery on the other. This will probably be deemed
I the myfte- t^ie chief advantage accruing from this inftitution.
|j ries. ' Befides the communications above-mentioned, the
catechumens were taught many fecrets of phyfiology,
or the nature of the phenomena of the world This
, I * De Nat. Pharnutus * every where affirms, efpecially in his laft
| f eorum' book towards the end. Plutarch too informs us, that
many of the Greek philofophers were of Opinion, that
t molt of the Egyptian fables were allegorical details of
phyfical operations. Eufebius acquaints us that
^ ' the phyfiology, not only of the Greeks, but likeyvife
of the barbarians, was nothing elfe but a kind of
fcience of nature, a concealed and dark theology, in¬
volved in fable and fiiStion, whofe hidden mylteries
were fo veiled over with enigmas and allegories, that
the ignorant million were as little capable of compre¬
hending what was faid as what was fuppreffed in fi-
lenCe. 1 hi-, fays he, is apparent from the poems of
Orpheus and the fables of the Phrygians and Egyp-
\Antiq. tians. Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus likewife obfervCs j;,
Rom. that the fables of the Greeks detail the operations of
§ In Tm. nature by allegories. Proclus $ makes the fame ob-
fervation concerning the people in queftion. The E-
gyptians, fays he, taught the latent operations of na-
f 17 ture by fables,
c U'ecrefs*" ^ phyfiological fecrets were no doubt expound-
/ expounded et^ to t^ie 'n*,;iated ; and that the Egyptian prielts were
r ijn the my- deeply ficilled in phyfiological fcience, can fcarce be
: fierie« of qucitioned, if we believe that Jannes and Jambres ri-
/ .Egypt* vailed Mofes with their enchantments. The preceding
detail comprehends all that was revealed to the Epop-
tas in the original Egyptian myfteries. What articles
might have been introduced afterwards we cannot pre¬
tend to determine.
Be that as it may, one thing is certain, namely,
that the vulgar were excluded from all thofe choice fe¬
crets, which were carefully referved for the nobility and
focerdotal tribes. To them it was given to know the
myfteries of the kingdom of darknefs; but to thofe
who were without, all was myftery and parable. While
the laity fed on hulks, the clergy and the quality
feafted on royal dainties. The priefts who had de-
vifed thefe allegories underftood their original import,
and bequeathed it as'an ineftimable legacy to their
children. Here then we have the primary objedt of
the myfteries, namely, to develope to the initiated the
original and rational import of thofe allegorical and
myfticaldo&rineswhich were tenderedtothe uninitiated,
wrapt up in impenetrable allegory and obfeurity. To
the former, thefe were communicated and explained:
The latter were obliged to ftand at an awful diftance,
and retire as the Procul, 0 procul ejle profani, thun¬
dered in their ears.
Thefe allegorical traditions originated in Egypt, (fee
Mythology). Itwas the general bias of the oriental ge¬
nius. The Egyptians,however, according to the moft au¬
thentic accounts (g), were the greateft proficients in
that fcience. The original fubjedl of thefe inftitutions
were, we imagine, the articles we have fpecified above:
but in procefs of time, according to the natural courfe
of things, numerous improvements were made, and
many new rites, ceremonies, ufages, and even dodtrines,
were fuperinduced, which were utterly unknown to
the original hierophants (h ). Simplicity is for the moft
part one of the diftinguifhing charadters of a new in¬
ftitution ; but fucceeding architedts generally imagine
that fomething is ftill wanting to complete the beauty,
the regularity, the uniformity, the magnificence, and
perhaps the conveniency of the ftrudture. Hence, at
length, it comes to be fo overloaded with adventitious
drapery, that its primary elegance and fymmetry is
altogether defaced. This was the cafe with the ear-
lieft Egyptian myfteries. Their fubjedt was at firft
Ample and eafy to be comprehended ; in time it be¬
came complex, intricate, and unintelligible.
In order to celebrate thofe myfteries with the greater -pempies
fecrecy, their temples were fo conftrudfed as to favour where the
the artifice of the priefts. The fanes, in which they myfteries
ufed to execute their facred functions, and to perform C*
the rites and ceremonies of their religion, were fub-
terraneous apartments, conftrudbed with fuch wonder¬
ful fit ill and dexterity, that every thing that appeared
in them breathed an air of folemn fecrecy. Their
walls were covered with hieroglyphic paintings and
fculpture, and the altar was fituuted in the centre of the
apartment. Modern * travellers have of late years * NardonP
difeovered fome veftiges of them, and bear witnefs to Ska-w, Pc,
the above defeription of thofe dark abodes (r). &c.
thofe fubterraneous manfions, which the priells of that
ingenious nation had planned with the moft confum-
mate fltill, the kings, princes, and great men of the
ftate, encountered the dangers and hardfhips contrived
to prove their prudence, fortitude, patience, abftinence,
&c. Thefe were appointed to try their merit; and by
thefe the hierophants were enabled to decide whether or
not they were duly qualified for receiving that benefit.
Upon thofe occafions, we may believe, abundance of
thofe magical tricks were exhibited, for which the ma¬
gicians of Egypt were fo much celebrated among the
ancients. The ftrange and aftonifhing fights, the al¬
ternate fucceffions of light and darknefs, the hideous
fpe&res expofed to view, the frightful bowlings re¬
echoed by thefe infernal domes, the feenes of Tartarus
and
i     —— 
(f) Typhon was the evil genius, or devil of the Egyptians.
(g) As early as the age of Jofeph, the Egyptians were Ikilled in the interpretations of dreams, divinations,
ike. and in the age of Mofes they were become wife men, magicians, &c.
(h) Hierophant imports a prieft employed in explaining the dodlrines, rites,- &c. communicated to the ini-
tiated.
(j) See an excellent defeription of thefe fubterraneous abodes, and of the procefs of probation carried on
there, in a French romance, intitled The Life of Sethos.
582
Egyptian
myfte.ies.
MYSTERIES.
and Elyfium, exhibited alternately and in quick fuc- to ftrangers, will perhaps be furprifed that this faftie
ciflion, mud have made a deep a»d lading impreflion dious and jealous people were fo ready to com-
on the mind of the affrighted votary (k). Thefe municate the arcana of their religion to foreigners.—
fcenes vre (hall defcribe more fully in the fequel But they will pleafe recollett, that a great part of
The Gre- From the fcenes exhibited in celebrating the Egyp- Greece was planted with colonies from Egypt, Phoe-
clan infer- tian myfteries, efpecially thofe of Ills and Ofiris, ;he nicia, Paleftine, &c» This we could ealily prove, did
filj "" Greeks feem to have copied their ideas of the infernal the bounds prefcribed us admit fuch a digrelfion. Or-
regions, and the fubterraneous manfions of departed pheus, if not an Egyptian, was at lead of oriental ex¬
fouls Many colonies of Egyptians fettled in Greece, traction. Inachus, Cadmus, and Melampus, are uni-
From thefe the «">“?<“ (V, or molt early bards of yerfally allowed to have been Egyptians. Erechtheus,
Greece, learned them imperfedlly. Of courfe, we in whofe reign the Eleufinian mylteries were eltablilh-
llnd Homer’s account of the infernal regions, and of ed, was an Egyptian by birth, or at lead fprung from
the Hate of departed fouls, lame and incoherent. Sue- Egyptian anceltors. The Egyptians, then, in thofe
ceeding bards obtained more full and more didindt in- early ages, did not view the Greeks in the light of
formation. Euripides and Ariitophanes feem to have aliens, but as a people nearly related either to themfelves
paved the way for the prince of Roman poets. Plato* or the Phoenicians, who were their brethren. Upon
and fome of the other philofophers have Ihown by their this connedion we imagine it was, that in later
deferiptions or allufions, that the whole apparatus of times mod of the fages of Greece, efpecially of A-
Tai tarus and Elyiium had become a hackneyed topic thens, found fo hofpitable a reception among that peo-
fome centuries before Virgil was born This inco.n- '
parable poet borrowed his ideas from Homer, Arido-
phanes, Euripides, Plato, &c. Thefe, under his pla-
dic hand, in the fixth iEneid, grew into a fyltem beau¬
tiful, regular, uniform, and confident The materials
he has employed were created to his hand; he had
■only to colled, polifti, arrange, and conned them. —
The fentiments colleded from the Platonic philofophy,
pie. They probably viewed them in the light of pro-
pagandi; apodles able and willing to diffeminate their
idolatrous rites. This obfervation, which might be
fupported by numberlefs authorities, did the nature of
the prefent inquiry permit, will, we think, go a great
way towards obviating the objedion.
Although, as has been obferved, every particular
deity had his own peculiar myderious facred rites, yet
and the inimitable epifo.ie copied from the annais of of all others thofe of Mithras, Bacchus (o), and Ce-
Rome, by the malferly fkill which he has difplayed
in the application of them, form the chief excellencies
of the piece. For the reit, he could welldifpenfe with
going to Eleufis(M) : every old woman in Athens and
Rome could repeat them.
Myfteries was t^en t^e nat>ve land of myderies as well
brought as of idolatry. Every god and goddels refpedively
from Egypt had their myderies ; but as thole of Ids and Ofiris
in'dGr* ^ were rnoi^ ce^e*:;rate^> t^ey courfe became prin-
an ,e,'ce,cjpai objeds of purfuit as well as of imitation to the
neighbouring nations. Thefe, as is generally believed,
were carried into Perfia by Zoroafires, or Zordudit,
by whom they were confecrated to Mithras On
thefe we (hall make fome obfervations in the fequel.—
Orpheus imported them into Thrace ; Cadmus brought
them into Boeotia, where they were facred to Bacchus.
Inachus edablifiied them at Argos in honour of Juno,
the fame with His (n ) ; Cyniras in Cyprus, where they
were dedicated to Venus. In Phrygia they were fa¬
cred to Cybele, the mother of the gods.
Our learned readers, who will probably refled
that the Egyptians were iu ancient times inhofpitable
were deemed the mod auguit, and were mod uni-
vet fally and mod religioufly celebrated. To thefe, Myfteries
therefore, we fhail in a good meafure confine ourfelves of Mithras,
upon this occafion. If our readers (hall become inti- ®acchus»
mately acquainted with thefe, they may readily dif- moft^
penfe with the knowledge of the red, which are, in-autuft.
deed, no more than dreams and emanations from thefe
fources. We (hail then, in the fird place, prefent to
our readers a brief Iketch of the myderies of Mithras.
Mithras, or, according to the Perfian, Mihr, was
one of the great gods of the Afiatics. His worlhip
was for many ages confined to Ptrfia. Afterwards,
however, it was propagated fo far and wide, that fome
have imagined they^rad difeovered vetligcs of it even
in Gaul. Aii/j/-, according to Dr Hyde , fignifies * ^
love, and likewife the Sun. If we might prefume X.o Perfarum.
differ from fo refpeitable an authority, we (hould con¬
jecture that it is a cognate of the Hebrew woriMuthir,
“ excellentia, predantia.” That there wa^ an analogy
between the Hebrew and old Perfian, is generally ad¬
mitted by the learned. Be that as it may, Mithras
was the fun (p) among the Perfians; and in honour
‘ of
(k) Perfons who had defeended into Trophonius’s vault were faid to have been fo terrified with diocking
fights, that they never laughed during the remainder of their lives.
(l) Thefe were tirolling poets like our mindrels, who frequented the houfes of the great men of Greece,
and entertained the company upon public occafions with finging and tales of other times.
(m) Bidiop Warburton has, with much ingenuity, and^a vad profufion of reading, endeavoured to prove that
Virgil borrowed the whole feenery of the fixth ^Eneid from the fources mentioned in the text.
(n) Ifis was the moon, and the original Juno was the fame planet.
(o) Bacchus was the Ofiris of the Egyptians, and Ceres was the Ifis of the fame people.
(p) Mofheim, in his notes on Cudworth’s Intellectual Syltem, page 330, ffas taken much pains to prove
that Mithras was a deified mortal ; but, we cannot agree with that learned man in this point.
;m y s T
I « of that luminary this inftitution was eftabliihed. Mi-
Account of accorc;ing to Plutarch (oJ> was the middle god
iriesof m[- ^tween Gramaz and Ariman, the two fupreme divi-
thra*. niti'es of Perfia. But the faft is, the folar planet was
the vifible emblem of Oramaz, the good genius of the
Perfian tribes, and the fame with the Ofiris of the
Egyptians. From thefe people, fome have imagined
that Zoroailres (a), or Zerdulht, borrowed his my-
fteries 'of Mithras. To this opinion we cannot give
our aflent, becaufe the probationary trials to be under-
Igone by the candidates among the former were much ’
more favage and fanguinary than among the latter.—
Both, however, w^re inftituted in honour of the fame
deity ; and probably the fcenes exhibited, and the in¬
formation communicated in both, were analogous; a
circumftance which perhaps gave birth to the opinion
above-mentioned.
The grand feftival of Mithras was celebrated fix
days, in the middle of the month Mihr (s)- Upon
| • thefe days, it was lawful for the kings of Perfia to get
drunk and dance. On this feftival, we imagine, the
candidates for initiation, having duly proved their vo¬
cation, were folemnly admitted to the participation of
the myfteries.
Zoroaftres (r) worlhipped Mithras, or the Sun, in a
certain natural cave, which he formed into a temple,
and filled up in a manner exactly mathematical. There
. Mithras was reprefented as prefiding over the lower
world with all the pomp of royal magnificence. In
it too were feen the fymbols of Mithras and of the
world, philofophically and mathematically exhibited,
to be contemplated and worftiipped. This deity was
fometimes reprefented as mounted on a bull, which he
is breaking, and which he kills with a fword. On
fome bas reliefs ftill exifting, he appears as a young
man with his tiara turned upward, after the manner of
the Perfian kings. He is clothed with a Ihort tunic
and breeches, after the Perfian falhion. Sometimes he
wears a fmall cloke. By his fides are feen other hu¬
man figures, with tiaras of the fame falhion on their
heads, but without clokes. One of thefe figures com¬
monly holds in his one hand, a torch lifted up ; in the
other one turned downward. Sometimes over the cave
is feen the chariots of the fun and moon, and divers
conftellations, fuch as cancer, fcorpion, &c.
Probation- In one of thofe caves the ceremonies of initiation
ry excr- were performed ; but before the candidate could be
j fespre- admitted, he *as forced to undergo a courfe of pro-
frous to bationary exercifes, fo numerous and fo rigorous, that
amation. few had courage and fortitude enough to go thro’
them. He was obliged to live a life of virtue and
abftinence for a fpace of feven years previous to the
period of his initiation. Some'months before it, he was
E R I E 3. _ 583
obliged to fubmit to a long and auftere f^ft, which
continued fifty days. He was to retire feveral days
to a deep and dark dungeon, where he was fucceffively
expofed to all the extremes of heat and cold. Mean¬
time he frequently underwent the baftinado, which
the priefts applied without mercy. Some fay this fu-
ftigation continued two whole days, and was repeated
no lefs than 15 times. In the courfe of thefe proba¬
tionary exercifes, the candidate was generally reduced
to a Ikeleton ; and we are told, that there have been
feverai inftances of perfons who have periftied in the
attempt.
Upon the eve of the initiation, the afpirant was
obliged to* brace on his armour, in order to encoun- * Ju^
ter giants and fava^e monfters. In thofe fpAciousmlC!ls’
fubterraneous manfions a mock hunting was exhibited.
The priefts and all the fubordinate officers of the
temple, transformed into lions, tygers, leopards, boars,
wolves, and other favage creatures, alfailed him with
loud' bowlings, roaring, and yelling, and every inftancc
of ferine fury. In thofe mock combats, the hero was
often in danger of being really worried, and always came
off with bruifes and wounds. Lampridius informs us, that
when the emperor Commodus was initiated, he a&ually
carried the joke too far, and butchered one of the priefts
who attacked him in the figure of a wild beaft. The
Perfians worlhipped Mithras or the Sun by a perpe¬
tual fire : hence the votary was obliged to undergo a
fiery trial; that is> to pafs feven times through the
facred fire, and each time to plunge himfelf into cold
water. Some have made thefe probationary penances
amount to 80; others have thought that they were in-
all only 8. As we find no good authority for either
of thefe numbers, we think ourfelves at liberty to ha¬
zard the following conje&ure : The number /even was
deemed facred over all the eaft. The Mythriac pe¬
nances we imagine were either feven,. or if they ex¬
ceeded it, were regulated by feven repetitions of that
number. The candidate having undergone all thefe
torturing trials with becoming patience and fortitude,
was declared a proper fubjeft for initiation. But be¬
fore his admiffion he was obliged to bind himfelf by
the moft folemn oath, with horrible imprecations an- Oath of
nexed, never to divulge any fingle article of all that u.r
Ihould be communicated to him in the courfe of his
initiation. 25
What a-xoggrfa or inejfable fecrets were imparted to Revelations-
the initiated, it is impoffible at this diftance of time toin ,he nrA
difcover with any tolerable degree of certainty. We^t'h^asK
may, however, reft affured, that the moft authentic
tradition concerning the origin of the univerfe; the
nature, attributes, perfe&ions, and operations, of Oro-
mafd j the baleful influences of Ariman ; and the be-
nign
(qJ Ifis and Ofiris, page 369 1. 20, from the bottom. This philofopher makes Zoroafter, according to
fome, 5000 years prior to the Trojan war. This date is certainly extravagant. We cannot, however, agree
with fome moderns, who make him contemporary with Darius Hyftafpes, the immediate fucceffbr of Caai-
byfes, becaufe it contradifts all antiquity.
(r) M. Silohwette, Differ. V. page 17. afferts that Zoroaftres was initiated among the Egyptians.
(s) The month Mihr began September 30, and ended O&ober 30.
(t) See Dr Hyde de Rel vet. Perf. page 16, 17. Mr Bryant’s Anal. vol. i. page 232. Porphyr. de autro>
Nymph, page 254; This philofopher often mentions the cave of Mithras, and always attributes the inflitu-
tion of his rites to Zoroafter
384 M Y S T
nign effcSs of the government of Mithras, were un¬
folded and inculcated. The fecret phenomena of na¬
ture, as far as they had been difcovered by the magi,
were likewife exhibited ; and the application of their
effe&s, to aftonifh and delude the vulgar, were taught
both in theory and praAipe. The exercife of public
and private virtues was warmly recommended; and
vice reprefented in the moft odious and frightful co¬
lours. Both thefe injun&ions were, we may fuppofe,
enforced by a difplay of the pleafures of Elyfium and
the pains of Tartarus, as has been obferved above in
deferibing the myfteries of the Egyptians.
Thofe initiations are mentioned by Lampridius in
*nial.cumthe life of Commodus, and likewife by Juftin *
'Tryphon'. and TertullianJ, who both llourifired in the fecond
j: Depra- century. The laft of thefe two fpeaks of a kind of
Harct. Ver' baptifm, which wafired from the fouls of the initiated
all the ftains wh%h they had con traded during the
courfe of their lives prior to their initiation. He at
the fame time mentions a particular mark which was
imprinted upon them(u), of an offering of bread, and
an emblem of the refurre&ion; which particulars, how¬
ever, he does not deferibe in detail. In that offering,
which was accompanied with a certain form of prayer,
a veffel of water was offered up with the bread. The
fame father elfewhere inform us, that there was pre-
fented to the initiated a crown fufpended on the point
of a fword ; but that they were taught to fay, Mi¬
thras is my crown. By this anfwer was intimated, that
they looked upon the fervice of that deity as their chief
honour and ornament.
After that the Teletae (x) were finifhed, the pupil
was brought out of the cave or temple, and with great
folemnity proclaimed a lion of Mithras(Y); a title
which imported ffrength and intrepid courage in the
fervice of the deity. They were now confecrated to
the god, and were fuppofed to be under his imme¬
diate prote&ion ; an idea which of courfe animated
them to the moft daring and dangerous enterprifes.
The worfhip of Mithras was introduced into the
Roman empire towards the end of the republic, where
it made very rapid progrefs. When Chriftianity be¬
gan to make a figure in the empire, the champions for
paganifm thought of propofing to men the worfhip of
this power of benevolence, in order to counterbalance or
annihilate that worfhip which the Chriftians paid to
Jefus Chrift the true Sun of righteoufnefs. But this
mode was foon abolifhed, together with the other rites
ND 235.
E It I £ S.
of paganifm. The Perfian grandees often affe&ed
names compounded with Mithras; hence Mithridates,
Mithrobarzanes, &c.: Hence, too. the precious ftone
called Mithndat*, which by the reflexion of the fun * Solinut, {
fparkled with a variety of colours. There is likewife *3’
a certain pearl of many different colours, which they
call Mithras. It is found among the mountains near
the Red Sea; and when expofed to the fun, itfparkles
with a variety of dyes. We find likewife a king of
Egypt of that name who reigned at Heliopolis; who
being commanded in a dream to ereft an obelifk to
the folar deity, reared a moft prodigious one in the
neighbourhood of that city.
The votaries of Mithras pretended that he was fprung
from a rock, and that therefore the place wdrere the
myfierious ceremonies were communicated to the ini¬
tiated was always a cave. Many different reafons have
been affigned for the origin of this rock-born deity,
moft of which appear to us unfatisfaAory. If our i
readers will be obliging enough to accept of a Ample to havc
and obvious conje&ure, they may take the following: fprung
A rock is the fymbol of ftrength and liability (z) :fr8nl a
the dominion of Mithras, in the opinion of his votaries,rock' ]
was firm as a rock, and liable as the everlafting hills.
If our readers Ihould not admit the probability of
this conjefture, we would beg leave to remit them to
the learned Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Mythology, where
they will find this point difeuffed with deep refearch
and wonderful ingenuity. Whatever may have been
the origin of this opinion with relation to the birth
of Mithras, it is certain that fome reverence to rocks
and caves was kept up a long time even after the efta-
blilhment of Chriftianity. Hence the prohibition given
-to fome of the profelytes to that religion, that they
Ihould no more prefume to offer up their prayers ad
petras at the rocks (a).
We lhall conclude our account of the myfteries of
Mithras with a paffage from Mr Anquetil, to whom
we are fo much indebted for what knowledge we have
of the Perfian theology, and in which the fun&ions of
that deity are briefly and comprehenfively delineated.
“ The peculiar fun&ionsof Mithras are to fight conti¬
nually againft Abriman and the impure army of evil
genii, whofe conttaht employment is to fcatter terror
and defolation over the univerfe; to proteA the frame of
nature from the demons and their produAions. For this
purpofe he is furnilhed with a thoufand ears and a thou-
fand eyes, and traverfes the fpace between heaven and
earth,
(u) In allufion to this praAice of imprinting a facred mark, probably on the forehead of the initiated, we
find the injunAion to the angel, Ezek. chap. ix. ver. 4. and the Revelation/w^/n.
(x) The myfteries were called-7e/e/<r, which imports, “ the rites which confer perfeAion.”
(Y) Tertull. adv. marc. p. 55. The priefts of Mithras were called the lions of Mithras, and his priefteffes
honeffes ; fome fay hycenas. The other inferior mimlters were called eagles, hawks, ravens. See. and on their
feftivals they wore malks correfponding to their titles, after the Egyptian manner, where the priefts appeared
at the ceremonies with mafits refembling the heads of lions, apes, dogs, See. a circumftance which firrnilhes a
prefumption that the myfteries of Mithras were of Egyptian original.
(z) Our Saviour probably alludes to this emblem, when he talks of building his church on a rock; and adds,
that t he gates of hellJhould not prevail againfl it. .. ...
(a) The Caledonian druids feem tc have regarded certain ftones with a fuperftitious veneration, in which
the Catholics imitated them. There are in feveral places of Scotland large ftones, which the vulgar call here
Rones, i. e. we imagine, leShtre.
2
M Y S T
esrlh, his hands armed frith a club or mace. Mithras
gives to the earth light and fun : he traces a courfe for
the waters: he gives to men corn,paftures,and children:
to the world virtuous kings and waniors; maintains
harmony upon earth, watches over the law, &C.” As
the hiftory of Mithras, and?the nature of his myfteries,
are not generally known, we imagined it would be
agreeable to many of our readers to have the moil im¬
portant articles relating to that fubjedt laid before them
^ as it w.ere in detail.
-Myfteries We now proceed to the orgia, or myfteries of Bac-
cf Bacchus, chus, which we (hall introduce with a brief hiftory of
that de'ty. The original Dionyfrts or Bacchus was
' the Ofiris of the Egyptians, which la!l was the Sun (b ).
Whether there was an Egyptian monarch of that name,
§ LH'i. as Diodorus Siculus affirmsjj, has no manner of con-
nedtion with the prefent difquifition. The Greek
name of that deity is plainly oriental, being compound¬
ed of di, “ bright;” and najta or nafa, in the ^Eolic
nufa'> ** a Pr‘nce-” This name was imported
fame with from eaft by Orpheus, Cadmus, or by whoever elfe
Oliris. communicated the worfliip of Ofiris to the Greeks.
That the Dionyfus of the Greeks was the fame with
the Ofiris of the Egyptians, is univerfally allowed.
* Lib 2. Herodotus tells us exprefsly*, that OJiris is Dionyfus
caj>. 144. in the Greek language: Martianuk Capellus, quoted.
U •Tbcol. above, exprefles the very fame idea|(. The original
£pp~ Ofiris was then the fun; but the Dionyfus or Bacchus
lib. n of the.Greeks was the fame with the Oljris of the £-
I* gyptians; therefore the Bacchus or Dionyfus of the
Greeks was likewife the fame luminary.
The name Ofiris has much -embarraffed critics and
ir-; Pantb. ctymologifts. The learned JablonflkiJ, inftead of de-
\£gyp. lineating the charadter. attributes, operations, adven¬
tures, exploits, and peculiar'department affigned this
deity by his votaries, has fpent much of his pains on
trying to inveftigate the etymology of his name. If
it is granted, which is highly probable, that the He¬
brew and Egyptian tongues are cognate dialedts, we
fho.uld imagine that it is adfually the Chojher or GJhir
of the former language, which imports, “ to make rich,
to become rich.” Indeed the words Ofris.and Ifis
y/ere not the vulgar names of the fun am} moon among
the Egyptians, but only epithets importing their qua¬
lities. The name of the fun among that people was
Phri or Pbry, and that of the moon Job, whence the
Greek lo. The term Ofiris was applied both to the
fun and to the river Nile ; both which by their influ¬
ence contributed refpedlively to enrich and fertilize the
land of Egypt.
It was a general cuftom among the orientals to de¬
nominate their prinqes and great men from their gods,-
demigods, heroes, &c. When the former were ad
vanced to divine honours, they were in procefs of time
confounded with their archetypes. The original di¬
vinities were forgotten, and-thefe upftart deities ufurp-
, ed their place and prerogatives. In the earlieft pe-
1 Vol. XII. Part II.
E R i E S. 585
riods of the Egyptian monarchy, there' appeared two
illuflrious perfonages, Ofiris and Ifis. Thefe were the ~
children of Cronus; and being brother and After, they
were joined in matrimony, according to the cuftom of
the Egyptians. As the brother and hulband had af-
fumed the name of the Sun, fo the filler and confort
took that of Ifis, that is, “the woman*,” a name which *H<r-apoi\
the Egyptians applied both to the moon and to the^'fi-S*
earth, in confequence of the, fimilarity of their na¬
ture, their mutual fympathy, and congenial fecundity.
Ofiris having left his confort Ifis regent of the king-Exp,*fts of
dom, with Hermes as her prime miuifter, and Hercu-Ofiris.
les as general of her armies, quitted Egypt with a nu¬
merous body of troops, attended by companies of
fauns(c), fatyrs, finging women, muficians, &c. tra-
verfed all Alia to the eaitern ocean. He then return¬
ed homeward through the Upper Afia, Thrace, Pon-
tus, Alia Minor, Syria, and Paieftine. Wherever he
marched, he conferred numberiefs benefits on the fa-
vage inhabitants. He taught the art of cultivating
the ground, preferving the fruits of the earth, and di-
ftinguilhing the wholefomc and nutritive from the un-
wholefome and poifonous. He inftrudted them in the
culture of the vine; and where vines could not be pro¬
duced, he communicated to them the method of pro¬
ducing a fermented liquor from barley, very little infe¬
rior to wine itfelf. He built many cities in different
parts of the globe, planted numerous colonies(d\ and
wherever he directed his courfe inftituted juft and
wholefome laws, and eftablifhed the rites and ceremo¬
nies of religion, and left priefts and catechifts of his
train to teach and inculcate the pbfervance of them.
In Short, he left every where lafting monuments of his
progrefs, and at the fame time of his generofity and
beneficence. Where he found the people' docile and
fubmiffive, he treated them with kindnefs and huma¬
nity : if any flip wed t’nemfelves obftinate, he com¬
pelled them to fubmit to his inftitutions by force of
arms.
At the end of three years, he returned to Egypt,
where his brother Typhon, a wicked unnatural mon-
fter, had been- forming a confpiracy againft his life. ,0
This traiterous defign he foon after accomplilhed in His death*
the following manner : He invited Ofiris, with fome
other perfons whom he had gained over, to an enter¬
tainment. When the repait was finiihed, he produced
a beautiful coffer, highly fimfhed, and adorned with
ftuds of gold; promtfing to bellow it on the perfon
whom it ftiould fit beft. Ofiris was tempted to make
the experiment. The confpirators nailed down the
cover upon him, and threw the coffer into the river.
This coffer, which was now be'come the coffin of Ofi¬
ris, was, they tell us, wafted by the winds and waves
to the neighbourhood of Byblus, a city of Phoenicia,
where it was call on fhore, and left by the waves at
the foot of a tamarind tree.
Ifis, in the mean time, difconfolate and forlorn, at-
4 E tended
.(b) See Macrob. lib. i. cap. 21. p 247. bottom, Diogenes Laert. in proosmio, par. 10. Martian. Capel.
Lib. 2. Jablonflri, ybl. i lib. ii. p 415. par. 3. Plut. Ifis ©fir. paffim.
(c) Men and women dreffed in the habits of thofe rural deities-
(d) Many have thought this expedition fabulous; but the numberiefs monuments of Egyptian archite&ure-
sculpture, ftatuary, lately difeovered in the eaft, confirm it.
586 M Y S T E
3c tended by Anubis, was ranfacking every quarter in
iir-foMfib ^earcb ber beloved Ofiris. At length being in-
in fearch 6 formed by her faithful attendant and guardian, that
ot his bed;.his body was lodged fomewhere in the neighbourhood
of Byblus, Hie repaired to that city. There, they fay,
fhe was introduced to the queen, and after (e) a va¬
riety of adventures fhe recovered the corpfe of her huf-
band, which, of courfe, fhe carried back with her
to Egypt: but the mifchievous Typhon, ever on the
watch, found her on the banks of the Nile ; and ha¬
ving robbed her of her charge, cut the body into 14
parts, and fcattered them up and down. Now, once
more, according to the fable, Ills let out in queft of
thofe parts, all of which,only one excepted, fire found,
and interred in the place where fhe found them ; and
hence the many tombs of Oliris in that country.
Thefe tombs were denominated tapofws by the natives;
Many other fabulous adventures were afcribed to thofe
two perfonages, which it is not our province to enu¬
merate at prefent. If our readers fhould wifh to be
more minutely informed on this fubjedb, they may
have recourfe to the authors mentioned in the laft-quo-
ted author, or to the learned Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of
Ancient Mythology, and M. Cour de Gebelin, where
-j they will find matter enough to gratify their curiofity.
The myfte- To commemorate thofe adventures, the myfteries
ries of His 0f lfi3 and Ofiris were inllituted; and from them both
fnftituted* th°fe °f Bacchus and Ceres, among the Greeks, were
in comme- derived. Of the Egyptian folemnity, we have an ex-
moration of adf epitome in one of the fathers of the church to the
thoft ad- following purpofe : “ Here follows (fays he) an epi-
veiituns. tome Df t^e mykerics of IfiS and Ofiris. They de¬
lore annually, with deep lamentations and fhaved
cads, the cataflrophe of Ofiris over a buried ftatue
of that monarch. They beat their breaks, mangle
their arms, tear open the fears of their former wounds ;
that by annual lamentations- the catakrophe of his
miferable and fatal death may be revived in their
minds. When they have praftifed thefe things a cer¬
tain number of days, then they pretend that they
have found the remains of his rp^ngltd body; and ha¬
ving found them, their forro*Sf are lulled afleep, and
they break out into immodeiate joy.” What maxims
of morality, fecrets of phyfiology, or phenomena of
akronomy, were couched under this allegorical pro-
refs, is not our bufinefs to invekigate in this place.
We (hall only obferve, that, in all probability, Ofiris
and Ills were fovercigns of Egypt at a very early pe¬
riod ; that they had conferred many iignal benefits on
RIES.
their fubjedts, who, influenced by a fenfe of grati¬
tude, paid them divine honours after their deceafe;
that in procefs of time they were confounded with
the fun and the moon ; and that their adventures were
at length magnified beyond all credibility, interlarded
with fables, and allegories, 'and employed in the my-
keries as channels to convey a variety of inkrutfions
to the Initiated.
Be that as it may, it is certain that the very fame Transfer¬
mode of worfhip was ekablilhcd at Byblus, and inrtdtoBy-
aftcr ages transferred to Tyre. The Mizraim and h!us an<i
Chanaanim were nearly connected by blood, and their oK,
religious ceremonies were derived from the very fame ris was
fource. By what medium the worihip of Ofiris at called A<t»~
Abydus and Tyre was connefted, we {hall leave to""and s*'<*
others to explain ; we flrall only obferve, that among
the Phoenicians this deity obtained the names Adonis
and Bacchus. The former is rather an (f) epithet
than a name : the latter is evidently an allufion to
the weeping and lamentation (g) with yvhich the rite*
were performed. We find another name of that di¬
vinity mentioned in Scripture (h) ; but that term is
plainly of Egyptian original ; we {hall now proceed
to the mykeries of Oiiris as they were celebrated
among the Greeks and Thracians, under the name
of the Orgia of Dionyfui or Bacchus *. * gf,
Orpheus the celebrated Thracian philofopher had cut. Fojjmt
travelled into Egypt in quell of knowledge; and from de IJal‘
that country, according to the mok authentic accounts,
he imported the bacchanalian rites and inkitutions.
Some have affirmed that this fame Orpheus being
intimately acquainted with the family of Cadmus, com¬
municated thefe rites to them, and endeavoured to
transfer them to the grandfon of that hero, which
grandfon became afterwards the Grecian Bacchus.
It is, however, we think, much more probable, that
thofe rites were imported from Egypt or Phoenicia,
by (1) Cadmus himftlf, who was a native of the for-AntUhence
mer country, and is thought to have fpent fome imported
time in the latter, before he emigrated in quek of a!’)' Cadmus
fettlement in Boeotia. it is faid that Semele, the j^0
daughter, of Cadmus, and the mother of the Grecian
Bacchus, was kruck with lightning at the very in-
kant of his birth. The child was, in all probability,
denominated Bacchus (k), from th'e farrow and lamen¬
tation this melancholy accident had occafioned in the
family. Cadmus, in order to- conceal the diffionour
of liis daughter, might, we imagine, convey away hi*
infant grandfon to fome of his relations in Phoenicia
or
(e) For the conqueks and adventures of Ofiris and Ills, we muk fend our learned readers to Diod. Sic.
Bibli, 1. i. and Plut. Ifis and Ofiris, p. 256. et feq. which wc have been obliged to abridge, in confequence of
the narrow limits preferibed us.
(f) Adonis is evidently the Hebrew Adoni, “ my lord,” and imports the fovereignty of the deity.
(g) Bacchus is derived from the Phoenician word bahah, “ to weep,” This was the name embraced by
the Romans.
(h) Ezek. chap. 8. ver. 14. tammuz is the name of one of the months of the Egyptian year.
(1) Cadmus and Melampus, who were both Egyptians, introduced the Bacchanalia into Greece. The
■kgyP1*30 or oriental name of Bacchus was Dinuji, that is “ the prince of light.” Cadmus had learned the
Same Bacchus from the Phoenicians.
(k)_ We have omitted the immenfe farrago of fable relating to the conne&ion between Jupiter and Semelc3
at of little importance to our readers.
M Y S T
er Egypt. There he was educated and inftru&ed in
all the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris,-and at the fame
time initiated in all the magical or juggling tricks of
the Egyptian priefts and Hierophants. Thus accora-
plifhed, when he arrived at mart hood he returned to
Thebes with the traditional retinue of the original
deity of the fame name ; and claimed divine honours
accordingly. This claim, however, was not admitted
without much oppofition ; Penthcus, another grand-
fon of Cadmus, was torn to pieces by the frantic Bac¬
chanalians upon mount Citheron, becaufe he attempt¬
ed to interrupt them in celebrating the orgia. Some
have thought that CadmuS4 loll his kingdom for the
fame reafon ; but this we think is by no means pro ¬
bable : we (hould rather imagine that the old prince
was privy to the whole procefs, and that it was ori¬
ginally planned by him, with a view to attradl the
veneration of his new fubje&s, by making them believe
, that there was a divinity in his family.
The actions Be that as it may, the vain-glorious Greeks attri-
ot Oiiris buted all the adlions of the Egyptian hero to their
attributed new Bacchus : and according to their laudable prac-
c!an Bac.^ ^ce> engaged him in numberlefs adventures in which
thus. his prototype had no fliare. Moll of thofe are futile
and nnintertaining (l). The Gr eks commonly adopt¬
ed fome oriental perfonage as the hero of their my¬
thological rhapfodies. Him they naturalifed and
adopted into fome Grecian family, and fo he became
their own. To him they aferibed all the adventures
and exploits of the oriental archetype from whom he
was copied. Confequently in the orgia ( m), every thing
was collcdled that had been imported from the call
relating to Ofiris; and to that farrago was joined all
that the Grecian rhapfodifts had thought fit to invent
in order to amufe the credulous multitude. This,
however, was not the whole of the misfortune : The
adventures of Ofiris were deferibed by the Egyptian
Hierophants, veiled with allegorical and hieroglyphical
myfteries. Thefe the perfons who imported them
into Greece did not thoroughly comprehend, or if
they did, they were not inclined to communicate
them found and unfophifticated. Befides, many orien¬
tal terms were retained, the import of which was in
procefs of time loft or diftorted. Hence the religious
ceremonies of the Greeks became a medley of incon-
fiftencics. The myfteries of Bacchus, in particular,
were deeply tin&ured with this meritricious colour¬
ing ; the adventures of the Theban pretender were
grafted upon thofe of the Egyptian archetype, and
ERIE S. sgf
out of this combination was formed a tiffue of adven¬
tures difgraceful to human nature, abfurd, and incon-
fiftent. Indeed the younger or Theban Bacchus
feems to have been a monft'er of debauchery ; where¬
as the Egyptian is reprefented as a perfon of an
oppofite charadler. Of courfe the myfteries of the
former were attended with the molt {hacking abomi¬
nations. g
Thefe myfteries, as has been obferved above, were Myfteriea
fir ft celebrated at Thebes the capital of Bceotia, under f Bacchus1
the aufpices of the family of Cadmus. From thisfPread 1,110
country they gradually found their way into Greece, ^reece>
and all the neighbouring parts of Europe. They were
celebrated once every three years (n), becaufe at the end
of three years Ofiris returned from his Indian expedi¬
tion. As the Greeks had impudently transferred the
a&ions of the Egyptian hero to their upftart divinity,
the fame period of time was obferved for the celebra¬
tion of' thofe - rites in Greece that-had been ordained '
for the fame purpofe in Egypt.
When the day appointed for the celebration of the
ergia (o) approached, the priefts iffued a proclama¬
tion, enjoining all the initiated to equip themfelves
according to the ritual, and attend the procefllon on
the day appointed. The votaries were to dfefs them - procefs of
felves in coats of deer-lkins, to loofe the fillets of their their cele.
hair, to cover their legs with the fame ftuff with their bratien.
coats, and to arm themfelves with thyrfi, which were
a kind of fpears wholly of wood entwined with leaves
and twigs of the vine or ivy; It is faid that the Ba-
chanalians, efpecially the Thracians, ufed often to
quarrel and commit murder in their drunken revels;
and that in order to prevent thofe unlucky accidents,
a law was enadled, that the votaries inllead of real
fpears {hould arm themfelves with thofe Iham weapons
which were comparatively inolfenfive. The ftatue of
the deity, which was always covered with vine or ivy
leaves, was now taken down from its pedeftal, and
elevated on the {boulders of the priefts. The ca¬
valcade then proceeded nearly in the following man¬
ner :
Firft of all, hymns were chanted in honour of
Bacchus, who was called the Power of dances,/milesy
and jejls ; while at the fame time he was deemed
equally qualified for the exploits of war and.heroifm.
Horace, in fome of his dithyrambic odes, has concifely
pointed out the fubje£ls of thofe Bacchanalian fongs.
In the colledlion of hymns fabuloufly attributed to
Orpheus, we find feveral addrelfed to this deity (p),
4 E 2 each
(l) Nonnua, an Egyptian of Pentapolis, has collefted all the fabulous adventures of Bacchus, and ex¬
hibited them in a beautiful but irregular poem : To this we muft refer our learned readers. Of the Dionyfiacs
we have a moft judicious {ketch, Geb/in. Calend. p-5J3. et feq.
( m ) The orgia belonged to all the Mydones, but to thofe of Bacchus in a peculiar manner.
(n) Hence thefe origin were called Triteria.
(o) According to Clem. Alexand. Cohort, pag. 12. Pott, the word orgia is derived from orge, which fig-
nifies “ anger,” and originated from the refentment of Ceres againft Jupiter, in confequence of a moft outra¬
geous infult he had offered her with fuccefs. We fhould rather imagine it derived from the Hebrew word
fignifying a “ cheft or coffer,” alluding to the cafket which contained the facred fymbols of the god.—•
The Egyptians or Phosnicians might write and pronounce, argoz, orgo%, or in fome manner nearly refem-
biing orgia. ’
(p) Thefe Hand between the 41 and 52 ; one to Lenseus, or the preffer; one to Libnites, or the winnowerj
©ae to Beffareus, or the vintager 5 one to Sabazius the ged of reft ; to Myfes, or the Mediator, &c.
588 M Y S T E
each under a different title, deriveit.from the diffe¬
rent appellations of the god. All thefe names are
of oriental original, and might eafily be explained,
did the bounds prefcribed us admit of etymological
difquifitions.
The hymn being finifhed, the firft divifion of the
votaries proceeded, carrying a pitcher of wine, with a'
bunch of the vine. Then followed the he-goat; an
animal odious to BaCchus, becaufe he ravages the
vines. The chanting the hymns, the facriiicing the
he-goat, and «the revels, games, and diverfions, with
which the celebration of thofe rites was attended, gave
birth to the dramatic poetry of the Greeks; as the
perfons habited in the drefs of Fauns, Sylvans, and
Satyrs (0» furnifhed the name of another Ipecies of
poetry of a more coarfe and forbidding afpeft.
The my- Then appeared the myfterious coffer or bafket,
fterious containing the fecret fymbols of the deity. Thefe
coffer, whh were the phallus (r), fome gvain^of fefams, heads of
,t5contcnt'‘poppies, pomegranates, dry llems,'cakes baked of the
meal of different kinds of corn, fait, carded wool, rolls
of honey, and cheefe; a child, a ferpent (s), and
a fan (t). Such was the furniture of the facred coffer
carried in the folemn Bacchanalian proceffion. The
| Clem. inventory given by fome of the fathers J of the church
AUxand, js fometvhat different. They mention the dye; the
ball, the top, the wheel, the apples, the looking-glaf?,
and the fleece. The articles lirft mentioned feem to
have been of Egyptian original; tire laft were certainly
fuperinduced by the Greeks, in allufion to his being
murdered and torn in pieces when he was a child by
the machinations of Juno, who prevailed with the Ti¬
tans to commit the horrid deed. Thefe lalt feem to
have been memorials of his boyifh. play-things ; for,
^Errors fays Maternus, “the Cretans in celebrating the
Gent, rites of the child Bacchus, acted every thing, that the
dying boy either faid, or did, or fuffered. They like
wife (fays he) tore a live bull in pieces with their
teeth, in order to commemorate the difmembering of
the boy.” For our part, we think, that if fuch a
beaftly rite was pradtifed, it was done in commemo¬
ration of the favage manner of life which had pre¬
vailed among men prior to the more humane diet in¬
vented and introduced by Ifis and Oliris. Be that
R I E S.
as it-may, we learn from Porphyry *, that in the ifland 39
of Chios they ufed to facrifice a man to Bacchus, and *UIrian f-"
that they ufed to mangle and tear him limb from limb. ^'Dt AbllU
This was no doubt pradtifed in commemoration of the .,eni‘a%
cataftrophe mentioned above.
The orgia of this Pagan god were originally Ample
enough ; but this unfophiflicated mode was of no long
continuance, for riches foon introduced luxury, which
quickly infedled even the ceremonies of religion. On
the day fet apart for this folemnity, men and women
crowned with ivy, their hair diftievelkd, and their bo¬
dies almoft naked, ran about the ftreets, roaring aloud
Evoke (u) Bacche. In this rout were to he feen peo¬
ple intoxicated at once with wine and enthuflafm,
drefled like Satyrs, Fans, and Silenufes, in fuch fcan-
dalous poltures and attitudes, with fo little regard to
modeity and even common decency, that we are per-
fuaded our readers will readily enough forgive our
omitting to deferibe them; Next followed a. coo
pany mounted upon afles, attended by Fawns, Baccha- 40
nals, Thyades, Mimallonides, Naiads, Tityri, &c. whoTo-al C0P$~
made the adjacent places echo to their frantic ihrieks jempt 0
and bowlings. After this tumultuous herd were car¬
ried the itatues of victory and altars in form of vine-
fets crowned with ivy, fmokingwith incenfe and other
aromatics. Then appeared ieveral chariots loaded
with thyrfi, arms, garlands, calks, pitchers, and other
vafes, tripods, and vans. The. chariots were followed
by young virgins of quality, who carried the balkets
and little boxes, which in general contained the my-
llerious articles above enumerated. Thefe, from their
office, were called ciJlopbortK. The phallophori (x) fol¬
lowed them, with a chorus of Itophallophori habited
like Fauns, counterfeiting drunk perfons, hnging in
honour of Bacchus fongs and, catches fuited to the
occalion. The proceflion was clofed by a troop of
Bacchanalians crowned with ivy, interwoven with
branches of yew and with ferpents *. Upon £bme occa- * o-M*
fions, at thofe fcandalous feltivals, naked women whip. Met,
ped themfelves, and tore their Ikin in a moft barba¬
rous manner. The proceffion terminated on mount-
Citheron, when it fet out from Thebes ; and in other
places, in fome diftant unfrequented defert, where tha
votaries pra&ifed every fpecies of debauchery with fe-
crecy
(qJ Dacier, Cafaubon, and other French critics, have puzzled and perplexed themfelves to little purpofe
about the origin of this word, without confidering that it was coeval to dramatic poetry.
(r) The phallus was highly refpedted by the Egyptians, and was ufed as the emblem of the fecundity of the
human race.
(s) That reptile was in high veneration among the Egyptians. See Eufeb. Prap. Evang. 1. i. pag; 26.
Steph. where we have a minute detail of the fymbolical properties of that creature, according to Taautos the
great legiflator of that people.
(t) Servius in Georg. 1. Virg. ver. 166. Myftica vemus Jacchi. The fan, fays he, is an emblem of thal
purifying influence of the myiteries by which the initiated were,cleanfed from all their former pollutions, and
qualified for commencing a holy courfe of life.
-(u) Clem. Alexand. Cohort, pag. 11. Pott, derives this word from Cheveht the mother of mankind, who
firfl: opened the gate to that and every other error ; but we are rather inclined to believe that it comes from
the oriental word Heve, which fignifies a “ ferpentwhich among the Egyptians was facred to the fun, and
was likewife the emblem of life and immortality. It then imported a prayer to Bacchus for life, vigour,
health, and every other bleffing.
(x) The phallus was the fymbol of the fru&ifying power of Nature. The Itophallus was the type of thai
jpower in a6t.
M Y S T
crecy and impunity. Orpheus law the degeneracy
of thofe ceremonies; and in endeavouring to reform
them he prdbably loit hia life Pentheus fuffered in
the like attempt, being torn in pieces by the Baccha¬
nalians on mount Citheron, among whom were his
own mother and his aunts. ihe Greeks, who were
an airy jovial people,- feem to have paid little re¬
gard to the plaintive part of the orgia ; or rather, we
believe, they ached with howling and frantic exclama¬
tions, often enhanced by a combination of drunken-
nefs, ecftafy, and enthuliaific fury.
What fecrets, religious, moral, political, or phyli-
cal, were communicated to the votaries, it is impof.
fible to determine with any degree of certainty.—
Bodtnnes ®ne thing we may admit, namely, that the dodirines
-a.td diicovered and inculcated in the orgia, were originally
u of- the'very fame which the apoftles of the feft had im¬
bibed in Egypt and Phoenicia; and ofc which we have
given a brief account near the beginning of this ar¬
ticle. It is, however, probable, that the fpurious or
Theban Bacchus had iuperadded a great deal of his
' own invention, which, we may believe, was not alto¬
gether fo found and faiubrious as the original do&rine.
However that may be, the initiated were made to be--
lieve that they were to derive wonderful advantages t
from the participation of thofe rites, both in this life
and that which is to come. Of this, however, we
fhall talk more at length By and by in our account of
the Eleulinian myfteries.
To detail the etymology of the names of this Pagan
deity, the fables relating to bis birth, his education,
his transformations, his wars, peregrinations, adven-
_ lures, the various and multiform rites with which he
was worlhipped, would fwellthis article to a moll im¬
moderate-, iize. If any of our readers fhould wilh to
be more minutely and more accurately acquainted with
this fubjecl, we mult beg leave to remit them-to Diod.
Sic. Apollod. Bibl. Euripid. Bacchae. Aritfophane Ra¬
il se, Nonn. Dionyf. and among the moderns, to Ban.
Mythol. Volf, de' origi. Idol. Monf. Fourmont, Re¬
flexions fur 1’origine anciens peuples, Mr Bryant’s
Analyf. and efpecially to Mons Cour de Gebelin, Ca-
lendries eu Almanach. That prince of etymologifts,
in his account.of the feftival of Bacchus, has given a
moft acute and ingenious explication of the names
and epithets of that deity. For our part, we/ have
endeavoured to collect and exhibit .fuch as we judged
moil important, molt entertaining, and mod inilructive,
,4 to the lefs enlightened claffes of our readers.
'Eletifmian We now proceed to the Eleufmian myfteriesj whicb|
wyfterifs among the ancient Greeks and Romans, were treated
honour*©/11 w’t^ a fuperior degree of awe and veneration. Thefe
'Ceres. were inllituted in honour of Geres, the goddefs of
Corn ; who, according to the moll authentic accounts,
' was the His of the Egyptians. The mylteries of Qli-
ris and Ifis have been hinted at in the preceding part
of this article. They were originally inltituted in ho-
hour of the fun and moon, and afterwards confe-
crated to an Egyptian prince and princefs ^ .who, in
confequence of their merits, had been deified by that
peoplfe. We know of no more exadt and brilliant de-
feription of the ceremonies of that goddeis, in the
molt polilhed ages of the Egyptian fuperftition, than
X/j, ij, what we meet with in the witty and florid Apuleius ■*,
ERIE S.
to which we multt take the liberty to refer oar mci'e
curious readers. Our bufinefs at prefent lhall be to
try to iuveiligate by what means, and upon what oc-
calion, thole mylteries were introduced into Attica,
and eltablifhed at Eleulis. *A pafiage from Diodorus
Siculus $, which we lhall here tranflate, will, weg ^ u
think, throw no inconlideiable light on that abltrufe
part of the ftibjeCt.
“ In hke manner with him (Cecrops), fays that ju-
dious hiitorian, they teli us, that Ercdtheus, a prince
of Egyptian extraction, once reigned at Athens. Of
this fact they produce the following evidence : A 45
icorching-drought, during the reign of this prince, On what'
prevailed over aimoft ail tne habitable world, exceptoccafion
Egypt; which, in confequence. of the'humidity or its~,
foil, was n.,t afleCted by that calamity., The fruits of ca> ”v
the earth were bm-nt up ; and at the lame time mul¬
titudes of people perilhed by famine. - Eredtheus, up- -
on this occahon,. as he was connedted with Egypt,
imported avail quantity of grain from that country to >
Athens. The people, who had been relieved by his
munificence, unanimoully elected him king. Being
invelted with, the government, he taught his fubjeCts
the mylleries of Ceres at Eleulis and the mode of ce¬
lebrating the facred ceremonies, having tranferred from
Egypt the ritual for that purpofe. In thofe times the
goddets is faid to have made her-appearance at Athens
three< feverai times; becaufe, according, to tradition,
the fruits of the earth which bear her name were then
imported into Attica.. Go this-account the feeds and
fruits of the earth were faid to be the invention of that
deity. Now the Athenians themfeives acknowledge, <
that, in the reign of Eredtheus, the fruits of the earth,
having perilhed for want-of rain, the arrival of Ceres
in their country did adtually happen, and that along ,
with her the bleffing of corn was reitored to the earth.
They tell us at the fame time, that the teletae and
the mylteries of that goddefs were then received and
inltituted at Eieufis.”
Here then we have the whole myftery of the arrival
of. Ceres inAttica, and the inllitution of her mylteries'
at Eieufis unveiled. The whole is evidently an oriental
allegory. The fruits of the earth had been deitroyed
by a long courfe of drought; Egypt,, by its peculiar
lituation, had been prefer.ved from that dreadful cala- .
mity. Eredtheus, in confequence . of his relation to
- the Egyptians, imported from their country a quan¬
tity of grain; not only fufficient for the conlumption
of his own iubjects, but alio a great overplus to ex¬
port to other parts, of Greece* oicily, Italy, Spain,
&c. Triptoiemus, another Egyptian, was appointed
by Eredtheus to export this iuperfluous bore. That
hero, according to Pherecydes, was the Ion of Oce-
anus and Tellus, that is, ot the lea and the earth ; be¬
caufe his parents were not known, and becaufe he came
to Eieufis by fea. The ihip in which he failed, when
he dihributed his .corn to the weltern parts of the
world, was,decorated with the figure of a winged dra*
gon : therefore, in the allegorical ityle of his country,
he was faid to be wafted through Uie air in a chariot
drawn by dragons. Thofe creatures, every body knows,
were held facred by the Egyptians.
Wherever , nptolemus uiipofed of his corn, thither
were extended the wanderings oi Ceres. ’ In order to
elucidate
59o M Y S T
elucidate tKIs point, we mud obferve, that along with
the grain imported from Egypt, Eredheus, or Trip-
tolemus, or both, tranfported into Attica a cargo of
prieiis and pridlefies from the temples of Bufiris, a
$ Html. city which lay in the ^ centre of the Delta, where the
Lib. z. goddefs Ifis had a number of chapels ereded for her
worlhip. TL'lie prefidents of thcfe ceremonies, like all
other bigots, gladly laid hold on this opportunity of
propagating their religious rites, arid difieminating
the worfhip of the deities of their country. That the
Egyptian priefts were zealous in propagating the dog¬
mas of their fuperflition, is abundantly evident from
the extenfive fpreading of their rites and ceremonies
over almoft all Afia and a confiderable part of Europe.
The Greek and Roman idolatry is knowm to have oii-
ginated from them ; and numberlefs monuments of their
} Afi.dlc impious worfhip are ftill extant in Perfia|, India, Ja-
Jie/iarcbes, pail) Tartary, &c. Our inference then is, that the
.\oL ar‘t* worfliip of Ills was introduced into every country where
Triptolemus fold or difpofed of his commodities.—
Hence the wanderings of Ceres in fearch of her daugh¬
ter Proferpine, who is generally called Core. 1 he
famine occafioned by the drought deftroying the fruits
of the ground, imports the lofs of Proferpine. The
reftoration of the corn in various parts of the earth,
by frefh fupplies from Egypt from time to time, im¬
ports the wanderings of Ceres in quell of Proferpine.
The whole procefs is an oriental allegory. The dif*
appearing of the fruits of the earth,, of which Profer-
Shlfofir' P“le>orPerfep*‘one#’ or Perefephone( y ), is the emblem,
jlt e is the allegorical rape of that goddefs. She was feized
and carried off by Pluto, fovereign of the infernal re¬
gions. The feed committed to the earth in that dry
feafon appeared no more, and was, confequcntly, faid
to dwell under ground with Pluto. It was then that
Ceres, that is, corn imported from Egypt, fet out in
queft of her daughter. Again, when the earth reco¬
vered her prilline fertility, the Core, or maid, was
found by her mother Ceres, that is, the earth; for Ifis,
among the Egyptians frequently Signified the earth.
The wanderings of Ifis in fearch of Ofiris furnifhed the
44 model for the peregrinations of Cere4s.
Different Ceres, the Roman name of the goddefs of corn,
names of was unknown to the modern Greeks. They always
Ceres. denominated her Z)affra/er(z), which is rather an epi¬
thet than a proper name. The Greeks, who always
affe&ed to pafs for originals, we think fuppreffed the
Egyptian name on purpofe, to conceal the country of
that deity. As a proof of the probability of this con-
jedlure it may be obferved, that they metamorphofed
the wanderings of Ifis in fearch of Ofiris into the pe-
4
FRIES.,
regrinations of Ceres in quell of Proferpine. The
Romans, who were lefs ambitious of the chara&er of
originality, retained one of her oriental names (a).
Ceres, fays Diodorus, appeared thrice in Attica du¬
ring the reign of Ereftheus; which feems to impoit,
that fleets loaded with corn had thrice arrived in that
country from Egypt during that period.
Cecrops the firll king of Attica had eftablifhed the
worfliip of the Saitic Athena or Minerva in that re¬
gion, and ccnfecratcd his capital to that deity. Erec-
theus, in his turn, introduced the worfhip of Ifis or
Damater, who in all appearance was the tutelar deity
of Bufiris his native city. The fubjefts of Cecrops
were a colony of Saites, and readily embraced the wor-;i ns at*.--
fhip of Minerva; but the aborigines of that diilriA■■hens re¬
being accuftomed to a maritime, perhaps to a pirati- fPt<air,g
cal, courfe of life, were more inclined to confecrate^^jjiJJ*
their city to Neptune the god of the fea, and to con-tune, the
flitute him their guardian and protedlor. Cecrops by immediate
a ftratagern fecured the preference to Minerva his fa-jia“fe
vourite divinity. Ere&heus, in order to give equal^1”^^*
importance to his patronefs, had the addrefs to infli-at tleuiis.
tute the Eleufinian myfleries; and to accomplifh his
defign laid hold on the opportunity above mentioned.
This appears to us the mod probable account of the
origin and inflitution of the Eleufinian myfteries; for
which the Sicilian hiftorian has indeed furnifhed the
clue. We fhall now proceed to detail fomc other cir-
cumftances which attended the original inllitution of
thefe far-famed ceremonies.
The archprieftefs who perfonated the newly import¬
ed deity was entertained by one Celeus *, who was * ApolM.
either viceroy of that petty diflridl of which Eleufis BM. Lib.3.1
was the capital, or fome conflderable perfonage in that "A 13-
city or its neighbourhood. Upon her immediate ar- Cjrc^
rival, according to the fabulous relations of the Greeks, ^ance9 *N
a farce was acted not altogether fuitable to the cha-tending the
rafter of a goddefs whofe myfleries were one day toappear-’
be deemed fo facred and auflere. Thefe coarfe recep- reSC;n°^e
tions, and other indecencies attending the firfl ap-t ca>
pearance of the goddefs, that is, the Egyptian dame
who affumed her charafter, were copied from the like
unhallowed modes of behaviour praftifed on occa-
fion of the folemn procefflons of her native country.
Thefe fcommata, or coarfe jokes, had an allegorical
fignification in Egypt ; and among the moft ancient
Greeks the very fame fpirit was univerfally diffufed by
the oriental colonifts who from time to time airrved
and fettled among them. In procefs of time they aban¬
doned the figurative and allegorical ftyle, in confequence
of their acquaintance with philofophy and abflraft
reafomng.
(v) This word feems to be formed of two Hebrew terms, pheri “ fruit,” and tzaphon, or tzephon, “ aSfcondit,
recondidit.”
(z) Damater is compounded of the Chaldiac particle da “ the,” and water “ mother.” As Ifis often
fignified the earth, the Greeks naturally adopted that title ; becaufe, according to them, that element is the
mother of all living. In the very fame manner they difearded the word June, an original title of the moon,
and fubftituted //era, which intimates “ miftrefs or lady.”
(a) According to fome of the Latin etymologifts, Ceres, or rather Geres, is derived from gero to bear,
to carry,” becaufe the earth bears all things; or becaufe that element is the general fruit-bearer. Brit as this
term came to Italy immediately from the call, and not by the medium of Greece, we would rather incline to
adopt an oriental etymology. The Hebrew word cherts fignifies arare “ to flew a uaroe naturally appli¬
cable to the goddefs of hufbandry.
’eres and
iacchus,
/ho they
MYSTERIES.
59'i
yeafoning. In tHe ceremonies of religion, however,
the fame allegorical and typical reprefentations which
had been imported from the eaft were retained ; but
the Grecian hierophants in a (hort time loll every idea
of their latent import, and religious, moral, or phyIl¬
eal interpretation. Accordingly, this (hameful rencoun¬
ter between Ceres andBanb6(n),orJambe, was retained
in the myfteries, though we think it was copied from
Egypt, as was faid above, where even that obfeene
a&ion was probably an allegorical reprefentation of
fomething very different from what appeared to the
Greeks.
At the fame time that Ceres arrived in Attica,
Bacchus likewife made his appearance in that countiy*.
He was entertained by one Icarus ; whom, as a re¬
ward for his hofpitality, he infracted in the art of
cultivating the vine, and the method of manufacturing
wine. Thus it appears that both agriculture and the
art of managing the vintage were introduced into A-
thens much about the fame time. Ceres was no other
than a prieftefs of Ills ; Bacchus was no doubt a priefl:
of Ofiris. The arrival of thofe two perfonages from
Egypt, with a number of inferior priells in their train,
produced a memorable revolution in Athens, both with
refpeft to life, manners, and religion. The facred rites
of Ifis, afterwards fo famous under the name of the
Eleufinian myfteries, date their inftitution from this pe¬
riod.
When this company of propaganda arrived at Eleu-
fis, they were entertained by fome of the moft refpect-
able-perfons who then inhabited that diftricE Their
names, according to Clem. Alexand. were Banbo,
Dyfaulis, Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and Eubulus.
From Eumolpus were defeended a race of priefts called
Eumolpidas, who figured at Athens many ages after.
Triptolemus was an ox-herd, Eumolpus a fhepherd,
and Eubulus a fwine-herd. Thefe were the firft apoftles
of the Eleufinian myfteries. - They were inftruCfed by
the Egyptian miffionaries; and they, in their turn,
inftruCted their fuccefibrs. Erechtheus, or, as fome
fay, Paiidion, countenanced the feminary, and built
a fmall temple for its accommodation in Eleufis, a
city of Attica, a few miles weft from Athens, and
originally one of the twelve di'lri&s into which that
territory was divided. Here then we have arrived at
the feene of thofe renowned, myfteries, which for the
fpace of near 2000 years were the pride of Athens
and the wonder of the world.
The myfteries were divided into the greater and lef-
fer. The latter were celebrated at Agra;, a fmall
town on the river Ilyffus: the former were celebra¬
ted in the month which the Athenians called Boedro-
mion (c) ; the latter in the month Anthefterion (ts).
The leffer myfteries, according to the fabulous legends
of the Greeks, were inftituted in favour of the cele¬
brated Hercules. That fitro being commanded by
Euryftheus to bring up Cerberus from the infernal re¬
gions, was defirou* of being initiated in the Eleufi¬
nian myfteries before he engaged in that perilous un¬
dertaking. He addrdled himftlf to Eumolpus- the
hierophant for that purpofe. There was a law 'among
the Eleufmians prohibiting the initiation of foreigners.
The prieft not daring to refufe the benefit to Hercules,
who was both a friend and benefaftor to the Athe¬
nians, advifed the hero to get himfelf adopted by a
native of the place, and fo to elude the force of the
law. He was accordingly adopted by one Pyolius,
and fo was initiated in the lefler myfteries, which were
inftituted for the firft time upon that occalion. This
account has all the air of a fable. The leffer myfte¬
ries were inftituted by way of preparation for the
greater. _ 45>
The perfon who was to be initiated in the leffer Aufteiides-
myfteries, as well as in the greater, was obliged toand Ptes
praftife the virtue of chaftity a confiderable time be- Prcvi°us 1:0
fore his admifiion. Befides, he was to bind himfelf’"1 12 l°a
by the moftfolemn vows not to divulge any part of the
myfteries. At the fame time, he was, according to the
original inftitution, to be a perfon of unblemifhcd mo¬
ral charafter. Thefe were preliminaries indifpenfably
neceftary in order to his admiffion. A bull was facri-
ficed to Jupiter, and the hide of that animal, called
by a peculiar name (Aior was carefully pre-
ferved and carried to Eleufis, where it was fpread
under the feet of the initiated. The candidate was
then purified by bathing in the river Ilyffus, by afper-
fions with fait water or fait, with laurel barley, and
pafiing through the fire : all which rites were attended
with incantations and other ufages equally infignift-
cant and ridiculous. Taft of all, a young fow was
facrificed to Ceres ; and this animal, according to the
ritual, behoved to be with pigs : and before it was
killed it was to be walhed in Canthanis, one of the
three harbours which formed the Piraeus.
All thefe ceremonies duly performed, the candidate fnto^the
was carried into the hall appointed for the purpofe ofltfler my-
initiation. There he was taught the firft elements of fter.ies;
thofe arcana which were afterwards to be more fullywtlicl3
and more clearly revealed in the more auguft myfteries
of Eleufis. The pupils at Agrae were called Myjlx,
which may intimate probationers ; whereas thofe of
Eleufis were denominated Epopte, importing that they
faw as they were feen.
The Idler myfteries were divided into feveral ftages, r
and candidates were admitted to them according to Cevetil'^^
their quality and capacity refpedivdy. Thofe who ftages, with
were initiated in the loweft were obliged to wait five loT1g inter,
years before they were admitted to the greater. Thofe vais be'
who had partaken of the fecond kind underwent a no - [henu
viciate of three years; thofe who had been admitted
to the third, one of two years; and thofe who had
gone through the fourth were adnutted td the greater
at the end of one year ; which.Was the fhorteft period
of .probation a candidate for that honour could legally
undergo. Such was the procefs generally obferved in
adm^iiftering the Idler myfteries.
With
(b) Apollod. Bib. ubi fupra. Ckm. ASexand. Cahod. page 17. where the ftory is told with very Kills
referve.
^c) The third month of the Athenian year, anfwcring to our September.
(o) The eighth month, anfwering to our February} but Meurftus makes it November,
■•5f)5 M Y 'S T
t ^ _ 'With rt-fpetl'to tire greater myfleries, it is probable
I'nMvts of t^at orig'nally none but the natives of" Attica were ad-
Athcrs ori- fitted to partake of them. In procefs of time, how-
pinnliy ad- ever, the pale was extended fo far and wide as to com¬
mitted to prehend all who fpoke the Greek language. Allfo-
eater r^gners were debarred from thofe facred rites. They
’ • tell us, however, that Hercules, Bacchus, Caflor and
Pollux, ^Efculapius and Hippocrates, were initiated
in an extraordinary manner, from a regard to their
high character and heroic exploits. All barbarians,
too, were excluded ; yet Anacharfis the Scythian was
indulged that privilege, in confequence of his reputa¬
tion for fcience and philofophy. All perfoas guilty
of mar.daughter, though even accidentally or- invo-
i luntaril'y, all magicians, enchanters ; in a word, all
-impious and profane pgrfons, were exprefsdy prohibited
; the benefit of this pagan facrament. At laft, however,
• the gate became wider, and crowds of people, of all
nations, kindreds, and kmguages, prpvided their cha-
rafter was . fair and irreproachable, rufhed in by it.
Jn procefs of time the Athenians initiated even their
infants; but this, we imagine, mull have been a kind
of luftration or purification from which \f. was fuppofed
•that they derived a kind of moral ablution from vice,
and were thought to be under the peculiar proteftion
53 of the goddefs.
CMebr tion The celebration of the myfleries began on the 15th
" dsf*'* but6 ^ of the rnonth Boedromion ; and, according to
ajs’ u moft ancient authors, lafted nine day-s. . Meurfius
has enumerated the tranfaftions - of. each day, which
are much too numerous fo fall within the compafs of
this article ; we mult therefore refer our curious reader
to the author juft mentioned. Some days before the
commencement of the feftival, the prascones, or pub¬
lic criers, invited all the initiated, and all the pretenders
to that honour, to attend the feftival, with clean
hands and a pure heart, and the knowledge of the
Greek language.
On the evening of the 1 5th day of the month cal-
Was^er kd Baedrom'wn the initiations commenced. Our read-
yformed on- era will obferve, that all the moft facred and folemn
iv during rites of the pagan fuperftition were performed during
ftienighr. the night: they were indeed generally works of dark-
»efs. On this day there was a folemn cavalcade of
Athenian matrons from Athens toEleufis, in carriages
drawn by oxen. In this .proceffion the ladies ufed to
rally one another in pretty loofe terms, in imitation,
we fuppofe, of the Iliac jiroceffion deferibed by He-
55 rodotus, which has been mentioned above. The moft
The iVlun- remarkable o’ jeft in this proceffion was the Mundus
*2usGereris. Ccrens, contained in a fmall coffer or ballcet. This
was carried by a feleft company of Athenian matrohs,
who, from their office, wereftyled Camphora. In this
coffer were lodged the comb of.Ceies, her mirror,
a ferpentine figure, fome wheat and barley, the pu¬
denda of the two fexes, and perhaps fome other arti¬
cles which we have not been able to difeover. The
proceffioh ended at the temple, where this facred charge
was depofited with the greateft fokmnity.
We have no defeription of the temple of Eleufis
upon record. Paufanias intended to have deferibed
it; but fays he was diverted from his defign by a
tiLH- 9-, Bream'll. Strabo informs us that the myftic fanftu-
ary was as large as a theatre, and that it was built by
* Se« Iftinus*. In the porche, or outer part of this temple,
S'“ N° 235-
E R I E S.
the candidates were crowned with garlands of flowers, -
which they called hlmera, or “ the defirabte.” Theyn^af
were at the fame time dreffed in new garments, which the candi-
they continued to wear’till th^y were quite wornbut. daces.
They then waffied their hands in a laver filled vyith
holy water ; a ceremony which intimated the purity of
' their hearts.and hands. Before the doors were locked,
pne of the officers of the temple proclaimed with aj^Tp the
loud voice a ftern mandates enjoining all the unini-uninitiated
tiated to keep at a diftance from- the temple, and de-at a de¬
nouncing the moft terrible menaces if any Ihould dareftancc*
to difturb or pry into the holy myfteries. Nor were
thefe menaces without effeft : for if any perfon was
found to have crowded into the fanftuary even through
ignorance, he was put to death without mercy. Every
precaution having been taken to fecure fecrecy, the
initiatory ceremonies now began. But before we de-
fcribe thefe, we muft lay before our readers a brief
account of the minifters and retainers of thefe fecrets
qf pagan fra. ... 5g
The chief minifter of thefe far-famed myfteries Th- hiero.
was the Hierophant. He was ftyled King, and enjoy-phant.
ed that dignity during life, and was always by birth
an Athenian. Heprefided in the folemnity, as is evi¬
dent from his title. Idris perfbnage, as we learn from
Eufebius, reprefented the Demiurgus, or Creator of
the world. “ Now in the myfteries of Eleufis (fays
that father) the hierophant is dreffed out in the figure
of the demiurgus ” What this demiurgus was, we
learn from the fame -writer. As this whole infti-
tution was copied from the Egyptians, we may reft
affured that the figure of the Eleufinian Demiurgus
was borrowed from the fame quarter. “ As for the
fymbols of the Egyptians (fays he, quoting from Por¬
phyry*), they are of the following complexion. The# pre^
Demiurgus, whom the Egyptians call Cneph, is figured-Evan,
as a man of an azure colour, ffiaded with black, hold¬
ing in his right hand a feeptre and in his left a girdle,
and having on his head a royal wing or feather wreath¬
ed round.” Such, we imagine, was the equipment
of the Eleufinian hierophant. This'perfon was like-
wife ftyled Prophet. He was to be of the family of
the Eumolpidas; was obliged to make a vow of per¬
petual ehaftity ; and even his voice, hair, and attitude,
were adjufted to the ritual.
The next minifter was the Daduchus, or torch-The dadu.
bearer,; who, according to the father above quoted, chus.
was attired like the fun. This minifter refembled the
fun, becaufe that luminary was deemed the vifible type
of the fupreme Demiurgus, 'and his vicegerent in go¬
verning and arranging the affairs of this lower world. go j
The third was the perfpn who officiated at the altar. The prieftd
He was habited like the moon. His office was to im¬
plore the favour of the gods for all the initiated. We
ffiould rather imagine, .that the perfon at the altar, as
he refembled the moon, was intended to reprefent the
goddefs herfelf: for the Egyptian Ifis, who was the
archetype of Ceres, was fometimes the moon and
fometimes the earth. gf
The facred herald was another principal aftor in rhcnerald
this folernn exhibition. His province was to recite
every thing that, according to the ritual, was to be
communicated to the novices ; and he probably repre¬
fented Thyqth or Thoth, that is Hermes or Mercury,
the interpreter of the gods.
3 Befides
M Y S T
6* Be Tides tKefe, there were five epimelets or cura-
lort ir tors> whom the king was one, who jointly direfl-
r*’ c' ed the whole ceremonial. Laftly, there were ten
prielts to offer the facrifices. There were no doubt
many officers of inferior note employed upon thefe
occafions ; but thefe were only infignificant appenda¬
ges, whofe departments have not been tranfmitted to
pofterity
After this detail of the minifters of this fqlemn fer-
vice, we return to the myjla, or candidates for initia-
t tion. Some of the fathers of the churchf mention
a hymn compofed by the celebrated Orpheus, which
was fung by the myftagoguc or king upon that occa-
fion. This hymn appears to us one of thofe fpurious
compofitions which abounded in the hrft ages of
Chiftianity, and which the pious apologifts often
adopted without fufficient examination. That fome
fecred hymn was chanted upon that occafion, we
think highly probable; but that the one in queftion
was either compofed by Orpheus, or ufed at the open¬
ing of thefe ceremonies, to us appears fomewhat pro¬
blematical.
Before the ceremony opened, a book was produced,
which contained every thing relating to the telette.
This was read over in the ears of the myftas ;
who were ordered to write out a copy of it for
themfelvcs This book was kept at Eleuiis in a
facred repofitory, formed by two ffones exadly fitted
, to each other, and of a very large fize. This repo-
The petro- fitory was called pttroma. At the annual celebration
of the greater myfteries, thefe ftones were taken
afunder, and the book taken out; which, after be¬
ing read to the myltae, was replaced in the fame
cafement.
tolommence tnd*34’0118 began with a reprefentation of the
iXthenc of wanderings of Ceres, and her bitter and loud lamen-
jfie initia- tations for the lofs of her beloved daughter. Upon
this occafion, no doubt, a figure of that deity was
difplayed to the myftas, while loud lamentations echoed
from every corner of the fan&uary. One of the com¬
pany having kindled a firebrand at the altar, and
fprung to a certain place in the temple, waving
the torch with the utmoft fury, a fecond fnatched
it from him, roaring and waving it in the fame
frantic manner; then a third, fourth, &c. in the moil
rapid fucceffion. This was done to imitate Ceres, who
was faid to have perluilrated. the globe of the earth
with a flaming pine in her hand, which fire had light¬
ed at mount Etna.
When the pageant of. the goddefs was fuppofed to
arrive at Eleufis, a folemn paufe enfued, and a few
trifling queftions were put to the myltre : What thefe
(hons quettions were, is evident from the anfwers. “ I have
the failed ; I have drank the liquor ; I have taken the
« «S
feuelh.
tyil*.
contents out of the coffer; and having performed
the ceremony, have put them into the hamper i I
have taken them out of the hamper, and put them
again in the coffer.” The meaning of thefe anfwers,
we conjecture, was this : “ I have failed as Ceres faffed
while in fearch of her daughter ; I have drunk off the
wort as fire drank when given her by Banbo; I have
performed what Ceres taught her firft difciples to
perform, when ffie committed to them, the facred ham¬
per and coffer.” After thefe interrogatories, and the
fuitable refponfes, the mundus Ccreris was difplayed
Vol. XII. Part II,
E It I E S. 593
before the eyes of the myff®, and the myjjagogue or
hierophant, or perhaps the facred herald by his com¬
mand, read a leCture on the allegorical import of thofe
facred fymbols. This was heard with the moil pro¬
found attention; and a folemn filence prevailed through¬
out the fane. Such was the fir i aft of this religious
farce, which perhaps confifted originally of nothing
more. 66
After the expofition of the mundus Ceteris, and the Traditions
import of her wanderings, many traditions were com-refi,e<5*in&
municated to the myffae concerning the origin
the univerfe and the nature of things. The doftrines vcrfiT&c!."
delivered in the greater myfteries, fays Clem. Alex.
“ relate to the nature of the univerfe. Here all inftruc-
tion ends. Things are feen as they are ; and nature,
and the things of nature, are given to be comprehended.
To the fame purpofe Cicero : « Which points being
explained and reduced to the ftandard of reafon, the
nature of things, rather than that of the gods, is difco-
vered.” The Father of the uhiverfe, or the fupreme
demiurgus, was reprefented as forming the chaotic mafs
into the four elements, and producing animals, vege¬
tables, and all kinds of organized beings, out of thofe
materials. They fay that they were informed of the
fecrets of the anomalies of the moon, and the eclipfes
of the fun and moon ; and, according to Virgil,
Unde hominum genus, etpecudes, unde Met et ignes.
What fyftem of cofmogony thofe hierophants adopt¬
ed, is evident from the paffage above quoted from
Eufebius ; and, from the account immediately preced¬
ing, it was that of the moll ancient Egyptians, and
of the orientals in general. This cofmogony is beau¬
tifully and energetically exhibited in Plato’s Timseus,
and in the genuine fpirit of poetiy by Ovid in the
beginning of his Metamorphofes.
The next fcene exhibited upon the-ftage, on this Exploits of
folemn occafion, confifted of the exploits and adveii-the god-3
tares of the gods, demigods, and heroes, who had,31,(1
from time to time, been advanced to divine honours.
Thefe were difplayed as paffing before the myfhe in
pageants fabricated for that important purpofe. This
was the original mode among the Egyptians, and was
no doubt followed by their Eleufinian pupils. Thofe
adventures were probably demonttrated to have been
allegorical, fymbolical, hieroTyphical, &c. at leaft
they were exhibited in fuch a favourable point of
view as to difpel thofe abfurdities and inconfiftencies
with which they were fophifticated by the poets and
the vulgar.
_ With refpeft to the origin of thofe faaitious dei- T, 69 „
ties, it was difeovered that they had been originTly Kin^r
men who had been exalted to the rank of divinity,
in confequence of their heroic exploits, their ufcful
inventions, their beneficent actions, &c. This is fo
clear from the two palfages quoted from Cicero, by
bifhop Warburtonf, that the fa<£l cannot be contra-f z)h.
difted. But that prelate has not informed us fo pre- " *
cifely, whether the myftagogues reprefented them as
nothing more, than dead men, in their prefent ftate,
or as beings who were actually exiffing in a deified
ftate, and executing the functions afligned them in
the rubric of paganifm. Another query naturally oc¬
curs, that is, to what purpofe did the myftagogues
apply this communication ? That the hierophants did
4 F a&ualiy
594
M Y S TERI ES.
a&ually reprefent thofc deified mortals in the latter
predicament, is obvious from another paflage quoted
from Cicero by the fame prelate, which we fhall
tranforibe as tranflated by him: “ What think you
of thofe who affert that valiant, or famous, or power¬
ful men, have obtained divine honours after death; and
that thefe are the very gods now become the objefts
of our worfhip, our prayers, and adoration ? Eu-
hemerus tells us when thefe gods died, and where they
lie buried. I forbear to fpeak of the facred and au-
guft rites of Eleufis. I pafs by Samothrace and the
myfteries of Lemnos, whofe hidden rites are celebrated
in darknefs, and amidft the thick fhades of groves and
forefts.” If, then, thofe deified mortals were become
the objefts of worfhip and prayers, there can be no
doubt of the belief of their deified exiftence. The
allufion to the Eleufinian and other pagan myfteries
towards the clofe of the quotation, places the queftion
beyond the reach of controverfy. But though, ac¬
cording to this account, “ there were gods many and
lords many yet it is evident from the paffage quo¬
ted from Eufebius in the preceding part of this ar-
Unn/of t:cle> tliat tlie unity of the Supreme Being wasmain-
thcftiprerne tained, exhibited, and inculcated. This was the ori-
Bemgniain-g;nal do&rine °f the Hierophants of Egypt: It was
tamed in ma;ntained by Thales and all the retainers of the lo-
e‘ nian fchool. It was the do&rine of Pythagoras, who
probably gleaned it up in the country juft mentioned,
in connexion with many other dogmas which he had
the affurance to claim as his own.
But however the unity, and perhaps fome of the
mod obvious attributes of the Supreme Author of
nature, might be illuftrated and inculcated, the tri¬
bute of homage and veneration due to the fubordinate
divinities was by no means neglefted. The initiated
were taught to look to the dii majorum gentium with a fu-
perior degree of awe and veneration, as beings endowed
with an ineffable meafure of power, wifdom, purity,
• goodnefs, &c. Thefe were, if we may ufe the expref-
fion, the prime favonrites of the Monarch of the uni-
verfe, who were admitted into his immediate prefence,
and who received his behefts from his own mouth, and
70 communicated them to his fubordinate officers,prefefts,
Offices of lieutenants, &c. Thefe they w-ere exhorted to adore;
the other t0 t^em they were to offer facrifices, prayers, and
every other aft of devotion, both on account of the
excellency of their nature and the high rank they
bore at the court of heaven. I'hey were inftrufted
to look up to hero gods and demi-gods, as beings
exalted to the high rank of governors of different
parts of nature, as the immediate guardians and pro-
teftors of the human race ; in fhort, as gods near at
band, as prompters to a virtuous courfe, and affiftants
in it; as ready upon all occafions to confer bleffings
upon’ the virtuous and deferving. Such were the
doftrines taught in the teletse with refpeft to the
nature of the Pagan divinities, and the worffiip and
devotion enjoined to be offered them by the myfteries.
71 As the two principal ends propofed by thefe ini-
pUnfor ac-tiations were the extreife of heroic virtues in men,
compWh- and the practice of fincere and_ uniform piety by the
ing the candidates for immortal happinefs, the hierophants
'ofeddn thehad adopted a plan of operations excellently accom-
jRjfterie*. 6 niodated to both thefe purpofes. The virtuous con-
duft and heroic exploits of the great men and demi¬
gods of early antiquity, were magnified by the moft
pompous elogiums, enforced with fuitable exhorta¬
tions to animate the votaries to imitate fo noble and
alluring an example. But this was not all: the he¬
roes and demigods themfelves were difplayed in pa¬
geants, or vehicles of celeftial light. I heir honours,
offices, habitations, attendants, and other appendages,
in the capacity of demons, were exhibited with all
the pomp and fplendor that the facerdotal college were
able to devife. The fudden glare of mimic light, the
melting mufic ftealing upon the ear, the artificial
thunders reverberated from the roof and walls of the
temple, the appearance of fire and etherial radiance,
the vehicles of flame, the effigies of heroes and de¬
mons adorned with crowns of laurel emitting rays
from every fprig, the fragrant odours and aromatic
gales which breathed from every quarter, all dexte-
roufly counterfeited by facerdotal mechanifm, mult
have filled the imagination of the aftonilhed votaries
with piftures at once tremendous and tranfporting:
Add to this, that every thing was tranfafted in the
dead of night amidft a difmal gloom ; whence the
moft bright effulgence inftantaneoufly burft upon the
fight. By this arrangement the afpirants to initia¬
tion were wonderfully animated to the piaftice of
virtue while they lived, and infpired with the hope
of a bleffcd immortality when they died. At the
fame time, their awe and veneration for the gods of
their country was wonderfully enhanced by reflefting
on the appearances above deferibed. Accordingly
Strabo very judicioufly obferves, “ that the myftical
fecrecy of the facred rites preferves the majefty of the
Deity, imitating its nature, which efcapes our appre |
henfion. For thefe reafons, in celebrating the teletae,
the demons were introduced in their deified or glori¬
fied ftate.
But as all the candidates for initiation might not
afpire to the rank of heros and demigods, a more
eafy and a more attainable mode of conduft, in order
to arrive at the palace of happinefs, behoved to he
opened. Private virtues were inculcated, and thefe pr;V3*e r’ttb
too v/ere to meet a condign reward. But alas! this tues incui-
prefent life is too often a chequered feene, where vir-ca^edin the
tue is depreffed and trodden under foot, and vice lifts
up its head and rides triumphant. It is a diftate
of common fenfe, that virtue Ihould fooner or later future ftat<
emerge, and vice fink into contempt and mifery.
Here then the conduftors of the myfteries, properly
and naturally, adopted the doftrine of a future ftate
of rewards and punifhments. The dogma of the im¬
mortality of the human foul was elucidated, and care¬
fully and pathetically inculcated. This doftrine w'as
likewife imported from Egypt; for Herodotus J in- f ^
forms us, “ that the Egyptians were the firft people
who maintained the immortality of the human foul.”
The Egyptian immortality, however, according to
him, was only the metempfyehofts or tranfmigration
of fouls. This was not the fyftem of the ancient
Egyptians, nor indeed of the teletse. In thefe, a
rr.etempfychofis was admitted ; but that was carried
forward to a very diftant period, to wit, to the grand
Egyptian period of 36,000 years.
As the myftagogues well knew that the human mind
is more powerfully affefted by objefts prefented to the
eyes than by the moft engaging inftruftions conveyed
by
M Y S T
-y j by the ear, they made the emblems of Etyfmm and
'IfcmMems 'partaru3 pafs in review before the eyes of their no-
AnU^Varta v’lce3' There the Elyfnn fcenes, fo nobly defcribed
fu«. by the Roman poet, appeared in mimic fplendor; and,-
on the other hand, the gloom of Tartarus, Charon’s
boat, the dog of hell, the furies with treffes of fnakes,
the tribunal of Minos and Rhadamanthus, 8fc. were
difplayed in all their terrific ftate. Tantalus, Txion,
Sii’yphuS, the daughters of Danaus, &c. were repre-
fented in pageants before their eyes. Thefe exhibitions
were accompanied with moft horrible cries and bowl¬
ings, thunders, lightning, and other objefts of terror,
which we (hall mention in their proper place.
No contrivance could be better accommodated to
animate the pupils to the pra&ice of virtue on the one
hand, or to deter them from indulging vicious paffions
on the other. It refembled opening heaven and hell
to a hardened finner. The practices inculcated in ce¬
lebrating the myfteries are too numerous to be detail
ed in this imperfect (ketch. The worfhip of the gods
^ was ftridtly enjoined, as has been fhown above. The
The three three laws generally afcribed to Triptolemus were in-
Javys of culcated, i. To honour their parents; 2. To honour
t0 e* the gods with the firft fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to
treat brute animals with cruelty. Thefe laws were
imported from Egypt, and were communicated to the
Eleufinians by the original miffionaries. Cicero makes
the civilisation of mankind one of the moft beneficial
effe£ts of the Eleufinian inftitutions: “ Nullum mihi,
cum multa eximia divinaque videntur Athenae tuse pe-
perifle ; turn nihil melius illis myfteriis, quibus ex
agrefti imroanique vita, exculti ad humanitatem, et mi-
tigati fumus; initiaque, ut appellantur, ita revera prin-
cipia vitae cognovimus; neque folum cum leftitia vi-
vendi rationem accepimus, fed etiam cum fpe meliore
moriendi.” Hence it is evident, that the precepts of
humanity and morality were warmly recommended in
thefe inftitutions. 1 he virtue of humanity was ex¬
tended, one may fay, even to the brute creation, as
appears from the laft of Triptolemus’s laws above
quoted. Some articles were enjoined in the teletae
which may appear to us of lefs importance, which,
however, in the fymbolical ftyle of the Egyptians, were
abundantly figni Scant. The initiated were ‘‘command¬
ed to abftain from the flelh of certain birds and fifties;
from beans, from pomegranates and apples,, which
were deemed equally polluting. It was taught, that
to touch the plant of afparagus was as dangerous as
the moft deadly poifon. Now, fays Porphyry, who¬
ever is verfed in the hiftory of the vfo/is, knows for
what reafon they were commanded to abftain from
^ the flefli of birds ”
■ initia- The initiated then bound themfelves by dreadful oaths
;ed bound to obferve moft confcientioufty and to pradtife every
II1 “ "atto PrecePt tendered to them in the courfe of the teletse;
Lobf"; ve the and at the fame time never to divulge one article of
Kp-ecep'* of all that had been heard or feen by them upon that oc-
iheinyfte- cafion. In this they were fo exceedingly jealous, that
Hus' jEfchylus the tragedian was in danger of capital pu-
niftiment for having only alluded to one of the Eleu¬
finian arcana in a tragedy of his ; and one of the ar¬
ticles of indictment againft Diagoras the Melian was,
his having fpoken difrefpedtfully of the myfteries, and
diffuaded people from partaking of them. It muft
E R I E S. 595
then be allowed, that the inftitution of the myfteries
was of infinite advantage to the pagan world. They
were indeed a kind of facraments, by which the initia¬
ted bound themfelves by a folemn vow to pradtife piety
towards the gods, juftice and humanity towards their
fellow-men, and gentlenefs and tendernefs towards the
inoffenfive part ©f the brute creation. The pagans
themfelves were fo thoroughly convinced of this fadt,
that in their deputes with the apologifts for Chriftia-
nity, they often appealed to the teletas, and contraft-
ed their maxims with the moft fublime dodtrines of
that heavenly inftitution.
In order to imprefs thefe maxims the more deeply
upon the minds of the novices, and to fix their atten¬
tion more ftedfaftly upon the ledtures which were de¬
livered them by the myftagogue or the facred herald,
a mechanical operation was played off at proper inter¬
vals during the courfe of the celebration. “Towards
the end of the celebration (fays Stobaeus), the whole
feene is terrible; all is trembling, Ihuddering, fweat, ^
and aftoniftiment. Many horrible fpedtres are feen, Horrible
and ftrange cries and bowlings uttered. Light fuc-f e<slre'an<*
ceeds darknefs; and again the blackeft darknefs fcenesHter-
moft glaring light. Now appear open plains, flowery n3teiy
meads, and waving groves; where are feen dances and bited.
chorufes; and various holy phantafies enchant the fight.
Melodious notes are heard from far, with all the lub-
lime fymphony of the facred hymns. The pupil now
is completely perfedt, is initiated, becomes free, re¬
leafed, and walks about with a crown on his‘head,
and is admitted to bear a part in the facred rites.” A-
riftides de Myft. Eleuf. calls Eleufis “a kind of temple
of the whole, earth, and of all that man beholds done
in the moft dreadful and the moft exhilerating manner.
In what other place have the records of fable fung of
things more marvellous? or in what region upon earth
have the objedls prefented to the eye bore a more ex-
adt refemblance to the founds which ftrike the ear?
What objedl of fight have the numberlefs generations
of men and women beheld comparable to thefe exhi¬
bited in the ineffable myfteries ?” To the fame pur-
pofe, Pietho, in the oracles of Zoroaftres, informs us,
“ that frightful and ftiocking apparitions, in a variety
of forms, ufed to be difplayed to the myftse in the
courfe of their initiation.” And a little after, he adds,
“ that thunder and lightning and fire, and every thing
terrible which might be held fymbolical of the divine
prefence, was introduced.” Claudian, in his poem
De Rapta Proferpina, gives an elegant, though brief,
delcription of this phenomenon, which throws fome
light on the paffages above quoted.
“ yam mihi cernuntur trepidis delulra moveri
“ Sedihus et clarum dis pergere cuhnina /ucemy
“ Adventum tejlala Deg, jam magnus ah imis
“ Auditur fremitus terris, templumque remugit
“ Cecropidum.”
The fight of thofe appearances was called the Antopfia^
or “the real prefence hence thofe rites were fome-
times called Epoptica. The Epoptce were actually ini¬
tiated, and were admitted into the Saniium Santtmurry
and bore a part in the ceremonial; w hereas the myjl<ey
who had only been initiated in the leffer myfteries at
Agras, were obliged to Jake their ftation in the porch
4 F 2 of
59S M Y S T E
77 of the temple. The can-didates for initiation bathed
ha°1 themfelves in holy water, and put on new clothes, all
ablution in of linen, which they continued to wear till they were
the myfte- quite torn, and then they were confecrated to Ceres
ries. and Proferpino- From the ceremony of bathing they
were denominated Hydrant; and this again was a kind
of baptifmal ablution. Whether the phrafes of tuajh-
ing away Jinr putting on the Lord Jtfus Chriftx putting off
the old man 'with his dieds, putting on a robe of righteouf-
nefs,. being buried in baptifm, the words myjleryy perfeh,
perJeSion, which occur fo frequently in the NewTefta-
ment, efpecially in the writings of the apoftle St Paul,
are borrowed from the pagan mylteries, orfromufages
current among the Jews, we leave to our more learned
readei s to determine.
The Epoptae having fuftained all thofe fiery trials,
heard and feen every thing requifite, taken upon them
the vows and engagements above narrated, and, in a
.g word, having flrown themfelves good foldiers of Ceres
The iuitv and Proferpine, were now declared perfetl men. They
*ted deck- might, like Cebes’s virtuous man, travel wherever they
red perfect chofe : thofe wild beafts (the human pafiipns) which
meD‘ tyiannife over the reft of mankind, and often deftroy
them, had no longer dominion over them. They were
now not only perfed but regenerated men.. They were
now crowned with laurel, as was faid above, and dif-
miffed with two barb ifous words, Koy?, Konx
empax, of which perhaps the Hierophants themfelves
did not comprehend the import. They had been in¬
troduced by the firft Egyptian milfionaries, and re¬
tained in the facra after their fignification was loft.
This was a common praftice among the Greeks. In
the adminiftration of their religious ceremonies, they
retained many names of perfons, places, things, cu-
fioma, &c. which had been introduced by the Pheeni-
«ians and Egyptians, from whom they borrowed their
fyftem of idolatry. Thofe terms.conftituted the lan¬
guage of the gods, fa often mentioned by the prince
of poets. To us the words in queftion appear to be
Syriac, and to fignify, Be vigilant, be innocent.
Numerous and important were the advantages fup-
pofed to redound to the initiated, from their being ad¬
mitted to partake of the myfteries, both in this life
and that which is to come. Firft, they were highly
honoured, and even revered, by their contemporaries..
Indeed, they were looked up to as a kind of facred
perfons: they were, in reality, confecrated to Ceres
and Proferpine. Secondly,, they were obliged by their
oath terpradlife every virtue, religious, moral, political,
public, and private. Thirdly, they imagined, that
found advice, and happy meafures of conduct were fug-
gefted to the initiated by the Eleufinian goddeffes.
Accordingly, fays Pericles the celebrated Athenian
ftatefman, “ I am convinced, that the deities of Eleu-
fis infpired me with this fentiment, and that this ftra-
tagem was-fuggefted by the principal of the myftic
rites.” There is a beautiful paffage.in Ariftophanes’s*
comedy of the Rante to the very fame purpofe, of
which we (hall fubjoin the following periphrafis. It i>
fung by the chorus of the initiated.
R I E S.
Let us to fiow’ry meads repair.
With deathlefs rofes blooming,
Whofe balmy fweets impregn the air,
Both hills and dales perfuming.
Since fate benign our choir has join’d.
We’ll trip in myftic meafure ;
In fweeteft harmony combin’d
We’ll quaff full draughts of pleafure.
For us alone the pow’r of day
A milder light difpenfes ;
And (beds benign a mellow’d ray
To cheer our ravifti’d fenfes :
For we beheld the myftic (how,
And brav’d Eleufis’ dangers.
We do and know the deeds we owe
To neighbours, friends, and ftrangers.
Euripides, in his Bacchae (e), introduces the cho«
rus extolling the happinefs of thofe who had been ac-'
quainted with God, hy participating in the holy my¬
fteries, and whofe minds had been enlightened by the
myftical rites. They boaft, “ that they had led a holy
and unblemilhed life, from the time that they had been
initiated in the facred rites of Jupiter Idaeus, and from
the time that they had relinquilhed celebrating the
no&urnal rites of Bacchus, and the banquets ot raw
flefh torn off living animals.” To this fan&ity of life
they had no doubt engaged themfelves, when they
were initiated in the myfteriesof that god. The Eleu¬
finian Epoptas derived the fame advantages from their
facramcntal engagements. Fourthly, The initiated
were imagined to be the peculiar wards of the Eleu¬
finian goddeffes. Thefe deities were fuppofed to
watch over them, and often to avert impending dan¬
ger, and to refeue them when befet with troubles.—
Our readers will not imagine that the initiated reaped
much benefit from the prote&ion of his Eleufinian
tutelary deities ; but it was fufficient that they belie¬
ved the fadl, and adftually depended upon their inter-
pofition. Fifthly, The happy influences of the te-
letas, were fuppofed to adminifler eonfolation to the
Epoptae in the hour of diflblution ; for, fays Ifocrates,
“ Ceres beftowed upon the Athenians twa gifts of the
greateft importance; the fruits of the earth, which
were the caufe of our no longer leading afavage courfe
of life and the teletae, for they who partake of thefe
entertain more pleafant hopes both at the end of life,
and eternity afterwards.” Another author # tells us, *
“ that the initiated were not only often refeued from je El.
many hardfhips in their lifetime, but at death enter¬
tained hopes that they ftiould be raifed to a more hap¬
py condition.’* Sixthly, After death, in the Elyfian
fields, they were to enjoy fuperior degrees of felici¬
ty, and were to bafk in eternal funfliine, to quaff nec¬
tar, and feaft upon ambrofia, &c.
The priefts were not altogether difinterefted in this intereiledv
falutary procefs. They made their difciples believe, nets of tKe. f
that the fouls of the uninitiated, when they arrived inFicft®*
the infernal regions, (hould roll in mire and dirt, and
with” very great difficulty arrive at their deftined man-
•ffoft..
(e) Adi 1. near the beginning, and in many other places.
597
? rwo.
So
Rem rks o
Diogenes
an 4 Antif-
tbenes.
JLaert.
81
All the
World
crowd to
Eieuus.
84
Degenera¬
cy of the
wylteries.
M Y S T
fxon. Hence Plato introduces Socrates J obferving,
“ that the fages who inftitutcd the teletae had pofi-
tively affirmed, that whatever foul ffiould arrive in the
infernal manfions urihoufell’d and unanneal’d, fhould lie
there immerfed in mire and filth.” And as to a future
ftate (fays Aiiftides), “ the initiated fliall not roll in
imre and grope in darknefs; a fate which awaits the
unholy and uninitiated.” It is not Hard to conceive
with what a commanding influence'fuch dodtrines as
thefe mull have operated on the generality of man¬
kind.
d When the Athenians advifed Diogenes to get him-
felf initiated, and enforced their arguments with the
above confiderations, “ It will be pretty enough (re¬
plied the philofopher) to fee Agefilaus and Epami-
nondas wallowing, in the mire, while the mofi con*
temptible rafcals who have been initiated are ftrutting
in the iflands of blifs.”
When Antifthenes was to be initiated in the Or¬
phic myfteries, and the prieft was boafting of the many
aftonilhing benefits which the initiated Ihould enjoy
in a future ftate “ Why, forfooth, (fays Antif-
thenesj,, ’tis wonder your reverence don’t e’en hang
yourfelf in order to come at them the fooner.”
When fuch benefits were expefted to be derived
from the myfteries, no wonder if all the world crowd¬
ed to the Eleufinian tlandard. After the Macedonian
conquefts, the Hierophants abated much of their ori¬
ginal ftridnefs. By the age of Cicero, Eleufis was a
temple whether all nations reforted to partake of the
benefits of that inftitution. We find that almoft all
the great men of Rome were initiated. The Hiero¬
phants, however, would not admit Nero on account of
the profligacy of his character. Few others were re-
fufed that honour ; even the children of the Athe¬
nians were admitted. But this, we think, was rather
a luftration. or confecration, than an initiation. Per¬
haps it paved the Way for the more auguft ceremony,
as the. Chriftian baptifm does among us for the other
facrament.
That this inftitution gradually degenerated, can
hardly be queftioned ;. but how much, and in what
points, ,we have not been able to inveftigate. The fa¬
thers of the church, from whom that charge is chief¬
ly to be colledted, are not always to be trufted, efpe-
cially when they fet themfelves to arraign the inftitu-
tions of Paganifm. There were indeed feveral an¬
cient authors, fuch as Melanthiusj Menander, So-
tades, &c. who wrote purpofely on the fubjedt in
queftion ; but their works are long fince irrecoverably.
loft. For this reafan, modern writers, who have pro-
felfecfly handled it, have not always been fuccefsful in
their refearches. The . two who have laboured molt
kidefatigably, and perhaps moft fuccefsfully, in this
field, are Meurfius and Warburton. The former, in
his Liber Singularis, has collected every thing that can
be gleaned from antiquity relating to the ceremonial
of thefe inftitutions, without, however, pointing out
their original, or elucidating the end and import of
their eftabliftiment. The latter has drawn them into
E E I E S.
the vortex of a fyftem which has in many inftances
led him to aferibe to them a higher degree of merit
than we think they deferve. Thefe inftanceS we Would
willingly have noticed in our progrefs, had the limits
preferibed us admitted fuch a difeuffiom
If vve may believe Diodorus the Sicilian, thefe
myfteries, which were celebrated with fuch wonderful
fecrecy at Eleufis, were communicated to all mankind
among the Cretans. This, however, we think, is ra¬
ther problematical. We imagine that excellent hifto-
rian has confounded the myfteries of Cybele with thofe
of the Eleulinian Geres. Thefe two deities were un¬
doubtedly one and the fame that is, the moon t)v the
earth. Hence it is probable, that there was a ftri-
king refemblance between the facred myfteries of the
Cretans and Eleufinians.
This inftitution continued in high reputation to
the age of St Jerome, as appears from the following ,
paflage : “ Hierophantas quoque Athenienlium legant
ufque hodie cicutaa forbitione caftrari.” The Em¬
peror Valentinianus intended to have fuppreffed them;
but Zozimus J, informs us, that he was diverted fromf Mvetfi
his defign - by the proeonful of Greece. At length 7°™*.
Theodofius the elder, by an imperial edict prohibited
the celebration of thefe as well as of all the other fa-by the cm- -
era of Paganifm.' Thefe myfteries, inftituted in theperorThe-
reign of Ereftheus, mantained their ground to the0^118,
period juft mentioned, that is, near 2000 years; du¬
ring which fpace, the celebration of them never had
been interrupted but once.- When Alexander the
Great malfacred the Thebans and razed their city,
- the Athenians were-fo much affedted with this melan¬
choly event, that they negledted the celebration of that -
feftival.
There were alrhoft numberlefs-other myfterious in-other my-
ftitutions among the ancient Pagans, of which thefe fteries a-
Ikctched above were the moft celebrated. The Sa-mon£ th*
mothracian myfteries, inftituted in honour of the Ca-j^^^,
biri, were Hkewife of conftderable celebrity, and werebrity.
fuppofed to confer much the fame bleffings with the
Eleufinian, but were not of equal celebrity* ^ The-
Cabiri were Phoenician and likewife Egyptian + dei- f Sanctoni-*-
ties. The learned Bochart has explained their on-atbon and -
gin, number, names, and fome part of their worfhip. HtroJetw, .
The Orphic myfteries were likewife famous among
the Thracians. Orpheus learned them in Egypt, and
they were nearly the fame with the facra Bacchanalia
of the Greeks. There were likewife the myfteries
of Jupiter Idaeus in great requeft among the Cretans,
thofe of the Magna Mater or Cybele, celebrated in
Phrygia. To enumerate and detail all thefe would
require a complete volume. We hope our readers
will be fully - fatisfied with the fpecimen exhibited
above. We are convinced many things have been ■
omitted which might have been inferted, but we have
colledted the moft curious and the moft important.—- -
Every one of the pofitions might have been authen¬
ticated by quotations from authors of the moft un¬
doubted credibility, but that procefs would have fwell¬
ed the article beyond all proportion.
MYSTICAL,-
M Y S [ 598 ] M Y T
MYSTICAL, fomething myfteriovw or allegorical.
, ^ gorTie Qf coinmentators on the facred writings, be*
fides a literal iind alfo a myftical meaning. The fenfe
of fcripture, fay they, is either that immediately fi r.
nilied by the words and exprefiions in the common ufe
■ of language; or*it is mediate, fublitne, typical, and
fnyftical. The literal fenfe they again divide into pro¬
per literal, which is contained in the words taken
limply and properly ; and metaphorical literal, where
the words are to be taken in a figurative and meta¬
phorical fenfe. The myftical fenfe of feripture they
divide into three kinds : the firft correfponding to
faith, and called allegorical; the fecond to hope,
called anagogical; and the third to charity, called the
tropologicalfenfe. And fometimes they take the fame
word in fcripture in all the four fenfes: thus the word
fferufakm, literally fignifies the capital of Judea ; al*
legorically, the church militant; tropologically, a be¬
liever ; and anagogically, heaven. So that pafiage in
.Genefis, let there he light, and there was lights literally
fignifies corporeal light; by an.allegory, the Meffiah ;
in the tropological fenfe, grace ; and anagogically,
beatitude, or the light of glory.
MYSTICS, myjlici, a kind of religious feft, diftin-
guilhed by their profeffing pure, fublime, and perfe&
devotion, with an entire difintcrefted love ©f God, free
from all felfilh conliderations.
The myftics, to excufe their fanatic ecftacies and
amorous extravagancies, alledge that paflage of St
-J’aul, The Spirit prays in us by fighs and groans that are
unutterable. Now if the Spirit, fay they, pray in us,
we muft refign ourfelves to its motions, and be fwayed
icnd guided by its impulfe, by remaining in a ftate of
mere inaftion.
Paffive contemplation is that ftate of, perfedlion to
which the myftics all afpire.
The authors of this myftic fcience, which fprung
up towards the clofe of the third century, are not
known ; but the principles from which it was formed
are manifeft. Its firft promoters proceeded from the
.known doftrine of the Platonic fchool, which was al¬
fo adopted by Origen and his difciples, that the di¬
vine nature was diffufed through all human fouls, or
that the faculty of reafon, from which proceed the
health and vigour of the mind, was an emanation from
God into the human foul, and comprehended in it the
principles and elements of all truth, human and divine.
, They denied that men could by labour or ftudy excite
- this celeftial flame in their breafts; and therefore they
,difapproved highly of the attempts of thofe, who by
definitions, abftrad theorems, and profound fpecula-
tions, endeavoured to form diftimft notions of truth,
and to difeover its hidden nature. On the contrary,
they maintained that filence, tranquillity, repofe, and
folitude, accompanied writh fuch atts as might tend to
extenuate and exhauft the body, were the means by
which the hidden and internal word vvas excited to
produce its latent virtues, and to iiiftruft men in the
.knowledge of divine things- For thus they reafoned
thofe who behold with a noble contempt all human af¬
fairs, who turn away their eyes from terreftrial vani¬
ties, and fhut all the avenues of the outward fenfes
againft the contagious influences of a material wmild,
vinuft necefiarily return to God, when the fpirit is thus
■difengaged from the impediments that prevented that
happy union. And in this blefled frame they -not on- "Myftic*
ly enjoy inexpreflible raptures from their communion II
with the Supreme Being, but alfo are inverted with , M>ten8-,
the ineftiinable privilege of contemplating truth undif-
guifed and uncorrupted in its native purity, while others
behol! it in a vitiated and delulive form.
rl he number of the myftics increafed in the fourth
century, under the influence of the Grecian fanatic,
who gave himfelf out for Dionyfius the Areopagite,
difciple of St Paul, and probably lived about this pe¬
riod ; and by pretending to higher degrees of perfec¬
tion.than other Chriftians, and pradifing greater au-
fterity, their caufe gained ground, efpecially in the
eaftern provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the
pretended works of Dionyfius was fent by Balbus to
Lewis the Meek in the year 824, which kindled the
holy flame of myfticifm in the weftern provinces, and
filled the Latins with the moft enthufiaftic admiration
of- this new religion.
In the twelfth century, thefe myftics took the lead
In their method of expounding fcripture; and by
fearching for myfteries and hidden meaning in the.
plaineft expreffions, forced the word of God into a
conformity with their vifionary do&rines, their enthu-
•fiaftic feelings, and the fyftem of difeipline which they
had drawn from the excuffions of their irregular fan¬
cies. In the thirteenth century, they were the moft
formidable antagonifts of the fchoolmen ; and towards
the clofe of the fourteenth, many of them refided and
propagated their tenets almoft in every part of F.urope.
They had, in the fifteenth century, many perfons of
diftinguifhed merit in their number ; and in the fix-
teenth century, previous to the Reformation, if any
fparks of real piety fubfifted under the defpotic em¬
pire of fuperftition, they were only to be found among
the myftics.
The principles of this fe£t were adopted by thofe
called ^uietifis in the feventeenth century, and, under
different modifications, by the Quakers and Methodifts.
MYSTRUM, a liquid meafure among the ancients,
containing the fourth part of the Cyathus, and weigh¬
ing two drams and an half of oil, or two drams two
fcruples of water or wine. It nearly anfwers to our
fpoonful.
MYTELENE. See Metylene.
MYTENS (Daniel), of the Hague, was an ad¬
mired painter in ttie reigns of king James and king
Charles. He had certainly (Mr Walpole fays) ftudied
the works of Rubens before his coming over. His
landfcape in the back grounds of his portraits is evi¬
dently in the ftyle of that fchool; and fome of his
works have been taken for Vandyck’s. The date
of his arrival is not certain. At Hampton-court are
feveral whole lengths of princes and princeffes of the
houfe of Brunfwick-Lunenburgh, and the portrait of
Charles Howard earl of Nottingham ; at Kerifington
is Mytens’s own head. At Knowle, Lionel Cranfield
earl of Middlefex, lord treafurer, with his white ftaff,
whole length. At Lady Elizabeth Germain’s at Dray¬
ton is a very fine whole length of Henry Rich earl of
Holland, in a ftriped habit, with a walking flick At
St James’s is Jeffery Hudfon the dwarf, holding a
dog byr a '.L ing, in a landfcape, coloured warmly and
freely like Snyder or Rubens. Mytens drew the fame
figure in a very large pidfure of Charles I. and his
5 Queen,
M Y T [ 599 3 M Y T
Mytei.s, Queen, which was in the pofleffion of the late earl of
Mythology ]_)unmore, The pi&ure of the Queen of Scots at St
*"J ~v James’s is a copy by Mytens. Mytens remained in
j^reat reputation till the arrival of Vandyck, who be¬
ing appointed the king’s principal painter, the former
in difguft afked his Majefty’s leave to retire to his own
country ; but the king learning the caufe of his diffa-
tisfa&ion treated him with much kindnefs, and told
him that he could find fufficient employment both for
him and Vandyck. Mytens confented to ftay, and
even grew intimate, it is probable, with his rival, for
the head of Mytens is one of thofe painted among the
profeflbrs by that great mafter. Whether the fame
jealoufy operated again, or real decline of bufintfs in¬
fluenced him, or any other caufe, Mytens did not ftay
much longer in England. We find none of his works
here after the year 1630. Yet he lived many years af¬
terwards. Houbraken quotes a regifter at the Hague
dated in 1656, at which time it fays Mytens painted
part of the cieling of the town hall there ; the fubjeft
is, Truth writing hiftory on the back of Fame.
MYTENS (Martin), painter of portraits and hi-
ftory, was born at Stockholm in 1695, and at 11 years
of age ftiowed an extraordinary genius. When he
had praftifed for fome years, he determined to feck for
improvement at Rome, and in his progrefs to examine
every thing curious in other cities of Europe. His
firft excurfion was to Holland, and from thence he
proceeded to London, where he praftifed miniature
and enamel painting, to which he had always a ftrong
tendency, and by his performances in that way gained Mytens,
a fufficiency to maintain himfelf, without being any Mythul(>gT
incumbrance to his parents. In 1717 hevifited Paris, v
and proved fo fortunate as to obtain the favour of the
duke of Orleans, and to have the honour to paint the
portrait of that prince, and alfo the portraits of
Lonis XV. and the Czar Peter. In 1721 he arrived
at Vienna, where he was gracioufly received ; and ha¬
ving with great applaufe painted the portraits of the
emperor, the emprefs, and the moft illuftrious perfona
at that court, during a refidence" of above two years,
he proceeded on his intended journey to Italy. Ha¬
ving vifited Venice, and fpent two years at Rome, he
went to Florence, where the grand duke Gaftgn I.
Ihowed him all pofiible marks of efteem ; and having
engaged him for fome time in his fervice, he made him
confiderablc prefents, and placed the portrait of My¬
tens among the heads of the illuftrious artifts in his
gallery. He alfo received public teftimonies of favour
from the king and queen of Sweden, each of them
having prefented him with a chain of gold and a me¬
dal, when he vifited that court, after his return from
Italy. At laft he fettled at Vienna, where he obtain¬
ed large appointments from the court ; and lived uni-
verfally efteemed for his uncommon merit, and equally
valued for his perfonal accompliftiments. He died in
I755-
There were fome other painters of the name of :
Mytens, but of inferior note.
M Y T H O L O G Y
Definition. T S a term compounded of two Greek words, and in
its original import it fignifies any kind of fabu¬
lous do&rine : In its more appropriated fenfe, it means
thofe fabulous details concerning the objects of worftnp
which were invented and propagated by men who li¬
ved in the early ages of the world, and by them tranf-
mitted to fucceeding generations, either by written
records or by . oral tradition.
As the theology and mythology of the ancients are
almoft infeparabiy connected, it will be impoffibte
for us to develope the latter, without often introdu¬
cing fome obfervations relating to the former. We
mull therefore in treat the indulgence of our readers,
if upon many oceafions we Ihould hazard a few ftric-
tures on the names, chara&ers, adventures, and func¬
tions of fuch pagan divinities as may have furniftied
materials for thofe fabulous narrations which the na-
4 ture of the fubjeft may lead us to difeufs.
Origin of With refpeift to fable, it may be obferved in gene-
fable. ra], that it is a creature of the human imagination,
arid derives its birth from that love of the marvellous
which is in a manner congenial to the foul of man.—
The appearances of nature which every day occur, ob-
je&s, aftions, and events, which fucceed each other,
by a kind of rotine, are too familiar, too obvious, and
■uninterefting, either to gratify curiofity or to excite ad¬
miration. On the other hand, when the moft common
phenomena in nature or life are new-modelled by
the plaftic power of a warm imagination; when they
are diverfified, compounded, embellilhed, or even ar¬
ranged and moulded into-forms which feldom or per¬
haps never occur in the ordinary courfe of things ;—
novelty generates admiration, a paflion always attended
with delightful fenfations. Here then we imagine we
have difeovered the'very fource of f Elion and fable.—
They originated from that powerful propenfity in our
nature:towards the new and furprifing, animated by the
delight with which the contemplation of them is ge¬
nerally attended.
Many circumftances contributed to extend and efta*
blifti the empire of fable. The legiflatbr laid hold on
this bias of human nature, and of courfe employed
fable and fiElton as the moft effeftuai means to civilize
a rude, unpolifhed world. The philofopher, the theo-
logift, the poet, the mufician, each in his turn, made
ufe of this vehicle to convey his maxims and inftruc-
tions to the favage tribes. They knew that truth, fim-
ple and unadorned, is not poflelfed of charms power¬
ful enough to captivate the heart of man in his pre-
fent corrupt and degenerate ft ate. This confideration,
which did indeed refult from the character of their au¬
dience, naturally led them to employ fidtion and alle¬
gory. From this was derived the allegorical tafte of
the ancients, and efpecially of the primary fages of
the eaft.
Though almoft every nation on the face of the globej,
however remote from the centre of population, how¬
ever favage and averfe from cultivation} has fabricated
and.
f'6oo
and adopted its own fydem of mythology ; the O-
Bo'dnefs of r;entals> however, have diftinguiihed themfelv.es in a
■ mythology. PeculJar manner» b7 thc b°Wnef8, the inconfiftency,
} X and the extravagance of their mythology. The genial
warmth of thofe happy climes, the fertility of the foil,
which afforded every neceflary, every conveniency,
and often every luxury of life, without depreffing their
fpirits by laborious exertions ; the face of nature per¬
petually blooming around them, the flties fmiling with
uninterrupted ferenity ; all contributed to infpire the
orientals with a glow of fancy and a vigour of ima¬
gination rarely to be met with in lefs happy regions.
Hence every objedt was fwelled beyond its natural di-
menfions. Nothing was great or little in moderation,
but every fentiment was heightened with incredible
hyperbole. The magnificent, the fublime, the vail,
the enormous, the marvellous, firft fprung up, and were
brought to maturity, in thofe native regions of fable
and fairyland. As nature, in the ordinary courfe of
her operations, exhibited neither objefts nor effedts
adequate to the extent of their romantic imaginations,
they naturally deviated into the fields of fitdion and
fable. Of confequence, the cuftom of detailing fabu-
lorUS adventures originated in the eaft, and was from
thence tranfplanted into the weftern countries.
As the allegorical talle of the eaftern nations had
fprung from their propenfity to fable, and as that
propenfity had in its turn originated from the love of
the marvellous ; fo did allegory in procefs of time con¬
tribute its influence towards multiplying fables and
fidtion almoft in infinitum. The latent import of the
allegorical dodtrines being in a few ages loft and obli¬
terated, what was originally a moral or theological te-
^ net, aflumed the air and habit of a perfonal adventure.
Propenfity The propenfity towards perfonification, almoft uni-
to perfcni- verfal among the orientals, was another fruitful fource
fication a of fable and allegory. That the people of the eaft
eaftern niy- were ftrongly inclined to perfonify inanimate objedts
ihology. ‘ and abftradt ideas, we imagine will be readily granted,
when it is confidered, that in the formation of language
they have generally annexed the affedfion of fex to
thofe objedfs. Hence the diftindtion of grammatical
genders, which is known to have originated in the
eaftern parts of the world. The pradtice of perfoni-
fying virtues, vices, religious and moral affedlions,
was neceffary to fupport that allegorical ftyle which
univerfally prevailed in thofe countries. This mode
of writing was in high reputation even in Europe
fome centuries ago ; and to it we are indebted for fome
of the moft noble poetical compofitions now extant in
our own language. Thofe productions, however, are
but faint imitations of the original mode of writing
ftill current among the eaftern nations. The Euro¬
peans derived this fpecies of compofition from the
Moorifh inhabitants of Spain, who imported it from
j Arabia, their original country.
'Theeffedts The general ufe of hieroglyphics in the eaft, muft
phk<vvn-ly bave contributed largely towards extending the em-
tingm/rny. pire of mythology. As the import of the figures
tboio^y. employed in this method of delineating the figns of
ideas was in a great meafure arbitrary, miftakes muft
have been frequently committed in afeertaining the
notions which they were at the firft intended to re-
prefent. When the developement of thefe arbitrary
iigns happened to be attended with uncommon diffi-
MYTHOLOGY.
culty, the expounders were obliged to have recourfe
to conjecture. Thofe cpnjeftural expofitions were for
the moft part tindtured with that bias towards the
marvellous which univerfally prevailed among the pri¬
mitive men. This we find is the cafe even at this
day, when moderns attempt to develope the purport
of emblematical figures, preferred on ancient medals,
entcglions, &c.
The wife men of the eaft delighted in obfeure enig¬
matical fentences. They feem to have difdained every
fentiment obvious to vulgar apprehenfion. The words
of the wife, and their dark fayings, often occur in the
moft ancient records both facred and profane. The
fages of antiquity ufed to vie with each other for the
prize of fuperior wifdom, by propounding riddles,
and dark and myfterious queftions, as fubjeds of in-
veftigation. '1 he conteft between Solomon and Hi¬
ram, and that between Amafis king of Egypt grid
Polycrates tyrant of Samos, are univerfally known 
As the import of thofe enigmatical propofitions was
often abfolutely loft, in ages when the art of writing
was little known, and ftill lefs pra&ifed, nothing re¬
mained but fancy and conje&ure, which always verged
towards the- regions of fable. This then, we think,
was another fource of mythology. 6
The Pagan priefts, efpeeially in Egypt, were pro- Mythology
bably the firft who reduced mythology to a kind ofreduced t®
fyftem. The facerdotal tribe, among that people,a ^ind ?*
were the grand depofitories of learning as well as ofgg^ia
religion. That order of men monopolifed all the
arts and fciences. They feem to have formed a con-
fpiracy among themfelves, to preclude the laity from
all the avenues of intelle&ual improvement. This
plan was adopted with a view to keep the laity in fub-
je&ion, and to enhance their own importance. To
accomplifh this end, they contrived to perform all the
miniftrations of their religion in an unknown tongue,
and to cover them with a thick veil of fable and alle¬
gory The language of Ethiopia became their facred
dialed, and hieroglyphics tffcir .facred charader.—
Egypt, of courfe, became a kind of fairyland, where
all was jugglery, magic, and enchantment. The ini¬
tiated alone were admitted to the knowledge of the
occult myftical exhibitions, which, in their hands, con-
ftituted the effence of their religion. From thefe the
vulgar and profane were prohibited by the moft rigo¬
rous penalties (fee Mysteries.). The Egyptians, and
indeed all the ancients without exception, deemed the
myfteries of religion too facred and folemn to be com¬
municated to the herd of mankind, naked and unrefer-
ved ; a mode by which they imagined thofe facred and
fublime oracles yvould have been defiled and degra¬
ded. “ Procul, o procul efte profani—Odi profanum
vulgus et arceo.” Egypt was the land of graven
images; allegory and mythology were the veil which
concealed religion from the eyes of the vulgar; fable
was the groundwork of that impenetrable covering. ^
In the earlieft and moft unpolilhed ftage of fociety in the ear®
we cannot fuppofe fable to have exifted among men. Heft ages of
Fables are always tales of other times but at this period
other times did not reach far enough backward to af'had1 no ex¬
ford thofe fruits of the imagination fufficient time tOiftence.
arrive at maturity. Fable requires a cor.fiderable fpace
of time to acquire credibility, and to rife into repu¬
tation. Accordingly, we find that both the Chinefe
6 and
M Y T K
*i,d' Egyptians, the two moil ancient nations whofe
annals have reached our times, were altogether unac¬
quainted with fabulous details in 'the molt early and
iealt improved periods of their refpedtive monarchies.
It has been fhown almoft to a demonltration, by a va¬
riety of learned men, that both the one and the other
people, during forfie centuries after the general de¬
luge, retained and pra&ifed the primitive Noachic re¬
ligion, in which fable and fancy could find no place ;
all was genuine unfophifticated truth.
As foon as the authentic tradition concerning the
origin of the univerfe was either in a good meafure
loft, or at leaft adulterated by the inventions of men,
* fable and fi&ion began to prevail. The Egyptian
Tkoth or Thyoth, or Mercury Trifmegiftus, and Mo-
8 chus the Phoenician, undertook to account for the for-
Fabu’ous mation and arrangement of the univerfe, upon prin-
rTe^the" CI'f^cs PureIy mechanical. Here fable began to ufurp
firft my hf -tf*6 ffiace of genuine hiftorical truth. Accordingly,
i >.icAi*de- we find that all the hiftorians of antiquity, who have
tab*. undertaken to give a general detail of the affairs of
the World, have ulhered in their narration with a fabu¬
lous cofmogony. Here imagination ranged uncpnfined
over the boundlefs extent of the primary chaos. To be
convinced of the truth of this alfertion, we need only
look into Sanchoniathon’s Cofmogony, Eufeb. Praep.
Evang, 1. i. fub init. and Diodorus Sic. 1. r. From
this we fuppofe it wall follow, that the firft race of
fables owed their birth to the erroneous opinions of
the formation of the univerfe.
Having now endeavoured to point out the origin of
mythology, or fabulous traditions, we ftiall proceed to
lay before our readers a brief detail of the mythology
of the moft refpe&able nations of antiquity, following
^ the natural order of their fituation.
Cr.inefe The Chinefe, if any credit be due to their own an-
mythulogy. na)S} or to the mifiionaries of the church of Rome,
who pretend to have copied from them, were the Jirjl
of the nations. Their fabulous records reach upwards
many myriads of years before the Mofaic rera of the
cieation. The events during that period of time, if
any had been recorded, muft have been fabulous as the
period itfelf. Thefe, however, are buried in eternal
oblivion. The mifiionaries, who are the only fources
of our information with relation to the earlieft periods
of the Chinefe hiftory, reprefent thofe people as- ha¬
ving retained the religion of Noah many centuries af¬
ter the foundation of their empire. Upon this fuppo-
fition, their cofmogony muft have been found and ge¬
nuine, without the leaft tinfture of thofe fabulous in¬
gredients which have both difguifed and difgraced the
cofmogonies of moft other nations.
According to the moft authentic accounts, Fohe
or Fohi laid the foundation of that empire about
4009 years ago. This emperor, according to the Chi¬
nefe, was conceived in a miraculous manner. His mo-
Birdfand t*ier> one ^ay as was walking in a defert
inven ions place, was furrovmdcd by a rainbow ; and, being im-
ef Fohi. pregnated by this meteor, was in due time delivered
of that, celebrated legiflator. This perfonage, like the
Athenian Cecrops, was half a man and half a ferpent.
His intellefhml powers were truly hyperbolical. In
one day be difcovered different fpecies of poifonous
herbs. He taught his countrymen the whole art of
. agriculture in the fpace of a very few years. He in-
Voi. XII. Part II.
O L O G Y. 601
ftru&ed them how to fow five difierCWt foi'U of gi'aift,
He invented boats and nets for fifhing, the art of fabri¬
cating porcelain, the management of filk-worms, the
manufacturing of filk. &c. In a word, that wonder¬
ful perfonage was inipired by Heaven with knowledge,
which qualified him for compoling that incomparably
body of laws which are even at this day the wonder of
the world. Our readers will admit,that thiswhole detail
is fabulous and chimeiical. The moft learned jiSrt of
them will readily obferve, that the Chinefe, in aferi-
bing the invention of all the ufeful arts to their Fohi,
are perfectly agreed with almoft all the other nations
of antiquity. The Indians aferibe every invention to
Budha, or. Fijhnou, or Foe ; the Perfians to Zerdujht
or Zoroajires ; the Chaldeans to their man of the fta,
whom they call Oannes; the Egyptians to Thoth or
Thyoth; the Phoenicians to Melicerta ; the Greeks to
the family of the Titans; and the Scandinavians to
Odin, See.
About 551 years before the Chriftian aera, appeared Mitaci.lous
the famous Chinefe philofopher Con fudfe, 'or Confu-birth of
cius. Concerning the birth of this prince of philo-Ccniutius,
fophenqthe Chinefe have propagated the following le¬
gendary tale. His mother walking in a folitary place
was impregnated by. the vivifying influence of the hea¬
vens. The babe, thus produced, fpake and reafoned as
foon as it was born. . Confucius, however, wrought
no miracles, perfoimed no romantic exploits, but lived
an auftere afcetic life, taught and inculcated the doc¬
trines of pure morality, and died, remarkable only for
fuperior wifdom, religious, moral, and political.
About the year of Chrift 601, flourlfhed the Sec- Lao-ld.m
tary Lao-kiun. His mother carried him 30 years in and his
her womb, and was at laft delivered of him under z cofinnu,
plum-tree. This philofopher was the Epicurus of
the Chinefe. His difciples, who were denominated
Fao-J]e, i. e. heavenly doctors, were the firft who cor¬
rupted the religion of the Chinefe. They were ad¬
dicted to magic, and introduced the worfhip of goo I
and bad dsemons. Their doctrine was embraced by a
long fuccefiion of emperors. One of thefe princes,
called Tou-ti, bad been deprived by death of a fa¬
vourite miftrefs, whom he loved with the moft extra¬
vagant pafiion. The emperor, by the magical fkill of
one ot thefe do&ors, obtained an interview with his
deceafed miftrefs, a tircumftance which rivelted the
whole order in the affe&ion and efteem of the deluded
prince. Here our readers will obferve the exact coun¬
terpart of the fable of Eurydice, fo famous in thd my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans. That fuch a fv-
ftena of religious principles muft have abounded wirh
mythological adventures is highly probable ; but as the
miliionaries, to whom we are chiefly indebted for our
information relating to the religion of the Chinefe,
have not taken the pains to record them, we find it
impofiible to gratify the curiofity of our readers on
that head.
The worfhip of the idol Fo, or Foe, was tranf- intrp^uc>
planted from India into China about the 56th year of tionVthe
the Chriftian aera, upon the following occafion. One worfhip of
of the doctors of the Fao-ffe had promifed a prince anti 0*'
the family of Tchou, and brother of the emperor rufeof t'h^
Ming-ti, to make him enter into communion with the n.-tempfi-
fpirits. At his folicitation an ambaflador was difpatch- chofis into
ed into India, in order to inquire where the true reli- C1:ina‘
4 G gion
<>02
MYTH
gfon was to be found. There had been a tradition,
fay the mifiionaries, ever fince the age of Confucius,
that the true religion was to be found in the weft.—
The ambaffador ftopt fhort in India; and finding that
the god Foe was in high reputation in that country, he
colle&ed feveral images of that deity painted on
chintz, and with it 42 chapters of tht canonical books
of the Hindoos, - which, together with the images, he
laid on a white elephant, and tranfported into his na¬
tive country. At the fame time he imported from the
fame quarter the doftrine of the tranfmigration of
fouls, which is firmly believed in China to this day.
The dodtrine and worftiip of Foe, thus introduced,
made a moft rapid progrefs all over China, Japan,
Siam, &c. The priefts of Foe are called among the
Siamefe, 'Talopoins ; by the Tartars, Lamas ; by the
Chinefe, Ho-chanq ; and by the people of Japan, Bon-
kcs. By this laft appellation they are generally known
in Europe.
The wor- An infinitude of fable was invented and propagated
fl ippers of by tbe difciples of Foe, concerning the life and adven-
mythoto- tures t^eir mafter. If the earlier ages of the Chi-
jdfts. nefe hiftory are barren of mythological incidents, the
later periods, after the introdudfien of the worlhip of
Foe, furnilh an inexbauftible ftore of miracles, mon-
fters, fables, intrigues, exploits, and adventures, of
the moft villainous complexion. Indeed, moft of them
are fo abfurd, fo ridiculous, and at the fame time fo
impious and profane, that we are convinced our readers
will eafily difpenfe with a detail from which they could
reap neither entertainment nor inftruftion. Such as may
find themfelves difpofed to rake into this abominable
puddle, we muft refer to the reverend fathers du Halde,
Couplet, Amiot, Kircher, and other members of the
propaganda, in whofe writings they will find where¬
withal to fatisfy, and even to forfeit, their appetite.
Hindoo "I he Hindoos, like the other nations of the eaft, for
nr) tholo- a long time retained the worlhip of the true God. At
EJ* lingth, however, idolatry broke in, and, like an im¬
petuous torrent, overwhelmed the country. Firft of
all, the genuine hiftory of the origin of the univerfe
was either utterly loft, or difguifed under a variety of
fidtions and allegories. We are told that Brimha, the
fupreme divinity of the Hindoos, after three feveral
efforts, at laft fucceeded in creating fourperfons, whom
he appointed to rule over all the inferior creatures.—
Afterwards Brimha joined his efficient power with Bi-
fhon and Rulder ; and by their united exertions they
produced ten men, whofe general appellation is Mu-
nies, that is, the infpired. The fame being, accord¬
ing to another mythology, produced four other per-
fons, as imaginary as the former; one from his breaft,
one from his back, one from his lip, and one from his
heart. Thefe children were denominated Bangs; the
import of wdiich word we cannot pretend to deter¬
mine. According to another tradition, Brimha pro¬
duced the Bramins from his mouth, to pray, to read,
to inllrudt; the Chiltern from his arms, to draw the
bow, to fight, to govern ; the Bice from his belly or
thighs, to nourifh, to provide the neceffaries of life by
O L O G Y.
agriculture and commerce ; the Soder from his feet,
for fubjedlion to ferve, to labour, to travel. The
reader will fee at once, in thefe allegorical perfons, the
four cafts orfepts into which the Hindoo nations has,
time immemorial, been divided. Thefe are fome of
their moft celebrated mythological traditions with re¬
lation to the origin of the univerfe. ,6
The Hindoos have likewife fome mythological opi- Hindoo
nions which feem to relate to the general deluge. I hey traditions
teU us, that defiring the prefervation of herds and of ^
brahmans, of genii and of virtuous men,i-of vedas of
law, and of precious things, the Lord of the univerfe
afiumes many bodily fliapes; but though he pervades,
like the air, a variety of beings, yet he is himfelf
unvaried, fince he has no- quality in him fubjedt to-
change. At the clofe of the laft ca/pa, there was a
general deftruftion, oceafioned by the deep of Brah- •
me, whence his creatures in different worlds were
drowned in a vaft ocean. Brahme being inclined to
Humber after a lapfe of fo many ages, the ftrong die-
mon Hayagri-va came near him, and ftole the vedas
which had flowed from his lips. When Heri, the pre-
ferver of the univerfe, difcovered this deed of the
prince of Dainavas, he took the ihape of a minute fifh
called Sap-hari. After various transformations, and an
enormous increafe of fize in each of them, the Lord of
the univerfe loving the righteous man (a), who had *
ftill adhered to him under all thefe various lhapes, and
intending to preferve him from the fea of deftruition
caufed by the depravity of the age, thus told him how
he was to aft : “ In feven days from the prefent time,
O thou Tamer, of enemies! the three worlds will be
plunged in an ocean of death ; but in the midft of the
deftroying waves a large veffel fent by me for thy ufe
{hall ffand before thee.” The remaining part of the
mythology fo nearly refembles the Mofaic hiftory of
Noah and the general deluge, that the former may be
a ftrong confirmation of the truth of the latter. To
dry up the waters of the deluge, the power of the
Deity defcends in the form of a boar, the fymbol of
ftrength, to draw up and fupport on his tulks the
whole earth, which had been funk beneath the ocean.
Again, the fame power is reprefented as a tortoife fuf-
taining the globe, which had been convulfed by the
violent affaults of daemons, while the gods charmed the
fea with the mountain Mandar, and forced it to dif-
gorge the facred things and animals,, together with
the water of life which it had fwallowed. All thefe
ftorics, we think, relate to the fame event, ffiadowed
by a moral, a metaphyfical, and an aftronomical alle¬
gory ; and all three feem connefted with thehierogly-
phical fculptures of the old Egyptians.
The Hindoos divide the duration of the world in¬
to four Tugs or Jugs, or Jogues, each confiding of a>
prodigious number of years. In each of thofe periods,
the age and ftature of the human race have been gradu¬
ally diminifhed ; and in each of them mankind has
gradually declined in virtue and piety, as well as in age
and ftature. The prefent period they call the ColU,
i. e. the corrupt Jogue, which they fay is to laft.
400,000
(a) He was Sovereign of the world. His name was Mana, or Statgavrata.; his patronymic name was
Vaifvala, or Child of the Sun.
MYTHOLOGY. 6ov
450>0fc0 years, of which near 5000 years are already
paft. In the laft part of the preceding Jogue, which
they call the Dwa paar, the age of man was contract¬
ed into 1000 years, as in the prefent it is confined to
100. From this proportional diminution of the length
of the human life, our readers will probably infer, that
the two la'i Jogues bear a pretty near refemblance to
the Mofaic hiftory of the age of the antediluvian and
poitdiluvian patriarchs ; and that the two firft are ima¬
ginary periods prior to the creation of the world, like
thofe of the Chinefe, Chaldeans, and Egyptians.
I7 ^ ^ According to the mythology of the Hindoos, the
f ■? fyftem of the world is fubjeCt to various diffolutions
variousdif- and refufcitations. At the conclufion of the Collse
Solutions Jogue, fay they, a grand revolution will take place,
; and refufci- when the f0lar fy fiem will be confumed by fire, and all
.Rations. the elements reduced to their original conftitucnt
atoms. Upon the back of thefe revolutions, Brimha,
the fupreme deity of the Hindoos, is fometimes re-
preiented as a new-born infant, with his toe in his
mouth, floating on a camala or water flower, fome-
times only on a leaf of that plant, on the furface of
the vaft abyfs. At other times he is figured as com¬
ing forth of a winding ftiell; and again as blowing up
the mundane foam with a pipe at his mouth. Some
of thefe emblematical figures and attitudes, our learn¬
ed readers will probably obferve, nearly refcmble thofe
\ of the ancient Egyptians.
But the vulgar religion of the ancient Hindoos was
of a very different compleftion, and opens a large field
of mythological adventures. We have obferved above,
that the Fo or Foe of the Chinefe was imported from
India; and now we fhallgivea brief detail of the my-
;Birih, &c. thological origin of that divinity. We have no certain
W the god account of the birth-place of this imaginary deity.—
r0' His followers relate, that he was born in one of the
kingdoms of India near the line, and that his father
v'as one of that country. His mother brought him
into the world by the left fide, and expired foon after
her delivery. At the time of her conception, fhe
dreamed that fhe' had fwallowed a white elephant; a
circun-. lance which is fuppofed to have given birth to
the veneration which the kings of India have always
Crown for a white animal of that fpecies. As foon as he
was born, he had ftrength enough to Hand ereft with¬
out affiftance. He walked abroad at feven, and, point¬
ing with one hand to the heavens, and with the other
to the earth, he cried out, “ In the heavens, and on
the earth, there is no one but me who deferves to be
honoured.” At the age of 30, he felt himfelf all on
a fudden filled with the divinity ; and now he was me*
tamorphofed into Fo or Paged, according to the ex-
preffion of the Hindoos, He had no fooneb declared
himfelf a divinity, than he thought of propagating his
dodtrine, and proving his divine miffion by miracles.
rJ hp number ot his difciples was immenfe ; and they
foon fpread his dogmas over all India, and even to the
higher extremities of Afia.
i, 19 One of the principal dodlrines which Fo and his
|o<5trincs difciples propagated, was the metempfychofis or tranf-
td from1* fouls. This dodtrine, lome imagine, has
igypt. given rife to the multitude of idols reverenced in every
country where the worfhip of Fo is eftablifhed. Qua-
•drupeds, birds, reptiles, and the vikft ^animals, had
temples eredled for them; becaufe, fay they, the foul
of the god, in his numerous Iran [migrations, may ha e
at one time or other inhabited their bodies.
Both the dodlrine of tranfmigration and of the
worfhip of animals feems, however, to have been im¬
ported from Egypt into India. If the intercourfe be¬
tween thefe two countries was begun at fo early a pe¬
riod as fome very late writers have endeavoured to
prove, fuch a fuppofition is by no means improbable.
The dodtrine of the tranfmigration of fouls was ear¬
ly eflablilhed among the Egyptians. It was, indeed,
the only idea they formed of the foul’s immortality.
The worfhip of animals among them feems to have
been ftill more ancient. If fuch an intercourfe did ac¬
tually exift, we may naturally fuppofe that colonies of
Egyptian priefts found their way into India, as they
did afterwards into Afia Minor, Italy, and Greece.
That colonies of Egyptians did adtually penetrate in¬
to that country, and fettle there, many centuries be¬
fore the nativity, is a fadl that cannot be called in
queflion, for reafons which the bounds preferibed us
on this article will not allow us to enumerate. We
fhall only obferve, that from the hieroglyphical repre-
fentations of the Egyptian deities feem to have origi¬
nated tliofe monflrbus idols which from time immemo^
rial have been worfhipped in India, China, Japan,
Siam, and even in the remotefl parts of Afiatic Tar¬
tary.
Foe is often called Budha, Budda, and fometimes rhs2;nCars,j
Vijhmou ; perhaps, indeed, he may be diftinguifhed by nations of
many other names, according to the variety of diale&s Vifhnou.
of the different nations among which his worfhip was
eftablifhed. An infinitude of fables was propagated
by his difciples concerning him after his death. They*
pretended that their mafttr was ftill alive ; that he had
been already born 8000 times; and that he had fuccef-
fively appeared under the figure of an ape, a lion,, a
dragon, an elephant, a boar, &c. Thefe were called
the incarnations of Vifhnou. At length he was con¬
founded with the fupreme God; and all the titles, at¬
tributes, operations, perfedtions, and enfigns of the
Moft High were aferibed to him. Sometimes he is
called Amida, and reprefented with the head of a dog,
and worfhipped as the guardian of mankind. He fome¬
times appears as a princely perfonage, iffuing from the
mouth of a fifh. At other times, he wears a lunette on
his head, in which are feen cities, mountains, towers,
trees, in fhort, all that the world contains. Thefe
transformations are evidently the children of allegori¬
cal or hieroglyphical emblems, and form an exa&
counterpart to the fymbolical worfhip of the Egyp¬
tians.
The enormous mafs of mythological traditions which
have in a manner deluged the vaft continent of India,
would Ull many volumes: We have feledted the pre¬
ceding articles as a fpecimen only, by which our read¬
ers may be qualified to judge of the reft. If they find
themfelves difpofed to indulge their curiofity at greater
length, we muft remit them to Thevenot’s and Hamil¬
ton’s Travels, to Monf. Aquetil in his Zond. Avefta,
Halhed’s Introduction to his tranflation of the Code
of Gentoo Laws, Col. Dow’s Hiftory of Hindoftan,
Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies, Afiatiq Refearches,
vol. 1, and 2.
Thr
4 G 2
<$ot M Y T H O
it The mythology of the Perfians is, if poffible, flill
Perfian mor-e extravagant than that of the Hindoos. It fup-
mythoiogy. poj-es t[ie w0,i^ to have been repeatedly deftroyed, and
repfopled by creatures of different formation, who
■were fuccefiively annihilated or banifhed for their dif-
obedience to the fupreme Being. The monftrous
griffin Sinergh tells the hero Caherman that fhe had
already lived to fee the earth feven times filled with
creatures and feven times a perfeft void ; that, be¬
fore the creation of Adam, this globe was inhabited
by a race of beings called Peri ana Dives, whofe cha-
Pcri and rafter formed a perfeft contraft. The Peri are de-
Diva. feribed as beautiful and benevolent; the Dives as de¬
formed, malevolent, and mifehievous, differing from
infernal demons only in this, that they are not as yet
confined to the pit of hell. They are fbr ever ranging
over the world, to featter difeord and mifery among
the fons of men. The Peri nearly refemble the fairies
of Europe ; and perhaps the Dives gave birth to the
giants and magicians of the middle ages. The Peri
and Dives wage inceffant wars ; and when the Dives
make any of the Peri prifoners, they ffiut them up in
iron cages, and hang them on the higheft trees, to
expofe them to public view, and to the fury of every
chilling blaft.
When the Pert are in danger of being overpowered
by their foes, they folicit the affiftance of fome mor¬
tal hero ; which produces a feries of mythological ad¬
ventures, highly ornamental to the itrains of the Per-
fian bards, and which, at the fame time, furnifties an
jnexhauftible fund of the moft diverfified machinery.
One of the mod celebrated adventurers in the my¬
thology of Perfia is Tabmuros, one of their moft an¬
cient monarchs. This prince performs a variety of ex¬
ploits, while he endeavours to recover the fairy Mer-
jan. He attacks the Dive Demruffi in his own cave ;
where, having vanquiffied the giant or demon, he finds
vaft piles of hoarded wealth : thefe he carries off with
the fair captive. The battles, labours, and adventures
of Roftan, another Perfian worthy, who lived many
ages after the former, are celebrated by the Perfian
bards with the fame extravagance of hyperbole with
which the labours of Hercules have been fung by the
poets of Greece and Rome.
The adventures of the Perfian heroes breathe aft
Perfia the the wildnefs of atchievement recorded of the knights
birth-place 0f Gothic romance. The doftrine of enchantments,
and'ro-3^ transformati°ns5 &c- exhibited in both, is a charafteri-
mance. ^'c fymptom of one common original. Perfia is the
genuine claffic ground of ealtern mythology, and the
fource of the ideas of chivalry and romance; from which
they were propagated to the. regions of Scandinavia,
and indeed to the remoteft corners of Europe towards
the weft.
Perhaps our readers may be of our opinion, when
we offer it as a conjefture, that the tales of the war of
the Peri and Dives originated from a vague tradition
concerning good and bad angels : nor is it, in our
opinion, improbable, that, the fable of the wars be¬
tween the gods and giants, fo famous in the mytho¬
logy of Greece and Italy, was imported into the for¬
mer of thefe countries from the fame quarter. For a
more particular account of the Perfian mythology, our
readers may confult Dr Hyde de Relig. vet. Perf. Me-
dor. &c. D. Herbelot’s Bibl. Orient, and Mr Richard-
L O G Y.
fon’s introduftion to his Perfian and Arabic Diftio-
nary. ^
The mythology of the Chaldeans, like that of the Chaldean
other nations of the eaft, commences at a period my-
riads of years prior to the sera of the Mofaic’creation.
Their eofmogony, exhibited by Berofus, who was a
prieft of Belus, and deeply verfed in the antiquities of
his country, is a piece of mythology of the moft ex¬
travagant nature. It has been copied by Eufebius
(Chron. 1. i. p. 5.); it is likewife to be found in Syn-
cellus, copied from Alexander Polyhiftor. Accord¬
ing to this hiftorian, there were at Babylon written
records preferved with the greateft care, comprehend¬
ing a period of fifteen myriads of years. Thofe wi-i-
tings likewife contained a hiftory of the heavens and
the fea, of the earth, and of the origin of mankind.
“ In the beginning (fays Berofus, copyingfromOannes,
of whom we fhall give a brief account below) there
was nothing but darknefs and an abyfs of water, where¬
in refided moft hideous beings produced from a two¬
fold principle. Men appeared with two wings; fome
with two and fome with four faces. They had one
body, but two heads ; the one of a man the other of
a woman. Other human figures were to be feen, fur-
niffied with the legs and horns of goats. Some had
the feet of horfes behind, but before were fafhioned
like men, refembling hippocentaurs.” The remain¬
ing part of this mythology is much of the fame com-
plexion ; indeed fo extravagant, that we imagine our
readers will readily enough difpenfe with ourtranfiating
the fequel. “ Of all thefe (fays the author) were
preferved delineations in the temple of Belus at Ba¬
bylon. The perfon who was fuppofed to prefide over
them was called Omorea. This word, in the Chaldean
language, is Thalath, which the Greeks call Saxa-o-*,
but it more properly imports the moon. Matters be¬
ing in this fituation, their god (fays Eufebius), the
god (fays Syncellus) came and cut the woman afun-
der ; and out of one half of her he formed the earth,
and out of the other he made the heavens; and, at
the fame time, he dedroyed the monfters of the abyfs.”
This whole mythology is an allegorical hiftory copied
from hieroglyphical reprefentations, the real purport
of which could not be decyphered by the author.
Such, in general, were the confequences of the hiero¬
glyphical ftyle of writing.
Oannes, the great civilizer and legiflator of tf^Oanri^the''
Chaldeans, according to Apollodorus, who copied ,t.r'
from Berofus, was an amphibious animal of a hetero- the Chal-
geneous appearance. He was endowed with reafon c*eanf*
and a very uncommon acutenefs of parts. His whole
body refembled a fifti. Under the head of a fiffi he
had alfo another head, and feet below fimilar to thofe
of a man, which were fubjoined to the tail of the fiih.
His voice and language were articulate and perfeftly in¬
telligible, and there was a figure of him ftill extant in
the days of Berofus. He made his appearance in the
Erythrean or Red Sea, where it borders upon Baby¬
lonia. This monftrous being converfed with men by
day; but at night he plunged into the fea, and re¬
mained concealed in the water till next morning. He
taught the Babylonians the ufe of letters and the know¬
ledge of all the arts and fciences. He inftrufted them
in the method of building houfes, conftrufting temples,'
and all othw edifices. He taught them to compile
law$
MYTHOLOGY. 60s
faws and religious ceremonies, and explained to them
the principles of mathematics, geometry, and aftro-
nomy. In a word, he communicated to tjhem every
thing neceffary, ufeful,and ornamental; and iouniverfal
were his inftru6lions,that not one fingle article had ever
been added to them fince the time they were hrll com¬
municated. Helladius is of opinion that this flrange
perfonage, whoever he was, came to be reprefenttd
under the figure of a filh, not becaufe he was a&uaily
believed to be fuch, but becaufe he was clothed with
the Ikin of a feal. By this account our readers will
fee that the Babylonian Oannes is the exaft counter¬
part of the Fo hi of the Chinefe, and the Thyoth or
Mercury Trifmegiftus of the Egyptians. It is like-
v ifeapparent, that the idea of the monifer compound¬
ed of the man and the f|lh has originated from fome
hieroglyphic of that form grafted upon the appearance
of man. Some' modern mythologiiis have been of
opinion, that Oannes was actually Noah the great
preacher of righteoufnefs ; who, as fome think, fettled
in Shinar or Chaldea after the deluge, and who, in
confequence of his connexion with that event, might
be properly reprefented under the emblem of tie Man
of the Sea.
The*na'ivi nat^v't5r Venus> *he goddefs of beauty and
ty of the 1"^0ve> '* another piece of mythology famous among
troddefs of the Babylonians and Affyrians. An egg, fay they,
beauty and of a prodigious fize, dropt from heaven into the river
Lve. Euphrates. Some doves fettled upon this egg, after
that the filhes had rolled it to the bank. In a fhort
time this egg produced Venus, who was afterwards
called the Dea Syria, the Syrian goddefs. In confe¬
quence of this tradition (fays Hyginus), pigeons and
fifties became facred to this goddefs among the Syrians,
who always abflained from eating the one or the other.
Of this imaginary being we have a very exa& and en¬
tertaining hiftory in the treatife De fyea Syria, gene¬
rally afcribed to Lucian.
In this mythological tradition our readers will proba¬
bly difcover an allufion to the celebrated Mundane egg ;
and at the fame time the fiory of the fifties will lead them
to anticipate the connexion between the fea and the
moon. This fame deity was the Atargatis of Afcalon,
defcrihed by Diodorus the Sicilian ; the one-half ef her
body a woman, and the other a fifti. This was no
doubt a hieroglyphic figure of the moon, importing
the influence of that planet upon the fea and the fex.
The oriental name of this deity evidently points to the
moon ; for it is compounded of two Hebrew words ( b),
which import “ the queen of the holt of heaven.”
Thenable ^ fable of Semiramis is nearly conne&ed with
©f Semiia- preceding one. Diodorus Siculus has preferred
mis the mythological hiftory of this deity, which he and:
al! the writers of antiquity have confounded with the
Babylonian princefs of the fame name. That hifto-
rian informs us, that the word Semiramis, in the Sy.
rian dialed, fignifies “ a wild pigeon but we ap¬
prehend that this term was a name or epithet of the
moon, as it is compounded of two words (c) of an
import naturally applicable to the lunar planet. It
was. a general pradice among the Orientals to deno¬
minate their lacred animals Irony that deity to which
they were confecrated. Hence the moon being called
Semiramis, and the pigeon being facred to her divinity,
the latter was called by the name of the former.
As the bounds prefcribed this article renders it im-
poffible for us to do juftice to this intereftiug piece of
mythology, we muft beg leave to refer our readers for
farther information to Diod. Sic 1. ii. Hyginus Poet.
Aftron. fab. 197. Pharnutus de Nat. Deor. Ovid, Me-
tam 1. iv. Athen. in Apol. Izetzes Chil ix. cap. 275.
Seld. de Diis Syr. Syrit. ii. p. 183.
We fhould now proceed to the mythology of thej ;lt,g
Arabians, the far greatell part of which is, however, known of-
buried in the abyfs of ages ; though, when we refled on A-abian
the genius and cbarader of that people, we muft be con- mythology,
vinced that they too, as well as the other nations of the
call, abounded in fabulous relations and romantic com-
pofitions. The natives of that country have always been
enthufiaflically addided to poetry, of which fable is the
eftence Wherever the mufes have ereded their throne,
fables and miracles have always appeared in their train.
In the Koran we meet with frequent allufions to well-
known traditionary fables. Thefe had been tranfmit-
ted from generation to generation by the bards and'
rhapfodifts for the entertainment of the vulgar. In
Arabia, from the earlieft ages, it has always been one
cf the favourite entertainments of the common people,
to aflemble in the ferene evenings around their tents,
or on the platforms with which their houfes are gene¬
rally covered, or in large halls ereded for the purpofe,.
in order to amufe themfelves with traditional narrations
of the mold diftinguiftied adions of their moft remote
anceftors. Oriental imagery always embellifhed their
romantic details. The glow of fancy, the love of
the marvellous, the propenlity towards the hyperbo¬
lical, and the vaft, which conftitute the efl’ence of ori¬
ental defeription, nmft ever have drawn' the relation
afide into the devious regions of fidion and fairy-land.
The religion of Mahomet beat down the original fa¬
bric of idolatry and mythology together. The Ara¬
bian fables current in modern times are borrowed or
imitated from Perfian compofitions ; Periia being ftili
the grand nurfery of romance in the eaftt
In Egypt we find idolatry, theology, and mytho-Egypuar
logy, almoft infeparably blended together. The inha-mychoiugf*
bitants of this region, too, as well as of others in the
vicinity of the centre of population, adhered for feve-
ral centuries to the worlhip of the true God. At
laft, however, confcious of their own ignorance, im¬
purity, imperfedion, and total unfitriefs to approach-
an infinitely perfed Being, diftant, as they" imagined,
and invilible, they began to caft about for fome beings
more exalted and more perfed than themfelves, by
whofe mediation they might prefer their prayers to
the. fupreme Majefty of heaven. The luminaries of
heaven, which they imagined were animated bodies,
naturally prefented themfelvesv Thefe were fplendid
and glorious beings. They were.thought to partake
of the divine nature ; they wete revered as the fatraps,
prefects,,
(b) Jdar or Hadar, “ magnificat and Gad, “ exercitus turmu”
(-c) Shem or Sem, “ a fign,” and ramah, “ high.”
'&>5 M Y T H O
prefers, and rq^refentatives of the fuprcme Lord of
the univerfe. They were, vifible, they were benefi-
-cent; they dwelt nearer to the gods, they were near
at hand, and alwaysacceffible. Thefe were, of conffe,
employed as mediator* and interceflors between the
fupreme Divinity and his humble ftabjeSsof this lower
world. Thus employed, they might claim a fubordi-
nate {hare of worfhip, \thieh was accordingly affigtied
them. In procefs of time, however, that wprfhip,
which was originally addreffed to the fupreme Creator
by the mediation of the heavenly bodies, was in a
great meafure forgotten, and the adoration of man¬
kind ultimately terminated on thofe illuftrious crea¬
tures. To this circumftance, we think, we may afcribe
’Origin of ^le or*g>n °f that fpecies of idolatry called Zabiifm,
viLabiifm. or the worfhip of the hoft of heaven, which overfpread
the world early arid almoft univerfally. In Egypt
this mode of worfhip was adopted in all its moft ab-
furd and moft enthufiaftic forms; and at the fame
time the moft heterogeneous mythology appeared in
its train. The mythology of the ancient Egyptians
was fo various and multiform, fo complicated and fo
myfterious, that it would require many volumes even
to give a fuperficial account of its origin and progrefs,
•not only in its mother country, but even in many o-
ther parts of the eaftern and weftern world. Befides,
the idolatry and mythology of that wonderful country
are fo clofely conned!ed and fo infeparably blended to¬
gether, that it is impoffible to defcribe the latter with¬
out at the fame time developing the former. We hope,
therefore, our readers will not be difappointed if, in a
work of this nature, we touchonly upon fome of the
leading or moft interefting articles of this complicated
fubjedt.
Tleijfn ef The Egyptians confounded the revolutions of the
frods and heavenly bodies with the reigns of their moft early
demigods, monarchs. Hence the incredible number of years in-
&c. in £- doded in the reign of their eight fuperior gods, who,
according to them, filled the Egyptian throne fuccef-
fively in the moft early periods of time. To thefe,
according to their fyftem, fucceeded twelve demigods,
who likewife reigned an amazing number of years.
Thefe imaginary reigns were no other than the perio¬
dical revolutions of the heavenly bodies preferved in
their almanacks, which might be carried back, and
adtually were carried back, at pleafure. Hence the
fabulous antiquity of that kingdom. 'The imaginary
exploit? and adventures of thefe gods and demigods
furniflred an inexhauftible fund of mythological ro¬
mances. To the demigods fucceeded the kings of
the cynic cycle, perfonag.es equally chimerical with
the former. The import of this epithet has greatly
perplexed critics and etymologifts. We apprehend it
is an oriental w-ord importing roya/_dignity, elevation
of rank. This appellation intimated, that the mo¬
narchs of that cycle, admitting that they a&ually ex-
ifted, were more powerful and more highly revered
than their fucceffors. After the princes of the cynic
cycle comes another race, denominated Nekyes, a title
likewife implying royal, fplendid, glorious. Thefe
3a cycles figure high in the mythological annals of the
■Birth, ex- Egyptians, and have furnilhed materials for a variety
trarsforma ^earne<^ an^ ingenious difquifitions. The wars and
Jon of the" ad ventures of Ofiris, Orus, Typhon, and other alle¬
ged?.
LOGY.
gorical perfonages who figure in the Egyptian rubric 5
the wanderings of Ifis, the fifter and wife of Ofiris }
the transformation of the gods into divers kinds of
animals; their birth, education, peregrinations, and
exploits compofe a body of mythological fidftons
fo various, fo complicated, fo ridiculous, and often fo
apparently abfurd, that all attempts to develope and
explain them have hitherto proved unfuccefsful. All,
or the greate 1 part, of thofe extravagant fables, are
the offspring of hieroglyphical or allegorical emblems
devifed by the priefts and fages of that nation, with
a view to conceal the myfteries of their religion from
that clafs of men whom they ftigmatized with the
name of the uninitiated rabble. ^
The worfhip of brute animals and of certain vege-Wo-fhip of
tables univerfal among the Egyptians, was another ex-brute ani-
uberant fource df mythological adventures. The E-raa'lS>
gyptian priefts, many of whom were likewife profound
pliilofophers, obferved, or pretended to obferve, a kind
of analogy between the qualities of certain animals and
vegetables, and thofe of fome of their fubordinate di¬
vinities. Such' animals and vegetables they adopted,
and confecrated to the deities to whom they were fup-
pofed to bear this analogical refemblance ; and in pro¬
cefs of time they confidered them as the vifible emblems
of thofe divinities to which they were confecrated. By
thefe the vulgar addreffed their archetypes: in the fame
manner, as in other countries, pictures and ftatues were
employed for the very fame purpofe. The mob, in
procefs of time, forgetting the emblematical chara&ef
of thofe brutes and vegetables, addi effed their devotion
immediately to them ; and of courfe thefe became the
ultimate objects of vulgar adoration.
After that thefe objedfts, animate or inanimate, were
confecrated as the viiible fymbols of the deities, it foon
became fafhionable to make ufe of their figures to re-
prefent thofe deities to which they were confecratecl.
This pradtice was the natural confequence of the hie¬
roglyphical ftyle which univerfally prevailed among
the ancient Egyptians. Hence Jupiter Ammon was
reprefented under the figure of a ram, Apis under that
of a cow, Ofiris of a bull. Pan of a goat, Tho'th or
Mercury of an ibis, Bubaftis or Diana of a cat, &c.
It was likewife a common praftice among-thofe de¬
luded people to dignify thefe objedts, by giving them
the names of thofe deities which they reprefented. By
this mode of dignifying thefe facred emblems, the
veneration of the rabble was confidcrably enhanced,
and the ardour of their devotion inflamed in propor¬
tion. From thefe two fources, we think, are derived
the fabulous transformations of the gods, fo generally
celebrated in the Egyptian mythology, and from it
imported into Greece and Italy. In confequence of
this pradtice, their mythological fyftem was rendered
at once enormous and unintelligible.
Their Thoth, or Mercury Trifmegiftus, was, in ^4
our opinion, the inventor of this unhappy fyftem. This
perfonage, according to the Egyptians* was the orfgi-tus the au-
nal author of letters, geometry, aftronomy, mufic, af- thor «:f the
chitedlure ; in a word, of all the elegant and ufeful'EgyPtian
arts, and of all the branches of faience and philofophy.mjl
He it was who firft difeovered the analogy between
the divine affedtions, influences, appearances,^ opera¬
tions, and the correfponding properties, qualities, and
inftindU
607
MYTHOLOGY.
hifttnfts of certain animal*;, and the propriety of dedi¬
cating particular kinds of vegetables to the fervice of
particular deities.
The priefts, whofe province it was to expound the
ir.yfteries of that allegorical hieroglyphical religion,
(Tee Mysteries), gradually loft all knowledge of the
primary import of the fymbolical charafters. To fup-
ply this defeft, and at the fame time to veil their own
ignorance, the facerdotal inftrudtors had recourfe to
fable and fiction. They heaped fable upon fable, till
their religion became an accumulated chaos of mytho¬
logical abfurdities.
Two of the moft learned and moll acute of the an¬
cient philofophers have attempted a rational explica¬
tion of the latent import of the Egyptian mythology;
but both have failed in the attempt; nor have the
moderns, who have laboured in the fame department,
performed their part with much better fuccefs. In-
ftead, therefore, of profecuting this inexplicable fub-
je£l, which would fwell this article beyond all propor¬
tion, we muft beg leave to refer thofe who are defirous
of further information to the following authors, where
! ^ they will find enough to gratify their curiofity, if not
to inform their judgment: Herodotus, lib. ii. Diodo¬
rus Siculus, lib. i. Plut. Ills and Ofiris ; Jamblichus
I de Myft. Egypt. Horapollo Hieroglyp. Egypt. Ma-
crpb. Sat. cap. 23. among the ancients: and among
the modems, Kircher’s Oedip. Volf, de orig. et prog.
[ Idol. Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Anc. Mythol. Monf.
Gebelin Monde prim.; and above all, to the learned
' , Jablonlki’s Panth. Egyptiorum.
Phoenician The elements of Phoenician mythology have been
mythology preferved by Eufebius, Prsep. Evang. fub init. In
the large extract which that learned father hath co-
) pied from Philo Biblius’s tranflation of Sanchonia-
| tho’s Hiftory of Phoenicia, we are furnifhed with fe-
veral articles of mythology. Some of thefe throw
confiderable light on feveral paflages of the facred hi¬
ftory; and all of them are ftridlly connetfted with the
mythology of the Greeks and Romans. There we
have preferved a brief but entertaining detail of the
1 ' fabulous adventures of Uranus, Cronus, Dagon, Thy-
oth or Mercury, probably the fame with the Egyp¬
tian hero of that name. Here we find Muth or Plu¬
to, iEpheeftus or Vulcan, iEfculapius, Nereus, Pofce-
| . don or Neptune, &c. Aftarte, or Venus Urania,
makes a confpicuous figure in the catalogue of Phoeni¬
cian worthies; Pallas or Minerva is planted on the
territory of Attica; in a word, all the branches of the
family of the Titans, who in after ages figured in the
rubric of the Greeks, are brought upon the ftage,
I and their exploits and adventures briefly detailed.
\ irecian comparing this fragment with the mythology of
ftieytho!ogy Atlantidse and that of the Cretans preferved by
vjterived Diodorus the Sicilian, lib. v we think there is gpod
I P'ftjTyp1 reafon to conclude, that the family of the Titans, the
t c-a. feveral branches of which feem to have been both the
authors and obje&s of a great part of the Grecian ido-
f latry, originally emigrated from Phoenicia. This con¬
i' jefturc will receive additional ftrength, when it is con-
fidered, that almoft all their names recorded in, the fa¬
bulous records of Greece, may be eafily traced up to a
Phoenician original. We agree with Herodotus, that
| -a confiderable part of the idolatry of Greece may have
been borrowed from the Egyptian^ at the.fame time,
we imagine it highly probable, that the idolatry of the
Egyptians and Phoenicians were, in their original con-
ftitution, nearly the fame. Both fyftems Were Sabiifm,
or the worfhip of the hoft of heaven. The Pelafgf,
according to Herodotus, learned the names of the gods
from the Egyptians; but in this conjecture he is cer¬
tainly warped by his partiality for that people. Had
thofe names been imported from Egypt, they would
no doubt have bewrayed their Egyptian original;
whereas, every etymologift will be convinced that
every one is of Phoenician extraction.
The adventures of Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Apollo,
Diana, Mars, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Bacchus, Ce¬
res, Proferpine, Pluto, Neptune, and the other defeen-
dants and coadjutors of the ambitious family of the
Titans, furnifti by far the greateft part of the mytho-
thology of Greece. They left Phoenicia, we think,
about the age of Mofes; they fettled in Crete, a large
and fertile ifland ; from this region they made their
way into Greece, which, according to the moft authen¬
tic accounts, was at that time inhabited by a race of
favages. The arts and kiventions which they commu¬
nicated to the natives; the myfteries of religion which
they inculcated ; the laws, cuftoms, polity, and good
order, which they eftabliflied; in (hort, the bleffings
of humanity and civilization, which they everywhere
difleminated, in procefs of time infpired the unpolifhed
inhabitants with a kind of divine admiration. Thofe
ambitious mortals improved this admiration into divine
homage and adoration. The greater part of that wor-
Ihip, which had been formerly addreffed to the lumi¬
naries of heaven, was now transferred to thofe illuftri-
oup perfonages. They claimed and obtained divine
honours from the deluded rabble of enthufiaftic Greeks.
Hence fprung an inexhauftible fund of the moft incon-
fiftent and irreconcileable fidlions.
The foibles and frailties of the deified mortals were Hence thfc
tranfmitted to pofterity, incorporated as it were with inconQftcnt
the pompous attributes of fupreme divinity. Hence ^lQrse°£
the heterogeneous mixture of the mighty and the poets,
mean which chequers the ebarafters of the heroes of
the Iliad and Gdyffey. The Greeks adopted the ori¬
ental fables; the import of which they did not under-
ftand. Thefe they accommodated to heroes and illu-
ftrious perfonages, who had figured in their own coun¬
try in the earlieft periods. The labours of Hercules
originated in Egypt, and evidently relate to the annual
progrefs of the fun in the zodiac, though the vain-glori¬
ous Greeks accommodated them to a hero of their own,
the reputed forr of Jupiter and Alcmena. The ex¬
pedition of Ofiris they borrowed from the Egyptians,
and transferred to their Bacchus, the Ton of Jupiter
and Semele the daughter of Cadmus. The transfor¬
mation and wanderings of lo are evidently tranferibed
from the Egyptian romance of the travels of Ifis in
queft of the bexly of Ofiris, or of the Phoenician
Aftarte, drawn from Sanchoniathon. lo or lah is in
reality the Egyptian name of the moon, and Aftarte
was the name of the fame planet among the Phoeni¬
cians. Both thefe fables are allegorical reprefentations
of the anomalies of the lunar placet, or perhaps of the
progrefs of the Worfhip of that planet in different parts
of the world. The fable of the conflagration occa-
fioned by Phaethon is clearly of oriental extradlion,
and alludes to an exceffive drought which in the early
period*’-
6o8
M Y T H O
periods of time fcorchei Ethiopia and the adjacent k;
LOGY.
At laft they conqnere! Greece, the native
land of fcience, and then “ Grttcia capta ferum vifto.
rem cepit arte et intulit agrefti Latio.” This beiny'
the cafe, theer mythology was, upon the whole, a tran-
fcript from that of Greece. Tlity had indeed gleaned
a few fables from the Pelafgi and Hetrufcans, which,
however, are of fo little confequence, that they are
fcarce worth the trouble of tranfcribing.
The mythology of the Celtic nations is in a good
meafure loft. There may polBbly ftill remain feme
veftiges of the D midi cal fuperdition in the remoteft
parts of the Highlands and Hands of Scotland ; and
countries. The fabulous adventures of Peffcus are faid
to have happened in the fame regions, and are allego¬
rical reprtfentations of the influence'of the fidav lumi¬
nary; for the original Pe'rfeus was the fun The rape
of Proferpine and the wanderings of Ceres: the Eieu-
dinian mylleries; the orgia or facred rites of Bacchus;
the rites and.worlhip of the Cabiri—-were imported
from' Egypt and Phoenicia ; but ftrabgely garbled and
disfigured by the HierophvntS'of Greece. The gigan-
tomachia, or war between the gods and the giants,
and all the fabulous events and varieties of that war,
form arj ex aft counterpart to the. battles of the Peri' perhaps in the uncivilized places of Ireland. Thefe,
/ and Dives, celebrated in the romantic annals of Per- we prefume, would afford our readers but little enter-
fia. tainment, and ftill lefs inftruftion. Inftead therefore
The Grreks A confiderable part of the mythology of the Greeks of giving a detail of thofe uninterefting articles, we
ism rant ot fpnlng from their ignorance of the oriental languages, fhall beg leave to refer our readers to Offian’s Poems,
Jai ematres They difdained to apply themfdves to the ftndy of and Col. Valency’s Colleftioits of Irilh Antiquities, for
languages fpoken by people whom, in the pride of fatisfaftion on that fubjeft. ^
their heart, they ftigmatifed with the epithet of The mythology of the northern nations, *. e. of the Myt ology
barbarians. This averfion to every foreign dialeft Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, &c. are un-of rhe
tvas highly detrimental to their progrefs in the fei- commonly curious and* entertaining. The Edda aiidnf>,f;hcrn
ences. 1 he fame negleft or averfion has, we ima- Volufpa contain a complete colleffion of fables whichna£lulis"
gine, proved irreparable injury to the republic of have not the fmalleft affinity with thofe of the Greeks
Piters in all fucceeding ages. The aoids or ftrolling and Romans. They are wholly of an oriental com-
Iyards laid hold on thofe oriental legends, which they plexion, and feem almoft congenial with the tales of
fopbifticated with their own additions and improve- the Perfians above deferibed. The Edd:t was com¬
ments, in order to accommodate them to the popular piled in Iceland in the 13th century. It is a kind of
tafte. Thefe wonderful tales figured in their rhapfo- fyftem of the Scandinavian mythology ; and has been
dical compofitions, and were greedily fwallowed down reckoned, and we believe juftly, a commentary on the
bv the credulous vulgar. Thofe fictions, as they rolled Volufpa, which was the Bible of the northern nations,
down, were conftantly augmented with freffi materials, Odin or Othin, or Woden or Waden, was the fupreme 4t
till in procefs of time their original import was either divinity of thofe people. His exploits and adventures >dn> «e
forgotten or buried in impenetrable darknefs. A mul- furniffi the far greateft part of their mythological creed. w'aileB-
titude of thefe Hcfiod has collefted in his Theogonia, That hero is fuppofed to have emigrated from the eaft;
or. generation of the gods, which unhappily became but from what country or at what period is not cer-
the religious Creed of the illiterate part of the Greeks, tainly known. His atchicvements are magnified be-
Indeed, fable was fo clofely interwoven with the reli- yond all credibility. He is reprefented as the god of
gion of that airy volatile people, that it (eems to have battles, and as flaughtering thoufands at a blow. His
contaminated not only their religious an-d moral, but palace is called Valhal; it is fituated in the city of
,0 even their political tenets. Midgard, where, according to the fable, the fouls of
The far-famed oracle of Dodona was copied from heroes who had bravely fallen in battle enjoy fupreme
that of Ammon of Thebes in Egypt: The oracle of felicity. They fpend the day in mimic hunting.
Apollo at Delphos was an emanation from the fame matches, or imaginary combats. At night they at-
fource: The celebrated Apollo Pythius of the Greeks femble in the palace of Valhalla, where they feaft on
was no other than 01 or Aub of the Egyptians, who the moft delicious viands, drefftd and ferved up by the
denominated the bafililk or royal fnakc Ov Cai, becaufe Valkyriay virgins adorned with celeltial charms, and
it was held facred to the fun. Ob or Aub is ftill re- Aulhed with the bloom of everlafting youth. They
tained in the Coptic dialeft, and is one of the many Mace themfelves with drinking mead out of the ikulla
names or epithets of that luminary. In ffiort, the “f enemies whom they killed in their days of nature,
ground-work of the Grecian mythology is to he tra- Mead, it feems, was the neftar of the Scandinavian
ced in the eaft. Only a fmall part of it was fabricated heroes.
in the country ; and what was imported pure and ge- Sleepner, the horfe of Odin, is celebrated along^^j,
nuine was miferably fophifticated by the hands through with his matter. Hela, the hell of the Scandina-aU(1 devij
which it paffed, in order to give it a Grecian air, and vians, affords a variety of fables equally' ffiockingof the
to accommodate its ftyle to the Grecian tafte. To and heterogeneous. Loke, the evil genius or deviDfandin*.
enlarge upon this topic would be altogether fuper- of the northern people, nearly yefembles the Typhonv‘ans’
fiuous, as our learned readers muft be well acquainted of the Egyptians. Signa or Sinna is the confort of
with it already, and the unlearned may without much Loke; from this name the Englith word fin is derived,
trouble or expence furniflr themfelves with books upon The giants Weymur, Ferbanter, Bftupher, and Hel-
that fubjeft. lunda, perform a variety of exploits, and are exhibited
The Roman mythology was borrowed from the in the moft frightful attitudes. One would be tempted
mythology Greeks. That people had addifted themfelves for to imagine, that they perform the exaft counterpart
borrowed many centuries to the arts of war and civil polity, of the giants of the Greek and Roman mytholcgifts.
Science and philofophy were either neglefted or un- Inftead of glancing at thefe ridiculous and uninterefting
** N°236. 7 fables.
Oracle of
Dodona.
Ft!
MYTH
fables, which is all that the limits prefcribed us would
permit, we fhall take the liberty to lay before our readers
a brief account of the contents of the Volufpa, which
43 is indeed the text of the Scandinavian mythology,
i The Voluf- The word Volufpa imports, “ the prophecy of Vo-
*>a' la or Fola.” This was perhaps a general name for the
prophetic ladies of the north, as Sybil was appropriated
to women endowed with the like faculty in the fouth.
Certain it is, that the ancients generally connefted
madnefs with the prophetic faculty. Of this we have
two celebrated examples: the one in Lycophron’s
Alexandra, and the other in the Sybil of the Roman
Poet. The word vola fignifies “ mad or foolilh
whence the Englilh words fool, foolt/h, folly. Spa, the
latter part of the compofition, fignifies “to prophecy,”
and is Hill current among the common people in Scot¬
land, in the word Spte, which has nearly the fame fig-
nification.
The Volufpa eonfifts of between 200 and 300 lines.
The prophetefs having impofed filence on all intelli¬
gent beings, declares that (he is about to reveal the
works of the Father of nature, the aftions and opera¬
tions of the gods, which no mortal ever knew before
herfelf. She then begins with a defeription of the
chaos ; and then proceeds to the formation of the
world, the creation of the different fpecies of its inha¬
bitants, giants, men, and dwarfs. She then explains
the employments of the fairies or deftinies, whom the
northern people call nornies ; the functions of the dei¬
ties, their moft memorable adventures, their difputes
with Loke, and the vengeance that enfued. She at
laft concludes with a long and indeed animated de¬
feription of the final date of the univerfe, and its diffo-
lution by a general conflagration.
In this cataftrophe, Odin and all the rabble of the
pagan divinities, are to be confounded in the general
ruin, no more to appear on the ftage of the univerfe.
Out of the ruins of the former world, according to
the Volufpa, a new one (hall fpring up, arrayed in all
the bloom of celeftial beauty.
Such is the do&rine exhibited in the fabulous Vo¬
lufpa. So congenial are fome of the details therein
delivered, efpecially their relating to the final diffolu
tion of the prefent fyftem, and the fucceffion of a new
heaven and a new earth, that we find ourfelves ftrong-
ly inclined to fufpett, that the original fabrication of
the work was a femipagan writer, much of the fame
complexion with the authors of the Sybilline oracles,
and of fome other apocryphal pieces which appeared
in the world during the firll ages of Chriftianity.
M l4. In America, the only mythological countries mud
of Mexico7 be Mexico and Peru. The other parts of that large
I tend Peru, continent were originally inhabited by favages, mod
M Y T
Mytilus. MYTlLLfS, the Mussel, in ichthyology f a
^ ' genus of animals, belonging to the order of vermes
tedacea. The animal is an afeidia : the (hell bivalve;
often affixed to fome fubdance by a beard; the
hinge without a tooth, marked by a longitudinal
hollow line. Of thefe animals there are a great many
Vol. XII. Part. II.
O L O G Y. 609
of them as remote from religion as from civilization.
The two vad empires of Mexico and Peru had exided
about 400 years only before the Spaniffi invafion: In
neither of them was the ufe of letters underdood; and
of courfe the ancient opinions of the natives relating
to the origin of the univerfe, the changes which fuc-
ceeded, and every other monument of antiquity, was
obliterated and lod. Clavigero has indeed enumerated
a vad canaille of fanguinary gods worfhipped by the
Mexicans; but produces nothing either entertaining
or intereding with refpeft to their mythology. The
information to be derived from any other quarter is
little to be depended upon. It pafles through the
hands of bigoted miffionaries or other ecclefiadics,
who were fo deeply tindlured with fanaticifm, that
they viewed every a&ion, every fentiment, every cu-
dom, every religious opinion and ceremony of thofe
half-civilized people, through a falfe medium. They
often imagined they difeovered refemblances and ana¬
logies between the rites of thofe Javages and the dog¬
mas of Chridianity, which no where exided but in
their own heated imagination.
The only remarkable piece of mythology in the an¬
nals of the Peruvians, is the pretended extraftion of
Manco Cape the fir(l Inca of Peru, and of Mama
Ocoila his confort. Thefe two illudrious perfonages
appeared fird on the banks of the lake Titiaca. They
were perfons of a majedic dature, and clothed in de¬
cent garments. They declared themfelves to be the
children of the Sun, fent by their beneficent parent,
who beheld with pity the miferies of the human race,
to indruft and to reclaim them. Thus we find thefe
two legifiators availed themfelves of a pretence which
had often been employed in more civilized regions to
the very fame purpofes. The idolatry of Peru was
gentle and beneficent, that of Mexico gloomy and fan¬
guinary. Hence we may fee, that every mode of fu*
perdition, where a divine revelation is not concerned,
borrows its complexion from the charadlers of its pro-
feffors.
In the courfe of this article, our readers will ob-
ferve, that we have not much enlarged upon the my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans; that fubjeft,
we imagine to be fo univerfally known by the learned,
and fo little valued by the vulgar, that a minute dif-
cuffion of it would be altogether fuperfluous. Be-
fides, we hope it will be remembered, that the nar-
rownefs of the limits prefcribed us would fcarce admit
of a more copious detail. We would flatter ourfelves,
that in the courfe of our difquifition, we have thrown
out a few refleftions and obfervations, which may per¬
haps prove more acceptable to both deferiptions of
readers.
M Y T
fpecies, fome of them inhabiting the feas, others the Mytilug.
rivers and ponds. Several of them are remarkable for
the beauty of their internal (hell, and for the pearls
which are fometimes found in them.
1. The edulis, or edible muffel, has a drong (hell,
flightly incurvated on one fide, and angulated on the
4 H other.
M Y T r 6i<
Mytilus. other. The end near the hinge is pointed ; the other
’—v—J rounded. When the epidermis is taken off, it is of a
deep blue colour. It is found in immenfe beds, both
in deep water and above low-water mark. The fineil
muflels in Britain are thofe called Hambleton bookers,
from a village called Hambleton in that county. They
are taken out of the fea, and placed in the river Wier,
within reach of the tide, where they grow very fat
and delicious. This fpecies inhabits the European
and Indian feas. Between the tropics it is largeft,
and fmallell within the polar circle. It is faid to be
hurtful if too often eat, or in too great quantities ;
and is even fometimes poifonous.
2. The modiolus, or great muflel, with a ftrong
Ihell, blunted at the upper end ; one fide angulated
near the middle; from thence dilating towards the
end, which is rounded. It dwells in the Mediterra¬
nean, Indian, European, and American feas; and its
flelh, which is a deep orange colour, is eatable. It is
the greateft of the muffels known in Britain ; being
from fix to feven inches in length ; it lies at great
depths ; often feizes the bafts of ground-lines, and is
taken up with the hooks.
2. The cygneus, or fwan muffel, with a thin brittle
fhell, veiy broad and convex, marked with concentric
llrias; attenuated towards one end, dilated towards
the other ; decorticated about the hinge ; the colour
a.dull green ; the length fix inches, breadth three and
a half. It is an inhabitant of the European rivers,
frequenting chiefly their mouths.
4. The anatinus, or duck muflel, has a fliell more
oblong and lefs convex than the laft ; is very brittle
and femitranfparent; the fpace round the hinges like
the laft ; the length about five inches, breadth two
It is found in Europe in frefh waters. Both it and
the cygneus are devoured by fwans and ducks ; whence
their names : crows alio feed on thefe muifels, as well
as on different other fliell fifh ; and it is diverting to
obfirvt, that when the (hell is too hard for their bills,
they fly with it to a great height, drop the fhell on a
rock, and pick out the meat when the Ihell is fra&ured
by the fall.
c. The cryftagalli, or cock’s-comb muffel, has the
fhell folded or plaited as it were, fpiny, and both lips
rugged. It makes its abode in the coral beds of the
Indian ocean.
6. The margaritiferus, or pearl-bearing muflel, has
•the fhell compreffed and flat, nearly orbicular, the bafe
tranfverfe, and imbricated with dentated coats. It
dwells in the ocean of either India. This is the ma¬
ter perlarum of Rumphius, or mother-of-pearl fhell.
(3n the infide. it is exquifitely poiifhed, and of the
d ] M Y T
whitenefa and water of pearl itfelf. It has alfo the Mytiru
fame luftre on the outiide after the external laminae
have been taken off by aquafortis and the lapidary’s
mill. Mother-of-pearl is ufed in inlaid works, and in
feveral toys, as fnuff boxes, &c.
7. The lithophagus, or tlone-eating muflel, has
the fhell cylindric, the extremities both ways being
rounded. It inhabits the Indian, European, and Me¬
diterranean feas, penetrating and eating away marbles,
corals, &c. The Indian fhell is fofter and nearly
tough like leather, but the European is more briule.
8. The violacea, or violet muffel, has the fhell lon¬
gitudinally furrowed, the rim very obtufe, fomewhat
formed like the mytilus edulis, but confidetably larger
and more flattened, of abeautiful violet colour. Inhabits
the fouthern ocean. There are about 50 other fpecies.
Muflels not only open and fhut their fhells at plea-
fure, but they have alfo a progrefllve motion; they
can fallen themfelves where they pleafe ; they refpire
water like the fifhes t and fome even flutter about on
its furface fo as to inhale air. If they lie in fhallovy
places, a fmall circular motion is feen above the heel
of the fhell; and a few moments after, they caft out
the water by one fingle ftroke at the other end of the
fhell. The mouth is fituated near the fharp angle of
the animal, and is furnifhed with four floating, fringes
in the- lhape of muftachios, which may perhaps anfvver
the purpofe of lips. The barbs which furround the
edge of almoil half the mufiel, are a wonderful web
of hollow fibres which ferve as fins or organs of refpi-
yation, as veflels for the circulation of the fluids, and
probably, as fome philofopheis fuppofe, as wedges for
opening their fhells; for we obferve two large mufcles
or tendons for the purpofe of fhutting them ; but we
in vain look for their antagonifls, or thofe which are
deflined to open them. When the muflel wifhes to
open itfelf, it relaxes the two mufcles or tendons, and
fwells the fringes, which afl as wedges and feparatc
the fhells. The animal fhuts up itfelf by the con-
tra&ion of two thick fibrous mufcles which are fixed
internally to each end *>f the fhells; and thefe fhells are
lined all around with a membrane or epidermis, which
unites them fo clofely together when they are foaked
in water, that not the finalleft drop can efcape from
the mufcle. When muffels chooie to walk (a), they
often contrive to raii'e themfelves on the fliarp edge et
their fhells, and put forth a flefhy fubftance fufeeptibie
of extenfion, which ferves them as a leg to drag them¬
felves along, in a kind of groove or furrow which they
form in the fand or mud, and which fupports the fhell
on both fides. In ponds, thefe furrows are very ob-
fervable. From the fame member or leg hang the
threads
(a) The common fea or edible muffel has, from its being for the moft part found fattened to the rocks, been
fuppofed by many wholly incapable of progreffive motion ; but this M. Reamur has fhown to be an erroneous
opinion. It is a common pra&ice in France, at fuch feafonsof the year as do not afford fun enough ta make fait,
to throw the common fea-muffels, which the fiihermen catch about the coafls, into the brine-pits. They have an
opinion tliat this renders their flefh the more tender and delicate, as the rain which falls at thefe feafons makes
the water of the pits much lefs fait than thecommon fea-water. The muffels are on this occafion thrown chre-
kfsly in, in feverul different parts of the pits ; yet, at whatever diftances they have been thrown in, the fifher-
n^n, when they go to take them out, always find them in a clufter together ; and as there is no current .
of .water in thefe places, nor any other, power of motion which can have brought the mufftls together, it
fesms
M Y T [ 611 1 M Y T
Mytilas- threads by which the animals fallen (b) themfelves
***—\~—‘ to rocks or to one another.
According to the obfervations of M. Mery of the
ParissAcademy,andthe fubfequent experiments of other
naturaiifls, muffels are all androgynous ; and, from
a peculiar generative organization, each individual is
of itfelf capable of propagating its fpecies, and annu¬
ally does it without the intercourfe of any other. This MytHui.
is altogether fingular, and different from what takes ~
place in fnails, earth-worms, and other hydrogenous
or hermaphroditical animals; for though each indi¬
vidual of thefe contains the parts of both fexes, yet
there is always a congrefs of two animals for the pro¬
pagation of the Ipecies. The parts of generation are
4 H 2 two
feems very evident-that they muft voluntarily have marched from the places where they were at firft, to
have met thus together. This progreffive motion is wholly performed by means of what we call the tongue
of the muffel, from its fhape; but, from its ufe in this cafe, appears rather to merit the name of a leg,
or an arm, as by laying hold of any diftant fubftance, and then forcibly contra&ing itfelf again, it draws along
the whole body of the animal. The fame part, when it has moved the animal to a proper place, ferves alfo
to fix it there, being the organ by which it fpins the threads which we call its beard, by which it is held to
a rock, or to another muffel. The motion of the mulfel, by means of this part, is juft the fame with
that of a man laid flat on his belly, who would draw himfelf along by laying hold of any thing with one
hand, and then drawing himfelf to it.
(b) Muflels are well known to have a power of faftening themfelves either to ftones, or to one another's
fhells, in a very ftrong and firm manner ; but the method of doing this was not well underftood till the
dbfervations of Mr Reaumur explained it. Every one who opens and examines a common muffel, will
find, that in the middle of the fiih there is placed a little blackifh or brownifh body refembling a tongue.
This in large muffels is near half an inch long, and a little more than a fix'ch of an inch in breadth,
and is narrower at the origin than at the extremity: from the root of this tongue, or that part of it
which is faftened to the body of the fifh, there are produced a great number of threads, which* when
fixed to any folid fubftance, hold the muffel firmly in its place : thefe threads are ufually from an inch to
two inches in length, and in thicknefs from that of a hair to that of a hog’s brittle. They iffue out of the
fhell in that part where it naturally opens, and fix themfelves to any thing that lies in their way, to
ftones, to fragments of fhells, or, which is the moft common cafe, to the fhells of other muflels ; whence
it happens that there are ufually fuch large quantities of muffels found together. Thefe threads are expanded
on every fide, and are ufually veiy numerous, 150 having been found iffuing from one fhell: they ferve the
office of fo many cables; and, each pulling in its proper direftion, they keep the muffcl fixed againft any
force that can be offered from whatever part it come. The filaments are well known to all who eat muffels,
who ever carefully feparate them under the name of the beard; and Mr Reaumur has found, that while the
animal is living in the fea, if they are all torn away by any accident, the creature has a power of fubftituting
others in their room : he found, that if a quantity of muffels were detached from one another and put into
a veffel of any kind, and in that plunged into the fea, they in a little time faftened themfelves both to the
fidesof the veffel and to one another’s fhells; the extremity of each thread feemed in this cafe to ferve
in the manner of a hand to feize upon any thing that it would fix to, and the other part, which was flenderer
and fmaller, to do the office of an arm in conducing it.
To know the manner of the muffels performing this operation, this diligent obferver put forae muffela
into a veffel in his chamber, and covered them with fea water ; he there faw that they foon began to open
their fhells, and each put forth that little body before deferibed by its refemblance to a tongue, and at the
root of which thefe threads grow; they extended and fhortened this part feveral times, and thrufl it out
every way, often giving it not lefs than two inches in length, and trying before, behind, and on every fide
with it, what were the proper places to fix their threads at: at the end of thefe trials they let it remain
fixed for fome time on the fpot which they chofe for that purpofe, and then drawing it back into the fhell
with great quicknefs, it was eafy to fee that they were then faftened by one of thefe threads to the fpot where
it had before touched and remained fixed for a few minutes ; and in repeating this workmanfhip the threads
are increafed in number one at every time, and being fixed in different places they fuftain the fifh at reft
againft any common force.
The feveral threads were found to be very different from one another; the new formed ones being ever
whiter, more gloffy, and more tranfparent than the others : and it appeared on a clofe examination, that
it was not, as might have been moft naturally fuppofed, the office of the tongue to convey the old threads
one by one to the new places where they were now to be fixed, but that .thefe in reality were now become
ufelefs ; and that every thread we fee how formed, is a new one made at this time ; and in fine, that nature
has given to fome fea-fifhes, as well as to many land-infefts, a power of fpinning thofe threads :or their ne-
ceffary ufes; and that muffels and the like fifh are under water, what caterpillars and fpiders are at land.—■
To be well aflured of this, however, Mr Reaumur cut off the beard or old threads-of a mufcle as clofe as he
could, without injuring the part; and the proof of the opinion of their fpinning new ones at pleafure was now
brought to this eafy trial, whether thefe muflels, fo deprived of their old ones, could fix themfdves as foon
as others which were poffeffed of theirs, and could throw out their threads to as confiderable diftances.—
The
Mytilus.
M Y T [ 61
two ovaries and two feminal veficle*. Each ovary and
veficle has its proper du&. It is through thofe four
channels that the eggs and the feed of the muffel are
conveyed to the anus, where thofe two principles unite
at their iffue, which anfwers the purpofeof generation.
It is in the fpring that muflels lay their eggs; there
being none found in them but in winter. M. Lewen-
hoek, in feveral muflels which he differed, difcovered
numbers of eggs' or embryo muflels in the ovarium,
appearing as plainly as if he had feen them- by the na¬
ked eye, and all lying with their fliarp ends fattened
to the ttring of veflels by which they receive nourifli-
ment. The minute eggs, or embryos, aie by the pa¬
rent placed in due order, and in a very clofe arrange¬
ment on the outlide of the Ihell, where, by means of
a gluey matter, they adhere veiy fall, and continually
increafe in fize and ftrength, till becoming perfedt
muflels, they fall off and fliift for themfelves, leaving
the holes where they were placed behind them. This
abundance the muflel fliells very plainly (how, when
examined ly the microfcope, and fometimes the num¬
ber is 2000 or 3000 in one fhell: but it is not certain
that thefe have been all fixed there by the muflel
within ; for thefe fiflt ufually lying in great numbers
near one another, the embryos of one are often af-
2 ] M Y T
fixed to the fliell of another. 1 he fringed edge of the Mytilus.
muflel, which Lewenhoek calls the lean/, has in eve- 1
ry the minuteft part of it fuch variety of motions as is
inconceivable ; for being corn pofed of longifli fibres,
each fibre has on both fides a vaft many moving par¬
ticles.
The muflel is infefted by feveral enemies in its own
element ; according to Reaumur it is in particular the
prey of a fmall ihell-fifh of the trochus kind. This
animal attaches itfelf to the ftiell of the muflel, pierces
it with a round hole, and introduces a fort of tube
five or fix lines long, which it turns in a fpiral direc¬
tion, and with which it fucks the fubflance of the
muflel. Muffels are alfo fubjedl to certain difeafes,
which have been fuppofed to be the caufe of thofe bad
effedts which fometimes happen from the eating of them.
Thefe are ftated by Dr Moehring, in the 7 th vol. of
the German Ephemerides, to be the mofs and the fcab.
The roots of the mofs being introduced into the fhell,
the water penetrates through the openings, and gra¬
dually diflblves the muflel. The fcab is formed by a
fort of tubercles which are produced by the difiblution
of the fhell. Certain fmall crabs, which are fometimes
found in muflels, likewife tend to make them un-
wholefome.
The
The experiment proved the truth of the conjedture ; for thofe whofe beards or old threads were cut off,
fixed themfelves as foon as rhofe in which they were left, and fpread their threads to as great a diftance
every way.
When the mechanifm of this manufadture was thus far underflood, it became a natural defire to inquire
into the nature of the part by which it was performed. This has hitherto been mentioned under the name
of the tongue, from its fhape ; but it is truly the arm of the fifh ; and whenever it happens to be loofened
from its company, or fixed in a wrong place, it ferves the animal to drag its whole body fhell and all along,
and to perform its feveral motions. It fixes itfelf to fome folid body ; and then ftrongly contracting its
length, the whole fifh mutt neceflarily follow it, and be pulled toward the place where it is fixed. This is an
ufe, however, that this part is fo rarely put to, that it is not properly to be efteemed a leg or an arm for
this; but, according to its more frequent employment, may much better be denominated the organ by which
the threads are fpun. Though this body is flat in the manner of a tongue for the greater part of its length, it
is however rounded or cylindric about the bafe or infertion, and it is much fmaller there than in any other part:
there are feveral mufcular ligaments fattened to it about the root or bafe, which hold it firmly againft the middle
of the back of the fhell; of thefe ligaments there are four which are particularly obfervable, and which ferve to-
move the body in any diredtion. There runs all along this body a flit or crack, which pierces very deeply
into its fubftance. and divides it as it were into two longitudinal fedrions ; this is properly a canal, and along
this is thrown the liquor which ferves to form the threads ; and it is in this canal or flit that thefe threads
are moulded into their form. Externally, this appears only a fmall crack or flit, becaufe the two flefhy
fedlions of the parts almoft meet and cover it ; but it is rounded and deep within, and is furrounded with cir¬
cular fibres. This canal is carried regularly on from the tip of the tongue, as it is called, to its bafe,
where it becomes cylindric; the cylinder in this part being no other than a clofe tube or pipe, in which
this open canal terminates. The cylindric tube contains a round oblong body, of the nature of the threads,,
except that it is much larger; and from the extremity of this all the threads are produced, this ferving as
a great cable to which all the other little cordages difperfed towards different parts are fixed. The tube or
pipe in which this large thread is lodged, feems the refervoir of the liquor of which the other threads are form¬
ed ; all its internal furface being furnifhed with glands for its fecretion.
The muflel, like many other fea-fifhes, abounds in this liquor ; and if at any time one touch with a finger
the bafe of this fpinning organ, one draws away with it a vifeous liquor in form of feveral threads, like
thofe of the caterpillar, fpider, and the other fpinning land-animals. The threads fix themfelves with equal
cafe to the moft fmooth and glofly, as to rougher bodies; if the muflels are kept in glafs-jars of fea-water*
they as firmly fatten themfelves to the glafs as to any other body. Muflels, be they ever fo young, have this
property of fpinning ; and by this means they fatten themfelves in vaft numbers to any thing which they find,
in the fea. Mr Reaumur has feen them, when as fmall as millet-feeds, fpin plentifully, though their threads*
proportioned to their own weight, are much finer and fmaller than thofe of larger mufiels.
M Y T L 6
Mytilm. The eating of mufiels has fometimes produced ery-
» fipelatous inflammations, cutaneous eruptions, infup-
portable itching all over the body, great reftleffnefs
and agitation ; and though thcfe complaints are eafily
removed by oil, milk, and emetics, and have feldom or
never proved mortal, yet they have an alarming afpedt,
and make the patient fiiffer grievoufly. Thefe noxious
effe&s have been fuppofed to he owing to the mufiels
or part of them having been difeafed. Some authors,
however, have pretended that thofe effe&s never take
place but between the vernal and autumnal equinox :
and M. Beunie, phyfician at Antwerp, in a memoir
on this fubjedt, feems inclined to adopt this opinion ;
for he recommends abftinence from mufiels during the
months of May, June, July, and Auguft. The caufe
of thefe noxious effects in the muflel is, accord¬
ing to this author, altogether accidental. They are
occafioned, he fays, by a kind of ftella marina, a little
fea infedt pretty common about the mouth of the
Scheldt, which fometimes lodges ilfelf in the muffel in
queft of food ; and whofe fpawn is fo cauftic and in-
flammatory, that, even when applied outwardly to the
fkin, it produces itching and fwellings that are painful
in a high degree. The itching occafioned.by touching
the fpawn of the ftella marina is removed by vinegar j
and this known fadt induced Dr Beunie to prefcribe
the internal ufeof vinegar, after bleeding, evacuations,
and emetics. His method confifts in recommending
a large quantity of refrefhing beverage, and, every hour,
three ounces of vinegar diluted in water. This reme¬
dy, however, feems rather to confirm the opinion of
thofe who impute the diforder in queft ion to an unper¬
ceived commencement of putrefaction in the muffel;
as vinegar is known to be a powerful antifeptic, and
there is no fort of putrefaction more noxious and of-
fenfive than that of fifh.—Upon the whole, the edulis,
or eatable muffel, though a rich food, is difficult of
digeftion. In its belt ftate it is even noxious to fome
confutations; and when affeCted by difeafe is in fome
degree poifonous. Muffels are apt to do moft harm
when eaten raw. They ought always to be boiled with
onions, well walhed with vinegar, and feafoned with
pepper; and even thus qualified, they fhould not be
eaten to excefs or too frequently.
13 1 M Y X
Frefh-water muflels are not fo good eating as the Myttoton.
fea-muffel. The river muffel, according to M. Pou- il
part, fwims in the water, and fometimes appears to MTyne- |
flutter on its furface. But we believe it more com¬
monly creeps in the mud, where it remains almoft al¬
ways at reft. The pond muflel is always larger than
that which is found in rivers ; and it is a more folitary
animal. Jn its motion it makes tracks in the fand and
mud, as already obferved; and it penetrates into it
two or three inches, and fometimes more. Pearls of
confiderable beauty are found in feveral river-muflels}
of this kind are the Scots muflels, thofe of Valognes
in Lorrain, of St Savinier, of Bavaria, and of the
marrtrcs near Augfburg.
MYT fOTON, a coarfe kind of food, ufed by the
labouring people among the Greeks, and fometimes
among the Romans. It was made of garlic, onions,
eggs, cheefe, oil, and vinegar, and reckoned very
wholefome.
MYUS (anc. geog.), one of the twelve towns of
Ionia ; feated on the Meander, at the diftance of 30 fta-
dia from the fea. In Strabo’s time it was incorporated
with the Mileflans, on account of the paucity of its
inhabitants, from its being formerly overwhelmed with
water j for which reafon the lonians configqed its fuf-
frage and religious ceremonies to the people of Mile¬
tus. Artaxerxes allotted this town to Themiitocles, in
order to furnifli his table with meat: Magnefia was to
fupport him in bread, and Lampfacus in wine. The
town now lies in ruins.
MYX1NE, the hag; a genus of infefts belonging
to the order of vermes inteftini. It hath a flender body,
carinated beneath ; mouth at the extremity, cirrated ;
the two jaws pinnated ; an adipofe or raylefs fin round
the tail and under the belly. The only remarkable
fpecies is the glutinofa, about eight inches long. It
inhabits the ocean ; enters the mouths of fifh when on
the hooks of lines that remain a tide under water,
and totally devours the whole, except fkin and
bones. The Scarborough fifliermen often take it
in the robbed fifh, on drawing up their lines. Lin¬
naeus attributes to it the property of turning water
into glue.
N.
NA liquid confonant, and the 13th letter of the
, Greek, Latin, Englifh, &c. alphabets.
The « is a nafal confonant: its found is that of a dy
pa fled through the nofe ; fo that when the nofe is flop¬
ped by a cold, or the like, it is ufual to pronounce d
for n. M I’Abbe de Dangeau obferves, that in the
French, the n is frequently a mere nafal vowel, with¬
out any thing of the confonant in it. He calls it the
Sclavonic vowel. The Hebrews call their n nun,
which fignifies child, as being fuppofed the offspring
of m ; partly on account of the refemblance of found',,
and partly on that of the figure. Thus from the m,
by omitting the laft column, is formed n ; and thus;
from the capital N, by omitting the firfl column, is,
formed the Greek minufcle ». Hence for bunnies. See.
the Latins frequently ufe bimus. See. and the fame,
people convert the Greek v, at the end of a word, into
an m, as pharmacum. See. See M.
JV oefore p, b, and m, the Latins change into
and frequently into/and r; as min-ludo, illudo ; in-
NAB [6
rigo, irrigo, &c. : in which they agree with the He •
brews, who, in lieu of nun, frequently double the fol¬
lowing confonants : and the Greeks do the fame ; as
when for Manlius, they write &c. The
Greeks alfo, before k, y, », changed the v into y:
in which they were followed by the ancient Romans ;
who, for Angulus, wrote Aggulus ; for anceps, agceps,&ic.
The Latins retrench the n from Greek nouns end¬
ing in as Leo; A^axuv, Draco: on the con¬
trary, the Greeks add it to the Latin ones ending in
o; as Kar«», N(fov, Cato, Nero.
N, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, figni-
fying opo ; according to the verfe in Baronius,
N, quoque nongentos numero dejignat habendos.
And when a line was {truck over it, N, nine thoufand.
Among the ancient lawyers N. L. ttood for non li¬
quet, i. e. the caufe is not clear enough to pafs fen-
tence upon. N, or N°, in commerce, &c. is ufed as
an abbreviation of nuniero, number.
NAARDA, Nearda, Neerda, or Nehardea, (anc.
geog.), a town fituated on the confines of Mefopota-
mia and Babylonia ; populous, and with a rich and
ex.ten live territory, not eafily to be attacked by an
enemy, being furrounded on all lides by the Euphra¬
tes, and llrong walls (Jofephus). In the lower age
the Jews had a celebrated Icliool there.
NAAS, a borough and poll town of Ireland, in
the county of Kildare and province of Leinfler. It
is the (hire town of that county, and alternately with
Athy the afiizes town. It is diftant above 15 miles
fouth weft, of Dublin, in N. Lat. 53. 10. W. Long.
6.50. It fends two members to parliament; and
gives title of vifeount to the family of Buyke. It has
five fairs in , the year.—This place was anciently the
refidence of the kings of Leinfter: the name fignifies
“ the place of elders,” for here the ftates of that
province affembled during the 6th, 7th, and 8th cen¬
turies, after the Naafteighan of Carmen had been ana-
thematifed by the Chriftian clergy. On the arrival
of the Englilh it was fortified ; many caftles were
eredled, the ruins of which are partly vifible ; and
parliaments were held there. At the foot of the
mount or rath are the ruins of a hoafe founded in
1484, for eremites of the order of St Auguftiu. In
the 12th century the baron of Naas founded a priory
dedicated to St John the Baptift, for Auguftinian
regular canons. In the centre of this town the fa¬
mily of Euftace eredted a monaftery for Dominican
friars, dedicated to St Euftachius ; and it appears that
their pofTefiions in Naas were granted them in the
year 1355. This place was a ftrong hold during the
civil wars.
NABATENE, or Reg 10 Nabataeorum, accord¬
ing to Jerome, comprifed all the country lying be¬
tween the Euphrates and the Red Sea, and thus con¬
tained Arabia Deferta, with a part of the Petrasa :
fo called from- Nabaioth, the firft born of Ifmael. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus, it was fituated between Syria
and Egypt. The people Nabatari (1 Maccabees, Dio¬
dorus Siculus); inhabiting a defart and barren coun¬
try ; they' lived by plundering their neighbours ac¬
cording to Diodorus. Nabatlueus the epithet.
NABIS, tyrant of Sparta, reigned about 2C4B.C.;
and is reported to have exceeded all other tyrants fo
for, that, upon comparifon, he left the epithets of
4 1 NAB
gracious and merciful to Dionyfius and Phalaris. He NAIous
is faid to have contrived an infirument of torture in ^ ^
the form of a ftatue ©f a beautiful woman, whofe rich ng^ar."
drefs concealed a number of iron fpikes in her bofqm y——
and arms. When any one therefore oppofed his de¬
mands, he would fay, “ If 1 have not talents enough
to prevail with you, perhaps my woman Apega
may perfuade you.” The ftatue then appeared;
which Nabis taking by the hand, led up to the per-
fon, who, being embraced by it, was thus tortured in¬
to compliance. To render his tyranny lefs unpopular,
Nabis made an alliance with Flamiflius the Roman ge¬
neral, and purfued with the moft inveterate enmity
the war which he had undertaken againft the Achx-
ans. He befieged Gythium, and defeated Philopos-
men in a naval battle. His triumph was (hort, the
general of the Achseans foon repaired his Ioffes, and
Nabis was defeated in an engagement, and killed as
he attempted to fave his life by flight, about 194
years before the Chriftian era.
NABLOUS, a province of Syria anciently cele¬
brated un ’er the name of the kingdom of Samaria. Its
capital, likewife called Nabhus, is fituated near to
Sichem on the ruins of the Niepolis of the Greeks,
and is the reiidence of a fhaik, who is fubordinate to
the pache of Damafcus, from whom he farms the tri¬
bute of the province.
NABLUM, in Hebrew, Nelel, was an inftrument
of mufic among the Jews. It had firings like the harp,
and was played upon by both hands. Its form was
that of a Greek A- In the Septuagint and Vulgate, it
is called nallum, pfalterion, lyra; and fometimes athnra.
NABO, or Nebo, in mythology, a deity of the
Babylonians, who poffeffed the next rank to Bel. It
is mentioned by Ifaiah, chap, xlviii. Voffius appre¬
hends that Nabo was the moon, and Bel the fun :
but Grotius fuppofes that Nabo was fome celebrated
prophet of the country; which opinion is confirmed
by the etymology of the name, Signifying, according
to Jerom, “ one that prefides over prophefy.”
NABOB, properly Navab, the plural of Nail, a
deputy. As ufed in Bengal, it is the fame as Nazim.
It is a title alfo given to the wives and daughters of
princes, as well as to the princes themfelves.
NABONASSAR, firft king of the Chaldaeans or
Babylonians; memorable for the Jewifh aera which
bears his name, which Is generally fixed in 3257, be¬
ginning on Wednefday February 26th ,in the 3967th
of the Julian period, 747 years before Chrift. The
Babylonians revolting from the Medes, who had over¬
thrown the Affyrian monarchy, did, under Nabonaffar,
found a dominion, which was much increafed under
Nebuchadnezzar. It is probable, that this Nabonaffar
is that Baladan in the fecond of Kings xx. 12. father
of Mcrodach, who fent ambaffadors to Hezekiah. See
2 Chron. xxxii.
NABOPOLASSAR, king of Babylon : he joined
with Aftyages the Mede, to deftroy the empire of Af-
fyria; which having accomplifhed, they founded the
two empires of tho Medes under Aftyages, and the
Chaldseans under Nabopolaffar, 627 B. C.
NABUCHADNEZZAR, or Nabuchodokosor
II. king of Affyria, fon of Nabopolaffar, and ftyled
the Great, was affociated by his father in the empire,
607 B. C. and the following year be took Jehoiakim
king
Nadir
Nsevius.
N V T 615 1 NAG
king of Judah prifoner, and propofed to carry him a rafor, though believed by fome writers, is treated Nkvus
and his fubje&s in captivity into Babylon ; but upon as fabulous and improbable by Cicero, who himfelf '' II
his fubmiffion, and ptomifing to hold his kingdom un- had been an augur. Na^racuN
der Nabuchodonofor, he was permitted to remain at NiEVUS, a mole on the fltin, generally called a ^
Jerufalem. In 603 B. C. Jehoiakim attempted to mother’s mark; alfo the tumour known by the name
(hake off the Affyrian yoke, but without fuccefs; and of a wen.
this revolt brought on the general captivity. Nabu- All preternatural tumours on the Ikin, in. the form
chadnezzar having fubdued the Ethiopians, Arabians, of a wart or tubercle, are called excreftences ; by the
Idumaeans, Philittines, Syrians, Perfians, Medes, Af- Greeks they are called acrotbymia ; and when they are
fyrians, and almoft all Afia ; being puffed up with born with a perfon, they are called neevi materni, or
pride, caufed a golden ftatue to be fet up, and com- marks from the mother. A large tumour depending,
manded all to worihip it; which Daniel’s companions from the Ikin is denominatedfarcoma. Thefe appear
refilling to do, they were call into the fiery furnace, on any part of the body : fome of them differ not in
But as he was admiring his own magnihcenee, by di- their colour from the reft of the fkin ; whilft others
vine fentence he was driven from men, and in the fcrip- are red, black, &c. Their lhapes are various ; fome
ture ftyle is faid to have eaten grafs as oxen: i. e. he was refembling ftrawberries, others grapes, &c. Heifter
feized with the difeafe called by the Greeks lycon- adviies their removal by means of a ligature, a can*
thropy, which is a kind of madnefs that caufes perfons tery, or a knife, as circumftances heft fuit.
to run into the fields and ftreets in the night, and As to the tumour called a wen, its different fpecies
fometimes to fuppofe themfelves to have the heads of are diftinguilhed by their contents. They are encyit •
oxen, or to be made of glafs. At the end of feven ed tumours; the matter contained in the firil three
years his reafon returned to him, and he was reftored following is infpiffated lymph, and that in the fourth
to his throne and glory. He died 562 B. C. in the is only fat. Monf. Littre was the firft who particu-
43d year or his reign ; in the 3 th of which happened larly deferibed the fourth kind ; and to the following
that eclipfe of the fun mentioned by Ptolemy, which purpofe he fpeaks of them all. A wen is laid to be of
is the fureft foundation of the chronology o£ his reign. three forts, according to the kind of matter it contains:
NADIR, in altrononay. that point of the heavens thofe whofe contents referable boiled rice, or curds, or
which is diametricdly oppofite to the zenith or point a bread-poultice, is caWtd. atheroma ; if it referhbles
direftly over our heads. honey, it is named meliceris ; and if it is like fuet, it is
NvENIA, the goddefs of funerals at Rome. Her denominated Jhatoma: but there is a fourth fort, which
temple was without the gates of the city. The fongs may be called lipome, becaufe of its fat contents refem-
which were fung at funerals were alfo called mcnia. bling greafe. He fays that he has feen one on the
They were generally filled with the praifes of the de- Ihoulders of a man, which was a thin bag, of a tender
ceafed ; but fometimes they were ib unmeaning and texture, full of a foft fat, and that it had all the qua-
improper, that the word became proverbial to fignify lities of common greafe. And though the fat in the
norifenfe. lipome refemhles that in the fteatoma, yet they can-
NAERDEN, a ftrong town of the United Pro- not be the fame : for the matter of the fteatoma is
vinces in Holland, feated at the head of the canals of not inflammable, nor does it melt; or if it does, it is -
the province. The fo’undations of it were laid by Wil with great difficulty and' imperfeftly ; whereas it is
Ham of Bavaria, in 1350. It was taken by the Spa- the contrary with the lipome. When the man who
niards in 1572, and by the French in 1672; but it had the above-named lipome was fatigued, or had
was retaken by the prince of Orange the next year, drank freely of ftrong liquors, his lipome was inflamed
It ftands at the fouth end of the Zuyder Zee, in E. for feme days after, and its contents rarefying in-
Long. 3. 3. N. Lat. 51. 22. creafed the fize of the tumour.
NaEVHJS (Cneius), a famous poet of Campania, The lipome feems to be no other than an enlarge-
was bred a foldier; but quitted the profeffion of arms, ment of one or more of the cells of the adipofe mem-
in order to apply himfelf to poetry, which he profe- brane, which is filled only with its natural contents,
cuted with great diligence. He cof*ipoied a hiltoryin Its foftnefs and largenefs diftinguifh it in general from
verfe, and a great number of comedies : But it is faid, the other fpecies, though fometimes the faity contents
that his tirft performance of this laft kind fo difplea- will be fo hard as to deceive. As this kind of wen
fed Metcllus on account of the fatyrical ftrokes it con- does not run between the mufcles, nor is pofieffed of
tained, that he procured his being banifhed from the any confiderable blood-veffels, it may always be cut off
city; on which'he retired to Utica in Africa, where with eafeand fafety.
heat length died, 202 B. C. "We have only fome As to the other kind of wens, their extirpation may
fragments left of his works. or may not be attempted, according as their fituation
There was another N^vius a famous augur in the is with refped to adjacent veffels, the wounding of
reign ef Tarquin, who, to convince the ki g and the which would endanger the patient’s life.
Romans of his preternatural power, cut a flint with a NAGERA, or Nagara, a town of Spain, in Old
rafor, and turned the ridicule of the populace to ad- Caflile,, and the territory of Rioja, with the title of a
miration Tarquin rewarded his merit by erecting duchy and fortrefs'; famous for a battle fought in its
him a ftatue in the. comitium, which was ftill in be- neighbourhood in 1369. It is fituated in a fertile
ing in the age of Auguflus. The rafor and flint were country, on a brook called Naferitla. W. Long. 2. 20,
buried near it under an altar, and it was ufual among , N. Lat. 4.2. 25.
the Romans to make witneffes in civil caufes fwear NAGRACUT, a town of India, the capital of a
near, it.. This,miraculous event of cutting a flint with kingdom ®f the fame name in the dominions of the
a - Great,..
N A I [6
[Nahum Great Mogul, with a rich temple to which the Indians
M go in pilgrimage. It is feated on the river Ravi. E.
. Tai ' , Long. 78 xo. N. Lat. 33. 12.
V’"-'y NAHUM, or the Prophecy of Nahum, a canonical
book of the Old Teftament.
Nahum, the feventh of the 12 leffer prophets, was
a native of Elkofhai, a little village of Galilee. The
fubjeft of his prophecy is the deftrudtion of Nineveh,
which he defcribes in the moft lively and pathetic man¬
ner ; his ftyle is bold and figurative, and cannot be ex¬
ceeded by the moft perfeft mafters of oratory. This
prophecy was verified at the fiege of that city by A-
llyages, in the year of the world 3378, 622 years be¬
fore Chrift.
NAIADES (fab. hid.), certain inferior deities
who prefided over rivers, fp 'ings, wells, and fountains.
The Naiades generally inhabited the country, and re-
forted to the woods or meadows near the ftream over
which they prefided. They are reprefented as young
and beautiful.virgins, often leaning upon an urn, from
which flows a ftream of water. -*Egle wa* the faireft
of the Naiades, according to Virgil. Their name
feems to be derived from t0flow. They were
held in great veneration among the ancients ; and of¬
ten facrifices of goats and lambs weie offered to them,
with libations of wine, honey, and oil. Sometimes
they received only offerings of milk, fruit, and
flowers.
NAIANT, in heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning
fifties, when borne in an horizontal pollute, as if fwim ■
aning.
NAIAS, in botany: A genus of the monandria
order, belonging to the dioscia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The male calyx is cylindrical
and bifid ; the corplla quadrifid ; there is no filament;
nor is there any female calyx or corolla; there is one
piftil; and the capfule is ovate and unilocular.
NATD, the interior of the great defart of Arabia,
inhabited by a few fcattered tribes of feeble and
wretched Arabs. See Arabia.
NAIL, unguis, in anatomy. See there, n° 81.
Nails, in building, &c. fmall fpikcs of iron, brafs,
&c. which being drove into wood, ferve to bind feveral
pieces together, or to fatten fomething upon them.
Nails wete made ufe of by the ancient Hebrews
for cancelling bonds : and the ceremony was perform¬
ed by fluking them through the writing. This feems
to be alluded to in fcripture, where God is faid by
our crucified Saviour to have “ blotted out the hand¬
writing of ordinances that was againfl us, and to have
taken it out of the way, nailing it to his crofs.”
Col. ii. 14. For the caufe and ceremony of driving
the annual nail, or clavus annalis, among the Romans,
fee Annalis Clavus.
Nail, is alfo a meafure of length, containing the
16th part of a yard.
Nailing of Cannon. When circumftances make it
ceceffary to abandon cannon, or when the enemy’s ar¬
tillery are feized, and it is not however pofiible to take
them away, it is proper to nail them up, in order to
render them ufelefs ; which is done by driving a large
nail or iron fpike into the vent of a piece of artillery,
to render it unferviceable. There are vaiious contri¬
vances to force the nail out, as alfo fundry machines
. N° 236. 1
6 ] N A I
invented for that purpofe, but they have never been Nain
found of general ufe ; fo that the befl method is to XI l1
, -i, Nairn
drill a new vent. ,
One Gafper Vimercalus was the firfl who invented
the nailing of cannon. He was a native of Bremen,
and made ufe of his invention firfl in nailing up the ar¬
tillery of Sigifmund Malatefta.
NAIN (Lewis Sebaftian de), one of the moft learn¬
ed and judicious critics and hiltorians France has pro¬
duced, was the fon of a matter of the requefls, and
born at Paris in 1637. At ten years old he went to
fchool at Port Royal, and became one of the befl
writers of that inftitution. Sacy, his intimate friend
and counfellor, prevailed with him in 1676 to receive
the priefthood ; which, it feems, his great humility
would not before fuffer him to afpire to. This virtue
he feems to have poffeffed in the extreme ; fo that
Boffuet, feeing one of his letters to father Dami, with
whom he had fome little difpute, befought him mer¬
rily “ not to be always upon his knees before his ad-
verfary, but raife himfelf now and then up.” He
was folicited to pufh himfelf in the church, and Bu-
zanval, bifhop of Beauvois, wifhed to have him for his
fuceeffor: but Nain, regardlefs of dignities, wifhed
for nothing but retirement. In this he did indeed
moft effedlually bury himfelf j and, joining the mor¬
tifications of a religious life to an indefatigable pur-
fuit of letters, he wore himfelf entirely out, fo as to _
die in 1698, aged 61, though he was formed fora
longer life. His principal works are, 1. Memoirs on
the ecclefiaftical hittory of the fix firft ages of the
church, 16 vols 4to. 2 The hiftory of the emperors,
6 vols 410. Thefe works are deduced from original
fouices, and compofed with the utmoft fidelity and
exailnefs.
Nain, or Naim, fituated at the bottom of mount
Plermon on the north fide, was anciently a city of the
tribe of Iffachar, in the province of Galilee. It was
near the gates of this city that our Saviour reftored
to life the only fon of a widow, and where he infpired
Mary Magdalen to come and mourn for her fins at
his feet. Thefe circumftances alone make this place
worthy of notice ; for at prefent Nain is only a ham¬
let inhabited by Chriftians, Mahometans, and He¬
brews, where there is not a Angle monument to attradl
the curiofity of the traveller.
NAIRES, Nahers, or Nayers, in modern hiftory,
a name which is given by the Malabarians to the mi¬
litary of their country, wbo form a very numerous
clafs or tribe, out of which the fovereigns of Malabar
choofe their body-guard.
NAIRN, a county of Scotland, comprehending the
weft part of Murray. It is bounded on the north by
Murray frith, on tbe weft and fouth by Invernefs, and
on the eafl by Elgin. The length of it amounts to
20 miles, and the breadth to 14. The air is temperate
and falubrious, and the winters are remarkably mild.
The face of the country is rough and mountainous }
yet there are fome fruitful ftraths, or valleys, which
produce good crops of oats and barley; but in gene¬
ral the country is much better adapted for pafturage.
Here are alfo large woods of fir, and other trees, that
afford ftielter to the game, of which there is great
plenty. A ftrath is a long, narrow valley, with a ri¬
ver running through the bottom. Of thefe, the moft
remarkable
NAM I 617 ] NAM
INaiffant
(1
Name.
remarkable .in this county, are Strathnairn, on the river
of that name, in the fouth-weil part of the fhire ; and
on the fouth-eaft fide, Stratherin, on botfy fides of
Findhorne river. Nairn is well watered with ftreams,
rivulets, and lakes, abounding with fifh. In the fouthern
part there is a fmall lake, called Moy, furroun^ing an
ifland, on which there is a cattle belonging to the laird
of M‘Into(h : but the greater part of the (hire is peo¬
pled by the Frafers, a warlike Highland clan, whofe
chief, the Lord Lovat, loft his life on a fcaffold for
Laving been concerned in the late rebellion. Here are
a great number of villages ; but no towns of note ex¬
cept Nairn, fuppofed to be the Tutejls of Ptolemy, (i-
tuated at the mouth of the river which bears the fame
name ; a royal borough, which gave a title of lord to
an ancient family, forfeited in the rebellion of 1715.
The harbour, which opened in the Murray frith, is
now choaked up with fand ; and the commerce of the
town is too inconfiderable to deferve notice. The
pebple in general fubfift by feeding (beep and black ’
cattle. About four miles from Nairn (lands the caftle
of Calder, on the river of that name, belonging to
a branch of the family of Campbell. In this neigh¬
bourhood we find a quarry of free-ftone, and many
figns of copper. About fix miles to the north-weft
of Nairn, a new fort hath been lately built by order
of the government, at a place called Jrdefeer, a fmall
-ifthtnus upon the Murray frith, which it is intended
•to command.
. NAISSANT, in heraldry, is applied to any animal
Kfuing out of the midft of fome ordinary, and (howing
only his head, (boulders, fore-feet, and legs, with the
tip of his tail; the reft of his body being hid in the
Ihield, or fome charge upon it: in which it differs from
iffuianty whicli denotes a living creature arifing out of
the bottom of any ordinary or charge.
NAISSUS (anc. geog.), a town of Dardania,
a diftridl of Mcefia Superior, faid to be the birth-place
of Conftantine the Great, which feems probable from
his often redding at that place. Nalfttani, the people
(Coin). No v called Nijfay a city of Servia. E.Long.
23° N. Lat. 430.
NAKED seeds, in botany, thofe that are not in-
clofed in any pod or cafe,
NAKIB, in the oriental dignities, the name of an
officer who is a deputy to the cadililkier, or, as he
may be called, the lord high chancellor of Egypt,
appointed by the grand fignior. His office is to carry
the ftandard of Mahomet.
1 NAKOUS, an Egyptian mufical inftrument, made
like two plates of brafs, and of all fixes, from two
inches to a foot in diameter ; they hold them by firings
fattened to'their middles, and ftrike them together fo
as to beat time. They are ufed in the Cophtic churches
and in the Mahometan proceflion$.
NAMA, in botany : A genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and,
in the natural method, ranking under the 13th order,
Succulentts. The calyx is pentaphyllous, the corolla
guinquepartite, the capfule unilocular and bivalved.
NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed
to expiefs fome idea; or which ferves ta, denote or
fignity a thing or fubjeft fpoken of. See Word.
This the grammarians ufually call a muriy nomen.
Vox. XII. Part II.
though their noun is not of quite fo much extent as
our name. See Noun.
Seneca, Lib. 11. de Beriejiclis, obferves, that there
are a great number of things which have no name ; and
which, therefore, we are forced to call by other bor¬
rowed names. Ingens ejl (fays he) rerum copia Jine no¬
mine, quas cum propriis appellationibus fignare non pof-
fumus, alienis accommodalis utimur: which may (how
why, in the courfe of this di£tionary, we frequently
give divers fenfes to the fame word.
Names are diftinguilhed into proper and appellative.
Proper Names, are thofe which reprefent fome in¬
dividual thing or perfon, fo as to diftinguifh it from
all other things of the fame fpecies; as, Socrates, which
reprefents a certain philofopher.
slppellative or General Names, are thofe which , fig-
nify common ideas ; or which are common to feveral
individuals of the fame fpeeies ; as, horfe, animal, 'man,
oak, See. -
Proper names are either called Chrijlian, as being
given at baptifm ; or furnames : The firftSmpofed for
diftinction of perfous, anfwering to the Roman
nomen ; the fecond, for the diftinflion of families, an-
fwering to the nomen of the Romans, and the putrony-
micum of the Greeks.
Originally every perfon had but one name; as among
the Jews, Adam, See. among the Egyptians, Bujiris ;
among the Chaldees, Ninus; the Medes, Ajlyages’;
the Greeks, Diomedes; the Romans, Romulus; the
Gauls, Divitlacus ; the Germans, Ariovijlus ; the Bri¬
tons, Cajfibelan ; the Engli(h, Hengijl, See. And thus
of other nations, except the favages of Mount Atlas,
whom Pliny and Marcellinus reprefent as anonyme,
“ namelefs.”
_ The Jews gave the name at the circumcifion, viz.
eight days after the birth : the Romans, to females the
fame day, to males the ninth; at which time they
held a feaft, called nominalia.
SinceChriftianityhasobtained, moft nations have fol¬
lowed the Jews, baptizing and giving the name on the
eighth day affter the birth ; except our Englilh ancef-
tors, who, till of late, baptized and gave the name
on the birth-day.
The firft impofition of names was founded on diffe¬
rent views, among different people ; the moft common
was to mark the good wi(hes of the parents, or to en¬
title the children to the good fortune a happy name
feemed to pron&ife. Hence, Vl£lor, Cajlor, Faujlus,
Statorius, Prolus, &c.
Accordingly, we find fuch names, by Cicero called
bona nomina, and by Tacitus faujla nomina, were
firft enrolled and ranged in the Roman mufters; firft
called to ferve at the facrifices, in the foundation of
colonies, &c.—And, on the contrary, Livy calls Atrius
Umber, abominandi omnis nomen : and Plautus, on oc-
cafion of a perfon named Lycd, i. e. “ greedy wolf,”
fays;
Vofmet nunc facite conjeEluram cater urn
Spuid idJit hominis, cul Lyco nomen jiet.
Hence, Plato recommends it to men to be careful in
giving happy names; and the Pythagoreans taught
exprefsly, that the minds, adlions, and fucceffes of men,
were according to their names, genius, and fate. Thus
4 I Panormitan,
NAM [ 6il
Name. Pandmiitan, ex bono nomine oritur bona prafumptio ;
““'V'1 ■' and the common proverb, Bonum nomen bonum omen :
and henge the foundation of the onomomantia. See
Onomomantia.
It is an obfervation deferving attention, fays the
Abbe Barthelemi, that the greater part of names
found in Homer are marks of diltinftion. They were
given in honour of the qualities moft efteemed in the
heroic ages. From the word polemos, which fignifies
war, have been formed T/tpolemus and Archeptolemus,
the names of two heroes mentioned in the Iliad. The
former name fignifies able to fupport, and the latter,
ab'e to direa, the labours of war. By adding to the
word mache, or battle, certain prepofitions and diffe¬
rent parts of fpeech, which modify the fenfe in a man¬
ner always honourable, are compofed the names Am-
phlmachus, Antimachus, Promachus, TeJemachus. Pro¬
ceeding in the fame way with the word honorea,
“ ilrength or intrepidity,” they formed the names
Agapenor, “ he who eiteems valour Agenor, “ he
who dire&s it.” From thoes, “ fwift,” are derived,
Alcalhoes, Panthces. Perithoes, &c. From nous, “ mind
or intelligence,” come AJlynoes, Arjinoes, Autenoes, &c.
From medes, “ counfel,” Agamedes, Eumedes, Lyco~
merles, Thra/ymedes; and from c/tos, “ glory,” Am-
phlcles, Agacles, Iphicles, Patroclus, Cleobulus, with ma¬
ny others
Hence Camden takes it for granted, that the names,
in all nations and languages, are (ignificative, and not
£mple founds for mere didin&ion fake. This holds
not only among the Jews, Greeks, Latins, &c. but
even the Turks; among whom, Abdalla lignifies God's
fervant ; Soliman, peaceable ; Mahomet, glorified, &c.
And the favages of Hifpaniola, and throughout Ame¬
rica, who, in their languages, name their children,
Glifiering Light, Sun Bright, Fine Gold, ifje.; and
they of Congo, by the names of precious Hones, flow¬
ers, &c:
To fuppofe names given without any meaning,
however by the alteration of languages their fignifica-
tion may be loft, that learned author thinks is to re¬
proach our anceftors; and that contrary to the fenfe
of all ancient writers. Porphyry notes, that the bar¬
barous names, as he culls them, were very emphatical,
and very concife : and accordingly it was efteemed a
duty to be ?»{■»»»,«'», or fui nominis homines : as Severus,
Probus, and Aurelius, are called fui no minis impera-
It was the ufual way of giving names, to wifh the
children might difeharge their names- Thus when
Gunthram king of France named Clotharius at the
font, he faid, Crefcat puer, &■ /jujus Jit hominis exe¬
cutor.
The ancient Britons, Camden fays, generally took
their names from colours, becaufe they painted them-
ielves ; which names are now left, or remain hid among
the Wclfh. When they were fubdued by the Romans,
they took Roman names, feme of which rtill remain,
corrupted; though, the greateft part became e>;tinft
upon the admiffion of the Englilh Saxons, who intro¬
duced the German names, as Cridda, Penda, Ofiwald,
Edward, &c.—The Danes, too, brought with them
their names; as Suayne, Harold, Knute, &c. 'The
Homans, at the Conqueft, brought in other German
fames, as originally ufing the German tongue}. fuch
! ] NAM
as Robert, William, Richard, Henry, Hugh, 8cc. after
the fame manner as the Greek names : Afpajius, Boe¬
thius, Symmachus, See. were introduced into Italy upon
the divifion of the empire. After the Conqueft, our
nation, which had ever been averfe to foreign names,
as deeming them unlucky, began to take Hebrew
names ; as Matthew, David, Sampfon, See. The va¬
rious names anciently or at prefent obtaining among
us, from what language or people foever borrowed,
are explained by Camden in his Remains. As to
the period when names began to be multiplied, and
furnames introduced, &c. fee Surname.
Of late years it has obtained among us to give fur-
names for Chriftian names; which fame diflike, on
account of the confufion it may introduce. Camden
relates it as an opinion, that the practice firft began-
in the reign of Edward VI. by fuch as would be god¬
fathers, when they were more than half fathers..
Upon which fame were perfuaded to change their
names a^ confirmation ; which, it feems, is ufual in
other countries.—Thus, two fans of Henry II. of
France, chriftened Alexander and Hercules, changed
them at confirmation into Henry and Francis. In
monafteries, the religious aflume new names at their
admittance, to ftiow they are about to lead a new life,
and have renounced the world, their family, and eveu
their name t v g. fifter Mary of the Incarnation, bro¬
ther Henry of the Holy Sacrament, &c. The popes
a!fo changed their names at their exaltation to the
pontificate •, a cuftom firft introduced by Pope Sergius,,
whofe name till then, as Platina informs us, was Swine-
fnout. But Onuphrius refers it to John XII. or XIII.
and at the fame time adds a different rcafon for it from
that of Platina, viz. that it was done in imitation of
St Peter and St Paul, who were firft called Simon and
Saul.
Among the ancients, thofe deified by the Heathen
confecrations had new names given them ; as Romulus
was called Ipuirinus; Melicertcs, Portunus or Portum-
nus, &c.
New names were alfo given in adoptions, and fome-
times by teftament: thus L. iEmilius, adopted by
Seipio, took the name of Scipio Afrkanus ; and thus
Auguftus, who at firft was called C. Octavius Thurinus,
being adopted by the teftament of Julius Crefar into
his name and family, took the name of Caius Julius
C<efar Ochtvlnrm.
Names were alfo changed at enfranchifements into
new cities. Thus Lucumo, at his firft being made
free of Rome, took the name Lucius Tarquimus
Prifcus, &,c. ; and flaves, when made free, ufually
affumed their mailers names. Thofe called to the
equeftrian order, if they had bafe names, were always
mw named, nomine ingenuorum veterumque Roma-
norum. And among the primitive Chriftians, it was
the p rail ice to change the names of the catechumens t
Thus the renegado Lucianus, till his baptifm, was
called Lucius.
Toward the middle of the r 5th century, it was
the fancy of the wits and learned men of the age,
particularly in Italy, to change their baptifmal names
for clafiical ones. - vs Sannazarius, for initance, who
altered his own plain name Jacopo to Adius Syncerus,
Numbers did the fame, and among the reft Platina.
the hiilorian at Rome, who, not without a folemn ce¬
remonial*
NAN f 6t9 ] NAN
Kampt- remonial, took the name of Callimachus inftead of NANCf, a town of France, and capital of Lorrain, Nani,
Philip. Pope Paul II. who reigned about that time, is fituated on the river Meufe, in the centre of the Nan~itil1g»
j^n_ unluckily chanced to be fufpicious, illiterate, and hea- province. It is divided into the Old and New Towns. * ''' ^
chang-fou.^y of comprehenfion. Fie had no idea that perfons The firft, though irregularly built, is very populous,
V'—’*' could wiih to alter their names unlefs they had fome and contains the ducal palace: the ftreets of the New
bad defign, and aftually fcrupled not to employ im- Town are as ftraight as a line, adorned with hand-
prifonment and other violent methods to difcover the fome buildings, and a very fine fquare. The prima-
fancied myftery. Platina was moll cruelly tortured on tial church is a magnificent ftru&ure, and in that of
this frivolous account: he had nothing to confefs; fo the Cordeliers are the tombs of the ancient dukes,
the pope, after endeavouring in vain to convidt him The two towns are feparated by a canal; and the new
of herefy, fedition, &c. releafed him after a long im- town was very well fortified, but the king of France
prifonment.
NAMPTWICH, or Nantwich, a town of Che-
fhire in England, fituated on the Weever river, 14
miles S. E. from Chefter and 162 miles from London.
It lies in the Vale-Royal, and is one of the largeft
has demoliihed the fortifications. It has been taken and
retaken feveral times; particularly by the French, to
whom it was ceded in 1736, to enjoy it after the death
of Staniflaus.
NANI (John-Baptift), was born in t6t6. His
and beft built towns in the county, the ftreets being father was procurator of St Mark, and ambaffador
very regular, and adorned with many gentlemens
houfes. The inhabitants drive a trade, not only by
its large market on Saturday for corn and cattle, and
its great thoroughfare to Ireland, but by its chcefe
and its fine white fait, which are made here to the
from Venice to Rome. He was educated with atten¬
tion, and made confiderable improvement. Urban VIII.
a juft valuer of merit, foon perceived that of young
Nani. He was admitted into the college of fenators
;64i, and was fhortly after nominated ambaffador
greateft perfeftion ; and by (hoes made here and fent in France, where he fignaiized himfelf by his com-
to London to the warehoufes. It is governed by a pliant manners. He procured confiderable fuccours
confiable, &c. who are guardians of the falt-fprings. for the war of Candia againft the Turks; and be¬
lt is divided by theWeever into two equal parts, which came, after his return to Venice, fuperintendant of
is not navigable any farther than Winsford-bridge. the war-office and of finances. He was afterwards
The Chefter canal, lately completed, terminates in a ambaffador to the empire ; where he rendered thofe
handfome broad bafon near this place. In this town fervices to his country which, as a zealous and intel-
were feveral religious foundations, now no more. The ligent citizen, he was well qualified to difeharge. He
church is a handfome pile of building in the form of was again fent into France in 1660 to folicit frefh fuc-
a. crofs, with an o&angular tower in the middle. There cours forCandia ; and on his return was appointed pro.
are here three fairs. curator of St Mark. He died November 5. 1678, at
NAMUR, a province of the Netherlands, lying the age of 63, much regretted by bis countrymen,
between the rivers Sambre and Maefe ; bounded on The fenate had appointed him to write the Hiftory
the north by Brabant, on the eaft and fouth by the of the Republic; which he executed to the fatisfac-
bifhopric ef Leige, and on the weft by Hainault. It tion of the Venetians, although the work was lefs ad-
is pretty fertile ; has feveral forefts, marble quar- mired by foreigners, who were not proper judges of
ries, and mines of iron, lead, and pit-coal; and is about the accuracy with which he ftated the fa&s, of the
30 miles long and 20 broad. Namur is the capital purity of his didlion, nor of the fimplicity of his
town. ityle ; although it muft be acknowledged that hisnar-
Nam ua, a large, rich, and very ftrong town of the rative is much interrupted by too frequent parenthefes.
Netherlands, capital of the county of Namur, with a In writing his hiftory of Venice he has given an uni-
ftrong caftle, feveral forts, and a bifttop's fee. The verfal hiftory of his times, efpecially with refpeeft to
moft confiderable forts are, Fort-Wil'i.Fort-Maefe, the affairs of the French in Italy. This hiftory, which
Fort Coquelet, and Fort-Efpinor. The caftle is built is continued from 1613 to 1671, was printed at Ve¬
in the middle of the town, on a craggy rock. It was nice in 2 vols 410, in the years 1662 and 1679.
befieged by king William in 1695, who took it in the NAN-king, a city of China, and capital of the
fight of an army of 100,000 French, though there province of King-nan, is faid to have been formerly
were 60,000 men in garrifon. Namur is now a barrier- one of the moft beautiful and fkmrifhing cities in the
town, and has a Hutch garrifon. It was ceded to world. When the Chinefe fpeak of its extent, they
the hotife of Auftria in 1713, but taken by the French fey, if two horftmeh fiiould go out by the fame gate,
in 1746 ; and reftored by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- and ride round it on full fpeed, taking different direc-
pelle. It is fituated between two mountains, at the tions, they would not meet before night. This account
confluence of the rivers Maefe and Sambre, in E. Long, is evidently exaggerated : but it is certain, that Nan-
4. 57. N. Lat. 50. 25. king furpaffes in extent all the other cities of China.
NAN-tchang-fou, the capital of Kiang-fi, a pro- We are affured that its walls are five leagues and a
vince of China. This city has no trade but that of half in circumference.
porcelain, which is made in the neighbourhood of This city is fituated at the diftance of a league from
Jao-tcheou. It is the refidence of a viceroy, and com- the river Yang-tfe kiang : it is of an irregular figure ;
prebends in its diftridt; eight cities ; feven of which the mountains which are within its circumference ha-
are of the third clafs, and only one of the fecond. ving prevented its being built on a regular plan. It
So much of the country is cultivated, that the paftures was formerly the imperial city ; for this reafon it
left are fcarcely fuffiefent for the flocks. was called Nan-King, which fignifies, “ the Southern
4 I 2 Court ^
NAN [ 620 ] NAP
Nan-kirg, Court j” but fince the fix grand tribunals have been NANTES, an ancient, rich, and very confiderable Nantes
transferred from hence to Peking, it is called Kiang- town of France, in Bretagne, with a bifhop’s fee, an !l
L ’ ring in all the public a£s. univerfity, and a mint. It is one of the moft confi- Naj xa,
Nan-king has loft much of its ancient fplendour: it derable places in the kingdom; contains the richeft ''
had formerly a magnificent palace, no veftige of which merchants; and was formerly the refidence of the dukes
is now to be feen ; an obfervatory at prefent negledt- ©f Bretagne, where they built a very ftrong caftle on
ed, temples, tombs of the emperors, and other fuperb
monuments, of which nothing remains but the remem¬
brance. A third of the city is deferted, Lut the reft
is well inhabited. Some quarters of it are extremely
populous and full of bufinefs; particularly the manu¬
facture of a fpecies of cotton cloth, of which great
quantities are imported into Europe under the name of
Nankin. The ftreets are not fo broad as thofe of Pe¬
king ; they are, however, very beautiful, well-paved,
and bordered with rich {hops.
In this city refides one of thofe great mandarins
called ¥fong-gtou, who takes cognizance of all impor¬
tant affairs, not only of both the governments of the
province, but alfo of thofe of the province of Kiang-fi.
The Tartars have a numerous garrifon here, command¬
ed by a general of their own nation; and they occupy
a quarter of the city, feparated from the reft by a plain
wall.
The palaces of the mandarins, whether Chinefe or
Tartars, are in this city neither larger nor better built
than thofe in the capital cities of other provinces. Here
are no public edifices correfponding to the reputation
of fo celebrated a city, excepting its gates, which are
very beautiful, and fome temples, among which is the
fomous porcelain tower. It is 200 feet high, and di¬
vided into nine ftories by plain boards withiij, and
without by cornices and fmall projections covered with
green varnifhed tiles. There is an afeent of 40 fteps
to the firft ftory ; between each of the others there
are 21.
The breadth and depth of the river Yang-tfe-kiang
formerly rendered the port of Nan-king very commo¬
dious ; but at prefent large barks, or rather Chinefe
junks, never enter it; whether it be that it is {hut up
by fand-banks, or that the entrance of it has been for¬
bid, in order that navigators may infenfibly lofe all
Knowledge of it.
In the months of April and May a great number of
excellent fiftr are caught in this river near the city,
which are ,fent to court; they are covered with ice,
and tranfported in that manner by barks kept entirely
on purpofe. Although this city is more than 200
leagues from Peking, thefe boats make fuch expedi¬
tion, that they arrive there in eight or nine days. This
city, though the capital of the province, has under its
particular juwfdi&ion only eight cities of the third
clafs. The number of its inhabitants are faid to be
1,000,000, without comprehending the garrifon of
40,000 men. E. Long. 119. 25. N. Lat. 32. 46.
NANSIO, an ifland of the Archipelago, a little to
the north of the ifland of Santorino, 16 miles in cir¬
cumference ; but has no harbour. The mountains are
nothing but bare rocks, and there are not fpriirgs fuffi-
cient to water the fields. There are a valt number of
partridges, whofe eggs they deftroy every year to pre-
ferve the corn, and yet vaft numbers of them are always
produced. The ruins of the temple of Apollo are yet
to be feen, and confift chiefly of marble columns.
E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 36* 15.
the fide of the river, and which is ftrongly fortified.
There are feveral parifhes, and a great many religious
houfes, and the cathedral contains the tombs of the
ancient dukes. There are feveral fine bridges over
the river Loire, which is navigable The fuburbs are
fo large, on account of the number of people that
come from all parts to fettle here, that they exceed
the city. The Sganiards trade here with wine, fine
wool, iron, filk, oil, oranges, and lemons; and they
carry back cloth, fluffs, corn, and hard-ware. The
Dutch fend fait fifh, and all forts of fpkes; and in
return have wine and brandy. The Swedes bring
copper ; and the Englifti, lead, tin, and pit coaL It
was in this place that Henry IV.-promulgated the
famous edidb in 1398, called ihz Edi8 of Nantes, and
which was revoked in 1685. Nantes w as anciently,
like almoft every-confiderable city in Europe, very
ftrongly fortified. Peter de Dreux, one of the dukes
of Bretagne, furrounded it with walls, which have on¬
ly been demoliftied within thefe few years. The bridge
is an objeft of curiofity. It is near a mile and a half
in length, being continued acrofs.all the.little iflands
in the Loire, from north to fouth.. The territory of
Nantes lies on both fides the Loire, and feeds a great
number of cattle. Large veffels can come no highen
than Port Launai, which is 12 miles from Nantes.
W. Long. 1. 31. N. Lat. 47. 13.
NANTUEIL (Robert), the celebrated defigner
and engraver to the cabinet of Louis XIV. was borir
atjRheims in 1630. His father, though but a petty
fhopkeeper, gave his fon a liberal education; who, ha¬
ving a tafte for drawing, cultivated it with fuch fuc-
cefs, that he became the admiration of the whole town r
but marrying young,, and not being able to maintain
his family, he took a journey to Paris, where he made
his talents known by a ftratagem.—Seeing feverai
abbes at the door of an eating-houfe, he afked the mi*
ftrefs for an ecclefiaftic of Rheims, whofe name he had
^forgot, but that flie might ealily know him by a pic-
'ture of him which he flrowed: the abbes crowding
round, were fo charmed with it, that he feized the op¬
portunity of offering to draw any of their pictures for
a fmall matter. Cuftomers came fo fail', that he foon
raifed his price, and brought his family to Paris, where
his reputation was quickly eftablifhed. He applied,
himfelf particularly to taking portraits in crayons,,
which he afterwards engraved for the ufe of academi¬
cal thefes; and in this way he did the portrait of the
king, and afterwards engraved it as big as the life ;
a thing never before attempted. The king was fo.
pleafed with it, that he created the place of defigner
and engraver to the cabinet for him, with a penfion
of 1000 livres. He died in 1678 ; and an entire col-
le&ion of his prints amounts to upwards of 240.
NANTWTCH., See Namptwich.
NAPrEA, in botany : A genus of the polyandria.
order, belonging to the polydelphia clafs of plants %.
and in the natural method ranking under the 37th
ojder, Columnifem. The calyx is Angle and cylindric;
the
NAP [62
Naphtha, the arilli coalited and monofpermous. 1'here are two
—* fpecies ; both of them with perennial roots, compofed
of many thick flcfhy fibres, which ftrike deep into the
ground, and are conne&ed at the top into large heads;
the ftalks grow to feven or eight feet high, producing
white flowers, tubulous at bottom, but fpreading open
at top, and dividing into five obtufe fegments. Both
thefe plants are natives of Virginia and other parts of
North America : from the bark of fome of the In¬
dian kinds a fort of fine hemp might be procured, ca¬
pable of being woven into very ftrong cloth. They
are eafily propagated by feed, which will thrive in any
fituation.
NAPHTHA, an inflammable fubftance of the bi¬
tuminous-kind, of a light brown colour, and incapable
of decompofitioft, though frequently adulterated with
heterogeneous mixtures. By long keeping it hardens
in the air into a fubftance refemhling a vegetable re
fin ; and in this ftate it is always of a black colour,
whether pure or mixed with other bodies. According
to Mongez, there are three kinds of naphtha, the
white, reddiih, and green or deep-coloured; and it is
in fati a true petrol ar rock oil, of which the lighteft
and moft inflammable is called naphtha. It is faid
to be of an extremely fragrant and agreeable fmell,
though very different in this refpeft from vegetable
oils. It is alfo traufparent, extremely inflammable,
diflolves refins and balfams, but not gum-refins nor
elaftic gum. It difiblves in the efiential oils of thyme
and lavender, but is' infoluble in fpirit of wine and
ether. It burns with a bluifh flame, and is as inflam¬
mable as ether ; like which it alfo attracts gold from
aqua-regia.
Naphtha, according to Cronftedt, is collefted from
the furface of fome wells in Peifia; but Mr Kirwan
informs u?, that it iflues out of white, yellow, or black-
clays, in Perfia and Media. The fineft is brought from
a peninfula in the Cafpian Sea, called by Kempfer
okefra. It iflues out through the earth into citterns
and wells, purpofely excavated for colledfing it at Ba¬
ku in Perfia. Different kinds of this fubftance are
alfo found in Italy, in the duchy of Modena, and in.
Mount Ciaro, 12 leagues from Plaifance.
The formation of naphtha and petroleum is by molt,
naturalifts and chemitts afcribed to the decompofition
of folid bitumens by the aftion of fubterraneous fires;
naphtha being the lighteft oil, which the fire difen-
gages firft ; what follows gradually acquiring the co¬
lour and confiftence of petrol. Daftly, the petrolea,
united with fome earthy fubftances, or altered by acids,
affume the appearance of mineral pitch, piffafphaltum,
&c. This opinion feems to be fupported by the phe¬
nomena attending the diftillation of amber; where the
firft liquor that rifes is a true naphtha ; then a petro¬
leum of a more or lefs brown colour ; and laftly, a
black fubftance like jet, which being farther urged by
the fire, leaves a dry friable matter, &c. It is further
abferved, that nature frequently produces all the diffe¬
rent kinds-of petrqlea near the fame fpot; of which we
have an inftance at Mount Teftin in the duchy of Mo¬
dena in Italy. Some, however, are of opinion, that
thefe mineral oils or bitumens are formed from the vi¬
triolic acid, and various oily and fat fubftances found
ia the bowels of tlte earth.
i ] NAP
NAPHTHALI, or Nephthali (Jofli. xix.), oneNaphthali,
of the tribes of Ifrael; having Zabulon on the fouth,, NaPier- ,
Afher on the weft, the Jordan on the eaft, and on the' v ■
north Vntilibanus.
NAPIER (John), baron of Merchifton in Scot--
land, inventor of the logarithms, was the eldeft fon of
Sir Archibald Napier of Merchifton, and born in the
year 1550. Having given early difcoveries of great
natural parts, his father was careful to have them cul-
tivated 'Dy a liberal education After going through
the ordinary courfes of philofophy at the univerfity of
St Andrew's, he made the tour of France, Italy, and
Germany. Upon his return to his native country,
his literature and other fine accomplifhments foon ren¬
dered him confpicuous, and might have railed him to
the higheft offices>in the ftate ; but-declining all civil
employments, and the buftle of the court, he retired •
from the world to purfue literary refearches, in which
he made an uncommon progrefs, fo as to have favour¬
ed mankind with fundry ufeful difcoveries. He ap«
plied himfelf chiefly to the ftudy of mathematics ; but
at the fame time did not negledft that of the Holy
Scriptures. In both thefe he hath difcovered the moih
extenfive knowledge and profound penetration. Hia
effay upon the book of the Apocalypfe, indicates the
moft acute inveftigation, and an uncommon ftrength
of judgment; though time hath difcovered, that his
calculations concerning particular events had proteeded
upon fallacious data. This work has been printed
abroad in feveral languages , particularly in French at
Rochelle in the year 1693, 8vo, announced in the title
as revifed by himfelf. Nothing, fays Lord Buchan,
could be more agreeable to the Rochellers or to the
Huguenots of France at this time, than the author’s'
annunciation of the pope as antichrift, which in this
book he has endeavoured to fet forth with much zeal
and erudition.—But what has principally rendered his
name famous, was his great and fortunate difcovery ofl
logarithms in trigonometry, by which the eafe and ex¬
pedition in calculation have fo wonderfully affifted the
fcience of aftronomy and the arts of practical geometry
and navigation. That he had begun about the year
1593 the train of enquiry which led him to that great
atchievement in arithmetic, appears from a letter to
Crugerus from Kepler in the year 16-24; wherein,,
mentioningthe Canon Mirificus, he writes thus: “Nihil-
autem fupra Neperianam rationem effe puto: etfi Sco—
tus quidem literis ad Tychonem, anno 1594, fcriptiV
jam fpem fecit. Canonis illius mirifici;” which allu-
iion agrees with the idle ftory mentioned by Wood im
his Athena Oxonf and explains it in a way perfectly
confonant to the rights of Napier as the inventor.
When Napier had communicated to Mr Henry
Briggs,, mathematical profeffor in Grefham college,
his wonderful canon for the logarithms, that learned
profeffor fet himfelf to apply the rules in his imitatio
Nepeirta ; and in a letter to archbifhop Ufher in the-
year 1615, he writes thus: “ Napier, baron of Mer-.
chiffon, hath fet my head and hands at work with his
new and admirable logarithms. I hope to fee him
this fummer, if it pleafe God ; for I never fawa book
which pleafed me better, and made me more wonder.”
The following paffage from the life of Lilly the aflro—
loger is quoted by Lord Buchan as giving a pictu-.
refque:
Napier.
Earl of
Eueban s
Account of
the IVriling,
and Inven¬
tions of A'a
J>ier of
Merebifen.
NAP [ 622 ] NAP
rtfque view of the meeting betwixt "Briggs and the in¬
ventor of the logarithms at Merchifton near Edin¬
burgh. “ I will acquaint you (fays Lilly) with one
memorable ftory relatedAinto me by John Marr, an ex¬
cellent mathematician and geometrician, whom I con¬
ceive you remember. He was fervant to King James I.
and Charles I. When Merchifton firft publilhed his
logarithms, Mr Briggs, then reader of the aftronomy
leisures at Grefham college in London, was fo much
furprifed with admiration of them, that he could have
no quietnefs in himfelf until he had feen that noble
perfon whofe only invention they were : he acquaints
John Marr therewith, who went into Scotland before
Mr Briggs, purpofely to be there when thefe two fo
learned perfons. (hould meet. Mr Briggs appoints a cer¬
tain day when to meet at Edinburgh ; but failing
thereof, Merchifton was fearful he would not come. It
happened one day as John Marr and the baron Napier
were fpeaking of Mr Briggs; ‘ Ah, John (faid Mer¬
chifton), Mr Briggs will not now come.’ At the very
inftant one knocks at the gate; John Marr hafted
down, and it proved to be Mr Briggs to his great con¬
tentment He brings Mr Briggs up to the Baron’s
chamber, where almoft one quarter of an hour was
fpent, each beholding other with admiration before
one word was fpoken. At laft Mr Briggs began c
‘ Sir, I have undertaken this long journey purpofe¬
ly to fee your perfon, and to know by what engine
of wit or ingenuity you came firft to think of this
moft excellent help into aftronomy, was the loga¬
rithms; but. Sir, being by you found out, I wonder no¬
body elfe found (it out before, when now being known
it appears fo eafy.’ He was nobly entertained by ba¬
ron Napier; and every fummer after that, during the
laird’s being alive, this venerable man Mr Briggs went
purpofely to Scotland to vifit him.”
There is a paflage in the life of Tycho Brahe by
Gafiendi, which may miflead an attentive reader to
fuppofe that Napier’s method had been explored by
'Herwart at Hoenburg: It is in Gafiendi’s OMerva-
.tions on a Letter from Tycho to Herwart of the laft
day of Auguft 1599. “ Dixit Hervartus nihil morari
fe folvendi cujufqunm trianguli difficultatem ; folere
fe enim multiplicationum, ac divifionum vice additiones
folum, fubtrattiones 93 ufurpare (quod ut fieri poflet,
docuit poftmodum fuo Logarithmorum Canone Nepe-
rus.)” But Hervvart here alludes to his work after¬
wards publiihed in the year 1610, which folves tri¬
angles by proftapbasrefis; a mode totally different from
that of the logarithms.
Kepler dedicated his Ephemerides to Napier, which
were publifhed in the year 1617; and it appears from
many paffages in his letter about this time, that he
held Napier to be the greateft man of his age in the
particular department to which he applied his abili¬
ties. “ And indeed (fays our noble biographer), if
we confider that Napier’s difeovery was not like thofe
of Kepler or of Newton, conne&ed with any analo¬
gies or coincidences which might have led him to it,
but the fruit of unafiiftcd reafon and fcience, we fhall
be vindicated in placing him in one of the higheft
niches in the temple of fame. Kepler had made many
unfuccefsful attempts to difeover his canon for the
periodic motions of the planets, and hit upon it at laft,
as he bimfelf candidly owns on the 15th of May 1618;
and New'ton applied the palpable tendency of heavy Nap;(
bodies to the earth t© the fyftem of the univerfe in ge- ■>~v-
neral; but Napier fought out his admirable rules by a
flow fcientific progrefs, arifing from the gradual evo¬
lution of truth.”
The laft literary exertion of this eminent perfon war
the publication of his Rabdology and Promptuary in the
year 1617, which he dedicated to the Chancellor Se-
ton ; and foon after died at Merchifton on the 3d of
April ©. S. of the fame year, in the 68th year of his
age and 23d of his happy invention.—The particular
titles of his publtihed works are: 1. A plain difeovery
of the Revelation of St John. 2. Mirifici ipjius eanonis
conjlruclio et logarithmorum, ad natura/es ipforum numeros
habitudmes. 3. Appendix de alia atque prtjlantiore loga¬
rithmorum fpecie conjlituenda, in qua fcilicet unitas logarith-
mus ejl. 4. Rhabdulogiec, feu numerationis per mirgulas,
libri duo. 5. Prop,flionet queedam eminentijfma, ad tri-
angula [phetrica mir-a facultate refolvenda. To which may
be added, 6. His Letter to Anthony Bacon (the ori¬
ginal of which is in the archbifhop’s library at Lam¬
beth), intitled. “Secret inventions, profitable and ne-
ceflary in thefe days for the defence of this iftand, and
withftanding ftrangers enemies to God’s truth and re¬
ligion ;” which the earl of Buchan has caufed to be
printed in the Appendix to his Account of Napier’s
Writings. This letter is dated June 2. 1596, about
which time it appears the author had fet himfelf to
explore his logarithmic canon.
This eminent perfon was twice married. By hi*
firft wife, who was a daughter of Sir James Stirling of
Keir, he had only one fon named Archibald, who Suc¬
ceeded to the eftate. By his fecond wife, a daughter
of Sir James Chifltolm of Cromlix, he had a numerous
iffue.—-Archibald Napier, the only fon of the firft mar¬
riage, wTas a perfon of fine parts and learning. Having
more a turn to public bufinefs than his father had, he
was raifed to be a privy counfellor by James VI. under
whofe reign he alfo held the offices of treafurer-depute,
juftice-clerk, and fenator of the college of juftiee. By
Charles I. he was raifed to the peerage by the title of
Lord Napier.
Napirr’s Rods, or Bones, an inftrument invented by
Baron Napier, whereby the multiplication and divifion
of large numbers is much facilitated.
As to the Conf ruction of Napier's Rods : Suppofe the
common table of multiplication to be made upon a
plate of metal, ivory, or pafteboard, and then con¬
ceive the feveral columns (Handing downwards from
the digits on the head) to be cut afunder.; and thefe
are what we call Napier's rods for multiplication. But
then there muft be a good number of each; for as
many times as any figure is in the multiplicand, fo
many rods of that fpecies fi. e. with that figure on the
top of it) muft we have ; though fix rods of each fpe¬
cies will be iofficient for any example in common af¬
fairs : there muft be alfo as many rod- of o’s.
But before we explain the way of ufing thefe rods,
there is another thing to be known, viz. that the fi¬
gures on every rod are written in an order different
from that in the table. Thus the little fquare fpace
or divifion in which the feveral produ&s of every' co¬
lumn are written, is divided into two parts by a line
acrofs from the upper angle on the right to the lower
on the left; and if the produd is a digit, it is fet in
NAP [
Kip;er. the lo wer dlv-ifkm • if it has two places, the firil is fet
I u--v—-/ ;n the lower, and the fecond in the upper divifion ;
but the fpices on the top are not divided ; alfo there
is a rod of digits, not divided, which is called the in¬
dex rod, and of this we need but one lingle rod. See
the figure of all the different rods, and the in iex, fe-
parate from one another, in Plate CCCX-L1V.
Multiplication by Napier’s Rods. Firit lay down the
index-rod; then on the right of it fet a rod, whofe
top is the figure in the highefi: place of the multipli¬
cand : next to this again, fet the rod whofe top is the
next figure of the multiplicand; and fo on in order to
the firil figure. Then is your multiplicand tabulated
for all the nine digits ; for in ihe fame line of fquares
(landing againll every figure of the index rod, you
have the product of that figure; and therefore you
have no more to do but to transfer the produ&s and
fum them. But In taking out thefe produfts from
the rods, the order in which the figures (land obliges
you to a very eafy and fmall addition : thus, begin to
take out the figure in the lower part, or units place,
of the fquare of the firft rod on the right; add the fi¬
gure in the upper part of this rod to that in the lo ver
part of the next, and fo on; which may be done as fail
as you can look on them. To make this pra£liee as
clear as poffible, take the following example.
Example: To multiply 4768 by 385. Having fet
the rods together for the number 4768 (ibid. nJ 2. )
againfl 5 in the index, I find this number, by adding
according to the rule, - - 23840
Againft 8, this number - - 38144
Againll 3, this number - - 14304
Total produdl - - - 183,680
To make the ufe of the rods yet more regular and ea¬
fy, they are kept in a flat fquare box, whofe breadth
is that of ten rods, and the length that of one rod, as
thick as to hold fix (or as many as you pleafe) the ca¬
pacity of the box bein^ divided into ten cells, for the
different fpecies of rods. When the rods are put up
in the box (each fpecies in its own cell dillinguifhed
by the firil figure of the rod fet before it on the face
of the box near the top}, as much of every rod Hands
without the box as flaows the firft figure of that rod :
alfo upon one of the flat fides without and near the
ed»e, upon the left hand, the index rod is fixed ; and
along the foot there is a fmall ledge; fo that the rods
when applied are laid upon this fide, and fupported by
the ledge, which makes the practice very eafy; but in
cafe the multiplicand Ihould have more than nine places,
that upper face of the box may be made broader. Some
make the roads with four different faces, and figures
©n each for different purpofes.
Divifion by Napier’s Rods. Firft tabulate your di-
vifor; then you have it multiplied by all the digits, out
of which you may choofe fuch convenient divifors as
will be next lefs to the figures in the dividend, and
write the index anfwering in the quotient, and fo con¬
tinually till the work is done. Thus 2179738, divided
by 6123, gives in the quotient 356.
Having tabulated the divifor 6123, you fee that
6123 cannot be had in 2179; therefore take five
places, and on the rods find a number that is equal or
next lefs to 21797, which is 18369; that is, 3 times
the divifor: wherefore fet 3 in the quotient, and fub-
4
623 ] NAP
trad 18369 from the figures above, and there will re- Nap’es.
main 34-8 ; to which_ add 8, the next figure of the 1 v—
dividend, and leek again 0.1 the rods for it, or the next
lefs, which you will find to be five times; therefore fet
5 in the quotient, and fubtraft 30615 from 34288, and
there will remain 3673; to which add 8, the lift figure
in the dividend, and finding it to be juft 6 times the
divifor, fet 6 in the quotient.
6123)2179788(356
18369..
NAPLES, a kingdom of Italy, comprehending the
ancient countries of Samnium, Campania, Apulia, and
Magna Grxoia. It is bounded on all fides by the Me¬
diterranean and Adriatic, except 0.1 the north-call,
where it terminates on the Eccleliaftical (late. Its
greateft length from fouth-eaft to north-weft is about
280 Englilh miles; and its breadth fiom north-ealft
to fouth-weft, from 96 to 120.
Th£ ancient hiftory of this country fa'ls under the
articles Rome and Italy-; the prefent Hate of it,,
as well as of the reft of Italy, is owing to the conquefts
of Charlemagne. When that monarch put an end
to the kingdom of the Lombards, he obliged the
dukes of Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento, to acknow¬
ledge him as king of Italy; but allowed them to ex-
ercife the fame power and authority which they had
enjoy ed before his conqueft. Of thefe three dukedoms Extent ot
Benevento was by far the moll powerful and extenfive, the duchy
as it comprehended almoft all the prcfent kingdom ofof Beneven»
Naples; that part of Farther Calabria beyond thet0,
■ rivers Savuto and Peto, a few maritime cities in Hi¬
ther Calabria, with the city of Acripoli, and the pro¬
montory in its neighbourhood called Capo di Licofa;
and laftly, the dukedoms of Gaeta, Naples, and A-
malfi, which were very incenfiderable, and extended
along the fhore only about loo miles, and were in¬
terrupted by the Gallaldate or county of Capua.
_ This flourifliing and extenfive dukedom was at this Arechis
time governed by Arechis, who had married one of duke of B?-
the daughters of the laft king of the Lombards, andnevent0 !e-
had fubmitted, and taken the oath of all egiance to the Pjks froia.
emperor Charles. However, a few years after, hemaane."
renounce 1 his allegiance to the Franks, declared him- °
felf an independent Ibvereign, and was acknowledged
as fuch by all the inhabitants of his duchy. To
ftrengthen himfelf againft Pepin king of Italy, who
refided at Ravenna, he enlarged and fortified the
city of Benevento, and likewife built Salerno on.
the fea-coaft, furrounding it with a very ftrong and
high wall. He engaged in. federal wars with the
Greeks, whom he fometimes obliged to give him
hoftagts; but having invaded the territories of the
pope, whom Pepin could not affift, Charlemagne was
prevailed on to return to Italy. Arechis, unable to
oppofe fuch a formidable enemy, fent his eldeft fon,
Romuald, to Rome, with an offer of fubmiflion : but,
at the inftigation of the pope, Charles refufed the-
-Revolts a
vfccond
tieie.
Grimoald
continues
for fome
N A P [ '624 ] NAP
offer, anl detained his fon prifoner; after which he ra- As yet, however, the city of Naples did not own alle- Nsp'es.
vaged the country, and made himfelf itiafter of Capua, glance to the dukes of Benevento, but was held by the
Other deputies, however, proved more fuccefsful; eaftern emperors ; and frequent wars took place be-
nnd, in the year 787, a peace was concluded on thefe tween the Beneventans and Neapolitans. This hap-
conditions: That Arechis and the Beneventans ftiould pened to be the cafe when Grimoald II. afcended the
renew their allegiance to the Franks; that he ftiould throne. He concluded a peace with them; which
pay a yearly tribute to Pepin; deliver up all his trea- however, was of nodong continuance ; for Theodore,
fure; and give his fon Grimoald and his daughter governor of Naples, having granted protections to
Addgifa, with twelve others, as hoftages for his fide- Dauferins a noble Bcneventan, who had been con-
lity: however, after many intreaties, Adelgifa was re- cerned in a confpiracy apainft his prince, Grimoald
flored to her father. marched againft the city of Naples, and inverted it by
Charles had no fooner left Italy, than Arechis for- fea and land. Theodore ftill refufed to deliver up
got all his engagements, and began to negociate with the traitor, and a general engagement both by land
Irene, emprefs of Conrtantinople, and her fon Con- and fea was the confequence; in which the Neapo-
-ftantine, for expelling the Franks out of Italy. For litans were defeated with fo great daughter, that the
■himfelf, he defired the honour of patriciate, and the fea was ftained with their blood for more than feven
dukedom of Naples with all its dependencies; and, days. , Theodore then confented to deliver up Dau-
j'n return, promifed to acknowledge the Greek em- ferius, with 8000 crowns for the expences of the war;
peror as his fovereign, and to live after the manner of and Grimoald not only pardoned Dauferius, but re-
the Greeks. He required, however, to be fupported ceived him into favour: the traitor, however, reflec-
by a Greek army ; and that his brother-in law Adal- ting on the heinoufnefs of his crime, was feized with
gifus, fon to Defiderius the laft king of the Lombards, remorfe ; and went a pilgrimage to the , holy land,
fhould be fent over into Italy, to raife a party among carrying a large ftone in his mouth, by way of pe-
his countrymen. Thefe conditions were readily ac- nance, which he never took out but at his meals,
cepted, on condition that prince Romuald (hould be In the year 821, Grimoald was murdered by ^-a-|s m5rc|er
fent as an hoRage ; ambaffadors were fent to Naples delchis count pf Confia, and Sico gaftald of Acerenta,c^ an^fUc,
with the enfigns of the patrician order, namely the the latter of whom fucceeded to the dukedom ofceeded by
mantle of cloth of gold, the fword, the comb, and the Benevento. Radelchis being foon after feized with3ic0*
fandals: but before the ceremony could be performed, remorfe, became a monk ; while Sico affociated his
prince Romuald died, and foon after him his father; fon Sicardo with him in the government; and both,
-whofe death was fuppofed to have been haftened by being of an ambitious and rertlefs difpofition, fought
that of his fon. a pretence for attacking the Neapolitans. This was • 7
After the death of Arechis, the Beneventans fent foon found, and the city was inverted by fea and land.
a moft fubmiflive embaffy to Charlemagne, intreating The walls were furioufly battered ; and part of themsko* *
him to fend them Grimoald, t^e late king’s fon, and being beat down, Sico prepared for a general affault.
only lawful heir to his crown ; threatening at the fame Stephen, at that time duke of Naples, pretended to
time to revolt if their prince was denied them. Charles fubmit; but, that he might prevent the city from be-
readily granted their requeft, and allowed Grimoald ing pillaged, intreated Sico to put off his entry till
to depart, after he had agreed to the following con- the morning, and in the mea*> time fent out his mo-
ditions, vi«. That he fhould oblige the Lombards to ther and his two children as hoftages. Sico confented
fhave their beards; that, in writings, and op money, to his requeft; but next morning found the breach
the name of the king ftiould be put before that of the built up, and the Neapolitans prepared for their de¬
prince ; and that he fhould caufe the walls of Salerno, fence. Exafperated at their perfidy, he renewed his
Acerenza, and Confia, to be entirely demolifhed.— attacks with vigour, but without any fuccefs; the be-
The new king was received by his fubjefts with the fieged defending themfelves with the utmoft obflinacy.
utrnoft joy ; and for fome time continued faithful to At laft, perceiving that they fhould not be able to
his engagements, excepting only the laft article, which hold out much longer, they confented to a peace on
he cither neolefted.or eluded. So far, however, was the following conditions, viz. That the Neapolitans
he from affiflmg the Greeks, that he gave notice of fhould pay an annual tribute to the princes of Bene-
their machinations to Pepin king of Italy ; raifed an vento, and confent to the tranfporting of the body of
army to oppofe his uncle Adalgifus; and being joined St Januarius from his church without the walls of
by Hildebrand duke of Spoleto- and Vinigife the Naples to Benevento. Thefe conditions being ratified,
general of Pepin, he attacked the Greeks in Calabria Sico returned with great honour to Benevento; but
foon after they had landed, entirely defeated and took foon after renewed the war, under pretence that the
his uncle prifoncr, and, as is faid, put him to a cruel Neapolitans had negledted to pay the flipulated fum ;
death. Yet in a fliort time Grimoald contrafted an and hoftilities continued till his death, which hap-
alliance with the Greek emperor by marrying his pened in 833. g
iieice Wanzia; and in the fifth year of his reign a war Sico was fucceeded in the government of Benevento An j ^ ^
broke out between him and Pepin, which continued by his fon Sicardo, who had married the daughter ofiucceflbr
for twelve years ; at the end of which time a truce was Dauferius ; and being influenced by the evil counfels Sicardo.
concluded. Grimoald furvived this pacification only of Roffrid his wife’s brother, oppreffed his fubje&s to
three years, and was fucceeded by his treafurer Gri- fuch a degree that they confpired againft his life. He
moald II. who fubmitted to Charlemagne after the befieged Naples with a powerful army, and took pof-
/death of Pepin ; and from this time the Beneventans feffion of Acerra an’d Atella, both of which he forti-
ivere looked upon as tributaries of the weftern emperors, fied. But Bonus, the Neapolitan duke, defended
N° 236. 3 himfelf
,•< w a.
NAP
Naple*- KSmfelf (a vigoroufiy, that the Beneventans were
w*\'ll,r"J obliged to retire, and even to abandon Acerra and
Atella, the fortifications of which were immediately
demolifhed. At laft Sicardo agreed to a peace for
five years, on the intercefiion of Lothaire, emperor
and king of Italy ; but his chief motive was thought
to have been the fear of the Saracens, whom the duke
The Sara Naples had called over from Africa to his afiiftance :
ten* called F°r 150 fooner were they fent back than Sicardo at-
in by the tempted to delay the conclufion of the treaty ; but the
duke of emperor interpofing his authority, a peace was con-
KaPle*- eluded in the year 836, after the war had continued,
with very little intermilfion, for 16 years.
Soon after the conclulio'n of this peace, the Saracens
landed at Brindifi ; and having made themfelves mailers
of the place, ravaged all the neighbouring country.
Sicardo marched againfi: them with a numerous army;
but the Saracens having dug a great number of ditches
which they flightly covered over, found means to draw
the Beneventans in among them, whereby they were
repulfed with great lofs. However, Sicardo, having
reinforced his army, marched again to attack them ;
but the Saracens, defpairing of fuccefs, pillaged and
burnt Brindifi, and then retired with their booty, and
a great many captives, to Sicily. Sicardo then, with¬
out any apparent provocation, attacked the city of
Amalfi, levelled its walls with the ground, carried off
all its wealth, and the body of its tutelar faint Tri-
phomen. A great many of the inhabitants were
tranfported to Salerno ; and by promoting alliances
between the inhabitants of both places, he endea¬
voured to unite Amalfi to his own principality as
firmly as poffible.
During all thefe tranfadlions, Sicardo had tyran¬
nized over his fubje&s in fuch a manner, that at lafl
he became intolerable. Among other adls of injaf-
tice, he imprifoned his own brother Siconolphus;
compelled him to turn prieft; and afterwards fent him
10 bound to Tarento, where he caufed him to be fhut up
card° in an old tower that had been built for a cittern. By
URadel- a<^s tyranny nobles were provoked to con-
is,which Fp*rc againft him ; and in the year 839 he was rout¬
ings on a dered in his tent.
nl war. On the death of Sicardo, Radelehis, his fecretary
or treafurer, was unanimoufly elefted prince of Bene-
vento; but Siconolphus, the laft king’s brother, ha¬
lving regained hia liberty, formed a great party againft
the new prince. Radelchis did not fail to eppofe
him with a formidable army; and a moft ruinous civil
;; war enfued. Both parties by turns called in the Sara¬
cens : and thefe treacherous allies a&ed fometimes
againft one, and fometimes againft; the other; or
turned their arms againft both, as feemed moft fuit-
able to their own intereft. Thus the war continued
with the utmoft animofity for 12 years, during which
time the principality was almoft entirely ruined ; till
at laft the emperor Lewis interpofed, and obliged the
competitors to agree to a partition of the principality.
3 fhe^rin- ®y treaty> Radelchis promifed to acknowledge
1 ,jpahty di- Siconolphus and his fucceffbrs as lawful princes of the
principality of Salerno, which was declared to contain
Tarento, Latiniano, Caffano, Gotten7.0, Laino, Luca-
nia, Confia, Montella, Rota, Salerno, Sarno, Cirate-
rium, Furculd, Capua, Feano, Sora, and the half'of
the Gaftaldate of Acerenza, where it joins Latiano
Vol. XII. Part II.
I 6aj 1
NAP
and Confia.' The boundary betwixt Benevento and Ktpte*.
Capua was fixed at St Angelo ad Cerros ; Alii Pere-1 r—-
grini wag made the boundary betwixt Benevento and
Salerno, and Staffilo betwixt Benevento and Confia.
The monafteries of Monte Caffino and St Vincent
were declared to be immediately under the protedtioa
of tfce emperor : both princes ftipulated that no hofti-
lities Ihould be committed by either againft the fub«
je&s of each other; and promifed to join their force*
in order to drive out the Saracens. Soon after this
pacification, however, both Radelchis and Siconol¬
phus died; the former appointing his fon Radel-
garius, or Radelcar, to fucceed him ; and the latter
leaving an infant fon, Sico, to the care of his god¬
father, Peter.
The war with the Saracens proved very unfuccefs UnfWfs*
ful; neither th,e united efforts of the princes, nor the M war
afiiftance of the emperor Lewis himfelf, being able to w‘th the
expel the infidels ; and, in 854, Adelgife the fecond Saracen8'
fon of Radelchis, who had now fucceeded, or. the
death of his brother Radelcar, to the principality of
Benevento, was obliged to pay them an annual fub-
fidy. Two years after, Lando, count of Capua, re¬
volted from the prince of Salerno, and could not be
reduced. In the mean time, Sico/the lawful prince
of Salerno, had been poifoned by Count Lando, and
the principality ufutped by Ademarius, the fon of
Peter above mentioned; but In 861, Ademarius him¬
felf was feized and imprifoned by Gauferius, the fon
of Dauferius formerly mentioned. This Was occafion-
ed by his cruelty and rapacioufnefs, which entirely a-
lienated the hearts of his fubjedts from him, and en-
couraged Gauferius to become the head of the confpi-
rators. The Saracens in the mean time committed
terrible ravages throughout the Beneyentan territories;
which at laft obliged Adelgife to enter into an al¬
liance with Gauferius, and both together fent a moft
humble embaffy to the emperor Lewis, requefting him
to take them under his protedlion. About the fame
time an embaffy arrived from Conftantinople, prbpo-
fing a junftion of the forces of the eaftern and weftern
empires againfl: the infidels ; upon which Lewis gave
orders for affembling a formidable army. But in the
mean time Adelgiie fell off from his alliance, and
made peace with the Saracens ; nay, according to
fome, he encouraged them in their incurfions, and it
was at his defire that they invaded 'the duchy of Ca¬
pua, and afterwards that of Naples, which they ra¬
vaged in a moft barbarous manner. The Neapolitans,
in conjunftion with the duke of Spoleto and the count
of Marfi, endeavoured to oppofe them ; but being de¬
feated, the Saracens continued their ravages with re¬
doubled fury, and retired to Bari, which was their
capital city, with an immenfe booty.
In 866, Lewis arrived at Sora with his army; and
having marched to Capua, was there joined by Lan-
dulph, the bilhop and count, with a body of Capuans ;
but Landulph foon after perfuading his countrymen to
defert, Lewis marched againft that city, which he took
after a fiege of three months, and almoft totally de^
ftroyed. In thb end of the year he was joined by
Guaferius with his quota of troops, having ordered
the eyes of Ademarius to be put out in his abfence.
Lewis confirmed him in the principality, and march¬
ed with his army to Benevento, where Adelgife re-
4 K ceiveid
Naple».
*3
They are
at laft ex-
Veiled,
But ioou
return.
The pope
becomes
their tribu¬
tary.
NAP [ 626 ] NAP
ceived Mm with great refpeft. Having reduced fome
inconfiderable places belonging to the Saracens, Lewis
foon after invefted Bari; but as the Saracens received
continual fupplies from their countrymen fettled in Si¬
cily, and befides were prote&ed by the Neapolitans,
he could not reduce the place till the year 871, though
he had received confiderable afiiftance from his brother
Lotharius, and the Greek emperor had fent him a fleet
of 200 fail. The expulfion of the Saracens was com
pleted the fame year by the taking of Tarento ; after
which the emperor returned with great glory to Bene-
vento, refolving next to carry his arms into Sicily, and
expel the infidels from thence alfo. But his future
fchemes of conqueft were fruftrated by a quarrel be¬
tween him and Adelgife. The latter, pretending to
have been infulted by the empreft, and opprefled by
the French, feized the emperor himfelf, and kept him
prifoner for 40 days. His imprifonment would pro¬
bably have been of much longer continuance, had not
a body of Saracens arrived from Africa, who, being
joined by fuch of their countrymen as Had concealed
themfelves in Italy, laid fiege to Salerno with an army
of 30,000 men, ravaging the neighbouring country
at the fame time with the utmoft barbarity. By this
new invafion Adelgife was fo much alarmed, that he
fet the emperor at liberty, but firft obliged him to
fwear that he would not revenge the infult that had
been offered him, and that he would never return to
Benevento. Lewis having then joined his forces to
thofe of the prince of Salerno, foon obliged the Sa¬
racens to raife the fiege of Salerno j but though they
were prevented from taking that city, they entirely
deftroyed the inhabitants of Calabria, leaving it, accord¬
ing to the expreflton of one of the hiftorians of that
time, “ as defolate as it was at the flood'.”
In the year 873, Lewis being abfolved from his oath
by the pope, went to Benevento, and was reconciled
to Adelgife; but foon after this reconciliation he died,
and the Saracens continued their ravages to fuch a de¬
gree that the inhabitants of Bari were conllrained to
deliver up their city to the Greeks. At the fame time,
the Salernitans, Neapolitans, Cajetans, and Amalfi-
tans, having made peace with the Saracens, were com¬
pelled to agree to their propofal of invading the terri¬
tories of the Roman pontiff. His holinefs exerted
himfelf to the utmoft, both with fpiritual and tempo¬
ral weapons, in order to defend his right; but was at
laft reduced to the neceffity of becoming a tributary
to the infidels, and promifing to pay them a large fum
annually.
In the mean time, all Italy was thrown into the
greateft confufion by the death of Charles the Bald,
who died of poifon at Pavia, as he was coming to the
pope’s affiftance. Sergius duke of Naples continued
a firm friend to the infidels; nor could he be detached
from their intertfts even by the thunder of a papal ex-
communication : but unluckily happening to fall into
the hands of his brother Athanafius bifhop of Naples,
the zeal of that prelate prompted him to put out his
eyes, and fend him a clofe prifoner to Rome; for
jvhich the higheft encomiums were beftowed on him
by the holy father.
In 876, Adelgife was murdered by two of his ne¬
phews ; one of whom, by name Gaideris, feized the
principality. About the lame time Landulph bilhop
of Capua dying, a civil war enfued among his children,
though their father’s dominions had been divided a-
mong them according to his will. The princes of Sa¬
lerno and Benevento, the duke of Spoleto, and Gre¬
gory the Greek governor of Bari and Otranto, took
different fides in the quarrel, as they thought moft
proper; and to complete the confufion, the new biftiop
was expelled, and his brother, though a layman, cho-
fen to that office, and even confecrated by the pope,
who wrote to Gauferius, forbidding him to attack Ca¬
pua under pain of excommunication. But though Gau¬
ferius was, in general, obedient to the pope’s com¬
mands, he proved refra&ory in this particular, and laid
fiege to Capua for two years fucceffively.
Thus the Capuan territories were reduced to the
moft miferable fituation ; being obliged to maintain at
the fame time the armies of the prince of Benevento
and the duke of Spoleto. The Saracens, in the mean
time, took the opportunity of ftrengthening themfelves
in Italy; and Athanafius, notwithftanding the great
commendations he had received from the pope for put¬
ting out his brother’s eyes, confented to enter into an
alliance with them, in conjun&ion with whom he ra¬
vaged the territories of the pope, as well as thofe of
Benevento and Spoleto, plundering all the churches,
monafteries, towns, and villages, through which they
paired. At the fame time the prince of Salerno was
obliged to grant them a fettlement in the neighbour¬
hood of his capital; the duke of Geeta invited them to
his affiftance, being oppreffed by the count of Capua;
and even the pope himfelf was obliged to make peace
with them, and to grant them a fettlement on the north
fide of the Carigliano, where they fortified themfelves,
and continued for more than 40 years.
To put a flop to the confufion which reigned in I-
taly, the pope now thought proper to reftore the bi¬
fhop of Capua, who had been expelled, but allowed his
brother to refide in the city, and govern one half of
the diocefe; but notwithftanding this partition, the
civil diffenfions continued with the utmoft violence, the
neareft relations murdering or banifliing each other,
according as the fortune of the one or the other pre¬
vailed.—Athanafius, notwithftanding all the pope’s re-
monftranccs, continued his alliance with the Saracens;
in conjunction with whom he ravaged the territory of
Benevento, and fomented the divifions in Capua, in
hopes of being able to make a conqueft of it. At laft
his holinefs thought proper to iffue a fentence of ex-
communication againll him ; but this attached him t»
the Saracens more than ever; infomuch that he fent
to Suchaim, king of the Saracens in Sicily, defi¬
ring him to come over and command a great body of
his countrymen who had fettled at the foot of Mount
Vefuvius. Suchaim accepted the invitation, and im¬
mediately turned his arms againft Athanafius ; allow¬
ing his troops to live at diferetion in the territory of
Naples, where they ravifhed the women, and plunder¬
ed the inhabitants. Thefe calamities were, by the fu=
perftitious Neapolitans, imagined to be a confequence
of the fentence of excommunication ; and therefore
they ufed their utmoft endeavours to perfuade the pre¬
late to conclude a league with fome Chriilian prince,
and renounce all connection with the infidels. In this,
they at laft proved fuccefsful, and Athanafius con¬
cluded an alliance with Guabnarius prince of Saler¬
no 5
NAP
Naples. Sno; in confequence of whicli the Saracens were obli-
l'“—"v'—ged to quit the Neapolitan territories, and retire to
Agropoli. Athanafius then direfted hia force againft
Capua, of which he made himfelf mafter in the year
882. The Saracens, however, ftill continued their
incurfions, and ravaged feveral provinces in fuch a
manner, that they became entirely defolate.
1 hefe confufxons continued for a long time; during
which the Greeks found an opportunity of making
jg themfelves mailers of Benevento, and had well nigh
t 627 ]
NAP
in order to allure the valiant Normans to leave their Nsple*.
own country. This kind invitation encouraged a » ■'
Norman chief, named Ofmond Drengot, to fetfle in
Italy about the year 1015 ; having killed another
lord in a duel, which obliged him to leave his own
country, in order to avoid the refentment of his
fovereign, Robert duke of Normandy. In the mean
time, the city of Bari had revolted from the Greeks,™ **
and chofen one Mello for their leader, whofe wife^,.*1^^'
and children happened foon after to fall into the defeat the
he Sara, become mailers alfo of Salerno; but in this they fail- hands of their enemies, and were fent prifoners to Greeks,
aln oft ed through the tieachery of the bifliop, and in the
ntireiy cutyear they were totally expelled by the bilhop,
four years after they had become mailers of it. In
915 the Saracens received fuch an overthrow atCarig-
liano, that fcarce one of them remained. However, a
new body foon arrived from Africa* and in veiled the
fea-coalls for fome time longer. A war alfo enfued
between Landulph and the Greeks ; which concluded
difadvantageoufly for the former, who was obliged to
fubmit to the emperor of Conllantinople in 943.
In 961, Otho the Great, king of Germany, invaded
Italy with a powerful army againft Berengarius III.
and, marching to Rome, received the imperial crown
Conftantinople. No fooner, therefore, did Mello hear
of the arrival of thefe adventurers, than he engaged
them to affift him; and having drawn together a con-
fiderable army, defeated the Greeks with great {laugh¬
ter, and obliged them to abandon their camp. la
this engagement the Normans diftinguilhed themfelves
by their bravery ; and the news of their fuccefs foon
brought from Normandy an innumerable multitude of
their countrymen, with their wives and children. By
this reinforcement, Mello gained two other viftories,
took a great many towns, and obliged the Greeks to t
abandon a large territory; but, in 1019, they were But a
utterly defeated, and every thing recovered by the laft defeat-
ana, marching to tvome, receivea me imperial crown uixeriy ueieaieu, anu cvciy euiug iccuvcrcu uy meiau ueion-
from the hands of the Pope. In 964, he ere&ed Ca- Greeks. The Greek general, Bajanus, continued to ed bylheIn,
pua into a principality, received homage from the o
ther princes of Lombardy, and formed a defign of re¬
covering Puglia and Calabria from the Greeks. But
in this laft fcheme he failed; and after various hoftili-
lies a treaty was concluded, and the young princefs
go on with fuch furpriling fuccefs, that he almoft en¬
tirely re-eftablilhed the affairs of his countrymen in
Italy, and made a diftindt province of the wellern part
of Puglia, which he called Capatanata, and which to
this day retains the name of Capitanata. His great
Theophania married to Otho’s fon, aftei wards em- progrefs at laft alarmed the emperors of Germany ;
and, in 1027, Pandulphus prince of Capua made him¬
felf mafter of Naples; but was obliged, three years af¬
terwards, to leave it, by the Normans, who built the
peror.
All this time the Saracens continued their incur¬
fions ; and the Greeks had gained ground fo much,
that they were now in poffelfion of two thirds of the pre- city of Averfa, which was now erected into a county.
^ fent kingdom of Naples; but in the year 1002 or 1003.
!he Nor- the Normans firft began to be remarkable in Italy,
fi'ft They had, about a century before, embraced Chri-
n in ftianity, and become very zealous in all the fuperfti-
tions which were then praftifiid. They were particu¬
larly zealous in vifiting facred places, efpecially Rome,
and the holy fepulchre at Jerufalem ; and being natu¬
rally of a very martial difpofition, they forced through
great bodies of Greeks and Saracens who oppofed
their paffage. About this time 40, or, as others
write, 100, of thefe Normans, returning from Jerufa¬
lem by fea, landed at Salerno in the habit of pilgrims,
In confequence of this piece of good fortune, great
numbers of Norman adventurers migrated into Italy ;
among whom were William, Drogo, and Umbert,
three of the fons of Tancred duke of Hautville ; from
whofe pofterity thofe princes were defeended, who
firll conquered the ifland of Sicily fiom the Sara¬
cens, and formed the prefent kingdom of Naples.
In 1040, the Greek emperor Michael Paleologus,
in order to fecure the affedtion of his fickle fubjedls,
undertook the conqueft of Italy from the Saracens,
and for that purpofe fent a general named Michael Mu-
niacus into Sicily. This commander, hearing of the
where they were honourably received by Guaimarius. great reputation of the Normans, fent to Guiamarius,
During their refidence at Salerno, a great body of Sa- prince of Salerno, intreating him to grant him fome
racens landed, and in veiled the city. Guaimarius, not of thofe warriors. Hisrequelt was moll willingly heark-
being in a condition to oppofe the invaders by force, ened to by the prince of Salerno, who, to encourage
was preparing to pay them a large fum of money, the Normans to engage in the expedition, promifed
which they demanded, when the Normans propofed to them fome additional rewards befides the emperor’s pay. 20
attack them; and, having got arms and horfes from William, Drogo, and Umbert, accordingly marched The Nor-
the prince, they engaged the infidels with fuch fury from Salerno with 300 of their countrymen ; and paf- mans pafg
. _j 1  -1- J-r --J — - 1 fing over into Sicily, dillinguilhed themfelves molt re-int0
markably in .the conqueft of that ifland. Maniacus ac- *C'
and bravery, that they entirely defeated them, and
obliged them to fly to their Ihips. By this complete
iciory Guaimarius was filled with fuch admiration of knowledged, that the recovery of Meffina was chiefly
the valour of thefe ftrangers, that he entreated them owing to their valour ; and William with his Normans
to remain in his country; offering them lands, and
the molt honourable employments: but not being able
gained a complete victory over the Saracens before Sy-
racufe, where he killed the governor of the city in
to prevail with them to flay in Italy, or even accept fingle combat. Maniacus made himfelf mailer of Sy*
of his prefents; at their departure he fent fome am- racufe, and almoll entirely reduced the whole ifland j
baffadors with them to Normandy, in veffels loaded but being accufed of treafon, was next year carried
with exquifite fruits, rich furniture for horfes, &c. prifoner to Conftantinople.^ His fucceffor Doceanus,
^ TC ,
NAP [628
Naples, being a man of no abilities, quickly loft the whole
--“‘‘•'y-—_ ifland except Meffina, and treated his Norman auxi¬
liaries with the utmoft contempt. He would not al ¬
low them any fhare of the booty ; and even caufed one
Ardoin, a noble Lombard, ^nd affociate and interpre¬
ter of the Normans, to be whipped round the eamp,
becaufe he refufed to part with the horfe of a Saracen
whom he had flain in Angle combat. The confequences
of this tyrannical behaviour were very fatal to the
Greeks. Ardoin foon after obtained leave to return to
] NAP
hands of the Normans, fled to Otranto, and from Naples,
thence to Bulgaria, where, being entirely defeated by
one of the emperor’s generals, he was taken prifoner,
and had his head ftruck off.
The Normans having now conquered the greatefl
part of Puglia, proceeded to make a divifion of their
conqueft, in which, after each commander had got his
proper fhare, the city of Melfis was left common to all,
and appropriated as a place for afl'embling to confult
about the moft important affairs of the nation. Argyrus
Italy under pretence of a vow, and all the Normans alone was neglefted in this divifion ; but he, having
’ 1JI -*■ d* *■’— L ~ •-a. j c gained the favour of the emperor by expelling the re¬
bel Maniacus from Italy, was by him created duke of
embarked at night along with him ; but inftead of go*
ing to Rome, Ardpin went immediately to Averfa,
where he perfuaded -count Rainulphus, fovereign of Bari, on purpofe to check the power of the Normans^
that province, to join with him in the defign he had
formed of attacking the Greek provinces in Italy,
which, he Ihowed him, would be an eafy conqueft, as
the inhabitants fubmitted with great reluftance to the
Greeks, and the provinces were at that time almofl: en¬
tirely defencelefs. Rainulphus approved of the fcheme,
and raifed 300 foldiers, whom he fent under 12 offi-
cers, to join the other Normans under the fons of Tan-
Their con* cred; and made an agreement with Ardoin, that the
puttie.
with the title of prince and duke of Puglia. The Nor-!
mans, however, were too powerful to be much awed
by Argyrus, and behaved with great infolence to the
neighbouring princes ; but as they could not be expel¬
led by force, and were confirmed in their conquefts by
Henry II. emperot of Germany in 1047, the Greek
emperor attempted to get rid of them, by fending Ar¬
gyrus with large funis of money to bribe them to en¬
ter into his fervice again)! the Perfians. But they.
iquefts (h@uld be equally divided among the chief perceiving the fnare, replied, that they were refolved
leaders. Their firll enterprife was the reduction of not to leave Italy unlefs they were expelled by force;
Melphis, one of the ftrongeft cities in Puglia, which
prefently furrendered; and they increafed its fortifica¬
tions fo much, that it thenceforth became impregnable.
Soon after this they made themfelves mailers of Veno-
fa, Afcoli, and Lavello, with very little oppofition.
Loceanus, alarmed with the rapidity of their con¬
quefts, immediately left Sicily, and marched with his
army into Puglia, where he attacked the invaders near
the river Oliviento j but after a fierce engagement, he
was obliged to retire with confiderable lofs. The
upon which Argyrus made ufe of the fame money in
bribing the Puglians ta aflaflinate thefe invaders. This ^
brought on a maffacre, in which greater numbers ofGreatnumJ.
Normans periftied than had fallen in all the late wars, bersofthem
Argyrus attempted to take advantage of the confufionmalfacred*
produced by this maffacre, but was defeated ; after
which he had recourfe to Pope Leo, befeeching him
to deliver Italy from thefe cruel tyrants : but this
fchetne proved ftill more unfuccefsful than the others
had been ; for the pope himfelf w.as defeated and ta-
Greeks were foon after defeated a fecond time at Can- ken prifoner ; and, in confequence of the refpedt )how- aj
nae ; and in a third engagement, which happened near
the river Ofanto, the army of Doceanus was entirely
routed, and he himfelf obliged to fly to Bari. On
this bad fuccefs Doceanus was ordered to return to
ed him by the Norman^, granted them, as a fief of theTh®7 ar®
holy fee, all the conquefts they had made or ftiould^
make in Calabria and Sicily. all then
Soon after this, the Norman power became extreme-conqueils.
his command in Sicily, and another general was fent 1/ formidable ; the famous Robert Guifcard afeended
with an army into Puglia. This new commander,
however, had no better fuccefs than his predeceffor ;
for his army was entirely defeated in an engagement
with the Normans, and he himfelf taken prifoner. A-
tenulphus, brother to one of the princes of Benevento,
on whom the Normans had conferred the chief com¬
mand, fet at liberty the captive general without con-
fulting them, on receiving from him a confiderahle
fum of money. With this the Normans were fo much
difpleafed, that they deprived Atenulphus of his com¬
mand, and beftowed it on Argyrus, fon to the late
Mello, who had efcaped from Cunffantinople, and now
affumed the title of duke, and prince of Italy. Before
the throne in 1056. He made great progrefs in the
conqueft of Calabria, and reduced moll of the cities
which held for the Greeks in thefe parts. About the
fame time the counts of Capua were expelled from
their territory ; and the abbot Defiderius mentions hi*
having feen the children of Landulphus V. the latt
count, going about as vagabonds, and begging for
their fupport. The pope, alarmed by thefe conquefts,
excommunicated the Normans in wholefale, pretending
that they had fet/.ed fome of the territories belonging
to the church ; but, by the pretended fubmiflion of
Robert, he not only was perfuaded to take off the fen-
tence of excommunication, bdt to inveff him with the
this time alfo Maniacus, whom we have formerly men- provinces of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. After
tioned, had returned to Italy ; and to ftrike the great¬
er terror into the revolted cities, had executed a num¬
ber of people of all ages and fexes with great inhuma-
. nity. Soon after this Maniacus openly rebelled again)!
the Greek emperor Conftantinus, and prevailed upon
his own army to proclaim him emperor, beginning
hoftilities immediately again)! the Greek cities. Ar-
this, he continued the war again)! the Greeks with
great fuccefs. In 1071, in conjun&Jon with his bro-g.£.
ther Roger, he conquered the ifland of Sicily, andq^ere(ji,j
gave the inveftiture of the whole ifland to him with the Robert
title of count, referving to himfelf only the half of Pa-Guifcar<£
lermo, Meflina, and the valley of Demona. The like
fuccefs attended his arms again!! Salerno in J074; but
gyrus at the famjp time took Giovenazzo and befieged after this, having unadvifedly taken fome places from
Irani, and foon after befieged Maniacus himfeltin the pope, he again fell under the fentence of excom-
Tareato j but he, being afraid of falling into the
munication j yet he was reconciled to him in 1080, and
6 received.
NAP
received a fecond time the mveftitare of all his domi-
nions. The nekt year he undertook an expedition
againft the Greeks ; and though the emperor was af-
fiited by a Venetian fleet, Robert made himfelf mafter
of the ifland of Corfu, reduced Durazzo, and great
[ 629 1
NAP
tence of treafon, and his wife being debauched by the
French, he retired to ConRantia queen of Arragon, *"
where he was created a baron of the kingdom of Va¬
lencia, by her hufband king Peter, and Lord of Luxen,
Benizzano, and Palma. As he was greatly exafpera-
part of Romania ; infomuch that by the fuccefs of his ted againft the French, he employed many fpies both
arms, and his near approach to Conftantinople, he in Puglia and Sicily; and being informed that the Si-
ftruck an univerfa-1 terror among the Greeks. But eilians were totally dilaftefted to the French, he came
while Robert was thus extending his conquelts, he was to the ifland in difguife, and concerted a plan with the
alarmed by the news of a formidable rebellion in Ita- molt powerful of the malcontents for a revolution in
ly, and that the emperor Henry had taken the city of favour of Conftantia, though fhe derived her right only
Rome, and clofely fhut up the pope in the raffle of St as being the daughter of a former ufurper named Man-
Angelo. Robert therefore, leaving the command ©f fred^ PrOcida then fet out for Conftantinople, where,,
the army to his fon Boemund, returned to Italy, where in fome private conferences with the emperor, he per-
he immediately difperfed the rebels, and releafed the fuaded him, that the molt probable means of defeating
pope, while his fon gained a confiderable victory over Charles’s fcheme was- by aflilting the Spaniards and
the Greeks. After this Robert made great prepara¬
tions for another expedition into Greece, in order to
fecond his fon Boemund. Alexius Comnentis, who
was about this time declared emperor by the Greek ar¬
my, being affilted by the Venetian fleet, endeavoured
to oppofe his paffage ; but was entirely defeated, with
the lofs of a great many galleys. But a final flop was
now put to his enterprifes by his death, which hap¬
pened in the ifland of Corfu in 1085.
Though the power of the Normans was thus tho¬
roughly eflabliflied in Italy and Sicily, and though
the prince of Benevento was in 1130 invefted by the
the pope with the title of king of Sicily ; yet by rea-
fon of the civil diffenfions which took place among
themfelves, and the general confufion which reigned
35 in Italy in thofe ages, they were obliged, notwith-
And by the handing all their valour, to fubmit to the emperor in
emperor of j gy. him the Sicilians were treated with fo great
ertnanj. cruejty} the emprefs Conftantia was induced to
confpire againft him in 1197, took him prifoner, and
Sicilian malcontents. Paleologus accordingly grant¬
ed him a large fum of money, and on his departure
fent one of his fecretaries along with him, who^ land¬
ing in Sicily, had a conference with the chief confpi-
rator. John, having received letters from them, dif-
guifed himfelf in the habit of a Francifcan, and went
to Suriano in the neighbourhood of Rome. As he well
knew the enmity which fubfifted between the pope and
king Charles, ‘he.difclofed his defign to his holinefs;
who readily entered into his meafures, wrote to Peter
to haften his armament, promifing him the inveftiture
of the ifland as foon as he had taken pofleffion of it;
and, by refufing the affiftance he had promifed to
Charles, obliged him for the prefent to delay his ex¬
pedition. In the beginning of the year 1280, Procida
returned to Arragon, and by fhowing the letters from
the pope and Sicilian barons, prevailed on Peter to
embark in his defign, by affuring him of the affiftance
of Paleologus. The king of Arragon accordingly pre¬
pared a formidable fleet under pretence of invading:
releafed him only on condition of his fending off his Africa, and is even faid to have received 20,000 du¬
cats from Charles, in order to affift him in his prepa-'
rations.
But while John went on thus fuccefsfully with his'
fcheme, all his meafures were in danger of being broke'
by the death of pope Nicholas. The new pope; Mar¬
tin IV. was entirely in the intereft of Charles, on whom,,
in 1281, he conferred the fenatorial dignity o^ Rome.
Procida, however, ftiil refolved to profecute his fcheme;
army immediately for the Holy Land. This was com¬
plied with ; but the emperor did not long furvive the
reconciliation, being poifoned, as was fuppofed, by or¬
der of the emprefs.
In 1254 the pope claimed the kingdom as a fief
devolved on the church in confequence of a fentence of
depofition pronounced againft king Frederic at the
council of Lyons ; and, in 1263, the kingdom was, in
confequence of this right, conferred on Charles count and, leaving Italy, had another conference with th
of Anjou. After much contention and bloodflied, the confpirators in Sicily ; after which, he again went to
French thus became mafters of Sicily and Naples. Conftantinople, and obtained from Paleologus 30,000
The French Their government was infupportably tyrannical;, and ounces of gold, with w'hich he immediately returned
kecon-.e at the fame time the haughtinefs of their king fo pro- to Arragon, The death of Nicholas had damped the-
matters of yoked the pope, that he refolved to humble him.— ardour of Peter; but, being urged with great earneft-
NauksD Charles had refolved on an expedition againft Conftan- nefs by John, he. again renewed his preparations 5
tinople ; and for this purpofe had fitted out a fleet of which alarmed the pope and the king of France. In
zoo galleys, 30 large fliips, 200 tranfports, bdides confequence of this they fent a meffage to him, defi-
many other fmaller veffels, on board of which he in- ring to know againft what Saracens he defigned to
tended to embark 10,000 horfe, and a numerous ar- employ his armament. In this particular Peter refu-
my of foot. This formidable armament greatly alarm- fed to fatisfy them ; upon which they earneftly conn¬
ed the emperor Michael Paleologus ; for which reafon r " '
he entered into a negociation with John di Procida,.a
noble Salernitan, lord of the ille of Procida in the bay
of Naples, who had formed a fcheme for a- general re¬
volt in the ifland of Sicily. John, though a noble¬
man, was alfo a phyfician, and had been- counfellor to
felled Charles to- guard againft an invafion : but he
negledled their advice, being wholly intent on his
eaftern expedition, and encouraged by a revolt which-
had happened in Greece ; and to facilitate his expedi¬
tion, he prevailed on the pope to excommunicate the-
Greeks, on pretence that they had broken fome of the
two former princes, and even to king Charles himfclf ; articles of union concluded at the council of Lyoi
but being ftrippedof his eftate by the Ling under gre- few years before. Peter in the mean time continued.
hit'
NAP l
' "Naptev. his preparations with great diligence, intending to put
' to fea the following fumtner. Procida had returned to
They^are Palei mo, to wait for a favourable opportunity of put-
630 1 NAP
Frederic: stftef which the war continued with great Naples
violence till the year 1303, when a peace was conclu- ^
ded, and the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily formally Tjjea*;n
disioined : Frederic beincr allowed to keeo the latter. 'V,'?8'
>Kia2aered. ting his defign in execution, which was foon afforded disjoined; Frederic being allowed to keep the latter, s (Jf
him by the French. On Eafter Monday, March 30th, under the name of Trinacria; and Charles being con-Naples ard
1282, the chief confpirators had affembledat Palermo; firmed in the poffefiion of the former, which he quiet-^
and, after dinner, both the Palermitans and French
went in a grand proceflion to the church of Monreale,
about three miles without the city. While they were
* fporting in the fields, a bride happened to pafsby with
her train, who being obferved by one Drochettus, a
Frenchman, he ran to her, and began to ufe her in a
ly enjoyed till his death in 1309.
Naples continued to be governed by its own kings
till the beginning of the 16th century, when the kings
of France and Spain contended for the fovereignty of
this country. Frederic, at that time king of Naples,
refigned the fovereignty to Louis XIL on being crea-
rude manner, under pretence of fearching for conceal- ted duke of Anjou, and receiving an annual penfion of
ed arms. A young Sicilian, exafperated at this af¬
front, flabbed him with his own fword ; and a tumult
enfuing, 200 French were immediately murdered. The
enraged populace then ran to the city, crying out,
“ Let the French die, Let the French die ;” and,
without diftimffion of age or fex, flaughtered all of that
nation they could find, even fuch as had fled to the
churches. The confpirators then left Palermo, and
excited the inhabitants to murder the French all over
the ifland, excepting in Meflina, which city at firft re
fufed to be concerned in the revolt. But, being invi¬
ted by the Palermitans to throw off the French yoke,
30,000 ducats. But, in 1504, the French were en¬
tirely defeated by the Spaniards, and obliged to eva be-
cuate the kingdom ; and the following year Louis re- c ,me ma.
nounced all pretenfions to the crown, which from thatftersnf
time hath remained alnioft conltantly in the hands of Naples,
the Spaniards.
The government of the Spaniards proved no lefs op-
preflive to the Neapolitans than that of others had been.
The kings of Spain fet no bounds to their exaftions,
and of confequence the people were loaded with all
manner of taxes; even the moft indifpenfable necefla-
ries of life not being exempted. In 1647, a new tax
a few weeks after, the citizens in a tumultuous manner was laid on fruit; which the people looked upon i
deftroyed fome of the French; and pulling down the the moft grievous oppreflion, the chief part of their
arms of king Charles, and ere&ing thofe of the city, fubfiftence, during the fummer months, being fruit,
chofe one Baldwin for their governor, who faved the which in the kingdom of Naples is very plentiful and
remaining French from the fury of the populace, and delicious. The editt for colledting the new duty was 30
allowed them to tranfport themfclves, with their wives no fooner publiflted, than the people began to murmur A general
in a tumultuous manner; and when the viceroy camerev°h-
abroad, they furrounded his coach, bawling out to
have their grievances redreffed. They were encoura-
and children, to Italy. Eight thoufand perfons are
faid to have been murdered on this occafion.
Immediately after this maflacre, the Sicilians offered
their allegiance to the king of Arragon ; who accept- ged in their fedition, by the news that the citizens of
ed of the invitation,and landed with his forces at Tra- Palermo had actually revolted on account of the im-
pani. From thence he went to Palermo, where he was pofltion of new duties. The viceroy, therefore, appre-
crowned king of Sicily with great folemnity, and heulive of greater diforders, began to think of taking
Charles left the ifland with precipitation. The day off the tax j but thofe who farmed the tax having bri-
after he landed his army in Italy, the Arragonian fleet bed fome of his favourites, he was by their means per-
arrived, took 29 of his galleys, and the next day fuaded not to abolilh it. The indignation of the peo-
burnt 80 tranfports in prefence of his army. Soon af- pie, who had fnfpe&ed his intention, was now greatly
increafed, efpecially as they were privately excited by
feveral malcontents. The farmers of the revenue, and
all thofe concerned in railing the taxes, had incurred
ter this Charles fent an embaffy to Peter, accufing him
of perfidy, in invading his dominions in time of peace ;
and, according to fome, challenged him at the fame
time to decide the matter by lingle combat. Others the hatred and deteftation of the people, particularly
fay, that the challenge was given by Peter. Certain
it is, however, that a challenge was given, and to ap¬
pearance accepted : but Peter determined to employ
much more effe&ual means in fupport of his preten ¬
fions than trufting to a duel; and therefore puflred on
of Tommafo Aniello, commonly called M-Jfaniello (f Account of
Amalfi, a fiiherman, whole wife, having been difeovered Maffaniel-
in fmuggling a fmall quantity of meal, was imprifon- lo.
ed, and condemned to pay a fine of 100 ducats.
Maflaniello, a few years before, had come to Naples
his operations moft vigoroufly, while his adverfary from Amalfi, where his father had been a fiiherman.
trifled away his time : and thus he at laft became ma- At this timedre was about 24 years of age, and the
iier of the contefted kingdom; which, however, he did father of four children He was of a middling ftature,
not long enjoy, dying about the end of the year 1285. an<^ an agreeable afpe<ft ; was diftinguilhed for his bold-
By bis will, Peter left the kingdom of Arragon to nefs, activity, and integrity : and hada great influence
~ with his companions, by whom he was beloved and
efteemed. As he was obliged even to fell his furniture
to pay the heavy fine, he had conceived an implacable
hatred againft the farmers of the taxes, and was alfo
moved with compaffion for the miferable ftate of the
his eldeft fon Alphonfxs, and Sicily to Don James
his other fon, who was alfo to' fucceed to the kingdom
of Arragon in cafe Alphonfus Ihould die without male
iffue. Accordingly, Don James was folemnly crown¬
ed at Palermo the 2d of February 1286. In 1295,
however, he deferted them, and tamely rtfigned up his city and kingdom. He therefore formed a defign.
right to Charles, fon to him above-mentioned, in
manner perhaps unparalleled. On his reiignation the
Sicilians conferred the crown upon his brother Don
with fome of his companions, to raife a tumult in tire
market-place on the feftival-day of the Carmelites,
ufually celebrated about the middle of July, when be¬
tween
NAP [ 631 ] NAP
Naples, tween i^oo and 600 youths entertain the people by
a mock-fight; one half of them in the character of
Turks, defending a wooden caftle, which is attacked
and ftormed by the other half in the charafter of
Chriftians. Maffaniello being appointed captain of
one of thefe parties, and one Pione, who was privy to
his defign, commanding the other, for feveral weeks
before ihe feftival they were very diligent in reviewing
and training their followers, who were armed with
fticks and reeds : but a fmali and unforefeen accident
tempted them to begin their enterprife without wait¬
ing for the feftival.
On the 7th of July a difpute happening in the mar¬
ket-place betwixt the tax gatherers and fome garden¬
ers of Pozzuolo who had brought fome figs into the
city, whether the buyer or feller ftiould pay the du¬
ty ; after the tumult had continued feveral hours, Maf¬
faniello, who was prefent with his company, excited
the mob to pillage the office built in the market for
receiving the duty, and to drive away the officers
with ftones. The deft of the people, who, by deci-
ding againft the gardeners, had increafed the, tumult,
ran to the palace, and informed the viceroy, who moft
imprudently neglefted all means of putting a ftop to
the commotion. Maffaniello, in the mean time, being
joined by great numbers of people, ordered his young
troop to fet fire to all the offices for the taxes through
-the cky ; which command being executed with dif-
patch, he then condufted them direftly to the palace,
where the viceroy, inftead of ordering his Spanifh and
German guards to difperfe them, encouraged their in-
folence by timidly granting their demands. As they
rufhed into the palace in a furious manner, he efcaped
by a private door, and endeavoured to fave himfelf in
Caft cl del Ovo ; but being overtaken by the rioters in
the ftreets, he was trampled upon by them, and pulled
by the hair and whifkers. However, by throwing fome
handfuls of gold among them, he again efcaped, and
took fanftuary in a convent of Minims* where,, being
joined by the archbifhop of Naples, cardinal Filoma-
rini, and feveral nobles, by their advice he figned ?a.
billet, by which he aboliffied all taxes upon provilions.
As a means to quell the tumult, he likewife defired
the cardinal to offer Maffaniello a penfion of 2400
crowns^ who generoufly rejefted the bribe ; and de¬
clared, that if the viceroy would keep his word,-he
would find them obedient fubjefts.
It was now expefted that the tumult would ceafe*-;
but Maffaniello, upon his return to the market-place,
being joined by feveral malcontents, among.whom
were Genuino and one Peronne, who had formerly
been a captain of the Sbirri, he was advifed by them
to order the houfeS of thofe concerned in raifing the
tax to be burned; which were accordingly in a few days
deduced to allies, with all their rich furniture. Mafia-,
niello being now abfolute mafter - of the. whole city,,
and being joined by great numbers-of people of defper
rate fortunes, he required-tlie viceroy, who had reti¬
red to the C aft el Nuovoy to -abolilh all the taxes, and to
deliver up the writ of exemption granted by Charles V.
This new demand greatly' embarraffed the viceroy;
but to appeafe the people, he drew up a falfe deed in
letters of gold, and fent it to them by their favourite
the duke of Matalone,. who had before been in con-
finemeat. The fraud*; however, being dil’covered, the
duke was pulled from his horfe and maltreated by the Naples*
mob, and at length committed as a prifoner to PeronUe. —y—
This accident, to the great joy of the viceroy, enraged
the people againft the nobility, feveral of whom they
killed, burnt the houfes of others, and threatened to
extirpate them all. Maffaniello, in the mean time, tat¬
tered and half naked, commanded his followers, who
were now well armed, and reckoned about 100,000
men, with a moft abfolute fway. He eat and flept
little, gave his orders with great precifion and judge¬
ment, appeared full of moderation, without ambition
and interefted views. But the duke of Matalone ha¬
ving procured his liberty by bribing Peronne, the
viceroy imitated his example, and fecretly corrupted
Genuino to betray his chief. A confpiracy was ac¬
cordingly formed againft Maffaniello by Matalone and
Peronne; the duke, who wasequally exafperated againft
the viceroy, propoling, that after his death his brother
D. Jofeph Ihould head the rebels.
Maffaniello in the mean time, by means of the car¬
dinal archbiihop, was negociating a general peace and
accommodation ; but while both parties were affem-
bling in the convent of the Carmelites, the banditti
hired by Matalone made an unfuccefsful attempt upon
Maffaniello’s life. His- followers immediately killed
150 of them. Peronne and D. Jofeph being difeo-
vered to be concerned in the confpiracy, were likewife
put to death, and the duke with great difficulty efca¬
ped. Maffaniello by this confpiracy was rendered more
fufpicious and fevere. He began to abufe his power
by putting ftveral perfons to death upon flight pre¬
tences ; and, to force the viceroy to an accommoda¬
tion, he cut off all communication with the caftles,
which were unprovided with provifion and ammunition- •
—The viceroy likewife being afraid left the French
Ihould take advantage of the commotion, earneftly de¬
fired to agree to a treaty; which was accordingly eon-^ treaty-
eluded on the fifth day of the.infurreftion, by the me-concluded
diation of the archbifhop. By the treaty it was ftipu-b tween
lated, that all duties impofed fince the time of Charles
V, fhould be abolilhed ; that the writ of exemption Ykeroy,
granted by that emperor Ihould be delivered to the
people ; that for - ihe future no new taxes fhould be
impofed; that the vote of the deft of the people fhould
be equal to the votes of the nobility; that an aft of
oblivion fliould be granted for all tnat was paft ; and
that the people fhould continue in arms under Maffa-
niello till the ratification of the treaty by the king.
By this treaty, no lets than- 10,000 perfons, who
fattened uj^m the blood of the public, were ruined.—
The people, when it was folemniy publifhed, manifeft-
ed an-extreme joy, believing they had now recovered
all-their ancient rights and privileges. Maffaniello, at
the defire of the viceroy, went to the palace to vxik
him, accempanicd by the archbiihop, who was obli¬
ged to threaten him with excommunication, before
he would confent to hy afide his rags and affume a
magnificent drefs. He was received by the duke-with
the greateft demonftrations of refpeft. and friendfhip,
while the duohefs entertained his wife, and prefented
her with a robe of cloth of filver, and fome jewels.—
The viceroy, to, preferve fome fhadovy of authority;
appointed him captain-general; and at his departure . •
made him a prefent of a golden chain of great value, aj,p;
which wdth great difficulty he was prevailed upon tocai tain-
acce-pt; ge'«sh
NAP l 632 ] NAP
Naples, accept; but yielded at length to the Intreaties of the
’"'—'■'v''—- cardinal. Next day, in confequence of the commiflion
granted him by the viceroy, he began to exercife all
the fundtions of fovereign authority; and having caufed
a fcaffold to be eredted in one of the ftreets, and fe-
veral gibbets, he judged all crimes, whether civil or
military, in the laft refoit; and ordered the guilty to
be immediately put to death, which was the. punifh-
inent he afhgned to all offences. Though he negledt-
ed all forms of law, and even frequently judged by
phyfiognomy, yet he is faid not to have overlooked
any criminal, or punifhed any innocent perfon.
His grandeur and profperity was of very fhort con¬
tinuance ; for his mind becoming diftradled and deliri¬
ous for two or three days, he committed a great many
fsaffaffi- mac^ anc^ extravagant adtions ; and on the 18th of July
uated. was aflaflinated with the confent of the viceroy.
The tumult did not end with the death of Mafla-
niello: on the contrary, the people now expelled the
Spaniards from mod of the cities throughout the king¬
dom ; and this general infurredtion being the fubjedt
of difeourfe at Rome, the duke of Guife, who happen¬
ed then to be at the pope’s court, took the opportu¬
nity, at the infligation of his holinefs, to offer his fer-
vice to the Neapolitans againft the Spaniards. The
duke was prompted by his ambition to engage in this
■enterprife, efpecially as he himfelf had fome diftant
pretentions to the crown. The Spaniards in the mean
time made a vigorous attack on the city ; but were re-
pulfed by the people, who now formally renounced
their allegiance to them. In a fhort time, however,
their city being furprifed by the new viceroy, the
count d’Oniate, and the duke of Guife himfelf taken
Thepeople prifoner, the people returned to their allegiance ; and
return ro thus all jdie attempts of the French on Naples were
their alie- fruftrated. Since that time the Spaniards continued in
fiance. peaceable pofTeffion of the kingdom till the year 1707,
when it was taken from them by prince Eugene. It
was formally ceded to the emperor by the treaty of
Raftadt in 1713 ; but was recovered by the Spaniards
in 1734, and the king of Spain’s eldeft fon is now king
of Naples and Sicily. For a particular account of thefe
revolutions, fee the articles Spain and Sicily.
The climate of Naples is extremely hot, efpecially
produce* in Juty» Auguft, and September. In winter there is
■See. of ’ feldom any ice or fnow, except on the mountains.—
JNaples. On account of its fertility, it is jufUy termed an
earthly paradife ; for it abounds with all forts of grain,
the fineft.fruit and garden-produ&ions of every kind,
with rice, flax, oil, and wine, in the greateft plenty
and perfedlion. It affords alfo faffron, manna,.alum,
vitriol, fulphur, rock-cryftal, marble, and feveral forts
;of minerals, together with fine wool, and filk. The
horfes of this country are famous, and the flocks and
herds very numerous. Befides thefe produ&s, of which
a confiderable part, is exported, there are manufa&ures
of fnuff, foap, and glafs-ware. Waiilcoats, caps,
ftockings, and gloves, are alfo made of the hair or
filaments of a fhell-fifh, which are warmer than thofe
of wool, and of a beautiful gloffy green. In this king¬
dom likewife is found that called the Phrygian Jlone,
or pietra Jungifera, which, being laid in a damp fhady
place, will yield mufhrooms, fometimes of a very large
iize, efpecially if the ftone is fprinkled with hot water.
See Agaricus.
As to the mountains of this country, the principal
N» 236.
are thofe of the Apennine, which traverfe it from fouth Naples.
to north ; and Mount Vefuvius, which, as is well' v"—""
known, is a noted volcano, five Italian miles from
Naples. The fide of this mountain next the iea yields
wine, particularly the two famed wines called Vino
Greco and Lachrymee ChriJU. One of the greateft in-
con veniencies to which this kingdom is expofed is
earthquakes, which the eruptions of Mount Vefuvius
contribute, in fome meafure, to prevent. Another
inconveniency, which, however, is common to it with
other hot countries, is the great number of reptiles
and infe&s, of which fome are very poifonous. . ^
With refpect to religion, it is on a very bad foot-Religion*
ing here. The number of convents and monafteries
is aftonilhing. It is faid, the clergy and convents
poffefs two thirds of the whole kingdom : nay, fome
maintain, that were the kingdom divided into five
parts, four would be found in the hands of the church.
Notwithftanding this power and influence of the clergy,
they have not been able hitherto to get the inquifition
eftablifbed here. In the year 1731, meafures were
taken for leftening the number of convents; and lately
the order of Jefuits hath been fupprefled. The papal
bulls cannot be, made public without the king’s per-
miflion ; nor are Proteftants compelled to knetl in the
churches, or at meeting the hoft ; and in Lent they
can very eafily procure fleih meat. In the year 1740,
the Jews were allowed to fettle in the kingdom during
the term of 50 years, and feveral privileges were
granted them during that period ; at the expiration of
which, the grant was fuppofed to be renewed, unlefs
they were exprefsly ordered to quit the country. 38
The revenue of the kingdom is generally computed Revenue,
at 3,000,000 of crowns: but, as Mr Addifon ob-&c‘
ferves, there is no country in Europe which pays
greater taxes, and where, at the fame time, the pub¬
lic is lefs the better for them, moft of them going to
the enriching of the private perfous to whom they are
mortgaged.
The military force of this kingdom is faid to con-
fift of about 30,000 men, of which the Swifs regi¬
ments are the beft. As to the marine, it confifts
only of a few galleys. The only ctfder here is that of
St Januarius, which was inftituted by Don Carlos in
the year 1738.
The king of Naples, or of the two Sicilies, is an
hereditary monarch. The high colleges are the coun¬
cil of ftate, the privy-council, the treafury, the Sicily-
council, the council of war, &c. This kingdom is a
papal fief; and the king, in acknowledgment of the
pope’s feudal right, fends him every year a white pal-
fry, and a purfe of 6000 ducats. The title of the
king’s eldeft fon is prince of Calabria. The number
both of the high and low nobility in the kingdom of
Naples is very great. “ I am affured (fays Dr Moore$) ^ ^
that the king of Naples counts among his fubjefts Society, <xc.
too perfons with the title of prince, and a ftill greaterItaly.
with that of duke. Spc or feven of thefe have eftates
which produce from 10 to 12 or 13,000!. a year ; a
confiderable number have fortunes of about half the
value ; and the annual revenue of many is not above
loooi. or 20001. The inferior orders of the nobility
are much poorer. Many counts and marquifles have
not above 3001. or 400 1. a year of paternal eftate ;
many have ftill lefs; and not a few enjoy the title with¬
out any eftate whatever. Thefe nobles, however, are
exceffively
NAP C 1 NAP
Naptes. cXceffively fond of fplendor and {how, which appears
in the brilliancy of their equipages, the number of
their attendants, the richnefs of their drefs, and the
grandeut of their titles. The fineft carriages are
painted, gilt, varnifhed, and lined, in a richer and
more beautiful manner than has yet become falhtonable
either in England or in France. They are often drawn
by fix and fometimes by eight horfes. Before the
Carriage, it is the mode to have two running footmen,
and behind three or four ferVants in the richeft liveries.
The ladies and gentlemen within the coaches glitter in
all the brilliancy of lace, embroidery, and jewels —
This finery is not confined to the perfons within and
without the coaches; it is extended to the horfes,
whofe heads, manes, and tails, are ornamented with
the rareft plumage* and fet off with ribbon and artifi¬
cial flowers.”
We {hall mention a circumftance from which art
idea may be formed of the grandeur of a’Neapolitan
palace, and the number of domeltics which fome of
the nobility retain. “ I dined (continues our author)
at the prince lacci’s, where we paired through 12 or
x 3 large rooms before we arrived at the dining-ro'om.
There were 36 perfons at table ferved by the prince’s
domeftics, and each gueft had a Footman behind his
chair, while other domeftics belonging to the prince
remained in the adjacent rooms and in the hall. No
•eftate in England could fupport fuch a number of
fervants, paid and fed as Englifh fervants are ; but in
Naples the wages are very moderate indeed, and the
greater number of men-fervants, belonging to the firft
families, give their attendance through the day only,
and find beds and provifions for themfelves. It mtift
be remembered alfo, that few of the nobles give any
entertainments ; and thofe who do not are faid to
live very fparingly ; fo that the whole of their reve¬
nue, whatever it maybe, is expended on articles of
Ihow.”
In the kingdom of Naples, the heVeditary jurifdic-
tion of the nobles over their vaffals fubfifts in the full
rigour of the feudal government. The peafants there¬
fore are poor; and it depends entirely on the perfonal
character of the mailer, whether their poverty be not
the leaft of their grievances. As this power is too
often abufed, the importance of the nobility depends
in a great meafure on the favour of the king, who,
under pretence of any offence, can confine them to
their eftates, or imprifon them at pleafure. Unlefs
this prince were fo very impolitic as to difguft all the
nobility at once, and fo unite the whole body againft
him, he has little to fear from their refentment. Even
in cafe of fuch an union, as the nobles have loft the affec¬
tion of their vaffals, what could they do in oppofition
to a {landing army of 30,000 men, entirely devoted to
the crown ? The government of Naples, therefore, is
in faft a defpotic monarchy, though fomething like
the form of a feudal cohftitution in its ancient purity
is ftill kept up by the biennial fummons of the general
affembly. This convention, which confifts of the no¬
bility and commons, is called together every two
years, to deliberate on the cuftomary free-gift to the
crown.
The inhabitants of this country have at all times
■borne but an indifferent chara&er among other na¬
tions. “ From the few hints dropped by the claffic
, VOi* XII. Part II.
authors, we colled that the ancient Neapolitans Were Mapls*.
a race of Epicureans, of a foft indolent turn, averfe ■—
from martial exercifes, paffionately fond of thea¬
trical amufements and mufic, expert in all the refined
arts that adminifter to the caprices of luxury, extra¬
vagant in their exprefiions and geftures, and dupes to
Various forts of fuperftition. If we make allowance
for a quantity of northern blood which has joined the
original Grecian ftream, and imperted a roughnefs not
yet worn off by the mildnefs of the climate, we {hall
find the modern Neapolitans very like the ancient.—
Provifions being here plentiful and cheap, the lower
clafs of people work but little. Their delight is to
balk in the fun, and do nothing. Perfons of a middle
rank frequent places of public refort; and very few of
any rank attend to their proper bufinefs with the
zeal and adivity we are wont to meet with in the
profeffional men of colder countries. Gluttony is a
predominant vice, while inftances of ebriety are com¬
paratively rare. In the female fex, the paffion for
finery is almoft fuperior to every other ; and, though
chaftity is not the charaderiftic virtue of the country,
Mr Swinburne doubts § whether a Neapolitan woman § Travel* 1
would not nine times out of ten prefer a prefent to zin tbeT-wa
lover. That furious jealoufy for which the nation5'^'"'
was once fo remarkable, is now greatly abated. The
breach of the conjugal vow fometimes occafions quar¬
rels and affaffinations among people of an inferior fta-
tion ; and in the metropolis, affaffinations are often
perpetrated from much lefs cogent motives. Of thefe
vices, many are doubtlefs owing to that flavery and
oppreffion under which they groan, and to a radical
defied in the adminiftratiom of juftice, though the
kingdom is divided into 12 provinces or jurifdidions.
Naples, anciently Partbcnope^ afterwards Neapolis,
the capital of the kingdom of that name in Italy, lies
in the province called Terra di Lavora, which is the
richeft and heft inhabited of the whole kingdom, and
comprehends a part of the ancient Campania Felix,
or the Happy. This city is fabled to owe its founda¬
tion to a fyren, and to have received its ancient name
from its fupernatural foundrefs. Whatever be its‘Ori¬
gin, it is the firft for neatnefs, and the fecond for ex¬
tent, of all the cities in Italy. It was formerly a place
of ftrength ; but its walls at prefent being of no real
defence, its fafety depends of courfe upon the force
of its armies. It is moft advantageoufiy fituated, ha¬
ving a delicious country on one fide, and a noble bay
of the Mediterranean on the other, with an excellent
harbour. The circumference, including the fuburbs,
is faid not to be lefs than 18 Italian miles, and the
number of the inhabitants therein little lefs than
400,000. The houfes are of ftone, flat-roofed, and
generally lofty and uniform; but many of them have
Balconies, with lattice-windows. The ftreets are well
paved ; but they are not lighted-at night, and in the
day-time are disfigured, in many places, by flails,
on .which provifions are expofed to fale. Here are
a great number of fine churches, convents, fountains,
and palaces of the nobility, many of whom conftantly
refide here. It is ufual to walk on the tops of the
houfes in the evenings, to breathe the fweet cool air,
after a hot fultry day The climate here is fo mild
and warm, even in the winter, that plenty of green
peafe, artichokes, afparagus, and .other vegetables^
4 k may
NAP [ 634 ] NAP
Napier may fee had To early as the beginning of the new year,
r and even all the winter. This city fwarms with monks
and nuns of all forts, to fuch a degree, that there are
no lefs than 19 convents of the Dominicans alone, 18
of the Francifcans, 8 of the Auguliines, and an equal
proportion of the reft. The magnificence of many of
the churches exceeds imagination. In a cloyfter of the
Carthufian monaftery is a crucifix, faid to be done by
Michael Angelo, of inimitable workmanftnp.
To repel hoftile attempts by fea, which, from its
fituation, maritime powers might be tempted to make,
Naples has, to the weft, the Caitel del Uovo, a con-
fufed pile of ancient buildings, and fome modern bat¬
teries. The rock upon which this fortrefs (lands was
originally called Me gar a, then I.ucullanum, and was
confidered as a place of ftrength fo early as in the
year 475. Along the line of the (hore towards the
eaft are fome batteries on the points of land, the ba-
(Hons of the arfenal, and above it the lofty wall of the
Caftel Nuovo. This laft fortrefs has been the ufual
refuge of the fovereigns and viceroys in all civil wars
and tumults; for which reafon they have long fixed
their refidence near its walls. A block-houfe and
' batteries defend the mouth of the harbour, and at the
caftern extremity of the town is the Torrione de Car¬
mine, better known by the figure it made in Mafiani-
cllo’s rebellion than by its extent or military ftrength.
The caftle of Saint Elmo commands Naples in every
direftion, and is in reality calculated rather to annoy
and awe the citizens than to defend them from fo¬
reign invaders. The city is indeed far from being fe-
cure againft a bombardment; for the fea is fo deep,
that a large veffel may come up to the very mole in
defiance of the block-houfe and batteries, 3cc. Pic¬
tures, ftatues, and antiquities, are not fo common in
Naples as might be expefted in fa great and an¬
cient a city, many of the moft valuable pieces having
been fent to Spain by the viceroys. The bay is one
of the fineft in the world, being almoft of a round
figure, of about 30 miles in diameter, and three
parts of it flickered with a noble circuit of woods and
mountains. The city ftands in the bofom of this bay,
in as pleafant a fituation, perhaps, as in the world.
Mr Key Her fays, they reckon about 18,000 donne fi¬
ber c, or courtezans iii the city, and Dr Moore com¬
petes the number of la%*.arani or blackguards at above
30,000. The greater part of thefe wretches have no
dwelling-houfes, but deep every night under porticos,
piazzas, or any kind of flicker they can find. Thofe
of them who have wives and children, live in the fub-
urbs of Naples near Peufilippo, in huts, or in ca¬
serns or chambers dug out of that mountain. They
are generally reprefented as a lazy, licentious, and
turbulent fet of people, as indeed by far the greater
of the rabble are, who prefer begging or robbing, or
tunning errands, to asy fixed and permanent employ-
mrnt. Yet there are in Naples fome ftourifhing ma¬
nufactures, particularly of filk dockings, foap, fnuff-
boxes of tortoife (hells and the lava of Mount Vefu-
vius, tables, and ornamental furniture of marble. The
city is fupplied with a vaft quantity of water, by
means of a very coftly aqueduct, from the foot of
Mount Vefuvius. Mr Addifon fays, it is incredible
tow great a multitude of retainers to the law there are
ia Naples, who find continual employment from the
fiery temper of the inhabitants. There are five piaz. Nnnlrs
zas or fquares in the city, appropriated to the nobi- „ Jl
lity, viz. thofe called Capuana. Nhlo, Montagna, For- ar J’rlne,1
to, and Porta Nova. Of all the palaces, that of the
king is not only the moft magnificent, but alfo in the
beft ftyle of architecture. The cathedral, though
Gothic, is a very grand fplendid edifice. It is here
that the head and blood of St Januaries, the tutelary
faint of Naples, are kept, the latter in two glafs or
cryftal vials. The pretended liquefa&ion of the dried
blood, as foon as brought near the head of the faint,
is a thing well known ; Mr Addifon fays, it is one of
the moft bungling tricks he ever fawf. The harbour f See
is fpacious, and kept in good repair. It is fortified
with a mole, which runs above a quarter of a mile in¬
to the fea, and at the extremity has a high lantern to
direeft fuips fafely into the harbour. Luxury here is
reftrained by fevere fumptuary laws, and the women
are more clofely confined than in any other city of
Italy. Here is an univerfity and two academies of
wits, the one called Gli Ardenti, and theother Gfi
Otioji. The nunnery for ladies of quality is faid tr>
be the largeft in the whole world, containing no lefs
than 3 jo nuns, hefides fervants. The Mount of
Piety, or the office for advancing money to the poor,
on pledges, at a low intereft, or without any, has an
income of upwards of 50,000 ducats. The arfenal is
faid to contain arms for 50,000 men. The walls of
the city confrft of hard black quarry (tones, called
piperno.—Inftead of ice, vaft quantities of fnow are
ufed for cooling their liquors, not fo much as water
being drank without it; fo that, it is faid, a fcarcity
of it would as foon occafion a mutiny as a dearth of
corn or proviiions. Certain perfons, who farm the
monopoly of it from the government, fupply the city
all the year round from a mountain about 18 miles off,
at fo much the pound. Naples ftands j 10 miles fouth-
eaft from Rome, 164 north-eaft from Palermo in Si¬
cily, 21 7 fouth-eaft from Florence, and 300 from Ve¬
nice. E. Long 14. 20. N. Lat. 40. j j.
NARBO (anc. geog.), a town of the Volca: Tec-
tofages, called alfo Narbo Martius, from the Legio
Marcia, the colony led thither 59 years before the
confulate of Caefar, (Velleius); increafed with a co
lony of the Decumani or tenth legion by Caefar. An
ancient trading town on the Atax, which difeharges
itfelf Into the fea through the Lacus Rubrefus, or
Rubrenfis. Capital of the Gallia Narbonenfis ; fur-
named Colonia Julia Patema, from Julius Crefar, the
father of Auguftus by adoption. Now called Narbonne,
a city of Languedoc.
NARBONNE, is a city of France in Lower Langue¬
doc, with an archbifttop's fee, and is particularly famous
for its honey. It is feated on a canal cut from the river
Aude, which being but three miles from the fea, vef-
fels come up it laden with merchandife, which renders
it a place of fome trade. But though it pretends to the
moft remote antiquity under the Celtic kings, in ages^
anterior even to the Roman conquefts, which under
thefe latter mafters gave its name to all the Galfia
Narbonenfis, and was a colony of the firft confidera-
tion, it is now dwindled to a wretched folitary town,
containing fcarce 8000 Inhabitants, of whom three-
fourths are priefts and women. The ftreets and build¬
ings are mean and ruinous j it has indeed a commu-
j nicatiots
Wv 
N A R [ 63s 1 N A R
nication with the Mediterranean, /rom Which Nai-
bonne is only about ^three leagues diftant, by means
of a fmall river which interfedts the place ; but their
commerce is very limited, and chiefly confifts in grain
which they export to Cette and Marfeilles. No marks
of Roman magnificence remain, except feveral infcrip-
tions in different parts of the city. It is divided in¬
to the city and the-town, which are joined together
by a bridge, with houfes on each fide, in which' the
richeft merchants live. There are feveral churches and
convents, and the metropolitan church has a hand-
fome fteeple. E. Long* 2. 6. N. Lat. 43. x t.
NARCISSUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of the
river CephiiTus and Liriope the daughter of Oceanus,
was a youth of great beauty. Tirefias foretold that
he dioiild live till he faw himfelf. He defpifed all the
nymphs of the country ; and made Echo languifh till
fixe became a mere found, by refufing to return her
paffion : but one day coming weary and fatigued from
the chace, he flopped on the bank of a fountain to
quench bis third ; when, feeing his own form in the
water, he became fo in love with the fhadowy image,
that he languifhed till he died. On which the gods,
being moved at his death, changed him into the flower
which bears his name.
Narcissus, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 9th or¬
der, Spathacex. There are fix petals; the neftarium
is funnel-fhaped, and monophylious ; the ftamina are
within the neftarium. The moil remarkable fpecies
are, -
1. The baflard narciflus, or common yellow Englifh
daffodil, grows wild in great plenty in many of our
woods and coppices, and under hedges in feveral parts
of England. In the counties round London the herb-
folks bring prodigious quantities in the fpring of the
year, when in bloom, root and all, and fell them about
the llreets. Its commonnefs renders it of but little
efteem with many ; confidered, however, as an early
and elegant flower, of exceeding hardinefs and eafy
culture, it merits a place in every garden.
2. The bicolor, or two-coloured incomparable nar-
erfius, hath a large, oblong, bulbous root; crowned
with long, narrow, dark-green leaves, 12 or 14 inches
long; an upright flower-ftalk, about 15 inches high,
terminated by an uniflorous fpatha, protruding one
large flower with white petals, and a bell-fhaped,
fpreading, golden neftarium, waved on the margin,
and equal in length with the corolla; flowering in
April. The varieties are, common fingle-flowered—
femi-double-flowered, with the interior petals fome
■white and fome yellow—with fulphur-coloured flowers.
3. The poetieus, poetic daffodil, or common white
uarcHfus, is well known. Of this there are varieties
with purple-cupped flowers—yellow cupped flowers—
double-flowered : all of them with entire white petals.
It is the ancient celebrated narciflus of the Greek and
Roman poets, which they fo greatly extol for its ex¬
treme beauty and fragrance.
4. The bulbocodium, hath a frcall bulbous root,
crowned with feveral narrow, Tubulate, rufh-like
leaves, fix or eight inches long ; amidft them a flender,
taper flower-ftalk, fix inches high, terminated by an
uniflorous fpatha, protruding one yellow flowtr, Ka- Narciffa*.
ving the neftarium much larger than-the petals, and
very broad and fpreading at the brim ; flowering in
April. From the large fpreading neftarium of this
fpecies, which being three or four times longer than
the petals, narrow at bottom, and widening gradually
to the brim, fo as to refembie the fhape of fome old-
fafhioned hoop-petticoats, it obtained the name hoop-
petticoat narcjjm.
5. The ferotinus, or late-flowering fmall autumnal
narciffus, hath a fmall bulbous root; crowned with a
few narrow leaves; amidfl: them a jointed fiower-ftalk,
eight or nine inches high, terminated by an uniflorous
fpatha, protruding one white flower, having a fhort,
fix-parted, yellow neftarium; flowering in autumn.
6. The tazetta, or multiflorous daffodil, commonly
called polyanthus narciffus, hath a very large, roundifh,
bulbous root; long, narrow, plane leaves; an upright
fiow^er-ftalk, rifing from 10 or 12 inches to a foot and
a half high ; terminated by a multiflorous fpatha,
protruding many large, fpteadiug, white and yellow-
flowers, in a clufter, having bell-fhaped neftariums
fhorter than the corolla; flowering in February, March, >
and Aprij, and is very fragrant. The varieties of this
are very numerous, confilting of about eight or nine
principal forts, each of which having many interme¬
diate varieties; amounting in the whole greatly above
an hundred in the Dutch florifts catalogues, each va¬
riety diftinguifhed by a name according to tlfe fancy
of the fitft raifer of it. They are all very pretty flow¬
ers, and make a charming appearance in the flower-
borders, &c. they are alfo finely adapted for blowing
in glaffes of water, or in pots, to ornament rooms iii
winter.
7. The jonquilla, or jonquil, fometimes called ruff-
leaved daffodil, bath an oblong, bulbous, brown root ;
fending up fevcral long, femi-taper, rufh-like, bright-
reen leaves; amidff them an upright green flower-
alk, a foot or 15 inches high; terminated by a mul¬
tiflorous fpatha, protruding many yellow flowers, of¬
ten expanded like a radius, each having a hemifphe-
rical, crenated neftarium, fhorter .than the petals ;
flowering in April, and moftly of a fine fragrance.
The varieties are, jonquil minor with Angle flowers
—jonquil major with Angle flowers—ftarry flowered
—yellow and white flowered—white-flowered—femi-
double-flowered—double-flowered—and large double
inodorous jonquil: all of them multiflorous, the Angle
in particular; but fometimes the doobles produce only
two or three flowers from a fpatha, and the Angles
commonly fix or eight. All the forts have fo fine a
fhape, fo foft a colour, and fo fweet a feent, that they
are fome of the moft agreeable fpring-flbwers.
8. The calathinus, or multiflorous yellow narciffus,
hath a large bulbous root; crowned with long, nar¬
row, plane leaves ; and amidft them an ereft, robuft
flower-ftalk, terminated by a multiflorous fpatha, pro¬
truding many large, entire, yellow flowers, having a
bell-fhaped, flightly crenated neftarium, equal in length
with the petals.
9. The odorus, oderiferrfus, or fweet-feented ftarry
yellow narciffus, hath a bulbous root; narrow leaves;
ereft flower-ftalk, a foot or more high, terminated by
a fub-tnultiflorous fpatha, protruding fometimes but
4 L 2 one.
N A R [ 636 ] N A R.
one, and fometimes feveral entirely y’elloV flowers,
having a campanulated, fix-parted, fmooth neftarium,
_j half the length of the petals.
10. The triandrus, or triandrous rufli-leaved white
narcifTus, hath a bulbous root; very narrow, rufh-like
leaves; ere£t flower-ltalk, terminated by an uniflorous
fpatha, protruding one fnowy-whjte flower, having
a bell-ihaped, crenated neffarium, half the length
of the petals, and with moftly triandrous or three fta-
mina.
11. The trilobus, or trilobate yellow narciffus, hath
a bulbous roof; narrow rufh-like leaves; eredt flower-
flalks, terminated by a fub-multiflorous fpatha, pro¬
truding fometimes but one or two, and fometimes fe¬
veral, yellow flowers, having a bell-fhaped, three-lobed
Re&arium, half the length of the petals.
12. The minor, or yellow winter daffodil, hath a
fmali bulbous root; plane leaves, eight or ten inches
long, and more than half a one broad; aneredt flower-
ilalk, terminated by an uniflorous fpatha, protruding
one nodding yellow flower, with fpear-fflaped petals,
having an obconic, fix-parted, waved nedtarium, equal
to the length of the corolla ; flowering in winter, or
very early in fpring.
All thefe 12 fpecies of narciffus are of the bulbous-
rooted tribe, and univerfally perennial in root, but an¬
nual in leaf and flower-ftalk; all of them riling annual¬
ly in fpring, immediately from the crown of the bulb,
iirft the leaves, and in the midft of them the flower-
ftalk, one only from each root, entirely naked^ or leaf-
Icfs, each terminated by a fpatha or fheath, which
Tipens on one fide to protrude the flowers, and then wi¬
thers ; the flowers, as before obferved, are all hexa-
petalous, each furnifhed with a nedtarium in the centre,,
and are univerfally hermaphrodite : they are large and
confpicuous, appearing moftly in the fpring-feafon,
generally from March or April until June, fucceeded
by ripe feed in July ; then the leaves and flower-ftalks
decay, and the roots defift from growing for fome
time ; at which period of reft is the only proper time
to take up or tranfplant the roots from one place to
another, or to feparate the offsets; for they all mul¬
tiply abundantly by offset young bulbs from the main
root, infomuch that a Angle bulb will in one or two
years be increafed into a large clufter of feveral bulbs,
clofely placed together, and which every fecond or
third year fhould be taken up at the above period in
order to be feparated ; and each offset fo feparated
commences a diftindl plant; which being planted again
iu autumn, produces flowers the following fummer,
alike in every refpedf to thofe of their refpedfive pa¬
rent bulbs. All the fpecies are fo hardy that they pro-
fper in any common foil of a garden 5 obferving, how¬
ever, to allow the finer forts of polyanthus narciffus, in
particular, principally a warm dry fituation,; all the
others may be planted any where in the open dry bor¬
ders and flower-beds.
NARCOTICS, in medicine, foporiferons drugs,
which bring on a ftupefa&ion. Among narcotics the
inott eminent are thofe ufualiy prepared for. medicinal,
ufes from the poppy, efpecially opium ; as alfo all
thofe prepared from mandragoras, hyofcyamus, ftramo-
uium, and datura.
NARDO, a pretty populous town, in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with the title
of a duchy and a biftiop’s fee. E. Long. 18. 27. N. Nardo#.
Lat. 43. 28. ’ v—-
In this little city are 8000 inhabitants. The fteeple
of its cathedral is built in a vefy uncommon but fliowy
ftyle of Gothic architefture. Luca Giordano and So-
limeni have adorned the church with fome agreeable-
paintings. This place was part of the Balzo eftate.
The Aquavivas were the next poffeffors : they are
thought to have come from the Marca di Ancona. In
1401, in confideration of their relationlhip to Pope Bo¬
niface IX. Laudiflaus erefted their manor of Atri into
a dukedom, an honour till then feldom granted to any
but princes of the blood royal. Claudius Aquaviva,
a famous general of the Jefuits, who died in 1615,
was of this family.
NARDUS, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4th or¬
der, Gramma. There is no calyx ; the corolla is bi-
valved.
This plant was highly valued by the ancients, both
as an article of luxury and medicine. The unguentum
nardinum was ufed at baths and feafts as a favourite-
perfume. Its value is evident from that paffage of
fcripture, where our Saviour’s head was anointed with
a bo* of it, with which Judas found fault. From a
paffage in Horace it appears that this ointment was fix
valuable among the Romans, that as much as could
be contained in a fmall box of precious ftone was
confldered as a fort of equivalent for a large veffel of,
wine , and a proper quota for a gneft to contribute at
an entertainment, according to the ancient cuftom :
 Nardo uina merebere,,
Nardi parvus onyx fliciet cadum.
The plant had a great chara&er among the ancients
as a medicine, both internally taken and externally ap¬
plied. It has a place in the lift of all antidotes from
thofe of Hippocrates (given on the authority of My-
repfus and Nicholaus Alexandrinus) to the officinals
which have kept their ground till lately, under the
names of Mithridate and Venice treacle. Galen and
Alexander Trallian recommend it in the dropfy and.
gravel; Celfus and Galen in pains of the ftomach and
bowels, both internally given and externally applied.
Galen prefcribed the oleum nardinum to the emperor
Marcus Aurelius when affii&ed with a cholera mor¬
bus. It was externally applied to the ftomach on wool
and the fuccefs was fo great, that he.ever afterwards-
enjoyed the higheft confidence of that emperor. In
a work attributed to Galen, alfo, it is mentioned that,
a medicine compofed of this and fome other aromatics
was found ufeful in long protra&ed fevers; and the.
natives of India at prefent confider it as a very efflcaci-
ous remedy in fevers. Its fenfible qualities, indeed,.
promife it to be of confiderable efficacy inffome cafes,,
as it has a pungency of tafte fuperior to contrayerva,.
and little inferior to ferpentaria.
But though the name of this plant, with the ufes
and virtues of it, has, long been familiar in the wri¬
tings of botanifts and phyficians, the genus and fpecies,
of the plant have only been afcertainec} very lately- In
the Philofphical TranCa&ions for 1790,. Dr Blane.
gives an account of it from a letter fent him-by his
brother from Lucknow, dated in December 1786. 
According to this gentleman’s relation, being one day
N A R [ 637 ] N A R
NariTu*. on a hunting party with the nabob vifier, after crofs-
—V-—' jng the river Rapty, about 20 miles from the foot
of the northern mountains, he was furprifed to find
the air perfumed with an aromatic fmell, which,
as he was told, proceeded from the roots of the
grafs that were bruifed or torn out of the ground by
the nabob’s elephants ahd horfes. The country was
wild, uncultivated, and entirely covered with this kind
of grafs, which grew in large tufts clofe to each other,
and from three to four feet long. As none of it was
in flower, it being then the winter feafon, and the
grafs having befides been burnt down by order of the
nabob, our author caufed feme of the roots to be dug
up, in order to plant it in his garden at Lucknow.—
Here it profpered exceedingly.; and (hot up fpikes tO'
the height of fix feet. A fpecimen was fent to Sir
Jofeph Banks, who found it to belong to the genus of
andropogon, different from any fpecies hitherto de-
feribed by botanifts. “ There is great reafon, how¬
ever (fays Dr Blane), to think that it is the true nar-
dus Indica of the ancients ; for, 1. The circumilance
of its difeovery correfponds in a ftriking manner with
an occurrence related by Arrian in his Hiftory of A-
lexander’s Expedition into India. During the march
of that hero through the defarts ef Gedrofia, the air
was perfumed by the fpikenard, which was trampled
under foot by the army ; and the Phoenicians, who
accompanied them, collected great quantities of it, as
well as of myrrh, to carry them into their own coun¬
try to make merchandife of them. This laft circum-
ftance feems further to afeertain it to have been the
true nardus ; for the Phoenicians, who even in war
appear to have retained their true genius for commerce,
could no doubt diffinguilh the proper quality of this,
commodity. I am informed by major Rennel, that
Gedrofia anfwers to the modern Mack ran, or Kedge-
mackran, a maritime province of Perfia, fituated be¬
tween Kermoq (the ancient Carmania), and the river
Indus, being of courfe the frontier province of Perfia
towards India; and that it appears from Arrian’s ac¬
count, and from a Turkifh map of Perfia, that this
defart lies in the middle traft of country between the
river Indus and the Perfian gulf, and within a few days
march of the Arabian or Erythrasan fea. By this
the ancients meant the northern part of the Ethiopic
ocean, which wafhes the fouthern coafts of Arabia and
Perfia ; not what we now call the Red Sea, as its name
would feem to imply, for this by the ancients was cal¬
led the Arabian Gulf. 2. Though the accounts of the
ancients concerning this plant are very defe&itfe, it is
plain that it was of the natural order of gramina.; for
the term ar'ijia, fo often applied to it, was appropria¬
ted by them to the frudlification of grains and graffes,
and feems to be a word of Greek original; to denote
the moft excellent portion of thofe plants, which are
the moil ufeful in the vegetable creation for the fulte-
nance of animal life ; and nature has alfo kindly made
them the moft abundant in all parts of the. habitable
earth. Galen fays, that though there .are various forts
cf nardus, the term ra^u«, or fpikenard, fliould
sot be applied to any but the nardus Indica., It would'
appear that the nardus Celtica was a plant of a quite,
different habit, and is fuppofed to have been a fpecies
of valeriana.
“ The defeription of the Nardus Indica by Pliny
does not indeed correfpond with the appearance of our Nsu-cftw,
fpecimen ; for he fays it is frutex radicepingul et crajfa, ^tarei>‘
whereas ours has. fmall fibrous roots. But as Italy is
very remote from the native country of this plant, it is
reafonable to fuppofe that others more eafily procurable
ufed to be fubftituced for it; and the fame author fays,
that there were nine different plants by which it could
be imitated and adulterated. There is a Nardus Af~
fyrla mentioned by Horace ; and Diofcorides mentions
the Nardus Syriaca as a fpecies different from the Jn-
dica, which certainly was brought from fome of the
remote parts of India; for both Diofcorides and Ga-
hn.by way of fixing more particularly the country from
whence it came, call it the Nardus Gangites. 3. Gar¬
cias ab Hortc/) a Portuguefe who refided many years at
Goa in the 16th century, has given a figure of the
roots, or rather of the lower parts of the ftalks, which
correfponds with our fpecimen; and he fays that there
is but this one fpecies of nardus known in India, either
for the confumption of the natives, or for exportation
to Perfia and Arabia. 4. The fenfible qualities of this
are fuperior to what commonly paffes for it in the
Ihops, being poffeffed both of more fragrancy and
pungency, which feems to account for the preference
given to it by the ancients.
“ There is a queftion, concerning which Matthio-
lus, the commentator of Diofcorides, beftows a good
deal ef argument, viz. whether the roots or ftalks were
the parts efteemed for ufe, the teftimony of the an¬
cients themfelves' on this head being.ambiguous. The
roots of this fpecimen are very fmall, and poffefs fen¬
fible qualities inferior to the reft of the plant; yet it
is mentioned in the account above recited, that the
virtues refide principally in the bulky roots. It is evi¬
dent, that by the bulky roots mull here be meant the
lower parts of the ftalks and leaves, where they unite
to the roots; and it is probably a flight ambiguity of
this kind that has given occafion to the ambiguity that
occurs in the ancient accounts.”
The fenfible qualities of this plarit do not depend
upon an effential oil, but on fame fixed principle lik&
thofe of cardamoms or ginger. Dr Blane tried to ex-
traft its virtues with boiling w^ater, maceration in wine
or proof fpirits; but it yielded them fparingly and with
difficulty to any of thefe menftrua. The Indians gave
an infufion of it in hot water, with a fmall quantity
of black, pepper as a febrifuge.
NAREA, the moft foutherly province of the em¬
pire of Abyffinia ; a kingdom ftill governed by its
own princes, who have the title of Bencros. Its ter¬
ritory. was formerly more extenfive than at pre-
fent, the Galla having almoft quite furrounded it, e-
fpecially on the fouth-eaft and north. The country to
the weft, is the moft unknown part of Africa; the
kingdom itfelf Hands like a fortified place in the mid*
die of a plain, b^yig an high and mountainous coun*-
try. A great many rivers, riling in the fourth and fifth
degrees of north latitude, fpread themfelves over the.
level part of the country, and fill it with marlhes all
the way from fouth*by eaft to north, or north-weft.—.
Thefe marlhes. are bounded by mountains, of which
thofe neareft the marlhes are overgrown. with coffee-
trees, the largeft, if not the only ones, which grow,
in this country. The kingdom of Narea Proper is
interfperfed with fmall, unwhokfome, but very fertile
8 valley
N A R [ C38 ] N A R
valleys. • The mountainous country of Caffa adjoins
immediately to Narca, and is faid to be governed by a
feparate prince; but the Galla having fettled them-
{'elves in all the flat ground to the very edge of the
marfltes, have in a great rneafure cut oil'the commu¬
nication with Abyfiinia for a long time pad. The
Nareans who inhabit, the mountainous country have
the lighted complexion of any people in Abylfinia;
but thofe who inhabit the borders of the marihes are
perfettly black, and have the features and vvoplly
heads of negroes; but the mountaineers of Nareu^ and
much more thofe of Caffa, are fair-complexioned, more
fo than even the Neapolitans of Sicilians. It is faid
that fnow has been feen to lie on tome of the moun¬
tains of Caffa; but Mr Bruce imagines this to be a
miitake, and thinks that it muff have been hail.
Nasea abounds with cattle, grain, and all kinds of
proviflons, both in the high and low country. The
medium of commerce is gold, which they fell by
weight ; but the principal articles of trade are coarfe
cotton cloths, antimony, beads, and incenfe, which
are carried from this country to the kingdom of An¬
gola, and the parts of the African continent towards
the Atlantic. The people are exceedingly brave ; and
though they have been driven out of the low country
by multitudes of Galla, they now bid them defiance,,
and drive them from their frontiers whenever they
come too near. The Narean prifoners taken in. thefe
fkirmifhes are fold to the Mahometan merchants at
Goudar; and at Conftantinople, Cairo, or in India,
the women are more efteemed than thofe of any other
part of the world. Both fexes have a cheerful, kind
difpofition, and attach themfelves inviolably to their
matters, if properly treated. The people of Narea
-and Caffa fpeak a language peculiar to themfelves.
NARRATION, in oratory, poetry, and hiftory,
a recital or rehearfal of a fait as it happened, or as
it is fuppofed to have happened. See Oratory,
n° 26. 123.
Concerning Narration and Dcfcription, we have
the following rules and obfervations in the Elements
of Criticifm.
1. The firft rule is, That in hiftory the refle&ions
ought to be chafte and folid ; for while the mind is in¬
tent upon truth, it is little difpofed to the operation
of the imagination. Strada’s Belgic hittory is full of
poetical images, which, being difeordant with the
iubjedl, are unpleafant; and they have a ttill worfe ef¬
fect, by giving an air of fiction to a genuine hiftory.
Such flowers ought to be fcattered with a fparing
hand, even in epic poetry ; and at no rate are they
proper till the reader be warmed, and by an enlivened
imagination be prepared to relifti them : in that ftate
of mind, they are agreeable ; but while we are fedate
and attentive to an hiftorical chain of fads, we rejed
with difdain every fidion.
2. Vida, following Horace, recommends a modeft
commencement of an epic poem ; giving for a reafon,
that the writer ought to huftmn^j his fire. Befides,
bold thoughts and figures are never relilhed till the
mind be heated and thoroughly engaged, which is not
the reader’s cafe at the commencement. Homer in¬
troduces not a fingle fimile in the firft book of the
Iliad, nor in the firft book of the Odyffcy. On. the
'other hand, Sliakefpeart begins one of his plays with N^ratioo.-
a fentiment too bold for the molt heated imagination: —'v
Bedford. Hung be the heav’ns with black, yield day
to night!
Comets', importing change of times and Hates,
Brandifli your cryital treii'es in the (ky.
And with them i'courge tjie bad revolting ftara.
That have cpnlented unto Henry’s death !
Henryr the Fifth, too famous 10 live longd
England ne’er loft a king of fo much worth.
Fuji part Henry VI.
The paffage vvith which Strada begins his hiftory, is
too poetical for a fubject of that kind ; and at any rate
too high for the beginning of a grave performance.
3. A third rule or' obfervation is, That where the
fubjeil is intended for entertainment folely, not for in-
liruhtion, a thing ought to be deferibed as it appears,
not as it is in reality. In running, fly example, the
impulfe upon the ground is proportioned in fame de¬
gree to the celerity of motion ; though in appearance
it is otherwife, for a perlon in fwift motion feems' to
flrim the ground, and fearcely to touch it. Virgil, with
great taile, defcribes quick running according to ap¬
pearance ; and raifes an image far more lively than by
adhering ferupuloully to truth :
Hos fuper advenit Volfca de gente Camilla,
Agmen agtns equitum et florentc# sere catervas,
Bellatrix : non ilia colo calathifve Minervse
Fuemineas affueta manus; fed pradia virgo
Dura pati, curfuque pe inm praevertere ventos.
Ilia vel intadfie fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina : nec teneras curfu Ixfiffet ariltas :
Vel mare per medium, fludu fuipenfa tumenti,
Ferret iter : celeres nec tingeret aequore plantas.
JEncid. vii. 803.
4. In narration as well as in defeription, objecs
ought to be painted fo accurately as to form in the
mind of the reader diflinCt and lively images. Every
ufelefs circumftanee ought indeed to be fuppreffed, be-
caufe every fueh circumftance loads the narration ; but
if a cireuinftance be neceflary, however flight, it can¬
not be deferibed too minutely. The force of language
confiits in railing complete images, which have the ef-
fed to traniport the reader as by magic into the very
place of the important adion, and to convert him as
it were into a fpedator, beholding every thing that
paffes. The narrative in an epic poem ought to rival
a pidure in the livelinefs and accuracy of its reprefen-
tations: no circumftance muft be omitted that tends
to make a complete image 5 becaufe an imperfed image,
as wtll as any other imperfed conception, is cold and
uninterefting. We fhall illuiirate tins rule by feverai
examples, giving the firft place to a beautiful paffage
from Virgil:
Qualis populeu moerens Philomela fub umbra
Amiffos queritur foetus, quos durus orator
Obfervans nido tmplumes detraxit.
Georg, lib. 4. /. 511.
The poplar, plowman, and unfledged young, though
not effaatial in the defeription, tend to make a com¬
plete image, and upon that account are an embellifh-
ment.
Again:
N A R
.Narration.
[ 639 1
Again : .
Hie viridem .Eneas froncknti ex 'dice metAm
Conftituit, fignum nautis. JEaehL v. 129.
Horace addrefling to fortune :
Te pauper ambit folHcita prece
Ruris colonus : te dominam tequoris,
Qjiicumque Bithyna laceflit^
Carpathium pelagus carina.
Carm. lib. X. ode 35*
  Ilium ex mcenibus hofticis
Matrona bellantis tyranni
Profpiciens, et adulta virgo>
Sufpiret: Eheu, ne rudis agminum
Sponfus laceffat regius afperum
Taftu leonem, quern cruenta
Per medias rapit ira caedes.
Carm. lib. 3. oae 2.
Shakefpeare fays, “ You may as well go about to turn
the fun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock’s
feather.” The peacock's, feather, not to mention the
beauty of the objeft, completes the image : an accu¬
rate image cannot be formed of that fanciful opera¬
tion, without conceiving a particular feather ; and
one is at a lofs when this is negletted in the defenp-
tion. Again, “ The rogues flighted me into the river
with as little remorfe, as they would have drown d a
bitch’s blind puppies, fifteen i’ th’ litter.”
Old Lady. You would not be a queen ?
Anne. No, not for all the riches under heaven.
Old Lady. ’Tis ftrange : a three-pence bow’d would
hire me, old as I am, to queen it.
Henry VIII. a a 2-fc. 5.
In the following pafiage, the aftion, with all its rria-
■terial circumftances, is reprefented fomuch to the life,
that it would fcarce appear more diftindt to a real fpec-
tator; and it is the manner of defeription that con¬
tributes greatly to the fublimity of the paflage.
He fpake ; and, to confirm his words, out flew
Millions of flaming fwords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim ; the fudden blaze
Far round illumin’d hell: highly they rag’d
Againft the Highell, and fierce with grafped arms,
Clafh’d on their founding fhields the din of war.
Hurling defiance toward the vault of heav’n.
Milton, b. t.
The following paflage from Shakefpeare falls not
much fhort of that now mentioned in particularity of
defeription 1
O you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome !
Knew you not Pompey ? Many a time and oft
Have you climb’d up ta walls and battlements,
To tow’rs and windows, yea, to chironey-tops*
Your infants-in your arms and there have fat
The live-long day with patient expectation
To fee great Pompey pafs the flreets of Rome;
1 And when you faw his chariot but appear,.
Have you not made an uni.verfal flrout,
That Tyber trembled underneath his banks.
To hear the replication of your founds,
Made in his concave fhores ?
Julius Ceefar, aft l.fc. I.
N A R
The following paflage is fcarce inferior to either of hVratk
thofe mentioned : . —--y—-
“ Far before the reft, the fon of Oflian comes:
bright in the fmiles of youth, fair as the in It beams
of the fun. His long hair waves on his back : hi,
dark brow is half beneath bis hebnet. The fword
hangs loofe on the hero’s fide ; and his fpear glitters
as he moves. I fled from his terrible eye, King of
high Temora.” Fingal.
The Henriadc of Voltaire errs greatly again ft the
foregoing rule : every incident is touched in a fu.n-
mary way, without ever defeending to circumftances.
This manner is good in a general hiftory, the purpofe
of which is to record important tranfaftions : but in a
fable it is cold and nninterefting; becaufe it is imprac¬
ticable to form diftindt images of perfons or things re¬
prefented in a manner fo fnperficial.
It is obferved above, that every ufelefs circumftance
ought to be fupprefled. The crowding fuch circum¬
ftances is, on the one hand, not lefs to be avoided,
than the concifenefs for which Voltaire is blamed, on
the »ther. In the fEneid, Barce, the nurfe of Si-
chaeus, whom we never hear of before nor after, is in¬
troduced for a purpofe not more important than to call
Anna to her lifter Dido : and that it might not be
thought unjuft in Dido, even in this trivial circum¬
ftance, to prefer her hulband’s nurfe before her own,
the poet takes care to inform his reader, that Dido’s
nurfe was dead. To this may be oppofed a beautiful
paflage in the fame book, where", after Dido’s laft
fpeech, the poet, without detaining his readeis by de-
feribing the manner of her death, haftens to the la¬
mentation of her attendants:
Dixerat: atque illam media inter talia ferro
Collapfam afpiciunt comites, enfemque cruore
Spumantem, fparfafque manus. It clamor ad alts
Atria, concuflam bacchatur fama per urban ;
Lamentis gemituque et fcemineo ululatu
Tefta fremunt, refonatmagnis plangoribus aether.
Lil. 4. 1. 663.
As an appendix to the foregoing rule, may be added
the following obfervalion, That to make a iudden and
ftrong imprelfion, fome fingle circumftance, happily-
fele&ed, has more power than the moft laboured de¬
feription. Macbeth, mentioning to his lady fome
voices he heard while he was murdering the King,,
lays,
There’s one did laugh in fleep,and onecry’d Murder!
They wak’d each other ;,and I flood and heard them;.
But they did fay their prayers, and addrefs them
Again to fleep.
Lady. There are two lodg’d together.
Macbeth. One cry’d, God blefs u»! and, Amen I
the other
As they had feen me with thefe hangman’s hands.
Liftening their fear, I could not fay, Amen,
When they did fey, God blefs us.
Lady. Confider it not fo deeply.
Macbeth. But wherefore could not I pronounce
Amen ?
I had moft need of blefling, and Amen
Stnck in my throafc.
Ladf*.
Mar [ 64
"Harratton, LnJy. Thefe deeds muft not be thought
■w.ry—< After thefe w'ays ; fo, it will make us mad.
Macbeth. Methought, I heard a roice cry,
Sleep no more !
Macbeth doth murder deep, &e. Aftz.fc. 3.
Defcribing prince Henry :
I faw young Harry, with hi* beaver ort,
His cuifles on lirs thighs, gallantly arm’d,
Rife from the ground like feather’d Mercury ;
And vaulted with fuch tafe into his feat,
As if an angel dropt down from the clouds,
To turn and wind a fiery Pegafus,
And witch the world with noble horfemanlhip.
Flrjl part Henry IV. aft 4. fc. 2.
King Henry. Lord Cardinal, if thou think’ll on
Heaven’s blifs,
Hold up thy hand, make fignal of thy hope.
He dies, and makes no fign 1
Second part Henry VI. a8. 3. fc. IO.
The fame author, fpeaking liidicroully of an army
debilitated with difeafes, fays,
“ Half of them dare not fhake the fnow from off
their calfocks, left they lhake themfelvts to pieces.”
“ I have feen the walls of Balclutha, but they were
defolate. The flames had refounded in the halls: and
the voice of the people is heard no more. The ftream
of Clutha was removed from its place by the fall of tire
walls. The thiftle ihook there its lonely head : the
mofs whiftled to the wind. The fox looked out from
the windows ; and the rank grafs of the wall waved
round his head. Defolate is the dwelling of Morna :
lilence is in the houfe of her fathers.” FingaU
To draw a chara&er is the mafter ftroke of defcrip-
tion. In this Tacitus excels: his portraits are natural
and lively, not a feature wanting or mifplaeed. Shake-
fpeare, however, exceeds Tacitus in livelinefs ; fome
charaAeriftical circumftance being generally invented
or laid hold of, which paints more to the life than
many words. The following inftances will explain our
meaning, and at the fame time prove our obfervation
to be juft.
Why fhould a man, whofe blood is warm within,
Sit like his grandfire cut in alabafter ?
Sleep when he wakes, and creep into the jaundice,
By being peeviflr ? I tell thee what, Anthonio,
(I love thee, and it is my love that fpeaks),
There are a fort of men, whofe vifages
Do cream and mantle like a Handing pond }
And do a wilful ftillnefs entertain,
With purpofe to be drefs’d in ah opinion
Of wifdom, gravity, profound conceit;
As who fhould fay, I am Sir Oracle,
And when 1 ope my lips, let no dog bark !
O my Anthonio ! I do know of thofe,
That therefore ohly are reputed wife,
For faying nothing.
Merchant of Venicet afi.t.fc. i.
Again :
“ Gratiano fpeaks an infinite deal of nothing, more
than any man in all Venice : his reafons are two grains
of wheat hid in two bufhels of chaff; you (hall fcek all
day ere you find them ; and wh£n you have them, they
jjSsre not worth the fearch.” Ibid.
Fi° 236,
0 ] N A R
In the following paffage, a charadler is completed by N:\rr3ifljf
a Angle ftroke j  
Shallow. O the mad days that I have fpent j and to
fee how many of mine old acquaintance are dead;
Silence. We fhall all follow, coufin.
Shallow. Certain, 'tis certain, very fure, very fure;
Death (as the Pfalmift faith) is certain to all: all fhall
die. How good a ydke of bullocks at Stamford fair 1
Slender. Truly, coufin, I was not there.
Shallow. Death is certain. Is old Double of your
town living, yet ?
Silence. Dead, Sir.
Shallow. Dead! fee, fee ; he drew a good bow : and,
dead. He fhot a fine fhoot. How a fcore of ewes now t
Silence. Thereafter as they be. A fcore of good
€wts may be worth ten pounds.
Shallow. And is old Double dead ?
Second Part Henry IV. aft. $.fc. 3.
Defcribing a jealous hufband :
“ Neither prefs, coffer, cheft, trunk, well, vault, but
he hath an abftraft for the remembrance of fuch places,
and goes to them by his note. There is no hiding you
in the houfe.” Merry Wives of Windfor, a3. 4. fc. 3.
Congreve has an inimitable ftroke of this kind in hra
comedy of Love for Love s
Ben Legend. Well, father, and how do all at home •
how does brother Dick, and brother Val ?
Sir Sampfon. Dick, body o’ me, Dick has been dead
thefe two years. I writ you word when you were at
Leghorn.
Ben. Mefs, that’s true} marry, I had forgot. Dick’e
dead, as you fay. Aft l-fc. 6.
Failllaff fpeaking of Ancient Piftol:
*« He’s no fwaggerer, ho'lefs; a tame cheater i’faith j
you may ftroak him as gently as a puppy-greyhound;
he will not fwagger with a Barbary hen, if her feathers
turn back in any (how of refiftance.”
Second part Henry IV. aft 2. fc. 9.
Oflian among his other excellencies is eminently fuc-
ccfsful in drawing chara&ers; and he never fails to de¬
light his reader with the beautiful attitudes of his he¬
roes. Take the following inftances :
“ O Ofcar! bend the ftrong in arm ; but fpare the
feeble hand. Be thou a ftream of many tides againft
the foes of thy people ; but like the gale that moves the
grafs to thofe who a(k thine aid.—SoTrenmor lived;
fuch Trathal was ; and fuch has Fingal been. My arm
was the fupport of the injured ; and the weak refted
behind the lightning of my fteel.”
“ We heard the voice of joy on the coaft, and we |
thought that the mighty Cathmor came. Cathmor the
friend of ftrangers! the brother of red-haired Cairb&r !
But their fouls were not the fame; for the light of hea- !
ven was in the bofom of Cathmor. His towers rqj: on
the banks of Atha: feven paths led to his halls: feven
chiefs flood on thefe paths, and called the ftranger to
the feaft. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood to avoid the
voice of praife.”
“ Dermid and Ofcar were one : they reaped the
battle together. Their friendihip was ftrong as their
Heel |
N A R
[ 641 ]
N A R
As words are intimately connefted with the ideas they Narration,
reprefent, the emotions railed by the found and by the 1
fenfe ought to be concordant. An elevated fubject re¬
quires an elevated ftyle j what is familiar, ought to be
familiarly expreffed : a fubjeft that is ferious and im¬
portant, ought to be clothed in plain nervous language:
a defeription, on the other hand, addreffed to the ima-
“ Son of Comhal, replied the chief, the ftrength or gjnat;on> ;s fufceptible of the higheft ornaments that
orni s arm has failed: I attempted to draw the fword fr»un(hng words and figurative exprefilon can beftow
fleet; and death walked between them to the field.
They rufh on the foe like two rocks falling from the
brow of Ardven. Their fwords are ftained with the
blood of the valiant: warriors faint at their name.
Who is equal to Ofcar but Dermid ? who to Dermid
but Ofcar ?”
Morn!     »
of my youth, but it remains in its place : I throw the
ipear, but it falls fhort of the mark: and I feel the
weight of my fhield. We decay like the grafs of the
mountain, and our ftrength returns no more. I have
a fon, O Fingal! his foul has delighted in the a&ions
of Morni’s youth-; but his fword has not been fitted
again ft the foe, neither has his fame begun. 1 come
with him to battle, to diredt his arm. His renown will
be a fun to my foul, in the dark hour of my departure.
O that the name of Morni were forgot amon^ the
people ! that the heroes would only fay, Behold toe fa-
ther of Gaul.”
Some writers, through heat of imagination, fall into
contradi&ion ; fome are guilty of downright abfurdi-
ties ; and fome even rave like madmen. Againft fuch
capital errors one cannot be more effeftually warned
than by colledting inftances ; and the firll lhall be of a
contradi&ion, the moft venial of all. Virgil fpeaking
of Neptune,
Interea magno mifeeri murmure pontum,
Emiffamque hyemem fenfit Neptunus, et imis
Stagna refufa vadis : graviter commotus, et alto
Erofpieiens, fumma placulum caput extulit unda.
JEneid. i. 128.
Again :
When firft young Maro, in his boundlefs mind,
A work t’outlaft immortal Rome defign’d.
Effay on Crkicifm, l. 30.
The following examples are of abfurdities.
“ Alii pulfis e tormento catenis difeerpti fedlique,
dirnidiato corpore pugnabant fibi fuperftites, ac per-
emptffi partis ultores.” Strada, dec. 2. /. 2.
II pover huomo, che non fen’ era accorto,
Andava combattendo, ed era morto. Berni.
He fled, but flying, left his life behind.
Iliad, xi. 443.
Full through his neck the weighty falchion fped:
Along the pavement roll’d the mutt’ring head.
Odyjfiy, xxii. 365.
The laft article is of raving like one mad. Cleopatra
fpeaking to the afpic,
—Welcome, thou kind deceiver.
Thou beft of thieves; who, with an eafy key.
Doll open life, and unperceiv’d by us
Ev’n fteal us from ourfelves ; difeharging fo
Death’s dreadful office, better than himfelf;
Touching bur limbs fo gently into flumber,
That Death Hands by, deceiv’d by his own image,
And thinks himfelf but fleep.
Dryden, All for Love, aB 5.
Having difeuffed what obfervations occurred upon
the thoughts or things expreflVd, we proceed to what
more peculiarly concerns the language or verbal drefa.
Vox,. XII. Part II.
>unding words and figurative exprefiion c
upon it.
We {hall give a few examples of the foregoing rules.
A poet of any genius is not apt to drefs a high fub-
jebl in low Words; and yet blemifhes of that kind are
found even in claffical works. Horace, obferving that
men are fatisfied with themfelves, but feldom with
their condition, introduces Jupiter indulging to each
his ow n choice :
Jam faciam quod vultis; eris tu, qui modo miles,
Mercator: tu, confultus mpdo, rufticus : bine vos,
Vos hinc mutatis difeedite partibus: eia.
Quid ftatis ? nolint: atqui licet elfe beatis.
Quid caufse eft, merito quin \\\\s Jupiter ambas
Iratus buccas inflet ? r.eque fe fore pofthac .
Tam facilem dicat, votis ut prasbeat aurem ?
Sat. lib. fat. 1.1. j6.
Jupiter in wrath puffing up both cheeks, is a low and
even ludicrous expreffion, far from fuitable to the gra¬
vity and importance of the fubjebl: every one mud
feel the difcordance. The following couplet, finking
far below the fubjebl, is no lefs ludicrous :
Not one looks.backward, onward Hill he goes,
Yet ne’er looks forward farther than his nofe.
Effay on Man, ep. iy. 223.
On the other hand, to raife the expreflion above the
tone of the fubjedt, is a fault than which none is more
common. Take the following inftances :
Orcan le plus fidele a ferver fes deffeins,
Ne fous le ciel brfilant des plus noirs Affricains.
Bajacet, aB ^.fc. 8.
Les ombres par trois fois ont obfeurei les cieux
Depuis que le fommeil n’eft entre dans ws yeux;
Et le jour a tnois fois chaffe la nuit obfeure
Dcpuis que voire corps languit fans nourriture.
Phedra, aB i.fc. 3.
Affueris. Ce mortel, qui montra taut de zele pour
moi, Vit-il encore ?
Afaph.—; -II voit 1’allre qui vous eclaire.
EJlher, aB Z.fc. 3.
Oui, e’eft Agamemnon, e’eft ton roi qui t’eveille;
Viens, reconnois la voix qui frappe ton oreille.
Iphigenie.
No jocund health that Denmark drinks to-day.
But the great cannon to the clouds (hall tell ;
And the king’s rowfe the heav’u lhall bruit again,
Refpeaking earthly thunder.
Hamlet, aB l.fc. 2.
    In the inner room
I fpy a winking lamp, that weakly ftrikes
The ambient air, fcarce kindling into light.
Southerne, Fate of Capua, aB 3.
In the funeral orations of the bilhop of Meaux, the
following paffages are raifed far above the tone of the
fubjedt:
“ D’Ocean etonne de fe voir traverfe tant de fois, en
4 M de*
N A R
[ 642 ]
N A R
Narration, des apparetls fidivers, et pour des eaufes ft diftcrentes, The paflage we have in view begins /. 116. But let Narration.
&c.” p- 6.
“ Grande reine, je fatisfais 'a vos plus tendres defiis,
quand je celebre ce monarque ; et fon cceur qui n’a ja¬
mais vecu qui pour lui, fe eveille, tout poudre qu’il
eft, et dewent fenfible, meme foug ce drap mortuaire,
au noxn d’un epoux fi cher” p. 3 2.
The following pafiage, intended, one would imagine,
as a receipt to boil’water, is altogether burlefque by
the laboured elevation of the diftion :
A maffy cauldron of ftupendous frame
They brought, and plac’d it o’er the rifing flame :
Then heap the lighted wood ; the flame divides
Beneath the vafe, and climbs around the fides :
In its wide womb they pour the rulhing ftream :
The boiling water bubbles to the brim.
Iliad, xviii. 405.
In a paflage at the beginning of the 4th book of
Telemachus, one feels a fudden bound upward without
preparation, which accords not with the fubject:
“ Calypfo, qui avoit ete jufqu’ a ce moment immo¬
bile ^t tranfportee de plaifir en ecoutant les avantures
de Telemaque, 1’interrompit pour lui faire prendre
quelque repos. II eft terns, lui dit-elle, que vous alliez
gouter la douceur du fommeil appres tant de travaux.
Vous n’avez rien a ctaindre ici; tout vous eft favora¬
ble. Abandonnez vous done a la joye. Goutez la
paix, et tous les autres dons des dieux dont vous allez
etre comble. Demain, quand /’ Aurore avec fes doigts
de rofis entr'ou’oira les portes duress de I’Orient, et que
le chevaux du foleil fortans de I’onde amere repandront
les flames du jour, pour chafler devant eux toutes les
etoi:es du del, nous reprendrens, mon cher Telemaque,
I’hiftoire de vos malheurs.”
This obvioufly is copied from a fimilar paflage in the
JSneid, which ought not to have been copied, becaufe
it lies open to the fame cenfure ; but the force of au¬
thority is greaf:
At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura
Vulnus alit venis, et caeco carpitur igni.
Multa viri virtus animo, multufque recurfat
Gentis honos: hasrent infix; pe<ftore vultus,
now a while furvey, iffc. and ends at ^ >35-
It is proper to be obferved upon this head, that wri¬
ters of inferior rank are continually upon the ftretch
to enliven and enforce their fubjedt by exaggeration
and fuperlatives. This unluckily has an effeft contrary
to what is intended : the reader, difgufted with lan¬
guage that fwells above the fubjeft, is led by contraft
to think more meanly of the fubjeft than it may pof-
fibly deferve. A man of prudence, befide, will be no
lefs careful to huiband his ftrength in writing than in
walking : a writer, too liberal of fuperlatives, exhaufts
his whole ftock upon ordinary incidents, and referves
no {hare to exprefs, with greater energy, matters of
importance.
Many writers of that kind abound fo in epithets, as
if poetry confifted entirely in high-founding words.
Take the following inftance :
When black-brow’d night her dufky mantle fpread*
And wrapt in folemn gloom the fable Iky;
When foothing fleep her opiate dews had flied.
And feal’d in filken {lumbers every eye :
My waking thought admits no balmy reft,
Nor the fweet blifs of foft oblivion {hare :
But watchful wo diftradhs my aching breaft.
My heart the fubjedl of corroding care :
From haunts of men with wandring fteps and flow
I folitary ileal, and foothe my penfive wo.
Here every fubftantive is faithfully attended by fome
tumid epithet.
We proceed to a fecond remark, not lefs important
than the former. No perfon of refledlion but muft be
fenfible, that an incident makes a ftronger impreffion
on an eye-witnefs, than when heard at fecond-hand
Writers of genius, fenfible that the eye is the beft a-
venue to the heart, reprefent every thing as pafiing in
our fight; and, from readers or hearers, transform us
as it were into fpedlators: a fkilful writer conceals him-
felf, and prefents his peifonages: in a word, every
thing becomes dramatic as much as pofiible. Plutarch,
de gloria Athemenflum, obferves, that Thucydides makes
his reader a fpedtator, and infpires him with .the fame
paflions as if he were an eye-witnefs.
In the fine arts, it is a rule to put the capital ob-
jedts in the ftrongeft point of view ; and even to pre-
Verbaque : nee placidam membris datcura quietem. fent them oftener than once, where it can be done. In
Poflera Phcehea luftralat lampade terras,
Humentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbram ;
. Cum fic unanimem alloquitur malefana fororem.
Lib. iv. 1
hiftory-painting, the principal figure is placed in the
front, and in the beft light : an equeftrian ftatue is
placed in a centre of ftreets, that it may be feen from
many places at once. In no compofition is there greater
The language ©f Homer is Anted to his fubjedl, not opportunity for this rule than in writing :
Sequitur pulcherrimus Aftur,
tefs accurately,than the adlions and fentiments of his
heroes are to their charadlers Virgil, in that particu¬
lar, falls fhort of perfedlion : his language is {lately
throughout: and though he defeends at times to the
fimpleft branches of cookery, roafting and boiling for
example, yet he never relaxes a moment from the high
tone.—In adj lifting his language to his fubjedl, no wri¬
ter equals Swift.' We can recoiled! but one exception,
which at the fame time is far from being grofs: The
Journal of a modern Lady is compofed in a ftyle blend¬
ing fprightlinefs with familiarity, perfedlly Anted to
the fubjedl: in one paflage, however, the poet, devia¬
ting from that ftyle, takes a tone above his fubjedl.
Aftur equo fidens et verficoloribus armis.
JEneid. x. 180.
 Full many a lady
I’ve ey’d with beft regard, and many a time
Th’ harmony of their tongues hath into bondage
Brought my too diligent ear: for feveral virtues
Have I lik’d feveral women ; never any
With fo full foul, but fome defedt in her
Did quarrel with the nobleft grace {he ow’d,
And put it to the foil. But you, O you,
So perfedl, and fo peerlefs, are created
Of every creature’s bed. Tempefl, ad 3. /?. 1.
Orlando.
N A R
. Orlando Whate’er you are
That, in the defart inacceflible,
Under the fhade of melancholy boughs,
Lofe and negledt the creeping hours of time ;
If ever you have look’d on better days ;
If ever been where bells have knoll’d to church }
If ever fat at any good man’s feaft ;
If ever from your eye-lids wip’d a tear,
And know what ’tis to pity, and be pity’d;
Let gentlenefs my ftrong inforcement be,
In the which hope I blufh, and hide my fword.
Duke fen. True is it that we have feen better days;
And have with holy bell been knoll’d to church ;
And fat at good mens feafts; and wip’d our eyes
Of drops that facred pity had engender'd :
And therefore fit you down in gentlenefs,
And take upon command what help we have,
That to your wanting may be miniftred.
sis you like it.
With the converfing I forgot all time ;
All feafons and their change, all pleafe alike.
Sweet is the breath of morn, her rifing fweet,
With charm of earlieft birds ; pleafant the fun
When fir ft on this delightful land he fpreads
His orient beams on herbs, tree, fruit, and flow’r
Gliftring with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth
After foft ftrow’rs ; and fweet the coming on
Of grateful ev’ning mild, the filent night
With this her folemn bird, and this fair moon,
And thefe the gems of heav’n, her ftarry train :
But neither breath of morn, when Ihe afcends
With charm of earlieft birds, nor rifing fun
On this delightful land, nor herb, fruit, flow’r,
Glift’ring with dew, nor fragrance after ihow’rs,
Nor grateful ev’ning mild, nor filent night,
With this her folemn bird, nor walk by moon,
Or glittering ftar-light, without thee is fweet.
Paradife Lojl, book 4. /. 634.
What mean ye, that ye ufe this proverb, The fa¬
thers have eaten four grapes, and the childrens teeth
are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord God, ye
fliall not have occafion to ufe this proverb in Ifrael. If
a man keep my judgments to deal truly, he is juft, he
(hall furely live. But if he be a robber, a Ihedder of
blood; if he have eaten upon the mountains, and de¬
filed his neighbour’s wife ; if he have oppreffed the
poor and needy, have fpoiled by violence, have not re-
ftored the pledge, have lift up his eyes to idols, have
given forth upon ufury, and have taken increafe : fhall
he live ? he fhall not live : he fhall furely die; and hi*
blood (hail be upon him. Now, lo, if he beget a fon,
that feeth all his father’s fins, andconfidereth,and doeth
not fuch like ; that hath not eaten upon the moun¬
tains, hath not lift up his eyes to idols, nor defiled his
neighbour’s wife, hath not opprefled any, nor with,
held the pledge, neither hath fpoiled by violence, but
hath given his bread to the hungry, and covered the
naked with a garment ; that hath not received ufury
nor increafe, that hath executed my judgments, and
walked in my ftatutes: he fhall not die for the iniquity
of his father ; he fhall furely live. The foul that fin-
neth^ it fhall die; the fon fhall not bear the iniquity
of the father, neither fhall the father bear the iniquity
of the fon ; the righteoufnefs of the rightedus fhail be
upon him, and the witkednefs of the wicked fhall be
L 643 1 N A R
upon him. Have I any pleafure that the wicked fhould
die, faith the Lord God ; and not that he fhould’ re¬
turn from his ways, and live ?” Ezekiel xvii.
A concife comprehenfive ftyle is a great ornament
in narration ; and a fuperfluity of unneceflary words,
not lefs than of circumftances, a great nuifance. A
judicious feledfion of the ftriking circumftances, clothed
in a nervous ftyle, is delightful. In this ftyle, Tacitus
excels all writers, ancient and modern. Inftances are
numberlefs : take the following fpecimen :
“ Crebra hinc pradia, et faepius in modum latrocinii:
per faltus, per paludes; ut cuique fors aut virtus: te-
mere, provifo, oh iram, ob prsedam, juffu, et aliquando
ignaris ducibus.” Annal. lib. 12. $*39.
After Tacitus, Ofiian in that refpeft juftly merits
the place of diftin&ion. One cannot go wrong for ex¬
amples in any part of the book.
If a concife or nervous ftyle be a beauty, tautology
muft be a-blemifh ; and yet writers, fettered by verle,
are not fufficiently careful to avoid this flovenly prac¬
tice : they may be pitied, but they cannot be juiiified.
Take for a fpecimen the following inftances, from the
beft poet, for verlification at leaft, that England has
to boaft of:
High on his helm celeftial lightnings play,
His beamy fhield emits a living ray ;
Th’ unweary’d blaze inceffant ftreams fupplie*,
Like the red ftar that fires the autumnal fkies.
Iliad v. 5.
Strength and omnipotence inveft thy throne.
Ibid. viii. jyd.
So filent fountains, from a rock’s tall head,
In fable ftreams foft trickling waters fhed.
Ibid. ix. 19.
His clanging armour rung. Ibid. xii. 94.
Fear on their cheek, and horror in their eye.
Ibid. xv. 4.
The blaze of armour flafti’d againft the day.
Ibid. xvii. 736.
As when the piercing blafts of Boreas blow.
Ibid. xix. 380.
And like'the moon, the broad refulgent fhield
Blaz’d with long rays, and gleam’d athwart the field.
Ibid. xix. 402.
No—could our fwiftnefs o’er the winds prevail,
Or beat the pinions of the weftern gale,
All were in vain  Ibid. xix. 604.
The humid fweat from ev’ry pore defeends.
Ibid, xxiii. 829.
We clofe this article with a curious inquiry. An ob-
jeft, however ugly to the fight, is far from being fo
when reprefented by colours or by words. What is
the caufe of this difference ? With refpetft; to painting,
the caufe is obvious: a good pitture, whatever the
fubjeA be, is agreeable by the pleafure we take in
imitation; and this pleafure overbalancing the difa-
greeablenefs of the fubjeft, makes the picture upon
the whole agreeable. With refpeft to the defenption
of an ugly objetft, the caufe fallows. To connect in¬
dividuals in the focial ttate, no particular contributes
more than language, by the power it poffeffes of an
expeditious communication of thought, and a lively
reprefentation of tranfaftion*. But nature hath not
4 M 2 been
N A R
N A R F 644 ]
Narration, been fatisfied to recommend language by its utility
merely : independent of utility, it is made fufceptikle
of many beauties, which are dire&ly felt, without any
intervening refledfion. And this unfolds the myftery ;
for the pleafure of language is fo great, as in a lively
defeription to overbalance the difagreeablenefs of the
image raifed by it. This, however, is no encourage¬
ment to choofe a difagreeable fubjeft ; for the pleafure
is incomparably greater where the fubjedl and the de¬
feription are both of them agreeable.
The following defeription is upon the whole a-
greeable, though the fubjed. deferibed is in itfelf dif-
mal :
Nine times the fpace that meafures day and night
To mortal men, he with his horrid crew
Lay vanquilh’d, rolling in the fiery gulf.
Confounded though immortal! but his doom
Referv’d him to more wrath ; for now the thought
Both of loft happinefs and lafting pain
Torments him ; round he throws his baleful eyes
That witnefs’d huge affli&ion and difmay:
Mix’d with obdurate pride and ftedfaft hate :
At once as far as angels ken he views
The difmal lituation watte and wild :
A dungeon horrible, on all fides round
As one great furnace flamed ; yet from thofe flames
No light, but rather darknefs vifible
Serv’d only to difeover fights of wo,
Regions of forrow, doleful fhades, where peace
And reft can never dwell, hope never comes
That comes to all; but torture without end
Still urges, and a fiery deluge, fed
With ever-burning fulphur unconfum’d !
Such place eternal juftice had prepar’d
For thofe rebellious. Paradife Lojl, book I. L 50.
An unmanly depreflion of fpirits in time of danger
is not an agreeable fight ; and yet a fine defeription
or reprefentation of it will be reliftied :
K. Richard. What mult the king do now ? muft
he fubmit ?
The king {hall do it : muft he be depos’d ?
The king fhall be contented : muit he lofe
The name of king ? o’ God’s name let it go;
I’ll give my jewels for a fet of beads ;
My gorgeous palace, feta hermitage ;
My gay apparel, for an almfman’s gown ;
My figur’d goblets, for a diflr of wood ;
My feeptre, for a palmer’s walking-ftaff;
My fubje&s, for a pair of carved faints ;
And my large kingdom, for a little grave ;
A little, little grave,——an obfeure grave.
Or I’ll be bury’d in the king’s highway ;
Some way of common tread, where fubjedts feet
May hourly trample on their fovereign’s head ;
For on my heart they tread now, whilft I live;
And, bury’d once, why not upon my head ?
Richard II. aci fc. 6.
Obje&s that ftrike terror in a fpedtator, have in
poetry and painting a fine qifeft. The pi&ure, by
railing a flight emotion of terror, agitates the mind ;
and in that condition every beauty makes a deep im-
prdlion. May not contrail heighten the pleafure, by
oppefing our prefent fecurity to the danger of en¬
countering the objedt reprefentedf
  The othtr lhape, Narratim
If lhape it might be call’d that lhape had none' Narfcs.
Diftinguilhabie in member, joint, or limb ; "
Or fubftance might be call’d that fliadow feem’d,
For each feem'd either; black it flood as night,
Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell,
And {hook a dreadful dart. Par. LoJl,b. 2. 1. 666.
  Novv Homing fury rofe,
And clamour fuch as heard in heaven till now
Was never : arms on clamour clalhing bray’d
Horrible difeord, and the madding wheels
Of brazen chariots rage ; dire was the noife
Of conflict; overhead the difmal hifs
Of fiery darts in flaming vollies flew,
And flying vaulted either holt with fire.
So under fiery cope together rulh’d
^Both battles main, with rufnous afiault
And inextinguilhable rage : all heaven
« Refounded, and had earth been then, all earth
Had to her centre Ihook. Ibid, book 6. 1. 207.
Ghofl.  But that I am forbid
To tell the fecrets of my prifon-houfe,
I could a tale unfold, whofe lighteft word
Would harrow up thy foul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like liars, ftart from their fpheres.
Thy knotty and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to Hand on end.
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine :
But this eternal blazon muft not be
To ears of flelh and blood. Hamlet, a3 i.fc. 8.
Gratiano. Poor Defdemona! I’m glad thy father’s
dead :
Thy match was mortal to him ; and pure grief
Shore his old thread in twain. Did he live now.
This fight would make him do a defp’rate turn :
Yea, curfe his better angel from his fide,
And fall to reprobation. Othello, aft 5. fc. 8.
Objects of horror muft be excepted from the fore¬
going theory ; for no defeription, however lively, is
fufticient to overbalance the difguft raifed even by the
idea of fuch objefts. Every thing horrible ought
therefore to be avoided in a defeription.
NARSES, the eunuch who rivalled Belifarius in
heroifm under the reign of the emperor Juilinian, e-
merged from obfeurity A. D. 538. From the dome-
ftic lervice of the palace, and the adminiftration ot
the private revenue, he was fuddenly exalted to the
head of an army. He is ranked among the few eu¬
nuchs who have refeued that unhappy name from the
contempt and hatred of mankind. A feeble diminu¬
tive body concealed the foul of a ftatefman and a war¬
rior. His youth had been employed in the mapage-
ment of the loom and diftaff, in the cares of the houfe-
hold, and the fervice of female luxury ; but, while
his hands were bufy, he fecretly exercifed the faculties
of a vigorous and difeerning mind. . A ftranger to the
fchools and the camp, he ftudied in the palace to dif-
femble, to flatter, and to perfuade ; and as foon as
he approached the perfon of the emperor, Juftinian
lillened with furprife and pleafure to the manly coun-
fels of his chamberlain and private treafurer. Ihe-
talents of Narfes were tried and improved in frequent
embalSes j he led an army into Italy, acquired a prac-
NAS [ 645 ] NAT
Naifes tied knowledge of the war and the country, and pre-
jj.au fumed to drive with the genius of Btlifarius. Twelve
. ' au' years after his return, the eunuch was chofen to at-
chieve the conqueft which had been left imperfeft
by the firft of the Roman generals. Inftead of being
dazzled by vanity or emulation, he ferioufly declared,
that unlefs he were armed with an adequate force, he
would never confent to rifle his own glory and that of
his fovereign. Juftiniart granted to the favourite what
he might have denied to the hero: the Gothic war
was rekindled from its aflres, and the preparations
were not unworthy of the ancient majefty of the em¬
pire. •
Narfes defeated the Goths, the Franks, and the
Alemnnni; the Italian cities opened their gates to the
conqueror ; he entered the capital in triumph ; and
having eftablilhed the feat of his government at Ra¬
venna, continued 15 years to govern Italy under the
title of Exarch.
His virtues, we are told, were ftained with avarice ;
and in this provincial reign he accumulated a treafure
of gold and hlver which furpaffed the modefty of a
private fortune. His government was opprefiive or
unpopular ; and the general difeontent was expreffed
with freedom by the deputies of Rome. Before the
throne of Juftinian they boldly declared, that their
Gothic fervkude had been more tolerable than the def-
potifm of a Greek eunuch ; and that unlefs their ty¬
rant were inftantly removed, they w'ould confult their
own happinefs in the choice of a mailer. Thus was
his difgrace the cffefL of the people’s diiafFehtion ; and
his death, though in the extreme period of old age,
was unfeafonable and premature, fince his genius alone
could have repaired the la ft and fatal error'of his life.
He died about the year 567, and, as fome fay, at the
advanced age of 95 \ but this does not appear very
probable. See Gibbon’s R.om. Hift. vol. iv. 410 edit,
p. 194, :9V&c.
NARVA, a ftrong town of the Ruffian empire, in
Livbnia, with a caftle and a haibour. It was taken
by the Mufcovites from the Danes in 1558, by the.
Swedes in tySt, and they defeated the Mufcovites near
it in 1700 t but it was retaken by the Ruffians in 1704
by ftorm, and the inhabitants fent to Aitracan. It
is feated on the river Narva, 95 miles S. W. of Wi-
burg,'and 172 N. E. of Riga. E. Long. 29. O. N.
Lat. 59. 8.
NARWAL, in ichthyology. See Monodon.
NASSAU-si eg en, a fmall principality, of Ger¬
many in the Wefterwalde, is in general a mountain¬
ous woody country, with fome arable and pafture
ground, and a good breed of cattie. Its manufac¬
tures are chiefly thofe of iron and fteel, having an iron
mine in the neighbourhood of Sicgen. Count John
the Younger, in 1626, embraced the Roman Catho¬
lic religion, and endeavoured to introduce it into the
country ; but the principality, upon the extindlion of
the line of Naffau-Siegen in 174^, falling, to the line
of Naflau-Dietz, and therein to the prince of Orange,
hereditary ftadtholder of the United Provinces, the
Proteftants were delivered from their apprehenfions of
Popiffi tyranny and bigotry. The prince, on account
of thefe territories, has a feat and voice ac the diets
of the empire and circle in the college of princes. His
afieffment in the matricula for Naflau Siegen is ^7-3
florins monthly; and towards the maintenance of the Naffau
chamber-judicatory, 50 rix-dollars fix kruitzers and Jl
a half each term. The revenue of this principality is , atll,I1‘i ~
eftimated at 100,000 rix-dollars.
NASsAu-DUIenlourg, a principality of Germany, fi-
tuated near the former. It has not much arable land,
but plenty of wood, good quarries of Hone, fome fil-
ver and vitriol, copper and lead, with ftore of iron,
for the working and fmelting of which there are many
forges and founderies in the country ; and by thefe,
and the fale of their iron, the inhabitants chiefly fub-
fift. Calvinifm is the religion of the'principality,
which contains five towns and two boroughs, and be¬
longs entirely to William V. prince of Orange, and
hereditary ftadtholder of the United Provinces, whole
father fucceeded to a part of it in 1739 on the death
of prince Chriftian, and to the reft in 1743 on the
death of prince William Hyacynth of Siegen. The
prince, on account of this principality alfo and Dietz,
has a feat and voice in the college of princes, at the
diets of the empire and circle. His aftefl'ment in the
rnatricula, for Naftau-Dillenbourg, is 102 florins
monthly ; arid to the chamber-judicatory, 50 rix-dol¬
lars fix and a half kmitzers, each term. His revenue
from this principality is computed at above 130,000
florins.
NASSAU-Hadamar, a county of Germany, which,
till the year 1711, had princes of its own ; but now be¬
longs wholly to William V. prince of Orange.
Nassau, prince of Orange. See Maurice.
NATES, in anatomy, a term expreffing thofe two
fleffiy exterior parts of the body vulgarly called the
buttocks. See Anatomy.
Nates Cerebri, are two circular protuberances of
the brain, fituated on the back-fide of the medulla
oblongata, near the cerebellum.
-NATION, a colktftive term, ufed for a confider-
able number of people inhabiting a certain extent of
land, confined within fixed limits, and under the fame
government.
NATIONAL debt : the money owing by go¬
vernment.
Our limits permit us to give but a very general
Iketch of this fubjetft: However, as it is of confider-
able importance to every inhabitant of thefe kingdoms,
we fhall endeavour to give as clear and comprehenfive
a view of it as the bounds neceflarily preferibed us
will admit. In order to this, it may not be improper
to refer back to the times that have gone before us,
that we may the better difeover the nature of public
revenues, the manner of their expenditure, and the-
caufes of public debt.
In that rude ftate of fociety which precedes the ex*
tenfion of commerce and the improvements of manu-
fa&ures, when thofe expenfive luxuries which com¬
merce and manufadlurfs can alone introduce, are alto¬
gether unknown ; tire perfon who poffefles a large re¬
venue can fpend or enjoy that revenue in no other
way than by maintaining nearly as many people as it
can maintain. Among our feudal anceliors, the longgm;tns
time during which eftates ufed to continue in the fame Wealth of
family, fufficiently demonftrates the general difpofition Nation*.~
of people to live within their income. Though the
ruftic hofpitalhy-conftantly exercifed by the great
landholders may not to. us in. the prefent times i'eem
cojw, -
NAT
National, confident with that order which
der as infeparably connefted with good oeconoiny, yet
we^iuft certainly allow them to have been at lead fo
far frugal as not commonly to have fpent their whole
income. Some part of this money, perhaps, they fpent
in purchafing the few objefts of vanity and luxury
with which the circumllances of the times could fur-
nidi them; but fome part of it they feem commonly to
have hoarded. They could not well indeed do any
thing elfe but l|oard whatever money they faved. To
trade was difgraceful to a gentleman; and to lend mo¬
ney at interelt, which at that time was confidered as
ulury and prohibited by law, would have been dill
more fo.
The fame difpofition to fave and to hoard prevailed
in the fovereign as well as in the fuhje&s. .Among
nations to whom commerce and manufactures are little
known, the fovereign is in a fituation which naturally
difpofes him to the parfimony requitite for' accumula¬
tion. In that lituation the expence even of a fove¬
reign cannot be direftedby that vaniiy which delight*
in the gaudy finery of a court. The ignorance of the
time* affords but few of the trinkets in which that
finery confills. Standing armies are not then necef-
fary ; fo that the expence even of a fovereign, like
that of any other great lord, can be employed in fcarce
any thing but bounty to his tenants and hofpitality to
bis retainers. But bounty and hofpitahty very feldom
lead to extravagance: though vanity almott always
does. All the ancient fovereigns of Europe accord¬
ingly had treafures. Every Tartar chief in the pre-
fent times is faid to have one.
In a commercial country abounding with every fort
of expenfive luxury, the fovereign, in the fame man¬
ner as aimed all the great proprietors in his domi¬
nions, naturally fpends a great part of his revenue in
purchafing thofe luxuries. His own and the neigh¬
bouring countries fupply him abundantly with all the
coltly trinkets which compofe the fplendid but infig-
nificant pageantry of a court. His ordinary expence
becomes equal to his ordinary revenue, and it is well
if it does not frequently exceed it. The amafling of
treafure can no longer be expe&ed ; and when extra¬
ordinary exigencies require extraordinary expences, he
mult necefianly call upon his fubje&s for an extraor¬
dinary aid. The late king of Pruflia and his father
are the only great princes of Europe who, fincc the
death of Henry IV. of France in 1610, are fuppofed
to have amafled any confiderable treafure. The par¬
fimony which leads to accumulation has become almod
as rare in republican as in monarchical governments.
The Italian republics, the United Provinces of the Ne¬
therlands, are all in debt. The canton of Berne is the
Angle republic in Europe which has amafled any con¬
fiderable treafure. The other Swifs republics have
not. The tafle for fome fort of pageantry, for fplen¬
did buildings at lead and other public ornaments, fre¬
quently prevails as much in the apparently fober fe-
nate-h@ufe of a little republic as in the diflipated court
of the greated king.
The want of parfimony in time of peace impofes
the necefiity of contra&ing debt in time of war. When
war comes, there is no money in the treafury but what
is neceffary for carrying on the ordinary expence of
She peace edablilhment. In war an edablifhment of
[ 646 ] NAT
apt to confi- three or four times that expence becomes neceffary for National.
the defence of the date, and confequently a revenue ——v—“■J
three or four times greater than the peace revenue.
Suppofing that the fovereign Ihould have, what he
fcarce ever has,, the immediate means of augmenting
his revenue in proportion to the augmentation of his
expence; yet dill the produce of the taxes, from which
this increafe of revenue mud be drawn, will not begin
to come into the treafury till perhaps ten or twelve
months after they are impofed. But the moment in
which war begins, or rather the moment in which it
appears likely to begin, the army mud be augmented,
the fleets mud be fitted out, the gawifoned towns mud
be put into a poAnre of defence; that army, that fleet,
thofe garrifoned towns, mud be furnilhed with arms,
ammunition, and provifions. An immediate and great
expence mud be incurred in that moment of imme¬
diate danger, which will not wait for the gradual and
flow returns of the new taxes. In this exigency go¬
vernment can have no other refources but in bor¬
rowing.
The fame commercial date of fociety which, by the
operation of moral caufes, brings government in this
manner into the necefiity of borrowing, produces in
the fubjedts both an ability and an inclination to lend.
If it commonly brings along with it the necefiity of
borrowing, it likewife brings along with it the facility
of doing fo.
A country abounding with merchants and manu¬
facturers, necefiarily abounds with a fetof people thro*
whofe hands not only their own capitals, but the ca¬
pitals of all thofe who either lend them money or trud
them with goods, pafs as frequently or more frequent¬
ly than the revenue of a private man, who without
trade or bufinefs lives upon his income, pafies through
his hands. The revenue of fuch a man can regularly
pafs through his hands only once in a year. But the
whole amount of the capital and credit of a merchant
who deals in a trade of which the returns are very
quick, may fometimes pafs through his hands two,
three, or four times in a year. A country abounding
with merchants and manufacturers, therefoie, neceifa-
rily abounds with a fet of people who have it at all
times in their power to advance, if they choofe to do
fo, a very large fhm of money to government. Hence ‘
the ability in the fubjedts of a commercial date to
lend.
The progrefs of the enormous debts which at pre-
fent opprefs, and will in the long run probably ruin,
all the great nations of Europe, has been pretty uni¬
form. In England, after the Revolution, when new
connexions with* Europe introduced a new fydem of
foreign politics, the expences of the nation, not only Blacijt.
in fettling the new edablilhment, but in maintaining Comment,
long wars, as principals, on the continent, for the fe-
curity of the Dutch barrier, reducing the French mo¬
narchy, fettling the Spanilh fuccefiion, fupporting the
houfe of Auflia, maintaining the liberties of the Ger¬
manic body, and other purpofes, increafed to an unufual
degree : infomuch, that it wa» not thought advifeable
to raife all the expences of any one year by taxes to
be levied within that year, led the unaccuflomed weight
of them Ihould create murmurs among the people. It
was therefore the policy of the times to anticipate the
revenues of their poflerity, by borrowing immenfe
fums
NAT
National, fums for the current fervice of the date, and to lay no
 more taxes upon the fubjeft t^an would fufhce to pay
the annual intereft of the fu as fo borrowed ; by this
means converting the principal debt into a new fpecies
of property, transferable from one man to another at
any time and in any quantity. This fyftem indeed
r 647 3
NAT
time both principal and intereft of the money bor- Natlona!.
rowed : In the other, it was fuppofed fufficient to pay ' '*
the interell only, or a perpetual annuity equivalent to
the intereft ; government being at liberty to redeem
at any time this annuity upon paying back the prin-
:ipal fum borrowed. When money was raifed in the
feems to have had its original in the ftate of Florence, one way, it was faid to be raifed by anticipation; when
A. D. 1344; which government then owed about
X.. 60,000 Sterling; and being unable to pay it, form¬
ed the principal into an aggregate futn, called meta¬
phorically a mount or bank, the fliares whereof were
transferable like our ftocks, with intereft at 5 per cent.
the prices varying according to the exigencies of the
ftate. This laid the foundation of wl\at is called the
national debt t for a few long annuities created in the
reign of Charles II. will hardly deferve that name.
Nations, like private men, have generally begun to
borrow upon what may be called perfonal credit, with¬
out afiigning or mortgaging any particular fund for
the payment of the debt; and when this reiburce has
failed them, they have gone on to borrow upon affign-
ments or mortgages of particular funds.
What is called the unfunded debt of Great Britain,
is contracted in the former of thofe two ways. It
confifts partly in a debt which bears, or is fuppofed to
bear, no intereft, and which refembles the debts that a
private man contracts upon account; and partly in a
debt which bears intereft, and which refembles what a
private man contracts upon his bill or promiffory note.
The debts which are due either for extraordinary fer-
vices, or for fervices either not provided for or not
in the other, by perpetual funding, or, more ftiortly, by
funding. _
In the reign of King William, when the debt began
to be amaffed, and during a great part of that of
Queen Anne, before we had become fo familiar as we
are now with the praCtice of perpetual funding, the
greater part of the new taxes were impofed but for a
fhort period of time (for four, five, fix, or feven years
only), and a great part of the grants of every year
confifted in loans upon anticipation of the produce of
thofe taxes. The produce being frequently infufficient
for paying witliin the limited term the principal and inte-
relt of the money borrowed, deficiencies arofe; to make
good which it became neceffary to prolong the term.
On the 31ft of December i69;j the funded and un¬
funded debts amounted to L. 21,515,742 : 13 : 8|-; at
the fame time, in 1714, they were L. 53,681,076, 5s.
6TVd. In 1755, before the breaking out of the war,
they amounted to L. 72,289,673 ; and on the 5th of
January 1763, at the conclufion of the peace, they had
accumulated to L. 122,603,336 : 8 : 2| of funded debt,
and of unfunded L. 13,027,589 : 2 : 2 more. In 1 775,
they were very nearly 130 millions; and the laft Ame¬
rican war added upwards of 120 millions more to that
paid at the time when they are performed; part of enormous fum : to pay jhe intereft of which, and
the extraordinaries of the army, navy, and ordnance,
the arrears of fubfidies to foreign princes, thofe of
feamens wages, &c. ufually conftitute a debt of the
firft kind. Navy and exchequer bills, which are if-
fued fometimes in payment of a part of fuch debts,
and fometimes for other purpofes, conftitute a debt of
the fecond kind; exchequer bills bearing ihtereft from
the day on which they are iffued, and navy bills fix
months after they are iffued. The bank of England,
either by voluntarily difeounting thofe bills at their
current value, or by agreeing with government for cer¬
tain confiderations to circulate exchequer bills, that is,
to receive them at par, paying the intereft which hap¬
pens to be due upon them, keeps up their value, and
facilitates their circulation, and thereby frequently
enables government to contraift a very large debt of
this kind. During the great recoinage in King Wil¬
liam’s time, when the bank of England thought pro¬
per to put a Hop to its ufual tranfa£tions, exchequer
bills and tallies are faid to have fold from 25 to 60
per cent, difeount; owing partly, no doubt, to the fup¬
pofed inftability of the new government eftablhhed by
the Revolution, but partly too to the want of the fup-
port of the bank of England.
When this refource is exhaufted, and it becomes ne-
ceffary, in order to raife money, to afiign or mortgage
fome particular branch of the public revenue for the
payment of the debt, government has upon different
occafions done this in two different ways. Sometimes
it has made this afiignment or mortgage for a fhort
period of time only, a year or a few years, for example;
and fometimes for perpetuity. In the one cafe, the
fund was fuppofed fufficient to. pay within the limited
the charges of management, amounting annually to
nearly eight mjjjions and an half, the extraordinary
revenues elfewhere enumerated •j’ (excepting only the (■ See/?«-
land-tax and annual malt-tax) are in the firft place'wn"t-
mortgaged and made perpetual by parliament. Per¬
petual we fay; but {Unredeemable by the fame autho¬
rity that impofed them : which, if it at any time can
pay off the capital, will abolifti thofe taxes which are
raifed to difeharge the intereft.
By this means, then, the quantity of property in the
kingdom is greatly increafed in idea compared with
former times ; yet, if ws coolly confider it, not at all
increafed in reality. We may boaft of large fortunes,
and quantities of money in the funds. But where does
this money exift? It exifts only in name, in paper, in
public faith, in parliamentary fecurity : and that is
undoubtedly fufficient for the creditors of the public
to relj1 on. But then what is the pledge which the
public faith has pawned for the fecurity of thefe debts?
The land, the trade, and the perfonal induftry of the
fubjedt ; from which the money mult arife that fup-
plies the feveral taxes. In thefe therefore, and thefe
only, the property of the public creditors does really
and intrinlically exift ; and of courfe the land, the
trade, and the perfonal indudry of individuals, are di.
minifhed in their true value juft fo much as they are
pledged to anfwtr. If A’s income amounts to L. too
per annum ; and he is fo far indebted to B, that he
pays him L. ^o.per annum for his intereft ; one half of
the value of A’s property is transferred to B the credi¬
tor. The creditor’s property exifts in the demand
which he has upon the debtor, and no where elfe; and
the debtor is only a truftee to his creditor for one half
i of
NAT [ 648 ] NAT
National. 0f the value of his income. In (hort, the property of
1 a creditor of the public confills in a certain portion of
the national taxes; by how much therefore he is the
richer, by fo much the nation, which pays thefe taxes,
is the poorer.
The only advantage that can refult to a nation from
public debts, is'the increafe of circulation, by multi¬
plying the cafh of the kingdom, and creating'a new
fpecies of currency, afiignable at any-time and in any
quantity; always therefore ready to be employed in
any beneficial undertaking, by means of this its tranf-
ferable quality ; and yet producing fome profit even
when it lies'idle and unemployed. A certain propor¬
tion of debt feema to be highly ufeful to a trading
people; but what that proportion is, it is not for us to
determine. This much is indifputably certain, that
the prefent magnitude of our national incumbrances
very far exceeds all calculations of commercial bene¬
fit, and is produ&ive of the greatefl inconveniences.
For, firft, the enormous taxes that are railed upon
the neceflaries of life for the payment of the interefl
of this debt, are a hurt both to trade and manufac¬
tures, by railing the price as well of the artificer's
fubfiftence as of the raw material, and of courfe, in a
much greater proportion, the price of the commodity
itfelf. Nay, the very increafe of paper-circulation it-
felf, when extended beyond what is requifite for com¬
merce or foreign exchange, has a natural tendency to
increafe the price of provifions as well as of all other
merchandife. For as its effeft is to multiply the cafh
of the kingdom, and this to fuch an extent that much
muft remain unemployed, that cafh (which is the uni-
verfal meafure of the refpeftivc values of all other com¬
modities) muft neceffarily fink in its own value, and
every thing grow comparatively dearer. Secondly, if
part of this debt be owing to foreigners, either they
draw out of the kingdom annually a confiderable quan¬
tity of fpecie for the intereft; or elfe it is made an
argument to grant them unreafonable privileges in or¬
der to induce them to refide here. Thirdly, if the
whole be owing to fubjefts only, "it is then charging
the aftive and induftrious fubjedl, who pays his fhare
of the taxes to maintain the indolent and idle creditor
who receives them. Laftly, and principally, it weak¬
ens the internal ftrength of a flate, by anticipating
thofe refources which fhould be referved to defend it
in cafe of neceffity. The intereft we now pay for our
debts would undoubtedly be fufficient to maintain the
moft vigorous war that any national motives could
poffibly require. If indeed our anceftors in King Wil¬
liam’s time had annually paid, fo long as their exigen.
• 'dies lafted, a far lefs fum than we now annually raife
upon their accounts, they would not in time of war
have borne fo great burdens as they have bequeath¬
ed to and fettled upon their poflerity in time of peace;
and might have been eafed the inftant the exigence
was oven See Funds.
On the whole, then, the national debt is undoubtedly
a fubjedt of vaft importance, and as fuch it has been al¬
ways confidered ; for much has been laid and written
Upon it, and msnyfehemes have been propofed atvarious
■ times and by various perfons for gradually removing it,
it being confidtrtd by the moft judicious as a moft per¬
nicious incumbrance to a commercial' country. Some,
we are aware, think it of vaft utility; but this opinion
237.
is too,eccentric, and in our eftimation too feebly fup-
ported, to be convincing. The public debt is indif¬
putably a great grievance; and every lover of his coun¬
try muft furely wifh to fee it removed: the period,
however, when this blefiing fhall take place, if indeed
it ever arrive, muft at leaft be very diftant.
It is neither our bufinefs nor intention (even if the
limits preferibed to the article did not prevent it) to
be minute on the fubjeft, or to propofe any fchemes
for alleviating the burdens of the nation. That indeed
has been already done by far abler hands than we pro-
fefs to be : we muft therefore refer fuch as wifh for
farther information on this interefting topic to thofe
(and they are not a few) who have treated of it at full
length. Smith’s Wealth of Nations, and Sir John
Sinclair’s Hiftory of the Revenue, go to the bottom
of the matter. The writings of Dr Price likewife de-
ferve confiderable attention, efpecially as one of his
plans for the reduction of the debt has in fa& been
adopted, and in confequence eftablifhed, by the le-
gifiature: His three plans may be found in a late
pamphlet by William Morgan, intitled, A Review of
Dr Price’s Writings on the Subjedt of the Finances of
this Kingdom.
NATIVITY, or Natal day, the day of a per-
fon’s birth. The word nativity is chiefly ufed in
fpeaking of the faints ; as, the nativity of St John the
Baptift, &c. But when we fay the Nativity, jt is im-
derftood of that of Jefus Chrift, or the feaft of Chrift-
masr
Nativity, nathntas, in ancient law-books, fignifief
bondage- or fervitude.
Nativity, in a' rology, the theme or figure of the
heavens, and particularly of the twelve houfes, at the
moment when a perfon was born ; called alfo the /So-
rofeope.
Cafting the nativity, or by calculation feeking to
know how long the queen ihould live, &c. was made
felony, an. 23 Eliz. c. 2.
N ATI VO habendo, in law, a writ direfted to
the ftieriff, for a lord who claimed inheritance in any
villain, when a villain was run away from him, for the
apprehending and reftoringhim to the lord.
NATIX, in natural hiftory, a name given by fome
old writers to the nerita.
NATOLIA, the modern name of the Lefler Afia,
being the moft wefterly part of Turkey in Afia, and
confifting of a large peninfula, which extends from
the river Euphrates as far as the Archipelago, the
feas of Marmora, the ftraits of Galipoli and of Con-
itantinople, which feparate it from Europe on the
weft. It is bounded on the north by the Black fea,
and on the fouth by the Mediterranean.
NATRIX, in botany, the name given by Rivinius
to a genus of plants nearly allied to the anonis, and
comprehended with it in one genus by Linnaeus, un¬
der the name of anonis. See REST-harroiv.
Natrix, in zoology, the name of the common or
watcr-fnake, exiled alfo torquata, from the ring about
its neck. It is not a water animal, properly fpeaking,
but a land one, which being able to fwim very well, of¬
ten takes the water to hunt about for frogs, which are
its principal food. It grows to be much longer and lar¬
ger than the viper, and does not bring forth live young
ones, but great numbers of eggs, which it lays in
2 dung-
National
NAT r 6*9 ] N A T
Nfltfum dungliills to be hatched by, the warmth of the place,
v II or by the heat of the fun.
* at^ra * NATRUM, the nitre of the ancients, in natural
hiftovy, is a genuine, pure, and native fait, extremely
different from our nitre, and indeed from all the other
native falts, it being a fixed alkali, plainly of the na¬
ture of thofe made by fire from vegetables, yet capable
of a regular cryftallization, which thofe falts are not.
It is found on the furface of the earth, or at very fmall
depths within it; and is naturally formed into thin
and flat cakes or crufts, which are of a fpungy or ca¬
vernous fubftance, very light and friable, and, when
pure, of a pale browni(h white ; but as its fpungy
texture renders it very fubjeft to be fouled by earth
received into its pores, it is often met with of a deep
dirty brown, and not unfrequently reddilh.
Natrum, whether native or purified, diffolves in a
very fmall quantity of water; and this folution is, in
many parts of Afia, ufed for wafhing ; where it is al-
fo made into fqap, by mixing it with oil. Natrum re¬
duced to powder, and mixed with far*d or flints, or
v/ith any other ftone of which cryftal is the bafis, make
them readily run into glafs. Gold heated red-hot,
and fprinkled with a fmall quantity of this fait, melts
in the fame manner; as does alfo iron, copper, and the
regulus of antimony ; which melt much more ealily
than they otherwife would do. Mercury cannot be
mixed with it by any art, and indeed will not amalga¬
mate with metals if only a little of this fait be added.
It is found in great abundance in many parts of Afia,
where the natives fweep it up from the furface of the
ground, and call it foap-earth. The earlieft account
we have of it is in the fcriptures, where we find that
the fait called nitre in thofe times would ferment with
vinegar, and had an abfterfive quality, fo that it was
ufed in baths and in wafhing things. Solomon com¬
pares the finging of fongs with a heavy heart, to the
contrariety of vinegar and nitre ; and Jeremiah fays,
that if the finner wafli himfelf with nitre, his fin is
not cleanfed off. Thefe are properties that perfe<ft-
ly agree with this fait, but not at all with our falt-
petre.
NATTER-jack, ^ zoology, a fpecies of Rana.
NATURAL, in general, fomething that relates to
nature. See Nature.
, Natural Children, are thofe born out of lawful
wedlock. See Bastard.
Natural Functions, are thofe aftions whereby the
aliments are changed and affimilated fo as to become
a part of the body.
Natural, irt heraldry, is ufed where animals, fruits,
flowers, &c. are blazoned with the colours they natu¬
rally have, though different from the common colours
•of heraldry : and this is to prevent their armories being
accufed of falfity, when blazoned with the names of
colours unknown in heraldry.
Natural Note, in mu fie, is ufed in oppofition to
flat and fharp notes, which arc called artificial notes.
See Note, Scale, &c.
Natural is alfo ufed for fomething coming im¬
mediately out of the hands of nature : in which fenfe
it Hands oppofed to fattitious or artificial, which figni-
iies fomething wrought by art. See Artificial.
Biftiop Wilkins obferves, that there appears a world
Vox. XIL Pan II.
of difference between natural and artificial things* Nsuraf.
when viewed with microfcopes. The firft ever appear *"~y
adorned with all imaginable elegance and beauty ; the
latter, though the moft curious in their kind, infinitely
rude and unhewn : the fineft needle appears a rough
bar of iron ; and the moft accurate engraving or em-
boffment, as if done with a mattock or a trowel.
Natural Beauty, or the beauty of natural ob¬
jects, is that quality or thofe qualities in the works of
nature, or more properly of God, which are calculated
to excite pleaiing fenfations in the minds of all fuch
perfons of true tafte as attentively obferve them. It
will not, we truft, be deemed improper or imperti¬
nent, therefore, to introduce a few obfervations on this
fubject, previous to our treating of natural hiftory.—■
To many, it is hoped, it will appear to be a very pro¬
per introdu&ion to that important article. “ That fen-
libility to beauty, which, when cultivated and impro¬
ved, we term tafte, is univerfally diffufed through the
human fpeciesf; and it is moft uniform with refpeft to Dr Perci-
thofe objefts, which being out of our power are notval’s Metal
liable to variation from accident, caprice, or fafhion. ^ £*■-
The verdant lawn, the ftiady grove, the variegated
landfcape, the boundlefs ocean, and the ftarry firma¬
ment, are contemplated with pleafure by every atten¬
tive beholder. But the emotions of different fpe&a-
tors, though fimilar in kind, differ widely in degree ;
and to relifti with full delight the enchanting feenes of
nature, the mind muft be uncorrupted by avarice, fen-
fuality, or ambition ; quick in her fenfibilities ; ele¬
vated-in her fentiments; and devout in her affeftions.
He who pofleffes fuch exalted powers of perception
and enjoyment, may almoft fay, with the poet,
I care not. Fortune ! what you me deny ;
You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace ;
You cannot /hut the windows of the Iky,
Through which Aurora /hows her bright’n ing face ;
You cannot bar my conftant feet to trace
The woods and lawns, by living ftream, at eve :
Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace.
And 1 their toys to the great children leave :
Of fancy, reafon, virtue, nought can me bereave.
“Perhaps fuch ardent enthufiafm may not be com¬
patible with the neceffary toils and active offices which
Providence has afiigned to the generality of men. But
there are none to whom fome portion of it may not
prove advantageous ; and if it were cheri/hed by each
individual, in that degree which is confident with the
indifpenfable duties of his ftation, the felicity of hu¬
man life would be confiderably augmented. From
this fourde, the refined and vivid pleafures of the ima¬
gination are almoft entirely derived : and the elegant
arts owe their.choiccft beauties to a tafte for the con¬
templation of nature. Painting and fculpture are ex-
prefs imitations of vifible objects; and where would
be the charms of poetry, if divelled of the imagery
and embelli/hments which /he borrows from rural
feenes ? Painters, ftatuaries, and poets, therefore, are
always ambitious to acknowledge themfelves the pupils
of nature ; and as their /kill increafes, they grow more
and more delighted with every view of the animal and
vegetable world. But the pleafure refulting from ad
miration is tntnfient; and to cultivate tafte, without
4 N regard
NAT
Na'uraT. -regard to its influence on the paflions and affe&ion,
-‘.is to rear a tree for its bloflums, which is capable of
yielding the richcft and moil valuable fruit.' Phyfical
and moral beauty bear fo intimate a relation to each
other, that they may be confidered as different gra¬
dations in the fcale of excellence : and the knowledge
and relifh of the former fhould be deemed only a (lep
to the nobler and more permanent enjoyments of the
latter.
“ Whoever has vifited the Leafowes, in Warwick*
fhire, muft have felt the force and propriety of an in-
fcription which meets the eye at the entrance into
thofe delightful grounds-
Would you then tafle the tranquil fcene ?
Be fure your bofoms be ferene :
Devoid of hate, devoid of ftrife,
Devoid of all that poifons life :
And much it 'vails you, in their place,
To graft the love of human race.
“ Now fuch feenes contribute powerfully to infpire
that ferenity which is neceffary to enjoy and to heighten
their beauties. By a fecret contagion, the foul catches
the harmony which fhe contemplates ; and the fr^me
within affimilates itfelf to that which is without. For,
Who can forbear to fmile with Nature ? Can
The flormy paffions in the bofom roll,
While every gale is peace, and every grove
Is meloijy ?
“ In this ftate of fweet compofure, we become fuf-
ceptible of virtuous impreffions, from almoft every
furrounding objett. The patient ox is viewed with
generous complacency ; the guilelefs fheep with pity ;
and the playful lamb raifes emotions of tendernefs and
love. We rejoice with the horfe, in his liberty and
exemption from toil, while he ranges at large through
enamelled paftures ; and the frolics of the colt would
afford unmixed delight, did we not recoiled, the bond¬
age which he is foon to undergo. We are charmed
with the fong of birds, foothed with the buzz of in-
feds, and pleafed with the fportive motions of fifhes,
becaufe thefe are exprefllons of enjoyment; and we
exult in the felicity of the whole animated creation.
Thus an equal and extenfive benevolence is called forth
into exertion ; and having felt a common intereft in
the gratifications of inferior beings, we lhall be no
longer indifferent to their fufferings, or become-«fUn-
tonly mftrumental in producing them.
“ It feems to be the intention of Providence, that
the lower order of animals fhould be fubfervient to the
comfort, convenience, and fuftenance of man. But
his right of dominion extends no farther; and if this
right be exercifed with mildnefs, humanity, and juf-
tice, the fubjeds of his power will be no lefs benefit¬
ed than himfelf. For various fpecies of living crea¬
tures are annually multiplied by human art, improved
in their perceptive powers by human culture, and plen¬
tifully fed by human induftry. The relation,' there¬
fore, is reciprocal between fuch animals and man ; and
he may fupply his own wants by the ufe of their la¬
bour, the produce of their bodies, and even the facri-
fice of their lives, whilft he co-operates with all-gra¬
cious Heaven in promoting happinefs, the great end of
exiftence.
NAT
But though it be true, that partial evil, with re* Natural.
fped to different tvrders of fenfitive beings, may be  v—
univerfal good ; and that it is a wife and benevolent
inffitution of nature, to make deftrudion itfelf, with¬
in certain limitations, the caufe of an increafe of life
and enjoyment; yet a generous perfon will extend his
compaffionate regards to every individual that fuffers
for his fake : and, whilft he ffghs
Even for the kid or lamb that parts its life
Beneath the bloody knife,
he will naturally be folicitous to mitigate pain, both ia
duration and degree, by the gentleft modes ol in Sid¬
ing it.
“We are inclined to believe, however, that this fen^e
of humanity wouldfoonbe obliterated,and that theheart
would grow callous to every foft impreflion, were it not
for the benignant influence of the fmiling face of na¬
ture. The count de Lauzun, when imprifoned by
Louis XIV. in the caftle of Pignerol, amufed himfelf
during a long period of time with catching flies, and
delivering them to be devoured by a rapacious fpider.
Such an entertainment was equally lingular and cruel;
and inconfiftuit, we believe, with his former charader,
and his fubfequent turn of mind. But his cell had no
window, and received only a glimmering light from an
aperture in the roof. In lei's unfavourable circumftan.
ces, may we not prefume, that inftead of fporting
with mifery, he would have releafed the agonifing
flies, and bid them enjoy that freedom of which he
himfelf was bereaved ?
“ But the talle for natural beauty is fubfervient to
higher purpofes than thofe which have been enume¬
rated : and the cultivation of it not only refines and
humanifes, but dignifies and exalts the affedions. It
elevates them to the admiration and love of that Be¬
ing who is the author of all that is fair, fublime, and
good in the creation. Scepticifm and irreligion are
hardly compatible with the fenlibility of heart which
arifes from a jurt and lively relilh of the wifdom, har¬
mony, and order fubfifting in the world around us:
and emotions of piety mull fpring up fpontaneoully
in the bofom that is in unifonswith ail animated na¬
ture. Aduated by this divine infpiration, man find*
a fane in every grove ; and, glowing with devout fer¬
vour, he joins his fong to the univerfal chorus, or mufes
the praife of the Almighty, in more expreffive fllence.
Thus they
Whom Nature’s works can charm, with God himfelf
Hold converfe ; grow familiar, day by day,
With his conceptions ; act upon his phm ;
And form to his, the relilh of their fouls.”
On the whole then, it certainly appears, that the
advantages refultfng from a tafte for natural beautie®
are great and important: it is equally certain, that a®
it is ufeful, fo it is a continual fource of real enjoy¬
ment ; for a more rational pleafure cannot poffibly oc¬
cupy the attention or captivate the affedions of man¬
kind, than that which arifes from a due confideration
of the works of nature. Pleafure, we know, is a ne¬
ceffary ingredient in human life, in order in fome mea-
fure to counterbalance the pains, the evils, and liftlefs-
neffes, which are at times perhaps unavoidable, and in
order to render life tolerable. It is the part then of
[ 650 i
NAT [ 651 ] NAT
Natural, the morallft, and it has been frequently his bufinefs,
W—v-—' to point out and recommend fuch pleafures as are high¬
ly gratifying, and are yet perfectly innocent. The
Spectator, whofe works will be admired as long as the
language in which they are written is underftood, re¬
commends ftrongly and elegantly the pleafure of a gar-
•DrKnox.den > and a later writer*, of no common degree of me¬
rit, and of very confiderable fame, has an effay on
the fame fubjeft, from which we lhall feleft a few ob-
fervations, and fo conclude the article. “ Not he
alone (fays this elegant writer) is to be efteemed a
benefaftor to mankind, who makes an ufeful difeo-
very ; but he alfo who can point out and recommend
an innocent pleafure. Of this kind are the pleafures
arifing from the obfervation of nature; and they are
highly agreeable to every tafle uncorrupted by vicious
indulgence. Rural feenes of almoft every kind are
delightful to the mind of man. But the misfortune is,
that the greater part are hurried on in the career of
life with too great rapidity to be able to give attention
to that which folicits no paffion. The darkett habi¬
tation in the dirtied ftreet of the metropolis, where
money can be earned, has greater charms with many
than the groves of Hagley.
“ The patron of refined pleafure, the elegant Epicu¬
rus, fixed the feat of his enjoyment in a garden. He
was of opinion, that a tranquil fpot, furniflied with
the united fweets of art and nature, was the bell
adapted to delicate repofe. And even the fevererphi-
lofophers of antiquity were wont to difeourfe in the
thade of a fpreading tree, in fome cultivated - planta-
NATURAL
NATURAL history, in its moft extenfive fig-
nification, denotes a knowledge and defeription
fef the whole univerfe. Matters of faft refpe&ing the
heavens, meteors, the atmofphere, the earth, refpeft-
ing all the phenomena, indeed, which occur in the
world, and even of the external parts and aftions of
man himfelf, as far as reafon can difeover them, belong
to the province of natural hiftory ; but when we leave
the fimple recital of effefts,and endeavour to inveftigate
the caufes of fuch and fuch phenomena, we then leave
natural hiftory, and enter on philofophy. The objeft
ef our article, therefore, in the fenfe we have here given
it, is as extenfive as nature itfelf. But, in its more ap¬
propriated fenfe, it is well known that its province only
extends to the furface of the earth, the works on it,
and the inhabitants of it. It treats of thofe fubftances
of which, as far as our refearches have led us, the earth
is compofed, and of thofe organized bodies, whether
vegetable or animal, which adorn its furface, which
rife into the air, or live in the bofom of the waters.—
But as a fcience fo various and comprehenfive could
neither with propriety nor advantage be completely
difeuffed under the general title, we have to refer the
reader to the article Kingdoms fin Natural Hi/inry),
where he will be directed to the different articles which
conftitute either the branches or the objedls of the
fcience, and which are all treated under their re^
fpeftive names. In the prefent article it is propofed
tion. It is obvious, on intuition, that nature often Natural,
intended folely to pleafe the eye in her vegetable pro- *
du&ions. She decorates the flowret that fprings be¬
neath our feet in all the perfe&ions of external beauty.
She has clothed the garden with a conftant fucceffion
of various hues. Even the leaves of the tree undergo
a pleafing viciffitude. The frefli verdure which they
exhibit in the fpring, the various fhades which they
affume in fummer, the yellow and rufiet tinge of au¬
tumn, and the nakednefs of winter, afford a conftant
pleafure to a lively imagination. From the fnow-drop
to the mofs-rofe, the flower garden difplays an infinite
variety of fhape and colour. The tafte of the florift
has been ridiculed as trifling; yet furely without rea¬
fon. Did nature bring forth the tulip and the lily,
the role and the honeyfuckle, to be neglefted by the
haughty pretender to fuperior reafon ? To omit a
fingle ibcial duty for the cultivation of a polyanthus
were ridiculous as well as criminal; but to pafs by the
beauties lavilhed before us, without obferving them, is
no lefs ingratitude than ftupidity. A bad heart finds
little amufement but in a communication v/ith the ac¬
tive world, where fcope is given for the indulgence of
malignant paffions ; but an amiable difpofition is com¬
monly known by a tafte for the beauties of the animal
and the vegetable creation.” In fhort, fince the world
was made for opr ufe, fince the beauties of nature
are alike difplayed before all men, and fince they are
unqueftionably an inexhauftible fund of innocent amufe-
meat; that fubjeft muft be of vaft importance wliich
enables us to relifh them properly.
HISTORY.
to give a general and philofophical view of the fub-
je£t: Tq fet forth, in a ikimmary way, whatever cu¬
rious, worthy to be known, or not obvious to every
obferver, occurs in the three kingdoms of nature : with
their conftitution, laws, and oeconomy 5 or, in other
words, that all-wife difpofition of the Creator in rela¬
tion to natural things, by which they arc fitted to
produce general ends and reciprocal ufes.
Sect. I. Of the Terraqueous Globe in general,
and its changes.
The world, or the terraqueous globe, which we
inhabit, is every-where furraunded with elements, and
contains in its fuperficies the three Kingdoms of Na¬
ture, as they are called : the foffil, which conftitutes the
cruft of the earth ; the vegetable, which adorns the
face of it, and draws the greateft part of its nouriflr-
ment from the foffil kingdom ; and the animal, which
is fuftained by the vegetable kingdom. Thus, then,
thefe three grand divilions, or, as they are commonly
called, kingdoms; cover, adorn, and vary, the fur¬
face of the earth.
As to the strata of the earth and mountains,
as far as we have hitherto been able to difeover, the
upper parts confift of rag-ftone ; the next of flate ; the
third of marble filled with petrifactions; the fourth
again, of ilate : and laftly, the loweft of free ftone.—
4 N 2 The
6$2 NATURAL HISTORY. Sett. I.
Of The habitable part of the earth, though it is fcooped the earth to increafe yearly, more than the country- Of the
ousGUie into va"ous ineclua^es> 7^ is every where high in man would wifh, and ftem to do hurt: but in this Terraquo'
^ous , • r. comparifon with thg water ; and the farther it is from the great induftry of nature deferves to he taken no- ous ^lobe;
the fea it is generally higher Thus the waters in the tice of. For by this means the barren fpots become *
lower places are not at reft, unlefs fome obftacle con- fooner rich meadow and pafture-land. 'Fhefe'hillocks
fines them, and by that means form lakes andmarfhes. are formed by the ant, by ftones and roots, and the
The sea furrounds the continent, and takes up the trampling of cattle : but the principal caufe is the
greateft part of the earth’s furface, as geographers force of the winter-cold, which in the fpring raifes
inform us. Nay, that it once fpread over much the roots of plants fo high above the ground, thad
the greateft part, v e may be convinced by its yearly being expofed to the air, they grow, and perilh j
deer cafe, by the rubbifti left by the tides, by fhells, after which the golden maidenhairs fill the vacant
ftrata, and other circumftances. places.
The fea-fhores are ufually full of dead teftaceous Mountains, hills, valleys, and all the inequalities of
animals, wreck, and fuch like bodies, which are year- the earth, though fome think they take away mucli
ly thrown out of the fea. Ihey are alfo covered with from its beauty, are fo far from producing fuch an
fand of various kinds, ftones, &c. It happens, more- tffeft, that on the contrary they give a more pleafing
ever, that while the more rapid rivers rufb through afpedf, and confer great advantages. For thus the
rarrow valleys, they wear away the fides; and thus the terreftrial fuperficies is larger; different kinds of
friable and foft earth falls in, and its ruins are carried plants thrive better, and ate more eaiily watered ; and
to diftant and winding fbores; whence it is certain, that the rain-waters run in continual ftreams into the fea ^
the continent gains no fmall increafe, as the fea fub- not to mention many other ufes in relation to winds,
fides. heat, and cold. Alps are the higheft mountains, that;
The clouds collefled from exhalations, chiefly, reach to the fecond region of the air, where trees
from the Fa, but likewife from other waters, and cannot grow erect. The higher thefe Alps are, the
moift grounds, and condenfed in the lower regions of colder they are extern paribus. Hence the Alps in
the atmosphere, fupply the earth with rain ; but Sweden, Siberia, Swifferland, Peru, Brafil, Arme-
fince they are attrafted by the mountainous parts of nia, Afia, Africa, are perpetually covered with fnow,
the earth, it neceffarily follows, that thofe parts muft which becomes almoft as hard as ice. But if by
have, as is fit, a larger fhare of water than the reft, chance the fummer heats be greater than ordinary.
Springs, which generally rufh out at the foot of fome part of thefe ftores melts, and runs through rivers
mountains, take their rife from this very rain-water, into the lower regions, which by this means are muchs
and vapours condenfed, that trickle through the holes refrefhed.
and interitices of loofe bodies, and are received into It is fcarcely to be doubted, but that the rocks and:
caverns.
Thefe afford a pure water purged by ftraining;
and rarely dry up in fummer, or freeze in winter,
fo that animals never want a wholefome and refreftiing
liquor.
ftones difperfed over the globe were formed originally
in, and from, the earth ; but when torrents of rain,
have foftened, as they eafily do, the foluble earth, and
carried it down into the lower parts, we imagine it
happens, that thefe folid and heavy bodies, being laid
The chief fources of rivers are fountains and rills bare, flick out above the furface. We might alfo taka
growing by gradual fupplies into ftill larger and
larger ftreams; till at laft, after the conflux of a vaft
(lumber of them, they find no flop, but falling into
the fea with much rapidity, they there depofit the
united ftores they have gathered, along with foreign
matter, and fuch earthy fubftances as they tore off in
their way. Thus the water returns in a circle whence
it firft drew its origin, that it may aft over the fame
feene in continued fucceffion.
Marfties arifing from water retained in low grounds,
are filled with moffy tumps, which are brought down
by the water from the higher parts, or are produced
by putrified plants.
We often fee new meadows arife from mar/hes dried
up. This happens fooner when the fphagmm (a kind
notice of the wonderful effe£l of the tide, fuch a
fee happen from time to time, on the fea-fhoie,. which
being daily and nightly affaulted with repeated blows,,
at length gives way, and breaks off. Hence we fee in
moil places the rubbifti of the fea, and-(hones.
The winter by its froft prepares the earth and
mould, which thence are broken into very minute par¬
ticles, and thus, being put into a mouldering ftate*.
become more fit for the noariftiment of plants; nay,
by its fnow it covers the feeds and roots of plants,
and thus by eold defends them from t)ie force of coUL
We mull add alfo, that the piercing froft of the win¬
ter purifies the atmofphtre and putrid waters, and
makes them more wholefome for animals.
The- perpetual fucceffion of heat and cold with us
of mofs) has laid a foundation ; for this in procefs of renders the fummers more plealing: andtho’ the wim
time changes into a very porous mould, till almolt the ter deprives us of many plasts. and animals, yet the
whole marftr is filled with it. After that the rufh .perpetual fummer v;ithin the tropics is not much more
ftrikes root, and along with the cotton-graffes cobfti- agreeable, as it often deftroys men and other animals
tutes a turf, raifed in fuch a manner that the roots by its immoderate beat; though it muft be confeffed,
get continually higher, and thus lay a more firm fbun- that thofe regions abound with exquifite fruits. Our
dation for other plants, till the whole maifli is changed winters though very troublefome to a great pait of
into a fine and delightful meadow; efpecially if the the globe on account of their vehement and intenfe
water happens to work itfelf a new paffage. cold, yet are lefs hurtful to the inhabitants of the
Hillocks, that abound in low grounds, occafipn northern parts,, as experience teftifits. Henct.it h ap,*
pens,
Sea. If. NATURAL
Of the pens, that we may live very conveniently on every part
a Scafons. Qf t}je earth, as every different country has different
' advantages from nature.
The feafons, like every thing elfe, have their vi-
ciffitudes ; their beginnings, their progrefs, and their
end.
The age of man begins from the cradle; pleafing
childhood fucceeds ; then adive youth ; afterwards
manhood, firm, fevere, and intent upon felf-preferva-
tion ; laftly, old age creeps on, debilitates, and at
length totally deftroys our tottering bodies.
The feafons of the year proceed in the fame way.
Spring, the jovial, playful infancy of all living crea¬
tures, reprefents childhood and youth ; for then plants
fpread forth their luxuriant flowers, fifties exult, birds
fing, every part of nature is intent upon generation.
The fummer, like middle age, exhibits plants, and
trees every where cloathed with green j it gives vigour
to animals, and plumps them up ; fruits then ripen,
meadows look cheerful, every thing is full of life.
On the contrary, autumn is gloomy; for then the leaves
of. trees begin to fall, plants to wither, infers to
grow torpid, and many animals to retire to their win¬
ter-quarters.
The day proceeds with juft fuch fteps as the
year. The morning makes every thing alert, and
fit for bufinefs : the fun pours forth his ruddy rays;
the flowers, which had as it were flept all night,
awake and expand tlrcmfelves again the birds with
their fonorous voices and various notes make the
woods ring, meet together in flocks, and facrifice to
Venus. Noon tempts animals into the fields and
paftures ; the heat puts them upon indulging their
cafe, and even necefiity obliges them to it. Evening
follows, and makes every thing more fluggilh ; flowers
♦ See Vi. UP *> am* aQima^3 retire to their lurking places.
h., s 0y Thus the fpring, the moining, and youth, are proper
fUnts. for generation ; the fummer, noon, and manhood, are
proper for prefervation ; and autumn, evening, and
old age, are not unfitly likened to deftru&ion.
In order to perpetuate the eftablifhed courfe of na¬
ture in a continued feries, the Divine Wifdom has
thought fit that all living creatures fhould conftantly
be employed in producing individuals ; .that all na¬
tural things ftiauld contribute and lend a helping hand
towards preferving every fpecies; and laftly, that the
death and deJJruBion of one thing fhould always be
fubfervjent to the production of another. Hence the
oljeCts of our prefent inquiry, fall to be confidered in
a threefold view, that of propagation>prefervationi and
death or dtjlraction.
Sect. II, The Fojfd Kingdom.,
L Propagation.
It is agreed-on all. hands,, that ftones are not or*
gfanical bodies, like plants and animals and there¬
fore it.is as clear that they are. not produced from an
egg, like the tribes of the. other kingdoms. Hence
the variety of fiofiUs is proportionate to the different
combinations of coalefcent particles ; and hence the
fpecies in the foffil kingdom are not fo diftinCI as in
the. other two. Heace aifo. the laws of generation in
HISTORY. 651
relation to fofiils have been in all ages extremely dif-
ficult to explain ; and laftly, hence have arifen fo many ,K>n^“ori<“,
different opinions about them, that it would be end-
ltIs to enumerate them all. We therefore, for the pre¬
fent, fhall content ourfelves with giving a very few ob-
fervations cn this fubjeCE
Some people fuppofe that clay is the fediment of
the fea; and obfervation fo far feems to go along with
this opinion, for great plenty of it is generally found
along the coafts. Seamen who have been fo accurate
as to keep journals, have obferved, that a very minute
fand covers the bottom of the ocean; and feem to think
that it is daily cryftallized from the water. It is now
generally acknowledged, that teftaceous bodies and
petrifaftions refembling animals were once real animals
or vegetables. It has been fuppofed indeed, that fhells,
being of a calcareous nature. Changed the adjacent
clay, fand, or mould, into the fame kind of fubltancei
Hence it appears certain, that marbles may be gene*
raced from petrifactions; and therefore it is often full
of them. Rag-ftone, the common matter cf our rocks*
appears to be formed from a fandy kind of clay ; molt
frequently, however, this appears to happen where
the earth is impregnated with iron. Free-ltone
feems to be the produCt of fand; and the deeper
the bed where it is found, the more compaCt it be-
comes; and the more denfe the fand, the more eafily
it concretes. But if an alkaline clay chances to be
mixed with the fand, the freeftone is generated more
readily, as in that called cos friatilis particulis argillo-
glarenjis. The flint is almuft the only kind of itone,
certainly the moft common, in chalky mountains.—
It would appear therefore from this to be produced
from chalk : but whether it can be reduced to chalk
again, is left for others to enquire.
StalaCfites, or drop-flone, is compofed f calcare¬
ous particles, adhering to a dry, and generally a vege¬
table body, and is.depofited by dropping water; from
which circumftance it feems to have derived its vulgas-
name.
Incruftations (Syft. Nat. 32. 5. 6. 7. 8.) are, in
general, it appears, generated where a vitriolic water
conneCfs clayey and earthy particles together.
Slate, by the vegetables that are often inclofed in it,,
feems to take its origin from a marfhy mould.
Metals vary according to the nature of the matrix
in which they adhere ; e. g. the pyrites cupri Ealrlu.
menus contains frequently fulphur, arfenic, iron, cop¬
per, a little gold, vitriol, alum, fometimes lead-ore, ,
filver, and zinc. Thus gold,, copper, iron, zincj
arfenic, pyrites, vitriol, come out of the. fame vein.
That very rich iromoie at Normaik in Vermilandia^
where it was cut tranfverRly by a vein of clay, was
changed into pure filver. The number therefore of
fpecies.and varieties of fofliis, each ferving for diffe-;
rent purpofes according to their different natures,
will.be in proportion .as the. different kinds of earths
and ftones are varioufly combined.
II. Preservation. •
As fofliis. are deftitute of life and* organization,::
are hard,, and not obnoxious to putrefaCfion ; fo they
laft longer than any other kind ef bodies. How-
far the air contributes to this duration, it is eafy to
perceive, j, irn.ee air hardens many ftones upon the fur-*
f654- NATURAL
Foffil face of the earth, and makes them more folid, com-
rKm^donr. pa(c^> an{j aye t0 reg[^ the injuries of time. Thus
* ' it is known from vulgar obfervation, that lime that has
been long expofed to the air becomes hardened. The
chalky marl which they ufe in Flanders and about
Bath for building houfes, as long as it continues in
the quarry is friable; but when dug up and expofed to
the air it grows gradually harder.
However ignorant we may be of the caufe why
large rocks are every-where to be feen fplit, whence
vaft fragments are frequently torn off; yet we may
.obferve, that fifibres are clofed up by water, which
gets between them, and is detained there; forming
cryflal and fpar. Hence we fcarcely ever find any
■cryftal, but in thofe ftonea which have retained for
fome time in its chinks, water loaded with ftony
particles. In the fame manner cryllal fills the ca¬
vities in mines, and concrete into quartz or a debafed
•cryft^l.
It is manifeft that Hones are not only generated,
augmented, and changed perpetually, from incrufla-
tions brought upon mofs, but are alfo increafed by
cryftal and fpar. Not to mention that the adjacent
earth, efpecially if it be impregnated with iron par
tides, is commonly changed into a folid flone.
It is faid, that the marble quarries in Italy, from
whence fragments are cut, grow up again. Ores
grow by littlfc and little, whenever the mineral par¬
ticles, conveyed by the means of water through the
clefts of mountains, are retained there ; fo that, ad¬
hering to the homogeneous matter a long while, at
laft they take its nature, and are changed into a fimi-
lar fubftance.
III. Destruction.
Fossils, although they are the hardeft of bodies,
yet are found fubjed to the laws of deftru&ion, as
well as all other created fubftances. For they are
diffolved in various ways by the elements exerting
their force upon them ; as by water, air, and the folar
rays; as alfo by the rapidity of rivers, violence of
catara&s, and eddies, which continually beat upon,
and at laft reduce to powder the hardeft rocks. The
agitations of the fea, and lakes, and the vehemence of
the waves, excited by turbulent winds, pulverife ftones,
as evidently appears by their roundnefs along the
fhore. Nay, as the poet fays,
The hardeft ftone infenfibly gives way
To the foft drops that frequent on it play.
So that we ought not to wonder that thefe very
hard bodies moulder away into powder, and are
obnoxious like others to the confuming tooth of
time.
Sand is formed of free-ftone, which is deftroyed
partly by froft, making it friable ; partly by the agi¬
tation of water and waves, which ealily wear away,
diffolve, and reduce into minute particles what the
froft had made friable.
Chalk is in general fuppofed to be formed of rough
marble, which the air, the fun, and the winds have
OHfolved. The flate earth, or humw? fchifti, (Syft.
Nat. 512.) owes its origin to flate, fliowers, air, and
fnow melted.
Ochre is formed of metals diffolved, and prefents
the very fame colours which we always find the
HISTORY. Sea. Ill*
ore tinged with when expafed to the air. Vitriol" Vegetable
in the fame manner mixes with water from ore de- KlI,gdo,n'
The muria faxatilis (Syft. Nat. 14. 6 ), a kind of
talky ftone, yielding fait in the parts that are turned to
the fun, is diffolved into fand, which falls by little and
little upon the earth till the whole is confumed ; not
to mention other kinds of foffils. Laftly, from thefe
there arife new foffils, as we mentioned before ; fo that
the deftruiftion of one thing ferves for the generation
of another.
Teftaceous worms ought not to be paffed over on
this occafion, for they eat away the hardeft rocks.
That fpecies of fhell fifti called the ra%or-Jhell bores
through ftones in Italy, and hides itfelf within them ;
fo that the people who eat them are obliged to break
the ftones before they can come at them. The
cochlea, {Faun. Suet 1299.) a kind of fnail that lives
on craggy rocks, eats and bores through the chalky
hills, as worms do through wood. This is made
evident by the obfervations of the celebrated de Geer.
It ought to be obferved here, that, there are often
found dead infe&s in the hearts of the hardeft rocks,
without any vifible trace of the manner of their get.
ting there ; from whence many have fuppofed that
ftones were origina’ly fluid. Concerning fuch mat¬
ters, about which we have but little data, there wil
always be a great diverfity of opinions. It is not our
bufinefs, at leaft in this place, to give an opinion on
a doubtful fubjedt: the fadt is fo ; of the caufe let
others judge.
Sect. III.. The Vegetable Kingdom*
1. Propagation.
Anatomy abundantly proves, that all plants are or¬
ganic and living bodies ; and that all organic bodies
are propagated from an egg has been fufficientlydemon-
ftrated by the induftry of modern writers. We there¬
fore the rather, according to the opinion of the ikilful,
rejefl the equivocal generation of plants; and the more
fo, as it is certain that every living thing is produced
from an egg. Now the feeds of vegetables are called
eggs ; thele are different in every different plant, that
the means being the fame, each may multiply its fpe¬
cies, and produce an offspring like its parent. We d»
not deny, that very many plants pufti forth from theit
roots frefh offsets for two or more years. Nay, not a
few plants may be propagated by branches, buds,
fuckers, and leaves, fixed in the ground, as likewiVe
many trees. Hence their ftems being divided into
branches, may be looked on as roots above ground ;
for in the fame way the roots creep under ground, and
divide into branches. And there is the more reafon
for thinking fo, becaufe wre know that a tree will
grow in an inverted fituation, vix. the roots being
placed upwards, and the head downwards, and buried
in the ground; for then the branches will become roots,
and the roots will produce leaves and flowers. The
lime-tree will ferve for an example, on which gardener#
have chiefly made an experiment. Yet this by no
means overturns the doftrine, that all vegetables are
propagated by feeds ; fince it is clear, that in each of
tlie foregoing inftances nothing vegetates but what
was
Sea. nr. natural
Vegetable was the part of a plant, formerly produced from feed;
Kingdom. f0 tbat, accurately fpeaking, without feed no new plant
f is produced
Thus again plants produce feeds; hut they are en¬
tirely unfit for propagation, unlefs fecundation pre¬
cedes, which is performed by an intercourfe between
different fexes, as experience teftifies. Plants there¬
fore mufl be provided with organs of generation ;
in which refpedt they are analogous to animals.—
Since in every plant the flower always precedes the
fruit, and the fecundated feeds vifibly arife from the
fruit ; it is evident that the. organs of generation are
contained in the flower, which organs are called an¬
ther* and Jligmaia, and that the. impregnation is ac-
compliihed within the flower. This impregnation is
performed by means of the duff of.the anthera: falling
upon the moift ftigmata, where the duft adheres, is
burft, and fends forth a very fubtle matter, which is
abforbed by the flyle, and is con veyed down to the ru¬
diments of the feed, and thus renders it fertile. When
this operation is over, the organs of generation wither
snd fall, nay a change in the whole flower enfues. We
muft, however, obferve, that in the vegetable kingdom
one and the fame flower does not always contain the
organs of generation of both fexes, but oftentimes the
male organs are on one plant and the female on another.
But that the bufinefs of impregnation may go on fac-
i; ceftfully, and that no plant /nay be deprived of the ne-
i ceflary 3uft,. the whole molt elegant apparatus of the
antherae and lligmata in every flower is contrived with
wonderful wifdom.
For in moft flowers the llamina furround the piftils,
and are of about the fame height: but there are many
plants in which the piltil is longer than the ftamina;
and in thefe it is wonderful to obferve, that the Creator
has made the flowers recline, in order that the duft.
may the more eafily fall into the ftigma, e g. in the
campanula, cowflip, &c. This curious phenomenon
did not efeape the poetical eye ©f Milton, who de-
feribes it in the following enlivened imagery:
With cowflips wan, that hang the penfive head.
But when the fecundation is completed, the flowers
rife again, that the ripe feeds may not fall out before
they are difperfed by the winds. In other flowers, on
the contrary, the piftil is Ihorter, and there the flowers
preferve an eredt fituation ; nay, when the flowering
comes on, they become eredf, though before they were
drooping, or immerfed under water. Laftly, whenever
the male flowers are placed below the female ones, the
leaves are exceedingly fmall and narrow, that they may
not hinder the duft from flying upwards like ftnoke ;
as we fee in the pine, fir, yew, fea-grape, juniper, cy-
prefs, &c. And when in one and the fame fpecies
one plant is male and the other female, and confequent-
ly may be far from one another, there the duft, with¬
out which there is no impregnation, is carried in'abun-
dance by the help of the wind from the male to the
female ; as in the whole dioscious clafs. Again, a
, more difficult impregnation is compenf ted by the lon¬
gevity of the individuals, and the continuation of life
by buds, fuckers, and roots ; fo that we may obferve
every thing moft wifely difpofed in this affair. More¬
over, we cannot without admiration obferve, that moft
flowers expand themfelves when the fun fhines forth ;
whereas when clouds, rain, or the evening comes on,
HISTORY. 655
they clofe up, left the genital duft ffiould be coagulated Vegetable
or rendered ufelefs, fo that it cannot be conveyed to Kingdom,
the ftigmata. But what is ftill more remarkable and ^77 avftea*
wonderful, when the fecundation is over, the flowers, tippubiifii-
neither in 1 fin nor on the approach of night clofe ed in
themfelves up Hence when rain falls in the flowering tcad.'iQX. 'u
time, the hufbandman and gardener foretel a fcarcity 1 *
of fruits. To mcTition only one particular more: The pla„iarum>
organs of generation, which in the animal kingdom
are by nature generally removed from fight, in the ve¬
getable are expofed to the eyes of all; and that when
their nuptials are celebrated, it is wonderful what de¬
light they afford to the fpeiftator by their moft beau¬
tiful colours and delicious odours. At this rime bees,
flies, and other infers, fuck honey out of their nedfa-
ries, not to mention the humming bird; and that from
their effite duft the bees gather wax. All the experi¬
ments that have hitherto been made feem to confirm
the hypothefis above unfolded ; although it has lately
been controverted by the author of the Pbi/u/ophy of
Natural Hi/lory.
As to the diffemination of feeds after they come
to maturity, it being abfolutely neceffary, fince with¬
out it no crop could follow, the Author of nature haa-
wifely provided foi this affair in numberiefc ways.
The ftalks and ftems favour s purpofe; for thefe
ratfe the fruit above the ground, that the winds, /ba¬
king them to and fro, may difperfe far off the ripe
feeds. Moll of the pericarpies are /hut at top, that
the feeds may not fall before they are /haken out by
ftormy winds. Wings are given to many feeds, by
the help of which they fly far from the mother-plant,,
and oftentimes fpread over a whole country. Thefe
wings confift either of a down, as in moll of the com-
pofite-flowered plants; or of a membrane, as in the
birch, alder, a/h, &c. Hence woods, which happen
to be confumed by fire or any other accident, will,
foon be reftored again by new plants diffeminated by
this means Many kinds of fruits are endued with a
remarkable elafticity, by the force of which the ripe
pericarpies throw the feeds to a great diftance; as the
wood-forrel, the fpurge, the phyllanthus, the dittany.
Other feeds or pericarpies are rough, or provided with
hooks; fo that they are apt to Hick to animals that
pafs by them, and by this means are carried to their
holes, where they are both fown and manured by na¬
ture’s wonderful care: and therefo e the plants of thefe
feeds grow where others will not; as hounds-tongue,
agrimony, &e.
Berries and other pericarpies are by nature allotted
for aliment to animals; but with this condition, that,
while they eat the pulp they /hall fow the feeds: for
when they feed upon it, they either difperfe them at
the fame time ; or, if they fwallow them, they are re¬
turned with intereft, for they always come out unhurt.
It is not therefore furprifing, that, if a field be manu¬
red with recent mud or dung not quite rotten, various
other plants, injurious to the farmer, ftiould come up
along with the grain that is fowed. Many have be¬
lieved that barley or rye has been changed into oats,
although all fuch kinds of metamorphofes are repug¬
nant to the laws of generation ; not confidering, that
there is another caufe of this phenomenon, vi%. that
the ground perhaps has been manured with horfe-dung,.
in which the feeds of oats, coming entire from the.
4 horfe*.
656 NATURAL
Vep^euble liorfe, lit hid and produce that grain. The mifletoe
Kingdom. ajwayg grows upon other trees, becaufe the thritfli that
eats the feeds of it, ca^s them forth with its dung;
and as bird-catqhers make their bird-lime of this fame
plant, and daub the branches of trees with it. in order
to catch the thrufh, the proverb hence took its rife :
The thrufh, when he befouls the bongh,
Sows for himfelf the feeds of wo.
It is not to be doubted, but that the greateft part
of the junipers alfo, that fill our woods, are fown by
thrufhes, and other birds, in the fame manner; as the
berries, being heavy, cannot be difperfed far by the
winds. The crofs-bill that Jives on the fir-cones, and
the hawfinch that feeds on the pine-cones, at the fame
time fow many of their feeds; efpecially when they
carry the cone to a done, or trunk of a tree, that they
may more eafily ftrip it of its feales. Swine likewife,
by turning up the earth, and moles by throwing up
"hillocks, prepare the ground for feeds in the fame man¬
ner as the ploughman does.
We pafs over many other things which might be
mentioned concerning the fea, lakes, and rivers, by the
help of which oftentimes feeds are conveyed unhurt to
diftant countries. A variety of other ways in which
nature provides for i*-: difiemination of plants, has
been pointed out by Linnseus in an Oration concerning
the augmentation of the habitable earth. As there is fome-
thing very ingenious and quite new in the treatife here
referred to, we fhall, for the fake of thofe who cannot
read the original, add a (hort abftraft of it. His de-
lign is to (how, that there was only one pair of all
living things, created at the beginning. According to
■the account of Mofes, fays the author, we are furc
that this was the cafe in the human fpecies; and by
the fame account we are informed that this firft pair
was placed in Eden, and that Adam gave names to all
the animals. In order therefore that Adam might be
enabled to do this, it was necefiary that all the fpecies
of animals fliould he in paradife; which could not
happen unkfs alfo all the fpecies of vegetables had
been there likewife. This he proves from the nature
of their food ; particularly in relation to infedfs, moft
of which live upon one plant only. Now had the world
been formed in its prefent Hate, it could not have hap¬
pened that all the fpecies of animals fliould have been
there. They mull have been difperfed over all the
globe, as we find they are at prefent; which he thinks
improbable for other reafons which we (hall pafs over
for fake of brevity. To folve all the phenomena, then,
he lays down as a principle, That at the beginning all
the earth was covered with the fea, unlefs one ifland
large enough to contain all animals and vegetables.
This principle he endeavours to eltabliih by feveral
phenomena, which makes it probable that the earth has
been and is ftill gaining upon the fea, and does not for¬
get to mention foffil ihells and plants every where
found, which he fays cannot be accounted for by the
deluge. He then undertakes to (how how all vege¬
tables and animals might in this ifland have a foil and
climate proper for each, only by fuppofing it to be pla¬
ced under the equator, and crowned with a very high
mountain. For it is well known that the fame plants
are found on the Swifs, the Pyrenean, the Scots Alps,
on Olympus, Lebanon, Ida, as on the Lapland and
No 237.
HISTORY, Sedl. III.
Greenland Alps. And Tournefort found at the bot- VegetaMe
tom of mount Ararat the common plants of Armenia, Kln£dQrn',
a little way up thofe of Italy, higher thofe which grow >
about Paris, afterwards the Swedifli plants, and laltly
on the top the Lapland Alpine plants; and I myfelf,
adds the author, from the plants growing on the Da-
lecarlian Alps could colleft how much lower they were
than the Alps of Lapland. He then proceeds to ihow
how from one plant of each fpecies the immenfe num¬
ber of individuals now exifting might arife. He gives
fome inftancea of the furprifing fertility of certain
plants ; v. g. the elecampane, one plant of which pro¬
duced 3000 feeds ; of fpelt, 2000 ; of the fun-flower,
4000; of the poppy- 3200; of tobacco, 40,320. But
fuppofing any annual plant producing yearly only two
feeds, even of this, after 20 years, there would be
1,048,57(5 individuals. For they would increafe yearly
in a duple proportion, wz. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. He
then gives fome inftances of plants brought from A-
merica, that are now become common over many parts
of Europe. Laftly, he enters upon a detail of the fe¬
veral methods which nature has taken to propagate ve¬
getables, which is extremely curious, but too long to
infert in this place.
II. Preservation.
1. The great Author and Parent of all things de¬
creed, that the whole earth fliould be covered with
plants, and that no place fhould be void, none barren.
But fince all countries have not the fame changes of
feafons, and every foil is not equally fit for every plant;
he therefore, that no place fliould be without fome,
gave to every one of them fuch a nature, as might be
chiefly adapted to the climate : fo that fome of them
can bear an intenfe cold, others an equal degree of
heat; fome delight in dry ground, others in moift, &c.
Hence the fame plants grow only where there are the
fame feafons of the year, and the fame foil.
The Alpine plants live only in high and cold fitua-
tions; and therefore often on the Alps of Armenia,
Switzerland, the Pyreneans, Sec. whofe tops are equally
covered with eternal fnows as thofe oi the Lapland
Alps, plants of the fame kind are found, and it would
be in vain to feek for them any where elfe. It is re¬
markable, in relation to the Alpine plants, that they
blow, and ripen their feeds very early, leit the winter,
fliould fteal upon them on a hidden, and deflroy them.
Our northern pkyits, although they are extremely
rare everywhere elfe, yet are found in Siberia, and
about Hudfun’s Bay; as the arbutus, bramble, winter-
green, &c.
Plants impatient of cold live within the torrid zones;
hence both the Indies, though at fuch a diltance from
one another, have plants in common. The Cape of
Good Hope, we know not from what caufe, produces Jg
plants peculiar to itfelf; as all the mefembryanthema,
and almoft all the fpecies of aloes. Graffes, the moft
common of all plants, can bear almoft any temperature
of air : in which the good providence of the Creator
particularly appears; for all over the globe, they above
all plants are neceflary for the nourifhment of cattle ;
and the fame thing is feen in relation to our moft com¬
mon grains.
Thus neither the fcorching fun, nor the pinching fl|
cold, hinders any country from having its vegetables.
3 Nor
Sea. m. NATURAL
Vegetable Nor !s there any foil which does not bring forth many
Kingdom. k;nds 0f plants. The pond-weeds, the water-lily, lo-
' ' ' belia, inhabit the waters. The flaviales, fuel, confer-
vte, cover the bottoms of rivers, and fea. The fphag-
* A kind na * fill the mat Hies. The bryaf clothe the plains,
kofmofs. The drieft woods, and places fcarce ever illuminated
•t Another fjjg ray8 0f fun> are adorned with the hypna.
! niofL° ^ay> fitmes and the trunks of trees are not except¬
ed, for thefe arc covered with various kinds of liver¬
wort.
The defart and moft Tandy places have their pecu¬
liar trees and plants; and as rivers or brooks are very
feldom found there, we cannot without wonder obferve
that many of them diftil water, and by that means af¬
ford the greatefi: comfort both to man and beaft that
la * A kind of travel there. Thus the tillandfia^;, which is a parafi-
Bnvifletoe. tical plant, and grows on the tops of trees in the de¬
farts of America, has its leaves turned at the bafe into
the ftiape of a pitcher, with the extremity expanded;
in thefe the rain is collefted, and preferved for thirfiy
men, birds, and beafts.
The water-tree in Ceylon produces cylindrical blad¬
ders, covered with a lid ; into thefe is fecreted a moft;
pure and refreftiing water, having the tafte of ne&ar.
There is a kind of cuckow-pint in New France, that
if you break a branch of it will afford you a pint of
excellent water. How wife, how beautiful, is the
agreement between the plants of every country, and
its inhabitants, and other circumftances !
2. Plants oftentimes by their very ftrufture contri¬
bute remarkably both to their own prefervation and
that of others. But the wifdom of the Creator appears
no where more than in the manner of the growth of
trees. For as their roots defeend deeper than thofe of
other plants, provifion is thereby made, that they fiiall
not rob them too much of nourifhment; and what is
ftill more, a ftem not above a fpan in diameter often
ftioots up its branches very high ; thefe bear perhaps
many thoufand buds, each of which is a plant, with its
leaves, flowers, and ftipulae. Now if all thefe grew
upon the plain, they would take up a thoufand times
as much fpace as the tree does; and in this cafe there
would fcarcely be room in all the earth for fo many
plants as at prefent the trees alone afford. Befides,
plants that flioot up in this way are more eafily pre¬
ferved From cattle by a natural defence ; and farther,
their leaves falling in autumn cover the plants growing
about againft the rigour of the winter; and in the fum-
mer they afford a pleafing ftiade, not only to animals,
but to plants, againft the intenfe heat of the fun. We
may add, that trees, like all other vegetables, imbibe
the water from the earth; which water does not circu¬
late again to the root, as the ancients imagined, but
being difperfed, like fmall rain, by the transpiration of
the leaves, moiftens the plants that grow around. A-
gain, many trees bear flefijy fruits of the berry or apple
kind, which, being fecure from the attack of cattle,
grow ripe for the ufe of man and other animals, while
; their feeds are difperfed up and down after digeftion.
Tafily, the particular ftru&ure of trees contributes very
much to the propagation of infe&s; for thefe chiefly
lay their eggs upon the leaves, where they are fecure
from the reach of cattle.
Ever-green trees and fluubs in the northern parts are
< chiefly found in the mofl barren woods, that they may
'■Vo-l. X11. Part II. 7 7
HISTORY. 657
be a fitelter to animals in the winter. They lofe their Vegetable
leaves only every third year, as their feeds are fuffi- Kingdom,
ciently guarded by the moffes, and do ndt want any ' * ~
other covering. The palms in the hot countries per¬
petually keep their leaves, for there the feeds ftand in
no need of any flicker whatever.
Many plants and fiirubs are armed with thorns, e.
the buckthorn, floe, carduus, cotton-thiftle, &c. that
they may keep off the animals which otherwife would
deftroy their fruit. Thefe at the fame time cover many
other plants, efpecially of the annual kind, under their
branches. Nay, it has frequently been obferved upon
commons where furze grows, that wherever there was
a bufli left untouched for years by the commoners,
fome tree has fprung up, being fecured by the prickles
of that flirub from the bite of cattle. So that while
the adjacent grounds are robbed of all plants by the
voracity of animals, fome may be preferred to ripen
flowers and fruit, and ftock the parts about with feeds,
which otherwife would be quite extirpated.
All herbs cover the ground with their leaves, and
by their fiiade hinder it from being totally deprived of
that moifture which is neceffary to their nourilhment.
They are moreover an ornament to the earth, efpe¬
cially as leaves have a more agreeable verdure on the
upper than the under fide.
The moffes which adorn the moft barren places, at
the fame time, preferve the leffer plants when they be¬
gin to filoot, from cold and drought ; as we find by
experience in our gardens, that plants are preferved in •
the fame way. They alfo hinder the fermenting earth
from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the fpring;
as we fee happen annually to trunks of trees, and other
things put into the ground. Hence very few moffes
grow in the warmer climates, as not being fo necefiary
to that end in thofe places.
The Englifh fea mat-weed, or marran, will bear no
foil but pure fand, which natuie has allotted to it.
Sand, the produce of the fea, is blown by winds often¬
times to very remote parts, and deluges, as it were,
woods and fields. But where this grafs grows, it fre¬
quently fixes the fand, gathers it into hillocks, and
thrives fo much, that by means of this alone at laft an
entire hill of fand is railed. Thus the fand is kept in
bounds, other plants are preferved free from it, the
ground is increafed, and the fea is repelled by this won¬
derful difpofition of nature. This feems to be the fame
plant which is called in Scotland bent, and is particu¬
larly ufeful for the purpofe above mentioned, and only
grows among fand along the fea-coaft.
How folicitous nature is about the prefervation of
graffes is abundantly evident from hence, that the more
the leaves of the perennial graffes are eat, the more
they creep by the roots, and fend forth offsets. For
the Author of nature intended that vegetables of this
kind, which have very flender and ereft leaves, fliould
be copious, and very thick fet, covering the ground like
a carpet; and thus afford food fufficient for Fo vaft a
quantity of grazing animals. But what chiefly in-
creafes our wonder is, that although the graffes are
the principal food of fuch animals, yet they are forbid
as it were to touch the flower and feed-bearing Hems,
that fb the feeds may ripen and be fown.
The caterpillar or grub of the moth, although it
feeds upon . graffes, to the great deftrudion of them
4 O in
6.53 N- A T U R A l.
Vegetable Jn meadows, yet i*t feems to be formed in order to
^Kingdom, a ^ue proportion between thefe and other plants;
for graffts, when left to grow freely, inertafe to that
degree, that they exclude all other plants; which
would consequently be extirpated, unlefs this'infeft
fometimes prepared a place., for them. Henge always
more fpecies of plants appear in thofe places where
this caterpillar has laid wade the-paftures the prece¬
ding year than at any other time.
III. Destruction,
Daily experience teaches us, that all plants, as
well as all other created things, mufVfubmit to death.
They fpring up, they grow, they flourifh, they ri¬
pen their fruit, they wither, and at laft, having finiih-
ed thejr courfe, they die, and return to the duib again,
from whence they firft took their rife. Thus all black
mould, which every where covers the earth, for the
greateft part is owing to dead vegetables. For all roots
defcend into the fand by their branches, and after a
plant has loft its ftem the root remains; but this too
rots at laft, and changes into mould. By this means
this kind of earth is mixed with fand, by the contri-
* vance of nature, nearly in the fame way as dung
thrown upon fields is wrought into the earth by the
induftry of the hufbairdman. The earth thus prepa¬
red offers again to plants from its bofom what it has
received from them. For when feeds are committed
to the earth, they draw to themfelves, accommodate
to their nature, and turn into plants, the more fubtile
parts of this mould by the co-operation of the fun,
air, and rains; fo that the talleft tree is, properly
fpeaking, nothing but mould wonderfully compound¬
ed with air and water, and modified by a virtue com¬
municated to a fmall feed by the Creator. From thefe
plants, when they die, juft the fame kind of mould
is formed as gave birth to them originally ; whence
fertility remains continually uninterrupted. Whereas
the earth could not make good its annual confump-
tion, unlefs it were conftantly recruited by new fup-
plies.
The cruftaceous liverworts are the firft foundation
of vegetation; and therefore are plants of the utmoft
confequence in the (Economy of nature, though fo defpi-
fed by us. When rocks firft emerge out of the fea,
they are fo polifhed by the force of the waves, that
fcarce any herb can find a fixed habitation upon them ;
as we may obferve every where near the fea. But the
very minute cruftaceous liverworts begin foon to cover
thefe dry rocks, although they have no other nourifh-
ment but that fmall quantity of mould and impercep¬
tible particles which the rain and air bring thither.
Thefe liverworts dying at laft turn into a very fine
earth ; on this earth the imbricated liverworts find a
bed to ftrike their roots in. Thefe alfo die after a
time, and turn to mould ; and then the various kinds
of moffes, e,£-vthe hypna, the brya, polytricha, find a
proper place and nourifliment. Daftly, tbefe dying in
their turn, and rotting, afford fuch plenty of new-
formed mould, that herbs and Ihrubs eaiily root and
Jive upon it.
That trees, when they are dry or are cut down, may
riot remain ufelefs to the world, and lie as it were me¬
lancholy fpeftacless nature haftens on their deftruftion
la a lingular way ; firfi, the liverworts begifi to ftrike
H I S T O R Y. Sea. IV
root in them ; afterwards the monlure is drawn out of Anirral
them; whence putrefadion follows. Then the muftr- Kingdom
room kinds find a fit place for nourilhment on them, "
and corrupt them ft ill more. The beetle called der-
mi’Jles, next makes himfeif a way between the bark and
the wood. The mulk-beetle, the copper talc-beetle,
and the caterpillar or coffus 812 (5. A7.) bores an infi¬
nite number of holes through the trunk. Datily, the
woodpeckers come, and, while they are feeking for
infe&s, wear away the tree already corrupted ; tjli
the whole paffts into earth. Such induftry does na¬
ture ufe to deftroy the trunk of a tree ! Nay, trees im-
merfed in water would fcarcely ever be deftroyed,
were it not for the worm that eats fhips, which per¬
forms this work; as the failor knows by fad expe¬
rience.
Thiftles, as the moll ufeful of plants, are armed
and guarded by nature herfelf. Suppofe there were a
heap of clay, on which for many years no plant has
fprung up ; let the feeds of the thiftle blow there, and
grow, the thiftles by their leave? attraft the moifture
out of the air, fend it into the clay by means of their
roots, will thrive themfelves, and afford a lhade. Let
now other plants come hither, and they will foon coyer
the ground.
All fucculent plants make ground fine, of a good
quality, and in great plenty ; as fedum, craffula, aloe,
algoe. But dry plants make it more barren, a? heath,
pines, mofs ; and therefore nature has placed the fuc¬
culent plants on rocks and the drieft hills.
Sect. IV. The Animal Kingdom.
I. Propagation.
t. The generation of animals holds the firft place
among all things that raife our admiration when we
confider the works of the Creator; and chiefly that ap¬
pointment by which he has regulated the conception
of the feetus, and its exclulion, that it fliould be adap¬
ted to the difpolition and way of living of each ani¬
mal, is moft worthy of our attention.
We find no fpecies of animals exempt from the
flings of love, which is put into them to the end that
the Creator’s mandate may be fexecuted, Incrcafe and
multiply; and that thus the egg, in which is contain¬
ed the rudiment of the foetus, may be fecundated ; for
without fecundation all eggs are unfit to produce an
offspring.
Foxes and wolves, ftruck with thefe flings, every
where howl in the woods ; crowds of dogs follow the
.fjemale; bulls fhow a terrible countenance, and very-
different from that of oxen. Stags every year have
new horns, which they lofe after rutting time. Birds
look more beautiful than ordinary, and warble all day
long through lafeivioufnefs. Thus fmall birds labour
to putfrng one another,, and cocks to outcrow. Pea>-
cocks fpread forth again their gay and glorious trains.
Fithes gather together, and exult in the water ; and
grafhopperg chirp, and pipe, as it were, amongft the
herbs. The ants gather again into colonies, and re¬
pair to their citadels. We pafs over many other par¬
ticulars which this fubjeft affords, to avoid prolixity.
2. The fecundated egg requires a certain and.
proportionate degree of heat for the expanfion of the
ilaminac
Sea. IV. NATURAL
Ammai ftamina of the-embryo. That this may be obtained,
^Kingdom, nature operates in different manners ; and therefore we
t " r"' ' find in different claffes of animals a different way of
excluding the foetus.
The females of quadrupeds have an uterus, contriv
ved for eafy geftation, temperate and cherifliing
warmth, and proper nourifhment of the fcetns, as molt
of them live upoiv'the earth, and are there fed.
Birds, in order to get fubfiftence, and for other
reafons, are under a neceffi'ty of ff ifting place ; and
that not upon their feet, but wings. Geftation therefore
would be burtherifome to them. . F6r this reafon they
lay eggs, covered with a hard ffell. Thefe they fit
upon by a natural inftindt, and cherifti till the young
one comes forth.
The oftrich and caffbwary are almoft the only birds
that do not obferve this law ; thefe commit their eggs
to the fand, where the intenfe heat of the fun excludes
the foetus.
Fifties inhabit cold waters, and moft of them have
cold blood ; whence it ,happens that they have not heat
fufficient to produce the foetus. The all-wife Creator
therefore has ordained, that moft of them ftiould lay
their eggs near the fhore ; where, by means of the
folar rays, the water is warmer, and alfo fitter for
that purpofe ; and alfo becaufe water-infe&s abound
more there, which afford the young fry nouriftiment.
Salmon, when they are about to lay their eggs, are
led by inftind to go up the llream, where the Water
is frefh and more pure.
The butterfly-fifh is an exception, for that brings
forth its foetus alive.
The filh of the ocean, which cannot reach the Ihores
by reafon of the diftance, are alfo exempt from this
law. The Author of nature has given to this kind
eggs that fwim ; fo that they are hatched amidft the
fwimming fucus, called fargazo *.
Ze /r*8g. Tbe cetaceous fifh have warm blood ; and therefore
they bring forth their young alive, and fuckle them
with their teats.
Many amphibious animals bring forth live fostufes,
as the viper and the toad, &c. But the fpecies that
lay eggs, lay them in places where the heat of the fun
fupplies the warmth of the parent.
Thus the reft of the frog kind, and the lizard kind,
lay their eggs in warm waters ; the common fnake, in
dunghills, and fuch like warm places ; and give them
up to nature, as a provident nurfe, to take care of them.
The crocodile and fea-tortoifes go afirore to lay their
eggs under the fand, where the heat of the fun hatches
them.
Moft of the- infed kind neither bear young nor
hatch eggs: yet their tribes are the moft numerous
of all living creatures; infomuch, that if the bulk of
their bodies were proportionate to their quantity, they
would fcarce leave room for any other kinds of ani-
| mals. Let us fee therefore with what wifdom the
Creator has managed about, the propagation of thefe
minute creatures. The females by natural inftind meet
and copulate'with the males ; and afterwards lay their
eggs : but not indifcriminately in every place. For
they all know how to choofe fuch places as may fupply
their offspring in its tender age with nourifhment, and
other things neceffary to fatisiy their natural wants:
for the mother, foon after fhe has laid her eggs, dies;
HISTORY, 659
and were fhe to live, fhe would not have it in her Animal
power to take care of her young. Kingdom.^
Butterflies, moths, fome beetles, weevils, bugs, cue- v
kow-fpit infeds, gall-infeds; tree-bugs, &c. by their
eggs on the leaves of plants, and every different tribe
choofes its own fpecies of plant. Nay, there is fcarce'
any plant which does not afford nourifhment to fome'
infed ; and ftill more, there is fcarcely a'ny part of a
plant which is not preferred by fome of them. Thus
one infed feeds upon the flower; another upon the
trunk ; another upon the root; and another upon the
leaves. But we cannot help wondering particularly,
when we fee how the leaves of forae trees and plants,
after eggs have been let into them, grow into galls ;
and form dwellings, as it were, for the young ones'.
Thus when the gall-infed -has fixed her eggs in the
leaves of an oak, the wound of the leaf fwells, and
a knob like an apple arifes, which includes and nou-
rifhes the embryo.
When the tree-bug has depofited its eggs in th6
boughs of the fir-tree, excrefeences arife fhaped like
pearls. When another fpecies of the tree-bug has de¬
pofited its eggs in the moufe-ear chickweed or the
fpeedwell, the leaves contrad in a wonderful manner
into the fhape of a head. The water-fpider excludes
eggs either on the extremities of the juniper, which
from thence forms a lodging, that looks like the arrow-
headed grafs ; or on'the leaves of the poplar, front
whence a red globe is produced. The tree-loufe lays
its eggs on the leaves of the black poplar, which turn
into a kind of inflated bag ; and fo in other inftances.
Nor is it upon plants only that infeds live and lay
their eggs. The gnats commit theirs to ftagnating
waters. The water-infed called monoculus often in-
creafes fo immenfely on pools, that the red legions of
them have the appearance of blood. Others lay their
eggs in other places: e.g. the beetle, in dunghills;
the dermeftes, in Ikins ; the flefli fly, in putrified fldh ;
the cheefe-maggot, in the cracks of cbeefe, from
whence the caterpillars iffuing forth, oftentimes con-
fume the whole cheefe, and deceive many people, who
fancy the worms are produced from the particles of
the cheefe itfelf, by a generation called equivocal, which
is extremely abfurd. Others exclude their eggs upon
certain animals. The mill-beetle lays its eggs between
the feales of fifties; the fpecies of gad-fly, on the
back of cattle ; the fpecies 1025 (S'. N.) on the back
of the rein-deer; the fpecies 1026, in the nofes of fiieep.
The fpecies 1028 lodges during the winter in the in-
teftinal tube, or the throat of horfes, nor can it be
driven out till the fummer comes on. Nay, infeds
themfebes are often furrounded with the eggs of other
infeds, infomuch that there is fcarcely an animal to be
found which does not afford food for other animals’.
Almoft all the eggs of infeds, when laid, are ordained
fo undergo, by a wonderful law of nature, various
metamorphofes, e. g, the egg of the butterfly, being
laid in the cabbage, firft of all becomes a caterpillar,
that feeds on the herb, crawls, and has 16 feet. This
afterwards changes into a nymph, that has no feet, is
fmeoth, ?nd eats nothing ; and laftly, this buifts into
a butterfly that flies, has variety of colours, is hairy,
and lives upon honey. What can be more worthy of
admiration than that one and the fame animal (hould
appear on the*ftage of life under fo many charaders,
6 4 O 2 as
6£o NATURAL
Animal as if it were three diftinft animals. Linnseus (Aman.
, om'. Academ. tom. ii.) in a treatife on the wonders rela¬
ting to infers, fays, “ As furprifmg as thefe transfor¬
mations may feem, yet much the fame happens when
a chicken is hatched ; the only difference is, that this
chicken breaks all three coats at once, the butterfly
one after another.”
The laws of generation of worms are ftill very ob-
fcure ; as we find they are fometimes produced by eggs,
fometimes by offsets, juft in the fame manner as hap¬
pens to trees It has been obferved with the greateft
admiration, that the polypus or hydra (S. N. 221 )
lets down (hoots and live branches, by which it is mul¬
tiplied. Nay more, if it be cut into many parts, each
fegment, put into the water, grows into a perfeft ani¬
mal ; fo that the parts which were torn off are re-
ftored, and form a complete and perfeA animal like
that from which it was torn.
3. The multiplication of animals is not tied down to
the fame rules in all; for fome have a remarkable
power of propagating, others are confined within nar¬
row limits in this refpeft. Yet in general we find,
that nature obferves this order, that the leaft animals,
and thofe which are ufeful and ferve for nourifhment
to the greateft number of other animals, are endued
with a greater power of propagating than others.
Mites, and many other infefts, will multiply to a
thoufand within the compafs of a very few days;
while the elephant fcarcely produces one young in two
years.
The hawk-kind generally lay not above two eggs,
at moft four ; while the poultry kind produce from 50
to 100.
The diver, or loon, which is eaten by few animals,
lays alfo two eggs ; but the duck kind, the moor-
game, partridges, Sec. and fmall birds, lay a very large
number.
If you fuppofe two pigeons to hatch nine times a-
year, they may produce in four years 14,760 young.
They are endued with this remarkable fertility, that
they may^ferve for food, not only for man, but for
hawks aud other birds of prey. Nature has made
harmlefs and efculent animals fruitful. She has for¬
bid the bird kind to fall (hort of the number of eggs
allotted to each fpecies: and therefore, if the eggs
which they intend to fit upon be taken away a certain
number of times, they prefently lay others in their
room, as may be feen in the fwallow, duck, and fmall
birds-
II. Preservation.
1. Prefcrvation follows generation : this appears
chiefly in the tender age, while the young are unable
to provide for their own fupport. For then their pa¬
rents, though otherwife ever fo fierce in their difpoli-
tion, are affedted with a wonderful tendernef* orfenfe
of love towards their progeny, and fpare no pains to
provide for, guard, and preferve them ; and that not
by an imaginary law’, but one given by the Lord of
nature himfelf.
Quadrupeds give fuck to their tender young, and
fupport them by a liquor perfe&ly eafy of digeftion,
till nature enables them to digeft what is more folid.
Nay, their love toward them isfo great, that they en¬
deavour to repel with the utmoft force every thing
HISTORY,, Sea. IV.
which threatens danger or deftru&ion to them. Tire Animal
ewe, which brings forth two lambs at a time, will not Kingdom,I
admit one to her teats unlefs the other be prefent and v
fuck alfo ; left one fhould famifli, while the other
grows fat.
Birds build their nefts in the moft artificial manner,
and line them as foft as poffible, for fear the eggs
fhould get any damage. Nor do they build promif-
cuoufly in any place, but there only where they may
quietly lie concealed and be fafe from the attacks of
their enemies.
The hanging bird1 makes its neft of the fibres of
withered plants, and the down of the poplar feeds,
and fixes it upon the bough of fome tree hanging over
the water, that it may be out of reach.
The diver places its fwimming neft upon the water
itfelf, amongft the rufhes. We defignedly pafs over
many instances of the like kind.
Again, birds fit on their eggs with fo much pa¬
tience, that many of them choofe to perifh with hun¬
ger, rather than expofe the eggs to danger by going
to feek for food.
The male rooks and crows, at the time of incuba¬
tion, bring food to the females.
Pigeons, fmall birds, and other birds which pair,
fit by turns; but where polygamy prevails, the males
fcarcely take any care of the young.
Moft of the duck kind pluck off their feathers in
great quantity, and cover their eggs with them, left
they fhould be damaged by the cold when they quit
their nefts for the fake of food ; and when the young
are hatched, who knows not how folicitous they are in
providing for them till they are able to fly and fhift for
themfelves ?
Young pigeons would not be able to make ufe of
hard feeds for nourifhment, unlefs the parents were to
prepare them in their crops, and thence feed them.
The owl called the cag/e-owl makes its neft on the
higheft precipices of mountains, and in the warmeft
fpot, facing the fun ; that the dead bodies brought
there may by the heat melt into a foft pulp, and be¬
come fit nourifhment for the young.
As an exception indeed to this foftering care of
animals, may be mentioned the cuckow, which lays its
eggs in the neft of other fmall birds, generally the
wag-tail, yellow hammer, or white-throat, and leaves
the incubation or prefervation of the young to them.
This cuftom of the cuckow is fo extraordinary, and
out of the common courfe of nature, that it would
not be credible were it not for the teflimony of the
moft knowing and curious natural-hiftorians, fuch as
Ray, Willoughby, Gefner, Aldrovandus, Ariftotle, &c.
But this feeming want of inflind is accounted for
from the ftrufture and iituation of its llomach, which
difqualiries it for incubation f ; and its inftinftive care ^ ^
is ftill confpicuous in providing a proper, though e
foreign, nidus for its eggs Cueubut.
Amphibious animals, lifhes, and infers, which can¬
not come under the care of their parents, yet owe this
to them, that they are put in places where they eafily
find nourifhment.
2. As foon as animals come to maturity, and want
no longer the care of their parents, they attend with
the utmoft labour and induftry, according to the law
and ccconomy appointed for every fpccies, to the pre-
fervation
Sea. IV. NATURAL
Animal fervation of their lives. But that fo great a number
Kmgtlom. 0£ which occur every-where, may be fupported,
w „ ^ certain and fixed order may be kept up amongft
them, behold the wonderful difpofition of the Creator,
in affigning to each fpecies certain kinds of food, and
in putting limits to their appetites. So that fome
live on particular fpecies of plants, which particular
regions and foils only produce : fome on particular
animalcula ; others on carcafes; and fome even on mud
and dung. For this reafon, Providence has ordained
that fome fhould fwim in certain regions of the watery
element ; others Ihould fly : fome ihould inhabit the
torrid, the frigid, or the temperate zones ; and others
fhould frequent defarts, mountains, woods, pools, or
meadows, according as the food proper to their nature
is found in fufficient quantity. By this means there
is no terreftrial traft, no fea, no river, no country, but
what contains and nourifhes various kinds of animals.
Hence alfo an animal of one kind cannot rob thofe of
another kind of its aliment; which, if it happened,
would endanger their lives or health : and thus the
world at all times affords nourifhment to fo many and
fo large inhabitants, at the fame time that nothing
which it produces is ufelefs or fuperfluous.
It will not be here amifs to produce fome inftances
fey which it will appear how providentially the Creator
has furnifhed every animal with fuch cloathing as is
proper for the country where they live, and alfo how
excellently the ftru&ure of their bodies is adapted
to their particular way of life ; fo that they feem to
be delfined folely to the places where they are found.
Monkeys, elephants, and rhinocerofes, feed upon
vegetables that grow in hot countries, and therefore
therein they have their allotted places. When the fun
darts forth its rnoft fervid rays, thefe animals are of
fuch a nature and difpofition, that it does them no
manner of hurt; nay, with the reft of the inhabi¬
tants of thofe parts, they go naked ; whereas, were
they covered with hairy Ikins, they muft peri/h with
heat.
On the contrary, the place of rein-deer is fixed in
the ccldeft part of Lapland, becaufe their chief food
is the liverwort, which grows no-where fo abundantly
as there ; and where, as the-cold is moft intenfe, the
rein deer are clothed, like the other northern ani¬
mals, with fkins filled with the denfeft hair, by the
help of which they eafily defy the keennefs of the
winter, in like manner the rough legged partridge
pafles its life in the very Lapland Alps, feeding,upon
the feeds of the dwarf birch ; and, that they may run
up and down fafely amidft the fnow, their feet are
feathered.
The camel frequents the fandy and burning defarts,
in order to get the barren camel’s-nay. How wifely
has the Craator contrived for him ! he- is obi ged to
go through the defarts, where oftentimes no water
is found for. many miles about. All. other animals
v-ould periflr with. thirft in. fuch a journey : but the
camel can undergo it without fuffering ; for his. belly
is full of cells, where, he referves water for many
days. It is reported by travellers, that the Ara¬
bians, when in travelling they want water, are forced
to kill their camels, and lake water out of their bellies
that is pevfedUy good to drink, and not at all cor¬
rupted.
HISTORY. 66 z
The pelican likewife lives in defart and dry places; Animal
and is obliged to build her neft far from the fea, in Kingdom,.
order to procure a greater (hare of heat to her eggs. '
She is therefore forced, to bring water from afar for
herfelf and her young ; for which reafon Providence
has furnilhed her with an inftrument moft adapted
to this purpofe : She has a very large bag under
her throat, which fhe fills with a quantity of water-
fufficient for many days ; and this Ihe pours into
the neft, to refrefti her young, and teach them to
fwim.
The wild beafts, lions, and tygers, come to this
neft to quench the[r: thirft, but do no hurt to the
young.
Oxen delight in low grounds, becaufe there the food
moft palatable to them grows.
Sheep prefer naked hills, where they find a parti¬
cular kind of giafs called the fejluca, which they love
above all things.
Goats climb up the precipices of mountains, that
they may browfe on the tender Ihrubs; and in order
to fit them for it, they have feet made for jumping.
Horfes chiefly refort to woods, and feed upon leafy
plants.
Nay, fo various is the appetite of animals,-that
there is fcarcely any plant which is not chofen by
fome, and left untouched by others. The horfe gives
up the water-hemlock to the goat. The cow gives,
up the long-leaved water-hemlock to the (beep. THe
goat gives up the monks-hood to the horfe, &c.; for
that which certain animals grow fat upon, others ab¬
hor as poifoh. Hence no plant is abfolutely poifonous,
but only refpe&ively. Thus the fpurge, that is
noxious to rnan, is a moft wholefome nourilhment to
the caterpillar. That animals may not deftroy them-
felves for want of knowing this law, each of- them is
guarded by fuch a delicacy of taftecand fniell,' that
they can eafily diftinguifh what is pernicious from
what is wholeiome ; and when it happens.that different
animals live upon the fame plants, ftil! one kind always
leaves fomething for the other, as themouths of all are
not equally adapted to lay hold of the grafs; by
which means there is fufficient food for all. To this
may be referred an ceconomical experiment well known
to theLutch, that when eight cows have been in a
paffure, and can no longer get .nourilhment, two
horfes will do very well there for fome days ; and
when nothing is left for the horfes, four (beep will live
upon it
Swine get provifion by turning up the earth ; for
there they find the-fucculent roots, which to them are
very delicious*
The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food-
for fume animals, as the floth, the fquirrel; and chefe
laft have feet given them fit for climbing.
Belides myriads of fifties, the caftor, the fea calf,■
and others, inhabit the water, that they may there be
fed; and their hinder-feet are fit for fwimming, and
perfedtly adapted to their manner of life.
The whole order of the goofe kind, as ducks, mer-
ganfer, &e. pafs their lives in water; as feeding upon
water infedts, fifhes, and their eggs. Who does not
fee, that attends ever fo little, how exadtly the won¬
derful formation of their beaks, their necks, their
feet, and their, feathers, fuit their kind of life; w hie ft.
obfer-. -
662 N A T U R A L
Animal o’bfervatlon ought to be extended to all other
birds.
The way of living of the'fea-fwallow deferves to be’
particularly taken notice of; for as he cannot fo com-
modioufly plunge into the water, and catch filh, as
other aquatic birds, the Creator has appointed the
fea-gull to be his caterer, in the following manner:
When this laft is purfued by the former, he is forced
to throw up part of his prey, which the other catches;
but in the autumn, when the fifties hide themfelves in
deep places, the merganfer fupplies the gull with
food, as being able to plunge deeper into the fea.
The chief granary of fmall birds is the knot grafs,
that bears heavy feeds, like thofe of the black bind¬
weed. It is a very common plant, not ealily de-
llroyed, either by the road-fide by trampling upon it,
or anywhere elfe; and is extremely plentiful after
harvelt iij fields, to which it gives a reddiftr hue by
its numerous feeds. Thefe fall upon the ground, and
are gathered all the year refund by the fmall birds.
To which we may add, that many fmall birds feed
upon the feeds of plantain, particularly linnets. It is
generally known that the goldfinch lives upon the feed
of thiftles, from which he has its name in Latin and
French. ; Thus bountiful nature feeds the fowls of
the air.
The Creator has taken no lefs care of fome amphi¬
bious animals, as the fnake and frog Tcind ; which,
as they have neither wings to fly, nor feet to run
fwiftly and commodioufly, would fcarcely have any
means of taking their prey, were it not that fome ani¬
mals run, as it were, of their own accord, into their
mouths. When the rattle-fnake, a native of Ame¬
rica, with open jaws fixes his eyes upon a bird, fly,
or fquirrel, fitting on a tree, they fly down his throat,
being rendered flupid, and giving themfelves up as
deftitute of all refuge. How dreadful this ferpent is
to other animals will appear by an account we have
in a treatife entitled, Radix Senega. Where the au¬
thor {Amccn. Academ. tom. 2.) fays, one of thefe terrible
ferpents got clandeftinely into the houfe of gover¬
nor Blake at Carolina ; where it would have long lain
concealed, had it not been that all the domeftic ani¬
mals, as dogs, hogs, turkeys, and fowls, admoniftied
the family by their unufual cries, equally ftrowing
their horror and confternation, their hair, briftles, and
crefts, Handing up on end. On the other hand,.we
cannot but adore the Creator’s great goodnefs towards
man, when we confider the rattle which terminates
this ferpent’s tail: for by means of that we have an
opportunity of guarding againlt this dreadful enemy ;
the found warning us to fly ; which if we were not to
do, and we Ihould be wounded by him, the whole
body would be turned into a putrid corruption in fix
hours, nay fometimes in half an hour.
The limits of this article will not permit us to
produce more examples of this kind. But whoever
will be at the pains to take ever fo flight a view of the
v. onderful works of the Author of nature, will readily
ice how wifely the plan, order, and fitnefs of things
with divine ends, are difpofed.
3. We cannot without the utmoft admiration be¬
hold how providentially the Creator has adled as to the
i : : c. vation of thofe animals which, at a certain time
HISTORY. Sea. IV.
of the year, are by the rigour of the feafon excluded animal
from the neceflaries of life. Thus the bear in the Kmgdonf. ’
autumn creeps into the raofs which he has gathered,
and there lies all winter; fubfifting upon no other
nourifliment but his fat, colledted during the fummer
in the cellulous membrane, and which without doubt,
during his fall, circulates through his veflels, and
fupplies the place of food ; to which perhaps is added
that fat juice which he fucks out of the bottom of his
feet.
The hedge hog, badger, and mole, in the fame man'
ner fill their winter-quarters with vegetables, and fleep
during the frofts. The bat feems cold and quite dead
all the winter. Moll of the amphibious animals get
into dens, or to the bottom of lakes and pools.
In the autumn, as the cold approaches, and infedts
difappear, fwahow'S migrate into other climes in fearch
of food and a temperature of air more friendly to
their conflitution : though the latter hatches, or thofe
young birds which are incapable of diftant flights, feek
for an afylum againft the violence of the cold in the
bottom of lakes amongft: the reeds and rufties; from
whence, by the wonderful appointment of nature, they
come forth again. See the article Hirundo. The
periftaltrc motion of the bowels ceafes in all thefe ani¬
mals while they are obliged to faft ; whence the ap¬
petite is diminiftied, and fo they fuffer the lefs front
hunger. To this head may be referred the obfervation
of the celebrated Lifter concerning thofe animals.
That their blood, when let into a veffel, does not
coagulate, as that of all other animals; and fo is no lefs
fit for circulation than before.
The moor-fowls work themfelves out walks under
the very’fnow. They moult iu the .fummer ; fo that
about the month of Auguft they cannot fly, and are
therefore obliged to run into the woods; but then the
moor-berries and bilberries are ripe, from whence
they are abundantly fupplied with food. Whereas the
young Bo not moult the firft fummer ; and therefore,
though they cannot run fo well, are able to efcape dan»
ger by flight.
The reft of the birds who feed upon infefts migrate
every year to foreign regions, in order to feek for
food in a milder climate ; while all the northern parts,
where they live well in the fummer, are covered with
fnow.
By thefe migrations, birds alfo become ufeful to
many different countries, and are diftributed overalmoft
all the globe. And it muft excite our admiration that
all of them exaflly obferve the times of coming and
going, and that they do not miftake their way.
Infetfts in the winter generally lie hid within their
cafes, and are nourifhed by the furrounding liquor like
the foetus of other animals; from whence, at the ap¬
proach of fpring, they awake, and fly forth, to the
aftoniftiment of every one.
However, all animals which lie hid in winter do
not obferve thefe laws of fading. Some provide ftore-
houfes in fummer and autumn, from which they take
what is neceflary ; as mice, jays, fquirrels, bees.
III. Destruction.
I. We have obferved above, that all animals do not
live upon vegetables, but that there are fome which
feed
Sea. IV. NATURAL
Anirml feed upon certain aniinalcula. Nay, there are forne
Kngd< ro. fubilit on}y by rapine, and daily deftroy numbers
v of the peaceable kind.
Thefe animals are deftroyed, but in fuqh a manner
that the weaker generally are infefted by the ftronger
in a continued feries. Thus the tree loufe lives upon
plants. The fly called mufca aphidivora lives upon the
tree-loufe ; the hornet and wafp-fly, upon the mufca
aphidivora ; the dragon fly, upon the hornet and
wafp-fly; the fpider, on the dragon-fly; the fmall
birds on the fpider ; and ladly, the hawk kind on
the fmall birds
In like manner, the monoculus delights in putrid
waters, the gnat eats the monoculus, the frog eats
the gnat, the pike eats the frog, the fea-calf eats the
pike.
The bat and goat-fucker make their excurfions only
at night, that they may catch the moths, which at that
time fly about in vaft quantities.
The woodpecker pulls out the infe&s which lie
hid in the trunks of trees.
The fvallow purfues thofe which fly about in the
open air.
The mole purfues worms. The large fifhes devour
the fmall. Nay, we fcarcely know an animal which
has not fome enemy to contend with.
Amongft quadrupeds wild beafts are moll remark¬
ably pernicious and dangerous .to others, as the hawk
kind among birds. But that they may not, by too
atrocious a butchery, deftroy a whole fpecies, even
thefe are circunafcribed within certain bounds. Firft,
as to the moft fierce of all, it deferves to be noted how
few they are in proportion to other animals. Second¬
ly, the number of them is not equal in all countries.
Thus France and England breed no wolves, and the
northern countries no tigers or lions. . Thirdly, thefe
fierce animals fometimes fall upon and deftroy one
another. Thus the wolf devours the fox. The dog
infetis both the wolf and fox ; nay, wolves in a body
will fometimes venture to furround a bear. The tiger
often kills its own male whelps. Dogs are fometimes
feized with madnefs, and deftroy their fellows, or with
the mange deftroy themfelves.
Daftly, wild beafts feldom arrive at fo great an age
as animals which live on vegetables. For they are
fubjedf, from their alkaline diet, to various difeafes,
which bring them fooner to an end.
But although all animals are infefted by their pe¬
culiar enemies, yet they are often able to elude their
violence by ftratagems and force. Thus the hare often
confounds the dog by her windings.
When the bear attacks Iheep and cattle, thefe draw
up together for mutual defence. Horfejoir) heads
together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails,
and fight with their horns.
Swine get together in herds, and boldly oppofe
themfelves to any attack, fo that they are not eafily
.overcome ; and it is worth while to obferve, that all
of them place their young, as lefs able to defend them¬
felves, in the middle, that they may remain fafe during
the battle.
Birds, by their different ways of flying, oftentimes
efcape the . hawk. If the pigeon had the fame way
of flying as the hawk, flie would hardly ever efcape
his claws-
•H 1ST O R Y.
It deferves s’fo to be remarked, how much fume
animals confult their fafely by night. When horfes
fleep in woods, one by turn remains awake, and, as it
were, keeps watch. When monkeys in Brafil fleep up¬
on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give
the fign when the tiger creeps towards them ; and in
cafe the guard flrould be caught afleep, the reft te?.r
him to pieces. Hence rapacious animals are not al¬
ways fuccefsful in their hunting, and are often obli¬
ged to labour for a whole day to no purpofe. For this
reafon the Creator has given them inch a nature, that
they can bear falling a long time. Thus the lion lurks
in his den many days without familhing ; and the wolf,
when he has once well fatisfied his hunger, can fall
many weeks without any difficulty.
If we confider the end for which it pleafed the Sui-
preme Being to conftitute fuclr an order of nature,
that fome animals fliould be, as it were, created only
to be miferably butchered by others, it feems that his
Providence not only aimed at fuftaining, but alfcy
keeping a juft proportion amongft all the fpecies ; and
fo prevent any one of them from increafing too much,
to the detriment of men and other animals. For if
it be true, as it moft affuredly is, that the furface of
the earth can fupport only a certain number of inha¬
bitants, they muft all perilh if the fame number were
doubled or trebled.
, There are fome viviparous flies which bring forth
2000 young. Thefe in a little time would fill the
air, and like clouds intercept the rays of the fun, un-
lefs they were devoured by birds, fpiders, and many
other animals.
Storks and cranes free Egypt from frogs, which,
after the inundation of the Nile, cover the whole
country. Falcons clear Paleftine of mice. Bello-:
nius on this fubjeift fays as follows : “ The. ftorks
come to Egypt in fuch abundance, that the fields and
meadow's are white with them. Yet the Egyptians
are not difpleafed with this fight; as frogs are gene¬
rated in fuch numbers there, that did not the ftorks
devour them, they would over-run every thing. Be-
fides, they alfo catch and eat ferpents. Between Belba
and Gaza, the fields of Paleftine are often defart ou
account of the abundance of mice and rats; and were
they not deftrbyed by. the faleons that come here bv
inftinift, the inhabitants could have no harveft ”
The white fox is of equal advantage in the Dap-
land Alps; as he deftroys the Norway rats, which are
generated there in great abundance, and thus hinders
them from increafing too much in proportion, which
would be the deftruAion of vegetables.
It is fufficient for us, that nothing is made by Pro¬
vidence in vain ; and that whatever, is made, is made
with fupreme wifdom. For it does not become
ns to pry too boldly into all the defigns of God.
Let us not imagine, when thefe rapacious animal^
fometimes do us mifehief, that the Creator planned
the order of nature according to our private principles-
of ceconotny : for the Laplanders have one way of li¬
ving ; the European huftandman another; the Hot¬
tentots and favages a third; whereas the ftupendous
oeconomy of the Deity is one throughout the globe j
and if Providence does not always calculate exadlly
according to our way of reckoning, we ought to con-
lider this affair in the fame light, as when different fea-
mexi
•6^4- NATURAL
Animal men wait for a fair wind, every one with refpeft to
.Kingdom. t]ie part l,e ;s bound to, w/ho we plainly fee cannot all
_v _" be fatisfied.
2. The whole earth would be overwhelmed with
-carcafes and {linking bodies, if fome animals did not
delight to feed upon them Therefore, when an ani¬
mal dies, bears, wolves, foxes, ravens, &c. do not lofe
a moment till they have taken all away. But if ahorfe
e. g. dies near the public road, you will find him, af-
■ ter a few days, fwoln, burft, and at laft filled with in¬
numerable grubs of carniverous flies, by which he is
entirely confumed, and removed out of the way, that
he may not become a nuifance to pafiengcrs by his
poifonou* flench.
When the carcafes of fifhes are driven upon the
■fnore, the voracious kinds, fuch as the thornback, the
hound-fifli, the conger-eel, &c. gather about and eat
them. But becaufe the flux and reflux foon change
the ftate of the fea, they themfelves are often detain¬
ed in pits, and become a prey to the wild beads that
frequent the Ihores. Thus the earth is not only kept
clean from the putrefa£tion of carcafes, but at the fame
time, by the ceconomy of nature, the necefl'aries of life
are provided for many animals. In the like manner
many infefts at once promote their own good, and
that of other animals. Thus gnats lay their eggs in
■flagnant, putrid, and {linking waters, and the grubs
that arife from thefe eggs clear away all the putre-
fa&ion: and this will eafily appear, if any one will
make the experiment by filling two veflels with pu¬
trid water, leaving the grubs in one, and taking them
all out of the other; for then he will foon find the
water that is full of grubs pure and without any
flench, while the water that has no grubs will continue
. {linking.
I.ice increafein a wonderful manner in the heads of
children that are fcabby ; nor are they without their
ufe, for they confume the redundant humours.
The beetle kind in fummer extradl all moift and
glutinous matter out of the dung of cattle, fo that it
becomes like duft, and is fpread by the wind over the
ground. Were it not for this, the vegetables that lie
under the dung would Jie fo far from thriving, that all
that fpot would be rendered barren.
As the excrements of dogs is of fo filthy and feptic
a nature that no infe£l will touch them, and therefore
they cannot be difperfed by that means, care is taken
-that thefe animalsfiiould exonerate upon Hones, trunks
of trees, or fome high place, that vegetables may not
be hurt by them.
Cats buiy their dung. Nothing is fo mean, nothing
. fo little, in which the wonderful order and wife difpo-
fit;on of nature do not fhine forth.
Laflly, all thefe treafures of nature, fo aitfully con¬
trived, fo wonderfully propagated, fo providentially
fuppoited throughout her three kingdoms, feem in¬
tended by the Creator for the fake of man. Every
thing may be made fubfervient to his ufe, if not im¬
mediately, yet mediately; not fo to that of other ani¬
mals. By the help of reafon man tames the fierceft
..-animals; purfues and catches the fwifieft ; nay, he is
able to reach even thofe which lie hid in the bottom of
v the fea.
By the help of reafon, he increafes the number of
iH-getablcs imwienfely;-and does that bvart, which na-
-N° 237. ' 5
HISTORY. Sea. IV.
ture, left to herfelf, could fcarcely effe&. By ingenui- - nimal
ty he obtains from vegetables whatever is convenient Kingdom,
or neceflary for food, drink, cloathing, medicine, na- “ ' ^
vigation, and a thoufand other purpofes.
He has found the means of going down into the
abyfs of the earth, and almoft fearching its very
bowels. With what artifice has he learned to get
fragments from the moft rocky mountains, to make
the hardeft Hones fluid like water, to feparate the ufe-
ful metal from the ufelefs drofs, and to turn the fineft
fand to fome ufe! In Ihort, when we follow the feries
of created things, and confider how providentially one
is made for the fake of another, the matter comes to
this, that all things are made for the fake of man ;
and for this end more efpecially, that he, by admiring
the works of the Creator, fliould extol his glory, and
at once enjoy all thofe things of which he Hands in
need, in order to pafs his life conveniently and plea-
fantly.
Befides general natural hiftories, which we have here
given a fpecimen of, as thofe of Pliny, &c. there are
likewife particular ones; and thofe of two kinds. The
firft, thofe which only confider one kind of things; fuch
as the Hiftory of Shells, by Dr Liftet ; of Fifhes, by
Willughby ; that of Birds, by the fame ; that of
Plants, by Ray ; thofe of Infedls, by Swammerdam
and Mouffet; that of Animals, by Gefner; that of
Foffils, by Agricola, Mercatus, &c.
The fecond, thofe which confider the feveral kinds
of natural things found in particular countiies or pro¬
vinces: as, the Natural Hi fory of Dauphine, by Cho-
rier ; the Natural Hillory of the Antilles, by F. Du
Tertre, and M. Lonvillers De Poincy; that of Ox-
fordlhire and Staffordfliire, by Dr Plott; that of Ean-
cafliire, by Leigh; of Northampton {hire, by Morton;
that of the Weftern Iflands, by Martin, &c.
The natural hiftory only of one particular place, is
a fubjedl very extenfivc in its materials, and not to be
fet about without great care and circumfpe£liou. Mr
Bojle has favoured the world with a lift of the heads
under which to arrange things, and what to enquire
after on fuch an occaiion.
The general heads under which he comprehends the
articles of this hiftory are four ; the tilings which re¬
gard the heavens, the air, the waters, and the earth
To thefe general heads Mr Boyle imagines fhould
be added, inquiries into traditions in the country, of
any thing relating to it, whether peculiar to it, or
only more common there than elfeivhere ; and w here
thefe require learning or {kill in the anfwerer, the ut-
moft care is to be taken to put the people in a way
to give their accounts in a fatisfa&ory manner; for a
falfe or bad account of any thing is always much
worfe than no account at all.
This fubjeifl concerning the wxuks of nature, a
very fmall part of which we have been able to touch
upon, is of fuch* importance and dignity, that if it
were to be propeily treated in all its parts, men would
find wherewithal to employ almoft all the powers of
the mind : nay, time itfelf would fail before, with the
molt acute human fagacity. we ftiould be able to difeo-
ver the amazing ccconomy, laws, and exquifite ftruc-
tnre, evea of the leaft infedt; fince, as Pliny obferves,
nature nowhere appeals more herfelf than in her mo-ft
minute works.
riSummaqr
SeS.IV. NATURAL
Animal Summary as it is, however, the preceding view, as
Kingdom. jt were ;n a map, 0f the fevcral parts of nature, their
connexions and dependencies, may at leaft, perhaps,
convey an ufeful leffon, and fuch an one as the bell
of us often need to have inculcated.
From a partial confideration of things, we are very
apt to criticife what we ought to admire; to look up¬
on as ufelefs what perhaps we Urould own to be of in¬
finite advantage to us, did we fee a little farther; to
be peevilh where we ought to give thanks; and at the
fame time to ridicule thofe who employ their time and
thoughts in examining what we were (i. e. fome of us
moft affuredly were) created and appointed to ftudy.
In Ihort, we are too apt to treat the Almighty worfe
than a rational man would treat a good mechanic,
whofe works he would either thoroughly examine
or be alhamed to find any fault with. This is the
effeX of a partial confideration of nature; but he who
has the candour of mind and leifure to look farther,
will be inclined to wonder and adore, and even to cry
Out with the poet,
How wond’rous is this fcene! where all is form’d
With number, weight, and meafure! all defign’d
For fome great end! where not alone the plant
Of (lately growth; thelierb of glorious hue.
Or Food-full fubftance; not the labouring Heed ;
The herd, and flock, that feed us; not the mine
That yields us (lores for elegance and ufe ;
The fea that loads our table, and conveys
The wanderer man from clime to clime; with all
Thofe rolling fpheres, that from on high (hed down
Their kindly influence: not thefe alone,
Which flrike ev’n eyes incurious; but each mofs.
Each fliell, each crawling infeX, holds a rank
Important in the plan of Him wdio fram’d
This fcale of beings ; holds a rank, which loft
Would break the chain, and leave behind a gap
Which nature’s felf would rue. Almighty Being,
Caufe and fupport of all things, can I view
Thefe objeXs of my wonder, can I feel
Thefe fine fenfations, and not think of thee?
Thou who doft thro’ th’ eternal round of time,
- Doft thro’ th’ immenfity of fpace exift
Alone, fhalt thou alone excluded be
From this thy univerfe? Shall feeble man
Think it beneath his proud philofophy
To call for thy affiftance, and pretend
To frame a world, who cannot frame a clod?*—
Not to know thee, is not to know eurfelves——
Is to know nothing-—nothing w'orth the care
Of man’s exalted fpirit—All becomes.
Without thy ray divine, one dreary gloom,
Where lurk the monfters of fantaftic brains.
Order bereft of thought, uncaus’d effeXs,
Fate freely aXing, and unerring Chance.
Where meanlcfs matter to a chaos finks,
Or fdmething lower dill: for without thee
It crumbles into atoms void of force,
Void of refiftance—it eludes our thought.
11) Where laws eternal to the varying code
Of felf-love dwindle. Intereft, paffion, whim.
Take place of right and wrong: the golden chain
Of being melts away, and the mind’s eye
Sees nothing but the prefent. All beyond
- 'Is vifionaty guefs—is dream—is death.
Vot. XII, Part. II. .Thomson.
HISTORY. 66j
We fhall add to this article the following deferip- Animal
tion of a mufeum : The windows ought to be in the Kingdorn-
two longeft fides of the building, that it may be equally ^
lighted during the whole day.
On one wing of the mufeum muft be placed eleven
preffes, with (helves fupported on wooden brackets.
Thefe prefles are intended for containing the eleven
following clafles of the mineral kingdom (a kingdom
which forms the original bafis of every thing pertain¬
ing to this globe : minerals have neither organization
nor life), “ozis.
x. Waters.
2. Earths.
3. Sands.
4. Stones.
5. Salts.
6. Pyrites.
7. Semimetals.
8. Metals.
9. Bitumens and fulphurs.
10. Volcanic produXions.
11. PetrifaXions, foffils, and lufus
nature.
We at once perceive the advantage of fuch an ar¬
rangement, where every thing is diftinX and diftribu.
ted in the manner moft advantageous for the infpeXion
of the ftudent. The preffes muft be provided with a
wire grate, or covered with glafs ; and each of them
muft have a title on the cornice, indicating the clafs
which it contains. Befides this, each fhelf in the prefs
ought to have a fmall title on the edge, fpecifying the
kind of fubftances which are placed on it; and thefe
(hould be kept in clear glafs-bottles, well fealed and
furniftied with proper titles alfo. In them are to be
feen earths, clays, turfs, ochres, chalks, marls, lapis
ollaris, and micaceous ftones, calcareous or limeftones,
fpars, congelations, (tony refidua, l>alaXites, alabafter,
gypfum or plafter-ftone, flints, rock-ftones, rock and
mineral cryftals, falls, and pyrites fubjeX to efflo-
refcence, coals and other bituminous bodies, lava, and
the drofs of volcanoes. In the bottom of each prefs
two fpaces may be referved and furniftied with a con-
fiderable number of fmall femicircular (helves, where
pieces much efteemed, and in complete prefervation,
may be placed by themfelves or on very fmall pedeftals;
fuch as tranfparent mineral fait, collections of coloured
pyrites, the (lone called the /rteaVftone, beautiful fpe-
cimens of cobalt, bifmuth, zinc, antimony, ore of fluid,
quickfilver, and cinnabar in cryftals : the whole pro¬
perly titled and arranged according to their claffes.
The prefs for metals ought to prefent us in the fame
order with feleX and rare fpecimens of the ores of
white, green, &c lead, the ore of nickel, colleXions
of cryftallifed tin, the f os-ferri, beautiful needles of
hematite, a powerful rough loadftone, with fome pla-
tina, the filky copper of China, and a colleXion of
malachite ; likewife virgin filver in vegetation, and red
filver, together with . colleXion of golden ore. Thefe
fubftances form a fpeXacle equally varied and inftruc-
tive : in this, department of her works nature is as
rich and brilliant as in the various kinds of ftones.
The prefs for bitumens may in like manner contain
fpecimens of jet polilhed on one fide ; amber of diffe¬
rent colours (which when it is tranfparent, and con¬
tains infeXs, ought to be polilhed on the two oppo-
fite furfaces) ; a beautiful fpecimen of ambergris, to¬
gether with pieces of tranfparent red and yellow ful-
phur.
In the prefs for petrifaBions or for fpffils, we muft
likewife place, on femicircular (helves, the rareft and
- 4 P the
665 NATURAL
Animal preferved pieces ; fuch as lilium lapideum,
t. Qa“, madrepores, tranfparent belemnites, foflil urchins, the
articulated nautilus, cornua ammonia fawed and po-
lidied, hyfterolite, lapis lenticularis, pryphites calculi
or bezoars, turquoifes, loadflones, glolTopetra;; in Ihort,
all kinds of figured ftones, and alfo petrified wood.
In the prefs for Jlones, which has a fimilar apparatus
of fhelves, we fee different kinds of cryftals, and all
the precious ftones in their matrix. Thofe which are
detached and uncut are placed in cafes or'watch-glaffes ;
but thofe which have been cut and fet are to be put
in a jewel-box or open cafe for rings. The fame is to
be obferved with regard to pieces, cups, ciitems, or
poliihed plates of agate, cornelian, jade, fardonyx,
onyx, chalcedony, jafper, porphyry, granite, lapis la¬
zuli, marble, alabafter, and Iceland cryilal. Here like-
wife are to be placed the Bologna ftone, the Labrador
ilone, the ferpentine ftone, talc, amianthus, zeolite,
hafaltes, touch-ftone, together with Egyptian and
Knglifh flints. With regard to impreffed petrifactions,
large arborizations, and Florence ftones, if they are in
good prefervntion : they fhould be frartied and fi:f-
pended by hooks on the pilafters which conned the
preffes of the mineral kingdom. Thefe preffes are of
an uniform height; but their breadth is proportioned
to the fize qr number of the materials compofing the
clafs which it contains, and they are fupported, as well
as thofe which are placed all around, on a cheft of
drawers bread high. Thefe drawers muft correfpond
to the preffes above them, and contain fubftances of
the fame clafs. This methodical arrangement is a
great help to the memory; becaufe it occafionally fup-
plies the place of a numbered catalogue, and bccaufe
in a great multitude of objedts it is the only means of
finding at Once what we want.
In the mineral kingdom, thefe drawers are very
ufeful for containing earths, belemnites, entroches,
aftroites, and other polymorphous foffils, univalve, bi--*
valve, and multiva've (hells, poliflied petrifactions of
bones and pieces of wood, collections of marbles and
polifhed flints, collections of filex, fands, and amber, to¬
gether with pieces procured from the melting of ores,
fuch as regulus, drofs, &c. Some parts of the mineral
kingdom fuch as the earths and certain ftones, make
not a brilliant figure in a mufeum ; they are notwith-
ftanding the moft fcientific parts of it, and the moft
interefting tq thofe who prefer the folid fatisfaCtion of
tracing nature in her moft important productions, and
her fundamental operations, to the empty fpeCtacle of
gaudy colours and agreeable figures.
Minerals in general require to be kept with great
care, and fo as not to be intermixed. Some of them,
fuch as the fa Its, eafily diffolve ; and others, as the
pyrites, are fubjeCt to efflorefcence. Vegetables and
animals are likewife more or lefs liable to corruption ;
and to prevent this inconvenience, great pains muft be
taken in preferving certain pieces which are fubjeCt to
fpeedy decay.
On the fecoml wing of the cabinet are to be placed1
ten preffes, diftribirted like thofe of the mineral king¬
dom, and intended for containing the ten following di-
vifions of the vegetable kingdom. Vegetables are orga-
nifed bodies, but they poffefs not, like animals, fpon-
taneous motion or feeling.
H I S T O R Y.
i. Roots.
2 Barks.
3- Woods and (talks.
4. I,eaves.
5. Flowers.
6. Fruits and feeds.
7. Parafite plants, alfo agarics and muflirooms.
8. The juices of vegetables; fuch as bali'ams and
folid refins, relinous gums, and gums properly
fo called.
9. Extracted juices, fugars, and dregs.
10. Marine plants, and plants growing on the (horea
of the fea.
In this kingdom, the fame order of preffes, the fame
fymmetry and arrangement, are to be o.bferved as in
the mineral kingdom. The femicircular (helves in the
bottom of the preffes are here very ufeful for contais-
ing in fmall fquare phials China varniih, effential oils,
and other peculiar aromatics, whether of Arabia or
India ; together with the roots of cumbou, mandra-
gora, certain fruits, either monftrous or natural, which,
grow in the Eaft Indies, and which the natives ripen
in large bottles with narrow necks, preferved in fpirits,
fuch as the ca(hew-nut, &c. Here likewife are placed
a number of fruits, remarkable for their rarity or great
fize ; as cocoa nuts, gourds, the fruit of the baiiard
locuft-tree, the fruit of the fand-box-tree, banana figs,
pine-apples, coloquintida apple, dog(bane, vegetable
tumors or wens, and a branch of bois de denteile, in
which the three parts of the bark, efpecially the liber,
are diilinCtly feparated.
As the number of vegetables greatly exceeds that of
minerals, we feldom put any thing in bottles but the
dried parts of exotic plants, which are ufed either in
medicine or in the arts, and thofe likewife which we
cultivate merely from curiofity. With regard to in¬
digenous plants, an herbal is formed of land and fea
plants, pafted or laid between leaves of paper collected
into the (hape of a book, and arranged according to
the fyftem of the belt botanilts. To make this herbal
as convenient as pofiible, it is proper to put the dried
plants between two folds of dry paper, and, arranging
them according to their families, genera, and fpecies,
to pile them one above another, either openly on the
(helves or in large band-boxes On the back of the
band-boxes muft be a title indicating the family, at
the extremity another with the name of the genus,,
and on each leaf the name of the fpecies which it con¬
tains : the paper muft be loofe, that they may be
changed at pleafure. The drawers are ufeful partly
for holding different kinds of woods with the bark,
cut in fuch a manner as that the grain and contexture
of it may eafily be diftinguilhed, and for containing a
collection of the woods of both Indies in fmall po¬
lifhed pieces with proper tides. One part of the
drawers has feveral divilions within for the purpofe of
holding feeds; and a fmall title is inferibed on each
of thefe divifions.
Sea weeds, and fmall marine plants of an elegant
(hape, which from their colour and variety form
agreeable pictures, may be framed and fufpended by
hooks to the pilatlers of the preftes. In the animal
kingdom, particularly infedts, it is well known, are
attended with irreparable devaftations. Butterflies, v
wcei. r v
Sea. IV. NATURAL
Animal ft ill more than the rooft beautiful bird*, are not only
^vuigdum fubjedt to deiliudtion in this way, but are alfo expofed
‘""""y.-'w. " to great danger from the rays of the fun, either diredl
or refledfed, which alter their colour, make them lofe
all their fplendor, and, in fome fpecies, render it im-
pofiible to diftinguifh them, in general, we cannot
prevent the deftrudion of vegetables and animals, but
by drying them as much as poiftble, or by putting
them in prepared liquors, which mull not be allowed
to evaporate. But dried animals and vegetables re¬
quire Hill greater care : a great multitude of infe&s
which are bred in the month of April feed upon them,
and deftroy them internally before they are perceived:
they ought to be carefully watched during the conti-
tuiance of this plague, which is about five months.
In like manner, the nioifture of winter and the heat
ef fummer make it necefiary that the prefles of mu-
fasums Ihouid be kept carefully ftiut, except perhaps
thofe which front to the north. Befides, the vapour «f
fulphur in combuftion will kill thefe deftru&ive in¬
fects either before or after they become perfeA ones:
the fumigations muft he carefully performed during dry
weather, and in a box made on purpofe, into which
only the fpecimens attacked are introduced.
On the third wing of the cabinet are placed preftes
for containing the ten following diviiions of the animal
lingdom (a kingdom which derived the fubftance ne*
ceftary to its exiftence either mediately or immedi¬
ately from the vegetable kingdom.-, Animals pof-
fefs feeling and fpontaneous motion.)
1. Lithophytes-
2. Zoophytes.
3.. Teftaeeous animals.
4. Cruftaceous animals.
5. Infecfts.
6. Filhes.
7. Amphibious animals.
reptiles, and oviparous
quadrupeds.
8. Birds, with their nefts
and eggs,
9. Viviparous quadru-
peds.
1 o, Man.
In thefe preftes the fame external decoration and dif-
Siibution may be obferved as in the preceding ones.
'1 he prefs for the lithophytes mult be Arranged in
Inch a manner as to prefent at one view the hiltory of
lithophytes, mandreporse, and coral either rough or
ftript ©t its covering the whole placed on fmall wood¬
en pedeftals, blackened or gilded. Corallines, as well
as luci, may be palled on a bit of paper, and put into
a frame : fuch piflures, when fufpended by hooks to
the outfxde of the pilafters, always attra& the atten¬
tion of the fpedtators. If we have a conlida able col-
lettion of them, it will be neceffary to make a kind <sf
herbal of them.
The prefs iorzoophytes contains fponges, the marine
jet d’ eau, the penna marina, holothurias, and all thole
iubhances which are called animal plants., mollufcce,
worms, &c. Thefe produ&ions mull be preferved in
rectified fpirit of wine, which will be fufficiently weak¬
ened by the w ater contained in them. Upon the fides
are fea-ftars, both prickly and ftnooth, with feveral
rays, a Medufa’s head, &c.
1 he lejlaceous animals are preferved in bottles among
fpiriis. On the femicircular fhelves at the bottom of
the prefs are placed large Ihells, and fmall ones with
their marine covering.
I he prefs for cru/laceous animals confnls almoft cn-
HISTORY. <>67
tirelyof femicircular Ihelves ; and contains crabs, Cray- An.nT
ftfh, &c. Small lobfters, fquills, and all fmall cru-
llaceous animals, excepting the hermit crab, are put
in frames.
Two kinds of infe&s are found in the prefs defii-
ned for them. The firil’kind, after being dried, are
put in fmall wooden frames, which are varnilhed and
glazed on two fides, that we may have it in our power
to examine the infeft on both fides : of this kind are
flies, mantes, beetles, butterflies with their nymphae or
chryfalides, &c. (Thefe animals form the moll brilliant
part of the cabinet, while the prefs for birds is the moil
itriking; but great pains mult be ufed in their prefer-
vation.) Other inie&s, Tuch as graihoppers, fcolo-
pendras, fcorpions, falamanders, fpiders, tarantulas,
caterpillars, and efpecially all foft infedts, muft be pre¬
ferved in fpirits, and placed on femicircular flielves at
the bottom of the prels. Here alfo are depofited ho¬
ney-combs, wafps nefts, and branches furmihed with
the neilsof thofe infedls which produce the gum-lac.
In the prefs for Ji/hes are to be feen bottles contain¬
ing foreign fifties, which are always fent home in fpi¬
rits. The foft fifties of our own country arc preferred
in The fame manner. The Ikin of large fifties, whe¬
ther found in fait or frefti water, is taken oft and pall¬
ed on a bit of paper : the two parts are fometimes tew¬
ed together, and the colouis are renewed by means of
varnifti. The flying filli muft be fufpended about the
top of the prefs; and armed fifties, with oftracia, on
the fhelves below.
The prefs iox amphibious animals contains, in bottles
full of ipirit of wine diluted with alum water, ferpents,
vipers, adders, frogs, toads, lizards, fmall land or wa¬
ter turtles, and a fmall tortoife with its fliell. The low¬
er fhelves are furnuhed with a fmall rattle-fnake, a ca-
meleon, a crocodile, a beaver, a fea-lion, afea-calf, &c.
The prefs for birds is filled with animals of that clafs,
both foreign and natives. Huffed and provided with
glafs eyes. The fkin covered with the feathers may
be preierved perfect and dry by being fitted to a mould
of tree-mofs, or filled with cotton, and fprinkled.on
the infide with pepper, camphire, and corrofive fubli-
mate, tp defend it frpm the attack of moths, grubs,
wood-lice, and dermtfles. The fpring and autumn
are the hell feafons for this operation ; the moulting-
time is very improper, becaufe it is unfavourable to
the beautiful colour apd the prefervation of the -fea¬
thers, which moreover are then full of blood. The
birds, when thus prepared, and when the brain has
been taken out, are then placed on their fupports.—
Some females may be placed,in their nefts in the at¬
titude of incubation j thofe which are accuftomed to
perch may be placed on artificial trees ; a wooden fup-
porter, covered with moft, turf, or artificial reeds, may
be given to thofe which live among fuch plants.—-
Swimming birds are placed on the lowermoit fhelves,
which mull be covered with pieces of mirrors or filver
gauze, in imitation of water. We mult be careful to
give each animal the moll picturefque attitude ; to pre-
ierve the proportions, together with the natural pofi-
tion of the legs, wings, head, body, and featheis; to
obferve an equilibrium in thofe which are at reft, and
to avoid it in thofe which have a fighting attitude 
We mull characterize the animal, reprefent his genius,
4 P 3 difpolitions.
natural
d’irPofit'onf!> grace*, boldnefa, or timidity. In fhort,
» t‘ ' w'e mufl endeavour to exprefs that beautiful tout en-
femble which gives the appearance, of life and motion
to the whole. The "deception ought to be fuch, that
thofe who examine the particulars of the colleftion may
apply to each what was faid on another occafion—
Nature is dead, but /Irt is alive. Thefe obfervations on
birds arc equally applicable to the other animals ; but
all of them mull be arranged in a methodical order,
which pofTefles the advantage neceflary in fuch collec¬
tions of uniting pleafure with inftru&ion.
The lower Ihclves contain the eggs and nefts of
birds; and a collection of feathers is made in a book
in the fame manner as an herbal.
The prefs for quadrupeds contains, preferved in bot¬
tles, fmall animals, fuch as mice, rats, the opof-
fum, &c. Other animals are ftuffcd, fuch as the cat,
the fquiirel, the hedge hog, the porcupine, the arma¬
dillo, the Guinea pig, the wolf, the fox, the roe-buck,
the hare, the dog, &c.
The prefs containing the h't/lory of man confifts of
a complete myology, of a head feparately inje&ed, of
a brain and the organs of generation in both fexes, of
* a neurology, an ofteology, embryos of all different
ages, with their after-births, monftrous foetufes, and
an Egygtian mummy. Here likewife are put beautiful
anatomical pieces in wax or wood, and flony concre¬
tions extracted from the human body.
The prefervation of fubje&s in bottles with fpirit
of wine does not always fucceed, becaufe they fpoil as
the fpirit of wine evaporates, unlefs particular care be
taken to examine the veffels wherein they are contain¬
ed, which requires time and pains, and is attended
with expence. Mr Lewis Nicola, in the Philadelphia
Tranfadtions for the year 1771, recommends, after
ufrng the different methods pointed out by M. Reau¬
mur, of putting fubje&s intended for prefervation in
bottles filled with fpirit of wine, to wipe well the neck
of the bottle, and put a layer of putty, two lines
thick, over the piece of fkin or bladder which covers
it. The bottle is then reverfed in a wooden cup, which
they fill with melted tallow, or with a mixture of tal¬
low and wax, to prevent the fpirit of wine from eva¬
porating.
The drawers under the preffes of the animal king¬
dom contain fmall detached parts of animals, fuch as
teeth, fmall horns, jaw-bones, claws, beaks, nails,
vertebras, hairs, fcales, balls of hair, and a colle&ion
of bones remarkable for blows, fraftures, deformities,
and difeafes.
To decorate a cabinet to the greateft advantage, and
to make one complete whole, the walls mufl be fur-
r.ifhed throughout their whole extent. For this pur-
pofe the tops of the preffes are commonly ornamented
with fhells of a very great fize, foreign wafps-hives,
the horn of a rhinoceros, an elephant’s trunk, the
horn of an unicorn, urns and bulls of alabafler, jafper,
marble, porphyry, or ferpentine ftone. Here likewife
are placed figures of antique bronze, large lithophytes,
animals made of fhells, bouquets made of the wings
of Scarabaeub gourds cut into two, painted, and made
into bowls, plates, vafes, and as they are ufed by fa-
vages} little trunks of bark, books made of the leaves
of the palm-tree, globes, fphcres, &c. The multi-
HISTORY. Sea. IV
plicity and Angularity of the objects never fail to ar- Animal
reft the attention of the fpe&ator. Kingdom^
The circumference of the cabinet being furnifhed in ' r~~i
the manner we have defcribed, the floor may likewife
be paved with different kinds of common ftones which
are fufceptible of a polifh.
The cieling, which muft be very white, is divided
into three fpaces, furnifhed with hooks and brafs wires.
Here may be diilributed in order different vegetable
and animal productions, which are of too great a fize
to be contained in the preffes; fuch as,
1. The fugar-cane, a branch of the pain.-tree, to¬
gether with that called the Chinefe fan, large cocoas,
both Ample and with a double lobe, the leaf of the ba¬
nana-tree, Indian and European flicks, remarkable
for the knots, tubercles, and fpiral wreaths, which co¬
ver their whole length, a bamboo root divided longi¬
tudinally into two parts, and the different fpccics of
reed-canes.
2. The fkins of large animals; alfo fluffed animals,
fuch as lizzards, whether a crocodile or caiman and
fcaly lizard, a fhark, a fword-fifh, a fea-calf, a fea-tor-
toife, large and long ferpents, the horns of deer, wild
goats, roe-bucks, and rein-deer.
3. The third fpace is filled with Indian rackets, ham¬
mocks, drefles, and tufts of feathers; with calumets
or pipes; with quivers, bows, and arrows ; with head-
pieces, caps with feathers, aprons, necklaces, Chinefe
necdfaries, fans made of the leaves of the palm tree,
a gargoulette of Indoftan, a Polifh whip, Indian ca¬
noes, Chinefe mufical inftruments, lances, weapons,
Indian furniture and utenfils; and in fhort, various cu-
riofities from nations ancient and modern, if they can
be found ; various furniture and utenfils of different
nations, ancient and modern.
As the great extent of a fine colle&ion requires that
there be no empty fpace, Hands may be placed in dif¬
ferent parts of the room, efpecially at the corners, for
fupporting large vertebras, the head of a fea-cow, very
large madrepores, or confiderable colleftions either of
rock chryllal or of minerals. )
In the middle of the room is placed a receptacle for
fhells, which is a large table or bureau with raifed
edges, ihe furface of this table is divided into 27
feparate cafes, of different fizes, and proportioned to
the 27 families of marine fhells to be depofited in
them. Thefe divifions are made with wood or paite-
board painted blue, and are fometimes in the form of
fhelves; the bottom is covered with blue cotton or
green fattin, or, what is Hill fimpler, with white li¬
nen, fufEciently rough to keep the fhells in their
place, in fome cabinets, thefe fhelves are covered with
mirrors on all their different furfaces, which fhows the
objedts double, and gives us an opportunity of viewing
them on the two oppofite fides. In other cabinets,
the cafes for each family are dillributed into a num¬
ber of fmaller divifions, for containing the feveral
fpecies feparate from each other. The fea-fhellp,
contained in the receptacle for fhells, are all cleaned,
and prefent, in the vaiiety of their figure and colours.,
together with their inequality, an agreeable and en¬
chanting pidture, fo much the more charming that it
unites a methodical diftribution to a fymmetrical or¬
der. The upper part of this table is ffiut by a net-
Sea. IV. NATURAL
j Animal work of brafs wire covered with fetge, or, what is ftill
f Kin^om. better, by a glafa frame, to defend the fltells from duft-
' \yc muft not omit to mention, that in the middle of
the table there is a long elevated fquare box, contain¬
ing land and river (hells. From the middle of each
compartment, or at each family of (hells, arifes a fmall
pyramidal wooden pillar, on the top of which is an
horizontal piece of pafteboard, or fort offign, denoting
the kind of (hells belonging to that divifion. Each
family is diftinguiflied from the adjoining one by thofe
kind of ornaments of filk called caterpillars. By means
of the different tints, we perceive the limits and ex¬
tent of each family in the fame manner as the colours
in a geographical map enable us to diftinguilh the fe-
veral provinces of the fame empire. An exhibition of
this kind was to be feen from 1768 to 1774, in a mu-
feum belonging to the prince of Conde at Chantilly.
Under the table for (hells, on the fide of the win¬
dows, is a glazed cage, large enough to contain the
Ikeletons of an animal belonging to each clafs, to wit,
a fiflr, an amphibious animal, a reptile, a lizard, a bird,
and a quadruped. When to thefe we -can add, for the
fake of the comparative ofteology, the (keletons of the
intermediate individuals of thefe animals, together
with thofe which make the neareft approaches to mas,
fuch as the monkey and the tear, we greatly increafe
both the pleafure and inflruftion. Below this table
are likewife placed the beft books conneded with the
[ different branches of natural hiitory, efpecially fuch as
have illuminated plates. The difficulty of acquiring
the mod valuable objeds, and of preventing their de-
ftrudion when once acquired, obliges us to have re-
courfe to figures, in order to preferve a reprefentation
of them. This is an infallible method of communi¬
cating, not only'to our cotemporaries, but alfo to
jrofterity, the difeoveries of the age in which the work
was compofed. Here alfo may be depofited the herbal
and the colledion of feathers, arranged in the form of
books.
The fpace above the door is furnifhed with a large
frame, filled with the (kins of rare (idles, which are
dried, varnifhed, and patted on paper.
The piers of the windows are furnifhed with one or
two preffes,which are provided with (helves, and con¬
tain different kinds of inftruments employed in phyttes,.
fuch as an air-pump, a burning mirror, a perfpedlive
glafs, a magnifier, a microfcope, a telefcope, magnets
both natural and artificial, &c.
On the femicircular (helves below are placed ftones
formerly ufed by favages for hatchets. Some curious,
pieces of lacker work, Indian pagodas, trinkets be-
longing 10 the favages of the north and to the Chinefe,
which are made of ivory or yellow amber,, or of coral
mounted with gold, filver, porcelain-clay, kriacks of
Siam, and Turkifh cangiars, which are a kind of po¬
niards, Indian curiofities of filver, and the galians
which' the Turks and Perfians ufe in fmoking tobacca
■ } and aloes.
The drawers, under this prefs contain a colle&ion of
medals, china ink, lachrymatory phials, and the mod
^ beautiful.engraved ftones of Europe, or an impreffion
I of them in wax or fulphur, counters, cameos, antiques,
talifmans, ancient weights and meafures, idols, urns,
lamps, inftrumenta of facrifice, and falfe jewels..
HISTORY. 66(5
Laft of all, the embrafures of the windows mutt be Animal
furnifhed with pictures of (lone in conne&ed pieces. K ngdom..
Here likewife, as well as in the embrafures and pannels
of the door, may be put tubes hermetically fealed, con¬
taining rare reptiles preferved in proper liquors.
The reader will by this time have fome idea of the
prodigious extent of the fcience of natural hittory ;
fa extenfive is it, indeed, that the longed life is far from
being fufficient to enable us to acquire a perfect know¬
ledge of it: it is important beyond difputc, becaufe
itsbufinefs is with the works of God. In all the ar¬
ticles connetted with the prefent, as forming particu¬
lar parts of it, and to which we refer, we have made
great ufe of the works of the celebrated Linnaeus,
who it is well known arranged the three kingdoms in¬
to regular fyftems, of which botany is the moft com¬
plete The world in general feems to have been moft dif-
fatisfied with the animal kingdom: he himfelf, in the
courfe of a variety of editions, made many important
alterations. Some men of confiderable note, for ex¬
ample Buffon, have written on this fubjeft without
any regard to fyftematic arrangement. Dr Berken-
hout’s works on this part of fcience are very ufeful; in
a particular manner, becaufe he tranflates Latin names,
&c. Bomare’s new edition of his Natural Hiftory, in
1.5 vols. oftavo, a work of confiderable importance,
was publiffied in 1791.
The moft complete fyftem, however, of natural hi¬
ftory which has been yet given ta the public, is un¬
doubtedly that of Linnaeus, in his Syftema Natura, of
which a new and improved edition is actually publiffi-
ing by   Gmeling. A (hort view of this elabo¬
rate work, will, we prefume, not be unacceptable to the
reader, as it will prefent him, in a very fmall compafs,
an abftrad; of whatever is at prefent known in the fix. .
firft clafles of natural hiftory.
Primatis
Bruta
Ferae
Glires
Pecora
Bellucae
Cete
Ord.
Accipitus
Picae.
Anferes
Grallae
Gallinas
Pafferes
Class L Mammalia.
Gen.
4
7
4
4
47
Class II. Aves.
Gen.
4
23
!3
17
6 87
Class III. Amphibia.
Ord. Gen.
Reptilia 4
Serpentes 6
Sp.
88
25
186
129
90
25
*4
Sp.
27!
663
3*4
326
129
983
Sp.
147
219
JO
366
Class nT;.
670
Animal
Kmgd>
NATURAL HISTORY.
Ord.
A podes
Tngtrfares
Thoracict
Afcdominales
Branchioftegi
Condropterygii
Class XV. Pifces.
Gen.
10
6
19
Sp.
37
5s
452
Ord.
Inteftina
Molluica
''i'dlacea
ZoophiSa
Infuibria
■Class VI. Vermet,
31
'
J5
Sp.
$H
43*i
2525 .
49»
151
4036
Sea. IV;
Animal ^
Kingdom
6 66
Class V. InfeS^e,
Ord. Gen.
Coleoptera 5 5
Hemyptera 14
Tepidoptera - 3
Neuroptera 7
Hyrrenoptcm ’ 5
Diptera T2
Aptera 15
7 . 221
8S9
Sp.
4048
1464
itoo
l74
1239
692
679
10896
In the new French Encyclapedie par oidre de Matieres,
the editors promifed to give a defeription of more
than ) 8,000 plants. Dr Berkenhont, in the laft edi¬
tion of his Synopfis, fays, that in Gieat Britain and'
Ireland there are about 54 fpecies of the mammalia,
2 ,0 of birds, 50 of the amphibia, 600 of infedls, jjq
of fifties, and 1600 fpecies of plants: but in every
dafs he is probably much within the number.
NAT
PhUofo'ih Nxtvhai Pkihfophy, is commonly defined to be
that art or fcience which coniidetSthe powers and pro¬
perties of natural bodies, and their mutual actions on
one another. The province of moral phfiofophy is the
mind of man pits inquiries and refearches are into the
intelleftual world. Natural philofophy,. on the other
hand, is only concerned with the material part of the
creation. The Moralift’s bufinefs is to inquire into the
nature of virtue, the caufes and effedts of vice, to
propofe remedies for it, and to point out the mode of
attaining happinefs, which only can be the refult of
virtuous condua. The Natural! I, on the contrary, has
nothing to do with fpirit; his bufinefs is folely about
body or matter; and he ought to have a folid and accu¬
rate knowledge of all material fubftances, together with
their affeaions and properties ; and, if poflible, he is to
inveftigate the reafons of fuch andfuch appearances.—
Indeed, the firft and principal part of this fcience is
to colled all the mamfeft and feniible appearances of
things, and reduce them into a body of natural hifiory.
Philofophy, it has often been faid,and it is even now very
generally thought, to mean an inquiry into all the canfes
of things ; but experience informs us, that though we
are acquainted with a good number of eflie&s, we can
trace but few of their caufes ; fo that philofophy itfelf
will really be found to be in general but a colle&iou
•of fads. Still, however, it differs from natural hi-
ftory in its appropriated fenfe ; the bufinefs of which
is only to obferve the appearances of natural bodies
feparately, and from thefe appearances to clafs them
with other bodies : natural philofophy goes farther,
and recites the aWion of two or more bodies of the
fame or different kinds upon one another ; and though
it can neither inveftigate nor point out the caufes of
thofe efteds, whatever they are, yet, from mathema¬
tical reafoning combined with experience, it can bede-
monftrated, that in fuch circumftances fuch effeds mull
always take place. There are evidently two ways of
making obfervf.rions on the material world : the firft is,
NAT
when we view things nearly as they happen to turn up, NamraS
without any defign or intervention-of our Own ; in Philoio
which way, indeed, no great improvements can be r ""
expeded in th: art, becaufe chance having the direc¬
tion, only exhibits occafional or extemporary proper¬
ties. The other method is, when, after a thorough
acquaintance with bodies, we apply them to other bo¬
dies equally known, diligently attending to the refult,
and obferving whether any thing new arifes. Such
feems to be in general the nature of our article ; nor
is it our intention to be much more particular at pre-
fent. We mull therefore refer our readers refpedive-
ly to thofe parts of the fubjed, refpeding which they
wifh for more fatisfadion and minuter details. The
ancient and modern definitions of the word philojO’
phy, together with its origin, as well as the man¬
ner of philofophifing in former times as well as at
prefent, with the gradual improvement of feien'ee,
particularly natural, we fhall introduce, we think, more
properly under the words Philosophy and Physics
We need only add under'the prefent article, what
however is well known, that natural philofophy was
till late.y divided only into four parts, commonly call¬
ed the fmr branches, viz. 1. Mechanics ; 2 Hydrofta-
tics; 3, Optics ; and 4. Aftronomy ; and thefe again
are fub-divided into various parts. Modern difeoveries
have added, however, two more parts to the number, viz.
magnetifm and ele&ricity, w'hofe properties and effedts;
&c. have been wonderfully unfolded of late years.
It is remarkable, that in the Englifh univerfities thefe
two latter brandies are never taken notice of in lec¬
turing on natural philofophy, the old divillon being Hill
retained, without any mention.of thele two important
articles. The reafon may he, that they are only fub-
jeft to experiment, and not yet reduced to mathema¬
tical reafonirrg; which is the method of teaching phi¬
lofophy in one of thofe celebrated feu inaries Of thefe
branches of this extenfive fcience, it is not our inten¬
tion to take even a general view in this place. We
mull
NAT r 6
t- niuft therefore refer our readers to each particular ar¬
ticle, where th#y will find them treated at canfiderable
length—See Expf.rimkntji. Philojophy.
. NATURALIZATION, in law, the ad of na¬
turalizing an alien, or putting him into the condition
of a natural born fubjedL and intitling him to the
rights and privileges thereof. But none can be natu¬
ralized unlefs they have received the facrament with
in one month before the bringing in of the bill, and
taken the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy in the
prefence of the parliament. A perjon who is natura¬
lized may have lands by defeent, as heir at law, as well
as obtain them by purchafe ; but he is difabled from
being a member of the privy council or parliament;
or from holding offices, 7 Jae. I. cap. 2. 12 Will. III.
cap. 2- All children born out of the king’s domi¬
nions, whofe fathers were or are fubje&s of this king¬
dom at the time of their birth, are adjudged to be na¬
tural born fubjefts of this realm, except children of
parents attainted of treafon, or that are in the a&ual
fervice of a foreign prince at enmity with us, 4 Geo.II.
cap. 2r. Lvtry foreign feaman, who in time of war
lei ves two years on board an Englifh ffiip, is ipfo fac¬
to naturalized, 13 Geo. II. cap. 3. And albforeign
Protellants aud Jews, upon their refiding feven years
in any of the Britifh colonies, without being ab-
fent above two months at a time, or ferving two years
in a military capacity there, are upon taking the oaths
naturalized to all intents and purpofes, as if they had
been born in this kingdom ; and therefore are admif-
fible to all fuch privileges, and no other, as Proteilants
or Jews born in this kingdom are intitled to. See
Alien and ^Denizen.
In France, before the Revolution, naturalization
was the king’s prerogative ; in England it is only done
by aft of parliament In the former of thofe places,
before their government was overturned, Swifs, Sa¬
voyards, and Scots, did not require naturalization, be¬
ing reputed regnicoles, or natives.
NATURALS, among phyficians, whatevei natu¬
rally belongs to an animal, in opposition to non-natu¬
rals. See Non-naturals.
NATURE, according to Mr Boyle, has eight dif¬
ferent fignifications; it being ufed, 1. For the Au¬
thor of nature, whom the Schoolmen call Natura Na-
turans, being the fame with God. 2. By the nature
of a thing, we fometimes mean its effence; that is,
the attributes which make it what it is, whether the
thing be corporeal or not; as when we attempt to de¬
fine the nature of a fluid, of a triangle, &c. 3. Some¬
times we confound that which a man has by nature
with what accrues to him by birth ; as when we fay,
that fueh a man is noble by nature. 4 Sometimes
we take nature for an internal principle of motion ;
as when we fay, that a ftone by nature falls to the
earth. 5. Sometimes we underhand, by nature, the
eflabliffied courfe of things. 6. Sometimes we take
nature for an aggregate of powers belonging to a
body, cfpecially a living one ; in which fenfe phyfi¬
cians fay, that nature is ttrong, weak, or fpent;. or
that, in fuch or fuch difeafes,. nature left to herfelf
will perform the cure. 7. Sometimes we ufe the term
nature for the univerfe, or whole fyftem of the cor¬
poreal works of God ; as when it is faid of a phoenix,
-or chimera, that there ie no fuch thing in nature,
7
71 1 N A T
8. .Sometimes too, and that moft commonly, we ex- ;
piefs by the word nature a kind of femi-dejty, or other
ftrange kind of being. ^
If, fays the fame philofopher, I were to propofe a
notion of nature, lefs ambiguous than thofe already
mentioned, and with regard to which many axioms
relating to that word may be conveniently underftood,
I fhould firit diftinguiffi between the univerfal and the
particular nature of things. Univerfal nature I would
define to be the aggregate of the bodies that make up
the world in its prefent ftate, confidered as a principle;
by virtue whereof they aft and fuffer, according to the
laws of motion preferibed by the Author of all things.
And this makes way for the other fubordinate notion ;
fince the particular nature of an individual confifls in
the general nature applied to a diftinft portion of the
univerfe ; or, which is the fame thing, it is a particu¬
lar affemblage of the mechanical properties of matter,
as figure, motion, See.
Kingdoms of Naiurf. See Kingdoms.
Conduct or Operations of Nature. See Natural
Hiflory.
NAVA, (anc. geog.) Tacrtus ; a river of Belgica,
which runs north-eaft into the left or wed fide of the
Rhine. Now the Nahe, rifing at the village Nahe-
weiler, on the borders of the bifliopric of Triers, run¬
ning through the Lower Palatinate, the duchy of
Simmeren, by the fmall town of Bing, into the
Rhine.
NAVAL, fometbing relating to a fliip ; whence,.
Naval Jrchitenure. See Ship-Building.
Naval-Camp, in antiquity, a fortification, confid¬
ing of a ditch and parapet on the land fide, or a wall,
built in the form of a femicircle, and extended from
one point of the fea to another. This was fometimea
defended with towers, and beautified with gates.,
through which they iffued forth to attack their ene¬
mies. Homer hath left us a remarkable defcijption-
of the Grecian fortifications of this fort, in the Tro¬
jan war, beginning at v. 436. Iliad „.
Then, to fecure the camp and naval powers.
They rais’d embattled walls with lofty tow’rs;
From fpace to fpace were ample gates around,
For palling chaiiots ; and a trench profound,
Of large extent; and deep in earth below
Strong piles infix’d itood adverfe to the foe.
Pope’s Tranfl.
Towards the fea, or within it,, they fixed great .
pales of wood, like thofe in their artificial harbours;
before thefe the veflels of burden were placed in fuch
order, as that they might he inftead of a wall, and
give proteftion to thofe within ; in which manner Ni-
cias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped
himfelf: but this feems only to have been praftifed
when the enemy was thought fuperior in ilrength, and
raifed great apprehenfions of danger in them. When
their fortifications were thought ftrong enough t® de¬
fend them from the alfaults of enemies, it was frequent
to drag their (hips to Ihore, which the Greeks call¬
ed the YLomEns fulducere. Around the (hips
the foldiers difpofed their tents, as appears every
where in Homer: but this feemS only to have been
praftifed in winter when their enemy’s fleet was laid
up and could not alfault them ; or in long fieges, and
when they lay in no danger from their enemies by fea; .
N A V C ^72 j N A V
Navan, ag Jn Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy ne*
, Wavarre. ver once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a fea-
The adjacent places were ufually filled with inns
and ftews, well flocked with females, that proftituted
themfelves to- the mariners, merchants, and artifi¬
cers of all forts, who flocked thither in great num¬
bers ; this, however, appears to have happened only in
times of peace.
NAFAL-Crown, among the ancient Romans, a crown
adorned with figures of prows of fhips, conferred on
perfons who in fea-engagements firft boardedlhe ene¬
my’s vefiel. See Crown.
NAFAL-Engagement. See Tactics (Naval)^
Nafal Stores, comprehend all thofe particulars
made ufe of, not only in the royal navy, but in every
other kind of navigation; as timber and iron for {hip¬
ping, pitch, tar, hemp, cordage, fail-cloth, gun¬
powder, ordnance, and fire-arms of every fort, ftiip-
- chandlery wares, &c.
Nafal-T<i£Hcs, the military operations of fleets.
See Tactics (Naval).
NAVAN, a borough, poll, and fair town of
Ireland, in the county of Meath and province of
Leinfter ; fituated about 23 miles north-weft of Dub¬
lin, on the river Boyne. It confifts of two chief
ftreets, which interfeft each other at right angles.—
The Tholfel, or town houfe, <as a handfome ftone-
building. This place was formerly in great repute,
and walled in by Hugh de Lacy. Art abbey for re¬
gular cannons, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, was
erefted here ; but whether antecedent to the end of
the 12th century is not certain: about that period,
however, it was either founded or re-edified by Joce-
line de Angulo dr Nangle; In the burial-ground are
the remains of many ancient tombs, with figures in
alto relievo ; and the prefent barrack for one troop of
horfe is built on the file of the abbey. " Navan fends
two members to parliament; patronage in the Prefton
family. Here are four fairs held.
NAVARRE, a province of Spain, part of the an¬
cient kingdom of Navarre, ere&ed foon after the in-
vafion of the Moors; and is otherwife called Upper
Navarre, to diftinguifli it from Lower Navarre be¬
longing to the French. It is bounded on the fouth
and eaft by Afragon, on the north by the Pyrenees,
and on the weft by Old Caftile and Bifcay ; extending
from fouth to north about 80 miles, and from eaft to
weft about 75- It abounds in fheep and catile ; game
of all kinds as boars, flags, and roebucks; and in
wild-fowl, horfes, and honey; yielding alfo fame
grain, wine, oil, and a variety of minerals, medicinal
waters, and hot baths. Some of the ancient chiefs
of this country were called Sobrarbores, from the
cuftom, as it is fuppofed, which prevailed among
fome of thofe free nations of choofing and fwearing
their princes under fome particular tree. The name
Of the province is fuppofed to be a contraction of
Nava Errea, fignifying,- in the language of the Vaf-
cones, its ancient inhabitants, “ a land of valleys.”
—For the particulars of its hiftory, fee the article
Spain.
Navarre (Peter), an officer of eminence in the
46th century, and particularly celebrated for his dex¬
terity in the directing and fpringing of osines. He
- ^237.
was a native of Bifcay, and of low extraction. Ac* Navarre,
cording to Paul Jove, who affirms that he had an —v—^
account of the matter from his own mouth, he was
firft a failor ; but being difg .fted with that employ¬
ment, he fought his fortune in Italy, when poverty
compelled him to become footman to the cardinal of
Arragon He afterwards inliitcd himfelf a foldier in
the Houftine army ; and having ferved there for fome
time, went to fea again, and diitinguiflied himfelf by
his courage. The reputation of his valour having
reached the cars of Gonfalvo de Cordoue, this general
employed him in the war again ft Naples, and raifed
him to the rank of a captain. Having contributed
greatly to he taking of that city by very opportune¬
ly fpringing a mine, the emperor rewarded him for
this fignal fervice with the eaildom of Alveto, fituated
in that kingdom, and gave him the title of count of
Navarre. Having the command of a naval expedi¬
tion againft the Moors in Africa, he was at firft very
fuccefsful, and took pofieffion of Oran, Tripoli, and
fome other places ; but being afterwards ftiipwrecked
on the ifland of Gerbes, the great heats afid the
Moorifti cavalry deftroyed a part of his army. Our
hero was equally unfortunate in Italy : He was made
prifoner at the fathqus battle of Ravenna, in 1512,
and languifhed in France for the fpace of two years.
When finding that the king of Spain, who had been
prejudiced againft him by his courtiers, would do no¬
thing towards his ranfom, he went into the fervice of
Francis I. who gave him the command of twenty com¬
panies of infantry, confifting of Gafcons, Bifcayans,
and the inhabitants of the Pyrenee mountains. He di-
ftinguiflled himfelf in feveral fuccefsfui expeditions, un¬
til the year 15 22, when having been fent to the relief of
the Genoefe, he v/as taken by the Imperialifts. They
conducted him to Naples, where he remained a pri¬
foner for three years in the cattle of CEuf. From this
confinement he was releafed by the treaty of Madrid,
and afterwards fought at the fiege of Naples under
Laulric in 1 ^2 : : but being again made prifoner at
the unfortunate retreat iVom Averfa, he was conduc¬
ted a fccond time to the cattle of (Euf. H.re the
prince of Grange having, by order of the emperor,
caufed feveral perfons of the Angevine faction to be
beheaded, our hero would undoubtedly have fuffered
the fame fate, if the governor, feeing his diftreifed fitu-
ation, and feeling for the misfortunes of fo great a
man, had not faved him the thame of this laft punith-
ment by allowing him to die a natural death. Others
pretend that he was ftrangled in his bed, having ar¬
rived at a very advanced age. Paul Jove and Philip
Thomafini have written his life. This laft informs us,
that he was of a tall fize; had a fwarthy countenance,
black eyes, beard, and hair. A duke of Seffa, in the
laft century, being defirous to honour his memory
and that of the marthal de Lautree, caufed a monu¬
ment to be erefted to each of them in the church of
Sainte- .vlarie-le-Neuve at Naples, where they had been
interred without any funeral honours.
Navarre (furnamed Martin AzpilcuAa), becaufe
he was born in the kingdom which bears that name,
fucceffively profeffor of jurifprudence atTotlloufe, Sa--
lamanca, and Coimbra, was confnlted front all quar¬
ters as the oracle of law. For a part of his knowledge
lie was indebted to the fchools of Cahors and Touloufe,
8 i
N A U [ 673 ] N A U
Nauderns in which he had ftudled. His friend Barthelemi Ca-
II rewza. a Dominican, and archbifliop of Toledo, ha-
tke™~ vingf been charged with herefy by the court of Inqui-
» , • * fition at Rome, Navarre fet out at the age of 80 years
to defend him, Pius V. appointed him affeffor to
cardinal Francis Alciat, vice-penetentiary. Gregory
XIII. never pafTed his gate without fending for him ;
and fometimes would converfe with him for an hour
together on the ftreet : he even deigned to vifit him,
accompanied by feveral cardinals. Thefe honours did
not render him more haughty. His chara&er became
fo eminent, that even in his own time the greateil
encomium that could be paid -to a man of learning
was to fay that he was a Navarre: this name thus
included the idea of erudition, as that of Rofcius for¬
merly marked an accomplifhed comedian. Azpilcu6ta
was the oracle of the city of Rome, and of the whole
Chriftian world. For the influence which he had ac¬
quired, he was indebted not only to his knowledge,
but alfo to his probity and virtue. Faithful to the
duties which the church preferibed, his temperance
and frugality preferved to him a vigorous conftitution-;
and at a very advanced age his genius was equal to the
fevereft ftudy. His favings enabled him to give libe¬
ral afiidance to the poor. His charities, indeed, were
fo great, that his mule, it is faid, would flop as foon as
(he perceived a beggar. He died at Rome in 1 ;S6,
at the age of 92. His works were collefted and
printed in 6 vols folio at Lyons in 1597, and at Ve¬
nice in 1602. They difplay more learning than judge¬
ment, and are now very feldom confulted. Navarre
was uncle by the mother’s fide to St Francis of Sales.
See Sales.
NAUCLERUS (John), defeended of a noble fa¬
mily of Suabia, was proved of the church of Suringia,
and profefTor of law in the univerfity of that city.—
His original name was Fergeau; but this name, which
in German fignifies “ failor,” he changed into Vau-
clerus, a word of the fame lignificatibn in Greek.—
He was alive in 150*. We have from him a Latin
Chronicle from Adam to the year 1500, of which Ba-
ielius wrote a continuation down to 15x4, and Surius
to 1 564. It poflelfes greater accuracy than any hi-
ftorical compilation which had appeared prior to his
time ; but Hill it is only a compilation. It is chiefly
valued for what regards the occurrences of the 15th
century. It was printed at Cologne in folio in 1564
and 1579.
NAUCRAR1, among the Athenians, was the
name given to the chief magiftrates of the “ bo¬
roughs or tow.nfhips,” called ; becailfe each
was obliged, befides two horfemen, to furnifli out one
{hip for the public fervice.
NAUC RATES, a Greek poet, who was emplbyed
by Artemifla to write a panegyric upon Maufolusl—
An orator who endeavoured to alienate the cities of
Lycia from the intereft of Brutus.
NAUCRATIS, a city of Egypt on the left fide
of the Cafiopic mouth of the Nile. It was celebrated
for its'commerce, and no fhip was permitted to land
at any other place, but was obliged to fail dire&Iy to
the city, there to depofit its cargo. It gave birth to
Athenseus.
NAUCRATITES Nomos (anc. geog.), Pliny;
Vol. XII. Part II,
a divifion of the Delta, fo called from the town Nau- Naucides,
crafts ; though Ptolemy comprifes it under the Nomos. ■Na'lde- ,
Saites.
NAUCYDES, a ftatuary who lived about four
centuries before the Chriftian era.
NAUDE (Gabriel), was defeended of a reputable
family, and born at Paris, February i 2th, 1600.—
His parents obferving his fondnefs for reading and
inclination to letters, refolved to breed him in that
way ; and accordingly fent him to a religious com¬
munity, to learn the fim rudiments of grammar and
the principles of Chriftianity. Thence he was remo¬
ved to the univerfity, where he applied himfelf with
great fuccefs to claflical learning ; and having learned
philofophy, was created mafter of arts very young.—
As foon as he had finifhed his courfe in philofophy,
he remained fome time at a Hand what profeffion to
choofe, being advifed by his friends to divinity ; but
his inclination being more turned to phyfic, he fixed
at length upon that faculty. However, this choice
did not prevent him from indulging his genius in other
branches of learning : in reality, the plan of his Un¬
dies was very extenfive, fuited to his comprehenfive
talents and indefatigable induftry : and he foon diftin-
guifhed himfelf therein fo much, that Henry de Mef-
mes, prefident a mortier, hearing his character, made
him keeper of his library, and took him into his fa¬
mily. Naude was the more pleafed with this pofl, as
it gave him an opportunity of gratifying his bookifh
tafte in general, and at the fame time furnifhed him
both with means and leifure to improve himfelf as he
could wifli, in the fcience which he had embraced in
particular. He quitted it in 1626, in order to go to
Padua to perfect himfelf therein : but he did not con¬
tinue long in that univerfity, the death of his father
and his domestic affairs calling him back to Paris be¬
fore the expiration of the year.
In '628 the faculty of phyfic appointed him to
make the cuftomary difeourfe on the reception of li.
centiates; which performance entirely anfwered their
expeftations from him, and was made public. In
1 > Cardinal Bagni made him his librarian and La¬
tin fecretary, and carried him with him to Rome in
the-fpring of that year. Naude continued in this fer¬
vice till the death of the cardinal, which happened
July 24. 1641 ; and in the interim made an excurfion
to Padua, to take his do&or of phyfic’s degree, in or¬
der to fupport with a better grace the quality with
which he had been honoured by Louis XIIL who
had made him his phyfician. The ceremony of this
appointment was performed March 25. 1633, arid we
have the fpeech he pronounced oh the occafion. Af¬
ter the deatfi of his patron, he had thoughts of re¬
turning to France ; but was detained in Italy by fe¬
veral advantageous offers rixade to him by perfons of
confideration in that country. Among thefe he pre¬
ferred thofe of Cardinal Barberifti, arid clofed with
his eminence. However, as foon as Cardinal Riche¬
lieu fent for him to he his librarian, he immediately
returned to Paris ; but he happened not to be long in
the fervice of the prime miniiler, if it be true thar he
arrived at Paris in March 1642, fince Cardinal Riche¬
lieu died in December following : notwithflanding, he
fucceeded to the like poll under Mazarine, for whom he
4 Q» formei
N A U I 674 1 N A V
Naude. formed a moft rich library, which he raifed from the
firft volume in the fpacc of feven years to the number
of 40,000.
His defign was nearly completed before the Cardi¬
nal gave him two fmall benefices, a canonry of Ver¬
dun and the priory of Artige in the Limofin : and
we know how much this ungenerofity affe&ed him,
from a letter of Patin to Charles Spon, dated March
22. 1648, where he writes thus of our librarian :
“ I have feen one thing in him which I amveryforry
for ; efpecially as I have known him all along hitherto
at a great diftance from fuch a difpofition : it is, that
he begins to complain of his fortune, and of his ma-
fter’s avarice, from whom he had never received any
more than 1200 livres a year in benefices; not for¬
bearing to declare, that his life was faciificed for too
fmall a matter. I think (continues Patin) what
grieves him is, the apprehenfion of dying before he
has raifed fomething for his brothers and his nephews,
of whom he has a great number.” However that be,
Naude had the grief to fee this library, which he had
collefted with fo much pains and care, totally dif-
perfed. Upon the difgrace of Mazarine it was fold ;
and Pafin, in a letter of March 5 1651, obferves, that
Naule had bought all the books in phyfic for 3500
livres Chriftina queen of Sweden, who fet herfelf to
draw into her dominions all the literati of Europe,
procured a propofal to be made to Naude of being
her library keeper ; and as he was then out of all em¬
ploy, he accepted the propofal, and went to Cop.—
But he foon grew out of humour with his refidence in
Sweden : the manners of the people, fo very different
from his, gave him great difguft.; and feeing France
become more quiet than it had been, he refolved to
return. Accordingly he quitted Sweden loaded with
prefents from the queen, and feveral perfons of diftinc-
N A V I G
S the art of condufting or carrying a fhip from
one port to another.
HISTORY.
The poets refer the invention of the art of naviga¬
tion to Neptune, fome to Bacchus, others to Her¬
cules, others to Jafon, and others to Janus, who is faid
to have made the firft fhip. Hiftorians afcribe it to
the iEginets, the Phoenicians, Tyrians, and the an¬
cient inhabitants of Britain. Some will have it, the
firft hint was taken from the flight of the kite ; others,
as Oppian,! Depifcibus, lib. i.) from the fifh called nau¬
tilus: others afcribe it to accident. — Scripture refers
the origin of fo ufeful an invention to God himfelf,
who gave the firft fpecimen thereof in the ark built by
Noah under his direftion. For the raillery the good
man underwent on account of his enterprife fhows
evidently enough the world was then ignorant of any
thing like navigation, and that they even thought it
impoffible.
However, profane hiftory reprefents the Phoenicians,
efpecially tbofe of their capital Tyre, as the firft naviga¬
tors ; being urged to feek a foreign commerce by the
nan ownefs and poverty of a flip of ground they pof-
tion : but the fatigue of the journey threw him into a Nave
fever, which obliged him to flop at Abbeville ; and II
he died there July 29. 1652. Navew.
As to his charadler, he was very prudent and re- v ""
gular in his condutft, fober, never drinking any thing
but water. Study was his principal occupation, and
he was indeed a true Helluo librorum ; fo that he un-
derftood them perfe<ft!y well. He fpoke his mind
with great freedom, and that freedom fometimes fhow- v-
ed itfelf upon religious fubjefts, in fach a manner as
might have occafioned fome difadvantageous thoughts
of him ; but the Chriftian fentiments in which he died
left room to believe that his heart was never corrupt¬
ed, and had no {hare in the free expreffions which
fometimes efcaped from him ; efpecially in the philo-
fophical railleries which palfed fometimes between
him, Guy Pafin, and Gaflendi. He wrote a great
number of books, a catalogue of which may be feen
in Niceron’s Memoires, tom. ix. Voltaire fays, that
“ of all his books, the Apologie des grands Hommet ac-
cu/js de Magie is almoft the only one whi- h continues
to be read.”
NAVE, in architefture, the body of a church,
where the people are difpofed, reaching from the bal-
lufter, or rail of the door, to the chief choir. Some
derive the word from the Greek va®-, “ a temple
and others from v*vr, “ a fhip,” by reafon the vault or
roof of a church bears fome refernblance to a fhip.
NAVEL, in anatomy, the centre of the lower part
of the abdomen ; being that part where the umbilical
veflels palled out of the placenta of the mother. See
Anatomy, p. 725.
NjrF.L-lVort, in botany. See Cotyledon.
NAVEW, in botany. See Brassica, of which it
is a fpecies.
A T I O N,
fefled along the coafts; as well as by the convenieney
of two or three good ports, and by their natural ge¬
nius to traffic. Accordingly, Lebanon, and the other
neighbouring mountains, furnifhing them with excel¬
lent wood for fhip-building, in a fhort time they
were mafters of a numerous fleet; and conftantly
hazarding new navigations, and fettling new trades*
they foon arrived at an incredible pitch of ©pulency
and populoufnefs : infomuch as to be in a condition
to fend out colonies, the principal of which was that
of Carthage ; which, keeping up their Phoenician fpi-
rit of commerce, in time not only equalled Tyre itfelf*
but vaftly furpaffed it; fending its merehant-fleeta
through Hercules’s pillars, now the ftraits of Gib¬
raltar, along the weftern coafts of Africa and Eu¬
rope ; and even, if we believe fome authors, to Ame¬
rica itfelf.
Tyre, whofe immenfe riches and power are repre-
fented in fuch lofty terms both in facred and profane
authors, being deftroyed by Alexander the Great, its
navigation and commerce were transferred by the con¬
queror to Alexandria, a new city, admirably fituated
for thole purpofes; propofed for the capital of the
empire of Afia, which Alexander then meditated.
X ” And
Hiftory. N A V I G
And thus arofe the navigation of the Egyptians; which
was afterwards fo cultivated by the Ptolemies, that
Tyre and Carthage were quite forgotten.
Egypt being reduced into a Roman province after
the battle of A&iurn, its trade and navigation fell into
the hands of Auguftus ; in whofe time Alexandria was
only inferior to Rome : and the magazines of the ca¬
pital of the world were wholly fupplied with merchan¬
dizes from the capital of Egypt.
At length Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of
Tyre and Carthage ; being furprifed by the Saracens,
who, in fpite of the emperor Heraclius, overfpread
the northern coafts of Africa, &c. whence the mer¬
chants being driven, Alexandria has ever fince been in
a languifhing date, though it Hill has a confiderable
part of the commerce of the Chriftian merchants tra¬
ding to the Levant.
The fall of Rome and its empire drew along with
it not only that of learning and the polite arts, but
that of navigation ; the barbarians, into whofe hands
it fell, contenting themfelves with the fpoils of the in-
duftry of their predeceffors
But no fooner were the more brave among thofe na¬
tions well fettled in their new provinces; fome in Gaul,
as the Franks; others, in Spain, as the Goths; and
others in Italy, as the Lombards; but they began to
learn the advantages of navigation and commerce, and
the methods of managing them, from the people they
fubdued ; and this with fo much fuccefs, that in a
little time fome of them became able to give new lef-
fons, and feton foot new inftitutions for its advantage.
Thus it is to the Lombards we ufually afcribe the in¬
vention and ufe of banks, book-keeping, exchanges,
rechanges, &c.
ft does not appear which of the European people,
after the fettlement of their new mailers, firft betook
themfelves to navigation and commerce. Some think
it began with the French ; though the Italians feem
to have the julleft title to it ; and are accordingly or¬
dinarily looked on as the reilorersr thereof, as well as
of the polite arts, which had been baniihed together
from the time the empire was torn afunder. It is the
people of Italy then, and particularly thofe of Venice
and Genoa, who have the glory of this reiloration ;
and it is to their advantageous fituation for navigation
they in great meafure owe their glory. In the bot¬
tom of the Adriatic were a great number ©f marlhy
iflands, only feparated by narrow channels, but thofe
well fcreened, and almoft inacceffible, the refidence of
fome fifhermen, who here fupported themfelves by a
little trade of fifh and fait, which they found in fome
of thefe iflands. Thither the Ventti, a people inha¬
biting that part of Italy along the coafts of the gulph,
retired, when Alaric king of the Goths, and after¬
wards Attila king of the Huns, ravaged Italy.
Thefe new iflanders, little imagining that this was
to he their fixed refidence, did not think of compiling
any body politic; but each of the 72 iflands of this
little Archipelago continued a long time under its fe-
\ ver.il matters, and each made a dillinft commonwealth.
When their commerce was become confiderable enough
i to give jealoufy to their neighbours, they began to
think of uniting into a body. And it was this union,
firft begun in the fixth century, but not completed till
the eighth, that laid the fure foundation of the future
A T I O N.
grandeur of the ftate of Venice. From the time of
this union, their fleets of merchantmen were fent to all
the parts of the Mediterranean; and at laft to thofe of
Egypt, particularly Cairo, a new city, built by the
Saracen princes on the eaftern banks of the Nile,
where they traded for their fpices and other products
of the Indies. Thus they flouriflied, increafed their
commerce, their navigation, and their conquefts on
the terra firma, till the league of Cambray in 1508,
when a number of jealous princes confpired to their
ruin; which was the more eafily effe&ed by the dimi¬
nution of their Eaft-India commerce, of which the
Portuguefe had got one part and the French ano¬
ther. Genoa, which had applied itfelf to naviga¬
tion at the fame time with Venice, and that with
equal fuccefs, was a long time its dangerous rival, dif-
puted with it the empire of the fea, and fliared with
it the trade of Egypt and other parts both of the eaft
and weft.
Jealoufy foon began to break out; and the two re¬
publics coming to blows, there was almoft continual
war for three centuries before the fuperiority was afcer-
tained ; when, towards the end of the 14th century,
the battle of Chioza ended the ftrife; the Genoefe,
who till then had ufually the advantage, having now
loft all; and the Venetians, almoft become defperate,
at one happy blow, beyond all expe&ation, fecured
to themfelves the empire of the fea, and fuperiority in
commerce.
About the fame time that navigation was retrieved
in the fouthern parts of Europe, a new fociety of mer¬
chants was formed in the north, which not only car¬
ried commerce to the greatell perfection it was capable
of till the difeovery of the Eaft; and Weft Indies, but
alfo formed a new fcheme of laws for the regulation
thereof, which ftill obtain under the names of Ufes
and Cujloms of the Sea. This fociety is that fa¬
mous league of the Hahfe-towns, commonly fuppofed
to have begun about the year 1164. See Hjnsb
Towns.
For the modern ftate of navigation in England,
Holland, France, Spain, Portugal, &c. See Com¬
merce, Company, &e.
We fhall only add, that, in examining the reafons
of commerce’s palling fucceffively from the Venetians,
Genoefe, and Hanfe-towns, to the Portuguefe and
Spaniards, and from thefe again to the Englilh and
Dutch, is may be eftablilhed as a maxim, that the re¬
lation between commerce and navigation, or, if we may
be allowed to fay it. their union is fo intimate, that
the fall of the one inevitably draws after it that of the
other; and that they will always either fiourilh or
dwindle together. Hence fo many laws, ordinances,
llatutes, &c. for its regulation ; and hence particularly
that celebrated aft of navigation, which an eminent
foreign author calls the palladium or tutelar deity of the
commerce of England; which is the Handing rule, not
only of the Britilh among themfelves, but alfo of other
nations with whom they traffic.
The art of navigation hath been exceedingly im¬
proved in modern tirres, both with regard to the
form of the veflels themfelves, and with regard to the
methods of working them. The ufe of rowers is now
entirely fuperfeded by the improvements made in the
formation of the fails, rigging, &c. by which means
4 Q, a the
^75
676
NAVIGATI ON.
tlie {hips can not only fail much fafter than formerly,
but can tack in any dire&ion with the greateft facility.
It is alfo very probable that the ancients were neither
fo well {killed in finding the latitudes, nor in fleering
their veflels in places of difficult navigation, as the
moderns. But the greateft advantage which the mo¬
derns have over the ancients is from the mariner’s
compafs, by which they are enabled to find their way
with as great facility in the midft of an immeafurable
ocean, as the ancients could have done by creeping
along the coaft, and never going out of fight of land.
Some people indeed contend, that this is no new in¬
vention. but that the ancients were acquainted with it.
They fay, that it was impolfible for Solomon to have
fent (hips to Ophir, Tarfhifh, and Parvaim, which
laft they will have to be Peru, without this ufeful in-
ftrument. They infift, that it was impoffible for the
ancients to be acquainted with the attraftive virtue of
the magnet, and to be ignorant of its polarity. Nay,
they affirm, that this property of the magnet is plain¬
ly mentioned in the book of Job, where the loadftone
is mentioned by the name of topaz, or the Jlone that
turns itfclf. But it is certain, that the Romans, who
conquered Judxa, were ignorant of this inftrument;
and it is very improbable, that' fuch an ufeful in¬
vention, if once it had been commonly known to any
nation, would have been forgot, or perfe&ly con¬
cealed from fuch a prudent people as the Romans, who
were fo much interefted in the difcovery of it.
Among thofe who do agree that the mariner’s com¬
pafs is a modern invention, it hath been much difpu-
ted who was the inventor. Some give the honour of
* See Ms-jt ti5 jr]av;0 Gioia of Amalfi in Campania*, who
1 C<””'lived about the beginning of the 14th century ; while
others fay that it came from the eaft, and was earlier
known in Europe. But, at whatever time it was in¬
vented, it is certain, that the mariner’s compafs was
not commonly ufed in navigation before the year
1420. In that year the fcience was confiderably im¬
proved under the aufpices of Henry duke of Vifco,
brother to the king of Portugal. In the year 148 f,
Roderic and Jofeph, phyficians to John II. king of
Portugal, together with one Martin de Bohemia, a
Portuguefe, native of the ifland of Fayal, and feholar
to Regiomontanus, calculated tables of the fun’s decli¬
nation for the ufe of failors, and recommended the
a^rolabc for taking obfervations at fea. Of the in-
ftraftions of Martin, the celebrated Chriftopher Co¬
lumbus is faid to.have availed himfelf, and to have im¬
proved the Spaniards in the knowledge of rhe art; for
the farther progrefe of which a ledture was afterwards
founded at Seville by the emperor Charles V.
The difcovery of the variation is claimed by Colum¬
bus, and by Sebaftian Cabot. The former certainly
did obferve this variation without having heard of it
from any other perfon, on the 14th of September
1492, and it is very probable that Cabot might do
the fame. At that time it was found that there was
no variation at the Azores, where feme geographers
have thought proper to place the firit meridian ;
though it hath fince been obferved that the variation
alters in time.—The ufe of the crofs-ftaff now began
to be introduced among failors. This ancient inftrur
ment is defcribed by John Werner of Nuremberg, in
his annotations on the lirft book of Ptolemy’s Geogra-
Hiftory
phy, printed in 1514. He recommends it for ohler-
ving the diftance between the moon and fome ftar, in
order thence to determine the longitude.
At this time the art of navigation was very imper-
feft on account of the inaccuracies of the plane chart,
which was the only one then known, and which, by
its grofs errors, muft have greatly mifled the mariner,
efpecially in voyages far diftant from the equator.
Its precepts were probably at firft only fet down op
the fea-charts, as is the cuftom at this day : but at
length there were two Spanifti treatifes publifheJ in
1545 ; one by Pedro de Medina ; the other by Martin
Cortes, which contained a complete fyrtem of the art,
as far as it was then known. Thefe feem to have
been the oldeft writers who fully handled the art ;
for Medina, in his dedication to Philip prince of
Spain, laments that multitudes of (hips daily perfihed
at fea, becaufe there were neither teachers of the art,
nor books by which it might be learned ; and. Cortes,
in his dedication, boafts to the emperor, that he was
the £rft who had reduced navigation into a com¬
pendium, valuing himfelf much on what he had per¬
formed. Medina defended the plane chartbut he
was oppofed by Cortes, who (howed its errors, and
endeavoured to account for the variation of the com¬
pafs, by fuppofing the needle to be influenced by a
magnetic pole (which he called the point attradive]
different from that of the world : which notion hath
been farther profecuted by others. Medina’s book
was foon tranflated into Italias, French, and Flcmilh,
and ferved for a long time as a guide to foreign
navigators. However, Cortes was the favourite author
of the Engliffi nation, and was tranflated in 1561
while Medina’s work was entirely neglefted, though
tranflated alfo. within a (hort time of the other. At
that time the fyftein of navigation confiited of the
fo lowing particulars, and others firmlar : An account
of the Ptolemaic hypothefis, and the circles of the
fphere of the roundnefs of the earth, the longitudes,
latitudes, climates, See. and eclipfes of the luminaries;
a kalcndar ; the method of finding the prime, epadt,
moon’s .age, and tides.; a deferiptioa of the compals,
an ,aceo.unt of its variation, for the diieovering of
which Cortes faid an inftrument might eafily be con¬
trived ; tables of the fun’s declination for four years,
in order tq find the latitude from his meridian altitude;
directions to find the fame by certain liars; of the
courfe of the fun and moon ; the length of the days ;
of time and its diviiioas ; the method of finding the
hour of the day and night; and laftly, a defcription of
the fea-chart, on which to difeover where the (hip is,
they made ufe of a fmall table, that (howed, upon an al¬
teration of one degree of the latitude, how many leagues
were run in each rhumb, together with the departure
from the meridian. Befides, fome inftruments were
defcribed, efpecially by Cortes ; fuch as one to find
the place and declination of the fun, with the days,
and place of the moon; certain dials, the aftrolabe* and
crofs-ftaff; with a complex machine to difeover the
hour and latitude at once.
About the fame time were made propofals for
finding the longitude by obfervations of the moon 
In 1530, Gemma Frifius advifed the keeping of the
time by means of fruall clocks or watches, then, as he
fays, newly invented. He alfo contrived a new fort
of
NAVIGATION.
Hiftory.
of crofs-ftaff and an inftrument called the nautical
quadrant; which lad was much praifed by William
Cuningham, in his AJlronomlcal Glafs, printed in the
year 1559.
In 1537 Pedro Nunez, or Noniqs, publifhed a book
in the Portuguefe language, to explain a difficulty in
navigation propofed to him by the commander Don
Martin Alphonfo de Sufa. In this he expofes the er¬
rors of the plane chart, and likewife gives the folution
of feveral curious aftronomfcal problems ; amemgil
which is that of determining the latitude from two ob-
fervations of the fun’s altitude and intermediate azi*
muth being given. He obferved, that though the
rhumbs are fpiral lines, yet the diredl courfe of a {hip
will always be in the arch of a great circle, whereby
the angle with the meridians will continually change :
all that the fteerfmnn can here do for the preferving
of the original rhumb, is to corredt thefe deviations as
foon as they appear fenfible, But thus the {hip will
in reality defcnbe a courfe without the rhumb-line in¬
tended ; and therefore his calculations for affigning the
latitude, where any rhumb line crofles the leveral me¬
ridians, will be in fome m’eafure erroneous. He in-
-vented a method of dividing a quadrant by means of
concentric circles, which, after being much improved
by Dr Halley, is ufed at prefent, and is called a no-
In 15:77, Mr William Bonrfte publiffied a treatife,
in which, by confideringthe irregularities in the moon’s
motion, he fhows the errors of the failors in finding
her age by the epadl, and alfo in determining the hour
from obferving on what point of the compafs the fun
and moon appeared. He advifes, in failing towards
the high latitudes, to keep the reckoning by the globe,
as there the plane chart is moft erroneous. He defpairs
of our ever being able to find the longitude, unlefs the
variation of the compafs ffiould be occafioned by fome
fuch attractive point, as Cortes had imagined ; of
which, however, he doubts: but as he had Ihown how
to find the variation at all times, he advifes to keep
an account of the obfervations, as ufeful for finding
the place of the ffiip ; which advice was profecuted at
large by Simon Stevin, in a treatife publilhed at Ley¬
den in 15995’ the fubfiance of which was the fame
yerr printed at London in Englifh by Mr Edward
Wright, inti tied the Haven finding Art. In this an¬
cient traCf alfo is defcribed the way by which our fai¬
lors eftimate the rate of a {hip in her courfe, by an in¬
ftrument called the log. This was fo named from the
piece of wood or log that floats-in the water while the
time is reckoned during which the line that is’faftened
to it is veering out. The author of this contrivance
is not known ; neither was it taken notice of till 1607,
in an Eaft India voyage publifhed by Pnuchas : but
from this time it became famous, and was much taken
notice of by almoft all writers on navigation in every
country ; and it ftill continues to be ufed as at firft,
though many attempts have been made to improve it,
and contrivances propofed to fupply its place; many
of which have fucceeded in quiet water, but proved
ufelefs in a ftormy fea.
In 1581 Michael Coignet, a native of Antwerp,
publifhed a treatife, in which he animadverted on-Me¬
dina. In this he flrowed, that as the rhumbs are fpi.
rals, making endlefs revolutions, about the poles, nu¬
merous errors muft arifc from their being reprefented
by ftraight lines on the fea-charts ; but though he ho¬
ped to find a remedy ,for thefe errors, he was of opi¬
nion that the propofals of Nonius were fcarcely prac¬
ticable, and therefore in a great meafure ufelefs. In
treating of the fun’s declination, he took notice of the
gradual decreafe in the obliquity of the ecliptic; he
aifo defcribed the crofs-ftaff with three tranfverfe pieces,
as it is at prefent made, and which he owned to have
been then in common ufe among the failors. He like¬
wife gave fome inftruments of his own invention ; but
all of them are now laid afide, excepting perhaps his
no&urnal. He conftrudled a fea-table to be ufed by
fuch as failed beyond the 60th degree of latitude; and
at the end of the book is delivered a method of failing
on a parallel of latitude by means of a ring dial and
a 24 hour-glafs. The fame year the difcovery of the
dipping-needle was made by Mr Robert Norman*. In * See Dip..
his publication on that art he maintains, in oppofitionA^*""^''
to Cortes, that the variation of the compafs was caufed
by fome point on the fqrface of the earthj and not in
the heavens : he alfo made confiderable improvements
in the conltrmftion of compafles themfelves ; ihowing
eipecially the danger of not fixing, on account of the
variation, the wire directly under the fiower-de-luce ;
as conapafles made in different countries have it placed
differently. To this performance of Norman’s is al¬
ways prefixed a difcourfe' on the variation of the mag-
netical needle, by Mr William Burrough, in which he
{hows how to determine the variation in many different
ways. He alfo points out many errors in the practice
of navigation at that time, and fpeaks in very fevere
terms concerning thofe who had publilhed upon it.
All this time the Spaniards continued to publilh trea-
tifes on the art. In 1585 an excellent compendium
was publiflied by Roderico Zamorano ; which contri¬
buted greatly towards the improvement of the art, par¬
ticularly in the fea charts. Globes of an improved kind,
and ot a much larger fize than thofe formerly ufed,
were now conllrurfted, and many improvements were
made in other inftruments; however, -the plane chart
continued ftill to be followed, though its errors were
frequently complained of. Methods of removing thefe
errors had indeed been fought after ; and Gerard Mer¬
cator feems to have been the firft who found the true
method of doing this fo as to anfwer the purpofes of
feamen. His method was to reprefent the parallels both
of latitude and longitude by parallel ftraight lines, but
gradually to augment the former as they approached
the pole. Thus the Thumbs, which otherwife ought
to have been curves, were now alfo extended into
ftraight lines; and thus a ftraight line drawn between
any two places marked upon the chart would make
an angle with the meridians, expreffing the rhumb
leading from the one to the other. But though, in
1569, Mercator publiftied an univerfal map conftruCfted ■
in this manner, it doth not appear that he was acquaint¬
ed with the principles on which this proceeded ; and
it is now generally believed, that the true principles
on which the cqnftruftion of what is called Mercator’s
chart depends, were firft difeovered by an Engiiftunan, ,
Mr Edward Wright.
Mr Wright fuppofes,Jbut, according to,the general
opinion, without fuffioient grounds, that this enlarge¬
ment of the degrees of latitude was known and men¬
tioned by Ptolemy, and that the fame thing had alfo v
been fpoken of by C»ites. The expreffions of Pto-
2- Ljny.
678
NAVIGATION. Hiftory|,
lemy alluded to, relate indeed to the proportion be- in which he corre&ed fome miftakes in the original ;
tween the diftances of the parallela and meridians ; but adding a large table of the variation of the compafs
inllead of propofing any gradual enlargement of the obferved in very different parts of the world, to fhow
parallels of latitude, in a general chart, he fpeaks only that it was not occafioned by any magnetical pole.
of particular maps j and advifes-not to confine a fyftem Thefe improvements foon became known abroad.—
of fuch maps to one and the fiime fcale, but to plan In 1608, a treatife intitled, Hypomnemata Mathema-
tbem out by a different meafure, as occafion might re- tica, was publifhed by Simon Stevin, for the ufe of
quire : only with this precaution, that the degrees of Prince Maurice. In that part relating to navigatisn,
longitude in each fhould bear fome proportion to thofe the author having treated of failing on a great circle,
of latitude ; and this proportion is to be deduced from and fhown how to draw the rhumbs on a globe mecha-
that which the magnitude of the refpe&ive parallels nically, lets down Wright’s two tables of latitudes and
bear to a great circle of the fphere. He adds, that of rhumbs, in order to defcribe thefe lines more ae«
in particular maps, if this proportion be obferved with curately, pretending even to have difcovered an error
regard to the middle parallel, the inconvenience will in Wright’s table But all Stevin’s objeftions were ful-
not be great though the meridians fhouhjLbe ftraight ly anfwered by the author himfelf, who fhowed that | /
lines parallel to each other. Here he is faid only to they arofe from the grofs way of calculating made ufe
mean, that the maps fhould in fome meafure reprefent of by the former.
the figures of the countries for which they are drawn. In 624, the learned Wellebrordus Snellius, pro-
In this fenfe Mercator, who drew maps for Ptolemy’s feffor of mathematics at Leyden, publifhed a treatife
tables, underftood him ; thinking it, however, an im- of navigation on Wright’s plan, but fomewhat ob-
provement not to regulate the meridians by one paral- fcurely ; and as he did not particularly mention all the
lei, but by two; one diflant from the northern, the difcoveries of Wright, the latter was thought by fome
other from the fouthern extremity of the map by a to have taken the hint of all his dilcoveries ftom Snel-
fourth part of the whole depth ; by which means, in lius But this fuppofition is long ago refuted; and
his maps, though the meridians are ftraight lines, yet Wright enjoys the honour of thofe difcoveries which
they are generally drawn inclining to each other to- is juftly his due.
wards the poles. With regard to Cortes, he fpeaks Mr Wright having fhown how to find the place of
only of the number of degrees of latitude, and not of the fhip on his chart, obferved that the fame might be
the extent of them 5 nay, he gives exprefs dire&ions performed more accurately by calculation : but con-
that they fhould all be laid down by equal meafurement fidering, as he fays, that the latitudes, and efpecially
on a fcale @f leagues adapted to the map. the courfes at fea, could not be determined fo precife-
For fome time after the appearance of Mercator’s ly, he forbore fetting down particular examples; as
map, it was not rightly underftood, and it was even the mariner may be allowed to fave himfelf this trou*
thought to be entirely wfelefs, if not detrimental.— ble, and only mark out upon his chart the fhip’s way,
However, about the year 1592, its utility began to after the manner then ufually pra&ifed. However, in
be perceived ; and feven yearsafter, Mr Wright print- 1614, Mr Raphe Handfon, among his nautical quef-
ed his famous treatife entitled, The CorreSion of certain tions fubjoined to a tranflation of Pitifcus’s trigono-
Errors in Navigation, where he fully explained the rea- metry, folved very diitin&ly every cafe of navigation,
fon of extending the length of the parallels of latitude, by applying arithmetical calculations to Wright’s ta-
and the ufes of it to navigators. In 1610, a fecond ble of latitudes, or of meridional parts, as it hath fince
edition of Mr Wright s book was publifhed with im- been called. Though the method difcovered by
provements. An excellent method was propofed of Wright for finding the change of longitude by a fhip
determining the magnitude of the earth ; at the fame failing on a rhumb is the proper way of performing it,
time it was judicioufly propofed to make our common Handfon alfo propofes two ways of approximation to
meafures in fome proportion to a degree on its furface, it without the afiiftance of Wright’s divifion of the
that they might not depend on the uncertain length of meridian line. The firft was computed by the arith-
a barley-corn. Some of his other improvements were, metical mean between the confines of both latitudes;
“ The table of latitudes for dividing the meridian com- the other by the fame mean between the fecants as an
puted to minutes ;” whereas it had only been divided alternative, when Wright’s book was not at hand ;
to every tenth minute. He alfo publifhed a defcrip- though this latter is wider from the truth than the firfl.
tion of an inflrunaent which he calls the fea-rings ; and By the fame calculations alfo he (bowed how much
by which the variation of the compafs, altitude of the each of thefe compendiums deviates from the truth, and
fun, and time of the day, may be determined readily alfo how widely the computations on the erroneous
at once in any place, provided the latitude is known, principles of the plane chart differ from them all. The
He fhowed alfo how to correft the errors arifing from method, however, commonly ufed by our failors is
the eccentricity of the eye in obferring by the crofs- commonly called the middle latitude ; which, though it
ftaff. He made a total amendment in the tables of the errs more than that by the arithmetical mean between
declinations and places of the fun and ftars from his the two co-lines, is preferred on account of its being
own obfervations made with a fix-foot quadrant in the lefs operofe : yet in high latitudes it is more eligible
years 1 <94, 9 ', 96, and 97. A fea quadrant to take to ufe that of the arithmetical mean between the lo-
altitudes by a forward or backward obfervation ; and garithmic co-fines, equivalent to the geometrical mean
likewife with a contrivance for the ready finding the between the co-fines theinftlves; a method fince pro¬
latitude by the height of the pole-ftar, when not up- pofed by Mr John Baffat. The computation by the
on the meridian. T9 this edition was fubjoined a tranf- middle latitude will always fall (hort of the true change
lation of Zamorano’s Compendium above mentioned, of longitude ; that by the geometrical mean will al¬
ways
' Hiftory. N . A V 1 G
ways exceed ; but that by the arithmetical mean falls
fhort in latitudes above 45 degrees, and exceeds in lef-
fer latitudes. However, none of thefe methods will
differ much from the truth when the change of lati¬
tude is fufficiently fmall.
About this time logarithms were invented by John
Napier, baron of Merchifton in Scotland, and proved
of the utmoft fervice to the art of navigation. From
which Mr Edmund Gunter con ft rafted a table of lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents to every minute of the
quadrant, which he published in 1620. In this work
he applied to navigation, and other branches of ma¬
thematics, his admirable ruler known by the name of
i * See Gun- Gunter’s fcale *; on which are defcribed lines of loga-
Ur's Scale. r|thmS) Qf logarithmic fines and tangents, of meridio¬
nal parts, &c. He greatly improved the feftor for the
fame purpofes. He fhowed alfo how to take a back-
obfervation by the crofs-ftaff, whereby the error arifing
from the eccentricity of the eye is avoided. He de¬
fcribed l.ikewife another inftrument, of his own inven¬
tion, called the crofs bow, for taking altitudes of the
fun or ftars, with fome contrivances for the more ready
collefting the latitude from the obfervation. The
difcoveries concerning logarithms were carried to
France in 1624 by Mr Edmund Wingate, who pub-
lifhed two fmall trafts in that year at Paris. In one of
thefe he taught the ufe of Gunter’s fcale; and in the
other, of the tables of artificial fines and tangents, as
modelled according to Napier’s laft form, erroneoufly
attributed by Wingate to Briggs.
Gunter’s rule was projefted into a circular arch by
the Reverend Mr William Oughtred in 1633, and its
ufes fully fliown in a pamphlet intitled, The Circles of
Proportion, where, in an appendix, are well treated fe-
veral important points in navigation. It has alfo been
made in the form of a Aiding ruler.
The logarithmic tables were firft applied to the
different cafes of failing by Mr Thomas Addifon, in
his treatife intitled, Arithmetical navigation, printed in
1621?. He alfo gives two traverfe tables, with their
ufes; the one to quarter points of the compafs, the
other to degrees. Mr Henry Gellibrand publifhed his
difeovery of the changes of the variation of the com¬
pafs, in a fmall quarto pamphlet, intitled, A difeourfe
mathematical on the variation of the magnetical needle,
printed in 1635. This extraordinary phenomenon he
found out by comparing the obfervations made at dif¬
ferent times near the fame place by Mr Burrough, Mr
Gunter, and himfelf, all perfons of great ikill and ex¬
perience in thefe matters. This difeovery was likewife
foon known abroad ; for Father Athanafius Kircher,
in his treatife intitled, Magnes, firft printed at Rome
in 1641, informs us, that he had been told it by Mr
John Greaves ; and then gives a letter of the famous
Marinus Merfennus, containing a very diftinft account
of the fame.
As altitudes of the fun are taken on fhipboard by
obferving his elevation above the vifible horizon, to
obtain from thence the fun’s true altitude with cor-
t reftnefs, Wright obferves it to be neceffary that the
dip of the vifible horizon below the horizontal plane
paffing through the obferver’s eye fhould be brought
into the account, which cannot be calculated without
knowing the magnitude of the earth. Hence he was
induced to propofe different methods for finding this;
A T I O N. 679
but complains that the moft effeftual was out of his
power to execute; and therefore contented himfelf
with a rude attempt, in fome meafure fufficient for his
purpofe : and the dimenfions of the earth deduced by
him correfponded very well withtheufual divifions of the
log-line; however, as he wrote not an exprefs treatife on
navigation,but only for the correfting fuch errors as pre¬
vailed in general praftice, the log line did not fall un¬
der his notice. Mr Richard Norwood, however, put
in execution the method recommended by Mr Wright
as the moft perfeft for meafuring the dimenfions of the
earth, with the true length of the degrees of a great
circle upon it; and, in 1635, he aftually-meafured
the diftance between London and York; from whence,
and the fummer folftitial altitudes of the fun obferved
on the meridian at both places, he found a degree on
a great circle of the earth to contain 367,196 Englifti
feet, equal to 57,300 French fathoms or tortoifes :
which is very exaft, as appears from many meafures
that have been made fince that time. Of all this Mr
Norwood gave a full account in his treatife called The
Seaman’s PraSice, publiftied in 1637. He there fhows
the reafon why Snellius had failed in his attempt: he
points out alfo various ufes of his difeovery, particu¬
larly for correfting the grofs errors hitherto commit¬
ted in the divifions of the log-line. But neceflary
amendments have been little attended to by failors,
whofe obftinacy in adhering to eftablifhed errors has
been complained of by the beft writers on navigation.
This improvement has at length, however, made its way
into praftice, and few navigators of reputation now
make ufe of the old meafure of 42 feet to a knot. In
that treatife alfo Mr Norwood deferibes his own ex¬
cellent method of fetting down and perfefting a fea-
reckoning, by ufing a traverfe table ; which method
he had followed and taught fer many years. He
(hows alfo how to reftify the courfe by the variation
of the compafs being confidered ; as alfo how to dif-
cover currents, and to make proper allowance on their
account. This treatife, and another on trigonometry,
were continually reprinted, as the principal books for
learning feientifically the art of navigation. What he
had delivered, efpecially in the latter of them, con¬
cerning this fubjeft, was contrafted as a manual for
failors, in a very fmalt piece called his Epitome; which
ufeful performance has gone through a great number
of editions. No alterations were ever made in the
Seaman’s Praftice till the 12th edition in 1676, when
the following paragraph was inferted in a fmaller cha-
rafter: “ About the year 1672, Monfieur Picart has
publifhed an account in French, concerning the meafure
of the earth, a breviate whereof may be feen in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, N°ii 2. wherein he con¬
cludes one degree to contain 369,184 Englifh feet,
nearly agreeing with Mr Norwood’s experiment;” and
this advertifement is continued through the fubfequent
editions as late as the year 1732.
Abouttheyear 1645, Mr Bond publifhedin Norwood’s
epitome a very great improvement in Wright’s method
by a property in his meridian line, whereby its divifions
are more feientifically afligned than the author himfelf
was able to effeft ; which was from this theorem, that
thefe divifions are analogous to the excefles of the lo¬
garithmic tangents of half the refpeftive latitudes aug¬
mented by 45 degrees above the logarithm of the ra¬
dius.
OSo
N A V I G
dais. This he afterwards explained more fully in the
third edition of Gunter's works, printed in 1653 ;
where, after obferving that the logarithmic tangents
from 450 upwards increafe in the fame manner that
the fecants added together do, if every half degree
be accounted as a whole degree of Mercator s meri-
dlonal line. His rule for computing the meridional
parts belonging to any two latitudes, fnppofed on the
fame fide of the equator, is to the following effedf :
“ Take the logarithmic tangent, reje&ing the radius,
of half each latitude, augmented by 45 degrees; di¬
vide the difference of thofe numbers by the logarith¬
mic tangent of 450 30', the radius being likewife re-
jefted ; and the quotient will be the meridional parts
required, exyreffed in degrees.” This rule is the imme¬
diate ronfequence from the general theorem. That the
degrees of latitude bear to one degree (or 60 minutes,
which in Wright’s table ftands for the meridional parts
of one degree), the fame proportion as the logarithmic
tangent of half any latitude Augmented by 45 degrees,
end the radius negle&ed, to the like tangent of half a
degree augmented by 45 degrees, with the radius like-
vrife rejected. But here was farther wanting the de-
rnonftration of this general theorem, which was at
length fupplied by Mr James Gregory of Aberdeen in
his Exercitaliones Geometrica, printed at London in 1668;
and afterwards more conciiely demonftrated, together
with a fcientific determination of the divifor, by Dr
Halley in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1695,
219. from the confideration of the fpirals into
which the rhumbs are transformed in the ffereographic
proje&ion of the fphere upon the plane pf the equi-
noftial; and which is rendered dill more fimple by
Mr Roger Cotes, in his Logometria, firlt publifhed in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1714, N° 3S8. It
is moreover added in Gunter’s book, that if °f
this divifion, which does not fenfibly differ from the
logarithmic tangent of 450 1' 307 (with the radius fub-
tra&ed from it), be ufed, the quotient will exhibit the
meridional parts expreffed in leagues: and this is the
divifor fet down in Norwood’s Epitome. After the
fame manner the meridional parts will be found in mi¬
nutes, if the like logarithmic tangent of 456 1' 30",
diminifhed by the radius, be taken ; that is, the num¬
ber ufed by others being 12633, when the logarithmic
tables confifl: of eight places of figures befides the in¬
dex.
In an edition of the Seaman’s Kalendar, Mr Bond
declared, that he had difcovered the-longitude by ha¬
ving found out the true theory of the magnetic valua¬
tion ; and to gain credit to his affertion, he foretold,
that at London in 1657 there would be no variation
of the compafs, and from that time it would gradually
incrcafe the other way; which happened accordingly.
THEORY of
THE motion of a fhip in the water is well known
to depend on the a6Hon of the wind upon its
fails, regulated by the dire&ion of the helm As the
water is a refilling medium, and the bulk of the Ihip
very confiderable, it thence follows, that there is al
ways a great refiftance on her fore part; and when
this refiftance becomes fufficient to balance the moving
N°237.
A T I O N. Theory.
Again, in ther Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1668,
N0 40. he publilhed a table of the variation for 49
years to come. Thus he acquired fuch reputation, that
his treatife, intitled, The Longitude Found, was in 1676
publiihed by the fpecial command of Charles II. and
approved by many celebrated mathematicians. It was
not long, however, before it met with oppofition; and
in 1678 another treatife, intitled, The Longitude not
Found, made its appearance ; and as Mr Bond’s hy-
pothefis did not in any manner anfwer its author’s fan-
guine expectations, the affair was undertaken by Dr
Halley. The refult of his fpeculation was, that the
magnetic needle is isftuenced by four poles; but this
wonderful phenomenon feems hitherto to have eluded
all our refearches. In 1700, however, Dr Halley pub-
lifiled a general map, with curve lines exprcffing the
paths where the magnetic needle had the-fame varia¬
tion; which was received with univerfal applaufe. But
as the pofitions of thefe curves vary from time to time,
they fiiould frequently be corrected by Ikilful perfons;
as was done in 1744 and 17 56, by Mr William Moun-
taine, and Mr James Dodfon, F. R. S. In the Phi¬
lofophical Tranfatlions for 1690, Dr Halley alfo gave
a differtation on the monfoons ; containing many very'
ufeful obfervations for fuch as fail to places fubjeft to
thefe winds.
After the true principles of the art were fettled by
Wright, Bond, and Norwood, the authors on naviga¬
tion became fo numerous, that it would be impofiible
to enumerate them. New improvements were daily
made, and every thing relative to it was fettled with
an accuracy not only unknown to former ages, but
which would have been reckoned utterly impofiible.
The earth being found to be a fpheroid, and not a
perfect fphere, with the fiiorteft diameter palling thro’
the poles, a traft was publifiied in 1741 by the Rev.
Doftor Patrick Murdoch, wherein he accommodated
Wright’s failing to fuch a figure; and Mr Colin Mac-
laurin, the fame year, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, N"’ 461. gave a rule for determining the meri¬
dional parts of a fpheroid; which fpe-culation is farther
treated of in his book of Fluxions, printed at Edin¬
burgh in 1742.
Among the later difeoveries in navigation, that of
finding the longitude both by lunar obfervations and
by time keepers is the principal. It is owing chiefly
to the rewards offered by the Britifli parliament that
this has attained the prefent degree of perfeftion. We
are indebted to Dr Mafkelyne for putting the firfl: of
thefe methods in pradtice, and for other important im¬
provements in ' navigation. The time-keepers, con-
flrudted by Harrifon for this exprefs purpofe, were
found to anfwer fo well, that he obtained the parlia¬
mentary reward.
NAY I GAT 1 O N.
force of the wind upon the fails, the fhip attains her
utmoft degree of velocity, and her motion is no longer
accelerated. This velocity is different according to
the different (Length of the wind; but the ftronger I
the wind, the greater refiftance is made to the Ihip’s
paflbge through the water : and hence, though the
wind fhould blow ever fo ftrong, there is alio a limit
to I
Theory. N A V I G
to t’ne velocity of the fhip: for the fails and ropes can
bear but a certain force of air; and when.the refiftance
on the fore-part becomes more than equivalent to their
ftrength, the velocity can be no longer increafed, and
the rigging gives way.
The direftion of a (hip’s motion depends on the po-
fition of her fails with regard to the wind, combined
with the aftion of the rudder. The mod natural di-
re&ion of the (hip is, when (he runs dire&ly before the
wind, the fails are then difpofed, fo as to be at right
anodes thereto. But this is not always the cafe, both
on account of the variable nature of the winds, and the
fituation of the intended port, or of intermediate head¬
lands or iflands. When the wind therefore happens
not to be favourable, the fails are placed fo as to make
an oblique angle both with the dire&ion of the (hip and
with the wind; and the fails, together with the rud¬
der, mud be managed in fuch a manner, that the di¬
rection of the (hip may make an acute angle with that
of the wind ; and the (hip making boards on different
• tacks, will by this means arrive at the intended port.
The reafon of the (hip’s motion in this cafe is, that
the water refifts the fide more than the fore-part, and
that in the fame proportion as her length exceeds
her breadth. This proportion is fo confiderable, that
the (hip continually flies off where the refiftance is lead,
and that fometimes with great fwiftnefs. In this way
of failing, however, there is a great limitation : for if
the angle made by the keel with the direction of the
wind be too acute, the fhip cannot be kept in that
pofition; neither Is it poffible for a large (hip to make
a more acute angle with the wind than about 6
points’’; though fmall (loops, it is faid, may make an
angle of about 5 points with it. In all thefe cafes,
however, the velocity of the fhip is greatly retarded ;
and that not only on account of the obliquity of her mo¬
tion, but by reafon of what is called her lee-way. This
is occafioned by the yielding of the water on the lee-
r fide of the (hip, "by which means the veflel acquires a
Compound motion, partly in the direCfion of the wind,
and partly in that which is neceffary for attaining the
defired port.
It is perhaps impoffible to lay down any mathema¬
tical principles on which the lee-way of a fhip could
be properly calculated ; only we may fee in general
that it depends on the ftrength of the wind, the
j-oughnefs of the fea, and the velocity of the (hip.
Wfien the wind is not very ftrong, the refiftance of
the water on the lee-fide bears a very great proportion
to that of the current of air : and therefore it will
yield but very little : however, fuppofing the (hip to
remain in the fame place, it is evident, that the water
having once begun to yield, wilt continue to do fo for
fome time, even though no additional force was ap¬
plied to it; but as the wipd continually applies the
fame force as at find, the lee-way of the fhip muft go
on conftantly increafing till the refiftance of the water
©n the lee-fide balances the force applied on the other,
when it will become uniform, as doth the motion of a
(hip failing before the wind. If the (hip changes her
place with any degree of velocity, then every time jhe
moves her own length, a new quantity of water is to
be put In motion, which hath not yet received any
momentum, and which ©f confequence will make a
greater refiftance than it can do when the (hip remains
Vot. XII. Part II.
A T I O N. S8t
in the fame place. In proportion to the fwiftnefs of
the (hip, then the lee-way will be the lefs: but if the
wind is very ftrong, the velocity of the (hip bears but
a fmall proportion to that of the current of air ; and
the fame effects muft follow arthough the (hip moved
(lowly, and the wind was gentle ; that is, the (hip
muft make a great deal of lee-way.—The fame thing
happens when the fea rifes high, whether the wind is
ftrong or not; for then the whole water of the ocean,
as far as the fwell reaches, hath acquired a motion in
a certain diredtion, and that to a very confiderable
depth, The mountainous waves will not fail to carry
the (hip very much out of her cotirfe ; and this devia¬
tion will certainly be according to their velocity and
magnitude. In all cafes of a rough fea, therefore, a
great deal of lee-way is made. —Another circumftance
alfo makes a variation in the quantity of the lee way ;
namely, the lightnefs or heavinefsof the (hip; it being
evident, that when the (hip finks deep in the water, a-
much greater quantity of that element is to be put in
motion before (lie can make any lee-way, than when
(he fwims on the furface. As therefore it is impoflible
to calculate all thefe things with mathematical exaCl-
nefs, it is plain that the real courfeofa (hip is exceed¬
ingly difficult to be found, and frequent errors mud
be made, which only can be corredted by celeftial ob-
fervations.
In many places of the ocean there are currents, or
places where the water, inftead of remaining at reft,
runs with a very conliderable velocity for a great way
in fome particular diredlion, and which will certainly,
carry the (hip greatly out of her courfe. This occa-
fions an error of the fame natnre with the lee way ;
and therefore, whenever a current is perceived, its
velocity ought to be determined, and the proper al¬
lowances made.
Another fource of error in reckoning the courfe of
a (hip proceeds from the variation of the compafs.
There are few parts of the world where the needle
points exadtly north; and in thofe where the variation
is known, it is fubjedt to very confiderable alterations.
By thefe means the courfe of the (hip is miftaken; for
as the failors have no other ftandard to diredt them
than the co npafs, if the needle, inftead of pointing
due north, (hould point north-eaft, a prodigious error
would be occafioned during the courfe of the voyage,
and the (hip would not come near the port to which
(he was bound. To avoid errors of this kind the only
method is, to obferve the fun’s amplitude and azimuth
as frequently as poffible, by which the variation of the
compafs will be perceived, and the proper allowances
can then be made for errors in the courfe which this
may have oecafioned.
Errors will arife in the reckoning of a (hip, efpe-
cially when (he fails in high latitudes, from the fphe-
roidal figure of the earth ; for as the polar diameter
of our globe is found to be confiderably (horter than
the equatorial one, it thence follows, that the farthei
we remove from the equator, the longer are the degrees
oflatitude. Of. confequence, if a navigator affigns
any certain number of miles for the length of a degree
of latitude near the equator, he muft; vary that mea-
fure as he approaches towards the poles, otherwife
lie will imagine that he hath not failed fo far as he
aftually hath done. It would therefore be neceffary
4 & to
NAVIGATION. Practice*
to have a table containing the length of a degree of confequently that any corre&ions whicli can be made
latitude in every different parallel from the equator to with regard to the fpheroidal figure of the earth muft
either pole ; as without this a troublefome calcula- be very uncertain.
tion muff be made at every time the navigator makes It is of confequence to navigators in a long voyage
a reckoning of his courfe. Such a table, however, hath to take the neareft way to their port; but this can
not yet appeared ; neither indeed does it feem to be an feldom be done without confiderable difficulty. The
eafy matter to make it, on account of the difficulty of fhorteft diftance between any two points on the fur-
meafuring the length even of one or two degrees of face of a fphere is meafured by an arch of a great
latitude in different parts of the world. Sir Ifaac New- circle intercepted between them ; and therefore it is
ton firft difcovered this fpheroidal figure of the earth; advifable to direft the fhip along a great circle of the
and fhowed, from experiments on pendulums, that the earth’s furface. But this is a matter of confiderable
polar diameter was to the equatorial one as 229 to difficulty, becaufe there are no fixed marks by which
230. This proportion, however, hath not been ad- it can be readily known whether the fhip fails in the
mitted hy fucceeding calculators. The French ma- direction of a great circle or not. For this Veafon the
thematicians, who mtafnred a degree on the meridian failors commonly choofe to dire& their coi.vfe by the
in Lapland, made the proportion between the equa- rhumbs, or the bearing of the place by the compal's*
torial and polar diameters to be as 1 to 0.9891. Thofe Thefe bearings do not point out the fhorteft diftance
who meafured a degree at Quito in Peru, made the between places; becaufe, on a globe, the rhumbs are
proportion 1 to 0.99624, or 266 to 26;. M. Bou- fpirals, and not arches of great circles. However,,
quer makes the proportion to be as 179 to 178 5 and when the places lie directly under the equator, or ex-
M' Buffbn, in one part of his theory of the earth, a&ly under the fame meridian, the rhumb then coin¬
makes the equatorial diameter exceed the polar one cides with the arch of a great circle, and of confe-
by ,5-T of the whole. According to M. du Sejour, quence (hows the neareft way. The failing on the.
this proportion is as 321 to 320; and M. de la Place, arch of a great circle is called grea/ circle failing; and
in his Memoir upon the Figure of Spheroids, has de- the cafes of it depend all on the folution of problem^
duced the fame proportion. From thefe variations it in fphericai trigonometry,
appears that the point is not exa&ly determiaed, and
PRACTICE of NAVIGATION.
BOOK 1.
Containing the various Methods of Sailing.
Introduction.
Tub art of navigation depends upon agronomical
and mathematical principles. The places of the fun
and fixed ftars are deduced from obfervation and cal¬
culation, and arranged in tables, the ufe of which is
abfolutely neceilary in reducing obfervations taken at
fea, for the purpofe of afeertaining the latitude and
longitude of the fhip, and the variation of the com-
pafs. The problems in the various failings are refolved
either by trigonometrical calculation, or by tables or
rules formed by the affiftance of trigonometry. By
mathematics, the neceffary tables are conftrufted, and
rules inveftigated for performing the more difficult
parts of navigation. For thefe feveral branches of
fcience, and for logarithmic tables, the reader is re¬
ferred to the refpe&ive articles in this work. A few
tables are given at the end of this article ; but as the
other tables neceflary for the pra&ice of navigation
are to be found in almoft every treatife on that fub-
je6f, it therefore feems unneceffary to infert them io
this place.
Chap. I. Preliminary Principles.
Sect. I. Of the Latitude and Longitude of a Place.
The fituation of a place on the furface of the earth
is eftimated by its diftance from two imaginary lines
interfering each other at right angles : The one of
thefe is called the equator} and the other the frjl me*
rulian. The Situation of the equator is fixed, but thafc
of the firft meridian is arbitrary, and therefore diffe¬
rent nations affume different firft meridians. In Bri¬
tain, we efteem that to be the firft meridjan which paL
fes through the royal ebfervatory at Greenwich.
The equator divides the earth into two equal parts,,
called the northern and fouthern hemfpheres; and' the
latitude of a place is its diftance from the equator,,
reckoned on a meridian in- degrees and parts of a de¬
gree ; and is either north or fouth, according as it is
in the northern or fouthern hemifphere.
The firft meridian being continued round the globe,
divides it into two equal parts, called the eafern and
<wejlern hemifpheres and the longitude of a place is
that portion of the equator contained betweea the firit
meridian and the meridian of the given place, and is
either eaft or weft; according as it is in the eaftern or
weftern hemifphere, refpeftively to the firft meridian.
Pros. I. The latitudes of two places being given,
to find the difference of latitude.
Rule. Subtract the lefs latitude from the greater,
if the latitudes be of the fame name, but add them if
of contrary ; and the remainder or fum will- be the
difference of latitude.
Example I. Required the difference of latitude be¬
tween the Lizard, in latitude 495 57' N. and Cape St
Vincent, in latitude 370 2' N1
Latitude of the Lizard 490 57' N.
Latitude of Cape St Vincent 3.7 2 N.
Difference of latitude 12 55 = 77 Jmiles.
Example 1L What is.the difference of latitude be¬
tween Funchal, in Latitude 320 38 N. and the Cape
of Good Hope, in latitude 340 29' S i
3
Latitude
Pra&ice. N A V I G
Latitude Latitude of Funchal 320 38'N.
aodtuj”ngl' Lat. of Cape of Good Hope 34 29 S.
* Difference of latitude 67 7 = 4027 miles.
Pros. II. Given the latitude of one place, and
the difference oflatitude between it and another place,
to find the latitude of that place.
Rule. If the given latitude and the difference of
latitude be of the fame name, add them ; but if of dif¬
ferent names, fubtraft them, and the fum or remain¬
der will be the latitude required of the fame name with
the greater.
Example T. A fhip from latitude 390 22' N.
failed due north 560 miles—Required the latitude
come to ?
-Latitude failed from
Difference of latitude jdcy
-Latitude come to
Example II. A fhip from latitude 70 19' N.
failed 854 miles fouth—Required the latitude come
to ?
Latitude failed from - - 70 15KN.
Difference oflatitude 854' - 14 14 S.
390 22' N.
= 9 20 N.
48 42 N.
Latitude come to - - 6 55 S.
Pros. HI. The longitudes of two places being gi-
'ven, to find their difference of longitude.
Rule. If the longitudes of the given places are of
the fame name, fubtract the lefs from the greater, and
the remainder is the difference of longitude : but if
the longitudes are of contrary names, their fum is the
difference of longitude. If this exceeds 180°, fub-
tratt it from 360°, and the remainder is the difference
of longitude.
Example I. Required the difference of longitude
Letween Edinburgh and New York, their longitude
being 30 14'W and 74° 10'W. refpedtively ?
Longitude of New York - - 74° 10'W.
Longitude of Edinburgh - - 3*4 W.
Difference of longitude • - 70 56
Example 11. What is the difference of longitude
between Markelyne s Hies, in longitude 167° 59' E.
and Olinde, in longitude 350 5'W ?
Longitude of Markelype’s Ifles 167° 59'E.
Longitude of Olinde - 35 5W.
Sum - - - 203 4
Subtract from - - 360 o
Difference of longitude - 156 56
Pros. IV. Given the longitude of a place, and the
difference of longitude between it and another place,
to find the longitude of that place.
Rule. If the given longitude and the difference of
longitude be of a contrary name, fubtraft the lefs from
the greater, and the remainder is the longitude requi¬
red of the fame name with the greater quantity ; but
if they are of different names, add them, and the fum
is the longitude fought, of the fame name with that
given. If this fum exceeds 18o°, fubtradl it from
360°,-the remainder is the required longitude of a con¬
trary name to that given.
Example I. A (hip from longitude.,90 54' E. failed
A T I O N.
wefterly till the difference of longitude was 23° 18'—
Required the longitude.come to?
Longitude failed from - - 90 54' E.
Difference of longitude - - 23 18 W.
Longitude come to - - 13 24 W.
ExampleII. The longitude failed from is 25° 9'W.
and difference of longitude 180 46' W.—Required
the longitude come to ?
Longitude left - - 250 9'W.
Difference of longitude - - 18 46 W.
Longitude in - - 43 55 W.
Sect. II. Of the Tides.
The theory of the tides has been explained under
the article Astronomy, and will again be farther il*
luftrated under that of Tides, in this place, there¬
fore, it remains only to explain the method of calcu¬
lating the time of high water at a given place.
As the tides depend upon the joint adtions of the
fun and moon, and therefore upon the diflance of
thefe objcdts from the earth and from each other ;
and as, in the method generally employed to find the
time of high water, whether by the mean time of new
moon or by the epa&s, or tables deduced therefrom,
the moon is fuppofed to be the foie agent, and to have
an uniform motion in the periphery of a circle, whofe
centre is that of the earth; it is hence obvious that me¬
thod cannot be accurate, and by obfervation the error
is fometimes found to exceed two hours. That me¬
thod is therefore rejefted, and another given, in which
the error vdll feldom exceed a few minutes, unlefs the
tides are greatly influenced by the winds.
Prob. I. To reduce the times of the moon’s phafes
as,given in the Nautical Almanac to the meridian of
a known place.
Rule. To the time of the propofed pliafe, as given
in the Nautical Almanac, apply the longitude of the
place in time, by addition or iubtradtion, according
as it is eaft or weft, and it will give the time of the
phafe at the given place.
Example I. Required the time of new moon at
Salonique in May 1793 ?
Time of newr moon per Naut. Aim. 9d ij11 31'
Longitude of Salonique in time o 1 33 E.
Time of new moon required in May 9 17 4
Example II. What is the time of the laft quarter
of the moon at Refolution Bay in October 1793 ?
Time of laft quarter per Naut Aim. 26d 5h 47'
Longitude in time - - 0 9 17W.
Time at Refolution bay of laft -quar- ——
ter, O&ober - - 25 20 30
Prob. II. To find the time of high water at a
known place.
Rule. In the Nautical Almanac feek in the given
month, or in that immediately preceding or following
it, for the time of that phafe w’hich happens neaieft
to the given day : reduce the time of this phafe to the
meridian of the given place by Prob. I. and take the
difference between the reduced time and the noon of
the given day.
Find the equation anfwering to this difference in
Table VII. which applied to the time of high wa-
4 R 2 tfi-r
N A V I G
ter on tlie day of new or full moon at the given place,
acconijng as the table direfts, will give the approxi¬
mate time of high water in the afternoon.
Now take the interval between the reduced time
of the phafe and the approximate time of high wa
ter; find the coiTefponding equation, which applied
as before to the fyzigy time of high water, will give
the time of the afternoon high water.
If the time of the morning high water is required,
increafe the laft interval by 12 hours, if the given day
falls before the phafe, or diminifh it by 12 hours
when after that phale ; and the equation to this time,
applied to the fyzigy time, gives the morning time of
high water.
Example I. Required the morning and afternoon
times of high water at Leith, nth December 1793 ?
Nearelt phafe to nth Dec. is lit quart. 20h 29'
Longitude of Leith in time — o 013
A T I O N.
Practice.
Time at Leith of ift quarter
Given day
9 20 16
Difference - - 1 3 44
Time of H. W. at Leith-pier on fyz. o 2 20
Equat. from Tab. to id 3h 44' -f-o 6 32
Approximate time of high water
Reduced time of ift quarter
11 8 52
9 20 16
Interval - - - 11236
Time of high water at Leith on fyz. o 2 20
Equat. from the Tab. to id I2h 36' 070
Time of high water at Leith 9 20 I
Time of H. W. at Leith at full & change 2 20
Equat. to Id 12h 56'—I2h^id oh 36' 6 22
High water at Leith, Dec. nth, at 8 42A.M.
The time of high water found by the common me¬
thod is about an hour and a half fooner.
Example II. Required the time of high water at
Funchal, 15th November 1793 ?
The neareft phafe ton 5th November is that of full
i7d 8h 46'
Longitude of Funchal in time,
8 W.
Time of full moon at Funchal,
Given day, November
i7d 7 38
15 o °
Difference,
Time of high water at Funchal at full
and change, - - - 012
Equation from the Table to 2d 7b 3S'
before full moon, - —o 1 35
7 38
4
Approx, time of high water, Nov. 15.
Reduced time ©f full moon,
o 10
17 7
Interval, - - 1 11 9
Time of high water at full and change, 012 4
Equation to id nh before full moon, o o 56
Time of high water, - - on 8 PM.
Equation to 1 d. n h.+i2 h.=: I d. 23 ft. is 1 h. 1 j',
and 12 h. 4'—1 h. i5'=io h. qp'rrtime of high Ship's Run.
water in the forenoon. ^
Example III. Required the time of high water at
Dufkey Bay, 24th October 1793 ?
The neareft phafe to the 24th October is the laft quar¬
ter, - - 26d yh 47'
Longitude of Dufkey Bay in time, +0 11 J E.
Reduced time of firfl quarter of moon, 26 16 52
Given day, - - 24 o o
Difference, - - 2 16 52
Time of high water at full and change, ioh 57'
Equation to 2d 161152' before lattquar¬
ter, *■ - + 2 52
Approximate time of high water,
Change of equation to app. time ih 49'
49
3
Time of high water in the afternoon,
Change of equation to 12 hours,
Time of high water in the morning,
32
Sect. III. 0/ meafurhig a Ship's Run in a given Time.
The method commonly ufed at fca to find the dif-
tance failed in a given time, is by means of a log-line
and half minute-glafs. A defeription of thefe is given
under the articles Loo and Log-line, which fee.
It has been already obferved, that the interval be¬
tween each knot on the line ought to be 50 feet, ii\ or¬
der to adapt it to a glafs that runs 30 feconds. But
although the line and glafs be at any time perfectly ad-
julted to each other, yet as the line ihrinks after be¬
ing wet, and as the weather has a confiderable effect
upon the glafs, it will therefore be neceflary to examine
them from time to time ; and the diitance given by
them mult be corre<fted accordingly. The diftance
failed may therefore be affedted by an error in the
glafs, or in the line, or in both. The true diitance
may, however, be found, as follows.
Pros. I. 1 he diftance failed by the log, and the
feconds run by the glafs, being given, to find the true
diftance, the line being fuppofed right.
Rule.—Multiply the diitance given by the leg by
30, and divide the produdi by the feconds run by the
glafs, the quotient will be the true diitance.
Example 1. The hourly rate of failing by the log
is nine knots, and the glais is found to run out in 3^
feconds. Required the true rate of failing i
9
3°
35)270(7.7 = ^06 rate of failing.
Example II. The diitance failed by the log is 73
miles, and the glafs runs out in 26 feconds. bought
the true diftance ?
73
3°
26(2190)84.2 the true diftance.
Prob. II. Given the diftance failed by the log, and
the meafured interval between two adjacent knots on
4 tb
Practice. N A V I G
Plane the line, to find the true difhnce, the glafs running
Sailing, -exa&ly 30 feconds.
Rule. Multiply twice the diflance failed by the
meafured length of a knot, point off two figures to
the right, and the remainder will be the true dillance.
Example 1. The hourly rate of failing by the log
is five knots, and the interval between knot and knot
meafurcs 53 feet. Required the true rate of failing ?
Meafured interval = 53
Twice hourly rate = io
True rate of failing, rr 5.30
Example II. The diltance failed is 64 miles, by a
log-line which meafures 42 feet to a knot Required
the true diftance ?
Twice given diftance, — 128
Meafured interval, 42
236
512
True diftnnce, 53*76
Prob. III. Given the length of a knot, the number
of feconds run by the glafs in half a minute, and the
diftance failed by the log; to find the true diftance.
Ru le. Multiply the diilance failed by the log by
fix times the meafured length of a knot, and divide
the prodnA by the feconds run by the glafs, the quo¬
tient, pointing off one figure to the right, will be the
true diftance.
Example. The diftance failed by the log is 159
miles, the meafured length of a knot is 42 feet, and
the glafs runs 33 feconds in half a minute. Required
the true diftance ?
Diftance by the log, 159
Six times length of a knotrc42X6=: 252
3l8
Second run by the glafs = 33)40068(121.4 =
true diftance.
Chap. II. Of Plane Sailmg.
Plane failing is the art of navigating a ftiip upon
principles deduced from the notion of the earth’s be¬
ing an extended plane. On this fuppofition the me¬
ridians are efteemed as parallel right lines. The paral¬
lels of latitude are at right angles to the meridians ;
the lengths of the degrees -on the meridians, equator,
and parallels of latitude, are every where equal; and
the degrees of longitude are reckoned on the pa¬
rallels of latitude as well as on the equator.— In this
failing four things are principally concerned, namely,
the ccurf, dflance, difference of latitude., and departure.
The courfe is the angle contained between the me¬
ridian and the line deferibed by the (hip, and is ufual-
ly expreffed in points of the compafs.
The diftance is the number of miles a lliip has failed
«n a direct courfe in a given time.
The difference of latitude is the portion of a meri¬
dian contained between the parallels of latitude failed
A T I O N.
from and come to ; and is reckoned either north or
fouth, according as the courfe is in the northern or
fouthern hemifpfiere.
The departure is the diftance of the Ihip from the
meridian of the place ftie left, reckoned on a parallel
of latitude. In this failing, the departure aad diffe¬
rence of longitude are efteemed equal.
In order to iliuftrate the above, let A (fig, 1.)
reprefent the pofition of any given place, and AB the
meridian puffing through that place ; alio let AC re¬
prefent the line deferibed by a ffiip, and C the point
arrived at. From C draw CB perpendicular to AB.
Now in the triangle ABC, the angle BAC repre*
fents the courfe, the fide A-C the ditiance, AB the
difterence of latitude, and BC the departure.
In couftruCting a figure relating to a ffiip’s courfe,.
let the upper part of what the figure is to be drawn on
reprefent the north, then the lower part will be foutht
the right-hand fiit eajl, and the left-tiand lide weJL
A north and fc uth line is to be drawn to reprefent
the meridian of the place from which the Ihip failed;
and the upper or lower part of this line, according as
the courfe is foutherly or northerly, is to be marked as
the pofition of that , place. From this point as a
centre, with the chord of 6o°, an arch is to be de¬
feribed from the meridian towards the right or left, ac¬
cording as the courfe is ealterly or vveiterly; and the
courfe, taken from the line of chords if given in de¬
grees, but from the line of rhumbs if expreffed in
points of the compafs, is to be laid upon this arch, be¬
ginning at the meridian. A line drawn through this
point and that failed from, will repreient the ddtance,
which if given muft be laid thereon, beginning at the
point failed from. A line is to be drawn from the ex¬
tremity of the diltance perpendicular to the meridian;,
and hence the difference of latitude and departure will
be obtained.
If the difference of latitude is given, it is to be laid
upon the meridian, beginning at the poiiit reprefept-
ing the place the fliip left; and a line drawn from the
extremity of the difference of latitude perpendicular
to the meridian, till it meets the diftance produced, will
limit the figure.
If the departure is given, it is to be laid off on a
parallel, and a line drawn through its extremity will,
limit the diftance. When either the diftance and dif¬
ference of latitude, diflance and departure, or diffe¬
rence of latitude and departure, are given, the meafure
of each is to be taken from a fcale of equal parts, ig
to be laid off on its respective line, and the extremi¬
ties connected. Hence the figure will be formed.
Prob. I. Given the courfe and diftance, to find the
difference of latitude and departure.
Example. A (hip from Bt Helena, in latitude 15®
35' N. failed S. W. by S. 158 miles. Required the-
latitude come to, and departure l
By conjlruthon.
Draw the meridian AB (fig. 2.), and with the
chord of 60“ deferibe the arch mn, and make it equal
to the rhumb of 3 points, and through e draw AC
equal to 158 miles; from C draw CB perpendicular
to AB ; then AB applied to the fcale from which AC
was taken, will be found to meafure 131.4 and BC
87.8.
6S5
Plane
Sailing.
Plate
CCCXXXYIIL
By
686 N A V I G
Plane By Calculation.
^ Sailing >p0 ^n(j difference of latitude.
»'rr'1 radius
is to the co* fine of the courfe 3 points
lb is the diflance ♦ 158
to the difference of latitude 131.4
To find the departure.
As radius -
is to the fine of the courfe 3 points
fo is the diftance - 158
to the departure - 87.8
By InfpeEli'm.
In the travetfe table, the difference of latitude an-
fwering to the eourfe 3 points, and difltnce 158 miles,
in a diftance column is 131.4, and departure 87.8.
By Gunter's Scale.
. The extent from 8 points to 5 points, the comple¬
ment of the courfe on the line of fine rhumbs (mark¬
ed SR.) will reach from the diftance 158 to 131.4, the
difference of latitude on the line of numbers; and the
extent from 8 points to 3 points on fine rhumbs, will
ieach from 158 to 87.8, the departure on numbers.
Latitude St flelena = 15° 55 N.
Difference of latitude — 2 11 S.
Datitude come to - 1 3 44 N.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude, to find the diftance and departure.
Example. A fhip from St George’s, in latitude
.38° 45' north, failed SEJS; and the latitude by ob-
fervation was 350 7' N. Required the diftance, run,
and departure ?
Latitude St George’s - 38° 45' N.
Latitude come to - 35 7 N.
Difference of latitude * 3 38 = 218 miles.
By ConJlruHion.
Pla^e Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 3.)
eccxxxvii. equal to 218 m. from the centre A with the chord of
fio* deferibe the arch m n, which make equal to the
rhumb of 34- points : through Ae draw the line AC,
and from B draw BC perpendicular to AB, and let
it be produced till it meets AC in C. Then the di-
ilance AC being applied to the feale will meafure
282 m. and the departure BC 179 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius - - -to.ocooo
is to the fecant of the courfe 3-4 points 10.11181
fo is the difference of latitude 218 m.
to the diftance - 282
To find the departure.
As radius
is to the tangent of the courfe 34 pts.
fo is the difference of latitude 218
to the departure -
By InfpeBion.
Find the given difference of latitude 218 m. in a
latitude column, under the courfe 34 points; oppofite
to which, in a diftance column, is 282 miles; and in
» .departure column is 178.9 m.
2.33846
2.45027
10.00000
9.91417
2.33846
2.25253
10.00000
9.91985
2.19866
2.11851
10.00000
9-74474
2 19866
a t I O N. PraQice,
By Gunter’s Scale. Plane
Extend the compafs from 44 points, the comple-
ment of the courfe to 8 points on fine rhumbs, that
extent will reach from the difference of latitude 2 > 8
miles to the ftiftance 282 miles in numbers; and the
extent from 4 points to the courfe 34 points on the
line of tangent rhumbs (marked T. R ) will reach
from 218 miles to 178.9, the departure on numbers.
Prob. III. Given courfe and departure, to find the
diftance and difference of latitude ?
Example. A Ihip from Palma, in latitude 28^ 37’
N failed NW by W, and made 192 miles of depar¬
ture: Required the diftance, run, and latitude come to?
* By ConJlruQion.
Make the departure BC (fig. 4.) equal to 19*
miles, draw BA perpendicular to BC, and from the
centre C, with the chord of 6o0, deferibe the arch
m n, which make equal to the rhumb of 3. points, the
complement of the courfe ; draw a line through Ce,
which produce till it meets BA in A : then the di¬
ftance AC being ireafured, will be equal to 231 m.
and the difference of latitude AB will be 128.3
By Calculation.
To find the diftanre.
As the fine of the courfe 5 points 9.91995
is to radius - - lo.ocooo
fo is the departure - 292 - 2.2833©
to the diftance - 230.9 2.36345
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 5 points lo.i75i£
is to radius - - io.oooo©
fo is the departure - 192 2.28330
to the difference of latitude 128.3 2.10819
By In/peBion.
Find the departure 192 m. in its proper column
above the given courfe 5 points ; and oppofite thereto
is the diftance 231 milts, and difference of latitude
138.3, in their refpedlive columns.
. By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent frona 5 points to 8 points on the line of
fine rhumbs being laid from the departure 192 on
numbers, will reach to the diftance 231 on the fame
line; and the extent from 5 points to 4 points on
the line of tangent rhumbs will reach from the de¬
parture 192 to the difference of latitude 128.3 0,1
numbers.
Latitude of Palma - 28’ 37 N
Difference of latitude - - 2 8 N
Latitude come to - - 30 45 N
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference of la¬
titude, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. A /hip from a place in latitude 430
13' N, fails between the north and caft 285 miles,
and is then by obfervation found to be in latitude 46^
31 N : Required the courfe and departure ?
Latitude failed from - 430 j 3' N
Latitude by obfervation 46 31 N
Difference of latitude - 3 18 = 198 miles.
By Conjlrudion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig, 5.)
equal to 198 miles; from B draw BC perpendicular
to
245484
2 29660
10^00000
9.84176
ip.00000
9-85693
2-45484
2-31177
3 its proper
Praaice. N A V I G
Plane to AB : then take the didance 285 miles from the
. ai mS‘ fcale, and with one foot of the compafs in A defcribe
- * an arch interfering BC in C, and join AC. With
the chord of 6o° defcribe the arch the portion
of which, contained between the diftance and diffe¬
rence of latitude, applied to the line of chords, will
meafure 46°, the courfe; and the departure BC be¬
ing meafurcd on the line of equal parts, will be found
equal to 205 miles.
By Calculation.
To hnd the couife.
As the didance - - 28J
is to the difference of latitude 198
fo is the radius
to the cofine of the courfe 463 c
To find the departure.
As radius
is to the fine of the courfe 46° d
fo is the diftance - - 285
to the departure - 205
By Infpecllon.
Find the given diftance in the table
column ; and if the difference of latitude anfwering
thereto is the fame as that given, namely 198, then the
departure will be found in its proper column, and the
courfe at the top or bottom of the page, accordinn-
as the difference of latitude is found in a column
marked lat. at top or bottom. If the difference of la¬
titude thus found does not agree with that given, turn
over till the neareft thereto is found to anfwer to the
given diftance. This is in the page marked 46 de¬
grees at the bottom, which is the courfe, and the cor-
refponding departure is 205 miles.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from the diftance 285 to the difference
of latitude 198 on numbers, will reach from 90° to
' 440, the complement of the courfe on fines ; and the
extent from 90° to the courfe 46° on the line of fines
being laid from the diftance' 285, will reach to the
departure 205 on the line of numbers.
Prob. V. Given the diftance and departure, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. A fhip from Fort-Royal in the iffand
of Grenada, in latitude 120 9' N, failed 260 miles be¬
tween the fouth and weft, and made 190 miles of de¬
parture : Required the courfe and latitude come to ?
By ConJlruStlon.
Plate Draw BC (fig 6.) perpendicular to AB, and equal
ccexxxvu. to the given departure 190 miles; then from the centre
C, with the diftance 260 miles, fweep an arch inter¬
fering AB in it, and join AC. Now defcribe an
arch from the centre A with the chord of 6o°, and
the portion m n of this arch, contained between the
diftance and difference of latitude, meafured on the
line of chords, will be 470 the courfe ; and the diffe¬
rence of latitude AB applied to the fcale of equal
parts, meafures miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - 260
is to the departure 19,0
fo is radius
A T I O N.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - 16-00000
is to the cofine of the courfe ^ 57' 9.83419
fo is the diftance - 260 2.41497
to the difference oflatitude 177.5 2.24916
By Inf pc Sion.
_ Seek in the traVerfe table until the neareft to the
given departure is found in the fame line with the
given dirtance 260. This is round to be in the page
marked 470 at the bottom, which is the courfe ; and
the correfponding difference oflatitude is 177.3.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent of the compafs, from the diftance 260
to the departure 190 on the line of numbers, will reach
from 90° to 47°, the courfe on the line of fines : and
the extent from 90° to 430, the complement of the
courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance 260 to
the difference of latitude 1774 on the line of num¬
bers.
Latitude Fort-Royal
Difference of latitude - 17
12 9 N
=2 57 S
.Latitude in . . 9 12 N
Prob. VI. Given difference of latitude and depar¬
ture, fought courfe and diftance.
Example. A (hip from a port in latitude 70 56' S,
failed between the fouth and eaft, till her departure is
132 miles; and is then by obfervation found to be ia
latitude 120 3' S. Required the courfe and diftance i
Latitude failed from
Latitude in by obfervation
7° 56' S.
12 3 S.
4 7 = 247-
Difference of latitude
By Conjlruclion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 7.) equal
to the difference of latitude 247 miles; from B draw
BC perpendicular to AB, and equal to the given de-
parture 132 miles, and join AC: then with the
chord of 6o° defcribe an arch from the centre A; and
the portion mn of this arch being applied to the line o£
chords, will meafure about ; and the diftance AC,
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be 280 miles.,
By Calculation.
To find the courie.
As the difference of latitude
is to the departure .
£0 is radius
to the tangent of the courfe - 2-8° 7'
To find the diftance.
As radius
is to the fecant of the courfe 28° 7'
fo is the difference of latitude 247
- 247
2.39270
2.12057
10.00000
9.72787
X 0.00000
1 p-°5454
2.39270
to the fine of the courfe 46° 57'
2.41497
2-27875
10.00000
2*86378
to the diftance - 280 2.44724
By InfpeQion.
Seek in the table till the given difference of latitude
and departure, or the-neareft thereto, are found together
in their refpeftive columns, which will.be under 28°
the required courfe; and the diftance anfwering thereto
is 280 miles.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from the given difference of latitude 247
'683
NAVIGATION.
Travelfe t},e departure 132 on the line of numbers, will
, ;?a'llrg- i vcach from 4 1;0 to 280, the courfe on the line of tan-
V ' (rents ; and the extent from 6i.0, the complement of
the courfe, to 90° on fines, will reach from the diffe*
rcnce of latitude 247 to the diftance 280 on numbers.
Chap. III. Gf Travcrfe Sailing.
Tf a fhip fails upon two or more courfes in a given
time, the irregular track (he defcribes is called a tra-
verfe; and to refolve a trnverfe is the method of re¬
ducing thefe feveral courfes, and the diflar.ces run, in¬
to a fingle courfe and diftanre. The method chiefly
ufed for this purpofe at fea is by infpe&ion, which
(hall therefore be principally adhered to; and is as fol¬
lows.
Make a table of a breadth and depth futfieient to
contain the feveral courfes, &c. This table is to be
divided into fix columns: the feveral courfes are to he
put in the firft, and the correfponding diftances in the
fecond column ; the third and fourth columns are to
contain the differences of latitude, and the two laft the
departures.
Now, the feveral courfes and their correfponding
diftances being properly arranged in the table, find
the difference of latitude and departure anfwering to
each Jn the traverfe table; remembering that the dif¬
ference of latitude is to be put in a north or fouth co¬
lumn, according as the courfe is in the northern or
fouthern hemifphere ; and that the departure is to be
put in an eaft column if the courfe is eafterly, hut in a
weft column if the courfe is wefterly : Obferving alfo,
that the departure is lefs than the difference of lati¬
tude when the courfe is lefs than 4 points or 4JC’;
otherwife greater.
Add up the columns of northing, foutbing, calling,
and wefting, and fet down the fum of each at its bot¬
tom ; then the difference between the fums of the
north and fouth columns will be the difference of lati¬
tude made good, of the fame name with the greater;
and the difference between the fums of the eaft and
weft columns, is the departure made good, of the fame
name with the greater fum. _ _
Now feek in the traverfe table, till a difference of
latitude and departure are found to agree as nearly as
poffible with thofe above; then the diftance will be
found on the fame line, an^ the courfe at the top or
bottom of the page according as the difference of la¬
titude is greater or lefs than the departure.
In order to refolve a traverfe by conftruftion, de-
feribe a circle with the chord of 6o°, in which draw
two diameters at right angles to each other, at whofe
extremities are to be marked the initials of the cardi¬
nal points, north being uppermoft.
Lay off each courfe on the circumference, reckoned
from its proper meridian; and from the centre to each
pojnt draw lines, which are to be marked with the
proper number of the courfe.
On the firft radius lay off the firft diftance from the
centre ; and through its extremity, and parallel to
the fecond radius, draw the fecond diftance of its pro¬
per length ; through the extremity of the fecond dU
N° 238.
Practice.
ftance, and parallel to the third radius, draw the third T averfir
diftance of its proper length ; and thus proceed until Sa,*‘‘cS* ,
all the diftances are drawn. “ *
A line drawn from the extremity of the laft diftance
to the centre of the circle will reprefent the diftancer
made good : and a line drawn from the fame point
perpendicular to the meridian, produced, if neceffary,
will reprefent the departure} and the portion of the
meridian intercepted between the centre and depar¬
ture will be the difference of latitude made good.
Examples.
I. A (hip from Fyal, in latitude 38° 32' N, failed
as follows : ESE 163 miles, SW ~ W 110 miles, SE
•J-S 180 miles, and N by E 68 miles. Required the
latitude come to, the courfe, and diftance made good?
By Infpc dion.
ESE
SWAW
SE|S
N4E
S414E
Uiff. of Latiiu.le.
66.7
66.7
62.4
69.8
H4-5
276.7
66.7
Depa tun
150 6
107.2
*3 3
271.1
85.0
85.0
Latitude left.
Difference of latitude,
Latitude come to
38° 32' N.
3 S.
35 N.
By Conjlmciion.
With the chord of 6o° Jefcribe the circle NE,SW Pjjte
(fig. 8), the centre of which reprefents the place the cccxmvu.
(hip failed from: draw two diameters NS, EW at right
angles to each other.; the one reprefenting the meri¬
dian, and the other the parallel of latitude of the place
failed from. Take each caurfefrom the line of rhumbs,
lay it off on the circumference from its proper meri¬
dian; and number it in order 1, 2, 3, 4. Upon'the
firft rhumb Ct, lay off the firft diftance from C to A;
through it draw the fecond diflance AB parallel to
C2, and equal to tio miles; through B draw BD
equal to 180 miles, and parallel to C3; and draw DE
parallel to C4, and equal to 68 miles- Now CE being
joined, will reprefent the diftance made good ; which
applied to the fcalc will meafure 281 miles. The
arch S», which reprefents the courfe, being meafured
on the line of chords, will be found equal to 414-^.
From E draw EF perpendicular to CS produced ;
then CF will be^the difference bT latitude, and FE
the departure made good ; which applied to the fcale
will be found to meafure -• 10 and 186 refpeclively.
As the method l>y conftrudlion is fcarcely ever
praclifed at fea, it therefore feems unneceffary to ap¬
ply it to theiblution of the following examples.
II. A
Practice. NAVI
Traverfe II. A (Kip from latitude 1° 38' S failed as under,
f Sailing. Required her prefent latitude, courfe, and diftance
1 ^ made good ?
CATION.
Courfe.
NWiN
WNW
SEiE
WSW^-W
N?E
N 440 W
D:a.
UiflF. of Latitude.
35-8
29.9
84.1
149.8
49.1
3l->
18.0
Departure.
139 100.7=1° 41'
I 38 S.
Latitude left
Latitude come to
23*9
72.x
*55-3
59.1
96.2
3N.
III. Yefterday at noon we were in latitude 130 12' N,
.and fince then have run as follows: SSE 36 miles,
S 12 miles, NW 4-W 28 miles, W 30 miles, SW 42
miles, WIN 39 miles, and N 20 miles. Required our
prefent latitude, departure, and diredt courfe and di¬
ftance ?
SSE
S
NW4-W
w
SW
W£N
N
Dift.
Diff. of Latitude.
N j S
7.6
20.0
33-3
12.0
45.4 75.0 13.8
45-4
Departure.
3-8
21.6
20.0
29.7
38.2
119.5
13.8
S 74° W 1 xo 29.6=o°30'l 105.7
Yefterday’s latitude - 13 12 N
Prefent latitude
12 42 N
IV. The courfe per compafs from Greigfnefs to the
May is SW 4- S, diftance 58 miles; from the May to
4:he Staples S£E 4 E, 44 miles ; and from the Staples
to Flamborough Head S£E, 110 miles. Required the
courfe per compafs, and diftance from Greigfnefs to
.Flamborough Head ?
Vol.XII. Part II.
SWiS
S6E | E
S£E
DifF. of Latitude.
>3C
41.4
i°7 9
Departure.
w
.4.8
21. c
3 8-9
36-3 <8.9
36-3
Hence the courfe per compafs is S
and diftance 110 miles.
E,
Chap. IV. Of Parallel Sailing
The figure of the earth is fpherical, and the meri¬
dians gradually approach each other, and meet at the
poles. The difference of longitude between any two
places is the angle at the pole contained between the
meridians of thofe places ; or it is the arch of the
equator intercepted between the meridians of the given
places; and the meridian diftance between two places
in the fame parallel, is the arch thereof contained be¬
tween their meridians. It hence follows, that the me¬
ridian diftance, anfwering to the fame difference of
longitude, will be variable with the latitude of the
parallel upon which it is reckoned; and the fame
difference of longitude will not anfvver to a given
meridian diftance when reckoned upon different pa¬
rallels.
Parallel failing is therefore the method of finding
the diftance between two places lying in the fame pa¬
rallel where longitudes are known; or, to find the dif¬
ference of longitude anfwering to a given diftance, run
in an eaft or weft dire&ion. This failing is particu¬
larly ufeful in making low or fmall iflands.
In order to illuftrate the principles of parallel fail- Plate
ing, let CxYBP (fig. 9.) reprefent a fe&ion of one part cccxxxva-
of the earth, the arch ABP being part of a meridian •
CA the equatorial; and CP the polar femiaxis. Alfo
let B be the fituation of any given place on the earth •
and join BC, which will be equal to CA or CP (^a).
The arch AB, or angle ACB, is the meafure of the
latitude of the place B ; and the arch BP, or angle
BCP, is that of its complement. If BD be drawn
from B perpendicular to CP, it will reprefent the co¬
fine of latitude to the radius BC or CA.
Now fince circles and fimilar portions of circles are
in the direct ratio of their radii; therefore.
As radius
Is to the cofine of latitude;
So is any given portion of the equator
To a fimilar portion of the given parallel.
4 s But
(a) This is not ftri&ly true, as the figure ofithe earth is that of an oblate fpheroid ; an! therefore the ra¬
dius of curvature is variable with the latitude. The difference between CA and CP, acceding to Sir Ifaac
Newton’s hypothefis, is about 17 miles.
I
690 N A V I G
Parallel But the difference of longitude is an arch of the
Sailing. Cquator . and the ch'ftance between any two places un-
v der the fame parallel, is a fimilar portion of that pa-
ralkL
Hence R : cofine latitude :: Diff. longitude : Diftance.
And by inverfion,
Cofine latitude : R :: Diftance : Diff. of longitude.
Alfo,
Diff. of longitude : Diftance : : R ; cof. Jgtitude.
Pa,oB. I. Given the latitude of a parallel, and the
number of miles contained in a portion of the equator,
to find the miles contained in a fimilar portion of that
parallel.
Example I. Required the number of miles con¬
tained in a degree of longitude in latitude 55° 58'?
By ConflruBion.
PLve Draw the indefinite right line AB (fig. 10.); make
cccxxxvn. the angle BAC equal to the given latitude 550 58',
and AC equal to the number of miles contained in a
degree of longitude at the equator, namely 60 : from
C draw CB perpendicular to AB ; and AB being
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be found equal
to 33.5, the miles required.
By Calculation.
As radius - 10.00000
is to the cofine of latitude, 55° 58' 9.74794
fo is miles in a deg. of long, at eq. 60 1.77815
A T I O N. P rad ice
given diftance 342 miles, and make the angle BAC Parallel
equal 42° 52', the given latitude : from B draw BC Saiting.
perpendicular to AB, meeting AC in C; then AC
applied to the fcale will meafure 466the difference
of longitude required. J
By Calculation.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of latitude, 42°52' 10.13493
fo is the diftance - - 342 2.53403
to the difference of longitude 466.6 2.66896
By Bifpettion.
The neareft degree to the given latitude is 430 ;
under which, and opppfite to 171, half the given di¬
ftance in a latitude column, is 234 in a diftance co¬
lumn; which doubled gives 468, the difference of lon¬
gitude.
If the proportional part anfwering to the difference
between the given latitude and that ufed be applied,
to the above, the fame refult with that found by cal¬
culation will be obtained.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 470 8', the complement of latitude
to 90° on.the line of fines, being laid the fame way from
the diftance 342, will reach to the difference of lon¬
gitude 4664- on the line of numbers.
Longitude Cape Finifterre - 90 17'W
Difference of longitude - 7 47 W
to the miles in^deg. in a given par. 33.58 1.521609
By InfpeBion.
To 56°, the neareft degree to the given latitude,
and diftance 60 miles, the correfponding difference of
latitude is 33-6, which is the miles required.
By Gunter's Scale
The extejit' from 90° to 340, the complement of
the given latitude on the line of fines, will reach from
60 to 33.6 on the line of numbers.
There are two lines on the other fide of the fcale,
with refpeft to Gunter’s line, adapted to this parti¬
cular purpofe ; one of which is intitled chords, and
contains the feveral degrees of latitude : The other,
marked M. L. fignifying miles of longitude, is the line
of longitude, and mows the number of miles in a degree
of longitude in each parallel. The ufe of thefe lines is
therefore obvious.
Example IL Required the diftance between Tre-
guier in France, in longitude 30 14' W, and Gafpey
Bay, in longitude 64° 27' W, the common latitude be-
mg 480 47'N? > . ,TTT
Longitude Treguier - 3* 14 W
Longitude Gafpey Bay 64 27 W
Difference of longitude 61 13 = 3673'
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the cofine oflatitude, 48° 47' 9,8188a
fo is the difference of longitude 3673 3.56502
to the diftanee - - 2420 3.38384
Pr.ob. II. Given the number of miles contained in a
portion of a known parallel, to find the number of
miles in a fimilar portion of the equator.
Example. A fhip from Cape Finifterre, in latitude
420 52' N, and longitude 90 17' W, failed due well
342 miles. Required the longitude come to ?
By CsmJiruB'wn.
Draw the ftraight line AB (fig. 11.) equal to the
Longitude come to - - 17 4. W
Prob. III. Given the number of miles contained in
any portion of the equator, and the miles in a-fimilar
portion of a parallel, to find the latitude of that pa¬
rallel.
Example. A (hip failed due eaft 358 miles, and
was found by obfervation to have differed her longi¬
tude 8° 42'. Required the latitude of the parallel?
By ConjlruBion.
Make the line AB (fig. 12.) equal to the given di-
fiance; to which let BC be drawn perpendicular, with
an extent equal to 522', the difference of longitude 4,.
deferibe an arch from the centre A cutting BC in C ;
then the angle BAC being meafured by means of the
line of chords, will be found equal to 46°}, the re¬
quired latitude.
By Calculation.
As the diftance - 358 2.553SS
is to the difference of longitude, 522 2.71767
fo is radius - - - 10.00000
to the fecant of the latitude 46° 42' 10.16379
By InfpeBion.
As the difference of longitude and diftance exceed
the limits of the table, let therefore the half of each
be taken; thefe are 261 and 179 refpe&ively. Now,
by entering the table with thefe quantities, the lati¬
tude will be found to be between 46 and 47 degrees.
Therefore, to latitude 46°, and diftance 261 miles,
the correfponding difference of latitude is i8i'.3,
which exceeds the half of the given diftance by 2'.3.
Again, to latitude 470, and diftance 261, the difference
of latitude; is i78\o, being i'.o lefs than the half of
that given : therefore the change of diflance anfwer¬
ing to a change of i° of latitude is 3 .3.
Now, as 3'.3 : 2'-3 : : iu : 42'
Hence the latitude required is 42',
Pra&ke. N A V I G
Parallel By Gunter's Scale.
/Sailing •pjjg extent from 522 to 358 on the line of num-
v hers, will reach from 90° to about 43°f> the comple¬
ment of which 46^ is the latitude required ?
Prob. IV. Given the number of miles contained in
the portion of a known parallel, to find the length of
a fimilar portion of another known parallel.
Example. From two parts in latitude 330 t8'N,
diftance 348 miles, two ftiips fail dire&ly north till
they are in latitude 48° 23' N. Required their di¬
ftance i
By ConftruBltm.
Plate Draw the lines CB, CE (fig. 13.), making angles
ecocxxvii. with CP equal to the complements of the given lati¬
tudes, namely, 56° 2' and 410 37' refpeftively : make
BD equal to the given diftance 348 miles, and per-
* pendicular to CP ; now from the centre C, ^ith the
radius CB, deferibe an arch interfefting CE in E ;
then EF drawn from the point E, perpendicular to
CP, will reprefent the diftance required ; and which
being applied to the fcale, will meafure 278-i- miles.
By Calculation.
As the cofine of the latitude left 330 58' 9.91874
is to the cofine of the latitude 1 „ o ^
come to - j 4* *3 Sl'S**z6
fo is the given diftance - 348 2.54158
A T I O N.
fo is the cofine of the latitude left
td the cofine of ithe latitude 1
6gi
56° O' 9.74756 Middle
. Latitude
Sailing.
43 53 9-85778'—Y^i-
come to - - _
By InfpeBion.
To latitude 56°, and half the firft diftance 90 in a
latitude column, the correfponding diftance is 161,
which is half the difference of longitude. Now 161,
and 116 half the fecond diftance, are found to agree
between 43 and 44 degrees; therefore, to latitude
43Q and diftance 161, the correfpending difference of
latitude is uy'.?; the excefs of which above 116'is
I'.y : and to latitude 44', and diftance 161, the diffe¬
rence of latitude is iij'.S: hence 1x77 —115.8
= 1'.9, the change anfweriag to a change of 1? of
latitude.
Therefore i'.9«c F.7 : t t° : 53r
Hence the latitude is 43^ 53'.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from 180 to 232 on the line of num¬
bers, being laid in the fame dire&ion on the line of
fines, from 340, the complement of the latitude failed
from, will reach to 46° 7', the complement of the la¬
titude come to.
Chap. V. Of Middle Latitude Sailing.
to the diftance required - 278.6 2.44510
By InfpeBion.
Under 340, and oppofite to 174, half the given di¬
ftance in a latitude column is 210.in a diftance co¬
lumn ; being half the difference of longitude anfwering
thereto. Now, find the difference of latitude to di¬
ftance 2 10 miles over 48° of latitude, which is I40'.5;
from which i'.i (the proportional part anfwering to
23 minutes of latitude) being abftra&ed, gives 139'.8,
which doubled is 2 78'.8, the diftance required.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 56° 2, the complement of the la¬
titude left, to 41° 37', the complement of that come
to on the line of fines, being laid the fame way from
348, will reach to 278^, the diftance fought on the
line of numbers.
Prob. V. Given a certain portion of a known pa¬
rallel, together with a fimilar portion of an unknown
parallel, to find the latitude of that parallel.
Example. Two ftiips, in latitude 56 o' N, diftant
t8o miles, fail due fouth; and having come to the
fame parallel, are now 232 miles diftant. The latitude
of that parallel is required ?
By ConfruBion.
Make DB (fig. 14.) equal to the firft diftance 180
miles, DM equal to the fecond 232, and the angle
DBG equal to the given latitude 56° ; from the
centre C, with the radius CB, deferibe the arch BE }
and through M draw ME parallel to CD, interfe&ing
the arch BE in E, join EC and draw EF perpendi¬
cular to CD : then the angle FEC will be the lati¬
tude required ; which being meafured# will be found
equal to
By Calculation
As the diftance on the known pa-1 n
_ rallel - . j 2-*55*7
is to the diftance on that required 232 2.36549
The earth is a fphere, and the meridians meet at
the poles ; and fince a rhumb-line makes equal angles
with every meridian, the line a fhip deferibes is there¬
fore that kind of a curve called a fpiral.
Let AB (fig. 15.) be any given diflance failed upon
an oblique rhumb, PEN, PAM the extreme meri¬
dians, MN a portion of the equator, and PCK, PEL
two meridians interfering the diftance AB in the
points' CE infinitely near each other. If the arches
BS, CD, and AR, be deferibed parallel to the equator,
it is hence evident, that AS is the difference of lati¬
tude, and the arch MN qf the equator the difference
of longitude, anfwering to the given diftance AB and
courfe PAB
Now, fince CE reprefents a very final! portion of
the diftance AB, DE will be the correfpondent por¬
tion of a meridian : hence the triangle EDC may be
confidered as reftilineal If the diftance be fuppofed
to be divided into an infinite number of parts, each
equal to CE, and upon thefe, triangles be conftrufted
whofe fides are portions of a meridian and parallel, it is
evident thefe triangles will be equal and fimilar ; for*
beiides the right angle, and hypothenufe which is the
fame in each, the courfe or angle CED is alfo the
fame. Hence, by the 12th ofV. Euc. the fum of all
the hypothenufes CE, or the diftance AB, is to the
fum of all the fides DE, or the difference of latitude
AS, as one of the hypothenufes CE is to the corre¬
fponding fide DE. Now, let the triangle GiH lig.
16.) be conftrudled fimilar to the triangle CDE, ha¬
ving the angle G equal to the courfe : then as GH i
GI: : CE : DC : : AB : AS.
Hence, if GH be made equal to the given diftance
AB, then GI will be the correfponding difference of
latitude.
in like manner, the firm of all the hypothenufes
CE, or the diftance AB, is to the fum of all the lides
48a CD,
692
NAVIGATION.
Middle CD, as CE is to CD, or as GH to HI, becaufe of the Longitude Tile of May
Latituc e fim;jar triangles. Longitude Naze of Norway
Practice
2 37 W
7 27 E
The feveral parts of the fame re&ilineal triangle will
therefore reprefent the courfe, diftance, difference of Difference of longitude - 10 4 = 604'
latitude, and departure. By ConJlruBlon.
Although the parts HG, GI, and angle G of the Draw the right line AD (fig. 18.) to reprefent the
reftilineal triangle GIH, are equal to the correfpond- meridian of the May ; with the chord of 6o° deferibe
ing parts AB, AS, and angle A,'of the triangle the arch w », upon which lay off the chord of 32° 59,
ASB upon the furface of the fphere ; yet HI is not the complement of the middle latitude from m to n :
equal to BS, for HI is the fum of all the arcs CD ;
but CD is greater than OQj_ and lefs than ZX :
therefore HI is greater than BS, and lefs than AR.
Hence the difference of longitude MN cannot be in¬
ferred from the departure reckoned either upon the
from D through n draw the line DC equal to 604', the
difference of longitude, and from C draw CB perpen¬
dicular to AC : make BA equal to 98', the difference
of latitude, and join AC ; which applied to the fcale
will meafure 343 miles, the diftance fought: and the
parallel failed from or on that come to, but on fome angle A being meafured by means of the line of
intermediate parallel TV, fuch that the arch TV is chords, will be found equal to" 730 24', the required
exa&ly equal to the departure : and in this cafe the courfe.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe (b).
As the difference of latitude - 98'
is to the difference of longitude 604
57
r.99123
2.78104
9-73591
difference of longitude would be eafily obtained. For
TV is to MN as the fine PT to the fine PM; that is,
as the cofine of latitude is to the radius.
The latitude of the parallel TV is not, however,
eafily determined with accuracy ; various methods have fo is the cofine of middle lati- }
therefore been taken in order to obtain it nearly, with tude - - j
as little trouble as poffible : firft, by taking the arith-  
metical mean of the two latitudes for that of the to the tangent of the cofine 73 24 10.52572
mean parallel: fecondly, by ufing the arithmetical To find the diftance.
mean of the cofines of the latitudes : thirdly, by ufing As radius
the geometrical mean of the cofines of the latitudes: is to the fecant of the courfe 7
and laftly, by employing the parallel deduced from fo is the difference of latitude
the mean of the meridional parts of the two lati¬
tudes. The firft of thefe methods is that which is to the diftance
generally ufed. By InfpeBion.
In order to illuftrate the computations in middle To middle latitude 570, and 151 one-fourth of the
latitude failing, let the triangle ABC (fig. 17.) re- difference of longitude in a diftance column, the cor-
Plate prefent a figure in plain failing, wherein AB is the refponding difference of latitude is 82.2.
cccxxxvii. (}jfj,erence 0f latitude, AC the diftance, BC the de- Now 24.5, one-fourth of the difference of latitude,
parture, and the angle BAC the courfe. Alfo let and 82.2, taken in a departure column, are found ta
the triangle DBG t>e a figure in parallel failing, in agree neareft on table marked 6i points^ at the bot-
which DC is the difference of longitude, BC the me¬
ridian diftance, and the angle DCB the middle lati¬
tude, In thefe triangles there is therefore one fide
BC common to both ; and that triangle is to be firft
refolved in which two parts are given, and there the
unknown parts of the other triangle will be eafily ob¬
tained.
2*53534
tom, which is the cofine; and the correfponding di¬
ftance 85^ multiplied by 4 gives 343 miles, the di¬
ftance.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 98 the difference of latitude, to
604 the difference of longitude on numbers, being laid
the fame way from 330, the complement of the middle
Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of latitude on -fines, will reach to a certain point beyond
two places, to find the courfe and diftance between the termination of the lines on the fcale. Now the
them. extent between this point and 90° on fines, will reach
Example. Required the courfe and diftance from from 450 to 730 24', the courfe on the line of tangents,
the ifland of May, in latitude 56° 1 z' N, and longi- And the extent from 73° 24' the courfe, to 330 the
tude 2° 37' W, to the Naze of Norway, in latitude complement of the middle latitude on the line of fines.
570 50' N, and longitude 70 27' E ?
Latitude ifle of May - 56° 12' N
Latitude Naze of Norway 57 50 N
Difference of latitude
Middle latitude
x. 38 = 98'
being laid the fame way from 604 the difference of
longitude, will reach to 343 the diftance oa the line
of numbers.
The true courfe, therefore, from the ifland of May
o the Naze of Norway is 73 N, 24 E, or ENE^E
nearly ; but as the variation at the May is z| points
weft,
(b) For R. : cofine Mid. lat. : : Diff. of long. : Departure ;
And diff. of lat. : Dep. : : R. : Tangent courfe.
Hence diff. of lat. : cofine mid. lat : : diff. of long. : tang, courfe j
Or diff. of lat. : diff. of long. :: cofine mid, lat. ; tang, courfe.
Pra&ice.
N A V
f
MWJiy
Latitude
Sailing.
Plate
| CCCXXXV1I.
weft, therefore the courfe per compafs from the May
is E|S.
Prob. IT. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance
failed, to find the other latitude and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A ftu'p from Breft, in latitude 48° 23'N.
and longitude 40 30' W. failed S'WJW 238 miles.
Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Conjlruttion.
With the courfe and diftance coaftruft the triangle
ABC (fig. 17-), and the difference of latitude AB
being meafured, will be found equal to 142 miles :
hence the latitude come to is 46° 1' N, and the middle
latitude 47^ 12'. Now make the angle DCB equal
to 47° 12 ; and DC being meafured, will be the
difference of longitude : hence the longitude come to
is
By Calculation,
To find the difference of latitude,
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the co-fine of the courfe, ^ 9-11
fo is the diftance, - 238 2.37658
to the difference of latitude
Latitude of Breft, 48° 23' N.
Difference of Lat. 2 22 S.
141.8
2.15161
48° 23'N.
half 1 11 S.
Lat. come to 46° 1' N. Mid Lat. 47 x 2
To find the difference of longitude (d).
As the co-fine of Mid. Lat. 47°i2' 9.83215
is to the fine of the courfe 4! points 9.90483
fo is the diftance 238 2.37658
to the difference of longitude
Longitude of Breft
Difference of longitude
281.3 2.44926
- 4°30'W.
4 41W.
Longitude come t& - - 9 11W.
By InfpeSion.
To the courfe 4!- points, and diftance 238 miles,
the difference of latitude is 141..8, and the departure
191.1. Hence the latitude come to is 46° x'N, and
middle latitude 470 12' Then to middle latitude
470 12', and departure 191.1 in a latitude column, the
correfponding diftance is 281', which is the difference
of longitude.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 3! points, the com¬
plement of the courfe on fine rhumbs, being laid the
fame way from the diftance 238, will reach to the dif¬
ference of latitude 142 on the line of numbers ; and
the extern from 420 48'the complement of the middle
latitude, to 530 26', the courfe on the line of fines will
reach from the diftance 238 to the difference of longi¬
tude 281 on numbers.
Prob. III. Given both latitudes and courfe, requi¬
red the diftance and difference of longitude ?
Example. A ftrip from St Antonio, in latitude
170 o' N, and longitude 24'-' 25' W, failed NW, | N,
till by obfervation her latitude is found to be 28° 34'N.
I G A T I O N. <%j
Required the diftance failed, and longitude come to ? Middle
Latitude St Antonio 170 oN. 170 o'N 1"at‘tude
Latitude by obfervation 28 34 N. 28 34 N. s‘11 t
Difference of lat. 11 34=694m 45 34
Middle lat. 22 47
By ConJlruSion.
Conftru& the triangle ABC (fig. rp), with the
given courfe and difference of latitude, and make the
angle BCD equal to the middle latitude. Now the
diftance AC and difference of longitude DC being '
meafured, will be found equal to 864 and 558 refpcc-
lively.
By Calculation*
To find the diftance.
As radius.
Is to the fecant of the courfe 3! points
So is the difference of lat. 694
To the diftance - 864
To find the difference of longitude.
As the cofine of middle latitude 220 47' 9.96472
Is to the tangent of the courfe 3^ points 9.87020
So is the difference of latitude 694 2.84136
To the difference of longitude 558.3 2.74684
Longitude of St Antonio - 240 25'W.
Difference of longitude, - 9 18W.
Longitude come to - - 33 43W,
By InfpeUion.
To courfe 3^ points, and difference of latitude
231.3 one third of that given, the departure is 171.6.
and diftance 288, which multiplied by 3 is 864 miles.
Again to the middle latitude 220 47', or23°, and
departure 171.6 in a latitude column, the diftance is
186, which multiplied by 3 is 558, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from 4J points, the complement of the
courfe, to 8 points on the line of fine rhumbs, will
reach from the difference of latitude 694 to the dif¬
tance 864 on numbers ; and the extent from the courfe
36° 34' to 67° 13', the complement of middle latitude
on fines, will reach from the dtftance 864 to the dif¬
ference of longitude 558 on numbers.
Prob.LV. Given one latitude, courfe, and departure^
to find the other latitude, diftance, and difference of
longitude.
Example. A (hip from latitude 26° 30' N. and
longitude 30' W. failed NE^N. till her departure
is 216 miles. Required the diftance run, and latitude
and longitude come to ?
■ By ConJlruBion.
With the courfe and departure conftruft the triangle
AB6 (fig. 2oi), and the diftance and difference of la¬
titude being meafured, will be found equal to 340 and
263 refpeftively. Hencethe latitude come to is 30 ^53^
and middle latitude 28° 42'. Now make the angle
BCD equal to the middle latitude, and the difference
of longitude DC applied to the fcale will meafure 246'
10.00000
10.09517
2.84136'
2.93653
(o) This proportion is obvious, by confidering the whole figure as an oblique angled triangle.
694
Middle By Calculation,
Latitude To find the dlftance.
r. ‘ .As the line of the courfe
Is to radius
So is the departure 216
N A V I G A T I
3! points
9.80236
10.00000
2-33445
To the diftance - 34©*5
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 3^ points
is to radius
fo is the departure - 216
to the difference of lat. ' 263.2 2.42028
Latitude failed from 26° 30N. 26p 30'N.
Difference of latitude 4 23 N. half 2 12N.
Latitude come to 30 53N.Mid.lat. 28 42
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - 10.00000
i-s to the fecant of the mid. lat. 28° 42' 10.05693
fo is the departure - 216 2.33445
to the difference of longitude 246.2 2.39138
Longitude left, - . 450 30'W.
Difference of longitude - • 4 6 E.
Longitude come to - - 41 24 W.
By InfpeSion.
Under the courfe 3^ points, and oppofite to 108
half the departure, the diftance is 170, and difference
of latitude 13x4; which doubled, give 340 and 263
for the diftance and difference of latitude refpeftively.
Again, to middle latitude 28° 42', and departure
108, the diftance is 123 ; which doubled is 246 the
difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the courfe 34- points, on fine
rhumbs, to the departure 216 on numbers, will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to about 340, the diftance
on numbers ; and the fame extent will reach from 44-
points, the complement of the courfe, to 263, the dif¬
ference of latitude on numbers; and the extent from
6iQ 18' the complement of the middle latitude, to 90°
on fines, will reach from the departure 216 to the dif¬
ference of longitude 246 on numbers.
Prob. V. Given both latitudes and diftance; to find
the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. From Cape Sable, in latitude 43° 24 N.
and longitude 65° 39'W. a fhip failed 246 miles on a
direft courfe between the fouth and eaft, and is then
by obfervation in latitude 400 48 N. Required the
courfe and longitude in ?
Latitude Cape Sable, 430 24'N. 430 24'N.
Latitude by obfervation, 40 48 N. 40 48 N.
Difference of latitude, 2 36=156'24 12
Middle latitude 42 6
By ConJiruBion.
P’are Make AB (fig. 21.) equal to 156 miles; draw BC
cscxxxv11- perpendicular to AB, and make AC equal to 246
miles. Draw CD, making with CB an angle of
42c' 6' the middle latitude. Now DC will be found
O N. Pra«flice,
to meafure 256, and the courfe or angle A will mea- Middle
fuxe 50® 39'. Latitude
By Calculation. . aai'lli^ .
To find the courfe. *
As the diftance - 246 2.39093
is-to the difference of latitude 156 2.193x2
fo is radius, - - - 10.00000
to the cofine of the courfe 500 39' 9.80219
To find the difference of longitude.
As the cofine of middle latitude 42° 6' 9.87039
is to the fine of the courfe 50 39 9.88834
fo is the diftance - 246 2.39093
256.4 2.40888
65° 39'W.
4 16 E.
to the difference of longitude
Longitude Cape Sable,
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to - 6x 23 W.
By InfpeBion.
The diftance 246, and difference of latitude 156,
are found to correfpond above 44 points, and the de¬
parture is 190.1. Now, to the middle latitude 42°,
and departure 190.1 in a latitude column, the corre-
fponding diftance is 256, which is the difference of
longitude required.
By Gunter's feale.
The extent from 246 miles, the diftance to 156,
the difference of latitude on numbers, will reach from
90? to about 39<>x> complement of the courfe on
the line of fines : and the extent from 48°, the com¬
plement of the middle latitude, to S0°t> t^ie courfe
on fines, will reach from the diftance 246m to the dif¬
ference of longitude 256m on numbers.
Prob. VI. Given both latitudes and departure ;
fought the courfe, diftance, and difference of longi¬
tude.
Example. A ihip from Cape St Vincent, in lati¬
tude 370 2'N. longitude 90 2 W. fails between the
fouth and weft ; the latitude come to is 18° 16'N, and
departure 838 miles. Required the courfe and dif¬
tance run, and longitude come to ?
Latitude Cape St Vincent, 370 2'N. 37° 2'
Latitude come to - 1816N. 1816
Difference of latitude 18 46=1126 55 18
Middle latitude 27 39
By ConJiruBion.
Make AB (fig. 22.) equal to the difference of la¬
titude 1126 miles, and BC equal to the departure 838,
and join AC ; draw CD fo as to make an angle with
CB equal to the middle latitude 270 39'. Then the
courfe being meafured on chords is about 36°^, and
the diftance and difference of longitude, meafured on
the line of equal parts, are found to be X403 and 946
refpe&ively.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
A* the difference of latitude 1126 3.05154
is to the departure - 838 2.92324
fo is radius - * 10.00000
to the tangent of the conrfc 36° 39'
9.87170
To
Practice, N A
j Middle To find the diftance.
I 1S3-j1,“?e As radius
31 In-' * . is to the fecant of the coutfe ^ 39'
fo is the difference of latitude 1126
to the diftance -
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius
is to the fecant of the mid. lat. 270 39'
fo is the departure - 838
to the difference of longitude 946
Longitude Cape St Vincent
Difference of longitude
V I G A T I O N.
69.7
lo.occro
10 09566
3-05‘5+
1 cr.ooooo
jc.05266
2.92324
2-gjigo
90 z'W.
15 46 W.
24 48 W.
Plate
3 tCCXXXVil,
Longitude come to -
Bv InfpeB'ion.
One-tenth of the difference of latitude 112.6, and
of the departure 83.8, are found to agree under 34-
points, and the correfponding diftance is 140, which
multiplied by 10 gives 1400 miles. And to middle
latitude 27°4» and 209.5 one-fourth of the depar¬
ture in a latitude column, the diftance is 236.5; which
multiplied by 4 is 946, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale-.
The extent from the difference of latitude 1126 to
the departure 838 on numbers, will reach from 450
to 36°-|- the courfe on tangents ; and the extent from
530-f the complement of the courfe to 90° on fines,
will reach from 1126 to 1403 the diftance on numbers.
Laftly, the extent from 62°4 the complement of the
middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach from the
departure 838 to the difference of longitude 946 on
numbers.
PR.oB.Vir. Given one latitude, diftance, and depar¬
ture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and difference
of longitude.
Example. A ffiip from Bourdeaux, in latitude 440
jTo' N, and longitude o° 35' W, failed between the
north and weft 374 miles, and made- 210 miles of weft-
ing. Required the courfe and latitude and longi¬
tude, come to
By ConJlruBton.
With the given diftance and departure mark the
triangle ABC (fig. 23.) Now the courfe being mea-
* fured pn the line of chords is about 340-|-, and the dif¬
ference of latitude on the line of numbers is 309 miles:
hence the latitude come to, is 490 59' N, and middle
latitude 470 25'. Then make the angle BCD equal
to 470 25', and DC meafured will be 310 miles, the
difference of longitude.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe. ’
As the diftance - 374 - 2.57287
is to the departure - 210 - 2.32222
fo is radius - — - io.ooqco
to the fine of the courfe 340 icy 9. 74935
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 340 10' 9.91772
fo is the diftance - 374 2.57287
gitude
to the difference of latitude 3°9-4 2.49059 fo is radius
Latitude Bourdeaux 440 50' N » 4415 5°'
Difference of latitude 5 9 N half - 2 35
Latitude come to 49 59 N Mid. lat. 47
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of middle 1 ~ , , „ . ^
latitude - j « *5 * ,°',6953
fo is the departure - 210 - 2.32222
to the difference of longitude 310.3 - 2.49185
Longitude of Bourdeaux - 0° 35, W
Difference of longitude - - 5 i o W
Longitude in - - 5 45 W
By InfpeBion.
The half of the dittance 187, and of the departure
105, are found to agree neareft under 340, and the
difference’of latitude anfwering thereto is 155} which
doubled is 310 miles.
Again, to middle latitude 470 25', and departure
105 in a latitude column, the correfponding diftance'
is 155 miles, which doubled is 310 miles, the diffe¬
rence of longitude.
By Gunter’s Scale:
The extent from the diftance 374 miles to the de¬
parture 2io miles.on the line of numbers, will reach'
from 90° to 340 10', the courfe on the line of fines ;
and the extent from 90° to 5.50 50', the complement
of the courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance
374 to the difference, of latitude 309 miles on num¬
bers.
Again j the extent from 420 35', the complement
of the middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach
from the departure 210 to the difference of longitude-
310 on numbers-
Pros. VIII. Given one latitude, departure, and
difference of longitude, to find the other latitude,
courfe, and diftance. >
Example. A fhip from latitude 540 56' N, Ion-1
gitude i° 10'W, failed between the north and eaft,
till by obfervation fhe is found to be in longitude 50
26' E, and has made 220 miles of calling. Required
the latitude come to, courfe, and diftance run ?
Longitude left - - i° io' W
Longitude come to - 5 26 E
Difference of longitude - 6 36 = 396
By ConJlruBion.
Make BC (fig. 24,) equal to the departure 22p, •
and CD equal to the difference of longitude 396 :—•
then the middle latitude BCD being meafured, wiU
be found eqftal to 56° 15': hence the latitude come
to is 57'0 34', and difference of latitude 158°. Now-
make AB equal to 158, and join AC, which applied
to the fcale, will meafure 27 x miles. Alfo the courfe
BAG being meafured on chords will be found equal
540T'
By Calculation.
To find the middle latitude.
As the departure - 220 - 2.'34242
is to the difference of Ion-7 r n ^ r
\ 396 - 2.59769
6
656
NAVI
Middle to the fecant (if the middle 7 ,
' Li';Aude latitude ' - } 56 r5
G A T I O N.
fo is the fine of the courfe
Practice.
Double the middle latitude 112 30
Latitude left - 54 56
  *— 3ipts- JlTl XiS'
to the cofine ©f the middle 7 00 o, o ~,ailing' .
latitude j 48° 58' * 9 81727—v—^
half difference of latituda 2 42
Latitude come to
57 34
Difference of latitude - 2 38=158
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 158 - 2.19866
is to the departure - 220 - 2.34242
fo is radius - - io.coooo
Latitude failed from -
Latitude come to
to the tangent of the courfe 540 19'
To find the diflance.
As radius
is to the fecant of the courfe 540 19'
fo is the difference of latitude 158
•to the diftance
5 40
46 16
10.14376
IO.OOOCO
10.23410
2. 19866
2.43276
270.9
By InfpeBion.
As the difference of longitude and departure ex¬
ceed the limits of the tables, let therefore their halves
be taken ; thefe are 198 and 110 refpe&ively. Now
thefe are found to agree exaftly in the page marked
5 points at the bottom. Whence the middle latitude
is 56° 15', and difference of latitude 158 miles.
Again, the difference of latitude *58 and departure
220 will be found to agree nearly above 54° the
courfe, and the diftance on the fame line is 271
miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of longitude 396
■to the departure 220 on numbers, will reach from 90°
to 330 45 , the complement of the middle latitude on
fines; and hence- the difference of latitude is 158
miles. Now the extent from 158 to 220 on num¬
bers, will reach from 450 to 54°y on tangents; and
the extent from the complement of the courfe 35°x
to 9©0 on fines, will reach from the difference of la¬
titude 158 to the diftance 271 on numbers.
Pros. IX. Given the courfe and diftance failed,
and difference of longitude ; to find both latitudes.
Example. A fliip from a port in north latitude,
failed SE^S 438 miles, and differed her longitude 70
28'. Required the latitude failed from, and that
come to ?
By ConJlruBlon.
With the courfe and dillance conftruft the triangle
^la*e ABC (fig. 25.) and make DC equal to 448 the gi-
^ccxxxvii. yen difference of longitude. Now the middle lati¬
tude BCD will meafure 48° 58 , and the difference of
latitude AB 324 miles : hence the latitude left is 5 i0
40', and that come to 46° 16'.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - • 10 00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 3t pts. - 9 86979
To is the diftance - 438 - 2.64147
By InfpeBion.
To the courfe 37 points, and half the diftance 219
miles, the departure is 147.0, and difference of lati¬
tude 162.2 ; which doubled is 324.4. Again, to half
the difference of longitude 224 in a diftance column,
the difference of latitude is 149.9 ahove 480, and
146.9 over 490.
Now, as 30 : 29 : : ; 58'
Hence the middle latitude is 48° 58': the lati¬
tude failed from is therefore 510 40', and latitude
come to 46° 16 .
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 47 points, the com-
plement of the courfe on fine rhumbs, will reach from
the diftance 438 miles to the difference of latitude
3245 on numbers. And the extent from the diffe¬
rence of longitude 448, to the diftance 438 on num¬
bers, will reach from the courfe 420 11' to the com¬
plement of the middle latitude 410 2' on fines. Hence
the latitude left is 5 f0 40', and that come to 46° 16'.
Pros. X Given the courfe, difference of latitude,
and difference of longitude ; to find both latitudes and
diftance.
Example. From a port in fouth latitude a fhip
failed SW7W, and has made 690 miles of difference
of latitude, and 20° 38' of difference of longitude.—
Required both latitudes and diftance ?
By ConJlruBion.
ConftruA the triangle ABC (fig. 26.) with the gi¬
ven courfe and difference of latitude, and make CD
equal to 1228 the difference of longitude. Then AC
applied to the fcale will meafure 1088 miles ; and the
middle latitude BCD will meafure 46° 47'. Hence
the latitude left is 410 2, and the latitude come to
52° 32'*
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius - * lo.tjoooo
is to the fecant of the courfe 47 pts. 10.19764
fo is the difference of latitude 690 - 2.83885
to the diftance - _ 1088
To find the middle latitude.
As the difference of longitude 1228
is to the diftance - 1088
fo is the fine of the courfe 47 pts.
to the cofine of the middle ) ,
latitude - ^44
Half difference of latitude - 5 45
3-°364-9
3.08920
3.03649
9.88819
983.548
to the difference of latitude 324.5
To find the middle latitude.
As the difference of longitude 448 - 2.65128
is to the diftance - 438 - 2.64147
*;n- 258.
 Latitude failed from - 412
2.51126 Latitude come to - 52 32
By InfpeBion.
T© the courfe 47 points, and one-fourth of the gi¬
ven difference of latitude 172.5 the departure k
5 -3‘°~
Practice. N A V I G
Middle 21o.2) and dlftance 272, which multiplied by 4 is
latitude lp88.
^ Sulin?. ^ J40W the middle latitude anfwering to the difference
of longitude 122^, and departure 840.8, or their ali¬
quot parts, will be found as in laft problem to be 46°
A']'. Hence the latitudes are 410 2' and 52° 32' re-
fpe&ively.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the complement of the courfe 3I-
points to 8 points on fine rhumbs, will reach from
the difference of latitude 690*10 the dittance 1088
miles on numbers; and the extent from the difference
of longitude 1228 to the diflance 1088 on numbers,
will reach from the courfe 50° 38' to the complement
of the-middle latitude 430 13' on the line of fines.—
Hence both latitudes are found as before.
Prob. XI. Given the diftance failed, difference of
latitude, and difference of longitude, to find both la¬
titudes and courfe. -
Example. In north latitude; a fhip failed 458
miles on a direft courfe between the north and weft;
and then was found to have differed her latitude 296
miles, and longitude 70 17'. Required both latitudes
and courfe ?
By Conjlruftlon.
With the diftance and difference ef latitude cor>-
cxxxvu ^rU(^ t^ie triangle ABC (fig. 27.) and make CD
Sccxxxvn. equaj tQ ^ difference of longitude 437 ; then the
courfe BAG will be found to meafure 490 44b and
the middle latitude BCD 36° 54' : Hence the lati¬
tude left is 340 26', and that come to 390 22'.
A T I O N, 697
By Gunter's Scale. Middle
The extent from the diftance 458 to the difference ^a-i'nu<:e
of latitude 296 on numbers, will reach from qo° to, '* ^ ^
400 16'the complement of the courfe on fines ; and
the extent from the difference of longitude 437 to
the diftance 458 on numbers, will reach from the
courfe 49" 44', to the complement of the middle la¬
titude 530 6' on the line of fines ; Hence the lati¬
tudes are 340 26' and 390 rtfpeftively.
Prob. XII. Given the diftance, middle latitude,
and difference of longitude, to find both latitudes and
courfe.
Example. The diftance is 384 miles between the
fouth and eaft, the middle latitude 540 6, and diffe¬
rence of longitude 6° 36'. Required both latitude
and courfe ?
By ConflruHion.
With the middle latitude 541’ 6', and difference of
longitude 396, coilftruft the triangle BCD (fig. 28.) plate
and make AC equal to the given diftance 384 miles. cccxxxv?:2‘
Then the courfe BAG will be found to meafure 37°"
12’, andAhe difference of latitude AB 306 miles —
Hence the latitude failed from is ^6<-' 39', and that
come to 510 33'.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - 384 - 2.58433,
is to the difference of Ion-") ,
gitude - . i 39 ' 2‘59769
fo is the cofine of middleT o
latitude - 1 54° 6' - 9 768.7
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 296
is to the diftance - 458
£0 is radius
to the fecant of the courfe 490 44'
To find the middle latitude.
As the difference of longitude 437
is to the diftance - 458
fo is the fine of the courfe 49 44
to the cofine of the middle 7 *-
latitude - 3 54 '
Half difference of latitude 2 28
Latitude left - - 3+2^5
Latitude come to - 39 22
By InfpeSion.
To half the diftance 229 the difference of latitude is
150.2 at 49°, and 147.2 at 50®.
Then, as 3.0 : 2.2 : : 6©' : 44'
Therefore the courfe is 490 44'
Alfo the departure is 172.8 at 49°, and 175.4 at jo0*
Hence, as 3.0 : 2.2 : : 2.6 : 1.9
And 172.8-}- 1.9 = 174.7 = half the departure.
Now to half the difference of longitude 218.5 a
diftance column, the difference of latitude is 176.8 at
36°,;and 174.5 at 37°.
Then, as 2.3 : 2.1 : : 60' : 54'.
Hence the middle latitude 36° 54'; and therefore
the latitude failed from is 34° 26', and that come to
390 22'.
Vox.. XII. Part. IL
2.47129
2.66086
10.18957
2.64048
2.66086
9.88255
to the fine of the courfe 37 T 2 - 9-78 J53
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 370 12' - 9.90120
fo is the diftance - 384 - 2.58433
to the difference of latitude 305.9 - 2.48553 ,
Middle latitude - 540 6'
Half difference of latitude 2 33
Latitude failed from - 56 39 N-
Latitude come to - 51 33 N '
By InfpeQion.
To the middle latitude 540, and half the difference
of longitude 198 in a diftance column, the number in a
latitude column is 116.4. Now half the diftance 192
and 116.4 in a departure column, are found to agree
nearly under the courfe 370, and the correfponding'
difference of latitude 153; which doubled is 306.
miles. Hence the latitude left is 56° 39' N, and la¬
titude come to 510 33! N.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extehafro'm the diftance 384 to the difference
of longitude. ^96 on the fine of numbers, will reach
from 350 54', the complement of the middle latitude,
to 370 12', the courfe on the line of fines : And the
extent from 90° to 520 48' the complement ©f the
courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance 384 to
the difference of latitude 306 on numbers. Hence
the latitudes are known.
Prob. XIII. To determine the difference ©f lonn
gitude made good upon compound courfes, by middle
latitude failing.
4 T
698 N A V 1 G
Middle Rule I. With the feveral courfes and diftances
Latitude £n(1 t]ie difference of latitude and depatture made
Sa’^?' ■ good, and the fhip’s ptrfent latitude, as in traverfe
failing.
Now enter the traverfe table with the given middle
latitude, and the departure in a latitude column, the
correfponding diftance will be the difference of longi¬
tude, of the fartie name with the departure.
Example. A (hip from Cape Clear, in latitude
ci° x8' N, longitude 90 46' W, failed as foUoWs :—
SWiS 34 miles, W/^N 63 miles* NNW 48 miles, and
NE4-E 85 miles. Required the latitude and longi¬
tude come to ?
Latitude come to - 52 24N
Sum - - 103 42
Middle latitude - 51 51
Now, to middle latitude 510 51 or 520, and de¬
parture 44.5 in a latitude column, the diffe¬
rence of longitude is 72 in a diftance column.
Longitude, of Cape Clear - 9 46 W
Difference of longitude - I 12 W
Longitude come to - io°58'W
A T T O N. Pra£Hce,
The above method is that always pra&ifed to find Middle
the difference of longitude made good in the courfe
of a day’s run ; and will, no doubt, give the difference , ‘~’ailing- .
of longitude tolerably exadt in any probable run a *
(hip may make in that time, efpecially near the equa-
■tor. But in a high latitude, when the diftances are
confiderable, this method is not to be depended on.—
To illuftrate this, let a fhip be fuppofed to fail from
latitude 570 N, as follows: E 240 miles, N 24 , miles,
W 240 miles, and S 240 miles i then by the above
method, the fhip will be come to the fame place fhe
left. It will, however, appear evident from the fol¬
lowing confi.ieration* that this is by no means the
cafe ; for let two fhips, from latitude 610 N, and di-
ftant 240 miles, fail ureftly fouth till they are in la¬
titude ^7° N ; now their diftance being computed
by Problem IV. of Parallel Sailing, will be 269.6
miles ; and, therefore, if the fhip failed as above, fhc
will be 29.6 miles weft of the place failed from ; and
the error on longitude will be equal to 240 X fecant
6i° —fecant 570 — 29 6 X fecant 57°.
Theorems might be inveftigated for computing the
errors to which the above method is liable. Thefe
correftions may, however, be avoided, by ufing the
following method.
Rule II. Complete the traverfe table as before,
to which annex five columns : the firft column is to
contain the feveral latitudes the fhip is in at the end
of each courfe and diftance 5 the fecond, the fums of
each following pair of latitude 5 the third, half the
fums, or middle latitudes 5 and the fourth and fifth
columns are to contain the differences of longitude.
Now find the difference of longitude anfwering ta
each middle latitude and its correfponding departure,
and put them in the eaft or weft difference of longi¬
tude columns, according to the name of the departure.
Then the difference of the fums of the eaft and weft
columns will be the difference of longitude made good,
of the fame name with the greater.
Ex. A fhip from Halliford in Iceland, in lat. 64° 30' N, long. 270 1W, failed as follows : SSW 46 miles,
SW 61 miles, S3W 59 miles, SE£E 86 miles, S/XEiE 76 miles. Required the lat. and long, come to i
Traverse Table.
SSW
SW
SiW
S6E
SE3|E
42.5
43-i
57-9
47.8
72.7
17.6
43-i
” 5
264.0 93.5
By Rule I.
Latitude Halliford
Difference of latitude
Latitude in - -
Sum
Middle latitude
Now, to middle lat. 62 18, and departure
21.3, the difference of long, is 46 E.
Longitude Halliford - 27 15W
Longitude in - - 16 29
The Error of comm, method, in this Ex. is 12.
Longitude Table.
Succcflive
64° 30'
63 48
126 53
125 12
I23 26
I 2 I 25
Middle
640 9
63 27
62 36
6l 43
60 43
Difference of longitude
Longitude Halliford
Longitude in
150.9
45 o
40.4
96.4
2J.O
Chaf.
Pra&Ice-. NAVIGATI ON. 699
Mercaror’s That is, the difference of longitude is equal to the Mercator’#
^ Sailing. ^ Chap. VI. 0/ Mercator's Sailing. meridional difference of latitude multiplied by the tan- Sai*ing‘ f
gent of the courfe, and divided by the radius '_'
It was obferved in Middle Latitude Sailing, that the This equation anfwers to a right-angled re&ilineal
difference of longitude majle upon an oblique rhumb triangle, having an angle equal to the courfe ; the ad-
could not be exa&ly determined by ufing the middle jacent fide equal to the meridional difference of lati-
latitude. In Mercator’s fatlisg, the difference of Ion- tude, and the oppofite fide the difference of longitude,
gitude is veryeafily foupd, and the feveral problems of This triangle is therefore fimilar to a triangle con-
failing refoived with the utmoft accuracy, by the af- ftru&ed, with the courfe and difference of latitude,
fiftance of Mercator’s chart or equivalent tables. according to the principles of plane failing, and the
In Mercator’s chart the meridians are ftraight lines homologous fides will be proportional. Hence if, in piate
parallel to each other ; and the degrees of latitude, fig. 29. the angle A reprefents the courfe AB thecccmvus
which at the equator are equal to thofe of longitude, difference of latitude, and if AD be made equal to the
cncreafe with the diftance of the parallel from the meridional difference of latitude; then DE, drawn per-
equator. The parts of the meridian thus encreafed are pendicular to AD, meeting the diftance produced to
called meridional parts. A table of thefe parts was firft E, will be the difference of longitude,
conftrufted by Mr Edward Wright, by the continual It is fcarce neceffary toobferve, that the meridional
addition of the fecants of each minute of latitude. difference of latitude is found by the fame rules as the
For by parallel failing, proper difference of latitude ; that is, if the given la-
R :cof of lat. :: part of equat.: fimilar part of parallel, titudes be of the fame name, the difference of the cor-
And becaufe the equator and meridian on the globe refponding meridional parts will be the meridional dif¬
are equal, therefore, ference of latitude ; but if the latitudes are of a con-
R : cof. lat.:: part of meridian : fimilar part of parallel, trary denomination, the fum of thefe parts will b« the
Or fee. lat.: R-:: part of merid.: fimilar part of parallel, meridional difference of latitude.
fecant latitude
R
’part of meridian,-part of parallel.
But in Mercator’s chart the parallels of latitude are
equal, and radius is a conftant quantity. If therefore
the latitude be affumed fucceffively equal, to 1', 2', 3',
&c. and the correfponding parts of the enlarged me¬
ridian be reprefented by a, b, c, &c. ; then,
fecant 1' fecant 2' fecant V
part of men a-part of men b part of mer. c. See
Hence fecant 1' : part of mer. a : : fecant 2' :part of
mer. b :: fecant-3': part of mer. e, &c.
Therefore by 12th V. Euclid,
Secant 1': part of mer. a :: fecant i' -f fecant 2' + ft-
cant 3', &c.r parts of mer. a+3-f-r, &c.
That is, the meridional parts of any given latitude
is equal to the fum of the fecants of the minutes in :
that latitude(D).
Since CD : LK.:: R: fecant LD, fig. 15.
Andria the triangle CED,
ED : CD : : R : tangent CED ;
Therefore,ED : LK :: Rz: fecant LDXtangent CED
Hence LK = Ep * fee. LD XJyg. CED =
ED X fee. LD ^ tang.. CED,
But E-D X fee. LD |# ^ eniargeg portion of the
meridian anfwering to ED* Now the fum of all the
EDXfecantLD
Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
places, to find the courft aad diftance between them.
Example Required the courft and diftance be¬
tween Cape Ftnifterre, in latitude 42°52'N, longi¬
tude 9<> 17'W, and Port Praya in the ifland of St
Jago, in latitude I4°54'N, and longitude 230 29'WJ
Lat. Cape Finifterre 420 52'
Latitude Port Praya 14 54
Mer. parts 2852
Mer. parts 904
Difference of lat. = 27 58 Mer. diff. lat. 1948
167,8 ;
Longitude Cape Finifterre
Longitude Port Praya
17' W
29 W
quantities -
— correfponding to the fum
Diff. longitude -- 14 12 = 852.
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the ftraight line AD (fig. 29.) to repreftnt
the. meridian of Cape Finifterre, upon which lay off
AB, /iD equal to 1678 and 1948, the proper and
msridional differences of latitude ; from D draw DE
perpendicular to AD, and equal to the difference of
longitude 852 join AE, and draw BC parallel to DE;
then the diftance AC will meafure 1831 miles, and
the courft BAG 230 37'.
By Calculation.
To find the courft.
As the meridian difference of lat. 1948 3-28959 .
is to the difference of longitude 852 2.93044
fo i's radius - - - 10.00000
of all the ED’s contained in AS'will be the meridional
parts anfwering to the difference of latitude AS; and
MN is the fum of all. the correfponding portions of
the equator LK.
CFD
Whence MN = mer. diff. of lat.. X tangent ———
iv.
to the tangent of the courft 230 3 7
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the ftcant of the courft, 23° 37'/
fo is the difference of latitude J678
to the diftance - 1831
4 T 2
9.64085 ,
10.00000
jo. 03 798
3-22479
3.26277
JBy
(d) This is not ftri&ly true ; for inftead of taking the fum of the fecants of every minute in the diftance
of : the given parallel from the equator, the fum of the fecants of every point of latitude fhould be taken.
703
NAVIGATION, PradHee.
Mercator's )$y Jnfpt&’on.
. Sa‘lin>i' j -As the meridian difference of latitude and difference
v",'1 of longitude are too large to be found in the tables, le^
the tenth of each be taken ; thefe arc 194.8 and 85.2
refpe&ively. Now thefe are found to agree neareft
tinder 24"; and to 167.8, one-tenth of the proper dif.
ference of latitude, the dilfance is about 183 miles,
which multiplied by to is 1830 miles.
By Gunter*s Scale.
The extent T948, the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, to 852, the difference of longitude on the line
of numbers, will reach from 450 to 23Q 57', the eourfe
®n the line of tangents. And the extent from 66° 23',
the complement of the courfe to 90° on fines, will
reach from 1678, the proper difference of latitude, to
1831, the diftance on the line of numbers.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and diftance failed
from a phee whofe fituaHon is known, to find the la¬
titude and longitude of the place come to.
Example. A (hip from Cape Hiulopen in Virginia,
in latitude 38047'N, longitude 73°4'W, failed 267
miles NEiN. .Required the fhip’s prefent place?
By Ganflru&lon.
With the courfe and diflance faded conftrudf the
«ecxxxvni triangle ABC (fig. 30.)} and the difference of latitude
AB being meafured, is 222 miles: hence the latitude
come to is 420 20' N, and the meridional difference of
latitude 293. Make AD equal 10^2935 and draw
DE perpendicular to AD, and meeting AC produced
in E : then the difference of longitude DE being ap-
.plied to the fcale of equal parts will mcafure 196; the
-longitude come to is therefore 71^48^.
By Calculation,
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - 10 00000
ns to the cofinex>f the courfe, 3 points 9*91985
fo is the diftance - 267 2.42651
to the difference of latitude 222 2.34636
Lat. Cape Hinlopen 2=38® 47'N. Mer. parts 2528
Difference of lat. 3 42 N,
Eatitude come to 42 29 N. Mer. parts 2821
Meridional difference of lat. 293
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe, 3 points 9.82489
f’o is the mer. diff. oflatitude 293 2.46687
to the difference of longitude
Eongitude Cape Hinlopen
Difference of longitude
195.8 2.29176
75° 4'W
- 3 16E
Longitude come to - 71 48 W
By Infpcfiion.
To the courfe 3 points, and diftance 267 miles, the
Sifference of latitude is 222 miles : hence the latitude
in, is 42°29', and the meridional difference of latitude
293‘ Again, to courfe 3 points, and 146.5 half the
nier. difference oflatitude, the departure is 97.9, which
doubled is 195.8, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to the complement of the
scurfe 5 points on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
diftance 267 to the difference of latitude ?22 on num-Mercator**
hers ; and the extent from 4 points to t points on Sailitlg’ _
tangent rhumbs, will reach from the meridional dif.
ferenee of latitude 293 to the difference of longitude
196 on numbers.
Prob. III. Given the latitudes and bearing of two
places, to find their d.iftance and difference of longi¬
tude.
Example. A fhip from Port Canfo in Nova Scotia,
in latitude 45°2o'N, longitude 6o°55 W, failed SE
4 fc>, by obfervation is found to be in latitude 41° 14'
N- Required the diftance failed, anti longitude come
to?
Lat. Port Canfo - 45'’20'N Mcr. parts - 3058
Lat. in by obfervation 41 14 N Mer. parts - 272®
Difference of lat. - 46 Mer. diff. lat. 33a
246
By Conftrudlon.
Make AB (fig- 31.) equal to 246, and AD equa
to 338 ; draw AE, making an angle with AD equal
to 3^ points, and draw BC, DE perpendicular to AD.
Now AC being applied to the feale, wid meafure 332,
and DE 306.
By Calculation,
_ To find the diftance.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe, 3! points 10.13021.
fo is the difference of latitude 246 2'39c93
to the diftance - 333 2.521x4
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius » - xo.ooooo
is to the tangent of the courfe, 31 points 9 95729
fo is the raer. dtff. oflatitude 338 2.52892
to the difference of longitude 306.3 3.48'62l
Longitude Port Canfo - 6o°55'W
Difference of longitude - 5 6 E
Longitude in - - 55 49 W
By In/peEtion.
Under the courfe 3) points, and oppofite to half
the difference of latitude, 123 in a latitude column ia
166 in a diftance column, which doubled is 332 the
diftance ; and oppofite to 169, half the meridional dif¬
ference of latitude in a latitude column, is 153 in a
departure column, which doubled is 306, the differeace
of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the complement of the courfe 4J
points to 8 points on fine shumbs, will reach from the
difference of latitude 246 m. to the diftance 332 on
numbers ; and the extent from 4 points, to the courfe
31 points on tangent rhumbs, will reach from the me¬
ridional difference of latitude 338 to the difference of
longitude 306 on numbers.
Prob. IV. Given the latitude and longitude of the
place failed from, the courfe, and departure; to find
the diftance, and the latitude and longitude of the
place come to.
Example. A fhip failed from Sallee in latitude
33058' N, longitude 6° 20' W, the correfted courfe
was NW£W v W, and departure 420 miles. Required
7 ^
pities* N A V I G
rcator’s the diflance tun, and the latitude and longitude come
ailing, to?
By Cmjlru&ion.
With the courfeand depafture conftruft the triangle
Plate - ABC (fig. 32 ); now AC and AB being meafured,
|P*xyJI1 will be found equal to 476 and 224 refpeftively :
hence the latitude come to is 3 7° 42' N,, and meridional
difference of latitude 276. Make AD equal to 276 ;
and draw D£ perpendicular thereto, meeting the di.
fiance produced in £ ; then DE applied to the fcale
will be found to meafure 516'. The longitude in
therefore is i4056'W.
By Calculation,
To find the diftance.
As radius - - ‘ - ib.ooooo
is to thecofecant of the courie, 54 pts 10.05457
fo is the departure - - 420 2.62325'
2.67782
10.00006
9 72796
2.62325
to the difference of latitude - 224.5 2 35121
Lat. of Sallee 33°58'N Mer. parts 2169
DifF. of iat. 3 44 N
to the diftance * - 476.3
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius
Is to the co-tangent of the courfe, 54 pts
<b is the departure - 420
Latitude in
37 42 N Mer. parts 2445
Mer. difference of latitude 276
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
h to the tangent of the courfe 54 pts 10.27204
fo is the mcr. diff. of latitude 276 2.44091
to the difference of longitude
Longitude of Sallee
Difference of longitude
516.3 2.71295
- 6° 20' W
8 36 W
Longitude in - - 14 56 W
By InfpeBion.
Above 5| points the courfe, and oppofite to 210
liaif the departure, are 238 and 112 ; which doubled,
we have 476 and 224, the diftance and difference of
latitude refpe&ively. And to the fame courfe, and
oppofite to 138, half the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, in a latitude column, is 358 in a departure co¬
lumn ; which being doubled is 5x6, the difference of
^longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 54 points, the courfe on fine
thumbs, to'the departure 420 on numbers, will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to the diftance 476 on
numbers; and from the complement of the courfe 24
point* on fine rhumbs to the difference of latitude 224
on number*.
Again, the extent from difference of latitude 224
to the meridional difference of latitude 276 on num¬
bers, will reach from the departure 420 to the diffe¬
rence of longitude 516 on the fame line.
Pro®. V. Given the latitude* of two places, and
their diftance, to find the courfe and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A Ihip from St Mary’s, in latitude $7'
A T X O N. pi
N, longitude g’ W, failed on a direft courfe be-MeK-ator’s
tween tbe north and eaft 1162 miles, and is then by Sail,nK-
Obfervation in latitude 490 57' N. Required the coutfe
and longitude cothe to?
Lat. of St Mary’s - 36°57'N Mer. parts - 347b
Lat. come to - 49 57 N Mer. parts 2389
Difference of lat.
13
Mer. diff. lat. 108 *
780
By Conjlruttion.
Make AB (fig. 33.) equal to 780, and AD equal
to xc8i; draw BC, DE perpendicular to AD; make
AC equal to 1162 m. and through AC draw ACE.
Then the courfe or angle A being meafured, will be
found equal to ^ 50', and the difference of longitude
DE will be 1194.
By Calculation-.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - ii62 3.06521
is to the difference of latitude, 780 2.89209
fo is radius - ' - *> 10.00000
to the cofine of the courfe -
To find the difference
As radius
is to the tangent of the courfe,
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude
47» 50' 9.82688
of longitude.
10.00000
47° 50' 10.04302
1081 3-°338$
to the difference of longitude
Longitude of St Mary’s
Difference of longitude
1194 307685
250 9/ W
I9 54 E
Longitude in - 5 I5 W
By InfpeBion.
Becaufe the diftance and difference of latitude ex¬
ceed the limits of the table, take the tenth of eachf
thefe are 116.2 and 78.0; Now thefe are found to a-
gree neareft above 44 points, which is therefore the
courfe ; and to this courfe, and oppofite to 108.1, one
tenth of the meridional difference of latitude, in a la¬
titude column, is 119.3 in a departure column, which
multiplied by 10 is x 193, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter’s Scale,
The extent from the diftance 1162 m. to the diffe-
ence of latitude 780 m. on numbers, will reach from
90° to 420 10' in the line of fines. And the extent 45 ^
to the courfe 47° 50 on the line of tangents, will reach
from the meridional difference of latitude 1081 to the
difference of longitude 1194 on numbers.
PitOB. VI. Given the latitudes of two places, and
the departure; to find the courfe, diftance, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. From Aberdeen, in latitude 57* 9' N,
longitude 20 9' W. a fhip failed between the fouth and
eaft till her departure is 146 miles, and latitude come
to 530 32' N. Required the courfe and diftance run,
and longitude come to?
Latitude Aberdeen 57^ 9 N- mer. parts 4199
Latitude come to 53 32 N. mer. parts 38x7
Difference of latitude 3 37 nier. diff. of lat. 382
2x7.
702
Mercator’* By Con/lruaion.
. Sai^lflS- , With the difference of latitude 217m. and departure
Plate 146m. conftruA the triangle ABC(fig.34.), make AD
cccjxxviii equal to 382, draw DE parallel to BC, and produce
AC to E : Then the courfe BAG will meafure 33’
56', the ditlance AC 261, and the difference of longi¬
tude DE 257.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
NAVIGATION.
Prafticij
By Calculation.
To find the courfe
As the diftance 252
is to the departure 173
fo is radius
2.40140
2.23805
IO.OOOCO
As the difference of latitude
is to the departure
fo is radius
146
2.33646
2.16435
10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe 330 56^ 9.82789
Tb find the diflance.
As radius ... io.oooqo
is to the fecant of the courfe 33° 56' 10.08109 Latitude come to
fo is the difference of latitude 217 2.33646
to the fine of the courfe 430 21' 9.83665
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 430 21' 9.86x64,
fo is the diftance 252 2.40140.
to the difference of latitude 183.2 2.26304
Latitude of Naples 400 5 x N. Mer. parts 2690
Difference of latitude 3 3 S
,37 48 N. Mer. parts 2453.
to the diftance 261.5 2.41755
VFo find the difference of longitude.
As the difference of latitude 217 2.33646
is to the mer. diff. of latitude 382 2.58206
fo is the departure 146 2.16435
Meridional difference of latitude 237
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius xo.oocoo
is,to the tangent of the courfe 43° 21' 9.97497
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude 237 2.37475.
to the difference of longitude 257
Longitude of Aberdeen
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to - - 2 8 E
By Injpe8i»n.
The difference of latitude 217, and departure 146,
are found to agree neareft under 34°, and the corre-
fponding diftance is 262 miles. To-the fame courfe,.
and oppofite to 190.7, the neareft to 191 half the me¬
ridional diftcrenceoflatitude, isi2 8.6 in a departure co¬
lumn, which doubled is 257, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of latitude 217, to
the departure 146 on numbers, will reach from 450
to about 340, the courfe on the line of tangents* and
the fame extent will reach from the meridional differ¬
ence of latitude 382 to 257, the difference of longi¬
tude on numbers.—Again, the extent from the courfe
340 to 93 on fines, will reach from the departure 146
to the diftance 261 on numbers.
Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de¬
parture ; to find the other latitude, courfe, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. A ftiip from Naples, in latitude 40o'5i'
N, longitude 140 '4' E, failed 252 miles on a dire ft
courfe between the fouth and weft, and made 173
miles of welling. Required the courfe made good,
and the latitude and longitude come to?
By ConJlrvSlion.
With the diftance and departure make the triangle
ABC (fig. 35.) as formerly.—Now the courfe BAG
being meafured by means of a line of chords will be
found equal to 43® 21', and the difference of latitude
applied to the fcale of equal parts will meafure 183':
hence the latitude come to is 37° 48' N, and meri¬
dional difference of latitude 237—Make AD equal
to 237> and complete the figure, and the difference of
longitude will meafure 224': hence the longitude, jn is
io® 30' E. 8
to. the difference of longitude
Longitude of Naples
Difference of longitude
223.7 2.34972.
14® 14' E
3 44 W
Longitude in - - 1030E.
By InfpeBion.
Under 43° and oppotite to the diftance 252 m.
the departure is 171.8, and under 44°, and oppofite
to the fame diftance, the departure is 175.0.
Then, as 3.2 : 1.2 :: 60' : 22'
Hence the courfe is 43® 22'
Again, under 43®. and oppafite to 118.5, the
meridional difference of latitude in a latitude column,
is 110.5 in a departure, column j alfo under 44° and .
oppafite to 118.5 is 114.4.
Then as 3.2 : 1.2 :: 3.9 : 1.5
And 110.5+1.5 = .112, which doubled is 224, the
difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 252 on numbers to
90° on fines will reach from the departure 173 on
numbers to the courfe 43on fines; and the fame ex¬
tent that will reach from the complement of the courfe
46°y on fines will reach to the difference of latitude
on numbers.-r-Again, the extent from 45® to 43°-j- on
tangents will reach from the meridional difference of
latitude 23.7 to the difference of longitude 224 on num¬
bers.
Prob. VIII. Given one latitude, courfe and differ¬
ence of longitude ; to find the other latitude and dif¬
tance.
Example. A flop from Tercera, in latitude 38°
45' N, longitude 270 6' W, failed on a direft courfe,
which, when correfted, was N 32® E, and is found
by obfervation to be in longitude 18® 24' W. Re¬
quired the latitude come to, and diftance failed ?
Longitude of Tercera 27° 6' W
Longitude in 18 24 W
Difference of longitude
8 42 = 522.
raft ice.
sr’g By ConJlruBion.
, *> Make the right angled triangle ADE (fig. 36.) ha-
fcjafs ving the angle A equal to the courfe 3 a0, and the fide
jcxxxviijDE equal to the difference of longitude 522 i then
AD wnl meafure 835, which added to the meridional
parts of the latitude left, will give thefe of the latitude
come to 48° 46 ; hence the difference of latitude is
601: make AB equal thereto, to which let BC be
drawn perpendicular ; then AC applied to the fcale
will meafure 708 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the meridional difference of latitude.
As radius xo.ooooo
is to the co-tangent of the courfe 3 2° o' 10.20421
fo is the difference of longitude 5 22 2.71767
to the mer. difference oflatitude ‘8392 2.92188
Latitude of Tercera 38° 45'N Mer parts 2526
Mer.diff.oflat. 835
Latitude come to 48 46 N. Mer. parts 3361
JDifference of latitude 10 1 = 601 miles.
To find the diftance.
As radius 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 320 ©' 10.07158
fo is the difference onatttude 6oi 2.77887
NAVIGATION.
ESE
SEA/S
EijN
SEijE^E
E
20.3
61.5
103.9
'3-3
49.0
41.t
66.7
41.5
84.0
282.3
S 72°E 297 90.6 = i° 3
Latitude left, 49 10 S m.pt. 3397
Latitude come to
Mer, difference of latitude
50 41 S m.pt. 3539
Now to courfe 720, .and oppofite to 71, half the
mer. difference of latitude in a latitude column, is
2 18.7 in a departure column, which doubled is 437,
the difference of longitude.
Longitude of Port St Julian 68° 44' W
Difference of longitude 7 17 E
Longitude come to
61 27 W
to the diftance 7©'7'7 2-85045
By InfpeB'ion.
To courfe 32°, and oppofite to 130.5, one fourth of
the given difference of latitude in a departure column,
the difference of latitude is 298.8, which multiplied
ty 4 is 835, the meridional difference of latitude; hence
the latitude in is 48° 46' N, and difference oflatitude
601.
Again, to the fame courfe, and oppofite to 290, one
third of the difference of latitude, the diftance is 236,
which multiplied by 3 gives 708 miles.
By Gunter’s Scale.
The extent from the courfe 3 2° to 450 on tangents
will reach from the difference of longitude 522 to the
meridional difference of latitude 835 on numbers.—
And the extent from the complement of the courfe
c8° to 90° on fines, will reach from the difference of
latitude 601 to the diftance 708 miles on ftumbefs.
Prob IX. To find the difference of longitude made
good upon compound courfes.
Rule. With the feveral Courfes and diftances, com¬
plete the TraVerfe Table, and find the difference oflati¬
tude, departure, and courfe made good, and the lati¬
tude Come to as in Traverfe Sailing. Find alfo 'the me¬
ridional difference of latitude.
Now, to the courfe and meridional difference of la¬
titude in a latitude column, the correfppnding depar¬
ture will be the difference of longitude, which applied
to the longitude left will give the ftiip’s prefeht lon¬
gitude-
Example. A fliip'from Port "St Julian, in latitude
4,9° ic' S, longitude 68° 44' W, failed as follows,
ESE 53 miles,SE^S 74miles,EbyN 68 m. SE5EJE
47 miles, and E 84 miles. Required the fhip’s pre-
fe-nt place ?
Although the above method is that ufually employ¬
ed at fea to find the difference of longitude, yet as it
has been already obferved,it is not to be depended on,
efpecially in high latitudes ; in which cafe the follow¬
ing method becomes neceffary.
Rule If. Complete the Traverfe Table as before, to
which annex five columns. Now with the latitude left,
and the feveral differences of latitude, find the fuc-
cefiive latitudes, which are to be placed in the firft of
the annexed columns ; in the fecond the meridional
parts correfponding to each latitude is to be put; and
in the third, the meridional differences of latitude.
Then to eac h courfe, and correfponding meridional
difference of latitude, find the difference of longitude,
which place in the fourth or fifth columns, according
as the courfe iseafterly or wefterly; and the difference
between the fums of thefe columns will be the diffe¬
rence of longitude made good upon the whole of the
lame name with the greater.
Remarks.
1. When the courfe is north -or Couth, there is no
difference of longitude.
2. When the courfe is call or weft the difference
of longitude cannot be found by Mercator’s Sailing ; in
this cafe the following rule is to be Ufed
To the neareft degree to the given latitude taken
as a courfe, find the diftance anfwering. to the depar¬
ture in a latitude column; this diftance will be the difv
ference of longitude.
. Example I. Fpur d^ysago we took our departure
from Faro head, in latitude 58° 40 N. and longitude
40 50'W, and fmee have failed as follows: NW 32,
miles, W 69 miles, WNW 93 miles, W5S 77 miles,
SW 58 miles, and WJS 49 miles—Required our pre-
fent latitude and longitude ?
NAVIGATION.
Pfa£l>
Traverle Table.
Courfes. Dift.
NW
W
WNW
w/,s
sw
W1S
bifF.of Lat.’ ; Departui
35-6
58.2
5*o
41.0
7.2
63.2
58.2
W
22.6
69.0
85-9
75-5
41.0
48.5
342*5
58° 40'
59 3
59 3
59 S8
59 23
58 42
58 35
Longitude Table.
4370
4415
4415
4484
4454
4374
436i
69
3°
80
*3
Longitude of Faro-head
Difference of longitude
i Longitude in
11
45-0
l34*0
166.5
15I*o
80.0
88.0
664.5
4*50'v'r'
4 W.
T5 54 W.
Example II. A (hip from latitude 78° 15' N, lon¬
gitude 28° '4' E. failed the following courfes and di¬
stances. The latitude come to is requred, and the lon¬
gitude, by both methods : the bearing and diftane?
of Hacluit’s head-land, in latitude 79° 55' N. longi-
tude 11° 55 E. is alfo required ?
Traverfe i able.
WNW
SW
NW^W
N5E
NW|N
S3E|E
Diff. of Latitude | Departure.
58-9 —
— 1 <57 9
56.4
107*9
45.0
268.2
141*3
21.5
26.3
47.8
126.9
By Rule ift.
Latitude left 78° 15' N. Mer. pts
Diff. of latitude 2 7 N.
142.3
67.9
68.8
Longitude Table.
312.4
47.8
264.6
= 7817
Lat. cometo 80 22 N. Mer. pts = 8504
687
2.10346
2.83696
2.42256
Meridional diff. of latitude
A s d i fference of lat. 12 6.9
is to mer. diff. of latit. 687
fo is the departure 264.6
to difference of longit. 1432
Longitude left
3.15606
230 5 2' W.
28 14 E.
Longitude in 4 22 E.
The error of this method, in the prefent example,
is therefore i0 23  
78015'
79 14
78 6
79 2
80 50
81 35
80 22
7817
8120
7774
8056
8676
89-'O
8504
303
346
282
620
294
466
Diff. of Longitude.
123.6
166.7
290.3
731-7
3460
343-6
1639.3
290.3
1349.0
28° 14' E.
22 29 W.
Longitude left
Difference of longitude *■
Longitude in - - 5 45 E.
To find the bearing and diftance of Haciuit’s
headland.
Lat.H H. = 79°55'N. M.P.8347 Lon. n^'E.
Lat. fhip. =80 22 N. M.P. 8504 Lon. 5 4? E.
Diff. lat. o 27 M.D.JL 157 D.L.6
.370
Now to 78.5 half the meridional difference of
latitude, and 185.0 half the difference of longi¬
tude, the courfe 67°, and oppofite to the diffe¬
rence of latitude 27, the diftance is 69 miles.—
Hence Hacluit's bead-land bears S 67° £. diftant
69 miles.
K°?38.
Cha?j
11 -il
^radltcc.
navigation.
lJ reivdvin^ Ch.4P.VII. Containing the Method of refohing
';! the Pro- the feveral Problems of Mercator's Sailing, by
• MhrcatoiV ^Jfftance °f a Table of Logarithmic Tan-
I Sailinjr. gents-
Prob. The conftant quantity 12.633114(0)1310
the difference or fum of the logarithmic tangents of half
the co-latitudes of two places, according as thefe lati¬
tudes are of the fame, or a contrary denomination ; as
Ij the tangent of the courfe is to the difference of lon¬
gitude.
Demonjl. Let CABP, Plate CCCXXXVIII. fig 3 7.
be a fedlion of one fourth of the earth in the plane of
the meridian ; and let AC be the radius of the equa¬
tor, and B any given place whofe latitude is therefore
AB. Draw BD perpendicular to AC, and BE pa¬
rallel to it; and let B£ be a very fmall portion of the
meridian, as one minute. Now put CA = r, DB
7°5
Then, x : r :: bn : Hx bn
4 J
= y, BE = x, and z =: meridional parts anfwering to Method of
the arch AB. refolvlng
the Pro¬
blems of
Mercator’s
but, x : r : : X bn : — X In correfpon-
x xi r >r~“
dent portion of the enlarged meridian. Now thefe
being put into fluxions, we have,
a = — X y —
Of which the fluent is,
- 2-3-oi585 X /
2
= 2.302585 x r x:
X log.
rjry
r—y
-
Now as the meridional parts are expreffed in parts
of the equator, this equation becomes,
2.302585 X iSo^x^Q'
3-l5'49
/r+y ;
~y
- x iog- 7;
t,og. yfs = log.
And the tang. (45—JAB) c= ^  
tan. (45+4AB)
X log. 4/u
.0001263314
= ^g.
V tan.
iog- y~~
v r—r.
4-AB)
(45“vAB j
Therefore z = —
(45 + t
log, tang, half co-latitude.
.00012633114, See.
.00012633114
_ log- tang. (45 + 4 AB)
.00012633114. —
Ilence the meridional pa$ts anfwenng to any gi- by the tangent of the courfe, is equal to the difference
ven latitude, is found by dividing the difference be- of longitude. Hence the propolition is manifeft.
tween the log. of the radius and the log. tangent of half This method (hall be illnftrsted with examples per-
tbe complement of latitude, by the conftant quantity formed by calculation : the other methods of folutioii
.00012633114, &c.; and the meridional difference are purpofely omitted
of latitude is obtained by dividing the difference or Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
fum of the logarithmic tangents of half the co-lati- places, to find the courfe and diftance between them,
tildes, according as they are of the fame or a contrary Example. Requited the bearing and diftance of
same, by the above quantity. Oftend, in lat. 510 14' N.; long. 2^56 E from Aber-
And the meridional difference of latitude multiplied deen, in latitude 5 70 9 N. and longitude 20 9 W. ?
Long. Aberdeen,
Long. Oftend,
Diff. longitude
9 W.
56 E.
5 5“3°5
To find the couife.
As the difference of the log. tang. 7682
is to the con!)ant logarithm
lo is the diff. of longitude 305
to the tangent of the courfe 26° 38'
To find the diftance.
As radius
is to the fecant of the courfe
fo is the difference of latitude
to the dift nee
Vol. XII. Part II.
Lat 570
Lat. 5 1
3-8f!547
11.10151
2.4843°
9 comp, 32° yr half 16° 254. tangent 946951
14 comp. 38 46 halt 19 23 tangent 9.54633
55 = 355 Difference 7682
Prob. II. Given the latitudes and bearing of two
places ; to find the diftance and differ, of longitude.
Example. Two days ago we were in latitude
23 18 b. longitude 160 54'W.; and having run upon
a dueft courfe, which cori-eded was S. 53OE. we were
found to be in latitude 26° 26'S. Required the dif¬
tance failed, and longitude come to ?
comp. 66°41' half 33°2i,tang. 9 81831
comp. 63 3 , half 31 47 fang. 9,79^3
Difference 2618
To
7 4-1” .hlit the !nd“! but if ,hc ,o 6 °r
?o6 N A V I - G
Method o£ To find the diftance.
thSio? Ag radius .
blemsof is to the fecant of the courfe 530
Mercator’sfo is the difference of latitude 188
Sailing.
to the diflance 312.4
To find the difference of longitude.
As the conflant logarithm - 1 f. 10151
is to the tangent oflhe courfe 530 10.12289!
fo is the diff. of log. tangents 2618 3.41797
10.00000
10.22054
2.2741 6
2.49470
to the difference of longitude 275 ''2 43935
Longitude left, - - - 160 54 W.
Difference of longitude, • 4 35E.
Longitude in . ‘ 12 19W.
Pros. III. Given the latitudes of two places, and
the diflance between them ; to find the courfe and dif¬
ference of longitude.
Example. A {hip from latitude 480 10'N. longi¬
tude 150 1 2 W failed on a direft courfe between the
fouth and weft 284 miles, and is then in latitude
440 52'N. Required the courfe and longitude come
to ?
l.at. left, 4S0 : o' N. comp. 4:05O, half iO° tang. 9.58229
Lat in, 44 52 N. comp. 45 8 half 22 34 tang. 9.6j 863
Difife ence 3636
2-453 3 2
2.29666
10.00000
DifF.oflat. 3 iScrinSm.
To find the courfe.
As the diflance - 284
is to the difference of latitude 198
fo is radius - - -
to the cofine of the courfe 45° 48' 9.84334
To find the difference of longitude.
As the conflant logarithm - 11.10151
is to the tangent of the courfe 45°48' 10.01213
fo is the diff. of logarithm tangents 3636 3.36062
2.27124
T5° t2W.
3 7W.
186.7
to the difference of longitude
Longitude left,
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to - - 1819 W.
Prob- IV. Given both latitudes and ^departure, to
find the courfe, diflance, and difference of longitude.
Example. A {hip from latitude 180 24' S, longi¬
tude 30 25' E failed between the north and wefl upon
a direft courfe, till by obfervation (he is in latitude
J2°42'N. and has. made 970 miles of departure.—
Required the'courfe, diflance, and longitude come to ?
Lat. left, i8024'S. comp. 7i036'half 33® 48'cotan. 0.14193
l.at.cometo, 12 42 N. comp. 77 18 half 38 39, cotan. 0.09706
A T I O N. Fradlice,
To find the difference of longitude. Method of
As the conflant logarithm - - 11.10151 rte^°!p"®
is to the tangent of the courfe 270 28' 9.71586 blemsof'
fo is the fum of the log. tangents 23899 a.37838-Mercator’s
Vrr Sailing.
30 25'E.
16 23W.
to the difference of longitude 983-4
Longitude left
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to - 12' 58 W.
Prob. V. Given one latitude courfe and diflance ;
to find the other latitude and difference of longitude.
Example. From Scarborough, in latitude 54° 20'
N. longitude 90 10'W. a fhip failed NE^E 2 to miles.
Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 43. points 9 77503
fo is the diflanc? - 210 2.32222
to, the difference of latitude
125
2.097AJ
Lat. left, 34° 20' N. comp. 35° 40'half 179 50'tang. 9.50746
Diff. ot lat. a 5 N.
Lat. in, 56 25- N. comp. 33 35 half. 16 474'an--9-479',’4
Difference 2781
To find the difference of longitude.
As the conflant logarithm - 11.10151
is to the tangent of the courfe 4! pts. 10.12980
fo is the difference oflog..tang. 2782 3.44436
to the difference of longitude 296.9 2.47265
Longitude of Scat borough - o 10W.
Difference of longitude - 4 57E.
Longitude come to, - - 4 47E,
Prob. VI. Given one latitude, courfe, and depar¬
ture, to find the other latitude, diftance, and diffe¬
rence of longitude..
Example. A fhip from latitude 320 58'N. longi¬
tude 16° 28'W. failed SE^S, and made 164 miles of
departure. Required the diftance run, and latitude
and longitude come to ?
To find the diftance.
As the fine of the courfe 34- pts. 9.8 236
is to radius - • - . 10.00000
fo is the departure - 164 2 21484
to the diftance - 258-5 2.41248
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 34- pts. 9.91417
is to radius - - 10.00000
fo is the departure 164 2-21484
Diff of lat
31
:i866
To find the courfr.
As the difference of latitude 1866
is to the departure - 970
fo is radius - - -
to the tangent of the courfe, 270 28'
To find the diftance.
As radius - ■
is to the fecant of the courfe
fo is the difference of latitude
Sum 0.23899 t0 [he difference 0f latitude 199.8 2.30067
2.27001 Lat. left, - 32°58'N. comp. 57° 2' half a8°3i'tang.9.73507
2.98677 Olff-oflat- ^ aoS
10.00000 Lat. come to, 29 38 J4. comp. 60 22 half 30 n tang. 9.76464
9.71586 Difference 2957
To find the difference of longitude.
10.00000 As the conftant logarithm - 11.10151
10.05194 is to the tangent of the courfe 3t pt®. 9.91417
3.27091 f0 is the difference of log. tangents 2957 3 47°85
192.1 2.2835*1
Longitude
2 70 28/
1866
21°3 3‘322^5 to-the difference of longitude
Practice.
Method ofLongitude left,
thfePro? Different:6 of longitude,
N A
V I G A T I O
i6° 28 W. Longitude left,
3 12 E. Longitude come to,
N.
620 16’W.
68 10 W,
Sailing. Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de-
13 16W. Difference of longitude,
To find the latitude come to.
J parture ; to find the other latitude, courfe, and diffe- As the tangent of the courfe
rence of longitude. is to the conflant logarithm,.
Example A fhip from Cape Voltas, in latitude fo is the difference of longitude
28° 55'S. longitude 150 53'E. failed 286 miles be¬
tween the fouth and weft, and made 238 miles of de- to the difference of log. tangent:
parture. Required the courfe, the latitude and Ion- Lat. left, i6°54'
gitude come to ?
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - 286
is to the departure - 238
fo is radius - -
to the fine of the coaffe 56° i<y
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius -
is to the cofine of the courfe 56° 19'
fo is the diftance - 286
9.82489J-
- 11.10151
354 2,54900
*93 3.82562
comp. 73° 6' half 36°33' tang. 9.87000
■Diff. log. tang. 6693
Lat. in, 23 8 64 32 26 tang. 0.80307
2.45637  
2.37658 Diff. of lat. 8 14 = 494^.
lo.ooooo To find the diftance.
  As radius - - - 10.00000
9.92021 is to the fecant of the courfe 3 points. 10.08015
fo is the difference of latitude 494 2-^93'73
to the difference of latitude
158.6
[0.00000
9-74398
2.45637
2.20035
to the diftance - 594 1 2.7738!?
Prob IX. Given one latitude, diftance, and diffe¬
rence of longitude, to find the courfe, and othei latitude.
Rule. To the arithmetical complement of the loga-
Lat.CapeVoltas, 28°55' S. comp.6i°s'half30°3 tang.9.77087 of thc diftauce» add the logarithm of the diffe-
Diff. of Lat. 2 39 S. rence of longitude in minutes, and the log. cofine of
  ^ the given latitude, the fum rejecting radius vdll be the
31 34 S. comp. 58 16 half 29 13 tan^.p.74762, J0g# fme 0f t]ie approximate courfe.
Difference 2325 To the Siven latltude talien as a courfe in the tra-
To find the difference of longitude. verfe table, and half the difference of longitude in a
Latitude in,
As the conftant logarithm
is to the tangent of the courfe 56s 19
fo isihe diff. of log. tangents 2325
to the difference of longitude 276.1
Longitude Cape Voltas,
Difference of longitude,
Longitude come to,
11.10151 diftance column, the correfponding departure will be
10.17620 ldle corredtion of the courfe, which is fubtrabfive
3.36642 ^ t^ie g‘ven latitude is the leaft of the two ; otherwife,
    additive.
2 4411 1 In Table A, under the complement of the courfe,
I5a 53'E. and oppofite to the firft corre&ion in the f^de co-
4 36 W. lumn, is the fecond correftion. In the fame table find
 — the number anfweriog to the courfe at the top, and dif-
\tx ti * , • 11 17E. ference of longitude in the fide column-; and fuch part
Prob. VIII. Given one latitude, courfe, and dif- of this number being taken as is found in table B op-
ference of longitude, to find the other latitude and pofite to the given latitude, will be the thfrd correc-
diftance. .... , . , tion. Now thefe two corredions, fubtra&ed from the
Example. A fhip from latitude 16° 54'N, longitude courfe correded by the firft corredtion, will give the
620 16.W. failed upon a NW. by N. courfe, until her true courfe.
longitude by obfervation is 68° lo'W. Required the Now the‘courfe and diftance being known, the dif-
diftance run, and latitude come to ? ference of latitude is found as formerly.
ArcT
Table A.
o°| 40° 508 6oq 70° 8op 90
Table B.
Lat.
10
20
3°
40
5°
60
70
8c,&c
B-+T
f+i
Example. From latitude 500 N, a fhip failed 290 Latitude
miles between the fouth and weft, and differed her Ion
gitude 50. Required the courfe, and latitude comp i-ni
5°°
.cofine 9.80807
Di
itude 50. Required the courfe, and latitude come to? Approximate courfe 41 41 fine
hftance - - 290. ar. co. log. 7.53760 To lat. 50°, and halfd'ift. long. 150, the i.ft 9 79
Dif. of longitude
290.
300
log. 2.47712 Corn in a dep. colutnn is 115
2 4U2
+ 1 55'
N A
r In table A to co. courfe 48°and i ft
°_55', the fccond corredtion is.
To courfe 41® and dtft. long 50, the-num- )
ber is ()', of which j- (Tab. B) being >■
taken gives * - - J
V I
•}
G
A T I O N.
fo is the diftance CH 15 miles
Pradlicc.
to the diftance FH - 26.4S - (.42*92
Example II. The diftance between the SE point
of the illand of Jerfey and the ifland of Brehaut is i 3
leagues : and the correct bearing and diftance of Cape
True courfe S. 43 33 W Frehel from the ifland of Brehaut is SE6E 26 miles.
To find the difference of latitude. It is alfo known that the SE point of Jerfey bears
As radius * - - 10.00000 NNE from Cape Frehel: from whence the diftance
is to the cofme of the courfe 430 33' 9.8^020 of thefe two is required, together with the bearing of
fo is the diftance - 290 2.46240 the faid point from the ifland of Brehaut ?
to the difference of latitude 210.2 2.3^260
Latitude left _ - - - 50° ‘ o' N
Difierence of latitude - - - 3 30 S
Latitude come to - - 46 30 N
It was intended in this place to have given rules,
to m^ke allowance for the fphercidal figure of the
earth : but as the ratio of the polar to the equatorial
femiaxis is not as yet determined with fufficient accu¬
racy, neither is it known if both hemifpheres be fimi-
lar figures; therefore thefe rples would be grounded
onaifumption only, and which might probably err more
from the truth than thefe adapted to the fpherical hy-
pothefis. This therefore i- fuppofed-to be a fufficient
apology for not inferting them.
Chap. VIII. Of Oblique Sailing.
Oblique failing is the application of oblique angled
plane triangles to the folutionof problems at fea. This
failing will be found particularly ufeful in going along
flrore, and in furveying coalts and harbours, fsfc.
Example I. At xih A.M. the Girdlenefs bore W
FJYV, and at 2h P. M. it bore NWW;' the courfe du¬
ring the interval S//W 5 knots an hour. Required the
diitanoe of the Ship from the Nefs at each ftation ?
By ConJlruBion.
cxxxviii Defcribe the circle NE.SW (fig. 38.) and draw the
diameters NS. EW. at right angles to each other .
from the centre C, which reprefents the firft ftation,
draw the WNW line CF : and from the fame point
draw CH, S4W, and equal to 15 miles the diftance
failed. —from FI draw FiF in a NWTN direction, and
the point F will reprefent the Girdlenefs. Now the
diftances CF, HF will meafure 19.1 and 26.5 miles
refpe&ivcly.
By Calculation.
In the triangle FCH are given the diftance CH 15
miles ; the angle FCH equal to 9 points, the interval
beteyeen the SAV and WNW points; and the angle
CHF equal to 4 points, being the fupplement of the
angle contained between the SiW and NW^N points;
hence CFH is 3 points; to find the diftances CF, FH.
To find the dillance CF.
As the fine of CFH 3 points 9-74474
is to the fine of CHF - 4 points - 9.84948
fo is the diftance CH • 15 miles - x.17609
to the diftance CF - 19.07 - 1.28083
To find the diftance FH.
As the fine of CFFI - 3 points - 9-74474
is to the fine of FCH - 9 points - 9’99‘57
By ConJlruBion.
Defcribe a circle, (fig. 39.) and draw two diameters
at right angles, the extremities of which will reprefent
the cardinal points, north being uppermoft.—Let the
centre B reprefent Brehaut, from which draw the
SE£E line BF equal to 26 miles, and the point F will
reprefent Cape Frehej, from which draw the NNE
line FI ; make BI equal to 39 miles: Then Ff appli¬
ed to the fcale will meafure 34! miles, and the inclina¬
tion of BI to the meridian will be found equal 1063°-}-.
By Calculation.
In the triangle BIF are given BI and BF equal to
39 miles, and 26. miles refpe&ively; and the angle
BFI equal to 7 points : to find the fide FI, and an¬
gle FBI.
To find the angle BIF.-
As the diftance BI
is to the diftance BF
fo is the fine of BFI
to the line of BIF
Sum
39
26
78° 45f
40 50
H9 35
1.59106
x.41497
9.99157
9.81548
Angle FBI
 EBF
60 25
33 45
Difference, or EBI - 26 40
BearingofJerfeyfromBrehautNbj 20 E
To .find the diftance FI.
As the fine of BFI 78° 45' - 9-99157
is to the fine of FBI 60 25 - 9-93934
fo is the diltance BI - 39 miles 1.59106
to the diftance FI - 34-58 - 1-53883
Example HI. At noon Dungenefs bore per com-
pafs NAV diftance 5 leagues ; and having run NWAV
7 knots an hour, at 5 P, M. we were up with Beachy-
head- Required the bearing and diftance of Beachy-
head from Dungenefs ?
By ConJlruBion.
Defcribe a circle (fig. 40) to reprefent the hori¬
zon ; from the centre C draw the NAV line CD
equal to 15 miles ; and the NVV3W line CB equal to
35 miles ; join DB, which applied to the fcale will
meafure about 264- miles; and the inclination of DB
to the meridian will be found equal to N 7904; W.
By Calculation.
In the triangle DBC arc given the diftances CD,
CB equal to 15 and 35 miles refpeftively ; and the
angle BCD equal to 4 points; to find the angles B and
D, and the diftance BD.
To
Fra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
OMque To fin^ the angles.
Sa'lin£~ Diflance CB = 35 fum of the ang. 16 points
CD = 15 angle C 4
Sum 50 angles B and D 12
Difference 20 half fum - 6 pt8. = 67°3o'
As the fum of the diilances 50 1.69897
is to their difference - - 20 1.30103
fo is the tangent of half fum angles 67 30 10.38378
to the tangent of half theirdifference 44 o 9.98484
Angle CDB
in 30
Supplement
Angle NCD
68 30
11 '15
Magnetic hearing - N 79 45 W. Or by
allowing 2| points of w efterly variation, the true bearing
of Beachy-head from Dungenefs will be W £ S nearly.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of CDB - iii°30' 9.96868
is to the fine of BCD - 45.0 9.■'14948
fo is the diffance BC - 35 1.54407
to the dillance BD - - 26.6 1.42487
Example IV. Running up Channel E/S />er com-
pafs at the rate of 5 knots an hour. At j ih A M.
the Eddiftone Hghd-honfe bore N/liJE and the Start
point NE/E^E ; and at 4 P. M. the Edciiftone bore
NWZN, and the Start N | E. Required the diftance
and bearing of the Start from the Eddiftone, the va¬
riation being points W ?
By ConJlruBion.
Plate Let the point C (fig 41) reprefent the firftftation,
«ccxxxvin.from which draw the N/E^E line CA, the NE/E^E
line CB, and the E/S line CD, which make equal to 25
miles, the diftance run in the elapfed time ; then from
D draw the NE/N line DA interfe&lng CA in A,
which reprefents the Eddiftone ; and from the fame
point draw the N|E line DB cutting CB in B, which
therefore reprefents the Start. Now the diftance AB
applie 1 to the fcale will meafure 22.9, and the bearing
per compafs BAF will meafure 7 3°y.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CAD are given CD equal to 25
miles, the angle CAD equal to 4^ points, the diftance
between N/E4E and NW/N; and the angle ADC
equal to 4 points, the diftance between the NW/N
and WZN points ; to find the diftance CA.
As the fine of CAD 4J points - 9.86979
is to the fine of CD A 4 points - 9.84948
fo is the diftance CD - 25 miles - 1.39794
to the diftance CA - 23.86 - 1-377^3
In the triangle BCD, are given the diftance CD 25
miles, the angle CBD 4^ points the interval between
NEZE4E and N4 E ; and CDB 7* points, the diftance
between W/N and N4E ; to find the diftance CD.
As the fine of CBD - points - 9.88819
is to the fine of CDB 7! points - 9.99947
fo is the diftance CD 25 miles - 1.39794
to the diftance CB - 32.3 - 1.50922
In the triangle CAB, the distances CA, CB,„ are
given, together with the included angle ACB, equal to
.4 points, the diftance between N/E-^E and NE/E^E ;
to find the angle CAB and diftance AB.
Diftance CB 32.3 Angle ACB = 450 o'
Diftance CA 2386 Sum of CAB and ABC 135 o
Sum - 56.16 Half . 67 30
Difference 8.44
As the fum of the diftances 56.16 - 1.74943
is to their difference - 8.44 - 0.92634
fo is the tangent of half 1 , „
fum angles - j 67 3° - '0.38278
to the tangent of half diff "I .
angles - j '9 5^ • 9 559%
Angle CAB - 87 26
Angle CAF - I4 4
Bearing per compafs - S 73 22EorESE-jrE;and
the variation 2-f points being allowed to the left of
ESEjE, gives E|N, the true bearing of the Start
from the Eddiftone.
To find the diftande.
As the fine of CAB - 87°'26' - 9-99956
is to the fine of ACB 45 o - 9.84948
fo is the diftance CB - 32-3 - 1.50922
to the diftance AB - 22.86 1-359,4
Example V. A fhip from a port in latitude 5-7°
9' N, longitude 2° 9' W, failed 82 miles on a direct
courfe, and fpoke a fhip that had run ico miles from
a port in latitude 56° 21 N, longitude 2° 50' W. 
Required the courfe of each fhip, and the latitude and
longitude come to ?
Lat. - 570 9 N Mer parts 4199 Lon. 2; 9'W
 56 21N 4112 — 2 50W
Diff. oflat. 48 Mer.diff.lat. 87 Diff.I0n.41
By Conjlruthon.
With the meridional difference of latitude, the dif¬
ference of longitude, and difference of latitude, con-
ftruft the triangles ADE,, ABC (fig. 42.) as in Mer¬
cator’s Sailing : then A will reprelent the northern-
moft, and C the fouthernmoft port. The diftance
AC applied to the fcale will meafure 53 miles,✓and
the bearing BCA will be 25^. From the points A
and C, with diftances equal to 82 and 10c miles re-
fpeftively, deferibe arches interfering each other in
M, which will therefore be the place of meeting.—.
Now the angle ABM, the fhip’s courfe from the
fouthernmoft port, will meafure N 8o°f E ; and the
other fhip’s courfe, or angle BAM, will be 67°-, or
ESE.- From M draw the parallel MNP, and* AN
will be the difference of latitude made by the one fhip,
and CP that by the other fhip : hence either of thefe
being meafured and applied to its correfpondent lati¬
tude, will give 56° 38', the latitude in. Make AF
equal to 57, the meridional difference of latitude be¬
tween the northernmoft port and latitude in : from F
draw EG perpendicular to AF, and produce AM to
G, then EG will be the difference oflongitude, which,
applied to the fcale will meafure 139 : hence the lon¬
gitude in, is o° 10' E.
By
709
Oblique
Sailing.
N A V I G
By Calculation.
In the triangles ADE', ABC, are given AD equal
J to 87, DE equal to 41, and AB equal to 48 ; to find
the angle BAC and diftance AC.
To find the bearing of the ports.
As the meridional diff. of lat. 87 - 193952
is to the diff. of long. - 41 - 1.61278
fo is radius ... ic.00000
to the tangent of the bearing 250 14' 9.67326
To find the difiance of the ports.
As radius . - - 10.00000
is,b““-oft,ie} I5°14' • 1004355
fo is the diff. of latitude 48 - 1.68124
to the diftance - 53-°6 ' I;72479
In the triangle AMC, the three fides are given to
find the angles.
To find the angle ACM.
AM
MC
AC
Sum
Half
Difference -
Angle ACM
Angle BAC
82
100
53.06
235.06
H7-53
35-53
54 58
25 14
ar. co. log.
ar. co. log.
log.
log.
Southernmoftj n8oi2E
imp s courie J
As Afcl
is to MC
fo is the fine of ACM
to the fine of MAC
Angle BAC
To find the angle MAC.
82
100
* 54 58
- 93 3
25 14
8.00000
8.27523
2.07015
j.55059
19.895^,7
9-9-1798
1.91381
2 00000
9.91319
9.99938
Northernmoft (hip’s j g 6 E> or ESEi
courfe - j
In the right-angled triangle AMN, given AM,
and the angle MAN, to find the differences oflati-
tude AN.
As radius
is to the cofine of 1
the courfe - 3
fo is the diftance
to the diff. of lat.
^Latitude of nor- 1
thernmoft port j
56 38
- 10.00000
9.57700
1.91381
- 1.49081
Mer. parts 4199
Mer. parts 4142
SI
Meridionaldifference of latitude
To fii^the difference of longitude EG.
As radius -■ - xo.ooooo
is to the tangent of the 1 , 0 /
£Ourfe - f 7 49
10.38960
A T I O N.
fo is the mer. diff. of lat.
to the diff. of long.
Longitude left
Difference of longitude
Longitude in
Practice.
57
139.8
2° 9'W
2 20 E
o 11
E
Chap. IX. 0/Wind-ward Sailing.
Windward failing is, when a (hip by reafon of a
contrary wind is obliged to fail on different tacks in
order to gain her intended port; and the objeft of
this failing is to find the proper courfe and diftance to
be run on each tack.
Example I. A ffiip is bound to a port 48 miles di-
redtly to the windward, the wind being SSW, which
it is intended to reach on two boards; and the (hip
can lie within 6 points of the wind. Required the
courft and diftance on each tack ?
By ConJlruSion.
Draw the SSW line CB (fig-43 ) equal to 48 ^
miles. Make the angles ACB, ABC, each equal to
6 points. Hence the firft courfe will be W, and the
fecond SE : alfo the diftance CA, or AB, applied to
the fcale will meafure 62^ miles, the diftance to be
failed on each board.
By Calculation.
From A draw AD perpendicular to BC ; then in
the triangle ADC are given CD, equal to 24 miles;
and the angle ACD, equal to 6 points, to find the
diftance AC.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of C - 6 points - 10.41716
fo is CD - 24 miles - 1.38021
to CA - 62.7 - 1-79737
Example II. The wind at NW, a (hip bound to
a port 64 miles to the windward, propofes to reach
it on three boards; two on the (larboard, and one on
the larboard tack, and each within 5 points of the wind.
Required the courfe and diftance on each tack?
By ConJlruQion.
Draw the NW line CA (fig. 44.) equal to 64 miles ;
.from C draw CB W5S, and from A draw AD paral¬
lel thereto, and in an oppofite direction ; bife6t AC
in E, and draw BED parallel to the N5E rhumb,
meeting CB, AD in the points B and D : then CB=
AD applied to the fcale will meafure 36! miles, and
BD = 2CB = 72-? nailes
By Calculation.
From B draw BF perpendicular to AC ; then in
the triangle BFC are given the angle BCF equal to
5 points, and CF equal to one fourth of CA = 16 m.
to find CB.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of BCF, - 5 points 10.25526
fo is CF - - 16 m. 1.20412
to CB - * 36.25 1-5593s
Example III. A (hip which can lie within 54points
of the wind, is bound to a port 36 miles to the wind¬
ward, the wind being NL5N, which it is intended to
reach
Practice. N A V I G
Windward reach on four hoards, the firft being on the larboard
Sailing, tack. Required the'courfe and diftance on each ?
, By Coiifiruclion.
Plate Draw the NEW line CA (fig. 45.) equal to 36
cccxxxvm. miles, and bife<ft it in B ; from C and B draw lines
parallel to the EyS rhumb ; and from A and B draw
lines parallel to the SSEyE point, meeting the former
in the points D and E. Now the diftances AD, BD,
BE, and CE, are equal; and any one of them applied
to the fcale will meafure 19.1 miles:
By Calculation.
From E draw EF perpendicular to AC; and in the
triangle CFE are given CF = 9 m. and the angle FCE
= 5-5- points, to find CE.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of FCE - 54. points 10.32661
* £0 is CF - 9 miles 0.95424
_ to the diftance CE - 19.1 miles 1.28085
Example IV. A {hip bound to a port bearing
NZ>W diftant 40 miles, with the wind at N^Et.E, in¬
tends to reach it on two boards Required the courfe
and diftance on each tack, the {hip lying within
points of the wind ?
By CortftruSion.
Draw the N£W line CA (fig. 46.) equal to 40
miles ; and becaufe the wind is N^E 4- E, and the
{hip can lie within 54 points of the wind, the
courfe on the larboard tack will be E£N, and on the
{larboard NW. Therefore, from the centre C draw
the EiNline CB, and from it draw the NW line AB,
meeting CB in B ; then CB and AB applied to the
fcale will meafure 26 7 and 48.1 m. refpedlively.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, given AC 0= 40 miles, and
the angles A, B, and C, equal to 3, 5, and 8 points
refpeftively, to find AB and BC.
To find the diitance CB.
As the fine of B - 5 points 9.91985
is to the fine of A - 3 points 9.74474
fo is the diftance C A - 40 miles 1.60206
A T I o N". 711
CB and AD be the diftances on the larboard tack, Windward
which applied to the fcale, each will be found to Sai|mg. ^
meafure 37.4; and the diftance on the {larboard tack "" v
BD will meafure 42.4 miles.
By Calculation.
The triangles CBE, EAD are equal and fimilar :
hence in the firft of thefe are given CE, equal to 27
miles, half the diftance between the fhip and port;
the angles C, B, and E, equal to 3, 4, and 9 points
refpedtively, to find CB and BE.
To find CB, the diftance on the larboard tack.
As the fine of B - - 4 points 9.84948
is to the fine of E - 9 points 9.99157
fo is the diftance CE - 27 miles 1.43136-
to the diftance BC - - 37*45 1*57345
To find BE half the diftance on the ftarboard tack.
As the fine of B - - 4 points 9.84948
is to the fine of C 3 points 9.74474
fo is the diftance CE - 27 miles 1.43136
to the diftance BE
1.32662
Whole diftance AC - 42.42
ExampleVI. A fhip plying to the windward, with
the v/ind at NNE, after failing 51 miles on each of
two tacks, found by obfervaticn to have made 36 miles
of difference of latitude. How near the wind did fhe
make her way good?
By ConJlruBion.
Make CA (fig. 48.) equal to 36 miles ; draw AB
perpendicular to GA, and. draw the NNE line CB,
meeting AB in B ; make CD, BD each equal to 51
miles ; and thefe being meafured, will be found equal
to 6 points.
By Calculation.
In the triangles CAB, BCD, are given AB equal to
3610. CD-2:BD=5i, and the angle ACB equal to 2
points, to find the angle BCD.
As the diftance CD - 51 1 •7°757
is to the diff. oflatitude CA - 18 1.25527
fo is the fecant of ACB - 2 points 10.03438
to the diftance CB - - 26.73
To find the diftance AB.
As the fine of B - 5 points
is to the fine of C, - 8 points
fo is the diftance CA - 40 miles
1.426^5
991985
10.00000
i.6©2c6
to the diftance AB - 4811 x.68221
Example V. A fhip clofe hauled within 5 points
of the wind, an! making one point oflee-way,is bound
to a port bearing SSW, diftant 54 miles, the wind
being SZ'E : it is intended to make the port at three
boards, the firft of which mull be on the larboard
tack in order to avoid a reef of rocks. Required the
courfe and diftance on each tack ?
By ConJlruSion.
Draw the .SSW line CA (fig. 47.) equal to 54 m.
and as the wind is S^E, and the fhip makes her courfe
good within 6 points of the wind, therefore the courfe
on the larboard tack will be SWAV, and on the ftar-
board E£S : hence from C draw the SW£W jine»CB,
and-from A draw AD parallel thereto ; bifedl CA in
E, and draw BED parallel to the E^S line; then will
to the cofine of BCD - 67°32r 9.58208
Example VII. A fhip that makes her way good
within 6f points of the wind, reaches her port on two
boards j the firft being on the larboard tack 25 miles,
and the other on the ftarboard tack 38 miles ; and the
difference of latitude is 21 miles north. Required the
bearing of the port, and dire&ion of the wind?
By ConJlruBion.
With the given <lifiance3 25 and 38 miles, and the
included angle equal to 16—2X61—$ points, eqnftrudl
the triangle BCD (fig. 49.); hence CB will be known.
Draw C A equal to 21 miles, the given difference of
latitude; from A draw AB perpendicular to CA, and
make CB 'equal to what it was before determined |
make DE = DC, and draw the line CE, which will
reprefent the diredlion of the wind, and the angle ACB
is the bearing of the port: now ACE will be found
equal to 52 -^ and ACB 180.
‘ By Calculation.
In the triangle BCD are given BC=2 5m. BD =
38 m. and the angle D=3 points, to find the angle
BCD, and diftance CB.
To
712
Windward To find the angle BCD.
. Sa!l‘ri^ D.'ftanee BD = 38 Angle BDC
N A V I G A T
Sum - 63
Difference • 13
As the fum of the fides
is to the difference of the fides
fo is the tang, of half fum angles 730
BCD+CBD 146
BCD4-CBD
 r =73
to the tang, of half diff. angles
Angle BCD
34 »3r
} .P Pradice
NWAV 2x m.les an hour-Required tbs courfe and Current
45' dutance made good ? sail;
f £ Conjlrudlon.
74 Draw' t,hc NNE-line CA (fig. 50). equal to 18x8 cccmxix
and from A draw AB parallel to the
1 -79934 5™™ rhu.m.b’ and e9ual to 18X24= 45 miles : now
’ - 394 BC being joined will be the diftance, and NCB the
courfe. The iirft of thefe will meafure 159 mik8>
and the fecond 6 23 . *
10.51806
9.83266
107 21
To find the diftance BC,
As the fine of BCD
is to the fine of BDC
fo is the diftanee BD
X0715 21'
33 4i
3*
9.97978
9-74474
*•57978
7?y Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, are given AC= 144 miles,
BCd CAB=* “
To find the courfe made good.
J-34474
to the diftance BC - - 22.'2
To find the angle ACB, the bearing of the port”
As the diftance BC 2212 1.34474
is to the diftance AC , . it. 1.32222
fo is radius - - . 10.00000
to the cofine of ACB
Angle BCD
J44
. 45
99
B4-C
B+C
 ACD
 DCE
Direction of the wind
18D7' 997748
107 21
125 38
73 7
Did. AC
Dift. AB
Sum
Diff.
As the fum of the fides
is to the difference of the fides
fo is the tan. of half fum argles
to the tan. of half diff. angles
Angle ACB
Angle ACM
=9pts= 101° 15'
189
99
39 224
78 45
.39 224
2.2764#
1.99563
9.91417
23 'Si 9-63334
16 7
22 30
N
Courfe made good
To find the diftance.
As the fine of ACB 16'
is to the fine of C AB
fo is the diftance AB
6 23 E
7
lot 15
45
9-44341
9.99157
1.65321
to the diftance CB
31 E
Chap X. Of Current Sailing.
The computations in the preceding chapters have
been performed upon the affumption that the water has
ho motion. This may no doubt anfwer tolerably well
in thofe places where the ebbings and flowings are regu¬
lar, as then the effedf of the tide will be nearly coun¬
terbalanced. But in places where there is a conftant
current or fetting of the fea towards the fame point,
an allowance for th^change of the fhip’s place arifing
therefrom muft be made : And the method of revi¬
ving thefe problems, in which the effect of a current,
or heave of the fea, is taken into confideration, is cal¬
led current failing.
_ In a calm, it is evident a fhip will be carried in the
direftion and with the velocity of the current. Hence,
:f a fhip fails in the direction of the current, her rate
will be augmented by the rate of the current; but in ..... . .   —
failing diredtly againft it, the diftance made good will ^ current;> which applied to the fcale will meafure
i’s rate a* gi- 2°-2’ and the anSle DAE will be its fetting, and will
17 rr a /, • ’*9 2.20137
Example if. A fhip from a port in latitude 42*
(52' N, failed S/AV4W 17 miles in 7 hours, in a cur¬
rent fetting between the north and weft ; and then the
fame port bore ENE, and the (hip’s latitude by ob-
fervation was 420 42' N. Required the fetting and
drift of'the current ?
By ConfruBion.
Draw the S5\V(Wline CA (fig. 51.) equal to 17
miles, and make CB equal to 10 miles, the difference
of latitude : through B draw the parallel of latitude
_BD, and draw the WSW line CD, interfeciing BD
in D : AD being j'oined, will reprefent the drift of
be equal to the difference between the fhip's rate as gi¬
ven by the log and that of the current. And the at>-
VILite motion of the fhip will he a head, if her rate
exceeds that of the current; but if lefs, the fhip will
make fternway. If the fhip’s couife be oblique to the
current, the diftance made good in a given time will
be Ve^j-efented by the third fide of a triangle, whereof .vv,„llv
the diftance given by the log, and the drift of the V is tlv diff. of lat. CB
current in the fame time, are the other fides ; and the
true courfe will be the angle contained between the
meridian and the line actually defcribed by the fhip.
Example I. A fhip failed NNE at the rate of 8
knots an hous> during 18 hours, in a current fettine
N0 238. S
be found equal to 72°.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CBD, given CB= 10 miles, and
the angle BCD = 6 points; to find the diftance CD.
As radius
the fecant of BCD - 6 points -
10 miles - 1.00000
0.00000
41710
to the diftance CD. - 26.13 - 1.41710
Again, in the triangle ACD are given the diftance
AC =17 miles, CD = 26.13, and the angle ACD 44
points j to find the remaining parts.
To
I
iraaice. N A V I G
urnent To find the fetting of the current.
[ailing- | Diflance DC=26'.t3 Angle ACD = 4tpoints.
^ ' Diftance AC=i7. o CAD-j-CDAn4-
Sum
43.13 CAD-f-CD\ 5|:=64'>4i'
A T I O N. 7JI3
Now, in the triangle CDB are given the difference Current
of latitude and departure ; to find the courfe and di- Sailing-
ftance. ——y—«•*
To find the courfe.
2+
1.63478
0.96047
9-65078
Plate
xeixxjx.
Difference 9.13 2
As the fum of the fides 43*13
is to the difference of thel
fid,-, - - I o-o
fo is the tang, of half fum 1 g 0 j'
angles - J 4 4
to the tang, of half difF.l
angles - J
Angle CAD -
AHgleCAE=ACB=i *pt.= i6 52
S etti ng of the c urren t E A D=71 55
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of CAD . 88° 47' - 9.99990
is to the fine of ACD 44 points 9.88819
fo is the diftance CD - 26.13 * 1.41710
to the drift of currt. AD 20.2 - *>3°539
20.2
Hence the hourly rate of the current is ~^~=z 2- 9 knots.
Example III. A fhip, from latitude 38° 20' N,
failed 24 hours in a current fetting NW3N, and by
account is in latitude 38° 42' N, having made 44
miles of calling; but the latitude by obfervation is
380 58' N. Required the courfe and diftance made
good, and the drift of the current ?
By ConjlruQion.
Make CE (fig. 52.) equal to 22 miles, the difference
of latitude by D, R, and EA=44 miles, the depar¬
ture, and join CA ; make CD = 3 8 miles, the diffe¬
rence of latitude by obfervation ; draw the parallel of
latitude DB, and from A draw the NW3N line AB,
interfefting DB in B, and AB will be the drift of
the current in 24 hours ; CB being joined, will be
the diftance made good, and the angle DCB the true
courfe. Now, AB and CB applied to the fcale, will
meafure 19.2 and 50.5 refpeftively ; and the angle
DCB will be 41 °4:'
By Calculation.
From B draw BF perpendicular to AE, then in
the triangle AFB are given BF=i6 miles, and the
angle ABF=3 points; to find AB and AF.
To find the drift of the current AB.
As radius
is to the fecant of ABF
fo is BF
3 points
16 miles
to the drift of the current A B 19.24
Hence the hourly rate -^=0.8.
To find AF.
As radius
is to the tangent of ABF - 3 points
fo is BF - - 16 -
to AF - - 10.69
Departure by account EA 44.
True departure EF=DB=:33.31
Vol. X1L Part II.
As the difference of latitude CD 38.
is to the departure DB - 33-31
fo is radius
1-57978
1.52257
10.00000
IO.OOOO0
10.08015
I.20412
1.28427
J 0.06000
9.82489
1.20412
x.02901
to the tangent of the courfe 41® 14' 9^94279
To find the diftance.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 41s 14' x0.12376
fo is the difference of latitude 38 1-5 79 7 8
to the diftance - - 50-53 ,-7°354
Example IV. In the Straits of Sunda, at 2
P. M. fleering SE5S at the rate of 5 knots an hour,
I paffed clofe by the SE of the fmall iflands off Hog
point. At 6, not having changed our courfe, came
to anchor on the Java fhore. Upon fetting the faid
ifland from this anchoring place, I find it bears due
north, its diftance by the chart being 22 miles. It
follows from hence, that our courfe has been affe&ed
by a current. Required its velocity and direction ?
By Conjirudion.
From A (fig. 53.) draw the SE£S line AB~2o#
which will reprefent the fhip’s apparent trail through
the water; draw AC equal to 22 miles fouth, and
C will be the fhip’s real place ; and BC being joined
will be the current’s drift in four hours ; which ap¬
plied to the fcale will meafure 12.3 : from A draw
AD parallel to BC, and the angle CAD will be the
direction of the current, and will be found to mea¬
fure 64°4-
By Calculation,
In the triangle ABC, given AB-20 m. ACr=22
m. and the included angle A0=3 points; to find the
remaining parts.
To find the fetting of the current.
Diftance AC = 22 m» Included angle = 3 points.
 AB = 20 B+C= 13
Sum - 42 B + C
Difference 2
As the fum of the fi les
is to the difference of ^
the fides
fo is the tangent of 1
half fum angles
42
-=64p=73-7x
1.62325
2 - 0.30103
73° 7 x * 10.51806
to the tangent of half 7
diff. angles j
!-5Ji
9.19584
Setting of the current S 64 12W, or SWAV^W.
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of ACB - 64° 12' - 9.95446
is to the fine of BAC 33 45 - 9.74474
fo is the diftance AB 20 - 1.30103
to the velocity of cur-
rt
and
} 12 34
•=3.1, its hourly rate.
1.09137
rent BC
2-34
4
Exampx.e V. Ap»P bound from Dover to Calais,
4 X lying
0.77815
o-39794
9.96562
7f4. N A V I G
Current lying 21 miles to the SEAE-yE, and the flood tide fet-
Suilin^. t;ng NEyE 2'r miles an hour. Required the courfe
' <he muft fteer, and the diftance run by the log at 6
knots an hour to reach her port ?
By ConJlrutTton.
In the pofition of the SE£E4E rhumb, draw DC
Plate ~n miles (fig. 54 ) 5 draw DE NEiE^2(- miles;
cccxxxix. £rom e with 6 miles cut DC in F ; <Jraw DB paral¬
lel to EF, meeting CB drawn parallel to DE : then
the diftance DB applied to the fcale will meafure
19.4, and the courfe SDB will be SE4S.
By Calculation.
In the triangle DBF, given DErca^ miles, EF
=6 miles, and the angle EDF=6 points ; to find the
angle DFE = CBD.
As the hourly rate of failing 6 m.
is to the hourly rate of the > 2, m
current - S 1
fo is the fine of EDF=6l 67°2o'
points - y 6
to the fine of DFE - 22 38 9.58541
Angle - SDC=54 points =61 52
Courfe SDB • - 39 i4=:SEiS.
In the triangle DBC, given DC = 2i miles, the
angle BDC=DFE = 220 38', and the angle DCB=
DEF=6 points ; to find the diftance DB.
As the fine of DBC - 89° 52' - 9.99999
is to the fine of DCB - 67 30 - 9.96562
fo is the true diftance DC 21 m. 1.32222
to the diftance by the log DB. 19.4 m. >.28785
Example VI. A ftiip at fea in the night has fight
of Scilly light, bearing NE^N, diftant 4 leagues, it
being then flood tide, fetting ENE 2 miles an hour.
What courfe and diftance muft the Ihip fail to rpake
the Lizard, which bears from Scilly E4S, diftance 17
leagues ?
By Canjlrudion.
Draw the NE5N line AS=i2 miles (fig* 55-) >
hence S will reprefent Scilly ; from S draw SL^ji
miles, and parallel to the E4S rhumb, then L will
reprefent the Lizard ; draw LC parallel to the ENE
rhumb, and equal to 2 miles, and make CD=5
miles ; from A draw AB parallel to CD, meeting
LC produced in B ; then AB will be the diftance,
and the angle SAB the courfe : the firft of thefe ap¬
plied to the fcale will meafure 41.9 miles, and the
courfe will be S 88° E.
By Calculation.
In the triangle SAL are given the fides AS, SL
=12 and 51 miles refpe&ively, and the angle ASL
=2104 points; to find the other parts.
To find the angles.
Diftance SLr^ji ra. Angle ASL= io4 points.
 AS=i2m. SAL-f SLA = 54
SVim - 63 m. SAL 4-SLA
Difference 39 m.
A T I O N.
NAS=3 points 33 45
NAL * 85 2
LAE = FLA 4 58
FLB-^2 points 22 30
ALB—DLC - 17 32
To find the diflance AL.
As the fine of SAL - 51° 17'
is to the fine of ASL to4 points
fo is the diftance SL - 51 miles
to the diftance AL
PradUci
9.8922*
9-94543
1.70757
57.64 - 1-76077
Again, in the triangle DLC, are given the fide
DC—5 miles, the fhip’s run in an hour; LC—2
miles, the current s drift in the fame time; and the
angle DLC=: 170 32 ; to find the angle LDCzzLAB.
As the dift. - DC = 5 miles - 0.69897
is to the diftance LC=2miles - 0.30103
fo is the fine of DLCol^0 32' - 9.47894
to the fine of - LDC 6 55 - 9.08too.
Angle NAL - - 85 3
NAB - 91 57
Courfe - - S 88 3 E
In the triangle ABL, the,fide AL, together witb
the angles, are given, to find the diftance AB.
As the fine of ABL - i55°33' * 9.61689
is to the fine of ALB 17 32 - 9-47894t
fo is the diftance AL 57-64 1.76077
to the diftance AB
41.96
1.6228*:
As the fum of the fides
is to the diff. of the fides
£0 is the tangent of half 1
fum angles - \
to the tang, of half their 7
difference - \
Angle SAL . —
63
39
3°c56'
-= 2i=3°a56'
*•79934
1.59106
9.77763
9-5695S
Chap. XI. Injlruments propofed to folve the va¬
rious Problems in Sailing, independent of Calcu¬
lation.
Various methods, befide thofe already given, have
been propofed to fave the trouble of calculation.-—
One of thefe methods is by means of an inftrument
compofed of rulers, fo difpofed as to form a right-
angled triangle, having numbers in a regular progref-
fion marked on their fides. Thefe inftruments are
made of different materials, fuch as paper, wood, brafs,
&c. and are differently conftrufted, according to the
fancy of the inventor. Among inftruments of this
kind, that by John Cooke, Efq; feems to be the beft.
A number of other inftruments, very differently con-
ftru&ed, have been propofed for the fame purpofe ;
of thefe, however, we (hall only take notice of the
rectangular inftrument, by And. Mackay, A. M.
F. R. S. E.
I. 0/Cooke’s Triangular Injlrument.
Defcription. The ftock abed (fig. 56.) is a pa¬
rallelepiped ; The length from n to ^ is two feet, the
breadth from a to d two inches, and the depth is one
inch and a half. The ftock is perforated longitudi¬
nally, fo as to be capable of containing within it ef,
a cylindrical piece of wood one inch diameter ; g A ia
an aperture on the furface of the ftock about a quar¬
ter of an inch wide, which difclofes one-twelfth part
of
ra<5Uce. N A V I G
jftrumentj of tlie furface of the cylinder xoritained ; the edge dc
to folve is divided into twelve parts, each of thefe is fubdivided
ft;-1 into fix parts, and each of thefe again into ten parts.
Indepcn0’ The furface of the cylinder is divided longitudinally
nt of Cal-into twelve parts, and on each of them is engraved a
ulation, portion Qf a line of meridional parts 22 feet long,
’r"* , L which contains the meridional parts for every minute
from the equator as far towards the pole as navigation
is prafticable ; and the fmalleft divifion on it is not lets
' than of an inch. By rolling and Aiding this cy¬
linder, any part of any line on it may be brought into
any pofition which may be required : the box i is en-
grooved into the edge of the Hock a b, fo that it may
move freely from <j to £ ; a limb from this box extends
to k, which ferves to mark that degree of the perpen¬
dicular i l which is parallel to the centre of the femi-
circle m ; il is two feet long, and graduated on both
edges as the flock ; it is perpendicular to the flock,
and is fixed in the box /, by which it may be moved
from a to b ; opn is a femicircle of fix inches radius,
^engraved, as appears in the plate, which Aides freely
from c to d in a groove in the edge of the flock cd;
mq is the index moving on the centre m, the edge of
which marks the courfe on the femicircle; it is two
feet long, and divided into 72 parts; and thefe are
fubdivided in the fame manner as thofe on the flock
and perpendicular, to which they are equal; r is‘a ver¬
nier attached to the index to fliow minuteS; 5 is a ver¬
nier compofed of concentric femicircles, which Aides
along the edge q m, to the interfe&ion of the perpen¬
dicular and index, where it ferves as a vernier to both;
below * is a fmall piece of ivory, with a mark on it
to point out the degree of the line d c, which is per-
Pkte pendicularly under the centre of the femicircle. Fig,
tcxxxw. 57. ;s a view of the back part of the inftrument.
Ufe. The method of working every cafe which
Occurs in navigation, is to make the inftrument fimilar
to that ideal triangle which is compofed of the diffe¬
rence of latitude, departure, and dillance ; or, to that
compofed of the meridional difference of latitude, dif¬
ference of longitude, and enlarged diftance ; or, to that
compofed of the difference of longitude, departure,
and fine, of the middle latitude; which is done by
means of the data procured from the compafs, log-line,
and quadrant: whence it follows, from the nature of
Timilar triangles, or from the relation which exifts be¬
tween the fides of triangles and the fines of their op-
pofite angles, that the parts of the inllrument become
proportional to thofe which they reprefent; and will
afeertain the length of the lines, or the extent of the
angles fought, by its graduations.
In the praftice of this inftrument, a fmall fquare is
neceffary, in order to bring the centre of the fcmicircle
perpendicularly over the meridional degree correfpond-
ing to the latitude.
Plane Sailing.
Pros. I. The courfe and diftance failed being
given, to find the difference of latitude and departure.
Example. A ffiip from latitude 240 18' N failed
NW £ N 168 miles. Required the latitude come
to, and departure ?
Set the centre of the femieircle perpendicularly over
the given latitude 240 18', and the index to the
courfe 3 points; move the perpendicular until it cut
A T I G N. 715
the index at the given diftance i63 ; then at the Ir-ftruments
point of interfe&ion on the perpendicular is 93.3 miles, f“lve
the departure, and on the bafe, by the edge of the in rgaij*^s
box, is 26« 38', the latitude come to. indepen”’
Prob. II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find dent of Cal.
the diftance and departure. culation.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 430 50'N, ""~ v
that come to 47° 8' N, and the courfe NNE. Requi¬
red the diftance and departure ?
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
left 430 50', and the edge of the box to the latitude
come to 47'-’8'; fix the index at the given courfe 2
points : then at the point of interfe&ion of the index
and perpendicular is the diftance 214 miles on the
index, and the departure 82 miles on the perpendi¬
cular.
Prob. III. Given the courfe and departure, to find
the diftance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 32°38'N,
the courfe SW^S, and the departure 200 miles. Re¬
quired the diftance and latitude come to ?
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
left 3 20 38', fet the index to the given courfe 3 points,
and move the perpendicular till the given departure
200 cuts the index; at this point on the index is 360
miles, and the edge of the box will cut the latitude
come to 27° 39' N.
Prob. IV. Given the difference of latitude and
diftance, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. Let the latitude left be 17° 10'N, the
latitude come to 219 4cy N, and the diftance failed
on a direft courfe between the north and weft 300
miles. Required the courfe and departure ?
Move the femicircle and box to the given latitudes,
and the index until the diftance found thereon meets
the perpendicular, then at the point of contaft on the
perpendicular is 130.8, the departure, and on the femi¬
circle by the index is 25V 50', the courfe.
Prob. V. The diftance and departure given, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. The diftance failed i* 246 miles be¬
tween the fouth and eaft, the departure is 138 miles,
and the latitude left 51" 10' N. Required the courfe
and latitude come to i
Set the centre of the femicircle to 51° 10', the lati¬
tude failed from : find the diftance 246 on the index,
and the departure < 38 on the perpendicular; then
move both till thefe points meet, and the courfe 34° io'
will be found on the femicircle by the index, and the
latitude in, 47® 47' N, by the edge of the box.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe and diftance.
Example. A ftiip from latitude 43° io' N, fail¬
ed between the north and weft till Are is in latitude
470 14'N, and has made 170 miles of departure.
Required the courfe and diftance ?
Move the centre of the femicircle over 430 10', and
the edge of the box to 47° 14'; And the departure
on the perpendicular, and bring the edge of the index
thereto; now at the point of interfedion is the di•
fiance 297 4 miles on the index, and the courfe 34'*52'
on the femicircle.
Traverfe Sailing.
Example. A ftiip from latitude 46 48' N fail-
4X2 ed
yi6 N A V I G
Inftrumentfed SSW^W 24 miles, S£W 36 miles, and SjE 40
Problems m^e8, Required the latitude in, together with the
in Sailing, direft courfe and diflance ?
im!e; en- Set the femicircle to the latitude failed from 46° 48',
dent of Cal-an4 the index to the courfe SSW^W, mark the di-
culation. f|ance 24 on the index, and bring the perpendicular
to meet it ; then the index will cut the departure 1 1.3
on the perpendicular, and the perpendicular will cut.
the latitude 46° 27' N on the bafe. For the next
courfe nnd diftance, bring the femicircle to the lati¬
tude marked by the perpendicular, and lay down the
courfe SiW : if it be towards the firft meridian, move
the lalt marked departure until it meets the index,
jind the limb of the box will mark the prefent de¬
parture ; but if the courfe be from the firft meridian,
bring the laft departure 11.3 to the limb of the box,
.the index will mark the departure made good 18.3
on. the perpendicular, and the latitude arrived tt
450 52' will be marked on the bafe by the perpendi¬
cular: proceed in the fame manner with all the courfes
of which the traverfe confifts, then the difference of
latitude i° 36' will be intercepted between the lati¬
tude failed from 46'48', and the latitude come to
45° 12', laft marked by the perpendicular ; and alfo
the departure made good will be intercepted between
that point on the perpendicular where the firft de¬
parture commenced, and that where the laft termi¬
nated. Now, with the difference of latitude 1c 36’ and
the departure, the courfe will be S 8° 3c' W, and
diftance 97 miles, by laff problem in Plane Sailing.
Parallel Sailing.
Pros. I. The difference or longitude between two
places in one parallel of latitude given, to find the di¬
ftance between them.
Example. Let the common latitude be 490 30' N,
and the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required
the diftance ?
Set the index to 40° 30, the complement of the la¬
titude on the femicircle; mark the difference of lon¬
gitude in miles on the index; then move the perpen¬
dicular until it meets the termination of the difference
of longitude on the index, and the part of the per¬
pendicular intercepted between the limb of the box
and the point of interfeflion will be the diftance
1364 miles.
Pros 11. The diftance between two places in one
parallel of latitude given, to find the difterence of
longitude between them.
Example. Let the latitude of the given parallel
be 49c 30' N, the diftance failed 136.4 E. Required
the difference of longitude ?
Set the index to the ccmplerr.ent of the latitude
40° 30', and mark the diftance failed on the perpendi¬
cular; then move it until it meets the index, and the
point of interfeftion will fhow the difference of lon¬
gitude 210' or 3C,30/ on the index.
Prob. III. Given the diftance failed on a parallel,
and the difference of longitude, to find the latitude of
that parallel.
Example. The diftance failed due eaft is 1 36.4,
and the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required the
latitude of the parallel ?
. ** Find the difference of longitude 210 on the index,
and the diftance 136.4 on the perpendicular, and move
both until thefe numbers meet, and the complement
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
of the latitude 40* 30' will be fhown By the index on mftrumenti
the femicircle. ^ f“lve j
Mercator's and Middle Latitude Sailing. in^Jilwr I
Pros. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two indepen *!
places given, to find the diredb courfe and diftance '«it of Cat I
between them. cuiation. I
Example. Required the couife and diftance be- ' v ^k
tween two places whofe latitudes and longitudes are
50° 50' N, i9°o' W, and 34- 30' N, 15-- 30' W, re-
ipedlivcly ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the courfe.
Move the centre of the femicircle perpendicularly
over the meridional degree anfwcriug to latitude
50° 30' N, then move the box until the edge of the
perpendicular cuts the meiidional parts ot the other
latitude 340 3c' N, and move the index until it cuts
the difference of longitude 3° 30' on the perpendicu¬
lar, and the index will mark the courfe 30'' 10', or
NNE|E nearly, on the lemicircle.
To find the dittance.
Screw the index to this courfe, and move the
centre of the femicircle to the latitude 50° 30' N, and
the edge of the perpendicular to the latitude 540 30' N,
then the perpendicular will cut the diftance 234.7 oa
the index.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the departure.
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
50° 50', and the edge of the in Jex to the complement
of the middle latitude 37J 20' on the femicircle ; then
move the box until the edge of the perpendicular iu-
terfe&s the termination of the difference of longitude
210 miles on the index, which point of interfedion
will mark the departure 128 on the perpendicular.
To find the courfe and dittance.
Move the edge of the perpendicular to the other
latitude 54“ 30', and the index until it cuts the de¬
parture 128 on the perpendicular; then will the per¬
pendicular mark the diftance on the index 234.7 miles,
and the index will mark the courfe on the femicirclc
30° 10', or NNE|E nearly.
Prob II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftance and difference of longitude.
Example. A ihip from latitude 30“ 50'N, longi- |
tude 190 o' W, failed N 30° 10' E, until (he is ia
latitude 540 30' N. Required the diftance and diffe¬
rence of longitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the difference of longitude.
Move the box and femicircle as in the former, pro¬
blem to the meridional parts of the given latitudes,
then fet the index to the couife, and it will mark
the difference of longitude 3* 30' on the perpendicu¬
lar : Hence the longitude in is 13°.30' W.
To find the diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes, and put the index to the given courfe ; then
the perpendicular will cut the diftance 254.7 miles on
the index.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the diftance and departure.
Move the femicircle and perpendicular to the given
atitudes, and the index to the courfe; then the per¬
pendicular will (how the departure 128 miles, and
the
Plate OCCXXXIX.
/ T
'"V  —
7 \
|  
\
B
•*
PfadUce.
N A V I G
Inftrumentsthe index the diflance 254.7 m^es at the point of in¬
to folve terfe&ion.
inSailing, To find the difference of longitude,
indepen- Set the index to the complement of the middle la-
dent cf Cal titude on the femicircle, and move the box until the
culatiuH. termination of the departure on the perpendicular
meets the index, which will mark the difference of
longitude thereon 210 m. or 30 3c'.
Pros. III. Both latitudes and diftance given, to
find the courfe and diffeience of longitude.
Example, Fromlatitudejo0 50' N, longitude i9°o'
W, a ftu’p failed 254.7 miles between the north and eaft,
and by obfervation is in latitude 54^ 30' N. Required
the courfe and difference of longitude ?
• Mercator'i Hailing.
To find the couTe.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes, and the index until the difbmce failed
marked on it meets the perpendicular ; then the index
will mark the courfe N 30° 10' E on the femicircle.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, move the perpendi¬
cular and femicxrqle to the meridional parts of the given
- latitudes, and the fpace intercepted between the limb
of the box and the index will be the difference of
longitude 3^ 30',
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the departure and courfe.
Move the femicircle and perpendicular to the given
latitudes, and the index until the diftance failed on it
cuts the perpendicular ; then the perpendicular will
fhow the departure 1-28 miles, and $he femicircle the
courfe N 30° 10'E.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 370 20', the complement of the
middle latitude on the femicircle, and move the per¬
pendicular until the termination of the departure on it
cuts the index ; then the point of interfedlion will
mark the difference of longitude 2x0 miles on the in.-
dex.
Prob. IV. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude and longitude failed
from be 56^ 40' S and 28? 55' E refpe&ively, the
latitude come to 6x° 20' S, and departure 172 miles.
Required the courfe, diftance, and difference of lour
gitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To" find the courfe and diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes (h) ; then move the index till it meets the
extremity of the departure on the perpendicular ; the
diftance will be marked on the index 329, and the
courfe S.310 35' E or SSE^.E nearly on the femi¬
circle.
To find the difference of longitude.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the meri¬
dional parts of the given latitudes, and the index will
cut the difference of longitude on the perpendicular
5° 35'-
A T I O N.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and diftance are found as before.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 31°, the complement of the middle in(tepcn-~
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendiculard-»t of C.d-
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, andclliatlon' (
this point of. interfcdlion will mark the difference of " ^
longitude on the index 335 m. or 50 35'.
Prob. V. One latitude, courfe, and diftance given,
to find the difference of latitude and difference c; lon¬
gitude.
Example. Let the latitude left be 56° 40' S, lon¬
gitude 28° 55' E, the courfe 831° 35' E, and diftance
329 m. Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator s Sailing.
To find the latitude came to.
Set the femicircle to the latitude failed from, and
the index to the courfe, and bring the perpendicular
to the diftance, which at the fame time will mark the
latitude come to 6iv 20' S.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, and move the fem;-
circle and perpendicular to the meridional parts or
both latitudes ; then the index will cut the difference,
of longitude on the perpendicular 50 35'.
By Middle Latitude. Sailing.
The latitude arrived at is found as above.
To find the departure.
The femicircle and perpendicular being fft to both
latitudes, and the index to the courfe, it will fhow
the departure 172.7 on the perpendicular.
To find the difference uf longitude.
Set the index to 31®, the complement of the middle
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendicular
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, and
the divifion on the index at the point of interfe&ion
will be the difference of longitude 335.
Prob. VI. One latitude, courfe, and departure given,
to find the diftance, difference of latitude, and diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Example., Let the latitude failed from be 56° 40'
N, longitude 28® 35' W, the conrfe N 31® 35' W*.
and departure 172.7, Required the diftance, and the
latitude and longitude come to?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To.find the diftance and latitude come to. ,>,
Move the femicircle to the latitude left, and the in¬
dex to the courfe ; mark the depai ture on the perpen¬
dicular, and move it until the termination thereof
meets the index ; then the point of interfedlion will
fhow the diftance 329 miles on the index, and the per¬
pendicular will fhow the latitude, arrived at 6l° 20 N-
on the bafe.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index, and move the perpendicular and
femicircle to the meridional parts of both latitudes^
then the index will cut the difference of longitude 5®
35' omthe perpendicular.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diftance failed and latitude in as above,
4 and
77
inftruments-
(h) In fouthern latitudes, the end of the cylinder where the numbers begin muft be turned towards th;
north, pointed out by the femicircle j and in northern latitudes, it muft be reyerfed.
71'3 N A V I G
InhrmnentTind the difference oflongitude aa in Problem IV. by
^ ft’lva middle latitude failing.
inSailmg, Prob. VII. One latitude, the diftance failed, and
indfpen- departure given, to find the courfe, difference of lati-
•dent of Cal tude, and difference of longitude.
tnlation. Example. The latitude failed from is 48° 30' N,
* and longitude 140 40' W, the diftance ran is 345 miles
between the fouth and eaft, and the departure too
miles. Required the courfe, and the latitude and Ion-
gitudi come to ?
By Mercator's 'Sailing.
To find the courfe and latitude come to.
Move the femicircle to the latitude left, mark the
diftance on the index, and the departure on the per¬
pendicular, move both until thefe points meet; then
will the index fhow the courfe S 350 26' E on the femi¬
circle, and the latitude come to 430 49'on thebafe.
The difference of longitude is found as in the pre¬
ceding problem.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and latitude come to are found as above,
and the difference of longitude as in Problem IV. by
middle latitude failing.
Plate II. Of Mack ay’s ReEl angular Inflrument.
CCCXL. Defcription Fig. 58. is a reprefentation of this in-
flrument, of about one-third of the original fize.—
The length CA is divided into 100 equal parts, and
the breadth CR into 70 ; but in this plate every fe-
cond divifion only is marked, in order to avoid con-
fufion ; through thefe divifions parallels are drawn, ter¬
minating at the-oppofite fidesof the inftrument. Upon
the upper and right-hand fides are two fcales; the firft
contains the degrees of the quadrant, and the other
the points and quarters of the compafs. M is an in¬
dex moveable about the centre C, and divided in the
fame manner as the fides (r). Fig. 59. is a portion
of the enlarged meridian, fo conftrufled that the firft
degree is equal to three divifions on the inftrument;
and therefore, in the ufe of this line, each divifion on
the inrtrument is to be accounted 20 minutes. The
fize of the plate would not admit of the continuation
of the line.
Ufe. From a bare infpe&ion of this inftrument, it
is evident that any triangle whatever may be formed
on it- In applying it to nautical problems, the courfe
is to be found at top, or right-hand fide, in the co¬
lumn of degrees or points, according as it is expreffed ;
the diftance is to be found on the index, the difference
of latitude at either fide column, and the departure
.at the head or foot of the inftrument. The numbers
in thefe columns may reprefent miles, leagues, &c.;
but when ufed in conjunction with the enlarged meri¬
dional line, then 10 is to be accounted 100 miles, 20
is to be efteemed 200 miles, and fo on, each number
being increafed in a tenfold ratio; and the intermediate
numbers ate to be reckoned accordingly.
Plane Sailing.
P«ob. I. The courfe and diftance failed given, to
- find the difference of latitude and departure.
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
Example. Let the courfe be NE | N, diftance 44lnftrument*
miles. Required the difference of latitude and depar-t0 f?1.ve
, r Problems
tUrC' . . iu Sailing,
Move the index until the graduated edge be over 3^indepen-
points, an 1 find the given diftance 44 miles on the in-dent of Cal-
dex r this diftance will be found to cut the parallel of Clllari<)n- _
34 miles, the difference of latitude in the fide column, v
and that of 28 miles, the departure at the top,
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude, to find the diftance and departure.
Example. Required the diftance and departure an-
fwering to the courfe 28°, and difference of latitude
60 miles ?
Lay the index over the given courfe 28° ; find the
difference of latitude 60 miles in the fide column ; its
parallel will cut the index at 68 miles, the diftance and
the correfponding departure at the top is 32 miles.
Prob. III. The courfe and departure given, to find
the diftance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the courfe be SSW. and the depar¬
ture 36 miles. Required the diftance and difference of
latitude ?
Lay the index over two points ; find the departure
at the top, and its parallel will cut the index at 94.
miles the diftance, and the difference of latitude on
the fide column is 87 miles.
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference of la¬
titude, to find the couife an! departure.
Example. The diftance is 35 leagues, and the dif¬
ference of latitude 30 leagues. Required the courfe
and departure ?
Bring 35 leagues on the index to the parallel of 30
leagues in the fide ; then the departure at the top is
18 leagues and the courfe by the edge of the index
on the line of rhumbs is 2 ^ points.
Prob V. Given the diftance and departure, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the diftance be 58 miles, and the
departure 1 5 miles. Requited the courfe and diffe¬
rence of latitude l
Move the index until 58 found thereon cuts the pa¬
rallel of 15 from the top : this will be found to inter-
feft the parallel of 56 miles, the difference of latitude;
and the courfe by the edge of the ruler is 15®.
Prob. VI. The difference of latitude and departure
being given, to find the courfe and diftance.
Example. Let the difference of latitude be 30 miles,
the departure 28 miles. Required the courfe and di¬
ftance ?
Bring the index to the interfe&ion of the parallels
of 30 and 28 ; then the diftance on the index is 41
miles, and the courfe by its edge is 43©.
‘Traverfe Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure an-
fwering to each courfe and diftance by Problem I. of
Plane Sailing, and from thence find the difference of
latitude and departure made good ; with which find
the courfe and diftance by the laft problem.
An example is unneceffary.
Parallel
(0 In the original inftrument are two flips, divided like the fide and end of the inftrument. One of thefe
ilips is moveable in a diredtion parallel to the Cde of the inftrument, and the other parallel to the end.
N A V I G A T
Pra&tce.
Inftruments Parallel Sailing.
to folve Prob. I. Given the difference of longitude between
Problem* tw0 piaces on the fame parallel, to find the diltauce
m Sailing, r ,
indent h- between them.
dew of Cal- Example. Let the latitude of a parallel be 48%
culaciou. ancj thc difference of longitude between two places on
required their diftance l
Put the index to 48°, the given latitude, and find
the difference of longitude 220 on the, index, and the
correfponding parallel from the fide will be 147, the
diftance required.
Prob. II The latitude of a parallel, and ihe dif¬
tance between two places on that parallel, being given,
to find the difference of longitude between them.
Example. The latitude of a parallel is 56^, and
the diftance between two places on it 200 miles. Re¬
quired their difference of longitude ?
Put the index to the given latitude, and find the
diftance in The fide column, and the interfedlion of its
parallel with the index will give 358, the difference of
longitude fought.
Prob. III. Given the diftance and difference of
longitude between two places on the fame parallel, to
find the latitude of that parallel.
Example. The number of miles in a degree of
longitude is 46.5, Required the latitude of the pa¬
rallel ?
Bring 60 on the index to cut the parallel of 46.5
from the fide, then the edge of the index will give
39p 1T, the latitude required.
Middle Latitude and Mercator’s Sailing.
Prob. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
being given, to find the courfe and diftance between
‘ them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance be¬
tween Genoa, in latitude 44025'N, longitude>36 E,
and Palermo, in latitude ioN, longitude 13s
SSL.?
By Mercatar’s Sailing.
Take the interval between 38^ 10'and 44P 25' on
the enlarged meridian, which laid off from C upwards
will reach to 500 ; now find the difference of longitude
302 at the top, and bring the divided edge of the in¬
dex to the interfe&ion of the correfponding parallels,
and the index will ftiow the courfe 31“ 8' on the line
of degrees ; then find the difference of latitude 375
on the fide column, and its parallel will interfedt the
index at 438, the diftance.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Put the index to 4ip 18', the complement of the
middle latitude on degrees, and the difference of lon¬
gitude 302 on the index will interfeCb the parallel of
227, the departure, in the fide column. Now move
the index to the interfeaion of the parallels of 375
and 227, the firft being found in the fide column, and-,
the other at top or bottom ; then the dillance anfwer-
ing thereto on the index will b; 438, and the courfe
on the fcale of degrees is 41° to'.
Prob. II. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance,,
to find the other latitude and difference of longitude.
Example- Let the latitude and longitude failed
from be 39* 2 2'N. and 12° 8'W. refpedively, the
courfe NNW^-W. and diftance 500 miles. Required
the latitude and longitude come to ?
I O N,
By Mercator’s Sailing.
719
rnftrumeny
Put the index to the courfe 2^ points, and find the ^ 1“lve
diftance 500 miles thereon ; then the correfponding lt/saii n1S
difference of latitude will be 441 miles, and the depar- injepei^
ture 235^ miles: hence the latitude in is 46-43 N. Now dent of Cal-
take the interval between the latitudes of 39 22' and cuiatiou-
46' 43' oil the enlarged meridian, which laid off from C '
will reach to about 605, the parallel of which will inter-
fedb the vertical parallel of the difference of longitude
323 at the edge of the index: hence the longitude
ui is 170 3 x'W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure as be¬
fore, and hence the latitude in is 46^ 43' N, and the
middle latitude 43J 3'. Now put the index to 43^ 3',
and the horizontal parallel of the departure 2354. will
inteifed the index at 322, the difference of longitude.
Prob. HI. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftance and difference of longitude.
Example. The latitude iailed from is 22° ancE
longitude 420 40'W, the courfe is S£ by E, and lati¬
tude come to 26° S'S. Required the diftance failed^
and longitude in ?
By Mercator’s Sailing.
Bring the index to 5 points, the given courfe, and
the parallel of 194, the difference of latitude found in
the fide column will interfebt the index at 349, the
diftance; and it will cut the vertical parallel of 290,
the departure.
Take the interval between the given latitudes-
22° 54' and 26° 8' on the enlarged meridian ; lay oft
that extent from the centre on the ftde column, and
it will reach to 213: the parallel of this number will
interfedf the vertical parallel of 319, the difference of
longitude- Hence the longitude in is 3^° 2i'W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
With the given courfe and difference of latitude
find the diftance and departure as before ; then bring
the index to the middle latitude 240 3 r; find the de¬
parture 29a in the fide column, and-its parallel will
interfeft the index at 319, the difference of longitude.
Prob. IV. One latitude, courfe, and departure,
given, to find the other latitude, diftance, and diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Example. The latitude and longitude left are
20° 3P'N. and 490 17 W. refpedtively ; the coarfe is
NE l N, and departure 212 miles. Required the
latitude and longitude come to, and diftance failed ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Put the index to the given courfe 3^- points, and
the vertical parallel of 212 will cut the index at 356,
the diftance, and the horizontal parallel of 286, the
difference of latitude ; the. latitude come to is there¬
fore 25° 16'N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes 2o°3ov
and 25° /6' on the enlarged meriiian, which laid off
from the centre C will reach to 3 11 ; and this paral¬
lel will interfeeb the vertical parallel of the difference
of longitude 230, at the edge of the index. Hence
the longitude in is;45°27'W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diftance and difference of latitude as dire&-
ed above ; then bring the index to 22° 53', the middle
latitude, and the horizontal parallel of 212, the de¬
parture,.
f20 N A V I G
Inftruments parture, will intei'feft the index at 230, the difference
to rive 0f longitude.
in Sail!™ Prob. V. Both latitudes and diftance given, to find
indepen- the courfe and difference’ of longitude,
dent of Cal- Example. The diflance failed is 500 miles between
culation. north and weft ; the latitude and longitude left are
1 ^o° 10N, and 90 20'W. refpeftively, and the latitude
in is 46° 40'N. Required the courfe and longitude in ?
By Mercator's S ailing %
Bring the diftance 500 on the index to interfeA
the horizontal parallel of the difference of latitude
390; then the courfe 38° 44' is found on the line of
degrees by the edge of the index, and the vertical pa¬
rallel of the above point of interfedtion is that anfwer-
ing to 313, the departure.
Take the interval between the latitudes 40® 10', and
46° 40', which lay off from the centre C, and its ho¬
rizontal parallel will interfeft the vertical parallel of
4; 1, the difference of longitude, by the edge of the
index, it being in the fame pofition as before. Hence
the longitude in is 160 3t'W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and departure are found as formerly,
and the middle latitude is 43° 25', to which bring
the edge of the index, and the horizontal parallel of
313, the departure, will interfedt the index at 431,
the difference of longitude.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 42°52'N.
long. 90 17 W, the departure 250 miles W, and the
latitude come to 36° 18'N Required the courfe and
diftance failed, and the long't ide Come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Find the point of interfedfion of the horizontal
parallel of 394, the difference of latitude, and the ver¬
tical parallel of 250, the departure ; to this point
bring the index, and the correfponding divifion there¬
on will be 467 miles, and the courfe on the fcale of
degrees by the edge of the index will be 320 24'.
Take the interval between the latitudes on the en¬
larged meridian ; which being laid off from the centre
will reach to 312 : now the horizontal parallel of 512
will cut the vertical parallel of 325, the difference ®f
longitude, at the edge of the index. The longitude
come to is therefore 14° 42' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and diftance are to be found in the fame
manner as above. Then bring the index to 390 35',
the middle latitude, and the horizontal parallel of,250
will interfeft the edge of the index at 324^, the diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de¬
parture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Example. A fhip from latitude 32°38'N. longi¬
tude 170 6' W. failed 586 miles between the fouth and
No 238.
A T I O N. Pra&ice
weft, and made 336. miles of departure :—Required Great
the courfe, .and the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Move the index till the diftance 586 interfefls the
vertical parallel of the departure 336 ; then the corre¬
fponding horizontal parallel will be 480, the difference
of latitude, and the courfe 350. Hence the latitude in
is 240 38' N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes on
the enlarged meridian, which laid off from the centre
will reach to 547, the horizontal parallel of which
will cut the vertical parallel of 383, the difference of
longitude. The longitude in is therefore 23°29'W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the courfe and difference of latitude as before,
and hence the middle latitude is 28° 38', to which
bring the index, aad the horizontal parallel of 336,
the departure, will interfedt the index at 383, the
difference of longitude.
It feems unneceffary to enlarge any further on the
ufe of this inftrument, as the above will make it fuf-
ficicntly underltood.
Chap. XII. Of Great Circle Sailing.
The application of fpherical trigonometry to the
folution of triangles formed upon the furface of the
earth, is called Great Circle Sailing.
The earth being fuppofed an exadt fphere, the
fhorteft diftance between two places is the arch of a
great circle intercepted between them ; and therefore
the diftance failed upon a diredf courfe from one place
to another, will always be longer than the arch of a
great circle contained between them, except when the
rhumb line coincides with a great circle, which can
only happen when the fhip fails on a meridian or on
the equator.
Although it is impoflible to make a fhip defcribe an
arch of a great circle, yet fhe may be kept fo near it
as to make the error almoft infenfible.
The terms that enter into this failing are, the lati¬
tudes of the places, their difference of longitude and
diftance, and the angles contained between the diftance
and the meridians of the places, called the angles of po-
ft ion.
Prob. I. Given the common latitude of two places
on the fame parallel, and their difference of longitude,
to find the diftance and angle of pefition ( x).
Example. Required the diftance between St Ma¬
ry’s, in latitude 36° 57 N, longitude 250 9'W. and
Cape Henry, in latitude 36° 57' N, and longitude
’](>'' 27' W.
By ConfruSion.
Defcribe the circle EPQS (fig. 60.) to reprefent
the meridian of one of the places ; draw the equator
EQ and the earth’s axis PS at right angles thereto ;
make ED, QA, each equal to the chord of 36° 57',
the
Plafe .
CCCXLT,
(k) This problem may be expreffed thus: Two places lying on the fame parallel, and of thefe four,
the latitude, difference of longitude, diftance, aad angle of pofition, any two being given to find the other
two.-' Now this problem contains four different cafes, the moft ufefulof which is given above. The others
ferve rather as exercifes in fpherical trigonometry than of any real utility in navigation, and are therefore
emitted. The fame is to be underftood of the following problems.
NAVI GAT I ON.
riM. ('■' 'I Ai,.
pradHce.
it the given latitude, and draw the parallel of latitude
le ABD, the radius5of which is the tangent of 530 3',
the co-latitude ; defcribe the meridian PBS with the
fecant of 510 18', the difference of longitude j then A
and B will be the two places. Draw the diameter
AF, and through the points ABF defcribe a great
circle; then the arch AB will be the diftance, and
the angle PAB the angle of pofition. Now thefe
being meafured by the rules given in fpherict, will be
found equal to 40° 28' and 730 54' refpe&ively.
By Calculation.
From P draw PG perpendicular to AB, by de-
fcnibing the arch with the fecant of half the difference
of longitude; then, in the right-angled fpherical tri¬
angle AGP, are given AP = 53° 3', the comple¬
ment of latitude, and the angle APG = ay3 39',
half the difference of longitude ; to find AG half the
diftance, and PAG the angle of pofition.
1. To find the diftance.
As radius - . . 10.00000
is to the fine of AP 530 3' 990263
fo is the fine of APG 25 39 963636
NAVIGATION.
2. To find the angle of pofition at St Thomas.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fine of AE
fo is the cotangent of EB
66° 1 o-
48 51
9.96129
9.94146
72I
Great
Circle
Sailing.
to the tang. ang. of pofition 38 38 9.90275
3. To find the angle of pofition at Port St Julian.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the fine EB 48° 9.87679
fo is the cotangent of AE 66 10 9.64517
to the fine of AG
20 14
9-53899
Diftance AB 40 28
2. To find the angle of pofition.
As radius ... 10.00000
is to the cofine of AP 530 3' 9'77896
fo is the tangent of APG 25 39 9 68142
to the cotangent of PAG 73 54 9.46038
Pros. II. Given the latitude of a place, and the
difference of longitude between it and a place on
the equator, to find the diftance between them, and the
angles of pofition.
Example. Required the fhorteft diftance between
the ifland of St Thomas, in latitude o°o', longitude
i° o E, and Port St Julian, in latitude 48°5i' S,
and longitude 65° 10' W ?
By ConJlruBion.
Plate Defcribe the circle EPQS (fig.61.), to reprefent
iCCXLI. the meridian of one of the places ; draw the equator
EQ^, and axis PS ; make EB equal to the chord of
48° 51', and B will reprefent Port St Julian ; make
CA equal to the femitangent of the complement of
the difference of longitude ; draw the diameter BF,
and through the points BAF draw the great circle
BAF ; then AB will be the diftance, ABE the angle
of pofition at Port St Julian, and BAE the comple¬
ment of that at St Thomas. Thefe being meafured
by the rules given in fpherics, will be found equal to
740 35', 710 36', and 510 22', refpeftively.
By Calculation
In the right-angled fpherical triangle AEB, AE,
and EB are given, to find AB and the angles A
and B.
1. To find the diftance.
As radius - . . io oooco
is to the cofine of AE 66° 10' 9 60646
fo is the'cofine of EB 48 51 9.81825
to the cofine of AB 74 35 9.42471
Now 740 35' = 4475 miles, which is 57 miles lefs
than the diftance found by Mercator’s Sailing.
1 Von. XII. Part. II.
to the cotangent of ABE 71 36 9.52196
Hence a fhip from St Thomas to Port St Julian
muft firft fleer S 38° 38'W, and then by conftantly
altering her courfe towards the weft, fo as to arrive
at Port St Julian on a courfe S 71? 36' W, fhe will
have failed the fhorteft diftance between thofe places.
Pros.III. Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
places, to find the diftanee between them, and the
angles of polition.
Example. What is the fhorteft diftance between
the Lizard, in latitude 490 57'N, longitude 5* 15'W,
and Bermudas, in latitude N, and longitude
63° 28' W ?
By ConJlruSion.
Defcribe the primitive circle (fig. 62.) to reprefent
the meridian of one of the places ; make EA =
320 35 , and A will reprefent Bermudas ; make Ea,
QJ each equal to 49°57'; then with the tangent of
the co-latitude 40° 3' draw the parallel of latitude of
the Lizard, and with the fecant of 5&0 13’, the given
difference of longitude, draw the oblique circle PBS,
interfefting the parallel of latitude in B ; which will
be the pofition of the Lizard. Draw the diameter
AF, and through the points A, B, F, defcribe a
circle ; and the arch AB will be the diftance, and
the angles A and B the angles of pofition, which are
meafured as before.
By Calculation.
In the oblique-angled fpherical triangle APB are
AP, BP, the co-latitudes, and the angle APB the dif¬
ference of longitude; to find the diftance AB, and the
angles of pofition PAB, PBA.
1. To find the diftance.
Difference of long. 58° 13' verfed fine 9.675 r 3
AP - 57 25 fine 9-92563
BP - 4° 3 *ine 9.80852
Difference 17 22 nat.v.fine 04559
25661 9.40928
Diftance AB 45 45nat.v.fine 30220*. _ *SeeMac
2. To find the angle of pofition at the Lizard. iay’s Tna-
As the fine of AB 45° 45' 9.85510*'/"'
is to the fine of AP 57 25 9.92563
fo is the fine of P 5813 9-92944^;,?^
 Table of
to the fine of B 89 20 9.99997 Nat.Verfed
3. To find the angle of pofition at Bermudas. S.mesis
As the fine of AB 45">45‘ 9.855 io^lven*
is to the fine of BP 40 3 9.80852
fo is the fine of P 58 13 9.92944
to the fine of A 49 47 9.88286
The fhorteft diftance between the Lizard and Ber¬
mudas is 450 45' or 2745 miles, which is 36 miles lefs
4 Y than
N A V I G
than the diftarce found by Mercator’s failing. And
a (hip to defcribe the ihorteft traft muft fail from the
j Lizard S. 89° 20' W, and gradually leflen the courfe,
fo aa to arrive at Bermudas on the rhumb bearing
S. 490 47' W. The direft courfe by Mercator’s
failing is S. 68° ic/ W.
From the preceding examples, it is evident that in
order to fail on the arch of a great circle, the fhip
mull continually alter her courfe. But as this is a
difficulty too great to be admitted into the pra&ice
of navigation, it has been thought fufficiently ex-
a& to effedt this by a kind of approximation; the
principle of which is, that in fmall arches the diffe¬
rence between the arch and its chord or tangent is fo
fmall, that the one may be fubftituted for the other
in any nautical operations.
Upon this principle, the great circles on the earth
are fuppofed to be made up of fhort right lines, each
of which is a fegment of a rhumb line : and on this
fuppofition the folution to the following problem is
founded.
Pros. TV. Given the latitudes and longitudes of
two places, to find the feveral points in a great circle
paffing through them, which alter in longitude from
either of the places by a given quantity; together
with the courfes and diftances between thofe points.
Rule. Compute the diftance of the places, and
their angles of pofition, by one of the preceding pro¬
blems ; find alfo the perpendicular from the pole to
the great circle, paffing through the given places, and
the feveral angles at the pole made by the given al¬
terations of longitude between the perpendicular and
the fucceffive meridians come to.
With this perpendicular, and the polar angles feve-
rally, find as many correfponding latitudes by the
following analogy :
As rad. :co-tan.perp.:: cof. ifl pol. ang.: tang, ifllat.
: :cof. zndpel.ang. i tang. 2nd lat.
&c. &c.
Now having the latitudes of the feveral points in
the great circle, and the difference of longitude be¬
tween each, find the feveral courfes and diftances be¬
tween them; and thefe will be the courfes and di¬
ftances the fhip muft fun to keep nearly on the arch
•*f a great circle.
Example 1. A fhip from a pface in latitude
A T I O N. Pratfice*
37° o' N, longitude 23' o' W, hound to a plaee.in the Great
fame latitude, and in longitude ey60 27' W, intends sC.1 *]r1cle
to fail as near the arch of a great circle as (he can, by. a‘ ‘n?' •
altering her courfe at every five degrees of longitude.
Required the latitude of each point where the courfe
is propofed to be altered, and alfo the courfes and di¬
ftances between thofe points ? Plate
The triangle APB (fig. 63.) being deferibed, and CCCXLI,.
the computation made as in Problem I. the diftance
will be found equal to 42^ 6', and the angle of pofi¬
tion A or B=:730 9'.—Now the triangle APB being
ifofceles, the perpendicular PI falls in the middle of
AB ; and the latitudes, courfes, and diftances being
known in the half BI, thofe in the half IA will alfo
be known.
Let the points a, l, c, d, &c. be the points arrived
at on each alteration of five degrees of longitude; then
will the arches Pa, Pi, Pc, P</, &c. be the refpe&ive
co-latitudes of thofe places, and are the hypothenufes
of the right-angled fpherical triangles Pla, Pli, PL,
PW, See.
Now in the triangle PIB, given o', the
angle PBI = 73« 9', to find PI.
As radius 10.00000
is to the fine of PBI 73° 9' 9.98094..
fo is the fine of PB 53 o 9.90235
to the fine of PI 49 51 9.883291
, The angle IPB=:^" -"^ ^26° 43't> angle lPa=
2i043t,1P£=i6q43'4, IPc=xi°43'l»^I>^:=:6a43'4»
are the feveral polar angles.
To find the latitude of the point a.
As radius
is to the cotangent of PI
fo is the cofine firft polar angle
49 51
21 43t
to the tangent of xft latitude 38 5 9.89412
By continuing the operation with the other polar
angles, the fucceffive latitudes from sx to 1 will be
38® 56'. 39° 33'» 39° 57'*
Now with the feveral latitudes, and refpeftive dif¬
ferences of longitude, compute the courfes and di¬
ftances. The reffilts are entered in the following
Table; the calculations being performed on a piece of
wafte paper.
Polar Angle?.
I Sueccffive Diff. Succeflive Diff. Meridian Mend. (jourfes- Diftances.
I Long, j Long. Lat. Lat. Parts, diff.lat.
IPB= 26° 434'
lPa=2t 43 ^
IP* = 16 43^
IPc=ll 434
IPJ= 6 434
23O O'
28 o
33 °
38 o
43 °
37 9
38 5
38 56
39 33
39 57
40 9
2392.6
2474.6
2539-8
2587.6
2618.8
2634.5
74 43
77 44
80 57
84 4
87 46
246.6
240.2
235-3
231.9
3°9-i
1263.1
The eourfes, and the firft diftance, are found by Mer¬
cator’s Sailing ; but as the other courfes are near the
parallel, the diftances cannot be very exa&ly found
by this method ; another method is therefore ufed.
The fum of the dittances is 1263.1, which doubled is
S526.2, agreeiijg with the diftance found as before.
It may be obfei ved, that the diftance found by this
method cannot be lefs than the laft diftance, of thalfi
given by Great Circle Sailing, as fome authors have
found it. . - , • .
Examxle II. A fhip from the Lizard, in latitude
49° 57' N, longitude 5° 15' W, hound to a place in
latitude 32° 25' N, and longitude 66° 39 W, propofe*
to fail oh a great circle, and to alter her courfe at
every
raftice. N A V T G
► Great every five degrees of longitude. Required the latitudes
1 C.!.r.cle of the places where the (hip is to alter her courfe, and
ti Sai mg. aj£-e courfe ancj dlftance between each ?
Plate Having defcribed the triangle (fig. 64.) and per-
ECCCXLI. formed the computation as in Problem III. the di-
ftance AB is found -470 54', the angle of pofition
PB A at the Lixard 87° 15 , and that at the place
bound to 490 35'»
Draw PI at right angles to AB, and in the equa¬
tor lay off from the centre the tangents of 5, 10, ijj,
20, &c. to 5 degrees, and thefe will be the centres
of the arches of co-latitude to every 5° of difference of
longitude.
To find the perpendicular PI.
As radius 10.00000
is to the fine of PAB 490 35' 9.88x58
fo is the fine of PA 57 35 9.92643
to the fine ©f PI
40 o
9.80801
A T I O N. 723
To find the polar angle API. Sea-Charts.
As radius 1 ckooooo
is to the cofine of AP 576 35' 9.72921
fo is the tangent of PAB 49 35 10.06978
to the co-tangent of API 57 49 9.799®®
Now the polar angle API, or the difference ©f lon¬
gitude between the perpendicular and the meridian
of the place bound to, 570 49/, being taken from
6i° 24', the whole difference of longitude, leaves 3® 35'
for the difference of longitude between the Lizard
and the perpendicular ; alfo 50, the propofed alte¬
ration of longitude, being fubtrafted as often as it
can be from 57® 49-, leaves the fevcral polar angles ;
with which and the perpendicular PI the feveral lat-
tudes arrived at are found as in the preceding example:
then with thefe: latitudes and the differences of lon¬
gitude between them, find the fucceffive courfes and
diftances. The feveral refults are placed in the fol¬
lowing Table ; the calculations being performed on a
piece of wafte paper.
Succeflivc Diff1. Succeflh
I.ongs. Long. Lars.
IPB= 3® 3/
IPa = 2 49
IP£= 7 49
IPe ” 12 49
1PJ = I7 49
IPe =22 49
IP/=27 49
1P<?=32 49
IP^ —37 49
IPi =42 49
IP* =47 49
IP/=52 49
5 *4
8 49
11 38
16 38
21 38
26 38
31 38
36 38
41 38
46 38
S8
56 38
61 38
66 38
49 57'
50 o
49 58
49 45
49 18
48 37
47 42
46 3
45 3
43 *7
41
38 .
35 46
32 25
Diff. Meridian Mend.
Lat. Parts. diff. lat.
3469.8
3474-5
3471-4
345l-2
3409.6
3347-2
3264.7
3160.4
3034-2
2886.4
2714.9
2520.5
2300.7
2058.0
4-7
3-i
20.2
41.6
62.4
82.5
104.3
126.2
147.8
171.5
194.4
219.8
242.7
Courles. Diftancet.
88® 45'
88 57
86 9
82 6
78 15
74 37
70 50
67 10
63 46
60 15
57 3
53 46
5i 2
2874-5 I
As the four firft courfes are near the parallel, the
correfponding diftances were not found by Mercator’s
Sailing. The fum of the diftances 2874.5 agrees
very well with, and is not lefs than, 47° 54', or 2874
miles, the fhorteft diftance between the places.
Chap. XIII. Of Sea-Charts.
The charts ufually employed in the practice of na¬
vigation are of two kinds, namely, Plane and Mer¬
cator's Charts. The firft of thefe is adapted to repre-
feiit a portion of the earth’s furface near the equator;
and the laft for all portions of the earth’s furface.
For a particular defeription of thefe, reference has al¬
ready been made from the article Chart, to thofe of
Plane and Mercator: and as thefe charts are par¬
ticularly defcribed under the above articles, it is there¬
fore fufficient in this place to deferibe their ufe.
Ufe of the Plane Chart.
Prob. I. To find the latitude of a place on the
©hart.
Rule Take the leaft diftance between the given
place and the neareft parallel of latitude; now this
diftanee applied the fame way on the graduated me¬
ridian, from the extremity of the parallel, will give
the latitude of the propofed place.
Thus the diftance between Bonavifta and the pa¬
rallel of 15 degrees, being laid from that parallel upon
the graduated meridian, will reach to i6J5', the lati¬
tude required.
Prob. II. To find the courfe and diftanee between
two given places on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given places, and
take the neareft diftance between the centre of any of
the compaffes on the chart and the edge of the ruler j
move this extent along, fo as one point of the com-
pafs may touch the edge ©f the rule, and the itraight
line joining their points may be perpendicular there¬
to ; then will the other point (how the courfe : The
interval between the places, being applied to the
fcale, Will give the required diilance.
Thus the courfe from Palma to St Vincent will
be found to be about SSW \ W. and the diftance
»3°4 795 im
Prob. III. The courfe and diftance failed from a
known place being given, to find the fhip s place on
the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler -over the place failed from, pa-
4 Y 2 railel
1
724
N A V I G
Sea-Cham. rallel to the rhumb, expreffing the given courfe; take
» the difiance from the fcale, and lay it off from the
given place by the edge of the ruler; and it will give
the point reprefenting the (hip’s prefent place.
Thus, fuppofe a fhip had failed SW£W 160 miles
from Cape Palmas ; then by proceeding as above, it
will be found that die is in latitude 2° 57' N.
The various other problems that may be refolved
by means ©f this chart require no further explanation,
being only the conftrudlion ©f the remaining problems
in Plane Sailing on the chart.
Ufe of Mercator's Chart.
The method of finding the latitude and longitude of
a place, and the courfe or bearing between two given
places by this chart, is performed exadlly in the man¬
ner as in the Plane Chart, which fee.
Prob. I. To find the diilance between two given
places on the chart.
Case I. When the given places are under the fame
meridian.
Rule. The difference or fum of their latitudes,
according as they are on the fame or on oppofite fides
of the equator, will be the diftance required.
Case II. When the given places are under the
fame parallel.
Rule. If that parallel be the equator, the differ¬
ence or fum of their longitudes is the diftance; other-
wife, take half the interval between the places, lay it
off upwards and downwards on the meridian from the
given parallel, and the intercepted degrees will be the
diftance between the places.
Or, take an equal extent of a few degrees from the
meridian on each fide of the parallel, and the number of
extents, and parts of an extent, contained between the
places, being multiplied by the length of an extent, will
give the required diftance.
Case III. When the given places differ both in
latitude and longitude.
Rule. Find the difference of latitude between the
given places, and take it from the equator or gradu¬
ated parallel; then lay a ruler over the two places, and
move one point of the compafs along the edge of the
ruler until the other point juft touches a parallel;
then the diftance between the place where the point
of the compafs refted by the edge of the ruler, and
the point of interfe&ion of the ruler and parallel, be¬
ing applied to the equator, will give the diftance be¬
tween the places in degrees and parts of a degree,
which multiplied by 60 will reduce it to miles.
Prob. II. Given the latitude and longitude in, to
find the {hip’s place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given latitude, and
lay off the given longitude from the firft meridian by
the edge of the ruler, and the {hip’s prefent place will
be obtained.
Prob. III. Given the courfe failed from a known
place, and the latitude in, to find the {hip’s prefent
place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the place failed from, in
the dire&ion of the given courfe, and its interfedlion
with the parallel of latitude arrived at will be the
{hip’s prefent place.
Prob. IV. Given the latitude of the place left and
the courfe and diftance failed, to find the {hip’s pre-
fent'place on the chart.
5
A T I O N* Pra<5lice.,
Rule. The ruler being laid over the place failed Method
from and in the dire&ion of the given courfe, take of fiadin.S
the diftance failed from the equator, put one point of ti'^andt
the compafs at the interfe&ion of any parallel with Longitude
the ruler, and the other point of the compafs will at Sea
reach to a certain place by the edge of the ruler.  > ' *'
Now this point remaining in the fame pofition, draw
in the other point of the compafs until it juft touch
the above parallel whin fweeped round: apply this
extent to the equator, and it will give the difference
of latitude. Hence the latitude in will be known,
and the interfeclion of the correfponding parallel
with the edge of the ruler will be the {hip’s prefent
place.
The other problems of Mercator’s Sailing may be
very eafily refolved by this chart; but as they are of
kfs ufe than thofe given, they are therefore omitted,
and may ferve as an exercife to the ftudent.
B O O K II.
Containing the method of finding the Latitude and
Longitude of a Ship at Sea, and the Variation
of the Compafs.
Chap. I. Of Hadley's Quadrant.
Hadley’s quadrant is the chief inftrument in ufe at
prefent for obferving altitudes at fea. The form of
this'inftrument, a ccording to the prefent mode of
conftru&ion, is an o&agonal fefter of a circle, and
therefore contains 45 degrees ; but becaufe of the
double refle&ion, the limb is divided into 90 degrees. piate i
See Astronomy and Quadrant. Fig. 65 reprefencs cCGXLfc
a quadrant of the common cofiftru&ion, of w hich the
following are the principal parts.
1. ABC, the frame of the quadrant.
2. BC, the arch or limb.
3. D, the index; ab, the fubdividing fcale.
4. E, the index-glafs.
5. F, the fore horizon-glafs.
6. G, the back horizon-glafs.
7. K, the coloured or dark glafles.
8. HI, the vanes or fights.
Of the Frame of the Quadrant.
The frame of the quadrant confifts of an arch BC,
firmly attached to the two radii AB, AC, which are
bound together by the braces L M, in order to
{Lengthen it, and prevent it from warping.
Of the Index D.
The index is a flat bar of brafs, and turns on the
centre of the oclant: at the lower end of the index
there is an oblong opening ; to one fide of this open¬
ing the vernier fcale is fixed, to fubdivide the divi-
fions of the arch ; at the end of the index there is »
piece of brafs, which bends under the arch, carrying
a fpring to make the fubdividing fcale lie clofe to the
divifions. It is alfo furnhhed with a ferew to fix the
index in any defired pofition. The beft inftruments
have an adjufting ferew fitted to the index, that it may
be moved more {lowly, and with greater regularity
and accuracy, than by the hand. It is proper, how¬
ever, to obferve, that the index muft be previoufly
fixed near its right pofition by the above-mentioned
ferew.
Of
Practice. N A V I G
Method Of the Index Glafs E.
the^Lat? Up°n the Index, and near its axis of motion, is
tade and ^xec^ a P^ane fpeculum, or mirror of glafs quickfilver-
Longitude ed. It is fet in a brafs frame, and is placed f® that
at Sea. its face is perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
w-'v  This mirror being fixed to the index moves along with
it, and has its direction changed by the motion there¬
of ; and the intention of this glafs is to receive the
image of the fun, or any other objeft, and refleft it
upon either of the two horizon-glaffes, according to
the nature of the obfervation.
The brafs frame with the glafs is fixed to the index
by the fcrew c ; the other fcrew ferves to re-place it in
a perpendicular pofition, if by any accident it has been
deranged.
Of the Hori%on Glajfes F,G.
On the radius AB of the o&ant are two fmall fpe-
ciilums: the furface of the upper one is parallel to
the index glafs, and that of the lower one perpendicu¬
lar thereto, when o on the index coincides with o on
the limb. Thefe mirrors receive the reflefted rays,
and tranfmit them to the obferver.
The horizon-glaffes are not entirely quickfilvered ;
the wpper one F is only filvered on its lower half, or
that next the plane of the quadrant, the other half be¬
ing left tranfparent, and the back part of the frame
cut away, that nothing may impede the fight through
the unfilvered part of the glafs. The edge of the foil
of this glafs is nearly parallel to the plane of the in¬
ftrument, and ought to be very (harp, and without a
flaw. The other horizon-glafs is filvered at both ends.
In the middle there is a tranfparent flit, through which
the horizon may be feen.
Each of thefe glaffes is fet in a brafs frame, to
■which there, is an axis palling through the wood
work, and is fitted to a lever on the under fide of the
quadrant, by which the glafs may be turned a few
degrees on its axis, in order to fet it parallel to the
index-glafs. The lever has a contrivance to turn it
flowly, and a button to fix it. To fet the glaffes per¬
pendicular to the. plane of the inftrument, there are
two funk fcrews, one, before and one. behind each-
glafs: thefe fcrews pafs through the plate on which
the frame is fixed into another plate; fo that by loofen-
ing one and tightening the other of thefe fcrews, the
direftion of the frame with its mirror may be altered,
and fet perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Of the Coloured Glajfes K.
There are ufually three coloured glaffes, two of
which are tinged red and the other green. They are
ufed to prevent the folar rays from hutting the eye at
the time of obfervation. Thefe glaffes are fet in a
frame, which turns on a centre, fo that they may be
ufed feparately or together as the brightnefs of the
fun may require. The green glafs is particularly ufe-
ful in obfervations of the moon ; it may be alfo ufed
in obfervations of the fun, if that object be very faint.
In the fore-obfervation, thefe glaffes are fixed as in
Plate fig. 65. but when the back-obfervation is ufed, they
CCOXLf. are removed to N.
Of the tiuo Sight Vanes H, I.
Each of thefe vanes is a perforated piece of brafs,
defigned to direA the fight parallel to the piano of the
\ quadrant. That which is fixed at I is ufed for the fore,
A T I O N. 725
and the other for the back, obfervation. The vane I Method
has two holes, one exadtly at the height of the filver- finding
ed part of the horizon-glafs, the other a little higher,
to diredt the fight to the middle of the tranfparent Longitude
part of the mirror. at Sea.
Of the Divifions on the Limb of the Quadrant. 11
The limb of the quadrant is divided from right to
left into go primary divifions, which are to be confi-
dered as degrees, and each degree is fubdivided into -
three equal parts, which are therefore of 20 minutes
each : the intermediate minutes are obtained by means
of the fcale of divifions at the end of the index.
Of the Vsrnier or fubdividing Scale.
The dividing fcale contains a fpace equal to 21 di¬
vifions of the limb, and is divided into 20 equal parts.-
Hence the difference between a divifion on the divi¬
ding fcale and a divifion on the limb is one-twentieth
of a divifian on the limb, or one minute. The degree
and minute pointed out by the dividing fcale may be
eafily found thus.
Obferve what minute on the dividing fcale coincides
with a divifion on the limb ; this divifion being added
to the degree and part of a degree on the limb, im¬
mediately preceding the firft divifion on the dividing
fcale, will be the degree and minute required.
Thus fuppofe the fourteenth minute on the dividing
fcale coincided with a divifion on the limb, and that
the preceding divifion on the limb to. 0 on the vernier
was 56'' 40' ; hence the divifion fhown by the vernier
is 56° 54'. A magnifying glafs will affilt the obferver
to read off the coinciding divifions with more accu- -
racy.
Adjujments of Hadley’s Quadrant.
The adjuftments of the quadrant confift in placing
the mirrors perpendicular to the plane of the inftru¬
ment. The fore horizon-glafs muft be fet parallel to
the fpeculum, and the planes of the fpeculum and back
horizon-glafs produced muft be perpendicular to each
other when the index is at 0.
Adjustment I. To fet the indexrglafs perpendi¬
cular to the plane of the quadrant.
Method I. Set the index towards the middle of the
limb, and hold the quadrant fo that its plane may be
nearly parallel to the horizon : then look into the
index-glafs ; and if the portion of the limb feen by re-
fledtion appears in the fame plane with that feen di-
re&ly, the fpeculum is perpendicular to the plane of
the inftrument. If they do not appear. in the fame
plane, the error is to be reftified by altering the pofi¬
tion of the fcrews behind the frame of the glafs.
Method II, This is performed by means of the two -
adjufting tools fig. 66, 67, which are two wooden
frames, having two lines on each, exactly at the fame
diftance from the bottom.
Place the quadrant in an horizontal pofition on a
table; put the index about the middle of the arch ;
turn back the dark glaffes; place one of the above-
mentioned tools near one end of the arch, and the
other at the oppofite end, the fide with the lines be¬
ing , towards the index-glafs ; then look into the in¬
dex-glafs, directing the fight parallel to the plane of
the inftrument, and one of the tools will be feen by
direct vilion, and the other bv refleftion. By moving
the index, a little, they may be brought exadtly toge¬
ther* ..
726 N A V I G
Method ther. If the lines coincide, the pofition of the mirror
th 13 r‘S^t» ^ not» they muft be made to coincide by
tude and" altering the ferews behind the frame, as before,
longitude Adjustment II. To fet the fore horizoa-glafs per-
at Sea. pendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
‘■"■"’■Y'-"’ Set the index to o ; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon ; dirett the fight to the hori¬
zon, and if the horizons feen direftly and by reflec¬
tion are apparently in the fame ftraight line, the fore
horizon-glafs is perpendicular to the plane of the in-
liniment; if not, one of the horizons will appear
higher than the other. Now if the horizon feen by
refleclion is higher than that feen diredlly, releafe the
neareft ferew in the pedellal of the glafs, and ferew up
that on the farther fide, till the diredi and refledied
horizons appear to make one continued liraight line.
But if the refledted horizon is lower than that feen di-
redily, unferew the fartheft, and ferew up the neared
•ferew till the coincidence of the horizons is perfedi,
obferving to leave both ferews equally tight, and the
fore horizon-glafs will be perpendicular to the plane
of the quadrant.
Adjustment III. To fet the fore horizon-glafs
parallel to the index-glafs, the index being at o.
Set o on the index exadlly t* o on the limb, and fix
it in that pofition by the ferew at the under fide ; hold
the plane of the quadrant in a vertical pofition, and
direct the fight to a well-defined part of the horizon ;
then if the horizon feen in the filvered part coincides
with that feen through the tranfparentpart, the horizort-
glafs is adj'ufted ; but if the horizons do not coincide,
.unferew the milled ferew in the middle of the lever on
the other fide of the quadrant, and turn the nut at
the end of the lever until both horizons coincide, and
fix the lever in this pofition by tightening the milled
ferewj.
As the pofition of the glafs is liable to be altered by
fixing the lever,it will therefore be neceflary to re-ex¬
amine it, and if the horizons do not coincide, it will
be neceflary either to repeat the adjuftment, or rather
to find the error of adjuftment, or, as it is ufually call¬
ed, the index-error ; which may be done thus :
DireA the fight to the horizon, and move the index
until the refle&ed horizon coincides with that feen di-
redftly ; then the difference between o on the limb and
e on the vernier is the index error ; which is additive
when the beginning of the vernier is to the right of o
on the limb, otherwife fubtra&ive.
Adjustment IV. To fet the back horizon-glafs
perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Put the index to o ; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon, and direft the fight to the ho¬
rizon through the back fight vane. Now if the re-
flexed horizon is in the fame ftraight line with that
feen through the tranfparent part, the glafs is perpen¬
dicular to the plane of the inftrument: If the horizons
do not unite, turn the funk ferews in the pedeftal of
the glafs until they are apparently in the fame ftraight
line.
Adjustment V. To fet the back horizon-glafs
perpendicular to the plane of the index-glafs produced,
the index being at <?.
Let the index be put as much to the right of o as
twice the dip of the horizon amounts to ; hold
the quadrant in a vertical pofition, and apply the eye
A T I O N. Pra<fKccs
to the back vane : then if the refle&ed horizon coin- Method
cides with that feen direXly, the glafs is adjufted ; if OI finding-
they do not coincide, the ferew in the middle of the
lever on the other fide of the quadrant mutt be re- Longitude
leafed, and the nut at its extremity turned till both at Sea.
horizons coincide. It may be obferved,that the refleXed —-v
•horizon will be inverted ; that is, the fea will be appa¬
rently uppermoft and the fky lowermoft.
As this method of adjuftment is efteemed trouble-
feme, and is often found to be very difficult to per¬
form at fea, various contrivances have therefore been
propofed to render this adjuftment more fimple. Some
of thefe are the following.
1. Mr Dollond’s method of adjufting the back ho¬
rizon-glafs.
In this method an index is applied to the back ho-
rizon-glafs, by which it may be moved fo as to be pa¬
rallel to the index-glafs, when o on the vernier coin¬
cides with o on the limb. When this is effeXed, the
index of the back horizon-glafs is to be moved exaX-
ly 900 from its former pofition, which is known by
means of a divided arch for that purpofe ; and then
the plane of ihe back horizen-glafs will be perpendi¬
cular to the plane of the index-glafs produced.
2. Mr Blair's method of adjufting the back hori¬
zon-glafs.
All that is required in this method is to polifh the
lower edge of the index-glafs, and expofe it to view.
The back horizon-glafs is adjufted by means of a re-
fleXion from this polilhed edge, in the very fame me¬
thod as the fore horizon-glafs is adjufted by the com¬
mon method.
In order to iUuftrate this, let R I H E (fig. 68.) c«xu*.
reprefent a pencil of rays emitted from the objeX R,
incident on the index-glafs 1, from which it is refleX¬
ed to the fore horizon-glafs H, and thence to the eye
at E. By this double refleXion, an image of the ob¬
jeX is formed at r. RHE reprefents another pencil
from the fame objeX R, coming direXly through the
fore horizon-glafs to the eye at E ; fo that the doubly
refleXed image r appears coincident with the objeX JR.
itfclf, feen direXly.
When this coincidence is perfeX, and the objeX R
fo very diftant as to make the angle 1RH infeulible,
the pofition of the fpeculums I and H will differ in-
ftnfibly from parallelifm; that is, the quadrant will
be adjufted for the fore obfervatiOn. Now it is from
the cafe and accuracy with which this adjuftment can
at any time be made, that the fore-obfervation derives
its fuperiority over the back-obfervation. But by
grinding the edge of the index glafs perpendicular to
its refleding furface, and polhhing it, the back-ob¬
fervation is rendered capable of an adjuftm;nt equally
eafy and accurate as the fore horizon-glafs : for by
a pencil of rays emitted from the objeX S, incident on
the refleXing edge of the index-glafs D, thence re¬
fleXed to the back horizon-glafs B, and from that to
the eye at e, an image will be formed at s ; which
image being made to coincide with the objeX S itfelf,
feen direXly, afeertains the pofition of the back ho¬
rizon glafs relative to the index-gLfs with the fame
precifion, and in a manner equally direX, as the for¬
mer operation does that of the fore horizon-glafs.
DireSions for adju/iing the Back Horizon Ghifs.
The method of adjinting the quadrant for the back-
6 obfervation
   , .m minn—
Pra&ice. N A V I 6
Method observation is this. If it is te be done without ma*
of finding j^g ufe 0f ^ telefcope, place the index at o, and,
tud/and applying the eye to the hole in the fight vane (k), or
Longitude tube for direding the fight, diretSk it through the
at Sea. back horizon-glafs to the horizon, if that is the ob-
1 jedk to be ufed for adjufting. The two horizons are
then to be made to coincide, holding the quadrant firfl
in a vertical and then in an horizontal pofition ; by
■which means both adjuftments will be effe&ed as in
the fore-obfervation.
There will be no difficulty in finding the reikdled
horizon, if the obferver firft direfis his eye to that part
of the horizon-glafs where he obferves the image of
the polifhed edge of the index-glafs, which will ap¬
pear double. When the diredf horizon is made to ap¬
pear in this fpace, the refledfed one will be feen clofe
by it, unlefs the inftrument wants a great adjuftment.
In this cafe, a little motion ®f the back horizon-glafs
backwards and forwards will prefen tly bring it in view.
When the horizon, or any obfcure terreftrial ob-
jedt, is to be made ufe of for adjufting by means of
the reflefting edge, there is a precaution to be taken,
without which the obferver will fometimes meet with
what wil- appear an unaccountable difficulty; for if the
fky, or other objedt behind him, fhould happen to be
! pretty bright, he will not be able to difcern the horizon
at all. This arifes from the image of the objedt be¬
hind him, which is reftedfed from the filvered furface
of the index-glafs, appearing to coincide with the ho¬
rizon ; in which cafe, the bright pidhire of the for¬
mer, which is formed in the bottom of the eye, pre¬
vents the fainter impreffion of the latter from being
perceived. This will be avoided, either by apply¬
ing a black fceeen over the filvered furface of the
index-glafs, er, without being at this trouble, by
Handing at a door or window, fo that only the dark
©bjedls within can be reflected from the index-glafs:
but if the obfervation is to be made in the open air,
a hat, ©r any fuch dark obllacle, held before the filver¬
ed furface of the index-glafs, will very effedkually re¬
move this inconvenience.
It may be remarked, that fome obfervers, inftead
©f making the principal adjuftment, place the fpeculams
parallel, by moving the index without altering the
pofition of the horizon-glafs: and the difference be¬
tween o on the vernier and o on the limb is the index
error, which muft be fubtrafted from all angles mea-
fured by the back-obfervation, when o on the index-
is to the right ®f o on the limb; and added when to
the left.
3. Mr Wright’s method of adjufting the bacfc>
t horizon-glafs of his improved patent quadrant,
u. Fig. 69. is a reprefentation of the quadrant com¬
plete in all its parts for ufe. A, is the refiedfing fur-
face of the index-glafs, which is made of the ulual
length, and T95 of an inch broad. The bottom part
is covered in front by the bral's frame, and the reflec-
ti»g furface is tV on the back. B, the fore horizon-
A T I O N.
yiy
glafs, placed as ufual: O, the back horizon-glafs, now Method
placed under the fore-fight vane on the firft radius of
the quadrant I : C, the fight-vane of the fore horizon- tU(je a‘B(i
glafs: D, the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs; Longitude
E, the coloured glafles in a brafs frame, in the proper at Sea,
place for the fore-obfervation : F, a hole in the frame 1 -
to receive the coloured glaffes when an obfervation is
to be taken with the back horizon-glafs in the common
way, by turning the back to the fun : G, a bole in the
frame of the farthell radius K, to receive the coloured
glafles when an obfervation is to be taken by the new
method ; which is by looking through the lower hole
in the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs, diredlly
at the fun in the line of fight DN ; the horizon from
behind will then be refle&ed from the back of the in¬
dex-glafs to the horizon-glafs, and from thence to the
eye. (See fig. 73.) H, a brafs clamp on the upper
end of the index, having a milled ferevv underneath,
which faftens the round plate to the index when re¬
quired. (See fig. 70.) IK, the graduated arch of the
quadrant divided into 90 degrees : L, the brafs index
which moves over the graduated arch : M, the vernier
to fubdivide the divifions on the arch into Angle minutes
of a degree.
Fig. 70. (hows the upper part of the index L on a
larger fcale, with part of the brafs frame that faftena
the index-glafs, and the three adjufting ferews D to
adjuft its axis vertical to Che plane of the quadrant;
B, the centre on which the milled plate O moves over
the index: The dotted line BF is the diftance it is
required to move : K, the adjufting ferew to ftop it in
its proper place for adjufting the back obfervation-
glafs : G, a piece of bi afs faftened to the index op-
pofite to the clamp H, to keep the plate O always
clofe to the index L.
Fig. 71. reprefents the parallel pofition of the in¬
dex and horizon-glafles after adjuftment by the fun :
BC, a ray from the fun incident on the index-glals
C, and from thence refledked to the fore horizon-glafs
D, and again to the eye at E, in the line DE, where
the eye fees the fun at A by diredk vifion, and the
image by reflection in one ; the parallel lines AE and
BC being fo near to each other, that no apparent
angle can be obferved in the planes of the index and
horizon-glafs, when adjufted by a diftant objedk.
In fig. 72. the index-glafs is removed 45 degrees
from the plane of the fore horizon-glafs, and fixed in its
proper place for adjafting the back horizon-glafs pa¬
rallel to its plane, in the fame manner as the fore ho¬
rizon-glafs is adjufted.
In fig. 73. the index-glafs (after the adjuftment of
the fore and back horizon-glafles) is carried forward
by the index on the arch 90 degrees,- and makes an
angle of 45®-with the plane of the fore horizon-glafs,
and is at right angles to the plane of the back hori-
zon-g’afs. The eye at E now fees the fun in the ho¬
rizon at HF, refleCked by the index and horizon-glafles
from the zenith at Z, the image and objeCl-being 90
degrees
(k) Befides the hole in the fight vane commonly made, there muft be another nearer to the horizon-glafg, *
and fo placed that an eye direfted through it to the centre of the horizon-glafs {hall there perceive the image
of the poliflred edge of the index-glafs. 'I bis hole muft not be made fmall like the other, but equal to the
•rdinary fize of the pupil of the eye, there being on fome occafions no light to fpare.
N A V I G
Method degrees diftant. The back horizon K is nowrefle&ed
”^he Lati? ^rom t^e back" furface of tbc index-glafs C to the ho-
tudeand rizon-glafs M, and from thence to the eye at D, in
Xonpitude a right line with the fore horizon F. In order to make
at ;jea- an exadt contaft of the fore and back horizons at F,
^ y ' the index mud be advanced beyond the 90th degree
,on the arch, by a quantity-equal to twice the dip of
.the horizon.
The quadrant is adjnfted for the fore-obfervation as
tifiial, having previoufly fixed the index-glafs in its
proper place by the milled ferew at H, as reprefented
in fig. 70.
To adjujl the Quadrant for the Back-obfervatlon.
Faften the index to 90° on the limbj loofen the ferew
Plate ^ (%• 7°-)> and turn the plate O by the milled edge
40CCXLH. - until the.end of the adjufting ferew K touch the edge of
the clamp M ; and by means of a diftant objeft obferve
if the glafies are then parallel, as at fig. 71.: if they
are, faften the ferew H ; if not, with a ferew-driver
• turn the ferew K gently to the right or left to make
them perfeft, and then faften the ferew. Now remove
.the index back to Q on the limb, and the index-glafs
will be parallel to the back horizon-glafs E, fig. 72.:
Jf not, make them fo by turning the adjufting ferew
of the glafs E, the eye being at the upper hole in the
fight-vane D, and the fight direfted to the horizon,
or any diftant objedt in the direftion DN (fig. 69.)
Now the index remaining in this pofition, the index-
glafs is to be returned, to flop at the.pin E, and it will
be parallel to the fore horizon-glafs as at firft : then
the quadrant will be adjufted for both methods of ob-
fervation.
To obferve the Sun’s AUltude by the Bacl-obfcrvation.
Remove the coloured glaffes to G (fig. 69.), and
look through the lower hole in the fight-vane D, in
the line of direftion DN, direftly to the fun, and move
the index forward on the arch exaftly in the fame man¬
ner as in the fore-obfervation i make the contact of
the fun’s limb and the back horizon exadt, and the
degrees and minutes ftiown by the index on the limb
is the fun’s zenith diftance. It may be obferved, th?.t
the horizon will be inverted. If the fun’s lower limb
be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtradted from
the zenith diftance ; but if the upper limb is obferved,
.the femidiameter is to be added.
The obfervation may be made in the ufual manner,
by turning the back to the fun. In this cafe the co¬
loured glafles are to be (hifted to F, and proceed ac¬
cording to the directions formetly given.
Ufe of Hadley’s Quadrant.
The altitude of any ebjedt is determined by the po¬
fition of the index on the limb, when by refledlion
that objedt appears to be in contadt with the horizon.
If the objedt whofe altitude is to be obferved be the
fun, and if fo bright that its image may be feen in the
tranfparent part of the fore horizon-glafs, the eye is
to be applied to the upper hole in the fight-vane ;
otherwife, to the lower hole : and in this cafe, the qua¬
drant is to be held fo that the fun may be bifedled by
the line of reparation of the filvered and tranfparent
parts of the glafs. The moon is to be kept as nearly
as poffible in the fame pofition ; and the image of the
N° 239.
A T I O N. Practice.
ftar is to be obferved in the filvi *:d part of the glafs Me-h od
adjacent to the line of feparation of the two parts.
There are two different methods of taking obferva- ^
tions with the quadrant. In the firft of thefe the face Longitude
of the obferver is diredted towards that part of the ho- at Sea.
rizon immediately under the fun, and is therefore cal-' |
led the fore-obfervation. In the other method, the ob-
ferver’s back is to the fun, and it is hence called the
back-obfervation. This laft method of obfervation is to
be ufed only when the horizon under the fun is ob-
feured, or rendered indiftindl by fog or any other im¬
pediment.
In taking the fun’s altitude, whether by the fore or
back obfervation, the obferver muft tarn the quadrant
about upon the axis of vifion, and at the fame time turn
himfelf about upon his heel, fo as to keep the fun al¬
ways in that part of the horizon-glafs which is at the
fame diftance as the eye from the plane of the quadrant.
In this way the refledted fun will deferibe an arch of
a parallel circle round the true fun, whole convex fide
will be downwards in the fore-obfervation and up¬
wards in the back ; and confequently, when by moving
the index, the loweft point of the arch in the fore-ob¬
fervation, or higheft in the back, is made to touch the
horizon, the quadrant will ftand in a. vertical plane,
and the altitude above the vifible horizon will be pro¬
perly obferved. The reafon.of thefe operations may
be thus explained : The image of the fun being always
kept in the axis of vifion, the index will always (how
on the quadrant the diftance between the fun and any
objedt feen diredtly which its image appears to touch ;
therefore, as long as the index remains unmoved, the
image of the fun will deferibe an arch everywhere equi-
diftant from the fun in the heavens, and confequently
a parallel circle about the fun, as a pole. Such a
tranflationof the fun’s image can only be produced by
the quadrant’s being turned about upon a line drawn
from the eye to the fun, as an axis. A motion ®f rota¬
tion upon this line may be refolved into two, one up¬
on the axis of vifion, and the other upon a line on the
quadrant perpendicular to the axis of vifion ; and con¬
fequently a proper combination of thefe two motions
will keep the image of the fun conftantly in the axis
of vifion, and caufe both jointly to run over a parallel
circle about the fun in the heavens : but when the qua¬
drant is vertical, a line thereon perpendicular to the
axis of vifion becomes a vertical axis; and as a fmall
motion of the quadrant is all that is wanted, it will
never differ much in pradb'ce from a vertical axis. The
obferver is directed to perform two motions rather
than the Angle one equivalent to them on a finedrawn
from the eye to the fun ; becaufe we are not capable,
while looking cowards the horizon, of judging how
to turn the quadrant about upon the elevated line go¬
ing to the fun as an axis, by any other means than by
combining the two motions above mentioned, fo as to
keep the fun’s image always in the proper part of the
honzon-glafs. When the fun is near the horizon, the
fine going from the eye to the fun will not be far re¬
moved from the axis of vifion ; and confequently the
principal motion of the quadrant will be performed
on the axis of vifion, and the part of motion made on
the vertical axis will be but fmall. On the contrary,
when the fun is near the zenith, the line going to tiie
fun is not far removed from a vertical line, and coni'e-
■ quently
iraaice. N A V I G
Method quently the principal motion of the quadrant will be
|f find ntf perfoi-med on ^ vertical axis, by the obferver’s turning
[ud^and himfelf about, and the part of the motion made on the
onjd'urle axis of vifion will be but fmall. In intermediate alti-
fat Sea. tudes of the fun, the motions of the quadrant on the
axis of vifion, and off ^he vertical axis, will be more
equally divided.
Obfer'vations taken with the quadrant are liable to
errors, arifing from the Lending and elafticity of the
index, and the refiftance it meets with in turning
round its centre : whence the extremity of the index,
on being pufhed along the arch, will fenfibly advance
before the index-glafs begins to move, and may be
feen to recoil when the force afting on it is removed.
Mr Hadley feems to have been apprehenfive that his
inflrument would be liable to errors from this caufe ;
and in order to avoid them, gives particular directions
that the index be made broad at the end next the centre,
and that the centre, or axis itfelf, have as eafy a motion
as is confident with fteadinefs ; that is, an entire free¬
dom from loofenefs; or jhake as the workmen term it.
By ftriCtly complying with thefe diredtions the error
queftion may indeed be greatly diminifhed ; fo far, per¬
haps, as to render it nearly infenfible. where the index
is made ftrong, and the proper medium between the
two extremes of a fhake at the centre on one hand, and
too much ftiffnefs there on the other, is nicely hit; but
it cannot be entirely corrected. For to more dr lefs of
bending the index will always be fubject; and fonie
degree of refiftance will remain at the centre, 'unlefs
the fridtion there coiild be totally removed, which is
impoffible.
Of the reality of the error to which he is liable
from this caufe, the qbferver, if'he is provided with a
quadrant furnifhed with a ferew for moving the index
gradually, may thus fatisfy, himfelf. - After fimfhing
the obfervation, lay the quadrant on a table, and note
the angle ; then cautioufiy loofen the ferew which fa¬
llens the index, and it will immediately, if the qua¬
drant is not remarkably well conftru&ed, be feen to
ftart from its former fituation, more or lefs according
to the perfection of the joint and the ftrength of the
index. Thi’s ftarting, which is owing to the index
recoiling after being releafed from the confined ftate
it was in during the obfervation, will fometimes amount
to feveral minutes; and its direction will be oppofit'e
to that in which the index was moved by the ferew
at the time of finifhing the obfervation. But how far
It‘affeCts the truth of the obfervation, depends on the
manner in which the index was moved in fetting it to
Of for adjufting the inftrument; or in finifhing the ob-
fervations neceffary for finding the index error.
The eafieft and beft rule to avoid thefe errors feems
to be this : In all obfervations made by Hadley’s qua¬
drant, let the obferver take notice conftantly to-finifir
Iris, obfervations, by moving the index in the fame di¬
rection which was ufed in fetting it to o for adjufting;
or in the ofifervations neceffary for firiding' the index
error, If this rule is obferved, .the error arifing from
the fpring of the index will be obviated. For as the
index was bent the fame way, and in the fame degVee
in adjufting as in obferving, the truth of the obferva¬
tions will not be affeCted by this bending.
Vol. Xll. Part II.
A T I O N. 729
To take Altitudes by the Fore-obfervation.
I. Of (he Sun.
Turn down either of the coloured glafles before
the horizon-glafs, according to the brightnefs of the
.fun; direCt the fight to that part of the horizon which
is under the fun, and move the index until the colour¬
ed image of the fun appears in the horizon-glafs; then
give the quadrant a flow vibratory motion about the
axis of vifion ; move the index until the lower or up¬
per limb of the fun is in contaCt with the horizon,
at the loweft part of the arch deferibed by this mo¬
tion ; and the degrees and minutes flrown by the in¬
dex on the limb will be the altitude of the fun.
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude apd
Longitude
at Sea.
H. Of the Moon.
Put the index to 0, turn down the green glafs,
place the eye at the lower hole in the fight-vane, and
obferve the moon in the filvered part of the horizon-
glafs ; move the index gradually, and follow the
moon's reflected image until the enlightened limb is
in contact w ith the horizon, at the lower part of the
arch deferibed by the vibratory motion as before, and
the index will fliow the altitude of the obferved limb
of the moon. If the obfervation is made in the day¬
time, the coloured glafs is unneceflary.
III. Of a Star or Planet.
The index being put to 0, direCt the fight to the
ftar through the lower hole in the fight-vane and tranf-
parent part of the horizon-glafs; move the plane
of the quadrant a very little to the left, and the
image of the ftar will be feen in the filvered part of
the glafs. Now move the index, and the image of
the ftar will appear to defeend ; continue moving the
index gradually until the liar is in contaCL with the
horizon at the loweft part of the arch deferibed ; and
the degrees and minutes Ihown by the index on the
limb will be the altitude of the ftar.
To take Altitudes by the Back-obfervation.
I. Of the Sun.
Put the item of the coloured glafles into the perfo-
ration between the horizon-glafles, turn down either
according to the brightnefs of the fun, and hold the
quadrant vertically; then direCt the fight through
the hole in the back fight-vane, and the tranfparent
flit in the horizon-glafs to that part of the horieon
which is oppofite to the fun; now move the index
till the fun is in the filvered part of the glafs, and by
giving the quadrant a vibratory motion, the, axis of
which is that of vifion, the image of the fun wiil de-
feribe an arch whofe convex fide is upwards; bring
the limb of the fun, when in the upper part of this
arch, in contaCt with the horizon ; and the index will
(how the altitude of the other limb of the fun.
II. Of the Moon.
The altitude of the moon is obferved in the fame
manner fisthat of the fun, with this difference only, that
the ufe of the coloured glafs is unneceflary unlefs the
moon is very bright; and that the enlightened limb,
4 Z whether
730 N A V I G
Method whether 5t he the upper or lower, is to be brought in
of finding contaa with the horizon,
the Lati¬
tude ai d HI, Of a Star or Planet.
J.bnitgude
at Sea. IjOOK direftly to the liar through the vane and
tranfparent flit in the horizon-glafs, move the index
until the oppofite horizon, with refpeft to the ftar,
is fecn in the filvered part of the "lafs ; and make the
eontaft perfeS as formerly. If the altitude of the
ftar is known nearly, the index may be fet to that al¬
titude, the fight dire&edto the oppoiite horizon, and
the obfervation made as before.
Sect. II. Of finding the Latitude of a Place. 4
The obfervation neceflary for afcertaining the lati¬
tude of a place, is that of the meridional altitude of a
known celeftial objeft; or two altitudes when the ob-
jeft is out of the meridian. The latitude is deduced
with more certainty and with lefs trouble from the
firft of thcfe methods, than from the fecond ; and the
fun, for various reafons, is the objcft moft proper for
this purpofe at fea. It, however, frequently happens,
that by the interpofition of clouds, the fun is obfcur.*d
at noon j and by this means the meridian altitude is
loft. In this cafe, therefore, the method by double
altitudes becomes neceffary. The latitude may be de¬
duced from three altitudes of an unknown objeft, or
from double altitudes, the apparent times of obferva¬
tion being given.
The altitude of the limb of an objeft obferved at
fea, requires four feparate eorre&ions in order to ob¬
tain the true'altitude of its centre : thefe are for femi-
■diameter, dip, refreHion, and parallax. (See Astro-
homy, and the refpedfive articles). The firit and
laft of thefe corrections vanifh when the obferved ob¬
ject is a fixed ftar.
When the altitude of the lower limb of any objeft
is obferved, its femidiameter is to be added thereto in
order to obtain the central altitude ; but if the npper
limb be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtraCIed.
If the altitude be taken by the back-obfervation, the
contrary rule is to be applied. The dip is to be fub-
traCIed from, or added to, the obferved altitude, ac¬
cording as the fore or back-obfervation is ufed. The
refraftion is always to be fubtrafted from, and the pa¬
rallax added to, the obferved altitude.
Prob. I. To reduce the fun’s declination to any
given meridian.
Role. Find the number in Table IX. anfwering
to the longitude in the table neareft to that given,
and to the neareft day of the month. Now, if the
longitude is weft, and the declination increafing, that
is, from the 20th of March to the 22d of June, and
from the 22d of September to the 22d of December,
the above number is to be added to the declination :
during the other part of the year, or while the decli¬
nation is decreafing, this number is to be fubtra&ed.
In eaft longitude, the contrary rule is to be applied.
Example I. Required the fun’s declination at noon
15th April 1793, in longitude 84° W?
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich 10^ i'.S N
Number from Table IX, - + 5.0
Reduced declination - - 10 6.8 N
A T I O N. Praaicr
Example II. Required the fun’s decimation at Methoi ^
noon 22d March 1793, in longitude 151° E ? °^nd‘r [;
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich o° 56'N t-ude m
Equation from table - - — xo L n^i i
Reduced declination - o 46 N ^
Pros. II. Given the fun’s meridian altitude, to
find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. The fun’s femidiamtter is to fee added to,
or fubtrafled from, the obferved altitude, according
as the lower or upper limb is obferved ; the dip an¬
fwering to the height from Table V. is to be fubtraft-
ed if the fore-obfervation is ufed ; otherwife, it is to
be added ; and the refraftion anfwering to the altitude
from Table IV. is to be fubtra&ed: hence the true
altitude of the fun’s centre will be obtained. Cali
the altitude fouth or north, according as the fun is
fouth or north at the time of obfervation ; which fub-
tra&ed from 90°, will give the zenith diftance of a
contrary denomination.
Reduce the fun’s declination to the meridian of the
place of obfervation, by Problem I. ; then the fum
or difference of the zenith diftance and declination,
according as they are of the fame or of a contrary
denomination, will be the Latitude of the place of
obfervation, of the fame name with the greater quan¬
tity.
Example I. Oftober 17th 1792, in longitude
3 2° E, the meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb
was 48° ^3' S, height of the eye 18 feet. Required
the latitude ?
Ob'.alt.fun’sloweflitnb 4?®S.Vi Sun’s dec.
Seaudiawe'er -J-o 16 Equation TbbielX. — 1
Dip and refract on —
True alt. fun’s centre 49 4
Reduceddeclination 9 35 5
S Zenith diftance 40 56M
Latitude 31 21N
Example II. November 16th 1793, in longitude
158° W, the meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb
was 87° 37' N, height of the eye xo feet. Required
the latitude ?
Obs.alt.fun'slow.limb 87037,N.Sun’sdec.noon.i8°57'&
Semidiameter -J-o 16 Equation table +0 8
Dip and refraft. ■
3 Reduced dec. 19 5 S
True alt.fun’s centre 87 50 N. Zenith diftance 2 10S
Latitude 21 15 S
Example III. December 19th 1793, being nearly
under the meridian of Greenwich, the altitude of the
fun’s upper limb at noon was 40 30' S, height of the
eye 20 feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of the fun’s upper limb 40 30' S
Sun’s femidiameter - - — o 16
Dip and refraction - — o 15
True altitude of the fun’s centre
Zenith diftance
Declination
7
(jra&ice, N A V I G
Method Example IV. Auguft 23d 1793:, in longitude
fiiid niT roy Ej the meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb
[idcand t^e back-obfervation was 6i° 8' N, and the height
t of the eye 14 feet. Required the latitude ?
’ a. Obferved altitude fun’s upper limb - 6i° 8' N
—' Sun’s femidiameter - - —0 16
Bip - - +0 si
Ref raft ion - - —0 i
True altitude of fun’s centre
Zenith diflance ^
Reduced decimation
60 55 N
29 5 S
- tI 20 N
A T I O N.
direfted in lall problem (which is fufficiently accu Me-
rate for altitudes taken at fea.)4 take its declination
from the Nautical Almanac, page iv. of the month, and tu
reduce it to the time and meridian of the place of ob- Lor^
fervation ; then the fum or difference of the zenith
diltance and declination of the planet will be the lati- "—"v
tude' as before.
Example I. December 10th 1792, the meridian
altitude of Saturn >vas 68° 42' N, and height of the
eye 15 feet. Required the latitude 1
Obferved altitude of Saturn - 68°42'N
Dip and refraftion - - —o 4
7U
Latitude - - - 17 45 S
The dip in Table V. anfwers to an entirely open
and unobit -ufted horizon. It, however, frequently
happens, that the fun is. over the land at the time of
obfervation, and the Hi ip nearer to the land than tha
vifible horizon would be if unconlined. In this cafe,
the dip will be different from what it would otherwife
have been, and is to be taken from Table VI. in which
the height is expreffed at the inp, and the diftance
from the land in the fide column in nautical miles.—
Seamen, in general, can eflimate the diftance of any
objeft fi om the (hip with fufficicnt exaftnefs for this
purpofe, efpecialiy when that diftanee is not greater
than fix miles, which is the greatefl diftance of the
viiible horizon from an obferver on the deck of any
fhip.
Prob. III. Given the meridian altitude of a fixed
ftar, to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Ru le. Correft the altitude of the ftar by dip and
refraction, and find the zenith diftance of the ftar as
formerly ; take the declination of the ftar from
Table XI. and reduce it to the time of obfervation.
Now, the fum or difference of the zenith diftance and
declination of the ftar, according as they are of the
fame or of a contrary name, will be the latitude of
the place of obfervation.
Examplb I. December id 1793, t^c meridian al¬
titude of Sirius was 590 50' S, height of the eye 14
feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Sirius - 59P 50' S
Dip and reffaftion - - —o 4
True altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
68 38 N
21 22 S
7 26 N
True altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
59 46 S
30 14N
16 27 S
Latitude - - 13 47 N
Example II. February 17th 1797, the meridian
altitude of Procyon was 7 r0 15' hj, the height of the
eye 1 o feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Procyon - 71° 15 N
Dip and refraftion - - —o 3
True altitude
Zenith ditlance •
Declination
Latitude - - - 13 3 S
Prob. IV. Given the meridian altitude of a planet,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervatian.
Rcle. Compute the true altitude of the planet as
Latitude - - - 13 56 S
Example II. April 16th 1793, the meridian al¬
titude of Jupiter was 8iu 5' S, height of the eye 18
feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferveq altitude of Jupiter - - 81® 5, S
Dip - - - —o 3
True altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude - - -
Prob. V. Given the meridian altitude of the moon,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Take the number-(- anfwering to the (hip’sf Malay's
longitude, and daily variation of themoonr’apafiiag the J,rea^e °.n
meridian ; which being applied to the time of pa flag e <>nsl'
given in the Nautical .Almanac, will give the time of Fab.XX,
the moon’s paffage over the meridian of the ftiip.
Reduce this time to the meridian of Greenwich ;
and by means of the Nautical Almanac find the moon’s
declination, horizontal parallax, and femidiameter, at
the reduced time.
Apply the femidiameter and dip to the obferved
altitude of the limb, and the apparent altitude of the
moon’s centre will be obtained ; to which add the cor-
reftion anfwering to the apparent altitude and hori¬
zontal parallax J, and the fum will be the true altitude f Ditto,
of the moon’s centre ; which fubtrafted from 90°, the.Tdq XX*.
remainder is the zenith diftance, and the fum or diffe¬
rence of the zenith diftance and declination, according
as they are of the fame or of a contrary name, will be
the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Example I. December 24th 1792, in longitude
30® W, the meridian altitude of the moon’s lower
limb was 8i° 15' N, height of the eye 12 feet. Re¬
quired the latitude ?
Time of paff. over the mer. of Greenwich = 9h 19/
Equation Table XX.
Time of paff. over mer. (hip
Longitude in time
Reduced time
Mooli’s dee. at midnight, Tab. IX.
Eq. to time from midnight
Reduced declination
Moon’s hor. par.
4 Z 2
73 2
Method Moon’s femidlameter
'the^atf Aiigmentation
tude and
l.ongitude Aug. femidiameter
at Sea. Obferved altitude of the moon’s lower limb
‘ Semidiameter
Dip ...
Apparent altitude of the moon’s centre
Corre&ion
True altitude of moon’s centre,
• Zenith diftance
Declination - -
N A V I’G A T I O N.
Pradice,
is the latitude, of the fame name as the* declination Method
or altitude. finding
Example I. July ift 1793, in longitude 1 5° W, ^e^ndi
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb at midnight was Longitude
b4’ 58', height of the eye 18 feec. Required the la- at ¬
titude ? - —
Obferved altitude fun’s lower limb - 8° 58'
Semidiameter - - -f-o 16
81 27 N Dip and refta&ion - - —0 10
15 6
+ 0 14
15 20
8i°15'N
+0 *S
—0 3
+0
ir3S n
8 25 S.
14 49 N
True altitude of fun’s centre
Compl. declin. reduced to time and place
9 4 N
66 57 N
Latitude - - 6 42 N
Example II. O&ober 17th 1793, in longitude
8® W, the altitude of the moon’s upper limb was 40°
27' S, and height of the eye 20 feet. Required the
latitude ?
Time of paff over mer. Greenwich = ioh 52'
Equation to long. - 0 0
Latitude - - - 76 1 N
Example II. December ill 1798, the altitude of
the pole liar below the pole was 520 20' N, height
of the eye 12 feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude, pole ftar - 520 20'N
Dip and refraftion - - _ o 4
True altitude
Complement of declination
52 16 N
1 46
Time ©f paff. over mer. Ihip - 10 52
Longitude,in time . - o 32
Reduced time - - 11 24
Moon’s dec. at midnight - =Q0 :3' N
Eq. to time from midnight - —03
Reduced declination - 00
Moon’s hor. parallax - - - 60' 29''
Moon’s femidiameter - - 16 29 •
Augmentation - - +0 12
Aug. femidiameter - - 16 41
Obferved altitude moon’s lower limb - 40°2 7'S
Semidiameter and dip - - —o 21
Apparent altitude moon’s centre - 40 6
Corre&ion - - +0 45
True altitude moon’s centre - 40 51 S
Zenith diftance - ' 49 9 N
Declination - - p o
Latitude - - - 49 9 N
Remark. If the objeft be on the meridian below
the pole at the time of obfervation, then the fum of
the true altitude and the complement of the declination
Latitude - - 54 2 N
Prob. VI. Given the latitude by account, the de¬
clination and two obferved altitudes of the fun, and
the interval of time between them, to find the true
latitude*. ...
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude by ac¬
count, add the log. fecant of the fun’s declination ;
the fum, rejecting 20 from the index, is the logarithm
ratio. To this add the log. of the difference of the
natural fines of the two altitudes, and the log. of the
half elapfed time from its proper column.
Find this fum in column of middle time, and take
out the time anfwering thereto; the difference between
which and the half elapfed time will be the time from
noon when the greater altitude was obferved.
Take the log. anfwering to this time from column
of rifing, from which fubtradl the log. ratio, the re¬
mainder is the logarithm of a natural number; which
being added to the natural fine of the greater altitude,
the fum is the natural cofine of the meridian zenith
diftance ; from which and the fun’s declination the la¬
titude is obtained as formerly.
If the latitude thus found differs confiderably from
that by account, the operation is to be repeated,
ufing the computed latitude in place of that by ac¬
count (l).
Example I. June 4th 1795, in latitude by ac-._
. ' icount
(l) This method is only an approximation, and ought to be ufed under certaiq reftriftions; namely,
The obfervationp muft be taken between nine o’clock in the forenoon-and three in the afternoon If both
obfervations be.in the forenoon, or both in the afternoon, the interval muft not be lefs than the diftance of the
time of obfervation of the greateft altitude from noon. If one obfervation be in the forenoon and the other in
the afternoon, the interval muft not exceed four hours and an half; and in all cafes, the nearer the greater al¬
titude is to noon the better. ■
If the fun’s meridian zenith diftance.be lefs than the latitude, the limitations are ftill more contracted. If
the latitude be double the meridian zenith diftance, the obfa-vafions muft be taken between half paft nine in the.
morning and hjdf paft two in the afternoon, and the interval muft not exceed three hours and an half. The
obfervations muft be taken ftill nearer to noon, if the latitude exceeds the zenith diftance in a greater pro.
portion. See Majkelyne’s Britijh Mariner’s Guide, and Requifite Tables-, 2d Ed.
Pra&ice. N A V I G
Method count 37° N at ioh 29' A. M./vr watch, thecorrefted
of finding altJtude of the fun was $5° 24', and at i2h 31't the
tude and ahitude was 74° 8'. Required the true latitude i
Longitude Times/>«r wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc.370 o'Secant 0.09755
at Sea. roh 49' 6j° 44'90944 Declination 4448 Secant 0.03448
14 31 74 8 96190 Logarithm ratio. 0.13193
4 4 Differ. 5266 Logirithra 3.74148
1 1 Half elapfed time 0-57999
31 10" Middle time - 4.43340
49 30 Rifing - - _ 4.94740
Log. ratio : .0.13193
Natural number
Greateft altitude
Mer. zenith dift.
Dedinadon
- 644
740 8' N. fine 96190
14 30 N. cofine 96814
44 48
*•79547
Latitude 36J8N.
Example II. Oftober 17th 1793, in latitude 43'*
24' N. by account, at oh 38' P. M. the con;e& alti¬
tude of the fun’s centre was 36 °5', and at 2h 46’ P. M.
the altitude was 24°49', Required the latitude ?
'Timesper wat. Alt. N. Sipes,. Lat by acc. 43 0 44'Secant 0.13874
oh 38’ 36° 3' 38896 Declination 9 34 Secant 0.00604
4 46 *4 49 4l97* Logarithm ratio 0.14476
4 8 Differ. >69.24 Log.- 4.4483©
i 4 Ha f elapfed time 0.53966
1 41 30" Middle time 4.93494
' 37 30 Rifing 3-11370
Log. ratio- 0.14476
Natural number
Greateftaftkude
Mer. zen. diftance
.Declination
957
36° 5’N. fine 38896
53 14 N. cofine 39833
9 3*
98094
Latitude • 43 44 N.
Example Ilf. Auguft 25th 1793, in latitude
570 N. by account, in the morning the altitude of
the fun’s lower limb was 34° 22', and ih 46' after the
altitude of the lower limb was 42° 12-\', the height
of the eye 14 feet. Required the latitude ?
Firfi; altitude 34° 22' Second altitude 4Z0i2i-'
Sun’s femidiameter -po 16 Semidiameter +016
Dip and refraftion —o 5 Dip and refraft.— o 4f
A T I O N. 733
The greateft altitude was obferved 50’f before 12 Method
or at nh q'i-; hence the firft altitude was obferved at
h ., I the Lati-
9 23 ^ tude and
Example IV. In latitude 49°48'N. by account,the ^"lea.^
fun’s declination’being 90 37' S. at oh 32' P. M. per u—V-~J'
watch, the altitade of the fun’s lower limb was 28°32',
and at 2h 41' it was 190 23', the height of the eye 12
feet. Required the true latitude ?
Firft obferved altit. 28''32' Second altitude 190 23'
Semidiameter -po 16 Semidiameter -f- o 16
Dip and refradlion —o 5 Dip and refr. — o' 6
True altitude 28 43 True altitude 19 35
Thne/>cr wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. byacc. 4904S'Secant. 0.19013
01134' 46B 43'48048 Declination 9 37 Secant 0.00615
* 4> 19 35 335>8 Log. ratio - - 0.09648
4 9 Difference I4530 Log. - 4.x644 7
1 4 30" Half elapfed time ' 0.55637
1 37 0 Middle time 4.91494
3* 3° Rifing 3.00164
Natural number 639 4,80556'
Mer. ztn. dift. 6o°54' N. cofine 48687
Declination 9 37 S.
Latitude 51 15 N.
As the latitude by computation differs r° 27' from
that by account, the operation muft be repeated.
Cbmputed latitude 510 15'Secant 0.20348
.Declination 9 37 Secant 0.00615
Logarithm ratio
Difference of nat. fines 1453°
Half elapfed time ih 4' 30''
Middle time * 1 40 20
0.20963
Log. 4.16227
Log. 0.55637
Log. 4.92827
Rifing
o 35 50 Log. 3.08630
Natural number 753 2.87667
Gr. altitude 283 43'N. fine 48048
Mer. zen. dift. 60 47 N. cofine 48801 .
Decimation 9 37
Corre&ed altitude 34 33 Correbted altit. 42 24
Interval Altit. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 570 o' Secanf. 0.46589
of time. 34° 33' 5671-3 Decimation 10 33 Secant. 0.C0741
4a 24 67430 Logarithm ratio
ill 46' Difference 10717 Log..
Half elapftd time
53
43 30
50 30
Middle ti
Rifing
3-3S343
0.27130
44° 44' N. fine 6743a
4<> 35 N. cofine 68725
Latitude 5 1 1 o N.
As this latitude differs only 5' from that uled in
the computation, it may therefore be depended on
as the. true latitude.
Pros. VII. Given the latitude by account, the
fun’s declination, two obferved altitudes, the clapfed
time, and the courfe and diftance run between the ob-
fervations; to find the ihip’s latitude at the time of
obfervation of the greater altitude.
Rule. Find the angle contained between the
Ihip’s courfe and the fun’s bearing at the time of ob¬
fervation of the leaft altitude, with which enter the
Traverfe Table as a courfe, and the difference of lati¬
tude, anfwering to the diftance made good will be the
redu&ion of altitude.
Now, if the leaft altitude be obferved in the fore¬
noon, the redudtion of altitude is to be applied there¬
to by addition or fubtradion, according as the angle
between!
734
N A V I G
Method between the fhlp’s courfe and the fun’s bearing is
thri atl*’ or niol'e t^an c*R^t points. If the leait altitude
tude and I38 obferved in the afternoon, the contrary rule is to
l.' iiikude be .ufed.
at Sea. difference of longitude in time between tbe
’ obfervations is to be applied to the elapfed time by
addition or fubtra&ion, according as it is eaft or weft.
This is, however, in many cafes to inconfiderable as to
be negle&ed.
With the correfted altitudes and interval, the lati¬
tude by account and fun’s declination at the time of
obferyation of the greateft altitude, the computation is
to be performed by the laft problem.
-Example I. July 6th 171)3, 3n latitude 5h°i4’N.
by account, and longitude ib^E. fit ich 54-' A M. per
watch, the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 530 1 7',
and at 111 17' P. M. the altitude was 52* 51', and bear¬
ing per compafs SW£W ; the fhip’s courfe during
the elapfed time was SAV jW, and the hourly rate of
failing 8 knots, the height of the eye 16 feet. Required
the true latitude at the time of obfervation of the
greater altitude ?
Sun’s bear, at 2d.ob. SWAV. Intervalbet.obferv.zh 23'
Ship’s courfe SiWfWDift.run=2h23X8^=i pm.
A T I O N. Practice.
Difference of natural fines 71 j Log. 2.85431 Meilml
Half elapfed time ib u' JO'' Log. 0.51294 ^
. _ — tu<!e and
Middle time 5 20 Log. 3.66859 Lon MtuJc
Riling
Logarithm ratio
it Sea.
6 10
Log. 3.61686 ~
0.30134
Natural number 2068
Greateft altitude 53° 29/ N. fine 80368
Mer. zen. dill.
Declination
34 29 N. cofine 82436
22 40 N.
Contained angle 3f points.
Now to courfe 3^ points and diftance 19 miles, the
difference of latitude is 14.7 or 15 miles.
Eirft obferved alt. 53° 17' Second obferved alt. 52c 51'
Semidiameter -J-o 16 Semidiame.'er -b° >6
Dip and refradl.—o 4 Dip and refraclion —o 4
True altitude
53 29 Redu&ion —o 15
Reduced altitude 52 48
Time of ob. of gr. alt. ioh54'A. M.Sun’sdec. 220 39'N. Redu&ion of alt.
Longitude in time 1 4 Eq.tor.t.ft-
Latitude 57 9 N-
As this latitude differs only 4 miles from that ufed
in the computation, it may theteiore be depended on
as the true latitude.
Example II. Sept. 13th 1793, in latitude 38° i>'N
by account, and longitude 140 E. at p1* 28' A. M. per
watch, the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 4c0 42',
and azimuth per compafs SE^E, at 1 ih 16' A. M. the,
altitude was 530 ji'; the (hip’s couife during the
elapfed time was W ’ N at the rate of 9 knots an hour,
and height of the eye 12 feet. Required the (hip’s
true latitude at the time of the fecond obfervation ?
Sun’shear.atfirftobf.SE. ^E.Elapf.time 1 Ik48'
Ship’s courfe, WfN. D. run= ih43'X9.= 16m
Contained angle nj points; fuppkmeat 4^ pts.
To courfe 4^ points, and diftance run 16 miles, the
difference latitude is 10'.7, or 11 miles.
Firft obferved alt. 40°42' Second obf. alt. 53° u'
Sun’s femidiameter -j-o 16' Semidiameter -j-o 16
Dip and refradtion —o 4 Dip and refr. —o 4
11 Correfted alt. 53 23
Reduced time
9 50 A. M. Red. deck 22 40 N.
ie/*rwat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 58° 14' Secant.0.27863
roh 54' 53“ ap' 80368 Declination aa 40 Secant. 0.03491
1 17 52 48 79633 Logarithm ratio 0.31354
23 Difference 715
n 30"
Log.
Half elapfed time
Rifing
Log. rati
i 85431
0.51294
3.68079
3-61469
o-3f354
Reduced altitude, 40 43
Timeofob.great.alt. 1 ih 16' Sun’s dec.at noon 3 32,^
Longitude in time, o 56 Eq.to dmefromn.-f- xj-
Reduced time, 10 20 Reduced declin. 3 34
Time/xrWatch. Alt. N. Sine. Lat. by acc 3SJ i 1'Seca-ito.io466
phaS' 40°43' 6513a Deduation 3 34 Secant 0.00084
11 t6 53 23 80264 Logarithm ratio - 0.10550
1 48 Differ. 1503a Log. - . 4.1770*
o 54 Half elapfed time - 0.63181
Middle ti
Riling
4 91333
3.24417
Mer. zen. diftance 34 33 N cofine 82369
Declination ai 40 N.
Latitude 57 13 N.
Since the computed latitude differs fo much from
that by account, it will be neceffary to repeat the
operation.
Computed latitude 570 13'Secant 0.26643
Declination ^2 40 Secant 0.03491
Natural number 1376
Mer. Zen. dift. 35° 16’ N. cofine 81640
Declination 3 34
Latitude 38 50
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines 15032
Half elapfed time oh 5 4' o7
Logarithm rati#
0.30134
Riling
Natural number
Secant 0.00084
Secant 0.10S4&
0.1093*
Log 4.1770*
Log. 0.63181
1 37 50 Log. 4 9,!ii5
D 43 10 Log. 3.*60817
1418 3-i 5157
Greateft
Pra:6lice.
Method Greateft altitude
N A V
53° 13'N. fine S0264
35 14 Ncofine 8168a
I G
Latitude - 38 48 N.
This latitude differing only 2 miles from that ufed
in the computation, may therefore be relied on as -the
true latitude.
Reviark. If the fun comes very near the zenith,
the fines of the altitude will vary fo little as to make
it uncertain which ought to be taken as that belong¬
ing to the natural fine of the meridian altitude. I n this
cafe, the following method will be found preferable
To the log. riling of the time from noon found as
before, add the log fecant of half the fum of the ef-
timate meridian altitude, and greateft. obferved alti¬
tude; from which fubtraft the log. ratio, its in dex be¬
ing increafed by 10, and the remainder will be the log.
fine of an arch ; which added to the greatest altitude
will give the fun’s meridian altitude.
Example. December 2lit 1793* in latitude
220 40 S, by accouni, at uh 57' the correct altitude
of the fun’s centre was 89° 10', and at I2h4'4-",
•the altitude was BS’ 50'. Required the true latitude ?
Times per Wat. A c. N. Sines. Lac. by acc. iu0 40/ Sec. 0.03491
uhj;' o" S90io>99989 Declination 23 28660.0.03749
12 4 40 88 50 99979 Logarithm ratio 0.07240
A T I
Her. alt.
Greateft alt.
Log. ratio. 5
Arch
Greateft altitude
O N.
%
735
fee. 11.91827 JSSg
o tude and
12.05111 Longitude
5.07320 at Sea.
7.77791
Mend, altitude 89 31 zen. dift. o° 29?
, Declination 23 28
Latitude 22 59 S
If the work be repeated with this laft latitude, the
latter part only may be altered.
7 10 Difference 10 log,
o 3 so Half elapfed time
030 Riling
Comp, of lat. by acc. 67° 20'
Declination 23 2 8>
4.84903
0.93284
Latitude
Declination
Eft. mer. alt.
Greateft altitude
Sum
Half
Rifing . .
Arch
Greateft altitude
Meridian altitude
Zenith diltance
Declination
59'
23 28
fecant 0.03592.
fecant 003749
89 31 log. ratio 0.07341
89 roar.com.—5 4 92659
178 41
89 20r
fecant
1.93972
0.93284,
89 to
89 32
o 28
23 28
Greateft altitude
Logarithm ratio + 5
Arch
Greateft altitude
Meridian altitude
90 48
89 10} ^“ir'fec. rr.84609
12.77893
5.07240
o 17'
89 10
89 27 zen. dift.
declination
fine 7.70653
o 33' N
23 28 S
latitude
This differing from the affumed latitude,
muft be repeated.
Latitude 22° 55' fecant
Declination 23 28 fecant
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines,
Half elapfed time
Rifing
Comp, of lat.
Declination
67° S*
23 28
Latitude 23 o S.
Prob. VIII. To find the latitude from double al¬
titudes of the fun and the elapfed time ; one of thefe
obfervations being taken near the ealt or weft points,
and the other near the meridian.
Rule. With the latitude by account, the fun’s
declination and leaft altitude, compute the apparent
time of obfervation by Problem VII. of next chapter.
From whence and the interval of time between the
obfervations, the time from noon when the greateit
altitude was obferved will be known. To the loga¬
rithm rifing of which, add the logarithmic cofines of
the fun’s declination and the latitude of the place by
account; the fum will be the logarithm of a natural
number, which added to the natural fine of the greater
altitude, will give the natural cofine ©f the meridian
zenith diftance ; and hence the latitude is found as
formerly.
Or the time from noon being found, the latitude
may be computed by the rule given in the preceding
remark.
Example. September 1 ft 1.793, in latitude 40°o'N
by account, at 61' $' A. M. per watch, the altitude of
the fun’s lower limb was i6a 21', and at ixh 41' the
altitude was 570 42'; the height of the eye 18 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Second alt. 57** 42'
Sun’s femidia. -j-o 16
Dip and refrac.—o 5
Firit alt. i6p 21’
Sun’s femidia.4-0 16
Dip and refr.—o 7
True altitude 16 30
True altitude 57 53
Lat,
736
Method Lnt. by ncc.
of finding Deci;nati0n
the Lati¬
tude and
"Longitude Difference
at Sea. Altitude
N A V I G
40 oN Secant °>”575
8 3 N Secant 0.00430
31 57 nat. cofine 84851
16 30 nat. fine 28402
Difference 56449 4-75165
Tipie from-noon of firR obf. 5h o' 40; rifwg 4.87170
Interval of time between obf. 4 45 o
Time from noon of 2d obf. o 15 40 rifing 2.36839
-Latitude by acc. 40° o' cofine 9.88425
Declination 8 3 cofine 9.99670
Natural number 178 2-24934
Greater altitude 57 53 nat. fine 84697
' Merid. zen. dift. 31 55 nat.cofine84875
Declination 83
Latitude 39 58 N.
Prob. IX. Given the altitudes of two known ftars,
obferved at the fame or at different times ; and if at
different times, the interval between the obfervations;
to find the latitude.
Rule. If both altitudes be obferved-at the fame
time, call the difference between their right afeenfions
the reduced interval.
But if the altitudes be taken at different times, re¬
duce the interval between the obfervations to fidereal
time, by adding thereto the proportional part anfwer-
ing to the interval, and 3' 56", the daily acceleration
of the fixed ftars. Now to the right afeenfion of the
firft obferved ftar, add the interval in fidereal time,
and the difference between this fum and the right af-
cenfioh of the other ftar will be the reduced intei val
To the logarithm rifing of the reduced interval,
add the logarithmic cofines of the ftars declinations ;
fubtraft the natural number anfwering to the fum of
thefe logarithms from the natural cofine of the diffe¬
rence or fum of the ftars declinations, according as
they are of the fame or of a contrary name, and the
remainder will be the natural fine of arch firft.
To the logarithmic cofine of arch firft add the lo¬
garithmic fecant of declination of the ftar having the
leaft polar diftance, and the logarithm half elapfed
time of the reduced inter^L the fum will be the lo¬
garithm half elapfed time of arch fecond.
From the natural cofine of the difference between
arch firft and the altitude of the ftar having the great-
eft polar diftance, fubtraft the natural fine of the al¬
titude of the other ftar, and find the logarithm of the
remainder ; to which add the logarithm fecant of arch
firft, and the logarithmic fecant of the altitude of the
ftar having the greateft polar diftance, the fum will
be the logarithm rifing of arch third. The difference
between arches fecond and third is arch fourth.
To the logarithm rifing of arch fourth add the
logarithmic cofines of the declination and altitude of
the ftar having the greateft polar diftance ; fubtrad
the correfponding natural number from the natural
cofine of the difference between the altitude and de¬
clination, the polar diftance being lefs than 90? j
N° 239
A T I O N. Practice.
otherwife, from their fum, and the remainder will be Method
the natural fine of the latitude. < f finding
Example I. January ill 1793, ^ true altitude
of Capella was 69° 23', and at the fame inftant the Longitude
true altitude of Sirius was 16^ 19'. Required the la- at Sea.
titude ? 1—y—j
Right afeenfion of Capella 5*’ \r 25"
Right afeenfion of Sirius 6 36 1
Interval
Interval I1' 34' 36'
Capella’s declin. 450 46' N
Sirius’s declin. 16 27 S
Sum
1 34 36
rifing 3.92270
cofine 9.84.60
cofine 9.98185
62 13 N cofine 46613
5599
3-748I5
Arch firft 24 13 N fine ^\o\^co(.^.^6o0o
Capella’s declin. 45 46 fecant 0.15640
Interval i11 34'36'', H. E. time 0.39670
Arch fecond
Arch firft
Sirius’s altitude
1 11 28 {L E. time
24 11 fecant
16 19 fecant
0.51310
0.04000
0.01785
Difference 7 54 N. cofine 99051
Capella’s altitude 69 23 N fine . 93J96
Arch third
Arch fecond
Arch fourth
Sirius’s declin.
altitude
5455 3-73679
3.79464
!'2i' 20w 1 rifing
11 28
9 52 rifing 1.96708
16 27 cofine 9.98185
j 6 19 cofine 9.98215
Sum
Latitude
1.93008
32 46 N coif. 84088
-  ?5_
57 9 N fine 84003
Example II. In north latitude, Decern. 30th 1793,
the true altitude of Menkar waa 430 38'; and ih 18'
after the altitude of Rigel was 290 51'. Required the,
latitude ?
Obferved Interval ih 18' O’'
Equation +0 o 13
Inter, in fid. time 1 18 13
Right af. of Menkar 2 51 31
Sum 4 9 44
Right afc. of Rigel 5 4 34
Reduced interval
Declin.of Menkar
Declin. of Rigel
Sum
Arch firft;
Declip, of Menkar
Reduced interval
Arch fecond
° 54 50
3 16JN
8 27 S
rifing 3'.45462
cofine 9-99929
cofine 9.99526
11 43JrN co. 97913
2813 344917
71 59 N fine 95100 co. 9.49037
3 i6t fecant 0.00071
o 54 50 H. E. time 0.62529
3 19 36 H. E. time 0.11637
Arch
ISTAVlGATICnST.
Praftlce.
Of finding Arch firft
the Longi- Altitude Rigel
tude at Sea °
by Lunar
Obferva- Difference
tions. Alt. of Menkar
Arch third
Arch fecond
N A
71 $9'
29 51
V
fecant
fecant
2h 24'27"
3 19 36
Arch fourth O 55 9
Declin. of Rigel 8 27 S
Alt. of Rigel 2951
Sum
42 8 N cofine 74159
43 38 N fine 69004
Difference 5155
rifing
Latitude
rifing
cofine
cofine
38 18 N cofihe 78478
2472
49 28 N fine 76006
I G
0.50963
0.06181
3.71223
4.28367
3.45960
9.99526
9-938i9
Chap. II. Containing the Method of finding the
Longitude at Sea by Lunar Obfervations.
Sect. I. Introduction.
The obfervations neceffary to determine the longi¬
tude by this method are, the diftance between the fun
and moon, or the moon and a fixed ftar near the eclip-
f «. tic, together with the altitude of each. The flars
ufed in the Nautical Almanac for this purpofe are the
following : namely, “ Arietis, A’debar an, Pollux, Re¬
gains, Spica Virginis, Antares, a. Aquila, Fomalhaut,
and * Pegafi; and the diftances of the moon’s centre
from the fun, and from one or more of thefe Sars,
are contained in the viii. ix. x. and xi. pages of the
month, at the beginning of every third hour apparent
time, by the meridian of Greenwich. The diftance
between the moon and the fun, Or one of thefe ftars;
is obferved with a fextant; and the altitudes of the
objefts are taken as ufual with a Hadley’s qua¬
drant.
In the pra&ice of this method, it will be found
convenient to be provided with three affiftants; two
, of thefe are to take the altitudes of the fun and moon,
or moon and ftar, at the fame time the principal obfer-
ver is taking the diftance between the objefts; and
the third affiftant is to obferve the time, and write
down the obfervations. In order to obtain accuracy,
it will be neceffary to obferve feveral diftances, and
the correfponding altitudes; the intervals of time
between them being as fhort as poffible ; and the Aim
of each divided by the number will give the mean di¬
ftance and mean altitudes ; from which the time of ob-
fervation at Greenwich is to be computed by the rules
to be explained.
If the fun or ftar from which the moon’s diftance
is oblerved be at a proper diftance from the meridian,
the time at the ftiip may be inferred from the altitude
obferved at the fame time with the di'tance : in this
cafe, the watch is not neceffary; but if that objeft be
near the meridian, the watch is abfolutely neceffary,
Vol.XH. Part II.
A T I O N.
in order to conneft the obfervations for afcertaining
the apparent time at the ftiip and the longitude with
each other.
An obferver without any affiftants may very eafily
take all the obfervations, by firft taking the altitudes
of the objefts, then the diftance, and again their alti¬
tudes, and reduce the altitudes to the time of obfer-
vation of the diftance ; or, by a Angle obfervation of
the diftance, the apparent time being known, the Ion*
gitude may be determined.
A fet of obfervations of the diftance between the
moon and a ftar, and their altitudes, may be taken
with accuracy during the time of the evening or
morning twilight; and the obferver, though not much
acquainted with the ftars, will not find it difficult to
diftinguifh the ftar from which the moon’s diftance is
to be obferved. For the time of obfervation nearly, and
the ftfip’s longitude by account being known, the efti-
mate time at Greenwich may be found ; and by enter¬
ing the Nautical Almanac with the reduced time, the
diftance between the moon and given ftar will be
found nearly. Now fet the index of the fextant to
this diftance, and hold the plane of the inftrument fo
as to be nearly at right angles to the line joining the
moon’s cufps, diredl the fight to the moon, and by
giving the fextant a flow vibratory motion, the axis
oi which being that of vifion, the ftar, which is ufu-
aily one of the brighteft in that part of the heavens*
will be feen in the filvered part of the horizon-glafs.
Sect. II. Of the Sextant.
This inftrument is conftru&ed for the exprefs our-
pofe of meafuring with accuracy the angular diftance
between the fun and moon, or between the moon and
a fixed ftar, in order to afeertain the longitude of a
place by lunar obfervations. It is, therefore, made
with more care than the quadrant, and has fome ad¬
ditional appendages that are wanting in that inftru¬
ment.
Fig. 74. reprefents the fextant, fo framed as not to
be liable to bend (m). The arch AA is divided into
1 20 degrees, each degree is divided into three parts ;
each of thefe parts, therefore, contains 20 minutes,
which are again fubdivided by the vernier into every
half minute or 30 feconds. 'J he vernier is numbered
at every fifth of the longer divifions, from the right
towards the left, with 5, 10, 15, and 20; the firft
divifion to the right being the beginning of the feale.
In order to obferve with accuarcy, and make the
images come precifely in contadf, an adjufting ferew
B is added to the index, which may thsreby.be mo¬
ved with greater accuracy than it can be by hand ;
but this ferew does not a6t until the index is fixed
by the finger ferew C. Care fhould be taken not to
force the adjufting ferew when it arrives at either ex¬
tremity of its adjuftment. When the index is to be
moved any confiderable quantity, the ferew C at the
back of the fextant mu ft be loofened ; but when the
index is brought nearly to the divifion required, this
back ferew Ihould"1 be tightened, and then the index
may be moved gradually by the adjufting ferew.
5 A There
737
Of finding
the Longi¬
tude ai Sea
by Lunar
Obferva- .
Plate
cccxLin,
00 Troughton’s patent double-framed fextants are not liable to bend.
OFfinding-
the L.ongi
fade at Sea
by lau.ar
Obfcrva-
Plate
eccxLin,
NAVI G
There are Four tinned glares 1^, each of which h
fet in a Teparcrte frame that turns on a centre. They
are ufed to defend the eye from the brightuefs of the
M r image and the glare of the moon, and may be
ufed feparately or together as oc.nfion requires.
There are three more fuch glaffcs placed behind the
horizon-glafs at E, to weaken the rays of the fun or
moon when they .are viewed dire Sly through the ho-
rizon-glafs. "Phe-paler glafs is fometimes ufed in oh-
ferving altitudes at fea, to take off the ft rung glare'of
the horizon.
The frame of the inclex-glafs 1 is firmly fix'd by a
ftrong cock to the centre plate of the index. The
horizon-glafs F is fixed in a frame that turns on the
axes or pivots, which move in an exterior frame ; the
holes in which the pivots move may be tightened by
four ferews in the exterior frame. G is a ferew by
which the horizds glafs may he fet perpendicular to
the plane of the inlirument : fhoifld this fetew become
loufe or move too cafy, it may be eafily tightened by
turning the capitan-headed ferew fi, which is on one
fide of the focket through which the ftern of the fin¬
ger fen w paff. s.
The fextant is furnifhed with a plain tube (fig.
without any glafles; and to render the objects ftill
more diftin<ft, it has two telefcopes, one (fig. 76.) re-
prefenting the objc&s ered, or in their n ftiiral pofi-
tion : the longer ope (fig- 77 ) /hows them inverted ;
it has a large field of view and other advantages, and
a little ufe will foon accuftom the obferver to the in¬
verted pofition, and the inftrument will be as readily
mrnngtd by it as by the plain tube alone. By a te-
lefcope the contaft of the images is more perfectly
diftinguiftied ; and by the place of tlie images in the
field cdthe telefcope, it is eafy to perceive whether
the fextant is held m the propet place for obfervation.
By Hiding the tube that contains the eye-glafies in
the infide of the other tube, the objeift: is fuited to
different eyes, and made to appear perfe&ly diftincl
and well defined.
The telefcopes are to be ferewed into a circular
ring at K ; this ring refts on two points againll an
exterior ring, and is held thereto by two ferews ; by
turning one or other of thefe ferews, and tightening
the other, the axis of the telefcope may be fet parallel
to the plane of the fextant. The exterior ring is fix¬
ed on a triangular brafs ftem that Aides in a focket,
and by means, of a ferew at the back of the quadrant
may be raifed or lowered fo as to move the centre of
the telefcope to point to that part of the horizon-
glafs which fhall be judged the moft fit for obferva¬
tion. Fig. 78. is a circular head, with tinged glaffes
to ferew on the eye end of either of the telefcopes or
the plain tube. The glaffes are contained in a circu¬
lar plate which'haa four holes ; three of thefe are fit¬
ted with tinged glaffes', the fourth is open. By pref-
fing the finger againll the projecting edge of this
plate, and turning it round, the open hole, or any of
the tinged glaffes, may be brought between the eye-
glafs of the telefcope and the eye.
Fig. 79. is a magnifying glafs, to afiift the obfer-
ver to read off the angle with more accuracy; and
(fig. 80.) a ferew-driver.
Adjiijiments of the Sextant.
The adjuftments cf a fextant are, to 'fet the mir-
A T I Q N. Pra (Slice.
rors perpendicular to its plane and parallel to each Of finding
Other when the index is at Zeno, and to fct the axis ^"5^
of the telefcope parallel to the plane of the inftro- j)V
ment. The three ftrft of thefe adjuftments are per- Obfcrva-
formed nearly in the'fame manner as dire‘led in the tions.
fedlion on the quadrant : as, however, the fextant is
provided with a tet of coloured glaffes placed behind
the horizon-glafs, the index error may be more accu-
ratc.ly determined by meafuring the fun’s diameter
twice, with the ind.ex placed alternately before and be¬
hind the beginning of the divifions : half the difference
of thefe two-meafures will be the index-error, which
mull be added to, or fubtratled from, all obfervations,
according as'the diameter meafured with the index-to
the left of 0 is lefs or greater than the diameter mea¬
fured with the rndex to the right .of the beginning-of
the divilions
Adjujlment IV. "To fet the Axis of the Telefcope parallel
to the Plane of the Injlrument.
Turk the'eye end of the telefcope until the two
wires are parallel to the plane of the .inftrument ; and
let two diftant objects be felecled, as two liars of the
firfl magnitude, whofe diilance is not lefs than 90° or
iooQ ; make the contact of thefe objefts as per¬
fect as pofiible at the wire nearefl the plane of the
inftmment ; fix the index in this pofition ; move the
fextant till the objects are ,feen at the other wire, and
if the fame points are in contact, the axis of the tele-
fcope is parallel to the plane of the fextant; but if
the objells are apparently feparated, or do partly co¬
ver each other, correft half the error by the ferews in
the circular part of the fupporter, one of which is
above and the other between the telefcope and fex¬
tant; turn the adjufting ferew at the .end of the in¬
dex till the limbs are in contadl; then .bring the ob¬
jects to the wire next the inllrument; and if the limbs
are in contadl, the axis of the telefcope is adjufted ;
if not, proceeed as at tire other wire, and continue till
no error remains.
It is fometimes neceffary to know the angular di-
ftancebet-ween the wires of the telefcope: tofind which,
place the wires perpendicular to the plane of the fex¬
tant, hold the inftrument vertical, dicefl the fight to
t'he horizon, and move the fextant in its own plane
till the horizon and upper a ire coincide ; keep the
fextant in this poiition, and move the index till the
refle&ed horizon is covered by the lower wire ; and
the divilion ftiown by the index on the limb, correc¬
ted by the index error, will be the angular diftance
between the wires. Other and better methods will
readily occur to the obferver at land.
Ufe of the Sextant.
When the diftance between the moon and the fun
or a !!ar is to be erbferved, the fextant mull be held fo
that its plane may pafs through the eye of the obfer¬
ver and both objefts; and the refiedled image of the
moft luminous of the two is to be brought in eontacl
with the other feen dvredlly. To effect this, therefore,
it is evident, that when the brighteft obje& is to
the right of the other, the face of the fextant mail be
held upwards ; but if to the left, downwards. When
the face of the fextant is held upwards, the inftrument
fhould b.e fupported with the right hand, and the in¬
dex moved with the left hand. But when the face of
the fextant is from the obferver, it fiiould be held with
Pra&iee. N _ A V 1 G
Of findirg the left hant’, and the motion of the index regulated
he hongi- gy t},e right hand.
"l yVunar Sometimes a fitting pofture will be found very con-
loWrva- venient for the obferver, particularly when the reflec¬
tions. ed object is to the right of the direC one : In this
» v ' cafe, the inftrument is fupported by the light hand,
the elbow may reft on the right knee, the right leg at
the fame time reftipg on the left knee.
If the fextant is provided with a ball and focket,
and a ftaff, one of whofe ends is attached thereto, and
the other refts in a belt faftened round the body of the
obferver, the greater part of the weight of the inftru¬
ment will by this means be fupported by his body.
To ohftt ve the Dijlance between ibe Moon and any celejlial
- Objed.
i. Between the fun and moon.
Put the telefcope in its place, and the wires paral¬
lel to the plane of the inftrument; and if the fun is
very bright, laife the plate before the filvered part of
the fpeculum ; cireC the telefcope to the tranfparent
part ol the horizon-glafs, or to the line of reparation
of the fdvered and tranfparent parts according to the
brightnefs of the fun, and turn down one of the co¬
loured glafles ; then hold the fextant fa that its plane
produced may pafs through the fun and moon, having
its face either upwards or downwards according as the
lun is to the right or left of the moon ; direct the fight
through the telefcope to the moon, and move the in-
Sdex till the limb of the fun is nearly in contaC with
i • the enlightened limb of the moon ; now fallen the in
dex, and by a gentle motion of the inftrument make
the image ol the fun move alternately pall the moon ;
and, when in that pofition where the limbs arc nefcreft
each other, make the coincidence of the limbs per-
itCl by means of the adjufting fcrew : this being ef-
ieCed, read off the degrees and parts of a degree Ihown
by the index on the limb, uling the magnifying glafs;
and thus theangular diftance between the neareft limbs
of the fun and moon is obtained.
' 2. Between the moon and a liar.
Dired the middle of the field of the telefcope to
the find of reparation of the filvered and tranfpnent
puns of the horizon-glafs ; if the moon is very bright,
turn down the lighteft coloured glafs, and hold the
fextant fo that its plane may be parallel to that palling
through the eye ot the obferver and both objeCl,s ;■ its
j face being upwards if the moon is to the right of the
liar, hut if to the left,„the face is to be held from the
cbfavtr ; now diredl the fight through the telefcope
to the liar, and move the index till the moon appears
by reflection to be nearly in contaCl with the liar ;
lafttn the index, and turn the adjulling fcrew till the
coincidence of the liar and enlightened limb of the
moon is perfect : and the degrees and parts of a de¬
gree fl own by the index will be the obftr-ed diftance
between the moon’s enlightened limb and the liar.
'ihe contaCl of the limbs mull always be obferved in
the middle between the parallel wires.
It is fcmetimes difficult lor thole not much accuf-
h tomed to offer vat ions of this kind, to find the refleCl-
| ^ td image in the horizon-glafs : it will perhaps in this
i cafe tc lound more convenient to look dircCliy..to the
cbjeCi, and, by moving the index, to make its image
coincide with that feen dircCily.
A T I O N. 739
SeCt. III. Of the Circular Injlrument f Reflection. th£ Long^
This inftrument was propofed with a view to cor- lby i.unae*
reft the errors to which the fextant is liable ; particu- Ouferva-
larly the error arifiag f^om the inaccuracy of the divf- dons-
lions on the Limb. It confifts of the following partj^ “•J
a circular ring or limb, two moveable indices, two mir¬
rors, a telcfcope, coloured glaffes, &c.
The limb of this inftrument is a complete circle of
metal, and is connected with a perforated central
plate by fix radii : it i« divided into 720 degrees; each
degree is divided into three equal parts ; and the divi-
fion is carried to minutes by means of the index fcale
as nfual.
The two indices are moveable about the fame axis,
which paffes exaCtly through the centre of the iuftra-
ment r—the firft index carries the central mirror, and
the other the tclefcope and horizon-glafs ; each index
being provided with an adjufting fcrew for regulating
its motion, and a fcale for Ihowing the divifions on the
limb.
The central mirror is placed on the fisll index im-
. mediately above the centre ef the inftiument, and its
plane makes an angle of about 30° with the middle
line of the index. The four ferew’s in its pedeftal for
making its plane perpendicular to that of the inftru-'-
ment have fquare heads, and are therefore ealily
turned either w’ay by a key for that purpofe.
The horizon-glafs is placed on the fecond index near
the limb, fo that as few as pofiible may be intercepted
ot the rays proceeding-from the refledled objedl when
to the left. The perpendicular pofition of this glafs
is rectified in the fame manner as that of the horizon-
glafs of a fextant, to which it is fimi{af. It has another
motion, whereby its plane may be difpofed fo as to
make a proper angle with the axis of the teiefcope, and
a line joining its centre, and that of the central mirror.
The teiefcope is attached to the other end of the
index. It is an achromatic aftronomical one, and there-*
fore inverts objects; it has two parallel wires in the
common focus of the glaffes, whofe angular diftance is
between two and three degrees ; and which, at the time
of obfervation, muft be placed parallel to the plane of
the inftrument. This is eafily done, by making the
mark on the eye-piece coincide with that on the tube.
The telefcope is moveable by two ferews in a vertical
diredlion with regard to the plane of the inftrument, but
is not capable of receiving a lateral motion.
There are two fets of coloured glaflbs each fet con¬
taining four, and differing in fhade from each other.
1'he glaffes of the larger fet, which belongs to the cen¬
tral mirror, fliould have each about half the degree of
(hade with which the corrcfpondent glafs of the fet
belonging to the horizon mirror is tinged. Theft*
glaffes are kept tight in their places by fmall preffing
Icrews, and make an angle of about 85'’’ with the plane
of the inffrument; by which means the image from the
coloured glafs is not refle&ed to the telefcope. When
the angle to be tneafured is between 50 and 34°, one
of the glaffes of the largeil fet is to be placed before
the horizon-glafs.
The handle is of wood, and is ferewed to the back
of the inftrumtnt, immediately under the centre, with
which it is to be held at the time of olfcrvation.
5 A 2 Fig.
740 N A V I G
Of finding Fig. 81. is a plan of the ioftrumenj:, wherein theiimb
tu'eat'Iea rePrt^ente^ ^7 t^e div‘tleJ circular plate; A is the
by Lunar centra^ niirror, a a, the places which receive the ftems
Obferva- a a of the glafs fig. 84; EF, thejirft or central index,
tions, with its’fcale and adjufling fcrew; MN, the fecond
or horizon index ; GH, the telefcope ; IK, the fcrews
cccxj.iii. for moving it towards or from the plane of the inftru-
ment; C, the place of the coloured' glafs fig. 83;
and D, its place in ceitain obfervations.
Fig. 82 is a feftion of the inftrumetit, wherein the
feveral parts are referred to by the fame letters as
in Ifig. 81 : Fig. 83. reprefents one of the horizon
coloured glaffes ; and fig. 84. one of the central co¬
loured glafies: Fig. 85. is the key for turning the
adjufting fcrews of the mirrors: Fig. 86. is the
handle : Fig. 87. a fe&ion of one of the radii towards
its middle : Fig. 88. is ufed in feme terreftri-l obfer-
vations for diminiihing the light of the direft objedl,
whofe place at the time of obferyation is D : Fig.
89. is the tool for adjulting the central mirror, and
for reftifying the pofition of the telefcope with re¬
gard to the plane of the inftrument; there is ano¬
ther tool exadtly of the fame fize. The height of
thefe is nearly equal to that of the middle of the
central mirror.
Adjujlments of the Circular Injlrument.
I. Toft the hor’zon-glafs fo that none of the rays from the
central mirrorfhall be refeSed to the telefcope from the ho¬
rizon mirror, 'without pajfng through the coloured glofs
belonging to this loft mirror.—Place the coloured glafs
before the horizon mirror ; direfl the telefcope to the
filvered part of that mirror, and make it nearly pa¬
rallel to the plane of the inftrument ; move the firit in¬
dex ; and if the rayif from the central mirror to the
horizon-glafs, and from thence to the telefcope, have
all the fame degree of fhade with that of the coloured
glafs ufed, the horizon-glafs is in its proper pefition ;
otherwife the pedeftal of the ghfs mull be turned until
the uncoloured images difappear.
II. Place the two adjufting tools on theiimb, about
350° of the inftrument diftant, one on each fide of the
divifion on the left, anfwering to the plane of the cen¬
tral mirror produced : then the eye being placed at
the upper edge of the neareft tool, move the central
index till one half only of the refledfed image of this
tool is feen in the central mirror towards the left, and
move the other tool till its half to the right is hid by
the fame edge of the mirror; then, if the upper edges
of both tools are apparently in the fame ftraight line,
the central mirror is perpendicular to the plane of the
inftrument ; if not, bring them into this pofition by
the fcrews in the pedeftal of the mirror.
III. To fet the horizon mirror perpendicular to the plane
of the inf rumen t.—The central mirror being previoufly
adjufted, diredl the fight through the telefcope to any
well defined diftant objedt ; then if, by moving the
central index, the reflected image paftes exadtly over the
diredf objedf, the mirror is perpendicular ; if not, its
pofition mull be redtified by means of the fcrews in
the pedeftal of the glafs.
A planet, pr ftar of the firft magnitude, will be
found a very proper objedt for this purpofe.
IV. To male the line ofcoliimadon parallel to the plane
of the injlrument, —Lay the initniment horizontally on
A T 1 O N. Pradlice.
a table ; place the two adjufting tools on the limb, to- Of finding
wards the extremities of one of the diameters of the ^
inftrument ; and at about 15 or 20 feet diftant let
well defined mark be placed, fo as to be in the fame obferva-
ftraight line with the tops of the tools; then raife or lions.
lower the telefcope till the plane palling through its ——v-”—1
axis and the tops of the tools is parallel to the plane
of the inftrument, and diredt it to the fixed objedf ;
turn either or both of the fcrews of the telefcope till
the mark is apparently in the middle between the wires;
then is the telefcope adjufted ; and the difference, if
any, between the divifions pointed out hy the indices
of the fcrews will be the error of the indices. Hence
this adjuftment may in future he eafily made.
In this ptocefs the eye tube muft be fo placed as to
obtain diftindt vilion.
V. To find that divifion to which the fecond index being
placed the mirrors 'will be parallel, the central index be¬
ing at Zero.—Having placed the firft index exadtly to
0, direft the telefcope to the horizon mirror, fo that
its field may be bifedted by the line of feparation of
the filvered and tranfparent parts of that mirror ; held
the inftrument vertically, and move the' fecond index
until the diredl and refledled horizons agree ; *and the
divifion Ihown by the index will be that required.
This adjuftment may be pei formed by meafuring the
fun’s diami ter in contrary diredlions, or by making
the refledled and diredl images of a ftar or planet to
coincide.
Ufe of the Circular Infirument.
To obferve the difiance between the fun and moon.
I. The fun being to the right of the moon.
Set a proper coloured glafs before the central mir¬
ror, if the diltance between the objeifts islefs than 35°;
but if above that quantity, place a coloured glafs be¬
fore the hoifzon mirror: make the mirrors parallel, the
firft index being at 0, and hold the inftrument fo that
its plane may be diredled to the objedts, with its face
downwards; or from the ohferver : diredl the fight
through the telefcope to the moon : move the fecond
index, according to the order, of the divifions on the
limb, till the neareft limbs of the fun and moon are
almoft in contadl : fallen that index, and make the
coincidence of the limbs perfedl by the adjufting fetew
belonging thereto : then invert the inftrument, and
move the central index towards the fecond by a quan¬
tity equal to twice the arch paffed over by that index :
diredl the plane of the inftrument to the objedls: look
diredlly to the moon, and the fun will be feen in the
field of the telefcope: fallen the central index, and
make the contadl of the fame two limbs exadl by means
of the adjufting fcrew: Then half the angle Ihown
by the central index will be the diftance between the
neareft limbs of the fun and moon.
II. The fun being to the left of the moon.
Hold the inftrument with its face upwards, fo that
its plane may pafs through both objedls; diredl the te¬
lefcope to the moon, and make its limb coincide with
the neareft limb of the fun’s refledled image, by mo¬
ving the fecond index': now put the inftrument in an
oppofite pofition ; diredl its plane to the objedls, and
the fight to the moon, the central index being previ-
oully moved towards the feeond by a quantity equal to
twice the. meafuied dillance ; and make the fame two .
limbs
tude
I-'
Practice.
Of finding limbs that were before obferved coincide exaftly, by
the Longi- turning the adjufling fcrew of the firft index : then
tn * at. a angje fhown by the firft index will be the an-
Obferva. gular diftantie between the ebfefved limbs of the fun
and moon.
' To obferve the Angular Dtjlance between the Moon and a
Fixed Star or Planet.
I. The ftar being to the right of the moon.
In this cafe the ftar is to be confidered as thedire&
objeft ; and the enlightened limb of the moon’s refledt-
ed image is to be brought in contaft with the ftar or
planet, both by a direft and inverted pofition of the
inftrument, exaftly in the fame manner as defcribed in
the laft article. If the moon’s image is very bright, the
lighteft tinged glafs is to be ufed.
II. The ftar being to the left of the moon.
Proceed in the fame manner as diredfed for obfer-
ving the diftance between the fun and moon, the fun
being to the right of the moon, ufiftg the lighteft
tinged glafs, if neceflary.
Sect. IV. Of the Method of determining the Longitude
from Obfervation.
Pros I. To convert degrees or parts of the equa¬
tor into time.
Rule. Multiply the degrees and parts of a degree
by 4, beginning at the loweft denomination, and the
product will be the correfponding time. Obferving
that minutes multiplied by 4 produce feconds of time,
and degrees multiplied by 4 give minutes.
Example I, Let 26° 45' be reduced to time.
26° 45'
4
NAVIGATION. 74r
cording as it is eaft or weft; and the fum or difference Of finding
will be the correfponding time at Greenwich. the Longi-
t h 4 f o'! ~ time required.
Example II. Reduce 83° 37'to time.
~ 83037'
4
Gorefponding time r: 5 34 28
Prob. II. To convert time into degrees.
Rule. Multiply the given time by 10, to which
add the half of the produft. tThe fum will be the cor¬
refponding degrees.
Example I. Let 3I1 4' 28" be reduced to degrees.
3h 428''
30 44 40
-Halt =15 22 20.
Gorrefpondingdeg. = 46 f o
Example II. Reduce 8h 42' 36' to degreesa
8h 42' 36
87 6 0
43 33 ?
Anfwer 130 39 o
Prob III. Given the time under any known meri¬
dian, to find the correfponding time at Greenwich.
Rule. Let, the given time be reckoned from the.
preceding noon, to which the longitude of the place
in time is to be applied by addition,or fnbtniftion, ac-
 rrefponding time at Greenwich. the x-0»Ri-
Example 1. What time at Greenwich anfwers tr1
6h 15' at a fhip in longitude 76° 45'W ? dbferva-
Time at Ihip - - 6h 15' tions.
Longitude in time - 5 7 W. —y—
Time at Greenwich, - 1122
Example II. Required the time at Greenwich an-i
fwering to 5h 46' 39" of May ift, at Canton, whofe
longitude is 1130 2 I5"E. ?
Time at Canton, May ift 5h 46' 39'
Longitude in time - 7 32 9 E.
Time at Greenwich, April 30. 22 14 30
Prob. IV. To reduce the time at Greenwich to
that under any given meridian.
Rule. Reckon the given time from the preceding
noon, to which add the longitude in time ef eaft, but
fubtradt it if weft; and the fum or remainder will be
the correfponding time under the given meridian.
Example 1. What is the expedled time of the be¬
ginning of the lunar eelipfe of February. 25. 1793, at
a Ihip in longitude 4 09° 48'E ?
Beg. of eclipfe at Greenwich per Naui. Aim. 9I1 23' 45''
Ship’s longitude in time, - 7 19 12
Time of beginning of eclipfe at fhip, 16 4257
Example II. At what time may the immerfion of
the firft fatellite of Jupiter be obferved at Port St Ju¬
lian, in longitude 68s 44'W. which, by the Nautical
Almanac, happens at Greenwich 24th March 1792, at
I?l1 53' l" •
App time, of immerfion at Greenwich 17b 53' 1"
Longitude of Port St Julian in time, 4 34 56 W.
App. time of immer. at Port St Julian, 13 18 5
Pros. V. To find the equation of equal altitudes.
Rule. To the cofecant of half the interval of tim&
in degrees add the tangent of the latitude, and to the
cotangent of half the interval add the tangent of the
declination. Now if the latitude and declination be
of a contrary name, add the covrefponding natural
numbers; but if of the fame name, fubtradl them.
Then to the ar. co. log. of this fum or difference add
the proportional logarithm of one-fourth of the inter¬
val expreffed in time, and the proportional logarithm
of the daily variation of declination, the fum will be
the proportional logarithm of the equation of equal
altitudes in minutes and feconds, which are to be
efteemed feconds and thirds.
Example. Let the latitude of the place of obfer-
vation be 57° 9'N, the interval of time between the :
obfervations of the equal altitudes 5b 1 73 the fun’s de¬
clination 17^ 48'S, and the daily change of declina¬
tion 16' I9"J: Required the equation, of equal alti?
tudes ?
Half the interval—2h 38'’=39° 37'.
4 int.:=390 37'cosbo. 19542 cotang. 0.08209,
Lat. 57 9 tan. 0.18997 dec. 17° 48' ta.9.50659 ,
°-38539 2.4288
3879
9.58868
2.8167 ar*co,lo.9.5 503 5
Qae*-
742
Off.
N' A V l G A T I O N.
ifn? One-fourth interval ih 19'1.5" P.L. c.3563 Alt. =8° 5' rime 2rh 3 5
' Daily variation of declination 16'ip'4 P.L. 1.0424 8 to - 36
' 8 ort. _
39
rfadtee*;
S''A.M. 2h 53''43'P.M. Of fin-tin*
8. 20
8 25
-i- 37 9-37
Sum -
Time of noon/er watch uncone&ed 12 15
Equation,of equal altitud s 20''14"' P-L. 0.9490
Prob. VI. To find the error of a watch by equal
' altitude!! of the fun.
Rule. In the morning when the fun is more than
two hours diftant from the mefidianv let a fet of o&fer-
vations be taken, confiiling, for the fake of greater
accuracy, of at lead three altitudes, which, together
with the correfponding times per watch, are to be Equation of equal altitudes
wrote regularly, the time of each obfervation being rp;me ^ watch of apparent noon
increafed by 1 2 hours. In the Afternoon, obferve the —
inflants when the fun comes to the fame altiuuies, and
write down each oppofite to its refpectivr altitude.—
Now half the fum of any two times anfwering to the
fame altitude will be the time of noon per >vateh u«-
correft Find the mean of all the times of noon thus
deduced from each correfponding pair of obfervations,
.c4 42
52 4'.*
_5‘_3_8_
4.2
53 4,*°5
 37__9J57
30 50.42
5-
Watch faft - - 15 ,
The mean time of noon per watch is found by ap-
plying the equation of time with a contrary fine.
In practice it will be found convenient to put the
index of the quadrantto a certain dfvrfion, arid to wait
till either limb- of the fun attains that attitude.
  , ^ _ Prod. VII. Given the latitude ot a place, the alti-
to which the equation of equal altitudes is to be au- tu(je an(] declination of the fun, to find the apparent
plied by addition of fuhtradtion according as- the fun time, and the error of the watch.
is receding from or approaching to the elevated pole,
and the fum or difference will be the time per watch of
apparent noon, the difference between which and noon
will be the error of the watch for apparent time ; and
the watch will be faft or flow according as the time
of noon thereby is more or lefs than twelve hours.
Rule. If the latitude and declination are of diffe¬
rent names, let their fum be taken ; otherwife, their
differenc -. From the natural cofine of this fum or dif¬
ference fubtradt the natural fine of the corredted alti¬
tude, and find the logarithm of the remainder ; to
which add the log. fecants of the latitude and deefina-
Example. January 29th, 1786, in lat. 57^9 N', the tion : the fum will be the log. rifing of the horary
following equal altitudes of the fun were cbferved : diftance of the objedt from the meiidian, and hence
Required the error of the watch ? the appaient time will be known.
Example I. September tjth 1792, in latitude 330 56' S, and longitude 180 22' E, the mean of the times
pet watch was bh 12' 10" A. M. and that of the altitudes &f the fun’s lower limb 24“ 48' ; height of the eye
24 feet. Required the error of the watch ?
Obf alt. Sun’s lower limb
Stmidiameter
Dip -
24° 48' Sun’s declin. at noon per Nautical Almanac 2a 40'.^ S
-f- 16.0 Equation to 311 48 A. M. - + 3-7
— 4.7 - to 18° 22' Fail - 4-1.2
— 1.9 Reduced declination - - 2 45.4 S
True altitude Sun’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Sum
Sun’s altitude
24 57 4
33 56
2 45-4
36 41.4
24 574
3h 48'5*
fecant
Leant
nat. cofine 80188
nat. fine 42193
Difference- 37995
rifing
log.
0.08109
0.00050
4-57973
4.C6132
Sun’s meridian diftance
Apparent time - -'8119
Time per watch - - 81210
Watch faft - - i 1
Example. II. May 6th 1793, in latitude 56° 4' N, and longitude 38° 30 VV, at 4h 37 4 1. M. per
watch, the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 25° 6.1, and height of the eye 18 Let. Required the error
of the watch for apparent time ?
Altitude fun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip -
Correction
True alt. fun’s centre
- 25'
+
6'. 1
15.9
4.1
Sun’s declin. per Nautical Almanac
Equation to 4h 37' P. M.
to 38° 30' W
Reduced declination
25 16.0
i6°44'-3
+ 3-4
+
16 49.5
Latitude
‘"Praaice.
indin' Latriud*
the L<>n i- D.cciin*t;0I1
:udc ,at Aea
■by Luna-
iablc-v^ Difference
1,1 n • Sun’s akiaide
Apparent time
'l ime per watch
A V I G
5(5 4-0 ,M
a.w 49 J N
T I
fecmt
ft cant
O N.
4h 3 S’ i27
4 3i7 4
nat. eofine 7744'?
nat. fine 4.2683
rtnce- ' 34765
rifinsr
74-5
O. 25319
P. .OI900
Of find nir
the Longi-
tudc at ,Sci
454224
481333
Prob. VilL Given the latitude of a place, the
altitude of a known fixed ftar, and the fun’s right af-
cenfion, to find the apparent time of obfervation and
error of the watch.
Rule. Correft the obferved altitude of the ftar,
and reduce its right afcenfion and declination to the
time of obfervation.
With the latitude of the place, the true altitude
and declination of the ftar, compute its horary di-
ftance from, the meridian by laft problem ; which be¬
ing added to or fnbtrafted from its right afcenfion
according as it was obfer.ved in the weftern or eaftern
hemifphere, the fum or remainder will be the right
afcenfion of the meridian.
; From the right afcenfion of the meridian fubtraft
the fun’s right afcenfion as given in the Nautical Al¬
manac for the noon of the given day, and the remain¬
der will he the approximate time of obfervation.; from
which fubt-raft the proportional part of -the daily va¬
riation of right afcenfion anfwering thereto* and let
the proportional part anfwerrng to the longitude be
added or fubtrafted according as the longitude is eaft
or weft, and the refnlt will be the apparent time of
obfervation ; and hence the .. error of the .watch will
be known. .
Example I December t2th 1792, in latitude
37Q 46' N, and longitude 2ip 1-5' E, the ifdtitude of
Artturus eaft of the meridian was 34° 6'.4, the height
of the eye 10 feet. Required the apparent time of
obfervation ?
Obferved alt. of Ar&urns 34° 6'.4
Dip aad refraction — 4.4
True altitude
Latitude
Declination
Difference
Altitude of Ar&urus
Arflurus’s merid. dift.
right af.
'Right af. of merid.
Sun’s tight nf.
34 2 o
37 46.0 N.
20 14.4 N.
fee 0.10209
fee. o.'oayyS
17 31.6N.co 953.58
34 2.oNfine 55968
Difference 393904-59539
4h 8' 10'' rifing 4.72526
24 6 13
9 58 3
'7 22 59
Approximate time 16 36 4
Eq. to approx, time — 3 .3
Eq. to longitude + 16
Ap. time of obf. 16 33 17
Example If. January 29th 1792, in latitude
53° 24'N, and longitude 25° .18'W, -by account,
at 1411 58 38', the altitude of Procyon weft of the
meridian was 19° ^8'; height of the eye 20 feet. Re¬
quired the error of the watch ?
Obfiralt. of Procyon
Dip and ref rail ion 7
True altitude 19 51
Latitude 53 24 tecant e.2 24.49
Declination 5 45 feeant .0,00219
Difference 47 39 nat. cof. 67366
AltitudeofProcyon 19 51 nat. fine 33956
.Difference 33410 4.5,2388
ProcyonYrnerid. dift. 4h 16 247 rifiqg 4.75066
right af. 7 28 24
Right af. of merid. 11 44 48
Sun’s right af. 20 47 2.2
Approximate time 14 57 26
Eq. to ap. time —o 2 36
Eq. to long. —o o 17
Appaient time 14 54 33
Time per watch 14 58 38
Watch faft 0 4 5
Prob. IX. Given the altitude of the moon, the
latitude of a place, and the apparent time at Green¬
wich, to find the apparent time at the place of ob¬
fervation.
Rule. Correff the altitude of the moon’s limb
by Problem V. p. 731, and reduce its right afcen¬
fion and declination, and the fun’s right afcenfion to
the Greenwich time of obfervation. Now with the
latitude of the place, the declination and altitude of
the moon, compute its meridian diftance a* before :
Which being applied to its right afcenfion:by addi-
.tion or fubtraftion, according as it is in the weftern
or eaftern hemifphere, will give the right afcenfion of
the meridian. Then the fun’s right afeenfton fubtra&ed
from the right afcenfion of the meridian, will give the
apparent time of obferyation.', *
Example. Marched 1793, in latitude 5ic> 38'N, at nh 29-7' P. M. per watch, the altitude of the
moon’s lower limb was 37° 3 T, the height of the eye being 10 feet, and the time at Greenwich 13"-i3'.
Required the error of the watch ? Alti-
744 . , N A
Of finding Altitude of the moon’s lower limb
the Longi Semidiameter
tuie at Sea -ni.
by Lunar ^’P
Obferva Corredlion
tions.
Correfted alt. of moon’s centre
Latitude - -
Declination
V I G
= 37°31'
+ i5
— 3
+ 42
A T I o N.
Moon’s right afceafion at Green, time
declination
Sun’s right afcenfion
Pradice,
7h 2 2' 54't Of finding
17° O N the Lgngi.
2 2h 2' o" ‘J"16 at Sea
23 z 0 by Lunar
Obferva-
38 2Kr
51 38 N
17 o N
fecant
fecant
0.20712
0.01940
Difference
Moon’s altitude
34
38
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
Moon’s meridian diftance
. right afcenfion
Right afcenfion of meridian
Sun’s right afcenfion
rifing
4.30412
4.53064
Apparent time at fiiip
Time per watch
Watch flow
Prob.X. Given the apparent diftance between the moon and the fun or a fixed ftar, to find the true
diftance.
Rule. To the logarithmic difference anfwering to the moon’s apparent altitude and horizontal paral¬
lax, add the logarithmic fines of half the fum, and half the difference of the apparent diftance and
difference of the apparent altitudes ; half the fum will be the logarithmic cofine of an arch : now add the
logarithm fines of the fum and difference of this arch, and half the difference of the true altitudes, and half
the fum will be the logarithmic cofine of half the true diftance.
Example. Let the apparent altitude of the moon’s centre be 48° 22', that of the fun’s 270 43', the ap¬
parent central diftance 8i° 23' 40'', and the moon’s horizontal parallax' 58' 45". Required the true diftaqce 2
Apparent altitude fun’s centre - 270 43' o" Apparent altitude moon’s centre - 48° 22'
Corre&ion
— 1 40
Correction
+ 38 26'
Sun’s true altitude
Sun’s apparent altitude
27 41 20
27 43
Moon’s true altitude
Sun’s true altitude
49 o 26
27 41 20
Moon’s apparent altitude
48 22
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
Half difference true altitudes
Arch
Sum
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
10 39 33
9.994638
Half
Half
51 1 20'
30 22 20
Sine
Sine
0.890629
9.703820
cofine
fine
fine
19.589097
9.794548
9.946417
9.815.83
40 32 16
cofine
19.761600
98808CO
4 3Z
True diftance
Prob. XT. To find the time at Greenwich anfwer-
iJig to a given diftance between the moon and the
fun, or one of the ftars, ufed in the Nautical Alma¬
nac.
Rule. If the giv£h diftance is found in the Nau¬
tical Almanac oppofite to the given day of the month,
or to that which immediately precedes or follows it,
N° 239.
the time is found at the top of the page. But if this
diftance is not found exaftly in the ephemeris, fub-
tra£l the prop. log. of the difference between the di-
ftances which immediately precede and follow the gi¬
ven diftance ; from the prop. log. of the difference be¬
tween the given and preceding diftanecs, the rema'n-
der will be the prop. log. of the excefs of the time
corre-
ra&’ice. NAVIGATION. 74i.
>f finding correfponding to the given diftance, above that an- this time, take from the Nautical Almanac, page vti. Of finding
|e Longi- fwering to the preceding diftance: And hence the ap- of the month, the moon’s horizontal parallax and
parent time at Greenwich is known. midiameter. Increafe the femidiameter by the aug-^y Luna^
ferva- Example. September 21. 1792, the true diftance mentation anfwering to the moon’s altitude. Obferva-
ns between the centres of the fun and moon was Find the apparent and true altitudes of each ob-tions.
68° 13' 8". Required the apparent time at Green- ject’s centre, and the apparent central diftance; with —
Diff=o°r9'4i"
Diff.= i 36 39
> 36 39
which compute the true diftance by Problem X. and
find the apparent time at Greenwich anfwering there-
P. log. 961* ' to by the laft problem.
P. log. *701 If the fun or ftar be at a proper diftance from the?
 meridian at the time of obfervation of the diftance,
• cg-fiprr compUte the apparent time at the ftrip. If not, the.
error of the watch may be found from obfervationa
taken either before or after that of the diftance ,* or
the apparent time may be inferred from the moon’a
altitude taken with the diftance, by Problem IX.
The difference between the apparent times of ob*
fervation at the ftiip and Greenwich, will be the lon¬
gitude of the ftiip in time ; which is eaft or weft ac¬
cording as the time at the ftiip is later or earlier than
the Greenwich time.
wich ?
Given diftance 6S° 13'
JDift. at ix hours 67 53 :
Dili at xii hours 69 30
Excefs
Preceding time
App. time at Greenwich 9 36 39
Prob. XII. The latitude of a place and its longi¬
tude by account being given, together with the di¬
ftance between, and the altitude of the moon and the
fun, or one of the liars in the Nautical Almanac ; to
find the true longitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Reduce the eftimate time of obfervation to
the meridian of Greenwich by Problem III. and to
Example I. March 17. 1792, in latitude 340 53' N, and longitude by account 27° W, about 911 A. M.
the diftance between the neareft limbs of the fun and moon was 68° 3'^ ; the altitude of the fun’s lower limb
330 18'; that of the moon’s upper limb 31? 3'; and the height of the eye 12 feet. Required the true longi¬
tude of the (hip ?
Time at (hip
Longitude in time
Reduced time
Altitude moon’s upper limb
Aug. femidiameter
Dip
Apparent altitude
Corredlion
Moon’s true altitude
Sun’s apparent altitude
Moon’s apparent altitude
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
Half difference true altitudes
Arch
Sum
Difference
Half true diftance
True diftance
Voit. XII. Part. IL
3* 32 49
33° 3°' 48'
3° 43 23
2 47 25
68 35 40
7i 23 5.
65 48 15
o 58 20
55 54 12
56 52 32
54 55 52
34 6 53
2
68 13 46
Did. fun and. moon’f
Sun’s femidiameter
Moon’s femidiameter
Augmentation
Apparent central diftance
Altitude fun’s, lower limb
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip
Sun’s apparent altitude
Correction
Sun’s true altitude
Moon’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
neareft limbs
Half
Half
35° 41' 32"~’- Sine
32 54 7 t Sine
Sine
Sine
68° 3 r?"
+ 16 6
-f 16 10
+ 09
68 35 4:?
33 ‘8
-f 16 6
- 3 18.
33 3° 48
— o 1 19
33 29 29
31 32 49
1 56 40
o 58 20
9*99^33.^
9.765991
9-734964
19.497291
9.748645
9-922977
9-912998
z9-83S975
9-9179$7
5B
Tivs
746 NAVI
f)f finding True diftanee C8° 13' 46"
the. Long.- -p;{laBce at XXI hours - 691120
ti eat cS j)j^ance at noon . 67 32 38
CATION.
Difference
Difference
o6 57' 34"
1 38 4*
P.log.
P.log.
Per. log.
Praftice:,
Of finding
20 10 by Lunar I
 Obferva. ||
2341 tions.
Apparent time at Greenwich
.Latitude - 340 53'.o N
Declination - o 3,7.9 S
Secant
Secant
Rum
Sun’s altitude
Time from noon
35 50.9 Nat. cofrne - 8r057
33 29.5 Nat. fine - 55181
25876
0.08602
0.00006
4.41291
4.49899
3h y 13" ~ Rifing
Apparent time - 20 52 47
App. time at Green. 22 45 o
Longitude in time - I 52 13 = 28° 3’^ W.
Example If. September 2. 1 792, in latitude 13 0 57 N, and longitude by account 56° E, feveral obfef.
vations of the moon and altair were taken ; the mean of the times per watch was ih 18' 59" A. M. that of the
diftance between altair and the moon’s neareft limb 580 45' 26"; the mean of the altitude of the moon’s lower
i° 33'; and that of altair 250 27'.4 ; height of the eye 13 feet. Required the true longitude ?
     A . 11 7 O ' p« / A 7\ L 1/l.n M n a A c? V
limb 70° _
Time per watch
Longitude in time
Reduced time
Altitude moon
Semidiameter and dip
Apparent alt. moon
Corredtion
True altitude moon
Moon’s apparent alt.
Altair’s apparent alt. 25 24
18' 59" A. M.
3 44 o
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
Half diff. true alt.
Arch
Sum
Difference
Half true diftance
44 56
59 1 54
103 57 54
H 5 54
3» 50
1 57
94 40 47
49 *3 7
29 33 484-
True diftance - 59 7 37
Diftance at IX hours 58 51 17
— at XII hours 60 24 34
Proportional part
Preceding time
Apparent time at Greenwich
3
Diftance moon and altair
Augmented femidiameter
Apparent central diftance
Altitude of altair
Dip
Apparent altitude altair
Refraftion
True altitude altair
Moon’s true altitude
Half
Logarithmic difference
Half
Half
Sl° 58' 5/
7 2 57
Difference
Difference
O0 16' 2C"
I 33 *7
o 31 31
900
Sine
Sine
Sine
Sine
P. log.
P. log.
P. log.
58°45' 26"
4-0 16 28
59 1 54
25°27'-4
—° 3-4
25 22 o
70 39 40
22 38 50
9.993 ici
9.896428
9.088919
18.978448
9.489224
9.998548
9.880301
19.878849
9-939424
1.0422
0.2855
o-7567
Latitude
ira&ice.
.nation Latitude
►f the Declination
ampafs.
DifFei'ence
Altitude altair
NAVIGATION.
*3° 57' N Secant
8 19.8 N Secant
747
<3.01300 Variation
0.00461 °fth*
^ Compafsj
S 37-*
25 22-
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
99519
42841
56678-
4.75341
4.7710a
Altair’s meridian diftance
  right afcenfion
Right afcenfion meridian
Sun’s right afcenfion
Apparent time at fliip
Apparent time at Greenwich
Longitude in time - 3 46 6 == 56° 31'r Eaft.
For various other methods of determining the longitude of a place, the reader is referred to the article
Longitude.
True amplitude - N 67 13 E Cofine o.c88o*
Chap. III. Of the Variation of the Compafs. Obferved amplitude N 78 45 E
The variation of the compafs is the deviation of
the. points of the mariner’s compafs from the corre-
fponding points of the horizon ; and is denominated
eajl or wejl variation, according as the north point of
the compafs is to the eaft or weft of the true north
point of the horizon.
A particular account of the variation, and of the
ftveral inftruments ufed for determining it from ob-
fervation, may be feen under the articles Azimuth,
Compass, and Variation : and for the method of
communicating magnetifm to compafs needles, fee
Magnetism.
Pros. I. Given the latitude of a place, and the
fun’s magnetic amplitude, to find the variation of the
compafs.
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude, add the
log. fine of the fun’s declination, the fum will be the
Jog. cofine of the true amplitude ; to be reckoned from
the north or fouth according as the declination is
north or fouth.
The difference between the true and obferved am¬
plitudes, reckoned from the fame point, and if of the
fame name, is the variation ; but if of a different name,
their fum is the variation.
If the obfervation be made in the eaftern hemi-
fphere, the variation will be eaft or weft according
as the obferved amplitude is nearer to or more remote
from the north than the tffie amplitude. The contrary
rule holds good in obfervations taken in the weftern
hemifphere.
Example I. May 15. 1794, in latitude 330
10'N, longitude i8J W, about 511 A. M. the fun
was obferved to rife EiN. Required the variation ?
Sun’s dec. May 1 j. at soon i8058'N.
Equation to 7 'from noon o 4
Variation
caufe the obferved
xt 32; which is weft,he-
iphtude is more diftant from the
north than the true amplitude ; the obfervation beine-
made in the eaftern hemifphere. 6
Example II. December 20. 1793, in latitude
3i°38’ S, longitude 830 W, the fun was obferved to
fet SW. Required the variation ?
Latitude
Declination
3 l° 38'
23 28
Secant
Sine
0.06985
9.600'! 2
True amplitude S 62 7 W
Obferved ampl. S 45 o W
Cofine 9.66997
to x8° W
Reduced declination
Latitude
+0
18 55 Sine 9.51080
33 10 Secanto.07723
True amplitude « N 67 13 E Cofine 9.58803
Variation _ 17 7 ; which is M/?, as theo bfer-
ved amplitude is farther from the north than the true
amplitude, the obfervation being made at fun-fetting.
It may be remarked, that the fun’s amplitude ought
to be obferved at the inftant the altitude of its lower
limb is equal to the fum of 15 minutes and the dip
of the horizon. Thus, if an obferver be elevated 18
feet above the furface of the fea, the amplitude ftiould.
be taken at the inftant the altitude of the fun’s lower
limb is 19 minutes
Prob. II. Given the magnetic azimuth, the altL
tude and declination of the fun, together with the la¬
titude of the place of obfervation ; to find the varia¬
tion of the compafs.
Rule. Reduce the fun’s declination to the time
and place of obfervation, and .compute the true altitude
of the fun’s centre.
Find the fum of the fun’s polar diftance and altitude
and the latitude of the place, take the difference be¬
tween the half of this fum and the polar diftance.
To the log. fecant of the altitude add the log. fe¬
cant of the latitude, the Ipg , cofine of the half fum,
and the log. cofine of the difference ; half the fum of
thefe will be the log. fine of half the fun’s true azimuth,
to be reckoned from the fouth in north latitude, but
from the north in fouth latitude.
The difference between the true and obferved azi¬
muths will bo the variation as formerly, ■
5 B 2
Example
74* NAVIGATION. Prattlce*!
Variation EtAftPLE I- November 18. 1793, *n latitude 50° 22'N, longitude W, about three quarters Variation t
of the pa^ eight A. M. the altitude of the fun’* lower limb was 8° 10', and bearing per compafs S. 230 18'Ej of the
. oml>a *■. hpio-hr of the eve 20 feet. Reouired the variation of the comoafs ? Gompaf*.^
- =8° IQ
j height of the eye 20 feet. Required the variation of the compafs ?
Sun’s declin. iSthNov. at noon 190 25'S. Obfervedalt. fun’s lower limb
Equation to 3^h from noon
 to 240 30' W
Reduced declination
Polar difiance
Altitude
Latitude
Sum
Half
Difference
Half true azimuth
109 24
8 16
50 22
168 2
84 1
25 23
22 43
Semidiameter
Dip and refra&ion
Secant
Secant
Cofine
Cofrne
9.01803
9.95591
*9-17375
9.58687
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth
Variation
S. 45 26 E.
S. 23 18 E.
3 W.
Example II. January 3. 1791., in latitude 330 52' N, longitude 530 15' E, about half paft three the
altitude of the fun’s lower limb 41° 18', and azimuth S. 50° 25' W. the height of the eye being 20 feet Re.
quired the variation ?
Sun’s declination at noon
Equation to time from noon
  to longitude
Reduced declination
Polar diflance
Altitude
Latitude
Sum - *
Half - i
Difference
24' S.
24 S.
24
28
Obferved alt. fun’s lower limb.
Sun’s femidiameter ■*
Dip and refradtion
Secant
Secant
186 44
93 22
18 2
Cofine
Cofine
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth
S. 34 46 W.
S. 50 25 W.
Variation ^5 39 W.
Chap- IV. 0/a Ship's Journal.
A journal is a regular and exaft regifter of all
the various tranfaftions that happen aboard a fhip whe¬
ther at fea or land, and more particularly that which
coacerns a (hip’s way, from whence her place at noon
•r any other time may be juftly ascertained.
That part of the account which is kept at fea is
called/fa-wonf ; and the remarks taken down while the
'fhip is in port are called harbour-work.
At fea, the day begins at noon, and ends at the
noon of the following day: the firft 12 hours, or
thofe contained between noon and midnight, are de¬
noted by P. M fignifying a/ier mid-day; and the
=41° j8
+ 16
— 6
41 28
0.12532
0.08075
■ 8.76883
9-97558
18.95048
9.47524
other 12 hours, or thofe from midnight to noon, are
denoted by A. M. fignifying before mid-day. A day’s
work marked Wcdnefday March 6. began on Tues¬
day at noon, and ended on Wedncfday at noon. The
days of the week are ufually reprefented by aftrono-
mical charafters Thus © reprefents Sunday; J)
Monday; f Tuefday; $ Wednefday ; if Thurs¬
day ; ? Friday; and I) Saturday.
When a fhip is bound to a port fo fituated that flic
will be out of fight of land, the bearing and diflance
of the port mull be found. This may be done by-
Mercator’s or Middle -latitude Sailing; but the moft
expeditious method is by a chart. If iflands, capes,
or headlands intervene, it will be neceffary to find
the feveral courfe and diftances between each fuc-
4 eeffively.
Practice. N A V I G
Ship’s ccffively. TKe true courfe between the places muft be
Journal. redueed to the courfe per compafs, by allowing the
var;ation to the right or left of the true courfe, accord¬
ing as it is weft or eaft.
At the time of leaving the land, the bearing of
fome known place is to be obferved, and its diftance
is ufually found by eftimation. As perhaps the diftance
thus found will be liable to fome error, particularly
in hazy or foggy weather^ or when that diftance is
confiderable, it will therefore be proper to ufe the
following method for this purpofe.
Let the bearing be obferved of the place from which
the departure is to be taken; and the ftiip having run
a certain diftance on a direfit courfe, the bearing of the
fan e place is to be again obferved. Now having one
fide of a plane triangle* namely the diftance failed and
all the angles, the other diftances may be found by
Prob. I. of Oblique Sailing.
The method of finding the courfe and diftance failed
in a given time is by the compafs, the log line* and
half-minute-glafs. Thefe have been already defcribed.
In the royal navy, and in ihips in the fervice of the
Eaft India company, the log is hove once every hour ;
but in moft other trading veffels only every two hours.
The feveral courfes and diftances failed in the
eourfe of 24 hours* or between noon and noon, and
whatever remarks that are thought worthy of notice,
are fet down with chalk on a board painted black,
called the log-board, which is ufually divided into fix
columns: the firft column on the left hand contains
the hours from noon to noon ; the fecond and third
the knots and parts of a knot failed every hour, or
every two hours, according as the log is marked ; the
fourth column contains the courfes fleered; the fifth
the winds; and in the fixth the various remarks and
phenomena are written. The log-board is tranf-
cribed every day at noon into the log-book, which
is ruled and divided after the fame manner.
The courfes fleered muft be corre&ed by the varia¬
tion of the compafs and leeway. If the variation is
weft, it muft be allowed to the left hand of the courfe
fleered ; but if eaft, to the right hand in order to ob¬
tain the true courfe. The leeway is to be allowed to
the right or left of the courfe fleered according as
the fhip is on the larboard or ftarboard tack. The
method of finding the variation, which fhould be de¬
termined daily if poffible, is given in the preceding
chapter; and the leeway may be underftood from
what follows.
When a fhip is clofe hauled, that part of the wind
which a£ls upon the hull and rigging, together with
a confiderable part of the force which is exerted on
the fails, tends to drive her to the leeward. But
fince the bow of a (hip expofes lefs furface to the wa¬
ter than her fide, the refiftance will be lefs in the firft
cafe than in the fecond ; the velocity in the dire&ion
of her head will therefore in moft cafes be greater
than the velocity in the dire&ion of her fide 5 and
the {hip’s real courfe will be between the two direc¬
tions. The angle formed between the line of her ap¬
parent courfe and the line fhe really deferibes through
the water is called the angle of leeway, or Amply the
leeway.
There are many circumftances which prevent the
A T I O N. 749
laying down rules for the allowance of leeway. The Ship’s
conftru&ion of different vefielt, their trim with re- Journal,
gard to the nature and quantity of their cargo, the ■•~r"4
pofition and magnitude of the fail fet, and the velocity
of the fhip, together with the fwell of the fea, are all
fufceptible of great variation, and very much affedt the
leeway. The following rules are, however, ufually
given for this purpofe.
1. When a fhip is clofe hauled, has all her fails fet,
the water fmooth, with a light breeze of wind, fhe is
then fuppofed to make little or no leeway.
2. Allow one point when the top-gallant fails are
handed.
3. Allow two points when under clofe reefed top.
fails.
4. Allow two points and an half when one topfail
is handed.
5. Allow three points and an half when both top*-
fails are handed.
6. Allow four points when the fore-courfe is handed.
7. Allow five points when under the mainfail only.
8. Allow fix points when under balanced mizen.
9. Allow feven points when under bare poles.
Thefe allowances may be of fome ufe to work up
the day’s works of a journal which has been negledled j
but a prudent navigator will never be guilty of this
negleft. A very good method of eftimating the lee¬
way is to obferve the bearing of the fhip’s wake as
frequently as may be judged neceflaty ; which may be
conveniently enough done by drawing a fmall femi-
circle oni the tafferel, with its diameter at right angles
to the fhip’s length, and dividing its circumference
into points and quarters. The angle contained be*-
tween the femidiameter which points right aft and
that which points in the diretflion of the wake is the
leeway. But the beft and moft rational way of bring¬
ing the leeway into the day’s log is to have a compafs
or femicircle on the tafferel, as before defcribed, with
a low crutch or fwivel in its centre : after heaving the
log, the line maybe flipped into the crutch juft before
it is drawn in, and the angle it makes on the limb
with the line drawn right aft will fhow the leeway
very accurately ; which as a neceffary article, ought to
be entered into a feparate eolumn againft the hourly
diftance on the log-board.
In hard blowing weather, with a contrary wind
and a high fea, it is impofiible to gain any advantage
by failing. In fuch cafes, therefore, the objedl is to
avoid as much as poffible being driven back. With
this intention it is ufual to lie to under no more fail
than is fufficient to prevent the violent rolling which
the veffel would otherwife acquire, to the endangering
her malls, and (training her timbers, &c. When a fhip
is brought to, the tiller is put clofe over to the leeward,
which brings her head round to the wind. The wind
having then very little power on the fails, the fhip lofes
her way through the water; which ceafing to aft on
the rudder, her head falls off from the'wind, the fail
which fhe has fet fills, and gives her frefh way through
the water; which afting on the rudder brings her head
again to the wind. Thus the fhip has a kind of vibra¬
tory motion, coming up to the wind and falling off
from it again alternately. Now the middle point be¬
tween thofe upon which fhe comes up and falls off is
takeit
75t> N A V I G
Ship’s taken for her apparent courfe ; and the leeway and
. jouTial. , var;at]oa ;s be allowed from thence, to find the true
* courfe.
The fetting and drift of currents, and the heave
of the fea, are to be marked down. Thefe are to be
corre&ed by variation only
The computation made from the feveral courfes
corre&ed as above, and their correfponding dillances,
is called a day’s wort; and the fhip’s place, as deduced
therefrom, is called her place by account, or dead-rec¬
koning.
It is almoft coufiantly found that the latitude by
account does not agree with that by obfervatiou.
From an attentive confideration of the nature and form
of the common log, that its place is alterable by the
weight of the line, by currents, and other caufes, and
alfo the errors, to which the courfe is liable, from the
very often wrong pofition of the compafs in the bin¬
nacle, the variation not being, well afcertained, an
exaft agreement of the latitudes cannot be expected.
When the difference of longitude is to be found by
dead reckoning, if then the latitudes by account and
obfervation difagree, feveral writers on navigation have
propofed to apply a conjeftural correftion to the de¬
parture or difference of longitude. Thus, if the courfe
be near the meridian, the error is wholly attributed to
the diftance, and the departure is to be increafed or
diminifhed accordingly : if near the parallel, the courfe
only is fuppofed to be erroneous; and if the courfe
is towards the middle of the quadrant, the courfe and
diftance are both affumed wrong. This laft corre&ion
will, according to different authors, place the Ihip up¬
on oppofite fides of her meridian by account. As
thefe correftions are, therefore, no better than guef-
fing, they ihould be abfolutely reje&ed.
If the latitudes are not found to agree, the naviga¬
tor ought to examine his log-line and half-minute glafs,
and correft the diftance accordingly. He is then to
confider if the variation and leeway have been properly
afcertained ; if not, the courfes are to be again cor-
re&ed, and no other alteration whatever is to be made
on them. He is next to obferve if the. fhip’s place
has been affeded by a current or heave of the fea, and
to allow for them according to the beft of his judge¬
ment. By applying thefe corre&ions, the latitudes
will generally be found to agree tolerably well; and
the longitude is not to receive any farther alteration.
A T I O N. Pra&ice*
It will be proper, however, for the navigator to Ship’s
determine the longitude of the fhip from obiervation Jourra1,,
as often as poffible ; and the reckoning is to be carried ’ J
forward in the ufual manner from the latt good obfer¬
vation : yet it will perhaps be very fatisfadiory to keep
a feparate account of the longitude by dead-reckoning.
General Rules for working a Day’s Work.
Corredt the feveral courfes for variation and leeway
place them, and the correfponding diftances, in a table
prepared for thatpurpofe. From whence, by Travel fe
Sailing, find the difference of latitude and departure
made good: hence the correfponding courfe and di¬
ftance, and the fhip’s prefent latitude, will be known.
Find the middle latitude at the top or bottom of the
Traverfe Table, and the diftance, anfwering to the
departure found in a latitude column, will be the dif¬
ference of longitude : Or, the departure anfwering to
the courfe made good, and the meridional difference
of latitude in a latitude column, is the difference of lon¬
gitude. The fum, or difference of which, and the
longitude left, according as they are of the fame or o£
a contrary name, will be the fhip’s prefent longitude
of the fame name with the greater.
Compute the difference of latitude between the fhip
and the intended port, or any other place whofe
bearing and diftance may be required: find alfo the
meridional difference of latitude and the difference of
longitude. Now the courfe anfwering the meridional
difference of latitude found in a latitude column, and
the difference of longitude in a departure column, will
be the bearing of the place, and the diftance anfwer¬
ing to the difference of latitude will be the di¬
ftance of the fhip from the propofed place. If thefc
numbers exceed the limits of the Table, it will be ne-
ceffary to take aliquot parts of them ; and the di¬
ftance is to be multiplied by the number by which
the difference of latitude is divided.
It will fometimes be neceffary to keep an account
of the meridian diftance, efpecially in the Baltic or
Mediterranean trade, where charts are ufed in which the
longitude is not maiked. The meridian diftance on
the firft: day is that day’s departure; and any other
day it is equal to the fum or difference of the preced¬
ing day’s meridian diftance and the day’s departures,
according as they are of the fame or of a contrary de¬
nomination.
A JoURNAS
m H
Fraftice.
NAVIGATION.
75*
journal. A Journal of a Voyage from London to Funchal in Madeira, in his Majefty’s Ship Journal
' the Refoluton, A M Commander, anno 1793. u—y—.
Days of Month.
I) Sept. 28.
O Sept. 29.
D Sept. 30.
Remarks on board his Majeity’s fhip Refolution, 1793.
g^. Strong gales and heavy rain. At 3 P. M. fent down top gallant yards ; at
11 A. M. the pilot came on board.
SW
Variable
O&ob. 1.
$ oa0b. 2i-
% oaob. 3.
$ Oftob. 4.
ssw
SW
Variable
N££
N^E
N
N
NNE
Moderate and cloudy, with rain. At 10 A. M. cad loofe from the fheer
hulk at Deptford ; got up top-gallant yards, and made fail down the river. At
noon running through Blackwall reach.
The firft part moderate, the latter fqually with rain. At half pad one an¬
chored at the Galleons, and moored fhip with near a whole cable each way in
5 fathoms, a quarter of a mile off fhore. At 3 A. M. ftrong gales : got down
top-gallant yards. A. M. the people employed working up junk. Bent the
fheet cable.
Frefh gales and fqually. P. M. received the remainder of the boatfwain’s and
carpenter’s ftores on board. The clerk of the cheque muftered the fhip’s com¬
pany.
Variable weather, with rain. At noon weighed and made fail; at 5 anchored
in Long-reach in 8 fathoms. Received the powder on board. At 6 A. M.
weighed and got down the river. At 10 A. M pad the Nsre ; brought to and
hoided in the boats; double reefed the topfails, and made fail for the Downs.
At noon running forthe flats of Margate.
Fird part dormy weather ; latter moderate and clear. At 4 P M. got thnough
Margate Roads. At 5 run through the Downs; and at 6 anchored in Dover-
road, in 10 fathoms muddy ground. Dover Cadle bore north, and the fouth
Foreland NE£E^E off fhore i J miles. Difcharged the pilot. Employed ma¬
king points, &c. for the fails. Scaled the guns.
Moderate and fair. Employed working up junk. Received from Deal a
cutter of 17 feet, with materials. A. M. drong gales and fqually, with rain ;
got down top-gallant yards.    
Hours. Kn. Fa.
llemarks, Pj 0<d. 5. 1793.
Frefh gales with rain.
Hove fhort.
Weighed and made fail.
Shortened fail.—Dungenefs light NE£E.
Frefh breezes, and cloudy.
Ditto weather.
Got up top-gallant yards.
Set fludding fails.
Ditto weather.
St Alban’s Head NiE.
*4 Journo?
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Praclice.
Sh.p’s
Courfe.
S. 52° jW.
Courfes.
NE
Remarks, © O&ober 6. 1793.
A frefli Heady gale.
Do. weather.
Spoke the Ranger of London, from Carolina.
Took in ftudding fails.
Eddiftone light NiW.
Do. weather.
Eddiftone light NE.
Do. weather.
Set lower ftudding fails.
Frefh breeze and clear weather.
N. Latitude by W.Lon.by
DL. Dep. Acc. Obf. D. Long. Acc.jObf. W.Var.
57 74 49° n' 49° 9' n^W. 6°t8'
\ pts. |
As there is no land in fight this day at noon, and from the courfe and diftance run fince the laft bearing of
the Eddiftone light was taken, it is not to be fuppofed that any part of England will be feen, the departure
is therefore taken from the Eddiftone ; and the diftance of the (hip from that place is found by refolving an
oblique angled plane triangle, in which all the angles are given, and one fide, namely, the diftance run (16
miles) between the obfervations. Hence the diftance from the Eddiftone at the time the laft bearing of the light
was taken will be found equal to 18 miles; and as the bearing of the Eddiftone from the (hip at that time was
NE, the (hip's bearing from the Eddiftone was SE. Now the variation appoints W. being allowed to the left
of SW. gives SiWIW, the true courfe. The other courfes are in like manner to be corredted, and inferted
in the following table, together with their refpeflive diftances, beginning at 10 o’clock AM. the time when
the laft bearing of the Eddiftone was taken The difference of latitude, departure, courfe, and diftance,
made good, are to be found by Traverfe Sailing.
Courfes.
SiW’W
WJSiS
SW]W
S 524-° W.
93
17.0
5-3
34-6
Departure
E.
—
Latitude of Eddiftone
56.9=57™.
W.
6.1
21-3
46 6
74.0
50 8N.
Latitude by account - 49 11N.
Sum - - 99 ‘9
Middle latitude - - 49 4°
Now to middle latitude as a courfe, and the depar¬
ture 74™. in a latitude column, the difference of long,
in a diftance column is 114 = I® 54'W.
Longitude of Eddiftone - 4 24 W
Longitude in by account
6 t8W.
N9 335
A Journal
navigation.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Couri'es.
SW.
Dift.|DL.ll)ep.
78 1 62
| N. Latitude by
Acc. FcfijT
Remarks, J) Oflober 7. 1793.
Freffi breezes.
Sounded 62 ; fine (and.
Moderate and cloudy.
Unbent the cables, and coiled them.
Took in ftudding fails.
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Light breeze.
A fail S£E.
Hazy weather.
D. Long, j Acc.
W. Long, by \ w. Var.
by ac.
47° 5*'I 1 93fW. 1 7° 51'
Obf.
2i Pts-
Porto Saudio’s
Bearing.
S 23°4W.
753
Ship's
Journal.
The courfes being correfted for variation, and the diftances fummed up, the work will be as under.
SW^S.
SSW| W.
SiW | W.
S 380W.
99
DifF. of latitude.
57’°
10-3
10.4
Departure.
E.
I 77-7
W.
5l-7
6.2
61.6
Yefterday’s lat. by obfer. = 49 9 N.
Latitude by account =47 51 N.
Sum - 97 ~°
Middle latitude - 48 3o
To middle latitude 48^°, and departure 61.6 in a latitude
column, the correfponding difference of longitude in a diftance
column is 93' - = t° 33 W.
Yefterday’s longitude - 6 18 W.
 Longitude in by account 7 51 W-  
It is now neeeffary to find the bearing and diftance of the intended port, namely, Funchal; but as that place
is on the oppofite fide of the ifland with refpeft to the (hip, it is therefore more proper to find the bearing of the
eaft or weft end of Madeira ; the eaft end is, however, preferable. But as the fmall ifland of Porto Sandlo lies
a little to the NE of the eaft end of Madeira, it therefore feems more eligible to find the bearing and diftance
of that ifland. To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
Latitude of flrip 4705J N. Mer. parts 3278 Longitude of fhip 70 51 W..
Lat. of Porto Sanfto 32 38 N. Mer. parts 2097 Lon.PortoSandto t6_2y_W.
Difference of latitude 14 53 = 893 M.D. lat. 1181 Difference of long. 8 34=514
The coitrfe anfwering to the meridional difference of latitude and difference of longitude.is about and
the diftance correfponding to the difference of latitude is 974 miles. Now as Porto Sandfo lies to the fouthward
and wettward of the fhip, the courfe is therefore S 230fW ; and the variation, becaufe W. being allowed to the
right hand, gives SW 4 V/ r.early, the bearing per compafs ; and which is the courfe that ought to be ftecred.
Vol. XII. Part II. 5 C A Journal
NAVIGATION.
A ’Journal from England towards Madeira.
Pra&iceif
Ship’s | r
Journal..S i..
Courfes.
SW
Ship’s head to
the SW.
? Ship’s head
J fromSWtoSSE.
WSW
W4N
NW
Variable.
SSW
Courfe. (Dill.
N. Latit. by
D.L.|Dep. Acc. | Obf.
S 61 ° W. | 51
1 45 47° 26'>47° 28'
D. Long.
6/W.
Remarks, <} Oftober 8
Little wind and cloudy.
Tried the current and found none.
Calm.
Calm; a long fwell from the SW.
Light airs and hazy.
Moderate wind and cloudy.
Set top-gallant fails.
By double altitudes of the fun, the latitude
was found to be 47° 28' N.  
W. Long, by
Acc. | Obf
8° 58'!
U
W. Yar. Bearing. | Diitance.
2 points S 21° W | 932
The feveral courfes corrected will be as under.
’ Diff. of latitude Departure.
Courfes. Dift. N SEW
SSW
SW
WSW
W£S£S
9.2
20.3
14.4
S 6iQW 51 24.8 — 25 45.0
Yefterday’s latitude 47 51
Latitude by account 47 26
Sum - - 77
Middle latitude - 47 39
To middle latitude 47yQ» and departure 45' in
a latitude column, the difference of longitude in
adiftance column is 67' = 10 7' W
Yefterday’s longitude 7 51 W
Longitude in by account 8 y8 W 
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
Latitude of fhip 47° 28 N Mer. parts 3244 Longitude 8° 58' W
Lat. of Porto San&o 32 58 N Mer. parts 2097 Longitude 16 25 W
Difference of latitude 14 30 = 870M. D. lat. 1147
D. longitude 7 27=447'.
Hence the bearing of Porto San&o is S2i°W, and diftance 932 miles. The courfe per compafs is
therefore SW nearly.
5 A Journal
1?r-a&ice.
Ship's
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England to Madeira.
Hours. Kn. Fa.
Courfe.
WANIN'
SEJS ofFESE
up WSW oflF WNW
WJN
WNW
SW
SW6S
SSW
Remarks, ^ Oftober 9 1793.
Dili. D.L Dep.
43
N. lath, by
Squally with rain.
Handed top-gallant fails.
In 1 ft reef topfails.
Dark gloomy weather. Tacked Ihip.
In 2d reef topfails, and down top-gallant yards.
Stormy weather; in fore and mizen topfails and 3d
reef maintop fail. Handed the maintop fail, bent
the main-ftay fail, and brought to with it and the
mizen; reefed the mainfail, at 10, wore and lay to
under the mainfail, got down top-gallant mafts
at 12 fet the forefail, and balanced the mizen.
The fea ftove in feveral half ports.
The fwell abates a little.
The fwell abates fall.
Up top-gallant mafts.
Set the topfails.
Clear weather ; good obfervation.
Acc. I Obf.
47° 40 47 39'
D.Long.
W. Long, by
Acc. | Obf.
9 59' I
W.Var.
Porto San&o’s
Bearing | Diftance
There is no leeway allowed until 2 o’clock P M. when the top-gallant fails are taken in ; from 2 to 3
one point is allowed ; from 3 to 6, one and a half points are allowed ; from 6 to 8, one and three-fourth
points are allowed; from 8 to 9, three points ; from 9 to 10, four and an half points ; from 10 to 12, five
points ; from 12 to 10 A. M. three and an half points ; and from thence to noon two points leeway are al¬
lowed. Now the feveral courfes being corre&ed by variation and leeway will be as under; but as the cor-
re£led courfes from 2 to 3 P. M. and from 1 o to 12 A. M. are the fame, namely, weft ; this, therefore, is
inferted in the table, together with the fum of the diftances, as a fingle courfe and diftance. In like manner
the courfes from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 8 being the fame, are inferted as a fingle courfe and diftance.
Courfes.
WJS
W
W^N
TLiSiS
EJS^S
E
NE£E
NWJW
NW3W4W
NW4W
WJN4N
I5*5
5-4
10.6
17.2
11
7-4
Diff. of latit. ] Departure.
N~| S 1 W
7.0
2.1
19.4
10.1
7.8
3-o
0.8
21.7
9.8
15-5
5-4
i-7
15.2
8-5
7-
63.2
2I-7
WJN4N 43 1 4 41.5
Yeft. latitude 47 28 N
Lat. by account 47 40 N
To middle latitude 470 34', and departure 41.5
the difference of longitude is 61'= i° i' W
Yefterday’s longitude 8 58 W
Longitude in by account 9 59 W
~7c~r
A Journal
NAVIGATION.
A JournalJrom England towards Madeira.
Pra&ice
Ship's
Journal.
wsw
SWAV
Winds.
SSE
SE^S
Remarks, If Oftober 10. 1793.
Frelh gales with rain.
Do. weather.
Out 3d reef topfails.
Lolt a log and line.
Moderate and cloudy, out all reefs.
Sprung fore top-gallant yard, got up another.
Do. weather.
A fail NE.
Employed working up junk.
A fwell from the NW, which by eftimation has
fet (hip 7 miles in the oppofite dire&ion.
Courfe.
1
D.L. Dep.
S 740 W.
N. Latit. by
Aec. Obf.
D. Long.
W. Long, by
Acc. | Obf.
153' w.
W. Var.
Porto Sandto’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S 120 W. | 870 m.
Two points leeway are allowed on the firft courfe, one on the fecond} and as the (hip is 7 points from the
wind on the third courfe, there is no leeway allowed on it. The oppofite point to NW, that from which the
fwell fet, with the variation allowed upon it, is the lad courfe in the Traverfe Table.
W
SWAV
SW4S
ESE
S 74 w
86.2
12.3
24.7
7
108
Ydlerday’s latitude
Latitude by account
Sum
Middle latitude
Diff. of Latitude.
6.8
20. J
2-7
Departure.
6.5
6.5
W.
I3-7
30.0
47 39
47 9 J io3-6
48
47 24
To middle latitude 47 24, and departure 103.6, the differ¬
ence of longitude is 153' — 20 33W
Yefterday’s longitude - 9 59 W
Longitude in
12 32W
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Sandto.
Latitude of (hip - 470 9'Mer. parts - 3216, Longitude
Lat. Porto Sandto - 32 58 Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
Difference of latitude 14 11=851'M. D. lat. inp D. longitude - 3 53 = 233.
Hence the bearing of Porto San&o is S 120 W, and diftance 870 miles} the courfe per compafs is therefore
about SWAV. 6 A Journal
' 32' IV
25 w
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
A journal from England to Madeira.
Hours. Kn. Fa.
Winds.
Remarks, $ O&ober n. 1793.
Moderate wind and fair weather.
Shortened fail and fet up the topmaft rigging.
Do. weather.
Variatiltt per amplitude 21° W.
A fine fteady breeze.
By an obfervation of the moon’s diftance from
« Pegafi, the fhip’s longitude at half paft 8 was
1 a* 28' W.
Clear weather.
Do. weather.
Set ftudding fails, &c.
One fail in fight.
Do. weather, good obfervation.
I
Dift.b.L
Dep.
N. Latit. by
Acc. Obf.
D.Long.
W. Long, by w yar Porto Sando
’45'W. 128J125 28 45 4'144059'| 41'W. i3°i3' 1
Acc. Obf. j^^erve^- Bearing, j Diftance.
S I2°W. j 737 miles.
° 59'\
The obferved variation 210 being allowed to the left,of SW3S gives S 120 45' W, the correded courfe,
and the diftance fummcd up is 127.9, or I2^ railes. Hence the difference of latitude is 124.8, and the depar¬
ture 28.2 The latitude by account is therefore 450 4' N, and the middle latitude 46° 6’, to which, and the
departure 28.2 in a latitude column, the difference of longitude in a diftance column is 41'W; which being
added to 120 32' W, the yefterday’s longitude, gives 130 13'W, the longitude in by account. But the
longitude by obfervation was 12° 28 W at half paft 8 P.M.; fince that time the fhipjias run 96 miles ; hence
the departure in that interval is 21.2 m. Now half the difference of latitude 47 m. added to 440 59', the la¬
titude by obfervation at noon, the fum 450 46' is the middle latitude ; with which and the departure 21.2,,
the difference of longitude is found to be 3 1' W ; which therefore added to 12° 28', the longitude obferved,
the fum is 120 59' W, the longitude by obfervation reduced to noon.
Latitude fhip
Lat. Porto San&o
Difference of latitude
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
44° 59' N. Mer. parts - 3028 Longitude
32 58 N. Mer. parts . 2097 Longitude
' 59'W
25 w
=721
M. D. lat.
931
D. longitude
Hence the bearing of Porto Sanfto is S 120 W, and diftance 737 miles. The courfe to be fleered is there*
W S 33* W, or SWJS nearly.
A jouir.
Hours. Kn.
Courfe.
S»3°3i'W.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira,
Courfes.
Winds/
EJN.
^ I N. Latit. by
DeP* Acc. I Ohf
T
D. Long.
59'W.
Remarks, b Oftobcr 12. 1793.
Frefh gales, and cloudy.
Do. Weather.
Hauled down ftudding-fails.
Do. Weather.
A fteady gale and fine weather.
Out ftudding-fails alow and aloft.
Variation per azimuth 20° 14' W.
A fail in the SW quarter.
Sailmaker altering a lower fludding-fail.
Fine weather, and cloudy.
Practice
W. Long, by
14° 12'
13° 58'
W. Var.
Obf.
Porto San&o’s
Bearing. j Diftance.
S 12° W. I 555 m.
The courfe correfted by variation is S 13° 31'W, and the diftance run is 183 miles : hence the difference
of latitude is 177.9, and the departure 42.8.
Yefterday’s latitude by obfervation - 44° 59' N. Mer. parts ... 3028
Difference of latitude - 2 58 S.
Latitude in by account
Mer. parts
2783
Meridional difference of latitude - - - * 245
Now to courfe 13°4, and meridional difference of latitude 245 in a latitude column, the difference of lon¬
gitude in a departure column is 59' W: hence the yefterday’s longitudes by account and obfervation, reduced
to the noon of this day, will be 14° 12'W and 13° 58' refpe&ively.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Sanfto.
Latitude fhip - 428 t'N. Mer. parts - 2783 Longitude - J3°58'W.
Lat. Porto Sanfto 32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude - 16 25 W.
Difference of latitude 9 3 =543 M. D. latitude 686 D. longitude - 2 27=147.
The meridional difference of latitude and difference of longitude will be found to agree neareft under 12°,
the corredt bearing of Porto Sandfo ; and the variation being allowed to the right hand of S 12° W, gives
'S.32°^W, the bearing/er compafs; and the diftance anfwering to the difference of latitude 543, under 12 de¬
crees, is 555 miles.
A Journal
’ra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Hours. Kn. Fa.
Courfes.
Courfe.
SW2S.
Winds.
ENE.
Remarks, © October 13. 1793.
Dili. D.L. Dep,
S3W^W. I 184! 178 4? 39° 3'
N. latit. -by I *
 ObT^-^s-
59'W. 15
A fteady gale, and fine weather.
At 34 minutes paft three, the difiance between the
neareft limbs of the fun and moon, together with
the altitude of each, were obferved ;Jfrom whence the
Ihip’s longitude at that time is 140 1' W.
Hauled in the lower ftudding-fails.
At 22', by an obfervation of the moon’s diftance
from « Pegafi, the longitude was i4°2o'W.
Frefii gales, and clear.
Variation per amplitude 190 5 x' W.
Do. per azimuth 190 28' W. Set ftuddmg-fails.
Carried away a fore-top-maft ftudding-fail boom, got
up another.
Frefh gales. Took in ftudding-fails.
W. Long, by W. Var.
by Obf.
52
It Pts-
Porto Sanyo’s
Bearing.
The mean of the variations is about points W : hence the courfe correQed is SiWfW ;.with which
and the diftance run 184 miles, the difference of latitude is 178.5, and the departure 44.7.
Yefterday’s latitude - - 420 1'N. Mer. parts - - 2783
Difference of latitude - - 2 58 S.
Latitude in by account
39 3 N.
Mer. parts
2549
Meridional difference of latitude - - - - - _ 234
Now, to courfe 1^ points, and meridional difference of latitude 234, the difference of longitude ia
about 59 m.; which, added to the yefterday’s longitude by account 14° 12' W, the fum 150 n'W is the lon¬
gitude in by account at noon. The longitudes by obfervation are reduced to noon as follow:
The diftance run between noon and 31' 34' P. M. is 29 miles ; to which, and the courfe points, the dif¬
ference of latitude is - - 28'
Yefterday’s latitude at noon - - 42 t N.
Latitude at time of obfervation - 41 33 N. Mer. parts - - 2746
Latitude at noon - - 39 3 N. Mer. parts - - 2549
Meridional difference of latitude - - - - - 197
Then, to courfe if points, and meridional difference of latitude 197 in a latitude column, the difference of
longitude in a departure column is 49' W ; which added to 140 1'W, the longitude by obfervation, the fum
14° 50' W is the longitude reduced to noon.
Again, the diftance run between the preceding noon and 9h 2 2' P. M. is 75 miles: hence the correfponding
difference of latitude is 72.8, or 73 miles; the Ihip's latitude at that time is therefore 40°48' N.
Latitude at time of obfervation - 40°48'N. Mer. parts - 2686
Latitude at noon - - 39' 3 N. Mer. parts • - 2549 -
Meridional difference of latitude. - - - ‘ - *37
Now with the corre&ed courfe, and meridional difference of latitude, the difference of longitude is 34’ W 5 -
which added to 140 20' W, the fum is 140 54' W, the reduced longitude. The mean of which and the foivr
mer reduced longitude is I4°52' W, the correft longitude.
j A -Joutml.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Practice.
Fa. | Courfes.
DIf.
| 116
sms
sw
wsw
EtS
SSE
S
I N. Latitude byi
DL.j'Dep. Acc. I Obf. |D; Long.
ml yz | 370 ti'l 37° 8' 1 4rW.
Remarks, D Oftobei
:r 14. 1793.
Frefli gales and hazy, Angle reefed topfails.
Got down top-gallant yards.
Do. weather, and a confufed fwell running;
More moderate.
Do. with lightning all round the compafs.
Squally, with rain.
Moderate weather ; out reefs, and up top-gallant
yards.
At nh 10'A.M. the latitude from double altitudes
of the fun was 370 10'. Clear weather.
W. Long, by
Obf.* W. Var.
Acc.
15°
Bearing. 1 Diftance.
5° 3V I ij-pts. I Sio°W.
As the (hip is clofe hauled from 2 o’clock AM. ij. points leeway are allowed upon that courfe, and
1 point on the two following courfes.
Courfes.
S&WiW
S;W
SSWfW
SW1S
SW6W5W.
Si6°W.
Diff. of latitude.
29.1
53-9
16.8
6.8
4-9
Departure.
7-3
2-7
9.0
5-i
111.5 =
YeMay;.latitude - _39_3 7 M.'J. jjj.,
Latitude in by account 37 12 J
To middle latitude 38°, and departure 32.2 in a lati¬
tude column, the difference of longitude in a diftance co¬
lumn is 41'.
Yefterday’s Ion. by account 15° 1 i'W. by ob. 140 52'W.
Difference of longitude 41 W. 41 W.
Longitude in  1 ^ 22  1 5 33 W-
The latitude by obfervation at 1 ih 1C1'A.M. is 370 io', and from that time till noon the fhip has run about
4 miles. Hence the correfponding difference of latitude is 2 miles, which fubtra&ed from the latitude obfer-
ved, gives 370 8q the latitude reduced to noon.
To find the bearing and difiance of Porto Sap&o.
Latitude of ihip 370 S'N. Mer. parts 2403 Longitude 150 33'W.
Latitude Porto Sanfto 32 ^8 N. Mer. parts 2097 Longitude 16 25 W.
Difference of latitude 4 10—250 M D. Lat. 306 Liff. long. 52
Hence the bearing of Porto Sanfto is S. io^W, or SSW W nearly,/^ compafs, and the diftance is 254
miles.
No. 239. A Jour-
Pra&ice.
Hours Kn.
Courfe.
TT
navigation.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Remarks, <3* Odober 15. 1793.
7^2
WNW
Nwm
Variable.
N. Lat by
Dili. jD.L. Dep.PAcc! ObT D. Long.
S68° W 1 ?6 I 21
47'
Moderate and clear weather.
Employed working points and rope-bands.
Ditto weather.
Fine clear weather.
Ditto weather.
Variation per mean of feveral azimuths 180 o' W.
Ditto weather. Tacked Ihip.
Sail-makers making wind-fails.
A fine fteady breeze. Cloudy.
W. Long, by
65< W I 160 57'
16° 38'
180
Porto Sanfto’s.
Obferv. by Obf Bearing. Diftance.
S|E
229
Ship’s
Journal.
Half a point of leeway is allowed on each courfe; but as the variation is expreffed in degrees, it will be
more convenient and accurate to reduce the feveral courfes into one, leeway only being allowed upon them.
The courfe thus found is then to be corre&cd for variation, with which and the diftance made good the dif¬
ference of latitude and departure are to be found.
Courfes.
WiS
WiNiN
WjN
NWJWfW
NWfW
SJEiE
56
Diff. of Latitude.
, 7-8
0.7
0.9
7.6
20.9
17.0
3-9
Departure.
5.8
W
I7*9
25.8
7.0
1.8
9-3
61.8
 5-8
56.0
S 86° W.
Var. 18 W.
Tr.cour.S'bS W. to which and the diftance 56 m. the difference
of latitude is 21 m. and the departure 51.9 m. Hence the la¬
titude in at noon is 36° 47' W, and middle latitude 36° 58', to
which and the departure 51.9 in a latitude column, the dif¬
ference of longitude in a diftance column is 65° W.
Yeft^rday’s long, by acc. 150 52'W. By obf. W.
Difference of longitude 1 5 W. 1 5 W.
Longitude in
16 38W.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Sanfto.
Latitude flrip 36°47'N Mer pts 2376 Longitude id^S'W.
Lat. of Porto Samfto 32 t8 N Mer. pts. 2097 Longitude 16 2C W„
Diff. of latitude 3 49 = 229 M.D.Lat. 279 D. Longitude o 13
Hence the courfe is S^E, diftance 229 miles j and the courfe/rr cempafs is SiWfW nearly
Vot. XII. Part II. 5D A Journal
Hours
•FTi
navigation.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Courfes.
S£E.
S.
SiW.
SW±W.
Winds.
SWiW.
w.
Courfe.
[ S80E
Dill,
Remarks, $ Oftober 16. 1793.
NE/5E.
D.L.
Dep.
185
N. Latit. by
Acc.
Obf.
3S°4&
D.Long.
Frefh gales.
Do. and cloudy.
A Heady frefh gale
Do. weather.
Do. Weather.
Variation fer amplitude ii points W.
People employed occalionally.
Do. weather. Obferved fun’s meridian altitude.
W. Long, by
Acc. I Obf.
31’ E, 16° 26'I 16° 7'
W. Var.
Obf.
T Pt»
Porto Sart&o’s
Bearing.
S 170 W.
Dittance.
50 miles.
Half a point of leeway is allowed on the firft courfe; which, and the others, are corrected for variation as ufuaj.
Departure.
Courfes.
SEiS.
StE+E.
StE.
s.
S8°E.
I DifF. of latit.
N.
12.4
43-
65
68.5
x86
S.
10.3
41.2
64.7
68.5
6.9
12.5
6.4
Yefterday’s latitude
Latitude by account
Sum
Middle latitude
84-7 ! 25.8 |
3° S’
$6 47 N.
33 42 N.
70 29
35 15
To middle latitude and the departure, the diffe¬
rence of longitude in a diftance column is 31 E.
Yefterday’s Ion. by acc. 16° 5 7'W. by obf. i6038/W,
Difference of long. o 31 E. - 3 t E
Longitude in
16 26 W.
16 7W
Latitude /hip
Lat. Porto San&o
Difference of latitude
0 3/>xTfind tIlC ^eannff and diftance of Porto Sandto.
Mer.part. . Longitude
32 58 N‘ Mer- Parts - 2097 Longitude
- 48 # Mer. diff. lat. 58 Diff. W
Hence the bearing 9f Porto Sanfto i3 Si7*W, diflancc 50 miles.
160 7' W.
16 25 W.
A Journal
Pra&ice.
hi ours Kn. Fa,
NAVIG ATION.
A Journal from London towards Madeira.
SSW.
s.
SWIS.
SWAV
SSW.
Various.
NNW.
NWIN.
NEAE.
Remarks, Tf. Oftober 17. 1793.
Moderate wind and clear.
Saw the ifland of Porto Sanfto, SW£S.
Hauled up to round the call end of Porto Sando.
Bent the cables.
Squally weather.
Porto San&o W^S.
Ditto with rain. Porto Sanfto NE.
The Deferters SW6S.
The Deferters WSW. 3 or 4 leagues.
Hauled up round the call end of the Deferters.
Violent fqualls; clewed upall at times.
Running into Funchal Roads.
Anchored inFunchal Road, with the beft bower in 30
fathom black fand and mud. Brazen head EbS ' S,
Loo Rock NW, the Great Church NNE, and the
fouthermoft Deferter SE^S; off /hore two-thirds of a
mile. Saluted the fort with 13 guns; returned by dit¬
to. Found here his majcfty’8fhipVenus,and7Englilh
merchant fliips.
This journal is performed by infpeftion agreeable
to the precepts given. Other methods might have
been ufed for the fame purpofe; for which the two
inftruments already defcribed and explained feem well
adapted. We Cannot, however, omit recommending
the Hiding gunter, which will be found very expedi¬
tious, not only in performing a day’s work, but alfo
in refolving molt other nautical problems. See Sli¬
ding- Gunter.
It will be found very fatisfaftory to lay down the
/hip’s place on a chart at the noon of each day, and
her i'tuation with refpeft to the place bound to, and
the neareft land will be obvious. The bearing and di-
ftance of the intended or any other port, and other
requifites, may be eafily found by the chart as already
explained ; and indeed, every days work may be per¬
formed on the chart; and thus the ufe of tables fuper-
feded.
EXPLANATION of the TABLES.
Table I. To reduce points of the compafs to degreesy
and converfely.
The two firft and two laft columns of this table con¬
tain the feveral points and quarter-points of the com¬
pafs; the third column contains the correfponding num¬
ber of points and quarters ; and the fourth, the de¬
grees &c anfwering thereto. The manner of ufing
this table is obvious.
Table II. The miles and parts of a mile in a degree of
longitude at every degree of latitude.
The firfl column contains degrees of latitude, and
the fecond the correfponding miles in a degree of lon¬
gitude ; the other columns are a continuation of the
firft and fecond. If the given latitude confifts of de¬
grees and minutes, a proportional part of the diffe¬
rence between the miles anfwering to the given and
following degrees of latitude is to be fubtrafted from
the miles anfwering to the given degree.
Example. Required the number of miles in a de-
gree of longitude in latitude 570 9' ?
The difference between the miles anfwering to the
latitudes of 57°and 58° is 0 89.
Then as 6o' : 9' :: 0.89 t 0.13
Miles anfwering to 5 7 0 3 * .68
Miles anfwering to 57° 9' 32. '5
This table maj be ufed in Parallel and Middle Lati¬
tude Sailing.
Table III. 0/~the Sun's Semidiameter.
This table contains the angle fubtended by the fun’s
femidiameter at the earth, for every fixth day of the
^ear. The months and days are contained in the firft
column, and the femidiameter expreffed in minutes and
feconds in the fecond column. It is ufeful in corredt-
5 ^ 2 ing
764
Ex;>!ana-
turn of tKe
Tables.
NAVIGATION.
mg altitudes of the fun’s limb, and diftances between Sun’s declination May 1. 1795
the fun’s limb and the moon. • Equation from Table X.
Pratfllce.
Xjop'.l N Explana-
+0 0.6 ..o» of ,h=
Table IV. Of the Refr a Sion in Altitude.
The refradllon is neceffary for corre&ing altitudes
and diftances obferved at fea; it is always to be fub-
tra&ed from the obferved altitude, or added to the
zenith diftance. This table is adapted to a mean ftate
«f the atmofphere in Britain, namely, to 29.6 inches
of the barometer, and 500 of the thermometer. If the
height of the mercury in thefe inftruments be different
from the mean, a correftion is neceffary to reduce the
tabular to the true refradlion. See Refraction.
Tables V. VI. Of the Dip of the Horizon.
The firft of thefe tables contains the dip anfwering
to a free or unobftru&ed horizon ; and the numbers
therein, as well as in the other table, are to be fub-
tratfted from the obferved altitude, when the fore-ob*
fervation is ufed ; but added, in the back-obfervation.
When the fun is over the land, and the ftiip nearer
it than the vifible horizon when unconiined : in this
cafe, the fun’s limb is to be brought in contadl with
the line of feparation of the fea and land ; the diftance
of that place from the fliip is to be found by eftima-
tion or otherwife ; and the dip anfwering thereto, and
the height of the eye, is to be taken from Table VI.
Table VII. Of the CorreBion to be applied to the time
of high ’water at full and change of the moon, to fnd
the time of high mo iter on any other day of the
moon. .
Th e ufe of this table is fully explained at Se&ion II.
Chap I. Bodk I. of this article.
Tables VIII. IX. X. Of the Sun’s decimation, &c.
The firft of thefe tables contains the fun’s declina¬
tion, exprefled in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a
minute, for four fucceffive years, namely, 1793, 1794,
j 79^ and 1796 : and by means of Table X. may ealily
be reduced to a future period ; obferving that, after
the 28th of February 1800, the declination anfwering
to the day preceding that given is to be taken.
Example I. Required the fun’s declination May
1. 1799 ?
May 1. 1799 is four years after the fame day in 1795.
Sun’s declination May 1. 1799 - 15 9.7 N
Example II. Required the fun’s declination A ugu ft
20. 1805 ?
The given year is 12 years after 1793, and the time
is after the end of February 1800.
Now, Sun’s dec. Auguft 19. 1793 i2°34'.6
Equation from Table X. to 12 years —o 1 .9
Sun’s declination Auguft 20. 1805 12 32.7
The declination in Table VIII. is adapted to the me¬
ridian of Greenwich, and Table IX. is inteilded tore-!
duce it to any other meridian, and to any given time
of the day under that meridian. The titles at the top
and bottom of this table diretl when the reduction is
to be added or fubtra&ed.
Table XI. Of the Right Afcenfons and Declinations
of Fixed Stars.
This table contains the right afeenfions and declina¬
tions of 6oprincipal fixed liars,adapted to the beginning
of the year 1793. Columns fourth and fixth contain the
annual variation arifing from the preceflion of tne equi¬
noxes, and the proper motion of the liars; wnichfervesto
reduce the place of a liar to a period a fe.v years alter
the epoch of the table with fufficient accurajy. When
the place of a liar is wanted, after the beginning of
1793, the variation in right afeenfion is additive ; and
that in declination is to be applied according to its
fign. The contrary rule is to be ufed when tlie given
time is before 1793.
Example. Required the right afeenfion and de¬
clination of Bellatrix, May 1. 1798 l ;
Right afeenfion January 1. 1793 = 5^
Variation = = +0 o 17
Right afeenfion, May 1. 1798
Declination
Variation = q'Xjf y.
5 14 2°
6J 8' 53'' N
Declination May 1. 1798 = 6 9 14 N
The various other tables neceffary in the pradice of
navigation are to be found in moil treatifes on that
fubjed, Thofe ufed in this article are in Mackay’s
Treatifes on the Longitude and Navigation.
Table
As the Author of this Article limes at a di/lance, feveral Errata have eft aped the Prefs. They are as follow.
Page 683.
685.
686.
687.
ib.
689.
690.
69!.
692.
693.
69?-
698.
col. 1. lines 20. and 22. from bottom. For Markelynt’s, read Mafhelyne’s.
2: 10. from bottom. For 55'N. read 55'S.
1. 25. For N. read S. ; and in line 28. for 130 44' N. read 180 6' S.
t. 7. from bottom. After otm/uaw, infert 177.
2. 23. from botfom. After about, infert 280.
2. 16. from bottom. After one, mfcvtfourth ; and in line 21. for where, read whofe.
i. 29. For'j, read the.
1. 5. from bottom. After to, infert 430 53/; and in line 29. for abJlraBed, rzati. fubtraBed*
and for 8. read 4.
2 2, from bottom. For 73 N, read N 730.
1. 15. After infert 281 ; and in line 17. after/V, infert 90 ix' W.
1. 21. from bottom. For mark, read make.
2. 19. For read in ; and in line 20. after 61 dele (°)
PradUce.
NAVIGATION.
Table I. To reduce Points of the Compafs to Degrees, and converfcly.
North-eafl
Quadrant.
North.
N‘E
N-JE
N4-E
NiE
NiEiE
N^Ef-E
NiE|E
NNE
NNE-J.E
NNE4-E
NNE|E
NE^N
NE’N
NE|N
NEiN
NE
NE^E
NE'iE
NE4E
NEiE
NE^E-fE
NE^EfE
NE/^E’E
ENE
E£N^N
E^NfN
EiNjN
EiN
E]N
EfN
EiN
Eaft.
South.eaft
Quadrant.
South.
SiE
S^E
S|E
S£E
SZTE^E
S^E4;E
S^E^E
SSE •
SSE^E
SSEfE
SSEIE
SE^S
SE’S
SEi-S
SEiS
SE
SE^E
SE-J-E
SE|E
SE^E
SE^EiE
SE^Ei-E
SEJE’E
ESE
EiSiS
EiSfS
EZ-SiS
EiS
E|S
EfS
EiS
Eaft.
3 o
3 i
3 i
3 4
2 48 45
5 37 3°
8 26 15
11 15 o
14 3 45
16 52 30
19 41 15
22 30 o
25 18 ' 45
28 7 30
3° 56 15
33 45 o-
36 33 45
39' 22 30
42 11 15
45 o o
47 4^ 45
50 '37 30
53 26 ‘5
56 ij o
59 3 45
61 92 30
64 41 15
67 30 o
70 18 4j
73 7 30
75 56 !5
78 45 o
81 33 45
84 22 30
87 11 15
90 o o
South-weft
Quadrant.
South.
SfW
SfW
S|W
SiW
SU\QW
SiW^W
S^W|W
SSW
SSWftW
SSWfW
ssw^w
SW3S
SW’.S
SWiS
SWQS
8W
SWiW
SWfW
SW’W
SW£W
SWZWiW
SW^WiW
SWiWjW
wsw
WhSIS
W3SiS
wzs^s
wzs
W|S
WfS
WiS
Weft.
North-weft
Quadrant.
North.
NfW
NJ-W
N|W
mw
N3WiW
N5W‘W
N5W1W
NNW
NNW^W
NNW4-W
NNW^W
NWiN
NW^N
NWiN
NW|N
NW
NW^W
NW|W
NWQW
NWZ-W
NW3WiW
N WZ W r W
NW3W1W
WNW
W3N1N
WZ-N'-N
W3N+N
WZN
W]N
W|N
WfN
Weft.
Table If. The Miles and Parts a Mile in a T)egrce of Longitude at every Degree of Latitude.
D.L. Miles. D.L. Miles. ' D.lJ Miles. ||d.L. Miles. D.L. Miles. D.lJ Miles.
59-99
59 97
59.92
59.86
59-77
59-67
59.56
59-44
59.26
59.08
58.89
58.68
5 8.46
58.22
57-95
57.67
■57-36
57.06
5.6-73
56.38
56.01
55-63
55-23
54.81
54-38
53-93
53-46
5*-97
52.47
5»-96
33-55
32.68
3,-79
30-9°
30.00
29.09
28.17
27.24
26.30
•25-36
24.41
23-45
22.48
21.50
20.52
19.54
18.54
W-54
16.53
I5-52 ’
I4J5I
13-50
12.48
11.45
10.42
0.3S
8-35
7-32
6.28
5-23
4.18
3-H
2.09
1.05
1 ABLE III. 'The Sun s Semidia.
Sun’s
Semidiam.
16' 19'
16 19
16 19
16 18
16 17
16 16
16 15
16 14
16 13
16 10
16 9
16 7
16 6
16 . 4
”16 2
16 1
15 59
15 57
15 56
15 54
15 53
15 52
15 5i
15 50.
15 49
15 48
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 48
13 48
15 49
15 5°
15 5i
15 52
15 53_
15 55
15 56
15 58
15 59
r6 1
10 11
16 13
16 17
16 18
16 18
16 19
16 19
765
766
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
Pra&ice.
N A
Table VIII. Sun
V I G A T r O N.
Declination for 1793. being the firjl after leap-year.
lav. Innr Ti.Kr \ . ..A _ 
767
Practice,
770
NAVIGATION.
Pradicc,!)
Table XI. The Right Afcenfions and Declinations of the principalfixed Starst
adapted to the beginning of the Tear i 793.
TableX. Change of Sun’s Declin.
c Complete Years.
S Q1 4 8 | 12 | 16
1 o'—1
b 7 0
I 130
« 190
25
•5
70 .5
.6
.6
f?
-g 70
S 190
 25
^ 7
'g, l3
< 19
^ 7
s 13
^ 19
 25
•3
7
130 .1
J9
2 5
7
Sj 13
^190 .6
 £5
1 ’3
CL 19
co 75
J 7
eg 13
§ 19
 ii
| 7
S 13
Z 2S
7
0+7
•7
•7
•7
•7
0+ 7
o .7
•7
•7
.6
.6
•5
>5
o .4
o'—3 o'-
.40
2+8
2 + 8
Name of Stars. |° Van DeclInation- Var'
y Pegali
j3 Ceti
Alrucabah, pole ftar
Mirach
Achernar
Almaach
Menkar
Algol
Algenib
Aldebaran
Capella
Rigel
d Tauri
Bellatrix
^ Orionis
« Orionis
^ Orionis
* Columbse
Betelguefe
/3 Canis Majoris
Canopus
Sirius
■5 Canis Majoris
Caitor
Procyon
Pollux '
£ Navis
y Navis
Acubens
B Navis
Alphard
Regulus
ti Navis
B Urfae Majoris
Dubhe
B Leonis
y Urfae Majoris
<* Crucis
y Crucis
B Crucis
Aliath
Spica Virginia
£ Urfae Majoris
Benetnach
p Centauri
Ar&urus
x Centauri
Alphacca
/? "Scorpii
Antares
Ras. Algethi
Ras. Alhague
Vega
Altair
Deneb
u Gruis
Fomalhaut
Scheat
Markab
« Andromedae
2' 35
33 11
50 44
58 10
30 o
51 J5
51 28
54 45
9 38
1 25
4 3i
13 *3
*4 3
21 27
25 44
30 20
32 10
5 43 58
6 ‘3 37
19 22
36 t
59 59
21 22
28 27
32 37
56 19
3 10
47 8
10 54
9 17 24
9 57 20
10 37 4
10 49 14
10 50 49
11 38 29
11 46 51
12 45 14
12 19
12 35 46
12 44
13 H
13 1 s
*3 39
51
18
32
23
J3 49 23
14 6
14 26
!5 25 55
53 26
13
16 16 44
J7 5 *3
17 25 20
18 29 56
19 40 41
20 34 22
21 55 6
22 46 10
22 53 45.
22 54 27
23 c? 43
3''.06
3
12 .42
3 -3
2 .25
3 -62
3 -II
3 -85
4 .21
3 -42
4 -4i
2.87
3-78
3
3 -07
3 -04
3 ,03
3 •24
2 .65
1 -33
2 .65
2 .44
3-85
3 -14
3 -69
2 .11
1 .85
3 -3°
o .75
1' 55'N 4-20'
2 -93
3 -20
2 .3°
3 -71
3.85
3 -°6
3 -22
3 -24
3 -2+
3 -41
2 .67
3 -i3
2 -43
2 .40
4 .11
2 .72
4 -45
2 -53
3 -47
3 -64
2 -73
2 .77
2 .02
2 .92
2 .03
3-85
3 -33
2 .87
2 .96
3 -07
7 32 S
12 8 N
31 «3^
16 17 J
8 47 S
6 40 N
4, 48 N
46 15 N
27 9S
25 1 N
8 53 N
27 50 S
20 48 S
3 52 S
11 34 S
21 17 N
51 56 S
35 16 S
26 35 S
4 32S
19 20 N
45 3 N
30 42 N
25 36S
43 54 s
39 6N
52 2 S
46 7 S
58 21 N
36 3 S
29 17 N
52 9 N
43 47 N
50 47 N
57 6S
57 2 S
33 i9 S
5 14 N
4 31 8
o 41 N
21 7 N
21 49 S
15 58 N
58 44 S
25 16 N
13 29 S
57 22 S
38 18 N
43 28 N
35 51 N
19 48 N
3 2 51 N
57 8 S
42 51 S
57 4« N
5 42N
19 .8
+ i9 -6
+ 19 .4
— 18 .5
+17 -7
+ 14-7
+ H -5
+ 13 -6
+ 8 .2
+ 5-i
-4-8
+ 4.1
+ 4.0
— 3 -4
— 3 .0
— 2 .6
— 2 .4
+ 1 -4
4- 1 .2
+ 1 -7
+ 4-3
+ 5-2
— 6 .9
-7-5
— 7 .9
+ 9-7
+ 10 .3
— 13 -4
+ 14-8
+ 15 .2
— 17 .2
+ 18 .7
-19 .1
— 19 .1
*9 -9
—20 .0
+ 20 .0
-j-20 ,0
4-19 .8
-19 .7
4-19 .0
—19 .0
—18 .2
4-17 .8
-19 .1
4-16 .i
-12 .5
4-io .5
+ 8.7
-4.8
- 3.0
4* 2 .6
4- 8.5
4-12 .5
17 .1
—19 .0
4-19 .2
4-19 .2
4-20 .0
Navigation
N A V [ 771 ] N A V
Inland Na- Navigation of the ancients. See Phosnicia and
1 , vigation, TradEj
| * ' Inland Navigation, the method of conveying com¬
modities from one part of a country to another by
means of rivers, lakes, canals, or arms of the fea, pe-
netrating far into the internal parts. See the article
Ik Canal.
The advantages of this mode of conveyance, in an
extenfive and populous country, are fufficiently obvious;
whether we take into account the fuperior cheapnefs,
facility, or quicknefs with which great quantities of
goods can thus be carried from one place to another,
or the advantages which may accrue to agriculture
and other arts, by thus conveying manures, the pro¬
duce of the ground, or heavy manufaftured goods, to
and from didant quarters ; which would be altogether
impracticable by a land-carriage, without incurring a
much greater expence than the commodities could bear.
The good effefts of inland navigation are particularly
evident in the vaft empire of China, and in the dates of
Holland. In both thefe countries, the multitude of
canals undoubtedly contributes to the opulence of the
inhabitants,both by themorefreefcopetheygivetoftrade,
and the advantages derived from them to agriculture;
not to mention, that by means of the canals themfelves
the ground is often meliorated and made capable of
producing both corn and padure, where otherwife it
would perhaps yield neither, or at lead very imper¬
fectly. Thefe countries, however, particularly Hol¬
land, are very flat, and thus very much fitted for this
kind of navigation : Great Britain and Ireland are lefs
fo, on account of the greater inequality of their fur-
face ; though in them alfo the making of canals is
now becotne very common, notwithdanding the im-
menfe expence with which fuch undertakings are at¬
tended.
In a late treatife upon this fubjeCt by Mr Edmund
Leach furveyor, the author confiders the advantages
which might accrue to the kingdoms of Britain and
Ireland, were their inland navigation improved as
much as it might be ; and he confiders both countries
as exceedingly proper for improvements of this kind
on account of the number of fine dreams of v/ater they
contain. “ Every county (fays he) in each kingdom is
furnidied with rivers and dreams of water ; very few,
if any, of which but may be made navigable to within
a mile or two of their fources” by the method he
propofes.
The method of making canals hitherto pra&ifed, is
fo fully defcribed under the article Canal, that no¬
thing needs be faid upon it in this place. Mr Leach
obferves, that all the artificial inland navigations
made in this, as well as in other kingdoms, have
been done by beginning them at the foot or mouth
of a river, or at the utmod extent of the ebb or
f ji; flow of the tide; proceeding thence upwards, either
in the ordinary courfe of the river by finking,
widening, and cleanfing it; then with the afliil-
ancc of a lock and dam to raife the boats or other
V veflels to a higher level. This is next to be cut, widen¬
ed, and cleanfed as before, till we come to a third le-
! vel, when the veflels are to be raifed as in the former;
proceeding thus, as it were dep by dep, till we arrive
at the extent of the intended navigation. Otherwife
the navigation is carried on by an artificial fide-cut or
i? canal near the courfe of the river, raifed up by locks
and dams as before. Thefe methods, however, tho’ Inland Na-
probably of very great fervice te the country, are at- VJgao'on- ,
tended with many and confiderable inconveniences. v
t. Every river or other dream is the natural recep¬
tacle of all the fprings,rains, and floods, which difeharge
themfelves into it; by which means it fometimes dif-
eharges fuch torrents of water as fvVeep every thing
away before them. This not only interrupts the na^
vigation for a time, but is often attended with the
mod intolerable expence.
2. The original making of the canal with a num¬
ber of locks and dams, fuch as is deferihed under the
article Canal, mud alfo be very expenfive.
3. Some rivers run very rapidly in particular places ;
and if the defeent of the bed be very great, it will re¬
quire a number of the locks and dams already men¬
tioned to make fuch a river navigable, though the
navigation fliould extend but a few miles from the
mouth.
4. The palling of the locks is always attended with
a eonfiderable difficulty, befides the lofs of time and
expence.
To obviate all thefe inconveniences, Mr Leach pro¬
pofes to begin and carry on his canal in a manner pre-
cifely the reverfe of that jufl now defcribed. In his
method, the canalis to be begun as near the fource of the
river as poffible ; that is, as near as there is a proba¬
bility of having water in the dried feafons fufficient
to dll the canal; of which there can be but little re¬
quired, as a dream fufficient to turn an ordinary mill
mud be fuflicient to anfwer all the purpofes of fuch a
canal. Thus the navigation may be carried up much
higher than in the ordinary canals with dams and locks.
If a canal be made properly, and the fides and bottom
pladered with a cement that may be made of the fame
earth and clay faved in making the trunk, very little
water will be requifite to keep it full. Our author fup-
pofes that a dream fuflicient to turn an ordinary mill
will be fufficient to keep it dull, even if the canal
fhould be 20 miles long.
To conAnnfl a canal of this kind, we mud make
choice of a level as near the head of the river at pof¬
fible ; this level mud be continued for a confiderable’'
way, fo that the water may not have the lead current,
but may abfolutely dagnate. Thus the original bed of
the river will foon be left at a didance, and the Aag-
nant canal will become higher and higher with refpeCt
to it, in proportion to the defeent of the ground or
rapidity of the river. Having proceeded this way as
far as convenient, the veffels mud be let down by
a machine (to be afterwards defcribed) into the bed of
the original river, or from oce elevated canal to ano¬
ther much lower; perhaps 10, 15, or 20 fathoms.
By this perfedt dagnation of the water in the canals,
there will be no danger of wading off the pladering
from the fides and bottom, fo that the only wade of
water will be by evaporation, and what is require j for
working the machine above mentioned; which, as it is
only required at particular times when veffels are to be
raifed or lowered, mud be very trifling, and cannot
bear any proportion to the conflant fupply at the head
of the canal.
In order to keep the fir A level eafily, and for a^on-
fiderable way, it will be neceffary to avoid the many
valleys which are naturally to be met with near the ori¬
ginal river, by the defeent of other dreams into it. . -
5 E 2 Hence
N A V [ 772 ) N A V
iD’anr’. Na- Hence canals conftruded on the plan recommended
vigation. py 0U(. author mud run out in ferpentine windings a
v confiderable way into the country, which will augment
ks length greatly btyond that of the original river }
and thus a much greater number of people, and lar¬
ger extent of country, will reap the benefit of it than
if it was continued in a ftraight line. “ One inconveni¬
ence (fays our author) attending the < Id inland navi¬
gations that are carried on in or nigh the original ri
vers, is their being confined within too fmall a fpace of
land, and where, for the moft part, there is the leafl:
occafion either for water to water the land, or for ma¬
nure to enrich the foil ; wdiereas, by beginning a canal
near the head of a river, and by continuing it on one
common level, if the river have any thing of a dcfcent,
and runs pretty rapid, the original river and its valley
is foon left, and the canal is removed up into the fide
of the hill, where there is generally moft occafion for
manure and water both ; and the further on it is con
tinned, and the more rapid the river runs, the further
the navigation is removed from the valley and the
original courfe of the river, till it is brought to the
place defigned for the purpofe of transferring the vef-
fels down at once by a machine into the original river,
the fea, or into another canal.”
Notwithftanding the advantages which attend this
new mode of conftrudbion, our author acknowledges
that there are fome cafes in which the old method only
can be put in practice.
With regard to the fize, form, and expence of canals
of this kind, Mr Leach gives a computation from
one which was intended to be made in tire county
of Cornwall, and which was called the Tamar canal.
An adt of parl ament was obtained for this in 1774.
A navigable canal w-as to be made from Bude Haven,
in the county of Cornwall, on the Briftol Channel, to
the navigable part of the river Tamar ; the defign being
to open a communication between the Englkh and
Briftol Channels through the counties of Devon and
Cornwall. By the ad, it was determined that the
canal ftiould not exceed 63 feet in breadth, norftiould
the ground be cut more than 39 inches deep below
the furface, excepting in places where docks or ba-
fons were to be made, or where cranes or other en¬
gines were to be ere&ed for particular purpofes. The
breadth allowed (63 feet) was to comprehend the water
itfelf, the two towing paths, one on each fide, and the
fences beyond them. The breadth of the canal itfelf
was to be 21 feet at the furface and r2 at bottom ;
the depth on the under fide, 39 inches, as already faid;
the towing paths 12 feet broad each ; and beyond thefe
an hedge or rail at the diftance of fix feet on each fide
from the paths. There were to be drains as ufual in
canals ; one on the under fide for carrying off the fu-
perfluous water from the canal; the other on the up¬
per fide for carrying off the water which might acci¬
dentally fall into it in rains, or by fprings in the higher
grounds. Thus the whole would not exceed the breadth
propofedbyadt of parliament; whilethecanalitfelfwould
be fufficiently large for every nectffary purpofe. Mr
Leach computes, that on this canal two boats, carrying
10 tons each, might very eafily pafs : and he recom¬
mends this as the proper fize of canals in other paits
of the kingdom.
Canals of this kind, our author cbfervcs, will, for the
moft part, be made in the fide of an hill or riling ,ri!a
ground 5 whence the greateft part of the earth dug out v'T|
of it will be thrown upon the under fide. Here it
will elevate the ground fufficiently to form a towing
path, together with an elevated fpace whereon to plant
the hedge or fence. On the higher fide, t 2 feet of
the ground mud be cut down to within 18 inches of
the furfp.ee of the water ; and the earth and ftones
dug out in making this path will make the fence on
the outfide for keeping off the cattle As by the
adt of parliament, however, there is a greater breadth
allowed in fome places for making docks or befons,
our author calculates the whole breadth of the canal
at 66 feet; and according to this breadth he makes
his compu:ati@r.s.
1. The firtl and principal expence is the digging of
the trunk of the canal ;< but this muff vary fo much
according to the nature of the ground, that no cer¬
tain eftimate of the expence can be made. Some¬
times the ground may be foft, and eafily cut, fome-
times hard and rocky, fometimea marfhy and boggy,
&c. There muff alfo be a very confiderable difference
in the expence of cutting the canal, according as the
ground on one fide of it is more or lefs elevated. Mr
Leach, after making the proper calculations, fup-
pofes chat in every perch of a canal of the kind under
confideration there mull be removed 40-j- cubical
yards, or 1085 cubical ftet, of earth. Agreements
with the workmen are commonly made by the cubic
yard. It is rare that a cubic yard can be remo'ved for
lefs than 2d. “ nor (fays our author) will any fort of
ground require more than gd. except in palling through
a rock, which will not often happen, unlefs where,
by the fituation of the land through which the canal
may pafs, it Ihould require to be cut more than four
feet under the furface, as it may fometimes happen
in cutting through a hill or neck of land, where¬
by the courfe of the canal may be Ihortened. Accord¬
ing to this eftimate, Mr Leach has formed a table
of the expence of making canals from 2d. the cubic
yard to yd. i he fmallelt expence of thefe per mile
is L. 107 : 11 : 14; the greateft L. 483 : 19 : 9.
Sonv times, however, the expence may be even great¬
er , fo that the mile may coft L.600, or near it; but
this muff be accounted an extraordinary expence, and
not often to be ex peeked.
In digging the trunk of the canal, care muft be
taken to preferve all the fand, ftones, and gravel,
for the purpofe of making drains or gutters and the
towing paths ; alfo for the making of a wall, the
outfide face of which is to be 21 feet dillant from the
edge of the canal. The defign of this is to prevent
the earth and rubbilh from being thrown to too great
a difiance from the fide of the canal; and likewife
for the purpofe of railing a bank on the lower fide
about 16 or 18 inches above the furface of the water
in the canal, when it is full up to the drains. On
the top of this bank the towing path is to be made
12 feet wide on that fide of the canal; and if this
wall Ihould be raifed four feet above the furface of
the towing path, it would be a fence to keep the
cattle off from that fide. In making the towing path
on the higher fide, the furlace of the land muff be
funk to within 16 or 18 inches of the furface ot the
water in the canal when full j and the turf, earth,
itones.
IlnSuM M
tigation
N A V I 773 1 N A V
- ft-Hies, &c. taken from thence in making the towing
path on that fide, will make the other fence of the
canal.
2. Drains or gutters rr.ufl: he made under the
towing paths, on both iides of the canal. On the
upper fide they muft be made through the hedge or
fence at. all convenient places, for admitting fprxngs
and rivulets, as well as rain water into the canal On
the higher fide, thefe ihould be about 132 feet diftant
from one another, exclufive of thofe for the admiffion
of fprings. On the lower fide, it is neceffary to have
drains at the diftance of 66 feet from each other j
which will be 80 drains per mile. Thefe may be con-
ftrufted for 28. 6d. each, which amounts to L. 10
per mile. On the higher fide they will coft about
four (hillings per drain ; and, at the difiance of 132
feet betwixt each drain, the expence will be L 8 per
mile.
In making the drains on the lower fide, great care
mud be taken to have them truly level, and parallel
to the horizon; the bottom part of the drain being
txa&ly 39 inches perpendicular above the bottom of
the canal; as on the true placing of thefe drains, and
the true level of the bottom of the canal, entirely de¬
pends the regularity of the dtepnefs of the water.
3 The value of the groun i through which the ca¬
nal is to pafs muft alfo be confidered. From the ob-
fervations and memorandums which our author took
in the year 1774, concerning the ground through
which the Tamar canal was to pafs, he concluded
that one eighth part of the land through which the
tradf paired was worth 40s. per acre ; another eighth,
20s. ; a third eighth part, ics ; and all the reft not
worth more than five ; and a great deal of it not more
than two ; the average of the whole being 15s an
acre “ Then (fays he), if the good, indifferent,
and bad land be worth on an average, 15 s. an
acre, and as 30 years value is a capital price for
lands, it will, at that rate, amount to 22I. ios.
per acre The ftipulated breadth of the canal with
the towing paths and hedges being, as already faid,
66 feet, which is exa&ly a gunter’s chain ; then, to
fuch chains in length and one in breadth form ex¬
actly a ftatute acre of land ; and ten chains in length
is a furlong; fo that every mile of canal will thus
take up eight acres of land, which, at 22I. jos. per
acre, amounts to 180I. per mile.
4. Bridges are likewife a confiderable article of ex¬
pence in the making of canals. Mr Leach fuppofes
that there may be one common road bridge and two
fwivel bridges required per mile ; the former may be
erefted for 6ol. and the latter for 30I. each ; fo that
the expence of all together will amount to i 20I. per
m le.
5. As in fome particular places, on account of (hort
turns, and where docks and bafons and landing places
are to be made, a greater widenefs will be required,
our author allows half an acre more land for every
furlong on this account ; whicji brings an additional
expence of 90I. per mile.
6. It will always be neceffary to have fluices for
emptying the canal; each of which will coft 20I.
Mr Leach allows a fluice and ftop-gatefor every mile;
and as thefe coft 20I. each, we have thus a farther
expence of 401- per mile.
7 The Will on the tower fide againft the bank of bfianJ Mb.
earth an I towing path may he built for. three (hillings 'l £*no“-
per perch ; and as every mile contains 22a perches, "~v -
the expence of the wall will be 481- per mile- "
8. Our author calculates the towing pith on the
lower fide at the fame price ; fo that it aifo makes
an addition of 48I. per mile ; but as he eftimates the
higher towing path and hedge at 8 s- per mile, this
will amoufit to 128I. per mile.
Thus, according to our author’s calculation, the
whole expence of making a canal with its neceffary
appendages will amount to L 944 : 1 r : 4?-per mile;
and by the calculation of another engineer, the parti¬
culars of which he alfo enumerates, it would not exceed
L 1032 : 13 : 4L This our author thinks a mode¬
rate expence ; but an objection naturally occurs from
the great length to which fuch canals muft neceffarily
run ; a remarkable inftancc of which he gives in the
propofed Tamar canal; where, though the diftance
betwixt Bade Haven and the navigable part of the
river Tamar is no more than 28 miles in a ilraight
line, the length of the canal would not have been lefs
than 8 j miles. ] his length, however, according to
our author, “ ought not to be an object of difeourage-
ment, but on the contrary an inducement and an en¬
couragement to promote the extending of it as much
as pofftble into the country, as it will'bring a market
to every man’s ^oor that it draws nigh in its paffage,
and be a means to improve a greater quantity of un¬
cultivated lands ; and the navigation will be thereby
much more extenlive, and a much larger number of
inhabitants will reap the advantages thereof, than if it
had been carried on upon the or ginal river.”
We have already taken notice, that in the method
of conftru&ing canals juft now mentioned, there will
at certain intervals be places where the veffels muft
be raifed and lowered by means of mechanical powers,
inftead of the dams and locks made ufe of in other
canals. Thefe machines are compounded of an in¬
clined plane and wheel in axis. The inclined plane
is a parallelogram whofe length reaches from the end
of one canal to the beginning of another-, or to tire
fea or navigable river, to which the veifel is next to-
be conveye i; thebreadth ought to be 224 feet. It may
be made of good oak or deal plank, and fufficiently
ftrong to bear the weight to be laid upon it; and it
muft be very ftrongly fupported by beams of oak. or
ether wood. It ought to be divided in the middle
by a ledge or rib of 12 inches fquare* the fide ribs
being nine by 12 inches. The elevation muft depend
upon particular circumftances. Fig. 1. (hows-the ’n- CC^XLIT
dined part of the machine; AB being the woodenC
part juft deferibed, placed between the. fide of the
hill W and the navigable river F. According to the
dimeniions already given, the two paths A and B
on which the veffels move are exadly ten feet wide. G
reprefents the canal, brought perhaps from the diftance
of feveral miles to the top of the precipice WW. At
the end of the canal* and quite acrofs from R to R,
muft be built a very ftrong wall; in which are two-
fluices with flood-gates at K and L, to let out the wa¬
ter occafionally. Between the head of the plane AB,,
and the end of the canal G, is a horizontal platform
divided into two parts, as is reprefented in the figure:
by the letters HI. At the end of the canal are fix
l rollers^
N A V r 774 ] N A V
Inland Na- rollers M and N, of ufe in carrying the boats and
yigatttn. lighters in and out of the canal. Near the end of the
w” v*~'r canal, at S and T, are two other fluices, with their
flood-gates, for letting out a quantity of fluid to drive
the other part of the machine. O and P reprefent the two
ends of the towing paths, one on each fide of the canal.
CCCXLIV 2l ^10ws t^e vel1’cle which the lighters are
conveyed up and down the inclined plane, by the two
paths A and B, fig. I. AA (fig. 2.) reprefents part
of the inclined plane, B the vehicle in the pofition in
which it rolls up and down the two paths. C is the
body of the vehicle, which is made hollow, to con¬
tain a quantity of water occafionally ufed as a coun¬
terbalance for its correfponding vehicle. DDD are
three rollers between the bottom of the vehicle and
the plane, for the purpofe of rolling the boats up and
down. HHH are fix rollers; four on the horizontal
part of the vehicle on which the boat E is to reft in
its pafiage up and down the plane ; the other two rol¬
lers are in a moveable .part, which is fattened to the
body of the vehicle with a pair of very ftrong hinges ;
and in the paffage of the vehicle up and down the
plane it turns up between the head of the boat and
the plane, preventing the former from rubbing againft
the plane. When the vehicle gets up to the top, this
moveable part falls down on the platform marked HI,
becoming parallel with the horizontal part of the ve¬
hicle ; after which it ferves as a launch and paflage
to place the boat upon the rollers MN (fig. 1.) at the
end of the canal. This paflage part of the vehicle,
together with the three rollers at the end of the canal,
is likewife of great ufe in towing a boat out of the
canal, in order to place it on the horizontal part. At
the bottom of the cavity of the vehicle is a large hole
F, with a valve opening inwardly. Through this hole
the water enters when the vehicle finks into the navi¬
gable river F, for the purpo'fe of receiving a boat on
the top or horizontal part of the vehicle, till it is quite
full ; and will then fink entirely under water, while
the boat is towed in on the horizontal part. A fmall
rope K is fattened to the valve, on purpofe to lift it
up, and to keep it fo while the vehicle and boat are
afeending up the plane out of the canal, that fo the
water may difeharge itfelf till as much as is neceffary
be got out; or till it becomes an equal balance for
the correfponding vehicle and its contents, which are
defeending by the other path. Hence we fee, that
every machine mutt have two of thefe'vehicles fur-
nilhed with rollers as already deferibed, and fo con-
ftrudled that one may be as nearly as poflible a coun¬
terbalance to the other. As it is neeeffary that the
vehicles fhould be water tight, the infides of them
mutt be caulked very tight; and they ftiould be
capacious enough to hold as much water as will ba¬
lance the largeft boat with its contents. Here it may
be obferved, that every veffel will be balanced by as
many cubic feet of water as it difplaces by being put
into the water when loaded. The quantity may eafily
be known, by obferving how far the boat finks in the
water, and calculating the bulk of the part immerfed-
• The machine which puts the vehicles in motion,
may either be conftrtnfted with an under-fhot or breaft-
w'ater-wheel; by an over-fhot water-wheel; or by two
walking-wheels, for men to walk in as in cranes, See.
Fig. 3- (hows .a front view of the under-ftiot water¬
wheel movement; where A is the end of the axis or Inland Ma-
cylinder of the cog or fpnr-wheel; the diameter of v'gation'
which axis is four feet, and its length not lefs than v—^
22 feet, as it mutt be extended quite acrofs the canal
fronsv one fide to the other, and placed on the top of
very ftrong fupporters on each fide of the canal, about
feven feet above the furface of the water, as the load¬
ed boat is to pafs backwards and forwards under the
cylinder, and at a convenient diftance from the wall
RR (fig. 1.) and placed between the two fluices S
and T; on the end of which cylinder, is- the cog¬
wheel B (fig. 3.) The wheel B is fuppofed to be
20 feet in diameter, having on its edge 120 cogs; and
underneath the cog-wheel is the breaft-water one C,
24 feet in diameter from the tip of one aller-board
to the tip of its oppolite. On the end of the axis of
the water-wheel D is a trundle two feet and an half
in diameter, with 15 rounds or ftaves contained there¬
in. This mnft be placed between the two fluices S
and T, to let the water out of the canal; which, fall¬
ing on the float-boards, will turn the wheel round
from the right hand towards the left, when the fluice
on the left hand of the wheel is opened; but the
contrary way when that on the right is opened.—•
The water falling upon the boards pafles along with
the wheel in the circular cavity EOF, and is dif-
charged at G, whatever way the wheel may turn.
To the axis or cylinder of this machine, which mutt
always be horizontal, are fixed two pair of ftrong
ropes ; the ends of each pair fattened to the upper
part of the cylinder; it being neceflary that they fhould
aft in contrary direftions. Each mutt extend the
whole length of the plane, and their ftrength mutt be
proportioned to the weight neceflary to be fuftained.
The two vehicles already mentioned are fattened to
the other ends of the ropes ; fo that one pair of the
ropes are wound up by the cylinder turning one way, „
and the other by its turning the contrary way. Thus,
when one *)f the vehicles is at the upper part of the
path A, ready to difeharge its boat ^nd cargo into
the upper canal, the other boat will be at the foot of
the path B, all under water in the lower canal, and
ready for the reception of a boat to be towed in on
the horizontal part of it; fo that as one vehicle rolls
up on one fide of the plane, the other will roll down
on the other fide, and vice verfa.
Fig. 4. (hows the movement by means of an over-
fhot water-wheel. It confitts of a water-wheel C,
and two fpur or cog-wheels A and B. The water¬
wheel is 18 feet in diameter, and has two rows of
buckets placed contrariwife to one another, that it
may turn round in contrary direftions, according as
the one or the other fluice, S or T, is opened. On its
axis F is a trundle of three feet diameter, having 18
rounds or ftaves which fall into the cogs of the fe-
cond fpur-wheel B, caufing it to turn round in a di-
' reftion contrary to that of the water-wheel. This
fecond wheel is likewife 18 feet in diameter, with a
trundle of three feet, having 18 rounds or ftaves.—
The diameter of the upper fpur-wheel A is alfo 18
feet, but the diameter of its axis is fix feet. On the
edge of tlifi wheel are 108 cogs. Thefe fall jn between
the Haves of the axis of the other fpur-wheel; and
thus the third wheel turns round the fame way with
the water-wheel C. The cylinder of this upper fpur-
wheel
N A U [ 775 ] N A U
Inland Na- wheel muft be placed acrofs the canal betwixt the two
vigation. {iujceSj on Very itr0ng fupporters, as explained in the
former movement, and the two pair of ropes in the
fame manner
Plate The movement of the walking-wheel is (hown (fig.
CCCXLIV^.) Ai and A2 are two wheels for men to walk in,
each of them 24 feet in diameter. Bi and B2 are
the axes or cylinders of the two wheels, of equal
lengths; viz. 11 feet each, and four in diameter-.—
At one end of each of the two cylinders C1 jmd C2, is
a wheel of the fame diameter with the cylinder. On
the edges of thefe wheels are teeth of an equal num¬
ber in each wheel; and as the teeth of the wheels mu¬
tually fall into each other, the revolutions of both
muft be performed in the fame time. By this con¬
trivance alfo the cylinders will turn different ways ;
and the ropes on the two different cylinders will con-
ftantly one pair be wound up, and the other wound
down, by the natural moving of ifce machine. DDD
is the frame that fupports the whole, which_muft be
made very firm and fecure.
Let us now fuppofe, that there is a boat in the up¬
per canal to be brought down, but none to go up for
a balance.- In this cafe, as one of the vehicles, muft
be at the top to receive the boat, the other will be at
the bottom to take in water. Let then any of the
movements juft defcrifced be fet to work, and it is
plain, that as the upper vehicle with its boat defeends,
the under vehicle will, afeend with the water ; the
valve being in the mean time lifted up till a fufficient
quantity of water has flowed out, to make the one near¬
ly a counterbalance to the other; fo that the veffel
may Aide down gently and without any violence.
If it happens that a boat is to go up while none is
to come down, one of the vehicles being at the-foot
of the plane under water, and in readinefs to have the
boat towed upon its horizontal part, one of the fluices
at K or L is to be opened, and a quantity of water
let into the ciftern of the upper vehicle fufficient to
counterbalance the boat with its contents which is to
afeend. This being done, the machine is fet to work,
the valve of the linger vehicle kept open till the wa¬
ter is all difeharged ; and then the boat will roll up to
the top of the plane.
From this defeription of the canal and machinery
for railing and lowering the veffels, the reader can be
at no lofs to underftand the principles on which it
depends. It would be fuperfluous to adduce examples,
or follow our author through his calculations rela¬
tive to particular cafes. We fhall only obferve, that
the difference of time in which veffels may be raifed
or lowered by the machinery juft deferibed, in compa-
rifon with what can be done in the common way by
dams and locks, muft give a very favourable idea of
the new method. According to Mr Leach’s compu¬
tations, a boat with its cargo weighing 10 ton might
be raifed by the walking-machine in 12 or 14 minutes,
by the underfliot-wheel in 15 minutes, and by the
overfhot-wheel in 30. minutes ; and that through a
fpace of no lefs than 30 fathoms meafured on the in¬
clined plane, or 114 feet perpendicular.
NAULUM, a piece of money put into the mouth
of a perfon deceafed among the Romans, to enable
him to pay Charon the ferryman for his pafiage. It
was to. be .of the current.coin of the reigning empe¬
ror ; from this money then the time of the perfon’s Naumaehi*
death may be known. The fum for poor men was a 11
farthing, but the rich in general were very liberal to ^auPaflu3*
the old tar Charon, as appears from the number of *
coins often found in the neighbourhood of Rome on
opening the graves of great men. Charon was looked
upon as a very morofe and obftinate old fellow, who
would not carry over any man without his fare:
and hence the proverbial ufe of that verfe in Juvenal,
Furor eji pojl omnia perdere nau/um.
A fimilar cuftom took place among the Greeks;
but the money put into the mouth of the deceaftd was
Called Atcvaxn.
NAUMACHIA, in antiquity, a fhow or fpedacle
among the ancient Romans, reprefenting a lea-fight.
Thefe mock fea-fights are fuppofed to have originated
at the time of the firft Punic war, when the Romans
fit ft inftrufted their men in the knowledge of naval
affairs. Afterwards they were intended to entertain
the populace, as-well as to improve the feamen. They
were often like other Ihows exhibited at the expence
of individuals, to increafe their popularity.
In thefeTpeftacles they fometimes ftrove to excel
each other in fvviftnefs; and fometimes engaged in a
warlike manner. The Naumachiae of Claudiusapdeed
was a moll favage diverfion. The combatafftf ufed
to deftroy each other to amufe a tyrant and a cruel
mob. As they paffed before him, they ufed this me¬
lancholy greeting, “ rive Imperator, morituri te falu-
tant.” The emperor replied, “ rlvete vos.” This
they uncterftood as an anfwer of kindnefs, and a grant
of their lives ; but they foon difeovered that it pro¬
ceeded from wanton cruelty, and barbarous infenflbi-
lity. In th6 time of the emperor Domitian, fuch a '
vail number of velftls engaged as would have nearly
formed two regular fleets for a real fight, and the
channel of water was equal in magnitude to a natural
river. The emperor Heliogabalus is reported to have
filled the channel where the veflels were to ride with
wineinfteadof water. Tritons and fea-monfters were (fre¬
quently exhibited during the engagement. Suetonius*,
and Dio Calfius inform us, that at one of thefe fea-fights
of Domitian a violent Ihower fell; the emperor,however,
continued till the end of the engagement, often -
changing his clothes, nor would he fuffer any.one to de¬
part ; and as the rain continued for feyeral hours,
many were feized with diftempers, and fome even
died, Suet. cap. 4. Dio, lib. Ixvii. Naumachiae were
alfo places fitted up for thefe Ihows, a fort of circus’s
or amphitheatres, with feats and porticos, &c.: there
were feveral of them at Rome ; three built by Augu-
ftusjone byClaudius, another by Domitian,ami another
by Nero 5 which ferved for the reverfe of his-medals.
Claudius ufed the lake Fucinus as a Naumachia.
NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, capital of the county of Saxe-
Naumburg, fituated on the river Sala, in E. Long,
11. 20. N. Lat. 51. 12.
NAUPACTUS, or Naupactum, (anc. geog.) a
city of iEtolia, at the mouth of the Evenus. The
word is derived from vauf and becaufe it was
there that the Heraclidte built the fi'rft (hip which
carried them to Peloponnefus. It firft belonged to
the Locri Ozolse, and afterwards fell into the hands
of the Athenians, who gave it.to the Mefiaiians, who
3.. had..
N A U t 776 ] N A U
’Naupl'a ^ad been driven from Ptloponnefns by the Lacede- obfervation of the horizon, which difcovers figns in-
!l monians. It became the property of the Lacedtmo- dicating the proximity of {hips or of land. —v-
■Nauftojy. n;ans after the battle of ^igofpotamos, and it was re- “ On the approximation of a (hip towards the land,
ftored to the Locri. Philip of Macedonia afterwards or towards another fhip, there appears in the atmo-
took it, and gave it to the iEtolians; from which cir- fpherc a meteor of a particular natme, vifible to every
cumftance it has generally been called orte of the chief one without any pamfulattention. It is not by any kind
cities of their country. E. Long. 22. 20. N. Lat. of accident that this meteor ; ppears under thefe cir-
38. o. ■cumfiances ; on the contrary, it is the neceffary refult
There was on the (hore a temple of Neptune, and of the approximation of one veffel towards another,
near it a cave filled with offerings, and dedicated to or towards the land. The exiltence of the meteor,
Venus, where widows reforted to requefl new huf- and the knowledge of its different modifications, are
bands of the goddefs Paufan. lib. 10. p. 898. what conilitute the certainty and the precifion of my
NAUPLI A, (anc geog.), a maritime city of Pe- informations,
loponnefus. It was-the naval tlation of the ArgiveS. “ If I am afieed, how it is pofiible that the ap-
The fountain Canathos was in its neighbourhood. proach of a fliip towards land (hould give birth to any
NAUPLIUS, (fab. hill.), a fon of Neptune and meteor whatfoever in the atmofphere, and what con-
.Amymone, king of Euboea. He was the father of nedlion there can be between two obje&s at fuch a di-
the famous Palamedes, who w as fo unjuftly facriliced (lance from each other ? 1 reply, that I am not obh-
to the artifi.e-nd refentment of Ulvffes hy the Greeks ged to give an ac want of the hows and the where-
at the Trojan war. The death of Palamedes highly fores ; that it is futficient for me to have difeovered
enraged Nauplius ; and to revenge the irjuftiee of the the fadl, without being obliged to account for its prin-
Grecian princes, he endeavoured to debauch their ciple.,>
Avives, Sud ruin their charafters. 'When the Greeks The writer concludes, by defiring to be called on
returned from the Trojan war, Nauplius was plesfed for experimental proofs, and by promifing in future a
to fee them diftreffed in a {form on the eoafis of Eli- complete treatifeof Naufcopy, with maps, plates, &c.
boea; and to make their difafter ftill more univerfal, This complete treadle, as far as we know, has not "
he lighted fires on fuch places as weie furrounded with yet been publifhed, nor do we expect ever to fee fuch
•the re oft dangerous rocks, that the fleet might be a treatife on the fubjeft as will fatisfy the minds of
{hipwrecked upon the coaft. This Irad the defired ef- thofe who are perfuaded that every tffedl mull have
fedt^ but Nauplius was fo difappointed when he faw an adequate caufe. The adminiftrators of the ifland,
Ulyfles and Diomedes efcape from the general diftrefs, who gave to M. Bottineau what he calls a report, con-
that he threw himfelf into the fea. According to taining the moft authentic and moft explicit teftimony
fome mythologifts there were two perfons of this of the reality of the difeovery, feem to be of our opi-
Tiame, a native of Argos, who went to Colchis with nion ; and yet they fpeak of this difeovery with doubt,
Jafon. He was fon of Neptune and Amymone.— and with a degree of refpedt to which we think it
The other was king of Euboea, and lived about the can lay no claim. Their report is in the form of a
'time of ti,e Trojan war. He w-as, as fome obferve, letter direfted to the Marechal cle Cajlries : and that
fon of Clytonas, one of the defeendants of Nauplius our infidelity may not deprive the public of what, in
the Argonaut. The Argonaut was remarkable for the immenfe catalogue of. poffibilities, may lead to a
his knowledge of fea affairs and of aftronomy. He ufeful difeovery, we (hall here fubjoin a copy of it.
built the town of Nauplia, and fold Auge daughter Port Louis, IJland of France, the l8.'A February 1784.
of Alcus to king Teuthras, to fereern her from her fa- “ My Lord, A letter which you have written on
ther’s refentment. the 6th of April to M. Bottineau, employed in the
NAUPORTUS, or Nauportum, (anc. geog.), a King and Company’s fervice in this colony, obliges
town on a cognominal liver, towards its fource, in us not to refufe him one for you, of which he propofes
Pannonia Superior. The reafon of the name, ac- being himfelf the bearer. The defire only of being
cording to Pliny, is, that the (hip Argo, after coming ufeful to his country, is (as he fays) the motive
up the Danube, the Save, and the Laubach, was which determines him to take this ftep. He would
thence carried oh mens (boulders over the Alps into be angry with himfelf were he to conceal a difeevery
the Adriatic. The river Nauportus rifes in the Alps, which hath hitherto efcaped the moft enlightened
near Longaticum, at the diftance of fix miles from the perfons, and of which he only is in pofieffion. This
town Nauportum ; which was a colony of the Tan- difeovery is the art of announcing the prefence of one
rifei, a people on the confines of Noricum. "Now or feveral fifips, at 100, 150, and as tar as 2t o leagues
Upper Lauhaih in Carinthia, on the river Laubach. diftasce. This is by no means the refult of his ftu-
L. Long. 14. 40. N. Lat. 46. 28. dies, nor the fortunate application of the principles of
NAUSCOPY, the art ot difeovering the approach any particular fcience ; his feitnee is in his eyes only,
of thips or the neighbourhood of land at a confide- and he can have no other: what we call penetration
rable diftance. This pretended art was invented by ani~genius cannot make up to him what he is defici-
a M. Bottineau, employed in the King and Company’s ent in from education. He perceives (as he fays)
fervice in the iiland of France, from the year 1782 to in nature, fome dgns which indicate to him the pre-
j 784 ; and the account of it is given by the inventor as fence of the veflels, as we know that there is a fire in a
follows : place when we perceive the fmoke which comes from
“ This knowledge is not derived either from the it. This is the comparifon which he makes ufe of
undulation of the waves, or from the fubtilty of fight, himfelf to thofe who have converfed with him about
nor from any particular fenfation : but merely from his art r this (though he has kept his fecret to him-
N° 240. fclf)
Inland IsTAV1GATlOTST. Plate CCCXL1V7.
N A U L 777 3 N A U
Naufcopy. felf) jg the plaineft thing he has faid, In order to make
jt be Underftood that he hath not made this dlfcovery
by the knowledge of any art or fcience, which had
been the objeft of his application, or of his former
ftudies.
“It is according to him the effeft of chance ; he
hath taken nature in the a6f, and hath difcovered his
fecret ; fo that his fcience, or rather the firft elemer.ts
of it, hath not coft him the leaft trouble: but the
thing which hath coft him a great deal of labour, and
which may be really called his own, is the art of judg¬
ing of the exaft diftance.
“ According to him, the figns-very clearly indicate
the prefence of {hips; but none but thofe who can
well read thefe figns can draw any conclufions from
them with regard to diftances ; and this art of read¬
ing them well, is, according to him, a true and a^very
laborious ftudy: for this reafon he hath himfelf, for
a very long time, been the dupe of his fcience. It
is at leaft 15 years fince he firft foretold here the ar¬
rival of fhips. At firft this was regarded only as a
frolic. Wagers were laid on both fides. He often
loft, becaufe the fhips did not arrive at the time pre-
fcribed by him. . From thence came his application
to-find out the caufe of thefe miftakes ; an t the per-
fe&ion of his art is the refult of this application.
“ Since the war, his informations have greatly in-
creafed, and probably were fufficiently exaft to ex¬
cite the attention of the public. The noife of them
reached us with the degree of enthufiafm which is al¬
ways excited by the marvellous. He himfelf fpoke of
the reality of his fcience with the tone of a man con¬
vinced. It would have been too cruel to have dif-
miffed him as a vifionary.
“ Befides, every thing depended upon proofs, and
we required that he fhould produce fome : in confe-
quence, he hath regularly fent us, for eight months,
the informations which he thought he might venture
to fend us ; and the refult is, that feveral of the fhips
he announced are arrived at the time he foretold, af¬
ter feveral days of information.
“ Others have come later than was expected, and
fome have not appeared at all.
“ With regard to fome of thefe, it hath been af-
certained, that their delay had been occafioned by
calms or by currents. M. Bottineau is perfuaded,
that thofe which never appeared were foreign vefiels
which went on ; and' accordingly we have learned,
that fome Englifh fhips were arrived in India, which
might perhaps have been in fight of the ifland at the
time indicated. But this is no more than a conjedfure,
which our occupations have not allowed us to inveftigate.
What we can afeertain is, that in general it appears that
M Bottineau hath made juft obfervations: whether
it is owing to chance or to his abilities, it might be,
perhaps, imprudent to-determine. It is however cer
tain, that the fact is fo extraordinary, under whatever
light it is confidered, that we have not thought our-
felves able either to affirm or deny it; and we have
wifhed the Sieur Bottineau to compel us to take
one or the other fide of the queftion, by truft-
ing his feeret to fome trufty and able perfon.-—
But this he hath refufed, being probably afraid that
he fhould not acquire by the difeovery all the benefit
which he imagines he may reap from it.
¥ol. XII. Part II.
“ Suppofing the reality of the difeovery, we do not Naufea,
believe that its utility can be as important as M. Bot-
tineau perfuades himfelf it is ; but it might perhaps
throw a great light upon natural hiftory. In order
to be ufeful it would be neceffary that the difeovery
fhould be confined to one nation, and remain unknown
to all others. This will be impoffible, if every fleet,
every veflel, and every privateer, is obliged to carry a
man on board who is in poffeffion of this fecret. 
We remain, with refped, my Lord, your’s, &c. Le
Vce. de Sonillac, Chevreau.”
NAUSEA, or sickness ; a retching or propenffty
and endeavour to vomit, arifing from fomething which
irritates the ftomach.
NAUTILUS, in zoology; a genus belonging to
the order of vermes teftacea. The fhell confifts of
one fpiral valve, divided into feveral apartments by
partitions. There are 17 fpecies, chiefly diftinguiffied
by particularities in their fhells.
Bonani obferves, that this genus of fhell-fiffi is,very
well named from the Greek vaunx®-, which fignifies
both “ a fhip” and “ a failorfor that the ffiells of
all the nautili carry the appearance of a fhip with a
very high poop. Different authors, both ancient and
modern, have called the nautilus by the names of
pompilus, naup/iusy naut/cus, ovum polypi, polypus tejla~
ceus : and the French call it le votlier. It is by fome
imagined, that men firft learned the art of navigation
from this animal.
The moft remarkable divifion of the nautili is into
the thin and thick-fhelled kinds. The firft is called
'nautilus pdpyraceus ; and its fhell is indeed no thicker
than a piece of paper when out of the water. This
fpecies is not at ail faftened to its fhell; but there is
an opinion, as old as' the days of Pliny, that this crea¬
ture creeps out of its fhell, and goes on fhore to feed.
When this fpecies is to fail, it expands two of its arms
on high, and between thefe fupports a membrane,
which it throws out on this occaiion : this ferves for
its fail, and the two other arms it hangs out of its
fhell, to ferve occafionaliy either as oars or as a fteer-
age ; but this laft office is generally ferved by the tail.
When the fea is calm, it is frequent to fee numbers of
thefe creatures diverting themfelves in this manner :
but as foon as a ftorm rifes, or any thing gives them
difturbance, they draw in their legs, and take in as
much water as makes them fpecifically heavier than
that in which they float; and then they fink to the
bottom. When they rife again, they void this water
by a number of holes, of which their legs are full.
The other nautilus, whofe fliell is thick, never quits
that habitation. This fhell is divided into 40 or more
partitions, which grow fmaller and fmaller as they
approach the extremity or centre of the fhell: be¬
tween every one of thefe cells and the adjoining ones
there is a communication by means of a hole in the
centre of every one of the partitions. Through this
hole there runs a pipe of the whole length of the fhell.
It is fuppofed by many, that by means of this pipe
the fiih occafionally paffes from one cell to another ;
but this feems by no means probable, as the fifh muff
undoubtedly be crufhed to death by paffing through
it It is much more likely that the fifh always occu¬
pies the largeft chamber in its fhell; that is, that it lives
in the cavity between the mouth and the firft parti-
5 P tioiq
N A V [77
Nautilus, tion, and that it never removes out of this; but that
Navy- all the apparatus of cells, and a pipe of communica-
r tion which we fo much admire, ferv^s only to admit
occa'fionally air or water into the Ihell, in fuch pro¬
portion as may ferve the creature in its intentions of
fwimming.
Some authors call this {hell the concha margariti-
fera: but this can be only on account of the fine co¬
lour ©n its infide, which is more beautiful than any
other mother-of-pearl; for it has not been obferved
that this fpecies of fifh ever produced pearls. It muft
be obferved, that the polypus is by no means to be
confounded with the paper-fiielled nautilus, notwith-
ftanding the great refemblance in the arms and body
of the inclofed fifh ; nor is the cornu ammonis, fo fre¬
quently found foffile, to be confounded with the
thick-fhelled nautilus, though the concamerations- and
general ftru&ure of the {hell are alike in both ; for
there are great an~i eflential differences between allthcfe
genera. There is a pretty copious and minute account
of this curious animal in the Gentleman’s Magazine,
vol. xxii. p. 6. 7. 8. and 301. and vol. xxv. p. 128.
NAVY, the fleet or {hipping of a prince or ftate.
See Marine.
The management of the Britifli navy-royal under the
lord high admiral of Great Britain, is entrufted to prin¬
cipal officers and commiffioners of the navy, who hold
their places by patent. The principal officers of thenavy
are four, viz. the treafurer, wkofe bufinefs it is to re¬
ceive money out of the exchequer, and to pay all the
charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal
officers : comptroller, who attends and controuls all
payment of wages, is to know the rates of {lores, to
examine and audit all accounts, &c. : furveyor, who
is to know the ftates of all {lores, and fee wants fup-
plied ; to ellimate repairs, charge boatfwains, &c.
with what {lores they receive, and at the end of each
voyage to {late and audit accounts: clerk of the a<fb,
whofe bufinefs it is to record all orders, contra&s, bills,
warrants, &c.
The commiffioners of the navy are five : the firft
executes that part of the comptroller’s duty which re¬
lates to the comptrolling the vidlualler’s accounts ;
the fecond, another part of the faid comptroller’s duty
relating to the account of the ftorekeepers of the
yard ; the third has the dire&ion of the navy at the
port of Portfmouth; the fourth has the fame at Chat¬
ham ; and the fifth at Plymouth. There are alfo
other commiffiofiers at large, the number more or
lefs according to the exigencies of public affairs ;
and fince the increafe of the royal navy, thefe have
leveral clerks under them, with falaries allowed by
the king.
The victualling of the royal navy hath formerly
been undertaken by contrail; but is now managed
by commiffioners, who hold their office on Tower-hill,
London. The navy-office rs where the whole bufinefs
concerning the navy is managed by the principal offi¬
cers and commiffioners.
The royal navy of Great Britain is now in a very
flouri filing Hate, having been diligently kept up in
late reigns, as th« natural ftrength of the kingdom.
When it is complete, it is divided into three fqua-
drons, dillinguifiied by the colours of the flags carried
by the refpedive admirals belonging to the Came, via.
8 ] N A X
red, white, and blue; the principal commander of
which bears the title of admiral: and each has under
him a vice-admiral and a rear-admiral, who are like-
wife flag-officers.
Navt Exercife. See Exercise.
NAvx-Difciplinet or Regulations. See Maritime-
State.
NAWORTH-Castle, in Cumberland, 10 miles
from Carlifle, near the Gelt. This caftle is ftill entire
and inhabited. It is a large pile, fquare, and built
round a court.- On the north it {lands over the ri¬
ver Ithing, at a great height, the banks {flagged with
wood. The whole houfe is a very irregular building,
the rooms numerous, acceffible by 16 ftaircafes, with
moft frequent and fudden afcents and defcents, &c —
The great hall has a gallery at one end, adorned with
four vaft crefls carved in wood, viz. a griffin and dol¬
phin, with the fcollops ; an unicorn, and an ox with
a coronet round his neck. Li front is a figure in wood
of an armed man ; two others, perhaps vafials, in fliort
jackets and caps ; a pouch pendant behind, and the
mutilated remains of Priapus to each; one has wooden
{hoes. Thefe leem the ludibrium auLt in thofe grofs
days. The top and upper^end of the room is painted
in fquares, to the number of 107, reprefenting the
Saxon kings and heroes. The chimney here is five
yards and a half broad. Within this is another apart¬
ment, hung with old tapeftry, a head of Ann of
Cleeves; on one fide of her a fmall piiilure of a lady
in full length, &c. and many others. Many of thefe
paintings were brought from Kirk-Ofwald-caftle when
that was demoliftied. The chapel has a cieling, and part
of its wainfcot of the fame kind, being paintings of
Patriarchs, Jewifli kings, &c. It has a floor of
plafter of Paris, as have fome other of the rooms.
Some of the apartments are very large and fpacio'us.
The fmall Popifii chapel is above flairs, and joining
to this chapel is the library, which has a wooden roof;
the books are old, there are not above one or two of
the manufcripts here now. This caftle was built by
one of the Caere’s, about the reign of Henry III.
In the garden walls were Hones with Roman inferip-
tions, which the late earl of Carlifle gave to Sir Tho¬
mas Robinfon, and were by him removed to his mu-
feum »t Rooklby: On one of thefe ftones is this inferip-
tion, peditum centum quinquaginta Bntannorum; whence
it appears that the Romans, when in pofleffion of Bri¬
tain, fometimes indulged the national troops with the
favour of garrifoning their own territories.
NAXIA, or Naxos, a confiderable ifland of the
Archipelago, 25 miles in length, and 88 in circum*
ference. The whole ifland is covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, fig, and
mulberry trees ; and there are a great many fprings
and brooks. This ifland has no harbour; and yet
they carry on a confiderable trade in barley, wine, figs,
cotton, filk, flax, cheefe, fait, oxen, ftieep, mules,
and oil. They burn only oil of maftic, though olive-
oil is exceeding cheap. It is inhabited both by Greeks
and Latins, who live in great dread of the Turks:
for when the meaneft of their fliips appear here, they
always wear red caps like galley-flaves, and tremble
before the ioweil officer; but as foon as they are
gone, they put on their caps of velvet. The ladies
are fo vain, that when they return out of the country.
N A X [ 7T9] NAY
Nas.-ii, tbty have 40 women in their train, half on foot and
NajtU!i' half on affes ; one of whom carries a napkin or two,
another a petticoat, another a pair of (lockings, and
fo on ; which is a very ridiculous fight to (1 rangers.
There are .four archbilhops iees in this ifland, and a
great many villages ; but fo thin of people, that the
whole ifland does not contain above 8:*oo inhabitants.
The higheft mountain is Zia, which fignines “the
mountain of Jupiter.” There are but few antiquities,
except fame fmaii remains of the temple of Bacchus.
, Some fay they have mines of gold and filver ; how¬
ever, there is one of emery, which is fo common here,
and fo cheap, that the Englilh often ballail their fnips
therewith.
Naxos, or Naxia, a confiderable town, and capital
of the ids of Naxos, over-againft the ifle of Paros,
with a caille and two archbifliops fees, the one Greek
• and the other Latin. The greatell part of the in¬
habitants are Greeks. E. Long. 25. 51. N. Lat.
.37. 8.
NAXUS, now Naxia, formerly Strongy/e, Din,
JYwnyJuis. Callipolis, and Little Sicily. It was called
Strongyle, from a Greek word, fignifying “ round,”
though in reality it is rather fquave than round. The
names of Dia or Divine, and Dbmyftas, were given
it as being confecrated in a peculiar manner to the fa¬
bulous god Eionyfus or Bacchus., i he appellation
of Caliipol'u Pliny and Solinus derive from the metro¬
polis of the ifland, formerly a moft beautiful city,
which is the import of the .word Callipolis. The
great fertility of the country gave rife to the name
of Little Sicily, Maxus being the moll fruitful of all
the Cyclades, as Agathemcrus informs us, and no
lefs fertile than Sicily itfelf. As for the name of
Naxus,{on\e afi’ert that it was borrowed from oneNaxus,
under whofe condufl the Carians poffeffed themfelves
of the ifland; others pretend it received its name from
Naxus, the fen of Endymien. Stephanus, Suiias,
and Phavorinus, derive the name oi Naxos from the
Greek word naxai, fignifying “ to facrifice,” and will
have it to have been fo called from the many facrifices
offered here to Bacchus. With thefe Bocchart agrees,
as to its being called Naxos from the facrifices per¬
formed here in honour of Bacchus, but will have the
word naxos to be a corruption of the Phoenician naeja,
or niefa, fignifying “ a facrifice, offering.” Naxos
is, according to Pliny, 75, but reckoned by the pre-
fent inhabitants 100, miles in compafs. It has Paros
to the weft, Myconos and Delos to the north, and
los to the fouth. This ifland is the moft fruitful of
the Archipelago, and was formerly famed for the ex¬
cellent wines it produced. Archilochus, as quoted
by Athenasus, compares them to the neftar of the
gods ; and Afclepiades, cited by Stephanus, affures
us, that Bacchus took more delight in Naxos than
in any other place whatfoever, having himfelf taught
the inhabitants to cultivate their vines. The wine
of Naxos maintains to this day its ancient reputation,
being by fome deemed the beft of the Levant. Be-
fides wine, this ifland abounds with all forts of deli¬
cious fruits, the plains being covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, mulberry,
and fig trees. It was formerly famous for quarries of
that fort of marble which the Greeks called ophites,
from its being green, and fpeckled with white fpots
like the (kin of a ferpent. The beft: emerald is found Nasm,
here on mountains near the vveftern coaft, whence NsAor'
the neighbouring cape is called by the Italians capo
fmeriglio, or the emerald cape. As to the inhabitants
of Naxos, Diodorus relates that the ifland was firft
peopled by the Thracians. Thefe were in a little
time fubdued by a body of Theffalians, who having
pwffeffed the ifland for the fpace of 200 years and
upwards, were compelled to abandon it by a drought
and famine.
After the Trojan war, the Carians fettled here and
called the ifland Naxos, from their king, who was the
fon of Polemon. He was fucceeded by his fon Leu¬
cippus, and Leucippus by his fon Smardius, in whole
reign Thefeus, coming out of Crete, landed here with
Ariadne, whom he was, in his deep, commanded by
Bacchus to leave in this ifland In procefs of time a
colony of Cnidians and Rhodians fettled here under
the condudl of Hippothous and Xuthus ; the laft of
all the lonians, who, in time, poffeffed the whole
ifland ; whence the Naxians are, by Herodotus, called
lonians, and ranked among the Athenian colonies.
E. Long. 26. 5. N. Lat. 36. 30. It is about 105 miles
in circumference and about 30 broad.
Naxus, (anc. geog.), a town of Crete, famous for
its hones, called lapis Naxius. Another of Sicily,
built by the Chalcidian ; iituated on the fouth fide of
Mount Taurus, deilroyed by Dionyfius the tyrant;
from whoie ruins Tauromenium, built by Timoleon,
either arofe or was increafed, (Plutarch).
NAYLOR (James), a noted Engliflr enthufiaft,
was born, about 1616, in the pariih of Ardefley, not
far from Wakefield in Yorklhire. His father, though
a farmer, and the proprietor of an eftate, gave his fon
but a mean education ; which is perhaps to be re¬
gretted, for his parts were very confiderable. He
manned when very young and fettled in Wakefield
parifh. In 1641 he was a private foldier under Lord
Fairfax, being then a prefbyteria'n : but he afterwards
became an independent, and was made quarter-mafter
under General Lambert. In 1651-2, he was convert¬
ed by George Fox the apoftle of the quakers, and
foon commenced a preacher and prophet among that
people. One of his prophecies wask that the laft and
general judgment fhould be on the i^thdayof the
enfuing November. The falfehood of this prediction
was foon perceive^, and of courfe his impofture ought
to have been detected ; but fuch is the power of en-
thufiafm over the human mind, that his fame rofe daily;
and upon his going to London in 1655, he excited to
no common pitch the envy of his brethren. He had
ftrange fancies of celeftial illuminations, and con-
fidered himfelf as a great favourite of heaven. In
1656 he went into the weft of England, but his
extravagancies were fo great and his opinions fo
blafphemous, that even in thofe days of fanatical dc-
lufion, they were heard with fuch horror, that the au¬
thor of them was imprifoned in Exeter gaol; from
which however he was relieved in the fpace of a month.
Upon this he determined to return to London ; but
taking Briftol in his way, he made his entrance into
that city in imitation of our Saviour’s entrance into
Jerufalem, the people ftrewing the way, &e. and call¬
ing out “ Holy, holy, holy, lord god of Sabaoth ;
hofanna in the higheil, &c.” So impious a condud
5 F 2 could
N A Z
r 7S<
Nayre*, could not efcape animadverfion : he was apprehended
. AZ*rel • with fix of his afibciates. On examination he defend¬
ed all that had paired; and was foon after with his fol¬
lowers fent to London, imprifoned, and condemned
to be whipt, and then put to hard labour. The fen-
tence, though much petitioned againft, was executed,
and he recovered his fenfes, exprefled his repentance,
and was again received by the Quakers, who, during
his impious frenzy, had difowned him. In 1659 he
was freed from prifon; and the following year fet off
to fee his wife and children; but being robbed and
left bound by the way, he was found in that ftate and
carried to a friend’s houfe at Rippon, where he died
in November 1660. He was accounted the author
of feveral works His eccentricities, however, rather
than his writings, have preferved his chara&er ; and he
Hands forward to the world, not fo much as a man of
genius or parts, though he was in fome meafure pof-
felfed of both, but rather as a ftriking example of the t
power of enthnfiafm over the human mind, and of
the danger of giving way to the religious reveries of
an overheated imagination.
NAYRES, the nobility of the Malabar coaft. We
may with truth affirm that they are the oldeft nobi¬
lity in the world ; for the mofl: ancient writers mention
them, and quote the law that permits the Nayre la¬
dies to have many hufbands; every one being allowed
four. Their houfes, which Hand fingle, have as many
doors as the lady has hufbands. When one of them
vifits her, he walks round the houfe, ftriking with
his fabre on his buckler : he then opens his door,
and leaves a domeftic with his arms in a kind of
porch, who ferves to inform others that the lady is
engaged. It is faid, that one day in the week the
four doors are all opened, and all her hufbands vifit
her, and dine together with her. Each hufband gives
a fnm of money, or portion, at the time of marriage;
and the wife only has the charge of the children. The
Nayres, even the Samorin, and the other princes,
have no other heirs than the children of their fifters.
This law was eftablilhed, that the Nayres, having no
family, might be always ready to march againft the
enemy. When the nephews are of age to bear arms,
they follow their .uncles. The name of father is un¬
known to a Nayre child. He fpeaks of the hufbands
of his mother and of his uncles, but aever of his
father.
NAZARETH, a little city in the tribe of Zebu-
lun, in Lower Galilee, to the weft of Tabor, and to
the eaft of Ptolemais. Eufebius fays, it is fifteen miles
from Legion towards the eaft. This city is much ce¬
lebrated in the fcriptures, for having been the ufual
place of the refidence of Jefus Chrift for the firft 33
years of his life. Luke ii. 51. It was there our Sa¬
viour became incarnate, where he lived in obedience
to Jofeph and Mary, and from whence he took the
name of a Nazarean. After he had begun to execute
his miffion, he preached there fometimes in the fyna-
gogue, id. iv. 16. But becaufe his countrymen had
no faith in him, and were offended at the meannefs of
his original, he did not many miracles there, Matth.xiii.
54. 58 nor would he dwell therein; fo he fixed his ha¬
bitation at Capernaum for the latter part of his life, id.
iv. 13. The city of Nazareth was fituated upon an
eminence ; and on one fide there was a precipice* from
3 ] N A Z
whence the Nazareans one day had a defign of throw- Nazareth,
ing down our Saviour, becaufe he upbraided them v—^
with their incredulity, Luke iv. 29.
St Epiphanius fays? that in his time Nazareth was
only a village, and that to the reign of Conftantine it
was inhabited by Jews alone, exclufive of all Chriftians.
Adamhanus, a writer of the feventh age, fays, that in
his time there were two great churches to be feen at
Nazareth, one in the midft of the city, built upon two
arches, in the place where our Saviour’s houfe had
flood. Under the two arches now mentioned, was a
very fine fountain, which furnilhed water to the whole
city, and from whence water was drawn alfo by the
help of a pulley for the ufe of the church above. The
fecond church of Nazareth was built in a place where
the houfe flood wherein the angel Gabriel revealed to
the virgin Mary the myftery of our Lord’s incarnation ;
and we are affured that the church of incarnation,
which is fupported by two arches, is ftill in being to
this day. Mr Maucdreli tells us, that there is a con¬
vent built over what is faid to be the place of annunci¬
ation ; for the chamber where fhe received the angel’s
falutation was about i;oo years ago removed from Na¬
zareth, and, according to the Roman legends, tranf-
ported by angels to Loretto, then a fmall village in
the pope’s dominions, now become a bilhop’s fee.—.
However, Calmet’s opinion (which is certainly the
true one) upon the different tranflations of this famous
houfe of Loretto is, that they were no other than fo
many different buildings made upon the model of the
church of Nazareth, juft as in feveral places fepulchres
have been built upon the model of that at Jerufalem.
Mariti tells us, that in the eaftern part of the city
Hands the church dedicated to the Bleffed Virgin : the
zeal of the Coenobites railed it from the ruins of that
which had been deftroyed by the Saracens. It is a
very handfome building, and confifts of three naves ;
in the middle of which is the principal altar; to which
there is an afeent by two magnificent flairs, much ad¬
mired for their iron balluftrades, the work of an inge¬
nious monk of the convent. The defeent to the grot¬
to ©r annunciation chapel below is by fteps of beauti¬
ful marble, cut with great tafte. Two beautiful co¬
lumns of oriental granite ftrike the eye of the obferver
in the entrance. They appear to have been conftruft-
ed both to fupport and ornament the grotto. The al¬
tar of this fubterranean chapel is extremely elegant;
and the different kinds of marble with which it is or¬
namented, receive an additional luftre from the com¬
bined light of fever?! filver lamps prefented by Chrif-
tian princes. On folemn feftivals, the walls and the
pilafters are ornamented with various pieces of tapef-
try, reprefenting the myfteries of the Virgin; a fu-
perb prefent from the Houfe of Auftria. In the
weftern part of the city Hands a Chriftian church,
built, as is faid, on the fite of the ancient fynagogue
where Jefus firowed the Jews the accompliffiment of
the prophecies in his perfon. This place ferved a long
time as a flicker for flocks, but at prefent it is in good
repair. In the neighbourhood may be feen a fountain
of excellent water, which is, however, efteemed by the
people on another account. They conjefture that it
was contiguous to the habitation of the Virgin, and
that it was ufed by her. At fome diftance is a large
ftone of a round form, called Cbrifils Table. It is
pretended
N A Z [ 781 ] N A Z
Nazarite. pretended that he came hither more than once with Hebrew or Syriac, for the ufebfthefirft converts, but Nazarite.
his difciples to eat. The inhabitants of Nazareth pay was afterwards corrupted by the Ebionites. Thefe u~—\  J
it a kind of worfhip, by burning perfumes and incenfe Nazareans preferved this firft gofpel in its primitive
around it. It is fituated in 350 E. Long, and in 32° purity. Some of them were ftill in being in the time
N. Lat; and formerly held the third rank under the of St Jerom, who does not reproach them with any
patriarch of Jerufalem. ^ At prefent it is part of the error They were very zealous obfervers of the law
domains of the chief of Acre. The ancient city,
after the ravages of fanaticifm, was reduced to a mi-
ferable hamlet, containing only a few Arab huts. Un¬
der the protection of Daher Omar, however, it reco¬
vered very confiderably, and is now of far more impor¬
tance.
NAZARITE, or Nazarean, or Nazarinesy a
term which may iignify, 1. One that is of Nazareth,
01 any native of this city. 2. It was given to Jefus
Chriii and his difciples, and is commonly taken in
of Mofes, but had the traditions of the Pharifees i
very great contempt.
_ Nazarite, when put to fignify thofe under the an¬
cient law who made a vow of obferving a more than
ordinary degree of purity (Numb, ubi at.), denotes a
man or woman who engage themfelves by a vow to
abftain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, to let
their hair grow without cutting or ihaving, not to enter
into any houfe that was polluted by having a dead
corpfe in it, nor to be prefent at any funeral. And if
fenfe of derifion and contempt, in fuch authors as by chance any one fhould have died in their prefence,
have written againft Chriilianity. 3. It has been ta- they began again the whole ceremony of their confe-
ken for a fed of heretics called Nazareans. 4. F®r cration and Nazariteftiip. This ceremony generally
a Nazarite, a man that has laid himfelf under the ob- faded eight days, fometimes a month, and fometimes
ligation of a vow to obferve the rules of Nazaritefhip, their whole lives. When the time of their Nazarite-
whetherit be for his whole life, as Sampfon and John Ihip was accomplilhed, the pried brought the perfon
the Baptid, or only for a time, as thofe mentioned in to the door of the temple, who there offered to the
Numbers vi. 18, 19, 20. Amos ii. 11, iz. Ladly, Lord a he-lamb for a burnt-offering, a fhe-lamb for
the name Nazarite in fome paffages of fcripture de- an expiatory facrifice, and a ram for a peace-offering,
notes a man of particular didindion and great dignity They offered likewife loaves and cakes, with wine ne-
in the court of fome prince. But we mud fpeak of cedary for the libations. After all this was facrificed
thefe feveral forts of Nazarites fomething more di- and offered to the Lord, the pried or fome other
ftindly. fhaved the head of the Nazarite at the door of the ta-
The name of Nazarene belongs to Jefus Chrid, not bernaele, and burnt his hair, throwing it upon the
only becaufe of his having lived the greated part of his hre of the altar. Then the pried put into the hand
life at Nazareth, and becaufe this city has always been °f the Nazarite the fhoulder of the ram roaded, with
confidered as his country, but alfo becaufe the pro- a loaf and a cake, which the Nazarite returning into
phets had foretold that he fhould be called a Naza- the hands of the pried, he offered them to the Lord,
rene, Matth. ii. 23. “ And he came and dwelt in a lifting them up in the prefence of the Nazarite. And
“ city called Nazareth, that it might he fulfilled which from this time he might again-drink wine, his Naza-
“ was fpoken by the prophets. He fhall be called a ritefhip being now accomplifhed.
‘ Nazarene.” We find no particular place in the
prophets in which it is faid that the Meffiah fhould be
called a Nazarene; and St Matthew only quotes the
prophets in geneial Perhaps he would infinuate, that
the conftcration of the Nazarites, and the great pu¬
rity of which they made profeffion, was a type and
As to thofe that were perpetual Nazarites, as were
Samfon and John the Baptid, it appears that they
were conlecrated to their Nazaritefhip by their parents,
and continued all their lives in this date, without
drinking wine or cutting their hair.
Thofe that made a vow of Nazaritefhip out of Pa-
a fort of prophecy of thole of-our Saviour, or elfe kftine, and could not come to the temple when their
that the name Nazir or Nazarite given to the pa- vow was expired, contented themfdves with obferving-
triarch Jofeph, Gen. xlix. 26. Deut. xxxiii. 16.
a prophecy which was to be fulfilled in the perfon
of Jefus Chrid, of whom Jofeph was a figure. Ladly,
St Jerom was of opinion, that St Matthew here al¬
ludes to that paffage of ifaiah xi. 1. and lx. zx.
! And there fhall come forth a rod out of the ftem
the abdinence required by the law, and after that cut¬
ting their hair in the place where they were : as to the
offerings and facrifices preferibed by Mofes, which were
to be od'ered at the temple by themfelves, or by others
lor them, they deferred this till they could have a con¬
venient opportunity. Hence it was, that St Paul be-*
of Jelfe, and a branch (in Hebrew Nezer) lhall grow ing at Corinth, and having made the vow of a Naza-
“ out of his roots.” i his branch or Nezer, and this
rod, are certainly intended to denote Jefus Chrid, by
the general confent of all the fathers and interpreters.
When the word Nazarean is put for the heretics
known by this name, it denotes Chridians converted
from Judaifm, whofe chief error confided in defend-
rite, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, and put oft’
fulfilling the reft of. his vow till he Ihould arrive at Je-
rulaiem. Acts xviii. 18. When a perfon found that
he was not in a condition to make a vow of Nazafite-
Ihip, or had not leifure to perform the ceremonies be¬
longing to it, he contented himfelf by contributing
ing the necelftty or expediency of the works of the to the expence of the facrifice and offerings of thole
law, and who obftinately adhered to the pra&ice of that had made and fulfilled this vow; and by this
the Jewifh ceremonies. The name of Nazarenes at means he became a partaker in the merit of fuch Na-
firft had nothing odious in it, and it was often given zaritefhip. When St Paul came to Jerufalem, in the
to the firft Chriftians. The fathers frequently men- year of Chrift ^8, the apoftle St Jame.' the Lefs, with
tion the gofpel of the Nazarenes, which differs no- the other brethren, faid to him, Adts xxi. 23, 24.
thing from that of St Matthew, which was either in that to quiet the minds of the converted Jews, who had
been
N E A L 782 1 NEB
N-izirte been informed that he everywhere preached up the en- or baking earthen or other ware in an
. The
miners at Mendip, when they meet with a rock they
cannot cut through, anneal it by laying on wood and
zaritefhip upon them, and contribute to the charge of coal, and contriving the fire fo that they quit the mine "
N tire abolition of the law of Mofes, he ought $0 join
himfelf to four of the faithful who had i
a vow of Na-
the ceremony at the fhaving of. their heads ; by which
the new converts would perceive that he continued to
keep the law, and that what they had heard of him
was not true.
The Hebrew word Nazir, or Nazarite, which is
made ufe of to exprefs a man exalted to great dignity,
as it is faid of the patriarch jofeph, Gen. xlix. 16.
and Deut. xxxiii. 16 “ that he was feparate from his
brethren,” as it is in our tranflation ; or as the Vul¬
gate and others underftand the Hebrew, “ that he was
“ as a Nazarite among his brethren,” is varioufly un-
derifood. Some think that the Hebrew word to Na-
xir, in thefe places, fignifies one who is crowned, cho-
fen, ifeparated, or dillinguifhed,• the word Nazir
iignifies a crown. The Septuagint tranflate this word
a chief, or him that is honoured. Calmet thinks that
this was a term of dignity in the courts of eaftern
princes; and that at this day in the court of Perfia
before the operation begins, it being dangerous to en¬
ter it again before it be quite cleared of the fmoke.
Nf./uing of tile is ufed in ancient ftatutes for the
burning of tile. The word is formed of the Saxon
otuelan, nccendere, to light, burn.
NEAP, or Neep-tides. are thofe tides which hap¬
pen when the moon is in the middle of the fecond and
fourth quarters. The neap-tides are low tides, in re-
fpect of their oppoiites the fpiing-tides. As the
highetl of the fpring-tides is three days after the full
or change, fo the lowed: of the neap is four days be-
fore the full or change. On which occaiion the teamen
fay that it is deep neap.
NEAPED, When a fhip wants water, fo that flic
cannot get out of the harbour, off the ground, or out of
the dock, the fcamen fay tie is neaped, or btneu^d.
NEAPOLIS (anc. geog.), a city of the Higher
Egypt, in the Nomos Panopolitanus, between i hebas
the word Na%ir fignifies the fuper intend ant general of to the fouth, and Panopolis to the north, on the eait
the king’s houfehold, the chief officer of the crown,
the high fteward of his family, treafures, and revenues;
•anc) that in thisfenfe Jofeph was the Nazir of the court
of Pharaoh. Le Clerc tranflates the Nazir, a prince,
and calls Jofeph “ the prince of his brethren,” in the
two places already quoted. Mr Pool declares in favour
of this la it tranflation. See Jofeph. Chardin. Chryfofl.
St Jerom, GV.
'NAZIANZEN. See Gregory Nazianzm.
NAZIM, the lord lieutenant, viceroy, or governor
of a province in Hindoftan ; the fame as Lubahdar, or
Nabob.
NEALED, among feamen, is isfed when the
founding is deep water clofe to the Ihore ; as alfo
when the fhore is fandy, clayey, oozy, or foul and
rocky ground.
NEALING, or rather Annealing, a term ufed
for the preparing of feveral matters, by heating or
baking them in the oven, or the like.
Nehling of glafs, is the baking of glafs, to dry,
harden, and give it the due confiftence, after it has
been blown, and fafhioned into the proper works.—
This is ufually performed in a kind of tower called
the leer, built over the melting furnace. See Glass.
Nealing of glafs is alfo ufed for the art of ftaining
glafs with metalline colours. “ One fine ufe of filver
(fays Mr Boyle) was only difeovered fince the art of
annealing upon glafs came to be pra&ifed. For pre¬
pared filver, or even the crude metal, being burnt on
a glafs plate, will tinge it of a fine yellow or golden
colour. And-' there are feveral mineral earths, and
other courfe matters of ufe in this art, which by means
of fire impart tranIparent colours to glafs, and fome-
times very different ones from thofe of the bodies
themfelves.
Nealing of fleel, is the heating it in the fire to a
blood-red heat, and then taking it out, and letting it
cool gently of itfelf. This is done to make it fofter,
in order to engrave or punch upon it. See Tempeh-
«ng and Engraving.
Nealing is alfo ufed for the art or aft of burning
fide of the Nile ; othei wife called Gaene. — A fecond
Ntapolis of Babylonia, fituated near the Euphrates on
the fouth fide.—A third of Campania, an ancient town
and a colony from Cumae. (See Velleius, Pliny, Stra¬
bo).* accounted a Greek city, and a great iiickler tor
Greek ufages, (fee Livy, Tacitus), its hot bathjs
were in nothing interior to thofe of Baise, according
to Strabo : at two miles diitance from it Hands the
monument of Virgil, held in religious veneration by
learned poflerity. The Younger Pliny relates, that
Virgil’s birth-day was more reJigiouily obferved by Si-
lius Italicus than his own, efpecially at Naples, where
he reforted to his tomb as to a temple. The city is
wafhed by the river Sebethus. Virgil feigns the nymph
Sebethis to prefide over the Itream. Now Naples, ca¬
pital of the kingdom of that name. Sec Naples.—
A fourth, Neapolis of Caria, near the Meander,
(Ptolemy).— A filth, an imand town ol Cyrenaica,
lituated between Ptolemais and Arfinoe, (Ptolemy) ;
and to be dillinguifhed from the Casnopolis, or Nea¬
polis, on the ealt border of the fame province, (id).
A iixth of Ionia, (Strabo;; which belonged tint to
the Ephefians, but afterwards to the Samians, who
exchanged Marathefiura, a more ddlant city, for a
nearer.—A feventh, Neapolis of Macedonia Adjefta,
fituated at the dittance ot 12 miles to the eaft of Phi¬
lippi, (Antonine).—An eighth, Neapolis of Pifidia,
on the borders of Galatia, lituated between Amblada
and Pappa, (Ptolemy).— A ninth, of Samaria, the
ancient Sichem, whicn fee ; fo called upon its reitera¬
tion by the Romans, (Coin, Pliny, Jofephus).—A
tenth, of Sardinia, lituated on the fouth-weit fide of
the illand, 30 miles to the north of Metalla; now
called Neapoli.—An eleventh, of the Regio Syrtiea,
called alfo Leptis.—A twelfth, of Zeugiuuia on tlie
Mediterranean, to the ealt ofClypea, andioutk of the
Promontorium Mercurii.
NEAT, or Net IVeight, the weight of a commo¬
dity alone, clear of the calk, bag, cafe, or even filth.
See Net.
NEBIO, or Nebsio, a ruined city of Italy, on the
north
NEC r 783 ] NEC
Nebo north fide of the ifland of Corfica, with a bhhop’s fee,
XT it whofe bifhop refides at San Florenzo, from which it is
a mile diftant.
NEBO, (anc. geog. ),a very high mountain, a part
of the mountains Abarim, and their higheft top, whi¬
ther Mofes was ordered to afeend to take a view of
the land of Canaan, and there die. Situated in the land
of Moab, over-againft Jericho: with a cognominal
town at its foot (Ifaiah) belonging to the Reubenitee,
which afterwards returned to the Moabites; in Je¬
rome’s time defolate ; eight miles to the fouth of
Helhbon.
Nebo, or ifalo. See Nabo.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. See Nabuchadnez-
zar.
NEBULY, or Nebulee, in heraldry, is when a
coat is charged with feveral little figures, in' form of
words running within one another, or when the out¬
line of a bordure, ordinary, &c.is indented or waved.
NECESSITY, whatever is done by a caufe or
power that is irrefiftible; in,which fenfe it is oppofed
to freedom. Man is a neceflary agent, if all his
a&ions be fo determined by the c infes preceding each
a&ion, that not one pail aAion could poffibly not have
come to pafs, or have been otherwife than it hath
been; nor one future action can poffibly not come
to pafi, or be otherwife than it Ihall be. But he
is a free agent, if he be able, at any time, under
the circumftances and caufes he then is, to do different
things; or, in other words, if he be not unavoidably
determined in every point of time, by the circum¬
ftances he is in, and the caufes he is under, to do that
one thing he does, and not poffibly to e!o any other
thing. Whether man is a neceffary or a free agent,
is a queftion which has been debated with much in¬
genuity by writers of the firft eminence, from Hob¬
bes and Clarke, to Prieftley and Gregory. See Me¬
taphysics, Part III. chap. 5. and Predestination.
Necessity, in mythology, a power fuperior to all
other powers, and equally irrefiftible by gods and by
men. Herodotus, as he is quoted by Cudworth, men¬
tions an oracle which declared that “ God himftlf could
not ftum his deftined fate.” And among the frag¬
ments of Philemon colledfed by Le Clerc, is the fol¬
lowing fentence :
We are fubjeft to kings, kings to the gods, and
God to neceffity.” Hence it is, that, in the lliad,
we find Jove himfelf, the fire of gods and men, regret¬
ting that he was reftrained by necejjity from refcuing
his favourite fon from the fword of Patrocius. Nay
to fuch a height was this impiety carried in the
earlxeft; ages of Greece, that we find Hefiod and Ho¬
mer teaching that the gods themfelves were generated
by neceffity, of night and chaos.
This power,- though always rep re fen ted as blind
and unintelligent, was however worftiipped as a goddefs,
bearing in her hand large iron-nails, wedges, anchors,
* Horace, and melted lead*, a^, emblems of the inflexible feve-
ISd* *' rity °f her nature. “In the city of Corinth ftie had
Ifi a temple, in which the goddefs Violence likewife re*
fided, and into which no perfon was ever permitted
Paufanias to enter but the prieft who officiated in facrisf.”
> n Corinth. Learned men have exercifed their ingenuity in
puap. 4. yajn attenipts trace this portentous notion to its
7
origin. Some, who wifhed to interpret it in a pious Neceffity.
fenfe, have fuppofed that the gods who were fubjeft ——v~-—'
to necejjity were only thofe who were the minifters of
the fupreme numen; and that by itfelf was meant
nothing more than divine providence. But this is
not confiftent with Hefiod and Homer’s generation of
the gods, or with the epithets Java necJjitas, dura re*
ceffittas, by which this power was perpetually diftinguiffi-
ed. Others, and among them Mofheim, have fup¬
pofed that this monftrous fable was invented by the
pagan priefts, and diligently inculcated upon the minds
of the people, in order to excufe the villanies of the
obje&s of their worfliip. For, fays he, who could
be indignant at Jupiter’s numberlefs adulteries, after
it was known that in all his a&ions he was the fervant
of blind neceffity ? In the thefts of Mercury, the
whoredoms of Venus, and the frequent fquabbles of
the other gods, there could be no moral turpitude, if
they were under the influence of a fuperior power.
Numina cum videos duris obnoxia fat is,
Invidia poffis exonerare deos £. I Martial,’-
This account of the matter is at leaft as plauf.ble as
any other which is ufualiy given ; but the real cafe ^
undoubtedly was, that when men “did not like to re-Amftel.
tain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a 1701.
reprobate mind to do thofe things which are not con¬
venient ; when their foolifti heart was darkened, and
profeffing themfelves to be wife, they became tools.’*
See Parcte.
Necessity, in law, as it implies a defe& of wilL
excufes from the guilt of crimes. SccCrime.
Gompulfton and inevitable necejftty are a conftraint
upon die will, whereby a man is urged to do that
which his judgment difapproves; and which, it is to
be prefumed, his will (if left to itfelf) would rejeft. .
As puniffiments are therefore only inflidted for the
abufe of that free-will which God has given to man,
it is highly juft,and equitable that a man fhould be
excufed for thofe a&s which are done through un¬
avoidable force and compulfion.
1. Of this nature, in the firft: place, is the obliga¬
tion of civil fubjeclion, whereby the inferior is con-
ftrained by the fuperior to aft contrary to what his
own reafon and inclination would fuggeft: as when
a legiflator eftablifhes iniquity by a law, and com¬
mands the. fubjedt to do an adt contrary to religion or
found morality. How far this excufe will be admitted
in foro confcientia, or whether the inferior in this cafe
is not bound to obey the divine rather than the hu¬
man law, it is not our bufinefs to decide; though,,
among the cafuifts, it is believed the queftion will
hardly bear a doubt. But, however that may be,
obedience to the laws in being is undoubtedly a fuffi-
cient extenuation of civil guilt before the municipal
tribunal. The ftierifF who burnt Latimer and Ridley,
in the bigotted days of Queen Mary, was not liable to
punifhment from Elifabeth for executing fo horrid an
office ;. being juftified by fhe commands of that ma-
giftracy which endeavoured to reftore Superftition,
uader the holy aufpices of its mercilefs filler, Perfecu-
tion.
As to perfons in private relation?, the principal
cafe where conftraint of a fuperior is allowed as an
exeufe for criminal mifeondudt, is with regard to the
matrimonial fubjedion of the wife to her hulband; .
for.
NEC r 7S4 ] NEC
fCflfceffity. for neither a fon nor a fervant are excufed for the com-
miflion of any crime, whether capital or otherwife, by
the command or coercion of the parent or mafter ;
though in fome cafes the command or authority of
the hufband, either exprefs or implied, will privilege
the wife from punilhment, even for capital offences.
And therefore, if a woman commit theft, burglarly, or
other civil offences againft the laws of fociety, by the
coercion of her hufband, or even in his company,
which the law conftrues a coercion, fhe is not guilty
of any crime ; being confidered as afting by compul-
fion, and not of her own will. Which doftrine is at
lead 1000 years old in this kingdom, being to be
found among the laws of King Ina the Wed-Saxon.
And it appears, that, among the northern nations on
the continent, this privilege extended to any woman
tranfgrefTing in concert with a man, and to any fervant
that committed a joint offence with a freeman : the
male or freeman only was punifhed, the female or flave
difmiffed ; procul dubio quod alterum Ubertas, alterum
necejjitas impelleret. But (befides that, in our law,
which is a dranger to flavery, no impunity is given to
fervants, who are as much free agents as their maders)
even with regard to wives, this rule admits of an ex¬
ception in crimes that are mala in ft, and prohibited
by the law of nature ; as murder, and the like : not
only becaufe thefe are of a deeper dye, but alfo, fince
in a date of nature no one is in fubje&ion to another,
it would be unreafonable to fcreen an offender from
the punifhment due to natural crimes, by the refine¬
ments and fubordinations of civil fociety. In treafon
alfo (the highed crime which a mefnber of fociety
•can, as fuch, be guilty of), no plea'in coverture fhall
excufe the wife ; no prefumption of the hufband’s
coercion (hall extenuate her guilt : as well becaufe of
the odioufnefs and dangerous confequence of the
crime itfelf, as becaufe the hulband, having broken
through.the mod facred tie of focial community by
rebellion againd the date, has no right to that obe¬
dience from a wife, which he himfelf as a fubjefl has
forgotten to pay. In inferior mifdemeanors alfo, we
may remark another exception, that a wife may be
indifted and fet in the pillory with her hulband, for
keeping a brothel: for this is an offence touching the
domedic ceconomy or government of the houfe, in
which the wife has a principal (hare ; and is alfo fuch
an offence as the law prefumes to be generally con¬
duced by the intrigues of the female fex. And in all
cafes where the wife offends alone, without the com¬
pany or coercion of her hufband, fhe is refponfible for
her offence as much as any feme-fole.
2. Another fpecies of compulfion or neceflity is
what our law calls durefs per minus ; or threats and
menaces, which induce a fear of death or other bodily
harm, and which take away for that reafon the guilt
of many crimes and mifdemeanors, at lead before the
human tribunal. But then that fear which compels a
man to do an unwarrantable aCion ought to be jud and
well-grounded} fuch, “ qui caderepojjit in virum con
fiantem, non timidum et meticulofum” as BraCon expref-
fes it, in the words of the civil law Therefore, in
rime of war or rebellion, a man may be jullified in do¬
ing many treafonable a£ts by compulfion of the enemy
er rebels, which would admit of no excufe in the time
#f peace. This, however, feems only, or at lead
N° 240.
principally, to hold as to pofitive crimes, fo created N celfity.
by the laws of fociety, and which therefore fociety '"v^
may excufe ; but nbt as to natural offences, fo de¬
clared by the law of God, wherein human magidrates
are only the executioners of divine punifliment. And
therefore though a man be violently affaulted, and
hath no other poflible means of efcaping death but
by killing an innocent perfon, this fear and force
(hall not acquit him of murder; for he ought rather
to die himfelf than efcape by the murder of an in¬
nocent. But in fuch a cafe he is permitted to kill
the affailant; for there the law of nature, and feif-
defence its primary canon, have made him his own
proteftor.
3. There is a third fpecies of neceflity, which may
be diflinguilhed from the adtual compulfion of exter¬
nal force or fear j being the refult of reafon and reflec¬
tion, which a<d upon and condrain a man’s will, and
oblige him to do an aftion which without fuch obli¬
gation would be criminal. And that is, when a man
has his choice of two evils fet before him, and, being
under a neceflity of choofing one, he choofes the lead
pernicious of the two. Here the will cannot be faid
freely to exert itfelf, being rather paflive than a dive ;
or, if aftive, it is rather in rejeding the greater evft
than in choofing the lefs. Of this foit is that necef-
fity, where a man by the commandment of the law is
bound to arred another for any capital offence, or to
difperfe a riot, and relidance is made to his authority :
it is here judifiable, and even neceffary, to beat, to
wound, or perhaps to kill, the offenders, rather than
permit the murderer to efcape, or the riot to con¬
tinue. For the prefervation of the peace of the king¬
dom, and. the apprehending of notorious malefactors,
are of the utmo'd confequence to the public; and
therefore excufe the felony, which the killing would
otherwife amount to.
4. There is yet another cafe of neceflity, which has
occ *.fioned great fpeculation among the writers upon
general law; viz. whether a man in extreme want of
food or clothing may judify dealing either, to relieve
his prefent neceffities. And this both Grotius and
Puffendorf, together with many other of the foreign
jurids, hold in the affirmative; maintaining by many
ingenious, humane and pla.ufible reafons, that in fuch
cafes the community of goods, by a kind of tacit con-
ceffion of fociety, is revived. And fome even of our
lawyers have held the fam6 ; though it feems to be an
unwarranted doftrine, borrowed from the notions of
fome civilians; at lead it.is now antiquated, the law of
England admitting no fuch excufe at prefent. And
this its do&rine is agreeable not only to the fentiments
of many of the wifed ancients, particularly Cicero*
who holds, - ’’hat fuum cuiqm incommodum ferendum ejl, M
potius qnam de alterius commrdis detr .hmdvm ; but alfo
to the Jewilh law, as certified by Kin,; Solomon him¬
felf : “ If a thief deal to fatisfy his foul when he is
hungry, he fhall redore fevenfold, and (hall give all
the fubdance of his houfewhich was the ordinary
punifliment for theft in that kingdom. And this is
founded upon the highed reafon : for mens properties
would be under a ftrange infecurity, if liable to be in¬
vaded according to the wants of others; of which
wants no man can poffibly be an adequate judge, but
the party himfelf who pleads them. In England
8 «fP«*
NEC [ 785 ] NEC
Necho, efpecially, there would be a peculiar impropriety in
admitting fo dubious an excufe : for by the laws fuch
fufficient provifion is made for the poor by the power of
the civil magiftrate, that it is impoffible that the moft
needy ftranger fhould ever be reduced to the neceffity
of thieving to fupport nature. The cafe of a ftranger
is, by the way, the ftrongeft inftance put to Baron
Puffendorf, and whereon he builds his principal ar¬
guments : which, however they may hold upon the
continent, where the parfimonious induftry of the
natives orders every one to work or ftarve, yet muft
lofe all their weight and efficacy in England, where
charity is reduced to a fyftem, and interwoven in our
very conftitution. Therefore our laws ought by no
means to be taxed with being unmerciful, for denying
this privilege to the neceffitous ; efpecially when we
confider, that the king, on the reprefentation of his
minifters of juftice, hath a power to foften the law,
and to extend mercy in cafes of peculiar hardffiip. An
advantage which is wanting in many ftates, parti¬
cularly thofe which are democratical: and thefe have
in its ftead introduced and adopted, in the body of
the law itfelf, a multitude of circumftances tending
to alleviate its rigour. But the founders of our con¬
ftitution thought it better to veft in the crown the
■power of pardoning particular obje&s of compaffion,
than to countenance and eftablifh theft by one general
undiftinguiftiing law.
NECHO, king of Egyp't, began his reign 690 B. C.
and was killed eight years after by Sabacon king of
Ethiopia. Pfammiticus his fon fucceeded him, and
was the father, as Herodotus informs us, of Necho II.
who reigned in the 616 B. C. This Necho II. is ce¬
lebrated in hiftory for attempting, though in vain, to
cut a canal from the Nile to the Arabian gulf. He
carried his arms as far as the Euphrates, and con¬
quered the city of Carchemifh. This prince is not only
known in fcripture under the.name of Necho, but alfo
in profane hiftory. He no fooner fucceeded to the
crown than he raifed great land armies, and'fttted out
vaft fleets, as well upon the Mediterranean as upon the
Red Sea: he gave battle to the Syrians near the city
of Migdol; routed them, and made himfelf mafter
of the city of Cadytis. The learned, however, are not
agreed about this city Cadytis. Some will have it to
be Cades in Arabia Petrasa, others Jerufalem ; and
others fay it is the city of Cedes, or Kedefh, in Galilee,
in the tribe of Naphtali.
The feriptures acquaint us with the whole expedi¬
tion of Necho in all its particulars. 2. Kings xxiii. 29c
&c. and 2 Chr. xxxv. 20. 21, &c. In the year of the*
world 3394, this prince having drawn out his army
into the held to make war with the Affyrians or Ba
bylonians, and to take the city of Carchemifli, other-
wife called Circ-ajium, upon the Euphrates, Jofiah
king of’Judah, who was^a tributary to the king of Ba¬
bylon, marched to oppofe his paffage- Necho, who
had no defigns againft him, lent to tell him, What
have I to do with you, king of Judah? It is not
againft you that I am come forth,-but againft another
people, againft whom the Lord has commanded me to
make war. Leave off therefore to fet yourfelf againft
me, for fear the Lord ftiould punifh you for your re¬
finance. But Jofiah would not hearken to the remon-
ilranees of Necho, but gave him. battle at Megiddo,
I >Vol. XII. Part. H.
where he received the wound of which he died. The N£ctl
people of Jerufalem fet up Jehoahaz for king of Ju- II
dab, and Necho foon paffed forwards, without making NecroinaH'
any longer ftay in Judea. , c^‘ ,
But at his return from his expedition, which
was very fuccefsful, he halted at Riblah in Syria;
and fending for Jehoahaz king of the Jews, he de-
pofed him, loaded him with chains, and lent him
into Egypt. Then coming to Jerufalem,» he fet up
Eliakim, or Jehoiakim, in his place, and exa&cd the
payment of 100 talents of filver and one talent of
gold from the country. Jeremiah (xlvi. 2.) acquaints
us, that the city of Carchemifli was taken from Necho
by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in the fourth
year of Jehoiakim king of Judah ; fo that Necho did
not enjoy his conquelt above four years. Jofephus
adds, that the king of Babylon purfuing his vi&ory,
brought under his dominion all the country which is
between the Euphrates and Egypt, excepting Judea.
Thus Necho was again reduced within the limits of
his own country.
NECK, in anatomy, is the flender part fituated be¬
tween the head and trunk of the body. See Ana¬
tomy, n° 3 (.
NECOPHORON, in botany, a name ufed by Pliny
and other authors for the fmtlax afpera, or rough bind-
'weed.
NECROLIUM, a word ufed byfomeof the alche¬
mical writers to exprefs a remedy almoft always ca¬
pable of averting death, and continuing life to its ut-
moft period.
NECROLOGY, necrologium, formed of vf-po?,
“ dead,” and “difeourfe or enumeration,” a
booTt anciently kept in churches and monafteries,
wherein were regiftered the benefa<ftors of the fame,
the time of their deaths, and the days of their comme¬
moration ; as alfo the deaths of the priors, abbots,
religious, canons, &c. This was otherwife called ca¬
lendar and obituary.
NECROMANCY, the art of revealing future
events by a pretended communication with the dead.
This fuperftitious and impious impofture appears
to have had its origin at a very early period in Egypt,
and to have been thence propagated in every nation
with the manners of which hiftory has made us ac¬
quainted. The conquefts of Sefoftris might intro¬
duce it into India; the l fraelites would naturally bor¬
row it from the people among whom they fojourned
400 years ; and it would eafily find its way into Phoe¬
nicia, from the vicinity of that country to the land of
its nativity. From the Egyptians and Phoenicians
it was adopted, with the other rites of paganifm, by
the Greeks ; and it was imported into Rome with
Grecian literature and Grecian manners. It was not
however confined to the pagan nations of antiquity ;
it fpread itfelf through all the modern nations of Eu¬
rope, and took fuch deep root as to be long retained
even afterthofe nations were %. averted to the Chriftian
faith.
Of its early antiquity we have complete evidence
in the writings of Mofes, where it is feverely con¬
demned as an abomination to the Lord*; and though* Deut.
: it appears to have been even then fpread into Pheni- xvih. ic,
cia, we might yet conclude its birth-place to have11!‘'i"
been Egypt, becauft, at their exody, the Ifraelites were
• 5 G corrupted
NEC [ 786 1 NEC
Neeroman- eorrupteJ only by Egyptian fupjrftitions. and be-
cy- caufe necromancy feems to be one of thofe whore-
,''"1' ^ ' doms which the prophet Ezekiel reprefents hi» coun¬
trymen as having brought with them from Egypt,
and continued to pra&ife till they were carried cap¬
tives into Babylon.
If from facred we proceed to confult profane an¬
thers, we fhall find them not only affirming Egypt to
have been the birth-place of necromancy, but in fome
degree accounting for the origin of fo impious a de-
+ L:b. 1. lufion. From Diodorus the Sicilian f we learn, that
§ *• the Grecian fable of Charon the ferry-man of hell, of
Styx, Coccytus, the Elyfian Fields, Tartarus, the judge¬
ment of Minos, and Radamanthm, &c. with the whole
fetner-y of the infernal regions, were imported from
Egypt into Greece. The ancient Egyptians, and in¬
deed all the people of the call, made ufe of caves for
burying places, which were well fuited to the folemn
fadnefs of the fnrviving friends, and proper receptacles
for thofe who were never more to behold the light. In
Egypt, many of thofe fubterraneous cavities being dug
out of the natural rock, dill remain and command the
admiration of travellers ; and near to the pyramids in
particular there are fome apartments of a wonderful
fabric, which though they extend in length 4400 feet,
and are about 30 feet in depth, appear to have been,
if not entirely dug, at lead reduced to form by the
chizzel or pick axe of the artift.
From the pra&ice of burying in fuch caverns fprung
the opinion that the infernal manfions were fituated
Ibmewhere near the centre of the earth, which by the
Egyptians was believed to be not very diftant fiom
I Kryini't its furface In thefe dreary manfions, it was very
jtnahfts of eafy for fuch adepts as the priefts of Egypt to fabri-
Mytbology. cate J7rel3U8> Tartarus, the Elyfian Fields, and all thofe
feenes which were difplayed before the initiated (fee
Mysteries), and by them deferibed to the million of
the people. As it was in thofe dark abodes that ne¬
cromancy was pra&ifed, it would be no difficult matter
for fuch magicians as withftood Mofes to impofe fo
far upon the credulous vulgar, as to make them believe,
that in confequence of their avocations they adhially
faw the ghofts of their friends afeend out of the earth.
It appears from the book of Exodus, that the Ifrael-
itifii women were, even in the wildernefs, well acquaint¬
ed with the nfe of the mirror, which was therefore un¬
doubtedly know n to the Egyptians. But a mirror of
a particular form and properly illuminated at the in-
ftant required, might ealily be made to refleft, in a ca¬
vern from which all other light was carefully excluded,
the image of the deceafed, who was called upon by th
necromancer; and we can readily conceive, that withNecremais^ccj 4
refpedi to the queftion to be propofed, a perfon might
be concealed, prepared to give fuch ambiguous anfwers
as would fatisfy the inquirer, and at the fame time
fave the credit of the oracle. The terrified imagi¬
nations of the fpedtators would aid the delufion, and
make a very flight refemblance pafs for the ghoft or-
ei^xov of their departed friend ; or the necromancer
might aflign plauiible reafons why a fpeftre, after ha¬
ving dwelt for fome time in the infernal regions, fliould
lofe fomething of its refemblance to the body which
it animated. Such juggling tricks, though performed
by artifts lefs accompliflred than Jannes and Jambres,
have gained credit among people much more en¬
lightened than the Egyptians can poffibly have been
when the ficience of necromancy was invented by their
priefts.
That the Ifraelites, notwithftaoding the prohibition
of their legiflator, continued to pradiife the rites ofi
necromancy, is apparent from Saul’s tranfaction with
the witch of Endor (fee Mack:). From the fame
tranfa&ion, it is like wife apparent that the witches of
Ifrael, and therefore in all probability the necromancers-
of Egypt, pretended to evocate the ghofts of the dead
by a daman or familiarfpirit, which they had attheircom-
mand to employ upon every emergency. This daemon,,
was called ob ; and therefore Saul defires his fervants
to find him a woman who was miftrefsof an ob (a). It
is probable that thofe wretched impoftors had in
their pay fome perfons who pccafionally a&ed the
part of the daemon, and when the exScution of the
plot required their agency, emitted, by means of a
cavity dug for that purpofe, a low hollow voice from
below the ground. Hence we find Ifaiah, in his de¬
nunciations againft Ariel*, faying, “ Thou ftralt be
brought down, and (halt fpeak out of the ground; and
thy fpeech (hall be low out of the duft, and thy voice
(ball be as one that hath a familiar fpirit (an ob) out
of the ground, and thy fpeech /hall whlfper out of the
duft.”
Lit .
m-
* Chafs.
But though the Egyptian priefts were undoubtedly
the inventors of the whole myftery of necromancy,
and though It was from them Imported into Greece
by the Selli or priefts of Dodona, it does not ap¬
pear that the Grecian necromancers pretended to be
mafters of obs or familiar fpirits. Mopfus, Orpheus,
Linus, Eumolpus, &c. who either travelled into E<
gypt in queft of knowledge, or were aftually natives
of that country, inftrufted the early Greeks in this
occult fcience 1 but whatever might be the practice of.
thefe apoftks themfelves, their difciples profeffed to do
all
(a) The orginal, or radical, fignificatiop of this word occurs in Job xxxii. ver. 19 ; where Elihu compares
his belly to new bottles, which he calls oboth, the plural of ob. But as bottles were then made of leather,
new bottles filled with wine and, ready to burft, as Elihu deferibes them, would of courfe be of a form nearly
globular. Hence it may ft inferred that the original import of ob was round or globular : but b and p being
labials, are often changed into each other ; and therefore from the Hebrew ob is derived the Greek <4 oculus,
oxlona, -video, and the Latin ops, a name under which the earth was wor/hipped. l/pis was a name of Diana
or the moon : the father of one of the Dianas was likewife upis ; but- this upis was undoubtedly the fun. Now
the difference between upis and opis is nothing ; hence we are led to believe that as they are all derived from ob,
this word was employed by the early idolaters of Egypt to denote the firft and greateft of Pagan gods, the
fun. If fo, thofe wretches who pretended to be miftreffes of obs, were exadtly the fame kind of impoftora
with the Pythoneffes of the Greeks. *
NEC [ 787 1 NEC
■ all the feats of magic by performing certain rites, by of- dares to difturb my repofe, and drag me from the Necromaw
fering certain facrifices, by muttering a certain form grave, in which I have been dead fo long, all covered
of words, by charms, fpells, and exorcifms. By thefe with fnow, and moiftened with the rains l” See.
they pretended to evocate the dead as certainly as the The Gallic druids pretended to be mailers of the
Egyptians and Jews did by their familiar fpirits. By fame feci et. This is evident from the name of afpeciesof
a fmall difplay of critical learning this might be eafily divination, not uncommon among the Scotch Highlan-
proved from the popular ftory of Orpheus and Euri- ders fo lately as in the beginning of the prefent cen-
dice, which certainly was founded on one of thefe tury. By a gentleman excellently verfed in the an-
necromantic deceptions exhibited in a cave near Do- tiquities of that people, and a Heady friend to the
dona, where the priefts had a hades or infernal writer of this article, we have been informed, that not
manfion, in humble imitation of thofe with which the many years ago fome of the Highlanders relied impli-
firft of them were well acquainted in Egypt. It is' citly upon certain oracular refponfes, called in their
indeed evident, without the aid of criticifm : no man language taghainn. This word feems to be compound-
of any letters is ignorant, that whatever fuperftitions ed of ta, which in fome parts of the Highlands is Hill
of this kind prevailed among the Romans were bor- ufed to denote a fpirit or ghoft, and ghairm, which fig-
rowed from the Greeks. But we all know that Vir- nifies calling upon or invoking. Taghairm, therefore,
gil makes one of his fhepherds, by means of certain in its original import, is necromancy in the moft pro¬
herbs, poifons, and fenfelefs charms, raife up ghofts per fenfe of that word.
from the bottoms of their graves ; and Lucan has fa- There were different kinds of taghairm, of which one
bricated a ftory of this kind, which may be confider- was very lately pradtifed in Sky. The diviner cover¬
ed as an exadl parallel to the witch of Endor. Juft ed himfelf with a cow’s hide, and repaired at night to
before the battle of Pharialia he makes f young Pom- fome deep-founding cave, whither the perfon who con-
pey travel by night to a Thelfalian forcerefs, and fulted him followed foon after without any attendants,
anxioufly inquire of her the iffue of the war. This At the mouth of the cave he propofed aloud the que-
female necromancer, by a tedious procefs of charms and ftions of which he wanted folutions; and the man
incantations, conjines up the ghoft of a foldier who within pronounced the refponfes in a tone of voice
had been lately flain. The phantom, after a long pre- fimilar to that with which the obs, or pretended dse-
amble, denounces a predidtion much of the fame Kind mons of antiquity, gave from beneath the ground
with that which the king of Ifrael received from their oracular anfwers. That in the latter days of
Samuel at Endor ; and though we have elfewhere taghairm, the Gallic diviners pretended to evocate
ftiown, that nothing but the fpirit of God could have ghofts, and from them to extort folutions of diffi-
forefeen the inevitable deflruflion of Saul, his fons, cultie; propofed, we have no pofitive evidence ; but
and his army (fee Magic), it was very eafy for any that fuch was the original pretence, there can be
man of tolerable fagacity to forefee the defeat of Pom- little doubt, when we refledt either upon the place
pey’s raw and undifeiplined troops by the hardy vete-'' where this fpecies of divination was praftifed, or
I rans of the vidlorious Casfar. upon the import of the word by which it was denomi-
It would be endlefs tp enumerate all the fallacious nated.
I evocations of ghofts, and the ambiguous refponfes re- As we have been led to mention taghairm,, we (hall
! turned by thofe pretended fpirits, of which we have beg leave to make a few obfervations on another fpe-
I accounts from the poets and hiftorians of the celebrated cies of it, called taghairm an uifge, or “ taghairm by
,nations of antiquity. We ftiall therefore proceed to water.” This too was laft praclifed in the Me of
■[mention a few which occur in the fabulous hiftory of Sky, by a man of the name of MiCuulhean, whole
| more modern nations, and then leave the fubjeft to the anceftors had long been famous for the art. He lived
meditation of our readers. In Mallet’s northern anti- near a beautiful cafcade on a fmall river ; and when
:quities, we have the following account of a necroman- confulted on any matter of confequence, he covered
Stic exploit, between which, and the defeent of the an- his whole body with a cow’s hide, that neceffary im-
,cient heroes into hell, it is impoffible not to remark a plement of Highland divination, and placed himfelf
ftriking fimilitude. between the water of the cafcade and the rock over
“ Odin the fovereign of man arifes. He faddles which it flowed. Then another man with a heavy
;his horfe Slcipner; he mounts, and is conveyed to pole gave repeated ftrokes to the water, and the di-
the fubterraneous abode of Hela. The dog which viner behind it crying out now and then in Gaelic,
[guards the gates of death meets him. His breaft and “ fs this a ftock of arn ?” This operation was conti-
his jaws are ftained with blood. He opens his vo- nued till M‘Cuidhean was perceived to be frantic or
facious mouth to bite, and barks a long time at the furious, when he was conlidered as in a condition to
■father of magic. Odin purities his way ; and the in- anfwer the moft important queltions. He was fre-
fernal cavern refounds and trembles under his horfe’s quently confulted about futurity; and though he could
hoofs. At length he reaches the deep abode of death, not, in the proper fenfe of the word, be called a nec o-
and Hops near the eaftern gate, where Hands the tomb mancer, his refponfes were liftened to as proceeding
bf the prophetefs. He lings with a voice adapted to from fomething more than human. A degree ot
ball up the dead ; he looks towards the world ; he en- frenzy', either real or affe&ed, feems to have accompa-
^raves Runic characters on her tomb ; he utters my- nied the predictions of certain kinds of diviners in all
■ !|erious words ; and he demands an anfwer, until the ages; and we cannot help remarking the fimilarity
Erophetefs is conftrained to arife and thus utter the between the madnefs of M‘Cuidhean and that of the
-ords of the dead.—“Who is this unknown that Sybil in the ftxth book of the iEneid; though we
5 G 2 cannot
NEC
[ 788 ]
NEC
cannot fuppofe the one to have been borrowed from containing the honey, a fpecies of vegetable fait under Nciflariur
, the other.
At, Phcebi nondum paliens, immanis in antro
Bacchatur vales, magnum Ji petlore pojjit
Excujijfe Deum : tanto magis ille fatigat
Os rabidum, fera corda domans, Jingitque premendo.
Struggling in vain, impatient of her load, '
And laboring underneath the pond’rous god;
The more fhe ftrove to Ihake him from her breaft,
With more and far fuperior force he prefs’d.
Dry den.
That all thefe pretences, whether ancient or modern,
to the power of divination by means of familiar fpi-
rits, or by the art of necromancy, were groundlefs
as well as impious, it would be affronting the under-
iiandings of our readers to offer any proof. Under
the article Magic we have faid enough on the fub-
je6t, and perhaps more than enough, to thofe who
know that daemons, if they have any exiftence, and
the departed fpirits of good and bad men, are all un¬
der the controul of Him who governs the intellectual
as well as material world by fixed and equal laws.—
Thefe details of fuperftition, however, will not be ufe-
lefs, if, by Ihowing how poor and wretched a creature
\ fluid form, that oozes from the plant, and is the prin- ^
cipal food of bees and other infefts.
Notwithftanding this definition, which feems to con-
fider the neftarium as neceffary a part of the corolla
as the petals; it is certain that all flowers are not pro¬
vided with this appendage, neither indeed is it effential
to fructification.
There is, befides, a manifeft impropriety in terming
the neCtarium a part of the corolla. Linnasus might, Milne's
with equal propriety, have termed it a part of appen- Bot‘
dage of the ftamina, calyx, or pointal, as the appear¬
ance in queftion is confined to no particular part of
the flower, but is as various in point of fituation as of
form. The truth is, the term neftarium is exceeding¬
ly vague ; and, if any determinate meaning can be af¬
fixed to it, is expreflive of all the fingularities which
are obferved in the different parts of flowers.
The tube, or lower part of flowers with one petal,
Linnaeus confiders as a true neCfarium, becaufe it is
generally found to contain the fweet liquor formerly
mentioned. This liquor Pontedera compares to that
called amnios in pregnant animals, which enters the
fertile or impregnated feeds : but that this is not at
leaft its foie ufe, is evident from this circumftance, that
man becomes when left to his own inventions, they flrall the honey or liquor in queftion is u be found in flow
make any one grateful for the benefits of good govern¬
ment, and the bieflings of revealed religion.
NECROPOLIS, a fuburb of Alexandria in Egypt.
It fignifies “ the City of the Dead wherein there
were temples, gardens, and fuperb maufoleums. Here
where there are either no feeds, or thofe which, from
the want of male organs, cannot be impregnated. Thus
the male flowers of nettle and willow', the female
flowers of fea-fide laurel and black bryony, the male
and female flowers of clutia, higgelaria, and butr
Cleopatra is faid to have applied the afpic to her cher’s broom, all abound with the honey or neClar
breaft, to prevent being led in triumph by Auguftus, alluded to.
who endeavouied to fave her.
NECROSIS, viJipou;,, in medicine, a complete mor¬
tification of any part; called alfo fideratio and fpha-
ce/us.
NECTANEBUS, or Nectanabis, a king of
Egypt, who defended his country againft the Per-
fians. His grandfon of the fame name made an al¬
liance with Agefilaus king of Sparta, and with his af-
iiftance he quelled a rebellion of his fubjetts. Some¬
time after he was joined by the Sidonians, Phoenicians,
and inhabitants of Cyprus, who had revolted from the
king of Perfia. This powerful confederacy was foon
attacked by Darius the king of Perfia, who marched
at the head of his troops. Neftanebus, to defend his
frontiers againft fo dangerous an enemy, levied 20,000
mercenary foldiers in Greece, the fame number in Li¬
bya, and 60,000 were furnifhed in Egypt. This nu¬
merous body was not equal to the Pei lian forces, and
Dr Vaillant was of opinion, that the ne&arium was
an effential part of the corolla; for which reafon he
diftinguiftied the fingular appearances in fennel-flower
and columbine by the name of petals: the coloured
leaves which are now termed the petals he denominates
the jloiutr cup.
That the ne&arium, however, is frequently diftinft
from the petals, is evident both from the well-known
examples juft; mentioned, as likewife from the flowers
of monkfhood, hellebore, ifopyrum, fennel-flower of
Crete, barrenvyort, grafs of Parnaffus, chocolate-nut,
cherleria, and fauvagefia.
Thefe general obfervations being premifed, we pro.-
ceed to take a nearer and more particular view of the
principal diverfities, both in form and fituation, of this
itriking appendage to the flower. 1. In many flowers
the neCtarium is flraped like a fpur or horn ; and that
either in flowers of one petal, as valerian, water-mil-
Neftanebus, defeated in a battle, gave up all hopes of foil (urticularia), butter-wort, and calves-fnout; or in
refiftance, and fled into Ethiopia, where he found a
fafe afylum. His kingdom of Egypt became from
that time tributary to the king of Perfia.
NECTAR, among ancient poets, the drink of the
fuch as have more than one, as lark-fpur, violet, fuma-
tory, balfam, and orchis. 2. In the following plants,
the ne&aiium is properly a part of the corolla, as lyr
‘ g within the fubftance of the petals: ranunculus,-
fabulous deities of the heathens; in eontradiftindlion lily, iris, crown-imperial, water-leaf, moufe-tail, ana¬
nas or pine-apple, dog’s-tooth violet, piperidge bufh,
vallifneria, hermannia, uvularia, and fwertia. 3. The
ne&arium is frequently placed in.a ferie&or row with¬
in the petals, though entirely unconnected with their
fubftance. In this fituation it often refembles a cup,
as in narciffus. A nedarium of this kind is faid by
from their foil'd food, which was called
NECTARINE, a fruit differing in nothing from
the common peach, of which it is a fpecies, than in
having a fmoother rind and a firmer pulp. See Per-
NECT ARIUM, from neaar, the fable
‘ drink
of the godsdefined by Linnaeus to be a part of the" Linnaeus to crown the corolla. I he following are ex.-
corolla, or appendage to the petals, appropriated for amples: daffodil, fea-daffodil, campion, vifeous cam-
NEC r 789 ) N E D
Nedlarium pion, fwallow-wort, ftapelia, cynanchum, nepenthes,
I! cherleria, balfam-tree, African fpirsea, witch^hazel-
.Necydal's. 0]aXj anj paflion-flower. 4. In Indian crefs, buckler,
milliard, Barbadoes cherry, and monotropa, the nec-'
tarium is lituated upon or makes part of the calyx.
5. The neftarium in baftard flower-ftnce is feated up¬
on the antherae or tops of the ftamina; whence the
name adcnanthera, or glandular anther a, which has
been given to this genus of plants. In the following
lift it is placed upon the filaments; bean-caper, bay,
fraxinella, marvel of Peru, bell-flower, lead-wort,
roella, and commelina. 6. In hyacinth, flowering-
rulh, flock July-flower, and rocket, the neflarium is
placed upon the feed-bud. 7. In honey-flower, or¬
pine, buck-wheat, collinfonia, lathrsea, navel-wort,
mercury, clutia, kiggelaria, fea-fide laurel, and Afri¬
can fpirasa, it is attached to the common receptacle.
Laftly, in- ginger, nettle, dyer’s weed, heart-feed, co¬
itus, turmeric, grewia, baftard-orpine, vaaelloe, Ikrew-
tree, and willow, the ne&arium is of a very lingular
conftrudlion, and cannot properly fall under any of the
foregoing heads.
In difcriminating the genera, the neftarium often
furniihes an effential charadler.
Plants which have the neftarium diflinft from the
petals,' that is, not lodged within their fubftance, are
affirmed by Linnseus to be generally poifonous. The
following are adduced as examples: monk’s hood,
hellebore, columbine, fennel-flower, grafs of Parnaf-
fus, barren-wort, oleander, marvel of Peru, beau caper,
fucculent fwallow-wort, fraxinelia, and honey flower.
NECUIA, in botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a fpecies of mullein.
The Greeks and Romans both ufed the ftalks of a
peculiar kind of mullein, called thryallis by Nieander.
For the making of wicks of lamps we have a kind of
mullein called lychnites, and candle-wick mullein, from
the of Diofcorides; but it is not certain that
ours is the fame plant.
The ancients ufed the ftalks of many different plants
'for the wicks of their candles and lamps. The ruflr,
ftripped of its barkj was as commonly in ufe with them
as with us for this purpofe; and they alfo ufed the
nettle, this mullein, and many other plants, whofe
ftalks were compofed of tough filaments, for the fame
purpofe ; beating them out like hemp, and when dry
dipping them in melted refin, and other fuch inflam¬
mable fubftanees. When thus prepared, they are rea¬
dily inflammable, like our flambeau; and this mullein,
having ftalks more long and large, and more firm than
all the others, was ufed to make thofe lights with which
they fet fire to the funeral pile, for. confuming the
aflres of their dead friends.
NECYDALIS, in zoology, a genus of infeals be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers
are fetaceous ; the elytra are firorter and narrower
than the wings; the tail is Ample. There are 11
fpecies, chiefly diftinguiflied by the fize and figure
of their elytra. Barbut fays, “ Its head, is black*
eyes are large and prominent, jaws are of a dark
brown. The antennae.placed on the top of the head
between the eyes have their firft articulation lang and
raffed upright, the reft bent and turned afide. The
antennae vary as to length and colour. In individuals
whofe thorax is yellow, they are brown, and equal
only to two-thirds of the body in length. On the Netftam..
contrary, in thofe whofe thorax is black, they are
likewife black, and fomewhat longer than the body.
The thorax is margined ; in fame it is yellow and
longer ; in others it is black, fhorter, and edged only ■
with a little yellow. The elytra are blackffh, fome.
what clearer in the middle,, and terminating in a le¬
mon coloured fpot. The wings are rather black, fome-
thing longer than the body, exceed the elytra by one-
third, and are croffed one over the other. In thofe
that have their thorax yellow, the legs and under part
of the belly are fa likewife. In individuals with a
black thorax, the legs are black as well as the belly,.
which has only a litt;e yellow on the Tides. I fufpedt ■
the latter to be the males. The larva is as yet un¬
known. ’
NEDHAM (Marchmont), an Ehgliih fatyrical
writer, was born at Burford Oxon. about the. month
of Auguft 1620 His father died in 1621 ; but the
following year his mother was again married to one
Chridopher Glynn, vicar and fchoolmafter of Burford;
who perceiving his fon-in-law’s pregnancy of parts and
genius, took him under his own tuition, and at the
age of 14 fent him to All Souls College, Oxon. Here
he was made one of the chorifters, and continued till
1637, when, having taken the degree of A. B. which
made it inconfiftent to continue in that office, he went
to St Mary’s Hall till he became an ulher in Merchant
Taylor’s fchool, London. About the beginning of
the civil wars, he became clerk to an attorney at Gray’s
Inn, where, writing a good court hand, he ootained
a decent fubfiftence. Not long after this, he began a
weekly paper, under the title of Mercurius Britannicus,
on the fide of the parliament: it commencedabout the *
middle of Auguft 1643, coming out van Mondays, in
one Iheet, and continued till the end of 1646. It
procured him popularity, and being an aftive man he
was diftinguiflied by the title of Capt. Nedham of
Giay s Inn Of thefe mercuries (for there were a
number of them ptiblilhed on both fides of the great
queftion which then divided the nation), it is well ob-
ferved by Jphnfon, .that, they, taught many to talk,
whom they could not teach to judge. Nedham’s was, ,
indeed, addreffed as much to the paffions as the rea-,
fon ; and, by telling every man that he was equal to.
his king, he £b flattered vulgar pride, that his licenti¬
ous opinions Were received as the didlates of an oracle.
About this time he ftudied phyfic, and in 1645 began
to pradtife ; by which, and his political writings, he-
fupported a genteel figure. But, for fome fcorn and
aflront put upon him, he fuddenly left his party, and*.,
obtaining the fiivour of a royalift, was introduced in¬
to the king’s prefence at Hampton-court in 1647, and
aiking pardon upon his knees readily obtained it ; fo
that being admitted to the king’s favour, he wrote,
foon after another paper, entitled Mercurius Pragmati-
cus ; which being equally witty with the former, as
fatirical againlt the Prelbyterians, and full of loyalty, ,
made him known and admired by the wits of that fide.
However, being narrowly fought after, he left Lon¬
don, and for a time lay concealed at.the houfe of Dr
Peter Heylin, at Minfter-Lovel, near Burfofd, till at .
length being difeovered, be was imprifoned in New¬
gate, and in danger of his life. Lenthal, the fpeaker
of the TIoufe of Commons, who knew him and his:-.
5 relations^
NEE [ 790 ] NEE
l-W.Uam, relations Well, and Bradihaw, prefident of the high-
Iveeclham. court (Jf juftice> treated him favourably, and not only
, got his pardon, but with promife of rewards and places
perfuaded him to change his fide once more for the
independents, who then were the uppermoft party.—
In this temper he publifhed a third weekly paper, call¬
ed Mercurius Pollticus, which came out every Wednef-
, day, in two fheets 410, commencing with the 9th of
June 1649, and ending with the 6th of June 1650,
which being Thurfday, he began again with number 1.
from Thurfday June 6, to Thurfday June 13, 1650,
beginning, “ Why fhou’d not the commonwealth have
“ a fool, as well as the king had, &c.” This paper,
which contained, manydifcourfes againll monarchy, and
in behalf of a free Hate, efpecially thofe that were
publifhed before Cromwell was made protedor, was
carried on without any interruption till about the mid¬
dle of April 1660, when, as feveral times before, it
was prohibited by an order of the council of Hate.—
Upon the return of Charles II. our author lay hid,
till, by virtue of fome money well placed, he obtain¬
ed his pardon under the great feal; after which he
exercifed the faculty of phyfic among the Diflenters,
which brought him in a confiderable benefit till his
Athen. death, which happened fuddenly in 1678. Wood,
vTll kncw him, tells us that he was a perfon endowed
vo with quick natural parts, was a good humanift, poet,
and boon droll; and, had he been conllant to his ca-
valieiing principles, would have been beloved and ad¬
mired hy all; but being mercenary, and preferring
his intereft to his confcience, friendihip, and love to
his prince, was much hated by the royal party to
the lalt. In fhort, there was no depending on this
fcurrilous iil-natured author. He followed whenever
intereft or pafiion led, and remains a notorious infiance
of the danger of brillufht parts, of which he certain¬
ly was poffefTed, without judgment or integrity to eon-
troul them. Wood, who in his Athen. Oxon. quoted
above, gives a very copious account of him, fays :
“ At length this moft feditious, mutable, and railing
“ author, M. Nedham, died fuddenly, in the houfe
“ of one Kidder, in D’Eureux-court near Temple-
“ bar, London, in 1678, and was buried near the
“ entrance of the chancel of the church of St Cle-
w ments Danes.”
NEEDHAM (John Tuberville), was born at Lon¬
don the 10th of September in the year 1713. His
■parents were defeended from ancient and noble fami¬
lies. His father, who had once pofieffed a confiderable
patrimony at Hililon, in the county of Monmouth,
was of the younger and Catholic branch of the Need¬
ham family : the head of the elder and Proteftant
branch was lord Kilmory, created vifeount in the year
1623. The father of Mr Needham died young, and
left but a fmall fortune to his four children. His
eldefi fon, who is the fubjedf of this article, profecu-
ted his fiudies under tire lecular clergy of the Englifh
college of Douai, where he took orders, taught rhe¬
toric for feveral years, gave eminent p<»ofs of fagacity
and genius, and furpaffed all the other profefl’ors of
that feminary in the knowlegde of experimental phi-
lofophy. In 1740, he was engaged by his Superiors
in the fervice of the Englifh miffion, and was entruft-
ed with the dire&ion of the fchool ere&ed at Twy-
ibrcl, near Winchefter, for the education of the Ro¬
man Catholic youth. In 1744, he was appointed Needham.
profefibr of philofophy in the Englifh college at Lif-  v~—
bon, where, on account of his bad health, he remain¬
ed only 15 months. After his return, he paffed feve¬
ral years at London and Paris, which were principally
employed in microfcopical obfervations, and in ocher
branches of experimental philofophy. The refults of
thefe obfervations and experiments were publifhed in
the Ptulofophical TranfaCtions of the Royal Society
of London in 1749, and in a volume in i2mo at Pa¬
ris in 1750 ; and an account of them was allb given
by M. d: Bufibn, in the firit volumes of his Natural
Htfiory. There was an intimate connexion between
this iiluftrious French naturalift and Mr Needham :
they made their experiments and obfervations toge-
gether; though the refults and fyftems which they de¬
duced from the fame objects and operations were to¬
tally different. Mr Needham was admitted to a place
in .the Royal Society of London in the year 1 747,
and in the Antiquarian Society fome time after. From
the year 1751 to 1767 he was chiefly employed in
finifhing the education of feveral Englifh and Irifh
noblemen, by attending them as tutor in their travels
through France, Italy, and other countries. He then
retired from this wandering life to the Englifli femi¬
nary at Paris, and in 1768 was chofen by the Royal
Academy of Sciences in that city a correfponding
member.
When the regency of the Auftrian Netherlands, in
order to the revival of philofophy and literature in that
country, formed the project of an Imperial academy,
which was preceded by the ereftion of a fm«ll literary
fociety to prepare the way for its execution, Mr Need¬
ham was invited to Brufl'els by Count Cobentzel and
the prefident Neny, and was appointed fucceffively
chief diretlor of both thefe foundations. He held
this place, together with fome ecclefiafiical preferments
in the Low Countries, until his death, which happened
the 30th of December 1781. “-His piety, temper¬
ance, and purity of manners (we follow the expref-
fions of the Abbe Mann) were eminent: his at¬
tachment to the doftrines and duties of Chriftianity
was inviolable. His zealous oppofition to modern
infidels was indefatigable and even paffionate. His
probity was untainted. He was incapable of every
fpecies of duplicity; his beneficence was univerfal,
and his unfufpicious candour rendered him often a
dupe to perhdy.” Thefe and other good qualities the
panegyrifi attributes to his dcceafcd friend; and the
learned authors of the Monthly Review, to whom
Mr Needham was known, admit the juftnefs of the
panegyric. He was undoubtedly (fay they) both an
lionefi man and a worthy citizen ; but though his
death be a real lofs to the literary world, yet he died
feafonably for himfelf; for had he lived to fee Jofeph
the I Id. and the Great making lo free with the paint,
patches, and trinkets of the mother church, confifeating
her lands, abolifhing her convents, iupprefiing her ho¬
lidays, introducing common fenfe into her worfhip,
erefting political condurfrors to difperfe the thunder
of the Vatican, and atchieving many other things in
this ftyle of improvement, it would have vexed full
fore his feeling heart. For this honefi man was narrow
even to fuperfiition and bigotry in his religious fyfiem;
and we never knew a man in whom there was inch an
6 unaccountable
NEE [ 79* 1 NEE
Mham, an3cemi#lWe mixture of implicit faitli and pMlofo-
Nce e' pineal curiolity as in Mr Needham. He was a keen
and judicious obferver of nature, had a peculiar dexte¬
rity in confirming his obfervations by experiments,
and he was always occupied (fometimes indeed with
too much fancy and precipitation) in generalizing
fads, and reducing them to his fyftem. “ His pen
(fays Abbe Mann) was neither remarkable for fecun¬
dity nor method : his writings are rather the great
lines of a fubjett exprefled with energy, and thrown
upon paper in a hurry, than finilhed treatifes.” His
works are well known both in Britain and in France.
NEEDHAM, in Suffolk, 73 miles from London,
flands on the Orwell, 9 miles from IpfwTch, in the
road to Huntingdonfhire. Its market is on Wednef-
day, and fair in October 28.
NEEDLE, a very common little inflrument or
utenfil made of (feel, pointed at one end, and pierced
at the other, ufed in fevving, embroidery, tapeftry, &c.
Needles make a very confiderable article in corn
merce, though there is fcarce any commodity cheaper,
the confumption of them being almoft incredible.—
The fizes are from n° I. the largeft, to n® 25. the
fmalleil. In the manufafture of needles, German and
Hungarian fteel are of moft repute.
In the making of them, the firft thing is to pafs the
fteel through a coal fire, and under a hammer, to
bring it out of its fquare figure into a cylindrical one.
This done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wire¬
drawing iron, and returned into the fire, and drawn
through a fecond hole of the iron fmaller than the firft ;
and thus fucceffively from hole to hole, till it has ac¬
quired the degree of finenefs required for that fpecies
of needles ; obferving every time it is to be drawn,
that it be greafed over with lard, to render it more
manageable. The fteel thus reduced to a fine wire, is
cut in pieces of the length of the needles intended.
Thefe pieces are flatted at one end on the anvil, in or¬
der to form the head and eye : they are then put into,
the fire, to foften them farther ; and thence taken out
and pierced at each extreme of the flat part on the an¬
vil, by force of a puncheon of well-tempered fteel, and
laid on a leaden block to bring out, with another pun¬
cheon, the little piece of fl eel remaining in the eye.
The corners are then filed off the fquare of the heads,
and a little cavity filed on each fide of the flat of the.
head ; this done, the point is formed with a file, and
the whole filed over : they are then laid to heat red hot
on a long narrow iron, crooked at one end, in a char¬
coal fire ; and when taken out thence, are thrown into
a bafon of cold water to-harden. On-this operation a
good deal depends ; too much heat burns them, and
too little leaves them foft; the medium is learned by
experience. When they are thus hardened, they are
laid in an iron (hovel on a fire more or lefs- briik in
\ proportion to the thicknefscf the needles; taking edre
; to move them from time to time. This ferves to tem-
1 per them, and take off their brittlenefs; great care here
j1 too muff be taken, of the degree of heat; They are
t then flraightened one after another with the hammer,
the coldnefs of the water ufed in hardening them ha-
\\ ving twifted the greateft part of them.
The next procefs is the pedifiling them. To do this,
they take 12,000 or -5,000 needles, and range them
| in little heaps againft each other on a piece of new
buckram fprinkled with emery-duff. The needles thus Needle.
difpofed, emery-duft is thrown over them, which is  'r~~'
again fprinkled with oil of olives ; at laft the whole is
made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This
roll is then laid on a polifiiisg table, and over it a thick
plank loaded with ftones, which two mcti work back¬
wards and forwards a day and a half, or two days,
fucceflively ; by which means the roll thus continually
agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over
it, the needles with in fide being rubbed againft each
other with oil and emery, are infenfibly poliftied. Af¬
ter polifhing, they are taken out, and the filth wafiied
off them with hot water and foap : they are then wi¬
ped in hot bran, a little moiftened, placed with the
needles in a round box, fufpended in the ait by a cord,
which is kept flirting till the bran and needles be dry.
The needles thus wiped in two or three different brans,
are taken out and put in wooden veffels, to have the
good ftparated from thofe whofe points or eyes have
been broken either in poliftiing or wiping 5 the points
are then all turned the fame way, and fmoothed with
an emery flonc turned with a wheel. This operation
finiflies them, and there remains nothing but to make
them into packets of 250 each. Needles were firft
made in England by a native of India in 154?, but
the art was loft at his death : it was, however, reco¬
vered by Chriftopher Greening in 1560, who was
fettled with his three children, Elizabeth, John, and
Thomas,, by Mr Damar, anceftor-of the prefent lord
Milton, at Long Crendon in Bucks, where the ma-
nufaiftory has been carried on from that time to this -
prefent day.
Dlpping-NF.Emf., or hdinatory Needle, a maone-
tic?.l needle, fohung, as that, inftead of playing horr-C<^CXLV*
zontally, and pointing out north and fouth, one end 5
dips, or inclines to the horizon, and the other points
to a certain degree of elevation above it.
The dipping-needle was invented in the year 1576
by one Robert Norman a compafs-maker at Wap-
ping. The oocafion of the difeovery, accordino- to his
own account, was, that it being his ciiftom to nnifh :
and hang the needles of his compaffesbefore he touch¬
ed them, he always found, that immediately after the
touch, the north-point would bend or incline down¬
ward, under the horizon ; infomuch that, to balan e
the needle again, he was always forced to put a piece
of wax on the fouth end as a counterpoife. The con-
ftancy of this effedl led him at length to obferve the
preciie quantity of the dip, or to meafure the greateft
angle which the needle would make with the horizon,;.
and this at London he found to Be 71 0 50'. In 172•}
Mrs Graham made a great many obfervations on the
dipping-needle, and found the angld to be between 7 j.
and 75 degrees. Mr Nairne, in 1772, found it to be
fomewhat above 720. it is not certain whether the
dip varies, as well as the horizontal direction, in the,
fame place. The trifling difference between Mr For¬
man and Mr Nairne would lead us to imagine that:
the dip was unalterable^ but Mr Graham, who was a
very accurate obferver, makes the difference more
confiderable. It is certain, however, from a great
number of experiments and obfervations, that the dip
is variable in different latitudes,-and that it increafes
in going northwards. It appears from a table of ob-
fervations made with the marine dipping-needle im a
voyage
N E E [ 792 ] NEE
-voyage towards the north pole in 1733, that in lat. the horizon by the fame plumb-line, and an adjoining Needle.
60. 18. the dip was 750 ; and in lat. 70. 45. it was fcrew ; and when it is adjufted, a pointer annexed to —v—>
. 770 52' ; in lat. 80. 12. it was 8i® 52' ; and in lat. a fcrew, which ferves to move the divided circle, is
80. 27. it wes 82° 24'. fixed at the loweft 90. Whenever the inftrument is
Several authors have endeavoured to apply this dif- ufed to find the dip, it mull; be fo placed that the
edvery of the dip to the finding of the latitude ; and needle may vibrate exactly in the magnetic meridian.
Mr Bond attempted to apply it to the finding of the Magnetical Needle, in navigation, a needle*touched
longitude alfo ; but for want of obfervations and ex- with a loadftone, and fuftained on a pivot or centre ;
-periments he could not make any progrefs. The af- on which playing at liberty, it directs itfelf to certain
•fair was farther profecuted by Mr Whifton, who pub- points in or under the horizon ; whence the magneti-
liflied a treatife on the longitude, and for fome time cal needle is of two kinds, viz. horizontal or inclrnatory.
•imagined it was poffible to find it exadlly by means of See the article Magnet.
the dip of the needle ; yet he at laft defpaired of it, for Horizontal needles are'thofe equally balanced on
the following reafons. t. The weaknefs of the magtie- each fide of the pivot that fuftains them ; and which,
.tic power. 2. The concufiion of the (hip, which he playing horizontally with their two extremes, point
found it exceeding difficult to avoid fo much as was out the north and fouth points of the horizon. For
necefiary for.the accuracy of the experiments. 3 The -their application and ufe, fee the article Compass.
principal obje&ion was an irregularity in the motions In the conftru&ion of the horizontal needle, a piece
of all magnetic needles, both horizontal and dipping, of pure fteel is provided ; of a length not exceeding fix
by which they, within the compafs of about a degree, inches, left its weight ffiould impede its volubility ;
vary uncertainly backward and forward ; even fome-, very thin, to take its verticity the better ; and not
times, in a few hours time, without any evident caufe. pierced with any holes, or the like, for ornament fake,
For a particular account of thefe variations both of which prevent the equable diffufion of the magnetic
the horizontal and dipping needle, fee the article Va- virtue. A perforation is then made in the middle of
RiATiON. its length, and a brafs cap or head foldered on, whofe
Mr Nairne made a dipping-needle in 1772 for the inner cavity is conical, fo as to play freely on a ftyle
board of longitude, .which was ufed in the voyage or pivot headed with a fine fteel point. The north
towards the north-pole. This is reprefented Plate point of the needle in our hemifphere is made a little
.CCCXLV. fig. 2. The needle; A A is 12 inches lighter than the fouthern ; the touch always deftroy-
long, and its axis, the ends BB of which are made ing the balance, if well adjufted before, and rendering
•of gold alloyed with copper, refts on fridtion-wheels the north end heavier than the fouth, and thus occa-
CCCC, of four inches diameter, each end on two fioning the needle to dip.
fridlion wheels ; which wheels are balanced with The method of giving the needle its verticity or di¬
great care. The ends of the axes of the fri&ion- reftive faculty has been fhown already under the ar-
whcels are likewfe of gold alloyed with copper, and tide Magnet ; but if, after touching, the needle be
moved in fmall ho'es made in bell metal; and oppofite out of its equilibrium, fomething muft be filed off from
to the ends of the axes of the needle and the fri&ion- the heavier fide, till it balance evenly.
.wheels, are flat agates, fet in at DDD, finely poliflt Needles in fea compaffes are ufuaily made of a rhom-
ed. The magnetic needle vibrates within a circle of boidal or oblong form : we have given their ftruAure
bell-metal, EEE, divided into degrees and half de- already under the article Compass.
grees ; and a line, paffing through the middle of the The needle is not found to point precifely to the
needle to the ends, points to the divifions. The north, except in very few places ; but deviates from it
•needle of this inftrument was balanced before it was more or lefs in different places, and that too at diffe-
• made magnetical; but by means of a crofs, the ends rent times ; which deviation is called its declination or
of which are FFFF, (contrived by the reverend Mr variation from the meridian. See the article Varia-
Mitchell) fixed on the axis of the needle, on the arms tion.
.of w’hich are cut very fine ferews to receive fmall but- Surgeons Needles are generally made crooked, and
-tons, that may be ferewtd nearer or farther from the their points triangular : however they are of different
a ,is, the needle may be adjufted both ways to a great forms and fizes, and bear different names, according
nicety, after being made magnetical, by reverfing the to the purpofes they are ufed for*
poles,- and changing the fides of the needle. GG are The largeft are needles for amputation ; the next,
two levels', by which the line of o degrees of the in- needles for wounds ; the fineft needles for futures,
ftrument is fet horizontal, by means of the four ad- They have others, very fhort and fiat, for tendons ;
jlifting ferews LLJLL ; H is the perpendicular axis, others, ftill fhorter, and the eye placed in the middle,
by which the inilrument may be turned, that the di- for tying together of veffels, &c. Needles for couch-
vided face of the circle may front the eaft or weft ; ing cataradts are of various kinds; all of which have
to this axis is fixed an index I, which points to an a fmall, broad, and ftiarp point or tongue ; and fome
oppofite line on the horizontal plate K when the in- with a fulcus at the point. Surgeons have fomeiimes
ftrument is turned half round ; MM MM, are ferews ufed two needles in this operation ; one with a /harp
which hold the elafs-cover to keep the needle from point for perforating the coat's of the eye, and another
being difturbed by the wind. When this needle is with a more obtufe point for depreffing or couching
conftrufted for fea, it is fufpended by an univerfal the opaque cryftalline lens : but care fhould be taken
joint on a triangular ftand, and adjufted vertically by in the ufe of any of thefe, that they be firft well po-
a plumb-line and button above the divided circle and Tiffed with cloth or leather, before they are applied
the dovetail work at the upper 90 ; and the divifions to the eye.
on the circle are adjufted fo as to be perpendicular to Mr Warner obferves, that the blade of the couching
240. needle
N E F E 793 1 N E G
Needle needle fliould be at leaft a third part larger than thofe
NefL'i Senera% uPon this occalion, as great advantages
.. , will be found in the deprefling of the cataraft, by the
increafed breadth of the blade of that inftrument. The
handle, alfo, if made fomewhat fhorter than ufual,
will enable the operator to perform with greater ftea-
dinefs, than he can do with a larger handled inftru-
ment.
It is to be obferved, that needles of filver pierce more
eafily in ftitching arteries after an amputation, than
thofe made of fteel.
NEEDLE-Fifh. See Sygnathus.
Needles, iharp-pointed rocks north of the Ifle of
Wight. They are lituated at the weftern extremity
of the ifland, which is an acute point of high land,
from which they have been disjoined by the wafhing
rf rea. There were of thefe lofty white rocks
tormeri) Vee, but about 14 years ago the tailed of
them, calfeo L<T'-ot,s Wife, which arofe 1 20 feet above
low-water marWy f nd in its fhape refembling a needle,
being undermined by the conftant efforts of the waves,
overfet, and totally difappeared.
NEEDS, or St Neots, fix miles from Hunting¬
don, 58 miles from London, fo called from the mo¬
nument of a faint of that name in it,- who was burnt
by the Danes, is a large well-built town, having a
handfome ftrong church, with a prodigious fine fteeple,
and a good ftone-bridge over the Oufe, by which
coals are brought to it, and fold through the country.
It has a charity-fchool for 29 poor children. Its mar¬
ket is on Thurfday ; fairs on Holy Thurfday, Aug. 1.
Corpus-Chrifti Thurfday, June 13. and December 17.;
and it is famous for a medicinal fpring.
NEEDWOOD-forest, in StafFordfhire, between
the Trent, Dove, and Blythe, and near Uttoxeter, is
laid to exceed all the forefts in England in the excel¬
lency of its foil and the finenefs of its turf.
NE EXEAT REGNO, in law, is a writ to re-
flrain a perfon from going out of the kingdom with¬
out the king’s licence. F. N. B. 85. It may be di¬
rected to the fheriff, to make the party find furety that
he will not depart the realm, and on refufal to com¬
mit him to pfifon : or it may be dire&ed to the party
himfelf; and if he then goes, he may be fined. And
this writ is granted on a fuit being commenced againft
a man in the chancery, when the plaintiff fears the de¬
fendant will fly to fome other country ; and thereby
avoid the juftice and equity of the court; which hath
been fometimes pra&ifed : and when thus granted, the
party muff give bonds to the mailer of the rolls, in the
penalty of 1000 1. ©r fome other large fum, for yield¬
ing obedience to it ; or fatisfy the court, by anfwer,
affidavit, or otherwife, that he hath no defign of lea-
vino the kingdom, and give fecurity.
NEFER'>, in Pembrokefhire, a village in whofe
church-yard is a remarkable old crofs. The church
has no pavement in it, and the frequent burials have
raiftd the ground within it to feven or eight feet higher
than without. In procefs of time, inftead of a church,
it will be only a iepulchre.. It is pleafantly fituated
on the banks of a river of the fame name near Newport.
NE FASTI dies in Roman antiquity, an appella¬
tion given to thofe days wherein it was not allowed to
adminifter juftiee, or hold courts. They were fo called
becaufe, non fart licelat, the praetor was not allowed to
Vol.XII. Part II.
pronounce the three folemn words or farmulas of the Negapatan
law, do, dico, addico, I give, I appoint, I adjudge. M II .
Thefe days were diftinguifhed in the calendar by the 8g^tivc’.
letter N. for nefaflus ; or N. P. Nefajius Pr'mo, when
the day was only nefajius in the forenoon, or firfl: part.
The days of a mixed kind were called inierctfi,
NEGAPATAN, a town of Afia in the peninfula
on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coroman¬
del. It was firfl; a colony of the Portuguefe, but was
taken from them by the Dutcfi. The fa&ory purchafe
very little befides tobacco and long linen cloths ; how¬
ever, the Dutch have thought proper to erect a fort
here. It is fituated in E. Long. 79. 10. N Lat. 11.
I5*
NEGATION, in logic, an aft of the mind affirm¬
ing one thing to be different from another; as that the
foul is not matter. See Logic.
NEGATIVE, in genera], fomething that impliea
a negation : thus we fay, negative quantities, negative
powers, negative figns, &c.
NegatirE-Sign. The ufe of the negative fign, in
algebra, is attended with feveral confequences that at
firfl fight are admitted with difficulty, and has fome¬
times given occafion to notions that feem to have no
real foupdation. This fign implies, that the real va-
lue of the quantity reprefented by the letter to which
it is prefixed is to be fubtrafted ; and it ferves, with
the pofitive fign, to keep in view what elements or
parts enter into the compofition of quantities, and in
what manner, whether as increments or decrements,
(that is, whether by addition or fubtraftion), which is
of the greatefl ufe in this art.
In confequence of this, it ferves to exprefs a quan¬
tity of an oppofite quality to the pofitive, as a line in
a contrary pofition ; a motion with an oppofite direc¬
tion ; or a centrifugal force in oppofition to gravity j
and thus often faves the trouble of diilinguifliing, and
demonftrating feparately, the various cafes of propor¬
tions, and preferves their analogy in view. But as
the proportions of lines depend on their magnitude
only, without regard to their pofition, and motions
and forces are faid to be equal, or unequal, in any gi¬
ven ratio, without regard to their direftions ; and, in
general, the proportion of quantity relates to their
magnitude only, without determining whether they
are to be confidered as increments or decrements ; fo
there is no ground to imagine any other proportion of
— b and -j- a (or of— 1 and 1} than that of the
real magnitudes of the quantities reprefented by b and
a, whether thefe quantities are, in any particular cafe,
to be added or fubtrafted. It is the fame thing to
fubtraft a decrement, as to add an equal increment,
or to fubtraft — b from a — as to add -f- £ to it:
and becaufe multiplying a quantity by a negative num¬
ber implies only a repeated fubtraftion of it, the mul¬
tiplying — £ by — n, is fubtrafting — <5 as often as
there are units in n; and is therefore equivalent to
adding + ^ fo many times, or the fame as adding
n b. But if we infer from this, that 1 is to — n
as— b to n b, according to the rule, that unit is.ta
one of the faftors as the other faftor is to the pro-
duft, there is no ground to imagine that there is any
myftery in this, or any other meaning than that the
real magnitudes reprefented by 1, n, b, and n b are
proportional. For that rule relates only to the mag-
5 H nitude
N E G r 794 ] N E G
Nepa-rre mtBik of the faftori and pmdua, without dttermin- ing, lying, profanity, debauchery, naflinefs, and in-
il in? whether any fa&or, or the produa, is to be add- temperance, are faid to have extinguifhed the prin-1-
Ne. ro. ed'or fubtraAed. But this likewife muft be deter- cipks of natural law, and to have hlenccd the reproofs
' * min(;d in algebraic computations ; and this is the pro- of conference. They are ftrangers to every fentiment
per ufe of the rules concerning the figns, without of companion, and are an awful example of the cor-
which the operation could not proceed. Becaufe a ruption of man when left to himfelt.
quantity to be fubtrafted is never produced in com-
pofition by any repeated addition of a pofitive, or re¬
peated fubtraAion of a negative, a negative fquare
number is never produced by compofition from the
root. iMice \/—l, or the fquare root of a nega¬
tive, implies an imaginery quantity ; and, in refolution,
is a mark or charaAer of the impoffible cafes of a
problem, unlefs it is compenfated by another imagi¬
nary fymbol or fuppofition, when tne whole expref-
fion may have a real fignrfication. Thus i+y'—t,
and I—v/ — I taken feparately, are imaginary, but
their fum is 2 ; as the conditions that feparately would
render the folution of a problem impoffible, in fome
cafes deftroy each others cffeA when conjoined, in
the purfuitof general conclufions, and of ffinple forms
reprefenting them, expreffions of this kind muft
fometimes arife where the imaginary fymbol is com-
pen'ated in a manner that is not always fo obvious.
By proper fubftitutions, however, the expreffion
may be transformed into another, wherein each par¬
ticular term may have a real fignification as well as
the whole expreffion. The theorems that are fome¬
times briefly difeovered by the ufe of this fymbol, may
be demonftrated without it by the inverfe operation,
The origin of the negroes, and the caufe of thier
remarkable difference from the reft of the human fpe-
cies, has much perplexed the naturalifts. Mr Boyle
has oblerved, that it cannot be produced by the heat
of the climate : for though the heat of the fun may
darken the colour of the fkin, yet experience does not
fhow that it is fufficient U> produce a new blacknef*
like that of the negroes.
In Africa itfelf, many nations of Ethiopia are not
black; nor were there any blacks originally in the
Weft Indies. In many parts of Alia, under the fame
parallel with the African region inhabited by the
blacks, the people are but tawny. He adds, that
there are nsgroesin Africa beyond the fouthern tropic;
and that a river fometimes parts natrons, one of which
is black, and the other only tawny. DrBarriere alleges,
that the gall of Negroes is black, and being mixed
with their blood is depoftted between the fkin and
fcarf-fkin. However, Dr Mitchel of Virginia, in the
Philofophical TranfaAions n"1 476. has endeavoured
by many learned arguments to prove, that the influ¬
ence of the fun in hot countries, and the manner of
life of their inhabitants, are the remote caufes of the
colour of the Negroes, Indians, &c. Lord Kaimes,
on the other hand and fuch philofophers as he, whofe
fome other way ; and though fuch fymbols are of genju8 and imagination are too lively to fubmit to a
— ..g. it.. tT,. rr^W offln. dry and painfui inveftigation of feAs, have contend¬
ed, that no phyfical caufe is fufficient to change the
colour, and what we call the regular features of white
men, to the daik hue and deformity of the woolly¬
headed negro. Their arguments have been examined
with much acutenefs and ingenuity by Dr Stanhope
Smith of New Jerfey, Dr Hunter, and ptofeffor
Zimmerman, who have made it in a hig"h degree pro¬
bable, that the aAion of the fun is the original and
chief caufe of the black colour, as well as diftorted
fome ufe in the computations by the method of flu¬
xions, its evidence cannot be faid to depend upon arts
of this kind. See Maclaurin’s Fluxions, book ii.
chap. 1. and Ludlam’s Algebra, paffim.
Negative Eleflricity. See the article Electricity,
pa fun. See alfo- Positive Ele8ricity.
NEGINOTH. This term is read before fome of
the Pfalms, as Pfalm Ixvii. It fignifies Jlring inftru-
mitits 0/muju, to be played on by the fingers, or wo¬
men muficians ; and the titles of thofe pfalms where
this word is found, may be thus tranflated, A pfalm of features> 0f thc negro. See America, n°48—Jt. and
David to the mafer of mvfic, who prefdes over the Jlring Complex,on.
infruments. True negr0es are found in no quarter of the
NEGOMBO, a fea-port town of Afia, on the weft iobe wbere the heat of the climate is not very
coaft of Ceylon. It has a fort built by the Poituguefe, °rcat The ex;ft n0 wi,erc but in the Torrid
which was taken from them by the Dutch in 1640.
E. Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 17. o.
NEGRIL point, the molt wefteily promontory of
the ifland of Jamaica.
NEGRO, Homo pelli nigra, a name griven to a
variety of the human fpccies, who are entirely black,
and are found in the Torrid zone, efpecially in that
part of Africa which lies within the tropics. In the
complexion of negroes we meet with many various
fhades; but they likewife differ far from other men
in all the features of their face. Round cheeks,
zone, and only in thiee regions fituated in .that zone,
to wit, in Senegal, in Guinea, and on the weltem
ffiores of Africa, in Nubia, and the Papous land, or
what is called New Guinea. In all thefe regions the
"atmofphere is fcorching, and the heat exceffive. The
inhabitants of the north are whiteft ; and as we ad¬
vance fouthwards towards the line, and thofe countries
on which the fun’s rays fall more perpendicularly, the
complexion gradually affumes a darker lhade. And
the fame men, whofe colour has been rendered black
by the pou erful aAion of the fun, if they remove to
high cheek-bones, a forehead fomewhat elevated, the n0I.thx gradual!v become whiter (at leaft their po-
a ffiort, broad, flat nofe, thick lips, fmall ears, ugli- £erity)5 and lole their burnt colour. Whites, when
nefs, and irregularity of lhape, charaAcriz.e their ex- tranfp0rted into the burning regions of the Torrid
ternal appearance. The negro women have the loins ^ r .l r-c .
greatly depreffed, and very large buttocks, which gives
the back the ffiape of a faddle. Vices the moll no¬
torious feem to be the portion of this unhappy race :
idlenefs, treachery, revenge, cruelty, impudence, fteal-
zone, are at find fubjeA to fever ; the fkin of the face,
hands, and feet, becomes burnt, hardens, and falls oft
in feales. Hitherto the colour of negroes appears to
be only local, extrinfic, and accidental, and their Ihort
frizzled
N E G
frizzled and fparfe hair is to be accounted far m the very
■ £ame manner.
Climate poffefles great and evident influence on the
hair, not only of men, but of all other animals. If in
one c’fe thefe tranfmutations are acknowledged to be
confident with identity of kind, they ought not in the
1 79? 1
N E G
parts of the country, negligent of their offspring. Able
themfelves to endure the extremes of that ardent climate*
they inure their children to it from their moft tender
age. They fuffer them to roll in the dull and fand.be>
neath the direct rays of a vertical fun. The mother,
if Ihe be engaged, lays down the infant on the firfl fpot
other to be efteemed criterions of different fpecies. Na- {he finds, pnd is feldom at the pains to feek the mifer-
ture has adapted the pliancy of her work to the fitua- able {belter of a barren ftirub, which is all that the in-
tions in which fire may require it to be placed. The
beaver and {heep removed to the warm latitudes ex¬
change, the one its fur, and the other its wool, for a
coarfe hair that preferves the animal in a more moderate
temperature. The coarfe and black fhag of the b^ar is
converted, in the aj-ftic regions, into the fined and
whited fur.
by climate. The bear is white under the ar&ic circle;
and, in high northern latitudes, foxes, hares, and rabbits,
are found white. Similar effefts-of climate are difeer-
nible on mankind. The hair of the Danes is generally
red ; of the Englifti, fair or brown; and of the French,
terior ceuntry affords. When we refleft on the influ¬
ence of a glare of light upon the eye, and on the con¬
tortions of countenance produced by our efforts to re¬
pel or prevent it, we need not wonder that the pliant
feature* of a negro-infant {hould, by condant expofure,
acquire that permanent irregularity which we term their
The colour of the hair is likewife changed charafteridic uglinefs. But befides the climate, food and
clothing and modes of life have prodigious effedls on
the human form and features. This is apparent even
in polifhed focieties, where the poor and labouring part
of the community are much more coarfe in their features,
and iM-formed in their limbs, than perfons of better for-
commonly black. The hair of all people of colour is tune and more liberal means of fubfidence. What an
black, and that of the African negroes is likewife fparfe immenfe difference exids in Scotland, for indance, be-
and curled in a manner peculiar to themfelves; but this
peculiarity is analogous to the effeft which a warm cli¬
mate has on almod every other animal. Cold, by ob-
tween the chiefs and the commonalty of the Highland
clans ? If they had been feparately found in different
countries, they would have been ranged by fome philo-
ftrudling the perfpiration, tends to throw out the |>er- fophers under different fpecies. A fimilar didinftion
£pirable matter accumulated at the fliin in an additional takes place between the nobility and peafantry of
coat of hair, A warm climate, by opening the pores, France, of Spain, of Italy, and of Germany,
evaporates this matter before it can be concreted into That food and clothing, and the different modes of
the fubdance of hair; and the laxnefs and aperture of lire, have as great an influence upon the (hapes and fea-
the pores render the hair liable to be eafily eradica- tures of the Africans as upon the natives of Europe, is
ted by innumerable incidents. Its curl may refult evident from the different appearances of the negroes in
in part from the nature of the fecretion by which it is the fouthern republics of America according to the da-
uourifbed, and in part from external heat. That it tions in which they are employed. “ The field flaves
-depends in fome degree on the quality of the fecretion
is rendered highly probable from its appearance on the
(fays Dr Smith) are badly fed, clothed, and lodged.
They live in fmall huts on the plantations, where they
chin and other parts of the human body. Climate is as labour, remote from the fociety and example of their
much didinguidred by the nature and proportion of the fuperiors. Living by themfelves, they retain many of
iecretions as by the degree of heat ; (See Physiolo¬
gy, fed!. 6.) Whatever be the nutriment of the hair,
the - cudoms and manners of their African ancedors.
The domedic fervants, on the other hand, who are kept
it is evidently combined in the torrid zone of Africa near the perfons, or employed in the families of their
with fome fluid of a highly volatile or ardent quality,
which produces the rank fmell of many African nations.
rnaders, are treated with great lenity; their fervice is
light; they are fed and clothed like their fuperiors;
Saline fecretions tend to curl and to burn the hair. The they fee their manners, adopt their habits, and infenfibly
evaporation of any volatile fpirit would render its fur- receive the fame ideas of elegance and beauty. The
face dry and difpofed to contrad!; whilftthe centre con-' field flaves are, in confequence, flow in changing the
tinuing didended by the vital motion, thefe oppofite di- afpedl and figure of Africa. The domgdic fervants
latations and contradfions, would neceffarily produce a have advanced far before them in acquiring the agree-
curve, and make the hair grow involved. External and able and regular features, and the expreffive countenance
violent heat parching the extremities of the hair, tends of civil lociety. The former are frequently ill-fhaped.
Itkewife to involve it. A hair held near the. fire in- They preferve, in a great, degree, the African Kps,
ftantly coils itfelf up. Africa is the hotted country on noft, and hair. Their genius is dull, and their coun-
’ the globe; and the influence of its heat, either external tenance fleepy and Aupid. Ihe latter are draight and
or internal, or both, in giving the peculiar form to the well proportioned ; their hair extended to three, four,
hair of the natives, appears^ not only from its fparfenefs and fometimes even to fix or eight inches; the fize and
and its curl, but from its colour. It is not of a fhining, {haj?e of the mouth handlome, their, features regular,
but of an adud black; and its extremities tend to brown, their capacity good, and their look animated.”
as if it had been feorched by the fire. ‘ Upon the whole, we hope that the reader, who fell
The peculiarities of the negro-features and form may candidly weigh in his own mmd what we have faid at
Ifkewife be accounted for from the exceflive heat of the prefent and under the article Complexion, will agree
•climate and the date of African fociety. Being fava- with us, that the black colour in the torrid zone, the
ges, they have no arts to protect them from the rays of fparfe crifp hair of the negroes, arid the peculiarities of
a burning fun. The heat and lerenity of the Iky pre- their features and form, proceed from caufes altogether
fetving the lives of the children without much care of extrinfic; that they depend on local temperature and the
the parents, they feem of courfe to be, in the interior ilate of ibciety ; and that they are as accidental as the
Vol. XII. Part II. 5 H 2 variou*
N E G [ 79<5 1 N E G
Nfgro. various fhades of colour which characterize the different
v,—nations of Europe, If the whites be cwifidered as the
ftock whtnce all others have fprunp-, it is eafy to con¬
ceive how they have degenerated into negroes. Some
have conjeftured that the complete change may have
taken place at the end of three centuries, whilil others
have thought that it could not be effeCted in lefs than
double that period. Such conje&ures can be formed
from no certain data; and a much greater length of
time is undoubtedly neceffary before negroes, when
tranfplanted into our temperate countries, can entirely
lofe their black colour. By eroding the breed with
whites, every taint of the negro-colour may be expelled,
we believe, from the fifth generation (a).
But the moft ferious charge brought againft the
poor negroes is, that of the vices faid to be natural
to them. If they be indeed flich as their enemies
reprefent them, treacherous, cruel, revengeful, and
intemperate, by a neceffity of nature, they muft be a
different race from the whites ; for though all thefe
vices abound in Europe, it is evident that they proceed
not from nature, but from wrong education, which
gives to the youthful mind fuch deep impreffions as no
future exertions can completely eradicate. Let us in¬
quire coolly if the vices of the negroes may not have a
fimilar origin.
In every part of Africa with which the nations of
Europe have any commerce, flavery prevails of the
woi it kind. Three-fourths of the people are Haves to
the reft, and the children are born to no other inheri-
EJivarit's tance- “ Molt parts of the coaft differ in their «o-
0/ veinmeqts; fome are ablolute monarchies, while others
the IVejt ■ draw near to an ariftocracy. In both the authority of
Indies, the ch[ef or chiefs is unlimited, extending to life, and it
vo ‘ is exercifed as often as criminal cafes require, unlefs
death is commuted into flavery; in which cafe the of¬
fender is fold, and if the fhipping will not buy the cri¬
minal,-he is immediately put to death. Fathers of free
condition have power to fell their children, but this
power is very feldom enforced.” In Congo, however,
* Mod. a father * will fell a fon or daughter, or perhaps both,
Univ. Hi- for a piece of cloth, a collar or girdle of coral or beads,
fory, vol. 0ften for a hottle of wine or brandy. A hufband
**11' ^may have as many wives as he pleafes, and repudiate or
even fell them, though with child, at his pleafure. The
wives and concubines, though it be a capital crime for
the former to break the conjugal faith, have a way to
rid themfelves of their hufbands, if they have let their
affedlions upon a new gallant, by accufing them of
fome crime for which the punifhment is death. In a
word, the bulk of the people in every ftate of Africa
are born flaves to great men, reared as fuch, held at Megre,
property, and as property fold (fee Slavery). There ——y-1
are indeed many circumftances by which a free man
may become a (lave: fuch as being in debt, and noltbeWejt I*.
able to pay ; and in fome o! fuch cafes, if the debt bedks.
large, not only the debtor, but his family likewife, be¬
come the flaves of his creditor, and may be fold. A-
dultery is commonly punifhed in the fame manner, both
the offending parties being fold, and the purchafe-mo-
ney paid to the injured hufband. Obi, or pretended
witchcraft (in which all the negroes firmly believe, fee
Witchcraft), is another, and a very common offence,
for which flavery is adjudged the lawful puniftiment ;
and it extends to all the family of the offender: There
are various other crimes which fubjeft the offender and
his children to be fold ; and it is more than probable,
that if there were no buyers, the poor wretches would
be murdered without mercy.
In fuch a ftate of fociety, what difpofitions can be
looked for in the people, but cruelty, treachery, and
revenge i Even in the civilized nations of Europe, blef-
fed with the lights of law, fcience, ar.d religion, fome
of the lower orders of the community confider it as a
very trivial crime to defraud their fuperiors; whilft al-
moft all look up to them with ftupid malevolence or
rancorous envy. That a deprelfed people, when they
get power into their hands, are reveng-eful and cruel,
the prefent age affords a dreadful proof in the conduft
of the demagogues of a neighbouring nation ; and is it
wonderful that the negroes of Africa, unacquainted
with moral principles, blinded by the cruelleft and molt
abfurd fuperftitions, and whofe cuftoms tend to eradi¬
cate from the mind all natural affe&ion, fho'uld fome-
times difplay to their lordly mafters of European ex-
trabdion the fame fpiric that has been fo generally dif-
played by the lower orders of Frenchmen to their ec-
clefiaftics, their nobles, and the family of their murder¬
ed fovereign ! When we confider that the majority of
the negroes groan under the cruelleft flavery, both in
their own country and in every other where they ate to
be found in confiderable numbers, it can excite no fur-
prife that they are in general treacherous, cruel, and
vindiftive. Such are the caprices of their tyrants at
home, that they could not preferve their own lives or
the lives of their families for any length of time, but by
a perpetual vigilance, which muft neceffarily degenerate,
fir ft into cunning, and afterwards into treachery ; and
it is not conceivable that habits formed in Africa (hould
be inftantly thrown off in the Weft Indies, where they
are the property of men whom fome of them muft con,,
fider as a different race of beings.
But
(a) 1. A white man with a negro woman, ora negro man with a white woman, produce a mulatto, half white
and half black, or of a yellow-blackifh colour, with black, ftiort, frizzled hair. 2. A white man with a mulatto
woman, or a negro with a mulatto woman, produce a quadroon, three fourths white and one fourth black, or
three fourths black and one fourth white, or of a lighter yellow than the former. In America, they give the
name of cabres to thofe who are defeended from a black man and a mulatto woman, or a mulatto man and a black
woman, who are three fourths black and one fourth white, and who are not fo black as a negro, but blacker
than a mulatto. 3. A white man with a quadroon woman, or a negro with a quadroon woman, produce a.mejii-
zo, feven eighths white and one eighth black, or feven eighths black and one eighth white. 4. A white man with
a meftizo woman, or a negro with a meftizo woman, produce, the one almoft a perfeft white, the other almoft
a perfeft black, called a quinteroon. This is the laft gradation, there being no vifible difference between the fair
quinteroons and the whites; and the children of a white and quinteroon confider themfclves as free from all taint
of the negro race.
NEC l 797 ] N E G
Negro. But the truth is, that the ill qualities of the negroes
1 ■'have been greatly exaggerated. Mr Edwards, in his
valuable Hiftory ^f the Welt Indies, allures us that the
Mandingo negroes difplay Inch gentlenefs of dilpofi-
„ and demeanour, as would feem the refult of early
education and difcipline, were it not that, generally
fpeaking, they are more prone to theft than any of the
African tribes. It has been fuppofed that this pro-
penfity, among other vices, is natural to a ftate of (la-
very, which degrades and corrupts the human mind in
a deplorable manner ; but why the Mandingoes fhouM
have become more vicious in this refpect than the reft
of the natives of ^Vfrica in the lame condition of life,
is a quell ion he cannot anfwer.
“ The circumftances which (according to the fame
author) diftingtrifh the Koromantyn or Gold Coaft ne¬
groes from all others, are ftrmnefs both of body and
mind ; a ferocioufnefs of difpofition; but withal, ac¬
tivity, courage, and a ftubbot nnefs, or what an anci¬
ent Roman would have deemed an elevation of foul,
which prompts them to enterprifes of difficulty and
danger, and enables them to meet death, in its moft
horrible lhape, with fortitude or indifference. They
fometimes take to labour with great promptitude and
alacrity, and have conllitutions well adapted for it; for
many of them have undoubtedly been Haves in Africa.
But as the Gold Coaft is inhabited by various tribes,
which are engaged in perpetual warfare and hoftility
with each other, there cannot be a doubt that many of
the captives taken in battle, and fold in the European
lettlements, were of free condition in their native coun
try, and perhaps the owners of Haves themfelves. It is
not wonderful that fuch men Ihould endeavour, even by
means the moft defperate, to regain the freedom of
which they have been deprived ; nor d§ I conceive that
any further circumftances are neceffary to prompt them
to a&ion, than that of being fold into captivity in a
diftant country. One cannot furely but lament (fays
our author), that a people thus naturally intrepid, Ihould
be funk into fo deplorable a ftate of barbarity and fu-
perftition ; and that their fpints Ihould ever be broken
down by the yoke of llavery ! Whatever may be- alle¬
ged concerning their ferocioufnefs and implacability in
their prefent notions of right and wrong, I am perfua-
ded that they poffefs qualities which are capable of, and
well deferve, cultivation and improvement.
“Very different from the Koromantyns are the negroes
imported from the Bight of Benin, and known in the
Weft Indies by the name of Eboes. So great is their
' conftitutional timidity and defpondency of mind as to
©ccalion them very frequently to feek, in a voluntary
death, a refuge from their own melancholy reflexions.
They require therefore the gentled and mildeft treat¬
ment to reconcile them to their fituation ; but if their
confidence be once obtained, they manifeft as great
fidelity, affeXion, and gratitude, as can reafonably
be expefted from men in a ftate cf flavery. The
females of this nation arc better labourers than the
men, probably from having been more hardly treated
in Africa.
“ The natives of Whidah, who, in the Weft Indies,
are generally called Papanvs, are unqueftionably the moft
docile and beft-difpofed flaves that are imported from
any part of Africa. Without the fierce tuad favage
manners of the Koromantyn neg;-oes, they are alKj
happily exempt from the timid and defponding temper
of the Eboes. The cheerful acquiefcence with which
thefe people apply to the labours of the field, and their
conftitutional aptitude for fuch employment, arife, with,
out doubt, from the great attention paid to agriculture
in their native country. Bofman fpeaks with rapture
of the improved ftate of the foil, the number of villages*
and the induftry, riches, and obliging manners of the
natives. He obferves, however, that they are much
greater thieves than thofe of the Gold Coaft, and very
unlike them in another refpeX, namely, in the dread'
of pain, and the apprehenfion of death. They are,
fays he, fo very apprehenfive of death, that they am
unwilling to hear it mentioned, for fear that alone
ftiould haften their end; and no man dares to fpeak of
death in the prefence of the king, or any great man*
under the penalty of fuffering it himfelf, as a punifhmen*
for his prefumption. He relates further, that they are
addiXed to gaming beyond any people of Africa. All
thefe propenfities are obfervable in the charaXer of the.
Papaws in a ftate of flavery in the Weft Indies. That
puniftiment which excites the Koromantyn to rebel,
and drives the Ebo negro to fuicide, is received by the
Papaws as the chaftifement of legal authority, to which
it is their duty to fubmit patiently. The cafe feems to
be, that the generality of thefe people are in a ftate of
abfolute flavery in Africa, and, haying been habituated
to a life of labour, they fubmit to a change of fituation.
with little reluXanee.”
Having recited fuch ohfervations as occurred to him
on contemplating the various tribes of negroes from each
other, Mr Edwards thus eftimates their general cha*
raXer, influenced as they are by circumftances which
foon efface the native and original impreffions which difi.
tinguifh one nation from another when newly imported
into the Weft Indies.
“ Notwithftanding what has been related of the firmnefs-
and courage of the natives of. the G-old Coaft, it is cer¬
tain that the negroes in general in our iflands (fuch cf
them at leaft as have been any length of time in a ftate
of fervitude) are of a diftruftful and cowardly difpofition.
So degrading is the nature of flavery, that fortitude of
mind is loft as free agency is reftrained. To the fame
caufe probably muft be imputed their propenfity to
conceal or violate the truth; which is fo general, that
the vice of falfehood is one of the moft prominent fea¬
tures in their charaXer. If a negro is allied even an in¬
different queftion by his mailer, he feldom gives an am.
mediate reply ; but, affeXing not to underhand what is
faid,.compels a repetition of the queftion, that he may
have time to confider_, not what is the true anfwer, but
what is the moft politic one for him to give. The
pronenefs obfervable in many, of them to the vice of
theft has already been noticed ; and I a.ri afraid (fays
our author), that evil communication makes it almoft
general. It is no eafy matter, ! con^efs, to diferiminate
thofe circumftances which are the refult of proximate
caufes, from thofe which '’re the effeXs.of national
cuftoms and early habits'm favage life; but l am afraid
that cowardice and diffimulation have been the proper,
ties of flavery in all ages, and will continue to be fo to
the end of the world. It is a fnuation that neceffarily
fuppreffes many of the beft affedioas of the human
heart.
N E G __ [ 79 3 ] NEC
heart.-*- If it calls jfotth any latent virtues, they are
thofe of fympathy and compaffion towards perfor.s in
the fame condition of life; and accordingly we find
that the negroes in general are ftrongly attached to their
countrymen, but above all, to fuch of their companions
as came in the fame {hip with them from Africa. This
is a linking circumftance : the ttnajhipmate is under,
flood amonsi them as {Unifying a relationftup of the
rnoij endearing nature; perhaps as recalling the time
when the fufferers were cut off together from, their com¬
mon country and kindred, and awakening reciprocal
fympathy from the remembrance of mutual affliction.
But their benevolence, with a very few exceptions, ex¬
tends no further. The fofter virtues are feldom found
in the bofom of the enllaved African. Give him fuffi-
■cient authority and he becomes the moft remorftiefs of
tyrants. Of all the degrees of wretchednefs endured
by the fons of men, thegreateft, affuredly, is the mifery
which is felt by thofe who are unhappily doomed'to be
the {laves of {laves; a moll unnatural relation, which
fometimes takes place" in the fugar plantations. The
fame obfervation may be made concerning their condnCl
towasds the animal creation. Their treatment of cattle
tinder their direction is brutal beyond belief. Even the
ufeful and focial qualities of the dog lecure to him no
kind ufage from an African matter. One of the moll
jJeafmg traits in their charafter is the refpeft and at¬
tention which they pay to their aged countrymen. The
whole body of negroes on a plantation mutt be reduced
to a deplorable ftate of wretchednefs, if, at any time,
they fuffer their aged companions to want the common
jiecefTaries of life, or even many of its comforts, as far
as they can procure them. They feem to be adluated
on thefe occafions by a kind of involuntary impulfe,
operating as a primitive law of nature, which fcorns to
wait the" cold diclates of reafon : among them, it is the
oxercife of a common duty, which courts no obfervation,
and looks for no applaufe.”
As the colour, and features, and moral qualities of
the negroes may be thus eafily accounted'for by the in¬
fluence of climate and the modes of favage life, fo there
is good reafon to believe that their intelkdlual endow¬
ments are equal to thofe of the whites who have been
found in the lame circumflances. Of thofe imitative
arts in which peffedlion can be attained only in an im¬
proved Hate of fociety, it is natural to fuppoie that they
have but little knowledge; but the fabric and colours
of the Guinea cloths are a proof of their native inge¬
nuity. In the Weft Indies many of thermare expert
carpenters, fome watchmakers, and one or two have
{uccefsfully pradtifed phyfic ; whilft others have figured
both in Latin and in Englifh poetry, fo that we cannot
doubt but that “ God, who made the world, hath
made of one blood all nations of men,” and animated
them with mhids equally rational.
NEGROLAND, or Nigritia, a country of Afri¬
ca, lying next to Guinea towards the north, and ex¬
tending from 18° of weft to 23° of eaft longitude,
and from 90 to 20° of north latitude. On the north
it is bounded by Zara or the Defert; on the eaft, by
countries unknown ; on the fsuth, by Guinea ; and on
the weft, by the Atlantic Ocean; and is watered by
the great river Niger or Senegal, which runs through
it from eaft to weft. The Europeans have fettlements
on the coafts of this country, efpecially near the
: 7
mouths of the Niger and Gambia, which lad is fup. Negr*:
pofed to be a branch of the former. A great many , lu¬
nations inhabit the banks oF the rivers,!, fome Pagans,
fome Mohammedans, of different languages, and inde¬
pendent of one another. The country is fruitful, efpe¬
cially along the rivers j abounding in rice, Guinea
grain, and Indian corn, where it is cultivated ; and
with cocoa-nuts, plantains, pulfe, palm-trees, and tiepi¬
cal fruits; nor is it deftitute of cattle, and a variety of
other animals, particularly fuch as abound in Guinea.
See Guinea.
Negroland is Fertiliied by the overflowing of its
rivers the Senegal and Gambia, as Egypt is by the
Nile. It hath not yet been alcertalned whether the
Gambia is a branch of the Senegal or not. As far
as the Europeans have penetrated up the country, they
appear to be diftinA; and the Mundingo Negroes
report that the Gambia has a different origin. The
entrance into the Niger or Senegal river is narrow
and fomewhat difficult, by reafon of its immoveablq
bar and fandy fhoals, as well as the feveral iflands at
the mouth of it, and the feveral canals and marfties that
clog it: but after failing up eight or ten leagues, it is
found broad and deep, and fit to carry large veffels; and,
excepting about five or fix leagues on each fide above
the mouth, which is fandy a id barren ground, the
banks are covered with {lately trees and villages, and
the country in general is fertile and well watered j
for, like the Nile, this river overflows, its banks for
many leagues, and enriches the land to a great de- '
gree, though, for want of {kill, the inhabitants do
not reap the advantages which they might obtain from
its fertility. The people on both fides of the river
live as near to it as they can, and feed great herds of g
cattle, fowing large and fmall millet, the former of
which is called by us Turkey 'wheat, in great quantities,
and with great increafe. If the river fails of over-
flowing at its ufual feafon, a great fcajpity enfues in
the adjacent country ; and, even when it overflows
regularly, it breeds fuch vaft flights of grafshoppers
and infeAs, as quite darken the air, and frequently
devour all the produA of the earth: in which cafe
the people kill thofe infeAs and eat them ; which they
do either by pounding in leathern bags, and then boil-
irtg them in milk, or, which is reckoned the more de¬
licious method, by frying or broiling them over a light
blaze in a frying pan full of holes. Thus the kgs
and wings of the infeAs are burnt off, and the reft of
the body is fufficiently roafted to be eaten as, a dainty,
which they look upon to be very wholefome and nourifli-
ing.
To the eaft, north eaft, and fouth eaft: of the ifland
of Senegal, the country, as far as it is known, i*
over-tun with woods and marffies ; the Senegal, Gam-
bia,^fod Sherbro, which are looked upon by fome as
branches of one immenfe river, paffing through it in
their way to the-Atlantic Ocean. During the rainy
months, which begin in July, and continue to OAo-
ber, they lay the whole country under water; and in¬
deed the fudden rife of thefe rivers is incredible to. fuch
as are not acquainted with the violent rains that tall
between the tropics. At Galam, 900 miles from the
mouth of the Senegal, the waters rife 150 feet per¬
pendicular from the bed of the rivfr. At the ifland of
Senegal, the river rifes gradually, during the rainy
feafon,
N E G [ 7
Neerroi*s, feafon, above 20 feet perpendicular over part of that
Ncgr pont. rc>aft ; which of itfelf fo freihens the water, that
Hiips lying at anchor, at the diftance of three leagues
from its mouth, generally make ufe of it, and fill their
water there for their voyage home. When the rains
are at an end, which foon happens in Oftober, the
intenfe heat of the fun ufually dries up thofe ftagnating
waters which lie on the higher parts, and the re¬
mainder from lakes and marlhes, in which are found
all forts of dead animals. At laft, thofe too are
quite dried up; and then the effluvia that arife are al-
moft quite infupportable. At this feafon the winds
blow fo hot from the land, that they may be compared
to the heat proceeding from the mouth of an oven,
and they bring with them an intolerable fmell. The
wolves, tigers, lions, and other wild beafts, then re¬
fort to the river, fleeping their body under water, and
only their fnout above it for the fake of breathing.
The birds foar to an immenfe height in the air, and
fly a vaft way over the fea, where they continue till
the wind changes, and comes from the weft.
Negrofs White. See Heuophobi and Albino.
NECROMANCY. See Necromancy.
NftGROPONT, anciently Euboea, an ifland of
the Archipelago, llretching along the eaftern coaft of
Achaia or LNadia, from which it is feparated by a
narrow channel called the Euripus. This ftrait is fo
99 ] N E G
narrow, that the ifland is joined to the continent by a Negroport.
bridge thrown over it ; and here, it is thought, there
was formerly an ifthrmis. The irregularity of the tides
in the Euripus hath from the remoteft antiquity been
very remarkable, and this irregularity is found to be
connefted with the age of the moon. From the three
laft days of the old moon to the eighth day of the new
moon, and from the 14th to the 20th day inclufive,
they are regular; but on the other days they ari
irregular, flowing J2, 13, or 14 times in the fpace
of 24 hours, and ebbing as often. The ifland is 90
miles long and 25 broad in the wideft part; and pro¬
duces corn, oil, fruit, and cattle, in great abundance.
The only place in the ifland worth notice is the capi¬
tal, which is alfo called Negropont; and which is
walled, and contains about 15,000 inhabitants; but
the Chriflians are faid to be much more numerous than
the Turks. The captain baihaw, or^idmiral of Turkey,
who is alfo governor of the city, the ifland, and the
adjacent continent of Greece, refides here; an! the
harbour, which is very fafe and fpacious, is ftldom-
without a fleet of galleys, ready to be put, to fea
agsiinft the pirates and the Maltefe. A part of the
bridge between the city and the coaft of Greece, con-
fifts of a drawbridge no longer than juft to let a galley
pafs through.
END OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME.
P Art T '
Plate CCCXI. to face
CCCXII.
CCCXIII.
CCCXIV.
CCCXV.
CCCXVI.
Part II,
CCCXVII.
CCCXVIII to face
CCCXIX.
CCCXX.
CCCXXI.
CCCXXII.
CCCXXIII.
CCCXXIV.
gccxxv. ,
CCCXXVI.
OCCXXVII.J
DIRECTIONS for PLACING the PLATES of'^VOL. XII.
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